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y  Google 


y  Google 


y  Google 


—A- 


GLOBE     ENCYCLOPAEDIA 


tBni'otxsul  information. 


3byL.oogIe 


y  Google 


THE 


GLOBE 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 

OF 

mntbersial    Ifnformatton, 


JOHN   M.    ROSS,  LL.D, 

FOEMEKLY   ASSISTANT   EDITOR  OF    "CHAMBE 


VOLUME  11. 


BOSTON: 

ESTES    &    LAURIAT,    301   WASHINGTON    STREET. 

1S77. 


3  by  Google 


y  Google 


—^ 


Cann'a,  the  name  of  a.  genus  of  planls  belonging  to  the 
iiaturai  order  Marantacea.  The  seeds  are  round,  hard,  and 
black  ;  hence  the  name  indian  that  applied  to  the  pUnts.  They 
have  very  beautiful  flowers, 
are  accordingly  favourite  gar- 
den plants  for  out-of-door 
bedding  during  ihe  summer 
months.  C.  edulis  of  the  W. 
Indies,  and  probably  other 
'  :s  of  C.  also  yield  I'aiis- 

tubers    of    others    are 

,  and  in  Brazil  the  seeds 

of  C,  are  used  as  beads,  and 

the  leaves  for  pacliing  goods. 

Cannabina'ces,   the 

hemp  order,  a  natural  order 
of  Dicotyledonous  plants, 
natives  of  the  temperate  part 
of  the  northern  hemisphere 
in  Europe  and  Asia.  It  has 
but  two  genera,  each  con- 
Canna  AnnaqL  taining  two  species,  but  both 

of  great  economic  and  medi- 
cinal importance.  The  order  yields  fibres,  and  possesses  narcotic, 
tonic,  and  stomachic  properties.  Hemp  (q.  v.)  and  Hop  Jq.  v.) 
are  the  important  products  of  the  order. 

Cann'BB,  a  small  town  of  Apulia,  about  6  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Aulidus.  Here  the  Roman  aimy  sustained  a 
terrible  defeat  by  Hannibal,  probably  in  June  of  216  B.C.  The 
Romans  numbered  So,ooo  infantry  and  6000  cavalry,  whereas 
Hannibal's  army  consisted  of  lO.OOO  cavalry,  but  only  about 
40,000  infantry.  Tiie  Carthaginian  cavalry  under  Hannibal, 
having  defeated  the  right  wing  of  the  Romans,  attacked  in  the 
rear  successively  their  left  wing  and  their  centre.  No  quarter 
was  given.  Of  the  Romans  70,000  fell,  including  the  Consul 
Lucius  FauUus,  and  eighty  men  of  senatorial  rank.  Hannibal 
lost  not  quite  6000  men. 

Cannea('tlie  reedy '|,  a  seaport  in  the  Riviera  department  of 
Alpes-Matitimes,  France,  on  the  Gulf  of  Napoule,  about  22  miles 
S.W.  of  Nice,  and  a  station  on  the  Lyon  Railway.  It  has  a  fine 
climate,  which  has  made  it  a  favourite  resort  of  invalids  The 
most  remarkable  buildings  in  the  town  are  the  casino,  the  pictui 
esque  Pont-du-RJon,  built  about  1070,  on  the  site  of  an  earher 
Roman  bridge,  and  a  tower  of  the  old  abbey  commanding  a 
superb  view  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  orange,  fig,  vme,  obie, 
and  other  southern  fruits  floarish,  and,  along  with  oil  and  per 
76 


fumes,  lorm  the  staple  enports.  Off  the  coast  tunny,  sard 
and  anchovy  fisheries  are  carried  on.  Pop.  (1872]  7844.  Near 
this  Napoleon  laixded,  1st  March  1815,  on  his  escape  from  Elba. 
Opposite  to  C.  lie  the  Iks  de  Uriiis. 


Cann'ibal  {Carzii  for  Carii,  one  of  the  e: 


aborigines  of 


In  Homer's  O^wiftheri  . 
human  flesh,  and  in  Herodotus  the  Massa^tre  and  the  Padeei  sii 
spoken  of  as  killing  and  "eating  their  relations  when  they  becomi 
aged  or  ill.  The  poet  also  says  that  when  a  man's  father  dies 
among  the  Issedones,  his  relations  come  and  help  him  to  eat  the 
dead  body.  Among  the  ancient  Tupis  of  Brazil,  when  the  chief 
despaired  of  a  sick  man's  recovery,  his  final  advice  was  that  hi 
should  be  killed  and  eaten.  The  early  Christians  regarded  pagan; 
as  man-eaters.  St  Jerome  asserts,  that,  when  a  boy,  iiving  h 
Gaul,  he  behdd  the  Soots — a  people  of  Britain — eating  human 
flesh,  in  preference  to  the  flesh  of  cattle  and  sheep,  which  were 
plentiful.  When  the  Lombards  invaded  Italy,  in  the  second  hall 
of  the  6th  c.,  it  was  reported  of  them  that  they  wsre  accustomed 
to  this  practice,  as  it  was  also  of  the  Slavonian  tribes  a  century 
later.  During  the  Crusades,  the  Saracens  charged  the  Christians 
with  it,  and  the  Christians  retorted  the  accusation  upon  them. 
But,  worse  than  this.  Christian  romancers  converted  their  most 
approved  heio,  Richard  Cosur  de  Lion,  into  a  C,  He  is  repre- 
sented, after  eating  a  few  Saracens'  heads  with  good  appetite,  as 
saying- 


IE  Richard  'li 


Ihere 


Marco  Polo  asserted  that  the  Battas,  a  people  of  Sumatra,  and 
the  mhabitants  of  the  Andaman  Islands  ate  human  flesh.  It  was 
reported  of  the  Caribbees,  that  they  preferred  sucking  infants  to 
irf other  food,  and  of  the  Peruvians  that  they  kept  mistresses  to 
breed  children  for  their  table,  and  that  they  fattened  and  kiLed 
these  women  when  they  gave  over  child-bearing.  But  these,  and 
all  the  innumerable  parallel  assertions  of  older  writers,  must  be 
received  with  a  grsdn  of  salt.  Late  travellers,  however,  put  it 
beyond  doubt  that  cannibaUsm  has  been  and  is  practised.  The 
New  Zealanders  were  down  to  a  recent  period  systematic  feeders 
on  human  flesh.  They  despised  the  aborigines  of  Australia,  who 
fed  on  worms  and  herbs — larger  prey  not  being  available — and 
did  not  feed  on  their  fellow-men.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  while 
the  latter  were  an  extremely  degraded  type  of  humanity,  the 
former  were  the  most  highly-developed  aboriginal  race  with 
which  European  civilisation  has  come  in  contact.  The  extremi- 
ties  to  which   men  have  often  been  driven  in  sieges  and  ship- 


vLaOogle 


^_ 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPjEDIA. 


wtecltE,  and  the  outbursts  of  ferocity  in  dtgraded  natures,  have 
frequently  led  to  the  occa^onal  consumpdun  of  humau  flesh, 
but  that  is  not  systematic  cannibalism. 

CaiiD''ng  George         E  gl'  h  politician  and  orator,  born 

d              h  A  n  sh  pareirts,   was  tducated 

E             d  O                   h  p          of  an  uncle.     His  clever- 

as           Ti          h  ma^aiinc,  the  Mikrokpsm.     At 

Odhmjnkns  ds  Lord  Liverpool).     His 

cati                     eq         y  sp  n  Sheridan's  house,  where 

d   g  Wh  g  T     their   surprise   he  entered 


1796 


3  of  Pitt,  who 
mad     h  nd     S    retary     f   State.      At  this 

pp    ed  p    h  m  ntary       orm  and  the  proposed  pea 
b        ppo     d  Wilb  rf  re      motion  on  the  sV 

V  h  F        and  Ellis  h       ntr  b      d  ai^ely 

hihGifdw       h      -h  His  speeches  for  the  Irish 

iimon,  his, attacks  on  the  Addmgton  ministry,  his  defence  of 
Lord  Melville,  all  showed  great  t^ent  forai^ument  and  satire. 
In  1807  he  became  Foreign  Secretary  under  Lord  Portland's 
ministry.  This  office  he  fefl  after  his  duel  with  Lord  Castle- 
reagh  in  1809,  and  in  1812  began,  in  conjunction  with  Gtattan, 
his  long  series  of  efforts  for  Catholic  emancipation.  During 
several  years  he  sat  for  Liverpool,  and  in  1810  became  Presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  Control.  He  abstdned  from  taking  part 
in  the  proceedings  agSuist  Queen  Caroline.  On  the  suicide  of 
Castlereagh,  C.  again  became  FOTeign  Secretaiy,  aM  giving 
up  as  hopeless  the  control  of  Spanish  af&irs,  which,  as  sunbas- 
sador  to  Portugal,- he  had  considered  important,  he  appointed 
diplomatic  agents  to  Columbia,  Mexico,  and  Buenos  Ayres,  as 
de  facie  independent,  and  sent  British  troops  to  defend  Portugal 
from  the  despotic  menaces  of  Spain.  In  April  1827,  C,  suc- 
ceeded Liverpool  as  Premier.  This  caused  the  resignation 
of  Eldon,  Wellington,  and  Peel  C,  now  tmr^ged  the  Triple 
Alliance  ibr  the  preservation  of  Greece,  {wsmoted  the  Catholic 
cause,  but  repeated  his  declaration  against  parliamentMy  reform 
and  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts.  He  died  rather  suddenly 
at  Chiswick  (Uie  Duke  of  Devonshire's  seat),  8th  August  1837, 
from  the  effects  of  a  cold.  It  is  thought  that  C.  had  opinions 
and  resolutions  far  in  advance  of  the  political  parties  of  his 
day.  There  was  in  his  eloquence  a  piquancy  and  finish  rare 
among  English  speakers.  Cobbett  always  refers  to  him  as  '  that 
impudent  spouter  C  His  loftiness  of  aim  and  goodness  of 
heart  were  not  spoiled  by  his  long  parliamentary  life.  He  was 
called  by  Quincy-Adams  '  the  most  thoroughly  English '  of  our 
politicians.  Certainly  his  opposition  to  the  Holy  Alliance  was 
well-timed  and  beneficial.  His  speeches  were  collected  and 
published  by  R.  Therry  (6  vols.  Loud.  1828).  See  also  Bell's 
Life  ofGtorge  a  (Lond.  1846),  and  Slapleton's  C.  and  his  Tinies 
(Lond.  1859). 

Charles  John,  Earl  C,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Brompton,  near  London,  14th  December  iSia.  Educated  at 
Eton  and  Oxford,  he  entered  Parliament  as  member  for  Warwick 
in  1836,  and  in  the  following  year,  on  the  death  of  his  mother, 
succeeded  to  the  title  of  Viscount,  and  was  caEed  to  the  House 
of  Lords.  In  1841  he  was  appointed  Under-Secretary  of  State 
foi  Foreign  Affairs  in  the  government  of  Peel,  and  In  1S46 
Commissioner  of  Woods  and  Forests.  Hitherto  he  had  not 
made  any  great  mark  as  a  politician,  partly  because  he  was  en- 
tirely destitute  of  his  father  s  gift  of  eloquence ;  but  those  who 
knew  him  well,  valued  his  powers  highly.  In  the  Aberdeen 
ministry  of  r853  he  held  the  office  of  Postmastra'- General,  and 
continued  to  hold  it  when  Palmerston  was  called  to  power  in 
1855.  In  March  1856  C.  went  out  to  India  as  Governor-General, 
and  in  little  more  than  a  year  found  himself  fece  to  face  with  the 
most  "terrible  mutiny  of  modem  tunes.  He  met  it  with  a  stem, 
silent  fearlessness,  which  one  cannot  hnt  admire  as  an  essentially 
heroic  mood,  however  much  the  wisdom  of  his  conduct  before 
the  outbreak  took  place  may  be  questioned.  It  is  stud  that  he 
was  badly  advised  by  an  official  coterie,  that  he  was  repeatedly 
warned  of  what  was  impending,  and  refused  to  believe  it,  and 
tliat  he  is,  therefore,  responable  in  some  measure  for  the  subse- 
quent massacres  arui  disasters.  Be  that  as  it  may,  not  a  sound 
of  alarm  escaped  his  lips  during  the  darkest  days  of  the  revolt ; 
nothing  moved  him  to  rage  or  revenge  when  the  hour  of  triumph 
came,  and  in  the  opinion  of  some,  he  helped  to  re-establish  the 
English  empire  in  India  by  his  moderation  and  clemency  no  less 
than  Ilavelock  and  Campbell  by  their  valour.     C.  received  for 


his  conduct  the  thanks  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament,  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  Earl,  made  '  Viceroy  of  India,'  and  at  once  set 
himself  to  reorganise  the  shattered  finance  of  the  country.  In 
1S62  he  returned  to  England  with  a  broken  constitution,  and 
died  in  London  on  the  17th  June  of  the  same  year. 

Canning',  Stratford  de  Eedoliffe,  Stratford,  Vis- 
ooant,  a  notable  English  diplomatist,  was  the  son  of  a  London 
merchant,  and  cousin  of  George  Canning.  Born  in  1788,  he 
entered  the  diplomatic  service  in  1807,  but  did  not  hold  any 
very  important  post  till  1820,  when  he  became  Plenipotentiary 
at  Washington,  After  visiting  St  Petersbuig  as  Ambassador 
Extraordinary  (1824),  his  cousin  sent  him  to  a  sunilar  post 
hi  Constantinople,  where  he  attended  the  conferences  of  Aker- 
man,  but  had  to  retire  to  Corfu  before  peace  was  ^reed  to 
after  the  battle  of  Navarino.  In  1831  Lord  Grey  sent  him  back 
to  assist  in  the  final  adjustment  of  boundaries  and  other  Greek 
questions.  From  1834  to  1841  he  represented  King's  Lynn  in 
Parliament,  deprecating  interference  in  Spain,  and  idling  atten. 
tion  to  Austrian  aggression  in  Poland.  In  1842  Peel  sent  him 
again  to  Constantinople,  whither,  after  a  special  mission  on 
Swiss  af^rs  to  M.  Guizot  in  1847,  he  returned  to  protect  the 
Hungarian  refugees,  and  to  conduct  that  long  discussion  with 
Menchikoff,  which  decided  Turkey  to  declare  war  against  Russia, 
on  the  promise  of  help  from  England  and  France.  In  1S58  C. 
retired  from  service.  The  viscountship  conferred  on  him  by  Lord 
Derby  enabled  him  to  give  valuable  aid  in  the  House  of  Lords 
when  foreign  relations  were  under  discussion.  In  1873  he 
published  a  statement  of  his  reasons  for  remaining  a  Clu'istian. 

Cann'on,  Ihe  general  name  given  to  heavy  ordnance  or  artil- 
lery, whether  for  fort,  ship,  or  field  service.  It  is  a  matter  of 
controversy  as  to  when  C.  were  first  invented.  By  some  the 
credit  is  given  to  die  Chinese,  who  are  said  to  be  in  possession  of 
C.  made  in  80  a.  d.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  C.  were  used 
by  Edward  III.  in  his  first  campaign  agtunst  the  Scots  in  1327, 
by  the  English  at  the  si^e  of  Calais  in  1347,  and  tw  the  Turks 
in  the  sieges  of  Constantinople  in  1394  and  1453.  The  early  C. 
were  made  of  vreought-hon  bars  bound  together  like  casks  by 
iron  rings  or  hoops,  the  latter,  being  driven  on  red-hot  and  con- 
tracting on  cooHng,  gave  great  strength  to  the  weapon.  A 
good  esample  of  this  system  of  C.  building  is  the  celebrated 
Mons  Meg  in  the  Castle  of  Edinbui^h,  said  to  have  been  forged 
at  Mons  in  Flanders  in  I486,  and  unfortunately  damaged  in  fir- 
ing a  salute  to  James,  Duke  of  York,  in  1682,  by  part  of  the 
hoop  near  the  touch-hole  being  blown  away.  Jh^  projectiles 
first  used  were  knobs  of  stone,  afterwards  superseded  by  iron 
shot.  In  the  second  half  of  the  14th  c.  C,  cast  from  an  alloy  of 
copper  and  tin  in  various  proportions,  were  sulistituted  for  the 
built  guns,  and  some  time  subsequently  guns  made  from  cast  iron 
came  into  use,  and,  along  with  the  bronze,  or,  as  they  are 
called,  though  erroneously,  '  brass '  guns,  are  used  to  some  ex- 
tent to  the  present  day.  One  of  the  largest  cast  C.  at  present 
known  to  exist  is  a  bronze  one  cast  in  commemoration  of  the  cap- 
ture of  Bejapoor  by  the  Emperor  Alum  Gir  in  1685.  It  is  14 
feet  !  inch  in  length,  and  the  diameter  of  the  bore  is  2  feet  4 
inches.  At  first  cast  C.  were  cast  hollow,  but  these,  owing  to 
the  irregular  cooling  of  the  metal,  were  found  not  to  be  equally 
strong  in  every  part,  and  since  the  l6th  c.  they  have  generally 
been  cast  solid  and  the  intaior  aficrwards  bored  out. 

Rifled  C.  are  believed  to  have  been  in  use  as  early  as  1620, 
and  breech-loading  C.  are  said  to  have  been  used  tliirty  years 
befwe  tliat  date. 

Many  of  the  early  C.  were  of  very  large  size  and  calibre,  and 
were  dignified  with  grand  names — twelve  cast  by  Louis  XII. 
being  named  after  the  twelve  peo^  of  France,  and  Charles  V. 
had  twelve  called  the  Twelve  Apostles.  In  the  l6th  c.  the  size 
was  reduced  and  general  names  adopted,  such  as  C. -royal,  or 
carthoim  carrying  a  ball  of  48  lbs. ;  bastard-C,  or  f-carthoun, 
36  lbs. !  J-carthoun,  whole  culverin,  demi-culverin,  &c. — these 
again  being  superseded  by  names  denominating  the  weight  of 
ttie  balls  nsed,  sutJi  as  g-pounders,  32-pounders,  68-poundets, 
and  so  on ;  or  in  the  case  of  shell-guns  by  the  diameter  of  the 
bore  specified  in  inches. 

At  Uie  present  day  we  are  reverting  to  the  principles  of  con- 
struction, modified,  of  course,  and  improved  m  many  respects, 
in  use  in  the  isth  c,  and  building  or  foiging  our  C.  from 
wrought  iron,  although  other  systems  are  also  in  use.  Among 
the  modem  systems  of  gun-building  may  be  mentioned  the  Arm- 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CAN 


strong,  Whitworth,  Palliser,  and  Krupp.  In  the  Armstrong 
system  an  inner  bwrel  of  steel  has  successive  coils  of  iron  driven 
■  over  it  red-hot,  which  compress  and  support  the  inner  ban'el. 
Tlie  Whitworth  C.  are  made  wholly  of  steel,  successive  hoops  of 
which  ate  forced  over  each  other  by  hydraulic  pressure.  In  the 
Palliser  method  an  inner  lining  of  steel  is  surrounded  by  cast 
iron,  and  tins  System  has  been  used  for  converting  the  old 
smooth-bore  cast  guns  to  rifled  ordnance  simply  by  boring  out 
part  of  the  interior  and  introducing  a  rifled  steel  tube.  Tlie 
Krupp  mtns  are  made  of  steel. 

The  bore  and  weight  of  C,  are  gradually  being  increased,  and 
experiments  have  for  many  years  been  carried  on  by  our  Goverux 
ment  at  Woolwich,  with  the  view  of  getting  the  most  powerful 
weapon  possible,  and  that  will  be  able  to  pierce  the  armour  of 
any  ironclad  ship  that  can  be  made.  It  is  not  long  since  people 
were  astonished  at  the  accounts  of  the  expetunents  with  the 
'  Woolwich  Infant, '  hut  this  great  gun  is  surpassed  in.  size  by 
one  now  (1876)  in  course  of  construction  at  Woolwich.  The 
latter  gun  weighs  Si  tons,  the  diameter  of  the  bore  i?  15 
inches,  and  the  projectiles  made  for  testing  it  weigh  from  1250 
to  1 650  lbs,  each.  It  is  built  on  a  modification  of  the  Arm- 
strong system.  Modem  C.  are  as  a  rule  rifled,  and  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  different  kinds  of  groovmg  employed  will  be  found 
under  Rifled  Arms.  Breech-loading  C.  have  also  been  re- 
introduced, but  only  to  a  limited  extent,  and  in  the  British 
service  are  again  being  abandoned  in  favour  of  muzzle-loaders. 

CannoiL-IBall  Tree  {Couroupita  Guiamnsis),  a  lai^e  tree, 
belonging  to  the  order  Lecylhidacea,  a  native  of  Guinea,  and  the 
liiu<i  woody  shells  of  the  fruits  of  which  are  used  as  drinking-cups. 

Oa'nO,  Alonzo,  a  famous  Spanish  painter,  sculptor,  and  archi- 
tect, was  born  at  Granada,  March  1601.  His  works,  conspicuous 
for  breadth  and  vigour  of  design  and  rich  colouring,  are  distributed 
among  the  provincial  capitals  of  the  country,  but  the  '  Concep- 
tion of  the  Virgin,'  in  the  church  of  San  Diego,  Granada,  is 
usually  considered  his  masterpiece.  He  was  appointed  court 
painter  and  architect  to  the  king  in  1638-39,  and  from  the  great 
'  ilityhe  displayed  in  three  branches  of  the  iine  arts,  his  couiitry- 

sn  speak  of  him  as  the  Michael  Angelo  of  Spain,  C,  died 
5th  October  1665. 

Oanoe',  a  general  name  for  a  boat  used  by  uncivilised  tribes, 
and  made  by  hollowing  out,  by  means  of  fire  or  otherwise,  the 
trank  of  a  tree.  Boats  of  this  kind  have  been  discovered  in 
old  river-beds,  and  on  the  mareins  of  existing  lochs  in  the 
British  Isles,  to  whose  early  inhaluEants  they  doubtless  belonged, 
Canadian  canoes  are  vay  light,  and  easily  carried  from  lake  to 
lake,  bemgmade  of  the  \ixdi.Qi  Betala  papyrticia,  sewed  together 
with  the  fibrous  roots  of  the  white  spruce,  and  coated  with 
resin  The  kayak  of  the  Esquimaux  is  another  kind  of  C.,  and 
consists  of  a  frame  wholly  coveted  with  seal-skins,  except  a 
small  space  amidships,  in  which  the  canoeist  sits,  and  works 
a  paddle  about  7  feet  long,  with  spoon-shaped  extremities. 
The  intrepidity  which  the  Esquimaux  display  in  venturing  out 
to  the  open  sea  in  these  frail  barks  is  remarkaUe.  The  Malays 
construct  a  peculiar  boat  or  'double  C.,'  which  they  propel 
W1&  great  velocity.  It  consists  of  a  scooped-out  trunk  of  a  tree, 
r8  or  30  feet  long,  and  2  feet  deep  ;  to  the  upper  edge  a  wash- 
board, 12  inches  high,  is  sewed  with  coir  fibre,  and  from  one 
side  two  out-riggers,  is  or  18  feet  long,  spring  out,  carrying  at 
their  extremities  a  slightly  curved  log,  whereby  the  boat  is 
steadied  and  balanced.  CanoeUt^  is  a  form  of  boating  which  of 
lale  years  has  risen  into  favour  in  Britain,  and  in  l866the'C. 
Club '  was  Formed  in  London  to  promote  its  cultivation, 

Oanoe  Birch  {Bdula  ^afiyracca).     See  Birch, 

Canoe  Wood,  the  wood  of  the  tulip-tree  {Lirwdendroii 
Mipifcra). 

Canon,  in  music,  a  short  Fugue  (q.  v.),  in  which  all  the  fol- 
lowing parts  repeat  exactly,  and  from  end  to  end,  the  subject 
given  out  by  the  first.  Its  interest  is  commonly  rather  mechani- 
cal than  musicaL 

Canon,  in  the  usage  of  the  Church,  is  a  word  of  various  im- 
port. I.  It  denotes  the  rule  (Gr.  kanin)  according  to  which 
Christian  belief  ia  regulated.  In  this  sense  it  is  applied  to  the 
Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  (See  Biblb.)  z.  It 
was  used  by  St  Paul  (Gal.  iv.  16)  to  denote  the  ruk  or  law  of 
Christian  life  generally:  "  And  as  many  as  walk  according  to  this 


rule  [kanon),  peace  be  on  them  and  mercy,  and  upon  the  Israel 
of  God;"  but  aftei-wardsit  received  amorc  restricted  ecclesiastical 
meaning,  coming  to  signify  rather  the  rules  for  the  governmait 
of  the  Church  as  an  institution.  The  collection  and  codification 
of  these  at  a  later  period  produced  what  is  known  as  C.  Law 
(q.  v.).  3.  It  denotes  a  particular  rule  followed  by  those  persons 
wno  devote  themselves  to  a  religious  hfe,  4.  Tlie  name  is  given 
to  the  persons  themselves.  The  office  of  C,  appears  to  have 
been  instituted  in  the  Sth  c,  and  arose  from  the  desire  to  impose 
something  like  a  monastic  rule  on  the  cathedral  clergy.  The 
oldest  rule  was  an  adaptation  of  that  erroneously  ascribed  to  St 
Augustine,  The  functions  of  canons  were  to  assist  the  bishop 
ij!  the  government  of  his  diocese.  All  canons,  however,  were 
not  monastic  in  their  mode  of  life.  We  read  of  canons  secular, 
as  well  as  canons  regular.  The  former  mixed  more  with  the 
world,  exhorted  the  parish  clergy,  and  devoted  part  of  their  time 
to  the  instruction  of  the  laity.  The  only  Reformed  Church  in 
which  the  order  continues  to  exist  is  the  Church  of  England,  in 
which  they  form  the  bishop's  chapter,  and  are  (at  least  in  theory) 
his  advisees  in  all  ecclesiastical  mattei^s  ;  but  there  is  no  longer  a 
reason  for  tlie  name. 

Canonical  Hours  (i)  means  the  daily  round  of  praise  and 
prayer  obseived  in  the  Christian  Church  from  very  early  times, 
which  was  as  follows  ;  Noctums  Or  Matins,  before  daybreak  ; 
Lauds  at  daybreak  ;  Prime  at  six  o'clock  (the  first  hour) ;  Tierce 
at  nine  (thinl  hour)  ;  Sexts  at  noon  (sixth  hour) ;  Nones  at  three 
(ninth  hour) ;  Vespers  in  the  eveniM; ;  Compline  or  Comple- 
torinm  (completion)  at  bedtime.  As  Lauds  was  generally  jomed 
to  Matins,  these  eight  were  practically  seven.  Nowadays,  ex- 
cept in  monasteries,  the  C.  H.  are  either  not  all  observed,  or 
the  offices  are  said  by  aggr^ation.  2.  In  England,  C.  H,  means 
between  8  and  12  A.M.,  during  which  time  alone  a  marriage  m  a 
parish  church  is  legal, 

Oanon'ieals,  the  propec  ofiicial  dress  of  the  clergy,  so  called 
because  fixed  by  the  eanous  1       f  t!     Chm  1       S     Vest- 

CanoniBa'tion  is  the  judg  p  ncing 

those  to  be  in  a  state  of  b  ss  ei  m    ?    e  con- 

vincing proofs   of  virt\ie  by  m        es      d 
earliest  form  of  C.  was  pray  m 

of  the  Eucharist,  an  altar  o        be    g 

For  this  purpose  th?  name         m       rs  w  se     a   n  rue 

cai^n  of  the  Mass,  and'he  n  m       Th    p  w      of  C, 

wldch  at  first  was  possessed  b  h  bish  p  w  gradually 
assumed  by  the  popes,  and  cised  by 

themsince  the  latter  half  of  h  h  T  h  nr  anon- 
ised  saints  are  these  :  They  h         h  anies, 

invocations  addressed  to  them,  churches  dedicated  to.  them, 
their  festival  observed,  their  pictures  decorated  with  the  aureole, 
and  their  relics  exposed  for  veneration, 

Cftuon  La'w  is  a  collection  of  ecclesiastical  constitutions 
formed  from  the  opinions  of  the  Fathers  and  Popes,  and  from 
the  epistles  of  the  Holy  See.  The  C.  L.  has  been  greatly  de- 
ferred to  in  the  Roman  Catholic  countries  of  Europe  ;  but  in  those 
its  operation  has  from  time  to  time  been  modified  to  suit  the  spirit 
of  the  age  by  the  concordats  (see  Concordat)  entered  into  be- 
tween the  governments  of  those  countries  and  the  pope.  Framed 
by  the  priesthood,  the  gist  of  the  C,  L,  is  to  establish  the  su- 
premacy of  the  ecclesiastical  authority  over  the  civil  power;  hence 
in  England  there  has  never  been  any  disposition  on  the  part 
either  of  lawyers  or  of  statesmen  to  defer  to  its  authority  except 
in  matters  purely  ecclesiastical.  In  Scotland  again,  where  the 
Presbyterian  spirit  is  dominant,  the  G  L,  has  been  treated  with 
greater  deference,  '  So  deep  hath  this  C  L,  been  rooted,'  says 
Stair  {Imtitala  of  the  Scotch  Law),  '  that  even  where  the  pope's 
authority  is  rejected,  yet  consideration  must  be  had  to  these 
laws,  not  only  as  those  by  which  Church  benefices  have  been 
erected  and  ordered,  but  as  likewise  containing  many  equitable 
and  profitable  laws,  which,  because  of  their  weighty  matter,  and 
their  being  once  received,  may  more  fitly  be  retamed  tlian  re- 
jected.' The  following  are  the  chief  collections  of  the  C.  L,  ! 
{riViAan'ri?fly(i',a  collection  begun  A.D.  iii4byIvo,  Bishop  of 
Charters,  and  revised  by  Gratian,  a  Benedictine  monk,  AD. 
llSa  It  comprises  ecclesiastical  legislation  from  the  beginning 
of  the  4th  to  the  end  of  the  12th  c,  the  Decretals,  being  a 
collection  of  canonical  epistles  by  the  popes,  assisted  bythecar- 


bration 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CAN 


by  Raimundus  Baccinus.    In  A.D.   isgS  Boniface  VlII.  ad<led 

■-  these  a  sixth  book,  which  he  called  ^sjriHj  Z>iK)-rfB/iHw;.   This 

s  follovfed  by  the  CkmenUnts,  or  constitutbns  of  Pope  Cle- 

it  v.,  publiied  A.D.  1308,  the  Extravagants  of  Joki  XXII. 

later  popes. 

Tiese  locm  tiie  Carfius  Jur. 
tered  by  ihe  Church  of  Rome. 

Oauonry,  the  ofGce,  rights,  and  benefice  of  a  Canon  (q.  v.). 
Oanona,  Book  of,  a  code  of  rules  which  Charles  I.,  in  his 
attempt  to  establish  Episcopacy  in  Scotland,  sought  to  impose, 
along  with  a  litui^y,  on  the  Church  of  Scotland.  The  storm  of 
popular  indignation  which  was  produced  among  the  Presbyterian 
party  in  consequence  led  to  the  drawing  up  of  what  is  known  as 
the  Natiotlal  Covenant  (q.v.). 

CononB  of  tlie  Ohiu'ch  of  England,  forming  the  ectlesi- 
astical  constitution  by  which  that  Church  is  governed,  were 
passed  in  the  convocation  which  met  irnmediately  after  the 
Hampton  Court  Conference  (q.  v. }.  They  ore  said  to  have  been 
collected  by  Bancroft,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  from  the 
IS  of  the  ancient  Church,  and  from  the  acts  and  injunctions 
nvocation,  during  the  reigns  of  Edvrard  VI.  and  Elizabeth, 
They  were  sanctioned  by  the  king,  but  not  carried  through  Par- 
liament, so  that  they  are  not  laws  of  the  land,  are  not  binding 
on  the  laity,  and  are  so  on  the  clei^y  only  by  virtue  of  tlieir  oath 


ofci 


obediei 


Cano'pio  Vaaee,  vessels  in  which  the  viscera  of  embalmed 
bodies  were  put  by  Egyptian  priests.  They  used  four  for  a  single 
body,  and  on  the  lid  of  each  was  the  head  of  the  deity  who  pre- 
sided over  the  special  contents.  In  the  first  were  the  sto  1 
and  larger  intestines  ;  in  the  second,  the  smaller  intestine 
the  third,  the  lungs  and  heart ;  and  in  the  fourth,,  the  live  d 
gall-bladder. 

Cano'pns,  or  Caaoliua,  a  town  of  ancient  Egypt,  o  th 
same  tongue  of  land  with  Alexandria,  til!  the  building  of  n  1  h 
it  was  the  chief  harbour  of  the  Delta.  The  ancient  get^raph 
fixed  the  dividing  line  between  Africa  and  Asia  at  C.  Asagr  t 
maritime  entrepot,  and  the  resort  of  sailors  and  foreigners,  it  w 
notorious  for  its  profligacy.  Its  decline  began  with  the  ri  f 
Alexandria. 

Ganopna,  a  bright  star  of  the  first  magnitude,  in  the  s  th 
em  hemisphere,  situated  about  midway  between  Sirius  and  t! 
S.  Pole,  and  forming  a  straight  line  with  Achamar  and  E  m 
hand,  two  other  first  magnitude  stars,  the  former  of  which       tl 

Oanopy  (Fr.  canapi;  Rabelais  has  conopie,  from  Lat.    ot 
palm,  Gr.  koa^ptvm,  a  net  spread  over  a  bed  to  keep  ofi^  gnats, 
koncp!,  a  gnat)  is  now  used    to    mean   any   kind  of  covering, 
from  tiie  '  C  of  heaven  down  to  the  projecting  part  of  the  head 
of  a  bedstead. 

In  arckitsclure  the  term  is  applied  to  any  covering  above  a 
throne,  niche,  statue,  tomb,  &:c.  As  an  architectural  feature  the 
C.  was  known  at  a  very  early  date,  yet  its  style  is  scarcely 
earlier  than  the  Decorated  or  Perpendicular.  It  consists  of  a 
roof  supported  by  pillars  or  attached  to  the  wall,  ftnd  is  usually 
ornamented  with  an  elaborately  carved  border.  Perhaps  the 
most  splendid  canopies  known  are  those  of  the  cathedrals  of 
Chartres  and  Bayeux  in  France,  but  good  examples  also  occur 
in  the  cathedrals  and  larger  churches  of  England. 

Oano'sa  de  Pugltd,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Ban,  S. 
Italy,  on  the  Ofanto,  with  a  pop.  of  12,900.  It  is  the  Apullan 
Canusium  founded  by  the  Greeks,  and  was  a  flourishing  place 
of  trade  till  the  second  Punic  War.  It  has  sljll  a  triumphal 
arch  and  3.  ruined  amphitheatre,  and  in  the  vicinity  were  dis- 
covered splendid  rock-cut  tombs  in  1812-13.  ^^  these  were 
found  many  splendid  antiquities,  now  m  the  Royal  Mnseum  at 
Naples,  comprising  painted  vases,  weapons,  utensils,  statues, 
coloured  busts,  and  jewelled  ornaments.  See  Millin,  Descrip- 
tion da  Tombsaux  di  C.,  with  illustrations  (Par.  1813). 

Canoae'a,  a  village  in  the  province  of  Reggio-Emilia,  N. 
Italy,  10  miles  S.W.  of  Reggio,  rose  round  a  mountain  strong- 
hold famous  in  (he  middle  ages,  of  which  the  ruins  still  exist. 
Here  King  Lothar's  widow  was  besieged  by  Berengar  II.  in 
951,  when  the  Emperor  Otto  the  Great  sought  her  hand  and  the 


throne  of  Italy.  In  the  lllh  c  the  castle  belonged  to  the 
Countess  Matilda  of  Tuscany,  the  friend  of  Gregory  VII.,  and  in 
its  courtyard  the  German  Emperor,  Heinrich  IV.,  did  his  memor- 
able penance  in  1077. 

Oano'va,  Antonio,  a  famous  Italian  sculptor,  son  of  an  archi- 
tect and  marble^worker,  was  born  in  Venetia,  at  Possagno,  1st 
November  1757.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  was  taken  to  Venice, 
and,  through  the  influence  of  Giovanni  Faliero,  was  admitted  as 
a  pupil  into  the  studio  of  Bemardi  Torretti.  His  earliest  fin- 
ished productions,  executed  in  boyhood,  are  two  baskets  of  fruit 
and  flowers,  carved  in  marble,  for  his  patron  Faliero,  and  still 
shown  in  Venice.  He  modelled  his  '  Orpheus  and  Eutydice '  at 
his  native  village  in  the  evening,  while  attending  the  Academy  . 
at  Venice  during  the  day.  About  this  time  also  he  was  partially 
employed  upon  busts,  and  shortly  afterwards  he  modelled  his 
beautiful  '  Daedalus  and  Icarus,'  after  which  he  began  to  find 
himself  femous.  Sent  by  his  friend  Faliero  to  Rome  in  1779. 
when  he  was  slill  a  young  man  of  twenty-two,  he  produced  his 
'Apollo,'  his  first  [deal  statue,  and  'Theseus  and  the  Minotaur,' 
an  extraordinan"  work  for  the  time,  and  an  embo<liment  of  the 
artist's  feeling  for  the  purer  principles  of  his  art,  both  in  compo- 
sition and  execution.  He  was  selected  to  design  the  monument 
to  Pope  Clement  XIV.  for  the  Church  of  the  Hoi;?  Apostles  at 
Rome,  and  his  great  success  with  this  work  definitively  estab- 
lished his  claim  to  the  highest  rank  as  a  sculptor.  He  then 
rapidly  prodaced  his  '  Cupid  and  Psyche,'  '  Hercnles  and  Lycas,' 
the  'Graces,'  'Statues  of  Nymphs,'  'Endymion,'  a  charming 
statue  of  '  Hebe,'  '  Venus  and  Adonis,'  besides  a  great  number 
of  heroic,  allegorical,  and  religious  works,  t<^ether  with  busts 
and  monuments.  On  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  C.  was  sent  to  Paris 
by  the  Roman  court  to  secure  the  restoration  of  the  artistic 
es  f  wh  h  It  ly  h  d  be  pi  md  d.  He  was  created  a 
qui   (d  I    h    )        h        t  m       d  'ed  a  pension,  which 

1     g  'y   P    '       1  ss  f    t      t     rtisls.     C,  died  at  Venice 

3th  O  t  b  8  A  mbe  f  his  fi  est  works,  including 
tl  ted    tat        f  th    m  th        f  N  poleon,  and  the  bust  of 

th  p  I  m    If  m     g  th       hi  f  attractions   of  the 

g  II  y  f  Ch  w  rth,  th  p  p  ty  f  the  Duke  of  Devon- 
h  Ait      M   I     I   A  g  I         d   B      ini,  C.  is  the  third 

g      t  It  1         sculpt  h  t  d  w  era  in  tlie  art,    and 

dh  tytthfmt       kasa  school  for  sculp- 

t  His  gr    t    fF  rt       d  wh  ch  he  met  with  splen- 

d  d  su  as  t    g    b    k  t    th    t    th  and  freedom  of  the 

t  q      w    Id      B  t  h     m        was      ft      and  more  luxurious 

th      th  t    hi  h      sp  ed  th    G     k      d  Roman  sculptors,  and 

d   gly      h       w      I     Id      pe  t      peradded  to  the  truth 

dptft  mthgfthbad  and  simple  treat- 

m    t    f  th  ts,  w    fi  d,     p       lly  n  the  later  works  of 

C ,        1  ght       1  f    ff    t  t  d  sentimentalism.     See 

QuattJmere  de  Quincy,  C.  el  ses  Omiragis  (Par.  1834) ;  also  the 
biographies  of  C.  by  Missirini  (2  vols.  Prato,  1824),  CIcognara 
(Ven.  1823),  Rossini  (Pisa,  1825),  and  d'Este  (Flor.  1864), 

Oan'roliert,  Franpoia-Oertain  de,  Marshal  of  France, 
was  bom  a7th  June  1809,  After  studying  at  the  military  school 
of  St  Cyr,  he  entered  the  army  in  l8z8.  He  distinguished  him- 
self greatly  in  Algeria,  commanding  several  expeditions,  one  of 
which  destroyed  the  Arab  stronghold  of  Narah,  and  rose  to  be 
a  general  of  division.  C.  espoused  the  side  of  Louis  Napoleon 
at  the  time  of  the  coup  (CJlaL  In  the  Crimean  war,  he  was  at 
first  second  In  command  of  the  French  army,  his  chief  being 
Marshal  St  Amaud,  and  on  his  death  succeeded  him.  He  was 
slightly  wounded  at  the  battles  of  Alma  and  of  Inkermann,  and 
in  1855  resigned  the  chief  command  to  General  Pelissier.  In 
1S56  he  was  i^ed  to  the  dignity  of  Marshal  of  France.  In  the 
war  against  the  Austrians  in  1E59,  C.  had  the  command  of  the 
Third  Army  Corps,  and  contributed  largely  to  the  victories  both 
of  Magenta  and  Solferino.  At  the  beginnuig  of  the  war  with 
Germany  in  1S70,  he  again  had  the  command  of  an  army  corps, 
and,  along  with  Generals  MacMahon  and  De  Failly,  was  beaten 
at  Woerth  on  the  6th  August  of  that  year.  He  was  shut  up  witli 
Bazaine  in  Metz,  and  on  its  capitulation  was  sent  as  a  prisoner 
into  Germany.  Since  the  conclusion  of  the  war,  C.  has  taken 
no  active  part  in  French  politics,  but  is  understood  to  loyally 
support  the  government  of  MacMahon. 

Oan'so  Strait,  a  little-frequented  channel  between  Cheda- 
bucto  Bay  and  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence,  is  about  2  miles  broad 
and  17  long.    C.  Cape  is  the  most  easterly  point  of  Nova  Scotia. 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CAN 


Can'statt  (official),  or  Cann'stadt,  a  town  of  Wui-i 
Germany,  on  the  Neckar,  here  crossed  by  a  bridge, 
miles  N.E.  of  Siutlgart  by  rail,  lies  in  a  beautiful  dist 
has  forty  mineral  springs,  of  a  mean  temperature  of  l6°  R. 


e  of  ttio  Necliar  trade  in  fruit  and  wine,  and  has  a 
parish  church  of  1471,  a  laige  town  hall,  a  fine  railway  station, 
and  a  royal  theatre  (1S39).  In  the  vicinity  are  many  splendid 
villas,  of  which  the  chief  is  Wilhelma,  built  by  King  Willielm  in 
1842-51.  C.  has  manufactures  of  cotton  and  woollen  goods, 
yam,  machinery,  steel,  oil-cloth,  &c.     Pop.  (1872)  11,804. 

Cant,  a  name  given  to  certain  obliquely  placed  timbers  near 
the  bow  and  stern  of  wooden  ships.  In  the  constructive  arls 
generally,  any  piece  placed  obliquely  or  askew  is  often  said  to  be 
canted. 

Cant,  Andrew,  a  pugnacious  Scotch  divine  of  the  ijlh  c., 
was  minister  first  in  Pitsligo  (1638),  then  in  Newbattle,  near 
EdinbHi^h,  and  afterwards  (1640)  in  Aberdeen.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  securing  the  subscription  of  the  National  Covenant 
in  the  north  country,  went  with  the  Scotch  army  into  England 
when  it  marched  against  Charles  1.,  and  preacjied  before  that 
monarch  in  Edinburgh  in  1641.  Finally,  C.  made  Aberdeen 
too  hot  to  hold  him  by  denouncing  both  with  tongue  and  pen 
certain  of  his  congregation,  and  had  to  relinquish  his  charge. 
He  died  about  16^.  There  aie  some  anecdotes  about  C  in 
Wodrow's  Analicla. 

Cantftb'ile,  an  Italian  word  used  as  a  mark  of  musical  ex- 
pression, and  denoting  that  a  piece  or  plirase  is  to  be  performed 

OantaTbriana,  a  wild  highland  people  of  ancient  Spain,  of 
Iberian  origin,  whose  deacendants  now  occupy  the  region  in  the 
N.  of  Spain,  stretching  along  tire  Bay  of  Biscay  (see  BASQUE 
Provibces  and  Biscay).  They  were  compared  to  the  Scythians 
and  Thracians  in  barbarism.  In  war  they  were  distinguished  by 
great  bravery;  especially  in  their  six  years'  (25-19  B.C.)  contest 
with  the  Romans,  by  whom  they  were  first  called  C.  Augustus 
himself  began  this  war,  which  was  mainly  of  a  guerilla  character  ; 
and  it  was  ended  by  Agrippa.  Later,  Tiberius  attacked  their 
towns.  ITie  C.  were  never  entirely  conquered,  the  great  part  of 
them  falling  back  on  the  refuge  of  the  mountains.  Their  towns 
were  Sight  in  number,  and  of  these  the  best  known  were  Julia- 
briga,  near  the  source  of  the  Ebro  ( Jisral),  Vellica,and  Concana. 
From  them  the  Bay  of  Biscay  was  called  the  Mare  CaiUabricum, 
and  the  range  which  separates  their  fertile  country  in  the  S. 
ftoin  the  bare  Castilian  plateau,  the  Mottles  Cantabrid. 

Oan'tal,  a  mountainous  department  of  Central  France,  formed 
out  of  Upper  Auvergne,  and  named  from  the  Plomb-du-Cantal, 
a  mountain  6095  feet  high,  nearly  in  its  centre.  Area,  2216  sq, 
miles.  Pop.  (1872)231,867.  It  is  watered  by  the  Dordogne 
and  other  streams.  Only  about  one-third  of  the  surface  is 
arable,  and  the  grain  pi^oduced  is  not  equal  fo  the  eonsumpt; 
but  the  mountain  pastures  aie  excellent,  and  feed  numerous 
herds  of  horned  cattle  and  flocks  of  sheep,  whose  wool  is  in  high 
estimation.  Its  horses,  small  but  strong,  are  much  in  request 
for  the  cavalry  service  of  the  French  army.  The  famous  Roque- 
fort cheese  {fi-ommages  de  Roquifori)  is  made  in  this  department. 
The  manufactures  are  {e.vi  and  of  small  importance.  The  chief 
town  !■>  Aurillac. 

Cantari'ni,  Simons,  sumamed  II  Fssarai,  an  Italian 
pamter,  born  close  to  Pesaro  in  1612.  Having  seen  three  pic- 
tures by  Guido,  he  resolved  to  study  and  to  rival  that  master, 
and  nrth  this  view  went  to  Bologna,  entered  Guide's  studio, 
n  surprised  the  great  painter  by  his  talent.  Proud  and 
■  i  of  others,  he  made  the  artists  of  Bolc^a  his 
enemies,  went  to  Rome,  studied  the  antique  and  the  works  of 
Raphael,  and  afterwards  visited  Mantua  on  the  invitation  of  the 
duke  Quarrelling  with  his  new  patron,  he  left  for  Verona,  and 
died  or  was  poisoned  there  in  1648.  He  excelled  Guido  in 
grace  of  conception,  painted  hands  and  feet  faultlessly,  and  was 
trne  m  colour,  though  his  tone  vras  low  and  grey.  His  head 
of  'Guido'  (Bologna),  "San  Antonio'  at  Cogh,  and  'San 
Jaeopo '  at  Rimmi  are  masterpieces.  Many  of  his  etchings  on 
copper  have  been  sold  as  those  of  Guido. 

Cantata,  a  musical  composition.  The  nature  of  the  com- 
position which  has  received  this  name  has  varied  very  much  at 
lifferent  times  ;  what  is  called  a  C.  at  present  is  commonly  a 


secular  oratorio,  or  opera  without  action,  such  as  Acts  and 
GalaUa,  or  Stemdale  Bennett's  May  Quern.  A  'sacred  C  is 
generally  a  short  or  simple  oratorio. 

Canteen',  a  word  of  three  distinct  meanings,  i.  It  de- 
es an  establishment  in  barracks  for  the  exclusive  use  of  troops, 
supply  them  with  wine,  malt  liquors,  groceries,  and  other 
icles  of  food,  although  no  soldier  is  obliged  to  buy  anything 
a  C.  The  sale  of  ardent  spirits  is  strictly  prohibited  at 
ire  stations,  but  abroad  is  permitted  at  the  discretion  of  the 
officer  in  command.  There  is  the  garrison,  the  Brigade,  and  the 
regimental  C,  which  used  to  be  under  the  control  of  civilians 
called  C. -tenants,  but  are  now  managed  by  a  standing  comnaittee 
of  three  officeis  ascontraetors,  with  a  C.-sergeant  as  salesman.  The 
latter,  who  may  be  a  staff,  colour,  or  any  other  sergeant,  has  to  take 
out  a  licence,  and  hismaitmum  pay  is  6s.  a  day.  By  the  latest  C. 
regulations  (August  1872),  it  was  agreed  tlmt  pensioned  non- 
commissioned officers  might  be  appointed  C.-sergeants  as  a  ten- 
tative measure,  for  two  years.  This  arrangement  is  now  made 
permanent.  The  profits  of  the  C.  are  expended  on  the  soldiers 
and  their  families.  For  the  regiment  they  may  be  spent  on 
newspapers  and  other  provisions  for  the  reading-room,  theatri- 
cals, skittle-alleys,  regimental  gardens,  prizes  for  athletic  sports, 
extra  messes  at  Christmas,  refreshments  on  field-days,  and  other 
strictly  regimental  purposes.  As  one  instance,  the  profits 
divided  in  the  ist  Royal  Scots  for  the  four  years  1871-74 
averaged  ,^120  each  year.  In  the  last  of  these  years  jfs  werr 
distributed  among  the  single  men  of  each  company,  and  ever 
family  received  a  proportion  according  to  the  number  of  it 
members.  3.  A  C.  denotes  a  vessel,  sometimes  of  tin,  sometime 
of  wood,  which  holds  about  three  pints,  and  is  used  for  canying 
whatever  beverage  the  soldier  may  require,  or  be  able  to  obtain, 
on  the  march  or  in  the  field.  In  the  British  army  it  is  usually 
made  of  oak,  painted  blue,  and  slung  over  the  shoulder.  3,  Tlie 
name  C.  is  also  given  to  a  square  chest,  made  of  leather  or 
wood,  and  divided  into  compartments,  in  which  military  officers 
on  foreign  service  pack  a  variety  of  articles  of  plate  and  other 
table  equipage. 

Oan'terbury,  an  ancient  cathedral  city  of  Kent,  a  county 
in  itself,  the  metropolitan  see  of  all  England,  and,  under  the 
new  army  regulations,  the  «avalry  depSt  for  the  whole  country,  is 
situated  OB  the  Stour,  somites  E.S.E.  of  London  by  the  London 
and  Dover  road.  Si  miles  by  the  South-Eastem,  and  61  miles  by 
the  London,  Chatham  and  Dover  Railway.  Besides  the  cathe- 
dral, C,  has  twenty  churches  of  the  Establishment,  and  among  its 
modem  buildings  are  a  fine  public  museum,  extensive  barracks, 
a  large  military  hospital,  and  a  new  theatre.  In  the  old  church 
of  St  Martin,  bnilt  in  the  12th  or  13th  c,  Roman  bricks  and 
Norman  sculpture  have  been  worked  up  in  the  walls.  In  the 
church  of  St  Dunstan  is  the  Roper  vault,  in  which  the  head  of  Sir 
Tliomas  Moore  was  buried  by  his  daughter  Mary  Roper.  In 
183s  the  vault  was  opened,  and  the  head  discovered  and  identi- 
fied. St  Augustine's  Monastery,  burnt  in  r  168,  was  appropriated 
as  a  royal  palace  by  Henry  VIII,,  vras  the  residence  of  Lady 
Wotton  during  the  rebellion,  remauied  long  in  the  possession  of 
her  descendants,  and  in  1844  was  purchased  by  J.  Beresford 
Hope,  Esq.,  to  be  afterwards  presented  lo  the  archbishop,  and 
eventually  converted  into  a  missionary  college.  The  Dane 
John  or  Donjon  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  Iteep  of  a  fortress 
still  traceable.  There  are  Bkie-Coat,  Grey-Coat,  and  otlier 
schools. 

Com  and  hops  are  extensively  grown  in  the  surrounding 
district,  and  there  is  considerable  trade  in  these  and  in  wool, 
cattle,  and  brawn,  which  is  largely  manufactured  here.  There 
are  also  extensive  breweries,  iron-foundries,  coach-factories,  rope- 
walks,  and  brick. fields.  The  city  retums  two  memljers  to  Par- 
liament, Pop.  (1871)  20,962.  C.  was  in  existence  before  the 
commencement  of  the  historical  period  in  Britain.  Its  oldest 
British  name  was  probably  /hiraiAern,  whence  the  Durover- 
RBBi  of  the  Romans ;  but  latterly  it  was  called  by  the  British  Ciifj-- 
C<i«/ (city  of  Kent,  Kent  probably  meaning 'headland'),  whence 
its  Latin  name  Cantuaria,  and  the  Old  Eng.  Cantaiara-byrig,  mod. 
C.  Proliabl^  it  was  a  place  of  some  importance  during  the  Ro- 
man occupation,  from  its  position  at  the  junction  of  the  military 
roads  from  Dover  and  Lympne,  the  principal  Roman  havens. 
It  afterwards  became  the  capital  of  the  Jutish  kingdom  of  Kent, 
and  here  Augustine  baptiied  jEthelberht,  and  laid  the  foundation 
of  English  Chvistianity,      The  city  suffered  severelv  from  the 

s 


vGooqIc 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPALDIA. 


CAN 


Danes  in  the  gtli,  loUi,  and  i  itli  centuries.      Its  later  liisloiy  is 
bound  up  with  that  of  its  magnificent  cathedral. 

Cathedral  of  C. — Augustine  (accoi-ding  to  Bede,  Hist.  Ecd., 
lib.  i.  c.  xxxiii.),  the  fitst  Archbishop  of  C,  repaired  a  church 
which  was  said  to  have  been  built  by  Roman  Christians,  consecra- 
ted it  in  602,  and  named  it  Christ  Church.  Cuthbert,  Che  eleventh 
archbishop,  liuilt  the  church  of  St  John,  close  to,  and  almost 
touching  Christ  Church,  in  758,  and  obtained  an  order  Irom  Pope 
Gregory  to  the  effect  tliat  Uienceforth  all  the  archbishops  of  C. 
should  be  buried  in  their  own  church.  From  this  time  tlie  shrines 
and  relics,  and  consequently  the  fame  and  wealth,  of  the  growing 
cathedral  began  to  increase.  In  Sgi  Plegmimd,  the  nmeteenth 
archbishop,' bought  the  blessed  martyr  Blasius  for  a  great  sum  of 

?old  and  silver'  at  Rome,  brought  the  body  to  C,  and  placed  it  in 
:hri3t  Church.  Odo,  the  twenty-second  archbishop- (940-60), 
raised  the  walls  of  Christ  Church,  rerpofed  the  building,  and  en- 
riched it  with  the  femous  relics  of  St  Wilfrid  and  St  Audeon,  by 
virtue  of  which  many  miraculous  cures  were  performed.  The 
head  of  St  Swithin  was  shortly  afterwards  added.  In  I0)l  the 
town  and  the  cathedral  were  saiied  and  tired  by  the  Danes,  but  re-, 
built  or  restored  (about  1023)  under  Cwiute,  who,  according  to 
Gervasius,  'gave  to  Clunst  Church  his  crown  of  gold,  whim  is 
still  kept  at  the  head  of  the  great  cross,  in  the  nave  of  the  same.' 
In  1067  the  cathedral  accidentally  caught  fire,  and  both  Christ 
Church  and  St  John's,  in'  which  the  archbishops  were  buried, 
together  with  nearly  oil  the  monastic  offices,  were  consumed.  In 
this  conflagration  nearly  all  the  ornaments  and  books,  together 
with  a  vast  number  of  papal  bulls  and  seals,  were  destroyed. 
Lanfranc,  Abbot  of  Caen,  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  C,  and 
commenced  his  rule  in  107a  This  energetic  and  accomplished 
prelate  brought  with  him  all  the  architectural  skill  and  taste  of  the 
Norman.  He  rased  the  old  building  to  the  ground,  dug  out  its 
foundations,  built  a  new  and  ntdile  church,  witli  ofiices,  &c., 
on  the  old  site,  and  replaced  the  bodies  of  St  Dunstan  and 
St  Elphege,  together  with  the  relics  of  the  saints,  in  the 
new  building.  His  successor,  Anselm  (1093),  appointed  Emulf 
his  prior.  Emulf  took  down,  the  K  sideof  Lfuifranc's  church, 
and  rebuilt  it  much  more  magnificently,  with  splendid  painted 
glass  windows,  marble  pavements,  and  pictures.  Emulf's 
work  was  continued  by  his  successor  Conrad,  under  whom 
that  part  of  the  church  wWch  extends  to  the  E.  of  the  great 
tower  was  constructed.  The  church  thits  founded  and  finished 
by  Lanfranc,  but  enlarged  under  Anselia,  was  ded  icat^d.  by  Arch- 
bishop William,  May  4,  1130,  in  presence  of  Henry,  King  of 
England,  David,  King  of  Scotland,  and  all  the  bishops  of  Eng- 
land. In  1 1 74  the  cathedral  took  fire,  and  its  walls  and  columns 
much  weakened.    French  and  English  artificers 


of  Sens,  in  Champagne.    Afterlabouringfor  five  years,  Guillaurai 
was  hurt  by  a  fall,  and  the  superintendence  of  the  works,  Ger- 


iperintendence  of  the  works,  C 

into  the  hands  of  one  '  William  by  ns 

by  nation,  small  in  body,  but  in  workmanship  of  n 


s  tells 


kinds  acute  and  honest,'  The  restoration  was,  completed  and 
the  Etroctnre  roofed  in  1184.  Great  part  of  the  cathedral  re- 
mains sabstantially  unaltered  from  the  time  of  the  second 
William  to  our  own  day.  Henry  di  Estria,  prior  from  1285  to 
1331,  'decorated  the  choir  of  the  church  with  most  beautiful 
stonework,  delicately  carved.'  Becket's  crown,  at  the  eastern 
end  of  the  cathedral,  was  erected  during  the  life  of  the  great 
archbishop,  and  after  his  assassination  in  the  N.  transept — a 
snot  known  afterwards  as  the  Martyrium — in  11 70,  a  splendid 
shrine  was  erected  in  his  honour.  It  consisted  of  stonework 
about  6  feet  high  ;  but  its  upper  portion  was  a  wooden  frame- 
work overlaid  with  plates  ot  gold,  and  enriched  with  jewels, 
pearls,  &c.  Within  the  upper  portion  tlie  bones  of  Becket  were 
kept  in  an  iron  chest.  A  pilgrimage  to  this  spot  was  the  most 
popular  act  of  piety  in  England  during  the  middle  ages  ; — 
'  Thunnt  longea  folk  to  gon  on  pilKrimage^ 
To  feme  halwes  kouthe  Tn'mnd^'lond™  T 


OfEnielmd,  In  Caimlsr/i«ry  they  ■ 
The  holy  blissful  maitir  for  to  Bfelte 
That  hem  have  holpeq  whan  Ihi     " 


transepts,  and  the  pillars  of  the  central  tower  were  all  btiilt  dminj 
the  same  period — the  end  of  the  14th  and  the  beginning  o 
the  Ijth  c.  The  central  tower,  or  Angel  steeple,  was  built  by 
Thomas  Goldston  (prior  from  1495  to  1517).  The  cathedral 
unites  in  itself  examples  of  eveiy  style  of  architecture  that  has 
flourished  in  England,  The  later  additions  and  restorations 
in  the  Perpendicular  style,  but  the  mass  of  the  building  is  K 
man  or  Early  English.  The  form  of  the  structure  is  that  of  a 
double  cross,  545  feet  long  and  71  feet  broad,  and  it  is  surmounted 
by  a  magnificent  central  tower  135  feet  high.  The  hell  tower  is 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  beautiful  specimens  of  Perpendicular 
architecture  in  England ;  the  choir,  200  feet  long  by  38  feet 
broad,  is  the  most  spacious  in  the  coimtry,  and  the  crypts  are 
unique  for  extent  and  altitude.  Among  the  most  remarkable 
tombs  are  those  of  the  Block  Prince,  Lady  Mohun,  Henry  IV.  and 
his  queen,  Margaret  Holland  and  her  two  husbands,  John,  Earl 
of  Somerset  (died  1410),  and  Thomas,  Duke  of  Clarence  {died 
1420),  Isabel,  Countess  of  Athol,  and  neatly  sixty  archbishops. 
See  ArcMleclnral  History  of  C,  by  Willis  (Lond.  1845). 

Oantertiuy.    See  New  Zealand. 

Canterbury  Bella.     See  Caupamula. 

OantLarell'na.    See  Edible  Fungi. 

CanthBr'idins,  is  a  crystalline  substance  contained  in  the 
cantharidis  beetle  or  Spanish  fly  (Cantharis  i/esicatoria],  and  ap- 
pears to  occur  in  greatest  abundance  in  the  head  and  antenna  of 
the  insect.  The  composition  of  C.  is  expressed  by  the  formula 
CjHgOa-  Taken  internally,  even  in  small  quantity,  C.  acts  as  a 
violent  irritant  poison,  particularly  affectuig  the  bladder  and 
sexual  organs.  Applied  externally,  it  causes  blistering  of  the 
skin,  and  is  used  for  that  purpose  in  medicine  {fly-dlislers).  In 
^are  cases  C.  is  employed  as  a  medicine, 

Can'tharie  fpl,  Canthariiks,  Gr.  '  little  flies ')  veaicatoria, 
the  bUstering  beetle  or  Spanish  fly,  is  an  insect  belonging  to  tlie 
order  Coleopiera  (c|.  v,).  Several  species  of  the  genus  C.  possess 
blistering  properties,  but  the  only  one  used  in  medicine  is  C.  V. 
This  is  a  small  beetle  nearly  I  inch  in  length,  of  a  bright  green 
coloui;,  and  emitting  a  nauseous  odour.  The  body  is  covered  with 
whitish  hairs.  The  head  is  large  and  somewhat  heart-sliaped ;  the 
thorax,  about  the  size  of  the  head.  The  wing-covers  {ilytrte)  are 
of  a  sWnir^  green.  So  marked  is  this  colour  that,  when  reduced 
to  a  fine  powder,  it  can  easily  be  detected ;  and,  even  in  poisoning 
with  C,  the  shining  particles  are  perceptible  in  the  sut«tance 
vomitedl  C.  is  found  in  most  European  countries,  especially 
Italy  and  Spain,  an^  occasionally  in  England.  The  insects  are 
collected  for  m.ed,icinal  purposes  chiefly  in  Hungary.  TTie  season 
when  this  is  done  is  May,  and  lie  mode  adopted  is  to  spread 
cloths  under  the  trees  on  wMch  they  are  found,  and  to  violently 
shake  the  trees.  The  operation  is  performed  in  the  mommg  or 
evening,  when  the  beetles  are  less  active.  The  collectors  cover 
their  feces  with  veils,  and  wear  gloves  on  their  hands,  to  keep 
theni  from  being  blistered.  The  cantharides  are  then  killed  by 
exposing  them  to  the  vapour  of  vinegar,  hot  water,  or  turjjentine, 
and  ate  afterwards  dried  in  the  sun.  They  require  to  be  kept  in 
well-stopped  bottles,  being  liable  to  the  attack  of  mites.  A  few 
drops  of  strong  acetic  aci<f  is  the  best  means  of  preserving  them. 
Blistering  flies  have  been  used  in  medicine  for  more  th^  zooo 
yeai3,  but  the  evidence  is  very  conclusive  that  it  was  not  the 
genus  C.  that  was  used,  but  a  different  insect. 

When  applied  to  the  skin,  C.  speedily  produces  redness, 
and  in  ten  or  twelve  hours  a  blister.  It  forms  the  active 
ingredient  of  the  well-known  'fly-blislir'  {see  Blisters),  com- 
posed of  C,  mixed  with  yellow  wax,  suet,  lard,  and  resin ;  is 
also  the  chief  ingredient  of  all  blistering  fluids,  and  is  a  prin- 
cipal constituent  of  most  stimulant  hair-washes.  When  swal- 
lowed, it  is  an  irritant  poison,  to  which  there  is  no  known 
antidote.  The  treatment  considered  the  best  is  to  use  emetics  foe 
the  purpose  of  emptying  the  stomach,  to  give  opiates  to  relieve 
pain,  and  soothing  diiScs,  as  barley-water.  C.  has  a  special 
action  on  the  kidiieys,  and,  whether  taken  internally  or  applied 
as  a  blister,  is  apt  to  cause  the  urme  to  be  bloody. 

Oan'thiiun,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Cinchonacea.  C,  parvifiarum  is  used  for  making  fences  in  India, 
and  the  leaves  as  an  ingredient  in  curries. 

Can'ticles  (Lat.  '  little  songs '),  a  book  of  the  Bible,  called  in 
the  authorised  version  the  Song  of  Solomon,  in  Hebrew  the  Song 


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of  Songs.  I.  As  to  it5  authors,  the  tradition  that  it  is  the  com- 
position of  Solomon  has  been  called  in  question,  and  thought  to 
be  in  the  highest  degree  improbable  by  not  a  few  modern  critics, 
z.  As  to  the  meaning,  the  favourite  mode  of  interpreting  it  has 
always  been  (l)  the  alkgoricaX,  according  to  which  it  describes, 
ill  the  Ismguage  of  love,  the  relations  existing  between  Jehovah 
and  the  people  of  Israel,  between  Christ  and  the  Church,  between 
Ezra  and  the  ten  tribes,  Solomon  and  Wisdom,  the  active  and  re- 
ceptive intellect  (scholastic),  &c.  Another  mode  is  {i)  the  typical, 
according  to  which  it  describes  the  marriage  of  Solomon  with 
(a)  Pharaoh's  daughter,  or  (*)  an  Israelitish  woman.  According 
to  (3}  the  literal  sdiool  of  interpreters,  it  consists  of  a  number  of 
erotic  songs,  and  as  a  whole  is  intended  '  to  display  the  victory 
of  humble  and  constant  love  over  the  temptations  of  wealth  and 
royalty.'    See  The  Scmg  of  Son^,  by  Ginsburg  (1864). 

Cantire',  or  Kintyre  (Gael,  'headland'),  a  peninsula  form- 
ing the  southern  part  of  Aigyleshire,  40  miles  long,  with  an 
average  breadth  of  d\  miles,  and  lying  betweai  the  Firth  of 
Clyde  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  contains  numerous  small 
lochs  and  moorish  hills  of  no  great  elevation.  Dairy-farming  is 
attended  to  rather  than  Bgriculture ;  the  herring,  cod,  and  ling 
fisheries  are  important,  and  the  distilling  of  whisky  is  carried  on 
extensively  in  Campbelton  (q.  v.).  There  are  numerous  small 
ecclesiastical  remains,  several  vitrified  forts,  and  perpendicular 
crosses  of  slate,  rudely  carved  and  inscribed.  Pop.  about  18,000. 
C.  was  the  seat  of  the  earliest  Scoto-Irish  colony  (6th  c),  and 
in  the  dim  semi-historic  records  of  thdr  progress  it  occupies  a 
more  important  position  than  it  has  ever  since  done.  As  one  of 
the  first  homes  of  Christianity  in  Pictland,  it  soon  abounded  with 
chapels  and  monasteries,  and  only  began  to  lose  its  importance 
when  the  seat  of  the  Scottish  monarchy  was  removed  to  Forteviot 
in  the  9th  c. 
Canto  Eermo,  in  church  music,  PMh  Song  (q.  v.), 
Caa'ton  (properly  Kwang-(ung,  or  Kiaang-tung'Cku-fii,  'the 
metropolis'),  the  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  in  the  S. 
of  China,  on  the  left  bank  of^the  Chu-Kiang  (Peari  river),  or  C. 
river,  which  is  formed  by  the  uniiMi  of  the  Si-,  Pe-,  and  Tang- 
Kiang  (W.,  N.,  and  K  rivers},  and  which,  beiow  the  town,  sepa- 
rates again  into  a  multitudinous  network  of  streams,  entering  the 
sea  chiefly,  however,  by  one  great  estuary.  The  river  narrows 
into  the  Bocca  TTgris  (q.  v.)  tefore  expanding  into  this  estuary, 
at  the  mouth  of  ^ch  lies  Macao  (q.  v.)  on  the  W.,  and  Hong- 
Kong  (q.  V.)  on  the  E.  C.  is  90  miles  from  the  sea,  arid  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  brick  wall,  raised  on  a  sandstone  base,  and  which 
has  a  height  of  25  feet,  a  thickness  of  20,  and  a  circumference  of 
6  miles.  It  is  traversed  by  anothw  wall  from  E.  to  W.,  dividing 
it  into  the  old  or  Tartar  town  in  the  N.,  and  the  new  or  Chmese 
town  in  the  S.  The  former  of  these  walls  is  pierced  by  fifteen, 
the  latter  by  four  gates.  The  town  is  intersected  by  many  caiMils, 
on  which  there  is  much  active  trade,  and  on  both  sides  of  the 
river  there  are  several  lai^e  suburbs,  the  principal  ones  being 
Honan,  on  an  island  of  the  same  name,  and  the  great  maritime 
colony  of  Tankia.  The  number  of  boats  on  the  river  has  been 
estimated  at  84,000,  and  the  boatmen  at  300,1x10.  The  old  town 
is  badly  built,  and  in  the  N.  the  houses  give  place  to  gardens 
and  ponds.  Confined  by  the  S.  wall  to  a  distEince  of  300  feet 
from  the  river,  the  new  town,  which  is  the  seat  of  the  governor 
and  of  customs  commissioners,  has  many  fine  shops,  palaces, 
temples,  schools,  and  promenades,  but  the  streets  are  generally 
short,  and  only  aboat  8  feet  broad,  although  cleaner  than  in 
other  Chinese  towns.  Many  of  the  streets  are  entirely  occupied 
by  a  single  trade.  Both  C.  and  suburbs  are  well  supplied  with 
good  Sprmg  water.  The  public  buildings  are  more  remarkable 
for  their  size  than  for  architectural  beauty.  There  are  as  many 
as  1 20  joss-houses  or  temples,  to  which  are  attached  some  200c 
Buddhist  priests  arid  nuns.  In  the  old  town  there  are  twc 
ancient  pagodas,  and  a  Mohammedan  mosque,  with  a  minarel 
160  feet  high.  C.  has  three  high  schools,  with  200  pupils  each, 
besides  some  twenty  inferior  schools.  Great  numbers  of  the 
inhabitants  are  in  the  service  of  Europeans,  with  whom  they 
communicate  in  a  broken  English  jai^on.  C.  was  till  1857  the 
chief  port  of  China  open  to  foreign  commerce.  It  has  still  an 
important  trade,  especially  in  the  staples,  silk  and  tea.  In  1874 
the  total  exports  amounted  to  ;^4.6l0,470,  and  imports  '" 
^^1,985, 701,  exclusive  of  treasure.  In  the  same  year  the  expc 
of  tea  was  ^i3,539,6o8  lbs,  ;  of  silk,  ;£3,SS4,787  lbs.     Tl 


a  has  many  of  the  finer  qualities  of  those  produced  in  the 
Foochow  districts.  Of  the  other  exports  the  chief  are  sugar, 
preserves,  cassia  lignia,  pottery,  fans,  fireworlis,  glass-wai-es, 
and  matting  ;  among  the  imports,  opium,  cotton  and  woollen 
'i,  copper,  iron,  lead,  steel,  cutlery,  &c.  The  chiefkinds  of 
n  imported  are  Malwa,  Patna,  and  Benares,  but  the  quan- 
tity is  quite  unknown,  owing  to  the  extent  to  which  it  is  smug- 
gled from  Hong-Kong  and  other  places.  The  iinport  trade  is 
almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  native  merchants.  In  1S74  there 
entered  tlie  port  701  ships  of  345,433  tons,  and  cleared  793  of 
347,069  tons.  There  is  a  vast  river  and  coasting  trade  in  juriks. 
Hong-Kong  is  gradually  but  surely  affecting  the  prosperity  of 
C,  for  which  it  acts  as  a  dep&t  or  bonded  wardiouse.  The 
lers  from  Hong-Kong  convey  to  and  fro  daily  from  600  to 
passengeis.  Together  with  its  suburbs,  C.  has  a  pop.  of 
1,000.  Among  the  early  traders  with  C.  were  the  Arabs  in 
the  gth,  the  Portuguese  in  the  i6th,  and  the  Dutch  m  the  17th  c. 
About  the  close  of  the  last-named  century,  the  Enghsh  found 
their  way  thither,  and  the  East  India  Company  gradually  acquired 
a  monopoly  of  the  traffic,  which  only  expired  in  1S34.  The 
conduct  of  the  hong  merchants  and  the  mandarins  led  to  a  war 
with  England  in  1840,  which  resulted  in  the  treaty  of  Nankin, 
by  which  C.  became  one  of  the  five  ports  opened  to  foreign 
commerce.  The  fronince  qI  C.  has  an  area  of  79,456  sq.  miles, 
and  a  pop.  of  19,147,030. 

Canton,  in  heraldry,  is  a  Subordinary  (q.  v.).  It  is  cut  off, 
bj  two  lines,  occupies  a  (sjrner,  either  dester  or  sinister,  but 
most  frequently  dexter,  of  the  shield,  and  is  smaller  than  the 
quarter,  being  aliout  a  third  in  size  of  the  chief 

Cantonna,  in  heraldry,  means  placed  in  the  canton  quarter  of 
a  shield;  also  placed  between  four  charges,  such  as  scallop  shells. 
Canton  (Fr.  canton  ;  origin  unknown  according  to  Brachet, 
but  perhaps  connected  with  the  Ger.  kanle,  a  comer,  seen  in  the 
Ei^Iish  ^e«i)  has  a  double  meaning  in  get^aphy.  i.  InSwitzer- 
land  it  denotes  a  portion  of  territory  whi(£  possesses  a  separate 
government  of  its  own,  but  is  at  the  same  time  a  memtier  of  the 
National  Confederation,  The  United  States  of  America  in  some 
respects  present  a  parallel  to  the  Swiss  Cantons.  2.  In  France  the 
name  is  given  to  the  subdivisions  of  an  anondissement. 

Oan'tonments,  a  military  term,  meaning,  in  Europe,  farm- 
houses, villages,  and  towns  in  which  an  army  finds  rest  or 
shelter  during  the  intervals  of  active  operation  in  a  campaign. 
The  soldiers  are  not  under  canvas  in  C.  as  they  are  in  an  en- 
campmenL  The  quartermaster-general  selects  a  district  of 
ample  accommodation  for  the  location  of  the  troops ;  and 
around  and  throughout  which  main-gaards,  pickets,  sentries,  bar- 
ricades, and  other  precautions  against  surprise  by  the  enemy,  may 
be  conveniently  placed.  In  India  C.  are  ordinary  arrangements 
for  the  housing  of  soldiers  during  peace,  but  they  are  of  slighter 
and  less  -permanent  character  than  Barracks  (q.  v,).  There  are 
excellent  solidly-built  barracks  for  officers  and  soldiers  at  Cal- 
cutta, Bomfciay,  and  Madras;  but  in  almost  all  other  parts  of  the 
country  the  regiments  live  in  C,  at  which  the  soldiers  are  housed 
in  huts  they  bnild  themselves,  and  the  officers  have  their  BunM- 
lows  (q,  V,),  which  usually  skirt  the  parade-grounds.  The 
mess-rooms  of  the  ofiicers,  however,  are  within  the  lines  of  the 
C—^ball- rooms,  theatres,  and  racket-courts  are  common  at  the 
larger  stations,  and  a  racecourse  with  its  grand  stand  is  a  usual 
feature.  There  is  always,  also,  a  bazaar  for  the  convenience  of 
the  native  troops. 

Canton's  Pbosphorus  Is  an  impure  sulphide  of  calcium 
(CaS)  prepared  by  heating  calcined  oyster  shells  with  sulphur  in 
a  closed  crncible.  After  exposure  to  light,  it  appears  to  glow 
when  brought  into  a  dark  room.     See  Phosphorescence. 

Oan'tu,  Geeare,  an  Italian  historian,  bom  5th  September 
1S05,  at  Brescia,  N.  Italy,  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  was  ap- 
pointed Professor  of  Belles- Leltres  at  Sondrio,  Valtellina  ;  was 
imprisoned  for  a  year  for  expressing  Liberal  ideas  in  his  Ragion- 
amenii  sulla  Storia  Lombarda  nff  Secolo  XVII.  (Mil.  1841 ; 
2lst  ed,  1864) ;  and  composed  in  prison  Marghetita  Fusterla 
(Flor.  1845 ;  36th  ed.  1864),  an  historical  romance.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  the  Steria  l/niversale  {1S3I-42,  Turin  and  Palermo, 
9th  ed.  1864).  C,  is  also  the  author  of  some  popular  hymns, 
of  the  Parnasso  Italiano  (1S43),  Storia  degV  Ilaliani  (1859), 
MUano;  Storia  del  Popolo  e  fid  Popolo  {l%^i),  and  other  histori- 


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Jan'ute  (originally  Cnut,  Latinised  Canuhis,  Fr.  Canute, 
then  by  change  of  accent  English  C),  King  of  Denmark  and 
England,  succeeded  his  father  Swegen  on  the  Danish  throne 
in  1014.  He  began  his  reign  by  ravaging  the  E.  and  S.  of 
England,  in  revenge  for  the  massacre  of  Danes  perpetrated  by 
jEthelred  the  Unready.  The  victory  of  Assandun  and  the  death 
of  Eadniund  Ironside  in  ioi5,  who  had  bravely  opposed  him  for 

ime,  left  him  sole  ruler  of  England.  Although  his  rtile' 
opened  with  massacre  and  assassination,  his  conduct  suddenly 
changed,  and  he  governed  for  neatly  twenty  years  with  mercy, 
wisdom,  and  justice,  making  no  distinction  between  Dane  and 
Englishman.  He  conciliated  the  esteem  of  his  subjects,  and  his 
reign  was  tranquU  and  prasperous.  C.  revived  Dunstan  s  policy, 
built  many  churches  and  monasteries,  and  even  made  a  pil- 
erimage  to  Rome,  His  favourite  scheme  was  to  weld  Norway, 
Denmark,  and  England  into  a  great  northern  kmgdom.  He 
died  at  Shaftesbury,  12th  November  1035.  A  fragment  of  song 
which  he  is  said  to  have  composed  while  listening  to  the  psalm 
of  the  monks  of  Ely,  and  wiich  was  sung  for  a  hundred  years 
after  the  Conquest,  is  still  preserved  : — 


■fha  Cnul  ching  r=u  lh=re  hy  ; 
Rowelh,  cnihtea,  noer  iho  Land, 


■n  Ely, 


See  Freeman's  Netman  Congutst,  vol.  i.  pp.  360-475. 

Oftnvas,  a  strong,  coarse,  unbleached  cloth  made  uf  hemp, 
and  used  for  tent-coverings,  sails  of  ships,  &c.  The  term  is  de- 
rived from  the  classical  and  scientific  name  of  the  hemp  plant, 
Cattnabis. 

Canvas  (paiater's)  is  prepared  far  taking  on  oil-paint  by 
being /nVwjrf  or  grounded,  usually  of  a  neutral  grey  tint.  There 
are  certtun  recognised  sizes  of  C,  as  the  kit  cat,  about  28  by  36 
inches  ;  the  ium-guaylcrs,  25  by  30  inches  ;  kalf-lmglh,  40  by 
50  inches  ;  BisAops'  half-length,  44  or  45  by  56  inches  ;  Bhhofs' 
■mhole  length,  58  by  94. 

Canzo'nG  (Ilal.  a  song,  Lat.  cans,  'I  sing"),  a  form  of  lyric 
which  originated  in  the  Provenjal  eansos,  and  was  adopted  and 
regulated  by  the  Italians  during  the  13th  c.  From  Petrarch, 
who  gave  it  uniformity  and  polisTi,  it  was  called  C.  Fetyarcheses. 
It  dealt  with  light  and  with  solemn  subjects,  and  consisted  of 
Etveial  stanzas,  of  which  the  last  was  generaEy  shorter  than 
the  ethers.  In  the  C.  Anacreontka  considerable  licence  in 
rhyme  and  rhythm  was  permitted.  The  C  Pindarica,  intro- 
duced in  the  16th  c,  treated  of  loftier  themes  than  the  other 
canioni,  and  was  divided  into  strophe,  antisirophe,  and  epode. 
This  last  form  of  canzoni  was  especially  cultivated  by  Chiabrera, 
Eurnamed  the  Italian  Pindar,  many  of  whose  canzoni  are  truly 

Canmnet  is,  in  Italian  poetry,  a  C  of  short  verses  ;  in  music, 
a  song  generally  of  two  or  three  parts. 

Caout'diouc,  Gum.  Elastic,  or  rndia-Bul)b9r,  is  an 
exudation  obtained  from  the  steins  of  many  trees  growing 
throughout  the  tropical  regions.  As  it  flows  from  the  trees  it  is 
a  milky  juice,  with  the  colour  and  consistency  of  thin  cream,  but 
it  gradually  thickens  on  exposure  to  the  air,  and  becomes  the 
tenacious,  elastic  body  famfliarly  known  as  india-rubber.  C. 
■s  a  pure  hydro-carbon,  containing  87-5  per  cent,  of  carbon  and 
3-5  of  hydrogen,  but  two  different  principjes  are  found  in 
Is  constitution,  one  of  which  is  solid,  tenacious,  and  elastic, 
and  little  affected  by  solvents,  heat,  or  cold  ;  while  the  other 
is  viscid,  ductile,  and  perfectly  soluble  in  essential  oil  and  other 
solvents.  C.  melts  at  a  temperature  of  248°  Fahr.,  and  if  not 
submitted  to  a  higher  heat  resumes  its  original  properties  on 
coohng,  and  it  bums  with  a  bright  but  smoky  flame,  emitting  a 
rather  acrid  odoiu-.  The  varieties  of  C.  found  in  commerce  are 
pretty  numerous,  differing;  as  to  the  countries  whence  they  come, 
their  botanical  source,  fimmess,  and  tenacity  and  purity.  The 
following  are  the  denominations  under  which  the  principal  kinds 
come  to  the  markets  :  Para  '  bottle '  and  '  scrap,'  Ceara  '  lump ' 
and  '  scrap, '  derived  from  Hevea  Guayanenns  and  other  species  ; 
Honduras,  Guayaquil  'pressed'  and  'damp,'  and  W.  Indian 
'sheet'  and  'scrap'  ftom  CastUlca  elaslica;  Assam  or  Silhet, 
E.  Indian,  and  Singapore  from  Ficm  elastica  and  other  species  ; 
Borneo  or  Gntta  Susu  from  Urceola  elaiHca  ;  Madagascar,  a  pale- 
brown  firm  rubber,  from  VaAsa  Madagascoriensis ;  and  African 
'  tongue,'  'ball,'  and  'niggers,'  from  various  trees  not  yet  satis- 
factorily detcnnined. 


nary  doA,  the  waterprooifne;  being  entirely  in  the  centre, 
popularity  of  the  Macintoshes  soon  waned  when  it  was 
id  to  be  injuriously  affected  by  changes  of  temperature,  be- 


The  first  specimens  of  C.  brought  to  Europe  were  procured 
by  M.  de  la  Condamine  in  1736,  on  his  return  journey  from 
Peru  by  way  of  the  Amaaoa  '  It  is,'  said  M.  de  la  Condamine, 
'  a  most  singular  resin,  as  much  by  the  use  to  which  it  is  devoted 
as  bj  its  nature,  which  is  a  problem  to  our  most  expert  chemists. 
It  flows  irom  a  tree  growing  in  several  parts  of  America,  and  is 
called  C,  by  the  Mainas  Indians  on  the  banks  of  the  Anrnzon.' 
In  the  N,  of  Quito  he  found  the  same  resin  obtained  from  a  tree 
called  Hyeve,  from  which  the  natives  made  a  kind  of  water- 
proofed cloth,  models  of  fruits,  birds,  &c.j  and  boots ;  while  in 
another  quarter  he  found  that  the  natives  fasliioned  it  into  a 
syrinx-like  bottle  for  holding  liquids,  whence  the  Portuguese 
colonists  called  the  tree  fao  di  Xirin^.  In  1770  Dr  Priestley 
called  attention  to  its  value  for  effacing  pencil-marks — a  purpose 
to  which  it  was  originally  devoted  in  England,  whence  ils  name, 
india-rabber. 

Towards  the  end  of  last  century,  many  attempts  were  made 
to  discover  a  means  of  waterproofing  garments  with  C,  and  for 
this  purpose  it  was  endeavoured  to  bring  the  material  in  its  ori- 
ginal liquid  condition  to  Europe,  but  these  efforts  failed.  The 
late  Professor  Syme  of  Edinburgh  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
to  discover  an  efficient  means  of  waterproofing ;  but  the  intro- 
duction of  the  art  is  usually  associated  with  the  name  of  Mr 
Charles  Madntosh,  who  obtained  a  patent  for  waterproofed 
cloth  in  1823,  and  whose  manufactures  under  the  name  of 'Mac- 
intoshes '  soon  attained  an  enormous  reputation.  Macintosh 
dissolved  scrap  C.  in  coal  oil,  or  oil  of  turpentine,  by  trituration 
with  heat  in  a  close  iron  vessel,  which  produced  a  thick  varnish. 
Tliis  vai-nish  he  smeared'  uniformly  over  one  surface  of  the  cloth 
to  be  proofed,  and,  after  drying,  a  second,  and  then  a  third 
coating  was  given.  Two  webs  so  treated  were  brought  face  to 
face,  and  were  made  lo  adhere  firmly  to  each  other,  so  that  the 
Macintoshed  cloth  had  the  appearance  of  a  double 
ordinary  '"''  '' 
The 

fonnd  to  be  mjurionsly  affected  by  changes  of  temperati 
coming  hard,  stiff,  and  sonorous  in  cold,  and  in  heat  evolving  an 
unpleasant  odour  of  the  solvent  oil  used  in  preparing  the  var- 
nish. These  objections  were  subsequently  obviated  by  the  pro- 
cess of  vulcanisation  (described  below},  and  now  waterproofed 
fabrics  are  chiefly  prepared  as  single  textures.  A  composiiiou 
consisting  of  C.  33  parts,  litharge  sp,  carbonate  of  lime  10, 
lampblaclc  2,  and  sulphur  5,  is  dissolved  in  too  parts  of  benzine 
to  form  the  proofing  varnish.  This  is  applied  m  very  thin  lay- 
ers to  cotton,  woollen,  or  silk  tissue,  care  being  taken  to  evapo- 
rate the  volatile  oil  between  each  application,  and  it  is  vulcan- 
ised by  exposure  to  heat  under  a  pressure  of  four  atmospheres. 
Rubber  rolled  out  into  thin  sheets  is  also  applied  for  some 
kinds  of  waterproofing.  In  addition  to  clothing,  waterproofed 
tissues  aie  now  employed  for  water-bags,  cushions,  beds,  sheet- 

While  in  Ei^Iand  attention  was  being  devoted  to  these  uses 
of  C,  its  elastic  properties  were  being  utilised  in  France,  and 
MM.  Rattier  and  Gulbal  .developed  the  manufacture  of  elastic 
tissues  in  1he  form  of  cords,  belts,  bands,  web,  &c.  They 
flattened  die  finest  Paia  C,  into  broad  thin  discs  by  means  of 
heat  and  pressure,  which  they  then  cut  up  mlo  long  bands,  from 
which  the^  cut  threads  by  means  of  ingenious  machinery,  the 
threads  being  joined  end  to  end  by  the  native  adhesiveness  of 
the  rubber.  These  threads  are  inelasticated  by  being  stretched 
seven  or  eight  times  their  proper  length  in  reeling,  and  are 
left  so  stretched  for  about  a  week.  It  can  then  be  worked  up 
into  any  tissue,  anij  its  elasticity  renewed  by  heating.  Elastic 
web  used  for  gusset  boots  and  for  many  dress  purposes,  is  still 
made  of  unvujcanised  as  well  as  of  vulcanised  rubber. 

About  the  year  1842  Mr  C.  Goodyear,  an  American,  discovered 
a  process  of  treating  and  preparing  C.,  by  which  its  properties 
are  so  modified  that  it  becomes  in  effect  a  new  sutstance,  and  a 
powerful  stimulus  was  thereby  given  to  the  C.  industry.  Mr 
Goodyew  did  not  patent  his  process  in  England,  and  Mr  Thomas 
Hancock  of  Newington,  London,  after  a  series  of  investigatious, 
succeeded  in  producing  the  same  effect  by  a  process  which  he 
patented  in  1 5(43,  and  which  afterwards  became  known  as  '  vul- 
canisation.' The  process  consists  in  combining  from  2  to  10  per 
cent,  of  flowers  of  sulphur  wilh  C,  under  the  influence  of  heat 
ranging  from  270"  to  300"  Fahr.  Under  this  treatment,  C.  as- 
sumes a  grey  aspect,  it  no  longer  softens,  though  it  becomes 
mote  highly  elastic  with  the  application  of  heat,  it  does  not  sen- 


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slbly  slifieii  with  cold,  fresh  cut  edges  do  not  adhere  lo  each 
other,  and  it  is  not  acted  on  by  the  soivents  which  reduce  C.  in 
invulcaiiised  condition.  The  change  effected  by  sulplmr  is 
explained  on  the  theory  that  it  combines  with  the  soft  or  semi- 
fluid constituents  of  C,  which  thereby  acqnires  greater  eonsis- 
teney,  and  ceases  to  be  afiected  by  heat  or  cold  or  the  solvents, 
all  of  which  chiefly  act  on  this  constituent  and  the  natural  rub- 
'  r.  Vulcanisation  is  effected  in  several  different  ways,  sueli  as 
_.5t  by  immersing  sheet  C.  in  flowers  of  sulphur  heated  to  235°, 
till  it  absorbs  abont  ^  of  its  weight,  and  then  heating  a  short  time 
to  300°  Fahr.  Second,  by  immersing  the  C.  in  a  mixture  of  too 
of  bisulphide  of  carbon,  and  a'5  of  chloride  of  carbon,  and 
plunging  it  on  withdrawal  into  water  to  decompose  the  excess 
"<"  -hloride  of  sulphur.  Third,  by  powdering  100  parts  of  C.  in 
.  .  gh  laminEB,  in  a  mixture  of  4  parts  of  flowers  of  sulphur,  and 
JO  of  slaked  lime,  pressing  it  between  rollers  to  incorporate  the 
powder,  working  it  np  into  fabrics,  and  exposing  the  finished 
articles  for  an  hour  to  the  action  of  steam- 
When  C.  is  combined  with  a  much  larger  proportion  of  sulphur 
than  is  used  for  vulcanisation,  under  high  heat  and  pressure  a 
still  greater  change  is  produced  in  its  physical  characteristics,  and 
■e  obtain  the  hard,  black,  horny-lii;e  substance  known  as  vul- 
mite  or  ebonite.  In  the  preparation  of  ebonite  from  30  to  50 
parts  of  sulphur  are  rolled  up  with  100  of  inferior  C.  into  a  cake, 
and  exposed  for  from  seven  to  twelve  hours  to  a  temperature  of 
345°  Fahr.  under  a  pressure  of  five  atmospheres.  At  the  end  of 
that  time  the  compound  is  found  to  have  become  hard,  solid,  and 
black,  capable  of  receiving  a  high  polish,  and  fit  to  be  used  as  a 
substitute  for  horn,  whalebone,  jet,  ebony,  &c. 

A  great  proportion  of  C.  as  imported  is  in  agglomerated 
masses  of  small  shreds  called  '  scrap,'  and  in  what  comes  as  solid 
cake  or  bottle-rubber,  many  impurities  and  adulterations  are 
usualiy  present  The  material  must  be  prepared  for  manufactur- 
ing; operations  by  being  formed  into  pure  homogeneous  masses, 
and  for  this  end  it  is  cut  up  into  small  slices  and  washed  in  warm 
water.  TTiese  washed  pieces  are  passed  repeatedly  between  iron 
rollers  having  indented  surfaces  and  cuttmg  edges,  to  which  water 
is  applied,  and  by  alternate  slashing,  cutting,  and  squeezing,  the 
rubber  is  purified  and  formed  into  solid  homt^eneous  masses. 
These  masses  are  pressed  in  moulds  by  screw  presses,  and  are 
then  ready  for  any  of  the  above-detailed  manufacturing  opera- 
tions. TTie  operation  of  cleansing  is  called  'mastication,' from 
its  amilarity  in  method  and  effect  lo  the  chewing  of  india-rubber 
practised  by  schoolboys. 

The  variety  of  purposes  to  which  C,  alone  or  in  combination, 
is  devoted,  and  the  forms  it  is  made  to  assume,  would  defy  enu- 
meration. In  its  natural  condition  it  is  used  as  '  rubber '  and  for 
elastic  web  manufacture,  though  vulcanised  thread  is  also  much 
employed  for  elastic  tissues.  Paste  or  varnish  of  C.  dissolved  in 
spirits  of  turpentine  or  benzine  is  used  in  bookbinding  and  damp- 
proofing.  Among  the  diverse  applications  of  vulcanised  C.  may 
be  enumerated  springs  and  buffers,  gas  and  water  pipes,  fire 
hose,  door  mats,  plaj'ing  balls,  dolls,  and  other  toys,  tobacco 
pouches,  washers,  wnnging  cylinders,  machine  belting,  life-belts, 
water  and  air  proof  bags,  cushions,  and  beds,  waterproof  sheeting, 
and  nursery  appliances,  &c  For  many  of  these  purposes  the 
vulcanised  C.  is  combined  with  one  or  more  layers  of  wove 
fabric.  Vulcanite  or  ebonite  is  used  for  insulators  for  telegraph! 
and  electrical  apparatus,  combs,  brooches,  ornamental  chains 
crosses,  &c.,  buttons,  drinking  vessels,  funnels,  chemical  appara 
tus,  speaking-tubes,  stethoscopes,  and  generally  for  purposes  t 
which  hom  and  whalebone  are  applicable.  Elastic  tissues  ar 
besides  applied  to  a  great  variety  of  useful  purposes,  both  general 
and  surgical,  many  of  which  readily  surest  themselves. 

Cap,  a  nautical  term,  meaning  a  strong,  thick  blocit  of  wood, 

holding  two  masts  together,  when  one  is  erected  at  the  bead  of 

another.    When  made  of  iron  it  is  called  a  crance.    C.  also 

means  a  covering  of  tarred  canvas  at  the  end  of  a  rope. 

Cap  of  Mdintenanoe  is  generalW  a  cap  worn  by  royal  and 

noble  persons  on  state  occasions.      Specifically  it "     -- 

of  state  carried  before  a  monarch  of  England  at  th( 

Capa'city,  Iieg;ttl,  means  the  condition  of  an  individual, 
making  him  or  her  fit  for  the  application  of  the  civil  and  cri- 
minal law.  To  some  extent  aU  have  L.  C.  except  the  insane, 
but  many  classes  have  it  only  partially.  Married  women, 
aliens,  infants — in  Scotland  minors  and  pupils — convicts,  out- 
laws,  have  only  partial  L.  C.  See  Age,  Alien,  Outlaw. 
77 


under  C,  but 


Cap-a-Pie',  armed  at  all  points  (Fr.  from  hutdto  foot). 

Capar'isoned,  in  heraldry,  is  applied  to  a  war-horse  com- 
pletely furnished  for  tlie  field. 

Cape  (It.  capo,  and  Fr.  cap,  out  of  the  Lat,  caput,  '  the  head ') 
is  the  name  given  to  larger  promontories,as  the  N.C,  (of  Europe), 
C.  Horn,  C,  of  Good  Hope,  C.  Comorin,  &c.  In  this  use  it  is 
synonymous  with  the  Arabic  rSs  (head),  Scandinavian  mil.  Low- 
land Sc  ness,  Fr.  «ffl  (nose),  and  Spanish /H«io  (a  point).  "■'- 
various  capes  requiring  notice  are  describ 
under  their  proper  names. 

Cape,  or  properly  Vatioka  Biver,  in  Central  America, 
after  a  course  of  nearljr  300  miles,  falls  into  the  Caribbean  Sea 
near  Cape  Gracios-a-Dios,  whence  its  popular  name.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  some  distance  from  its  mouth. 

Cape  Bre'ton,  an  island  at  the  entrance  of  the  Bay  of  St 
Lawrence,  off  Nova  Scotia,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  Che- 
dabucto  Bay  and  the  Gut  of  Canso.  It  extends  from  N.E.  to 
S.W.,  is  100  miles  long,  and  75  broad,  has  an  area  of  siao  sq. 
miles,  and  a  pop.  (1871)  of  26,454.  It  has  a  steep  rocky  coast, 
much  indented  on  the  W.,  and  in  the  interior  there  is  a  deep 
gulf,  connected  by  the  small  Bras  d'Or  with  the  sea.  The  cli- 
mate is  healthy,  and  the  surface  fertile,  especially  along  the  Bras 
d'Or  and  the  banks  of  the  numerous  small  streams.  The  chief 
industries  aie  agriculture,  coal-mining,  and  fishing.  There  are 
considerable  exports  of  coal,  fish,  and  timber.  Sydney  is  the 
capital,  and  among  other  towns  are  Port  Hood  and  Arichat. 
C.  B.  was  captured  by  the  English  from  the  French  in  1745, 
then  restored  to  France  agam,  and  once  mote  taken  in  1758. 
It  was  finally  ceded  in  1763,  and  was  annexed  to  the  province 
of  Nova  Scotia  in  1820.     See  Browne's  C.  B.,  1871. 

Cape  Coaet  Castle,  a  fortified  British  settlement  on  the 
Gold  Coast,  Upper  Guinea,  with  a  pop.  of  10,000.  It  is  the 
centre  of  British  trade  in  this  region,  and  exports  a  considerable 
quantity  of  gold  dust,  palm  oil,  and  maize.  Here  landed  the 
troops  sent  Out  under  Sir  Garnet  Wolsley  in  1873  for  the  war 
with  tlie  King  of  Asliantee. 

Cape  Cod,  a  narrow  peninsula  of  Massachusetts,  U.S.,  65 
miles  long,  at  the  northern  end  of  which  is  a  revolving  light, 
155  feet  above  the  sea  level.  C.  C.  Bay,  25  miles  broad,  opens 
to  the  N. 

Cape  Colony,  named  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  is  the 
largest  of  the  four  S.  African  colonies,  has  an  estimated  area  of 
201,000  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  (l868)  of  636,158,  and  extends  in 
lat.  28°  io'-34''  zi'  S.,  and  long.  18°  29'-28°  20'  E.  It  occupies 
the  entire  breadth  of  the  S.  extremity  of  the  continent,  and  is 
bounded  N.  by  the  Orange  River,  K  in  part  by  the  Tees,  a 
small  tributary  of  the  Orange  River,  by  the  Storm  Berge,  and 
by  the  Great  Kei  and  its  tributary  the  Indwc,  S.  by  the  Indian 
Ocean,  and  W.  by  the  Atlantic,  Its  greatest  length  from  N.  to 
S.  is  600  miles,  and  its  breadth  450,  while  the  coast-line  has  a 
total  length  of  960  miles.  The  principal  inlets,  proceeding  from 
the  W.,  are  St  Helena  Bay,  Table  Bay,  False  Bay,  Walker's 
Bay,  St  Sebastian's  Bay,  and  Algoa  Bay.  The  colony  now  con- 
sists  of  an  E.  and  W.  Province,  each  divided  into  sixteen  electoral 
divisions,  which  in  turn  are  subdivided  for  fiscal  and  magisterial 
purposes. 


rior  of  the  country  o 
to  4000  feet  high, 
mountains  parallel  to  the  coa 
miles.  These  mountains  are 
Nieuweveld  in  the  S.,  and  Sio 
into  Kaffraria.  They  have  an 
feet,  and  their  highest  peak 
the  central  range.     From  the 


nsists  of  tablelands  which  range 
nd  are  encircled  by  a  chain  of 
:,  and  distant  from  it  about  1 50 

named  Roggeveld  in  the  W., 
m  Bei^e  in  the  E.  as  they  pass 

average  altitude  of  abont  9000 
s  Mount  Compass  (10  — '  ■- 
the  land  r' 


of  this  mountain  cliain  in  three  successive  terraces — (he  first 
reaching  inland  from  25  to  50  miles  to  the  Little  Black  ranj 
the  second  as  much  further,  to  the  Great  Black  range;  a 
the  third,  about  loo  miles  broad  and  3000  feet  high,  for 
ing  the  Great  Karroo,  a  'hard'  plain,  neariy  bare  for  n 
months  in  the  year,  but  after  the  rains  covered  with  grass  a 
flowers  (lilies,  irises,  amaryllis,  &c.).  The  great  river  is 
Orange  or  Gariep,  which  forms  the  N.  boundary.  Its  prin- 
cipal southern  tributary,  the  Fish  River,  rises  in  the  NieHwe- 
veld  Mountains,  and  has  a  northerly  course  of  300  miles. 
The  principal  coast  riveis,  all  inferior  in  length  to  the  Fish 
River,  are,  in  the  W,,  the  Elephar         ■-"■■'■       -  ■■^-  ^     ->-- 


it  and  Buffalo ;  in  the  S.,  the 


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Breeds,  Gauritz,  Guntoo,  and  Sunday ;  and,  in  the  S.E.,  the 
Great  Fish  and  Gceat  KeL  The  climate  is  exceedingly  mild 
and  diy,  and  the  colony  is  singularly  free  from  epidemic  dis- 
eases. Tlie  mean  temperature  is  6l°  a6'  F.  in  tlie  shade,  and 
the  annual  rainfall  about  25  inches.  In  the  E.  Province  tain 
mainly  falls  in  sunimet ;  in  the  Cape  districts  the  reverse  is  the 
case,  and  long  droughts  are  occasionally  followed  hy  heavy 
floods.  June  and  July  are  the  coldest  months,  and  the  warmest 
are  December  and  January,  All  the  land  in  the  W.  Province 
is  spedally  adapted  for  the  growth  of  wheat  and  other  grains. 
Lai^e  tracts  in  the  Cape  districts  have  a  highly  productive  soil 
'  of  loam  and  day  mixed  with  gravel  and  decomposed  granite. 
George,  the  maritime  district  which  borders  the  E.  Province, 
contains  a  great  belt  of  forest  lands.  To  tlie  N.  of  the  great 
mountain  range  are  the  splendid  valleys  of  the  Long  Kloof, 
occupied  originally  by  the  large  stock  farms  of  the  old  Dutch 

Sroprietors,  now  miserably  siAdivided  in  the  hands  of  their 
escendants.  The  soil  of  the  E.  Province  is  in  gceat  part  fertile. 
A  portion  of  Uitenhage  is  very  productive.  Albany  and  Victoria, 
two  of  the  richest  counties,  embrace  a  fine  variety  of  hill  and 
dole  and  pasture  lands.  The  districts  to  the  N.  of  Grahams- 
town  (the  capital  of  the  E,  Province)  are  pastoral,  and  mould 
require  irrigation  to  render  them  fit  for  agriculture.  In  the 
entreme  E.  aie  the  cereal-growing  counties  of  Queenstown  and 
British  Kaffiaria.  Grigualand  West  (q.  v.),  containing  the 
famous  diamond  fields,  is  not  yet  formally  annexed  to  tlie  colony. 
The  fruits  of  temperate  and  tropical  climes  have  been  success- 
fully introduced  into  many  of  these  counties. 

The  zoolt^y  of  the  colony  has  undergone  great  changes  within 
comparatively  laie  years.  Wild  animals  have  almost  entirely  dis- 
appeared, and  in  their  place  there  is  now  abundance  of  sheep 
and  cattle.  Merino  sheep  and  Angora  goats  are  reared  exten- 
sively, and  a  specialty  is  ostrich  farming. 

The  mineral  resources  ace  known  to  be  extensive  and  valuable, 
but  have  not  been  developed,  or  even  explored,  at  all  adequately. 
Copper  is,  however,  actively  wrought  in  the  districts  of  the  W., 
and  the  Namaqualand  mines  are  among  tlie  richest  in  the  world. 
Around  Grahamstown  iron  is  to  be  found  in  most  of  the  hills. 


Of  late  years  the  commerce  has  steadily  increased.  In  1869 
the  value  of  the  exports  amounted  to  ;£2, 139,689,  and  in 
1874  to  ^■4,138,838.  The  chief  article  of  produce  is  wool,  of 
which  (1S74)  42,620,481  lbs.  were  exported,  valued  at  ;^2,948,57l. 
In  the  same  year  the  value  of  the  export  of  copper  ore  was 
^^■321, 434,  and  of  ostrich  feathers  ji2O5,640.  There  are  also 
large  expoils  of  wine  (Cafe  and  CanstanHa),  of  goat  and  sheep 
skins,  and  of  Angora  hair.  In  the  absence  of  navigable  rivers, 
transit  is  at  once  difficult  and  expensive.  The  waggon-hire 
between  Grahamstown  and  Port  Elizabeth  alone  (loo  miles)  in 
1872  amounted  to  over^6oo,ooa  Railways  are  now,  however, 
being  actively  constructed,  and  the  line  between  Cape  Town 
and  Worcester  is  to  extend  right  through  the  heart  of  the  colony. 
Lines  are  also  begun  to  run  from  Port  Elizabeth  and  E.  London 
into  the  interior.  A  sum  of  ;f  5,000,000  is  to  be  expended  in 
constructing  a  complete  system  of  railways. 

The  form  of  responsible  government  established  in  1853  was 
modified  by  an  '  Ordinance  Amendment  Act '  of  1872,  by  which 
the  executive  is  vested  in  the  governor  and  a  council,  composed 
of  certain  officials  appointed  by  the  crown.  There  is  a  L^isla- 
tive  Council  of  twenty-one  representatives  of  the  two  provinces, 
ten  of  whom  are  elected  for  ten  years,  and  eleven  for  five  years. 
The  House  of  Assembly  consists  of  sixty-six  members,  who  are 
dected  by  the  towns  and  separate  districts  for  a  period  of  five 
years.  Members  of  both  bodies  are  elected  by  the  same  voters, 
the  qualification  of  a  voter  being  an  income  of  £2$  yearly. 

The  discovery  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  by  the  Portuguese  in 
1486  did  not  lead  to  any  successful  attempt  to  settle  in  the 
country.  It  was  not  till  1652  that  the  Dutch  founded  a  small 
colony,  which  they  gcadiially  extended  from  the  Cape  to  the 
Great  Fish  River.  On  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes 
(1685),  great  numbers  of  French  Pretestanls  came  hither,  bring- 
ing with  them  the  vine,  and  givhig  name  subsequently  to  many 
localities.  Inl795  the  Cape  settlement  was  taken  by  a  British 
naval  force,  but  was  restored  to  Holland  by  the  Peace  of  Amiena. 
It  was  retaken  in  l8o5,  and  permanently  ceded  to  Britain  at  the 
Congress  of  Vienna.  Thefiret  band  of  English  settlers  landed  in 
Algoa  in  1820,  and  had  almost  immediately  to  assert  their  posi- 


tion against  the  hostile  and  predatory  Kaffirs  (q.  v.).  Towards 
this  race  the  Government  adopted  a  shifting  policy  of  alternate 
aggression  and  concession,  which  led  to  nine  successive  wars 
during  the  period  1812-53.  A  great  exodus  of  the  Huidri  Boers 
(q.  v.)  to  the  Transvaal  region  was  caused  m  1836  by  the  injudi- 
cious manner  in  whicii  their  slaves  were  liberated,  and  by  the 
restrictions  placed  in  the  way  of  recovering  stolen  cattle ;  yet 
the  Dutch  still  form  the  majority  of  the  colonists.  British  Kaf- 
fraria  was  joined  to  the  colony  in  1866,  and  part  of  Bassutoland 
in  1868.  A  rough  classification  of  the  inliabitants  shows  ii 
185,000  Europeans,  80,000  Hottentots,  110,000  ICaffits,  and 
137,000  other  coloured  races. 

The  confederation  of  all  the  S.  African  States,  both  English 
and  Dutch,  has  been  warmly  advocated  of  late  years.  In  1875 
the  Imperial  Government  invited  a  Conference  of  Delegates 
the  subject,  sending  Mr  J.  A.  Froude  as  its  own  representati 
But  local  jealousies  have  led  to  the  abandonment  of  the  project 
for  the  present,  though  it  is  certain  to  be  carried  out.  See  the 
works  of  Napier  (1849),  Fleming  (1856I,  Meidmger  (1861), 
Wilmot  (1863),  and  Mr  Froude,  O^aal  Report  (1S76). 

Oapeflgue',  Baptiste  Honore'  Baymond,  a  jqumalist 
and  historian,  was  bom  at  Marseille  in  1801.  After  studying 
law  at  Aix,  he  went  to  Paris  in  iSar  to  complete  his  1^1 
studies,  but  turned  hi^  attention  to  politics,  and  iiecame  editor 
of  the  Legitimist  organ.  La  QuoHditnite.  This  procured  him 
a  position  in  the  Foreign  Office,  which  he  held  till  the  revolu- 
tion of  1830.  Devoting  himself  to  historical  literature,  C.  had 
still  free  access  to  the  archives  of  the  Foreign  Office  till  they 
were  finally  dosed  against  him  in  1848.  His  works  are  very 
numerous  and  interesting.  One  of  the  best  is  the  Histmre  de  la 
Resiaurafion  (3d  ed.  1842) ;  two  of  the  latest  are  Les  Dimun 
Jours  de  Trianon  (1866),  and  La  DucAesse  de  Burgogni  el  la 
VieUlesse  de  Loids  XIV.  (1867). 

Oap'elin,  a  TtUostean  fish  belonging  to  the  SalmonidiS  or 
Salmon  family,  and  scientifically  known  as  the  Mallotus  Green- 
landicus.  It  is  of  small  size,  and  somewhat  resembles  the  Smelt 
(q.  v.).  It  is  employed  as  bait  by  the  Newfoundland  cod  fishers, 
and  it  has  also  been  imported  in  a  preserved  state  into  Britain. 
These  fishes  chiefly  occur  on  the  Newfoundhnd  ind  N  Ameri- 
can coasts,  and  sometimes  appear  in  large  shoals 

Oapell'a,  a  star  of  the  lirst  magnitude  m  the  constellation 
Auriga,  nearly  midway  between  Orion  and  the  Pole  star,  but 
nearer  the  latter.  C.  is  also  the  mythical  goat  {Amalthisa)  that 
suckled  Jupiter  m  his  infancy. 

Oapella.     See  AcapellA. 

Oapell'a,  Martla'uue  mineua  Felix,  styled  in  MSS. 
Afer  Carthaginensii,  a  celebrated  encydopiedist,  flourished  pro- 
tably  about  the  close  of  the  5th  c  Of  his  life  we  only  know 
that  he  was  educated,  if  not  born,  in  Carthage.  His  Satiricon, 
a  grotesque  medley  of  prose  and  various  kinds  of  verse,  and 
full  of  ill-arranged  and  ill-digested  learning,  is  divided  into 
nine  books,  and  furnishes  occasionally  some  curious  and  useful 
information  from  works  that  have  long  since  perished, 
seems  to  have  anticipated,  in  his  eighth  book  on  astronomy,  the 
theory  of  Copernicus  as  to  the  sun  and  not  the  earth  being  the 
centre  of  our  system.  The  first  edition  was  published  atVicenza 
in  1499  ;  that  of  Grotius,  who  wrote  his  commentary  when  a  boy 
of  only  fourteen,  at  Leyden,  in  1599 ;  and  that  of  Kopp,  by  far 
the  best,  at  Frankfurt,  in  1836. 

Oapercail'zie,  Wood  Ctrouae,  or  Oock  of  tlie  Woods 

( Tetrao  Urogallus),  a  species  of 
Rasorial  biiils  induded  m  the 
Grouse  family  {Telmonidis), 
once  abundant  in  the  Scotch 
Highlands,  but  now  chiefly 
found  in  Scandinavia,  though 
also  in  other  parts  of  Europe, 
and  in  N.  A^.  It  inhabits 
pine  districts,  feeding  chiefly 
on  the  shoots  and  leaves  of  the 
Scotch  fir.  Recently  attempts 
have  been  made,  with  partial 


i 


ith    C 


into    Scotland       These   burd 
are   imported    f   m    N    w  y 
and    Sweden     n   1    i,e      u 
bers  for  the  Loi  d       ma  k  t  1 


y  Google 


CAP 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


pally  by  means  of  traps.  The  C.  is  a  bird  of  large  size,  measur- 
ing about  3  feet  in  length  from  the  bill  to  the  extremity  of  the 
rounded  tail.  TTie  male  is  coloured  grey,  mottled  with  brownish- 
black  ;  llie  females  being  variegated  with  the  latter  colour,  with 
white,  and  with  yellowish-brown.  The  bill  is  short,  compressed 
at  the  tip,  and  of  whitish  colour,  and  a  patch  of  naked  scarlet- 
coloured  skin  exists  above  the  eye.  The  tarsi  are  feathered,  but 
the  toes  themselves  are  naked.  These  birds  are  polygamous, 
the  males  resorting  generally  year  by  year  to  the  same  spot,  at 
the  breeding  season,  to  call  the  females.  The  eggs  nimiber 
from  sb:  to  twelve,  and  are  of  pale  reddish-brown  colour,  spotted 
with  darker  brown.  The  nest  is  built  on  the  ground,  and  the 
female  incubates  for  about  four  weeks. 

Oaper'naiiin,  the  town  on  the  N.W.  shore  of  the  Lake  of 
Gahlee  which  our  Saviour  made  his  headquarters  dtiring  his 

Eublic  ministry.  Two  places,  according  to  ditferent  travellers, 
avo  claims  to  be  considered  the  site — ruius  called  Tel  HQm, 
about  3  miles  from  the  point  at  which  the  Jordan  enters  the 
lake,  and  other  ruins  called  Khan  Minyeh,  3  miles  farther  along 
the  shore, 

Oapers,  the  pickled  flower-buds  of  Capparis  spittosa,  the 
caper-bush  and  allied  species  belongii^  to  the  natural  order 
Capparid(ueei^t.g.,  C.  spinosa  is  used  m  the  S.  of  Europe,  C. 
Fontcmtsii  in  Batlmry,  C.  jS^ptiaca  (which  is  said  to  be  the 
hyssop  of  Scripture),  in  ^^ypt,  C.  apkylla  in  India,  &c.  C.  are 
stimulant,  antiscorbutic,  and  apenent.  The  flower-buds  of 
Zygsphyllum  Fabago,  those  of  Caltha  pcdustrU  (q.  v. ),  and  those 
of  the  Indian  cress  or  canary-plant  (  Trepsolum  majus)  are  some- 
times substituted  for  the  true  caper.  The  term  '  caper-bush '  is 
sometimes  given  to  the  caper-sponge.  Euphorbia  Latkyris,  one  of 
the  Eaphcrbiate^, 

Cap'et,*  The  House  ot  supplied  France  with  kings  from 
.987,  when  Hugues  C.  ascended  the  throne,  till  the  death  of 
Charles  IV.  in  1328,  when  the  House  of  Valois,  in  the  person 
of  Philippe  VI.,  succeeded.  The  earliest  historitil  figure  of  the 
family  is  that  of  Robert  the  Strong,  Comte  d'Anjou  and  Paris, 
who  died  in  866  at  Mans,  where  he  was  resistirig  the  Normans, 
against  whom  Karl  the  Bald  was  powerless.  On  the  death  of 
Karl  the  Fat  in  888,  Robert's  son,  Eudes  {Odo\  was  elected 
King  of  Neustria,  the  Comte  de  Poitiers  becoming  King  of 
Aquilaine.  In  91a  Robert,  a  brother  of  Eudes,  and  allied 
to  the  House  of  Burgundy,  drove  Karl  the  Simple  (/«  Sol,  lit 
'  the  fool '),  into  Lorraine,  was  himself  proclaimed  kin^  but 
was  defeated  and  killed  the  following  year.  His  son,  Hugues 
the  White  {Jt  Blanc),  Comte  de  Paris,  after  a  stormy  and  ambi- 
tious career,  died  titular  Due  d'Aquitaine  in  956.  He  left  three 
sons  i  Elides  and  Henri,  who  became  Dukes  of  Burgundy,  and 
Hugnes  C  (oldest  form  Hiton  CAapette),  or  the  Great,  who  pro- 
bably hebi  a  place  like  that  of  his  father  till  the  death  of  Lud- 
wig  the  '  Do-nothing '  {.k  Fai«Ami)  in  987,  when  he  was  elected 
king  in  opposition  to  Karl  of  Lorraine,  the  last  of  the  Karo- 
lings,  whom  he  afterwards  made  a  prisoner  at  Orleans.  Up  to 
this  time  the  kings  in  France  are  to  be  considered  Germans, 
and  it  is  right  that .  their  names  should  be  given  in  a  German 
form.  With  the  accession  of  the  Capetian  dynasty  begins  the 
line  of  French  kings  proper.  Almost  nothing  is  known  of 
Hugues'  subsequent  life,  except  that  he  supported  Gerbert,  the 
courageous  asserter  of  Galilean  Church  rights.  He  married 
Adelaide  of  Guienne,  and  died  24th  October  996.  His  son, 
Robert  the  Pious  {Debonair)  (II.),  succeeded  without  election. 
There  was  no  centralisation,  the  tie  between  the  King  and  his 
subjects  was  feudal,  and  no  general  taxes  were  imposed,  and  no 
general  council  held.  His  second  wife,  Constance  of  Provence, 
introduced  much  of  the  polished  gaiety  of  the  S.  to  the  French 


he  authorised  the  cruel  suppression  of  the  Gnostics  of  Orleans 
(1022),  and  the  more  atrocious  persecution  of  the  Tews,  who  were 
absurdly  supposed  to  have  su^esled  the  destruction  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  tO  the  Calif  Hakim,  The  ton-n  communities  began  in 
this  reign  to  enter  into  formal  treaties  for  peace  and  regular  jus- 
tice between  themselves  and  with  the  stignsun,  and  the  Church 
attempted,  by  the   'Peace  of  God,'  to  modify  the  disastrous 


fths  1 


private  wars  of  the  feudal  chivalry.  After  seeing  all  his  sons  in 
revolt  against  him,  Robert  died,  20lh  July  1031.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Henri  I.  (1031-60),  wliose  reign  is  marked 
by  a  war  with  William  of  Normandy,  the  transubstantiation  con- 
troversy of  Berenger,  a  distressing  famine,  and  renewed  efforts 
of  the  Chnrch  in  Uie  '  Truce  of  God '  to  limit  in  time,  and  place, 
and  ferocity  the  private  wars  which  the  'Peace  of  God  had 
failed  to  stop.  Henri  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Philippe  L 
(1060-1108),  who  for  some  time  was  under  the  regency  of  the 
great  crusader,  Baldwin  of  Flanders.  His  subsequent  reign  was 
marked  by  the  rapid  growth  of  the  institution  of  chivalry  (tour- 
naments, pas  d'armes,  and  courts  of  love  now  appearing) ;  the 
enfranchisement  of  towns  and  incorporation  of  trades  ;  the  long 
struggle  of  Philippe  and  Hildebrand  (Gregory  VII,);  the  excom- 
munication of  Philippe  at  the  Council  of  Autun  (i6th  October 
1094),  he  having  repudiated  his  licst  wife.  Bertha,  and  con- 
tracted a  canonically  incestuous  marriage  with  Bertrade  of  Anjou. 
Under  Louis  VL,  or  the  Fat  (1108-37),  called  the  Bavunseau 
of  France,  the  '  gay  science '  flourished,  and  Abelard  was  the 
most  popular  man  of  letters.  His  spn,  Louis  VIL,  the  Young 
[le  J^ne),  (1137-80),  the  leader  of  the  Second  Crusade  mar- 
ried Eleanor  of  Guienne,  who,  on  her  divorce,  became  the  wife 
of  Henry  II.  of  England,  By  the  help  of  the  Pope  and  of 
i-Becket,  Louis  gained  several  advantages  Over  Henry,  whose 
sons  he  supported  in  their  revolt.  His  reign  vras  also  marked 
by  the  spread  of  the  heresy  of  the  Albigenses,  Henricians  or 


Artois,  heiress  of  Vermandois,  he  is  said  to  have  united  the 
Houses  of  C  and  Charlemagne.  Philippe,  who  has  been  called 
the  founder  of  the  feudal  monarchy  which  succeeded  the  feudal 


(1223-26),  who  contested  the  English  throne  withjohn,  perished 
in  the  second  crusade  against  the  Albigenses.  The  chief  inci- 
dents during  the  minority  of  his  famous  son  Louis  IX.,  or  St 
Louis  (1226-70),  were  the  suppression  of  free  thought  and  the 
eatabhshment  of  the  Inquisition  in  Languedoc,  Later  on  in  his 
reign,  Louis,  by  his  abolition  of  many  feudal  privileges  and 
modes  of  judicial  procedure,  by  the  creation  of  the  Parliament 
of  Paris,  and  by  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  greatly  strengthened  the 
absolute  power  of  the  crown  and  the  independence  of  France, 
A  younger  brother  of  Louis,  Charles  d'Anjou,  obtained  from 
Rome  the  investiture  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  on  the 
death  of  Conradin,  the  last  of  the  House  of  Suabia.  This  right, 
ultimately  bequeathed  by  the  Comte  de  Maine  to  Louis  XI.,  led 
to  the  Italian  wars  of  succession  in  the  end  of  the  15th  and  begin- 
ning of  the  l6th  centuries.  By  his  wife,  Mai^eriteof  Provence, 
Louis  had  many  children  :  among  others  Robert  of  Clermont, 
the  founder  of  the  later  line  of  Bourbon,  whose  descendant, 
Antoine,  married  Jearme  of  Navarre,  and  thus  united,  in  the 
person  of  Henri  of  Navarre,  the  two  lines  of  Capetian  succession. 
Louis  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Philippe  III.  {k  Hardi), 
the  Bold  (1370-85),  whose  intervention  in  Navarre  and  Castile 
against  Pedro  of  Aragon  shows  the  increasing  importance  of 
France.     He  married  successively  Isabel  of  Aragon  and  Marie  r'' 


France,  the  Flemii^s  asserted  their  independence  at  Courtrai, 
the  rights  of  municipalities  were  made  the.  subject  of  a  national 
ordinance,  the  States-General  met  Ave  times,  and  the  Papal  pre- 
ri;^atives,  asserted  in  the  Bull  Iniffabilis,  were  strongly  opposed. 
The  following  were  the  children  of  Philippe  and  Jeanne  of 
Navarre  and  Champs^ne: — (i)  Louis  X.,  tlie  Quarrelsome  {U 
HuUn),  1314-16,  who  strangled  his  first  wife,  Mai^ret  of  Bur- 
gundy, to  make  way  for  his  second,  Clemence  of  Hungary,  and 
who  granted  several  charters  of  provincial  liberties,  some  re- 
stricting the  royal  rights  of  taxation,  otiiers  restoring  objection- 
able feudal  arrangements;  {2)  Isabel  C,  who  married  Edward 
II.  of  England,  and  whose  son,  Edward  III.,  consequently  claimed 
the  throne  of  France;  (3)  Philippe  V. ,  the  Long  [k  Lang),  1316- 
22,  who  compelled  the  States-General  to  adgit  the  Salic  law, 
and  who  lent  himself,  nnder  the  influence  of  Pope  John  XXII., 
to  the  most  horrible  persecutions  of  Jews,  lepers,  magicians,  and 
heretics ;  pnd  (4)  Cliarles  IV,  the  Fair  {k  Bd),  1322-28,  who, 
like  his  brothers  Louis  and  Philippe,  left  no  sons,  and  whose 
daughter,  Blanche,  was  therefore  excluded  from  the  throne  by 
her  father's  cousin,  Piiilippe  VL,  the  first  king  of  the  House 


vLaOogle 


CAP 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMBIA. 


of  Valois,  and  son  of  Charles  of  Valois,  youiiget  brother  of 
Philippe  IV.  and  Marguerite  of  Anjou.  The  savage  persecu- 
Ijons  [such  as  those  of  the  Templars,  accused  and  convicted  on 
evidence  got  entirely  through  torture  of  the  most  childish  charges, 
and  of  the  Fasteureaux,  who  ittempted  to  oreanise  a  crusade  in 
1320)  of  which  the  later  Capetlan  kings  had  heen  ^iltj^;  the 
anathemas  of  Pope  Boniface  VIII,  following  on  their  violation  of 
ecclesiastical  immunities;  the  doubtful  legality  of  their  marriages, 
and  the  undoubted  infidelity  of  their  wives  ;  their  early  deaths, 

frcdeeeased  by  sons ;  all  these  things  combined  to  make  the 
rench  people  generally  believe  that  the  House  of  C.  was  ac- 
cursed of  God.  See  Kitchin's  History  of  Frame  (Clar.  Press 
Series,  1873). 

Cape  Town,  the  capital  and  principal  seaport  of  Cape 
Colony,  lies  on  the  S.  shore  of  Table  Bay,  32  miles  N.  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  from  which  it  takes  name.  It  is 
the  great  western  commercial  centre  of  S.  Africa,  and  is  the 
seat  of  the  colonial  government,  of  the  supreme  court,  of  a  col- 
lege and  university,  and  of  a  bishop.     The  town  occupies  the 


i.    The  streets. 


in  the  dwelling-houses,  shops,  hotels,  and  tramways.  Of  the 
public  buildings,  the  most  notable  are  the  Houses  of  Assembly 
and  Legislature ;  the  S.  African  Museum,  to  which  is  attached  a 
lai^e  hbrary  and  a  valuable  botanical  garden ;  the  Roman  Catholic 
Cathedral ;  a  castle  of  considerable  strength,  an  arsenal  and 
barracks.  Besides  numerous  Protestant  churches  there  are  a 
Jewish  synagogue  and  a  Mohammedan  mosque.  The  town  is 
supplied  with  excellent  water.  In  summer  the  mean  tempera- 
ture is  76-6°  F.,  and  in  winter  58-3°.  C.  T.  is  connected  by  rail- 
way with  Worcester,  and  by  telegraph  witii  various  other  places 
of  importance.  It  communicates  with  England  five  times 
monthly  by  regular  mail-service,  the  average  passage  having  been 
reduced  in  1876  to  twenty-tlve  days.  Its  chief  exports  are  wool, 
copper  ore,  diamonds,  and  wine.  The  harbour  is  now  protected 
by  a  breakwater,  and  has  a  patent  slip  and  extensive  docks. 
Municipal  affairs  are  administered  by  a  town-council,  presided 
over  by  a  mayor.  The  town  returns  two  members  to  the  Colonial 
Assembly.  Pop.  29,000,  excluding  the  maritime  village  of 
Simon's  Town,  and  the  delightful  suburb  of  Rondebosch,  where 
the  merchants  have  their  villas. 

Gape  Verd  Islands  (Port.  Hhas  do  Cabo  Va-ds,  'Isles  of 
the  Green  Cape'),  an  archipelago  in  the  N,  Atlantic,  lat.  14° 
45'-i7°  19'  N.,  long.  32°  45'-25°  aS'  W.,  belonging  to  the  Portu- 
guese, and  named  after  Cape  Verd,  on  the  W.  coast  of  Africa, 
320  miles  to  the  E.  It  consists  of  ten  islands  {nine  of  which 
are  inliabited)  and  four  islets,  divided  into  a  northern  and  south- 
ern group.  To  the  former  belong  Boavista,  Sal,  SSo  Nicolao, 
SSo  Vincente,  Santa  Lucia  (uninhabited),  SSo  Antonio,  and  the 
islets  of  Branca  and  Rasa ;  to  the  latter  Santiago,  Maio,  Foge, 
and  Brava,  with  the  two  islets  of  Rombo.  Area,  1630  sq.  miles ; 
pop.  (1872)  75,003.  The  largest  is  Santi;^,  32  mUes  long  and 
15  broad.  All  are  mountainous  and  volcanic,  the  highest  point 
being  reached  in  the  crater-peak  of  Fogo,  which  is  9157  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  is  still  active,  the  last  eruption  having  taken 
place  in  1847.  The  climate  is  hot  and  unhealthy;  rains  and 
warm  mists  are  prevalent,  sometimes  lasting  a  whole  year,  spoil- 
ing the  harvests,  and  cutting  off  great  numbers  of  the  inhabit- 
ants. The  soil  is  not  well  suited  for  agriculture,  and  there  is 
little  or  no  timber  in  the  group.  Indigo,  cotton,  rice,  maize, 
and  millet  are  grown ;  and  of  late  years  the  vine,  beetroot, 
tobacco,  coffee,  oranges,  and  many  other  tropical  and  sub-tropi- 
cal fruits  have  been  largely  cultivated.  The  trade  in  archil,  or 
cudbear,  a  valuable  violet  dye,  yields  a  large  anuual  revenue. 
Turtles  are  caught  on  the  coasts  ;  amber  is  found  on  the  shores 
of  all  the  islands;  salt  is  procured  from  the  lagunes  by  solar 
evaporation. 

Some  of  the  islands  were  discovered  as  early  as  1441  by  two 
Genoese  brothers  in  the  service  of  Portugal,  Antonio  and  Bar- 
lolomeo  di  RoUi,  but  they  were  first  claimed  by  the  Portuguese 
after  Cada  Mosto  (q.  v.)  had  visited  them  in  1456.  Along  with 
the  Portugnese  possessions  in  Senegamhia  they  are  ruled  in 
secular  matters  by  a  governor-general  who  resides  in  Sflo  Vin- 
cente, and  are  ecclesiastically  under  a  bishop  whose  diocese  con- 
tains about  thirty  churches. 


Cape  Weed  {Rocdla  linctoria),  a  lichen  from  the  Cape  Verd 
Islands,  from  which  a  dye  is  obtained. 

C.  W.  is  also  a  name  given  in  New  Zealand  to  the  European 
cat's  ear  (Hypocharis  raSictUa),  which  has  been  introduced  into 
that  colony,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Dunedin,  Otago,  is  taking  the 
place  of  the  cultivated  grasses  in  the  pastures.  The  name  is  also 
apphed  in  Australia  to  Cryptoiltinma  calsndulacea. 

Oap'ias,  in  English  law,  is  the  prenomen  to  several  kinds  of 
writ,  issued  either  before  or  after  judgment.  It  is  no  longer, 
however,  used  in  beginning  personal  actions ;  a  writ  of  sura- 
having  been  substituted  for  C  in  the  superior  courts  at 


Wesi 
C.  ad  r 


a  judicial  writ  by  which  all  a< 


hold  to  bail. 

C.  ad  saHsfadtndum,  usually  called  ca  la,  is  a  writ  of  execu- 
tion to  imprison  the  defendant,  when  it  is  still  lawful  to  do  so, 
after  judgment  has  been  pronounced  against  him,  tmtil  he  satisfy 
his  creditor. 

C.  utiagahiia  is'a  writ  agiunst  a  person  outlawed. 

Cap'illaire,  a  syrup  prepared  by  adding  sugar  and  orange- 
flower  water  to  an  infusion  raf  maidenhair  fern  (AdianUitn  Capil- 
liis  Veneris)  or  some  allied  species.  It  is  much  used  in  France 
for  cough  mixtures,  is  agreeable  to  the  taste,  hut  possesses  no 
medidim  virtue. 

Cap'iUary  Veseels.  This  teim  is  applied  to  the  minute 
vessels  intermediate  between  arteries  and  veins.  The  arteries 
convey  blood  from  the  heart,  the  veins  collect  and  bring  back 
the  blood  to  the  heart,  while  the  C.  V.  connect  the  terminations  of 
the  arteries  with  the  commencements  of  the  veins.  The  C.  V.  are 
minute  lubes,  the  walls  of  which  are  formed  of  flattened  nucle- 
ated cells  placed  edge  to  edge.  In  recent  times  these  cells  have 
heen  rendered  visible  by  a  method  of  irmnersing  the  tissne  in  a  di- 
lute solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  and  afterwards  exposing  it  to  the 
action  of  light.  When  this  has  been  done  snccessfiilly,  tlie  edges 
of  the  flattened  cells  are  blaidcened,  and  their  contour  thus  de- 
monstrated in  an  exquisite  manner.  Without  this  method  Iht 
walls  appear  to  be  formed  of  a  structureless  membrane  in  which 
cells  are  embedded.  As  the  cells  forming  the  walls  of  the  C. 
V.  are  sometimes  irregular  in  shape,  it  is  evident  that  their  appo- 
sition will  occasionally  leave  small  apertures.  These  have  been 
termed  stomala,  and,  according  to  some  observers,  they  are  the 
openings  through  which  the  colourless  cells  of  the  blood  giss 
during  the  mflammatory  process.  (See  InfxAMMATION.)  The 
finest  capillaries  are  sufficiently  broad  to  allow  coloured  corpus- 
des  of  the  blood  to  pass  in  single  file.  They  thus  vaiy  in  dia- 
meter from  the  jJaj  to  the  jjnni  of  ^n  inch — the  average  size  in 
the  human  being  is  about  jg^s  of  an  inch.  C.  V.  are  highly 
elastic  and  extensible,  and  where  there  is  life,  they  possess  also 
the  vital  property  of  contractility.  C.  V.  freely  unite  with  each 
other,  forming  a  plexus.  The  character  of  the  plexus  varies  in 
different  organs  or  tissues.  It  may  be  an  irr^uiar  network,  as 
in  areolar  tissue,  an  elongated  meshwork,  as  in  muscle,  in  loops 
and  tufts,  as  in  skm ;  it  may  be  a  radiating  arrangement,  as  in  the 
liver,  or  in  round  balls  or  rete,  as  in  the  Malpighian  bodies  of  the 
kidney.  It  is  a  physiolcgical  &ct  that  in  any  tissue  Or  oi^an  in 
which  there  is  great  functional  activity  there  are  numerous  capil- 
laries. Two  parts  in  close  proximity  to  each  Qther  may  difler  in 
this  respect.  For  example,  the  grey  or  generatii^  matter  of  the 
brain  and  spinal  cord  is  much  more  vascular  than  the  white  or 
conducting  matter.  For  descriptions  of  capillary  arrangements, 
see  articles  on  the  various  tissues  and  organs. 

OapUlar'ity,  the  general  name  given  to  certain  phenomena 
observable  at  the  surface,  separating  two  fluids  (which  do  not 
mix),  or  a  fluid  and  a  solid.  To  take  the  commonest  example, 
let  a  clean  glass  rod  be  plunged  into  water,  and  the  liquid  will 
be  found  to  ascend  all  round  it,  forming  a  concave  surface.  In- 
stead of  the  rod,  substitute  a  tube  of  smallbore,  and  not  only  will 
the  same  phenomenon  be  visible  at  the  exterior  surface  of  the 
tube,  but  the  column  of  water  inside  will  rise  above  its  former 
level  to  a  height  which  is  fonnd  by  experiment  to  vary  inversely 
as  the  diameter  of  the  bore ;  and,  further,  the  surfoce  of  this 
column  will  assume  a  more  or  less  concave  form.  If  mercury 
be  used  instead  of  water,  exactly  the  reverse  will  be  observed — 
the  surface  becoming  convex,  and  being  depressed  in  the  tube  to 
an  extent  depending  in  the  same  way  upon  the  diameter  of  the 


-^ 


yLaOogle 


CAP 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


bore.  Two  parallel  pktes  immersed  in  either  liq^uid  produces  tlie 
.e  effects,  subject  to  the  same  laws,  and  the  variation  oF  level 
his  case  is  half  that  produced  by  a  tube,  the  diameter  of  whose 
bore  is  equal  to  the  distance  between  the  plates.  These  interest- 
ing phenomena  depend  upon  wliat  is  known  as  the  supey^icial 
energy  or  taisiott  of  the  bounding  surfece  of  the  liquid.  It  is  on 
account  of  this  tension  that  a  soap-bubble  tends  to  conbact  and 
drive  a  current  of  air  through  the  tube  by  which  it  is  blown, 
and  Co  which  it  is  attached.  It  is  further  evident  that  the  force 
or  pressure  due  to  the  tension  of  a  curved  surface  must  act  in- 
wards, i.e.,  from  the  convex  to  the  concave  side;  and  conse- 
quently, the  ascent  or  depression  of  the  liquid  in  the  tube, 
according  as  its  surface  is  concave  or  conves,  is  a  h^drostatical 
necessity,  smce  this  tensive  force  in  the  one  ease  duninishes,  and 
in  the  other  increases  the  total  pressure  upon  the  surfiu:e  of  the 
column  of  Uquid.  The  curved  form  of  the  surfece  is  easily 
Bccounted  for  upon  the  hypothesis  of  molecular  forces,  which  are 
senable  only  at  insensible  distances.  According  to  this  theory, 
a  molecule  of  glass  has  a  greater  attraction  for  a  molecule  of 
water,  and  a  less  attraction  lor  a  molecule  of  mercury,  than  either 
of  these  has  for  another  of  its  own  kind.  From  this  it  is  at  once 
deducible  by  the  prindple  of  composition  of  forces,  that  in  capil- 
lary phenomena  water  forms  a  concave,  and  mercury  a  convex 
sur&ce.  A  very  lucid  explanation  of  the  mathematical  theory 
of  C.  is  given  in  Professor  Clerk  Maxwell's  Theory  of  Heat, 


e  capillary  phe 


All  liquids  which  wet  glass  present  the 
nomena  as  water ;  while  liquids  which  do  jiui  wci  giaoa  ati 
like  mercury.  Since  the  wetting  power  of  a  liquid  depends 
upon  its  molecular  constitution,  it  follows  that  C  must  be 
dependent  not  only  upon  the  kiiids  of  matter  osed,  but  also  upon 
.  the  temperature  at  which  llie  phenomena  are  observed.  If  two 
solids  are  floated  near  each  other  on  the  surface  of  a  liquid, 
which  either  wets  both  or'wels  neither,  they  ran  together  as  if 
attracted  ;  if,  however,  one  only  is  welted,  they  are  apparently 
repelled.  Numerous  phenomena  of  didly  occurrence,  such  as 
the  power  which  a  sponge  possesses  of  absorbing  and  rfetainlng 
aquantity  of  water,  the  drying  action  of  blotting-yaper,  the  satu- 
ration of  wick  by  oil,  the  walking  of  certain  species  of  flies  and 
spiders  on  the  surface  of  water,  are  easily  explained  as  cases  of  C. 
This  property  of  matter  also  plays  an  important  part  in  the  eco- 
nomy of  nature,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  absorption  of  moisture  from 
the  earth  and  the  air  by  the  roots  and  green  parts  of  a  plant 

Capita,  Succession  per,  is  a  term  of  Scotch  law  denoting 
the  distribution  of  an  inheritance  equally  among  a  number,  dis- 
regarding the  right  of  representation.  The  contrary  mode  of 
distributionis/«-j-(»^j.  See  Stirpes,  Succession  by.  Were 
the  inheritance  of  an  uncle  divided  equally  among  several  fumi- 
lies  of  nephews  or  nieces,  eaeh/a!«i{f  getting  the  same  share  for 
subdivision  in  itself,  this  would  be  succession /^^jftV/^j;  but  if 
each  nephew  Of  niece  got  tlie  same  share,  the  number  of  the 
litmily  being  unequal,  this  would  be  C.  S.  P. 

Oap'ital  {}M..caput,  'ahead'},  in  architecture,  is  the  header 
top  of  a  column ;  in  fortification,  an  imaginary  line  dividing  a 
defence  work  into  two  similar  parts — most  frequently  the  line 
which  bisects  the  salient  angle  of  a  Ravelin  (q.  v.) ;  in  ge<^raphy, 
that  city  of  any  country  where  the  supreme  magistrate  resides,  or 
the  national  legislature  assemble^  or  Ihe  government  is  carried  on. 

Capital  is  a  general  name  given  to  all  the  accumulated  pro- 
ducts of  past  labours  which  are  devoted  to  reproductive  invest- 
ment.    It  includes  whatever  is  necessary  to  shelter,  feed,  and 
clothe  laboui*,  and   to   keep   labour  gomg.      Therefore   mills, 
machinery  (fixed  or  movable),   railway  plant  and  permane 
way,  raw  material  of  all  kinds,  whatever  is  paid  out  in  w^es 
labourers  to  he  by  them  exchanged  for  commodities,  are  aU  i 
eluded  in  C.    All  depends  on  the  intention  of  the  capitahst 
devote  what  he  possesses  to  reproduction.      Thus,   goods 
stock  may  properly  be  called  C.  to  whatever  extent  the  proceeds 
of  ieir  sale  will  be  applied  in  payment  of  wa^es  and  charges, 
the  execution  of  necessary  repairs,  or  the  provision  of  new  instru- 
ments and  materials  of  industry.    Undoubtedly  there  is  always 
existmg  only  a  certain  amount  of  C.  in  England,  or  Europe,  or 
the  world,  which  the  intention  of  the  capit^ist  cannot  increase  ; 
but  in  each  place,  and  in  each  trade,  he  may  either  employ  the 
maximum  existing  C,  so  iar  as  it  belongs  to  him,  or  a  much 
smaller  quantity,  reserving  the  difference  for  his  personal  con- 
sumption, or  for  charity,  or  for  some  purpose  which  is  not  repro- 


ductive. He  may  even  be  willing  to  use  the  maximwm.  for 
reproduction,  but  cannot  find  an  investment ;  or  the  C.  cannot 
be  realised,  or  he  must  deduct  from  the  maximum  some  prelim- 
inary outlay  which  is  not  necessary  but  artificial  (e.g.,  a  heavy 
tax  on  the  rasher  stages  of  manufacture),  or  some  outlay  which 
is  necessary  from  th      at     f  h   mark     b     n      f  duction 

(viz.,  the  wages,  as   hey  d    h    wag  hich  it 

would  be  physic  I!    p  ss  h  ur  k).    Of 

lurse  the  C.  ma   b  wn  d  b      bo  d         h   person 

ho  employs  it. 

For  the  purpose         p  w     h  cienee 

based  on  detinitio     as    m  d  present 

facts,  C.  is  iimite         m        al  and         h  ch  are 

directly  consumed       h      p    d    ti  m  From 

the  social  pomt  of  view,  the  money  sunk  in  a  prison  or  a  church, 
on  the  one  hand,  in  the  pay  of  an  army  of  national  defence  or  in 
the  education  of  a  productive  labourer,  on  the  other,  is  rightly 
-regarded  as  C. ;  for  production  goes  on  only  under  the  sanc- 
;ions  of  municipal  and  international  peace,  and  all  the  human 
faculties  conspire  in  enabling  the  productive  labourer  to  give  bis 
life  maximum  of  labour.  From  the  above  description  some 
obvious  consequences  follow — I.  Money  is  not  C,  nor  is  credit 
C.,  however  much  it  may  facilitate  the  employment  of  C. 
Industry  is  limited  by  C.  The  converse  proposition  lay  at  t 
root  of  Protectionism,  it  being  thought  that  government  could 
create  additional  employment  without  providing  additional 
C,  3.  There,  may  not  be  sufficient  labour  to  use  the  C,  " 
occurs  in  the  colonies  sometimes;  for  this  or  some  other  rf 
son  the  C.  may  perhdi  unused.  4.  But  there  can  never  be  t 
much  C.,  or  savmgs,  if  there  be  labour  m  existence  ;  for  either 
wages  are  increased,  or  more  men  are  employed.  5.  C  b  the 
result  of  saving  (so  &r  as  it  is  not  supplied  in  definite  quantities 
by  nature),  and  therefore  increases  with  the  excess  of  production 
over  consumption.  6.  Though  saved,  in  the  sense  of  being 
directed  to  reproduction,  C.  is  always  being  consumed.  7.  A 
demand  for  commodities  merely  fixes  in  what  way  C.  will  be 
used  ;  it  does  not  support  labour.  Raw  materials,  wages,  &o., 
have  been  called  circulating  C,  as  requiring  to  be  renewed  after 
every  production.  Houses,  machinery,  which  last  for  some  time, 
but  are  in  the  end  consumed,  are  called  fixed  C.  The  expen- 
diture in  obtaining  fixed  C,  would  enter  the  C.  side  of  an  ac- 
count with  the  exception  of  percentage,  which  might  be  thought 
chargeable  against  revenue  ;  hut  circulating  C.  is  replaced  either 
every  year,  or  every  period  of  production.  Fixed  C.  should 
therefore  contribute  to  the  total  production  as  much  as  will  cover 
the  cost  of  repairs  and  the  annual  depreciation,  and  leave  a  slight 
maa^  of  profit.  The  conversion  of  circulating  into  fixed  C. 
i^.^.,  the  introduction  of  machmeiy  which  supersedes  manual 
industry)  necessarily  injures  the  labourers,  to  whom,  had  the 
madiinery  not  been  introduced,  its  cost  would  have  been  paid 
in  wages.  If  further  changes  take  place,  diminished  cost  of 
production  leading  to  increased  production,  more  chciilating  C. 
will  probably  be  saved  than  was  converted.  Most  commonly, 
however,  this  saving  of  new  C.  Js  contemporaneous  with  the 
gradual  conversion,  and  hence  the  protest  of  the  labourers  again; 
machinery  is  unjust.  Wholesome  clunate,  wholesome  occupatioi . 
social  tranquilhty,  and  personal  health  are  important  conditions 
of  the  saving  of  C.,  while  improvidence  (a  vice  characteristic  of 
the  savage)  and  vrant  of  interest  in  other  human  beings  (a  trait 
of  periods  of  social  corruption)  oppose  its  incn 
supremacy  of  Great  Britam  in  manufactures  is 
measure,  to  her  long  exemption  from  internal  w 
arbitrary  spoliation  of  property. 

Capital  Accoimt.  In  all  account-keeping  it  is  highly  ir 
portant  to  go  on  correct  principles  in  distinguishing  lietween 
what,  in  the  science  of  accounting,  is  called  the  C  A.  and  the 
Revenue  Account  Even  m  household  economy,  if  a  man  wisher 
to  know  accurately — as  eveiy  sensible  man  does,  whether  hi; 
income  be  small  or  great — his  annual  expenditure,  he  must  give 
regard  to  the  question  which  will  frequently  arise  of  whether  ar 
item  of  expenditure  is  to  be  regarded  as  payable  out  of  capital 
or  out  of  revenue.  You  buy  a  house,  plainly  ^ou  are  not  to  put 
down  the  price  of  it  as  pait  of  your  domestic  expenditure  for 
the  year  in  which  it  is  bought.  The  price  is  an  ■ — — •■"--^  "' 
capital,  and  to  be  charged  agjunst  your  C.  A. 


The  early 
*mg,  in  some 
i  and  from  the 


vLaOogle 


CAP 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


repairs,  or  witli  the  actual  sum  paid  each  year  for  repairs.  So, 
if  you  buy  a  carriage  and  horses,  you  may  put  the  price,  in  the 
first  place,  to  the  debit  of  C  A.,  but  each  year's  income  must 
be  chai^d  with  5  per  cent,  on  the  price,  and  with  a  percentage 
to  replace  tear  and  wear.  In  great  things  the  principle  is 
the  same  as  in  Email.  The  railway  company  having  raised  its 
capital  by  the  s^e  of  shares  or  by  borrowing  (see  Debenture, 
■Railway),  entera  the  amount  so  raised  on  one  side  of  its  C.  A. 
On  the  other  it  places  the  expense  of  making  the  line,  of  buy- 
ing locomotive^  carriages,  and  of  all  that  is  required  in  working. 
The  expense  of  maintaining  all  this  and  of  working  are  placed 
to  the  debit  of  the  revenue  account.  It  not. nnfrequently  hap- 
pens in  the  accounting  of  railways,  and  of  other  public  com- 
panies, that  items  are  placed  to  the  debit  of  C,  A.  which  ought 
to  have  been  charged  against  revenue.  The  dividends  of  one 
year  are  thus  increased  at  the  enpense  of  those  of  future  years  ; 
but  the  value  of  the  company's  share  being  in  the  meanwhile 
in  proportion  to  the  rate  of  dividend,  the  shareholder  of  the  day 
may  seU.  at  the  expense  of  the  future  shareholder.  In  private 
affairs  the  safe  rule  is,  when  in  doubt  between  C.  A.  and  revenue 
account,  to  place  the  item  to  the  debit  of  revenue. 


Capital  Funi&hiiient  is  in  criminal  law  the  punishment  of 
death.  Three  grounds  of  objection  have  been  taken  to  this 
punishment :  that  its  deterrent  effect  is  not  so  s^ng  as  Chat  of 
some  other  modes  of  punishment ;  Chat  it  is  a  punishment  which 
men  have  not  a  right  to  inflict ;  thU  it  is  contrary  to  Scripture. 

To  decide  the  question,  according  to  reason,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  there  are  many  punishments  more  severe.  To  be 
kept  alive  in  continual  torture  will  probably  be  allowed  by  most 
people  to  be  worse  than  death,  which  must  sooner  or  later  come 
to  all,  and  which  all  true  Christians  hope  and  believe  will  lead 
them  to  a  life  better  than  that  from  which  they  have  been  taken. 
Nevertheless,  the  force  or  instinct  which  impels  us  to  cling  to 
life  is  the  msister-force  of  all  animal  being.  It  may  be  over- 
come, as  we  see  that  it  often  is,  by  some  temporarily  strong 
force ;  still,  over  the  mass  of  mankind,  this  instinct  is  supreme. 
We  use  the  word  inslintt  for  want  of  a  better.  We  denote  by  it 
that  inscrutable  inward  force  which  impels  a  man  to  act  inde- 
pendently of  his  reason,  and  often  directly  against  it. 

The  second  objection  to  C.  P.  may  be  based  on  the  ground— 
the  firmest,  we  think,  that  it  can  be  based  on — that  the  abandoned 
criminal,  the  murderer,  let  us  suppose,  is  really,  as  a  general  rule, 
visiily  the  product  of  circumstances,  and  of  the  errors  and  sins 
of  the  society  which  produced  him.  Bom  probably  in  a  de- 
graded quarter  of  one  of  our  great  cities,  with  a  debased  brain. 


)f  society  rather  than  tliat  of  the  indi- 


able  against  society,  what  nght  has  society  to  let  the  whole 
weight  of  punishment  fall  on  Uie  individual  ?  Plainly  it  would 
be  impossMe  in  a  short  article  to  discuss  this  social  problem, 
but  obviously,  whatever  be  the  right  ot  society,  its  m^Al — by 
some  held  to  be  the  basis  of  right— will  always  be  exerted  on 
the  side  of  self- protection.  Still,  it  is  satisfaetorj^  to  find  that 
the  enlightened  humanity  of  our  times  has,  consistently  with 
this  law,  practically  restricted  C,  P.  to  the  crime  of  murder. 
Formeriy,  in  England  death  was  the  ordinary  punishment  of 
all  felons  Tirie  could  not  read,  that  is,  who  could  not  avail  them- 
selves of  Benefit  of  Clergy  (q.  v.).  Tliat  the  punishment  of 
death  is  contrary  to  Scripture,  is  a  doctrine  held  by  compara- 
tively few.  Isolated  passages  may  be  produced  that  apparently 
favour  the  view,  and  It  may  even  seem  to  be  in  harmony  with 
the  all-foigiving  spirit  inculcated  by  the.  New  Testament  j 
but  it  is  not  to  be  held  that  this  spirit — so  beautifying,  so 
essential,  to  the  individual— should  be  so  applied  as  to  make  the 
power  of  the  State  unable  to  protect  the  virtuous  part  of  the 
community  against  the  criminal. 

Among  the  earliest  reformers  of  our  criminal  law  were  Sir 
Samuel  Romiiiy,  M,  A.  Taylor,  and  Sir  James  Mackintosh  ;  by 
their  exertions  C  P.  was  greatly  restricted.  It  was,  however, 
to  Lord  Brougham  that  we  are  mainly  indebted  for  having 
brought  the  criminal  law  of  the  country  into  harmony  with  the 
advanced  morality  and  intelligence  of  the  day.  By  statutes 
passed  early  in  the  present  reign,  crimes  punishable  with  death 
14 


were  reduced  to  nine,  the  chief  of  which  are  treason,  murder, 
piracy,  and  intent  to  cause  shipwreck.  Practically,  as  staled, 
C.  P.  is  never  now  inflicted  in  the  United  Kingdom  except 
when  the  intention  of  the  criminal  has  been  to  murder,  or  when 
he  has  caused  death  in  the  perpetration  of  a  crime  of  violence. 

Capital  Punishment  in  the  Army. — The  Crown,  with  regaid  to 
military  offences,  has  considerable  I^slative  power,  for  (he  sove- 
reign by  the  Annual  Mutiny  Act  may  form  articles  of  war  and 
constitute  courts-martial,  with  power  to  try  on  account  of  crime 
and  to  inflict  penalty  ;  the  penalties,  however,  must  not  extend 
to  '  life  or  Umb,'  except  for  crimes  expressly  declared  to  be  so 
punishable  by  the  Act.  The  Mutiny  Act  comprises  a  series 
of  regulations  which  are  annually  enacted  Iw  Far&ament  for  the 
government  of  the  military  forces  of  the  United  Kingdom.  It 
provides  that  every  officer  or  private  who  shall  excite  or  join 
any  mutiny,  or,  knowing  of  it,  shall  not  give  notice  to  the  com- 
manding ofBcer,  or  sliafl  desert  or  enlist  in  any  other  regiment, 
or  sleep  at  his  post,  or  leave  it  before  he  is  relieved,  or  hold 
correspondence  with  a  rebel  or  an  enemy,  or  strike  or  use  vio- 
lence to  his  superior  oiEcer,  or  disobey  his  lawful  commands, 
shall  suffer  death,  or  '  such  other  punishment  as  the  court-mar- 
tial may  inflict. ' 

A  court-martial  may  sentence  to  death,  penal  servitude,  or 
imprisonment,  with  or  without  hard  labour,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  offence.  Judgment  of  death  by  couit>martial 
requires  tlie  concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  the  officers  present. 
Employment  of  a  soldier  after  arrest  on  a  capital  charge  has 
been  held  to  bar  the  cariring  out  of  punishmeni  It  was  held 
to  do  so  on  one  occasion  by  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  in 
Spain  !  but  this  view  does  not  seem  in  harmony  with  the  ever- 
memorable  case  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  The  incidents  are  too 
well  known  to  require  repetition  ;  but  it  may  not  be  generally 
known  that  Ihe  law,  as  laid  down  on  the  ocasion  by  Lord 
Chief-Justice  Montague,  has  been  approved  of  by  Lord  Chan- 
cellor Campbell.  It  is  that  Sir  Walter  having  been  condemned 
for  treason,  a  commission  from  the  king,  under  the  Great 
Seal,  could  not  operate  as  a  pardon,  and  that  attainder  could 
only  be  done  away  with  by  letters-patent,  under  the  Great  Seal, 
reciting  the  crime  and.  granting  paidon. 

Capital  Punishment  in  the  Royal  Navy. — The  government  and 
discipline  of  the  navy  is  directed  by  rules  and  articles  enacted  by 
the  authority  of  Parliament.  Under  these  the  following  offences 
are  pimishable  with  death :  Misconduct  in  flag  or  commandii^ 
officer  upon  signal  of  battle,  if  acting  traitorously  ;  cowardice 
or  treachery  in  action  by  any  one  ;  mutiny,  if  accompanied  by 
violence.  Spies  are  punishable  with  death.  See  Articles 
OF  War,  Mutiny  Act. 

Capitals,  large  letters  (Lat.  majuscula),  as  distinguished 
from  small  letters  (Lat.  minmcula),  used  in  writing  and  printing 
for  certain  puiposes  of  convenience,  clearness,  effect,  &c.  Printers 
formerly  employed  them  much  more  liberally  than  they  do 
now.  In  English  books  all  nouns-substantive  at  one  time  be- 
gan with  C,  a  pracdce  now  discontinued  except  in  the  case 
of  proper  names,  but  still  universal  in  German  books.  Adjec- 
tives formed  from  proper  names  begin  in  English  books  with 
C,  but  not  m  French  and  German  books.  The  initial  letter 
of  a  word  may  be  a  capital,  and  an  entire  word  may  be  printed 
in  C,  but  they  must  not  be  introduced  indiscriminately  iuto 
the  body  of  a  word.  In  the  MSS.  of  the  middle  ages  initial 
C.  are  often  beautifully  illuminated. 

Capitaaa'ta,  a  province  of  S.  Italy  (Apulia),  occupies  the 
'spur  of  Italy,'  on  the  Adriatic  coast,  and  has  an  area  of  2943 
sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1871)  of  319,164.  It  is  a  rich  pastoral 
and  grain-growing  district,  watered  chiefly  by  the  Carvajo,  Cara- 
pella,  Candelaro,  and  Sasola.  Four  riulways  intersect  it,  eon- 
verging  in  the  capital,  Foggio. 

Capita'tion  jneans  a  numbering  of  persons.  The  word  is 
generally  applied  to  denote  a  tax  payable  per  head  (Lat.  caput), 
t.e.,  by  all,  without  regard  to  property  or  other  circumstance. 

Cap'itol  (Lat.  Capitolitim),  the  citadel  of  ancient  Rome,  on 
the  sumjnit  of  the  tjapitoline  HilL  The  hill  was  originally 
called  Satumius,  then  Tarpdus,  from  the  fee  of  the  viran 
Tarpeia,  and  finally  Capilslinus,  from  the  discovery  (according 
to  die  Roman  legend  given  by  Varro,  Livy,  and  others)  of  a 
human  head  {caput)  by  die  worimen  when  di^ng  the  founda- 
tions of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter.     The  work  was  begun  in  the 


yLaOOgle 


CAP 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CAP 


reign  of  Tarqujniiis  Priscus,  The  walls  were  built  by  Servius 
Tullius }  the  building  was  iinished  by  Tarquinius  Superbus, 
and  consecrated  by  the  Consul  M.  Horatius,  507  B.C.  It  was 
burnt  in  the  civil  war  of  Matius,  83  B.C. ;  restored  by  Sulla, 
destroyed  under  Vitellius,  rebuilt  by  Vesga^n,  destroyed  by  fire 
at  his  death,  and  finally  rebuilt  by  Doiratian,  who  expended  an 
enormous  sum  of  laoney  on  the  gilding  and  decoration  of  it.  It 
was  a  stmclure  of  great  beauty  and  magnificence,  with  an  ascent  of 
looateps;  its  gates  were  of  bronze ;  it  was  adorned  with  paintings, 
Statues,  chariots,  silver  shields,  and  costly  vessels,  and  contained 
three  brines,  dedicated  respectively  to  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Min 
erva.  Beades  the  C. ,  there  were  otlier  famous  buildings  on  the 
mount,  e.g.,  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Tonans,  erected  by  Augustus 
the  Tabidarium,  or  Record  Office,  &c.  The  modern  structure 
on  the  site  of  the  ancient  C,  was  designed  by  Micliael  Angelo. 

Capit'vdaries  (Lat.  capitularia,  '  little  headings ')  is  the 
name  given  to  the  decrees  issued  in  Latin  by  the  Prankish  king 
after  consultation  with  their  assemblies.  '  They  are  of  the  most 
varied  description ;  not  codes  of  law  at  all,  but  decrees,  advices, 
opinions  upon  particular  questions  as  they  arose '  (Kitchin,  Hist, 
of  France,  p.  137).  All  the  C.  ate  not  extant,  and  many  survive 
only  in  ouOine.  By  far  the  richest  and  most  complete  are  those 
of  Charlemagne  and  his  son,  Ludwig  the  Pious.  The  formec 
have  been  classified  and  described  by  Guizot  in  bis  CivUisatimi 
en  France.  For  the  real  history  of  the  time  they  are  the  best 
source  of  information  we  jjossess,  giving  a  clear  insight  into  the 
political  and  moral  admmistration  in  all  its  details  of  that  vast 
empire  which  the  genius  of  the  great  German  held  together. 
Tlie  most  complete  collections  are  the  CaMlularia  S^m  Fran- 
corum,  with  notes  by  Baluze  {2  vols.  foL  Par.  1677),  and  that  lA 
Perta  in  the  Maimmenta  Gfr?nanite  Mslorica  (Flann.  1835-37). 

Capittila'tion  is  a  military  term  denoting  both  the  act  of  sur- 
render to  an  enemy,  and  the  formal  treaty  accordii^  to  which 
surrender  takes  pkice.  From  the  articles  or  headings  (LaL 
cafitula)  essential  to  the  latter  the  name  C.  has  originated. 

Cap'iz,  a  town  on  the  N.  coast  of  the  island  of  Panay,  one 
of  the  Philinpme  group.  It  is  defended  hy  a  small  fort,  and  has 
a  pop.  of  about  11,000.  C.  is  the  residence  of  a  Spanish  alcalde, 
and  gives  name  to  a  province,  which  had  a  population  in  1871 
of  272,292. 

Oap'nomaiicy  (Gr.  kapnos,  smoke,  and  mantda,  divina- 
tion), an  ancient  mode  of  divination  from  observing  the  ascent 
and  motion  of  smoke  arising  from  the  sacrifices  on  the  altar. 
Another  mode  was  to  throw  jasmine  or  poppy  seeds  on  the 
fire,  and  to  observe  the  figures  formed  by  the  smoke. 

Ca'po  d'Trtria,  a  town  of  the  Austro-Hmigarian  empire, 
coastland  of  Istria,  Smiles  S.S.W.  ofTrieste,  on  a  rocky  island 
in  the  Valle  Slagaone,  but  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a 
Stone  bridge.  Its  health  is  greatly  affected  by  malaria.  C.  has 
a  beautiful  cathedral  and  numerous  churches.  There  is  a  good 
coasting  trade,  some  shipbnilding  and  fishing ;  and  the  manu- 
facture of  salt  is  carried  on  to  the  extent  of  20,ocx)  tons  yearly. 
Pop.  (1869)  7539.  C.  was  anciently  known  as  jSgida  ;  after  its 
conquest  in  the  6th  c.  by  Justinian  it  was  called  Justinofalis,  in 
honour  of  the  emperors  uncle.  In  the  loth  c  it  pass^l  under 
Venetian  rule,  and  at  the  close  of  last  century  became  Austrian. 
Oapo  d'Istria,  or  Capo  d'letriaa,  Joauites  Anto- 
nios.  Count;  was  born  at  Corfu  in  1776.  The  family  to  which 
lie  belonged  was  originally  from  the  town  of  Capo  d'Istria 
(q.  v.),  and  had  been  raised  to  the  rank  of  Count  by  the  Dukes 
of  Savoy.    In  1807,  after  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  C.  entered  the 

Russian  service  as  a  diplomatist;  shortly  after  1815  he  

"   "     secretaries  of  state  fo.  '     '        ^• 


appointed  01 


If  foreign  aMMrs,  and 

n  1827,  and  instiuled  early 
the  folbwing  year.  Sut  his  administration  was  highly  unpo- 
pular. He  restricted  the  liberty  of  the  press,  and  was  suspected 
of  wishing  to  become  perpetual  president,  with  despotic  powers, 
and  to  make  Greece  subservient  to  Russia.  The  result  was  his 
assassination  at  Nauplia,  Oclober  9,  1831.  See  Mhiioires  bio- 
graphiques,  Msloriques  sur  li  Prhidmt  ds  la  Grice,  accompagnis 
de  FUcesjustificaltves  el  attihsnliques,  by  Papadopoulos  Vretos 
(2  vols.  Par.  1837-38). 

OaponiSre'  (Fr.  capon,  'a  cheat  or  pretender'),  in  fortifica- 
tion, is  a  parapet,  usually  8  or  10  feet  high,  placed  m  a  ditch  for 


defence  by  firearms,  the  defenders  being  covered  on  the  sides, 
when  the  C .  is  called  single,  and  sometimes  overhead,  when  it 
is  called  double.  Generally  the  C  is  of  earth  ;  sometimes  it  is 
of  brickwork,  loopholed  at  the  sides  ;  while  in  field-works  there 
occasionally  uirovm  across  the  ditches  of  redoubts  palisade 
caponierea. 

Oflppado'eia,  in  ancient  times  a  province  of  Asia  Minor,  W.  of 

the  Euphrates  and  N.  of  Cilida,  and  correspondmg  partly  with 

.  demKaraman(q  v  ).     Its  dimensions  varied  greatly  at  dif. 

:  times       d  th    d  ns  of  Pliny  do  not  agree  with  those  of 

Strab       U  d     th    P  rs   us  it  was  divided  into  two  satrapies. 

Th    Mac  d       ns      is  d  these  into  kingdoms.     In  17  A.D.  C. 

R  m      p  ,  governed  by  a  procurator.    It  pro- 

i  wh    t         bund      e,  and  was  famous  for  its  breed  of 

Gapp  agh.  B  own  Uang'anese  Brown,  is  a  bituminous 
ih  I  d  by  d  f  manganese  and  iron,  employed  as  a 
lurce  of  brown  pigments  used  in  the  aits. 

Gappaxida'cese,  or  Capparid'eee,  a  natural  order  of  Dico- 
tyledonoas  plants,  mostly  natives  of  tropical  or  sub-tropical 
regions.  The  common  Caper  (q.  v.)  is  the  only  European  spe- 
cies, and  also  the  one  which  is  found  farthest  N.  There  are  in 
all  about  355  species  and  33  genera. 

Their  properties  are  like  those  of  the  Crucifem—iis.,,  pun- 
gent, stimu^nt,  and  antiscorbutic.  Some  are  poisonous.  In 
addition  to  the  capers,  Clcome  is  a  genus  of  C.  which  contains 
some  very  pungent  species,  used  as  condiments.  Cralceva  rele- 
giesa  is  used  by  the  natives  of  India  as  a  stomachic  and  tonic. 
Gynandropsis  pentaphylla,  also  a  native  of  India,  is  antispas- 
modic The  seeds  are  used  as  a  substitute  for  mustard,  and  the 
leaves  are  employed  as  mbetadenCs,  and  even  as  blistering  agents. 
Polamda  is  used  as  mustard,  the  root  of  P.  icosandra  internally 
as  vermifuge,  externally  as  a  rubefacient,  &c.  (Bentley.)  The 
berries  of  Capparis  sodala,  of  Central  Africa,  are,  when  dried, 
used  as  a  condiment  in  the  food  of  the  natives.  Salt  is  obtained 
from  the  ashes  of  its  roots. 

Oapp'el,  a  village  in  the  canton  of  Ziirich,  Switzerland,  4 
miles  N.  of  Lake  Z-os,  where  the  reformer  Ulrich  Zwinglt  fell  in 
an  action  with  the  Roman  Cathohcs  in  October  1531.     Pop. 


)73Z- 


Capre'ra,  next  to  Maddalena  the  largest  island  of  the  group 
called  the  Buccinari,  lies  about  a  mile  off  theN.E,  coast  of  Sardinia, 
wilJiin  the  Strait  of  Bonifacio,  and  is  chiefly  notable  as  the  resi- 
dence of  Garibaldi,  who  acquired  property  here  in  1854.  It  is 
rocky,  has  no  streams,  affords  not  even  pasture,  and  is  only 
inhabited  by  a  few  fishermen.  C.  belong,  with  the  rest  of  the 
group,  to  the  Italian  province  of  Sassar' 


;med  from 


t  the  mouth  of  the 
It  is  the  ancient 
d  where  his  suc- 


i  wild  goats  (Lat.  and  Ital 

Oap'ti,  an  island  in  the  M  d     rr 
Bay  of  Naples,  II   miles  m  mf 

Capreze,  a  favourite  reside         f  A  gu 

ccssor  Tiberius  spent  the  la  t  y  rs  1  n  iiie  in  me  mire- 
strained  indulgence  of  the  f  I  t  d  b  h  nes.  The  remains 
of  baths,  aqueducts,  andoflh  t  1  lias  ected  by  Tiberius 
are  still  visible.      The  isla  d  mp  sed    Imost  entirely  of 

limestone,  and  the  E.  and  W,  portions  consist  each  of  an  abrupt 
hill,  the  western  being  considerably  (be  more  elevated,  with  a 
saddle-shaped  depression  between,  where  the  town  of  C.  stands. 
On  either  side  of  this  are  two  coves,  forming  the  only  landing- 
places  on  the  island.  The  total  population  is  about  6000,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  fishers,  vine-dressers,  and  cultivators  of  the 
olive.  The  greatest  natural  curiosity  is  the  large  elliptical 
Grotto  Anaira  (Bine  Grotto^,  a  cavern  opening  from  the  sea, 
by  an  entrance  only  3  feet  high,  the  interior  of  which  exhi- 
bits an  unsurpassable  splendour  of  colour  arising  from  the  action 
of  the  sun's  rays  on  the  half-hidden  water. 

Oap'rio  or  B>utio  Acid  is  a  solid  ciystalline  substance  at 
ordinary  temperatiu-es,  having  a  faint  smeU  of  the  goat,  It  vras 
discovered  by  ChevrenI  in  cow's  butter,  in  which  it  exists  com- 
bined with  glycerine  (see  Glycerides),  It  also  occurs  in  cocoa- 
nnt  butter,  and  in  the  Fusel  Oil  (q.  v.)  from  whisky-distilleries, 
C.  is  a  fatly  substance  analc«oas  in  constitution  and  properties 
to  acetic  acid,  and  belongs,  like  the  latter,  !o  the  group  of  bodies 

called  Fatty  Acids  (q,  v.).     Its  chemical  compositi"  ' 

by  the  formula  CioHibO{OH). 

IS 


vLiOOQle 


CAP 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CapricoiO  (Ital.  'whim'},  in  fainting,  is  a  tenn  applied  to 
Euch  designed,  violations  of  ordinary  rules  as  foliated  ornaments 
with  Cupids,  or  other  figures,  in  situations  not  strictly  natural. 
In  music,  C.  is  a  free  composition,  not  subject  to  rule  in  form  or 
figure.  Meodelssohii's  B-minor  C.  for  pianoforte  and  orchestra 
is  the  most  celebrated  of  modem  times. 

Gaprioor'mis,  the  Goat,  a  constellation  of  the  southern 
hemisphere,  and  the  tenth  sign  of  the  zodiac  (sjimbol,  Yf), 
marking  the  wmter  solstice  (see  Tropics).  IB  position  may  be 
found  by  producing  the  line  joining  the  Pole-star  and  Deneb  to 
about  four  times  its  length  ;  but  the  whole  constellation  is  in- 
conspicuous, the  two  brightest  stars  (in  the  horns)  being  only  of 
the  third  magnitude. 

Oap'ridse,  the  sub-family  of  Ruminants  included  generally 
n  the  family  (h>idis  (sheep  and  goats),  and  which  more  especi- 
ally includes  the  goats  as  distinguished  from  the  sheep.  In 
turn  the  Qaidn  form  a  group  of  the  Cavicomia  or  division  of 
'hollow-homed'  ruminants.  In  the  goats  ifiap-d)  both,  sexes 
have  horns,  and  no  lachrymal  sinuses  at  '  eye-sacs '  exist.  The 
throat  is  provided  with  long  hair  forming  a  beard,  which  may 
be  present  in  both  sexes  or  in  the  males  otdy.    See  Goat. 

Oapriflca'tion,  a  method  at  one  time  extensively  adopted  to 
secure  or  hasten  the  roaturaiion  of  figs,  but  now  almost  discon- 
tinued as  unnecessary.  The  method  adopted  was  suspending  a 
fruit-bearing  branch  of  the  wild  fig  over  those  of  the  cultivated 
tree.  The  fig,  having  both  male  and  female  flowers  inside  its 
receptacle,  the  rationale  is  believed  to  have  been  that  an  insect 
which  hastens  the  process  by  distributing  the  pollen,  entered  from 
the  fruit  of  the  wild  fig  into  the  receptacle  of  the  cultivated  one. 
The  term  is  also  adopted  to  enpress  any  fertilisation  of  flowers 
by  the  aid  of  insects. 

Caprifolia'cese,  or  Lonicera'ceEe,  the  Honeysuckle  order, 
a  natural  order  of  Dicotyledonous  plants,  chiefly  natives  of  the 
northern  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America;  very  few  are  found 
in  the  southern  hemisphere.  Vtimmum  (Guelder  cose),  Sant- 
bucits  (elder),  snowberry  [Symphoricarpus  ractmmus),  honey, 
suckle  {Lonicera),  and  Litinaa  iartalis  belong  to  the  order.  In 
all  there  are  about  230  species,  and  16  genera.     Emetic  andpur- 

sof 

,.._ ^ .  the 

seeds  havelieen  usedas  a  substitute  Sr  coffee.     See  Viburnum, 
Guelder  Rose. 

Caprimul'gidBB,  a  family  of  Insesaorial  birds,  included  in 
the  sub-order  Denliroslra,  and  including  those  forms  familiarly 
known  as  'goat-suckers,'  and  which  are  nearly  allied  to  the 
swallows  (Himndinida].  The  bill  is  short,  depressed,  and  the 
gape  is  wide,  and  provided  with  bristles  adapted  for  the  cap- 
ture of  the  insect  prey  which  these  birds  pursue  on  the  wing. 
.  The  wings  are  long  and  pointed.  The  plumage  is  soft,  and  the 
eyes  large,  these  birds  being  nocturnal  in  liabits, 

Oftproi'c  Acid  is  an  oily  liquid  occurring  in  the  state  of 
combination  in  cow's  butter,  cocoa-nut  oil,  and  in  Saiynmi  Hir- 
cinum,  and  some  other  plants ;  also  in  human  perspiration,  in 
Limbui^  cheese,  and  in  the  water  of  the  Hahnbach,  a  small 
river  of  Hanover.  It  has  been  prepared  artificiaUy.  C.  has 
a  peculiar  odour  resembling  perepiration ;  it  is  insoluble  m 
water,  has  an  acrid,  burning  taste,  and  forms  crystalline  salts 
with  the  metals.  C,  belongs  to  the  group  oiFoity  Acids  (q.  v.), 
and  has  the  composition  represented  by  the  formula  CbHjiO 
(OH). 

Capryl'io  Acid  is  an  oily  liquid  having  physical  properties 
similar  to  those  of  Caproic  Add  (q.  v.),  like  which,  it  is  found 
in  cow's  butter,  cocoa-nut  oil,  and  in  some  kinds  of  Fusel  Oil 
(q.  v.).  It  is  said  also  to  be  foimd  in  certain  plants,  has  been 
pi-epared  artificially,  is  insoluble  in  water,  and  forms  crystal- 
liiie  salts  with  metals.  It  belongs  to  the  group  of  Fatty  Acids 
(a,  V,),  and  has  the  composition  represented  by  the  formula 
C8HisO(OH}. 

Capeell'a,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Crucifh-^. 
C.  Bursa-^storis,  the  shepherd's  purse,  is  veiy  extensively  dis- 
tributed over  the  temperate  regions  of  the  world.  It  grows  in 
all  soils,  but  to  the  greatest  luxuriance  in  the  richest,  hence  it 
is  often  called  the  'pickpocket,'    It  was  formerly  used  as  a  pot- 


Oap'sicine  is  anAHtaloid  (q.v,)  contained  in  Spanish  pepper 
{Cafisicam  annuuni)  The  same  name  is  applied  in  America  to 
an  oleo-resinous  substance  obta  ned  fiom  cayenne  pepper  {Cap- 
sicum iaccalum) 

Oap'sicum,  a  genus  of  plants  belongmg  to  the  natural  order 
Sulanacas,  and  natives  of  the  E  and  W  Indies  and  other  hot 
climates.  They  are  chiefly 
shrubby  plants  and  are  ex 
tensively  cultivated  fcr  the 
Iieauty  of  thei  fm  t  wh  ch 
is  a  kind  of  menbrinous 
pod  of  a  beautiful  sea  let 

Jellow,  or  greenish  colou  . 
t  is  possessed  of  auid  and 
stimulating  properties  is 
extensively  used  as  a  con 
dunent  under  the  name  of 
Cayenne  Pepper  (q  v)  and 
also  for  pickling       There 

C.  annuum,  the  most  com 
mon,  is  a  herbaceous  annual 
and  many  of  the  so  called 
species  are  most  lil  elj  only 
varieties  of  C.  atmuum  C 
fastigiatum,  a  small  shrub 

I  to  a  feet  high    with  an  Capscunl  rg  m 

orange-red  fruit  fully  half  an 

inch  long,  furaiihes  the  C  of  medicine  The  dried  ripe  fruit 
has  an  intensel)  hot  taste  and  is  used  in  doses  of  J  to  i  grain 
as  a  condiment  in  much  the  same  way  as  pepper.  It  is  also 
extensively  employed  as  a  gaigle  in  lelaxed  sore  throats,  C. 
/>w/««wj,  along  with  C  fash^iatum  yielda  tlie  bird  pepper  of 
the  shops.  The  fruit  of  various  species  is  sold  by  druggists 
as  chill^  a  Meiacan  name  for  C  In  medicme,  it  may  be 
given  in  powder  or  in  pill  but  is  generally  used  as  a  tincture,  a 
preparation  of  C.  m  spirits.  When  preserved  in  acetic  acid,  it  is 
the  substance  known  as  chilli  vin^ar.  C,  owes  its  properties 
to  Capaicine  (q,  v  ),  a  thick  yellowish-brown  liquid. 

Cap'stan,  a  machine  used  principally  on  shipboard  for 
heaving  the  anchor,  In  its  older  and  common  form  the  chain 
or  cable  is  coiled  round  a  vertical  barrel,  above  which  is  a 
'head'  containing  the  sockets  for  a  number  of  long  wooden 
bars.  The  C,  is  worked  by  the  sailors  by  means  of  these  bars. 
Many  other  varieties  of  C.  are  now  used,  and  in  large  vessels 
they  are  generally  worked  by  a  small  steam-engine. 

CapBule,  a  small  vessel,  from  the  Lat.  cafst>la,  diminutive 
of  capsa,  '  a  box  or  cliest, '  In  physiology  it  is  a  small  membra- 
neous sac,  investing  an  organ  ;  and  in  botany  a  dry  syncarpous, 
dehiscent  Fruit  (q,  v,).  opening  in  a  variety  of  ways— by  lids, 
valves,  or  pores.  Tlie  C.  openmg  by  a  lid  is  called  Fyxidmai, 
as  in  pimpernel  and  several  spedes  of  Lecythidacti^. 

Gaptain,  Military.  In  (he  British  arniy,  each  company 
of  infantry  and  each  troop  of  cavalry  has  one  C.  His  dutjf  is  to 
receive  orders  from  the  major  in  matters  relating  to  discipline, 
settlement  of  accounts,  &c,,  and  to  have  these  orders  carried  out 
amongst  the  men.  Lieutenants,  before  they  are  eligible  for  pro- 
motion to  the  rank  of  C,  ate  required  to  pass  such  professional 
examination  as  shall  be  prescribed  from  time  to  time ;  and  if  they 
fail  to  do  so  within  five  years  from  the  date  of  their  commissions 
as  lieutenants,  they  will  be  removed  from  the  service.  Lieuten- 
ants of  engineers  who  completed  five  years'  service  previous  to 
30th  October  1871,  may  be  promoted  without  examination,  if 
specially  approved  of  by  the  CDmmander-in-chiefl 

Captain,  Waval,  is  the  general  dCMSnation  for  the  com- 
mander  of  a  diip,  whether  belonging  to  the  royal  navy  or  to  the 
merchant  service.  In  the  former  the  title  is post-C.,  and  com- 
manders in  the  royal  navy  are  also  usually  addressed  C.  A  C. 
in  command  of  more  ships  than  one  is  called  a  Commodore  (q.  v.). 
The  full  pay  of  a  C,  of  the  first  class  is/l,  13s.  per  day,  of  the 
second  class  it  is  ^l,  7s.  6d.  a  day,  and  of  the  third  cl: 
£1,  2s.  6d.  ;  the  half-pay  rates  are  respectively  14s.  6d.,  : 


yLaOOgle 


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ZffiE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


i.nd  los.  6cl.  The  C.  is  responsible  for  the  discipline,  equip- 
ment, and  navigation  of  his  ship.  He  ranks  with  a  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  the  army.  The  C.  of  the  fleet  is  a  temporary  officer, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  promnlgate  the  admiral's  orders,  and  to  re- 
ceive reports  and  returns.  The  post  ,is  equivalent  to  that  of 
chief  of  the  staff  in  the  army. 
Caption,  in  Scotch  law,  is  a  warrant  for  the  apprehension  of 
debtor  or  'obligant '  (English  law,  'obligor'),  on  account  of 
the  non-payment  of  a  debt  or  the  non-performance  of  an  obliga- 
ion.  Though  the  C.  may  still  be  used,  it  has  been  virtually 
iuspended  by  the  forms  contained  in  the  Personal  Diligence 
Act. 

C.  Process  is  a  summary  warrant.of  iniprisonment,  granted  on 
the  application  of  the  clerk  of  court,  for  the  pucpose  of  compel-  j 
ling  some  one  to  return  a  paper  in  a  [process  when  he  is  unduly 
and  contumaciously  retainmg  it. 

Oap'tive.  All  actions  against  a  prisoner  of  war  lahen  by  the  '. 
enemy  stop  till  his  return  ;  but  execution  may,  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances, proceed  against  hfe  estate.  AtC.  is  entitled.to  pay  or 
wages  during  his  captivity.  The  owners  of  ^a  ship  are  bound  in 
every  case  to  procure  the  immediate  release  of  a  hostage,  and  to 
indemni  y  him  for  his  losses. 

Oap'ture,  in  war.  The  jurisdiction  in  all  inatters  rdative  to  \ 
prize  and  C.  in  war  Is  now  exclusively  vesled  in  the  High  Court 
of  Admiralty.  See  Aj]mirai.iv,  CouKT  OF.  The  principles  df 
the  law  of  C.  have  been  autlioritatively  declared  to  be — that 
powers  at  war  have  a  right  (o  make  prizes  of  the  ships,  goods, 
and  effects  of  each  olher.upon  theliigh  seas  ;  that  the  goods  of 
an  enemy  on  board  the  ship  of  a  friend  may  be  taken ;  .that  the 
goods  of  a  friend  on  board  the  ship  of  an  enemy  are  to  be  re- 
stored; and  that  contraband  goods  (seeCONTRABANO  OF  War) 
going  to  the  enemy,  thougli  the  properly  of  ^a  friend,  may  be 
tall  en. 

After  the  treaty  of  peace  between  EngUnd  iand  Russia  was 
signed  in  1856,  plenipotentiaries  of  leading  European  .powers 
met  at  Paris,  when  the  following  international  laws  were  agreed 
to — that  privateering  be  abolished  i  that  a  neutral  flag  covers  an 
enemy's  goods,  unless  they  are  contraband  of  war ;  that  neutral 
goods,  unless  contraband  of  war,  are  not  liable  to  capture  under 
an  enemy's  flag  ;  that  a  Blockade  (q.  v.),  to  ,be  ibinding,  roust  be 
effectual — that  is,  that  it  must  be  nmintaaied  by.a  force  sufficient 
effectually  to  prevent..acGeBS  to  the  coa.'it  ofanenen^.  See  Booty, 
Prize  in  War. 

Oap'na,  a  fortified  city  in  the  province  of  Caserta,  S.  Italy, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  ^oltumo,  ,19  miles  N.  of  Naples,  and 
connected  with  it  by  railway.  As  a  defence  to  Naples  on  the  N, 
its  fortifications,  first  erected  in  laji,  were  reconstructed  and 
strengthened  in  the  l8th  c  on  the  principles  of  Vauban ;  but 
they  proved  no  effective  obstacle  to  the  French  in  their  invasion 
of  Italy.  The  Gothic  cathedral,  with  some  granite  oolumns 
from  ancient  Casilhtum,  memorable  for  Che  noble  stand  It  made 
against  Hannibal ;  the  Church  of  the  Annimziata,  with  many  old 
bas-reliefs  in  its  wall;  and  the  arch  of  the  Piazza  dei  Giudici, 
are  the  most  noteworthy  steuctures.  The  Torre  Mignana  within, 
and  the  Cappetla  d^  Monti  without  the  town,  are  memorials  of 
a  horrible  butchery  pei-petrated  here  in  1501  by  Ctesar  Borgia. 
The  present  town  dates  from  the  year  836  a.o.,  and  is  tiuilt  .on 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Casilinum,  which  had  fallen  into  ruins  as 
early  as  the  second  Punic  war.  It  has  had  a  chequered  histoi-y, 
like  most  Italian  towns,  but  in  recent  times  is  most  meanorable 
for  its  capitulation  to  Garibaldi  (3d  November  iSfio),  which 
ended  his  brilliant  campaign  for  the  liberation  of  Southern  Italy. 
Ancient  C.,  one  of  the  largest,  richest,  and  'finest  cities  m 
Italy,  lay  a  little  more  than  2  miles  S.E.  of  the  present  town, 
just  where  the  present  Sanla-Maria  diiC.  stands.  It  was  origin- 
ally called  Voltuniuin,  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  the  Etrus- 
cans, and  bad  become  the  capital  of. Campania  about  4'17  B.C. 
At  an  early  period  it  attained  surprising  wealth  and  prosperity, 
which  generated  in  the  citizens  luiurioits  and  effeminate  habits, 
unfitting  them  to  cope  in  war  with  their  more  hardy  neighbours. 
The  soldiers  of  Hannibal  wintered  in  C.  after  the  victory  of 
Cannse  (216  B.C.),  and  suffered  much  in  the  matter  of  discipline 
by  the  luxuries  and  temptations  to  which  they  were  there  ex- 


under  the  LomI 


851  was  completely  destroyed  by  ilie  Arab';.  The  existing  ruinf 
are  of  little  mterest,  with  the  exception  of  those  of  the  amphi- 
theatre, which  must  have  been,  when  perfect,  a  magnificent 


Cap'uohia  Monkey,  the  name  given  to  various  species  of 
Phtyrhins  or  S.  American  monkeys,  belonging  to  the  genu's 
Ccbiis,  The  best-known  species  are  the  capuchin  (Cibus  Afslla) ; 
the  homed  capuchin  or  sapajou  (C.  Jatuellus),  and  the  Sal  (C. 
capudnus).  This  last  is  sometimes  known  as  the  weeper  monkey , 
The  tail  is  not  markedly  prehensile  in  these  monkeys. 

Cap'aobma  (Fr.  capuchon,  Ital.  capuccio,  a  '  hood  or  cowl,' 
from  Lat.  isaput,  '  the  head'),  a  sub-order  of  Franciscan  monks, 
named  from  their  head-dress. 

Oap'miaii-Faslia,  the  Turkish  High  Admiral,  who  manages 
ill  naval  affiiirs.  He  exercises  also  civil  control  over  the  port 
of  Pera,  the  Turkish  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  and  several  sea- 
-  jrts  and  maritime  districts  besides. 

Oapyb'ara  {Hyiirochsrus  Capyiara),.a  genus  of  rodent  mam- 

alia,  included  in  the  family  Cavidis  (guinea  pigs,  &c,),  and 
noted.as  representing  the  largest  number  of  the  order  Rodentia. 
The  C.   inhabits   S.   America,   and   in  general   conformation 

somewhat  ipig-like,  the  familiar  name  of  'water-h(^'  being 
applied  to  it.  It  .attains  a  length  of  3  or  4  feet;  the  muzzle 
is  heavy  and  blunted,  the  tail  is  abortive,  and  the  toes  are  im- 
perfectly webbed.  The  ihair  is  long,  coarse,  and  bristly,  the 
nails  are  hoof-like,  and  the  colour  is  undefined,  the  hairs  being 
OTailced  each  with  black  and  yellow,  and  the  entire  fur  pre- 
senting a  dingy-^ey  colour  vrith  a  yellowish  tifit.  The  incisor 
teeth  are  very  large,  and  the  molare  present  a  folded  pattern. 
The  C.  is  clumsy  'in  gait  and  harmless  m  its  nature.  It  inhabits 
streams,  swims  ana  dives  with  fecility,  is  gregarious  in  its 
habits,  and  feeds  on"  vigetable  matters.  The  feh  is  palatable, 
but  has  a  musky  odour. 

Oarab'idES,  a  family  oi,'Coleoplefa  or  beetles  belonging  to  the 
section  Peittattwa,  or  those  in  which  the  tarsi  are  five-jointed, 
whilst  the  masiUiE  possess  two  palpL  They  are  sometimes 
known  as  'ground  beetles,'  and  form  the  ^pical  genus 
.Carahus.  The  C  are  carnivorous  in  habits,  prowling  about  on 
the  ground,  and  feeding  on  insects,  worms,  and  like  prey. 
Several  common  British  species  belong  to  this  genus  and  family, 
the  Bombardier  Beetles  (q.  v,)  being  nearly  allied  forms.  The 
colours  may  be  Ibrilliant,  and  may  eidiibit  metallic  lustres. 

Gar'aboa.     See  Reindeer. 

Gar^acal  {Fdh  Caxacal),  a  •CarnHiorpus  mammal  inhabiting 
S.  Asia  and  Africa,  and  included  in  the  'Cat  family  (Fdida). 
it  is  sometimes  also  soientificslly  designated  as  C.  tielanotii, 
a  new  and  separate  geinis  being  thus  'constructed  for  its  recep- 
ition.  The  name  C,  signifies  •*  blacTc-eared '  in  Turkish.  This 
•animal  is  nearly  allied  to  the  Lynxes{q.  v.).  Its  colour  is  pale 
brown,  tinged  with  red.  The  under  parts  are  paler  than  the 
upper,  and 'are  spotted  black  or  reddish  chestnut.  The  lower  lip, 
■tip  of  the  u[^er  lip,  and  chin  are  white.  The  tail  is  short.  As 
in  the  lynxes,  the  ears  ;are  erect  and  tufted.  The  average  size 
■is  -that  -of  a  large  buU-terrier  dog. 

tIaTaeaU.'a,  a  Roman  emperor,  son  of  Septimius  Sevenis, 
Iborn  at  Lyons,  188  A-^D.  His  real  name  was  Marcus  Aurelius 
Antoninus  Bissianus  ;  but  from  a  hooded  Gallic  tunic  which  he 
wore,  he  was  nicknamed  'C.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  211 
».C,  with  :liis  brother  Geta,  whom  he  soon  caused  to  be  mur- 
idered,  >as  .oo-iegeiit  His  brief  reign  was  characterised  by 
numberless  iBcts  Of  cruelty,  licentiousness,  tyranny,  and  crime. 
The  baths  which  T>ear  his  name,  the  ruins  of  which  still  attest 
their  ancient  splendour,  were  erected  during  his  reign.  C.  was 
■assassinated  ^between  Edessa  and  Carrha;,  on  his  way  to  the 
latter,  by  (he  "veteran  Martialis,  at  the  instance  of  Macrinus, 
prefect :of  the  Praetorian  Guards,  8th  April,  217  A.D. 

Oaraca'?a  Eagle  {Polyborus\  a  genus  of  Raptorial  birds 
indigenous  to  America,  forming  the  type  of  the  sub-family 
Polyborina,  The  bill  in  this  genus  is  elongated,  the  tip  slightly 
hooked  i  the  wings  long,  with  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  quills 
the  longest;  the  tarsi  are  scaly,  whilst  the  throat,  neck,  — ■' 
under  part  of  the  head  are  naked,  or  merely 
woolly  down.    Those  bir( 


y  Google 


CAB 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


nnd  vultures.  P.  Bradliensis,  or  the  '  Carrancha,'  as  it  is  termed 
in  La  Plata,  is  the  most  familiar  form.  This  species  occurs  in 
all  parts  of  S.  America. 

CEirac'as,  the  capital  of  the  S.  American  republic,  Venezuela, 
and  of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  lies  at  the  base  of  the  Silla 
lie  C,  i6  miles  S.  of  the  Caribbean  Sea.  It  was  founded  in 
1567,  is  the  see  of  an  archbishop,  and  has  a  new  congress  hall 
and  a  university  (since  177S),  for  which  a  new  building  was 
being  erected  in  1873.  Its  port  is  Guaira,  to  which  a  railway 
been  projected  (i 87 3),  and  it  does  en  active  export  trade, 
chiefly  in  cocoa,  tobacco,  indigo,  coffee,  and  dye-woods.  A 
regular  line  of  steamers  iHns  monthly  to  New  York,  calling  at 
several  W.  Indian  ports.  There  are  extensive  exports  from 
Europe  of  hardwares  and  tentiles.  Pop.  (1873)49,256,  of  whom 
some  one-third  are  white.  C.  lias  a  mild  climate,  but  is  liable 
to  earthquakei.  Some  12,000  persons  were  killed  here  by  an 
eavthqualce,  Mlu^*  26,  iSia,  The  province  of  C,  contaming 
much  fertile  land  under  coffee,  cocoa,  and  cotton  crops,  has  an 
area  of  4S00  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  about  260,000. 

Oamcci,  or  Carraoci,  the  family  name  of  three  of  the  great- 
est of  the  Italian  painters,  the  founders  of  the  school  of  Bolcgna, 
the  place  of  their  birth.— Lodovioo  C,  the  son  of  a  butcher, 
was  bom  in  1555.  He  showed  so  lillle  promise  as  an  art 
student,  that  his  Bolognese  instructor,  Fonlana,  and  afterwards 
Tiutoretto,  the  great  Venetian,  advised  him  to  abandon  paint- 
ing. This  advice  had  the  usual  elfect,  and  Lodovico  studied 
ivith  all  the  more  assiduity  the  works  of  Titian,  Paul  Veronese, 
and  the  great  Florentines.  Returning  to  Bologna,  he  established 
a  school  of  art,  denounced  mannerism,  and  urged  the  necessity 
of  combining  the  study  of  nature  with  that  of  flie  great  masters,. 
He  made  pupils,  and  afterwards  allies,  of  his  cousins,  and  the 
fame  of  his  school  was  soon  unrivalled.  His  chief  works  are 
'  St  Francis,'  the  '  Transfiguration,'  '  Birth  of  St  John  the  Bap- 
tist,' and  the  'Translation  of  the  Virgin.  Lodovico  died  in 
1619. — A^oetino  O.,  cousm  of  Lodovico,  painter,  engraver, 
and  atlh-alsur,  was  born  in  1558,  and  died  in  l6oa.  His  great 
picture  is  the  '  Communion  of  St  Jerome '  in  the  Louvre ;  but  he 
IS  best  known  for  his  engravings,  which  are  models  of  drawing, — 
Aimibale  C.,  brother  of  Agostino,  and  the  most  celebrated  of 
the  femiiy,  was  bom  in  1560.  It  was  intended  that  he  should  fol- 
low his  father's  business— that  of  a  tailor;  but  havmg  gone  to 
study  art  under  his  cousin  Lodovico,  he  showed  nnmistaliable 
genius  for  painting.  He  improved  himself  by  travel  and  by  the 
study  of  Corre^io,  Tintoretto,  Paul  Veronese,  and  the  splendid 
colourists  of  that  school.  Invited  to  Rome  by  Cardmal  Odoardo 
to  embellish  the  Famese  Gallery  with  painting,  he  spent  eight 
years  in  this  work,  receiving  as  his  reward  only  500  crowns. 
C.  died  at  Rome  in  1609.  and  was  buried  at  his  own  request  by 
the  side  of  Raphael  C.'s  chief  pictures  are  a  'Nativity'  (in 
Paris),  ' Resurrection,'  ' Christ  ana  the  Woman  of  Samaiia '  (in 
Vienna),  and  '  Massacre  of  the  Innocents '  (in  Munich);  but  there 
is  scarcely  an  important  gallery  in  Europe  which  has  not  sped- 

Oamctacus       Cat»  actacus      k   g    f  tl     SI 
S.  Wal      wh  1  h  msell     b  II  th    B   t  h    h   f        d 

proved     f        d  bl    f      t    th    R  m  At  I    t  h   w 

thrown       d  1      w  f        d    h  Id  1   pn  H 

brothers  d      d       C         git      fgwhCimd 

Queen     fthBt,CeswhbtiydhmS  Tl 

Roman    aft  y    rs  t  med  t    It  ly  t  k  ng  w  th 

them  C  d  tl  w  th  th  w  f  xh  b  t  g  th  m  th 
Romai   p    pl       b  t  bl    w      th    b  d  iy 

the  app    1    f  th  q        1    h   f  th  t  th    Emp         CI    d  is 

granted  th         11      f       p    i         Th  t    f  th 

return      B   tai 

Car'  doc  Saadst  n       dBlaBd        d  fth 

Lower   SI  ytm        is       g         Wlesfsadst 

grils,  and    It       w  th  uit     p  rsed  I  m    t  d    tt         g 

thickn  ss  f  5500  ft  ThgropmthN  fEgladis 
made     p     f  bl    k   flaggv  b  d     1  m    t  d     1   1  d 

mudsto  h   h  pl    t  f  1      mai         f  G    pt  1 1      (q       ) 

occur,    Ig      thTlbt     (q      )      dB     hpd(q      ) 

Caragrftna,  the  S  lie        pe    t     ,  bel  ng   g  t    th       t     1 

order  Legammosn.  C.  arbonsctns  is  a  small  tree,  with  hai-d 
wood,  and  tough  bark.     The  seeds  are  used  to  feed  poultry,  and 


the  leaves  contain  a  blue  dyeing  matter,  C.  ipinosa  is  a  Iborny 
shrub,  the  branches  of  whicli  are  stuck  plentifully  on  the  tops  ol 
the  clay  walls  a,bout  Pekin,  in  China,  for  the  same  reason  that 
broken  bottles  are  strewed  on  the  tops  of  our  garden  walls  in 
Britain. 

Oarai'pO,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  TemstrS- 
miacea,  contaming  about  eight  species,  natives  of  tropical  Ame- 
rica. C.fasiculata  is  the  tree  from  which  the  balsam  of  Tama- 
coari  is  obtained.  This  balsam  is  of  the  colour  of  port  wine  and 
the  consistence  of  oiU  A  single  application  will  cure  the  most 
inveterate  attack  of  the  itch  in  twenty-four  hours  (Spruce,  Jmirn. 
Linn.  Soc,  v.  63). 

Oar'ambola,  the  fruit  of  Aveirhoa  C,  a  small  evergreen 
tree  of  the  natural  order  Oxalidacice,  In  India  it  is  known  as 
the  Coromandel  goosebeiry,  and  is  used  for  making  sherbets, 
tarts,  and  preserves.  The  Blimbmg  ai  BilimH  i%  another  spe- 
cies of  the  same  genus  {A,  Bilimbi),  found  also  in  India.  The 
leaves  of  both  species  exhibit  irritability,  and  the  pliysiologieal 
phenomenon  known  as  the  sleep  of  plants, 

Oar'amel  is  a  black  amorphous  substance  oblamed  by  heat- 
ing sugar  to  a  temperature  of  210-220°  C.  The  sugar  loses 
two  molecules  of  water,  and  C,  remains 

CiaHasOii    -    2HsO  =  CisHjaOs 

Cane  sugar.  Water.  Caramel. 
C.  is  soluble  in  water,  and  imparts  to  it  the  colour  of  sepia ;  it 
has  no  sweet  taste ;  lit  is  used  to  colour  liquors,  such  as  brandy, 
sheny,  &c.  Stout  and  porter  owe  their  colour  to  C,  produced 
by  heating  the  malt  (which  contains  sugar)  to  a  somewhat  elevated 
temperature. 

Caranmaes'a,  or  KurumnasBa,  a  tributary  of  the  Ganges, 
rises  in  a  range  of  hills  in  the  W.  of  the  provmce  of  Bengal,  and 
enters  the  Ganges  50  miles  E.  of  Benares,  after  a  course  of  150 
miles.  It  is  subject  to  sudden  floods.  The  C.  is  crossed  by  the 
Calcutta  and  Delhi  road,  and  by  the  East  Indian  Railway. 

Caran'ja,  an  island,  about  2  miles  broad,  on  the  E.  side  of  the 
entrance  to  the  harbour  of  Bombay,  and  separated  from  the 
mainland  by  a  narrow  shallow  channel,  4  miles  long. 
Caranx.  See  Scad. 
Garapa,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Mdiacus, 
natives  of  warm  regions,  C.  Gaianmsis,  the  Andiroba,  isala 
tree,  the  bark  of  which  has  a  reputation  as  a  febrifuge  j  a  thi 
bitter,  anthelmintic  oil  is  obtained  from  the  seeds,  and  the  trunk 
roaltes  good  masts.  The  wood  (called  crab-wood)  is  used  for 
making  fumiture,  shingles,  &c.  C.  Tiia/uHCflann  (orGuineensis), 
an  African  species,  ako  yields  a  similar  oil  (Touloucounah  01 
Coondi  oil),  with  a  soap  made  from  which  the  negroes  anoini 
their  skin  to  protect  them  from  the  bites  of  insects.  It  is  alst 
purgative  and  anthelmintic  This  and  the  preceding  species  an 
ery  closely  allied,  and  have  almost  exactly  similar  products ;  s( 
that  it  is  doubtful  if  they  aie  ditierent  from  each  other 

Car'apace,  the  name  applied  generally,  m  zoology,  to  thi 
hell  or  hajd  structures  covering  the  back  of  certain  annnals 
(.g.,  turtles,  tortoises,  crabs,  &c ),  which  structmes,  however, 
differ  widely  in  difierent  greups  as  to  composition  and  nature. 
See  Chelonu,  Cbustacea,  &e 

Oar'at  (Ital  carato),  the  twenty  fourlh  part  of  any  weight  of 
gold  or  gold  alloy.  The  gold  of  coinage  and  of  wedding-rings  is 
2  C.  ;  that  is,  it  contains  |4  of  pure  gold.  The  stanito-d  used 
for  watch-cases  is  18  C.  In  assaying  gold,'  a  small  quantity, 
from  6  to  la  grains,  is  taken,  and  termed  the  assay  found.  It 
subdivided  into  twenty-four  parts,  called  carats,  each  C.  intt  , 
assay  grains,  and  eaii,  grain  into  quarters,  so  that  there  are  384 
eparate  reports  for  gold.  If  the  assay  pound  be  6  grains,  the 
quarter  assay  grain  will  weigh  ^  of  a  grain — a  delicate  opera- 
tion, requiring  accurate  weights  and  scales.  The  word  C.,  m 
ddition  to  this  relive  application,  also  denotes  a  fixed  weight 
f  3i  troy  grains  for  weighing  diamonds. 
Garava'ea,  a  town  of  Spain,  province  of  Murcia,  39  miles 
N,W.  of  Murcia.  The  church  of  C.  has  a  cross  believed  to  ] 
sess  miraculous  powers,  and  an  object  of  deep  veneration  to 
Spanish  peasant.     The  town  has  manufactures  of  woollen  and 


yLaOogle 


CAR 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


linen  fabrics,  leather,  paper,  &c ,  a  trade  in  grain,  oil,  wine, 

and  flax,  and  a  pop.  of  about  10,000. 

aravag^g'io,   a  town  of  N.   Italy,  province  of  Bei^mo, 
niles  E.   of  Milan,  witi    a  pop.  of  about  6000.      It  is  the 

birthplace  of  the  Italian  painters  Polidoro  Caldara  and  Michael 

Angelo  Merighi,  both  of  whom  have  taken  a  surname  from  the 

Goravaggio,  KicMel  Angelo  Ameriglii,  or  ItCorighi, 
D     ~aravamo,  from  the  town  in  Lombaidy  where  he  was 

ti  569.  '["he  son  of  a  builder,  he  early  consorted  with 
d  ra  rs  developed  a  taste  for  art,  and  visited  and  studied  at 
M  V  ce,  and  Rome.  His  temper  was  vain,  jealous,  even 
nd  having  committed  manslaughter,  he  fled  from 
R  m  Malta.  Here  he  adorned  the  Church  of  St  John  with 
pece,  and  was  knighted  by  the  Grand-Master;  but 
q    rr  with  a  noble,  was  nnprisoned.    He  escaped  to  Sicily, 

w  h  'as  followed,  attacked,  and  wounded  by  the  enemies 
wh  n  his  imperious  temper  had  provoked.  Making  his  way  to 
R  m  was  attacked  by  fever,  and  died  at  Porto  Ercole,  1609. 
C  was  g   at  as  a  colouiist.    Annibale  Caracci  says  of  him  that, 

p  p  g  his  colours,  he  '  ground  fiesh '  (not  pigments),  and 
he  was  a  master  of  light  and  shade  to  whom  Rubens  confessed 
himself  inferior.  He  studied  life,  but  it  was  low  life,  and  his 
'  Burial  of  Christ '  is  said  by  Kugler  to  surest  '  the  funeral  of  a 
gipsy  cliieftain.'  Other  famous  works  of  C.'s  are  'The  Death 
of  the  Virgin,'  'The  Distribution  of  the   Rosary,'  and  'The 

Cai'avan  (Pers.  karvan,  '  trader  \  a  travelling  body  of  mer- 
chants or  pilgrims,  who  join  company  for  mutual  help  and  pro- 
tection in  the  great  deserts  of  Africa  and  Asia.  In  a  C.  there 
are  sometimes  1000  camels  following  each  other  in  single  file. 
The  greatest  caravans  are  those  to  Mecca,  the  pilgrims  in  which 
have  always  business  as  well  as  devotion  in  view.  The  trade 
between  the  maritime  states  of  Northern  Africa  and  the  Sudan, 
Dver  the  Sahara,  is  still  entirely  carried  on  in  this  way,  and  there 
is  also  an  extensive  caravan  traffic  in  the  interior  of  Asia, 

Oaravan'serai  (Pers.  karvan-sarai,  'house  foe  traders')  is 
an  unfurnished  building  used  in  the  East  for  the  reception  and 
lodgment  of  caravans 
Those  in  cities  and 
towns  have  more  con 
veniences  than  those 
on  the  highway,  and 
m  them  a  ^mall  sum 

dation  IS  generally 
chaiged       "ITiey   aie 

shops,  stores  and 
even  as  eichaiges 
Neither  in  town  nor 
on  the  highway  does 
the  traveller  find  in  a 
C.  anything  ( ' 


himself  o. 


s  cattle, 


3  of  life  with  him.  Caravans  belong  either  to 
Government  or  to  some  private  individual,  or  Ihey  are  the  pro- 
perty of  the  mosque. 

Car'a'way,  the  fruits  of  Carum  carui,  one  of  the  Umkllifern, 
n  native  of  middle  and  southern  Europe  and  some  parts  of  Asia, 
and  now  naturalised  in  many  parts  of  Britain.  Pliny  says  the 
name  is  derived  from  Curia,  It  is  cultivated  in  Holland  and 
Germany,  and  in  the  counties  of  Kent  and  Essex  in  England, 
for  the  saite  of  the  fruits,  which  are  medicinally  carminative  and 
tonic,  and  for  sale  to  confectioners  and  perfuniers,  who  use  them  in 
liqueurs,  cakes,  bread,  scented-soap,  sweetmeats,  ftc  Its  aro- 
matic properties  depend  on  the  volatile  oil,  called  the  Oil  gf  C. 
In  Russia  and  Germany  the  seeds  are  bruised  into  spirit  sweet- 
ened with  sugar,  which  is  used  as  a  liqueur  (KUmmeHii-annt- 

Oarbazot'io,  or  Pic'rie  Acid,  is  a  yellow  crystalline  sub- 
stance, prepared  commercially  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on 
phenol  or  Carbolic  Acid  (q.  v.),  and  may  be  regarded  as  phenol 


in  which  three  atoms  of  hydrogen  are  replaced  by  the  group  NOa. 
For  this  reason  C.  A.  is  called  by  chemists  trinitro-fhinsl. 
CbHbIOH}  C8na(NOi)sOH 

Carbolic  acid 
or  phenoL 
C.  A.  is  employed  by  the  d 
times  fraudulently  added  to. 
having  an  intensely  bitter  las 

Carbine,  or  parabine 
French,  and  thence  into  Eng 
firearm  with  a  nfled  barrel     h 


forces,  are  armed  with  bre    h 
weapons  are  carried  by  the  I 
Carbineers',  or  Carabinee  a 

carbines,  and  employed  as  k  m  li 
states  that  the  light  cavalry  whos 
short  wheel-lock  arquebus,  h 

France  were  called  caraUns        d 
this  body  was  disbanded  in        ■; 
infantry  called  carabineers. 
British  army  were  early  an 
retain  the  name  '  carabinee 
Carboby'drogena,  ; 


h  h 


the  V 


Oarbol'ic  Acid,  or  Pbenol,  is  a  substance  which  of  late 
years  has  become  of  great  commercial  importance,  16  is  pro- 
duced by  the  deslcuclive  distillation  of  many  organic  substances, 
especially  of  coal,  and  is  always  obtained  in  commerce  from 
coalilar,  Ijt  is  said  to.  be  present  in  the  body  of  the  beaver  {Cniita?' 
Fiber),  and  to  give  to  that  animal  its  peculiar  odour.  It  is  also 
present  in  the  urine  of  the  cow. 

C.  A.  was  first  is^Jated  by.  Runge,  and  first  prepared  for  com- 
mercial purposes  by  Sell,  in,  Germany,  To  Grace  Calvert, 
however,  belongs  the  merit  of  preparing  it  pure  and  in  immense 
quantil  es  To  extnct  C  A  trom  coal  tar  (which  contains 
from  3  to  14  per  cent  ),  the  tar  is  submitted  to  distillation,  and 
tlie  portion  bo  1  ng  from  150  to  200  collected  separately  This 
IS  agitated  w  ith  1  strong  and  hot  solution  of  caustic  soda,  some 
solid  caustic  soda  added,  and  the  whole  allowed  to  remain  at 
rest,  when  a  copious  sepaialiOQ  of  crystals  of  carbolate  or 
phenate  of  soda  ensuei  The'ie  crystals  are  neit  separiled 
fiom  the  mother  liquor,  and  dissolved  m  a  small  quantity 
of  water  After  some  time  the  solution  sepaiates  into  two 
layers,  of  which  the  lower  is  a  solution  of  phenate  of  soda, 
whilst  the  upper  consists  of  hydrocarbons,  &c  ,  mechanically 
eniingled  m  the  crjslals  The  solution  of  phenate  of  soda  15 
drawn  off  and  mixed  with  sulphunc  or  hydrochloric  acid,  when 
sulphate  or  chloride  of  sodium  is  formed,  and  remains  dissolved 
in  the  water,  whereas  the  C.  A.,  being  only  sparingly  soluble  in 
that  liquid,  separates  in  globules,  wtiicli  gradually  rise  to  the 
surface  and  collect  in  an  oily  layer.  The  crude  C.  A.  thus 
obtained  is  decanted,  dried  with  chloride  of  calcium,  and  rectified, 
after  which  it  is  cooled  to  10°  C,  when  pure  C.  A.  separates  in 
crystals.  Tills  acid  is  a  colourless  crystalline  substance,  which  fuses 
when  heated  to  between  34°  and  35°  C.,  and  boils  at  about  187° 
C  It  possesses  a  peculiar,  penetrating,  and  characteristic  odour. 
It  blanches  and  corrodes  the  skin  and  other  tissues,  without 
causing  the  sensation  of  pain,  hence  it  is  employed  in  dentistry 
to  destroy  an  exposed  nerve.  It  is  soluble  in  twenty  times  its 
weight  of  cold  water,  and  in  all  proportions  in  alcohol,  ethef, 
and  glacial  acetic  add.  C  A.  is  a  hydmte  of  the  hydrocarbon 
radical  pkmylt  (CeHj),  and  has  the  composition  represented  by 
the  formala  CgHjIOH).  It  should  therefore  be  classed  as  an 
Alcohol  (q.  v.),  but  it  differs  from  an  alcohol  in  many  important 
respects,  and  rather  displays  the  properties  of  an  acid.  Thus  it 
acts  upon  bases  in  sndl  a  manner  that  water  separates  and  a 
salt  results.  It  does  not,  however,  redden  litmus  like  a  true 
acid.  On  accQunt  of  its  special  properties,  C.  A.,  with  other 
bodies  analogous  to  it,  form  a  separate  group  of  chemical  coni- 
pounds,  which  receive  the  name  of  phenols.  It  is  now 
employed  in  large  quantities  as  a  disinfectant  and  antiseptic,  and 
as  a  source  of  various  colouring  matters. 


vLaOogle 


CAR 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CAE 


Car'bon  is  oue  of  the  most  plentiful  and  important  of  the 
■  sixty-foui-  elementary  bodies  known  to  chemists.  It  may  be 
considered  as  the  principal  constituetit  of  animal  and  vegetable 
tissues,  and  it  also  enters  largely  into  the  composition  of  certain 
mineiSs,  of  wMoh  chalk  may  be  instanced  as  a  familiar  example. 
In  the  free  or  nncombined  condition  C.  esists  in  three  distinct 
modifications.  Two  of  these,  viz.,  Graphite  and  Diamond,  are 
found  in  nature,  but  the  third,  Amerphmts  C.  or.  Charcoal,  lias 
jnly  been  obtained  by  ai^ifidal  means..  C.  is  thus  an  allotropie 
element.     See  Allotrofv. 

The  Diamond  is  a  gem  highly  prized  on-  account  of  its  great 
brilliancy  and  hardness.  It  is  found  in  tdluvial,  deposits  oro- 
duced  by  the  disintegration,  of  tbe  older  rock  fonnations.  That 
the  diamond  is  pure  C.  was  first  su^esteJ  by  the  discovery 
made  by  Lavoisier  that  the  pn>duct  of  its  combustion  in  air.  is 
carbonic  acid.  Later  Stt  Ht  Davy  found  that  tie  volume  of  car- 
bonic acid  produced  by  burning  a;  given  weight  of  diamond  was 
the  same  as  that  produced  liy  the  combustion. of  tbesame  weight  of 
cbarcoal.  There  is  therefore  no  doubt  as  to  the  composition  of 
the  diamond,  but  its  history  remains  in  obscurity,  foE  hitherto  all 
impts  to  prepare  it  by  artificial  means  have  failed.  It  is  found, 
however,  that  some  diamonds  when,  burned  leave  an  ashy  skele- 
ton resemblmg  that  of  cdcined  vegetable  matter;  hence  it  has 
been  suggested  that  the  gem  is  produced  by  the  gradual 
separation  of  C.  from  vegetable  matter.  The  diamond  is  charac- 
terised by  its  extreme  hsidness  and  optical  refrangibility,  in  both 
of  which  respects  it  is  superior  to  any  other  substance.  It  is 
found  crystaUised  in  octohedra  with  rounded  edges,  and- these 
iiatuval  edges  are  alone  capable  of  cuttiiK  glass.  It  is  denser, 
than  the  other  two  varieties  of  e.,  its.  speciHa  gravity  being  3'5- 
See  Diamond. 

Graphite,  Flumhugo,  or  Black  Jiead,  occuiB  in.  nature  in  rounded 
masses  or  in  hexagonal  balls.  It  is  soft,  opaque,  of  greyisli 
black  colour,  and  possesses  metallic  lustre..  It  leaves  a  black 
streak  when  rubbed  on  paper  (black-l6ad  pencils).  It  conducts 
electricity,  and  has  the  specific  gravity  of  only  l;'8-a'S.  Cast- 
iron  possesses  the  property  of  dissolving  charcoal  at  a,  high  tem- 
perature in  considerable  quantity,  and  of  depositing  it  again  on 
cooling  in  crystalline  scales  of  graphite,  which  ace  technically 
caied  kirk.  When  mey  cast-iron  is  dissolved  in  an  acid  a  de- 
posit of  graphite  islrft.  Graphite,  therefore,  unlike  the  diamond, 
lias  been  obtained  by  artifidat  means.     See  Graphite. 

Amsrphims  C,  or  Charcoal,  is  obtamed  by  heating  animal  or 
vegetable  materials  in  closed  vessels.  At  a  high  temperature 
decompOMtion  takes  place  ;  water,  hydrocarbons,  and  othei- 
volatile  products  pass  off  in  the  state  of^  vapour,  and  amorphous 
C.  remains.  There  are  several  varieties  of  charcoal,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  the  following  : — 

Wcod  Charcoal,  obtamed  either  by  ifctilling  wood  ia  ison 
retorts,  or  by  allowing  it  to  undergo  a  limited  combustion. 

Coke.  — The  residue  left  when  coal  is  distilled  for  the  produc- 
tion of  coal-gas. 

Gas  C— A  very  compact  variefej  of  amoiphous  C.  found  ad' 
hering  to  the  retorts  in  which  coal  is  heated  in-  the  mtmufecture 
of  coal-gas,  and  which  owes  its  formation  to  the  decomposition 
of  the  more  volatile  hydrocarbons  by  the  hightempeiature'of  the 
walls  of  the  retort.  It  is  very  hard  and  heavy  (sp.  gc.  Zf  35),  and 
is  used  for  making  the  C.  plates  of  Bunsen's  batteries. 

Lamp  Black. — The  soot  obtained'  by  the  incomplete  combus- 
tion ofresin,  turpentine,  &c. 

Anivial  Charcoal,  or  Bone  Black. — Obtained  by  heating  bone 
in  covered  vessels  or  iron  retorts.  It  is  of  especial  value  as  a 
decolorising  agenU     See  Sugar- Refining. 

The  compounds  of  C.  are  exceedingly  numerous,  and  have 
characters  of  such  special  kinds,  that  flieii  study  alone  forms  a, 
lai^e  and  distinct  branch  of  chemical  science,  which  is  called 
Orffotii  Chemistri^:  The  more  important  compounds  and'groups 
of  compounds  which  C.  forms  with  other  elements  will  be  found! 
described  under  their  respective  headings.  The  atomio'  weight 
of  C.  is  12  and  its  symbol  C. 

Carbon,  in  medicine.  Two  kinds  of  C,  or  charcoal,  are  used 
in  medicine — wood  charcoal  and  animal  charcoal.  The  former, 
obtained  from  wood  charred  by  exposure  to  a  red  heat  without 
access  of  air,  and  reduced  to  a  fine  powder,  consists  of  98  per 
cent  of  C.  and  a  of  asli.  It  is  given  in  doses  of  from  20  to  60 
grains,  and  is  a  valuable  remedy  for  flatulency  of  all  kinds, 
and  for  correcting  foul  odours  from  the  fieces.  It  is  useful 
in  most  forms  of  Dyspepsia  (q.  v.|,  and  is  in  general  a  good  dis- 


infectant, aud  a  destroyer  of  bad  smells.  Externally  it  is  much 
used  as  a  poultice  to  foul  and  sloughing  ulcers.  It  is  also  an  e-i- 
cellent  dentifrice. 

Animal  charcoal  is  principally  used  in  pharmaOT  for  de- 
colourising purposes  in  preparing  vegetable  alkaloids.  It 
has  no  taste,  is  very  cheap,  and,  either  in  the  form  of  powdei- 
or  biscuit,  should  be  more  used  in  dyspepsia.  In  large 
doses  it  is  effective  in  poisoning  with  strychnine  and  other  similar 
poisons. 

Garbona'ri  (' chatcoal-burners  ')  claim  descent  fiom  an  asso- 
ciation of  German  chai  coal-burners  in  the  izth  c.  ITiey  ate 
probably  connected  with  Lt  Bon  Cousinage  ai  the  Fendeiirs 
(Heweis)  of  the  Jura.  Their  legends  name  as  patrons  a  St 
Theobald  of  Snabia  and  Francis  I. ,  from  whose  reign  their 
almanacks  date.  The  C.  first  emei^e  into  political  importance 
as  a  secret  society  in.S.  Italy  and  Sicily  at  the  beguining  of  the 
igth  c  A  charter,  which  probably  belongs  to  the  reign  of 
Murat,  proposes  the  establishment  of  an  Ausonian  Republic 
in  Italy,  the  Christian  religion  beii^  retained,  but  tbe  Fapal 
power  and  feudalism  being  abolished.  It  is  said  that  the 
Bouibons  having  promised  a  constitution,  the  C.  rose  against 
Murat,  their  ^lure  causing  a  separation  from  the  main  body 
of  the  Calderari  (Braziers).  Ferdinand,  on  his  accession,  re- 
solved to  suppress  those  who  had  fought  for  him,  and  in  1S19 
his  Ministec  of  Police,  Prince  de  Canova,  employed  the  Calde- 
rari for  this  puiiiose.  The  Cadiz  insurrection  gave  fiesh  life  to 
the  C.  nnder  the  Abbe  Menichini,  and  with  the  help  of  Le 
Giardiniere '  {the  Lodges  of  Garden-women)  a  second  unsuc 
cessfu!  attempt,  was  made  to  obtain  a  constitution.  In  the  Fapal 
States  also  the  C.  rose  at  Macerata  and  Fagnza,  but  they  were 


lodges  against  the  hated,  rule  of  Austria  was  paralysed  by  the 
capture  of  Silvio  Pellico,.  TorelU,  &c.  Carbonarism  h  as  1  tro 
duced  into  Fiance  about  i8zo  by  Joubeit  and  Dugier  It  5 
said  that  Lafayette  was  elected  president..  At  Belfort  the  society 
was  eoncemed'iii  an  insurrection, (iSzi).  Paris  was  their  head 
qnarlers  until  after,  the  revolution,  of  1830,  when  the  Eotiety  of 
'  Young  Italy,'  for  the  unification  of  Italy,  was  separately  oigan 
ised,  ^id  the  advanced  '-Charbonnene  D^mocratiq  e  was 
founded  in  Earis  to  realise  the  soveEeignty  of  the  people.  In 
1S31  theC.  had  driven  Maria  Louisa^  Duchess  of  Farma  mto 
exile  for,  a  shoit  time.  The  ceremony  of  initiation  in  thevendita 
(or  lodge)  was  full  of  symbols :  a  linen  cloth,  water,  salt  (this 
means  Christianity),  leaves,  fire,  a  crown  of  white  thorns  (the 
strjiggles  of  the  Good  Cousins),  were  all  used  by  the  Grand 
Master.  The  martyrdom  of  Christ  is  dwelt  upon  in  the  '  second 
degree  '  of  initiation.  The  degi«e  of  '  Grand  Elect '  was  con- 
ferred uponi  a.  solemn,  oath  to  fight  to  the  death  for  universal 
liberty,  if  necessary,  under  the  penalty  of  death  with  torture. 
The  '  Grand  Master  &and  Elect '  underwent  a  ridiculous  mock 
crucifixiorr  before  attaining  the  highest  degree.  All  members 
had  pseudonyms,  the  register  of  reu  names  being  concealed  in  a 
separate  place.  There  were  a^o  officers  calted  insinuatots, 
censors,  coverers,.  and  scrutators,  the  lowest  grade  being '  sta- 
bene,'  or  sedentaries.  The  '  Guelphic  Knights '  formed  a  sort  of 
'  liigh  lodge '  of  the  C  Their  supreme  council  sal  at  Bologna, 
the  council  consisting  of  six  persons,  who  did  not  know  each 
othet^  but  eammunicated  by  means  of  an  officer  called  the 
'Visible.'  The  *Delphic  Sriesthood'  and  the  'Latini'  were 
also  branches  of  the  C.  "Kie  '  Fratres  '  of  Milan,  the  '  Ameri- 
can Hunters '  of  Ravenna,  the  '  Sons  of  Mars  "  {who  called  their 
'  veridila '  a  bhtoaac,  and  their  '  Good  Cousin '  a  corporal),  were 
later  offshoots.  In  fact,  Italy  was  a  network  of  conspiracies. 
When  Francis  II.  left  Naples  in  1S60,  the  predominant  society 
was  the  Camorra,  of  which  the  leading  membeis  have  been  lately 
arrested.  Ifi  is  said  that  Count  Rosa  was  murdered  by  C.  A 
vivid  picture  of  the  atmosphere  of  suspicion  and  deception  which 
prevuled  in  Sicily  at  the  beginning  of  this  century  may  be  found 
m  George  Sand  a  Le  Piccitiimi.  The  C,  under  the  name  of 
Fraues  Masons  in  France,  ISttminis  in  Germany,  '  Radicals '  in 
England,  Communeros  in  Spain,  have  been  specially  condemned 
by  Papal  constitutions,  as  &y  Clement  XIL  in  1738,  Pins  VII. 
in  1S21  (who  says  the  C.  are  sprung  d/  liberi  mm 
condemned  by  Benedict  XIV.),  Leo  XII.  m  1826  (who 
tions  the  Vniva-sitaires  as  a  new  and  dangerous  branch), 
also  in  the  Encyclic  of  1S64,  '  damnanlur  clandssiinm  socici. 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


Acidulated  "Waters  are  uatuial  waters 
contaiDing  generally,  in  addition  lo  saline  compounds,  an  eicess 
of  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  causes  them  to  effervesce  at  ordinary 
atmospheric  pressure  like  artificial  aerated  waters.  The  water 
t  Tunbridge  Wells  is  an  example  of  a  C.  chalybeate  spring. 


The  waters  of  Neusaliwerk  and  Nauheira  are  said  respectively 
to  yield  as  much  as  from  1300  to  2000  tons  of  carbonic  acid  gas 
per  aiiuBm.  A  considerable  trade  in  natural  C.  waters  now  exists 
between  Great  Britain  and  the  most  famous  GouCineutal  spas. 

Carbon,  BieuJpbide  of,  is  obtained  by  dropping  sulphuc 
mto  red-hot  cliarcoal  in  an  earthenware  retort  provided  with  a 

food  condensing .  apparatus.  It  is  a  colourless,  mobile  liquid,, 
ighlyrefiactive  and  volatile  (boiling  point,48''C.),,and  possesses 
a  peculiar  aromatic  odoui,  which  is  not  disagreeable  if  the  bir 
sulphide  be  quite  pure,  but  is  nsually  (Jisagreeable  from  the  pre- 
sence of  imparities.  B.  of  G.,  is  an  excellent  solvent  of  oils,  fiits, 
i-esins,  caoutchouc,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  &c,  and  is  employed, 
ill  the  manufacture  of  vukanised  india-rubber. 

Carbonic  Acid,  orCarbonioiinliydJuda,  formerly  called 
fixed  air,  is  a  gaseous  compound  of  carbon  and  ojrygen,,  tlie  com- 
position of  whiehis  represeatedby  the  formula  COj.  C.  A,  occurs 
plentifully  in  nature,  both  in  the  free  and  oombined  conditions.. 
It  is  produced  by  the  processes  of  Combustion  (q.  v.Jiaud  Re- 
spiration (q.  v.),  hence  is  always  present  in.  the  air,  though  in 
minute  quantity.  The  amount  of  Q.  A.  in  atr  would  be  much 
latter  than  it  is  were  it  not  for  the  presence  of  pknls,,which  absorb 
it  into  their  tissues,  there  abMi-act  and  assimilate  its  carbon,  and 
return  its  oxygen  to  the  atmosphere  in  a  pure  condition.  G.  A. 
is  aJso  present  in  spring  water,  sometimes  is  such  quantity  that 
the  water  effervesces  or  sparkles;  this  is  the  case  with  the  springs 
of  Pyrrmont,  Naiiheim,  &c.  It  is  also  produced  during  the 
processes  of  putrefaction,  fermentation,  and  slow  decay  of  anunal 
and  vegetable  substances,  in  presence  of  air.  Compounds  of 
C.  A.  with  various  bases  are  found  in  large  qiiMitities  in  nature. 
Chalk,  limestone,  marble,  Iceland  sparand  marble,. are  all  of  them 
carbonate  of  calcium,  a  compound  of  C.  A,  with  the  base  lime. 
Carbonate  of  iron  (spathose  iron  ere)  and^  carbonate  of  calcium 
and  magnesium  (dolomite)  are  also  important  minerals  contain- 
ing this  substance.  C.  A.  may  be  prepared  for  experimental 
purposes  by  acting  upon  a  carbonate  with  a  dilute  mineral  acid; 
marble  and  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  may  ba  employed  with  ad- 
vantage. If  these  be  taken,  ilie  chemical  reaction  which  oocurs 
is  as  follows  : — 

.  CaGOj  -1-  zHCI  =  GaCls  +  11,0  +  COs 


Hyd  ro- 


of CB 


C  A.  under  ordinary  conditions  is  a  eolourjess  gas  of  sweetish 
taste.  It  is  not  poisonous,  but  acts  in  exactly  the  same  manner 
as  water  when  introduced  into  the  liings,  that  is  to  say,  prevents 
the  blood  from  absorbing  oxygen,  and  eventually  causes  death 
by  Asphyxia  (q.  v.)  or  suffocation.  If  subjected  to  extreme 
pressure  (39  atmospheres  at  c^ C),  it  condenses  to  a  colourless 
very  mobile  liquid,  which  by  itsrapid  evaporation  when  the  pres-. 
sure  is  removed  produces  such  ai  low  temperature  that  the  re-, 
mainder  is  frozen  to  a-  snow-white  solid.  The  lowest  tempera- 
ture ever  obtained  was  produced  by  mixing  solid  C.  A.  with 
ether.  C.  A.  is  remarkable  for  its  high  ^ecific  gravity.  It 
may  be  poured  like  water  from  one  vessel'  to  anolhen  This 
property  causes  it  to  accumulate  in  holes  and  caverns,  and  many 
accidents  have  occurred  through  incautiously  entering  such 
localities.  The  introduction  of  a  lighted  candle  into  places  in 
which  accumulations  of  C.  A.  are  suspected  is  a  simple  test  for 
its  presence  in  dangerous  quanlity,  for  then  the  flame  is  extin- 
gniAied.  It  is  slightly  solnble  in  water  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions, but  its  solubility  is  greatly  augmented  if  it  be  forced 
into  the  water  under  pressure,  though  on  removing  the  pressure 
the  water  effervesces  from  the  disengagement  of  the  gas...  This 
property  is  turned  to  account  in  the  manufacture  of  Aerated 
Waters  (q.  v.).  It  is  remarkable  tliab  the  introduction  of  C  A. 
into  the  lungs  should  lie  so  deleterious,  whereas  if  introduced 
into  the  stomach  it  acts  beneiicially  as  a  tonic  and  gentle  stimu- 


lant.    C.  A.  forms  two  classes  of  salts  widi  bases— «i»AW  and 

acid  carbonates.     The  foimulEB  for  the  two  salts  of  soda  are — 

NaHCOa  Na^COa 

C.  A,  is  absorbed  with  great  activity  by  the  alkalies  and 
allcaline  earths,  a  property  which  is  utilised  in  the  determina- 
tion of  this  gas,  and  in  its  separation  from  other  gases.  It  is 
lai^ely  employed  by  the  manufecturers  of  aerated  bread  and 
aerated  waters. 

Carbou'ic,  Oxide  is  a  compound  of  oarboij  and  oxygen,  the 
composition  of  which  is  represented  by  the  formula  CO,  whereas 
tliat  of  carbonic  acid  is  represented  by  the  formula  CO,.  C.  O., 
therefore,  contains  half  as  much  oxygen  as  carbonic  acid.  It 
was  discovered  towards  the  and  of  the  last  ccntuiy  by  Priestley 
and  Lassonne,  but  was  first  accurately  investigated  by  Woodhouse 
some  years.later.  It  may  be  obtained  by  passing  carbonic  add 
over  red-hot  diarcool. 

COs  -H  G  «  zCO 


Tlia  blue  flame  often  seen  playing  over  a  clear  fire  \s  due 
burning  C.  O.  produced  by  the  reduction  of  carbonic  a 
formea  in  the  lower  part  of  the  fire  during  its  passage  through 
the  red-hot  coals.  C.  O,  may  also  be  obtained,  mixed  with 
carbonic  acid,  by  heating  crystallised  oxalic  acid  with  strong 
sulphuric  add,  the  latter  simply  removing  a  molecule  of  water 
from  the  oxalic  acid. 


The  C.  0.  may  be  separated  from  the  carbonic  acid  by  pass- 
ing the  mixed  gases  through  a  solution  of  caustic  potash,  which 
only  absorbs  the  latter.  It  may  be  obtained  in  a  state  of  purity 
by  heating  formic  acid  with  strong  sulphuric  ^d,  the  act' 
being  simply  one  of  dehydration,  asm  the  former  case. 
lljCOa    -    HsO   =   CO: 


G,  ©.  is  a  colourless,  tasteless,  and.  odourless  gas,  which  c 
not  be  liquified.     lb  is  inflammable,  and  bums  with  a  pale  blue 
(lamalo  carbonic  acid. 


Owing  to  its-strong  affinity  at  a  high  temperature  for  oxygen, 
C.  O.  plays  an  important  part  in  the  reduction  of  iron  and 
other  metals  from  their  oxides.,  (See  Ikon  and  Blast  Fur- 
nace.) It  acts  as  a  narcotic  poison,  and  in  this  respect  differs 
from  carbonic  aald,  which  possesses  no  poisonous  properties, 
but  which,  like  water,  cannot  be  introduced  into  the  lungs  with- 
out causing  suffocation.  Many  deatlis  have  occurred  Irom  in- 
cautiously sleeping  in  badly-ventilated  rooms  in  which  charcoal 
fires  are  bummg— death  resulting,  in  such  cases,  not  from 
action  of  tile  carbonic  add,  but  from  that  of  the  carbonic  Oxide. 
G&rbonif' eross  System,  the  term  applied  to  those  forma- 
tions, generally  of  characteristic  and  independent  kind,  whidi 
overlie  the  Devonian  or  Old  Red  Sandstone  rocks,  and  which  in 
turn  lie  beneath  those  of  the  Permian  system.  The  name  'G.' 
is  derived  from  a  principal  feature  in  their  chemical  composition, 
in  virtue  of  which  they  become  of  high  importance  to  man,  as 
providing  him  with  a  chief  source  of  coal.  Lime  and  iron  may 
also  be  enumerated  among  the  industrial  products  of  this  system. 
Coal,  however,  it  is  to  be  remembered,  is  not  confined  to  these 
rocks,  hut  also  occurs  in  newer  as  well  as  older  and  different 
strata.  A  great  proportion  of  this  system  of  rocks,  indeed,  is 
made  tip  of  sandstones,  shales,  and  limestones,  the  coal  occurring 
in  comparatively  thin  beds.  Tliese  rocks  are  largely  developed 
in  Britain,  Europe  generally,  and  N.  America.  In  India  (as  at 
Damoodah,  Nagpur,  &c)  laree  coalfields  occur,  and  in  AustraUa 
this  system  is  also  represented!   The  C.  rocks  are  divided  into  the 


■#■- 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CAR 


(I)  lower  C.  rocks  (C.  staies  and  mountain  limestones),  (z)  the 
-Istone  grit,  and  (3)  the  coal  measures.  The  first- mentioned 
_  ta,  constituting;  the  base  of  the  system,  attain  a  thickness  in 
Ireland  (C.  staies)  of  5000  feet.  The  C.  limistone  in  its  typical 
development,  as  seen  in  Wales  and  the  W.  of  Enghind,  is  a  pure 
limestone,  from  looo  to  2000  feet  thick,  with  beds  of  shale.  The 
mSMaiugn'i,  lying  above  the  C.  limestone,  coiuists  of  sandy  and 
gritty  beds,  lying  either  conformably  or  nncomformably  on  the 
latter,  and  averaging  about  1500  feet  in  thickness.  Fossils  are 
scarce  in  these  strata.  The  Cm/  measures  lie  conformably  above 
the  millstoiie  grit,  and  consist  of  a  thick  series  of  beds  of  sand- 
stone, shale,  grit,  and  coal.  From  tliese  measures  true  coal  is 
chiefly;  obtained,  but  in  Scojland  vforkable  seams  occur  below 
the  millstone  grit.  In  their  greatest  development  the  C.  mea- 
sures attain  a  thicfen^ss  of  from  7000,  to  15,000  feet  Their 
shales  are  black,  laminated,  and  earthy;  their  sandstones  are 
yellow,  brown,  and  purple,  and  rarely  red;  and  beds  of  lime, 
stone  and  of  clay-iron  ore  occur,  along  with  the  typical  coal-beds 
of  various  tlilcknesses.  The  S.  Wales  cpalfielJ  shows  allemat- 
ing  series  of  sandstones,  shales,  and  coal,  the  latter  beds  num- 
bering about  eighty  in  this  field  ^lope.    Each  coal-bed  rests  upon 


the  'roof — lies  above  each  coal-seam,  and  ci 
plant  fossils. 

The  C.  period  is  chiefly  notable  as  presenting  m  with  a  lai^e 
and  varied  assemblage  of  fossil  plants— Ferns,  Calamites,  Lepl- 
dodendra,  Sigillariee,  &o.  Crypti^aroic  vegetation  flourished 
plentifully  in  this  epoch.  The  PratoKia,  or  lowest  animals,  are 
represented  by  Sponges,  Foritminifera,  &c. ;  the  Calinta-ata  by 
Corals,  S;c;  the  Echinosoa.  by  Crinoids  and  Other  genera;  the 
Annulosa  by  Crustai::ea  (Trilobties,  &c),  Insects,  Arachiudans, 
and  Myriapods  ;  the  .Mi//*«<ii  by  Polyzoa,  Biacliiopoda,  Bivalves, 
Gasteropods,  and  Cephalopods ;  aii,d  the  Vti-iebt,ala  by  Ganoid 
and  other  fishes.  Amphibia,  and  probably  true  Eeptiles. 

Oairlmiiole  (Lat.  cariunculus,  '  a  small  coal'),  the  lapidary 
and  jeweller's  name  for  a  variety  of  the  Garnet  ((].  v.),  which  is 
cut  eti  cabockoii.  It  is  of  a  bright  red  hue.  The  mineralogists  call 
\tpyriipe.     The  C,  was  a  favourite  gem  among  the  andents. 

Carbuncle,  in  medicine,  sometimes  called  Anthrax,  a  Greel^ 
word  also  meaning  'coal,'  is  ^sentially  an  inflammation  of  the 
skin,  limited  in  ?xteflt,  occiprii^  most  frequently  in  the  same 
parts  as  Boil  (q.  v.).  The  skin,  which  assumes  a  bright  red 
colour,  becomes  very  much  thickened  by  the  infiltration  of  the 
inflammatory  products,  sometimes  more  than  one  inch  in  thick- 
ness. The  C.  is  accompanied  by  burning  pa.m,  and  a  sense  of 
tightness  in  the  parts,  togetherwith  great  const! lulional  disorder. 
If  left  io  itself,  it  is  apt  to  slough,  and  ultimately  to  involve  the 
deeper  tissues,  forrnmg  an  ?|bscesp.  It  is  generally  single,  and 
varies  very  mnch  in  siie.  The  affection  ia  most  common  in 
middle  life  and  in  advpiced  years,  especially  among  those  who 
live  sumptuously.  The  treatment  consists  in  free  and  early  in- 
cisions  through  the  whole  diseased  mass,  follpwed  by  the  appli- 
cation of  soothing  poultices,  when  the  mass  gradually  sloughy  out. 
At  first  a  brisk  purge  is  beneficial,  after  which  topics  and  iiourish- 
ing,  non-stimulating  food  should  be  administered  to  the  patieiit 

OarT)nrretted.  ^'^Irogen.  Although  this  texm  might  be 
employed  to  designate  any  of  the  numerous  compounds  of  carbop 
and  hydrogen,  it  is  restricted  by  long  custom  to  two  of  these 
only— viz.,  light  C.H.,  or  Marsh  Gas  (q.  v.),  CH4;  and  hacvy 
C.  a..  Ethylene  otOlefiant  Gas  i,'\.y.),Ci'iii. 

iwn  of  Spain,  province  of  Valencia,  in  a  fei;- 
r  the  right  bank  of  the  Jucar,  25  miles  S,  of 
Valencia,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway.  The  Manjuis 
of  Calzada  has  s,  laige  palace  here.  Th.e  trade  of  C.  is  chiefly 
in  gi-ain,  fruit,  and  silk.      Pop.  7280. 

Car'oaiiet  (Fr.  a  diminutive  of  carcan,  'a  collar;'  Old  Fr. 
quetcanl,  from  Old  High  Ger.  quava,  '  the  throat '),  a  jewelled 
chain  or  necklace,  for  the  maimfactnring  of  wliich  Venice  was 
famous  in  the  I5tli  c. 

Car'cass,  in  ammunition,  a  thick  cast-iron  spherical  shell  dis- 
charged from  mortars  and  other  smooth-bore  ordnance  for 
incendiaiy  purposes.  It  is  filled  with  a  composition  consisting 
of  saltpetre,  sulphur,  rosin,  antimony,  sulphide,  turpentine,  and 


tallow,  which  is  ignited  by  means  of  a  quick-match  placed  in 
three  vents  on  the  upper  hemisphere,  through  which  the  com- 
position .continues  Io  Ijurn  for  from  thiee  to  twelve  minutes,  ac- 
cording to  the  size  of  the  projectile.  Previous  to  the  present 
century,  oblong  carcasses  encircled  with  iron  bars  covered  with 
canvas  and  cotd  were  m  use  in  the  British  service,  and  it  is  sup- 
posed that  the  term  '  C. '  refers  to  the  ribs  of  iron  and  sideton 
frame  of  these  obsolete  '  fire-balls. ' 

Carcas^oae',  the  capital  of  the  department  of  Aude,  France, 
on  both  iK^lis  of  the  Aud^i  55  ""i'^s  S.E.  of  Toulouse  by  rail- 
way, it  consists  of  an  ancient  and  a  modern  portion.  The 
former  still  Retains  the  olcl  fortifications,  tlie  castle  and  donjon, 
which  made  it  a  place  of  importance  from  the  earliest  limes 
down  to  the  I4lh  c.  It  contains  also  the  splendid  old  cathedral 
of  St  Nazaire,  rebuilt  in  the  nth  o.,  and  it  communicates  by 
two  bridges  with  the  modem  town,  which  is  regnlarly  built.  C. 
employs  2000  persons  iu  the  manufacture  of  doth,  which  it 
exports  in  large  quantity  to  America.  It  has  also  much  trade 
in  grain,  fruit,  and  wine.  Pop.  (1872)  18,396.  C,  the  ancient 
Carcasso,  was  in  existence  before  the  Romans  entered  Gaul.  It 
suffered  greatly  during  the.  Albigensian  wars. 

Oar'damine,  agenusof  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Cruciferie:  The  best-known  is  C.  prat.-nsis,  the  bitter  cress, 
cucioo-flower,  or  lady's  smock,  common  iu  most  meadows  in 
Britaui.  The  flowers  are  stimulant  and  diaphoretic  ;  at  one 
time  they  were  held  m  high  esteem  as  a  oiire  for  epilepsy,  espe- 
cially in  children.  The  leaves  of  this  spedes,  as  well  Ss  of  C, 
amara  and  C.  hinuta,  are  occasionally  used  as  salads,  C  antara 
being  especially  popular  in  Saxony.  C  pratenm  is  much  used 
as  an  anti-scorbutic  in  the  N.  of  Europe.  Tlie  names  of '  cuckoo- 
flower '  and  '  lady's  smock '  are  said  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that 
C  firatmsis  flowers  at  the  time  of  the  coming  of  the  cuclcoo,  and 
covers  the  meadows  with  its  flowers  so  profusdy  as  to  look  at  a 
distance  like  linen  bleaching.  On  the  Scottish  borders  it  is  known 
sspiiiks,  spinks,  bor-spii'^,  or  tlie  Mayflamer.  It  is  tlie  '  lady's 
anock '  of  (he  Engmh  poets. 

Cor'dainoinB  are  the  dried  capsules,  with  their  confined 
seeds,  of  certain  plants  of  the  natural  order  Zingibcracai  (q.  v.). 
species  of  Amomum  and  EUttarin  yield  C.  Amomum 
m  yields  the  C.  of  Siam,  Sumati-a,  and  Java  ;  A. 
,  the  Bengal  C  Medicinal  C.  are  got  from  Elellaria 
cardantomum,  the  Malabar  C.  These  plants  are  natives  of  cer- 
tain  forests  on  the  Malabar  coast,  3000  to  5000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  The  seeds  are  angular  and  corrugated,  with 
an  agi-eeable  taste  and  smell.  They  are  best  kept  in  their  cap- 
sules until  required  for  use.  They  owe  their  virtue  to  a  colour- 
less volatile  oil,  CmHio,  constituting  about  4  per  cent.  C.  are 
good  stomadiics,  make  a  pleasant  cordial,  and  are  extensively 
used  as  a  condiment  for  correcting  the  giiping  of  pui^ative 
medicines,  and  for  renderit^  other  medidnes  palatable. 

Caidan,  Geronimo,  an  Italian  physician,  philosopher,  and 
mathematician,  was  bom  at  Pavia,  September  24,  1501,  He 
tooic  the  degree  of  M.A.  at  Venice  in  1524,  and  that  of  M.D.  at 
Padua  in  1525.  The  greater  part  of  his  life  was  spent  at  Milan, 
whither  he  went  in  1539,  and  where  he  lield  for  a  time  a  chair 
of  Mathematics.  Here  he  compiled  'Cat  Ars  Magna,  Sitie  de 
Keguiis  Algeiraicis  (i54S),  a  work  which  placed  him  in  the 
front  rank  of  mathematicians,  and  his  De  SubHHtate  Lihri  XXI. 
(1550),  considered  by  some  to  be  bis  most  important  work. 
y^fdiz  De  Rer,um  V^rietate  Ubri  XVil.  (1557),  it  enables  us 
to  see  the?j[lent  of  C.'s  knowledge  in  physics,  metaphysics,  and 
natural  history.  In  1552  he  visited  Scotland,  and,  reluming  by 
England,  predicled,  iq]on  astrolc^ical  principles,  that  Edward  VI. 
would  have  long  life.  After  tmvelling  in  France,  Germany,  and 
other  European  countries,  C.  retumed  to  Milan,  where  he  remained 
till  1562,  when  he  went  to  Bolc^na.  The  last  six  years  of  his 
life  he  spent  as  a  pensioner  of  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  at  Rome, 
where  he  died,  September  si,  1576,  some  say  of  voluntary  star- 
vation, in  order  to  fulfil  his  own  prediction  of  the  time  of  his 
death.  His  name  is  best  known  in  the  mathematical  world  in  con- 
nection with  a  rale  for  solving  cubic  equations,  also  known  as  Tar- 
taglia's  rule.  His  writings  are  extremely  numerous,  but  are  not 
of  great  value.  Upwards  of  220  on  ail  sorts  of  subjects  have 
been  printed.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Sponius(  to  vols.  Lyon, 
1663).    See  Crosley's  UJe  and  Times  0/  C.  (2  vois.  Lond,  1836). 


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Card'board,  Card,  or  Pasteboard,  is  made  by  pasting 
several  sheets  of  paper  togetlier,  and  pressing,  drying,  and 
rolling  tlie  board  Ed  produced.  In  C.  the  layers  of  paper  are 
usually  of  an  uniform  good  quality,  and,  when  pressed  and  dried, 
a  fine  smooth  poiished  surface  is  imparled  by  passing  a  pile  of 
cardboards  and  heated  zinc  or  copper  plates,  arranged  alter- 
nately, between  a  pair  of  rollers.  Ivory  C,  a  fine  thin  vaiiety 
used  for  address  cards,  consists  of  two  or  more  sheets  of  fine 

fiper,  rolled  till  a  beautiful  hard  smooth  surface  is  obtained, 
namelled  address  cards  are  made  by  coating  the  card  with  a 
white  mineral  composition,  and  cubbing  with  a  hard  brush.  In 
coloured  cardboards  the  outa:  sheets  only  are  ti/ited.  Paste- 
boaid  is  nrnde  with  a  '  middle '  of  inferior  quality  to  the  outsides, 
and  in  thick  boards  two  or  more  'middles^  are  pasted  together. 
Gac'diao  Kedicines  are  remedies  whicli  influence  the  action 
of  the  heart  either  directly  or  indirectly. 

OardiadES,  a  family  of  LanuUibmmhiate  molluscs,  repre- 
sented by  the  Cockles  (q.  v. ,  Cai-dium)  and  by  the  geuus  Conocar- 
dmm.  The  shell  is  equivalTe,  heart-shaped,  the  mantle  being 
open  in  front,  and  the  foot  large  and  curved.  The  family  is  re- 
presented by  cockles  on  the  Devonian  rocks  ;  whilst  the  genus 
CoTuicardmm  is  represented  by  Palteozoic  shells,  which  have  the 
anterior  side  of  the  shell  conical  and  gaping,  and  a  siphonal  tube 
placed  near  the  beak  of  the  shell. 

Cardiff  (Cymr.  Caer-  Taff,  '  castle  on  the  Taff'),  the  county 
town  of  Glamorganshire,  S.  Wales,  on  the  Taff,  ij  miles  above 
its  entrance  into  Penarth  harbour,  and  170  miles  W.  of  Lon- 
don by  railvray.  It  is  rapidly  becoming  one  of  the  first  ports  in 
the  kingdom,  being  the  outlet  for  the  extensive  iron  and  coal  in- 
dustries of  S.  Wales,  including  the  lichly-productive  districts  of 
M  thy  Tyd  1  Phymney,  the  Rhondda  and  AberdareValleys, 
&c  it  1  1  g  '  wn-hall,  a  custom-house,  a  fi-ee  library  and 
m  g  d  iirmary,  a  county  lunatic  asylum,  and  a 
tl      1  Of      m    thirty  churches  in  C.,  only  four  belong  to  the 

E  t  bh  hm    t      Th     splendid  docks  of  C,  the  cause  of  its 
t  p      I-      ty        e  mostly  the  property  of  the  Marquis  of 
B  t  d  h         b    n  brought  to  their  present  state  in  a  great 

d  §  by  his  pe  al  enterprise.  There  are  in  all  three  30- 
C-11  d  B  t  d  k  Penarth  dock,  several  graving  and  other 
d  ks  h  vmg  t  t  1  area  of  100  acres.  The  quays  hive  some 
f  rty  staith  w  k  d  by  hydraulic  machinery  for  the  espedilious 
I  d  g  f  oal  w  ih  ut  breaking  it.  By  means  of  these  staiths 
essels  ai  b  1  id  d  at  the  rate  of  100  tons  an  hour  In  1873 
the  eitport  of  coal  was  3,591, ai8  tons,  of  iron  154,570  tons,  and 
ctfcoke  12,276  tons.  In  the  same  year  there  entered  the  poll 
9951  vessels,  with  a  total  of  1,644,908  tons,  of  which  1488, 
of  485,561  tons,  were  foreign,  chielly  French ;  while  there 
cleared  11,333  vessels  of  2,544,283  tons,  2290  (77i|29fi  tons) 
being  foreign  vessels.  There  aie  regular  steam  Imes  to  ■"— 
York,  London,  Liverpool,  Cork,  Glasgow,  &c.  besides  a 
.  railway  and  canal  communication  with  the  interior  C  1 
two  <«dly  newspapers.  The  mpid  growth  of  C.  is  shown  by 
the  following  figures  ;— In  1S07  the  pop.  was  only  1870,  -■ 
1841  it  had  increased  to  10,077,  m  1851  to  18,351,  in  l86i 
31,235,  in  1871  to  39,536,  and  in  1876  is  estimated  at  about 
6o,ODo,  including  the  suburbs  of  Roath  and  Canton.  Along  with 
Cowbridge  and  Llanlrissant,  C.  returns  one  member  to  Parlia- 
ment, C.  is  an  ancient  town,  although  little  of  its  antiquity  re- 
mains, and  its  history  is  bound  up  with  that  of  its  castle,  which 
has  been  renovated  by  the  Marquis  of  Bute.  The  most  striking 
feature  of  this  structure  is  a  massive  square  tower,  surmounted 
with  a  clock  and  gilt  emblematic  devices.  In  the  interior  are 
several  apartments,  fitted  up  in  a  costly  style  for  the  convenience 
of  the  noble  proprietor.  A  public  ^rden  and  park  skirt  the 
opposite  side  of  the  river  to  that  on  which  the  castle  stands. 

Oar'diffan  (Cymr.  Caeriigion,  'Caeredig'sland'),  orAber- 
teify  {'(he  mouth  of  the  Teify'J,  the  capital  of  Cardigan- 
shire, picturesquely  situated  on  the  Teify,  30  miles  N.N.E.  of 
Pembroke,  and  240  N.  by  W.  of  London,  with  which  places 
it  is  connected  by  railway.  It  lies  3  miles  from  the  month 
of  die  river,  which  is  here  crossed  by  an  old  stone  bridge  of 
seven  arches.  Its  harbour  is  greatly  obstructed  by  a  bar,  but 
some  trade  is  still  carried  on  in  the  export  of  slates,  oats,  butter, 
&c.  In  1873  there  entered  the  port  909  vessels  of  26,626  tons, 
C,  possesses  the  scant  remains  of  the  Abbey  of  St  Dogmaels, 
and  the  still  scantier  traces  of  a  Norman  castle,  supposed  to 


date  from  n6o.  Along  with  Lampeter,  Aberystwilh,  and 
Adpar,  it  returns  a  member-  to  Parliament.  Pop.  of  municipal 
borough  (1871)  3461.  C,  which  is  an  ancient  town,  strenu- 
ously opposed  the  intrusion  of  the  Normans. 

OardigEm  Bay,  a  splendid  Inlet  of  St  George's  Channel,  on 
the  W.  coast  of  Wales,  extends  from  Brach-w-PwUin  Caernarvon 
to  Strumble  Head  in  Pembroke,  a  distance  of  55  miles.  It  has 
from  3  to  30  fathoms  of  water,  but  the  harbours  on  llie  coast  are 
mostly  obstructed  by  bars.  C.  B-,  according  to  Welsh  tradition, 
was  originally  dry  land  {Canlrevy  Gwstad),  protected  from  the 
sea  by  dams  and  dykes  till  the  5lh  or  6th  C 

Oar'dig'ansMre,  a  maiilime  county  of  S.  Wales,  lies  be- 
tween the  rivers  Dovey  and  Teify,  and  has  an  area  of  693  sq. 
miles,  and  a  pop.  (1871)  of  73,441.  Its  surface  is  chiefly  level 
and  fertile  towards  the  coast,  but  the  interior  is  mountainous  ; 
hence  its  popularname,  '  Wild  Cardigan.'  C.  has  several  rivers 
besides  the  Teify,  of  which  the  chief  are  the  Claerwen,  Ystwith, 
and  RheidoL  In  fbe  hilly  region  are  many  ftimous  waterfalls, 
as  the  Devil's  Bridge  and  the  Falls  of  Rheidol,  and  also  some 
twenty  beautiful  llyns  or  duninutive  lakes.  In  1873,  265,554 
acres  were  under  crops  and  grass,  tiie  chief  crops  being  oats, 
barley,  and  potatoes.  There  is  a  small  hardy  breed  of  cattle  and 
horses-  Almost  the  only  manufactures  of  importance  are  flannels 
and  gloves.  The  geological  formation  of  C.  is  wholly  Silurian, 
and  flie  minerals  include  silver,  copper,  lead,  and  slates.  One 
member  of  Parliament  is  returned  by  the  county.  C.  was  at  one 
time  under  a  native  king  (Rhodri  Mawr,  or  Ehodri  the  Great), 
who  extended  his  rule  over  all  Wales  in  the  9th  c.  During  the 
nth,  I2lh,  and  13th  centuries  it  was  the  scene  of  desperate 
fighting  ttetween  the  native  chiefs  and  the  Norman  settlers. 
There  are  still  many  Roman  and  British  remains,  including 
camps,  roads,  stone  circles,  and  caims. 

Car'dmal  {'LsX.fardinala,  'principal,'  Unyrncardo,  'a hinge,' 
as  in  missa  cardinalis,  'solemn  mass,' o/torf  cardhiaU,  'chief 
altar'),  a  title  originally  applied  in  the  time  of  Theodosius  to 
generals  of  the  imperial  army,  and  also  to  the  prefects  of  Asia 
and  Africa.  In  the  Church,  the  name  was  given  generally  to  the 
parochial  priests  in  towns,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  deacons, 
who  had  charge  of  hospitals  for  the  poor,  and  from  the  chap- 
lains of  the  oratory  (where  mass  was  said  but  no  sacraments 
given),  Cardinalii  sacerdos  was  applied  to  a  bishop,  presbylei- 
cardinal  to  a  parish-cnrale.  Gradually,  however,  the  name  was 
limited  to  the  priests  of  Rome  who  assisted  the  Pope  in  celebrat- 
ing mass.  From  these,  and  not  from  the  bisliops,  the  Pope  vras 
generally  elected.  When  a  regular  Curia  was  established,  the 
cardmals  were  appointed  by  the  Pope  indifFeiently  from  Roman 
and  foreign  priests.  But  in  1 159,  when  Nicholas  II.  excluded 
the  common  clergy,  the  nobility,  and  the  people  from  the  elec- 
tion of  Pope,  twenty-eight  of  the  cardinals  were  apparently 
Sansh  priests  of  Rome,  the,remainder  being  the  collateral,  heb- 
omadary,  or  comprovincial  bishops  of  Ostia,  Porto,  Sylva, 
Candida,  Albano,  Sabina,  Frascati,  and  Palestrina.  The  resist- 
ance of  the  Palatine  judges  prevented  the  definite  organisation 
of  the  Sacred  College  till  Alexander  III.,  who  gave  the  exclu- 
sive right  of  electmg  a  Pope  to  the  cardinals.  The  number  of 
cardinals  was  only  twenty-five  in  the  time  of  Leo  X.  ;.  latterly 
it  became  seventy  (the  number  of  elders  chosen  by  Moses) — 
there  being  dways  about  fifty  priests  (derid),  and  from  fourteen 
to  eighteen  deacons.  In  1245  the  red  hat  was  adopted ;  in  1464 
a  red  gown.  In  1630  Urban  VIII.  introduced  the  title  of  Emi- 
nence in  place  of  Most  Illustrious.  Besides  the  cassock  i^soulane) 
and  the  short  mantle  {mantelet),  the  rochet  and  the  cope 
{cliAfe),  the  cappa  mama  and  gold  ring  vidth  sapphire  are 
characteristic  parts  of  Uie  C.'s  dress.  Regulars  always  retain 
the  dress  of  their  order.  The  business  of  the  C.  is  transacted 
in  different  congregations.  Before  Sixtus  V.  at  least  seven  m 
portant  congregations  existed  1  those  regarding  the  Inquisitioi . 
the  Index,  the  affeirs  of  councils,  the  bishops,  the  monks,  the 
Segnatura,  and  the  Consulata.  Sixtus  added  congregations  t 
deal  with  the  removal  and  appointment  of  bishops  and  the  rt 
vival  of  Church  usages,  and  six  secular  congregations  to  de: 
with  corn  laws,  roads,  repeal  of  oppressive  taxes,  building  ol 
ships  of  war,  the  Vatican  press,  and  the  University  of  Rome, 
The  Congregation  of  the  Pope,  or  the  Consistorial,  prepares 
matters  wterwards  submitted  to  the  Consistory,  in  which  the 
Pope  presides,  When  the  Pope  appoints  a  C,  he  presents  him 
53 


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CAR 


ill  Consistory  with.  llie  worda  ' kabsbilis  /rains'  The  power 
and  diameter  of  tiie  cardinals  have  varied  very  niiicli  from  time 
to  time,  It  v/BS  the  great  Cardinals  Contarini,  Caraffa,  Pole, 
Giberto,  &c.,  who  conceived  the  reforms  for  which  the  Council 
of  Trent  was  summoned.  When  the  Inquisition  was  revived 
(list  July  1542)  after  Ihe  Ratisbon  Conference,  six  cardinals 
(including  Caraffa  and  Toledo)  were  appointed  commissioners 
of  the  Apostolic  See,  and  general  and  universal  inquisitors  on 
both  sides  of  the  Alps.  At  other  times  the  cardinals  had  little 
power.  France  and  Austria  have  a  right  to  present  cardinals 
for  nomination.  The  canUHoTs  option  means  that  at  the  death  of 
one  C.  his  title  may  he  talten  by  another,  who  gives  up  his  own. 

Cardiiutl,  or  Sed  Bird  dCar/SnaHs  Vtrginiaiius  or  Guarica 

a  a   p  M      or     be  onging  to  the  drmroslral 

on  of  ^t  ardei,   and   m 

d  d  m  the   Fnnmllids    or 

family     It  is  tuso  known 

y      he    mmes    C     Fmoh,    C 

G     belt    and  Vn^nian  mgh 

ng  It   inhab  ts   N     Ame 

a,    nd  derives  its  name  from 

he  eathers  of  the  crest  being 

ngated    to    form  a  pointed 

cap-Ike  structure      The  male 

oured  red,  the  head  being 


and  powerf  1 

Carduml    Flower 


Cardanal  Virtues      The 
<.»rdLi;3l      <i  a«  ticat  01   of   lutiea  into  the 

four  C.  v.,  Prudence,  Courage, 
Tempeiance,  Justice,  was  ^he  scheme  adopted  in  the  oldest 
systems  of  ethics.  Nowadays  it  is  .considered  .usel^s  ;  modem 
Christian  moralists  usually  adopt  the  System  of  duties  to  God, 
to  others,  to  self.  The  £rst  statement  of  the  C  V.  is  found  in 
Plato,  according  to  whom  the  happiness  of  the  man,  as  well  as 
of  the  commonwealth,  was  tote  attained  by  realising  them.  In 
answer  to  the  question  what  is  justice,  he  constructs  his  model 
or  ideal  repubnc  by  assimilating  an  individual  to  a  state.  Jus- 
tice is  defined  as  every  man  attending  to  his  owmbusiness  ;  injus- 
tice occurring  when  any  one  abandons  his  post  or  meddles  with 
what  does  not  belong  to  him.  Such  is  jnstioe  in  the  state,  and 
the  same  is  justice  in  the  individual ;  a  sort  of  balance  or  har- 
mony of  the  mental  powers  being  to  the  mind  what  health  is  to 
Ihe  body.  Wisdom,  reason,  or  intellect  mas  the  highest  faculty 
(Prudence),  which  was  to  control  the  two  lower,  Courage  and 
Appetite.  Courage,  enei^y,  or  spirit,  was  the  military  virtue. 
Temperance  was  to  restrain  a  many-headed  appetite. 

The  Stoics  adopted  tliefourC  V. — Wisdom  or  the  knowledge 
ofgood  and  evil,  Justice,  Fortitude  orCourage,  and  Temperance — 
as  part  of  their  plan  of  theivirtuous  life.  Epicurus  also  adopted 
them,  and  explained  them  from  his  own  point  of -view.  Pru- 
dence was  a  calculati'on  and  balancing  of  pleasures  and  pains, 
teaching  men  to  select  pleasures  jndicionsjy,  to  forego  idle 
wishes,  and  despise  idle  (ears.  Temperance  was  the  manage- 
ment of  sensual  pleasures  in  such  a  way  as  on  the  whole  to 
extract  from  them  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  pleasure. 
Fortitude  consisted  in  facingdanger  and  enduring  pain ;  Justice, 
in  a  tacit  agreement  among  mankind  to  abstain  from  injuring 
one  another.  In  the  scholastic  systems  of  ethics,  to  the  four 
' '  "  the  virtutt!  adjuncts  or  theolc^cal  virtues, 
L  termoralist-s  all  found  thisclassitjca- 
d  to  express  their  views.     The  virtue 

p       us  by  Its  absence  from  the  earliest 
i  h  modem  thinkers  have  included  in 

m  nother,  was  Benevolence,     Accord- 

p  es     'ed  the  name  of  C.  V.,  enumerates 
Tmtli,  Purity,  and  Onier  (obedience 
h  certain  parallelism  to  the  five  chief 

spe     vely — love  and  its  opposite,  mental 
m  tual  understanding,  bodily  appetites, 
rtal  and  Moral  Science  (1868), 


Car'din^,  a  process  by  which  cotton,  flax,  and  short  wool 
fibres  are  prepared  for  spinning.  In  lie  case  of  cotton,  1 
fibre  is  passed  thraugh  an  opensr,  in  which  refuse  is  beaten  o  , 
and  then  prepared  for  C,  in  a  scutcher.  In  C.  it  passes  through 
two  different  C.-engines  of  similar  construction — the  'breaker' 
and  the  'fittisher.'  From  tlie  breaker  it  is  delivered  in  long 
slender  coils  called  slivers,  two  of  which  are  mixed  in  the  £&»#/«-, 
.and  again  spread  out  in  the  'finisher,'  from  which  similar  slivers 
are  delivered.  The  object  of  C,  is  to  produce  slivers  of  nnilbrm 
size,  and  to  comb  out  the  fibres  in  a  parallel  direction.     See 

Cotton  Manufacture,  &c. 

Car'diograph.  This  is  an  instniment  used  in  practical  medi- 
icine  and  in  physiological  research  for  observing  and  recording 
the  impulse  of  the  heart  on  the  wall  of  the  chest.  In  man  and 
in  the  lower  mammalia,  the  heart  is  situated  in  an  irregularly 
« edge-shaped  space,  the  iposterior  wall  of  which  is  formed  by 
the  diaphragm.  When  the  ventricles  of  the  heart  contract,  they 
posh  against  the  wall  of  the  chest  with  more  or  less  violence. 
This  push  is  termed  the  cardiac  impuiss.  Various  cardiographs 
have  been  employed,  but  the  one  most  in  favour  was  devised  by 
Burdon  Sanderson,  It  consists  of  a  hollow  disk,  the  rim  and 
back  of  which  are  made  of  brass,  while  the  front  is  made  of  thin 
india-rubber.  This  box  is  called  the  tympanum.  To  the  brass 
back  a  fiat  steel  spring  is  secured,  which  is  bent  twice  at  right 
angles  In  the  same  direction,  in  snch  a  way  that  it  overhangs  the 
india-nibber  membrane.  The  extremity  of  this  spring,  which  is 
exactly  opposite  the  centre  of  the  face  of  the  tympanum,  is  per- 
forated by  a  steel  screw,  the  point  of  which  rests  on  the  membrane, 
while  its  head  is  surmounted  by  an  ivoiy  knob.  The  tympanum 
13  further  provided  with  three  adjusting  screws,  by  which,  when 
in  use,  it  rests  on  the  wall  of  me  chest,  with  its  face  parallel 
to  the  surface,  and  ean  be^approximated  or  withdrawn  at  will. 
It  is  evident  that  when  the  screws  are  so  adjusted  that  the  spring 
presses  on  the  chest,  whatever  movements  of  expansion  or  re. 
t  action  are  made  by  the  surface  to  which  it  is  appUed  are  com- 
mnnicated  to  it,  and  by  it  to  the  india-rubber  membrane  with 
which  its  point  is  in  contact.  The  cavity  of  the  disk  communi- 
cates by  a  vulcanised  india-rubber  tube  with  a  second  tympanum 
in  snch  away  that  the  two  h'mpana  and  the  lube  enclose  an 
air-tight  cavity.  The  lesult  of  this  arrangement  is  that  whatevei 
movement  is  performed  by  the  first  is  simultaneously  reproduced, 
but  in  the  reverse  direction,  by  the  second.  If  the  tympana  are 
of  equal  area,  tlie  extents  of  the  primary  and  secondary  move- 
ments are  equal.  When,  as  is  usually  the  case,  the  areas  are 
iuneqnal,  the  .ractent  of  movement  is  approximately  inversely  pro- 
iportional  to  ithe  ,aiefls.  The  movement  of  the  second  tym- 
panum is  magnified  and  inscribed  on  a  registering  cylinder  by 
means  of  a  lever.  By  this  apparatus  a  tracing  is  obtained,  which 
is  an  exact  representation  of  the  movements  of  the  surface  against 
which  the  spring  is  apphed,  so  that,  if  tiie  instrument  is  gradu- 
ated, it  may  be  used  not  only  for  the  purpose  of  estimating  the 
relative  duration  of  those  movements,  but  for  measuring  their 
extent.  See  Ifandbook for  Physiological  Laboratory  ('Lo'aA.  1873} 
P-  255- 

CardioBportoum,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Sapindaccis,  contains  ^about  twelve  species,  mostly  natives  of  S. 
'    '    '      '       '  '    every  tropical  country.     The  leaves 
inter  cherry  (a  name  also  applied  to 
cooked  and  eaten  in  the  Molucca.*^ 
t  are  taken  internally  with  castor  oil  for 
is  laxative,  diuretic,  and,  owing  to  the 
it,  demulcent,  but  slightly  n. 
rheumatism. 


America,  but  also  found 
of  'C.  Mcdicacabum,  the 
Physalis)  or  heart-pea,  a: 
and  on  the  Malabar  coasi 
lumbago,  &c.  The  rt 
quantity  of  mucilage 
taste.     It  is  also  used 

Cardi'tia,  inflammation  of  the  substance  of  the  heart,  is  an 
exceedingly  rare  affection,  hut  several  cases  have  been  recorded. 
It  may  occur  without  any  of  the  other  structures  being  inflamed, 
but  is  more  frequently  combmed  with  Endocarditis  (q,  v.)  and 
Pericarditis  (q.  v.'),  with  both  of  which  it  is  often  confounded, 
C,  is  sometimes  the  result  of  rheumatism. 

Car'dium  and  Cardia'oese.     See  Cockle. 

Cardo'na,  a  walled  town  in  the  province  of  Barcelona,  Spain, 
on  the  Gardener,  35  miles  S,  of  the  French  frontier,  with  a  trade 
in  salt,  obtained  from  a  mountain  of  the  mineral  in  the  vicinity. 
This  singular  mass  is  500  feet  high,  and  in  sunlight  forms  a  daz- 
zling spectacle.     Pop.  about  3000. 


4 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CAR 


Cardoon'  {C)mara  Cardunculus),  3.  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  natural  oilier  Comfosila,  and  resembling  the  artichoke 
ill  appearance.  The  C.  is  cultivated  for  the  salte  of  its  blanclied 
leaf-stalks  and  midribs,  which  are  used  as  a  sakd  or  ^  a  pot-herb. 


Oacds  (Fr.  carte,  Lat.  chartd)  for  play,  like  chi 

portation  from  the  East,  and  werr  — !->-'■- : --J 

Royal  Asiatic  Society  possesses 


portation  from  the  East,  and  were  probably  invented  in  India.  The 
"      '■■■•■'•    iety  possesses  a  pack  of  Hindustani 
IS  the  gth  c     M^  Abel  de  Rimusa^ 


Hindustani  C.  which  u 


Chin 

when  they  wen 
whether  Spain  1 
Spun ;  but  it  i< 
city  of  Viterbo  ii 

Arabic  word 

d  for  for 


introduced  into  Europe,  and  it  is  disputed 

ItaljF  first  knew  their  use.     Probably  it  was 

certam  that  they  were  brought  to  the  Italian 

1379,  and  that  the  game  was  known  as  nmb — 

meaning  a  prophet,  and  suggesting  that  C.  were 

telling,  and  that  they  were  probably  introduced 

J  Europe  by  gipsies.  From  Italy  they  passed  to  Germany 
early  in  the  i  Sth  c,  about  the  time  of  the  invention  of  wood- 
engraving,  an  art  at  once  applied  to  their  production,  Ulm 
became  the  centre  of  card-manufacture;  and  the  Swabian  C. 
ie  circulation  through  Germany  in  the  first  half  of 
the  iSth  c.  C  were  pamted  for  flie  amusement  of  Charles  VI. 
of  France  in  IJ193 ;  and  there  are  at  present  in  the  National 
Libmry  of  Paris  seventeen  of  a  pack  which  dates  from  about 
1425.  In  France  C.  received  an  entire  transformation.  The 
game  introdneed  to  that  country  was  the  tarot — a  word  of  un- 
certain derivation,  but  supposed  to  mean  the  '  royal  road ' — in 
which  the  C.  bore  emblematic  figures  mysteriously  grouped,  and 
were,  it  is  suOT>o5ed,  employed  rather  for  divination  than  amnse- 
ment,  Tlie  C.  with  which  this  mystic  pastime  was  carried  on 
are  still  extant  in  Switzerland  and  Germany,  and  in  some  parts 
of  Alsace  and  Franche  Comt^.  An  entire  tarot  pack  consists 
of  seventy-eight  C. — the^oK,  like  aero,  with  no  value  of  its  own, 
but  increasing  the  value  of  any  card  combined  with  it ;  twenty- 
one  atoats,  of  higher  value  than  the  rest,  bearing  emblems,  the 
different  combination  of  \vhich  gave  nest  to  the  game ;  and 
fifty-silt  C,  analogous  to  those  at  present  in  use ;  there  being 
forty  pip-C. — the  ace  to  the  ten  in  four  suits — four  each  of  kings, 
queens,  knights,  and  valets.  The  pips  were  the  vase,  inoney, 
sword,  baton,  supposed  to  represent  in  order  priest,  merchant, 
warrior,  husbandn^n.  In  France  the  number  of  the  pack  was 
reduced  to  lifty-tWO,  as  at  present  [  the  pips,  aeurs,  carriaux, 
fiquss,  trifles,  or  hearts,  diamonds,  spades,  and  clubs,  were  in- 
troduced, and  the  game  of  piquet  was  popular  as  early  as  the 
time  of  Charles  VII.  The  game  of  C;  now  played  is,  accord- 
ingly, a  French  adaptalion  of  the  attempt  at  divination. 

From  France  C.  made  their  n*y  into  England  some  time  prior 
to  the  year  1463,  for  m  that  year— the  third  of  Edward  IV.— C 
for  playmg  were  among  other  articles  prohibited  from  being  im- 
ported, and  that  upon  the  petition  of  English  manufacturers  of 
them.  The  Paslon  Lellers  prove  that  C.  were,  as  early  as  1484, 
a  familiar  feature  of  the  amusements  at  Christmas.  In  1495-96 
servants  and  apprentices  were  forbidden  tb  play  at  C,  except 
during  Christmas  holidays,  and  then  only  in  their  masters' 
houses.  Henry  was  himself  addicted  to  the  pastime.  James 
IV.  of  Scotland,  in  the  year  1502,  met  his  fiitiire  spouse, 
Henry's  danghter  Margaret,  at  the  card-table.  James  himself 
was  fond  of  the  game.  Latimer's  Sermtins  on  Ihs  C,  preached 
at  Cambridge  in  Christmas,  imply  the  popularity  of  the  game 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  Oft  October  Z2;  1629,  a  Company 
was  incorporated  by  ]etters-paleiit  of  Charles  I. ,  tmder  the  title 
of  '  The  Master,  Wardens  and  Commonalty  of  the  Mystery  of 
the  Makers  of  Playing  C  of  the  C  ty  of  L  ndon  The  tl  dy 
game  at  C.  was  frowned  On  under  the  Co  onwealth  b  t  be- 
came more  popular  thin  e  e  after  the  Restorat  on  Politu:al, 
satirical,  and  fantastic  C    becan  e  very  common   dur  ng  the 

t  ggl  b  tween  the  House  of  Stttart  and  Pa  ament  One 
p  k  sat  es  the  Rump  Pari  ament,  another  s  advertised  De- 
mbe  9  1679,  as  contain  ng  An  11  story  of  all  the  Pop  h 
PI  ts  th  t  have  been  m  E  igia  d  and  th  s  li  nd  of  publ  cat  on 
I  d  down  to  the  time  of  Geoige  I.,  when  the  South  Sea 
B  bbl  as  the  subject  of  a  pack  in  England,  and  the  Mississippi 
S  h  m  f  one  published  in  Holland.  Then  came  into  fashion 
1  g  cal  hi  torical,  geographical,  and  heraldic  C.     Innumerable 

tt  mpt   have  been  made  to  influence  public  opinion  by  modifi- 
t    ns     f  the  eourt-C.      Thus,  during  the  French  Revolution, 
M  1  J      La  Fontaine,  Voltaire,  and  Rousseau  were  put  in  place 
79 


of  the  kings  of  the  four  suits ;  while  the  queens  were  replaced 
by  the  caidinal  virtues.  Prudence,  Temperance,  Fortitude,  and 
Justice.  The  Americans  similarly  have  tried  to  substitute 
Washington,  John  Adams,  Franklm  and  La  Fayette  for  the 
kings,  and  for  the  queens  Venus,  Fortune,  Ceres,  and  Miner 
while  Indian  chiefe  are  represented  as  knaves.  Ingenious  art 
are  constantly  trying  to  mtroduce  something  more  alive  with 
meaning  than  the  conventional  king,  queen,  and  knave,  but  they 
are  not  likely  to  succeed.  Players  care  only  for  the  game,  and 
they  know  it  best  With  the  old  familiar  objects  on  the  C. 

The  parliamentary  regulations  under  which  the  card-trade  is 
carried  on  in  this  country  are  contained  in  the  Act  9  Geo.  IV., 
c.  18.  According  to  this  Act,  eveiy  maker  of  playing-C.  has  to 
pay  an  annual  licence  duty  of  55.,  the  duty  on  every  pad;  is  is., 
and  this  is  required  to  lie  specified  on  the  ace  of  spades.  In 
Great  Britain  C.  are  allowed  only  to  be  made  in  London  ;  and 
in  Ireland,  Dublin  and  Cork  ate  specified.  Before  a  maker 
obtains  licence,  he  must  give  a  bond  of  ^^500  for  the  payment  of 
duties  ;  while  selling  or  exposing  for  sale  a  pack  of  C.  not  duly 
stamped  suHects  a  licenaEd  malter  to  a  penalty  of  ^50,  and  any 
one  else  to  ^10.  C.,  when  exposed  to  sale,  must  be  enclosed  in 
wrappers  with  such  marks  as  the  Commissioner  of  Stamps  may 
appomt.  Second-hand  C,  without  the  wrapper  of  a  licenced 
rnjiker,  may  be  sold  by  any  person ;  but  they  must  he  sold  ii 
packs  containing  not  more  than  fifty-two  C. ,  with  an  ace  0 
spades  duly  stamped,  and  the  wrapper  enclosing  them  must  have 
the  words  '  second-hand  C. '  in  distinct  characters.  The  penalty 
for  neglecting  these  requirements  is  j^20.  See  Taylor's  History 
of  Playmg-C.  (Lond.  1865),  and  Dr  Willshire's  Catalogue  EaU 
smirtiofthe  Cards  in  the  British  Museum  (1876). 

Oar'duiia.    See  Thistle. 

Careen'ittg  (Lat.  carina,  '  a  keel ')  a  ship  is  the  operation  of 
heaving  her  down  upon  one  side  so  that  the  other  may  be  got  at  for 
cleaning  from  the  Aw/ up.  It  is  now  rarely  practised,  as  mechanical 
apparatus  has  been  invented  to  lift  the  ship  out  of  the  water. 

Car'et  |Lat.  careo,  '  I  want '),  the  mark  (A)  used  when  writing 
to  call  attention  to  the  interlineation  of  something  which  has 
been  omitted. 

Carew",  Thomaa,  first  of  the  'courtier-poets,'  was  bom  of 
a  good  family  in  Gloticestershire,  about  1589,  and  educated  at 
Corpus  Christi)  Oxford.  After  some  time  spent  in  foreign 
iravelj  C.  was  appointed  gentleman  of  the  privy  chamber  and 
sewer  in  ordinary  to  Charles  I.  He  died  in  1639.  C.  was  the 
friend  of  Ben  Jonson.  His  works  are  nlasliues — the  Calum  Brit- 
tanicum  is  still  remembered — lyrics  (set  to  music  by  the  brothers 
Lawes  in  the  poet's  lifetime)^  and  sonnets,  much  in  request  be- 
tween 1630  and  1640.  C.'s  verse  is  often  fliMsy  enough,  but 
graceful  and  tender.  His  poems  were  first  published  in  1640, 
again  in  1772  by  Davies,  and  in  1824  (at  Edinbuighjby  Maitland. 

Oar'ex,  a  genus  of  perennial  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  CyferaceiB.  About  1000  species  are  known^  scattered  over 
the  temperate  and  colder  parts  of  the  world.  Mr  Bentham  allows 
forty-seven  to  be  natives  of  Britain;  They  ate  sometimes  called 
sedges  or  sig,  and  are  grassy  or  rush-looking  in  appearance.  Some 
of  the  species  growing  in  sandy  soil  prevent  the  sand  drifting,  by 


has  been  extensivelyplanted  on  the  dykes  of  Holland  and  it 
simikl'  situations.  The  rhizomes  of  C.  Mrla  and  C.  disticha  an 
sometimes  nsed  as  a  diaphoretic  and  demulcent  medicine  under 
the  Same  of  German  Sa^sa^rilla,  See  Dr  Bolt's  great  work  on 
the  genus. 

Carrey,  Henry  C,  an  American  political  economist,  was 
bom  at  Philadelphia  in  December  1793.  He  is  of  Irish  extrac- 
tion, and  was  oik;hiaIly  a  publisher  by  profession.  Among  his 
chief  works,  all  of  which  are  popular,  are  bis  PHnciples  of  Poli- 
tical Economy  {1837-40),  from  which  Basliat  borrowed  some  of 
his  leading  ideas ;  his  Credit  System  itt  ^raiice.  Great  Sriimn, 
and  the  UHited  States  (1838);  VS  Past,  Brisent,  and  Future  (1848), 
in  which  he  attacks  Malthlis  alld  Ricardo  ;  and  his  Principles  of 
Social  Science  (1858),  C,  whose  work  on  political  economy  has 
been  abridged  for  the  use  of  schools  in  America,  is  a  protec- 
tionist, and  an  opponent  of  any  interaational  arrangement  on 
the  subject  of  copyright. 

Oarey,  "WiUiam,  D.D„  a  well-known  Baptist  minister  and 
missionary,  was  born  at  Paulerspury,  Northamptonshire,  i7iliAu- 


vLaOogle 


CAR 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


gust  1761.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a  shoemaker,  but  manifested 
from  his  eavly  years  a  keen  passion  for  knowledge,  and  acquired, 
almost  witiiout  help,  a  knowledge  of  Greek,  Latin,  and  Hebrew. 
He  began  to  pi-each  in  his  eighteenth  year.  A  pa.mphlet  (1789) 
of  Cson  foreign  missions  brought  him  into  notice.and  after  the 
formation  of  tlie  first  foreign  naissionaty  society  (by  the  Baptists), 
C.  and  Mr  Thomas  were  sent  to  India  as  its  ^ents  in  1793.  To 
more  tlian  to  any  other  man  belongs  the  nonour  of  having 
founded  the  &moiis  Serampore  mission,  which  in  1S32  had 
issued  200,000  Bibles,  or  parts  of  the  Bible,  in  about  forty  native 
Innguages  or  dialects,  besides  a  great  numbef  of  other  religious 
books  and  tracts.  Much  of  the  literary  labour  involved  in  these 
publications  was  performed  by  C,  who  was  Itofessor  of  the 
Sanskrit,  Bengdi,  and  Mahratta  Languages  at  Fort  William 
College,  Calcutta,  from  iSoo  to  183a  Among  C.'s  other  works 
were  a  Mahratta  grammar  and  dictionary,  a  Sanskrit  grammar, 
a  Punjabi  grammar,  a  Telinga  grammar,  a  Bengali  dictionary, 
and  a  Bhotanta  dictionary.  He  died  9th  June  1834. — His  sont 
IFelix  (bom  1786,  died  1822),  who  accompanied  nim  to  India, 
published  a  grammar  and  dictionaiy  of  the  Burmese  language, 
and  otlier  works.  See  The  Life  aad  7'ima  of  Carey,  Marshmav, 
and  Ward,  embracitig  the  Histsry  of  the  Strampore  Mission,  by 
John  Ckrk  Marsbman  (2  vols.  Lond.  1859). 

Carey'a,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  Myrtle  OTder  (section  Bar- 
riagioras),  mostly  found  in  Indiaj  though  one  species  is  found 
in  N.  Australia.  C.  sphisrka,  of  the  Malayan  Peninsula,  has  a 
tough  bark  fit  for  Cordage.  C.  arborsa  is  used  for  makmg  boxes, 
hoops,  &z.  ;  but  the  timber  splits  up  when  exposed  to  the  sun, 
Eind  is  pervious  to  rain.  The  drums  of  the  Sepoys  in  India  were 
formerly  made  of  it.  The  bark  IS  manufactured  into  cordage, 
and  when  prepared  is  used  in  some  parts  of  India  as  a  slow  match 
foe  firelocks.  In  Scinde  the  fleshy  calys  is  said  to  be  good  for 
curing  colds  (Black). 

Oargill'iB,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  Ebony  order  {Ehonaceie). 
The  lUawarra  black  plum  (C.  siislralis)  yields  a  useful  close- 
grained  wood.  The  grey  pliim  (C  arborea)  also  produces  a 
siniilai-  wood,  and  fruits  which  are  eaten  by  the  natives.  These, 
the  only  true  species  of  the  genus,  are  natives  of  tropical  Aua- 

Oar'gO  (Span.  cargSr,  'to  load'),  the  goods,  merchandise,  or 
whatever  is  conveyed  in  a  sliip,  with  the  exception  of  live 
animals  and  persons.  The  dak-C  is  tiie  portion  of  it  carried 
on  deck,  and  is  not  usually  included  in  the  policy  of  insurance. 
The  C-book  records  the  names  of  the  vessel,  the  owner,  the 
shippers,  and  consignees,  the  ports  of  departure  and  destination, 
the  time  of  departui-e,  and  other  particulars  for  the  inspection  of 
the  ofiicers  of  the  cuStom.house. 

Ca'ria,  the  ancient  name  of  a  country  in  the  S.W.  angle  of 
Asia  Minor,  about  the  exact  boundaries  of  which  the  ancient 
geographers  are  not  agreed.  Part  of  it  n'as  mountainous,  but 
it  contained  much  fertile  land  in  the  basin  of  the  Meander  and 
its  affluents.  Hie  inhabitants  claimed  to  be  autochthonous. 
Under  Persian  protection,  the  Carian  princes  established  a  kingly 
government,  with  Halicamassus  for  their  capital.  About  129 
B.C.  the  Romans  annexed  C.  to  their  province  of  Asia,  The 
chief  towns  <rf  C,  Miletus  and  Halicamassus,  were  famous  in 
antiquity. 

Oaria'oo,  a  seaport  of  Venezuela,  40  miles  W.  of  Cumana, 
on  a  small  stream  and  gulf  of  the  same  name,  with  an  export 
trade  chiefly  m  cocoa  and  coffee.  Pop.  7500.— The  aulf  of 
0.  extends  35  miles  from  E.  to  W.,  is  nearly  enclosed  by  a  Ion; 
narrow  tongue  of  land,  and  affords  capital  anchorage. 

Caria'nia  (Micredaclylits,  or  C.  crisiaius),  a  species  of  GraUn 
lorial  or  Wading  birds,  presenting  also  strong  affinities  to  th 
/?i7JflrM/ or Gallmaceous birds,  andinhabiting  S.America,  Guiana, 
Paraguay,  and  Brazil,  The  C,  averages  the  common  h?ron  in 
sjae.  Its  plumage  is  brown,  mottled  and  interspersed  with  black 
or  dark  brown,  and  running  into  white  on  the  under  parts. 
It  feeds  on  snakes,  worms,  insects,  &c. 

Caribbe'an  Sea,  an  immense  American  inlet  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  to  the  N.  of  Venezuela,  is  bounded  on  the  W,  by  Guate- 
mala and  Yucatan,  and  encircled  on  the  N.  and  E.  by  the  chain 
of  the  Create:-  and  Lesser  Antilles,  It  extends  in  about  lat,  8°- 
22°  N.,  and  in  long,  6i°-89°  W,,  and  its  principal  gulfs  are  those 
of  Honduras,  Darien,  and  Maracaybo.  The  name  of  this  sea, 
a6 


as  also  of  the  C.  Islands  (see  Antilles),  is  derived  from  the 
Carihs  or  Galibi,  a  native  American  race,  now  all  but  extinct, 
which  occupied  the  entire  N,  coast  of  the  S.  American  continent, 
and  also  the  W.  Indies,  at  the  discovery  of  America, 

Carib'ee,  Caribbean,  or  Piton  Bark,  the  bark  of  Ex<}s- 
mma  flsribundum  or  Caribaum,  a  small  ti-ee  of  the  W.  Indies 
and  Mexico,  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Cinckanacis.  In 
the  W.  Indies  it  is  known  as  the  Seaside  Beeeh.  It  is  closely 
allied  to  Cinchona,  and  though  it  contains  none  of  the  alkaloitfe 
which  give  the  value  to  that  bark,  yet  m  some  respects  it  re- 
sembles it  in  properties,  and  is  occasionally  substituted  for  it 

Car'ioa.     See  Papua. 

Caricature'  (Ilal.  earkatwa,  from  earicare,  to  '  overcharge 
OT  exa^erale'),  a  representation  in  design  or  description  in 
which  the  salient  features  of  the  subject  are  exaggerated, 
and  point  is  thus  given  to  the  general  likeness.  The  object 
of  C.  is  to  realise  the  ludicrous,  and  in  effecting  this  object 
idealisation  is  ignored  and  harmony  scorned.  C.  is  thus  a 
degenerate  form  of  art.  When,  however,  it  is  made  the  vehicle 
of  satire,  and  thus  abandons  its  nsual  function  (to  amuse), 
and  rises  to  a  higher  one  (to  teach),  it  must  be  regarded  as  a 
worthy  and  honourable  form  of  artistic  expression.  The  arrows 
of  H<^arth's  satire  are  winged  with  C.  C.  is  one  of  the 
oldest  forms  of  33\.  Ancient  Egyptian  art  is  usually  grave 
and  sombre,  yet  it  furnishes  numerous  specimens  of  C,  while 
in  the  arts  of  Greece  and  Rome  it  has  an  important  place. 
During  the  middle  ages  it  flourished  in  every  European  nation, 
and  in  these,  monks  and  priests  were  frequently  chosen  as  its 
subjects.  In  contemporary  British  art  the  best  examples  of 
C.  are  to  be  found  in  the  pages  of  Putuk  and  Vamty  Fab: 
See  Wright's  History  of  C.  and  Grotesque  (Lond.  1865),  and 
his  C.  Histories  of  the  Georges  (1868)  and  of  Napoleon  IIL 
(1871). 

Oa'ries  (Lat.  'rottenness')  is  a  term  somewhat  vaguely 
applied  to  any  kmd  of  ulcer  in  bone.  C,  proper,  however, 
is  an  ulceration  characterised  by  having  fine  needle-like  pieces 
of  bone  in  it,  mixed  up  with  marrow  and  weak  flabby  granu- 
lations. A  probe  passed  into  the  ulcer  sinks  deep  into  the  soft 
spongy  bone.  The  portion  of  bone  next  to  the  ulcer  is  expanded  by 
the  opening  out  of  its  texture.  The  ulcer  is  uneven,  being  deeper 
in  one  part  than  another.  C.  may  be  simple  or  the  result  of  a 
scrofulous  constitution.  It  may  be  caused  by  an  ulcer  spread- 
ing to  a  bon  m  om  cartilages,  or  by 
excessive  syph  h  n  ry  I  y  cur  in  any  bone,  but 
most  frequentl  h  rt  rregular  bones  as  the 
Vertebrffi  (q.  h  bo  th  nk  foot,  wrist,  or  hand. 
In  a  long  b  n  g  n  y  ppears  n  r  the  articular  end. 
C  in  the  ve  r:e  g  d  m  ity,  producing  cur- 
vature of  the  n  d  hump  d  b  k  It  is  always  accom- 
panied by  mo  es  kn  ss  h  general  health.  The 
proper  treatment  of  C.  consists  m  givmg  nourishing  food, 
tonics,  cod-liver  oil,  syrup  of  the  iodiife  of  iron.  Injections  oi 
solution  of  chloride  of  zinc  or  the  dilute  mineral  acids  are  often 
beneficial.  In  joints,  excision  is  often  practised  with  gi 
results.  Sometimes  the  diseased  portion  is  removed  by  a  gouge, 
or  the  whole  bone  may  be  removed  when  practicable. 

Caries  of  the  Teeth  is  the  term  used  to  denote  decay  of 
that  portion  of  a  Tooth  (q.  v.)  called  the  dentine.  It  may 
commence  on  the  surface  of  the  tooth  or  beneath  the  enamel. 
In  its  early  stage  the  diseased  pMls  may  be  scooped  out,  and 
the  tooth  stuffed  with  gold  or  cement  j  but  when  the  pulp  cavity 
of  the  toolh  is  exposed  by  C.,  extraction  of  the  tooth  is  the  pra- 
pOT  remedy.     See  Toothache. 

Caries,  in  plants,  consists  in  the  decay  of  the  walls  of  the  cells 
or  vessels,  and  though  not  caused  by  fungi,  is  yet  promoted  by 
their  presence. 

Oarigna'no,  a  walled  town  in  the  province  of  Turin,  N. 
Italy;  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Po,  1 1  miles  S.  of  Turin,  with  silk 
manu&ctories,  and  a  pop,  of  4824.  The  district  is  fertile,  but 
the  atmosphere  is  very  humid. 

Garima'ta,  an  island,  group  of  islands,  and  strait,  to  the 
S.W.  of  Borneo,  between  it  and  Billiton.  The  single  island, 
which  is  much  the  largest  of  the  group,  is  about  10  miles  long 
and  5  broad,  and  attains  a  height  of  over  2000  feet. 


y  Google 


CAR 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Carinar'ia,  a  genus  of  aberrant  Gasterapadous  moUusca,  in- 
cluded in  the  section  HUeropoda  or  Nudeobranckiata  of  that 
class,  and  in  the  family  Firotids.  The  gills  are  borne  on  the 
back,  and  are  protected  by  a  small  univalve  shell  The  animal 
IS  back  downwards  by  aid  of  a  ventral  fin-like  organ,  con- 
ig  of  the  modhed  foot,'  whilst  it  may  adhere  to  sea- 
weed, &c.,  byasucter-like 
disc  borne  on  the  foot. 
These  animals  occur  as 
free- swimming  or^nisms, 
chiefly  in  the  tropica!  seas. 
C.  cymMum  is  the  famili?,r 
species. 

Oar'i^ate  Birds,  or 
OarinatEe,    is    Huxley's 
i-|^jj,^J3  name  for  one  of  the  three 

great  divisions  into  which 
he  divides  the  class  Aves  or  Birds.  The  C.  B.  include  by  far  the 
it  majority  of  bhds,  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  the  breast- 
bone or  sternum  possesses  a  proiniitent  ridge  or  '  keel '  ( Carina), 
The  ostriches,  and  other  Cursores  ha,ving  flat  or  raft-like  sterna^ 
are  named  RcUitcs  ;  whilst  Huxley's  third  division,  Saarune,  iii- 
ciudes  but  a  single  bird,  the  extinct  Archapp^ryx  (q.v.). 

Cari'iu,  an  old  town  in  the  province  of  Sicily,  S.  Italy,  is 
miles  W.  N.  W,  of  Palermo,  has  a  rained  castle,  ipd  son^e  fishing 
and  coasting  trade.     Pop.  9000. 

CarinoTa,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Caserta,  S.  Italy,  lies  ifl 
a  rich  wine  district,  20  miles  S.E.  of  Gaeta.  Its  chief  building 
are  a  cathedral  and  a  convent  of  tl*e  Franciscan  order.    Pop. 

Oaiin1Jila(Ger,^o>n/'«2orA'ojr»i;i»!),aductyati,iIcrow(i-landi 
in  the  S.W.  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  Empire.  Area,  4005  sq. 
miles;  pop.  (1869)337,694.  It  is  in  great  part  mountainous,  and 
is  traversed  from  W.  to  E.  by  the  Drave,  with  its  tributaries  the 
Mbl,  Lavant,  Gail,  and  Gurk.  The  plains  and  valleys  are  well 
tdtivafed,  and  there  is  a,  l^ige  number  of  the  inhabitants  en- 
gaged in  the  rearing  of  horses,  cattle,  sfieep,  goats,  and  swi5,e. 
There  are  also  active  manufactures  of  iron  and  sted  wares,  chiefly 
in  Klagenfiirt  (the  capital)  and  Villach.  The  export  ^rade  has 
been  greatly  promoted  of  late  years  by  the  Carinthiati  Railway. 
The  Government  has  its  largest  lead-;nines  in  the  Villach  Alps, 
where  is  found  the  finest  mmeral  in  Europe.  C.  is  named  from 
its  earHest  known  inhabitanlsj  the  Celtic  Cc. 
w  called  f        the  hon^  or  cra^  (Celtic,  mm;  comp.  Lat 

E  horn)  f  the  rugged  region.  G.  was  under  Noricnm 
ell  h  ti  f  A  gustus,  who  mde  it  part  of  the  Roman 
Emj  S         f      the  fall  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire  the 

ry  p   d  by  Slaves,  who  later  required  the  service 

f  Era  k  H  d  Samo  to  repel  the  encroachments  of  the 
A  =1  f  rmed  the  extensive  Slavic  kingdom  of  Ca:ran- 

t  wh   1     ft     h  s  death  was.  annexed  by  Chmrlemagne,  who 

made  it  a  markgrafdom  of  the  Frankish  Empire.  It  wasKused 
to  a  duchy  in  the  loth  c,  Ijccame  part  of  Austria  iij  1335,  and 
a  crown-land  in  1849.  See  Ankershofen,  GescMckie  d^s  Her- 
xogthums  Karntm  (2  vols.  Klagenf.  1857-59). 

Oati'pe,  a  town  of  Venezuela,  S.  America,  50  miles  E.  of 
Ciunana.  Pop.  about  5000.  Humboldt,  in  his  Personal  Nar- 
roHve,  describes  a  vast  cavern  in  the  neighbourhood  of  C.  which 
is  frequented  by  countless  numbers  of  the  Guacharo  (q.  v.),  a 
bird  pecuhar  to  S.  America. 

Oariae'a,  a  gemis  of  Apocynace^s  plants,  cojisisting  of 
shrubs  with  milky  juice,  natives  of  Asia  and  tropical  Australia. 
C.  Carandas  of  India  is  employed  for.  fencing  ;  the  fruits  are  also 
eaten  as  a  conserve.  The  bark  and  wood  {Bois  amire)  of  C. 
Xylopicron  of  the  Mauritius  and  Bourbon  ace  used  by  Ih?  natives 
in  diseases  of  the  urinary  oi^ns.  Cups  are  made  of  its  wood, 
in  which  water  is  allowed  to  stand  until  it  gets  bitter,  as  in  the 
'bitter  cups'  of  quassia  in  this  country  (Masters). 

Oar'jaoon,  or  Car'iaooTi  {Cariacus  Virginianm),  a  species 
of  Cervidn  or  deer  inhabiting  N.  America,  and  sometimes  known 
as  the  'Virginian  deer.'  The  horns  of  the  adult  males  are  bent 
backvrards,  and  then  sharply  turned  forwards,  so  as  to  bring  the 
tips  above  the  nose,  or  nearly  so.     '  Snags ' 


branches 
I  side  of  the  base  of  each  horn,  and 
several  on  the  posterior  edge.   The  colour  of  the  animal  is  reddish- 


noff,  c 


in  spring,  bluish  in  autumn,  and  brown  in  winter.  The 
belly,  throat,  chin,  and  inner  aspects  of  the  limbs  are  white.  The 
adult  is  about  5  feet  m  length.  The  C,  is  easily  domesticated  if 
taken  young. 

Carlen,  Emili^,  a  Swedish  novelist,  the  youngest  of  a 
family  of  fourteen,  was  bom  at  Stromstad,  8th  August  1807. 
Hec  maiden  name  was  Schmidt,  _  She  was  married  in  1827  to  a 
physician  called  Flygare,  who  died  in  1833,  and  again  in  1841 
'-  J.Gabriel  Carlen,  author  and  lawyer.  Her  first  literary  efi"ort 
13  Waliimai-  JCleitt  ((838),  since  which  time  she  has  poured 
forth  a  constant  stream  of  novels,  many  of  which  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English.  The  principal  are  Ivar,  or  the  Shjuts  Bey  ; 
Woman's  Life;  J^hn,  a  JVovtl;  Xhe  Hermit;  Man£  Louise; 
Ji4ic,  or  Lovi  and  Dufy  ;  Gustaf  IMderm,  the  Guardian.  They 
deaji  chiefiy  with  humble  life,  and  are  very  popular. 

Oarl0on,  William,  ?n  ^rish  novelist,  was  bom  in  1798,  at 
frillisk,  Tyrone.  After  a  youth  of  poverty,  he  betook  himself 
to  Dublin,  where,  in  ^830,  he  published  his  Traits  ami  Stories  of 
the  Irish  i^asantry  (Sth  ed.  1864}.  It  was  well  received,  as  was 
also  a  second  series.  C.  has  produced  various  humorous,  and 
pathetic  tales,  among  others  FardBreugha  the  Miser  (Dub. 
1839!;  Body  the  Sover  (D'ah.  1846);  The  Black  Propkii,  a  Tall 
of  Irish  Family  (Dub.  1847)  ;  The  Tithg.  Proctor  (Dub.  1845) ; 
Willy  keilfy  (Dub.  1855)  j  The  £^  Eye  (Dub.  i860).  They 
give  faithful,  touching  pictures  of  the  life  of  $ie  Irish  peasantry 
— the  class  to  which  C.  originally  belonged, 

Cai?li,  Giovanni  Einaliio,  Connt,  an  Italian  arch£eolo- 
gist,  sometimes  called  C.  Kubbi,  after  his  wife,  was  born  at 
Capo  d'Istrja,  irth  April  17ZO,  and  studied  ?.t  the  University  of 
Padua,  III  1741  ^  was  appointed  Professor  of  Navigation  and 
Astronomy  by  the  Seriate  of  Venice,  but  resigned  his  professor- 
ship in  1749,  and  retired  to  Istria.  In  1771  he  was  made  Presi- 
dent oi  the  Council  of  Commerce  and  Finance  at  Milan,  where 
he  died,  22d  Febraary  1795-  A  collected  edition  of  his  works 
was  published  at  Milan  (1784-94)  in  18  vols.  They  embrace 
a  wide  range  of  subjects  in  literature,  science,  and  economics. 
A,m(Hig  the  most  noteworthy  are  hi^  treatises,  Dsllt  Monde 
e  dai  Istitiidone  delU  Zccche  d'lialia  (3  vols.  1754-60)1  ^d  his 
Dells  Afttichili  Ilaliche  {^  ^o]s.  MiJ.  1788-91)., 

Carline  ThisUe  {Carlina),  a  genus  of  pjarits  of  the  natural 
order  Cotapesil^.  Tlie  legend  attached  to  it  is  that  an  angel  ap- 
peared to  the  Emperor  Qiarlemagne  pointmg  oat  the  C,  T.  as 
a  remedy  for  the  plague,  hence  the  name.  Linnseus,  however, 
ascribes  the  name  to  the  Emperor  Karl  V.,  whose  army  was 
relieved  in  Barbaryof  the  plague  by  t(ie  sat^e  remedy.  C.aeaalis 
grows  over  the  middle  of  Europe,  and  is  in  great  repute  as 
possessing  in  its  roots  drastic  puigative  qualities  :  its  use  is  now 
almost  confined  to  veterinary  practice.  C\  smlgaris  is  the  only 
British  species  ;  it  grows  on  poor  soils.  C.  gummi/era  and  other 
species  contain  a  resia_  in  which  the  active  properties  are  believed 
to  reside. 

Oarling,  Oarle,  or  Care  Sunday,  the  fifth  Sunday  ii 
Lent,  on  which  callings,  or  parched  peas,  used  formerly  t' 
be  eaten, 

Oarlings,  in  shipbuildings  ate  short  beams  laid  fore  and  aft 
with  their  ends  secured  into  the  great  transverse  beams.  Tliey 
help  to  support  the  deck,  and  to  bind  together  the  principal 
beams. 

Carlisle',  a  ?ity  in  the  N.  of  Cumberland,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Eden,  Caldew,  and  Peterll,  12  miles  E.  of  the  Solway 
Firth,  60  W.  of  Newcastle,  and  105  N.N.W,  of  Manchester.  It 
hes  in  a  beautiful  and  fertile  district,,  is  steadily  extending,  and  has 
s^eral  fine  streets,  diyereing  from  the  large  market-place  a 
centre.  Its  principal  modem  buildings  are  the  court-nooses  fi 
county  gaol,  the  Camberland  infirmary,  enlai^ed  in  1S74,  the 
post-office,  tlie'Ckadel  railway  station,  and  the  local  banks.  In 
front  of  the  court-houses  stands  a  white  marble  statue  of  William 
Earl  of  Lonsdale,  and  in  the  market-place  is  another,  erected  ii 
honour  of  Mr  James  Steel,  a  distinguished  local  journalist.  Thi 
railway  station  is  the  terminus  of  no  fewer  than  eight  lines.  C 
Castle,  in  which  Queen  Mary  Stuart  was  imprisoned  in  1568,  i; 
still  used  as  barracks.  C.  has  been  the  see  of  a  bisliop  sinci 
1101,  and  four  canons  are  attached  to  its  celebrated  cathedral, 
which  is  a  small  red-fi:cestone  building,  partly  of  Norman  and 
partly  of  Early  English  architecture,  and  reputed  to  have  the  finest 
27 


vGooqIc 


OAR 


7'HE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOF^DIA. 


CAE 


eastern,  window  in  Englsmd,  consisting  of  nine  richly- coloured 
lights.  It  was  founded  by  William  Rufus,  and  dedicated  by  Heniy 
I.  inlioi.  C  has  manufactures  of  cotton.  Woollens,  linen,  leather, 
iron,  and  hardware.  It  has  also  valuable  salmon- fisheries.  Sil- 
loth  (q.  T.)  is  its  port.  It  returns  two  members  to  Parliament. 
Pop.  (1871)  31,049.  C.  was  probably  a  British  town  before  the 
Roman  invasion,  aud  is  thought  to  be  the  site  of  the  Roman 

on  iMmvallum.     But  it  first  becomes  historicill  m  the  poems 

of  the  Welsh  bards,  where  it  appears  as  Catr  Uitatllyiid,  of  which 
the  modem  name  is  a  corruption.  It  was  the  residence  of  the 
British  Kings  of  Cumbria,  and  was  sacked  by  the  Angles  of 
Northumbria  about  58a  In  the  i  rth  c  it  began  to  emerge 
from  obscurity,  and  subsequently,  till  the  union  of  England  and 
Scotland,  it  continued,  as  a  fortress,  to  play  a  conspicuous  part 
in  Border  history.  In  1745  it  rradily  surrendered  to  Prince 
Charles  Stuart,  but  it  was  recaphired  by  the  Duke  of  Cumber- 
land, who  summarily  executed  many  of  the  citizens.  In  the  vlei- 
nitjT  of  C.  have  been  found  many  Roman  antiquities,  mainly 
coins,  allars,and  brass  vases, 

Oftrliele,  a  flomishing  town  of  Pennsylvania,  125  miles  W. 
of  Philadelphia,  and  18  S.W.  of  Harrisbui'g  by  railway.  lilies 
in  the  Great  Limestone  Valley,  between  the  Kitlatinny  and  South 
Mountains,  is  the  seat  of  a  Methodist  College  (Dickmson's),  and 
increasing  manufactuces,  chiefly  of  machinefv-  fop.  (1870} 
5650. 

Carlisle,  Frederick  Howard,  Earl  of,  was  bean  zSth 
May  1748,  and  succeeded  to  the  fiarldom  at  the  age  of  ten.  His 
mother,  Isabella  Byrpp,  ijyas  a  sister  of  the  famous  admiral  and 
navigator.     C.  was  educated  at  "Eioa  and  Oxford.     In  17S0  he 

"  15  appointed  Viceroy  of  Ireland,  and  was  for  ^  ti,ni?  an  oppo- 
nt  of^Pitt  in  Failiaraent,  but  changed  his  politics  after  the  out- 
break of  the  French  Revolution,  He  dieij  4th  September  1 825. 
~.  was  an  able  pplitician,  but  is  best  known  by  his  contributions 
_o  literattire,  wh^cb  were  published  in  a  coilectije  form  in  1801 
under  the  title  of  ^Tragedies  and  Pomis,  and  gaye  occasion  to  a 
recklessly  bitter  note  in  Byron's  English  Bards  and  Scotch 
ffffi^Wtwj.— GSorgo  William  Frederiat  Howard,  Earl  of 
"Z.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom  April  18,  1802,  and  educated 

it  Eton  and  Osibid,  where  he  won  the  Chancellor  and  Newde- 
jate  prizes  for  Latin  and  English  verSe.  C,  entered  Parliament 
as  a  Liberal,  sitting  fiist  for  Morpeth,  and  subsequently  for  the 
West  Riding  erf  Yoriishire.  Under  the  administrations  of  Lord 
Melbourne,  Lord  John  Russell,  and  Lord  Palmersfon,  he  held 
various  offices,  including  those  of  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland, 
Chief  Commissioner  of  Woods  and  Forests,  Chancellor  of  the 


ture.       Besides    delivering 

writings  of  Pope,  &c.,  he  wrote  a  Diary  in  Turkish  and  Greek 

Wattrs  (1854),  and  a  book  on  Prophecy. 

Carlo  Al'ber'tO  Anteda'o,  King  of  Sardinia,  bom  2d  Octo- 
ber 1798,  a  son  of  Prince  Carlo  Eroanueleof  Savoy-Carignan, 
who  died  in  1,860.  C.,  connected  through  his  mother  with  the 
house  of  Saxony;  married  in  £817  Maria  Theresa,  daughter  of 
Ferdinand  of  Tuscany,  and  on  the  Piedmontese  revolution  of  1821, 
became  for  a  short  time  Regent  of  Sardinia,  introducing  a  con- 
itionai  government,  which  was  repudiated  by  Carlo  FeUce, 
successor  of  Vittorio  EmanueJe  on  the  thronci  After  acting 
two  jTKirs  as  Vicero;?  of  Sardmis(,  C.  succeeded,  his  title  having 
been  previously  recogiused  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna.  At  first, 
Austrian  influence  and  the  fear  of  Carbonarism,  thwarted  the 
essentially  Libeml  intentions  of  the  new  King,  but  after  the  ac- 
cession of  Pio  Nono,  the  army  was  nationalised,  the  press  laws 
modified,  and,  when  the  year  of  revolutions  came,  C.  was  able 
to  assist  Lombardy  against  the  Austrians  with  a  iaige  and  enthu- 
siastic army.  The  superior  numbers  under  Radetsky  were  vic- 
torious at  Villafranc^,  Milan,  and  Novara  (1849},  and  C.,  ab- 
dicating in  favour  of  (lis  son,  Vittorio  Emanuele'  II,,  retired  to 
Oporto,  where  he  died,  28th  July  1849.  '  C.  patronised  the  fine 

Carlo  Emanoele  I.,  called  'the  Great,'  Duke  of  Savoy, 
born  at  Rivoli,  12th  January  1562,  succeeded  his  father,  Fili- 
berto  Emanuele  (Iron-head),  and  married  in  1585  Catherine,  the 
youngest  daughter  of  Philip  of  Spain.  His  favourite  policy  was 
-o  gain  a  footing  in  Provence  and  SaKiizo  by  playing  the  part  of 


28 


a  Catholic  liberator  ;  he  even  laid  claim  to  ihe  French  crown  on 
the  death  of  Henri  HI.,  whose  cousin  he  was  ;  Ijut  in  1597  the 
Protestant  leaders,  Lesdiguieres  and  La  Valelte,  forced  him  to 
withdraw  from  Provence.  Compelled  in  1601  to  give  up  several 
districts  in  the  department  of  Ain,  and  unsuccessful  in  his  at- 
tacks on  Geneva,  C.  at  last  became  the  ally  of  France,  and  for 
several  ye^rs  was  \xy  the  field  against  the  Spanish  power  in  N. 
Italy,  v[hCTe  he  obtained  the  territory  of  Montferrat.  C.  was 
put  forwar4  by  the  Protestant  Union  as  a  candidate  for  the  em- 
pire at  the  death  of  Matthias.  The  league  against  the  action  of 
Spain  against  the  Protestants  of  Vaitellina,  a  war  wiih  Geneva 
about  the  territory  of  Zuccarello,  and  the  invasion  by  Louis 
Xlll.  of  Savoy  and  Piedmont,  fill  up  the  rest  of  a's  life.  He 
died  at  Savillan,  26th  July  1630,  leaving  a  military  reputation 
which  was  not  founded  oi)  military  success. 

Carlos,  Don,  Infante  of  Spain,  bom  July  8,  1545,  at  Valla- 
dolid,  was  the  son  of  Philip  II.  by  his  first  wife,  Maria  of  Por- 
tugal. Originally  declared  the  King's  heir,  he  was  afterwards 
passed  over  for  his  cousin  Rudolfo,  and  in  consequence  is  sup- 
posed to  have  entered  into  a  plot  agidnst  the  King  and  his 
favourite,  the  Duke  of  Alva,  At  all  events,  on  the  declaration 
of  a  priest  who  divulged  what  had  been  said  in  confession 
{Christmas  Eve,  1567),  he  was  found  guilty  of  conspiring  against 
the  King's  life,  and  imprisoned.  He  died  July  24,  1568.  It  was 
suspected  at  the  time  that  he  had  been  poisoned  or  strai^led,  but 
of  this  there  is  no  proof.  His  fate  lias  been  made  the  subject  of 
dramas  by  Montalvan  (Spanish),  Alfieri  [Italian),  Schiller  (Ger- 
man), and  Russell  (English).  Sst'Prs'icon's  History  0/ the  Reign 
of  Philip  the  Second  (Bost.  1856),  and  Gachard's  Don  C.  ei  Fhi- 
lippe  II.  (BrusE.  1863),  which  contains  a  complete  collection  of 
the  original  documents. 

OarlOB  de  Bourljoji,  Don  Maria  laidor,  bom  Matdi  29, 
178S,  was  the  second  son  of  Charles  IV.  of  Spain,  and  brother 
of  Ferdinand  VII,,  who  obtained  the  Spanish  throne  after  the 
expulsion  of  the  French.  He  is  solely  notable  for  his  attempts 
to  gain  the  throne,  his  pretensions  to  which  were  blasted  by  uie 
biiSi  of  a  daughter  (the  late  Queen  Isabelk)  to  Ferdinand,  and 
the  abrcgation  of  the  Salique  law,  excludmg  females  from  the 
throne.  After  Ferdmand's  death,  his  ckims,  although  supported 
by  Dom  Miguel  in  Portugal,  were  not  acknowledged  by  the 
European  powers,  and,  after  he  had  made  an  attempt  to  excite 
an  insurrection,  were  rejected  by  the  constituent  Cortes.  In  1844 
he  abdicated  in  favour  of  Don  C. ,  his  eldest  son,  and  went  to  live 
at  Trieste,  where  he  died,  March  10,  1855. — Don  Carloa,  the 
younger,  belter  known  as  the  Count  de  Montemolin,  bom  January 
31,  1818,  endeavoured,  but  also  m  V£un,  to  obtain  the  throne, 
and,  in  1 860,  being  arrested  in  Frjmce,  signed  a  renunciation  of 
his  claims.  He  died  January  14,  1861, — ITie  third  Carlist 
pretender,  also  calling  himself  Don  Carlos,  is  the  nephew  of 
the  Count  de  Montemolin,  being  the  son  of  his  brother  Juan, 
and  was  born  in  1848.  After  the  revolution  whidi  expelled 
Queen  Isabella  in  1868,  Carlist  risings  took  pkce  in  various 
parts  of  Spam,  and  from  1871  to  1875  Don  C.  was  estab- 
lished in  the  Basque  Provinces,  His  troop  uiflicted  several 
defeats  upon  the  forces.  Republican  and  Alphonsist,  opposed  to 
them,  but  were  subsequently  completely  crushed.  The  surrender 
of  Estella  (February  i8j6)  compelled  Don  C  to  flee  into  France, 
and  the  miserable  stm^le  is  now  over,  at  least  for  a  time. 

Carloa,  San,  a  town  of  Venezuela,  S.  America,  on  the  Agiiare, 
a  tributary  of  the  Aptire,  about  70  miles  S.S.E.  of  Valencia. 
The  rearing  of  cattle  and  the  cultivation  of  indigo,  cotton,  and 
coffee  are  the  principal  industries.  The  prosperity  of  this  town 
was  seriously  damaged  by  the  wars  of  independence;  hut  it  has 
more  than  recovered  its  former  wealth  and  importance.  Pop. 
(1873)  10,420. 

CEj^ovipz,  or  Ka^ovitz,  a  town  in  the  military  frontier  of 
the  Seryian  Banat,  Austrian  Empire,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Danube,  8  miles  S.S.E,  of  Peterwardeln.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
patriarch  and  metropolitan  of  the  'non-united  Greeks,'  has  a 
theological  school  helonguig  to  that  sect,  and  a  gvmnasium. 
Pop.  (1869)  4419.  From  the  vineyards  on  the  mountains  in  the 
vicinity  is  obtained  a  laige  supply  of  a  strong  red  wine  which  is 
classed  with  the  choicest  vintages  of  Hungary,  At  C.  was  con- 
eluded,  26th  January  1699,  a  treaty  of  peace  between  Turkey 
and  the  Allies,  Germany,  Russia,  Poland,  and  Venice,  by  which 


yLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


OAR 


mination  of  Hungary. 

CarlovingrUtn  or  Carolingian  Dynasty,  a  Latinised 
spelling  of  the  name  of  the  second  Geiinan  dynasty  that  ruled  in 
France.    See  Kaholings. 

Carlow,  an  inland  county  of  Iceland,  province  of  Leinster  ; 
area,  346  sq.  miles;  pop.  (1871)  51,650,  being  a  decrease  of 
5487  since  l86r.  It  Is  triangular  in  shape,  with  the  vertex  to- 
wards the  S.,  and  is  hilly  on  its  E.  arid  W.  borders,  but  the 
greater  part  is  level  and  fertile.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Slaney 
and  the  Barrow.  lu  1S73  there  were  79,416  acres  under  grain 
crops  ;  potatoes  and  turnips  were  lai^ely  cultivated  ;  and  about 
a  third  was  in  meadow  and  clover.  There  are  many  flour-mills 
along  the  Barrow,  and  malting  and  distilling  ace  important 
industries.  Flour,  oatmeal,  and  dairy  produce  are  exported, 
and  a  good  deal  of  ba,coii  is  cured  fp.r  th?  home  market,  C. 
returns  two  county  members  to  Parliament.  There  are  crom- 
lechs near  C.  and  Hacl!etstc(Wn  on  the  Dereeu. 

Carlow,  the  capital  of  the  county  of  C,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Barrow,  wliere  it  is  joined  by  the  Barren,  56  miles  S.W.  of 
Dublin  by  rail.  The  Irisli  form  of  the  name  is  Cdkerloih, 
pronounced  Caherlmgh  ('  (Quadruple  lake '),  thete  being  a  tradi- 
tion that  the  Barrow  here  at  one  time  formed  four  lakes  j  and 
early  English  writers  spell  it  Catherlogh.  C.  consists  mainly  of 
two  streets,  and  the  suburb  of  Graigue  in  Queen's  County.  It 
has  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  a^d  a  college  for  the  education 
of  Roman  Cathohca',  founded  in  17S9,  and  enlarg<;d  in  ^S28. 
"  :re  are  large  gr^nding-mills  both  on  the  Barrow  and  the 
ren,  and  an  extensive  trade  is  carried  on  in  butter  and  agri- 
cultural produce.  The  castle,  founded  by  the  De  Lacys  about 
the  close  of  the  12th  c,  remained  in  an  ^n\ost  complete  state 
till  1S14,  when  an  attempt  was  made  to  reduce  the  thickness  of 
the  walls  and  to  enlarge  th?  windows  by  gunpowder,  and  the 
greater  part  was  destroyed,  f^p.  of  C.  proper  {1S71),  6526  ; 
of  portion  in  Queen's  County,  1316;  total,  7S42.  ''"'">  "■'"- 
returns  one  member  to  Parliament 

Carlsbad.     See  Kaiser-Karlsbad. 

Oarlacrona.     See  Karlskkona. 

Carlshamm.     See  Karlshamm. 

Oarlsrulie.    See  Karlsruhe. 

Oarlstad.     See  Karlstad. 

Carlstadt.     See  Karlstadt. 

Carludovi'ca,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  / 


sometimes  takes  three  n^onths  to  make,  and  costs  as  much  as  ^30. 
Carluke',  a  burgh  in  the  upper  ward  of  Lanarkshire,  n^ar 
the  right  bank  of  the  Clyde,  19^  rtiiles  E-  by  S.  from  Qlasgow, 
and  a  station  on  the  Caledonian  Railway,  The  district  is  rich 
in  iron  and  coal.  About'a'  mile  from  the  town  are  the  large 
works  of  the  Shotts  Iron  Company.  C  is  the  birthplace  of 
Genera!  Roy,  the  famous  military  antiquary.  Pop.  (1S71)  3423. 
Many  Roman  telio^  have  been  found  in  the  vicinity. 

Oarlyle,  Alexander,  D.D,  (bom  January  26,  1722;  died 
August  25,  1805),  for  fifly-sevei!  years  minister  of  the  parish  of 
Inveresk  (IWusselburgh),  is  chiefly  known  as  the  contemporary 
andfriendofHume,Home,  and  Robertson, andasone  of  the  leaders 
of  the  Moderate  party  in  the  Church  of  Scotland.  He  was  a 
man  of  singularly  fine  presence,  being  popularly  known  as 
Jstpiter  C,  and  described  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  as  '  the  grandest 
demigod  I  ever  saw,'  His  autobii^raphy,  containing  Memorials 
efthe  Mm  and  Events  of  Ms.  Time,  was  published  in  i860  under 
the  editorship  of  Mr  (now  Dr)  John  Hill  Burton.  It  is  admitted 
to  be  one  of  the  best  books  of  the  autobiographical  kind,  and  its 
shrewd,  lively  sketches  of  the  men  and  manners  of  the  period  in 
which  lie  lived  are  invaluable  for  historical  purposes. 

Oarlyle,  Thomas,  the  '  censor  of  the  age,'  and  one  of  the 
greatest  forces  in  British  literature,  is  the  eldest  son  of  a  shrewd 
Scotsman,  who  had  a  farm  near  the  village  of  Ecclefeehan,  in 
the  parish  of  Hoddom,  Dumfriesshire.  There  C.  was  born, 
December  4,  1795.     After  receiving  instruction  at  Ecclefeehan 


parish  school  and  the  bui^h  school  of  Annan,  C.  proceeded  in 
1810  to  the  University  of  Edinbuigh,  with  the  in 
wards  abandoned,  of  studying  for  the  ministry 
Church.      He  applied  himself  to  classics,  and  m 

mathematics  and  general  literature,  with  such  e 
injured  his  veiy  robust  health.     After  finishing  t      Art       m 
culum,  he  was  appointed  mathematical  teacher  g 

school  of  Annan,  a  post  which  he  held  for  two  years 
obtained  a  similar  situation  in  the  bui^h  school       K  kca 
His  stay  there  is  chiefly  notable  for  his  making  m 

acquaintance  of  Edward  Irving,  a  schoolfellow  at  Annan,  and 
then  niastjr  of  an  advenitire  sdiool  in  Kirkcaldy.  In  the  end 
of  lSl8,  Cleft  KirkcaldyforEdinburgh.where  he  read  hard  for 
three  years,  and  contributed  articles  to  Brewster's  Edinburgh 
Encyclofiadta.  In  1821  C,  became  tutor  to  Charles  Buller.  In 
1823  ha  sent  to  the  London  Magaxim  the  first  part  of  his  Life  of 
Schiller;  and  in  1824  produced  a  translation  of  two  very  dissi- 
milar works,  Legendre'a  Astronomy  and  Goethe's  Wilhelm  Meister, 
the  latter  of  which  was  severely  treated  by  several  critics,  includ- 
ing De'Quinc^  and  Jeffrey.  Next  year  his  Schiller  appeared  in 
a  complete  form.  For  some  time  afterwards,  C,  occupied  him- 
self with  tianslating  German  romances.  In  1826  he  married  Miss 
Jane  Welsh,  a  lineal  descendant  of  John  Knox,  and  two  years 
later  retired  to  the  farm  of  Craigenputtoch,  his  wife's  property, 
about  15  miles  N.W.  of  Dumfries,  and  described  by  him  in  a 
lettei:  to  Goethe  as  the  'loneliest  nook  in  Britain.'  There  he 
contributed  to  various  reviews  that  celebrated  series  of  articles 
subsequently  republished  under  the  title  of  Miscellanies,  on 
French,  and  still  more  on  German,  authors,  such  as  Goethe, 
Novalis,  Heyne,  Schiller,  Warner,  and  Ri^hter  (wrhich  may  be 
said  to  have  opened  for  most  Englfehinen  the  treasury  of  German 
literature) ;  and  there  he  also  produced  his  first  great  and  purely 
oridnal  work,  Sartor  Resarlus,  which,  after  berog  rejected  l^  seve- 
ralLondonpublishers,  appeared,  hi  1833-34,  in  ^i-aJffl-'iAfa.^iia'Bf. 
C.  now  removed  to  London,  where  he  still  residea  From  this  date 
his  reputation  was  estahHshed,  and  has  since  steadily  grown.  Of 
the  works  he  has  produced  since  then,  ive  can  only  enumerate 
-ihe  ctAei— The  French  SevoluHon  {iZn) ;  CAdrHsm  (1839) ; /Wi 
and  Present  (1843) ;  and  latler-X>ay  I^mpAlets  (1850),  assftilii^ 
in  terms  of  unmeasured  contempt  the  (sir(Uptions,  as  he  deems 
them,  of  British  society  and  politics  ;  Oliver  CronnoelVs  Letteis 
fln(/.5Wn::fcj(i845),  the  work  that  first  won  for  him  the  admira- 
tion and  confidence  of  the  entire  English  public,  and  in  which 
his  extraordinary  power  of  taking  trouble  with  a  subject  was 
first  brought  home  to  the  English  njind ;  Life  of  John  SterUng 
(1851)1  History  of  Friedrich  II.  of  Prussia,  called  Frederick  the 
Gr,S(  (1858-65),  in  which  the  qualities  viable  in  his  Cromwell 
once  more  appear,  but  in  a  far  more  striking  and  powerful  way ; 
and,  in  iS??,'  Early  Kings  of  Neraiay,  with  Portraits  of  John 
Knox,  which  h?,d  previously  appeared  ip  Frasei's  Magatine. 
Several  editions  of  his  works  ha\e  been  puljlished,  of  which  that 
by  Chapman  &  HsU  (1869)  is  the  latest  and  best.  Between  1837 
and  1840,  C.  alsp  dehvered  in  London  four  series  of  lectures  on 
German  literature,  on  the  history  of  literature,  on  the  revolutions 
of  modem  Europe,  and  on  heroes  apd  hei;o- worship,  which  made 
a  powerful  sensation  at  the  time  they  were  delivered.  According 
to  Leigli  Hunt,  '  it  was  as  if  some  Puritan  had  come  to  life  a^in, 
liberaUsecl  by  Gertnan  philosophy  and  hjs  own  intense  reflections 
and  esperience.'  'in  the  session  of  1865-66,  C,  was  elected 
Lord  Rector  of  Edinburgh  University  by  the  students,  and  on 
April  2d  of  tlje  latter  year  delivered  a  characteristic  installation 
acHress.  TTie  same  year  bis  wife  died,  and  he  has  written 
but  little  since.  On  his  eightieth  birthday,  C.  was  presented 
with  an  address,  signed  by  upwards  of  a  hundred  men  of 
letters  and  savants,  and  a  medal  was  struck  in  honour  of  the 
occasion.  Of  the  value  of  C's  opinions  on  life,  society,  and 
pohtics,  it  is  not  yet  time  to  speak.  Whatever  may  be  the 
final  verdict  of  history,  one  thmg  will  always  be  gratefully 
^owed,  that  he  breathed  into  literature  a  nobler,  purer,  and 
sterner  spirit  than  ever  animated  it  before.  The  moral  influence 
of  his  writings  has  been  incalculably  great,  and  will  continue  to 
operate  beneficially  long  after  other  thoughts  than  C's  have 
acquired  dominion  over  the  mind  of  the  nation.  Nor  can  we 
eaJly  imagine  an  age  so  far  sunk  in  triviality  and  imjjotence  that 
it  will  be  indifferent  to  the  picturesque  creations  of  an  imagination 
unsurpassed  in  this  century,  or  to  a  humour  which  combines  the 
riot  of  Rabelais  with  the  grimness  of  Knosr. 
John  AitkenC,M.I}.,  LL.D.,  a  younger  brother  of  Thomas 
29 


y  Google 


CAR 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


C,  was  born  at  Ecclefechan,  July  7,  180I,  He  is  known  chiefly 
KS  the  author  of  a  very  line  transktion  of  Dante's  Inferiw.  He 
has  also  written  articles  for  magazines,  none  of  which,  however, 
have  as  Jet  been  republished. 

Oarmagnola,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Turin,  N.  Italy, 
near  the  Po,  15  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Turin.  It  has  an  active  trade 
ill  silk,  flax,  hemp,  corn,  and  cattle,  and  manufactures  of  jewel- 
lery. Pop.  12,519.  C.  is  the  birthplace  of  the  famous  Venetian 
general,  Francesco  Buasone. 

Cartnagnole,  a  notorious  song  during  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, which  was  accompanied  by  a  dance  to  the  refrain  ;— 
'  Dansons  la  Carmagnole ; 


It  was  named  after  the  town  Carmagnola,  in  Pi^dmoixt,  because 
Savoyard  boys  frequently  weiit  about  with  it.  The  word  was 
also  applied  to  a  kind  of  jacket,  the  wearing  of  wrhich  was  con- 
sidered patriotic,  and  to  the  high-flown  reports  about  the 
achievements  of  the  French  army  whi^h  were  issued, 

Oar^nel  (Heb.  '  a  garden  ').  i.  A  mountain  ridg;e  in  Pales- 
tine, which  branches  off  from  the  N.  end  of  the  ipountains  of 
Samaria,  runs  N.V?,  between  the  plains  of  Sharon  and  of 
Esdraelon,  and  the  N.W.  extrem,ity  of  which  projects  far  into 
the  sea,  forming  a  bold,  promontory,  the  only  one  along  the 
whole  coast  of  Palestine.  Its  length  is  about  16  miles,  and  its 
highest  point  1750  feet  above  the  sea.  a.  A  town  in  the  moun- 
tamsof  Judah,  the  residence  of  Nabal  (l  Sani.  xxv.). 

Oarmel,  Knighta  o.f  Mou^t,  an  order  of  knights,  coitsist- 
ing  of  a  hundred  FrencK  gentlemen,  each  of  whom  could  prove 
at  least  four  descents  of  nobility  by  both  father  and  mother.  It 
was  instituted  by  Henri,  Kine  of  franco  and  Navarre,  was  con- 
firmed by  a  bull  of  Pope  Paul  V.  in  1607,  aiid  was  incorporated 
with  the  order  of  the  Knights  of  St  Lazarus  of  Jerusalem.  The 
specialty  of  the  Knight^  of  Mount  C^  wa^  peisonal  attendance  on 
the  king  during  war. 

Car'meliteB,  an  oj-dej  of  monks,  founded  on  Mount  Carmel 
by  Berthold,  Count  of  Limoge^  about  1156.  They  were  driven 
from  the  place  of  their  institution  by  the  Saraceng,  and  became 
a  mendicant  order  in  1247,  when  Simon  Stoch  was  their  general 
They  were  subsequently  divided  into  several  branches,  one  of 
which  is  the  barefooted  C.  Th^  order  of  C.  nuns  was  uisti- 
tnted  in  1453.     Both  still  ejiist  in,  Roman  Catholic  countries. 

Carmin'atives  are  medicines  that  remove  flatulency.  They 
are  so  called  because  they  were  supposed  to  i^ct  like  a  cliarni 
ifamim).    All  warm  and  stimulating  aromatics  are  C, 

Oar'mme,  a  very  beautiful  brilliant  scarlet  colour,^  consisting 
of  carminic  add,  the  colouring  matter  contained  in  the  cochineal 
insect  {Coccus  cactC;.  C.  is  soluble  in  wate^,  and  is  of  great 
value  as  a  painter's  colour,  chiefly  for  miniature  painting  and  as 
a  wWer-colour.  It  is  also  employed  in  the  dyeing  of  wool  when 
a  brighter  colour  than  can  be  produced  even  by  aniline  dyes  is 
desired,  C.  is  ordinarily  prepared  by  boiling  cochineal  with 
carbonate  of  potash,  to  which  after  l)oiling  a  prt^i^tion  of  alun^ 
is  added.  In  a  short  time  the  remains  of  the  ccihineal  fall  to 
the  bottom,  and  the  clear  liquidis  again  put  over  the  fire  with  a 
proportion  of  isinglass  dissolved  ui  a  lai^e  quantity  of  (vater. 
The  vessel  is  removed  from  the  fire  at  the  point  of  boiling  an,ii 
briskly  stirred,  after  which  the  C.  begins  to  deposit,  which  it 
does  completely  in  about  twenty  minutes.  When  drained  and 
dried  it  is  ready  for  use.  Clake  is  a  compound  of  C,  and 
alumina,  and  is  the  form  in  which  the  colour  is  chiefly  used  for 
water-colours.  Madder-C.  is  a  scarlet  lake  prepared  from 
madder  root.  Tlie  rouge  which  is  used  on  the  stage  and  else- 
where ought  to  owe  its  tint  to  C. 

Cai'moe,  or  Kar'moo,  an  island  on  the  W.  coast  of  Norway, 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Bukke  Fiord,  20  miles  N.W..  of  Sta- 
yanger.  It  is  21  miles  long  and  5  bioad,  and  has  about  6400 
mhabitants,  chiefly  engaged  m  fishmg  and  in  caltle-rearing. 

Oarmo'na,  a  town  of  Spam,  provmce  of  Seville,  on  a 
mountain  ridge  overlooking  a  fertile,  olive-clad  plain,  about  20 
N.E.  of  Seville.      The  oriental  walls  and  castle,  with  tli 


old  Gothic  church,  give 
30 


lo.t  picl 


:  the 


gate  leading  to  Cordova  is  particularly  striking.     Pop.    (1S60) 
15,121, 

Car'nac,  a  small  village  in  the  department  of  Morbihan, 
France,  on  a  height  near  the  sea,  1 6  miles  W.S.W.  ofVaimes. 
Pop.  of  commune  (1872)  2823 ;  of  village,  603.  It  is  cele- 
lo-aled  for  its  Celtic  remains,  some  4500  inverted  granite  obelislts, 
varying  in  height  £om  3  to  18  feet,  and  disposed  in  eleven 
parallel  rows.     The  origin  and  purpose  of  these  remains  is  uii- 

Oamah.^i'ba,  Carnauba,  or  Caranaiba  Palm  {Cepemida 
or  Carypha  cerifera),  a  fine  species  of  palm,  a  native  of  the 
northern  parts  of  Brazil,  where  it  exists  in  great  forests.  Wax 
forms  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves,  and  can  be  collected 
by  shaking  them.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  candles.  It 
has  been  imported  into  Btiiaui,  under  the  name  of  Camaiba  or 
Brazilian  wa^. 

Garnar'ia,  Cuvier's  n^e  given  to  an  order  of  mammalia 
including  the  Fens  or  beasts  of  prey  of  Lmnsus  (excepting  the 
Marsupi(Us  at  pouched  mammals),  and  also  the  CkiiropUra  or 
bats,  which  Lirmieus  placed  with  roan  and  monkeys  in  his  order 
Primates.  Cuvier's  division  thus  included  the  modern  orders 
Carmvora,  Insecttvora,  and  Cheiroptera,  and  the  characters  of 
Ijhese  groups  were  derived  fnim  the  nails  or  claws  of  the  Iocs, 
the  absence  of  opposable  thumbs,  and  the  presence  of  the  three 
kinds  of  teeth  ;  the  dentition,  however,  varying  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  food. 


reputation  both  as  a  scholar  and  a  poet,  was  bom  in  L  nd 
June  24,  rS3r,  Educated  at  Eton  and  Christ  Church  Oxfo  d 
where  he  graduated  in  1852  as  a  first-class  in  classi  s,  C 
(who  represents  a  younger  branch  pf  the  Pembroke  fam  ly) 
succeeded  to  the  title  in  his  minority.  He  entered  tl  e  House 
of  Lords  as  a  Conservative,  was  complimented  on  1  fit 
speech'by  Lord  Derby,  and  in  1858  became  Under  Se  eta  y 
fpr  the  tiolonies,  in  which  post  he  showed  considerable  bu 
ness  ability.  Retiring  from  office  with  his  party,  he  a  elled 
In  the  East,  and  in  i860  pi^blished  a  work  on  The  D  es  f 
Mount  LAdnon.  HejomedLord  Derby's  third  administration 
in  1866  as  Colonial  Secretary,  and  as  such  prepared  the  plan  for 
the  confederation  of  the  British  N.  American  colonies,  which  has 
had  such,  good  results.     He  resigned,  however,  on  account  of  a 


capacity,  Mr  Disraeli's  second  administration  in  the  beginning 
of  \^^\.  His  second  occnpanCT  of  this  office  has  been  marked 
by  the  aniiexation  of  the  Fiji  Islaniis  to  the  British  Empire,  and 
the  prefiaration  of  an  elaborate  scheme  for  the  confederation  of 
the  British  colonies  in  S.  Africa.  No  English  statesman  enjoys 
a  greater  measure  of  public  confidence  and  goodwill. 

Oamafia (property  Camdtaka.,  or  Caniala,  i.e.,  blackland), 
the  former  name  of  the  S.  part  of  the  Indian  peninsula,  extending 
-"""  '"  "" "  """"""  Kistna,  and  lying  between  the 

Qama'tion,  one  of  the  finest  of  garden  flowers,  a  variety  of 
J^dnihus  Cmyophyllus,  the  clove  pink.  It  has  long  been  a 
favourite  plant,  and  is  now  found  in  numerous  varieties  suclr  as 
Flake  C,  Bimrre  C,  PUolees,  ^c.  The  Spanish  C.  is  Poindana 
pulchen-ima. 

Caniatioilfl(LaL  caro,  '  flesh'j,  in  painting,  are  the  parts  of  a 
picture  in  which  the  nude  form  appears,  and  in  which  the  texture 
and  glow  of  the  body  is  sought  to  be  realised  by  flesh-tints. 
Among  the  old  masters  tlie  practice  of  paintii^  from  the  nude 
was  more  general  than  in  later  times,  and  the  C  of  the  works 
of  the  great  coiourists  of  the  Venetian  school  are  consequently 
more  brilliant  and  truthful  than  those  of  modern  artists. 

Oame'ades,  a  Greek  philosopher,  bom  at  Cyrene,  B.C.  arj, 
was  the  pupil  of  Diogenes  the  Stoic,  and  of  Hegeslppus  the 
Academic,  to  whose  chair  he  succeeded.  After  his  embassy  to 
Rome,  B.C.  155,  where  his  sceptical  theory  of  justice  provoked 
the  anger  of  Cato  the  Censor,  be  taught  the  ntw  academy  at 
Athens,  where  he  died  at  the  age  of  ninety.  As  his  predecessor 
Arcesilaus  had  opposed  Zeno,  so  C.  opposed  to  the  stoic  Chry- ' 
Bippus  the  doctrine  of  the  acatelepsy,  or  incomprehensibility  of 


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all  things  in  themselves.  This  meant  that  perception  cannot  be 
shown  to  resemble  the  object  perceived  in  either  primary  or 
secondary  qualities,  but  is  only  related  to  it  as  its  effect  upon  the 
nervous  system  of  man.  From  this  C  rashly  infeired  the  un- 
certainty of  human  knowledge,  practical  certainty  being  de- 
pendent on  uniformities  of  co-existence  and  succession,  not  on 
metaphysical  resemblances  (Ritter  &  Preller,  Hisl.  Phil.).  C. 
is  called  by  Cicero  '  acerrimus  et  copiosissimus. ' 

Gamelian  (Lat.  cam,  '  flesh '),  a  variety  of  chalcedony,  semi- 
transparent,  coloured  red,  brown,  or  yellow  by  oiide  of  iron, 
-■'  sometimes  white.  The  rich  Oriental  variety  is  called  Sard 
■.).  C.  is  an  abundant  mineral,  and  is  formed  into  seals, 
broodies,  and  other  personal  ornaments, 

Oaniiola  (Ger.  Krain),  a  crown-land  of  the  Austrian  Empire  ; 
area,  3860  sq.  miles  ;  pop.  (1869)  466,334.  The  surface  is  rugged 
and  mountainoHS,  the  Camic  Alps,  with  their  ramifications, 
occupying  that  portion  N,  of  the  Save,  and  the  Julian  or  Kvainer 
Alps  the  central  and  southern  parts.  Tlie  highest  point  is  the 
Terglow,  9397  feet,  on  which  is  the  solitary  riacier  of  C.  The 
"  Lve  is  the  principal  river.  Tlie  chief  productions  of  the  soil 
3  rye,  barley,  oats,  potatoes,  flax,  and  m  some  places  maize 
...d  vines ;  while  the  minerals  are  iron,  copper,  lead,  coal,  marble, 
and  especially  cinnabar,  the  quicksilver  mines  of  Idria  having 
been  long  famous.  There  are  manufactures  of  linen,  leather, 
lace,  pottery,  &c.,  and  a  considerable  trade  in  timber  and  fire- 
wood. The  Lake  of  Zirknitz  (q.v.),  the  quicksilver  mines,  and 
the  grottoes  of  Adelsbei^,  are  '  the  three  sights  of  C  Laybacli 
is  the  capital 

Like  Carinthia,  the  name  C.  points  to  a  primitive  Celtic  popu- 
lation from  whom  the  conntry  must  have  received  its  name, '  the 
cia^y  '  or  '  the  rugged,'  Some  time  after  the  fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire  it  appears  in  the  possession  of  a  Slavic  race,  from  whom 
it  was  conquered  by  Charlemagne,  who  gave  it  to  the  Dukes  of 
Friuli.  Alter  various  changes  it  finally  passed,  in  the  I3tli  and 
14th  centuries,  into  the  possession  oflhe  Hapsburgs,  and  has  ever 
since  formed  part  of  the  Austrian  Empire. 

Car'nlval  (Lat.  caro,  '  flesh,'  vale, '  farewell '),  a  season  of  re- 
velry, masquerading,  and  buffoonery  in  Italy,  which  originally 
began  on  the  feast  ofEpiphany  or  Twelfth  Day— January  6th— and 
ends  on  Shrove  or  Pancake  Tuesday,  which  is  called  also  Fasten- 
Even — the  day  to  which  'farewell  to  flesh,'  the  etymological 
meanmg  of  the  word  C,  strictly  refers,  because  next  day  is  As' 
Wednesday,  on  which  the  fastmg  and  austerity  of  Lent  begii 
In  modem  times  the  C.  season  is  restricted  to  the  eight  days 
before  Ash  Wednesday.  Relics  of  the  ancient  heathenism  of 
both  the  S.  and  the  N.'  of  Europe  are  observable  in  its  us  ^ 
Milan  and  Naples  were  once  celebrated  for  their  observance  of 
the  C,  but  it  was  cai-ried  to  its  greatest  perfection  in  Venice. 
At  present  it  is  seldom  heard  of  elsewhere  than  at  Rome. 

Camiv'OKi,  an  order  of  mammalia,  represented  by  such 
animals  as  lions,  tigers,  dogs,  wolves,  btars,  seals,  hyasnas, 
civets,  weasels,  &c.,  &c.,  and  distinguished  by  possessmg  two 
sets  of  teeth,  consisting  of  the  three  kinds  found  in  a  perfect 
dentition.  The  incisors  are  generally  sii  in  each  jaw,  save  in 
some  seals  ;  the  canine  teeth  always  number  two  in  each  jaw, 
and  are  very  large  and  prominent ;  whilst  the  pra!molars_  and 
molars  usually  possess  cutting  edges — although  in  some  animals 
[e-i;  bears)  which  feed  on  vegetable  as  well  as  on  camiv 
matter,  the  molars  may  be  blunted  or  tuberculate. 
clavides  are  rudimentary  or  wanting.  The  toes  possess  sharp 
claws ;  the  teats  are  abdominal,  and  the  Placenta  (q.  v.)  is  deci- 
duafe  and  lonary.  Tlie  C.  are  divided  into  the  Pinnigyada 
{q.  V.)  (seals),  Plrtntigrada  (q.  v.)  (bears,  racoons,  badgers, 
&c.),  and  the  DigUigrada  (q.  v.)  (lions,  tigers,  dogs,  &c,  &c,). 

Ctir'not,  Lazare  Nicolas  Mar^erite,  bom  at  Nolay,  a 
small  village  in  Burgundy,  13th  May  1753,  studied  at  Paris  and 
the  military  school  of  Mesiiras  for  the  engineer  service,  in  which, 
m  1784,  he  obtained  a  captdncy.  His  first  important  mathe- 
matical work,  an  Essai  sur  Its  Machines  en  GAiirale,  appeared 
in  1786.  Elected  to  the  Legisktive  Assembly  in  179I,  he 
spoke  chiefly  on  military  affairs.  In  the  National  Assembly, 
after  the  deposition  of  the  King,  C.  rose  in  importance,  and  Ws 
enei^  on  the  frontiers  in  1793  made  him  practically  tire  leader 
of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety.  He  organised  the  fourteen 
armies  which  destroyed  the  first  coalition,  and  conquered  the 
Low    Countries.       After    narrowly  escaping    condemnation    as 


Terrorist,  C.  was  elected  to  the  Directory,  where  perhaps  the 
hostility  of  Barras  marred  the  success  of  his  militaiy  admini- 
stration. The  revolution  which  Augereau  and  Barras  accom- 
plished m  the  interests  of  Bonaparte  drove  C.  to  Germany,  He 
etumed  in  1799  as  Minister  of  War  under  the  First  Consul, 
]nt  soon  retired  to  the  country,  where  he  composed  his  celebrated 
Traill  de  la  Difense  des  FUuss.  He  vras  again  called  to  the  Tri- 
bune, in  which  he  opposed  the  gradual  foundation  of  the 
~   ipire,  and  once  more  retired  to  the  cultivation  of  his  favourite 

Ihemalical    and    mechanical  science.      In    1S14  he  offered 

himsdf  to  the  falling  Bonaparte,  and  was  intrusted  with  the 
defence  of  Antwerp  against  the  Allies  ;  and  during  the  '  Hun- 
dred Days '  he  acted  as  Minister  of  the  Interior,  believing  in 
the  possibility  of  a  republic.  By  the  influence  of  the  Emperor 
Alexander  he  was  allowed  to  retire  to  Warsaw,  and  then  to 
Magdeburg,  where  he  died,  2d  August  1823.  C.'s  merits  as  an 
engineer  and  a  mathematician  have  been  questioned,  but  not 
his  austere  loyalty  to  republican  principles.  See  Arago's  Bio- 
graphie  di  C.  (1850),  and  Mhnoires  of  C,  edited  by  his  son  (2 
vols.  1861-64). 

Oar'ob,  Algaroba,  or  Looust-Treo  {Ceratonia  Silica),  a 
^  of  the  natural  order  Legimdnosx,  sub-order  CsmlfinUa),  a 
native  of  the  Mediterranean  region,  the  pods  of  which  are  ranch 
used  by  the  Arabs  and  poorer  inhabitants  of  that  region.  They 
are  also  given  to  horses,  and  of  late  years  they  have  been  im- 
ported into  Britam  for  that  purpose  under  the  name  of  Locust 
Beans  or  St  John's  Bread,  from  the  idea  that  they  were  the 
'  locusts '  on  which,  in  addition  to  wild  honey,  St  John  lived 
durmg  his  wanderings  in  the  wilderness.  Undoubtedly,  how- 
ever, the  food  of  the  apostle  was  the  insect  of  the  same  name, 
which  to  this  day  forms  a  large  portion  of  the  food  of  the  mhabi- 
tants  of  the  same  region.  It  is  also  believed — though  on  some- 
what fanciful  grounds — that  they  formed  the  '  hnsks '  of  which 
the  Prodigal  Son  of  the  New  Testament  would  '  fain  have  filled 
his  belly  after  he  had  'wasted  his  substance  with  riotous 
living.'  Some  trees  vrill  yield  as  much  as  800  or  goo  lbs.  The 
wood  is  also  hard,  and  vdued  as  a  tunber ;  and  the  bark  and 
leaves  are  used  for  tanning.  ITie  Locust-Tree  of  America  (q.  v.) 
belongs  to  another  genus  altogether. 

Garoli'na  Allepice.  See  CAlvcanthus. 
Carolina,  North  {'the  Old  North  State'),  is  one  of  the  ori- 
ginal thirteen  states  of  the  Union.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
Virgmia,  on  the  S.  by  S.  Carolina  and  Georgia,  and  on  the  W. 
by  Tennessee,  and  it  lies  between  33°  53'  and  36°  30'  N.  lat.  Its 
greatest  breadth  is  180  miles,  and  from  Cape  Hatteras,  on  the 
Atlantic,  to  its  western  limit  it  is  490  miles  in  length,  the  area 
being  50,704  sq.  miles.  The  soil  Is  extremely  poor.  Inland 
for  80  miles  it  is  sand  and  swamp.  Part  of  the  Great  Dismal 
Swamp  is  on  the  N.  Behind  tliis  tract  the  land  rises  into 
wooded  hills  onward  to  the  Appalachian  ranges,  crowned  with 
Mount  Buckley,  6775  feet,  the  highest  point  E.  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi. The  mountjun  region,  having  Asheville,  Buncombe 
county,  for  a  centre,  has  a  very  healthful  and  genial  clunate. 

On  the  coast  there  are  Albemarle  and  Pamhco  Sound — sheets 
of  shallow  water  separated  from  the  ocean  by  low,  sandy  islands 
—the  navigation  of  which  is  difficult.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Roanoke,  which  flows  info  Albemarle  Sound  ;  the  Neuse,  enter- 
ing Pamlico;  and  the  Cape  Fear  River,  on  which  stands  the 
port  of  Wilmington.  The  principal  towns  are  Raleigh  (the 
capital),  Fayelteville,  and  Wilmington.  Pitch,  far,  and  turpen- 
tine are  produced  in  immense  quantities  from  the  pme  forests, 
and  are  valued  at  $2,000,000  annually.  In  the  early  part  of  this 
century  N.  C.  was  the  chief  eold-mining  state  in  the  Union. 
Coal,  iron,  and  copper  are  also  found.  In  1873  the  cotton 
crop  was  167,653  bales,  and  in  1870  flie  farm  produce  was 
$57,845,940,  and  all  property  $260,757,344.  Provision  has  been . 
made  in  the  constitution  of  186S  for  public  schools,  but  the  educa- 
tion of  the  common  people  is  backward,  and  there  are  many 
'  foor  lukites,' 

The  earliest  English  settlement  in  N.  C,  vras  made  at  Roanoke 
in  1587,  but  the  colonists  were  never  afterwards  heard  ot  The 
next  settlers  came  from  "Virginia  about  1650.  In  1662  the 
land  was  granted  to  Clarendon,  Ashley,  and  six  other  noblemen, 
by  Charles  il.,  hence  the  name  Carolina.  John  Locke,  in 
1672,  framed  his  scheme  of  government  for  the  Carolinas,  but  it 
was  soon  abandoned.     Tlie  froprielaiy  lasted  till  1719-  "^^en 


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live  Carolinas  were  separated  and  granted  a  royal  government. 
Prior  to  the  Revolution  many  Highlanders  settled  in  the  state, 
and  the  Gaelic  tongue  was  maintained  till  recent  times. 

N.  C.  sends  eight  members  to  the  House  of  Representatives. 
The  state  debt  is  $34,095,045.  Pop.  in  1870  (blacks  391,630), 
1,071,361. 

Caroli'na  Pink.    See  Spigelia. 

Carolina,  South,  one  of  the  original  tliirteen  slates  of  the 
Union,  lies  between  32°  and  35°  10'  N.  lat.,  having  N.  Carolina 
1  the  N.,  and  Georgia  on  the  S.  and  W.  Area,  29,385  sq. 
miles.  There  is  a  coast-line  of  200  miles  on  the  Atlantic, 
fringed  with  islands  which  produce  the  finest  sea-island  cotton. 
For  100  miles  inknd  the  land  is  low,  swampy,  and  unhealthy. 
It  then  ascends  to  the  N.W.  border,  where  the  mountains  are 
4000  feet  high,  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Great  Peedee,  navigable 
':o  Cheraw,  the  Santee,  and  the  Savannah.  The  soil  produces 
■ice,  tobacco,  indigo,  sugar,  maize,  and  above  all,  cotton— the 


farm  products  in  1870  were  v^ued  at  $41,909,402;  the  real 
and  personal  property  at  $208,146,989.  The  state  debt  was 
$13,075,229.  S.  C.  has  gold,  lead,  iron,  marble,  sienite,  and 
granite,  besides  great  beds  of  decayed  shells  and  bones,  which 
have  been  much  utilised  in  agricalture.  Charleston  is  the  prin- 
cipal city,  Columbia  is  the  capital ;  Beaufort  has  a  splendid  har- 
bour, and  the  high  inland  town  of  Aiken  is  much  resorted  to  by 
invalids  on  account  of  its  congenial  cHmate. 

S.  C.,'the  Palmetto  Stale,'  was  the  home  of  Southern  chi- 
valry and  politics.  In  1829  it  espoused  Nullification — the  right 
to  annul  any  act  of  the  Union — but  President  Jackson  stamped 
out  the  movement.  S.  C.  seceded  in  December  20,  1S60,  and 
fired  the  first  gun  in  the  civil  war.  It  suffered  most  severely, 
and  is  still  depressed.  The  state  has  been  reconstructed,  and 
negroes  now  fill  many  offices.  It  sends  five  members  to  the 
House  of  Representatives,  Pop.  in  r87o  (blacks  415,814), 
705,606. 

Car'oline,  Aiaelia  Ellaabeth,  wife  of  George  IV.  ol 

England,  was  the  daughter  of  Karl  Wilhelm  Ferdinand,  Duke 
'  Brunswick,  and  was  born  17th  May  1 768.  Married  to  the 
nee  of  Wales,  8th  April  1795,  she  g^ve  birth  to  the  Princess 
Charlotte  on  7th  January  of  the  following  year,  when  her  hus- 
band separated  himself  from  her.  Her  father-in-law,  George 
III.,  and  the  nation  sided  with  C,  though  reports  affecting 
her  honour  were  studiously  circulated  by  the  friends  of  the 
lice.  In  rSi4  she  left  England  on  a  lengthened  tour,  and 
ultimately  settled  at  Lake  Como.  An  Italian,  named  Bergami, 
had  been  and  continued  to  be  her  companion ;  and  on  her 
refusal  in  1820  of  an  annuity  of  ;55o,ooo  to  renounce  the  title 
of  queen,  a  charge  of  adultery  was  brought  against  her,  and  sus- 
tained by  a  majority  in  the  House  of  Lords,  The  feeling  of  the 
nation,  however,  was  so  pronounced  in  her  favour  that  the  pro- 
ceedings were  allowed  to  drop.  In  July  1821,  being  refused 
admission  into  Westminster  Abbey  to  witness  the  coronation  of 
her  husband,  her  system  received  such  a  shock  that  she  fell  ill 
on  the  30th  of  the  same  month,  and  died  on  the  7tli  of  August 
following.  Her  daughter)  Charlotte  Augusta,  was  married  to 
Prince  Leopold,  afterwai'ds  Leopold  I. ,  King  of  the  Belgians. 
She  died  6th  November  i8i7l 

Caxo'ra,  a  town  of  Venezuela,  S.  America,  about  160  miles 
W.  of  Valencia.  The  surrounding  district  is  famous  for  its  wild 
cochineal,  in  which,  as  also  in  gums,  resins,  balsams,  and  agri- 
cultural produce,  a  considerable  trade  is  carried  on.  Leather 
and  ropes  are  manufactured,  and  excellent  hammocks  ace  made 
out  of  maguey,  a  coarse  fibre  obtained  by  macerating  the  leaves 
of  the  Agave  Amsruana.     Vop.  about  10,000. 

Oar'otid  Arteries  are  the  two  large  arterial  vessels  which 
supply  biood  to  the  head — one  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  respec- 
tively called  right  and  lift  Ci  A.  The  right  common  earotid 
artery  arises  from  the  Innominate  Artery  (q.  v. ),  and  the  left 
■"rom  the  arch  of  the  Aorta  (q.  V.).  The  latter  is  therefore  longer, 
nd  rises  in  the  chest.  At  the  upper  border  of  the  Thyroid  Car- 
llagefq.  v.)  each  divides  into  two  branches,  the  external  caxatiA 
artery  and  the  inlemal  carotid  artery.  The  external  carotid 
artery,  after  giving  off  sol  branches,  viz.,  to  the  thyroid  gland, 
■'  tongue,  Sie  face,  the  back  of  the  scalp,  the  back  of  the 
and  the  pharynx  (q,   v,),  is  itself  divided   into  the  tem- 


poral and 

caiottd  artery  enters  the  skull  through  a  hole  in  the  Tempoi 
Bone  (q.  v.),  and  is  also  divided  uito  various  branches  to  supply 
the  front  of  the  brain,  the  eye,  &c.  In  wounds  of  C.  A.  and  in 
Aneurisms  {q.  v.),  the  vessels  have  on  several  occasions,  by  Sir 
Astley  Cooper  and  other  surgeons,  been  successfully  tied,  and 
there  are  cases  on  record  m  which  the  carotid  artery  on  both 
sides  of  the  neck  have  been  tied.  In  garottiag,  the  C.  A.  ate 
pressed  against  the  bone,  and  blood  to  a  great  extent  prevented 
from  entering  the  biain. 

Oarouge',  a  town  of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Geneva, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Arve,  a  tributary  of  the  Rhone,  and 
about  I  mile  S.  of  the  city  of  Geneva.  It  has  a  fine  Roman 
Catholic  and  a  Protestant  diurch.  Leather,  thread,  watches, 
pottery,  and  clay  pipes  are  manufactured.      A  bridge 


:s  the  town  with  Geneva.     Pop.  (1870)  5873. 


Carp  {Cyprinus  carpie)^  a  fresh-water  Teleostean  fish,  be- 
longiiK  to  the  section  Malacopleri  of  that  order,  and  forming  the 
type  of  a  special  family  CypT~ 
nid^  (q.  v.),  to  which  barbel^ 
minnows,  tenches,  breams, 
bleaks,  &e.,  also  belong.  This 
fish  has  been  long  known  in 
England— at  any  mte,  prior 
to  1496— and  it  is  doubtful  if 
Che  statement  that  it  is  a  natu- 
ralised fish  in  Britain  can  be 
supported  by  fact  and  proofs 
Tire  body  is  somewhat  arched 
and  compressed ;  the  scales 
are  laree  ;  the  head  small ;  a  ''"P 

single  long  dorsal  fin  exists;  the  intestine  «anl=  csecal  appcn 
dages,  and  the  air-bladder  is  divided,  and  communii.atcs  with 
the  labyrinth  of  the  ear.  These  fishes  occur  throughout  Europe, 
and  chiefly  inhabit  the  waters  of  still  ponds,  and  rivers  which  do 
not  flow  rapidly.  They  live  to  a  great  age,  and  are  very  prolific, 
over  6oo,Cioo  ova  having  beeh  counted  ih  a  single  female  (rf 
moderate  size.  The  food  consists  of  aquatic  plants  ;  and,  as  in 
other  members  of  the  family,  the  teeth  of  the  hinder  part  of  the 
mouth  are  30  adapted  as  to  work  against  the  base  of  the  skull, 
and  so  to  crush  and  triturSte  the  fOod.  A  C.  of  about  six  years 
of  age  will  weigh  on  an  average  about  3  lbs. ,  these  proportions 
being  in  some  few  cases  greatly  exceeded.  In  winter  these  fishes 
bury  themselves  in  the  mad,  and  appear  to  hybemate  in  a  man- 
ner. The  golden  C,  Or  goldfish  (C.  miratus),  is  a  hardy  ally 
oftheC.  (See  Goldfish.)  The  flesh  of  the  C.  isverypalat- 
able,  although  it  has  somewhat  (aWea  in  l-epute,  presumably 
from  the  greater  supply  of  marine  food-fishes  ;  but  on  the  Con- 
tinent great  attention  is  in  some  localities  paid  to  the  rearing  and 
breeding  of  these  fishes,  particuhirly  in  inland  districts  of  Roman 
Catholic  countries,  where  a  supply  of  palatable  fish  is  requisite. 

The  C.  is  caught  by  means  of  red-worm  bait,  genlles,  larva;, 
green  pea,  and  other  vegetable  baits.  It  is  difficiiit  to  angle  for, 
since  it  nibbles  freelyi  but  is  a  shy  biter,  and  even  when  fairly 
hooked,  may  lead  if  s  captor  a  long  race  before  it  is  finally  secured. 
See  also  CeuciAN,  GlBIL,  &c. 

Caipa'thians,  the  E.  wing  of  Hie  great  mountain  system 
of  Centi'al  Europe,  encloses  Hungary  and  Transylvania  on  the 
N.,E.,  and  partly*'  on  the  S.,  in  a  Vast  crescent,  and  has  an 
entire  length  of  800  miles.  The  C  form  a  system  in  themselves, 
separated  from  the  Alps  by  the  Valley  of  the  Danube,  and  from 


luc  11^.1^.11,  aJiu  aic  uiviucu  liiLu  \if  uic  *-arpaino-riungarian 
hi^lands  in  the  N.W.,  (2)  the  Transylvanian  highlands  in  the 
S.E.,  and  {3)  the  woody  range  which  binds  these  together.  The 
loftiest  group  is  the  Tatra,  or  the  Carpat,  on  the  N.  frontier  of 
Hungary,  with  several  peaks  of  nearly  9000  feet,  the  highest 
bemg  the  EistAaler  ThtoTit,  so  called  because  the  only  glat^r  in 
the  C.  is  het^  In  the  central  range,  granite  and  gneiss  groups 
are  the  basis  of  liretaceous,  triassic,  and  Eocene  formations ; 
the  Waldgebiige  is  almost  entirely  Silurian;  and  in  the  S.E, 
range,  igneous  and  volcanic  rocks  occur  with  breccia  and  sand- 
stone. The  lower  ranges  are  clad  m  forests  of  cherry,  oak, 
beech,  and  pine,  and  yield  u'on  and  other  minerals.  The  chief 
rivers  which  rise  in  the  C.  are  the  Theiss,  Mnros,  Szamos,  and 
Kbros.     See  HildebrandE,  Karfatcnbilder  (Glog.  1863). 


yLaOogle 


CAR 


THE.  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPJIDIA. 


Car'pel.    See  Fruit. 

Onrpenter  Bees  {Xylocopa),  referred  to  in  the  art  1  Bee 
and  so  named  from  their  habit  of  excavating  nests  in  d  ying 
wood.  X.  molacea  is  a  &miliar  species,  included  m  tl  e  fa  ly 
Apidis,  or  true  bees. 

Carpenter,  Ship's,  the  third  warrant  ofGeer  on  b  da 
man-of-war,  whose  duty  it  is,  in  conjunction  with  his  n  t  and 
crew,  to  attend  to  the  necessair  repairs  of  the  hull,  masts,  and 
spars.  He  sees  after  the  condition  of  the  boats  and  pumps,  and. 
durmg  battle  looks  after  the  pining  of  shot-holes, 

Car'penter,  William  Beiiiainm,M.B.,IjL.D.,  RR.S,, 
an  eminent  physiologist,  was  bom  at  Bristol  in  1813,  and  gra- 
duated M.D.  at  the  University  of  Edinbuigh  in  1839.  He  was 
appointed  Professor  of  Medical  Jurisprudence  at  University  Col- 
lege in  1S48,  and  was  soon  after  elected  Examiner  in  Physio- 
logy and  Comparative  Anatomy  in  the  University  of  London. 
He  held  these  offices  until  1856,  when  he  was  appointed  Regis- 
trar to  that  university.  He  is  the  author  oiPmutplis  of  Gtntral 
and  Comparative  PhysiBlogy  (1S39),  Principles  of  Human  Physio- 
logy (1846),  A  Manual  of  Physiology,  The  Microscope  and  its 
RevdiUions  { 1856),  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Foraminifera, 
The  Principles  of  Mental  Physiolo^  (1874),  and  maiw  able 
papers  In  influential  periodicals.  The  royal  medal  of  the  Council 
of  the  Royal  Socie^  was  awarded  to  C.  in  1861.  He  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  deep-sea  explorations  authorised  by  Govern- 
ment in  1868-70,  and  subsequently  suggested  the  cruise  of  the 
Challenger.  C.  was  president  of  the  British  Association  at  its 
meeting  in  Brighton  in  1872. 

Oarpentraa,  a  town  in  the  department  of  Vaucluse,  France,  on 
the  Auion,  rSmilesN.E.  of  Avignon  by  railway.  Itis  encircled 
by  promenades,  and  still  preserves  its  old  fortifications,  con- 
taining two  gates  of  the  14th  c.  It  has  a  triumphal  arch  of 
the  3d  c.,  an  old  cathedral  of  St  Siffrein,  and  a  legate's  palace. 
An  aqueduct  of  forty-eight  arches,  which  still  supplies  C.  with 
',er,  was  constructed  1729-34.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
....ion,  chemicals,  leather,  and  earthenware.  Pop  (1872)  7857. 
C.  the  Carpentoracte  of  the  Romans,  and  the  capital  of  the  Celtic 
Memimcns,  was  a  flourishing  town  before  Csesar's  invasion  of 
Gaul. 

Car'pentry  (from  the  "Lai.  carpentum,  'acart'),is,in  its  most 
general  apphcatlon,  the  art  of  workmg  in  wood  and  adapting 
it  to  structural  purposes.  The  word  is  generally  restricted, 
however,  to  the  heavier  class  of  woodwork,  such  as  the  frames 
of  roofs  or  the  joists  of  floors.  The  preparation  of  the  smaller 
fittings  about  a  house,  as  doors,  window-sashes,  &c. ,  is  called 
joinery,  Cabinetmaking  is  essentially  a  higher  branch  of  joinery, 
Pattemmaking  also— the  construction  of  the  p       m        d 

core-boxes  from  which  the  moulds  In  an  iro  -as  ry    e 

made — is  a  sepamte  branch  of  C,  and  one  g  eat 

skill  and  accuracy. 

The  timber  has  been  already  roughly  sha  m  1 

before  it  comes  into  the  carpenter's  hands ;  h      ec     es  he 

form  of  squared  li^s  or  of  planks  of  var    us    izr-      '^      '^— ■ 
rough  cutting  of  the  wood  into  the  required  sp    lal 
comes  fairly  within  the  limits  of  C.  is  done  by     v. 
and  band  saws,  both  worked  by  power,  are  here  of  much  use. 
The  first  cut  up  the  larger  pieces  of  wood  with  amazing  rapidity, 
and  are  used  mostly  for  that  purpose.    The  band-saw  consists  oi 
an  endless  ribbon  of  steel,  often  about  half  an  inch  wide,  and 
so  thin  as  to  be  quite  flexible,  with  teeth  upon  one  side,  which 
is  carried  over  two  large  rapidly-revolving  wheels.     The  work 
is  held  upon  a  suitable  table,  and  pressed  against  the  saw 
which,  owing  to  its  narrowness,  can  be  made  to  cut  out  ve 
complicated  patterns  with  great  ease.     Band-saws  differ  in  for 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  work  for  which  they  are  to  1 
used.     The  ripping-saw  and  band-saw  are  for  the  larger  piece 
the  tenon-saw  is  used  for  cutting  small  pieces  across  the  graii  , 
it  is  very  thin,  and  strengthened  by  a  rib  upon  its  back  ;  the  key- 
hole-saw is  employed  for  cutting  along  a  curved  line.    ■ 

The  wood  is  smoothed  by  planes.  The  jack-plane  is  used  for 
rough  work,  and  the  larger  trying-plane  for  finishing  a  surface 
where  accuracy  is  required.  The  little  smoothing-plane  has 
many  applications  ;  and  moulding-planes,  the  irons  of  which  are 
formed  to  special  patterns,  are  used  to  cut  long  omamenlal  edges 
or  moulds.      For  paring  wood,  or  forming  the  edges  of  recesses 


1  I  ,  chisels  of  different  sizes  are  used.  Common  chisels  are 
11  d  by  carpenters  firmer  or  paring  chisels  ;  and  the  thicker  and 
ar         r  variety  used  for  cutting  narrow  slots  ar *"-  -'•---'- 


1  holes  c 


shnply  curved  chisels,  used  i: 

For  boring  small 


paring 
11  holes 


for  nEuls  a 


balawlis  ...  , 

,centrebit  is  Ae  tool  commonly  ui 

pi  d  n  a  frame  called  a  brace,  haviug  a  cranked  handle,  by 
of  which  it  can  be  turned  round.  Most  of  the  operations 
an  be  performed  by  machinery,  and  in  cases  where  large 

numbers  of  pieces  of  the  same  or  similar  form  have  frequently  tt 

be  made,  wood-working  machinery,  a 

ployed,  and  its  employment  seems  1 

In  the  lighter  kinds  of  woodwork,  the  different  pieces  are 
fastened  together  with  glue,  ntdls,  or  screws,  as  may  be  most 
suitable.  Various  forms  of  dovetail  and  mitre  joints  are  also 
used  in  caiiinetmaking,  when  appearance  as  wdl  as  stiffness  has 
to  be  considered,  but  the  more  unportant  forms  of  joint  in  wood- 
work are  those  which  occur  in  C.  proper,  where  strength  is  (he 
principal  thing  to  be  considered.  The  form  of  these  joints, 
drawings  of  which  will  be  found  in  all  books  on  C, ,  depends  on 
the  nature  of  the  stress  which  they  have  to  resist.  In  most  cases 
they  weaken  the  piece  in  which  they  occur  very  considei-ably, 
■  ■'  ■  therefore  important  to  use  them  as  seldom  as  possible, 
s  to  employ  the  best  proportions  when  they  have  to  be 
used.  A  piece  which  has  to  resist  du-ect  tension  is  jointed  either 
by  scarfing  or  fi^ng,  or  both.  In  the  former,  which  is  the 
neater  but  less  slroi^,  each  of  the  two  ends  which  came  together 
*  itepped,  or  cut  away,  for  a  certain  distance,  so  that  when  they 
put  together  the  apparent  siae  of  (he  beam  at  the  joint  remaiuE 
same  as  it  is  elsewhere.  Bolls  passing  through  the  scarfs  01 
steps  hold  them  together.  In  a  fished  joint,  the  ends  of  the  tw< 
pieces  are  simply  squared  and  made  to  abut,  while  on  each  side 
of  the  beam  a  separate  piece  of  wood  is  placed,  the  whole  b 
secured  through  bolts  of  iron.  If  the  joint  is  to  be  in  c 
pression,  the  principal  point  to  be  attended  to  is  that  the  abutting 
surfaces  should  be  true,  and  as  nearly  as  possible  normal  to  th 
direction  of  the  thrusi  To  make  the  strongest  possible  joint,  th 
upper  and  lower  parts  of  the  beam  should  be  cut  as  Ettle  a 
possible,  as  its  strength  is  far  less  impaired  by  cutting  it  away 


Car'pet  (Fr.  carpetti.  Low  Lat.  carpeta,  '  woollen  cloth,'  from 
carpere,  'to  pluck  wool '),  a  woven  or  felted  covering  for  the  floors 
of  apartments,  usually  niade  entirely  or  in  great  part  of  worsted. 
The  principal  seats  of  C.  manufectiu:e  in  Great  Britain  are  at 
Kidderminster,  Halifax,  and  Leeds  in  England,  and  Kilmarnock, 
Glasgow,  Bannockbum,  and  Aberdeen  in  Scotland  ;  but  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  a  cheap  carpeting  of  jute  is  also  carried  on  in 
Dundee,  'Hie  principal  varieties  of  carpets  are — 1st,  Kidder- 
minster or  Scotch  ;  2d,  Brussels  ;  3d,  Wilton  ;  4lh,  Tapestry  ; 
5th,  Turkey  or  Persian  ;  6th,  patent  Axminster ;  and  7th,  felted 
carpets.  Kidderminster,  or  Scotch  carpets,  are  very  extensively 
manu&ctured  at  Kilmarnock  in  Scotland,  the  warp  bemg  made 
of  worsted  yarn  and  the  weft  of  wooL  Tlie  carpets  are  made 
either  two-ply  or  three-ply;  that  is,  of  two  or  three  dis- 
tinct webs  interwoven  so  as  to  form  one  piece.  The  patterns 
are  produced  by  the  different  coloured  webs  being  alternately 
brought  through  each  other  to  the  surface,  so  that,  although  the 
design  is  the  same  on  both  sides,  the  colours  in  which  it  is 
wrought  are  reversed.  The  weaving  Is  of  course  done  in  the 
Jacquard  Loom,  Brussels  carpets  are  a  more  expensive  manu- 
facture than  the  Kidderminster  or  Scotch  kinds ;  the  back  is 
composed  of  a  web  of  stout  linen  thread,  and  the  pattern  is  pro- 
duced by  a  surface  of  coloured  worsted  warp  threads  being 
woven  down  into  the  linen  texture.  The  worsted  warp  has  a 
round  looped  pile,  produced  by  passing  it  over  iron  or  steel  wire 
in  She  process  of  weaving.  Only  a  lunited  number  of  colours 
can  be  used  in  a  Brussels  C.,  and  as  a  large  proportion  of  the 
coloured  worsted  yarn  is  absorbed  in  the  back  of  the  C.,  much 
material  is  practically  wisted,  while  no  great  latitude  of  design 
can  be  mlroduced  Wilton  or  velvet-pile  carpets  only  differ 
from  Brussels  in  having  the  raised  loops  cut  before  the  wire  is 
withdrawn,  and  thus  producing  a  velvety  surface.  Tapestry 
carpets  which  have  a  pile  and  superficial  appearance  like 
Bius^lIs  carpel-,,  iie  madi-  b}  iriuliiig  the  warp  yam  before 
33 


yGoosIe 


CAR 


THE  GIOBE  ENCYCLOF^mA, 


CheniUe  for 


weaving,  whereby  t)ie  use  of  th?  complex  franjes  ,     . 

bobbins  required  for  Brussels  C.  is  avoided,  and  the  waste  of 
yarn  in  the  body  of  the  texture  obyiated.  The  process  of  pre- 
paring the  yam.  was  the  invention  of  Mr  Richard  Whytock 
of  Ediiibvu^h,  and  consists  of  drawing  the  patterti — not  as  it 
appears  when  woyet),  but  as  it  would  be  with  the  tiireads  fully 
stretched — on  design  paper,  and  printing  the  yarn  according 
to  it.  Turkey  carpets  are  the  variety  originally  introduced  to 
Western  nations  by  the  returning  Crusaders.  They  are  wade 
with  a  warp  and  weft  of  very  strong  linen  yarn  or  twine,  with 
which  are  interwoven  tightly  tied  tuffs  or  short  lengths  of  wool, 
coloured  according  to  the  pattern  to  be  produced.  The  ends 
of  the  tufts  ataud  up  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  warp, 
and  after  the  entire  C.  is  woven  and  fastened  by  this  very 
tedious  process,  the  surface  is  cropped  even  with  a  pair  of 
shears.  The  original  Axminster  carpets  were  simply  imitations 
of  Turkey  carpets;  but  in  1839  Mr  James  Templeton  obtained  a 

Eatent  for  the  manufacture  of  patent  Axmiijster  carpets,  and  by 
is  process  the  most  beautiful  and  durable  carpeting  is  now 
made.    The  first  idea  of  his  process  he  obtained  from  'Chenille' 
shawls,  in  the  manu- 
facture of  which  he 
was    engaged,      A 

on  paper  ruled  in 
narrow  parallel  lines, 

;  which  lines  are  cut 
into  strips  for  the 

'■    guidance    of    the 

parti-coloured  web 
of  any  breadth  up  to 
a  yard  is  then  woven 
according  to  the  col- 
ours of  the  guidiog  strips,  only  a  few  warp  threads  passing 
through  the  reed  at  intervsis  regulated  according  to  the  depth 
of  pile  which  the  chenille  is  to  havg.  The  web  is  cut  into  strips 
along  the  divisions  (a,  h)  between  each  set  of  warp  threads,  by 
a  machine  forming  the  chenijie,  and  each  strip  is  then  a  dupli- 
cate of  the  paper  patteni  strip.  When  one  of  these  strips  is 
woven  on  to  a  soljd  back,  and  the  worsted  pile  combed  through 
some  of  the  waip  threads  to  attach  it  to  the  back,  a  duplicate 
of  the  original  paper  pattern  is  seen,  and  each  complete  strip  of 
chenille  makes  an  additional  copy  of  the  pattern.  Felted  wool 
carpets  are  chiefly  prepared  by  printing  patterns  on  the  sijrface 
of  the  felted  fabric,  and  they  are  used  as  4Tu^et  or  crumbcloth. 

Gar'pi,  a  walled  town  of  Italy,  province  of  Modena,  on  the 
Secchia  Canal,  9  miles  N.N.W.  of  Modena,  has  a  cathedral, 
an  old  castle,  a  citadel,  and  numerous  palaces.  The  chief  in- 
dustries are  the  manufacture  of  silks  and  straw  hats.  Pop. 
17,504.  C.  is  also  the  name  of  a  village,  38  miles  S.E.  of 
Verona,  near  which  Prince  Eugene  defeated  jlK  French  in  1701. 
Pop.  1200, 

Carpi'nl,  Oipyanul  de  Flano,  an  Italian  tiaveller  of  the 
order  of  the  Franciscans,  bom  in  Capitaoata,  Naples,  about 
1220,  was  sent  in  1246  by  Innocent  IV!  as  a  sort  of  papal  legate 
to  the  Mongol  Emperor,  whose  devastations  in  &5  N.E.  of 
Europe  were  alarming  Christendom.  He  was  present  at  the 
election  of  a  new  emperor  in  the  capital  of  Genghis-Khan. 
Afler  a  month's  residence  at  the  Mongol  court,  and  a  visit  to 
Tourahina,  the  Emperor's  mother,  C.  returned  to  Europe.  He 
was  the  first  who  gave  a  trustworthy  account  of  the  Mongols 
and  of  their  coiuilry.  An  English  translation  of  a  Latin  abridg- 
ment of  his  travels,  which  appeared  in  the  Speculum  Sistoricum 
of  Vincent  de  Beaijvds,  is  attributed  to  Haklayt  or  Parchas. 
The  exact  date  of  C.'s  death  has  not  been  ascertained,  but  the 
latter  portion  of  his  hfe  was  spent  in  missionary  efforts  in  Bohe- 
mia, Hungary,' Denmark,  and  Norway.  See  Peschel's  GacMc&le 
da-  Erdhitide,  pp.  150-207,  and  an  article  by  Dora  d'Istria  in 
the  Ream  dis  Dmx  Monies  (Feb,  15,  1872). 

Oarpi'no,  a  town  of  Italy,  province  of  Foggia,  near  the  N. 
coast  of  that  peninsula  (the  '  spur  of  Italy '],  which,  projecting 
into  the  Adriatic,  forms  the  Gtif  of  Manfredonia,     Pop.  6000. 

Oarpoo'rates,  or  Oar'pooras,  of  Alexandria,  one  of  the 
earliest  teachei-s  of  heresy  in  the  Christian  Church,  and  the 
founder  of  a  sect,  the  Carpocratians,  which  existed  from  the  2d 


34 


and  the  c. 
ch^ngisck. 

Oax'poUteS,  a  term  applied  to  fossils  of  the  nat' 
but  which  it  is  impossible  as  yet  to  refer  to  their  e 
the  vegetable  kingdom.      They  are  chiefly  found  in 


Oarpoma'iiis,  or  Phytolitliea,  an  affection  of  quinces, 
pears,  Sc,  ill  which,  by  the  deposition  of  layer  after  layer  in  the 
cells  of  the  fleshy  fruit,  they  become  gritty.  It  is,  however, 
scarcely  a  disease,  as  it  occurs  naturally  in  pears,  melons,  &c, 
and  the  gardener's  efforts  are  directed,  by  means  of  cultivation, 
to  reduce  it  to  a  minimum,  by  creating  a  condition  which  is  not 
natural  to  the  fruit,     (Masters,) 

Oarpopto'sis,  a  term  applied  to  the  disease  in  plants  which 
causes  the  fruit,  after  it  has  begun  to  'set,'  to  have  its  prepress 
suddenly  arrested  and  to  fall  off.  It  is  frequently  owing  to  more 
fruit  being  formed  than  the  tree  is  capable  of  nourishing,  or  from 
the  tree  being  covered  with  so  many  shoots  that  the  sap  which 
should  go  to  the  fruit  is  divertetl  to  nourish  the  foliage.  In  Italy 
the  rice  crops  are  often  so  affected, 

Garra'ca,  La,  a  great  naval  arsenal  of  Spain,  province  of 
Cadiz,  on  a.  low-lying  island,  formed  by  the  cutting  of  the  Santi 
Petri  Canal,  which  separates  it  from  the  mainland.  It  is  about 
4  miles  S.S,E.  of  Cadiz  and  is  defended  by  four  forts  and  the 
Castillo  de  Santi  Petri. 

Carr'ageen,  or  Insli  lEoaa  {Ch  idrm  crispus  and  C. 
■makfiesus),  small  sea-w  d  f  und  mmonly  between  tide- 
marks  around  the  Br  t  1  N  th  Am  rican,  and  European 
coasts.  On  tlie  coast  of  I  land  th  y  esteiwively  collected, 
dried,  and  bleached.  Th  p  d  t  th  sold  under  tlie  name 
of  'I.  M.,'  the  name  C  b  ng  ai  f  Irish  origin.  When 
boiled  with  milk,  it  for  n  a  tiff  j  Uy  n  ooling.  It  has  nutri- 
tive, emoUient,  and  demulcent  properties  ;  and  on  account  of  the 
iodine  which  it  contains,  is  also  of  medicinal  value  in  cases  where 
this  drug  is  of  avail. 

Garrajal',  TomaB  Josa  Gonzalez,  a  Spanish  statesman 
and  author,  was  bom  at  Seville,  21st  December  1753,  studied  at 
the  university  of  his  native  city,  and  in  1785  went  to  Madrid, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  politics  and  philolc^  with  equal 
zeaL  From  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution  to  the  re- 
actionary war  of  1833,  except  for  a  short  period  (1815-20J,  he 
was  constantly  engaged  in  public  afi^rs,  and  showed  both  ability 
and  patriotism.  Afler  repeated  affronts  and  persecutions  by  the 
Absolutist  patty,  he  was  finally  received  into  the  royal  favotir, 
and  became  a  member  of  the  Supreme  MiHtary  Council  in  1833', 
but  died  gth  November  1 834.  As  an  author,  C.  has  obtained  a 
great  reputation  in  Europe  by  his  metrical   translation  of  the 

Eoetical  books  of  the  Bible,  begun  in  his  fifty-fourth  year,  and 
eroically  persisted  in  amid  the  din  of  arms,  the  distractions  of 
campaigns,  and  even  the  fatigues  of  a  march.  The  fruits  of  this 
labour  are  seen  in  Los  Salmos  (<  vols.  Vai  1819},  3.nd  £r/s  Ziiros 
Poelkos  de  la  Santa  Biblia  (6  vob.  Val.  1S27).  His  original  com- 
positions are  contained  in  the  Opumilos  inedUos  en  Prosa  y  Versa 
(t3  vols,  Mai  1847). 

Cacra'ra,  the  famous  njarble  emporium  of  JJ.  Italy,  province 
of  Massa-Carrara,  lies  in  a  valley  of  the  Apennines,  on  ±e 
Avenza,  ne^r  where  it  enters  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  an  old 
town,  and  many  of  the  larger  buildings  are  of  marble,  as  the 
fine  churches  of  the  Madonna  delle  Grasie  and  St  Andrea,  as 
also  the  beautiful  fountain,  in  the  Piazzo  Alberigo.  C.  has  a 
sculpture  academy,  fonnded  by  Napoleon,  and  is  the  residence 
of  a  colony  of  artists.  Its  sole  industry  is  the  cutting,  polishing, 
and  transport  of  marble.  Pop.  (1873)  23,827.  In  the  vicinity 
are  the  quarries,  thirty  in  number,  of  which,  however,  only  half- 
a-dozen  yield  the  fine  mineral  for  sculpture.  They  have  been 
wrought  for  over  2000  years,  and  are  now  yielding,  with  the  a.id 
of  English  machinery,  ^l^fxa-viatCa  of  marble  yearly.  The  C. 
marble  is  an  Oolitic  limestone,  the  chief  qunUties  of  which  are 
its  beaulifiil  whiteness  and  its  durability. 


y  Google 


CAB 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Carr'e],  Wioolaa  Armand,  one  of  the  ablest  French  jour- 
nalists of  the  19th  c,  was  born  at  Rouen,  8th  May  180O.  He 
served  in  the  army  for  a  short  time,  but  soon  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  journalism  and  politics,  He  be- 
came the  editor  of  the  National  newspaper,  and,  in  its  columns, 
advocated  with  great  ability  and  perfect  fearlessness  opposition 
to  the  government  of  Charles  X.  and  to  despotism  of  every 
kind.  Unfortunately  he  came  into  collision  with  another  iour- 
lalist,  M.  Emile  de  Girardin,  and  in  a  duel  which  ensued  was 
nortally  wounded,  and  died  July  24,  1836.  A  just  and  eloquent 
stimateof  C.  is  to  be  found  jn  the  writings  of  the  late  Mr  John 
Stuart  Mill.    An  edition  of  his  works  was  published  at  Paris  in 

Cairi'age,  a  general  nai 
vehicles.  See  Coach,  Cak' 
RIAGE,  &c 

Oarr'ical,  or  Kaiikal,  a  French  territory  and  port,  enclosed 
by  the  district  of  Tanjore,  on  the  delta  of  the  Kavari,  152  miles 
S.  of  Madras.  The  territory,  which  has  an  B,rea  of  50  sci,  miles, 
and  a  pop.  of  50,000,  was  ceded  to  Trance  by  the  native  ruler 
'1  1759,  and  was  afterwards  taken  by  the  British,  but  restored 
1  the  French  in  1814,  on  the  condition  that  the  town  of  C 
should  not  be  converted  into  a  military  s(ronghold.  The  town 
only  accessible  by  the  river  to  coasting  vessels,  and  that  merely 
during  the  rainy  season. 

OaiTiokfor'gua  ('rock  of  Feins'),  a  seaport  of  Ireland, 
on  Belfast  Lough,  11  miles  N.E.  of  Belfast  by  railway  and 
extending  about  a  mile  along  the  N.W.  shore  of  the  lough  It 
is  defended  by  its  castle,  which  is  situated  on  a  promontory, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  been  erected  in  the  12th  c.  The  keep 
has  an  elevation  of  90  feet,  and  is  maintained  as  a  fortress,  the 
works,  formerly  mounted  by  numerous  cannon  of  small  calibre, 
being  now  furnished  with  more  formidable  ordnance,  to  enable 
'  3  command  the  mouth  of  the  lough.  The  greater  part  of 
commerce  of  the  town,  formerly  considerable,  has  been  trans 
ferred  to  Belfast.  The  trifling  imports  consist  of  goal,  iron 
timber,  slate,  &c.,  and  the  exports  of  grain  and  black  cattle 
But  there  are  considerable  industries,  especially  the  spmmng  of 
linen  and  cotton  yam ;  there  are  also  a  iai^e.  distillery,  exten- 
sive tanneries,  a  bleaching  establishment,  and  a  starch  manufac- 
tory. C.  depends  much  on  visitors  during  the  bathing  season, 
and  on  its  oyster  and  other  fisheries.  It  returns  one  member  to 
Parliament.  Pop.  (1871)  9397.  William  III.  fanded  at  Car- 
rielffergus,  14th  June  1690 — less  than  a  fortnight  before  he  fought 
the  battle  of  the  Boyne. 

Oarr'ick-oii-Siur  ('the  rock  of  the  Suire,'  so  named  from 
lai^e  rock  in  the  bed  of  the  river),  a  town  of  Ireland  in  count 
Tipperary,  picturesquely  situated  on  the  Suir,  lamiles 
mel.    It  has  increasing  manufactures  of  woollens,  flax, 
Some  ruins  of  a  castle,  dating  from  1309,  are  still  visi 
(1871)  Boss. 

Carr'ier,  Jean  Baptiste,  bom  at  Yolai,  in  Upper         rgn 
in  1755,  was  elected  to  the  National  Convention  in 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  constitution  of  the  Rev  1 

Tribunal.     He  voted  for  the  King^s  death,  and  di    ng 
himself  "by  the  savage  and  indiscruninate  cruelty  with 
suppressed  the  risings  in  the  W.     He  constructed  a       E 
pSt   at  Nantes,  the  prisoners  in  which  were  murdered         esa 
by  drowning,  without  even  the  pretence  of  3  judicial         ess 
though  this  was  sometimes  gone  through  in  the  case  rso 

already  dead.     C  concealed  his  crimes  from  the  Coi 
^e  use  in  his  orders  of  such  expressiotis  as  '  Irai        on 
Minus'  which  his  subordinates  understood  to  mea  g 

or  drovming.  The  Committee  of  Public  Safety  at  last  began 
proceedings  against  him,  but  it  was  not  till  i6th  December  1794 
that  the  Revolutionary  tribunal  carried  through  his  execution. 

Carrier  Pigeoll,  a  variety  of  Columhidis  or  Pigeons  (q.  v. }, 
noted  for  the  exercise  of  the  'homing'  fiiculty,  by  means  of 
which  these  birds  find  their  way  to  their  homes  or  original 
haunts  from  great  distances — a  power  made  use  of  occasionally 
for  the  purpose  of  conveying  letters — e.g.,  during  the  late  siege 
of  Paris.  The  C.  P.  has  been  known  to  fly  150  miles  in  I J  hours, 
and  many  instances  might  be  related  where  their  services  have 
been  of  great  help.     It  is  (leedless  to  remark  that  the  electric 


■iety  of  pigeon,  and 


r- wheeled 


telegraph  has  almost  entirely  su]  erstded  tl  e  usi.  of  these 
Before  flight  they  were  kept  1    the  dark  for  al 
and  were  not  fed— the  birds  also 

their  homes.  The  sense  of  sight 
and  knowledge  of   landmarks 
appear  to  be  the  chief  means  ■ 
whereby  the  flight  is  guided    ■ 
About  30  miles  an  hour  is  the 
average  rate  of  speed.     Carrier 
pigeons  are  usually  kept  away   . 
from  their  nest  not  longer  than 
ten  days  or  a  fortnight,  and  du 
ing  the  period  of  tending  the  r 
young  the  homeward  flight   s    , 
said  to  be  made  more  quickly 
than  at  other  times.     iTie  Co 
lumba  Turcica  or  tahellaria  are 
the  designations  applied  to  this  v 
sub- varieties  are  described. 

Carr'iers,  the  name  originally  given  in  England  and  Scotland 
to  the  conveyeis  of  goods  from  town  to  town  in  wagons  or  carts 
only  but,  in  the  later  and  wider  industrial  sense,  to  the  lai^e  class 
employed  in  the  conveyance,  by  whatever  means,  of  all  anicles 
of  commerce,  &e.  The  trade  is  carried  on  in  the  East  chiefly  by 
caravans,  in  Spain  by  muleteers,  and  in  countries  where  transit  is 
more  thoroughly  developed  by  rivers,  canals,  and  railways.  All 
the  navigation  of  the  oceans  and  seas  is  nothing  other  than 
the  mtemational  development  of  the  cariier's  occi — *■—  '"- 
pickhorse  was  superseded  in  England  by  the 
waggon,  and  in  Scotland  by  the  one-horse  Cart.  "J.ne  waggon 
had  a  hooped  top  with  a  movable  canvas  covering,  and  a 
space  behmd— the  '  tail  of  the  waggon  '—was  spread  with  straw 
for  the  use  of  such  passengers  as  might  avail  themselves  of  it 
for  a  whole  or  a  portion  of  the  journey.  The  palmy  days  of 
the  wa^on  in  England  and  the  carrier's  cart  in  Scotland  are 
gone  The  latter  still  conducts  a  fairly  profitable  trade  in  dis- 
tricts not  opened  up  by  railways  ;  but  formerly  his  departure, 
progress,  and  arrival  were  timed  with  an  accltracy  which  has  been 
little,  if  at  all,  improved  upon  by  railway  luggag;e  trains.  In 
England  the  formation  of  canals,  by  increasing  the  iacihties  for 
carrying,  had  a  wonderful  effect  in  multiplying  the  quantities  of 
goods  to  be  conveyed  from  place  to  place..  The  Canal  (q.  v.) 
was  the  earliest  successful  nval  of  the  wa^on  on  a  lai^  scale, 
and  its  era  dates  from  the  last  quarter  of  the  l8th  0,  The 
Lancashire  cotton  trade,  the  woollen  trade  of  Yorkshire,  Stafford- 
shire  potteries,  and  the  hardware  manufactures  of  Birmingham, 
all  received  an  impetus  by  the  development  of  the  canal  system, 
m  be  1  ked  back  upon  as  the  beginning  of  the  enormous 
th  entres  of  industry.  The  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal 
d,  mpleted  in  1790,  was  the  first  interference  with 
m       po  traffic  enjoyed  by  the  carriers's  carls  between 

E  f  Scotland,  especially  between  Edinburgh  and 

ra  the  latest  development  of  the  carrying  trade.    It 

n  and  cart  entirely  off  all  the  highways  of  oom- 
m         an       mmished  canal  traffic  to  an  extent  ruinous  to  the 
that  kind  of  enterprise.  Some  canals  in  England 
be      altogether  abandoned.      Those  that  continue 
pen  sii     as        Grand  Junction,  the  Lea  Navigation,  the  Trent 
M  d  the  Forth  and  Clyde  in  Scotland,  are  used 

m  nveyance  of  minerals,  stone,  slate,  lime,  bricks, 

r  cumbrous  materials.    Manufactured  goods  are 
g  the  railway.   (See  Railway.)   These  improved 

an  ance  have  had  the  efiect  of  enormously  Increas- 

g  mbe   of  horses  and  men  employed  in  the  city  carry- 

ing trade.  '  This  was  appare  h    fi      '  h'      d         f         1 

Crowds  of  carters  awaited  th     rn  h 

Glasgow,  for  example,  ther         d       be  m 

carting  coal  and  iron  from    h    M        an  as  h 

Broomielaw.     This  is  now        bo     bo        d  al 

Jnst  as  the  earlier  C.  becam    boa  m  d   h 

liad  made  money  the  prop  b  h 

began,  the  C  took  advantag  h  th 

goods  they  had  undertaken       d  Th  C  d 

tlie  articles  to  be  sent,  put  them  on  trucks,  and  received  them  at 
the  railway  station  to  which  they  were  directed,  being  entirely 
35 


vLiOOQle 


CAE 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


OAR 


responsible  to  tlie  senders  of  them.     The  C.  paid  the  railway 
company  according  to  its  tariff,  and  charged  the  senders  of  „ 
according  to  a  scale  of  their  own.      But  this  system  has  b 
discontinued  for  about  thirty  years.    The  railway  companies 
make  all  the  charges  for  carrying  goods,  and  become  respons 
for  them  on  certain  conditions.   They  however  give  employm 
to  an  enormous  number  of  horses  and  lorries  in  the  villages,  tow  is 
and  cities.    These  generally  belong  to  individuals  or  compan  es 
who  have  no  other  connection  witii  the  railway  company   ha 
the  contract  \iy  which  they  undertake  and  are  obliged  to  convey 
goods  Co  and  from  the  railway  stations.    Intlie  Midland  Counties 
and  the  S.  of  England,  with  London  as  their  centre,  Pickfbi'd  & 
Co.  and  Chaplin  &  Home  employ  thousands  of  men  and  horses 
in  this  development  of  the  carrying  trade,  ■   In  the  N,  of  Eng. 
land,  with  headquarters  at  Manchester,  Carver  &  Co.  also  do  a 
most  extensive  trade.      They  keep  more  than  500  horses  in  Man- 
chester alone.      In  Scotland,  Mutter  and  Howey  are  the  great 
railway  C  of  the  eastern  counties,  their  headquarters  being  Edin- 
burgh, while  Wordie  &  Son  in  Glasgow  do  a  business  propor- 
tionate Co  Che  vast  activity  of  the  commercial  capital  of  Scotland. 
But  even  this  system  is  becoming  modified.    The  railway  com- 

Eanies  show  a  desire  to  take  possession  of  the  entire  trade,  with 
orses  and  lorries  of  their  own.  Thus  lorries  and  goods  vans, 
with  the  name  of  railway  companies  on  them,  instead  of  that  of 


panies,  which  have  receiving  offices 

and  deliver  goods  a  certain  number  of  times  daily. 

Carriers,  Whaffingirs,  and  Warthousemat,  Lata  respecting.  — 
All  persons  carrymg  goods  for  hire  are,  in  law,  common  C,  and 
are  bound  to  receive  and  carry  goods  for  reasonable  hire,  to  Cake 
due  care  of  them  in  their  passage,  to  deliver  them  in  the  condi- 
tion in  which  they  were  received,  or,  in  defeult,  to  make  com- 
pensation, unless  the  loss  arise  from  the  &ult  of  the  sender  of  the 
goods  or  from  natural  cause.     See,  under  Act,  Act  of  God. 

Hackney-coachmen  in  London  are  noC  so  bound,  unless  there 
is  a  special  agreement  and  money  is  paid  for  the  carriage.  Spe- 
cial C.,  who  professedly  do  not  cany  for  all,  are  not  bound 
to  carry.  When,  however,  a  special  carrier  undertakes  to  con- 
vey goods,  his  responsibility  is  Che  Same  as  that  of  a  common 

The  master  of  a  stage-coach  who  only  carries  passengers  for 
Aire,  is  not  liable  for  goods,  buC  if  he  carry  goods  also  for  hire  he 
is  liable,  A  carrier  who  opens  a  package  intrusted  to  him,  and 
sbsCracts  goods,  is  guilty  of  felony.  A  common  carrier,  who 
hss  convenience,  being  offered  his  hire  and  refusing  to  carry 
gixids,  is  liable  to  an  action  ;  but  he  may  refuse  to  admit  goods 
to  his  waTehouse  at  an  ansaisoHaMe  time  or  before  he  is  ready  to 
start  on  his  journey.  A  carrier  fobbed  is  liable  to  the  sender, 
but  he  has  recourse  against  the  Hundrid  (q.  v^ )  to  make  good 
his  loss.  As  a  usual  rule,  a  carrier  is  bound  to  deliver  goods  as 
directed ;  when  it  is  not  his  custom  to  do  so,  he  must  send 
timely  notice  of  the  arrival  of  the  goods.  A  carrier  has  a  Carrier 
Lien  (q.  v. )  on  goods  which  he  carries  for  hire,  but  iC  is  hmited  to 
the  carriage  of  each  parcel,  apd  is  not  for  any  balance  due  to  the 
canier  ftom  the  sender,  or  for  a  debt  due  Co  the  eerier  by  the 
consignee.  The  powers  and  liabilities  of  railway  companies  in 
the  carriage  of  goods  are  similar  to  those  of  C.  and  stage- 
coach proprietors. 

Warshousemen  are  bound,  when  goods  are  stored  in  a  warei 
_iiouse,  to  bestow  reasonable  care  on  them,  to  prevent  damage  or 
injury.  Wharfingers  are  bound  in  the  same  way ;  but  neither 
is  liable  for  damage  from  accidental  fire.  The  responsibility 
of  common  C.  for  a  package  contiujiing  gold  or  silver,  pre- 
cious stones,  bills,  notes,  silks,  laces,  or  other  valuable  articles 
specified  in  the  Act,  is  limited  to  j^io,  unless  the  value  be  de- 
dared  on  sending,  and  an  extja  chaige  be  accepted. 

Lmii  of  ike  ^ooi/.— When  carriages  or  horsemen  meet  on  a 
public  road,  the  law,  in  case  of  accident,  is  always  against  the 
aggressor.  A  driver  or  rider,  on  passing  another  horse  or  car- 
riage, must  keep  on  the  whip.hand  of  me  horse  or  carriage. 
He  will  be  answerable  for  any  damage  which  may  arise  from 
neglect  of  this  rule.  A  driver,  however,  is  not  bound  to  keep 
on  the  left  side  of  the  road,  provided  he  leave  sufficient  room 
for  other  carriages  and  horses  Co  pass  him  on  their  proper  si4e. 
3S 


Garr'ion  Orow  [Corvtts  Coroni),  a  species  of  Coniidrc  or 
(  ) ;  but  Chis  name  is  also  given  to  the  black  vulture, 

Am        n  species  of  that  genus  of  birds.     See  Vulture. 
Carr  on  Flowers,  the  flowers  of  various  species  of  Stapelia 
der  As^lepiadacae)  of  Che  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  1 


-  —  ._  _._r ~ . Ame- 

lax  kerbacsa. 

Caxfoa,  a  village  in  Stirlingshire,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
C,  3  miles  E.N.K  of  Falkirk,  noted  for  iCs  extensive  iron- 
works, established  in  1760.  Pop.  of  village,  including  iron- 
works (1871),  1088. 

Carronades',  short  iron  guns,  atfached  to  the  carriage  by  a 
loop  and  bolt  instead  of  trunnions.  They  have  less  thickness 
of  metal  than  other  guns  of  the  same  calibre,  and  Jiave  at  tlie 
muzzle  a  cup  or  chamber  for  powder,  like  mortars.  But  admit- 
ting only  of  a  small  charge  of  powder,  their  range  is  confined  ; 
hence  they  are  effective  only  at  close  quarters ;  and  ships  armed 
only  with  C.  have  been  beaten  by  vessels  of  nominally  smaller 
armaments  with  long-range  guns.  They  have  become  all  but 
obsolete.  C.  were  invented  by  Mr  Gascoigne,  manager  of  Che 
Carron  Ironworks  in  Scotland,  and  were  made  standard  navy 
guns  in  1779,  to  be  carried  on  the  poop,  forecastle  and  upper 

Oarron  Oil  consists  of  equal  parts  of  olive  oil  and  lime-water 
well  shaken  together,  a  useful  application  to  Burns  (q.  v.),  so 
called  because  first  used  at  Carron  Ironworks,  near  Falkirlc. 

Oaix'ot  (Datmis  Caraia),  the  cultivated  form  of  which  yields 
the  well-known  esculent  root  of  that  name.  It  belongs  to  the 
natural  order  UmbeiiiferiB.  The  genus  Daucus  contains  several 
species,  mostly  natives  of  the  Mediterranean  region.  D.  Carota 
is  indigenons  to  Britain,  most  parts  of  Europe,  and  the  Caucasus, 
and  has  been  caltivated  in  Europe,  China,  Cochin-China,  in  the 
European  colonies,  N.  America,  &c,  from  very  early  times  ;  in 
England  at  least  as  early  as  the  i6th  c  In  Charles  II. 's  reign 
ladies  wore  C.  leaves  instead  of  feathers  in  their  hats,  The 
plant  succeeds  best  in  sandy  or  peaty  soils,  bat  is  liable  to  the 
attacks  of  the  C.-Fly  (q.  v.)  and  Crane-Fly  (q.  v.),  the  larva  of 
which  destroys  the  young  roots.  C.  is  not  very  nutritive,  con- 
taining a  large  number  of  heat-forming  principles,  but  little  flesh- 
fotming  matter.  It  is,  however,  easy  of  digestion,  and  slightly 
laxative.  A  syrup  is  prepared  from  C,  and,  when  dried  and 
roasted,  it  is  used  in  Germany  as  a  substitute  for  coffee.  The 
Candy  or  Cretan  C.  is  Athamania  crstensis ;  the  deadly  C.  is  a 
name  often  given  to  Thapsia ;  and  in  Tasmania  the  tubers  of 
Geranium  parmfiorum  are  called  the  naOue  C. 

Carrot-Ply  (Psila  rosa),  a  species  of  Dipterous  insects,  the 
larva;  of  which  burrow  in  the  root  of  the  carrot,  and  cause  the 
diseased  condition  known  as  'rust.'  Some  moth-laivEe  also  in- 
jure this  plant,  and  the  Aphis-dauci,  one  of  the  plant-lice,  causes 
the  death  especially  of  young  plants. 

Carrou'sel  (a  French  word,  meaning  a  tilt,  a  tilt-yard,  intro- 
duced from  the  Ital.  carrosello,  dim.  of  catro,  Lat.  carrus),  was 
applied  to  a  knightly  competition  which  put  sitill  and  horseman- 
ship to  the  test,  but  did  not  require  the  couiage  of  the  tourna- 
ment. The  competitors  in  this  exercise,  which  was  common 
in  Europe  till  the  close  of  the  1 7th  c ,  dressed  in  imitation  of 
tlie  knights  of  earlier  ages  \  and  a  favourite  feat  in  France  was 
to  run  at  the  pasleboaid  head  of  a  Turk  with  a  lance,  to  cut 
it  down  with  a  swoni,  or  to  hit  it  with  a  pistol-bullet.  It  was 
introduced  into  France  during  the  reijjn  of  Henri  of  Navarre, 
but  was  known  in  Italy  some  time  before.  The  i'iace  du  C.  in 
Paris  was  named  after  a  celebrated  ope  held  there  in  166a. 

Carse,  a  word  of  uncertain  derivation  (probably  Celtic),  used 
in  Scotland  to  denote  level  alluvial  soils  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  rivers.  The  two  most  notable  are  Che  C.  of  SCiriing,  lying 
around  the  windings  of  the  Forth,  and  the  C.  of  Gowrie,  on  the 
N.  side  of  the  Tay,  both  of  lyhich  are  extraordinarily  fertile. 
The  yield  of  wheat  is  particularly  great,  and  it  can  be  grown 
more  frequently  on  the  same  land  tl:^  on  any  other  kind  of  soil 
in  Scotland.  C.  laud  is  also  weli  saited  for  beans,  and  indeed 
shows  some  of  the  finest  beiin-fields  in  the  country. 


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Oarstares',  William,  an  influential  Scotch  poKdc'ian  and 
ecclesiastic  of  tlie  17th  c,  was  born  at  Cathcart,  near  Glasgow, 
February  II,  1643,  and  studied  at  the  Uniyereities  of  Edinburgh 
and  Utrecht.  In  Holland  he  was  introduced  to  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  over  whom  he  acquired  such  mfluence,  mainly  by  his 
knowledge  of  men  and  of  polides,  that  he  became  his  confident 
adviser.  When  he  returned  to  England  he  was  imprisoned  and 
tortured  on  the  suspicion  of  being  implicated  in  the  Rye  House 
Plot,  but  caused  to  betray  any  state  secceta.  On  being  liberated 
he  repaired  agdn  to  Holland,  and  was  made  one  of  the  Pnnce  s 
chaplains.  He  aecooipanied  the  Prince  to  England  in  168S,  and 
till  the  end  of  WiUiam's  reign  was  his  chief  adviser  in  regard  to 
Scotch  afiiiirs,  being,  in  consequencej  niclmamed  'Cardmal  C; 
During  the  reign  of  Anne  he  was  elected  Principal  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh,  and  was  presented  to  the  dinrch  of  Grey- 
friars.  An  evidence  of  his  popularity  in  the  Church  of  Scotland 
is  afforded  by  the  fact  that  he  held  the  office  of  Moderator  of  the 
General  Assembly  four  times  within  eleven  years.  C,  who  was 
strongly  hi  favour  of  the  Union  between  Scotland  and  England, 
and  of  the  establishment  of  the  Hanoverian  dynasty,  opposed 
the  disastrous  Act  restoring  private  patronage  in  the  Church  of 
Scotland.  He  died  m  August  1715.  He  was  a  man  of  smeere 
patriotism  piety,  and  sound  scholarship ;  moderate  m  his  opimons, 
and  so  benevolent  that  he  even  took  a  delight  in  aiding  those 
who  differed  from  him  in  opinion.  Altogether  he  is  one  of  the 
most  pleashig  figures  in  Scotch  Church  history.  See  Life  oj  C. 
(1874),  by  the  Rev.  Dr  Story  of  Roseneathi 

Car'stens,  Aenius  JafeoU,  a  Danish  painter,  bom  at  St 
Jiirgen,  Stesvig,  loth  May  1754.  He  studied  for  seven  years  in 
Copenhagen,  afterwards  removed  to  Eerhn,  where  he  won  repu- 
tatKin  and  a  professorship  in  the  Academy,  and  in  1792  removed 
to  Rome,  where  he  at  last  achieved  the  success  for  which  he  had 
so  long  striven  m  vain.  He  died  at  Rome,  a6th  May  1798. 
C's  cfief  works  are  '  Fall  of  the  Angels,'  the  '  Visit  of  the  Aigo- 
nauts  to  the  Centaur  Chiron,'  and  '  King  CEdipus,  All  his 
worlis  have  been  engraved  by  Miiller  (1869).  See  Femows 
Life  0/  C.  (r8o5 ;  new  edition  by  Rit^l,  1867). 

Cart  {Lat.  carrTls),  an  uncovered  two-wheeled  carriage,  used 
chiefly  for  agricultural  and  carriers'  purposes.  There  are  nuraer- 
ona  varieties  of  carts,  differing  in  size,  form,  and  internal  arrange- 
ments, according  as  they  are  meant  to  carry  farm  produce  or 
specific  articles  of  merchandise.  Those  that  are  employed  for  the 
latter  purpose  constitute  the  more  important  dhiss.  As,  however, 
the  carts  of  different  countries  vary  much,  so,  in  like  manner^ 
those  of  one  country  differ  in  then  mode  of  construction  to  suit 
the  kind  of  goods  to  be  carried.  One  of  the  most  useful  Tehic  es 
for  general  merchandise  and  agricultural  produce  is  the  single^ 
horse  Scotch  O.  It  carries  from  18  to  s-i  dwt.,  «id  is  formed, 
beside  the  axle  and  wheels,  4*  feet  m  diameter,  of  a  rectaiigulai 
body  and  twd  shafts,  with  raised  sides  indined  outwards,  and  addi- 
tional '  top-sides,'  movable  at  pleasure.  In  Scotland  this  C.  is 
in  universal  use  for  farm  purposes;  though  usually  drawn  by  one 
horse,  two  hOrses,  one  in  front  of  the  other,  are  sometimes  yoked 
£0  it  when,  the  weight  is  increased,  a  plan  which  it  if  not  advisable 
to  adopt,  as  it  leads  to  a  wasteful  expenditure  of  animal  force, 
with  less  satisfactory  results  than  if  two  smgle-horse  carts  were 
employed.  When  a  bulky  load,  sudh  as  com  in  the  straw,  01 
hay,  is  to  be  carried,  the  area  of  the  C.  is  angmented  by  placmg 
a  sparred  wooden  frame  upon  the  sides,  beyond  which  it  pro- 
iecU.  A  'tilt'  Scotch  0.  is  so  constmcted  thi*.  by  withdrawing 
a  pin  m  the  fore  part  of  the  C;,  the  body  nlay  be  tilted  up  and  its 
contents  discharged  behind  without  unyoking  the  horse.  In 
England,  the  principal  vehicle  for  carrying  merchandise  is  the 
fou?-wheeIed  Wa^on  (4.  v.).  Vehicles  moving  on  two  wheels 
of  solid  wood,  and  drawn  by  two  oxett,  were  known  ti 


ninerals.     In  1872, 


5  vessels  of 
New  break- 
,j.  The  neighbour- 
ing Sierra  ds  C.,  with  which  C.  was  connected  by  a  tramway 
constructed  by  an  English  company  in  1S73,  employs  I2,ooo 
persons  in  its  silver,  lead,  copper,  and  ironstone  mines.  C.  has 
also  much  shipbuilding  and  tnnny-fishing.  The  town  has  bad 
water.  Pop.  z6,io6.  C,  the  Carthage  Nok!a  of  antiquity,  was 
founded  by  Hasdmbal  m  228  E.G.,  near  the  once  valaable  silver- 
mines.  It  soon  became  the  chief  Punic  city  in  Spain,  and  was 
taken  by  Scipio  the  Younger  in  zlo.  Under  the  Romans  it 
was  only  second  m  importance  to  Tarraco.  Destroyed  by  the 
Goths,  it  was  not  till  the  reign  of  Philip  Hi  that  it  began  to  re- 
iver, but  by  the  end  of  the  iSth  e.  it  had  a  pop.  of  some  60,000- 
C.  capitulated  to  the  French  in  1823, 

Cartagena  de  las  Indias,  the  capital  of  the  ptovince  of 
Bolivar,  New  Granada,  on  the  Caribbean  Sea,  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishop,  and  has  a  beautifiil  cathedral,  a  Collepe,  and  many  fine 
churdies.  It  is  the  best  harbour  on  the  whole  N.  coast  of  the 
continent,  being  sheltered  bj  several  islands,  and  is  the  staple 
place  for  the  trade  of  New  Granada,  Pern,  Central  America,  and 
the  Philippines.  The  water,  however,  is  bad,  and  the  chmate 
unhealthy,  Pop.  9000,  not  includmg  the  sulnirlis  Xeremani  and 
~      "^  ■■  d.  was  founded  by  Don  Pedro  deHeredia  in  1544, 


in  ancient  town  in  the  pl^vince  of  Murda,  Spaii . 
1  the  Mediterranean,  ag  miles  S.S.E.  of  Murcia,  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  Kulway.  It  lies  on  a  nattow  inlet,  has  a  splendid 
harbour,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop  and  an  importatit  naVal 
station,  with  an  afsenal  and  ektensive  marine  establishments. 
Its  chief  Buildings,  mainly  built  of  red  marble,  are  its  mined 
castle,  thiee  fine  churches,  several  convents,  two  hospitals,  and 
a  theatre.  It  has  beautiful  promenades.  The  chief  manuiac- 
tares  are  cloth,  hemp,  glass,  and  esparto  textures,  and  there  "  - 
large  ttade  in  barley,  wheat,  silk,  fruit,  anc 


San  Felipe. 


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t  of  r 


Carte,  Thomas,  a  historian  of  much  exactness  find  emdition, 
was  bom  m  April  1686,  at  Cliflion,  Warwickshire.  He  matricu- 
lated at  Oxford,  but  graduated  at  Cambridge.  Jacobite  leanings 
forced  hun  to  rehnquish  a  clerical  post  at  Bath ;  tad  being  sus- 
pected of  a  part  in  Atterbury's  plot,  he  fled  to  France,  where 
he  remained  for  twelve  years  imder  an  assumed  name.  _  After- 
wards, howerer,  he  returned,  and  died  near  Abingdon  m  1754. 
C,  published  an  edition  of  T&iiauiis  m  7  vols,,  but  his  chief 
works  are  a  Life  ofjames,  Duki  of  Ormond,  and  his  History  of 
Engiand.  Though  marred  by  partisanship,  both  are  valuable, 
particulariy  the  latter,  which  is  full  of  jnaterials  for  history.  His 
MSS.  are  preserved  in  the  Bodleian  Library. 

Car'tel  (from  the  ItaL  cartello,  a  dim.  of  carlOi  Lat.  ekaria, 
'  paper  '),  in  military  language,  was  otiginally  a  wriiteH  agreement 
between  belligerents  for  an  exchange  of  prisoners.  A  C.-ship 
is  one  commissioned  in  time  of  war  to  carry  proposals  of  anjf  kind 
between  the  hostile  powers ;  it  eonveys  the  eschanged  prisonera 
when  wanted  for  that  purpose.  The  name  is  also  used  to  denote 
a  challenge  to  fight  a  dueh 

Car'tet  ElizatoGth,  a  lady  noted  for  her  scholarship,  was 
daughter  of  the  curate  of  Deal,  where  she  was  bom,  December 
16,  1717,  She  wrote  verses  when  she  was  seventeen  years  old, 
published  poems  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  and  acquired  nine 
languages.  In  1738  she  translated  fi-om  the  Italian  of  Algarotti 
Aii Mxplaaalioft  of  Newton's  Philosophy,  for  the  Use  of  Ladies. 
Dr  Johnson  was  her  friend ;  and  papers  44  tad  100  of  TheRam- 
bler  are  from  hei  pen.  She  was  unmarried,  and  died  m  1806. 
See  Permington's  MeiUoirs,  1807. 

Oar'teret,  John,  Earl  GrEUiville,  an  English  statesman 
ofthelSthc,  was  born  22d  April  1690,  being  the  son  of  Baron 
Carteret  of  Hawnes,  Bedfordshire.  He  was  educated  at  West- 
minster School  and  Oxford  University,  and  from  the  latter  car- 
ried away  the  reputation  of  considerable  scholarship.  He  entered 
the  Honse  of  Lords  m  I711,  and  then,  mainly,  it  is  supposed, 
from  his  having  spoken  in  flvour  of  the  Protestant  and  Hano- 
verian succession,  obtained  the  favour  of  Geoi^e  L  He  sub- 
seqnently  filled  several  important  public  offices.  He  was 
Ambassador-Extraordinary  to  Sweden,  and  succeeded  in  con- 
cluding a  peace  between  Sweden,  Prussia,  and  Hanover.  In 
1721  he  was  appointed  Secretary  of  State,  and  on  two  occa- 
sions—from 1724-26,  and  from  1729-30— was  Lord-Lieutenant 
of  Ireland,  his  conciliatory  manners  gaining  him  much  popukrif)' 
there.  C.  was  one  of  the  ablest  opponents  of  Sir  Robert  Wal- 
pole,  and  when  that  statesman  fell,  became  Secretary  of  State, 
and  real  head  of  the  ministry.  When  Pelham  formed,  in  1744. 
his  parti- coloured  <albinet,  derisively  known  as  the  'Broad- 
Bottom  IMinistry,'  C„  who  on  his  mother's  death  had  succeeded 
to  Ihe  title  of  Earl  Granville,  was,  like  Pulteney,  excluded  from 
37 


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it.  After  this  he  may  be  said  to  haYe  retired  from  public  life, 
although  he  continued  a  favourite  at  court.  In  his  klest  years, 
and  indeed  throughout  his-  life,  he  was  honourablj'  distinguished 
as  a  friC-nd  and  patron  of  men  of  letters.  He  died  2d  January 
1763.     C  was  a  -iM-illiant  oralor,  but  a  somewhat  undecided 

Car'tliage  (the  original  Pimic  Kartka-kadtha,  means  '  New 
City,'  in  opposition  to  Utka,  the  'Old  City'),  was  probably 
founded,  as  a  colony  from  Tyre,  about  823  B.C.  It  stood  at  the 
ead  of  a  bay  in  the  territory  afterwards  the  Roman  Zei^tana, 
nd  now  Tunis.  C.  was  tributary  to  Tyre  for  some  time,  and 
Iso  paid  a  tax  for  occupation  to  thp  iiative  Libyans.  Before  her 
foreign  conquests  began,  C.  probably  possessed  in  sovereignty 
the  whole  district  now  called  Tunis,  including  the  rival  settle- 
nt  of  Utica,  and  had  founded  many  factories  on  the  Afri- 
:  coast,  from  whidi  she  derived  lai^  tales  and  duties, 
one  lime  she.  occupied  a  sort  of  hegemony  among  Tyrian 
colonies,  of  which  many  at  a  distance,  such  as  Cyrene, 
finally  succumbed.  C.  made  a  treaty  with  Rome  in  508  B.C. 
The  Romans  were  not  to  sail  beyond  the  FulcArutn  Fronum- 
teriuta;  merchants  offering  goods  for  sale  m  Sardinia,  Africa, 
and  Sicily  (so  far  as  belonging  fo  C)  were  to  pay  no  cus- 
toms, but  ttie  usual  fees  to  the  scribe  and  erier;  the  Cartha- 
giniims  were  not  to  take  any  Latin  dty  or  to  intlict  injury  on 
those  under  the  Roman  jurisdiction.  Probably  Corsica  and  the 
Balearic  Islands  also  belonged  to  C  at  this  time.  By  a  later 
treaty,  to  which  the  Tyrians  and  Uticeans  are  parties,  Roman 
trade  is  excluded  from  Africa  and  Sardinia,  but  permitted  in 
Sicily  and  in  the  city  of  C,  the  Romans  conceding  the  privilege 
of  trade  in  Rome,  In  Sicily,  however,  C.  received,  in  the  year 
480,  a  severe  check  from  Gelon  of  Syracuse,  who  granted  peace 
only  on  condition  that  the  practice  rf  human  sacrifices  (a  part 
of  Phcenician  religion)  shouhJ  be  discontinued.  Shortly  after 
this  the  Periphis  of  Hanno,  one  of  the  military  Suffetes,  took 
place.  Hanno  tcrok  possession  of  the  African  coast  as  far  as 
Ceme,  in  the  25th  degree  of  N.  latitude,  distributing  about 
30,000  emigrants  in  settlements,  the  subsequent  history  of  which 
is  not  known.  The  Periphs  (criticised  in  DodwelPs  DisieriaMon) 
lasted  twenty-six  days.  Himiico,  another  member  of  the  Barca 
&mily,  is  supposed  to  have  sailed  to  Cape  Finisterre.  The  dates 
at  which  the  Commerce  of  C.  with  Spain  and  Gaal  b^an  to 
develop  are  not  fixed.  There  was  a  trade  in  precious  metals 
from  the  modem  Andalusia ;  it  is  s^d  that  Himiico  even  reached 
the  Scilly  Isles.  C.  had  now  permanent  possessions  at  Panor- 
mus,  and  Motya  in  Sidly ;  and  about  410  the  people  of  Le- 
geste  craved  her  intervention  between  them  and  Selinus.  This- 
led  to  the  destruction  of  Selinus,  Agrigentium,  Camarina,  and 
Gela,  and  the  war  against  Syracuse,  whose  tyrants,  Dionysius 
and  the  Corinthian  Tirooleon,  were  quite  able  to  cope  with  the 
mercenaries  of  the  republic  Timoleon  obtained  a  great  victory 
in  345,  which  was  followed  by  peace.  The  Syracusan  war  for 
supremacy  in  Sicily  was  renewed  with  the  tyrant  Agathocles, 
who,  beaten  at  home,  carried  the  war  into  Africa  in  31a  The 
Mamertines  of  Messana,  a  body  of  Oscan  mercenaries  who  had 
served  Agathocles,  invited  C.  to  assist  them  gainst  Hiero  of 
Syracuse,  but  shortly  after  (264)  went  over  to  Rome,  and  then 
began  the  first  Punic  War  (264-241),  which  Michelet  has  de- 
scribed  as  the  decisive  struggle  between  the  Indo-Germanic  and 
the  Semitic  races.  The  successes  of  Claudius  at  Agrigentum, 
of  Duilius  at  Myl^  (the  earliest  naval  victory  of  the  Romans), 
of  Regulus  at  Ecnomus,  were  followed  by  the  defeat  of  Regulus 
by  Xanthippus  m  Africa,  the  victories  of  Hamilcar  Barca  in 
Sicily,  and  the  final  defeat  of  Hanno  at  jEgates  Insulse,  which 
led  to  (he  evacuation  of  Sicily  by  C.  A  great  revolt  of  the  mer- 
cenaries of  the  maritime  republic  followed,  in  the  course  of 
which  Sardinia  and  Corsica  fell  a  prey  to  Rome.  During  the 
next  twenty  years,  the  conquests  of  Hamilcar  in  Spain,  and  of 
Marcellus  over  the  Gauls  and  Ligurians,  brought  the  two  great 
enemies  to  closer  quarters.  Hasdrubal  founded  New  C.  In 
219  Hannibal  took  Saguntum.  This  act,  affirmed  by  the  Ro- 
mans to  be  in  violation  of  treaty  engagements,  vras  adopted 
at  C,  and  led  to  the  second  Punic  War  (218-202),  which, 
after  Hannibal's  long  occupation  of  Italy,  and  the  campaigns 
of  Scipio  in  Spain  and  Africa,  resulted  in  the  disgraceful'  con- 
ditions of  peace  that  C.  was  to  retain  territory  in  Africa  only, 
to  give  up  all  her  'long  ships'  except  ten,  to  make  war  only 
with  consent  of  the  Romans,  and  to  restore  to  Massinissa  ail 

38 


that  he  or  his>  ancestors  ever  had.  After  this  peace,  Hannibal 
(viha  lived  till  183)  became  practically  tyrant  of  C.  He  de- 
stroyed the  oligarchy  of  the  judges,  by  a  rigorous  finance  liqui- 
dated thewar  indemnity  payable  to  the  Romans,£md  encouraged 
trade  by  the  introduction  (rf  the  olive  from  Italy.  Massinissa, 
however,  proved  an  untiring  enemy,  and  the  encouragement 
given  to  him  by  the  Romans  led  to  the  third  Punic  War  (149- 
146).  In  C.  itself  there  were  three  parties :  the  Roman,  the 
Numidian,  and  the  Patriots.  Their  dissensions,  and  the  trea- 
sonable surrender  of  Utica,  led  to  the  destruction  of  C.  by  Scipio 
jEmilianuSjin  accordance  with  the  decree  of  the  Roman  Senate ; 
'  They  shall  reside  more  than  three  leagues  from  the  sea,  and 
their  city  shall  be  entirely  destroyed. '  The  new.  colony  of  C. , 
begun  by  the  Gracchi  about  B.C.  116.  and  completed  by  Au- 
gustus, does  not  figure  lai^ely  in  the  history  of  the  empire.  In 
A.D.  429,  Colonia  C,  then  the  mistress  of  a  territory  extending 
along  the  Mediterranean  a  journey  of  ninety  days,  was  taken 
by  Genseric  the  Vandal,  and  made  the  basis  of  his  naval  opera- 
tions against  Italy.  Belisarius  established  the  power  of  Justinian 
and  expelled  the  Arians.  The  city  was  destroyed  (A.l>.  692-698) 
by  Hassan,  Governor  of  Egypt,  under  the  Calif  Abdamaleh. 
Two  centuries  later  the  first  of  the  Fatimite  caliphs  repeopled  it. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  l6th  c,  C.  consisted  of  'a  mosque,  a 
college  without  students,  twenty-five  or  thirty  shops,  and  the 
huts  {rf  500  peasants.*  Nothii^  is  seen  now  but  ruins,  a  few 
cistems,  and  vaults. 

At  C.  the  great  interests  were  those  of  trade,  and  accordingly 
the  Senate  consisted  of  wealthy  men  and  those  distinguished  in 
the  public  service,  chosen  for  life.  Much  more  influential  was 
the  Gerusia,  Qt  Council  of  the  Hundred,  which  apparently  con- 
sisted of  selected  senators,  who  acted  as  chief  magistrates,  were 
guardians  of  public  morality;  and  were  elected  without  salary  by 
the  Pentarchies,  permanent  committees  of  the  Senate.  At  the 
head  of  the  executive  were  the  Suffetes,  two  in  number,  who 
presided  in  the  Senate  and  initiated  business  there.  Occa- 
sionally, on  great  political  issues,  a  plebiscite  was  taken. 

Bcitaiastkal  Histary. — In  397  a  Church  Council  was  held  at 
C,  which  directed  that  nothing  but  bread  and  wine  mixed  with 
water  should  be  used  in  the  Eucharist,  that  priests  standing  at 
the  altar  should  pray  only  to  the  Father,  that  baptism  and  the 
Eucharist  should  not  be  given  to  the  dead,  and  that  the  canon- 
ical Scriptures  should  include  Tobit,  Judith,  Wisdom,  Eccle- 
siasticus,  and  Maccabees.  To  the  following  year  belong  the 
African  rules  for  ordination  and  consecration  (partly  embodied 
in  the  Gelasian  Sacramentary).  It  is  also  laid  down  that  while 
bishops  are  to  avoid  secular  business,  clergy  who  can  work  are 
to  earn  their  bread  by  trade  or  tillage.  Laymen,  but  not  wo-, 
men,  may  preach  with  tlie  priest's  permission.  In  41 1  a  great 
conference  of  Catholic  and  Donatist  bishops  decreed  the  sup- 
pression of  Donatist  conventicles,  the  restoration  of  their  churches 
to  the  Catholics,  the  banishment  of  their  clei^y,  and  the  in- 
fliction of  fines,  stripes,  and  civil  disabilities  on  all  classes  of 
Donatists,  from  the  Illuatresto  the  Circumcellions.  Soon  after, 
the  great  Pelagian  heresy  was  preached  at  C.  by  C^lestius. 
The  '  impious  and  wicked  proposition '  that  man  could  live  with- 
out sin,  and  easily  keep  God's  commandments,  called  forth  many 
fiery  sermons  and  treatises  from  Augustine,  and  was  formally  ■ 
condemned  at  C.  in  416,  and  again  at  a  great  council  of  the  Afri- 
can Church  held  1st  May4iS,  which  insisted  on  the  transmission 
of  guilt  from  Adam,  and  on 'the  absolute  necessity  of  baptism  in 
the  case  of  infants. 

Cartilage,  Oape,  a  headknd  of  N.  Africa,  a  little  to  the  N, 
of  the  entrance  to  the  I-agoon  of  Tunis.  Near  it  are  to  be  seen 
traces  of  the  ancient  city  of  Carthage  {q.  v.). 

Oarthag'e'na  Bavk.    See  Cinchona. 

Cartha'gO,  the  former  capital  of  Costa  Rica,  Central  America, 
lies  at  the  foot  of  the  volcano  Pazu,  near  the  mouth  of  a  small 
river  of  the  same  name,  10  miles  E.  of  San-Jose.  It  is  one  of 
the  oldest  Spanish  towns  of  Central  America,  and  was  almost 
entirely  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  September  2,  1842.  Pop. 
7000.  C.  is  also  the  name  of  a  deep  bay  on  the  N.W.  of  the 
Mosquito  shore. 

Car'tliajnine,  or  Oaithameijie.     See  Cakthamus. 


-4- 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


or  safflower,  the  Koosumbha  of  India,  extensively  cultivated  in 
India,  China,  and  other  parts  of  Asia,  for  the  sake  of  the  piiik 
dye  which  is  extracted  from  the  florets.  Among  other  articles, 
the  fmk  saucers  are  colonred  by  it.  About^!o6,ooo  worth  are 
annually  imported  into  this  country  from  India.  It  is  also 
employed  to  adulterate  mugs  and  hay  saffion.  Caie  sisffmn  is 
prepared  from  it  and  mucilage.  From  the  fruits,  commonly 
caUed  the  s/edsi  is  expressed  the  koostml  oU  of  India.  A  similar 
oil  is  expressed  from  C.  ptrsims.  The  dye  obtamed  from  C. 
tmctorius  is  called  caiihamini.  It  attaches  itself  to  silk  or  cot- 
ton, but  not  to  wool,  and  requires  no  mordant.  The  red 
colour  which  it  gives  can  be  changed  to  yellow  by  the  addiUon 
of  alkalies,  but  may  be  returned  to  its  original  colour  again  by 
being  treated  with  acids. 

OarUm'sians,  a  religious  order  instituted  by  St  Bruno  in 
1086,  and  named  from  La  Chartreuse,  near  Grenoble,  Vierine, 
whither  the  saint  retired  with  six  companions  to  spend  a  life  of 
pious  solitude  and  austere  severity.  The  oldest  Carthusian 
'  rule '  is  that  drawn  up  by  Prior  Guigo  in  1 1 34,  and  -entitled 
Cmsududints  Cartasm.  The  order  was  sanctioned  by  the  Pope 
in  1170,  and  in  1180-81  spread  into  England,  where  nine  houses 
were  es'tablished,  the  most  famous  of  whieli  was  the  Chatler- 
House  (a  comiption  of  Chartreuse  House)  in  London.  Tlie 
•  rule '  is  extremely  rigorous.  In  addition  to  the  usual  monastic 
'vows  there  is  one  of  unbroken  silence,  the  violation  of  which, 
except  on  particular  days,  is  visited  with  scoui^ing.  The  C. 
have  still  two  of  the  finest  convents  in  the  world,  vii. ,  i-i  G  randc 
Charlriust,  on  the  wte  of  their  original  home  in  the  desolate  val- 
Uy  near  Grenoble,  and  Certosa,  near  Pavia.  An  establishment 
for  Carthusian  nuns  was  founded  at  Salette,  on  the  Rhone,  about 
1229,  the  'rule' of  which  is  sulistantially  the  same  as  tliat  for 
the  monks. 

Oar'tilage,  This  substance  is  what  is  commonly  known  as 
grislU.  It  may  be  found  in  two  situations— either  covering  the 
extremities  of  bones  entering  into  the  formation  of  joints  (articu- 
lar C),  or  strengthening  the  walls  of  cavities  (membranous 
C  1  C,  is  also  sometimes  divided  into  temporary  and  per- 
tnanent  It  is  temporary,  as  found  in  fretal  life,  when  there 
exists  a  cartilaginous  skeleton,  which  is  gradually  supplanted  by 
R  harder  and  stronger  structure— bone.  (See  Bone,  j  It  is  per- 
manent when  it  exists  as  C.  throughout  life.  C.  consists 
essentially  of  cells  imbedded  in  a  sabstance  called  the  matnx, 
and  the  varieties  of  C.  differ  from  each  other  in  the  proportion 
of  cells  to  matrix,  and  in  Ihe  structural  characters  of  the  matrix. 
Thus  there  may  be  no  matrix,  when  the  C.  is  termed  cslMar  ; 
or  the  matrix  between  the  cells  may  present  a  finely  molecular 
appearance,  when  the.  structure  is  known  as  hyaline  C.  (  or  the 
niatrix  may  have  been  transformed  into  fibres,  when  it  is  termed 
Jibro  C.  In  all  th  ri  ties  of  C  (he  cells  present  much  the 
same  appearan         W      h  11  th      f  w  d        be  (  )  typ  cal 

C.  cells }  and  ()  th    d  ff       t         t        f  th   tis       as  f      d 
the  human  body 


— Ti 


thin  s. 


I   tl 


"  ^d     f 


amining  li 

are  found  to  0  u         1 

crescentic  in  form,     d  11  tt    ed 
diameter  being    b    t  th    tto 
cell-wali,  and  th  y   pp       1    be 
kr  protoplasn     h       g  imb  dd  t 
two,  small  nu  1  D  nng  lif 

contract  by  m    h  ra    1  imt  t 
heating  up  to   00  F   caus     th 
and  sometime    era     1         ^1, 
seen  surround  d  by     k    d    f  hal 


dly    ee    by  ttng 
1    g  b  d 

S     d  an    t  Th  y 

im     ly  ir  g  larly 


f        t 
Thi 


II.  Varieties  af  Cartilage. -^Theie  are  :  I.  Hyaline  C— This 
jaiiety  forms,  the  framework  of  the  skeleton  in  the  fre  T 

^rtilaginous  skeleton  is  in  course  of  time  replaced  by  b  b 

n  the  adult,  hyaline  C.  covers  the  ends  of  the  bon     f  -m    g 
the  joints,  and  it  also  remains  persistent  in  the  C.    f   1 
and  of  Ihe  larynx.     The  C.  of  the  rings  of  the  wmdp  pe      d 
bronchial  tubes  also  belongs  to  this  variety.     In  v   y  y 
hyaline  C,  the  matrix  is  delicately  molecular  and  tra    1 
but  in  specimens  from  old  subjects  it  is  roughly  m  I      lar 
resembling  ground  glass.     The  cells  lie  in  this  mat  1  y 

in   an  irregSar  manner.      In  articular  C,  howeve      th         11 
follow  a  regular  arrangement.    Thus,  if  a  thin  perp    d  cular 
section  be  made  on  tlie  end  of  a  long  bone,  such  as        f  m 
it  will  be  found  that  neat  the  free  surface  of  the  C.  tl         Is 
placed  so  that  their  long  axis  is  parallel  with  the  srafa       deepe 
down,  they  are  arranged  m  groups  irregularly,  whil  h 

bone  they  are  found  in  long  rows,  perpendicular  to   h         1 
of  the  bone.    In  old  hyaline  C.  the  matrix  is  often  t  ed  b 

pde  yellow  fibres.  The  C.  found  at  the  ends  .of  the  nbs,  near 
the  breastbone,  is  a  variety  of  hyaline  C,  and  has  the  pecu- 
liarity of  having  the  ossific  centre  in  the  centre  of  the  tians- 
verse  section,   from  which  rows  of  cells  pass  in  a  radiating 

2  Fibro-CarlUage.—As  the  name  indicates,  this  variety  has 
the  matrix  composed  of  fibres.  There  are  two  kinds— (a)  whi- 
jf*«-C.,  in  which  the  matrix  consists  of  ordinary  white  iibroi 
tissue,  rendered  transparent  and  gelatinous  by  the  action  of  dilute 
acetic  acid  ;  and  (*)  yellimi  fibro-C,  where  the  matrix  is  com- 
posed of  yellow  elastic  tissue,  not  affected  by  the  same  re-agent. 
The  first  kind  is  found  in  the  discs  between  the  vertebree  form- 
ing the  backbone,and  the  second  exists  in  the  epiglottis,  the 
cartilages  of  WrUberg  and  Sanlorini  in  the  larynx,  and  in  the 
Eusta3iian  tube  and  external  ear. 

We  have  now  to  describe  the  physical  and  chemical  charac- 

■  Physical  Ckaraclers.^U  is  firm,  dense,  and  of  a  whitish  or 
yellowish  colour.  Thin  sections  show  a  considerable  amount 
of  elasticity  and  flexibility,  but  thick  pieces  are  brittle.  It 
does  not  inacerate  readily  in  water.  Fibro-C.  is  remarkably 
tough,  and  diificult  to  cut  into  thin  .sections  or  to  tease  out  by 

Chemkal  Characters.— "^heo  C.  is  boiled  from  12  to  48  hours, 
it  dissolves  and  yields  Chondrin  (q.  v.).  Microscopical  exam 
tion  shows  that  by  this  process  the  matrix  is  alone  dissolved,  not 
the  cells.  The  inference  is,  therefore,  that  the  cells  do  not  yield 
chondrin,  hut  have  a  chemical  constitution  different  Ironi  the 
matrix.  Yellow  fibro-C,  after  digestion  in  caustic  potash  or 
several  days,  followed  by  boiling  for  sixty  hours,  yields  a  jelly- 
like brittle  substance,  which  breaks  down  into  granules.  Ihese 
granules  may  be  dissolved  on  the  addition  of  water,  and  are 
-  d  of  a  substance  termed  elastm.  White  fibro-C.  yields 
on  boiling.  Water  exists  in  C,  to  the  extent  of  from  54 
p  cent.  The  ash  of  C,  yields  phosphates  of  calcium  and 
m  chloride  of  sodium,  carbonate  of  soda,  and  sulphates 
nd  potash.  The  amount  of  ash  varies  from^  2  to  6  per 
The  proportion  of  inoiganic  constituents  is  increased  Oy 
Thus,  according  to  Von  Bibra,  costal  cartilages  yielded  as 


)t  a  true  Cap    . 


t    th    f    t    fth 
rounding  the  gl-oup  of  cells  being  more  granular  than  at  othi 
parts  and  also  to  the  shrinking  of  the  cells  from  the  mntn; 
Water  produces  no  evident  effect  on  C.  cells.      "'"' 
add  renders  young  C.  cells 


2-24  per  c. 


of  ash. 


Weak  aceti 

, ^  „. tiansparent,  but  has  no  effect 

Colouring  matter  st^ns  the  protoplasm  of  the  cell, 
the  nucleus  more  deeply  affecting  the  matrix  sltohHy,  or  not  at 
all.  The  cells  frequently  contain  molecules  of  fat.  C  celi= 
multiply  by  endogenous  formation— that  is,  by  two  or  more 
young  ceils  forming  within  the  parent  cell,  which  afteiirards 
ruptures  and  liberates  the  progeny— or  by  simple  fusion  01  dm 


A   hild  of  six  months 

A   hild  of  three  years      .        .     3  <Ju        ,,         .. 

A  girl  of  nineteen  years   .         .     r29        .•  •■ 

A  man  of  forty  years         .        .     o'lo        ,,  „ 

C    IS  covered  by  a  fibrous  membrane  termed  the  periihon- 

d  From  this  a  few  vessels  penetrate  into  the  tissue  to  a 

hght  d  pth,  bat  C.  is,  strictly  speaking,  a  non-vascular  tissue. 

C  t  suppUed,  so  far  as  is  known,  by  nerves  or  lymphafacs. 

FatkohAal  Changes  in  Carlilage.-^A.i  shown  by  Redfern  and 
bv  Virchow,  C,  subjected  to  irritation  shows  the  followmg 
changes:  segmentation  of  the  cells;  softening  of  the  matrix; 
transTormati!n  of  the  matrix  into  fibrous  structures  ;  cdcilieation 
or  transformation  of  the  whole  into  a  material  resembling  con- 
nective  tissue  C  once  destroyed  is  never  regenerated,  and  the 
gap  made  by  a  section  is  closed  by  connective  tissue.  Occasior 
Illy  new  C.  is  formed,  and  may  form  a  tumour  attached  to  G 
end  of  a  bone  (ikehondrasis),  or  new  C.  may  ongmate  where  the 
e  does  not  normally  exist,  as  in  glandular  texturer 
mav  thus  be  formed  called  an  Enchondroma. 
^  39 


vGooQle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


OAE 


Oartilag'inoiis  Fishes,  the  name  applied  to  those  fishes 
the  skeletons  of  wliieh  consist  of  Cartilage  (q.  v,)  or  gristle,  and 
whicli  thus  exhibit  a  lower  degree  of  structure  in  this  respect 
than  the  true  bony  or  Tdiaslean  fishes.  Cuvier  constituted  this 
group  under  the  name  Chondroptirji^da,  and  in  tliis  division  he 
included  a  number  of  fishes  which  in  modern  zoological  systems 
are  divided  among  two  or  three  distinct  orders,  being  separated 
by  (UfTerences  and  analogies  more  important  than  those  of  the 
skeleton  alone.  Thus  Che  Ganoid  fishes,  or  Ganoidei  (q.  v.),  in- 
cluding the  sturgeons,  bony  pikes,  polypleri,  &c.,  and  me  Elas- 
mobratickU,  represented  by  sharks,  skates,  rays,  &c.,  form 
two  chief  sections  which  include  fishes  with  gtistly  slteleCons. 
But  there  are  some  few  other  forms  or  groups  included  by  im- 

Sortant  structural  affinities  with  the  Tdtostean  osseous  or  bony 
shes,  in  which  the  skeleton  is  cartilaginous.  The  Lancelet 
(q.  v.),  the  Lampreys  (q,  v.},  and  Hag-fishes  (q.  v.),  and  even 
some  of  the  osseous  fishes  {e-g-,  Platogttalhi  and  lAiphshranckU), 
possess  either  cartilaginous  Or  imperfectly  ossified  skeletons. 
The  order  Teleostd  of  modern  ichthyology  comprehends,  in  chief, 
the  osseous  fishes  of  Cuvier. 

Cartoon'  (ItaL  carteru,  pasteboard  or  large  paper,  from 
carta,  Lat.  charta,  '  paper '),  a  fiiil-sLze  design  or  study  sketched 
tipon  strong  paper,  in  chalks  or  in  distemper,  for  a  work .  after- 
wards to  1«  executed  in  fresco,  oil-colonr,  or  tapestry.  From 
the  C.  the  design  is  transferred  to  the  canvas  or  the  plaster 
upon  which  it  is  to  be  elaborated,  by  the  usual  process  of 

;nthe 
C.  and  the  canvas.  When  the  design  is  for  a  fresco — in  whicli 
case  the  plaster  is  worked  we(^  and,  consequently,  only  a  small 
part  of  the  work  is  proceeded  with  at  once — the  design  is  trans- 
ferred either  by  tracing  or  by  pricking  through  the  lines.  By 
malting  use  of  the  finished  C.  the  composition,  drawing,  expres- 
sion, and  light  and  shade  are  all  perfectly  expressed  before  any 
colour  is  laid  on,  and  the  chief  advantage  of  its  use  is,  that  after 
the  complete  design  has  been  transferred,  the  mind  of  the 
artist,  free  from  other  distractions,  is  now  concerned  with  the 
quality  and  effect  of  colour  alone.  The  finest  cartoons  known 
are  those  executed  by  Raphael  for  Leo  X.  in  1515  and  1516 
as  patterns  for  tapestry.  Each  C.  is  abont  12  feet  high,  is 
drawn  with  chalk  upon  strong  paper,  and  coloured  in  distemper 
by  I^phael  and  his  pupils.  They  were  originally  ten  in 
number ;  but,  in  the  course  of  many  vicissitudes,  three,  the 
'  Stoning  of  St  Stephen,'  '  Conversion  of  St  Paul,'  and  'St 
Paul  in  his  Dungeon  at  Philippi,'  have  been  lost.  The  reman- 
ing seven,  illustrative  of  acts  in  the  lives  of  the  apostles,  are 
now  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum,  and  are  consequently 
freely  accessible  to  the  public.  These  great  works  were  bought 
in  Flanders  by  Reubens  for  Charles  I.,  and  we  owe  tlieir  pre- 
servation to  Cromwell,  who,  at  the  dispersion  of  the  collection 
of  Charles  I.,  caused  them  to  be  bought  for  the  country.  Th^ 
are  considered  to  be,  as  designs,  tlie  very  finest  of  Raphael  s 
works,  and  a  careful  study  of  them  is  m  itself  an  art  education. 

Oartouch'(Fr.  cartouche,  'a  cartridge,' introduced  in  the  i6th 
c.  fromltal.  raj-i'iWio),  in  military  language,  has  had  several  mean- 
ings— a  wooden  case  filled  with  cannon-balls,  a  cartridge,  a 
cartridge-box,  and  also  a  soldier's  ticket-of-leave. 

/»  architictuit,  C.  means  a  tablet  for  ornament  or  to  receive 
an  inscription,  formed  like  a  sheet  of  paper  with  the  edges  rolled 
up,  like  a  Modillion  (q.  v.).  The  word  is  applied  also  to  an 
ehiptical  oval  on  ancient  ^yptian  monuments  and  in  papyri, 
on  which  are  hieroglyphic  characters  expressing  the  names  and 
titles  of  kings, 

Car'tridge,  a  cylindrical  case  containing  a  part,  or  the  com- 
ponent parts,  of  a  charge  for  firearms.  The  former  consists  of 
gunpowder  only,  and  is  called  Uank-carlridg^,  while  the  latter 
mcludes  the  full  charge  for  the  weapon — viz.,  for  a  rifle  or  ball- 
gun,  powder,  lubrication  (in  the  shape  of  a  wad  or  otherwise), 
and  bullet ;  and  for  a  fiawlmg-piece,  powder,  wads,  and  small 
shot  Cartridges  for  cannon  contain  powder  only,  cased  in  a  bag 
of  flannel  or  serge,  and,  for  the  larger  bores  of  caimon,  bound 
witii  iron  hoops. 

When  muiale-loading  small-arms  were  in  use,  the  C.  employed 
for  military  purposes  was  a  paper  tube  containing  the  powder 
and  bullet  (for  blank-C.  the  powder  only) ;  and  for  fowling- 
pieces,  a  paper  case  containing  the  small  shot,  the  interstices 
being  filled  with  bone-dust,  and  for  long-range  shooting  having 
40 


ording  to  the  range 


a  wire-netting  of  greater  or  less  strengtli,  i 
required,  surrounding  the  outside  of  the  c: 
Cartridges  for  breech-loading  small-arn 
but  they  Imve  all  so  much  in  common,  that  a  description  of  one 
or  two  will  give  a  good  idea  of  their  general  construction.  For 
military  arms,  the  best  type  of  C.  is  believed  to  be  the  Boxer- 
Henry,  adopted  by  the  British  Government  for  the  Martini- 
Henry  rifle.  The  case  is  tlie  invention  of  Colonel  Boxer,  late 
superintendent  of  the  Royal  Laboratory  nt  Woolwich,  and  the 
bullet  and  lubrication  that  of  Mr  Henry  of  Edinburgh.  A  sec- 
tion of  this  C.  is  shown  at  fig.  i.    Tlte  case,  a  a  (whidi  is  bottle. 


Fig... 

shaped),  is  made  of  coiled  brass,  with  a  strengthening  cup,  b,  of 
the  same  material  at  the  back  end,  the  base  being  an  iron  disc, 
c,  with  a  hole  in  the  centre ;  this  base  has  a  projecting  flange  for 
the  extractor  of  the  rifle  to  take  hold  of,  for  the  purpose  of  with- 
drawing the  C.  from  the  chamber.  The  rear  end  of  the  C. 
is  further  strengthened  by  a  thick  disc,  d,  of  paper  pulp  in- 
side the  metal  case.  In  the  centre  of  this  disc  is  a  small 
brass  chamber,  e  (the  cap  -  chamber),  the  forward  end  of 
which  is  embedded  in  the  pulp,  while  its  rear  end  pro- 
trudes through  and  is  riveted  down  on  the  iron  base, 
which  it  keeps  in  position.  The  cap  ^containing  the  detonating 
powder  and  the  anvil  g,  is  contained  within  the  chamber.  The 
chaige  consists  of  the  powder  k,  the  lubricating  wad  j,  of  pure 
beeswax  between  thin  wads  of  jute,  and  the  bullet  j  enveloped 
in  a  paper  wrapper,  the  bullet  being  secured  into  the  case  by  two 
cannelures.  The  ignition  is  effected  by  the  piston  or  striker  of 
the  rifle  impinging  on  the  base  ot  the  cap  and  driving  the  latter 
against  the  anvil:  the  concussion  ignites  the  detonating  powder 
in  the  cap,  and  the  flash  passing  through  the  small  hole  in  front 
of  the  cap-chamber,  communicates  •«{&  the  powder. 

Fig,  2  is  a  section  of  a  central-fire  cartridge  for  a  shot-guiL 
The  case,  aa,  is  a  cylinder  of  thick  paper  with  a  brass  cup, 
bb,  forming  the  base,  strengthened,  as  in  the  former  case,  by  a  disc 
of  paper  pulp,  and  sometimes,  for  additional  strength  having  a 
short  coil  of  thin  metal  inside  the  paper.     The  arrangement  for 


ignition  is  the  same  as  in  the  Boxer-Henry  cartr 

powder,  d  a  thick  felt  wad,  e  the  shot,  and  /  a  thin  felt  wad 

over  the  shot. 

In  addition  to  being  made  of  coiled  brass  and  paper,  C.  cases 
are  also  made  of  solid  drawn  brass  or  copper,  and  in  addition  to 
the  central- fire  arrangement  for  ignition,  there  is  also  the  rim-lire 
and  pin-fire.  In  the  former,  the  rim  of  the  base  is  hollow,  and 
contains  fulminate  all  round  it ;  a  blow  of  the  hammer  or  striker 
on  any  part  of  the  rim  causes  the  ignition.  In  the  latter,  the  cap 
is  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  pulp,  with  its  mouth  towards  the 
edge  of  the  case,  and  a  pin  passes  through  the  side  of  the  case 
and  into  the  cap,  the  ignition  being  caused  by  the  blow  of  the 
hammer  on  the  pin,  which  protrudes  through  a  small  hole  in  the 
breech  end  of  the  barrel  of  the  gun. 

Oartridge-Paper  is  white,  strong  in  texture,  with  a  rough 
surface,  and  is  used  for  drawing  and  various  purposes  in  the  arts. 
It  derives  its  name  from  the  circumstance  of  having  been  origin- 
ally manufactured  for  military  cartridges. 

Cart'wTiglit,  Edmuitd,  the  inventor  of  the  power-loom, was 
bom  at  Marnham,  Notts,  on  24th  April  1743,  and  educated  at 
Oxford,  where  he  obtained  a  fellowship,  for  the  English  Church, 


yLaOogle 


CAR 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOFJiDIA. 


CAE 


in  whicli  he  held  a  living  for  many  years.  He  does  nut  appear 
to  have  shown  any  special  turn  foi-  mechanics,  and  it  was  not 
until  he  was  over  forty  that  a  chance  conversation  tnvned  his  atten- 
tion to  the  then  nnsolved  problem  of  machine -weaving,  with  such 
excellent  result  that  less  than  a  year  afterwards  he  was  able  to 
exhibit  his  first  Power-Loom -(q.  v.).      It  was  at  first  a  very  im- 

Eerfect  machine,  and  its  introduction  was  fanatically  opposed  by 
oth  millowners  and  workers,  a  mob  setting  fire  to  the  first  factory. 
After  making  many  improvements  in  it,  C.'s  persevering  efforts 
to  get  it  introduced  into  mills  were  successful,  and  publ' 
opinion  so  altered  itself  that  in  1809  Parliament  voted  h  m 
£ia,aoo  in  acknowledgment  of  the  value  of  his  inve 
^a  grant  which  enabled  him  to  end  his  days  in  comfort 
died  30th  October  1823.  Bes  Life  and  Corres^dmce  nf  C  b 
his  niece  (2  vols,  Lond.  1826). 

Oartwright,  Thomas,  a  distinguished  divine  and  se 
was  bom  in  Hertfordshire  about  1535,  a"nd  was  educated  S 
John's  and  Trinity  Colleges,  Cambridge.  As  a  preacher  he  was 
much  admired,  but  being  strongly  Puritan  in  his  prindplea,  he 
was  frequently  persecuted  by  Whitgift  and  otliers,  was  more  than 
once  imprisoned,  and  was  compelled  to  reside  for  the  most  of 
his  life  abroad.  We  find  him  at  Geneva  in  IS70.  at  Heidelbei^ 
i"  1573.  latef  at  Antwerp  and  Middelburg,  and  at  Guernsey 
'»  I595-9S.  He  died  at  Warwick,  27th  December  1603,  his 
death  having  been,  it  is  believed,  hastened  by  his  troubles.  C. 
was  ecclesiastically  a  factious  and  mutinous  spirit.  He  had  a 
morbid  passion  for  controversy,  and  did  everything  in  his  power 
to  proviSte  persecution.  Among  his  writings,  of  which  a  long 
list  is  given  in  Cooper's  Athena  CaiHatrigiaues,  are  a  Latin 
Harmmy  of  Ike  Guspeh,  a  Commentary  on  the  Proverbs,  and  a 
Confiilation  of  ike  Rkemists'  Translation,  Gloisei,  and  Annotaliinis 
on  the  New  Testammt,  &c 

Gacus,  Karl  Gustav,  a  German  physician,  was  born  at 
Leipsic,  3d  January  1789,  and  studied  at  the  university  there. 
Elected  Professor  of  Clinical  Obstetrics  at  Dresden  in  1814, 
he  became  physician  in  ordinary  to  the  King  of  Saxony  in 
1827,  and  died  at  Dresden,  28th  July  1869.  His  chief  works 
axe  LeArbuch  dtr  Zoolovtie  IX^ip%.  1818;  2d  ed.  1834);  Grund- 
saige  zur  vir^eiehmden .  Anatomit  und  Pkysiohgie  (3  vols. 
Dresd.  1828) ;  Atlas  der  Kraniaskopie  (Leips.  1843  ;  2d  ed. 
1864);  Zta-  Entwickdungigisehichte  der  Seele  (Pforzh.  1846; 
3d  ed.  i860);  and  Briefe  Uber  Landschaftsmalerd ij&yi).  His 
Ld>eftssrinneruti^eti  {1^  vols.  1865-66)  are  full  of  interest. — 
Jolitis  Victor  0.,  a  well-known  German  anatomist  and  zoolo- 
^st,  was  bom  at  Leipsic,  August  25,  1823,  After  acting  for  a 
time  as  conservator  of  the  Oxford  Anatomical  Museum,  he  was 
elected  Professor  of  Comparative  Anatomy  in  his  native  town  in 
1853.  He  lectui-cd  in  Edinburgh  University  in  the  room 
of  Professor  Wyville  Thomson,  who  was  absent  on  the  Chal- 
lenger expedition,  during  the  summers  of  1873-74.  He  is  a 
strong  Darwinian,  pushing  the  claims  of  natural  selection  even 
furtlier  than  its  great  oiiginator.  His  chief  works  ate  System 
der  thur  Mbrpkologie  (Leips.  1853) ;  Lcones  Zootomies  (Leips. 
1857),  Bibtiothtca  Zoologica,  with  Engelmann  (2  vols.  Leips. 
1862),    and,    along   with    Gerstaclter,    Handbuch    der  Zooiogie 


Carvel  Built, 
fjiing  that  the  outer  planks  at 
In  iron  ships  tliis 
Clincher-Bi;ilt, 


1  boat-building,  is  a  term  signi- 

ill  smooth,  meeting  edge  to  edge. 

langement  is  called  jump-jointed.      See 


Oar'ver,  John,  the  first  governor  of  the  Plymouth  colony 
in  the  New  World,  was  bom  in  England  in  the  second  half  of 
the  16th  c,  and  went  to  Leyden,  then  a  refiige  for  the  Puritans. 
He  was  an  elder  in  the  Church,  and  in  1620  sailed  with  the  Pil- 
grims in  the  Mayflmaer.  C.  was  a  prudent  and  firm  nder,  but 
did  not  long  survive  his  arrival  ui  New  England,  dying  at  Ply- 
mouth,  April  5,  1621. 

Carvin,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Pas-de- 
Calais,  about  iSmilesN.N.E.ofCorras.  Pop.  (1872)  5780,  en- 
gaged chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  alcohol  from  beet-root. 

CarVing  is  the  art  of  producing  decorative  work  upon  hard 
surfaces,  with  the  aid  of  sharp  tools ;  the  name,  however,  is 
generally  used,  hi  a  limited  sense,  to  denote  works  in  ivory,  borie, 
and  wood,  in  contradistinction  to  scidpturs  in  stone  and  chasir^ 
■-  — '"'     All  nations  practise  in  some  degree  the  art  of  C, 


■«.- 


81 


and  the  skill  and  ingenuity  shown  by  savage  tribes  in  wood- 
C.  is  wonderful.  The  intricate  designs  which  the  uncivi- 
lised Maori  wrought  with  exJ:remely  rude  tools  upon  liis  house, 
canoe,  weapons  of  war,  &c.,  are  truly  remarkable.  Wood  has 
been  used  from  the  earliest  limes  for  C.,  and  the  chrysele- 
phantine sculpture  ol  the  greatest  artists  of  anciept  Greece 
points  to  the  extensive  use  of  ivory  in  works  of  art.  The  statue 
of  Minerva,  executed  in  gold  and  ivory  by  Phidias,  which  was 

E laced  in  the  temple  of  that  godded  at  Athens,  is  supposed  to 
t    d  9  f  et  in  height.     The  Chinese  and  Japanese 

a     ex     m   y  a  in  C.  in  ivory,  and  the  French  and  Ital- 

ns    n  d  woodwork.     Machinery  has  of  late  years 

n  su  pplicd  to  the  cheap  and  expeditious  produc- 

w    d  carvi  gs ;  those  of  the  interior  of  the  Houses  of 
P  g  been  so  produced.     The  woods  chiefly  em- 

p       d    n   C  he  pear,   lime,   American  pine,   cliestnut, 

p  e,      k  bo      b  ny,  snakewood,  and  tulipwood. 

Ca  ry.  Rev.  Heniy  Franois,  was  bom  at  Birmingham  in 
1772.  He  distinguished  liimself  at  Oxford  by  his  knowledge  of 
languages,  and  in  1797  became  vicar  of  Bromley  Abbots,  Staf- 
fordshire. In  1805  appeared  his  translation  of  Dante's  Inferno, 
and  in  1814  a  version  of  the  entire  Divina  Comedia,  which  is 
admirable  for  its  accuracy  and  vigour.  From  1826-32  he  was 
assistant  librarian  in  the  British  Museum.  He  died  I4lh  August 
1844.  C.  also  wrote  translations  of  the  Birds  of  Aristophanes, 
and  the  Odes  of  Pindar,  Lives  of  English  and  French  poets, 
and  published  editions  of  Milton,  Pope,  Cowper,  Thomson,  and 
Young.     See  the  Metnoir  by  his  son  [1847). 

Gary,  Sir  Robert,  a  nobleman  eminent  in  the  civil  service 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  was  a  son  of  Henry  Gary,  Lord  Hunsdon, 
and  was  bom  about  1560.  On  her  death  in  I603,  C.  rode  swiftly 
to  Edinburgh  to  acquaint  James  VI.  with  the  uitelligence.  He 
was  created  Earl  of  Monmouth  at  the  coronation  of  Charles  I., 
and  died  in  1639.  His  cnrious  and  interesting  Memoirs  were 
published  in  1759,  from  an  MS,  m.  the  possession  of  the  Earl  of 
Cork  nndOirety,andagaiuini8o8(Edmb.).— His  son,  Henry 
0.,  second  Earl  of  Monmouth  (born  1596,  died  1661),  was  an 
industrious  author.  His  writings  are  eliiefly  translations  from 
Italian  and  French  authors,  and  are  not  i;emembered, 

Oar'ya,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  ya=-- 
/iinfliR-ftB  (walnut  order).  C.  alba  is  the  common  Hickory  (q.  v.); 
C.  olii/sformis,  the  peccan  nuts  j  C.  poreina,  the  pig  or  hog  nut 
The  nuts  are  consumed  by  pigs,  squirrels,  &c.,  and  the  wood  is 
considered  superior  to  that  of  the  rest  of  the  genus. 

Caryat'ides  (lit.  the  women  of  Carya;  in  Laconia,  and  espe- 
cially the  priestesses  of  Artemis  tliere),.is  the  name  given  in 
architecture  to  female  figures  used  instead  of  columns  to  sup- 
port a  cornice.  Vltruvius  explains  its  origin  thus  :—Aftei- the 
battle  of  Thermopylie,  the  inhabitants  of  CaryK,  having  joined 
the  Persians,  were  attacked  by  the  allied  Greeks,  the  males 
slaughtered,  and  the  females  cairied  into  captivity.  Male  figures, 
used  as  bearing-shafts,  were  represented  as  Persians,  and  loiown 
as  Atlantes  and  Telamones  ;  female  figures  so  used  were  desig.^ 
nated  C ,  to  commemorate  the  disgrace  of  the  people  of  Caryse. 

Oaryo'car,  agenus  of  plants  of  the  natural  otAtt  Rhieabolacea 
(q.  v.),  C.  butyrosum  {Pekea  iutyrosa,  or  ttiberculosd),  or,  accord- 
ing to  some,  C.  nimferum — also  a  British  Guianean  tree^— is  » 
tree  itiuch  esteemed  in  S.  America  for  shipbuilding.  The 
separated  portions  of  the  fruit  constitute  the  Sourari,  Suvatiwa, 
or  Suwarcow  nuts  of  commerce,  which  form  a  pleasant  article  of 
food.  A  table-oil  is  extracted  from  them.  From  C.  Brasiliense 
a  concrete  oil  can  also  be  obtained. 

Oaryodaph'ne,  a  Javanese  plant,  belonging  to  the  Laurel 
family,  C.  densiflora  has  a  bitter  bark  ]  its  leaves  are  aromatic, 
and  used  in  spasms  of  the  bowels  and  similar  complaints. 

Caryophylla'ceEe,  a  natural  order  of  dicotyledonous  plant', 
of  the  subdivision  Thalaviiflurs,  containing  about  lloo  species 
and  sixty  genera,  chiefly  natives  of  temperate  and  cold  climates  ; 
if  found  within  the  tropics,  they  aie  generally  on  the  sides  of 
mountains,  near  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow.  The  C.  are  always 
insipid,  and  contain  few  species  of  importance.  Some  are  eaten 
by  small  animals,  and  are  said  to  increase  the  secretion  of  the  milk 
of  cow^fed  on  tliem.  This  idea  is  perpetuated  in  the  name  of 
Vacearia  vu/garis.      Sapenaria  oJiHnalis  contains  a  principle 


^ 

HosteabyVjOOQlC 


CAR 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CAS 


called  Saponhie,  and  has  been  used  in  syphilis.  The  Finks  (q.  v.), 
sudi  as  sweet-wiliiam,  Carnations  (q.  v.),  ^Utne,  Lychnis,  &c., 
among  tlie  showy  garden  plants  belonging  to  this  order. 
Chickweed  {Stdlaria],  comspiuTj  (Spergula  arvtasisj,  &c,  are 
used  as  fodder  (or  cattle.  The  order  is  divided  into  three  sub- 
orders—(i)  SiUnes,  the  pinlc  tribe ;  (z)  Alsinecc,  the  chickweed 
tribe  ;  (3)  Mollugima,  the  carpetmeed  tribe. 

Caryopl^ll'ua,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  lifyr- 
tiKice.  C.  aromcaicus  is  the  clove-tree,  the  dried  flower-buds  of 
which  ave  known  by  the  name  o{  dimes.  They  possess  aromatic, 
nulant,  and  canninative  properties,  chiefly  due  to  the  presence 
..  a  volatile  oil  The  nntipe  fruits,  ctHed.  mother  ciirves,  though 
much  inferior  to  the  ordinary  cloves,  are  used  as  a  spice  in  China, 
and  are  sometimes  imported  into  this  cotmtry.  The  buds  ore 
collected  either  by  hand  or  by  beating  the  bushes  with  a  stick, 
when,  owing  to  their  jomted  stalks,  they  readily  fdl  off  and  are 
collected  on  a  sheet  spread  beneath.  The  clove  is  now  culti- 
vated in  the  W.  Indies,  Mauritius,  Sumatra,  and  elsewhere;  but 
for  many  years  its  cultivation  was  restricted  by  the  Diilcli  to  the 
island  of  Amboyna  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  the  monopoly 
i  even  narrowed  by  the  Batavian  Government  estirpating  the 
s  in  every  other  place  except  a  limited  district  of  the  island 
mentioned.  Cloves  are  used  to  lull  the  pain  in  toothache,  and  as 
acmmative  in  medicine  to  check  nausea  and  griping  caused 
by  the  administration  of  purgatives. 


CBXya'ta,  a  genus  of  palms,  of  which  nine  species  are  known, 
all  natives  of  India  and  the  Indian  islands.  C.  «rens  {or  jaggeiy 
palm)  has  a  fruit  about  the  siie  of  nutmegs,  with  a  very  acrid 
riiind,  and  the  pvilp  of  which  produces  a  burning  sensation  when 

plied  to  the  skm ;  hence  the  name  arms  {burning).  The  natives 
o?  Ceylon,  Malabar,  Bengal,  Assam,  and  other  parts  of  India 
where  it  is  found,  extract  from  its  flowering  stallis  the  juice  called 
'  toddy,'  which  when  boiled  jiields  jaggery  or  palm-sugar,  and 
also  sugar-candy.  In  the  hot  season  as  much  as  100  pints  vrill 
flow  in  twenty-four  hours.  In  the  soft  central  portion  of  the 
trunks  of  old  trees  is  stored  a  quantity  of  starch,  which  forms 
excellent  sago,  which,  when  made  into  bread,  forms  a  large  por- 
tion of  tlie  food  of  the  natives.  The  outer  part  of  the  stem  is 
hard,  and  applicable  to  many  purposes,  j.f. ,  the  fibres  of  the  leaf- 
stalk (kiltul  fibre)  into  cordage,  the  leaf-sfallt  into  fishing-rods, 
the  woolly  substance  at  the  base  of  the  leaves  for  oaulkmg  boats, 
&c.  The  whole  of  the  sugar  used  in  Ceylon  is  extracted  from 
lliis  palm  and  two  others  {Cmas  imdfa-a  and  Borassus  fiabelli- 
Jm-mis).  The  caste  of  natives  called  Jaggeraros  are  wholly  em- 
ployed in  preparing  it.' 

Caaaoalen'dft  (ancient  Calela),  a  town  af  Central  Italy,  pro- 
vince of  Molise,  16  miles  N.E.  of  Campobasso.  Pop.  about 
6000.     Silkworms  are  reared  in  the  neighbourhood,  which  also 

OftSftls,  a  town  of  N.  Italy,  province  of  Alessandria,  on 
the  river  Po,  43  miles  S.W.  of  Milan.  Its  cathedral,  the  splen- 
didmaible  chapel  of  which  was  completed  in  1808,  dates  from 
1474.  The  citadel,  still  one  of  the  strongest  fortifications  in 
Italy,  was  built  in  1590  by  the  Duke  of  Montferrat,  of  whose 
duchy  C.  was  the  capital.  It  is  the  seal  of  a  bishop,  and  has  a 
considerable  industry  in  silk  manufacture.  Pop.  (187I)  27,514- 
In  the  17th  c,  C.  was  Several  times  besieged  by  the  Spamards, 
and  was  captured  by  them  in  1652.  It  finally  fell  to  Savoy  in 
1706,     The  district  is  rich  in  corn  and  wine. 

Casal'-Iffaggio'rs,  a  town  of  N.  Italy,  province  of  Cre- 
mona, on  the  Po,  21  miles  S.W.  of  Mantua.  Strong  embank- 
ments protect  it  from  river  inundations.  Pop.  15,317,  largely 
eng^ed  in  the  manufacture  of  earthenware,  glass,  &c. 

Caaal'-Fusterleil'go,  a  town  of  N.  Italy,  provinc 
Milan,  on  a  small  tributary  of  the  Po,  18  miles  W.N.W.  of 
Cremona,  and  celebrated  for  its  fine  Parmesan  cheese.  The 
chief  industries  are  silk,  Hnen,  and  earthenware  manufacture. 
Pop.  6000. 

Casamass'ima,  a  town  of  S.  Italy,  province  of  Bari,   12 
miles  S.  of  the  town  of  Bari ;  has  a  convent  and  two  abbeys. 
Top.  5600.     The  neighbourhood  yields  good  wine. . 
43 


•r  lui-miint  (new 


.sano'va,  Francis,  painter  and  engraver,  bom  in  London, 
of  Venetian  parents,  in  1727  or  1732  j  went  at  an  early  age  to 
Florence,  thence  to  Paris,  and  afterwards  to  Dresden.  He  died 
at  Bruhl,  near  Vienna,  8th  July  1815.  Cs  works  are  chiefly 
battle-pieces,  remarkable  for  spirit  and  for  excellent  colour. 
He  painted  the  battles  of  Fribourg  and  Lens  for  the  Prince 
of  Condi  in  1771  ;  and  later  he  removed  to  Vienna,  and  was 
employed  by  the  Empress  Catherine  i<3  commemorate  her  vic- 
tories over  the  Turks.  — Giovanni  Jaoopo  O.  de  Seing^ault, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Venice,  2d  April  1725. 
His  family  was  of  Spanish  extraction.  He  was  educated  for 
the  Church,  but  spent  his  life  in  amours,  intrigues,  and 
peregrinations  through  Europe,  mingling  with  the  highest  so- 
ciety, and  invariably  quitting  it  in  disgrace.  Yet  his  last 
years  were  spent  in  peace  at  the  Castle  of  Dux,  in  Boliemia, 
where  he  pursued  cabalistic  'science'  along  with  his  host, 
Count  Waldstein,  and  where  he  died,  4th  June  1798.  It  was  at 
Dux  that  C.  wrote  those  MMeii-es  which  give  an  entertaining 
account  of  his  vagrant  existence,  and  a  valuable  picture  of 
his  times.  Tliey  were  first  published  at  Leipsic  h  ""  -  "'" 
(1826-38),  nnder  the  litk  Ms/iioifes  f!---''"  ^-- '"i.' 
ed.  6  vols.  Par.  i860). 

Gaaaulaon,  Isaac,  a  great  French  scholar,  was  born  Feb- 
ruary 18,  1559,  at  Geneva,  of  a  family  belonging  to  Dauphm^. 
There  he  studied  languages,  theology,  and  law,  and  became  Pro- 
fessor of  Greek  in  his  twenty-fourth  year.  He  married  tlie 
daughter  of  the  celebrated  scholar  Henri  Estienne  in  1586,  and 
continued  at  Geneva,  issuing  editions  of  Greek  and  Latin  authors, 
until  1596,  when  he  received  the  Greek  professorship  at  Mont- 
pellier.  Two  years  afterwards  he  visited  Paris,  where  he  was 
appointed  royal  librarian.  On  the  murder  of  Henri  IV.  in 
1610,  he  visited  England,  where  he  found  an  Anglo-Catholic 
party  in  closer  unison  with  his  views  than  any  Continental 
school  of  theology.  The  story  that  he  was  hired  by  James  I.  to 
write  against  Baronins  is  a  fabrication  of  the  Jesuits.  He  re- 
ceived two  benefices  in  England,  and  after  his  death  at  London, 
July  I,  1614,  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  His  theo- 
logical works  are  now  of  slight  value,  but  are  singularly  placid 
and  tolerant.  His  learning  was  vast  and  recondite  ;  as  a  cor 
mentator  he  displays  rare  erudition  and  candour,  and  enlive 
his  annotations  by  quaint,  entertaining  gossip.  His  best  worlis 
are  his  edition  of  Atkmsus,  which  occupied  him  two  years,  and 
his  edition  of  Polybias.  He  commented  on  Aristotle,  Dii^ene  - 
Laertius,  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassns,  Theophrastus,  Theociiti 
Persius,  Pliny  die  Younger,  Strabo,  Suetonius,  Slc,  and  wrote 
treatise  on  Greek  and  Roman  satire-  See  Isaac  C,  by  Mark 
Pattison  (Longman  &  Co.  1875).— Merio  0.,  theologian  and 
critic,  son  of  the  above,  was  bom  at  Geneva,  August  14.  1599- 
After  studying  at  Sedan  Academy,  he  accompanied  his  father  to 
England,  became  rector  of  Ickani  and  Professor  of  Theol<^  at 
Oxford,  where  he  died,  July  14,  1671.  Like  his  father,  he  pos- 
sessed great  learning.  His  commentaries  on  Terence,  Epictetus, 
Florus,  Diogenes  Laertius,  and  Marcus  Aurelius,  are  of  consider- 
able value.  He  also  wrote  in  defence  of  his  father  Pietas  contra 
malidiciis  patrii  Honiinis  el  rdigionis  hosles  (Lond.  1651),  and 
Vindict!tiefiatrisaiivirsusimfostores{l(iH).  See  Anthony  Wood's 
Athena  Oxenienses  {Oxford,  1694). 

CaaTjin,  or  Kasvin,  a  town  in  Irak-Ajemi,  Persia,.97  miles 
W.N.W.  of  Teheran,  lies  in  a  fine  plain,  is  defended  by  walls 
and  towers,  and  embowered  among  gardens  and  vineyards.  It 
has  two  large  mosques,  one  of  which  has  a  high  dome,  and 
two  minarets  of  glazed  blue  bricks.  Tlie  manufactures  include 
velvets,  brocades,  weapons,  and  coarse  cottons.  There  is  a  large 
trade,  chiefly  to  Uie  Caspian  shores,  in  vitriol,  grain,  dried  fiuits, 
vine  treacle,  slieep,  and  horsffi.  Pop.  25,000,  mostly  descended 
from  the  Turkish  nomads  that  have  long  frequented  the  neigh- 
bouring plains.    C.  was  capital  of  Persia  for  a  time. 

Oasoarill'a  ($.!.,  'little  bark'),  the  name  given  in  Spanish 
America  to  the  bitter  medicinal  barlis,  lilte  cinchona,  which 
are  collected  for  export.  Cortex  cascarills  is  the  hark  of  C'ro- 
Ion  Elultria  (see  Croton),  which  is  smnetimes  employed  a- 
a  substitute  for  cinchona,  especiall;y  in  Germany.  C.  is  alsi 
applied  by  Weddel  and  other  botanists  to  a  sub-division  of  the 
genus  Cinchotta,  distinguished,  inier  alia,  by  not  containing  any 
of  the  ingredients  that  render  that  bark  so  valuable. 
Case,  in  grammar.     See  Declension. 


y  Google 


CAS 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CAS 


11  the 


Is  Of  a 


Case,  in  laiv,  is  a  formal  writlen  argument 
cause.     Ill  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  queslioiis  in  disprfte 
can  now  be  stated  and  the  opinion  of  couft  got  oH  them  with- 
out pleading. 

O^e,  in  the  art  of  printing,  a  shallow  drawer(  34  inches  long 
by  15  inches  broad,  divided  into  compartments  for  holding  the 
'ous  letters  or  '  types'  used  by  the  compositor.  These  com- 
partments are  technically  called  *  boxe.%'  and  vary  in  site 
according  to  the  requirements  of  the  English  language — the 
letter  e  requiring  the  largest  box,  and  others  in  proportion, 
""'  :  letters  aT«  not  placed  alphabetically,  but  those  in  most  use 

nearest  the  compositor.    There  are  two  cases,  an  'upper' 

and  '  lower ' — the  former  containing  the  capitaJs,  small  capitals, 
&c,  the  latter  the. small  letters,  puncluation  marks,  itc.  They 
are  placed  in  a  stand  or  'frame,'  4  feet  high,  at  which  the  com- 
positor stands.  A  '  lower-case '  will  hold  about  30  lbs.  of  type, 
equal  to  two  pages  of  the  present  woilt,  or  18,500  types. 

Oasea'iria,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Samydaus. 
C.  ulmifalia  is  a  native  of  Brazil,  and  is  highly  esteemed  in  that 
country  as  a  remedy  for  snake-bites.  The  Brazilians  make  a 
drink  of  the  juice  of  the  leaves,  and  also  apply  them  to  wounds. 
Nearly  a  hundred  species,  many  of  which  have  medicinal  pro- 

rties,  are  known.     C.  aculeiila  of  India  has  purgative  roots, 

,t  other  species  are  poisonous.  For  example,  the  resin  sur- 
rounding the  young  flowers  of  C.  rtsmifera  is  used  to  kill  dogs 

Oaae-Hardening,  a  metallurgical  process  for  superficially 
converting  wtouglit-iron  into  hard  steel,  seldom  exceeding  -^ 
indi  in  thidtness,  applied  to  tools,  bolts,  &c  This  result  may 
be  obtained  by  plungmg  malleable  iron  raised  (o  a  welding  heat 
■nto  liquid  pig-iron,  and  forging  out.  It  is  usually  effected,  how- 
iVer,  by  heating  the  iron  with  substances  producing  cyanogen, 
IS  ferro-cyanide  of  poLassiam,  leather  parings,  or  horn,  and  sud- 
denly quencliing  in  cold  water.  The  rationale  of  the  process  is 
that  some  of  the  carbon,  and  perhaps  a  little  of  the  nitrogen,  of 
these  bodies,  enter  into  combination  with  the  iron. 

OaaG'ine  is  an  Albnmenoid  substance  (q.  v.)  contained  in  milk 
in  quantities  varying  from  3  to  17  per  cenL  A  substance  eitlier 
identical  with  or  closely  allied  to  C.  is  found  in  peas,  beans,  and 
other  leguminous  seeds,  and  is  called  Legumine.  Like  other 
albumenoids,  C.  exists  both  in  the  soluble  and  insoluble  modifi- 
cation. In  fresh  milk  it  is  present  in  the  state  of  solution,  but 
it  is  readily  precipitated  as  curd,  by  the  addition  to  milk  of  dilute 
mineral  acids,  alcohol,  and  even  acetic  acid.  C.  is  also  coagu- 
lated or  rendered  insoluble  by  the  action  of  Retmei,  the  linuig 
membrane  of  the  stomach  of  the  calf;  this  property  is  turned  to 
account  in  llie  manufacture  of  Cheese  (q.  v.).  Unlike  albumen, 
C,  13  not  precipitated  by  boiling  its  solution,  but  a  thin  skin  or 
pellicle  forms  on  the  surface.  C.  is  readily  soluble  in  alkalies 
and  alkaline  solutions,  even  after  coagulation.  It  unites  with 
alkalies  and  alkaline  earths,  and  appears  to  have  properties  re- 
eembling  those  of  an  acid.  A  mixture  of  elieese  and  slaked 
lime  has  been  employed  as  a  cement  for  porcelain — the  two  unit- 
ing to  form  a  tenacious  and  insoluble  compound.  Dried  milk- 
curd  is  used  in  calico-printing,  and  is  known  by  the  name  of 
Laclarine ;  it  acts  as  a  mordant,  i.e.,  combines  with  colouring 
matters  forming  insoluble  compounds  which  adhere  to  the  cloth. 
Milk  is  sometimes  given  in  cases  of  poisoning  by  salts  of  the 
metals— these  forming  insoluble  precipitates  with  the  C  C.  is 
by  no  means  nutritious,  and  is  the  least  easily  digested  of  the 
albumenoids, 

Oase'mate  (introduced  in  the  i6ih  c  from  the  Ilal.  casa- 
malia),  in  forlilication,  an  arched  bomb-proof  chamber,  con- 
structed as  a  protection  from  the  effects  of  vertical  and  enfilade 
fire,  and  adapted  for  use  as  barracks,  magazine,  or  hospital, 
and  sometimes  for  mounting  guns,  which  are  fired  (hrougli  eni- 
brasures. 

OasemTje  [Lc,  'general'),  the  title  of  a  sovereign  m  the  inle- 
lior  of  Afrida,  whose  territory,  called  the  country  of  C. ,  has  been 
made  known  to  Europeans  by  Dr  Livingstone. .  It  is  partly 
upland,  Qud  is  '  generally  covered  with  forest,  well  water^  by 
numerous  rivulets,  and  comparatively  cold.  The  soil  is  very  rich, 
and  yields  abundantly  wherever  cultivated.'  The  chief  river  is 
the  Luapula,  which  connects  Lakes  Bangweolo  and  Moero, 
entering  the  latter  about   rg  miles  N.W.  of  C.'s  town.     The 


cKmate  is  in  some  districts  unhealthy.  The  town  of  C.,  near 
the  N.  end  of  the  small  lake  Motwe,  at  an  elevation  of  3319  feet 
above  the  level  of 'the  sea,  consists  of  huts  interspersed  among 
cassava  plantations,  and  covers  one  sq.  mile.  Each  governor 
builds  a  new  capital  for  himself.  See  the  Last  Journals  of  Dauid 
Limngstoni  {2  yok.  Lond.  1874}. 

OajBe'ment  (ItaL  cassmtnla),  in  building,  a  frame  enclosmg 
part  of  the  glaiing  of  a  window,  and  opening  on  hinges.  C. 
windows  are  general  on  the  Continent,  but  rare  in  this  country. 
In  architecture,  C.  is  the  old  English  name  for  the  hollow  circular 
moulding  now  called  a  ScoHa,  which  in  Gothic  architecture, 
especially  in  the  Perpendicular  Style,  is  very  prevalent  in  cornices 
and  door  and  window  jambs,  and  which  is  sometimes  richly 
carved  with  running  patterns  of  foliage. 

Caserns'  (Fr.  caserne,  '  barracks  ; '  introduced  from  the  Sp. 
casemi),  huts  erected  for  the  temporary  accommodation  of  sol- 
diers on  duty  in  a  fortified  town.  They  are  put  up  either  on  the 
ramparts,  or  between  the  ramparts  and  the  houses. 

Caser'ta  (Ital.  casa  eria,  '  steep  or  tall  house'),  the  capital  of  a 
province  of  the  same  name,  S.  Italy,  on  a  hill,  12  miles  N.E,  of 
Naples  by  railway.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  has  one  of 
the  laigest  and  finest  castles  in  Europe,  built  by  Carlo  III.  in 
1752,  at  a  cost  of  ;Si,57S,ooo.  It  is  surrounded  by  magnificent 
gardens,  and  gives  to  the  town  its  name.  C.  has  a  royal  silk 
factory.  Pop.  27, 72S.  The  province  has  an  area  of  2307  sq, 
miles,  and  a  pop.  (1871)  of  697,403. 

Oase-Sh.ot,  or  Canister-Shot,  in  ammunition,  a  cylindrical 
box  of  iron  or  tin-plate,  charged  with  sand,  sliot,  and  shavings  or 
sawdust  in  the  interstices.  They  are  used  for  deslroyuig  flips' 
rigging,  in  defending  ditches  or  narrow  defiles,  or  employed  with 
terrible  destruction  against  masses  of  troops  at  short  distances, 
rarely  exceeding  300  yards.  C.-S,,  with  wooden  bottoms  pro- 
jectiiig  slightly  beyond  the  cylindrical  body,  are  discharged  from 
bronze  ordnance  on  account  of  the  injury  inflicted  by  the  iron  on 
the  bore  of  the  guns.  The  diameter  of  C,-S.  ranges  from  3  to 
10  inches,  and  the  siie-of  the  sand-sliot  employed  varies  accord- 
ingly ;  for  the  convenience  of  lifting,  the  large  C.-S.  have  an 
iron  or  rope  handle  attached  to  one  end, 

Oash  [Fr.  caisst,  a  '  money- cheat '),  strictly  means  only  coin 
and  bank-notes,  but  is  sometimes  used  in  a  wider  sense  to  de^ 
note  not  only  ready-money,  but  also  bills,  drafts,  bonds,  and  all 
the  immediately  negotiable  paper  in  an  individual's  possession. 

Cash.  Aocount.     See  Credit,  CASH. 

Cash'el  (Irish  Gael,  caiseal,  '  a  circular  stone  fort '),  a  town  in 
Tipperary  county,  Ireland,  9  miles  W,  of  Tipperary,  with  which 
it  IS  connected  by  railway.  It  is  bnilt  at  the  base  and  on  the 
sides  of  the  famous  '  Rock  of  Cashel,'  an  isolated  limestone  hill 
rising  from  the  plain  of  the  Suir.  The  rock  is  crowned  with 
some  famous  ruins,  among  which  are  the  old  cathedral,  founded 
in  1169,  Cormac's  Chapel  (II27),  the  palace  of  the  Kings  of 
Munster,  and  a  round  tower.  Of  the  modem  buildings  may 
be  mentioned  the  new  cathedral  (Church  of  St  John),  the  town- 
hall,  the  county  infirmary,  and  Iwirracks,  The  archbishopric  of 
C,  was  reduced  to  a  bishopric  in  1834,  C,  is  also  a  Roman 
Catholic  archdiocese.  The  trade  is  chiefly  in  agricultural  pro- 
duce, and  laige  markets  are  held  hero  bi-weeltly.  Pop.  (1871) 
4317.     C,  returns  one  member  to  Parliament. 

Oash.'ev  Nut  (Anacardiupt  occidentale),  a  tropical  tree  of 
both  hemispheres  (though  reputed  as  originally  American),  be- 
longing to  the  natural  order  Anacardiacea.  The  milky  juice, 
used  in  India  for  varnishing,  is  exceedingly  acrid.  The  '  nut ' 
Ls  kidney- shaped,  seated  on  the  end  of  the  pear-shaped  fleshy 
stalk,  which  is  the  edible  portion.  The  kernel  is  oily,  but  veiy 
pleasant  and  wholesome,  and  in  tropical  countries  is  a  great 
favoiuite  for  making  puddings,  &c.  It  is  thought  to  commu- 
nicate a  peculiarly  pleasant  flavour  to  old  Madeira  and  other 
wines,  and  accordingly,  in  the  W.  Indies,  it  is  frequently  put 
into  wine.  It  is  also,  for  the  same  reason,  mixed  with  choco- 
late, TTie  vapour  which  arises  from  the  coating  of  the  kernel 
during  the  roasting  operation  is  so  acrid  as  to  cause  erysipelas 
in  the  face  if  care  is  not  taken  to  avoid  the  fumes.  The  fleshy 
stalk  (or  C.  apple),  is  very  pleasant  to  the  taste,  refreshing,  a  ' 
free  from  acridity.  A  large  quantity  of  gum  exudes  from  t 
43 


vLiOOQle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


baik,  but  is  also  without  acridity,  aud  is  not  unli 
though  little  known  in  commerce.      The  juice 
when  fermented  yields  a  kind  of  wine,  and  in  Bom 
places  a  spirit  is  also  produced  from  it. 

Oaali'gar,  or  Kasl^ar,  also  known  as  Easle 
an  independent  khanate  of  Central  Asia,  in  th 
Tarim,  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Tian-shan  Mounta 
Knen-lun  range,  E-  by  the  great  desert  of  Gobi, 
Bolar  Tagh  and  Pamir  steppes.     Estimated  are       oo 
miles,  and  pop.  830,000.     It  is  a  vast  undulating 
sand  and  glaring  salt,  from  3000  to  4000  feet  hig 
gradually  to  the  E.,  in  which  direction  flows  the 
itself  in  Lobnur,  an  enormous  stretch  of  lagoons 
The  gladers  in  the  lofty  frontier  monnlains  sen         wn 
twenty  laige  tributaries  to  tlie  main  river.    There  i 
scant  vegetation,  and  almost  no  animal  life,  eitce 
nur  forests  and  reed  belts,  where  tigers,  wild  hogs,  panthers,  and 
wolves  abound.     The  inhabitants  are  massed  in  some  thirteen 
isolated  settlements  at  oases  on  the  river  banlts  or  mountain 
skirts !  of  these,  Yarkand  is  by  far  the  most  populous.     Each 
township  is  sheltered  by  willow,  poplar,  and  elm  groves,  and 
its  gar^fens  produce  small  quantities  of  wheat,  barley,  maize, 
rice,  cotton,  fkix,  hemp,  and  tobacco.     The  country  is  rich  in 
minerals,  including  gold,  silver,  lead,  copper,  man,  coal,  jade, 
&c.     Turfan  supplies  the  Kashmiri  with  the  finest  wool  in  the 
world  for  the  famous  shawl  manufacture.     The  climate  of  C. 
is  one  of  extremes,  the  temperature  ranging  from  about  26°  F. 
in  winter  to  95°  F.  in  summer,  while  rain  is  rare  ;  and  a  regular 
N.W,  wind  in  spring  is  usually  followed  by  santl-storras  and 
whirlwinds.     C.  was  an  independent  Aryan  kingdom  as  early  as 
200  B.C.,  and  became  subject  to  China  abont  60  B.C.     It  was 
conquered  by  the  Arabs  about  the  middle  of  the  8th  c,  and  by 
Genghis  Khan  m  1220,  under  whom  its  cities  rose  to  wealth  and 
importance.    Timur  overran  C.  in  1389,  and  it  was  again  taken 
in  1760!^  the  Chinese,  who.clung  toils  possession  till  the  Tun- 

fini  revolt  of  1862-63.  After  a  struggle  of  six  years,  Vakub 
eg,  now -4/0/!^  Ghati  ('Champion  of  the  Ftulh '),  once  more 
converted  it  into  a  Mahommedan  state.^C,  the  capital,  on  the 
Tuman,  is  encircled  by  high  and  massive  walls,  and  has  well- 
stocked  bazaars,  but  few  good  bulldmgs.  Pop.  80,000,  includ- 
ing many  lai^e  suburbs.  See  the  works  of  Johnson  (1866), 
Shaw  (1S71),  Haywaid  (1872),  and  Bellew  (1875). 

Casluer'iiig  (Fr.  casser,  'to  break")  is  a  punishment  sorrie- 
times  inflicted  on  officers  in  the  army  and  navy.  Its  eflect  is  to 
dismiss  the  offender  from  the  service,  and  to  disqualify  him  from 
re-entering  it.  C.  is  commonly  awarded  on  the  verdict  by  a 
court-martial  of  'guilty  of  scandalous  and  infamous  conduct.' 
The  sentence  of  simple  dismissal  commonly  follows  the  verdict 
of  'guilty  of  condtict  unbecoming  the  character  of  an  officer  and 
a  gentleman.' 

C!ash.'mere,  or  Eashmir',  an  independent  slate  in  the  Hima- 
layas, has  an  estimated  area  of  4.500  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  of 
1,537,000.  It  mainly  consists  of  the  so-cidled  '  Happy  VaDey,' 
famous  alike  for  its  fertility  and  its  beautiful  scenery,  while  it 
also  includes  Jummu,  Bulti,  Ladakh,  Chamba,  &c.  TTie  valley, 
from  S.E.  to  N.W.,  is  118  miles  long,  about  17  broad,  and  is 
some  5200  feet  above  Ihe  sea.  It  is  enclosed  by  lofiy  moun- 
tains, and  watered  by  the  prelum,  which  Bows  on  through  the 
Baramnla  Pass  to  the  plains  of  the  Punjab.  The  highest  peaks 
in  the  Pansal  range  are  liaramnk  (16,015  ''«').  Muli  (14.952 
feet),  and  Ahertatopa  (13,042).  TTie  range  is  covered  with 
snow  for  eight  months  in  the  year,  and  between  its  spurs  are 
many  large  glaciersi  Ten  fi;pquented  passes  lead  into  the  val- 
ley, the  highest  being  12,560  feet;  but  many  others  are  prac- 
ticable. The  Jhelmn,  which  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the 
Arpat,  Bring,  and  Sandraran,  is  spanned  by  thirteen  rude  but 
durable  bridges,  and  is  navigable  for  60  miles,  from  Islamabad 
to  Baramnla,  The  principal  lakes  are  theWular,  through  which 
the  Jhelum  flows,  and  the  Dal  or  '  citj;  lake,'  to  the  N.E. 
of  Srinagar.  The  climate  on  the  mountains  is  rigorous,  in  the 
TOlley  temperate  and  healthy,  while  the  seasons  nearly  covre- 
spond  to  those  of  England.  Of  forest  trees,  the  chief  are  the 
cedar,  pine,  fir,  elm,  birch,  and  maples  Fruit  and  flowering  and 
medicinal  plants  are  singularly  abundant.  Three-fourths  of  Ihe 
valley  is  cultivated,  the  ci-ops  being  mainly  rice,  wheat,  maize, 
barley,  flax,  and  various  oil  grains.  Sheep  and  cattle  are  nume- 
44 


from  ^5 

gr    ed    class, 

generally 

ng     vith  olive 

the  domi' 

It  of  pure 

;ived 


first  rt 


al  an    H         ru 

M  hamn  ed  ^     . 

and  betrayed  into  the  power  of  Afghanistan  on  the  decline  at 
the  Mc^l  Empire  in  1752.  In  1819  it  was  subdued  by  Ranjit 
Singh  J  and  after  the  Sikhs  were  crushed  by  the  British  in  1845, 
it  was  transferred,  on  payment  of  ;£r,ooo,ooo,  to  Gulab  Singh, 
as  a  sovereign  independent  of  the  Sikhs,  who  is  bound  to  refer 
to  the  arbitration  of  Britain  in  all  disputes.  The  Jummu  dynasty 
has  continued  loyal  and  friendly  to  the  British  Government, 
and  rendered  valuable  services  during  the  Indian  mutiny.  Run- 
bir  Singh,  the  present  ruler,  issued  an  annual  administrative 
report  for  the  first  time  in  1872. — O.,  or  SrinaKar,  the  capital, 
lies  on  the  Jhelum,  about  the  centre  of  the  valley,  is  intersected 
by  canals,  and  has  an  active  trade.  Tlie  houses  are  built  of 
wood,  but  there  are  palaces  and  temples  of  stone.  A  silk  fila- 
ture here  employs  over  400  men,  and  a  charitable  dispensary, 
on  a  European  model,  is  maintained  by  the  Maharaja.  Pop. 
15,000,  of  whom  many  are  boatmen.  See  the  works  of  Vigne 
and  Elmslie,  and  EeUew's  K.  and  Jiaskgar  {iSys)- 

Cashmere  or  Oashmir  Ctoat,  a  variety  of  Goat  (q.  v.)  in- 
habiting Thibet  and  Central  Asia  generally.  The  males  possess 
long  flattened  horns,  which  curve  backwards  and  outwards  in  a 
series  of  undulating  curves.  Tlie  fur  is  of  double  nature,  and 
consists  of  an  inner  coat  of  woolly  greyish  hair,  and  an  outer 
one  of  long  silky  hairs.  The  under  coat  supplies  the  material 
from  which  Cashmere  shawls  are  manufactured ;  a  single  shawl 
a  yard  and  a  half  square  absorbing  the  outer  coat  of  at  least 
ten  goats.  The  taxed  industry,  and  not  the  material,  causes 
these  shawls  to  he  sold  at  very  high  prices.  The  C.  G.  will 
breed  with  the  Angora  Goat  (q.v.),  the  hybrid  possessing  also 
a  fine  mixed  wool.  The  attempt  to  naturalise  this  animal  in 
Europe  has  not  met  with  success.  The  hair  is  spun  by  females, 
and  then  dyed.  It  is  manufactured  into  the  shawl  fabric  on 
looms- of  primitive  construction. 

Casimir,  a  French  form  of  the  Polish  Kazimierz  (q.  v.). 

Oasimir'oa,  a  species  of  plants  (natural  order  Auranliacea, 
or  orange  order).  C.  edulis  is  a  delicious  fruit,  having,  however, 
a  soporific  and  unwholesome  effect.     The  seeds  are  poisonous. 

Casi'no  (ItaL  dim.  oicasa,  'a  house'),  a  place  for  social  meet- 
ings, having  rooms  for  refreshments.  Singing,  dancing,  and  other 
amusements.  The  C.  is  of  Italian  origin,  the  nobles  having  pri- 
vate houses  for  amusement  detached  from  their  palaces,  and  the 
people  imitating  them  in  a  building  generally  close  to  a  theatre. 
Tliey  are  numerous  also  in  France  and  Germany,  and  are  not 
unknown  m  England. 

Casino,  or  Monte  Casino,  a  mountain  in  the  province 
of  Caserta,  S.  Italy,  S5  miles  N.N.W.  of  Naples.  It  is  well 
known  through  a  fine  old  abbey,  founded  here  by  St  Benedict 
in  529  A.B.  This  abbey  has  a  printing-press,  from  which  the 
monlts,  who  have,  as  a  nile,  honourably  maintamed  the  great 
traditions  of  Benedictine  scholarship,  have  issued  various  im- 
portant works.  A  key  to  its  valuable  library  and  archives  has 
been  given  by  Luigi  Tosti  in  his  SScrin  delta  Badia  di  M.  C. 
(3  vols.  Naples,  i84t-43)- 

OasiVria,  a  town  of  Italy,  province  of  Naples,  on  the  railway 
between  Rome  and  Naples,  4J  miles  N.  of  the  latter  city.  The 
chief  produce  is  sQk.     Pop.  8coo. 

Cfts'pe,  a  town  of  Spain,  province  of  Saragossa,  near  the 
Ebro,  57  miles  S.E.  of  the  town  of  Saragossa.  It  lias  manu- 
factures of  oil  and  soap.      Pop.  7500. 


y  Google 


CAS 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


._  ._.i  (the  Man  Caspium  of  the  aiicienta ;  Ruse. 
ChvaliTiskai  Morn  ;  Turk.  Kuighun  Dcnigi, '  raTen  sea ; '  Turko- 
man, Kok-Kih;  Pers.  DatiS-i-Chyxyr),  Ihe  largest  lake  in  the 
world,  iies  m  the  greatest  depression  of  the  earth  s  surface,  in  the 
Turanian  lowlands,  between  Europe  and  Asia,  and  is  bounded 
by  Russia,  Turkestan,  and  Persia.  It  estends  from  N.  to  S.,  is 
765  miles  long  and  190  broad,  and  has  an  area  of  178,776  sq, 
miles.  Its  greatest  deptli  is  2S20  feet,  and  itssurface  is  S4  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  chief  rivers  which  enter 
it  are  the  Volga,  Ural,  Kur,  Terek,  and  Kuma.  The  C  S.  has  no 
ebb  or  flow,  and  its  superHuous  waters,  which  are  more  or  less  salt, 
are  carried  off  solely  by  evaporation.  Its  level  sinks  in  winter,  and 
rises  in  June  and  July,  when  the  rivers  are'  m  flood.  The  shores 
are  mostly  low-lying,  have  many  deep  bays,  but  are  either  of  a 
sandy  or  swampy  character.  Of  the  numerous  coast-islands,  the 
most  remarkable  isTscheleken,  S.  of  the  bay  of  Krasnovodsk,  with 
numerous  naphtha  springs.  The  C.  S.  is  not  only  traversed  by 
the  steam  and  sailing  vessels  of  Russia,  but  is  now  the  station 
of  a  regular  tleet.  There  are  numerous  Russian  forts  on  or  near 
its  shores,  as  Gurjev,  Astrakhan,  ICisliat,  Petrovsk,  Tarku,  Der- 
bent.  Novo  Alexandrovslt,  &c  Chief  among  (he  Persian  towns 
with  which  there  is  an  active  Russian  trade  are  Resht,  Amol, 
Farahabad,  Astrabad,  and  SarL  Beside  the  regular  trade,  which 
is  rapidly  increasing,  Russia  has  important  caviare,  sturgeon,  and 
bream  fisheries  at  the  mouths  of  the  larger  rivers,  worth  nearly 
^■1,000,000  yearly.  From  Aristotle  downwards,  the  C.  S.  was 
supposed  to  open  into  the  Northern  Ocean ;  and  to  Van  Ruys- 
broeck,  a  Franciscan  monk  (1252-53).  belongs  the  credit  of  de- 
■  "     n  inland  sea.    It  is  believed  to  have  received  the  Oxus 

and  Jaxartes  in  ancient  times.  For  the  first  time  it  was  accurately 
surveyed  by  the  Russian  Government  in  1858-62,  and  a  special 
survey  took  place,  with  the  view  of  restoring  the  Oius  to  its 
former  bed,  m  1875.  See  Baer,  Kaspische  Slttdien  {Petersb. 
l8«),  Melguno,  Das  sudlkhe  Ufer  dis  Kaspiscken  Mares  oder  die 
Nordproviiiim  FersUiis  (Leips.  1868),  Yule,  Thi  Book  of  Sir 
Marco  Polo  (2  vols.  Lend.  1871),  and  a  critique  of  this  last  -'■  '' 
in  the  Edinburgh  Review  (No.  275,  1872]. 
Casque.  See  Helmet. 
OasS,  Iioois,  an  American  politician,  born  in  Exeter,  New 
Hampshire,  in  1782,  began  life  at  the  bar  of  Oliio,  and  in  the 
Lwislatnre  of  that  state  assisted  in  suppressing  the  Aaron  Burr 
secession  movement.  In  the  war  with  Engknd,  C.  was  extremely 
active  in  the  campaigns  of  Generals  Hill  and  Harrison  on  the 
Canadian  frontier,  rising  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-generaL  He 
successively  became  Governor  of  Micliigan,  War  Minister  under 
Jackson,  and  Envoy  at  Paris,  when  the  delicate  questions  of  the 
right  of  search  and  the  boundary,  referred  to  the  King  of 
Holland,  were  bemg  discussed.  Disapproving  of  Webster's 
■  Treaty  of  Washington  with  Ashburton  (184a),  he  returned  to 
the  States,  represented  Michigan  in  the  Senate,  stood  twice  as 
Democratic  candidate  for  the  President's  chair,  for  which  his 
vacillating  views  on  slavery  and  the  extradition  Question  un- 
fitted him.  He  has  written,  amon^  other  things,  the  Hislory, 
TradUioTis,  Languages,  &'c. ,  of  Indians  in  the  United  States,  a 
work  partly  superseded  by  the  great  work  of  Hubert  H.  Ban- 
croft. .  He  died  at  Detroit,  17th  June  1866.  C.  enunciated  the 
'  Sqnatter  Sovereignty '  doctrine. 

Cassan'der,  son  of  Antipater,  King  of  Macedonia,  at  whose 
death,  in  B.C.  319,  he  was  left  at  the  age  of  thirty. five  in  a  sub- 
.  ordinate  position  to  Polysperchon.  Feeling  s^rieved,  he  re- 
solved to  wrest  the  power  from  his  opponent,  and  succeeded. 
While  leading  bis  victorious  forces  in  the  S.  of  Greece,  he  heard 
of  the  cruelties  of  Olympias,  Alexander's  mother,  hastened  north- 
wards, besieged  her  in  Pydna,  forced  her  to  surrender,  and  put 
her  to  death,  316  B.C.  In  the  same  year  he  placed  Roiana,  Alex- 
ander's wife,  and  her  son,  JP^s,  in  custody  at  AmphipoUs,  and 
married  Thessalonica,  Alexander's  half-sister,  in  whose  honour  he 
founded  the  town  of  that  name.  In  B.C.  315  he  rebuilt  Thebes, 
and  became  involved  in  a  vrar  with  Anrigonus,  which  lasted 
fourteen  years,  with  a  brief  interval  of  peace  in  311  B.C.,  during 
which  he  murdered  Roxana  and  her  son.  Having  entered  into 
a  league  with  "Seleneus  and  Lysiniachus,  he  defeated  and  slew 
Antigonus  at  Ipsus,  301  B.C.     Four  years  afterwards  he  died  of 

Caaaan'dra,  a  town  in  Roumelia,  European  Turkey,  on  the 
S.W.  coast  of  a  peninsula  of  the  same  name  (anc,  Fallent),  and 


1  the  E.  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Salonici 


a  considerable  trade 


Oassandra,  the  fairest  daughter  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  and 
.  ./ill-sister  of  Helenus,  was  beloved  by  Apollo,  who  conferred  on 
her  the  gift  of  prophecy,  which,  from  her  treating  his  suit  with 
disfavour,  he  rendered  of  no  account  by  ordaining  that  no  ore 
should  believe  her  words.  Hence  her  predictions  concerning 
the  wooden  horse  and  the  fall  of  Ilium  were  disregarded  by  the 
Troj'ans,  who  deemed  her  mad.  On  the  taking  of  Troy  she  was 
ravished  by  Ajax,  son  of  Olleus,  in  the  temple  of  Minerva.  She 
fell  to  Agamemnon's,  share  of  the  spoil,  was  taken  by  him  to 
MycensB,  and  there  murdered  by  Clytemnestra, 

Oassa'no,  an  ancient  town  of  N.  Italy,  province  of  Milan, 
on  the  Adda,  16  miles  E.N.E.  of  Milan,  with  numerous  silic-mills. 
It  is  famous  for  the  victory  of  the  Imperialists,  under  Prince 
Eugene,  over  the  French,  under  VendSme,  rfith  August  1705, 
and  for  the  defeat  of  the  French,  under  Moreau,  by  the  Rus- 
sians and  Austrians,  under  Suwarrow,  27th  April  1799.  Pop. 
ecga, — A  second  C.  is  in  the  province  of  Cosenza,  Calabria, 
Citeriore,  32  miles  N.N.E.  of  the  town  of  Cosenza.  It  has  a 
cathedral  and  old  castle,  and  manufactures  of  table-linen,  cot- 
ton, silk,  leather,  and  oil.  Pop.  about  Sooo,  among  whom  are 
numerous  Arnauts  and  Greeks.— A  third  C.  is  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Bart,  which  has  some  copperworks,  and  a  pop. 
of  4219. 

Cass'areep  is  the  inspissated  juice  of  the  bitter  cassava  root, 
Jatrofka  mamhot,  largely  prepared  in  British  Guiana  as  a  basis 
of  various  saoces,  and  particularly  of  the  famous  W.  Indian 
pepperpot.  It  possesses  remarkable  antiseptic  powers,  and 
meat  boiled  with  the  addition  of  C,  is  found  to  keep  very  much 
longer  than  by  ordinary  boiling.  C.  was  originally  a  'buck' 
or  native  Indian  preparation.  The  juice  of  which  it  is  prepared 
is  highly  poisonous  when  newly  expressed,  but  the  heat  of  boil- 
ing entirely  dissipates  the  volatile  poisonous  matter. 

Cassa'tion,  Cour  de,  was  established  under  the  name  of  the 
Tribunal  de  C.  by  the  law  of  1st  December  1790.  It  sits  on 
appeal  on  all  final  judgments,  civil  or  criminal,  of  the  inferior 
tribunals,  especially  in  matters  affecting  the  due  administration 
of  justice,  eg.,  where  there  is  a  conflict  of  jurisdictions,  or  anal- 
legation  of  interest  against  the  judge.  It  annuls  (eass^,  qualere, 
'  quash ')  all  judgments  in  which  forms  have  been  violated,  or  a 
text  of  the  law  has  been  manifestly  contravened.  The  sentences 
of  yiiges  de  Faix  are  not  subject  to  appeal.  In  all  civil  cases  the 
"appeal  must  be  biought  within  three  months  from  the  date  of 
the  judgment  appealed  against:  a  period  extended  to  six  months 
for  Corsica,  and  twelve  for  American  colonists.  The  appeal 
(except  in  cases  of  compulsory  taking  for  public  purposes)  is  first 
considered  by  the  Bureau  des  RequStes,  or  ist  Section  of  the 
Court,  consisting  of  sixteen  judges.  The  iniiliiJi  of  the  appeal 
gives  the  names  of  the  parties  ;'the  rfir^DBft/givesthelaw  orlaws 
in  question.  With  the  appeal  must  be  lodged  a  quiilance  de  con- 
signation d'amende.  A  vote  of  Ihree-fourlhs  of  the  judges  is  re- 
quired in  the  Section  for  definite  rejection  or  admission.  There  is 
then  a  preliminary  report  by  one  judge,  the  case  going  before  the 
2d  or  3d  Section  (each  of  sixteen  judges),  according  to  whether 
its  subject-matter  is  civil  or  criminal.  The  1st  Section  also  hears 
certain  appeals.  In  each  Section  eleven  votes  are  required  for 
a  judgment,  which,  however,  is  not  on  the  merits,  a  remit  being 
made  to  the  original  court,  or  to  the  proper  court.  A  second 
appeal  is  allowed  in  each  case  to  the  United  Chambers  (Law  of 
April  1837),  and  the  Procureur-General  may  appeal  for  the 
public  interest  in  the  matters  mentioned  in  Art.  83,  Code  of  Civil 
Procedure,  TTie  salaries  of  the  judges  vary  from  5000  to  aooo 
frs.,  with  a  traitement  equal  to  that  of  a  deputy  in  Parliament. 
There  are  other  officers,  such  as  the  commis  de  parquet  and  the 
greffier  en  chef,  connected  witli  the  court. 

OaseaVa,  the  purified  starch  obtained  from  the  roots  of  the 
manioc  plant,  janifha  Mamhot  (Manihol  ulilissiina,ar\d.  Jairo- 
pha  Manihol),  and  y.  L^ingii.  The  juice  of  the  C.  plant  is  at 
first  poisonous,  but  after  being  concentrated  by  heat  it  becomes 
innocuous,  and  is  known  as  Cassareep  (q.  v.).  See  MANlocand 
Tapioca. 

45 


vGooqIc 


CAS 


TliS  GLO-BB  EMCYCLOP^DIA. 


Cassaj'',  or  Muileepu*',  an  independent  state  of  Further 
India,  on  the  fronliei-  of  Burmali,  of  which  it  was  foimeily  a 
province.  Area,  7584  sq.  miles  ;  pop.  estimated  at  30,000,  the 
majority  of  whom  are  BriJiminists.  It  lies  mainly  in  a  great 
valley,  encircled  by  precipitous  mountains,  and  watered  by 
tributaries  of  the  Irrawaddy.  Its  productions  are  cotton,  tea, 
indigo,  opium,  tobacco,  &c.  Muneepoor  is  the  capita!  of  C, 
which  lias  been  ruled  by  a  native  rajah  since  Ihe  Burmese  war 
of  1825,  when  the  Biitisli  occupied  the  country  for  a  time. 

Caas'el,  the  Frencli  form  of  the  German  Kmsd  (q.  v.). 

Qaasel,  also  Caatel  (the  CasUllum  Minapioruni  of  the  Eo. 
mans),  a  town  and  railway  station  in  the  department  of  Nord, 
France,  on  a  hill  16  miles  S.  of  Dunkirk.  The  view  from 
Mont  Cassel  is  singularly  extensive.  C.  has  manufaotures  of  lace, 
linen,  hosiery,  hats,  soap,  and  pottery,  and  tliere  are  breweries, 
tanneries,  and  currying  establishments.  It  has  besides  an  im- 
portant trade  in  cattle.     Pop.  (1872)  3069. 

Oaas'ia,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Legumiaosa. 
Semia  consists  of  the  leaflets  of  various  species,  ^.f. ,  Alexandrian 
senna  consists  of  the  leaflets  of  C.  acutifolia  and  C.  obavata, 
mixed  with  the  leaves  of  other  plants,  as  well  as  the  pods  of  two 
species  of  C.  E.  Indian  or  Tinivelly  senna,  a  fine  variety,  con- 
sists of  the  leaflets  of  C.  dongata,  Aleppo  senna  is  composed  of 
the  leaflets  of  C.  obnvata,  a  native  of  Northern  Africa,  but  also 
cultivated  in  India  and  elsewhere.  C.  Marilandica,  of  N.  Ame- 
rica, possesses  similar  properties  to  the  sennas  mentioned,  which 
are  due  to  the  presence  of  Cathartin  (q.  v.).  Various  other 
sennas  are  known  in  commerce,  but  are  of  less  value  than  the 
preceding.  (See  SENNA.)  Mofe  than  100  species  of  C.  have 
been  described.  The  bark  and  roots  of  sev^  species  of  the 
E.  and  W.  Indies  and  Mauritius  are  used  as  applications  to 
ulcers  and  various  skin  diseases,  and  internally  in  diabetes  and 
other  diseases..  The  seeds  of  C.  occideaialis  serve  in  the  Mauri.^ 
tius  and  in  Central  Africa  as  a  substitute  for  coffee.  It  is  cul- 
livated  in  both  regions,  but  is  a  native  of  the  E,  and  W.  Indies. 
The  seeds  of  C.  aisus  and  C.  aitriculala  ate  used  as  a  remedy 
for  ophthalmia,  and  the  bark  of  the  latter  species  is  also  ttsed  in 
India  for  tannmg  leather.  The  pods  of  C.  Fisltila,  the  padding- 
pipe  tree— the  C.  pods,  pipe  C,  or  purging  C.  of  the  shops,  are 
used  in  medians.  The  officinal  part  is  the  pulp  siiFrounding  the 
seeds,  which  is  a  mild  laxative. 

C.  bark;  or  China  cinnamon  (C.  ligneci),  is  lai^ely  im'poited  in 
Europe  as  a  substitute  for  the  true  cinnamon.  1^^  oilof  CSs, 
similar  to  the  oil  of  cinnamon.  C.  buds  are  its  dried  flower-buds. 
Tliey  are  in  appearance  like  cloves,  and  are  used  in  confectioneiY. 
The  'C  of  the  ancients  and  of  the  Old  Testament  is  probably 
C.  bark. 

Oasa'ia,  or  Poet's  Oasia,  is  a  shrub  ( Osyris  alba)  of  the  natu- 
ral order  Sanlalacae,  a  native  of  the  S.  of  Europe.  Its  beautiful 
but  modest  appearance  has  attracted  tlie  attention  of  various 
poets.     For  instance,  Keats  speaks  of — 


More  prosaically  the  ti 


■e  used  for  making  ci 


lasaia'nua,  Joannes,  was  a  monk  of  Scythian  extraction, 
educated  in  a  monastery  at  Bethlehem,  who  resided  some  time 
.mong  the  anchorites  of  ,f^pt  before  going  to  Constantinople, 
where  he  was  ordained  deacon  by  Chrysostom.  Having  gone  to 
ime  in  404,  he  was  there  ordained  prestyter ;  and  on  the  cap* 
e  of  that  city  by  the  Goths  (410)  he  settled  at  Massilia  (Mar- 
seille), where  he  founded  a  monastery  and  a  nunnety ;  the 
former  being  the  famous  Abbey  of  St  Victor,  of  which  he  him- 
self was  abbot.  It  is  said  to  have  contained  5000  inmates,  and 
served  as  a  model  for  similar  institutions  in  Gaul  and  Spain. 
C  died  about  433.  The  principles  and  rules  of  his  monastic 
system  may  be  seen  in  his  Zfe  Institutis  Canobicruiis,  and  his 
Collalianes  Falrum  Scelkorunt.  He  is  best  known  for  his  writ- 
ings against  Augustine's  views  on  grace  and  works,  on  account 
of  which  he  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  semi-Pelagiaoisra 
(q.  v,l.  Tliebest  edilion  of  C's  works  is  that  6fGazSus|Ari-as, 
i5a8;  Leips.  1733).  See  Wi'gger's  De  Johanni  C.  (Rost. 
I8Z4-Z5)' 

Casa'ican  {Casskus),  a  genus  of  American  Innssciial  birds, 
belonging  to  the  Cgnirostral  section  of  that  order,  and  related  to 
46 


the  familiar  starlings  {Slurnidie).  The  bill  is  conical  in  shape, 
sliarp  at  the  apex,  and  elevated  on  the  forehead  and  towards 
its  base.  The  nests  are  constructed  with  much  ingenuity,  by 
weaving  together  vegetable  materials,  such  as  shreds  of  bark, 
&c  Tie  familiar  species  (C.  cristatiis)  known  as  the  crested 
C,  or  crested  oriole,  mhabiting  Paraguay,  Eraiil,  and  Guiana, 
thus  makes  a  nest  about  36  inches  long,  and  sug)ends  it  from  the 
end  of  Ihe  branch  of  tall  trees,  in  a  position  so  as  to  secure  ' 
against  the  attacks  of  monkeys,  serpents,  and  other  invaders. 

Cassi'ni,  the  name  of  a  family  illustrious  in  the  annals  of 
science.  Tlie  first  and  greatest,  Giovanni  Domenico  0.,  cele- 
brated for  his  astronomical  discoveries,  was  bom  at  Perinaldo, 
near  Nice,  June  8,  1635.  He  studied  at  Genoa  and  Bologna, 
at  the  latter  of  which  places  he  became  Professor  of  Astronomy 
in  1650.  His  first  work,  Obsen/ationes  Counts  Anni  (1652-53). 
was  published  at  Modena  in  1653 ;  and  in  1664  and  1665  he 
observed  and  determined  at  Rome  the  paths'  of  two  comets. 
He  then  investigated  and  rectified  the  motions  of  Jupiter  and  his 
satellites;  and  through  his  Epkmitridis  Boniniemes  MaUctorum 
Siderum  (Bol.  1668}  attracted  the  attention  of  Louis  XIV.  of 
France,  who  invited  C.  to  France,  and  appmnted  him  m  1669 
Director  of  ihe  Paris  Observatory.  Here  he  made  the  first 
observations,  after  Kepler's,  of  the  zodiacal  light ;  discovered 
four  of  Saturn's  satellites,  and  the  dual  character  of  that  planet's 
ring  ;  gave  the  law  of  the  moon's  axial  rotation,  and  extended 
in  1683  the  measurement  of  the  arc  of  the  meridian  from  Paris 
northward,  which  had  been  l^egun  by  Picard  in  1669,  C.  died 
at  Paris,  September  14,  1713.  His  treatises  and  memoirs  are 
very  numerous  ;  most  are  astronomical,  and  many  were  natu- 
rally of  transient  interest  and  importance.  His  Aulobiography 
was  published  by  his  grandson,  C.  de  Thury. — Jacquea  0., 
son  of  the  preceding,  and  successor  of  his  father  at  the  Observa. 
tory,  was  born  at  Paris,  February  18,  1677,  and  died  at  Thury, 
near  Clermont,  April  16,  1756.  From  his  lather's  latest  meri- 
dian measurements,  in  which  he  assisted,  he  deduced  that  the 
earth  was  an  oblong  spheroid— a  result  quite  antagonistic  to 
Newton's  kws  of  the  universe.  His  view  will  be  found  in  his 
De  la  Grandeur  el  de  la  Figure  de  la  Terrt(?nr.  1820).  His 
BUniHits  d" Astronomic  (Par.  1740],  with  its  supplementary  volume 
of  Tables  Astronomwuis,  (J>v.  (Par.  1740},  is  his  best  wort. — 
OSsar  Franpois  C.  de  TJiiiiy,  son  of  Jacques  C,  whom  he 
succeeded  at  the  Observatory,  was  Ijorn  June  17,  1714,  and  died 
September  4,  1784  He  is  especially  celebrated,  aa  a  topogra- 
pher, his  great  Carle  Topografhique  ds  France  being  unnvaTled 
for  its  size  and  accuracy.  It  was  finished  in  1793  by  liis  son, 
Jean  Dominique,  Oomte  de  O.  (bom  June  30,  1747,  died 
October  iS,  1S45),  who  also  succeeded  his  father  in  tlie  Obser- 
vatoiy.  Besides  this  great  map  of  180  leaves,  the  hitter  pub- 
lished the  Atlas  National  (83  leaves,  each  of  which  represented 
a  department}  in  1791.  With  him  ended  the  famous  family  of 
C.,  for  his  son,  .^exandre  Henri  Oabriel,  Yicomte  de  0., 
born  at  Paris,  May  g,  1781,  had  died  April  16,  1832,  while  en- 
gaged in  the  publication  of  a  botanical  work,  entitled  Opuseules 
Phytologiques  (3  vols.  1826-34),  See  Vie  de  C.  eerite  far  lui- 
tiihne,-  in  the  Mhaoii-es  pour  setvir  &  I'Histoire  des  Sciences  et  i 
cellede  V  Observatoire  Royal  de  Parts  (1810),  and  the  &loges  pro- 
nounced on  the  various  members  of  the  family  in  the  Academie 
des  Sciences. 

OOSSiodo'f^a,  a  Latin  writer,  distinguished  as  sdtolar,  states- 
man, and  compiler,  was  born  at  Scylaceum  (S^uillace),  in  Cala- 
bria, 468  A.D.  He  was  isf  noble  family,  and  by  his  talents  rose 
in  favour  with  Odoacer,  under  whom  he  filled  several  important 
positions.  After  the  fall  and  murdei*  of  Odoacer,  he  attached 
himself  to  the  fortunes  of  Theodoric,  was  appointed  to  the 
highest  offices  of  the  state,  and  conducted  affairs  with  great 
ability  and  prudence.  Fearing  dangers  ahead,  he  resigned  his 
honours  and  withdrew  to  the  country  in  524  A.D.,  but  was  re- 
called after  Theodoric's  death,  and  as  Prime  Minister  resumed  the 
conduct  of  aflairs.  In  his  seventieth  year  he  retired  to  his  native 
province,  founded  the  monastery  of  Viviers,  and  devoted  the  re- 
mainder of  his  long  life  to  the  copying;  of  MSS.,  and  the  compil- 
ing of  maniials  for  the  advancement  of  letiiliing.  He  died  about 
5^  A.£).  His  most  important  work — a  valuable  coilectioji  of 
slate  papers,  entitled  Vafiamfft  Efistolaruni  JMtri  XII. — was 
first  printed  at  Augsbui^'in  1 533.  His  lost  work,  DeSehis  Gestis 
Cotkomm,  partly  preserved  to  us  in  the  abridgment  of  Jor- 
ild  have  been  of  still  greater  value  to  the  world.     The 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Benedictine  Caret  published  an  edition  of  C-'s  worlis  at  Ronen 
(2  vols.  1670),  to  wliicli  is  prefixed  a   Vita  Cassiodort. 

Cassiopeia,  a  constellation  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  the 
principal  stars  of  which  form  a  somewhat  straggling  W,  abotit  as 
distant  fcom  the  pole-star  as  the  Plougli,  but  in  the  opposite 
direction. 

remarkable  river  of  S.  America,  in  the  S.  of 
;la,  links  (lil^e  a  canal)  the  Orinoco  and  the  Rio  Negro,  a 
tribiitarv  of  the  Amazon,  and  thus  connects  the  two  great  waler- 
systema'  in  the  N.  and  centre  of  the  continent.     It  has  a  S.W. 

Cassia,  a  genus  of  Gaslerepodims  molluscs,  including  forms  the 
shells  of  which  are  popularly  known  as  '  helmet-sliells.'  These 
shells  form  the  objects  so  ranch  employed  fdr  engraving  cameos 
upon— the  C.  iornuta,  or  horned  helmet,  showing  white  cameos 
on  a  rich  orange  ground  ;  whilst  the  warty  helmet  (C.  iuicnrsa) 
shows  white  on  a  deep  red  ground.  The  ruddy  helmet  {C.  ru/a) 
shows  saffron-yellow  cameos  on  an  orange  ground  ;  whilst  the 
queen  conch  (C  Madagascariensis)  exliibits,  when  cut,  a  white 
on  a  claret-coloiired  ground.     All  the  species  of  C  are  inhabi- 

Caasiter'idea.    See  Scilly  Isles. 

Caas'ins,  C.LonginuB,  a  celebrated  Roman  who  held  ihe 
office  of  QuEestor  under  Crassus  in  the  Parthian  expedition,  B.C. 
53  in  which  he  greatly  distinguished  lumselt  On  llie  breaking 
out  of  the  civil  war  he  sided  with  Pompey  i  was  taken  prisoner 
by  Ctesar,  but  afterwards  pardoned  and  promoted.  In  44  B.C. 
he  was  made  prstor  peregriiaa,  and  wns  promised  the  province 
of  Syria ;  but  his  mean  and  jealous  nature  led  him  to  conspire 
against  the  man  to  whom  he  owed  everything.  He  soon  won 
over  to  his  base  design  many  of  the  malcontents  of  the  aristocracy, 
and  among  them  Biatus,  whose  half-sister,  Junia,  he  had  married. 
C  canied  his  plot  into  execution  isth  March  44  B.C.,  and  at  the 
distribution  of  provinces  among  the  assassins  received  Cyrene. 
Dissatisfied,  he  left  the  dty,  seized  Syria,  imited  his  forces  with 
those  of  Brutus,  plundered  Rhodes  and  Lycia,  crossed  the 
Hellespont,  and  marched  through  Thrace  to  Philippi,  where  he 
encountered  Octavian  and  Antony,  42  B.C  The  left  wing  under 
C.  was  repulsed  by  Antony,  while  the  right  under  Brutus  routed 
the  troops  of  Octavian.  C,  ignorant  of  the  success  of  his  con- 
federate, ordered  his  freedman  Pindarus  to  run  him  through  the 
body  with  the  very  weapon  with  which  he  had  pierced  Csesar. 
C.  was  a  man  of  rash  and  violent  temper,  but  of  refined  and 
scholarly  tastes,  and  an  Epicurean  in  philosophy. 

Oaaa'iios,  Purple  of,  is  a  substance  produced  when  a 
solution  of  protocliloride  of  tin  is  mixed  with  one  of  a  sait  of 
gold.  It  is  named  from  its  discoverer,  C.  of  Leyden  (1683). 
There  are  several  recipes  for  its  preparation,  one  of  these 
being  as  follows :— A  solution  of  prolochloride  of  tin  is 
added  to  a  solution  of  perchloride  (sesquidiloride)  of  iron,  till 
the  mixture  assumes  a  green  tint ;  this  is  then  added  drop  by 
drop  to  a  dilute  solution  of  chloride  of  gold  free  from  nitric  acid, 
and  the  brown  precipitate  which  separates  after  twenty-four  hours 
is  washed  and  dried.  P.  of  C.  is  sometimes  employed  in  stain- 
ing glass  and  porcelain  rose  or  purple  :  it  was  formerly  used  in 
medicine.  Its  production  affords  a  valuable  means  of  recognising 
either  gold  or  tin.  It  appears  to  consist  of  a  mixture  in  varying 
proportions  of  finely  divided  metallic  gold  and  binoxide  of  tin 
or  stannic  acid  (SnOj). 

Cassivelau'uus,  a  Brilish  chief  in  high  repute  as  a  warrior, 
ruled  over  the  country  N.  of  the  Thames,  and  was  invested  with 
supreme  command  on  Cassar's  second  invasion  of  Britain,  54  B.C. 
Csesar,  learning  the  site  of  his  capital,  attacked  and  took  it,  on 
which  C.  fled  and  soon  after  sued  for  peace,'which  he  obtained 
on  giving  hostages  and  promising  to  pay  an  annual  tribute. 

Oass'ook  (Fr,  cosaque,  Ital.  ctuacca)  is  a  clerical  vestment, 
of  the  nature  of  a  long  garment,  fitting  tight,  and  reaching  to  the 
ground.  In  the-Eoman  Catholic  Church  the  colour  for  ordinary 
clergy  is  black  ;  for  bishops,  violet ;  for  cardinals,  scarlet ;  and 
for  the  pope,  whita  In  Uie  Anglican  Church  the  usual  colour 
for  all  orders  of  the  clergy  is  blade. 

Caas'owary  {Casuarim),  a  genus  of  Cursorial  birds,  includ- 
ing several  species,  and  belonging  to  the  il^rH/ijuKii^,  or  Ostrich 


family.     They  inhabit  tlie  IMoluccas,  New  Guinea,  New  Erita' 

and   N    Australia      The  best  known  species  (C  salea-iis)\. 

hrat  biought  alive  to  Lurope  by  the 

Dutch        It  stinds   about  5  feet  m 

height     The  toes  number  three  on 

eadi    foot,    and   are   piovided   With 

claws  of  nearly  equal  size,  the  claw 

of  the  mner  toe  being  usually  the 

longest       It  IS  distingmshed  by  a 

hor  ly  crest  of  vaiied  colours  on  the 

head,  whence  the  specihi.  name  gile 

alas     The  head  and  neck  are  nfiked, 

but  are  pi  ovided  w  ith   lo  ig,   pen 

dant   wattles        The   plumage,    hke  

that  of  other  cursoual  buds,  u.  of 
a  loose,   unconnected  chaiacter     The  rudimentaiy  wi 
furnished  each  with  five  pomted  <juilh,  destitute  of  bari)« 
body  plumage  is  black,  and  consists  of  long,  peni 
very  much  resembling  hairs  in  general  apper 


smaller  tlian  Ihe  females,  and  sit  upon  the  eggs.  The  food 
consists  of  grass,  seeds,  and  fruits  ;  these  birds  swallowing  stones 
and  hard  substances,  like  the  ostriches,  to  assist  the  "triturating 
powers  of  the  gizzard.  The  eggs  are  greenish.  The  feel  and 
wings  are  used  as  organs  of  defence ;  and  each  wing  possesses 
a  terminal  spur. 

Oassytha'ceEe,  a  natural  order  of  plants,  by  some  considered 
a  section  of  the  Lauracim,  con^ting  alone  of  the  genus  Cassylha, 
of  which  there  are  nine  species,  all  leafless  parasitic  twiners, 
resembling  the  dodders  in  habit.  In  Australia,  some  of  them 
are  called  scrub- vines,  and  in  places  grow  so  thickly  as  lo  make 
travel  almost  impossible.  The  white  drupes  of  C.  luscutijom. 
of  N.  Australia  are  edible.  C.  jilififmts  of  India  is  used  by , 
the  Brahmins  for  seasoning  their  butler-milk,  and  also,  when 
raised  with  sesamnm  oil,  for  strengthening  the  hair.  In  medi- 
cine it  is  employed  to  cleanse  inVeterate  ulcere  ;  and  theouice, 
mixed  with  sugar,  is  considered  an  infallible  remedv  for  inflamed 
eyes.  All  the  species  are  tropical,  but  are  found  both  in  the 
New  and  Old  Worids. 

Cast,  a  reproduction  of  a  model — as  a  work  of  sculpture 
or  other  production  of  fictile  or  mechanical  art — obtained  by 
pouring  or  pressing  plaster,  wax,   metal,    or    other   substance 


d  or  ductile 

of  casting  is  of  the  high 
in  multiplying  impr- 


orks  in  metal. 


....      Mould  (q.  v.).     The 

J'  uity,  and  has  been  of  great 
the  chief  works  of  sculpture, 
_nd  of  the  Industrie  ani  decorative  alts,  and  Ihns  placing  forms 
of  beauty  and  articles  of  use  in  the  hands  of  people  of  all  classes 

and  nations.    Reproductions  of  busts,  statues,  &i-    "  '^ 

C. ;  but  the  process,  when  applied  generally  to 
is  called  Founding  (q.  v.). 

OaataTia,  a  fountain  on  Mount  Parnassus,  called  after  the 
nymph  of  that  name.  Bemg  sacred  to  Apollo  and  the  Muses, 
its  waters  were  fabled  to  bestow  the  poetic  afflatus. 

Oastalio  or  Castell'io  (the  Latinised  form  of  ChdlHIlan), 
Sebastien,  a  French  Protestant  theologian,  born  in  Dauphinfe 
in  1515,  and  about  1540  presented  to  the  chair  of  Hun 
at  Geneva  by  Calvin.  Banished  from  this  city  in  consequence 
of  a  quarrel  with  his  patron,  he  repaired  lo  Basel  in  1544,  wher-e 
he  obtained  the  Greek  chair,  and  where  he  died,  20th  December 
1563.  C's  chief  work  is  a  I.alin  transhition  of  the  Bible,  of 
which  the  best  edition  is  that  of  Basel  (fol.  1573). 
lion  to  numei-ous  theolc^ical  treatises,  he  published  an  edition 
of  Xenophon  (1540),  and  Latin  translations  of  the  Iliad  (1561) 
and  Odyssey  (1567). 

Oaata'nea.    See  Chestnut. 

"Cas'tanets,  a  musical  instrument  of  percussion,  consisting  of 
two  small  shell-shaped  pieces  of  wood  or  ivory 
by  the  forefinger  and  thumb.     They  are  little 
ballets,  to  brmg  out  the  rhythm  of  the  dance. 

CastaS'os,  Don  Framoisco  Xavier  de,  Duke  of  Bayle^, 
one  of  the  few  Spaniards  who  showed  generalship  as  well  as 
gallantry  in  the  Peninsular  War,  was  born  at  Madiid  in  1796, 
and  studied  the  military  art  in  Prussia.  Along  with  his  sub- 
ordinate, the  Swiss  soldier  Aloys  Reding,  he  performed  the 
47 


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CAS 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


wondetrul  feat  oi'  compelling  (July  22,  1808)  a  French  army 
JO,oOO  men  under  General  Ilupont  to  surrender  at  Bayleii. 
He  fought  under  Wellington  in  various  battles  of  the  war  ;  and 
although  from  his  blunt  manners  he  was  no  favourite  at  court, 
his  talents  procured  him  various  important  military  ofSces.  He 
died,  24.tk  September  1S52. 

Oastanosper'm'aia,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  order  Ligumi- 
noss  {sub-order  Pa^ionacca).  C.  austraU  yields  the  Moreton 
Bay  (Queensland)  'chestnuts,'  so  called  from  these  seeds,  when 
roasted,  having  the  flavour  of  chestnuts. 

Caate.  The  divisions  of  C,  as  staled  in  the  Code  of  Menu 
andlheVedas,  are  as  follow; — (l)  The  A'ro^jB/Mj,  or  sacred  clais, 
whose  persons  are  sacred  j  they  study  the  Vedas,  legislate  for 
the  other  classes,  live  upon  alms  (which  include  gifts  on  occa- 
sions of  religious  ceremony),  and  are  exempt  trom  taxation 
and  from  capital  punishment.  They  also  teach  the  Vedas  ; 
pact  of  their  life  is  that  of  an  anchorite,  but  its  final  object  is 
peaceful  meditation  on  the  divine  order.  (2)  Kshatryas,  the 
military  ckss,  from  whom  officers  of  Government  are  selected, 
and  by  whom  the  executive  is  carried  on.  Their  duties  are,  to 
'  give  alms,  to  sacrifice,  to  read  the  Veda,  to  shun  sensual  grati- 
fication,  and  to  defend  the  people,'  Like  the  Brahmins,  they 
have  important  privileges  in  criminal  law.  (3)  Vakyas,  or  mer- 
cantile class,  who  cultivate  the  land,  breed  cattle,  carry  on  trade, 
and  lend  at  interest.  (4)  Sudras,  or  lowest  class,  servants 
chiefly  of  the  Brahmins;  they  are  incapable  of  reading  the  Vedas 
and  of  accumulating  property,  and  even  {except  in  times  of 
scarcity)  of  independent  industry.  Abusive  language  used  by  a 
Sudra  towards  a  superior  is  punished  by  the  loss  of  the  tongue  ; 
while  the  penance  for  killing  a  Sudra  is  only  what  is  requued 
in  the  case  of  killing  a  cat.  Although  thus  socially  depressed, 
the  Sudras  are  not  slaves.  Mixture  of  C.  is  prohibited  by  degra- 
dation of  the  offspring,  as  where  the  son  of  a  Brahmin  woman 
and  a  Sudra  becomes  a  Chandala.  The  above  quadruple  divi- 
sion is  merely  theoretical,  the  actual  division  of  the  Huidu 
population  being  into  Brahmins  and  Sudras,  and  into  a  great 
number  of  special  castes,  which  vary  from  one  part  of  the 
country  to  another,  and  are  often  founded  on  distinctions  of 
trade  or  locality.  Thus  the  Coolies,  the  Zemindars  (land- 
holders), the  Kaits  (writers),  have  been  called  castes ;  so  also 
the  Rajpoots,  the  Goojurs.  C.  as  it  is  described  in  the 
Shasters,  the  Derma  Purana,  and  the  Commentaries  of  the 
Pundits,  iirobably  never  existed;  in  whatever  degree  it 
existed,  the  intercourse  with  Great  Britain  must  have  con- 
stantly diminished  its  effects,  especially  in  industrial  re- 
lations. For  instance,  English  merchants  rank  only  as  Sudras, 
yet  they  can  hire  as  servants  natives  of  the  highest  C.  In  S. 
India,  indeed,  wealthy  native  Sudias  have  been  known  to  hire 
Brahmins  as  cooks.  C.  is,  in  fact,  a  mass  of  hetertgeneons  and 
often  inconsistent  regulations  with  regard  to  the  lawfulness  of 
eating  and  drinking,  the  intercourse  of  one  class  with  another, 
&c.  It  does  not  secure  the  principle  of  hereditary  professions, 
and  the  prohibition  of  intermarriages  may  be  regarded  as  its 
most  prominent  feature  in  modern  times.  The  regulations  of 
the  East  India  Company  in  many  respects  gave  a  mistaken  en- 
cour^ement  to  C.  conceived  as  an  absolute  division  of  employ- 
ments. Thus  the  Rajpoots  (the  descendEints  of  the  Kshatryas) 
were  admitted  to  the  army  as  Sepoys,  while  the  Coolies,  Choo- 
mars.  Mullahs,  &c,  were  excluded;  Vakeels  (lawyeis)  and 
Moonsiffe  (or  inferior  judges)  were  maintained  in  the  administra- 
tion of  justice,  and  native  Christians  were  in  1814  actually 
declared  incapable  'of  filling  any  public  office  of  respectability.' 
The  influence  of  C.  in  contracting  the  feeling  of  brotherhood 
within  certain  limits,  and  so  begettmg  pride  and  apathy  for  what 

;  outside,  has  been  to  deaden  patriotism  and  make  the 
Hindus  accept  without  question  an  arbitraiy  rule.  To  awaken 
them  by  all  means  to  a  sense  of  political  and  social  responsibility 
is  the  main  problem  of  the  present  enlightened  administration. 
A  striking  illustration  of  the  inherent  selfishness  of  C,  and,  per- 
haps, also  of  their  trust  in  the  imdivided  authority  of  Govern- 
■  t,  occurs  in  the  practictof  thefl  (decoiiee),  which  often 
ravages  a  neighbourhood,  simply  because  there  is  no  public 

■'rit,  the  misfortunes  of  one  0,  not  being  those  of  another, 
e  good  discipline  which  the  Sepoy  troops  rapidly  attdned  has 
been  attributed  partly  to  lliis  n-ant  of  political  solidarity,  and  to 
the  fact  that  off  parade  the  native  regiments  (both  officers  and 
nen)  associated  rather  according  to  C.  and  religion  than  accord- 


ing to  rank,  which  made  conspiracy  difficult.  In  the  great 
mutiny  of  1857,  the  loyalty  of  the  Sepoys  in  the  insurrections 
of  Benares  (1781  and  iSoi)  and  Mysore  (1S07)  is  sometimes 
forgotten.  On  the  other  hand,  military  discipline  has  inter- 
fered with,  and  tended  to  destroy,  special  rules  of  C. — e.g., 
in  marching  troops  beyond  the  Indus,  in  providing  the  cavalry 
with  hogskm  saddles,  in  prohibiting  the  eating  of  meids  naked, 
and,  above  all,  in  ignoring  C.  in  the  selection  of  officers.  So 
far  as  civilisation  has  gone  under  the  system  of  village  communi- 
ties, it  may  be  admitted  that  C.  has  acted  usefully  as  a  conserva- 
tive force,  but  it  seems  inconsistent  with  an  advance  beyond  that 
system ;  and  in  social  relations  outside  the  community  its  im- 
moral tendency  is  sufficiently  obvious.  It  is  responsible  for  much 
of  the  perjury  practised  by  even  respectable  witnesses  in  the 
courts  of  justice,  and  it  also  favoured  the  growth  of  the  Thugs, 
the  Pindarrees,  and  the  Sennassie  Fakirs,  coalitions  for  the  com- 
mission of  crime  which  could  not  have  existed  without  the  sanc- 
tion of  C.  It  has  also  retarded  the  intercourse  of  Europeans 
and  natives,  and  among  its  minor  effects  may  be  noticed  the 
ridiculous  puftitilies  of  domestic  servants  in  Bengal  and  else- 
where. Particular  castes,  as  the  Rajpoots  of  Rajasthan,  from  the 
difficulty  of  intermarriage,  practised  infanticide.  In  many  cases 
the  Brahmins  (the  symbol  of  whose  order  is  the  pcita  or  sacred 
thread)  have  sunk  into  coaise  religious  mendicity.  It  has  been 
contended  that  either  C.  or  some  other  stringent  system  of 
minnte  positive  morality  was  necessary  to  sustain  the  Hindu 
character  against  an  enervating  climate  and  the  frequent  con- 
vulsions of  foreign  conquest ;  in  support  of  this  the  degraded 
state  of  the  Pariahs,  or  casteless  class,  has  been  quoted. 
Tliis  may  have  been  the  case  when  C.  was  strong  enough 
moral  delinquencies,  but  in 


>  punish  both  c 


thaf  of  the  Sikh  tribes,  whose  great  -leader,  Nanik  Baba, 
abolished  C  in  the  early  part  of  the  i6th  c  It  was,  how- 
ever, at  one  time  debated  whether  C.  should  not  be  recog- 
nised by  the  missionaries  at  Christian  communion,  and  used 
as  a  means  of  discipline  m  school.  The  trifling  and  supersti- 
tious eevemoniaiism  of  C,  which  the  spread  of  education, 
especially  among  women,  does  more  to  destroy  than  anv  direct 
attack  of  positive  law  or  missionary  enterprise,  may  be  seen 
in  chap.  4,  '  on  economics, '  and  chap.  3,  'on  diet,'  of  the  Code 
of  Menu,  and  in  Kurma  Lochvm,  a.  Sanslfrit  work  on  'do- 
mestic duties.'  A  vigorous  protest  against  C,  is  at  present 
made  by  Baboo  Chunder  Sen's  new  Theistic  Church  of  Calcutta. 
Theorists  liave  tried  to  derive  C.  from  the  fact  of  conquest,  of 
superior  beauty  in  one  race,  of  a  double  migration  (an  interme- 
diary class  being  produced  by  fusion),  &c  It  would  rather 
appear  to  be  a  religious  institution,  founded  on  the  once  natural 
tendency  to  hereditary  employments  and  the  necessity  for  ab- 
stinence and  purification  in  tropical  climates.  The  notions  of 
purity  and  impurity  were  no  doubt  manipulated  by  the  priest- 
hood. It  is  remarkable  that  tradition  assigns  the  institution  of 
C.  to  gods  :  in  India  to  Brahma,  in  Egypt  to  Isis,  in  Bacttia  to 
Diemschid,  in  Assyria  to  Mahabad,  The  reformer  Buddha 
opposed  himself  to  C.,  but  his  followers  in  Ceylon  were  forced 
to  re-establish  if,  the  Radios  of  Ceylon  being  equivalent  to  the 
Parinhs  of  India.  Ampice  has  shown  reason  for  supposing  that 
in  Egypt  there  were  no  castes  proper.  See  Mule's  Sansirit 
Texts  (vol.  ii.  1870);  M'Naghten's  Frinciplei  ef  Hindu  Law 
(7th  ed.  by  Wilson) ;  Talboys  Wheeler's  Sisi.  of  India  (vol.  i.); 
Sherring's  Castes  cf  Benares  (1868);  People  of  India  (Govem- 
ment  publication),  edited,  with  photographic  illustrations,  by 
Watson  and  Kaye  (6  vols.  186S-72) ;  Steele's  Castes  of  the 
Dekkan;  Colebrooke's  EnameraHon  of  Indian  Classes  (in  his 
Asiatic  Reseca-ches,  vol.  v.),  and  the  Memorandum  in  his  Life 
(1872) ;  R^rl  on  Progress  and  CondHion  of  India  (1873). 
Oastes^io.     See  Mohtebello. 

Cas'tel,  a  town  In  the  Hesse-Rhine  province,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Rhine,  nearly  opposite  Mainz,  of  which  It  forms  a 
fortress  of  defence,  and  with  which  it  communicates  by  a  float- 
mg  bridge.  It  is  on  the  Wiesbaden  Riulway,  and  has  an  active 
■  '  ■  cattle.  Pop.  (1871)  5245.  C,  as  its  name  indicates,  is 
Ji  origin,  and  occupies  the  site  of  a  place  called  Caslel- 
ttiacoruvi,  which  forms  the  subject  of  one  of  Becker's 
Wiesb.  1863).  C.  is  the  name  of  several  other  small 
id  villages  in  Germany, 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


OAS 


so  n  prefix  to  the  names  of  numerous  places  in 
Italy,  Spain,  and  France,  of  which  the  following  merit  notice  ; — 
Castel-Bologne'se,  a  town  of  Italy,  province  of  Ravenna, 
miles  W.S.W.  of  that  city.     Here  the  Milanese  defeated  the 


rior. 


I  1434- 


Castel-Buo'no  ('fair  castle'),  a  town  of  Sicily,  province 
of  Palermo,  8  miles  S.E.  of  Ceialu.  It  is  noted  for  its  mineral 
Eprings.    Pop.  5288, 

Castelfidak'do,  a  town  in  Italy,  province  of  Ancona,  near 
Loretto,  among  low-lying  hills  between  the  rivers  Aspis  and 
Musone.  It  was  bronght  into  prominence  by  a  cnisliing  defeat 
inilicted  on  the  Papal  troops  under  General  Lamoriciere  by  the 
Piedmontese  under  General  Cialdini,  on  September  8,  i860. 
Pop.  6275. 

-FRAN'co,  a  town  of  N.  Italy  in  the  province  of  Treyiso, 

;r  Musone,  about  14  miles  W.  of  Treviso.     It  contains  a 

cathedral  and  large  palace.      Pop,  9319.      C.  was  taken,  January 

!,  1801,  by  the  French,  who  ato  here  defeated  the  Austrians, 

November  23,  1805. 

Castel-Gandol'fo,  a  town  of  Central  Italy,  province  of  La- 
tium,  situated  on  Lake  Albano,  11  miles  S.E.  of  Rome.  It  is 
in  the  midst  of  very  beautiful  scenery,  and  was  long  a  stronghold 
of  the  Savelli- family. 

Castellama're  ('castle  by  the  sea'),  a  fortified  city  of  S. 
Italy,  province  of  Naples,  about  17  miles  S.E.  of  the  city  of 
Naples.  It  has  a  cathedral,  a  royal  palace,  and  an  ancient  castle, 
built  in  the  I2th  c.  There  are  linen,  silk,  and  cotton  manufac- 
tories,  besides  dockyards  and  tanneries,  and  the  town  is  resorted 
lo  for  its  hot  baths  and  mineral  springs.  C.  stands  near  the  site 
of  the  andent  StaMa,  sacked  by  Sylla  during  the  social  war,  and 
froni  the  ruins  of  which  C.  has  been  for  the  most  part  constructed. 
Pop.  21,794.  In  one  of  the  convents  there  is  an  image  of  the 
Virgin  of  extraordinary  sanctity  in  the  eyes  of  the  peasantry, 
who  annually  visit  her  shrine. 

Castellauake,  a  town  in  Sicily,  on  a  gulf  of  the  same  name, 
-20  miles  E,  of  Trapani  It  exports  wme,  fruit,  n^anna,  and  some 
cotton.     Pop.  Sooo. 

Castellamon'te  ('  castle  on  the  hill  ^,  a  town  of  N.  Italy, 
province  of  Turin,  loniiles  S.W,  of  Ivrea.  It  has  an  ancient 
castle,  extensive  market-place,  manufactures  of  pottery,  and  a 
trade  in  wine,  cattle,  and  dairy  produce.     Pop,  5641. 

CaSteLla'KA,  a  town  of  Italy,  province  of  Bari,  25  miles  S.E. 
of  the  city  of  Earl     Trade  in  fruits,  wine,  &c.     Pop.  9691. 

Castellahe'ta,  a  town  of  Italy,  province  of  Lecce,  on  the 
tailtvay  connecting  Pari  and  Taranto,  21  miles  N.W.  of  tlie  latter. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  has  a  cathedral  and  several  con- 
vents. Cotton  is  among  the  chief  products  of  the  district.  Pop. 
6525. 

CastelLAZ'zo,  a  town  of  N.  Italy,  province  of  Alessandria, 
on  tJie  Bormida,  5  miles  S.W.  of  the  town  of  Alessandria, 
Pop.  5749. 

Castelleo'ne,  a  walled  town  of  N.  Italy,  in  theN.W.  of  the 
province  of  Cremona,  on  the  railway  between  Cremona  and 
Bergamo,  16  miles  N.W.  of  the  former.  The  neighbourhood 
produces  cereals,  silk,  cheese,  honey,  &c.    Pop.  about  6000. 

Castell'on  de  la  Plana,  the  capital  of  a  province  of  the 
same  name,  Spain,  on  the  Valencia-Catalonian  Railway,  3  miles 
W.  of  the  Medileiianean.  It  lies  in  a ,  fertile  plain  (la  Plana), 
is  a  modem  town,  surrounded  by  a  wall  pierced  by  eight  gates, 
and  has  active  manufactures  of  hemp,  linens,  sailcloth,  &c.  Pop, 
19,297.  The  p-ovmci  of  C.  is  in  great  part  mountainous,  and 
has  an  area  of  205  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1870)  of  296,322. 

Castblnau'dary,  a  flourishing  town  of  France,  department 
of  Aude,  25  miles  S.E.  of  Toulouse  by  rmlway.  It  lies  on  the 
Canal  du  Midi,  which  here  widens  into  a  fine  t>asin  (ft  rae 
de  St  Fsrriol)  1200  feet  long  and  900  broad,  with  extensive  quays 
and  wharves.  It  has  a  court  of  the  first  instance,  a  commerc' 
college,  and  an  exchange,  with  manufactares  of  cloth,  lini 
chalk,  glass,  and  brick.  Pop,  {1872)  7721.  C  stands  on  the 
site  of  the  Gothic  Castrum  novum.  Arianorum  ('  the  new  castle 
of  the  Arians '),  of  wiiich  the  present  name  is  a  corruption, 
was  at  one  time  capital  of  the  county  of  Lauragais.  It  witnessed 
a  bloody  conflict  between  Raymond  of  Toulouse  and  Simon  de 
Montfort  in  1212,  and  was  taken  and  burned  by  the  Black  Prince 
in  1355,  but  was  rebuilt  eleven  years  later, 

Castelbuo'vO  ('new  castle'),  a  fortified  seaport  in  the  S. 

of  Dalmatia,  Austria,  at  the  entrance  to  the  Bay  of  Cattaro. 

It  has  a  naval  school.    Pop.  of  commune  (1S70),  6105;  of  I "    " 

82 


-C.  is  also  the  name  of  a  small  village  in  '  the  Coast- Land ' 
:  same  empire,  21  miles  S.E.  of  Trieste.     Pop.  of  commime 
(1870),  6718. 

Castel-Vetrano,  a  town  in  Sicily,  province  of  Trapani,  46 
iles  S.W.    of    Palermo,    has  coral   and   alabaster  industries. 
Pop.  (1872)  20,420. 
Castell'an,  the  keeper  of  a  castle,  an  officer  of  respectable 
nk  in  the  middle  ages.      He  was  generally  a  man  of  some  pro- 
perly of  his  own,  and  had  a  voice  in  the  local  administration  of 
justice.     In  Poland,  after  the  i6th  c,  the  title  of  C.  qualified 
the  bolder  of  a  certain  amount  of  property  for  a  seat  in  the 
upper  legislative  chamber  or  senate. 

Castigrlione  ('  Utile  castle  '),  an  old  tovm  in  the  province 
of  Catania,  S,  Italy,  a  little  to  the  N.  of  Mount  ^Ina.  It  over- 
looks the  valley  of  the  Cantaro,  and  has  a  ruined  castle  and  an 
old  church  with  a  picturesque  dome.  Pop.  5000.  C.  revolted 
pinst  Frederick  of  Aragon  in  the  war  of  the  Vespers,  1297. 
OastigUo'ne,  BaldasstiTr'e,  Goimt,  an  Italian  statesman 
and  littitatatr,  was  bom  6th  December  1478,  at  Casatico,  Man- 
tua. He  studied  at  Milan,  was  sent  as  aml>assador  from  Guido- 
bddo,  Duke  of  Urbino,  to  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  and  was 
highly  trusted  by  Popes  Leo  X,  and  Clement  VIl.  He  died  at 
Toledo,  2d  February  1529.  C.'s  most  fijnous  work,  IlIAbro  dd 
Corligiano  (Venice,  1528 ;  at  Padua  in  1733),  containing  instruc- 
tions how  to  become  an  accomplished  courtier,  is  written  with 
exquisite  grace.  He  also  composed  poems  in  Latin  and  in  Italian, 
which  are  models  of  elegance.  His  ZfWs^^  (2  vols.  Pad.  1769-71) 
are  important,  both  from  a  literaiy  and  a  political  point  of  view. 
See  Budik's  ZfljKiMWfA!  Zfei/er,  vol,  ii.  pp.  136-183, 

Oastiglione,  Carlo  Ottavio,  Count,  an  Italian  linguist 
and  archzeologist,  was  bom  at  Milan  in  1795.  He  published  in 
1819  a  description  of  the  Kufic  coins  in  the  cabinet  of  Itcera 
there,  which  at  once  established  his  reputation  as  an  antiquarian. 
In  1819  he  was  a  cellaboraleur  with  Angelo  Mai  in  editing  some 
fragments  of  Uffilas'  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Mceso-Gothic, 
discovered  by  the  latter  among  the  palimpsests  of  tlie  Ambrosian 
Library.  These  C.  afterwards  followed  up  by  fragments  of  some 
of  the  Pauline  epistles,  enriched  with  erudite  excursuses.  He 
died  at  Genoa,  loth  April  1849.  His  Biography  by  Biondelli 
appeared  at  Milan  in  1856. 

Oaetiglione  dell'e  Btivie're,  a  town  of  N.  Italy,  pro- 
vince of  Brescia,  22  miles  N.E.  of  the  city  of  Mantua.  It  has 
two  beautiful  churches  and  a  theatre,  and  was  at  one  t 
dence  of  a  younger  branch  of  the  ducal  house  of  Gonzaga,  C 
is  walled  and  defended  by  an  old  castle.  Near  it  B  part 
defeated  the  Austrians  under  Wurmser  in  1796,      In    h  g 

bourhood  is  Solferino,  where  Napoleon  III.  in  1859  al      d 
the  Austrians.      Pop,  5705. 

Castiglione,  Iiago  di,  in  the  province  of  Sie       C    tn 
Italy,  is  to  miles  long  and  I  to  3  broad,  receives  severa 
which  the  chief  is  the  Brana,  and  is  connected  with  th   i        er 
ranean  by  a  canal  42  miles  long. 

Castile'  (so  called  from  the  numerous  castles  er 
defence  against  the  Moora),  formei-ly  the  name  of  an  in 
Idngdom  of  Spain,  has  no  longer  a  political  or  adn 
meaning,  but  geographically  denotes  that  portion  0    |3      gr 
central  plateau  bounded  N.  by  the  Cantabrian  Mou  S 

by  the  Sierra  Morena,  E,  by  the  hills  of  Aragon,  and  W     ajfly 
by  Leon  and  partly  by  the  Portugnese  frontier.     Am       ta 
range  divides  it  into  Old  ( Vieja)  and  New  (Nuiz'a)  C ,  m 

of  which  is  now  subdivided  into  twelve  provinces  g 

totalareaof 72,447sq.miles,andapDp.(i87o)of3,iS    60        d 
the  latter  into  five,  with  an  area  of^  30,882  sq.  m  d 

Eop.  (1870)  of  1,541,772.  Old  C.  isin  great  part  an  arid  waste, 
ut  in  the  E„  as  in  Uie  provinces  of  Burgos  and  Soria,  there  are 
many  fertile  valleys  and  plains,  producing  excellent  wheat, 
maiie,  wine,  &c  It  is  about  3000  feet  above  the  sea,  has  a 
gentle  westward  slope,  and  is  watered  by  the  Douro  and  its 
tributaries.  The  rich  mineral  resources  are  still  unwrought,  but 
there  is  extensive  cattle-rearing  in  the  highhmds,  which  here  and 
there  ace  covered  with  forests  of  chestnut,  oak,  fir,  and  pine. 
New  C.  is  almost  a  counterpart  of  the  more  northerly  division, 
bat  lies  I  Sto  feet  lower,  and  is  more  fertile  in  the  production  of 
corn  and  wine.  It  also  yields  in  some  parts  olive  oil,  saffron, 
49 


vLiOOQle 


CAS 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CAS 


hemp,  silk,  and  fruits.  Tliere  are  extensive  mines  of  salt,  lead, 
and  quicksilver.  Railways  now  iravei-se  both  districts,  lliougli 
most  of  the  jirodnce  is  still  conveyed  on  the  backs  of  mules. 
In  both  divisions  the  climate  is  one  of  great  extremes.  The 
Arab  conquest  of  Spain  included  the  whole  of  C.  In  933, 
while  the  Ommiades  were  engaged  in  the  subjugation  of  Mo- 
rocco, Fernando  Gonzales  converted  the  district  of  Burgos,  an 
offshoot  of  Leon,  into  an  independent  state.  It  passed  by  in- 
heritance (1028)  to  Sancho  lit,  of  Navarre,  who,  at  his  death 
in  1036,  made  it  a  kingdom,  and  placed  it  under  his  son,  Fer- 
nando I.  the  Great.  This  king  wrested  Leon  and  Navarre  from 
his  two  brothers,  and  on  his  death  divided  his  dominion  between 
his  three  sons,  Alonso  VI.  of  Leon,  who  succeeded  his  brother  as 
King  of  C,  conquered  the  Moorish  territory  of  Toledo  in  1085, 
and  held  it  as  New  C.  for  a  short  time.  In  1230  it  was  perma- 
nently annexed  b^  Fernando  III.,  wiio  founded  a  ksting  dynasty. 
His  most  illustrious  successor  was  his  son,  Alfonso  X.  (q.  v.). 
Isabella,  sister  of  Enrique  IV,  of  C,  married  the  Crown  Kince, 
Fernando  of  Aragon,  in  1469,  and  succeeded  her  brother  in  1474, 
BO  that  on  the  death  of  Juan  II.  of  Aragon  the  two  lands  were 

united,  (See  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  and  Isabella.) 
Fernando  conquered  Granada  in  1492,  and  Navarre  in  1512, 
thus  bringing  the  whole  of  Spain  under  one  rule.  Intrigues, 
rebellions,  and  domestic  strifes  were  what  prevented  C.  from 
asserting  at  a  much  earlier  period  its  pre-eminence,  on  account 
of  its  stronger  and  more  central  position,  over  all  the  other 
Spanish  slates.  The  Caslilians  are  distinguished  for  more  than 
Spanish  haughtiness,  and  their  language  is  that  of  the  educated 
classes  and  of  the  national  literature. 

Oastillo'a,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Artecarpacsiz. 
C.  dastka  is  said  to  yield  all  the  india-rubbers  of  Central  America, 
Equador,  New  Granada,  and  the  W.  Indies,  which  are  known 
commercially  as  '  W.  Indian,  Carlhagena,  Nicaragua,  Honduras, 
Guyaquil,  and  Guatemala  rubbers  '  (Collins). 

CastiU'on,  a  town  in  the  department  of  Gironde,  France,  on 
the  Dordogne,  10  miles  W.  of  Lilbourne  by  railway.  Here  the 
English  were  vanquished  by  Charles  VJI.  of  France,  July  1453. 
Montaigne,  the  essayist,  was  bom  and  died  in  the  vicinity. 

Oast'ing,  a  technical  term  in  the  art  of  Angling  (q.  v.),  de- 
noting the  throwing  of  the  line.  It  should,  be  raised  gently  from 
the  water,  so  as  not  to  be  broken  should  a  lish  seiie  Hie  lure  at 
the  last  moment  It  should  then  be  waved  over  the  tight  or 
left  shoulder,  then  sharply  propelled  so  as  to  cause  the  lure  to 
fall  on  the  spot  at  which  the  fish  is  expected  to  be  lying.  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  give  the  forward  movement  until  the  whole 
of  the  line  is  at  a  right  angle,  behind,  to  the  rod ;  otherwise  the 
artificial  fly,  or  bait,  will  probably  be  jerked  o^  and  the  line 
will  not  fail  straight  on  the  water,  the  lure,  consequently,  not 
reaching  the  desired  spot.  In  artificial  fly-flshing,  it  is  well  to 
raise  the  point  of  the  rod  sightly  when  the  fly  is  Falling,  so  as  to 
cause  it  to  fall  lightly,  which  is  naturally,  on  the  water. 

Casting-Nel,  a  kind  of  net  for  the  catching  of  fish,  used,  with 
various  modifications,  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  Tiiose 
used  in  England  are  usually  about  15  or  16  feet  in  circumfer- 
ence. They  are  netted  in  the  shape  of  a  cone,  but  so  as  to  be 
capable  of  being  spread  out  in  a  flat  circle,  to  whose  circumfer- 
ence perforated  leads  are  attached,  with  strings  to  raise  the  net 
after  it  has  been  sunk.  The  edges  being  raised  first,  they  are 
then  drawn  together,  and  the  net  is  lifted.  The  C.-N.  is  an  iUe- 
gal  implement  for  the  capture  of  river-trout.     See  Nets. 

Casting  Vote  is  the  vote  which  the  president  of  an  assembly 
is  usually  empowered  to  give  in  the  event  of  tlie  other  votes 
being  equally  divided.  The  right  to  give  the  C.  V.  does  not, 
however,  exist  by  comlnon  law  ;  it  must  be  created  by  statute, 
or  agreement,  or  immemorial  usage.  In  the  House  of  Commons, 
the  Speaker  has  the  C.  V.  In  the  House  of  Ixirds,  the  Speaker's 
vote  IS  counted  with  the  rest,  and  in  case  of  an  equality  of  votes 
the  ItcK-conienls  are  held  to  have  the  majority.  In  an  election 
of  a  member  of  Parliament  for  a  county  or  borough,  if  there  is 
an  equality  of  votes,  the  returning  officer,  if  a  registered  elector 
of  the  county  or  borough,  is  empowered  to  give  tne  C.  V. 

Oast  Iron 


varies  very  much  in  qualily.  '  Foundry  pig,'  or  grey  iron,  is 
known  as  Nos.  I,  2,  and  3,  and  'forgo  pig,'  or  white  iron,  as 
Nos.  4  and  5.  No.  1  is  used  for  fine  castings  ;  Nos.  2  and  3  are 
harder,  stronger,  and  more  suitable  for  large  structures  ;  Nos.  4 
and  5  melt  at  lower  temperatures  ;  they  are  very  hard  and 
strong,  but  so  brittle  as  to  be  of  little  use  except  for  convers 
mio  wrought  iron.  It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  diffcven 
between  grey  and  white  iron  are  due  to  the  different  states 
which  the  carbon  exists  in  them  but  this  does  not  seem  to  be 
definitely  pro  S 

Cae'tle  (La     as  m  rt 

originally  a 

fences;  later  F    m  mm        m 

of   the   hlsto     al   p  ed  B 

and  it  is  con  d  ca.  es  R  11 

camps  which  mm  m  g 

country,  were  es   ha  p  ybe 

pied  as  strongholds  bythe  tribes  tlint  Cassar conquered.  Of  dis- 
tinctively British  works,  the  chief,  according  to  Britton,  are  the 
Herefordshire  Beacon  (Worcestershire),  the  Caer  -  Caradoc 
(Shropshire),  Moel-Arthur  (Flintshire),  Chun  C.  (Cornwall), 
Maiden  C.  (Dorsetshire),  the  CaterthHus  (Forfarshire),  and  the 
Barmlim  of  Echt  (Aberdeenshire).  Of  the  Roman  castles  in 
Britain,  the_  oldest  is  supposed  to  be  Richborough  C  in  Kent, 
in  the  remains  of  which  the  leading  features  of  Che  stationary  en- 
campments (nostra  slaHva)  are  still  traceable.  During  the  earliest 
English  period,  the  fortresses  which  existed  in  the  island  were 
neither  important  nor  numerous,  and  no  authenticated  remains 
of  them  are  extant,  Propeily,  the  C.-building  era  in  England 
commenced  shortly  after  the  Norman  conquest.  According  to 
the  CknmicU,  it  was  enormously  accelerated  by  the  civil  confusions 
and  social  disorders  of  Stephen's  reign.  Such  was  the  activity  of 
the  Norman  barons  in  rearing  castellated  residences,  that  England, 
in  proportion  to  her  population,  is  richer  in  castles,  especially  of 
the  strictly  Norman  or  round.arched  Gothic  age,  than  any  countiy 
in  Europe.  The  Tower  of  London,  and  the  Castles  of  Rochester, 
Norwich,  Rising,  are,  as  early  examples,  unmatched  either  in 
France  or  Gerniany,  while  among  later  structures  the  Castles  of 
Raglan,  Chepstow,  Kenilworth,  Warwick,  and  Windsor  are  i 
rivalled  for  picturesque  beauty  and  architectural  magnificence. 
Domesday  Book  forty-nine  castles  are  named,  and  during  the 
reign  of  Stephen  the  number  erected  is  said  to  have  been  1115. 
But  in  England,  as  in  every  country  in  Europe,  the  C-build- 
ing  tastes  of  the  first  barons  were  found  to  be  inconvenient,  and 
the  numerous  strongholds  of  the  country  were  as  often  held 
against  the  king  as  for  him.  Henry  II.,  therefore,  enacted  that  it 
was  unlawful  to  erect  a  C.  or  fortify  a  residence  without  licence. 
In  Scotland  there  are  no  remains  of  Norman  castles,  for  no  Nor- 
man families  had  succeeded  in  taking  root  in  Scotland  until  the 
Norman  style  of  architecture  had  developed  into  pointed  Gkithic 
But  of  castles  m  the  latter  style  there  are  in  Scotland  a  nnmber 
of  fine  examples.  The  oldest  of  tliese,  perhaps,  is  Hermitage, 
erected  in  Liddesdale  prior  to  1244,  and  the  cause  of  an  invasran 
of  Scotland  in  that  year  by  the  King  of  England,  who  regarded 
the  erection  of  this  great  border  fortress  as  practically  a  threat 
on  the  part  of  his  northern  neighbours.  Other  examples  of 
Scottish  castles  of  the  pointed  Gothic  period  are  those  of  Both- 
well,  Caerlaverock,  Kildrummy,  and  Dirleton.  The  Castles  of 
Edinburgh,  Stirling,  Dumbarton,  &c,,  which  are  mentioned  from 
the  earliest  times,  were  places  of  defence,  but  were  not  castles 
in  the  strict  sense:  tliey  were  rather  fortified  ramparts 
enclosing  unfortified  buildings,  often  built  of  wood.  The 
border  Peel  Tower  (q.  v.)  sprang  up  as  a  necessity  during 
the  war  of  independence  to  provide  against  sudden  surprise. 
The  Norman  C,  in  its  simplest  fiDrm,  consisted  of  a  central 
keep  or  stronghold,  with  a  court  (in  which  were  situated 
the  stables  and  other  inferior  buildings,  and  offices)  protected 
by  walls,  often  fortified  by  towers,  and  sttrrounded  by  a  fosse 
or  dilch,  across  which  access  was  obtained  into  the  C.  by 
a  drawbridge  and  gate-house.  After  the  invention  of  gun- 
powder, castles  which,  however  strongly  fortified,  could  present 
no  adequate  defence  against  artillery,  ceased  to  be  built  in 
England ;  and  in  the  erection  of  the  later  baronial  structures, 
convenience  and  architectural  effect  are  the  objects  chiefly  aimed 
at  in  the  plan  of  the  building. 

Oaatlebar'  (in  the  Four  Masters,  '  Caislen-an-Bharraig^ ;' 
called  by  Downing,  l5So,  Castle  Barry;  belonged  to  the  Bariys 


yLaOogle 


-^- 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CAS 


d  at  tight  angles.  Theie  are  some  manufactures  of  coarse 
linen.  C.  was  the  scene  of  tJie  massacre  of  the  forces  of  the 
Parliament  during  the  rebellion  of  1641,  and  here  'Fighting 
Fitzgerald'  was  executed  in  1786.  The  town  was  occupied  in 
1798  by  the  French,  who  retired  on  tlie  approach  of  Cornwallis. 
^The  river  C.  rises  in  a  lake  5  miles  S.W.  of  the  town,  and 
enters  Loch  Cullen  after  a  course  of  15  miles. 

Castlereagh.',  Lord.     See  Londonderky,  Makquis  of. 

Gastlea  are  among  the  arviis  parlanlcs  in  heraldry — charges 
allusive  to  some  feat,  or  to  the  name,  title,  ofSce  or  property  of 
those  who  bear  them,  C.  are  often  given  as  charges  in  tlie 
shields  of  persons  who  have  been  prominent  in  a  successful 
siege.      They  ate  generally  represented  as  crowned  with  three 


Cas'tletown  (Mam,  Balla-Chaslal),  the  capil 
Isle  of  Man,  in  the  southern  extremity  of  the  islar 
W.  shore  of  C.  Bay,  Rushen  Castle  (according  t 
'    a  Danish  fottress  of  the      th        w  h 

besieged  in  1313  by  Rober   Bru         Th  p 

the  island,  and  the  olhet  p  d 

Near  the  castle  is  the  Hous         h   K  P 

island.     There  ate  brewer  es   tan  d 

n  and  its  vicinity.     C.  h  rnal  p 

(1871)  2320.     About  I  mil    NE.       Ki  g   V 
fonndedin  183a 

Oas'tor  and  FoU'ux,  t  rs  i 

tlon  Gemini,  named  after    h    £H    kou  ns 

children  of  Leda.     The  fo  m  d 

revolution  being  nearly  253    ea 

CasUir  and  Pollux,  am  as  p[ 

and  attaching  itself  in  th      h  pe  1 


.1  town  of  the 
i,  and  on  the 
Manx  belief) 
wn,  and  was 


s  of  the 


Oftfito'reuni,  Castor,  is  the  secretion  contained  m  two  i 
branous  sacs  found  near  to  the  genital  organs  of  the  Beaver 
(q.  v.).  These  sacs  are  pear-shaped,  and  united  at  their  necks. 
When  dried,  their  appearance  gave  rise  to  the  erroneous  belief 
that  they  were  the  testicles  of  the  beaver.  The  secretion  is 
viscid,  and  possessed  of  a  strong  odour,  C.  is  said  to  contain 
Salicin  (q.  v.)  and  carbolic  acid.  It  has  been  used  in  medicine 
for  more  than  2000  yeais  as  a  remedy  in  spasmodic  diseases  of 
the  nervous  system,  and  was  considered  to  have  a  special  action 
over  the  utetus.  C.  comes  phielly  from  Hudson's  Bay,  Jts  vir- 
tues are  more  imaginary  than  real,  and  it  is  not  now  much  used, 

C^toi'idEe,  a  family  of  Rodent  mammalia,  represented  by 
the  Beavers  (q.  v.).  Musquash  (q.  v.),  &c,  and  distinguished  by 
the  possession  of  distinct  clavides  or  collar-bones,  and  by  each 
foot  being  provided  with  live  toes,  those  of  thp  hinder  feet  being 
generally  webbed.  The  teeth  typically  number  two  inof 
two  prsemolars,  and  six  molars  in  each  jaw. 

Castor  Oil.     This  very  well  known  and  extensively  used 
mild  purgative  oil  is  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  Hicinus  com- 
■1,  a  native  of  the  E,  Indies,  but 
extensively  cultivated  in  the  S, 
of  Europe  and  in  various  parts  of  the 
United  States,    The  seeds  are  of  an 
~  ovoid  form,  vary  in  size  from  a  small 
filbert    down    to    a   large   pea,    have 
a  greyish  -  brown  speckled  coyermg, 
and  grow  enclosed  iu  a  prickly  three- 
partite  carpel.     Two  principal  kinds 
of  C,  O.  are  recognised  in  British  phar- 
nacy,  E.  Indian  and  Italian,   and  in 
both  cases  the  oil  is  obtained  by  twc 
separate  processes.     What  is  known 
as  cold-drieain  oil  is  thus  prepared  in 
have  been  sifted  and  freed  from  impuri- 
slightly  crushed  between  rollers,  freed  from  husks, 
enclosed  in  a  'gunny'  bag,  in  which  they  are  pressed  into 


After  the  sf 


the  form  of  an  oblong  brick.  The  bricks  are  piled  up  between 
iron  plates  and  squeezed  in  a  hydraulic  press,  and  the  oil  which 
exudes  is  received  into  a  tin  vessel.  It  is  then  boiled  up  with 
water,  in  tlie  proportion  of  a  pint  of  water  to  a  gallon  of  oil,  till 
the  whole  of  the  water  evaporates,  when  it  is  instantly  with- 
drawn. The  boiling  coagulates  the  albuminous  matter  and  pre- 
cipitates mucilage  to  the  bottom  of  the  pan.  The  oil  is  then 
passed  through  a  bag  filter,  and  is  ready  for  use.  Tlie  hoi-drawn 
is  obtained  by  boiling  the  seeds,  then  shelling  and  pounding  to 
a  pulp,  and  again  boiling  till  the  whole  of  the  oil  rises  to  the 
surface  and  is  skimmed  off.  The  seeds  yield  from  45  to  50  pec 
cenL  of  oil.  In  addition  to  its  medicinal  use,  C.  O.  is  employed 
in  India  for  lamps ;  it  yields  a  good  soap,  which  has  been  pro- 
posed for  medical  purposes ;  and  it  is  an  ingredient  in  some 
excellent  pomades  and  preparations  for  the  hau-.  The  dose  of 
C.  O.  for  a  child  is  from  I  to  2  draclims,  and  foe  an  adult  I  to 
2  02.  It  should  be  slightly  warmed  and  taken  m  milk,  or  with 
the  addition  of  some  aromatic  oil. 

Gastrameta't  jon  (Lat.  caslra, '  huts,  a  camp ; '  nutari, '  to  lay 
out '),  the  art  of  encamping.  It  embraces  the  entire  laying  out 
of  camps,  whether  the  troops  to  occupy  them  are  to  be  hutted, 
under  canvas,  or  bivouacked.  The  selection  of  a  site  is  a  ques- 
tion of  great  importance  in  C.     See  Camp,  Encampment, 

Oas'tren,  Dlathias  Alexander,  famous  for  his  investiga- 
tions among  the  European  and  Asiatic  races  of  the  extreme  N. , 
was  born  at  Tervolu,  not  fat  from  the  northern  boundary  of 
Finland,  2d  December  1813.  After  a  preliminary  education  at 
the  Finnish  town  of  Tomea,  he  pursued  a  course  of  study  at 
Helsingfors  University.  Between  the  years  1838  and  1840,  C. 
was  busied  in  making  jonmeys  on  foot  through  the  northern  dis- 
tricts of  his  native  knd.  He  studied  its  dialects,  and  also  its 
folk-lore  and  ballads,  with  a  special  view  to  the  illustration  of 
the  national  myths.  The  result  of  these  researches  was  his  trans- 
lation into  Swedish  of  the  Kalamla,  This  is  the  great  poem  of 
the  Finns ;  and  on  C's  version  of  it  Longfellow  modelled  his 
Hiamatha.  C.  was  chosen  linguist  and  ethnographer  to  the 
Acadenjy  of  St  Petersbui^,  and  aftetwards  became  Professor  of 
Finnic  Language  and  Liletature  at  Helsingfors.  The  dialects 
of  the  Lapps  of  Norway,  Finland,  and  Russia,  of  the  Rnssiaij 
and  Siberian  Samoiedes,  and  of  the  tribes  of  Yakutsk,  wete  in 
tutn  the  objects  of  his  labotious  study.  C.  died  7th  May  1852, 
while  engaged  in  giving  literary  shape  to  the  ample  knowledge 
he  had  gathered.  Among  his  works  are  EUmenta  Gramtnalica 
Syrjaiita  (1844),  Elemmta  Grammaticn  Tscheremissis  (1845), 
and  an  Osliai  Gramrnar{St  PetersK  1849),  Since  C's  death 
(he  Finnic  Society  have  published  his  Nsrdiska  Rernr  eck 
Forskmnggr  (Hels,  1852-55),  and  the  Forel&mingar  om  Fitisk 
Mythologie  (Hels.  1853).  His  Grammar  and  Dictionary  of  the 
Samoiedic  Dialects  appeared  at  St  Petersburg  (1854-55],  his 
Ethnological  Lectures  on  the  Altaic  Peoples  in  1857,  and  some 
minor  writings  in  1862. 

Oas'tres  (anc,  Caslrum  Jlbiena'am),  a  town  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Tarn,  France,  on  the  rivet  Agout,  46  miles  E.  of  Tou- 
louse, It  is  tegulatly  built,  has  some  fine  ptomenades  lined 
with  trees,  and  several  handsome  public  buildmgs.  The  manu- 
factures of  wool-dyed  goods,  called  cuirs  de  laine,  are  noted. 
There  are  besides  tanneries,  parier-mills,  silk-weaving  establish- 
ments, and  brassfoundries.  From  1317  to  the  Revolution  of 
1789  C,  was  the  seat  of  a  bUIiop,  It  was  a  stronghold  of  the 
Huguenots,  and  for  a  time  the  residetipe  of  Henri  IV. ,  but  in  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIII.  it  sub^iitted  to  the  royal  anthoiity.  Pop. 
(1872)  16,458, 

Caa'tri,  or  Eas'tri,  a  village  on  the  southern  slope  of  Par- 
nassus, nomarehy  of  Phocis,  Greece,  on  part  of  the  site  of  ancient 
Delphi,  The  Cistalian  Fount  (q.  v,),  famous  in  the  writings  of 
the  classic  poets,  is  a  little  to  the  E.  of  the  village,  and,  ftom  a 
chapel  of  St  John  close  to  itssource,  is  now  called  the  Fountain 
of  St  John. 

Oas'tro  (the  ancient  Milylaii),  a  seaport  town  on  the  W.  coast 
of  the  island  of  Mitylene,  Asiatic  Turkey,  55  miles  N.W.  of 
Smyrna.  It  has  a  double  harbour,  is  defended  by  a  waE  with 
flanking  towers,  and  a  castle,  and  has  some  shipbuilding.  Pop. 
6500. 
Castro,  lues  de,  a  beautiful  Spanish  lady,  daughter  of  Pedro 
I  Fernandez  de  C.     Dom  Pedro,  Prince   of  Portugal,   secretly 


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married  her  in  1345.  Alfonso  IV.,  the  prince's  father,  lest  this 
alliance  should  prejudice  the  son  of  Pedro  by  his  former  wife, 
had  Ines  cruelly  murdered  in  1355,  ITie  prince  was  scarcely 
restrained  from  revolt ;  and,  Ijecoming  king  on  Alfonso's  death 
two  years  later,  had  justice  done  on  the  assassins,  and  declared 
the  mairiage  legal  A  strange  ceremony  was  then  performed  ; 
the  corpse  of  Ines  was  disinterred,  dressed  in  royal  robes, 
crowned,  seated  on  a  throne,  and  so  received  homage.  This 
tragic  Stoni  has  formed  the  theme  of  dramEis  and  poems  ;  Landor 
founds  a  fine  tragedy  on  it,  and  it  is  the  subject  of  a  splendid 
episode  in  Camoens'  Liisiad. 

Castro  del  Eio,  an  old  town  of  Spain,  province  of  Cordova, 
on  the  Guadajocillo,  16  miles  S.E,  of  Cordova,  has  mamifactures 
of  woollens,  linens,  and  pottery.      Pq^,  9J00. 

Castro-Giovann'i,  a  town  of  Sicily,  province  of  Catania,  in 
the  Vol  di  Nolo,  4000  feet  above  the  sea,  has  some  trade  in 
sulphnr.  It  is  on  the'site  of  the  Enna  of  antiquity,  the  chief 
seat  of  the  worship  of  the  goddess  Ceres.  The  neighbourhood 
is  the  reputed  scene  of  the  abduction  by  Pluto  of  her  daughter 
Proserpine — -'in  Enna  gathering  flowers.'  The  ancient  town 
played  an  Important  part  in  the  Punic  and  Servile  wars.  Pop. 
(1872)  14,633. 

CastronuO'vO,  a  fortified  town  of  Sicily,  province  of  Palermo, 
on  a  hill  35  miles  S.S.E.  of  the  city  of  Palermo.  Near  it  are 
some  marbie  quarries.     Pop.  4039, 

C ASTRO V ILL a'ri,  a  town  of  S.  Italy,  in  the  heart  of  a  moun- 
tdnous  district  in  tlie  N.  of  the  province  of  Cosenza,  33  miles 
N.  of  the  town  of  the  same  name.  It  is  defended  by  an  old 
Norman  castle,  stands  on  the  great  Calabrian  road  from  Naples 
to  Reggio,  and  trades  in  silk,  wine,  and  other  agricultural  pro- 
duce.   Pop.  793£. 

Oast  Steel  is  Blister  Steel  (q.  v.)  melted  m  crucibles.  It  is 
the  purest  and  strongest  kind  of  steel,  and  is  used  for  tlie  finest 

Oaatue'ra,  a  town  of  Spain,  province  of  Badajoi,  on  the 
BadajoK  and  Madrid  Railway,  78  miles  E.  by  S.  of  the  former 
town.  It  has  some  weaving,  and  brick  aud  earthenware  manu- 
facture.    Pop.  5600. 

Casual  Poor  are  those  temporarily  relieved  but  not  put  on 
(lie  Poor-Roll.     See  Pook-Laws. 

Caaualtiea  of  Superiority,  in  Scotch  law,  are  certain 
emolumenlB  arising  to  the  Superior  (q.  v. )  depending  on  uncertain 
events.     The  superior  is  secured  in  these  by  his  Charter  and 


or  current  feu-duties,  but  extends  to  Non-Entry  and  Relief 
Duties,  and  to  the  composition  for  Singular  Successors.  See 
these  titles. 

CaBuari'na,  a  genus  of  trees  constituting  the  order  Casa- 
arinaceie.  In  appeararice  they  are  like  gigantic  horsetails 
(Equisilacas),  and  are  natives  of  tropical  Australia,  the  Indian 
Isknds,  New  Caledonia,  &c.  In  the  former  country  they  are 
sometimes  called  oaks  or  Cassaaiary  trees,  and  from  their  sombre 
appearance  they  are  planted  in  the  cemeteries  of  the  antipodes. 
The  wood  from  its  redness  is  called  beefwaod,  and  is  much  valued 
as  afiiel  for  steam-engines,  ovens,  &c.  That  of  C.  tuberosa'&vssA 
for  roofing  shingles  (Bennett's  Gatherings  of  a  Naluralist  in  Aus- 
tralia). C.  imirisaii  of  Southern  India  furnishes  a  showy  though 
heavy  wood,  and  its  bark  a  brown  dye.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  C.  eguiselifolia,  the  I'oa,  Aiioa,  or  ironwood  of  the  South  Sea 
Islands,  the  natives  of  which  used  to  make  their  clubs,  &c. ,  of 
it  At  one  time  the  Fiji  Islanders  made  forks  of  it,  with  which 
they  ate  human  flesh,  all  other  kinds  of  food  being  eaten  with 
their  fingers  alone.  These  forks  are  highly  valued,  bemg  handed 
down  from  generation  to  generation,  each  being  distinguished  by 
its  particular,  often  obscene,  name  (Seemann).  Sev^il  species 
of  C.  are  grown  in  oui  greenhouses.  About  twenty  in  all  are 
known  (Masters).  The  order  Casnariimcea  is  allied  to  fiphedra, 
among  the  Contfer^,  and  still  more  so  to  Myritacefe,  ajid  other 


of  difficult  and  doubtful 


Caa'nistry  is  a  systemalii 


margin  of  conduct.  From  the  skill  and  perseverance  of  the 
Jesuits  in  trying  to  reduce  C.  to  scientific  rules,  it  has  been  sup- 
posed that  it  is  a  weapon  of  Ultramontane  ambition.  Pascal,  in 
his  Lttlers  Wriltea  to  a  Provincial,  has  pointed  out  that  the  zeal 
of  the  Jesuit  confessors  led  them  in  some  cases  to  shake  the 
authority  of  all  moral  laws ;  but  it  is .  now  seen  that  C. ,  as  an 
habitual  practice  of  mankind,  and  to  some  extent  as  a  theory  of 
conduct,  IS  an  ancient  institution,  not  confined  to  one  Church, 
country,  or  age.  Thus  the  Talmud  contains  much  unprofitable 
refining  on  morality.  Aristotle  {Nic.  EtA.  ii.)  treats  of  the  cir- 
cumstances which  render  anger  just,  and  of  immoral  obligations 
contracted  under  torture,  Plato,  in  the  Bulhyphron  and  Crito, 
discu.ises  the  conflict  of  pubhc  duty  with  private  affection,  and  of 
religious  duty  with  poUtical  loyalty.  Tlie  Greek  tragedies  often 
turn  on  points  of  C.  (as  the  Atitigone  of  Sophocles) ;  and  in  the 
Ds  Qffioiis,  Cicero  puts  the  celebrated  question  about  the  sale  of 
com  at  Rhodes.  The  Old  and  New  Testaments  abound  in  pro- 
blems of  C .,  althot^h  they  are  not  treated  scientifically ;  and  in 
the  early  Church  it  was  keenly  disputed  whether  Christians  should 
use  the  felse  certificates  of  incense-burning  issued  by  the  Libel- 
latid  or  tolerant  magistrates.  In  the  Post-Nicene  period,  Chry- 
sostom  (in  his  De  Sacirdotio)  and  Augustine  (in  his  De  Mendacio 
and  Contra  Mendadunt)  are  casuists  proper,  though  the  latter 
says  all  lies  are  equally  wicked.  Among  schoolmen,  Thomas 
Aquinas  (in  the  Seamda  Sscundix  of  his  Sitmma  Tkeologia)  is  the 
chief  casuist  Among  casuists  in  Great  Britain,  Bishop  Sander- 
son [in  his  Oxfotd  Lectures  De  Consdenlia),  Taylor  (in  his 
DiKtor  DuMlantium),  Paley  (in  Ms  Moral  Philosophy),  Keble  (in 
his  Letters  of  Spiritital  Counsel),  and  J.  H.  Newman  may  be 
mentioned.  Besides  these,  Milton,  Swifi,  and  Johnson  approved 
of  practical  C,  and  Hallam,  Sismondi,  and  Stephen,  as  historical 
critics,  have  justified  its  enistence  as  a  science.  Abbe  Gaume 
(Manual  for  Confessors,  translated  by  Pusey  and  Forbes,  1875) 
and  Cardinal  Gousset  ( Thhlogii  Morale)  have  written  the  latest 
books  on  the  subject.  Among  the  problems  of  C.  still  esten- 
sively  canvassed  in  this  country,  we  select  party-obedience, 
anonymous  journalism  and  authorship,  espionage,  privileged 
communications  {e.g.,  between  doctor  and  patient),  pleading  in 
court  for  prisoners  who  have  confessed  gailt,  social  expenses, 
treatment  of  lunatics,  &c  It  is  generally  admitted  that  lying 
may  be  practised  to  save  the  life  of  a  patient,  as  when  Lady 
Russell  told  her  dying  daughter  that  it  was  'all  well'  with  her 
dead  sister.  Two  very  singular  cases  of  C.  have  recently 
occurred :  the  prosecution  for  manslaughter  of  the  peculiar 
people,  who,  foundirig  on  Scripture,  renise  to  obtain  medical 
assistance,  and  the  offer  to  compound  a  felony  in  the  case  of 
the  Dudley  jewels.  Massillon  justly  said  that  the  C.  of  his 
time  had  increased  with  social  depravity;  but  apart  from  the 
abuse  which  has  been  made  of  the  confessional,  there  is  no  doubt 
a  legitimate  province  of  discussion  in  which  the  healthiest  moral 
natures  may  seek  enlightenment  without  losing  faith. 

Oa'aua  Amissio'nis,  in  Scotch  law,  denotes  the  accident  by 
which  a  legal  instrument  is  supposed  to  have  been  lost  or  de- 
stroyed. This  accident,  or  C.  A.,  must  be  set  forth,  if  an  action 
be  brought  for  proving  the  tenor  of  the  lost  document.      See 

Canceijjng;  Tenor,  Proving  of. 


Cat  (Pilis),  a  name  pmularly  applied  to  the  Carnivorous 
mammals  included  in  the  family  FelidiE,  but  also  restricted  to 
certain  species  in  that  family,  of  which  the  wild  C.  {Felis  caius) 


maybe  selected  as  a  typical  example.    In  the  true  cats,  the. 

are  not  provided  with  tufts  of  hairs,  and  the  t^  is  elongated — 
the  nearly  allied  lynxSs  differing  in  havmg  short  tails  and  tufted 
ears.  The  domestic  C;  described  under  va&nxai^aiFdis  doptes- 
tiea,  has  been  variously  supposed  to  have  arisen  from  the  wild 
C.,  and  from  an  Egyptian  species,  the  Egyptian  C.  {Felis  mani- 
eulata),  a  native  of  Nubia,  and  which  was  highly  honoured 
by  the  ancient  Egyptian^  being  found  frequently  embdmed 
and  mummitied,  according  to  the  custom  of  that  nation. 
This  animal,  which  also  occurs  on  the  W.  side  of  the  Nile, 
possesses  upright  ears,  and  fur  of  a  brownish  -grey  colour, 
darkest  on  tiie  back  ;  the  under  parts  being  white,  and  the  body 
being  variously  streaked  and  striped  with  black  and  ochre.  The 
length  is  about  2  feet  5  inches  ;  the  tall  being  about  9  inches 
long.     The  wild  C.  occurs  throughout  Europe  and  N,  Asia,  and 


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has  been  met  with  in  Nepaul.  In  Britain  it  has  well-nigh  been 
minated.  The  tail  of  the  wild  C.  is  short  and  bushy  ;  that 
of  the  domesticated  C.  is  slender  and  tapering.  The  ground- 
colour of  the  fur  on  the  fonner  is  sandy  grey,  marked  by  dark 
stripes  and  bands,  much  resembUng  the  markings  in  a  tiger. 
The  tail  is  also  banded  ;  its  tip  is  blade  and  bushy  ;  and  it  is  not 
half  the  length  of  the  head  and  body,  The  fur  is  thick,  and 
grows  very  dense  in  Northern  specimens.  The  average  length 
of  the  adult  male  is  3  feet.  In  Ireland  it  attains  a  large 
5  found  chiefly  on  waste  grounds.  The  domestic 
C.  appears,  even  when  allowed  to  become  wild,  to  retain  its 
special  characters,  seen  in  its  tail,  fur,  &c.  In  general  cliarac- 
ter,  it  is  neither  so  treacherous  nor  so  insusceptible  of  kindly 
influences  as  has  been  generally  supposed.  On  Jhe  contrary, 
many  stories  have  been  related  of  the  affection  and  estra- 
ordinary  instinct  it  has  displayed,  frequently  under  unusually 
curious  circumstances.  Various  branches  or  sub-varieties  of 
the  domestic  race  exist.  The  Angola  C,  possessing  long;  silky, 
white  hair  and  an  extieraely  bushy  tail,  is  a  well-known 
fontt ;  it  attains  a  large  size.  The  Manx,  or  tailless  cals,  are 
notable  as  possessing  a  very  abortive  and  rudimentary  tail, 
and  as  in  general  presenting  in  habits  a  near  approach  to  the 
wild  C.  The  Chinese  C.  is  known  by  its  rich  glossy  fut  and 
its  long,  pendant  ears.  The  lorloiseshdl  C.  may  perhaps  be 
hii-dly  deemed  a  distinct  sub-variety,  mere  colour  being  in  all 
cases  a  deceptive  guide  in  the  distinction  of  species.  Cats  are 
well  knoira  to  possess  singular  electrical  properties.  The  eye 
is  capable  of  great  contraction  and  dilatation  under  the  influence 
of  light,  and  is  thus  specially  adapted  for  nocturnal  vision. 
Whilst  in  Egypt  cats  vrere  much  reverenced,  they  have  been 
saperstitiously  regarded  elsewhere  as  emissaries  of  evil  powers, 
and  as  prophesying  disasters  by  their  simplest  aclions— c^.,  by 
washing  their  faces  foretelling  rain.     See  also  Lynx. 

Cat,  a  nautical  term  variously  E^iplied.  A  C.-hooh  fastens 
the  ring  of  the  anchor  to  the  C-blocks,  through  which  works  the 
C.-fall,  a  rope  for  hoisting  the  anchor  from  the  water  \s. 
bow,  where  the  rope  is  connected  with  the  C  head,  a  short, 
strong  timber  projecting  from  the  bow  Small  ropes  for 
tightening  the  shrouds  are  called  C.-harfmgs 

Oatabro'sa  (Gr.  '  a  gnawing '),  a  genus  of  grasses  widely 
distributed  through  the  whole  of  Europe,  and  also  in  tropical 
America,  in  moist  situations.  C.  aquahca  (whorl  grass,  or 
sweet-water  grass)  is  a  common  British  gras",  the  fcliage  of 
■  '     by  ca  p  and  other  fishes   and 


fwh 


f    d  tf  r 


Cat'tusombs  (F       ! 

Greek  words  sig    fy    g 
These  are  burial   pi 
passages  in  soft     ock 
rock  at  the  sid      f  th 
The  body  being  pi      d 


Low  Lat 


I    i     f   1 


d  th       h  11 


;ll   : 


L   igh       h  Id      body 


th        nil 


1      d 


fpr. 


s  DM    (D 


th    h  11 
brat  d  C 
They  were  used  as  pi  f  w  rsh  p 

by  the  early   Chr  '  '  ^ 

their  saints  and  .^__  ._  .  .  . 
X  P.  (the  two  first  G  k!tt  f  th  m  f  CI  1st) 
monly  marking  the  last  resting-place  of  the  Christian.  The 
original  extent  of  these  C.  is  not  known,  many  poitions  of  them 
having  fallen  in.  There  are  also  noteworthy  C.  at  Naples,  and 
in  Sicily,  in  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  ^ypt,  iuid  various  other 
countries.  They  have  also  been  discovered  in  S.  America. 
The  Neapolitan  C.  contain  some  paintings  in  wonderful  pre- 
servation. The  C.  of  Paris  were  constructed  in  1784  out  of  the 
limestone  quarries.  In  them  were  deposited  the  bones  of  the 
dead  collected  from  the  ancient  cemeteries  of  Paris,  and,  by 
decree  of  the  Government,  the  bodies  of  some  of  the  victims  of 
the  Revolution.    See  Necropolis  and  Tomb. 

Catafal'eo,  an  Italian  word  meaning  '  a  scafTold, '  '  a  funeral 
canopy,'  applied  to  a  temporaiy  piece  of  woodwork  decorated 
with  psuntings  and  sculpture,  representing  a  tomb  or  cenotaph, 
and  employed  in  funeral  solemnities.  The  Trench  form  is 
catajaique,  which  first  appears  in  the  l6th  c. 

Catala'ni,  Ang^el'ica,  a  famous  Italian  prima  donna,  bom 
in  1783  at  Sinigsglia  (Ancona),  received  her  early  education  at 
the  convent  of  St  Lucien,  near  Rome,  where,  singing  in  the 
choir  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  such  was  the  effect  of  her  mar- 


vellous voice,  that  the  priests  and  monks  openly  applauded  her. 
Her  musical  tutor  was  the  celebrated  singer  Marchesi,  In  1798 
(at  the  age  of  fifteen)  she  made  her  ddiut  in  Venice,  went  to  Lis- 
bon in  iSbl.remained  there  four  years,  and  there  became  the  wife 
of  Captain  Vallabrecque.  Accepting  an  engagement  in  London 
in  1806,  she  set  out  for  England  by  Paris,  where  her  singing  so 
enchanted  Napoleon  that  he  besought  her,  in  vain,  to  remain 
at  his  court.  In  London,  where  she  remamed  eight  years,  she 
created  an  enthusiasm  unequalled  afterwards  till  the  days  oE 
Jenny  Lind.  In  1814-15  she  was  Directress  of  the  Italian  Opera 
at  Paris  ;  she  afterwards  made  the  totir  of  Europe,  and  in  1830 
purchased  a  villa  at  Florence,  where,  in  superintending  the  edu- 
cation of  her  own  children,  and  in  conducting  a  singing-school 
for  gu'ls  which  she  had  founded,  she  spent  nearly  twenty  years.  In 
the  summer  of  1 849  she  removed  with  her  daughter  to  Paris,  and 
there,onthel3thjuneof  that  year,  she  died  of  cholera.  To  great 
personal  attractions  and  rare  intelligence,  she  added  astonishing 
power  and  compass  of  voice  and  the  most  perfect  technical  accom- 
plishment. See  Lumley's  Beminisceruesofthe  Opera  (Lond.  1864). 
Oatalau'nian  Plain,  the  Camfii  Catolaunici  of  the  ancients, 
a  wide  plain  in  the  E.  of  France,  on  which  one  of  the  most 
momentous  battles  in  the  history  of  tlie  world  was  fought  in  451 
A.D.  The  barbaric  hordes  of  Etzel  (Attila)  were  vanquished  by 
the  Roman  general  Aetius,  and  the  Visigoth  King  Theoderic, 
aAer  a  murderous  fight,  in  which,  according  to  exultant  rumour, 
some  300,000  Huns  were  slain.     The  pliun  surrounds  ChSlons- 

Catal'do,  San,  a  town  of  Sicily,  province  of  Caltanisetta,  5 
miles  W.  of  the  town  of  Caltanisetta.  Sulphmr-mines  are  in  the 
vicinity,  and  arailway  connecting  it  witli  Catania  and  Girgenti 
is  in  process  of  construction.     Pop.  upwards  of  10,000. 

Oat'alepay  (Ga  katalsfsis,  'a  seizure  or  attack ').  This  is  a 
name  given  to  a  nervous  affection  chaiacterised  by  a  more 
or  less  complete  but  temporary  suppression  of  sensation  and 
volition,  along  with  muscular  rigiaify,  so  that  the  individual 
■  is  in  the  same  position  as  that  in  which  he  happened 
at  tlie  beginnii^  of  tlie  attack.      It  is  a  rare  disease 

_  extreme  forms,  and  it  usually  happens  in  nervous  and 

hysterical   females.      Occasionally  it  becomes   endemic— that 
is,  a  number  of  persons  in  the  same  locality  become  affected. 
It  is  also  frequently  assodated  with  religious  excitement,  when 
it  is  known  as  ecstasy  or  trance.      The  person  is  absorbed 
in   contemplation   of  some   imaginary   celestial   object,    and, 
"th     y      immovably   fixed,   becomes   insensible   to   all   ex- 
t  m  1   bj  cts.     Others  seeing  him  or  her  may  become  similarly 
if   ted     3  in  the  case  of  the  victims  of  the  dancing  mania, 
t        t   m    and  other   semi-religious  epidemics.      The  physio- 
I  g     I     planation  of  C.  is  by  no  means  clear.    The  state  is 
1      iy  as  ociated  with  all  those  physiological    conditions    in 
I    h  th    e  is  abstraction  of  mind.     The  muscles  appear  to  be 
m       dfom  the  control  of  the  will,  and  there  isalso  apparently 
b    g  t  on  for  the  time  of  the  activity  of  the  muscular  sense 
by  wl     h  the  mind  is  informed  of  the  state  of  the  muscular 
pp  rat      and  the  position  of  the  limbs.      C.  is  a  morbid  condi- 
t  d  those  subject  to  it  may  become  permanently  insane. 

All  h  exercises  which  apparently  induce  it  in  certain  indi- 
viduals are  therefore  to  he  avoided,  and  the  general  health  is  to 
be  improved,  as  much  as  possible  by  nervine  tonics  and  good 
hygienic  influences. 

Catalo'nia  (Sp.  CafalaHa),  a  former  principality  and  province 
of  Spain,  occupies  the  N.E.  angle  of  the  Peninsula,  and  has  a 
coast-line  on  the  Mediterranean  of  about  200  miles.  It  is  now 
divided  into  the  provinces  of  Barcelona,  Tarragona,  Lorida,  and 
Gerona,  having  a  total  area  of  i2,lSo  sq,  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1870) 
of  1,773,408.  The  N.  portion  of  C,  which  is  bounded  by  the 
Pyrenees,  is  a  i"u^;ed  mountain  region,  and  (he  basm  of  the 
Segre  in  the  W-  is  separated  from  that  of  the  Llohregat  on  the 
E.  by  a  range,  the  S.  part  of  which  is  called  the  Sierra  de  Lona. 
This  range  is  about  forty  miles  froi     ""         '   ^" 


descends  ti 

!„„.....  .^ , irsected  by  numerous 

leys.  There  are  rich  plains  in  the  W,  about  Lerida,  Urgel,  and 
Manresa,  and  smaller  fertile  stretches  in  the  E.  in  the  vicinity  of 
Barcelona,  Tarragona,  and  Tortosa,  producing  com,  wine,  oil, 
hemp,  nnte,  almonds,  silk,  barilla,  oranges,  &c.  The  climate  is 
extremely  variable;  hot,  inland,  m  summer,  but  tempered  on  the 
coast  by  sea-breeies.  There  are  heavy  rains  and  frequent  fogs. 
A  singular  scarcity  of  cattle  is  due  to  the  limited  exient  of  good 
S3 


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pii:iturage.  On  the  other  haniJ,  C.  is  very  rich  in  metals,  of  which 
the  chief  are  coal,  copper,  manganese,  zmc,  lead,  and  sulphur. 
It  has  also  been  called  the  'Lancashire  of  Spain,' on  account 
of  its  extensive  manufactures,  which  include  woollens,  cottons, 
silks,  lace,  leather,  paper,  iron,  brandy,  and  liqueurs.  The  Cata- 
lonians  [Calalaiats)  are  a  mixed  Franco-Spanish  people,  distin- 
guished from  all  other  Spaniards  by  their  love  of  travel  and  en- 
terprise in  trade.  Even  the  educated  classes  use  a  dialect  origi- 
nally formed  by  blending  the  Langue  d'Oc  with  the  Castilian ; 
and  is  still  a  written  speech,  with  an  interestii^  literature.  C, 
was  part  of  the  Hispania  Tarraconinsh  of  the  Romans,  and  on 
the  decline  of  the  Empire  in  the  W.  was  overran  successively  by 
the  Alans  and  the  Goths,  hence  receiving  the  name  Golh-Alania, 
altered  to  Gothalimia,  and  later  to  its  present  form.  The  S. 
lorlion  was  subdued  by  the  Arabs  in  the  Sth  c.  In  7SS  A.d, 
Carl  the  Great  conquered  the  country  as  faras  theEbro  ;andC., 
s  the  principal  portion  of  the  '  mark '  or  '  border, '  was  subse- 
quently ruled  by  Uie  Prankish  Counts  of  Barcelona.  The  latter, 
however,  soon  made  it  an  independent  principality,  and  by  the 
marriage  of  Count  Raymund  Berengar  it  was  tuiited  with  Aragon 
in  1 1 37.  In  1469,  by  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  and 
Isabella  of  Castile,  C.  became  an  integral  part  of  the  Spanish 
monarchy.  It  still,  however,  retained  a  separate  constitution  till 
the_  war  of  succession  of  Philip  V.  in  1 7 14.  Since  then  the  Cata- 
lonians  have  been  anhnated  by  a  national  hatred  of  eveiything 
foreign,  OF  late  years  the  peasantry  have  been  distinguished  by  a 
turbulent  adherence  to  the  Catlist  cause,  while  the  laige  towns, 
e.g.,  Barcelona,  have  been  a  hotbed  of  sociahstic  democracy. 
Catal'pa,  a  genus  of  Bignoniaces,  containing  four  or 
species  of  trees,  natives  of  the  W.  Indies,  N.  America  (where 
thej-  are  known  as  'trumpet-flowers'),  Japan,  and  China,  but 
which  also  thrive  in  the  open  air  in  the  S.  of  England,  France, 
and  Germany.  The  wood  is  fine-grained,  durable,  and  capable 
of  receiving  a  good  polish.  The  hark  is  tonic,  stimulant,  and 
antiseptic,  but  the  honey  from  the  flowers  is  poisonous  {Triamry 
ofBolany). 

Oatal'j'sia  (Gr.  'dissolution').  There  are  n 
in  chemistry  of  substances  combining  together  or  decomposing 
into  other  products  only  when  another  substance  is  presei  ' 
which  takes  no  apparent  part  in  the  reaction,  but  which  appei 
to  bring  it  about  simply  by  its  presence.  Thus,  if  metallic  sih 
is  dropped  into  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  water  is  formed,  a 
oxygen  gas  escapes.     The  decomposition  which  takes  place  m 


be  thus  represented— 


zHjOs   = 


hydioj 


2lls0 


+         Og 


The  silver  itself  reinams  entirely  unchanged.  This  and  simiiar 
changes  are  called  calalyik,  or  decompositions  by  contact,  and 
remain  unexplained  in  uie  majority  of  cases. 

Catamaran'  (Cingalese,  calkamaran,  '  floating  trees '),  a  sort 
of  raft  in  use  on  the  eastern  coasts  of  India  and  Ceylon, 
formed  of  three  long  pieces  of  wood  lashed  fimily  fi^ether 
lengthwise.  It  is  chiefly  employed  in  fishing,  and  is  p^dled 
with  wonderful  dexterity  by  tlie  natives,  who  venture  out  into 
the  heavy  surf  prevdling  on  these  coasts,  where  any  ordinary  craft 
would  be  swamped.     C.  is  also  the  name  for  a  kind  of  fireship. 

Cata'nia,  the  finest  city  in  Sicily,  lies  on  the  gulf  of  the  same 
name,  in  a  beautiful  plain,  near  the  base  of  Mount  Etna.  It  is 
regularly  built,  and  the  streets,  which  intersect  each  other  at 
right  aisles,  are  paved  with  lava.  There  are  many  handsome 
edifices,  of  which  the  prmcipal  are  the  famous  Benedictine 
church  and  convent  of  San  Nicolo,  a  chaste  cathedral,  originally 
of  1094,  rebuilt  in  1693,  the  university,  founded  in  1445,  and  an 
imposing  senate-house.  C.  is  not  only  'La  Bella  Catania,'  but 
is  also  an  industrial  centre,  with  manufactures  of  silks,  hnens, 
hosiery,  and  fancy  articles  in  lava,  amber,  &c.,  and  an  export 
trade  in  grain,  oil,  and  wine.  Its  harbour  was  filled  with  lava 
693,  but  its  roadstead  is  safe  and  spacious.  Pop,  (1872) 
83,496.  C,  the  ancient  Cb/a™,  was  founded  about  753  B.C.  l^a 
colony  of  Greeks  from  Chalcis,  and  rapidly  rose  into  prosperity. 
It  was  captured  bv  the  Athenians  during  the  Sicilian  expedition 
■  (Peloponnesian  War),  was  subsequently  (403  B,c.)  pillaged  by 
Dionysius  I. ,  but  again  became  an  important  place  under  Roman 
■uie.  The  Goths  partly  destroyed  the  city,  which  once  more 
54 


regained  prosperity  under  the  Byzantine  Empire.  It  was  all  but 
entirely  ruined  by  an  eruption  of  Etna  in  1693,  and  has  suffered 
much  fiom  eruptions  at  various  other  times.  The  frovince  of  C. , 
part  of  which  is  called  '  the  granary  of  Sicilv,'  has  an  area  of  1743 
sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1872)  of  495,415.— The  Gulf  of  0.,  on 
the  E.  coast  of  Sicify,  receives  the  Giaref  ta,  and  extends  from  Aci 
Reale  on  the  N.  to  Santa  Croce  on  the  S.,  a  distance  of  l8  miles. 
CatEmzft'ro,  the  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name, 
S.  Ilaly,  on  a  hill,  overlooking  the  Gulf  of  Squillace  and 
the  Ionian  Sea.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  of  a  court  of 
appeal,  and  of  a  famous  college,  and  has  an  old  Norman 
caslle,  a  cathedral,  a  lyceum,  and  some  ten  churches.  The  chief 
industry  is  silk-spinning.  Pop.  (1872)  24,901,  The  v 
C.  are  esteemed  the  most  beautiful  in  all  Calabria.  The  /™- 
mnce  has  an  area  of  2303  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop,   {1872)   of 

Cat'aplasm  (Gr.  'poultice'),  generally  eonsis 
substance  capable  of  absorbing  mudi  moisture  and  retaining 
heat.  It  ought  to  be  light,  and  of  such  a  consistence  as  to  fit 
accurately  to  the  part  to  which  it  is  applied.  Cataplasms  are 
of  two  kinds— (i)  Those  intended  to  supply  heat  and  moisture, 
which  are  made  of  hnseed-meal  and  various  v^etable  sub- 
stances, as  carrots  Or  marsh-mallow ;  (a)  Tliose  designed  to 
firoduce  a  beneficial  influence,  as  opium,  poppy-heads,  or  hem- 
ock  to  relieve  pain,  charcoal  to  correct  the  bad  odour  from  foul 
ulcers,  yeast  to  hasten  sloughs  from  ulcers,  or  mustard  or  turpen- 
tme  to  produce  irritation.  Such  aie  said  to  be  '  medicated,' 
Cataplasms  should  never  be  heavy  nor  bulky,  and  ought  to  be 
frequently  repeated.  They  are  good  in  inflammatory  affections 
of  the  cliest  and  bowels,  and  generally  wherever  there  is  much 

Oat'apialt,  a  watlike  engine  employed  by  the  ancients  ii 
siege  for  projecting  darts,  arrows,-  and  other  missiles.      Ca 

pults  appear  to  have  differed  greatly  in  construction  ;  in  so 

the  principle  of  the  crossbow  was  adopted;  in  others  huge  beams 
of  wood  were  set  in  motion  by  the  aid  of  twisted  fibres,  hurling 
the  missiles  with  great  velocity.  Similar  machines  were  in  use 
during  the  middle  ages  prior  to  the  invention  of  gunpowder 
for  throwing  large  stones,  fire-balls,  &c.  Experiments  wert 
lately  made  in  France  with  catapults  fasliioned  after  those  repre- 
sented  on  Trajan's  Column,  and  arrows  were  shot  to  a  distanct 
of  300  yards,  and  with  great  precision  to  180  yards. 

Cataract  (Gr.  '  a  rushing  down, '  as  if  a  veil  fell  before  the 


(i)Zoiftea/orC.,whenthe/«if  is  affected;  (2)  Co/ik/o)- C,  when 
theco^ra^  is  affected;  and  (3)  C<i/j«/ff-/«jftf«/07-C.,when  both  are 
opaque.  The  effect  of  this  opacity  is  to  intercept  the  rays  of  light 
on  their  way  to  the  retina.  In  C.  the  fibrous  texture  of  the  lens 
is  broken  up.  The  affection  differs  m  regard  to  density.  Hard 
C.  has  a  dark-brown  colour.  Tlie  lens  is  often  smaller  than 
normal,  and  the  greatest  amount  of  opacity  is  in  tlie  centre. 
The  iris  is  movable,  and  when  tiie  pupil  is  dilated  by  atropine 
or  belladonna,  the  affection  is  more  distinctly  seen.  Thi; 
form  of  C.,  common  in  old  people,  is  often  an  indication  of 
the  decay  of  the  system.  First  uiere  is  dimness  of  vision,  as  if 
a  mist  or  cloud  was  before  the  eye.  The  patient  sees  best 
in  a  dull  day  or  in  the  twilight,  and  vision  is  improved  by  bella- 
donna or  atropine  dilating  the  pupil,  and  thus  allowing  the  rays 
of  light  to  pass  by  the  outside  of  the  C.  It  may  be  m  one  or 
both  eyes,  but  at  first  it  is  generally  confined  to  one  eye,  though 
it  almost  always  affects  both  in  the  end.  Soft  C.  is  more 
rare,  but  Occurs  in  young  as  well  as  in  old  people,  and  may 
even  be  congenital ;  it  is  much  whiter  in  colour,  and  of  a 
semi-fluid  consistence.  The  lens  is  often  enlarged,  bulging 
through  the  pupil,  and  not  unfrequentiy  adherent  to  the  iris, 
Treatmenl. — When  once  C.  has  commenced  nothing  will  stop 
its  piog:ress,  and  recourse  must  be  had  to  an  operation.  Three 
modes  of  this  are  recommended  t — (l)  Extraction,  in  which  the 
opaque  lens  is  removed  through  an  openmg  in  the  Cornea  (q,  v.). 
(2)  Depression  or  couching,  performed  by  inserting  Scarpa's 
needle  through  the  sclerotic  about  a  line  from  the  outer  maigin  - 
of  the  cornea,  and  depresdng  the  opaque  lens  so  that  the  vitreous 
humonr  of  the  eye  closes  over  it  and  occupies  its  place,  thus 
allowing  rays  of  light  to  pass  on  to  tbe  retina.  (3)  Solution,  or 
absorption,  employed  in  the  case  of  soft  C.    It  consists  in  break- 


yLaOogle 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOFMDIA. 


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ing  up  the  lens  by  repealed  insertions  of  a  needle,  so  that  the 
vitreous  humour  and  the  lens  may  come  into  contact,  by  which 
the  latter  is  gradually  absorbed.  Great  care  is  necessary  to 
prevent  the  eye  becoming  inflamed  after  the  operation.  The 
patient  requires  to  use  conveK  glasses.  As  long  as  vision  remains 
in  one  eye  no  operation  should  be  performed,  and  only  one  eye 
should  be  operated  on  at  a  time. 

CatarM^a,  (Gr.  'oblique-nosed'),  the  section  of  the  order 
Quadrumana  (q.  v.)  which  includes  those  monkeys— exclusively 
confined  to  the  Old  World — in  which  the  nostrils  are  oblique 
and  closely  set.  The  thumbs  and  great  toes  are  invariably  pre- 
sent (with  one  exception),  and  the  thumb  always  opposable  to 
the  other  fingers,  so  as  to  convert  the  hand  into  a  prehensile 
oi^an.  The  teeth  are  arranged  as  in  man,  and  thus  number  thirty, 
two.  The  incisors  and  canines  are  prominent,  especially  in  the 
males.  TTie  tail  is  never  prehensile,  and  may  be  rudimentary. 
Cheek- pouches  and  natal  callosities  are  devdoped.  The  Sem- 
nopUheH  (q.  v.),  macaqnes,  baboons,  miindriils,  gibbous,  orangs. 
gorillas,  &C.,  represent  this  group,  which  is  the  highest  in  the 


Catarrh.' (Gr.  hatarrcos,  'a9owingdown')iEaninflammation 
of  the  mucous  membrane  of  some  of  the  air-passages.  It  is 
almost  identical  with  a  cold.  If  in  the  nose,  it  is  called  Caryea  ; 
if  in  the  chest,  Bronchitis  (q.  v.).  It  is  one  of  the  commonest 
of  diseases,  especially  in  cold  and  damp  climates.  A  frequent 
cause  of  C.  is  the  sudden  change  of  temperature — e.g.,  what  is 
experienced  in  passing  from  a  crowded  meeting  into  the  cold 

...I...  .1..  fj^g  symptoms  are  chilliness,  lassitude,  a  slight 
lins  in  (he  back  and  limbs,  headache,  and  more  or 
less  feverisliness.  Afterwards  there  is  a  copious  dischaige  from 
the  nose,  hoarseness,  and  sore  throat,  witii  a  foul  tongue,  and 
often  an  eruption  about  the  lips.  In  simple  C.  the  symptoms 
generally  subside  after  two  days,  and  the  patient  gradually  gets 
well ;  but  in  more  severe  cases,  the  malady  leads  to  bronchitis, 
inflammation  of  the  tonsils,  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  &c 
Treatment.— "Vat  patient  should  be  kept  warm  by  means  of  a 
Dover's  powder,  followed  by  a  drink  of  hot  grueL  Bathing  the 
feet  in  hot  water  is  often  beneficial  When  a  sweating  powder 
cannot  he  obtained,  a  good  substitute  may  be  made  by  filling 
a  few  black  bottles  with  warm  water,  putting  them  in  a  stock- 
ing or  a  piece  of  flannel,  and  placing  them  along  either  side 
of  the  patient  under  the  bed-clothes.  Great  care  is  necessary 
next  day  to  prevent  cold.  C.  in  the  head  is  often  cut  short  by  a 
full  dose  of  morphia,  and  confinement  to  the  house  for  two  days. 

OatawTia,  Great,  a  river  of  the  United  States,  rises  in  Blue 
Kidge,  waters  N.  and  S.  Carolina,  and  unites  with  the  Congaree 
to  form  the  Santee,  af\er  a  course  of  250  miles.  It  gives  name 
to  a  light  sparkling  wine,  or^jinally  made  from  a  wild  vine 
found  (1801)  near  its  source,  and  now  extensively  produced  in 
Ohio,  near  Cmcinnati.  This  wme,  which  has  a  rich  Muscadine 
flavour,  and  rivals  French  wine  in  delicacy,  is  much  used  in  the 
States  as  a  substitute  for  champagne, 

Catljalo'g'aii,  or  Cadvaloii'g:a,  the  capital  of  the  island  of 
Samar,  one  of  the  Philippines,  has  some  trade  in  pepper,  rattans, 
sago,  &c  It  lies  on  the  W.  coast  of  the  island,  and  consists 
mainly  of  Nipapalm-built  houses.     Pop.  7000. 

Oat-Bird  {Tardus  fellivoi),  a  species  of  Thrush  (q.  v.),  so 
named  from  the  mewing  cry  which  it  utters  when  alarmed.  It 
is  nearly  allied  to  the  well-known  Mocking-Bird  (q.  v.),  and  is 
confined  to  America.  It  feeds  upon  seeds.  Suit,  berries,  insects, 
worms,  &c.,  and  is  by  no  means  shy  or  timid.  The  C..B. 
migrates  southwards  in  jehiter,  Massachusetts  being  probably  its 
northerranost  limit. 

Oateb.,  in  music,  a  short  Canon  (q.  v.),  geneially  humorous, 
and  most  often  having  its  words  so  arranged  that  when  the  three 
parts  are  sung  together  their  natural  meaning  is  ludicrously 
altered.     The  C.  seems  to  exist  only  in  this  country. 

Catoll-Fly,  a  general  name  applied  to  Silem,  Lychnis  vts- 
caria,  and  other  plants  of  the  order  Caryophyllaaa,  which  exude 
at  their  joints  a  sticky  ftuid  in  which  flies  are  caught.     See  also 

DlONjliA. 

Catean  (Le),  or  Oliateau-CanibT^aiB,  a  town  in  the.  de- 
partment of  Nord,  France,  15  miles  E.S.K  of  Camhrai,  on  the 
Selle,  a  tributary  of  the  Scheldt,  and  a  station  on  the  Northern 


French  Railway.  It  has  a  communal  coEege,  a  chamber  of 
manufactures,  an  hospital  {IIBfita!  Faturle) ;  manufacttires  of 
1  and  woollen  yarn,  merinoes,  cambrics,  starch,  leather, 
and  earthenware ;  sugar  refineries,  distilleries,  breweries,  tan- 
neries, brass  and  iron  foundries,  and  a  trade  in  cattle.  The 
treaty  ef  C.  between  France  and  Spain  was  signed  here  in  1559. 
Pop.  (1872)  9254, 
Oat'ecMsm  (from  the  Gr.  katechcB,  'to  instruct,'  especially 
religion),  is  a  summ^  of  Christian  doctrine  in  the  form  of 
question  and  answer.  Tlie  requirements  of  Catechumens  (q.  v.) 
no  doubt  first  suggested  the  preparation  of  compendiums  of 
the  chief  points  of  instruction,  for  uie  help  both  of  teachers  and 
pupils;  and  such  manuals  have  always  been  employed  in  the 
Church,  each  sect  havine  its  own  C,  for  the  indoctrination  of 
theyouthfal  members  wim  its  own  peculiar  tenets. 

Trie  following  are  the  most  important  catechisms,  prepared  by 
different  sections  of  the  Church; — I.  Lu^er  prepared  two— a 
Larger,  'for  the  use  of  preachers  and  teachers,"  and  a  Shorter, 
intended  '  for  a  guide  in  the  instruction  of  children ' — which 
sere  publi^ed  in  1529,  and  are  yet  regarded  as  one  of  the 
itandards  of  the  Lutheran  Chnrch.  2.  Calvin  also  prepared 
,wo — a  Laiger  and  Shorter — for  the  use  of  the  Genevan  Church, 
which  were  published  in  1541,  and  became  acknowledged  stan- 
dards of  ail  the  Reformed  Churches,  although  the  Oiurch  of 
Geneva  herself  afterwards  disowned  tliem.  3.  The  Hiiddbir% 
one  of  the  l>est  of  the  many  systems  of  Christian  doctrine 
constructed  during  the  Reformation  period.  Originally  com- 
posed in  German  by  Ursinus,  a  student  of  Melancthon  and 
Olivianus,  for  the  Reformed  party  in  the  Palatinate  of  the  Rhine, 
and  pubEshed  in  1 56a,  it  has  been  translated  into  Latin,  Greek, 
and  Hebrew,  as  well  as  nearly  all  the  languages  of  modem  Europe. 
In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church— (r)  the  Catechismus  Romanus 
adheres  closely  to  the  canons  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  was  pul>- 
li^ed  in  1566  under  the  authority  of  Pope  Piits  IV.,  and  intro- 
duced into  Italy,  France,  Germany,  and  Poland ;  (2)  the  two  C. 
of  Canisius  were  published  hy  the  Jesuits  in  order  to  weaken  the 
influence  of  the  Catechismus  Romanus ;  (3)  the  C.  ofBellarmaU, 
however,  published  in  1603,  although  he  also  was  a  Jesuit,  was 
authorised  by  Pope  Clement  VIII.  5.  Among  the  Socinians 
there  are  to  be  noted— -(I)  the  Cracovian  C,  composed  by 
Schomann,  and  published  in  1574 ;  (2)  the  C.  ef  F.  Socinus, 
published  in  an  incomplete  form  at  Racovia,  1618,  which  formed 
the  basis  of  (3)  the  Sacoiiian  Catechisms — a  Latter  and  a  Shorter- 
published  in  Polish  in  1605,  and  in  Latin  1609.  6.  (1)  The 
first  C.  in  use  in  Ei^land  consisted  of  the  Creed,  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments, and  the  Lord's  Prayer ;  (2)  in  the  time  of  Edward 
VI.  there  was  published  (1553)  what  was  known  as  King 
Edward's  C. ,  entitled  '  A  Shorte  Catechisme,  or  Piayne  Instruc- 
tion .  .  ^  .  for  all  Scholemaisters  to  teach,"  and  composed  by 
DrNowell,  then  headmaster  of  Westminster  School ;  (3)  under 
Elizabeth,  Nowell,  then  Dean  of  St  Paul's,  and  prolocutor  of 
Convocation  (1562),  was  instructed  to  draw  up  a  C.  for  the  use 
of  schools  and  students,  which  was  published  in  1570,  being 
simply  a  revised  and  considerably  enlaced  edition  of  his  former 
work ;  (4)  at  the  Hampton  Court  Conference  this  last  was  con- 
sidered too  long,  and,  to  make  what  was  to  he  a  sufficient  C, 
to  the  contents  of  the  first  (l)  mentioned  above  there  was  added 
an  explanation  of  the  sacraments.  7.  The  catechisms  used  hy 
the  Presbyterians  of  Scotland,  as  well  as  by  the  Presbyterians  and 
Congregationalists  in  England  and  America,  are  the  two  dmwn 
up  by  ae  Westminster  Assembly.  8.  Tlie  C,  of  the  Greek 
Church,  entitled  '  The  Great  Catechism  of  the  Orthodox  Eastern 
Church,'  was  drawn  up  by  Philaret,  Archbishop  of  Moscow, 
and  published  at  Moscow  in  1S39  by  order  of  the  Emperor.  See 
Kikher's  Bibliotheca  Tkeol.  SymMiciE ;  Hagenbach's  Hist,  of 
Doctr.  (Eng.  1847) ;  and  Mosheim's  Church  Hist.  (Reid,  Edinb. 
i860.) 

Cat'ecllu,  an  extract  prepared  tumi  (he  juice  of  different  parts 
of  several  plants,  contaming  a  large  proportion  of  a  modified 
formoftannic  acid,  and  now  extensively  employed  in  tanning  and 
dyeing.  Three  varieties  are  recognised  in  commerce — (1)  Black 
C.,  Cutch  or  Terra  Japonica,  the  variety  ohtmed  by  boiling  the 
wood  and  twigs  of  Acacia  C. ,  a  leguminous  tree  growing  in  the 
East  Indies.     It  comes  into  the  market  iu  dark-coloured  an 


is  obtained  by  boiling  the  leaves  of  the  Unc/iria  G/mi, 


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belonging  to  the  order  CaieJwnaces,  tiative  of  the  Malayan 
Peninsula.  It  is  imported  in  the  form  of  cubes  of  about  au  i:  ' 
in  size,  of  a  yellowish-trowii  colour,  and  a  rather  earthy  appi 
ance,  and  is  more  used  in  pharmacy  than  in  manufactures.  ' 
third  variety  of  C.  is  the  produce  of  the  betel-nut,  the  fruit  of 
the  pahn  Areca  C.  ;  but  little  C.  from  this  source  comes  to 
Europe.  C.  is  used  in  the  East  as  a  masticatory,  along  with  the 
betel-pepper  leaf.  In  medicme  it  is  employed  as  an  astringent, 
but  its  chief  use  is  in  dyeing  and  iauning  and  calico-printing. 
It  has  also  been  recommended  foe  ase  to  prevent  incrustations  in 
steam-boilers.  C.  is  almost  entirely  composed  of  catechu-tannic 
acid  and  a  basic  substance,  catecAin. 

Oateohu'iuens  {Gi.  ial&hexmciu'i,  'those  receiving  religious 
bstruction '),  in  the  early  Christian  Church,  were  the  canditktes 
for  baptism,  who  were  put  under  a.  tegular  course  of  instruction, 
and  were  divided  into  three  classes ; — i.  AudUntes  (hearers), 
who  were  permitted  to  hear  sermons  and  the  Scriptures  read,' 
but  not  to  stay  and  hear  prayers ;  2.  Genuflectentes  (kneelers), 
who  received  kneeling  the  blessing  of  the  bishop ;  3.  Comps- 
Untes,  when  their  names  were  delivered  to  the  bishop  as  candi- 
dates for  baptism,  or  Electi,  if  the  bishop  approved. 

Oat'egories  (Gr.  kategoriai,  lit.  charges  or  accusations;  then 
in  logic,  predicables  or  forms  of  predication),  the  name  of  the 
first  of  SIX  It^ic  treatises  that  compose  the  Organea  ai  Aris- 
totle. It  is  uncertain,  however,  whether  Aristotfc,  or  some  later 
Peripatetic,  wrote  the  C.  The  doctrine  of  the  C,  that  the 
'  fiist  essence '  is  the  individual,  is  opposed  to  the  doctrine  of 
Aristotle's  Metaphysics,  that  'first  essences  are  universals.'  In 
the  Topics  and  elsewhere  he  spesdcs  of  the  ten  C,  or  'classes  of 
predications,'  sometimes  of  a  smaller  numberj  but  always  merely 
in  a  logical  sense.  However,  Porphyry's  Introduction  to  the  C. 
introduced  to  Europe  the  great  controversy  of  Nominalism  and 
Realism,  in  which  Aristotelians  have  taken  the  side  of  Nominal- 
ism and  Platonists  the  side  of  Realism.  The  ten  C.  are  as 
follow  :—(l)  Substance;  (2)  Quantity;  (3I  Quality;  (4)  Rela- 
tion; (5)  Action;  (6)  Passion;  (7)  The  Where;  (8)  The  When; 
(9)  Position  m  Space;  {10)  Possession,  Habit  or  Dress.  It  ia 
clear  that  this  cannot  be  intended  as  a  classification  of  existing 
things  except  by  a  philosopher  who  believes  that  general  terms 
or  ideas  have  a  real  existence  as  well  as  individual  things.  Be- 
sides, it  does  not  answer  to  the  Aristotelian  doctrine  that 
Matter,  Form,  and  Deprivaticm,  or  Potentiality  and  Actuality, 
were  the  ultimate  Reals.  It  is  pobable  timt  the  author  meant 
the  list  to  be  a  cough,  unscientific  account  of  all  possible  pre- 
dications, not  of  all  describable  thii^s  ;  in  this  view  ihe 
terms,  though  not  clearly  distinguished,  are  comprehensive 
enough.  Another  celebrated  deduction  of  C,  was  that  by  Kant 
in  his  I^ritik  der  lieinen  Vemimft: — (r)  Quantity,  including 
Unity,  Plurality,  and  Totality;  (2)  Quality,  incUiding  Reality, 
N^ation,  and  Limitation  ;  (3)  Relation,  including  Inherence  and 
Subsistence,  Causality  and  Dependence,  Reciprocity ;  (4)  Moda- 
lity, including  Possibility  and  Impossibility,  Existence  and  Non- 
Exisience,  Necessity  and  Conlingence.  This  obviously  pro- 
ceeds on  3.  veiy  imperfect  psychological  analysis.  Perhaps  the 
neatest  generalisation  of  predicables  is  that  of  Mr  Mill :— (1) 
Existence ;  (2)  Co-existence  ;  (3)  Succession ;  {4)  Causation ;  (5) 
Resemblance.  Whatever  may  be  afiirmed  may  of  course  also 
be  denied.  The  number  of  C,  is  naturally  extended  by  those 
philosophers  who  maintain  that  the  human  mind  itself  supplies 
elements  of  knowledge  which  are  not  derived  from  expenence. 
Kant  could  not  exclude  the  notioii  of  Necessity  from  Causation ; 
Hegel  could  not  exclude  the  notion  of  Not- Being  from  Exist- 
ence ;  others  would  insist  that  Self-Existence  is  a  separate  C, 
In  dealing  with  the  Aristotelian  C,  it  should  not  be  forgotten 
that  Aristotle  certainly  held  that  Definition  was  the  instrument 
of  Science,  and  that  definitions  were  not  merelv  of  words,  but  of 
things. 

Oate'iiary  (Lat.  catena,  '.a  chain '),  the  curve  in  which  a  flexible 
cord  or  chain  hangs  vrhen  freely  suspended  from  two  fixed 
pomts — a  curve,  therefore,  of  great  importance  in  tlie  theory  of 
suspension  bridges.  Its  form  depends  upon  the  manner  in 
which  the  mass  of  the  chain  is  distributed  ;  most  of  these  curves 
are  merely  mathematical  curiosities,  the  really  important  one 
beingthac  formed  by  a  uniform  cord,  and  inown  as  the  common 
C.  The  numerous  curious  properties  of  this  curve  are  treated '■f 
in  PoisBon's  Mschca  ' 
Analytical  Statics. 


,    Gregory's  Examples,    and  Whewell's 


a  genus  of  extinct  sclerodermic  corals  found  in 
the  Silurian  rocks  of  Rritain,  and  of  which  C.  escharoides  is  the 
most  familiar  species.  The  cells  of  Ibe  polypes  are  of  oval 
shape,  and  are  terminal  in  position ;  their  ari-angement  giving  a 
chain-lme  or  network  appearance  to  these  fossils. 

Oateri'na,  Santa,  a  fortified  town  m  the  province  of  Caltani- 
setta,  Sicily,  near  the  Salso,  22  miles  W,  of  Leonoforte,  the 
present  railway  terminus.  It  is  noted  for  its  superior  earthen- 
ware.  Pop.  5800.  The  vicinity  is  rich  in  fine  jaspers  and 
agates. 

CdtCTpill'ar  (Old  Eng,  cate,  '  fooA;' Fi.piUer;  En„  p  1 
— 'astripperoffoliage'XthenamepopularlyapplIedto  h  1  rvee 
ofi>^;l&^friWjmsects— thatis,oftheButterflies(q.v.)a  dM  th 
(q.  v.),  but  occasionally  used  to  indicate  the  larval  stag  n  the 
metamorphosis  of  other  insects.  The  caterpillars  of  d  ff 
species  present  great  variations  in  colour,  size,  and  app  rar 
Their  general  appearance  is  that  of  worm-like  creatures,  mpo 
(in  Lspidoptera)  of  thirteen  s^ments,  and  possessing,  1 
head,  provided  with  antennse,  eyes,  and  jaws.  The  m  th 
like  that  of  the  perfect  insect,  is  fitted  for  mastication  b  H 
The  lower  Up  or  labium  bears  a  tubular  organ — the  spi 
by  means  of  which  the  larvie,  through  the  silk  secredon  f  mished 
l^  two  glands,  spins  a  silken  thread  to  make  the  cocao  p  pa 
case,  in  which  it  passes  the  succeeding  or  pupa  stage  of  t  exist 
ence.  The  three  joints  behind  the  head  conespond  t  th 
thorax  of  the  perfect  Insect ;  and  the  six  I^  with  wh  1  th 
three  joints  are  furnished  correspond  to  the  legs  of  th  d  It 
form.  A  variable  number  (usually  ten)  of  soft  fleshy  legs  k  wn 
as  pro-legs,  are  borne  by  the  hinder  s^raents  of  the  b  dy  b  t 
these  are  characteristic  of  (he  C.  stage,  and  have  no  tep  es  t 
tives  in  the  fuU-grown  msect.  Pro-legs  are  never  boi  e  by  the 
fourth,  fifth,  tenth,  and  eleventh  segments  of  the  C's  body. 
The  digestive  system  of  the  C  also  differs  widely  from  that  of 
the  perfect  insect ;  and  the  larva  also  possesses  a  lai^e  mass  of 
a  fatty  nature  termed  the  Epiploon  ov  fat-mass,  which  is  doubt- . 
less  intended  to  nourish  the  animal  when  at  rest  in  its  pupa  or 
chrysalis  state.  Caterpillars  feed  voraciously  upon  the  leaves 
and  tissues  of  plants,  and  thus  cause  great  damage  in  gardens, 
They  generally  increase  lai^ely  in  sire,  and  frequenUy  moult  01 
change  their  skins,  to  accommodate  the  mcreasing  growth  of  the 
body;  such  a  process  being  known  as  Ecdyiis.  The  C.  state 
may  be  re^rded  as  representing  the  nutritive  period  of  msect 
existence,  since  it  is  in  this  state  that  the  animal  lays  up  a  due 
store  of  nutrition,  which  in  many  cases  serves  it  throughout  its 
entire  existence.  The  life — often  very  short — of  the  perfect 
insect  is  devoted  to  rcprodudion  ;  we  may  therefore,  m  contradis- 
tinction, term  it  the  rsproductizie  period.  The  C.,  sooner  or  later, 
encloses  its  body  in  a  cocoon,  and  lies  dormant  for  a  longer  or 
shorter  period  as  the  pupa.  And  ftom  the  cocoon  the  sexual, 
winged  and  perfect  insect  or  itnagir  finally  emei^es ;  the  ele- 
ments of  the  C.  body  being  metamorphosed  into  those  of  tie 
perfect  form.  In  other  cases  the  C.  may  not  enclose  itself  within 
a  cocoon,  but  simply  attach  itself,  enclosed  within  its  own  sk 
by  its  silky  thread  to  a  bush  or  other  fixed  object,  and  may  thus 
undeigo  the  further  changes  characteristic  of  its  curious  exislen 
See  Moth,  BtTTEBFLY,  Insect,  Metamorphosis,  &c. 

Cat'giit,  the  material  obtained  from  the  intestines  of  the 
sheep,  and  sometimes  from  those  of  the  hoise,  ass,  and  mule,  of 
which  the  strings  of  violins,  harps,  and  guitars,  and  the  sli-ong 
cord  used  by  clockmakers  and  in  whipmakin^  are  manufac- 
tured. The  intestines  are  prepared  by  washing,  scraping,  and 
steeping,  and  the  laiger  ones  having  been  lEud  aside  to  be  sold 
to  the  sausage-maker,  the  smaller  ones  are  treated  with  an  alka- 
line solution,  to  render  them  as  clean  as  possible,  and  are  then 
drawn  through  the  small  holes  of  perfomted  thimbles.  In 
making  violin-strings,  two  or  more  strands  are  twisted  together 
—according  to  the  required  thickness  of  the  string— and  the 
string  thus  manufactured  is  then  exposed  for  some  time  to  the 
action  of  burning  sulphur,  to  destroy  any  animal  matter  that  may 
still  adhere,  and  afterwards  rubbed  with  a  horse-hair  cloth.  The 
strings  made  in  Italy,  and  known  as  Roman  string,  are  the  best 
and  strongest.     They  have  the  clearness  and  transparency  of 

Cath'a.     See  Cabta, 

Cath'ftri  (Gr.  hutharoi,   'pure')  is  a  generic  term  which 
been  applied  to  various  sects  who  professed  to  be  '  Puritans ' 


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e  fiovat! 


n  with  the  Church.  It  was  assumed  in  the  3d  c.  by 
OS,  who  would  not  receive  into  the  Church  persona 
who  lapsed  into  sin  after  baptism.  It  was  very  generally  applied 
to  the  Manichfean  sects  in  the  middle  ages,' being  nearly  aynony- 
is  with  Paulicians  (q.  v.)  or  Albigenses  (q,  y.i^  to  whom  were 
applied  a  gr«it  number  of  local  names — e.g.,  Bulgarians,  Paterini, 
Publicanj,  &c.  The  name  (Puritans)  was  given  to  a  party  in  Eng- 
land, which,  however,  was  quite  distinct  from  the  Continental 
sects.      See  Mosheim's  and  Meander's  Histories  of  the  Church. 

Oath'arine,  St,  the  name  of  several  samls  in  the  Catholic 
Church,  of  whom  the  best  known  are — I.  C.  of  Alexandria, 
who  perished  (according  to  the  legend  of  her  life)  in  the  perse- 
cution of  Maximin,  A.  D.  307.     Her  history  is  hidden  under  the 

ist  extraordinary  marvels ;  it  is  even  doubtful  if  she  can  be 

isidered  a  historical  personage  at  all.  In  the  9th  c  there  was 
discovered,  it  is  said,  on  Mount  Sinai  the  uncocrupted  corpse  of 
Popular  opinion  declared  it  to  be  that  of  the  Egyptian 
nrartyr,  and  Uie  place  became  the  scene  of  frequent  pilgrimage. 
The  Crusades  made  St  C  known  to  the  W:,  and  the  city  of 
Rouen  received  her  rehes.  She  is  commonly  represented  with  a 
wheel,  the  instrument  with  which  she  was  tortured.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Church  celebrates  her  festival  on  the  25th  of  November 
!.  0.  of  Sienna,  bom  in  1 347,  made  a  vow  of  chastity  n  h 
youth,  and  lived  only  on  bread  and  herbs.  At  the  age  of  eigh  n 
she  entered  the  Dominican  order,  and  astonished  every  one  by 
the  rigour  of  her  mortifications.  For  three  years  she  irop  d 
silence  on  herself,  conversii^  only  with  God  and  her  conf^ 
But  her  religion  was  not  mere  egoism.  She  was  ceaseless  n  h 
charities,  and  in  her  attentions  even  to  those  who  were  sufl  ring 
from  the  most  repulsive  maladies.  Cluist,  it  was  affirmed,  sh 
her  special  tokens  of  his  favour,  and  Popes,  nolably  Urban  VI. 
and  Gregory  XL,  had  recourse  to  her  for  advice.  She  died  29th 
April  1380,  was  canonised  in  1460,  and  is  conmiemorated  in  the 
Church  on  the  30th  of  April.  Her  letters,  poems,  &c. ,  have 
been  several  tunes  printed.  The  best  edition  is  that  eiilitled 
Opcre  delta  Serafica  Santa  C.  (Siena  and  Lucca,  1707-13). 

Catharine  I,,  Empress  of  all  the  Russias,  bom  15th  April 
1684,  of  poor  parents,  who  died  when  she  was  three  years  old. 
Brought  up  by  the  Protestant  Bishop  of  Marienburg,  GiUck,  sllfe 
married,  in  1701,  a  dragoon  of  the  garrison  of  that  town.  The 
town  was  taken  by  the  Russians  in  1702,  and  C.  was  sent  with 
others  fo  Moscow,  where,  in  the  service  of  Prince  Mencliikoff, 
she  iirsl  saw  Peter  the  Great,  who  made  her  his  mistress.  She 
dropped  her  real  name,  Martha  Rabe,  was  baplized  in  the 
Greek  Cliurch,  and  took  the  name  of  J^kat&:ina  Aleieievna. 
After  three  daughters  had  been  bom,  Peter  married  C.  ou  29th 
May  1711.  She  was  afterwards  crowned  at  Moscow,  1724  ;  and 
on  her  husband's  death  (1725)  she  became  Empress,  Menchikoff 
taking  the  cliarge  of  alBurs.  She  died  17th  May  1727.  Her 
influence  upon  the  passloBate  character  of  her  husband  was  gene- 
rally enerted  for  good.  See  Motley's  History  of  the  Life  and 
Reign  of  C.  I.  (2voIs.Lond.  1744);  V oM-xtte^  HisUAre  de  RussU 
sous  Pierre  le  Grand  (1759-63);  and  Arsenjew's  Zarstaiawanie 
Ekaleriny  I.  (Petersb.  1856). 

Catharine  IIi,  bom  at  Stettin,  2d  May  1729,  was  the  daughter 
of  Christian  August,  Prince  of  Anhalt-Zorbst,  an  officer  in  the 
"■ruSBian  army.  After  receiving  an  unusually  good  moral  training 
■om  her  mother,  who  belonged  to  the  Holstein-Gottorp  iamily, 
he  was  married  in  1745  to  the  Russian  Emperor,  Peter  III., 
r  Feodorovitch,  who,  also  a  member  of  the  Kolstein-Gottorp 
imily,  had  been  adopted  by  the  Empress  Elizabeth.  It  was  a 
marriage  of  a  beautiful,  intelligent,  and  high-principled  woman 
to  a  cowardly  and  vicious  fool,  deeply  marked  with  small-pox. 
C,  while  Grand- Princess,  lived  rather  apart  from  her  husband 
and  the  Empress,  studied  much,  and  became  acquainted:  with 
the  character  of  the  people,  their  language,  religion,  &c  In 
1754  a  son,  Paul  Petrovitcli,  was  bom ;  in  1761,  haired  of  his 
father,  who  was  a  slave  of  Frledrich  II.,  caused  a  conspiracy  to 
place  the  boy  on  the  throne.  The  next  year,  but  after  the  death 
of  Elizabeth,  the  great  conspracy  of  the  Orlofs  and  Rasumofski 
secured  the  throne  for  C.,and  bet  husband's  abdication.  Peter, 
whose  only  friend  was  the  upright  Field-Marshal  Munnich,  died 
soon  after.  C.  recalled  many  exiles  from  Siberia,  punished 
official  corruplion,  and  reformed  judicial  procedure,  Tiiough 
her  ^gn  was  not  free  from  conspiracy,  she  destroyed  the  system 
rt  intrigue,  and  devoted  herself  to  the  absorption  of  Poland 
ussia  and  the  diminution  of  Turkish  power.     The  means 


she  used  tc 


se  objects  showed  that  her  public  consclenc 
as  wen  as  ner  pnvaie  character  had  deteriorated  at  the  Russia 
courL  Poland  she  deprived  of  Courland,  and  then  placed  o 
the  throne  her  creature  PoniatowskL  To  the  promotion  of  the 
internal  prosperity  of  the  empire  she  energetically  addressed 
herself.  She  tried  to  codify  the  laws,  introduced  a  better  pro- 
vincial administration,  improved  the  condition  of  the  serfs,  con- 
structed canals,  and  herself  set  the  example  of  vaccination.  She 
also  founded  the  Russian  Academy,  corresponded  (like  Friedrich 
the  Great)  with  Voltaire,  and  invited  Diderot  and  D'Alembert 
to  her  court.  But  while  herself  superintending  public  affairs 
with  nnequalled  skill  and  sagacity,  she  entered  into  a  number  of 
di^aeeful  amours  with  Russian  nobles,  of  whom  only  Orlof  and 
Potemkin  attained  to  poKtlcal  importance.  She  died  17th  No- 
vember 1796.  Her  popularity  may  be  seen  in  the  correspon- 
dence with  Voltahe,  which  fills  vol.  Ixxxviii.  of  his  collected  works. 
He  calls  her  '  the  Aurora  Boreaiis  of  the  N.,'  and  subscribes  him- 
self, '  with  idolatry,  the  Priest  of  your  Temple'  (22d  December 
1766).  See  Castera's  Histoire  de  C.  II.  (3  vols.  Par.  1800),  and 
Yie.tiaC%Mimoires  del'Imfirafy-iceC.  II.  (Lond.  18"  ' 

Catliarine  of  Aragon,  bom  December  1485,  was  the  fourth 
d  ugl  t        f  Ferdinand  and  Isabelk  of  Castile  and  Aragon.     "' 

a  hrs  married,  with  a  large  dowry,  to  Arthur,  eldest  s< 
H  nry  V  .  of  England,  and  afterw^s,  on  3d  June  150,, 
H  ry  VI  I.,  who  had  been  betrothed  to  her  when  a  boy  of 
w  e  mmediately  after  his  brother's  death  in  1502,  at  which 
m  al  C.  not  being  pregnant,  a  dispensation  for  the  second 
ni  ge  as  reluctandy  granted  by  Pope  Julius  II.  C.  unfor- 
a  e  y  disappomted  (he  King  and  the  nation,  who  were  expect- 

i,  a  ma  e  heu',  the  Princess  Mary  being  the  only  child  of  several 
who  lived  beyond  a  few  days.     I      5  7  H    rj  d'  gly  d 

elared  that  the  safety  of  the  reah    req       d     d  Th    was 

only  a  prehminary  to  another  m      ag      A         Bol  yn  be    g 
already  singled  out  as   C.'s  su  A   d  p        t        v 

craved    from    Pope    Clement    VII  d  t   y  ar  A 

opetJy  installed  at  Greenwich.     Th  b     g     ppeal  d 

Rome,  Clement  inhibited  Henry  f  p  oc  d  ng  f  th 
his  second  marriage,  and  Henry  pp  1  d  f  th  P  p  t 
general  voice  of  Christendom  0  th  q  t  f  th  t  I 
the  Pope's  power  of  dispensation.  C.  declined  to  submit  her 
catise  to  arbitration  in  England,  and  retired  to  The  More,  i 
Hertfordshire,  and  latterly  to  AJnpthill,  near  Dunstable,  where 
she  became  a  centre  of  communication  between  the  e 
the  Continent  and  the  disaffected  parties  in  England  —  the 
Nun  of  Kent,  the  Poles,  the  Courtenays,  the  Nevilles,  &c.  In 
1533  the  Statute  of  Appeal  (24  Hen.  VIII,  c,  r2)  was  passed, 
excluding  appeal  to  Rome  in  all  matriinonial  causes  ;  and  after 
the  Houses  of  Convocation  had  delivered  their  opinions  on 
question  of  Levhical  law.  Archbishop  Cranmer  opened  a  gt 
at  Dunstable  to  try  the  matter  of  fact  regarding  C.'s  lirst  ma 
age.  The  judgment  (22d  May  1530)  was  never  acknowledged 
by  C,  who  was  now  called  Princess-Dowager  ■.  it  was  afterwiuTls 
set  aside  by  the  Act  I  Mary,  c.  I,  when  it  became  necessary  to  set 
the  legitimacy  of  C.'s  daughter  beyond  doubt.  There  seems  little 
doubt  that  C.  was  implicated  in  the  conspiracy  of  the  Nun  of 
Kent :  she  constantly  corresponded  with  the  Emperor  and  the 
Pope  on  the  subject  of  her  divorce.  The  removal  to  a  distance 
of  the  Princess  Mary  no  doubt  hastened  C.'s  death,  which  took 
place,  7th  January  1536,  at  Kimboltoii.  See  Froude's  HUlory 
of  England,  and  Letters  and  Papers ,  Rorsign  and  Domestic,  of  the 
Reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  by  J.  S.  Brewer  (1875). 

Catharine  de  M^dicie,  bom  at  Florence  to  1519,  was  the 
daughter  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  Duke  of  Urbino,  and  the  niece 
of  Pope  Clement  VII.  She  was  great-granddaurfiter  of  Lorenzo 
the  Magnificent,  and  granddaughter  of  Leo  X.  In  1533  she  was 
married  to  Henri,  second  son  (M  Francois  I.,  who  was  then  hesi- 
tating between  Lutheran  alliances  against  Karl  V,  and  Papal 
influence  in  his  project  of  acquiring  Milan.  Partly  because  for 
fen  years  there  were  no  children  of  the  marriage,  C.  reijiained  for 
a  long  time  eclipsed  by  her  husband's  mistress,  Diana  of  Poitiers, 
and  the  influence  of  the  Guises.  She  was,  however,  a  favourite 
with  her  fether-in-law.  Henri  succeeded  his  father  in  1547,  and 
died  himself  in  1559.  The  following  were  the  children  of  tha 
marriage  ; — Franjois,  Dauphin,  who  married  Mary  Stuart,  and 
reigned  as  Franjois  II.  for  a  year;  Charles  IX.,  who  reigned 
1560-74 ;  Henri  III.,  who  reigned  1574-89  ;  Francois,  Duke  of 
Alen^on,  for  sotnetirae  sovereign  of  the  united  ptovinc "  '' 
57 


HosteabyVjOOQlC 


CAT 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Holland,  and  a  suitor  of  Queen  Elizabeth;  Elizabeth,  who 
married  Philip  II.  of  Spain ;  Claude,  Duke  of  Lorraine ;  and 
Marguerite,  who  married  Henri  of  Nasarre.  C.  became  Regent 
the  accession  of  her  son  Charles,  and,  pretending  to  favour 
the  Huguenots,  formed  a  party,  including  the  Chancellor  L'Hd- 

Eital,  Conde,  and  Antome  of  Navarre,  ^inst  the  faction  of 
ranfois  of  Guise  and  the  Cardinal  Lorraine.  After  the  two 
religious  wars  ended,  C,  seeing  the  Paris  mob  decidedly  Catho- 
lic, made  overtures  to  the  Guises,  and  arranged  the  murder  of 
Coligny  and  the  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew,  Coligny's  in- 
flnence  over  Charles  IX.  was  considered  dangerous.  During 
reign  of  Henri  III.,  the  Catholic  League,  formed  W  Henri 
,_.]afre)  of  Guise  and  Charles  of  Guise,  Dulte  of  Mayenue, 
which  supported  the  claim  of  Cardinal  Bourbon  to  the  throne, 
became  too  strong  for  C,  as  was  shown  on  the  Day  of  Barricades 
and  the  King's  flight  to  Chartres.  This  caused  C.  to  form  an 
alliance  with  Henri  of  Navarre.  Before  the  siege  of  Paris,  she 
died  at  Blois,  Sth  Januaiy  1589.  C.  appears  to  have  been 
beautiful  in  person,  of  graceful  manners,  and  of  great  personal 
courage.  She  conducted  state  correspondence.  Morally,  she 
was  cruel,  licentious,  and  basely  treacherous.  In  religion  she  was 
abjectly  superstitious  on  particular  points. 

Catharine's,  St,  College  or  Hall,  Cambridge,  was  founded 
in  1473  by  Robert  Woodelaike,  for  a  master  and  three  or  more 
fellows.  The  number  of  the  latter  was  increased  in  i860  to  nine. 
There  are  twenty-five  scholars,  and  sii  benefices  in  the  gift  of  the 
college.     In  1875  the  number  of  undergraduates  was  fifty^even. 

Oatliaria'tas,  a  local  name  for  the  Manieh^ans  {ij,  v.). 

Oathar'tica  (from  the  Gr.  kathairS,  '  I  purify ']  are  medidnes 
that  increase  the  discharge  from  the  bowels.  They  act  by  in- 
creasing either  the  peristaltic  action  of  the  bowels,  or  the  watery 
secretions  of  the  intestines,  or  in  i>olh  of  these  ways.  Some 
ouerate  on  a  certain  portion  of  the  bowel  only,  others  on  tlie 
whole  canal  C.  often  cause  griping,  wTiich  is  hiest  prevented  by 
henbane  or  belladonna,  or  by  any  of  the  warm  aromatics,  as  cin- 
namon, ginger,  or  pepper.  They  should  be  administered  on  an 
empty  stomach,  and  their  action  is  assisted  by  warm  drinks  and 
walking  exercise.  Mild  C.  are  often  called  laxative,  and  strong 
C.  ^iirgalk'es. 

Cathar'tine,  a  name  formerly  given  to  what  was  consi- 
dered the  active  principle  of  senna.  It  is  now,  however,  applied 
to  the  active  principle  <A  Cathartics  (q.  v.),  and  is  supposed  to  be 
identical  with  chrysophanic  add  (CkHsOj),  whidi  occurs  in 
yellow  needle-like  crystals,  is  without  odour,  nearly  tasteless,  in- 
soluble in  cold  water,  but  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  It  is 
found  in  senna,  rhubarb,  and  other  vegetables, 

Cathcart',  Williiun  ShaMr,  Earl,  a  British  politidan  and 
general,  and  son  of  Baron  Cathcart,  of  Cathcart,  Renfrewshire, 
was  born  September  ij,  1755.  Entering  the  army,  he  served 
with  distinction  in  America,  Germany,  and  iFlanders,  was  made 
commander-in-diief  in  Ireland  in  1803,  and  commanded  the 
land  forces  in  the  attack  on  Copenhagen,  receiving  the  thanks  of 
Parliament  and  the  dignity  of  Viscount,  r8o8.  He  subsequently 
acted  as  ambassador  at  the  Russian  court,  was  present  at  the 
congresses  of  ChStillon  and  Vienna,  and  was  raised  to  (he  rank 
of  Earl  in  1814.  He  died,  Jnne  17,  1843,  at  his  country  re- 
sidence, Cartside,  near  Glasgow.  His  eldest  son,  %Ihaa:les 
Murray,  Earl  0.,  bom  1783,  served  in  Spain  and  Canada, 
and  was  made  a  general  and  colonel  of  the  1st  Dragoon 
Guards.  He  died  July  1859.— Sir  Gteorge  C,  younger  son 
of  Earl  William,  was  born  in  London,  1794,  and  edncSted 
at  Eton  and  Edinbui^h.  He  entM-ed  the  Life  Guards,  fought 
with  the  allied  aimy  in  1812  and  1813,  and  was  aide-de-camp 
to  the  Duke  of  Wellmgton  at  Quatre-Bras  and  Waterloo.  His 
subsequent  career  was  distinguished.  In  1837  he  was  mainly 
instrumental  in  crushing  the  outbreak  m  Canada,  where  he  re- 
mained for  upwards  of  six  years ;  and  in  1852,  being  sent  to 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  as  governor,  was  successful  m  b*ing. 
ing  the  Kaffir  war,  then  raging,  to  a  condusion.  C.  went,  in 
1854,  to  the  Crimea  as  a  general  of  division,  fought  at  Alma, 
and  at  Inkermann  met  a  soldier's  death,  the  place  where  be  fell 
being  known  as  C.  HilL  He  was  the  alithor  of  Commentiiries 
on  the  War  t'lf  IVussia  and  Go-many  m  1812  ami  1813,  pub- 
lished in  1850.  After  his  death  appeared  C.'s  Corrtsponaence 
rdativi  to  his  Military  Operations  in  Kaffraria  (Lond.  1856). 
See  Kinglake's  History  of  the  Invasion  of  the  Ci-intea. 


Oathe'dral  Church  is  the  see  ur  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  is 
so  called  from  his  seat  or  throne  (Lat.  cathedra),  which  is  plai  " ' 
m  it.  The  clergy  connected  with  a  C.  consist  of  a  corporat 
of  canons,  called  a  chapter,  presided  over  by  the  bishop.  The 
cathedrals  in  Engknd  are  divided  into  two  daases,  namely,  of 
the  old  and  of  the  new  foundation.  The  latteraie  those 
which  before  the  Reformation  were  monastic  institutions,  but  at 
that  period  were  refounded  as  secular  cathedrals,  that  is,  with 
dergy  to  minister  to  the  laity,  or  were  newly-ci'eated  sees  of  that 
nature.  Their  chapters  consist  of  residentiary  canons,  who,  till 
the  Act  of  1840,  were  called  prebendaries.  The  former 
those  which  were  always  held  by  secular  canons.  Their  officials 
now  consist  of  dean,  precentor,  diancellor,  treasurer,  arch- 
deacons, prebendaries,  and  canons.  In  reference  to  the  build- 
ing, see  Church.     See  Walcott's  Sacred  Archaology  (186S). 

Catlielectroto'nus  is  the  physiological  condition  of  a  nerve 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  negative  pole,  when  it  is  stimulated 
by  a  constant  current  of  electricity.     For  details  see  Electro- 

Cathelineau,  Jacques,  leader  of  the  Vendean  insurrection, 
was  born  at  Pin-en-Mauges  (Maine -et-Lone),  5tli  Januaiy  1759. 
Originally  a  mason,  he  afterwards  became  a  pedlar,  and  acquired, 
gieat  influence  in  the  country  districts  by  his  intelligence  and 
piety — the  people  reverentially  naming  him  Le  saint  <w  I'Anjou. 
The  immediate  cause  of  the  revolt  against  the  revolution  was 
the  levy  of  300,000  men  for  the  frontier  wan.  It  broke  out, 
latli  March  1793,  at  Saint-Florent-le-Vieil  in  the  Bocage,  C. 
instantly  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  rustics  of  bis  parish, 
mostly  armed  with  scythes,  pitchforks,  and  sticks,  captured 
the  village  of  ChemilMon  the  13th,  and  on  the  day  folio wmg 
took  Chollet,  capital  of  the  Socage,  where  his  followers  obtained 
some  artillery.  Their  numbers  now  rapidly  increased,  and  a 
large,  though  undisciplined  army,  Lagranae  amiic  Vindienne, 
was  formed.  The  victories  of  Vihiers  (r6th  March),  of  Saint- 
Pierre  de  ChemilW  (nth  April),  of  Thouars  (Sth  May),  of  Fon- 
tenay  (251h  May),  of  Dou^  (7tb  June),  of  Montreuil  l8th  June), 
and,  above  all,  of  Saumur  (9th  June),  strikingly  attest  the  brave 
and  the  militai7  aptitude  of  C,  who  was  now  chosen  cor 
mander-in-chief  of  the  '  Catholic  and  royal '  forces.  His  caree  , 
however,  was  suddenly  closed.  At  the  siege  of  Nantes  (30th 
June),  where  he  displayed  prodigies  of  valour,  he  was  mortally 
wounded,  and  after  lingering  fifteen  days,  died  at  Salnt-Florent, 
14th  June  1793.  His  three  brothers,  Jean,  Pierre,  and  Joseph, 
also  perished  in  the  Vendean  war,  and  his  son,  Jacques,  born 
28th  March  17S7,  was  shot  27fh  May  1S32,  during  the  abortive 
insurrection  of  the  Duchessc  <ie  Berry.  See  Muret's  Vie  Popu- 
laire  de  Catkelineau  (Par.  1845}, 

■Cftth'eter  (from  the  Gr.  kalkiemi,  'to  thrust  into'),  a  sur- 
gical instrument  for  passing  along  a  mucous  canal  into  some 
cavity  of  the  body,  either  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  off  or  in- 
jecting some  fluid.  It  is  generally  used  for  drawing  off  ihe  urine 
when  from  accident  or  disease  the  patient  is  unable  to  pass  it,  C. 
may  be  of  metal,  in  which  case  it  is  generally  plated  with  silver, 
india-rubber,  or  gum-elastic  Considerable  dexteri(y  is  required 
by  flie  surgeon  to  pass  the  instrument  into  the  bladder  without 
injuring  the  Uretlira  (q.  v, ).    See  Urine,  Retention  of. 

Cathgtom'eter  ( from  the  Or.  kalhetos,  '  perpendicular, '  1 
meiron,  'a  measure  ),  an  instrument  for  measuring  the  change 
in  the  heiglit  of  an  object  situated  at  some  distance  off,  espe- 
cially with  reference  to  a  column  of  liquid  in  a  tube.  It  consists 
essentially  of  a  tripod  Stand  and  an  upright  brass  rod,  to  which 
a  telescope  is  so  attached  at  right  angles  that  it  is  capable  of 
being  iixed  at  any  part  of  the  rod,  and  of  being  pointed  in  any 
direction.  The  rod  is  adjusted  to  a  true  perpendicular  position 
by  means  of  spirit-levels  and  screws,  and  this  secures  the  per- 
fectly borizontal  position  of  the  telescope, 

Cath'ode.    See  Anode. 

Cath.'oliC  Church  (Gr.  katholikas,  'universal')  means  the 
universal  Christian  Church  ;  the  term  having  been  first  employed 
to  distinguish  it  from  tlie  Jewish  Church,  which  was  that  of  a 
single  nation,  and  cannot  therefore  properly  be  appropriated  by 
any  section  of  it.  In  the  popular  mind,  however,  C.  C.  is  syno- 
nymous with  Roman  C.  C.  (q.  v.),  as,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
Roman  C.  C,  is  equivalent  to  the  C.  C.  according  to  the  mem- 
bers of  that  Church,  who  regard  it  as  the  only  one  deserving  tJie 
name  of  Church. 


-4- 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Oatliolic  Creditor.  In  Scotch  law,  a  catholic  or  universal 
creditor  is  one  whose  debt  is  secured  over  several  subjects,  or 
over  the  whole  subjects  belonging  to  his  debtor.  A  creditor  so 
secured  is  bound  to  claim  his  debt  according  to  certain  equitable 
rules,  so  as  not  unnecessarily  to  injure  the  claims  of  postponed 
creditors. 

Catholic  Emancipation  was,  as  Sydney  Smith  said,  .__ 
Irish  question.  Originally  the  provisions  of  the  Irish  Act  of 
Supremacy,  2  Eliz.  c  I,  were  really  less  unjust  towards  Catho- 
lics than  Uiose  contained  in  the  i&iglish  Act  l  Eliz.  o.  I,  sup- 
plemented by  5  Eliz.  c  I,  Thus,  in  England,  a  Catholic  priest 
receiving  a  neophyte  into  the  Church  was  liable  to  be  hanged, 
drawn,  and  quartered  ;  Jesuits  forfeited  their  lives  by  appearing 
in  the  country  ;  and  no  man  could  hold  otBce,  or  become  a  bar- 
rister or  schoolmaster,  without  taking  the  oath  of  supremacy. 
In  Ireland  these  penalties  did  not  exist;. the  sacramental  test 
and  the  declaration  against  iransvibstantiation  were  unknown ; 
the  oath  of  supremacy  was  not  exacted,  and  neither  House  of 
Parliament  was  closed  a^inst  any  religious  sect.  There  was, 
however,  the  bitterest  pohtical  oppression,  which  at  last  found 
expression  in  the  Act  of  tlie  Enrich  Parliament  (1691)  provid- 
ing that  no  person  should  sit  m  the  Irish  ParKament,  should 
hold  any  Iri^  office,  civil,  military,  or  ecclesiastical,  or  should 
practise  law  or  medicine  in  Ireland,  till  he  had  t  jten  the  oaths 
of  allegiance  and  supremacy,  and  subscribed  the  declaration 
against  transubstantiation-  This  statute,  3  Will,  and  Mary,  c.  3 
(which  was  based  on  the  Treah"  of  Limerick),  was  followed  by 
the  penal  legislation  against  Irish  Catholics,  which  led  to  so 
much  misery  during  the  i8lh  c.  that  Lord  Chesterfield  declared 
that  the  position  of  a  negro  slave  was  preferable  to  that  of  an 
Irish  Catholic.  At  one  time  (1698)  the  bishops,  dignitaries,  and 
regular  clergy  were  all  banished.  The  ri^t  of  guardianship, 
several  rights  in  land,  intermarriage  with  Protestants,  and  the 
two  frandrises  were  taken  away  from  CathoScs.  In  1793,  after 
Grattan  had  introduced  the  subject  to  the  Irish  Parliament, 
several  pains  and  penalties  were  removed,  but  for  that  purpose 
the  Catholics  were  obliged  to  take  the  oath  drawn  up  by  Dr 
genan,  to  the  effect  that  it  was  unlawful  to  injure  persons 
iccount  of  heresy  ;  that  no  immoral  act  could  be  justified  be- 
ie  done  for  the  good  of  the  Church  ;  that  the  Pepe's  infalli- 
bility was  not  an  article  of  Clnistian  faith;  that,  therefore,  it 
xs  sinful  to  obey  commands  of  the  Pope  which  were  immoral ; 
at  sincere  repentance,  and  not  mere  prieslly  absolution,  was 
necessary  for  fot^iveness ;  that  the  deponent  would  defend  the  then 
settlement  of  property  in  the  kingdcmi,  and  would  do  nothing  to 
subvert  the  Church  established  or  the  Protestant  cengiMi.  The 
main  political  disabilities  Kmaincd,  although  Lord  fitzwilliam's 
viceregal  government  and  Mr  Pitt's  ministry  of  1801  both  came 
to  a  termination  on  account  of  differences  on  this  question.  In 
spite  of  the  answer  given  to  Mr, Pitt  by  sij:  Catholic  universities, 
and  of  the  fact  that  Catholics  were  competent  as  jurymen  and 
witnesses,  it  was  maintained  that  Catholics  did  not  keep  faith 
with  heretics.  The  Irish  Union  was  accomplished  on  the  nnder- 
standing  that  the  Catholic  claims  would  be  conceded,  but  the 
scruples  of  George  III.  and.  Geor^  IV.  about  their  coronation 


a  bill  passed  the  Commons  by  a  majority  of 'nine  for  ad- 
mitting Catliolics  to  the  Lower  House,  and  in  1S22  a  bill  to 
admit  Catholic  peers  to  the  Upper  House  passed,  the  Commons 
by  a  majority  of  five.     In  the  meantime  the  Catholic  Association 
had  been  formed,  and  won  a  great  victory  in  the  election  of  the 
Catholic  O'Connell  for  County  Clare  ovei:  Fitzgerald,  the  Pron 
testanl  candidate — the  first  triumph  of  the  40s.  freeholders  over 
the  great  landed  proprietors.     O  Connell  could  not,  of  course, 
take  bis  seat,  but  in  1828  Peel  was  obliged  to  ta      up  h    ca 
whidi-  Canning  had  so  long  maintained,  and         n     d 
general  bill,  admitting  Catholics- generally  to  of&       and  m 
cipal  rights,  modifying  the  oath  required  to  one       g      ra   al 
giance,  hot  continuing  the  exclusion  as  to  all  offices      nne     d 
with  the  Church.     To  all  commands  in  the  united     rv         h 
had  t>een admitted  previously.    At  the  same  time     e40s  d 

franchise  was  destroyed,  and  the  Catholic  Associa     n  b 

not  actually,  suppressed.     There  does  not  seem  to  have  occurred 
any  difficulty  in  working  this  measure.      The  English  Govem- 
-'■"n  of  b^hops  or  the 


>t  interfered  with  the 


♦- 


publication  of  [■escripts.  A  question  was  raised  about  eccles 
tical  titles  in  1854,  and  the  publication  of  a  bull  in  1870 
Papal  infallibility  caused  a  warfare  of  pamphlets,  but  no  seri 
conflict  between  the  'two  allegiances'  has  yet  occurred 

Catholic  Epia'tles  is  the  name  given  to  the  last  seven  e, 
ties  of  the  New  Testament,  because  they  were  addressed  to  the 
general  body  of  Christians  (Gr.  katioHkos,  'universal')  rather 
than  to  a  particular  church  or  person  ;  or  perhaps  also  because 
this  name,  confined  at  first  to  isl  Peter  and  ist  John  as  i)ooks 
unhisrsally  received,  was  afterwards  extended  to  the  other  five 
which  were  not  received  by  all  as  authentic  when  they  wen 
admitted  into  tlie  canon. 


Catholics,  Boman,  Iiaws  as  to.     See  Act  of  Tolera- 

Catili'na,  Luoiue  Serg^iiiS,  descended  from  an  old  but  im- 
povei'ished  family,  was  bom  about  109  B.C.  From  his  early 
youth  he  was  guilty  of  fearful  atrocities,  boundless  extravagance, 
and  open  indulgence  in  every  vice.  Though  he  bore  the  reputa- 
tion of  murdering  his  wife  and  son  that  he  might  wed  the  rich  and 
reckless  Aurelia  Orestilla,  he  was  elected  prjelor  68  B.C.  and  gov- 
ernor of  Africa  in  the  following  year.  In  66  B.C.  he  was  impeaSied 
by  Pub^ius  Claudius  Pulcher  for  oppression,  and  disqualified  for 
tlie  consulship.  Mad  with  chagrin  and  harassed  wjth  debt,  he 
formed  the  design,  with  Autronius  and  Cn-  Calpurnius  Piso,  of 
murdering  the  new  consuls — a  scheme  which  failed  solely 
through  his  own  impatience.  When  the  storm  passed  over,  C, 
began  to  plan  a  new  conspiracy  on  a  stronger.  Surer,  and 
more  systematic  basis.  In  64  B.C.,  in  his  canvass  for  the  con- 
snlship,  he  threw  out  hints  about  the  grand  venture.  Senators, 
knights,  and  others,  needy  and  desperate  like  himself  joined  in  the 
plot,  which  soon  assumed  vast  proportions,  and  would  have  led 
to  the  ruin  of  the  state  but  for  Fulvia,  the  mistress  of  one  of  tlie 
conspiralLors,  who  divulged  it  to  Cicero.  Meanwhile  C,  lost  the 
consulship,  and  in  dx  B.  C.  formed  a  plan  for  Cicero's  assassination, 
which  was  finstratea.  On  the  night  of  tlie  dth  November,  C. 
met  the  ringleaders  at  the  house  of  M.  Forcius  Laeca,  and  in- 
formed them  of  the  disposition  of  his  forces  and  the  arrange- 
ments for  Cicero's  assassmation,  an  insmrection  of  the  slaves,  and 
the  firing  of  the  city.  Cicero  was  at  once  advised  by  Ftdvia 
of  this,  and  when  the  assassins  came  they  were  refused  ad- 
mittance. On  the  8th  November  the  Senate,  for  greater 
safety,  met  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator.  C.  was  pre- 
sent. Cicero  with  the  first  sentence  paralysed  the  traitor,  who 
at  dead  of  night  fied  the  city,  C  and  Manlius  were  declai-ed 
enemies  of  the  state,  and  Antonlus  vras  sent  against  them  with 
an  ai-my,  Cicero,  who  was  left  in  Rome,  caused  Lentulus, 
Cethegus,  and  others  to  be  arrested.  They  were  tried,  con- 
demned, and  strangled  in  prison.  C.  meanwhile  had  led  his 
forces  into  the  region  of  Pistoria,  with  the  intention  of  crossing 
into  Gaul,  but  in  this  he  was  foiled  by  Metellus  Celer.  In  the 
beginning  of  62  B.C.,  he  fell  in  battle  with  Petreius,  the  lieutenant 
of  Anlonius,  fighting  desperately  to  the  last. 

Catldn.,  or  Ament  {amentum),  a  botanical  term  applied  to  a 
spike  of  unisexual  flowers,  behind  scaly  bracts  instead  of  a  proper 
perianth.  Tlie  whole  Inflorescence  falls  off  by  an  articulation  in 
single  piece.  WiUows,  hazels,  oaks,  birch,  alders,  &c.,  and 
the  whole  (^  the  omieiH  Cufulifera  (q.  v.)  and  Amentacas  (q.  v.) 
— though  in  some,  as  the  oak  and  haael.  Only  the  male  flowers 
""«  in  catkins — are  distinguished  by  this  inflorescence. 

Gat'mint,  Oatnep,  or  Catnip  (Nepeta  CalaHa),  a  plant  of 
the  natural  order  Labiate,  so  called  from  the  fondness  of  cats  for 
comjnon  in  England,  but  rare  in  Scotland.     There  are  various 
her  species  in  Southern  Europe  and  temperate  Asia,    Malabar 
C,  is  Ardsoiadis  malabarica. 
Oa'to,  Bionyaius.    Whether  or  not  there  ever  was  a  writei' 
f  this  name  is  a  matter  of  uncertainty.    The  little  book  bearing 
he  title  Dionydi  Catonis  Vislkha  de  Moribus  ad  Filium  has 
xercised  the  ingenuity  of  scholars  for  ages,  and  its  authorship, 
s  period,  and  its  merits  are  alike  unsettled.     Seneca,  Ausonius, 
Eoethius,  and  many  others  have  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  writing 
it.      One  hasdeclared  its  style  to  be  that  of  the  best  period,  an- 
other, that  of  the  worst,  in  Roman  literature ;  its  precepts  have 
59 


HosteabyVjOOQlC 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CAT 


been  pronounced  splendid  by  some  ;  by  others,  the  veriest  rub- 
bish. One  considers  the  author  an  earnest  Christian  ;  another, 
a  lank  Pagan.  It  would  seem  that  a  work  which  has  been  the 
theme  of  so  much  discussion  must  have  some  merit.  On  internal 
evidence  we  may  safely  ascribe  it  to  a  writer  of  the  silver  age. 
Durujg  the  middle  ages  it  was  extensively  used  as  a  text-book. 
It  was  translated  into  English  by  Caxton,  The  editions  of  it  are 
the  best  is  that  of  Otto  Amtzenius  (Amst.  1754). 


CatO,  M.  Porcius,  sumamed  Censorius,  from  his  strictness 
during  his  censorship,  known  also  by  the  names  of  C.  Major  and 
C.  Priseus,  was  bom  at  Tusculum,  234  n.C.  His  boyhood  was,  in 
great  part,  spent  on  his  father's  estate  in  Sabinum,  where  he  accus- 
tomed himself  to  outdoor  exercises,  and,  by  joining  in  farming  ope- 
rations, acquired  that  knowledge  of  rural  economy  which  he  after- 
wards gave  forth  in  his  work  De  Re  Rustka.  His  early  ambition 
was  kindled  by  tales  of  the  career  of  M.  Curius  Dentatus,  whose 
humble  cot  was  in  the  neighbourhood.  In  the  campaign  of  217 
B.C.  he  began  his  ihiUtary  career ;  was  at  Capua  in  214  B.C., 
where  he  gained  the  friendship  of  Fabius  Maximus  ;  was  present 
at  the  siege  of  Tarenium  209  B.C.,  and  two  years  later  helped  to 
win  the  battle  of  the  Metaurus,  in  which  Hasdrubal  was  slain. 
Meanwhile  he  had  made  the  acquaintance  of  L.  Valerius  Fiaccus, 
a  young  nobleman  of  kindred  sympathies,  who,  recognismg  his 
signal  ability,  ui^ed  him  to  proceed  to  Rome  and  aspire  to  for- 
ensic and  magisterial  honours.  C.  did  so  ;  distinguished  himself 
as  a  pleader  ;  became  quastor  204  B.C.,  fedile  199  B.a,  prsetor 
198  B.C.,  and  in  195  B.C.  was  elected  consul  with  his  friend 
Flaccus.  During  his  campaign  in  Spain,  which  had  been  as- 
signed as  his  province,  C  displayed  great  military  genius  and 
acted  with  consummate  ability.  He  shared  the  food  and  toils  of 
a  common  soldier,  and  inculcated  the  sternest  morality.  Having 
reduced  the  country  from  the  Ebro  to  the  Pyrenees,  he  was 
decreed  a  thank^ving  of  three  days.  In  194  B.C.  he  returned 
to  Rome,  where  he  was  awarded  the  honours  of  a  triumph.  In 
191  B.C.  he  went  to  Greece  as  military  tribune  under  M.  Adiius 
Glabrio  against  Antiochus,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
of  Thermopylze,  which  led  to  the  downfall  of  the  Syrian  king. 
ITiis  ends  the  military  career  of  C.  In  i8g  B.C.  he  stood  for  the 
censorship,  an  office  which  he  did  not  obtain  till  184  B.C.,  when 
Flaccus  was  again  his  colleague.  So  vigorous  was  he  in 
discharge  of  the  duties  of  that  office,  that  the  epithet  cms. 
stuck  to  him  ever  after.  His  severe  edicts  against  luxury, 
his  improvements  in  the  reservoirs,  drainage,  &c,  did  much  for 
the  welfare  of  the  people.  His  native  austerity  led  him  to  de- 
nounce the  literature  of  Greece  as  dangerous  to  morals,  but  tliis 
prejudice  diminished  as  he  grew  older,  C.'s  censorship  was 
rewarded  with  a  public  statue,  bearing  an  inscription  recording 
his  services.  To  the  end  of  his  days  his  life  was  one  of  ceaseless 
activity.  In  the  year  before  his  death  he  was  the  most  vehement 
adviser  of  the  third  Funic  War,  and  so  violent  and  persistent  was 
his  hatred  of  Carthage,  that,  whatever  was  the  subject  of  debate 
in  the  Senate,  he  always  concluded  his  remarks  with  tlie  famous 
words,  'Delenda  est  Carthago'  (Carthage  most  be  destroyed). 


year,  bore  him  a  son,  M.  Porcius  C.  Saloniauus,  the  grand- 
father of  C.  UHcensis.  His  principal  writings  were  Di  Re  Rus- 
tica,  already  mentioned  \  Origines,  an  historical  work ;  and 
Orations.  Of  the  last  two,  only  fp^[mentE  remain. — Marcus 
ForcluB  O.,  great-grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  surnamed 
UlkiHsis  from  his  death  at  Utica,  was  bom  95  B,c,  Left  an 
orphan  in  childhood,  he  was  brought  up  by  his  uncle,  M.  LLvius 
Drusus,  As  a  boy  he  was  demure  and  unsocial,  but  truthful  and 
independent.  In  72  b,c  be  served  with  honour  in  the  Servile 
war  ol  Spartacas;  but,  though  a  brave  soldier,  he  lacked  mili- 
tary genius.  In  67  B.C.  he  went  as  military  tribune  to  Mace-- 
donia,  whence  he  proceeded  to  Pei^mus  m  search  of  the  Stoic, 
Atlienodorus,  whom  he  induced  to  accompany  him  to  Mace- 
donia, and  afterwards  to  Rome.  C.  soon  obtamed  the  qo^stor- 
ship,  the  duties  of  which  he  dischai^ed  with  universal  approba- 
tion. In  fl3  B.C.  he  was  ^ected  tribune.  He  supported  Cicero 
against  the  Catilinariana,  and  determined  the  wavering  Senate 
by  his  speech,  in  which  he  taxed  Ciesar  with  complicity  in  the 
plot,  He  strenuously  opposed  Cssac's  election  to  the  consul- 
ship, as  well  as  the  decree  of  the  Senate  by  which  he  obtained 
Gaul  for  five  years.  He  was  sent  to  Cyprus  against  Rolemy, 
and  compelied  him  to  submission.  C.  vigorously  resisted  the 
60 


^ , made  prietor  b.c  54,  but  failed  in  his  candi- 
dature for  the  consulship.  When  Ctesar  crossed  the  Rubicon, 
the  Senate,  on  his  recommendation,  gave  Pompey  the  conduct 
of  affairs.  C.  followed  Pompey  to  Dyrmchium,  49  B.C.,  and 
.fter  tlie  battle  of  Fharsalia,  .0  B.C.,  commanded  the  Corcyrean 
Jeet.  Hearing  of  Pompey's  death,  he  repaired  to  Africa,  and 
marched  through  Libya  to  efiect  a  junction  with  Sdpio,  to  whom 
he  resigned  the  command.  On  the  defeat  of  Sdpio  at  Thapsus, 
6th  April,  46  B.C.,  C.  fortified  himself  in  Utica,  and  uiged  the 
Romans  to  hold  out,  but  they  quailed  at  Cesar's  approach. 
Finding  resistance  hopeless,  he  advised  his  friends  to  escape 
and  make  terms  with  the  conqueror.  But  he  had  made  up  his 
mind  to  die  rather  than  submit,  and,  after  reading  Plato's  Phmdo, 
slabbed  himself. 

Oat'odon.     See  Cachatxjt. 

Cat- o'-Nine- Tails.    See  Flogging. 

CatOp'trioB,  a  term,  now  disused,  for  that  branch  of  Optics 
(q.  v.)  which  treats  of  reflected  light. 

Catop'tromanor  (Gt.  katoptren,  'a  mirror,'  and  manteia, 
'  divination '],  among  the  ancient  Greelis,  a  mode  of  divination 
by  immersing  a  mirror  in  water  for  a  sick  person  to  examine  his 
face  in.     A  ghastly  and  d'  t    t  d      fl     f  t     d  d  death  •  a 

sei-ene  and 'healthy  one. 

Cat's  Eye,  a  variety  ed  mm  ns  t, 

sometimes  transparent ;  n         g         g 

reddish,  or  brown  colour        d  disp  g,  wn       "u 

form,  a  peculiar  floating  cen  m  aral 

fibres  of  asbestos.     It  is  tn  C  th    M     b 

and  in  several  European       alti         Iishiflse  gs 

Cats,  Jakob,  a  Dutch  poet,  bom  at  Erouwershaven  in 
Zealand,  loth  November  1577,  studied  law  at  Leyden,  visited 
Orleans  and  Paris,  and  settled  at  Middelbuig,  where,  amid  other 
peaceful  occupations,  he  wrote  a  number  of  his  best  poems. 
After  the  twelve  years'  peace  of  Antwerp,  C.  was  compelled  to 
remove  to  the  Hague,  He  was  appointed  pensionary  of  Dor- 
drecht  in  1625,  and  two  years  later  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to 
England,  where  he  was  knighted  by  Charles  I.  In  1 636  he  was 
promoted  to  the  dignity  of  state  pensioner,  and  m  1652  was 
again  sent  to  England  on  an  embassy  to  CromwelL  He  died 
September  iz,  1660.  Among  his  greatest  works  are  ffauwelyk, 
7  roKringk,  and  Spiegel  van  dm  miSen  en  niaiwen  Tyt.  The  best 
edition  is  that  of  1790-1800,  published  in  Amsterdam  ;  but  the 
most  splendid  edition  is  that  published  at  Zwolle  in  1856-62. 

Cat'skill  or  Oau'terskill  MonntainB  {kUl  in  Dutch  means 
a  stream),  celebrated  for  their  fine  scenery,  ri.se  to  the  W.  of  the 
Hudson,  in  Greene  Co.,  N.Y.     Round  Top,  the  highest  peak, 
is  3800  feet  above  the  sea.     The  C.  Moimtain  House,  a  summer 
resort,  stands  at  a  height  of  2500  feet.     The  C.  Creek,  giving 
name  to  the  mountains,  and  to  a  village  at  its  mouth,  enters  the 
Hudson  3a  miles  S.of  Albany. 
Cat's  Tail.     See  Zypha. 
Cat's-Tail  Grass.     See  Timothy  Gkass. 
Oatt'ttTO,   a  fortified  town  In  the  crown-land  of  Dalmatia, 
Austria,  36  miles  S.E.  ofRagusa,  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  C, 
ledge  at  the  base  of  predpitous  cliffs  about  1800 


overiooked  by  a  castle  perched  on  the  top  of  the  cliffs,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  crenelated  walls.  As  in  most  Dalmatian 
towns,  no  vehicle  is  adjnitted  within  the  walls,  and  the  streets 
are  cleanly  kept.  The  piazza  is  beaatifiilly  paved  with  alternate 
coloured  marbles.  Pop.  estunated  (1872)  3354-  At  an  early 
date  the  capital  of  a  small  republic,  C,  through  fear  of  the 
Turks,  voluntarily  submitted  to  the  Republic  of  Venice  in  1420, 
and  passed  with  it  to  Austria  iu  1797,  at  the  Peace  of  Campo- 
Formia— C ,  Gtdf  of,  a  sheltered  inlet  of  the  Adriatic,  consisting 
of  three  basins,  connected  by  two  channels  abont  half  a  mile 
broad.     It  is  15  to  20  fathoms  deep,  and  30  miles  long. 

Catt'egat  ('the  cat's  throat,'— the  i'msJ  OSimw  of  Pliny 
and  Pomp.  Mela),  the  strait  between  Jutland  and  Sweden,  com- 
municating with  the  North  Sea  by  the  Skager  Rack,  and  with 
the  Baltic  by  the  Sound,  and  by  the  Great  and  Little  Belt.  It 
is  about  150  miles  long,  and  from  40  to  95   broad,  and  is 


y  Google 


OAT 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPM.DIA. 


dangerous  to  shipping  from  ite  storms,  currents,  and  slmllowness  ; 
hence  tlie  Low  GermaJi  proverb,  Dat  Cattegat  ntak!  dm  Schippa 
den  Hals  natt. 

Catt'ermole,  Oeorge,  born  at  Dicklebui^h,  Norfolk,  in 
1800,  early  attained  a  high  reputation  as  a  painter  of  historical 
and  imaginative  works  in  water-colour,  ceased  to  exhibit  m  1853, 
after  which  he  conmienced  to  pdnt  in  oil.  He  died  July  24, 
1868,  Among  his  representative  works  are  '  Luther  at  the  Diet 
of  Spiers,'  with  thirty-three  portraits,  ajid  the  '  Horn  of  Egre- 
mont  Castle.'  He  foond  many  subjects  in  the  works  of  bcott 
and  Shakespeare,  and  deagned  the  illustrations  for  his  brother  s 
Itistory  ojthe  Civil  War. 

Oatt'i,  or  Ohatti,  a  warlike  German  tribe,  the  chief  sept  of 
the  Hermiones,  occupying  territory  corresponding  to  the  modern 
Hessm  (a  form  of  the  name  C.  first  appearing  in  the  8th  c),  and 
perhaps  part  of  Bavaria.  Csesor  erroneously  classes  them  as  be- 
lonein?  to  the  Suevi.  The  Romans  gamed  many  advantages 
ov«  them,  especially  under  Germanicus,  but  never  entirely  sub- 
dued them.  They  disappear  from  history  towards  the  close  of 
the  4th  c. ,  after  which  time  they  are  not  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  Franks. 
Cattle.     See  Ox. 

Cattle-Plague.    See  Rinderpest. 

Cattley'a,  an  estensive  genus  of  Central  American  and  Bra- 
zilian orchids,  found  on  the  bark  of  trees  and  on  rocks.  The 
flowers  are  among  the  finest  of  the  whole  order,  and  many  spe- 
cies of  C.  are  cultivated  in  our  conservatories. 

Cftttol'ioa,  a  town  of  Sicily,  province  of  Girgenti,  situated 
14  miles  N.W.  of  Girgenti  city,  with  considerable  sulphur- works. 
Pop.  72W- 

CatiUl'us,  C.  Vale'riuB,  one  of  the  greatest  of  Roman  poets, 
was  born  at  or  near  Verona,  87  B.C.  His  father  was  a  man 
of  Hood  position,  and  the  friend  and  host  of  Julius  CJesar.  On 
assuming  the  manly  gown,  C.  went  to  Rome,  where  he  led  the 
life  of  a  man  of  pleasure.  His  expensive  tastes  and  reckless 
extravagance  soon  involved  him  in  pecuniary  difficulties,  from 
which  he  endeavoured  to  extricate  himself  by  going  to  Bithynia 
in  the  suite  of  the  prsetor  Caius  Memmius  Gemellus.  Thereafter 
he  made  a  tour  of  the  famous  cities  of  Asia,  and  on  readiing 
Amastris,  on  the  shore  of  the  Euxine,  had  a  yacht  bmll  for  hun- 

self,  in  which  he  saQed  home  to  his  villa  at  Sirmio"  ' 

Benacus  (Lago  di  Carda),  probably  about  56 
Rome  his  headquarters,  and  though  '-—-" 
embarrassments,  he  was  n-'  --'■■•-' 
He  lived 


t  reduced 


11  the  I^acus 

jsionally  in  pecuniary 

■>  pennanently  straitened 
"  ■■  lacy  and  friendship 


with  many  of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  his 
one  event  in  his  personal  history  to  which  a  thnhmg  interest  ana 
an  immortal  freshness  have  ever  attached,  is  his  love  for  the 
beautiful  and  dissolute  Oodia,  whom  he  has  immortalised  under 
the  pseudonym  of  Lesbia.  In  that  wondrous  series  of  poems^ 
the  tender  emotions  of  dawning  love,  the  wild  Ihrobbmgs  ol 
desire  the  fuMess  of  delight  that  springs  from  undoubting  and 
undoubted  affection,  the  dark  nightmare  of  jealousy,  and  the 
desolation  of  a  heart  torn  by  mighty  anguish,  are  all  embalmed 
in  musical  numbers  unparalleled  in  the  poetry  of  passion.  Next 
to  his  love  in  interest,  and  sung  in  strains  not  inferior  to  his  love- 
]yrics  in  sincerity  and  depth  of  feeling,  is  his  sorrow  foe  the 
death  of  a  dearly-loved  brother,  who  perished  in  tht 
to  whose  grave  he  made  a  pilgrimage.  Indeed,  the  vers^  to  his 
memory  are  among  the  tenderest  and  sweetest,  as  they  are 
among  the  very  earliest  flowers  of  Roman  elegy.  The  works  of 
C.  consist  of  116  poems,  most  of  them  short,  embracing  lyric, 
elegiac  heroic,  and  galliambic  compositions.  The  most  famous 
of  Hiem  after  the  Lesbia  series  are  two  epithalamia,  the  stately 
narrative  poem  on  the  nuptials  of  Peleus  and  Thetis,  the  gor- 
Beons  setHng  of  the  Lammt  of  Ariadne,  and  the  wildly-grand 
poem  entitled  Alys,  which,  though  perhaps  of  Oriental  birth, 
evinces  more  originality  and  vigour  than  any  other  poem  in  Latin 
literature.  The  wrifmgs  of  C,  in  many  places  disfigored  by 
impurity  of  eipression— the  fault  of  the  age  rather  than  of  the 
man— are  throughout  distinguished  for  great  punty  of  style,  rare 
intensity  of  feehng,  inimitable  elegance  and  grace,  and  singular 
felicity  of  diction.     To  C.  belongs  the  honour  of  nnturalising  in 


Roman  speech  the  lyrical  metres  of  Greece,  Few  of  the  poets 
if  antiquity  have  the  freshness,  few  continue  to  enjoy  the  well- 
[eserved  popularity,  of  '  the  young  gentleman  of  Verona. '  The 
xact  time  of  his  death  is  unknown,  but  it  may  be  set  down  at 
bout  46  B.C.  The  best  editions  of  his  works  are  those  of  Lach- 
aann  (Beri,  iSzg),  Doering  (Altona,  1834),  Schwabe  (Giessen. 
.866),  and  Ellis  (Lond.  186;).  Among  translations  may  be  men- 
tioned those  of  Lamb  (Lond.  1821),  Martin  (Edinb.  1B61), 
Cranstoun  (Edinb.  1867),  Ellis  (Lond.  1867). 

an         f  tl     U    t  d  States  of  Colombia,  S.  Ame- 
j,  tl     A   1  d    fter  a  course  of  fully  500  mUes 

throueh  Popay        A  t    q  d  Cartagena,  falls  mtothe  Mag- 

dalenS  in  lat  9  5  N  Tl  alley  of  C,  to  which  the  over 
gives  its  nam  f  rt  I  dp  pulous,  with  gold-mines  in  its 
upper  portion 

Oauca'sian  Var  ety  of  Mankind,  an  ethnological  divi- 
sion introduced  bj  El  m  b  h  but  now  universally  abandoned. 
The  evidence  of  language  forbids  the  conjunction  in  one  group 
of  Hindus,  Persians,  Assyrians,  Phoenicians,  Jews,  the  peoples 
of  the  Caucasus,  and  the  European  races.  These  constitute  at 
least  three  distinct  families— Aryan,  Semibc,  and  luranian. 
See  Ethnology. 

Oau'oasus,  Tlie,  an  important  mountain  range,  forming  part 
of  the  boundary  line  of  Europe  and  Asia,  extends  from  S.E.  to 
N  W.  between  the  Caspian  and  the  Black  Sea.  It  is  750  miles 
Ion?,  and  from  65  to  150  broad;  and  its  principal  heights  are 
Mount  Elbruz,  18,493  feet  above  the  sea,  and  Mount  Kasbeck, 
16  000  feet  The  snowline  is  about  ll,ooo  feet  high,  and  several 
of 'the  other  peaks  rise  above  it ;  but  there  is  comparatively  little 
perpetual  snow,  and  only  a  few  glariecs,  and  these  of  no  great  size. 
The  only  practicable  carriage-road  is  that  through  the  Terek 
valley  (8000  feet),  and  the  most  frequented  pass  m  the  t.  is  that 
of  Derbend,  near  the  Caspian.  Of  the  rivers  nsmg  in  the  C,  the 
principal  are  the  Kur  and  Terek,  which  flow  mto  the  Caspian, 
and  the  Rion  or  Faz  (anc.  F&asis)  and  the  Kuban,  which  enter 
the  Black  Sea.  The  central  mass  of  the  C.  is  mamly  f  med  f 
granite  and  porphyry,  covered  occasionally  with  vol  an  tutt 
Ind  the  offeels  are  in  several  places  flanked  with 
At  each  extremity  of  the  range  occur  mud  volcanoe  and  th 
peninsula  of  Apsheron  is  the  locality  of  the  celebrate  ph 
sntines.    The  minerals  found  in  the  C.  are  chiefly  ai 

sulphur,  lead,  and  copper.     In  the  wilder  parts  there  ea 

wolves,  jackals,  and  bisons,  and  almost  eveiywher      h 
abundance  of  game.     On  the  northern  declivity  the 
extremely  rigorous,  but  to  the  S.  of  the  range  it  is  w    m      d 
equable,  and  there  is  a  luxuriant  wild  growth  of  the  g    p        a 
oUier  fine  fruits.     Only  the  lower  valleys  are  vnde  ai 
table.    These,  however,  produce  rich  harvests  of  ric 
cotton,  indigo,  &c,  while  cereals  are  occasionally  gr 
altitude  of  8000  feet.     Here  and  there  the  moimtai 
clad  with  dense  forests  of  oak,  beech,  ash,  maple,  iial 

C  is  now  a  Russian  lieutenancy,  with  an  area  0 
miles,  and  a  pop.  (1871)  of  4,893,332,  comptismg  a^ 
of  trities,  of  which  the  principal  are  Circassians  or  1  sse 

Ossesles,   Lesghians,   Abasians,  Geoi^ians,   and    M    gr     an 
The  chief  occupations  are  catUe-rearing  and  agricul     «>  " 
there  is  also  much  hunting,  and  not  a  little  robbery.    F    m    n 
preponderance  of  the  Cncassians  (q.  v.),  their  name  is      q 
applied  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  C,  but  this  IS  ma  a 

misleading.  The  language  of  intercommunication  is  1  k  ft 
Tartar,andthereareupwardsof  loodifreientdiaiect  M  h  m 
medanism  is  the  prevailing  religion,  but  the  Geo  g  « 

Ossestes  profess  a  rude  Christianity,  and  belong  p  tl  th 
Greek  and  partly  (o  the  Annenian  Church.     In  the  ry 

the  former  there  are  many  fine  remains  of  churdies  in        »  za 
tine  style.    For  the  first  fifty  years  of  the  present 
united  tribes  successfully  resisted  the  aggression  of  R  d 

were  only  subdued  on  the  capture,  in  1859,   oi 
Lesghian  prophet-chief  Schamyl,  who  died  In  April    B         b 
Ihe  works  of  Wagner  (1850),  Petzholdt  (1867).  Ra  8 

Grove  (1875),  and  Thielmann  (1875)- 

Cau'cty,  At^ustine  liOuis,  a  distinguished  F  m 

thematieian  and  physicist,  was  bora  at  Pans,  Augu 
He  entered  L'Ecole  Polytechnique  in  1805,  where,  in  1       , 
became  Professor  of  Mechanics.     At  the  revolution  ot  IS30,  t-. 


y  Google 


CAU 


THE  GLOBE  EISlCYCLOFAiDIA. 


resighed  his  position,  and  soon  after  accepted  the  chair  of  Mathe- 
tnatical  Physics  in  the  University  of  Turin.  In  1838  he  returned 
to  Paris,  succeeded  M.  Biot  as  Professor  of  Physical  Astronomy 
in  1S49,  and  died  at  Sceau^  23d  May  1857.  C,  published 
numerous  memoirs  in  the  Comptet  Rendus,  and  in  Lionville'; 
yaitmal  dc  Mitikematiques.  His  best  works  are  his  Cimrs  d' Ana- 
lyse (1821),  his  Lefons  siir  le  Calcul Diffh-mHel  (l826j,  and  his 
Prisumis  Analytiquts  (1835). 

Cau'cuB  is  an  i^nmenae  political  machinery  which  lies  out- 
side of  the  United  States  constitution,  yet  brings  a  powerful 
influence  to  bear  upon  the  voters,  and  praclicalljr  controls  ail 
the  elections  to  office  in  the  cojuitty.  In  every  town  and  village 
each  party  meets  before  the  time  of  election,  and  makes  a  full 
list  of  nominations  to  ofSce,  or  appoints  delegates  to  conven- 
tions, and  this  is  called  holding  a  C.  Those  who  attend  are  gene- 
ralV  considered  bound  to  vote  the  regular  tidtet,  but  sometitnes 
a  C.  is  '  bolted,'  the  dissenting  party  putting  up  other  candi- 
dates, The  word  is  a  corruption  of  iaa/:*;™,— the  early  political 
meetings,  about  the  time  of  the  American  Revolution,  for  the 
preparation  of  election'  business  having  taken  place  in  a  Caulker's 
room  in  Bosloii. 

Gaii'debeo,  or  Gaudebeo-en-Gauz,  an  old  town  in  the 
departmei^t  of  Seine-Infii-ieure,  Fraiice,  on  the  Seine,  26  miles 
E.  of  Havre  by  railway.  Its  most  notable  building  is  a  Gothic 
church  of  the  rsth  c,  one  of  the  finest  in  Normandy.  It  has 
some  river  trade  and  fisheries.  Pop.  (1872)  1874.  C.  was  for- 
merly capital  of  the  Fays-di-C.,  the  land  of  the  ancient  Caleles. 
Subsequently  a  fortified  place,  it  was  taken  by  the  English  in 
1419,  by  the  Huguenots  m  1562,  and  bj  the  League  in  1502. 
Some  6  miles  E.  of  C.  is  the  famous  Benedictine  Abbey  of  St 
VandriUe  or  Fontanelle,  founded  in  the  7th  c.  Here  the  last  of 
the  Merwiii^  died  as  a  monk.--0.-lfea-El'beuf,  a  toWft  in  the 
same  department,  iz  ipiles  S.  of  Rouen,  has  extensive  cloth 
manufactures,  and  active  wool-spinning  aJfd  dyeing  industries. 
Pop.  (1872)  10,715.  ^   ^ 

Caude'te,  the  name  of  two  Spanish  towns.  The  first  is  in 
the  province  of  Albacete,  51  miles  E.S.E.  of  the  city  of  Alba- 
cete,  and  has  a  pop,  of  5500.  The  second  is  in  the  province  of 
Teruel  (Aragon),  about  5  mil4s  N.W.  of  the  town  of  Tetuel,  and 
has  large  bone  deposits,  fossil  and  otherwise.    Pop.  6000. 

Cau'dex  (Lat.),  the  asis  of  a  plant  consisting  of  stem  and 
root.  It  is,  however,  generally  applied  as  a  synonym  of  the 
stipe  or  woody  stem  of  monocotyledons,  especially  palms—  Yuc<a, 
.Draccena,  PaHdanUs,  &c. 

Cau'dine  Forks  {Furculis  Caudina),  a  pass  consisting  of 
two  narrow  wooded  defiles,  and  taking  lis  name  from  Caudiuhi, 
a  city  of  ancient  Samnium — 'where  afterwards,  in  continuation 
of  the  Appian  Way,  a  Roman  road  was  constrncted  from  Capiia 
by  way  of  Beneventum  to  Apulia:'  (Momrasen).  Dutmg  the 
second  Samnite  war  It  was  the  scene  of  one  of  the  most  humi- 
liating reverses  ever  experienced  by  the  Roman  arms.  In  the 
year  381  B.C.,  four  legions  weie  trapped  by  the  Samnite  general, 
Caius  Pontius,  in  a  '  watery  meadow '  (Mommsen)  between  the 
two  passes,  and  ai^er  some  days  of  famine  they  surrendered  at 
discretion,  and  were  made  to  pass  under  the  yoke.  Llvy's 
account  of  the  details  of  fee  disaster  may  be  exaggerated,  and 
he  was  probably  in  error  as  to  the  precise  locality.  Niebuhr 
supposes  that  previous  to  theh- being  shut  up  between  the  passes 
IheRomans  had  sustained  a  defeal:,  but  there  i's  no  satisfactory 


:  of  this. 


Oaulainootirt,  Anuaad  Augfustin  Louis  de,  I>uc  de 
Vicenza,  was  bom  at  Caulaincoort,  in  the  department  of  the 
Somme,  December  9,  1772.  Entering  the  army  at  the  age  of 
fifteen,  he  served  with  distinction  in  several  engagements,  acted 
as  aide-de-camp  to  Napoleon  when  First  Consul,  and  was  made 
general  of  division  and  Duke  of  Vicenza  (1805),  He  distin- 
guished himself  more  as  a  dipIomaUst  than  as  a  soldier,  was 
after  the  establishment  of  the  Empire  sent  on  various  missions 
and  for  four  years  (1S07-11)  was  ambassador  at  St  Peteisburg! 
He  subsequently  acted  as  negotiator  at  Pleswiti,  Prague,  Frank- 
furt, and  Chatillon,  and  is  believed  to  liave  secured  Elba  for  his 
master  when  he  abdicated.  During  the  Hundred  Days,  be  was 
Foreign  Minister.  He  died  at  Paris,  February  19,  1827,— His 
■     ■■        ■  ■- «„i._i.n    -"— '-  ^- C.,bornl6thSep- 


brothet,  August  Jean  Gabriel,  Comte  d. 


Oa-uler'pa,  a  fine  genus  of  'green-seeded'  (chlorospermous) 
seaweeds  of  the  W.  Indies.  They  form  a  large  portion  of  the 
food  of  turtles  ;  and  it  is  said  that  the  colour  of  the  '  green  fat ' 
of  these  reptiles— so  dear  to  gastronomes — is  due  to  this  kind  of 

Oauriflower,  a  variety  .of  the  Cabbage  {Brassica  olerecea) 
(q.  v.),  in  which  the  young  inflorescence  is  condensed  'into  a 
depressed  fleshy  esculent  liead.'  It  has  been  cultivated  as  a 
garden  vegetable  since  the  times  of  the  Greelts  and  Romans,  but 
was  little  attended  to  in  Britain  until  about  the  17th  c  See 
BroccoIi, 

Oaulk'iag,  in  ships,  is  making  the  seams  of  a  declt  watertight 
by  driving  oakran  into  Ihem  and  then  coating  them  with  pitch. 
The  same  word  is  used  also  for  a  process  by  whicli  the  joints  of 
boilers,  &e.,  are  made  steam-tight  by  the  use  of  a  specially 
formed  C- chisel. 

Oaulophyll'tiln,  a  genus  of  perennial  herbaceous  plants  be- 
longing to  the  oi-der  BerUtuiaces,  the  rhizomeof  C.  thaliclroides. 
The  '  Elue  Cohosh,'  the  only  species,  Is  a  native  of  N.  America, 
Japan,  and  Manchuria  ;  It  is  a  stimulating  and  slightly  narcotic 
tonic,  said  to  be  useful  in  some  uterine  afleciions. 

Oaulop'teris,  a  genus  of  large  extinct  and  fossil  Trif-fems 
occurring  in  the  Devonian  and  Carboniferous  formations,  and 
represented  by  numerous  species.  The  stems  were  hollow, 
and  bear  exteraal  markings  of  leaf-scars,  as  seen  in  livmg  tree- 
Cause.  '  To  have  the  Idea  of  C.  and  effect.  It  suffices  to 
consider  any  simple  idea  6f  substance  as  beginning  to  exist  by  the 
operation  of  some  other,  viithout  knowing  the  manuer  of  that 
operation^  Locke  further  carefully  distinguishes  the  cases  of 
^cation  (in  which  something  previously  not  existent  is  produced), 
generation,  and  alteratioii.  Modem  applied  logic  has  preferred 
to  define  C.  as  the  assemblage  of  conditions,  positive  and  nega- 
five,  under  which  a  phenomenon  Is  produced ;  but  general 
usage,  both  popular  and  scientific,  agrees  with  Locke  in  calling, 
e.g.,  heat  the  cause  of  fluidity  in  wax  ;  it  is  the  positive  condi- 
tion which,  when  added,  detaclies  the  result.  In  dealing  wllh 
both  the  Ic^cal  and  the  psychological  doctrine  of  causation,  It 
must  be  remembered,  howiver;  that  the  necessity  of  the  connec- 
tion between  the  C,  however  defined,  and  Its  effect  is  purely 
abstract  Exclude  the  possibility  of  disturbing  conditions,  the 
effect  will  be  reproducei  The  uniformity  of  nature,  which  Is 
said  to  depend  on  the  law  of  universal  causation,  does  not  assume 
that  an  effect  which  has  been  once  piroduced  will  ever  again  be 
produced  anywhere  j  It  assumes  that,  as  regards  successions  of 
phenomena  which  are  causally  related,  A  =  A;  in  other  words, 
that  the  scarcely  intelligible  conception  of  'chance '  has  nothing 
to  do  with  the  Euccessloa  of  events.  The  history  of  the  Idea,  of 
C  shows  that  m  one  stage  of  speculation  it  was  universally 
believed  that  the  'reason  wJiy',  things  take  place  in  one  way, 
and  not  In  another,  could  be  obtained.  The  physical  opxai  of 
the  early  Greek  philosOTihy  were  understood  as  explaining  the 
universe.  Tlmasus,  tbi  Locrian,  found  in  the  words  Intelli- 
gence and  Necessity  the  iwo'  real  causes  of  all  things,  Aristotle 
believed  that  the  formal  C.  or  essence,  the  material  C.  or 
ince,  the  motor  or  efficient  C.,  and  the  final  C.  were 
ere  ideas,  biit  external  forces,  which  made  the  world  of 
Intelligible.  Indeed,  the  collection  of  'First  Causes'  by 
the  Abbe  Batteux  (Par.  1769)  fills  a  considerable  volume.  In 
modern  Europe  the  pious  Malebranclie  spoke  of  God  as  the 
one  efficiertt  C,  assisted  by  occasional  causes ;  Cudworlh  and 
Leclerc  Invented  a  plastic  nature,  and  Leibnitz  found  a  sufilcient 
reason  for  all  things  In  the  monads.  It  was  Newton  and  Locke 
that  first  aliandoned  the  search  Into  the  'manner  of  operation,' 
Hume  reduced  the  idea  of  causation  to  that  of  invariable  sequence, 
adding  that  custom  was  the  sole  ground  for  expecting  uniform- 
ity In  the  future  ;  and  this  conception  was  to  some  extent  worked 
out  by  Thomas  Brown  In  an  essay  which  was  his  first  and 
iphysics.     The  lutuitionalist  school  protested 


yLaOOgle 


OAU 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


,e  scliool  classed  the 


leoftlie 


possible?'  Kant  suggested  the  existence  of  forms  of  lliouglil 
categories  of  the  uiirievstanding,  of  wliich  causality  w£  ■ 
goiy  of  relation.  The  Scotch  Common-ser 
belief  in  causation  as  fundamental ;  while 
by  Royer-Collard,  De  Biron,  Jouffroy,  &c,  tliat  the  idea  of 
power  in  volition  was  transferred  'by  the  mind  to  external  jdie- 
nomena,  tfie  snecesaions  of  which  it  made  intelHgible.  This  was 
not  thought  to  be  uiconsistent  with  a  belief  in  the  free,  i.e.,  un- 
caused  determinations  of  the  hnman  will,  which  was  thus  made 
the  type  of  invaiiahle  sequence.  Sir  William  Hamilton  held  that 
the  necessity  of  the  causal  judgment  fmise  from  the  inability  of 
the  mind  to  conceive  of  any  change  in  the  '  complement  of 
existence,'  a  doctrine  which  he  extended  even  to  the  case  of 
creation.  The  Psydiological  school,  on  flie  other  hand,  contend 
that  the  belief  in  the  necessitj;  of  causes  is  a  case  of  inseparable 
association,  formed  by  the  universal  and  inherited  experience  of 
(he  human  race,  and  intensified  by  that  stroi^  expectation  and 
proneness  to  believe  in  the  extension  of  past  experience,  however 
slight,  which  are  characteristic  of  healthy  minds  before  they  have 
undergone  scientific  training.  Although  Mr  Lewes  has  lately 
revived  the  doctrine  of  the  followers  of  Lelbniti,  tbat  the  belief 
in  causation  rests  upon  the  axioms  of  identity  and  non-contra- 
diction, the  majority  of  this  school  admit  that,  in  all  reasoning 
from  the  past  to  the  future,  there  is  a  tacit  assumption  of  invari- 
able sequence,  for  which  our  only  evidence  is  experience  of  the 
past.  This  is  differently  put  by  Mr  Spencer,  who  appeals  to 
the  inconceivability  of  causeless  events  as  the  most  direct  and 
trustworthy  evidence  of  universal  experience.  As  inconceiv- 
abihty  may  be  produced,  however,  by  very  much  less  than 
universal  experience,  and  has  even  been  known  to  I'esist  contra- 
dictory evidence!  this  test  cannot  be  deemed  satisfactory,  even 
when  confined  to  the  minds  of  leading  scientific  men.  The  view 
that  ihe  consciousness  aiwill,  whetheras  control  over  vtditions  or 
control  over  muscular  action,  supplies  us  with  an  explanation  of 
productive  power  in  external  causes  is  still  very  popular  :  many 
theologians  regarding  it  as  essential  in  the  demonstration  of  an  in- 
telligent Fiist, C.  which  constantly  sustains  natore ;  ^conclusion 
which  tliey  consider  to  l>e  confirmed  by  the  scientific  doctr 
correlation  of  forces.  Others  insist  that  the  doctrine  of  i 
merely  affirms  a  particular  C.  for  every  event,  and  not ! 
C.  for  the  sum  of  all  effects  or  events. 

Caus'tio  substances  are  tliose  which  con'ode  th    ki 
organised   tissues.      Ordinary  or  lunar   C.  is   n 
(AgNOs) ;  C.  potash,  the  hydrate  of  potassium  (       O 

Gaustio,  in  optics,  is  the  curve  or  surface  of       m       m 
sections  of  rays  of  light,  which  have  been  eithei      fl       d       m 
a  surface  or  refracted   through  a   medium,  th        g      g 
respectively  to  catacausfic  and  diacaustic  curves      T      C    p 
duced  by  the  reflection  of  parallel  rays  from  the  m 
a  circle  is  a  curve  of  the  sixth  degree,  being  the 
epitrochoid.     In  the  case  of  the  paraboloid  of  re  n,         C 

is  reduced  to  a  point,  i.e.,  all  the  rays  when  reflec  p 
rately  through  one  poinL  The  nature  oidiacaus  h 
BO  fully  studied  ;  hut  the  curve  produced  by  refraction  at  a 
straight  Ime  is  theevolute  of  .that  ellipse  whose  fod  are  the  lumi- 
nous point  and  its  image  by  reflection.  See  Malns's  T&hrii  de  'la 
Donbh  R^ractim  and  Salmon's  Higher  Plain  Curves  for  de- 
tailed information. 

Cau'lion,  Can'tionEtry.  In  the  law  of  Scotland,  where  one 
person  becomes  security  for  another,  he  is  said  to  become  C,  or 
to  undertake  a  cautionaiy  obligation  for  him.  According  to  Stair, 
C.  is  'the  promise  or  contract  of  one  not  for  himself  hnt  for 
another.'  The  analogous  term  in  English  law  is  Guaront)' (q.  v. ). 
A  probative  writing  is  required  to  constitute  the  obligation.  A 
cautioner  who  pays  a  debt  has  a  claim  of  relief  against  the  prin- 
-  cipal,  and  in  support  of  this  he  can  oblige  the  creditor  to  assign 
the  debt  and  any  security  held  by  him ;  and  should  this  support 
be  cat  off  by  any  act  of  the  creditor,  the  C.  is  freed  from  his 
"■  -■-  ■  -  "ioner  may  sue  the  principal  debtor  to  be 
ilion  under  certain  drcnmstances  before  the 
negligence  to  take  a  l^al  step  on  the  part 
t  usually  free  a  C.  from  Uability.  The  loss 
in  case  of  delay  in  intimating  dishonour  of  a  bill  of 
exchange  is  an  exception  to  this  rule.  See  Bill  of  Exchange. 
With  regard  to  cautioners  for  the  due  performance  of  an  office, 
the  rules  are— That  having  engaged  for  the  officer's  fidelity,  they 
are  not  entiiled  to  wilhdmw  suddenly,  though  they  may  do  " " 


lodost 


only  wiihdra 

Judidal  Cauiirmary  is  an  obligation  for  appearance  or  for  pay. 
It.     Caution  judids  sisli  obliges  the  cautioner  to  produce  hi~ 
for  whom  he  is  bound  at  all  diets  of  court  when  i-equired. 

of  failure  to  do  so,  the  bond  is  forfeited,  and  the  caulionei 
rs  the  penalty  without  the  benefit  of  discussion.    Acautionei 
Judicis  sisli  may  at  any 
ducing  tlie  principal  in  i 


after  reasonable  notice  5  and  that  on  the  death  of  the  ci 
the  obligation  will  subsist  against  his  represenlativ 


nlhe,sa 


e  conditions  which  would  have  ( 


titled 


In 


obligation 

Caution  Juratory. 
venlory  of  his  effect; 
This  is  called  C.  J. 


-When  any  one  is  unable  to  find  C,  ai 
may  be  made  up  and  assigned  as  secu 
See  Bail. 


obligati 
relieved  of  his 
debt  is  paid, 
of  a  creditor  will 


Cau'very,  or  KaVarl,  one  of  the  most  useful  riveis  of  Indii 
rises  in  the  Western  Ghauts,  has  awmding  course  in  Mysore  an 
Madras,  and  enters  Uie  Bay  of  Bengal  130  miles  S.  of  Madra: 
through  many  streams  (largest,  tlie  Colenin),  after  a  course  c 
47a  miles.  Its  delta  is  in  the  district  of  Tanjore,  and  extend 
along  the  coast  for  80  miles.  The  railways  from  Beypur  an 
Madras  unite  at  Erode  on  its  right  bank,  and  a  line  then  rui 
parallel  with  its  stream,  in  a  direction  S.E.  and  E.  to  the  Naga- 
patam  terminus  on  the  coast,  a  distance  of  150  miles. 

Oa'va,  an  intoxicating  and  narcotic  liquor,  made  from  the 
rhiiome  of  Mecropiper  msthysticum  (natural  order  Fi/dracea), 
in  the  South  Sea  Islands. 

Oava,Iia,  a  flourishing  town  of  Italy,  province  of  Salerno,  on 
the  Naples  and  Saienio  Railway,  3i  miles  N.W.  of  the  latter. 
Cottons  and  linens  are  here  manufactured.  Pop.  19,48a  Near 
it  is  the  famous  Benedictine  monastery  of  the  Trinity,  with  "- 
valuable  libj-ary  of  manuscrijits  (6o,ooo)  and  parchment  r 
(40,000),  and  a  chupch  containing  the  tombs  of  various  a 

Oavaign-ao,  Louis  ihrgSne,  an  illustrious  French  soldier 
and  politician,  the  son  of  a  member  of  the  National  Convention, 
who  afterwards  became  one  of  Mural's  state  coundUors  in  the 
kingdom  of  Naples,  was  bom  in  Paris,  isth  October  iSoz. 
^fter  a  mililaay  training  in  Paris  and  Melz,  he  served  in  the 
li  ocea  and  Algeria,  where,  in  spite  of  his  frankly  expressed  re- 
publican opinions,  he  rose  by  his  valour  and  resolute  energy  t" 
B  position  of  governor-genaal.  Recalled  to  Francebythe  r( 
olntion  of  li^,  he  was  elected  by  two  departments  to  a  seat  i 
he  National  AssenAly,  and  distinguished  himself  greatly  in  th 
isis.  By  the  skilful  manoeuvring  of  4is  troops  as  Minister  of 
War,  ht  -extinguislied  the  anarchic  insurrection  of  July,  and, 
nlike  most  conquerors  in  Freodi  conflicts,  was  merciful  to  the 
onquered.  He  stood  as  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency  of  the 
Republic  against  Louis  Napoleon,  and  obtained  a  million  and  a 
■ilf  of  votes,  Gnthec««ti/V/'a(ofDecemberl85l,C,  wasimpri- 
oned,  but  soon  released.  He  steadily  declmed  to  recognise  the 
Second  Empire,  but  was  allowed  to  remain  in  France,  where  he 
became  a  direcler  of  the  .Sift'/f  newspaper.  He  died  unexpectedly 
of  heart  disease  at  his  country  seat  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Mans,  28th  October  1857,  and  was  buried  in  the  presence  of  a 
great  crowd  at  Montmartre  cemetery.  C.  was  an  able  soldier, 
a  pointed  speaker,  and  a  suicere  but  moderate  republican.— 
Oode&oi  C.,  elder  brother  of  the  preceding  (born  1801,  died 
1845),  was  an  able  republican  politician.  He  was  one  of  the 
foundei-s  of  the  famous  Reforme  journal,  and  also  published 
Cardiiuil  I>ubo!s,  ou  Tout  Chemin  mine  3  Rome,  and  Une  Tiierie 
de  Cosaques,  Scene  ff  Invasion  {Par.  1831). 

Cavalier'(F*.  introduced  ultheiethc  from  die Ital.ooi'o/iirf, 
from  the  Lat,  cabalius,  'a  horse'),  originally  a  horse-soldier,  then 
synonymous  with  knight,  and  in  this  sense  given  to  the  Royalist 

I^rtyint--'^ ''•'••■■•      ^        '  -^^     '     "---'—■- 

oppositioJ 

Cavalier,  in  fortification,  a  defence-work  whose  rampart  is 
raised  several  feet  above  tlie  ramparts  of  tie  fortress  in  which  it ' 
formed.  It  serves  either  to  defilade  them  from  the  fire  of  an  enemy 
on  a  neighbouring  height,  or  to  send  a  plunging  fire  into  the 
trenches  of  besiegers,  and  for  this  purpose  it  mounts  heavy  ord- 
nance. The  C  is  generally  constructed  on  the  level  ground,  or 
leire-fliinc  of  a  bastion,  and  may  be  bounded  either  by  curved 
or  straight  sides. 

63 


vLiOOQle 


CAV 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


iofCune( 


Cavall'er-Maggio're,  an  old  town  in  t 
N.  Italy,  with.'  some  trade  in  agiicultnral  produce.      It  pi 
the  remains  of  two  old  castles.     Pop.  5300. 

OaValry  (Fr,  cavaltrk,  introduced  in  the  I6th  c   from  the 
Ital.  cavalleria,  Lat.  caballus,  'ahorse'),  a militair term app  ed 
all  horse-Eoldiets.    In  the  Biitish  aimy  the  C.  is  <Uvided  into  L 
Guards,  the  Reds,  of  which  there  are  two  regiments ;  H 
Guards,  or  Blues,  one  raiment ;  Dragoon  Guards,  seven  regim  n 
Dragoons,  Lancers,  and  Hussars,  of  which  three  designations  h 
are  twenty-one  regiments.    The  Life  and  Horse  Guards  are 
the  Household  C,  the  others  are  the  C.  of  the  line.     Cuiras 
(q.  V. )  is  a  terra  applied  to  Continental  C. ,  but  does  not  now  d 
scribe  ofBdali^  any  regiment  of  the  British  army.    Mounted  Riiles 
is  a  phrase  of  comparatively  recent  importation  into  the  service. 
On  the  Continent  a  distinction  is  made  between  Heavy  and  Light 
C. ,  and  it  is  carefully  observed  regarding  both  men  and  horses. 
The  Heavy  C.  charge  the.  enemps  horse  and  foot,  attack  his 
guns,  and  cover  retreats.     The  Light  C.   reconnoitre,  carry  de- 
spatches, maintain  outposts,  act  as  scouts  and  explorers  of  a  hos- 
tile country,  pursue  fugitives,  and  discliai^e  generally  all  duties 
requiring  rapidity  of  movement.     In  the  Franco-German  war  of 
iSjo,  the  Uhlans,  a  regiment  of  Heavy  C,  and  the  Hussars  and 
Dragoons,  Light  C. — tliey  were  all  caEed  Uhlans — were  em- 
ployed inthe  latter  kind  of  service  to  an  extent  unprecedented 
in  history.      The  scout,  attended  by  at  least  one  companion, 
advanced — sometimes  many  miles  in  front  of  the  army  to  which 
he  belonged^ — into  villages  and  farmhouses,  demanded  food  and 
forage,  got  what  news  he  could,  and  sent  it  back,  if  important, 
to  his  commander.     The  official  distinction  made  among  Britisli 
C,  accordingto  the  Army  R^;ulations  of  I S73,  is  Heavy,  MeMum, 
and  Light.    The  Heavy  are  the  Life-Guards,  Horse-Guards,  4th 
and  5thDmgoon  Guards,  and  1st  and  2d  Dragoons;  the  Medium 
are  the  1st,  2d,  3d,  6th  and  7th  Dragoon   Guards,   the  6th 
Dragoons,  Ae  5th,  9th,  12th,  l6th,  and  17th  Lancers;  the  Light 
are  aE  the  Hussars,  and  comprise  the  3d,  4th,  7th,  8lh,  loth,  nth, 
13th,  14th,  I5lh,  i8fh,  19th,  20th  and  2  ist  regiments.    A  regiment 
of  the  C.  of  the  line  has  generally  eight  troops,  each  made  up  of 
55  rank  and  file,  and  has,  as  officers,  a  colonel,  a  lieuteni 
colonel,  a  major,  S  captains,  iS  subalterns  and  other  comi 
sioned  officers,  and  59  non-commissioned  ofiicers — 88  in 
The  cost  to  the  country  of  a  full  regiment  of  C.  is  about  ^^25, 
a  year  for  horses,  accoutrements,  clothing,  and  pay.    A  lieuteni 
colonel  in  the  Guards  ranks  with  a  colonel  of  the  line,  an 
major  in  the  former  with  a  heutenant-colonel  of  the  latter.    C 
terbury  is  the  C,  depot  for  this  country.     According  to  the  army 
estimates  laid  before  the  House  of  Commons  in  the  session  1874, 
there  were  in  the  Life  and  Horse  Guards  Si  officers. 


cers,  1166  non-commissioned  officers,  trumpeters,  and  drummers, 
and  9906  rank  and  .file —total,  11,622.  The  entire  C.  service 
therefore,  numbered  12,924.  In  1S73  the  total  number'wa; 
13,051 ;  the  highest  number  since  1815,  when  it  was  14,913 
in  1810  it  was  20,405;  in  iSoS,  17,839;  in  iSoo,  14,003. 


„  t  cavaliy 

have  been  referred  to  in  the  previous  article.  The  threefold 
division  of  that  arm  of  the  service  which  obtains  in  this  country 
renders  their  separate  duties  less  easily  definable,  and  is  said  to 
impair  the  C.  T.  When  an  attack  is  going  to  be  made  by  cavalry, 
they  are,  when  the  numbers  are  sufficient  to  admit  of  the  arrange- 
ment, grouped  into  an  attacking,  a  supporting,  and  a  reserve 
body.  Thus  at  the  famous  charge  of  the  Light  Brigade  at  Bala- 
klavB,  the  attack  was  made  by  the  13th  Light  Dragoons,  the 
17th  Lancers,  the  4th  Light  Dragoons,  and  the  nil)  Hussais ; 
the  "support  consisted  of  the  8th  Royal  Irish  Hussars ;  and  the 
reserve  consisted  of  the  Heavy  Cavalry  Brigade,  which  covered 
the  retreat  of  the  survivors.  The  attack  On  cavalry  is  made  in 
line  ;  on  infiintiy,  in  column;  and  on  artillery,  en  &hdon  (q.  v.). 
Cavalry  cannot  fight  at  a  distance  ;  and  when  two  bodies  of  this 
force  come  close,  they  rarely  continue  the  struggle — one  of  them 
usually  turning  to  gallop  off,  and  the  other  pursuing  it  for  a  time. 
Cavalry  seldom  win  a  victoiy  ;  they  prepare  for  it,  and  secure  its 
best  results,  but  the  work  of  actually  wmning  is  usually  done  by 
infantry  and  artillery.  The  gallop  in  which  a  chaise  is  made  is 
at  the  rate  of  1 1  miles  an  hour  ;  the  trot  in  manceuvring,  S  miles  ; 
and  the  walk  on  general  service,  4  mites  an  hour.  There  is  no 
64 


fixed  proportion  generally  observed  between  cavahj  and  infantry 
inthe  armies  of  Europe.  In  the  British  service  the  proportion 
is  about  I  to  8  ;  in  Russia,  I  to  6 ;  in  France  and  Austria,  1 
to  5  ;  in  Frussia  and  Bavaria,  1  to  4. 

Cav'ail  (Irish  Gael,   cabhan,   'a  hollow'),  the  capital  of  a 

ty         he  same  name,  Ireland,  and  a  station  on  the  N.   W. 

R  miles  N.W.  of  Dublin,  lies  in  a  hollow  on  the  C, 

mall       butary  of  the  Annalee.      It  has  a  court  of  justice,  a 

rmary,  barracks,  a  fine  public  garden,  and  some  local 

h   fly  in  agricultural  produce.     Pop.  (1871)  3532. 

Gavan  a  county  of  Ireland,  in  the  S.W.  of  the  province  of 
U  an  area  of  746  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.   {1871)  of 

■4<^73S;  of  whom  113,174  were  Roman  Catholics,  and  21,223 
Episcopalians.  It  is  mountainous  in  the  N.W.,  and  is  watered 
by  the  Erne,  Croghan,  Annalee,  &c.  It  has  alKi  several  lakes, 
of  which  the  chief  are  Longhs  Oughter,  Sbeelan,  and  Ramor. 
In  1871  one-third  of  the  surface  was  under  tillage,  producing 
oats,  flax,  turnips,  and  potatoes ;  nearly  a  half  in  pasture  ;  a 
ninth  m  bog,  mountain',  &c  ;  and  there  were  some  5700  acres  in 
plantation,  C.  is  the  most  productive  mineral  county  of  Ulster, 
yielding  coal,  iron,  copper,  lead,  and  limestone.  Its  only  con- 
siderable industry  is  the  linen  manufacture. 

Gavarze're.a  town  of  Italy,  province  of  Venice,  on  the  river 
Adige,  25  miles  S.S.W.  of  tlie  city  of  Venice.  The  river  divides 
it  into  C.  destro  and  C.  sinistro — the  S.  and  N.  sides  of  the  city. 
C.  has  an  active  trade  in   cattle,  silk,  and  firewood.     Pop. 

CaTati'na,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  the  simpler  and  more 
song-like  operatic  arias. 

Oftve,  Kdward,  was  born  at  Newton,  Warwickshire,  29th 
February  1691,  educated  at  Rugby,  went  to  London,  where  he 
became  a  printer,  and  afterwards  held  a  place  in  the  post-office. 
In  1 73 1  he  fotmded  the  Gentlonaiit  Magaunt,  the  forerunner  of 
the  many  literary  journals  amid  which  it  still  exists.  He  died 
roth  January  1754. 

Oftve,  William,  an  English  divine,  was  bom  at  Pickwell, 
Leicestershire,  30th  December  1637.  He  studied  at  Cambridge, 
was  appointed  to  the  vicarage  of  Islington,  Middlesex,  in  1662, 
afterwards  became  chaplain  to  Charles  II. ;  in  1679  was  collated 
to  the  rectory  of  All  Hallows  the  Great,  and  in  1684  was  in- 
stalled  canon  of  Windsor.  He  died  4th  August  1713.  His  chief 
works  are  Primitive  Christianity  <Lond,  1674) ;  Antiquilalfs 
Apostolica  (1676),  a  continuation  of  Jeremy  Taylor's  AniiquUatis 
ChristiatUBi  Apostolici  {\(>1fi ;  and  Scriptorum  Ecdesiasticorum 
Historia  Liierca-ia  (168S-98).  The  last  of  these — his  most  im- 
portant work — was  republished  at  Oxford,  1740-43. 

.GarVeat  is  a  law  term  signifying  an  intimation  made  to  the 
proper  officer  to  prevent  any  step  being  taken  without  warning 
to  the  person  lodging  the  C,  so  that  he  may  appear  and  object 
to  it.  In  England,  the  term  is  specially  applied  to  a  process 
entered  m  the  spiritual  courts  to  restrain  the  mstitution  of  a  clerk 
to  a  benefice,  or  to  restrain  probate  of  a  will. 


I,  Henrjr,  the  famotis  chemist  and  natural  philo- 
sopher, was  bam  at  Nice,  October  10,  1731.  He  was  a  son  of 
Lord  Charles  Cavendish,  and  brother  of  the  great-grandfather 
of  the  present  Duke  of  Devonshire.  He  studied  for  four  years 
at  Cambridge,  and  then  retired  into  great  privacy,  much  to  the 
dissatisfaction  of  all  his  relatives,  except  an  uncle,  who  made 
C.  heir  to  his  lai^e  fortune.  His  tastes  were  always  shnple,  his 
manners  eccentric  and  very  reserved  ;  so  much  so,  that  he  fixed 
his  fine  hbrary  at  a  distance  from  his  house,  so  as  not  to  I>e  dis- 
turbed by  visitors.  The  number  of  his  papers  in  the  Phiioso- 
pMcal  Transaciitms  can  give  no  idea  of  the  immense  services 
which  he  rendered  to  physical  science.  His  investigations  on 
carbonic  acid  gas,  on  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen,  and  seve- 
ral of  their  compounds,  form  one  of  the  greatest  epochs  in  the 
prc^;ress  of  chemistry.  His  analytic  and  synthetic  proofs  of  the 
composition  of  water  would  alone  entitle  him  to  a  first  place  ; 
while  the  perfection  of  his  processes,  the  accuracy  of  his  reason- 
ing, and  the  soundness  of  his  views,  taken  in  connection  with  his 
important  discoveries,  show  him  to  have  been  a  true  philosopher, 
worthy  the  name  of  the  '  Newton  of  chemistry. '  C.  also  wrote 
several  papers  on  electricity,  on  astronomical  instruments,  and  is 
further  noted  for  his  determination  of  the  mean  density  of  the 


yLaOogle 


CAV 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CAV 


OaveiviiBli,  Thomaa, 
Elizabethan  age,  was  born 
the  University  of  Cambridg 
Raleigh  to  Vii^inia,  and  s 
ships  in  July  1586,  to  levy 


Earth  (q.  v.).  He  died  February  24,  1810,  leaving  behind  him  a 
fortune  of  more  than  a  million  sterling.  See  DaJton's  ij/sc/'C, 
pablished  by  the  Cavendish  Society  (Lond.  1S54). 

e  of  the  great  navigators  of  the 
Suffolk  in  1560,  and  studied  at 
He  first  accompanied  Sir  Walter 
I  after  his  return  fitted  out  thvee 
intributions  on  the  Spaniards  on 
the'W,  coast  of''Araerica. '  After  toucliing  the  coast  of  Patago- 
nia, he  rounded  Cape  Horn,  sailed  M.  to  California,  where  he 
captured  a  Spanish  galleon  loaded  with  treasure,  and  returned 
by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  England,  vi-here  he  lauded,  9th 
September  1588.  His  voyage  is  chiefly  remarkable  as  being 
the  shortest  round  the  world  that  had  up  to  that  time  been 
made.  A  second  voy;^  was  not  so  successful ;  his  crew  muti- 
nied, and  C.  died  of  vexation  in  1592,  on  the  coast  of  Eraidl. 
From  him  '  Cavendish'  tobacco  takes  its  name. 

Oavendish,  William,  Duke  of  Newcastle,  an  enthusiastic 
Royalist,  was  the  son  of  Sir  Charles  Cavendish,  younger  brother 
of  the  first  Earl  of  Devonshire,  and  bom  1592.  Origmally  a 
favourite  of  James  I.,  he  was  made  Earl  of  Newcastle  by 
Charles  I.,  who  intrusted  him  with  the  education  of  his  son, 
afterwards  Charles  II.  On  the  civil  war  breaking  out,  C.  sup- 
ported the  royal  cause  in  the  N.  with  much  spirit,  and  for  a  time 
with  some  success.  After  the  battle  of  Marston  Moor  he  retired 
to  the  Continent  till  the  Restoration,  when  he  was  made  a  duke. 
He  died  December  25,  1676.  C,  wrote  a  book  on  the  manage- 
ment of  horses,  ajid  some  plays  and  poems  entirely  void  of  merit. 
C.'s  Life  was  written  1™  his  wife. — Margaret  C.,  Duchess  of 
Newcastle,  second  wife  of  the  above,  and  a  daughter  of  Sir 
Charles  Lucas,  was  bom  about  1592,  married  m  1645,  and  died 
n  1673.  She  is  remarkable  for  writing  nineteen  plays  and  ten 
folio  voiuiues  in  prose  and  verse,  which,  though  pmised  at  the 
time  of  publication,  are  now  generally  admitted  to  be  utterly 
worthless.  Among  them  are  The  Worlds  Olio,  nature's  Pic- 
ture, Orations  of  Divirs  Sorts,  Philaophical  Letters,  PBe?as  and 
Phancies,  and  SodaUe  Letters. 

Caves  or  OaVerns,  the  name  applied  to  hollow  excavations 
in  the  earth  or  in  the  rocks  of  the  earth's  crust,  and  which 
have  been  formed  either  by  art  or  nature.  The  physical  agen- 
of  most  repute  in  forming  C.  are  water  generally  and  the 

By  tlie  slow  percolation  and  drippmg  of  water  on  rocks 

of  soft  or  dissolvable  nature  (e-g.,  lunestone),  aided  hj  chemi- 
cal action,  C.  are  hollowed  out ;  and  similarly  by  the  eroding 
action  of  the  aea-waves  caverns  on  the  sea-coasts  are  formed. 
In  some  cases,  the  tush  of  inland  water  towards  the  sea,  and 
the  force  of  the  sea-waves  from  without,  may  together  combine 
to  form  caverns.  Inland  C.  sometimes  afford  valuable  evi- 
dence to  the  geologist  of  the  former  sites  and  scenes  of  sea- 
action,  The  well-known  Mammoth  C,  of  Kentucky,  which 
penetrate  mtemdly  for  miles  in  numerous  branches,  are  exam- 
ples of  C.  which  have  been  formed  by  the  solvent  action  of 
underground  water  on  limestone  rocks.  These  latter  rocks,  in- 
deed, are  those  which  most  frequently  are  so  eroded  to  form 
caverns.  The  oolitic  limestone  is  in  this  way  perforated  in 
various  parts  of  the  world.  In  the  nearly  allied  triassic  rocks, 
many  of  which  contain  easily  dissolvable  materials,  C  are  also 
found  J  and  the  formations  or  lime-pillars  known  as  Stalaciites 
(q.  v.)  and  Stalagmites  (q.v. )  found  in  iimestone  caverns  are  formed 
by  the  dripping  of  water  containing  calcareous  salts,  which,  in 
the  course  of  years,  are  deposited  to  form  solid  pillat-like  struc- 
tures. In  igneous  rocks  {e.g.,  Fingal'a  Cave,  Stafia),  C.  are 
occasionally  met  with ;  and  in  lava  formations  (as  in  Iceland, 
&c.),  they  may  also  be  formed.  The  interiors  may  be  incrusted 
with  calcareous  matter,  which  is  frequently  coloured,  or  may 
be  pure  white,  and  may  light  up  the  C.  with  a  brilliant  lustre. 
C.  afford  valuable  evidence  to  the  palEeontologist,  from  the  fact 
that  deposits  of  organic  remains  are  frequently  found  in  them. 
Tliia  ^et  depends,  firstly,  on  their  having  been  used  as  habi- 
tations by  the  animals  {e.g.,  Kirkdale  Cave  in  Yoikshu^) ;  or 
secondly,  ammals  may  h^e  accidentally  lallen  into  and  died  in 
the  C.  ;  or  thirdly,  and  more  commonly,  the  rivers  and  streams 
flowing  into  the  cavern,  have  swept  into  it,  along  with  debris, 
the  remains  of  animals,  which,  in  either  of  these  three  cases, 
have  become  entombed  amid  the  stalagmitic  calcareous  crust 
forming  the  floor  of  the  cave.  Thus,  in  the  Cave-deposits  of  Eng- 
84 


land,  the  remains  of  man,  of  hysenas,  of  bears,  of  the  mammoth, 
rhinoceros,  bison,  hippopotamus,  and  many  other  genera  of  mam- 
mals now  extinct  or  foreign  to  Britain,  have  been  discovered. 

OaViare  (in  the  i6th  c.  caiiial,  from  the  Ital.  caviale ;  per- 
haps from  the  Turk,  ha-aiir ;  the  Russian  name  is  ikra),  the  roe 
of  the  sturgeon  preserved  by  salting,  and  very  highly  esteemed 
in  Russia  as  a  food  delicacy.  A  considerable  trade  exists  m  the 
article,  the  chief  seat  of  which  is  at  Astrakhan,  on  the  Volga, 
and  it  brings  a  high  price  in  Russian  markets. 

Oavicor'nia  ( '  hollow  homed '),  the  family  or  group  of 
Eaniinanl  mammalia,  including  the  oxen  {Bovidee),  sheep  and 
goats  (Ovids),  and  antelopes  {Antilopidis).  The  upper  jaw  in 
all  is  destitute  of  incisors  and  canme  teeth,  and  the  lower  incisors 
bite  against  the  hardened  gum  in  the  front  of  the  upper  jaw. 
The  lower  jaw  has  six  incisors,  two  canines,  and  twelve  molars ; 
the  latter  separated  by  a  wide  interval  fiom  the  canme  teeth. 
Both  sexes  (as  generalhr  in  sheep  and  goats),  or  the  males  only 
(as  in  some  genera  of  antelopes},  may  possess  horns.  These 
horns,  it  is  to  be  noted,  are  hollow  structures,  consisting  each  of 
a  hollow  sheath  of  horn  surrounding  a  central  bony  core.  They 
are  not  deciduous  or  shed,  as  in  the  Cemidis  or  Deer  (q.  v.),  but 
pemianent.  The  feet  are  clefl,  and  provided  with  two  accessory 
hoofs  at  the  back, 

Cavite,  the  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  in  the 
island  of  Luzon,  Philippines,  on  the  Bay  of  Manilla,  lo  miles 
S,S,W.  of  Manilla.  It  is  the  chief  naval  station  of  the  Philip- 
pines, and  has  manufactures  of  cigars.  Pop.  7000.  The  -pro- 
vince ai  C,,  which  yields  rice,  indigo,  sugar,  and  coffee,  has  a 
pop.  of  57,00a 

Cavor',  or  Oavonr',  a  town  of  N,  Italy,  province  of  Cuneo, 
on  a  feeder-of  the  Po,  in  a  marble  and  slate  quarrying  district, 
24  miles  S.S.W.  of  Turin.  Pop.  7000,  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  linen,  silk-twist,  &c 

Oa'vo-Ililie'vo,  an  Italian  compound,  meaning  '  hollow- 
relief,'  and  applied  to  a  species  of  carving  in  which  the  highest 
surface  of  the  object  represented  is  on  a  level  with  the  plane  of 
the  block,  the  rounded  sides  being  cut  into  it.  The  stone  carvers 
of  ancient  Egypt  employed  this  style  of  art. 

Cavoiir',  Oount  Camilla  Beneo  di,  the  greatest  Italian 
statesman  of  modern  times,  was  bom  of  a  noble  Piedmontese 
family  at  Turin,  August  I,  1810.  He  was  educated  originally 
for  the  army,  but  his  liberal  opinions  in  politics  compelling  him 
to  withdraw  from  the  public  service,  he  devoted  himself  to  agri- 
culture. He  paid  a  visit  to  England  (1835),  and  the  fruits  of 
this  visit  were  seen  when  he  returned  to  pubhc  life  in  1842,  and 
both  in  the  press  and  m  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  opposed 
extreme  Democratic  opinions,  while  he  advocated,  the  adoption 
of  a  Liberal  constitution  for  Sardinia.  During  a  second  visit 
to  England  in  1843,  he  carefully  studied  its  agricultural,  indus- 
trial, and  politico-social  condition.  After  the  disastrous  battle 
of  Novara,  C.  was  called  to  office,  and  filled  in  succession  the 
offices  of  Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Commerce,  Minister  of 
Marine,  and  Minister  of  Finance.  Finally  he  succeeded,  in 
185a,  the  Marquis  d'Aieglio  as  Premier,  From  that  period  to 
his  death,  6ih  June  1861,  the  history  of  Sardinia  may  be  said  to 
have  been  that  of  C.  It  was  he  who  introduced  free  trade,  and 
completed  the  remodelling  of  the  Sarduiian  constitution  upon 
that  of  England  ;  who  made  his  country  of  account  in  Europe 
by  making  it  the  ally  of  England  And  France  in  the  Crimean 
war,  and  who  conducted  the  war  with  Austria  in  1859.  With 
the  exception  perhaps  of  Garibaldi,  none  was  so  responsible  as 
he  for  the  events  which  led  to  King  Victor  Emanuel  being  made 
King  of  Italy.  Although  he  did  not  live  to  see  Venetia  and 
Rome  ceded  to  Italy,  he  must  be  considered  the  author  of  Italian 
unity.  "He  has  often  been  compared  to  Bismarck  (q.  v.},  but 
the  resemblance  is  superficial  Both,  it  is  true,  laboured  with 
indefatigable  eneigy  and  singular  skill  to  secure  the  unity  of  their 
respective  countries,  but  C  was  always  a  moderate  and  consti- 
tutional Liberal,  while  the  German  statesman,  though  surcharged 
(latterly)  with  patriotic  sentiment,  has  never  even  pretended  to 
respect  parliamentary  institutions.  Among  the  best  works  to 
consult  for  a  proper  idea  of  the  great  statesman  are  (E-mires  Par- 
lementaires  dtt  Comte  de  C,  by  his  secretary,  M,  Artom  ;  Leitres 
inidites  du  Comte  de  C,  &  M.  M,  Eataiai  (l86a) ;  and  above  all, 
Le  Comie  de  C,  BecUs  et  Souvenirs,  by  De  la  Rive  (Par.  1863}. 
65 


vGooQle 


CAV 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CEO 


-^ 


Ca'vr,  a  name  popularly  applied  to  animals  such  as  the 
Guinea-pig  {Cavia  aperea),  I'atagonian  C.  (DoUchotis  Fata- 
cAoii^cus),  &c,  included  in  the  Rodent  family  Cavidie,  which  is 
distinguished  by  tie  haiiy  nature  of  the  body-covering  and  by 
the  rudimentary  tail.  No  clavicles  are  developed.  The  ears  are 
short  and  the  nails  are  hoof-like.  The  molars  number  four  on  each 
side  of  each  jaw,  and  exhibit  complicated  foldings  of  their  enamel. 
The  common  Guniea-pig  is  a  true  rodent,  and  comes  from  S. 
America,  not  from  Africa,  as  its  name  would  lead  some  to  sup- 

Eose.  It  is  readily  tamed,  and  very  prolific.  The  colour  varies, 
ut  usually  con^ts  of  white,  red,  and  blaclt  patches,  differently 
disposed  m  different  individuals.  The  Capybara  (q.  v.)  is  also 
included  in  this  group,  and  the  Agoutis  (q.  v.)  form  another 
genus  [DasyprBCla)  of  the  family. 

Cawk,  the  term  applied  by  miners  to  a  massive,  earthy- 
looking  variety  of  the  mineral  sulphate  of  baryta,  or  heavy  spar, 
which  is  very  common  in  Derbyshire.     See  Barium. 

OftTraporG",  or  Hiaiipnr,  the  chief  town  in  a  district  of  the 
same  name,  N.W.  Province,  British  India,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Ganges,  at  the  junction  of  the  Rohilkund  and  Oude  Railway 
and  the  E.  Indian  line,  55  miles  S.W.  of  Lucknow.  It  is  of 
comparatively  recent  origin,  but  has  many  line  mostiues  and 
other  pubUc  bnildinga,  while  its  streets  are  rendered  shady  and 
picturesque  by  an  abundance  of  trees.  The  cantonments  here, 
which  before  the  mutiny  covered  6  miles  of  ground,  are  still 
among  the  Isjgest  in  India.  C.  has  considerable  trade  in  rice, 
indigo,  opium,  oil-seeds,  tobacco,  &c.  It  is  almost  as  cheap  a 
place  of  residence  as  Calcutta.  Pop.  (1871)  113,601.  C.  for- 
merly belonged  to  the  Nawab  of  Oude,  but  became  British  in 
1777.  Here  Nana  Sahib  brought  about  the  massacre  of  Z05 
British  women  and  children,  June  15,  1857.  The  disirktoiC, 
a  rich  alluvial  flat  stretching  between  the  Ganges  and"  Jumna,  has 
an  area  of  2353  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1871)  of  1,155,439- 

Oaxamar'oa,  a  town  of  Peru,  in  a  rich  silver  and  iron  mining 
district,  at  an  elevation  of  some  9000  ft.,  74  miles  N.N.W.  of 
Truxilia  Pop.  18,330,  engaged  chiefly  in  artifidng  alver  and 
iron  articles,  and  m  manufacturing  cotton  and  woollen  cloths. 
In  its  neighbourhood  are  the  hot  Baths  cfthi  Ineas.  C.  is  cele- 
brated in  history  as  the  scene  of  the  treacherous  capture  of  Ata- 
hnalpa  (q.  v.)  by  the  Spaniards.  It  gives  the  name  to  a  depart- 
ment,    Pop.  (1862)  173,000. 

Caxamarquill'a,  a  Peruvian  town  on  the  eastern  slope  of 
the  Andes,  in  the  department  of  Caxamarca,  65  miles  E.S.E.  of 
the  town  of  Caxamarca. 

Oax'ton,  ■William,  introducer  of  printing  into  England,  was 
bom  in  1412,  and  became  a  mercer  at  London,  and  freeman  "of 
the  Mercers'  Company.  In  1441  he  journeyed  to  Holland,  and 
in  1464  was  employed  as  'ambassador  and  special  deputy'  by 
Edward  IV.  to  frame  a  commercial  treaty  with  the  Duke  of 
Bui^undy,  C.  learned  Uieart  of  printing  in  the  Low  Countries, 
and  after  a  residence  at  the  household  of  Margaret  of  Bui^ndy, 
brought  it  into  England,  probably  in  1474,  His  press  was  set  up 
in  the  almonry  at  Westminster,  the  first  work  from  it  bemg  the 
Gante  and  Flaye  of  the  Chase ;  the  second,  Diclis  and  Notablt 
Wys^  Sayenges  of  the  Fhylosophcrs.  These  are  printed  in  black 
letter.  C.  was  busied  in  printing  ts  the  last  day  of  his  life,  and 
sixty-four  books  were  issued  in  twenty  years.  He  died  in  1491 
or  1492.  See  Lewis's  Ufe  of  C.  (Sto,  Lond.  1737) ;  Knight's 
Willuim  C,  a  Biogtaphy  (Lond,  1S44) !  Ames's  Typographical 
Antiquities  (iSio) ;  and  Blade's  Life  and  Typography  of  C.  (2 
vols.  Lond.  1862). 

Cajrenne',  the  capital  of  French  Guiana,  S.  America,  lies  on 
an  islet  near  the  coast,  and  at  the  mouth  of  a  small  river,  both 
of  the  same  name.  It  is  partly  well  built,  and  has  a  beautiful 
chorch  and  severd  other  fine  buildings.  Its  harbour  is  deep  and 
"commodious,  and  it  has  now  all  the  commerce  of  the  colony. 
The  exports  are  cotton,  coffee,  cloves,  maize,  gums,  &c  Fop. 
5aoa     The  climate  of  C.  is  hot  and  unhealtliy. 

Cayenne  Pepper  is  the  seeds  of  Capsicum  [q.  v.)  reduced 

Oay'inaii,  or  Oainiaii,  a  term  popularly  applied  to  Alligators 
(q.  v.),  but  also  given  generally  to  the  Crocsdilia  of  S.  America, 
which  include  species  of  true  crocodiles,  as  well  as  of  the  first- 
mentioned.     The  Alligator  palptbrosus  of  Surinam  and  Guiana 
65 


sometimes  receives  the  distinctive  title  of  'C    This  animal  is   . 
remarkable  for  a  circle  of  bony  plates  surrounding  each  eye  like 
an  eyebrow. 

Oazall'a  de  la  Sierr'a,  a  town  of  Spain,  province  of  Se- 
ville, 36  miles  N.E.  of  the  city  of  Seville.  The  principallndus- 
try  is  the  smelting  of  metals,  the  casting  of  cannon,  and  the 
manufaoturii^  of  machinery  and  agricultural  implements.  Tan- 
ning, weaving,  and  distilling  are  carried  on,  and  marble  is  quar- 
ried in  the  neighbourhood,      Pop.  upwards  of  6500. 

Oazorla,  a  city  of  Spain,  province  of  Jaen  (Andalusia),  on 
the  river  Vega,  41  miles  N.E.  of  Jaen ;  has  a  trade  in  fraits, 
grain,  and  cattle,  and  manufactures  of  leather,  soap,  bricks, 
wine,  and  oil.  C.  figured  in  the  contests  with  tlie  Moors  in  the 
I3tli  c.     Pop.  between  7000  and  8000, 

Ceano'tliiis.     See  Kedroot. 

Ceara',  or  Clara',  a  province  on  the  N.  coast  of  Brazil.  Area, 
50,260  sq.  miles;  pop,  550,000.  It  stretches  up  from  the  Atlantic 
in  tlie  form  of  an  amphitheatre.  The  principal  products  are  me- 
dicinal plants,  balsams,  gums,  and  resins ;  the  minerals  include 
gold,  silver,  iron,  copper,  lead,  salt,  saltpetre,  alum-stone,  and 
rock-crystal.  The  forests  furnish  exhaustless  supplies  of  timber, 
and  abound  in  game.  The  capital,  also  called  C.,  is  the  oldest 
town  in  the  province,  lies  on  a  bay  between  the  promontory  of 
Maiaranguape  in  the  N.  ami  the  tongue  of  land  Mocoripe,  and 
is  sometimes  named  Port  Mocoripe.  It  exports  coffee,  sugar, 
cotton,  and  has  a  pop,  of  12,000. 

Cebadill'a,  or  Oevadill'a.     See  Sabadilla. 

Ce'bus,  a  typical  genus  of  Plaiyrhine  [q.  v.)  or  S,  American 
monkeys,  forming  the  type  of  the  family  Cd>i4ie.  In  this  group 
there  are  four  incisors,  two  canines,  six  prsemolars,  and  six 
molars  in  each  jaw.  No  cheek-pouches  or  callosities  exist, 
and  the  jaw  may  either  be  naked  or  possess  whisker-lite  ap- 
pendages. The  Itul  is  long,  and  for  the  most  part  prehensile. 
The  thumbs,  if  present,  are  not  opposable  to  the  other  fingCTS, 
which  are  ail  provided  with  flattened  nails.  Numerous  species 
are  included  in  this  family,  and  in  the  typical  genus  Cebus.  The 
Capudiins  (q.  v.),  C.  afilla,  and  C.  cafuchintts  or  Sai,  the  homed 
sapajou  {C.faHullus),  &c. ,  are  familiar  genera.  The  genera  Col- 
lilhrix,  Myestes,  Ateles,  or  popularly  the  Squirrel  Monkeys  (q.  v.). 
Howlers  (q.  v.),  and  Spider  Monkeys  (q.  v.),  also  belong  to  it.    . 

Oeoido'insda,  a  genus  of  Diptsra  or  Flies,  included  in  the 
family  Tipulida.,  and  exemplified  by  the  C.  trilid  or  '  Wheat-dy ' 
(q,  v.),  and  by  the  dreaded  Hessian-fly  (C,  destructor)  of  the 
United  States,  which  attack  the  wheat  and  com  crops  respec- 
tively, Tiie  larvie  of  the  former  attack  the  flower  of  the  wheat 
and  destroy  the  plant ;  the  larvEe  of  the  latter  destroy  the  stem 
and  root.  C.  cerealis  destroys  the  barley  crops,  and  Is  hence 
known  as  the  '  barley  midge.'  This  fly  is  of  a  reddish  colour, 
has  wings  of  greyish  or  silvery  hue,  long  legs  and  antenna,  and 
downy  wings,  which  lie  horizontally  when  at  rest, 

Oec'il,  William,  Loi-d  Burleigh  or  Eurghley,  described 
by  a  biographer  as  the  boldest,  the  greatest,  and  the  gravest 
statesman  in  Christendom,  was  bom  September  13,  1520,  at 
Bourne,  Lincolnshire,  educated  at  St  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge (1535-40),  and  studied  law  at  Gray's  Inn,  showing  in 
the  course  of  his  studies  great  aptitude  for  learning,  especially 
in  law  and  theology.  In  the  last  year  of  Henry  VIII,  s  reign 
he  held  the  place  of  custos  bremam  in  the  Court  of  Common 
Pleas  i  while  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VL  he  secured,  through 
hisman-iagewithadaughterof  Sir  Anthony  Cook,  the  patronage 
of  the  Protector  Somerset,  became  privy  councillor  and  state 
secretary  (1550),  and  in  the  following  year  was  knighted.  In 
the  last  office  be  showed  himself  to  be  much  in  advance  of  his 
time  by  abolishmg  several  stated  monopolies,  and  endeavouring 
to  make  trade  free.  On  the  accession  of  Mary  he  resigned  of&ce, 
but  escaped  persecution.  Under  Elizabeth  he  obtained  the 
highest  honours  of  the  state,  and  was  till  his  death  her  trusted 
adviser,  whom  no  favourite  could  overthrow.  In  1571  he  was 
created  Baron  Burleigh,  and  in  1572  was  made  Lord  Treasurer, 
which  office  he  held  till  he  died,  lamented  by  the  mistress  whom 
he  had  served  with  perfect  fidelity,  August  15,  1598.  C.  was 
admirablyadaptedfor  thepost  he  filled,  being  a  man  of  no  strong 
passions  or  vices,  devoid  of  anything  like  feinalicism,  and  although 


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of  robust  sense,  disposed  to  serve  rather  than  to  thwart  Eliza- 
beth. Macaulay  has  said  of  him  with  truth,  that  he  was  'a 
moderate,  cautious,  flexible  minister,  skilled  in  the  details  of 
business,  competent  to  advise,  but  not  aspiiing  to  command,'  and 
that  he  'belonged  to  the  class  of  the  Walpoles,  the  Pelhams, 
and  the  Livecpools,  not  to  that  of  the  St  Johns,  the  Carterets, 
the  Chathams,  and  the  Cannings. '  See  Nares'  Manairs  of  ths 
Life  and  AdmSmstraiwn  of  WUliam  C,  Lord  B.  (3  vols.  Lond. 
1828-32).— Bobert  Cecil,  Earl  of  Salisbury,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  bom  about  15S°'  ^^  "^  educated  at  St  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  sat  in  Parliament  for  Westminster  and  the 
county  of  Hereford,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  the  favour  of 
Elizabetli,  On  her  death  he  was  continued  in  the,  ofEces  he 
held  by  James  I. ,  with  whom  he  had,  before  his  mistress's  death, 
been  in  secret  correspondence  ;  was  made  Earl  of  Salisbury  in 
160S,  and  on  the  death  of  Dorset,  Lord  Treasurer.  C.  was  a 
sagacious  and  energetic  statesman,  free  from  meanness  and  petty 
didionesty,  although  his  conduct  towards  Essex  and  Roleigli 
shows  him  in  an  unfavourable  light  as  cold  and  unscrupulous. 
He  died  May  24,  1612. 

Oeoil'ia,  St,  the  patroness  of  music,  according  to  the  legend 
of  her  life,  belonged  to  a  distinguished  Roman  (atfSly,  and  suf- 
fered martyrdom  in  the  reign  of  Alexander  Sevetus,  about  A.  D. 

_  '.  Shortly  after  her  conversion  to  Clnistianity^  her  heathen 
parents  compelled  her  to  marry  an  unconverted  Roman  youth 
named  Valerian,  but  she  soon  induced  him,  bis  bi-other  Tiburtius, 
'.  an  imperial  officer  named  Maximus,  to  embrace  the  Christian 
IMth.  They  were  all  arrested  and  condemned  to  death,  the  male 
verts  suffering  first,  and  C.  three  days  ailerwards.  A  church 
dedicated  to  her  was  built  at  Rome,  in  the  Travastere,  or  right 
bank  of  the  Tiljer.  It  is  mentioned  as  early  as  the  5th  c,  and  in 
it  the  bones  of  the  saint  were  deposited  in  821  A.  D.  by  the  orders 
of  Pope  PaschaL  Musicians  have  assumed  St  C.  as  their  patron, 
because  she  sang  the  praises  of  the  Lord,  and  frequently  joined 

istrumental  with  vocal  music  in  public  worsliip.  Her  festival, 
November  22,  is  celebrated  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  with 
grand  musical  performances.  Carlo  Liolce,  Raphael,  Rubens, 
Domenichino,  and  other  artists  have  lent  their  genius  to  immor- 
talise this  saint,  ajid  her  praises  have  been  sung  in  English  by 
Chaucer,  Dryden,  and  Pope.  Tl.ere  was  another  St  C,  of 
African  origin,  who  suffered  about  the  year  304  A.D.  during  the 
persecution  of  Diocletian,  and  whose  festival  falls  on  the  nth  of 
February. 

Cecro'pia,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order  Artocarfaces, 
natives  of  tropical  America.  About  twenty-five  species  have 
been  described,  all  large-leaved,  soft-wooded,  millty-juiced  trees. 
C.  peltata,  the  tmmpet-tree  of  the  W.  Indies  and  S.  America, 
so  called  because  musical  instruments  are  made  out  of  its  hollow 
branches  by  the  Uaup^  Indians  of  the  Rio  Uaup^s,  a  tributary  of 
the  Rio  Negro.  Cordage  is  made  out  of  the  inner  bark,  and 
the  old  bark  is  used  medicinally.  The  young  buds  serve  as  a 
potherb ;  the  old  leaves  are  eaten  by  the  sloth,  and  a  kind  of 
caoutchouc  is  formed  from  the  hardened  milky  juice.  Of  the 
light  wood  are  made  floats  for  fishing-nets,  and  razor  strops, 
'file  Indians  also  use  it,  when  dry,  to  produce  lire  by  friction. 
(Trtas.  of  Bet.) 

Je'cropS,  the  mythical  hero  of  the  Pelasgian  race,  and  the 
first  King  of  Altica,  which  &rom  him  was  sometimes  named 
Cecropia.  The  oldest  myths  make  him  autochthonous,  and 
represent  him  as  having  introduced  the  elements  of  civilised  life 
by  the  institution  of  marriage,  tlie  substitution  of  cakes  instead 
of  bloody  sacrifices  in  the  worship  of  Zeus,  and  the  political  divi- 

Ce'dar  Bird.    See  Wax- Wing. 

Cedar  Mountains,  an  extensive  range  in  Clanwilliam, 
Cape  Colony,  from  1600  to  5700  feet  high,  runs  between  the 
Great  Roggeveld  and  the  coast,  and  fakes  name  from  tlie  cedar- 
is  on  its  summit— A  mountain  of  the  same  name  in  America, 
r  Cedar  Run,  in  Virginia,  was  the  scene  of  a  Confederate 
victory  gained  by  General  'Stonewall'  Jackson  over  General 
Banks,  August  9,  1S62. 

Oedar  of  Barbadoes  (Cedrela  odorala),  one  of  the  natural 
order  Cefl'ri'/acf.E  (q.  v,),  a  native  of  tl:e  W.  Indies  and  the  warm 
'ons  of  America.      The  wood  is  fragrant,  and  used  for  making 
ocs,  shingles,  cigar-boxes,  black-lead  pencils,  &c.     Jiiniperus 


Barbadensis  is  also  called  the  Barbadois  cedar,  while  C.  oiora, 
is  termed  the  Bastard  B.  C,  or  sweet-scmted  C.  The  nan 
Bastard  C.  is  also  given  to  Guaauma  almifolia. 

Cedar  of  Lebanon,  a  famous  tree  frequently  referred  to  i 
the  Scriptures,  belonging  to  the  order  Conifera.  If  is 
Cedras  Libani  of  modern 
botanists,  and  is  by  some 
considered  identical  witli 
the  deodar  of  India  and 
the  Mount  Atlas  cedar. 
Frequently  it  is  put 


thegi 


is Abies.  Thee 


of  L.  c 

grove    containing    about 

400  trees,  most  of  which 

may  be  from  2 

years  old.    The  height  of 

some  much  exceeds  the 

average  of  50  feet,  but  their  girth  is  more  remarkable.     Two  of 

tlie  trees  held  in  great  veneration  by  the  Mavonites,  Greeks,  and 

Armenians,  are  beheved  to  be  about  2000  years  old. 

The  C.  of  L.  has  been  long  ago  introduced  into  our  parks  and 
grounds.  One  at  Sion  House,  near  London,  is  8  feet  in  diameter 
3  feet  above  tlie  ground. 

The  deodar  of  the  Himalayas  {Cedrus  Dcodara)  is  found  at 
great  elevations,  and  altains  a  height  of  150  feet.  The  cedar  of 
Algiers  { C.  Atlanlka)  is  closely  allied  if  not  identical.  The  name 
cedar  is  given  to  a  variety  of  trees  which  have  no  connection  with 
tlie  genus — e.g.,  the  cedar  of  N.  W.  America  (see  Thuja  and 
LiBOCiDRTis)  i  the  Siberian  cedar  (see  Pine)  ;  AMss  religiosa 
of  California  (see  Fir)  ;  the  white  cedar  (see  Cypress)  ;  the  Vir- 
ginian cedar  (see  Juniper),  &g.  ;  while  the  cedar-wood  of  Guiana 
IS  Idea  alHisima  (nalural  order  Amyridacea:),  and  the  cedar  of 
the  W.  Indies  (see  Cb&Ar  op  Barbai>oes)  belongs  to  the  Cedre- 
laces,  and  the  bastard  cedar  of  India  is  one  of  the  Byttueriaces 
(q.  v.).  The  Honduras  cedar  is  the.  Cedrela  odorata;  the  Japan 
cedar,  Cryptomtria- faponica ;  the  cedar  of  N.  S.  Wales,  CeS-ela 
auslralis ;  the  prickiy  cedar,  Cyathodes  Oxycedrus;  the  white 
cedar  of  Australia,  Melia  auslraiis;  vxA  the  white  cedar  of 
Dominica,  Bignonia  Leticoxylon. 

Oe'drat.     See  CiTRON. 

Cedrela,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order  Cedrelaces, 
natives  of  the  tropical  parts  of  Asia  and  America,  .producing  fine 
timber.  C  fl<&™/o  is  hollowed  into  canoes.  C.  Toaho  of  India 
furnishes  a  timber  like  maht^auy,  but  lighter.  The  bark  is  as- 
tringeut,  and  used  in  fevers,  dysentery,  &c. ;  frcm  the  floweis  a 
red  dye  is  produced.  C.  australis,  the  red  cedar  of  Australia 
(see  Cesar),  is  used  for  building  houses,  and  is  now  gettmg 

Oedrela'oeas,  a  natural  order  of  plants  belonging  t 
division  Dicotyledons  (sub-div.  Thalomiflorie),  natives  of  tn 
America,  India,  and  Africa,  though  rare  in  the  last  of  these 
tries.  Mostoflliemarefragrant,  aromadc,  and  tonic,  Mahcgany 
{Sreietmia  Mahagoni,  q,  v,).  Satin-wood  (CMoroxyhn  Simdema, 
q,  V,),  yellow-wood  of  N.  S.  Wales  (OiC&ca  xanlhoxyla),  &c  , 
belong  to  the  order — in  which,  in  all,  there  are  nine  genera  and 
twenty-five  species  known.  The  barks  of  several  are  used  as 
febrifuges  in  diarrhrea,  &c. 

Cefftlu  ('on  the-headland;'  aijc.  Cephalxdium),  a  seaport 
of  Sicily,  province  of  Palenno,  37  miles  E,S.E,  of  the  city  of 
Palermo,  on  a  headland  stretching  far  into  the  sea.  It  has  a 
cathedraj,  and  the  ruins  of  a  castle  built  by  the  Saracens.  Sea- 
fishing  is  actively  prosecuted,  but  the  harbour  can  accommodate 
only  a  few  vessels.     Pop,  10,790. 

Oegl'ie,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  province  of  Terra  d' 
Otranto,  22  miles  W.  of  Brindisi,  and  4  miles  from  the  railway 
to  that  port.     The  staple  trade  is  in  grain  and  cattle.    Pop.  about 

Cehegin',  a  town  of  Spain,  province  of  Murcia,  36  miles 
W.N.W,  of  the  city  of  Murcia.  It  has  manufactures  of  paper 
and  cloth.    Pop,  about  10,000. 

Ceil'ing  (Fr.  fi>/,  Lat,  cieliini,  'thevault  of  the  heavens,"  the 

sky')  is  a  name  now  restricted  to  the  inner  covering  portion  of 

any  room,  apartment,  or  hall.      The  ceilings  of  rooms  in  private 

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houses  are  usually  horizontal  surfaces  of  plasterworit,  relieved 

only  by  a  surrounding  cornice  of  moulded  or  east  plasterwork. 

In  apartments  of  large  dimenaons,  and  in  public  halls,  the  ceil- 

inss  nmy  be  eilher  horizontal,  '  coved,'  that  is,  rising  from  tlie 

walls  with  a  curve,  or  vaulted.     When  a  coved  roof  is  used,  the 

height  of  the  cove  varies  from  one-fifth  to  one-third  of  the  whole 

b«f  hi,  according  to  the  proportions  of  the  apartment.     All  such 

ceiBiKS,  of  whatever  form,  should  be  divided  into  panels,  the  main 

divisions  of  which  represent  the  principal  timbers  of  the  roof. 

Such  panelling   affords  a  basis    for  a   great  variety  of  rich 

and  effective  ornamentation,  either  with  decorative  guilloches 

or  frets    or  by  the  application,  of  colour,  &c     In  domed  or 

Ited'ceilii^s  the  panels  of  course  decrease  in  size  as  they 

th  vanlt.    Ceilings  of  wood,  framed  and 

lied   an  eh     moulded,  carved,  and  otherwise  de- 

□        ly  found.     Timber-groined  ceilings 

d  L  dy  Cliapel  at  St  Albans,  in  the  clois- 

In  G       ester,  in  the  towers  at  Exeter,  in  the 

an   m       P       bo      gh    nd  at  Ely,  and  in  the  choir  at  Win- 

of  of  York  Minster  is  so  finished.    A 

nr       d  timber  roof  exists  in  the  Parhament 

House,  Edmbui^h. 

Cel'audine  \Chelidonium),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  Poppy 
order  i,Pa.paverace^\  C.  majus  is  a  common  wayside  plant  in 
many  parts  of  Britain  and  the  continent  of  Europe.  Its  yellow 
milky  mice  has  been  applied  as  a  cure  for  warts,  and  mixed  with 
milk  for  the  cure  of  opacities  of  the  cornea  of  the  eye.  It  is  ^ 
a  drastic  purgative,  and  poisonous  in  iaige  doses.  Its  other 
uses  are  doubtful.  The  'lesser  C  is  Ficaria  ramatatleiOes, 
while  the  '  tree  C  is  Bocconiaftittiscens. 
Cela'no  Lagodi  See  Fucino  Lagodi. 
Oelao'tius  and  Celaatra'cese.  See  Spindle-Tree. 
Cel'elies,  an  island  of  Malaysia  in  the  Indian  Archipelago, 
E.  of  Borneo,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Strait  of  Macas- 
sar. It  is  of  very  irregular  form,  branching  into  four  peninsulas, 
two  to  the  E.  and  two  to  the  S.,  separated  by  Oiree  deep  gulfs. 
In  the  centre  and  N.  are  high  mountains,  some  nearly  7500  feet 
in  he^ht,  and  several  active  volcanoes.  The  principal  rock  is  a 
cnimSing  basalt,  in  many  pkces  covered  with  a  layer  of  earth 
from  10  to  20  feet  thick,  of  extraordinary  fertility,  producing 
heavy  crops  of  rice,  maize,  coffee,  and  cacao.  The  sago  and 
cocoa-palm  abound,  as  well  as  ebony  and  other  useful  timber 
trees.  There  are  rich  pastures,  supporting  numerous  herds  of 
buffaloes,  horses,  goats,  sheep,  and  game  is  abundant  The 
minerals  are  gold,  copper,  iron,  tin,  and  coal  in  the  S.  The 
sea  produces  fish,  turtles,  and  pearls.  The  climate  is  hot,  but 
tempered  by  regular  sea-breezes  and  winds  from  the  N.  C.  ex- 
ports cotton,  edible  birds'-nests,  wax,  tortoise-shell,  pearis,  sago, 
cassava  coffee,  cacao,  Muscat  nuts,  &c.  The  Portuguese  first 
visited  C.  in  the  l6th  c,  but  were  expelled  by  the  Dutch  in  1663, 
who  have  held  it  ever  since,  except  between  1811  and  1816, 
when  it  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Britisli.  The  Dutch  possessions 
now  occupy  an  area  of  45,700  sq.  miles,  with  a  piy.  (1872)  of 
149  756-  The  entire  pop.  has  been  estimated  at  from  two  to 
three  millions,  but  is  probably  much  less.  The  Malays  carry  on 
■  the  commerce  of  the  coast ;  the  natives  of  the  interior  (Alfures) 
form  numerous  independent  states.  C.  is  property  the  name 
only  of  the  E.  part  of  the  island ;  the  S.W.  part  is  called  Macas- 
sar, which  has  a  capital  of  the  same  name,  the  residence  of  the 
Dutch  governor.     See  Macassar. 

Oel'eiy  (Apium),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Umhdliprs.  The  wild  C,  or  smallage  (A.  gnarealens),  is  a  plant 
chiefly  found  near  the  sea-shore,  and  in  other  saline  situations, 
in  ditches,  brooks,  &c.  I  It  has  been  long  cultiv  ted  f  tl  sak 
of  its  root  and  the  thick  leaf-slalks,  which,  wh  blan  Idly 
being  covered  with  earth,  are 'eaten.  They  act  as  t  m  1  t 
of  the  urinary  organs.  A.  australe  grows  in  the  C  p  f  G  1 
Hope,  and  is  almost  as  good  as  our  cultivated  pi    t 

Oel'estine  (Lat.  e^xltim-,  'the  sky"),  the  nat  Iph  t      f 

etrontia,  occurring  crystallised   accordmg  to  tl     t  un  tn      y 
tern,  but  more  usually  massive,  columnar,  fibrous  t  11  ted 

It  b  colourless,  wliite,  or  grey,  often  tinged  with  blue,  more  or 
less  deep— hence  the  name.  It  is  found  in  considerable  quantity 
near  Bristol,  where  it  is  employed  for  making  nitrate  of  strontia, 


which  is  used  for  producing  the  'red-fire'  of  pyrotechnic  dis- 

Geleetines,  a  monastic  order  founded  about  1264  by  Pietro 
da  Morrone,  who  became  Pope  in  IZ94  as  Celestine  V.,  after 
which  the  members  took  the  name  of  C.  They  adopted  the  rule 
of  St  Benedict,  and  devoted  themselves  to  religious  meditation. 
Pope  Gregory  granted  the  order  many  privileges,  and  It  became 
very  rich,  especially  in  France  and  Italy.  But  the  secularisa- 
tion of  its  property  m  the  former  country  in  1776-78  by  order 
of  Pope  Pius  VI.,  and  in  Naples  a  few  years  later  by  King 
Ferdinand  IV.,  lias  led  to  the  almost  complete  extinction  of  the 

Gel'ibaoy  (from  the  Lat.  ciskis,  '  unmarried ').  The  origin  of 
the  practice  of  continence  on  the  part  of  the  priesthood  lies  in 
the  dualistic  notion  of  the  essential  impurity  of  matter,  and  the 
supposed  necessity  thence  arising  for  crucifying  the  flesh  for  the 
sake  of  greater  purity  and  spirituality  of  mind)  combined  with 
the  desire  to  separate  the  sacerdotal  order  from  the  rest  of  society, 
and  to  raise  the  clergy  to  a  seemingly  higher  level  than  ordi- 
nary men.  Among  tlie  ancient  E^ptians  the  priesthood  were 
obliged  to  preserve  the  most  rigid  chastity  ;  the  priestesses  of 
Vesta,  Juno,  Diana,  Minerva,  &c.,  were  pledged  to  perpetual 
virginity;  and  the  priests  of  Cybele  had  to  be  eunuchs.  On  this 
principle,  that  woman  is  sensuality,  that  generation,  conception, 
and  b&th  are  a  defilement  of  the  soul,  many  of  the  early  here- 
tical sects  forbade  marriage  both  to  their  priests  and  adherents, 
or  at  least  denounced  a  second  or  (bird  marriage  as  fornication. 

In  the  Cathohc  Church,  during  the  first  t&ee  centuries,  the 
marriage  of  the  clergy  was  permitted.  Still  those  were  regarded 
as  more  holy  and  excellent  who  lived  in  C.,  because  those  who 
were  married  were  more  exposed  to  the  assaults  of  evil  spirits. 
In  order  to  conform  to  this  idea,  many  of  the  clergy  at  this  time 
kept  as  concubines  females  who  had  vowed  p^etual  chastity, 
with  whom,  they  asserted,  they  had  no  sexual  intercourse.  At 
the  Council  of  Elliberis  (Elvira)  in  Spain  (305),  continence  was 
enjoined  on  the  dei^  of  the  first  three  grades  after  their  ordi- 
nation. At  the  Council  of  Neoc^sarea  (314)  it  was  enacted— 'If 
a  presbyter  marry,  let  him  be  removed  from  his  order.' 

Hitherto  the  usage  had  been  that  those  married  previously  to 
ordination  were  not  required  to  separate  from  their  wives ;  an 
attempt  made  at  the  Council  of  Nice  (335)  lo  make  this  also  a 
part  of  the  law  was  baulked  at  this  time.  It  was  done,  how- 
ever, by  a  decretal  of  Pope  Siricius  (385},  Jovinian,  a  Milanese 
monk,  striving  in  vain  tO  Stem  the  tide  of  authority  and  popu- 
lar sentiment.  The  decretal  of  Siricius,  not  being  generally 
received  as  of  binding  authority,  was  reimposed  by  Pope  Gre- 
gory VII. ;  but  the  law  as  it  now  stood  (that  a  priest  could  not 
marry  after  ordmatlon,  and  had  tff  put  away  his  wife  if  he  were 
married  before),  being  systematically  evaded  or  openly  resisted, 
so  far  from  being  effectual,  only  tended  to  increase  the  existing 
moral  corruption ;  and  the  profligacy  of  the  clecgs,  which  n 
have  been  in  great  measure  due  to  this  urmatural  law,  was 
of  the  chief  causes  of  the  Reformation. 

When  at  the  Reformation  the  Protestants  all  declared  against 
C„  the  subject  was  discussed  in  the  Romish  Church  at  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent,  and  the  majority  decided  in  favour  of  it.  Accord- 
ing to  the  canons  of  the  Romish  Church,  therefore,  the  t 
sacraments  of  Matrimony  and  Holy  Orders  so  exclude  each 
other,  that  he  who  receives  the  one  must,  as  a  general  rule, 
renounce  the  other.  The  provisions  regarding  it  are,  that  the 
four  lower  orders  of  the  clergy  are  permitted  to  quit  the  profes- 
sion and  marry,  but  from  subdeacon  upwards  they  cannot  do  so 
without  permission  from  the  Pope.    See  Neander's  Kircheagesch. 


that  all  originate  from  a  primary 


element  termed  a  C.     This 


^.portant  generalisation  was  first  made  regarding  animal  texti 
by  Schwann,  who  followed  qiuckly  in  the  footsteps  of  the  e 
nent  botanist  Schleiden,  who  first  made  the  discovery  that  vege- 
table textures  were  derived  from  a  prunaiy  C.  The  discovery 
was  the  commencement  of  tjie  celebrated  C. -doctrine— namely, 
that  all  structures  or^nated  in  cells — and  It  must  be  regarded  as 
the  greatest  ever  made  by  the  microscope. 

According  to  the  conception  of  Schleiden  and  Schwann,  a  C. 
may  be  defined  as  a  microscopic  globular  body,  consisting  of  an 
envelope  termed  the  C.-wali,  which  encloses  contents,  in  which 


yLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


lies  embedded  a  miriute  body  called  a  HHt/nu,  in  which,  in  turn, 
there  may  be  a  still  smaller  particle  known  as  a  nucmsis.  Since 
the  days  of  these  distinguished    observe''' 


le  modified,  s 


however,  the  defi- 
histological  investiga- 
tions revealed  the  existence  of  structures  having  certdn  of  the 
properties  of  cells,  without  necessarily  being  possessed  of  waU, 
nucleus,  or  nucleolus.  Schultze,  Briicke,  and  Uonel  Beale 
described  CeUs  which  have  no  C.-*aU.  Mas  Schultze  further 
described  minute  jelly-like  parUclea  of  living  matter,  whieh^ 
though  they  possessed  neither  C.  -wall  nor  nucleus,  still  lived  and 
multiplied.  Thus  a  C,  in  the  language  of  modem  histology;  ma^ 
consist  only  of  a  small  mass  of  contractile  protoplasm.  It  is 
evident  that  an  entirely  new  raeanmg  has  heen  given  to  the  word 
C,  and  in  one  sense,  the  C.  theory  of  Sehleiden  and  Schwann 
has  been  abandoned^  inasmuch  as  structures  are  now  termed 
aUs  which  do  not  fall  within  the  definition  they  gave  of  that 


Site  of  Cdts.—'^^  may  vafy  hi  size  from  the  ^^'Ca  of  an  inch 
to  the  yhrth  of  an  inch.  The  smallest  ceUs  are  probably  the 
coloured  blood  corpuscles  ;  the  largest  is  the  ovum,  which  is  the 
parent  of  all  the  other  cells.  , 

Form  of  Csl/i.—The  primary  C;  is  sphencal;  but  this  form 
varies  according  to  the  degree  and  direction  of  compression  and 
the  amount  of  room  for  expans  on  Two  well  marked  varieties 
are  found  :  (l)  flattened  scale  hke  formf  such  as  pavement 
epilhehnm;  and  (■•)  elongated 

epithelial   i'"-     ' " 

—rve  cells, 

Composition  of  C^//i--Acti*ely  growing   cells 


raistaMe  albuminous  compound   possess  ng  frequt 
petty  of  contractihty  and  termed^to/fcim  btoploi 


itly  the  pro 
...-,..  .       «  cytoplasm 

Sometimes  this  sub  tance  is  replaced  by  different 
kinds  of  matter,  such  as  by  a  hard  substance  termed  kerattne  as 
in  old  epidermic  cells  ot  by  globules  of  oil,  oi  by  p  gments  or 
finally,  by  crystals 

The  C.-Wo«.— Sometimes,  as  already  stated,  there  is  no  C  ■ 
vrall.  When  it  does  exist,  it  is  nsiially  very  thin,  structnrele^, 
and  without  openings  or  pores  which  can  be  seen  with  the 
highest  magnifying  powers.  The  C.-vrall  is  smooth  or  granular, 
or  presents  irregular  elevations  and  depressions  on  the  surkce. 

The  NtKli!us.—1Vn  structure  is  not  sohible  in  acetic  add,  and 
thus  differs  from  the  C.-contents  and  the  C-wall.  It  is  quicUy 
stained  by  coloring  matters.  The  nucleus  is  smooth  or  granular 
on  Oie  surface;  The  nucleolus  is  a  still  smaller  body,  also  not 
affected  by  acetic  acid.  It  ia  supposed  by  some  to  consist  of  a 
globule  of  fat  or  oil.  ,    ,      ,  . 

Vital  Fropa-ties  of  Ce/Zj.— Cells  have  the  power  of  absorbing 
matter  from  the  fluid  or  pabulum  in  which  they  exist,  and  of 
converting  this  matter  into  protoplasm,  or  into  substances  which 
are  stored  up  in  the  interior  of  the  C.  They  also  appear  to  have 
the  power  of  excreting  materials  which  are  either  not  necessary 
to  the  life  of  the  C,  or  which  may  be  injurious  to  it.  Lastly, 
many  of  them  have  the  property  of  contractility— that  is,  they 


th 


1     f 


1.  Lymph  corpuscles. 

2.  Chyle  corpuscles. 

3.  Blood  corpuscles. 

4.  Nerve  cells. 

5.  Fat  cells. 

6.  Pigment  cells. 

7.  Gknd  cells. 
TraitsitioniU  Cells,   which    niay  become   s 

arranged  as  to  form  a  tissue. 

I.  Embryonic  cells, 
a.   Fibre  cells. 

3.  Epithelial  cells. 

4.  Cartilage  cells. 
III.  Morbid  Cells,  or  those  which  are  commonly  found  in  dis- 
eased conditions. 

I.  Plastic  cells. 
3.  Pus  cells. 

3.  Granule  cells. 

4.  Cancer  cells. 

5.  Tubercle  corpuscles. 

Conditions  of  C.-Li/e.—The  conditions  favourable  for  C.-de- 
velopment  are~(l)  They  inuSt  be  in  a  nutritive  fluid  or  blastema, 
from  whicli  they  derive  nourishment.  {2)  A  moderate  temperature 
— C-life  does  not  exist  below  zero  or  above  145  F.  As  a  rule, 
cold  checks  while  warmth  encourages  C. -growth.  (3)  They 
must  have  room  for  expansion  ;  and  (4)  the  C.  must  itself  be  in 
a  healthy  condition.  If  the  C.  betomes  fiUed  with  fat  or  mineral 
matter,  or  if  the  C. -trail  becomes  so  thickened  by  deposits  as  to 
pieventftmd  matter  from  reaching  the  C. -contents,  the  structure 

Theories  of 'c.-Diveloptnent.—^3nats  theories  have  been  put 
forward  to  account  for  the  origin  6f  cells.     In   chronological 
order,  the  following  are  the  chief  of  these  :—  .„  , 

I,   The  Theory  of  Sehleiden  and  Sthminn,  1839.— These  ob- 
servers stated  that  cells  originated  in  an  amorphous  fluid  or  blas- 
tema which  was  derived  from  pre-existing  cells.    The  nucleus 
wisfiist  formed,  and  around  it  a  C. -wall  *ia5  slowly  developed. 
The  C  -contents  then  collected  between  the  C-wall  and  the 
Nucleus  ^ .     ,.   .       ...         .      -  ,. 

The  Theory  of  Geodsir,  i84S-— This  distmguished  anatomist 
and  physiolc«ist  was  impressed  with  the  physiolc^cal  impor- 
tance of  the  nucleus.  The  nuclei  he  lermfcd  eenlres  of  nuin- , 
Hon  or  eentres  of  gerininaiion,  and  he  supp<Ked  that  such  a 
centre  exercised  an  influence  over  an  area'  in  its  vicinity.  He 
held  that  the  nucleus  was  the  primal?  and  important  element. 

The  Theory  ef  Huxley,  i853.-He  attaches  importance  not  to 
the  nucleus  but  to  the  C.-contents;  In  a  homc^eneoas  plasma, 
spaces  or  vacuoles  are  formed,  and  in  these  are  found  O.-wails, 
contents,  and  nucleus.  The  wall  of  the  space  he  terms  periplast, 
and  the  included  matter,  or  nucleus  and  contents,  endoplast;  mn 
he  holds  that  all  important  changes  occUr  in  the  periplast. 
Thus  his  theory  is  almost  the  reverse  of  that  of  Goodsir.  _ 
n    TIeery  of  Hughes  Bennett,  1855.— This  physiolor-^  "■" 


pelied    through  the  fluid.      This  phenomenon  iS  seen        th 
gpennatoi(X)n.     See  Spbruatozoa. 

Mult^ication  of  «&.— Cells  (nay  multiply  either  (i)  «d 
gemiuly,  C;  arising  within  C. ;  {1)  ixogenously,  by  the  C  w  II 
bursting,  andnew  cells  originating  in  the  extrtided  conte  ts  (  ) 
^fisstpttrously,  by  fission  or  division ;  and  (4)  gemmifemu  Ij  by 
a.process  6f  budding.  „      ,         ,  , 

Classification  of  Cells.— The  classification  of  C.  adoj  t  d  by 
Professor  Hughes  Bennett  commends  itself  for  its  simpl  ly 
It  is  as  follows :  — 

I.  Normal  Isolated  Ctlls;  which  never  proceed  beyond  the  C. 


iserting  that  the  primary  oi^anic  element  is  not 

h    C    as  a  whole,  nor  any  part  of  the  C  specially,  but  the 

VI    al  molecules  of  which  the  C.  is  formed.    Bennett  svi^ 

th  e  generally  known  as  the  moleeular  theory.     He  held 

may  originate  de  novo,  without  the  agency  of  pre- 

3     lis.     Molecules  group  together  to  form  a  nucleus,  and 

hi   a  C-wall  is  formed,  as  Sehleiden  and  Schwann  de- 


T  eory 


Beale,  t86i,— He  holds  that  living  tissues 
two  portions — one  living,  active,  and  ger. 
terms  germinal  motto;  and  the  other  dead, 
t  except  as  regards  chemical  or  physical 
wh   h  1  e  gives  the  name  ai  formed  material.^    "• 


ammoniacal  solution  of  carmine  stains  deeply 

th    g  rti  m  1  m  tt      without  affecdng  the  formed  material,  and 

th      h    diff       ti  t  s  between  the  two.    The  germinal  mat"- 

f  Beal  mply  the  nucleus,  with  which  all  histologists 

a        t  d  but  th    peculiarity  of  his  theory  is  that  all  outside 

th  I       IS  reg    ded  by  him  as  formed  and  dead.    There  is 

B      f    t  tl     p  esent  time  that  contractility  of  muscle  la  a 

rj      Ivphy     al     t  and  yet  this  phenomenon  occurs  in  the  formed 

mate^al  which  Beale  regards  as  dead.     At  the  same  time  there 

„      can  be  no  doubt  that  the  matter,  which  is  alive  in  the  sense  ol 

I  taking  up  new  pabulum  from  the  blood,  and  elaborating  tws 


*- 


vLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


CEL 


into  muscle,  is  the  protopla; 
may  be  conceded  witliout  as. 

None  of  these  theories  are  to  be  regarded  as  final.  New  dis- 
coveries may  lead  to  change  of  view,  but  iii  the  present  state  of 
science,  biologists  incline  to  the  opinion  that  the  primitive  mate- 
rial is  tlie  living  protoplasm  or  jelly-like  matter,  which,  though 
derived  from  pre-existing  protoplasm  like  itself,  is  capable  of 


Cell  (in  botany),  the  more  or  leas  rounded,  minute,  bladder-like 
organs,  of  which  a  great  portion  of  the  plant  is  made  up,  and 
which,  in  the  eariy  condition  of  all  plants,  constitute  the  whole 
structure.  These  are  of  various  shapes  and  siies,but  ptimatjly  con- 
sist of  B  wall  of  Cellulose  (q.  v. )  lined  by  the  premodial  utricle,  and 
containing  in  the  interior  a  slimy  £uid  called  Piotc^lasm  (q,  v.) 
and  the  nucleus  (a  minute  more  condensed  portion  of  protoplasm), 
in  addition  to  oils,  sugara,  acids,  and  the  various  other  sutetances 
■which  give  character  to  the  plant  or  can  be  extracted  from  it, 
starch  grains,  Chlorophyl(q.  v.),  andfreqnently  Raphides  (q.  v.), 
or  crystals.  Wood  fibres  and  Vessels  (q.  v.)  are  only  modifi- 
cations of  cells.  Some  plants,  like  the  Red-Snow  Plant  (q.v.), 
consist  of  a  single  C.  only,  but  which  can  perform  all  the  func- 
tions of  vegetable  life.  All  ciyptogamic  plants,  except  ferns  and 
other  allies,  are  made  up  entirely  of  cells.  The  Pollen  Grains 
(q.  V. )  are  also  cells.  From  its  importance  in  plant  life,  the  C.  has 
been  made  the  subject  of  moat  elaborate  research,,  especially  by 
German  botanists,  and  a  multiplicity  of  names  applied  by  Nageli 
and  others  to  the  different  parts,  patllctdarly  of  the  C.-wall, 
which  are  only  doubtfully  useful  to  science,  and  in  a  popular 
work  do  not  require  to  be  mentioned. 

Cell's,  a  growing  town  of  Prussia,  proiince  of  Hanover,  on 
the  Aller,  15  miles  N.E,  of  Hanover,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  railway.  It  has  a  fine  antique  castle,  the  residence  of  the 
Princes  of  Brtmswick-Limebui^,  1369-1705.  Its  old  town-church 
contains  the  tombs  of  tlie  family,  as  also  that  of  Queen  Caroline 
Matilda  of  Denmark,  who  died  here  1775.  C  does  an  active 
river  trade  with  Bremen,  chiefly  in  wool,  timber,  wax,  and 
tobacco.  It  has  important  manufactures  of  waxcloth,  soap, 
paper,  printing-ink,  paperhangings,  cigars,  &c.  Pop.  (1872) 
16, 126,  of  whom  671  were  soldiers.  In  the  beautiful  neighbour- 
hood there  are  several  large  suborbs.  C.  is  the  birthplace  of  the 
great  agriculturist  Thasr,  and  of  the  poet  Ernst  Schoke, 

Celli'oi,  Benvenuto,  a  versatile  and  erratic  Italian  genius, 
sculptor,  engraver,  chaser,  gold-worker,  engineer,  musician,  and 
author,  was  bom  in  Florence,  1500,  studied  music  for  some 
years,  established  himself  with  a  gold- worker  in  1515,  but  being 
implicated  in  an  affray,  he  left  Florence  and  travelled  to  Rome. 
He  returned  to  Floi-ence,  but  engaging  in  another  affray,  was 
obliged  a  second  time  to  iiy  to  Rome,  where  Pope  Clement  VII. 
engaged  him  in  the  double  capacity  of  artist  and  musician.  He 
also  found  him  useful  as  a  soldier ;  for  at  the  siege  of  Rome 
(1527)0.  was  the  lucky  marksman  who  shot  down  the  Constable 
Bourbon,  the  besieging  general,  a  service  which,  on  his  own 
authority,  he  also  performed  for  the  Prince  of  Orange*  when  that 
general  subsequently  IMd  siege  to  the  Castle  of  St  Angelo. 
After  a  roviiu;,  fighting  life,  in  which,  however,  he  executed  many 
splendid  works,  and  won  the  friendship  of  the  nobles  to  whom 
he  had  recourse  whenever  his  customary  free  hnndlmg  of  the 
sword  got  him  into  difhculties,  and  after  a  lawsuit  in  which  C, 
vexed  with  'the  law's  delay,"  effectually  simplified  matters  and 
brought  the  cause  to  an  end  by  taking  agam  to  the  sword,  rid- 
ding himself  of  his  adversaiies  in  the  manner  with  which  he 
was  most  familiar,  he  died  at  Florence,  25th  February  1571. 
His  bronze  group  of  '  Perseus  with  the  Head  of  Medusa,  at 
Florence,  and  his  numerous  portraits,  attest  his  skill  in  high  art  ; 
though  his  fame  more  securely  rests  upon  the  riclmessand  beauty 
of  the  work  in  his  cups,  salvers,  sword  and  dagger  hilts,  clasps, 
medals,  and  coins.  His  autobiography,  which  he  commenced  to 
wri,te  in  1558,  is  one  of  the  most  cuitous  and  valuable  of  bii^a- 
phies,  as  giving  at  once  the  personal  details  of  an  important 
career,  and  reflecting  the  morals  and  social  life  of  Italy  and 
France  in  the  middle  of  the  16th  c  The  best  edition  of  this 
work,  entitled  Vita  dt  B.  C,  da  lui  midedmo  scrUid,  &c,  is  by 
Tassi  (Flor.  1829).  In  the  beginning  of  1876  a  number  of  C's 
original  papers,  comprising  inventories  and  accounts  of  sculptures 
executed  by  him  at  Florence,  Fontainebleau,  &c.,  were  dis- 
70 


covered  in  the  monastery  of  the  Campomazio,  and 
published  at  Rome. 

Cellnlar'es,  a  term  sometimes  applied  to  those  cr\  ptogamic 
plants  which,  like  most  fungi,  lichens,  and  algse,  are  altogether 
made  up  of  cellular  tissue,  without  fibres  or  lessels 

Cellular  Tissue.  This  is  the  tissue  found  underneath  the 
sltln,  and  in  the  interstices  of  the  structure  of  organs  It  i; 
usually  known  as  areolar  iissue.     See  Areolar  Tissue 

Cellular  Tissue  or  PaTinchyma  (in  botanj)  —Cells  mcreasf 
either  (l)  by  the  original  cell  dividing  in  two  by  maismatu. 
mttlHplkalion,  as  it  is  called  ;  (2)  by  the  middle  cell  pioducmg 
others  in  its  interior ;  or  (3)  by  gemmation  or  budding 

In  one  or  in  all  of  these  ways,  acting  at  once  C  T ,  or 
the  coUectiOTi  of  cells  in  union  with  each  other,  is  produced 
By  pressure  the  original  more  or  less  rounded  form  is  altered, 
untu  the  cells  become,  in  most  cases,  more  or  less  angular ,  m 
other  cases,  oblong  or  square.  Various  names  have  ac- 
cordingly been  applied  to  such  C.  T.  according  to  the  sh-ipe 

of  the  cells  entering  into  its  composition.    But  these  n 

being  practically  unnecessary,  dci  not  call  for  lepetition 
fluid  passes  from  C.  T.  by  Endosmose  and  Exosmose  (q  i  1 
in  this  tissue  the  whole  life  of  the  plant  goes  on. 

Oell'uloae  is  the  material  composing  the  walls  of  the  cells 
and  vessels  of  plants.  Linen,,  unsized  paper, 
consist  of  C.  in  an  almost  pure  condition  A  substance 
closely  resemblmg  C.,  and  by  many  supposed  to  be  identi- 
cal with  it,  is  found  in  the  tissues  of  certain  maiine  animals  be- 
longing to  the  order  Tutiicala,  and  is  called  tmiichu.  C.  is 
composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  in  exactly  the  same 
proportions  as  in  starch,  the  formula  by  which  the  composition  of 
both  these  substances  is  represented  being  CeHjoOj.  C.  difiers 
from  starch,  however,  in  many  important  properties.  It  is 
white,  tasteless,  and  odourless,  insoluble  in  water,  alcohol, 
eiher,  &C.,  but  soluble  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  to 
which  excess  of  ammonia  has  been  added.  C.  is  coloured  yellow 
by  iodine,  whereas  starcli  is  coloured  blue  by  the  same  reagent. 
C.  is  dissolved  in  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  but  if  water  be 
added  to  this  solution,  a  substance  is  precipitated  in  white  Socks 
(amyloid),  which  gives  the  same  reaction  with  iodine  as  does 
starch.  Paper  soalced  for  a  few  mome 
parts  of  oil  of  vitriol  and  one  of  water  has  its  surface  covered 
by  a  thin  layer  of  amyloid,  which  causes  it  to  be  veiy  tough  and 
impervious  to  liquid :  paper  thus  prepared  is  called  Vegetable 
Pai-chment  (q.  y,).  C.  may  be  converted  into  glucose  or  grape- 
sugar  by  dissolving  it  in  oil  of  vitriol,  allowing  the  solution  thus 
obtained  to  remain  for  some  time  undisturbed,  then  diluting 
with  mnch  water,  and  boiling.  In  this  operation  the  C.  is 
first  converted  into  Dextrine  (q.  v.),  and  tie  latter  by  boihng 
with  the  dilute  acid  takes  up  water  to  form  glucose. 
C6Hi„Ob    -I-      HjO    =     C6H   06 

"  Dextrine.  Water  Gla  0  e 

The  action  of  concentrated  nitric  ado  f 
reagent  with  oil  of  vitriol,  on  C,  g  e  rise  t 
vatives  possessing  highly  expio  e  p  pe 
Cotton. 

Cel'siufl,  the  name  of  a  Swedish  family  eve  al  m  mbers  of 
which  liave  attained  celebrity.  Among  these  maybe  icckoned  . 
I.  Magnua  C,  born  r6th  January  i6zi,  in  Helsingland,  died 
Professor  of  Astronomy,  5th  May  1679.  He  is  the  discoverer 
of  the  Helsing  runes.— 2.  Olof  C,  his  son,  born  1670,  died 
1756,  was  Professor  of  Theolc^y,  and  Provost  of  the  Cathedral 
at  Upsala.  He  was  a  great  student  of  botany  and  Oriental 
languages,  of  which  his  Hierobotankon  (Ups.  1745-47)  is  evi- 
dence, and  was  the  first  to  recognise  the  genius  of  Linnteus, 
whom  he  liberally  aided. — 3,  Anders  C,  nephew  of  tlie  latter, 
and  the  most  distinguished  of  the  family,  was  born  27th 
November  1 701,  at  Upsala,  where  he  became  Professor  of  Astro- 
nomy in  1730,  and  died  25th  April  1744.  His  cliief  works  are 
Nova  Milkodus  DislattHam  Solis  a  Tirra  Deter-minandi  (1730), 
and  Di  Obsaimtionibus  pro  Figia-a  TeUuris  Deierminanda  m 
Gallia  Habitk  (1738) ;  but  he  is  best  known  as  the  constructor 
of  the  centigrade  thermometer.— -4.  Olof  vOn  C,  son  of  the 
Cathedral  Provost,  born  1716,  became  Professor  of  History  at 
Upsala,  1747,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  noble  in  1756,  made 
Bishop  of  Lund  in  1777,  and  died  in  1794.     He  founded  (1742) 


xtu  e  of  th  t 
set   g   I 
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the  first  literary  society  in  Sweden,  Tidaingar-om  de  Lardas 
arbdm,  and  wiote  a  Svea-riies  Kyrko-Historia  (Stockh.  1767), 
besides  histories  of  Gustavus  I.  (2  vols.  1746-53)  and  of  Eric 
XIV.  (I774). 

Oel'ffus,  an  Epicurean  philosopher  under  tlie  Antonines. 
Origen,  in  his  answer  Contra  Cehum.,  calls  him  the  author  of 
an  attack  on  Christianity  entitled  Logos  Alethes  ('The  True 
Account');  but  Neander  thinks  this  a  mistake.  C,  was  the  first 
to  call  in  question  the  Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch,  and 
asserted  that  Christianity  was  irreligious  and  immoral,  because 
founded  on  an  anthropopathic  idea  of  God,  and  that  the  disciples 
of  Christ  had  craftily  given  cuirency  to  an  exaggerated  picture  of 
the  life  of  a  good  man. 

Celsus,  Aulua  Comeliua,  a  celebrated  Roman  physician 
who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  Of  the  various  works 
which  he  composed  on  philosophy,  rhetoriCj  agriculture,  military 
art,  and  medicine,  there  have  only  come  down  to  ua  the  eight 
books  of  his  Di  Msdednd,  of  which  there  have  been  several  good 
modem  editions,  as  that  of  Targa  (Pad.  1769)  and  of  Darember^ 
(Leips.  iSS9).  Kissel,  in  his  Monograph  on  C.  {Giess.  1844), 
has  also  made  a  collection  of  the  fragments  of  his  other  writings. 
An  English  translation  was  published  by  Grieve  (!7S6). 

Celt  (Gael  ctlii!,  '  a  chisel ')  is  the  name  given  to  ojie  of  the 
most  ancient  and  primitive  forms  of  tool  or  weapon  used  by  the 
human  race.  The  C.  has  an  axe  or  wedge  form,  and  was  used 
with  a  handle  probably  much  in  the  same  manner  that  the  axe  is 
employed  at  the  present  day.  The  most  .ancient  examples,  of 
which  lai^e  numbers  are  found  in  the  tumuli,  lake-dwellings, 
kitchen- middens,  and  cave-dwellings  of  the  earliest  members  of 
the  human  family,  were  only  roughly  fashioned  in  hard  stones  of 
various  kinds.  The  stones  used  for  C. -making  were  selected 
with  great  care  and  skill,  toughness  and  capacity  to  lake  a  fine 
edge  being  chiefly  j:egarded,  these  properties  being  found  in  flint, 
felstone,  and  basalt,  which  were  all  employed.  It  is  remarkable 
that  although  no  deposits  of  jade  ace  known  to  exist -or  to  have  ever 
existed  in  Europe,  celts  of  that  rameral  are  by  no  means  lare ;  and 
it  is  assumed  the  material  must  have  originally  been  obtained 
from  the  E.  of  Asia.  As  we  approach  the  period  now  known  as 
the  Bionie  Agt,  stone  celts  gradually  become  finer  in  shape,  more 
elaborately  finished,  and  even  polished,  and  there  is  no  doubt 
that  they  continued  to  be  used  long  after  the  casting  of 
weapons  in  bronze  was  understood  and  practised.  Many  of 
the  early  metallic  celts  are  composed  of  almost  pure  copper, 
which  is  not  so  hard  as  the  bronze  more  commonly  .employed. 
Numerous  remains  of  the  moulds  in  which  celts  were  cast  have 
been  found,  and  the  forms  they  assumed  were  very  numerous. 
TTiey  varied  in  siae  from  an  inch  to  about  a  foot,  and.  were  in 
some  cases  ornamented  with  ridges,  dots,  or  lines.  Bronze  celts 
are  divided  into  three  cltases  accoKling  to  the  manner  in  which 
the  weapon  is  attached  to  the  shaft.  In  the  first  type,  which  is 
supposed  to  be  the  most  primitive,  the  tapetingend  of  the  weapon 
is  made  to  pass  through  the  shaft ;  in  the  second  form,  the 
handle  is  bent,  and  two  tangs  projecting  from  the  C.  fit  on  the 
bent  portion  and  are  lashed  to  it ;  and  in  the  third  the  end  of  a 
heat  handle  passes  into  a  hoUow  part  at  the  hack  of  the  wei 
The  use  of  stone  weapons  of  this  form  appears  to  have  been 
imiversal  among  the  primitive  sava^  races  of  mankind,  and 
they  are  yet  found  among  many  uncivilised  tribes. 

Geltibe'ri,  a  brave  and  powerful  people  of  Hispania,  who 
occupied  the  great  plateau  now  known  as  Old  and  New  Castile. 
They  are  believed  to  have  been  {as  their  name  implies)  a  mixed 
race  formed  by  an  amalgamation  of  the  primitive  Iberian  stock  of 
the  Peninsula,  which  was  probably  non-Aryan,  with  the  earliest 
CelUc  invaders.  According  to  Strabo,  they  were  divided  into 
four  tribes.  The  stubborn  resistance  of  the  C  to  the  Roman 
arms  is  the  most  heroic  episode  in  ancient  Spanish  history,  and 
the  capture  of  their  capilal,  Numantia,  by  the  younger  Scipio 
(B.C.  146)  was  only  achieved  after  hunger  had  reduced  the 
citizens  to  the  last  extremities, 

Geltio  Nation*,  The.  Herodotus  (b.c.  450)  speaks  of  a 
people  whom  he  calls  Kellai,  '  who,  next  to  the  Kyiulie,  were  the 
most  western  population  of  Europe  ;'  and  he  further  mentions 
them  as  mingling  with  the  Iberians,  who  dwelt  around  the  river 
Ebro  in  Spain.  This  is  the  first  notice  we  have  of  the  Keltai, 
as  they  continued  to  be  called  by  Greek  writers.    The  Romans 


generally  called  them  GalU;  a  very  numerous  branch  of  them- 
selves took  the  name  of  Gael,  which  they  retain  to  the  present 
day.  Kd  or  Gal  appears  then  to  be  the  root  of  this  name ;  but 
no  probable  explanation  of  its  meaning  has  hitherto  been  reached. 
It  (s  not  known  to  what  language  it  belongs,  nor  whetlier  it  was 
a  name  adopted  by  the  race  themselves  or  imposed  by  strangers.. 
That  the  Celts  are  a  branch  of  the  great  Aryan  or  Indo-European 
family  of  nations  is  placed  beyond  all  doubt  by  their  language, 
which  bears  close  resemblance,  alike  in  grammatical  structure 
and  vocables,  to  S^iskrit,  Greek,  Latin,  Teutonic,  &c.  Fur- 
ther, they  were  the  first  of  the  Aryatv  races  to  leave  the  great 
common  cradle  in  the  E.  for  Europe.  They  were  driven  on- 
wards and  sideways  by  succeedii^  waves  of  Teutons,  Slavonians, 
and  others ;  but  we  have  no  means  of  forming  even  an  approxi- 
mate guess  of  the  period  at  which  any  of  these  movements  took 
place.  The  Celts  were  the  first  Aryan  settlers  in  Europe,  and 
it  seems  probable  that  they  found  portions  of  it  waste  and  un- 
occupied. It  is  at  the  same  time  maintained  ly  many  ethnolo- 
gists ihaX,  in  Spain,  in  the  French  Pyrenees,  and  in  Britain,  they 
found  before  them  a  Turanian  people,  the  remains  of  whom  ate 
still  to  be  seen  in  the  Lapps  and  the  Fitins  of  the  N.,  and  in  the 
Basques  (see  Basque  Provinces)  or  Euskarians  of  Spain  and 
"    ■       <■'-'-  evident  that,  at  the  very  dawn  of  history,  these 


them  was  the  first  in  possession.     When  we  enter  on  the  historic 

Eeriod,  we  findampleproofthat  the  Cells  ruled  in  Britain  and  in 
reland,  in  France,  Belgium,  Switzerland,  the  N.  of  Italy,  and 
various  portions  of  the  S.  of  Germany.  They  had  settlements 
in  other  quarters  of  Europe— in  the  S.,  of  Italy,  in  Spain, 
Portugal, -and  elsewhere;  bat  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the 
exact  extent  of  their  possessions,  or  to  ascertain  whether  in  tl 
cases  they  were  temporary  intruders  or  permanent  settlers. 

We  see  the  C.  N.  thus  widespread  in  Western  Europe,  and 
for  a  longperiodholdinglheir  own  against  Romans,  Teutons,  and 
all  their  neighbours.  More  than  this,  they  often  carried  tei 
and  devastation  into  (hdr  enemies'  tertitoiies.  In  A  D 
Brennus,  king  of  the  Cis-Alpine  Gauls,  plundered  tl  e  tj 
Rome,  and  burned  much  of  it  to  the  ground.  About  a  hund  ed 
years  later,  three  Gallic  tribes,  passing  the  Alps,  took  p  n 

of  Illyria  for  a  time,  mvaded  Greece,  plundered  the  n  pi  f 
Delphi,  overran  Thrace,  and  crossmg  the  Bosphoru  m  d= 
extensive  conquests  in  A^ia  Minor,  finally  setthng  in  th  g  1 
to  whidi  they  gave  their  own  name  of  Go/alia,  or  Gal  G  eb  i 
Here  they  retained  their  own  language  and  their  d  ti  t 
character  down  to  the  Stii  c.  of  the  Christian  era,  after  whi  h 
lose  all  separate  trace  i>i  them.* 

In  (he  3d  and  3d  centuries  B.C.,  the  Celts  poss  ssed  ry 
extensive  power  in  the  W.  and  S.W.  of  Europe.  B  C  tl 
period  they  had  yieHed  in  many  instances  to  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  Teutonic  tribes ;  but  it  was  tlie  resistless  and 
ever-growing  power  of  Rome  before  which  they  were  lated  to 
go  down.  Gdatia  was  made  a  Roman  province  in  the  reign  of 
;  Augustus.  Long  before  this  timeCis-AlpineGaidhadbeenincor- 
porated  with  Italy,  and  the  final  blow  was  given  by  Ciesar  50 
B.C.)  in  the  conquest  of  Gaul,  including  Helvetia  and  Gallia 
Belgica.  He  invaded  Britain  twice  over,  but  met  tb  sue 
resistance  as  prevented  him  from  makmg  any  permanent  se  e 
ment  in  the  island.-  A  hundred  and  thirty  years  later  he  vhnle 
southern  portion  of  the  kingdom  was  subdued  by  the  Ron  an 
general  Agricola.  The  northern  parts  of  Scotland  however 
maintained  an  unceasing  warfare  with  their  great  enem  es  an 
retained  their  independence,  being  the  only  country  attacked  by 
the  Romans  which  was  able  to  malte  that  boast ;  fliough  it  can- 
not be  denied  Siat  the  remoteness  of  the  region  and  the  poverty 
of  the  soil  contributed  to  this  result  no  less*  than  the  valour  of 
the  natives.  Ireknd  was  never  invaded,  and  for  hundreds  of 
years  after  this  remained  in  the  undisturbed  and  prosperous  po; 
session  of  its  native  Gael. 

We  must  now  glance  for  a  moment  at  the  different  effects,  i 
regard  to  a-distinct  ethnological  existence,  which  these  conquesi 
produced  on  the  Cells  in  the  different  parts  wherein  they  ri 
sided.  In  Asia  Minor,  as  well  as  in  the  S.  of  Germany,  they 
became  absorbed  in  the  surrounding  population,  and  speedily 


•  It  may  be  well  Co  Bay  that  this  account  of  the  Gnf-allans  is  confittned  by 
such  cihnologiata  as  Niebuhr,  RttwlinsoD,  and  above  all,  by  the  gfeat  autho- 
lity  in  Celtic  ijialters  Zeusa,  as  alsoby  such  iheologiaiis  as  Coiiybeate  and 
D=ai.  LightfooL 


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lost  tbeir  language,  as  well  as  every  cliatacteristic  of  a  distinct 
race.  In  France,  where  we  know  the  immense  majoritj'  of  them 
were  allowed  to  retain,  possession  of  the  soil,  they  for  a  time 
adopted  the  language  of  their  Roman  conquerors ;  but  when  the 
northern  invaders — Franks,  AUemaniii,  &c. — in  their  turn  seized 
the  country,  the  provincial  Latin,  mixed  with  their  mder  tongues, 
produced  modern  French.  The  N.  of  France  alone,  known  as 
Arniorica  or  Brittany  (see  Bretagne),  clung  to  its  old  Celtic 
speech,  and  there  it  is  spoken  to  this  day  by  a  population  num- 
bering more  thajv  a  million.  In  Britain  the  Romans  never  at- 
tempted to  extirpate  the  original  inhabitants  more  than  they  did 
in  other  conquered  countries  ;  and  the  heathen  English,  fierce  as 
they  were,  do  not  seem  to  have  in  this  respect  differed  from  their 
predecessors.  They  took  possession  of  tlie  fairest  and  best  por- 
tions of  the  country,  apparently  retdning  the  old  population 
as  their  subjects,  or  driving  into  remote  comers  of  the  land 
those  who  refused  to  serve  them.  There  are  traces  of  the  Celtic 
language  having  been  spoken  in  Herefordshu^  in  die  reign  of 
Henry  IL,  in  Devonshire  down  to  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  while 
in  Cornwall  it  continued  to  be  the  langu^e  of  the  inhabitants 
until  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century.  In  the  Principality  of 
Wales,  subdued  by  England  in  the  reign  of  Edward  L,  it  is  still 
spoken  by  hundreds  of  thousands,  preached  in  hundreds  of 
churches,  and  written  in  newspapers,  as  well  as  in  literary 
periodicals.  In  the  Isle  of  Man,  also,  it  was  till  recently  the 
almost  universal  language  of  the  people,  and  is  slill  spoken.  In 
Scotland,  Celtic  continued  to  be  the  language  of  the  kingdom 
down  to  the  reign  of  Malcolm  Canmore  in  the  1 1  th  c  After 
his  marriage  with  the  EngUsh  princess  Margaret,  Engliigradu- 
ally  became  the  language  of  the  court.  The  sons  of  Margaret, 
viz.,  Edgar,  David  I,  Alexander  I.,  and,  in  truth,  all  the  subse- 
quent rulers  of  Scotland,  were  anti-Celtic  in  their  policy  ;  and  so 
English  continued  to  aidvance  from  its  basis  in  Lothian,  until 
now  it  is  spoken  by  all  the  inhabitants  of  Scotland,  except  about 
300,000  in  the  W.  and  N.W.  Highlands,  who  still  cling  to  the 
old  Gaelic  In  Ireland,  which  was  invaded  by  England  in  the 
I3th  c.,  and  finally  subjugated  in  the  i6>h,  though  the  Gaelic 
has  been,  from  the  begimiing  of  the  English  invasion,  denounced 
and  discountenanced  in  every  way,  it  is  still  dearly  cherished  by 


it  is  spoken  by  thousands  whose  ancestors  dwelt  in  Wales,  in 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  or  in  Ireland. 

The  Celtic  race  has  hitherto,  for  convenience'  sake,  been  spoken 
of  as  oue.  But  it  is  necessary  to  state  that  at  an  early 
date  it  was  divided  into  two  leading  branches,  speaking  dialects 
differing  widely  from  each  other,  probably  as  widely  as  the 
modem  English  differs  from  modern  German,  yet  so  nearly 
allied  as  to  prove  that  those  using  them  belonged,  beyond  doubt, 
to  the  same  stock.  The  one  is  known  as  Gaelic,  and  is  still 
spoken,  with  variations  which  warrant  three  subdivisions.  In  Ire- 
land, m  the  Scottish  Highlands,  and  in  the  Isle  of  Man.  The 
other,  known  as  the  Cymric,  is  ^oken  in  Wales  and  in  Brit- 
tany, and  was  the  language  of  Cornwall.  This  is  also  sub- 
divided into  British,  Armoric,  and  Cornish. 

History  gives  «s  no  information  as  to  the  period  when  the 
Gael  and  the  Cymri  separated  from  one  another,  nor  of  their 
conduct  towards  each  other  after  separation  ;  but  a  careful  study 
of  the  topographical  names  of  the  various  countries  which  they 
occupied  reveals  several  interesting  facts  concerning  them, 
though  these  are  only  of  a  relative,  not  of  an  absolute  character  ; 
and  here  the  names  of  rivers,  being  more  permanent  than  those 
of  cities,  or  even  of  other  nattural  features  of  a  country,  afford 
us  the  most  trustworthy  information. 

It  appears,  then,  from  the  researches  of  Diefenbach,  Keferstein, 
Mone,  Duncken  and  others,  that  the  Gaelic  branch  was  the  most 
numerous  people  in  ancient  Germany,  and  the  original  settlers 
in  the  greater  part  of  it,  displacing  no  preceding  settlers,  for  no 
Cymric  or  Teutonic  names  are  found  which  have  been  changed 
according  to  the  idiom  of  the  Gaelic  language.  But  Gaelic 
names  changed  according  to  Cymric  rules,  or,  to  use  a  barbarous 
word,  Cymricised,  are  found  over  a  portion,  though  not  by  any 
means  Oie  whole,  of  the  Celtic-German  area :  and  this  proves 
that  a  smaller  band  of  Cymri  followed  their  Gael  cousins,  and 
subdued  or  expelled  them,  settling  themselves  down  in  their 
place.  Then  came  the  Germans,  who  further  changed  the 
names  that  had  previously  passed  through  both  the  Celtic  dia- 
lects. The  names  in  Northern  Italy  are  principally  Cymric,  in 
72 


SoutheiTi  Italy,  Gaelic.  Professor  Newman,  some  think,  has 
proved  what  was  long  ago  conteiided  for  by  Mr  Grant  of 
Corriemony  in  his  very  ingenious  little  work,  Ori^n  of  the  Gad, 
(Edinb.  1814),  that  Gaelic  entered  largely  into  the  language  of 
the  founders  of  Rome,  and  that  the  Sabines  were  entirely  a  Ckielic 
race.  France  was  principally  Cymric,  nor  are  the  stories  of 
Brittany  having  been  peopled  by  exiles  from  Wales  of  any 
weight ;  for  a  Cymric  topography  is  to  be  found  almost  every- 
where throughout  ancient  Gaul,  as  well  as  in  Britain.  The  Gael 
agdn,  beyond  question,  occupied  Ga/.atia.  Several  Gaelic 
names  are  to  be  found  throughout  England ;  but  the  Cymric  ai 
in  an  immense  majority  from  S.  to  N.,  though  it  is  very  inte: 
esting  to  observe  a  thin  line  of  Gaelic  names  extending  acroi._ 
the  iSand  from  the  Thames  to  the  Mersey,  as  if  indicating  the 
path  by  which  the  Gael,  probably  urged  onwards  by  wave  after 
wave  of  the  stronger  Cymri,  sought  refuge  in  Ireland,  where 
their  descendants  still  remain.  In  Scotland,  the  Cymri  extended 
from  the  S.  as  &r  as  the  Highlands  of  Perthshire  1  beyond  these 
the  Gael  dwelt,  and  continue  yet  to  dwell 

Kelighn  and  Laws. — Czesar,  in  his  sixth  book  Ds  Bell.  Gall., 
says  that  all  the  Gauls  were  much  given  to  religious  observances, 
and  it  is  remarkable  that  the  whole  Celtic  race,  wherever  situ- 
ated, and  whatever  their  form  of  religion  may  be,  continue  to 
this  day  to  manifest  very  much  of  a  devotional  spirit,  and  a  strong 
love  of  show  and  excitement  in  their  religious  worship.  Very 
little,  however,  is  accurately  known  either  of  their  religious  views 
or  rites  in  the  times  of  old.  Their  priests  were  called  Druids. 
According  to  Ciesar,  they  taught  rtiuch  sacred  lore  to  their  pupils, 
through  verses  which  were  committed  to  memory,  but  they  al- 
lowed nothing  sacred  to  be  written ;  so  we  depend,  for  our 
knowledge  of  this  subject,  on  the  accounts  of  strangers  and 
enemies,  or  on  vague  traditions  and  faint  resemblances  of  some 
of  their  rites  stilf  preserved  among  their  descendants.  It  is 
worth  recording  that  not  Qesar  alone,  but  Strabo  and  Lucan 
also,  speak  of  the  Druids  as  more  learned  than  their  neighbours, 
and  possessing  a  profound  spiritual  discipline.  They  are  said  to 
have  taught  the  imraortahty  of  the  soul,  as  also  its  transmigra- 
tion, and  to  have  carefully  studied  both  astronomy  and  geography. 
The  names  of  several  Greek  and  Roman  deities  are  mentioned  as 
the  objects  of  their  worship,  and  human  victims  are  said  to 
have  been  frequently  offered  by  them. 

How  far  these  accounts  are  to  be  depended  on  it  is  impossible 
now  to  determine,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  Druids  held  the  sun 
among  the  principal  objects,  if  not  the  sole  object,  of  worship  ; 
that  he  was  known  by  the  name  of  Bel  or  Baal;  that  two 
great  annual  festivals  were  held  in  his  honour,  when  the  fire 
on  every  hearth  throughout  the  land  was  extinguished,  and  every 
house,  occupied  by  high  or  low,  was  relighted  with  consecrated 
fire  given  by  the  priest.  One  of  these  festivals  was  held  in  the 
beginning  of  winter.  It  is  still  known  in  Gaelic  as  Samhmn- 
SaraA-  Tlume,  or  '  the  fire  of  peace,'  and  is  throughout  Scotland 
generally  observed  with  many  superstitious  rites,  the  meaning  of 
which  is  altogether  lost.  The  other  was  held  on  the  ist  of  May, 
andisknownas.Sif/toBeorifif/inMfq.  v.),  'thefire  ofEaaL'  There 
ate  various  places  in  the  Highlands  where,  if  a  person  allows  his 
fire  to  die  out  about  tlie  begmning  of  summer,  he  will  in  vain  go 
for  a  kindling  to  any  of  his  aged  neighbours.  The  taking  fire  out 
of  a  house  at  this  season  is  regarded  as  a  dangerous  thmg,  cer- 
tain to  bring  evil  on  the  house  sooner  or  later.  In  Orkney,  in 
Perthshire,  and  Banfishire,  young  people  still  kindle  fires  on 
hill-tops  in  the  beginning  of  summer,  rush  through  the  flames, 
or  roll  cakes  through  them,  which  are  afterwards  carefully  divided 
and  eaten  by  the  company ;  and  even  in  the  southern  parts  of  the 
kmgdom,  there  are  many  who  still  go  forth  before  sunrise  '  to 
doon  their  observance  to  May '  {Knigktes  Tale,  1.  642),  quite  un- 
conscious that  they  are  still  maintaining  a  part  of  the  once  great 
Druidical  sun-worship. 

Groves  of  oak  are  said  to  have  been  the  &vourite  places  of 
worship  wilh  the  Druids,  and  what  may  well  be  called  '  groves 
of  stones '  were  also  used  by  them  as  temples.  The  remarkable 
'circles  of  stones,' commonly  knovra  as  'Druidical  circles,' are 
still  to  be  seen,  and  of  roost  imposing  dimensions,  in  the  most 
distant  places  which  were  inhabited  by  the  Celts.  Stonehenge 
and  Avebnry  in  England,  Stennis  in  Orkney,  and  Callemish 
in  the  remote  island  of  Lewis,  are  the  most  striking  remains  of 
these  '  sun-temples  '  in  Britain ;  but  there  are  hundreds  of  smaller 
ones,  and  Carnac,  in  the  N.  of  France,  far  si 
tude  any  ti  be  seen  clsewho'e. 


y  Google 


CBL 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


t  is  singular  that  some  learned  men  have  of  late  asserted  that 
these  circles  were  nerec  itsed  as  temples,  but  were  merely  momi- 
ments  of  the  dead.  They  base  their  assertion  on  the  circumstance 
that  graves  have  been  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  many  of 
thein.  Now,  it  appears  to  be  just  as  reasonable  for  a  stranger 
who,  on  a  week-day,  visits  one  of  our  old  churches,  whose 
floors  are  covered  with  flags  marking  the  graves  of  those  who 
sleep  underneath,  to  say  that  these  churches  and  cathedrals  are 
mere  monuments  to  the  dead,  having  nothing  to  do  with  the 
devotions  of  the  living.  Were  there  nothing  dse  to  throw  light 
1  this  point  but  the  GaeUc  language  as  spoken  lo  the  present 
ay,  it  would  prove  abundantly  that  these  '  stone  circles '  were 
places  of  Dmidieal  worship,  and  that  the  Druids  were  held,  not 
in  respect  only,  but  in  deepest  reverence  and  awe,  as  persons 
endowed  with  supernatural  power. 

Laws  and  Ins&ulions. — No  long  time  has  passed  since  lo 
speak  of  written  laws  and  enlightened  institutions  having  been 
■  iwn  among  Celts,  especially  Irish  Celts,  fully  eight  or  nine 
turies  .  back,  would  have  raised  a  laugh  of  contemptuous 
m  wherever  the  English  language  is  spoken  ;  but  such  laws 
.  institutions  did  eitist  among  them  nevertheless.  Every 
tradition  we  have  on  the  subject  confirms  what  Csesar  says  about 
the  absolute  power  of  the  Druids,  not  in  religious  matters  only, 
but  in  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction  as  well.  They  exercised 
despotism  as  extensive  and  as  thorongh  as  ever  belonged  to  any 
set  of  rulers  ;  yet  it  must  have  been  in  many  respects  a  wise  and 
beneficent  despotism.  The  Irish  'Brehon  laws,'  as  they  are 
called,  now  pubHshed  at  the  expense  of  the  British  Government 
(as  ought  to  have  been  done  three  centuries  back),  were  written 
at  least  800  years  ago,  neatly  400  years  after  Ireland  had  em- 
braced Christianity  ;  but  they  embody  many  laws  which  by  con- 
suetudinary usage  had  acquired  the  force  of  statute  long  before 
Christianil^  had  been  preached  in  the  country,  going  far  back 
into  Druidical  times. 

It  is  impossible  within  our  narrow  limits  to  attempt  the  briefest 
summary  of  those  most  interesting  volumes,  now,  through  trans- 
lations and  explanatory  notes,  accessible  to  all  who  clioose  to 
examine  them ;  but  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that,  both  in  civil 
and  criminal  law,  they  are  in  point  of  equity  and  comprehensive- 
ness very  far  in  advance  of  any  legislative  code  which  at  that 
period,  or  for  centuries  after,  belonged  to  any  modem  nation  of 
Europe.  We  may  remark  that,  in  regard  to  one  very  important 
point,  the  ownership  of  land,  these  BrdionLaws  clearly  show  that 
in  Ireland,  as  was  the  ease  universally  among  the  Celts,  the  soil 
was  originally  held  as  a  tribal  possession  ;  the  chief  or  landlord, 
tousemodem  terms,  was  regarded  in  the  light  of  a  public  servant, 
to  whom  certain  payments  were  due  as  the  chief  magistrate  of  the 
community  ;  but  as  long  as  the  members  of  this  community  dis- 
charged their  relative  duties,  he  had  no  power  to  deprive  them 
of  their  holdings.  The  new  laws  regarding  the  ownership  of 
land,  which  were  made  after  the  great  French  Revolution, 
showed  that  the  memory  of  the  old  Celtic  tenures  had  not  died 
out  in  France  even  in  the  rSth  c,  and  the' new  title  given  to  their 
ruler — Emperor  of  the  French,  instead  of  Emperor  of  France- 
shows  that  they  remembered  the  old  patriarchal  relation  of  clan- 
ship or  children  to  a  common  father ;  while  the  ever- festering 
and  running  sore  of  agrarianism  in  Ireland  proves  the  conviction 
to  be  still  strong  and  ineradicable  there,  that  the  old  occupants 
of  the  land  have  light  to  continuous  occupation  while  they  pay  a 
reasonable  rent.  Sir  Henry  Maine's  interesting  work  on  the  his- 
tory of  early  institutions,  proves  amply  that  at  a  certain  stage  of 
progress  in  the  social  condition  of  every  nation,  Celtic,  Teu- 
tonic, or  Hmdu,  these  views  of  land-tenure  are  held  and  acted 
on.  See  article  Brehon  Laws  for  a  brief  description  of  the 
matters  vrith  which  ancient  Celtic  legislation  concerned  itself. 

LaK^Kagt  and  Literature. — This  part  can  only  be  touched  on 
here,  but  the  reader  is  referred  to  articles  Cymric  Lamguage 
AND  Literature,  Gaelic  I^anguagb  and  Literature,  for 
a  more  detailed  account. 

Since  the  days  of  Sir  William  Jones,  all  philologists  admit  the 
Celtic  to  belong  to  the  Aryan  or  Indo-European  family  of  lan- 
guages. What  distinguishes  it  from  all  its  sisters  is  its  inflection 
hy  changes  on  the  initial  consonants  of  its  nouns  and  adjectives. 
lliese  changes  are  in  Irish-Gaelic  called  ecSpsis,  ui  Scottish, 
asjdraliint,  and  in  Cymric,  mulalion. 

The  extent  of  Celtic  literature  still  existing  is  immensely 
more  than  English  readers  are  generally  avrare  of.  In  Welsh, 
the  Myvyrian  ArcAaology.,  published  by  Owen  Jones,  occupies 


volum 


CEL 
;  books  of  Wales,  published  with 

he  6th  c, 
hundreds 


t  learned  introduc 
)ems  composed  aboul 
e  I3th,  wliile  there  a: 


The  four  ancii 
English  translation  am 
Skene  of  Edinburgh,  conti 
and  committed  to  writing 
of  MSS.  still  unpublished. 

For  an  account  of  tlie  MS.  treasures  of  Ireland, 
to  the  works  of  the  truly  able  and  industrious  Profi  .    . 

(I>ubl.  1861).  He  shows  that  there  are  many  thousand  pages  of 
the  most  miscellaneous  description — historical,  theological,  and 
scientiiic — still  preserved,  mainly  in  the  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
but  in  many  other  libraries  also,  both  British  and  foreign. 
These  have  been  written  from  the  gth  to  the  l6th  centuries. 
The  Goveniment  of  the  country,  as  idready  observed,  are  pub- 
lishing several  of  them.  The  Royal  Irish  Academy  is  also 
showing  liberality  and  activity  in  the  same  direction,  and  the 
time  is  not  fer  distant  when  full  justice  will  be  done  to  the  learn- 
ing which  flourished  in  Irehmd  during  what  was  well  called  in 
other  kmgdoms  the  'dark  ages.' 

In  Scottish  Gaelic  there  is  a  small  collection  of  MSS.  in  the 
Advocates'  Library,  Edinburgh,  some  of  which  belong  to  the 
I2lh  c  The  Book  0/  the  Dean  of  Lismore  was  written  by  the 
middle  of  the  l6th  c.  There  is  a  large  number  of  songs  from  the 
middle  of  the  i^lh  c.  to  the  present  day,  some  of  high  poetic  merit, 
others  sufficiently  commonplace.  There  is  one  volume  of  truly 
beautiful  prose  by  the  late  Rev.  Dr  Norman  Macleod,  of  St 
Columba,  Glasgow,  but  Ossian  (q.  v. )  is  the  main  name  connected 
with  Scottish  Gaelic  literature.  All  that  need  be  said  here  is, 
that  the  poetry  attributed  to  him  is,  in  the  opinion  of  competent 
judges,  unsurpassed  in  its  combination  of  sublimity  with  tender- 
ness, and  that,  while  few  judicious  men  will  m^tain  that  Mac- 
pherson  acted  faithfully  in  publishing  from  MSS.  collected  by 
him,  fewer  still  will  new  assert  that  these  poems  were  composed 
by  him  in  Engh  h  d  aft  w  d  transl  ted  mt  Gaeh  Th  y 
contain  aband  tmt  Ip  ffthGalb  gth  ngaJ 
and  there  is        ry  t  I  d    th  t  (?   w  tains, 

spite  of  Macpl   tb  ked  p       d        g  f  agm    t     f 

-the  old  heroic  C  led  P    t  y 

"""""""  t         h  d  th      h   f  p]  11 

1       d        }    b  t  th  y  h  ec 

f         g  th    cha     t       f 
Id  pi  d  t      t   e  th 

th  y  h 
■     ght 


The  C.   N    wh   h     t 
Western  Europ    ha  w 

sarily  had   a      ry  great      i 
those  who  now         py  th 
amount  of  th  t     fi 
they  have  p 
vidually. 


those  who  s' 


'  ii",  ' 


1  mb  red  tl   t 


f  Uy 


d  d  t: 


1   d  ■ 


-R  n 


h  d   by 


Mn^fJvl 


that  there  is  an  mimense  deal  more  of  it  in  England 
than  is  generally  supposed.  In  his  Words  and  Places  (2d  ed. 
p,  243),  Isaac  Taylor  says,  '  These  facts,  taken  toselher,  prove 
that  Saxon  immigrants, /»-  the  most  part,  left  the  Celts  in  pos- 
session of  the  towns,  and  subdued,  each  for  himself,  a  portion 
of  the  unapprOTiriated  waste.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  a 
very  considerable  element  of  Celtic  population  must,  for  a  long 
time,  have  subsisted  side  by  side  with  the  Teutonic  invaders, 
without  much  mutual  interference.  In  time  the  Celts  acquired 
the  language  of  the  more  energetic  race,  and  the  two  peoples, 
at  last,  ceased  to  be  distinguishable.'  In  Scotland  the  Celts 
were  never  to  any  great  extent  displaced. 

Whatever,  then,  be  the  character  of  the  present  mixed  race  in- 
habiting Britain,  a  considerable  share  of  it  necessaiily  belongs  to 
the  strain  of  Celtic  blood  which  runs  in  their  veins.  Matthew 
Arnold's  opinion  of  what  this  share  is,  is  sufficiently  high  to 
satisfy  the  most  ardent  Celt  He  speaks  of  steadiness,  self-re- 
liance, and  perseverance  as  the  good  qualities  of  the  German,  in 
all  of  which  the  Celt  is  very  deficient.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
German  is  heavy,  commonplace,  humdrum,  destitute  of  sentiment 
and  wit.  This  may  be  a  grotesque  exaggeration  of  some  Ger- 
manic tr^ts,  but  none  can  doubt  that  the  Celt  is  particularly 
strong  in  sentiment  and  wit,  in  reverence  for  all  that  is  great  and  ' 
sacred,  strong  in  imagination,  fond  of  poetry  and  of  music,  and 
brave  even  to  rashness.  Mr  Arnold  quotes  with  approbation  from 
Mr  Morley,  who  says  that  it  is  the  Celtic  mixture  alone  which 
has  enabled  German  England  to  produce  such  a  poet  as  Shake- 
speare. If  the  Celt,  then,  has  added  grace  to  the  vigour  of  the 
Teuton  where  the  two  races  have  been  blent  into  one,  he  has  a 
]pect  and  admiration  which  has  not  always  been  con- 


73 


vGooqIc 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


Cements'  (Fr,  ciiiiml),  factitious  compounds  for  joining  closely 
lid  firm]  J  together  the  surfaces  of  homogeneous  or  heterogeneous 
bodies.  C.  ait  used  liquid,  semi-liquid,  or  plastic ;  and  when 
placed  in  a  thin  layer  between  the  surfaces  to  be  united,  they 


quicltly  dry  and  harden,  and,  by  adhesion,  effect  a  strong  u 

There  are  many  kinds  of  C,  of  vei 

diverse  applications,  but  all  may  t 

(l)  stony  and  hydraulic  C.  ;   (2)  asphaltic  or  bituminous  C 


and  (3)  resinous,  glutinous,  and  oily  C.     The  firs 
prehends  architectural  and  building  mortars,  as  c  mm  rtar 

Portland  cement,  Roman  and  other  hydraulic  C    w     h  h 
lime  for  their  bases.   (See  Mortars  and  Mastic       Th    ec    d 
class  deals  with  those  C.  that  are  prepared  from         ral      ph 
by  pulverising  and  melting  it,  and  combining  p 

chalk,  sand,  &c.,  in  varying  proportions.     They 
used  for  street  pavements,  lining  water  reserve  rs  ai  d 
as  mortar  in  Che  fpundations  of  buildings  to  pre         d  mp  ess 
&c    (See  Asphalt.)   The  third  class  is  by  far  th   m  m 

rous,  and  it  is  impossible  to  enumerate  here  th        m 
recipes  for  their  preparation,  or  detidl  their  u  es 
handicraft.     We  subjoin  from  the  host  of  recip  w 

more  useful  kinds,  referring  for  fuller  details  to  Cooley's  Cyclo- 
pedia gf  Fraclkal  Receipts  (Sth  ed.  Chnrchhill,  Lond.),  and 
Spon's  Workshop  Radpts  (Lond.  1873),  (See  Glue  and  Paste.) 
As  a  rule,  the  least  possible  qnantity  oif  cement  should  be  applied, 
as  a  closer  and  consequently  stroller  junction  is  thereby  effected. 

Diamsmi  or  Armenian  Cement,  for  repairing  fractured  glass, 
earthenware  of  all  kinds,  &c — Dissolve  15  to  20  grains  of  gum- 
mastic  in  a  small  quantity  of  alcohol,  add  z  oz.  alcoholic  solution 
of  isinglass  (previously  softened  in  water,  and  two  small  pieces 
of  gum-smmoniacum ;  mix  tlie  whole,  and  keep  closely  stoppered , 
gently  heat  before  use.  This  most  valuable  cement  is  used  by 
Armenian  jewellers  to  listen  diamonds  to  metallic  surfaces,  and 
is  even  capable  of  nniting  surfaces  of  polished  steel. 

Electrical  or  Philosophical  Apparatus  Cement  (Singer's),  for 
connecting  articles  of  brass  and  glass,  &c, — Resin,  5  parts ;  bees- 
wax, I  part;  calcined  red  ochre,  i  part ;  dry  plaster  of  Paris,  \ 
part  ;  mix  by  applying  heat. 

Acid  Proof  Cement. — Form  a  putty  with  concentrated  solution 
of  silicate  of  soda  and  powdered  glass  ;  suitable  for  corks  of  iars, 
&c.  A  syrupy  solution  of  shellac.in  benzole,  and  of  caoutchouc 
in  the  same,  mixed  tt^ether,  resists  chlorine. 

Leather  Cement. — Dissolve  gutta-percha  in  bisulphide  of  carbon 
to  the  consistence  of  treacle,  thin  down  parts  to  be  joined,  and 
spread  cement  well  into  the  pores  of  the  leather,  then  heat,  press, 
and  hammer  together. 

Cutler's  Cement. — Resin,  4  paifs ;  beeswax,  i  part ;  brick- 
dust,  I  part ;  heat  and  niii  intimatejy,  and  apply  in  liquid  state, 

Optkutiis  Ccnent,  for  temporarily  fastening  lenses,  &c,  while 
grinding  or  polisliing,  adapted  also  for  lapidary  use. — Resin,  4 
parts  ;  wax,  \  part ;  calcined  whiting,  4  parts. 

Iron  Cement,  for  joints  of  pipes,  &c. — I  ^rt  each  of  sal- 
ammoniac  and  flowers  of  sulphur,  and  16  parts  of  cast-iron  bor- 
ings or  filings ;  mix  well  in  a  mortar  and  keep  dry.  When 
required  for  use,  mix  I  part  of  the  powder  with  20  parts  clear 
iron-Rlings,  and  incorporate  the  whole  into  a  stiff  paste  with 
water.  A  cement  containing  the  above  ingredients — flowers  of 
sulphur,  sal-emimoniac,  and  iron-filinp — in  equal  parts,  triturated 
.  in  a  mortar,  and  rendered  plastic  with  raw  Lnseed  oil  and  white 
lead,  is,  according  to  Klein,  well  adapted  for  aquaria.  Finely- 
dfted  wood-ashes  and  powdered  clay,  in  equal  parts,  with  a  little 
salt  and  water,  sufficient  to  form  a  stiff  paste,  form.an  ^cellent 
coveiing  for  the  joints  of  ovens  and  iron  stoves. 

Miscdla?teous  C^Quicklime  beat  into  a  paste,  with  equal 
parts  of  the  while  of  e^  and  grated  cheese ;  for  marble  and  ala- 
baster. Portland  cement,  12  jiarts  ;  slaked  lime  and  fine  sand, 
6  parts  each  ;  infusorial  earth,  i  part ;  make  into  a  thick  paste 
with  silicate  of  soda  ;  for  broken  stone  ornaments,  steps,  &c 

Cem'etery  (Gr.  Aj»jii*«*i»,  lit. 'asleeping.room'),  a  place  for 
the  bttrinl  of  the  dead,  distinct  from  tlie  cburchy^d,  and  one  of 
the  most  benelicial  arrangements  for  the  protection  of  the  health 
of  cities  and  towns  mii.de   in  modem  times.     The  primitive 


Christians  constantly  used  burial-places  for  purposes  of  worship, 
but- to  bury  in  churches  was  a  custom  of  iater  date,  and  was  fre. 
quently  denounced.  The  privilege  was  first  conceded  to  princes 
and  priests,  and  the  laity  subsequently  claimed  it.  In  all 
Mohammedan  countries,  the  C.  is  a  striking  feature  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  cities.  In  Europe,  celebrated  public  burying- 
grounds  were  oonseci-ated  at  Naples,  Bologna,  and  Pisa.  (See 
Campo  Sakto.)  Fire  la  Chaise  at  Paris,  named  after  a  con- 
fessor of  Louis  XIV.,  and  first  used  in  May  1804,  gave  the 
modern  impetus  to  this  arrangement  for  interring  the  dead. 
Kensal  Green  C.,  in  London,  opened  2d  November  1832,  was 
the  first  in  England  j  the  Necropolis,  in  Glasgow,  opened 
March  1833,  the  first  in  Scotland ;  while  Glasnevin,  Dublin, 
w  h  arliest  in  Ireland.  There  are  now  few  considerable 
wn  G  eat  Britain  near  which  there  is  not  at  least  one  C. 
Th  so  common  in  other  European  countries ;  and  in  the 

U       d  S    tes  there  are  cemeteries  of  great  elegance  and  ex- 
s  those  at  New  York  and  Philadelphia. 

Con^i   Beatrice,  executed  nth  September  1599,  for  alleged 

m  in  the  murder  of  her   fether,   Francesco   Cenci,  a 

w  al        R  man  noble,  who,  after  being  married  a  second  time, 

d    1  unnatui'ai  hatred  to  his  children  by  the  earlier  mar- 

g  w  om  Beatrice  was  one.  Inspired  at  once  by  hate  and 
mces  passion,  Cend  forced  his  daughter  to  submit  to  his 

ta  es  es.  The  girl  sought  redress  of  Pope  Qement  VII., 
and  on  being  refiised,  she,  together  with  her  stepmother  and  her 
brother  Giacomo,  planned  and  executed  the  murder  of  the  un- 
natural father.  All  were  condemned  to  death.  In  the  Barbe- 
rini  Palace,  Rome,  a  beautiful  head,  by  Guido,  is  shown  as  the 
portrait  of  B.  C.  Her  story,  written  by  a  contemporary,  was  first 
published  in  the  original  at  Rome  in  1849,  but  a  German  trans- 
lation appeared  at  Leipsic  in  1840  under  the  title  of  Brie/e  von 
einem  Florenliner.  More  recently  the  history  and  trial  of  B,  C. 
has  been  handled  by  Scolari  (Mil,  1856)  and  Dalbono  (Nap. 
1864).  It  forms  the  subject  of  Shelley's  famous  tragedy,  and 
also  of  1  romance  by  Guerrazzi. 

Oeneda,  an  inetent  episcopal  city  of  Italy,  21  miles  N.  of 
the  city  of  Treviso  Rich  and  populous  under  the  Venetian 
repubhc,  it  is  now  decayed,  and  has  little  more  than  8000  in- 
ha\>itants 

Oenis,  Mont,  or  Monte  Cenmo,  a  pass  of  the  Cottian 
Alps,  between  bivoy  and  Piedmont,  the  highest  point  of  which 
IS  677s  feet  above  the  sea.  The  pass  was  used  from  the  earliest 
times,  but  the  road  was  bad  and  dangerous.  In  1810  an  ex- 
cellent road,  begun  by  the  orders  of  Bonaparte  in  1803,  was 
completed  at  an  expense  of  ^^300, 000.  By  this  Napoleon  III. 
sent  his  troops  into  Italy  in  his  campaign  against  Austria  in 
1859.  The  most  remarkable  tunnel  in  the  world  is  that  of  M.  C, 
fully  7i  miles  long,  begun  in  1857,  and  completed  in  December 
1870,  by  which  the  railway  systems  of  France  and  Italy  are  con- 
neeted. 

Cen.o'bites.     See  Mokachism. 
■  Cen'omyce.     See  Reindeer  Moss, 

Cen'otaph  (Gr.  kenos,  '  empty  ; '  taphos,  '  a  tomb '),  a  monu- 
ment or  tomb  erected  in  memory  of  the  dead  buried  elsewhere, 
or  not  foimd  for  burial — e.g.,  those  who  perish  at  sea.  A  tomb 
built  during  lifetime  for  subsequent  burial  has  latterly  come  to 
be  called  a  C. 

Oen'eer  (Fr.  encensoir,  ftara  ineenser,  LaL  incendere,  '  to 
burn  '■),  a  vessel  used  for  burning  and  wafting  incense.  The 
Hebrew  C.  was  a  portable  metal  vessel  which  received 
from  the  brazen  altar  burning  coals,  on  which  incense  was 
sprinkled  by  the  priest,  who  conveyed  it  to  the  golden  altar, 
or  altar  of  incense,  on  which  it  was  offered  up  morning  and 
evening.  Solomon  prepared  censers  of  pure  gold,  and  through- 
out the  great  Day  of  Atonement  a  golden  C.  was  used.  In  the 
Greek  Church  the  C.  is  wafted  by  the  ministering  priest.  It  is 
called  a  thurible  (Lat.  ihuribulum,  from  thus  or  tus, '  incense ')  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  the  acolyte  who  canies  it  is 
called  a  tkarifer. 

Cen'sors  (lit  '  reckoners,'  '  valuators,'  from  the  Lai  censere, 
'  to  count,  assess,'  &c.),  were  two  magistrates  of  high  rank  and 
authority  in  the  Roman  republic,  whose  duty  was  originally  to 
take  the  Census  {q.  v.),  or  register  of  the  citizens  and  their  property. 


4^- 


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TZffi  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Special  magistrates  were  not  appointed  for  tliis  purpose  till  B.C. 
443.  At  first  they  were  chosen  exclusively  from  the  patricians,  bat 
in  B.C.  339  it  was  enacted  that  one  of  them  must  be  a  plebeian ; 
and  in  B.C.  131  both  were  for  the  first  time  plebeians.  The  C. 
were  elected  in  the  cemitia  cenliiriaia,  and  exercised  a  general 
control  over  the  morals  of  the  dtizens.  Hence  they,  possessed 
peculiar  dignity.  Their  own  sense  of  right  was  their  sole  guide 
■"  eierci^g  their  functions.     The  office  continued  till  B.C.  22, 


of  the  public  finances,  including  the  superintendence  of  the 
public  buildings  and  the  construction  of  new  public  works. 
Their  duties  are  summarised  by  Cicero  {De  Lug-  "i-  3)-  As  pos- 
sessed of  the  regimai  moru-Bi,  or  supervision  of  public  morality, 
they  exercised  a  function  Mmilar  to  what  is  now  called  public 
opinion,  and  hence  they  were  both  revered  and  dreaded, 

Oen'eorship  of  ths  Press  is  a  term  denoting  the  system 
regulating  publication  in  countries  in  which  the  press  is  not  free. 
Previous  to  the  Reformation  the  clergy  in  England  claimed  a 
share  in  the  C.  of  the  P.  in  all  matters  connected  with  religion.. 
At  the  Reformation  this  claim  of  right  was  held  to  have  vested 
in  the  crown.  It  was  exercised  by  the  Long  Parliament,  and 
established  by  Act  of  Parliament  in  the  reign,  of  Charles  II.  It 
was  continued  at  the  Revolution  of  1688,  but  in  1693  the  House 
of  Commons  refused  tlie  re-enactment.  See  Copykight,  Law 
Reoarding;  Libel,  Law  of;  Book  Trade;  Press,  Freb- 
domofthe;  Obscene  Publications;  Contempt  of  Court; 
Contempt  of  Paeilament. 

Cen'sTiO  is  a  Latin  word  denoting  the  register  kept  by  the 
Censor  (q.  v.)  of  the  citizens  and  of  their  property.  In  roo- 
dem  parlance  it  means  the  periodical  enumeration  of  the  in- 
habitants of  a  country.  In  Great  Britain  this  has.  been  made 
decennially  since  1801.  In  Ireland,  the  first  attempt  to  take 
the  C.  was  made  in  1811,  but  it  was  not  considered  suc- 
cessful, nor  was  8  n  1831  it  was.  supposed 
to  be  more  accura  d  h  b  quetit  decennial  C.  has 
been  considered  w  h  results.  The  enumera- 
tion  for  England  and  &  and  is  ra  de  under  the  authority  of 
the  Registrais-Ge  aL  S  Reg  sxkar-General.).  Each 
house  is  visited  by  on  num  ra  w  10  enters  the  information 
collected  by  him  in  b  k  w  h  er  careful  revision  by  the 
local  registrar  and  m  h  q  fied  ofUcer  of  the  town  or 
county,  is  transmit  d  h  C  ifice.  The  schedules  for  the 
C.  of  1871  give  the  '  name,  sex,  age,  rank,  profession  or  occu- 
pation, condition,  relation  to  head  of  family,  and  birthplace  of 
every  living  person '  who  passed  the  night  of  Sunday  the  7th 
Apnl  in  the  house.  The  French  C.  is  taken  once  in  five  years, 
the  last  being  in  1878 ;  some  European  countries,  as  Bel- 
gium (last  1S73),  have  a  triennial  C.  ;  others  are  very  irregular : 
Spain,  for  example,  has  not  taten  one  of  the' towns,  since  i860. 
That  of  the  United  States  is,  like  the  Englisli,  once  in  ten 
years,  the  last  being  in  1870.  In  the  U.S.  the  practice  exists 
of  particular  States,  and  in  England  of  particular  towns,  taking;  a 
C.  for  themselves  at  shorter  intervals  than  ten  years.  The  first 
great  general  C.  of  India  was  completed  in  the  beginning  of,  1874. 

Cent  {laX.  cenlum,  'a  hundred'),  a  common  name  for  a 
Thus  there  are  the  American,  the  Spanish,  and  the  Dutch 
cents,  being  respectively  the  ijj-  part  of  a  dollar,  real,  and 
guilder.    The  French  centSmi  =  i^  of  a  franc.    The  Italian 


CentftTi'rea,  a  genus  of  plants  of  thfcnatnral  order  Cbmpoiila, 
containing  many  annual  and  perennial  herbaceous  and  half- 
shrubby  plants,  including  some  common  weeds,  such  as  the 
knapweed  or  horse-knot  (C.  nigra)  and  C.  Cyanu}  (the  blue- 
bottle or  corn  bluebottle),  the  water  distilled  from  tbe  blue 
flowers  of  which  were  at  one  time  gteatb'  valued  as  a  cure  for 
weak  eyes.  With  alum  they  give  out  a  fine  blue  dye.  C.  man- 
tana,  the  lat^e  bluebottle,  is  a  perennial'  species,  9.  native  of 
Central  Europe,  but  common  in  our  gardens.  Sweet  Sultan  (C. 
moschata),  of  the  Levant,  is  also  a  garden  plant  in  Britain. 
Among  other  species  may  be  enumerated  C.  macrocc^halni  C. 
dealbata,  C.  Eagusina,   C.  (Plectocepkdus)  Americanus,  and   C. 


Thessaly,  who  were  extirpated  in  a  war  with  the  Lapithse  ; 
later  mythologising  accounts— e.£. ,  that  of  Pindar—represent 
them  as  monsters,  half  human,  half  equine.  The  notion  of 
their  twofold  nature  may  have  arisen  from  the  neighbouring 
tribes  regarding  the  Thessalian  bull-hunter  and  the  horse  he 
rode  as  constituting  a  single  personality. 

Oentati'rus,  one  of  the  constellations  of  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere, so  called  because  in  Uie  celestial  globe  it  assumes  the 
double  form  of  a  centaur.  It  conlams  two  stars  of  the  second 
magnitude,  both  in  the  head  and  shoulders,  which  are  the  only 
parts  visible  from  Britain. 
Genteu'eB.     See  Tensec 

Cen'tering:  of  an  arch,  the  frameworli  (generally  of  timber) 
used  to  support  the  arch  during  construction.     The  C.  is  re- 
moved within  as  short  a  time  after  the  keystones  are  in  place  as 
has  been  sufficient 'to  allow  the  mortar  to  haiden. 
Gen'tigrade.    See  Thermometer. 

Oen'tipede  (Scolofendi-a),  a  genus  of  Atmuhsi  animals  be- 
longing to  the  class  Myriafoda,  and  included  in  the  order  ChUo- 
foda  ai  that  group.  They  are  . 
carnivorous  in  habits,  feeding 
on  insects,  earthworms,  &c.;  the 
lep  number  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  pairs.   The  antennse  are  Ccniiptde. 

composed  of  not  less  than  four- 
teen joints,  but  the  number  may  also  exceed  forty  in  some  cases, 
The  mouth  is  provided  with  a  pair  of  mandibles,  with  palpi  or 
organs  of  touch,  a  labium.  Or  lower  lip,  and  four  niaxillipMa  oc 
'  foot-jaws.'  The  second  psur'of  the  ktter  organs  possesses  fangs 
for  the  discharge  of  a  poisonous  fluid.  Each  joint  of  the  body 
bears  but  a  single  pair  of  legs,  the  last  pair  of  limbs  formmg  a 
kind  of  tail.  The  body  is  flattened,  and  the  reproductive  organs 
open  at  its  hinder  extremity.  The  C.  is  represented  in  Britain 
by  small  species,  but  those  of  tropical  climates  average  I  a  inches 
or  more  in  length.  Their  bite  is  not  necessarily  ftital  or  danger- 
ous, except  in  debilitated  subjects.  S.  giganlea,  S.  niorsiians, 
S.  dnguUita,  &c.,  are  familiar  species.  The  genem  Litkolms 
and  Ciephilus  are  also  represented  in  Encope  and  elsewhere. 

Centlivre,  Susaimah,  a  dramatic  authoress,  daughter  of  a 
Mr  Freeman,  was  bom  in  Ireland  in  1678.  Left  an  orphan,  she 
went  alone  to  London,  where  she  married  a  nephew  of  Sh 
Stephen  Fox.  After  the  death  of  a  second  husband,  poverty 
forced  her  into  dramatic  composition,  in  which  she  won  decided 
success.  Her  thhd  husband,  Joseph  Centlivre,  was  a  cook  to 
Queen  Ajme.  She  died  in  1.72a.  The  best  of  her  plays,  Tki 
Busy  Body  and  A  Bofd  Slrake  for  a  ffijf,  are  sprightly  and  full 
of  incident  See  Ward's  Dramatic.  Literature,  vo'  "  "  '" 
plays  were  reprinted  in  3  vols,  in  1872.. 

Cen'to  (Gr.  kenfron,  Lat.  cento,  •  patchwork '),  the  name  given 
to  a  certain  trick  of  verse-manufacture  popular  in  the  decline 
of  the  Roman  Empire,  in-  which  si  medley  was  produced  by  put- 
ting together  disnnct  passages  of  an  aitthor  or  of  different 
authors  m  such  a  way  as  to  present  B  new  sense.  The  Homero- 
c(7i/on«(Teueher,Leips.i793)  are  specimens;  also  the  C.Nup- 
Ualis  of  Ausonias,  and  lie  e.  Vir^Sianus  of  Proba  Falconia  in 
the  4th  c.  Both  of  these  Latin  pieces  of  patchwork  are  misuses 
of  Virgil's  language,  the  latter  resulting  in  an  ejiitome  of  sacred 
history.  This  barbarism  was  a  fevourite  pastime  in  the  middle 
ages.  A  C,  of  spiritual  hymns  was  made  up  by  this  perverse 
ingenuity  from  Vir^-  and  Horace  by  a  monk  named  Metillus 
in  the  izth  c 

Cento,  a  town  of  Central  Italy,  province  of  Ferrara,  on  the 
Reno,  18  miles  S..W.  of  the  city  of  FeiTara.  It  is  celebrated  as 
3ie  birthplace  ofGuereino,  the  painter.     Pop.  about  5000. 

Cen'tral  Forces  are  forces  which  act  to  or  from  a  fixed  point. 
According  to  Newton-'s  first  law  (see  Motion,  Laws  of),  any 
body  moving  with  a-  given  velocity  in  a  given  direction  will  C( 
tuiue  so  to  move,  unless  acted  upon  by  some  external  force  ;  a 
hence  any  change  in  the  rate  or  direction  of  motion  indicates  the 
presence  of  such  a  force,  which  may  or  may  not  be  central, 
however,  as  first  proved  by  Newton,  the  body  describe  its  other- 
wise than  straight  path,  such  that  thestraight  line  joiningit  with 
a  certain  fixed  point  sweeps  over  equal  areas  in  equal  times,  that 
75 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


OEN 


point  must  be  the  centre  of  attraction  or  repulsion.  The  converse 
also  holds  true,  being  merely  a  particular  case  of  the  dynamical 
principle,  that  the  Moment  (q.  v.)  of  the  rcBUltant  of  any  number 
of  forces  with  respect  to  any  point,  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the 
moments  of  the  components  with  respect  to  the  same  point. 
Another  important  property  of  all  C.  F.  is  that  the  change  of 
kinetic  enei^  (see  Energy)  of  a.  mass  in  moving  from  one  posi- 
(ion  to  another  imder  the  action  of  such  a  force,  is  dependent 
only  npon  its  initial  and  final  positions,  and  not  upon  the  form 
of  the  particular  path  described.  Given  the  orbit  of  motion  of  a 
body,  and  Che  law  of  force  can  be  easily  deduced  by  a  simple  pro- 
cess of  differentiation,  Tlie  inverse  problem,  given  the  force  to 
find  the  orbit,  is  much  more  difficult,  and  in  some  cases  is  soluble 
only  by  approjtimation. 

When  the  force  is  attractive,  there  must  obviously  be  another 
force  generated  so  as  to  neutralise  the  attraction,  otherwise  the 
body  would  be  dragged  to  the  centre.  This  force,  which  is  due 
to  ttie  constant  tendency  of  the  moving  body  to  continue  in  a 
straight  line,  and  which  has  no  other  efiect  than  that  mentioned 
above,  has  been  erroneoasly  called  the  cenlrifugal  force,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  attractive  or  centripelal  force.  The  amount 
of  this  so-called  untrifugaX  force  at  any  point  of  an  orbit  is  found 
by  dividing  the  square  of  the  velocity  of  the  body  by  the  radius 
of  curvature  at  that  point,  ot  f  —  — 

The  first  clear  comprehension  and  rigorous  mathematical  treat- 
ment of  C.  F.  are  dne  without  question  to  Sir  Isaac  Newton, 
who  deduced  from  Kepler's  second  and  thu-d  laws,  combined 
with  his  own  prindplea,  the  grand  theory  of  universal  gravitation, 
that  aia-y  parHde  of  matter  in  the  universe  attracts  every  other 


this  law  ci 
three  laws. 
O&u'trEilisation  is 


)r  the  process,  sometimes  forcible, 


^_.  ._ Absolute  C.  was  aimed 

at  in  temporal  matters  by  the  Roman  Empire ;  in  spiritual  matters 
it  is  still  claimed  as  a  right  by  the  Vatican.  As,  however,  the 
lai^er  states  of  Europe  are  now  in  stable  independence,  so  the 
papal  claims^  whether  of  jurisdiction,  nomination  of  bishops, 
material  contributions,  or  promulgation  of  dq^ma  on  faith  and 
morals,  are  denied  in  Protestant  countries,  and  recognised  in 
Catholic  countries  only  under  constitutional  checks.  The  C.  which 
rose  in  Europe  with  the  growth  of  municipalities  and  the  decay  of 
pure  feud^m,  consisted  chiefly  in  the  fuial  recognition  of  sove- 
reignty in  matters  of  peace  and  war  and  other  external  politics 
(including  the  relation  of  the  national  chnrch  to  the  Pqie),  and 
in  the  estaMishmeiit  of  a  snpreme  court  of  justice.  No  doubt 
it  was  the  sovereign  who,  by  the  grant  of  municipal  charters,  con- 
ferred not  onlv  rights  of  trade  and  local  taxation,  but  also  an 
independent  local  jurisdiction ;  but  it  was  long  before  the  C. 
implied  in  annual  nationai  sobaidies,  controlled  by  the  voice  of 
the  nation  in  Bu:liament,  appeared.  These  subsidies  are  now  to 
a  large  extent  returned  in  grants  to  particular  localities,  but  are 
still  mamly  contributions  to  public  and  political  objects.  In 
Great  Britain  there  is  complete  freedom  in  the  election  of  the 
various  county,  municipal,  and  parochial  authorities  ;  and  under 
Acts  relating  to  the  Pow  Law,  the  PtJtce.  Education,  Public 
Health,  Ac,  these  authorities  have  acquired  powers  of  taxation 
and  adjmimstration  which  ancient  custom  did  not  give  them. 
These  power»  are  exercised  under  the  general  control  of  Central 
Boards,  bnt  for  the  most  part  their  interference  is  occasional,  and 
is  defined  in  naiTow  limits. 

Cen'tre,  in  the  geometry  of  cni-vea  and  surfaces,  is  the  point 
with  respect  to  wMdi  the  curve  or  surface  is  symmetrically  dis- 
posed, and  every  straight  line  drawn  through  the  C.  will  cut  the 
curve  or  surface  in  points  which,  taken  two  and  two,  are  equally 
distant  from  the  C.  In  the  case  of  a  curve  of  odd  degree,  the 
C.  must  be  a  pcnnt  of  inflexion  ;  in  the  case  of  one  of  even  degree, 
however,  it  is  not  generally  on  the  curve.  This  geometrical  C, 
or  C.  of  figure,  often  corresponds  in  position  with  the  Centre  of 
Inertia  (q.  v. ). 

Ceu'tre  of  Gravity.     If  the  attraction  of  a  mass  npon 
rigid  body  be  reducible  to  a  single  force,  in  a  line  passing  through 


point  fixed  relatively  to  the  body,  whatever  its  position  may 
be  with  respect  to  the  attracting  mass,  that  point  is  its  C.  of  G., 
and  the  body  is  a  csiUrobark  body,  lience  every  centrobaric 
body  attracts  all  external  matter  as  if  its  own  mass  were  collected 
in  its  C.  of  G„  which  centre  coincides  with  the  Centre  of  Inertia 
(q.  v.),  though  differing  essentially  from  the  latter  in  its  funda- 
mental conception.  If  the  centre  of  inertia  should  fell  without  the 
body,  as  in  the  case  of  a  homogeneous  ring,  there  can  be  no  C. 
of  G.,  since  it  is  a  further  property  of  this  point  tliat  it  must 


sophy,w\.i.  a.  526-535. 

Centre  of  Gyra'tion.  of  a  rotating  body,  is  tliat  point  at 
which,  if  the  whole  mass  were  collected,  the  moment  of  inertia 
with  respect  to  the  axis  of  rotation  would  remdn  unaltered. 
The  circle  described  by  this  point  is  called  the  Circle  of  Gyralioti, 
and  its  radius  &  is  obtained  from  the  equation  *'Sm  =  2mr', 
where  r  is  the  distance  of  an  element  ot  from   the  axis  of 


Centre  of  Inertia,  coininonly  but  inconveniently  called  the 
centre  of  gravity,  is  that  point  with  respect  to  a  system  of 
material  particles  whose  distance  from  any  plane  is  equal  to  the 
sum  of  the  products  of  each  mass  into  its  distance  from  the  ss 
plane,  divided  by  the  sum  of  the  masses.  Hence,  taking  as 
ordinate  axes  the  intersections  of  three  rectangular  planes,  the 
point  is  given  by  the  equations — 

xSm  =  Sotj;,  y2OT  =  Smj-,  zSm  =  Sw«. 
In  these  the  whole  theory  is  contained.  Thus,  by  simple  differ- 
entiation with  respect  to  time,  the  equations  become  xSot  =  Smi, 
&c.,  ftom  which  we  deduce  that  the  sum  of  the  momenta  of  the 
parts  of  the  system  in  any  direction  is  equal  to  the  momentum  in 
the  same  direction  of  a  mass  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  masses, 
moving  with  a  velocity  equal  to  the  velocity  of  the  C.  of  I. 
Another  interesting  property,  for  a  simple  demonstration  of 
which  see  Thomson  and  Tail's  Elements  of  Natural  Philo- 
sophy, vol.  i.  s.  196-198,  is  that  the  sum  of  the  products 
of  each  mass  into  the  square  of  its  distance  for  any  point 
exceeds  the  corresponding  quantity  for  the  C.  of  I.  by  the  pro- 
duct of  the  whole  mass  into  the  square  of  the  distance  of  the 
point  from  the  C.  of  I,  The  moment  of  inertia  of  a  system 
about  any  axis  is  the  sum  of  the  products  of  each  mass  into  the 
square  of  its  distance  from  that  axis  i  from  which  we  have  the 
interesting  proposition  that  the  moment  of  inertia  of  a  ayatem 
about  any  axis  exceeds  the  moment  of  inertia  about  a  parallel 
axis  through  the  C.  of  I.  by  the  moment  of  inertia  about  the 
first  axis  of  the  whole  mass  supposed  condensed  at  the  C.  of 
I.  The  above  theorems  are  easily  applicable  to  the  case  of  a 
continuous  solid  body  instead  of  a  system,  by  merely  substituting 
integration  (see  CAlCulITS)  for  simple  summation. 

Centre  of  OeciUa'tion  is  that  point  in  an  oscillating  body 
at  which,  if  the  whole  mass  were  collected,  tlie  single  pendulum 
so  formed  would  oscillate  in  the  same  lime.  Its  distance  from 
tiie  point  of  suspension  is  found  by  dividing  the  moment  of 
ihertia  of  the  body  about  the  supporting  axis  by  the  product  of 
the  mass  into  the  distance  of  the  centre  of  inertia  from  the  sami 
axis.  An  important  property,  applied  auccessfiilly  by  Captaij 
Kater  for  finding  the  length  of  the  second's  pendulum  at  an; 
place,  is  that  the  centres  of  suspension  and  oscillation  may  be 
interchanged  without  affecting  the  time  of  oscillation. 

Centre  of  Perouss'ion  is  that  point  of  a  moving  body  ai 
wliich  the  momentum  may  be  supposed  to  be  concentrated. 
For  a  body  moving  without  rotation  in  a  straight  line,  this  point 
coincides  with  thecentre  of  inertia,  and  for  an  oscillating  body,  with 
the  centre  of  oscillation.  Further,  it  is  at  this  point  that  the  moving 
body  would  strike  the  hardest  blow  upon  any  opposing  obstacle ; 
and  if  the  obstacle  were  immovable,  and  the  body  perfectiy  rigid 
and  inelastic,  the  collision  would  be  followed  by  repose.  Hence, 
if  there  be  rotation,  the  C.  of  P.  must  be  so  situated  tliat  the 
collision  may  generate  a  rotation  equal  and  opposite  to  that 
already  existing. 

Centre  of  Preas'ure,  or  Met'acentre,  is  that  point  of  a 
body  immersed  in  a  fluid  at  which  the  resultant  pressure  is  ap- 
plied.    See  Hydrostatics, 

Centrifugal  and  Oentrip'etal  Forces.  See  Central 
Forces, 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Cepliaelia.    See  Ipecacuanha. 


typf 


-A  Ganoid  fishes,  forming  the 


discingui^ed  by  the  possession  of  a  peculiar  bony,  cepbalic 
head-sHeld,  or  buckler,  which  has  its  angles  produced  into 
long  processes,  giving  it  much  the  shape  of  a  '  saddler's  knife. 
The  presence  of  this  shield  gave  the  generic  name  Ciphalaspis 
('buckler-headed')  to  the  group.     The  shield  was  also  pro- 
longed in  its  hinder  marein  in  the  middle  line.     The  orbits  are 
set  closely  together,  and  exist  neaily  in  the  middle  line  of  the 
shield.    No  jaws  or  teeth  have  been  discovered,  the  mouth  hav- 
ing probably  been  soft.     The  body  was   covered   by  ganoid 
scales,  and  a  dorsal  fin  existed.      The  tai!-fin  was  unequally 
lobed  or  hiierocercal,  and  floral  or  breast  fins  existed.     These 
fishes  occur  in  the  Silurian,  but  chiefly  in  the  red-sandstone  forma- 
tions. As  in  most  other  Ganoidci,  the  skeleton  was  cartilaginous 
and  of  radimentary  nature.   C.  Lyellii  is  the  most  familiar  spedes. 
Cephaltfuia  (anc  Gr.  Kephallenia,  ItaL  Cefal<niia),a.a  island  of 
Gieece,  and  die  largest  of  flie  Ionian  groufi,  has  an  area  of  255 
sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1S70)  of  77,382.    It  lies  near  the  entrance 
to  the  Gulf  of  Patras,  is  only  separated  by  a  narrow  strdt 
from  Ithika,  also  called  Little  C,  and  has  a  much  indented 
coast-line.     The  island,  which  is  about  30  miles  long  and  10 
broad,  is  traversed  by  a  range  of  mountains,  which  attains  in 
Mount  Nero  (anc.  ^nos)  a  height  of  5497  feet.    There  is  a 
great  scarcity  of  water,  but  even  the  high  mountain  terraces  are 
made  to  yield  grapes,  or  '  currants,'  and  olives.     The  climate  is 
delidoias ;  earthquakes,  however,  are  not  infrequent,  the  last 
severe  shock  being  that  of  1867.    In  1874  the  exports,  chiefly 
currants  and  olive  oil,  amounted  to  ;£iS9,3o8,  and  the  imports 
to  ^^240,409.     The  population  is  composed  mainly  of  Greeks, 
Italians,   and  Jews ;  and  a  Greek  dialect  is  the  spoken  lan- 
guage.    The  capital  is  Argostoli.      In  the  Homeric  poems  C. 
bears  the  name  Same  or  Samos,  and  belongs  to  Ulysses.    It  in  turn 
became  the  possession  of  the  Athenians  (431   B.C.),    Romans 
(189  B.C.},  Byuantines  (395  A.D.),  Venetians  (l^iS).  and  Turks 
(1479-1502).      Its  later  history  is  bound  up  with  that  of  the 
Ionian  Islands  (q.  v.). 
Oeplialop'oda  ('  head-footed'),  the  name  given  by  Linnreas 
J  the  highest  class  of  the  MoUusca  (q.  v.),  represented  by  the 
cuttlefishes,— including  the  famed  paper- 
nautilus  or  Argonaut,  the  pearly  nautilus, 
the  poulpes,  Calamaries  (q.  v.)  or  squids, 
\c     This  class  is  readily  known  and  de- 
ed as  a  group  of  higher  mollusca,  by 
t  e  possession  of  a  circle  of  arms  or  ten- 
tacles, borne  on  the  head  and  surrounding 
the  month;  W  the  body  being  enclosed 
n  a  muscular  Mantle  (q.  v.) ;  by  the  effete 
vater  of  cesfaration  l«irg  ejected  from 
an  infundHmlum  or  funnel  pkced  on  the 
front  aspect  of  the  body  j  by  the  breath- 
ing being  carried  on  by  two  or  fonr  plume- 
hke  dlls  placed  within  the  mantle-sac;"and 
by  the  intestine  having  its  first  turn  fo- 
rds the  nmral  or  nervous  aspect  of 
the  body.     The  head  is  distmct,  and  the 
n  antle-sac  or  body  is  covered  by  a  loose 
t  Tjisparent  skin  or  integument,  beneath 
w  ich  colour  cells  or  chroniatopkora  are 
s  tuated.       By  chan^ng   the   position    of 
n  alter  the  hue  of  their  bodies.    The  body 
h  fin-like  expansions  of  the  mantle,  as  in 
the'Calainary  or  Lol  go  (q.  v. ),  in  which  the  fins  are  terminal, 
o    va  Sepa,  ml  ere  a  membraneous  fin  surrounds  the  body. 
The  head  with  its  cirde  of  arms  presents  a  singular  appear- 
ance, and  a  glance  at  the  figure  of  an  ordinary  cuttlefi^  will 
show  fiat  the  name  'head-footed'  has  not  been  misapplied. 
The  arms  are  modifications  of  the  otdinaij  moiiuscan  'foot,' 
and  in  all  cuttlefishes,  save  the  pearly  nautilus  (M  Pomfilius), 
are  provided  with  rows  of  suckers,  which  may  be  sessile  (as  in 
Ociopoda),  or  pedunculated  or  stalked  (as  m  B^apoda).     Each 
sucker  consists  of  a  cup-like  structure  provided  with  a  firm. 
rim  and  a  muscular  disc,  by  the  contraction  of  which,  by  means 
of  a  little  piston  or  papilla,  a  vacuum  is  produced,  and  the 
sucker  is  thus  at  once  and  firmly  made  to  adhere  I 


face.  By  pushing  out  the  piston,  the  vacuum  can  be  as  readily  de- 
sf  royed,  and  the  sucker  released.  The  suckers  ace  in  some  cases 
(OnychotatlMs)  provided  with  hooked  processes,  or  may  be 
surrounded  by  a  homy-toothed  ring  (as  m  decapods).  Where 
ten  arms  exist  (as  in  decapods  like  the  calamaiy),  two  are  elon- 
gated to  form  tentacles,  the  other  eight  arms  bemg  of  equal  and 
shorter  length.  Locomotion  is  effected  in  these  anunals  by  the 
arms  and  their  suckers,  the  cuttlefishes  thuswalking  head  down- 
wards ;  or  they  may  propel  themsdves  backwards  through  the 
by  aid  otjels  iTaiu  from  the  funnel,  which  consist  of  the 
used  in  respiration ;  whilst  they  aie  capable  of  moving  in 
other  ways  by  means  of  their  fins.  The  digestive  system  indudes 
a  mouth,  homy  jaivs,  gullet,  crop,  stomadi,  and  intestme,  liver, 
and  salivary  glands.  An  organ  called  the  ink-sai:  is  developed  m 
all,  save  the  pearly  nautilus,  and  this  structure  secretes  an  inky 
fluid,  which  may  be  ejected  from  the  funnel  to  darken  the  sur- 
rounding water,  and  so  enable  these  animals  to  escape  amid  the 
obscurity  thus  produced.    The  heart  consists  of  a  syslematk  heart 

Cpellmgpure  blood  through  the  body,  andofa  branchial  or  giU 
rt  at  me  base  of  each  gill  to  propel  the  venous  blood  into  the 
gills  for  purification.  Each  gill  is  enclosed  m  a  branchial  cavity 
placed  at  the  side  of  the  bodjr.  Water  is  admitted  by  the  front 
opening  of  the  mantle,  and  ej""*"''  -f'"- ' 


ected  after  being 


n  breathmg. 


Cepba  apod 
these  cells  he  C 
n  ay  be  provided 


Lcept  the  pearly  nautilus,  in  which 
exist.  The  nervous  system  consists  of  a  lai^e  cephalic 
or  brain  mass  endosed  widiin  a  cartilaginous  case,  and  from 
which  nerves  ordinate  to  supply  all  parts  of  the  body.  Large 
well-developed  eyes  and  organs  of  hearing  exist-  The  shellis 
internal,  and  exists  in  the  form  of  a  homy  or  limy  pen  [gla&is 
sepiostaire,  or  cuttldime)  in  most  of  these  animals.  In  the  paper- 
nautilus,  an  outside  single-chambered  shell  (but  not  strictly 
agreeing  with  the  truesheJIs  of  other  molluscs)  exists  ;  but  in  the 
pearly  nautilus  a  perfect  and  tme  external  shell  is  developed, 
and  this  latter  is  many- chambered.  The  sexes  are  distinct,  and 
one  of  the  arms  of  the  males  generally  becomes  modified  to  form 
a  hectocBtyhis,  which  conveys  the  male  generative  dements  to  the 
female  for  the  fertilisation  of  the  e^s.  These  forms  are  classified 
as  follows : — 

Okder  I.  DibrancMata—Tfio  g^lls  ;   arms,  eight  or 
vided  with  suckers  ;  ink-sac  devdoped  ;  shell  intemal,  c 

1,  not  chambered ;  funnel,  a  complete  tube,  Ex.  Paper-nautilus 
..  Aigonaut,  Octopods  or  Poulpes,  Calamaries  (Loligo),  Sepia, 
Spiruk,  Eledone,  Bdemnites  (extinct),  &c. 

Order  2.  Tetrahranckiata — Gills,  four ;  arms,  numerous,  not 
provided  with  suckers  ;  no  ink-sac ;  fnnnel,  not  a  complete  tube ; 
shell,  external  and  many- chambered.  Ex.  Pearly  nautilus  (only 
living  example) ;  fosdl  examples  numerous,  such  as  Ammonites 
(q.  v.),  Ceratites,  Haroites,  Goniatites,  Turrilites,  &c, 

The  C.  are  represented  by  numerous  fossil  examples  ;  thus  all 
the  Tetrabranchiates  are  fossil  and  extinct,  with  the  exception  of 
the  pearly  nautilus.  The  several  groups  of  this  class  are  de- 
scribed under  (heir  respective  headings  (e^.,  Calamary,  q.  v.), 
and  the  stories  of  gigantic  cuttlefishes,  &c,  are  noted  under  the 
head  of  Kkaken  (q.  v.). 

Cephalop'tera  ('head-winged'),  a  genus  of  Rays  (q  v)  or 
Elasmobranchiate  fishes,  formmg  types  of  the  family  Ciphabp- 
teridii  or  homed  rays.  Agreeing  with  the  chaiactera  of  the 
Jiaiina  generally,  they  are  distinguished  by  having  the  muzile 
or  head  fianked  on  each  side  by  a  membianeous  hoin  like  pro 
cess,  whilst  the  pectoral  fins  extend  broadly  outwards  The 
eyes  are  lat^e,  and  are  placed  laterally.  The  tail  13  slender,  and 
hears  a  long  serrated  spine.  A  small  doiS'J  fin  exists,  and  the 
teeth  are  numerous  and  of  small  siie.  C  gtorna  of  the  Medi- 
terranean is  the  familiaf  species.  The  C  sometimes  attam  an 
enormous  size.  Risso  mentions  a  male  which  weighed  Soo  lbs. 
and  a  female  of  1 200  lbs. 

Oephalotaar'us,  a  genus  of  Japanese  and  Chinese  c 
one  of  which,  C.  Fortund,  is  now  common  m  Br  tish  collections 
of  hardy  trees  and  shrubs. 

Oe'pheuS,  a  constellation  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  oci 
pying  the  space  between  the  stars  Polaris  and  Deneb,  but  ci 
tainmg  no  star  greater  than  the  thhd  magnitude. 
Cepola.     See  Bandfish. 

Ceram',   an  island  in  the   Indian  Archipelago,  one  of  the 

Moluccas,  lies  W.  of  New  Guinea.     Area  7000  sq.  miles  ;  pop. 

77 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CEE 


d  not  to  exceed  30,000.  C.  is  mountainous,  some  of  the  ele- 
ions  exceeding  10,000  feet.  Maiia  is  extensively  cultivated, 
and  there  are  large  forests  of  the  sago-palm.  The  Dutcli  assetl 
the  sovereignty,  and.  the  Malays,  who  trade  under  the  Dutch 
flag,  and  supply  the  Chinese  with  sea-slugs,  have  several  settle- 
ments on  h  as  Th  na  Alfar  3  tli  P  p 
type,  are  m    tly  d        rs 

Ceram.'byx      g  C  b  d  b 

LinnseuE,  w  m  g  ised  in         m     gy     Th  j 

possess  1  Ee         ee         2^r«adhBh 

m    m     k  emphfies   h    g 


musk-bee 
musky  od 


Th 


Cotamia'ceee,  a  sub-order  of  Algs  (q.  v.),  very  abundant 
in  the  Northern  Seas.  Dulse  (q.,  v.).  Carrageen  (q.  vi),  Placaria 
(q.  v.),  and  various  other  species  are  remarliable  for  their  beauty 
or  utility. 

Oaram'iee  (Gr.  keramos,  "earthenware ').  Under  this  name 
all  varieties  of  the  potter's  art,  from  the  rough-baked  brickwork 
up  to  the  finest  productions  in  artistic  porcelain,  are  included. 
The  term  is,  however,  usually  restricted  to  the  finer  varieties  of 
earthenware  and  porcelain,  regarded  as  works  of  art. 

Oeras'tea,  a  genus  of  Viperine  snakes,  represented  by  Ibe 
homed  viper  {Ceraslts  Hassdgtdsti  or  vuigaru)  of  Egypt  and 
N.  Africa  generally,  where  it  is-  found  in  sandy  or  dry  places. 
It  is  known  by  llie  presence  of  a  horni-like  process  above  each 
eye.  The  average  length  is  about  15  mchesor  I J  feet.  The  C. 
isvery  poisonous,  and  some  authorities  consider  it  to  be  tlie  'asp  ' 
of  Cleopatra's  tragic  end.  Olher  species  (C  naiicomis  and 
coMdalis)  belong  to  W,  and  S.  Africa. 

Oer'ate  (Lat  ccra,  'wax'),  a  medicine  made  with  was  and 
fatty  matter  as  a  basis,  and  other  substances  as  active  ingredients. 
It  resembles  Ointment  (q.  v.). 

Cer'atite,  a  genus  of  extinct  Tilrahranchiate  or  four-gilled 
Cephalopoda  {q.  v,)  or  cuttlefishes,  the  discoidal  shells  of  which 
occur  as  fossils  chiefly  in  the  Trias  rocks.  Some  are  found  in  the 
cretaceous  rocks,  but  mrae  occur  in.Jurassic  stmta.  The  genus 
is  uicluded  in  the  family  Amvionitida  or  Ammonites.. 

Oerato'aia,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  ox^aLeguminosie 
(sub-division  Cissalfimiea),  one  of  which  ( C.  Siliqua)  is  the  Carob 
Locust  (q.  V. ).  It  is  said  that  the  seeds  formed-  tiie  original  carat 
weight  of  the  jewellers. 

Oeratophylla'oeee,  Ihe  horn- weeds,,  an:  order  of  plants  (divi- 
sboiAVo^itiAwj,  sub-division  Corollijtara)  comprising  one  genus 
{Ceratephyllum),  contauiing  one  species  (C.  dimersum),  a  com- 
mon inhabitant  of  pools  or  slow  streams  in  the  northern  hemi- 

Cerliera,  a  genus  of  trees  belonging  to  the  nalurd  order 
Apocynacia,  natives  of  tropical  Asia.  The  seeds  of  most  of  them 
ire  poisonous.  The  bark  of  C.  Odollam,  of  the  Malabar  coast, 
s  purgative,  and  the  unripe  fruit  is  used  to  destroy  dogs,  the 
teeth  of  the  animals  being,  it  is  repdrted,  'loosened  so  as  to-fall 
out  after  masticatbg  it '  XMaslers). 

OerTjerus  (Gr,  Kerbo-os),  according  to  H-esiod,  the  fifty-headed 
dog  that  guarded  the  entrance  to  Hades.  He  is  represented  as 
•he  son  of  T^phon  and  Echidna.  Later  writers — i.g.,  Sophocles 
—reduce  his  heads  to  three.  By  a  poetic  licence  Horace  ealU 
him  Beltaa  centkeps,  '  the  hundred-headed  beast,' 

Oerca'ria,  the  name  applied  to  the  larva  or  immature  stage 
of  certain  parasitic  Enliaea  known  as  Trsmatoda,  and  represented 
by  the  'flukes' (JJir/oma)  and  allied  forms.  A  cercariform  larva 
consists  of  a  body  possessing  a  ladpole-like  tail,  by  which  loco- 
■  motion  in  the  water  is  subserved.  These  cercaria  appear  to  be 
developed  from  a  mother-cyst  {C.  cyst)  or  'nurse,'  produced  in 
turn  from  the  e^,  or  embryo,  of  the  fluke,  which  has  gained 
admittance  to  the  breathing-chamber  of  such  a  fonn  as  the 
fresh-water  snan.  The  C.  thus  liberated  from  the  snail  may 
n  about  until  it  in  turn  may  find  a  resting-place  within  the 
body  of  some  aijuatio  insect-larva,  or  of  a  snail.  Here  it  be- 
comes encysted  m  its  turn,  and  if  it  gain  access  to  the  sheep  or 
other  warm-blooded  vertebrate,  it  becomes  there  developed  into 


Cer'cis.    Sec  Judas-Tree, 

CerCOCeTbus,  a  genus  of  Catarhine  (q.  v. )  monkeys,  popularly, 
and  together  with  the  allied  genus  CercopUkecus  (a.  v.),  knowi 
as  'Guenons.'  The  C.  fidiginosus,  or  sooty  mangabey,  or  ne^ri 
monkey  of  W.  Africa,  is  a  good  example  of  this  genus,  in  which 
th   tail  is  elongated. 

Cercopithe'ous,  a  genus  of  Catarhine  or  Old-World  ni 

k     s,   which  with   the   genus   Cercocebia  (q.  v.)  includes  those 

ma  known  as  Guenons.    These  monkeys  are  typically  African 

heu-  geigraphical  distribution,  and  among  the  best-known 

=peciesare  the  grivet  (C.  EngytMlMa),  the  vervet  (C.  Pygety- 

(i),the  white-nosed  monkey  (C.  Pelimrisia),  and  the  Diana 

m   ikey  (C.  Diana).     The  tail  in  this  genus  is  elongated,  and 

cheek-pouches  and  nasal  callosities  exist. 

Oerdo'cyon,  a  genus  of  Canida  (q.  v.)  or  dogs  inhabiting  S. 
America,  and  supposed  to  present  features  of  structure  inter- 
mediate between  the  dogs  and  foxes.  The  name  Aguara  Fox 
is  occasionally  applied  to  these  animals,  which  may  be  domesti- 
cated, and.  trained  to  exhibit  much  intelligence. 

Cere.     See  Biel. 

Oere'a,  an  old  town  in  the  province  of  Verona,  N.  Italy,  19 
miles  S,S.  E.  of  Verona,  has  a  ruined  castle,  and  was  the  scent  ■  ■" 
a  victory  gained  by  the  Austrlans  over  the  French  in  171 
Pop-  5930- 

Cerealio,  or  Cereal  Giaeees,  another  name  for  the  c( 
or  bread  plants — though  the  nanle  is  generally  reserved  for 
those  that  belong  to  the  order  of  grasses,  such  as  wheat,  barley, 
rye,  oats,  rica,  maiie  or  Indian-corn,  millet,  Durra  or  Guinea 
corn,  &C.,  all  of  which  have  been  cultivated  for  so  long  that  it  is 
difficult  to  say  what  the  origin  of  any  of  them  is.  There  are 
also  a  number  of  other  grasses  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  their 
seeds,  but  these  are  not  usually  spoken  of  as  cereals,  and  their 
origin  is  known.  Among  these  may  be  ranked  Elusmt  (Mand) 
of  India,  Teff  {Poa)  of  Abyssinia,  Zimnia,  Canadian  Rice  (q.  v. }, 
&c,  and  a  variety  of  other  plants,  from  the  ground  seeds  of 
which  bread  is  made,  such  as  buckwheat,  &c.  Spirituous  and 
fermented  liquors  can  be  made  from  most  of  them, 

CerebeU'nui.  This  organ  is  sometimes  termed  the  lesser  or 
hinder  brain.  It  is  situated  in  the  posterior  fossa  of  the  skulL 
In  many  of  the  lower  animals  it  is  not  completely  overlapped  by 
the  posterior  lobes  of  the  cerebrum  or  greater  liain,  but  in  the 
higher  quadrumina  or  apes,  and  in  man,  it  is  completely  con- 
cealed by  the  cerebrum  when  the  brain  is  placed  on  a  flat  sur- 
face, and  the  eye  is  directed  to  the  vertex. 

Analamy. — 'The  C.  consists  of  a  body,  and  of  three  peduncles 
or  bands  by  which  it  is  connected  wiUi  adjoining  parts  of  the 
nervous-  system.  Superiorly  it  is  connected  to  the  cerebrum, 
and  inferiorly  to  the  irudulla  ohloiigata,  and  through  it  with  the 
spinal  cord.  The  body  consists  of  two  lateral  hemispheres, 
having  between  them  a  mass  of  nervous  matter  termed  the 
vermiform  process.  The  two  lateral  hemispheres  are  connected 
t(^ether  by  tlie  middle  peduncles  or  bands,  which  pass  from  one 
side  to  the  other,  forming  the  transverse  fibtfs  of  a  structure 
called  the  Pons  Varolii.  The  surface  of  the  C.  presents  convolu- 
tions to  which  special  names  have  been  given,  which  may  be 
found  in  every  work  on  anatomy. 

Minuti  Structure  of  the  C. — When  a  section  is  made  through 
the  organ,  it  is  found  \a  consist  of  grey  and  of  white  matter,  so 
arranged  in  leaflets  as  to  present  a  peculiar  arborescent  appear- 
ance, which  has  been  called  by  the  older  anatomists,  the  arbor 
■mtm.  The  surface  of  the  lobes  of  the  G.  consists  of  leaflets. 
Each  leaflet  has  white  matter  internally,  and  grey  matter  ex- 
ternally. When  a  portion  of  C.  is  hardened,  so  that  a  thin  sec- 
tion may  be  made,  stained,  and  mounted,  according  to  the 
methods  of  modem  histology,  a  leaflet  is  found  to  consist  of 
three  layers,  arranged  as  follows ; — Most  internally,  a  layer  of 
nerve-fibres ;  outside  of  this  a  broad  layer  of  gi-anules  or  cells 
closely  placed  together ;  while  most  externally,  and  next  the 
surface,  there  is  a  finely  molecular  layer.  At  the  junction  of 
the  molecular  with  the  granular  layer,  there  is  found  a  single 
row  of  large  nerve-cells,  termed  the  cells  of  Purkinjt,  after  their 
discoverer.  These  cells  are  sliaped  somewhat  like  a  tadpole, 
the  head  being  directed  to  the  granular  layer,  while  the  tail, 
which  splits  up  "into  many  delicate  fibres,  passes  olitvrards  and  is 
lost  in  the  molecular  layer.     According  to  certain  hisfologists. 


y  Google 


CER 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


.  .  i  are  fibres  connecting  the  granules  of  the  granular  layer 
with  Purkinje's  cells,  but  ttiese  have  not  yet  been  satisfactorily 
demonstrated.  In  the  centre  of  the  body  of  the  C.  there  is  a 
nucleus  oC  grey  matter,  known,  on  accoant  of  its  corrugated  or 
toothed  appearance,  as  the  iroifus  dsKlaluvi. 

~i;yiiaI(i£y.~No  jiart  of  the  neiTOUs  mtem  is  more  obscure 
egards  itH  function  than  (he  C,  Disease  of  the  organ  is 
.  When  it  does  occur,  the  most  common  symptoms  are 
blindness  or  indistinctness  of  vision,  unsteadiness  of  gait,  and  a 
tendency  to  fall  backwards.  The  mental  faculties  are  not 
affected.  Experimental  inquiry  shows  that  when  the  organ  is 
injured  or  partially  removed,  the  animal  does  not  lose  conscious- 
ness, nor  is  it  paralysed,  bnt  it  appears  to  have  lost  the  power 
of  directing  or  of  controlling  its  movements.  It  moves  its  feet 
in  an  ircegnlar  manner,  and  is  unable  to  perform  any  ac^on  re- 
quiring careful  adaptation  of  motions.  Intelligence  and  sensa- 
tion are  unaffected.  From  these  pathological  and  experimental 
data  the  following  theories  have  been  put  forward  regarding  the 
fiincHons  of  the  C.  : — 

I.  That  it  is  somehow  connected  with  vision.  The  exact 
connection  bf  the  C.  with  this  sense  is  unknown. 

a.  That  it  is  the  co-ordinatot  of  muscular  movements.  In 
grasping  any  small  object,  such  as  a  pen,  delicate  adjustments  of 
3ie  various  groups  of  ■muscles  are  required.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed that  the  C.  effects  this,  but  no  one  knows  how, 

3.  That  it  is  the  seat  of  the  muscular  sense.  This  is  the 
sense  by  which  the  mind  becomes  cognisant  of  the  position  of 
any  Hmb  and  of  the  degree  of  contraction  of  the  muscles. 
It  is  through  it  we  have  a  feeling  of  weight  or  resistance,  and 
it  gives  the  information  on  which  the  mmd  acts  in  determining 
further  movements.  It  has  been  supposed  that  when  the  C,  is 
diseased  or  injured  there  is  no  guiding  sensation,  on  which  the 
mind  tan  act  with  definiteness,  and  hence  the  movements  that 
follow  volition  are  vague  and  purposeless. 

4,  Some  phrenologists  assert  that  the  C.  is  the  seat  of  the 
sexual  instincts.  This  view  is  not  generally  adopted  by  -physio- 
logists. It  has  not  been  found  ttat  there  is  any  distinct  rela- 
tion between  the  size  of  the  C.  and  the  development  of  sexual 
passion,  while  other  facts  directly  militate  against  this  view. 
Thus  the  C.  is  not  smaller  in  animals  which  have  suffered  cas- 

The  preponderance  of  evidence  is  in  favour  of  the,  view  that  the 
C.  is  connected  with  the  co-ordination  of  the  muscular  movements, 
but  the  eiact  method  by  which  it  effects  this  Is  unknown. 

Cer'ebrio  Aoid,  This  is  a  fatty  acid  contained  in  the  braiji, 
and  obtained  by  a  complicated  process  (see  Watts' Z>K-i^Gi«M., 
vol,  i,  p,  829).  It  is  a  white,  granular,  crystalline  substance, 
soluble  m  boiling  alcohol,  insoluble  in  water.  Ultimate  analysis 
by  Fremy  showed  that  it  contained  667  per  cent,  of  carbon,  lo'C 
of  hydrogen,  2-3  of  nitrogen,  0-9  of  phosphorus,  and  ig'Sof  oxy. 
gen.  The  acid  forms  salts  with  nearly  all  bases.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  it  forms  a  constituent  of  brain-tissue  as  C.  A. 

Certbrin.  This  name  is  given  to  matters  extracted  from 
brain-matter  by  means  of  alcohoL  They  probably  consist  of  a 
mixture  of  cerebric  acid  and  phosphuretted  fats.  Preparations  of 
brain  which  have  been  long  unmersed  in  alcohol  sometimes  yield 
crystals  of  cholestrin. 

Cer'ebTOl,  This  has  been  described  as  an  oily  substanc?,  of 
a  reddish  colour,  obtained  by  the  action  of  alcohol  and  ether  on 
brain-matter.  It  is  probably  composed  of  oleo-phosphoric  and 
cerebric  acids  and  cholestrin. 

Oer'ebro-Spi'nal  Axis.  This  term  is  usuallj;  applied  to  the 
central  part  of  the  nervous  system,  as  distinguished  from  the 
nerves  or  peripheral  part.  The  C.-S.  A.  consists  of  the  brain 
and  spmal  coiil.  The  brain  is  contained  in  the  cavity , of  the 
cranium,  and  the  spinal  cord  or  marrow  in  the  bony  canal  formed 
by  the  vertebra.-  Both  structures  are  surrounded  by  three  mem- 
branes as  follows :— ij/,  and  most  externally,  a  strong  fibrous 
membrane  termed  the  dura  mater;  2d,  and  in  the  middle,  a 
serous  mernbrane  called  the  arachnoid;  and  yi,  and  directly 
covering  the  brain  and  cord,  a  vascular  membrane  named  the/iVi 
maler.  The  C.-S,  A,  consists  of  a  right  and  left  half,  exactly 
symmetrical,  which  are  united  together  by  commissures  or  con- 
necting masses  of  white  or  grey  matter.  The  spinal  portion  of 
the  C-S.  A.  is  well  developed  in  all  vertebrate  animals,  but  the 
cranial  portion  in  the  skull  presents  many  degrees  of  develop- 


nt  in  different  genera,  from    h         p  h 

ifhioxus  Isrueolatus  to  the  high        mp  m       n  an 

See  Brain,  Cerebellum,  Ceee  S    n      C  rd  &. 

Cer'e'bro- Spinal  riuid.      Th     fiu  d  u  d  b    h 

surface  of  the  brain  and  spmal       dudmahh  f 

arachnoid  membrane.     It  has  b     n     bta      d  p  rp 

analysis  from  a  case  of  spina  btfi  a  g       al  n    n 

which  a  portion  ,of  the  posterioi  rt  ca 

deficient.     The  analysis  of  1000  y  H  pp  n 

Schwabeig  was  as  follows.: — 

Water       ,         .         .  9 

Solid  matter     . 
The  solid  matter  was— 

Albumen o'a5 

Extractive  matter      ....         230 

Soluble  salts    , 7*67 

Insoluble  .salts  ....        0*45 

Cer'ebrOtp,  Alcoholic  extracts  of  brain-substance  yield  a 
dep<reit;  this  deposit  treated  with  ether  is  C.  It  is  no  doubt 
-  complex  substance,  similar  in  nature  to  cerebrol  and  cerebrin, 
Oer'ebrum.  The  C. ,  or  greater  brain,  forms  the  laigest  divi- 
on  of  the  nervous  mass  in  the  skull.  It  gradually  increases  m 
_^e  and  complexity  of  structure  as  we  ascend  from  the  lower  to 
the  higher  groups  of  vertebrate  animals,  and  it  attains  its  maxi- 
mum size  in  man.  The  human  brain  is  absohitely  larger  than 
the  brain  of  any  ^animal,  except  the  elephant  and  the  laiger 
whales  ;  and  it  is  larger,  relatively  to  the  size  of  the  body,  than  in 
any  o^er  animal,  eicept  m  certain  small  birds  and  mammals. 
The  average  weight  of  a  well,  developed  brain  of  a  European  is 

49  to  50  oz.  in  the  male,  and  44  to  45  oz.  in  the  female.  The 
brains  -of  .many  highly  intellectual  men  have  been  fotmd  to 
exceed  the  average  size.  The  following  are  examples  ; — Cuvier, 
64^  oz. ;  iDr  Abercrombie,  63  oz, ;  Goodsir,  57  oz.  ;  Spurgheim, 
55  oz.  ;  Sir  James  Y.  Simpson,  54  oz.,  and  Dr  Thomas  Chal- 
mers, S3  oz.  The  brdn  may,  however,  be  heavier  than  usual  in 
the  msane.  Thus  the  records  of  the  West  Riding  Asylum  show 
that  out  of  375  males  examined,  m  thirty  cases  the  brain  weighed 
over  55  oz. ;  while  hi  300  females,  in  twenty  cases  the  weight  was 

50  oz.  or  upwards.  Thus  it  appears  that,  beyond  a  certain  limit, 
there  is  no  necessary  relation  between  weight  of  bram  and  degree 
of  intelleciuat  power.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  ascertained 
that  an  individual  having  a  brain  weighing  less  than  30  oz.  is  in- 
variably an  idiot.  Some  idiots  have  a  brain  weighing  only  10 
or  '12  oz.  i  but  idiocy  may  also  be  associated  with  a  brtun  weigh- 
ing from  45  to  50  oz.  The  inference,  therefore,  is  that  quality 
.as  well  as  quantity  of  brain  is  essential  to  intellectual  vigour. 
■Little  is  .known  definitely  regarding  the  weight  of  the  brains  of 
uncivilised  races,  but  the  few  records  made  shoiw  conclusively 
the  average  bram-weight  is  lower  in  savage  races  than  in  the 
European. 

In  considering  the  C.  we  shall  describe^(i)  general  analamy, 
(2)  minute  structure,  (3)  physiology. 

I.  General  Anatomy. — The  C.  is  an  oval  mass  consisting  of  two 
hemispheres,  separated  from  each  other  b^  a  deep  fissure,  which 
runs  from  before  backwards  in  the  median  line.  The  hfemi- 
spheres  are  united  by  a  broad  band  of  fibres  passing  fransversel^, 
called  Ihe  corpus. caUomm.  Each  hemisphere  is  convex  on  its 
upper  surface,  and  flattened  underneath.  The  upper  surface 
presents  a  peculiarly  folded  appearance,  forming  the  convolutions 
of  the  C.  The  furrows  or  suld  between  these  are  generally  from 
half  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  depth.  These  convolutions  have  re- 
ceived special  .names,. which  will  be  found  in  any  standard  work 
on.anatomy  (see  Quain's  Anatomy,  7th  ed.  Lend.  1867).  Their 
outer  surface  is  adapted  tO  the  mner  table  of  the  bones  forming 
the  vatilt  of  the  cranium.  Convolutions  are  also  found  on  the 
lateral  and  inferior  aspects  of  the  brain  mass. 

When  the  base  of  the  brain  is  examined,  it  presents  an  irregular 
.mass,  from  the  under  surface  of  which  the  cranial  nerves  issue  to 
be  distributed  to  the  organs  of  sense,  the  face,  and  structures  in 
the  neck, .  clicst,  and  abdominal  cavity.  Posteriorly,  there  is  the 
under  surface  of  the  cerdidlum  and  the  midulla  oblongata,  while 
in  front  of  Ae  latter,  the /iwm  i/o?w/j  is  seen  passing  transversely. 
Emei^ng  front  the  fore  part  of  the  pons,  and  separating  from 
each  other  as  they  pass  upwards  and  outwards,  are  two  ba.nds  of 
white  matter,  called  the  peduncks  or  crura  of  the  C,  Each  of 
79 


vLiOOQle 


CEE 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CEB 


these  is  crossed  by  a  flattened  band  named  the  optic  tract.  The 
I  optic  tracts  convei^e  to  form  one  mass,  the  Gptic  cojftmis- 
!,  from  tlie  fore  part  of  which  the  optic  nerves  issue, 
'he  interior  of  the  C.  may  be  examined  by  making  transverse 
sections  from  above  downwards.  This  was  the  method  pursned  by 
the  older  axiatomists,  who  gave  fanciful  names  to  the  vaiions  parts 
thus  displayed,  which  render  the  subject  singularly  difficult  to  the 
modern  studenL  When  a  horiEontai  section  is  thus  made  a  little 
above  the  level  olilitcurpascaJlBsum,  it  is  seen  that  the  central  mass 
of  the  C.  is  composed  of  white  matter — that  is,  of  nerve-fibres, 
while  the  mai^ins  are  covered  by  a  layer  of  grey  matter,  consisting 
of  nerve-ceila,  connective  tissue,  &c.  When  the  section  is  cut  as  low 
IS  the  corpus  caUosum,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  white  matter  of  this 
structure  passes  into  the  hemisphere  on  each  ^de.  Iftheflhres  of 
the  corpus  caliosum  are  now  divided  longitudinally  a  short 
distance  on  each  side  of  ^the  median  line,  two  cavities  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  C.  are  openeil,  named  the  lateral  veniriclcs.  These 
■e  lined  by  a  serous  membrane,  which  secretes  a  thin 
fluid,  and  they  are  connected  with  similar  cavities  in  the  brain. 

There  are  certain  special  structures  to  be  briefly  alluded  to, 
because  they  are  usually  included  by  anatomists  and  physiologists 
in  what  is  known  as  the  C, 

Corpora  ^frtoiVr. —These  are  two  large  masses  of  nervous 
matter  seen  in  the  floor  of  the  lateral  ventricles. 

Optic  72a/flj«i— These  are  two  masses,  composed  chiefly  of 
grey  matter,  seen  in  the  lateral  ventricles,  and  forming  the  outer 
wails  of  the  third  ventride.  They  are  in  intimate  connection 
with  the  cerebral  peduncles. 

Corpora  Qiiadngemina. — These  are  four  bodies  composed  of 
nervous  matter  placed  above  a  foramen  which  leads  from  the 
third  to  the  fourth  ventricle.  The  latter  ventricle  is  the  space 
between  the  posterior  aspect  of  the  medulla  oblongata  and  the 
cerebellum. 

IHnail  Gland. — This  is  a  small  red-  body  found  in  ftont  of  the 
corpora  guadrigeniina.  It  is  not  a  nervous  organ,  although  the 
ancients  beUeved  it  to  be  the  seat  of  the  soul,  but  it  in  all  pro- 
bability belongs  to  the  group  of  glands  known  as  tlie  Bloody 
Glands  (q.  v.). 

".  Minute  Structure, — Tlie  C.  is  composed  of  white  and  of 

y  matter.  The  white  matter  consists  of  nerve-fibres,  and  the 
grey  matter  of  nerve-cells  and  delicate  nerve-fibres  embedded 
m  a  very  fine  variety  of  connective  tissue  known  as  neuroglia. 
The  grey  matter  is  distributed  over  the  surface  of  the  convolu- 
''ons,  and  is  also  collected  in  masses  in  the  interior  of  various 
arts.  These  local  masses  are  usually  termed  nuclei.  When 
(amined  in  the  fresh  condition,  the  cerebral  matter  is  so  soft  and 
pulpy  that  little  can  be  learnt  regarding  its  minute  structure. 
""  '   is  hardened,  cut,  stained,  and  mounted  in  a  proper  manner. 

Manipulation.)  When  a  vertical  section  is  made  through  a 
cerebral  convolution,  and  examined  nnder  a  power  of  thirty 
diameters,  it  is  seen  that  there  are  no  fewer  than  si):  layers  of 
white  and  grey  matter  alternating  with  each  other.  There  is, 
however,  no  distinct  line  of  demarcation  between  the  various 
"  .  They   glide   gradually   into   each   other.     When   seen 

under  a  magnifying  power  of  250  or  300  diameters,  the  surface 
of  the  convolution  presents  a  molecular  appearance.     Here  and 
there  are  minute  vessels  which  pass  into  the  brain  from  the  pia 
The  remainder  of  the  structure  is  composed  of  newo^ia. 
Deeper  in  the  substance  of  Che  convolution  two  kinds  of  nerve- 
cells  .are  found  :  (l)  small  round  cells  about  rgVn  "^  ^"  '^°^  '" 
diameter,  similar  to  those  found  in  the  middle  or  rusty  layer  of 
the  Cerebellum  (q.  v.);  and  {2)  larger  cells  of  a  pyramidal 
shape,  having  the  apex  directed  towards  the  surface  of  the 
'    "         Each  of  these  cells  has  at  least  three  processes  (some- 
four),  by  means  of  which  they  are  connected  together,  and 
by  which  they  unite  with  nerve-fibres  which  may  ramify  through 
the  body.     In  addition  to  these  nerve-cells  there  are  numerous 
delicate  nerve-fibres  ramifying  in  various  directions.     Many  of 
these  pass  longitudinally,  forming  a  commissural  system  which 
innects  one  convolution  with  another.     Still  deeper  in  the  sub- 
^nce  of  the  brain  modem  investigation  has  shown  the  existence 
'  large  multipolar  cells,  that  is,  cells  having  five  or  more  pro- 
isses,  somewhat  similar  to  those  found  in  the  spinal  cord. 
Grey  matter  in  the  form  of  nuclei  has  also  been  found  in  the 
striata,  optic  thalami,   and  corpora  quadrigcniina,   hut 
:t  connection   of  these  with  other  parts  has  not  been 
itisfactorily  demonstrated. 


the 


3.  I'hysiolo,^.—'n\E  C.  is  the  part  of  the  brain  more  imme- 
diately connected  with  all  mental  acts,  including  intellect,  will, 
emotion  or  feeling,  and  sensation.  It  is  also  the  part  associated 
with  the  power  of  voluntary  motion.  That  these  functions  are 
dependent  on  the  integrity  of  the  grey  matter  on  the  surface  of 
the  brain  is  proved  by  the  following  considerations ; — (i)  In  the 
animal  kingdom  generally  a  correspondence  is  observed  betwi 
the  (quantity  of  grey  matter  and  the  sagacity  of  the  animal. 
At  birth  the  grey  matter  of  the  C'  is  thin,  so  much  so  that  the 
convolutions  are  marked  out  only  by  shallow  fissures,  which  after- 
wards become  the  sold  by  development  of  the  grey  matter  pan 
passu  with  the  growth  of  intelligence.  (3)  Experimental  re- 
search proves  that  on  slicing  away  the  grey  matter  from  the 
surface  of  the  brain,  the  animal  loses  all  the  phenomena  of  mind, 
and  becomes  dull  and  stupid  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of 
cortical  substance  removed.  (4)  Obsei-vation  of  diseases  of  the 
brain  at  the  bedside  shows  that  in  those  cases  in  which  the 
disease  has  been  aftei  v/ards  found  to  commence  at  the  circum- 
ference of  the  brain,  and  proceed  towards  the  centre,  the  mental 
faculties  are  affected  j&-i(,'  whereas  in  those  diseases  which  com- 
mence at  the  central  parts  of  the  organ,  and  proceed  towards 
the  circumference,  they  are  affected  last. 

The  function  of  the  mhile  rnatter  of  the  brain  is  to  conduct 
nervous  impressions  in  various  directions.  Disease  of  the  white 
matter,  such  as  destruction  by  a  clot  of  blood,  as  in  Apoplexy 
(q.  v.),  is  followed  by  paralysis,  either  of  motion  or  of  sensi- 
bility, according  as  motor  or  sensory  nerves  are  affected: 

The  deeper  miclei  in  the  corpora  striata,  optic  thalami,  &c, 
have  no  doubt  special  functions,  though  these  have  not  yet  been 

Corpora  Striata. — These  bodies  are  generally  believed  to  be 
connected  with  motion.  Destruction  of  even  a  small  portion, 
from  any  cause,  produces  paralysis  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
body.  (See  Hemiplegia.)  ITiis  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
motor  fibres,  which  pass  down  from  these  bodies  to  the  spinal 
cord,  from  thence  to  be  distributed  to  various  muscles,  decussate 
or  cross  over  to  the  other  side  in  the  medulla  oblongata,  (See 
Medulla  Oblongata.)  Disease  limited  to  the  convolutions, 
and  not  afiecting  the  corpora  striata,  is  not  attended  by  paralysis, 
but  causes  insanity. 

The  Optic  Thalami  are  connected  wiih  sensation,  that  is, 
they  receive  sensory  impressions  from  various  parts  of  the  body 
which  they  transmit  to  the  cerebral  hemispheres.  Disease  of 
these  structures  causes  either  perversion  or  loss  of  sensibility  in 
various  parts  of  the  body,  sometimes  on  the  same  side  as  the 
lesion,  but  usually  on  the  opposite. 

The  Corpora  Quadngimina  ate  undoubtedly  connected  with 
vision.  They  are  the  homologues  of  the  optic  lobes  of  birds. 
They  attain  a  great  size  in  birds,  but  are  much  smaller  in 
mammals.  Disease  of  Ihe  corpora  quadrigemina  is  followed  by 
loss  of  vision,  with  complete  dilatation  of  the  pupil  of  tlie  eye. 
Brown-S^uEid  found  that,  puncturing  these  bodies  on  the  left 
side,  the  right  eye  was  convalsed  while  the  other  was  normal. 
After  the  injury,  also,  the  animal  walked  round  and  round  in  a 
circle,  afler  the  manner  of  a  horse  in  a  circus,  that  is,  it  appeared 
to  be  impelled  by  an  irresistible  force  to  move  in  one  circular 
direction. 

Secent  Researches. — The  meliod  of  research  by  vivisection  is 
open  to  many  objections,  the  chief  of  which  is,  that  the  severity 
of  the  operation  and  the  loss  of  blood  may  cause  such  a  state  of 
shock  as  to  vitiate  any  inferences  that  might  be  drawn  from  the 
facts  recorded.  A  new  method,  however,  has  been  devised, 
namely,  that  of  stimulating  the  nervous  centres  by  electricity,  and 
observing  the  results.  Until  recently  it  has  been  accepted  by 
all  physiological  authorities  that  -the  cerebral  hemispheres  are 
destitute  of  urritability.  It  was  apparently  shown  by  Longet, 
Majendie,  Matlencci,  Weber,  Budge,  Schiff,  and  others,  that 
irritation  of  the  surface  of  the  hemispheres  called  forth  no  mus- 
cular movements.  It  was  consequently  concluded  that  the  cere- 
bral convolutions  over  their  entire  extent  were  associated  witli 
(he  phenomena  of  the  mind.  The  method  of  irritating  the  sur- 
face of  the  brain  with  a  weak  galvanic  current  was  pursued  in 
Germany  by  Fritsch  and  Hitiig  conjointly,  and  in  England  by 
Ferrier, 

The  commencement  of  this  method  of  inquiry  dates  fi-om  an 
observation  made  by  Hitzig  on  a  wounded  soldier  during  the 
Franco- Prussian  war,  tiiat  galvanic  irritation  of  a  portion  of  the 
cerebral  hemispheres  excited  conlraetions  oi  the  muscles  of  the 


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GBR 


orbit.  Experiments  on  the  lower  animals  were  begun  by  Hitzig 
and  Fritscli  when  peace  was  restored.  The  method  was  very 
simple.  A  portion  of  the  caiaarium  was  removed  from  dogs, 
the  sensitive  dura  mater  was  split  up  and  carefully  removed 
from  the  surface  of  the  convolutions,  and  areas  on  these  were 
then  irritated  by  a  weak  continuous  current.  The  result  of  these 
inquiries  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows  : — l.  In  the  anterior 
portions  of  the  surface  of  the  hemispheres  there  are  certain  de- 
finite re^ons  irritation  of  which  causes  muscular  movements  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  body.  2.  Irritation  of  the  posterior 
lobes  produce  no  muscular  movements. 

Dr  Ferrier's  researches  were  made  in  the  first  instance  in  tlie 
pathological  laboriitory  of  the  West  Riding  Asylum,  and  after- 
wards in  the  laboratory  of  the  Brown  Institntion,  London.  Dr 
Ferrier  has  experimented  on  p^ons,  fowls,  guinea-pigs,  rabbits, 
jackals,  and  monkeys.  The  method  of  experiment  is  that  already 
described  as  the  one  pursued  by  Fritsch  and  Hitzie.  The  irritating 
current  was  derived,  from  the  secondary  coil  of  Du  Bois-Rey- 
mond'a  induction  machine,  the  primary  co3  of  which  was  in  con- 
nection  with  one  Stohret's  cell  (with  carbon  and  zinc  elements). 
By  moving  the  secondary  coil  in  tlie  sliding  board,  and  thus  in- 
creasing or  diminishing  the  distance  from  the  primary  coil,  the 
strength  of  the  current  may  be  carefully  graduated.  Dr  Ferrier 
has  obsei-ved  the  following  phenomena  ;— I.  Stimulation  of  the 
surface  of  the  hemispheres  causes  a  determination  of  blood  to  the 
part  stimnlated.  2.  Stimulation  of  areas  on  the  surface  of  the 
anterior  lobes  of  the  hemispheres  causes  mi^ular  movements  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  body.  3.  Long:Continued  Faradisation 
causes  convulsions  of  on  epileptiform  character.  The  convulsions 
were  always  preceded  by  '  an  excited  hyper^mic  condition  of 
the  cortical  matter  of  the  hemispheres.'  4.  As  regards  the 
presence  of  motor  centres  in  the  d,,  the  two  sides  of  the  brain 


animals  the  centres  for  special  movements  are  more  differ- 
entiated than  in  other  animals,  in  a  mannec,  corresponding 
to  the  habits  of  the  animal.  Thus,  the  centres  for  the  Hps 
of  the  rabbit,  the  tail  of  the  dog,  and  the  paw  of  the  cat 
are  highly  differentiated.  Various  other  methods  of  experimen- 
tation recently  employed  support  the  view  that  in  the  anterior 
lobes  of  the  cerebral  hemispheres  there  are  centres  connected  with 
voluntary  movements,  and  that  these  centres  are  distinct  from 
each  other.  These  facts  so  far  are  in  support  of  the  doctrine 
long  ago  put  forth  by  Gall  and  Spurzheim,  die  founders  of  phreno- 
logy, that  the  br^n  is  a  compound  organ,  havingparts  connected 
with  special  faculties.  (See  Phrenology.)  These  researches 
have  also  important  bearings  on  the  diagnosis  and  treatment  of 
many  diseases  of  the  brdn,  See  Epilepsy,  Insanity,  Chorea, 
Hemiplegia,  Paraplegia, 

Oereop'sis  ('wax-face'),  a  genps  of  natatorial  birds,  nearly 
allied  to  the  Anserims  or  geese,  and  of  which  the  C.  Nova  Mol- 
landim,  of  New  Holland,  is  a  familiar  example.  These  birds 
have  the  front  of  the  head  covered  with  a  yeljow  skin.  The  legs 
are  longer  than  in  ordinary  geese,  and  tlie  extremities  pf  the 
tibi^  or  shins  are  invested  by  a  naked  skin. 

Oe'res,  the  name  under  which  the  Romans  worshipped  the 
DSmStlr  of  -the  Greeks.  According  to  the  Greek  myth,  she  was 
the  daughter  of  Kronos  and  Rhia,  and  the  mother  of  Proser- 
pina, Cora  or  Persephonfl,  whose  rape  by  'gloomy  Dis'  (Aldon- 
eus  or  Pluto)  forms  the  chief  incident  by  which  C.  is  indivi- 
dually known.  She  wandered  in  human  form  in  search  of  her 
daughter,  and  deprived  the  earth  of  its  fertility  till  Zeus  was 
compelled  to  send  Hermes  to  Erebus  to  bring  back  the  maiden. 
Aidoneus  allowed  her  to  return  on  the  condition  that  Proserpina, 
should  spend  the  winter  in  Erebus,  while  the  rest  of  the  year 
should  be  spent  with  her  mother.  It  is  difficnSt  to  believe  that 
the  myth  is  not  symbolic  of  the  apparent .  concealment  of 
natural  life  in  the  under  world  during  the  gloqm  of  winter,  and 
"■'"  joyous  reappearance  in  the  spring.  The  analysis  of  the 
les  favours  this  view.  The  Greek  myth  has  its  counterpart 
some  measure  in  the  tales  told  by  the  Norsemen  of  the 
Niflungs.  As  the  all-nourishing  Earth-mother,  C.  is  the  inven- 
treas  of  agriculture,  the  ameliorator  of  life,  the  creator  of  ttie  feel- 
ing of  patriotism,  and  of  a  regard  for  law  and  order,  whence 
she  was  called  Tkismophm-os.  C.'s  worship  was  established  at 
Eleusis,  but  soon  extended  over  Attica,  the  Peloponnesus,  the 
Isles  of  the  *:gean,  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor  and  Sicily,  whence 


it  passed  to  Rome.  (See  EleusINIA.)  From  the  colour  of  the 
ripened  grain,  she  was  known  as  the  yellow  goddess,  and 
from  the  bounties  of  the  harvest-time,  as  the  mother  of 
riches.  The  sacrifices  offered  to  her  consisted  of  pigs  (the 
symbol  of  fertility),  cows,  honey-cakes,  and  fruits.  In  works  of 
art  she  is  represented  with  a  long  robe,  a  wreath  of  poppies  0 
corn-ears,  and  carrying  a  sicltle  or  a  torch.  Her  feast  at  Rome 
{Cerealia)  was  celebrated  on  the  13th,  or,  according  to  others,  01 
the  7th  of  April. 

Cires,  the  first-discovered  of  the  Asteroids  (q.  v.),  observed 
by  Piazil  of  Palermo  on  January  1,  1801.  It  is  very  small, 
appearing  as  a  star  of  the  seventh  magnitude,  and  having  a 
diameter  variously  estimated  from  160  to  1600  miles. 

Oe'reus,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Cactaefs. 
There  are  in  all  about  loo  species,  many  of  them  producing 
magnificent  flowers.  So'me,  like  C.  specwsissimMS  of  Mexico,  an 
common  in  our  conservatories.  C.  gigantats,  the  Suwarrow  0 
Saguaro  of  Mexico,  will  reach  a  height  of  50  or  60  feet.  The 
fruit  is  eaten.  (See  Cactace*.)  C.  Macdonaldis  is  a  native  of 
Honduras,  and  C.  grandiflorus,  Vos  night-flowering  C,  is  another 
well-known  species  of  the  W.  Indies. 

Oerignola,  La,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Foggia,  S.  Italy, 
35  miles  S.E.  of  Foggia,  stands  on  rising  grotmd,  and  has  an 
active  trade  in  almonds,  and  extensive  cotton  manufactures. 
Pop.  of  commune,  21,639.  Here,  on  the  28th  April  1503,  the 
Spaniards,  under  Duke  Gonsalvo  of  Cordova,  achieved  supremacy 
in  Naples  by  a  victoir  gained  over  the  French,  led  by  the  Dulte  of 
Nemours,  who  was  killed.  In  the  vicinity  of  C,  on  the  W.  shore 
pf  Lake  Salpi,  are  (he  ruins  of  the  Apulian  town  of  Salapia, 
which  was  destroyed  by  the  Romans  durmg  the  great  Punic  War. 

OerlgO  {anc.  Cythh-a),  the  rnost  southern  of  the  Ionian 
Islands,  lies  to  the  S.  of  (he  Morea,  and  is  a  heptarchy  in  the 
nomardiy  of  Argolis  and  Corinth.  Area,  107  sq.  miles ;  pop. 
(1S64)  14,454.  ^t  i^  in  general  mountainous  and  barren,  but 
some  of  the  valleys  produce  grdn,  vines,  and  olives,  and  other 
southern  fruits.  The  honey  pi  the  island  is  celebrated,  and  so 
are  the  fish  of  its  shores,  in  which  a  large  tpade  is  carried  on. 
The  capital,  Kapsali,  has  a  pop.  of  i5pa  Near  San  Nikolo,. 
where  there  is  sfJe  anchorage,  are  some  ruins,  supposed  to  mark 
the  site  of  the  ancient  dty  of  Cythei'a,  where  Venus  had  a  splen- 
did temple,  and  from  whi(h  she  took  the  name  of  Cytherean. 

Osrin'tlujs  was  a  heresiarclj  of  Jejyisl)  extraction  in  the 
1st  c,  whose  system  was  a  mixture  of  Judaism  and  Gnosticism, 
and  against  whose  errors  the  Gospel  of  John  is  supposed  to 
have  been  written.  His  esoteric  doctrine  being  chiefly  founded 
on  the  Cabala,  he  was  the  precursor  of  the  Ebionites,  and  also 
of  the  Gnostics.  His  Jndaism  amounted  to  this,  that  circum- 
dsion  and  the  ceremonial  law  were  still  binding  on  Christians. 
Regarding;  Christ,  C.  held  with  Basilides  that  the  Logca  (Christ) 
descended  on  the  man  Jesus  at  his  baptism.  In  his  system 
Millennarianism  (q.  v.)  also  liist  appears,  am)  Chat  of  a  very 
gross  description,  Uie  delights  of  the  millennium  being  to  con- 
sist chiefly  in  carnal  gratifications,  gee  Paulus'  Hisioria  C. 
(Jena,  1779),  and  Neander's  KirchengachicUe. 

Oeiiitli'inm,  a  genus  of  Gasteropodous  molluscs,  representing 
the  family  Cetiihiada,  which  in  tnm  is  include4  in  the  Prose- 
branchiate  division  of  the  above  class.  The  genus  CcriiMum. 
(of  which  C.  advtrsum,  C.  retktilatum,  and  C.  itietula  are  familiar 
species)  possesses  a  long,  spiral,  tiering  shell,  the  aperture  tielng 
small,  and  its  canal  tortaous.  The  outer  lip  is  expanded,  the 
inner  lip  thickened,  and  the  operculum  is  horny  and  spiral. 
Many  fossil  species  are  known, 

Ce'rium  is  a  rare  metal  contained  in  the  m  nerals  Gadolmtle 
Cerite,  and  CryptolUe,  and  was  named  after  the  plinet  Ceres 
It  was  discovered  in  1803  by  Klaproth,  and  by  II  s  nger  and 
Berzefius.  Oxalate  of  C.  has  been  used  med  c  nally  m  cases 
of  pyrosis  and  obstinate  vomiting.  C.  is  usu^ly  accompan  ed 
in  its  ores  by  two  other  metals,  called  LantI  ntim  and  D  dy 
mitim,  possessing  much  the  same  properties,  and  separable  from 
it  with  difficulty. 

Gerope'gia,  a  genus  of  herbaceous  plants  and  shrubs,  com- 
prising about  fifty  species,  natives  of  India  and  Africa,  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  Asclipiadacta.  Several  species  are  eatei 
either  as  a  salad,  or  the  leaves,  stems,  and  tubers  are  boiled  a 
potherbs. 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAiDIA. 


CBR 


Cerox'ylon.    See  Wax-Palm. 

Gerre'to,  a  town  of  S.  Italy,  province  of  Eeiievento,  22 
miles  W.E.  of  C^pua,  on  the  slope  of  Mount  Matese,  hks  a 
cathedral  and  manufacturea  of  coarse  cloth.  Good  wine  is 
produced  in  the  neighbourhood.  C  was  partly  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  in  1688.     Pop,  6469, 

Oerr'o  de  Paeco,  a  mining  city  of  Peru,  the  capital  of  the 
province  of  Pasco,  department  of  Junin,  140  miles  N.E.  of 
'  ■  na,  and  14,100  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.     The  pop., 

nixture  of  all  races  and  nationalities,   fluctuates  with  the 

:e  of  the  mines,  being  sometimes  as  high  as  14,000,  and  some- 

es  much  less.  The  silver-mines,  discovered  by  on  Indian  in 
J630,  are  the  richest  in  the  republic,  and  coal  is  found  in  the 
vicinity. 

Oertal'do,  a  town  of  Central  Italy,  province  of  Florence, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elsa,  and  18  miles  S.W,  of  Florence, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway.     Boccaccio  at  one  time 

ded  at  C,  and  here  he  diei     His  hoase  still  exists,  and  con- 

s  some  memorials  of  the  great  author.    On  the  21st  Decem- 
1875,  exactly  500  years  after  his  death,  a  solemn  comme- 

:ation  was  here  held  in  his  honour,  and  the  first  stone  of  a 
monument  to  his  memory  was  laid  in  the  Piazza  Solferino.  Pop. 
6562. 

Certhi'dss,  a  family  of  Tenuirostral  Insessores  or  perching- 
birds,  popularly  known  as  that  of  the  '  Creepers.'  These  birds 
are  distinguished  chiefly  by  their  negative  characters.  The  bill 
is  elongated  and  slender,  the  nostrils  opening  at  its  base ;  the  legs 
are  usually  short,  and  the  toes  are  long,  and  provided  with  long 
sharp  claws.  The  song  is  generally  melodious.  The  name 
'  creepers '  indicates  the  nabits  of  these  birds  in  running  swiftly 
about  trees  in  search  of  insects,  which  form  their  chief  food. 
They  are  for  the  most  part  of  small  size.  Examples  of  the  group 
al^  seen  in  the  wrens,  lyre-birds,  nuthatches,  true  creepers  (Co-- 
Ihinis),  tree-creepers,  oven-birds,  &c. 

Oertif  icate,  as  a  legal  term,  has  nearly  the  same  meaning  as 
in  ordinary  language. 

Certiflca'tion,  in  Scotch  law,  signifies  properly  the  assurance 
given  to  any  one  before  the  court  of  the  course  which  it  will  fol- 
k>w  in  case  of  disobedience  to  the  summons  or  other  order  of  the 
court.   C  is  nCher  expressed  or  implied.   In  the  summons,  the  C. 
is  nothing  more  than  an  absolute  assurance  to  the  defender  that, 
if  he  feils  to  appear  in  the  usual  manner,  the  judge  will  decree  in 
his  absence.     The  most  important  C,  however,  is  that  in  the 
process  of  Reduction- Improbation  (q.  v.).     In  that  action,  two 
terms  are  aflowed  to  the  defender  for  production  of  the  w  " 
sought  to  be  reduced,  and  after  the  expiration  of  these  terms  t 
days  longer  are  allowed,  but  should  fbe  writ  not  then  be  p! 
duced,  decree  of  C.  may  be  pronounced  by  the  judge,  the  effi 
of  which  is  to  hold  the  writ  false  and  fabricated ;  and  this  deer 
can  hardly  be  recalled,  even  though  it  has  been  pronounced 
absence. 

Cer'tifled  Copy.    See  Evidence. 

Oertiora'ri,  m  English  law,  is  an  original  writ  issuing  out  . 
Chancery,  the  Queen's  Bench,  or  other  divisions  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  directed  in  the  Queen's  nEime  to  the  judges  or  of&cei 
of  inferior  courts,  commanding  them  to  return  tlie  record  of 
cause  or  matter  depending  before  them,  to  the  end  that  the  party 
may  have  the  more  sure  and  speedy  justice  before  Her  Majesty, 
or  such  justices  as  she  shall  assign  to  determine  the  cause.  This 
writ  can  only  be  granted  on  matters  of  law,  and  cannot  be  had 

Oerto'sa  di  Pa'via,  La,  a  celebrated  Carthusian  monastery 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Pavia,  founded  in  1396  by  Giovanni 
Galeaizo  Visconti,  first  Duke  of  Milan,  as  an  expiatory  offering 
for  the  murder  of  his  uncle.  The  church  is  a  splendid  building; 
some  of  its  twelve  interior  chapels  are  finely  decorated  with  fres- 
coes and  paintings.  Its  fajade,  designed  by  Ambrogio  Borgog- 
none  (daFossanoJ  in  1473,  is  a  goigeous  specimen  of  the  Early 
Renaissance.  It  is  formed  throughout  of  white  marble,  and  so 
lavishly  adorned  with  sculptures  that  the  architectural  design  is 
almost  hidden.  In  the  interior  there  are  several  handsome 
monuments;  but  the  most  striking  objects  are  the  magnificent 
high  altar  and  the  monumental  tomb  of  the  founder. 
82 


Ceni'men.    Tliis  is  a  yellow  secretion  yielded  by  a  variety  of 

baceous  glands  (see  Skin)  found  in  the  skin  lining  the  canal  of 

the  external  ear.     (See  Eae.)    It  has  a  bitter  taste,  and  appears 

nsist  of  a  mixture  of  oily  and  nitrogenous  matter.     It  also 

.ins  carbonate  of  soda  and  phospliate  of  lime.     Its  bitter 

taste  may  possibly  prevent  the  entrance  of  insects  into  the  exter- 
'  ar.  When  in  CKcessive  quantity  it  is  known  as  ear-wax. 
sionally  it  must  be  removed  by  gentle  syringing  with  tepid 
soap  and  water,  as  an  escessive  amount  causes  partial  deafness, 

Cervan'tes,  Saave'dra,  Migruel  de,  author  oiDon  Qiaxste, 


larly  to  poe  y  and  oman  e  a  he  age  of  twenty -three 
he  served  as  a  volun  ee  against  1  e  Turks,  and  had  his  left 
hand  maimed  by  a  gunsho  wound  a  he  battle  of  Lepanto. 
To  this  accide  co  rs  and  rue  efe  ence  was  subseijuently 
made  by  the  ailed  A  e  ianeda  n  1  e  prologue  to  his  con- 
tinuation ol  D  n  Q  X  C  cap  u  ed  by  Jugerine  pirates, 
was  a  slave  amon      he  mfid  fou    3  ears  ;  but  being  ran- 

somed in  15S0  he  m  d  he  a  my  and  acquired  fresh  dis- 
tinction in  the  xp  d  n  0  he  Aio  e  He  retired  from  mili- 
tary service  in  1584,  and  in  the  same  year  published  his  Galatea, 
a  pastoral  romance.  For  seveml  years  after  this  he  was  a  pro- 
lific dramatic  writer,  and  experienced  the  fate  then  attending 
too  many  writers  of  this  class,  that,  namely,  of  chronic  poverty. 
In  1605  appeared  at  Madrid  the  first  part  of  his  Don  Qaixcte, 
one  of  the  highest  efibrts  of  imaginative  genius  which  universal 
literature  can  boast  of.  The  work  is  a  satire,  but  is  informed 
with  the  finest  spirit  of  poetry.  Its  object  was  not,  as  many 
suppose,  to  ridicule  knight-errantry,  for  that  had-expired  a  cen- 
tury before  his  birth,  but  the  absurd  romances  written  about  it, 
the  morbid  appetite  for  whidi  had  become  a  national  weak- 
ness, and  was  growing  by  what  it  constantly  fed  on.  Like  all 
works  of  the  highest  genius,  it  was  replete,  in  the  midst  of  it 
extravagances,  with  the  most  genuine  human  interest ;  its  inne 
object  being  to  show  that  the  finer  a  nature  is — the  deeper,  true:, 
purer,  less  selfish — in  the  same  proportion  will  it  be  the  butt  of 
a  coarse  and  selfish  world.  It  presents  us  with  a  touching  p 
ture  of  the  efforts  of  a  pure  but  unpractical  spirit  to  amefiorate 
the  conditions  of  human  life.  The  success  of  the  work  was 
complete ;  nor  was  it  confined  to  Spain.  But  increased  fame 
did  not  bring  with  it  increased  fortune.  The  proverbial  po- 
verty of  authors  stiU  clung  to  C .,  though  in  the  meantime  he 
laboured  hard  at  his  vocation.  In  1614  appeared  a  continua- 
tion of  Don  Quixote  by  an  author  under  the  assumed  ijame  of 
Alonzo  Fernandez  de  Avellaneda.  It  was  a  poor  travesty 
of  the  realistic  portion  of  the  work  of  C,  of  whom  it  was 
fuil  of  the  bitterest  abuse.  C.  felt  this  keenly,  as  may  be 
.gathered  from  several  portions,  especially  the  preface,  of  his 
own  second  part  of  Don  Quixote,  published  in  1615. 
presents  the  work  of  Avellaneda  as  being  kicked  up  and  down 
hell  by  devils,  one  of  whom  says,  '  It  is  so  bad,  that  if  I  myself 
wished,  to  make  it  worse  I  should  not  succeed.'  For  some  time 
before  his  death,  which  happened  at  Madrid,  April  23,  1616 
(the  day  on  which  Shakespeare  died),  his  poverty  had  been  re- 
lieved by  the  generosity  of^the  Count  of  Lemos.  His  grave  is 
unmarked  by  a  stone,  but  the  house  in  which  he  lived  in 
Madrid  was  rebuilt  in  1835,  and  attention  is  called  to  it  by  his 
bust,  which  adorns  its  front.  It  has  been  said  that  'except, 
perhaps,  the  Bible,  no  book  is  so  much  and  so  little  known.' 
Innumerable  translations  of  it  have  been  published.  It  has 
lately  been  translated  Into  Norwegian,  and  copies  in  fifty 
languages  are  to  be  shown  in  the  Exhibition  at  Philadelphia 
(1876).  But  from  an  ignorance  of  the  language  and  of  the  allu- 
sions, most  translations  are  defective  ;  and  Spanish  scholars  say 
that  the  English  versions  of  Skeltofl,  Smollett,  Jarvis,  and 
even  of  Clark,  are  extremely  untrustworthy,  most  of  them  being 
merely  renderings  of  imperfect  French  versions.  That  of  Clark 
(Lond  1868-69),  however,  is  illustrated  by  Dore's  splendid 
plates.  An  editiaa  de  luxe  of  a  translation  into  Portuguese  by 
the  Viscount  de  Castillo,  with  Dora's  illustrations,  is  to  be 
issued  by  the  Campanhia  Litteraria  of  Oporto.  One  of  the  best 
known  and  happiest  of  the  imitations  of  Don  Quixote  is  Butler's 
Hudibras.  Among  the  editions  of  the  original  it  is  sufficient  to 
mention  that  of  Madrid,  4  vols.  1780;  that  of  the  Madrid 
Academy,  with  a  biography  of  C.  by  Navarette  (J  vols.  M  ' 
1819) ;  and  Clemencin's  edition,  with  an  admirable  ci 


yLaOOgle 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


(6  vols.  Mad.  1833-39).  C.'s  collected  works  ai-e  contained  in 
Baudij'a  Colkctkndelos Maoris AutorisEspufUlis'^ix.  1840-41!, 
Oerre'ra,  a  fown  of  Spain,  province  of  Lerida,  31  miles  E. 
of  the  city  of  Lerida,  surrounded  by  dilapidated  walls.  Its.  uni- 
versity, transferred  by  Philip  V.  from  Lerida  in  1717,  was  re- 
moved to  Barcelona  in  1837-41,  and  since  then  the  prosperity 
of  the  town  has  greatly  declined.  C.  has  a  Gothic  church  and 
I  Dominican  convent ;  linen,  woollen,  hempen,  and  cotton, 
nanufactures ;  and  some  trade  in  Ei^8.in  and  cattle.  Pop. 
5300. 

Oervet'eie',  or  Cerret'ri  (the  ancient  Csitoe,  called  by  the 
Greeks  Agylla),  a  village  of  Lalium,  Central  Italy,  27  miles  W. 
by  K,  of  Rome.  Pop.  750.  It  was  formerly  one  of  the  most 
powerful  cities  of  S.  Etraria,  and  many  interesting  Etruscan  re- 
mains have  been  found  here,  especially  in  its  sepulchres. 

OerVia,  an  episcopal  city  of  Italy,  province  of  Ravenna,  on 
the  Adriatic,  i3mi!es  S.S.E.  of  Ravenna.     In  the  Valh  di  C. 
are  productive  saltworks,  which  give  employment  to  a  large 
number  of  the  population,  estimated  at  from  5000  to  6000. 
"Cervidse  and  Cerrus.     See  Deer. 
Oer'viii,  Mont.     See  Mattbriiokn. 
Oervina'ra,  a  town  of  Italy,  province  of  Avellino,  12  miles 
N.W.  of  Avellino,  has  a  convent  and  six  churches.    Pop.  6328. 

Jes'ari,  Oiaeepp'e  (called  also  Gimepfim  and  //  Ca-uaKere 
^Arpind),  was  bom  in  Rome  about  1568,  painted  a  number  of 
figures  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  and  on  the  credit  of  these  was  in- 
troduced to  Pope  Gregory  XIII.,  by  whom,  and  by  his  four  suc- 
cessors, Popes  Sixtus  v.,  Clement  VIII.,  Paul  V.,  and  Urban 
VIII.,  he  was  held  in  high  favour  as  an  artist,  and  liberally 
patronised.  During  his  lifetime  he  monopolised  public  fiivour, 
although  among  his  rivals  were  A.  Caracci  and  Caravaggio ;  but 
his  style,  though  animated,  was  superficial,  and  destitute  of  all  the 
essential  qualities  of  art.     C.  died  in  1640. 

Cesarott'i,  Blelchiore,  an  Italian  poet,  bom  15th  May  1730, 
at  Padua,  in  the  university  of  which  he  subsequently  held  the 
chair  of  Greek  and  Hebrew.  He  was  an  especial  favourite  of 
Napoleon,  who  loaded  him  with  benefits,  C.  died  3d  November 
I S08.    .  His  style,  botii  in  poetry  and  prose,  is  vigorous.      A  com- 

Slete  elition  of  his  works  in  42  volumes  was  published  at  Pisa 
[805-13).  Among  these  are  a  translation  of  Ossian  {Folsis  di 
Ossian),  and  versions  of  the  Hiad  both  in  verse  and  prose  {IKade 
in  Verd  and  Iliade  in  Ffosa).  His  essay  on  the  philosophy  of 
languages  {St^gio  sulla  FUosafia  delk  Lingue)  is  C.  s  most  jnpfi- 
torions  performance. 

Oese'na,  a  town  of  Italy,  province  of  Forli,  on  the  right  bank 
of  tlie  Savio.  Its  finest  buudings  are  the  cathedral,  the  town- 
hall,  and  the  Capuchin  church.  C.  has  ailkmills  and  a  trade 
in  wine,  hemp,  and  vegetables,  In  the  neighbourhood  are  valu- 
able Bulphur-mines.  Pop.  (1S72)  33,871.  Popes  Pius  VI.  and 
VII.  were  bom  here,  the  latter  of  whom,  in  whose  honour  a 
colossal  statue  has  been  erected,  founded  a  lai^e  hospital  at  C, 
Its  library,  established  in  1452,  has  many  valuable  MSS. 
Geas  or  AsBeeemeut.  See  Land-Tax. 
Ceas'iO'Bono'rum,  is  a  process  in  the  law  of  Scotland  by 
which  a  debtor,  by  making  a  cession  of  all  that  he  has  to  his 
creditors,  obtains  an  equitable  relief.  Jnrisdiction  in  questions 
of  C.  B-  is  vested  in  the  Court  of  Session  and  in  the  sheriff. 
Any  debtor  in  prison,  or  against  whom  a  warrant  of  imprison- 
ment has  been  issued,  may  apply  for  decree  of  C.  B.  and  for  in- 
terim protection.  This  petition  is  intimated  in  the  Edinburgh 
Gaaetle.  The  petitioner  then  must  lodge  a  statement  of  his  affairs, 
with  relative  books  and  papers,  with  the  sheriff-clerk.  On  an 
appointed  day  the  debtor  is  examined  on  oath.  If  any  creditor 
objects  to  the  prayer  of  the  petition,  he  is  heard,  and  proof  of 
averment  will,  if  necessary,  be  allowed  to  him.  The  sheriiTs 
judgment  is  subject  to  the  review  of  the  Court  of  Session,  or  of 
the  Lord  Ordinary  during  vacation,  the  Lord  Ordinary's  judg- 
ment being  subject  to  review, 

A  decree  of  C.  B.  operates  as  an  assignation  of  the  movable 
estate  of  a  debtor  in  favour  of  a  trustee  for  his  creditors.  The 
trustee  is  under  the  supervision  of  the  accountant  in  bankruptcy. 
(See  Accountant  in  Bawkeuptcy.)  The  effect  of  a  decree  of 
C.  B.  not  being  to  discharge  the  debtor,  but  merely  to  relieve  him 


from  the  operation  of  personal  diligence  (see  Diligence), 
affords  no  protection  against  tlie  attachment  by  his  creditors  of 
any  property  which  he  may  acquire  subsequent  to  the  decree,  by 
his  industry  or  otherwise.  But  the  creditors  are  bound  to  reahse 
and  apply  the  property  conveyed  by  the  disposition  omnium 
banerum  before  they  can  attach  that  subsequently  acquired. 

Ces'tius,  Fj'camid  of,  built  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and 
still  standing  at  Rome,  commemorated  a  C.  Cestius,  who  had 
filled  respectively  the  offices  of  Epalo,  prtetor,  and  tribune  of 
the  people.  It  was  used  as  a  burial-place,  and  stands  near  the 
Porta  Ostiensis  (Porta  San  Paolo).  The  pyramid  is  125  feet 
high,  and  100  wide  at  the  base.  It  is  constructed  of  brld  and 
tufa  faced  with  marble,  and  the  interior,  coated  with  stucco,  is 
decorated  with  paintings.  There  are  extensive  chambers  for 
sepulture.  In  the  Protestant  cemetery  in  the  neighbourhood 
repose  the  remains  of  Keats  and  Shelley. 

Ces'toid  Worms,  a  term  formerly  applied  in  zoology  to  the 
I'leniada,  an  order  of  Entozoa  represented  by  the  Tapeworms 
(q.  V.)  and  allied  genera  on  account  of  their  flattened  band-like 
or  ribbon-like  shape.  For  the  same  reason,  the  newer  name  of 
Platydmia  or  '  Flat-worms'  has  been  apphed  to  the  larger  divi- 
sion, including  the  Tmniada  and  Trimatada  or  Flukes  (q.  v.). 
The  Cystic  Worms  (q.  v.}  are"  now  also  ascertained  to  be  merely 
the  immature  forms  of  the  Tzeniada,  The  tapeworms,  present- 
ing us  with  familiar  examples  of  C.  W.,  are  not  true  •morms, 
and  are  not  allied  to  the  animals  ordinarily  known  as  such. 
Each  tapeworm,  composed  of  its  immeTCfas Joint!  or p'ogloltida, 
is  in  reality  a  compound  oiganjsm  ;  the  joints  being  produced  by 
budding  from  the  Aaui,  or  nurse,  as  it  is  termed,  which  latter 
portion  constitutes  the  true  animal.  The  segments  so  formed  ai 
to  be  viewed  as  nooids,  or  individuals,  which  make  np  by  their 
assemblage  the  compound  form.  Each  joint  is  the  exact  proto- 
type of  its  neighbours,  and  contains  little  else  than  perfect  male 
and  female  reproductive  oi^ans,  together  with  certain  vessels, 
belonging  to  the  laater  vascular  system,  and  nerve-cords.  The 
joints  forming  the  neck  and  head  are  modified ;  the  head  beinj_ 
very  small  and  rounded,  and  provided  with  hooks  and  suckers 
for  the  adhesion  of  the  organism  to  the  walls  of  the  intestine  of 
its  host  The  first  fewjoiiits  constituting  the  nedi  are  also  small 
and  immature;  new  joints  being  intercalated  between  the  head 
and  the  already  formed  segments— these  joints  furthest  from  the 
head  being  thus  the  oldest  or  most  mature.  These  organ- 
isms thus,  in  the  absence  of  any  distinct  digestive  system,  live 
by  simple  imbibition  of  the  fluids  of  tiieir  hosts. 

Whilst  the  growth  by  budding  of  the  single  and  compound  in 
dividual  worm  is  thus  provided  for  by  continuous  budding,  ne* 
oiganisms  are  also  produced  by  a  true  process  of  generatior 
The  joints  with  their  contamed  ef " " 


tapeworm.  The  eggs  can  undergo  no  development  within  the 
host  which  contains  their  parent  oi^anism.  But  being  voided, 
ihey  are  liberated  by  the  decay  of  the  joint,  and  such  of  the  ova 
as  are  swallowed  by  another  warm-blooded  vertebrate  animal 
are  placed  on  the  further  road  to  development.  Each  little  em- 
bryo thus  swallowed  liberates  itself  from  the  egg-capsule,  and  then 
consists  of  a  minute  vesicle  provided  with  three  pdrs  of  flinty 
hooks.  Bymeansofthe  latter  organs,  the /WJi^o/ea;,  as  it  is  called, 
bores  its  way  through  the  tissues  of  its  first  host,  and  proceeds 
sooner  or  later  to  ensconce  itself  within  some  organ- — such  as  the 
liver,  brain,  &c.  Here  it  surrounds  itself  with  a  capsule  or  cyst, 
and  ultimately  comes  to  consist  of  a  little  head  provided  with, 
hooks  and  suckers,  and  of  a  terminal  vesicle  containing  fluid. 
It  is  now  known  as  the  resting-latva  or  scalex ;  and  formerly,  when 
the  connection  of  such  organisms  with  the  tapeworms  was  not 
understood,  the  scolices  were  accounted  distinct  animals,  and 
were  named  cystic  worms  and  hydaiids.  In  this  scolex  form  the 
animal  must  finally  remain  within  its  iirst  host,  and  until  it  be- 
comes introduced  into  the  digestive  canal  of  a  second  warm- 
blooded vertebrate  host,  it  cannot  develop  fiirther.  If  the  flesli 
containing  scolices  be  swallowed,  however,  by  a  second  host,  each 
httle  scolex  simply  attaches  itself  by  its  head  to  the  wall  of  tlie 
intestine ;  the  terminal  cyst  or  vesicle  drops  off;  the  scoles  head 
becomes  thus  the  head  of  the  future  and  mature  tapeworm  01 
stmbiia  i  and  a  process  of  budding  produces  the  joints  charac 
teristic  of  the  latter  form.  These  developmental  stages  ma] 
thus  be  summed  up  : — 


vLaOogle 


CBS 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


GET 


I.  The  egg  set  free  by  the  liberation  of  the  proglottia  from  tlie 
.niraal  infested  by  the  mature  tapeworm  or  strobila, 

3.  The  proscolex  or  embryo  burrowing  through  the  tissues  of 
first  host,  and  liberated  from  the  e^. 

3,  The  icotix  or  resting-larva  in  first  host  formed  from  the 
proscolex. 

4.  The  scolex  introduced  into  second  host,  losing  its  cyst,  and 
by  budding  producing, 

J.  The  perfect  imd  mature  jftT^/iir  or  tapeworm. 

The  cystic  worms  forming  measly  pork,  when  eaten  by  man, 
thus  become  developed  into  the  Itenia  solium  or  tapeworm 
of  man.  The  cystic  worms  of  the  sheep's  brain  which  cause 
stEiggers  in  that  animal,  if  swallowed  by  the  dog,  become  the 
tania  serrata  or  dog's  tapeworm  ;  and  the  scolex  of  the  mouse 
becomes  the  tapeworm  of  the  cat.     See  also  Tapeworms. 

Oestra'cion,  a  genus  of  Elasmobranchiate  fishes,  mclnding 
the  form  popularly  known  as  the  Port-Jackson  shark  (C.  Phil- 
ippi),  inhabiting  the  Australian  and  Chinese  seas.  This  form  is 
the  only  living  representative  of  the  genus,  which  is  inclnded  in 
a  special  division  of  the  above  order— -that  of  the  Cistrafhori. 
This  division  is  distinguished  by  the  C.  possessing  a  strong  spine 
In  front  of  each  of  the  two  dorsal  fins,  and  the  hinder  teeth  are  ob- 
tusely shaped.  An  analfinesists.  The  mouth  of  the  Port-Jackson 
shark  is  filled  with  flat  pavement-like  teeth,  adapted  fo3r  crushing 
the  molluscs  and  crustaceans  on  which  this  creature  feeds.  It  is  a 
harmless  species  of  shark.  The  mouth  is  placed  in  front  of  the 
head,  which  is  of  large  size,  as  also  are  the  eyes.  The  group  is 
well  represented  in  a  fossil  state — the  fin-spines  and  teeth  of 
Hyhodus  i^a^Acrodus  being  well  preserved  in  the  Mesozoic  rocks. 

Oes'tnim,  a  genus  of  Solonaceous  shrubs,  natives  of  Brazil, 
some  of  which,  from  the  possession  of  a  bitter  principle  lilie 
quinine,  can  be  used  as  diuretics  and  for  other  medicinal  pur- 
poses.   A  few  are  cultivated  in  our  gardens. 

Ces'txii  que  Tmat,  in  English  law,  ig  the  person  or  persons 
in  a  trust  for  whom  the  trustee  holds  an  estate  or  any  interest 
connected  with  it.  Neither  the  common  law  nor  spiritual  courts 
having  any  cognisance  in  matters  of  trust,  should  any  question' 
arise  between  the  trustee  and  the  C.  q.  T.,  it  mtist  be  determined 
Dy  a  court  of  equity.  The  analogous  term  in  Scotch  law  is 
Beneficiary  (q.  v.j.     See  also  Trust,  Trustee. 

Cestui  que  vie  is  one  for  whose  hfetime  lands  or  tenements  are 
granted. 

Oes'tius  (Gr.  kistvs.,  'stitched,  embroidered'),  any  band  or  girth 
embroidered  vrilh  love- awakening  representations,  but  applied 
particularly  to  the  charmed  zone  or  girdle  of  Venus.  With 
this  she  captivated  Mars  ;  and  Juno  borrowed  it  to  secure  the 
affections  of  Jupiter. — C.,  otherwise  Oteatua  (Lat  cmdire,  'to 
kill'),  thongs  of  leather  bound  round  tlie  hands  of  Greek  and 
Roman  boxers  to  enforce  their  blows.  Latterly  it  was  a  most 
formidable  implement,  covered  with  knots  and  nails,  and  loaded 
with  lead  and  iron,  and  therefore  not  inappropriately  called  a 
'  limb-breaher.' 

Ceta'oea,  the  order  of  Mammalia  including  the  whales, 
dolphins,  porpoises,  and  their  allies.  The  Manatees  (q.  v. )  or 
"  i-cows  and  Dugongs  (q.v.)  have  been  separated  from  the  C, 
account  of  structural  differences,  to  form  a  separate  mammalian 
order,  that  of  the  Sirenia.  The  C.  are  adapted  for  an  aquatic 
life,  the  lx)dy  beii^  fish-like  in  conformation.  The  front  limbs 
are  present  In  the  form  of  swimming-paddles,  but  no  hind  limbs 
are  developed,  although  traces  of  the  pelvic  or  haunch  bones, 
and  even  of  rudiments  of  the  thigh,  maybe  found  in  the  skeletons 
of  some  forms.  The  body  terminates  tiehind  in  a  powerful  caudal 
ail  fin,  which  is  set  transversely,  or  across  the  body,  instead  of 
tically  as  in  fishes.  A  dorsal  fih  may  or  may  not  eilst.  No 
external  ears  are  developed.  The  nostrils  may  be  double  or 
single,  and  being  placed  towards  the  top  of  the  head,  form 
'  blow-holes, '  The  body  may  be  completdy  destitute  of  hairs. 
The  testes  remain  within  the  abdommal  cavity  throughout  life. 
The  teats  number  two,  and  are  placed  in  the  groin.  The  head 
is  generally  of  disproportional  size  when  compared  with  the  rest 
of  the  Ix>ay,  and  no  distinct  neck  is  perceptible,  the  vertebras  of 
this  r^ion  in  feet  being  anchylosed  or  ossified  together.  The 
lumbar  region,  or  that  of  the  loins,  is  elongated,  and  none  of  the 
vertebrae  coalesce  to  form  the  bone  seen  in  most  otlier  forms,  and 
known  ^i.'^t  Sacrum  (q.  v.).    No  collar-bones  are  developed.    A 


nt  d  by  th     B  Isna 
I    t    I       tl     f 
th    gn       Mgp 

(F  nn     wh  1    )    ar 
■'      d  It   t 


single  set  of  teeth  only  is  developed  in  C,  and  frequently  the  adult, 
as  in  Balamda,  may  be  entirely  destitute  of  teeth,  although  they 
may  be  represented  in  the  fcetd  or  embryonic  state.  This  order 
of  mammals  includes  the  largest  of  living  beings,  and  is  exceed- 
ingly interesting,  not  only  from  a  structural  point  of  view,  bot 
also  from  a  commercial  aspect,  inasmuch  as  these  animals  form 
objects  of  pursuit  for  the  sake  of  the  oil  afforded  by  the 
thick  layer  ca  fet  or  blubber  which  invests  the  body,  reducing  its 
specific  gravity  and  maintaining  an  equable  temperature,  and 
also  for  the  1  'halebone  ifibrded  by  some  members  of  the  group 
forth  kn  nlf  th  1  ss  t  bl  an!  p  1  p  du  t 
such        p    iTia    t        d  amb    gn 

Th         d  1       fi  d  rafly       t      fi       f  m  1  Th 

Balixn  ds        Wbal  b  n    wh  les       p 
my  t    1  G      iland  whal       th 

row  d  »h  les  u  h  a  tl  ose  b  1  ngin„ 
tem  Balanft  (R  q  1)  nd  Phy  I 
chiefly  d  tinguish  d  by  th  want  f  teeth  u 
by  the  presence  of  baleen  or  whalebone  plates  borne  by  the 
palate  ;  the  blow-holes  being  placed  on  the  top  of  the  head.  The 
second  femlly  is  that  of  the  Physcterid^,  or  sperm-whales,  some- 
times known  as  that  of  the  Caladontidm. '  In  these  forms  no 
baleen  is  developed  ;  the  lower  jaw  only  possesses  teeth  in  the 
adult  i  the  head  being  veiy  large,  and  forming  about  one-third  the 
length  of  the  body.  The  dolphins,  porpoises,  grampi 
narwhals   {Delphinids)   form   the  tliird   group,    these 


division  is  that  of  the  beaked  whales  {Rhynchoctti\,  represented 
by  the  genera  Hyperoodon  of  the  N.  Atlantic,  and  Zipiiiis,  fbimd 
in  the  S.  Atlantic  Ocean  and  Mediterranean  Sea.  These  whales 
have  a  pointed  snout  or  rostrum,  a  small  dorsal  lin,  a  single  blow- 
hole, and  a  single  pair  of  teeth  only,  borne  by  the  lower  jaw ;  the 
other  teeth  do  not  cut  the  gum.  The  fifth  family  contains  only 
fossil  genera,  and  is  known  as  that  of  the  Zeuglodontidis.  The 
best-known  examples  are  Zeuglodon  (from  Eocene  and  Miocene 
rocks),  and  Squahdon  (from  Miocene  and  Pliocene  strata). 
These  latter  forms  had  molar  teeth  unplanted  by  two  fangs,  and 
they  must  therefore  have  possessed  two  sets  of  teeth,  or  were 
difkyodBiil. 

Cet'era^ll,  a  genus  of  Ferns,  to  which  in  former  times  extra- 
ordinary properties  were  ascribed,  e.g.,  that  it  had  so  'maxvellous 
an  influence  on  the  spleen '  that  it  destroyed  that  not  very  im 
portant  oi^an  in  the  Cretan  swine  that  fed  upon  it ;  hence  it  ani 
other  ferns  are  called  to  this  day  'spleenworts,'  On  the  coast  0 
Wales,  our  only  British  species,  C.  ilfidnarium,  is  used  as  a  bait  ii 
rock-cod  fishing. 

Ceto'tolites,  the  name  applied  to  certain  fossil  remains 
believed  to  be  the  ear-bones,  and  to  teeth  presamably  of  Cela 
ceans  (q.  v.)  or  whales.  These  organisms  'occur  chiefly  in  thi 
red  crag  of  the  Pliocene  formaljons,  and  may  be  found  in  large 
quantities.  It  is  probable  that  they  may  have  been  deposited 
in  older  strata  than  the  Pliocene,  and  that  they  may  liave  b. 
washed  out  into  these  deposits. 

Cetrft'ria.    See  Iceland  Moss, 


isiderable  ei 


n  anchovy-fishing. 


Oette,  nest  to  Marseille,  the  moat  important  haven  in  the  S. 
of  France,  and  a  fortified  town  of  the  first  rank,  in  the  department 
of  Herault,  lies  at  the  mouth  of  the  Canal  du  Midi,  and  is  con- 
nected with  Bordeaux  and  Lyons  by  railway.  It  is  built  on  a 
tongue  of  land  between  tlie  Mediterranean  and  the  navigable 
Elang  de  Than,  and  at  the  base  of  a  precipitous  chalk  hill,  some 
500  fiet  high,  from  which  it  is  overlooked  by  the  citadel,  while 
it  is  further  defended  by  several  forts.  The  Irarbour  admits  somf 
400  vessels,  and  is  sheltered  by  long  moles,  on  one  of  which  i; 
erected  a  lighthouse,  about  ic»  feet  high.  Two  beacons  also  ait 
placed  on  Fort  Richeheu,  at  a  height  of  230  feet  above  the  sea 
The  manufactures  are  chiefly  liqueurs,  perfiimeries,  soap,  and 
chemicals,  which  are  exported  in  addition  to  large  quantities  of 


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1874  Uiere  entered  the  port  1397  vessels  of  275,119  tons,  and 
cleared  1598  of  339,997  tons.  The  sardine  and  oyster  fisheries 
employ  oyer  350  boats.  As  a  bathing-pkce,  C.  attracts  yearly 
some  4000  visitors.  Pop.  (1873)  24,103.  The  Mount  of  C.  is 
the  Mons  Setius  of  the  ancients. 

Oettign'e,  or  Getia'ji,  the  capital  of  Montenegro,  15  md 
inland  from  the  Austrian  seaport  of  Cattaro,  lies  in  a  rock 
valley  some  3000  feet  above  the  sea.    It  is  a  mere  village 

)  inhabitants,  but  is  the  seat  of  Ihe  government  of  Mo 
negro,  the  see  of  a  bishop,  aiid  has  a  small  catliedral  an 
palace.     C.  arose  round  a  convent  founded  here  in  147S. 

Ceu'ta  (Span.  Ce-Mta,  Arab.  SMa),  a  fortified  town  on 
coast  of  Morocco,  belongs  to  Spain,  and  has  slight  fishing 
weaving  industries.  It  is  situated  on  the  Punto-Leona,  opp 
Gibraltar,  and  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Acho,  the  ancient  A^la,  an 
one  of  the  pillars  of  Hercules.  The  seat  of  a  bishop,  C.  is 
the  strongest  of  the  four  Spanish  Prisidios  (pjpal  settlements 

*'""' 1,  but  it  has  a  bad  harbour,  and  a  commonplace  cathe 

ly  braiding  of  any  pretence.  Pop,  8200,  of  whom  3 
form  the  garrison,  andsome  2500  the  prisoners  for  state  ando 
offences.     The  other  inhabitants  are  chieHy  Arabs,  negroes. 


which  was  taken  (534)  by  Justinian  from  the  Vandals,  bore 
name  of  Septmn  or  Septo  m  the  7th  c  In  618  it  was  seize 
the  Western  Goths,  and  in  71 1  by  the  Arabs,  under  whom  i 

.e  an  important  town,  where  paper  is  said  first  to  have 
made  by  an  Arab  who  brought  the  art  from  China.  It  su 
sively  belonged  to  the  Almorades  (10S4),  the  Morinides  (l 
and  the  Portuguese  (1415).  With  the  subjugation  of  Por 
by  Phihp  II.  it  became  Spanish  in  1580.  C.  was  the  only 
session  on  the  African  coast  retained  by  Spain  in  1640,  w 
Portugal  regained  independence. 

Oevennee'  is  a  mountainous  district,  chiefly  in  the  foim 
political  division  of  Languedoc,  which  separates  the  Rhone  valley 
from  the  northern  sources  of  the  Garonne.  It  is  traversed  from 
N.E.  to  S.W.  by  a  chtun  of  mountains  composed  of  granite  over- 
lapped by  strata  of  the  Jntasac  system,  and  m  the  S.  by  limestone, 
which  forms  the  '  causses'  or  plateaux  terminating  in  cliffs  600  to 
800  feet  high.  The  whole  district  is  tilted  up  towards  the  S.E., 
the  highest  point,  M,  Mezen,  tieing  5794  feet  in  height.  Sheep' 
fanning  on  the  upper  slopes,  and  the  rearing  of  silkworms  on  tht 
lower,  are  the  chief  indastries.  The  long  wmter  has  created  s 
domestic  manufacture  of  drugget  and  serge.  The  population  it 
poor  and  primitive.  It  was  this  district  which,  after  the  revoca- 
tion of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1^85),  became  the  scene  of  the  most 
furious  Dragonnadts  against  the  Huguenots,  who  were  too  poor 
to  leave  the  country,  which  Louvois  wished  to  make  literally 
'a  desert.'  After  the  martyrdom  of  Claude  Brousson,  the  people 
were  maddened  by  the  cnielties  of  the  ecclesiastical  inspector  of 
missions,  Chayla ;  a  prophesying  mania  descended  on  them,  and 
tmder  Pierre  Seguier,  Cavalier,  Laporte,  Roland,  and  others,  they 
rose  in  arms  in  the  year  1702.  They  were  called  Camisards  {fiom 
camisels,  '  a  blouse,  or  camise,  '  a  white  shirt,'  or  ^ami!,  '  a  road- 
nmner '),  and  by  the  Catholics  Barb^s  (waterdogs).  They  burned 
Catholic  churdies,  killed  priests,  levied  imposts,  and  for  three 
years  mMntained  a  guerilla  war  against  an  army  of  60,000  veterans 
commanded  by  De  Broglie  and  Montrevel.  ChSteaux  were  also 
bumet),  the  priests  and  Catholics  taking  refiige  in  fortified  towns. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  French  generals  were  worsted,  for  the 
policy  by  which  they  prevailed  was  that  of  burning  466  Pro- 
testant villages,  and  slaughtering  their  inhabitants,  as  well  as  all 
those  who  attended  conventicles.  Pope  Clement  XI.  granted  a 
general  remission  of  sins  to  all  who  should  join  the  Florentines, 
or  White  Camisards,  a  b»dy  of  royalist  bravos  organised  to 
suppress  them.  It  was  Marshal  Villars  who  finally  suppressed 
the  revolt  in  1705.  See  Histoirs  dss  Camisayds  (2  vols,  Lond. 
1 744) ;  Court  de  Gebelin's  SUtoire  dts  Trcubhs  des  C. 


Oeyranite.    See  Sfinei. 

Ceylon.'  (the  Taprobcme  of  the  classical  geographers  i  Sansk. 
Smghala,  Arab-Peis.  SailatC),  a  beautiful  and  productive  island, 
belonging  to  Britain,  lies  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  to  the  S.E.  of 
the  peninsula  of  India,  from  which  it  is  only  separated  by  the 


Gulf  of  Manaar  and  Palk's  Strait,  lat,  5°  55'-9°  51'  N,,  and 
long.  79°  42'-8l°  55'  E.  It  is  266  miles  long  from  Point  Pal- 
myra in  the  N.  to  Dondera  Head  in  the  S.,  is  140^  miles  broad 
Colombo  to  Sangemankande,  and  has  an  area  of  24,454 
liles    and  a  pop    of  2  138  857  of  whom  14,201  are  white. 


highlands  there  are  seve 
of  irrigating  the  rice-land 
occurring  at  intervals,  h        b 
sive  system  of  canals,  th    m  ss 
the  ancient  work  of  th    S  nghal 
by  several  carriage-road     b 
penetrable  jungles,  migh  ra 

C/iBMft(.— Throughou    C     1 
fied,  but  as  a  wbole  it       m 
natic.     The  mean  tempe 
on  the  tableland  of  New    ra  Ell 
fall  ranges  from  30  to  I  h 

March  to  May,  after  wh   h    h 
by  torrents  of  rains,      A    h     d 
ludes  the  S,W.  monsoo 
November,  but  during   h 
pheric  disturbance.      '  ' 


1 1  kes  wh"  h     pply  abundant  means 

th   II       oast  districts  lagunea, 

b        m  d     he  basis  of  an  exten- 

m  ss  bankments  of  which  are 

Th    interior  is  traversed 

11       parts  a  region  of  im- 

and  deep  ravines. 

13  singularly  diversi- 

al  h    than  that  of  the  Car- 

C      mbo  is  about  So°,  and 

hile  the  annnal  ri 


Tl 


is  fro: 


set  in,  accompanied 

a  m    f  terrific  violence  pre- 

M  y       d    he  N.E.  monsoor    ' 

f    h    y        there  is  little  atn 

prevails  at  the  foot 


of  the  mountains  and  on  h      ank      f  h 

Productions,  Anitnals,  &^.- — The  far-famed  beauty  of  the  is 
land  is  in  great  part  due  to  the  luxuriance  of  its  vegetation,  and 
the  variety  and  magnificent  hues  ofitsflowerii^  plants.  Of  these, 
together  with  ferns  (250)  and  lycopods,  there  have  been  enume- 
rated as  many  as  2670  indigenous  species.  But  the  flora  of  C. 
contains  few  genera  not  to  be  found  on  the  Indian  peninsula. 
Of  the  trees,  the  principal  for  timber  and  cabinet-wood  are  the 
satin-wood,  teak,  oak,  calamander,  ebony,  and  the  Palmyra 
palm.  Near  the  Buddhist  temples  the  fig  is  grown,  and  the 
cocoarnut,  tamarind,  hme,  orange,  cinnamon,  plantain,  rose- 
apple,  and  caehew-nut  are  among  the  other  trees.  The  forests 
are  rank  with  parasites,  andbrilUant  with  the  flowers  of  the  coral- 
tree,  ixoras,  Jonesiss,  erythrinas,  &c  In  the  highlands  the  tree- 
fern  and  rhododendi'on  grow  to  an  enormous  siie.  The  principal 
products  of  the  soil  are  coffee,  rice,  cotton,  pepper,  and  tobacco. 
There  are  now  (1S76)  some  500  coffee  pliitations,  of  150,000 
acres,  and  the  average  crop  is  about  950,000  cwt  annually.  Of 
the  animals  of  C.,  the  chief  are  Ihe  elephant,  leopard,  (iger-cat, 
hysena,  jackal,  bear,  racoon,  wild  boar,  and  monkey.  There  are 
over  320  spedes  of  birds,  including  eagles,  peregrine  falcons, 
sunbirds,  kingfishers,  bnlbuls,  orides,  swallows,  pan'oquets, 
pigeons,  flamingoes.  Sec.  Crocodiles  swarm  in  the  still  water- 
tanks,  and  land  tortoises  are  numerous.  Only  a  few  species  of 
the  snakes  found  ai 


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Geology,  Mineralogy^  S^c. — The  geological  formation  of  C.  is 
mainly  metamorphic,  and  the  surface  rock  is  iiivaiiably  gneiss, 
overlaid  occasionally  by  crystalline  limeslone.  There  is  an  ab- 
sence of  fossiliferons  rocks,  with  the  exception  of  recent  forma- 
tions on  the  coasts,  as  coral,  &c.  The  famous  gems  of  the 
isWd,  the  export  of  which  amoants  to  jSio,ooo  yearly,  aje 
sapphires,  rubies,  the  oriental  topai,  garnets,  amethysts,  cat's- 
eye,  and  dnnamon  stone.  Among  the  other  minerals  are  the 
ores  of  iron,  tin,  tellurium,  nickel,  and  cobalt,  and  also  plumbago 
and  anthracite.  The  great  pearl-fishery  of  the  Gulf  of  Manaar 
yields  to  the  Government  an  annual  revenue  of  j£"40,o<». 

Administration,  Commerce,  fr-^.— According  to  the  constitution 
of  1831,  the  administration  of  C.  is  vested  in  a  governor,  an  official 
executive  council  of  live  members,  and  a  legislative  coimcil  of  fif- 
teen, including  foBruiiofficia!  representatives.  In  1 87a  therevetiue, 
which  mainly  arises  from  customs  and  sales  of  public  land,  was 
;£i, 174,698,  and  the  expenditure  ^1,062,994.  The  public  debt 
incurred  for  the  construction  of  railway  lines  was  reduced  in  the 
end  of  1872  to  ^^640,000.  In  1873  the  various  exports  to  Great 
Biitainalone  amounted  tOjC4,33i.oo6.  Besides  coffee,  the  annual 
value  of  which  is  ;£2,35o,ooo,  the  staples  of  export  are  cocoa-nut 
oil  (in  1873,  ^£285,033)  and  cinnamon  (^113.725)-  A  railway, 
since  1867,  runs  from  Colombo  to  Kandy,  a  distance  of  75  miles- 
The  coffee-planting  employs  some  129,200  Makibar  coolies. 

Ethnology,  Religion,  and  History. — The  mhabitants  of  C.  are 
mainly  Singhalese,  a  people  most  probably  descended  from  the 
Gangetic  nation,  which  is  said  to  have  colonised  the  island  in 
543  B.C.  This  people  are  in  great  part  degraded  and  effeminate, 
and  of  their  ancient  customs  they  still  cling  to  polyandry. 
Another  numerous  race,  the  Malabars  or  Tamils,  especially 
occupying  the  small  island  of  Jaffna  in  the  N.,  are  the  descen- 
dants of  invaders  from  the  S.  of  Hindustan.  The  '  Moormen,' 
who  are  variously  supposed  to  be  of  Arab  and  Persian  origin, 
are  by  far  the  most  intelligent  of  the  native  commnnities ;  while 
the  Veddahs,  a  tribe  of  the  aboriginal  Yakkhoa,  are  little  better 
than  savages,  one  section  of  them,  the  Rock  Veddahs,  having 
almost,  if  not  altogether,  sunk  out  of  the  order  of  human  beings. 
Naturalised  Europeans  are  called  'burghers.'  Buddhism  is  the 
religion  of  the  Singhalese,  and  according  to  the  census  of  March 
26,  1871,  the  nurabec  of  Bnddhisls  was  1,520,575  ;  of  Sivites, 
464,414 ;  of  Roman  Catholics,  182,613  f  of  Mohammedans, 
171,542;  and  of  Protestants,  24,745.  The  treaty  of  1S15  secures 
the  maintenance  of  Buddhism  in  the  interior;  and  the  British 
Government  gave  up  the  temple  patronage,  and  the  guardianship 
of  the  Dalada  relic,  or  sacred  tooth  of  Buddha,  to  the  priests  m 
1847.  These  latter  are  divided  into  two  orders — (1)  the  Saman- 
aros,  or  ordinary  priests,  and  (2)  the  Upasampada,  or  higher 
grade ;  but  neither  are  educated,  nor  receive  much  respect  apart 
from  Uieir  office  C,  has  many  splendid  temples  and  shrines  of 
great  antiquity,  of  whicli  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  is  the 
ruined  Dagoba  of  Jaytamanarama,  249  feet  high,  and  360  feet  in 
diameter.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the  erection  of  such  a 
massive  structure,  even  now,  would  occupy  500  bricklayers  from 
six  to  seven  years.  The  cave-temple  of  Dambool,  built  in  100 
B.C.,  is  loaded  with  sculptured  ornament,  at  once  gorgeous  and 
grotesque.  Another  object  of  interest  is  the  sacred  Bo- Tree 
(q.  v.)  of  Anaraiapoora,  which  was  planted,  according  to  record, 
in  288  B.C.,  and  is  therefore  the  oldest  known  tree  in  the  world. 
The  prudence  and  enei^y  of  the  old  Singhalese  kings  is  seen  in 
the  colossal  reservoirs  and  numerous  tanks,  now  partly  mined, 
scattered  throughout  the  country. 

The  history  of  C.  as  far  back  as  543  B.C.  is  made  known  to 
us  chiefly  by  the  famous  Mahavanso,  a  poetical  chronicle  in  the 
Pali  language,  the  authority  of  which,  however,  as  a  historical 
document,  is  at  present  challenged  by  scholars.  The  writer  de- 
scribes the  invasion  in  543  B.C.  of  Wijayo,  a  Gangetic  prince, 
who  subdues  the  Yakkhos,  and  founds  the  dynasty  of  Sihala 
(hence  .Kn^^otof  and  C).  Of  the  many  kings  of  this  line,  (he 
most  renowned  was  Prakrama  Eahu  (i  153),  during  whose  reign 
1470  tanks  ('  the  seas  of  Prakrama ')  were  constructed.  Several 
invasions  are  recorded  of  hordes  from  the  Malabar  coast,  but 
more  noteworthy  is  the  first  visit,  in  1505,  of  the  Portuguese,  who 
formed  a  settlement  near  Colombo,  and  after  a  career  of  gross 
cruelty  and  extortion,  were  driven  out  by  Che  Dutch  in  1658. 
The  island  was  captured  by  a  British  expedition  commanded  by 
Colonel  James  Stuart  in  1796,  and  was  eventually  ceded  to 
Britain  at  the  Peace  of  Amiens,  March  27,  iSoa.  The  interior 
was  still  held,  however,  by  the  Kandyan  king,  Wikrama  Raja 


Singha,  who  continued  to  rule  his  subjects  with  savage  brutality. 
Certain  native  merchants,  British  subjects,  having  been  seized 
and  murdered  by  (he  King,  war  followed,  and  the  Kandyan 
territory  vras  annexed  to  the  British  crown  in  1815.  See  Sir 
James  Emerson  Tennent,  C,  Physieal,  Siitorical,  aiid  Tbpo- 
grap/tical,  &-e.  {T-oaA.  1859);  Christianity  in  C,  (Lond.  1850); 
Dr  Paul  GoldsmidC,  0£icial  Report  on  the  Ancient  Imcriptions  in 
C.  (1S75);  L.  de  Zoysa,  Official  Report  on,  the  Ancient  MSS.  in 
the  Teniple  Ziiraries  of  C.  (1875) ;  and  C,  a  Ceaeral  Description 
of  the  Island,  Historical,  Fhysical,  and  Statistical,  by  aa  Officer, 
late  of  the  Ceylon  Rifles  (2  vols.  Lond.  1876). 

Ceylon  ISosa,  a  seaweed  sometimes  imported,  under  the 
name  of  Agar-agar,  for  the  sake  of  the  nutritive,  emollient,  and 
demulcent  jelly  or  decoction  which  can  be  made  of  it  (or  the  food 
of  invalids  and  children.  It  is  the  product  of  Gracilaria  lichen- 
oides {Flocaria  Candida),  Gracilaria  confervoides,  and  other  species 
of  Gracilaria. 

Ceyx,    See  Kingfisher. 

Cezim'brtt,  a  seaport  town,  province  of  Estremadura,  Por- 
tugal ;  about  20  miles  S.  of  Lisbon,  with  an  active  fishing  trade. 
Pop.  about  5000, 

Chablia,  a  town  of  France,  department  of  the  Yonne 
(Lower  Bur^ndy),  II  miles  E.  of  Auxerre.  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  cotton  fabrics  and  biscuits,  but  the  great  source  of  its 
prosperity  is  the  trade  in  wine.  C.  gives  name  to  a  white  Bur- 
gundy of  the  second  quahty,  which  keeps  its  colour  better  than 
all  other  wines  of  the  same  sort,  has  considerable  strength,  and 
is  very  pleasant  to  the  taste. 

Ohac'ina.     See  BABOON. 

Chadd'a.    See  Eenue. 

Cll£ld.''wick,  Edwin,  O.B.,  an  eminent  social  reformer  and 
economist,  was  bom  near  Manchester,  January  24,  1801,  and 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1830,  bat  never  practised.  An  article 
ranees  in  the  Westminster  Review  in  1828  attracted 
if  Jeremy  Benthani,  who  left  him  a  part  of  his  library 
and  a  legacy.  He  was  appointed  assistant- commissioner  to 
inquire  into  the  working  of  the  poor-laws  in  England  and  Wales, 
and  his  report,  which  was  pubhshed  in  1833,  may  be  said  to 
have  been  the  main  cause  of  the  poor-law  reforms  which  fol- 
lowed. C.  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  new  Poor-Law  Board, 
and  subsequently  Commissioner  of  the  Board  of  Health.  He 
i-etired  from  this  post  in  1854  with  a  pension.  C.  has  been  of 
great  service  to  his  country  by  the  reports  on  various  subjects, 
such  as  the  condition  of  the  Civil  Service,  the  constitution  of  the 
constabulary  force,  the  sanitary  state  of  the  country,  pauper  and 
industrial  education  (1859-60),  which  he  has  given  either  volmi- 
tarily  or  as  a  special  Government  commissioner.  From  the  first 
he  has  taken  a  keen  interest  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Associa- 
tion for  the  Promotion  of  Social  Science.  In  l858  he  unsuccess- 
fully contested  the  Kilmarnock  Burghs  against  the  sitting  mem- 
ber, Mr  Bouverie. 

Cheeronei'a  (said  to  have  been  named  after  Chceron),  a  town 
of  Boeotia,  ancient  Greece,  near  the  Cephissus.  Standing  in  a 
plain  that  commanded  the  entrance  from  Phods  to  Bceotia,  it 
became  naturally  the  scene  of  many  unportant  military  opera- 
tions. It  vras  captured  by  the  Athenians  b,c.  447,  and  again 
by  Phalsecus  during  the  Phocian  war.  At  C,  Philip,  by  defeat- 
ing the  allied  forces  of  the  Athenians  and  Bceotians  (B.C.  338), 
destroyed  the  separate  autonomies  of  the  Greek  states.  The 
mound  which  covered  the  Thebans  who  fell  in  the  battle  was 
recently  opened,  and  a  colossal  lion,  emblematic  of  the  spirit  of 
the  Tliebans,  and  referired  to  by  Pausanius  and  Slrabo,  was  dis- 
interred. At  C.  {B.C.  86)  the  generals  of  Mithridates  were  de- 
feated by  Sulla.  A  few  remains  of  the  dtadel  and  some  traces 
of  the  theatre  still  exist.  The  site  of  C.  is  now  occupied  by  the 
modem  village  oSSHpuma. 


genus  of  Teleostean  fishes  belonging  to  the 
family  Chnlodontidte,  a  group  distinguished  by  the  compressed 
body,  by  the  median  fins  being  covered  with  scales  of  the 
ctenoid  kind,  by  the  dorsa!  tin  being  single,  with  a  few  spiny 
rays  at  its  front  partion,  and  by  the  ventral  fins  being  jugular, 
or  placed  beneath  the  pectorals.  These  fishes  mostly  iniiabic 
the  tropical  seas,  and  are  generally  brilliantly  coloured,  being 


yLaOOgle 


CHA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPJIDIA. 


banded  in  various  elegant  ways,  From  the  scaly  natuce  of  tlieir 
fins,  the  name  Sguamifimnes  was  formerly  applied  to  them.  In 
C,  itself  the  teeth  are  slender.  In  the  genna  Brama~-t>i  which 
genus  the  species  S.  Eaii  occurs  in  British  seas — the  teeth  are 
curved  and  of  stronger  make.  CMmim  is  another  genus  com- 
■.n  Chinese  waters,  and,  togelier  with  the  Toxotes  of  Java, 
has  the  curious  habit  of  shooting  at  flies  with  drops  of  water,  so 
cause  the  insects  to  fall  into  the  water,  a  habit  which  has 
dfor  fhem  the  name  of  'Archer  fishes'  (q.  v.). 

la'fer,  a.  popular  name  given  to  many  beetles  {e.g.,  rose  C, 

cade.  C,  bark  C,  Slc),  the  larvEe  of  which  burrow  into  plant- 
tissues,  and  cause  much  damage  to  trees  and  shrubs.  The  name 
is  merely  a  popular  one,  and  has  no  scientific  value. 

Chaff'incli,  Sc,  Sliilfa  {Fringilla  caUis),  a  species  of  Frii- 
gillinis  or  true  finches,  Conirostral  birds  belonraig  to  the  order 


lly 


1        th   th  ash   _ 

d  yth     Idk    r 

res  setmanuon-H  heel 

It  is  self-feeding  and 


averages 
about  6  inches  in  length ;  the 
male  being  coloured  bluish- 
grey  in  summer  on  the  head 
and  neck,  with  a  chestnut  back 
and  black  wings,  which  bear 
two  white  bare ;  the  tail  is 
black.  The  female  resembles 
the  male  in  her  colours,  which, 
however,  are  much  less  bright 
than  those  of  her  mate.  The 
b  rd  is  found  in  Europe,  Asia, 
N  Africa,  and  the  Azores.  It 
Chaffinch  Ales  southward  in  winter  from 

its  northern  habitats.      In  win- 
ter the  se\es  seem  to  separate  this  fact  h  vi  g     d    ed  Li  nseos 
to  apph  to   the  C    the  specific  nan      Cakb       Oth 
rihsts  however  have  s  ggested  that  th      wmt      flocks 
include  young  males,  wMch  somewh  t         mbl    th     f 
in  their  colour)      The  e^;s  i  umber  f  fi  d 

buff  colour  streaked  with  brown      TTi   f    d  co      t      f 
but  also  of  seeds  and  young  planla — th  se  b  d  th 

destiuctiye  m  gardens      The  notes  ire   1  ar       dth        g 
trained,  is  very  fine. 

Ohaff'Oatter.    When  it  was  found  th  t   h 
mttch  more  economical  than  straw  as  it  f 

machine,  the  chaff-cutter  was  designed  t    d 
The  cutter  is  composed  of  two  curved  kni 
frame,  and  the  straw  is  put  in  in  bunches, 
can  be  made  to  cut  any  length. 

Ohag'rea,  a  seaport  in  the  department  of  Colon,  republic  of 
Columbia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  de  C,  6  miles  W.S.W.  of 
Aspinwall.  It  had  a  good  trade  prior  to  the  opening  of  the 
Panama  Railway  in  1855,  but  is  fast  sinking  into  insignifi- 
cance. The  climate  is  extremely  hot  and  unhealthy.  Pop. 
1000,  mostly  negroes.  A  project  of  basing  an  inter-oceanio 
canal  on  the  ^w  ds  C.  was  abandoned  on  account  of  the  rapid 
flow  of  the  river  and  the  numerous  waterfalls  ' 

OliaiU'u,  Paul  Belloni  du,  the  author  of  sevei-al  works  of 
African  travel  and  adventure,  was  born  in  the  S.  of  Fr; 
about  1E20.  His  father,  a  ti-ader  and  consular  agent  of  France 
at  the  river  Gaboon,  in  the  French  West-African  settle- 
roent  of  that  name,  carried  C.  thither  when  still  a  child. 
Educated  at  a  Jesuit  school  in  the  Gaboon  settlement,  C.  soon 
made  himself  acquainted  with  tlie  customs  and  languages  of  the 
native  tribes.  In  1855  he  visited  North  America,  — ' 
naturaUsed  at  New  York  under  the  name  of  Chaylion, 
became  a  member  of  the  Philadelphia  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences,  from  whom  in  the  same  year  he  received  the  commis- 
sion to  penetrate  from  the  W,  coast  into  (he  interior  of  Equa- 
torial Africa  towards  the  sources  of  the  Congo,  and  to  report  on 
the  botany  and  zooli^  of  the  regions  he  should  visit.  This  ex- 
pedition employed  C.  for  four  years,  during  which  time  he  made 
many  surprising  discoveries,  the  chief  of  which  was  his  discovery 
of  the  Gorilla  (q.  v.).  The  first  specimen  of  this  immense 
creature  killed  by  C.  is  pieserved,  tc^ether  with  many  specimens 
of  birds  previously  unknown,  in  the  British  Museum.  A  subse- 
quent expedition  was  undertaken  from  the  mouth  of  the  Fernan- 
Vas  River  to  Ashango  Land  in  1S63.  C.'s  chief  works,  which 
are  tinged  with  a  certain  hue  of  insincerity  and  exaggeration,  and 


the  first  of  which  was,  for  a  time,  regarded  by  many  as  an  impo- 
sition, a.K  Sxpltrrations  and  Adventurss  in  Equatorial  A  fries,  &ȣ. 
(New  York  and  Lon.  1861),  and  A  Jmimey  to  Ashango  Land, 
(1867).  Since  1867  C,  has  been  established  in  America,  where,  as 
a  lecturer  and  a  writer  of  books  of  adventure  for  the  young,  he 
has  won  considerable  popularity. 

Ohain,  a  measure  used  in  surveying.     'Gunter's'  C.  is  66 
feet  long  and  divided  into  100  links.    One  square  Gunter's  C.  is 
one-tenth  of  an  acre.     Engineers  frequently  use  a  C.  of  100  feet 
long,  whicJi  has  many  advantages  over  the  shorter  one. 
Chain  Bridge.     See  Suspensiok  Bridge. 
Chain  Cables,    See  Cables. 

Ohain-Mail  or  Chain-Armour,  a  defensive  garment  made 
of  hammered  iron  links,  which  was  much  used  in  the  IZth  and 
13th  centuries.  It  was  more  flexible  than  plate-aimour,  but  was 
)t  a  certain  protection  against  the  thrust  of  a  lance. 
Ghaiu-Shot,  a  nearly  obsolete  kind  of  ammunition,  consisting 
„■  two  cannon  balls  connected  by  a  short  chain,  designed  to  de- 
stroy the  rkging  of  ships.  As  Grapeshot  (q.  v. )  has  been  foimd 
to  answer  tlie  same  purpose,  the  manufacture  of  C.-S.  has  been 
discontinued. 

faaging:  in.  In  former  times  it  was  usual  to  hang 
the  bodies  of  atrocious  criminals,  after  esecution,  in  chains,  on  a 
gibbet  near  the  spot  where  the  crime  had  been  committed.  The 
spectacle — ''  '~  '•— 


deterrent  effect,  and  ti   ^ 
consolation  to  those  who  had  suffered  by  the  crime.     An  Act 
abolishmg  the  practice  was  passed  in  1834. 


(,1 


.._ .  icie  of  furniture  used  as  a  seat,  differing  from  a 
ig  a  rest  for  the  back,  and  occasionally  with  supports 
In  a  dwelling-house  chairs  are  usually  designed  to 
ith  the  other  tiimishings  of  the  apartment  in  which 
]  1  ced,  and  therefore  they  vary  very  much  m  form  and 
t      materials.     The  chairs  of  the  ancients  were  often  of 
t      sfly  description,  and  their  elegant  forms  have  been 
tly    eproduced  oivd  varied  by  modern  cabmetmakers. 
xamples  of  antique  seats  are  preserved  in  national 
Eur  p  ollections.    Of  the  Egyptian  chairs  in  the  British 

M        m     ne  is  formed  of  ebony,  inlaid  with  ivory,  except  the 

t  h  h  is  of  plaited  cane,  as  in  modem  chairs.  The 
R  m  well  as  fee  Greeks  and  Egyptians,  constructed  seats 

long  enough  to  suit  two  pereons.  Two  such  Msellin  m  bronze,  dis- 
covered at  Pompeii,  are  now  in  tJ\e  Musm  Borbtntko  at  Naples, 
and  reproductions  of  them  may  be  examined  in  the  South  Ken- 
sington Museum.  Among  other  ancient  and  interesting  chaiis 
meriting  notice  may  be  mentioned  that  of  St  Peter,  formed  of 
wood  overlaid  with  carved  ivory  work  and  gold,  preserved  in  the 
Church  of  St  Peter  at  Rome,  and  that  of  Dagobert,  King  of 
France  in  the  7th  c.  (now  m  the  Louvre  at  Paris},  made  of  bronze, 
partially  gilt,  and  beautifully  chased  and  chiselled.  The  chief 
English  seat  of  the  C.  trade  is  at  High  Wycombe  and  neigh- 
bourhood, where  extensive  beech- woods  supply  material  for  com- 
mon chairs.  For  the  finer  kinds  of  clmrs,  walnut,  rosewood, 
mahogany,  birch,  oak,  sycamore,  and  cherry  are  employed. 

Chala'zft.     See  Ovule  and  Egg, 

Chaloe'don,  a  city  of  ancient  Bithynia,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Euxine,  about  3  miles  S.  of  the  modern  Scutari.  It  was  founded 
by  colonists  from  Megara  seventeen  years  before  Byzantium ; 
and  the  settlers  are  said  to  ha.ve  been  alluded  to  by  the  oracle 
as  'blind,'  for  having  selected  an  inferior  site  when  a  better 
was  in  their  choice.  It  soon,  however,  acquired  importance, 
and  possessed  many  temples.  During  the  sfru^les  between 
Athens  and  Lacedjemon  it  changed  sides  several  times  :  in  B.C. 
74  it  came  into  the  possession  of  Rome  ;  under  the  empire  it  was 
a  free  city;  Chosroes,  the  Persian,  took  it  A. D.  616;  and  finally 
under  the  Turks  it  sunk  into  absolute  rum.— The  Council  of  C, 
held  here  a.d.  451  by  conunand  of  the  Emperor  Marcian,  con- 
demned the  heresies  of  the  Neslorians  (q.  v.)  and  Monophysites 
(q.  v.).  It  declared  that  in  Christ  there  were  two  natures,  so 
distinct  that  they  could  not  be  mtermixed,  yet  so  conjomed  that 
in  Christ  there  was  but  one  person. 

Ohalee'dony,  a  variety  of  quartz  occurring  in  mainmillated, 
botryoidal,    and'  stalactitio  forms,   found   abundantly  in   1 
parts  of  Europe,  and  deriving  its  name  from  Chakedo 


vLaOogle 


OHA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Asia  Minor,  where  it  was  originally  obtained.  Agate,  chry- 
soprase,  carnellan,  cat's  eye,  plasma,  onyx,  sardonyx,  sard, 
flint,  and  hornsfone,  which  are  separately  described  under 
their  respective  heads,  are  all  varieties  of  C.  Common  C.  is 
usually  semi-opaque,  of  a  milk-white  colour,  tinged  with  yellow 
or  blue,  and  occurs  in  Fifeshire,  the  Pentland  Hills,  the  Hebri- 
des, Faroe  Isles,  and  in  ComwaJI  and  other  English  localities. 
It  was  largely  used  for  mmute  sculpture  by  the  ancients,  and  at 
file  present  day  seals,  brooches,  vases,  &c. ,  are  made  of  it. " 


Chal'ois,  the  capital  of  E  b       (N  g  t)        th    Str  't 

the  Euripus,  here  40  yards  ra  rng  an 

the  coast  of  Bceotia,  but  br    g  w 

tioned  by  Homer,       It  was  g 

cities,  and  sent  out  colonies      Maced  la      S 

.lEgsan  Isles.     It  had  at  firs         an  mm 

own,  but  allerwards  becam  rj       A     ns.     U 

Macedonians  and  the  Roman  se      gr  at  mp  rt  as 

commanded  the  navigation  between  the  N.  and  S.  of  Greev 
After  the  Venetians  Md  held  it  for  three  centuries  it  was  t  1. 
by  the  Turks  in  i^i  7a     C. ,  now  called  Egtipo  (q.  v, ),  a  n 
which  is  a  corruption  of  Euripus,  is  the  only  considerable  pla 
in  the  island.     Pop,  (1870)  6447. 

Ohalcis,  a  genus  of  Lacertilia  or  lizards,  included  in  th 
family  ChalHdis,  and  distinguished  by  being  covered  with  sc  Ics 
arranged  in  cross  rows ;  those  of  the  back  being  prominei  t 
keeled,  and  frequently  spinous  whilst  the  sides  may  po 
folds  of  sk  n  cove  ed  wi  h  scales  The  eyelids  are  developed 
the  ears  e-^posed  the  tongi  e  fleshy  short,  and  bifid  at  the  t  p 
""  —  lizards  oc  ur        both  An  enca  and  Africa,  and  a  few 


Asa 
Then 


s  alo  i 


The 


pap 


ren  to  a  genus  of  Hymtnofterous  ir 
1  nea  y  ve  niess  wings,  and  bent  ar 
short    a  d   the  pupa  destitute  of 


Caialcog'raphy  (Gr.  chakas,  '  copper  or  brass, '  and  graphein-, 
'  to  write '),  engraving  on  copper.     See  Emghaving. 
Chalito'a,     See  Babylonia, 
Cliaiaee'.     See  ARAM.eA. 


CTasX'&lo:a.[PT.  chaudron  Lat  caldarium,  'a  vessel  for  warm 
"""'"   "     nolddiy  ai    ng  thirty-six  heaped  bushels, 


Ohaleur'  Bay 

separates  New  Era 
the  Ristigouche,  e 
miles,  and  has  am     im 
name  (Fr.  cAalair,    hea 


ds 


h     Gulf  of  St   Lawrence, 

]     district  of  Caspe,  receives 

W.  for  a  distance  of  10a 

20  miles.     It  receives  its 

mparative  freeness  from  ice 


ChftliferouB  Membrane.    See  Egg. 
Chalk,  Black,  or  Drawing-Slate,  a  kind  of  clay-slate, 
soft,  black  from  the  admixture  of  carbon,  and  used  for  drawing 

CAalk,  Red,  a  compact  earthy  clay,  coloured  with  from  15 
to  20  per  cent,  of  oxide  of  iron,  also  called  reddle. 

Chalk,  French,  a  variety  of  soapstoiie  or  steatite,  a  mae- 
nesic  silicate. 

Chalk  Bocka.    See  Cretaceous  System. 

OhaJk'ing  the  Door  is,  in  Scotland,  a  mode  of  warning  the 
tenants  of  burghal  tenements  to  remove.  The  principal  door  of 
tfte  tenement  is  marked  with  chalk  forty  daysbei^ore  Whitsunday 
the  Scolch  term  for  removal.  A  certificate  of  execution,  sub- 
scribed by  the  officer  and  two  witnesses,  is  a  warrant  for  a 
decree  of  removal  by  the  burgh  court.  If  the  tenant  does  not 
obey  the  decree,  he  may  be  forcibly  ejected  on  the  expiration  of 
a  charge  of  six  days. 

ChaU'enge.     See  Duel  and  Tctky. 


Educated  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  he  was  trained  to  law  in 
Edinbui^h,  but  emigrated  to  America  in  1763,   and  practised 
as  a  lawyer  in  Baltimore,     A  strong  royalist,  the  revolutionary 
troubles  compelled  him  to  return  to  England,  where  he  was 
appointed  clerk  to  the  Board  of  Trade  in  1786.     The  remainder 
of  his  life  was  spent  partly  in  eradite  toil,  and  partly  in  miscel- 
laneous pamphleteering.     He  died  May  31,  1825.      Cs  chief 
wort  is  his  Caledonia,  an  Account,  Historkal,  and  Topographi- 
cal, ofN.  Britain  {1807-24).     It  shows  immense  research,  and 
the  introduction  is  marked  by  a  vigorous,  and  on  the  whole 
rational,  conception  of  the  state  of  Scotland  ethnolc^cally  in  the 
jg  and  obscure  period  between  tlie  Roman  invasion  and  the 
Ign  of  Malcolm   Canmore.      The  style  lacks  elegance  and 
gnity,  but  its  polemical  tone  gives  it  a  factitious  energy  and 
h  eliness.      Of  C.'s  other  productions,  the  most  important  is  his 
edition  of  the  Poetical  Works  of  Sir  David  Lindsay,  with  a  Life 
the  Author,   Prefatory  Dissertations,    and  an  Appropriate 
ossary  (3  vols.  1806),  which  cannot  be  held  to  be  superseded 
en  1^  the  later  edition  of  I.aing  (2  vols,  Edinb.  1871).     His 
Lives  of  Defoe   (1786),  Ruddiman  (1794),   and  Allan  Ramsay 
(  800)  Iso  noteworthy. 

Chalmers,  Thomas,  an  illustrious  Scottish  preacher,  theo- 
1  oian  Chmch  leader,  philanthropist,  and  social  reformer,  was 
b  t  A    truther,  March  17,  1780V     He  matriculated  as  a 

t  d  t  St  Andrew's  University  in  1791,  became  a  licentiate 
f  th  Chur  h  of  Scotland  in  1799,  having  been  admitted  at  an 
lly  ea  ly  age,  on  the  special  plea  that  he  was  'a  lad  o' 
p  gn  pairts,"  and  in  1803  was  ordained  minister  of  Kilmany, 
q  t  d  parish  in  the  E.  of  Fife.  At  this  time  he  was 
«n  sed  scientific  studies,  which  he  pursued  with  such 
that  he  felt  warranted  in  becoming  a  candidate,  succes- 
ly  f  the  Natural  Philosophy  chaur  at  St  Andrews,  and  for 
the  Mathematical  chair  at  Edinburgh.  In  1S08  appeared  his 
Inquiry  into  the  Extent  atd  Stability  of  //attend  Sesources. 
About  iSii,  after  a  severe  illness,  and  while  preparing  tlie  attide 
'  Christianity'  for  the  Edinburgh  Mncydopadia,  C.  experienced 
'a  great  revolution  in  all  his  opinions  about  Christianity,'  and 
'this  very  great  transition  of  sentiment'  he  attributed  to  the  read- 
ing of  Wilberforce's  Practical  View.  As  a  result  of  this  change, 
he  abandonedbis  scientific  pursuits,  and  put  forth  all  his  Strength 
as  a  pastor  and  as  a  preacher  of  evangelical  Christianity.  In 
iSia,  C.  married  Miss  Grace  Pratt.  In  1814  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  the  Tron  Kirk  of  Glasgow,  and  during  the  nine  years 
of  his  Gla^ow  ministry  (from  1819  in  the  parish  of  St  John's), 
he  exerdsed  a  most  commanding  influence  by  the  brilliancy  and 
power  of  his  pulpit  oratory.  His  pulpit  fame  may  be  considered 
to  have  reached  its  height  on  the  delivery  of  his  famous  Astrono- 
mical Discourses  in  1816,  and  on  his  visit  to  London  in  1817. 
'  All  the  world,'  wrote  Wilberforce,  '  mad  about  C.  Mighty 
London  seems  to  do  him  homage.'  'The  tartan,'  said  George 
Canning,  'beats  ns  alL'  During  his  residence  in  Glasgow,  C. 
grapplM.  manfully  with  the  appalling  ignorance  and  immorality 
of  his  populous  aty  parishes,  and  indeed  he  accepted  the  mcum- 
bency  of  St  John's  on  the  condition  that  he  should  work  '  his 
own  parish  in  his  own  way,'  and  with  the  view  of  making,  in 
opposition  to  the  poor-law  system  of  England,  the  famous  ex- 
periment, in  which  he  managed  the  whole  pauperism  of  the  parish 
by  a  Church  agency,  and  with  an  income  of  about  ^300  kept 
down  the  pauperism  of  a  population  of  10,00a  These  great 
exertions,  however,  were  too  much  for  his  constitution,  and  he 
accepted  the  proffered  chair  of  Moral  Philosophy  at  St  Andrews, 
whence,  in  1828,  he  was  translated  to  the  diaic  of  Divinity  at 
Edinburgh.  His  Political  Economy  appeared  in  1832,  and  his 
Bridgewater  treatise  on  Adaptation  of  External  Nature  to  the 
Moral  and  Intellectual  Constitutioti  of  Man  in  1833.  C.  was 
chosen  Moderator  of  the  General  Assembly  of  1832.  Between 
1835  and  1841,  by  his  great  exertions  in  the  cause  of  church 
extension,  a  sum  of  ;£305,747,  ns.  2jd.  was  raised,  and  222 
churches,  more  than  one-fifth  of  its  whole  complement,  were 
added  to  the  Estabhshment.  In  1838  he  delivered  in  London 
his  briUiant  course  of  lectures  in  defence  of  religious  Establish- 
ments. Throughout  the  Ten  Years'  Conflict  of  the  '  Evangelical 
Party'  on  behalf  of  the  Church's  'spiritual  independence,'  C. 
was  their  resolute  and  unwearied  leader  ;  and  00  the  formation 
of  the  Free  Churcli,  May  18,  1843,  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of 


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its  first  General  Assembly.  He  rendered  it  great  service,  espe- 
cially by  the  constitution  of  its  general  Suatentation  Fund,  and 
lie  was  chosen  Professor  of  Divinity  and  Principal  of  its  New 
College  at  Edinburgh.  During  his  closing  years  of  life,  he 
planted  in  the  West  Fort  the  territorial  agencies  that  have  since 
been  so  successfully  employed  both  in  Edinbui^h  and  Glasgow 
in  elevating  the  most  degraded  of  our  population.  C.  died 
suddenly  at  Morningside,  Edinburgh,  May  go,  1847.  C.  was 
elected  D.D.  of  Glasgow  in  j8i6,  corresponding  memtier  of  the 
Royal  Institute  of  France  in  1834,  a  Vice-President  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Edinburgh  in  1835,  and  Doctor  of  Laws,  Oxfoi-d,  in 
the  same  year.  These  and  many  similar  honours  attest  the  great 
reputation  enjoyed  by  C.  during  liis  life,  a  repntation  which  his 
books,  wise,  eloquent,  and  powerful  though  they  be,  can  scarcely 
be  expected  adequately  to  maintain.  The  fame  of  C,  however, 
will  not  be  affected  by  the  good  or  ill  fortune  of  his  books.  His 
fiery  energy,  his  perfervid  genius,  his  single-hearted  devotion  to 
philantliropic  work,  the  nobility  of  his  aims,  the  width  of  his 
sympathies,  and  the  goodness  of  his  heart,  secure  for  his  name  a 
place  in  the  brief  roll  of  gieat  representative  Scotchmen,  See 
Memoirs  of  th£ Life  and  WriHngs  of  Thes.  C.  (Edinb.  1849),  by  his 
son-in-law,  the  Rev.  Dr  Hanna.  The  standard  edition  of  his 
works  is  in  iirty-four  volumes  (Edinb.  Edmonston  &  Douglas). 
Ohfil'ons-Bur-MaMie,  the  capital  of  the  department  Maine, 
France,  on  the  Mame,  the  Mame-Rhine  Canal,  and  the  Stras- 
burg  Railway,  107  miles  E.  of  Paris.  It  is  old,  iiTeguIarly 
built,  and  its  ramparts  are  in  great  part  destroyed,  but  it  has 
many  fine  edifices,  as  the  cathedral  St  Etienne,  which  was  partly 
rebuilt  in  the  17th  a,  after  having  been  burnt  three  times;  the 
church  St  Alpin,  dating  from  the  12th  c  ;  the  abbey  St  Pierre  ; 
the  church  of  Notre  Dame,  &c.  By  the  side  of  the  canal  of  the 
Mame  is  a  splendid  public  park  (.Jard)  of  19  acres.  The  river 
is  here  crossed  by  a  fine  stone  bridge.  C.  has  manufactures  of 
woollens,  serge,  bonnets,  rofffi,  &c.,  and  a  large  trade,  chiefly  m 
Champagne  wine,  of  which  it  exports  aimually  about  1,000,000 
bottles.  Pop.  (1873)  15,186.  To  the  N.E.  of  the  towu  is  the 
Camp  of  C.,  formed  by  the  Emperor  Napoleon  III.  in  1856,  and 
occupied  successively  by  Canrobert  and  MacMahon  during  the 
late  Franco-Prussian  war.  iTie  Germans  took  possession  of  C. 
without  opposition,  August  21,,  187a  C.  is  the  ancient  Cala- 
launum  ox  Durocatalaunum  of  Gallia  Belgica.  Here  Aurelian, 
in  274  A.D.,  overthrew  Tetricus,  and  in  366  Jovinus  defeated  the 
Allemanni.  The  neighbouring  plain  [fiampi  Calalaunici)  wit- 
nessed, in  451,  tlie  grand  repulse  of  Attila  and  his  Huns  by  the 
Roman  and  Visigotliio  forces. 

Oh^on-Sur-Saoue,  a  town  in  the  department  Sa8ne-et- 
Loire,  France,  35  miles  N.  of  Mftcon  by  railway,  on  the  SaSne, 
here  crossed  by  a  magnificent  iron  bridge.  It  has  a  tine  church 
of  the  14th  c,  and  is  an  active  industrial  centre.  There  are 
several  distilleries,  foundries,  and  a  Government  naval  yard  sup- 
plementaiy  to  that  of  CreuzoL  The  river  is  navigable  for  steam- 
boats from  this  point,  and  C.  does  a  large  trade  with  the  Medi- 
terranean and  the  Atlantic  in  wine,  iron,  and  cereals.  Pop. 
(1872)  18,951.  C.  is  the  ancient  Cabalkmnn  or  Cabillinum,  and 
was  a  flourishing  pUce  during  the  Roman  occupation. 

ChalyJjEe'us,  a  genus  of  birds  inhabiting  New  Guinea,  and 
noted  for  the  brilliant  metallic  tints  and  lustres  of  their  plumage. 
Skins  of  C.  Paradiisus,  with  the  feet  cut  off  (to  imitate  the  con- 
dition in  which  Birds  of  Paradise  (q.  v.)  skins  are  generally  im- 
ported), have  been  sold  as  skins  of  the  latter  birds.  The  biU  in 
the  genus  is  thick,  and  the  nostrils  are  pierced  in  a  broad  Cere 
(q.  T.). 

ChalyiiEeus,  Heinrioh.  Bloritz,  a  German  philosopher, 
bom  3d  July  1796,  at  Pfaffroda,  in  Saxony,  and  studied  at 
Leipsic  Alter  teaching  for  several  years  at  Vienna  and 
Dresden,  he  was  in  1839  appointed  a  professor  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Kiel.  After  the  Slesvig-Hol stein  war  he  had  to 
resign  his  professorsliip,  but  in  a  sliort  time  he  was  restored. 
He  died  at  Dresden,  aid  September  j86s.  Of  his  numerous 
worts,  the  most  important  are  the  Hisiorische  EnhmchdHng  der 
Sfi^ativm  Fiilosapkie  von  Kant  bis  Higel  (Dresd.  1836,  5th 
ed.  i860),  of  which  there  is  an  Enghsh  translation  by  Tulk 
(I.ond.  1854);  Syitem  dcr  Sieculativai  Ethik  (2  vols.  Leips. 
1850);  B.-aA  Fkndanietiial  J'hUosafhii  I^KiA,  1861). 

Olialyb'eate  {from  Gr.  chalufs,  'iron')  Waters,  a  form  of 
mineral   water,    containing  salts  of  iron  m  solution,  the  most 

87 


common  being  that  m  which  carbonate  of  iron  is  held  in  solution 
by  an  excess  of  carbonic  acid.  On  exposure  to  the  air  such  a 
water  gives  off  carbonic  acid,  and  deposits  ferric  hydrate  in  a 
state  of  fine  division,  which  is  the  cause  of  the  ochry  appearance 
around  such  springs.  C.  W.  have  a  kind  of  inky  taste,  and 
are  in  high  repute  for  their  tonic  and  invigorating  efi'ect  on 
invalids.  They  are  very  numerous,  Tunbridge  Wells  being  an 
excellent  example  of  the  carbonated  seiies, 

Olia'ma,  a  genus  of  t-aniellibranchiate  moUusca,  belonging  to 
the  Sifhonale  division  of  that  class,  and  foiining  the  type  of  the 
family  Chamida  or  '  Ciam-shells.'  They  possess  inequivalve 
shells,  which  are  attached  to  fixed  objects.  The  mantle  is  closed, 
and  the  foot  is  of  very  small  size.  These  shells  occur  chiefly 
in  warm  and  tropical  seas.  The  genus  Dictras  is  .  '  ■  ■  ■  ■ ' 
in  the  family  Chaiiiidis. 

Cliftmaae'.    See  Parley. 

Chamsedo'rea,  a  genus  of  palms  containing  upwards  of  forty 
species,  natives  of  the  forests  of  tropical  America.  The  reed-like 
stems  are  used  for  walking-sticks,  and  the  other  nnexpanded 
flower-spikes  by  the  Mexicans  as  a  potherb,  under  the  n 
Tffefilote. 

Ohamee'rops,  a  genns  of  palms,  the  most  northern  of  its  order 


coutammg 


es  of  Asia,  Atrica,  America, 
and  Southern  Europe. 
They  are  generally  dwarf 
in  habit.  C.  hiimilis  is 
the  only  European  spe- 
cies, extending,  however, 
only  as  far  N.  as  Nice. 
From  the  leaves  are 
made  hats,  brooms,  bas- 
kets, tliatch  for  houses, 
&C.,  and  a  fibre  which  is 
vised  as  a  substitute  for 
horsehair.  The  coarsfe 
fibre  at  the  base  of  the 
leaves  is  mixed  bj;  the 
Arabs  with  horsehair,  t" 
weave  their  tent-covers 
out  of.  In  Algeria  a 
paper  and  pastelioardare 
made  of  it,  and  in  Spain, 
cordage  and  sailcloth ; 
in  France,  where  it  is 
known  as  Afncan  hair, 
C.  fortuna  is  a  Chinese  species, 

,  „_  ^ fibre  from  the  base  of  the  leaves  is  used  in  Chma  to 

make  hats,  and  the  capes  worn  in  wet  weather  by  the  rural 
population.  The  genus  will  gmw  in  the  open  air  very  well  as 
far  N.  as  Edinbur^ 

Chamala'ri,  or  Olninialarld,  alofty  peak  of  tlie  Himalayas, 
on  the  N.W.  frontier  of  Bhotan,  some  80  miles  N.E.  of  Darjll- 
ing,  has  a  height  of  23,944  feet.  On  its  W.  side  rises  the  Aramo- 
chu  river,  a  tributary  of  the  Brahmaputra. 

Chamber- OouBsel,  a  barrister,  or  advocate,  who  devotes 
himself  cliielly  to  giving  legal  opinions,  seldom  pleading  ii 
court. 

Chamber  of  Commerce.  Associations  of  merchants  and 
others  interested  in  trade,  for  the  promotion  and  benefit  of  trade, 
are  so  called.  Of  foreign  origin,  these  institutions  have  in  Great 
Britain  proved  themselves  espeeiallj  valuable  to  the  country. 
The  Edinburgh  C.  of  C,  instituted  in  1785,  and  incorporated  by 
royal  charter  in  1786,  was  the  first  public  body  in  the  country 
which  petitioned  Parliament  for  an  adoption  of  free-trade  prin- 
ciples and  for  the  abolition  of  the  corn-laws.  It  also  originated 
the  movement  which  ended  in  the  telegraph  service  being  taken 
over  by  the  slate.  This  chamber  consists  of  about  six  hundr/d 
ntembers.  The  Manchester  C.  of  C.  was  established  In  1820.  Its 
exertions  in  the  cause  of  free-trade  and  their  splendid  results  are 
of  world-wide  renown.  (See  Free  Trade.}  Chambers  of  Com- 
merce nqw  exist  in  all  the  great  mercantile  towns  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland.  In  i860  there  was  established  an  'association  of 
Chambers  of  Commerce  of  the  United  Kingdom.'  The  C.  of  C. 
endeavours  to  attain  its  object  by  the  consideration  of  all  pro- 


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posed  legal  measures  affecting  trade,  and  by  petitioning  Parlia- 
ment  according  to  the  views  of  a  majority  ol^its  members  ;  by 
the  collection  of  statistics  bearing  on  the  especial  trade  of  its  dis- 
trict, and  by  the  advantage  whidi  combined  has  over  individual 
enterprise.  The  C.  of  C  is  also  sometimes  usefiil  as  a  court  of 
arbitration  m  mercantile  questions  ;  though  it  is  to  be  feared  that 
the  expense  and  anxiety  of  ordinary  legal  procedure  can  never  be 
wholly  got  rid  of  by  any  scheme  for  settlement  by  Arbitration 
(q.  V. ).  The  oldest  C.  of  C.  in  France  is  that  of  Marseille,  which 
was  founded  upwards  of  four  centuries  ago.  The  next  in  seniority 
is  that  of  Dunkerqtie,  eslablished  in  1 700.  The  various  chambers 
of  France  were  suppressed  in  1791  by  a  decree  of  the  National 
Assembly,  but  tbey  were  recoils  tituled  by  a  consuiar  decree  in 
l80J.  Their  organisation  is  now  regulated  by  ordonnances  of 
September  1S51  and  August  1852,  their  functions  being  to  ad- 
vise tlie  Government  as  to  the  means  of  improving  the  national 
industry  by  legislation  and  (he  execution  of  public  works,  and 
as  40  taxation.  The  oldest  C  of  C.  in  Great  Britain  is  that  of 
Glasgow,  which  was  instituted  by  royal  charter  in  1783. 

ChamTjerlain,  I^wd,  was  in  former  times  an  important 
member  of  Government  in  England,  but  his  functions  are  now 
chiefly  connected  with  the  royal  household.  The  Queen's  trades- 
men and  artificers  are  appointed  1^  him.  All  theatres  in  towns 
in  which  there  is  a  royal  palace  require  a  licence  from  him,  and 
without  his  licence  no  new  play  can  be  acted  anywhere.  He  has 
a  vice-chamberlain  under  him,  and  both  are  ptivy  councillors, 
their  tenure  of  offi.ce  being  dependent  on  that  of  the  ministry  of 
the  time,  of  which  the  L.  C.  is  a  member.  Tlie  salary  of  the 
L.  C  is  £2.ixa  a  year,  that  of  the  vice-chamberlain,  £^24.  The 
Chamljerlain  of  Scotland  was  an  officer  of  high  dignity  and  of 
supreme  jurisdiction,  but  the  office  has  been  long  since  abolished. 

Ckafiiberlain,  The  Lerd  Great,  is  an  officer  of  considerable 
importance.  He  is  governor  of  the  palace  of  Westminster,  and 
on  a  coronation,  or  other  solemn  occasion,  the  keys  of  West- 
minster Hall  are  delivered  to  him.  He  has  the  care  of  the 
House  of  Lords  during  the  sitting  of  Pariiament  The  Genlie- 
man  Usher  of  the  Black  Rod,  Yeoman  Usher,  &c,,  are  under 
his  authority.  The  office  is  hereditary.  It  was  originally  1 
ferred  by  Henry  I.  on  Aiberic  de  Vere.     From  the  De  Vf 


1  by 
Earls  of  Oxford,  it  passed  to  the  Berties. 
"      ""    >  Will 


It  ism 


!  held  c 


jointly  by  Lady  WiJloughby  de  Eresby  and  the   Marquis  of 
Cholraondeley  as  coheirs  of  flje  fourth  Duke  of  Ancaster. 

GhamlierB,  Ephraim,  P.B.S.,  bom  at  Kendal  towards  the 
close  of  the  17th  c.,  formed  the  plan  of  his  Encyclopaedia,  the 
earliest  work  of  tlie  kind  in  English,  while  apprentice  to  Mr  Se- 
nei,  a  mathematical  instrument  maker  in  Fleet  Street,  London. 
The  lat  edirion,  in  2  vols,  folio,  was  published  in  1728 ;  the  2d, 
in  1738;  the  3d,  in  1739;  the  <fth,  in  1741;  a5lh,inr746;  and 
a  6th,  with  additional  matter,  in  1750.  C,  died  at  Islington, 
iSlh  May  1740.  Considered  as  the  work  of  a  single  individual, 
the  Eneyclopjedia  of  C.  is  an  extraordinary  production. 

Ohamtoers,  William  and  Itobart,  eminent  publishers  and 
authors,  were  born  at  Peebles,  William  in  1800,  and  Robert  in 
iSoz.  After  a  grammar-school  education  at  his  birthplace,  the 
former  became,  in  his  fourteenth  year,  apprentice  to  an  Edin- 
burgh bookseller.  In  1S19  he  commenced  business  on  his  own 
account — a  somewhat  adventurous  attempt,  since  he  was,  as  he 
himself  says,  '  without  stock,  capital,  or  shop-furniture.'  Robert 
began  business  in  his  sixteenth  year,  after  a  still  more  humble 
fashion  than  his  brother,  by  starting  a  street  bookstall  for  the 
sale  of  works  cheap  and  old.  A  magazine  called  the  KaUidoscope 
(1S21),  written  by  the  younger  brother,  and  printed  by  the  elder, 
was  their  fiist  joint  literary  venture.  Among  the  productions  of 
Robert  in  this  early  and  less  distinguished  period  of  his  career 
e  Ti-adilions  cf  Edi?tburgi  (1824),  Popular  Shytaes  of  Scat- 
land  {li2(>),  several  histories  of  Scotch  rebellions,  and  a  Life  of 
jfamesl.  (1830).  He  also  edited  a  Biography  of  Distinguished 
Scotchmen,  in  5  vols.  In  1832  William  originated  Chspiicrs's 
Edinburgh  '^umai—s.  periodical  which  was  at  once  successful, 
and  still  ret^ns  in  undiminished  degree  its  excellence  and  its 
popularity.  After  the  fourteenth  number,  Robert  became  joint- 
editor,  and  the  firm  of  William  and  Robert  C.  was  estabUshed. 
By  the  sterling  merits  Ijoth  of  the  publishers  and  theh  worlcs,  it 
n  became,  and  has  ever  since  eonf  iniied  to  be,  one  of  the  fore- 
st firms  in  the  northern  part  of  (he  kingdom.  The  people  of 
Scotland  have  long  regarded  it  with  a  feeling  of  national  pride 
)t  bestowed  on  any  other  firm  however  eminent.     Among  the 


works  published  by  them  are  an  Educational  Course,  Cyclopr^ia 
of  English  Literature  (new  ei  1876),  and  Encydopadia  of  Uni- 
versai  KnovjUdge  (1868,  new  ed.  1874).  These  works  are  all 
meant  for  the  people,  but  the  literature  and  the  instruction 
are  of  a  high  order  of  merit.  Robert  C.  has  also  produced 
incomparably  the  most  valuable  biography  of  Robert  Bums 
(4  vols.  1851),  and  has  written  on  geoli^  and  antiquities. 
In  1863  the  degree  of  LL.D.  was  conferred  on  him  by  St  An- 
drew's University.  This  distinguished  author  and  arch^ologist 
died  17th  March  1S71.  William  C.  has  written  books  on  Ame- 
rica, pamphlets  on  social  questions,  notes  of  travel,  and  a  Memmr 
of  Robert  C,  -with  Autobiographic  Riminisances  of  William  C. 
(3d  ed.  1873).  He  gifted  a  free  library  and  lectuie-haU  to  his 
native  town  of  Peebles.  In  1865  he  was  chosen  Lord  Provost 
of  Edinburgh,  and  signalised  his  rule  by  a  great  scheme  for  the 
improvement  of  the  city,  of  which  Edinburgh  is  now  witnessing 
the  splendid  result.  The  career  of  both  men  presents  a  fine 
example  of  the  industrious,  successful,  and  intellectual  Scot. 

Chambers,  Practice  before  a  Jndg^e  or  Vioe-Chan- 

cellor  at.  This  term  of  English  law  is  applied  to  the  arrange- 
ment of  certain  minor  matters  by  the  summary  decision  of  a  single 
judge  at  chambers. 

CliamTjary,  the  capital  of  the  department  Savoie,  France,  lies 
in  a  rich  valley  on  the  Leyse,  45  miles  W.S.W.  of  Geneva,  at  an 
elevation  of  about  1000  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  the  see  of  an 
archbishop,  the  seat  of  a  superior  tribunal,  and  of  the  Academy 
of  Savoy,  and  has  manufactures  of  gauie,  silk-lace,  leather,  hats, 
watches,  &c.,  and  a  trade  in  iron  and  wine.   Pop.  (1872)  13,417. 

Oliambe'ze,  an  important  river  of  Central  Africa,  form- 
ing the  head-waters  of  the  Luapula,  rises  in  the  Kitwette 
Mountains,  75  miles  S.  of  Lalte  Tanganjika,  flows  S.  and  S.  W., 
and  enters  the  W.  end  of  Lake  Bangweolo,  after  a  coiu^e  of  100 
miles.  It  is  1200  feet  broad  before  entering  the  kke,  and  has 
numerous  tributaries,  of  which  the  chief  are  the  Loltutu,  Mansia, 
LokJscha,  and  Mapampa.  The  C.  was  confounded  with  the 
Zambeze  (q.  v.)  till  Livingstone  explored  the  region  in  February 
1867.  See  The  Last  yburnals  of  David  Livingstone  (2  vols, 
Lond,  1874), 

ChamTiord  (Henri  Charles  rerdinand  Marie,  Bieu' 
donnfe  d'Artois,  Duo  d©  Bordeaux),  Comte  de,  the 
representative  of  the  elder  or  Legitimist  branch  of  the  Bourbons, 
grandson  of  Charles  X.  and  son  of  Prince  Charles  Ferdinand 
d'Artois,  Due  de  Berri  (murdered  February  14,  1820),  and  was 
born  September  29,  1820.  As  the  Due,  at  the  time  of  his 
death,  left  only  a  daughter,  there  were  great  rejoicings  on  the 
occasion  of  C.'s  birth  seven  months  afterwards,  and  he  was 
baptized  in  water  brought  from  the  Jordan  by  Chateaubriand, 
and  termed  'the  Child  of  Miracle.'  Charies  X.  attempted  to 
abdicate  in  favour  of  C.  in  1830,  but  the  French  people 
banished  the  elder  Bourbons,  and  C.  along  with  them.  C. 
then  travelled  through  Europe,  lived  for  a  time  at  Holyrood, 
and  on  the  death  of  hisrivjil,  the  Due  d'Angoulgme,  in  1844, 
held  a  court  in  Belgrave  square,  and  received  the  homage  of  all 
the  Legitimists.  la  1846  he  married  the  Princess  Maria-TTieresa, 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Modena,  but  is  childless.  After  (he 
fall  of  the  Third  Empire,  and  the  capitulation  of  Paris  in  1871, 
C.  returned  to  France,  and  a  '  fusion^  of  Legitimists  and  Oriean- 
ists  was  efieeted  to  support  his  claims  to  the  throne  as  Henri  V. 
In  1873  there  was  for  a  moment  a  probability  that  he  would  be 
proclaimed  king,  but  the  foolish  and  fanatical  manifesto  he 
issued,  mamtaining  his  divine  right  to  the  throne,  and  asserting 
his  intention  to  maintam  in  its  ancient  integrity  the  temporid 
power  of  the  Pope,  has  apparently  blasted  his  prospects. 

Clianibord,  a  village  and  chSleau  in  the  department  Loire-ef. 
Cher,  France,  12  miles  E.  of  Blois.  The  cMteau,  one  of  the 
most  inagniiicent  structures  in  France,  was  begun  by  Francois  I. 
(1526),  and  finished  by  Henri  IL,  and  has  received  many  sul> 
sequent  additions,  containing  now  as  many  as  450  chambers. 
It  was  the  temporary  seat  of  the  brilliant  courts  of  Henri  II., 
Louis  XIII.,  and  Louis  XIV.  ;  and  a  fite  given  here  by  the 
latter  was  the  occasion  on  which  MoHJre  first  performed  his 
Bourgeois  Gentilhomme  xa.  1670.  Napoleon  t  bestowed  C.  on 
Marshal  Berthier,  and  in  1821  it  was  bought  by  tfie  Legitimist 
party  and  presented  to  the  Due  de  Bordeaux,  who  derives  from 
it  the  title  of  Comte  de  C.  (q.  v.). 


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Cliam.'bre  Ardente'  w 


me  of  a  court  established  in 
]tid  tribunal,  by  Fran5oi3  I. 
lafuDction  was  tlie  extirpation  of  heresy.  It  was  famed  for  the 
irity  of  its  punishments,  the  most  common  being,  as  its  name 
would  lead  us  to  suppose,  death  by  baming.  It  was  very  active 
under  Henri  II.,  whose  entry  into  Paris  ia  1549  was  signalised 
by  a  burning  of  heretics.  In  1679  it  was  employed  in  investi- 
gating into  the  reports  of  poisoning  cases  which  arose  on  the  trial 
of  the  Marchioness  Brinvilliers,  aflerwhich  time  it  does  not  appear 
to  have  ever  again  become  active,  and  has  long  been  abolished. 

Chambre  IntrouTaTjIe  (which  may  be  translated  'Non- 
such Parliament'),  was  the  ultra-royalist  Chamber  of  Deputies 
which  met  on  the  second  restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.  under  the 
presidency  of  Laine,  and  which,  led  by  De  la  Boui-donnaye,  De 
VillHe,  and  De  Bonald,  surprised  everybody  by  its  extreme  reac- 
tionary policy.  The  Chamber  acted  as  if  resolved  to  stamp  out 
the  possibility  of  revolution,  and  had  the  services  of  men  who 
afterwards  occupied  a  veiy  different  position.  Thus  the  bill  to 
maie  more  summary  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Prev&tal  courts  was 
under  the  chaise  of  Royer-Collard  and  Cuvier.  A  cruel  law 
on  sedition  was  also  passed,  but  it  was  the  famous  debates  on 
the  amnesty  question  that  most  clearly  showed  the  spirit  of  the 
implacable  Right-hand  Royalists,  who  opposed  the  Cabinet, 
and  insisted  upon  extending  the  classes  of  exception  from  the 
amnesty,  and  upon  the  policy  of  confiscation  and  banishment  of  the 
regicides  implicated  in  the  Hundred  Days.  DeSerre  distingtiished 
himself  by  moderate  counsels  in  this  debate.  The  leading  clerical 
champions  on  the  right  hand  were  De  Castelbajac  (who  had  a 
bill  to  take  all  restrictions  from  mortmain),  Lachfeie,  Mnrel 
(who  wished  the  clei^y  to  recover  the  custody  of  civil  records), 
De  St  Remain  (who  attacked  the  lay  character  of  the  univer- 
sities), De  Bonald  (who  called  for  the  abolition  of  divorce),  and 
De  Blangy  (who  opposed  the  continuance  of  official  pensions  to 
married  priests).  Then  the  outrages  against  Protestants  brote 
out  in  the  derarlments  of  the  S. ;  Generals  Ramal  and  Lagarde 
and  Mar^al  Brune  were  murdered,  and  it  required  all  the  efforts 
of  Pasquieu  to  secure  a  condemnation  of  the  murderers  in  the 
local  tribunals.  It  was  no  doubt  the  spirit  of  (he  Right-hand 
Royalists  (as  expressed  in  a  pamphlet  by  De  Vitrolles,  replied 
to  by  Giiiiot)  that  made  it  impossible  for  the  Gpvemment  to 
pardon  Marshal  Ney,  When  the  Chamber  met  after  adjourn- 
ment, it  was  decidedly  unpopular.  Its  cliiefs  got  such  nick- 
names  as  Contractor  for  Burials,  Gravedigger,  Rattlesnake, 
Dispenser  of  Holy  Water,  &c.  Accordingly,  in  spite  of  the 
pleading  of  Chateaubriand,  in  his  Monarcka  sdan  la  ChayU, 
the  King  dissolved  il,  14th  August  1816. 

Ohameleon,  a  Uiard  genus  belonging  to  the  family  Chami- 
Ueiiliiia,  and  represented  by  the  iamiliar  C.  Africama  ai  the  N. 
of  Africa  and  Egypt,   so  long 
celebrated  for  its  power  of  al- 
tering the  hue  of  its  body  when 
irritated  or  alarmed.      The  eye 
is  large,  and  covered  by  a  cir- 
ar  lid  formed  of  the  united 
:>  Eds,  and  perforated  in  the 
lire  for  the  admission  of  light 
to  the  pupil.     The  tongue  is 
i  long  and  fleshy,  and  can  be  pro- 
;  truded  with  great  celerity,  sc 
;  to  catch  the  insects  upon 
hich  the  C.  feeds.    The  tail 
ChamelMn.  J!^  ™""ded     and    prehensUc 

The  body  is  compressed,  am 
covered  by  small  granules  or  scales,  so  as  to  resemble  shagreen 
The  legs  are  well  developed,  the  toes  being  situated  so  as  b 
form  two  equal  and  opposable  sets  in  each  fool,  and  are  thu 
adapted  to  aid  the  creature  in  its  arboreal  life.  The  lungs  ar 
of  very  lai^e  aze.  The  C.  is  confined  to  the  warmer  regions  c 
the  eastern  hemisphere,  and  is  slow  in  its  movements.  Variou 
species,  besides  the  familiar  one  above  noticed,  are  known,  and 
of  these,  C.  FeUrsii  and  C.  Ufurcus,  or  the  large-naped  C,  are 
familiar  forms.  The  latter  occurs  in  Madagascar,  India,  &c., 
and  is  so  named  from  the  muzzle  in  the  males  being  deeply  cleft. 
These  reptiles  have  long  been  celebrated  for  their  power  of 
changmg  the  hues  of  their  bodies.  The  usual  colour  of  the  C. 
is  green,  although  in  Britain  it  appears  to  alter  to  a  yellowish 
or  greenish  grey.     It  may  even  range  through  the  shades  of 


green,  blue,  violet,  and  yellow — all  of  which  are  hues  allied  to 
een.  '  Tlie  mode  in  which  the  change  of  hue  is  effected  is 
nilar  to  that  seen  in  the  Cephalopoda  or  cuttlefishes,  and  con- 
!ls  of  colour-cells  {chrotaatophorii),   which  exist  in  the  deep 
layer  of  the  ritin ;  and  by  altering  the  position  of  these  cells, 
seeathrough  the  transparent  upper  skin,  the  characteristic  colour 
ciianges  are  produced,     The  influence  of  light  and  of  the  ner- 
)us  system  have  mnch  to  do  with  the  clianges  of  colour. 
Ghameleoji  Mineral  is  the  name  sometimes  given  to  man- 
ganate  of  potash  (KaMnOj)  on  account  of  the  curious  changes  of 
colour  which  take  place  in  its  aqueous  solution  if  left  to  itself. 
These  changes  in  the  tint  of  the  solution  are  caused  by  the  gra- 
dual decomposition  of  mangaiiate  of  potash  (solution  of  which  is 
green)  into  permanganate  of  potash  (solution  of  which  is  carmine 
coloured). 

StKaMnO.)   -i-    alfO   ^   aKMnOj  +   MnOj   +    4KHO 


leaf 


Potash. 


C,  M,  is  readily  obtained  by  fusing  together  equal  weights  of 
binoxlde  of  manganese  and  caustic  potash. 

Cham'fering:  (Port,  ckanfi-ar,  '  to  slope  or  hollow '),  cutting 

paring  off  the  edge  of  anything  originally  right-angled.  If  the 
;w  plane  is  besides  rendered  slightly  concave,  it  is  called  a 
hoilom  chamfer.  In  Gothic  architecture  there  are  frequently 
ornamental  terminations  to  a  chamfered  surface, 

Gtaam'ier,  Frederic,  an  English  novelist  of  French  extrac- 
tion, was  bom  in  London  in  1796,  and  died  November  I,  1870, 
He  may  be  described  as  an  inferior  Marryat,  like  whom  he 
served  m  the  navy  before  he  began  literary  laliour.  He  wrote 
many  novels,  some  of  which,  such  as  Ben  Brace,  The  Arethusa, 
Tcm  Bowline,  Jack  Adams,  &c,  have  been  very  popular,  botli 
here  and  on  the  Continent,  and  a  Review  of  the  French  Revolu- 
Hon  of  1%^. 

Chamias'o,  Adelbert  von,  properly  Iiouis  Charles  Ade- 
laide de  Chamisso  de  BoncOTirt,  an  eminent  German  lyric 
poet,  was  born,  27Eh  January  1781,  in  the  Castle  of  Boncouct, 
in  Champagne.  His  family  emigrated  in  1790  to  Prussia.  C. 
was  at  first  (1796)  page  to  the  Queen  of  Prussia,  then  served  in 
the  Prussian  army,  but  as  a  Frencliman  by  birth  would  not  fight 
against  his  former  countrymen ;  took  part  in  an  expedition  (1814) 
to  discover  the  N,W.  Passage,  and  finally  obtained  a  situation  in 
the  Botanical  Garden  of  Berlin,  where  he  died,  21st  August  1838. 
C.  vraE  great  as  a  naturalist,  but  still  greater  as  a  poet.  His 
Gesammdtc  Werke  were  published  at  Leipsic  in  1836-39  (5th  ed. 
1 864),  and  are  marked  both  by  humour  and  a  romantic  imagina- 
tion. They  embrace  ballads,  songs,  &c  Humour  is  the  chief 
characteristic  of  his  popular  fiction  of  Feler  Schiemihl  (7th  ed. 


Kurz  (2  ■ 

Cham'oiS  {Rupicapra  TragusS,  a  genus  of  Antelopes  (q.  v.), 
of  goat-like  conformation,  inhabiting  the  precipitous  steeps  of 
the  Alps,  Pyrenees,  and  other 
Europeanmountain  ranges.  The 
horns  are  peculiar  in  their  con- 
formation, rising  straight  from 
the  top  of  the  head  for  some 
inches,  and  curving  suddenly 
backwards  to  form  a  pair  of  hook- 
lilte  processes.  The  colour  is  a 
yellowish-brown  on  the  upper 
parts,  and  lighter  below,  the 
spine  orback  ndge  being  marked 
by  a  black  stripe.  The  winler  ' 
fur  is  darker  than  the  summer  chamois, 

coat.     The  face  is  marked  by  a 

dark  band  of  colour,  which  runs  from  each  an^le  of  the  n 
to  the  eye,  and  around  each  eye  forms  a  dark  circle.  The  horns 
are  of  black  colour,  and  have  a  polished  appearance.  When 
full-grown,  these  forms  may  average  2  feet  in  height,  tlie  horns 
being  from  J  to  8  inches  long.  The  food  consists  in  summer  of 
mountain  herbs  and  grasses,  and  in  winter  of  sprigs  of  fir,  pine, 
and  juniper  trees.  The  flesh  has  a  peculiar  flavour,  owing  t" 
the  diet.  The  skin  is  lai^Iy  employed  in  the  manufeciure  t 
the  well-known  C. -leather,  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes  in  this 
91 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


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and  other  countries.  The  hiiid-legs  are  lai-ger  than  the  fore- 
hmbs,  and  aid  the  C.  in  ascending  steep  cliffs,  whilst  the  rudl. 
mentary  hoofs  placed  on  ihe  back  of  tlie  feet  assist  it  in  gaining 
a  firm  foothold  in  its  perilous  descents.  These  animals  are  very 
agile  and  wary.  They  are  exceedingly  acute  and  sensitive,  both 
through  the  senses  of  sight  and  smell.  They  live  in  small  herds, 
and  on  oue  member  of  the  flodt  devolves  the  duty  of  watching 
for  enemies,  and  of  giving  due  alarm.  C.-huiiting  is  one  of  the 
most  dangerons  of  Alpine  pursuits. 
Cham'omile.     9ee  CAMOMtLK 

Cham'ond,  St,  a  manufacturing  town  in  the  department  of 
Loire,  Fiance,  on  the  Janon,  ^  miles  E.N.E.  of  St  Elieiine  by 
railway.  It  has  laige  iron-foundries,  si  Ik- factories,  and  works 
for  the  construction  of  steam-engines.  Pop.  (1872)  12,38a.  C. 
possesses  the  rnins  of  a  chStenu  built  by  the  Counts  of  Forei. 

Gbam'ouny  or  ChAm'onix,  also  Cham'onis  and  Oam- 
muni'ta  (Lat.  Campus  munitits),  a  wild  and  beautiful  vale  in 
the  department  of  Haute  Savoie,  France,  about  13  miles  long 
and  2  broad,  lies  far  away  from  all  higli  roads,  at  1  height  of 
2150  feet  above  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  The  village  of  C.  on  the 
Arive  (pop.  2415)  is  much  visited  by  tourists.  From  the  vale 
of  C.  the  ascent  of  Mont  Blano  is  usually  made. 

Ghampagne',  a  former  province  of  France,  was  bounded  N. 
by  the  Ardennes,  E.  by  Lorraine,  S.  by  Buigundy,  and  W.  by 
the  Ide  de  France  and  Picardy,  and  had  an  area  of  9997  sq. 
miles,  and  a  pop.  of  1,238,720.  It  is  in  great  part  a  plain, 
from  300  to  600  feet  high,  and  is  divided  into  a  dry  and 
wretched  district  in  the  N.E,  (C.  Fouilkuse),  and  the  fertile 
region  of  the  S.W.,  famous  alike  for  the  production  of  flints 
and  of  the  wine  to  which  the  province  gives  name.  Its  capita! 
was  Troyes  on  the  Seine.  C.  formed  a  part  of  ancient  Gallia, 
conquered  by  CEesai,  and  later  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Franks, 
but  was  ruled  from  the  nth  c.  by  semi- independent  counts.  It 
was  annexed  to  the  French  crown  by  the  marriage  of  Philippe 
IV.  with  Joanna,  heiress  of  Navarre,  in  1284,  and  was  incor- 
porated formally  by  Philippe  VI.  in  1328.  During  the  cam- 
paigns of  1792  and  1814,  C.  was  the  principal  scene  of  the 
fighting.  After  the  Revolution  the  province  was  split  into  the 
departments  of  Ardennes,  Aube,  Mame,  arid  Haute'Marne,  and 
parts  of  Aisne,  Yonne,  Seine-Mame,  and  Meuse.  See  Arbois 
de  JuliMnville's  Histoire  des  Dues  et  des  Comics  de  C.  (5  vols.  Par. 
1859-631. 

OhampagTie  Wine,  i"i  effervescent  wine,  named  from  the 
district  of  France  in  which  it  is  prepared.  C,  is  chiefly 
manufactured  from  the  same  dark  grape — the  black  fineait— 
used  in  making  Burgundy,  and  is  kept  uncoloured  by  having  the 
husks  removed  before  the  fermentation  of  the  must  or  juice  sets 
in.  After  the  must  has  nndei^ne  the  first  fermentation,  it  is 
carefully  clarified  by  isinglas';  mhied  with  a  proportion  of  sugar, 
and  in  this  state  it  is  bottled  up  and  fastened  with  wire  as  it 
comes  into  the  market.  It  is  then  put  to  undei^o  a  furllier  fer- 
mentation ill  rooms  having  a  rather  high  temperature,  and  tlie 
progress  of  tlie  fermentation  is  marked  by  the  liqueur  assuming  a 
ropy  appearance,  and  by  the  occasional  bursting  of  a  bottle 
through  the  pressure  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas  whicli  is  generated. 
After  the  wine  has  again  cleared  itself  the  liottles  are  uncorked, 
and  the  yeast  which  has  been  made  to  Collect  under  the  cork  is 
removed.  A  small  quantity  of  sweetened  liqueur  is  then  added, 
varying  in  quantity  acconling  as  the  wine  is  desired  '  sweet '  or 
'  dry.'  It  is  now  corked,  wired,  covered  with  the  tinfoil,  and 
labelled,  ready  for  the  market  The  most  esteemed  brands  of 
C.  are  Veuve  Clicquot,  Moet  et  Chandon,  Mumm,  Roederer,  and 
Heidsieck.  There  is  very  good  reason  to  believe  that  a  large 
proportion  of  wine  sold  as  C.  is  spurious,  and  either  prepared 
from  fruit  juices  other  than  the  grape,  or  by  artificially  aerating 
still  white  wines, 

Oham'party,  or  Champerty  (lit.  •  parlnerskip ;  Fr.  champ 
parti;  Lat.  campus  farlilus,  'land  shared  or  divided'),  in 
English  law,  is  a  bargain  with  a  plaintiff  or  defendant  to 
share  the  land,  debt,  or  other  matter  in  dispute  if  be  prevails 
at  law,  (he  Champertor  agreeing  to  carry  on  the  suit  at  his 
own  cost.  The  contract  is  not  only  void  in  equity,  but  it  is 
criminal.  No  one  is  permitted  to  assign  any  interest  or  con- 
tingent profit  of  a  matter  in  dispute,  er  to  enter  into  an  agree- 
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ment  to  share  it  with  any  oue,  on  consideration  of  his  recovering 
it  and  bearing  the  expenses.  In  Slrachan  v.  Branehi  a  gift  from 
an  heir-at-law  resident  abroad,  on  the  death  of  his  ancestor, 
ignorant  of  his  rights,  to  one  who  had  given  him  information  and 
supported  him  in  recovering  his  rights,  was  set  aside,  as  was  also 
a  liond  for;£2Doa,  payable  in  the  event  of  success,  in  considera- 
tion of  j^iooo  advanced  for  carrying  on  the  suit.  Lord  Ros- 
lyn  observing  that  the  transaction  savoured  of  C.  The  analo- 
gous term  in  Scotch  law  is  raclum  de  quota  litis  (q.  v.  under 
Factum  Illicitum). 

Oham'pignon,  the  French  name  for  mushrooms,  but  in 
Britain  only  applied  to  Agaricus  {Marasmius)  Otaidis — the 
'Scotch  Bonnets' — which  is  one  of  the  edible  species. 

Oham'ploiX  (either  Qld  Eng.  cempa,  'a  warrior '—compare 
Ger.  Mmp/en,  '  to  fight' — or  the  Lat.  lampus,  ''a  field ' — i.e.,  of 
battle},  a  man  who,  according  to  agreement,  fights  a  public 
combat  on  his  own  or  another  person's  account  Champions 
are  mentioned  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Charlemagne.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  middle  ages  the  judidal  combat  was  fought  by 
a  C.  on  behalf  of  women,  children,  aged  and  infirm  persons,  and 
also  of  ecclesiastics.  It  was  a  profession,  and  was  not  considered 
an  honourable  one.  But  later  on  in  the  ages  of  chivalry  a  knight 
who  entered  the  lists  on  behalf  of  any  one  incapable  of  self- 
defence  was  called  a  C,  and  then  the  name  began  to  carry  with 
it  more  dignity.  In  England  (he  ancient  office  of  C.  of  the  crown 
was  held  by  the  family  of  Dymocke  from  the  twentieth  year  of 
the  reign  of  Edward  I.  A  member  of  this  family  appea  ed  n 
Westminster  Hall  at  eyery  coronation  in  complete  aimo  r  and 
proclaimed,  by  herald,  a  challenge  to  wage  battle  wiih  ai  y  n  an 
who  should  three  times  gainsay  the  title  of  the  new  mon  ch 
This  form  was  last  gone  through  at  the  coronation  of  \\  II  a 
IV.  by  Mr  Henry  Dymocke,  at  whose  decease,  wil  0  t  ale 
heirs,  the  office  became  extinct. 

OhatnpUtin',  a  lake  between  the  states  of  New  ^  k  d 
Vermont,  with  its  northern  extremity  in  the  Dominio  f  Can 
ada,  named  after  Samuel  C.,  who  discovered  it  in  1609  and 
emptying  itself  into  the  St  Lawrence  by  theRichel  eu  It  s 
about  120  miles  long,  and  varies  in  breadth  from  ^  to  15  m  les 
is  navigable  for  ships  of  loo  tons,  and  is  connected  at  its  south 
ernextremitywilh  the  Hudson  byacanaL  C.  abounds  sa 
shad,  and  other  fish.  The  chief  towns  on  its  banks  ar  B  g 
ton  on  the  E.,  Whitehall  at  the  S.,  and  PUttsburg  on  h    W 

GhampolVion,  Jean  Fiaiipois,  surnamed  Le  Jeune 
born  23d  December  1790,  at  Figeac  (department  of  L  H 

showed  great  precocity  in  the  acqnisitlon  of  Oriental  ph  b 
and  in  drawing  medals.  His  first  idea  was  to  recon  ru  h 
geography  of  Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs,  by  collectmg   h  es 

of  districts  and  towns  found  in  Greek  and  Latin  authors  and  by 
detecting  the  Coptic  element  in  such  names  as  had  been  aid 

by  Hebrew  and  Arabic.     In  1807  he  made  at  Paris  th       q 
tance  of  Milan,  De  Sacy,  and  Van  Prset,  and  got  ace       at   h 
College  of  France  to  the  valuable  Coptic  manuscripts    hi  h  h  d 
been  taken  from  the  congregation  of  the  Propaganda       R  m 
He  worked  at  a  Coptic  grammar  and  a  dictionary,  whi  h  b    b 
lieved  would  give  a  key  to  the  hien^lyphics,  and  in  iSoSb  m 

parison  with  a  demotic  or  enchorial  papyrus,  he  identified  in  the 
Rosetta  inscription  the  twenty-five  letters  mentioned  by  Plutarch. 
Next  year  C.  became  Professor  of  History  at  the  new  University  of 
Grenoble,  In  lSl4appeared  L'Egypli  sous  les  Pharaons^z  yoi 
the  geographical-descriptive  part  of  a  work  in  which  he  intenc 
to  treat  of  all  Egyptian  civilisation.  After  the  second  Resto 
tioQ  he  added  Geography  to  his  cliair.  In  l8a2  he  read  at  Paris 
the  brilliant  essays  on  the  Demotic  and  the  Hieratic  writing, 
maintaining  that  the  latter  was  a  shorthand  equivalent  of  the 
full  hieroglyphic,  and  Ms  letter  to  M,  Dacier  on  the  phonetic 
hieroglyphics  used  in  the  inscription  on  Egyptian  monuments  of 
the  titles,  the  names,  and  surnames  of  Ihe  Greek  and  Roman 
sovereigns.  In  the  latter  he  claimed  to  have  deciphered  the 
names  Ptolemy,  Alenander,  Berenice,  Arsince,  Cleopatra,  and 
the  word  aiilocrator.  In  1824  appeared  his  chief  work,  PrMs 
du  Syslinis  HUroglyphique,  which  is  accompanied  by  a  volume 
of  plates  and  explanations  of  the  three  elements  into  which  he 
resolved  Fgyptian  writing — the  figurative,  the  ideographic,  and 
the  alphabetic,  C.  afterwards  visited,  and  in  various  forms  wrote 
upon,  the  Drovetti  collection  at  Turin,  the  Salb  collection  at  Leg- 
horn, the  papyri  in  the  Vatican  Libraij,  and  the  royal  collections 


yLaOogle 


CHA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOF^DU. 


CHA 


of  Florence  and  Naples.  In  the  first  he  deciphered  the  royal 
chronological  papyrus ;  in  the  second,  a  basso-relievo  represent- 
uig  the  infancy  of  Sesostris.  On  his  return  to  France  he  became 
keeper  of  the  new  ^yptian  Museum  of  the  Louvie,  in  which  he 
lectured  on  Egyptian  archeology.  This  coui-se  was  afterwards 
transferred  to  the  CoUege  of  France.  Charles  X  sent  C.  with  a 
staff  of  draughtsmen  lo  Egypt  and  Nubia,  the  result  of  which  was 
a  valuable  collection  of  classified  drawmgs  of  the  monuments. 
An  essay  in  1831  on  the  notation  of  time  m  Egypt  was  followed 
by  the  Gramnmirs  EgypUmne,  oit  Prindfts  Ghiiraux  de  I  Ecri- 
tun  Sacrk  EgypHertni,  appliqule  h  la  Repraentatiim  de  la  Langtte 
parUi,  not  published  till  1S3&  He  had  only  finished  the  pro- 
spectus of  a  great  work  on  the  mdustry,  rehgion,  government,  and 
astronomyof  Egypt,  when  death  came,  at  Paris,  4th  March  1S32. 
His  manuscripts  were  thought  of  so  much  importance  that  they 
were  acquired  by  the  state  by  a  special  law ;  most  of  them, 
including  the  Grammairc  E^ptimne,  being  subsequently  pub- 
lished by  his  brother.— Jean- Jaoiliea  OhampoUion-Figeac, 
the  elder  brother  of  the  preceding,  bom  at  Figeac  in  1778,  was 
librarian  and  Professor  of  Greek  at  Grenoble,  and  latterly 
held  the  post  of  librarian  to  Napoleon  III.  He  has  written 
largely  on  French  and  other  antiquities.  We  may  mention  his 
NomiilUs  Rkhirckes  sur  les  Palois  au  Idiomts  Vulgaires  <U  la 
France  (1809) ;  Annales  des  Lagides,  on  ChronoUgie  des  Reis 
Grasd'Egyfite,  Successairs  d' Alexandre  U  Grand  {2  vols.  1819,); 
TraitJ  Hhnemaire  d'ArcMologU  {1843) ;  Traiti  aimmtaire  da 
Chrmolngie  {1843) ;  the  historical  and  descriptive  part  of  Silves- 
tre's  PaliBgrafhie  Univirsdle  (1S39-41) ;  EEgype  Andenns  el 
Mudeme,  1S40  {in  (be  (/Mivers  PilUresgue);  editions  of  inediieval 
charters  and  fragments.— Aime  CJhampollion-Figeac,  son 
of  the  preceding,  has  edited  several  important  historical  works, 
such  as  the  Memoirs  of  Turenne,  Francis  of  Guise,  Omer  Talon, 
and  Cardinal  de  Retz.  He  has  also  written  Le  Cardinal  de 
Relz  aprh  la  Fronde  (1843). 

Chanak-Kttlcssi  ('Pot  Castle'),  or  Kale  Sultanieh,  a 
town  of  Turkey  in  Asia,  vilayet  of  Brassa,  I16  miles  W.  of  Brussa, 
has  a  strong  castle  whiciv  commands  the  Dardanelles.  It  is 
named  from  this  castle  and  from  its  manufacture  of  pottery. 
Pop.  400a 

Olianoe  may  be  fairly  defined  as  a  term  which  we  use  to  de- 
note the  operation  of  cause  of  which  we  are  ignorant.  Thus,  it 
would  be  said  that  the  tides  ebb  and  flow  according  to  law,  but 
tl«it  it  is  an  affair  of  C.  whether  a  given  future  day  be  a  rainy  or 
a  dry  one.  This  simply  means  that  in  the  former  case  we  know 
the  cause,  and  can  calculate  on  its  operation  ;  and  that  in  the 
latter  case  we  do  not  know  the  cause,  and  cannot  calculate  on 
its  operation.  But  rehgion  and  science  unite  in  teachmg  us  that 
every  event  has  a  cause,  although  it  may  lie  beyond  the  scope  of 
human  viaon ;  and,  therefore,  that  the  power  which  regulates  the 
weather  is  just  as  fised  m  its  operation  as  that  which  regulates  the 
tides.  Religion  excludes  the  idea — if  the  idea  be  possible— of 
effect  without  canse,  as  inconsistent  with  belief  in  Divine  govern- 
ment ;  while  science  demonstrates  that,  in  effects  produced  by 
causes  of  which  we  are  ignorant,  there  is,  nevertheless,  a  regu- 
larity of  result  which  proves  the  eslstence  of  cause,  and  not  un- 
frequently  leads  to  the  discoverv  of  it ;  thus,  we  find  that  the 
marriage-rate  in  England  in  the 'lower  classes,  in  a  given  year, 
may  be  almost  absolutely  predicted  from  the  price  of  wheat  dur- 
ing that  year.  '  ITie  marriages  agam,'  says  the  Registrar-General 
(34th  Report),  '  by  a  natural  hiw  determine  the  birth-rate,  whicli 
in  its  turn  becomes  one  of  the  factors  that  in  combmalion  deter, 
mine  the  death-rate  ;  and  tlms  the  sequence  of  events  by  which 
the  life  of  communities  is  sustained  completes  itself.'  When 
there  are  conflicting  forces  bearing  on  the  determination  of  an 
event,  then-  relative  force  expresses  itself  according  to  a  law  called 
the  Law  of  Probability.     See  Probability,  Law  of. 

Chaa'cel  (Lat.  enncelli,  '  railings,  a  lattice '),  the  eastern  divi- 
sion of  a  church,  separated  generally  from  the  pave  by  an  arch 
with  steps,  and  sometimes  screened  off  with  lattice-work,  which 
prevents  mi rusion  by  the  people,  but  does  not  hinder  either  seemg 
or  hearing.  The  rector  or  vicar  has  the  freehold  in  the  C,  and 
it  is  his  duty  to  keep  it  in  repair.  No  monument  can  be  set  up 
in  the  C.  without  the  consent  of  the  ordinary  incumbent. 

Chancellor  (Lat.  caficellariiu)  was  originally  the  notary  or 
secretary  of  the  Roman  emperor,  and  received  his  name  either 
because  he  was  empowered  to  cancel  or  cross  out  expressions  in 


the  imperial  edicts,  or  because  he  sal  with  his  master  intra  can- 
cellos,  within  tlie  latticed  railings  that  prevented  the  emperor 
from  being  crowded  by  the  people  while  administering  justice. 
There  is  an  officer  of  state  bearmg  this  title  in  most  European 
ries ;  but  the  duties  and  powers  of  the  office  vai-y.  For- 
merly there  was  a  C.  of  France,  whose  iunctions  were  almost 
equally  important  with  those  now  exercised  by  tlie  C.  of  Eng- 
land. The  office  was  abolished  at  the  Revolution,  and,  though 
subsequently  revived,  many  of  its  duties  were  transfened  to  the 
Minister  of  Justice,  who  continues  to  discharge  them.  In  tlie 
Church  of  Rome  each  bishop  has  his  C. 

Chancellor,  Litrd.—Toe'i-..  C.  of  England  is  the  highest  tem- 
poral officer  under  the  crown.  He  is  the  confidential  adviser 
of  the  sovereign  in  state  affaire,  and  is  called  the  'keeper  of  the 
king's  conscience.'  He  is  appointed  to  office  by  the  delivery  of 
the  great  seid  into  his  custody.  He  is  a  privy  councillor  ex 
ojido,  and  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Lords  by  prescription.  He 
has  the  appointment  of  all  tlia  justices  of  the  peace  throughout 
the  kingdom.  In  England  he  is  the  guardian  of  all  infants,  idiots, 
and  lunatics,  and  has  the  general  superintendence  of  all  charit- 
able institutions.  In  his  judicial  capacity  he  exercises  the  very 
extensive  jurisdiction  of  the  division  of  the  supreme  Court  of 
Chancery,  (See  Chancery,  Court  OF.)  All  patents,  commis- 
sions, warrants,  &c.,  from  the  crown  are  examined  by  the  C.  before 
being  signed.  The  salary  of  the  ofSoe  is  ;£io,ooo  a  year,  with 
an  annuity  of  ;£sooo  on  retirement.  For  many  centuries  the 
chancellors,  hke  most  state  functionaries,  were  ecclesiastics,  and 
an  office  so  confidential  could  not  fail  to  grow  in  importance, 
so  that  the  king's  clerk  gradually  enlarged  his  powers,  and  from 
chief  scribe  and  reader  became  the  confidential  adviser  of  his 
sovereign.  From  having  merely  to  affix  the  king's  seal  to  judi- 
cial wrfts  or  mandates,  he  became  a  powerful  judge,  sitting  in 
the  Aulior  Regia  as  its  chief  legal  director,  or  in  the  marble  chair 
of  Westminster  Hall,  with  a  great  marble  table  before  him, 
covered  with  the  writs  and  charters  waitmg  to  be  sealed  in  his 
presence  witli  the  great  seal  of  England. 

Chancellor  of  a  Cathedral  is  an  officer  who  superintends 
arrangements  for  the  celebration  of  religious  service. 

Chancellor  of  a  Diocese  is  an  officer  who  advises  the  bishop  in 
questions  of  civil  law.  He  must  at  least  have  the  university  de- 
gree of  Master  of  Arts.  He  may  hear  ceiiain  cases  on  behalf  of 
the  bisliop,  hut  in  some  cases  the  bishop  must  sit  in  person. 

Chancellor  of  an  University  is  usually  the  highest  officer  con- 
nected with  an  taiiveraty.     See  University. 

Chancelloi-  of  Scotland.— lUi  office  was  abolished  at  the  union 
with  England  in  1707.  The  C.  of  S.  was  an  officer  of  very 
great  importance.  He  presided  in  the  Scotch  Parliament  and 
in  all  courts  <£  judicature,  and  had  direction  of  the  Chancery. 
{See  Chancery  or  Chancellary.)  He  had  the  custody  of  the 
Great  Seal  (q.  v.),  and  was  chief  counsellor  to  the  king,  taking 
precedence  of  all  others  ratiane  offictL  On  the  abolition  of  the 
office,  a  keeper  of  the  great  seal  was  appointed,  who  acts  minis- 
terially in  affixing  the  seal  to  the  writs  passing  under  it.  The 
last  C.  of  S.  was  the  Earl  of  Seafield,  who  held  the  office  at  the 
Union.  The  first  was  Constantine,  Earl  of  Fife,  in  .the  reign  of 
Alexander  I. 

Chancellor  of  the  Exchtquer.     See  Exchequer. 
Chance  Medley,  and  Chand  IU:edle<^  or  Mell^,  are  legal 
expressions  borrowed  from  the  French.      The  former  means  a 
casual  affray,  the  latter  an  affia^  in  passion.    They  are  admitted 
as  pleas  in  mitigation  of  the  ofience  of  Homicide  (q.  v.). 

Ohan'eery.  In  former  times  the  office  or  chamber  in  which 
the  Chancellor  (q.  v.)  performed  his  functions  was  called  tiie  C. 
It  was  generally  divided  by  lattice-work  (eancelli),  the  outer 
half  for  (he  accommodation  of  the  people,  the  inner  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  the  Chancellor  and  subordinate  officers. 

Chancery  or  Chancellary  cf  Scotland  is  an  office  in  the 
General  Register  House  of  Edinburgh,  managed  by  the  Director 
of  C.  and  Ms  deputies.  In  it  are  recorded  charters,  patents  of 
dignities,  gifls  of  office,  remissions,  legitimations  appointed  to 
pass  the  great  or  the  qtiarter  seal.  All  writs  passing  through  C. 
are  recorded  before  they  are  given  out  to  be  sealed. 

Chancery,  Court  ofhm  England  the  division  of  the  Supreme 
Court  next  to  the  House  of  Lords  m  jurisdiction.  This  is  either 
ordinary  or  extraordinary:  in  the  first,  procedure  is  according 
to  common  law;  in  the  last,  it  may  by  equity  abate  the  rigour  of 
the  common  law,  and  afford  a  remedy  to  which  common  law  is 


CHA 


TBE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CHA 


inadequate  i  but  when  lliat  is  adequate,  tlie  C.  of  C.  will  not  in- 
terfere. It  will  not  entertain  a  suit  for  any  amount  under  .^lO, 
CKCept  in  case  of  eliarity.  Several  modem  slatutes  have  lieen 
passed  affecting  the  C.  of  C,  but  the  general  orders  still  chiefly 
guide  its  practice.  These  were  consolidated  in  i860,  and  the 
regulations  as  to  fees  and  charges  condensed  and  arranged  in 
one  volume  under  the  auspices  of  Lord  Chelmsford.  Alterations 
and  additions  have  since  been  made,  especiallj'  by  the  Supreme 
Courts  of  Tndic9.ture  Acts  of  1873  and  1875.  The  Lord  Chan- 
cellor is  the  highest  judicial  officer  in  the  kingdom.  He  is  e 
Erivy  councillor  by  his  office,  and  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Lords 
y  prescription.  Assistant  to  and  subordinate  to  the  Lord  Chan- 
cellor are  the  Master  of  the  Rolls  and  tliree  Vice- Chancellors. 
Each  of  the  judges  presides  oyer  a  separate  tribunal,  and  any 
cause  or  motion  may  be  brought  before  them,  except  such  as 
relate  to  lunatics,  which  are  always  heard  by  the  Lord  Chan 
celior.  Those  interested  in  questions  cognisable  by  the  C.  of  C 
are  now  empowered  to  slate  special  cases  for  the  opinion  of  the 
court,  by  which  means  the  expense  and  delay  of  a  lawsuit  may 
be  prevented. 

Ohandairee',  a  town  in  tlie  stale  of  GwaKor,  Central  Indi 
100  miles  N.  of  Bhopal,  near  the  river  Betwa,  has  a  strong  fort 


merly  a  place  of  importan 
under  Mahrafta  rule,  and  v 
the  treaty  of  1844.     Pop.  S 

Ohandemagore',  a  town  and  petty  territory  (2330  aciec}, 
belonging  to  France,  within  the  province  of  Bengal,  and  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Hoogly,  The  town  is  21  miles  N.  of  Calcutta  by 
railway,  and  has  a  pop.  of  some  30,000,  who  are  mamly  natives 
Its  trade,  wliich  was  at  one  time  little  inferior  to  that  of  Calcutta, 
has  been  greatly  injured  by  the  silting  up  of  the  river.  Founded 
by  the  French  in  1676,  C,  was  caplored  by  Clive  in  1757,  but 
restored  in  1763  ;  again  taken  by  the  British  in  1793,  and  once 
more  restored  in  1S16. 

Cliandler,  Dr  Biohard,  a  learned  English  antiquary,  bom 
in  Hampshire  in  1738,  and  educated  at  Magdalen  CoU^e, 
Oxford,  first  distinguished  himself  by  the  publication  in  1763 
of  Marmora  Qxonimsia.  Neit  year  he  was  sent  by  the  Dilet- 
tanti Society  to  make  observations  in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor, 
the  result  of  which  appeared  in  his  Ionian  Aniiquities  (1769). 
In  1773  he  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Worldham  in  Hamp- 
shire, and  afterwards  to  that  of  Tileliuist  in  Berks.  In  1774  he 
published  Insa-i^tUmis  Antiqus  pUraqw  nondum  edita,  in  Asia 
Matori  el  Grieaa  praserlm  Athenis  colUaa,  and  in  1775-76 
his  Travels  in  these  countries.  HisZj;^  of  William  ofWayn- 
Jlcte  was  not  published  till  after  his  death,  which  took  place  at 
Ulehurst,  9th  February  i8ia 

Ohandore',  a  town  in  the  district  of  Ahmednuggar,  province 
of  Bombay,  British  India,  150  miles  N.E,  of  Bombay.  It  is  de- 
fended by  a  strong  hill-fort,  and  has  some  slight  trade.  Pop, 
about  8000.  It  oriHliially  belonged  to  Holkar,  but  capitulated 
to  the  British  in  1804,  was  temporarily  restored,  and  finally 
ceded  to  Britain  in  l8l8. 

Oband'os  Clause  is  the  name  given,  from  its  being  origi- 
nally proposed  in  1831  by  the  Marquis  of  Chandos,  afterwards 
Duke  of  Buckmgham,  to  a  clause  in  the  Reform  Act  of  1832, 
which  gave  the  county  franchise  to  tenants  at-will  paying  a  rent 
of  ;£5o  a  year.  Although  strongly  opposed  on  the  ground  that 
it  wotildplacecountyelectionsat  the  mercy  of  landowners,  it  was 
ultimately  carried  by  372  to  32  voles.  Under  the  latest  Reform 
Act,  that  of  1867,  occupants  of  lands  of  a  rateable  value  of  £\2 
a,  year  are  entitled  to  the  county  fi-anchise. 

Ohattcl]pore,  a  town  in  the  district  of  Bijnour,  N.W.  Pro- 
vince, British  India,  So  miles  N.E.  of  Delhi,  in  a  hilly  country. 
Pop.  (1872)  ir,2S6. 

Ohangar'nier,  Kioolas  Anne  Tii6odule,  a  French  gene- 
ral, was  bom  at  Autnn,  April  26,  1793.  Entering  the  army,  he 
distinguished  liimself  so  much  in  Algeria,  that,  in  1848,  he  took 
Cavdgnac's  place  as  Governor- General.  He  subsequently  com- 
manded the  garrisons  and  National  Guard  of  Paris  durmg  the 
revolutionary  excesses  of  1S4S  and  1849,  and  suppressed  the 
insurrectionary  movements  of  the  time.  He  was,  however, 
opposed  to  the  ambitious  schemes  of  Prince  Louis  Napoleon, 
and  was  in  consequence  imprisoned  after  the  ira:t/i  d'ilat  ai  De- 
94 


eember  2,  1851,  Under  the  Third  Empire  he  lived  m  exile  till 
the  Franco- German  war  of  1870,  when  he  fottght  for  his  country, 
and  was  imprisoned  with  Marshal  Bazaine  in  Metz.  After  peace 
was  made  he  returned  to  France,  aided  in  the  reoi^anisation  of 
the  French  army,  and  was  elected  a  senator  in  the  new  French 
Assembly  of  1876,  created  by  the  republican  constitution  of  the 
previous  year. 

Ohftngeling,  a  term  applied,  during  the  belief  in  elves  and 
fairies,  to  a  weakly  child,  peevish,  and  backward  in  walking  and 
speaking,  which  was  supposed  to  be  an  elf  substituted  by  feiries 
for  the  fine  infant  that  bad  been  bom.  According  to  this  bdief, 
the  substitution  could  only  take  place  before  the  child  was  chris- 
tened, and  hence  it  was  carefully  watched  till  that  rite  was  per- 
formed ^ 

Ghan'gi,  the  juice  of  Ceriaria  thymifolia,  of  a  reddish  colour, 
but  nhich  m  a  few  hoars  after  exposure  turns  black.  In  S. 
America  during  the  Spanish  r/gime,  state  documents  were 
written  n  ith  it.  It  is  said  that  it  does  not  corrode  steel  pens,  and 
that  the  writing  made  with  it  is  more  indelible  than  that  with 
trdmaiy  artificially-made  ink. 

Ohannel,  EngliBh.     See  English  Channel. 

CJhanael  lalanda,  a  well-known  group  in  the  English  Chan- 
ni,l  of  vliicli  the  principal  members  are  Jersey,  Guernsey  Al- 
demcy,  ard  baric,  described  under  their  respective  names.  They 
■St,  and  some  10  miles  W. 


1  it  of  the  Dukedom  of  Normandy.  See  Professor  An- 
sted  and  R.  G.  Latham,  The  C.  I.  (1862), 

Chann'ing,  'William  Ellery,  was  born  at  Newport,  Rhode 
Island,  U.S.,  April  7,  1780.  His  father  was  an  extensive  mer- 
chant. Me  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1798,  and  after  actmg 
as  a  private  tutor  in  Virginia,  became  minister  of  a  Congregational 
church  in  Boston.  At  first  he  was  allied  with  no  theological 
parly,  though  afterwards  he  became  a  zealous  Unitarian,  C.  wai 
a  very  popular  preacher,  and  gained  wide  reputation  by  his  ser 
mons,  which  were  published  in  1812.  He  was  ninde  D.D.  ii 
1820,  and  in  1S22  visited  England  and  the  Continent.  During 
his  later  years  he  devoted  himself  to  criticism  and  discussion  of 
social  .questions,  proving  himself  an  earnest  advocate  of  social 
reforms  and  negro  emancipation.  He  died  at  Bennington,  Ver- 
mont, October  2,  1842.  He  was  sincere,  pious,  and  pure-spirited, 
Coleridge  said  he  had  '  the  love  of  wisdom  and  the  wiaiom  of 
love.'  His  Unitarianism  was  deeply  coloured  by  scriptural 
sentiment.  It  was  quite  distinct  from  the  RationaKsm  of  Parker, 
and  had  not  even  much  in  common  with  the  system  of  Priestley. 
C.  's  works— of  which  the  chief  are  Essay  on  National  LUiraturi 
(1823),  Remarks  on  the  Character  and  Writitigs  of  John  Milton 
{1S26),  Character  and  Writmts  of  Fhtilon  (1829),  Nrgre  Slavery 
(1835),  Self -Culture  [.Y?,^^) — thongh  seldom  profound  or  moving, 
are  marked  by  earnestness  of  lone,  judiciousness,  and  elegance 
of  style.  See  Memoir  of  C,  by  his  nephew,  W.  H.  Channing 
(3  vols,  r2mo,  Bost.  1S48 ;  2  vols.  Lond.  iSjo). 

Chantiiry,  a  town  in  the  department  Oise,  France,  on  the 
Nonette,  23  miles  N.N.E.  of  Paris  by  railway.  It  has  a  famous 
racecourse,  and  is  noted  for  its  industry  in  black  kce.  Pop, 
(1872)  3335,  Anne  de  Montmorency  built  here  a  splendid 
chateau,  where  the  great  Conde  spent  the  decline  of  his  life,"  in 
the  occasional  society  of  Boileau,  Bossuet,  Racine,  and  Moliere, 
The  building  was  partly  destroyed  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1793.     It  is  surrounded  by  a  finely  wooded  park  0^6700 

Cban'trey,  Sir  Pranois,  an  eminent  English  sculptor,  bom 
at  Jordanthorpe,  Derbyshire,  7th  April  1 781,  was  the  son  of  a 
carpenter,  and  at  the  age  of  sixteen  was  apprenticed  to  a  carver 
and  gilder.  He  early  showed  a  distinctive  ability  in  drawing 
and  modelling,  went  to  London  in  the  beginning  of  the  century, 
conunenced  to  study  at  the  Koyal  Academy  (of  which  he  liecame 
a  member  in  181S),  and  exhibited  a  bust  in  1805  which  won  the 
high  approbation  of  Nollekens.  He  established  his  fame  by 
his  colo^al  busts  of  Howe,  St  Vincent,  Duncan,  and  Nelson,  for 
Trinity  House  and  (ireenwich  Hospital.  He  modelled  an  im- 
mense number  of  busts,  including  those  of  most  of  the  celebri- 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


%  of  his  time,  and  among  his  best-known  statues  are  those  of 
Geoi^  IV.  inEdinbui^h,  Brighton,  and  London,  and  tlie  Duke 
of  Wellington  in  front  of  the  Eoyal  Exchange,  London.  His 
conceplions  were  seldom  ideal— never  poetic.  Truth,  expres- 
sion full  of  character,  and  conventional  but  always  graceful 
diapeiy  are  the  characteristics  of  hia  busts.  He  was  hnighted 
in  1837,  and  died  25th  November  1841,  leaving  a  fortune  of 
£ioo,oao,  to  be  retained  for  the  nse  of  Lady  C  during  her  life- 
time, and  after  that  event  to  be  remitted  to  the  Council  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  who  were  empowered  to  use  the  interest  of  that 
sum — less  9  few  small  annuities— 'for  the  promotion  of  British 
art'  Lady  C.  died  3d  Januaty  1875,  and  the  interest  of  C.'s 
fortune,  amounting  to  about  ^3000  &  year,  is  now  received  by 
the  Royal  Academy,  to  be  expended,  according  to  the  wish  of  the 
testator,  in  the  purchase  of  the  best  works  in  sculpture  or  paint- 
ing executed  in  Great  Britain.  See  HolJand's  Memorials  cf  Sir 
J'raniis  C.  {iMod.  18^1),  and  Jones's  £^oiiKlio/ii  a/ iAe  Lift  of  C. 
(Lond.  1849). 

Chan'try  (Fr.  chatUerii,  from  chantet,  '  to  sing '),  a  term 
applied  both  to  the  office  or  benefice  which  provided  for  the 
chanting  of  masses  tor  the  soula  of  the  founder  and  his  friends, 
and  also  to  the  little  chapel  in  or  attached  to  the  cathedral  or 
parish  church  in  wbidi  the  masses  were  performed.  The  tomb 
of  the  donor  was  generally  erected  in  the  middle  of  a  C,  and 
the  endowments  were  either  in  lands  or  revenues.  The  emolu- 
ments derived  from  the  office  of  chanting-priest  in  these  little 
chapels  were  eagerly  sought  after,  as  may  be  inferred  from 
Chaucer's  beautiful  sketch  of  the  '  Pore  Persoun,'  in  the  prologue 
to  the  Can/eriiiry  Tales  .■— 

And  ran  to  Londone,  unto  seynte  Ponies, 
To  Msken  him  a  chaunKtie  lor  joulee.' 
Chanteries  were  dissolved  by  Henry  VIII.,  and  his  decree  was 
confirmed  by  Act  of  Parliament,  I  Edward  VI.  c.  14. 

Olia'os  (from  a  Gr.  verb  signifying  to  yawn  or  gape),  that, 
vacant  immeasurable  space  antecedent  to  the  creation  of  the 
world,  out  of  which,  according  to  the  ancient  cosmogonies,  gods, 
men,  and  all  things  sprang.  Hesiod  makes  C.  the  mother  of 
Erebus  and  Nox.  It  is  generally  conceived  of  aa  implying  con- 
fusion and  disorder,  and  as  the  opposite  of  kesmos. 

Gliaos  Islands,  a  small  group  of  islets  at  the  mouth  of  Algoa 
Bay,  S.  coast  of  Africa,  35  miles  E.  of  Port  Elizabeth. 

Oliap'books,  so  called  because  sold  by  the  Chapman  (q.  v.), 
a  homely  hind  of  literature,  once  extremely  popular,  and  form- 
ing almost  the  sole  reading  of  the  humbler  classes,  especially  in 
the  rural  districts.  Th^  are  now  very  scarce,  and  are  eagerly 
sought  after  by  the  bibliomaniac.  The  volumes  of  the  more 
recent  C.  generally  consisted  each  of  a  twenty-four  page  single 
sheet,  price  one  penny,  and  were  illustrated  by  one  or  more 
execrable  woodcuts.  Most  of  them  were  what  would  now 
be  deemed  offensively  coarse,  and  even  gross  ;  but  allowance 
must  be  made  for  the  altered  condition  of  society,  and  for  the 
change  in  the  public  taste.  Consequently  sach  of  them  as  are 
still  republished  are  excised  and  expurgated  till  their  character 
and  spirit  have  evaporated.  The  older  C.  were  printed  in  black- 
letter,  and  their  contents  were  of  a  miscellaneous  character,  con- 
sisting of  songs,  ballads,  wonderful  tales,  dream-books,  &c. 
Some  account  of  them  may  be  found  m  Notices  of  Fugitive 
TYaeii  and  C,  and  in  Descriptixie  Notices  of  Popular  English 
Histories,  by  J.  O.  Halliwell.  A  similar  service  was  rendered 
to  French  literature  of  this  class  in  1854  by  M.  Charles  Niiard 
in  his  Ifisloire  de  la  IMtSrature  du  Coliortag!,  and  Mr  John 
Fraser  has  partially  carried  out  a  design  loi^  contemplated  by 
the  late  William  Motherwell,  1^  publishing  at  New  York  in 
1873  two  parts  of  The  TTumorous  C.  of  Scotland,  in  which 
some  account  is  given  of  the  more  popular  brochures,  and  of 
Dugald  Graham,  bellman  or  town-crier  of  Glasgow,  who  wrote, 
either  in  whole  or  in  part,  many  of  the  best  of  these.  His 
Nisloty  of  the  Rebdlien  of  I'j^'i,  first  published  as  a  chapbook, 
was  an  especial  favourite  with  Sir  Walter  Scott, 

Chapala  Lake,  the  largest  Mexican  lake,  lies  on  the  table- 
land of  Anahuac,  in  the  province  of  Michoacan,  has  an  area  of 
about  1300  sq.  miles,  and  is  studded  with  numerous  islands.  It 
empties  into  the  Pacific  by  the  Rio  Grande  or  Rio  Santiago,  of 
which  it  is  only  an  expansion. 


Chapel  (Fr.  chafdk.  Low  Lat.  capdla ;  originally  the  place 
in  which  was  preserved  the  cappa  or  cope  of  St  Martin,  but  after 
the  7th  c.  appfied  to  any  sanctuary  containing  any  relics),  came  to 
signify  a  separate  erection  attached  to  a  church  or  cathedral,  a 


to  a'  place  of  worship  built  apart  from  theparish  church,  such  a;, 
chapels  of  ease  or  dissenting  chapels.  Ihe  word  also  denotes 
the  ecclesiastical  staff  of  a  sovereign,  (he  divine  office  when  re- 
cited by  the  Pope  with  the  clergy  of  his  household,  and  the 
working  staff  of  a  printing-oflice,  the  last  meaning  being  a  relic 
of  the  first  printing-office  in  England,  which  was  set  up  by 
Caiton  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Cliapelle,  the  name  of  sis  small  towns  of  France,  of  which 
the  principal  are— i.  O. -Bur-Erdre,  in  the  department  Loire- 
Inf^rieure,  with  well-known  mineral  springs,  and  a  pep.  (1872) 
of  2610. — 2.  G.-de-Quinohay,  department  of  Sa6ne-et- Loire, 
has  a  trade  in  wine,  timber,  and  cattle.  Pop.  2r3a — 3.  Iia-C- 
la-Reine,  in  the  department  Seine- et-Marne,  37  miles  S.E.  of 
Paris,  near  Fonlainebleau,  has  a  church  of  the  15th  c,  and  a 
pop.  {1872)  of  757. 

Ohapelle  de  Fer.     See  Helmet. 

Chap'erOn  (Fr.  chaperon,  'a  hood,' a  dim.  ni chape,  from  Lat. 
caput,  'the  head'),  a  cap  worn  by  Knights  of  the  Garter,  by  doc- 
tors, and  by  licentiates  of  colleges.  The  terra  C  is  also  applied 
to  the  guide  or  protector  of  a  lady  at  public  places,  and  to  orna- 
mental devices  placed  on  the  heads  of  horses  at  funerals. 

Chaplain  (Fr.  chapdain,  fi-om  chapelle),  an  ecclesiastic  who 
performs  divine  service  in  a  chapel,  as  at  court,  in  the  house- 
hold of  a  noble,  in  a  jail,  a  lunatic  asylum,  Ihe  army,  or  the 
navy.  There  are  forty-eight  court  cliaplains  in  England,  four 
of  whom  are  in  attendance  each  month.  In  Scotland  there 
are  six  clergymen  called  Deans  of  the  Clmpel  Royal ;  but  their 
only  ofScial  duty  is  fo  offer  up  prayer  at  the  election  of  repre- 
sentative peers  for  Scotland.  A  statute  of  Henry  VIII.  regu- 
lates the  number  of  chaplains  allowed  to  difierent  grades  of 
the  nobility — eight  to  an  archbishop,  six  to  a  duke,  three  to  a 
baron.  The  name  C.  is  sometimes  given  to  members  of  cathe- 
dral and  coll^ate  churches,  especially  to  the  non-capitular 
assistants  of  the  canons.  The  office  of  army-  C.  used  to  be  filled 
only  by  clei^ymen  of  the  Church  of  England,  but  now  Roman 
Catholics  and  Presbyterians  have  clergymen  of  their  own  per- 
suasion ^pointed  by  Government  to  attend  to  their  spiritual 
wants.  The  arnw-C.  belongs  not  to  a  regiment,  but  to  a  brigade, 
or  other  group  of  regiments.  He  is  attached  to  a  military  station 
at  home,  in  the  fiela  to  headquarters,  the  hospitals,  or  is  with  his 
brigade.  The  C-Gentral  is  the  head  of  all  the  chaplains  in  the 
army.  His  office  is  a  department  of  the  War-OfSce,  lie  assists  in 
selecting  chaplains,  and  in  regulating  religious  matters  in  the 
army.  There  are  at  present  about  eighty  army-chaplains,  besides 
assistant- clergymen  and  chapel-clerks.  The  navy-C.  performs 
divine  service  on  shipboard,  visits  the  sailors  when  they  are  sick, 
and  attends  generally  to  the  morals  of  the  crew.  Eveiy  ship  in 
commission  down  to  fifth-rates  has  a  C.  Tlie  superior  officers 
are  instructed  to  be  observant  of  the  conduct  of  both  army  and 
navy  chaplains,  and  also  to  see  that  the  men  pay  them  all  the 
respect  that  is  due  to  tlieir  sacred  office, 

Cliaplet  (Fr.  chafelet,  a  dim.  of  chafe),  a  headband  or  gar- 
land of  entwined  leaves  and  flowers.  Tiie  C,  in  heraldry,  is 
generally  composed  of  four  roses  and  leaves.  A  C.  of  rue  is  bla- 
zoned bendwise  on  the  shield  of  Saxony. 

Chap'man  (Old  Eng.  ceapnum;  comp,  Ger.  Kauffman),  the 
cheapening,  bargaining  man,  or  trader,  applied  originally  to 
every  kind  of  merchant,  whether  buyer  or  seller,  but  now  re- 
stricted to  itinerant  defJers  in  smallwares,  broadsides,  single- 
.•iheet  literature,  Slc.  The  C.  used  to  be  a  prominent  figure  at 
Scottish  fairs,  the  conclusion  of  which  was  marked  by  his  dis- 


appearing 


from  the  sc 

'  Whan  chaflHa 


CJhapman,  George,  was  bom  in  1557  or  1559.  near  Hitchin 
in  Hertfoi-dshire,  and  studied  at  Oxford  and  perhaps  at  Cam- 
tjridge.  Almost  nothing  is  known  of  hia  life.  He  died  in  1634. 
He  was  a  prolific  dramatist  and  translator.     His  comedies.  The 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CHA 


Blind  Beggar  of  AUxandria,  A  Mumcrou!  Di^s  Mirth,  All  Fools, 
Momiiurd' Olive,  The  Gmikman-  Usher,  May-Day,  The  Widows 
Tears,  display  genuine  comic  invention,  and  resemble  Jonson's 
plays  in  tlie  exhibition  of  'liumouvs,'  tlie  frequent  practical 
jokes,  and  the  general  absence  of  romantic  sentiments.  His 
tragedies.  Bossy  d'Ambois,  Reaenge  of  Btissy  d'Amhoh,  Biron's 
Conspiracy,  Biron's  Tragedy,  C/csar  and  Pemfey,  Alphonsus, 
Ckabot,  Revenge  for  Honour,  notwithstanding  occasional  tur- 
gidity  and  pedantic  quaintness,  contain  much  genuiue  pasdon  and 
lofty  eloquence.  Eastward  Hoe,  a  comedy  which  he  wrote 
along  with  Jonson  and  Marston,  is  a  brilliant  and  entertaining 
re  of  old  London  life.  C  is  best  known  for  his  translation  of 
er(  1598-1615)-  Itisfnllot  fire  and  enei^,  and  its  fourteen- 
syllable  verse  has  a  grand,  sonorous  roll,  but  it  loses  the  Homeric 
simplicity  and  grace  through  its  prevailhig  Elizabethan  manner- 
isms. Among  C.'s  other  works  are  translations  of  Hisiad's 
Georgia  and  the  so-called  Homerie  Hymns,  a  continuation  of 
Marlowe's  Hero  and  Leander,  and  7'he  Shadow  of  Mght  s.nd 
Ovid's  Banquet  of  Sense — poems  marked  by  extreme  descriptive 
minuteness.  The  best  edition  of  C.  is  in  3  vols.  (Chitto  & 
Windos},  with  an  elaborate  introduction  by  Swinburne.  See 
also  Ward's  E?tglish  Dramatic  Literature,  vol  iL  (Lond.  1875). 
Chapped  Hands  are  generally  caused  by  imperfect  drying 
sfter  being  Bashed,  by  the  use  of  some  irritating  substance,  or 
by  cold.  The  treatment  consists  in  avoiding  the  cause,  using 
glycerine  soap  and  zinc  or  borax  ointment. 
Chap'ter.  See  Dean,  Dean  and  Chafter. 
Chapter  (Fr.  chapitre,  old  Fr.  chapUle,  from  Lat.  capitulum, 
adim.  oi  caput,  'the  head'),  the  society  of  canons  and  prebend- 
aries in  a  cathedral,  of  which  the  dean  is  the  head,  and  which 
forms  the  conncil  of  the  bishop.  Prior  to  the  lime  of  Henry 
VIII.,  the  election  of  a  bishop  rested  with  this  body  ;  but  now 
its  power  is  merely  nominal  in  England. 

Chapter-House,  the  apartment  attached  to  a  cathedral  or 
collegiate  church  in  which  the  heads  of  the  Chapter  (q.  v.)  meet 
to  transact  business,  (See  Cathedral.)  The  C.-H.  is  fre- 
quently adorned  with  elaborate  architecture,  as,  for  example,  at 
York,  Wells,  Salisbury  and  Lincoln  ;  it  is  of  various  forms,  but 
is  pretty  frequently  polygonal,  with  a  central  shaft  supporting 
the  roof.  It  used  often  to  be  employed  as  a  burying-place ;  those 
at  Westminster  and  Wells  have  crypts  under  them. 

Chara'oese,  a  small  natural  order  of  Cryptogamous  plants, 
Billed  to  the  Alga  (q.  v.),  consisting  of  two  or  three  genera,  all  the 
species  being  aquatic,  and  found  m  almost  all  paits  of  the  world, 
but  chiefly  in  temperate  countries.  In  the  cells  the  phenomenon 
called  Gyration  (q.  v. )  is  seen.  NiiiUa  and  Chora  are  the  two 
best-established  genera.  Many  of  the  species  have  their  stems 
encrusted  with  cnlt^reous  particles.  There  are  a  number  of 
species  found  fossil  in  the  later  Tertiary  beds. 
Charaoin'idEB.     See  SalmonidA. 

Char'aoter,  from  the  Gr.  charahler,  primarily  denoted  an 
inslTument  for  markmg,  then  the  mark  itself,  and  lastly  the  dis- 
tinctive nature  of  any  object  by  which  it  is  separated  from  all 
others.  It  may  be  physliil  or  moral,  in  either  case  being  pro- 
duced by  appropriate  agencies,  and  of  both  classes  there  are 
three  species,  essential,  accidental,  and  relative.  In  the  fine  arts, 
the  C.  unparted  to  the  work  by  the  idiosyncrasy  of  the  artist  may 
be  called  its  subfecHve  C. ,  and  that  which  suits  it  for  the  end  con- 
templated, its  objective  C. 

Character,  to  servant.— A  master  (or  mistress)  is  not  bound 
either  by  English  or  Scotch  law  to  give  a  servant  a  C.  ;  but 
if  he  do  give  a  C.  it  must  be  given  without  malice,  otherwise  the 
servant  will  have  ground  for  an  action  for  damage.  On  the 
other  hand,  wilfully  giving  a  false  C.  m  favour  of 


render  the  giver  liable  in  damage  to  any  one  injured  by  the 
deception.  A  small  act  of  dishonesty  will  not  warrant  a  master 
or  mistress  in  branding  a  servant  as  a  thief.  Terms  denoting 
criminality  should  be  avoided ;  and  if  a  criminal  act  is  chained 
against  the  servant,  care  must  be  taken  that  proof  can  be  given. 
When  a  servant  merits  a  decidedly  bad  C,  perhaps  the  safest 
and  most  effective  course  is  to  reliise  to  give  any,  A  servant 
producmg  a  forged  certificate,  or  altering  a  certificate  of  Ci,  is 
liable  by  statute  to  a  fine  of£zo. 

Charade'  (a  word  of  Provencal  origin,  passed  into  standard 
French  as  late  as  ihe  l8th  c.)  denotes  a  species  of  riddle  or  syl- 


laHe-pazde—silioirdthsel,  as  the  Germans  call  it— in  which  a 
word  consisting  of  several  syllables  is  indicated,  first  by  an  enig- 
matical description  of  each  separate  syllable,  and  then  by  a  simi- 
lar description  of  the  whole  word.  The  puzzle  for  the  reader  or 
hearer  is  to  solve  the  riddle  by  telling  the  word  so  described. 
Wit  and  point  are  always  aimed  at  in  a  good  C. ,  like  the  French 
one  OD  ehiendeni,  'dog's  grass,' which  is:  '  My  first  makes  use  of 
my  second  to  eat  up  my  whole. '  Instead  of  being  spelt,  the  C. 
is  sometimes  acted,  and  this  has  given  rise  to  the  acting  C.,  in 
which  a  scene  representing  each  syllable  is  enacted  by  several 
members  of  a  company,  and  during  it  the  syllable  is  used  as  a 
word;  so  with  the  syllables  put  together,  when  a  scene  repre- 
senting the  whole  word  is  gone  through,  and  the  word  itself  is 
audibly  pronounced.  The  persons  who  take  part  in  an  acting  C. 
must  not  be  too  self-conscious,  must  have  some  little  power  of 
mimicry,  and  a  ready  flow  of  tallt. 

Oharadri'adse,  a  family  of  GrallatoHal  or  wading-birds,  in- 
cluding several  sub-famiUes,  of  which  the  best  known  is  that  of 
the  Charadrina,  at  true  plovers  and  lapwings.  The  members 
of  this  family  possess  a  straight,  short  bill,  the  apex  of  which 
may  be  strong  and  arched.  The  nostrils  are  placed  in  a  groove 
running  along  the  sides  of  the  bill.  The  legs  are  long  and 
slender,  the  toes  being  small,  whilst  the  front  toes  are  united  at 
the  base  by  a  membrane.  The  hinder  toe  is  small,  rudimen- 
tary, and  raised  off  the  ground.  The  oyster-catchers,  turnstones, 
pratincoles,  coursers,  S;c,  are  also  included  in  this  family. 

Ghar'bon  Koux,  the  French  designation  of  imperfectly 
clian-ed  wood  of  a  deep-brown  or  russet  colour — the  brown  char- 
coal of  English  metalluipsls— which  is  well  adapted  for  the  manu- 
facture of  gunpowder  for  sporting  puiposes.  It  is  prepared  by 
forcing  hot  gases  into  a  closed  chamber  containing  piled  billets  of 
wood.  Violette  gives  the  percentage  composition  of  a  yellowish 
red  variety  {trSs-rciix)  as  follows :— Carbon,  70-45 ;  hydi'ogen, 
464;  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  24 -06;  ash,  0'&$. 

Char'coal.  The  fixed  residue  of  the  decomposition  by  heat 
of  vegetable  and  animal  products,  rich  in  carbon.      See  Cak- 

BOM,  Wood  C„  Bone  Black,  Lakf  Black,  Charbon 
Houx,  &c. 

Charcoal,  in  medicine.     See  Cakbon,  in  medicine. 

Chards,  the  late  summer- blanched  leaves  of  the  artichoke. 

Charente',  a  western  department  of  France,  part  of  the  old 
province  of  Angoumois,  has  an  area  of  2200  sq.  miles,  and  a 
pop.  (1S73)  of  367,520.  It  mainly  consists  of  the  basm  of  the 
river  C,  which  is  confined  by  a  low  range  of  hills  in  the  S. 
and  by  a  continiw.tion  of  the  mountains  of  Aavergne  in  the  N.E 
Beyond  the  former  of  these  ranges  C.  is  watered  by  the  Droime, 
an  affluent  of  the  Dordogne,  and  to  the  W.  of  the  latter  by  the 
Vienne,  a  tributary  of  the  Loire.  It  has  a  mild  and  equable 
climate.  The  surface  is  in  great  part  chalky,  and  the  principal 
minerals  are  granite,  icon,  antimony,  and  limestone.  In  various 
parts  occur  vast  chestnut  forests,  while  the  district  of  Champagne 
IE  famed  for  the  production  of  the  red  wines  Saint-Satumm  and 
AsnUres.  The  arrondissement  of  Cognac  gives  name  to  a  w 
known  brandy.  Among  the  chief  occupations  are  the  cultivation 
of  cereals,  and  the  rearing  of  cattle  for  the  Paris  roaikets.  There 
afe  extensive  distilleries,  iron-foundries,  paper  and  cloth  facto- 
ries, tanneries,  and  potteiies.  C.  is  traversed  by  the  Paris  and 
Botdeaux  Railwyr,  Angoul&ne  is  the  capital,  and  among  the 
other  towns  are  Cognac,  Barbezieux,  and  Confolens. 

The  Hver  C.  rises  m  Haute-Vienne,  enters  the  department  ii 
the  E.,  and  after  a  sinnous  course,  flows  W.  through  C-In- 
ftrieure,  and  falls  into  the  Atlantic  It  is  about  200  miles  long, 
has  numerous  affluents,  several  of  which  are  liable  to  inunda- 
tions, and  is  navigable  to  within  a  few  miles  of  AngoulJme. 

Charente-Infferieure,  a  department  of  France,  on  the  Bay 
of  Biscay,  between  La  Vendue  and  the  Gironde,  has  nn  area  of 
2740  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1872}  of  465,653.  It  is  hilly  in  the 
S,,  but  the  rest  of  the  surface  is  singumrly  fiat,  while  the  coast- 
line is  greatly  indented,  and  has  a  length  of  over  100  miles.  The 
principal  rivers  are  tlie  Charente,  Seudre,  and  Cur^,  Among 
the  products  are  wine,  hemp,  flax,  beetroot,  and  saffron.  '^' 
wine,  which  is  partly  converted  into  brandy,  yields  15,000, 
francs  yearly.  There  are  extensive  manufactures  of  lace,  woollens, 
leather,  machinery,  glass,  bricks,  &c,  and  numerous  distille  ' 
and  sugar- refintries.      Salt   is  found  in  great  quantity  in 


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marshes  and  laguties,  and  a  lat^e  number  of  "boats  are  employed 
ill  the  oyster  and  sardine  fisheries.  La  Rocheile  is  the  capilal, 
and  Rochefort  is  one  of  the  best  harboui-s.  The  department  is 
connected  with  the  Paris  and  Bordeaux  Railway  by  a  biancli 
line.  Off  the  coast  there  are  several  islands,  of  which  by  far  the 
largest  are  St  Martin  de  R^  and  St  Pierre. 

Charen'toH,  a  town  of  France,  depaiiment  Cher,  is  situated 
on  the  Matmande,  in  a  rich  mining  district,  and  has  large  iron- 
works. Pop.  (1872)  176a— O.-le-Pont,  in  the  depaitmenl 
Seine,  ij  miles  beyond  the  fortifications  of  Paris,  in  a  south- 
easterly direction  from  the  city,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Marne, 
where  it  joins  the  Seine.  It  has  manufactures  of  lace,  artificial 
flowers,  bijouterie,  &c.  The  Marne  is  here  crossed  by  the  bridge 
of  the  Lyon  Railway,  and  by  a  new  stone  bridge,  at  the  S.  end 
of  which  is  the  Alfort  fortress.     Pop.  (1872)  6690. 

Charge  (Sp.  cargar,  '  to  load ; '  ItaL  larkare,  from  LaL 
carricare,  used  by  St  Jerome  for  '  to  load '),  in  gunnery,  is  the 
quantity  of  gunpowder  requisite  for  one  discharge.  There  are 
certain  cliat^es  fixed  for  all  eims,  called  service  charges,  and 
the  aim  is  to  make  them  such  as  will  give  the  greatest  initial 
velocity  to  the  projectile,  without  unduly  straining  the  gun. 
The  service  C.  for  a  heavy  and  medium  smooth-bored  gun  is 
one-third  of  the  weight  of  the  projectile  ;  for  light  smooth-bored 
guns,  one-fourth.  The  charges  are  smaller  in  firing  with  red- 
hot  shot,  and  in  ricochet  firing.  Rifled  guns,  on  account  of  the 
absence  of  windage,  and  the  longer  time  the  shot  is  in  tlie  bote, 
and  the  consequent  greater  stram  exerted  by  the  gas,  requite 
smaller  diarges  than  smooth  botes.  The  C.  for  an  Armstrong 
breech -loading  gun  is  only  one-eighth  the  weight  of  the  projec- 
tile.    In  the  navy  there  is  the  o'iVi'BB/,  the  _/5(//,  and  the  jvrfaKrf  C. 

Charge,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  is  the  command  of  the  sove- 
reign fciy  letter  to  perform  some  act.  .The  term  is  also  applied 
to  the  messenger's  copy  for  service  requiring  the  person  to  obey 
the  order  of  the  letter. 

Charge,  in  heraldry,  is  any  heraldic  figure  or  device.  A 
shield,  banner,  or  any  other  field,  is  said  to  be  charged  or  chargi 
when  such  device  or  figure  is  blazoned  on  it.  The  shield  of  the 
head  of  a  honse  has  nearly  always  fewer  charges  than  that  of  a 
collateral  branch  or  of  a  junior  member  of  the  family.  But 
charges  in  a  shield  should  always  be  as  few  as  is  consistent  with 
a  clear  and  vividly  expressed  meaning. 

Oharge"  d'Afi^ires  is  an  inferior  diplomatic  agent,  accre- 
dited not  to  a  court  but  only  to  the  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs, 
and  holding  his  credentials  from  the  same  official  in  his  own 
country. 

Obar'ger,  a  name  formerly  given  to  a  horse  employed  in 
battle  (hence  its  name),  but  now  applied  only  by  imaginative 
writers  to  the  animal  prosaically  called  a  cavalry-horse.  In  the 
middle  ages,  the  war-horse  was  nearly  altogether  encased  in 
defensive  armour,  or  barded.  A  chanfroa  protected  the  entire 
head ;  critiiires,  the  neck  ;  a  poUritud,  the  breast ;  and  crmi- 
pih-es,  the  buttocks  and  haunches.  These  pieces  of  armour 
were  generally  made  of  metal,  but  sometimes  of  leather.  Occa- 
sionally the  horse  was  covered  with  chain-mail ;  and  sometimes 
there  was  a  gambison  of  stuffed  or  quilted  cloth  under  the 


Law  aa  to.  In  England,  the  sovereign,  as 
^  irens  palriis,  is  the  guardian  of  all  charities,  and  the  Attorney- 
General  may  take  legal  proceedings  to  restore  any  abused  or 
dilapidated  foundations.  Means  are  provided  by  statute  for 
securing  a  4ue  administration  in  certain  case!,  oi  charilaile  trusts, 
and  for  the  beneficial  application  of  charitable  funds,  by  em- 
powering the  crown  to  appoint  fotir  comnaissioners,  one  secre- 
tary, and  two  inspectors  for  these  purposes.  Reservation  is 
made  of  the  rights  of  the  Charch  of  England,  and  the  Act  does 
not  extend  to  the  universities  or  to  charities  partly  supported  by 
voluntary  contribution. 

Oharity  Commiflsioners,  a  body  created  by  Act  of  Par- 
liament in  1853  to  inquhe  into  the  working  of  charities  in 
England  and  Wales.  The  scope  of  inquiry  does  not  embrace 
Scotland  nor  Ireland,  nor  the  English  universities,  nor  London. 

Charivari  is  a  French  word  now  chiefly  applied  to  a  satirical 
newspaper  of  the  type  of  Punch,  which  ridicules  pubUc  men,  and 
especially  pohticians,  such  as  Le  Charivari,  established  in  Paris  in 


the  end  of  1832.  Originally  C,  the  etymology  of  which  is  doubt- 
ful,  meant  a  hubbub  of  noises  produced  by  whistling,  howling, 
singing,  and  the  clattering  of  pan^  kettles,  &c,  whidi  in  the 
middle  ages  was  raised  on  the  occasion  of  an'  oneqnal  marriage  or 
the  marriage  of  a  widow,  and  wliich  did  not  cease  till  money  was 
paid  to  make  peace.  The  C.  was  ftequently  characterised  by 
violence  and  the  singing  of  indecent  verses,  and  in  the  14th  c 
attempts  were  frequently  made  to  put  it  down  by  the  Church. 
See  Philip's  JCatieamusiken  (Treib,  1849). 
CharTiov.    See  Kharkov. 

Charlatan  (introduced  into  Fr.  in  the  i6th  c.  from  the  Ital. 
ciarlatana,  'a  babbler  or  chatterer')  is  a  word  for  a  mountebank, 
quack,  or  empiric,  because  his  chief  art  consists  in  prating  in  his 
own  favour,  and  in  making  unwarrantable  pretensions.  Charia- 
tanism  manifests  itself  differently  as  character  and  circutnstances 
vary,  and  accommodates  itself  skilfully  to  the  fluctuating  weak- 
nesses of  mankind.  Sometimes,  however,  men  have  been  classed 
with  charlatans  because  they  were  in  advance  of  their  age,  as 
Theophtaatus  von  Hohenheim,  better  known  as  Faracelsus.  See 
Biischel's  Ueber  die  Charlalansrie  des  Gelehertm  scU  Meiicke 
(Leips.  1790,  with  plates). 

Charlemagne,  the  Romance  name  of  the  Frankish  monarch 
Kari  der  Grosse  (q.  v,).  It  may  heie  be  stated  that  all  the 
Teutonic  kings  and  princes,  German  and  Norse,  commonly 
fotmd  in  Encyclopedias  under  a  Romance  form  of  their  name, 
are  treated  of  under  the  native  and  proper  spelling,  Karl. 

Charleroi,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Hainault,  Belgium,  on 
both  sides  of  the  Sambte,  the  high  town  on  the  left  bank 
being  strongly  fortified.  C,  which  is  a  station  on  the  Brussels 
and  Namur  Railway,  stands  on  an  extensive  and  valuable  coal- 
field, and  there  are  numerous  smelting-fumaces  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood. There  are  besides,  foi^es,  nailworks,  brickworks, 
and  foundries  for  casting  ordnance,  and  manufactures  of  woollen- 
yam,  glass,  and  hardware.  The  lai^e  ironworks  of  Couillet, 
producing  one-third  of  all  the  cast-iron  of  Belgium,  are  within 
2  miles  of  C.  The  fortifications,  begun  in  1666  by  the  Spaniards, 
were  demolished  by  the  French  in  1794,  but  weie  restored  after 
Waterloo.     Pop.  (1873)  12,15a 

Charles  I.,  King  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  from  1625  to 
1649,  was  born  at  Dunfermline,  19th  November  1600.  He  was 
the  second  son  of  James  I.  of  England  (VI.  of  Scotland),  and  be- 
came, in  1612,  through  the  death  of  his  elder  brother  Henry,  heir- 
apparent  to  the  throne,  to  which  he  succeeded  in  1625.  The 
nation  greeted  his  accession  with  a  burst  of  loyalty.  His ''per- 
sonal  dignity  contrasted  with  the  garrulous  vulgarity  of  his  father, 
and  the  feilure  of  the  scheme  for  a  marriage  with  the  Spanish 
Infanta  (even  although  he  subsequently  married  Maria  Henrietta 
of  France,  also  a  Roman  Catholic  princess)  gratified  the  English 
people,  who  hated  Spain  above  all  countries.  His  early  popu- 
larit)^,  however,  waned,  when  it  was  seen  that  he  retained  in  all 

Editions  of  trust  his  father's  nnpopnlar  and  imperious  favourite, 
uckingham.  C  soon  showed  that  the  chief  anxiety  of  his 
obstinate  mind  was  to  become  an  absolute  monarch  (  and,  in 
consequence,  the  Parhaments  that  met  in  1625  and  1626  struck 
severely  at  Buckingham,  the  latter,  led  by  Sir  John  Eliot 
and  Mr  Dudley  Digges,  going  so  far  as  to  impeach  the  favour- 
ite. The  King,  however,  stood  by  Buckinghtun,  dissolved  Par- 
liament, threw  Eliot  and  DiM;e3  into  prison,  and  besides  other 
arbitraty  measures,  resorted  to  forced  loans,  and  a  tax  upon 
seaports  popularly  knoivn  as  ship-money.  In  1628,  C.  found 
himself  compelled  to  summon  a  Parliament,  which,  neverthe- 
less, proved  more  resolute  to  maintain  popular  rights  than  its 
predecessors,  and  presented  to  him  the  celebrated  Petition  of 
Right  (q.  V. ).  A  reaction  in  his  favour,  however,  following  upon 
the  assassination  of  Buckingham,  C.  dissolved  this  Parliament 
also.  Aided  by  I.aud  (q.  v.)  and  Strafford  (q.  v),  who  had 
once  been  a  member  of  the  Parliamentary  party,  and  by  the 
Star  Chamber  and  Court  of  High  Commission  (q.  v.),  he  endea- 
voured to  govern  without  a  Parliament,  Scotland,  however,  upon 
which  he  had  sought  to  thrust  a  liturgy  and  the  Episcopal  form 
of  government,  rebelled,  and  proving  victorious  m  the  contest 
with  C,  he  summoned  a  Parliament,  subseqaently  known  as  the 
Long  Parliament,  which  began  to  sit  on  3d  November  1640,  and 
which  showed  itself  more  opposed  to  his  despotism  than  any  that 
had  preceded.  Headed  by  Pym  and  Hampden,  it  declared  the 
decrees  of  the  Star  Chamber  and  Courf  of  High  C( 


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and  void,  passed  a  bill  for  triennial  Parliaments,  impeached  Slcaf- 
ford,  and  caused  him  to  be  executed.  For  a  lime  C.  snbmitted, 
but  on  a  rebellion  breaking  out  in  Ireland,  and  the  Parliament 
increasing  its  demands,  he  drew  his  sword  and  threw  away  the 
scabbard.  On  the  4tli  Januaiy  1642,  he  appeared  with  a  force 
of  armed  men  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  demanded  that 
five  members^Pym,  Hampden,  Hollis,  Haielrig,  and  Stroud — 
should  be  surrendered  to  him  on  a  charge  of  treason.  The  two 
Houses  of  Parliament  and  the  city  of  London  took  the  side  of 
the  five  members,  who  had  escaped,  and  the  King,  retiring  from 
London,  raised  the  standard  of  civil  war.  For  some  time  the 
Royalists  had  the  advantage  in  the  engagements  that  took  place 
with  the  soldiers  of  the  Parliament,  but  in  the  end  they  were 
unable  to  stand  against  the  '  new  model '  army  under  F^fax  and 
Cromwell.  Finally,  the  Royal  army  was  crushed  at  the  battle 
of  Naseby,  15th  June  1645,  and  C  sought  refuge  in  the  army 
of  the  Scots.  They,  however,  delivered  him  up  to  Parliament, 
lie  now  commenced  a  series  of  intrigues  both  with  and  against 
the  Scots,  and  with  the  English  Presbyterians,  which  enraged  the 
Independents  (who,  under  the  leadership  of  Cromwell,  formed 
the  strength  of  the  army)  to  such  an  extent,  that  they  expelled 
the  Presbyterians  from  the  House  ot  Conamons,  and  appointed 
a  court  composed  of  men  from  the  army,  the  '  Rump '  or  rem- 
nant of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  the  city  of  London,  to 
try  the  King.  The  trial,  presided  over  by  John  Bradshaw,  took 
place  in  Westminster  Hall,  and  lasted  from  the  20th  to  the  27th 
January  1649.  It  resulted  in  the  condemnation  of  C.  to  death, 
and,  in  spite  of  protests  from  the  Scots  and  foreign  nations,  he 
was  belieaded,  30th  Januaiy.  C.  was  personally  a  man  of  virtuous 
character,  dignified,  and  adorned  with  a  gracefiil  culture,  but 
politically  an  unscrupulous  dissembler  and  intriguer.  See  Claren- 
don's History  of  the  Great  RcbtUhti ;  Carlyle's  Life  and  Letters 
of  Oliver  Cromwell ;  Forster's  Stattimen  of  the  Commotraieaitk, 

Cluu-les  n..  King  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Charles  I,,  and  bom  39th  May  1630.  During  the 
civil  war  he  resided  at  the  Hague  with  his  mother.  On  his 
f  th        d    th  1  m  d  th   titl     f  Ki  g       d         th   people 

fStldff      ghmth         wn  6$      hp    ceeded 

thth  d  d     t  S  m  th     begnn    g    f  1651. 

B  t  h  h   1  m    1    1        f     th    S    t         f      th    Pres- 

bjrt  f   m    f  w     hip      Aft      th    d  f    t    t  D     b     he  pi 


If    t  th 


d     f  th     S 


h  d  into 
E  gl    d  b  t     as  f  11  w  d  tak  'd  d  f    t  d  by  Crom- 

w  fi    t  W      est       S  pt  mb      3     65        Aft  mark- 

bl  d  t  C  su  eeded  m  caj.  g  t  Fta  e,  and  sub- 
eq  ently  t  th  N  h  land  Th  h  m  i  1 11  after 
C    mw  11    d    th   wh  th         g    t        f  Ge    ral  M  nk,  he 

was       t    ed  t     th    tl  land  d    t  D  z6th  M  y  1660, 

d  was  d  w  th      t      agant  d  t    t  f  loyalty, 

wh   1    w        f  11  w  d   by  th         t      t  f  Ep       p    y,  the 

prscut  fEglhN  fmts       dSth   P.esby- 

t      ns      dth  t         fallhhdhd  anyth    g  to  do 

w  th  th   b  h    d  1    f  h     f  th         H         gn  p       d  of  the 

most  disgraceful  and  humiliating  in  British  annals.  C,  a  shrewd, 
cynical,  and  in  many  respects  able  and  resolute  man,  was  a 
thorough  sensualist  and  man  of  pleasure.  He  married  Ihe  Portu- 
guese Princess  Catharine  of  Bragania,  but  he  was  guilty  of  the 
most  shameless  adulteries;  and  during  his  reign  the  British  court 
was  more  unblushingly  immoral  than  at  any  other  period  in  history. 
To  support  his  extravagance  and  debaucheries,  he  sold  Mardyke 
and  Dunkirk  to  Che  French,  and  entering  into  a  secret  treaty 
with  their  King,  accepted  a  pension  from  him  to  make  war 
against  Holland,  which,  however,  resulted  in  the  Dutch  fleet, 
under  De  Ruyter,  entering  the  Thames,  and  in  the  conclusion 
of  an  ignominious  peace,  which  he  broke  again  on  the  receipt  of 
fresh  pecuniary  gifts  from  France,  By  cleverly  playing  off,  how- 
ever, one  set  of  politicians  against  another,  C,  succeeded,  for  a 
time,  in  ruling  as  an  arbitrary  monarch,  and  certainly  kept  the 
Scotch  Presbyterians  tlioroughly  in  subjection ;  while  the  hideous 
imposture  (167S)  of  a  Popish  Plot  (q.  v, )  against  his  life  kept  up 
popular  excitement  in  his  favour.  Parliament  was  at  length 
aroused,  and  against  C.'s  will  passed  (1769)  the  Habeas  Corpta  Act 
(q.  v.),  and  a  bill  excluding  his  brother  James,  Duke  of  York, 
from  the  throne  owing  to  his  having  avowed  himself  a  Roman 
Catholic  The  Rye-House  Plot,  a  great  and  somewhat  mysterious 
conspiracy,  of  which  his  own  illegitimate  son,  the  Duke  of  Mon- 
mouth, was  beiieved  to  be  the  head,  and  for  connection  with 


which  many  distinguished  persons,  including  Lord  William 
Russell  and  Algernon  Sidney,  were  executed,  caused  a  reaction 
in  favour  of  C.  and  his  bromer.  He  died  somewhat  suddenly, 
February  6,  16S5,  avowing  himself  a  Roman  Catholic  to  a  priest 
(Father  Huddlestone)  introduced  to  his  chamber  by  his  brother. 
The  best  that  can  be  said  of  C.  is  that  he  was  clever,  good- 
natured,  and  personally  courageous  ;  but  it  should  never  be 
forgotten  that  he  detiauched  the  morals  of  his  court,  rutlilessly 
suppressed  the  liberties  of  Presbyterian  ism  in  the  N.,  and  secretly 
sold  himself  for  lucre  to  the  government  of  France.  For  a  bril- 
liant sketch  of  C.'s  character  and  policy,  see  J.  R.  Green's  Short 
History  of  the  English  People,,  pp.  616-619. 

raiarlea  IV.  {Le  Bel),  the  last  of  the  Capetians,  bom  in 
1294,  third  son  of  Philippe  le  Bel,  succeeded  his  brother  Philippe 
V.  {Le  Long)  in  1322,  excluding  Jeanne,  Duchess  of  Bureundy, 
in  virtue  of  the  Salic  law  which  Philippe  V.  had  just  estabhshed. 
C.'s  second  wife  was  his  cousin-german,  Maria,  daughter  of  the 
Emperor  Heinrich  VIL,  and  sister  of  King  Johann  of  Bohemia. 
Although  he  relaxed  the  persecution  of  the  lepers  and  the  Jews, 
C.  allowed  Pope  John  XXII.  (then  at  Avignon)  to  wreak  his 
fury  on  the  mendicant  orders  (whose  vow  of  poverty  was  declared 
heresy)  and  on  the  sorcerers.  He  also  helped  Count  Louis  of 
Flanders  to  interfere  by  tolls  with  the  commercial  rights  of  his 
subjects.  After  the  Irattle  of  Muhldorf  C,  became  a  candidate 
against  Ludwig  of  Bavaria  for  the  empire,  which  was  finally 
divided  between  Austria  and  Bavaria.  The  disputes  about  the 
feudal  rights  in  Guienne  estranged  C.  and  Edward  II.,  and  the 
former  assisted  his  sister  Isabella  and  the  Lancastrians  in  the 
Harwich  expedition,  which  placed  Edward  III.  on  the  throne, 
C,  died  31st  January  132S,  leaving  Philippe  de  Valois  (who  suc- 
ceeded him  on  the  throne)  as  tutor  to  his  daughter  by  his  third 
wife,  Jeanne  d'Evreux, 

Cltarlee  V.  {Le  Sage),  born  at  Vincennes,  21st  January 
1337,  son  of  Jean  II.  and  Bonne  of  Luxembourg,  practically 
reigned  as  Dauphin  after  his  father  was  taken  prisoner  at  Poitiers, 
'  La  Jacquerie  gave  great  strength  in  the  States-General  to  the 
7&fj^fti/led  by  Bishop  Robert  le  Coq  and  Etienne  Marcel,  Pio- 
vost  of  the  Traders  of  Paris,  but  C,  played  off  against  them  the 
nobility  and  clergy  and  the  provincial  estates.  After  the  devas- 
tating war  of  Charies  the  Bad  of  Navarre  and  Edward  III.  was 
closed  by  the  peace  of  Br^tigny,  there  was  comparative  quiet 
till  the  death  of  Jean  (1364) ;  after  which  the  expedition  of^  Du 
Guesclin  against  the  Captal  de  Buch,  Pedro  the  Cruel,  the  Black 
Prince,  and  his  expulsion  of  the  English,  except  from  Calais, 
Bordeaux,  and  Bayonne,  are  the  great  features  of  C.'s  reign. 
The  '  Grand  Companies '  continued  to  harass  the  land,  and  the 
House  of  Bui^ndy  rose  into  dangerous  eminence.  C,  marri 
Jeanne  of  Bourbon,  and  died  l6th  September  1380,  leaving  t' 
sons.  One  of  his  ordonnancis  fixed  the  royal  majority  at  foi 
teen.  C.  got  his  surname  from  his  habits  of  life.  '  He  pass 
through  the  courses  of  study  then  known — an  apt  and  eaj 
scholar.  Religious  he  was  and  learned,  yet  not  a  monk  on  I 
throne.  To  read  in  Latin  and  French,  to  know  something  of 
mathematics  as  then  studied,  of  astrology,  alchemy,  theology, 
to  gather  round  him  well-known  learned  clerks  and  philosophers 
seeking  science,  to  collect  books  and  lay  the  foundations  of  the 
great  library  of  Paris,  to  listen  to  grave  moralities  or  noble  deeds 
of  olden  history,  or  "divers  fair  tales  from  Holy  Writ  "- 
were  the  occupations  of  the  sickly  king.'  Kitchin's  History  of 
France,  pp.  454-455- 

Oharles  VI.'{Bieit-Aiine),  the  eldest  son  of  Charles  V., 
was  bom  3d  December  136S,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1380. 
The  Dukes  of  Berri,  Bourbon,  Burgundy,  and  Anjou  shared 
supreme  power  during  the  minority  of  the  boy-king.  All  these 
'  Princes  of  the  Lilies '  behaved  badly.  The  kst -named  Duke 
abused  the  right  of  taxation  to  provide  himself  with  means  for 
his  Sicilian  expedition  against  Carlo  Durazzo,  The  riots  of  Mail- 
iotins  at  Paris  and  Rouen,  and  of  Tuciitis  in  Languedoe,  and  the 
massacre  of  the  Jews,  showed  the  exasperation  of  the  lower  citi- 
zen class.  In  1382,  imder  the  advice  of  (he  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
C.  interfered  in  a  struggle  between  Louis  de  Male,  Count  of 
Bruges  and  feudal  lord  of  Ghent,  and  the  popular  party  under 

Philip  van  Arteyeld,  who  was  utterly  defeated  n'  ■"— ■- 

and  CourtraL  This  success  was  made  the  occa; 
severities  against  the  Parisians,  the  patriotic  Desman 
cuted  and  the  tajtes  increased.     'The  following  year  C.  expelled 


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from  W.  Flanders  the  English  crusade  in  favour  of  Pope  Ur  n 
which  was  commanded  by  the  Bishop  of  Norwich.  The  marr  ^ 
of  the  King  to  Isabella  of  Bavaria  (1385),  the  expeditions  aga  n 
England  ( 1 386)  of  Admiral  de  Vienne  and  Constable  Clisson,  and 
the  dismissal  (1388)  of  the  King's  uncles  by  the  'Macmon 
party,  mark  the  next  few  years.  This  introduced  comparati 
quiet  and  economy  until  C.'s  insanity,  which  occurred  in  I  92 
and  which  brought  his  brother,  Louis  of  Orleans,  into  promin 
as  the  rival  of  the  House  of  Burgundy.  Louis,  partly  main- 
tained by  the  exactions  of  his  friend,  the  '  false '  Pope  Benedict 
XIII,  at  Avignon,  stured  up  the  expedition  of  Glendower,  which 
was  crushed  at  Shrewsbury  ;  and  so  neglected  the  helpless  King 
and  oppressed  the  great  towns,  that  his  murder,  in  1407,  by 
Raoui  d'Octonville,  a  follower  of  the  Burgundian  Duke  jean 
sans  Peur  ( '  the  Fearless '),  was  received  wiui  '  ecstasies  of  joy, ' 
and  publicly  defended  before  Ihe  Dauphin  and  the  nobles  of 
France,  met  at  the  HSiel  St  Pol,  in  March  1408.  The  Btiigun- 
dian  victory  over  the  Liigois  at  Hasbain  led  to  the  '  paix  fourrde ' 
of  Chartres,  but  the  struggle  between  Burgundy  and  the  Comte 
d'Atmagnac,  falher-in-law  of  Orleans  (in  which  the  city  of  Paris 
took  a  leading  part)  was  continued  till  the  treaty  of  Pontoise 
(1414).  The  invasion  by  the  English  succeeding  at  Agincourt 
and  elsewhere,  the  Armagnacs  became  unpopuku^,  and  in  [418 
were  massacred  in  Paris  by  the  Burgundians.  In  revenge,  Jean 
of  Bui^ndy  was  murdered  (l4'9)  o"  'he  Bridge  of  Montereau 
by  Tann^uy-Duchatel,  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Orleanist  party ; 
and  his  son  embracing  the  Enghsh  cause,  Paris  was  betrayed  to 
Henry  V.,  who  by  the  treaty  of  Troyes  (1420)  obtamed  Cathe- 
rine of  France  in  marriage,  and  the  right  of  succession  to  the 
throne.  Charles,  however,  survived  Henry  by  two  months,  dying 
2lEt  October  1422.  '  He  had  reigned  for  for^-two  years  :  long 
he  had  been  but  a  name,  a  shadow.  His  voice,  heard  at  rare 
intervals  on  some  piteous  occasion,  was  as  if  it  came  from  Ihe 
tomb  ;  it  usually  had  a  plaintive  gentleness,  a  touch  of  sad  for- 
"     ■■       .  .  The  people  called   him  "C.   the  Well- 


Charles  VII.  (Ze  Vkturkux,  or  Le  Bien-Strvi\  bom  at 
Paris,  22d  February  1403,  was  the  fifth  son  of  the  precedmg, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1422.  In  the  same  year  he  married 
Marie  of  Anjou,  daughter  of  Louis,  King  of  Sicily.  He  had 
previously,  in  1418,  assumed  the  title  of  Regent,  and  had  acted 
with  the  Constable  d'Arm^nac  against  the  Burgundian  faction. 
While  the  latter  occupied  Paris,  C.  held  a  Parliament  at  Poitiers 
and  Bouiges.  The  trea^  of  Troyes  (1420)  had  transferred  the 
French  crown  to  Henry  V.  of  England.  Accordingly  C.  had  to 
fight  with  Bedford  and  other  English  commanders  at  Crevant 


of   Joanne    d'Arc    at    the    siep    of    Orleans,    and    the    di 
missal  of  the  favourite  La  Tremouille,  changed  the  course  of 
events.     C.  himself  wakened  up  from  the   frivolous  sloth  in 
which  he  had  been  living,  and  detaching  by  the  treaty  of  Arras 
(1435)  the  House  of  Burgundy  from   the  English  cause,  he 

f'ned  several  important  victories  over  his  ancient  foes,  organised 
his  ordanKaticss  the  first  standing  army  (cavalry  and  iiuantty) 
France,  and  made  an  honourable  truce  in  1444.  He  also,  by 
the  Pragmatic  of  Eoiirges,  resisted  the  Pope's  fiscal  clauns  on  the 
nation^  Church.  When  war  broke  out  again,  the  English  were 
speedily  driven  from  Normandy,  Guienne,  and  Gascony.  In  1457 
they  had  left  the  country.  Suspipions  of  the  Dauphin  (afterwards 
Louis  XI.)  hastened  C.'s  end  :  he  died  22d  Jul^  1461.  He  had 
twelve  children,  of  whom  one  daughter,  Catherine,  was  married 
to  Charles  of  Eureundy;  another,  Madeleine,  lo  Gaston  de  FdIk. 
C.  was  much  under  the  good  influence  of  Agnes  Sorel.  In  this 
reign  Jacques  Cceur  founded  French  trade  with  the  Levant,  but  was 
afterwards  forced  to  flee  from  his  country  to  escape  the  jealousy  of 
the  nobles.  See  Kitchin's  History  of  France,  b.  iv.  c.  6,  7;  and 
Vallet  de  VWville's  Histoire  de  C.  VII.  (3  vols.  Par.  1862-65). 

Ohairles  VIH.  {U  Affable),  born  at  Amboise,  30th  June  1470, 
was  the  only  son  of  Louis  XI.  and  Charlotte  of  Savoy ;  his 
legitimacy  has  been  questioned.  He  was  declared  king  on  his 
father's  death  in  14S3.  His  sister,  Anne  of  Beaujeu,  became 
regent,  and  conducted  a  successful  war  against  the  Orleanists, 
among  whom  were  the  future  King  Louis  XII.  and  De  Comines, 
the  battle  of  St  Aubin  (1488)  deciding  the  final  campaign  in 
Brittany.     In  1491  C,  who  had  taken  Dunois  as  his  adviser. 


m  d  A  e  of  Brittany,  who  had  bceu  already  married  by 
p  y  &  ximilian.  This  led  to  a  war  with  Germany,  with 
h  m  H  nry  Vli.  sided.  C,,  however,  wished  to  prosecute 
h  am  Naples,  which  Charles  of  Anjou  had  bequeathed 
h  a  h  rj  he  also  dreamed  of  conquering  Che  Eastern 
Emp  He  led  an  army  of  30,000  men  into  Italy,  drove  the 

1  IS  m  Florence,  obtained  the  Turkish  Prince  Ziamfrom 
P  p  A  xander  VL,  and  occupied  Naples  almost  without  strik- 
ing a  blow.  The  formation  of^the  League  of  the  Pope,  Venice, 
Milan,  Spain,  and  the  Emperor  caused  C.  to  return  home,  win- 
ning on  his  way  the  victories  of  Fomovo  and  Novara.  Gonsalvo 
de  Cordova  immediately  drove  the  French  out  of  Naples.  C. 
was  arranging  a  new  Italian  campaign  when  he  died,  7tli  April 
1498,  predeceased  by  his  son,  Charles-Orland.  C.  was  remark- 
able fo(  courage  and  enterprise,  but  very  sickly  in  body.  See 
the  Mhnoires  of  Comines  ;  Segur's  Histoire, U  C.  VIII.  (2  vols. 
183s) ;  and  Varillas'  Histoire  di  C.  VIII. 

Cliarles  12.,  bom  at  St  Germain -en -Laye,  27th  June  1550, 
was  tlie  second  son  of  Henri  II.  and  Catherine  de  Medicis,  and 
succeeded  his  brother  Francois  II.  on  his  death  in  1560,  having 
previously  borne  the  title  of  Due  d'Orleans,  C.  was  quite  pas- 
sive in  the  earlier  years  of  his  reign,  the  Queen-mother  pretend- 
mg  to  favour  the  Huguenots.  He  was,  however,  brought  over 
lo  the  Catholic  side  by  the  interview  which  the  French  court 
had  with  the  Duke  of  Alva  (representing  Philip  II,)  at  Eayonne 
in  1567.  The  Huguenots  then  attacked  Paris,  and  were  de- 
feated by  Montmorency  at  St  Denis.  After  the  short  truce  of 
Longjumeau,  Conde,  who  had  attempted  to  gain  possession 
the  King's  person  at  Meaux,  was  defeated  at  Jarnac,  and  in  15. 
the  peace  of  St  German -en- Laye  was  signed  with  Henri  of 
Navarre,  who  had  now  become  leader  of  the  Huguenots,  C. 
seems  to  have  fallen  under  the  influence  of  Coligny  at  this  time  i 
probably  suspicion  of  the  Guises  and  jealousy  of  his  brother 
Henri  contributed  to  this.  He  married  Elizabeth,  the  daughter 
of  Maximilian  II.,  and  betrothed  his  sister  Marguerite  to  Henri 
of  Navarre.  To  the  assassination  of  Coligny,  and  the  general 
massacre  of  24th  August  1572,  C  consented  under  considerable 
moral  pressure.  The  peace  of  Rochelle  showed  that  the  mas- 
sacre was  a  great  blunder.  C,  died  30th  May  1574,  leaving  no 
legitimate  children.  His  mistress,  Marie  Touchet,  afterwards 
married  Franjois  Balzac,  and  became  the  mother  of  Henriette 
d'Entragues,  the  mistress  of  Henri  IV.  C.  wrote  a  book. 
La  Chasse  Royale,  printed  in  1625,  and  wrote  verses  of  high 
merit.  Singular  to  say,  the  King  wlio  consented  to  the  Massacre 
of  Bartholomew  also  authorised  the  famous  Calvinislic  version 


Roi  C.  IX. 

.  the  fourth  son  of  the  Dauphin  Louis  and  Marie 
Josephe  of  Saxony,  and  grandson  of  Louis  XV.,  was  born  at 
Versailles,  9th  October  1757.  In  1773  he  married  Maria  Tiieresa 
of  Savoy.  He  was  then  known  as  Clrarles  Philippe,  Comte  d'Ar- 
tois.  His  life  was  extremely  vicious  and  stupid.  C.  supported 
the  oppressive  fiscal  measures  which  precipitated  the  Revolution. 
Early  in  the  struggle  he  emigrated  with  his  sons,  the  Due 
d'Angoul^me  and  the  Due  de  Berri,  and  afterwards  meeting  his 
brother  Louis,  Comte  de  Provence,  at  the  Conference  of  Pilniti 
(1791),  they  issued  the  declaration  which  provoked  from  the 
National  Assembly  a  decree  placing  their  property  under  seques- 
tration, and  ordering  them  to  return  to  France  in  three  months. 
C.  took  part  in  the  campaigns  of  the  Dukes  of  Brunswick  and 
York.  He  also  accompanied  Lord  Moira's  expedition  of  1795, 
which  was  to  assist  the  rising  of  Charette  and  Siofflet  in  the 
royalist  provinces  of  the  W.  'Monsieur,'  as  C.  was  then 
called,  timidly  withdrew  without  landing,  went  to  Holyrood,  and 
after  the  peace  of  Amiens  (1802)  to  London,  which  he  did  not 
leave  till  1814,  when  he  entered  Paris,  and  was  enthusiastically 
received  there  and  in  the  provinces.  On  the  return  of  Napoleon, 
C.  was  sent  to  Lyons  to  oiganise  resistance,  but  was  obliged  to 
retire  with  his  brother  to  Ghent.  On  the  second  restoration,  in 
spite  of  his  vows  to  carry  out  the  charter  of  the  constitution,  he 
became  the  head  of  the  reactionary  party  against  the  moderate 
programme  of  the  King  and  his  ministers.  After  the  assassina- 
tion of  his  son,  the  Due  de  Berri,  C.  succeeded  in  dissolving  the 
Richelieu  ministry,  and  bringing  in  that  of  Villile  and  Peyronnet, 
which  engaged  in  the  inglorious  war  with  Spain  {1823),  In 
1824,  in  his  sixty-seventh  year,  he  succeeded  Louis  XVIII., 


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and  at  once  began  a  retrograde  policy,  encouraging  Ultra- 
iijontane  pretensions,  attacking  the  freedom  of  the  press  (the 
Courier  and  the  ConstitaHimnel  were  both  prosecuted),  and 
strengthening  the  Royalist  Chamber  of  Peers  by  numerous 
creations.  The  elections  of  1828  produced  the  more  en- 
l^htened  ministry  of  Portali^  Royer-CoUard  becoming  Presi- 
dent of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  In  spite  of  this,  and  of  the 
popular  French  intervention  in  Greece,  a  rupture  took  place  on 
the  question  of  Departmental  administration ;  and  the  formation 
of  the  Polignac  and  Labourdonnaye  miuistiy  called  forth  Ihe 
famous  protest  of  the  221  deputies.  Immediately  after  the  suc- 
cessful expedition  to  Algiers,  C.  published  the  ordinances  of  25th 
July  1830,  whidi  threw  Paris  into  the  revolution  known  as  the 
Thi-ee  Days  of  Barricades,  The  King,  in  alarm,  made  ineffec- 
tual effort  to  conciliate  the  popular  party.  It  was  too  late. 
He  then  departed  for  England,  where  he  assumed  the  title  of 
Comte  de  Ponthieu.  The  rest  of  his  life  was  spent  quietly  at 
Holyrood,  &c.  He  died,  6th  November  1836,  at  Gdrz,  C. 
was  the  last  Bourbon  King  of  France.  His  intellectual  weak- 
ness has  descended  to  his  grandson,  but  not  his  immoralities. 

Charles  tlie  Bash.  (Xe  Thnhraire),  Duke  of  Bui^undy,  bom 
at  Dijon,  loth  November  1433,. was  the  son  of  Philippe  le  Bon 
and  Isabella  of  Poitugal.  His  passionate  martial  nature  burst 
into  action  when  Louis  XI.  attempted  to  take  the  Somme  towns. 
C.  formed  a  League  of  the  Public  Good,  defeated  the  Kin^ 
at  Montlhery,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Conflans  (1466)  extended  his 
father's  hereditary  possessions.  When  in  1467  he  became  Dnlte 
(he  waa  previously  known  as  Comte  de  Charolais),  he  sup- 
pressed with  terrible  severity  the  insurrection  of  the  peoide  of 
Dinant  and  Li^e,  and  strengthened  his  position  by  marrying 
Margaret,  the  sister  of  Edward  IV.  of  York.  Afterwards,  at 
the  interview  of  Peronne,  a  sort  of  agreement  was  come  to 
between  the  great  vassal  and  his  lord;  tnit  in  1471,  C.,  taking 
some  excuse  from  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  opened  hostilities 
in  Picardy,  NoiTnandy,  &c.,  with  an  army  composed  partly 
of  English  and  Italian  mercenaries,  but  chiefly  of  the  old 
feudal  levy,  which  he  opposed  to  the  '  Compagnies  d'Ordon- 
nance '  of  Louis.  In  spite  of  his  excellent  artillery  he  was 
compelled  to  raise  most  of  his  sieges.  He  now  thought  of 
reviving  the  old  kingdom  of  Burgundy  by  the  addition  of  Lor- 
raine, Provence,  and  Switzerland.  These  designs  brought  him 
into  conflict  with  the  Emperor  Friedrich  at  Neusa,  King  Rene 
II.  at  Nancy,  and  with  the  Swiss  Cantons,  who  defeated  him 
utterly  at  Gianson,  and  again,  with  the  help  of  Lorraine  cavalry, 
at  Moral.  With  a  third  army  C.  made  a  final  effort  by  laying 
siege  to  Nancy  (1477),  where  he  waS  killed  (January  5),  and  his 
army  dispersed.  C.  was  unusually  well  educated  for  his  age, 
attentive  to  religious  fasts  and  ceremonies,  fond  of  chivalry  and 
ancient  military  custom,  charitable  to  the  poor,  and  energetic  as 
a  ruler,  but  rash  in  war  and  merciless  in  discipline.  See  De 
Comines'  Mimairis  ;  De  Barante's  Histoa-e  des  Dues  de  Boiirgognt 
delaMaison  de  Valois  (13  vols.  Par.  1824};  Kirk's  History  of 
Charla  the  Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy  (2  vols.  Lond.  1863)  ;  and 
Freeman's  Historical  Essays  (Lond.  1872). 

Charles'ton,  the  chief  city  of  S.  Carolina,  U.S.,  is  situated 
on  a  tongue  of  land,  having  the  Cooper  river  on  the  E.  and  the 
Ashley  on  the  S.W.  Both  of  these  rivers  are  wide  and  deep, 
affording  good  accommodation  for  shipping,  and  the  bay  01 
estuary  which  they  form  extend?  eastwaixl  for  7  miles.  There  is 
a  troublesome  sandbar  at  the  entrance,  broken,  however,  by  a 
navigable  channel  of  from  r6  to  22  feet  of  water.  Approaching 
from  the  ocean  the  effect  is  fine,  with  the  bay,  its  islands,  forts, 
and  shores  spread  out,  and  the  spires  and  shipping  of  the  city  in 
the  distance.  C.  has  some  thirty  churches  and  a  lai^e  orphan 
asylum,  negro-schools,  schools  and  charities  for  white  people  who 
have  suffered  m  the  war,  and  the  State  Medical  College  (1785), 
C.  has  an  extensive  trade  m  cotton  and  rice.  In  the  year  ending 
31st  March  1875,  its  exports  amounted  to  $19,532,393;  371  vessels 
cleared fromthe port,  of3io,  139  tons;  and473entered, of  370,771 
tons.  Most  of  its  bread-stuffs  and  manufactured  goods  are  unported 
from  the  N.  C.  was  founded  in  1672,  and  in  1685  many  French 
Huguenots  settled  in  it.  Before  the  civil  war  it  was  a  charming 
city,  with  beautiful  villas,  gardens,  and  promenades ;  and  was 
famed  for  the  hospitality  of  its  citizens  and  the  gaiety  of  its  society. 
On  the  I2th  April  i86r,  the  civil  war  began  by  the  firing  of  the 
firstgunonFort  Sumter  in  C.  harbour.  In  r863  the  Union  forces 
bombarded  the  city,  and  in  February  18,  1865,  they  occupied  it 


CharlBBtown,  a  seap  rt 
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fought  here  June  17,  1775      C        t         th   Mas     h      tt     t  t 
prison,  and  an  extensiv     US        vy  yard      It  was  d  t 

thecity  ofBostonm  1S73     Pp         b         S3 

Charles'  'Wain  or  Wajg  n  th  rwise  11  d  th  PI  gh 
a  popular  name  for  the  i"  t  h  t  11 

tionUisaMajor(q.  v.). 

Oltarlet,  STicolaa  T  ussaint        F      I    p     t       b 
in  Paris,  20th  October    7       wis  th  f     d  ag  d  was 

familiar  from  childhood       th  b  k  1  f        H  pi  y  d 

a  clerk  in  the  Paris  mayoralty  till  1816,  when  his  Bo    part  m 
put  an  end  to  his  oflicial  career,  and  the  pressure  of  m 

stances  drove  him  into  art,  the  special  tendency  of  h     m    d 
leading  him  into  the  department  of  kindly  and  humo 
cature.     His  designs  chiefly  represent  the  phases  of  I  f        th 
barrack,  the  tavern,  and  the  homes  of  the  poor,  hut  a     al     y 
refined  and  genial     In  his  drawing,  however  broad  th   h  m 
may  be,  there  is  always  a  basis  <(f  serious  sentiment      By  h 
episode  de  la  Camfiagne  de  Sussie,  exhibited  in  1836^    w    k 
remarkable  at  once  for  vigour  of  style  and  elevation  of  f    1    g — 
C  established  his  claim  to  high  rank  as  a  painter  in     1       H 
died  at  Paris,  29th  becerabec  1845,     See  Jules  Jan        \  / 
Necologique  sur  N.  T.  C.  (Par.  1847}. 

CliarlevUle,  a  town  in  the  department  of  Ardenne  F 
on  the  Meuse,  nearly  opposite  Meri^e,  with  which  it  mmun 
cales  by  means  of  a  stone  bridge.  It  lies  near  the  has  i  M 
Olympe,  has  line  promenades,  a  valuable  library,  1  g 
works,  and  an  active  railway  and  ri  tride  in  *  ine  c  al  u: 
&c.  Pop,  (187Z)  11,410,  C,  wa  f  ded  6o6byCharl 
Duke  of  Nevers,  hence  its  name. 

Charl'ois,  a  village  2  miles  S  S  W  f  R  ft  d  m,  on  th( 
Maas,  notable  as  the  scene  of  a  t  rr  bl  t  t  ph  m  the  year 
1512,  when  some  8000  persons  1  "i        p      ession  wer" 

drowned  while  crossing  the  frozen 

Chflrlotte  Am'alie,  the  cap  t  1  f  =;t  Tl  m  W,  Indies 
It  has  a  spacious  harbour,  and  is  the  W.  Indian  station  for  the 
English  mail-packets.     Pop.  12,560. 

Oliarlott'enbiirg,  a  town  of  Prussia,  province  of  Bran- 
deubui^,  on  the  Spree,  4J  miles  W.  of  Berlin,  of  which  it  may 
be  regarded  as  a  suburb.  It  has  a  royal  palace,  built  in 
1699,  a  beautiful  park,  in  which  there  is  a  large  orangery,  a 
theatre,  and  a  mausoleum  of  granite,  under  which  rest  the  re- 
mains of  Friedrich  WUhelm  III.  and  Queen  Luise.  The  prin- 
cipal industries  are  dyeing,  printing,  manufactures  of  machines, 
shot,  porcelain,  cement,  wax,  chocolate,  soap,  glass,  &c  Pop. 
(1871)  19,518,  of  which  139  are  soldiers. 

Charlotte  Town,  the  capital  of  Prince  Edward  Island, 
Dominion  of  Canada,  on  Hillsborough  Bay,  at  the  confluence  of 
three  rivers,  each  navigable  for  several  miles.     It  posse  rv 

commodious  natural  harbour,  vessels  being  able  to  asc  d  h 
of  the  rivers  to  a  considerable  distance.  C,  has  also 
foundry,  a  woollen  factory,  and  considerable  shipbuilding  P  p 
(1S71)  8807. 

Charm  (Fr.   ckarme,   Lat.  carmen,    'a  song'),       f    m    f 
words  in  verse  (hence  the  name),  believed  to  possess  a  p     ec 
hurtful,  or  healing  power.     For  this  purpose  verse  his     1      ys 
been  held  to  be  more  potent  than  prose.     Latin  literatui 
with  examples  of  the  use  of  '  carmen '  in  the  sense  of     magi 
spell.    The  occult  power  dwelling  in  the  C.  exerted  its  mys        us 
influence  during  the  'incantation  "or  rhythmic  recital  of       w    d 
But  gradually  uiis  notion  of  a  C.  died  out  as  the  beli  f  be 
confined  to  the  more  ignorant  of  the  community,  and  h 

word  denotes  any  unintelligible  jai^on  scribbled  on  p  p      by 
quack  and  carried  about  by  his  dupes.     See  Amwlet,  n 

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gravediggets  used  to  be  deposited,  at  a  time  when 

churchyards  and  other  burjing-grounds  did  not  ii 

against  the  nuisance  they  constituted.   The  C.-H. 

a  building  complete  in  itself,  having  a  chantry  attached  to  K  ; 

but  it  was  commonly  a  crypt  under  a  chapel— not  unfrequently, 

indeed,  under  the  church  itself. 

Oba'ron  first  appears  in  later  Greek  mythology  as  a  son  of 
Erebus,  appointed  by  the  gods  to  ferry  across  the  rivers  of  Hades 
the  shades  of  such  dead  as  had  been  buried.  He  enacted -as  toll 
from  each  an  obol«s  or  danake,  and  the  coin  was  placed  in  (he 
mouth  of  the  dead  previous  to  burial.  C.  is  represented  as  a 
slovenly  old  man  with  squalid  beard  and  clothes. 

Gharr   {Salirw  salvdmm)    a   species  of   Teleostean   fishes 
belonBine  to   the  salmon  genus    and  included  in  the  family 
^    ^  Saimenida.    The  C.  is  a  fresh- 

water fish,  occurring  in  British 
and  European  lakes  and  rivers. 
The  Lake  of  Geneva  is  cele- 
brated for  its  C — the  ombre 
chevalier  of  that  lake.  The 
body  of  this  fish  is  elongated, 
tlie  tail  forked,  and  the  fins  of 
sn  allsize.  The  back  is  coloured 
dark  olive ;  the  sides  are  of 
lighter  colour,and  spotted  with 
red  orwhite;  the  belly  is  light 
m  colour,  and  may  be  pale  or 
even  deep  orange.  Thecolours 
^^"'^  vary  with  the  season  and  re- 

productive periods  of  these  fishes  Only  the  front  part  of  the 
vomer  is  piovided  with  teeth,  as  in  the  true  salmon  and  bull-trouts. 
The  C  feeds  on  Crustacea  insecla,  &c  ;  and  appears  to  live 
in  deep  water  dvinng  summer,  but  to  come  to  the  surface  and 
shallowerwaters  in  the  autumn  seas  in  It  spawns  in  autumn  or 
winter,  and  ascends  rivers  foe  that  puipose.  The  fish  is  more 
plentiful  m  the  N,  of  England  lakes  than  in  Scotch  waters  ;  but 
its  numbers  have  greatly  decreased  owing  to  the  indiscriminate 
fishing  permitted  by  the  want  of  legislative  measures. 
Ohar'ta  Jlftg'na,    See  Magna  Charta. 

Cliarte  (Lat.  charia,  'a  paper').  Before  1789  France  had 
properly  speaking  no  great  written  guarantee  of  constitutional 
freedom.  The  successive  constitutions  of  the  Revolutionary 
period  and  the  First  Empire  will  be  noticed  elsewhere.  The 
first  French  C.  is  properly  that  of  1814.  Tlie  Senate,  under 
Talleyrand,  had  already,  on  6th  April,  prepared  a  draft  consti- 
tution, which  was  'to  be  submitted  to  the  acceptance  of  the 
French  people,  and  to  which  Louis- Stanislas  Xavier,  freely  called 
by  the  people,  was  to  swear  conformity. '  But,  in  spite  of  the 
declaration  of  St  Oueii,  Louis  set  this  aside,  and  submitted  to 
a  meeting  of  the  Senate  and  Corps  Legislatif  the  C.  CansHlu- 
limtelle  of  4th  June  1814,  which  is  couched  entirely  in  the  lan- 
guage of  concession,  and  in  its  preamble  expressly  affirms  that 
the  person  of  the  King  contains  all  authority.  The  document 
deals  with  public  rights,  such  as  equality  before  the  law, 
equality  of  contribution  to  pubhc  bnrdens,  freedom  of  civil  and 
niilitary  offices,  personal  liberty,  and  liberty  of  conscience,  free- 
dom of  discussion.  The  Catholic  religion  is  declared  to  be  the 
state  religion,  conscription  is  abolished,  and  the  enjoyment  of 
the  nationalised  property  is  guaranteed  to  its  present  owners. 
Then  comes  a  chapter  on  the  forms  of  government,  defining  the 
supreme  executive  vested  in  the  King,  the  responsibility  of 
ministers,  the  legislative  power  vested  in  King,  Chamber  of 
Peers,  and  Chancer  of  Deputies,  die  initiafive  of  legislation, 
and  the  special  initiative  in  taxation.  The  Chamber  of  Peers  is 
next  treated  of ;  they  sit  in  secret,  have  the  sole  jurisdiction  in 
high  treason,  are  free  from  arrest  in  matters  criminal.  The 
King  has  an  unlimited  power  of  creating  peers,  but  the  peer 
must  be  thirty  years  old  before  he  has  a  deliberative  voice. 
With  regard  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  from  the  electoral 
colleges,  the  deputies  are  elected  for  five  years  ;  each  one  must 
be  forty  years  old,  and  a  ratepayer  to  tlie  extent  of  1000  frs. 
The  suffrage  is  confined  to  ratepayers  of  300  frs.  The  King 
may  dissolve  the  Chamber,  but  must  call  anolher  in  three  months. 
The  persons  of  deputies  are  protected  during 


lovable,  except  Juges  de  Paix,  Juries  are  preserved.  The 
whole  military  service  is  to  remain  in  possession  of  its  honours 
ind  pensions ;  the  public  debt  is  guaranteed  ;  the  ancient  nobi- 
ity  resumes  its  titles.  This  C,  is  modified  by  the  Acli  Addi- 
tionnd,  drafted  by  Benjamin  Constant,  which,  during  the  Hundred 
Days,  Napoleon  passed  on  aad  April  1815,  and  which  received 
1,300,000  votes.  It  reduces  the  minimum  age  of  deputies  to 
twenty-five,  and  removes  the  ratepaying  qualification  ;  an  indem- 
nity is  given  to  representatives  ;  offences  of  the  press  are  appro- 
priated to  the  jury  ;  the  duty  is  laid  on  ministers  to  give  expla- 
nations when  required ;  and  the  intervention  of  the  Legislature 
is  made  necessary  in  loans,  alienations  of  territory,  and  in 
the  levy  of  forces.  On  the  second  Restoration,  which  had 
proclaimed  at  Cambrai  the  dogma  of  Legitimacy,  Louis 
promised  to  reform  fourteen  articles  of  the  C,  but  failed 
to  do  so.  Afler  the  assassination  of  the  Due  de  BerrI, 
a  long  series  of  retrograde  measures  were  carried  by  the 
ministries  of  VillMe,  Peytonnet,  and  Polignac ;  the  National 
Guard  was  disbanded ;  new  peers  were  indiscriminately  created. 
Then  came  the  address  of  the  221  members,  '  that  the  policy  of 
the  Government  was  not  consistent  with  the  wishes  of  the  people ; 
and  the  royal  ordinances  of  St  Cloud  (asth  July  1830),  the  ob- 
ject of  which  was  the  total  destraction  of  the  liberty  of  the  press, 
and  the  restriction  of  electoral  power  to  the  wealthier  classes. 
TTiese  ordinances,  which  dissolved  the  Chamber,  were  nncon- 
sliturional,  Assodations  were  formed  in  Normandy,  Burgundy, 
Lorraine,  and  Paris  to  resist  payment  of  taxes  not  voted  by  the 
Chamber  ;  then  came  the  Revolution,  the  new  or  revised  C. 
of  6th  August  1830,  and  the  ministry  of  Laffitte,  Guiiot,  Dupont 
de  I'Eure,  Gerard,  Bignon,  Casimir  Perier,  Due  de  Broglie, 
Baron  Louis,  Mole,  Sebastian!,  and  Dupeir,  One  important  point 
in  this  C,  was  that  the  regulation  of  the  Iranchise,  or,  in  the  French 
constitutional  language,  the  organisation  of  the  electoral  colleges, 
was  not  made  part  of  the  constitution,  but  left  to  the  Legislature, 
so  that  universal  suffrage  might  have  been  legally  introduced 
before  1848.  A  direct  initi^ive  is  given  to  both  Chambers  ;  the 
deputies  and  the  electors  nominate  their  presidents ;  the  sittings 
of  the  Upper  Chamber  are  made  public  j  the  Catholic  religion 
ceases  to  be  the  state  religion  in  this  sense  that  all  other 
Christian  sects  are  admitted  to  receive  state  aid.  All  the  peer- 
ages  created  by  Charles  X.  were  annulled,  and  speedy  legislation 
was  promised  as  regards  the  responsibility  of  the  executive,  the 
organisation  of  primary  education,  the  re-election  of  deputies  re- 
ceiving official  posts,  the  franchise,  the  use  of  a  jury  in  the  trial 
of  political  and  press  offences.  In  its  main  features  the  second 
repeats  the  first  C.  By  a  subsequent  law  of  aglfi  December 
i^l  tlie  twenty-third  article,  which  gave  an  unlimited  right  to 
create  hereditary  and  life  peerages  with  pensions,  was  limited  to 
the  nomination  of  life  peers  without  pension  from  certain  classes 
which  are  enumerated.  There  were  three  parlies  concerned  in 
the  preparation  of  this  C.  ;  the  Progressists,  of  whom  Constant 
was  the  type;  the  Doctrinaires,  or  '  quasi-Legitlmists,"  who  did 
not  wish  to  go  beyond  the  principles  of  1814 ;  and  the  prac- 
lical  majority  of  the  Chamber  led  by  Dupin  the  elder,  whose 
anxiety  was  to  point  out  that  Louis  Philippe  succeeded,  not  as 
heir,  but  by  choice.  In  1831  the  franchise  was  lowered  from  300 
to  200  frs.  of  direct  taxes,  and  the  eligibility  qualification  from 
loooto  500  frs.  The  only  other  constitutional  Uw  of  impoytr 
prior  to  1S48,  when  the  republican  const' 
was  the  regency  law  of  1842. 

Char'ter,  in  the  law  of  England,  is  the  instrument  conveying 
a  loyal  grant.  It  is  generally  written  in  Lalin.  The  grant  may 
be  of  lands,  houses,  or  honours,  not  already  possessed ;  or  it 
may  be  confirmatory  of  a  grant  already  made;  in  which  case  it  la 
called  a  C.  of  Confirmation.  (See  DEED.)  In  Scotch  law,  aC. 
is  the  written  evidence  of  a  grant  of  heritable  (real)  property, 
made  under  the  condition  that  the  grantee  shall  annually  pay 
money  or  perform  a  service  to  the  granter  ;  and  this  must  be  in 
the  form  of  a  written  deed.  The  granter  is  termed  the  superior  ; 
the  grantee,  the  vassal.  The  vassal  is  said  to  hold  the  subject  of 
the  superior.  The  annual  sum  or  service  stipulated  for  is  called 
the  Duty.  Charters  are  either  Blcnik  or  Fm.  A  blench-duty 
is  nominal,  as  a  penny  Scots  or  a  red  rose,  si  fetaiur  lantum. 
A  Feu- Duty  (q,  v.)  is  a  consideration  of  value. 

Cbar'terhouae  (a  cormption  of  the  Fr.  Chartreuse,  Latinised 

Carthusian),  originally  a  Carthusian  monastery,  founded  about 

I370by  Sir  Walter  Manny  outside  of  the  bar  of  W.  Smithfield. 

lol 


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ing  been  possessed  by  several  eminent  personages  _  _  _ 
sold  for  /l3,ooo  by  the  Earl  of  Suffolk  to  Sir  Thomas  Sutton, 
who  founded  on  it  a  magnificent  hospital,  and  endowed  it  for  a 
master,  preacher,  a  head  schoolmaster,  a  second  master,  forty- 
four  boys,  and  eighty  decayed  gentlemen,  known  as  Poor  Brethren. 
The  poor  brethren  must  not  be  under  fifty  years  of  age,  and 
must  have  been  housekeepers  ;  they  must  also  i>e  bachelors  and 
members  of  the  Church  of  England.  The  boys,  or  scholars,  are 
admitted  between  the  ages  of  ten  and  fourteen  ;  and  both,  they 
and  the  poor  brethren  gain  admission  less  because  of  their  poverty 
than  of  the  inHuence  which  they  can  command.  The  poor 
brethren  have  each  ao  apartment,  food,  and  about  £,2(1  a  year  for 
clothing,  &c,  and  the  scholars  receive  free  board  and  education. 
The  masters,  however,  are  allowed  to  receive  others  either  as 
boarders  or  as  day-scholars,  and  as  tlie  C,  is  one  of  the  best 
schools  in  London,  the  nnmber  of  these  is  always  considerable. 
Among  those  who  distinguished  themselves  in  after-life,  after 
having  been  educated  at  the  C,  are  Barrow,  Addison,  Steele, 
John  Wesley,  Burney,  Thirlwall,  Grote,  Thackeray,  Eastlake, 
and  Havelock, 

Charter-Pftrty,  this  is  a  contract  for  letting  a  ship  or  part 
of  one  to  a  merchant,  called  the  freighter  or  charterer,  for  the 
conveyance  of  goods  for  one  or  more  voyages.  It  may  be  under 
seal,  or  in  writing  only,  A  memorandum  of  agreement,  or  the 
'"""'''  '•'  an  agreement  for  the  drawing  up  of  a  C.-R, 

all  that  passes  between  shipowner  and  freighter,  and 
--  binding  as  a  formal  instrumenL  By  the  C,-P.  the 
owner  or  master  usually  undertakes  that  the  ship  shall  be  sea- 
worthy, and  otherwise  in  condition  lo  carry  the  goods;  that  the 
ship  will  "be  ready  on  the  day  appointed ;  that  after  receiving  her 
lading  she  shall  sail  on  the  first  opportunity,  and  safely  deliver 
her  goods  at  the  place  of  consignment  The  charterer  under- 
takes to  pay  the  freight,  and  load  and  unload  within  the  time 
agreed  on.  Each  binds  himself  by  a  penalty  to  fulfil  his  ander- 
t^ing.  The  freighter  may  underlet,  or  put  in  the  goods  of  an- 
other, unless  contrary  to  the  contract.  The  responsibility  of  the 
owner  of  the  ship  begins  when  the  merchandise  is  put  on  board, 
The  freighter  generally  insures.     See  Bill  op  Lading, 

diar'tisia  was  the  articulate  expression  of  the  misery  and 
sense  of  wrong  felt  by  the  working  classes  (both  artisan  and  agri- 
cultural) in  the  long  period  after  the  Napoleonic  wars,  when,  with- 
out education  or  political  rights  or  trade  oiganisation,  they  es- 
pected  to  counteract  high  prices  and  low  wages  by  a  redistribution 
of  political  power.  The  same  movement  is  seen  in  the  'Friends 
of  the  People'  (1793),  and  in  the  'Manchester  Blanheteers' 
(1819).  In  1830  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  operatives  were  re- 
ceiving 4d.  a  day  for  twelve  hours'  work,  and  in  some  parishes 
the  whole  available  property  was  insufficient  for  the  relief  of  the 
poor,  although  the  weekly  ^lowance  for  a  labouring  man  (includ- 
ing earnings)  was  sometimes  only  3s.  id.  per  week,  when  the 
S|uartem  loaf  was  is.  Eiek-buming  and  machine-breaking  were 
reqnent  in  that  year.  Tlie  influence  of  a  bad  poor-law  and  of 
the  vexatious  corn-laws  was  in  1835  intensified  by  a  bad  harvest ; 
and  the  excitement  which  the  Reform  Act  of  1832  had  partially 
allayed  broke  ont  in  the  Dorchester  labourers'  meeting  in  Copen- 
hagen Fields  (1834),  the  Lancashire  torchlight  meetings  of  183S, 
and  the  Birmingham  National  Convention  (elected  by  Chartists) 
of  [S39.  The  'Charter,' drawn  up  in  1838  by  six  radical  M.  P. 's. 
and  six  members  of  the  'Working  Men's  Association,'  demanded 
universal  suffrage,  baEot,  annual  Parliaments,  payment  of  mem- 
bers, abolition  of  the  property  qualification  of  members,  and 
equal  electoral  districts.  A  monster  petition  was  presented  to  the 
Commons  on  r4th  June  1839,  but  the  motion  to  refer  it  to  a  com- 
mittee was  negatived  by  a  majority  of  189.  This  was  followed 
by  riots  in  Birmingham,  Sheffield,  Newcastle,  &c.,  by  forced 
contributions  and  the  attempted  suppression  of  religious  services ; 
but  fortunately  the  threat  of  a  '  sacred  month,'  or  cessation  fi-om 
labour  during  August,  was  not  carried  out.  The  best  Char- 
tists, such  as  Hetherii^on,  Vincent,  Lovett,  and  even  Fergus 
0',Connor,  were  '  moral  force '  men,  and  supported  their  pnn- 
ciples  in  the  Dispatch  (London),  IVue  Scotsman  (Edmbu^h), 
Journal  (Blrmingliam),  Chartist  Ctrcular,  the  Northern  Star, 
and  other  papers.  Prominent  among  '  physical  force '  Chartists 
was  a  Methodist  minister  named  Stephens,  who  countenanced 
torchlight  meetings  (after  they  were  by  proclamation  declared 
ill^al),  and  was  tried  and  sentenced  to  eighteen  months'  im- 


prisonment at  Chester  in  1S39.  The  popularity  of  Vincent,  and 
the  report  that  he  had  been  cruelly  treated  in  prison  at  New- 
port (in  Wales),  occasioned  the  armed  attack  on  that  town  under 
the  leadership  of  Frost  (a  linendraper  and  magistrate),  Williams 
(a  publican),  and  Jones  (a  watchmaker).  These  men  were  tried 
for  h^h  treason,  sentenced  to  death,  and  transported  for  life. 
In  1840-42,  under  O'Connor  and  O'Brien,  C  was  successfully 
revived,  joint  cause  being  made  with  the  Irish  Repealers.  Mr 
Duncombe  presented  in  Parliament  the  petition  of  the  '  National 
Chartist  Association'  (which  possessed  400  affiliated  societies 
and  40,000  members} ;  and  in  the  N.  of  England  there  was  a 
systematic  '  turn-out  from  the  ftctories,  although  little  violence 
was  done  to  person  or  property.  In  spite  of  numerous  prosecu- 
tions (on  one  of  which  Thomas  Cooper  was  sent  to  prison  for 
two  years),  the  'complete-suffrage  union '  of  Joseph  Stui^e  and 
the  abortive  land  scheme  of  O'Connor  (who  was  now  supported 
by  Ernest  Jones)  continued  to  fan  the  excitement.  O'Connor, 
who  had  weakened  Ms  position  by  opposmg  the  Anti-Corn- Law 
I*ague,  was  nevertheless  retnmed  to  Parli^ent  in  1846,  on  the 
downfall  of  Sir  Robert  Peel's  administration,  but  nothing  of  im- 
portance occurred  till  after  the  French  Revohilion  of  18^,  when 
a  monster  meeting  took  place  on  Kensington  Common,  "The 
petition  presented  by  this  meeting  (against  the  proposed  proces- 
sion of  which  to  Westminster  great  military  preparations  had 
been  made)  was  found  to  be  in  great  measure  a  dishonest  fabri- 
cation. This  fact,  the  prosperity  of  trade,  and  the  increase  of 
emigration,  all  tended  to  extinguish  C.  O'Connor  became  a 
lunatic.  The  resolutions  in  favour  of  household  suffrage  and 
ballot,  moved  by  Mr  Hume  in  1848,  indicated  that  portions  of 
Chartist  principles  were  destined  lo  survive.  One  of  the 
'points'  has  already  been  conceded — the  ballot;  others  are  in  a 
fairway  of  being  realised— c.f.,  'universal  suffrage  ;' but  the  ex- 
perience of  America  does  not  commend  the  principle  of  'pay- 
ment of  members.' 

Char'tres,  the  capital  of  the  department  Eure-et-Loire, 
France,  lies  in  a  hlEy  amphitheatre  on  the  Eure,  47  miles 
S.W.  of  Paris  by  railway.  It  is  in  great  part  composed  of  pic- 
turesque old  houses,  and  has  many  fine  promenades.  Its  large 
cathedral  oi  Notre  Dame,  rebuilt  during  the  nth,  12th,  and  13th 
centuries.  Is  one  of  the  finest  in  France,  and  is  almost  unsurpassed 
for  wealth  of  ornamental  sculpture.  The  fa9ade  supports  two 
elegant  spires,  the  principal  one  being  400  feet  high ;  and  the 
windows  are  traced  with  5000  figures,  exiiibitiiig  fine  artistic 
design  and  the  rarest  delicacy  of  colour.  There  are  several  other 
handsome  churches,  as  those  of  St  Pierre  and  St  Andre,  also 
an  imposing  episcopal  palace,  founded  by  Madame  de  Maintenon, 
a  massive  town-hall,  a  theatre,  &c.  C.  has  large  manuliictnres 
of  steel,  woollens,  leather,  holsery,  &c,  and  an  active  trade  in 
grain,  wine,  and  cattle.  Pop.  (1872)  16,977.  C,  was  the  capital 
of  the  Gallic  Camutes,  and  became  the  Autricum  of  the  Romans. 
In  the  middle  ages  it  gave  name  to  a  country  which  fell  to  the 
crown  of  France  in  1286,  was  raised  to  a  duchy  by  Francois  L, 
andbecameanappanageof  the  Orleans  family,  whence  the  eldest 
son  of  the  Due  ff  Orleans  generally  bore  the  title  of  Due  de  C, 

Ohartree,  I>uc  de,  Kobert-Pldlippe-LomB-Eugfeiie- 
Ferdinand  d'Orleana,  younger  son  of  the  late  Due  d'Orleans, 
was  bom  in  Paris,  November  9,  1S40,  and  at  the  Revolution  of 
1848  passed  into  exile  with  the  rest  of  the  family.  He  was 
educated  at  Eisenach,  resided  for  some  time  at  Riclimond,  and 
served  along  with  his  brother  in  the  Federal  army  during  tlie 
campaign  of  the  Potomac  (1862}  in  the  American  civil  war. 
In  1863  he  married  his  cousin,  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  Prince 
de  Joinviile,  and  in  1870  returned  incognito  to  France,  entering 
the  army  of  General  Chanzy  nnder  the  name  of  Robert  le  Fort. 
After  the  German  war,  the  National  Assembly  having  .revoked 
the  law  of  banishment  against  the  Orleans  family,  he  was  named 
commander  of  a  squadron  by  M.  Thiers,  and  served  in  Algeria 
■"  1872, 

Chartreuse',  La  Qrande,  a  famous  monastery  in  the  de- 
.  irtmentoflsere,  France,  13  miles  N.  of  Grenoble,  picturesquely 
situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Guiers  (nearly  4000  feet  above  the 
sea),  enclosed  by  lofty  mountains,  and  almost  inaccessible.  It  was 
founded  in  loSj  by  St  Bruno,  broken  up  at  the  Revolution  of 
1789,  and  reoccupied  smce  1816.  The  well-known  liqueur  of 
the  same  name  is  manufactured  by  the  monks,  and  is  so  much  in 
repute,  that  cautions  are  regularly  advertised  in  the  English  and 
other  newspapers  against  spurious  i"!*-'!-.— 


yLaOOgle 


CHA 


THE  GLOBE  E]SI CYCLOPEDIA. 


CHA 


Gharta  are  the  maps  used  in  navigation,  and  in  whicli  are 
specidly  noted  the  depth  of  soundings,  the  position  of  rocks 
and  sandbanks,  and  the  direction  of  currents  and  prevalent 
winds.  The  English  Admiralty  Office  expends  a  large  sum  an- 
nuallj  on  the  prepaialion  of  elaborate  C.  on  a  large  scale,  and 
these  are  sold  at  nominal  prices,  ranging  from  3s.  to  fid.  each. 
At  various  places,  as  Gibraltar  and  Cape  Town,  there  are  depSts 
for  the  supply  of  C,  which  are  now  in  almost  universal  use. 

Ghar'tulary  (Late  Lat  ihartularia),  a  collection  of  charters 
belonging  to  a  church  or  religious  house,  a  civil  corporation,  or 
even  private  individuaU.  Where  these  were  nnmerous,  the 
necessity  of  such  a  collection,  consisting  of  copies  of  the  original 
charters,  would  soon  suggest  itself ;  and  hence  we  find  that  char- 
tularies  were  made  m  France  as  early  as  the  loth  c.  Many  of 
them  have  been  printed,  and  contain  matters  of  great  interest 
and  value,  historical  and  antiquarian. 
CharyVdis.     See  Scylla. 

Oliaao,  Salmon  Portland,  a  prominent  American  states- 
man, was  bora  in  Cornish,  New  Hampshire,  January  13,  l8o3, 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  College,  1S38,  and,  after  studying  law, 
settled  in  Cincinnati  about  1830.  C  was  at  first  a  Democrat, 
but  in  1S41  he  assisted  in  organising  the  Lil>erty  party,  and  sought 
to  denationalise  slavery.  He  was  elected  a  senator  in  1S49, 
and  in  1855  was  made  Governor  of  Ohio.  In  i36i  President 
Lmcoln  appointed  him  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  C.  sig- 
nalised himself  by  his  bold  financial  policy  during  the  crisis  of 
Ihe  war.  He  was  the  originator  of  the  ^-isaae.^ greenbacks.  In 
October  12,  1864,  C.  was  appointed  Chief-Justice  of  the  United 
States,  which  office  he  held  till  his  death,  llay  7, 1873.  C.  stood 
very  high  in  the  esteem  of  his  countrymen.  He  was  unques'  — 
ably  a  man  of  noble  character  and  great  intellectual  vigour, 
his  career  must  always  form  aji  important  part  of  the  history  of 
his  time. 


their  efforts  after  a  Levitica!  and  sacerdotal  purity  ;  for  besides 
their  leaders,  who  were  properly  the  offerers  of  sacrifice,  each 
individual  obtained  the  standmg  of  a  priest  by  taking  part  in  the 
purifications  and  sacrifices.  They  imposed  upon  themselves 
great  acts  of  self-denial,  and  to  a  great  extent  had  a  conununity 
of  goods.  In  process  of  time  the  association  was  split  up,  the 
ultra-Paritan  party  being  the  Essenes,  while  the  moderate  party, 
to  which  the  Pharisees  belonged,  retained  the  name  of  C,  A 
sect  of  C,  which  has  survived  to  the  present  day,  with  doctrines 
drawn  from  the  Bible,  the  Tahnud,  and  especially  the  Cabala, 
was  founded  in  Poland  in  the  middle  of  the  i8th  c.  by  Rabbi 
Israel  ben  Eliezer  Baal  Shem. 

CUia'sing,  tlie  art  of  chiselling  or  otherwise  cutting  out  orna- 
mental details  on  metallic  surfaces,  principally  appJied  to  the 
precious  metals  and  bronze.  C,  indeed,  in  its  vridesl  significa- 
tion may  be  said  to  be  the  artistic  sculpture  of  metal-work.  The 
tools  used  by  the  chaser  are  'gravers'  and  other  cutting  imple- 
ments, '  riiflera, '  and  '  mats,'  lor  producing  a  soft  superficial  tex- 
ture, Repouss^-work  (q.  v.),  after  being  beaten  up  mto  form,  is 
finidied  by  C.,  as  are  also  cast  and  '  struck '  or  stamped  orna- 
ment ;  and  C.  in  relief  is  also  applied  to  metal  in  the  flat. 

Chflas'^,  David  Hendrik,  Baron,  a  Dutch  general  and 
patriot,  was  bom  at  Thiel,  March  18,  1765,  entered  the  army  of 
his  counliy  at  the  age  of  ten,  and  was  made  lieutenant  in  1781, 
and  captain  in  1787,  but  subsequently  joined  the  army  of  France. 
He  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  in  1793,  distinguished 
himself  fighting  against  Prussia  in  1 796  and  1 799,  and  was  popn- 
larly  called  Ghi^al  Baymmile  durii^  the  Peninsnlar  war.  In 
1811  Napoleon  made  him  a  baron  of  the  Empire.  After  the 
first  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  he  returned  to  Holland,  and 
was  lieutenant-genera!  of  the  Dutch  army,  fought  at  Waterioo, 
was  appointed  Governor  of  Antwerp  after  the  peace,  and 
defended  the  town  for  about  a  month  in  1832  with  a  garrison 
of  6000  men  against  a  Belgian  and  French  force  75,000  strong. 
C.  died  at  BreiS,  May  2,  1849. 

Chasseurs'  (Fr.  'huntsmen'),  the  name  originally  given  to  a 
French  body  of  sharpshooters  or  skirmishers,  formed  in  1741, 
in  imitation  of  the  Tyrolese  jagers  (chamois-hunters)  of  the 
Austrian  army.     The  French  C.  were  at  one  time  both  infantry 


and  cavalry,  but  the  name  came  to  be  applied  strictly  to  a  cele- 
brated foot  corps  organised  in  1835  by  the  Due  d'Orleans,  armed 
with  improved  rifles,  and  called  C.  de  Vincennss,  from  having 
been  quartered  at  Vincennes.  In  1838  these  troops  were  raised  to 
abattalion,  and  they  have  since  become  known  also  as  Tiraillsars. 
There  are  light  troops  corresponding  to  the  C.  in  almost  all  Euro- 
Chaste-Tree.     See  ViTEX, 

Oliaa'uble  {casula,  cadbula,  a  diramutive  of  casuf/i,  used  by 
Isidore  of  Seville  for  'a  mantle'),  the  principal  garment  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  priest,  and  as  such  often  called  '  the  vestment ' 
in  old  English  inventories.  It  is  worn  uppermost  at  the  cele- 
bration of  mass.  Originally  in  the  foi-m  of  a  circle,  it  was 
retrenched  in  the  Western  or  Latin  Church  till  it  became  oblong. 
In  England  it  was  generally  adorned  with  Y-shaped  crosses 
and  orphreys,  or  with  embroidered  ornaments  down  the  front 
and  along  the  edges ;  and  later  with  a  Latin  cross  on  the  back, 
and  an  orphrey  m  front.  The  hooded  C,  seems  to  have  existed 
in  France  as  early  as  the  6tli  c.  i  it  is  the  original  of  the  casuia 
processoria,  'processional  C.,' which  was  formerly  worn  at  pro- 
cessions, but  not  generally  at  mass.  The  modem-shaped  Roman 
and  French  C.  is  the  invention  of  the  last  two  centuries. 

Ohat  (Saxknla),  the  name  applied  to  a  genus  of  Insessorial 
birds,  including  several  species,  and  belonging  to  the  sub-family 
of  the  Erythacma  or  robins,  which  in  lum  forms  a  group  of 
the  iai^er  division  Sylmadiz  or  warblers.  The  stone-C.  {S.  rubi- 
cole),  whin-C.  {S.  rubelra),  and  wheatear  {S.  ananihe),  are  three 
familiar  species  included  in  this  genus. 


Latin  castdlum,  'a  fort.' 

ChSteaubun,  a  town  of  France,  department  of  Eure-et 
Loire,  on  the  Loire,  26  miles  S.S.W.  of  Chartres.  It  has  been 
almost  entirely  rebuilt  since  1723,  when  it  was  destroyed  by  fire. 
Besides  a  castle,  which  dates  from  the  loth  c,  it  has  several 
fine  churches,  with  the  interesting  ruins  of  Notre-Dame-de-la- 
Boissiire.  Its  chief  industries  are  tanning,  and  manufactures  of 
blankets  and  hats  ;  its  commerce  is  for  the  most  pari  in  cattle, 
wine,  wool,  and  hemp.  Pop.  (1872)  5564.  C.  was  stormed  in 
1870  by  the  Germans. 

ChSteau-Gon'tier,  a  town  of  France,  department  of  May- 
enne,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  17 
miles  S.E.  of  Laval.  Its  most  interesting  buildings  are  the 
Church  de  la  Trinity,  erected  in  the  i71h  c,  ihe  ancient  Chapel 
des  UrsuUnes,  remarkable  for  its  fine  stained  windows,  and  the 
Church  of  St  Jean.  C.  has  cornmills,  tanneries,  potteries,  ajid 
manufactures  of  linens,  woollens,  seige,  &c.,  and  in  its  vicinity 
are  mineral  springs.      Pop.  (1872)  6371. 

ChSteatt-MargAux,  a  beautiful  castle  near  the  village  of 
Margaux,  in  the  department  of  the  Gironde,  E.  of  Castelnau  de 
Medoc,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Gironde,  14  miles  below 
Bordeaux.  It  is  femous  for  its  vineyards,  which  yield  one  of  the 
finest  class  of  clarets. 

ChSteauneuf,  a  village  of  France,  department  of  Lozere, 
14  miles  N.E.  of  Mende,  pop,  (1872)  393,  It  is  historically 
interesting  for  the  touchmg  incident  connected  with  its  surrender 
by  the  English  governor  in  1380  to  the  dead  Du  Guesclin,  the 
former  laying  his  sword  and  keys  on  the  bier  of  the  latter. 
Here  also,  on  iSth  November  1870,  the  Germans  defeated  a 
superior  force  of  French  Mobiles. 

ChSteaurou!!,  a  town  of  France,  department  of  Indre,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  river  Indre,  and  a  station  on  the  Paris  and 
Bordeaux  Railway,  145  miles  S.W.  of  the  former  cily.  The 
town-hall  occupies  the  site  of  the  old  castle,  erected  in  the  10th 
c,  and  of  which  only  a  tower  remains.  C.  manufactures  and 
trades  in  woollens,  cottons,  hosiery,  paper,  hardware,  leather, 
tobacco,  &c.,  and  has  a  considerable  number  of  hands  engaged 
in  working  lithographic  stones.    Pop.  (1872)  14,893- 

ChAteLLEKAULT,  a  town  of  France,  department  of  Vienne, 
20  miles  N.N.E.  of  Polders,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Vienne, 
and  connected  with  a  suburb  on  the  opposite  bank  by  a  stone 
bridge,  having  a  castellated  gateway,  built  by  Snlly,  with  four 
massive  towers.  Cutlery  is  extensively  carried  on,  lace  is  manu- 
factured, and  there  are  blcadiing- grounds  for  linen.  The  river- 
port  gives  rise  to  a  large  trade  in  the  produce  of  the  district. 
.103 


vLiOOQle 


CHA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


OHA 


Pop.  (1S72)  13,019,      The  Diike  of  Hamilton  lakes  the  title  of 
Diike  of  C.  from  this  place,  the  duchy  haying  been  granted 
James  Hamilton,  Regent  of  Scotland,  by  Henri  II.  in  154S. 

ChAtillon-sur- Seine,  a  town  of  France,  department  of 
Cote-d'Or,  on  the  Seine,  45  miles  N.N.W.  of  Dijon,  with 
which  it  is  connected  hy  railway.  It  has  a  church  of  the  loth  c, 
and  lai^e  manufactures  of  cloth,  iron,  paper,  &c.,  and  a  trade  in 
timber  and  lithographic  stones.  The  allied  sovereigns  held  a 
congress  here,  Febmary  5  lo  March  19,  1814,  to  negotiate  terms 
of  peace  with  Napoleon.     Pop.  (1872)  4586. 

Chateftu'lwiand,  rrangois  Auguste,  Vioomte  de,  born 
atStMalo,  inBretagne,  14th  September  1768,  the  yonngestof  ten 
children  in  an  aiisiocratic  family.  He  was  first  destined  for  the 
marine  service,  and  educated  at  the  Colleges  of  D6Ie  and  Rennes ; 
then  for  the  Church,  for  which  he  studied  at  Dinan ;  but  finally 
entered  the  army,  from  which,  after  being  presented  at  court  in 
1787,  he  retired  tohisfather'sestateof  Comboui^.  After  witness- 
ing the  outbreak  of  Ihe  Revolution,  C.  set  sail  for  America,  with 
a  view  to  discovering  the  N.W.  Passage.  He  saw  the  Canadaa 
and  some  Indian  tribes,  when  the  news  of  the  King's  disastef  at 
Varennes  recalled  him  to  France,  After  marrying  Mademoi- 
selle de  Lavigne,  to  whom  he  did  not  profess  to  be  attached,  he 
Joined  the  Prussian  army  before  Thionviile,  where  he  was  left 
for  dead  in  the  trenches.  He  then  came  in  bad  health  and  great 
poverty  to  London.  While  supporting  himself  by  teaching  and 
translations,  he  allowed  one  of  his  pupils.  Miss  Ives,  to  fall  in 
love  with  him.  In  1797  appeared  his  A'laiii  !«;-/«  .ffA\7/«Ai'»j 
Aiukitnes  it  Modemes,  a  work  written  in  a  sceptical  and  pessimist 
spirit,  and  concluding  against  revolutions  as  useless,  though  made 
necessary  by  human  passion.  The  deaths  of  his  mother  and 
sister  made  C.  a  Cilristian  :  he  says,  '  J'ai  pleuri  et  j'^  cm,"  In 
iSoo  he  returned  to  Paris  under  a  false  passport,  which  called 
him  Lassaigne,  and  next  year. described  his  religious  position  in 
Aiala,  which  had  enormous  success  all  over  Europe.  It  was 
followed  by  Ren/,  the  story  of  a  youth  who  seeks  for  peace  of 
mind  among  savage  tribes,  and  the  GAtie  du  Chrtsltanisme, 
which  is  written  to  show  that  Christianity  is  the  most  beautiful, 
the  most  sublime,  the  most  favourable  to  liberty,  arts,  and  letteis, 
of  all  religions  ;  and  that  to  it  is  due  all  modern  civilisation, 
from  agriculture  and  charity  to  abstract  science  and  literary  taste. 
This  book,  half-melancholy,  half-enthusiastic,  altogether  mystical 
and  almost  irrational,  found  a  ready  audience  at  a  time  of  so 
much  sorrow  and  uncertainty.  The  love  of  nature,  in  which  C. 
was  preceded  only  by  Rousseau  and  Bemardin  de  St  Pierre,  con- 
tributed to  its  success.  The  book  obtained  for  C.  two  diplo- 
matic appointments,  which,  however,  he  resigned  on  hearing  of 
the  judicial  murder  of  the  Due  d'Enghien.  in  1806-7  he  made 
a  pilgiiraage  through  Greece,  Palestine,  and  Spain,  of  which  the 
fruits  were  his  chief  work,  Les  Martyrs,  a  prose  epic  of  the 
time  of  the  Diocletian  persecutions,  in  which  he  wishes  to  set 
off  the  new  faith  against  the  corruptions  of  Paganism  and  the 
shortcomings  of  heathen  wisdom ;  and  Le  Dernier  des  Abeucer- 
ages,  reraarkablefor  its  beautiful  word-picturesof  the  Alhambra, 
&C.  C.  published  in  1814  a  passionate  pamphlet,  De  Benaparle  et 
des  Bourbons,  which  Louis  XVIIL  said  was  worth  an  army  to  the 
Restoration.  C.  enjoyed  the  title  of  Minister  of  State ;  but,  as 
an  ultra-royalist,  he  sav^ely  attacked  the  constitutional  Decazes 
in  the  Consermtatr.  After  attending  the  Congress  of  Verona, 
where  llie  Spanish  invasion  question  was  discussed,  and  acting 
.  as  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  nnder  Villile,  C.  became  a  Libei^ 
writerintheJfcamo/ntiiJ^a.  At  the  Revolutionof  1830,  however, 
he  shii*ed  L^itimist  colours,  refusing  to  take  the  oath  to  Louis 
Philippe,  thus  forfeiting  a  seat  in  the  Chamber  of  Peers  and  a 
large  pension.  He  was  even  prosecuted  for  sedition.  Down  to 
his  death,  4th  July  184S,  C.  was  half-republican,  half-royalist, 
always  a  man  of  sentiment,  not  of  intelligible  principle.  He  left 
behind  him  a  monument  of-sickly  egotism  in  Mimoires  d'outrs 
Tombs.  His  old  age,  though  brightened  by  the  society  of  Made- 
moiselle RScamier  and  Biranger,  was  consumed  by  doubts  about 
his  own  reputation.  C.  will  always  remain  a  proof  of  what 
literary  genius  without  strong  conviction  can  accomplish.  Of 
the  numerous  editions  of  his  works  the  best  is  that  by  Sainte- 
Beuve  {12  vols.  Par.  1859-60).  See  Marin's  Histoire  de  la-  Vie 
el  des  Oiivrages  deM.de  Ch^eaubtiand  [i  vols.  Par.  1S33) ;  Des- 
noiresterres  CkSteaubriand  et  son  &poqu!  in  La  Semaine  (20th 
and  27th  August  1848),  &c.  Most  of  the  great  French  critics 
and  journalists  have  attempted  to  analyse  anti  estimate  C. 


Chatelet-Iiomont,  Gabrielle  Emilie,  Marquise  du, 

a  celebrated  French  woman  of  letters,  daughter  of  the  Baron  de 
Breteuil,  was  born  at  Paris,  17th  December  1706,  Under  her 
father  she  studied  Latin,  English,  and  Italian,  and  at  fifteen 
undertook  a  translation  of  Virgil.  At  an  early  age  file  was  mar- 
ried  to  the  Marquis  du  Chitelet-Lomont,  bnt  in  1733  she  formed 
a  liaison  with  Voltaire,  which  was  maintained  for  fifteen  years. 
The  lovers  retired  to  Cirer,  where  they  alternately  studied, 
quarrelled,  and  were  reconciled,  till  in  1747  the  marchioness  was 
captivated  by  the  asraduities  of  M.  de  St  Lambert,  a  captain  m 
the  regiment  of  the  toiTaine  Guards,  who  was  destined  to  be  in 
turn  the  successful  rival  both  of  Voltaire  and  Roiisseau.  The 
result  of  this  intimacy  was  the  birth  of  a  cliild  at  Luneville,  fol- 
lowed  on  the  sixth  day  after  (September  10,  1749)  by  the  death 
of  the  mother.  Of  C,  Carlyle  says,  that  she  was  'a  woman, 
not  merely  immodest,  bnt  without  the  slightest  fig-leaf  of  com- 
mon decency  remaining ; '  yet  he  considers  it  a  legitimate  psycho- 
logical speculation  how  far  shemight  still  have  had  moral  worth 
as  a  woman.  She  was  an  eager  and  successful  student  of  mathe- 
matics and  the  physical  sciences.  Among  her  works  are  Disser- 
tations sur  la  Nature  et  la  Propagation  du  Feu  (Par.  1744,  Svo} ; 
Insliiatioas  de  Physique  {Vai.  1740);  and  her  translation  of  New- 
ton's ./Viw;>ia,  not'published  till  1 756,  seven  years  after  her  death. 
Chatham  (Old  Eng.  Celeham  or  Catlham,  'the  village  of 
cottages '  ?),  a  strongly  fortified  town  in  the  county  of  Kent,  and 
one  of  the  chief  naval  arsenals  of  Britain,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Medvray,  30  miles  E.S.E.  of  London  by  railway.  It  is  a 
meanly-built  town,  but  is  defended  by  a  series  of  detached  forts, 
which  also  forai  a  Hank  defence  of  the  metropolis.  Among  the 
principal  buildings  are  Fort  Pitt  (a  combined  fort  and  military 
hospital),  an  extensive  araenal,  large  barracks  for  the  naval  and 
military  forces  and  engineers,  and  extensive  depSls  and  maga- 
zines. The  Government  shipbuilding  establishment  is  situated 
at  Brompton  village,  on  the  estuary  of  the  Medwin,  about  half  a 
mile  below  C,  covers  an  area  of  some  100  acres,  and  includes 
building-slips,  floating-docks,  and  sawmills  on  the  lai^est  scale. 
It  is  provided  with  Brunei  blockmaklng  machinery,  and  also 
with  a  metal  mill  for  preparing  copper  plates,  bolts,  &c.-  A 
captain-superintendent  is  in  control  of  the  dockyard,  and  has  a 
salary  of  ^700 ;  under  him  there  are  various  ofiicers  and  clerks, 
whose  salaries  range  from  ^^'200  io£%0.  In  1874  his  estimates 
returned  the  number  of  shipwrights  and  other  workmen  in  and 
about  the  dockyards  at  2974,  at  an  average  weekly  wage  of  24s. 
each.  Pop.  (1871)  45,792,  C.  sends  one  member  to  Pariia- 
ment.  The  town  is  a  place  of  considerable  antiquity,  and  from 
remains  found  on  tlie  spot  the  Romans  appear  to  have  had  a 
cemetery  here.  The  dockyard  was  established  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  and  in  1667  a  Dutch  fleet  of  seventeen  vesselsj  under 
Van  Ghent,  De  Ruyter's  vice-admiral,  sailed  up  the  Medwin 
and  set  fire  to  the  shipping.  New  buildings  were  erected  be- 
tween 1757  and  1805,  and  since  the  latter  date  great  extensions 
of  the  marine  resources  of  C.  have  been  made. 

Chatham  lalaude,  or  Broughton  AroMpela^,  a 
group  of  islands  in  the  S.  Pacific,  nearly  400  miles  K  of  the 
provmce  of  Canterbury  in  New  Zealand,  were  discovered  and 
nained  by  Lieutenant  Broughton  in  1791.  Their  total  area  is 
about  180  sq.  miles.  The  laigest  is  G  Island  or  Warekauri ; 
lesser  islands  are  Pitt  or  Kangihaude,  and  Comwallis  or  Ran- 
giaura.  The  soil  on  the  whole  is  fertile,  and  favourable  to  the 
cultivation  of  wheat ;  horses  and  oxen  thrive,  but  there  is  no 
timber  of  any  size.  The  natives,  tliough  a  robust  and  vigorous 
race  resembling  the  Maories,  are  fast  dying  out.  An  English 
and  German  mission  are  maintained  here, 

Cfhathum,  Williain  Pitt,  Earl  of,  one  of  Britain's  greatest 
statesmen  and  orators,  was  bom  November  15,  1708.  His 
father,  Robert  Pitt,  of  Boconnoc  in  Cornwall,  was  originally  a 
country  gentleman,  and  both  father  and  grand&ther  (the  latter 
had  been  Governor  of  Madras)  sat  in  the  House  of  Commons  for 
Old  Sarum.  Pitt  studied  at  Eton  and  Trinity  College,  Oxford, 
and  after  travelling  on  the  Continent,  obtained  a  cometcy  in 
the  Blues.  He  did  not,  however,  find  his  true  vocation  till,  on 
his  elder  brother  Thomas,  being  returned  both  for  Oakhampton 
and  Old  Sarum,  resigning  the  &tter,  he  took  the  vacant  p&ce. 
In  Parliament  he  espoused  the  side  of  Frederick,  Prince  of 
Wales,  and  by  his  eloquence  and  bitterness  soon  obtained  the 
position  of  leader  of  the  'Boys,'  as  the  younger  Whigs,  and 
opponents  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  were  then  called.      On  the 


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fall  of  Walpole,  Pitt,  although  much  disliked  by  the  King,  be- 
came a  subordinate  member  of  the  Broad  Bottom  administration, 
and  held  the  post  of  Paymaster- General.     In  1756  Pitt,  who 


ajid  who  was  so  popular  that  he  was  styled  '  the  Great  Com- 
loner,'  was  made  Secretary  of  St^e  in  November  1756,  and 
1  te^ty  head  of  the  Government.  Driven  for  a  time  from 
power,  he  was  reealled,  in  ajiswer  to  the  demand  of  the  people, 
in  June  17J7,  and  although  the  Duke  of  Newcastle  was  Kenuer, 
Pitt,  who  had  the  management  of  foreign  affairs,  was  the  real 
force  of  the  administration.  Under  hun,  and  mdnly  on  account 
of  flie  enei^  he  infused  into  every  department  of  the  state, 
Britain  rose  to  a  position  she  had  never,  since  the  time  of  Crom- 
weU,  held  among  the  nations.  Everywhere  Brit  sh  arms  we  e 
victorious  ;  in  Canada  and  India,  under  Wolfe  and  C     e  grea 

Sissessions  were  snatched  from  the  French,  and  a  M  nden  and 
uiberon,  the  power  of  France  in  Europe  was  sha  ered  We 
are  forced,'  said  Horace  Walpole,  'to  ask  every  mormng  what 
victory  there  is,  for  fear  of  missing  one.'  Pitt,  howeve  found 
Mmsdf  compelled  to  resign  office  after  the  access  on  of  George 
III.,  then  under  the  advice  of  Lord  Bute,  and  mo  e  n  n  ed  a  dy 
:  the  majority  of  the  Cabinet  refused  to  de  la  e  ir 
Spain.  A  pension  of  .^3000  a  year,  howeve  *as 
granted  hun,  and  his  wife  was  created  Baroness  C  T  11  7(16 
he  remained  out  of  office,  when  he  was  again  ca  led  o  o  m  a 
ministry,  which  he  did,  going  to  the  House  of  Lo  ds  as  Ea  1 
of  C.  '  This  second  administration  was,  howeve  far  f  ora  ^ 
s,  and  C ,  broken  in  health,  and  to  appeaiance  tempo  ar  iy 
,  resigned  office  in  1768.  Although  he  never  igain  was  a 
er,  C,  to  the  end  of  his  life  took  a  keen  n  erest  n  the 
affairs  of  his  country.  He  opposed  the  policy  of  Ihe  Goven 
ment  towards  the  American  colonies,  advocating  onciliat  on 
and  yet  it  was  after  he  had  delivered  a  powerful  add  ess  agamst 
a  motion  by  the  Duke  of  Richmond  for  making  peace  w  h 
America,  then  in  alliance  with  France,  that  he  fill  back  n  o 
the  arms  of  his  friends,  and  had  to  be  carried  dying  from  the 
House  of  Lords.  His  death  took  place  May  11,  1778.  The 
country  honoured  him  with  a  public  funeral  in  Westminster 
Abbey  ;  the  sum  of ^20, 000  was  voted  to  pay  his  debts;  and  a 
pension  of  ;f  4000  a  year  w5S  settled  on  1  is  descendants.      C 

ne  of  the  greatest  of  B   tish  orators    patriots,  and  states- 

Eesides  his  actual  a  hievements  ii  hii,h  covered  his 
country  with  glory,  his  fores  ght  wis  si  own  m  his  proposals  for 
parliamentary  reform,  for  the  direct  government  of  India,  and  in 
his  directing  his  foreign  policy  towards  the  preservation  of 
Prussia,  while  it  has  been  said  of  him  with  truth,  that  '  Time  has 
approved  almost  all  his  greater  struggles — his  defence  of  the 
liberty  of  the  subject  against  arbitrary  imprisonment  under 
"general  warrants,  of  the  liberty  of  we  press  against  Lord 
Mansfield,  of  the  rights  of  the  constituencies  against  the  House 
of  Commons,  of  the  constitutional  rights  of  America  against 

England  itself.'    In  public  life  C.  was  purity  itself.      ." 

orator,  his  passionate  eloquence  and  sarcasm,  aided  ty  a 
manding  presence,  made  him  more  feared  than  any  of  his 
temporaries.  His  chief  faults  were  intense  pride,  pomposity, 
and  a  tendency  to  theatrical  airs  even  in  private  life,  though  he 
was  a  most  affectionate  husband.  See  the  C.  Papers  (4  vols.  Lond. 
1838-40) ;  his  Letters  to  his  nephew.  Lord  Camelford  (Loud. 
1S04);  F.  Thackeray's  Lije  of  C.  (2  vols.  Lond.  1827) ;  and 
Macaulay's  Essays. 

Ohat  Moae,  a  peat-bog  in  Lancashire  between  Liverpool  and 
Manchester.  It  is  composed  entirely  of  decayed  vegetable 
matter,  is  about  1 3  miles  square,  and  varies  in  depth  from  10  to 
30  feet  A  portion  of  it  was  reclaimed  about  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century  by  Mr  Roscoe  of  Liverpool ;  but  it  is  most 
celebrated  in  connection  with  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester 
Railway,  which  the  engineering  skill  of  George  Stephenso 
cessfully  carried  across  the  yielding  surface  in  1839. 

Ohats'wortll,  in  Derbyshire,  the  private  seat  of  the  Duke  of 
Devonshire,  stands  on  the  Derwent,  20  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Derby. 
It  is  a  splendid  p^ce,  of  quadrangular  design,  having  a  facade 
720  feet  long,  and  being  surrounded  by  grounds  9  miles  in  cir- 
cuit, and  only  inferior  to  those  of  Versailles.  Its  conservatory  is 
the  finest  in  Europe,  and  the  mansion  itself  contains  famous  ' 
collections.  The  estate  was  originally  a  grant  from  William  I 
Conqueror  to  his  natural  son  William  Pevoril,  and  was  held 


Elizabeth's  time  by  Sir  W.  Cavendish,  who  began  (1570)  the 
erection  of  the  mansion,  in  which  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  was 
imprisoned  for  some  years.  The  old  pile  was  included  in  the 
present  edifice,  which  was  designed  by  Wren  and  Talman,  and 
built  by  the  first  Duke  of  Devonshire  (1687-1706),  and  to  which 
the  N.  wing  was  added  since  1820. 

Obattahoo'ohee.     See  Appalachicola. 

Cliatt'ela,  in  English  law,  include  all  property,  movable  or 
immovable,  which  is  not  freehold,  copyhold,  or  inheritable. 
They  are  either  real  or  personal.  Real  C.,  or  chattel  interests, 
are  interests  or  minor  estates  taken  out  of  greater,  as  leases  for 
terms  of  years.  Personal  C.  are  all  property  not  connected 
w'  h  he  f  eehold 

Chatt  erer  (4   pe  d^    the  n  me  of  a  la  ge  fen    y  of  I    e 
sona    b  ds  be   ng   g   o   1  e 
DenQ  ostral  section   of   that  * 
o  de      and    div  ded     nto 
numbe     of    sub  famihes 
cludmg  such    b  lis    as    t 
Drongo    shrikes      caterp  XL 
fru        cow- 


ak    s     \c      The   Boheir 

{Atipeu  gaiT  la)    is  a  fs 
1  ar  example  of  the    yp   al 
genus.      Tl  ese  b  rds  p  s  e 
Siort      broad   b  lis      ound  d 
wmgs  sho  t  tars   a  d   u    ed 


Chatt  erton  Thomae  he  boy  po  as  0  n  a  B  s  ol 
Noven  e  o  752  H  fie  sex  n  a  I  e  fte  Chu  h 
an  1  ma   er  of  a      a    y     h  ol,   d  ed  befo  e   C       b  A 

school  he  was  considered  slow,  but  early  manifested  a  taste  for 
antiquities,  which  was  first  excited  by  a  black-lettei'  Bible  belong- 
ing to  his  mother.  Bound  apprentice  to  an  attorney  at  the  age  of 
fourteen,  in  this  situation  he  endured  much  misery,  solacing  him- 
self, however,  by  writmg  poetry  and  studying  heraldry.  In  1 768, 
on  the  opening  of  Bristol  New  Bridge,  he  composed  the  Z>«fn>. 
lion  of  the  Fryars  first  passing  over  the  Old  Sndgs,  taken  from  an 
Atttknt  Matmseript.  Before  this,  C.  had  written  the  celebrated 
De  Berghata  Pedigree,  purportmg  to  trace  the  descent  of  a 
tradesman  called  Bui^ham.  These  and  other  MSS.,  such  as  the 
Romaunte  of  ike  Cnyghte,  and  Thomas  Rowley's  Sermon,  he  de- 
clared were  found  in  'Convive's  Cofre,"  an  old  chest  taken 
from  the  muniment-room  of  Redcliffe  Church.  After  this  he 
sent  to  Walpole,  for  his  History  of  British  Painters,  a  manu- 
script entitled  The  Kyis  of  Feynctqine  in  En^and,  and  also  an 
account  of  noted  '  cwvellers  and  peyncters '  of  Bristol.  Walpole, 
at  first  deceived,  afterwards  suspected  foi^ery,  and  the  corre- 
spondence was  broken  off.  His  three  years  of  legal  servitude 
over,  C.  proceeded  to  London,  and  was  soon  engaged  in  party- 
writing  for  the  newspapers  and  magazines,  taking  (he  side  of  the 
Opposition.  His  industry  was  unceasing,  and  success  at  first  made 
him  look  for  a  '  gkrious  prospect.'  But  this  soon  died  away,  for 
pasquinades,  satires,  burlesques,  political  letters,  did  not  bring 
the  means  of  life.  Reduced  at  length  to  the  extremity  of  despair 
and  want,  he  soughtthe  post  of  snrgeon's-mate  in  an  African  ship. 
Even  this  poor  chance  failed  him.  These  reverses  and  the  pangs 
of  poverty  acting  on  a  natural  predisposition,  drove  tliis  lost 
genius  to  suicide,  August  25,  1770.  His  remains  were  laid  in 
the  burying-ground  of  Shoe-Lane  Workhouse.  In  the  tragic 
sadness  of  his  fate,  and  the  precocity  of  his  mental  power,  C.  is 
without  parallel  in  EngUsh  literature.  His  short  span  of  eighteen 
years  was  wondronsly  rich  m  results.  Among  his  works  are 
£■&,  a  tragedy ;  Ode  lo  Ella  ;  Battle  of  Hastings  ;  The  Tourna- 
ment; and  Execution  of  Sir  Charles  Bawdin.  The  '  for^d '  poems 
are  nndonbtedly  superior  to  the  others ;  but  such  a  satire  as  A"— ■ 
Gardens,  compared  with  the  Ode  to  Liberty  and  the  Bris. 
Tragedy,  shows  strikingly  his  varied  powers.  It  is  a  mootpoint 
whether  his  maturity  would  have  fiiUy  realised  the  promise  of 
youti ;  but  that  a  longer  life  would  We  developed  his  genius 
can  be  clearly  discerned  from  the  works  he  has  left.  It  may  here 
be  noted  that  C's  knowledge  of  Old,  or  even  Middle  English, 
was  of  the  very  slightest ;  and  it  seems  almost  incredible  that 


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CHA 


anybody  should  haye  ever  supposed  the  forgeries  to  be  genuine. 
Neither  metres,  nor  rhymes,  nor  words,  nor  spelling  belong  to 
the  15th  c,  or  indeed  to  any  other  century.  See  Ths  Foetkal 
Works  of  Tiomas  C,  ■with  art  Essay  on  Ike  Rowley  Foents, 
by  Iht  Stv.  Walter  W.  Skait,  M. A.,  and  a  Memoir  ly  Edward 
BOl,  M.A.  (a  vols,  Lond.  1875). 

Chau'cer,  Oeoffi:^,  the  first  great  English  poet,  was  probably 
bomabout  1340.  HisfitherwasaLondonvintner.  Itisnotknown 
where  he  was  educated.  In  1359  he  accompanied  Edward  III.'s 
army  into  France,  was  taken  prisoner,  and  was  ransomed  in  1360. 
About  1366  he  married  a  certain  Philippa,  a  lady  in  attendance 
on  the  Queen,  and  shortly  afterwards  obtained  an  annual  grant  of 
20  marks  as  a  valet  of  the  King's  chamber.  He  was  sent  to 
Genoa,  in  1372,  to  arrange  a  commercial  treaty,  and  was  made 
comptroller  of  the  wool  customs  in  London  in  1374.     About  this 


France,  Flanders,  and  Lombardy.  In  I38ahe  tec.. 
comptroller  of  the  petty  customs,  and  was  sent  to  Parliament 
a  Knight  of  Kent  in  1386.  But  the  same  year  saw  the  downfeli 
of  his  patron  John  of  Gaunt,  and  the  consequent  dismissal  of  the 
poet  ti'om  all  his  offices.  His  fortunes  rose  with  the  reviving 
influence  of  John  of  Gaunt  in  1389.  He  was  made  clerk  of  the 
King's,  works  ;  obtained,  in  1394,  an  annuity  of  £la,  and  a  pen- 
sion of  40  marks  on  the  accession  of  Heniy  IV.  in  1399.  He 
died,  probably  at  his  house  in  Westminster,  m  r40a 

Traveller,  soldier,  courtier,  diplomatist,  member  of  Parliament, 
he  passed  his  life  among  the  most  various  and  splendid  aspects 
of  the  society  which  he  has  so  vividly  and  minutely  portmyed. 

His  literary  career  has  been  divided  by  Mr  Fumivall  into  four 
periods— I.  iz6y-m.  Pity  :  1369,  £>^e&  a/£launcAe,  meat  com- 
monly known  oi  The  Bake  0/ lAe  Diiciesse.  3.  ly]^,  Farliamenl 
of  Fowles;  Compleynte  of  Mars  ;  Anelida  and  Arcite ;  Troylus  ; 
Adam.  Serminei-;  1384,  ffous  of  Fame.  3.  13S6,  Legends  of 
Good  Women;  1388,  Prologue  to  Canterbury  Tales.  4.  1391, 
Astrolabe;  ComfUynte  of  Verms;  1393-99,  Emioy  to  Skegan ; 
Marriage;  Gentleness;  Lack  of  Steadfastness ;  Fortune;  Purse. 
The  Canterbury  Tiz/u  were  begun  ini373  with  the  second  A'abikj 
Tale,  and  were  left  unfinished  m  1400,  In  this  list  we  miss  the 
Court  of  Love,  the  Flower  and  the  Leaf  beautifiil  symbolical 
poems,  and  the  Rotnance  of  the  Pose,  a  vivid  translation  of  about 
a  third  of  the  Soman  de  la  Pose  of  Guillaume  de  Lords  and  Jean 
de  Meung;.  Some  scholara  have  denied  these  works  to  be  C.'s 
because  they  do  not  agree  with  a  somewhat  arbitrary  rhyme-tesL 
But  there  is  no  other  author  to  whom  these  poems  can  be  assigned, 
and  it  is  certam  that  James  1.  of  Scotland  attributed  the  Court 
of  Love  to  C.  C  was  at  first  greatly  influenced  by  the  French 
trouvh-es,  but  in  his  Canterbury  Tales  struck  out  an  original  form 
of  poetry,  substituting  the  delineation  of  character  and  contem- 
porary life  for  the  relation  of  monotonous  and  extravagant  ad- 
venture. He  recast  and  recoloured  a  number  of  chivalrous, 
humorous,  and  marvellous  tales  woven  in  France,  Italy,  and  tlie 
East,  and  gave  us  in  the  persons  of  then'  imaginary  narrators,  the 
Canterbury  pilgrims,  a  representative  galle^  of  society  in  the 
14th  c.  His  characters  are  not  extinct  types  but  shaiply  defined, 
living  men  and  women.  His  verse  breathes  of  sprii^,  and  is 
bright  with  the  splendours  of  chivalry.  His  narrative  skill  is 
consummate,  his  tales  gliding  on  with  captivatulg  artistic  fluency 
and  unobtrusive  felicities  of  phrase.  He  unites  luxuriant  inven- 
tion, and  piercing  satiric  shrewdness  with  delicate  pathos,  sinmy 
humour,  grave  love  of  truth,  and  celreshing  delight  in  nature, 

The  English  style  of  C.  marks  the  beginnmg  of  the  modem 
period  in  our  literature.  Contrasted  with  earlier  English  dialects, 
his  language  may  be  called  uninflected,  and  comparatively  few 
of  his  expressions  have  become  enthely  obsolete.  Of  modem 
editions  of  C.,  that  of  Bell  (8  vols.  Griffin  &  Co.,  Lond.)  is  meri- 
torious  for  its  notes  and  honest  industry,  but  incomparably  the 
best  is  that  of  Morris  (6  vols.  Bell  &  Daldy,  Lond.),  both  as 
regacSs  text,  biography,  and  hnguistic  criticism.  See  also  Minto's 
English  Poets,  and  the  pubhcations  of  the  C.  Sociefy. 

Ohaudes-Aiguee  ('  hot  springs '),  a  town  of  France,  depart- 
ment of  Cantal,  on  the  Remontalou,  28  miles  E.S.E.  of  Auril- 
lac.  Its  hot  mmeral  springs  {133°  to  igo"  F.)  are  much  used  for 
medicinal  purposes,  aiiid  for  dischai^ng  grease  from  the  fleeces 
of  sheep.  C.  has  important  foils  for  the  sale  of  pigs,  and  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  tinwares.     Pop.  (1872)  iroa 


Ohaudfontaine  {'hot  spring'),  a  village  of  Belgium,  pro- 
vince of  Liege,  a  fewmilesfrom  the  city  of  Lif^ge,  on  an  island  in 
the  Vesdre,  and  much  frequented  by  visitors  in  the  summer 
season,  on  account  of  its  baths  and  hot  springs  (104°  F.).  Pop. 
(1S73)  1393- 

Gliau'di^re,  a  river  and  lake  of  Canada.  The  river,  after  a 
coiu-se  of  90  miles  through  the  province  of  Quebec,  joins  the 
St  Lawrence  7  miles  above  the  city  of  Quebec  About  zj  miles 
from  its  mouth  are  the  Falls  of  the  C— Lake  C.  is  merely  an 
expansion  of  the  river  Ottawa.  On  its  S.  shore  stands  the 
capital  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

Cliauinette',  Pierre  Qaspord,  born  at  Nevers,  24th  May 
1763,  the  son  of  a  shoemaker,  after  a  vagabond  youth  came  to 
Paris  in  17S9,  where  he  fell  under  the  influence  of  Camille  Des- 
mouliiis,  and  joined  the  Cordeliers.  After  haranguing  and  writ- 
ing in  the  most  violent  journals  for  three  years,  he  became  in 
1 792  the  Procm-eur  of  the  Commune  of  Paris,  and  assumed  the 
fanciful  name  of  Anaxagoras.  He  established  the  Revolutionary 
Tribunal,  and  his  rapid,  sonorous  eloquence  made  him  influential 
m  all  the  extreme  measures  of  1793.  He  founded  ttie  party  of 
H^bertists,  who  desired  to  have  religious  honours  paid  to  the 
goddess  Reason,  which  was  actually  done  at  the  File  de  la 
Saison,  in  which  an  actress  named  Mdllard  took  the  part  of 
the  goddess.  With  the  assistance  of  Chabot,  Clootz,  and  others, 
C.  induced  the  Convention  to  adopt  this  absurdity.  Danton 
and  Robespierre  now  combined  to  crush  the  Hebettists,  and  C. 
was  executed  I3tli  April  1794. 

Chau'mont,  an  ancient  town  in  the  department  of  Haute 
Mame,  France,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Marne,  141  miles  S.E. 
of  Paris,  The  Church  of  St  John  the  Baptist  is  a  fine  building 
of  the  1 3th  c  C.  has  manufactures  of  hosiery,  gloves,  dm^ets, 
&c.,  wool  and  cotton  spinning-mills,  and  tanneries.  The  treaty 
concluded  here  against  Napoleon  by  the  Allies,  March  I,  1814, 
formed  the  basis  of  the  Holy  Alliance.     Pop.  (1872)  7984. 

Chavin'cey,  diaries,  the  second  President  of  Hai-vard  Col- 
lege, was  bom  m  England  in  1592,  and  educated  at  Westminster 
Soiool  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  In  1627  he  was  made 
vicar  of  Ware,  became  a  Puritan,  and  after  being  imprisoned 
and  fined,  emigrated  to  New  England  in  1636,  and  iu  1654  was 
appointed  President  of  Harvard,  In  1659  he  published  twenty- 
six  sermons  on  'Justification.'  He  died  19th  February  1672. 
C.  is  the  ancestor  of  all  the  American  Chaunceys,  who  form  a 
pretty  numerous  body.— Oha-unoey,  Charles,  D.D.  great- 
grandson  of  the  above,  was  bom  January  i,  1705.  He  vras 
minister  in  Boston  m  one  parish  for  sixty  years,  and  is  the 
author  of  various  theolc^ical  works  which  are  still  in  repute  in 
America.  He  died  February  lO,  1787.  See  C.  Memorials,  by 
Professor  Fowler. 

Obatr'ny,  a  town  of  France,  department  of  Aisne,  19  miles 
N.W.  of  Laon.  A  (jortion  of  it  is  built  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Oise,  and  the  remainder  on  an  island  in  the  river.  C,  has 
manufactures  of  sacking,  hosiery,  and  chemicals ;  bleaching, 
grounds  and  tanneries ;  and  a  trade  in  grain,  timber,  and  cattle. 
Pop.  (1872)  8333- 

Ghaussas  (Fr.,  from  the  Lat,  calceus,  'a  shoe,  or  covering  to 
the  foot '),  defence  pieces  of  armour  for  the  legs,  worn  in  the 
middle  ages,  Tliey  were  variously  made  of  banded  mail,  riveted 
plates,  cham-mail,  or  padded  and  quilted  cloth,  with  metal  studs. 
The  C.  were  sometimes  taced  behind  the  leg. 

Chaux  de  TondS,  La,  a  flomishing  town  in  the  canton  of 
NeachStel,  Switzeriand,  near  the  French  fi'ontier,  in  a  valley 
3271  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  watchmaking 
industry  in  the  Jnra,  employing  12,000  hands,  and  producing 
yearly  some  /'400,ooo  worth  of  gold  and  silver  watches.  There 
are  also  important  manufactures  of  mathematical  and'musical 
instruments,  beer,  bijouterie,  and  lace.  The  town  has  extended 
very  rapidly,  and  is  sdll  increasing.  Pop.  (1870)  19,930,  of 
whom  2300  are  Roman  Catholics. 

Chav'ioa,  the  dried  unripe  fruit  of  C.  Poxburghii,  one  of  the 
Pepper  order,  and  known  m  commerce  as  long  pepper.  It  con- 
tains an  acrid  resin,  a  volatile  oil,  and  an  alkaloid— ^ijto-inf.  C. 
is  used  in  much  the  same  way  as  black  pepper,  which  in  its  pro- 
perties it  resembles.  Inlndiadriedslicesof  it  are  in  repute  as  a 
stomachic     C.  officinarum  of  the  Malay  Islands  also  yields  a 


yLaOogle 


CHA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


similar  long  pepper.  C.-bele]  is  bet  el- pepper.  C.  Siradoa, 
mixed  with  betel-nut  and  a  little  lime,  is  chewed.  See  Betel, 
Olifty  Koot,  Choya,  or  Sayan,  a  name  applied  to  tlie  root 
of  Oldailandia  uvMlata  (one  of  the  Cinchonactn),  sometiraes 
imported  from  India  for  the  sake  of  the  colouring  matter  in  the 
bark,  which  is  employed  to  dye  red,  purple,  and  orange-brown. 
The  same  name  is  also  sometimes  erroneously  given  to  the  roots 
oi  Mormda,  tinctoria,  and  citrifolia,  Indian  plants  of  the  same 
order.  In  C.  E.,  known  as  Indian  madder,  some  of  the  Ceylon 
tribes  used  at  one  time  to  pay  tlieir  tribute, 

beadle,  a  town  and  parish  in  Staffordshire,  I4miles  N.N.E. 
of  Stafford,  in  a  hollow  moorland  region.  The  finest  building  is 
a  Roman  Catholic  church,  built  in  1846  by  the  Earl  of  Shrews- 
bury, at  a  cost  of  £(iO,'3ao.  In  the  neighbourhood  are  iron- 
mines,  collieries,  copper  and  brass  works,  &c.,  which  fiirnlsh  em- 
ployment  to  the  mhabilants.  Pop.  (1S71)  2929.  The  parish  is 
mentioned  in  Domesday  Book  under  the  foim  Cedla.  About  4 
miles  distant  are  the  rums  of  the  Cistercian  Abbey  of  Croxden, 
founded  in  il?6. 


Cheeky         Obequ^    F 

scribes  d 

small  sq  al 


Ohedda 


H 


m  S  n 


tlie  Po.  Swiss  C.  (Schapzieger  and  Gruyere)  is  flavoured  with 
fragrant  herbs,  and  made  in  clieeses  of  40  to  60  lbs.  The  fol- 
lowing table  exhibits  the  composition  of  several  varieties  ; — ■ 


.n  places  rising  perpend j 

feet.  The  church  has  a  square  tower  100  feet  high,  and  a  sculp- 
tured stone  pulpit.  The  dairies  in  the  neighbourhood  are  fam- 
ous for  their  cheese.  The  C,  process  of  cheese-making  has  now 
been  widely  introduced  into  the  great  dairy-farms  in  the  S,W. 
of  Scotland.    (See  Cheese,)     Pop.  of  parish  (1871)  3200. 

Ohedu'ba,  a  richly  productive  island,  included  in  the  division 
of  Aracan,  British  Burmah,  lies  20  mileS  from  the  coast,  and 
has  an  area  of  250  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  9000.  It  yields  large 
quantities  of  rice,  sugar,  tobacco,  indigo,  hemp,  &c,,  and  has 
mud  volcanoes  and  petroleum  springs, 

Olieese  is  the  compressed  curd  or  casein  of  milk  prepared 
for  use  as  human  food.  In  making  C,  tlie  milk  employed  is 
gentty  healed  to  a  temperature  of  about  112°  F.,  and  a  suf&- 
"  t  quantity  of  rennet  or  of  an  acid  substance  is  added  to  cause 
...Ration  of  the  casein.  Rennet,  which  is  usually  employed, 
is  prepared  from  the  lining  membrane  of  the  fourth  stomach  of 
the  calf,  which  oigan  must  be  salted  and  dried  for  a  year  before 
"  or  its  solution  is  used.  The  action  of  the  rennet  produces  a 
w.mplete  coagulation  of  the  casein,  and  the  separation  of  the  curd 
from  a  straw-coloured,  dear,  liquid  whey  takes  place  on  '  break- 
ing the  curd'  by  stirring  with  the  liand  or  any  implement  The 
greater  part  of  the  whey  can  be  drained  off,  and  the  curdiien- 
dered  rather  dry  and  crumbly  in  the  vessel,  after  which  it  is  sub- 
mitted to  a  further  drdning  in  a  Imen  cloth,  and  pressed  m  the 
C.-press.  The  curd  is  then  again  broken  up,  and  mixed  with 
the  proper  amount  of  salt,  placed  in  a  clean  cloth  into  the  C.  -vat 
)r  chessart,  which  has  the  shape  the  C.  is  intended  to  take,  and 
iubmitled  to  a  prolonged  pressure  in  the  C.-press  to  expel  the  last 
traces  of  whey.  During  this  pressure  the  C.  is  turned  occasion- 
ally. When  perfectly  pressed,  the  cheeses  are  put  away  on 
dielves  in  a  cool  apartment  to  harden  and  ripen,  and  in  C.  of 
good  quality  a  gradual  moulding  should  ensue.  Four  kinds  of 
C.  are  found  in  commerce  :— (I)  cream  C  ;  (a)  C.  made  of  sweet 
milk  with  a  proportion  of  cream  added ;  (3)  sweet-milk  C. ; 
and  (4)  skimmed-milk  C  The  first  variety,  cream  C,  is  made 
in  Yorkshire  and  Neufehatel,  keeps  only  a  short  time,  and,  of 
com^,'is  soft  and  very  fat.  The  best  ordinary  C.  belongs  to 
the  second  class,  and  comprises  Strlton,  Itouble  Gloucester, 
Roquefort,  Gorgonzola,  and  Cheddar,  Of  the  third  class  are 
Gloucester  (single),  Wiltshire,  American;  and  Dunlop ;  and 
Parmesan  and  Dutch  C.  belong  to  the  fourth  class,  which  also  in- 
cludes most  of  the  ordinary  country  C.  made  in  Scotland,  Gouda 
C.  of  Holland  is  made  with  curd  formed  liy  the  action  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  on  milk,  and  to  this  it  owes  its  freedom  from  mites 
and  its  pungency.  Parmesan  C,  owes  its  peculiar  rich  flavour 
to  tlie  sweet  herbage  on  which  the  cows  are  fed  along  the  banks  of 


when  the  commoner  qualiti 
frequently  do  among  the  labouring  popidation.      The  richer 
vaneties  of  C.  are  eaten  in  very  smalt  quantities  after  meals, 
and  they,  when  ripe,  are  found  to  materially  promote  the  pro- 
cess of  digestion.     Great  improvement  has  taken  place  of  late 
years  m  the  manufacture  of  this  article,  especially  in  Scotland, 
where  annual  competitions  take  place  among  the  makers.     The 
Kilmarnock  '  Cheese  Show '  is  one  of  the  largest  iij  the  world. 
The  whole  S.W.  of  Scotland  is  in  the  field,  and  the  value  of 
the  C.  exhibited  is  often  over  ^20,000. 
CIieese-Hopper  (PiaphUa  casd),   the  name   given  to  the 
rva  of  a  fly  (belonging  to  the  order  Difici-a  and  family  Mi4S- 
s),  owing  to  its  habit  of  bending  the  body  into  a  loop,  and  of 
ddenly  straightening  it  in  order  to  spring.      It  exists  in  cheeses, 
e  perfect  fly  being  of  minute  size  (ij  lines  in  length),  of  a  black 
lour,  with  red  feelers  and  forehead.     The  bacon-beetle  (see 
Dermestes)  and  another  fly  (Masca  corvtna)  also  deposit  Iheir 
ggs  in  cheese,  and  thus  cause  much  waste  in  dairies, 

Olieese-Mite  (Anams  domesticus),  a  species  of  Atarida,  or 
true  mites,  belonging  to  the  class  Arachnida  (q,  v. ),  and  so  named 
from  its  being  mainly  ionnd  in  cheese  and  like  substances. 
It  possesses  an  ovai-shaped  body  covered  with  prominent  bristles, 
eight  legs,  and  a  mouth  provided  with  mandibles  or  jaws.  In 
decaying  cheese  the  C.-M.  is  sometimes  found  in  immense  num- 
bers. Reprodoction  is  effected  very  quickly.  No  defined  cir- 
culatory or  respiratory  organs  exist  in  the  animal,  in  which  also 
the  eyes  are  of  simple  character. 

Oliee'tah,  or  Hunting  Leopard  [FelUjubala  or  Guefiarda 
Jubatd),  a  species  of  carnivorous  mammalia,  generally  re^rded 
as  allied  to  the  panthers  and  leopards,  and  found  in  India, 
Persia,  Sumatra,  Senegal,  the  Cape,  and  other  yarts  of  Africa, 
This  animal  exceeds  Qie  ordinary  leopard  in  size.  The  limbs 
are  relatively  longer  than  in  the  leopard,  as  are  also  the  feet ; 
the  claws  are  blunt^  and  only  partially  retractile.  The  head  is 
small  in  proportion  to  the  animal's  siie  and  height,  and  a  short 
mane  of  stiff  hairs  exists  on  the  neck.  The  ears  are  short  and 
rounded,  the  muzzle  being  truncated  and  short.  The  hair  0 
the  fiont  part  of  the  body  and  lower  edges  of  the  jaws  is  roug 
and  elongated,  as  is  also  the  fur  of  the  hinder  part  of  the  abdo- 
men, TTie  colours  are  like  those  of  the  leopard,  the  general  hue 
being,  however,  of  &  deeper  fawn.  The  lur  is  marked  on  the 
body  and  limbs  by  r6und  black  spots.  The  face  is  striped,  and 
a  bold  black  streak  runs  froni  each  eye  to  the  angle  of  the 
mouth, 

The  C  is  trained  in  India  and  Persia  to  hunt  such  ^mi 
antelopes,  deer,  &c.  It  is  kept  blindfolded  until  within  sight 
of  the  qiiarry,  when  it  is  let  slip,  and  stealthily  approaches  the 
prey.  It  then  bonnds  in  upon  the  antelopes,  but  if  unsuccessiiil 
in  its  first  onslaught,  it  makes  no  attempt  to  follow,  but  returns 
to  the  hunter.  The  tfame  Vmze  is  also  given  to  the  C.  which 
under  domestication  may  become  tame  and  fiuniliar. 
Clieiraa'tliiis.  See  Wallflower, 
Clieiiorepis,  a  genus  of  extinct  Ganoid  fishes,  generally 
assigned  to  the  division  Lepidostddis  of  that  oi-der.  The  fossil 
remams  of  this  genus  occur  in  the  Devonian  or  Old  Red. Sand- 
stone formations.  The  head  was  of  large  size,  and  the  body 
covered  by  snmll  ganoid  scales  of  lozenge  shape.  Each  fin  had 
its  first  cay  existing  as  a  strong  spine,  and  the  pectoral  and  ventral 
.  fins  were  well  developed  and  scaly. 

Olieir'oinanoy,  or Chir'omaiioy  (Gr.  cheir,  'the hand,"  and 

miaztcia,  'divination'),  palmistry,  aroode  of  forecasting  the  destiny 

of  an  individual  from  the  lines  of  the  hand.     It  was  known  to 

tlie  ancients.    Traces  of  it  are  visible  in  Aristotle,    Artemidorus, 

107 


vLiOOQle 


CHH 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


however,  in  his  Dream  Book,  was  the  first  to  give  iinyihing  like  a 
connected  or  systematic  view  of  the  subject.  In  the  middle  ages  it 
was  still  more  developed  and  associated  with  astronomy.  Cardan, 
Paracelsus,  Porta,  and  other  dubious  savans,  sought  to  give  it  a 
scientific  basis.  But  with  the  spread  of  knowledge  it  gradimUy 
lost  its  hold  on  the  human  mind,  and  is  now  professed  only  by 
gipsies. 

Cheil'omys.     See  Aye-Aye. 

Chei'roil,  represented  by  Homer  (IL  xi.  831)  as  tlie  wisest 
and  roost  humane  of  the  Centaurs  (q.  v.);  the  instructor  of 
Achilles,  Jason,  and  jEsculapius  ;  sliilled  in  hunting,  music, 
medicine,  and  prophecy  ;  and  throughout  life  and  in  his  death  a 
splendid  example  of  self-sacrifice.  The  young  Achilles,  and 
sometimes  the  Erotes,  or  Loves,  appear  in  existing  representations 
riding  on  his  back. 

Cheiroaeo'tee,  a  genus  of  Marsupial  mammals  represented 
by  the  Yapock  or  Yapock-opossum  of  Brazil  (C  YapocH),  and 
allied  to  the  opossums,  from  which,  however,  it  is  distinguished 
by  its  semi-aquatic  habits.  The  hind-feet  are  webbed,  the  fore- 
feet being  hand-like  in  conformation,  and  webbed  only  to  the 
first  joint  of  the  digits.  The  fur  is  of  a  pale  grey  colour,  banded 
with  sooty-black.  The  C.  possesses  cheek -pouches,  the  food 
consisting  chiefly  of  insects  and  crustaceans.  The  average  length 
is  2  feet. 

Oheiiop'tera.    See  Bat. 

Oheiroate'moil,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Sler- 
adiacea.  C.  platausides  is  the  hand-plant  of  Mexico,  so  named 
from  the  anthers  and  style  of  the  flowers  resembling  in  their 
arrai^ement  a  hand  famished  with  long  claws.  It  was  the 
Macfidxockiilguakuitt  of  the  ancient  Mexicans.  It  is  found  in 
forests  near  the  city  of  Guatemala. 

OheiTOthe'ritiiu  ('  hand-beast'),  the  name  formerly  given  by 
Kaup  to  the  ideal  animal  wMdi  was  supposed  to  have  made 
certain  footprints  seen  in  rochs  of  Triassic  age  in  Britain  and  in 
Germany.  The  fossil  remains  of  the  actual  animal  were  after- 
wards discovered,  and  the  name  Labyrinthodon  (q.  v.)  substituted 
for  that  of  C. 

Gheke,  Sir  John,  one  of  the  ardent  scholars  who  forwarded 
the  revival  of  classical  literatin-e  m  England  in  the  l6th  c,  was 
bora  at  Cambridge,  i6th  June  1514,  and  studied  at  St  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  became  professor,  and  introdnced 
a  new  method  of  pronouncing  Greek,  which,  however,  he  was 
ordered  to  discard  by  Bishop  Gardiner,  the  chancellor  of  the 
university.  Among  his  pupils  were  William  Cecil,  afterwards 
Lord  Burleigh,  and  Roger  Ascham.  In  1544  he  became  tutor  to 
Prince  Edward,  and  was  made  a  canon  of  King's  College  (now 
Christ  Chnrdi),  Cambridge.  When  hia  pupil  ascended  the 
throne,  C,  got  various  grants  of  lands  and  rents,  was  made  Pro- 


mitted  to  the  Tower  01 

"ned  his  liberty,  wen 

t  in  1555  was  seized 
in  Belgium,  conveyed  to  England,  and  again  imprisoned.  In 
an  evil  moment  C,  abjured  Protestantism  to  escape  the  stalte, 
and  grief  at  this  apostasy  seems  to  have  hastened  his  death,  1 3th 
September  1557.  C.  wrote  a  considerable  nnmber  of  works, 
partly  schomstic,  partly  theological;  but  they  have  now  no 
place  in  literature.  For  a  list  of  these,  see  Cooper's  Athene 
Caniabrigienses. 

Ohelse,  Chelic'erse.  The  name  <:Mis  is  given  to  the  lai^ely 
developed  '  nipping-claws'  seen  in  sucli  crustaceans  as  crabs, 
lobsters,  &c,,  and  also  in  the  scorpions,  in  which  laEter  forms 
the  cAela  are  formed  by  the  maxillary ^pi  or  appendages  of 
the  lower  jawa  The  chtlker^  of  the  scorpions  are  foimed  by 
the  pincer-lilte  extremities  "of  the  mandibles  or  larger  jaws.  The 
■h-V  ■     h    t,  th  dim'    t'  es   fth  I   g     M 

CheTlfe      S     B    K  S  n 


Oholma'    id        ed 
tal       Ese 


D  n 


B     k 


th 


&c,,  and  a  considerable  river  trade  in  agricultural  produce. 
The  river,  which  separates  here  into  two  branches,  surrounding 
an  islet  called  Mesopotamia,  is  crossed  by  several  bridges.      C. 

iiossesses  various  handsome  buildings,  and  a  grammar-school 
ounded  by  Edward  VI,     Pop.  (1871)9318. 

Chdo'nia  (Gr.  chddne,  'a  tortoise'),  the  class  aSReftilia  or  rep- 
tiles to  which  the  tortoises  and  turtles  belong.  It  is  primarily 
distmguished  by  the  fact  that  the  true  or  endoskeleton  combmes 
with  the  outer  or  exoskeleton  to  form  a  bony  case  in  which  the 
body  is  enclosed.  This  case  consists  of  a  iaik  or  carapace, 
formed  by  the  expanded  spmes  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae,  and  by 
the  flattened  and  amalgamated  ribs,  generally  eight  m  number 
on  each  side.  Occasionally  (as  in  the  soft  tortoises)  the  ribs  may 
be  imperfectly  united  towards  their  extremities,  and  gaps  may 
thus  be  lefl:  in  the  otherwise  solid  stracture.  The  sides  of  the 
structure  are  formed  by  marginal  plates,  which  may  either  be 
bones  developed  by  the  skin  [tlermal  essi^aliims),  or  be  the  ossi- 
fied ends  or  cartilages  of  the  ribs.  The  floor  of  the  body  or  box  is 
formed  by  nme  pieces  forming  thsp/as^on,  which  Owen  thinks 
is  a  greatly  developed  breastbone,  but  other  naturalists  regard  it 
as  merely  composed  of  dermal  or  sltin  ossifications ;  the  C  in  this 
latter  view  being  destitute  of  a  breastbone.  The  carapace  and 
pkstton  are  both  covered  by  horny  plates,  which  in  die  hawkV 
bill  turtle  (C.  itaMcata)  constitute  att  iortoise-sMl  ai  coraratt^e. 
The  dorsal  vertebrse  are  thus  immovably  connected  together,  those 
of  the  neck  and  tail  being  alone  mobile.  The  bones  of  the 
shoulder  and  pelvis,  supporting  the  fore  and  hind  limbs  respec- 
tively, are  contdned  within  the  ribs  or  carapace,  instead  of,  as 
in  all  other  vertebrata,  existmg  outside  the  ribs.  Clavicles  or 
collar-bones  are  absent  m  Chelonians.  Four  limbs  are  developed. 
The  bones  of  the  skull  are  firmly  ossified  tc^ther,  the  halves  or 
rarniai  the  lower  jaw  being  firmly  united  in  front.  No  teelh 
-laat,  the  jaws  being  sheathed  in  horn,  like  those  of  Birds  (q.  v,). 
In  some  (soft  tortoises,  &c,)  fleshy  lips  may  be  present.  The 
tongue  is  thicit  and  fleshy ;  the  heart  is  three-chambered  nd  th 
lungs  are  lai^e  and  voluminous.  These  forms  swallirw  -a  n 
breathing,  like  the  fr<^3,  the  fbied  nature  of  the  chest       d 


of  longitudinal  shape.  These  forms  are  cold-blooded  and  f  I  w 
movements  ;  they  hybemate  in  wmter,  may  pass  long  p  nod 
without  food,  and  will  exhibit  signs  of  vitality  for  a  Iraigthened 
tune  after  decapitation.  They  are  divided  into  the  C,4  ifa  jala 
or  Tiirtles  (q.  v.),  the  Trionycidm  (soft  tortoises  and  t  p  ns) 
and  the  TesUidmidm  (Tortoises)  (q.  v.). 

Fossil  representatives  of  this  group  occur  doubtfully  first  nth 
Permian  rocks,where  their  footprints  occur  (e,^.,  Chdkh       D 
OTBz'of  Jardine) ;  but  in  the  Oolite  i-ocks  turtle  remains  ar   f    ikd 
and  the  Eocene  period  is  rich  in  Chelonian  fossils.     The  T         y 
deposits  of  the  Sewalilc  Hills  of  Hindostan  afford  the     n 
of  a  gigantic  chelonian  averaging  from  1 8  to  20  feet  long      d 
which  the  appropriate  name  of  Colossochclys  Atlas  h      b    n 

Chel'sea  (originally  CeoUs-ige,  '  the  island  of  ships '  ?)  Middle- 
sex, now  a  suburb  of  London,  with  a  pop,  in  1871  of  258,050, 
In  the  i6th  c.  it  was  the  residence  of  Queen  Catherine  Parr,  Sir 
Thomas  More,  the  Princess  Elizabeth,  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  &c. 
Even  in  the  17th  and  l8th  centuries  it  was  still  a  village  2  miles 
from  London,  the  residence  of  many  of  the  nobility  and  gentry ; 
and  was  famous  for  its  Ranelagh  Gardens,  the  favourite  resort  of 
pleasure-seekers  from  the  capital.     C.  has  numerous  churches 
and  chapels;  that  of  St  Luke  (1824)  cost  XiAOOO;  another,  a 
fme  old  brick  stracture  near  the  river,  is  fuU  of  monuments  and 
brasses  to  historic  personages.     It  has  also  a  training  college  for 
schoolmasters,  and  another  for  schoolmistresses;  two  fine  sus- 
pension bridges  ;  a  Royal  Military  Asylums  for  the  education  of 
the  sons  of  soldiers ;   Botanic  Gardens  (the  gift  of   Sir  Hans 
Sloane,  and  one  of  the  earliest  botanic  gardens  in  England) ; 
and  the  somewhat  notorioiis  Cremome  Gardens ;  but  the  renown 
C  is  mainly  due  to  its  famous  hospital. 
Chilsea  Hospital,  for  invalids  or  superannuated  soldiers,  has 
commodation  for  about  600  men,   besides  officers ;  and  at- 
hed  to  it  there  are  gardens  and  exercise  grounds,  covering 
out  40  acres.   The  governing  body  consists  oFa  Board  of  Com- 
ssionersunder  the  Presidency  of  the  Paymaster-Geneia],  which 
ets  weekly.     The  inmates  are  known  as  in-pensiomrs,  in  con- 


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tradistinction  to  oal-pensioiiert,  the  proportion  of  the  latter  to  the 
former  being  in  the  ratio  of  lOO  to  I.  The  in-pensioners  have 
board,  lodgings,  clothing,  medical  attendance,  &c,,  aiid  a  gradu- 
ated scale  of  weekly  payments,  according  to  the  status  each  held 
in  the  army,  colour-sergeants  receiving  Es.  3d.  and  a  private  7d. 
The  out-pensioneis  receive  payments  for  life  at  the  rate  of  r^d.  [for 
West  Indians)  to  3s.  7jd.  per  day.  The  cost  of  the  hospital  for 
1875-76  is  estimated  at  about /z8,ooo.  Previous  to  the  funeral 
of  the  late  Duke  of  Wellington,  November  iS,  1852,  the  body  lay 
in  slate  for  a  few  days  in  C.  H.  The  bnQding  was  begun  in  1 609 
by  Dr  Sulciifie,  Dean  of  Exeter,  as  a  theological  college,  and  was 
styled  in  its  chatter,  'King  James's  College  at  Chelsea.'  Charles 
II.  built  on  its  site  the  present  Royal  Hospital,  of  which  the  archi- 
tect was  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  and  the  cost  ^^150,000,  There  is 
an  annual  parliamentary  grant  for  the  maintenance  of  the  hospital. 

Cliel'teTiTiflittt,  a  pariiameiitan'  boroagh  and  market-town, 
Gloucestershire,  8  miles  N.E.  of  Gloucester,  on  the  river  Chelt, 
from  which  it  derives  its  name.  Its  prosperity  originated  in 
its  mineral  springs,  which  were  accidentally  discovered  in  1716. 
In  1788,  Geoige  III.  having  derived  much  heneiit  from  their  use, 
C.  at  once  became  a  fashionaijle  resort.  It  has  now  magni- 
ficent promenades,  and  numerous  handsome  equares,  crescents, 
and  terraces ;  while  two  suburbs  have  been  recently  formed  of 
villas  and  firet-class  residences.  To  each  of  the  suas  a  pump- 
room  is  attached.  C.  has  an  endowed  grammar-school,  a  pro- 
prietary college,  wliich  holds  a  very  hj^  place  among  similar 
establishments,  a  ladies'  college,  and  a  training-college  for  male 
and  female  teachers.  It  returns  one  member  to  Parliament. 
Pop.  (1871)  44,519- 

Cliemical  Affinity.     See  Affinity,  Chemical. 

Chemistry,  which  at  present  holds  such  an  important  and 
prominent  position  among  the  useful  and  exact  sciences,  and 
which  has  done  so  much  for  the  good  of  manjtind,  and  for  the 
advancement  of  science  generally,  had  for  its  origin  the  purely 
selfish  desire  for  wealth. 

History. — The  alchemists,  who  were  the  fathers  of  the  science, 
laboured  to  discover  the  philosopher's  stone— a  substance  which, 
by  contact  with  other  bodies,  should  convert  them  into  gold;  and 
later  they  sought  for  the  elixir  vita,  to  give  them  perpettial 
youth,  and  by  that  means  ensure  an  unlimited  period  during 
which  to  enjoy  their  riches.  (See  Alchemy.)  Such  were,  the 
chief  aims  of  alchemy — an  art  (for  it  cannot  be  called  a  science) 
which  was  first  cultivated  in  the  East,  either  by  the  Arabs 
or  Greeks,  and  gradually  extended  to  Spain  and  Africa,  Ger- 
many, Italy,  France,  and  England.  In  thus  censuring  aldiemy, 
however,  it  must  not  be  foigotten  that  many  of  its  devotees  were 
not  animated  \>y  selfish  motives,  but,  on  the  contrary,  laboui-ed 
to  turn  their  discoveries  to  practical  account  for  the  good  of 
their  fellows,  chiefly  by  employing  the  substances  which  their 
researches  liad  brought  to  light  as  medicines ;  and  indeed 
Geber,  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  alchemists,  appears  to  have 
made  this  his  special  objeci  To  the  alchemists  we  are  indebted 
for  the  knowledge  of  a  great  many  substances  which  their  expe- 
riments elicited,  and  in  many  cases  for  the  discovery  of  the  chief 
t)roperties  of  these  substances,  but  it  cannot  he  said  that  they 
eft  ns  any  important  theories.  Theory  began  to  dawn  on  che- 
mists in  the  17th  c,  and  with  its  light  C.  rapidly  assumed  the 
proportion  of  a  science,  and  developed  with  a  rapidity  unsur- 
passed by  any  other  branch  of  knowledge.  Johann  Joachim 
Beccher  and  Geo^  Ernst  Stahl  were  the  first  to  introduce 
into  C.  a  comprehensive  and  rational  theory  of  the  nature  and 
properties  of  matter,  and  to  refer  them  to  a  common  principle. 
This  theory  originated  with  Beccher,  but  was  extended  and 
enlarged  b^  Stahl,  to  whom  most  of  die  credit  of  its  introduc- 
tion was  given;  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  it  was  styled  the 
'  Stahlian  theory,  though  it  is  now  better  remembered  as  the 
'Phlogiston'  theory.  Its  principle  was,  that  all  combustible 
bodies  were  compounds  containing  a  common  constituent  which 
ipated  during  comtiustion,   leaving  either  a  calx  or 


tible.     This  a 


i  residue,  accordin 


s  believed  to  be  a  material 


substance,  and  to  constitute  the  principle  of  combustion.  It 
received  from  Stahl  the  name  ot  phlogiston.  Incombustible 
bodies  were  af  first  but  little  considered,  but  subsequently  they 
were  believed  to  be  the  calces  or  residues  of  substances  which  had 
undergone  the  process  of  combustion.     Phlogiston,  it  was  be- 


lieved, could  in  many  cases  be  made  to  combine  with  a  calx  or 
acid,  and  so  produce  the  original  substance.  Thus,  if  tin  be 
sufficiently  heated  it  smoulders  away,  and  is  eventually  con- 
verted into  a  dirty  white  earthy  powder  or  calx.  If  this  calx  be 
now  mixed  with  charcoal  and  strongly  heated,  some  of  the 
charcoal  disappears  (its  phlogiston  being  yielded  up  to  the  calx), 
and  metalKc  tin  is  reformed.  Chemists  of  the  time  had  exces- 
sively vague  ideas,  if  any,  concerning  the  nature  of  phlogiston, 
but  after  the  discoveiy  of  hydrogen  they  appear  to  have  regarded 
that  body  as  isolated  phlogiston,  an  idea  which  must  have  ap- 
peared very  plausible,  considering  the  ease  with  whidl  hydrogen 
bums,  leaving  no  fixed  residue,  and  the  readiness  with  whicli 
many  metals  can  be  reformed  from  their  calces  when  the  latter 
are  heated  in  a  stream  of  it. 

During  the  greater  part  of  the  i8th  c.  this  theory  reigned 
supreme,  and  was  advocated  and  extended  by  some  of  the  ablest 
men  that  have  laboured  in  the  cause  of  chemical  science.  Pre- 
eminent among  them  were  Priestly,  Cavendish,  Black,  Scheele, 
and  Beigman,— philosophers  to  whom  the  world  is  largely  in- 
debted for  their  discoveries.  It  would  take  up  too  much  time 
to  enumerate  all  the  substances  brought  to  light  by  then  re- 
searches; suf&ce  it  to  say,  that  Priestly  discovered  oxygen, 
Cavendi^  first  prepared  hydrogen,  and  demonstrated  the  compo- 
sition of  water,  Blsiek  discovered  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  explained 
the  difference  between  caustic  and  mild  alcahes.  Scheele  first  pre- 
pared chlorine,  tartaric,  citric,  malic,  oxalic,  and  gallic  acids, 
and  many  important  mineral  acids ;  whilst  to  Bergman  belongs 
the  credit  of  having  first  introduced  quantitative  analysis  into 
chemical  science,  and  by  that  means  prepared  the  way  for  the 

Well  as  the  phlogiston  llieory  explained  the  leading  properties 
of  most  substances  known  at  the  time  of  its  introduction,  and 
for  nearly  three-quarters  of  a  century  afterwards,  it  was  doomed 
to  a  speedy  destruction  at  the  hands  of  Lavoisier,  a  man  who 
effected  a  complete  revolution  in  C,  and  laid  the  foundation  for 
our  present  ideas. 

Lavoisier  proved  that  when  a  metal  is  calcined,  the  calx,  or  resi- 
due of  combustion,  weighs  more  than  the  metal  originally  taken  ; 
and  that  when  this  calx  is  heated  wilii  charcoal,  at  the  same  time 
that  the  metal  is  regenerated,  a  certain  quantity  of  gas  is  pro- 
duced, which  possesses  all  the  properties  of '  fixed  air,'  or  carbonic 
acid,  discovered  by  Black ;  and  is,  in  fact,  the  same  substance. 
Moreover,  he  showed  that  during  calcinalion  in  a  closed  vessel 
a  certain  quantity  of  air  disappears,  and  that  the  weight  of  the 
air  thus  disappe^ing  is  eiactly  equal  to  the  increase  in  Hie  weight 
of  the  metal  after  calcination.  He  thus  proved  that  a  body  in 
burning,  far  from  losing  anything,  gains  in  weight,  and  that  this 
gain  in  weight  is  attributable  to  the  absorption  of  something  from 
the  air.  Lavoisier  made  these  observations  before  the  discovery 
of  oxygen,  but  the  existence  of  that  body  furnished  him  with  the 
means  whereby  to  explain  his  experiments,  and  to  overturn  and 
completely  dissipate  the  whole  doctrine  of  philogiston.  He 
eventually  proved  that  when  combustible  substances  are  burned, 
they  combme  vrith  oxygen  contained  in  the  air,  and  yield  new 
substances,  When  metals  are  reduced  from  their  calces  by  heat- 
ing the  latter  with  charcoal,  the  oxygen  contained  in  the  calx 
combines  with  the  charcoal  to  form  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  thus 
leaves  the  metal  at  liberty,  The  reduction  of  a  calx  by  hydro- 
gen is  owing  to  a  sunilar  cause,  but  in  that  case  water,  and  rot 
carbonic  acid,  results,  The  C.  of  Lavoisier's  day  was  the  C. 
of  oxygen.  Substances  were  examined  for  its  presence,  and 
new  bodies  were  oblmned  by  combining  it  with  various  known 
elements  or  compounds.     Lavoisie    d      rm     d  th  m 

position  of  the  air,  showed  that  oxyg     w    th      ti      ng    d 
and  explained  the  part  it  took  in    h    p  oces         R    p  ra 
(q.  v.).     In  the  course  of  his  resear  hhhdp       dhca 
bonic  acid  was  a  compoimd  of  caib 
of  sulphur  and  oxreen,  phosphoric 
gen,  and  nitric  acid  of  nitrogen  and 
mduced  him  to  believe  that  oxygen  w 
of  all  acids,  and  o      ' " 


"tU 


is  not  a  necessary  constituent  of  ds  has 

by  the  discovery  of  the  hydracids  h 
in  by  lar  the  greater  numl>er  of 

over-estimate  the  value  of.  the  re  m        trw 

Lavoisier.     The  sdence  received  p  tu 

petienced  in  its  hlstoiy,  and  discoy  d 


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plied  in  all  directions.  Quantilative  analysis  became  an  essential 
part  of  C,  and  numerous  investigators  laboured  m  its  cause. 
Amongst  tlie  most  celebrated  of  these  may  be  mentioned  Kiap- 
rotli  Yauquelin,  Stromeyer,  and  Berzelius.  The  researches  of 
these  chemists  not  only  added  to  the  knowledge  of  the  com- 
position and  properties  of  known  substances,  but  brouglit  to 
'icht  several  new  and  interesting  elements,— as,  for  instance,  ura- 
K,™   .ziivnniiini,  titanium,  tellurium,  chromium,  cadmium,  sele- 


nium, &c  ..        , 

At  the  time  these  discoveries  were  taltmg  place,  a  most  impor- 
tant controversy  was  being  carried  on  by  two  French  chemists, 
Proust  and  Berthollet.  TTie  latter  maintamed  that  the  elements 
combined  together  in  variable  proportions,  the  former  that  the 
propoitions  were  fined  and  definite.  The  dispute  ended  in 
BerthoUet's  defeat,  and  in  the  establishment  of  one  of  the  most 
important  laws  in  chemistry,  viz.,  that  of  definite  proportions. 
This  has  brought  us  to  the  commencement  of  the  iglh  c— a 
memorable  period  for  chemists,  for  it  was  at  this  time  that 
Dalton  introduced  the  Atomic  Tlieory  (q.  v.).  Space  does  not 
permit  ua  to  trace  the  development  of  this  theory,  nor  to  shiiw 
how  the  quantitative  experiments  of  Bergman,  Wenzel,  Ri'chter, 
Lavoisier,  and  others  were  instrumental  in  establishing  the  prin- 
ciples upon  -which  it  depends.  The  atomic  theory  being  once 
firmly  established  upon  a  thorough  basis  of  experimental  evi. 
deuce,  chemists  next  turned  their  attention  to  the  determination 
of  the  atomic  weights  of  the  elements,  and  for  the  results  we  are 
indebted  to  Dalton,  Gay-Lussac.  Dulong  and  Petit,  Berzeliiis, 
Gerhardt,  Siaas,  and  others.  At  the  time  that  Dalton  was 
carrying  on  his  experiments  and  enunciating'  his  ideas,  another 
eminent  British  chemist  was  startling  the  worhl  by  his  strik- 
ina  and  brilliant  discoveries,  and  opening  up  a  new  field  of 
researeh  and  speculation.  In  the  year  1800,  Volla  had  pub- 
lisheda  description  of  the  Pile  {q- v.),  and  shortly  afterwards 
Nicholson  and  Carlisle  had  shown  that  by  its  agency  water 
could  be  decomposed  into  its  constituents,  oxygen  and  hydro- 
gen. BerieUus  and  Hisiuger,  following  up  the  idea,  had  per- 
formed a  series  of  experiments  on,  the  action  of  a  current  of 
electricity  on  various  salts.  It  was  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  how- 
ever who  enunciated  the  laws  of  voltaic  chemistry,  and  threw 
an  entirely  new  light  on.the  composition  of  an  important  dass 
of  bodies.  He  found  that  potash,  soda,  Hme,  baryta,  stronlia, 
magnesia,  and  Uthia  were  compounds  of  oxygen  wHh  raetaU. 
The  latter  he  succeeded  in  isolating,  and  demonstrated  their  chief 
properties.  These  discoveries  eventually  enabled  chemists  to  prove 
that  the  groups  of  compounds  called  Alkalies,  Alkaline  earths,  and 
Earths  proper,  are  simply  the  oxides  of  metals.  Into  Davy's  elec- 
tro-chemical theoiy  space  prevents  us  from  entering  ;  suffice  it 
to  say,  that  it  has  done  excellent  service  for  science,  although  not 
retained  at  present  in  its  entirety.  Mention  must  here  be  made 
of  the  beautiful  experiments  of  Faraday  on  the  quantitative  effects 
of  the  galvanic  current  in  decomposing  salts,  (See  Electro- 
lysis )  Davy  also  established  the  fact  that  hydrochloric  acid  is 
a  compound  of  chlorine  and  hydrogen,  and  that  chlorine  is  -" 
elementary  substance,  and  not,  as  had  been  before  believed, 
compound  of  hydrochloric  acid  (or,  as  it  was  then  called,  mil. 
otic  acid)  with  oxygen.  These  facts  quite  upset  Lavoisier's  doc- 
trhies  respecting  the  nature  of  acid^  and  led  eventually  to  the 
discovery  of  the  other  bydracids,  viz,,  Iiydriodir^  hydrobromi- 
and  hydrocyanic  acids,  and  to  the  placing  of  hydrofluoric  acid 
the  same  group.  Beraelius  was  another  chemist  to  whom  sciem 
lies  under  the  greatest  obligations.  His  whole  life  was  devoted 
to  investigation,  and  his  labours  have  gone  far  to  place  C. 
present  looting.  To  him  we  are  indebted  for  much  of  the 
nomenclature  of  chemical  substances  at  present  in  use  ;  for  his 
representation  of  atoms  by  symbols,  and  of  reactions  (or  chemi- 
cal changes)  by  means  of  equations.  By  his  analyses  he  contri- 
buted largely  to  a  knowledge  of  the  atomic  weights  of  the 
elements,  and  by  his  electro-chemical  theory  to  a  correct  under- 
standing of  many  important  facts.  His  experiments  with  the 
blowpipe  raised  that  instrument  loan  important  place  amongst 
chemical  apparatus.  He  first  isolated  the  elemenU  silicon  a--" 
selenium,  showed  that  sulphur  united  with  certain  metals 
form  substances  having  a  basic  character,  and  with  certain  ni 
metals  yielding  bodies  possessed  of  acid  characters,  and  that 
these  sulpho-bases  and  sulpho-acids  combuied,  formir^  sulpho- 
salts.  In  fact,  he  clearly  demonstrated  the  important  analogies 
existing  between  the  two  elements  sulphur  and  oxygen.  His 
great  merit  lies  in  his  having  systematised  C. 


It  was  at  the  commencement  of  the  present  century  that  che- 
mists began  to  direct  their  altention  to  the  organic  world,  and  to 
attempt  to  manufacture  in  the  laboratory  substances  which  pre- 
viously had  only  been  obtained  from  the  products  of  animal  and 
vegetable  life.  The  first  synthesis  of  an  oi^anic  substance  was 
that  of  urea,  a  crystalline  nitrogenous  compound  contained  in 
considerable  quantity  in  the  uruie  of  the  carnivora.  In  the  year 
1S28  Wohler  showed  that  this  substance  was  produced  by  a  mole- 
cular change  in  cyanate  of  ammonium  when  its  aqueous  solution 
boiled.  This  discovery  opened  up  a  grand  field  of  research 
speculation.  No  longer  were  chemists  held  in  check  by 
the  belief  that  organic  substances  were  built  up  by  the  vital  force 
—a  special  agency  beyond  their  control.  What  Wohler  had 
accomplished  in  the  case  of  urea,  they  hoped  to  do  with  other 
■  dies,  and  their  experiments  were  soon  crowned  with  success 
all  directions.  Numerous  new  and  interesting  groups  of  car- 
n  compounds  wore  discovered,  and  organic  C.  became  the  C. 
of  the  compounds  of  carbon  (on  account  of  the  presence  of  that 
element  in  all  organic  products).  From  that  time  to  the  pre- 
sent day  organic  C.  has  largely  occupied  the  attention  of 
chemists,  and  has  led  to  the  discovery  of  facts  of  the  greatest 
practical  importance.  Of  the  services  of  this  department  of 
chemical  science  to  the  arts  and  manufactures  loo  much  could 
not  be  said.  The  brilliant  discoveries  of  Perkin  and  Hoffman 
witli  aniHne  have  supplied  the  dyer  with  the  most  beautiful 
colours  ever  produced,  whilst  not  only  aniline,  but  a  host  oE 
otlier  products,  obtainable  from  Coal  Tar  (q.  v.),  are  employed 
in  numerous  manufactures.  Organic  C.  has  supplied  the  phy- 
sician and  surgeon  with  medicines  and  remedies  of  the  greatest 
value,  with  chloroform  and  chloral,  carbolic  add,  &c 

Among  the  chemists  who  have  made  oi^anic  C.  their  great 
study,  none  deserves  more  credit  than  Liebig,  who  first  supplied 
a  method  for  determining  carbon  and  hydrogen  in  an  oiganic 
body.  In  conjunction  with  Wohler  he  discovered  the  compound 
carbon  radicals,  and  added  to  our  knowledge  by  isolating  many 
new  and  important  compounds.  His  experiments,  too,  into  the 
physiological  C.  of  plants  and  animals,  have  been  of  inestimable 
value  to  the  fenner,  and  indeed  have  been  the  means  of  revolu- 
tionising agriculture,  and  of  establishing  it  on  a  rational  and  , 
scientific  basis. 

BeforequittingthehistoryofC,  mention  must  be  made  of  the 
services  done  for  the  science  by  the  Spectroscope  (q.  v.).  Fraun- 
hofer  was  the  fii-st  to  observe  in  the  sun's  spectrum  a  number  of 
bladi  lilies,  which  have  since  been  found  to  be  owing  to  the 
presence  of  cei'.ain  metals  in  tlie  state  of  vapour.  This  observa- 
tion in  the  hands  of  Bunsen  and  Kirchoff  led  to  the  construction 
of  the  spectroscope,  an  instrument  by  means  of  which  the  smallest 
trace  of  many  elements  can  be  detected.  By  its  aid,  too,  several 
new  elements  have  been  discovered — viz.,  ctesinm,  rubidium, 
thallium,  and  gallium.  Not  only  has  the  specti-oseope  revealed 
lie  nature  of  the  matter  of  which  our  earth  is  composed,  but  it 
has  also  demonstrated  that  the  masses  of  the  sun  and  of  many 
planets  are  composed  (in  part  at  least)  of  the  same  elements. 

In  reviewing  the  position  of  C.  at  the  present  time,  we  cannot 
but  be  struck  by  the  marvellous  rapidity  of  its  development  c 
ing  the  present  century,  with  the  important  place  it  holds  among 
the  sciences,  and  with  the  vast  infiuence  it  exercises  on  aln 
every  department  of  human  industry. 

Principles. — From  the  preceding  slietch,  it  will  have  been  seen 
that  the  object  of  C.  is  the  investigation  of  matter  with  a  v>-"' 
to  the  determination  of  its  composition  and  properties.  Bu 
defeie  C,  in  exact  langoage  is  a  matter  of  great  difficulty,  imvag 
to  the  fact  that  the  sister  science  of  physics  is  engaged  with 
almost  the  same  problems :  and  indeed  it  is  ui^ed  that  C,  is 
simply  a  branch  of  physical  science.  We  must  leave  the  reader 
to  form  his  own-definirion  from  a  statement  of  the  leading  facts 
and  doctrines  of  the  science. 

Composition  of  Matter. — All  investigations  into  the  nature  of 
matter  have  led  to  the  conclusion  that  whereas  certain  substances 
can  be  decomposed  or  split  into  new  bodies,  others  resist  i 
efforts  to  decompose  them.  Substances  of  the  first  kind  a 
called  compounds,  those  of  the  second,  elements.  Up  to  the 
present  time  science  has  revealed  the  existence  of  sixty-four  ele- 
mentary bodies  (if  we  include  the  new  metal  gallium,  discovered 
quite  recently).  These  elements  differ  from  one  another  in  ap- 
pearance and  properties.  They  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
which  are  called  respectively  metals  and  non-metals.  Of  the 
former,  with  the  esceptlon  of  quicksilver  or  mercury,  all  are 


yLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CHE 


-^ 


solid  at  ordinary  temperatures.  Of  the  latter,  four  are  gaseous 
'  xygen,  hydrogen,  cUoriiie,  and  nitrogen),  one  liquid  (bromine), 
id  the  remainder  solid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  Compounds 
e  formed  of  the  elements,  united  in  various  proportions  ;  but 
e  same  compound  always  conta'  is  the  same  elements,  and  the 
me  proportions  of  tl  ese  The  majonty  of  compounds  contain 
it  two,  three,  or  four  elene  ts   but  so  net  mes  the  number  is 

Differences  betwie  Conpo  ids  and  Mtxi  ra  — A  problem  of 
repeated  occurrence  to  the  cl  emist  s  to  dec  de  whether  he  is 
d^ing  with  a  mutu  e  of  substances  or  v  th  a  true  chemical 
compound.  This  is  not  aln  )s  an  easy  n  atte  ,  but  there  are 
certain  well-marked  dist  notions  between  the  two,  with  which 
the  reader  should  be  made  acqua  nted  Co  npounds,  as  we  have 
said,  are  character  sed  by  a  defin  te  compo  t  on  :  if  solid,  they 
very  often  crystallise  and  the  crystals  have  a  definite  and  char- 
acteristic shape ;  if  1  qmd  and  volatile  w  thout  decomposition, 
they  boil  at  a  definite  temperature.  Moreoser,  and  most  im- 
portant of  all,  if  we  produce  a  compound  from  its  elements,  the 
union  of  the  latter  is  attended  with  a  disengagement  of  heat.  A 
mixture,  on  the  other  hand,  may  contain  substances  in  varying 
quantities.  In  a  minture,  each  of  the  ingredients  retains  its  own 
properties,  and  the  properties  of  the  miittnre  are  simply  the 
mean  of  these.  In  making  a  mixture,  no  rise  of  temperature 
occurs;  and  finally,  it  is  often  possible,  by  purely  mechanical 
means,  to  s^>arate  the  ingredients  of  a  mixture,  and  to  obtain 
each  in  an  isolated  condition.  (For  an  illustration  of  these 
arguments  see  article  Atmosphbke.) 

The  investigation  of  compound  substances  constitutes  by  far 
the  most  important  part  of  C,  for  it  is  with  compounds 
that  the  chemist  has  chiefly  to  deal.  There  are  two  methods 
by  which  an  msight  can  be  gained  into  the  composition  and 
constitution  of  these  bodies.  The  one  consists  in  separating 
them  into  their  elements  or  into  compounds  of  a  simpler  nature 
than  themselves ;  the  other  in  building  them  up,  it  may  be 
directly,  it  may  be  by  several  stages,  from  their  elements,  or 
from  compounds  the  nature  of  which  is  already  kn<  *" 


in  of  bodies  not  only  qualitatively  but  also  quantilatively  ; 
re  frequently  the  task  is  one  of  considerable  difii  u  y  an 
Is  all  the  skill  and  patience  of  the  chemist.  No  be  e 
example  of  analysis  can  be  chosen  than  that  of  a  e  — one  o 
the  most  abnndant  and  well-known  of  all  chemical  mp  und 
If  we  take  water  and  addnlate  it  with  a  few  dp  u 

phuric  add  (to  make  it  conduct),  and  then  plunge  o  wo 
platinum  plates  connected  respectively  with  the  p  e  and 
negative  poles  of  a  galvanic  battery,  we  observe  a  on  e  a  d 
engagement  of  gas  from  both  of  the  plates.  If  we  collect  the 
gases  in  separate  vessels,  we  find  that  they  possess  very  dif- 
ferent properties,  the  one  collected  from  the  platinum  plate 
attached  to  the  negative  pole  being  combustible,  whilst  the 
other  is  not  inflammable,  but  capable  of  supporting  combustion 
with  great  brilliancy.  The  two  gases  are,  in  fact,  hydrogen 
and  oxygen — the  two  constituents  of  water.  Another  important 
,  point  in  this  experiment  is,  that  the  volume  of  the  hydrogen 


is  fotmd  that  for  every  one  part  of  hydr . 
gen,  eight  parts  of  oxygen  are  disengaged.  The  experiment 
proves  then  that  water  is  a  compound  substance,  containing 
oi^en  and  hydrogen  in  the  properties  of  two  volumes  of  the 
latter  to  one  of  the  former,  but  of  one  part  by  viHght  of  the  latter 
to  eight  parla  by  weight  of  the  former. 

Many  other  compounds  can  be  decomposed  into  their  elements 
by  the  electric  current,  and,  indeed,  it  is  one  of  the  most  valu- 
able decomposing  agencies  which  the  chemist  possesses.  We 
have  already  mentioned  the  &ct  that  by  its  cdd  Sir  Humphrey 
Davy  was  enabled  to  demonstrate  the  true  nature  of  an  important 


Heat,  like  electricity,  is  a  decomposing  agent,  and  one  of  al- 
nost  as  much  importance  to  the  chemist.  Its  action  is,  however, 
frequently  of  a  more  complex  nature ;  nevertheless,  there  are 
many  simple  analyses  which  may  be  accomplished  by  its  aid. 
Thus,  if  red  oxide  of  mercury  be  heated,  It  is  resolved  into  its 
elements,  mercury  and  oxygen  ;  but  in  the  case  of  many  sub- 
stances only  partial  decomposition  ensues .     F"- ■"=■' "i—n- 

'  *  '    *  '     '       '       ,  oxreen,  and  .  _ , 

fi  substances — lime 


and  carbonic  acid,  each  of  which  is  itself  a  compound.  The 
carbonic  acid  contains  the  whole  of  the  carbon  and  part  of  the 
ox)^en  ;  the  lime,  the  whole  of  the  calcium  and  the  remainder 
of  the  oxygen.  The  action  of  heat  on  many  organic  sub- 
stances is  totally  to  destroy  them  and  to  produce  other  and  often 
highly  complex  compounds.  (See  DISTILLATION,  Destruc- 
tive. )  We  see,  then,  that  there  are  two  very  powerful  physical 
decomposing  agents,  both  of  which,  at  various  times,  have  done 
good  service  for  C.  But  we  have  not  spoken  of  decom- 
positions brought  about  by  chemical  agents,  although,  from  a 
chemist's  point  of  view,  these  are  the  most  important.  AH 
chemical  decompositions  are  brought  about  by  the  opE    ''         ■" 


affinity,  < 


the  force  which  c 


combme.  This 
....  radictory,  for  how,  it  will  be  asked, 
fwce  which  causes  union  also  cause  disunion  ?  The  an- 
swer is,  that  the  affinity  existing  between  various  substances  dif- 
fers in  degree.  For  instance,  the  affinity  of  a  body,  A,  for  an- 
other, B,  may  be  greater  than  that  of  A  for  a  third,  C.  If,  then, 
we  have  the  compoundAC,  and  place  Bin  contact  with  it,  A  will 
leave  C  at  liberty,  and  will  go  to  B  to  form  a  new  compound, 
A  B.  Thus,  if  we  take  gaseous  hydrlodic  acid  (a  compound  of 
hydrogen  and  iodine),  and  heat  some  sodium  in  contact  with  it, 
the  iodine  will  unite  with  the  sodium,  forming  iodide  of  sodium, 
and  hydrogen  will  be  set  at  liberty.  We  can  isolate  the  iodine, 
now  combined  with  the  aodiam,  by  passing  a  stream  of  chlorine 
through  the  aqueous  solution  of  the  iodide  of  sodium,  for, 
owing  to  the  greater  affinity  of  chlorine  for  sodium,  the  iodine 
is  set  at  liberty,  and  chloride  of  sodium,  or  common  salt, 
formed.  Double  deeomposilion  results  when  certain  compounds 
are  brought  tc^ether  under  suitable  conditions.  For  instance,  if 
a  solution  of  nitrate  of  baryta  (a  compotmd  of  nitric  acid  and 
bai-yta)  is  mixed  with  one  of  sulphate  of  soda  (a  compound  of 
sulphuric  acid  and  soda),  a  dense  white  precipitate  is  produced, 
which  eventually  settles  down,  leaving  a  clear  solution.  Tlie 
precipitate  consists  of  sulphate  of  baiyla  (a  compound  of  sulphu- 
ric acid  and  liaryta),  whilst  the  Solution  contains  nitrate  of  soda 
(a  compound  of  nitric  acid  and  soda).  Here,  then,  a  mutual 
exchange  of  constituents  has  taken  place.  The  sulphuric  acid, 
before  combined  with  the  soda,  has  left  it  to  combine  with  the 
baryta,  whereas  the  nitric  acid,  before  combmed  wirti  the  baryta, 
ha      ow  E  ne  to  the  soda.     Thus- 


Double  decompositions  are  of  frequent 

haps  the  roost  important  of  chemical  reactions. 

Syritkesis  is  the  reverse  of  analysis,  for  whereas  by  analysis  a 
substance  is  split  up  into  its  constituents,  by  synthesis  it  is  buUt 
up  from  these.  Synthesis,  like  analysis,  serves  to  determine  the 
composition  of  bodies,  and  many  complex  problems  in  this 
direction  have  been  solved  by  its  aid  alone.  It  was  by  synthesis 
that  Cavendish  discovered  the  composition  of  water.  In  like 
maimer,  Wbhler  by  its  aid  demonstrated  the  composition  of 
urea,  and  showed  for  the  first  time  that  a  substance  of  organic 
origin  could  be  formed  by  artificial  means.  The  synthesis  of 
water  is  readily  effected  by  mixing  the  two  gases,  oxygen  and  hydro- 
gen, in  the  proper  pnmortions,  and  kindling  the  mixture,  either  by 
the  electric  spark  or  by  the  application  of  a  flame.  If  the  experi- 
ment be  made  in  a  closed  vessel  of  sufficient  thickness,  a  flash  of 
light  is  observed,  and  the  sides  of  the  vessel  become  covered  with 
dew.  But  if  the  experiment  be  made  in  an  open  vessel,  a  venr 
loud  explosion  lakes  place.  Water  is  a  product  of  nearly  all  ordi- 
nary combustions,  for  most  combustible  substances  contain  hydro- 
gen, and  the  air  supplies  the  ox}^n.  Thus  it  can  be  seen  that 
in  the  combustion  of  a  candle,  of  wood,  gas,  or  coal,  water  is 
produced.  In  order  to  effect  the  synthesis  of  a  body,  It  is  fre- 
quently necessajy  to  proceed  in  an  indirect  manner,  for  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  the  elements  of  which  a  substance  is  composed 
do  not  unite  directly  to  fortn  the  substance. 

Affinity. — We  have  already  spoken  of  affinity  as  being  the 
force  which  causes  chemical  union,  and  have  stated  that  it  differs 
in  degree,  being  in  certain  cases  very  intense,  in  others  very 
weak.  At  the  present  time  chemists  and  physicists  are  undecided 
in  their  opinions  as  to  the  nature  of  this  force,  but  that  it  is  inti- 


vLaOogle 


CHE 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


mately  connected  with  heat  and  electricity  cannot  be  doubted, 
t'araday,  indeed,  stated  that  'the  forces  called  electricity  and 
chemical  affinity  are  one  and  the  same.'  The  degree  of  affinity 
existing  between  two  bodies  is  measured  by  the  amount  of  heat 
given  out  during  their  combination.  A  rough  estimate  of  the 
affinity  can  al$o  be  formed  by  observing  the  stability  of  the 
compound  when  formed ;  unstable  bodies— or  such  as  are  readily 
decomposed — containing  elements  with  a  weak  affinity  for  oi\e 
another.  Thus  the  affinity  of  hydrogen  for  iodine  is  so  slight 
that  their  compound,  hydriodic  acid,  decomposes  spontaneously 
when  exposed  to  the  light.  Chemical  attraction  or  affinity  is  a 
force  of  enormous  power,  but  is  only  exercised  at  minute  and  in- 
appreciable distances.  Thus  a  piece  of  iron  is  completely  dissolved 
ndien  acted  upon  by  hydrochloric  add  ;  the  affini^  of  mlorine  for 
iron  being  so  great  that  the  particles  of  the  latter  are  torn  from 
one  anomer,  the  cohesion  which  formerly  kept  them  together 
being  completely  overcome.  But  actual  contact  of  tlie  iron  and 
hydrochloric  acid  is  necessary,  no  action  whatever  ensumg  if  the 
add  be  simply  approached  to  the  iron.  Affinity  differs,  then, 
from  gravity  in  its  mode  of  action.  The  difference  in  the  amount  of 
affinity  existing  between  different  bodies  is  well  illustrated  by  the 
replacement  of  metals  from  their  solations.  If  some  mercury  be 
placed  in  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  (a  compound  of  the  radical 
of  nitric  acid  and  silver),  the  whole  of  the  silver  is  gradually  de- 
posited in  beautiful  crystals,  and  the  solution  eventually  contains 
nothing  but  nitrate  of  mercury.  If  copper  be  placed  in  the  solution 
oi  nitrate  of  mercury,  the  mercury  m  its  turn  is  deposited,  and 
nitrate  of  copper  is  formed  ;  and  in  a  similar  manner  the  copper 
may  be  replaced  by  lead,  and  the  lead  by  zinc.  These  replace- 
ments are  entirely  due  to  the  difference  in  the  affinity  of  the  nitric 
acid  radical  for  the  various  metals,  the  affinity  being  strongest  in 
the  case  of  rinc,  and  weakest  in  the  case  of  silver. 

Laws  ofChimkal  Combination.— The^e  laws  are  of  the  greatest 
theoretical  and  practical  importance,  and  deserve  our  special 
attention.  The  first  law  is  that  of  definite  proportions,  and  may 
be  thas  stated ; — Two  suistanca  in  comUnit^,  do  so  in  definite  fro- 
portions.  The  same  compound,  no  matter  lahat  its  source  or  origin 
ptay  be,  tUways  contains  the  samt  constiittints,  and  tkt  same  pv- 
portions  of  them.  Thus  water,  obtained  from  the  clouds,  Irom 
the  sea,  from  a  spring,  or  from  a  burning  candle,  invariably  con- 
tains 8889  percent,  of  oxj^en,  and  11 'li  percent,  of  hydrogen. 
The  second  kw  is  that  ai  multiple  proportions,  and  is  as  follows ; — 
If  two  substances  combine  in  more  than  one  proportion,  then,  taking 
in  the  compounds  so  formed  the  same  guantily  of  one  of  the  sub- 
stances, the  quantities  of  the  other  vary  in  a  simple  manner.  Thus 
nitrogen  forms  five  compounds  with  oxygen,  in  which,  taling  the 
proportion  of  nitrogen  as  constant,  and  as  being  28  parts  by 
weight,  the  quantities  of  oxj^en  are  respectively  16,32, 48,  64, 
and  So.  In  other  words,  the  proportion  of  oxygen  mcreases  in 
the  ratio  of  I,  2,  3,  4,  and  5.  The  feels  relating  to  the  repkice- 
ment  of  substances  by  one  another,  and  their  equivalence,  are  also 
of  great  importance,  and  belong  to  this  branch  of  (he  subject.  We 
have  pointed  out  how  the  difference  in  the  affinity  of  substances 
was  proved  by  the  replacement  of  metals  by  one  another  in  their 
solution.  Now,  if  we  determine  the  quantities  of  the  different 
metals  replacing  one  another,  we  find  that  for  every  108  parts  of 
silver  deposited,  100  parts  of  mercary  are  dissolved ;  that  31 7 
parts  of  copper  precipitate  100  parts  of  mercury ;  that  I03'5  parts 
of  lead  precipitate  317  of  copper ;  and  finally,  that  327  parts  of 
zinc  precipitate  I03'5  parts  of  lead.  These  quantities  of  the 
different  metals  are  saidto  be  equivalent  to  one  another,  because 
thqr  combine  with  the  same  quantity  of  the  nitric  acid  radical, 
and  thus  play  the  same  part  Not  only  do  they  combine  with 
the  same  quantity  of  the  nitric  acid  radical,  but  also  with  the 
same  quantities  of  chlorine,  oxygen,  sulphur,  &c.  A^in,  in  the 
case  of  adds  and  bases,  we  find  that  different  quantities  of  the 
latter  are  required  to  saturate  (or  completely  neutralise)  the  same 
quantities  of  the  latter.  Thus,  in  order  to  saturate  49  parts  of 
sulphuric  acid,  56  parts  of  caustic  potash,  40  of  caustic  soda,  17 
of  gaseous  ammonia,  and  37  of  slaked  lime  are  required,  and 
the  same  quantities  of  these  bases  saturate  63  parts  of  nitric 
and  36'S  of  hydrochloric  acid.  The  numbers  expressing  these 
quantities  of  acids  and  bases  are  said  to  be  their  equivalents. 

Atomic  Theory. — The  laws  of  combination  and  the  facts  of 
equivalence  are  beautifiilly  explamed  by  means  of  the  Atomic 
Theory  (q.  v.),  which  asserts  that  all  matter  is  composed  of 
ultimate  particles  or  atoms,  which  by  no  means  in  our  powef  " " 
be  further  subdivided.     The  atoms  of  which  an  element  is  c< 


posed  are  of  the  same  kind,  and  possess  the  same  weight  and 
properties  ;  but  the  atoms  of  different  elements  differ  from  one 
another  in  these  respects.  As  up  to  the  present  time  sixty-four 
elements  have  been  discovered,  it  follows  that  we  are  acquainted 
with  but  sixty-four  kinds  of  atoms.  The  atoms  of  each  element 
are  characterised  by  their  weight  (atomic  weight),  by  their 
attraction  for  other  atoms  (affinity),  and  by  the  proportion  in 
which  other  atoms  combine  with  them  (atomidly).  With 
regard  to  the  siie  and  shape  of  the  atoms  nothing  is  known, 
neither  are  we  acquainted  with  their  absolute  weight;  but  it 
has  been  found  possible  to  determine  their  relative  wdghts,  i.e., 
tlieir  weights  as  compared  with  one  another.  For  this  purpose 
the  atom  of  hydrogen  is  chosen  as  representing  unity,  and  the 
atomic  weight  of  an  element  is  defined  as  the  weight  of  its  atom 
(or  smallest  particle  capable  of  existence),  compared  with  the 
weiglit  of  the  atom  of  hydrogen.  For  information  respecting 
the  methods  by  which  the  atomic  weights  have  been  determined, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  article  Atomic  Theory.  A  curious  point 
in  connection  with  the  atoms  is,  that  in  the  majority  of  cases  a 
single  atom  cannot  exist  in  the  free  state,  but  immediately  com- 
bines with  others  of  its  own  kind.  Thus  a  smgle  atom  of  hydro- 
gen is  only  known  in  combination  ;  as  soon  as  it  becomes  free  it 
seizes  upon  a  neighbour,  and  forms  a  group  of  two  atoms.  To 
designate  this  group— or  indeed  the  smallest  particle  of  any  body, 
whether  simple  or  compound,  capable  of  existing  in  the  free  state — 
the  term  molecuie  is  employed.  The  molecule  of  hydrogen 
therefore  contains  two  atoms,  Compounds  are  formed  by  the 
juxtaposition  or  union  of  the  atoms  of  elements  in  various  pro- 
portions ;  but  the  molecule  of  the  same  compound  always  con- 
tains the  same  number  and  kind  of  atoms,  arranged  in  tlie  same 
manner.  A  drop  of  water,  for  instance,  is  composed  of  myriads 
of  partides  or  molecules,  each  of  which  contain  one  atom  of  the 
element  oxygen  and  two  atoms  of  the  element  hydrogen. 
The  explanation  of  the  law  of  definite  proportions  is  at  once  clear 
after  this  statement.  Let  us  take  the  exarnple  of  water  to  illus- 
trate this.  A  molecule  of  water  contains  one  atom  of  oxj^en 
with  the  atomic  weight  16,  and  two  atoms  of  hydrogen  with  au 
atomic  weight  of  I.  The  proportions  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen 
present  in  water  are  therefore — 

and  these  proportions  cannot  vary.  The  law  of  multiple  pro- 
portions also  admits  of  a  ready  explanation  ;  for  as  the  difference 
between  the  various  compounds  which  two  elements  form  de- 
pends upon  the  number  of  atoms  present  in  the  molecules  of 
each,  it  follows  that  the  proportions  of  the  two  elements  will 
vary  directly  as  these  numbers.  Thus  the  oxides  of  nitrogen 
contain  in  their  molecule  respectively  l,  2,  3,  4,  and  5  atoms  of 
oxygen,  combined  with  2  atoms  of  nitrogen,  each  of  which  has 
an  atomic  weiglit  of  14.  As  the  atom  of  oxygen  weighs  16,  the 
first  compound  will  contain  28  parts  of  nitrogen  and  16  of  oxy- 
gen, the  second  28  parts  of  nitrogen  and  32  of  oxygen,  and  so 
on.  The  facts  of  equivalence  are  also  explained  by  the  atomic 
theory.  Let  us  take  the  case  of  the  repkcement  of  metals.  We 
saw  that  108  parts  of  silver  were  replaced  by  100  of  mercury,  the 
mercury  by  31 7  of  copper,  the  copper  by  I03'5  of  lead,  and  the 


"Si, 


t  vrill  be  found  01 


nspection  of 


the  exception  of  108,  these  numbers  repr 
weights  of  the  different  metals,  and  that  108  is  the  atomic  weight 
of  silver.  As  atoms  cannot  be  halved,  it  is  clear  that  2  atoms 
of  silver  are  replaced  by  i  atom  of  mercury,  the  mercury  by  I 
atom  of  copper,  the  copper  by  I  atom  of  lead,  and  the  lead  by 

Molecular  IVeights. — By  the  molecular  weight  of  a  body, 
simple  or  compound,  is  understood  the  weight  of  its  smallest 
particle  capable  of  existence  m  the  free  state,  compared  with  the 
weight  of  the  atom  of  hydrogen.  The  determination  of  the 
molecular  weights  of  compound  snbstajices  is  of  great  import- 
ance, because  by  simple  analysis  we  cannot  determine  the  actual 
number  of  the  different  atoms  present,  but  only  their  ratio.  Thus 
the  analysis  of  benzol  shows  that  it  contains  m  every  13  parts,  12 
parts  of  carbon  and  1  part  of  hydrogen ;  and  as  the  atomic 
weight  of  carbon  is  12,  we  should  be  inclined  to  admit  that 
benzol  is  a  compound  of  I  atom  of  carbon  and  i  atom  of  Iw'dro- 
gen,  and  therefore  that  its  molecular  wdght  was  13.  But  a 
direct  determination  of  the  molecukr  weight  of  benzol  shows  it  to 
be  78,  i.e.,  exactly  six  times  13,  From  this  we  conclude  that  the 
molecule  of  baizol  contains  6  atoms  of  carbon  combined  with  6 


y  Google 


OHE 


TBE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


CHE 


-ns  of  hydi-ogen.  The  direct  determination  of  molecular 
weights  can  only  be  accomplished  in  the  ease  of  volatile  bodies. 
Jn  other  cases  these  weights  can  only  be  deduced  either  from  the 
steps  taken  in  the  synthesis  of  the  bodies,  from  a  considera- 
tion of  their  reactions,  or  from  the  different  products  yielded  by 
their  decomposition. 

Avogadro  and  Ampere  enunciated  the  law  that  in  equal 
v<^umss  of  all  gasis  and  vapours,  uttdef  thi  same  conditions  of 
temprrature  and  pressure,  the  same  number  of  molecules  is 
contained.  Thus,  in  a  litre  of  hydrogen  and  benzol  vapour,  at 
a  leraperatute,  let  us  say,  of  I00°  C,  and  a  pressure  of  760  mm., 
the  same  nnmber  of  molecules  is  contained.  Now  the  specific 
gravity  of  a  gas  or  vapour  is  defined  as  the  weight  of  a  given 
volume,  compared  with  the  weight  of  the  same  volume  of  hydro- 
gen under  the  same  conditions  of  temperature  and  pressure. 
_  Weight  of  a  given  volume  of  gas 


Weight  of  same  volume  of  hydrogen  at  T.  and  P, 
it  what  does  the  weight  of  a  given  volume  of  the  gas  or  vapour 
depend  upon?  First,  upon  the  weight  of  each  molecule  ;  next, 
upon  thejiiimber  of  molecules  present.  Let  M  represent  the 
former,  and  x  the  latter.  Then  the  weight  of  a  given  volume  of 
gas  or  vapour  at  T  and  P  =  M  x  ^.  lu  the  same  manner  the 
weight  of  the  equal  volume  of  hydrogen  depends  upon  the  weight 
of  its  molecules,  and  upon  their  number.  By  Avt^dro's  law 
the  latter  is  x,  and  we  have  seen  that  the  former  is  2  ((he  mole- 
cule of  hydrogen  containing  2  atoms). 

We  have  then: — Weight  of  equal  volume  of  hydiogen  at  T 
and  P  =  2  X  X,  and  therefore — 


sp.  gr,  = 


M  > 


M 


In  other  words,  the  molecula 
by  multiplying  the  specific  gta 

Chemical  Notalion. — BerJel         as  th 
present  system  of  symbols  an         m        as 
stating  the  composition  of  che     ca       bs 
portant  points  in  connection  w  th 
An  atom  of  an  element  is  r 
letter  or  letters  of  its  latin  n  as    : 

>m  of  mercury  (hydrai^yrun         N       an 

um),  'K' an  atom  of  potass  mi  S 

n  of  a  molecule  of  an  elem 
writing  the  symbol  or  symbols 
posed  side  by  side,  and  afB>un     m  re 

and  a  little  below  each  symbo 
the  element  in  question  are  c 
Pj  represents  a  molecule  of 
consists  of  a  group  of  4  atom 
molecule  of  cane-sugar,  conta 
hydrogen,  and  11  of  oxygen. 

imber  is  prefixed  to  the  form 

.t  a  bracket.  Thus  2P4  re 
phoras,  ^(CijHjjOii)  six  mole  ca 

;tion.    Thus— 

2H,  +  O  H 
represents  the  reaction  which 
bines  with  oxygen,  and  shows 
(each  containing  two  atoms}  a 
containing  two  atoms)  give 
which  contains  two  atoms  0 
The  sign  +  is  equivalent   to  wi 

sign  =  to  '  gives.      Such  an  ex    ess  c 

because  the  quantify  of  matte 
equal  to  the  quantity  on  the  ng         A    h  n 
gualitalive  and  quantitatvvc  c 
Qualitative,  as  it  shows  by  mean         ymbo 
the  different  molecules,  reacting 
several  reasons: — (i.J  It  rept  th         n 

the  different  molecules.     J2.  so  re    e 

weights  of  the  different  substan  ai 

For  in  the  absve  equation  2H  se  ts 

(the  weight  of  each  of  which  as 

%  parts  by  weight ;   Oj,   2  a    m 


♦- 


weighs  i5  times  as  much  as  the  atom  of  hydrogen),  and  there- 
fore 32  parts  by  weight ;  aHaO,  twice  the  combined  weight  of 
3  atoms  of  hydrogen  =  2  and  I  atom  of  oxygen  =  i^  and 
therefore  36  parts  by  weight.  It  follows  that  4  parts  by  weight 
of  hydrogen  and  32  parts  by  weight  of  oxygen  give  36  parts  by 
weight  of  wafer ;  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  i  part  by  weight  of 
hydrc^en  and  3  parts  by  weight  of  oxygen  give  9  parts  by  weight 
of  water.  {3.)  An  equation  also  represents,  in  the  case  of  gases 
or  vapours,  ttie  relative  volumes  of  them  taking  part  in  the 
reaction  ;  for  by  Avogadro's  law  the  same  number  of  molecules 
is  contained  in  equal  volumes  of  all  gases  and  vapours,  provid- 
ing they  be  at  the  same  temperature  and  pressure,  and  therefore 
the  indices  to  the  number  of  molecules  are  also  the  indices  to  the 
relativevolumes.  Providing,  therefore,  that  oxj^en  and  hydrogen 
be  at  100°  C,  and  that  the  pressure  is  constant,  2  volumes  of  the 
latter  and  i  volume  of  the  former' will  give  2  volumes  of  steam. 
Atomicity. — We  have  said  that  the  atoms  are  characterised  by 
their  weight,  their  afiinity,  and  by  the  proportions  in  which 
they  combine  with  other  atoms,  or  their  atomicity.  The  theory 
of  atomicity,  althoagh  for  many  reasons  unsatisfactory,  has  never- 
theless done  good  service  for  chemistry,  by  explaining  the  con- 
stitution of  bodies  and  the  existence  of  isomers,  and  by  enabling 
the  chemist  to  foresee  the  existence  of  new  compounds.  Starting 
with  the  fact  that  a  certain  number  of  elementary  substances 
combine  in  a  single  proportion — that  of  atom  to  atom — it  lias 
been  conjectured  Uiat  the  atoms  of  these  elements  each  possess 
a  certain  something — a  point  of  attraction,  arm,  or  link — which, 
for  want  of  a  better  name,  has  been  called  an  '  atomicity.'  The 
nature  of  an  atomicity  remains  ui  obscurity,  but  it  is  believed  to 
be  by  its  means  that  the  atoms  become  attached  to  one  another. 
Atoms  possessing  but  a  single  atomicity  may  be  likened  to  men 
essed  of  but  one  aim,  who  are  therefore  capable  of  holding 

the  hand  a  single  individual.  An  atomicity  is  represented 
gr  1  hically  by  affixing  to  the  symbol  of  the  element  a  stroke  or 

h  ;  thus— 


lY 


cr 


Br' 


the  compounds  of  these  elements  with  one  another  tims— 
H— CI  Na— Br 


Hydroc 


re  the  straight  line  between  the  two  symbols  is  supposed  to 
esent  the  coalesced  atomicity  of  both  atoms.  The  elements  of 
class  are  said  to  be  moHatmiic  or  monozialent,  or  are  simply 
d  monads.  The  atoms  of  a  second  class  of  elements  com- 
with  two  atoms  of  a  monad,  and  are  therefore  supposed  to 
ess  two  atomicities.  These  elements  are  called  dyads. 
gen,  barium,  strontium,  and  calcium  belong  to  (he  group, 
epresont  their  diatomic  properties  two  dashes  are  affixed  to 
r  symbols  :  thus — 


O" 


Sr"  Ca" 

-Sr—  — Ca— 


dyads  can  combine  together  in  more  tlian  one  proporfi 
s  barium  forms  two  oxides,  BaO  and  BaOj,  the  constitut 
hich  is  supposed  to  be 

Ba  =  0  and      Ba 


■  are  other  elements  which  from  their  properties  are  be- 
1  to  possess  three  atomicities,  others  four,  live,  and  six;  but 
lement  exists  having  a  higher  atomicity.  These  different 
^  of  elements  are  called  respectively  triads,  tetrads,  pentads. 


vLaOogle 


THE  GLOBS:  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CHE 


and  hexads,  imd  their  atomistic  properties  ate  represented  by 
affixing  to  tlieir  symbols  the  corresponding  figure  or  number  of 
daslies,  thus ; — 


Gold,  Carbon.  Nilrogfii.         MolybdcnlllQ. 

The  atomicity  of  an  element  can  only  be  determined  from  its 
compounds  with  monads,  or  with  monatomic  groups. 

An  important  point  in  the  theory  of  atomicity  is  that,  with  one 
or  two  exceptions,  no  molecules  exist  containing  an  atom  having 
a  single  atomicity  unoccupied,  Such  a  group  (which  is  said  to  be 
anaienly  artsaitira/ai),  on  being  set  at  liberty,  at  once  combines 
with  a  neighbour  of  its  own  kind,  and  forms  a  double  group.  It 
is  supposed  to  be  for  this  reason  that  the  molecules  of  hydrogen, 
chlorine,  and  bromine  each  contain  two  atoms — 


H— H 


CI— CI 


Again,  the  group  hydroxyl  — O — H,  although  existing  in  caustic 
potash,  K— (O— H),  and  water,  H— (O— H),  becomes  doubled 
when  set  at  liberty,  forming  peroxide  of  hydrogen — 


H 

-0 

-o- 

H 

and  many  other  instances 
molecules  do  exist ;  for  in 
oxide. 

tanc 
H 

beq 

e,  ca 
H 

-i- 

£ 

~ai- 

-i 

But  others  become  doubled  ;  thus  oxygen — 


Here  we  see  the  atomicities  of  two  atoms  of  the  same  element 
coalescing.  It  has  been  thought  possible  that  in  the  case  of 
evenly  unsaturated  bodies,  the  two  atomicities  also  coalesce. 
The  molecule  of  cadmium,  ethylene,  and  carbonic  oxide  are 
represented  on  this  view  thus — 

H      H 


_Cd_ 


I 


i  li 


cc  =  o 


Many  dements  of  an  atomicity  greater  than  two  have  a  vavying 
atoinicity;  thus  nitrc^en,  wmch  is  pentatomic  in  some  com- 
pounds—chloride of  ammonium,  for  instance  (NHj  Cl)^ 
Cl\   /H 

hAS 

is  triad  in  most  of  its  compounds  ;  for  instance,  "ammonia— 

/H 

N— H 

\H. 

The  other  arms  becoming  occluded  or  inactive.    As  the  atomicity 

of  such  bodies  always  varies  by  few,  it  has  been  supposed  that 

the  two  atomicities  coalesce,  as  in  the  formula  just  given  for 

carbonic  oxide.      Thus, 

/H 
CN— H 
\H 
114 


Co/istifnfieii. — We  have  said  that  the  nature  of  a  compound  de- 
pends upon  the  number  and  kind  of  atoms  composing  it,  and  also 
upon  the  manner  in  which  the  atoms  are  arranged  or  grouped. 
The  last  is  an  important  point,  for  we  very  frequently  find  (more 
especially  in  the  case  of  the  compounds  of  carbon)  that  the 
molecules  of  two  or  more  bodies  contain  the  same  number  and 
kind  of  atoms,  and  yet  possess  very  different  properties.  ,  Thus 
acetic  aldehyde  and  oxide  of  ethylene  both  have  the  formula 
CaHjO.  The  difference  between  such  bodies  can  only  be  ex- 
plained by  assuming  that  the  atoms  composing  their  molecules 
are  differently  grouped  ;  in  other  words,  that  they  have  a  different 
conslitution.  The  investigation  of  the  constitution  of  compounds 
forms  one  of  the  principal  aims  of  modern  C,  and  has  already 
advanced  considerably.  Substances  which,  like  aldehyde  and 
oxide  of  .ethylene,  have  a  similar  atomic  composition  but  a  dif- 
ferent constitution,  ace  said  to  be  isomeric  (see  Isomerism). 
Substances  the  molecular  weights  of  which  are  multiples  of  one 
another,  are  iaSA  to  \ia  folymeris.  Thus  acetylene,  CaHj,  and  benzol, 
CflHj,  are  polymers.  The  theory  of  atomicity  has  lead  to  the  in- 
troduction of  grapkii formula  for  representing  the  arrangement 
of  the  atoms  in  a  molecule.     Subjoined  are  the  graphic  fonnulfe 


substances 
the  manner  in  which  the  difference 
counted  for  by  the  theory  of  atomicity. 

Aldehydi 


med  to  illustrate 


royal  charter  on  18th  February  1843.  The  charte 
the  society  shall  have  tlie  right  to  examine  candidates  for  admis- 
sion, and  to  confer  on  those  qualified  the  title  of  '  Pharmaceutical 
Chemist.'  To  assume  the  title  without  licence  is  punishable'  by 
fine  i  but  the  practice  of  a  chemist  and  dru^ist  is  open  to  all. 
The  Council  of  the  Society  is  required  to  appoint  examiners  for 
Scotland,  who  have  the  same  powers  as  the  examiners  in  England. 
No  member  of  the  medical  profession,  or  who  is  practising  under 
the  right  of  a  degree  of  any  universi^,  or  diploma  or  licence  of 
a  medical  body,  is  entitled  to  be  registered;  and  if  any  01 
is  registered  become  a  member  of  the  medical  profession 
disqualified  from  remaining  on  the  register.      See  Ai 

Oliem'nitz,  the  first  manufacturing  and  second  trading  town 
of  Saxony,  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  in  a  wide  valley,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Eragebii^e,  36  miles  S.W.  of  Dresden  by  rail- 
way. It  has  80  cotton  and  spinning  mills,  450  machines  and 
3O00  handlooms,  50  machine-works,  supplyii^  locomotive 
and  other  engines  to  all  parts  of  Europe,  over  50  large  dye- 
works,  besides  manufactures  of  silk,  gloves,  lace,  musical  in- 
struments; embroideries,  &c  In  1874  the  export  of  woollen, 
cotton,  and  other  manufactured  goods  to  America  alone  amotmted 
to  ^^420,776.  There  are  various  technical  schools,  several  good 
public  buildings,  an  exchange,  a  large  theatre,  and  fine  promen- 
ades formed  on  the  site  of  the  old  walls,  Pop.  (1S71)  68,229. 
The  first  Christian  church  was  built  here  in  938  by  Otto  I.,  and 
C.  became  an  imperial  city  under  Rudolf  of  Hapsbui^  in  the 
13th  c  It  was  rained  by  the  Thirty  Years'  "War,  and  only 
began  to  prosper  again  on  the  introduction  of  cottoo-weaving 
in  the  end  of  the  17th  c 

Chem'nitz,  Uaxtin,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  theo- 
logians of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  the  i6th  c,,  was  bom  at 
Treuenbrietaen,  in  Brandenbiug,  9th  November  1522,  and  studied 
under  Melancthon  at  Wittenbeig.  In  1547  he  was  appointed 
lector  of  the  cathedral  school  at  KBnigsberg,  where  he  engaged 
in  a  controver^  wifli  Osiander  in  defence  of  the  Lutheran  doc- 
truie  of  justification.  Returning  to  Wittenberg  in  1553,  he 
lectured  on  Melancthon's  Leci  Communes — the  origin  of  his  own 
Loci  TheologiH,  reckoned  the  best  book  of  systematic  theology 
produced  in  that  age.  In  1554  he  settled  in  Brunswiclt,  where 
he  Srst  became  pastor,  then  superintendent,  and  died  8th  April 
1586.  He  is  most  distinguidied  for  his  treatises  against  the 
Jesuits  (Thsologiis  Jesuilarum  prmcipua  capita,  Leips,  l^di)  and 
the  Decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent  \.Examsn  Concilii  Tridmlmi, 


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\  vols.  LeipH.  1565) ;  but  probably  the  greatest  ecclesiaslico- 
political  work  of  his  hfe  was  inducing  the  Churches  of  Saaony, 
Franconia,  and  Swabia,  to  adopt  the  Concordimformd  as  their 
confession  of  &ith.— Martin  0.,  son  of  the  preceding  (bom 
1561,  died  i6j7),  became  privy  councillor  and  diancellor  to  the 
Duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp. — Pbilipp  Bogialav  von  0.,  son 
of  the  younger  Martin  (bora  1605,  died  1678),  entered  the  service 
of  Sweden,  was  made  royal  historiographer,  and  raised  to  the 
order  of  nobility. 

Olienmit'zia,  a  genus  of  Gasteropodous  mollusca,  the  shell  of 
which  is  of  slender,  elongated  shape — the  aperture  being  oval 
and  the  operculum  horny.  This  genus  is  included  in  the  family 
Pyrarnidsmda,  and  its  fossil  representatives  first  appear  in  the 
Permian  rocks,  more  than  150  fossil  species  being  known. 

CltenaV,  the  largest  of  the  rivers  from  which  the  Punjab 
('five  livers')  takes  its  name.  Its  source  is  in  the  Paralasa 
range  of  the  Himalayas,  After  a  course  of  about  600  miles  it 
receives  the  Jhelura  on  its  right ;  somewhat  lower  down,  iJie 
Ravee  on  its  left ;  and  1 10  miles  stilL  lower,  on  the  same 
side,  the  united  stream  of  the  Beas  and  Sutlej.  The  entire  body 
of  waters  before  joining  the  Indus  bears  the  name  of  the  Punjnud. 
At  Wazerabad  the  railway  crosses  C.  by  one  of  the  longest  iron 
biidges  in  the  world,  having  a  length  of  1^  miles,  and  consist- 
ing M  64  spans  of  1426  feet  each.  This  bridge  was  opened  by 
the  Prince  of  Wales,  zad  January  1876. 

Clidn'ieT,  Andr^-ICaiie  de,  a  French  poet  and  political 
writer,  was  born  October  29,  1763,  at  Constantinople,  where  hia 
father  was  consul-general  for  France.  He  came  to  France  at 
an  early  age,  and  studied  at  the  College  de  Navaire,  in  Paris, 
there  evincing  poetic  talent  and  acquiring  a  passion  for  ancient 
literature.  In  1784  he  travelled  on  account  of  his  health  in 
Swilzerland,  Italy,  and  Greece,  and  in  1787  he  visited  Eng- 
land as  secretary  to  the  embassy  of  M.  Luzerne.  Returning  to 
Paris  in  1790,  while  the  Revolution  was  raging,  he  joined  the 
brilliant  'Society  of  '89,'  and  volunteered  to  assist  the  infirm 
Malesherbes  in  the  defence  of  Louis  XVI.  C.  stood  as  &r  apart 
from  despotism  as  from  anarchy,  aiid  in  prose  and  verse  pro- 
cliumed  at  once  his  love  of  liberty  and  his  detestation  of  violence. 
He  was  at  last  brought  before  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal,  waa 
condemned,  along  with  forty-five  others,  and  was  guillotined, 
Julyas,  1794.  WhenmprisonC.burst  forthindbeautifuiode. 
La  Jeune  Captive,  of  which  the  subject  waa  his  tellow-prisoner, 
the  celebrated  Comtesse  de  Coigny,  His  EUgiis  are  exquisite  in 
their  mingling  of  classical  spirit  vrith  an  original  boldness  and 
vivacity.  Only  a  tithe  of  his  projected  poems  were  finished, 
still  the  influence  of  C.  is  clearly  visible  in  the  early  works  of 
Chateaubriand,  Barthelimy,  Lamartine,  and  Victor  Hugo.  Of 
the  many  editions  of  his  PoisUs,  the  best  are  those  of  Delatouche 
(Par.  1840),  and  EecqdeFougiires  (1862};  and  of  his  (Eavres  en 
Prose,  there  is  a  selection  by  Hugo  (1840), — SEarjd-JoBeph.  de 
0.,  brother  of  the  former,  waa  bom  at  Constantinople,  August 
28,  1764,  and  became  famous  as  the  piindpal  dramatist  of  the 
Revolution,  and  as  a  member  of  the  Legifdative  Assembly  from 
179Z  to  1802.  He  is  also  the  author  of  the  Chant  4u  pipart  and 
other  songs.  His  dramas,  of  which  the  chief  are  Charles  IX. 
(179°).  7^^"  Ca^'"  (1792).  Heni'i  f7/Z  (1793),  and  TimoUon 
(1795),  are  full  of  republican  declamation,  and  of  the  wild  senti- 
ments of  the  time.  C.  died  January  10,  1811.  His  CEuvres 
Compliles  were  published  in  8  vols.,  witli  a  memoir  by  Daunou 
(1823-26). 

Clienopodia'oere,  the  Goosefoot  or  Spinach  on^er,  a  natural 
order  of  Dicotyledonous  plants,  herbs,  or  small  shrubs  very  gene- 
rally distributed  over  the  world,  but  chiefly  found  in  temperate 
or  ex-tropical  countries.  There  are  about  500  species,  and 
among  the  best-known  of  the  seventy-fout  genera  are  Saliccr- 
■nia,  Atriplex,  Beta,  Chenopodhim,  and  Salsola.  From  the  ashes 
of  several  speCKS—Salsela,  Salicornia,  &c. — which  grow  in  salt 
marshes,  barilla,  used  for  obtaining  carbonate  of  sodji  in  former 
times,  is  obtained ;  but  on  account  of  soda  being  now  much 
more  easily  obtained  from  other  sojirces,  the  demand  has  of  late 
fallen  off.  Among  the  other  species  are  beet  and  marigold- 
wurzel  (see  Beta),  spinach,  &c  The  seeds  of  several  of  them 
contain  volatile  oil  or  are  nutritive — e.g.,  Quinoa  ((j.  v.),  Some 
are  anthelmintic,  antispasmodic,  aromatic,  carminative,  and  stim- 
ulant. The  fruit  of  the  strawberry  Elite  {Blihtm  eapilatum  and 
S.  virgalum)  of  the  S.  of  Europe  has  a  sweetish,  insipid  taste. 


Chenopod'ium,  a  genus  of  Chenepdiucsa  (q.  v.),  some  of 
the  licitish  species  of  which  are  weeds,  known  under  the  name 
of  GoossfoDt.  C.  a?niiosioides,  the  Mexican  tea,  is,  owing  to 
the  essential  oil  wliich  it  contains,  tonic  and  antispasmodic.  C. 
aiiihelminiittini  yields  '  wormwood  oil,'  so  popular  in  the 
United  States  as  a  vermifuge.  C.  Quinoa,  of  the  Pacific  slopes 
of  the  Andes,  is  remarkable  in  so  far  that  its  seeds  are  exten- 
sively used  as  food  by  beii^  ground  and  eaten  as  a  gruel  after 
the  preparation  has  been  seasoned  with  Chili  pepper  and  other 
condiinents,  or  by  the  seeds  being  roasted  and  boiled  in  water, 
which,  after  being  seasoned,  is  supped.  This  last  mixture,  called 
carapiilgue,  is  a  favomite  Peruvian  dish,  and  though  unpalat- 
able to  those  unaccustomed  to  it,  is  said  to  be  very  nutritious, 
llie  young  leaves  and  shoots  of  the  Good  Henry,  wild  spiriage, 
or  Thesavy  (C.  Ponus-ifenricas),  a  common  British  wayside 
weed,  are,  as  well  as  those  of  C.  intermedium,  C.  aliu/n,  used 
as  substitutes  for  spinach.  The  stinking  goosefoot  (C.  elidum) 
is  an  antispasmodic  and  emmenagogue,  C.  Botrys,  the '  Jerusalem 
oak,'  of  the  S.  of  Europe,  is  expectorant  and  anthelmintic 

Chep'stow (Old Eng.  Ctapslow,  'aplace  of  trade'),  atown 
of  Monmouthshire,  on  the  Wye,  is  a  station  on  the  S.  Wales 
and  Union  Railway,  17  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Newport,  and  has  a 
river  and  coast  trade  in  coal,  iron,  millstones,  bark,  cider,  &c. 
It  lies  in  a  rocky  goige,  where  the  river  is  crossed  by  a  fine 
bridge,  and  is  exposed  to  some  danger  from  the  tide,  which  fre- 
quently rises  to  the  height  of  50  feet,  and  even  liigher.     Pop. 

(1871)  3347.     About  5  miles  off  are  the  rums  of  Tintern  Abbey- 
Cheque  is  a  draft  or  order  on  a  banker.     It  is  subject  to  a 

slamp-duly  of  one  penny,  adhesive  or  impressed.  A  C.  must  be 
payable  on  demand  to  the  bearer,  and  be  drawn  on  a  banker 
under  fifteen  miles  of  the  place  of  issue.  A  crossed  C.  has  the 
name  of  a  banker  written  across  tlie  face  of  it,  to  whom  for 
security  it  is  payable,  or  it  may  be  crossed  simply  '  ■  —  &  Co. ' 
leaving  the  holder  to  msert  the  name  of  the  banker.  In  this 
case  it  is  only  pdd  through  that  banket.  If  presented  by  any 
other  person,  it  is  not  paid  without  inquiry.  By  statute  the 
crossing  is  to  be  held  a  material  part  <^  the  C.  Any  one  obliter- 
ating or  altering  a  C.,  with  intent  to  defraud,  is  guilty  rf  felony. 
A  banker  is  personally  liable  if  he  p^y  a  C.  to  which  the  signa- 
ture of  tlie  drawer  is  forged ;  but  if  the  signature  of  the  payee  only 
be  forged,  and  that  of  the  drawer  genuine,  the  bank  or  banker  is 
not  liable  to  the  drawer-  In  Smith  v.  The  Union  Bank  of  London, 
it  has  recently  been  decided  that  a  banker  paying  a  C.  to  a 
party  other  than  the  bank  whose  name  was  written  across,  was 
entitled  to  do  so.  This  decision  has  caused  surprise  and  dis- 
satisfaction in  commercial  circles,  and  will  probably  occasion 
further  legislation. 

Cher,  one  of  the  most  central  departments  of  France,  in  the 
basin  of  the  Loire,  has  an  area  of  280P  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop. 

(1872)  of  335,392.  It  is  in  great  part  an  unbroken  plain, 
bounded  on  the  E.  by  the  Loire,  and  intersected  by  the  C. 
and  Sauldre  with  their  affluents,  forming  fertile  valleys,  in  whlcli 
are  cultivated  cereals,  hemp,  and  vines,  There  are  many  fine 
forests,  as  those  of  Vierzon,  Soudrtdn,  Bomac,  Chceuts,  &c.,  and 
in  the  S.E.,  where  rises  a.  low  range  of  hills,  there  occur  exten- 
dve  marshes.  The  climate  ia  cold  but  healthy.  Among  the 
chief  industries  are  cattle-rearing  and  iron-mining,  while  there 
are  also  extensive  manufactures  of  cloth,  porcelain,  lace,  glass, 
leather,  &c.,  and  a  large  export  trade  in  agricultural  produce, 
iron,  and  timber.  C.  is  traversed  by  several  canals,  and  by  the 
Orleans  and  Lyons  Railway.  The  capital  is  Boui^es.  The 
department  was  chiefly  formed  put  of  the  provinces  of  Haute- 
Berri  and  the  Bourbonnais. — The  river  C.  rises  in  dense,  near 
Crogq,  flows  N-  W.  through  the  department  to  which  it  gives 
name,  and  waters  Loire-et-Cher  and  Indre-et-Loire,  entering 
the  Loire  below  Tours  after  a  course  of  over  200  miles. 

Cheraa'oo,  a  fortified  town  in  the  province  of  Turin,  N.  Italy, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Tanaro  and  Stura,  30  miles  S.E.  of 
Turin,  has  some  wine  and  silk  industries.  The  beautiful  church 
of  Madonna  del  Popolo,  with  a  remarkable  sanctuary,  is  much 
visited  by  foreigners.  The  town  was  taken  by  the  French,  April 
28,  1796,  and  tliree  days  later  the  aimislice  of  C.  was  concluded 
here,  by  which  the  traops  of  France  were  allowed  free  passage 
through  the  states  of  Sardinia,      Pop,  10,000. 

Cherljourg,  a  strongly  fortified  seaport,  and  the  most  impor- 
tant town  in  the  department  of  Manche,  France,  near  the  mouth 


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of  the  Divette,  i6  miles  E.S.E,  of  Cape  la  Hogue,  and  214 
W.N.W.  of  Paris,  wish  wliich  it  is  connected  by  railway.  It  is 
le  of  the  first  arsenals  of  France,  and  the  chief  station  of  the 
arines.  The  town  has  a  church  of  the  15th  c,  an  hospital 
founded  by  Napoleon,  a  valuable  fine-art  collection,  and  a  library 
of  6i,Qoo  volumes.  Tlie  extensive  fortifications  of  C.  were  begun 
by  Vauban,  and  were  only  completed  in  1858,  at  the  enormous 
cost  of  ^8,000,000.  To  the  N.  the  roadstead  is  commanded  by 
a  detached  breakwater,  which  is  nearly  parallel  to  the  shore,  is  2f 
miles  long,  encloses  an  area  of  2000  acres,  and  supports  six  strong 
batteries.  Round  eachend  of  this  brealtwater  or  digui  vessels  enter 
the  harbour,  and  these  channels  are  further  protected  by  a  series  of 
island  and  mainland  redoubts.  Thetwomain  strongholdsof  C. 
extensive  Roches  dis  Flamands  and  Roches  da  Homel,  and 

n  itself  is  overlooked  by  two  forts,  placed  on  the  heights  of 

Ronle,  ilie  defences  of  C  make  up  a  total  of  thirty  forts  of 
all  kinds.  The  military  port  includes  an  outer  harbour,  having 
an  area  of  18  acres,  and  a  floating  dock  of  15,  and  an  inner 
floating  dock  of  2t  acres,  together  admittuig  fortj;  vessels  of 
the  first  rank.  There  are  also  extensive  shipbuilding  slips 
and  graving  -  docks.  At  the  month  of  the  Divette  is  the 
commercial  harbour,  connected  with  the  sea  by  a  channel  2270 
feet  in  length,  and  protected  by  a  granite  mole.  Besides  the 
naval  industries,  there  are  manufactures  of  lace,  hoisery,  chemi- 
cals, leather,  &c.,  and  an  export  trade  chiefly  in  cattle,  salt,  and 
wine.  Pop.  (1S72)  46,000,  exclusive  of  the  garrison  and  naval 
force.  C,  nnder  the  name  Ci»-»j*Kr^,  is  first  authentically  known 
In  the  lltii  c.,  when  a  certain  Comte  Gerbert  de  C.  appears  in 
the  ranks  of  the  Normans  at  Hastings.  In  1418  it  was  taken  by 
the  English,  in  1450  retaken  by  Charles  VII.,  and  in  1758 
again  captured  by  the  English,  who  destroyed  its  defences.  A 
grand  Kle  was  given  at  C.  on  the  opening  of  the  inner  floating 
dock  by  Napoleon  III.,  at  which  the  Queen  of  England  and 
court  were  present  by  invitation,  August  1858. 

Clier'i'boit,  or  Slleribon,  the  capital  of  a  Dutch  residency  ot 
the  same  name,  in  Java,  on  the  N.  coast  of  the  island,  has  a 
trade  in  teak-wood,  coffee,  and  indigo.  Pop.  of  town,  12,000, 
of  residency,  550,000. 

Cherimoy'er  {Anana  Cherimolia),  a  delicious  Peruvian  and 
Brazilian  species  of  custard-apple,  now  naturalised  in  the  E. 
Indies  and  other  tropical  countries,  and  reckoned  inferior  only 
to  the  mangosteen.  It  belongs  to  the  order  Anonaceie.  See 
CusTAED- Apple. 

Cherkask'.    See  Tcheekask: 

Cherr'y  (Cerasus),  a  genus  of  shrubs  or  trees  belonging  to  the 
natural  oidec  Rosacea.  It  might  be  regarded  as  a  sub-genus  of 
Prmius  or  Plum  (q.  v.).  There  are  many  species  scattered  all 
over  tlie  temperate  pcartions  of  the  world,  C.  avium  (the  gean), 
and  C.  vulgaris,  both  natives  of  Britain  (though  according  to 
some  the  latter  is  a  native  of  Syria  and  Western  Asia  generally, 
and  only  naturalised  in  Europe),  and  believed  to  be  the  progeni- 
tor of  all  the  varieties  of  cultivated  cherries.  Their  wood  is  highly 
valued  by  cabinetmakers  and  musical  instmment  makers.  From 
the  fiiiits  of  C.  avium  a  spirit  called  Kirschmasser  (q.  v.,  and 
also  Maraschino)  is  distilled  in  Germany,'  and  the  fruits  are  also 
extensively  used  in  France,  Germany,  and  Scandinavia  for  malt- 
ing soups.    Among  the  other  ^cies  are  C.  Fadas,  tlie  Bird 


Cherry  (q.  v.)  or  hoeberry,  C.  Mahaleb,  of  the  middle  and  S. 
of  Europe;  C.  VirgiHtana  of  America,  C.  Cafollim  of  Mexico,  C. 
capreada  of  Natal,  C.  cccidtntalts,  C.  Lusitanica,  and  C.  Lauro- 
cfrasus,  the  Cherry  Laurel  (q.  v.),  both  of  which  have  evergreen 
leaves,  &c.  The  wood  of  most  of  them  is  valued.  Some  have 
astringent  bark,  also  esteemed  as  a  febrifuge,  while  the  leaves 
and  kernels  of  nearly  all  contain  hydrocyanic  (Prussic)  acid. 
There  are  very  many  cultivated  varieties  of  C.  esteemed  for 
their  fruit  and  the  liqueurs  prepared  from  it.  In  addition  to 
Maraschino  and  Kirschwasser,  the  Ratafia  of  Srenoble  is  prepared 
from  pounded  cherries  to  which  brandy,  spices,  and  sugar  are 
added.  A  gum  not  unlike  gum-arabic  exudes  from  the  bark  of 
many  species  of  the  genus. 

Cherry  Iiaiirel,  Comiaoit  Laurel,  Bay  Lanr^,  Latirel 
Cherry,  or  Lanrel  Bay,  a  name  which  should  properly  be 
limited  to  P.  Laurocerasus,  but  which  is  often  vaguely  applied 
to  the  species  of  Cerasris  which  have  evei^reen  leaves.  From 
the  amount  of  hydrocyanic  acid  contained  in  it,  nearly  every 


part  of  the  shrub  is  poisonou 
will  kill  small  insects.  He 
.  flavoured  with  C.  L.  i 


The  vapour  of  the  bruisei 
e,  though  cifitards,  &c.,  art 
ter,  great  care  should  be  e: 


Cher'ao,  an  Austrian  island  in  the  Adriatic,  government  of 
Trieste,  12  miles  S.S.W.  of  Fiijnie  :  area  105  sq.  miles  ;  pop. 
7590.  The  surface  is  rngged,  and  towards  the  N.  there  are 
forests.  There  is  a  town  of  the  same  name  on  the  W.  coast, 
with  a  pop.  of  3500. 
Oliera'oii.     See  Kherson. 

Chersone'suB,  a  Greek  word  denoting  literally  a  land-island, 
i.e.,  a  peninsula.  Pausanius  applies  it  even  to  an  island  united 
to  flie  mainland  by  a  bridge.  Several  places  were  so  named 
by  the  ancients ;— the  Tattri^  C.  (the  Crimea),  the  Thradan  C. 
(the  peninsula  of  Gallipolt),  the  Cimbric  C.  (Jutland),  and  the 
Geliten  C.  (Farther  India  or  Malacca), 

Chert'eey  (Old  Eng.  Cecrles-ig,  'Ceort's  Island,'  so  called 
because  situated  on  a  spit  of  land  between  the  Tiiames  and  a 
brook),  a  town  in  Surrey,  2 1  miles  S.W.  of  London  by  railway, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Thames,  which  is  here  crossed  by  a 
handsome  bridge.  It  has  several  almshouses,  one  founded  by 
Cowley  the  poet,  who  died  here,  and  a  school  founded  in  1725 
by  Sir  William  Perkins  for  clothing  and  educating  fifty  children. 
iTie  principal  trade  is  in  malt,  flour,  tiles,  and  bricks,  and  vege- 
tables for  the  London  market,  C.  is  a  very  old  place.  B^e 
(Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  iv,  cap,  6)  says  that  Earconwald,  Bishop  of 
the  E.  Saxons  in  London,  btiiit  a  monastery  here  (circa  666 
A,D.),  but  the  town  plays  no  part  in  history.  Pop.  (1871)  3146. 
Cher'u'b  (pi.  Cherubs,  Heb.  Cherubixt),  in  the  theology 
of  the  Hebrews  was  a  ci'eature  of  composite  form,  variously 
described  in  the  sacred  books.  It  is  represented  as  having  the 
human  form  (Eiek,  i,  5),  hands  (Gen.  iii.  24),  two  wings  and 
one  face  (Exod.  xxv.  30),  four  wings,  four  faces — of  a  man,  a 
lion,  an  ox,  and  an  eagle — four  hands,  the  soles  of  the  feet  like 
a  calf's,  and  the  whole  body  full  of  eyes  (Ezek.  i,).  The  four 
beasts  of  the  Apocalypse  (iv.  6-8)  had  six  wings,  and  each  a 
different  form — of  a  lion,  a  calf,  (the  face  of)  a  man,  and  an 
eagle.  The  attributes  thus  assigned  to  cherubs  indicate  the 
power  of  looking  and  moving  swiftly  in  any  direction  without 
turning.  As  to  the  idea  attached  to  the  cherubs,  everything 
points  to  this,  that  their  proper  task  was  to  guard  the  unap- 
proachable. The  parallel  to  them  is  found  in  the  winged  bulls 
and  lions  of  Nineveh  (from  which,  it  has  been  conjectured,  they 
were  borrowed,  as  recent  discoveries  show  a  strikingly  close 
connection  between  Hebrew  and  Babylonian  theology),  tlie 
sphinx  of  F^pt,  the  chimiera,  and  griffin.  Now  the  part  as- 
cribed to  the  gnflin  (Gr.  giyps,  the  same  word  as  the  Ileb,  C.) 
is  that  Of  gaardian  of  treasure,  and  that  this  was  Just  the  office 
of  the  C.  is  manifest  from  Gen.  iiL  24,  and  Ezek.  xxviii,  13-16 ; 
hence  their  post  on  the  top  of  the  Ark  (q.  v.),  and  over  it  in 
Solomon's  temple  (I  Kings  viii.  6-7J,  and  their  multitude  of 
eyes  (Ezek.  i.  and  Rev.  iv.  6).  See  Kuenen's  Religion  of  Israel 
(Eng.  Itansl.  1875). 

Oherubi'iii,  ISaria  Luigi  Carlo  ZenoMo  Salvatore, 
the  last  of  the  great  Italian  composers,  was  bom  8th  September 
1 760  at  Florence.  He  was  educated  in  Italy,  but  went  to  Paris 
as  a  young  man,  and  remained  there,  where  he  was  unboundedly 
popular.  Tar  the  rest  of  his  life,  Of  his  very  numerous  composi' 
tions,  which  include  tvrenty-eight  operas,  eighteen  masses,  and 
numerous  smaller  works,  a  few  overtures  are  still  heard,  and  al 
least  two  operas,  '  Medea '  and  '  Les  Deux  Jom'nfes.'  C.  was 
Director  of  the  Paris  Conservatoire,  where  Auber  and  BoUdieu 
were  his  pupils.  He  died  in  Paris,  15th  March  1842.  Se 
Piechianti,  Notiiie  sul/a  Vita  e  suUe  Opere  di  C.  (Mil.  1843). 

Oherus'ci,  a  German  tribe,  separated  from  the  Suevi  by  the 
Silva  Bacenis,  or  Harz  Forest,  which  formed  the  southern 
boundary.  Under  their  chief  Arminius  (Heraiann),  they  totally 
routed  the  Romans,  commanded  by  Varus,  in  the  Teutoburg 
Forest,  A.D,  9.  Germanicus  failed  in  his  attempt  to  wipe  01  " 
this  st^n  on  the  Roman  arm?,  but  weakened  by  internal  di 
sensions,  the  C.  were  subdued  by  the  Chatti.  About  the  begii 
ning  of  the  4th  c  they  appear  among  the  Prankish  confederacy 
against  Constantine,  and,  still  later,  Claudian  alludes  to  therr  '— 
bis  panegyric  on  the  fourth  consulship  of  Ilonorius. 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE-  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


CHE! 


Cher'vil  {Anthriscus  cere/olium  or  Charophyllum.  suiivani), 
an  umbelliferous  plant,  cultiyated  for  the  purpose  of  using  it  as 
an  ingredient  in  soups.  It  is  a  native  of  tlie  conlment  of 
Europe,  but  naturalised  in  Britain.  The  pleasantly  aromatic 
odour  of  its  leaves  distinguishes  it  from  A.  vulgaris— a.  poison- 
ous weed,  the  leaves  of  which  have  a  disagreeable  odour.  The 
great  C,  anise  C,  sweet  C,  sweet  Cicely  or  myrrh,  is 
Myrrhis  odsrata ;  the  needle  C,  Venus  comb  or  shepherds 
needle,  \s  Siandix  Pectem>atiris  ;  the  parsnip  C,  Cksrophvllum 
balboatm  ot  Attthriscta  balhosus;  and  the  wild  C,  ChafopAylium 
syivestre.     All  the  species  of  Chmrophyllum  are  also  called  C. 

OlieB'apeak©  Bay,  a  deep  indentation  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
of  the  United  States,  nearly  200  miles  in  length,  with  a  breadth 
of  from  10  to  30  miles,  and  an  average  depth  of  9  iathoms.  At 
its  mouth  are  the  two  capes  Henry  and  Charies,  facing  each 
other.  Its  coast-line  is  very  irregular,  and  forms  numerous 
lesser  bays.  The  eastern  side  has  a  flat  and  swampy  shore  ;  the 
western  ^  a  little  higher.  Besides  a  number  of  amaller  streams, 
it  receives  the  Potomac,  Snsquehannah,  Rappaliannock,  York, 
and  James  rivers,  all  navigable ;  and  hy  means  of  canals  it  is 
■  connected  with  other  great  water  systems  in  the  United  States. 
0he8'eldeii,Williajli,  surgeon  and  anatomist,  was  bom  19th 
October  1688,  at  Barrow-on-the-Hill,  Leicestershire.  He  began 
to  lecture  on  anatomy  at  twenty-two,  and  was  elected  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  in  1711,  and  a  corresponding  memher  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris  in  1729,  being  the  first 
foreigner  honoured  with  that  distinction.  As  surgeon  to  the 
St  ■n.omas's  and  St  Geoi^e's  Hospitals  and  to  Westminster 
Infirmary,  he  acquired  a  brilliant  reputation  as  an  operator.  He 
died  10th  April  1752.  His  chief' works  are  Anatomy  of  the 
Human  Body  '(1713) ;  Treatise  on  the  High  Operation  for  the 
Stone  {lyz^j  ;  and  Osteography,  or  Anatomy  of  the  Bones  {I'Jis). 
Chesh'ire,  a  western  and  maritime  county  of  England,  lies 
between  the  rivers  Mersey  and  Dee,  and  has  an  area  of  705.493 
acres,  and  a  pop.  (iSji)  of  561,131.  It  forms,  towards  the  Irish 
Sea,  a  flat  peninsula,  the  Wirral,  between  the  estuaries  of  the 
great  rivers,  and  inland  a  plain  separating  the  mountains  of 
Wales  from  those  of  Derbyshire.  Near  Hie  centre  it  is  inter- 
sected by  an  elevated  ridge,  running  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Weaver  in  the  N.,  to  Becston  Castle  rock  (366  feet  high)  in  the 
S.W.,  and  in  the  W,  also  the  county  is  sHghtly  hilly,  besides 
being  bounded  in  great  part  by  the  Mersey  on  the  E.  and  N.,  and 
by  the  Dee  on  the  W.  C  is  watered  by  the  Weaver  and  other 
navtetble  affluents  of  the  Mersey.  It  has  a  moist  climate  and  a 
soil  fertile  and  loamy.  There  is  excellent  pastures,  and  the 
agriculturists  mainly  devote  their  attention  to  dmry-farming,  and 
espedally  to  cheese-making.  In  1875  there  were  1 16,667  ^^^ 
under  all  crops,  and  347,461  acres  ot^  permanent  pasture,  while 
there  were  also  162,466  head  of  cattle,  a  higher  proportion  to 
the  number  of  acres  than  in  any  other  English  county.  As  much 
as  20,000  tons  of  cheese  are  produced  yearly.  C  is  almost  en- 
tirely formed  of  new  ted  sandstoiie,  containing  an  inexhaustible 
quantity  of  rock-salt,  which  is  extensively  mined  neai  NorthwiCh. 
When  Ultunmed  by  torchlight,  the  mines,  some  of  them  of  vast 
extent,  form  a  splendid  spectacle.  The  other  mineral  products 
are  coal,  copper,  lead,  cobalt,  and  limestone.  Chester  is  the 
capital,  and  among  the  other  towns  are  Birkenhead,  Stockport, 
Macclesfield,  Staley  Bridge,  and  Crewe,  C.  is  connected  with 
all  parts  of  the  kingdom  by  the  London  and  Uverpool  Railway, 
andby  the  Crewe,  Chester,  and  Holyhead  Railway,  and  is  tra- 
versed 1^  the  Grand  Trunk  and  Bridgewater  Canals.  It  returns 
siiL  members  to  Parhament. 

The  original  British  inhabitants  were  the  Cornavii  or  Cor- 
nabii.  Under  the  Romans  the  district  formed  part  of  the  pro- 
vince Flama  C<esariensis.  It  first  became  permanently  Enghsh 
in  828,  when  Ei^berht  of  Wessex  compelled  the  submission 
of  the  N.  Welsh,  and  then  received  the  name  Ceastre-scyre 
('  shire  of  Chester  '),  of  which  the  present  form  is  a  corruption. 
It  was  an  earldom  in  the  reign  of  Canute,  was  made  a  county 
palatine  by  William  the  Conqueror,  having  eight  barons  and 
a  Parliament  of  its  own.  Henry  VIII.  abolished  (1539)  its 
separate  Parhament,  and  competed  it  to  send  representatives  to 
the  national  assembly,  but  its  independent  jurisdiction  did  not 
fin^y  cease  till  1831. 

Clie8'nui^or01ieetlnit(Cflj*i«fti),agenus  of  Dicotyledonous 
trees  or  large  shrubs,  belonging  to  the  order  Cupulifer^.     The 


common  sweet  or  Spanish  C.  (C  vesca)  is  believed  to  have  been 
originally  introduced  into  Sardinia  from  Satdis  in  Asia  Minor, 
and  from  thence  to  have  spread  all  over  the  S.  of  Europe, 
where  it  forms  in  places  laige  forests.  A  celebrated  specimen 
at  Mount  Etna  measures  204  feet  in  circumference.  In  Britain 
the  C.  is  widely  distributed,  and  attains  a  good  size,  but  (here  is 
evidence  for  believing  that  it  was  introduced  by  the  Romans. 
It  is  now  one  of  our  trees  most  valaed  for  its  beatity,  the  excel- 
lence of  its  timber  and  its  fruit,  which  when  roasted  is  very 
nutritive  and  jiot  unpalatable.  Among  the  species  of  C.  may  be 
mentioned  the  AmencanC.  {C..4/«CT(iaBji),thesitvety  C.of  Java 
(C,  argentea),  the  Tunguirut  (C.  2'ungurrut),  the  fruits  of 
which  are  eaten  boiled  or  roasted.  (See  also  Chinquapin.) 
also  given  to  various  trees  and  shrubs  which  have 

.._   with  flie  genus  C. — e.g.,  the  hotse-C.  (q.  v.)  is 

jSsculus  Hippocastanum  ;  the  Moreton  Bay  C,  the  seeds  of  Cas- 
ianospemiumiq.  V.)  auslraJe;  the  Tahiti  C,  Iitccarpusiedulis ;  the 
water-C.,  Trapa  natans;  wild  C  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the 
seeds  of  Braie/um ;  Ae  jeOoM  C.  or  C.-oak,  Quereus  eastanea; 
the  hitter  name  is  also  sometimes  applied  to  the  tunber  of  Quercus 
iflora,  of  which  the  woodwork  of  the  roof  of  Westminster 
Abbey  and  various  other  old  buildings  is  composed,  and  not,  as 
long  believed,  ofC. 

Oliess.  Tfee  origin  of  this  game  is  lost  in  antiquity.  There 
seems  to  be  little  doubt  that  a  game  radically  the  same  as  the 
modem  C.  was  played  in  the  East  some  thousands  of  years  ago. 


now  played  may  probably  rather  be  said  to  have  grown  than  to 
have  been  invented  at  any  precise  period.    An  elementaiy  know- 
ledge of  C.  is  so  generally  diffused,  and  can  be  so  much  more 
effectually  given  visa  voce  than  in  a  book,  that,  in  the  following 
observations,  we  will  assume  the  reader  to  know  the  power  of 
various  pieces  and  the  object  of  the  game.     Any  one  who 
not  this  knowledge,  may  acquire  it  in  a  few  minutes  from 
who  has.    He  may  then  enter  on  the  study  of  this  wonderful 


BLACIL 


Yl  t  ITI  i  ¥  i 

Ifl 

j 

'^1 

^  1^1 

'^y?i~ 

H   U 

mth 

1    - 

lajmftiiiiaia 

rRQok;  < 


.=.,  Q.'s 


ishop,Q.'BKiilghl,  Q,'s 


game,  in  which  perfection  lies  beyond  the  reach  of  the  human 
intellect  ■  yet  it  is  not  the  intellect  alone  which  is  concerned  in 
C  -playing.  Its  results  are  largely  affected  by  temperament,  and 
by  some  rf  the  moral  qualities.  The  man  of  ph  egmatic  tempera- 
ment  mav  prevail  over  Uie  deeper  thinker,  if  the  latter  be  ol  ar 

excitable  temperament,  because  tc  ' ■-'  '"  '■'""'^*  -"''""' 

to  make  an  oversight,  c 
in  losing  the  f  '■  - 

thesa 


vLaOogle 


CHE 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CHE 


affected  by  cliaiice,  the  player  may  blame  liis  bad  luck,  but  in 
C.  there  is  no  such  refuge  for  human  self-love. 

The  annexed  diagram  shows  the  names  and  position  of  the 
pieces,  with  their  mwns  in  front,  before  opening  the  game.  He 
will  thus  be  able,  by  himself,  or  with  a  fellow-student,  to  play 
over  pdnted  games,  which,  making  a  good  selection,  affords  the 
best  nourishment  to  reflection  that  we  know  of. 

We  give  a  few  bmts  to  begiimers.  The  novice  who  may  enter 
the  lists  with  one  a  little  jnore  advanced  than  himself  will  pro- 
bably find  himself  defeated  in  a  few  moves  by  what  is  called 
scholar's  mate.  Thus  white  and  black  move  bs  follows  !— White, 
king's  pawn  two  ;  Black,  king's  pawn  two  ;  W.  king's  bishop  to 

![ueen's  bishop's  fourth ;  B.  king's  bishop  to  queen's  bishop's 
ourth ;  W.  queen  to  kmg's  rook's  fifth ;  E.  king's  knight  to 
kmg's  bishop's  third ;  W.  queen  takes  king's  bishop's  pawn,  and 
gives  checkmate. 

Now  Ulis  mode  of  attack  by  tjueen  and  bishop  is  easily  defeated, 
and,  when  defeated,  it  puts  him  who  made  it  to  great  disadvan- 
tage by  obli^g  his  queen  to  retreat,  and  so  causing  loss  of 
moves.  Suppoang  W.'s  two  first  moves  to  have  been  as  be- 
fore, let  B.  move  his  queen's  pawn  one  square,  so  as  to  support 
the  kmg.  W.  then,  as  formerly,  plays  his  queen  to  the  king's 
rook's  Sfth  i  B.  king's  knight's  pawn  one ;  thus  givii^  check 
the  W.  queen,  who  mast  retreat  with  veiy  little  dioice  of  m 
The  novice  should  keep  in  view  that  it  is  not  the  force  which  h 
possesses  on  which  his  power  for  attack  or  defence  depends,  bu 
that  this  depends  on  his  availabli  force.  This  hemg  so,  his  li 
endeavour  should  be  to  play  out  his  pieces  early,  to  play  them  m 
support  of  one  another,  and  to  casile  in  good  time.  By  the  la 
move,  you  probably  place  your  king  in  a  better  position,  nd 
bring  the  powerful  piece,  the  castle,  into  play.  It  is  well  to 
endeavour  to  have  the  attack  j  besides  the  strate^cal  advantage 
of  being  the  assailant,  the  position  is  more  inspiriting  than  tl^t 
of  being  on  the  defence.  At  the  same  time,  a  premature  attack, 
that  is,  with  a  large  part  of  your  force  at  home,  can  hardly  suc- 
ceed. Play  as  much  as  yon  can  with  those  who  are  more  skilful 
than  yourself.  Never  accept  any  indulgence  when  you  have 
made  a  blunder,  nor  give  any ;  otherwise,  when  the  situation 
becomes  critical,  disputes  are  sure  to  arise ;  consequently,  never 
take  nor  give  back  a  move.  In  pursuing  yaat  own  object,  do 
not  forget  that  your  adversary  is  pursuing  his  at  the  same  time  ; 
do  not  therefore  play  until  you  have,  if  possible,  fathomed  the 
motive  of  your  adversary  in  making  his  last  move. 

The  foEowing  are  the  leading  laws  of  the  game  ; — I .  If  you 
touch  a  piece  yoa  must  play  it ;  but,  so  long  as  you  retam  your 
hold,  you  can  make  any  move  consistent  with  its  power.  2.  If 
you  touch  a  piece  that  cannot  move,  your  adversary  may  compel 
you  to  move  your  king,  if  it  be  possible  to  do  so.  3.  If  you 
make  a  felse  move,  your  adversary  may  make  you  retract  it,  and 
move  your  king,  or  he  may  ohlige  you  to  make  any  lawful  move 
he  chooses  with  the  piece  felsely  moved.  4,  On  the  king  being 
checked,  notice  must  be  given,  or  the  player  whose  ting  is 
attacked  is  not  bound  to  notice  the  check.  5.  When,  towards 
the  end  of  a  game,  one  player  has  just  suflicent  force  to  win,  he 
may  be  called  on  to  win  within  fifty  moves  on  each  side.  If  he 
fail  to  do  so,  the  game  is  held  to  be  drawn.  It  sometimes  hap- 
pens tliat  one  player  has  the  greater  skill  when  there  are  many 
pieces  on  the  board,  and  that  the  other  again  has  more  skill, 
when  the  board  is  nearly  cleared,  in  manceuvring  the  pawns 
into  queens,  or  otherwise.  In  this  case  the  latter  may,  to  the 
disgust  of  his  adversaiy,  choose  to  change  queens  and  minor 
pieces  early  in  the  game.  Now  every  player  is  entitled  to  pl^ 
his  own  style  of  game,  and  to  take  every  lawful  advantage.  If 
you  do  not  like  another  man's  style,  therefore,  the  only  altema- 
five  is  not  to  play  with  hini.  Among  the  numerous  books  on 
this  fine  game  we  may  mention  Forbes*  History  of  C.  (Lond. 
i86o)i  Staunton's  C.-Praxis  (l86o)j  Morphy's  Games  at  C; 
Staunton's  C,  rAeory  and  Practke,  edited  by  R-  B.  Woimald 
(1876);  AXV&  English  C.  Problems,  collected  and  edited  by  James 
and  W.  T.  Pierce  (1876). 

Ctest.thepart  of  the  trunk  known  as  the  thorax,  composed  of 
the  dorsal  vertebra,  the  sternum,  the  ribs,  and  the  costal  cartil- 
ages. For  anatomical  description  see  Skeletom  and  Thorax. 
CSieat,  Military,  is  the  term  used  to  denote  the  nioney  and 
negotiable  securities  at  the  command  of  the  commissariat  depart- 
ment to  meet  the  expenses  of  an  army  in  motion. 

Chsst  at  Chatham,  a  fund  established  during  the  reign  of 


Queen  Elizabeth  for  the  support  of  maimed  and  superannuated 
seamen.  It  dates  from  1590,  when  all  seafaring  men  in  Her 
Majesty's  service  consented  to  a  stoppage  of  from  2d.  to  5d.  a 
month  out  of  their  pay  for  this  purpose,  and  as  the  money  was 
kept  in  a  chest,  hence  the  name  of  the  fund.  When  the  manag- 
ing office  was  removed  to  Gi'eenwich  in  1803,  it  retained  the  name, 
and  became  the  C.  at  Greenwich.  The  monthly  payment  from  the 
wages  of  the  seamen  was  abohshed  in  the  reign  of  William  IV. 
From  the  C.  disabled  sailors  may  receive  a  sum  of  money  m  hand, 
if  they  can  still  earn  a  living;  if  not,  they  may  receive  a  pension 
for  one  year,  (or  several  years,  or  for  life,  as  the  case  may  be. 
Ollea^er,  an  ancient  city  arid  bishop's  see,  a  municipal  and 

Earliamentary  borough,  a  county  in  itself,  and  the  capital  of 
heshire,  on  a  rocky  height  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dee  (here 
crossed  by  a  splendid  stone  bridge  with  a  span  of  200  feet),  16 
miles  S.E.  of  Liverpool.  It  is  a  great  railway  centre,  and  has 
one  of  the  finest  stations  in  the  kingdom.  By  the  EUesmere 
Canal  it  is  also  connected  with  the  Mersey.  C.  is  surrounded 
by  a  wall  7  or  8  feet  thick,  now  used  as  a  promenade,  and  afford- 
ing a  wide  prospect  over  a  pleasant  land.  There  were  once 
seven  towers  in  the  walls,  of^  which  only  two,  PhceiuK  Tower 
nd  W         T  w       n  w      n   ■        Th    tw     prin   p  1  streets, 

n         k       a  d  ph 
piazzas  ca  ed    h         w 


u 

re  within 

n       n          h 

b    k    b  u     6 

F  gh 

able  dis. 

h   h        ee    b 

with  the 

d  gables, 

some  of  them  curiously  carved,  give  the  city  a.jieculiarly  pic- 
turesque character.  The  cathedral,  a  massive  Gothic  structure  of 
red  sandstone,  is  of  great  antiquity.  It  grew  out  of  the  Abbey 
Church  of  St  Werbui^h,  founded  early  in  the  loth  c,  but  has 
recently  been  repaired  in  a  style  that  has  marred  its  farmer 
venerable  appearance.  The  Jiocese  oi  C,  it  may  be  noted,  was 
not  created  till  after  the  dissolution  of  monasteries  by  Henry 
VIII.  Other  churches  are  St  Bridget's,  St  John  the  Baptist's, 
St  Michael's,  and  Si-Peter's.  C.  has  a  grammar-school  (King's 
School),  founded  by  Henry  VIII.,  and  under  the  dean  and  chap- 
ter of  the  cathedral.  St  John's  Church  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Ethelred  in  698.  There  is  in  the  neighbourliood  a  fine 
public  cemetery,  and  in  1867  a  public  park  was  opened,  the  gift 
of  the  Marquis  of  Westminster,  The  city  has  manufactures  of 
paint,  shot,  and  lead  pipes ;  iron  foundries,  and  a  shipbuilding 
yard.  The  chief  exports  are  cheese,  lead,  copper  plates,  cast- 
iron,  and  coal.  C.  returns  two  members  to  Parliament,  Pop. 
(iS7i)-35,257. 

C.  was  tne  Besaita  Castra  of  the  Romans,  so  called  from 
being  half-encircled  by  the  Dtva  or  Dee,— the  Caerlemt  vawr, 
'  City  of  the  Great  Legion,'  of  the  Cymri.  In  828-830  Ecgberht 
wrested  it  from  the  N.  Welsh,  The  Danes  captured  it  in  894, 
but  it  was  recovered  in  904.  After  the  Norman  conquest,  the 
Earis  of  Chester  held  their  courts  here.  Charles  I.,  it  is  said, 
witnessed  from  the  Phtenix  Tower  the  defeat  of  his  troops  by  the 
Parliamentary  forces  on  Rowton  Heath, 

Clies'teTfl.eId,  Philip  Dormer  Stanhope,  Earl  of,  an 
English  statesman,  man  of  the  world,  and  author,  was  born 
in  London,  September  22,  1694.  In  early  life  he  travelled, 
was  appointed  gentleman  of  the  bedchamber  to  the  Prince 
of  Wales  {1715),  and  sat  in  the  House  of  Commons  as  mem- 
ber for  St  Germains,  in  Cornwall,  for  upwards  of  ten  years. 
In  1726  his  father  died,  and  he  entered  the  House  of  Lords, 
where  he  was  noted  for  his  eloquence,  and  the  keenness  of  his 
opposition  to  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  who  was  then  in  power.  C. 
was  a  member  of  the  Broad-Bottom  administration,  formed  in 
1 744,  and  was  even  made  a  chief  secretaiy  of  state ;  but  ill-health 
and  deafness  compelled  him  to  retire  from  public  life.  C.  wrote  a 
good  deal  for  some  of  the  periodicals  of  the  times,  and  was  inti- 
mate with  Bolingbroke,  Swift,  Pope,  &c.,  and  more  celebrated 
for  his  wit  and  refined  manners  than  for  his  statesmanship.  His 
treatment  of  Johnson,  however,  provoked  from  the  great  lexico- 
grapher an  outburst  of  hones{  though  surly  and  even  exag^r- 
ated  indignation,  which  is  now  chiefly  interesting  as  marking  the 
revolt  of  literature  against  the  slavery  of  patronage.  C.  died 
March  24, 1773.  His  moat  notable  work  is  his  Letters  to  his  Sun 
(2  vols.  1774),  which  may  be  considered  even  yet  the  best  Eiig- 


yLaOogle 


CHE 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDJA. 


CHI 


compendium  of  Oie  so -called  'ethics'  of  fashionable  life. 
The  best  editionof  his  letters  and  miscellaneous  literature  is  that 
by  Lord  Mahon  ($  vols.  Lond.  1845-53)- 

diesterfleld,  a  town  of  Derbyshire,  zt  miles  N.  of  Derby, 
md  156^  from  London  by  railway.  It  has  a  fine  church  (All 
Saints),  and  a  grammar-school  of  the  r6th  c  There  are  manu- 
fectures  of  lace,  merino,  silk,  cotton,  earthenware,  and  hardware  ; 
and  the  neighbourhood  is  rich  in  coal,  iron,  lead,  clay,  S:c.  The 
trade  of  the  place  greatly  increased  after  1776,  when  Bnndley 
constructed  the  C.   Canal,  joining  the  Trent  near  Stockwith. 


p.{iS 


1)  11,427. 


Clieeterfield  Inlet  penetrates  from  the  N.W.  comer  of 
Hudson's  Bay  350  miles  inwards.  Its  greatest  bieadth  does  not 
exceed  25  miles,  and  it  is  thickly  studded  with  islets. 

Chevalier'  (Fr. '  a  horseman  or  knight '),  in  heraldry,  signifies 
a  horseman  armed  at  all  points.  The  term  is  used  generally  also 
in  the  sense  of  a  knight. 

Clieval'ier,  Uicliel,  one  of  the  greatest  of  French  political 
economists  and  free-traders,  was  born  at  Lunoges,  January  13, 
l8o5.     After  studying  at  the  Polytechnic  School  and  the  School 

nes,  he  became  an  engineer  in  the  department  of  the  Nord. 

as,  however,  soon  attracted  by  the  speculations  first  of  St 
Simon  and  subsequently  of  Enfantin,  and  for  some  writings  m 
the  G/ofe  journal,  which  were  considered  an  outrage  against 
Christianity  and  morals,  he  was  imprisoned  for  six  months.  Re- 
tracting what  he  had  written,  he  was  sent  by  M.  Thiers  on  a 
special  mission  lo  the  United  States,  to  inquire  into  the  systems 
of  water  and  ndlway  communication  there.  The  brilliant  letters 
which  he  wrote  to  the  Jstaiud  da  DSbats  when  on  the  journey, 
and  which  were  republished  under  the  title  Uttrtssur  rAmenque 
dv  Nord  (a  vols.  1836),  dispelled  many  French  delusions  regard- 
ing America,  and  may  be  said  to  have  made  C.'s  fortune.  Vari- 
ous posts  and  dignities  were  bestowed  upon  him  on  his  return  to 
France,  and  in  1S40  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Political  Econ- 
omy in  the  College  of  France.  He  was  for  a  short  time  ( 1845-46) 
a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  WriHng  vigorously 
Mainst  his  former  friends  the  Sociahsts,  C.  lost  his  various  ap- 
pointments on  the  Republic  being  proclaimed,  but  after  the 
coup  d'&at  they  were  restored  to  him,  and  since  then  he  has  been 
known  chiefly  as  one  of  tlie  ablest  French  advocates  of  fi  ee  trade. 
In  i860  he  assisted  Mr  Cobden  in  negotiating  the  unportant 
commercial  treaty  between  England  and  France.  In  England, 
which  he  has  visited  frequenUy,  C.  is  very  much  respected.  His 
latest  visit  was  psdd  in  1875,  when  he  received  a  warm  reception 
in  the  leading  commercial  centres  of  the  country.  Among  his 
works,  his  Cottrs  d&onomU  Pdilipu  (3  vols.  1842-50),  Be  la 
Baisst  ProiabU  deVOr  (1859,  translated  into  English  by  Cobden), 
and  Le  Mtxique,  AncUn  et  Modeme  (1863),  are  especially  admired. 
Cfltevaux'-de-rrise (Fr. <:fuwil,  'a horse;'  de  Frise, 'of  Fries- 
lEUid ')  in  defensive  fortifications,  large  and  strong  pieces— centres 
or  barrels— of  timber,  traversed  with  wooden  spikes,  pointed  -' 
each  end,  and  shod  with  kon,  which  are  used  as  an  obstacle 
impede  the  progress  of  an  advancing  enemy.  They 
times  made  entirely  of  iron,  a  cylinder  6  feet  long  corr 
to  the  wooden  '  barrel,'  and  pierced  with  twelve  holes  to 
many  spears.  When  Badajos  was  stormed  in  1S12,  C.  formed 
by  fixing  sword-blades  in  beams  of  wood  proved  a  terrible  obstacle 
to  the  advance  of  the  besiegers. 

Che'viot  TTillH,  a  range  of  hills  partly  in  Northumberland 
and  partly  in  Koxbui^h,  and  thus  on  the  confines  of  England  and 
Scotlajid,  The  highest  points  are  Cheviot  Hill  in  Northumber- 
land, 2684  feet  high,  and  Carter  Fell,  203O  feet.  The  C.  H.  are 
in  general  smooth,  and  covered  with  a  close  award.  Numerous 
small  streams,  the  Kale,  Liddel,  Tyne,  Till,  and  Coquet,  rise  in 
the  green  recesses  of  this  pastoral  region,  which  Border  ballads 
and  tales  have  invested  with  an  imperishable  romance. 

Cheviot  She^.—A  breed  which  occupies  chiefly  the  Cheviot 
Mountains,  but  which  has  extended  itself  to  the  Lothians  and 
to  the  Ochils.  It  is  easily  fed,  and  yields  a  large  carcass  of 
mutton.  Cheviots  are  well  woolled  all  over  the  bod^  and  the 
legs.  They  have  white  faces,  open  countenances,  and  bright,  full, 
sparkling  eyes ;  the  lenses  are  large  and  ver^  contractile,  and  the 
head  is  stylishly  set  opon  the  shoulders,  which  are  rather  light ; 
the  back  is  long  and  straight,  and  the  quarters  full.    See  Sheep. 


espondii^ 


Chevreiil',  Micliel-Kug&iie,  a  distinguished  French  clie- 
mist,  was  born  31st  August  1786,  at  Angers  (Maine-et- Loire). 
He  was  appointed  in  succession  Professor  of  the  Sciences  at 
the  Chariemagne  College  (1813),  Director  of  the  dyeing  depart- 
ment in  the  Gobelins  manufactory  (1824),  Professor  of  Applied 
Chemistry  in  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  (1830),  and  Krec- 
tor  of  the  Museum  for  the  two  quinquennial  periods  1864  and 
1^9.  C.'s  principal  works  are  Kicherckes  Chimiqaei  siir  Us 
Corps  Gras  iCOrigim  AnimaU  (Par.  1813),  and  ConsiiUraHons 
Cetierales  stir  e Analyse  Orgatdqut  a  sitr  ses  Applications  (1824). 
Besides  these,  numerous  memoiis  on  colours  and  various  chemi- 
cal subjects  are  to  be  found  in  the  Annales  de  Chimii  and  the 
Mimmes  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 

CheVron  {Fr.  '  a  rafter '),  in  heraldry,  one  of  the  nine  honour- 
.ble  ordinaries,  which  resembles  the  supports  of  a  roof  formed 
ff  two  rafters  leaning  against  one  another.  It  is  otherwise  de- 
fined as  thelowerhalf  of  aSaItire(q.  v.)brought  toa  point  on 
the  upper  side.  The  C.  is  supposed  to  betoken  the  accomplish- 
ment by  the  bearer  of  something  important,  such  as  the  found- 
ing of  a  family.  A  shield  divided  by  a  line  in  the  form  of  a  C. 
is  said  to  be  fer  C,  or  farty pa-  C.     The  diminutive  of  the  C. 

half  its  size,  or  sometimes  rather  less — is  called  a  ehsvrond. 

In  archOectttre,  the  term  C.  is  used  to  denote  the  rigaag 
moulding  cliaracteristic  of  Norman  architecture,  and  also 
found  in  the  pointed  areh  of  the  transition  period  between  the 
Norman  and  the  Early  English  styles. 

Chevrons,  stripes  worn  on  the  aim  by  non-commissioned 
officers  in  the  army.  A  lance-corporal  or  bombardier  wears  one, 
a  coi-poral  two,  a  s'ei^eant  three,  and  a  staff-sergeant  four. 

Chev'y  Cliaae,  a  celebrated  ballad  in  English  folklore.  It 
appears  in  two  forms,  an  ancient  and  more  modem,  both  of  which 
ace  given  t^  Bishop  Percy  in  his  EeHques.  The  earlier  and  more 
rnd3y  constructed,  whose  original  title  was  The  Hunting  a'  the 
Cheviai,  may  have  been  writteij  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  (1423- 
1461) ;  the  later  probably  dates  from  the  time  of  Elizabeth. 
The  combat  described  in  the  ballad  of  C.C.  is  really  imaginary, 
but  was  probably  suggested  by  the  historic  battle  of  Otterboume, 
fought  between  the  rival  Border  nobles  Percy  (Hotspur)  and 
Douglas  in  1388,  which  is  also  the  subject  of  a  fine  ballad. 
Both  forms  of  C.  C.  are  of  English  origin,  but  there  is  sudi 
knightly  magnanimity  in  the  narrative,  tliat  it  became  equally 
popular  N.  and  S.  of  the  Border.  High  and  low  alike  rejoiced 
in  the  vaHant  strain.  '  I  never  heard, '^says  Sir  Philip  Sydney, 
'the  old  song  of  Percy  and  Douglas,  that  I  found  not  my 
heart  moved  more  than  with  a  trumpet ;  and  yet  is  sung  Irat  by 
some  blind  crowder,  with  no  rougher  voice  than  rude  style. 
The  later  and  more  familiar  version  has  been  extravagantly 
criticised  by  Addison  in  papers  70  and  Jn  oi  At' S^atatcr. 

Oheyne,  George,  a  Scotch  physician  and  mathematician, 
bom  of  good  family  in  Aberdeenshire  in  1671.  He  pracrised 
at  London  from  1700  almost  till  his  death,  which  took  place  at 
Bath,  April  12,  1743.  C.  strongly  recommended  milk  and  vege- 
table diet,  having  found  such  very  beneficial  in  reducing  his  own 
corpulency.  His  work  on  ^uxions  (1703)  procured  him  admis- 
sion to  the  Royal  Society.  Some  of  his  other  works  are  A  New 
Theory  of  Fmers  (1702),  ObsermtiBns  en  Gout  (1722),  An  Essay 
on  Hedtk  and  Long  Ufi  ( 1 725),  and  an  Essay  on  Sigimen  (1739). 
June  1552,  was 

Educated  at  Rome  by 

with  Cardinal  Comaro,  but 


Chifttore'ra,  Oalwiell'o,  bom  at  Savona,  8 
the  first  Italian  lyric  poet  of  his_  ti-~  ^■^•" 
an  uncle,  he  afterwards  took  st 


L  affray  in  which  he  avenged  his  quarrel  vrith  his  ovra 
hand;  he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  capital  antl  retire  into  pnyaCT. 
Honours  were  heaped  upon  him  by  Pope  Urban  VIII.,  by  the 
Dukes  of  Savoy,  Mantua,  &c.  C.  died  at  Savona,  14th  October 
1637.  His  lyrics  are  considered  the  best  hi  the  style  of  Pindar 
and  Anacreon  that  have  been  produced  in  Italy  in  modem  tinies. 
He  also  wrote  several  epic,  dramatic,  bucolic,  and  epistolary 
poems,  His  J?iffM  (best  ed.  3  vols.  Rome,  1718 ;  4  y°}^  Ven. 
1731)  and  P<esie  IMch4  (3  vols.  Livomo,  17S1),  leather  with 
his  epics,  DelU  Guerre di  G^a*(Ven,  1582)  and  Amadada  (Gen. 
1620),  are  contained  in  the  collection  of  his  Opere  (3  vols,  Ven. 
1768  ;  5  vols.  1782). 

OMa'na,  the  name  of  two  smaU  rivers  of  Tuscany,— one 
(the  anc  Clanis)  a  tributary  of  the  Amo,  the  other  an  idHuent  of 
the  Paglia,— which  water  the  wide  expanse  of  the  Val  di  Chiana, 


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CHI 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


had    ende  ed 


e  of  C  tan 


and  have  been  the  m  in 
fertae  districts  of     dy  a  th 
III.  their  unrestric    d  in  m  1 
and  marshy  wildem    s. 

ChiarEunoitt^,  a  vn 
33  miles  W.S.W.  o  'J  u 
Fop.  9000. 

Ohia'ri,  a  town  of  N.  Italy,  province  of  B  escia,  h 
Ogiio,  14  miles  W.  of  Breada  by  railway.  It  was  a  waUed 
town  till  the  beginning  of  the  present  c,  and  has  a  church  dating 
from  1431-80,  and  important  sillt  manufactures.  Pop.  9339. 
Here,  on  September  i,  1701,  Prince  Eugene  defeated  the  Franco- 
Spanish  army  commanded  by  Marshal  Villcroi. 

Clliaroscu'ro  (Ital  cMaro,  Lat.  clarus,  'bright,  clear;'  Ital, 
oscuro,  Lat,  obscurus,  '  obscure,  dark ')  is  the  Italian  term  for  what 
is  generally  spoken  of  as  '  light  and  shade '  in  painting.  It  may  be 
described  as  the  art  of  disposing  the  lights  and  shadows  of  a  pic- 
!  so  a^  to  realise  the  highest  picturesque  effect.  The  simplest 
and  crudest  form  of  C.  is  the  violent  contrast  of  light  and  shade ; 
but  the  refinements  of  this  quality  of  pdnting  embrace  the  light 
in  light,  the  dark  in  dark,  and  afl  those  variations  in  the  use  of 
colours  which  produce  the  effects  of  reflected  light,  or  light 
tempered  by  shadow.  The  first  painter  who  reduced  C.  to  a 
system  was  Leonardo  da  Vind,  and,  though  the  quality  is  a  main 
constituent  of  every  successful  work  of  art,  it  has  been  most 
effectively  used,  and  may  l)e  most  profitably  studied,  in  the  works 
of  Corre^io,  Rembrandt,  Titian,  and  Rubens. 

Chiava'ri,  a  seaport  of  N.  Italy,  province  of  Genoa,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Sturla,  21  miles  E.S.E.  of  Genoa.  Of  its  churches, 
the  finest  is  the  Madonna  dtP  Orlo.  C.  has  manufactures  of  lace 
and  silk,  and  important  anchovy  fisheries ;  in  the  neighbourhood 
aie  extensive  slate  quarries.     Fop.  10,457. 

CMavenn'a  (Ger.  Klsfm),  a  town  of  N,  Italy,  province  of 
Sondrio,  38  miles  N.N.W.  of  Bergamo.  It  is  situated  on  the 
Spliigen  road,  and  is  the  point  of  junction  for  the  roads  to 
Milan  by  Lake  Coroo,  to  the  Engadine,  and  the  Swiss  Canton  of 
the  Orisons.  C.  has  manufactures  of  silk  and  cotton.  Pop.  3845, 
OMbon,  or  Caclioboit  Keeiit.  See  Buksera. 
Ohica,  a  red  substance  obtained  by  boiling  the  leaves  oiBig- 
noaia  Chica,  a  native  of  the  banks  of  the  Orinoco  and  other 
parts  of  S.  America.  It  is  used  by  the  Indians  for  painting 
their  bodies,  and  in  the  arts  for  giving  an  orange-red  colour 
>3tton  fabrics.  The  name  C.  is  also,  applied  to  Slerculia 
Chicha,  Che  seeds  of  which  are  eaten  by  the  Brazilians.  C.  is 
also  another  name  for  Pito,  Poso,  or  maize-beer — a  fermented 
liquor  made  from  Indian  -  corn  by  many  tribes  of  the  S, 
Arnerican  Indians  hy  fermenting  the  chewed  maize.  A  very 
superior  quality  is  made  by  pouring  the  liquor  into  an  earthen 
jar  containing  several  pouni^  of  beef,  and  burying  the  whole 
undei^round  for  several  years.  When  a  child  is  bom  such  a 
jar  is  buried,  and  only  disinterred  for  the  contents  to  be  drank 
at  the  same  child's  maitiage.  Vinegar  and  a  spirituous  liquor 
can  be  also  made  from  it. 

CMoacoIe',  the  chief  town  of  Ganjam  district,  in  the  province 
of  Madras,  British  India,  415  miles  S.W.  of  Calcutta,  and  not 
far  from  the  coast.  It  is  noted  for  its  beautiful  muslins,  Pop 
(1871)  15,587. 

CMca'^  (pron.  Shekawgo),  in  Illinois,  one  of  the  chief  cities 
of  the  Union,  is  situated  on  the  S.W.  shore  of  Lake  Michigan 
at  the  mouth  of  a  river  of  the  same  name.  The  name  is  Indian, 
nmg '  wild  onion. '  C.  stands  on  the  great  E.  and  W.  route, 
is  the  centre  of  an  immense  traffic.  It  is  perhaps  the  most 
wonderfiil  city  in  the  world  for  its  rapid  growth  and  great  energy, 
ng  men  remember  when  its  site  was  a  swamp,  and  could 
have  been  bought  for  a  trifle.  Fort  Dearborn  was  erected  in 
1803  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  the  place  was  a  mere  frontier 
post  till  1S31,  when  a  settlement  was  made.  The  town  was 
organised  in  1833,  and  received  a  charter  March  4,  1837.  The 
population  in  1835  was  1000 !  1837,4470;  1845,  12,080;  1850, 
28,269;  1855,  83,509;  i860,  110,973;  1S65,  187,446;  1870, 
298,977;  1875,  410,000.  The  C.  river,  having  two  branches, 
-eparates  the  city  into  three  parts,  the  business  portion  being 
■n  the  S,  side,  The  IlUnois  and  Michigan  Canal  connects  the 
;.  river  with  the  Illinois,  which  enters  the  Mississippi,  thus 
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g    h      navigation   of  the  gieat  lakes  wilh   the   Gulf  of 

T  e  river  is  bridged  and   tunnelled,  and  has  s< 

8  m  es      wharfage,  and  there  is  a  tunnel  for  2  miles  under 

1      \     by  which  the  city  is  supplied  with  57,000,000  gallons 

ilji.      For  the  better  drainage  of  C.   enlhe  streets, 

T  h   h      buildings,  were  about  twenty  years  ago  raised  from 

' "  '  \  terrible  fire  broke  out  7th  October 


83.500,000  was  subscribed  in  aid  of  the  sufferers  from  all  parts 
of  the  world,  and  the  city  was  completely  rebuilt  in  about  two 
years.  The  finest  buildings  are  the  court-house,  observatory, 
the  colleges,  the  Douglas  monument,  and  some  of  the  largest 
hotels  in  America.  C.  is  the  greatest  depSt  for  grain  in  the 
world,  having  an  annual  export  of  some  15,000,000  bushels  of 
wheat,  27,000,000  of  maize,  besides  large  quantities  of  com,  rye, 
and  barley.  The  business  of  pork-packing  rivals  that  of  Cm- 
dnnati.  There  are  beades  eitensive  manufactures  of  machinery, 
carriages,  &c.  C.  is  one  of  the  great  Kulway  centres  in  the 
Union,  about  thirty  hnes  meeting  there.  In  1875  the  taxable 
value  of  propertv  in  the  dty  was  S3f>3,7oS,  140.  C.  has  Uiirty- 
six  public  schools,  where  education  is  free ;  two  coDeges ;  Bap- 
tist, Presbyterian,  and  Coiwregational  theological  seminaries  ;  a 
law  school,  several  medical  mstitutions,  and  five  daUy  and 
thirty-eight  weekly  newspapers. 

Ohiolleil',  a  town  in  Yucatan,  Central  America,  about  30 
miles  W.  by  S.  of  VaUadolid,  and  chiefly  interesting  for  the  ruin: 
of  an  andent  dty,  attesting  in  its  builders  a  considerable  degrei 
of  civilisation.  It  is  impossible  to  conjecture  the  purpose  foi 
which  many  of  the  structures  were  erected.  There  is  a  spadou: 
parallelogram  formed  by  rows  of  small  pillars,  and  a  tiuncated 
pyramidal  mound,  75  feet  high,  each  side  of  the  base  measuring 
about  200  feet,  and  crowned  with  a  ruined  building,  of  which 
the  sides  measure  43  feet  by  49. 

Qhi'olleeter,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough,  and 
bishop's  see  in  Sussex,  62  miles  S.W.  of  London  by  road,  and 
79  by  railway.  It  consists  of  two  principal  streets,  with  smaller 
Streets  at  right  angles  to  them,  having  an  elaborately  carved  octa- 
gonal cross  at  their  intersection.  The  dty  is  surrounded  by  an 
andent  wall,  a  mile  and  a  half  in  circuit,  now  lined  with  elms, 
and  forming  a  pleasant  promenade.  The  cathedral,  an  impos- 
ing structure^  exhibiting  almost  every  variety  of  Gothic,  was 
built  in  the  r2th  and  1 3th  centuries,  and  has  undergone  '  restora- 
tion '  since  183a  It  is  rich  in  '  portraits '  of  English  kings  and 
bishops,  and  contains  many  interesting  monuments;  among 
others,  one  to  Collins  the  poet,  who  was  a  native  of  the  place, 
and  another  to  Chillingworth,  C.  has  extensive  com  and  cattle 
markets,  but  almost  no  manufactmes.  The  harbour,  2  miles  to 
the  S.W.,  is  connected  with  the  city  by  a  canaL  C.  returns  one 
member  to  Parliament.  Pop.  of  parliamentary  borough  (1871) 
9054-  C.  is  considered  the  Eegnum  of  the  Romans — the  head- 
quarters of  Vespasian,  who  built  the  vralls ;  and  the  Coins  and 
temple  fragments  found  here  fevour  the  conjecture.  But  it 
derives  its  name  fi-om  Cissa,  a  king  of  the  3.  Saxons,  and  appears 
in  the  ChronicU  as  Ciim-ceaster.  Its  oldest  charter  dates  from 
the  reign  of  Stephen.  ' 

CMcken-Fox  (Varkella),  an  mfectious  disease  almost  always 
confined  to  children.  It  sddom  lasts  more  than  a  week,  and  is 
never  6ital.  There  is  first  an  eruption  of  pimples,  which  become 
vesicles  on  the  second  day  (hence  called  crystal-pox).  On  the 
fourth  day  these  vesicles  become  scabs,  and  fall  off  about  the 
end  of  a  week  from  the  commencement  of  the  disease,  A  little 
opening  medicine  is  all  the  treatment  required.  C,-P.  generally 
occurs  only  once  in  a  lifetime,  and  is  essentially  a  disease  distinct 
from  Small-Pox  (q.  v. ). 

CMck-Fea  ( Cic^),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  I.fgu~ 
minosie  (sub-order  Fapilionacea).  About  twelve  or  fifteen 
species  are  known,  natives  of  Southern  or  Eastern  Europe,  W, 
Africa,  and  Abyssinia.  C  arieHttum,  the  C-P,  or  Egyptian, 
pea  ( Csce  of  the  Italians,  Gar&anats  of  the  Spaniards,  the  Gram 
of  India},  is  a  native  of  the  S.  of  Europe  and  of  India.  The 
leaves  of  them  are  covered  with  glandular  hairs  excreting  oxalic 
add — or,  according  to  some,  a  mixture  of  oxalic,  malic,  and 
acetic  acids — which  hangs  in  drops  which  afterwards  ciystallise. 
The  seeds  are  ground  into  meal  and  made  into  cakes,  which  form 
a  laige  portion  of  the  food  of  the  natives  of  the  ci 


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wliich  the  C.-P.  is  a  native,  and  are  also  parcted  and  boiled.  In 
Paris  they  are  greatly  used  in  soups.  The  acid  crystals  ace  col- 
lected by  the  natives  in  India,  and  considered  an  infallible  cure  in 
cases  of  indigestion.  The  herbage  iswell  adapted  for  feeding  cattle. 

Ghiokweed,  or  Chiokenweed,  [Stdlaria),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  ordet  Caryophyllactm,  but  generally  applied  lo  i, 
media,  one  of  the  Stitchworts  (q.  v.).  It  is  a  troublesome  weed, 
gathered  to  make  poultices  or  to  feed  birds.  The  mouse-ear  is  a 
species  of  Cerastmm.  The  term  C.  is  also  sometimes  given  to 
£(KCfl!a  tinclona. 

CMcla'na,  a  town  of  Spain,  province  of  Cadiz,  about  12  miles 
S.E.  of  Cadiz,  It  is  built  on  a  hill,  and  has  a  fine  appearance. 
C.  has  a  good  hospital,  manufactures  of  linen,  earthenware,  he, 
mineral  baths  of  great  repute  in  the  W.  of  Andalusia,  Pop. 
about  5000. 

Cbic'opee,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  U.S.,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  rivers  C.  and  Connecticut,  85  miles  W.S.W.  of  Boston  by 
railway.  It  has  some  twelve  churches,  several  newspapers,  and 
large  manufactures  of  cottons,  woollens,  paper,  arms,  &c  Pop. 
(1870)  10,500,  including  the  village  of  C.  Falls.  C.  was  for- 
merly called  Cabotville. 

Ohic'ory,  or  Suco'ory  [Cicherium),  a  genus  of  plants  belong' 
ii^  to  the  orfer  Composita,  sub-order  Cichoracem,  comprising  few 
species.  Cichoraim  Jnlybus,  the  common  C,  is  a  plant  with 
bright  blue  flowers,  common  on  waysides  and  similar  localities 
in  some  parts  of  England  and  inost  parts  of  Europe.  The 
leaves  are  used  for  feeding  cattle,  and  the  blanched  leaves  as  a 
salad.  The  roots  when  roasted  form  a  substitute  for  cofiec,  and, 
indeed,  in  the  opinion  of  many,  if  mixed  with  the  latter  improve 
its  flavour.  They  also  deepen  the  colour  of  the  cofiee,  though 
when  largely  used  they  tend  to  give  diarrhcea.  This  adultera- 
tion  is  itself  adulterated  with  roasted  beans,  parsnips,  carrots, 
acorns,  logwood,  and  mahogany,  dust,  &c.,  and  even,  It  is  said, 
with  the  <£ied  and  ground  tones  of  horses  and  bulla,  &c.  The 
Endive  (q.  v.)  also  belongs  to  this  genus. 

OMef  (Fr.  chef,  'head '),  in  heraldry,  one  of  the  nine  honour- 
able ordinaiies,  is  the  uppermost  third,  or  less  than  a  third,  of 
the  field  of  a  shield,  bounded  by  a  horizontal  line.  The  C.  may 
be  borne  with  any  other  of  the  nine  ordinaries  except  the  Fesse 
(q.  V.) ;  it  may  also  be  charged  with  other  heraldic  figures  or 
devices,  which  are  then  said  to  be  on  u  C,  In  C.  means  borne  on 
the  uppermost  part  of  the  sliield,  even  though  the  horizontal 
bolinding.line  is  not  drawn. 

Chief- JuBtioe.    See  Justice  Courts. 
Ohiein-See,  the  largest  lake  in  Upper  Bavaria,  42  miles  S.E. 
long,  7  broad,  and  lies  1500  feet  above 
I   A  h         d  P   en,  and  is  drained  by  the 
I  It  h  in  trout,  salmon,  pilte, 

d  w  th    h    e  fine  islands,    Herren- 
d  K      t       1      The  Bairisch- Salzburg 
th  m    h  There  is  a  steamer  on 

tl     Ilk' 

(  h    r  f  th    R  m      )   an  old  town        h    p 

Tun      N  It  ly  9       1      SE      f  Turin,  has  m  tu 

of  fustians,  cottons,  linens,  silks,  fi.c,     It  is  rich  h 

,  educational  and  benevolent  institutions.      I       fi 
buildingsaretheChurchofStDominico(i26o),and  h         S  n 
Maria  della  Scala  (1405),  a  hx^e  Gothic  edifice.     P  p        4 
C.  is  frequently  mentioned  in  Italian  history.      S       C  b 
Delle  Slorii  de  C.  (Tur.  2  vols.  1827  ;  3d  ed.  1855) 

Chie'ti,  the  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  n  m     C      n 
Italy,  78  miles  E.N.E.  of  Rome.      It  is  the  seat         an 
bishop,  and  has  a  cathedral,  several  churches  aud  ts 

college,  a  theatre,  and  remains  of  antiquity.      Its    nd         es    n 
woollen  and  silk  fabrics  are  unimportant,  but  its        n  ty 
tremely  productive,  and  gives  rise  to  a  considerable      d       P  p 
20,000.     C.  partly  occupies  the  site  of  the  Teaie  M  nsru 

of  which  traces  are  still  seen.     In  1524  St  Gaetan  b    hd 

the  Theatine  order  here.    The  province  of  C.  has    n  a  ea 
1104  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  (187a)  of  339,986. 

CMgnec'to  Bay,  the  westerly  of  the  two  term  b  h 
of  Fundy  Bay,   N.  America,  .separated  from   No        m  d 

"      ■■,  in  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence,  by  an  isthmus   b        g   h 
name,  14  miles  in  breadth. 
91 


of  Munich,  is 
It 


th 


Chig'oe,  cr  Si^^er  {Pulex  piiutram),  a  species  of  .^/;iij«i> 
lera  or  fleas,  found  in  the  W.  Indies  and  S.  America,  and  noted 
for  its  habit  of  selecting  the  skin  of  the  foot  or  under  the  toe- 
nails as  a  residence.  If  the  e^s  are  allowed  to  be  developed  in 
the  skin,  the  parturient  female  flea  acquires  a  relatively  enormous 
size,  her  abdomen  being  greatly  distended  with  eggs ;  whilst  the 
irritation  produces  a  troublesome  ulcer,  amidst  whicli  the  young 
larvse  appear.  The  remedy  consists  in  extracting  theC,  and  in 
applying  tobacco-juice  lotion  to  the  affected  part, — an  operation 
in  performing  wliicli  the  W.  Indian  negroes  are  said  to  be  very 

CbilmaTiua,  capital  of  the  Mexican  state  of  the  same  name, 
lies  on  a  tableland  4500  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  a  well-built 
town,  with  regular  streets,  a  large  cathedral,  several  convents, 
and  an  aqueduct  3  miles  in  length.  It  was  founded  in  1700, 
but  has  been  falling  into  decay  since  tlie  overthrow  of  Spanish 
authority.  Pop.  12,000.  S.  of  the  town  lie  the  femous  silver 
mines  elf  St  Eulalia.— The  State  ofC,  separated  from  Texas, 
U.S.,  by  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  has  numerous  mines,  but  the 
soil  being  dry,  only  the  river-bottoms  are  cultivated,  and  a  strip 
along  the  slope  of  the  Sierra  Madre.  Near  the  base  of  this  are 
extensive  ruins,  luiown  as  Casas  Grandes.  Area,  104,013  sq. 
miles;  pop.  (1871)  171,971,  mostly  Indians. 

Chil'tolama,  blains  or  boils  caused  by  a  chill  or  cold.  The 
proper  treatment  consists  in  keeping  the  affected  parts  warm 
and  dry,  and  applying  iodine  ointment  to  fhera.  In  strumous 
children,  codliver  oil  and  iron  should  be  given,   . 

Chil'dermas,  or  Holy  IrmocentB'  Day  (28th  December), 
is  held  as  a  festival  by  tlie  Church  of  Rome,  to  commemorate 
the  massacre  of  the  Innocents  by  Herod.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
customary  to  whip  the  children  upon  this  day,  to  enforce  Herod's 
crime  on  their  memory.  It  was  thoi^ht  unlucliy  to  marry  or 
commence  any  work  on  this  day. 

Child- Killing.     See  Infanticide. 

CMldren,  Legal  Capacity  of.  See. Age,  Capacity, 
Legai,  Cukator,  MiNOB,  Pupil,  Guardian,  Tutor. 

Child-Stealing.    See  Abduction. 

Ohi-li,  or  Pe-cbi-li,  a  province  of  the  Chinese  empire, 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Great  Wall,  has  an  area  of  57,283  sq. 
miles,  and  a  jiop.  of  38,879,838,  It  is  watered  throughout  its 
length  by  the  Pei-ho  and  its  numerous  affluents.  The  Hcang-ho 
also  passes  through  its  southern  border.  Pekin,  the  capital  of 
the  empire,  lies  near  the  Pei-ho  in  the  northern  part  of  the  pro- 

Ctiri,  or  Chile,  a  republic  on  the  W.  coast  of  S.  America, 
bounded  W.  and  S.  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  E.  by  the  Ande*. 
and  N.  by  Bolivia :  lat.  25°  3o'-43''  20'  S. ;  long.  69°-74''  W. 
It  has  a  coast-line  of  1500  miles,  and  includes  several  islands,  of 
whicli  by  far  the  largest  is  Chiloc  (q.  v.).  The  divisions,  area';, 
and  populations,  according  to  an  ofScial  census  for  1875,  are  as 


P        nets. 

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Pop.  tin- 

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C                 N  iBi'.lancs        ■ 

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TBB  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


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Physical  Aspect,  &-c.—T\ie  country,  stretching  N.  and  S.  in  a 
long  nun-ow  strip,  is  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  continent  by  the 
Andes,  which  here  form  a  single  magnificent  ridge.  It  consists 
of  nomerous  oflsets  of  the  great  range,  and  of  intervening  vaUeys 
of  great  fertility  and  beauty,  which  open  upon  the  sea.  In  the 
N.  is  the  barren  and  rainless  waste  of  Alacama,  while  over  the 
rich  central  region  the  snow-covered  peak  of  Aconcagua  (q.  v), 
the  giant  of  the  Chilian  Andes,  towers  to  a  height  of  22,422  feet 
TTiere  are  sixteen  active  volcanoes,  such  as  Chilian  and  Villarica, 
both  of  which  are  16,000  feel  high  ;  and  the  coast-line  has  been 
greatly  extended  of  late  years  by  the  gradual  upheaval  which 
the  country  is  undergoing.  Among  the  rivers  (tre  the  Biotjio 
(q.  v.),  the  Maule,  Calacalla,  Noble,  Cauthen,  and  innumer- 
able sm^er  streams,  llie  climate  in  the  N,  is  hot  and  dry, 
but  in  the  rest  of  the  country  is  delightfully  tempered  by  pre- 
vailing sea-breezes.  On  the  whole,  C.  is  singularly  h^thy, 
although  the  temperature  often  (Tses  to  95°  in  the  shade. 
January  and  February  are  the  hottest  months,  and  the  rainy 
season,  by  which  Atacama  is  almost  unaffected,  lasts  from  April 
till  August  intermittently. 

Natural  IVgdiicts,  &'c. — The  base  and  slopes  of  the  Andes 
are  clad  with  forests  of  fine  timber  trees,  and  wild  apple  and 
pear  trees  grow  in  abundance.  Agriculture  is  rapidly  improv- 
n^,  the  principal  crops  under  cultivation  beine  mme,  wheat, 
bariey,  and  other  European  grdps.  The  only  hemp  p-own  on 
the  W.  side  of  S.  America  is  in  C,  which  is  also  the  original 
home  of  the  potato.  In  the  dry  region  of  the  N.  there  is  a 
lannriant  yield  of  grapes,  olives,  figs,  pomegranates,  oranges, 
peaches,  melons,  &c  C.  is  plentifully  stocked  with  cattle 
and  goats,  while  its  principal  animals  of  prey  are  the  puma  or 
American  lion,  and  the  condor,  a  splendid  Audian  species  of  the 
vulture. 

Geology  and  Minerahgy.—Vaf:  upper  portion  of  the  Chilian 
mountains  coi\sists  mainly  of  schistose  rocks,  the  lower  offsets  of 
granitic,  covered  with  tuff  and  lava  in  the  vicinity  of  the  volcanoes. 
Eve^where  are  seen  hornblende,  mica-schists,  clay  slates,  and 
basaltic  and  felspathic  porphyrites  of  deep  red  and  brown  tints, 
while  limestone  rocks  occur  in  numerous  places.  Quartz  is 
usually  found  in  conjunction  with  yeuis  of  the  metaJs,  which  exist 
in  great  abundance,  and  constitute  the  chief  wealth  of  the  country, 
The  principal  minerals  are  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  iron,  tin, 
coal,  and  precious  stones,  such  as  agate,  jasper,  rock-crystal,  &c. 
Atacama  with  its  vast  mineral  resourees  has  been  brought  within" 
the  reach  of  minuig  enterprise  since  the  recent  introduction  of 
railways. 

Means  of  Traffic,  Commme,  Ss'c.—C  is  now  placed  in  direct 
communication  witfi  Europe  by  means  of  a  telegraph  line  from 
Buenos  Ayres,  which  crosses  the  Andes  by  the  Paso  de  la 
Ctunbre,  12,178  feet  high.  In  lS;s  the  various  railway  lines 
throughout  the  conntry  had  a  total  length  of  616  miles,  and 
a  project  was  on  foot  to  extend  the  Copiapo  Ime  across  the 
Andes,  and  unite  it  with  that  from  Cordova  in  the  Areentine 
Republic.  The  estimated  cost  of  the  scheme  is  ,£6250  a 
mile,  and  the  distance  is  400  miles.  C.  has  considemhle 
foreign  connneree,  chiefly  with  Britain,  and  the  principal  articles 
of  export  are  copper  and  silver  ore,  wheat,  flour,  raw  cotton, 
gtiano,  tallow,  and  hides.  In  1874  the  exports  by  land  and  sea 
amounted  to  ;£7,26S,ooo,  and  the  imports  to  ^£7,762,000;  the 
number  of  ships  that  entered  the  various  ports  being  5S27,  of 
3,790,000  tons.  The  value  in  1S73  of  the  minerals  (chiefly 
copper)  exported  was  ^1^3,313,000,  and  of  agricultural  produce 
and  cattle,  ^^3,187,000.  C.  has  manufactures  of  linens,  brandy, 
earthen  and  copper  wares,  &c ;  and  the  chief  towns  are  Santi- 
ago (the  capital),  Valpaiaiso,  Copiapo,  Caldera,  Chanaral,  Chil- 
ian, Concepcioxi  and  Talca.  A  great  international  exhibition 
was  held  at  Santi^o  In  the  end  of  1875. 

People,  GoTietnmenl,  &'c. — In  the  N.  and  central  provinces  the 
inhabitants  are  mostly  whites  or  ChileiSos,  of  Spanish  origin, 
distinguished  by  their  enterprise  and  industry.  The  S.  is  almost 
wholly  occupied  by  Indians.  According  to  the  constitutioil  of 
1833  the  government  is  a  republic,  and  the  legislature  consists 
of  two  houses.  The  public  debt,  which  is  chiefly  contracted  on 
accotiut  ofrdlways,  amounted  at  the  end  of  iS73to  ;f  10,779,404. 
In  1874  the  army  comprised  2000  infantry,  712  cavalry,  and 
804  artillery ;  while  the  navy  numbered  two  powerful  ironclads 
and  ten  small  vessels.  The  prevailing  religion  is  the  Roman 
Catholic,  but  other  churches  are  protected  by  a  law  of  1865. 

History.— The  country  was  overrun  by  Diego  Almagro  after  the 


conquest  of  Peru  in  1535,  and  later  was  made  a  general-captaincy, 
with  an  extended  dominion  stretching  to  Cape  Horn.  In  1810 
began  the  revolt  against  Spain,  which  continued  till  1818,  when 
the  decisive  battle  of  Maypo  gave  C.  her  independence.  The 
republic  has  since,  in  spite  of  repeated  internal  dissensions,  firmly 
established  its  position  as  the  most  stable  and  enlightened  of  the 
S.  American  governments.  In  1864,  after  Spain  had  wrested 
the  Chiucha  Islands  from  Pern,  it  declared  war  against  C.  for 
having  presersed  a  strict  neutrality.  Several  of  the  ports  were 
bombarded,  the  whole  coast  was  blockaded  for  severjil  months, 
and  the  attempt  to  regain  possession  of  C.  was  only  abandoned 
after  much  useless  destruction  of  property.  See  Geop-aphical, 
Natural,  and  Civil  History  o/C.  (2  vols.  Middletown,  1808),  and 
Ga-Y,  Mistariea  Fisicay  P<^ilicade  C  [yoii.l.-x'niK., Vat.  1844-61). 

Chili  Nettle.    See  Loasace.e. 

Chili  Pine,     See  Aeaucaeia. 

Chillianwall'a,  a  village  of  the  Punjab,  5  miles  from  the 
left  bank  of  the  Jheium,  and  85  miles  N.W.  of  Lahore.  Here, 
on  13th  January  1849,  Lord  Gough  defeated  the  Sikhs,  after  an 
obstinate  engagement.  An  obelisk  has  also  been  erected  at  C. 
to  the  memoiy  of  those  who  were  slain  in  the  two  wars  with  the 
Sikhs.  ■ 

Cbill'icotlie,  the  capital  of  Ross  county,  Ohio,  U.S.,  on 
Scioto  river,  96  miles  N.E.  of  Cincinnatti  by  railway.  It  has 
large  manufactures  of  machinery,  and  is  the  trading  centre  for 
the  rich  farming  country  bordeiiiig  on  the  river.  Formerly 
capital  of  the  state,  C.  is  finely  built  and  wealthy.     Pop.  (1870) 


Chill'ies.    See  Capsicum, 

Chill'ingwortli,  "William,  a  famous  divine,  called  'the  i 
mortal  C.,'  born  in  October  1602  at  Oxford,  and  had  Laud  for 
his  godfather.  While  studying  at  the  university  of  his  native 
city  he  became  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  went  to  Douay,  but  after- 
wards returned  to  the  English  Church,  mainly  through  the  per- 
suasions of  Laud,  and  in  1637  published  his  chief  work,  T/ii 
Religion  of  Protestants  a  Safe  Way  to  Salvation,  in  reply  to  the 
treatise  of  a  Jesuit  called  Knolt.  He  accompanied  the  King's 
troops  during  the  civil  war,  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  siege  of 
Arundel,  and  died  January  30,  1644.  C.  was  an  able  controver- 
sialist, but  his  dear,  close  reasoning  is  weakened  by  an  immoder- 
ate dread  of  fallacy.  He  denounced  persecution,  and  maintained 
that  Scripture,  and  not  Church  authority,  was  the  basis  of  Pro- 
testant faith.  The  Peligioif  of  Pralestants  is  remarkably  bold 
and  tolerant,  the  first  clear-ringing  defence  in  the  English  tongue 
of  the  liber-ty  of  private  judgment.  In  later  times  C.  was  a 
favourite  with  latitudinarians  Uke  Locke  and  Tillotson.  A  com- 
plete edition  of  his  works  was  published  by  Birch  (3  vols.  Claren- 
don Press,  1838). 

Chillon,  a  famous  fortress,  in  the  canton  of  Vaud,  Switzer- 
land, at  the  E-  end  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  6i  miles  S.E.  of 
Vevay.  It  stands  on  an  isolated  rock,  at  a  distance  of  62  feet 
from  the  shore  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  drawbridge.  I 
is  mentioned  in  documents  of  the  I2th  c,  but  the  dale  of  it 
foundation  is  not  exactly  known.  Pietro  of  Savoy  (Charlemagne 
the  Little)  converted  it  into  a  fortress  in  1248.  Eonnivard, 
prior  of  St  Victor,  Geneva,  was  imprisoned  here  from  1^30  ti 
1536.  Byron's  Prisoner  of  C.  has  invested  the  castle  with  a 
undying  inlei-est.  It  i 
£lude  historique  (Lausa 

Chilo'e,  an  island  forming  a  province  of  Chili,  is  situated  in 
the  Gulf  of  Ancud,  is  120  miles  long  from  N.  to  S.,  about  60 
broad,  and  has  an  area  of  2399  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1875)  of 
64.536.  It  is  a  huge  mass  of  volcanic  rock,  rising  in  no  part 
higher  than  2600  feet,  and  possesses  a  rich  soil,  which  is  al- 
most entirely  clad  with  foresi,  chiefly  of  a  bastard  cedar.  The 
coast-land  is  cultivated,  and  yields  wheat,  bailey,  potatoes,  and 
fruits.     There  is  a  considerable  export  of  grain  and  timber.    San 


n  arsenal     See  Vulliemin,  C, 


includes  sixty  other  small  islands,  only  half  of  which  have  i: 
habitants.  The  principal  of  these  islets  are  Lemuy,  Calbuco,  Llai- 
cha  and  Quinchao. 

Chilognath'a  and  Cliilop'oda,   the  orders  of  the   chiss 
Myriapoda  (q,  v.). 


y  Google 


CHI 


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CHI 


Ohil'tem  Hills,  a.  chalky  riiJge  across  England,  from  Wilts, 
through  Berts,  Oiford,  and  Bucks,  fo  the  border  of  Suffolk. 
TTie  range  is  in  great  part  from  IS  to  20  miles  in  breadth,  and  its 
greatest  height  is  Wendover,  with  905  feet  of  an  altitude. 

Ckittem  Hundrtd-'.—liit  office  of  '  Steward  of  the  C,  H.'  was 
established  under  the  crown  for  the  purpose  originally  of  sup^ 
pressing  the  bands  of  depredators  who  mfested  the  forests  of  the 
Chihern  Hills.  It  began,  however,  to  serve  its  singular  modern 
political  purpose  at>out  175a  A  member  of  the  House  of 
imons  is  unable  to  resign  his  seat  nnless  thi'oagh  liis  accep- 
«  of  a  place  under  the  crown,  but  the  now  nominal  appoint- 
it  to  the  stewardship  in  question  continues  to  be  regarded  as 
such  an  office,  and  thus  affords  a  means  of  resij.'Tiing.  This  office 
is  almost  invariably  granted  when  applied  for ;  no  salary  attaches 
to  it;  and  it  is  usually  resigned  immediatelyafter  acceptance.  It 
is  the  only  office  of  whicli  5ie  Chancellor  of  the  Eicliequer  has 
the  patronage. 

Chimee'ra,  a  fire-breathing  monster  of  Gi^ek  mythology. 
Homer  represents  it  as  of  divine  origin,  and  as  hayuig  the  front 
of  a  lion,  the  tail  of  a  dragon,  and  the  body  of  a  goat.  It  was 
killed  by  Belleroplion.  In  works  of  art  it  is  represented  as  a 
iion  with  a  goat's  head  springing  from  its  back.  The  myth  of 
its  breathing  fire  is  sought  to  be  eipiiuiied  by  a  reference  to  the 
volcano  of  C.  in  Lycia,  mentioned  by  Pliny  and  Mela.  The 
name  has  since  been  given  to  any  irrational  product  of  a  dis- 
ordered fancy. 

Chimeera,  a  genus  of  Elasmobranchiate  fishes,  forming  the 
type  of  the  sub-order  Holaccphali.  These  forms,  represented  by 
the  C.  pietistrosa  or  'King  of  the  Herrings,'  and  by  the  Callor- 
k}mckus  Amttalit  of  the  S.  Seas,  possess  a  persistent  notochord 
in  place  of  the  spine.  The  jaws  are  bony,  and  the  scales  are  of 
the  placoid  kind.  The  mouth  exists  at  the  extremity  of  the 
head,  and  a  single  gill  aperture  only  exists.  The  Vential  fins 
are  situated  posteriory,  and  the  tail  is  heterocercal.  Fossil  spe- 
cies allied  to  the  C.  (genera  Elasmvdus,  IscModiis,  &c),  occur 
in  Mesozoic  and  Tertiary  rocks. 

Chimftn'gO  (Milvui  C),  a  species  of  Raptorial  birds,  belong- 
ing to  the  Polybcrina  or  Caracaras  (q.  v.),  iound  in  S.  America, 
and,  according  to  Darwin,  conimonly  associated  in  its  habits  of 
feeding  on  garbage  with  the  C^rancha  {Polyborus  BrasUienns). 
It  possesses  all  the  distiiictive  characters  of  the  Polyiortna,  and 
by  Darwui  is  said  to  be  '  generally  the  last  bird  that  leaves  the 
skeleton*  of  its  prey.  He  adds,  that  it  'may  often  be  seen  with- 
in the  ribs  of  a  (skeleton)  co*  or  horse  like  a  bird  in  a  cage.' 

ChimapMla.    See  Winter  Greek. 

Ohimbora'zo,  the  loftiest  summit  in  the  Andes  of  Quito,  is 
21,424  feet  above  the  sea,  and  was  once  believed  to  be  the 
highest  mountain  in  the  world.  It  is  an  extinct  volcano,  and  has 
a  trachyte  peak,  covered  vrith  perpetual  snow.  Humboldt  (23d 
June  l802)  ascended  C.  to  within  2138  feet  of  its  top,  and  Bous- 
smgalt  and  Hall  (15th  and  16th  December  1831)  to  within  1729 
feet.  The  assertion  of  the  French  traveller  Remy  that  he  reached 
the  summit  (3d  November  1856)  in  a  mist  'without  knowing  it' 
is  not  generally  credited, 

Chimere',  the  black  satin  robe  worn  by  a  bishop,  on  which 
the  lawn  sleeves,  or  the  sleeves  of  a  rochet,  are  sewn.  In  the 
time  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Edward  VI.  it  was  scarlet,  and  was 
probably  the  sleeveless  habit  of  a  D.D.  Objections  were  taken 
to  this  colour  by  Dr  Hooker,  and  the  colour  was  changed  to 

Chimes,  a  set  of  bells  in  a  church  (or  other)  lower,  also  music 
performed  upon  such  bells.     See  B£Lls. 

Ohim'ttey  (Fr.  cheminJt,  Ilal.  camminala,  from  Lat.  cami- 
nala,  der.  aicaminus,  used  by  Vitruvius  for  a  chimney).  In  the 
dwelling-houses  of  the  ancients,  the  smoke  and  heated  gases 
from  the  firepkce  were,  in  general,  left  to  find  tiieir  way  out  of 
a  room  by  openings  in  the  roof  or  walls,  and  it  is  very  doubtful 
whether  either  the  Greeks  or  the  Romans  used  any  more  satis- 
factory method  than  this.  Modern  chimneys  were  not  known  m 
this  country  until  about  the  12th  c,  and  it  is  not  until  nearlyfour 
hundred  years  later  that  they  appear  to  have  been  thought  essen- 
tial to  every  fireplace  in  a  house. 

■rk=  l.„rf>,»rr  n(  a  r    i=  twnfnH — ili-!f    f  n  rnrrv  off  tlie  Smoke, 

;  and,  second, 


:ate  a  draught  through  the  fuel,  so  as  to  consume  it  the  more 
quickly  and  effectually.  This  latter  function  of  the  C.  depends 
on  the  fact  that  hot  air  is  bulk  for  bulk  lighter  than  cold,  so  that 
when  any  column  of  heated  air  is  allowed  to  communicate  freely 
with  the  atmosphere  at  top  and  bottom,  the  cooler  air  continually 
pushes  the  hot  air  upwards,  and  thus  keeps  up  a  circulation. 

If  a  Cj  be  well  designed  in  the  first  place,  by  having  an  open- 
g  as  nearly  as  posable  over  the  fire,  a  somewhat  contracted 
neck,  and  a  totembly  straight  flue,  it  should  never  give  any 
trouble  by  smoking.  But  if  these  points  have  been  neglected,  it 
is  often  very  difficult  so  to  alter  the  defectively  formea  C.  as  to 
prevent  smoking.  This  nuisance  is  caused  by  down-dranghts, 
which  most  frequently  result  from  the  position  of  the  top  of  the 
C.  being  such  as  to  expose  it  to  side  currents  and  eddies  of  air. 
The  most  simple  means  of  neutralising  the  effect  of  these  is  the 
fitting  of  revolving  cowls  upon  the  C.-pot,  these  cowls  being  so 
arranged  that  their  openings  always  point  away  from  the  direction 
from  which  the  wind  is  blowing.  It  is  only  in  some  few  cases  that 
the  alteration  of  the  flue  or  fireplace  becomes  absolutely  necessary. 

The  chimneys  of  lai^e  factories  are  sometimes  of  extraordinary 
height,  and  tlieir  construction  presents  difficulties  of  no  mean 
order;  that  belonging  to  Messrs  Tennant  &  Co.  of  St  RoUox  near 
Glasgow,  for  instance,  is  amongst  the  highest  structures  in  the 
World.  It  is  435  feet  above  the  ground,  and  20  feet  more  from 
its  foundation.  It  is  40  feet  in  diameter  at  the  bottom,  and  2 
feet  8  inches  thick,  and  tapers  to  13  feet  6  inches  diameter  at 
top,  by  I  foot  i  inches  thick. 

The  chimneys  Of  steamers  are  commonly  made,  for  conveni- 
ence  and  lightness,  of  wrought  iron,  as  also  are  those  of  loco- 
motives. For  factory  chimneys,  however,  this  material  is  not 
tiearly  so  Well  adapted  as  the  brick  or  masonry  almost  invariably 
used  in  their  construction. 

dhim'panzee,  one  of  the  highest  or  Anthropoid  apCi,  in- 
cluded in  the  Caiarhine  section  of  the  order  Quadruroana  [q.  v.). 
The  C.  is  the  Tro^dytes  ni^  'of 
naturalists  ;  theGotilk  (q.  v.)  being 
the  Troglodytes  gorilla.  This  ape 
occurs  chiefly  in  Western  Africa,  and 
inhabits  much  the  same  territory  as 
the  last-mentioned  animal.  The  hair 
is  nearly  black  in  colour — hence 
the  specific  name  Niger;  but  age 
is  said  to  tint  it  with  grey.  The 
hair  of  the  chest  and  abdomen  Is 
thmner  than  that  of  the  limbs ;  and 
the  hairs  of  the  arm  and  forearm  Cbimnanzee 

meet  in  opposition  at  the  elbow  to 

form  a  tuft,  as  m  the  gorilla.  The  nostrils  are  flat  and  oblique, 
and  the  muzzle  projects.  The  C.  approaches  the  human  type  of 
structure  most  nearly  in  the  character  of  the  skull,  in  ils  dentition, 
and  in  the  relative  siie  of  the  arras.  It  attains  a  height  some- 
what greater  than  that  of  the  orang,  which  rarely  exceeds  4  J^  feet 
in  height.  The  arms  m  this  species  measure  half  as  much  again 
as  the  height  of  the  body.  'The  hand  is  equal  to,  or  may  be  a 
little  larger,  than  the  foot ;  and  as  the  sole  can  be  placed  fiat  on 
the  ground,  the  C,  can  stand  erect  and  run.  Like  the  gorilla 
and  orang,  it  often  rests  itself  by  leaning  forward  on  the  knuckles 
of  the  hand.  It  appears  to  be  gregariotis  in  habits,  and  il 
consists  chiefly  of  vegetable  matter. 

China.     See  Chihese  Em  pi  he. 


China  Bark,  a  common  name  for  Cinchona  Bark  (q.  v.), 
especially  in  Germany. 

China  Grass.  See  Bcehmeria,  Cohchorus,  and  Siua. 
C.-G.  cloth  is  now  used  to  some  extent  in  Europe,  being  valued 
for  its  transparency  and  glossy  appearance. 

Chinande'ga,  a  town  of  Nicaragua,  Central  America,  0 
small  river  of  the  same  name,  lO  miles  inland  from  the  Pacific, 
is  scattered  over  a  wide  area,  and  has  a  trade  in  cotton,  sugar, 
maize,  hides,  &c     Pop.  10,00a 

OMna  Boot,  the  tuber  of  SwUax  China,  a  kind  of  Sarsa- 
parilla  (q.  v.),  a  native  of  China,  Japan,  and  E.  Indies,  C.  R. 
is  possessed  of  diaphoretic  properties,  and  has  been  recommended 
in  Syphilis  (q.  v.). 

China  "Ware.     See  Porcblain. 

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Cllin'olia  lalanda,  three  in  iiuinher,  belonging  to  Peru,  and 
situated  about  12  miles  from  tlie  coast,  in  Piseo  Bay,  lat,  13°  to 
14°  S.  They  ha.ve  since  1840  been  famous  in  Europe  for  tlieic 
great  guano  deposits,  whidi,  since  1836,  have  formed  the  prin- 
d[3al  source  of  P  ni     nw  : l-— -=— 


of  M 


I  rocky  and  p      p 


Tga 


which  are  now  becoming 

d  respectively  N.,  Middle, 

e  area  of  about  400  acres, 

e   landward  side,   destitute 

getation.     From  time  im- 

of  vast  flocks  of  penguins 

^j.  ^„        m  which,  covering  the  sur- 

s         e      ks,  have  formed  immensely 

Tl     li        argo  of  guano  was  shipped 

is  calculated  that  tlie  deposits  will  last 


memorial  they  hav   be  n    1 
and  other  seafowl   th  j 

faces  and  filling  tl         vices 
valuable  stores  of  g 
to  England  in  1S40,  and  i 
till  about  1S80. 

Cbincllill'a  {C.  lanigir),  a  genus  of  Rodent  (q.  v.)  quadrupeds, 
usually  included  in  the  family  of  the  C^sHda  (Guinea-pigs,  &c.), 
.  -  and    found  in  monntamous  districts 

of  Pern  and  Chili.  The  average  length 
of  the  C.  is  14  or  15  inches  includmg 
the  tail,  which  makes  uu  one-third  of 
the  measuremenL  The  hind  limbs  are 
?C-  much  larger  than  the  fore,  and  the  tail 

^    _  —  '    is  clothed  towards  its  tip  with  long 

hairs.   The  fur  is  of  a  light-grey  on  the 
Chinchilla  upper,  and  whitish-grey  on  the  under 

parts,  and  is  of  very  fine  texture.  The  food  consists  of  roots, 
which  it  digs  out  by  means  of  its  powerful  paws.  When  feed- 
ing, it  sits  on  its  hind  limbs,  and  conveys  the  food  to  its  month 
with  the  fore  paws.  There  are  five  toes  on  the  front,  and  four 
on  the  hind  feet.  The  ears  are  large  and  prominent  The  fur 
is  manufactured  into  muffs,  mantles,  cloak-trimmings,  and  other 
articles. 

CMnoHlla,  a  walled  town  in  the  province  of  Albacete,  Spain, 
10  miles  S.E.  of  Albacete;  has  manufactures  of  woollens,  linens, 
leather,  glass,  &c.,  and  an  old  church  in  which  there  are  several 
fine  pictures.     Pop.  7500. 

Ohin-Ohin,  a  gummy  varnish  used  in  China  and  Japan,  and 
believed  to  be  derived  from  Flecaria  (max. 

Chinolioii',  a  town  in  the  province  of  Madrid,  Spain,  25 
miles  E.S.E.  of  the  metropolis,  overlooks  the  Tagus,  and  has 
slight  industries  of  linen,  leather,  and  earthenware.     Pop,  5400, 

Ohindio'iia.     See  Cinchona. 

Chindwar'a,  chief  town  of  an  executive  distnct  of  the  same 
name,  Nerbudda  division,  Central  Province,  British  India,  is 
situated  at  an  elevation  of  aloofeet.has  a  clear,  healthy  climate, 
and  attracts  many  invalids.    Pop,  (1872)  9185. 

CMnese  Empire,  the  oldest,  most  populous,  and,  after  the 
Russian  and  British  empires,  the  greatest  m  territorial  extent  in 
the  world,  may  be  said  10  occupy  the  whole  of  the  eastern  divi- 
sion of  the  Asiatic  continent  S.  of  Asiatic  Rusaa  and  K  of 
British  Burmali.  Besides  China  Proper,  it  includes  Manchuria 
(q.  v.),  Mongolia  (q.v.),  and  Thibet  (q.  v.).  Eastern  Turkatan 
(see  Cashgar)  has  for  the  present  thrown  off  the  Chinese  yoke 
and  achieved  independence ;  but  the  suzerainty  of  the  Chinese 
emperor  is  acknowledged  by  the  tributary  kingdoms  of  Corea, 
Burmah— which  in  1875  resorted  to  its  former  custom  of  paying 
tribute  to  the  imperial  treasury,  and  thus  reassumed  the  duties 
and  obligations  of  a  Chinese  feudatory — Siam,  and  the  mmor 
states  of  the  Indo-C:hine5e  peninsula,  thot^h  in  Cambodja  and 
Cochin-China  Chinese  infiuenee  is  bemg  gradually  superseded  by 
Uiat  of  France.  Thibet  and  the  exb-a-mm^  states  of  the  empire 
—that  is,  those  lying  to  the  N.  of  the  Great  Wall  of  China,  vis., 
Manchuria  and  Mongolia,  as  well  as  the  kingdoms  and  states 
which  pay  tribute,  but  over  which  China  exercises  00  direct 
administrative  control — are  each  treated  separately,  and  atten- 
tion is  here  directed  exclusively  to  the  central  and  sovereign  state 
of  the  empire,  China  Proper. 

China,  Tsin,  or  Shik-pa-sang,  'the  eighteen  provinces,'  was 
called  Chin  by  the  inhabitants  of  India,  from  whom  tire  Spaiiish 
and  Portuguese  adventurers  of  the  16th  c.  (the  first  Europeans  to 
open  up  the  Indian  Seas  to  commerce)  obtained  some  know- 
ledge of  (he  country,  the  Indian  name  of  which  they  altered  into 
the  Latinised  form  of  China.  The  Tartar  tribes  in  tiie  N.  gave 
to  the  country  the  name  of  Katai  or  Cathay,  by  which  it  was 
124 


vaguely  known  in  Europe  during  tlie  middle  ages.  It  is  also 
called  the  '  Middle  Kingdom,'  a  name  which  is  appropriately 
applied  to  the  central  and  principal  state  of  an  extensive  empire. 
China  Proper  is  divided  into  eighteen  provinces,  exclusive  of 
the  frontier  province  of  Shing-king  (q.  v.)  between  the  pro- 
vince of  Chi-li  and  the  Corea,  and  of  the  islands  of  Hainan 
and  Formosa.  In  con lig;u ration  it  is  singnkrly  compact ;  it 
is  of  nearly  imiform  length  and  breadth ;  its  coast-line  is 
regular,  with  no  deep  indentations,  and  with  only  two  nota- 
ble peninsulas,  Quang-tung  or  Lien-chow  peninsula  between 
the  Gulf  ofTotjquin  and  the  China  Sea,  and  the  Shan-tung 
peninsula  between  the  Gulf  of  Pe-chi-li  and  the  Yellow  Sea. 
But  though  there  are  few  deep  indentations,  there  are  numerous 
inlets,  and  the  excellent  harbours  on  these  and  on  the  months  of 
the  rivers  are  almost  countless.  The  almost  numberless  islets 
that  stud  the  E.  coast  lie  as  a  rule  close  to  the  shore,  while  of 
the  two  great  islands,  Hainan,  in  the  extreme  S.,  is  separated 
oidy  by  a  narrow  strait  from  Quang-tung  peninsula,  of  which  it 
doubtless  at  one  time  formed  a  part,  while  Formosa,  in  the  E. 
Sea,  is  separated  from  the  mainland  by  Fu-kien  Channel,  about 
100  miles  broad. 

Boundaries,  Area,  Pofalalimi.—C'iaas.  Proper  is  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  Manchuria,  Mongolia,  and  the  dependent  parts  of 
Chinese  Tartary  ;  on  the  W.  by  Thibet  and  Bnimah  ;  on  the  S. 
by  Cochin-Chlna  or  Anam  and  the  China  Sea ;  and  on  the  E.  by 
the  Gulf  of  Pe-chi-li  and  Yellow  and  Eastern  Seas— arms  of  the 
N.  Pacific  Ocean.  Its  area  lias  been  usually  stated  at  about 
1,300,000  sq.  miles,  and  Williams  estimates  it  at  nearly  2,000,000. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  provinces,  with  their  areas  and 
populations,  according  to  the  last  estimate  (1842) ; — 


Pr.vi„ces, 

A^asinsq,  mil«. 

Populations, 

sh=n4™g',    :    '.     '. 
Ngali^huL :    :    :    : 

Kianj-si    ,        .       .        , 

!!?■:  :  :  ; 

H..:    '■    :    ': 

Island  of  Furmosa 

66,933 
63^596 

■IS 

b6o,S99 

'ftg 

38  ^79,338 

Sf:S 

lis 

ill 

',S33,^r 

40,1.9,6,5.4 

Mountains,  Rivers,  Surface,— Tlie  physical  geography  of  no 
country  of  equal  extent  is  less  complex  than  that  of  China.  The 
gradually  lowering  spurs  of  the  vast  mountain  system  of  the 
Himalaya  enter  the  country  from  Thibet  on  the  W,,  and  traverse 
it  in  two  main  ridges,  the  general  trend  of  which  is  from  W,  to 
E.,  but  which  throw  out  a  number  of  lateral  branches.  Of  these 
two  main  ridges,  the  iWiB-/;'™^ (' Southern  Range')  extends  in 
broken  chains  over  the  province  of  Yun-nan  and  Kiiei-diow, 
exhibiting  ragged  mountams  and  fertile  and  abundantly- watered 
valleys.  From  the  eastern  border  of  Qnei-chu  the  Nan-ling 
extends  E.  and  N.E.,  forming  the  frontier  line  between  the  pro. 
viiices  of  Quang-tung  and  Kiang-si  on  the  S.  and  those  of  Hu- 
nan and  Hu-pe  on  the  N,,  and  finally  bending  E.  and  forming 
the  southera  bonndanr  of  the  basin  of  the  lower  Yang-tse.  An- 
other branch  of  the  Nan-line;  stretches  E.S.E.  from  the  southern 
border  of  the  province  of  Hu-nan,  forming  the  northern  limit 
of  the  wide  valley  of  the  Si-kiang  river,  which  ultimately  be- 
comes the  Chu-kiang  or  Canton  river.  The /"Wm^  (' Northern 
Range ')  enters  the  province  of  Sie-chnen  from  the  W.  In  this 
province  the  moimtuns  are  irregular,  and  numerous  peaks,  es^- 
cially  in  the  sub-range  known  as  the  Snowy  Mountains,  rise 
above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  From  Sze-chuen  the  main 
chain  traverses  the  province  of  Kan-su,  where  there  are  several 
subsidiary  ranges,  and  where  the  valleys  are  numerous  but  small 
in  extent.  The  cliain  crosses  Shen-si  into  Shan-si,  through  the  S. 
part  of  which  it  is  coniinued  into  Hu-nan.  The  range  seemsagain 
to  cross  upon  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Hoang-ho,  and  occupies 


yLaOOgle 


CHI 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CHI 


Ihe  greater  part  of  the  province  of  Sban-si.  The  generally  east- 
ward trend  of  tliese  mountain  ranges  determines  the  courses  of 
the  great  iWers.  The  principal  are  the  Si-kiang  or  Cliu-kiang, 
flowing  eastward  S.  of  the  Nan-ling  range,  tlirough  the  southern 
provinces  to  Canton  ;  the  Yang-tse,  flowing  E.  through,  the  great 
central  valley  of  the  country  between  the  Nan-ling  and  the 
Pe-ling  mountains;  and  the  Hoang-ho,  flowing,  in  its  lower 
course,  through  the  valley  to  the  N.  of  the  main  branch  of  tlie 
Pe-ling  range.  The  other  important  streams  of  the  country 
are  eitlier  tributaries  of  these  great  rivers,  or,  like  them,  they 
flow  eastward  into  the  China,  Eastern,  or  Yellow  Sea,  or  into 
the  Gulf  of  Pe-chi-li.  The  surface  of  the  country  presents  every 
variety,  from  Alpine  regions,  where  loftier  peaks  than  those  of 
Switzerland  tower  high  above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  to  far. 
extending  tracts,  flat,  alluvial,  and  fertile  as  the  Netherlands, 
but  infinitely  more  extensive.    Frorn  the  western  frontier  of  China 


(about  100°  E.  long.)  eastward  to  the  middle  of  tlie  country,  or 
to  about  the  meridian  of  II2°  E.,  the  surface  is  mountainous. 
In  the  N.,  especially  in  the  province  of  Shan-si,  the  mountainous 
region  extends  too  miles  farther  E.,  or  to  about  tlie  meridian  of 
114°  E.  In  this  western  lialf  of  the  entire  area,  immemorial 
forests  clothe  the  mountains,  and  immense  beds  of  coal  occur, 
E.  of  this  mountain  r^on,  the  middle  of  the  country  is  occupied 
by  the  great  alluvial  plain  of  the  Yang-tse  and  Hoang-ho,  extend- 
ing northward  from  lat.  30°  to  40°  N.  The  Great  Plain  of  the 
basin  of  .the  lower  Yang-tse  is  about  700  miles  in  length,  and 
varies  in  breadth  from  150  to  500  miles.  Its  area  (sio.ooo  sq. 
miles),  though  greater  than  that  of  France,  forms  only  a  sixth  part 
of  China,  yet  it  containsneatly  one-half  of  the  entire  population, 
and  is  the  most  densely  inhabited  portion  of  the  earth's  surface. 
In  the  six  fertile  provinces  that  lie  either  wholly  or  in  great  part 
within  it,  180,000,000  persons  are  supported.  The  remainder  of 
the  country  is  hilly  or  undulating,  The  lakes  of  Cliina  are  nume- 
rous, the  chief  being  the  Tong-ting  Lake  in  the  N.  of  Hu-nati, 
about  250  miles  in  circumference.  Lake  Po-yang  in  Kiang-si, 
iSo  miles  in  circumference,  and  the  Tai-hu,  or  Great  Lake, 
near  Shanghai,  150  miles  in  circumference,  and  from  10  to  15 
feet  deep.  All  the  lakes  and  rivers  are  abundantly  stored  with 
fish,  and  midtitudes  of  families  living  on  their  banks,  or  in  junks 
or  floating  houses  on  their  waters,  are  maintained  by  the  fisheries. 
Gfology  and  Mmra/sgy.—Ovi'mg  to  the  exclusive  policy  of 
Ihe  Chinese  Government,  and  to  the  deep-seated  dislike  of  the 
officials  to  foreigners,  the  geolc^ical  character  of  the  country 
has  remained  almost  wholly  unknown  down  to  our  own  day. 
Within  recent  years,  however,  missionaries  and  merchants  have 
penetrated  the  empire  in  various  directions,  and  the  more  salient 
facts  of  the  geolc^y  of  the  country  are  becommg  gradually  known. 
The  Rev.  A.  Williamson,  in  his  Journeys  in  M.  China,  1870, 
R.  Pumpelly,  and  Baron  Reithofin,  have  recently  made  valoable 
contributions  towards  a  view  of  tlie  geoli^y  of  the  country.  The 
mountain  system  of  China,  the  outline  of  wliich  has  already  been 
given,  consists  for  the  most  part  of  granitic  and  mctamorphic 
rocks,  and  to  this  bold  and  broken  fonnaaon  the  rugged  and 

Eicturesque  character  of  so  much  of  the  scenery  of  China  is  due. 
n  the  valley  of  the  Yang-tse  cretaceous  rocks  and  Tertiary  beds 
occur.  All  classes  of  rocks  containing;  metalliferous  veins  are 
lai^ely  present  in  this  country.  The  whole  of  Northern  China, 
embracing  the  greater  portions  of  the  provinces  of  Shan-tung  and 
Chill,  and  the  whole  of  the  provinces  of  Shan-si,  Shen-si,  and 
Kan-su,  may  be  described  as  one  vast  and  inexhaustible  coal- 
field, while  smaller  fields  occur  in  almost  every  other  province. 
These  strata  are  associated  with  varieties  of  iron  ore,  among 
which  there  are  great  fields  of  black  oxide,  the  finest  ore  m 
the  world.  Fine  limestone  occurs  in  all  directions,  and  gold— 
especially  abundant  in  Yun-nan,  in  the  S.W-— silver,  tin,  and 
copper  are  found  in  all  the  '  hill '  provinces.  In  the  province  of 
Shan-tung  there  are  four  great  coal-fields;  and  coke,  which  is 
manufactured  in  immense  quantities,  is  used  for  smelting  silver, 
and  for  other  processes  requiring  great  heat :  iron,  gold,  and 
galena  abound  in  numerous  localities.  Tertiary  deposits  cover 
the  plain  of  Chi-li,  and  among  the  hills  limestone,  granite,  and 
metamorphic  rocks  prevail.  There  are  numerous  coal-mines,  very 
inefficiently  worked,  and  gold,  silver,  iron,  and  tin  exist  in 
many  localities.  In  Shan-si,  in  which  the  mineral  resources  are 
great  and  varied,  coal — bituminous,  anthracite,  and  lignite — and 
silver,  copper,  and  iron  are  plentiful.  In  Shen-si,  Kan-su,  and 
Ho-nan,  all  the  minerals  and  metals  named,  together  with  quick- 
silver exist  in  large  quantities.     Gold  is  common  in  the  majority 


of  the  streams,  and  jade,  agates,  amber,  iron  pyrites,  sulphur, 
and  petroleum  are  obtained  in  many  places.  Gold  and  the  other 
valuable  metals  are  also  pretty  generally  distributed  on  the  allu- 
vial flats  and  slopes  of  the  western  mountains  trending  N.  and 
S.,  as  well  as  in  the  southern  province  of  Quang-tuug.  As  a 
mineral  product  of  China,  porcelain  is  of  the  first  importance 
in  beauty  and  utility.  The  porcelain  manufactories  of  the 
country  are  few  in  number,  but  are  upon  a  lai^e  scale.  The 
largest  is  named  King-tn-ching,  in  Kiang-si,  near  Lake  Po-yang, 
where  there  is  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  the  peculiar  clay  and 
silica  from  whidi  the  best  porcelain  is  made,  together  with  ex- 
tensive coal-mines,  whence  fuel  is  obtained  for  the  furnaces. 
The  curious  loam-terraces  in  the  northern  provinces,  everywhere 
excavated  into  houses  and  villages,  mark,  according  to  Pumpelly 
and  Williamson,  the  ates  of  former  lakes  and  the  channels  of 
streams,  and  especially  of  the  great  river-system  of  the  Hoang-ho 
or  Yellow  River,  the  course  of  which  has  sufiered  deflection  from 
natural  causes  within  our  own  time,  and  which  appears  to  have 
been  subject  to  amilar  vicissitudes  prior  to  as  well  as  during 
the  historic  period. 

Clmali,  SoU,  aiitl  AgHailfure.—'Kx.^ending  in  lat.  from  iS  to 
44°  N,,  and  from  long,  about  98°  to  about  125°  E.,  it  is  only 
natural  to  expect  that  the  climate  of  China  should  vary  m  the 
different  quarters  of  the  country.  The  climate  of  the  coast  districts 
is  widely  different  from  that  of  the  remote  interior,  and  even 
among  the  coast  districts  themselves  the  climate  varies,  the 
meteorological  conditions  beuig  quite  different  at  Canton  in  the 
S,  and  at  Pekin  in  the  N.  A  peculiarity  of  the  climate  in 
general  is  the  low  average  of  the  temperature,  taken  in  connec- 
don  with  the  fact  that  a  part  of  China  is  within  the  tropics,  and 
that  the  latitude  even  of  Pekin,  in  the  extreme  N.,  is  a  degree 
to  the  S.  of  that  of  Naples.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of 
Canton  and  Macao,  which  are  within  the  tropics,  is  no  higher 
than  what  is  usually  regislertd  in  places  on  the  30th  parallel ; 
while  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  Pekin  is  ten  degrees  lower 
than  that  of  Naples.  In  winter  severe  cold  is  experienced  in  the 
northern  provinces,  though  in  midsummer  the  heat  is  oppressive. 
The  average  rainfall  is  70  inches  in  the  extreme  S.  There  the 
N.E.  monsoon  commences  in  September  and  continues  till  Feb- 
ruary. The  S.  monsoon,  which  brings  with  it  the  annual  rains 
from  the  heated  ocean  to  the  S.,  commences  in  March  or  April. 
The  hottest  months  are  July,  August,  and  September.  In  these 
months  the  heat  is  oppressive  and  exhausting,  and  it  is  at  this 
season,  when  the  air  is  in  a  condition  of  extreme  rarefaction,  that 
the  dreaded  typhoons  occur.  China  is  a  perfect  hotbed  for  viru- 
lent and  endemic  diseases.  Tliis  is  accounted  for  b 
tteme  heat  and  humidity  of  the  climate  in  summer,  th 
of  proper  sanitary  arrangements  in  the  crowded  hou  th 
swarming  rivers,  and  the  thronged  villages  and  towns.  F  m 
arising  Irom  the  frequent  droughts  and  inundations,  too  q 
accompanies  disease,  and  fearful  destruction  is  ofte  d 
among  the  people  who  live  afloat  by  the  typhoons  tha 
visit  the  southern  coasts.  The  estuary  of  Canloi  is 
especially  subject  to  these  hurricanes ;  and  in  August  1862  it  was 
calculated  by  the  Chinese  authorities  that  not  less  than  60,000 
-  -  drowned  or  killed  by  falling  houses  'i"--'-  « 


typhoi 


of  fourteen  hours.     These  tempests,  though  n 
"     "  e  the  harbours  all  along  the  E.  cr- 


s  of 


M..^  tracts  of  champaign  country  like  France  and  Belgium, 
swampy  districts  hke  Holland,  and  barren  mountain  regions. 
The  richest  soil  is  formed  by  the  detritus  of  the  innumerable 
rivers,  and  is  found  occupying  immense  tracts  in  the  basins  of 
Hoang-ho  and  Yang-tse,  and  composing  the  substance  of  their 
deltas.— Agriculture,  the  chief  industrial  pursuit  of  the  Chinese, 
is  considered  a  choice  occupation,  not  only  by  the  people  but  by 
the  nobles  and  learned  men,  while  even  the  Emperor  himself 
condescends  to  plough  a  furrow  on  the  occasion  of  the  great 
annual  festival  of  husbandry.  All  the  land  is  vested  in  the 
Emperor  as  universal  landholder.  For  the  best  land  in  the  rich 
distiict  near  Canton  a  tax  amounting  to  ten  or  twelve  shillings 
an  acre  (including  the  collector's  illegal  levies)  is  paid,  but  in  the 
inferior  districts  the  tax  amounts  to  only  two  or  three  shillings 
an  acre ;  while  those  who  undertake  to  till  waste  lands  are  free 
to  do  so  without  payment,  and  are  even  assisted  by  Government 
in  cases  where  expense  is  Involved  in  bringing  the  land  to  a 


vLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOF^DIA. 


OHI 


condition  of  productiveness.  The  great  proporlion  of  the  farma 
are  of  from  5  to  lo  acres.  Holding  directly  of  the  Emperar,  the 
peasant  of  China  is  subject  to  no  compulsion,  exaction  (except 
m  tlie  case  of  the  collector  above  mentioned),  or  control.  There 
are  no  game-kws,  and  the  fisheries  on  the  rivers  and  kkes  are 
open  to  alh  'In  no  part  of  Europe,'  says  Mossman,  '  is  the 
agriculturist  so  independent  as  in  China,  and  as  a  class  they  will 
compare  favourably  with  the  most  advanced  peasantry  in  Eng- 
land for  intelligence  and  good  conduct.'  The  implements  and 
methods  of  agriculture  among  tlie  Chinese  are  very  rude  and  im- 
perfect. Their  plough  makes  a  fiirrow  only  4  inches  in  depth, 
and  the  hoe  is  used  for  almost  every  opeiation  in  farming  and 
gardening ;  but  owing  to  the  immense  number  of  the  labourers, 
and  the  enthusiasm  with  which  the  pursuit  is  foilowed,  the 
system  is  effective — all  available  lands  are  cultivated,  and  the 
createst  ingenuity  and  economy  is  everywhere  observable.  The 
Sind  is  abundanily  supplied  with  streams,  and  by  a  universal 
system  of  irrigation  the  whole  land  is  efficiently  watei-ed.  In 
China  the  sewage  of  the  cities  and  all  available  refuse  is  made 
use  of  as  manure  with  the  most  profitable  results  ;  tliough  to  a 
foreigner  residing  in  a  Chinese  town  the  method  of  removing 
the  night-soil  from  the  town  by  carrying  it  through  the  streets  in 
great  vessels  supported  on  poles,  and  carried  by  porters  like  a 
sedan-chair,  is  surprisiugand  not  pleasant.  There  ate  four  great 
tracts  in  which  the  soil  is  fertile,  and  the  agriculture  specially 
efficient :— (l)  Tlie  mariUme  provmces  S.  of  the  Nan-ling,  in 
which  the  climate  and  productions  are  tropical,  and  the  land 
cultivated  like  a  garden  up  to  the  slopes  of  the  foi'est-clttd 
mountains.  (2)  The  N.  and  E.  slopes  of  the  Nan-ling,  in  whieU 
tlie  tea-shrub  and  the  camplior  and  varnish-tree  (Zhyandra  cor- 
data)  are  ind^enous.  (3)  The  great  plain  of  the  Yang-tse,  witli 
inild  climate  and  its  immense  cotton  and  woollen  culture,  its  vast 
paddy-fields  and  tracts  of  sugar-cane;  and  {4)  The  giain-farming 
land  between  the  Hoang-ho  and  the  mountains  in  the  N. 

Vi^elaMt Preduclions and  Atunials. — The  vegetable  productions 
of  China  embrace  all  the  fruits,  vegetables,  and  grain  grown  in 
temperate  as  well  as  in  tropical  climesi  in  the  tropical  provinces 
of  the  S.,  mangoes,  grapes,  pine-apples,  pomegranates,  thelichi, 
the  varieties  of  orange.  The  tea-shrub  is  univei-sally  cultivated 
in  the  warm  and  sheltered  districts;  and  rice,  the  staple  food  of 
the  Chinese,  is  raised  in  immense  quantities  both  upon  wet,  or 
rather  muddy  fields,  and  on  dry  soils,  where  its  cultivation  is 
carried  on  like  that  of  ordinary  grain.  In  the  Ni  maize,  barley 
and  wheat  are  extensively  grown.  Fioriciilture  is  universal, 
Waterlilies  float  on  every  sheet  of  still  water.  Artificial  isWds, 
constructed  on  the  lakes,  are  all  so  many  floating  gardens ; 
and  the  care  with  which  the  gardeners'  azaleas,  viburnums, 
and  the  host  of  brilliant  flowers  are  carefully  reared  in  the 
gardens  and  nurseries  of  China  justify  the  application  to  that 
country  of  the  name  '  Flowery  Land.'  The  tobacco  plant  and 
the  puppy  are  also  cultivated,  and  opium  is  an  important  article 
of  manufacture.  Animals.— Tbe  zoology  of  a  country  so  densely 
peopled  and  so  generally  cultivated  is  not  rich  in  the  larger  wild 
animals.  The  Bengal  tiger,  however,  occurs  in  Vun-nan,  and 
the  bear  infests  the  woods  and  rocky  ravines  of  the  mountains. 
Wild  cats  are  common  in  tlie  forests  of  the  S,,  and  are  caught 
and  fattened  in  cages  for  the  table.  Other  animals,  which  do 
notusually  come  within  the  scope  of  the  European  «iiii«f,  among 
them  the  rat  and  the  puppy^  are  used  as  food.  Muck  and  moose 
deer  are  found,  and  the  buffalo  is  used  to  a  limited  extent  in 
agriculture.  Human  labour,  however,  is  so  cheap  in  China,  that 
beasts  of  burden  are  not  so, numerous  as  in  most  other  countries. 
The  sturgeon,  sole,  flat  fish,  rock-cod,  and  the  golden  carp  are 
vety  abundant.  Locusis  visit  the  southern  districts  in  num- 
bers inconceivable.  The  air  is  at  times  daikened  with  their 
flight  as  with  a  thunder-cloud,  and  the  grouud  is  sometimes  seen 
covered  with  these  animals — which  are  from  3  to  5  inches  long — 
two  or  three  deep. 

Indusiriet  and  Arls. — The  cultivation  of  rice,  tea,  cotton, 
hemp,  sugar,  and  grain,  and  the  manufacture  of  silk,  opium, 
paper,  porcelain,  and  lacquerware,  are  the  principal  industries. 
Curious  carvings  in  ivoir  and  mother-of-pearl  are  among  the 
most  interesting  of  the  mmor  industrial  products.  The  art-pro- 
ductions in  drawing  and  painting  betray  an  entire  want  of  know- 
ledge of  perspective  and  of  light  and  shade.  The  musical  in- 
struments of  the  Chinese  embrace  primitive  and  crude  types  of 
most  of  the  European  instruments,  but  no  improvements  have 
been  made  upon  them  for  ages.  The  native  music  is  shrill, 
126 


harsh,  and  aimless  to  a  European  e: 


many  of  the  national 
.  .  ..lie  the  old  national 

melodies  of  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Wales.  The  artistic  genius 
of  tile  country,  however,  is  best  displayed  in  its  admirable  pottery 
enamelled-work,  engraving  on  wood  and  stone,  its  carvings  and 
antique  vessels  in  bronze^  its  filigree-work  in  gold  and  silver,  and 
its  fine  lacquerware.  The  vigour  of  the  inventive  and  artistic 
genius  of  the  country  in  earliec  ages,  while  intellectual  life  was 
a  living  and  growing  principle  among  tlie  Chinese,  and  before 
the  slavish  and  indiscriminate  conservation  which  their  religion 
inculcates  had  put  a  stop  to  progress,  and  unalterably  stereotyped 
all  ancient  forms,  however  crude,  as  unslirpassed  and  unsurpass- 
able, is  attested  by  the  fact  that  China  anticipated  Europe  in 
many  of  the  most  important  diseoveries  of  modem  times. 
It  is  certain  that  the  art  of  printing  was  practised  in  China  in 
the  loth  c.  Gunpowder  was  known  and  used  (in  the  manufacture 
of  fireworks)  from  a  very  remote  period.  The  property  of  load- 
stone  to  communicate  polarity  to  iron  was  understood  during 
the  ist  c.  of  our  eia,  and  a  Chinese  Encycloraedia  of  the  date 
121  A.D.  describes  loadstone  as  'a  stone  with  which  direction 
can  be  given  to  the  needle.'  In  a  work  written  a  hundred  years 
later,  the  use  of  the  compass  is  explained.  To  the  Chinese  also 
is  due  the  discovery  of  the  methods  of  manufacturlngsilk,  paper, 
and  porcelain,  which  they  have  carried  to  higher  perfection  than 
any  nation  in  the  world. 

NaHonal  Works,  Meituments,  Gf'c: — The  most  renowned  of 
the  great  national  works  of  China  is  the  Great  Wall,  which, 
from  Jong,  about  98°  30',  is  carried  eastwards  over  twenty 
degrees  of  long,  along  the  N.  frontier  of  China,  over  moun- 
tains and  tlirough  valleys*  and  on  bridges  across  rivers,  to  the 
Gulf  of  Leao-tong, — a  distance  of  1400  miles.  It  was  buill 
206  years  before  the  Christian  ei-a,  as  a  protection  against  the 
iiiroati.s  of  nomadic  Tartar  tribes.  Constructed  mainly  of  earth 
and  rubbish,  it  is  bonud  in  on  each  side  by  a  coating  of  brick, 
and  fortified  at  intervals  by  towers,  which  still  in  many  instances 
have  an  imposing  appearance.  The  Great  Wall  is  from  15  to 
30  feet  high,  rests  on  a  basis  of  stone  2  feet  thick,  is  25  feet 
thick  at  the  base,  and  from  15  to  20  feet  at  the  top  or  platform. 
The  towers  are  40  feet  square  at  the  base,  taper  towards  the 
lop,  and  are  about  37  feet  high.  Tlie  wall  has  long  been  entirely 
useless  as  a  defence;  it  has  consequently  been  neglected,  and 
about  one  half  of  it  has  falleri  to  ruin,  and  is  now  little  better 
than  a  shapeless  mound  of  rubbish.  The  Grand  or  Imperiid 
Canal  extends  from  the  town  of  Hang-chow  (lat.  30°),  in  the 
province  of  Chi-kiang,  N.W.  through,  the  maritime  provinces 
of  Kiang-suand  Ehan-tting  to  the  town  of  Ling-ching  (hit.  37") 
on  the  river  En-ho, — length  about  700  miles.  From  Ijng-ching 
the  river  En-ho  is  available  as  a  continuation  to  Tien-tsin  at  its 
mouth.  This  great  canal  was  constructed  not  merely  to  affoi'd 
means  of  communication,  but  also  to  drain  the  plains  that  lie 
around  the  iower  courses  of  the  Yang-tse  and  Hoang-ho.  With 
this  view  its  breadth  is  unusually  great.  It  is  led  across  numerous 
rivers,  including  the  two  great  rivers  of  China ;  and  owing  10  the 
continual  action  and  reaction  of  the  waters  of  these  streams,  there 
are  very  few  reaches  of  the  canal  which  are  without  a  distinctly 
noticeable  current.  At  several  points  it  is  cut  through  rocks;  it 
traverses  lakes,  and  drains  numerous  swamps.  The  number  of 
the  flood-gates  that  regulate  it,  the  bridges  that  span  it,  and  of 
the  cities  and  provinces  between  which  it  forms  (with  its  many 
branches  and  the  innumerable  rivera  with  which  it  is  connected) 
a  vast,  easy,  and  cheap  system  of  communication,  constitute  it 
one  of  the  greatest  national  works  in  tlie  world.  The  part  of 
the  canal  extending  southward  from  the  former  bed  of  the 
Hoang-ho  (q.  v.)  was  constructed  during  the  7th,  or  early  in  the 
Sth  c.  The  remainder,  extending  N.  through  Shan-tung  and 
Chi-li,  was  the  work  of  KiiMai  Khan  (in  tlie  13th  c.)  and  his  suc- 
cessors. Prior  to  1853,  when  the  lower  course  of  the  Hoang-ho 
was  deflected  from  E.S.E.  to  N.E.,  the  rice-fleet,  bearing  about 
430,000  tons  annually,  passed  northward  by  the  canal  from  the 
southern  part  of  the  great  plain  of  the  Yan-tse  to  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Fekin,  and  thus  avoided  the  delay,  and  the  liability  to 
storms  and  the  attacks  of  pirates,  to  which  the  sea-voyage  along 
the  winding  coast  exposed  it.  The  defieclion  of  the  great  river, 
however,  and  the  consequent  withdrawal  of  the  water-supply 
from  an  important  reach  of  the  canal,  have  rendered  it  impassable 
for  junks.  Williamson,  one  of  the  latest  travellers  on  the  Grand 
Canal,  describes  its  condition  as  he  saw  it  in  1869.  Tlie 
•summit-level'  of  the  canal  is  at  the  junction  with  it  of  the 


yLaOOgle 


CHI 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Ta-ivan-ho  (from  tl:e  middle  of  Slian-tung  province],  about  30 
miles  S.  of  the  point  at  which  tlie  canal  enters  tlie  Hoaiig-lio. 
The  greater  part  of  tlie  volume  of  the  Ta.-wan-ho  runs  S.K 
through  tlie  canal,  but  a  portion  runs  N.E.,  rendering  tlie  canal 
vigable  for  small  boats  to  the  Hoang-ho.  From  the  Hoaiig-ho 
rthward  to  Tien-tsin  the  canal  is  unnavigable,  but  from  this 
»n  it  is  nav^ble  to  its  practical  terminalioo, — the  treatK-port 
ot  Tientsin.  From  the  Pei-ho  at  Tieii-tsin  north-eastward  to 
river  Pei-hang,  a  new  branch  of  the  canal,  the  object  of 
which  was  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  the  disastrous  inundation 
of  the  plains  of  Tien-tsin  \\\  1872,  was  completed  in  1875.  From 
Tsi-ning-chow,  about  20  miles  below  the  junction  of  the  Ta-wan- 
ho,  already  named,  the  canal  is  navigable  for  good-sized  junks  at 
all  seasons  to  Chin-kiang.  Another  great  national  work,  the 
Mei-ling  Pass,  across  the  Nan-ling  or  sowthem  mountain  range, 
at  the  height  of  8000  feet  above  sea-level,  is  a  feat  of  labour 
and  engineering  which  will  compare  with  any  of  the  Alpine 
passes.  Across  this  pass  nearly  all  the  Iga  shipped  at  Canton, 
prior  to  the  opening  of  the  treaty-ports  i^  the  E.  and  1^.,  was 
carried  on  the  baclw  of  porters,  2o0,OQO  of  whoni  are  said  to 
have  been  engaged  in  its  transport.  After  the  opening  of  the 
treaty-ports,  whidi  were  found  to  be  nearer  the  great  tea-dis- 
tricts than  the  port  of  Canton,  the  traffic  over  the  Mel-ling  Pass 
dwindled  away.  Tlie  empire  is  also  traversed  in  all  directions  by 
great  roads,  usually  from  70  to  80  feet  broad  in  the  plains,  lined 
with  trees,  and  carried  across  livers  by  great  bridges,  which  areoften 
built  of  marble  and  adorned  with  innumerable  fantastic  figures  of 
lions,  tigers,  dogs,  and  monkeys.  Good  cart-roads,  also,  connect 
f^  towns  and  villages  of  any  importance.  '  Few  things,'  says 
Williamson,  'impress  the  traveller  more  with  the  large-minded- 
ness,  ability,  vigilance,  and  vigour  of  theformeremperprs,  and  the 
greatness  of  the  empire,  than  these  roads.'  Tl:e  monuments  and 
gigantic  idols  and  carved  images  of  China  are  a  speciai  feature  of 
the  country.  There  are  numberless  statues  in  wood  and  clay  ~ 
famous  emperors  and  eminent  men,  mostly  of  colossal  siie  ai 
gilded.  The  statue  of  Confucius,  which  may  be  seen  standing 
alone  in  all  the  numberless  temples  dedicated  to  the  memory  of 
the  great  sage,  is  never  gilded,  but  is  remarkable  for  its  placid 
expression  of  features  and  sombre  drapery.  Before  the  tombs 
of  the  emperors  of  the  Ming  dynasty,  ill  the  neighbourhood  of 
Pekin  and  Nankin,  are  ranged  processions  of  gigantic  figures, 
I — men,  horses,  camels,  elephants, — in  stone. 

Tradi  and  Commerce. — Tlie  trade  of  China  Proper,  consisting 
of  an  interchange  of  commodities  between  its  intend  provinces 
and  the  Russian,  Tartar,  and  Indo-Chinese  slates  on  its  borders, 
is  very  active  and  extensive,  but  no  official  statement  of  its  ex- 
tent 15  available  to  foreign  officials.  Of  the  foreign  trade  or 
commerce  of  the  country,  however,  the  Britssli  consuls  at  the 
different  ports  are  in  a  position  to  furnish  annual  returns.  Of 
the  ports  of  China,  twenty-one  have  been  thrown  open  to  foreign 
commerce.  Of  these,  eleven  are  primary  or  consular  ports  ;  but 
the  consuls  resident  in  them  are  also  furnished  with  statistics  of 
the  chief,  at  least,  of  the  secondary  ports,  and  thus  in  the  consular 
returns  a  fairly  accurate  statement  of  the  whole  of  the  foreign 
trade  is  given.  Full  statements  of  tlie  whole  trade  of  the  Chinese 
ports  are  given  under  their  names.  (See  Canton,  Shanghai, 
&e.)  The  whole  of  the  foreign  trade  of  China — with  the  excep- 
tion of  one-seventh,  which  is  carried  on  with  the  United  States 
and  other  foreign  nations — consists  of  commerce  with  Great 
Eritain  and  its  Indian  Empire,  and  whh  the  British  possession 
of  the  island  of  Hong-Kong  (q.  v.).  The  following  is  a  state- 
ment of  the  trade  of  China  (including  Hong-Kong  and  Macao) 
in  the  years  1870-74  inclusive,  with  the  quantities  aiid  values  of 
tlie  chief  articles  of  import  and  export ; — 


,S;l 

Tea. 

...s...     1 

Q,.ai,iiLy. 

V.l... 

Qu^ntiiy. 

v.l... 

.870 

lbs. 

1,754.981 
1,096,319 

:;,I3 

From  the  above  statement  it  appears  that  the  Chinese  trade  with 
Britain  during  the  years  iS7o-74has  been  steady,  with  a  slight  ten- 
dency to  decline  in  the  last  of  the  years  named,  This  is  accounted 
for  partly  from  the  circumstance  that  cotton,  which  is  extensively 
grown  in  Chi-li  and  other  provinces,  chiefly  in  the  N.,  became 
temporarily  an  export  to  Britain  during  a  few  years  siii>sequent 
to  the  period  of  the  cotton-famine  in  England.  But  the  export 
of  this  article  from  the  porlhem  ports  of  China  gradually  and 
naturally  declined  as  the  wonted  activity  was  resumed  in  the 
cotton-fields  oC  America,  and  in  1S74  it  disappeared  altogetlier. 
But  this  falling  off  in  the  export  of  cotton  told  doubly  against 
British  trade  1111874;  forwhile  in  that  year  cotton  wasnot  exported 
to  Britain,  it  was  diverted  to  the  southern  Chinese  ports,  which 
beii^  thus  supplied  with  native  cotton,  were  no  longer  under  the 
necessity,  as  they  had  been  previously,  of  purchasing  that  article 
from  British  India.  The  diversion  of  the  cotton  grown  in  the  N. 
of  China  to  tlie  ports  in  the  S.  accounts  for  the  fact  that  in  Can- 
ton in  1874  there  was  a  deciwse  in  the  export  of  foreign  raw 
cotton  of  161, as6  piculs  (the  picul  =  134  lbs.).  Other  causes 
for  the  decrease  in  our  exports  of  textile  fabrics  to  China  are  that 
China  man(ifactures  the  cheaper  kinds  of  goods  mote  profitably 
than  Manchester,  and  also  that  the  import  trade  in  these  go 
has,  within  the  last  few  years,  passed  almost  exclusively  into 
hands  of  guilds  of  nfitive  dealer's  at  the  different  ports,  who  form 
^  commercial 'unions'  for  the  purppse  of  excluding  the  foreigner. 
At  Ning-po  there  was  a  decrease  of  54,641  '  pieces '  of  coitor 
goods,  and  of  9460  pieces  of  woollen  goods,  in  1874  \  and  thi; 
decrease  is  due  to  the  fact  that  here,  as  at  other  ports,  the  tradi 
in  cottons  and  woollens  is  passing  bodily  into  the  hands  of 
Chinese  dealers.  Tlie  practices  of  the  'piece-goods  guilds'  of 
Ning-ppmayhere  be  explained,  as  l)iey  are  representative  of  the 
new  commercial  poliey  of  the  native  officials  at  all  the  ports — a 
policy  which  threatens  the  very  existence  of  foreign  commercial 
enterprise  among  the  '  Celestials.'  The  guild  named  pays  to  the 
Taotai  (a  local  official,  one  of  whose  functions  is  the  collection  of 
custom s-dnties)  two  sums  annually,  one  of  15,450,000  cash  (equal 
to  14,500  dols.},  and  a  further  sum  of  2000  taels  (3  taels  "-j&l), 
towards  barrier  expenses,  in  consideration  of  which  they  are 
allowed  to  impose  a  tax  of  from  12  to  50  cash  (id.  to  Jd.}  per 

Eiece  on  piece-goods.  This  sum  is  imposed  in  addition  to  the 
alf-duly  duly  paid  to  the  Imperial  Maritime  Customs.  A  & 
ficate,  granted  by  the  guild  when  the  goods  go  into  the  intei 
clears  them  of  all  further  taxes.  But  this  guild  declines  to  1 
dealings  of  any  kind  with  foreigners  or  their  native  agents.  They 
refuse  certificates  to  all  goods  of  non-Chinese  importers,  and  should 
such  goods  find  their  way  into  the  interior,  they  are  no  soi 
delivered  to  a  purchaser  than  local  officials,  acting  on  instruct 
from  the  guild  of  the  port,  compel  the  purchaser  to  pay  a  ta; 
the  goods  of  more  than  double  the  amount  of  the  lax  levied  by 
the  guild  on  goods  bearing  their  own  certificate.  In  default  of 
payment  of  this  tax,  which  is  one  of  the  various  forms  of  the 
'squeeze '  upon  the  foreigner,  which  is  a  universal  inslitudo 
China,  the  goods  are  seized.  At  Shanghai  in  1S74,  the  pi 
goods  trade  was  fairly  prosperous ;  but  even  here,  where  E 
pean  influence  is  distinctly  felt,  a  powerful  combination  air 
the  Chinese  inercliants  enables  them  to  '  bear  '  or  '  bull '  pi 
in  a  manner  which  is  disastrous  to  foreign  importers  ;  while  the 
same  obstructiveness  on  the  part  of  Chinese  officials  to  the  free 
transit  of  foreign  goods  in  the  interior  hampers  the  operatioi 
of  British  importers  in  the  same  manner  as  at  the  other  treaty 

Gc/vtrtifienl. — The  present  Emperor  of  China,  Tsai-tien, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1875  on  the  death  of  Tong-che, 
who  was  nominated  to  the  throne  by  his  father,  Hlen-fung  (d'  - ' 


vLaOOgle 


CHI 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CHI 


22d  August  1861},  In  the  Chinese  consfitnlion  (which  is  mitten 
in  the  Ta-lsing-whel-tien,  or  Culkcttd  Regulations  of  the  Great 
Piiri  Dynasty),  the  Emperor,  or  Whang-ti,  is  supreme  legislator, 
administrator,  commander-in-chief,  criminal  judge,  owner  of  the 
soil,  and  arch-priest.  He  is  called  Tien-tse,  or  Son  of  Heaven, 
and  theoretically  rules  over  Tien-hin,  or  all  under  the  slties.  The 
only  qualifications  of  the  prerogative  ate  that  the  Whang-ti  must 
govern  according  to  the  classics,  and  that  he  is  disqualified  by 
incapacity  or  wickedness,  the  people  having  a  right  10  rebel  in 
cases  of  'prolonged  famine,  pestilence,  or  hordes  of  robbers.' 
They  have  no  voice  in  the  election  of  magistrates,  the  making 
of  la\ys,  the  imposition  of  taxes.  The  Whang-ti  is  visited  every 
morning  by  the  Keun-ki-chu,  or  Cabinet  Council,  and  on  invi- 
tation by  the  Ne-k6,  Inner  Council,  or  Great  Secretariat  The 
Li-fan-yuen,  or  Colonial  Office,  has  chai^  of  Mongolia  and 
Thibet.  It  includes  a  Chamber  of  Comiiassion  for  'fan,'  or 
foreigners,  a  term  which  does  not  extend  to  outer  barbarians,  such 
as  English.  The  Han-lin,  Great  College  of  Learned  Men,  lite- 
rally Pencil  Forest  Hall,  includes  the  various  Ta-byo-si,  or  minis- 
ters of  state,  who  see  that  the  constitution  and  the  maxims  of 
Confucius  are  obeyed,  and  who  collectively  control  the  sin  Boards 
of  Offices,  Revenue,  Ceremonies,  Military  Afiiurs,  Punishment, 
and  Works.  This  last  includes  the  Chambers  of  Architecture, 
Government  Stores,  Hydraulics,  and  Mausoleluns.  The  Hau-lin 
is  properly  a  senate  to  test  litecaiy  attainments,  on  which  of&ce 
depends.  The  Board  of  Ceremonies  is  subdivided  into  the 
Chamber  of  Etiquette  (which  regulates  marriage,  funerals,  public 
rejoicings,  &c,),  the  Chamber  for  Regulating  Sacrifices,  the 
Chamber  for  Mutual  Intercourse  (which  provides  a  reception  for 
illustrious  strangers),  a  Chamber  for  Arranging  Festivities  or 
Imperial  Banquets,  and  the  Board  of  Music.  Quite  apart  fram 
the  executive,  but  represented  at  Ihe  meetings  of  all  the  boards, 
and  having  a  general  power  of  direct  remonstrance  or  petition 
to  the  throne,  is  the  Tu-chah-yuen,  or  Board  of  Censors,  whose 
business  is  to  watch  the  proceedings  of  mandarins.  In  each  pro- 
vince is  a  Swain-fu,  or  governor,  who  has  the  sole  power  of 
addressing  the  throne  or  council,  has  the  power  of  life  and 


province  are  the  Pie-chung-si,  or  superintendent  of  provincial 
taxes,  which  he  receives  from  the  magistrates  and  accounts 
for  to  the  governor ;  the  Ngan-cha-si,  or  provincial  criminal 
judge,  who  receives  and  reports  on  persons  sentenced  by  the 
district  magistrates  to  death  or  banishment ;  and  the  Hioh-tai, 
or  educational  exammer,  who  corresponds  with  the  Han-lin, 
and  conducts  along  with  the  prefect  the  primary  examinations 
for  the  literary  degree  in  the  departmental  cities.  Several  de- 
partments, grouped  together  within  a  province,  are  placed 
under  a  Tau-tai,  or  inlendant  of  circuit,  who  has  charge  of  the 
customs,  corresponds  with  foreign  consuls,  and  hears  apprads 
fi-om  the  court  of  the  prefect.  One  species  of  Tau-t:u,  the  Ping- 
pae-tau,  has  a  military  command,  and  draws  money  from  the 
treasury  for  troops  which  have  often  no  real  existence ;  another, 
the  Veu-yun-tau,  is  sometimes  called  the  salt  commissioner. 
The  single  department,  or  'fu,'  is  presided  over  by  a  Chi-fu, 
who  hears  appeals  from  the  lower  courts.  The  '  fu '  is  divided 
into  several  'liens,'  about  the  size  of  ^glish  counties,  in  which 
the  Chi'lien  or  chjef  mandarin  is  the  sheriff,  police  superinten- 
dent,  coroner,  receiver  of  taxes,  and  literary  examiner.  Under 
him  are  the  assistant  district-magistrate,  inspectors,  masters  of 

S)risons,  writers,  tax-gatherers,  constables,  &c  It  may  be  use- 
ul  in  connection  with  these  names  to  add  the  meanings  of 
some  terminations  constantly  used  in  Chinese ; — SAau,  a  hill ; 
C/iung  or  C/isng,  a  city ;  Ckniang,  a  large  village ;  Tsiin  or 
7^n,  a  village  ;  Kwan,  a  fortified  pass  ;  Mun  OT  Meii,  a  gate ; 
Jfow,  a  port ;  Ji^iat,  a  market  street ;  /fir,  a  river  or  canal ; 
Kiang,  a  great  river }  Hu,  a  laie  ;  Yamtm,  a  mandarin's  office  ; 
Wang,  a  prince.  Little  is  accurately  known  as  to  the  public 
revenue  of  China,  which  has  been  stated  at  ;floo,ooo,ooo.  It 
would  be  unsafe  to  infer  anything  from  the  amount  of  the 
customs- duties,  which  in  1873  amounted  to  10,977,082  taels  or 
^3,659,027,  of  which  imports  contributed  j£i, 268,285,  and  ex- 
ports i;2,045,7o6.  The  other  .sources  of  revenue  are  a  land-tax 
and  trade  licences,  which  are  probably  made  to  bear  the  heavy 


cash  =  6s.  8d.  sterling.  It  is  part  of  the  duty  of  the  mandarins 
to  read  periodically  to  the  people  from  the  Book  of  Sacred  In- 
slmciions.  Besides  this,  the  penal  laws  are  printed  and  circu 
lated  among  the  people  (nearly  all  of  whom  can  read  and  write), 
so  that  no  one  may  plead  ignorance  of  the  law  for  which  he  is 
punished.  There  is  in  criminal  justice  a  vicarious  principle  [ 
parents  being  occasionally  punished  for  the  crimes  of^children, 
and  districts  for  those  of  individuals.  The  Government  reserve 
a  power  of  punishing  cases  of  '  improper  conduct '  not  defined 
in  the  penal  code.  l"he  enormous  patronage  of  the  court,  and 
the  extensive  system  of  espionage,  contribute  to  the  stability  of 
the  empire. 

Retigian, — Like  the  Babylonians,  the  ancient  Chinese  erected 
large  square  altars  and  high  tenaces  of  earth,  stone,  and  brick. 
The  sacred  altars  in  Peking,  on  which  imperial  sacrifices  are 
offered  every  winter  solstice  to  Shan-li,  are  square  earthen  ter- 
races about  6q  yards  in  drcuit,  and  from  4  to  6  feet  in  height 
There  was  before  Confucius  a  singular  numeric^  philoso^y, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  received  by  Ta-yn,  B.C.  2200,  as  a 
reward  for  his  success  in  subduing  the  inundations  of  the  rivers. 
It  contains  nine  categories — (l)  Five  elemental  energies;  (2)  five 
human  actions ;  (3)  eight  departments  of  government ;  (4)  five 
registers  of  time ;  {5)  the  Emperor's  perfection  in  virtue,  or 
himself  attaining  the  summit  of  virtue ;  (6}  the  three  virtues ; 
(7)  investigation  of  doubts  ly  the  tortoise  and  diviner's  grass  ; 
(S)  five  natural  indications  ;  (9)  five  kinds  of  happiness  and  six 
of  misery.  This  numerical  scheme  is  also  seen  in  the  Pa-kwa, 
or  eight  diagrams  of  Fo.hi,  a  system  of  whole  and  broken  strokes 
arranged  ociangularly,  the  basis  of  the  '  Book  of  Changes,'  and 
used  on  the  Cliinese  mariner's  compass.  The  number  eight  curi- 
ously survives  in  the  number  of  meats  allowed  at  the  imperial 
dinner,  which  are  bears   p  w     d  d?  gues,  tor- 

pedoes' roe,  camels'  hump  p  s,  and  beef- 

marrow.    Combmations        h    fi      p  m         are  con- 

stantly used  as  the  basi  lling  with 

the  joss-stick,  which  is       g       p         ed  d    g   o  printed 

rules  and  for  fixed  charg  fl    b  ul  candidates  at 

the  public  examinations.    T       g  m       g  sp  pears  every- 

where.    Tradespeople  h        b  mbo         es  cks,  with 

numbers  burnt  into  the  ra  wh   h  the  cus- 

tomer draws  his  price ;  d  I  temples, 

two  plane-convex  bits  o  00  worship- 

per,  and   the  omen  is  g  od  d  g  as   they  fall. 

It  is  in  liis  commentaries  ^   .f   h    Boo         Changes, 

that  the  famous  Chu-ts  p     ns  p         p  Tae-keih, 

represented  by  a  circle,  m  d    m  wh  ch  a  semi- 

circle is  described,  and         h  mm         but  in  the 

lower  half  of  the  great  h         m  described. 

The  curved  divisions  thus  obtamed  lepiesent  the ^dw^ and  j'W(, 
the  masculine  and  feminine,  the  celestial  and  terrestrial,  the  sun 
and  moon.  This  materialistic  theory,  resembling  the  Egyptian 
fable  of  the  mundane  egg  and  the  Brahmanic  legends  of  creation, 
was  applied  vigorously  to  all  nature,  the  whole  vegetable  and 
inoigamc  world  being  endowed  with  sex,  and  numbers  themselves 
having  a  gender. 

There  are  many  minor  religions  In  China,  such  as  Mohamme- 
danism, which  is  diminishing,  but  still  extensively  spread ;  the 
Vegetarians  of  Ningpo,  who  profess  the  '  Religion  of  the  White 
Lily'and  the  '  No- Hypocrisy  Religion,' and  distinguish  them- 
selves by  holding  the  brea,th  until  the  &ce  becomes  livid  and  the 
body  stiff;  the  simple  creed  of  the  Pepohoans  of  Formosa,  that 
the  world  has  existed  and  will  exist  for  ever,  together  with  its 
present  occupants,  who  are  punished  in  their  next  stage  of  exist- 
ence for  their  misdeeds  in  the  present ;  then  the  Feng-shui,  or 
Wind-water,  i.e.,  Incomprehenrible  system,  which  determines 
the  proper  sites  of  tombs,  houses,  or  cities  from  the  configuration 
of  rivers,  trees,  and  hills,  This  singular  superstition  assumes 
that  all  evil  comes  from  the  S.,  and  that  evil  travels  in  straight 
lines.  Hence  curved  lines  are  introduced  ns  much  as  possible  ; 
a  pagoda  or  a  heap  of  stones  will  divert  the  lines,  and  protect 
a  considerable  district  from  famine  and  plague,  and  most  of  the 
temple  doors  have  wooden  screens  inside,  which  intercept  the 
evil  spirits  from  proceeding  to  the  altar.  Perhaps  the  strongest 
among  the  practical  religious  feelings  of  Ihe  Chinese  is  that  o( 
predestination.  It  is  well  illustrated  in  a  popular  almanac  of 
the  present  day,  in  which  a  woodcnt  represents  a  fly,  a  spider, 
a  bira,  a  sportsman,  and  a  tiger.  Each  of  these  animals  succes- 
sively kills  his  prey,  and  then  they  all  fall  into  a  well.     So  also 


yLaOOgle 


CHI 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


OHI 


he  great  dties  it  is  the  custom,  if  a  coolie  laden  with  wine  or 
oil  slip  and  fall  when  the  streets  are  slippery  with  ice  or  snow, 
that  he  shall  be  held  liable  for  the  damage  done ;  if  on  a  fine 
day,  when  the  streets  are  dry,  the  owner  of  the  goods  bears  the 
loss,  for,  like  the  burning  of  the  icehouse,  this  unlikely  accident 
is  taken  to  be  clearly  the  will  of  Heaven.  All  this  is  mixed  up 
with  the  grossest  superstitions.  Even  the  intelligent  and  liberal 
viceroy,  Li-hung- diang,  who  lately  established  the  Nanking 
arsenal  under  Dr  Macartney,  armed  the  Peiho  forts  with  Krupp 
guns,  and  introduced  foreign  drill  to  the  army,  expected  that  by 
self-prostration  before  a  small  water-snake  he  might  persoade  the 
god  of  floods  to  stop  those  in  Chihli.  The  cluef  fcith  of  China 
iias  for  the  last  ten  centuries  undoubtedly  been  Confucianism, 
which  is  not  a  religion  in  the  Sense  of  having  any  account 
of  the  invisible  world,  but  is  a  system  of  self-culture  with  two 
great  objects — the  proper  government  of  one's  own  family  and 
of  the  state.  It  exhorts  men  to  love  virtue  for  itself,  with- 
it  hope  of  reward  at  fear  of  punishment,  and  it  is  eitremely 
obnoKious  to  the  Christian  missionaries,  as  laying  down  the  prin- 
ciple that  'man's  nature  is  originally  good. '  It  resembles  Chris- 
tianity, on  the  otlier  hand,  in  the  importance  it  attaches  in  theory 
to  purity  of  secret  thoughts.  Practically,  however,  what  dis- 
tinguishes Confucianism  is  the  sanctity  it  throws  round  the  exist- 
ing social  relations  of  dependence  and  subordination,  both  public 
and  private.  It  establishes  a  power  of  life  and  death  in  the  head 
of  the  family  (Fatal  Code,  s.  293),  and  a  despotism  (assumed  to 
be  benevolent)  in  the  head  of  the  state.  The  conservative  method 
of  Confucius  is  revealed  In  the  Li-king,  or  Boole  of  E^tes,  which 
contains  3000  ceremonial  usages,  and  is  administered  by  one 
of  the  public  departments.  Confucius  said :  '  I  do  not  know 
life:  how  can  I  understand  death?'  Hence  the  state-worship 
by  sacrifices,  before  referred  to,  is  strictly  positivist.  The 
Jesuits,  who  at  first  got  on  veiy  well  with  the  Confucians,  said 
that  this  worship  (which  includes  the  burning  of  a  bullock  in  a 
laffie  furnace  of^  green-glazed  bricks,  with  the  professed  object 
'  of  attractmg  the  attention  of  the  Heavenly  Spirit ')  really 
related  to  an  intelligent  moral  creator,  Tien  or  Shan-ti;  to  a 
primitive  roonotheism  which  existed  before  the  worship  of  the 
saints  (Shing-jin),  of  the  lofty  good  and  evil  spirits  (Shen  and 
Kwei),  before  the  Sabean  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  or  the 
worship  of  ancestors  by  means  of  tablets.  It  is  true  that  the 
Emperor  Kang-hi  assured  the  Pope  that  his  worship  was  not 
addressed  to  the  visible  system  of  things ;  but  after  allovring  much 
for  the  fetichism  of  the  uneducated  masses  (who  are  singularly 
isolated  from  the  literary  and  governing  class),  it  remains  true 
that  Chinese  religion,  in  so  far  as  consciously  Confucian,  is  not, 
indeed,  atheistic  but  agnostic.  Buddhism,  the  creed  of  the  Tar- 
tar dynasty,  began  to  appear  in  China  about  217  B.C. ;  and  in 
120  B.C.  a  Chmese  general,  after  defeating  the  barbarians  to  the 
N.  of  Gobi,  brought  back  a  golden  statue  of  Buddha  as  a  trophy. 
In  A.D.  65  it  was  officially  recognised  by  the  Emperor  Ming-ti  as 
a  third  state  religion.  Soon  after,  the  life  of  Buddlia,  Lalila 
Vtslara,  was  translated  into  Chinese  under  imperial  auspices,  and 
three  centuries  after  this  began  the  great  stream  of  Chinese  Bud- 
dhist  pilgrims — Fahian  (A,D.  390),  Hcei-seng,  Song-yun  (a.d. 
518),  Hiouen-thsang  (a,d.  648),  Khi-nie  (A.D.  964),  whose 
travels,  along  with  the  JliiKraries  of  the  fifty-six  monks  (a.d. 
730),  are  all  extant,  and  some  of  them  translated  into  European 
languages.  The  story  of  Hiouen-thsang,  translated  by  Stanislas 
Juhen,  is  a  graphic  romance  and  an  invaluable  history.  He 
returned  in  honour  to  China  with  a  great  number  of  Sanskrit 
works  on  Buddhism,  which  he  afterwards  translated  in"  1335 
volumes.  There  are  now  in  the  Peking  temple  wooden  blocks 
for  printing  upwards  of  6000  Buddhist  volumes.  In  Chinese, 
Brahma  became  Fan-bn-mo,  and  Buddha  became  Fo.to,  which 
was  vulgarly  shortened  to  Fo.  Buddhism  is  a  creed  of  ideal 
purity;  its  Pentalogue  enjoins  not  only  moral  duties„but  ab- 
stinence from  marriage  and  wine.  But  even  these  fundamental 
precepts  are  disregarded  by  the  mendicant  priests  of  China, 
whom  the  best  authority  has  called  '  a  lying,  shameless,  de- 
bauched class.'  They  extort  money  from  the  poor  not  merely 
,  begging  on  felse  pretences,  but  by  impostures  in  the  temples. 
Thus,  at  the  shrine  of  Kuan-yin,  goddess  of  mercy,  at  Hong- 
Kong,  the  goddess  prescribes  certam  drugs,  which  are  sold  by  an 
apothecary  who  has  an  understanding  with,  the  priests ;  and  the 
priests  themselves  sell  worthless  bits  of  paper  as  counterfeits  for 
money,  which  are  then  burned  at  the  altar— a  proof  of  the 
Chinese  reverence  for  the  '  written  word '  .in  whatever  form  it 


may  appear ;  even  a  pawnticket  or  a  newspaper  is  regarded  as 
something  sacred.  The  centre  of  Buddhism  is  the  island  of  Put 
in  the  Chusan  Archipelago,  where  since  A.D.  550  there  have  been 
sixty  temples  governed  by  an  abbot  or  Tae-hoshang,  These  are 
supported  by  the  rent  of  Church  lands,  the  contributions  of 
pilgrims,  and  the  labour  of  the  priests.  Here  and  liere  are 
monasteries  of  devout  and  clean  men.  The  great  Hall  of  Saints, 
Lo  Han  T'ang,  contains  500  gilded  images  of  Buddhist  sdnts, 
one  of  whom  is  supposed  to  be  that  good  CathoUc,  Marco  Polo, 
the  traveller.  The  Buddhist  pagodas  are  circular  towers,  200 
feet  in  height,  containing  seven  stories,  reached  by  a  spiral 
stairease,  each  floor  having  an  outside  terrace,  surrounded  by  a 
massive  stone  halustrading  resting  on  ornamental  brackets.  They 
are  chiefly  found  in  S.  China,  and  are  not  known  outside  China. 
They  were  probably  built  as  beacons  and  watch-towers,  and  as 
places  of  strength  in  which  to  guard  the  relics  of  Gautama.  The 
tonsure,  celibacy,  fasting,  prayers  for  the  dead  at  fixed  money 
rates,  the  baptism  in  water,  the  rosaries  and  chaplets,  and  the 
Franciscan  dress  of  the  Shamans  or  Buddhist  priests,  suggested 
to  PJre  Gerhillon  that  they  must  have  been  subject  to  Christian 
influences  frem  Syria  and  Armenia.  The  third  great  faith  is 
Taouism,  which  was  first  taught  by  Taou  or  Laou-keuw,  a 
contemporary  of  Confucius,  in  the  6th  c  B.C.  He  taught  con- 
tempt of  worldly  riches  and  honour,  and  thought  true  hap- 
piness was  to  be  found  in  starving  all  troublesome  wants  and 
living  apart  in  slothful  tranquillity.  His  followers  believed  that 
life  might  be  indefinitely  prolonged  by  an  elixir,  and  therefore 
became  alchemists.  The  mysteries  of  the  Taouist,  'Three 
Pure  Ones,'  were  announced  to  man  through  the  '  great  barefooted 
angel,'  and  are  written  in  the  Scripture,  Taou-te-king,  a  copy  of 
which  is  possessed  by  the  Royal  Society.  Under  the  Sflng  and 
Tang  dynasties  this  sect  became  very  influential,  the  title  of 
Tien-sze,  or  celestial  teachers,  being  given  to  its  professors. 
Three  Taouists,  named  Chang,  excited  the  rebellion  of  Yellow- 
Caps,  which  put  an  end  to  the  Han  dynasty.  But  the  religion 
is  now  represented  chiefly  by  professional  jugglers,  who  traffic  iu 
all  the  grossest  superstitions  of  the  people.  To  the  Confucian 
student  the  theoretical  asceticism  of  the  Buddhist  and  indiffer- 
ence of  the  Taouist  are  both  equally  culpable ;  but  practically 
there  is  very  little  bigotry  shown  between  the  members  of  the 
different  persuasions.  Tlie  three  faiths  agree,  however,  in  detest- 
ing Christianity.  This  is  shown  in  a  poem  published  in  1874 
in  the  tea-market  at  Hankow,  which,  after  sarcastically  referring 
to  the  '  sdllness  and  cleanliness '  of  Buddhism,  and  the  '  abstruse- 
ness  and  hollow  mockery '  of  Taouism,  attacks  the  gospel  wilh 
its  sicrit  eonfiisien  of  sexes.  This  spirit  is  partly  political  or 
patriotic,  but  the  spirltoal  and  moral  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  the  missionaries  are  enormous.  Thus,  the  Chinese  work 
seven  days  in  the  week ;  there  is  no  restriction  on  the  sale  of 
spirituous  liquors,  and  no  drunkenness  except  from  opium ;  there 
is  no  charity,  except  in  the  customary  support  of  parents  and  other 
relatives  and  friends;  and  the  result  is,  that  nearly  everybody  works, 
although  wages  are  barely  sufficient  for  comfortable  subsistence. 
Accordingly  the  social  evils  to  be  attacked  in  China  are  different 
frem  those  most  preminent  at  home.  It  is  not  true  that  the  Chinese 
are  specially  prene  to  thieving,  but  they  lie  systematically ;  and 
suicide,  especially  among  women,  is  veiy  common,  and  is  in 
many  cases  applauded.  They  have  been  unjustly  accused  of  un- 
usual cruelty,  especially  in  judicial  punishment  '  The  linger- 
ing death, '  described  by  Meadows,  is  quite  obsolete  ;  the  heavy 
bamboo  is  also  abolished  ;  and  the  light  flowing,  and  the  kea  or 
Cang      '        '  ...  


History.— ^Vht  fabulous  part  of  Chinese  history  begins  with 
the  Three  Emperors,  Fo-hi,  who  in  vented  numbers,  music,  &c.  ; 
Shin-nung,  the  divine  husbandman ;  and  Hoang-ti,  who  divided 
the  land  into  groups  .of  nine  equal  squares,  of  which  the  centre  was 
owned  by  the  state,  and  who  introduced  the  cycle  of  sixty  years. 
Then  follow  the  Five  Sovereigns,  of  whom  Shun  is  connected 
with  the  tradition  of  the  Deluge  (^e  overflowing  of  the  Yellow 


and  Shang,  a  martial  king,  Wu-wong,  about  lioo  B.C.,  revolts 
and  founds  the  dynasty  of  Chow,  which  endured  till  240  B.C.  It 
was  about  the  middle  of  Chow  that  a  partial  consolidation  of  the 
independent  stales  or  dukedoms  in  Northern  China  took  place. 


vL-oogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CHI 


The  first  trae  Emperor,  Chi-hoang-ti,  built  the  Great  'Wall,  and 
burned  nearly  the  whole  of  the  classic  literature.  During  the 
Han  period  (B.C.  zoo-A.D.  200],  the  Tartar  becomes  troublesome 
on  the  N.W.  frontier.  After  an  interval  of  Sankuo,  or  '  Three 
Slates,'  the  Dulte  of  Wei  established  the  supremacy  of  the  Tsin 
dynasty  on  the  Salic  principle  (afterwards  disregarded),  that 
'queens  should  not  reign,  nor  assist  in  public  matters.'  From  A.D. 
416-5S5  the  cities  Nanking  and  Hiinnan  appear  as  the  capitals  of 
separate  kingdoms,  which  are  afterwards  united,  and  the  dynasty 
of  Tang  (A.D.  622-897)  appears  with  the  wise  and  just  Toe- 
tsung,  whose  virtues  are  soon  forgotten  in  the  wicked  tyranny  of 
the  eunuchs.  A  chaos  of  half  a  century,  called  the  How-woo-tae,  or 
'Latter  Five  Successions,'  follows,  in  which  Davis  thinks  he 
sees  the  features  of  a  feudal  land  system  surviving  in  the  tax  of  10 
per  cent.,  to  which  the  Emperor  is  still  entitled  out  of  all  lands. 
To  this  period  belong  the  accounts  of  the  early  Arabian  travel- 
lers, who  describe  the  taxes  on  salt  and  tea,  the  use  of  the  bam- 
boo, and  the  excessive  issue  of  paper  money.  Under  the  feeble 
and  vacillating  Sflng  dynasty  (A.D.  950-1281)  a  great  impetus 
was  given  to  the  production  and  multiplication  by  printing  of 
books,  and  the  manufacture  of  porcelMn  was  begun  at  King-teh- 
chinj  but  the  attitude  of  the  Eastern  Tartars  grew  constantly 
more  threatening,  until  China  had  to  call  for  help  to  the  Mongol 
chief  Peyen  (Hundred-eyes),  with  the  usual  result  of  introducing 
a  foreign  dynasty,  that  of  Yuen,  whose  fu-st  monarch  was  Kublai 
Khan.  He,  a  Buddhist,  tried  to  suppress  Taouism,  surrounded 
Peking  with  the  Grand  Canal,  and  founded  the  medical  college, 
where  the  doctrine  of  the  pulse,  the  diseases  of  children,  and  the 
therapeutics  of  counter-irritation  have  ever  since  been  ex- 
pounded. The  narrative  of  Marco  Polo  belongs  to  this  time, 
which  is  also  marked  by  the  establishment  of  Mohammedanism 
as  the  religion  of  a  considerable  part  of  the  people.  The  Mon- 
gols rapidly  degenerated,  and  in  1366  Hung-wu,  a  Chinese 
bonze,  founded  the  Ming  dynasty,  and  removed  the  capital  to 
Nanking.  Under  this  line,  which  enriched  the  world  with  many 
magnificent  metal  vases  and  tripods,  gave  Macao  to  the  Portu- 
guese, and  saw  the  first  of  the  Jesuit  missions  {Fathers  Euggino 
and  Ricci,  worthUy  followed  by  Fathers  Schaal  and  Verbiest), 
a  war  gradually  sprang  up  between  China  and  the  Bogdoi 
Khans  or  Manchu  princes ;  and  in  1644,  after  promising  freedom 
from  taxation,  Tien-ming  (or  Heaven's  Decree)  founded  at 
Peking  the  Manchu  Tartar  dynasty,  which  still  rules.  To  them 
belong  the  present  uncouth  pigtail  and  costume  of  China.  Their 
empire  was  not  assured  until  the  long  and  brilliant  re^n  of 
Kang-hi,  who  had  friendly  negotiations  with  the  Pope  and  with 
Peter  the  Great,  and  who  inflicted  a  decisive  defeat  upon  the 
Kalmucks.  In  1662  he  expelled  the  Dutch  from  Formosa,  and 
in  1692  he  published  a  decree  permitting:  the  exercise  of  Chris- 
tianity, which  was  forfeited  by  a  foolish  claim  of  jurisdiction 
on  the  part  of  the  Pope.  The  Supreme  Emperor,  Kien-hing 
(1735-95),  received  in  1793  Lord  Macartney,  the  first  British 
ambassador  to  China,  who  was  followed  by  Lord  Amherst  in 
1816.  Kien-Iung  (who  persuaded  the  banished  tribe  of  Tour- 
gouths  to  return  from  Russian  rule  in  1772)  deserves  the  highest 
credit  for  reUeving  the  East  India  Company  (established  with  a 
concession  of  the  right  to  trade  at  Canton  since  1637)  from  some 
of  the  grievous  customs  and  port  duties  ;  but  Macartney  foiled 
in  opening  the  ports  of  Ningpo  and  Tientsin.  Amherst's  mis- 
sion, intended  as  a  protest  against  the  avowed  Chinese  policy  of 
'  treating  the  barliarians  as  beasts  and  not  as  citizens,'  was  equally 
unsuccessful.  Taou-kuang,  'the  Glory  of  Reason '  (1820-50), 
murdered  the  Mohammedan  Tartar  Prince  Jehanghir,  and  made 
a  successful  campaign  on  the  Cashgar  frontier.  In  1834  the 
charter  of  the  East  India  Company,  which  had  hitherto  regulated 
trade  at  Canton,  came  to  an  end,  and  Lord  Napier  went  out  as 
commissioner.  The  Chinese  wished  to  have  a  taipan,  or  com- 
mercial superintendent  without  representative  character,  in  order 
to  assist  them  in  dealing  with  the  illicit  trade  in  opium,  which 
had  now  begun,  and  against  which  the  Chinese  commissioner 
Ijn  distinguished  him^f  by  his  eneip"  and  duplicity.  This 
question  led  to  the  war  of  1 840,  in  which  Amoy,  Ningpo,  and 
Shanghai  were  taken,  and  after  which,  in  1842,  the  'Treaty  of 
Nanking  was  signed,  abalishing  the  Hong  monopoly,  opening 
five  ports  with  a  moderate  tariff,  and  ceding  the  island  of  Hong- 
Kong,  Another  milita™  expedition  was  rendered  necessary  by 
outrages  committed  in  1 847.  But  the  Chinese  Govermnent  was 
now  seriously  shaken  by  the  great  Tae-ping  rebellion,  led  by 
Hung  Sew  Tseuen,  a  peasant  of  the  Canton  district,  against  Hien- 
130 


fung,  the  Manchu  Emperor  who  succeeded  in  185a  Hung  was 
at  first  mistalcen  for  a  Christian  :  he  was  in  reality  an  immoral 
impostor  who  arrogated  divine  honours  to  himself.  His  political 
object  was  to  restore  the  Ming  dynasty,  and  therefore  he  estab- 
lished himself  at  Nanking,  the  ancient  Ming  capital.  The  course 
of  this  great  insurrection  has  been  traced  1™  Mr  Meadows  and 
Commander  Brine  ;  and  its  inner  spirit  will  best  be  seen  in  the 
autobiography  of  Hung  or  Chuiw-wang,  the  Heavenly  Chief, 
published  at  Shanghai  in  1865.  The  Taepmg  publications  were 
translated  by  Medhurst  in  the  Ngrlk  China  Herald.  Meantime, 
in  spite  of  the  prudent  action  of  Sir  J,  Bowring,  Governor  of 
Hong-Kong,  the  treatment  of  the  English  merchants  at  the  ports, 
especially  by  Commissioner  Yeh,  became  again  intolerable,  At 
last  (1856)  flie  Arrovi,  a  small  British  colonial  vessel,  was  vio- 
lently seized.  This  ied  to  the  first  mbsion  of  Lord  Elgin,  dc 
scribed  by  Mr  OHphant,  and  the  expedition  of  the  allied  French 
and  English  forces,  which  resulted  in  the  important  commercial 
Treaty  of  Tientsin  (26th  June  1858),  fixing  the  right  of  British 
subjects  to  travel  with  passports,  throwing  open  five  additional 
ports,  and  adjusting  a  general  rate  of  transit  dues.  The  treaty 
was  not  carried  ouL  and  this  made  necessary  Lord  Elgin's 
second  mission  of  i860,  described  by  Mr  ,  Loch.  There  was 
more  fighting,  which  began  with  the  repulse  of  Admiral  Hope 
at  the  Taku  forts,  but  was  afterwards  better  managed  by  Sir 
Hope  Grant  The  palace  of  Yuen-ming-yuen  was  burned  to 
the  ground  as  an  appropriate  punishment  of  the  treachery  of 
certain  mandarins.  After  this,  British  officers  served  in  sup- 
pressing the  Taeping  rebellion  (which  lasted  till  1864),  and 
British  civilians  held  important  posts  in  the  depai'tments.  After 
the  failure  of  the  expeditions  of^  Major  Gordon  and  Major  Sher- 
ard  Osbom,  and  the  massacre  of  30,000  rebels  at  Foo-chow,  the 
Palmersioiiian  policy  of  permitting  British  subjects  to  seive  in 
China  was  abandoned.  In  1873  the  Chinese  brought  to  3  suc- 
cessful close  a  war  which  had  lasted  for  seventeen  years  with  the 
Panthays,  a  Mohammedan  race  in  the  district  of  Yiinnan,  At 
last  Taliiu,  the  capital  of  the  Sultan  Solehnan,  and  Momien, 
were  taken  with  great  slaughter  by  an  army  of  200,000  under 
Li-ssa-ta-ye,  the  general  who  nearly  destroyed  Major  Sladen's 
explormg  party  from  Burmah  in  1S68,  In  June  1873  the  young 
Emperor  Tsai-shun  gave  the  first  public  reception  to  the  minis- 
ters of  the  Great  Powers.  (This  Emperor,  who  died  t2th  Jan- 
uary 187s,  was  known  as  "I'ong-che,  in  accordance  with  the 
singular  custom  that  the  true  imperial  name,  being  sacred,  may 
not  be  proianed  by  use. )  Tn  1 874  the  murder  of  fifty  Japanese 
sailors  led  to  the  expedition  under  General  S^go  to  the  island 
of  Formosa.  The  result  was  a  treaty  on  31st  October  1874, 
acknowledging  China's  sovereign  rights  in  Formosa,  but  giving 
to  Japan  a  sum  of  500,000  taels,  partly  in  compensation  to 
the  families  of  the  murdered  sailors,  and  partly  tn  payment  for 
roads  and  buildings  constructed  by  the  Japanese.  In  January 
1875  the  foulest  of  all  Chinese  murders  was  perpetrated  on 
Mr  Margary,  of  the  consular  service,  at  Manwyne.  Mai^aiy 
belonged  to  the  party  of  Colonel  Browne  and  Dr  Ander- 
son, sent  out  by  Lord  Salisbury  to  discover  a  through  trade 
ronte  from  Burmah  by  the  entrep6t  Bhamo  to  Yiinnan.  Sir 
T.  Wade,  British  Minister  at  Pekin,  by  threatening  to  break 
off  diplomatic  relations,  got  the  Emperor  to  send  Li-han-chang 
as  a  commissioner  to  mvestigate  the  matter.  The  English 
Government  had  alre^y  sent  Messra  Grosvenor,  Davenport, 
and  Baker  for  the  same  purpose.  Sir  T.  Wade  has  also  taken 
this  opportunity  of  securing  a  general  inquiry  into  the  taxation 
of  foreign  trade  ;  an  edict  enjoining  tliat  all  foreigners  with  pass- 
potts  are  to  be  unmolested,  or,  if  wrong-doers,  to  be  given 
over  to  the  consulate ;  an  undertaking  that  all  foreign  treaties 
shall  be  published  in  tlie  Peking  Gaielte,  the  proper  rank  being 
given  to  the  foreign  ministers,  and  that  there  shall  be  regular  inter- 
course between  the  foreign  legations,  and  not  merely  the  Tsung- 
li-yamen,  a  commission  of  cabinet  ministers  oi^anised  in  1859, 
but  all  the  departments  as  well.  In  these  negotiations,  however, 
Prince  Kung  has  distinctly  laid  down  the  principle  that  his 
Government '  have  never  sanctioned  trade  carried  on  within  the 
limits  of  a  subject  state.'  This  principle  is  not  acted  on  on  the 
Mongolian  borders  or  in  Turkestan,  where  facilities  for  inland 
trade  have  been  given  to  Russia.  Britain  is  entitled  to  amilar 
facilities  on  the  frontiers  of  Thibet,  Nepaul,  and  Burmah.  But  until 
the  lekin  and  other  provincial  sur-taxes — levied  with  great  official 
corruption — on  inland  trade  are  abolished,  or  transferred  to  the 
transit  duty  collected  at  the  consular  ports,  mere  freedom  of 


yLaOogle 


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OHI 


passage  will  remain  of  little  value.  The  new  Semipalatinsk 
route  to  the  Kiayu  Pass,  and  the  impending  fall  of  Yacoob  Beg, 
the  Mohammedan  ruler  of  Yarkand,  will  give  great  commercial 
advantages  to  Russia.  The  present  Emperor  is  Tsai-Iien.  See 
section  on  Govsmment. 

Language  and  Literature. — In  Chinese  no  word  is  allowed 
more  than  one  consonant  and  one  vowel — the  vowels  including 
diphthongs  and  nasal  vowels.  The  possible  number  of  words  is 
therefore  very  small,  and  it  is  said  there  a:«  only  450  significative 
sounds.  But  each  word  is  made  to  vary  its  meaning  according  to 
accent  and  intonation ;  so  that  the  total  number  of  words  in  this 
sense  is  43,496.  Thi^  being  tlie  structure  of  the  spoken  sounds,  a 
graphic  representation  of  sounds  was  impossible,  and  therefore 
hieroglyphical  writing,  enlarged  by  the  introduction  of  determi- 
native signs,  was  used.  Twenty-nine  thirtieths  of  the  language 
consist  of  combined  signs,  one  part  indicating  the  general  sound, 
the  other  indicating  the  special  meaning.  Hence  the  omission  of 
a  stroke  or  a  dot  entirely  alters  the  idea.  But  these  signs  only 
supply  the  idea  ;  the  number,  gender,  case,  person,  tense,  mood, 
any  special  determination  or  qualification  of  the  idea,  must  be 
expressed  by  an  additional  word.  Inflection  is  unknown,  and 
the  syntactical  relations  of  the  words  in  a  sentence  are  therefore 
expressed  by  position.  The  earliest  Chinese  alphabet  consisted 
in  the  use  of  a  knotted  cord ;  then  came  Fu-hi's  octangular 
figures;  then  the  'tadpole*  character,  consisting  of  waving 
lines  and  blotted  heads,  seen  in  old  inscriptions,  and  supposed 
to  survive  in  the  608  simple  hieroglyphic  signs  for  the  more 
fiimiliar  natural  objects;  then  the  seal'  character,  still  used 
in  titles  of  books,  inscriptions,  &c  The  Li  and  Kiai  characters, 
now  generally  used,  are  not  older  than  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era ;  and  the  more  stiff  and  modem  Stmg  character  is 
also  sometimes  used  in  printing,  the  wooden  types  being  cut  out 
from  the  copy  pasted  on  to  the  block.  Some  abstract  ideas  are 
expressed  by  the  combination  of  hieroglyphs  ;  and  by  processes 
resenibling  those  of  metonymy  and  synechdoche  in  poetry,  the 
meaning  of  one  hieroglyph  is  gradually  extended  by  association. 
But  from  the  constant  use  of  abbreviations,  and  of  the  'grass 
hand,'  to  which  fancy  lends  some  ornament,  the  old  hieroglyphs 
themselves  need  interpretation.  The  paper  used  is  rnade  of  the 
second  skin  of  the  bark  of  bamboo,  soaked  in  water  with  lime 
till  the  woody  parts  are  separated  from  the  pulp.  The  rice- 
straw  paper  is  not  laigely  used  As  in  Japan,  brushes,  not 
pens  or  pencils,  are  used.  Wntmg  and  prmtmg  are  in  per- 
pendicular columns.  Wliile  the  book  language  remdns  the 
same,  there  are  200  or  300  spoken  dialects  which  are  often 
oninteUigible  beyond  their  native  province  The  Kwmt-hwa  or 
Mandarin  dialect  is,  however  used  by  two  thirds  of  the  Chinese. 
The  Canton  and  Amoy  dialects  occupy  towards  Mandarin  the 
position  of  Latin  towards  French,  pn  the  Amur,  and  in  the 
military  garrisons  all  over  China,  in  Pekin  for  the  formal  cere- 
monies of  court,  and  also  generally  for  documentary  purposes, 
use  is  made  of  the  Manchu  language,  the  alphabet  of  which, 
representing  one  thousand  syllables,  is  said  to  have  come  from  the 
Syriac  through  the  Nestorian  communities  of  W.  Asia,  who  gave 
it  to  the  Mongols.  Chinese  laigely  enters  into  Japanese,  and  one- 
fifth  of  Mongol  words  are  Chinese.  The  langtuige  accordingly 
presents  great  difficulties  to  strangers,  not  merely  from  the 
novelty  of  some  combinations,  but  also  from  the  distinction 
of  even  and  iniiecled  tones,  the  latter  consisting  of  the  '  rising, 
departing,  and  entering  tones.'  The  tones  are  further  siib- 
divided  by  reference  to  the  heavy  or  light  initial  of  the  syl- 
lable. There  is  in  Chinese  a  great  deal  of  what  we  should 
call  slang.  Thus,  '  how  are  your  venerable  teeth, '  is  the  expres- 
sion for  'how  old  are  you?'  There  are  also  many  singular 
euphemisms  :  '  The  guitar  string  is  broken '  means  '  his  wife  is 
dead.'  The  Emperor  neyer  dies,  he  'becomes  a  guest  on 
high.'  Affection  for  a  child  is  expressed  by  the  endearment 
of  '  1000  ounces  of  silver.'  There  are  also  many  excellent  pro- 
verbs in  the  collection  called  Ming-siti-paoii-kisn,  and  else- 
where. The  most  cynical  is:  'There  are  two  good  men,  the 
one  dead,  the  other  not  yet  born.'  The  singular  jai^n  of 
Pidgin-English  or  sing-song  has  been  made  the  subject  of  a  book 
by  Mr  C.  G.  Leiand  (1876).  Besides  the  Five  King  and  the 
Four  Shu  (described  in  the  article  Confucius),  and  their 
numerous  annotations,  there  is  an  immense  mass  of  Chinese 
literature,  much  of  it  of  no  value.  In  Wylie's  Notes  ott  Chinese 
Literature,  five  pages  are  devoted  to  the  enumeration  of  thirty 
well-known  and  voluminous  catalt^es  of  andent  and  modem 


works,  An  acute  observer  (Mr  H.  A.  Giles,  in  Chinese  Sketches, 
1876)  says  ;  '  More  works  on  topography  have  been  written  in 
Chinese  than  in  probably  any  other  language,  but  to  say  that 
even  these  are  read  is  quite  another  matter.'  Hence  from  the 
existence  of  the  Ta-tsing  ye-tun£--chi,  or  Complete  Account  of 
the  Ta-tsing  Empire,  in  240  volumes,  and  from  the  existence  of 
separate  statistical  histories  in  all  the  provinces,  we  must  not 
infer  that  the  Chinese  know  much  about  their  own  country  : 
they  are  on  principle  ignorant  of  all  other  countries.  1  The  edu- 
cational books  on  sac£  subjects  as  zoology,  ethnology,  botany, 
&c.,  ace  full  of  childish  nonsense.  The  missionaries,  from  Father 
Ricd  (who  translated  Euclid's  ElemtnU  into  Chinese)  to  Mr 
Wylie,  have  given  the  Chinese  opportunities  of  progress  in 
mathematics  and  astronomy  j  but  although  there  is  at  present 
at  the  imperial  collie  a  distinguished  mathematician,  Le-sheu- 
lau,  the  anthor  of  Tae-su-hea,  or  Treatise  on  Algebra,  nothing 
of  importance  seems  to  have  been  done.  Similarly,  while  the 
medical  missionaries,  such  as  Lockhart,  Dudgeon,  and  Maxwell, 
have  done  much  to  extend  medical  knowledge,  and  there  is 
now  an  English  Professor  of  Anatomy  (as  of  other  subjects) 
at  Pdting,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  Chinese  have  advanced 
far  since  Kublai  Khan  founded  his  Medical  College,  A  strong 
prejudice  exists  against  Christian  works.  The  continuity  of 
Chinese  historical  flterature  was  broken  by  the  burning  of  books, 
commanded  about  200  B.c,  by  the  first  Tien  Emperor  ;  but  this 
has  not  prevented  a  large  manufacture  of  native  histories  from 
the  beginning  dovra  to  the  close  of  the  Ming  dynasty  in  1643 
A.D,  Of  this,  the  only  interesting  portion  is  the  Sahkuo-chn,  or 
History  of  the  Three  States.  The  history  of  the  Manchu 
Tartar  Ene,  named  Tong-hua-lo,  is  not  yet  published.  Among 
biographies,  the  taste  for  which  was  set  by  the  Yun-hi,  or  Dis- 
courses of  Confucius,  may  be  mentioned  the  Sing-pu,  in  120 
volumes.  The  dramatic  literature  is  large,  and  is  well  repre- 
sented by  the  Hdr  in  Old  Age,  translated  by  Davis  from  the 
Collection  of  One  Hundred  Plays;  and  in  the  Chalk  Circle, 
translated  by  Julien.  Several  specimens  of  the  Chinese  novel 
have  also  been  translated  ;  The  Two  Cousins,  by  R^musat ;  The 
Lasting  Resentment  of  Miss  Keaon  Lwau  Wang,  by  Thom ;  The 
Fortunate  Union;  and  The  Two  Young  BlusstocUn^,  by  Julien. 
The  earliest  monument  of  Chinese  poetry  is  the  Shi-King,  the 
First  Canonical  Work,  or  Book  of  Sacred  Songs.  It  describes 
the  manners  of  different  states  and  the  great  deeds  of  heroes 
and  sages,  and  also  contains  hymns  for  state  ceremonies.  Much 
of  this  is  in  lines  of  four  words,  the  monotony  of  tlie  prevailing 
monosyllable  being  varied  by  its  occasional  repetition,  so  as  to 
produce  a  foot.  Rhymed  quatrains  and  a  ciesural  pause  are 
also  used,  and  much  of  the  poetry  is  marked  by  a  parallelism 
or  antithetical  balance  of  expression.  The  golden  age  of 
Chinese  poetry  was  in  the  8lh  Christian  century. 

Ohinese  Green  Indigo,  or  Lo-Kao  of  the  Chinese,  a  ^rei 
dye  now  much  used  in  Europe,  prepared  from  two  species  of 
buckthorn,  viz.,  Rkamnus  chlorofhorus  (^lobosus)  and  Rhamnus 

Chinese  Hemp,    See  Coechorus. 

Chinese  Ini.    See  Indian  Ink, 

Chinese  or  China  Sea,  an  inlet  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  en- 
closed on  the  N,  by  the  mainland  of  China  and  Formosa,  S.  by 
Borneo,  W.  by  Farther  India,  and  E,  by  the  Philippines.  It 
contains  the  Gulft  of  Siam  and  Tonquin,  is  some  2100  miles 
long  from  the  island  of  Formosa  to  Singapore,  and  has  a  maxi- 
mum breadth  of  900  miles, 

Chinese  Tallow,  a  white  sebaceous  substance  covering  the 
seeds  of  Slillingia  sebifera,  (natural  order  Euphortiacea),  made 
into  candles,  &c.    It  is  now  acclimatised  in  Algeria, 

Chinese  Wax,  a  substance  produced  by  an  insect  {Coec 
Fe-la)  which  feeds  on  the  Chinese  ash  {Eraxiiius  cMnensis). 


Chingleput,  the  chief  town  of  an  executive  district  of  the 
same  name,  province  of  Madras,  British  India,  on  a  feeder  of 
the  Palar,  38  miles  S.S.W.  of  Madras.  It  is  meanly  built,  but 
has  a  fortress  and  a  large  tank,  which  in  the  dry  season  gives  off 
malaria.  C.  is  in  general,  however,  a  healthy  place.  Pop.  Jooo, 
The  French  took  the  place  in  1751,  and  retained  it  till  the  fol- 
lowing  year,  when  it  was  captured  by  Clive, — The  district  of  C, 
which  lies  on  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  is  poor  m  soil,  has  so  area 
of  3100  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1E72)  of  940,744. 


131 


vLiOOQle 


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CHI 


Chini',  a  village  of  the  Punjab,  in  the  Himalayas,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Sutlej,  about  80  miles  N.W.  of  Simla,  at  an  elevation 
of  8770  feet  aboye  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  climate  is  pleasant 
and  ^ubrious,  and  eighteen  varieties  of  the  grape  are  said  to  be 
cultivated  successfully  in  the  district, 

Chin-Kiang-Fti  ('  River-Guard  City '),  a  city  of  China,  on 
the  Vang-tse,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Grand  Canal,  150  miles 
from  the  sea.     It  was  a  great  commercial  centre  dll  about  1853, 
when  the  Grand  Canal  was  partly  destroyed  by  the  Tae-p' 
rebels,  in  consequence  of  which  it  has  lost  its  importance, 
pop.  is  said  to  have  dwindled  from  500,000  to  some  50Ct 
port  was  opened  to  foreign  trade  in  1858  by  the  Tien-tsin  tre 
and  in  1864  the  English  formed  a  settlement  here. 

Chi'non  (the  Castrum  Caino  of  the  middle  ages),  a  to« 
the  department  of  Indre-et-Loire,  France,  on  the  right  ban 
the  Vienne,26  miles  W.S.W.  of  Tours,     It  was  once  fortifi  d. 
From  the  lower,  in  which  Jacques  Molay,  the  last  grand-mas 
of  the  Knights  Templars,  was  imprisoned,  a  iine  view  of   h 
neighboaring  country  is  obtained.    C.  has  manufa,ctures  ot  d  ug 
gets,  serges,  earthenware,  and  saltpetre,  and  a  trade  in  g    m 
wme,  brandy,  honey,  and  prunes.     In  the  Castle  of  C.  Je 
d'Arc  was  first  presented  to  Charles  VII.     C.  is  also  the  birth- 
place of  Rabelais.     Pop.  (1872)  4625, 

Chin'quapin,  a  name  applied  in  the  Eastern  States  of  N. 
America  to  Quercus  prinmaes,  as  well  as  to  Castansa  pumila, 
and  m  the  N.  Pacifio  region  to  Castanopsis  chrysophytla  of  Cali- 
fornia and  Oregon. 

Climsu'ra,  a  town  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Hoogly,  20  miles 
N.  of  Calcutta,  It  is  built  in  the  Dutch  style,  having  been  a 
Dutch  settlement  till  1824,  when  it  was  ceded  to  Britain  in 
exchange  for  possessions  in  Sumatra.  The  Hoogly  College  is 
situated  here.  C.  is  famed  for  its  cheroots.  Separate  pop.  about 
14,000;  along  with  Hooghly  (1872)  34,761, 

Chintz  (Hind,  ckhmt,  'spotted  cotton  cloth  ;'  chhintA,  'spot,' 
chkinlna,  'to  sprinkle'),  a  highly-glazed  cotton  fabric,  the  ground 
of  which  is  usually  light,  while  the  pattern,  brought  out  in  flowers, 
foliage,  birds,  &c.,  often  in  four  or  five  gaudy  colours,  has  a  spotty 
appearance.  Ovring  to  the  glazed  facing  of  the  cloth,  dust  does 
not  readily  adhere  to  it,  and  therefore  it  is  much  used  for  bed- 
hangings,  furniture  coverings,  &c. 

CMoeoco'a,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  oivier  Ciiuhan- 
ai^is,  chiefly  belonging  to  the  tropical  and  sub- tropical  regions,  and 
consisting  of  small  shrubs.  The  roots  of  all  of  them  are  violently 
emetic  and  cathartic,  and  in  Brazil  are  used  as  remedies  for 
snake-biles,  though,  according  to  Martins,  it  is  a  doubtful  re- 
medy, owing  to  the  action  of  the  drug  being  almost  as  dangerous 
as  the  snake-poison  itselt  The  species  chiefly  used  are  C.  an- 
gtiifuga  and  C.  densi/olia.  At  one  time  it  was  used  in  Europe  as 
a  diuretic  and  purgative,  but  owing  to  its  violent  action  preclud- 

legitimate  medical  practice, 

Chioggia,  or  Oiuozza,  a  seaport,  N,  Italy,  province  of 
Venice,  15  miles  S.S.W.  of  Venice,  built  on  piles  on  an  island 
of  the  same  name,  and  connected  vrith  the  isthmus  of  Brondolo 
by  a  bridge  of  forty-three  arches.  The  harbour  is  protected  by 
two  forts.  C.  has  manufactures  of  cordage  and  lace,  some  ship- 
building establishments,  a  good  coasting  trade,  and  an  active 
fishery.     Pop.  26,732. 

CMo'nie  and  Cliio'iiidfe.     See  Sheath-Bill, 

Ohioa,  Chio.     See  Scro. 

Chip  Hats.    See  Brazilian  Grass. 

CMpp'enliam  (Old  Eng,  Cyp/mthamme,  a  '  maritet-place '), 
is  a  parliamentary  and  municipal  borough,  Wiltshire,  on  the 
ieft  bank  of  the  Bristol  Avon,  here  crossed  by  a  handsome  old 
stone  bridge  of  twenty-one  arches,  and  a  station  on  the  Great 
Western  line,  13  miles  N.E.  of  Bath,  It  has  some  silk  and 
woollen  manufactures;  tanning  and  malting  are  carried  on  exten- 
sively, and  there  is  a  large  flourmill.  C.  has  a  monthly  market 
for  cattle,  and  its  cheese-market  is  one  of  the  most  important  in 
the  empire.  It  returns  onemember  to  Parliament.  Pop.  (1871) 
of  the  municipal  borough  1387.  C-  figures  in  English  history  as 
Ihe  place  where  the  Danish  army  fixed  itself  in  the  winter  of 
S78,  when  Alfred  was  in  hiding  in  Athelney 
132 


CMpp'eways.     See  Indians,  . 

CIlici'mcMetui  Palm  {Attaleafumfera\  a  palm  of  the  N.  o( 
Brazil,  which  yields  the  Piassaba  Fibre  (q.  v.).  It  is  an  inhabi- 
tant of  swampy  or  flooded  lands  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Negro 
and  other  Venezuelan  and  Brazilian  rivers.  The  leaves  are  used 
in  thatching.  The  fibre,  which  is  twisted  into  cordage,  is  ob- 
tained from  the  fibres  which  hang  from  the  leaf-stalks  and  cover 
the  stem.  It  is  now  exported  to  Britain  from  Par£  Accord- 
ino-  to  some  writers,  Leofoldinia  Hassala  is  tlie  source  of  this 

Ob  quimula  m  hm  m 

fi  G        m  Am  m 

Can        n  S  P  es,        p  whi 

Ohira  a       Chire    a    h    0  i       C  p 

d  g   g         h        tu  al  Gmt  a 

bo3  h  th  gqlld 

pp  h      fl  wer       p  C       p  p         h 

dd     d  b  wth 

g 

Chiriqui ,_  the  name  of  a  nver  m  Costa  Rica,  Central  Amenta, 
which  flows  in  a  northerly  direction,  and  is  received  by  a  deep 
spacious  lagoon  of  the  same  name,  which  is  separated  from  the 
Caribbean  Sea  by  an  archipelago,  also  called  C.  A  mountcdn 
peak  in  the  same  state  is  likewise  known  by  this  appcBatioi 

Chirr'a  Pun'ji,  a  town  on  the  Cossya  Hills,  in  the  N.E.  of 
India,  at  an  elevation  of  4200  feet  above  the  sea.  It  has  been 
chosen  as  the  site  of  a  sanitarium,  which  has  not,  however, 
proved  attractive.     The  neighbourhood  is  rich  in  coal  and  iron. 

Ohir'ti  {Paniholops  or  AnHlope  Hodgsonii),  a  species  ot  Ante- 
lopes (q.v.)  found  in  Thibet  and  on  the  Himalayan  plateaux. 
It  averages  about  2J  feet  in  height  and  5  feet  in  length,  and 
possesses  long  annulated  horns.  A  curious  soft  protuberance 
exists  above  each  nostril.  The  C,  is  gregarious  in  its  habits, 
and  exceedingly  waiy  and  shy. 

Chis'wick,  a  thriving  village  of  Middlesex,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Thames,  ^l  miles  S.W.  of  St  Paul's  (London),  and  a 
station  on  the  loop-line  of  the  South-Westem  Railway.  The 
Church  of  St  Nicholas  has  monuments  to  Hogarth,  Holland  the 
actor.  Lord  Macartney,  the  Duchesses  of  Cleveland  and  Somer- 
set, the  Countess  of  Falconber^  (Cromwell's  third  daughter). 
Sharp  the  engraver,  Ugo  Foscolo,  and  many  other  eminent 
persons.  C.  has  breweries,  coal-wharves,  and  many  hand- 
some villas.  Here  also  are  the  nursery  gardens  of  the  Horticul- 
tural Society  of  London,  and  close  by  is  Chiswick  House,  a 
residence  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire.     Pop.  (1872)  S508. 

Chitine'.    The  solid  parts  of  insects  and  other  articulate  ai 

ipondmg  to  the  skeleton  of  tlie  vertebrata,  are  mainly 

if  this  substance,  which  derives  its  name  from  chilon 
.       _  .      ........  ^.  ^        _^^^ 

cockchafer)  with  water,  alcohol,  ether, 
aucui:  acid,  and  solution  of  caustic  potash  in  saccession.  Thus 
obtained,  C.  is  a  white  homy  substance,  retaining  the  form  of 
the  texture  from  which  it  has  been  obtained.  C.  appears  to 
belong  to  the  group  of  bodies  called  GIucoMes  (q.  v.  f  j  when 
boiled  with  dilute  acids,  it  takes  up  the  elements  of  water  and 
splits  into  glucose  or  grape-sugar  and  other  products.  It  has 
the  composition  represented  by  the  formula  CjHioNOg. 

Ohi'tOU,  a  genus  of  Gasteropodous  mollusca  forming  the  type 
of  the  family  Ck  te  ids  These  anunals  are  d  st  nguiAed  f  or- 
all  other  gasteropods  by  the 
possession  of  a  pb  al 
shell,  or  one  cons  s  ng  of 
eight  transverse  pla^  whicli  ' 
overlap  each  othe 
of  the  broad  ve  t  a  foot,  the 
chitons  adhere  to  sto  es  and 
rocks  at  low-water  mark,  after 
the  fashion  of  the  more  fami- 
har  lampets.  The  gills  form 
a  series  of  lamellar  or  plate-like  oraans,  situated  posteriorly,  and 
between  the  foot  and  the  '  mantfe '  which  lines  the  shell.  C. 
squamosus  is  a  familiar  species,  and  C  magnificus  is  also  well- 
known.     Chitons  of  lai^e  size  are  met  with  on  tropical  shores. 


yLaOOgle 


CHI 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


CMtt'agong:,  chief  town  of  a  district  of  the  same  name  in  the 
province  of  Bengal,  British  India,  in  the  N.E.  corner  of  the  Bay 
of  Bengal,  on  the  Kumafuli  river.  It  is  built  on  the  extremity  of 
2  spur  of  hills,  separating  the  Kumafuli  valley  from  that  of  the 
Brahmaputra,  On  the  higher  ground  are  situated  the  residences 
of  the  Europeans,  while  tlie  native  quarter  occupies  the  lowlands 
along  the  talks  of  the  river.  C,  formerly  called /j/^iwiiTi:^,  was 
selected  by  the  Portuguese  early  in  the  l6th  c.  as  one  of  their  first 
settlements  in  this  region,  and  was  named  by  them  Xatigam  or 
to  Grande.  Their  enerey  fostered  among  the  natives  a  liking 
for  a  seafaring  life,  and  to  this  day  C.  owns  a  great  many  of  the 
-  -*ive  craft  that  trade  ah  out  the  Indian  seas,  and  supplies  a  large 

rortion  of  the  native  seamen  employed  in  the  Indian  marine 
merchant  service  under  the  name  of  'Lascars.'  After  C. 
^  sed  into  the  hands  of  the  English  {1760)  its  prosperity  gradu- 
ally declined,  as  the  produce  of  the  country  found  its  way  to 
Calcutta  through  the  Sunderbunds,  though  it  still  continued  to 
build  and  own  a  fleet  of  native  vessels,  generally  styled  Parriahs. 
m  S64  some  European  merchants  began  to  settle  in  the 
e  and  its  former  prosperity  is  again  reviving.  In  1873  it 
expo  ed  104,565  tons  of  rice.  The  tea-plant  also  flourishes,  aiul  , 
he  IS  now  a  considerable  tea  trade.  No  teak  is  found  in  the 
d  The  wood  used  in  the  construction  of  native  vessels  is 

all  d  rool,  which,  in  water,  is  quite  as  durable  as  the  other. 
Pop  872)  20,604,  among  whom  are  some  descendants  of  the 
0  g  Portuguese  families.  These,  however,  have  become  so 
n  rm  d  with  the  native  Bengalees,  that  it  is  almost  Impos- 
b  e  o  ecognise  them  eicept  by  their  European  dress. ^The 
d%s  ic  f  C.  is  flat  for  about  2Q  or  30  miles  inland,  and  almost 
e  ry  t  of  soil  is  cultivated.  Round  the  villages  are  some 
fruit  trees,  but  there  is  no  jungle  till  yoa  reach  the  hills  where 
the  tea  estates  lie.    Area  Z498  sq.  miles;  pop.  (1S72)  1,127,402. 

Ghlttagong  Wood,  the  timber  of  several  Indian  trees, 
especially  Cidrela  Toana  and  CMc&rassia  toiularis.  C  W.  is 
valued  in  India  for  nearly  all  the  purposes  to  which  mahogany 
is  applied  in  Britain,  more  especidly  when  veined  and  motlled. 
Furniture  made  from  it  is  light  and  beautiful,  but  apt  to  warp  in 
dry  weather. 

Chittor',  two  strong  towns  in  India  are  so  named.— i,  C.  m 
the  district  of  N.  Arcot,  province  of  Madras,  80  miles  W.  of 
Madras,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Puni,  a  feeder  of  the  Palar, 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  British  in  1801.  Some  remarJt- 
able  ancient  tombs  were  discovered  in  the  neighbourhood,  not 
unhke  the  Druidical  remains  in  Britain.  In  the  hot  season 
(sometimes  140°  in  the  sun)  the  river  and  tanks  are  dried  up, 
and  fever,  ague,  and  dysentery  prevaiL — 2.  C,  formerly  the 
capital  of  the  state  of  Odeypoce,  is  about  370  miles  S.W.  of 
Agra,  with  numerous  temples  and  buildings  of  note,  including 
two  richly  carved  towers  of  white  marble  dedicated  to  Siva. 
The  fort  stands  on  a  steep  isolated  rock  overlooking  the  town, 
and  was  once  among  the  strongest  in  India. 

CMu'sa  is  the  name  of  several  small  places  in  Italy,  of  which 
the  most  important  are— 1.  O.  de  Fesio,  a  town  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Cuneo,  N.  Italy,  S  miles  S.E.  of  Cuueo,  with  manu- 
factures of  silk  and  glass.  Pop.  5900, — 2.  G.  San-Michele,  a 
village  in  the  pravince  of  Turin,  N.  Italy,  on  the  Dorea  Ripense, 
at  the  foot  of  Mount  Picheriano,  on  which  stands  the  once  lamons 
Benedictine  abbeyof  San-Mlchele,  now  a  hospice  for  travellers, 
and  the  place  of  burial  of  the  Sardinian  kings. — 3.  0.  Sclafanj,  a 
town  of  Sicily,  province  of  Palermo,  33  miles  S.S.W.  of  Palermo, 
with  a  pop.  (1872)  of  6840.- — 4.  O,,  a  village  ofN.  Italy,  province 
of  Udine,  at  the  southern  base  of  the  Camic  Alps,  on  the  Fella, 
and  on  the  highway  from  Villach  to  Venice. 

Chiu'ei,  a  town  of  Central  Italy,  provmce  of  Siena,  37  miles 
S.E.  of  Siena,  known  in  anUquity  under  the  name  of  Clusium, 
one  of  the  twelve  Etrurian  republics.  It  is  historitilly  famous 
as  the  residence  of  Lars  Porsena.  On  the  fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire  it  was  utterly  destroyed.  The  whole  valley  in  which  it 
lies  [Vol di  Chiana)  was  depopulated,  and  the  place  became  a 
pestilential  swamp.  But  in  modern  dmes,  with  improved  drain- 
age, C.  is  again  thriving.  The  excavations  of  the  last  forty 
years  have  resulted  in  the  recovery  of  a  vast  number  of  Etruscan 
remains,  which  are  to  be  seen  in  the  town's  museum  and  also  in 
Florence, 


poetry)  w 


after  preparatory  exercises,  and  ordeals  of  skill  and  courage,  the 
youthfiil  warrior  Was  ceremoniously  presented  to  the  tribal  as- 
sembly, and  devoted  to  the  public  service.  It  must  not  be  sup- 
posed, however,  that  the  Church  took  advantage  of  an  existing 
institution,  and  adapted  It  to  the  defence  of  the  faith  against  the 
heathens  of  the  middle  ages.  The  &scination  of  adventure,  the 
excitement  of  travel  and  combat,  the  passionate,  if  somewhat 
blind,  veneration  for  woman,  even  the  devotion  to  religion,  then 
universally  symbolised  for  Europe  in  one  Church  of  splendid 
ceremonial  and  splendid  piety ;  these  were  all  strong,  natural 
feelings,  which  the  white  dress,  the  fast  and  confession,  tlie 
purification  by  water  of  the  neophyte  in  C,  his  blessing  by  the 
priest,  and  his  oath  to  defend  the  Church,  served  in  some  mea- 
sure to  express.  Of  necessity  the  knights  were  not  free  from  the 
superstitious  intolerance  of  their  age ;  their  patron  saints  anil 
the  Vijgin  Mary  inspired  them  to  acts  of  great  cruelty  and  in- 
justice. So  also,  as  is  seen  in  the  degrajfition  of  the  phrase 
'far  amour,'  the  love  of  woman  in  the  abstract,  and  the  defence 
of  widows  and  orphans,  olten  lapsed  into  guilty  intrigue,  although 
the  Dame  des  Belles  Cousines  had  proved  to  yean  de  Sainlk  that 
it  vras  only  true  devotion  to,  and  secret  service  of,  one  lady  that 
could  keep  him  free  from  the  seven  deadly  sins.  Even  when 
this  did  not  occur,  the  extravagant  fancy  of  the  lady  sometimes 
imposed  useless  dangers  on  the  knight,  as  in  the  combat  against 
odds,  the  combat  without  arms,  &c.,  while  the  absurd  discus- 
sions of  the  Courts  of  Love  («^.,  on  the  question  whether  the 
most  meritorious  love  was  founded  on  report  or  on  eyeaght) 
readily  degenerated  into  false  notions  of  morality,  married 
women  being  frequently  chosen  by  the  knights.  This  immor- 
ality increased  alter  the  Cnisades,  and  grossly  stains  the j&Winu* 
of  Barbaian  and  Legrand  and  Tirante  le  Blanc  (Valencia, 
1480) ;  while  even  the  higher-class  chronicles  of  Amadii  de 
Gaul  and  Sh'  Thomas  Malory's  Mart  d'Arfhur  (1470)  are 
not  free  from  bad  morals.  Much  of  the  literature  of  C.,  how- 
ever, belongs  to  the  decline  of  the  institution,  and  may  have 
been  written  more  for  amusement  than  for  history.  The  general 
tournaments,  whether  d  feutrance  or  with  blunted  weapons  (the 
wooden  spear-heads  were  called  rochels),  the  special  pas  d'armes, 
and  the  judical  combats  (in  which  the  p-eux  ihevaliir  might  al- 
ways appear  for  the  party  without  champion)  no  doubt  fostered 
military  skill,  and  gave  the  sanction  of  public  renown  to  the 
duties  of  C.  One  of  the  most  notable  of  these  /ai,  mentioned 
by  Froissart,  in  whose  history  is  the  best  contemporary  account 
of  military  C.,  was  the  Just  of  St  IngJebert,  or  Sandinng  Fields, 
at  which  three  French  knights  withstood  all  comers.  The 
custom  of  tournaments  was  shaken  by  the  death  in  the  lists 
of  Henri  II.  of  France  (1559).  The  course  of  education  in  C. 
began  when  the /<ip£  (about  the  age  of  twelve)  was  placed  in  the 
household  of  some  knight  or  at  the  royal  court,  where  he  learned 
the  use  of  horses  and  of  arms,  the  art  of  hunting,  and  the  duty 
of  serving  at  table.  There  was  a  gentleman-page  in  the  family 
of  Buccleuch  so  late  as  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  c.  The  page 
became  a  squire  (Old  Fr.  eiciiyer,  irom  Lat.  scutarius,  the  sailvn 
or  '  shield  '-bearer),  who  acted  as  groom  and  personal  attendsn 
on  the  knight,  was  entitled  himself  to  carry  a  shield,  and  from 
whom  the  social  accomplishments  of  the  time  were  expected.  If 
an  esquire  took  a  prisoner,  the  ransom  belonged  to  his  master. 
Later  on,  there  arose  a  class  of  independent  esquires,  who, 
though  never  entitled  to  wear  gilded  spurs  or  a  complete  hau- 
berk, had  their  own  armorial  bearings,  and  led  their  followers 
to  battle  under  a  pemioncele,  or  small  triangular  banner.  At  the 
age  of  twenty-one  the  squire  received  the  accolade,  or  stroke  of 
knighthood,  generally  from  the  knight  he  had  served.  This 
ceremony,  performed  sometimes  on  field  of  battle,  often  in 
church,  or  at  a  cour pUnUre,  consisted  in  the  squire,  who  had 
laid  aside  his  brown  coat  and  put  on  armour,  receiving  helmet, 
sword,  and  spurs,  and  being  dubbed  '  Sir '  or  '  Messire,' '  in  the 
name  of  God  and  St  Michael,'  or  with  some  other  religious 
formula.  Knighthood  was  a  military  rank,  and  conferred  the 
right  of  assembling,  and  leading  under  a  swallow-tailed  pennon, 
at  least  tooo  men.  Hence  Sie  power  of  conferring  it  was 
latterly  monopolised  by  sovereigns  ;  the  knighting  of  Francis  I. 
by  Bayard  being  altogether  exceptional.  Tlie  sureoat,  and  the 
triangular  heater  or  buckler  shield  (both  of  which  bore  the 
scutcheon  of  the  knight),  the  dagger  of  mercy,  the  crest  and 
device  (which,  like  the  scutcheon,  became  heredilary),  were  i 


vLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


OHL 


racteristic  parts  of  the  knight's  equipment.  When  the  knigli 
bachelor  had  in  many  cases  become  poor  adventurers,  living 
the  spoils  of  war  or  of  the  toumey,  the  order  of  knight-banneret 
wss  instituted.  This  was  chiefly  a  military  distmction,  con- 
fined to  knights  of  wealth  and  position  who  conld  bring  to  the 
field  fify  men-at-arms  with  corresponding  archers  and  crossbow- 
men.  It  was  conferred  by  the  commander-in-chief,  who  ordered 
the  forked  toils  of  the  pennon  to  be  cut  off,  thus  converting  it 
into  a  rectangular  banner.  In  England  a  '  banneret '  was  one 
who  had  received  knighthood  on  a  lield  where  the  royal  standard 
was  displayed.  The  English  order  of  the  Garter  was  instituted 
\>1  Edward  III.  after  the  jealousy  of  Philippe  VI.  had  destroyed 
his  project  of  a  Round  Table  at  Windsor.  The  courts  of  Europe 
introduced  many  ornamental  titles,  which  were  conferred  on 
roj^al  or  noble  infants  by  right  of  blood  as  well  as  on  capable 
knights ;  and  the  degiee  of  baronet,  invented  by  James  I,  osten- 
sibly to  encourage  the  settlements  in  Nova  Scotia  and  Ulster, 
being  hereditary,  was  quite  opposed  to  the  principles  of  C 
Disgrace  of  knights  occurred  on  conviction  of  a  heinous  crime, 
or  on  defeat  in  the  appeal  to  the  judgment  of  God  by  single 
combat.  Besides  the  loss  of  spurs  and  swords,  peculiar  bear- 
ings, called  abatements,  were  given  by  the  heralds  to  disgraced 
knights.  C.  fiist  came  into  definite  shape  at  the  end  of  the  rolh 
c. ;  its  most  brilliant  period  was  in  the  r4th  c,  and  it  speedily 
declined  before  the  introduction  of  regular  mercenary  troops,  a 
movement  initiated  by  Charles  VII.  of  France  (1445).  See  Sir 
Walter  Scott's  Essa^  on  C.  in  C,  Romaftcs,  and  the  Drama; 
St  Palaye's  Chesaliru,  amtidirie  commeun&tablissement  Politique 
el MUiiain ^ar.  1759-81);  and  B^sdhiag'a /iitletsat  una Hit/er- 
■uKSCn  (a  vols.  Leips.  1823). 

Chivalry,  Oourt  of,  a  court  of  which  the  Ecrl  Marshal 
and  Lord  High  Constable  were  judges.  When  it  was  merely 
a  court  of  honour,  the  Earl  Marshid  presided  alone,  but  both 
judges  sat  when  it  was  a  criminal  conrL  This  jurisdiction  was 
established  by  Edward  IIL,  but  when  it  was  found  to  encroach 
on  the  common  law,  its  sphere  was  defined  by  Richard  II. 
It  gave  relief  in  matters  of  honour  to  such  of  the  nobility  and 
gentry  as  proved  that  they  had  been  oppressed,  and  it  guaided 
the  distinctions  of  degrees  and  of  q^uality.  It  is  now  quite  a 
thing  of  the  past. 

Chivass'o,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Turin,  N.  Italy,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Po,  IS  miles  N.E.  of  Turin  by  railway,  has 
manufactures  of  earthenware,  soap,  and  bricks,  and  is  noted  for 
its  lampreys.  The  French  razed  the  fortifications  of  C.  in 
1804.     Pop.  (1871)7841. 

CMve,  or  Give  (Allium  Sciano/rasum),  a  plant  of  the 
natural  order  LUiace^,  and  a  cogener  of  the  leek  and  onion.  See 
Allium.  It  is  a  native  of  marshy  or  flooded  places  in  Europe 
and  Asia,  and  is  a  rare  plant  of  Britain.  It  is,  however,  a  com- 
n  garden  v^etable,  used  for  flavouring  soups  and  dishes,  in 
much  the  same  way  that  onions  are. 

Obiz'erot,  or  Bu'rin,  a  name  applied  to  several 
scattered  over  Sermoyer,  Arbigny,  Boz,  and  Ozan, 
of  the  department  of  Ain,  and  the  arrondissement  of  Bourg-en- 
Bresse,  canton  Pont  de  Vaux.  Like  the.Marans  of  Auvergne 
and  the  Lyzelards  of  St  Omer,  they  do  not  intermarry  with  their 
neighbours,  who  hold  them  in  contempt.  They  are  chiefly 
labourers,  cattle-breeders,  and  butchers,  and  are  both  industrious 
and  rich.  The  women  are  fair,  pretty,  with  quick  black  eyes, 
and  form  rather  inclined  to  roundness.  An  incredible  legend 
gives  them  a  Saracenic  origin.  The  Sermoyers,  in  particular, 
have  come  into  collision  witli  their  neighbours  about  tiie  pastures 
of  the  Sa6ne. 

Ohlad'ni,  Enuit  Florenz  Friedricb,  the  founder  of  the 
true  theory  of  acoustics  and  music,  was  bom,  November  30, 
1756,  at  Wittenberg,  He  travelled  for  many  years  through 
Gennany,  Holland,  France,  Italy,  Russia,  and  Denmark,  ex- 
pounding his  discoveries  in  popniar  lectures,  and  died,  April  3, 
1827,  at  Breslau.  His  principial  works  are  —  Entdectungm 
aieriHi!  TAeiirietlesJnati^es(i'!S7);Aiastik{lSo2,  ad  ed,  1830); 
Netie Beitrdge f&r  Aiustik  (1817);  Beilrdge  zur  frakl.  Akuslik 
and  xur  Lekre  vom  Instrumentenbau  {\%zz).  See  Eernhardt's 
Dr  Ermt  C,  der  Akuitiker  (Wittenb.  1856). 


Sarcoliena  and  Leptolsna  are  examples  of  the  genera,  of  which 
there  are  four  described,  but  the  properties  or  uses  of  none  of  the 
species  are  known.     They  are  closely  allied  to  Sierculiacea. 

Chlamypli'orua,  a  genus  of  Edentate  (q,  v.)  mammals 
(see  also  Armadillo)  allied  to  t^ie  Gasypdidn  o^  simoAiWati 
of  S.  America,  and  represented 
by  the  species  C.  Iruneatus  of 
Chili,  tiie  average  length  of 
which  is  about  6  indies.  Thi 
C.  is  sometimes  known  as  th. 
'  pichiciago.'  As  in  othe 
armadilloes,  the  integument  se 
cretes  bony  plates,  and  thesi 
are  disposed  in  C.  in  the  fonr 
of  an  armour-casing  of  square  plates,  investing  the  top  of  the 
head,  back,  and  hind  quarters,  the  plates  terminating  abruptly 
at  the  hmd  quarters.  "Tas  other  parts  of  the  body  are  covered 
with  a  silky  fur.  The  feet  are  provided  with  strong  claws  adapted 
for  dicing.  The  tail  is  scaly,  and  is  generally  appKed  closely  to 
the  belly ;  bot  it  has  been  suggested  that  it  may  be  used  for 
throwing  ootthe  earth  behind  the  animal  as  it  burrows  forwards. 

OUo^ioki,  Joeepll,  a  Polish  soldier  and  patriot,  was  born 
in  Galicia  in  1772,  and  fought  under  Kosciusko  in  1787.  He 
subsequenth-  served  under  Bonaparte,  commanding  the  Polish 
legion  at  Eylau  and  Friedland  daring  the  Russian  campaign. 
In  1814,  on  his  return  to  Poland,  he  was  well  received  by  the 
Czar  Alexander;  but  whenthePolishinsurrection  of  l830brol.e 
out,  he  was  called  upon  by  his  connttymen,  and  made  Dictatoi 
The  following  year  he  resigned  the  office,  on  account  of  differences 
with  colleagues  of  more  extreme  views.  After  the  msunection 
was  crushed,  he  retired  into  private  life.  He  died  at  Cracow, 
30th  September  1854. 

Ohlo'ral  is  a  substance  which  of  late  years  has  become  of 
gi-eat  importance  on  account  of  its  narcotic  properties.  It  was 
discovered  by  Liebig  in  1832,  but  was  first  employed  in  medicine 
many  years  later  by  Liebreich,  To  prepare  C.  dry  chlorine  gas 
is  passed  into  absolute  alcohol  as  long  as  it  is  absorbed.  The 
resulting  liquid  is  then  mixed  with  three  times  its  volume  of 
sulphuric  acid,  and  allowed  toremain  for  some  time  at  rest,  when 
it  separates  into  two  layers.  The  upper  of  these  is  C. ;  it 
is  siphoned  off  and  purified  by  rectification.  C,  is  a  colourless 
liquid,  possessing  a  pecuhar  and  disagreeable  odour  and  taste. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  I  ■802,  and  it  boils  at  99-6°.  Its  compo- 
sition is  represented  by  the  formula  C,ClaOH.  C.  is  Aldehyde 
(CjHaOH)  (q.v.),  in  which  three  atoms  of  hydrogen  are  replaced 
by  chlorine.  C.  unites  with  vrater  to  form  a  crystalline  hydrate 
(CjClsOHHjO),  This  hydrate  is  the  preparation  of  C.  used  in 
medicine.  Administered  internally  or  by  subcutaneous  injection 
in  doses  of  about  30  grains,  it  speedily  procures  sleep.  Treated 
with  alkabes,  C,  splits  into  formic  acid  and  chloroform — a  decora- 
position  which  by  many  has  been  supposed  to  occur  in  the  body, 
thus  explaining  the  theiapeutio  action  of  C,  On  account  of  the 
high  price  of  dcohol  in  this  country  (owing  to  the  duty),  C.  i; 
chiefly  manufactured  on  the  Continent. 

Chlorantha'oese,  a  natural  order  of  Dicotyledonous  plants, 
natives  of  tropical  regions.  There  are  about  fifteen  species,  which 
possess  aromatic  stimulant  properties.  The  roots  at  Chloranthus 
cMcinalis  and  C.  itackystaekys  are  used  in  Java  as  stim 
Snts  in  malignant  fevers,  &c.,  and  as  anti-spasmodics.  Tl 
flowers  of  C.  htconspictiits  (the  'chu-lan'  of  the  Chinese)  a 
used  in  China  to  give  the  'cowslip  flavour'to  tea.  Species  ot 
Hedyosmian  are  used  in  the  W.  Indies  for  much  the  same  medical 
purposes  as  Chloranikus. 

Ohlo'rate  of  Potash  is  the  potassium  salt  of  chloric  add 
(HCIOj),  and  has  become  of  importance  in  the  manufacture  of 
fireworks,  of  oxygen  gas  for  the  Lime  Light  (q.  v.),  and  of  Safety 
iWatches  (a.  v.).  Its  composition  is  represented  by  the  formula 
KCIOj.  It  is  prepared  commercially  by  acting  upon  a  warm 
solution  of  chloride  of  potassium,  in  which  slaked  lime  is  sus- 
pended, with  chlorine  gas,  when  in  addition  to  C,  of  P.,  chloride 
of  calcium  is  produced^ 

KCl   -1-    sClj  +  3CaHjOi  =  KCIO3  -f  sCaCI,  -^  3HaO. 


Chloride 


JIaked  lit 


Chloride 


yLaOogle 


GHL 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPJiDIA. 


The  Eolutton  containing  the  two  salts  is  evaporated,  and  when 
niffieiently  concentrated,  allowed  to  cool.  C.  of  P.  being  far 
leas  soluble  than  cliloride  of  calcium,  crystallises  out  and  leaves 
tlie  latter  salt  in  solution.  C.  of  P.  gives  up  the  whole  of  its 
oxygen  when  heated,  a  reaction  whidi  is  turned  to  account  in 
the  preparation  of  that  gas. 

2KCIO3    =    2KCI    +    30j 

CMori. 


it  forms  eiplosive  or  combustible  mixtures,  largely  used  in  pyro- 
techiiy.     C.  of  P.  is  aiso  employed  in  medicine. 

Chlorim'etry  is  the  process  by  which  the  available  ciiloiine 
in  hUaching pnoder  or  chloride  eflimi  is  determined.  By  avail- 
able chlorine  is  understood  the  chlorine  which  is  set  free  when 
the  bleaching  powder  is  treated  with  an  add.  The  following  is 
one  of  the  many  chJoiimetric  methods  which  are  in  '   d 

pends  upon  the  oxidising  properties  of  chlorine  in  p  es  n 
water.     When  arsenious  acid  is  added  to  a  solution         M     d 
of  lime,  the  chlorine  in  the  lalter  by  removing  hyd    g      fr  m 
the  water  sets  free  oxygen,  which  in  the  nascent  sta 

acid  (AsaOs)  mto  arsenic  acid  (AsjOj).    Thus 
AssOs   +   aHjO   +    aClj    =  4HCI   4-   A   0 


From  the  amount  of  arsenious  acid  which  can  thus  be  converted 
into  arsenic  acid  by  a  given  weight  of  chloride  of  lime,  the 
quantity  of  available  chlorine  in  the  latter  can  be  determined. 
The  actual  process  is  as  follows  : — ^10  grammes  of  the  bleaching 
powder  to  be  tested  are  rubbed  in  s  mortar  with  water,  the 
mixture  decanted  into  a  flask,  and  Jhe  mortar  rinsed  out  with 
water,  which  is  also  put  into  the  flaslt.  The  contents  of  the  flask 
are  then  diluted  till  they  occupy  l  litre.  Next  a  standard 
solution  of  arsenious  acid  is  prepared  by  warming  5  972  grammes 
of  the  add  with  a  solution  of  10  grammes  of  dry  carbonate  of  soda, 
till  it  is  dissolved.  The  solution  when  cold  is  diluted  to  I  litre. 
The  solutions  having  been  thus  prepared,  50  cubic  centimetres 
of  the  chloride  of  lime  solution  (equivalent  to  0'5  grammes  by 
weight)  are  placed  in  a  flask  or  beaker,  and  the  solution  of 
arsenious  acid  gradually  added  from  a  burette,  till  a  drop  of 
the  mixture  ceases  to  strike  a  blue  colour,  when  placed  on  a  slip 
of  pape  which  has  l>een  soaked  in  starch  paste  to  which  a  little 
od  de  of  potassium  has  been  added.  When  this  point  bas  been 
ea  1  ed  all  the  available  chlorine  in  the  bleaching  powder  has 
b  en  u  d  up  to  oxidise  the  arsenious  acid.  With  the  above 
q  an  every  cubic  centimetre  of  the  arsenious  add  solution  is 
equ  al  n  to  1  per  cent,  of  available  chlorine,  hence  the  number 
of  b  enlimetres  added  to  the  chloride  of  lime  also  represents 
h   p       ntage  of  available  chlorine  in  the  latter, 

Oblo'rine  is  one  of  the  non-metallic  elements,  and  under  ordi- 
nary conditions  is  gaseous.  It  was  discovered  in  1774  by 
Scheele,  and  was  called  by  him  depMogisiicatsd muriaHc  acid.  Sir 
Humphrey  Davy  first  recognised  its  true  nature,  and  gave  it  the 
name  of  chlorine  from  the  Greek  word  chleres,  signifying  pale 
green. 

C.  occurs  in  nature'  in  combination  with,  metals  ;  chloride  of 
sodium  or  common  salt  being  its  most  abundant  compound.  C. 
may  be  obtained  by  heating  hydrochloric  acid  with  binoxide  of 
manganese,  water  and  chloride  of  manganese  being  the  other 
products  of  the  reaction — 

4HCI      +       MnOj      =>      MnClj     -H      2HsO     +      Cls 


Hydro. 


ieof 


Chlod 


also,  and  more  economically,  by  heating  a  mixture  of  comi 
salt,  sulphuric  acid,  and  binoxide  of  manganese — 
sNaCl-l-aHsSOi  +  MnOii^MnSOj  +  NasSOj  +  aHjO -I- 


action  on  all  organised  tissues.  It  is  soluble  to  a  considerable 
extent  in  water,  and  forms  ivith  that  liquid,  at  a  temperature  of 
0°  C,  a  crystalline  compound  (CljloHjO).  Under  a  pressure 
of  four  atmospheres  C.  condenses  to  a  yellow  liquid,  but  tiiis 
liquid  has  never  been  frozen.  C.  is  not  itself  combustible,  but  is 
a  supporter  of  combustion.  A  candle  bmns  with,  a  smoky  flame 
when  plunged  into  it.  Copper  and  antimony,  in  a  state  of  fine  divi- 
sion. Ignite  spontaneously  when  introduced  into  the  gas.  C.  has 
a  very  strong  afSnity  for  hydrc»en,  and  forms  with  it  an  im- 
portant compound  called  hydrochloric  acid.  A  mixture  of  C. 
and  hydrogen  may  be  made  in  the  dark  without  combination 
taking  place,  but  if  this  mixture  be  ignited,  an  electric  spark 
passed.  Uirough  it,  or  even  be  brought  into  sunlight,  the  two  gases 
combine  with  a  powerful  explosion.  The  bleaching  properties 
of  C.  are  entu-ely  due  to  its  strong  afSnity  for  hydr<^en. 
Moistened  coloured  fabrics  at  once  lose  their  colour  if  plunged 
into  C,  but  unless  they  be  moist  no  effect  is  produced.  Tht 
reason  for  this  is,  that  the  C  seizes  on  the  hydrogen  of  the  water 
rm  hydrochloric  acid,  whilst  oxygen  (the  other  constituent  of 
w  )  in  the  nascent  state  combmes  with  the  colouring  matters, 
■m  ng  colourless  compounds.      C.  is  employed  in  immense 

?ities  in  the  manufacture  of  Bleacking  Pawdir  (q.  v.).  Dif- 
d  in  small  quantities  in  the  air,  it  is  an  admirable  disinfectant, 
C  rms  important  compounds  with  the  other  elements,  which 
w  be  considered  elsewhere.  Its  compounds  with  oxygen  are  for 
h    greater  part  unstable  and  readily  explosive.     C.  has  an 

imc  weight  of  35'S,  and  the  symbol  for  its  atom  is  CI. 

Chloroc'odon,  a  genus  of  Natal  climbing  plants  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  AscUptadaciiE.  The  roots,  C  WMlei,  are  used 
by  the  native  tribes  under  the  name  of  '  mundi '  or  '  mindi '  as  a 
stomachic. 

CMor'oform.  Is  a  substance  of  immense  value  to  the  surgeon 
as  an  anesthetic.  It  was  discovered  almost  simultaneously  by 
Soubeiran  in  France  and  by  IJebig  in  Germany  in  1831.  The 
latter  chemist,  believing  it  to  be  a  compound  of  carbon  and 
chlorine,  gave  it  the  name  of  ptreMotidi  or  tsrcMotidc  of  carbon  ; 
but  in  1835  Dumas  discovered  its  true  composition,  and  observ- 
ing that  when  treated  with  caustic  potash,  formic  add  and 
chloride  of  potassium  resulted,  gave  it  its  present  name  of  C. 
Its  anesthetic  properties  were  hrst  recognised  by  Simpson  and 
BelL 

C.  is  obtained  by  distilling  a  mixture  of  water,  lime,  chloride 
of  lime  (bleadiing  powdei'),  and  alcohol,  when  it  passes  o 
along  with  water,  and  is  caught  in  the  receiver.  Being  mi 
heavier  than  water,  C.  is  readily  separated  from  it  by  decantation  ; 
it  is  next  washed  with  water  to  remove  alcohol,  and  later  with  a 
solution  of  carbonate  of  potash  ;  afterwards  it  is  diied  with  chlo- 
ride of  calcium  and  rectified.  C.  is  a  colourless  mobile  liquid  of 
sp.  gr.  1'48,  and  boils  at  6o'S°  C. ;  it  has  a  pleasant  odonr  and 
sweet  taste.  It  is  an  excellent  solvent  of  caoutchouc,  phoS' 
phorus,  iodine,  fats,  many  alkaloids,  Slc.  Good  C.  is  known  by 
the  following  characters : — It  should  produce  no  colour  when 
agitated  with  oil  of  vitriol,  and  no  turbidity  when  mixed  with 
a  little  water ;  a  few  drops  evaporated  on  the  hand  should  leave 
no  unpleasant  odour.  C.  contains  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  chlo- 
rine, and  has  the  composition  expressed  by  the  formula  CHCla. 

For  the  use  of  C.  as  a  medicine,  see  Anesthesia. 

Chlor'oiJiyll,  literally  leaf-green  {(Ix.ckloros,  w.&n.;  phylUn, 
leaf},  the  substance  in  the  cells  of  Plants  (q.  v.)  which  gives  the 
green  colour  to  the  leaves,  stems,  &c,,  of  plants.  In  the  higher 
plants  C.  occurs  in  grains,  each  grain  consisting  of  a  plastic 
material  and  the  colouring  matter.  According  to  Sachs,  starch  is 
formed  by  the  C.  granules ;  but  this  view,  like  many  others  of  the 
same  botanist,  rests  more  uponimagination  than  fact.  Withdrawn 
from  the  action  of  light  the  plant  develops  no  C.,  and  it  has 
also  been  found  that  the  presence  of  iron  is  essential  to  its  forma- 
tion. At  one  time  it  was  believed  to  be  only  present  in  plants, 
but  it  is  now  known  to  give  the  green  colour  to  Hydra  viridis, 
Stmtor,  &c.  The  very  various  and  often  contradictoir  views 
which  are  held  regarding  it  may  be  found  stated  in  Brown's 
Manual,  pp.  23-33,  319,  a°3  in  Sachs'  Lihrhuch,  and  ia  other 


recent  works, 

Chlorops.     See  Cosm-Fly  ar 

Ohloro'sis,  'green  sickness,'  ' 

form  of  Anemia  (q.  v.),  common 

puberty,  characterised  by  excess 


I  Wheat-Fly. 


a  the  blood,  and  di- 


vLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CHO 


nution  of  the  red  blood  corpiisclea.    The  countenance  is  of  a 

le  waxy  hue,  the  appetite  is  depraved,  and  there  is  irregular 

menstniation.     The  proper  treatment  consists  in  restoring  the 

functions  of  the  body  by  good  food,  plenty  of  fresh  air,  and  the 

Chlorosis,  in  botany,  a.  disease  of  plants,  consisting  of  apallid 
condition,  'in  which  the  tissues  are  weak  and  unable  to  contend 
against  severe  changes,  and  the  cells  are  more  or  less  desti- 
tute of  chlorophyll.'  it  may  exist  in  plants  esposed  lo  direct 
light,  and  often  the  best  cnltore  will  not  restore  the  health  of 
llie  plant.  It  is  often  beyond  cure,  but  the  best  remedy,  accord- 
ing to  Mr  Berkley,  is  to  water  the  plant  with  a  very  weak  solu- 
tion of  sulphate  of  iron. 

CMorosper'mBEe,  one  of  three  divisions  of  Alga  or  sea- 
weeds, comprising  three  species,  which  have  green  spores;  most 
of  them  have  also  green  fronds. 

Cho'oard,  or  OhOCliiard,  the  name  given  to  a  genus  of 
Corvids  or  crows,  allied  to  the  choughs,  but  possessing  a  shorter 
bill  than  the  last-named  genus.  The  Alpine  crow  (Fyrrhocorax 
Aljdnus)  is  the  typical  species  of  this  genus. 

OllO'co,  a  name  given  in  the  U.  S.  of  Colombia,  S. 
America,  to  a  province  and  a  bay.  The  first  lies  on  the  coast 
of  the  Pacific,  in  the  state  of  Cauea,  and  has  for  its  principal 
town  Novita.     The  second  foiTos  the  S.  part  of  the  Gulf  of 

Ohoc'olate   (Sp.   cAocolale,   from   Mexican  chocolalli  choco, 
'cocoa,'  and  latl,  'water'),  the  ground  seeds  of  Theobroma  Cacao 
'    e  Cocoa)  made  into  a  paste 
i  mixed  with  sugar  and  vari- 

ds 


Chocolate  Boot,    See  Geum. 

Choir  (Fr.  ckisur,  Lat.  chorus,  see  Chorus),  that  part  f 
cathedral  extending  eastward  from  the  nave  to  the  altar,  a  d  m 
duding  the  whole  area  set  apart  for  the  celebration  of  th 
fices  of  the  church.  It  is  generally  mised,  at  least,  one  t  p 
iliove  the  nave,  and  around  its  sides  are  rows  of  seats  or  t  II 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  staff  of  choristers  or  smger  f 
cathedral  or  church. 

CAoirsa-een,  a  partition  of  open  work  in  wood  or  ston 
roundrng  the   C,    and    separating  it  from  the  nave  and     d 
aisles.     It  is  often  encircled  with  niches,  statues,  &c.,  which 
are  sometimes  coloured  and  gilt. 

Choi'seul,  an  ancient  French  family,  which  takes  its  name 
from  the  lands  of  C.  in  Champagne.  According  to  Viguier,  its 
founder  was  a  certain  Comte  de  Bassigny  and  de  Boulogne-sur- 
Mer,  who  flourished  in  the  loth  c. ;  but  le  Laboureur,  whose 
opinion  is  more  weighty,  considers  the  family  an  offshoot  of  the 
old  Comtes  de  Langres.  It  was  in  tune  divided  into  four  great 
branches — C.-Beaupr^,  C.-Gouffier,  C-PrasUn,  and  C,-Stain- 
ville— all  of  which  are  historically  conspicuous,  and  furnished 
soldiers,  prelates,  and  statesmen  to  their  country.  The  last, 
however,  which  originated  m  the  marriage  of  a  C.-Beaupre  (d. 
1711)  wilh  his  cousin-german  Nicole  de  Slainville,  may  be  re- 
garded  as  the  most  illustrious.  To  it  belongs  Etionne  iWngoia, 
Duo  de  C,  the  ablest  and  most  patriotic  French  statesman  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  l8th  c.  He  was  bom  28th  June  1719. 
After  serving  as  Comte  de  StainviUe  with  credit  m  the  wars 
with  Austria,  he  obtained  the  favour  of  the  reigning  mistress 
of  Louis  XV.,  Madame  de  Pompadour,  and,  through  her,  was 
135 


appointed  ambassador  to  Rome  and  Vienna  (1756),  and  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  Due  de  C.  (1758),  Under  her  he  became 
in  reality  Prime  Minister  of  France,  and  made  himself  very 
popular  by  a  series  of  able  diplomatic  measures.  He  arranged 
the  'Family  Compact'  of  the  Bourbon  sovereigns,  secured  for 
his'country  at  the  disastrous  close  of  the  war  in  1763  better 
terms  than  had  been  expected,  extended  French  commerce  and 
influence  especially  in  the  W.  Indies,  where  Domingo,  Mar- 
tinique, and  Guadeloupe  rose  into  importance,  expelled  the 
Jesuits  (1764),  and  almost  succeeded  in  freeing  the  Church  of 
Fiance  from  papal  authority.  For  some  years  after  the  death 
of  Madame  de  Pompadour,  his  influence  in  France  and  Europe 
continued  great,  and  he  was  nicknamed  by  the  Empress  of 
Russia  Le  Cocker  de  PEarepi  ('  The  Driver  of  Europe ').  The  rise 
of  Madame  Dubarry  proved  fatal  to  C.'s  power,  however,  and 
he  was  compelled  (1770)  to  retire  to  his  estate  at  Chanteloup. 
His  advice  in  pohticai  matters  was  frequently  taken  in  the  early 
part  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI.  He  died  May  7,  1785.  See 
the  Mhioires  de  M.  le  Dnc  E.  F.  de  C.,  icrits  far  hd-mtnie, 
and  Soulavje's  Mimoire  de  M.  le  Due  E.  F.  de  C, 


ChoTting,  in  the  human  subject,  may  be  caused  by  any  sub- 
stance, as  a  piece  of  meat,  being  arrested  in  its  passage  down- 
wards, before  it  reaches  the  stomach,  and  producing  sulFocation 
by  pressing  on  the  Trachea  (q.  v.)  or  Larynx  (q,  v.),  or  by 
spasm  of  the  muscles  of  those  parts.     Unless  tlie  obstruction 
be  removed  it  may  speedily  produce  death.     Tlie  patient  should 
be  made  to  vomit  by  tickling  the  back  part  of  his  throat,  or 
should  try  to  force  the  substance  down  into  the  stomach  by 
d  nk'ng      ter. 
Ch       ra,  most  probably  from  ckolas,  the  bowels,  and  rhea,  to 
of  the  most  fatal,  diseases  known  to  man.     The  sud- 
the  attack,  the  severity  of  the  symptoms,  and  the 
lity  of  those  aflecled,  all  lend  to  render  it  one  of  the 
ed  of  diseases.    The  most  prominent  symptoms  of  C. 
ig     3.  feeling  of  ojjpression  m  the  precordial  region, 
miting,  griping  pains  in  the  abdomen,  frequent  watery 
g  e  stools  resembling  rice-water),  suppression  of  urine, 

perspiration.     As  the  disease  advances,   there  is 
the  extremities ;  the  skin  of  the  hands  and  feet  be- 
eiled  and  dusky ;  the  eyes  sunken,  the  features  pinched, 
ra  felt  in  the  limbs ;  there  is  oppressed  breathing,  in- 

t  th  t  rapid  and  small  pulse,  and  sepulchral  voice ;  the 
i  b  mes  cold  and  clammy,  and  a  peculiar  sickly  odour  is 
h  led  f  m  the  body,  breath,  and  ejections.  Reaction  may 
p  or  the  disease  may  terminate  within  n  few  hours  in 

f  tal  11  pse.  The  early  Sanskrit  writers  describe  a  disease 
called  V  huka,"  the  symptoms  of  which  areidentical  with  diose 
f  C  H  ppocrates  and  Galen  describe  a  similar  disease  in 
E  p  d  Whang-shooho  in  China.  Caspar  Correa,  a  Por- 
t  gu  w  s  the  first  European  who  described  an  epidemic  out- 
b  k  Hindustan  in  1503,  and  Sydenham  states  that  C. 
m  bis  w  raging  in  London  in  1676,  C.  is  endemic  in  tlie 
U  y  f  the  Ganges,  and  in  all  the  large  towns  along  the  sea- 
b  d  f  British  India,  including  Chittagong,  and  part  of  the 
Pegu  division  ;  but  it  frequently  passes  out  ofthe  endemic  area, 
and  becomes  epidemic  C.  has  visited  almost  every  country, 
the  exceptions  being  remote  islands  and  isolated  populations. 
Great  Britam  has  been  visited  four  limes  within  ^e  present  cen- 
tury (1831-32,  18*8-49,  1853-S4,  and  1865-66).  "nie  first  and 
second  epidemics  were  the  most  fatal,  and  they  were  followed 
by  many  important  sanitary  improvements.   The  second  epide 


In  1866  there  were  1170  deaths  from  C.  in  Scotland;  several 
counties  escaped,  and  in  many  the  cases  of  C.  were  sterile. 
Aberdeen,  Forfar,  Fife,  and  Edinburgh  were  those  most  severely 
visited.  The  ravagesotChadbeensodestmctivem  Europe,  that 
an  international  sanitary  conference  was  held  at  Constantinople 
in  1866,  and  a  second  at  Vienna  in  1874,  to  determine  regarding 
the  origin,  transmissibility,  and  prophylaxis  of  the  disease. 
The  late  conference  was  attended  by  delegates  from  every  Euro- 
pean state,  and  also  from  Egypt  and  Persia.     C.  is  propagated 


!,  and  also 
along  the  highways  of  human  intercourse,  and  its  dissemmation 
bears  definite  relations  to  that  intercourse.     The  morbific  agent, 


yLaOOgle 


CHO 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CHO 


contaiucd  in  fiit  fames  of  C.  patients,  pioduces  tlie  same  disease 
ill  otiiets  :  it  is  probably  less  active  wiien  newly  evacuated  ;  so 
that  excreta  should  be  removed  at  once,  and  tainted  clothing 
should  be  washed  before  the  matter  is  allowed  to  become  dry. 
The  poison  may  ehter  the  system  by  the  respiratory  passage  from 
its  being  held  in  suspension,  in  connection  with  ^eous  emana- 
tions, from  C,  dejecta  in  a  confined  atmosphere  j  or  as  an  im- 
palpable dust  from  dried  excreta,  and  in  fliis  form  it  may  be 
carried  for  a  short  disiance  by  air  currents  ;  or  it  may  enter  by 
the  digestive  passages  in  connection  with  food  or  drink.  The 
poison  has  the  property  of  imparting  its  infective  power  to  large 
volumes  of  water,  and  the  d^ger  to  which  a  community  is  ex- 
posed is  in  exact  proportion  to  the  liability  of  its  water  supply 
bring  contaminated  with  C  excreta.  A  solitary  case  may  be 
sterile,  or  may  give  rise  to  a  general  epidemic,  according  as 
the  conditions  for  propagation  are  ptesent  or  absent.  The 
dejecta  of  a  C.  patient,  gaining  access  by  leakage  or  soakage 
to  wells  or  reservoirs  of  drinking  water,  may  thus  give  rise  to 
a  local  or  a  general  epidemic,  and  the  mortality  may  be  com- 
prised within  a  few  days,  or  extended  over  weeks  or  months. 
At  Mecca,  in  1865,  where  the  pilgrims  used  a  single  or  common 
water  suppiy,  there  were  10,000  deaths  in  about  six  days ;  and 
in  Zanzibar,  in  l86g,  where  there  were  many  wells  liable  to 
contamination,  there  were  10,000  deaths  within  six  weeks.  C. 
is  propagated  to  distant  localities  in  a  few  days  by  those  suffering 
from  the  disease  during  the  period  of  incuteition  ;  or  by  means 
of  contaminated  clothing,  tlie  morbific  matter  being  capable  of 
producing  its  effects  after  fifte  d  but  there  is 

every  reason  to  suppose  that  ex     m        ai  er  and  air  are 

the  essential  conditions  of  itllo        p      d.  ryandhj^ienie 

measures,  necessary  for  the  m  geueial  good 

health  of  a  community,  are  s  ffl  t  against  the 

ravages  of  C,  and  powers  to  enf  su  h  m  u'es  are  vested 
in  local  authorities.     There  is       d  ta  wn  whicli  has 

the  power  of  destroying  the  ge  -ms       h  as    but  several  are 

of  great  value,  and  should  be  used  freely,  such  as  chloiide  of 
lime,  cttpralum,  ferralum,  terebme,  &c  Tliere  is  no  known 
antidote  to  the  disease,  but  tlie  admmistration  of  cartiolic  acid, 
on  the  first  accession  of  symptoms,  has  been  attended  with 
favourable  results.  The  treatment  vaiies  accordmg  to  the  stage 
of  the  disease,  and,  as  it  often  runs  a  rapidly  fatal- course,  no 
definite  rule  can  be  laid  down  applicable  to  all  cases.  C.  being 
a  filth  disease,  will  disappear  when  communities  are  sufEcienlly 
enlightened  to  prosecute  sanitary  improvements.  See  Macna- 
mara's  Triatise  on  Asiatk  C.  (Lond.  1870);  Sajiplmeuiary 
RepBTtfor  187s  oftheMedkal  Officer  of  the  Privy  Countil  omd 
Local  Covernmmt  Board;  Papers  concerning  the  European  Sela- 
tieiti  ef  Asiatic  C. ;  and  Christie's  C.  Bpidaiiics  in  East  Africa, 
(Lond.  1876). 

Cbolea'terine  {Mi,  bile,  and  sto'os,  solid)  is  a  crystalline 
substance,  which  was  discovered  by  Conradi  in  1775  in  human 
gall-stones,  It  occurs  alsoas  a  normal  constituent  of  bile;  in  the 
brain,  spinal  marrow,  and  yolk  of  egg,  and  in  various  morbid 
growths.  It  has  also  been  found  in  phnts,  m  peas,  maize,  olives, 
&c.  C.  is  readily  obtained  by  boding  crushed  biliary  calculi 
with  alcohol  and  a  little  caustic  potash,  the  solution  when  fil- 
tered and  evaporated  depositmg  it  in  nacreous  lammffi.  C.  pos- 
sesses the  properties  ot  an  Alcohol  (q.  v.),  and  is  usually  re- 
garded as  such.  Its  composition  is  expressed  by  the  formula 
CaoHisiOH). 

Chol'et,  atowninthe  department  of  Mame-ef -Loire,  France, 
on  the  Maine,  32  miles  S.S.W.  of  Angers  by  railway,  haslaige 
nianufactures  of  cambric,  calicoes,  flannels,  &:c,  and  an  active 
hade  in  com,  cattle,  and  wine^  The  republica 
decisive  victories  at  G.  during  tlie  Vendean  war 
{j87Z)  11,328. 

Cholula,  an  ancient  town  of  Mexico,  state  of  Puebla,  60 
miles  KS.E.  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  on  the  tableland  of  Ana- 
huac,  and  6912  feet  above  the  sea.  It  was  the  second  larsesl 
city  of  the  Aztecs,  and  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  invasion  had 
20,000  houses  and  400  temples.  It  is  now  rich  in  remains,  the 
principal  of  which  is  the  pyi-araidal  temple  of  the  Quetzalcoatl, 
i77feethigh,  now  surmounted  by  a  Catholic  church,    Pop.  5000, 


s  gained  t' 


Pop. 


e  Sir  Hugh  Gough  signally  defeated  the  Mahrattas,  De- 
cember 29,  1S43. 

Olion'drin,  a  substance  obtained  by  boiling  the  cartilages  of 
the  ribs,  larynx,  or  joints  in  water  for  forty-eight  hours,  Slow- 
ing the  fluid  to  gelatinise,  and  treating  the  residue  with  ether  to 
free  it  from  faL  When  dry,  C.  is  a  hard,  horny,  translucent 
substance,  dissolving  in  hot  water,  but  insoluble  in  alcohol  or 
ether.  It  is  precipitated  \n  aU  acids,  as  well  as  by  alum,  sul- 
phate of  alumma,  acetate  of  lead,  sulphate  of  copper,  ferric  and 
ferrous  sulphates,  and  mercurous  and  mercuric  mtrates.  It  can- 
not be  supposed  to  exist  as  C.  in  the  body,  bnt  is  the  chemical 
result  of  certain  substances  after  prolonged  boiling  in  water. 

Chondroden'drum,  a  genus  of  climbing  shrubs  belonging  to 
the  order  Menispermaceci.  C.  comii/lindaceum  is  the  wild  grape  of 
the  Peruvians,  so  called  on  account  of  the  form  and  flavour  of  its 
fruits  being  not  unlike  that  of  the  vme.  The  bark  is  used  as  a 
febrifuge, 

Chon'etes,  an  important  genus  of  extinct  Brachiopodous 
shellfish,  belonging  to  the  family  Prod-actid^.  They  occur  in 
Silurian  and  Devonian,  but  especially  in  Carboniferous  rocks. 
The  shell  is  concavo-convex,  of  oblong  shape,  and  with  a  straight 
hmge-line.  A  row  of  tubular  spines  exists  at  the  hinge-area  of 
the  ventral  valve. 

Cho'noa  ArcHpelago  consists  of  two  large  and  about 
thirty  small  islands,  which  lie  along  a  part  of  the  W,  coast  off 
Patagonia,  and  to  the  S.  of  the  Chilian  island  of  Chiloe.  They 
are  extremely  barren,  and  are  inhabited  only  by  a  few  tribes  of 
Chonos,  who  live  by  fishing. 

Olio'piii,  Frederic  Franois,  a  Polish  musician,  was  boni 
1st  March  1809,  near  Warsaiv,  where  he  studied  music  under 
Eisner.  Exiled  after  the  revolution  of  1830,  he  took  tip  his 
abode  in  Paris.  There  he  was  personally  very  popular ;  his 
music  also  was  much  admired,  but  his  health  was  bad,  and  he 
suffered  much  from  depression  of  spirits.  He  visited  England 
in  1848,  and  was  most  cordially  received,  but  the  journey  seems 
to  have  been  too  much  for  his  strength.  He  died  in  Paris,  I7lh 
Octolier  1&49.  He  wrote  largelyfor  the  pianoforte,  chiefly  in 
the  form  of  nocturnes,  polonaises,  waltzes,  &c,  ;  his  composi- 
tions are  extremely  beautiful  and  original,  full  of  poetry  and  ima- 
gination. A  monument  was  erected  to  liim  at  Warsaw  in  1869. 
See  the  sketches  of  Liszt  (1852)  and  Earbadette  (2d  ed,  1869). 

Cttop'in,  a  liquid  measure  in  use  before  the  present  system 
of  weights  and  measures  was  sanctioned  by  Act  of  Parliament. 
It  contained  in  England  J  pint.  In  Scotland  (under  the  form 
Chafin  or  CMppiti)  the  name  is  still  applied  to  a  measure,  used 
especially  for  milk,  which  is  equal  to  a  wine  quart. 

Chora'gic  Momiments.  The  Choregus  was  the  Athenian 
citizen  appointed  by  his  tribe  to  provide  the  various  choruses 
that  took  part  in  the  festive  and  religious  celebrations.  The 
Choregus  who  Was  thought  to  have  best  discharged  this  duty  re- 
ceived a  tripod  as  a  prize.  He  had,  however,  to  pay  the  cost 
not  only  of  the  prize  itself,  but  also  of  erecting  a  chapel  in  which 
it  was  dedicated.  A  street  in  Athens  contained  so  many  of  these 
monuments  that  it  was  called  the  Street  of  the  Tripods.  The 
names  of  the  Choregus  and  his  tribe  were  inscribed  on  the 


Chorale,  the  psalm  or  hymn  tune  of  the  Protestant  churches 
of  Germany.  It  has  generally  a  simple  diatonic  melody,  whicli 
is  sung  in  unison  by  the  congregation,  the  haiTnonies  being  sup- 
plied by  the  organ,  and  sometimes  by  a  clioir  and  orchestra. 
The  C.  appears  frequently  in  the  works  of  the  great  German 
composers,  and  notably  in  those  of  Johann  Sebastian  Bach  (q.  v.). 
Eadi's  harmonies  to  many  of  the  old  Church  melodies,  while 
retaining  an  ancient  form  and  ancient  strict  adherence  to  rule, 
remain  unsurpassed  and  unsurpassable  in  intrinsic  beauty,  and 
give  to  the  hare  melody  wonderful  richness  and  loftiness. 

Oho'ral  Music,  a  term  applied  generally  to  all  music  wiitten 
for  a  choir  or  chorus  having  a  number  of  voices  in  each  part. 
It  includes,  therefore,  oratorios,  cantatas,  masses,  motetts,  and 
most  anthems,  as  well  as  part  songs,  madrigals,  &c.,  although  it 
is  not  often  used  for  the  latter.     See  CHORUS. 

Choral  Service,  the  service  of  the  Church  of  England  a 
generally  performed  in  cathedrals,  with  intoned  respon 
psalms,  and  tlie  use  of  music  throughout  wherev'er  '•>  <=  ="'" 


is  authorised. 


137 


vLiOOQle 


CHO 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CHR 


Cliord,  in  music,  a  combination  of  notes  perfoi'med  simultane- 
ously. Chords  may  be  consonant  or  dissonant  (see  Consonance], 
according  to  whether  the  intervals  between  each  one  of  the  notes 
of  the  C.  and  every  other  are  concords  or  not.  The  consonant 
chords  are  those  known  as  '  comnion '  chords,  and  consist  of  a 
note  with  a  third  and  fifth  above  iC,  or  their  octaves.  When  the 
combination  is  so  made  that  either  the  tliird  or  the  fifth  are  be- 
low the  fundamental  note  itself,  the  C.  is  said  to  be  inverted. 
Common  chords  may  be  built  upon  alt  the  notes  of  the  scale,  but 
the  C.  of  the  Mediant  (Si  or  Me)  is  seldom  required,  and  that  of 
Sub-tonic  (Mi  or  Te)  has  an  imperfect  fifth,  and  on  this  account 
has  often  be^  encluded  from  the  list  of  consonant  chords.  It  is 
so  very  similar  in  effect  to  the  much  commoner  common  C.  of 
the  dominant  with  the  seventh  added  ('dominant  seventh'  C). 
that  it  is  in  any  case  unimportant.  Common  chords  are  call^l 
major  or  minor,  according  to  the  nature  of  their  third.  A  seventh, 
a  nmth,  and  so  on,  may  be  added  to  the  common  chords,  and  dis- 
sonant chords  thus  conslmcted.  All  these  chords  have  their  inver- 
sions like  the  common  chords,  and  by  this  means  they  have  im- 
mense variety  in  construction  and  effect.  The  ear  can  take 
pleasure  in  dissonance  as  well  as  consonance,  but  it  cannot  dwell 
upon  the  former  as  it  can  upon  the  latter,  and  for  this  reason  the 
rules  of  Harmony  (q.  v.)  prescribe  certam  resoludmts  of  the 
sevenths,  ninths,  &c.,  which  require  to  be  attended  to  in  all 
eases  except  those  in  which  some  special  effect  can  be  gained  by 
disregarding  them.  One  of  the  most  useful  dissonant  chords 
found  in  modem  music  is  known  as  the  C.  of  the  diminished 
senenlh,  and  consists  of  three  minor  thirds,  one  above  the  other, 
as,  for  example,  the  G  jt  BDF.  Besides  its  own  peculiar  effects, 
which  vaij  vety  much  with  the  notes  of  the  key  of  wUch  it  is 
composed,  it  offers  specially  great  facilities  for  modulation. 

Chord^  in  geometry,  is  the  straight  line  joining  the  extremi- 
ties of  an  arc.  Tables  of  chords,  so  common  in  old  trigonome- 
trical tables,  are  now  superseded  hy  tables  of  sines,  which  are  much 
more  convenient  for  calculating  purposes.  C.  of  Curuature  is 
any  C.  of  the  circle  of  curvature  drawn  fram  the  point  whose 
curvature  is  represented  by  this  circle. 

Olior'dadorsaTis,  a  name  given  to  a  delicate  semi-trans- 
paient  thread,  at  first  ceHnlar,  but  a,fterwards  cartilaginous, 
which  appears  beneath  the  primitive  groove  in  the  early  em- 
bryo. It  is  seen  in  the  chick  as  early  as  three  to  eighteen  hours 
after  incubation.  It  ultimately  contributes  to  the  formation  of 
the  bodies  of  the  vertebras,  part  of  it  remaining  persistent  in  the 
form  of  the  intervertebral  discs.     It      m         p  ts 

cartilaginous  condition  in  the  lowest  d  fi  h      su  h 

as  in  the  lancelet  or  Amphioxus  lane  h      am  h 

sharks,  rays,  and  the  Chimara.    See  E 

01ior'd«e  Voca'Ies   are   the   true       ca      h    ds      und 
the  larynx  or   organ  of  voice.      They  h         p 

anytenoid  ligaments.     Attached  by  one  b  h       d  h 

larynx,  the  other  border  is  free,  and  by  b  sed 

the  current  of  air  forced  upwards  through  the  trachea  by  the 
lungs,  voice  is  produced.     See  Larynx,  Voice. 

Ohore'a  (Gr.  chorda,  a  dancing  or  jumping),  St  Vitus'  Dance, 
is  an  affection  of  the  nervous  system,  characterised  by  peculiar 
tremulous -movements  of  certain  of  the  voluntary  muscles  espe- 
cially of  the  face  and  limbs.  It  generally  occurs  in  children 
from  six  to  sixteen  years  of  age,  and  is  more  common  in  girls 
than  boys.  C.  may  be  caused  by  wonos,  fright,  blows,  teething, 
&c.  It  may  be  regarded  as  a  form  of  bad  health,  and  the  proper 
treatment  is  to  try  to  remove  the  cause  by  the  use  of  good 
nourishing  food,  with  iron  tonics.  Special  attention  should  be 
paid  to  the  bowels. 


Oho'rioa.  A 

^  early  perio 
u  face      foun 

d  of  development 

ofti 

e  mamma- 

1,  the  ! 

clo  hed  with  a 

s  viUi  o 

po    it.    This  i 

the 

of  its  fur 

ent    illbe  found  under  Embkyo 

and  Placenta. 

Oborie'ia  is  a  genus  of  sn  all  pnckly-stemmed  trees  of  S. 
America,  belonging  to  the  na  ural  order  StercuKacea.  The 
silky  hairs  which  cover  the  seeds  f  C  spedosa  are  used  in  Brazil 
(where  it  is  known  aa  Arvore  de  Paina)  for  stuffing  cushions, 
pillows,  &c.  The  tough  bark  of  C.  crispiflora  is  used  m  the 
same  country  for  making  cordage. 


Chor'Iey,  a  flourishing  town  of  Lancashire,  on  the  Chor,  25 
miles  N.E.  of  Liverpool  by  railway,  with  manufactures  of 
muslins,  calicoes,  cotton  yarn,  ginghams,  and  jaconets.  There 
are  also  numerous  bleachfields  and  dye-works,  and  near  the  town 
are  several  coal,  lead,  and  iron  mines,  and  quarries  of  millstones 
and  slates.     Fop.  (1871)  16,864. 

Ohor'oid,  a  term  applied  in  anatomy  to  various  textures  char- 
acterised by  a  shaggy  appearance  and  a  rich  supply  of  blood- 
vessels. There  is^e  C.  plexus  (see  CEli.EBE.UM)  and  the  C. 
coal  of  the  eye  {see  Eye), 

Chorus,  in  music,  signifies  both  a  composition  for  numerous 
voices  and  the  singers  who  perform  the  composition.  Choruses 
are  commonly  parts  of  some  large  work,  such  as  an  opera  or 
oratorio.  In  the  former  they  are  geneially  simple  in  construc- 
tion, and  often  m  three  parts  only,  and  have  therefore  come  to 
be  almost  contemptible,  while  in  the  latter  they  play  a  most 
important  part,  and  are  correspondingly  elaborate.  The  oratorio 
C.  is  generally  in  four  parts  (soprano,  alto,  tenor,  and  bass),  but 
in  some  cases — notably  in  Bach's  Matthew-Passion  and  Handel's 
Israel  in  I^ypt— a  double  C,  is  employed. 

Cboae  iu  Action,  a  term  of  English  law  denoting  a  thing  of 
which  no  one  has  actual  possession,  and  to  which  a  right  can 
only  be  co2istituted  by  legal  deaee. 

dlOu'ans,  the  name  given  to  the  insurgent  royalists  of  Ere- 
tagne,  from  their  first  leider,  Jean  Cotlereau,  a  smuggler  and 
clogmaker,  who  inherited  tlie  sobriquet  of  Cbouan  (cnatthuanl, 
i.e.,  screedi-owl)  from  his  grandfather,  so  designated  from  his 
sad  and  silent  humour.  Another  explanation  of  the  name  refers 
it  to  the  signal  of  danger  among  flie  smugglers — an  imitation  of 
the  cry  of  the  screech-owl — whidi  was  adopted  by  the  insurgents. 
In  1792  an  insurrection  was  planned  by  the  marquis  de  la  Eou- 
arie  in  conjunction  with  the  Drothers  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  com- 
munications were  opened  up  with  Cottereau,  who  had  organised 
a  band  of  smugglers.  The  arrest  of  the  marquis  transferred  the 
chief  control  of  the  movement  to  Cottereau,  and  the  insurrection 
was  henceforth  named  the  ChouanirU.  After  some  short-lived 
successes  Cottereau  was  mortally  wounded,  28th  July  1794,  near 
the  wood  of  Misdon,  having  proved  himself  an  intrepid  soldier 
and  a  leader  of  considerable  capacity.  The  movement,  however, 
was  not  suppressed  by  the  death  of  Cottereau,  but  under  George 
Cadoudal  {q.  v.)  and  Charette  assumed  threatening  propor- 
tions. The  events  of  the  i8th  BrutiKure  daslied  the  hopes  of 
the  insurgents,  but  they  were  not  finally  suppressed  till  1803, 

me  time  after  the  Vendeans  had  submitted  to  the  First  Consul. 
Occasional  outbursts  of  an  insurrectionary  spirit  exhibited  them- 

Ives  as  late  as  1830,  following  on  tlie  insurrection  of  July. 

Chough,  a  genus  of  Corvida  or  crows,  included  in  the  sub- 

mily  ^rrhocm-acina.  The  C  differs  fiom  the  tiue  ciows  in 
h  ving  the  bill  notched  shghtly 

its  tip.    The  wings  are  also 

ng  and  pointed,  and  the  bill 
slender,  long,  and  of  curved 
shape.  The  tara  are  either 
scaly  or  covered  witli  a  smgle 
long  plate.  The  choughs  are 
gregarious  in  habits,  and  b  nld 
their  nests  in  rocks,  steeples 
and  like  situations.  The  Cor 
nish  C.  (Fregilus  graculus)  is 
the  best-known  species. 


bird  i! 


Cornwall,  but  may  be  met  with  Chough 

elsewhere,   and   usually  near 

the  sea-coast.  It  possesses  red  legs  and  bill,  and  is  hence  some- 
times named  the  Red-legged  C.  or  crow.  The  Chocard  (q.  v.), 
or  Alpine  crow,  is  the  only  other  European  species  of  C.  The 
Cornish  C.  also  occurs  on  the  Continent,  in  N.  Africa,  Persia, 
and  India.    The  food  consists  of  giain,  berries,  and  insects. 

Choya.     See  Chay  Root. 

Q'iaism.[Gi.  ^hHsBia,  an 'ointment'),  the  unguent  consecrated 
by  the  bishops  in  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Greek  Churches  for 
use  in  the  sacraments  of  baptism,  confirmation,  orders,  and  ex- 
treme unction ;  being  composed  for  the  first  three  of  oil  and 
balsam  (or  in  the  Greek  Church  foity  different  spices),  for  tliu 
last,  simply  of  oil. 


yLaOogle 


The  globe  encyclopmdia. 


CHE 


Chris'ome  was  a  white  cloth,  which  used  to  be  laid  on  a 
newly-baptized  child  after  it  was  anointed  wilh  Chrism  (q.  v.), 
doubtless  a  relic  of  tbe  white  robe  with  which  baptized  persons 
were  clothed  in  the  early  Chm-eli.     See  Candidate. 

Cluiat  is  the  literal  Greeli  translation  (Chrisioi,  anointed)  of 
the  Hebrew  word  Messiah,  and  as  applied  to  Jesus  it  means  that 
he  was  the  Messiah  expected  by  the  Jews.  See  Messiah,  Jesus, 
End  Cheistology, 

Christ,  Orders  of.  An  order  of  this  name  was  instituted  in 
1205  by  Albrecht,  Bishop  of  Riga,  to  guard  the  Christians  of 
Livonia  against  the  heathens.  Another  was, founded  by  Pope 
John  XXII,  iu  1322,  and  reformed  by  Paul  V.  in  1615  aa  Uie 
Order  of  Jesus  and  Mary.  The  Portuguese  Order  of  C.  was 
formed  in  1317  by  Denis,  or  DionysiuSiKing  of  Portugal,  from 
the  Knights  Templars  (q.  v. ),  whom  Philippe  le  Bel  expelled  from 
France.  The  headquarters  of  the  order  were  first  at  Castromarino, 
and  afterwards  at  Tomar,  whence  they  could  more  easily  assail 
the  Moorish  kingdom  of  Granada,  The^  shared  in  the  wars  with 
the  Mooes,  and  in  the  Portuguese  expeditions  to  India.  At  fii-st 
they  held  the  lands  they  conquered,  but  these  were  afterwards 
handed  over  to  the  Portuguese  crown.  They  still  exist,  and  are 
said  to  possess  twenty-six  viilages.  Entrance  to  the  order  is 
granted  only  to  Catholics  of  high  birth. 

OliriBt,  Piottires  of.  In  the  records  left  to  115  of  the  life 
of  C.  there  is  not  a  single  hint  from  which  we  could  form  the 
faintest  conception  of  his  personal  appearance.  But  very  soon 
attempts  were  made  to  satisfy  the  natural  craving  which  the 
early  Christians  must  have  felt  to  know  the  personal  appearance 
of  one  who  was  so  dear  to  them.  Two  apparently  contradictory 
views  as  to  what  his  appearance  ought  to  have  been  prevailed 
at  different  periods,  the  one  being  chiefly  prevalent  as  it  hap- 
pened in  the  Eastern  Church,  the  other  in  the  Western,  but 
without  any  contemporary  controversy,  as  is  sometimes  asserted. 
The  idea  most  consonant  with  the  feelipgs  of  the  humble  and 
persecuted  Christians  of  the  second  and  third  centuries,  was  that 
expressed  m  the  words  of  Isaiah  liii.  2,  '  He  liath  no  form  nor 
comeliness,  and  when  we  shall  see  him,  there  is  no  beauty  that 
we  should  desire  him,'  and  the  Christians  of  this  period  were 
ridiculed  by  Celsus  for  representing  their  God  as  of  'a  mean 
aspect.'  But  the  triumph  of  Christianity  in  the  4th  c  brought 
a  reaction,  and  the  tendency  then  arose  to  represent  him  accord- 
ing to  the  words  of  the  Psalm  {xlv. ),  '  Thou  art  faher  than  the 
sons  of  men.' 

The  first  definite  conceptions  of  C.'s  appearance  were  por- 
trayed by  fictitious  descriptions,  of  which  two  especially  survire : 
the  first  in  the  letter  of  Publius  Lentdos,  a  fabrication  of  the 
3d  c,  (?)  in  which  C.  is  described  as  'a  man  of  lofty  stature  and 
handsome,  with  wavy  glossy  hair,  the  colour  of  wme,  and  golden 
at  the  roof,  flowing  down  on  his  shoulders,  and  jatted  m  the 
middle  ;  his  forehead  smooth,  his  countenance  beautiful,  with  a 
slight  blush,  and  his  eyes  bright  and  sparkling ;  his  beaid  abun- 
dant  and  reddish,  not  long,  but  forked,'  Another  description 
occurs  in  the  writings  of  Joannes  Damascenus  (8th  c),  according 
to  which  C.  was  'stately,  with  eyebrows  joined  tt^efher, 
beautifai  eyes,  curly  hair,  black  beard,  and  yellow  complexion. ' 
The  descriptions,  of  which  these  two  were  doubtless  but  speci- 
mens, were  followed  by  pictures  attempting  to  embody  them, 
for  the  faithfulness  of  whicli  various  evidence  was  found,  as,  s.g., 
that  Luke,  as  well  as  Pilate,  took  C.'s  likeness,  and  that  Peter 
drew  it  ftom  memory. 

There  were  various  legends  also  regarding  P.  of  C.  said  to 
have  been  impressed  upon  cloths.  One  of  these  was  possessed  by 
At^arus,  King  of  Edessa,  who,  being  afflicted  with  an  incurable 
disease,  and  having  heard  of  the  miracles  of  C,  sent  a  letter 
to  him,  aiing  hira  to  come  and  heal  him,  on  which  he  received 
a  letter  from  C.  and  his  portrait  impressed  on  a  cloth  Accord- 
ing to  another  legend,  a  similar  portrait  came  into  the  possession 
of  Veroiuca  or  Bemice,  the  woman  cured  by  toui^nng  C.'s 
garment  (Mart  v.)  [otherwise  merely  a  woman  of  Jerusalem, 
who  offered  him  her  veil  to  wipe  his  face  on  the  way  to  Calvary], 
who  greatly  desired  to  have  his  portrait,  and  found  it  imcressed 
on  the  cloth  with  which  he  dried  his  face  on  washing  when  he 
came  to  visit  her.  The  woman  is  manifestly  a  second  invention 
to  help  out  the  first,  her  name  ,heing  merely  a  corruption  of 
liera.  icon.,  true  image,  the  name  given  to  the  picture. 

As  to  the  physiognomy  given  to  C.  in  his  portraits,  the  type 


of  features  with  which  we  are  now  most  familiar — oval  face, 
straight  nose,  and  long  curling  hair  parted  in  the  middle — was 
not  invariably  adheied  to,  but  was  confined  to  the  Byzantine 
school  of  art,  and  even  in  it  was  not  constant.  The  fact  is,  that 
so  long  as  C.  was  represented  like  other  men,  the  type  of  his 
head  was,  generally  speaking,  the  characteristic  head  of  the 
diffeient  nations.  He  was  left  with  a  character  of  his  own  only 
when  the  Italian  masters  of  the  Renaissance,  headed  by  Fra 
Angelico,  gave  a  personal  individuality  to  those  about  him,  and 
then  the  characteristic  expression  which  above  all  was  given  ia 
him  was  sympathy.  Perhaps  the  noblest  conception  of  the  Son 
of  Man  wliich  art  attained  to  was  that  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
in  his  picture  of  '  the  Last  Supper, '  But  the  attention  of  the 
great  painters  was  devoted  to  depicting  the  fe^ures  of  C. 
when  dead  or  glorified  rathei'  than  when  aUve ;  the  Madonna  and 
Child  being  also  a  favourite  subject.  See  Lord  Lindsay's  His- 
tory of  Christian  Art^xA.  1847),  The  History  of  Our  Lord, 
Si'c.  (1864),  by  Mrs  Jameson  and  Lady  Eastlalte,  and  a  sc"-  -' 
articles  in  the  Art  Journal  iax  1861, 

Christ  or  Ohria  Cross  Row,  the  alphabet  arranged 
form  of  a  cross,  widi  the  letter  A  at  the  top  and  Z  at  the  i 

Ohrist'churcll,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough  and 
seaport  in  Hamp^re,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Avon  and  the 
Stour  (lience  its  old  English  name  Tmton-ia,  'between  the 
rivers'),  24  miles  S.W.  of  Southampton.  The  priory  church 
(restored  1861)  dates  fi:om  the  reign  of  William  Rufus,  and  cr- 
tains  an  old  sculptured  altar-piece  said  to  be  one  of  the  finest 
England.  There  is  also  a  free  grammar-school  and  commodious 
barracks,  C.  has  breweries  and  some  manufactures  of  watch- 
springs  and  hosiery.  Pop.  (1871)  15,415.  Roman  r 
liave  been  found  m  the  neighbourhood. — C.  Bay  is  a  spacious 
harbour,  with  a  double  tide  every  twelve  hours,  but  is  ob- 
structed by  a  moving  sand-bar,  so  that  vessels  drawing  5  oi  ' 
feet  can  only  enter  at  high  tide.  ~ 
liament 

Chxist-Qmrch,  one  of  the  cliief  towns  of  New  Zealand,  and 
capital  of  the  province  of  Canterbury,  is  situated  on  the  E.  coast 
of  Middle  Island,  on  Pegasus  Bay,  to  the  N.  of  Banks'  Penin- 
sula. It  lies  on  the  river  Avon,  9  miles  from  the  port  of  Little- 
ton by  railway,  and  is  also  the  point  where  two  coast  lines  of 
railway,  from  N,  and  S.  respectively,  converge.  There  is 
extensive  export  trade,  chiefly  in  "-- "'  "*  »i~h=' 
6747. 

Ohrist-Clmrcli,  The  Cathedral  of.  The  foundation  at 
Oxford  of  C.-C.  was  projected  on  a  scale  of  great  magnificence  by 
Cardinal  Wolsey,  who  in  1526  obtained  from  Pope  Clement  VII, 
a  bull  for  the  suppression  of  twenty.two  monasteries,  the  site  of 
one  of  which  he  selected  for  the  erection  of  a  collide,  to  be  called 
in  honoxu:  of  himself  Cardinal  College.  On  his  disgrace  in  1529, 
Henry  VIII,  took  possession  of  it,  and  three  years  kter  refounded 
it  as  King  Henry  VIII, 's  College,  a  title  exchanged  in  1546-47 
for  that  of  C.-C,  which  it  still  bears.  The  foundation  consisted 
of  a  dean,  eight  canons,  one  hundred  students  (to  which  one 
was  added  in  1664,  by  a  benefaction  from  William  Thurstone, 
Esq.),  eight  chaplains,  a  schoolmaster  and  organist,  eight  clerks 
and  eight  choristers.  The  canonries,  which  at  first  had  nc 
duties  assigned  to  them,  have  been  from  time  to  time  annexed  tc 
professorships  in  the  university,  and  no  canonry  can  now  be  held 
except  by  a  professor,  the  archdeacon,  or  the  sub-dean.  By  30 
and  31  Vict.  cap.  76,  the  niunber  of  canons  is  reduced  to  six ;  of 
students  to  eighty,  twenty-eight  of  which  are  senior  students 
with  permanent  tenure,  and  fifty-two  junior  students;  twenty-01 
of  these  fifty-two  must  be  elected  from  Westminster  School,  three 
eadi  year  on  ftie  Wednesday  before  Ascension  Day,  widi  a 
tenure  of  seven  years.  The  election  to  the  remaming  thirty-one 
open  junior  studentships,  which  are  tenable  for  five  years,  is  held 
on  the  second  Saturday  in  Lent.  In  1875  there  were  1146  mem- 
bers on  the  books,  not  mcludiiig  nnmatriculated  members  of  the 
choir.     'Hie  college  has  the  patronage  of  ninety  benefices, 

Chris'teniag,  as  a  synonym  for  Baptism,  properly  conveys 
the  notion  that  a  person-is  made  a  Christian  in,  or  by,  that  rite  ; 
and  is  used  in  this  sense  by  those  who  believe  in  baptismal 
regeneration,  but  is  also  iised  without  any  such  reference. 

Christian,  the  name  of  nine  Kings  of  Denmark,  of  whom  the 
following  are  the  most  notable  ;—Cnristian  I.,  son  of  Dietrich, 
139 


iC  member  tt 


-A  and  timber.     Pop.  (1871) 


vLaOOgle 


CHR 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


the  Lucky,  Couat  of  Oldenburg  and  Delmcnhorst,  born  in  1426, 
becnme  King  of  Denmark  in  I448,  and  was  King  of  Sweden 
from  1457  to  1467.  He  founded  tlie  Univei'sily  of  Copenhagen 
in  1478,  and  died  22d  May  1 481. —Christian  II.,  King  of 
Denmark  and  Norway,  and  Duke  of  Slesvig-Holstein,  surnamed 
the  Wicked,  was  born  at  Nyborg-,  Funen,  ad  July  1481.  He 
was  elected  heir-apparent  to  the  throne  of  Sweden  in  1499,  and 
became  King  of  Denmark  and  Norway  in  1513.  To  ally  him- 
self to  the  most  powerful  house  in  Europe,  he  married  Isabella, 
sister  of  Karl  V,,  at  Copenhagen,  12th  August  1515,  but  he  con- 
tinned  his  intercourse  with  his  mistress,  Dtiveke,  a  beautiful 
peasant  girl  of  Dutch  origin  with  whom  he  had  become  ac- 
quainted at  Bergen.  Meanwhile  he  sought  to  develop  the  trade  of 
Denmark,  and  raise  the  status  of  the  burgher  class,  after  the  model 
of  the  Netherlands,  thereby  exciting  at  once  the  jealousy  both  of 
the  Haiise  towns  and  of  the  nobility.  His  war  against  Sweden 
(1518-20)  was  marked  by  a  horrible  massacre  known  as  tlie 
'  Stockholm  Blood-bath,'  which  roused  the  Swedes  to  assert  their 
independence  mider  Gustavus  Vasa  (q.  v. ).  Attacked  by  the 
Hanse  towns,  and  abandoned  by  his  Danish  nobles,  C.  fled  for 
safety  and  help  to  Holland  (1523),  returned  and  landed  in  the 
S.  of  Norway  1531,  but  was  defeated,  and  taken  prisoner  at 


bom  at  Fiedcicksbnrg,  Seeland,  12th  April  1577.  After  the 
death  of  his  father  he  was  elected  by  the  States  to  the  throne, 
4tli  April  1588,  and  nnderlook  the  government  of  the  kingdom 
himself  in  1596,  Though  bold  and  enterprising,  his  foreign 
policy  was  unsuccessful,  with  the  exception  of  his  war  gainst 
Sweden  (1611-13).  Fortune  favoured  him  neitlier  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  nor  in  his  second  Swedish  war  (1643-45} ;  but 
he  was,  notwithstanding,  the  most  popular  sovereign  of  the 
Oldenbnjg  stock.  His  legislative  and  administrative  reforms 
were  highly  beneficial  to  his  coimtry ;  he  did  much  for  the  de- 
velopment of  trade  and  commerce,  and  acquired  Tranquebar,  the 
first  Danish  colony  in  the  E.  Indies.  He  died  28th  February 
1648.  — Ohriatian  VEL,  King  of  Denmark  and  Duke  of  Slesvig- 
Holstein,  was  born_at  Copenhagen,  agth  January  1749,  and  "   " 


.,.  .  Soon  after  he  exhibited  symptoms  of  mental  abeiTa- 
tion,  and  the  possession  of  supreme  authority  became  the  subject 
of  factious  strife.  For  some  time  Count  Bernstorff  and  the 
ministers  of  the  late  king  administered  the  state,  but  in  1770 
tliey  fell  before  the  influence  of  Struensee  (q.  v.),  who  in  turn  sue. 
cumbed  to  the  superior  enerCT  and  sagacity  of  the  queen-mother, 
aided  by  her  son  Prince  Fredrick.  Henceforth  C.  was  king 
onlyin  name.  His  son,  Fredrick  VI.,  April  14,  1784,  dispkiced 
his  uncle,  the  crown-prince,  and  the  queen-dowager,  and 
assumed  the  government  hunself,  assisted  by  t!ie  advice  of  tlie 
young  Andreas  Peter  Bernstorff.  C.  died  13th  March  1808,— 
Ohrietian  VIIL,  King  of  Denmark  and  Duke  of  Slesvig- 
Holstein  and  Lanenburg,  was  bom  18th  September  1786.  He 
was  acting  as  Stadtholder  in  Norway  when  his  father,  Fredrick, 
by  the  treaty  of  Kiel  (14th  Januaiy  1814),  was  compelled  to 
cede  that  country  to  Sweden.  C.  tried  to  maintEun  himself  in 
the  country  by  the  force  of  popular  feeluig,  but  an  English  fleet 
and  a  Swedish  army  were  too  much  for  him,  and  he  was  com- 
pelled to  withdraw.  Succeeding  his  father  as  King  of  Denmark 
in  1839,  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  devoted  to  the  purpose  of 
thoroughly  incorporating  the  Slesvig-Holstein  duchies  with  the 
Danish  monarchy.  He  died  20th  January  1848,  in  the  midst  of 
a  work  that  led  to  the  gravest  European  complications,  but  the 
issue  of  which  has  been  very  different  from  what  C.  anticipated. 

Christian  Burial.  See  Eoriai.,  Felo  de  se, 
Ohristian  Oharity,  Knig'hta  of,  a  French  order  founded 
by  ICing  Henri  III.  for  the  support  of  meritorious  officers  and 
soldiers  who  had  been  maimed  in  warfare,  the  revenues  of  which 
were  drawn  from  all  the  hospitals  in  the  kingdom.  Henri  IV. 
gave  solidity  to  the  institution  by  phidng  it  under  the  charge  of 
the  marshals  and  colonels  of  France.  It  was  the  germ  of  Les 
Invalids!,  founded  by  Louis  SIV.,  on  the  model  of  which  the 
British  hospitals  of  Chelsea  and  Greenwich  were  founded. 

Christian  Connection,  in  the   United  States,  is  a  sect 
formed  from  offshoots  of  the  Methodist,  Baptist,  and  Presbyterian 


140 


Churches  in  the  early  years  of  the  present  eentuiy.  Its  membeis 
regard  the  Bible  as  their  only  rule  of  faitii  and  practice,  and 
'  Christian'  as  their  only  name,  but  they  deny  Christ's  divinity. 
They  practise  immersion  and  encourage  revivals.  The  body 
lias  3578  chorches,  two  colleges,  two  academies,  and  several 
periodicals. 

Christian  Knowledge,  Society  for  Promoting',  under 
the  patronage  of  the  Queen,  and  the  presidency  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  is  the  oldest  association  of  the  kind  in 
connection  with  the  Church  of  England.  Set  agoing  in  1698, 
under  the  name  of  'The  Society'for  the  Propt^ation  of  the 
Gospel,'  chiefly  hy  the  exertions  of  Thomas  Bray,  who  after- 
wards distinguished  himself  as  a  missionary  in  Maryland,  and 
wrote  Proposals  for  the  Encouragermwt  and  Promotmg  of  Reli- 
gion in  the  Foreign  Plantation!,  it  was  incorporated  under  its 
present  name  in  1701.  Its  object  is  chiefly  the  establishment 
of  churches,  schools,  and  Hbraries,  and  the  circulation  of  Bibles 
and  other  religious  literature  in  the  colonies,  where  its  income  is 
chiefly  expended. 

Cbriatiftn'ia  (Norw.  Kristianid),  the  capital  of  Norway, 
romantically  atnated  on  the  innermost  bay  of  the  C.  Fiord, 
which  stretches  70  miles  N,  from  Skager  Rack,  It  lies  in 
a  line  valley,  at  the  base  of  tlie  Egeberg,  it  wooded  mass  of 
gneiss,  and  is  the  residence  of  the  king,  and  tlie  seat  of  the 
government,  of  a  bishop,  and  of  the  superior  courts.  Its  chief 
buildings  are  the  old  feudal  castle  of  Aggerhuus,  a  fine  modem 
cathedral,  a  university  (since  181 1)  with  twenty-two  professors, 
over  700  students,  and  a  library  of  150,000  books,  a  royal-villa 
(Oscar's  Hall)  of  Gothic  architecture,  an  exchange,  and  a  theatre. 
The  town  is  now  lighted  with  gas,  and  snpplied  with  water  from 
the  beautiful  Maridall  Lake,  There  ace  tai^e  manufactures  of 
cottons,  woollens,  paper,  oil,  soap,  brandy,  beer,  tobacco,  &c., 
and  an  export  tiade  chiefly  in  timber,  skius,  iron,  herrings, 
anchovies,  and  game.  C.  has  regular  steamboat  communica- 
tion with  various  porta  of  Germany  and  Britain,  and  is  the  key 
to  the  railway  system  of  Scandinavia.  A  fleet  of  iSo  vessels 
belongs  to  the  port,  which  is  free  of  ice  for  eight  months  of  the 
year.  In  the  fiord,  near  C,  are  many  picturesque  islands,  on  one 
of  which  (HovedS)  stands  the  rums  of  a  convent  founded  by 
Cistercian  monks  from  Lincoln  in  1 147,  The  vicinity  is  rich  in 
the  wild  scenery  of  fiord,  and  fell,  and  rushing  river.  Pop.  (1874) 
75,042,  and  induding  suburbs  87,000.  C  occupies  the  site  of  the 
old  royal  town  of  Opslo,  whidi  was,  burned  by  Christian  IV.  in 
1624  to  make  way  for  the  present  city. — The  stift  ox  province  of 
C.  has  an  area  of  10,053  ^q-  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1865)  448.374- 
See  Norway:  an  lUnstrated Htmdbooh  for  Travellers  (edited  by 
Christian  Tonsberg,  Christiania  :  Lond.  Triibner  &  Co.  1875).  , 

Christ 
by  whom,  ..... 
God  to  man  was  made.  As  compared  with  other  systems  of 
religion — Polytheistic,  Dualistic,  Pantheistic — C.  is  to  be  con- 
sidered Monotheistic.  Here,  however,  a  distinction  is  made  by 
some  between  the  C.  of  Christ  and  that  of  the  Chim:h,  wliidi 
latter  is  chai^d  with  running  into  Ditheism  (see  Christology), 
a  chaige,  however,  always  strenuously  repelled  by  the  Church. 
The  C,  of  Christ  had  for  its  essential  features  the  'fatherhood 
of  God  and  the  brotherhood  of  man ;  the  necessity  and  the 
TOlue  of  the  fedings  of  repentance,  and  assurance  of  pardon ; 
a  faith  in  the  unseen  and  eternal,  in  the  ultimate  triumph  of 
good  and  subjugation  of  evil,  and  in  a  retribution  which  shall 
render  to  every  man  according  to  his  deeds.  The  sum  of  this 
religion  was  a  divine  life  springing  from  faith  in  God ;  or,  as  the 
apostles  preferred  to  conceive  it,  from  faith  in  Christ  as  the 
Revealer  of  God.  No  other  religion  depends  so  mudi  on  the 
person  of  its  founder  as  C.  ;  other  religions  rest  exclusively  on 
the  teaching  of  their  founders,  but  it,  on  what  Christ  was  and 
did.  The.eariiest  Christian  writers  soon  began  to  maintain  that 
moral  tran^ressions  were  of  less  importance  than  errors  in  doc- 
trine, and  the  C,  of  the  Church  by-and-by  came  to  be  identified 
with  a  belief  in  the  elaborate  system  of  doctrine  which  was  gra- 
dually developed  daring  the  first  six  centuries. 

The  centi-al  doctrine  of  C.  is  that  of  the  Atonement  (q.  v.), 
but  it  again  is  t>ased  on  another.  The  fundamental  doctrine  is 
that  of  human  depravity  or  Original  Sin  (q.  v.),  the  state  into 
which  mankind  were  brought  by  the  Fall  (q.  v.).  All  men  being 
sinners,  they  cannot  be  saved  by  any  eflbtt  or  resource  of  their 


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TlJE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CHR 


L  Hence  arises  the  uecessity  for  the  atonement  of  Jesus 
Christ,  which  was  the  satisfaction  made  by  the  eternal  Son  of 
God  in  his  death  npon  the  cross,  to  God  tlie  Father  for  the  sins 
of  men.  Upon  this  now  hinges  the  -doctrine  regarding  the 
Incarnation  of  Christ,  the  Trinit);,  and  Justification  {q.  v.). 
Another  distinctive  doctrine  of  C.  is  the  existence  of,  or  rather 
the  prominence  assigned  to,  Satan,  the  Prince  of  Darkness,  by 
whom  our  first  parents  were  tempted  to  sin,  and  into  whose 
?er  the  damned  are  finally  and  eternally  consigned.  Regard- 
a  future  life,  C.  holds  that  at  the  resurrection  at  the  last  day 
all  who  have  benefited  by  the  atonement  of  Christ  will  go  to 
spend  an  eternity  of  bliss  in  heaven,  those  who  have  not,  to  an 
rtemity  of  torment  in  Hell  (q,  v.),  the  domain  of  Satan. 

As  it  may  be  seen  under  Christolt^  how  much  of  the  Jan- 
piage  of  pagan,  philosophy  was  employ^  to  express  the  Chnrch's 
loctrine  of  the  Son  of  God,  it  is  Jilso  interesting  and  mslruciive 
to  notice  how  far  her  ceremonial  in  honour  of  Christ  correqionds 
with  the  pagan  Sun-worship,  and  even  how  far  incidents  nn  the 
life  of  Christ  coincide  with  the  same.  In  the  worship  of 
Hercules,  Adonis,  Apollo,  Bacchus,  Mithra,  Krishna,  &c.,  the 
sun  was  adored  as  incarnate  in  human  form,  bom  of  a  virgin, 
underground  (the  birthplace  of  Clirist  is  now  shown  in  an  under- 
ground grotto},  in  his  infancy  subjected  to  perils,  and  afterwards 
killed  through  the  serpent  or  principle  of  evil,  but  by  his  death 
-  redeeming  mankind,  rising  again  and  ascending  into  heaven,  to 
become  the  arbiter  of  life  and  death.  The  birthday  of  the  sun- 
god  was  at  Che  winter  solstice,  at  which  time  talis  also  the 
Christian  festival  of  Christmas ;  and  he  rose  again  from  the 
dead  at  the  spring  equinox,  at  which  tune  is  the  festival  of  Easter 
Iq.  V. ).  Similar  coincidences  enist  m  connection  with  the  Viigin 
Mary  (q.  v.).  Even  the  sacrament  of  the  Eucharist  or  the  Lora's 
Supper  has  a  remarkable  coincidence  with  the  Eleusinian  myste- 

;,  from  which  the  name  of  Holy  Mysteries,  as  well  as  some  of 

rites  and  symbols,  were  borrowed,  including  the  monogram 
IHS  surrounded  by  (the  sun's)  rai^  of  glory.  These  Greek 
letters,,  representing  lakchos  Xlmun  Soler  (Bao^us  our  Saviour), 
are  made  to  represent  the  Latin  words  Jesus  Hominum  Sal- 
vator  (Jesus  the  Saviour  of  men),  although  the  Greek  character 
H  is  E,  not  H.  It  is  not,  however,  to  be  supposed  that  these 
coincidences  in  any  way  invalidate  the  claim  of  C.  to  be  con- 
sidered a  religion  of  divine  origin.  The  life  of  Christ  was  not 
an  artificial,  imaginary,  or  non-natnral  life  ;  on  the  contrary,  it 
was  profoundly  real  and  human.  What  else,  then,  could  be  ex- 
pected, but  that  in  its  great  outhnes  it  would  exhibit  striking 
resemblances  to  the  lives  of  heroes  and  demigods  in  all  the 
legends  of  religious  history?  A  divine  Hfe  must  have  innumer- 
aUe  '  imitations.'  Men  everywhere,  but  most  conspicuously  in 
the  higher  forms  of  ethnic  religion,  are  ever  striving  after  that 
ideal  which  was  revealed  in  the  Son  of  God.  Moreover,  it 
should  not  be  foigotten  that  when  C.  came  into  the  world  it  did 
not  find  the  religious  sentiment  a  blank,  or  religious  rites  and 
usages  unknown.  The  earth  was  full  of  these.  C.  appropriated 
them  wherever  this  could  be  done  without  hurt  to  its  divine 
character.  Half  the  ritiial  of  the  Church  has  its  root  in 
Roman  or  Teutonic  paganism  ;  but  it  is  puerile  to  ai^ue  on  this 
ground  that  C.  has  a  pagan  element.  It  drew  to  itself,  baptized 
and  purged  of  all  impure  or  discordant  associations,  the  number- 
less usages  of  an  overthrown  worship,  but  it  did  this  in  obedience 
to  a  wise  instinct,  and  by  doing  so,  consciously  or  unconsciously, 
testified  to  the  sincerity  of  its  pretensions  as  a  universal  religion. 

The  evidences  for  the  truth  of  C.  have  usually  been  divided 
into  external  and  internal.  I.  The  external  include — I.  The 
testimony  (i)  of  Che  original  witnesses — />.,  the  New  Testament 
writers;  and  (2)  of  subsequent  witnesses — ;,«.,  the  Christian 
ftithers.  3.  The  miracles  wrought  in  attestation  of  it,  both  by 
Christ  and  his  apostles,  and  especially  the  crowning  miracle  of 
the  Resurrection.  3.  R-ophecy  (l>  in  the  Old  Testament  r^ard- 
ing  Christ,  and  (l)  in  the  New  Testament  regarding  events — 
e.g.,  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem— to  happen  after  the  time  of 
Christ.  II.  The  internal  include— I.  The  consistency  of  the 
New  Testament  wilh  itself,  seen,  e.g.,  in  nndesigned  coinci- 
dences and  the  candour  of  the  writers,  and  with  contemporary 
literature,  z.  The  purity  of  its  morality  as  compared  with  that 
of  any  other  Itnown  system  of  religion.  3.  The  mean  condition 
of  the  men  in  whose  writings  this  superior  system  appears. 
4.  The  correspondence  between  the  doctrines  of  C.  and  tlie 
facts  of  our  own  nature,  5,  The  identity  and  originality  of 
Christ's  character,  as  well  as  that  of  the  apostles.    6.  The  im- 


possibility of  accounting  for  it  (i)  by  the  state  of  tlie  world  at 
its  birth,  or  (z)  by  any  of  the  motives  which  instigate  men  to  tlie 
fabrication  of  religions.  Less  importance  is  now  attached  than 
foi-merly  to  some  of  these  arguments.  Thus,  it  used  to  be  con- 
sidered a  strong  aigument  tliat  at  the  time  of  the  origin  of  C.  there 
was  nothing  human  to  account  for  it— that  '  the  incongruity  be- 
tween this  religion  and  all  the  circumstances  amidst  which  it  grew 
up  was  so  remarltable  as  to  render  it  necessary  to  look  beyond 
and  above  this  world  for  its  explanation.'  But  a  better  acquain- 
tance with  contemporary  literature  lias  shown  this  position  to  be 
untenable,  and  to  be  particularly  weak  as  an  argument  for  the 
supernatural  origin  of  C.  As  to  Judaism,  were  not  our  ideas 
regarding  the  rdation  between  it  and  C.  greatly  confused,  it 
would  never  have  been  supposed  that  the  New  Testament,  which 
was  written  'among  Jews,  by  Jews,  for  Jews,' did  not  speak  the 
language  of  the  time.  The  period  when  C.  arose  was  that  of 
tlie  Mishnic  development  of  the  Talmud,  and  such  terms  as 
redemption,  baptism,  grace,  faith,  salvation,  regeneration.  Son 
of  Man,  Son  of  God,  kingdom  of  heaven,  were  household  words 
of  Talmudic  Judaism.  The  ethics,  also,  of  the  Talmud  and  of 
C.  are,  in  their  broad  outlines,  identical,  including  the  golden 
rule,  which  was  quoted  as  a  well-known  saymg,  'comprising  the 
whole  law,"  by  Rabbi  Hillel,  who  died  when  Jesus  was  ten  years 
old.  The  glory  of  C.  is  not  to  have  invented  these  ideas,  but, 
as  has  been  said,  '  Co  have  carried  those  golden  germs,  hidden  in 
the  schools  and  among  the  silent  community  of  the  learned,  into 
the  market  of  hamanity '  C.  was  also  affected  by  pagan  philo- 
sophy, chiefly  through  the  Alexandrian  Philo,  whose  Iheolt^ 
was  '  in  great  measure  founded  on  his  peculiar  combination  of 
the  Jevrish,  the  Platonic,  and  the  Neo-Piatonic  conception  of 
God.'  The  teaching  of  the  Jerusalem  rabbis — t.g.,  Hillel  and 
Gamaliel — was  tinged  with  Philonism,  and  (he  Apostle  Paul,  the 
disciple  of  the  latter,  was  undoubtedly  unbued  with  these  Alex- 
andrine ideas,  whicli  he  introduced  into  C.  But  although  it  is 
thus  seen  that  an  argument  for  the  snpernatural  origin  of  C. 
cannot  be  founded  on  the  incongruity  between  it  and  tlie  cir- 
cumstances amidst  which  it  grew  up,  it  need  be  no  ailment 
against  it  tliat  so  many  contemporary  ideas  were  incoiporaCed 
with  it  For  alihough  C.  is  sometliing  communicated  to  nature 
and  reason  from  a  higher  source,  it  stands  in  necessary  connection 
with  these  powers  and  with  their  mode  of  development.  Otlier- 
wise  it  would  not  be  filled  to  raise  them  to  higher  perfection,  or 
be  able  to  exercise  any  influence  upon  tliem  at  all. 

It  ought  to  be  remembered  that  C,  cannot  be  identified  with 
the  creed  of  any  particular  section  of  tlie  Church.  Its  funda- 
mental essence  lies,  not  in  speculations  regarding  the  being  and 
constitution  of  God,  but  in  living  a  pure  and  godly  life,  in  catch- 
ing the  spirit  and  obeying  the  teaching  of  Christ.  Every  one 
who  has  studied  Church  history  knows  how  liquid  the  doctrine 
of  the  Church  has  been;  the  one  unchangeable  element  of  it 
being  the  historical  peison  of  Christ.  And  as  Jesus  said,  '  The 
words  that  I  speak  unto  you,  they  are  spirit,  and  they  are  life,' 
these  words,  which  are  the  primal  indefeasible  tniths  of  C, 
willneverpass  away.  %f:s'Sza,'a^'^%KirchcngiscM(hti;  Parker's 
Discourse  of  Religion ;  Paley,  Chalmers,  &a,  on  the  Evidtttces ; 
Greg's  Creed  of  Christendom  (3d  ed.  1874)  ;  E.  Deutsch  on 
the  Talt/md  {Quart.  Hev.  October  1867,  or  Lit.  Hems.  1874)  ; 
Philo's  Works  (cf.  Jones's  EcdisiasHcal  Researches);  Milman's 
Hist,  of  C;  Keim'B  Der  geschichtliche  CAHslus  {^A  ed.  1866; 
Eng.  1S73). 

Ohris'tiaiiaaiid  (Norw.  Kristiaiisand),  the  liarbour  and  chief 
town  of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  Norway,  in  the  anil  or 
bailivik  of  Mandal,  at  the  moutli  of  the  Torredalselv  {Otleraa),  on 
the  Christiansandfjord,  is  tlie  seat  of  a  bishop  and  of  the  pro- 
vincial courts,  and  is  also  a  naval  station,  withagrowii^  trade  in 
wood,  copper,  iron,  dried  fish,  salmon,  &c.  It  is  also  a  naval 
arsenal,  and  forms  the  central  point  of  the  Scandinavian  steam 
navigation.  There  are  manufiictures  of  leather,  tobacco,  cotton, 
and  beer,  besides  extensive  dyeworks  and  shipbuilding  yards. 
The  cathedra!  is  the  principal  building.  Pop.  (1872)  11,468. 
C.  was  founded  by  Christian  IV.  in  1641,  after  whom  it  is 
named.  The  province  or  slift  of  C.  lies  hi  the  S.W.  of  Norway, 
includes  the  bailiviks  of  Nedenas,  Lister,  Mandal,  and  Stavan- 
ger,  ivith  pait  of  Bratsberg,  and  has  an  area  of  14,870  sq.  miles, 
and  a  pop.  (1872)  of  330,000, 

Cliria'tianstad  (Swed.  ICristianstad),  a  fortified  town  of 
Sweden,  and  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  on  tlio 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPJiDIA. 


^- 


estuary  of  the  Ilelge,  in  tlie  Baltic,  2?o  miles  S.W.  of  Stockh  Im 
by  railway.  It  has  an  arsenal,  a  fine  church,  a  senate-h 
several  high-class  schools,  and  its  jnanufactures  are  ch  fly 
woollens,  leather,  gloves,  and  tobacco.  Pop.  (1872)  6222  C 
was  fouiided  in  1614  by  Christian  IV.,  from  whom  it  talt  t 
name.  The  Ian,  or  province,  has  an  area  of  2457  sq.  miles  nd 
a  pop.  (1875)  of  228,498. 

Ohris'tianated,  tlie  capital  of  the  Danish  island  of  S  nt 
Cruz,  W.  Indies,  lies  on  the  N.E.  coast  of  the  island,  and  is 
defeiided  by  a  battery.  It  is  the  residence  of  the  Danish  gover- 
nor of  tlie  W.  Indies,  and  has  a  good  harbour  and  some  trade. 
Pop.  about  6000. 

Oliris'tianaund  (Nonv.  KrUHanmnd),  a  town  frequentl3r  con- 
founded with  Christiansand,  is  situated  in  the  amt  or  bailivik 
of  Romsdal,  in  the  N.  of  Norway,  and  has  an  export  trade  in 
wood  and  fish.  It  was  a  flourishing  place  of  trade  in  the  17th  c, 
and  bote  the  name  Lille-Fosen  till  1742.     Pop.  (1872)  4290. 

Ohristi'na,  (lueen  of  Sweden,  the  onh'  child  of  Gustav 
Adolf  and  of  Maria  Eleonora,  Princess  of  Brandenliurg,  was 
horn  6th  December  1626.  She  succeeded  her  father  in  1632, 
assumed  the  reins  of  government  in  1644,  and  in  1650  was 
crowned  king.  The  originally  masculine  character  of  her  mind 
was  intensified  by  a  too  robust  education.  She  hated  to  be 
dressed  like  a  woman,  often  clothing  herself  in  male  attire,  and 
was  keenly  fond  of  riding  and  hunting.  Yet  for  some  years 
she  ruled  with  vigour  and  intelligence,  patronising  scientific  and 
'earned  men.  Indeed,  so  loi^  as  the  great  chancellor  Oxen- 
itierna  lived  she  did  well.  But  eccentricity,  if  not  insanity,  began 
0  develop  itself  in  her,  and  in,  1654  she  abdicated  the  crown  in 
favour  of  her  cousin,  Karl  Gustav,  reserving  to  heiself  sufficient 
revenues  to  maintain  her  in  royal  stale.  C.  next  went  to  Rome, 
and  embraced  Roman  Cathohcism  under  the  name  of  Alessan- 
dra.  For  a  time  she  resided  in  France,  where  she  incurred  great 
odium  by  the  execution  for  treason  of  her  equerry,  the  Marquis 
Monaldeschi.  Attempts  subsequently  made  on  the  crowns  both 
of  Sweden  and  Poland  failing,  she  spent  the  remainder  of  her 
life  in  Rome  in  artistic  and  scientific  studies.  She  died  April 
19,  i68g.  C.  left  behind  her  some  small  works,  which  m^  be 
found  in  ArchenhoU's  Mimoirm  da-  KSidgm  C.  (4  vols.  Berl. 
1751-60).  The  genuineness  of  the  'Letters'  which  appeared 
under  her  name  in  1762  is  undoubted.  See  Grauert's  C,  KSnigin 
von  Sckwedm  und  sir  Hof{?,  vols.  Bonn,  1838-42). 

OhriB'tieoii,  Sir  Bobert,  D.C.L.,  born  July  18,  1797,  at 
Edinburgh,  where  his  father,  the  late  Alexander  Christison,  was 
Professor  of  Humanity  in  the  University.  After  graduating  here 
in  1819  as  M.D.,  C.  spent  some  time  in  London  and  Paris, 
applying  himself  to  the  study  of  toxicology,  in  connection  with 
whidi  Ms  name  is  deservedly  famous.  After  his  return  to  Edin- 
burgh, he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Medical  Jurisprudence  in 
1822,  and  ten  years  later  Professor  of  Materia  Medica,  whicli 
chair  he  holds  at  present.  His  Treatise  an  Faisani  (1829)  has  a 
world-wide  reputation,  and  is  the  standard  work  on  tlie  subject, 
A  SiograpAical  S&itck  of  Edward  Tumtr,  M.D.  (1837),  On- 
Granular  Degenaatton  of  the  Kidneys  (1839),  and  The  Dis- 
^msaiory  (1842),  may  be  mentioned  among  his  other  works.  C, 
is  Ordinary  Physician  to  the  Queen  in  Scotland,  has  been  twice 
President  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  was  created  a 
baronet  in  1871,  was  President  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edin- 
butgli  (1868-73),  ^"^  's  President-elect  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion for  1876. 

Ohris'tmas  is  the  anniversary  of  the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ, 
observed  on  the  25th  December.  The  Western  Church,  m  which 
it  appears  as  generally  celebrated  after  the  middle  of  the  4tli  c. , 
has  always  kept  to  this  day ;  the  Eastern  observed  it  first  on  the 
20th  April  or  20th  May,  then,  along  with  the  Feast  of  the 
Epiphany  (q.  v.),  on  the  6th  January  ;  out  at  the  close  of  the  4th 
^  altered  its  practice  to  suit  Western  usage.  St  Chrysoatom, 
in  advocating  this  change  in  the  East  to  the  true  day,  which, 
formerly  uncertain,  had  been  made  known  by  some  coming  from 
the  West,  indicates  the  existence  of  a  tradition  in  the  West  that 
the  angel  appeared  to  Zacharias  to  announce  the  birth  of  John 
the  Baptist  on  the  great  day  of  atonement  — September  23d, 
from  which  C.  was  reckoned,  Nme  months  from  lliis  date  gives 
June  24lh,  John  Baptist's  Day  ;  and  six  months  more  (cf.  Luke 
i.  26  and  36)  gives  December  25th.  This  was  the  date  of  the 
great-heathen  festival  of  midwinter,  and  it  may  bo  that  the  tra- 
142 


d  as  moulded  to  suit  th 

as  I  e  birthtime  of  the  sun  about  to  return  towards  the 
h      h   h  was  celebrated  with  all  manner  of  rejoicing  and 
I-y      At  Rome  this  was  the  Saturnalia  (q- v.),  which  in- 
1  d  d  th    Sigillaria  or  fisiival  of  the  infants.     The  Church  was 
p    b  bly  u  able  to  abolisli  the  pagan  revelir,  but  it  could  at 
1  as  und  it  with  other  and  more  sacred  associations,  and 

1  g  d  lly  wean  its  converts  from  all  memories  or  attach- 
ments mcompatible  with  their  new  faith. 

Gluietmas-Box,  a  gift  in  money  which  it  was  formerly  a 
prevailing  custom  in  England  to  give  on  the  day  after  Christmas 
■—Boxing-Day — to  domestic  servants,  apprentices,  and  other 
persons  of  inferior  social  condition.  Tradesmen  used  to  be  ex- 
pected to  give  a  C.-E.  to  the  male  and  female  servants  of  their 
customers ;  even  messengers  and  other  underling  Government 
servants  looked  for  it  from  their  superiors.  The  usage  led  to  so 
much  abuse,  the  recipients  becommg  clamorous  for  it  as  a  right, 
that  tiadesmen  in  London  and  elsewhere  put  notices  in  their 
windows  tliat  the  payment  of  aC.-B.  had  been  discontinued; 
and  Government  backed  them  in  putting  an  end  to  it  by  discon- 
tinuing, at  Christmas  1S36,  the  customary  gifts.  Since  then  the 
practice  has  been  on  the  decrease,  but  postmen  still  expect  (not 
in  vain)  their  C.-B. 

Ohristmas  Carols,  festal  chorals  or  part-songs,  still  sung 
in  many  niral  districts  of  England  in  celebration  of  Christmas, 
(The  word  'carol'  is  the  French  carols,  Itsl.  carala,  *a  round 
dance ; '  probably  from  Lat.  can/lla.)  These  songs,  while 
mamly  rel^ous,  were  also  at  times  qnitd  secular  in  their 
feeling,  as  one  may  see  from  the  '  Was^ilers,'  '  Boar's  Head,' 
and  '  Holly  and  Ivy '  C.  C. ;  but  those  most  popular  now  are 
either  legendary  and  narrative,  as  '  God  rest  you,  merry  gentle- 
man,' or  filled  with  a  jubilant  religious  spirit,  as  the  'In  Mxcelsis 
Gloria'  (supposed  to  have  been  written  about  1500),  'Christ  was 
bom  on  Christmas- Day,'  '  Hark  !  all  around  the  welkin  rings,' 
&c.  Regarded  strictly  as  songs  of  joyous  thank^ving  and  praise 
commemorative  of  the  birth  of  the  Saviour,  the  antiquity  of  tlie 
C.  C.  most  reach  back  to  an  early  period  in  the  history  of  Chris- 
tian nations.  The  most  ancient  known,  however,  date  from  the 
middle  ages,  and  consist  generally  of  portions  of  miracle-plays, 
mysteries,  and  legends,  The  earliest  English  C.  C.  date  from 
the  15th  c.  ;  and  they  continued  to  be  commonly  sung  down  to 
the  reign  of  Charles  I.  The  Puritans  suppressed  them,  and  all 
other  old  Christmas "  customs,  by  Act  of  Parliament ;  but  they 
came  into  fitvour  again  at  the  Restoration,  after  which  period 
a  number  of  free  and  noisy  carols  were  composed.  Since  then 
C.  C.  !rave  gradually  fallen  into  disuse,  except  in  the  remotei 
country  districts.  The  C.  C.  belong  distinctly  tcr  the  balhd 
form  of  poetry.  The  '  Carol  for  St  Stephen's  Day '  is  identical 
in  tone  and  poetical  structure  with  the  earliest  English  and 
Scotch  ballads ;  and  a  similar  license  of  incident  and  expression 
was  claimed  by  the  writeis  of  carols  and  the  contemporaiy  wi  iters 
of  ballads.  For  example,  a  number  of  C.  C.  have  sprung  out  of 
a  miracle-play,  in  which  Adam,  Eve,  Herod,  and  the  Duke  of 
Marlborough  feure  among  the  dramatis  personi^.  Again,  in  th- 
carol  '  I  saw  three  ships,  the  author  says,  '  O  they  sailed  int 
Bethlehem,'  thus  performing  a  geographical  feat  equal  t 
Shakespeare's  anchoring  his  fleet  in  Bohemia.  Many  of  the 
old  C.  C,  however,  are  of  h^h  merit,  and  give  expression  to 
pure  religions  feeling  in  language  at  once  simple  and  pictur- 
esque. Collections  m  C  C.  £ive  been  published  by  Davies  Gil- 
bert, Mr  Sandys,  Dr  Runhault,  and  Mr  Thomas  Wright;  hut  the 
latest  and  fullest  collection  is  a  ^  Garland  of  C.  C,  Ancient  aiiH 
Modern,  edited  by  Joshua  Sylvester  (Lond,  J.  C.  Hotten,  1861). 

Ohrietmas  Sose.    See  Hellebore. 

Christol'ogy  is  the  doctrine  of  the  Church  regarding  Christ. 
The  two  influences  which  were  at  work  in  the  Churcli  in  the  1st 
and  2d  centuries — -the  Hebrew  and  the  Greek — gave  rise  at  once 
to  two  antagonistic  Systems  of  C,  that  of  the  Ebionites  (q.  v.), 
and  that  of  the  Docetse  (q.  v.)  and  Gnostics  (q.  v.).  According 
to  the  former,  Jesus  was  a  mere  man  ;  according  to  the  latter,  his 
body  was  a  mere  phantom  possessed  by  a  divine  being ;  and  the 
history  of  C.  till  the  beginning  of  the  middle  ages  is  simply  a 
history  of  the  continual  tendency  of  popular  piety  to  exalt  the 
divine  element  in  his  nature. 

Before  the  time  of  Christ  the  notion  of  one  supreme  deity  had 
undergone  some  modification.     The  primal  deity  had  been  rt 


yLaOogle 


^- 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CHR 


creation  of  the  world  to  have  been  effecLed,  by  an  intermediale 
infericr  being.  This  doctrine  prevailed  from  Greece  to  China. 
It  was  the  bosis  of  the  Indian  religion  and  philosophy,  of  Zoroas- 
trianism,  Pktonisni,  and  the  Platonic  Judaism  of  Alexandria. 
According  to  the  Jewish  rabbis,  the  ordinary  medium  of  inler- 
;e  between  God  and  the  prophets  was  the  Memra  or  Divine 
Word,  a  name  which  occurs  in  the  Indian,  Pei-sian,  Platonic, 
and  Alexandrian  systems.  The  great  master  of  the  art  of  alle- 
gorising Scripture  was  Philo  of  Alexandria,  who,  in  entire 
ignoranceof  Jesus,  described  the  Word  (Or.  logos)  as  'the  Son  of 
God  the  Father,'  '  the  first-begotten  of  God,'  '  the  image  and 
likeness  of  God,'  '  the  instrument  by  whom  the  worU  was  made,' 
'liie  light  of  the  world,'  'alone  able  to  see  God,'  'the  shepherd 
of  God's  flock,'  'the  physician  that  heals  all  evil,'  &c.  In  the 
Epistles  of  Paul  and  John,  and  that  to  the  Hebrews,  in  the 
Fourth  Gospel,  and  in  the  Apologies  of  Justin  Martyr,  the  same 
ideas  regardmg  the  Word  are  applied  to  Jesus  of  Naiareth.  By 
the  middle  of  the  3d  c.  this  doctrine  of  the  Word,  variously  under- 
stood— the  expression  '  Son  of  God '  being  adopted  by  Origen — 
was  generally  accepted  both  in  the  East  and  in  tlie  West ;  although 
not  without  protest  from  some,  hence  called  Alogists,  to  whom 
it  appeared  that  this  doctrine  of  a  God  of  secondary  rank  in- 
carnate in  Jesus  was  closely  akin  to  Ditheism.  To  avoid  this, 
therefore,  the  theory,  first  propounded  by  the  Shepherd  of  Her- 
nias (q,  V.},  that  the  Son  was  simply  the  man  Jesus  possessed  by 
tire  Spirit  of  God,  was  extended  and  completed  by  Sabellius 
(q,  v.),  according  to  whom  ttie  three  names  of  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  Spirit  sigmfied  merely  three  modes  of  the  deity.  Another 
form  of  the  Unitarian  protest  was  typified  in  the  theory  of  Paul 
of  Samosata,  according  to  whom  the  Word  was,  in  God  and  man 
alike,  the  principle  of  thought,  by  the  action  of  which  Jesns  be- 
came perfectly  united  to  God,  and  in  him  God  revealed  Iiimself 
to  save  the  human  race. 

The  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  Churdi  at  the  end  of  the  3d  c. 
was  expressed  by  the  Council  of  Antioch  (269),  which  condemned 
Paul  of  Samosata,  when^  seeking  to  avoid  both  Sabdlianlsm  and 
Ditheism,  it  decreed  that  the  Son  was  not  consubstantial  with 
the  Father.  But  the  tendency  was  still  farther  to  glorify  Christ. 
For  It^ically  stating  the  subordination  of  the  Son  implied  in  the 
decree  of  the  Council  of  Antioch,  Arius  was  condemned  as  a 
heretic  by  the  Council  of  Nice  (325),  which  at  the  same  time 
decreed  that  the  Son  was  consubstantial  (Gr.  hommusios)  with  the 
Father,  and  perfect  God.  A  middle  [Kirty  between  the  Arians 
and  the  oriodox,  hence  called  Serai-Arians,  charged  the  latter 
with  Sabellianism,  and  adopted  themselves  the  term  Jiomoiousia 
(Gr„  Mmilarity  of  substance) ;  but  tliat  party  triumphed  which 
most  exalted  Christ,  because  they  were  moving  with  the  current 
of  popular  sentiment,  while  the  others  were  striving  against  it. 

But  now  arose  the  difficulty  of  how  to  adjust  the  humanity  of 
Jesns  to  his  perfect  deity.  ApoUinaris  did  not  hesitate  to  say  that 
a  god-man  was  a  logical  monster,  comparable  to  a  minotaur,  and 
held  that  the  sml  and  body  in  Jesus  alone  were  human,  while  the 
Word  supplied  in  him  the  place  of  the  mind  in  other  men,  and 
that  he  nod  thus  in  reality  only  one  nature.  Apollinaris  was 
condemned  by  the  Council  of  Constantinople  (384),  but  his  ideas 
survived  onder  the  name  of  Monophysism  (q.  1.).  To  avoid  annihi- 
lating either  the  one  nature  or  the  other,  theologians  were  driven 
now  to  speak  of  the  two  natures  as  separate.  Consequently 
Nestorius  (q.  v. )  refused  to  call  the  Virgin  Mary  Mother  of  God, 
because,  he  Siud,  she  could  only  be  the  mother  of  the  human 
nature  assumed  by  the  Logos.  But  popular  piety  demanded  this 
also ;  Nestorius  was  condemned  by  the  Council  of  Ephesus  (431), 
and  with  the  materials  now  collected  the -4iM«fljjo«  Criid^i^.  v.) 
was  constructed,  which  contains  in  its  essential  points  the  C. 
which  is  held  both  in  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant 
Churches. 

.l.e  Reformation  the  C.  of  the  reformers  turned  on  their 
theories  repirding  the  Lord's  Supper.  Luther  adopted  the  view 
called  Communion  of  Attributes,  which  amounts  to  this,  that  the 
human  nature  of  Jesus  had  become  a  participator  in  the  proper 
attributes  of  deity.  Calvinism  greatly  toned  down  the  harshness 
of  the  notion  of  peisonality  as  applied  to  the  Trinity,  the  persons 
being  simply  divine  attributes,  which  is  very  like  Sabelhanism, 
and  denied  that  worship  should  be  paid  to  Christ.  The  scattered 
"  ■  ianism  of  the  l6th  c  took  the  name  of  Socinianisra,  and 
ined  tliat  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  a  patent  and  crying 


contradiction  in  itself,  and  is  besides  opposed  to  the  idea  of  the 
divine  perfection.  Arminianism  taught  wliat  very  closely  re- 
sembled the  Arianism  of  the  3d  c.  In  more  recent  " 
there  has  arisen  a  feeling  of  reluctance  to  pursue  C. 
branch  of  theological  speculation.  Experience  has  convinced 
religious  men  that  it  is  not  a  fit  subject  for  precise  and  dogmatic 
expression.  Yet  it  cannot  be  said  that  there  is  any  viable  lean- 
ing towards  the  old  Arian  or  Unitarian  view  i  there  seems  rather 
to  root  itself  deeper  and  deeper  in  the  Christian  conscie 
indestructible  sense  of  the  unique  grandeur  of  Christ's  : 
which  better  accords  with  the  mysterious  teachit^  of  the  Chntch 
■'mwith   '     "■  ■"      ■ ^.-  "_ — ,.__,.-_,,....    .^ 

•evdopmt 

Cliris'toplie,  Henri,  Kmg  of  Hayti,  born  in  Grenada, 
October  6,  1767,  of  negro  parents,  and  for  some  time  a  slave, 
became  in  1793  one  of  flie  leaders  of  the  blackinsurgents  against 
the  French,  and  in  1797  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general  by  Toussaint-rOuverture.  In  1802  he  defended  Cape 
Town  against  General  Leclerc,  who  had  conducted  an  expedi- 
tion from  France  to  regain  St  Domingo  from  the  blacks. 
On  the  death  of  Dessalines,  C.  intrigued  to  succeed  him, 
but  Pction,  a  man  of  colour,  proclaimed  a  republic  at  Port- 
au-Prince.  C,  however,  contrived  to  have  himself  jjroclaimed 
President  of  Hayti  for  life  (17th  February  1807),  and  in  181 1  lie 
took  the  title  of  King  as  Hemi  I.  He  next  created  a  nobility, 
established  a  code  of  laws,  encouraged  education,  and  imitated 
as  far  as  practicable  the  proceedings  of  Napoleon.  On  the  death 
of  Petion  in  1818,,  he  attempted  to  unite  the  S.  and  W.  of  the 
island  with  the  N.,  but  was  defeated  by  General  Boyer,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Petion.  An  insurrection  broke  out  in  1820,  and  C, 
deserted  by  his  bodyguard,  shot  himself,  24th  October  1820. 
He  was  a  man  of  courage,  energy,  and  considerable  accom- 
plishments. 

Ohria'toplier,  St  (Or.  '  bearer  of  Christ '),  in  the  tradition 
of  the  Churcli  a  saint,  reputed  to  be  a  native  of  Syria  or  Pales- 
tine, and  a  martyr,  under  Decitis,  m  the  3d  c.  A.D.  He  is  repre- 
sented as  a  man  of  huge  size  and  strength,  who  did  penance  for 
his  early  sins  and  personal  attendance  on  the  devil  by  carrying 
pilgrims  across  a  river.  Once,  says  the  legend,  he  carried  over 
Christ  in  the  form  of  a  little  child,  who,  when  he  was  smfcing 
under  his  burden,  bade  him  push,  his  staff  into  the  ground, 
where  it  changed  before  the  next  day  into  a  fruit-bearing  palm. 
This  miracle  led  to  numerous  conversions.  Relics  of  C.  are 
esijecially  abundant  in  Spain,  Carved  and  painted  representa- 
tions of  him  were  very  common  in  medireva!  churclies.  He  was 
invoked  during  plagues,  and  to  drive  away  the  spirits  guarding 
hidden  treasmes,  was  assigned  tutelage  over  fishing,  and  was 
very  popular  among  the  lower  classes,  who  held  a  figure  of  St  C 
to  be  a  preventive  of  secret  dangers.  Thus  Chaucer's  yeoman  j 
carried  'a  Cristofre  on  his  brest  of  silver  schene.'  An  Oi-dec  I 
of  St  C.  was  fomided  in  Austria  in  1517.  The  Greek  Church 
holds  his  festival  on  the  gth  of  May ;  the  Roman  Catholic,  on 
the  25th  of  July. 

Ghristoplier's,  St,  or  St  Kitt's,  one  of  the  Leeward  Is- 
lands, called  by  the  natives  '  the  fertile  isle,*  was  discovered  in 
1493  by  Columbus,  who  gave  it  his  own  Christian  name,  and 
colonised  in  1623  by  the  English,  who  were  confirmed  in  their 
possession  of  it  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713).  It  lies  N.W. 
and  S.E.,  and  is  about  zo  miles  in  length,  with  a  very  unequal 
breadth.  Area,  68  sq.  miles;  poiJ,  (1871)  28,169.  Rugged, 
sterile  mountains  of  volcanic  origin,  containing  brackish  hot 
springs,  traverse  the  island,  culminating  in  Mount  Misery,  an 
exhausted  volcano,  with  a  height  of  37 1 1  feet.  Sugar,  rum,  and 
molasses  are  the  staple  exports.  The  revenne  of  St  C.  in  1S71 
was  .£31,458  ;  expenditme,  £26,721 ;  value  of  total  imports, 
^196,051;  exports,  ;^274,o8o;  value  of  the  sugar  exported, 
^219,272.  Ini87i  there  was  a  public  debt  of  ^£92,000.  The 
capital  is  Basseterre  (q.  v.).  In  1866  St  George's  Church  was 
built  here  at  an  expense  of/i5,ooo;  and  on  July  31,  1S65, 
a  terrific  fire  took  place,  in  which  1000  houses  were  destroyed, 
but  fortunately  only  one  life  was  lost. 

ChriBt'e  College,  Oamljiridge,  into  which  was  merged  an 
earlier  college  founded  by  Henry  VL,  was  founded  in  1505  by 
the  Lady  Margaret,  mother  of  King  Henry  VII.,  and  enriched  by 

Edward  VI.,  Sir  John  Finch,  Sir  Thomas  Baines,  Mr  Chris- 
143 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPJIDIA. 


topher  Tancr&3,  and  oihers.  Its  scholarships  and  fellowships 
have  frequently  beeii  increased  m  value.  Among  the  most 
celebrated  students  at  C.  C.  have  been  Bishop  Latimer,  Milton, 
Henry  More,  Ralph  Cudworth,  and  Archdeacon  Palej.  Ti 
college  has  the  presentation  to  eighteen  livings.  The  society 
1875  consisted  of  a  master,  fifteen  fellows,  and  twenty-nine  scho- 
lars, twelve  of  these  receiving  their  title  from  the  founders 
number  of  undergraduates  was  108,  and  of  members  on 
boards  447. 

Christ's  Hospital,  popularly  known  as  the  Blue-Coat 
School,  and  situated  in  Newgate  Street,  London,  is  one  of  the 
five  great  hospitals  of  the  metropolis,  and  was  founded  on  the 
solicitation  of  a  number  of  citizens  by  Edward  VI.  a  few  days 
before  his  death,  for  orphans  and  foundlings,  the  site  of  the 
buildmg  being  the  Old  Greyfriars  Monastery,  Frequent  reforms, 
the  chief  of  which  were  made  by  the  governors  in  1856,  have 
practically  converted  C.  H.  from  an  hospital  into  a  public  school 
for  the  sons  of  London  freemen  and  Anghcan  clergymen  ;  but 
the  picturesque  dress— a  blue  tunic  and  petticoat,  yellow  breeches 
and  stoeltings,  red  waistband,  and  a  worsted  cap,  more  conspi- 
cuous by  its  absence  than  its  presence— has  i-emained  to  the  present 
time.  Various  clianges  have  been  introduced  into  the  curriculum 
and  conduct  of  the  school.  Although  still  essentially  a  classical 
seminary,  the  'modem  side' — in  the  shape  of  modem  languages, 
literature,  &c. — is  not  neglected.  At  one  time  the  boys  were 
somewhat  harsljy  dealt  with  (a  graphic  account  of  this  is  given 
by  Chailea  Lamb),  now  they  are  treated  much  as  other  public 
schoolboys,  the  only  duty  savouring  of  the  old  charity  days 
being,  we  believe,  the  making  of  their  own  beds  by  the  boys. 
The  income  of  C  H.  amounts  to  between  ^^50,000  and  :^6o.ooo, 
the  original  foundation  having  been  enriched  by  various  subse- 
quent ones,  particularly  that  of  King  Charles  II.  of /'7000.  In 
1683  a  pr^aratory  school  was  founded  for  both  girls  and  boys 
at  Hertford,  the  former,  however,  remaining  there  permanently, 
while  the  boys  go  to  London  wlien  they  are  old  enough. 
The  age  of  entrance  is  nine,  and  of  leaving  fifteen,  although 
'  King  s  Boys '  (those  who  attend  the  matliematical  school, 
founded  by  Charles  II.)  and  'Grecians,'  i.i.,  the  highest  class, 
e^ht  of  whom  are  sent  on  scholarships  either  to  Oxford  or  to  Cam- 
bridge, remain  longer.  The  building  of  C.  H.  has  had  numerous 
vicissitudes;  it  was  destroyed  In  the  Great  Fire  of  1666,  and  has 
been  twice  rebuilt,  first  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  and  secondly, 
1825,  by  Mr  Shaw.     The  governors,  who  live  the  right  of 

minating  pupils,  and  are  also  the  patrons  of  several  livmgs,  are 
at  present  Her  Majesty,  the  Prince  of  Wales,  the  Duke  of  Edin- 
burgh, the  Duke  of  Connaught,  the  Mayor  and  Aldermen  of 
London,  twelve  members  of  the  Court  of  Common  Council,  and 
about  400  noblemen  and  gentlemen,  who  have  contributed  to  the 
extent  of  ^400  to  the  benefit  of  the  hospital.  In  1S75  the  average 
attendance  of  pupils  at  C.  H.  and  Hertford  schools,  including 
girls,  was  1075.  There  is  accommodation  at  the  former  for  about 
800,  and  at  the  latter  for  about  400.  The  number  of  nmsteis  at 
the  two  schools,  including  lecturers,  is  about  forty.  Some  very 
eminent  men  have  received  the  earlier  part  of  their  education  at  C. 
H. ;  amoi^  others,  Camden,  Stillingfleet,  Richardson,  Coleridge, 
Charles  Lamb,  and  Leigh  HimL  For  interesting  accounts  of  the 
school,  see,  among  other  books,  Annrd  ef  C.  H.by  a  Bhis{\'&^'])t 
and  Staunton's  Great  Schools  of  England  (1869). 

Christ's  Ibom.     See  Jujube  and  Paliurus. 

Chromat'lo  passages,  in  music,  are  passages  proceeding  by 
or  confining  intervals  diffeiing  (by  a  semitone  in  tempered  in- 
straments)  from  those  of  the  onlinary  or  diatonic  scale  of  the  key 
in  which  the  passages  are  written.  They  are  used  for  the  sake  of 
variety  or  piquancy,  or  to  attain  some  special  effect,  and  under 
these  circumstances  are  agreeable ;  but  if  employed  too  often, 
the  ear  tires  of  tliem,  and  the  music  (as  is  so  often  the  case  with 
^>ohr's  compositions)  loses  strength  and  vigour.  The  expression 
C,  scale  is  ollen  (incorrectly)  applied  to  a  serie 
semitones  like  the  notes  of  the  pianoforte. 

Chroutaik,  in  optics,  opposed  to  Achiomatlc  (q.  v.). 

Chromatics,  that  part  of  optics  which  treats  of  colour, 
pencil  of  sunlight,  when  passed  through  a  prism,  decomp 
into  a  beautiful  series  of  various  coloured  tints,  passing  by  con- 
tinuous gradation  into  each  other.  Newton  believed  this  series 
to  be  composed  of  seven  primary  coloui-s,  the  intermediate  shades 
'44 


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by  tlie  intermixture  of  two  of  the  primary  ones. 
It  was  Brewster's  opinion,  and  in  this  he  is  supported  by  Clerk- 
Maxwell,  that  there  are  only  three  primary  colours — red,  yellow, 
and  blue.     See  Spectrum  Ahaiysis. 

The  colours  of  natural  bodies  are  dependent  upon  their  power 
of  absorption  for  the  different  coloured  rays.  Every  body,  if 
thin  enough,  is  transparent ;  hence,  if  a  pencil  of  light  fall  upon 
a  body,  it  penetrates  to  a  certain  distance,  and  naturally  a  portion 
of  the  radiant  energy  of  the  light  is  absorbed  and  transformed 
into  another  kind  of  energy,  probably  heat  If  blue  be  absorbed 
in  this  way,  the  body  will  appear  oi'onge  ;  if  green,  red  ;  and  so 
on.  The  varied  tints  of  mother-of-pearl  are  due  to  reflection 
a  corrugated  surface.      See  INTERFERENCE,  Light,  Re- 


Chrome  Alum  is  the  double  sulphate  of  chromium  and 
pota'isium,  analogous  in  composition  to  the  double  sulphate  of 
aluminum  and  potassium,  or  alum. 

Chrome  alum,  Cra(SO,)3KjSOj,24HsO 
Ordinary  alum,  Al9{SOJjKsSOi,a4HsO 
It  may  be  obtained  in  large  violet  octahedra  by  the  spontaneous 
evapoiation  of  its  solution,  prepared  by  boiling  a  solution  of 
bichromate  of  potash  to  which  oil  of  vitriol  has  been  added  with 
alcohol,  as  long  as  the  smell  of  aldehyde  is  perceptible.  Solution 
of  C.  A.,  if  prepared  in  the  cold,  is  violet  coloured,  but  when 
heated  becomes  green, 
separate;  on  standing  fi 
becomes  violet,  and  deposits  the  salt. 

Chrome  Green  (the  sesquioxide  of  chromium)  is  a  beautiful 
dark-green  pigment  used  in  painting  porcelain  and  as  an  in- 
gredient in  green  glass  and  enamel 

C^roi!ji!A'(rf(a'tasicchromateoflead},  of  various  shades  of  red 
and  orange,  is  used  in  calico-printing  and  the  arts  generally. 

Chromi  Yellow  (chromafe  of  lead)  is  most  nsefiS  in  the  arts, 
and  exhibits  distinct  shades  according  to  the  mode  of  its  prepa- 
ration, known  as  lemon  ydlew,  Paris  yellow,  Letpsic  ycllojti,  &c 

Chro^mium.  is  a  metal,  and  was  discovered  in  1 797  by  Vau  ■ 
quelm  in  a  Siberian  mineral,  called  by  mineralogists  rid-lead,—3. 
compound  of  C.  with  lead  and  oxj^n.  C.  derives  its  nam  f  n 
the  fact  that  its  compounds  are  coloured  (Gr.  chroma,  1  a  ) 
Its  most  abundant  ore  is  chrome  iron,  a  compound  of  de 

with  oxide  of  iron.     The  colours  of  emerald,  olsnine,  serpen 
j/iBe/Zc,  &c,  are  due  to  its  presence.  Metallic  C.  may  be   btam  d 
by  subjecting  a  mixture  of  its  oxide  and  charcoal  to  an   n   nse 
white  heaL     It  is  steel-grey  in  colour,  brittle,  and  aft      ha   ng 
been  fused,  is  so  hard  that  it  will  scratch  glass.   Its  atom    w  igh 
is  53'4,  and  the  symbol  for  its  atom  Cr.     Bichromate   f  p       h 
is  the  most  important  compound  of  C,  and  from  it  all     1 
derivatives  of  the  metal  are  prepared.     It  is  raanufac  u    d  f 
commercial  purposes  by  strongly  heating  chrome  iron  (p        u  ly 
reduced  to  a  fine  powder)  with  a  mixture  of  carbonate    f  p    ah 
and  nitre,  in  a  reverberatory  fiimace.     After  a  sufficiently  long 
fusion  the  resulting  mass  is  broken  up  and  treated  with  boiling 
water,  when  chromate  of  potash  (K^CrOj)  is  dissolved  out.     In 
order  to  convert  the  chromate  mto  bichromate,  the  solution  of 
the  former  is  mixed  with  acetic  acid,  and  the  whole  evaporated 
to  the  ciystallising  point,  when  the  bichromate  separates  in  large 
prisms,  having  a  beautiful  orange-red  colour,  whilst  acetate  of 
potash  remains  in  solution. 
2KsCr04  -f  2CsHaO(OH)  =  KjCrjOj  -1-  2CsH30(OK)  -1-  HjO 


Chro'm.oti8m,  or  Chromism,  a  disease  of  plants  consisting 
of  an  unnatural  colouring  of  leaves,  such  as  when  they  become 
red,  variegated,  &c 

Ohro'motype.  Under  this  name  Mr  Robert  Hunt  published 
in  1843  a  photo^phic  process,  in  which  a  solution  of  sulphate 
of  copper  and  bidiromate  of  potasli  is  employed  to  prepare  a 
sensitive  surface,  nitrate  of  silver  to  develop  the  picture,  and 
washing  in  water  to  fix  it.  The  process  never  had  any  great 
success,  but  it  is  recommended  as  yielding  excellent  results  in 
copying  botanical  specimens  and  engravings. 

Chron'iola  (Fr.  chronique,  Lat.  chronica,  from  Gr,  chronos, 
•  time'),  a  form  of  history  in  which  events  are  narrated  simply 


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THE  GLOBS  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Eccording  to  their  sequence  in  time.  Chronicles  exist  both  in 
prose  and  rhyme.  Much  of  early  European  history  is  preserved 
in  this  shape.  For  our  own  country,  the  roost  yaJuable  recoi'd 
of  this  kind  is  the  old  English  C,  commencing  with  the  Chris- 
tian era,  or  rather  with  the  invasion  of  Britain  by  Julius  Csesar, 
and  reaching  down  to  the  accession  of  Henry  II. 

Ohron'ogram,  or  Chron'ograph.  (Gr.  chroncs,  'time,' and 
gramma,  'a  letter,'  ot graphein,  'to  write'),  a  device  by  which  a 
date  is  expressed  by  certain  letters  of  an  inscription  being  printed 
in  a  larger  type  than  the  Others.     In  the  C.^ 

geokgIVs  DVX  bVCkIngaMLe, 
from  the  name  of  Geoi^e,  Duke  of  Eucltinghara  d 

MDCXVVVIIL  (162S),  is  that  of  the  year  of  his 
by  Felton.     The  close  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  i  fi 

expressed — 

Aspera  beLLasILent;  reDIIt  bona  gratia  p  C 
O  si  parta  foret  seMper  Tn  orbe  qVIes, 
which  gives  the  year  1763.     An  anagram  was  sometimes  uniied 
with  a  C. ,  as  in  this  on  General  Monk — 

GeorgiVs  MonCe  DVx  de  AumarLe, 
which  is  intended  to  be  read  thus™ 

F^o  Regem  reduxi,  Ano.  Sa.  MDCLVV. 

Cliron'og|rapli,  an  instrument  for  registering  very  small 
iutervals  of  time.  The  principle  upon  which  all  sutJi  instruments 
depend  is  that  of  uniform  motion.  A  graduated  dial-plate  or 
cylinder  is  made  to  rotate  uniformly  under  the  action  of  clocjc- 
work,  and  a  mark  or  dot  is  made  at  the  instant  of  occurrence  of 
any  phenomenon.  The  permanent  mark  is  made  either  by  Uie 
observer  himself,  as  in  Benson's  race-C.  and  in  Strange's  astro- 
nomical C,  or  by  the  action  of  electric  currents  and  electro- 
magnets. To  this  latter  class  belong  the  chronographs  of  Navez, 
BoSeng^,  Leurs,  Noble,  and  Bashforth,  whose  work  on  the 
Motion  of  ProjectUes  gives  descriptions  of  two  erf  his  instruments, 
and  accounts  of  interesting  experiments  upon  the  velocities  of 
bullets.     See-also  Owen's  Modem  ArliSay  (1871). 

Cbronorogy  is  the  science  of  the  measurement  of  lime. 
That  part  of  it  which  treats  of  the  units  of  time  as  regulated  by 
the  heavenly  bodies  is  properly  Theoretical  or  Mathematical  C. ; 
that  which  treats  of  the  methods  adopted  by  different  nations  of 
dividing  these  units  into  smaller,  and  uniting  them  into  longer 
periods  of  time  is  Technical  or  Applied  C. ,  and  that  which  treats 
of  the  lapse  of  tune  in  the  history  of  nations  is  Historical  C. 
The  principal  parts  of  the  first  two  of  these  divisions  will  be 
found  discussed  under  Hour,  Day,  Week,  Mokth,  Year,  &c.  ; 
only  the  last  can  be  briefly  noticed  here. 

To  fix  the  date  of  an  event  is  to  tell  how  long  ago  it  happened. 
This  is  done  by  counting  the  time,  measured  by  years,  &c,, 
from  some  eJ<och,  that  is,  a  point  of  time  marked  by  some  very 
striking  event.  A  long  period  of  time,  which  is  measured  by 
events  in  it  being  reckoned  from  a  certain  epoch,  is  called  an 
ira.  Thus  all  Christendom  reckons  its  time  from  the  birth  of 
Christy  and  the  period  from  that  epoch  to  the  present  time  is  the 
Christian  era.  The  Greeks  reckoned  from  the  first  Olympiad  at 
which  the  victor's  name  was  recorded,  ;>.,  776B.C.;  the  Romans 
from  the  foundation  of  Rome,  753  B.C.;  the  Mohammedans  from 
the  flight  of  Mohammed,  622  a.d.  The  F^ptians,  Hindus, 
Chinese,  Assyrians,  Babylonians,  Persians,  &c,  all  had  their 
systems  of  C.  The  Hebrew  system  has  always  been  regarded 
hy  Christians,  who  hold  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  to  be  inspired, 
as  the  most  important,  because  by  it  the  age  of  the  world  and  of 
mankind  is  supposed  to  be  fixed.  According  to  Hebrew  C, 
whidi  is  counted  almost  entirely  by  lives  of  men,  from  the  Crea- 
tion to  the  Deluge  (q.  v.)  was  1656  years,  from  the  Deluge  to  the 
birth  of  Christ,  2348.  In  modern  times  the  science  of  geology 
has  shown  this  6000  years  to  be  too  short  for  the  age  of  the 
world  and  of  man  ;  and  authentic  records  of  the  Egyptians  and 
Assyrians  have  shown  the  time  allowed  from  the  Deluge  to  be  too 
short.  Accordingly  various  plans  have  been  adopted  for  aHowing 
more  time,  without  imperillmg  the  infallibility  of  Scripture.  The 
latest  chronolt^ers,  on  this  principle,  taking  into  account  the 
variationsoftheLXX.,  &c.,  fit  theDelugeat  B.C.  3099,  or  3159, 
and  the  creation  of  Adam  about  B.C.  5361,  or  5421, 

Chronom'eter (Gr,  ckrenos,  'time,'  and  mitron,  'a  measure'), 
the  name  usually  given  to  an  instrument,  constructed  upon  the  same 
prindple  as  a  watch,  but  much  more  delicate  and  trustworthy, 
94 


the  irregularities  arising  from  changes  of  temperature  and  other 
external  influences  being  as  far  as  possible  compensated  for. 
The  C.  is  indispensable  for  the  determination  of  longitude  at  sea. 
See  Horology, 

Ohron'oeoope  (Gr.  chronas,  'time,'  and  scopos,  a  'mark'), 
one  of  the  many  inventions  of  Sir  Charles  Wheatstone,  is  an  instru- 
ment which  is  capable  of  measuring  the  duration  of  short-lived 
flames,  and  of  showing  discontinuities  in  certain  luminous  streaks. 
A  irror  is  made  to  move  rapidly  in  such  a  manner  that  the  re- 
fi  on  of  a  continuous  flame  would  be  a  complete  circle,  that  of 
a  fl  me  of  short  duration  a  greater  or  less  arc,  that  of  an  inst  ■ 
an  ous  flash  a  point,  and  that  of  a  discontinuous  flame  a  succ 
of  points.     The  electric  spark  is  found  by  this  means  to 


Chru'dim,  a  walled  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the  Chrudimka, 
b  t  62  miles  S.E.  of  Prague,  with  a  splendid  collegiate  church, 
a  C  apuchin  convent,  and  a  high  school.  Cloth  is  manufactured, 
and  there  are  great  horse  markets.     Pop.  (1870)  9446. 

Cluys'alis  (Gr.  cArysaliis,  'the  gold-coloured  sheath  ol 
butterflies '),  the  name  popularly  applied  to  the  second  or  pupa 
stage  in  the  metamorphosis  of  insects,  and  more  notably  to  those 
pupsB  which  exhibited  golden  spots  or  lustres.  There  are  infinite 
variations,  not  only  in  the  coloration,  but  in  the  general  form 
and  attacliments  of  chrysahds,  and  for  fuller  information  the 
reader  may  consult  the  articles  Insect,  Transformation, 
Metamokpiiosis,  Butterfly,  Moth,  Slc 

CliryBarL'tlieiimm(Gr.f4jyjoj, 'gold,' and  a«iJ(CTii>ji=auS4i'j, 
'  a  flower '),  a  genus  of  Herbaceous  or  somewhat  shrubby  plants, 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  Comfositic,  chiefly  natives  of  the 
temperate  parts  of  the  Old  World.  There  are  onhf  two  native 
species  in  Britain,  C.  latcanthemum,  the  ox-eye  daisy,  and  C. 
solium,  the  corn-marigold,  the  former  having  a  white  flower  with 
a  yellow  disc,  the  latter  a  bright  yellow  flower,  often  very  common 
in  corn-fields.  Many  foreign  species  have  been  long  cultivated  in 
our  gardens,  but  the  flower  popularly  known  as  the  C.  is  Fyitlh- 
rum  Sintme. 

Cbryaelepliaii'tiiie.    See  Statuary. 

Ohiysipp'uB,  an  ancient  Greek  philosopher,  bom  m  Cilicia 
B.C.  280.  After  losing  his  property,  he  attached  himself  to  the 
Stoic  lecturer  Cleanthes,  became  the  head  of  the  Porch,  and 
attacked  with  great  spirit  and  a  keen  logic  Epicureans,  Acade- 
micians and  Aristotelians.  It  is  said  that  he  wasfor  a  lime  con- 
verted to  scepticism  by  ArcesHaus,  and  then  composed  his  work 
on  Custom,  Undoubtedly  C.  was  more  accurate  tlian  his  pre- 
decessors, tracing  the  Cataleptic  Phantasm  (or  true  perception) 
to  repeated  and  intense  modifications  of  the  soul,  and  takmg  as 
the  principle  of  duty  the  nature  of  man,  and  not  of  the  universe. 
The  latter  view  he  carried  into  great  detail,  insisting  on  tlie  duty 
of  preserving  health  and  of  acquiring  riches,  while  still  condemn- 
ing most  of  the  emotions  to  eradication.  C,  who  was  said  to 
have  written  700  books,  discoursed  on  the  education  of  children. 
In  loric  his  name  is  connected  with  the  elaboration  of  the  Sorites. 
In  physics  he  adopted  the  usual  optimist  theory  of  the  Stoics 
based  on  a  passive  matter  and  an  active  reason.  Only  fragments 
of  his  numerous  writings  remain.  See  Petersen's  Philosopkis 
ChryHpfeie  Fundammta  (Hamb.  1827). 

Clirya'ia  (Gr.  '  golden  '),  a  genus  of  Hymenopterous  msects, 
including  those  forms  popularly  known  as  '  mby-tailed '  flies. 
The  C.  ignita,  or  '  ruby-tail '  of  this  countiy,  is  the  most  familiar 
species.  These  insects  belong  to  the  tribe  Tuiulifera  of  the 
Hymenopterous  order,  and  are  generally  found  on  walls,  palings, 
sandbanks,  and  like  situations.  The  larvfe  of  C.  attack  bees  in 
their  hives. 

Ctuyaobalaria'ceBe,  a  family  of  Dicotj^ledons  allied  to  the 
order  £osaieis,  of  which  order,  indeed,  it  is  sometimes  looked 
upon  as  only  a  subdivision.  There  are  nearly  100  species— all 
trees  or  shrubs — natives  oftheti-opics  of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds, 
though  more  abundant  in  the  latter.  Of  the  twelve  genera  de- 
scribed, Chrysaialatms,  Coiupia,  Prinnpia,  and  Hirtdta  may  be 
taken  as  examples  of  the  best  known. 

Cbrysobalanua,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
ChrysobalanacKS  containing  four  species,  natives  of  the  tropical 
parts  of  Africa  and  of  America.  One  of  the  most  common 
species  is  the  cocoa-plum  {C.  leaco),  which  in  the  W.  Indies 


145 


vLiOOQle 


CHR 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


oims  a  favourite  conserve  with  the  Spanish  colonists,  especially 
n  Cuba.  The  kernels  yield  a  fixed  oil,  and  when  made  into  an 
emulsion  they  are  said  to  be  useful  in  dysentery.  An  astringent 
bath,  useful  in  leucorrhoaa  and  blennorrlicea,  is  prepared  fiom 
the  leaves  and  roots. 

Chrys'oberyl  (Gr.  chrysos,  'gold,'  and  heryllas,  a  'gem'],  a 
transparent  or  translucent  gem  of  great  hardness,  composed  of 
alumina  and  glucina,  coloured  various  tints  of  pale  green  by  pro- 
toxide of  iron,  and  sometimes  with  a  bluish-white  opalescence 
internally.  When  cut  in  facets,  it  exhibits  a  resplendent  lustre 
ahnoat  ejual  to  the  yellow  diamond.  The  opalescent  variety 
shows  best  en  cabochmi,  that  is,  with  a  convex  surface.  The  C. 
is  chiefly  found  in  alluvial  deposits  of  rivers  of  Brazil  and  Ceylon ; 
it  also  occiirs  in  granite  of  the  Moume  Mountains,  in  Ireland, 
and  a  variety  called  Alexandrite,  after  Czar  Alexander  I.,  is 
obtained  front  mica-schist  in  the  Ural  Mountains. 

Ohrysochlo'ris,  a  genus  of  Insectivorous  mammalia  repre- 
sented by  the  C.  kolosericsa  or  aureus,  or  golden  mole  of  S, 
Africa.  The  C.  resembles  the  Common  Mole  (q.  v.)  in  form, 
but  is  somewhat  less  in  size.  Its  peculiarity  consists  in  the 
iridescence  of  its  fur ;  the  beautiful  play  of  metallic  tints  and 
lustres  exhibited  by  this  form  procuring  for  it  its  names  of  golden, 
changeable,  or  shining  mole.  The  sda  ^st  bristles  of  the  Afhro- 
dite  or  sea-mouse  amongst  the  worms  or  AnnelMa  (q.  v.)  exhibit 
the  same  iridescent  lines.  The  front  feet  have  four  toes,  and  the 
hinder  ones  are  five-toed  No  outer  ears  or  tail  are  developed. 
The  teeth  of  both  fi  ea  h  d 

consists  of  insects      d  w 

OhryaoooU'a,        mp      hy  ca  p  gr 

or  bluish^een  c  d  a»so  w  pp        es 

means  '  golden  gl  d     an 

parent  edges. 

Ohrye'olite     G  g   d 

Transparent  greei  w     ry  ca     d 

They  are  seldom  an  m  h      ig      d  d  ry 

on  account  of  Ih      b  es       Th    bes  es  g 

from  the  Levant      P  h   h    ik  C 

magnesia   coloured         p  som     m  d 

synonymously  wi  b      p      d  m     h  and 

yellowish-green  c 

Chrysolo'vaa   BEanue  h      h  larsw      p    m      d 

the  great  revival  o         mng  w     b  m  b       m  B  za 

tium,  about  1350.  He  was  sent,  probably  in  1389,  by  Joannes 
Palseoiogus,  the  By2aiitine  emperor,  to  France,  Italy,  and  Eng- 
land to  solicit  aid  against  the  Tuiks.  Though  his  embassy  was 
not  successful,  C.  made  many  friends  in  the  W.,  and  in  1397  he 
settled,  as  teacher  of  Greek  literature,  at  Florence,  where  he 
attracted  numerous  audiences,  and  had  among  his  pupUs  Aretino, 
Guarini,  Leonardo  Bruni,  Poggio,  and  Filelfo.  He  taught  also 
at  MUan,  Pavia,  and  Rome,  where  he  won  the  esteem  of  tJie 
Pope,  who  intrusted  him  with  a  mission  to  the  Emperor  Sigis- 
mund.     He  died  15th  April  1415  at  Constance,  whither  h   h  d 

fone  in  1413  to  represent  the  Greek  Church  at  the  Co       1 
eld  there.     C.  is  the  author  of  numerous  works  which  exi  t 
MS.  in  the  different  libraries  of  Italy.     Only  two  have  b 
printed,  the  Erotemala  ( 1488),  a  Greek  grammar,  '  the  first,      d 
long  the  only  channel  to  a  knowledge  of  that  language,  sav      nl 
instruction'  (Hallam's  Intr.  to  Lit.  of  Europe,  ch.  i.),       d 
EpUtola  ires  de  Comparaliom  vsleris  el  ttovis  Roma  (Par.  1655) 
See  Van  der  Hardt's  Memoria  Cktysolgra  (Helmst.  1718). 
ChrysomelaB.     See  Golden  Beetle. 
Chrysophyll'um.     See  Sapotace.^,  Monesia  Bark  and 

Chi'ys'opra6e(Gr.f5/7J0j, 'goldi'and/fciiKiWj'leek-gr  ) 
a  variety  of  chalcedony,  of  an  apple  or  leelc-green  colour,  d 
the  presence  of  oxide  of  nickel.  It  is  found  in  Lower  S  I 
and  in  different  localities  in  the  U.S.,  and  although  m  d 
into  brooches,  bracelets,  seals,  &c ,  it  is  not  held  in  great  e  t  m 
by  jewellers.  The  chrysoberyl  of  the  ancients  is  supposed  t 
have  been  C. 

Chrys'opa.    See  Cleg. 

ChryaoBple'nium,  a  genus  of  Saxifrages.  C.  oppositifolum 
and  aitemifilum  are  two  common  British  species,  the  former 
bemg,  however,  rather  more  generally  distributed  than  the  latter. 
146 


There  are  various  other  species  scattered  over  the  world,  but 
none  of  any  great  beauty.  In  the  Vosges  they  are  used  as 
a  SEdad  under  the  name  of  cresson  de  rocke  (rock  cress). 

'  OhJys'ostom,  Joannes,  Archbishop  of  Constantinople,  and 
the  most  eloquent  of  the  Christian  Fathers  (hence  his  name,  Gr. 
Ckrysostomos,  'golden-mouthed'),  was  born  at  Antioch  in  347. 
Mis  father  Secundus,  imperial  general  in  Syria,  died  shortly 
after  C.'s  birth,  but  his  pious  mother  Anthusa,  who  had  been 
left  a  widow  at  the  age  of  twenty,  procured  for  him  the  best 
teachers  in  all  the  branches  of  learning.  At  fii'st  intended  tor 
the  law,  he  studied  rhetoric  nnder  the  great  pagan  Libanius, 
who  said,  with  bitterness  on  his  deathbed,  '  I  would  have  left 
the  care  of  my  school  to  Joannes,  but  the  Christians  have 
snatched  him  from  me.'  After  remaining  three  years  with 
Bishop  Meletius,  he  was  induced  to  receive  Christian  baptism, 
abandon  his  profession,  and  enter  the  Church.  He  then  spent 
six  years  of  ascetic  sedttsion  in  the  mountains  of  Antioch,  en- 
gaged in  a  profound  study  of  the  Scriptures  under  the  abbot 
Diodortis  (afterwards  Bishop  of  Tarsus),  and  having  for  com- 
panions Basil  (St),  Gregory  (Nazmnzen),  and  Theodore  (of 
Mopsuestia).  Worn  out  vrith  austerities,  he  returned  to  Antioch, 
and  was  ordained  a  deacon  by  Meletius  in  3S1,  and  a  priest  by 
Flavianus  in  386.  For  twelve  years  he  preached  at  Antioch, 
delivering  an  immense,  number  of  sermons,  orations,  and  homi- 
lies. Eutropius,  the  minister  of  the  Emperor  Arcadius,  bad 
heai-d  the  oreat  preacher,  and  now  inveigled  him  to  Constanti- 
p  h  against  his  will,  to  fill  the  vacant  archbishopric. 

B  hi  was  too  austere,  his  discipline  too  strict,  and  his  de- 
f  every  kind  of  profligacy  and  error  too  faithful  for 
pt  metropolis :  the  lax  clergy  (headed  by  Theophilus, 
P  n  h  f  Alexandria),  many  courtiers,  and  the  Empress 
E  d  ombined  a^inst  him,  got    him   condemned  by  a 

p        d    ynod  (403).     The  charges  brought  against  him  were 

la  d  intercourse  with  females,  secret  intemperance,  inhos- 

p  al  ty        lence  towards  his  own  clei^  to  the  extent  of  strik- 

m     eckless  dissipation  of  tlie  w^th  of  his  church,  impi- 

bitrary  acts,  infmctions  of  canonical  laws,  toleration 

p       IS    whom  he  too  easily  admitted  to  baptism),  and  an 

ta  to  the  doctrines  of  Origen.     That  C.  indignantly  re- 

p      d  of  these  accusations  as  were  dishonourable  mattered 

?The  forty-five  bishops  were  bent  on  his  ruin,  and  they 
C.  was  banished.  When  the  populace  of  Constan- 
h  d  the  news  they  were  stined  with  fierce  indignation. 
It  was  thought  prudent  to  bring  the  great  preacher  back  from 
his  exile  at  Prinetos,  in  the  Gulf  of  Nicomedia.  But  only  a  few 
months  later  he  burst  forth  in  church  with  a  stem  denunciation 
of  the  excesses  that  had  marked  the  games  held  in  honour  of 
the  empress.  Eudoxia  was  furious.  A  council  was  again  held 
at  Constantinople,  and  the  previous  condemnation  was  con- 
firmed. It  was  in  vain  that  C.  appealed  to  the  Pope.  Rome 
was  helpless.  The  Goth  was  almost  at  her  gates.  On  the  20th 
of  June  C.  was  carried  off  from  his  see  by  an  armed  foree.  His 
d  WIS  fixed  at  Cuoisus,  in  Armenia ;  bnt  when  his  inde- 
f  g  bl  p  n,  and  the  fame  of  his  apostolic  virtues,  made  him 
as  p  f  1  in  adversity  as  on  his  episcopal  tlirone,  Arcadius 
d  d  h  m  to  be  transported  to  the  remotest  limits  of  the 
mp  mder  the  shadow  of  Caucasus.  On  the  way  thither  he 
sank  d  the  fatigue  of  the  journey  made  on  foot,  the  heat, 
and  gl  treatment  from  his  guard ;  and  died  at  Comanum,  in 
P    tu      4th  September  407.     C.  is  one  of  the  heroes  of  the 

Ch    ■      —     ■  ■ 

tand  why  mean, 

was    a    living   and    perpetoal    reproach    to 

h  It   s  no  less  easy  to  understand  why  he  fell  before  his 

m  He  was  outspoken,  unguarded,  perhaps  we  may  even 

y      g        liable,  in  his  speech.     In  his  transports  of  Christian 

d  iTi  he  was  reckless  of  consequences,  and  uttered  words 

htP  d     nd  Vice  could  never  forgive.    But  this  sacred  passion 

f        f    m    g  the  manners  of  his  age  has  given  an  immortal 

VI    hty      his  writings.    No  father  of  the  Eastern  Church  has 

thr  much  genius,  so  much  humanity,  so  much  of  his  own 

g       t    h     works,  which  form  a  part  of  Byzantine  history  dur- 

f  ts  most  momentous  transitions.    Tliey  embrace  homi- 

1  rm     s,   commentaries,  and  epistles.     Of  the  complete 

editions  we  may  note  that  of  H.  Savile  (8  vols.  Eton,  1612) ; 

and  of  Montfaucon  and  the  Benedictines  (13  vols.  1718-38).   See 

also  the  splendid  Apologia  of  Villeinain  in  his  book,  Sm-  VElo- 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPyEDIA. 


OHU 


Cre  Ckrhienne  au  quatriime  SUde  (ad  ed.  1849).     See  also 
■i6.£i'i  KirchaigeschicAle  (fiohn'i  Iransl,  vol.  iv,  pp.  466-477), 
and  also  his  monograpli,  yobann  C.  (3d  ed,  2  vols.  Beri.  1S4B). 

Chrya'ofcype  (Gr.  ckrysos,  '  gold,'  and  fypos,  '  impression '),  a 
photographic  process  invented  by  Sir  J.  F.  Herschel,  and  one  among 
the  many  modes  of  directly  receiving  the  impression  upon  paper. 
The  paper  is  prepared  by  immersion  in  a  ferric  salt,  which  is  re- 
duced by  the  action  of  light  to  a  ferrous  salt  Upon  the  reduced 
portions  metallic  gold  is  then  precipitated,  and  the  picture  fixed  by 
several  washings  in  water  and  in  a  weak  solution  of  potassic 

Ohnb  {Laiciiau  cephalus),  a  Teleostean  fisli,  included  in  the 
family  Cyprinid^,  or  Carps,  and  foimd  in  most  Enghsh  and  south- 
ern Scotch  rivers.  The  average 
weight  is  about  five  pounds. 
It  is  coloured  of  a  bluish-black 
on  the  upper  parts,  and  silvery- 
white  beneafli.  The  sides  of 
the  head  and  rill-covers  are 
yelLjw.  It  a&o  occurs  in 
European  rivers,  and  spawns 
in  April  and  May,  The  flesh 
is  somewhat  coai'se,  and  lience 
the  C.  is  not  esteemed  as  a 
table-fish.     The  food 


of  \ 
IS  of  inst 


the  C.  may  be  caught  by 

The  fiesh  is  roost  aeasona  ,    . 

to  be  employed,  hlte  tliose  of  me  dace  and  blealf,  in  inlaying- 

work,  and  in  manufacturing  artificial  pearls. 

Ohubb,  ThomftB,  one  of  the  English  Deists  of  the  first  half 
of  the  iSth  c,  was  born  at  East  Hainham,  near  Salisbunj,  29th 
September  1679.  First  a  glover,  then  a  chandler  in  Salisbury, 
he  was  essentiaEy  an  illiterate  man,  but  had  a  mind  which  was 
fascinated  by  the  theological  controversy  then  raging,  and  he 
acquired  facility  in  writing  by  making  notes  and  observations  on 
tfie  deistical  writings  which  were  eagerly  read  by  him.  He  pro- 
duced a  multitude  of  tracts  similar  to  the  writings  of  the  time  on 
same  side.  C.  died  at  Sahsbury,  8tli  Februaiy  1747.  His 
posthumous  works  were  published  in  2  vols.  1748. 

Ollu.ck-Will'fl-'Widow  (Caprintulgus  or  Antrastovtus  Caro- 
linmsis),  a  Fissirostral  bird,  belonging  to  the  order  Insasorgs, 
and  to  the  family  Caprimulgidix  or  Goatsuckers.  This  name  is 
applied  to  it  from  its  peculiar  cry.  It  inhabits  the  southern 
regions  of  the  U.S.  of  America,  and  is  allied  to  the  Whip-poor- 
B'ilKq.v.). 

Clmoui'tO,  a  town  of  Peru,  province  of  Puno,  on  the  W. 
shore  of  Lake  Titicaaca,  15  miles  S.E.  of  Pnno,  was  a  flourish- 
ing place  till  the  18th  c,  when  it  is  said  to  have  had  a  pop.  of 
3oo,ocx5,  which  has  now  dwindled  io  5000- 

Chumbal',  a  river  of  India,  rises  in  the  Vindhya  rang< 
and  in  the  Malwa  agency,  flows  N.  and  N.  E.  through  a  region 
of  wild  beauty,  and  joins  the  Jumna  90  miles  S.E.  of  Agia,  after 
a  course  of  570  miles.  It  has  a  rapid  current,  and  receives  many 
affluents,  of  which  the  chief  are  the  Kally  Sind,  Parbutti,  and 
Biminass. 

lliu'liam,  the  Indian  name  for  lime  obtained  by  calcining 
shells,  as  well  as  for  mortar  or  plaster  prepared  from  it.  The 
w^ls  of  houses  in  Madras  usually  receive  three  coats  of  plaster, 
the  two  first  being  composed  of  lime  and  fine  river-sand,  and 
the  third  of  lime  mixed  with  'jaggery'  (palm-sugar),  and  mois- 
tened with  a  strong  infusion  of  cocoa-nut  husks.  When  polished 
wiih  rock-crystal  rubbers,  and  stained,  the  plaster  reseinbles  the 
finest  marble,  and  indeed  almost  equals  it  in  durability. 

Ob.ouar',  or  Cliunargurh,  a  town  in  the  district  of  Mirza- 
pore,  N.W.  Provinces,  British  India,  on  the  Ganges,  16  miles 
S.W.  of  Benares.  It  has  a  stroi^  fortress,  overlooking  the  native 
town,  and  containing  an  old  palace,  an  excavated  well,  a  hos- 
pital, a  prison,  &c.  C.  is  accessible  to  vessels  of  60  tons.  Pop. 
(1872)  10,125. 

Chuquisa'ca,  also  Snor^,  formerly  Cliarcas  or  La  Plata, 
the  capital  of  Bolivia,  S.  America,  on  the  Chachimayo,  m  a 
sheltered  plain  9000  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
government  and  of  an  archbishop,  has  a  cathedral  and  twenty-six 


other  churches,  a  palace,  the  University  of  St  Xavier,  a  hospital, 
and  a  miBtary  academy.  Pop.  (1858)  23,979.  '-.  was  founded 
by  the  Spaniards  in  1538,  on  the  site  of  the  native  Choqua  Ckaka. 
(i.e.,  'Bridge  of  Gold'),  and  received  the  name  of  La  Plata  from 
heing  near  to  the  silver  mines  of  Porco.  Sucre,  its  latest  name, 
was  that  of  a  general  in  the  war  of  Bolivian  independence.  The 
prcu/ince  ai  C.  contains  rich  silver  mines  and  splendid  antiquities, 
and  has  an  area  of  30, 135  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1858)  of  223,668. 

ClmrQli.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  word  C,  in  Old  Eng. 
circ,  cyrc,  or  cyrice,  is  the  I,atin  drcus,  and  that  it  was  first 
applied  to  the  stone  circle  or  Druidical  temple  of  the  Britons, 
and  afterwards  transferred  to  the  Christian  building.  But  this 
would  leave  unexplained  the  occurrence  of  the  word  m  the  other 
Teutonic  tongues— -e.^: ,  Dutch  ^rk ;  Ger.  kircke.  It  is  there- 
fore more  probable  that  the  origin  of  the  word  is  the  Gr.  kuriake, 
'  the  Lord  5  house ; '  thpugh  it  is  still  sufficiently  perplexing  to 
understand  how  a  nation  like  the  English,  who  got  their  religion 
from  Rome,  should  not  have  adopted  the  Roman  name  for  a  C. 
Perhaps  Theodore  of  Tarsus,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  himself 
an  Eastern  by  birth,  may  have  had  something  to  do  with  it.  Its 
use  among  the  other  Teutonic  races  is  more  easily  explained 
through  the  influence  of  Ulfilas  (q.  v. )  and  the  Mceso-Golhs.  C. 
is  the  word  used  in  the  English  version  of  the  New  Testament  to 
translate  the  Greek  ekklesia,  except  when  the  latter  occurs  in  its 
original  civil  sense  (a  number  of  people  called  together  from 
among  others),  in  which  case  'assembly'  is  employed  (Acts  xix. 
32).  It  was  applied  to  the  Jews,  as  the  worshippers  of  Jehovah 
called  from  among  the  heathen  (Acts  viL  38),  and  also,  amon| 
them,  to  a  congregation  of  worshippers  (Pa,  xxii.  22  ;  cf.  Heb.  ii. 
12).  As  used  by  Christians,  it  has  seveml  shades  of  meaning  :— 
I.  An  assembly  of  Christians  who  meet  for  worship  in  aparticular 
place  (Rom,  xvi.  5).  2.  The  collective  Christians  in  acertdn 
place,  or  as  it  were  a  national  C.  (Acts  xi.  22,  26).  3.  The 
whole  body  of  Christian  people,  of  all  ^mes  and  of  all  places, 
understood  as  called  out  from  the  whole  body  of  mankind.  4. 
The  idea  of  C,  as  a  building,  which  is  not  found  in  the  New 
Testament,  unless  it  be  in  MalL  xvi.  18,  but  in  the  4th  c.  the 
word  had  come  to  be  generally  used  in  that  sense. 

I.  Tlie  C.  in  its  widest  sense  {3,  above)  is  divided  into  the 
Visible  C.  and  Uie  Invisible  C,  but  there  are  different  theories 
as  to  what  is  meant  by  these  terms  respectively.  (l.)  Thus 
according  to  Romanists  and  High  Churchmen  the  Visible. C  is 
a  theocracy  or  an  externally  organised  society,  all  bom  within  its 
pale  being  ipss  facio  its  members,  'professing  the  same  fiuth, 
united  in  the  communion  of  the  same  sacraments,  subject  to  law- 
ful pastors."  The  Invisible  C,  according  to  this  theory,  is  the 
body  of  Christians  who  have  at  any  time  departed  out  of  this 
world  in  the  faith  and  love  of  God,  all  saints  bemg  mcluded, 
however,  who  lived  in  the  world  even  before  the  coming  of 
Christ,  '  so  believing  that  he  wonld  come,'  but  all  persons  being 
excluded  who  have  died  in  a  state  of  unfoi^iven  sin,  that  is,  not 
in  communion  with  the  C.  (2.)  The  common  Protestant  theory 
is  that  the  C,  as  such,  is  not  an  external  organisation,  but  a  body 
the  members  of  which  are  all  true  believers,  no  matter  to  what 
ecclesiastical  oi^anisation  they  may  belong ;  the  one  condition 
of  membei^p  in  which  is  feiith  in  Jesus  Clirist ;  and  the  attri- 
butes, prerogatives,  and  promises  of^ which,  therefore,  belong  tc 
the  true  people  of  God  collectively  considered.  (3.)  According 
to  certain  Puritan  sects  the  Visible  C.  consists  of  the  regenerate, 
and  it  is  its  prert^tive  and  duty  to  sit  in  judgment  on  the  ques- 
tion, whether  the  applicant  for  admission  is  trulj'  bom  of  God, 
According  to  both  the  last  two  theories  the  Invisible  C.  consists 
of  the  elect. 

like  the  Gr.  kyriake,  and  Lat.  dominkiim,  has  also  the 
house,  or  the  building  in  which  Christians 


meaning  of  the  Lord's 


sfor  n 


andw 


doors  in  the  W.  end  as  separate  enti 

TTiey  afterwards  came  to  be  built  in  various  shapes — round, 
square,  and  especially  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  sometimes  with  the 
eastern  division  inclined  off  the  straight  line  towards  the  S.,  to 
indicate,  it  is  said,  the  drooping  of  the  Saviour's  head  upon  the 
cross.  All  had  an  Apse  (q.  v.)  borrowed  from  the  Roman  basi- 
lica. The  threefold  division  lengthwise,  of  nave,  choir,  and 
sanctuaiy,  is  derived  from  the  Jewish  temple,  with  its  court  of 
the  Gentiles,  holy  place,  and  holy  of  holies.  There  is  also  pro- 
perly a  threefold  division  latterly,  formed  by  the  nave  and  the 


^^ 


'47 


vLiOOQle 


OHU 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


OHU 


aisles,  and  a  triple  elevation,  the  base-ateade,  Irifotium, 
clerestory.     Churches  are  distinguished  into  various  grades 
Cathedral,  wliich  contain  a  bishop's  Cathedra  or  throne  ;  collep 
served  by  a  dean  and  chapter ;  comientual  or  minster,  if  ( 
nected  with  a  convent  or  monastery ;  sbbsy  or  priory,  if  governed 
by  an  abbot  or  prior ;  parochial,  if  furnished  with  a  font.     See 
Walcolt's  Sacral  Archaohgy  (lS68),  and   Hodge's  Systematic 
Theology  (rS73). 

Church.  Die'oipline.  From  the  earliest  times  the  prineiph 
was  m!unt^ned  in  the  Chnrch  that  those  who  had  violated  their 
baptismal  vows  by  scandalous  transgressions  should  be  excluded 
from  participating  in  the  Communion,  and  should  not  be  again 
admitted  to  it  tiu  they  liad  given  satisfactory  proofs  of  repent- 
ance. When  this  was  done  they  were  again  admitted  to  the 
standing  of  Catechumens  {q.  v. ),  being  divided  into  the  same 
classes.  Their  penitence  havii^  mus  been  satisfactorily  proved, 
they  received  absolution  and  benediction  before  the  congrega- 
'  an,  and  were  restored  to  the  fellowship  of  the  Church.    This 


kinds  of  sins,  even  the  most  secret.  But  nowhere  was  C.  D. 
more  consistently  and  rigorously  carried  out  than  at  Geneva 
under  Calvin,  and  nowhere  has  it  lingered  longer,  in  anything 
like  its  original  form,  than  in  the  Calvinistic  Churches  of  Scot' 
land.     See  Excommunication. 

Church  Gov'ernment.  All  Christians  aje  agreed  that 
there  are  certain  rules  for  the  oi^anisation  of  the  Church  laid 
down  in  the  Scriptures  which  are  of  universal  and  perpetual 
obligation  ;  but  at  the  same  time  al!  Chnrches  have  exercised  a 
:ain  discretion  in  modifying  their  oiganisation  to  suit  varying 
emei^encies.  The  chief  systems  of  C.  G.  are  the  Episcopalian 
(q.  v.),  the  Presbyterian  (q,  v.),  and  the  Independent  (q.  v.). 
"Tie  first  is  that  in  whidi  various  grades  among  the  dergy 
e  held  to  be  of  divine  institution  because  existing  from  apos- 
tolic times,  and  which  is  carried  to  its  utmost  limit  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  In  the  second,  al!  the  clergy  are  held  to  be  on 
11  equality,  the  Church  being  ruled  by  certain  courts.  Tlie 
Independents  hold  that  there  ought  to  be  no  such  organised 
nity  among  congregations  as  to  interfere  with  their  perfect  hi- 
dependence  of  each  other. 

Church  History  is  nsually  divided  into  txtental  and  intir- 
nal  The  former,  which  is  C.  H.  proper,  would  at  first  be 
synonymous  with  a  history  of  the  propagation  of  Christianity, 
would  always  be  concerned  chiefly  with  the  relation  of 
Christianity  to  the  civil  and  religious  state  of  the  countries  in 
'  ch  it  was  propagated,  on  whii^  the  fate  of  the  Church  would 
depend.  ThelaKer,  which  is  properly  the  historyof  the  Christian 
religion,  is  concerned  cliiefly  with  the  doctrine  and  government  of 
the  Church.  The  first  Church  historian  was  Eusebius  (261-340, 
,  v.),  who  wrote  a  history  of  the  Church,  '  from  the  very  origin 
of  the  dispensation  of  our  Lord,'  to  the  accession  of  Constantme 
s  sole  emperor  (324),  It  is  generally  supposed  that  he  had 
sufficient  materials  in  previous  writings  to  enable  him  to  give 
an  authentic  account  of  the  Church  durmg  the  period  between 
apostolic  times,  and  his  own,  for  which  he  is  the  sole  authority. 
He  himself  seems  to  have  rehed  upon  something  like  inspira- 
tion, for  he  acknowledges  that  his  materials  were  next  to  none. 
In  the  preface  to  liis  work  he  says,  '  Looking  up  with  prayer 
to  God  as  our  guide,  we  trust  indeed  that  we  shall  have  the 
power  of  Christ  as  our  aid,  though  we  are  utterly  unable  to 
find  the  bare  vestiges  of  those  who  may  have  travelled  the  way 
before  us.'  His  work  was  continued  by  Theodoret  {□.  v.)  down 
:o  429.  Tlie  next  who  wrote  was  Socrates  (q.  v. ),  whose  C.  H, 
extended  from  the  accession  of  Constantiue  (306)  to  439.  Sozo- 
1  (5th  c)  wrote  a  history  of  the  same  period  as  the  last  two. 
Next  Philostorgius  (bom  358),  an  Arian,  wrote  a  history  of 
■  Arianism  from  about  300  to  425.  Evagrius  wrote  a  C.  H.  of  the 
period  from  431  to  594.  Sulpicius  Severus  (end  of  the  4th  c.} 
wrote  a  sacred  history  from  the  Creation  to  40O  A.D.  These  are 
the  chief  writers  of  C.  H.  proper  near  the  fountain-head,  from 
whom  the  legion  of  later  writers  must  all  derive  their  materials. 
For  a  history  of  doctrines,  which  is  a  branch  of  C.  H.,  of  rites  and 
monies,  and  of  some  other  matters  connected  with  it,  much 
information  is  also  to  be  found  in  the  numerous  and  voluminous 
^riiings  of  the  early  Christian  Fathers.  On  the  rise  of  separate 
slates  in  Western  Europe,  after  the  dismemberment  of  the  Ro- 
148 


man  Empire,  each  country  in  due  time  produced  its  roll  of 
Church  historians,  of  whom  the  most  interesting  and  important 
for  Englishmen  is  the  Venerable  Bede  (q.  v.).  Since  the  Refor- 
mation C.  H.  has  been  written  from  tlie  Roman  Catholic  and 
Protestant  points  of  view  bj;  many  erudite  and  able  sdiolars. 
Others,  agam,  like  Neandec  in  Germany  and  Mihnan  in  Eng. 
land,  have  sought  to  exhibit  the  historical  development  of  the 
Christian  Church  without  any  polemical  bias.  A  full  acci 
of  all  the  writers  of  C.  H.  up  to  the  middle  of  the  iSth  c 
be  found  in  Walch's  Biblisiheca  Thedegka  Sekcta  ;  of  more 
cent  ones  in  Lowndes'  British  Librarian. 

Church  Hates,  in  England,  constitutes  a  tax  on  the  parish- 
ioners to  defray  the  expense  of  upholding  and  repairing  a  clmrch 
and  its  appurtenances.  Tlie  rate  was  imposed  by  the  parishioj 
ers,  convened  by  the  Churchwardens  (q.  v.),  and  the  vote  of  tli 
majority  was  binding  on  the  whole.  There  is  no  law  which 
obliges  the  parishioners  to  provide  C.  R.,  consequently  when 
Dissent  is  hi  a  majority,  or  even  possesses  a  strong  minority,  there 
is  often  no  fund  to  repair  churches — many  have  consequently 
become  ruinous.  The  levying  of  C,  R.,  and  questions  in  con- 
nection with  so  doing,  was  long  a  source  of  animosity  in  England  ; 
but  by  the  Act  of  l358  compulsory  payment  has  been  abolished. 
Voluntary  contributions  and  bequests,  for  the  ecclesiastical  pur- 
poses of  the  parish,  are,  under  the  Act,  now  administered  by  a 
body  of  Church  trustees.  Those  who  do  not  contribute  are  by 
the  statute  disqualified  from  interfering  with  the  administration 
of  the  funds  laised  as  C.  E. 

Ohurohwardena,  in  England,  are  ecclesiastical  ofiicei-s 
whose  function  it  is  to  take  care  of  the  edifice  of  the  diurch,  and 
all  that  belongs  to  it.  They  are  also  expected  to  take  cognisance 
of  the  beiiaviour  of  the  congregation  in  all  matters  within  eccle- 
siastical jurisdiction.  They  are  diosen  aimually  on  28th  March, 
or  within  fourteen  days  after,  either  by  the  clergyman  or  by  the 
parish,  or  by  both  together.     Every  churchwarden  '\&  ex  of  ' 

Ohtirch'yard.  In  England  a  C.  has  been  legally  described 
by  Sir  William  Scott  as  'a  consecrated  place,  entitled  to 
public  protection,  and  in  which  nothing  should  be  done  but 
under  the  direction  of  public  authority.'  In  Scothind,  there  is 
no  rite  of  consicraUea  either  according  to  civil  or  ecclesiastical 
laws  ;  but  the  C.  is  entitled  to  legal  protection.     See  Burial. 

Churchill,  Charles,  an  English  satirist,  whose  profligacy 
has  perliaps  hindered  justice  from  being  done  to  his  genius,  was 
bom  at  Westminster  in  February  173:,  and  educated  at  West- 
minster School,  where  he  neglected  his  studies,  and  contracted 
a  clandestine  marriage  in  Ms  eighteenth  year.  In  1756  he  took 
holy  orders,  and  in  1758  succeeded  bis  father  as  curate  of  St 
John's,  Westminster,  In  1761  he  published  anonymously  the 
Rosciad,  a  clever  sature  on  actors  and  theatrical  managers,  which 
took  London  by  storm.  '  The  noise  in  the  theatrical  worid  w 
like  that  caused  by  the  report  of  a  gun  in  a  rookety.  The  actc 
ran  about  the  town,  spreading  their  own  grievances,  and  the 
satirist's  name  at  the  same  time '  (Hannay).  Now  avowing  the 
authorship,  he  published  in  rapid  succession  The  Apology  (sA' 
dressed  lo  the  writers  of  the  Critical  Reoitw),  Night  (which  is 
an  excuse  for  his  vices),  Tht  Ghost,  and  other  satires.  Mean- 
while he  had  been  living  so  dissipated  a  life  that  he  had  to 
resign  his  curacy.  His  health  failed,  and  he  died  at  Boulogne 
on  a  visit  to  Wilkes,  of  whom  he  was  a  warm  partisan,  Novem- 
ber 4,  1764.  C,  was  once  knon'n  as  the  British  Juvenal,  and 
■en  yet,  all  who  can  forget  the  man  and  look  only  at  his  works 
ust  admit  him  to  be  a  true  poet.  See  Bell  and  Daldy's  edi- 
m  of  his  poetical  works  (1S67),  with  a  Memoir  by  James 

Churching  of  'Womea,  or  Thanksgiving  after  Childbirth, 
a  usage  of  the  eariy  Church,  borrowed  from  the  Jewish  rite  of 
purification  (Lev.  xii. ),  still  retained  as  compulsory  in  tiie  Roman 
Calholic  and   Greek  Churches,  and  for  which  there  is  also  a 
rvice  in  the  Litxirgy  of  the  Church  of  England. 
Chum  (Old  Eng.  cyrn,  from  cerran,   'to  turn;'  Low.  Sc. 
iim),  an  implement  for  preparing  butter  from  cream  or  milk. 
For  the  separation  of  the  fatty  particles  which  form  butter,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  minute  sacs  m  which  the  fat  is  enclosed 
should  be  ruptured,'  and  this  is  accomplished  by  violent  agita- 
tion or  'turning'  about  of  the  fluid  in  a  C,     The  object  of 
churning  is  therefore  to  enable  the  solid  fat  to  come  together  in 


yLaOOgle 


cHcr 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CIB 


the  masses  which  constitute  butter.  A  great  many  plans  for  the 
construction  of  churns  have  been  adopted,  and  as  the  operation 
they  have  to  perform  is  simple,  they  are  ail  more  or  less  efficient. 
The  chief  aim  in  the  construction  of  the  C.  is  to  save  time  and 
labour,  and  to  separate  the  butter  completely.  The  most  common 
form  of  the  C.  is  the  upright  plunger,  which  consists  of  a  long 
narrow  tube  or  cylinder  of  cooper-work,  tapering  gently  upwards, 
with  a  movable  cover  on  the  top.  Through  the  centre  of  this  cover 
the  Btaffof  the  plunger  is  made  to  workpiston-wise,  at  the  lower 
entremity  of  which  the  agitator  s  secured  The  agitator  consists  of 
a  reticulated  framework  of  wood,  of  a  diameter  sufScient  to  work 
easily  wilhm  the  C  Another  common  form  is  the  Box  C, 
which  consists  of  a  boi  of  biich  or  plain  wood  very  carefully 
jomted  having  an  agitator  formed  of  to  ir  radial  arms  jo  ned  by 
cross  bais,  wfich  is  worked  by  a  winch  h-indle      borne  chums 


ha^e  a  reciprocating  motion,  and  others  a  seesaw  or  cridle 
motion  but  tl  ey  are  little  ased  The  atmospheric  C  is  a 
form  which  has  recently  come  into  favour  Its  pec  lianty  con- 
si'Jts  m  an  arrangement  by  which  air  is  introd  ced  into  the  fluid, 
and  by  its  bubblm^  out  causes  a  verj  effective  agitation  It  is 
said  to  save  considerable  tune  and  labour  while  at  the  same 
t  me  It  tlioroughly  separates  the  butter  A  form  of  C  recently 
1  atented  by  Messrs  T  Bradford  \  Co  is  seen  in  the  fig  It  is 
known  as  the  Dechvity  C  ,  and  its  pecul  arity  consists  m  the 
bottom  sloping  downwards  at  an  angle  of  about  30°  so  thai 
V.  hile  the  concave  side  of  the  agitator  dashes  the  cream  upwT.rds, 
the  fluid  IS  constantly  ninnmg  downwlrds,  and  theieby  a  power- 
ful concussive  stroke  is  pro  luced 

Ch.urr'iis,     See  Hemp. 

Ohusan',  the  principal  island  in  a  small  group  off  the  E.  coast 
of  China,  45  miles  N.E.  of  Ningpo,  is  about  iS  miles  long  and 
Iobroad,and  50  miles  in  circumference.  .It  is  mostly  mountain- 
ous, but  is  intersected  by  cultivated  valleys,  yielding  tea,  rice, 
wheat,  sweet  potatoes,  cotton,  tobacco,  chestnuts,  &c.,  and  grow, 
ing  bamboo,  camphor,  and  tallow-trees.  Ting-hai,  the  capital, 
is  surrounded  by  walls,  and  has  a  fine  Buddhist  temple.  C.,  wiled 
'the  key  of  China,'  was  taken  in  1840  by  the  British,  who 
evacuated  after  eight  months'  occupation,  but  again  seized  it  in 
October  l8,(i,  and  held  it  till  the  end  of  the  Chinese  war.  It 
was  again  taken  by  them  in  i860,  but  was  ceded  to  China  by  the 
convention  of  Pekin.  The  sacred  island  of  Pu-tu  is  the  next  in 
Importance  of  the  group  to  which  C,  gives  name.  It  is  in- 
habited solely  by  Bonzes  and  others  of  the  religious  class,  and 
contains  many  fine  pagodas  and  Buddhist  temples. 

Ohut'iiey,  a  condiment  of  Indian  origin  used  with  meat, 
game,  fish,  and  animal  food  generally.  The  basis  of  the  prepara- 
tion is  an  acid  or  sub-acid  fruit,  to  which  spices  and  flavouring 
ingredients  are  added.  The  fruit  most  usually  employed  as  a 
basis  of  C.  is  the  mango,  and  numerous  varieties  are  prepared  for 
use,  the  recipes  for  which  vary.  The  banana  is  also  used  in  the 
preparation  of  C. 

Obyle(Gr.i%'/oj,'ajmce,'from,r4^,  '  to  be  fluid '),  the  name 
given  to  the  matter  atiorbed  by  the  lacteals  in  the  villi  of  Ihe 
small  intestine.  It  is  found  in  two  conditions — first,  before, 
and  second,  after  it  has  passed  through  the  mesenteric  glands. 
To  tlie  n^ked  eye,  in  both  conditions  it  presents  much   llie 


same  appearance;  but  when  examined  under  a  magnifying  power 
of  250  diameters,  it  is  found  to  present  a  marked  differer  " " 
Before  passing  to  the  mesenteiic  glands  it  consists  of  a  fluid 
which  there  are  multitudes  of  very  small  molecules  which  refract 
light  strongly,  and  evidently  consist  of  fat.  These  molecules 
have  been  termed  the  molecular  basis  of  the  C.  When  e 
amined  after  passing  through  the  glands  into  a  special  cavi  . 
called  the  reciftaculuta  chyli,  it  is  found  that  the  molecular 
matter  is  much  more  scanty,  while  there  are  numeious  corpuscles 
present,  resembling  either  the  coloutless  cells  of  the  blood,  or 
biscuit-shaped  cells,  not  unlike  the  coloured  corpuscles.  The  C. 
passes  from  the  receptacle  just  alluded  to  through  the  thorax 
along  the  thoracic  duct,  and  is  poured  into  the  venous  system  at 
the  root  of  the  neck,  at  the  junction  of  the  left  internal  jugular 
vein  with  the  left  subclavian  vein.  C  has  been  found  to  contain 
fibrin,  albumin,  fat,  alkalies,  and  a  small  amount  of  iron.  Dur- 
ing fasting  the  C.  is  poor  in  solid  matters,  more  especially  in 
fet,  A  diet  containing  fat  increases  the  milky  appearance  of  C. 
owing  to  the  increased  amount  of  fat  absorbed.  The  C.  of  a 
cat,  according  to  Nasse,  yielded  in  1000  parts  the  following  con- 
stituents ^— Water,  9057,  and  solid  matter,  94 '3,  The  solid 
matter  was  composed  of — fibrin,  l'3;  fatty  matter,  327;  albu- 
min, 48'9;  chloride  of  sodium,  7'1 ;  other  soluble  salts  and 
traces  of  iron,  2-3;  and  earlhy  salts,  2-o.  See  Digestion,  Lac- 
teals, Villus. 

Chym*  (Gr.  chymas,  'a  liquid  or  juice,'  from  cAed,  'to  be 
fluid'),  the  name  given  to  food  after  it  has  been  digested  in 
the  stomach,  and  before  it  has  been  acted  on  by  the  biliary,  pan- 
creatic, and  inkestinal  secretions.  Some  apply  the  term  to  food 
while  in  the  stomach  or  small  intestine.  In  the  latter,  part 
of  it  becomes  absorbed  either  by  the  blood-vessels  or  by  the  lac- 
teals.   See  Digestion. 

Oialdi'ni,  Enrico,  an  Italian  general  and  politician,  was 
bom  at  Lombardinse,  Modena,  August  8,  181 1.  Exiled  for  shar- 
ing in  a  rising  against  the  Austrians  in  1831,  he  studied  at  Paris 
and  fought  against  Don  Carlos  in  the  Spanish  war  of  succession 
He  played  a  brilliant  part  in  the  Venetian  campaign  of  1848-49 
and  served  as  colonel  among  tlie  Piedmontese  who  engaged  ii 
the  Crimean  war.  He  won  distinction  in  the  Italian  war  o 
1S59  ;  defeated  the  Papal  troops  at  Castelfidardo  in  i860  ;  wa; 
made,  after  capturing  the  citadel  of  Messina,  general  of  the 
army  ;  and  in  1861  succeeded  San  Martino  as  lieutenant-general 
of  Naples,  where  he  strove  vigorously  to  suppress  biigandage. 
He  was  elected  senator  in  1 864.  He  ably  opposed  the  Austrians 
in  the  Venetian  campaign  of  1S66,  and  was  in  the  same  year 
made  commander-in-chief  of  the  troops  of  Central  Italy,  ."*" 
political  has  been  less  successful  than  his  military  career. 

Cibb'er,  Coll'y,  English  dramatist,  was  the  son  of  Cains 
Gabriel  Gibber  or  Cibbert,  a  sculptor  fiom  Holstein,  and  wa 
bom  in  London,  6th  November  1671.  About  1690  he  becami 
an  actor,  and  came  before  the  world  as  a  writer  of  plays  ii 
1695,  when  he  produced  the  Lov^s  Last  Shift,  soon  followed 
by  The  Woman's  IVit,  Careless  Husband,  &c.,  which  were  ver; 
popular  at  the  time,  and  brought  C.  much  money.  In  171 
he  became  one  of  the  joint  patentees  of  Dmry  Lane,  and  ii 
1730  was  made  poet-laureaCe,  an  appointment  which  securei 
him  an  unenviable  immortality  in  the  Dunciad,  to  the  autlior  of 
which  he  had  given  offence.  He  died  121I1  December  1757. 
Some  of  C.'s  pieces  are  still  acted,  but  the  work  by  which  he  is 
best  known  is  his  amusing  Apology  for  his  intin  Life. 

Cibol,  or  CibOTile,  the  French  form  of  the  Lat,  cspulla,  a 
diminutive  oicafa  (Sc.  sybd),  an  'onion.'     See  Onion. 

Cibolium.     See  Bakometz. 

Cifara'rio,  Ijiiigi,  an  Italian  jurisconsult  and  historian,  born 
at  Turin,  23d  February  1802,  where  he  graduated  as  doctor  of 
civil  and  common  law  in  1824.  In  1825  he  published  his  Notia 
sulla  Sioria  del  PHncifi  di  Savoia;  in  1836  his  Nblizie  n 
Paolo  Simone  di  Balbi,  and  in  1827  his  Delle  Storiedi  ChUri 
LihHIV.  Nominated  a  senator  in  1848,  he  was,  after  the  fall  of 
Carlo  Alberto  and  his  retirement  to  Oporto,  deputed  by  his  col- 
leagues to  visit  him  in  his  voluntary  exile,  and  tcy  to  induce  hint 
to  return  to  his  kingdom.  The  result  of  this  unsuccessful  mission 
he  published  in  1850  in  Rioordi  di  una  Missions  in  Fortogallo  at 
Re  Carlo  Alberto,  which  threw  a  vivid  light  on  the  Italian  Re- 
volution of  1848.  Besides  these  he  published  several  histories, 
a  treatise  Ddla  Econamia  Pditica  del  Medio  Ero  (2  vols.  Tur. 


'49 


vLiOOQle 


010 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CIC 


■tary  to 
n.  i860. 


1839 ;  5th  ed.   r86l),  as  well  as  numerous  « 

Italian  authors,  illustrated  lij  valuable  notes.    Under  Vittorio 

Emanuele  he  was  appointed  superintendent-general  of 

in  1850,   Minister  of  Public  Instruetion  in  1852,   Minister  of 

Foreign  Aflairs  in  1855,  and  afterwards  principal  seci 

the  King.     His  Opa^tle  Varie  were  published  at  Turin 

C.  died  at  Salo,  in  Brescia,  ist  October  1870. 

Oica'da,  a  genus  of  Homopterous  insects,  included  in 
lion  Trimera  (three-jointed  tarsi).  These  insects  belon 
Hemipterous  group  of  the  order  Homoptera,  and  possi 
broad  heads.  The  eyes  are  large  and  prominent,  and  three  ocelli 
exist,  placed  in  the  back  of  the  head.  The  beak  or  rostrum 
is  long  and  three-jointed.  The  males  possess  peculiar  '  drums ' 
at  the  base  of  the  abdomeri,  whereby  they  produce  loud  sounds. 
The  females  possess  ovipositors,  saw-like  in  forna.  The  antewiie 
are  seven -jointed.  The  sound  of  the  males  is  very  loud,  andean 
be  heard  at  a  great  distance.  The  cobur  of  the  insect  is  yellow- 
ish. The  witigs  are  firm,  transparent,  and  shining,  and  the  nec- 
vures  are  distinct  These  insects  are  mostly  tropical  in  habits, 
one  species  (C.  Anglka)  occurring  in  fheS.  of  England.  Several 
species  are  eaten  like  locusts.  Tlie  ancients  knew  of  these  in. 
sects,  and  said  that  the  cicadas  sliould  be  happy  insects,  since 
they  had  '  voiceless  wives.' 

Cicateic'tila.     See  Egg. 

Oicc'a,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  oi-der  Euihorbiaces, 
consisting  of  small  trees  and  shrabs,  natives  of  tropical  India, 
Africa,  and  America.  C  dUUcka,  the  '  Otaheite  gooseberry,"  is 
a  native  of  India,  but  is  cultivated  in  that  and  in  many  other 
countries  for  the  sake  of  its  fruits,  which  are  used  eithei 
cooked  in  various  ways.  The  Europeans  pickle  or  preserve 
Ihem,  or  bake  them  in  tails.  In  Java  they  are  sold  in  the  market 
foraboutthreepencepergallon.  Adecoction  of  the  leaves 
perspiration,  and  tlie  roots  are  a  violent  emetic  The  wood  of 
C.  [Presoriii)  IndUus,  of  Bombay  and  Ceylon,  is  white  and  tough, 
and  is  used  for  shipbuilding  in  the  latter  countiy.  Its  light-blue 
seeds  constitute  a  favourite  food  of  the  green  pigeon, 

Oio'ely  (Sfyrrhis),  a  genus  of  umbelliferous  plants,  of  which 
one  species  (M.  odsrata,  the  sweet  C.}  is  common  in  Southern 
and  Central  Europe,  though  in  Britain,  from  being  generally  found 
near  human  habitations,  it  is  looked  upon  as  introduced.  It  is 
allied  to  the  ChevrU  (q.  v. ),  and  indeed  is  sometimes  so  called ; 
in  Scotland  it  is  known  ssMyrrk.  In  Germany  the  seeds, 
and  young  leaves  are  used  for  giving  an  anise-lilte  flavi 
soups,  &c.,  and  at  one  time  tliey  were  used  as  an  aroma 
medicine.     In  America,  Osmorrhiza  is  called  sweet  C, 

Oioer.     See  Chick-PeA; 

Cio'ero,  Uarcas  Tnllius,  the  prince  of  Roman  orators,  and 
famous  also  as  statesman  and  man  of  letters,  was  bom  near  the 
town  of  Arpinum,  under  the  Volscian  HiJls,  3d  January  106 
B.C.  His  family  belonged  to  the  equestrian  order,  but  was  not 
accounted  'noble,'  C.'s  &ther — a  quiet  country  gentleman- 
anxious  to  give  his  sons  the  best  education  m  his  power,  had 
them  removed  to  Rome,  where  the  future  orator  was  instructed 
under  Greek  teachers  in  all  the  branches  of  a  liberal  education. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  entered  on  his  special  studies  for  the 
bar.  In  the  Maisic  War,  89  B.C.,  he  acquired  a  knowledge  of 
military  tactics  under  Sulla  ;  but  ailef  a  brief  period  of  service 
he  returned  to  philosophical  studies.  He  made  his  first  appear- 
ance as  a  pleader  at  the  age  of  twenty-five,  and  two  years  after 
secured  the  acquittal  of  Roscius,  who  had  been  charged  with 
parricide  by  Clirysogonus,  one  of  Sulk's  favourites.  Eriefe  now 
poured  in  upon  him,  and  after  a  time  of  intense  exertion,  whicli 
threatened  to  impair  a  constitution  never  robust,  he  retired  for  a 
while  to  Athens  and  Asia  Minor,  to  pursue  the  congenial  studies 
of  elocution  and  philosophy.  Fame  and  honours  awaited  hun  on 
his  return.  Elected  Qusestor  76  B.C.,  he  earned  by  his  able  and 
just  administration  of  the  government  of  Sicily  in  the  following 
year  the  gratitude  of  the  Sicilians,  to  whom  he  still  further  en- 
deared himself  by  his  successful  impeachment  of  their  Prfetor, 
Verres,  70  B.C.  After  passing  tlirough  the  offices  M  6 
B.C.,  and  PrEetor,  66  B.C.,  he  was  elected  Consul       6  v 

acclamation  rather  than  by  vote.     In  the  foUow  w   I 

consummate  courage,  caution,  and  decision,  he  d       m  ed 
crushed  the  famous  conspiracy  of  Catiline  (see  C  ) 

which  he  received  the  thanks  of  the  people,  a         as   la     d 
'Fallier  of  his  country.'     Public  thanksgivings  in 
150 


voted  to  the  gods,  an  honour  hitherto  accorded  only  to 
generals.  But  in  putting  the  imprisoned  conspirators  d  1 
without  trial,  C.  had  been  guilly  of  an  act  which,  though  p  p 
morally  justified  by  the  emergency,  was  clearly  iUegal  d  h 
was  called  to  account  for  it  by  Metellus  Celer.  The  sn  hus  n 
of  the  people  proved  all-sufficient  for  him  at  the  time  d  b 
for  the  vehemence  with  which  he  attacked  Clodius  fo  m  di  g 
the  rites  of  the  Bona  Dea,  the  charge  might  have  bee  I  w  d 
to  rest  for  ever.     Clodius,  however,  bent  on  reveng  gl 

and  in  dme  obtained,  the  tribuneship,  revived  the  ch    g         d 
compassed  Cs  banishment,  April  58  B.C.     On  4th  A  gus    57 
B.C. ,  a  bill  for  his  recall  was  submitted  to  the  Comitia  C         la 
and  carried ;  whereon  he  set  out  for  Rome,  which  h  h  d 

on  4th  September,  'borne  back,'  as  he  himself  says,  h 

shoulders  of  Italy.'  But  his  spirit  had  been  broken  by  xrl 
and  he  tamely  submitted  to  many  degradations,  ni  d  d 
scended  to  acts  of  servility  towards  men  whom  he  despi  d  H 
time-serving  policy  with  regard  to  Csesar  and  Pompey  was 
fraught  with  mischief  to  the  state,  and  marred  his  reputation  as 
a  patriot.  On  the  other  hand,  the  independence  evinced  by  his 
defence  of  Milo  is  a  redeeming  feature  in  his  character.  During 
the  years  57-52  B.C.  were  composed  his  De  Oraiore,  Be  Hefiib' 
lica,  and  De  Le^bus.  In  53  B.C.  C.  was  elected  into  the 
CoUege  of  Augurs,  and  in  the  following  year  appointed  to  the 
government  of  Cilicia,  which  he  managed  with  great  ability  and 
success  (51-50  B.C.).  He  returned  to  Rome  by  Ephesus  and 
Athens  at  the  outbreak  of  the  dvU  war,  49  B.C.,  and  after  much 
vaoilhttion  joined  the  side  of  Pompey,  whose  standard  he  for- 
sook after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  48  B.C.  Having  obtained  a 
reconciliation  with  Cassar,  he  retired  to  the  country  and  wrote 
many  philosophical  and  theological  works,  chief  of  which  were 
Orator,  De  Pimbus,  Horteamis,  Tusculanm  DispalationeSt  De 
Natura  Deorum,  De  Senectuie,  DeAmidHa,  De  0£iciis.  On  the 
murder  of  Crosar,  44  B.C.,  C,  who  was  inclined  to  throw  in  his 
lot  with  Bnitus  and  Cassius,  advised  an  adjustment  of  the  differ- 
ences between  Antony  and  the  Senate,  but  fo  no  pnrpose  Then 
followed  those  terrible  philippics — of  fame  how  fruitful  to  liim- 
self  how  fatal  I — in  which  he  denounced  Antony  with  relentless 
bitterness.  The  daazhng  glory  with  which  he  hsul  been  for  a  few 
brief  months  encircled  now  paled;  the  defection  of  Octavian,  in 
whom  he  had  placed  milimited  confidence,  was  followed  by  the 
second  triumvirate,  and  the  name  of  C,  vi'as  in  the  list  of  the 
proscribed,  Octavian  made  no  efibrt  to  save  him,  and  the  emis- 
saries of  Antony  overtook  him  near  Formiie  as  he  fled  in  a  Htter 
to  Cajeta.  Deeming  redstance  vain,  with  becoming  fortitude  and 
resignation  he  extended  his  head  from  the  litter,  and  it  was 
severed  from  his  body  by  Herennius,  7ili  December  43  B.C.,  in 
the  sixty-third  year  of  his  age. 

Dr  Middleton,  in  his  ctorming  but  partial  biography  of  flie 
orator,  has  exhibited  him  as  a  pattern  of  splendid  virtue  and 
blameless  honour  ;  while  Dmmann  and  Mommsen  have  assailed 
him  with  great  bitterness  and  severity.  C.'s  characterwas  of 
the  Asiatic  type.  He,  was  ambitious,  fond  of  pomp,  greedy  of 
applause,  rimid,  and  irresolute.  In  private  life  he  was  kind  and 
amiable.  In  his  Uteraiy  compositions  his  fame  is  of  the  highest, 
and  his  style  is  a  model  of  parity.  His  pliilosophical  works 
breathe  the  shictest  morality,  and  are  especially  valuable  as 
reflecting  the  different  views  of  the  Greek  schools  of  philosophy. 
As  a  poet  he  ignominiousiy  failed.  As  a  statesman  his  abihtles 
were  great,  but  often  misdirected  j  to  the  active  virtues  of  a  pa- 
triot he  can  lay  no  claim.    As  an  orator  he  was  without  a  rival. 

The  editiB  princeps  ai  C.'s  collected  works  was  printed  at 
Milan  (4.  vols.  foL  1498).  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Orelli  {9 
vols.  8vo,  1826-37),  and  the  best  English  Life  of  C.  is  that  by 
Forsyth  (2  vols.  Lond,  1864), 


OiceroVe  (from  Cicero,  the  orator),  a 

allans  to  those  persons  who  poin 

es  of  a  place,  and  now  generally    pp     d 

a  guide.     The  etymology  of  th           d      C 
ited  garrulity  of  such  officials. 

erm  given  by  th 

%     ""wh" 
nca  y 

Oioisbeo 

h 
rrb 
h    d 

P 

al  an   term   fo     a  gal 
D    onario  d^la  C  u  a 
m  rly  attached   0  h      U 

So  a  C.  is  a  m  n  m 

d       hand  to  re       eh 

d  m  re  parlicula  y        a 

a  d    g       af 
app     d    0   h 
of  sw    ds 

mmands.    Th 

yLaOogle 


010 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOrjEDIA. 


OIL 


sernente.  The  cuitom,  fomierly  prevalent  in  fashionable  Italian 
society,  has  now  almost  disappeared. 

Oico'nia,     See  Stork. 

Cicut'a,  or  Water  Hemlock.    See  Hemlock. 

Cid,  The,  Don  Kodrigv  Diaz  de  Bwar  ('lie  of  the 
perfect  beard'),  was  born  at  Burgos  in  the  year  IO25,  in  tlie  reign 
of  Sancho  III.  of  Nayarre,  and  of  a  family  from  whom  had  been 
chosen  the  'judges  of  Castille.'  C,  is  derived  from  the  Arabic 
Said,  or  master ;  his  other  title,  Bl  Camfmdor  (cocrupted  by  the 
Arabs  into  CambiiAy\  means  either  national  champion  or  umpire. 
Soon  after  his  birth,  the  dynasty  of  Ommeyad  Calife  at  Cordova 
was  broken  up,  and  Fernando  I.  of  Castille  united  the  petty 
Christian  states  of  N.W.  Spain.  The  stoiyof  The  C,  told  by 
Comeille  and  Voltaire  in  their  di-amas  so  named,  of  his  love  for 
Ximena,  the  daughter  of  Count  Lozano  of  Gormaz,  whom  he 
had  slain  to  avenge  an  insult  offered  to  his  father,  of  his  con- 
quest of  five  Moorish  chieftains  who  had  invaded  Castille,  of  his 
horse  Babieca  (or  Booby),  on  which  he  drove  the  Moors  from 
Estreraadnra  (on  E.  bank  of  Donto)  and  captured  Coimbra,  how 
he  resisted  the  imperiaJ  pretensions  of  Henry  III.,  and  assisted 
Sancho  II.  of  Castiile  to  annex  his  brother's  inheritances  of  Leon 
and  Galicia,  of  his  banishment  by  King  Alfonso,  and  his  great 
deeds  at  Barcelona,  Zaragoza,  Valencia,  Alicante,  and  other 
places  on  the  E.  coast,  how  he  defended  Valencia  against  the 
Moors,  how  the  cause  of  the  C.  and  the  Counts  of  Oinion  was 
tried  before  the  Cortes  at  Toledo :  all  this  is  told  in  the  prose 
Chs-oakUs  of  the  C,  belonging  to  the  end  of  tlie  13th  c.  (one  of 
which  has  been  translated  and  edited  by  Southey),  and  in  the 
Ballads  sf  the  C,  collected  by  Juan  de  Escobar  in  1615,  which 
have  been  translated  into  German  by  Herder,  and  partly  into 
Enghsh  by  Fcere,  Loclthart,  and  Dennis.  These  ballads  are 
among  the  finest  and  earliest  of  the  Spanish  redondilhas  sung  by 
the  yuglates,  the  form  of  which  has  been  coimected  with  Arabian 
poetiy,  and  also  with  the  songs  of  the  Roman  soldiery.  They 
are  written  in  ei>fiias  of  four  Tinea,  each  line  with  seven  or  eight 
syllables,  or  three  and  a  half  feet,  generally  trocliaic ;  the  cHef 
feature  being  the  assonant  rhyme,  accordii^  to  which  the  lasi 
vowe!,  when  the  line  ends  with  a  single  syllable  (a  half  foot),  or 
the  last  iwg  iiowds  when  it  ends  in  a  trochee,  should  corre- 
spond in  every  alternate  line,  be  the  consonants  what  they  may. 
The  Poem  of  the  C.  is  in  Alexandrines.  See  Sonthey's  Chronicle 
of  the  C.  (Lond.  1808) ;  Hnber's  Geschkhte  da  C.  (Brem.  iSag) ; 
and  Dozy's  Rkherches  sur  I'Sistoire  Politiqtie  el  Litteraire  de 
r Bsfagne  pmdant  le  Moyen  Age  (1849). 

Cid'aria,  a  genus  of  Eckinoidea  ox  Sea-urchins,  included  in 
the  family  Cidarid^,  and  distinguished  by  having  the  mouth 
central  in  position,  and  the  anns  opposite  the  month,  surrounded 
by  genital  plates.  The  ambulacra,  or  perforated  areas  of  the 
sheU,  are  prolonged  on  the  buccal  membrane,  or  that  surrounding 
the  mouth,  and  no  buccal  branchize,  or  gill-like  processes  sur- 
rounding the  month,  are  developed.  C.  papillata  is  a  familiar 
species  of  these  forms. 

Oi'der,  or  Apple-Wine,  a  fermented  drink  prepared  from 
the  jaice  of  apples,  for  which  particular  varieties  of  apples  are 
cultivated  in  Herefordshire  and  Devonshire,  Normandy  and 
Holland,  the  most  famous  C.-ptodndng  districts.  The  apples, 
when  thoroughly  ripened  and  matured,  aie  rednced  to  a  pulp  in 
a  grinding  raill  under  edge  rollers,  with  a  small  quantity  of  water 
amled,  and  after  being  left  in  a  tub  for  twenty-foar  hours,  the 
jaice  is  pressed  out  by  the  application  of  strong  pressure.  The 
expressed  juice,  after  being  put  into  barrels,  soon  begins  to  fer- 
ment violently,  and  when  the  fermentation  has  sufficiently  ad- 
vanced, which  happens  in  from  two  to  ten  days,  according  to 
the  strength  of  the  must,  and  the  amoimt  of  alcohol  desired,  the 
C.  is  racked  off  into  stone  barrels.  C.  contains  generally  malic 
add,  alcohol,  and  sugar,  besides  water,  &c,,  its  alcoholic  strength 
varying  fi-oni  5  to  10  per  cent 

Oie'za,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Murcia,  Spain,  25  miles  N. 
W.  of  Murcia,  near  the  river  Segura,  has  manufactures  of  linens, 
silk,  and  hemp,  and  a  trade  in  oil  and  wine.    Pop.  9500. 

Oigar'  (Span,  dgarro),  a  loosely  wound  spindle-like  roll  of 
tobacco-leaf  (or  smoking,  supposed  to  be  of  Spanish  origin,  A 
eheroot  is  a  variety  of  C.  in  (he  form  of  a  slightly  conoidal 
cyUnder,  with  the  tips  cut  straight.  A  eigaretle  (Span,  dgarrito) 
is  a  smaller  roll  of  finely-cut  tolracco,  or  of  triturated  leaf  (as  in 
Sp^n),  wrapped  in  a  binder  of  unsized  paper  or  the  lealy  cover- 


ing of  Indian-com.  Cigars  are  manufactured  in  enormous  qi 
titles  wherever  the  tobacco  plant  is  cultivated.  Those  rt 
from  Havannah  tobacco  are  unsurpassed  for  fine  flavour,  ar 
of  smoke,  and  iirmness  and  whiteness  of  ash,  and  next  in  order  of 
excellence  stand  the  Manilla  cigars  and  cheroots.  The  value  of 
a  C.  does  not  increase  in  direct  ratio  with  its  size,  for  the  diffi- 
culty of  obtaining  wrappers  of  proper  length,  colour,  and  fine- 
ness for  the  larger  sizes,  immensely  augments  the  expense  of 
manufacture.  A  duty  of  Ss.  per  lb.  is  levied  npon  cigars  im- 
ported into  Great  Britain,  and  in  1873  this  source  of  revenue 
yielded  /2S3,492,  Simple  and  well-contrived  machines  for 
making  cigars  and  cigarettes  are  in  extensive  use. 

Cig:'oli,  Ludovico  Oardi  da,  an  Italian  painter,  was  bom 
at  Cigoli  in  Tuscany  in  1559,  studied  Correggio  assiduously,  and 
was  among  the  fu:st  of  the  Florentine  school  to  successfully  op- 
pose the  anatomical  style  of  the  imitators  of  Michael  Angelo  and 
the  other  mannerists  of  his  day.  His  design  is  correct,  his 
colour  is  remarkable  for  force,  warmth,  and  harmony,  and  his 
handling  exhibits  much  vigour  and  abandon.  His  '  Apostle 
healing  the  Lame'  in  St  Peter's  was  declared  by  Andrea  Sacdii 
to  be  surpassed  by  only  two  pictures  in  Rome— the  'Trans- 
figuration of  Raphael,  and  the  'Communion  of  St  Jerome' 
by  Domenichino.  Tuscany  is  particularly  rich  in  specimens  of 
his  work.  The  'Martyrdom  of  St  Stephen,'  in  the  palace  of 
the  Uffizi,  Florence,  is  redtoned  one  of  his  finest  efforts.  '~ 
died  at  Rome  in  1613. 

OiTia.  These  are  small  hair-like  bodies,  having  a  power  of 
motion,  attached  to  a  variety  of  epithelial  ceils.  A  layer  of  cells 
of  this  variety  is  called  a  layer  of  ciliated  epithelium.  Such  cells 
are  of  a  columnar  shape,  bearing  the  C.  on  one  extremis,  while 
the  other  lies  on,  or  is  attached  to,  subjacent  tissue.  The  cells 
are  usually  arranged  in  three  or  four  layers  deep,  but  the  ex- 
ternal layer  is  the  only  one  fully  developed,  the  deeper  layers 
being  destitute  of  C,  Ciliated  epithelial  cells  vary  in  size.  In  the 
human  trachea  or  windpipe,  they  are  about  ^Ajth  to  mVotli 
of  an  inch  in  length,  but  in  many  of  the  invertebtata  they  are 
much  latger.  They  are  found  in  the  following  situations  in  the 
human  body  ;—(i)  On  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  respiratory 
tract,  from  the  base  of  the  epiglottis  to  the  smallest  bronchial 
tubes  in  the  lung.  The  vocal  cords  and  the  air-cells  of  the 
lung  are  not  covered  by  C.  (i)  On  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  nose,  with  the  exception  of  the  area  in  the  upper  chambers 
devoted  to  the  sense  of  smelL  (3)  On  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  female  generative  organs  from  the  middle  of  the  neck  of  the 
uterus  to  the  free  edge  of  the  fibriated  extremity  of  the  Fallopian 
tube.  (4)  On  a  portion  of  the  tubular  stnicture  of  the  testicle. 
(5)  On  the  lining  membrane  of  the  cavities  of  the  brain  and  spinal 
cord  in  the  new-bom  child.  In  adult  life,  however,  they  are 
limited  to  the  central  canal  of  the  cord,  the  posterior  end  of  the 
fourth  ventride  of  the  brain,  the  aqueduct  of  Silvius,  and  tlie 
lateral  ventricles,     (6)  In  the  Eustachian  tube  and  in  the  middle 

Form  of  Cilia. — They  are  slender,  conical,  or  sabre-shaped  fila- 
ments, narrow  at  the  free  eiUremity,  and  broad  at  the  base. 
Under  the  highest  powers,  they  show  no  indication  of  definite 
internal  stracture. 

Motion  of  Cilia. — This  may  be  best  studied  by  examination  of 
a  portion  of  the  gills  of  the  common  mussel.  It  is  seen  to  be  a 
sort  of  lashing  movement,  and  when  many  act  together  on  the 
same  bar  or  surface,  the  motion  gives  rise  to  the  optical  effect  of 
a  series  of  waves  passing  along  the  free  border  of  the  ciliated 
surface,  like  the  waves  caused  by  wind  passing  over  a  field  of 
com.  Occasionally  the  movement  is  so  rapid  that  the  C.  ; 
not  seen,  but  their  presence  is  indicated  by  the  movements  of 
particles  of  matter  in  their  vicmity.  Adopting  the  classification 
of  ValentuL  and  Purkinje,  the  movements  of  C.  may  be  divided 
into  (i)  the  hook-like,  in  which  the  movements  are  like  those  of 
a  finger  alternately  flexed  and  extended ;  (2)  the/uniiel-ihaped, 
in  which  there  is  a  kind  of  twisting  action  of  the  ciliura  by 
which  its  apex  describes  a  circle  or  elipse,  and  the  whole  cilium 
a  cone  having  the  base  uppermost ;  (3)  the  cjir/ZaJ^fi^-,  inwhich  it 
swings  like  a  pendulum  ;  and  (4)  the  ufidiiJating,  or  flail-like,  i: 
which  it  acts  like  the  lash  of  a  wliip.  Few  objects  are  mor 
beautiful  tiian  a  mass  of  C.  in  vigorous  action.  In  cold-blooded 
animals  the  motion  of  the  C,  may  continue  for  hours,  or  even 
days  after  the  death  of  the  animal,  but  m  warm-blooded  animals 
they  rarely  act  for  more  than  tv-  ' 


iSi 


vLiOOQle 


OIL 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Effects  fp  he  ideal  applications  on  Cilia.— {l')  Tem- 

peratur      A    is  mperature  increases  the  activity  of  the 

movem    t,  b  ase   a  57°  or  60°  P.     Cold  does  not  retard 

the  acti  n  w         ed  ced  to  freezing-point.    (2)   Water. — 

Fresh  wa  ds       destroys  the  action  of  C  of  sea-anunals, 

wliile  salt  water  has  a  similar  effect  on  those  which  frequent 
fresh  water.  (3)  Bile,  olkaJies,  acids,  and  alcohols  arrest  the 
motion.  (4)  Vapour  of  chloroform  arrests  the  motion  for  a 
lime,  if  not  applied  for  too  long  a  peiiod.  (5)  Oxygen  is  re- 
quired for  the  activity  of  C. ;  deprivation  of  it,  or  an  atmosphere 
of  hydrogen,  arrests  the  movement.  (6)  A  stream  of  carbonic 
add  retards  Che  action.  (7)  Continuous  or  Faradic  currents  of 
electcicily,  or  a  disdiaree  from  a  Leyden  jar,  have  no  effect 
unless  extremely  powerSil,  when  they  cause  either  electrolysis 
or  sudden  stoppage. 

C.  are  endowed  with  the  vital  property  of  contractility,  and 
it  is  in  virtue  of  this  they  move.  Their  actions  are  not  dependent 
directly  on  the  int^ity  of  the  nervous  or  circulatory  systems, 
as  they  work  vigorously  for  some  time  after  the  death  of  th 
animal.     See  Contractility. 

Oili'cia,  anciently  a  province  of  Asia  Minor,  coinciding  partly 
with  the  modem   vilayet  of  Adana,  bounded  on  the  N    by 
Taurus,  on  the  S.  by  the  Levant,  on  the  W.  by  Pamphylia      d 
on  the  E.  by  the  range  of  Amanus.     Its  physical  diaractei 
divided  it  into  two  parts,  the  Western  Or  Rough  C,  and  tl 
Eastern  or  Plain  C,  the  former  clothed  with  forests,  and  th 
latter  producing  com  and  wine.     C  was  governed  by  1  a 
kings,  even  after  it  became  a  Persian  satrapy.     After  the  vi 
toryat  Issos  (333  B.C.)  it  became  a  Macedoman  province,  and 
the  death  of  Alexander  it  became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  th 
Selencidie,  till  Pompey  made  it  a  Roman  province,  B.a  63 

Cimabu'e,  Giovanni  Gualtieri,  an  early  Italian  painter, 
was  born  at  Florence  in  1240.  Being  sent  while  a  youth  for 
purposes  of  education  to  the  convent  of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  he 
there  learnt  his  art  from  certain  Gredan  painters,  who  were 
engaged  in  decorating  the  church  of  the  convent,  and  sjpon 
acquired  so  much  celebrity  that  in  1263  he  was  commissiraied 
to  adorn  with  frescoes  the  Church  of  St  Frands  at  Assist 
Among  his  subjects  weie  the '  Life  of  Christ,' '  Life  of  St  Francis,' 
'Life  of  the  Virgin,'  'Four  Evangelist?,*  &c,  portions  of  whidi 
still  remain.  Returning  to  his  native  city,  C.  painted  his  famous 
'Madonna'  (still  preserved),  which  was  regarded  as  a  marvel 
of  art,  and  excited  such  enthusiasm  that  the  people  bore  it  in 
procession  from  his  studio  to  the  Church  of  Santa  Maria.  He 
died  at  Florence,  probably  in  1302.  His  chief  distinction  is, 
that  he  materially  helped  to  emancipate  Italian  art  from  Byzan- 
tine traditions.  He  ceased  to  be  a  copyist,  turned  his  attention 
towards  naCnre,  and  diversified  the  mechanical  pose  of  Greek 
figtu^  by  study  from  living  models.  In  tliis  restoration  of  art, 
however,  C.  cannot  be  regarded  as  having  done  more  than  pre- 
pare the  way  for  Giotto  (q.  v.),  who  was  his  pupil  and  protege. 

Oimaro'sa,  Domenico,  an  Italian  musician,  was  bom  at 
Naples  in  1754,  and  studied  under  Sacchini  at  Loretto.  He 
very  early  attained  celebrity  as  a  composer  of  operas,  of  which 
one — //  Malrimoiiio  Segreto — is  still  well  known.  C.  undertook 
musical  engagements  at  St  Petersburg,  Vienna,  and  other  Euro- 
pean courts,  but  eventually  returned  to  Italy,  and  died  at  Venice, 
mh  January  tSoi, 

Cbntalo,  an  old  keyed  instrument,  one  of  the  precursors  of 
the  harpsichord. 

CimlJri,  or  Kimtiri,  a  people  who,  in  conjunction  with  the 
Teutones,  invaded  Southern  Europe  towards  the  close  of  the 
2d  c  B.C.,  and  defeated  several  Roman  armies  in  succession, 
till  they  themselves  were  conquered  by  C.  Marius,  B.C.  loi,  in 
the  Campi  Raudii,  near  Vercelli,  with  a  loss  estimated  at  from 
100,000  to  140,000  men.  Who  these  C.  were  has  given  rise  to 
much  discussion.  Tacitus,  Plmy,  and  Strabo  agree  in  making 
their  oi^inal  country  the  Chersonesus  Cimbrica,  now  the  penin- 
aida  of  Jnlknd.  The  preponderance  of  ancient  testimony  is  in 
favour  ofthdr  Celtic  origin,  and  H.  Miiller,  in  his  I'm  jl/n(-A(«  (fer 
Vaterlandes,  holds  to  this  opinion,  and  contends  that  the  name 
is  identical  with  Kymri,  the  designation  of  the  modem  Celts 
of  Wales.  Modern  opinion,  however,  favours  their  Germanic 
origin  ;  and  the  definite  facts  tliat  support  this  hypothesis  are 
stated  by  Mommsen,  History  of  Rome,  vol.  Ui.  pp.  178,  179, 
(Dickson's  translation).  The  name  C,  or  Chemp/w,  is  certainly 
152 


Teutonic  (comp.  Old  Eug.  Kenijia,  and  Ger.  Kampfer),  and 
means  tlie  'champions,'  which  their  enemies  translated  the 
'robbers.'  Mommsen  suggests  that  'round  a  nucleus  of  Ger- 
manic emigrants  from  the  Baltic'  had  gathered  in  the  course 
of  their  wanderings  'an  immense  multitude  of  various  origin.' 
This  would  satisfactorily  account  for  many  Celtic  tr^ts  which 
the  motley  hosi  exhibited. 

Oim'ex  and  Cimio'idEe.     See  Bug. 

Cimicifu'ga,  or  Bugbajie,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  order  RanuniulaceiB,  natives  of  Eastern  Europe,  Siberia, 
and  N.  America.  The  European  C.  feeiida  is  extremely  fetid, 
and  is  used  to  drive  away  bugs  and  other  vermin — hence  the 
specilic  name  ('  bug-fleer '). 

Cimme'riana,  orCimme'rii,  apeopleo  wh      H  m 
be  said  to  give  a  dim,  fabulous  tradition,  and  H  d    n 

and  partially  historical  account.     In  the  Od  h  p 

sented  as  dwelling  in  darkness  beyond  the 
H      d  tu    they  occupy  the  territory  betw    n  the  B    y   h 
(Dm  p    )  and  the  Tanais  (Don),  and  are  rep  ese    ed  as  h  vi 

d  d  A   a  after  they  were  expelled  from  ti 

by  tl     S  ythians.      They  seem   to  have  o  d  th    T    i 

Ch  rs  nesu   (Crimea),  and  from  them  the  C  B    p 

(Stait    f  Venikale)  takes  its  name.     Theyw  n 

Cimolite.    See  Fuller's  Earth. 

Oljnon  a  famous  Athenian  general,  son  of  the  Miltiades 
h  nq  red  at  Marathon,  was  bom  510  B.C.  His  life  was 
m  nly  d  ted  to  the  overthrow  and  humiliadon  of  his  country's 
oreat  my,  Persia.  In  477  he  shared  with  Atistides  the  com- 
nd  f  tl  Athenian  contingent  of  the  Greek  armament  under 
Pausanias,  reduced  Eion  on  the  Strymon,  and  in  476  subdued 
and  colonised  the  island  of  Scyros.  In  466  he  completely 
defeated  a  great  Persian  fleet  at  the  river  Eurymedon,  and 
subsequently  expelled  the  Peraans  from  the  Cheraonese.  C. 
regarded  Sparta  as  the  'yoke-fellow'  of  Athens,  and  on  the 
revolt  of  the  Helots  headed  two  expeditions  to  aid  the  Spartans. 
Having  been,  however,  on  the  second  occasion,  insultingly  dis- 
missed by  them,  C.  lost  his  popularity  at  Athens,  failed  in  the 
stra^le  against  Ephialtes  and  Pericles,  and  was  eventually 
ostracised.  He  was  recalled  five  years  later,  and  under  his 
influence  the  Atlienians  made  peace  with  Sparta,  and  renewed 
the  war  with  Persia.  In  449  he  sailed  with  200  ships  to 
Cyprus,  where  he  died  at  the  siege  of  Citium, 

Cintjho'nil,  an  important  genus  of  evergreen  shrubs  or  trees, 
natives  of  the  valleys  of  the  Andes,  and  which  give  the  name 
to  the  order  to  which  they  belong  {Cinckonaceie).  Tliey  are 
found  from  about  laL  19°  S.  to  Caracas,  in  about  lo"  N.  lat., 
and  at  heights  from  4000  to  nearly  12,000  feet  above  the 
sea-level.  There  are  many  spedes,  but  all  do  not  yield  the 
medicinal  bark  known  In  medicine  and  commerce  as  C.  or 
Peruvian  bark.  The  dlffei-eut  spedes  have  been  the  subject 
of  elaborate  investigation,  by  Weddell,  Howard,  Markham, 
Spruce,  and  others,  and  the  general  result  of  (heir  investiga- 
tions is,  that  the  Calisaya  or  yellow  bark  is  the  produce  of  C. 
Calisaya,  the  grey  or  Huanco  liark  of  C.  tiacrantka  and  C. 
nitida,  Loxa  or  crown  bark  of  C.  Condaminm  {officinalis), 
while  the  red  bark  is  furnished  by  C.  succriruira.  The  value  of 
C.  bark  as  a  tonic  and  remedy  for  fever  is  owing  to  the  presence 
of  the  alkaloids  guinia,  giiintdia,  cinehnnia,  and  cinchoaidinia — 
some  of  (he  barks.however,  containing  more  than  others.  For  in- 
stance, qtdma,  the  most  useful  of  all  of  them,  is  found  in  greatest 
quanti»  in  Calisaya  bark,  ctticAimid  in  grey  and  red  bark,  while 
quinidia  exists  in  largest  amount  in  Loxa  bark.  All  of  these 
aUtaloids,  though  varying  in  degree  of  strength,  have  similar 
properties.  The  C.-trees  grow  in  the  forests  of  Bolivia,  Peru, 
and  neighbouring  countries  in  small  groups.  The  cascarilleros  or 
bark-gatherers  are  native  Indians  or  half-castes,  whose  occupation 
is  one  attended  with  great  labour.  After  a  tree  is  cutdown,  the 
bark  is  stripped  off,  and  the  larger  pieces  stacked  to  dry,  while 
the  thinner  bark  from  the  twigs  and  branches  rolls  up  in  '  quills 
like  that  of  the  cinnamon-tree.  The  bark  nearest  the  root  is 
most  esteemed,  on  account  of  the  quantity  of  alkaloids  contained 
in  it.  After  being  dried,  it  is  conveyed  to  the  coast  on  the  backs 
of  the  cascatiUeros,  or  in  any  other  way  that  the  circuitous  paths 
through  the  mountainous  forest  will  admit  of.  The  object  of 
the  cascarilleros  being  to  collect  the  greatest  quantity  of  bark  ir 


yLaOOgle 


CIN 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


the  shortest  possible  space  of  time,  ihey  indulge  in  thi 
wasteful  destruction  of  the  C,  forests,  yonng  trees  and  old  being 
indiscriminately  cut  down  without  any  attempt  to  replace  them 
by  planting  others.  In  course  of  time  the  effects  of  this  suicidal 
pohcy  b^an  to  be  apparent  The  supplies  of  baii  became 
and  more  difficult  to  obtain,  and  it  was  evident  that  in  tim 
tree  yielding  this  drug,  so  all-unportant  in  tropical 
would  soon  become  practically  extinct.  Accordingly  the  Indian 
Government  took  measures  to  naturalise  it  in  the  cooler  iiill- 
r^ions  of  India.  This  task  was  committed  to  Messrs  C.  R. 
Maikham,  R.  Spruce,  M'lyor,  and  others,  and  was  performed 
with  such  success,  that  extensive  forests  are  now  giowing  in 
various  parts  of  India,  and  promise  to  yield,  in  course  of  time, 
a  supply  of  C.  much  greater  than  ever  was  obtained  by  the  pre- 
carious labours  of  the  S.  American  «iJEorjy/i(raj,  Owing  also  to 
the  scientific  skill  with  which  the  trees  are  cultivated,  it  isfound 
that  the  Indian-grown  bark  yields  a  greater  supply  of  the  alka- 
loids than  the  wild  trees.  It  is  also  now  naturalised  m  Jamaica 
and  Java.  C.  bark  was  first  employed  in  Europe  about  the 
middle  of  the  lytli  c,  though  its  valuable  pmperties  as  a  febrifuge 
were  long  known  to  the  natives  of  Peru.  It  was  first  brought 
from  that  comitry  to  Europe  in  1639  by  the  Countess  del  Chin- 
chon,  wife  of  the  then  Viceroy  of  Peru,  and  from  whom  the 
genus  is  now  named,  though— notwithstanding  the  appeal  of  Mr 
Markhani  for  the  correct  spelling  of  the  word,  CAinchona — long 
usage  has  now  established  the  genus  without  the  h.  From  the 
fact  of  the  Jesuits  using  it  as  a  remedy  in  intermittent  fever,  the  C. 
bark  was  at  one  time  generally  known  as,  and ,  is  still  sometimes 
yetcalled,  '  Jesuii's  bark.'  It  is  also  called  China  bark ,  Quinia, 
Quinquina,  &c.  It  is  now  generally  administered  in  the  form  of 
its  alkaloid  qninine,  or  in  the  sulpliate  or  disulphate  of  qumine, 
in  doses  of  from  i  to  20  grains.  In  addition  to  its  anti- 
periodic  febiifugal  and  tonic  properties,  the  bark  is  somewhat 
astringent,  and  has  been  occasionally  found  serviceable  ks  a 
topical  astringent  and  antiseptic.  See  Pareira's  Materia  Medica  ; 
Moquin-Tandon's  Bulaitigue  MUicale,  and  the  various  works 
and  reports  of  Markliam,  Weddell,  Howard,  Spruce,  and  others 
on  the  subject. 

Oinohona'ceBB,  a  natural  order  of  Dicotyledonous  plants,  of 
which  the  genus  Ciackena  (q.  v.)is  the  type.  By  some  botanists 
it  is  considered  only  a  division  of  RuMacta  (q.  v.).  There  are 
about  2600  species,  distributed  over  300  known  genera,  consist- 
iug  of  trees,  shrubs,  and  herlis,  all  natives  of  tropical  and  warm 
regions.  It  is  very  important  as  fm-nishing  many  plants  useful  in 
medicine,  the  arts,  and  domestic  economy.  Some  possess  tonic, 
febrifugal,  emetic,  astringent,  or  purgative  proiJerties ;  others 
yield  dye  and  tanning  agents ;  while  a  third  group  possess  edible 
fruits  and  seeds.  A  few  are  reputed  to  be  intoxicating  and  even 
poisonous,  and  several  are  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  their  beauty 
andfhefragranceoftheirflowers.  In  addition  to  Cinchona, Coffee, 
(ij.  v.),  Ipecacuanha  (q.  v.),  Morinda,  citrifoUa,  the  roof  of  which 
yields  Soorangie  d]je,  Vncaria  Gamliir,  which  yields  white 
Gambir  (q.  v.),  a  variety  of  catechu,  Gardenia,  and  other  plants 
yielding  pleasants  fruits,  Chayroot  (q.  v.),  &c.,  may  be  mentioned 
as  some  of  the  more  important  economic  plants  of  this  order. 

Cin'chouine  and  Oinchon'idme  are  isomeric  alkaloids 
(q.  V.},  contamed,  along  with  the  quinine  alkaloids,  in  the  bark 
of  the  different  varieties  of  Cinchona.  Pale  Penirian  Ixirk  is 
richest  in  C.  and  its  isomer ;  yellow  Peruvian  bark  in  quinine. 
Another  alkaloid  called  CinnAenicirte,  isomeric  with  C  and  C, 
is  obtained  under  certain  conditions  by  heating  the  latter  sub- 
stance. The  composition  of  these  bodies  is  represented  by  the 
formula  CjoHgjNjO  ;  that  of  quinine  and  its  isomers  by  tbe 
formula  CsoHsjNjOs.  Sulphate  of  C.  is  used  in  medicine,  and 
is  similar  in  its  physiological  action  to  sulphate  of  quinine.    See 

Quinine. 

Cinciudela,  a  genus  of  CcUoptera  or  Beetles,  forming  the 
type  of  the  family  Ci?!cindeHda,  and  popniarly  kriown  as  '  Tiger- 
beetles  '  or  '  Sparklers,'  from  their  carnivorous  Iwbits,  and  from 
the  brilliant  hues  and  lustres  of  their  bodies.  The  tiger-beetle 
(C  cavtpeslrU)  is  a  familiar  British  species,  and  is  noted  for  its 
voracious  habits,  feeding  on  other  insects,  arid  being  able  to  pur- 
sue its  prey  into  the  air.  It  exudes  a  powerful  odour  or  scent, 
like  that  of  a  crushed  verbena  leaf.  The  Indian  tiger-beetle  (C 
oaonstata)  is  another  well-ltnown  species.  These  insects  have 
five-jointed  tarsi ;  the  head  is  wider  than  the  chest,  and  the  man- 
dibles are  laige,  sliarp,  and  toothed. 

95 


IS  built  on  two  terraces,  the  one  50,  the  other  roo  feet  above 
the  river.  Tlie  streets  and  the  environs  of  the  city  are  alike 
beautiful.  C.  has  many  fine  buildings,  as  the  C.  College,  the 
custom-house,  the  post-office,  and  Burnet  House.  There  aie 
two  Roman  Catholic  colleges,  and  one  Methodist;  a  Pi-esbyterian 
theological  seminary,  a  law  school,  severoJ  medical  and  ladies' 
institutions,  besides  many  free  schools,  and  about  a  hundred 
churches.  C.  is  connected  with  Covington,  on  the  Kentucky  side 
of  the  Ohio,  by  a  magnificent  suspension-bridge,  100  feet  above 
low-water.  The  city  is  supplied  with  wafer  from  the  Ohio  by  a 
reservoir  which  cost  1798,000.  C  is  the  greatest  pork -market 
m  America,  the  kilimg  and  packing  being  an  immense  industry. 
Wine,  from  the  native  Catawba  (q,  v.)  grape,  is  also  an  exten- 
article  of  trade,  and  tliere  are  large  manufactories  for 


-   —  -----     —  .,-„,.  ^ — .^,  .,^.w  ^-^3,079,825, 

and  the  imports  $339,790,537.  C.  was  founded  in  1788,  and 
had  only  500  inhabitants  in  1800 ;  in  1830  it  had  24,830  ■  in 
1S70,  216,289. 

Oiociiuiati  (Order),  a  society  in  the  United  States,  which 
was  formed  in  1783  by  the  officers  of  the  revolutionary  army, 
to  perpetuate  their  friendship,  and  to  provide  for  the  widows  and 
orphans  of  those  who  had  fallen  in  the  vrar.  The  badge  of  the 
society  is  a  bald  eagle  of  gold,  with  the  motto  Omnia  rfliquit 
sen/are  rempubticam.  It  is  siispended  by  a  deep.bliie  ribbon 
edged  with  white.  The  order  was  to  be  hereditary  ;  hence  it 
met  with  much  opposition.  It  still,  however,  exists  in  some  of 
the  States,  and  meets  on  the  4th  of  July, 

Oinciima'tiis,  Jjuoius  Ouinetius,  a  Roman  statesman  and 
soldier,  famous  iii  the  notional  legend  preserved  by  Livy  for  the 
sinjplidty  of  his  life  and  manners,  He  was  born  sometime 
before  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins.  In  460  he  was  illegally 
appointed  consul  suffectiis  1  and  two  years  afferwaris,  lielng 
made  dictator,  he  extricated  the  Roman  consul  and  army  from 
imminent  destruction  at  the  hands  of  the  jEqni,  Livy's  narra- 
tive of  the  manner  in  which  he  effected  this  is  rejected  by 
Niebuhr  as  transparently  mythical.  In  B.C.  439,  at  the  age  of 
eighty,  he  was  a  second  tinie  appointed  dictator,  to  suppress  a 
plebeian  discontent  fostered  by  Spurius  Melius,  after  which  he 
disappears  from  history.  In  the  Roman  l^end,  C,  stands  forth 
as  a  type  of  simple  antique  virtue  ;  biit  modem  criticism,  when 
it  allows  his  existence,  is  somewhat  hard  upon  his  patrician 


Oin'erary  Urns  (Lat.  dnis,  'ashes')  were  the  vessels  in 
which  the  ashes  of  tlie  dead  were  pkced  amongst  tiiose  nations 
who  were  accustomed  to  bum  their  dead.  When  the  funeral 
pyre  was  burned  down,  the  embers  were  extinguished  with  wine, 
and  the  bones  and  ashes  of  the  dead  collected  by  the  nearest 
relatives,  who  sprinkled  them  with  perfumes  and  pkced  them  iu 
annrn,  which  was  then  deposited  in  a  niche  of  the  w/airam,  or 
family  tomb.  The  urns  were  mostly  niade  of  baked  clay,  but 
also  of  stone  and  metal,  and  even,  though  I'arely,  of  gold  and 
silver.      They  were  of  various  shapes,  but  commonly  square  or 

Oiim'a,  Lnoiua  Oomelius,  the  leader  of  the  Marian  party 
during  the  absence  of  Sulla  in  the  East,  Though  elected  consul 
(B.c,  87)  with  the  sanction  of  Sulla,  his  first  act  was  to  impeach 
him,  and  to  take  measures  for  bringing  back  the  banished 
Marians  to  power.  Defeated  in  the  senate,  he  fled  from  the  city, 
on  whicli,  however,  he  soon  niarched  with  an  armed  force,  and 
invested  it  by  land,  while  Marius,  who  had  returned  from  his 
African  exile,  blockaded  it  by  sea.  They  captured  the  city, 
massacred  the  friends  of  Sulla,  and  declared  themselves  consuls 
(b.c,  86).  Marius  died  soon  after.  In  his  fourtli  consulate,  Cn, 
Carbo  being  his  colleague,  C.  collected  an  anny  at  Brundi- 
sium  tp  meet  Sulla,  who  had  returned  to  Italy  to  take  vengeance 
on  his  foes,  but  he  was  slain  while  attempting  to  quell  a  mutiny 
that  had  broken  out  among  his  troops. 

Ciun'abElr,  native  mercuric  sulphide,  HgS,  the  most  abun- 
dant ore,  and  chief  source  of  the  quicksilver  or  mercury  of  com- 
e.      It  occurs  fibrous  and  amorphous,  also  crystallised  in 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


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e  tliose  of  Idria  in  Carnioia,  Austria,  of  Almaden  in 
Spain,  and  of  New  Almaden,  New  Idria,  and  Redington,  in 
California.  C.,  artificially  prepared,  conslitntes  the  well-known 
colour  Vermilion  (q.  v, ). 

Oinnam'io  Acid  and  the  Cinnamyl  Group.     C.  A.  is  a 
white  crystalline  substance,  resembling  benzoic  acid  in  appear- 
mce,  and  is  contained  in  Storax  (q.  v. ),  Tolu,  and  Peru  balsams, 
n  old  oil  of  cinnamon,  and  in  gum  benzoin.     C,  A.  is  best  ob- 
tained by  boiling  storax  with  a  dilute  solution  of  caustic  soda, 
when  soluble  cinnamate  of  soda  is  formed.     The  aqueous  solu- 
n  of  this  salt  is  filtered  from  the  raidissolved  portions  of  the 
irai,  and  mixed  with  excess  of  hydrochloric  add,  when  the  C. 
is  precifatated,  and  may  be  purified  by  recry stall  isation  from 

C.  A.  crystalUses  m  rhombic  prisms ;  it  fuses  at  133°  C,  andiioils 
at  290°  C,  with  partial  decomposition.  It  rises  in  vapour  at 
temperatures  below  its  boiling-point,  and  may  therefore  be  purified 
by  sublimation.  It  is  sparingly  soluble  in  cold  water,  more  readily 
in  boiling  water,  biit  its  best  solvent  is  alcohol.  C.  A.  is  a  mono- 
basic acid,  and  has  the  composition  represented  by  the  formula 
CsH,0(OH),  or  CaH,.(COOH).  It  forms  crystallipe  salts  with 
melais,  and  several  interesting  derivatives,  the  following  being 
among  the  most  important  :— 

Cinnamk  Aldehyde,  CbH?(COH),— This  is  an  oily  liquid, 
which  forms  the  diief  constituent  ef  the  essential  oils  of  cin- 
lamon  and  cassia,  and  pves  to  them  their  characteristic  odour. 
[t  maybe  prepared  artificially  by  distilling  a  miitur-e  of  focniiate 
md  cinnamate  of  calcium.     See  Aldehydes. 

Cinnamati  ofCinayl  or  Sfyritcine,  CsHilCOOCsHj),  ia  a  crys- 
talline substance  contained,  along  with  C.  A.,  in  storax,  and 
may  be  obtained  from  the  Jitter  3fter  the  C.  A.  has  been  ex- 
tracted  by  squeeaing  the  remainmg  resin,  when  the  slyracine  is 
forced  out  in  oily  drops,  which  crystallise  on  standing. 

On  distilling  styracine  with  caustic  potash,  it  is  resolved  into 
Cintiamk  Alcohol,  CsH^CH^OH),  and  cinnaiuate  of  potassium. 
The  einnamic  alcohol  passes  over  as  an  oily  liquid,  which  soon 
crystallises.     It  has  a  pleasant  odour  of  hjacmths. 

Styrol,  CsHf,  is  another  substance  contdned  in  stora^.  If  the 
latter  be  distilled  with  water,  styrol  is  carried  over  with  the  steam, 
and  condenses  in  oily  drops,  which  »xt  readily  separated  from 
the  water  by  decantation.  It  is  a  liquid  body,  which,  when 
heated  to  acxD"  C,  is  converted  into  a  soljd  crystalline  substance 
called  meia-styrol. 

Oinnamoden'droii,  a  genus  of  plants  allied  to  Canella  {q.  v.), 
natural  order  Canellaeea.  The  bark  of  C.  axillare,  a  Brazilian 
tree,  is  aromatic,  tonic,  and  anti-scorhutici 

Cinn'amon,  abark  much  employed  as  acondiment,  and  inmedi- 
cine  as  a  stimulant,  tonic,  astringent,  carminative,  antispasmodic, 
&c.,  chiefly  derived  fi:om  the  inner 
bark   of  Cinnamomum   Zeylatt- 
kum,    a  tree  belonging  to    the 
natural  order  Lauracsz  (q.  v.). 
Tlie  best  comes  from  Ceylon,  but 
it  is  now  naturalised  in  v  ri 
tropical  countries.  Thetreegr  w 
to  the  height  of  from  2a  t     3 
feet    and  sometimes  attain     th 
thickness  of  ij  foot.    Its  p    p 
I    tie  ire  owing  to  a  volatile  o  1   the 
1  oilo/C.    Itcontdnsinadd 
jj  concrete  fatty  substance,  obt       d 
I  from  the  ripe  fmits,  and  It      vn 
\  m  Ceylon  as  C.-suii;  this      b 
heved    to    be    the    Comacum      ! 
Theophrastes.      From  the  1 
a  volatile  oil,  having  the     d 
and  taste  of  oil  of  cloves,        I 
Cnn-inim  distilled.    The  tree  itself  ha  be 

bng  known  m  the  Bible  for  example,  it  is  frequently  ref  rred 
to  under  the  name  itmumon  or  Unman,  There  are  v 
other  species  m  addition  to  (he  one  mentioned,  C.  Cam  (C 
aremattaisi]  yielAi  casim  Itgnea,  or  the  Cassia  Bark  of  comm 
(q  V  ),  and  C  buds — also,  howeier,  obtained  from  C  dal  C 
Leurlm,  and  C  iters  This  tree  is  the  Mdiak  or  cassia  [  tl 
1S4 


Bible.  C.  bavk  is  frequently  used  to  adulterate  C.  Indian  Clove 
Bark  (q.  v.)  is  obtained  from  C.  CulUwan,  Sinfoc  bark  from  C. 
siwtoc,  while  C.  nitUum  {eucalyftcides)  and  C.  Tamala  were  the 
sources  of  the  folia  Palabathri,  in  such  repute  among  the  old 
pharmacologists  as  stomachics  and  sudorifics.  The  '  Nepal 
sassafras '  is  the  root  of  C.  parthenoxykn  and  C.  glanduliferc 
(Bentley). 

C.  is  obtained  by  stripping  the  bark  off  the  branches,  when 
it  rolls  up  into  'quiUs.'    The  smaller  of  these  are  introduced 
within  the  lai^er,  and  then  dried  in  the  sun,  and  the  whole  t 
up  in  bundles,  each  of  about  88  lbs.  weight.     Tlie  thinner  bi 
is  accounted  the  finest  flavoured.     About  500,000  lbs.  are  1 
nually  imported  into  London. 

Medicinally  C.  is  valued  as  a  stomachic  and  carminative 
nausea  and  vomiting,  in  coses  of  flatulence,  and  spasmodic  Ci 
ditions  of  the  stomach  and  alimentary  canal.  It  is  also  reputed 
to  possess  the  property  of  restraining  uterine  haemorrhage.  Its 
uses  by  cooks  and  confectioners  are  too  well  known  to  require 
description.  Bastard  C.  is  C.  Cassia;  black  C,  J'inimta  acris ; 
Isle  of  France  C,  Oriodaphne  cupularis;  Santa  Fe  C,  Nectandra 
cinita?aemoidcs ;  wild  C,  Canella  alba  and  Myrcia  acris. 

Cinn'yjia.     See  Sun-Bikd, 

Cin'que  Cento  (Ital,  'five  hundred'),  an  art  term  for  the 
'fifteen  himdred  period,'  j.c,  the  i6th  c,  especially  the  early 
part— the  second  period  of  the  revival  of  the  arts  in  Italy— and 
for  the  style  of  art  then  prevalent. 

Ciiiq.ue'foil  (in  botany).     See  Potentilla  and  Comahum. 

Ojttquefoil,  or  QrUintfoil,  in  heraldry,  a  flower  of  five  foils 
or  leaves,  which  are  usually  depicted  as  issuing  from  a  ball  a-  ~ 
ceptre  point.  In  architecture,  the  name  is  applied  to  an  or: 
mental  foliation  in  five  compartments — often  represented  it 
circular  form — five  pomts  or  cusps  marking  off  spaces  between 
each  pair,  which  are  called  the  leaves.  The  C,  is  to  be  observed 
in  the  tracery  of  windows  and  panellings. 

0iliq.u6  Porta  are  Dover,  Sandwich,  Romney,  Winchelsea, 
and  Rye,  to  which  are  now  added  Hythe  and  Hastings.  They 
sfe  under  the  government  of  a  Lord  Warden,  whose  office 
was  formerly  an  adjunct  of  the  premiership.  The  C.  P,  have 
various  privileges  as  to  pilotage,  issuing  of  writs,  and  other  judi- 
cial matters.  They  are  supposed  to  have  been  incorporated  pre- 
vious to  the  Conquest,  by  Edward  the  Confessor,  Their  ancient 
organisation  has,  however,  been  broken  up  by  the  Municipal 
Reform  Act,  and  assimilated  to  that  of  English  municipalities  in 
generaL  Tlie  jurisdiction  of  the  Lord  Warden  has  been  curtailed 
by  Acts  of  the  present  reign, 

Cin'tra,  an  old  town  in  the  province  of  Estremadura,  Portugal, 
near  the  base  of  Sierra  de  C,  15  miles  W.N.W.  of  Lisbon.  It 
has  t^vo  royal  residences,  one  originally  a  Moorish  palace,  the 
other  formerly  the  convent  of  La  Penna.  There  is  also  a  ruined 
castle,  and  many  handsome  private  buildings.  Pop.  4300.  The 
well-known  Convention  of  C,  concluded  between  Sir  HewDa!- 
rymple  and  Marshal  Junot,  was  signed  here  August  22,  1808. 
By  this  treaty  the  French,  who  had  retreated  upon  Lisbon  after 
the  defeat  at  Vimieira,  were  allowed  to  return  to  France  with  all 
the  honours  of  war.  A  storm  of  indignation  was  roused  in  Eng- 
1     d  by  th  t        1  the  generals  concerned  were  subsequently 

t     dby        tmat   1  but  acquitted  of  blame,  Welhiigton  sided  in 
p  w  th  th    g       rais.     A  severe  comment  is  made  by  Byron 

n   tl   t  mart   1   yn   1 '  in  the  first  canto  of  his  ChUde  Harold. 

C  otat  La      t  wn  in  the  department  of  Bouche3-du-Rh5ne, 

F  th    G  If   f  Liques,.  15  miles  S.E.  of  Marseille.     It 

1  as      g  od  h    b         has  Government  shipbuilding  yards  and 

1     bl    fish     es        d  is  surrounded  by  plantations  of  the  oliv. 

g        dpmg    nate.     Pop.  (1872)  8232.     C.,theancier 

Clh  rtt         M      1  im  colony,  was  destroyed  by  the  Teutonic 

d         f  Cj    I  b  t  rose  to  importance  through  the  Levant 

t     1         th     6th        It  was  ruined  a  second  time  by  the  r< 

cat         f  tl     Ed   t    f  Nantes,  and  has  only  begun  to  recovei 

.  p     p  nty      tl     p     ent  century. 

C  phe    (F      ,4/'^,LowLat.ei^i!,ftomArab.f;)9, 'empl 
1      t      p    p    ly  denotes  the  character  o,  used  to  fill 

mpty  p  b  t  IS  now  loosely  applied  to  any  of  the  nine 
fiou  I     m  t  phorical   language,   however,   it  retains  Its 

p  un  ryse      —  he  is  a  mere  C.,'  i.e.,  a  nonentity,  a  person 

h  t    r  tl     S-     Another  use  of  the  word-  is  to  desig- 


yLaOogle 


4-- 


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TJI£  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


CIR 


nate  the  interweaving  of  Ihe  initials  of  a  name,  an  arrangement 
which  renders  them  a  private  mark.  This  usage  has  long  been 
especially  affected.  The  C.  of  Tenniel's  name  is  familiar  to  all 
who  look  at  the  cartoons  of  Funck.  Lastly,  and  perhaps  from 
the  preceding  practice,  the  word  has  also  come  to  be  a  name 
for  secret  writing — e.g.,  'the  despatch  was  in  C.,'  i.e.,  in  an  ar- 
rangement of  letters  or  marks  the  meaning  of  which  was  only 
known  to  the  initiated.     See  Cryptography, 

Cipria'iu,  Giovanni  Battista,  painter  and  engraver,  bom 
at  Florence  in  1732,  tiavelled  to  Rome  when  nineteen  years  of 
age,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  Corre^lo.  He  re- 
moved to  England  in  1754,  and  settled  in  London,  where  he 
died  ill  1 785.  His  drawing  is  correct,  and  his  painting  is  marked 
by  harmony  of  colour  and  sweetness  of  style.  His  best  plates 
are  his  composition  named  the  'Mother  and  Daughter,'  the 
"Death  of  Cleopatra,'  after  Benveiiuto  Cellini,  and  his  'Descent 
□f  the  Holy  Sph'il,'  after  Domenico  Gabbiani.  C.  furnished 
the  design  for  the  diploma  of  the  Royal  Academy,  of  which  he 
was  one  of  the  original  members. 

Oircse'a,  a  genns  of  Herbaceotis  plants  of  the  ■  natural  order 
Oftograceic,  of  which  there  are  various  species  in  the  Himalayas, 
Europe,  &c  C.  Luidiana,  the  'enchanter's  nighlsliade,'  is  a 
native  of  Britain.  It  has  no  relation  to  the  nightshades,  and 
probably  the  name  has,  through  some  mistake,  been  transferred 
from  the  Mandrake  (q.  v. )  to  this  plant  [^Ftior)  %  while  the  term 
'  enchanter '  has  been  given  it  from  the  sorceress-goddess  Circe 
(q.  V. ),  after  whom  the  genus  Was  named,  C.  aJptna  is  not  unf  e 
quent  in  Scotland  and  the  N.  of  England.  Beyond  a  little  as 
tringency,  the  plants  possess  no  notable  properties. 

Oir'cars.    See  Northern  Circars. 

Circaaa'ia,  formerly  an  independent  country,  now  a  district  n 
the  W.  Caucasus,  Russia,  occupies  the  N.  and  part  of  the  b 
declivity  of  the  Caucasus  (q.  v.). 

Circa«3'iaiiiJ9.  Under  this  name  may  be  included  all  the 
tribes  of  the  Caucasus,  hut  the  C.  proper  hold  only  the  north- 
western slope  of  that  range,  excepting  the  country  of  the  Abasians, 
between  the  lower  Kuban  and  the  Black  Sea.  The  C.  are  called 
by  the  Turks  Tcherkas  (j.f.,  robbers),  but  call  themselves  Adighe. 
They  number  about  300,000,  and  comprise  fifteen  tribes.  They 
do  not  belong  to  the  Aryan  race— of  which,  from  their  fine 
physique,  they  were  once  regarded  as  a  high  type— but  to  the 
Semitic  or  Turanian  variety.  Their  peculiar  language  seems 
akin  to  the  Turanian  tongues.  They  are  brave,  strong,  and 
handsome,  and  the  beauty  of  the  Circassian  women,  who  are 
the  favourite  ornament  of  the  Turkish  harems,  is  fiimous 
throughout  the  East.  Their  social  state  is  rude  and  unprt^res. 
sive.  They  are  predatory  and  warlike  ;  and  their  most  stringent 
customs  are  to  respect  age,  to  revenge  a  kmsman's  death, 
and  to  observe  a  law  of  hospitality  called  knaadi.  Almost 
none  of  them  except  their  bards,  who  are  much  respected, 
can  write.  They  are  governed  by  a  kind  of  feudal  oligarchy, 
and  are  divided  into  five  castes— -the  chiefs,  the  nobles,  the  ordi- 
nary freemen,  who  form  the  mass  of  the  people,  the  vassals,  who 
till  the  soil  and  follow  the  nobles  to  war,  and  the  slaves,  either 
prisoners  of  war  or  descendants  of  such  prisoners.  Their  religion 
IS  a  mixture  of  Christianity,  Mohammedanism,  and  Paganism. 
Christianity  was  introduced  among  them  in  the  nth  aad  12th 
centuries,  but  lately  Mohammedanism,  which  is  the  creed  «f  the 
chiefs  and  nobles,  has  prevailed.  During  the  middle  ages  they 
were  subject  to  the  Arabs  and  Georgians.  Aflerthrowing  off  the 
Georgian  yoke  in  1425  they  fell  under  the  power  of  the  Khans 
of  the  Crimea,  but  during  the  l8lh  c.  they  became  free  from 
Tartar  influence,  Tlie  Russians,  after  annexing  Anapa  on  the 
Black  Sea  in  1807,  made  repeated  efforts  to  subdue  the  C,  who, 
by  the  treaty  of  Adtianople  in  1830,  were  ceded  to  Russia  by 
Turkey,  but,  under  Schamyl,  resisted  Russia  until  Prince  Orbel- 
liani  defeated  them  in  1857,  and  captured  Schamyl  in  1859.  A 
lai^  number  of  the  C.  then  sought  refagc  in  Turkish  territory, 
many  of  whom  perished  by  starvation.  Their  country  may  now 
be  considered  thoroughly  conquered,  and  the  bold  spirit  of  the 
mountaineers  finally  quelled.  See  Spencer's  Travils  in  Circassia 
(8to,  Lond.  1839),  and  Ilaxthausen's  Tribes  of  Caucasus  [8vo, 
Lond.  1855). 


of  Africa,  Her  'charmed  cup'  had  the  power  of  changing 
those  that  tasted  it  into  swine.  When  Ulysses,  in  the  course 
of  his  wanderings,  came  to  her  isle,  this  fate  befell  twenty-two 
of  his  companions,  but  the  hero  himself  escaped  it  by  the  aid 
of  Hermes,  and  remained  in  safety  with  the  enamoured  witch 
for  a  whole  year.  The  story  is  told  in  the  roth  and  rath  books 
of  the  Odyssey.  The  Latin  poets  make  great  use  of  the  story 
laf  C,  particularly  Ovid  in  the  14th  Book  of  the  Metamor- 
phoses. 

Oir'cle,  according  to  Euclid,  is  a  plain  figure  contained  by  one 
line,  called  the  circumftrence,  and  is  such  that  all  straight  lines 
dravm  from  a  certain  point  within  the  figure  to  the  circumference 
are  equal  to  one  another ;  this  point  is  the  cmlre.     It  is  per- 
haps      't  'df       th        thd       "bdb'h 
mity             dhh  gipan  dg^fi/ 
point              od     T  IS  d  ii               gge^  p 
meth                 ts  d         p              F         h           dam            p         rt 
ofth                Ed£ff«        Bk              Tgrp 
blem    mghan          gom         wth                     hCw 
itsoi/         t—          h         us           nb               mhm 
meth                                al                    h    C     This  as 
show               q                      od             h       d               th 
circumference  ;  and  accordingly  the  problem  was  reduced  to  that 
of  rectifying  the  curve  and  of  finding  the  ratio  of  the  circumference 
to  the  diameter.     This  ratio  is  the  same  for  all  circles ;  but  it  is 
undiscoverable  by  the  geometry  of  C.  and  straight  line,  the 
constituents  being  bcommensnrable.     The  incommensurability 
seems  to  have  been  suspected  by  Euclid,  whose  most  wonderful 
and  complete  book  is  perhaps  his  loth,  dealing  with  the  investi- 
gat  on  and  cHssification  of  incommensurable  quantities.     The 
a  0  then  of  the  circumference  to  the  diameter,  invariably  re- 
j.  e  ented  n  mathematics  by  the  Greek  letter  r,  can  only  be  ap- 
p  ox  mately  e  pressed  as  a  number.     The  first  approximation 
(2      7)     as  given  by  Archimedes.     Another,  and  nearer,  and 
ver)  CO  ven  ent  value,  is  355  :  113.     Viela  calculated  it  to  the 
10th  dei,imal  place.  Van  Ceuleo  to  the  36th,  Sharp   to   the 
7Zd,  De  Lagny  to  the  t28lh,  and  Clausen  to  the  250th.   The 
value  of  ir  to  the  first  15  decimal  places  is  3' 14' 5 9.2^5 3 5. 89 793- 
Although  indisputable  demonstration  is  not  wanting  that  ir  can- 
not be  expressed  in  finite, terms,  we  have  still,  every  now  and 
again,  some  self-styled  niathernatician  giving  to  the  world  his  so- 
called  solution  of  whfit  he  deems  the  most  important  problem 
of  the  day.     An  instructive  and   entertaining  account  of  these 
C.-squarers  la   to  be  found    in  De  Morgan's  Budget  of  Para- 

In  modern  geometry,  the  C-  is  classed  among  the  quadrics  or 
curves  of  the  second  order,  to  which  the  ellipse,  parabola,  and 
hyperbola  also  belong.  Its  »iost  general  equation,  referred  to 
rectangular  co-ordinates,  is  \,x—af  -f  (y—bf  =  ^,  where  a  i 
are  the  co-ordinates  of  the  centre,  and  r  the  length  of  the  radius. 
Many  of  the  properties  of  the  C.  can  be  extended  to  the  sphere 
by  the  substitution  of  planes  for  straight  lines;  and  this  simi- 
larity is  recognisable  at  once  from  their  quatemioa  equations, 
which  are  identical,  there  being  merely  the  further  condition, 
in  the  case  of  the  C,  that  it  lies  in  one  plane.     See  Quater- 

"The  C'uruaiurt  (q.  v,)  of  a  C,  is  the  same  wherever  you  take 
it.  Hence  the  curvature  of  a  curve  at  any  point  is  determined  by 
drawing  through  this  point  the  C.  which  has  the  same  tan- 
gent, and  the  same  qltinmte  deflection  from  the  tangent,  that 
Oie  original  curve  l^s,  since  there  is  no  other  C.  that  can 
have  a  more  perfect  and  higher  degree  of  contact.  This  C  is 
called  the  C.  efcuniature,  and  its  tadius  the  radius  of  atrvature, 
in  practical  life,  the  unit  angle  or  Degree  (q.  v.)  is  that  angle 
which  is  subtended  by  an  arc,  equal  in  length  to  tlie  i-35oth  part 
of  the  circumfetence  of  a  C.  of  unit  radius.  The  only  truly 
scientific  method  is  that  known  (is  the  circular  measure  of  angles, 
which  depends  upon  the  proposition  that  angles  at  the  centre  of 
aC.  are  proportional  to  the  arcs  upon  which  they  stand.  The  unit, 
called  a  radian  by  Professor  James  Thomson,  is  that  angle  whose 
subtending  arc  is  equal  in  length  to  the  radius  j  hence  two  right 
angles  are  represented  numerically  by  jr,  and  one  right  angle  or 

90°  by—.    If  6  be  the  circular  measure  of  an  angle  of  «  degrees, 

the  relation  subsisting  between  these  is  given  by  (he  equation 


vLaOOgle 


^- 


CIR 


TJIE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


Circle,  Magic,  the  charmed  limits  within  which  magicians 

KoA  sorcerers,  according  to  popular  belief,  were  safe  from  the 

fury  of  the  evil  spirits  whom  their  spells  had  raised.     Described 

a  space  of  gsq.  feet—?  was  the  number  in  the  E.— there  was 

outer  and  an  inner  C,  and  the  spaces  between  them,  as  well 

in  the  angles  of  the  sqnaje  outside  the  larger  one,  were  filled 
'  with  all  the  holy  names  of  God,'  and  other  symbols,  in  which 
lay  the  potency  of  the  charm. 

Circle,  Mural,     See  Mural  Circle. 

Circle,  ftuadraturo  of.    See  Circle. 

Circles  of  tlie  Sphere.     See  Armillarv  Sphere. 

Cir'cults.  England  and  Wales,  except  MiddlescJi,  are  for 
judicial  purposes  divided  into  C,  which  the  fifteen  judges  visit 
twice  or  thrice  a  year,  in  pairs,  to  adjudge  civil  and  criminal 
charges.  The  criminal  chaiges  for  the  county  of  Middlesex  and 
city  of  London,  and  parts  adjacent,  are  adjudged  at  sessions  held 
monthly  at  the  Central  Ciuninal  Court  (see  Criminal  Court, 
Central);  and  die  judges  of  the  superior  courts  sit  during  term 
foV  the  adjudication  of  civil  cases  only  m  Westminster  Hall,  and 
before  and  after  term  in  the  Gaildhall  of  the  city_  of  London, 
The  Lord  Chancellor  and  the  Vice-Chancellor  also  sit  out  of  term 
at  Lmcoln's  Inn.  The  circuit  districts  of  England  are  eight — 
the  Home,  the  Midland,  the  Norfolk,  the  CWord,  the  Northern, 
the  Western,  the  N.  Wales  and  the  S.  Wales.  In  Ire- 
land they  are  the  N.E.,  the  N.W.,  the  Home,  the  Leinster,  the 
Connaught,  and  the  Munster.  (See  Assize.)  The  Act  of  1672 
divides  Scotland  into  three  distiicls,  in  which  C.  are  to  be  made 
by  the  justiciary  juices.  Tlus  regulation  is  affected  by  different 
statutes.  The  circuit  courts  of  the  southern  district  are  directed  to 
be  held  at  Jedburgh,  Dumfries,  and  Ayr ;  the  western  at  Stirlmg, 
Inverary,  and  Glasgow ;  and  the  northern  at  Perth,  Aberdeen, 
and  Inverness.  The  court  must  rerniun  at  each  place  not  fewer 
than  three  days,  and  no  business  begun  at  any  of  the  places  must 
be  left  unfinished.  There  are  two  C.  in  the  year ;  one  must  be 
held  between  the  Ijth  March  and  I3th  May ;  the  other  is  ap- 
pointed to  be  held  in  the  autumn.  An  additional  criminal  circuit 
has  been  appointed  to  be  held  at  Glasgow  during  the  Christmas 
recess  of  the  Court  of  Session.  Cu-cuit  courts  are  established  in 
Scotland  for  the  trial  of  small-debt  causes  by  the  shetiffe, 

Oir'ealar  Decimals.    See  Decimals. 

Circular  Ifotea  are  a  kind  of  bank-notes,  which  the  chief 
banking-houses  of  the  United  Kingdom  supply  for  the  con- 
venience of  traveller?  abroad.  Tliey  are  of  the  value  of  ten 
pounds  and  upwards.  No  cljat^e  is  usually  made  by  the  l>ank 
for  commission,  it  making  its  profit  on  the  interest  arising  on 
the  purchase-money  between  the  time  of  purchase  and  the  date 
at  which  the  bank  is  called  on  to  cash  the  C.  N.  A  French 
Ziiire^'/BiiiV-aifen, addressed  to  a  long  list  of  foreign  bankers,  is 
given  along  with  the  notes,  which  must  be  presented  on  dis- 
-  mtlng  any  of  them.  The  traveller  should  sign  this  letter  at 
. .  ;e  on  receivine  it,  ajid  put  it  in  one  repository  and  the  notes  in 
another ;  thus,  if  his  notes  are  lost  or  stolen,  they  cannot  be 
cashed  if  he  retain  the  lettei-,  and  even  though  both  letter  and 
notes  come  into  rti^  possession  of  a  dishonest  person,  the  former 
being  signed,  there  will  be  ttie  difficulty  of  endorsing  the  notes 
with  a  sufficiently  g>od  imitation  of  the  signature  to  the  letter. 
Messrs  Coutts  &  Co,  of  London  have,  we  believe,  the  widest 
cireie  of  foreign  correspondents.  They  pay  the  foreign  banker 
a  smaU  commission  i  the  traveller  is  therefore  entitled  to  the  full 
rate  of  the  discount  of  the  day,  without  any  charge  for  commis- 
sion. In  France,  the  usual  rate  of  exchange  is  from  25130  frangs 
to  aS'Jo  per^i— i.^.,  253  francs  to  255  francs  per/io  C.  N.  In 
Switzeriand  it  is  not  commonly  above  25-0  per  £\.  In  Italy, 
the  exchange  in  papir  is  about  25-8  to  25-95  per  £u  (See 
Exchange,  in  Political  Economv.  )  The  traveller  must  be  very 
careful  about  paper  in  Spain  and  Italy.  He  should  take  paper, 
because  in  paying  his  hotel-bills,  if  he  pay  in  gold  he  will  get  no 
discount  J  but  before  quitting  any  place  he  must  get  quit  of  his 
/(■Co/ paper,  as  it  is  not  current  out  of  its  locality.  In  leaving 
Turin  for  France  or  Switzerland,  he  must  take  care  to  have  gold 
to  pay  his  railway  fare,  as  the  railway  will  not  accept  paper,  not 
even  the  paper  of  the  National  Bank  of  Italy.  We  consider  the 
C.  N.  the  most  safe  and  convenient  form  of  carrying  aooney 
abroad,  and  we  have  never  met  with  inciviUty.  On  one  ■ 
.56 


sion,  when  the  fault  was  our  own,  we  found  oui'  passport  from 
the  Foreign  Office  veiy 
to  carry  a  passport  from  Ofti 

CirciU»r  Numbers 

same  letter— that  is,  ev  na 

Circular  Parts,  th 

Napier,  which  facililat 
triangles.  They  may 
trigonometry. 

Circular  Polarisa'     a 

Oir'culatiiig  Lilarary,  y  hi 

the  middle  ages  the  stationeis  of  Paris  were  compelled  to  lend 
books  to  students  at  rates  of  charge  fixed  by  the  university.  The 
first  C.  L.  in  England  was  established  about  1740  by  Samuel 
Fancourt,  a  Salisbury  clergyman,  and  in  1748  there  was  a  large 
C.  L.  in  Crane  Court,  London.  Allan  Rajnsay  opened  a  C.  L. 
in  Ejdinbui^h  about  1725.  The  London  Library  was  founded  in 
1841,  and  is  now  a  very  valuable  institution.  Circulating  libra- 
ries are  now  common  throughout  the  countir.  The  largest  in 
England  is  that  of  Mr  Mmfle,  New  Oxford  Street,  which  was 
founded  in  1842. 

Clrcola'tionof  tlie  Blood.  The  blood  is  formed  (i)  from  the 
chyle  poured  into  it  by  the  thoracic  duct,  (2)  from  the  fluid  and 
soluble  matters  absorbed  by  the  blood-vessels  of  the  alimentary 
canal,  and  (3)  from  the  matter  collected  by  the  absorbents  from 
all  parts  of  the  body,  and  elaborated  by  the  lymphatic  glands, 
i^shtA  t\\e  lymph.  (SeeBLOOD.)  Thisfluid  contains  in  itall  the 
materials  necessary  for  nourishing  the  various  textures  of  Che 
body  ;  and,  consequently,  for  the  purposes  of  nutrition,  and  also 
for  the  purposes  of  respiration  and  excretion,  it  must  be  distri- 
buted throughout  the  body.  It  is  in  a  state  of  constant  move- 
ment in  a  definite  direction,  and  the  name  given  to  this  move- 
ment is  the  C.  of  the  B. 

AdescriptionoftheC.  of  the  B.,  or  nutritive  fluid  in  the  diffe- 
rent great  gronps  of  the  animal  kingdom,  will  be  found  under 
such  headings  as  Amphibia,  Ahnulosa,  Annuloida,  Crus- 
tacea, Fishes,  Mollusca,  Protozoa,  Reptilia,  and  what 
will  be  detiuled  here  will  be  the  function  as  manifested  in  man, 
the  mammalia,  and  birds. 

History  of  the  Disioviiy  of  C.  of  the  5.— Hippocrates  con- 
founded veins  and  arteries  under  the  general  nsxae  oi  pMeies,  the 
term  artiria,  artery,  being  applied  by  him  only  to  the  windpipe. 
Aristotle  distinguished  between  arteries  and  veins,  but  supposed 
that  the  latter  alone  contained  blood,  which  they  carried  out- 
wards. The  arteries  were  believed  by  him  to  l>e  filled  with  air. 
Galen  demonstrated  that  the  arteries  did  not  contain  air,  but 
blood.  He  thouglit,  however,  that  there  was  a  communication 
between  the  two  sides  of  the  heart  through  the  septum.  Vesahus 
pointed  out  that  there  was  no  such  communication.  Servetus 
showed  that  before  the  blood  could  pass  from  the  right  to  the 
left  side  of  the  heart  it  must  pass  through  the  lungs.  It  was 
still  thought,  however,  that  blood  passed  from  the  heart  out- 
wards into  the  body  by  both  arteries  and  veins.  Fabricius  ab 
Aquapendente  showed  that  there  were  valves  in.many  of  the  veins, 
so  placed  that  the  blood  could  only  pass  through  these  vessels 
towards  the  heart,  DOt/rom  it.  At  last  the  celebrated  William 
Harvey  appeared,  and  in  1628  he  published  his  great  work,  Di 
Motu  Cordis  et  Sanguinis,  which  finally  established  our  knowledge 
of  the  C.  of  the  E. ,  and  which  has  always  been  regarded  as  one 
of  the  finest  ejaimples  of  purely  experimental  research  and  of  in- 
ductive reasoning.  He  based  his  discovery,  the  greatest  ever  made 
in  physiology,  on  the  f(Jlowing  considerations  and  facts ; — (l)  The 
continuity  of  the  connections  between  heart,  arteries,  and  veins  1 


fron 

plied  a  ligati 

of  the  ligature  furthest  from  the  heart ;  (4)  on  the  arrangement 

of  the  valves  in  the  heart  and  veins  being  such  tliat  it  could  fiow 

only  in  a  certain  direction;   and  (5)  that  on  calculating  the 

amount  of  blood  sent  out  from  the  heart  aloi^  the  arteries  in  a 

given  time,  it  was  found  to  be  so  great  as  to  prove  that  a  lai^a 

proportion  of  it  must  return  to  the  heart  in  that  time,  as  there 

was  not  sufficient  time  either  for  the  complete  consumption  of 


y  Google 


CIE 


Tim  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


cm 


e  old,  or  for  the  formation  of  new  blooil,  to  keep  up  the  supply. 
Still  Harvey  did  not  undci-ntand  how  the  blood  passed  from  the 
extreiuities  of  the  artevies  into  the  commencement  of  the  veins, 
liie  capillaries  were  not  thenknown.  In  1661  Malpighi showed, 
by  means  of  the  ample  microscope,  ths  circulation  in  the  web  of 
the  fr^s  foot  Thus  it  was  shown  that  the  blood  passed  fiom 
arteries  to  veins  by  the  capillaries  or  intermediate  vessels,  and 
the  discovery  of  IhB  course  of  the  circulation  was  complete. 

The  Organs  cf  the  Circulatien.~-Th.ist.  are  the  heart,  arteries, 
reins,  and  capillaries.  A  description  of  tlie  structure  of  the  last 
three  will  be  found  under  their  respective  headings,  but  in  order 
to  nndersland  the  C  of  the  B.,  it  is  necessary  here  to  destj:ibe 
the  heart. 

The  Heart. — This  is  an  organ  placed  somewhat  obliquely  in 
the  thorai.  It  is  of  a  conical  shape.  The  base  is  directed  up- 
wards, to  the  right,  and  somewhat  backwards,  and  corresponds 
fo  the  middle  of  the  back.    .The  apex  is  situated  a  little  to  the 


left  of  the  breastbone,  opposite  the  space  between  the  fifth  and 
sixth  rite,  a  little  below  the  left  nipple.  The  organ,  in  the 
human  being,  is  about  the  size  of  the  clenched  fist,  and  in  the 
male  it  weighs  from  10  to  12  ounces,  while  in  the  average  female 
it  is  somewMt  lighter.  The  heart  is  divided  into  four  cavities,  two 
corresponding  to  Che  base,  called  the  auricles,  RA,  LA,  and  two  to 
the  boSy  and  apei,  known  as  the  veKlneles,  RV,  LV.  The  auri- 
cular part  is  separated  from  the  ventricular  by  a  transverse  groove, 
called  the  auriculo-ventricular  groove,  in  which  lie  the  nutrient 
vessels  of  the  organ.  Two  longitudinal  furrows  are  also  seen,  one 
on  the  anterior,  the  other  on  the  posterior  surface  of  the  heart,  and 
indicating  a  divi^on  of  the  oigan  into  a  right  and  left  half,  each 
consisting  of  an  auricle  and  a  ventricle.  When  the  thoras  is 
opened,  the  right  side  is  the  part  chiefly  seen,  the  left  resting  on 
the  diaphragm.  The  auricles  are  called  rigit  and  lifl  aurieUs, 
RA,  LA,  the  ventricles,  right  and  Uftventrkles,  RV,  LV.  Into 
the  right  auricle  two  great  vessels  open,  namely,  the  superior  and 
inferior  vena:  cav!e,  VS,  VI,  the  former  of  which  returns  the  blood 
from  the  head,  neck,  and  npper  extremities,  while  the  latter  does 
the  same  office  for  the  abdoimnal  and  pelvic  portions  of  the 
body,  and  the  lower  extremities.  Into  this  cavity  there  are  also 
numerous  apertures  of  small  vems  belonging  to  Uie  heart.  The 
blood  then  passes  into  the  right  ventricle  by  an  opening  called 
the  right  aurUulo-vmtricular  aperture,  which  is  guarded  by  a 
valve  called  the  tricuspid.  The  right  ventricle  ts  shut  off  from 
the  left  by  the  strong  partition  between  the  cavides.  From  the 
right  ventricle  there  issues  a  large  vessel,  termed  the  fvlniotaoy 
arieiy,  PA,  which  conveys  the  blood  to  the  lungs.  At  the  orifice 
of  this  vessel  there  is  a  valve,  termed  semilunar,  from  its  shape. 
After  the  blood  has  passed  through  the  Inngs  (see  Respiration), 
it  is  returned  to  the  left  auricle  of  the  heart  by  four  pulmonary 
veins,  PV.  From  the  left  auricle  it  then  passes  to  the  left  ven- 
tricle. The  left  ventricle  is  longer  than  the  right,  and  has  much 
thicker  walls.  At  the  left  of  the  base  of  this  cavity  is  the  oval 
opening  from  the  left  auricle  known  as  \he  left  auriculo^entricular 
opening.  In  front,  and  to  the  right  of  this,  thete  is  a  round 
aperture,  the  mouth  of  the  aorta,  Ao,  the  great  frunlt  artery  of  the 
body.     ITie  left  auriculo-ventricular  opening  hiis  a  valve  known 


as  the  mitral,  so  termed  from  its  fancied  resemblance  to  a 
bishop's  mitre,  and  the  orifice  of  the  aorta  has  a  semilunar  valve, 
resembling  that  seen  in  the  pulmonary  artery. 

The  cavities  of  the  heart  are  lined  by  a  serous  membrane, 
called  the  endocardium,  which  is  continuous  with  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  vascular  system.  The  substance  of  the  heart 
is  composed  of  muscular  fibres,  which  are  remarkable  for  being 
striated,  whilst  they  beloi^  functionally  to  the  class  of  involun- 
tary muscles,  (See  Muscles.)  They  are  arranged  in  a  series  of 
layers.  According  to  Peltigrew,  who  has  chiefly  dissected  the 
hearts  of  ruminants,  seven  layers  enter  into  the  composition  of 
the  walls  of  both  ventricles — lliree  external,  three  internal,  and 
one  intermediate  between  these  two  groups.  He  has  also  shown 
that  certain  fibres  of  the  external  layers  are  continuous  with 
corresponding  internal  layers,  thus  forming  a  series  of  loops. 
This  continuity  occurs  around  the  auriculo-ventricular  oriiices, 
and  upon  the  septum,  and  at  the  apex  of  the  ventricles.  The 
fibres  of  tlie  iirst  oc  external  layer  are  continuous  with  the  deep- 
est, those  of  the  second  with  the  sixth,  those  of  the  third  with 
the  fifth,  while  the  fibres  of  the  middle  or  fifth  layers  return  as 
it  were  upon  themselves.  Again,  he  has  shown  that  some  fibres 
pass  round  both  ventricles.  The  direction  of  the  fibres  changes 
as  we  proceed  from  without  inwards  ;  the  external  layer  is  very 
obhqne,  and  in  the  right  or  left  ventricle  passes  from  right  to 
left,  from  base  to  apex,  of  the  heart ;  the  next  two  layers  are  less 
oblique;  the  fourth  layer  is  transverse ;  and  in  the  three  innermost 
layers  the  obliquity  becomes  greater  as  we  pass  inwards,  and  the 
direction  is  changed,  so  that  the  fibres  pass  from  right  to  left, 
but  now  upwards,  from  apex  to  base. 

Madeaf  Action  of  the  Heart.— The  right  auricle,  RA,  receives  the 
blood  from  the  body  by  the  inferior  and  superior  venKcavie,  VCI, 
VCS,  and  the  left,  LA,  receives  it 
from  the  lungs  by  the  pulmonary 
vems,  PV.  When  both  auricles 
are  fhll  of  blood,  they  contract  and 
expel  the  blood  from  theh  cavities 
through  the  auriculo-ventricular  ori- 
fices into  the  ventricles.  The  blood  is 
prevented  from  passing  backwards 
into  the  venre  cav:e,  or  pulmonary 
veins,  by  the  pressure  of^  the  blood 
filling  the  lungs  and  venous  system. 
The  two  auricles  contract  simultane- 
ously. After  the  ventricles  have 
filled  completely,  they  also  contract 
simultaneously,  and  force  the  blood 
from  the  right  into  the  pulmonary 
artery,  PA,  and  that  from  the  left  into 
theaorta,  Ao,  To  preventthe  blood 
from  regurgitating  into  the  auricles, 


It  is  necessaiy  to  understand  the 
mechanism  of  these  valves,  which 
is  identical  in  both.  Take,  for  ex- 
ample, the  tricuspid.  As  its  name 
indicates,  it  consists  of  three  cusps. 
These  are  of  a  somewhat  triangular 
shape,  the  base  of  the  triangle  being 
attached  to  a  fibrous  ring  surround- 
ing the  auriculo-ventricular  opening,  ......v  — & .. — 

When  these  three  cusps  have  their  edges  in  opposition,  the  orifice 
is  nearly  closed.  They  are  brought  into  apposition  when  the 
ventricle  contracts  by  the  blood  behind  them  lifting  Ihem  up, 
but  when  the  ventricles  are  dilated,  the  cusps  hang  downwards 
into  the  cavity  of  the  ventricles.  It  is  evident  that  some  provision 
must  be  made  for  preventing  the  cnsps  from  being  forced  back- 
wards into  the  auricle.  This  is  accomplished  as  follows  ;  To 
the  ventricular  surface  of  the  cusps  a  number  of  delicate  tendin- 
ous cords  {chorda  tendinis)  are  attached.  These  are  in  continua- 
tion with  small  muscular  papillse  {mnsculi  fiapiliarss)  springing 
from  the  wall  of  the  ventricle.  When  the  ventricular  wall  con- 
tracts, these  papills  also  contract,  and  pull  upon  the  cusps, 
when  these  are  forced  upwards  in  the  manner  already  described, 
soas  to  keep  them  tense,  and  thus  prevent  the  possibility  of 
their  being  forced  backwards  into  the  auricles. 

157 


while  the  margi: 


yUoogle 


A- 


CIE 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CIR 


We  Iiavenowto  consider  how  the  blood  is  prevented  from  flo' 
ing  backwards  into  the  ventricles,  during  their  relajratioii,from  the 
aorta,  Ao,  and  pulmonary  artery,  PA.  This  isetfected  by  the  action 
of  the  semilunar  valves  i)laced  in  these  vessels,  near  their  junction 
with  the  ventricles,  RV,  LV.  These  valves  are  each  composed 
of  three  semilunar  segments,  attached  by  their  convex  mai^ins 
to  the  sides  of  the  vessel,  but  free  at  their  borders,  which,  during 
the  flow  of  blood  past  them,  are  turned  upwards  in  the  dhection 
of  the  vessel.  In  the  middle  of  the  free  border  there  is  a  small 
fibrous  nodule,  the  corpus  aaratiiH,  and  by  tlie  apposition  of  the 
three  corpora  aurania,  the  irregularly  triangular  space  which 
would  be  left  when  the  margins  of  the  segments  are  brought  into 
the  same  plane  is  completely  filled  up.  Behind  each  segment  a 
small  dilatation  or  pouch  is  seen,  termed  the  sinus  of  Valsalva, 
most  distinct  in  the  pulmonary  artery.  The  mechanism  of  these 
valves  is  extremely  simple.  After  the  complete  contraction  of  the 
ventricle  by  which  it  forces  the  blood  into  the  vessel,  it  dilates. 
The  walls  of  the  vessels,  being  highly  elastic,  when  reUeved  from 
the  propelling  or  distending  force  (ais  a  Itrgo),  recover  them- 
selves, and  tend  to  push  part  of  the  blood  iHickwards  into  the 
ventricles.  But  as  it  passes  bshind  the  segments  of  the  semilunar 
valves,  and  Jills  the  sinuses  of  Valsalva,  the  segments  are  pushed 
downwards  as  far  as  they  will  go,  thus  closing  the  lumen  of  the 
vessel  and  [sreventing  regurgitation  into  the  ventricles. 

Cycle  of  the  Actions  of  Ihe  Heart. — A  complete  action  of  theheart 
consists  tl)  of  contraction  of  the  auricles,  (z)  of  a  short  pause, 
during  which  the  auricles  have  begun  slowly  to  dilate,  (3)  of  con. 
traction  of  the  ventiicles,  and  (4)  of  a  long  pause,  during  which 
the  ventricles  relax  and  become  filled  viiith  blood  whidi  is  flow- 
ing into  them  from  the  auricles.  After  the  auricles  have  filled 
they  again  contract,  and  another  cycle  of  actions  is  begun.  It 
has  been  found  that  the  time  occupied  by  the  contraction  of  the 
auricles  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  short  pause,  and  the  time 
of  the  contraction  of  the  ventricle  to  that  of^the  long  pause.  If 
so,  it  is  evident  that  in  each  cardiac  cycle  the  muscular  walls  of 
the  heart  are  relaxing  as  long  as  they  are  contracting ;  or,  in 
other  words,  there  are  brief  periods  of  rest  equal  to  brief  periods 
during  which  enei^  is  being  expended. 

Sounds  of  the  Hear/.— When  we  listen  over  the  cardiac  re- 
gion of  the  chest  of  a  healthy  person,  we  feel  an  impulse,  and  we 
hear  two  sounds  like  those  occasioned  by  pronouncing  in  a 
medium  pitch  of  voice  the  words  ilip/  dufip.     The  first  sound 


It  is  called  the  first  or  systolic  or  inferior  sound,  and  it  coin- 
cides with  the  contraction  of  the  ventricle.  It  is  due,  or  at  all 
events  coincident  with,  the  combined  effect  of  the  four  following 
actions  T— (r)  The  contraction  of  the  ventricles ;  (2)  the  rush  of 
blood  through  the  aortic  and  pulmonary  orifices;  (3)  the  flapping 
together  of  the  auricuio-ventricular  valves ;  and  (4)  the  move- 
ment of  the  apex  of  the  heart  against  the  wall  of  the  chest, 
caused  by  the  change  of  form  of  the  ventricular  portion  of  the 
heart  during  its  contraction.  The  second  somid  is  sharp,  short, 
superfidal,  and  is  heard  with  greatest  distinctness  over  the  base 
of  the  heart.  It  has  been  experimentally  ascertained  to  be  en- 
tirely due  to  the  sudden  closure  of  the  semilunar  valves  in  the 
way  already  described. 
Forces  Carrying  on  the  Circulation. — I.  The  chief  of  these'   '' 


t  into  a  uniform  How,  and  ^2)  diminishes 
the  resistance  the  ventricle  has  to  overcome.  But  it  can  scarcely 
be  said  that  the  elasticity  of  the  vessels  is  a  new  force,  as  the 
amount  of  recoil,  supposing  the  arteries  to  be  perfectly  elastic, 
will  be  exactly  equal  to  the  amount  of  distension  caused  by  the 
action  of  the  ventricles.  The  elasticity  of  the  ventricles  modifies 
the  character  of  the  flow  of  the  blood  rather  than  adds  to  the 
force  for  propelling  it  forwards.  3.  By  some  it  is  contended 
that  the  attractive  influence  of  the  tissues  in  the  meshes  of  the 
capillary  system  forms  one  of  tbe  forces  (^  the  circulation  \vis  a 
fnmte).  4.  The  blood  is  propelled  along  the  veins  towards  the 
heart  by  muscular  pressure  on  their  warn  fotcmg  the  blood  on- 
wards, as  it  cannot  pass  backwards,  on  account  of  the  pressHre 
of  the  valves  in  these  vessels,  which  open  bnuards  the  heart  5. 
Lastly,  Burdon  Sanderson  and  others  have  shown  experimentally 
that  inspiration,  by  diminishing  pressure  on  the  ven^e  cavx, 
favours  the  flow  of  blood  to  the  heart,  and  thereby  increases  the 
vigour  of  the  succeeding  contractions.      See  RESFIRATION, 


Arterial  and  Cardiac  Pressurs.~Bj  this  is  iinderstood  the 
force  or  pressure  of  the  fluid  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  heart  or 
arteries  during  a  contraction  of  the  heart.  It  is  measured  by  an 
apparatus  teimed  a  kymograph  (see  Kymograph),  and  it  has 
been  estimated  in  the  hnman  subject  to  be  about  4  lbs.  4  oz. 
on  the  sq.  inch.  Now,  if  we  assume  the  supeificial  area  of 
the  inner  surface  of  the  left  ventricle,  which  has  to  propel  the 
blood  through  the  whole  body,  to  be  13  inches,  as  has  been 
determined  to  be  the  mean,  it  follows  that  when  the  walls 
of  this  cavity  contract  they  do  so  with  a  force  equal  to  about 
52  lbs. 

Rapidity  of  the  Circulation.— VaafL  is  no  accurate  method  of 
measuring  this.  According  to  Vierordt,  the  blood  flows  in  the 
carotid,  an  artery  of  the  neck,  at  the  rate  of  about  loj  inches  in 
a  second.  In  smaller  arteries  he  estimated  the  speed  as  being 
much  slower.  Volkmann  found  in  the  carotid  of  the  horse  the 
rapidity  to  be  2o'28  inches  per  second.  According  to  Valentine 
and  Weber,  in  the  capillaries  the  rate  is  I  inch  per  minute.  All 
of  these  measurements  are  vague  and  unsatisractory,  and  this 
most  difficult  problem  is  Still  unsolved. 

Other  details  regarding  the  C.  of  the  B.  will  be  found  under 
the  following  heads : — Artery,  Capillary,  Kymograph, 
Pulse,  Spuvgmograph,  Vein,  Vasomotor  System. 

Circula-tion  of  tlie  Sap  in  Plants.  See  Nutrition  of 
Plants. 

Oircumois'ion  {Lat.  'a  cutting  round,'  i.e.,  cutting  off  the 
prepuce),  is  a  religious  rite  which  has  prevailed  among  various 
nations  all  over  the  world.  It  is  probably  a  relic  of  nature-worship, 
and  points  back  to  the  practice  of  offering  human  sacrifices  to 
the  God  of  Increase,  or  the  reproductive  principle  in  nature,  the 
symbol  of  wliich  was  the  Phallus.  As  civilisation  advanced,  in- 
stead of  the  whole  victim,  a  significant  part  was  offered  by  fire  to 
the  deity. 

The  idea  long  prevalent  among  Christians  was  that  C.  is  and 
was  exclusively  a  Jewish  rite,  and  that  it  was  given  to  Abraham 
as  a  token  and  seal  of  the  covenant,  the  institution  of  which  is 
described  in  Gen.  xvii.  This  idea  may  now  be  considered  to  be 
abandoned ;  for  it  is  capable  of  absolute  demonstration  that  C. 
was  practised  among  peoples  well  advanced  m  civilisation— fg., 
the  Phcenicians  and  Egyptians — long  before  the  ancestors  of  the 
Hebrews  had  left  Mesopotamia.  But  Scripture  does  not  say  that 
C.  was  first  made  known  to  Abraham.  In  fact,  it  implies  ^:actly 
the  reverse.  The  passage  in  Genesis  assumes  a  knowledge  of 
the  practice,  and  only  represents  it  as  transformed  for  the  first 
time  into  a  religious  rite,  and  acquiring  a  symbolic  meaning. 

Circumduc'tion,  of  the  Term,  in  Scotch  law,  is  the  sen- 
tence  of  a  judge  declaring  the  lime  elapsed  for  leading  proof  in  a 
case,  after  which  no  further  evidence  can  be  adduced. 

Ciwmm'ference,  or  Peripliery,  the  curved  boundary  of  a 
plane  figure  :  when  the  boundary  is  made  up  more  or  less  of 
straight  lines,  it  is  usually  termed  piHmeter. 

Circtjnmaviga'tion,  the  act  of  sailing  round  the  world. 
This  feat  was  performed  first  by  MagaJhans  I5.  v,)  in  1519. 
Drake  (q- v.}  accomplished  it  in  JS77;  and  Captam  Cook  (q.  v.) 
between  the  years  \^t%  and  1779  circiunnavigated  the  globe  no 
less  than  three  times.  In  the  present  day  it  is  frequently  done, 
but  not  in  the  same  way,  norm Ihesame  vessel.  An  Englishman 
who  wishes  to  spend  a  year  in  visiting  Australia,  has  only  to  go 
out  by  the  overland  route,  or  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
return  by  San  Francisco,  the  Pacific  Railroad,  and  an  Atlantic 
steamer ;  and  he  has  performed  what  was  once  a  daring  and 
hazardous  feat. 

Oiroumatan'tial  Evidence  is  evidence  which — assuming 
it  to  be  true — does  not  directly  prove  a  question  at  issue,  but  in- 
directly tends  to  prove  it.  Thus  if  A  swear  that  he  saw  B  stab 
C,  the  evidence  is  direct ;  and  if  we  believe  A,  the  question  of 
whether  or  not  B  stabbed  C  is  disposed  of.  But  if  A  swear  that 
he  saw  B  and  C  quarrelling  on  the  day  when  C  was  stabbed, 
belief  in  A  does  not  satisfy  us  of  B's  guilt ;  but  it  is  C.  E.  of  more 

less  weight.  And  if  we  have  an  accumulation  of  such  items 
ofcvidence,  they  may,  though  there  be  no  direct  evidence,  amount 
to  conclusive  proof  of  guilt.  But  if  any  one  item  of  circumstantial 
proof  depend  on  another,  the  two  must  only  have  the  weight  of 
one.     Thus  A  swears  that  he  sold  to  B  the  knife  which  D  swears 


yLaOogle 


CIR 


THB  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


that  he  found  blood-stained  near  the  murdered  C.   Here 

two  but  only  one  item  of  proof,  since  if  either  A  or  U  is 
iring  falsely,  the  testimony  of  the  other  is  yalueless  against  B. 
C,  E.  is  in  this  better  than  direct  evidence,  that  the  witnesses  to 
c^n  hardly  combine  to  swear  felsely  without  being  detected. 
It  is  plainly  impossible  that  any  concatenation  of  circumstances 
should  ever  prove  the  innocence  of  one  accused  to  be  impossible. 
When  the  probability  of  innocence  bears  an  appreciable  ratio 
to  that  of  guilt,  according  to  the  just  principle  of  our  law,  the 
prisoner  must  be  acquitted. 

Circumvalla'tioa(Lat.ciVn(w,' about,'  arai  vaUum,' a  mm- 
part '),  in  fortification,  is  a  line  of  entrenchment  thrown  up  by 
the  besieging  party  round  a  place  under  siege,  but  facing  out- 
wards so  as  to  resist  atlacks  from  the  field. 

Oireamven'tion  legally  means  deceit  or  fraud  in  malting 
a  bai^in,  or  in  procuring  the  making  or  execution  of  a  deed. 
Either  may  he  set  aside  by  law  if  proved  to  have  been  entered 
into  or  done  through  C.  It  will  not,  however,  be  sufScient  to 
prove  that  the  act  sought  to  be  annulled  is  hurtful  to  the  doer, 
or  irrational  on  his  part  ;  for  the  law  will  not  protect  a  man  from 
the  consequences  of  his  own  folly.  It  must  be  shown  that  decep- 
tion was  used  towards  him.  If,  howevo',  thegranterofadeed  or 
maker  of  a  will  be  of  weak  mind,  a  very  slender  circumstance  or 
fraud  may  lead  the  law  to  set  the  deed  or  will  aside. 

Oir'cua,  The,  of  ancient  Home,  was  a  place  in  which  chariot- 
races  and  other  games  were  exhibited.  The  Citcensian  Games 
were  believed  by  the  later  Romans  to  have  been  first  instituted 
by  Romulus,  and  were  named  Consuales,  in  honour  of  the  god 
Census.  To  Tarquinius  Priscus  was  ascribed  the  construction,  in 
the  Mnrcian  Valley,  between  the  Palatine  and  Aveutine,  of  a 
building  for  sudi  exhibitions,  which  was  known  by  way  of  emi- 
nence as  the  C.  Maximus.  It  was  frequently  repaired  and  ex- 
tended, and  was  reconstructed  by  Julius  Csesar,  in  whose  time  it 
was  three  stadia  (about  600  yards)  long,  one  stadium  wide,  and  the 
'  surrounding  buildings  half  a  stadium  deep.  At  different  periods 
of  its  history,  it  was-computed  to  contain  150,000,  260,000,  and 
385,000  persons.  Scarcely  a  vestige  of  it  now  remains  ;  but  an 
excellent  idea  of  an  ancient  C.  may  be  obtained  from  the 
remains  of  the  Circus  of  Caiacalla,  the  ground-plan  of  which  is 
shown  in  the  annexed  woodcut.     Around  the  lines  AA  were 


placed  the  seats,  as  in  a  theatre,  the  lowest  being  separated  fron 
the  ground  by  a  parapet  or  balcony.  At  B  was  probably  thi 
station  of  the  emperor.     Down  the  middle  of  the  area  ran  a  dwarf 

'  wall  C,  called  flie  s^ina,  decorated  with  emblematic  devices, 
and  terminating  at  either  end  in  three  wooden  cylinders  DD  of 
a  conical  shape,  called  ?aels,  round  which  the  rival  chariots  were 
driven.     At  the  end  EE  were  placed  the  stalls  for  the  horses 

'  andchariots,  calledfairuOT,  the  usual  number  of  which  was  twelve. 
The  whole  of  this  side  of  the  C.  was  called  oppidum,  from  its 
gates  and  towers,  FF.  From  G  to  H  stretched  a  chalked  rope 
\alba  tinea'),  for  the  purpose  of  securing  a  fair  start,  by  bringing 
all  the  horses  abreast  at  the  entrance  Sthe  course.  There  were 
in  all  five  w-tes,  of  which  the  chief  were' the  Porta  Pompa  (I), 
through  which  the  opening  procession  entered;  the/lvT'a  Trium- 
pialis  Q),  through  which  the  victors  departed ;  and  the  Porla 
IJbitensis,_  through  which  the  bodies  of  those  killed  in  the  games 
were  carried  out.  The  Euripm  in  the  C.  Maiimus  was  a.  canal 
10  feet  wide  round  the  ijottom  of  the  front  balcony,  formed  by 

iulius  C^sar  to  protect  the  spectators  during  the  wild-beast 
unts.  The  shows  exhibited  m  the  C.  were  the  races,  of  which 
the  Romans  were  passionately  fond  at  eveiy  period  of  their 
history  ;  the  Ludus  Troja,  a  sort  of  sham-fight,  by  young  men 
of  rank  on  horseback;  lihspugna,  the  representation  of  a  battle ; 
gymnastic  contests  in  running,  leaping,  &c. ;  the  venatk,  a  fight 


of  w  ild  beasts  with  one  another  or  with  men  ;  and  the  ttaumackia, 

representation  of  a  sea-  fight.    In  the  races  four  chariots  usually 

entered,  drawn  by  two  or  four  horses.     The  extent  of  the  course 

as  seven  times  round  the  spina,  and  twenty-five  races  were  run 

each  day. 

Ciren'cester,  or  Cic'ester,  a  town  of  Gloucestershire,  on 
the  Chum,  and  on  the  Thames  and  Severn  Canal,  \^  miles  S.E. 
of  Gloucester,  has  some  manufactures  of  woollens,  carpets,  and 
cutlery.  It  possesses  a  fine  old  church  (St  John's),  and  in  the 
vicinity  there  is  an  agricultural  college,  founded  in  1846.  C.  re. 
turns  one  member  to  Parliament.  Pop.  (1871)  7681.  C,  accord- 
ing to  Henry  of  Huntingdon,  was  originally  a  British  city,  called 
CBsr-corin  ('  camp  on  the  Corin,'  mod.  Churn).  It  became  tlie 
Ccrinium  or  Corinum  of  the  Romans,  and  stood  at  the  junction 
of  five  Roman  roads.  The  English  invaders  added  ceaster,  to 
mark  that  it  had  been  a  military  station ;  and  the  modem  name 
is  only  a  corruption  of  Corinium-ceaster.  Canute  held  a  council 
here  in  lozo.  C.  once  possessed  a  fine  abbey,  founded  by  Henry 
I.,  but  no  remains  are  extant.'  The  town  was  attacked  by  Rupert 
in  1643-43,  and  was  afterwards  captured  by  Essex,  Traces  of  a 
fortified  wall  have  been  discovered,  as  also  various  Roman  remuns. 

Oirrhop'oda,  or  Oiirip'edia,  an  order  of  lower  Crustacea 
represented  by  the  Barnacles  {Lepas\  and  Sea-acotns  {Bal<aais). 
These  forms  are  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  when  adult  they 
are  fixed,  being  free-swimming  in  their  young  state.  They  are 
attached  to  fixed  objects  by  the  front  part  of  the  modified  head  ; 
the  first  three  joints  of  the  head  being  enlarged,  and  enclosing 
the  rest  of  the  body.  The  larva  or  embryo  fixes  itself  by  means 
of  a  pecuUar  cement  furnished  by  special  glands,  which  consist  of 
modified  parts  of  the  ovaries.  The  hinder  part  of  the  animal, 
wilh  its  twelve  feet  converted  into  cirri  or  tentacular  organs 
(hence  the  name  Cirripidia),  can  be  prolmded  from  within  the 
shell  with  which  It  is  provided,  and  the  cirri  subserve  respira- 
tion and  nutrition.  Tlie  mouth  is  provided  with  mandibles  and 
maxilire,  and  a  complete  digesdve  system  exists.  No  distinct 
heart  is  developed.  The  larva  is  a  free-swimming  body  known 
as  a  nauflius,  provided  with  antennze,  a  single  eye,  and  a 
dorsal  carapace  or  shield.  Subsequently  twelve  limbs  are 
developed  on  the  abdomen,  and  the  antennse  become  prehensile 
Cleans,  whilst  a  pair  of  eyes  now  exist.  The  anteiinse  are  next 
fixed  toBomei-ock  or  stone  by  the  cement,  the  carapace  becomes 
calcified  to  form  the  adult  'shell,'  and  the  feet  become  the  cirri 
of  the  fully  grown  and  metamorphosed  animal,  which  loses  the 
eyes  of  the  larval  stage.  The  Barnacles  |q,  v,)  \Lefadida)  are 
stalked  and  possess  peduncles,  at  the  free  end  of  which  the  body 
of  the  animal,  contained  within  a  shell,  composed  of  calcareous 
plates,  is  found.  The  Balani  (q.  v.)  or  sea-aconis  are  sessile  or 
unstalked,  and  fix  themselves  directly  to  rocks,  their  bodies  being 
enclosed  within  shells  composed  each  of  six  segments  or  pieces, 
and  having  the  twelve  divided  cirri,  capable  of  being  protruded 
from  or  retracted  at  will  within  the  aperture  of  the  shell,  which  is 
closed  by  an  efa'atluiH.  All  drripedes  are  hermaphrodite,  but, 
as  shown  by  Darwin's  researches,  peculiar  bodies  termed  lompli^ 
inetttary  tnalisax^  also  developed,  these  latter  being  lodged,  some- 
times two,  within  the  shell  of  each  female  (as  in  Scalpellum),  and 
being  destined  simply  to  fertilise  the  ova  of  their  female  hosts, 

Cirrliua,  or  Tendril,  is  the  name  applied  to  the  thread-like 
twining  oi^ns  by  which  plants  climb  around  others  or  up  any 
support.  They  may  be  formed  by  viiious  modifications  of  the 
leaves,  as  in  the  Pea  tribe,  Fumaria  capreolaia,  Mslhonica  gloriosa, 
various  species  of  Clematis,  &c.  In  other  cases  they  may  be 
thread-like  leafless  branches  capable  of  coiling  spirally.  Some 
tendrils  hook  their  topa  round  supporting  objects,  while  others 
expand  their  tops  into  a  flat  disc,  which  clings  to  objects,  and 
CTiables  the  plant  to  climb  up  in  the  same  way  as  do  the  accessory 
rootlets  of  the  Virginian  creeper  {Ampflopsis).  The  term  'C  is 
applied  in  zoology  to  any  curled  filament,  and  also  to  the  modi- 
lied  feet  of  the  Cirripedia. 

Cirr'ua     See  Clouds. 

Ois,  a  Latin  preposition,  meaning  'on  this  side,' the  opposite 
o!  ultra  and  trans,  vxA  prefixed  to  names  of  mountains  and  rivers 
to  form  adjectives  of  pkce  ;  Cisalpine,  'on  this  side  of  the  Alps,' 
the  opposite  of  Transalpine,  'beyond  the  Alps;  Cismontane, 
'  on  this  side  of  the  mountain  ; '  Ultramontane,  '  on  the  further 
side  of  the  mountain  ; '  Cisrhenane,  '  on  this  side  of  the  Rhine ; ' 
Transrhenane,  '  beyond  the  Rhine,'  &c.     It  must  be  noted  that 


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CIS 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


the  standpoint  of  those  who  first  used  the  term  is  Rome,  or  some 
place  within  the  bounds  of  the  Roman  dominion. 

Oieal'piae  Bepublic,  T}ie,  fonned  out  of  the  Cispadane 
and  Transpadane  tepublics,  was  proclaimed  by  General  Bona- 
parte, aSth  June  179?,  and  lecf^nised  by  Austria  as  an  inde- 
Cident  state  at  the  peace  of  Caoipo-Formio.  It  comprehended 
mbardy,  Mantua,  Bei^mo,  Brescia,  Cremona,  Verona,  Rovigo, 
Modena,  Massa,  and  Carrara,  Bologna,  Ferrara,  and  Mesola.  On 
the  22d  October  of  the  same  year  it  received  an  accession  of 
territory,  and  was  divided  into  ten  departments,  with  an  area 
of  16,384  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  3,500,000.  The  victories 
gained  by  the  Russians  and  Austrians  m  1 799  produced  a  tem- 
porary dissolution  of  the  republic,  but  it  was  re-established  by 
Bonaparte  after  the  decisive  battle  of  Marengo.  On  January 
25,  1S02,  it  assumed  the  name  of  the  Italian  Republic,  and  was 
divided  into  thirteen  departments,  with  Bonaparte  for  its  preadent, 
a  title  exchanged  in  1805  for  that  of  King  of  Italy,  held  by  him 
till  1S14,  when  the  so-called  Kingdorri  of  Italy  was  dissolved. 

Oissampelos  (Gr. '  ivy-vine'),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Menispeniiaceii.  The  root  of  C.  Pareira,  tlie  '  velvet  leaf' 
of  the  W.  Indies,  Central  America,  and  India,  yields  the  '  Fariira 
brava,'  ox  'Butua  root'  of  the  shops,  extensively  and  beneficially 
used  in  diseases  of  the  bladder  and  other  urinaiy  cleans;  at  one 
time  it  was  believed  to  be  efficacious  in  brealang  up  stone  in 
the  bladder  ;  other  species  are  used  as  diuretics  and  tonics.  The 
root  of  C.  ebtecta  is  used  for  malting  an  intoxicating  drink,  while 
C.  glaberuma  and  C.  ebracteata  may  be  classed  among  that  cate- 
gory of  plants  which  have  been  reputed  as  remedies  for  serpeni- 
bites.  The  root  contains  an  alkaloid,  Cissmnfelin,  to  which  it 
owes  its  active  properties. 

OiBS'oid(Gr,*ijj(«,  'ivy,'  AnAddos,  'a  shape') of  Di'ooles,  a 
curve  invented  by  Diodes  (a  Greek  geometrician  of  unknown 
date)  for  the  solution  of  the  duplication  of  the  cube,  and  the 
insertion  of  two  mean  proportionals  between  two  given  straight 
lines.  If,  from  the  extremity  of  a  diameter  of  a  circle  as  origin, 
lines  be  drawn  to  meet  the  tangent  at  the  other  extremity,  that 
point  on  each  line  whose  distance  trom  tlie  origin  is  equal  to 
the  distance  between  the  intersections  of  the  line  with  the  circle 
and  tangent,  lies  on  tlie  C.  Hence,  tailing  the  diameter  as  the 
axis  of  X,  the  equation  of  the  curve  in  rectangular  co-ordinates  is 
a^  =  (3  —  3-)  j^, — a  being  the  length  of  the  diameter.  It  has 
a  cusp  at  the  origin,  and  a  point  of  inflexion  at  infinity.  The 
space  between  the  curve  and  its  asymptote  (the  tangent  of  the 
circle)  is  triple  the  area  of  the  circle,  Newton,  in  his  Uukiirsa! 
Aritlmistic,  gives  a  mechanical  method  of  describing  this  curve. 

Ciasus.     See  Vitace«. 

Cistei^oians,  an  order  of  monks  founded  in  109S  by  Robert, 
abbot  of  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  Molesme  in  Burgundy, 
who  retired  with  twenty  companions  to  Citeaux  {Lat.  Cisltrcium), 
and  there  established  tlie  fraternity  of  C.  The  C,  after  degenerat- 
,  were  reformed  in  the  beginning  of  the  1 1  th  c.  by  S  t  Beinacd  of 
lirvaux,  who  founded  ninety-two  monasteries,  and  from  whom 
the  G.  in  France  were  known  as  Bernardines.  After  St  Bernard's 
death,  the  C.  shookoffepiscopalcontrolandbecame  very  influential 
through  Europe.  They  wore  a  white  robe  with  a  black  scapu- 
lary.  Their  rule  was  austere.  At  first  they  shunned  luxury,  eat 
no  flesh,  slept  on  straw,  and  walked  unshod.  Among  the  various 
offshoots  from  the  C.  were  the  Recollets  in  Spain,  the  Feuillans 
or  Bare-footed  monks  in  France,  and  the  Trappisfs  of  La  Trappe 
in  Normandy,  who,  in  the  l6th  c,  sank  into  dissolute  banditti. 
In  England  and  Scotland  the  C  were  very  numerous.  In  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  there  were  in  the  former  country  seventy- 
five  Cistercian  abbeys,  among  which  were  Wobnrn,  Tintem, 
Fumess,  Kirkstall,  and  Rievaux.  The.  Scotch  abbeys  of  Mel- 
rose, Dundrennan,  Culross,  Deer,  &c.,  belonged  to  this  order. 
In  France,  the  cistercian  Convent  of  Pott  Royal' {q.  v.)  became 
famous  in  the  Jansenist  controversy.  (See  Arnauld.)  The  C. 
were  dying  out  before  the  Reformation,  and,  since  the  French 
Revolution,  have  possessed  only  a  few  convents  in  Europe. 

Cis'tem,  a  vessel  for  storing  water  or  other  hquid,  with  ap- 
paratus for  regulating  its  supply  and  discharge.  The  kind  most 
extensively  m  use  is  of  wood  lined  mside  with  lead  soldered  at 
the  angles.  Cast-iron  in  one  piece  for  small  cisterns,  and  for 
large,  in  plates  joined  with  flanges  and  bolts,  and  made  water- 
tight with  cement,  is  also  employed,  notably  for  water-tanlis  at 
160 


■ailway  stations.     Very  efficient  and  cheap  cisterns  are 
nade  of  slate  slabs. 
Cis'tus,  or  Kook-Hose,  a  genus  of  Dicotyledonoi 


5,  to  which  it  gives 


belonging  to  the  natural  order  Ctsh 
shrubs,  natives  of  Southern  and  Wes- 
tern  Europe,  N.   Africa,  and   the 
Canary  Islands.     From  the  leaves 
and  branches  of  C.  Creticus  exudes  I 
the  ladanum  or  labdanum  gum  of  I 
Crete.    In  that  island  it  is  collected 
by  means  of  a  kind  of  rake  '  with  a 
double  row  of  long  leathern  straps, 
employed  in  the  heat  of  the  day 
when  not  a  breath  of  wind  is  stir- 
ring.    Seven  or  eight  country  fel- 
lows, in  their  shins  and  drawers, 
whip  the  plants  with  these  straps,  A 
which,  by rubbingagaiiistlheleaves,  ^ 
lick  off  a  sort  of  odoriferous  glue 
stickingto  thefoliage.   Atonetime, 
it  is  said  that  it  was  gathered  from 
the  beards  of  goals  wlio  had  been 
browsing  on  the  foliage.     It  is  now 
used  a^  a  perfume,  but  it  was  for-  '-I'liis. 

merly  esteemed  as  a  stimulant  and  expectorant  in  the  cure 
of  tlie  plague,  and  as  a  constituent  in  plasters.  The  lada- 
num of  Spain  and  Portugal  is  chiefly  derived  from  C  ladamfirus, 
and  is  said  to  be  obtained  by  boihng  in  water  the  summits  of 
the  branches.  It  has  somewhat  simiiar  properties  to  the  former, 
but  is  not  in  such  high  repute.  Many  of  the  species  of  Care 
cultivated  in  our  gardens,  e^.,  C.  ladaiiifirus,  C.  cyprius  (often 
confounded' with  the  former),  C.  vU-pnatus  of  Teneriffe,  &c. 
Altogether  there  are  about  200  species  known,  a  number  of 
which  are  figured  in  Sweet's  '  Cistmen'  HdioMtkeiimm  vulgca-e, 
the  '  roclc-rose,'  a  common  little  plant  on  dry  ground,  and  re- 
markable for  the  irritability  of  the  stamens,  is  the  only  species 
of  tlie  genus  found  as  far  N.  as  Scotland. 

Cit'adel  (Fr,  cUadelle,  from  Ital.  dttadella,  'a  little  city"),  a  fort 
serving  the  double  purpose  of  keeping  in  subjection  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  town  or  city  in  or  near  which  it  stands,  and,  in  case 
of  a  siege,  of  forming  a  stronghold  to  shelter  tlie  defenders  after 
the  rest  of  the  town  has  been  taken.  Tlie  C  is  always  built  in 
a  space  clear  of  buildings,  and  commands  the  entire  fortifications 
of  the  city  or  town. 

Oita'tion  is  the  act  of  calling  upon  a  pai1y  to  appear  in  court 
to  answer  to  an  action,  to  give  evidence,  or  to  perform  some 
other  judicial  act.  In  England  the  term  is  chiefly  used  in  the 
ecclesiastical  courts.  In  Scotland  C.  is  done  by  an  officer  of 
the  court,  or  by  a  Messenger-at-Amis  (q,  v.)  under  warrant. 
When  a  party  is  not  in  Scotland,  but  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Court  of  Session,  he  is  cited  edictally  ;  formerly  this  was  by 
a  citation  published  at  the  maiket-cross  of  Edinburgh  and  on 
the  shore  and  pier  of  Leith ;  but  now  it  is  done  by  leaving  a 
copy  at  the  oliice  of  the  keeper  of  Edictal  Ciladons  (q.  v,). 
Lilts  of  citations  are  printed  and  published.  In  criminal  cases 
it  is  not  sufficient  that  the  party  appear  voluntarily.  He  mast 
be  brought  into  court  in  regular  form,  and  he  can  plead  any 
omission  of  form,  even  though  he  has  consenled  to  it  Prescrip- 
tion (q.  v.),  positive  or  negative,  m  a  process  maybe  interrupted 
by  C. 

Citiea  of  Refuge  were  six  Levitical  cities — namely,  Kedesh, 
Shechem,  and  Hebron  on  the  W.  side  of  Jordan,  and  Bezer, 
Ramoth,  and  Golan  on  the  E,  side— appointed  as  a  refuge  to 
which  the  manslayer  might  flee  from  (he  Avenger  of  Blood 
(q.  v.),  and  where  he  Was  protected  till  he  Could  be  tried  by  the 
authorities  of  his  own  city.  If  it  was  found  on  his  trial  that  the 
deed  had  been  involuntary,  he  was  taken  back  to  the  C.  of  R,, 
and  on  the  death  of  the  high  priest,  could  return  in  safety  to 
his  home.  The  right  of  sanctuary  was  also  possessed  by  many 
Greek  and  Roman  cities,  especially  Ephesus,  and  by  many 
churches  in  the  middle  ages — a  privilege  which  W"-  -'•"•  • — 
mucli  abused,  by  letting  real  criminals  escape. 

Cit'izen  (Old  Eng.  dtemint  and  cytesiyne,  from  (he  Old 
French  form  of  «tos«i,  and  that  from  Low  Liit,  civitadantis,  a 
derivative  from  dvitss).  Neither  C.  nor  city  is  a  word  of  definite 
meaning  in  modern  Britain.    The  civitas  of  the  Romans,  which 


yLaOOgle 


CIT 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


CIT 


i  a  central  corporation  governing  inferior  ones  of  a  like  kind, 
i  unknown  here.  Some  burghs  were  called  cities  because  they 
re  royal  residences,  others  because  a  bishop's  catliedral  stood 
there.  Thus  St  Andrews  and  Glasgow  in  Scotland,  though  mere 
burghs  of  barony,  were  called  cities,  and  their  inhabitants  citizens. 
In  Athens,  citizens  had  the  privilege  of  receiving  a  tkearieon, 
or  two  oboli  to  each,  as  entrance  money  to  the  theatres  ;  each  C. 
who  attended  the  ecclesia  or  public  assembly  received  three  oboli 
about  fifty  days  in  every  year ;  every  member  of  the  hituli  or  senate, 
a  drachma  a  day  about  300  days  in  every  year;  besides,  the  free- 
men who  served  as  jurymen  or  dicasls  in  the  courts  of  justice 
received  daily  pay  from  the  public  treasury.  The  resident  aliens 
were  compelled  to  pay  a  capitation  lax  ol  twelve  drachms  and  to 
choose  patrons ;  and  thei^  was  a  large  body  of  slaves.  Such 
state  donations  were,  however,  rare.  At  Rome  we  find  civilas 
along  with  libertas  and  familia  miking  up  the  notion  of  status. 
Freemen  were  divided  into  ckies  and  peregrinL  The  rights  of 
cives  were— (i)  the/wj  suffragU,  electoral  and  legislative  power ; 

(2)  jus  honorum,  capacity  for  ofiice  ;  (3)  jus  comsnercH,  or  fnll 
rights  in  property  ;  and  (4)/«i'  cennubU,  full  rights  in  marriage. 
A^ens  enjoyed  only  numbers  (3)  and  (4),  and  these  only  in  a 
limited  way.      An  intermediate  class,  Latini,  enjoyed  number 

(3)  fully.  These  rights  were  liable  to  be  lost  by  the  various 
modes  of  degradation  {capiHs  minuth),  and  the  political  rights 
saffmgiupi  and  hotiares  were  forfeited  l^  infamj;  {mfamia)  or  loss 
of  civic  honour  {existimatio).  Although  the  imperial  revenue 
consisted  to  a  great  extent  of  provindal  tributes,  Roman  citizens 
had  after  the  time  of  Augustus  to  pay  customs  on  most  imported 
articles,  an  exdse  not  exceeding  I  per  cenL  on  all  articles  sold  in 
the  home  markets,  a  tax  of  5  per  cent,  on  legacies  and  successions. 
Caracalla  did  not  exempt  from  tribute  where  a  subject  became  a 
C,  and  citizenship  thus  became  a  harden  instead  of  a  privilege. 
The  Roman  army  felt  insulted  when  addressed  as  'citizens.' 
All  political  significance  had,  of  course,  left  the  term,  and  the 
state  at  last  supported  its  citizens  by  distributions  of  com  and 
lai^esse,  and  by  giving  gratuitous  spectacles.  The  Italian  cities 
were  generally  administered  by  a  curia  or  municipal  senate 
elected  by  the  people,  and  daunniirs  or  annual  consuls.  In  the 
oth  c.  these  cities  began  to  rebuild  their  walls ;  and  after  the 
War  of  Investiture  many  were  able  to  recover  a  jurisdiction  and 
corporate  life  independent  on  their  feudal  surroundings.  They 
had  the  parliament  or  general  meeting  of  citizens  for  election  ; 
their  gonfalonisre  and  barrocao  of  the  town  militia  ;  the  secret 
financial  council,  or  consiUn  di  credtmsa ;  the  signcrias,  or 
municipal  magistrates.  The  feudal  lord  frequently  became  a 
burgess.  These  free  Italian  cities  formed  a  league  against  Bar- 
barossa,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Constance  (1183)  all  their  previous 
privileges  and  immunities  were  confirmed,  although  the  Emperor 
reserved  a  full  right  of  sovereignty  over  most  of  them.  Charters 
of  immunity  and  franchise  began  to  be  granted  in  France  in  the 
reign  of  Louis  le  Gros.  These  were  distinct  from  the  early 
charters  freeing  serfs  and  fixing  their  feudal  payments ;  they 
made  careful  provision  for  the  security  of  the  person  and  pro- 
perty of  citizens,  on  the  principle  of  a  common  responsibility 
and  of  joint  contribution  to  the  expenses  of  defence  and  justice. 
The  term  C.  was  used  universally  during  the  French  Revolu- 
tion to  express  the  complete  political  equ3ity  of  all  Frenchmen. 
In  the  municipal  constitution  of  Brissot  the  electoral  light  was 
confined  to  the  dtoyens  actifs — if.,  those  paying  a  mca-c  £  argent, 
or  yearly  tax  equal  to  three  days'  labour  In  America  the  term 
has  been  used  with  a  similar  connotation.  Christian  thought 
has  dwelt  much  on  the  conception  of  the  Cimtas  Dei,  or  invisible 
spiritiral  kingdom,  embracmg  as  citizens  all  devout  Christians. 

Cit'ttQ  Acid  is  a  colourless  crystalline  compound  contained 
in  the  juice  of  lemons,  oranges,  gooseberries,  tamarinds,  and  in 
most  acidulous  fruits,  and  was  first  isolated  by  Scheele  in  17S4. 
C.  A,  is  usually  prepared  from  lemon-juice.  The  juice  is  allowed 
to  remain  for  some  time  undisturbed,  when  fermentation  sets  ir 
and  mucilaginous  substances  separate :  the  clear  liquid  is  de. 
canted  from  these,  neutralised  with  chalk,  and  then  boiled  with 
lime,  when  insoluble  citrate  of  calcium  is  deposited;  this  is 
washed  with  cold  water,  decomposed  by  the  proper  quantity  of 
sulphuric  add,  and  the  soludon  of  C.  A.  which  results,  after 
being  syphoned  off  &om  the  insoluble  sulphate  of  lime,  is  eva- 
porated to  the  proper  concentration  and  allowed  to  crystfdlise. 
C.  A.  crystallises  with  one  molecule  of  water  of  crystallisation, 
and  has  the  composition  expressed  by  the  formula  CjHaO^.HjO. 


dis  h 


It  has  a  pleasant  acid  taste,  readi 
alcohol,  and  forms  salts  in  which 
its  hydrogen  are  replaced  by  meta 
acid.     C.  A.  is  used  by  the  calico-p 
t  from  cloth,  and  in  the  manu 
ters  from  cochenille  and  safflower.     It  is  also  used  ii 
;.     Ijme-juice  is  always  given  on  board  ship  to  sailors  as  an 
antiscorbutic.     C.  A,  is  also  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
effervescing  powders,  lemonade,  &C. 

( Citrus  medica),  a  tree  cultivated  in  Soutliern  Europe, 
e  of  the  N.  of  India,  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
V.)  (the  Orange  family}.  By  some  botanists  it 
is  looked  upon*  as  a  variety,  or  even  as  the  type  of  the  various 
plants  which  we  now  distinguish  by  the  names  of  orange,  lemon, 
shaddock,  and  lime,  an  "opinion  which  Dr  Lindley  was  inclined 
to  adopt  {Journ.  HorHculturdl  Sodity,  ix.  171).  It  has,  how- 
ever, been  cultivated  in  Europe  since  the  earliest  period  of  the 
Christian  era,  or  even  earlier,  and  is  now  naturalised  in  most 
countries  the  climate  of  which  is  suitable  for  its  growth.  There 
are  many  cultivated  varieties,  distinguished  by  tlie  shape,  &c, 
of  the  fruits.  In  China,  the  variety  known  as  the  'five-fingered 
C'  has  the  lobes  separated  into  finger-like  divisions.  The  pulp 
of  the  C.  is  cooling,  but  it  is  for  the  rind,  which  is  made  into  a 
preserve,  that  the  fruit  is  chieily  valued,  and  it  may  be  said  that 
it  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  the  fruit  of  the  lemon.  From 
the  cedrati  variety  of  the  C,,  oil  of  cedrate,  greatly  valued  by  the 
perfumers,  is  obtained.  C.  is  frequently  cultivated  in  Great 
Britain,  It  is  believed  that  the  word  which  the  translators  of 
the  Bible  have  rendered  '  apple  '  would  in  most  places  be  more 
appropriately  translated  C. 

Citros'ma,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order  Monimiacea, 
containing  about  fifty  Species,  all  natives  of  tropical  S.  America. 
The  leaves  are  covered  with  glands,  which  secrete  an  oil  with  a 
citron-like  odour  ;  hence  some  of  the  species  are  called  Lentorh 
cillo,  or  '  little  lemons,'  the  fruit  being  only  about  the  size  of  a 
pea  when  ripe. 

Citrull'us.    See  Colocynth. 

Cit'rua,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Aurantiaam, 
consisting  of  trees  and  shrubs,  natives  of  India  and  of  the  warmer 
parts  of  Asia,  though  also  extensively  cultivated  in  America, 
Southern  Europe  and  other  warm  regions,  for  the  sake  of  tlieir 
fruits.  The  flowers  are  very  fragrant,  and.  like  the  leaves  and 
rind  of  the  fruit,  abound  in  a  volatile  oil.  Among  the  best- 
known  fruits  referred  to  the  genus  C.  are  the  Citron  (q.  v.). 
Orange  (q.  v.).  Lemon  (q.  v.),  Lune  (q.  v.),  Bergamot  (q,  v.). 
Shaddock  (q.  v.),  Pompelmoose  (q.  v.}.  Forbidden  Fruit  (q,  v.). 

Oitta',  the  Italian  form  of  dty,  enters  into  the  composition  of 
many  names  of  places  in  Italy,  of  which  may  be  noted  ;— 

CiTTADELLA  (' little town  ),  awalled  town  in  the  province  of 
Venice,  N.  Italy,  on  the  Brenlella,  14  miles  N.E.  of  Vicenza  j 
has  woollen-cloth  and  paper  mills.     Pop.  6600. 

CITTA  DI  CasTELLO  ('castle  town"),  the  Tipkirnam  Tibir^ 
inum  of  the  Romans,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Perugia,  Central 
Italy,  on  the  Tiber,  12  miles  N.  of  Arezzo  ;  has  some  maiiufao, 
tures  of  silk-twist,  &c.  It  is  chieily  notable  in  co 
Raphael,  who  painted  many  of  his  earlier  pictutes  here.  The 
town  has  many  rare  Gothic  churches  and  other  fine  buildings. 
Pop.  22,916. 

Others  will  be  found  under  dviTA. 

Cit'y.  a  term  introduced  about  the  time  of  the  Norman  con- 
quest. The  word  is  derived  from  the  Latin  civitas,  and  is  not 
limited  in  its  application  to  episcopal  towns.  It  is  applicable  to 
all  towns  of  eminence,  signifying  that  they  are  subject  to  muni- 
cipal government.  Long  after  the  conquest,  C.  is  used  synony- 
mously with  burgh,  as  appears  in  the  charter  of  Leicester,  it 
being  called  Civitas  Burgus,  which  shows  that  it  is  an  error  to 
.suppose  the  term  to  lie  only  applicable  to  a  town  which  '  either 
*is  or  has  been  the  see  of  a  bishop,'  On  this  point  Mr  Woodeson, 
the  Vinerian  Professor,  has  adduced  a  decisive  authority.  It  is 
that  of  Ingnlphus,  who  relates  that  at  the  great  council  assembled 
in  1072  to  settle  the  claims  of  two  archbishops,  it  was  decreed 
that  bishops'  sees  should  be  transferred  from  towns  to  cities.  In 
London,  when  '  the  C. '  is  spoken  of,  it  denotes  the  mercantile 
quarter  of  the  town  E.  of  Temple  Bar.      In  America,  the  te— 


vLaOogle 


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CIV 


is  applied  to  all  incorporated  towns  gOYcrned  by  a  mayor  and 
aide  [men. 

Ciudad',  the  Spanisli  form  of  the  Lat.  Hvitas,  enters  into  the 
composition  of  many  names  of  places  botli  in  Spain  and  her 
colonies.    The  moat  important  are  ;— 

Ciuuaue'la,  a  walled  town  of  Minorca,  on  the  N.W.  coast 
of  the  island,  30  miles  N.E.  of  Port  Mahon,  has  some  woollen 
manufactures,  and  a  trade  in  agricultural  produce.  Its  cathedral 
is  an  imposing  structure.    Pop.  7000. 

CiUUAB  Real'  ('the  royal  dly').  the  capital  of  a  province  of 
the  same  name,  Spain,  between  the  rivers  Jabalon  and  Gna- 
diana,  100  miles  S.  of  Madrid,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
railway.  It  has  several  famous  Gothic  churches,  a  public  square 
of  150  by  75  paces,  some  manufectures  of  woollens,  leather, 
tableclotiis,  &c.,  and  a  trade  in  wine,  oil,  fruits,  and  mules. 
Pop.  10,500.— The />■OT'^«^:^  of  C.  R.  occupies  the  S.  of  New 
Castile,  and  has  an  area  of  7840  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1870) 
of  264,649. 

Ciudad  Rod'sigo  ('dtyof  Rodrigo'),  a  strongly  fortified 
town  in  the  province  of  Salamanca,  Spain,  overlooks  the  Agueda, 
50  miles  S.W.  of  Salamanca,  has  a  citadel,  a  cathedral,  part  of 
which  was  erected  in  the  izth  c,  and  several  fine  churches,  In 
the  Plaza  Mayor  are  three  Roman  columns  bearing  inscriptions. 
The  river  ia  here  spanned  by  a  magnificent  bridge.  Pop.  4850, 
As  a  key  to  the  W,  of  Spain,  C,  R.  was  a  place  of  great  impor- 
tance during  the  Peninsular  War.  The  French  captured  it  in 
1810,  and  the  British  besieged  it  for  eleven  days,  and  eventually 
carried  it  by  storm  in  one  of  their  most  brilliant  actions,  January 
20,  1812. 

CiVet  (  Viverra\  a  genus  of  CarnivoroOS  mammalia  included 
in  the  family  Vivtiyidie,  which,  froni  their  applying  part  of  the 
sole  of  the  foot  to  the  ground 
1  walking,  have  been  named 
•  Seini-pltaUigrada.  They  are  of 
moderate  size.  The  muzzle  is 
^  sharp  and  the  tail  long.  The 
J  flesh-tooth  has  a  catting  edge, 
and  the  canines  are  sharp,  long, 
and  pointed.  The  tongue  is 
roughened  with  numerous  sharp 
papilliB.  The  claws  can  be  partly  retracted.  The  pupils  of  the 
eyes  can  contract  very  markedly  on  being  exposed  to  light  The 
Vwerra  civetfa  of  N,  Africa,  or  C.-cat,  is  the  most  familiar  species. 
It  is  nocturnal  in  habits,  and  supplies  the  'C  of  commerce, 
in  the  form  of  a  pomade-like  secretion,  elaborated  by  a  double 
pouch  present  in  both  sexes,  and  placed  close  to  the  anus.  (See 
Anal  Glands,)  This  substance  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
perfumes,  and  is  removed  periodically  from  the  secreting  glands. 
The  genette  (  V.  genilla)  inhabits  N.  Africa  and  S.  Europe,  and 
may  be  domesticated  like  a  cat.  The  food  consists  of  raw  flesli 
of  various  kinds.  Tlie  common  C.  attains  an  average  lengtli 
of  about  10  inches,  and  is  coloured  a  brownish  grey  with  black 
markings.    The  last- mentioned  species  does  not  afford  '  C 

Oividale  {'the  little  town'),  the  ancient  Forum  yulii,  a 
walled  town  of  Undine,  N.  Italy,  on  the  Natisone,  8  miles 
KN.E.  of  Udine.  The  cathedral  of  Santa  Maria,  bn^t  in  the 
8th  c,  has  several  fine  paintings  and  a  beautiful  altar-screen. 
Its  museum  of  antiquities  and  the  municipal  archives  are  rich  in 
old  and  valuable  MSS.  C.  carries  on  silk,  cotton,  and  lineo 
manufactures.     Fop.  about  6812. 


felony  are,  with  exceptions,  held  to  be  civilly  dead,  A  presump- 
tion exists  in  favour  of  life  for  a  reasonable  number  of  years,  so 
as  to  throw  the  oiiu!  p-oliandi  on  the  party  alleging  death.  But 
this  presumption  may  he  overcome  by  a  counter  presumption  of 
death  arising  from  circumstances.  No  general  rule  can  tie  given 
on  this  point.     See  Dickson  on  Evidence,  p.  183,  elseq. 

Civil  Engineer,  strictly  every  engineer  not  connected  with 
the  army — every  engineer,  that  is,  not  a  military  engineer — but 
in  common  usage  a  man  who  makes  or  designs  railways,  docks, 
roads,  canals,  &e.,  as  distmct  from  a  mechanical  engineer,  a.  man 
who  makes  engines,  boilers,  and  machinery  in  general     See 

-    162 


The  CIve 


Oivil  EstaMishmeuts.  Certain  public  depan 
organisation,  but  provided  for  by  the  army  e  ' 
called. 

Civil'ian,  Thb  word  has  three  meanings,  two  of  which  are 
legal.  In  the  law,  it  may  denote  one  versed  in  Uie  principles 
and  rules  which  form  the  basis  of  civil  rights,  or  it  may  denote 
one  who  has  specially  studied  these  principles  and  rules  as  they 
appeared  in  the  laws  and  government  of  ancient  Rome.  In  a 
popular  sense,  a  C,  is  one  whose  vocation  is  neither  clerical  n6r 

Oivil  Law.     See  Law. 

Civil  List.  Previous  to  the  Restoration  in  1660,  the  civil 
and  military  expenses  of  the  state  in  England  were  paid  out  of 
what  was  called  the  royal  revenue.  Tills  arose  from  crown 
lands,  and  from  forced  loans,  or  taxation  by  the  will  of  the 
sovereign.  (See  BENEVOLENCE,  Ship-Monev,  Tonnage  and 
Poundage.)  At  the  Restoration  the  expenditure  was  divided 
into  two  branches,  the  military  and  the  extraordinary,  and  the 
ordinary  for  maintaining  the  civil  establishments  of  the  country ; 
the  revenues  appropriated  to  the  latter  being  called  the  lieredi- 
tary  or  C,  L,  revenues.  They  were  derived  from  tiie  crown 
lands,  and  from  taxes  voted  by  Parliament  at  the  beginning  of 
each  reign.  In  the  reign  of  'William  III.  the  C.  L,  amotmted  to 
/■eSo.ooo  a  year.  It  went  on  increasing  during  the  reigns  of  the 
Georges,  In  1812  it  amounted  to^i, 080,000  independent  of 
annuities  to  members  of  the  royal  family  paid  out  of  the  Con- 
solidated Fund  (q.  v.).  In  the  reign  of  William  IV.  the  C.  L. 
charges  were  confined  to  the  expenses  of  the  King's  house- 
hold, secret-service  money,  and  pensions.  These  were  fixed  at 
;£5io,ooo  a  year.  At  the  beginning  of  the  present  reign,  a  C,  L, 
was  settled  upon  iler  Majesty  for  life  of  ;^385,ooo  a  year,  of 
which  ;J6o,ooo  is  for  the  privy  purse.  In  return  for  this  grant, 
it  was  provided  that  the  hereditary  revenue  should  be  carried  to 
the  Consolidated  Fund.  By  the  C.  L.  Act,  I  and  2  Vict.  c.  2, 
Her  Majesty  is  empowered  to  grant  pensions  to  the  amount  of 
£i:iOO  a  year,  chargeable  on  the  C,  L,  revenues,  to  those  having 
fair  claims  on  the  royal  beneficence,  or  who,  by  service  or  dis- 
covery, have  earned  the  gratitude  of  their  countiy. 

Civil  Service.  The  paid  service  of  the  state  wliich  is  not 
military  or  naval  is  called  the  C.  S.  Appointments  in  it  were 
formeriyunder  patronage,  but  in  June  1870  an  Order  in  Council 
was  issued  by  whicli  the  home  C,  S.  was  in  a  great  measure 
opened  to  public  competition.  Success  in  examination  is  not  in 
iteelf  a  guarantee  for  permanent  employment.  A  six  months' 
probation  is  necessary,  and  should  the  candidate  during  this 
time  not  satisfy  the  chief  of  the  department  in  which  he  has  been 
placed,  the  appointment  will  be  cancelled.  The  C.  S.  Commis- 
sioners hold  examinations  in  London,  Edinbui^h,  and  Dublin, 
on  days  which  are  previously  advertised  in  the  principal  news- 
papers. Persons  wishing  to  become  candidates  must  apply 
to  the  C.  S.  Commissioners  by  letter  in  their  own  hand- 
writing, addressed  to  the  office  in  Cannon  Row,  Westmin- 
ster, for  permission  to  attend  the  preliminary  examination,  at 
least  ten  days  before  the  day  named.  On  receipt  of  this  appli- 
cation, requisite  instructions  are  siipplied.  Before  beingallowed 
to  compete,  candidates  must  satisfy  the  Commissioners  that 
they  are  natural-bom  subjects  of  the  Queen,  and  that,  for  the 
first-class  examinations,  they  are  not  less  tlian  eighteen  or  more 
than  twenty-four  years  of  age  on  the  first  day  of  the  competitive 
examination.  For  the  second-class  examinations  the  limits  of 
age  are  sixteen  and  twenty.  Candidates  must  produce  certificates 
of  good  health  and  cliaracter.  Tliey  may  compete  without  re- 
ference to  any  special  office  vacant,  or  the  competition  may  be 
for  a  special  office.  Appointments  may  now  be  obtained  by 
successful  candidates  in  the  Treasury,  Privy  Council  Office,  Col- 
onial Office,  India  Ofiice,  War  Office,  Admiralty,  Board  of 
Trade,  Poor-Law  Board,  Customs,  Inland  Revenue,  General 
Post-Ofllee,  and  a  great  many  other  Government  offices.  The 
most  important  and  lucrative  department,  however,  of  the  C.  S. 
open  to  competition  is  that  of  the  C.  S,  of  India.  In  this  the 
successful  candidate  will  at  once,  on  arrival  in  India,  receive  a 
salary  of  3000  rupees  or  £yM  a  year  ;  his  promotion,  with  good 
conduct  and  practical  capability  on  his  part,  will  probably  be 
rapid,  the  salaries  rising  not  by  tens  or  twenties,  but  by  hundreds 
of  pounds  per  annum,  until  tliey  reach  the  maximum.  The 
highest  salaries  are  those  of  the  judges  of  the  Sudder  Courts, 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


;^S00oayear.  In  the  Forest  Service  of  India  there  are  also  valu- 
able apijointments  open  to  public  competition.  The  India  Public 
Works  Department  is  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  the 
Indian  C.  S.  The  civihan  officers  are  passed  students  of  Govern- 
ment Civil  Engineering  Colleges  in  England  and  India,  and 
civil  engineers  in  practice  of  approved  qualifications  appointed 
direct  by  the  Secretary  of  State  or  Government  of  India,  The 
Indian  Civil  Engineering  College  at  Cooper's  Hill,  Surrey,  was 
establislied  in  1870  for  the  education  of  civil  engineers  for  this 


appointments  open  to  public  competition.  The  more  important 
■  nents  of  the  C.  S.  of  the  United  Kingdom,  India  and  the 
!s  are  described  under  their  titles  in  this  work.  For  a 
description  of  the  nature  of  the  competitive  e>Laminations,  see 
article  EXAMlNATlous  FOR  THE  C.  S.  See  Guide  to  Btafloyment 
in  the  C.  S.,  by  J.  D.  Morel!,  LL.D.,  London. 

Civil  Service  Estimates  include  all  the  expenses  of  the 
state,  except  those  included  in  the  estimates  for  the  army  and 
navy,  and  the  interest  on  the  National  Debt  They  come  to 
about  ;^ii,ooo,DOO  a  year.  Tliey  are  voted  by  the  House  of 
Commons  in  Committee.     See  Revenue,  Public, 

CiVita,  an  older  and  fuller  form  of  Citta  (q.  v.J,  and  simi- 
larly used.    The  most  important  towns  of  whose  names  it  forms 

Civ'lTA  CaSTELLA'MA  ('the  castled  town'},  a  town  in  the 
province  of  Latium,  Central  Italy,  28  miles  N.  of  Rome,  on  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Falerium  Vetus,  and  containing  numerous 
Etrnscan  remains.  It  is  built  on  a  steep  hill  near  the  Rio  Mag- 
giore,  here  crossed  by  a  bridge  150  feet  in  height,  and  has  a  cathe- 
dral (12IO)  with  beautiful  mosaics,  a  yery  remarkable  crypt,  and 
wonderful  altar  figures  of  the  isth  c,  a  college,  and  a  citadel, 
which  has  been  converted  into  a  state  prison.     Pop.  about  400a 


ClviTA  Di  Pbpn'b  ('the  city  of  the  summit  or  pen'),  the 
indent  Pinna  Veslina  (the  ciiief  ciy  of  the  Vestini),  a  town  in 
the  province  of  Teramo,  Central  Italy,  29  miles  E.  by  N,  of 


Anuila.    The  cathedral  and  diocesan  seminary 
edifices,  bat  the  town  is  in  general  ill-builL      C,  has  a  manufac- 
tory of  silk-flowers,  a  dyework,  and  a  tannery.     Pop.  gSop. 

ClvijANUo'vA  ( '  new  town '),  a  commercial  town  of  Central 
Italy,  province  of  Macerata,  in  what  was  formeriy  designated 
the  Marches,  12  miles  W.  of  Macerata,  with  a  commodious  har- 
bour on  the  Adriatic,  at  a  abort  distance  from  the  town.  Vines 
and  olives  are  produced  abundantly  in  the  neighbourhood,  ^vhich 
also  possesses  rich  pastures.     Pop.  of  town  and  port,  S5S3. 

CiviTA  SaH-An'gelo,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Teramo, 
Central  Italy,  25  miles  S.E.  of  Teramo,  and  near  the  Adriatic. 
It  has  considerable  trade,  and  a  pop.  of  about  7000. 

ClviTA  Vec'chia,  a  city,  fortress,  and  free  port  in  the  Italian 
province  of  Latium  or  Roma,  on  the  Mediterranean,  38  miles 
N.W.  of  Rome,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway.  lis 
harbour,  which  is  strongly  fortified,  is  formed  by  two  semi- 
circular moles  and  an  exterior  breakwater,  has  at  its  southern 
extremity  a  lighthouse  74  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  has  depth 
of  water  for  vessels  of  400  and  500  tons.  The  streets,  narrow 
bat  regular,  are  well  built.  C,  V.  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  has  an 
arsenaX  shipyards,  and  magaiines,  and  a  large  prison  for  con- 
victs. It  has  communication  by  steam  with  Marseille,  Genoa, 
Leghorn,  Naples,  Messina,  Malta,  Greece,  Egypt,  and  Turkey. 
Pop.  Sooo.  C.  V.  is  the  ancient  Centumcdls.  It  was  greatly 
enlarged  by  Trajan,  in  honour  of  whom  it  was  also  called  Porius 
Trajani.  In  the  reign  of  Jnstinian  it  became  a  bone  of  con- 
tention between  Greeks  and  Ostrt^oths.  Often  plundered  and 
destroyed,  it  always  rose  agsun  from  its  niins.  The  place  ob- 
tained its  present  name  ('  the  old  city ')  after  its  destruction  by 
the  Saracens  in  Sia,  when  the  inhabitants  withdrew  into  t'  - 
interior  and  founded  a.  '  new  city.' 

Civitbll'a  del  Tronto  ('  the  little  town  of  the  Tronto '), 
strongly  fortified  town  in  the  province  of  Teramo,  Central  IWly, 
g  mites  N.  of  Teramo,  situated  on  a  rpck  on  an  affluent  of  the 
Tronto.  It  is  noted  historically  for  two  events  :  the  defeat  of 
the  forces  of  Pope  Leo.  IX,  and  the  Emperor  Heinrich  III,  by 
the  Norman  Guiscard  in  1053,  and  its  successful  defence  against 
the  Duke  of  Guise  at  the  head  of  a  French  and  Papal  army  ' 
1557.     Pop.  6600. 


capital  of  Clackmannanshire,  on  the  Devon,  near  its  junction 
widi  the  Fortli,  29  miles  N.W.  of  Edinburgh.  Pop.  (1871) 
1309.  It  was  formerly  a  royal  burgh,  and  in  1330  was  the  resi- 
dence of  King  David  Bruce.  Many  objects  in  the  neighbourhood 
bear  testimony  to  this  fact,  as  'the  King's  stone,"  &c.  Thougli 
C  is  the  county  town,  the  courts  are  held  at  Alloa. 

01ackiiiaiiii'an.sliire,  the  smallest  county  in  Scotland,  16 
miles  long  from  E.  to  W.,  and  8  broad  from  N.  to  S.,  bounded 
N.  and  W.  by  Perthsliire,  E.  by  Perthshire  and  Fifeshire,  and 
S.  by  the  Forth.  The  Ochil  Hills  occupy  the  N.  part  of  the 
county,  but  the  remainder,  consisting  principally  of  the  valley 
of  the  N.  Devon,  is  very  fertile  and  produces  heavy  crops.  Area, 
31,876  statute  acres,  or  50  sq.  miles  ;  pop.  (1871)  23,747.  '^'^^ 
Ochils,  whicli  are  composed  principally  of  trap,  rise  in  Bencleugh 
to  2352  feet.  The  total  acreage  under  crop,  in  bare  fallow  and 
grass,  in  1875,  was  ;  com  crops,  5844  acres  ;  green  crops,  1463  ; 
grasses  under  rotation,  2876  ;  permanent  pastiure,  exclusive  of 
heath  or  mountain  land  is  5311.  Wheat  and  bariey  are  culti- 
vated in  nearly  equal  proportions,  in  each  case  to  abotit  the  Uiird 
of  the  quantity  of  the  oats  sown.  Beans  are  a  heavy  and 
favourite  crop.  The  minerals  are  iron,  limestone,  and  coal, 
which  is  found  jn  abundance.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
woollens,  especially  tartans  and  Iweeds,  ghiss,  earllienware,  and 
briclfs.  The  most  important  town  in  the  county  is  Ailoa  (q.  v. ) ; 
but  the  village  of  Doll9.r  (q.  v.)  is  also  widely  known  in  Scotland 
as  a  seat  of  education.  C,  which  is  divided  into  four  parishes, 
returns  one  member  to  pariiament  in  conjunction  with  Kinross- 
shire, 

Clad'ium  (Gr.  k!adas,  '  a  branch  or  twig '},  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  order  Capa-ace<s.  One  species  ( C.  mariscus)  is  common 
on  the  bogs  and  marshes  of  some  parts  of  Britain  ;  for  example, 
Cambridgeshire,  where  hundreds  of  acres  are  covered  with  it. 
It  is  used  for  thatching  and  lightmg  fires.  It  is  the  most  nor- 
therly of  its  genus,  the  twenty-one  species  described  (SteudeVs 
Plania  Cyperacea)  having  an  extended  geographical  disttibution, 
though  the  majority  are  natives  of  Australia. 

Oladodystr^^h'ia  (Gr.  Mados, '  a  branch,'  and  dudrephos, 
'hard  to  rear'),  a  disease  of  aged  oaks  and  other  ti'ees  growing 
in  a  light  soil,  in  which  the  opper  branches  are  more  imper- 
fectly nourished  than  'he  lower,  and  therefore  sooner  decay — in 
other  words,  become  what  is  called  '  stag-headed.'  It  has  been 
supposed  that  this  is  in  CQnseqnenoe  of  the  decay  of  the  tap  root, 
possibly  from  llie  attacks  of  fungi,  but  Mr  Berkley  considers 
this  mere  conjecture. 

Clado'nia.     See  Reindeee  Moss. 

CJadopto'sis  (Gr.  '  a  falling  awajr  of  the  twig '),  a  disease  of 
oaks,  willows,  and  other  forest  trees,  in  which  the  small  branches 
snap  off  with  a  regular  circular  fissure,  leaving  acup-shaped  scat 
somewhat  similar  to  that  which  takes  ptece  when  a  leaf  or  frui 
separates  at  the  stalk.  It  appears  to  be  somewhat  similar  ti 
the  disease  to  which  vine  branches  are  subject  after  a  cold  sum 
mer,  and  which  is  known  as  Phrigcmoplosis,  The  branches  fall 
off,  '  a  process  facilitated  by  the  peculiar  formation  of  the  stem, 
rtiere  being  a  transverse  layer  of  cellular  tissue  at  eacli  bud ' 
(Berkley). 

Claim,  in  law,  is  a  demand  of  right  in  something  which  is 
not  possessed  by  the  claimant. 

Claim  of  Liberty  is  a  petition  to  the  Queen  in  the  Court  of 
Exchequer  for  confirmation  of  liberties  and  franchises.  Set 
Liberty,  Franchise. 

CWm  OHO  53«^™/;£j!'3!'^.— To  enable  a  Scotch  creditor  tc 

Sirove  under  a  fiat  issued  against  an  English  trader,  he  must 
orward  to  his  agent  in  England  an  affidavit  setting  fortli  fully 
the  nature  of  his  debt,  accompanied  by  the  securities,  if  any, 
held  \t]  the  creditor,  and  a  copy  of  the  account,  if  any,  between 
the  paities.  To  rank  under  a  Scotch  sequestration,  the  claim 
must  describe  distinctly  the  ground  of  his  debt,  accompanying 
his  C.  with  an  oath  of  verity,  specifying  every  security  which  tl 
claimant  holds  for  the  debt. 

Olair,  St,  a  lake,  30  miles  long  by  12  broad,  between  Lakes 
Huron  and  Erie,  with  the  former  of  whidi  it  is  united  by  the 
river  St  Clan,  which  is  merely  the  outlet  of  Lake  Huron. 

Clairao',   a   town   in  the  department  of  Lot-et-Garronne, 
France,  on  the  Lot,  16  miles  N.W.  of  Agen,  has  some  manufac- 
tures of  paper  and  leather,  and  a  trade  in  wine  and  fruits.   Pop, 
163 


vLiOOQle 


CLA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


?2)  2423.    C.  accepted  the  Reformation  docti 
7,  and  suffered  greatly  during  the  religious  wais,  luu.c  ^=^v 
daily  in  the  year  1621. 

Clairaut,  Alexie  Glaufle,  a  distinguished  French  matlie- 
matkiaii,  was  boi-ti  May  7,  1713,  at  Paris,  where  he  died  May 
17.  17^5;  At  the  early  age  oE  eighteen  he  was  admitted  to  the 
AcEidemy  of  Sciences,  to  the  scientific  journal  of  which  he  con- 
tributed many  elal>orate  and  original  papers.  His  most  famous 
works  are  his  ThkrUsarlaFimredelaTirre^Vj^g),  his  Thhrie 
de  la  Lwne  (1752),  ajid  his  Thhrie  dm  Mmtventenl  des  Coinites 
(1760).  His  FroUime  dts  TVms  Corfs  is  to  this  day  one  of  the 
most  profound  specimens  of  analysis  m  existence. 

Clairvau^jc' (Lat.  Clara  VcUlis,  'bright  valley'),  a  small  vil- 
lage of  Fra-iice,  in  the  department  of  Aube,  on  the  left  bank  of 
"  river  Aube,  7  miles  E.  of  Bar-sur-Aube,  derives  its  origin 
1  its  name  from  the  celebrated  Cistercian  abbey  founded  here 
by  St  Bernard  in  1115.  The  abbey  had  at  one  time  an  annual 
revenue  of  120,000  Hvres.  It  was  suppressed  at  the  Revolution, 
and  its  extensive  buildings  are  now  used  as  a  house  of  correction 
and  workhouse. 

Olairvoyanoe  (Fr.  'clear-seeing')  is  a  term  applied  to  a 
faculty  supposed  by  the  vulgar  to  be  possessed  by  certain  par- 
ties, in  virtue  of  which  they  can  see  in  the  dark,  describe 
objects  they  may  have  never  seen  with  the  naked  eye,  but 
which  they  are  conjectured  to  see  mentally,  and  by  which  also 
■  they  can  describe  objects  separated  from  them  by  any  opaque 
substance  or  enclosed  in  a  box.  It  is  said  to  be  piMsessed  by 
spiritual  '  mediums,'  and  by  people  under  mesmeric  influences. 
Of  such  a  faculty  there  is  no  scientific  proof,  for  in  all  cases  the 
pretensions  of  the  clairvoyant  break  down  when  submitted  to 
searching  inquiry  by  men  who  are  acquainted  with  all  probable 
sources  of  f£&cy,  and  who  bring  to  bear  upon  them  the  acumen 
and  caution  wiU>  which  a  successful  lawyer  investigates  a  case. 
G.  is  cleverly  imitated  by  conjurors  by  means  of  a  language  of 
signs  known  only  to  the  conjuror  and  the  reputed  clairvoyant. 
Sue  Mesmerism. 


Clameliell  and  Clam  Sear's  Paw,  the  names  applied  to 
various  genera  of  Lamellibranchiate  molluscs,  included  in  the 
family  Ckamida.  (See  Chama.)  The  C.  {Tridama  gigus) 
attains  gigantic  dimensions,  and  in  sdme  cases  the  shell  alone 
may  weigh  500  lbs.  The  C.  B,  P.  {Hiffofus  maculalus)  is 
found  in  the  Soutli  Seas  ;  its  whitish  colour,  spotted  with  red  or 
purple,  and  its  ribbed  and  triangular  form,  placing  it  in  high 
fiivour  for  beauty  among  conchologists. 

Clan,  This  Gaelic  word,  meaning  'children,'  inferentially 
descendants  of  a  common  ancestor,  has  come  to  be  apphed  almost 
exclusively  to  the  communities  of  the  Scottish  Highlands,  as  these 
are  divided  topographically,  and  by  distinctive  surnames.  The 
peculiarities  of  clansliip  are  well  described-in  a  book  written 
about  the  year  1730,  eaX\i\id.-Ldters  from  an  Officsr  of  Engineers 
la  his  Friend  in  London.  'The  Highlanders,'  it  says,  'are 
divided  into  tribes  or  clans,  under  chiefs  or  chidtains,  and  each 
C.  is  again  divided  into  branches  from  the  main  stock,  who 
have  chieftains  over  them.  These  are  subdivided  into  smaller 
branches  of  fifty  or  sixty  men,  who  deduce  their  origin  from  their 
particular  chiefs,  and  rely  upon  them  as  their  more  immediate 
protectors  and  defenders.  The  ordinary  Highlanders  esteem  it  a 
most  sublimedegree  of  virtue  to  love  their  chi&and  pay  him  a  blind 
obedience.  .  .  .  Next  fo  this  love  of  their  chief  is  that  of  the 
particular  branch  whence  they  sprang,  and  in  the  third  degree 
to  those  of  the  whole  C,  or  name,  whom  they  will  assist,  right 
or  wrong,  agdnst  those  of  any  other  tribe  with  whom  they  are  at 
variance.  .  .  .  Lastly,  they  have  an  adherence  to  one  another 
as  Highlanders,  in  opposition  to  the  people  of  the  Low  Country, 
whom  they  despise  as  inferior  to  tlxem  in  courage,  and  believe 
that  they  have  a  right  to  plunder  them  whenever  it  is  in  their 
power.  This  last  arises  from  a  tradition  that  the  Lowlands  in  old 
times  were  the  possessions  of  their  ancestors,  The  chief  exercises 
an  arbitrary  authority  over  his  vassals,  determines  all  differences 
and  disputes  that  happen  among  them,  and  levies  taxes  upon 
extraordinary  occasions.  .  .  .  Some  of  the  chiefs  have  not 
only  person^  dislikes  and  enmity  to  each  other,  but  there  are 
also  hereditary  feuds  between  C.  and  C,  which  have  been 
164 


handed  down  from  one  generation  to  another  for  several  ages. 
These  quarrels  descend  to  the  meanest  vassals,  and  thus  some- 
times an  innocent  person  suffers  for  crimes  committed  by  iiis 
tribe  at  a  vast  distance  of  time  before  his  bein^  began.'  ^  This 
description  conveys  a  clear  idea  of  clanship  as  it  existed  in  the 
HigMands  early  in  the  iSth  c,  when  the  system  was  in  full  force. 
It  shows  a  cunous  mixture  of  patriarchal  and  of  feudal  govern- 
ment, and  the  customs  and  feehngs  of  the  people  tended  to  keep 
it  unimpaired  amid  the  improvements  and  diffusion  of  knowledge 
which  was  taking  place  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  The  dis- 
tinction between  the  Highland  and  the  feudal  chief  was,  that  the 
former  was  the  hereditary  lord  of  his  C,  wherever  they  dwelt 
or  whatever  land  they  occupied,  while  the  latter  was  entitled  to 
the  military  service  of  all  who  held  lands  under  htm.  The  one 
dignity  was  personal,  the  other  territorial ;  the  rights  of  the  chief 
were  inherent,  those  of  the  baron  were  accessory;  tlie  one  might 
lose  or  forfeit  his  possessions,  but  could  not  thereby  be  divested 
of  his  hereditary  character  and  privileges ;  the  other,  when 
divested  of  his  tee,  ceased  to  have  any  title  or  claim  to  the  ser- 
vice of  those  who  occupied  the  lands.  It  thus  often  happened 
in  the  Highlands  that  the  head  of  the  C  was  one  man,  and  the 
feudal  owner  of  the  land  which  it  occupied  was  another.  The 
foUowmg  is  General  Wade's  list  of  the  Highland  clans-and  their 
numbers  that  fought  for  King  James  in  1715  :— Islands  and  clans 
of  Lord  Seaforth,  3000 ;  M'Donalds  of  Slate,  1000 ;  M'Donalds 
of  Glengarry,  800 ;  M'Donalds  of  Moidart,  800 ;  M'Donalds  of 
Keppoch,  220;  Camerons  of  Lochiel,  800;  M'Leods,  in  all, 
1000 !  Duke  of  Gordon's  men,  1000 ;  Stewarts  of  Appin,  400  ; 
Robertsons  of  Strowan,  800;  M'Intoshes  and  Fatquliarsons, 
Soo;  M'Ewen  in  Skye,  150 ;  the  Chisholms  of  Strathglass,  150 ; 
M'Phersons,  220;  the  AthoU  men,  2000,  and  the  Breadalbane 
men,  joined  without  their  superiors — total  for  King  James, 
14, 140.  The  following,  with  a  total  of  800a,  remdned  loyal  -.-^ 
Duke  of  Argyle,  Lords  Sulheriand  and  Strathnaven,  Lord 
Lovat's  Frasers,  the  Grants,  Rosses,  and  Munrocs,  Forbes  of 
Culloden,  Rose  of  Kilravock,  and  Campbell  of  Clunes.  See 
History  of  the  Highlands  and  Highland  Clans,  by  James  Browne, 
Esq.,  LLD.,  Advocate  (Glasg.  1840);  Concise Hislorical Proofs 
respecting  the  Gaels  of  Alban,  or  Highlanders  of  Scotland,  by 
James  A.  Robertson,  F.&A.  {Edinb.  1866);  Sketches  of  the 
Manners  and  Present  StaSe  of  the  Highlands  of  Sc(itlaMd,\iy  Ma^^nt 
General  David  Stewart  (Edinb,  1825). 
Olainies'tine  Marriage.    See  Banns,  Marriage. 

Olaadestiae  Mortgage.  In  England,  if  any  one  mortgage 
his  estate  a  second  time,  without  previously  informing  the  post- 
poned mortgagee  in  writing  of  the  prior  mortgage,  or  of  any 
judgment  or  incumbrance  he  has  voluntarily  brought  upon  the 
estate,  the  postponed  mortgagee  is  entitled  to  hold  the  estate  as 
an  absolute  purchaser,  free  from  the  equity  of  redemption  of  the 
mortgager.     In  Scotland,  C.  M.  is  impossible.      See  RECORDS, 

PuBuc;  Bond,  Heritable;  Mortgage. 

Clan  MacdufF,  Law  of.  This  was  a  barbarous  privilege 
which  formerly  belonged  to  those  related  within  the  ninth  degree 
to  Macduff,  Earl  of  Fife.  If  one  having  the  privilege  was  found 
guilty  of  homicide,  he  was  absolved  by  coming  lo  Macduff's 
Cross,  between  Fife  and  Strathearn,  and  giving  nine  kye  (co- 
and  a  colpindash,  a  young  cow. 


yards  long  by  2J  wide,  and  Mving  a  slight  frame.     The  p 
are  placed  parallel  to  each  other,  about  4  yards  apart,  and 
closed  upon  one  another  by  the  pulling  of  a  siring,  so  as  to  c< 
the  space  between  them.    Call-birds  are  used  as  decoys  for  the 
wild  birds  the  netters  wish  to  catch. 

Clapp'erton,  Hugli,  an  African  t 
Annan,  in  Dumfriesshire,  in  1788,  was  sent  to  sea  at  the  age  of 
thirteen,  and  entering  the  navy,  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant 
in  1814.  He  accompanied  Lieutenant  Denham  and  Dr  Oudney 
(1822)  on  a  Government  expedition  to  Central  Africa,  with  the 
view  of  ascerfainmg  the  length  and  course  of  the  Niger.  Oudney 
died  at  an  early  stage  of  tMs  enterprise;  which  only  resulted  in 
determining  the  exact  position  of  Bomu,  Houssa,  and  Mandara. 
In  1S25  C,  along  with  Captain  Pearce,  Dr  Morrison,  and  Mr 
IMckson,  again  set  out  for  the  same  purpose.  The  party  started 
from  the  Bight  of  Benin,  but  were  almost  immediately  attacked 


yLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


-A 


by  severe  illness,  which  C.  alone  survived.  Pushing  into  the  in- 
tenor,  he  reached  Hakkatu,  where  he  was  detained  by  the  Sultan 
Bello.  Here  his  health  gave  way,  and  he  died  at  tlie  village  of 
Changaiy,  4  miles  from  Sakkatu,  April  13,  1827.  See  Narrative 
of  Traatli  and  Discoveries  in  N,  and  Central  Africa  in  1822-24, 
by  Denham,  C,  and  Oudit^  (Lond.  1826),  youmal  of  a  Second 
Expeditim  into  the  Interior  of  Africa^  &v.  (Lond.  1829),  and 
Lander's  Hecords  of  C.  's  Last  Expediliott  to  Africa  (I»nd,  1S30). 

Claque  (Fc.  'a  clap  or  slap  with  the  hand ').  A  theatrical 
C.,  a  distinct  and  acknowledged  feature  of  the  Paris  theatres,  is 
a  body  of  individuals  retained  at  a  salary  to  applaud  a  special 
actor,  and  thus,  so  far,  to  secure  the  success  of  his  engagement 

Ola'ra,  Santa,  or  St  Claire,  was  bom  at  Assisi,  in  the  Duchy 
of  Spoleto,  Italy,  about  1 193.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  she  left 
the  house  of  her  father,  a  wealthy  nobleman,  and  betook  herself 
to  the  convent  of  Portioncula,  under  the  auspices  of  St  Francis 
of  Asasi.  She  founded  the  order  which  bears  her  name  in  1212, 
and  was  soon  after  joined  by  her  sister  Agnes,  her  mother,  and 
several  other  ladies  of  high  rank.  After  twenty-nine  years  of 
intirm  health,  octasioned  by  her  excessive  austerities,  C.  died, 
August  It,  1253,  and  was  canonised,  two  years  after  her  death, 
by  Pope  Alexander  IV.  See  Prudent  de  Faucogney's  Vie  de 
Sainte  CTni>-i  (Par.  1782).  Tlie  Order  of  St  C.  is  divided  into 
'  Urbanists,'  those  that  follow  the  mitigated  rule  drawn  up  by 
Pope  Urban  IV.  in  1264,  and  '  Damianists,'  a  severer  sect  of 
the  sisterhood.  The  convents  of  the  order  are  numerous  in 
Qitholic  Europe  and  in  America. 

Glare,  a  western  maritime  county  of  Ireland,  in  the  province 
of  Munster,  N.  of  the  estuary  of  the  Shannon.  Area,  1294  sij, 
miles;  pop.  (1871)  147,864.  It  is  hilly  in  the  E.  and  W.,  but  an 
extensive  and  fertile  plain  occupies  the  centre,  while  on  the 
mountain-sides  and  river-banks  there  are  fine  pastures  or  '  cor- 
casses.'  In  1871  there  were  151,035  aoresmidertiilage,  469,446 
in  pasture,  7349  in  plantation,  and  132,244  in  waste  bog,  moun- 
t^n,  &C.  Besides  the  Shannon,  which  bounds  it  on  the  S.  and 
E.,  C  is  watered  by  the  Fergus,  vrith  its  great  estuary,  the  Ard- 
sallas,  Graney,  Forsett,  Dumbeg,  &c,  and  has  as  many  as  100 
miniature  lakes.  The  loftiest  mountains  are  in  the  Slieve  Baughta 
and  Barnagh  ranges,  which  reach  aheight  of  1312  and  1758  feet 
respectively.  C.  has  a  wild  and  precipitous  sea-line  of  over  100 
miles.  Where  the  Shannon  merges  in  the  Atlantic,  the  land  runs 
out  into  the  long,  tapering  promontory  of  Ijiop  Head.  C.  is 
mostly  formed  of  carboniferous  limestone,  and  there  are  mines  of 
coal,  lead,  manganese,  copper  pyrites,  &c.,  and  quarries  of  slate, 
flag,  and  black  marble.  The  chief  crojis  are  oats,  potatoes, 
wheat,  and  barley,  and  the  manufactures  include  coarse  hnens, 
flannels,  and  friezes.  There  is  a  good  coasting  trade  and  active 
fisheries.  Ennis  is  the  capital,  and  communicates  with  Limerick 
by  railway.  A  local  line,  10  miles  long,  also  connects  Kilrushand 
Kilkee.  C.  has  round  towers,  cromleehs,  and  other  antiquities. 
It  returns  two  members  to  Parliament. 

Clare  College,  Cambridge,  founded  in  1326  by  Elizabeth, 
sister  and  coheir  of  Gilbert,  Earl  of  Clare.  Its  buildings,  which 
are  in  the  style  of  the  Renaissance,  are  much  admired.  The  chapel 
wasbuilt!nl535.  T  11  g  co  "  ightscniorand  ten  junior 
fellows,  who  elect  tl  Tl       hole  eighteen  fellowships 

are  open  to  Bachel 
without  restriction  as      i 
ships,  seven  exhibi 
In  187s  the  number 

Clare  Constat,  Pr      p      f       S  t  h  I        is  a  deed  exe^ 

cuted  by  a  subject-    p  mp  th   t  tl    of  his  vasssl'j 

heir  to  the  lands  held  by  the  d  i         al  d      th       an 

of  the  precept, 

Clare  Island,   at  the  ent  t     CI  w  B  >         m 

of  County  Mayo,  Ireland.     It  is  4j  mile^  long  and 
supports  a  lofty  lighthouse. 

Clar'enoieux,  one  of  the  three  kings-of-arms  0         H  rd 
College  of  England— Garter,  C,  and  Norro^.     T 
are  provincial,  and  C.  ranks  first.    His  jurisdiction  embraces  all 
England  S.  of  the  Trent,  and  his  duty  is  to  survey  all  the  coat- 
armour  within  his  province,  to  register  descents  and  marriages. 


and  to  marshal  the  funerals  of  all  his  subjects  who  are  not  under 
Garter  (q.  v.).  C.  also  grants  arms  within  his  province,  subject 
'"  the  approval  of  the  Earl  Marshal  (q.  v.). 

Cloi'endoii,  Oonetitntions  of,  is  the  name  given  to  the 
incordat  between  Church  and  state  in  England  diawn  up  at 
council  of  nobility  and  clergy  held  at  the  village  of  Clarendon, 
.Wiltshire,  in  1164,  in  the  reign  of  Heniy  IL  These  con- 
itutions  or  laws  were  sixteen  in  number,  and  their  main  object 
as  to  restrict  the  power  of  the  Church  in  England,  and  to  give  the 
■own  the  right  to  interfere  In  the  election  Co  all  vacant  offices 
.the  Ciiurch.  'Many  of  the  clauses,'  says  Mr  Green  (J^w^ 
History  of  the  English  People,  p.  103),  'were  simply  a  re-enact- 
lent  of  the  system  established  by  the  Conqueror.  This  is  no 
oubt  true,  but  it  is  impossible  to  doubt  that  the  sharp  separa- 
on  between  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  jurisdictions  introduced 
ito  England  by  William  was  llie  real  cause  of  the  conflict  be- 
ween  the  two.  Although  the  primate,  Thomas  Becket,  signed 
them,  they  were  rejected  by  the  Pope  of  the  period,  Alexander 
III,,  and  Becket  himself  vehemently  retracted  his  consent.  This 
led  to  his  assassination,  and  subsequently  to  the  penance  of 
Henry  II.;  but  in  spite  of  the  latter  event,  the  C.  of  C. 
remained  on  the  statute-book,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  germ 
of  the  ecclesiasrical  revolution  accomphshed  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.  In  Professor  Slnbbs's  Select  Charles  illustrative 
of  English  Constitutional  History,  the  reader  will  find  (pp.  137- 
140)  the  C.  of  C,  'in  ijrobably  the  exact  form  in  which  they 
were  reported  to  the  King,  and  confirmed  by  the  bishops  and 

Clarendon,  Edward  Hyde,  Earl  of,  an  English  politician 
and  historian,  was  the  son  of  a  private  gentleman,  and  was  bom 
at  Dinton,  in  the  county  of  Wilts,  i8th  February  1608,  He 
studied  first  at  Oxford  and  then  at  the  Middle  Temple.  Enter- 
ing Pariiament  in  1640  as  member  for  Wotton  Ba^tt,  he  took 
the  side  of  those  who  insisted  on  a  redress  of  grievances,  but  was 
at  no  time  a  Puritan — always  strenuously  upholding  the  cause 
both  of  the  Church  and  the  crown.  When  the  civil  war  broke 
out,  he  left  the  House,  joined  the  King  at  York,  was  made 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  and  received  the  honour  of  knight- 
hood. When  fortune  deserted  the  royal"  cause,  he  accompanied 
Prince  Charles  to  Jersey,  where  he  began  to  vrate  his  History  of 
the  Rebellion.  Called  to  Paris  in  164S,  he  was  sent  to  Spain  in 
the  fijllowing  year  to  solicit  help  from  the  Spanish  court,  but 
returned  without  success  in  1651.  He  then  went  to  Antwerp ; 
was  made  '  High  Chancellor  of  England '  in  1657  by  his  exiled 
monarch,  and  was  confirmed  in  the  of&ce  at  the  Restoration. 
He  was  also  created  Baren  Hyde,  and  subseijuently  Viscount 
Combury  and  Earl  of  C,  and,  in  fact,  was  for  a  time  Premier. 
Court  intrigues,  however,  and  popular  indignation  at  the  failure 
of  the  war  with  Holland  and  the  selling  of  Dunkirk  to  France, 
brought  about  his  fidi ;  he  vras  deprived  of  his  employments 
(1667),  and  retired  to  France.  He  died  at  Rouen,  glh  December 
1674.  He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  C.  was  a  well- 
intentioned  and  virtuous  man,  and  an  honest  and  moderate  poH- 
tician,  though  lacking  in  firmness  of  purpose.  His  History, 
marred  though  it  is  by  numerous  inaccuracies  and  prejudices- 
one  may  even  go  fiirther,  and  say,  with  deliberate  perversions  of 
fact — is  still,  from  a  literary  point  of  view,  an  admirable  work. 
Its  'portraits'  are  superbly  executed,  even  when  the  likeness  is 
not  true.  C.  wrote  several  other  works,  of  which  the  most  in- 
teresting is  an  account  of  his  own  life.  His  slate  papers  have 
been  published  in  three  folio  volumes.  C.'s  daughter,  Anne 
Hyde,  married  the  Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  11.,  and 
was  the  mother  of  Queens  Mary  and  Anne.  His  son,  Henry, 
Earl  of  C.  (1638- 1 709),  was  for  a  time  Lord- Lieutenant  of  Ireland 
under  James  II.,  and  wrote  i.  History  of  the  Irish  Rebellion.  His 
ta  rs  and  diry  pblhd        Gfd'2  vols., 

CarndnC      gWilamEred       kVllirs,Earl 
m  orn   I2th 

J  es  Villiers, 

m  E  he  Hyde 

m        E  him  From  early 

as  be  be   g      po      d  ambas- 

sador at  Madrid  m  the  year  1833,  in  which  office  he  helped  to 
establish   the    Spanish  Government  on    a   constitutional  basis. 
Succeeding  to  the  earldom  on  the  death  of  his  uncle  C1838), 
165 


vLiOOQle 


THM  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


he  took  his  place  in  the  House  of  Peers  as  a  Whig,  and       _ 

Sorted  Sit  Robert  Peel  in  his  free-ttade  policy.  After  being 
leeper  of  the  Great  Seal,  he  was,  under  Lord  Russell's  pre- 
miership in  1846,  made  first  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade, 
and  subseqnently  Lord- Lieutenant  of  Ireland.  The  ability  and 
fiimness  with  which  he  put  down  the  Irish  rebellions  of  the 
time  earned  him  the  gratitude  of  his  countiy.  In  the  subsequent 
Liberal  administrations  of  Lord  Aberdeen,  Lord  Palmerston,  and 
Mr  Gladstone,  C.  held  the  office  of  Foreign  Secretary,  and  few 
British  statesmen  have  been  more  respected  on  the  Contii 
He  died  June  1870. 

Olar'et.  The  red  varieties  of  French  wines  imported  jntc 
country  pass  under  the  general  name  of  C.  They  vary  extremely 
in  their  qualities  and  value,  the  bulk  being  cheap  light  wines. 
Others,  such  as  Chateau  Lafitte,  are  of  a  very  high  class,  and  held 
in  great  repute. 

Olariflcft'tion,  the  process  of  removing  suspended  m: 
from  liquids,  accomplished  either  by  filtration,  by  allowing  the 
matter  to  deposit,  or  by  adding  albumen  or  a  similar  substance, 
whereby  the  suspended  body  is  mechanically  dragged  down.  It 
is  a  process  of  great  importance  in  many  departments  of  n 
facturing  chemistry. 

Clat'inet,  or  Clar'jonet,  a  wooden  reed  instrument  which 
occupies  the  place  in  military  bands  that  the  violin  hi 
orchestras.    The  peculiar  quality  of  its  tone  is  caused  both  by 
s  shape,  and  \>y  the  nature  of  the  reed  through  which — held 

etween  the  pertormer's  lips — the  air  is  blown  into  it     Its  i 

^  ass  is  about  three  octaves,  but  as  it  cannot  be  played 
veniently  in  keys  very  distant  from  its  natural  key,  each  per- 


vatied  keys  of  orchestral 
clarionets  are  often  used,  and 
and  conlra-bass  C. 

Olar'ion,  a  form  of  trumpet  of  high  pitch,  not  now  used, 
is  also  the  name  of  a  four-feet  reed  organ-stop. 

Clark,  Sir  James,  ]U.I).,  B^ft.,  a  British  physician,  w 
born  at  Cullen,  Banffshire,  Decembei'  14,  1788.  Educat. 
at  the  grammar-school  of  Fordyce  and  at  King's  College, 
Aberdeen,  he  studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh  and  London, 
held  for  some  years  the  position  of  navy  surgeon,  took  the 
legree  of  M.D.  at  Edinburgh  in  1B17,  and  after  travelling 
in  the  Continent,  and  practising  as  a  physician  for  eight  years 
a  Rome,  he  settled  in  London  in  1 826.  He  soon  acquired  a 
high  I'eputation,  became  physician  to  the  Duchess  of  Kent,  and, 
sion  of  Queen  Victoria,  her  physician  in  ordinary. 
le  a  baronet  in  183S,  He  died  Jane  29,  1870. 
Among  his  many  contributions  to  medical  science  deserving  of 
notice  is  his  Treatise  on  PtUininmiy  Comumplien,  which  he  con- 
sidered might  be  arrested  by  proper  regulation  of  food,  pir,  and 
exercise.  He  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  the  study,  at  an  early 
age,  of  the  laws  of  health, 

Clarke,  Adam,  a  Wesleyan  divine,  was  born  at  Ma^era- 
felt,  in  the  N,  of  Ireland,  m  1760.  He  became  a  'circuit' 
preacher  in  Wiltshh'e  in  1782,  but  settled  in  London  in  1S05  j 
was  appointed  a  sub-commissioner  of  the  public  records  in 
1807,  and,  after  a  laborious  literary  life,  died  at  Bayswater,  26th 
August  1832.  Tlie  chief  fruits  of  his  studies  are  his  .ffio^™*^o/ 
Dictionary,  published  in  1802,  and  his  edition  of  the  Bible  in 
English  (8  vols.  1810-26),  illustrated  with  a  commentary  and 
critical  notes.  For  his  attainments  in  Oriental  literature  and  bib- 
lical knowledge,  the  University  of  St  Andrews  conferred  upon 
him  the  degree  of  LL.D. 

Clarke,  Edward  Daniel,  a  traveller  and  savant,  was  born 
in  1769  at  Willingdon  in  Sussex,  He  studied  at  Jesus  College, 
Cambridge,  and  acted  as  travelling  tutor  and  companion  to  a 
number  of  noblemen  and  gentlemen,  including  Mr  Hill  (after- 
'ards  Lord  Berwick)  and  Mr  Cripps.  His  tour  with  the  latter 
lasted  from  1799  to  1802,  and  embraced  the  whole  of  Scandi- 
navia, Russia,  Circassia,  Turkey,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Palestine, 
Egypt,  and  Greece.  His  travels  were  a  source  of  great  profit  to 
irersity  and  to  his  country.  For  the  library  of  the  former 
ired  a  number  of  raluable  marbles  and  MSS.,  and  the 
colossal  statue  of  the  Eleusinian  Ceres ;  and  for  the  latter  the 
celebrated  sarcophagus  of  Alexander,  now  in  the  Erilish  Mu- 


seum, and  upon  whicli  he  published  a  dissertation,  Cambridge 
University  conferred  upon  C,  who  had  been  instituted  to  the 
rectory  of  Harlton,  the  degree  of  LL.D,,  and  a  professorship  of 
mineralogy  was  in  1808  created  for  him.  His  Trmids,  published 
during  his  life  in  5  vols.  (1810-19),  and  after  his  death  in  it 
(1819-24),  were  received  with  much  favour,  and  his  experiments 
with  the  oxyhydrogen  blowpipe,  have  been  productive  of  valu- 
able scientific  results.  After  his  death,  whicli  took  place  Mardi 
9,  1822,  his  university  purchased  his  Greek  and  Oriental  MSS,, 
including  a  Codex  of  Plato,  discovered  by  him  in  the  island 
of  Patmos. 

Clarke,  I>r  Sanauel,  a  distinguished  scholar,  philosopher, 
and  theologian,  was  the  son  of  an  alderman  at  Norwich,  where 
he  was  born,  October  11,  1675.  Educated  at  Caius  College, 
Cambridge,  he  there  pursued  with  special  zeal  philosophical 
studies,  and  became  an  adherent  of  the  system  of  Newlon,  C, 
filled  various  posts  in  the  Church,  and  was  ultimately  made  one 
of  Queen  Anne's  chaplains  and  rector  of  St  James's.  Although 
his  views  on  the  Trinity  (in  his  Scripture  Dxtrine  of  the  Trinity; 
1713)  were  considered  semi-Arian,  and  censured  by  Convoca- 
tion, he  was  a  keen  assailant  of  the  free-thinkers  of  his  lime, 
and  among  the  best-known  of  his  works  is  his  Demanstratian  of 
the  Being  and  Attributes  of  God  (Boyle  Lecture,  1704),  The  basis 
of  bis  ethical  system  is  the  famous  '  eternal  fitness  of  things,'  or 
the  relations  of  things  established  from  eternity  by  God,  Among 
tlie  proofe  of  his  scholarship  are  his  editions  of  C^sar  (1712) 
and  of  Homer  (1729-32),  the  latter  of  which  was  finished  by  his 
son.  C.  was  offered  the  mastership  of  the  Mint  on  the  dealh 
of  his  friend  Newton,  but  declined  it.  He  died  May  17,  1729. 
C.  was  a  man  of  amiable  disposition  and  irreproachable  diar- 
acter.  A  collected  edition  of  his  philosophical  works,  among 
the  most  interesting  of  which  are  his  letters  to  Leibnitz  on  Space 
and  Time,  was  published  in  4  vols.  1738-42. 

Clarkson,  Tliomao,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  English 
philanthropists,  was  born  at  Wisheach,  Cambriifceshire,  March 
28,  1760,  and  studied  at  St  John's  College,  Cambridge.  He  is 
said  to  h^ve  been  led  mto  the  agitation  against  slavery  in  Africa 
by  writing  a  prize-essay  on  the  question  '  Is  it  right  to  inake  slaves 
of  others  agamst  their  will  ? '  After  this  he  became  the  leader 
in,  and  devoted  himself  to,  the  agitation,  secured  the  co-operation 
in  Parliament  of  Wilberforce,  wrote  pamphlets  innumerable  on 
the  subject,  and,  after  the  bill  for  suppressing  the  slave  trade 
was  passed  in  1807,  wrote  a  history  of  it  (2  vols.  1808).  C. 
lived  to  see  tije  abolition  of  slavery  in  tlie  W.  Indies  in  1833. 
He  died  September  26,  1S46,  having  spent  the  last  years  of  his 
life  in  promotmg  various  iJenevolent  schemes.  See  Thomas 
'Talyor's  Biographical  Sketch  of  T.  C.  in  the  Gentleman's  Maga- 

Clajy  {Salvia  sclarea),  a  pknt,  a  native  of  Italy  and  the  S.  of 
Europe  generally,  but  long  cultivated  in  our  gardens  for  the  sake 
of  its  aromatic  and  medicinal  properties.  It  is  antispasmodic 
and  stimulant,  and  is  used  for  flavouring  soups  and  confectionery 
with  its  characteristic  odour  of  the  balsam  of  Tola.  Its  flowers 
are  used  in  making  a  fermented  wine.  Wild  C.  is  a  name 
applied  to  Salvia  verienacea ;  Hormenium  C.  is  Salvia  Hor- 
meniuvi.     The  name  of  Wild  C.  is  also  applied  to  HeUotropiam 

Olaas'ics  The  name  f/<ii««  was  applied  to  the  highest  of 
the  sit  classes  into  nhich  Servius  TuUlus  divided  the  Roman 
citizens ,  and  hence  authors  of  pre-eminent  worth  have  been 
termed  clussu  authois;  thus  Aulus  Gellius  says — 'Classicus 
scnptor  non  prolet-u-ms."  At  the  Renaissance,  scholars,  struck 
with  the  superiority  of  Greek  and  Latin  to  contemporary  litera- 
ture distinguished  the  ancient  from  the  modem  writers  by  the 
woid  C,  but  this  restricted  signification  is  no  longer  maintained. 
The  Germans,  and  afterwards  the  French  and  English,  extended 
the  word  to  modem  as  well  as  ancient  writers  of  eminence;  and 
by  the  C.  of  a  nation  we  now  understand  its  leading  authors, 
whose  merits  have  been  sufficiently  proved  by  time  and  criticism 
to  assure  them  of  a  permanent  place  in  its  literature.  'I  call 
the  classic,'  says  Goethe,  '  the  healthy.  The  Nibelungen  is  as 
classic  as  the  Iliad,  for  both  are  healthy.  The  antique  is  classic, 
not  because  it  is  old,  but  because  it  is  strong,  fresh,  joyous,  imd 
healthy.'  The  word  is,  however,  still  used  in  the  narrower  sense 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin  authors  ;  a  classical  education  refers"  to 
the  study  of  Greek  and  Latin  writers  alone,  not  to  the  study  of 


4- 


yLaOogle 


CLA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


the  more  recent  authors  of  other  nations,  whose  beauties  of 
thought  and  form  liave  entitled  them  to  the  epithet  classic,  which 
was  formerl)'  monopolised  by  the  ancients,  as  almost  the  sole 
examples  of  established  fame  and  perfection  of  style  in  literature. 
'Classic 'and  'Romantic'  are  occasionally  used  to  distinguish 
Southern  Romantic  from  Northern  Teutonic  art ;  and  again  they 
are  frequently  opposed  in  regard  to  French  writers — 'Classic' 
being  applied  to  the  school  of  Kacine,  and  'Romantic'  to  that 
of  Hugo.  But  these  partisan  uses  of  the  word  ate  only  the  per- 
versions of  prejudice, 

Classifloft'tion  of  Animals.  Two  principles  may  be 
employed  in  classifying  animals.  One  of  these,  forming  the 
artijicial  method,  has  for  its  essential  feature  that  of  founding  its 
ctiEu^cters  upon  resemblances  between  animals  of  a  more  or  less 
exCemal  and  superficial  kind.  Thus  the  savage  employs  an  arti- 
ficial method  of  classilication  when  he  classifies  tt^ether  fishes 
and  whales  from  their  outward  appearance,  or  birds  and  bats 
because  both  fly.  Such  a  procedure  resembles  the  practice  of 
arranging  the  books  in  a  library  solely  by  their  outside  resem- 
blances or  styles  of  binding — a  method  this,  which  could  give  no 
one  any  reasonable  idea  of  the  true  nature  of  the  volumes,  any 
more  than  the  classification  of  the  savage  expresses  any  definite 
relation  between  the  animals  he  thus  classifies.  In  opposition 
to  this  artificia!  metliod,  which  characterised  the  earher  history 
of  loolc^,  we  have  the  natural  method.  By  means  of  this 
latter  we  group  tc^elher  only  animals  thai  are  like  in  the  details 
ofihdr  ttniclure,  and  this  method,  therefore,  is  the  expression 
of  a  tnie  structural  relationship  between  the  organisms  which  it 
brings  together.  It  is,  in  other  words,  a  convenient  expiession  of 
the  facts  and  laws  of  morpholi^y  and  pliysiology.  Tlie  whale 
would,  therefore,  in  this  classiBcation,  be  placed  annong  the 
mammals,  from  a  consideration  of  its  structure,  and  not  with 
the  fishes,  which  it  somewhat  resembles  in  outward  appearance. 
The  aniinal  kingdom  is  divided  through  the  consideration  of  the 
morphological  lyfie,  or  broad  features  of  structure,  into  five  or  sin 
sub-kingdoms,  which,  beginning  with  the  highest,  are  named 
respectively  Verlebrata  (q.  v.),  MoUusca  {q.  v.),  Attaulosa  (q.  v.), 
Annuleida  (q.  v.)  or  EcAinozaa  (q.  v.),  Cceltntemla  (q.  v.),  and 
Pmlowa  (q.  v. ).  Each  snb-kingdom  admits  of  division  into 
classes,  the  classes  are  divided  into  orda-s,  the  latter  mto  fiimilies 
and  gmera,  and  the  genera  into  species.     See  also  Species,  &c. 

Claude,  St,  a  town  in  the  department  of  Jura,  France,  ZS 
miles  S,  of  Lons-le-Saulnier,  at  tlie  confluence  of  the  Bieniie 
and  Tacon.  It  owes  its  origin  to  a  Benedictine  abliey,  founded 
here  in  the  Sth  c.  St  C.  has  tanneries,  potteries,  and  paper- 
works, and  manufactures  of  turnery-ware  on  a  large  scale,  con- 
sisting of  articles  in  ivory,  bone,  horn,  shell,  boxwood,  Ac 
Pop.  (1872)6085. 

Claude  Oelee,  usually  called  Claude  Iiorraine,  was  bom 
of  humble  parentage  at  Champagne,  in  Lorraine,  in  1600,  went 
in  youth  to  Rome,  in  company  with  some  adventurers  of  his 
district,  and  entered  into  the  service  of  Tassi,  a  painter,  for  whom 
he  acted  as  cook,  groom,  and  colourman,  and  by  whom  he  was 
taught  the  principles  of  art.  He  was  an  earnest  and  conscien- 
tious student  of  nature,  and  delighted  In  observing  the  varying 
phases  of  light  and  colour  under  which  the  same  view  presents 
itself  at  different  seasons,  This  constant  habit,  together  with  his 
Tinwearying  practice  at  the  easel,  raised  him  to  the  highest  rank 
as  a  landscape  painter.  He  settled  finally  at  Rome  in  1627, 
painted  assiduously,  and,  after  enjoying  the  patronage  of  Popes 
Urban  Vin.,  Clement  IX.,  and  Alexander  VII.,  died  at  Rome,  , 
167S.  C.'s  works  are  to  be  found  in  every  great  gallery  in 
Europe,  England  is  particularly  rich  in  specimens — Dc  Waagen 
counting  fifty-four  in  all.  The  picture  which  C.  himself  consi- 
dered his  best  is  the  '  Villa  Madama.'  Four  exquisite  pieces, 
'Morning,'  'Noon,'  'Evening,' and  'Twilight,'  are' in  the  St 
Petersburg  Gallery.  C.'s  landscapes  combine  beauty  of  scene 
with  truth  in  the  highest  degree.  No  painter  has  rendered  the 
foliage  of  trees,  and  the  character  of  their  different  species,  with 
greater  fidelity  combined  with  high  picturesque  effect.  It  was 
the  wish  of  Turner  to  be  considered  his  rival,  and  the  greatest  of 
English  landscape-painters  presented  one  of  his  finest  works 
to  the  English  nation  on  the  condition  that  it  should  hang  in 
the  National  Gallery  side  by  side  with  one  of  the  acknow- 
ledged masterpieces  of  the  greatest  landscape-painter  born  in 


Claudia'nus,  Ola'uflius,  born  at  Alexandria,  flourished  at 
the  close  of  the  4th  c.  and  the  commencement  of  the  5th.  He 
wrote  at  first  in  Greek,  but  the  success  of  his  panegyric  on  the 
consulate  of  Probinus  and  Olybrius  in  Latin  verse  induced  hiii 
to  abandon  the  language  in  which  he  had  been  educated.  Ci 
extant  works  consists  chiefly  of  idylls  and  epigrams,  and  of  pane 
gytics  on  the  Emperor  Honorius  and  his  powerful  minislei 
Stilicho,  the  patron  of  C,  and  'the  perpetual  theme'  of  hii 
verse  and  of  invectives  against  their  enemies.  The  most  import 
tant  of  his  works  is  the  veiy  fragmentaiy  epic  poem  the  Rape  of 
Prgserpine.  C.'s  poetry  is  characterised  by  an  'absolute  command 
of  the  Latin  language,'  splendid  powers  of  description,  and  a 
brilliant,  if  somewhat  ill-regulated,  fancy.  There  are  editions 
of  C.  by  Heinsius  (Leyd,  1650,  1665),  Burmann  (Amsl,  1760), 
Gessner  (Leips.  1759),  and  Douilay  (Par.  1S36), 

Glau'diuB  I.,  more  fully  Tibe'riua  Glau'dius  Dru'sus 
Nero,  Roman  Emperor,  was  bom,  August  I,  B.C.  lo,  at  Lyons, 
in  Gaul,  He  was  the  son  of  Dmsus,  step-son  of  Augustus,  and 
succeeded  to  the  purple  on  the  murder  of  his  uncle  Caligula,  in 
A.s.  41.  C.  in  early  life  suffered  much  ill-treatment  and  neglect, 
being  considered  by  his  family  little  better  than  an  imbecile. 
His  natural  stupidity,  however,  was  strangely  combined  with  an 
e^er  desire  for  knowledge,  which  led  him  to  study  with  secret 
industry  both  science  and  literature;  but  his  cowardice  and 
weakness  of  character  unfitted  him  for  a  public  career.  He  was 
fifty  years  of  age  when  proclaimed  Emperor  by  the  Prtetorian 
Guards,  who  found  him  luding  in  terror  in  a  corner  of  the  palace. 
Though  he  set  an  evil  precedent  by  granting  a  donation  to  the 
Prietorians,  C.  began  his  reign  with  a  just  and  moderate  policy, 
but  speedily  fell  under  the  dominion  of  others,  who  abused  the 
imperial  power.  He  was  uxorious  and  fond  of  favourites ;  so 
that  his  wife  Messalina,  and  his  freedmen  Narcissus  and  Pallas, 
found  it  easy  to  govern  or  plunder  and  toiture  in  his  name. 
The  union  of  C.  with  his  niece  Agrippina,  after  the  execution  of 
his  former  consort  (48  A.D,),  was  not  more  fortunate;  for, having 

Eersuaded  him  to  adopt  her  son  Nero,  she  afterwards  poisoned 
im  (54  A.r.)  in  order  to  secure  the  succession.  C.  was  endowed 
with  abilities  which  might  have  gained  him  eminence  in  an 
obscurer  sphere ;  he  composed  several  historical  worlts,  among 
them  a  Histmy  of  Etrm-ia.  The  wars  of  his  reign  were,  on  tlie 
whole,  victorious,  C.  himself  undertook  an  expedition  to  Bri- 
tain, and  Mauritania  was  made  a  Roman  province.  Several 
public  works,  on  a  large  scale  and  of  great  utility,  were  executed 
by  C.  Among  these  were  the  Aqna  Claudia,  the  vast  aqueduct 
which  supplied  Rome  with  water  all  through  the  middle  ages  ; 
the  port  of  Ostia,  and  the  canal  between  Lake  Fucinus  and  the 

Clause  of  a  Deed  is,  in  law,  one  of  its  subdivisions. 

Clause  of  Pre-eniplion,  in  Scotch  law,  is  a  clause  sometimes 
inserted  in  a  feu-right,  stipulating  that  the  vassal  shall  not  sell 
the  lands  without  first  offering  lliem  to  the  superior,  or  that  the 
superior  shall  have  the  lands  at  a  certain  price  fixed  in  the  clause, 

Clause  of  Desclutioa,  in  a  Scotch  deed,  is  a  clause  devolving 
some  ofiice  or  duty  on  some  one  on  a  stated  event 

Clause  of  Return,  in  a  Scotch  deed,  is  a  clause  by  which  the 
granter  of  a  right  niakes  a  particular  destination  of  it,  and  pro- 
vides that  in  a  certain  event  it  shall  return  to  himself 

Clauses,  Irritant  and  Resolutive,  in  a  Scotch  deed.  These  are  two 
clauses  which  limit  the  right  of  an  otherwise  absolute  proprietor, 
and  which  make  the  conditions  imposed— without  these  clauses 
only  a  personal  obligation — effective  against  creditors  and  singular 
successors.    See  Singular  Succsssok. 

Claua'el,  Ber'trand,  a  French  marslial,  was  the  son  of 
Jean-Bapliste  C,  a  French  Revolutionist  of  some  mark,  and 
was  born  at  Mirepoix,  in  the  department  of  the  Allege,  12th 
December  1772.  Entering  the  army  at  an  early  age,  he  distin- 
guished himself  in  Holland,  Italy,  Austria,  and  Spain.  After 
the  defeat  of  Marmont  at  Salamanca,  July  22,  181 2,  he  obtained 
the  command  of  the  French  army,  and  conducted  its  retreat  into 
Portugal  with  much  ability.  On  the  restoration  of  the  Bour- 
bons C.  was  declared  a  traitor,  and  even  condemned  lo  death, 
but  he  was  ultimately  allowed  to  return  from  America,  whither 
he  had  escaped.  In  1830  he  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  an  expedition  to  Algiers,  and  being  successful,  was  made  a 
marshal  of  Fi'ance.  In  1S35  he  was  appointed  governor-general 
of  Algeria,  but  being  blamed  for  the  disasters  that  befell  the 
167 


vLiOOQle 


CLA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CLA 


Preiich  army  under  the  wnUs  of  Constantine   in  the  following 
year,  he  vetumed  to  France.      C.  died  at  Secourrieu  (Haute 
Garonne),  21st  April  1842. 
Claus'enburg.     See  Klausenburg. 
Claua'thal.  See  Klausthal. 

Clavagell'a,  or  Olubsliell,  a  genus  of  Lamellibranchiate 
mollusca,  belonging  to  the  family  Gasirochanidis.  The  shell  in 
C.  is  club-shaped  and  oblong,  and  one  of  the  valves  or  halves 
of  the  shell  is  free,  whilst  the  other  is  attached  to  an  elongated 
tube,  frequently  divided  by  a  longitudinal  partition.  This  tube 
terminates  like  that  of  Aspei^Uum  (q.  v.),  or  the  '  Watering, 
pot  Shell,'  which  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  C  C.  aferta 
and  C.  lata  are  familiar  species.  C.  cretoiia  occurs  as  a  fossil  in 
the  Chalk  rocks,  and  the  genus  commences  in  a  fossil  state  in  the 
Upper  Greensand.  Several  living  species  exist  as  above  named. 
OJav'icliord,  or  ClaVecin,  one  of  the  older  forms  of  the 
piano,  used  frequently  until  about  a  century  ago.  Its  strings  were 
struck  by  pins  attached  to  the  ends  of  the  keys,  and  were  damped 
by  pieces  of  cloth  so  as  to  produce  a  very  soft  sound. 

Clav'iole.  This  is  a  bone  familiarly  knoivn  as  the  collar-bone. 
It  passes  from  the  summit  of  the  breastbone,  or  sternum,  to  the 
acromion  process  of  the  scapula,  and  it  connects  the  superior 
extremity  with  the  trunk.  It  has  a  curved  form,  somewhat  like 
the  italic/.  To  it  are  attached  various  muscles  of  the  nedt, 
trunk,  and  arms,  and  it  acts  as  a  fulcrum  for  the  action  of 
these  muscles.  It  is  absent  in  all  pachydemiata,  ruminants,  and 
solidongula,  because  in  these  animals  there  is  no  lateral  move- 
ment of  the  fore  extremity.  In  birds  the  two  clavicles  are  very 
large,  and  unite  to  form  a  single  bone  known  as  the  forculum,  or 
'merry-thought.'  TTiis  arrangement  in  birds  is  probably  for 
preventing  the  powerful  pectoral  muscles  from  approximating 
the  shoulders.  The  C.  is  the  first  bone  in  the  body  to  ossify. 
The  first  ossific  nucleus  makes  its  appearance  about  the  sixth 
week.  Two  other  nuclei  make  their  appearance;  that  of  the 
sternal  end  joins  the  body  of  the  bone  from  the  i8th  to  the  25th 
year.     See  SKELETON, 

Dklocatiims  b/  Clavicle.-— '^ii)izt  end  of  the  C.  may  be  dislo- 
cated. Sui^eons  describe  three  dislocations  of  the  liemal  end  of 
this  'bone— Jbnilart/s,  upwards,  and  iachvards — according  to  the 
position  of  the  displaced  end.  Of  these  three,  the  dislocation 
fsrwards,  though  a  rare  injury,  is  the  most  common.  It  is  the 
result  of  violence,  generally  cansed  by  a  fall  or  blows  on  the 
shoulder.  Tliis  didocation  is  easily  recognised  by  feeling  the 
displaced  end  of  the  bone  projecting  in  front  of  the  upper  part 
of  (he  Sternum  (q.  v.).  There  is  also  depression  of  the  shoulder. 
Reduction  is  effected  by  moving  the  shoulder  upwards  and  back- 
wards, and  using  pressure  on  the  displaced  end  of  the  C  As 
some  difficulty  is  generally  experienced  in  retaining  the  bone  in 
position,  the  advice  of  a  surgeon  should  always  be  sought 

The  dislocation  a/naards  is  very  rare.  It  is  easily  recognised 
by  the  end  of  the  bone  being  felt  to  be  elevated  into  the  nedi,  with 
depression  of  the  shoulder.  Reduction  is  effected  in  much  the 
same  way  as  in  the  previous  case,  and  the  limb  is  retained  in 
position  by  a  pad  and  bandage. 

The  dislocation  backwards  is  very  rare,  and  is  generally  caused 
by  direct  violence  lo  the  parts.  It  has  also  been  caused  by  cur- 
vature of  the  spine.  When  due  to  this  latter  cause,  little  relief 
can  be  obtained.  In  this  dislocation  the  shoulder  is  elevated, 
and  there  is  generally  more  or  less  interference  with  the  circulation 
and  respiration,  on  account  ot  the  displaced  end  of  the  bone 
pressing  on  the  nerves  and  blood-vessels  of  the  neck.  After 
reduction  it  is  necessary  lo  keep  the  shoulder  removed  from  the 
side,  which  is  best  accomplished  by  placing  a  pad  in  the  ai 
pit,  and  binding  the  elbow  towards  the  side. 

When  the  acromial  end  of  the  C.  is  displaced  [whicli  is  1 


result  of  a  fall  on  the  shoulder.  This  dislocation  is  easily  recog- 
nised by  the  end  of  the  C.  being  felt  to  be  projecting  upwards 
whilst  the  shoulder  is  depressed.  The  bone  is  easily  repkced,  but 
some  little  care  is  necessary  afterwards  to  retain  it  in  position. 

Fracture  of  Ctavicli. — Fracture  of  the  C.  is  much  more  frequent 
than  d^ocation.  It  is  generally  due  to  violence  ;  the  fracture  is 
oblique,  and  occurs  most  frequently  near  the  middle  of  t!ie  bone. 
Tlie  shoulder  is  depressed  and  drawn  forwards.  By  moving 
the  arm,  pain  is  elicited,  and  crejiitus  felt  at  the  seat  of  injury. 
168 


The  outer  portion  of  tlie  C.  is  dragged  downwards  by  the  weight 
of  the  arm — causing  the  inner  or  sternal  end  to  appear  Very 
prominent.  This  fact  has  frequently  caused  the  ignorant  to  mis- 
take which  end  of  the  broken  C.  was  displaced.  The  treatment 
consists  in  raising  the  shoulder,  and  keeping  it  removed  outwards 
by  a  pad  in  the  armpit  or  other  appliance,  and  retaining  it  in 
that  position  by  means  of  bandages. 

Clavieor'nes,  the  name  given  to  a  tribe  of  Coleofitera  or 
Beetles,  distinguished  by  the  clnbbed  tips  of  their  antenwe  or 
feelers,  which  exceed  the  palpi  of  the  maiills  (or  lesser  pair  ot 
jaws)  in  length.  Of  this  group  the  Burying  Beetles  (q.  v.  J  form 
typical  examples,  and  the  genus  Da-mesks,  or  Bacon  Beetles, 
also  present  a  familiar  group. 

Olavig'eto,  Francesco  Saverio,  a  historian  of  Mexico, 
was  bom  about  1720,  and  sent  by  tlie  Jesuits  as  a  missionary  to 
the  Mexican  Indians,  among  whom  he  laboured  for  Ihirty-six 
years.  While  thus  engaged,  he  collected  materials  for  the  his- 
tory of  the  country,  both  before  and  after  its  conquest  by  the 
Spaniards.  On  the  suppression  of  his  order  in  1767,  he  with- 
drew to  Cesena,  in  Italy,  where,  in  1780-81,  he  published  the 
fruit  of  his  researches,  under  the  title  of  Steria  antica  ddMessitc, 
cavsia  da'  miglicri  slerici  Spagniioli,  e  da'  manuscritti  e  pitture 
antiche  degli  IndiatU,  tmnslated  into  English  by  C.  Cullen  (2 
vols.  Lond.  1687).     C.  died  at  Cesana,  October  1793. 

Olavija,  a  genus  of  Myrdnaceciis  plants,  of  tropical  S. 
America,  named  in  honour  of  J.  Clavijo  Faxardo,  a  Spanish 
botanist.  The  fruits  of  some  of  them  are  eatable,  and  the  roots 
of  others  are  emetic. 

Clay  (Old  Eng.  clag,  the  '  g '  is  still  retained  in  the  Lowland 
Sc  '  clag '  and  '  claggj" '),  a  natural  earthy  compoimd,  in  a  state 
of  minute  division,  which  with  water  acquires  plasticity,  and  may 
be  kneaded  or  moulded  into  a  particular  form,  and  hardened  by 
heat.  Typical  or  pure  C.  is  composed  of  silica,  alumina,  and 
water,  forming,  in  chemical  langnage,  a  hydrous-silicate  of  alu- 
mina ;  but  as  natural  clays  are  the  result  of  the  disintegration  of 
primary  rocks,  they  are  never  absolutely  free  from  the  admixture 
of  other  substances,  such  as  lime,  sand,  magnesia,  mica,  and 
oxide  of  iron.  The  impurities  give  different  colours  to  the  nume- 
rous varieties  of  C.,  and  so  it  occurs  of  all  shades,  from  white, 
when  nearly  pure,  to  grey,  red,  blue,  brown,  and  even  deep 
black,  from  (he  presence  of  carbon.  The  purest  clays  are  the 
most  plastic,  and  as  they  bum  white  m  the  kiln,  they  are  highly 
valued  for  tlie  manufacture  of  fine  earthenware,  and  are  known 
by  the  names  of  Kaolin  or  China-C.,  Pottec's-C.,  and  PipcC. 
(q.  v.).  Fue-Clays  (q.  v.),  of  which  Stourbridgs  C.  is  the  most 
famous,  contain  much  silica,  and  are  very  infusible.  Common 
C.  or  loam  is  abundantly  distributed  over  the  earth's  surface, 
and  is  largely  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  bricks,  tiles,  and 
coarse  earthenware,  which  assume  a  red  colour  on  firing,  because 
of  the  oxide  of  iron  present  in  the  C.  Brick-C.  should  contain 
much  sand  and  little  potash,  soda,  lime,  or  iron  ;  indeed,  any  C. 
that  is  to  be  exposed  to  a  high  temperature  should  be  almost  free 
from  the  alkaline  earths,  as  they  give  fusibility.  C.  constitutes  an 
important  part  of  all  fertile  soils,  and  possesses  the  highest  agri- 
cuhural  value  on  account  of  its  absorbent  action  on  moisture, 
ammonia,  and  other  fertilising  agents,  A  C.  soil  is  difficult  to 
work  ;  still  the  excellence  and  luxuriance  of  the  crops  which  it 
produces  amply  repays  the  extra  labour  entailed, 

Olay,  Oaasias  ffiarcellus,  aSonthem  abolitionist,  was  bom 
in  Kentucky,  19th  October  1810,  and  graduated  at  Yale  College 
in  1832.  He  early  entered  the  field  of  politics,  and  gained  much 
&lat  by  taking  what  in  his  state  was  the  unpopular  side  of '  aboli- 
tionism,' and  displaying  ui  his  speeches  considerable  audacity.  He 
supported  Mr  Lincoln,  and  was  sent  as  U.S.  minister  to  Russia  in 
1862,  where  he  remained.     Since  his  return,  he  has  not  taken  a 

firominent  ptirt  in  polilics.  A  volume  of  his  Speeches  was  pub- 
ished  in  1848.  C.  has  more  than  once  permitted  himself  to  use 
language  regarding  England  which  all  respectable  Americans 
would  probably  reprobate. 

Clay,  Henry,  an  eloquent  American  orator  and  statesman, 
was  bom  in- Hanover  county,  Virginia,  April  12,  I777-  He 
studied  law,  was  licensed  in  1797,  and  commenced  in  Lexington, 
Kentucky,  where  he  soon  gained  a  lucrative  practice.  In  1800 
he  was  elected  to  Congress,  and  in  181 1  was  chosen  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Representatives.  C.  strongly  repudiated  the  Bri' 
tish  claim  to  '  right  of  search'  at  sea,  advocated  the  war  of  1812, 


yLaOOgle 


OLA 


2-HE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


CLE 


and  was  sent  to  Client  in  l8l4a5U.S. 
treaty  of  peace.  On  his  return  he  espoused  the  cause  of  South 
American  independence,  and  also  introduced  what  he  called 
'  the  American  system,'  which  was  a  heavy  protective  tariff  to 
promote  home  manufactures.  C.  laboured  for  the  compromises 
with  slavery  in  1820  and  1S50,  and  was  three  tiroes  a  candidate 
for  the  presidency,  but  was  defeated  each  time  ;  yet  he  was  un- 
doubtecflyone  of  the  most  popular  leaders  that  America  ha.';  ever 
had.  He  died  at  Washington,  June  29,  1S52.  See  Colton's  i/L 
C,  Life,  Letlers,  and S^iach^s  (1857). 

Claymore' (Gael,  claidkiamk-mor;  lit,  'bigsword'),  aformid. 
able  weapon  used  by  the  Scottish  Highlander.  It  was  double' 
edged  and  two-handed  ;  the  length  of  its  blade  was  sometimes 
nearly  4  feel. 

Clazom'ense,  one  of  the  cities  of  Ionia,  on  the  S.  side  of  the 
Hermjean  Gulf  (mod.  Bay  of  Smyrna),  at  first  built  on  the  main- 
land, from  which  the  people,  through  fear  of  the  Persians, 
passed  over  to  an  adjacent  island,  which  Alexander  made  a 
peninsula  by  uniting  it  to  the  mainland.  Its  site  is  now  occu- 
pied by  Vurla, 

Olean'thee,  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Assos,  in  the  Troad, 
about  300  B.C.,  came  to  Athens  in  his  manhood,  and  received  In- 
struction from  Zeno  (or  fifteen  years.  Poverty  obliged  him  fo 
draw  water  for  a  gardener  during  the  night,  and  to  write  his  lec- 
ture-notes on  bits  of  potsherd  and  ox-bones.  He  nevertheless 
refused  the  proffered  gift  of  the  Areopagus  (10  mints).  Slow  in 
apprehen^on,  he  was  at  first  called  the  Ass,  but  latterly  the 
second  Hercules.  In  263  C.  succeeded  Zeno  in  the  Sios.  'ITiere 
he  taught  the  immorlality  of  the  soul,  varying  in  intensity  with 
the  soul's  life  here.  He  repeated  that  man's  duly  was  to  live 
harmoniously  with  universal  nature,  i.e.,  with  the  Divine  Reason, 
which  impresses  laws  upon  passive  matter.  In  metaphysics  he 
maintained  that  in  sense-perception  the  soul  was  affected  as  wax 
by  a  seal,  but  that  the  soul  cotild  distinguish  the  cataleptic  phan- 
tasm, or  true  perception,  from  the  acataleptic,  or  perception 
produced  by  dreams  Ov  insanity.  His  morality  resulted  in  the 
starvation  of  all  bodily  desires,  and  his  death  proves  his  con- 
sistent faith,  for  It  was  either  occasioned  or  accelerated  by  volun- 
tary abstinence  &om  food.  Only  a  few  fragments  of  C.  s  works 
(of  which  Diogenes  Laertius  gives  a  list)  have  reached  us — the 
finest  bemg  a  //yma  la  Zsus  preserved  in  Stobieus. 

Olear'anoe,  a  term  of  the  mercantile  marine,  denoting  the 
custom-house  or  emigration-office  licence  for  a  ship  to  leave 
the  port  All  dues  must  be  paid  and  all  proper  formalities  ob- 
served before  the  C.  can  be  got.  A  foreign  vessel  must  be  certi- 
fied by  the  consul  of  the  nation  to  which  she  belongs.  See  Bill 
OF  Lading,  Charter-Party. 

Clear,  Cape,  on  an  island     f  th  m     f    m    g  ^     t 

of  County  Cork,  is  the  extremestSW  p  t  fl  1  d  I 
lofty  headland,  400  feet  high  w  tl       1  gl  tl  d         I      g 

li^^ht  455  feet  above  the  sea. 

Clear  Days,  an  English  1  w  t    m      I        1  t  th 

several  steps  in  the  proeeedinoi,  hhmtbelk  wtl 
specified  number  of  C.  D.  I  k  g  h  th  d  y 
which  the  process  is  served      d  th    d  y     f  h        g  t 

counted. 

OleaiT'ing-House,  in  bank    g      F    m   ly  th    L     d      b 
kers  used  to  exchange  cheq  1         1  t    by      d    Ij 

meeting  of  their  clerks  at  o         f  th     b     k        B  t  775 

building,  now  called  the  C.  H  I      bard  St     t 

quired  for  the  purpose.     Th      rr    g  m    ts         d      ted  by 
committee  appointed  by  the  b    k       Th  tw    p   d  m 

gets  or  inspectors.  During  thdyeahh  t  rrati 
cheques  and  bills  which  it  receives  on  the  others,  and  keeps  a 
note  of  the  obligations  coming  against  itself.  Accounts  are 
closed  at  four  o'clock.  Three-quarters  of  an  hour  is  allowed  for  the 
banks  to  consider  drafts  upon  it,  and  to  decide  whether  they 
are  to  be  honoured.  Meanwhile  the  bills  and  cheques  have  been 
classified  at  the  C.-H.,  and  by  half-past  five  accounts  are  ad- 
justed, each  bank  paying  or  receiving  the  balance  due  by  or  to 
it.  The  payment  is  made  by  what  is  called  a  Transfer  Ticket. 
This  is  a  draft  on  the  Bank  of  England  signed  by  the  hank 
whose  account  is  settled  by  it  and  by  an  inspector  of  the  C.-H. 
When  ihe  balance  is  against  the  baijt  the  ticket  is  white,  when 


against  the  C.-H.  a  green  one  is  used.  Thus  tranaacdons  in- 
volving millions  of  poimds  are  settled  without  the  intervention 
of  a  sovereign  or  a  bank-note. 

Cleanng-House,  The  JiailTOiiy. — This  is  an  ingeniously  devised 
Institution  for  regulating  the  complicated  accounting  between 
the  r^lways  of  Great  Britain.  Plainly  the  equitable  adjustment 
of  the  expense  and  receipts  of  the  threugi  traffic  must  be  a  work 
of  much  labour  and  difficulty ;  nevertheless,  by  means  of  the 
staff  of  the  C.-H.,  these  tangled  accounts  are,  month  by  mon  ' 
unravelled  and  a  balance  slruok.  The  office  of  the  institut 
is  in  London,  near  the  Euslon  Station.  It  is  regulated  by  the 
'  Railway  Clearing  Act,  1850.'  There  is  a  similar  institution  in 
Ireland,  having  its  office  in  Dublin.  The  expenses  are  defrayed 
rateably  by  the  companies  forming  the  association ;  of  these, 
there  were  nmety-three  in  1873.  Officials  of  the  C.-H.  attend 
at  each  railway  jimction.  They  note  the  number  of  each  carriage, 
van,  waggon,  or  other  vehicle  which  quits  the  originai  line. 
They  also  take  a  note  of  damaged  stock.  They  make  weekly 
returns  to  headquarters ;  these,  with  the  collected  passenger 
tickets,  supply  dates,  which  form  the  basis  of  the  accounting. 
A  balance  due  by  one  nulway  to  another  on  passenger  or  stock 
traffic,  must  l>e  pdd  within  five  days  after  the  date  of  the  C.-H. 
advice.  Balances  arising  otherwise  are  payable  within  twenty- 
three  days.  Interest  on  over-due  balances  is  charged  at  the  rate 
of  7  per  cent,  per  annum.  Cases  of  disputed  liabilily  are  con- 
sidered and  decided  by  committees  of  duly  qualified  men. 

Clearmg-Ifut,  an  Indian  name  for  the  nut  of  Slrychnes 
potatorum,  a  plant  belonging  to  the  same  genus  as  that  which 
yields  Mix  Vomica  (q.  v.).  It  is  commonly  sold  in  the  Indiai 
bazaars  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  water.  If  the  seeds  an 
rubbed  on  the  inside  of  a  vessel,  muddy  water  put  into  it  sooi 
becomes  clear  by  the  deposition  of  impurities.  Their  efficacy 
is  due  'to  the  presence  of  albumen  and  casein,  which  act  as 
fining  agents,  in  a  similar  manner  to  analogous  agents  employed 
""  '  also  emetic,  but  devoid  of 


for  beer  and  n 


poise 

may  be  also  noted  that  this  is 

that  birds  eat  greedily  of  that  of  S.  Nux  Vomica,  which  yields 

strychnine  (Roxburgh). 

Clear-Story,  or  Clere-Story,  is  the  name  given  to  the  upper 
story  or  wall  of  a  church  immediately  above  the  roof  of  the  side 
aisle,  and  being  pierced  with  windows,  light  is  aijmitted  to  thi 
centre  aisle.  It  is  So  called  in  opposition  to  the  blind  story  o 
Triforjuro,  which,  opening  from  the  centre  aisle  into  the  space 
covered  in  by  the  roof  of  the  side  a 

darlc.     C, -S.  windows  are  tobefunm        B         asan 
all  the  various  periods  of  Gothic 
the  middle  of  the  14th  c.  they  were         ra       mal 
wide  apart     About  this  time  they    ej, 

y       t  th    masonry  b     g  mm 

t    t  w  th   t      gth.     A  narro       asaag 
h    tl    k  es      f  tl     wall  at  the  g 

d  tl       hur  h    th      giving  ace 

I  h         q       d   as  well  as  f 

CI      t  1  p  b     rd,    are  pr 

f         d        tl    t      pes  may  be  m 

Cleavag     th      ame  given  in  geologn-al  science  to  tiiat  ctn 

d  t  t         f  ock  particles,  in  virtue  of  which  a  rock  can  be 

re  d  ly   pi  t    p  int     h  n  lamins  or  plates,  independently  of  any 

g      I  1  m     t        {      division  Into  layers)  which  may  have 

1st  d       th         k        C.—' transverse'  or  'slaty  C.,'  as  it  is 

t    m  d — IS  best  se  day-slates,  but  also  occurs  in  sandstones 

t      s,     dm   ome  trap  rocks.    It  is  best  seen  in  purely- 


gra 


ks 


and  p  all  1  t  h  her.  Of  the  origin  of  C,  theories  of 
compression  are  those  most  in  vi^ue  to  explain  the  phenomena. 
Tyndall  has  shown  that,  if  clay  or  white  wax  be  subjected  to 
pressure,  allowing  of  expansion  in  directions  at  right  angles  to 
the  pressure,  slaty  C.  may  be  thus  produced  in  these  substances. 
This  '  C  of  slate  gives  to  that  deposit  valuable  features  in  ren- 
dering it  useful,  in  the  form  of  thin  plates,  for  many  industrial 
purposes.  C.  tends  to  alter  or  destroy  the  presence  of  fossils  in 
rocks,  and  its  action  is  therefore  to  he  taken  into  important 
account  by  the  palaeontologist. 

Oleav'ers,  or  CliVers  {Galium  Afari-ni),  a  species  of  Bed- 
straw  (q.  V.)  very  common  in  hedgerows  and  similar  situations  in 

169 


vLaOogle 


CLH 


THR  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Britain,  &c,,  so  called  from  clinging  to  clothing  coming  in  con- 
lad  with  the  ieaTes,  which  are  covered  with  reflexed  stiff-pointed 
hairs  or  biistlea.  At  one  time  it  was  believed  to  be  a  specific  in 
many  cutaneous  diseases,  but  its  efficacy  in  these  affections  has 
not  yet  been  fully  determined. 

def,  in  music,  a  sign  placed  upon  the  staff  to  indicate  the 
absolute  pitch  of  all  the  notes  upon  one  particular  line  or  space, 
and  thus  to  fix  indirectly  the  absolute  pitch  of  all  the  other  notes 
upon  the  same  staff.  Clefs  are  tised,  the  forms  of  which  are 
shown  below,  to  indicate  the  positions  of  G,  C,  and  F  respec- 
tively in  the  staff 


The  G  (or  soprano)  C.  is  in  modern  music  invariably  placed,  as 
in  the  figure,  upon  the  second  line ;  tlie  C  C.  is  generally,  but 
not  always,  upon  the  middle  line,  and  the  F  (or  bass)  C, 
always  upon  the  fourth  tine. 

Oleg,  a  popular  name  applied  to  some  Diptera  or  Flies  belong- 
ing to  the  family  TahanMa,  or  to  that  of  the  Breeze  and  Gad-flies. 
The  daysops  cmcutUns  is  the  English  'C.,'  which  averi^es 
one-third  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  is  coloured  black  with  yellow 
abdominal  markings.  The  eyes  are  large.  The  *  C  of  Scot- 
land, a  smaller  species,  is  the  Hamalopota  pltrmalis,  or  English 
'Stout.'  Tliese  flies  possess  a  mouth  adapted  for  piercing  the 
skin  of  animals,  and  annoy  horses,  cattle,  and  domestic  animals 
in  sun^pier  especially,  whilst  they  also  attack  man. 

Clem'atiB,  a  large  genus  of  twining  shrubs  belongmg  to  the 
natural  order  Ranuncalacm,  and  easily  distinguistad  by  the 
long  feathery  style  attadied  to  their  one-seeded  carpels.  There 
is  only  one  Etiglish  species,  C.  vitalba,  the  Virgin's  Bower, 
the  Traveller's  Joy,  or  the  Old  Man's  Beard.  C.  ftammula 
is  a  sweet-scented  species,  a  native  of  Southern  Europe  and 
Northern  Africa,  now  common  ul  our  gardens.  C.  florida  is 
accounted  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  species,  and  is 
that  which  remainslongest  in  bloom  ;  but  C  iraaj-ai,  C.  lanuginosa 
(a  fine  blue-flowered  Japanese  species),  and  C.  tnbulosa,  in  addi- 
tion to  numerous  hybrids,  such  as  C.  Jackmanni,  must  aiso  be 
classed  among  the  favourite  cultivated  species  of  C. 

Clem'ens,  Samael  Laosbome,  better  known  by  his  nowi- 
di'plCnis  of  '  Mark  Twain,'  an  American  humourist,  was  lx)m  in 
Florida,  Missouri,  U.S.,  November  30,  1835.  He  worked  first 
as  a  printer,  but  afterwards,  in  Nevada,  as  a  journalist,  when  he 
developed  a  fresh  phase  of  American  humour,  extravagant,  sur- 
pEising,  and  grotesque.  In  1867  C  published  The  Jumping 
Frog,  and  in  18G9,  as  the  results  of  his  travels  in  Egypt  and 
the  Holy  Land,  The  Innocetiis  Abroad,  an  amusing  travesty  of 
lofty  and  serious  lliin^— f^.,  in  his  weeping  over  the  tomb  of 
Adam,  his  blood^relation,  in  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 
His  olhef  works  are  his  Autobiography  (1871),  £oaghing  It 
(1872),  TheGadedAge{l%T^),\,y<Z.  and  Warner.  A  collection 
of  his  choice  humorous  works  was  published  in  I^ondon 
0875)- 

ClemeoB,  Titua  Flavins,  surnamed  AUxandrinus,  in  dis- 
tinction from  C.  Romatius,  a  philosopher  and  theologian  of  the 
2d  and  ^  centuries,  was  bom  either  at  Alexandria  or  Athens. 
Versed  ni  all  the  science  of  the  Greeks,  at  the  age  of  manhood 
he  convinced  himself,  by  free  inquiiy,  of  the  truth  of  Christi- 
anity. He  now  travelled  over  Greece,  Italy,  Egypt,  Palestine, 
and  the  East  in  search  of  instruction  from  the  great  eitpo- 
uents  of  the  new  religion  ;  but  the  only  one  whom  he  expressly 
names  is  Pant:enus,  the  catechist  or  head  of  the  Christian 
school  at  Alexandria.  C.  finally  settled  there,  succeeded  Pan- 
taaius  as  catechist  and  bishop  (?i8o),  and  died  between  212 
and  220.  His  pecuharity  was  that  he  did  not  cast  aside  his 
philosophy  when  he  became  a  Christian,  but  held  the  eclectic 
system  afterwards  called  Neo-Platonism,  and  always  sought  to 
illustmte  his  teaching  by  the  light  which  could  be  thrown  on 
the  doctrines  of  the  Church  from  heathen  antiquities,  Cs 
three  great  works  are  Thi  Exhortation  to  th^  Heathen,  Thf 
Instrtuior  or  Psdagogus,  and  the  Stromata  or  MisceUames.  The 
object  of  the  first  is  to  win  over  heathens  to  Christianity ;  of  the 
second,  to  build  up  converts  in  righteousness ;  of  the  third,  to 
170 


Clemens,  surnamed  Romanus,  and,  according  to  the  ancient 
Church,  the  fellow-labourer  of  Paul  (mentioned  Phil.  iv.  3),  was 
one  of  the  earliest  Bishops  of  Rome,  and  is  one  of  the  'Apostolic 
Fathers'  (q.  v.).  His  (First)  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  is  of  dog- 
matic importance  in  relation  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Resurrection. 
The  other  writings  attributed  to  him,  a  Second  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians,  Two  letters  on  Vir^nity,  the  Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions, the  Apostolic  Canons,  and  the  Clementines,  are  unques- 
tionably spurious.  The  two  Epistles  of  C.  fo  the  Corinthians 
were  found  at  the  end  of  the  Codex  Alexandrinus  (see  Alexan- 
DSIAN  Codex).  Both  were  defective ;  a  leaf  had  been  torn  out 
of  the  first,  and  the  end  of  the  second  was  wanting.  No  other 
MS,  of  these  was  known  to  exist  until  Philotheos  Eryennios, 
Metropolitan  of  Sertae  in  Macedonia,  discovered  one  in  the 
library  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Constantinople,  and  published 
an  edition  of  them  in  1875.  His  MS.  contains  both  of  the  Epis- 
tles in  a  complete  form. 

Caem'ent  is  the  name  of  seventeen  Popes,  of  whom  the  most 
notable  are — Clement  VII.  (Giulio  de  Medici),  who,  as 
cardinal  under  Popes  Leo  X.  and  Adrian  VI.,  had  devoted  him- 
self to  the  Spanish  cause  in  Naples  and  Milan.  On  his  elec- 
tion as  Pope  in  1523,  however,  C.  attempted  to  organise  a 
national  Italian  party  against  Karl  V.,  whose  increasmg  power 
he  dreaded.  This  led  to  the  capture  of  Rome  in  1527  by  'Bour- 
bon's black  banditti.'  The  growth  of  the  Reformation  after  the 
Diet  of  Spires  and  the  peace  of  Kadan  was  equally  alarming 
to  C,  who  sought  the  help  of  Francois  I.  and  Henry  VIII. 
He  died  in  1534,  having  by  a  secidar  policy  reduced  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Church  to  the  lowest  point.  He  founded  the 
'  Monte  della  Fede,'  or  system  of  public  credit,  in  which  the  cre- 
ditors were  associated  in  the  management  (do^nd).- — Clem,eiit 
Vin.  (Cardinal  Ippolito  Aldobrandini)  was  elected  20th  January 
1592.  Alihoagh  belonging  to  the  Ecclesiastico- Spanish  parly, 
he  is  chiefly  remembered  in  connection  with  the  return  of  Henri 
IV.  to  the  Church  (whicli  enabled  C.  to  wrest  Ferrara  from  Cesare 
d'Este),  the  readmission  of  the  Jesuits  to  France,  and  the  peace 
of  Vervins,  He  died  in  1605.— Clement  XL  (Cardinal  Gio- 
van  Francesco  Albani),  was  elected  l6th  November  1700,  At 
first  a  warm  supporter  of  the  French  claun  to  the  Spanish 
succession,  he  was  compelled  after  the  victories  of  Marlborough 
to  acknowledge  Charles  III.  as  the  Catholic  King.  By  the 
peace  of  Utrecht,  Sicily  and  Sarditiia,  which  C.  regardel  as  h  s 
own  fief,  were  bestowed  on  the  House  of  Savoy,  with  vhom  he 
soon  had  a  bitter  dispute  as  to  Di  MonarcM.  (a  Sicilian      ' 

which  encroached  on  Papal  privileges).     In  1713  C.  p  1 

the  Bull  'Unigenilus,'  condemningthe  101  propositions  n  Father 
Quesnel's  book;  this  irritated  the  French  Jansenists  an  1  Nit  on 
alist  cler^  against  Rome.  C.was  also  connected  with  the  great 
Jesuit  missionary  movement  in  China,  the  Stuart  rebelhon  of 

1715,  and  the  expedition  of  Prince  Eugene  against  the  Turks  n 

1716,  He  died  in  March  1 721. —Clement  XH,  (1758-69). 
His  rule  is  marked  by  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  by  Choiseul 
in  France,  Wall  and  Squillace  in  Spain,  Fanuci  in  Naples,  and 
Carvalho  in  Portugal.  C.  refused  to  abolish  the  ewer,  and 
thus  lost  nearly  all  influence  in  Europe. — Clement  XTT, 
(Cardinal  Giovanni  Vincenzo  Antonio  Ganganelh],  was  elected 
through  Bombon  influence,  19th  May  1769.  He  was  of  a 
mild,  religious  disposition,  and  anxious  to  establish  peace  in  the 
Church.  The  Curia  was  then  divided  into  the  ZelatUi,  or  up- 
holders of  the  ancient  privileges  of  the  Church,  and  the  Eegulisti, 
or  party  of  concession  to  the  crowned  heads.  C.  belonged  10  the 
latter.  He  discontmued  the  reading  of  the  Bull  In  Cana  Domini, 
allowed  the  claims  of  Sardinia  and  Parma,  and  on  21st  July 
1773  abohshed  'the  Society  of  Jesus,  its  offices,  bouses,  and 
institutions.'  This  act  greatly  assisted  the  Cismontane  move- 
ment in  Austria  under  Maria  Theresa  and  Joseph  II.  C,  died 
22d  September  1774. 

Clemen'ti,  Mu'zio,  one  of  the  earliest  composers  and  per- 
formers of  the  modern  pianoforte  school,  was  born  at  Rome  in 
■:752.     He  came  to  England  as  a  boy,  and  for  some  time  devoted 


yLaOOgle 


CLE 


J-HE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CLE 


Two  of  his  works  are  considered  aiitliorities,  Practical  Harmony 
(4  vols.  iSll-iS),  and  the  Gradus  ad  Pamassum  (3  vols.)- 

Cleome,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  order  Capparidasse,  found  in 
tlie  Uopical  regions  of  America.  Most  of  the  species  are  annuals 
—one,  C.  pungms,  attaining  the  height  of  4  or  5  feet  Arnong 
other  species  may  be  mentioned  C.  spinosa  and  C.  spedossima, 
if  tile  handsomest  of  the  genns,  several  of  which  are  culf  ivated 
for  tlie  sake  of  their  beautiful  flowers. 

Cleome'des,  an  ancient  Greek  astronomer,  of  whose  life  ab- 
solutely nothing  is  known.  His  treatise,  The  Circular  Theory 
of  the  Hearoenly  BoMes,  is  a  work  in  which  trulli  is  strangely 
lixed  up  witli  error.  He  held  that  the  earth  was  spherical,  and 
as  a  mere  point  in  relation  to  the  stellar  sphere ;  that  the 
LOon  rotated  on  its  axis ;  that  the  fixed  stars  were  as  large,  if 
ot  larger  than  the  sim,  and  he  also  discussed  the  refraction  of 
liglit.  The  two  latest  editions  of  this  work  are  by  Bake  (Leyd. 
1S20)  and  Schmidt  (Leips.  1832). 

Clo'on,  a  famous  popular  leader  of  the  Athenians,  the  son  of 
Cleffiuetus,  was  brought  up  as  a  taimer.  Even  before  the  death 
of  Pericles,  however,  he  had  achieved  success  in  the  more  pro- 
filable  trade  of  demagogue.  In  427  B.C.  he  uiged  tlie  Athenians 
:o  put  to  death  all  the  adult  males  in  Mitylene  (about  6000),  and 
tosell  the  women  and  children  into  slavery,  and  he  so  far  attained 
his  object.  In  425  he  succeeded,  along  with  Demosthenes,  in 
taking  captive  the  Spartans  who  garrisoned  the  island  of  Sphac- 
teria.  In  422  he  took  the  field  against  Brasidas,  the  famous 
Spartan  general,  in  Oralcidice.  He  captured  Totone,  but  in  an 
attack  on  Amphipolis,  the  Athenians  were  defeated,  and  C.  fled 
and  fell.  Thucydides  and  Aristophanes  represent  C.  as  the 
impersonation  of  violence,  dishonesty,  rapacity,  and  venality. 
Apart  from  the  inconsistencies  involved  in  this  representation  of 
his  character,  Grote  forcibly  urges  in  proof  of  its  extravagance, 
that  C.  had  proposed  the  banishment  of  Thucydides,  and  that 
Aristophanes  himself  admits  that  he  had  a  grudge  against  him. 

Cleopat'ra,  the  beautiful  and  accomplished,  but  ambitions  and- 
voluptuous  Queen  of  Egypt,  the  last  of  tlie  djmasty  of  the  Ptole- 
mies, was  bom  B.C.  69.  By  the  will  of  her  father,  Ptolemy 
Auletes,  C.  succeeded  to  the  kingdom,  along  with  her  brother 
Ptolemy,  but  was  expelled  by  him,  B.C.  49.  She  was,  however, 
reinsiat«l  by  Cassar,  who  was  conquered  by  her  charms,  and  to 
whom  file  bore  a  son,  named  Cassation,  afterwards  put  to  death 
by  Augustus.  In  the  war  that  ensued,  yovmg  Ptolemy  waskilled, 
but  a  younger  brother  of  the  same  name,  whom  she  eventually 
poisoned,  was  associated  with  her  in  the  government.  On 
Cfesar's  return  to  Rome,  C.  followed  him,  and  there  lived  in  his 
house,  and  received  from  him  many  gifts.  On  his  death,  B.C. 
44,  she  fled  to  Egypt,  and  materially  aided  the  triumvirate 
against  the  murderers  of  Ccesar.  After  the  battle  of  Philippi, 
Antony  summoned  her  to  attend  him  at  Tarsus,  and  her  beauty 
so  completely  bewifdied  the  impetuous  and  passionate  Roman, 
that  he  remained  her  slave  through  life,  and  returned  to  her 
even  alter  his  marriage  vrith  Octavia,  sister  of  Augustus.  The 
infatuation  of  Antony  in  paying  extravagant  honours  to  C, 
and  in  assigning  extensive  territories  to  her  and  her  children, 
so  incensed  and  disgusted  the  Romans,  that  they  declared  war 
against  her,  and  the  great  victory  of  Actium,  B.C.  31,  decided 
the  fate  of  Antony  and  C.  Augustus  pursued  them  to  Alex- 
andria, where  Antony,  misled  by  a  false  rumour  of  C's  death, 
fell  on  his  sword.  C.,  after  vainly  endeavouring  to  captivate 
Augustus,  put  an  end  to  her  life  by  the  poison  of  an  asp,  B.C.  3a 
Clepsyd'ra  (Gr.  .ift/W,  'Iconcea!,'and4j^/i;»-, 'water '),  a  kind 
of  organ,  used  by  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  described  by  Athe- 
nceus.  The  air  vras  forced  through  the  pipes  by  the  action  of 
water,  giving  rise  to  a  soft  musical  sound. 

CUpydra,  also  an  mstrament  used,  before  the  discovery  of  the 
pendulum,  for  measuring  intervals  of  time  by  means  of  the  flow 
of  water  through  a  small  orifice.  The  rate  of  flow  varied  with 
the  temperature,  barometric  pressure,  and  generally  with  the 
height  of  the  column  of  water  above  the  orifice,  This  last  source 
of  variation  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  and  is  sometimes  got 
rid  of  by  keeping  the  vessel  always  full.  In  order  that  the  rate 
may  be  the  same  at  whatever  height  the  surface  of  the  fluid  is, 
the  vessel  must  be  the  surface  of  revolution  of  a  cubical  parabola. 
Olere,  Jean  le,  a  French  theologian,  was  horn  at  Geneva, 
29th  March  1657.    Having  adopted  the  tenets  of  the  Arminians, 


he  settled  in  Holland  in  1683,  joined  the  Remonstrants  in  Am- 
sterdam, and  being  interdicted  by  the  Walloon  ministers  fiom 
preaching,  was  elected  Professor  of  Hebrew,  Philosophy,  Clas- 
sical Literature,  and  afterwards  of  Church  History  in  the  Armi- 
College  there,  a  post  which  he  held  till  his  death,  8th 
January  1736.  Besides  an  extiaoidinary  number  of  other  works, 
he  viTOte  commentaries  on  the  whole  of  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  of  which  those  on  the  historical  books,  especially  the 
Pentateuch,  have  a  permanent  value.  They  may  be  regarded  as 
the  early  dawn  of  the  Rationalistic  movement  C.  is  perhaps 
most  likely  to  he  remembered  by  his  Biblwthiqtu  UniserseUe  ei 
IIistorique(2^vd[i.  1686-93) ;  his  5i*/io!'i^f  CiouK  (1703-13); 
and  his  Bmiolhiquf  Anciemtg  et  Madtme  (1714-27).  See  y. 
CkiiciVHast  Opa-aad  Annum  l^ll^hxast.  1711);  MM.  Haag, 
La  France  ProtestanU  (Par.  1847-59). 

Cleii^y  (Gr.  Mcrikoi,  from  kleros,  'a  lot'),  were  so  called, 
according  to  an  early  Christian  writer,  'either  because  they  are 
the  heritage  of  the  Lord,  or  because  the  Lord  is  their  heritage.' 
The  name  was  applied  first  to  the  three  orders  of  bishops,  priests, 
and  deacons,  but  in  the  3d  c.  also  to  the  inferior  orders  which 
were  then  introduced — sub-deacons,  readers,  acolytes,  exorcists, 
doorkeepers.  In  the  New  Testament  all  Christians  are  Gc  " 
heritage  {litiros,  I  Pet.  v.  3).  The  idea  of  a  sacerdotal  casti , 
class  of  persons  peculiarly  consecrated  to  God,  employed  on  the 
affairs  of  religion  to  the  exclusion  of  all  woridly  concerns,  and  to 
be  supported  by  the  laity,  was  imported  from  the  Jewish  Church 
with  its  priests  and  Levites.  Many  privileges  were  cisumed  by 
and  conceded  to  the  C.,  especially  during  the  middle  ages.  (See 
Benefit  of  Clergy.)  In  the  Church  of  Rome,  'secular  C. 
are  those  whose  duty  lies  in  the  outer  world,  e^.,  the  parish 
priests,  and  those  who  do  not  belong  to  any  religious  order,  lik- 
the  'regulai'  C,  so  called  from  Lat,  regula,  a  monastic  'rule.' 

Cleriool  Error  is,  in  law,  an  error  accidentally  committed 
in  the  transcription  of  a  deed  or  other  instrument.  Where  the 
error  is  not  in  suistantialibiis,  it  is  not  fatal  to  validity. 

Cler^  is  strictly  a  person  in  holy  orders ;  but  the  term  is 
now  generally  applied  to  any  one  whose  chief  occupation  is 
writing  as  a  subordinate.  In  EngUsh  law,  a  C.  is  regarded  as  a 
superior  servant 

Cto-*,/}iWj.4.— An  official  of  the  Church  of  England.  He  leads 
the  responses,  and  otherwise  assists  in  the  service  of  public  wor- 
ship. In  calliedrals  and  collegiate  churches  there  are  several 
clerks,  sometimes  forming  a  corporate  body. 

Clerk  of  the  Assise  is  he  that  records  all  things  judicially  done 
by  the  judges  of  the  circuits. 

Cieri  of  the  Crown  is  an  officer  in  Chancery,  whose  functic 
__  to  attend  on  the  Lord  Chancellor.  He  makes  out  wiits  for 
the  electioh  of  members  of  Parliament.  All  returns  are  mad 
llim,  These  he  caimot  alter,  except  by  order  of  the  House, 
under  a  penalty  of  £yx>—tetiss  guolies. 

C;n-io/;*«/'fl)-/ii!mOTi.^o//jis  the  name  of  an  officer  in  each 
House  of  Parliament,  who  records  the  proceedings,  and  eiigrosse! 
them  on  rolls  for  preservation. 

Clerk  of  the  Peace  is  an  officer  belongmg  to  the  Quarter  Session: 
{%.  v.),  whose  daty  it  is  to  read  the  indictments,  enrol  the  pro 
ceedings,  draw  the  processes,  and  transact  other  business  incident 
to  the  Quarter  Sessions. 

Clerk  of  Session.— 1\&  clerics  of  the  Court  of  Session  (see  Coukt 
OF  Session}  in  Scotland  are  so  called.  There  are  four  prin- 
cipal clerks  and  five  deputies.  Each  principal  and  depute  has 
an  assistant  C.  The  duty  of  the  principal  clerks  is  to  attend 
upon  and  assist  the  Judges  of  the  Iimer  House;  The  deputies 
attend  upon  and  assist  the  Lords  Ordinary.  The  principal  clerks 
and  deputies  have  no  fees.  They  are  paid  by  fixed  salary.  The 
former  have;^iooo  a  year  each,  the  latter  ^£550.  Each  assistant 
C.  has  ^475  a  year,  and  no  fees. 

C/o-ii  of  the  Bill  Chamlier.—Tastz  is  one  C.  of  the  Bill 
Chamber  (see  Bill  Chamber)  of  the  Court  of  Session.  He  is 
responsible  for  the  reputed  solvency  of  cautioners  (see  Cau- 
tioner, Cautionary)  and  for  consigned  money.  There  is 
also  an  assistant  C.  and  two  ordinary  clerks,  They  are  all  paid 
by  salary. 

Clerk  to  the   Court  of  Teiiids.— There  is  one  prmcipal  and 
one  depute  C.  of  the  Teind  Court  in  Scotland.    See  Teind 
Court. 
Clerk  of yuslkia/y.—Theie  is  one  principal,  onedepulc,  and  01 


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stant  C.  of  Che  Justiciary  Court  of  Scoiiiii.d.    See  Ji 
Court. 

Clerks  to  the  Signet.     See  Writer  to  the  Signet. 

Every  court  of  law  has  necessarily  a  C,  whose  riitty  it  is  to 
wnte  out  the  judgments  and  extract  tlie  decrees  of  llie  court. 

Olerk,  John,  of  Eldin,  Mid-Lothian,  Scotland,  the  sixth 
son  of  Sir  John  Clerk  of  Penicuik,  obtained  for  himself,  in  1779, 
a  consideral)le  reputation  by  the  invention  of  the  modern  naval 
tactics  of  'breakmg  (he  enemy's  line' — an  invention  all  the 
more  remarkable  that  C  was  not  in  any  sense  a  naval  man.  This 
invention,  being  communicated  to  various  naval  officers,  was 
adopted  by  Admiral  Lord  Rodney,  April  iz,  1782,  when  he  ob- 
tamed  his  great  victory  over  De  Grasse  in  the  W.  Indies,  and  sub- 
sequently the  manceuvre  was  systematically  employed  by  the  other 
great  British  admirals,  such  as  Howe  and  Nelson.  C  published 
ious  editions  of  his  Essay  on  JViiral  Tactics — the  latest  and 
St  complete  in  1804.  An  unsncceasful  attempt  was  made  by 
General  Sir  Howard  Douglas,  son  of  the  captain  who,  under 
Rodney,  tried  the  manceuvre,  to  prove  tlial  it  was  suggested 
to  his  father,  not  by  C.,  but  merely  by  the  chance  position  of 
the  British  and  French  fleets.  C.  died  May  TO,  i8iz.— -His 
son,  John  Olerk,  born  in  1757,  was  educated  for  the  law, 
passed  advocate  in  1785,  and  soon  obtained  the  ki^est  practice 
of  his  time.  He  was  raised  to  the  bench  in  1823,  takmg  the 
title  of  Lord  Eldin.  C.  died  in  1832.  He  is  still  remembered 
in  Edinbui^h  society  for  his  social  qualities  and  bis  quaint,  coarse 
humour. 

Cler'mont  (the  Clams  Mons  or  Ctarimont'mm  of  the  middle 
ages),  the  name  of  several  towns  in  France,  the  most  important 
of  which  is  O.-Ferrand  (the  AugustonemeHm  of  Ptolemy),  the 
capital  of  the  department  of  Puy-de-D&me,  on  an  affluent  of  the 
Allier,  and  coniiected  with  Paris  and  Lyon  by  railvi^y.  It  is 
beautifully  situated  at  the  foot  of  a  range  of  extinct  volcanoes, 
surmonnted  by  the  Puy-de-D6me.  The  principal  buildings  are 
the  cathedral  (1248),  the  Romanesque  church  01  N6tre  Dame  du 
Port,  said  to  date  from  853,  the  HStel  de  Ville,  H6tei  Dieu, 
Imen-market,  grain-market,  the  hospital,  the  theatre,  and  Palace 
of  Justice.  C.  has  a  valuable  public  library,  museums  of  natural 
history  and  antiquities,  and  a  college.  It  has  iron-foundries 
and  machine-woilfs,  considerable  traffic  in  grain,  wine,  oil,  and 
cheese,  and  a  lai^e  tranut  trade.  In  the  suburb  of  St  Alyre 
is  a  iine  mineral  spring.  Pop.  (1872)  29,070.  Pope  Url^an 
IL  presided  here  in  1095  at  the  council  in  which  the  first  Crusade 
was  resolved  on.  Pascal  was  a  native  of  C,  and  a  statue  has 
been  erected  in  his  honour.  Other  distinguished  natives  were 
Gregory  of  Tours  and  General  Desai^— O.-1'Hftrault,  a  town 
in  tlie  department  of  Herault,  France,  on  an  affluent  of  the 
Lergue,  23  miles  N.  of  Agde  by  railway.  It  has  manufactures 
of  woollens,  linens,  verdigris,  candles,  &c.,  and  an  active  trade 
in  cattle  and  millstones.     Pop.  (1872)  5458, 

Cleroden'dron,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Vcr- 
benacea,  one  of  which,  C.  Thomsonm,  of  W.  Africa,  is  cultivated 
for  the  beauty  of  its  ilowers.  C.  injbrlHnatum,  an  Indian 
species,  is  bitter  and  sub-astringent,  and  possesses  antiperiodic 
and  tonic  properties.  These  plants  are  chiefly  natives  of  tro- 
pical Asia,  but  they  are  also  found  in  Africa  and  America. 

Cler'us,  a  Beetle  genus,  included  in  the  Pentamerous  section 
of  the  Cokopleia,  and  in  the  family  Serrkomes.  C.  apiarus  is 
common  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  is  fonnd  in  a  larval 
state  on  the  young  of  the  hivetbee.  It  averages  about  half  an  inch 
in  length,  and  is  of  green  colour,  the  ilytris  or  wing-covers  being 
ted  with  purple  markings.  The  a^ult  beetles  inhabit  flowers, 
and  particularly  umbelhierous  pknts. 

Cleveland  ('the  Forest  City'),  in  Ohio,  U.S.,  on  Lake  Erie, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Cuyahoga  river.  It  stands  on  s  bluff  80 
feet  above  the  lake,  and  is  beautiful  and  well  laid  out ;  the 
streets  adorned  vrith  shady  trees  and  fine  public  buildings. 
C.  has  a  good  harbour,  and  carries  on  an  eitensive  trade 
with  the  lakes  and  with  the  mineral  fields  of  Pennsylvania,  es- 
pecially in  coal,  iron,  and  copper.  It  has  also  communication 
with  the  Ohio  river  by  the  Ohio  Canal,  besides  having  railways 
to  all  parts  of  the  country.  Shipbuilding,  copper-smeltuig, 
iron-rolling,  and  oil-refining  are  lai^  and  important  indus- 
tries.     The  city  is  supplied  with  nater  from  Lake  Erie  by 


works  which  cost  1400,000.  In  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1S69,  the  number  of  vessels  cleared  was  493,  tonnage  60,486 ; 
vessels  entered  554,  tonnage  87,523.  The  taxable  value  of 
property  in  1875  was  $73,305,277.  C.  was  founded  in  1796, 
but  in  1830  was  only  a  village  of  1 100  inhabitants.  In  1850  its 
popuhition  had  risen  to  17,034;  m  1870  to  92,829;  and  in  1875 
to  157,000. 
Clevea,  the  French  spelling  of  the  German  Kleve  (q.  v.). 

Oleur,  in  ships,  the  lower  corner  of  a  sail.  C.-Unis  are  the 
ropes  by  which  the  C  is  worked. 

Clew  Bay,  an  inlet  on  the  coast  of  Mayo  county,  in  the  W. 
of  Ireland,  15  miles  deep,  with  an  avei'age  breadth  of  8  miles, 
containing  numeroos  indentations  which  form  excellent  harbours, 
and  having  at  its  upper  end  an  archipelago  of  300  fertile  islets. 
It  has  valuable  fishings.     Clare  Island  lies  at  tlie  month  of  the 

Oli'ohfe  (Fr,),  a  process  by  which  a  sharp  impression  is  ob- 
tained from  a  medal  die.  A  quantity  of  semi-fused  metalhc  alloy 
is  placed  in  a  box  under  the  die,  which  then  descends  forcibly 
upon  it,  causing  the  metal  to  take  the  finest  lines  of  the  die, 
which  from  its  coldness  immediately  solidifies  the  whole  impres- 
sion.     '  C.'  is  also  applied  to  the  formation  of  stereotype  plates. 

Oli'ohy,  a  town  in  the  department  of  the  Seme,  France,  on  a 

flain  near  the  right  bank  of  tlie  Seine,  and  4  miles  N.W.  of 
aris,  of  which  it  forms  a  suburb.  It  has  manufactures  of  white 
lead,  chemical  products,  glue,  and  varnish.  The  parish  church 
was  erected  in  1612  by  Vincent  de  Paul,  who  was  then  curate  of 
C,     Pop.  (1872)  I4.366. 

Click-Beetles,  a  popular  name  given  to  beetles  belonging  to 
the  fartiily  ^laterids,  the  larvie  of  some  species  of  which  are  tlie 
destractive'  Wire- Worms' (q,  v.}  of  the  agriculturist.  The  name 
'  C.  B.'  is  derived  from  the  noise  they  inake  on  regaining  their 
natural  position  after  being  laid  on  their  backs;  a  spine  arising 
from  the  front  of  the  body,  by  means  of  a  spring-action,  enabling 
these  insects  to  execute  leaps,  and  to  make  the  peculiar  sound 
referred  to.  One  familiar  species  of  C.  B.  as  the  Elater  or 
Agrioteslinmlus — the  striped  species — found  in  hedges  in  summer, 
the  larva  of  which  is  destructive  to  turnips  and  Other  plants, 

Cli'eiit,     See  Agent. 

Cliffor'tia,  a  genus  of  S.  African  bushes,  belonging  to  the 
iral  order  Rosaces.     The  hoi'    '"      '  '   "    *" 

used  by  the  Cape  Boers  (fart 
pectorant  hi  coughs.     The  name  Cliffortiaci 
to  the  Rosaces  proper  (including  Sanguisorbcce,  as  distinguished 
from  A  tiiygiial^  and  Pomace). 

Clif' ton,  a  suburb,  and  part  of  the  parliamentary  and  muni- 
cipal borough  of  Bristol,  is  built  on  the  sides  and  summit  of  lofty 
cliffs  (hence  its  name)  of  carboniferous  limestone  overhanging  the 
Avon,  and  rising  in  St  Vincent's  Rocks  to  the  height  of  308  feet 
The  river,  which  is  here  navigable,  is  spanned  by  a  suspen- 
sion bridge  702  feet  in  length,  and  having  an  elevation  above 
low  water  of  275  feet.  Its  mineral  springs  and  the  beauty  of 
its  scenery  made  it,  as  early  as  the  Ij^nning  of  the  i8th  c,  a 
favourite  watering-place,  which  it  continues  to  be,  though  its  spa 
has  declined  in  favour.  C.  has  some  fine  public  buildings,  is  a 
favourite  residence  of  wealthy  Bristowans,  and  has  a  proprietary 
grammar-school,  C.  College,  which  at  present  ranks  among  the 
foremost  educfttional  bstitulions  in  England.  Traces  of  a  large 
Roman  camp  are  visible  on  C.  Down. 

I'teric  Tear,  a  period  of  human  life  superstitiously 
to  be  a  turning-point  in  health  or  fortune,  and  thought 
at  the  years  produced  by  multiplying  7  into  the  odd 
numbers  I,  3,  5,  7,  9— to  which  some  added  the  8lst  year. 
The  63d  year  was  called  the  ^rand  C,  and  was  supposed  to  be 
weU-nigh  impassable  by  most  men,  being  the  product  of  the  two 
largest  odd  numbers,  7  and  g. 

Cli'mate,  in  meteorology,  is  the  sum  of  all  the  atmosplierio 
variations  at  the  locality  under  consideration,  viewed  especially 
in  their  relation  to  and  effect  upon  animal  and  vegetable  life. 
It  depends  first  and  cliiefly  upon  the  latitude  and  the  mein 
annual  temperature  of  the  latitude,  receiving  from  this  cinsideia- 


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lion  its  usual  subdivision  i 
and  polar  climates.    Now, 

lower  the  temperature,  because  tne  sun  a  lajs,  .i..~"'ii  '■:^'- 
obliquely  on  the  surface,  supply  the  same  heat  to  a  larger  ar«i, 
and  therefore  less  to  each  unit  of  area.  There  ire  m^y  condi. 
lions  however,  which  go  to  modify  this  general  feet,  but  rnost. 
if  not  all  of  these,  are  due  to  the  particular  confignratiotl  ot  the 
land  and  sea.  Thus,  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  the  tsolhermal 
lines,  or  Unes  drawn  through  locaUties  whose  mean  annual  tem- 
peratures are  the  same,  approximate  more  or  less  to  the  parallels 
of  latitude  having  their  greatest  contortions  where  the  presence 
of  land  interferes  most  with  the  homogeneity  of  the  surlac^  in 
the  northern  hemisphere,  again,  where  the  configuration  of  land 
and  sea  is  much  more  irregular,  the  isothermsare  extremely  con- 
torted For  instance,  the  isotherm  representing  a  mean  annual 
temperature  ofo'C.  corresponds,  S.  of  the  equator,  almost  exactly 
with  the  6oth  paraUel  of  latitude,  suffering  a  shght  disturbance 
just  S.  of  Cape  Horn  ;  while,  N.  of  the  equator,  it  is  traceable 
from  the  Aleutian  Islands  E.  and  S.E.  over  the  American  con- 
tinent to  the  southerly  extremity  of  the  Labrador  coast,  then 
N  E  to  Cape  Farewell  and  to  the  North  Cape,  touching  the 
N.W.  of  Iceland  in  its  passage,  then  doubling  southwards  to  the 
northern  end  of  the  Baltic,  continuing  E.  and  S,E.  throu^i  the 
northern  coasts  of  Russia  and  the  southern  districts  of  biberia, 
undereoine  a  slightly  northward  flexure  as  it  leaves.  Japan,  and 
finally  cutting  through  the  S.  of  Kamchatka  and  across  the  N. 

^Au'^influences  which  are  commonly  enumerated  as  modifying 
C  may  be  said  to  depend  on  these  four  fundamentai  conditions  : 
(I)  the  solar  heat,  (2)  the  earth's  annual  and  diurnal  motions,  (3) 
the  configuration  of  land  and  water,  and  (4)  the  ch^ter  (phy- 
sical and  geological)  of  the  country.  It  roa^  be  desirableto 
consider  briefly  the  more  important  of  these  influenc^  Ihe 
presence  of  aqueous  vapour  especUUy  has  a  marked  effect ;  for 
on  account  of  its  high  specific  heat,  it  tends  to  lower  the  tem- 
perature in  summer  and  raise  it  in  winter,  thus  equalising  the 
C.  Ocean  currents,  originaHng  in  the  eqnatonal  regions,  and 
flowing  towards  higher  latitudes,  have  the  same  equalising  efl^, 
as  r^ell  shown  ta  the  case  of  N.  W.  Europe,  wliose  C. ,  under 
the  ameliorating  action  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  is  much  more  equ- 
able  than  that  of  the  corresponding  latitudes  on  the  Ameriran 
continent.  In  this  connection  also  may  be  mentioned  the  simjlar 
influence  of  vegetation,  and  more  particularly  of  forests.  _  1  he 
elevation  above  the  sea-level  is  another  important  element  in  th^ 
adiustment  of  the  C— places  situated  in  equatorial  re^ons  {e.g. 

Quito,  the  capital  of  Ecuador,  in  S.  Amen"' "  "" 

temperate,  or  even,  as  shown  by  the  snow-i 
Andes  and  Himalayas,  a  veritable  polar  C 
soil  too  has  a  very  significant  influence— a  damp  clayey 
being  very  much  colder,  because  a  much  better  conductor  foi 
heat?  thai  a  dry,  sandy  one.  By  more  tiiocough  drainage  in 
various  parts  of  England  the  mean  annual  tempefature  has  been 
raised  hy  several  degrees,  and  statistics  show  a  corresponding 
decrease  in  the  death-rate  arising  from  consumption,  ague,  rheu- 
matism,  and  Other  maladies  depending  chiefly  upondamp^  lot 
their  prevalence.     Again,  the  slope  and  ^o-:"— 


Jr.  'a  ladder,'  from  klino,  'I  bend,'  because  a 
ilant),  a  figure  in  rhetoric  denoting  that  artifice  by 
which  objects  or  propositions  are,  for  the  salte  of  impressiveness, 
presented  to  the  mind  of  the  hearer  or  reader  in  a  gradually 
ascending  series  from  weaker  to  stronger.  The  corresponding 
Latin  tem.  is  gradatio.  The  converse  figure  is  anli-C,  m  which 
the  ideas  gradually  or  suddenly  sink.  It  forms  the  mam  element 
in  what  is  known  as  Bathos  (q.  v.). 

Climb'iiiK  Perch  {Anabas  scandms),  the  name  given  to  a 
peculiar  species  of  Teleostean  fishes  belonging  to  the  family 
Anabatids,  inhabiting  the  Ganges  and  other  fresh  waters  in  the 
E  Indies,  and  which  have  the  power  of  leaving  the  water  lor 
eonsideiable  periods,  and  of  making  their  way  on  the  land,  sup- 
porting themselves  on  their  stiff  spiny  fins.  The  docsai  fin  is 
smgle  and  elongated.  The  upper  pharyngeal  bones  a,re  divided 
into  a  number  of  curious  labyrinthine  chambers,  in  which  mois- 
ture can  be  retained,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  gills  moist, 
and  of  enabling  them  to  breathe  in  their  overland  journeys. 
They  migrate  overland  from  their  pools,  when  these 
dried  up,  in  seai-ch  of  a  fresh  water  supply.  The  nam 
has  been  given  to  this  species  of  fish  from  the  asserti 
is  able  to  dinib  trees— the  Tamul  name  of  the  creal 
PsTieiri  or  '  Clunber  of  trees.'  But  this  latter  statement  ii»»_..y,. 
been  satisfectorily  determined,  although  there  is  no  doubt  ol  its 
land-loving  habits,  and  of  its  ability  to  live  out  of  water  for 
days  together.  Another  species  allied  to  the  C,  P.  is  the  l,our- 
aml  of  China.  A.  scandens  is  on  the  average  6  inches  in 
length.  These  fishes  are  alhed  to  Uie  Miigilula:  or  Mullets. 
Oliiutoing  Plants,  or  Climbers.     Some  plants  have  such 

weak  stems  that,  in  order  to  rise  from  the  ground,  they  mu 

round  other  plants,  or  seek  support  for  the  same  purpo 
Other  objects.     The^  may  be  divided,  according  to  the  m 


'C.P? 

n  that  it 
re  being 


,)  enjoying 

roed  peaks  of  the 

■S     ------of  the 


which  lliey  attach  tiiems'elves  to  the  objects  around  which  they 
twine  into :— (l)  Those  which  specially  twme  around  a  sup- 
port ;'  (2)  those  which  ascend  hy  the  movement  of  the  P«iole  or 
by  the  tops  of  their  leaves;  (3)  those  which  ascend  by  true 
tendrils!  (4)  those  which  are  fomished  with  hooks;  and  tSJ 
those  which  are  furnished  with  rootlets.  Some  twme  round  the 
support  from  right  to  left  (sinmrorzal).  as  in  .he  ease  of  the  hop 
and  honeysuckle ;  while  in  others,  as  m  the  case  of  thf  Chinese 
yam,  the  haricot  bean,  the  great  hedge  be^bme  {Calysiym 
s^um),  &c,  the  twisting  is  from  left  to  right  {tia:i>vrsal).  The 
first  form  of  twining  is  expressed  in  systematic  works  by  the  sign 
r,  the  latter  by  the  sign  3.  Since  Uie  observations  of  Daimn- 
A.'   =_   ,„^   .,.l,Brs  hnvp  called  attention  to  the  cemarkahli 


Euitabihty  aE 


, of  the  land 

,u  luLi  a"..  -..-  - anding  iills,  and  the  conse- 

n  from  certain  winds,  must  also  be  taken  into 

instance,  Bridge  of  Allan,  in  Scotland,  owes  its 

resort  for  invtdids  to  its  protection  from  the  ^st 
wmd,  ani  Torquay,  in  England,  to  its  southern  exijosure.  -Hie 
mote  equable  a  C.  js,  the  better,  as  a  ru  e,  is  it  suited  for  hfe ; 
and  the  character  of  a  G  is  perhaps  best  pdged  of  from  a 
knowledge  of  the  fauna  and  flora  which  flourish  under  its  influ- 
ence From  fossil  testimony,  we  gather  that  m  former  geolo- 
eical  epochs  the  C.  of  Europe  was  very  different  from  what  it 
%  now:  The  rocks  of  the  Teitiaty  formations  mdicate  a  sub- 
tropical  development,  even  as  far  N.  as  Iceland;  while  the  ab- 
sence of  oraanic  remains  in  certain  Post-tertiary  deposits,  ^d 
the  occurrence  of  ice-markings,  are  unmistakable  signs  that 
Britain  and  France  were  then  visited  with  a  f  '"  blp^l.  and 
polar  as  that  of  Greenland  at  the  present  day. 

kny  consequence   on   Physical   CJej^raphy,  Meteorology,   and        ^,_ 

Geology,  the  conditions  on  which  C.  depends  are  fully  dis-  w  the  slope  of  „-—. 
cussed,  and  to  these  the  reader  is  refen-ed,  as  well  as  to  articles  the  dip  and  strike  of 
Glaciers,  Rain,  Seasons,  &c.,  which,  as  parts  of  the  Science  i 


Unger,  and  others  hsve  called  .. 

phenomena  displayed  by  C.  P.,  facts  have  been  noted  in  regard 
to  them  which  would  almost  incline  us  to  designate  some  ot 
these  movements  by  a  higher  term  than  the  mere  phrase  of 
'vegetable  irritability*  would  denote,  tor  a  full  account  ol 
these  curious '  instmcts '  of  plants,  see  Darwin  Ot  the  Movment! 
and  Hamof.C.  P.  (1B7S)  i  also  J<mm.Linntan  Society  (1865)  i 
and  Brown's  Manual,  pp.  78,  79,  579-S°3- 

OUn'ic  Baptism  (Gr.  lUiniiM,  from  kUne/s.  couch'),  in  the 
early  Church  was  private  baptism  administered  to  the  sick.  It 
was  done  by  sprinkling  instead  of  immersion,  which  was  tiie 
regular  mode  when  done  in  the  Baptistery  (q.  v,). 

CiLnk'er,  a  firm  mass  of  ash  and  other  matters  xvhich  is  apt 
to  form  upon  the  bars  of  a  furnace  in  which  strongly  caking  coal 
is  burnt,  and  which  in  this  case,  by  impeding  the  access  of  air 
to  the  fuel,  impairs  the  combustion,  and  allows  the  bars  to  Be 
destroyed. 

CliiLber  or  CUnober-Built,  a  term  applied  to  boats  so  made 
that  each  strake  of  planking  overlaps  at  its  edge  the  sti-ake  next 
below  it,  like  the  slates  of  a  roof.  K  the  planking  be  made  flush 
throughout,  the  boat  is  said  to  be  carvd-built. 

Clink'Btone,  or  Plion'olite,  a  compact  felspathic  rock, 
greenish-grey  in  colour,  and  somewhat  slaty 


clear  metallic  sound  when  Struck  with  a  hammer. 
CJinom'eter,  a  small  instrument  used  by  surveyors  for  find- 
-      -  -  '_  and  by  geologists  and  otliers  for  hndmg 


subject.  '  ^  173 


vLaOogle 


CLI 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOP^DTA. 


CLI 


admission  to  the  bar,  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  Ms  uncle, 
General  George  Clinton,  and  signalised  himself  as  a  political 
rival  of  Aaron  Burr  (q.  v.).  In  l803  he  was  appointed  U.S. 
senator,  and  in  1803  Major  of  New  York  city.  He  was  seveial 
times  elected  by  the  Democrats  as  Mayor  of  New  York ;  and 
was  Governor  of  the  state  from  181710  1822,  and  again  *  " 
C.  founded  many  valuable  institutions ;  but  his  greate 
was  the  Erie  CanJd,  comvectine  the  waters  of  the  Sites  with  the 
Hudson.  He  su^ested  the  idea,  and  was  mainly  instrumental 
in  carrying  the  work  to  its  completion.  He  died  February  n, 
1828.  See  Hosack's  Lifs  of  C.  (1829),  and  Renwick's  Life  of  C. 
(1840). 

Clinton,  Henry  Fynos,  a  most  distinguished  classical 
scholar,  was  bom  in  1781,  and  educated  at  Westminster  School, 
and  Christ  Chtirch,  Oxford.  He  ioherited  a  large  fortune,  and 
for  twenty  years  [1806-36)  sat  in  Parliament  for  Aldborough. 
His  great  works  are  his  Fasti BelleaKi 3.nA  PaitiSomam,  con- 
laining  respectively  a  most  learned  and  exhaustive  account  of  the 
chronology  of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome.  Both  of  these  works 
were  epitomised  by  the  author.  C,  died  at  Welwyn,  Hertford- 
shire, 24th  October  185a. 

Clio  (Gr.  Kleio,  the  'proclaimer'  or '  fame-giver '),  in  the  Greek 
mythology,  is  the  daughter  of  Zeus  and  Mnemosyne.  She  is  the 
Muse  of  History,  and  is  represented  ina  sitting  attitude,  wearing 
a  laurel  wreath,  holdii^  in  her  left  hand  a  half-open  inscribed 
roll  of  parchment,  and  beside  her  an  open  cylindrical  cliest,  con- 
taining more  rolls  of  manuscript.  Sometimes  she  has  a  parch- 
ment roll  in  one  hand  and  a  stylus  in  the  other.   See  Muses, 

Clio,  a  genus  of  Pteropodous  mollusca,  the  familiar  species  of 
which  {C.  boysalis)  is  named  'Whales'  Food,'  from  the  feet 
that  the  cetaceans  of  the  Arctic  seas  feed 
chiefly  upon  the  immense  myriads  of  these 
minute  forms,  which  they  draw  into  their 
mouths.  C,  bsrealis  averages  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  in  length.  No  mantle 
or  shell  is  developed.  A  distinct  head 
exists,  and  the  gills  are  rudimentary.  The 
fins  ty  which  it  swims  are  attached  to  the 
sides  of  the  neck.  Theheadb  a  une  ou 
tentacles.     C.  australis  is  an  pe 

found  in  the  S,  Seas.    Thes    an  na     a 
nocturnal  in  habits.     See  Mca,  usca  and 
Pteropoda. 

aid.  Clipp'er,  a  term  applied  al  y 

any  eading  ship  built  with    h      be 
attaining  considerable  speed.    Almost  all  passeng         p      nd 
verymany  merchant  vessels  for  long  voyages  come  m  to  this  cate- 
gory.     Under  favourable  conditions  of  wind  and  weather,  a  C. 
may  sail  as  fast  as  on  ordinary  steamer. 
Clitll'i 


Clit'oris  is  a  small  body  found  in  the  external  female  gene, 
five  organs.  It  is  the  homologue  of  the  penis  in  the  ma! 
About  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  it  is  concealed  in  the  muco 
membrane.  Unlike  the  penis,  it  is  not  perforated  by  a  canal  1 
sembling  the  urethra,  and  it  has  no  spongy  structure  resembling 
the  corpus  spongiosum  of  the  penis.  It  is  a  rudimentary  organ 
m  the  female,  and  has  no  known  function  except  that  it  bccoi 
excited  and  tui^id  during  the  sexual  act. 


lerly  Clidirkaai ;  perhaps  the  Cvmric  Ckd- 
disr,  '  the  rock  by  the  water,'  to  which  has  been  added  the  Old 
Eng.  hou,  '  a  hill  ),  a  manufacturing  town  in  the  W.  of  Lanca- 
shire, on  the  Ribble,  28  miles  N.  of  Manchester  by  railway. 
It  hes  at  the  base  of  Pendle  Hill,  which  rises  to  a  height  of  1803 
feet,  and  in  the  vicinity  is  the  famous  Pendle  Forest,  a  favourite 
haunt  of  the  Lancashire  witches.  C.  has  extensive  cotton  and 
print  industries.  Its  castle  (now  a  rain)  was  founded  by  the  Lacys 
in  the  I2th  c,  C.  returns  one  member  to  Parliament.  Pop. 
of  parliamentary  borough  (1871)  11,786.  About  5  miles  W. 
ofC.  is  situated  the  Jesuit  College  of  Slonyhurst 

Clito'ria,  a  large  genus  of  plants  of  the  order  Liguminas^ 
(sub-Older  Fapiiionacea),  .widely  distributed  over  tropical  Asia, 
Africa,  and  America,  but  more  particularly  in  the  latter  country 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Andes.  C.  Tsmatea  is  originally  from 
the  island  of  Temata,  one  of  the  Moluccas,  but  now  common  in 
most  tropical  countries  and  in  European  conservatories.  Tlie 
corollas  of  the  blue  variety  yield  a  dye  which  is  used  in  Cochin- 
China,  though  it  is  not  permanent,  and  in  Ambmrna  it  is  era- 
ployed  to  colour  boiled  nee.  The  root  is  powerfully  purgative, 
and  in  India  is  administered  to  children  to  promote  siclmess  and 
vomitmg.  The  butterfly-pea  (C.  Mariana)  is  remarkable  on 
account  of  its  cnnous  get^raphical  distribution.  It  is  found  in 
the  southern  American  states  and  Mexico,  and  in  (he  Khassia 
Hills  in  India,  without  being  found  in  any  intermediate  place. 


Cilve,  Kobert,  Lord,  born  near  Market  Drayton,  Shrop- 
shire, 29th  September  1725,  was  the  eldest  son  of  a  lawyer  of 
very  ancient  family.  After  a  turbulent  and  idle  boyhood,  he 
obtained,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  a  writership  in  the  East  India 
Company's  service  at  Madras.  C.  was  disgusted  with  mercantile 
employment,  and  twice  attempted  suicide  while  in  the  'Writers' 
Buildings.'  He  obtained  means  of  study  in  the  Governor's  library. 
When  Labourdonnais,  the  French  Governor  of  Mauritius,  cap- 
tured Madras,  C.  escaped  to  Fort  St  David  and  obtained  an 
ensign  s  commission  in  the  Company's  army.  Two  years  later 
the  French  Governor  of  Pondicherry,  Dupleis,  took  advantage 
of  the  disputed  claims  to  the  viceroyally  of  the  Deccaii  and  the 
nabobsliip  of  the  Carnatic  to  get  himself  recognised  as  Governor 
of  India  from  the  river  Kristna  to  Cape  Comorin,  and  the  war 
between  the  English  and  French  Companies  began.  It  was 
then  that  C,  now  a  commissary  with  the  rank  of  captain,  raised 
tlie  siege  of  Trichinopoly  by  the  capture  of  Arcot  (1751),  'he 
capital  of  the  Carnatic,  which  he  defended  for  fifty  days  with 
a  handful  of  English  and  Sepoys  against  the  large  army  of 
Rajah  Sahib,  who  was  not  only  compelled  to  raise  the  siege 
with  great  loss,  but  was  twice  defeated  in  open  field.  Under 
the  command  of  Major  Lawrence,  C.  added  to  these  triumphs 
the  storming  of  Covelong  and  ChinglepuL  He  then  married 
Miss  Martelyne  and  returned  in  175Z  to  England,  where  he 
was  a  good  deal  lionised.  In  1755  he  was  appointed  hy  the 
Company  Governor  of  Fort  St  George,  with  a  commission 
as  Ueu tenant-colonel  in  the  British  army.  Surajah  Dowlah, 
the  viceroy  in  Bengal  of  the  court  of  Delhi,  had  just, 
on  a  frivolous  pretext,  attacked  the  English  factory  of  Port 
William,  (he  modem  Calcutta.  The  tragedy  of  the  Black 
Hole  (q.  V.)  roused  the  Madras  settlement  to  iiiry,  and  C.  was 
de  patched  with  2400  men  to  Bengal.  Hoogly  and  Calcutta 
apidly  fell,  and,  assisted  by  Admiral  Watson,  C.  distnisting  the 
p  oposals  of  the  Rajah,  stormed  the  French  factory  of  Chander- 
nagore,  A  conspiracy  against  Dowlah,  which  C.  carried  on 
VI  h  the  grossest  deceptions,  was  played  out  on  the  field  of 
P  assey,  where  an  army  of  55,000  well-appointed  natives  was 
lispetsed,  only  500  being  slain.  C.  accepted  from  the  new  vice- 
oy,  Meer  Jaffier,  between  ^^200,000  and  ,^300,000.  Although 
e  act  was  much  blamed,  he  was  appointed  by  Uie  Company 
Governor  of  the  Bengal  settlements,  which  he  greatly  strength- 
ened by  the  defeat  at  Patna  of  Shall  Alum,  a  prince  of  the 
Delhi  family,  who  was  threatening  Bengal.  The  grateful  Meer 
Jaf&er  gave  C.  the  rent  paid  by  the  Company  for  the  Bengal 
settlements;  but  soon  commenced  an  intrigue  with  the  Dulch 
factory  of  Chinsurah,  This  was  promptly  suppressed  by  the  de- 
feat of  the  Dulch  fleet  on  the  Hoogly,  and  the  imposition  of  con- 
diaona  on  the  Dutch  factory.  In  1760  C.  returned  to  England, 
where  he  received  an  Irish  peerage,  and  entered  the  House  of 
Commons,  where  he  attached  himself  to  the  Grenville  party. 
His  chief  interest  was  still  in  Indian  affairs :  he  opposed  Sullivan 
in  the  Court  of  Proprietors,  and  was  obliged  to  take  his  former 
employers  into  Chancery,  as  they  had  rescinded  Meer  Jaffier's 
grant  of  rent.  Frequent  (evolutions  and  the  corrupt  adminis- 
tration of  the  Company's  Servants  led  to  C.'s  return  to  Calcutta 
in  May  1765.  In  less  than  two  years  he  succeeded  in  abolisli- 
ing  the  private  trade  of  the  Company  servants,  and  m  prohibiting 
the  receipt  of  presents.  Their  salaries  he  supplemented  out 
of  the  Government  monopoly  of  salt.  Equally  important  re- 
forms were  carried  out  in  the  army,  although  a  conspiracy  of 
200  officers  was  formed  (o  opjjose  tliem.  C.  also  obtained  from 
the  court  at  Delhi  a.  recognition  of  the  Company's  supremacy 
and  right  to  collect  the  revenues  in  Bengal,  Orissa,  and  Behar, 
For  a  short  time,  however,  the  fiction  of  a  native  viceroy  at 
Moorshedabad  was  continued.  C.  set  an  example  of  self-denial 
to  his  fellow-counlrymen.  The  only  large  present  he  accepted 
(£60,000)  he  formed  into  a  fund  for  the  invalided  servants  of  the 
Company.  On  his  final  return  to  England  In  1767,  his  great 
" seemed  to  be  forgotten  in  the  general  dislike  with  which 


4- 

vLaOogle 


CLO 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


the  nabob  class  were  at  that  time  regarded.  The  sufferings  of 
the  Bengal  population  from  famine  were  contrasted  with  the 
splendour  in  whicli  C.  lived  at  Berkeley  Square  and  Claremont. 
At  length  in  1772,  the  financial  position  of  the  Company  having 
become  serious,  a  parliamentary  committee  wns  appointed  to  in- 
quire into  its  recent  history.  Chiefly  owing  to  the  eloquence  of 
Wedderbume,  the  House  of  Commons,  while  affirming  the  gene- 
ral illegality  of  the  private  appropriation  of  military  acquisitions, 
passed  no  censure  on  C.  His  health,  howev«',  gave  way  soon 
after:  he  becatne  addicted  to  opium,  and  committed  suicide  on  22d 
November  1774.    There  are  Lives  of  C.  by  Malcolm  and  Greig. 

Cloa'ca  (LaL  'a  sink')  is  a  cavity  at  the  extremity  of  the 
alimentary  canal  of  birds,  reptiles,  and  amphibians,  into  which 
the  great  miestine,  the  ureters,  or  ducts  of  the  IddnOTs,  and  the 
ducts  of  the  reproductive  organs  open.  In  (he  Ortiilhoddphia,  a 
group  containing  the  two  genera  EcMdiia  and  OmUhorytukus, 
there  is  a  spurious  C.  common  to  the  rectum  and  geuital  and  uri- 
nary OL^a.ns,  In  the  Diddpkia,  or  Marsupials,  there  is  a  shallow 
C,  the  sphinctor  muscle  being  common  to  the  urinary  and  genital 
apertures,  but  there  is  no  true  urogenital  chamber. 

C3.oacEl  Kax'inia,  a  celebrated  subterranean  vault,  the  con- 
struction of  which  is  ascribed  in  Roman  legend  to  Tarquiniiis  Pris- 
cus,  by  which  the  filth  of  ancient  Rome  was  conveyed  to  the  Tiber. 
It  was  formed  by  three  arches,  one  within  the  other,  the  innermost 
being  a  semicircular  vault  about  14  feet  in  diameter,  the  blocks  of 
whidi  were  united  without  lime.  It  was  large  enough  to  allow 
the  passage  of  a  cart  loaded  with  hay,  and  Agrippa  piissed 
through  it  in  a  boat  on  an  occasion  when  it  was  cleansed.  The 
original  C.  M.  extended  only  from  the  Forum  to  the  river, 
but  was  ultimately  extended  as  far  up  as  the  Subura,  and  of 
this  extension  restiges  were  discovered  in  1742.  The  expenses 
of  cleaning  the  common  sewers  at  Rome  were  defrayed  partly 
by  the  treasury  and  partly  by  an  impost  called  doacarium.  The 
censors  were  intrasted  with  the  administration  of  the  sewers 
under  the  Republic,  but  under  the  Empire  this  was  vested  in 
special  officers,  with  the  title  oi  doacamm  curalores — 'curators 
of  the  sewers, '  The  sewers  at  Rome  were  constantly  flushed  by 
the  superfluous  waters  of  the  aqueducts. 

Clock  Bell-Metal  is  an  alloy  of  copper,  into  which  tin, 
leati,  and  zinc  in  variable  proportions  enter.  SmaH  quantities 
of  antimony  and  bismuth  are  sometimes  introduced,  to  give  a 
crystalline  gKun  and  a  certain  tone  to  tlie  bell-metal. 

Clocks  and  Watches,    See  Horology. 

Olog  Al'manac,  Bim  Stock,  or  Prime  Stafi^  an  almanac 
or  calendar  of  days,  made  generally  of  wood,  but  sometimes  of 
horn,  bone,  or  brass.  When  four-sided  it  contained  three  months 
on  each  of  the  edges  ;  the  days  were  marked  by  notches,  every 
seventh  by  a  larger  notch.  On  the  sides  symbols,  each  linked 
to  the  proper  notch  by  a  line,  indicated  the  Golden  Number, 
a  cycle  of  the  moon,  and  festivals  of  saints.  Some  were  perfect, 
containing  the  Dominical  Letter  (q.  v.),  the  Prime  (q.  v.),  and 
marks  for  all  the  feasts ;  others  were  imperfect,  having  only  the 
prime  and  unmovable  feasts  engraved  on  them.  There  was  the 
family  C.  A.,  hanging  like  a  modem  clock  or  weatherglass, 
and  the  smaller  one,  carried  in  the  pocket  as  watches  or  handy 
compasses  now  are.  This  instrument  was  much  used  in  England 
and  Denmark ;  but  in  the  latter  country  it  was  generally  flat, 
ecLch  side  being  divided  into  six  columns  ;  even  six-sided  ones 
were  not  uncommon,  two  months  being  notched  on  each  edge. 
There  also  it  was  called  a  Static  staff,  after  the  Runic  characters 
used  for  notation.  Specimens  of  the  C  A.  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
British  Museum,  London  j  the  Bodleian  Library,  Oxford;  and 
St  John's  College,  Cambridge ;  and  a  few  other  places. 

Clogheen'  (Irish  Gael,  doickm,  dim.  of  doch,  'a  stone'),  a 
town  in  the  county  of  Tipperary,  Ireland,  14  miles  S.  W.  of 
Clonmel,  on  the  river  Tar,  at  the  crossing  of  the  roads  from 
Dublin  to  Cork  and  from  Cahir  to  Lismore.  It  has  extensive 
flourmills,  as  the  limestone  soil  of  Tar  Vale  produces  rich  crops 
of  wheat.     Pop.  (1871)  3176. 

Cloglier  (Irish  Gael,  dechar,  '  stony  land '),  a  decayed  epis- 
copal city  in  the  county  of  Tyrone,  Ireland.  It  is  near  the  Lon- 
donderry and  Ennisliillen  Railway,  r;  miles  S.S.E.  of  Omagli, 
and  g8  N.N.W.  of  Dublin,  on  the  Launy,  a  tributary  of  the 
.Blackwater.     St  Patrick  is  said  to  have  been,  in  A.D.  444,  the 


first  bishop  of  the  see,  wl 
Pop.  (1871)  1515. 

Clois'ters  (Lat.  dai/s 
sages  connected  with  cati 
stiiudons,  generally  situa 
They  enclose  on  four  sid 
garth,   and   give  covered       ces 
various  oSices  of  the  est  b      n 
remaining  sides.    The  sid        11 
Gothic  generally  of  a  de  gn 
church,  having  windows 


butti 


,  betwi 


whil 


generally  open  pillared  arcades  ol  the  most  graceful  and  beautiful 
design.  A  stone  seat  is  often  continued  along  one  side  of  the 
C,  and  many  of  them  have  stalls  or  carrols,  where  the  monks 

,_.,._,._L..  _^. ....,.., ,  ,...  ■  -  -5 .  and  at  certain 

igfor 

from  the  chnrcli.     Certain  orders  nsed  the  (. 
The  prototype  of  the  C.  is  to  be  found  in  the  colonnade  sur- 
rounding the  court  in  front  of  the  Basilican  chniches. 

Clonaldl'ty  (Irisli  Gael.  Qoagk-na-KUtey,  '  the  stone-house 
of  the  O'Keelys'),  a  town  in  the  county  of  Cork,  Ireland,  26 
miles  S.W.  of  Cork.  It  stands  at'the  head  of  a  small  mlet  from 
C.  Bay,  and  exports  grain.     Pop.  (1871)  5084. 

Clo'nes (Irish  Gael.  G'«ii;«-£'Dif,'Eos's meadow*),  amarket- 
town  in  the  connty  of  Monaghan,  Ireland,  on  the  highroad 
between  Monaghan  and  Belturbet,  12  miles  W.  of  the  former 
town,  and  near  the  Ulster  Canal.  It  is  a  station  on  the  Dun- 
dalk  and  Enniskillen  Railway,  and  the  terminus  of  the  Ulster 
line.  C.  has  large  cornmills,  a  brewery,  and  some  manufac- 
tures of  crochet*1ace.  Near  tlie  town  are  the  ruins  of  an  ancient 
monastery,  which  is  said  to  dale  from  the  6th  c,  a,  round  tower, 
and  some  very  old  earthworks,  probably  of  heathen  origin.  Pop. 
(1870 '14'4. 

Olonmel'  (Irish Gael.  Claaik-meala,  'the  honey-meadow,'  so 
called  from  the  abundance  there  in  old  times  of  wild  bees'  nests), 
a  parliamentary  and  municipal  borough  in  Tipperaiy,  Ireland, 
with  a  small  portion  in  the  adjoining  county  of  Waterford. 
It  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  valley  on  the  Suir,  here  crossed  by 
a  bridge  of  twenty  orclies,  is  a  well.built  town,  and  has  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  com,  cattle,  bacon,  and  butter.  In  the  neigh- 
bourhood are  entensive  cornmills,  breweries,  and  a  distillery. 
Pop.  (1871)  ro,li2,ofwhom74  reside  in  Waterford,  C.  returns 
one  member  to  Parliament.  Tlie  town  was  the  birthplace  of 
Sterne,  and  the  scene  of  Smith  O'Brien's 'insurrection' in  1848. 

Clontarf'  {Irish  Gael.  Cluain-tarbh,  'the  meadow  of  the 
bulls'),  a  town  in  the  county  of  Dublin,  Ireland,  3  miles  E.N.E. 
of  Dublin,  a  favourite  sea-bathing  place,  and  famous  in  ancient 
Irish  history  as  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  the  Danes  by  Brian 
Boroimhe  in  1014.  Pop.  (r87i)  3442.  C.  had  a  'prioiy'  as 
early  as  550,  which  afterwards  came  into  the  hands  of  the 
Knights  Templars,  and  is  now  a  Carmelite  monastery.  C.  Castle, 
recently  burnt,  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  finest  specimens 
of  antiquity  in  the  British  Isles. 

Cloota  or  Olootz,  Jeau  Baptiste,  born  at  Val-de-Orace, 
near  Cleves,  June  Z4,  1755,  and  educated  at  Paris,  conceived  the 
idea  of  making  that  city  the  metropolis  of  the  universe,  and  aboli^- 
ing  national  distmctions.  Under  the  assumed  name  Anacharsis, 
be  traversed  Europe,  announcing  his  doctrine,  and  losing  great 
part  of  his  inherited  wealth.  Returning  to  Paris,  he  renounced 
his  rank  (of  baron)  in  the  Prussian  nobility,  and  assumed  the  title 
of  '  orator  of  the  human  race,*  in  which  capa.city  he  assisted  at 
the  absurd  ceremony  of  introducing  fictitious  delegates  from  all 
foreign  nations  to  the  Assembly.  Alter  the  September  massacres 
he  was  elected  a  deputy,  and  in  the  interests  of  his  universal 
republic  he  savagely  called  for  the  death  of  the  King.  A  treatise 
of  bis  in  support  of  Mohammedanism  was  gravely  approved  of  by 
the  Assembly.  At  last  Robespierre,  feeling  that  the  Hdbertist 
party  was  threatening  not  only  the  Jacobins  bat  the  Republic, 
denounced  C.  as  too  rich,  a  foreigner,  and  an  atheist.  C.  was 
executed  23d  March  1794.  His  writings  are,  like  himself,  curi- 
ous, but  of  no  consequence. 

Close,  a  term  used  in  heraldty  in  connection  with  birds  ad- 
dicted to  flight,  as  the  eagle  and  ml  con,  indicating  that  the  wings 


■7S 


y  Google 


OLO 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CLO 


ore  not  expanded,  or  disclosed,  which  is  tlie  technical  lerm.  C. 
applies  also,  in  the  same  art,  to  Tjamacles  at  bits  (or  liories,  wheu 
they  are  not  extended. 

Close-Haoled,  in  navigation,  is  the  manner  in  which  a  ship's 
sails  are  arranged  when  she  is  wanted  io  sail  as  nearly  in  the 
teeth  of  the  wind  as  possible. 

Olos'et,  in  heraldry,  a  diminutive  of  the  Bar  (q.  v.) — one- 
half  of  its  width. 

Clutaire,  tlie  French  form  of  the  name  of  several  Prankish 
kings  of  the  Mevwing  or  Merovingian  dynasiy.      See  Mer- 

piotheB-Motll  (Tinea),  the  name  given  to  various  species 
of  Lepidopterous  moths,  the  young  or  larvie  of  which  destroj' 
cloths,  furs,  and  other  fabrics,  by  biting  them  and  otherwise  de- 
stroying them,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  cocoons  or  pup*- 
eases  from  the  materials.  Of  this  genus  of  moths  (included  in 
the  sub-order  Hettmca-a,  and  in  the  family  Tindna),  the  T,  dt- 
stmctor,  T.  tapaana  of  wooEeo  fabrics,  and  the  T.  pcUiontlla 
of  futa,  are  ^miliar  species ;  whilst  T.  gramlla  or  the  Corn 
Moth  (q.v.)  is  found  in  granaries  and  libraries  also.  T.  destructor 
is  of  a  buff  colour;  T.  tafmana  has  the  front  wings  biaclt  at  their 
roots  and  the  rest  of  the  wings  white ;  whilst  in  T,  sarciiella,  an- 
other common  spedes,  the  colour  is  a  silky  grey,  the  head  ^d 
chest  being  white.  The  antennte  ace  filiform,  and  the  larvse  or 
caterpillars  have  eight  or  ten  pro-legs.  By  meaiia  of  their  sharp 
jaws  the  larvEe  nip  out  the  fabrics  in  which  they  live,  and  amid 
which  the  female  moth  has  deposited  her  eggs.  Exposure  to  air, 
and  saturation  with  the  odour  of  camphor  or  spirit  of  turpentine, 
are  the  most  effectual  means  for  destroying  these  forms.  But 
free  exposure  to  currents  of  air  and  cleanliness  are  the  surest 
preventives  from  their  attack. 

Clo'tMng,  Army,  is  a  department  of  the  British  military 
system.  Formerly  the  colonel  of  the  regiment  was  pafd  so  much 
a  year  for  clothing  it.  This  system,  as  was  to  be  expected,  led 
lo  gross  abuse.  The  colonel  contracted  with  a  tailor  for  a 
wholesale  supply  at  lowest  possible  price ;  the  officer  making  a 

¥<ifit,  it  used  to  be  calculated,  of  fully  fifteen  shillings  per  man. 
he  disasters  of  the  early  part  of  the  Crimean  war  gave  rise  to 
a  national  demand  for  reform  in  the  system.  Under  the  royal 
warrant  of  2lst  June  iSSS,  the  troops  are  clothed  at  the  direct 
expense  of  the  state,  the  colonels  receiving  compensation  for  the 
loss  of  their  former  perquisite.  The  cost  of  clothing  a  coniplele 
regtment  of  the  line  is  about^35oo  a  year.  The  cost  for  the 
whole  army  was,  in  1873,  ;£g23,o78,  of  which  ^180,000  fell 
lo  the  Ggvernment  of  India.  The  cost  of  a  uniform  for  a  pri- 
vate in  the  line  is  £2,  15s.  4d. ;  for  a  Life- Guardsman  it  is^S, 
15s. 

Glothing,  Navy.  In  the  royal  navy  a  certain  sum  is  sub- 
tracted from  the  pay  of  the  seamen  to  meet  the  expense  of  their 
clothing.  In  1859,  with  the  view  to  ftcilitate  the  manning  of 
the  navy,  the  Admiralty  made  the  following  offer  : — To  every 
man  on  Us  first  entering  the  navy  for  ten  years'  continuoiK ! 
and  to  all  boys  on  being  advanced  to  man's  rating,  a 
clothes,  consisting  of  the  following  made-up  articles  : — A  blue 
cloth  jacket  (No.  a  clofli),  17s.  8d. ;  a  pair  of  blue  cloth  trousera, 
da,  I  IS.  Jd.  ;  a  blue  serge  frock,  Ss.  6d.  j  a  duck  frock,  2s.  gd. ; 
a  pair  of  duck  trousers,  2s.  7d. ;  a  Wack  silk  handkerchief,  2s. 
lod.  ;  and  a  pair  of  shoes,  6s.  7d  Seamen  provided  already 
with  proper  costume  are  to  receive  the  money  value  of  the  above 

Clo'tho,  in  ancient  mythology,  one  of  the  three  Fates  01 
/'««^(q.v.). 

Cloth.o,  a  genus  of  Arachnids  (q.  v.)  or  Spiders  (q.  v.),  in- 
habiting the  S.  of  Europe  and  N.  of  Africa,  which  construct  a 
curious  tent-like  habitation  of  conical  shape,  fastened  to  rocks 
and  in  crevices  j  egress  and  ingress  being  obtained  through  a 
carious  doorway.  The  exterior  of  the  tent  is  purposely  stained 
for  concealment,  and  it  is  fastened  securely  by  cord-like  struc- 
tures to  its  basis  of  attachment.  C.  qiiinqiiemaculala\is.iii.!a\\\Bi 
spedes,  about  half  an  inch  long,  and  coloured  black  on  the  abdo- 
men.   Another  is  C.  Durandii, 

Oload,  St,  a  town  in  the  department  of  Seine-et-Oise,  Fratice, 

on  the  slope  of  a  hili  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine,  6  miles  S.W, 

176 


.  The  name  C.  is  a  eottuplion  of  Hlodoald,  a  grandson 
of  Clovis  (Hlodowig),  who,  forced  to  become  a  monk,  took  up  his 
residence  at  iQmiigaitum,  the  modem  St  C,  and  was  afterwards 
canonised.  Its  principal  attraction  was  its  splendid  chiteau, 
built  by  Maiarin,  long  tlie  residence  of  the  Dukes  of  Orleans,  and 
the  scene  of  many  memorable  historical  events.  Bonaparte  was 
here  named  First  Consul  in  1799,  and  here  Charles  X.  signed 
'  '  3  ordinances  of  July  1830.  It  was  the  headquarters  of 
from  April  7  to  June!,  1814,  and  also  of  BIncher  in 
ig  the  siege  of  Paris.  It  was  almost  wholly  destroyed 
by  the  fire  of  the  French  itrtillery,  13th  October  1E70,  as  it  was 
believed  to  be  the  headquarters  of  the  German  staff.  Pop, 
(187Z)  Z378. 

Cloudberry  (Rubus  CAam^mmtis),  a  plant  of  the  natural 
order  Rosacea,  allied  lo  the  bramble,  raspberry,  &c,  bearing  an 
agreeably  flavoured  fruit,  greatly  used  for  preserves  in  Norway 
and  SwKlen,  where  it  is  common.  It  is  also  found,  though  not 
plentifully,  in  high  situations  in  Britain,  The  Antarctic  repre- 
ntative  of  it  is  S.  glides  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  and  the  Falkland 
Islands. 

OloTida.  Moisture  is  always  being  evaporated  from  all  points 
on  the  surface  of  land  and  sea  1  its  rate  of  evaporation  lieing  in 
direct  ratio  to  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  and  in  inverse 
alio  to  its  density.  The  amount  of  moisture  is  shown  by  the 
i-et-bulb  thermometer,  which  gives  the  temperature  of  evapora- 
ion,  186,240  cubic  miles  of  vapour  are  annually  raised  from  the 
urface  of  the  globe.  Although  the  southern  hemisphere  possesses 
.hree  times  as  ranch  water  as  the  northern,  yet  psirtly  by  the 
direction  of  the  trade-winds,  partly  from  the  superior  conden- 
sation-power in  the  N.,  more  i^iin  and  fog  occur  there.  There 
is  absolutely  less  vapour  in  the  atmosphere  in  January  than  in  any 
other  month ;  while  in  July,  on  account  of  the  heat,  the  evaporation 
is  greatest.  The  chief  effect  of  moisture  in  the  air  is  to  obstruct 
the  passage  of  the  sun's  heat ;  there  is  also  considerable  absorption 
of  heat  on  evaporation.  In  the  region  of  C,  which  is  stated  by 
Kancptz  to  be  from  1300  to  21,320  feet,  but  which  balloon  obser- 
vations extend  to  an  elevation  of  perhaps  lOmilesfor  light  cirrus, 
the  cloud-air  is  dry,  the  moisture  being  condensed  by  the  colder 
air  into  C. :  these  C.  prevent  the  free  radiation  of  heat,  and  thus 
obstruct  the  formation  of  dew  on  the  earth.  The  quantity  of  C. 
manufactured  out  of  the  invisible  vapour  depends  on  the  differ- 
ences of  the  air  currents  in  temperature,  moisture,  and  velocity. 
in  Britain,  (he  heavy  E,  wind,  or  polar  current,  forces  upwards 
and  transforms  into  dense  black  C.  the  light  and  moist  S.W. 
wind.  In  the  balloon  observations  at  Kew,  the  temperature  of 
the  cloud-stratum,  varying  from  aootj  to  3000  feet  in  thickness, 
was  found  to  be  the  same  at  the  top  and  at  the  bottom.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  cloud-stratum  is  higher  over  land  than  over 
water,  and  increases  in  height  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  /.?., 
distance  from  the  sea.  In  intense  cold,  C,  often  consist  not  of 
vapour,  but  of  sm^ll  crystals  of  ice.  The  appearance  of  a  cloud 
depends  on  its  being  connected  with  an  ascending  current  of 
vapour  ;  when  this  ceases,  the  cloud  is  formed,  and  immediately 
begins  to  dissolve.  C.  also,  if  near  the  earth,  imitate  the  de- 
pressions and  elevations  whicli  they  extend  over.  There  is  no 
radical  difference  between  C,  and  fog,  the  latter  being  always 
close  to  the  ground,  which  is  then  generally  moister  and  warmer 
Uian  the  atmosphere.  The  cirrus,  or  cat's  tail,  is  the  highest  cloud ; 
it  consists  of  long  white  silver  horizontal  bands,  perhaps  con- 
taining snow  or  ice.  Travelling  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  it 
seems  stationary.  Their  parallelism  has  been  assigned  to  elec- 
trical conditions.  The  aurora  is  supposed  to  be  connected  with 
them  ;  it  is  in  this  region  that  halos  and  parhelia  are  formed. 
The  cumulus  is  the  rounded,  dense,  white,  mountainous  cloud  of 
the  daytime.  They  move  in  currents  near  the  earth,  and  are  in 
fact  formed  from  the  ascending  air  which  has  been  heated  on  the 
earth's  surface.  In  the  evening  they  often  mass  themselves  and 
deepen  in  coloar.  Still  lower  is  the  stratus  or  horizontal  band 
which  forms  at  sanset  and  disappears  in  the  morning.  It  includes 
the  white  and  grey  mists  formed  in  valleys  and  over  marshes. 
There  are  four  subordinate  forms  of  C. — the  drto-slratus,  3.  com- 
pact structure  of  filaments,  resembling  in  outline  and  position 
the  cirrus  ;  the  eumnlc-slralus,  a  mass  of  C. ,  having  at  sunrise  a 
black  or  bluish  tint  on  the  horizon,  and  passii^  into  the  nimbus, 
or  rain  and  thunder  cloud,  which  has  a  uniform  grey  tint,  fringed 
at  the  edges  ;  and  the  cirro-cumulus,  which  is  a  combination,  of 
course  in  endless  variety,  of  the  cumulus  and 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPALDIA. 


CLU 


--# 


C.  move  much  fasier  than  the  wind  at  the  surface  of  the  earth  ; 
the  rate  of  log  miles  an  hour  has  been  observed  at  Edinburgh, 
and  the  rate  of  72  miles  when  the  wind  was  blowing  at  42  miles 


Olougll,  Arthur  Hugh,  an  English  scholar  and  poet, 
bom  at  Liverpool,  1st  January  1819,  educated  at  Rugby  under 
Arnold,  passed  to  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  and  was  elected 
fellow  of  Oriel  m  1842.  The  theological  ^t'r  was  strong  at  tl 
time,  and  for  a  moment  it  seemed  as  if  C.  would  catch  it ;  but 
his  spirit  was  too  exquisitely  susceptible  of  living  impressions,  and 
his  mind  too  speculative,  or  rather  too  critical,  to  be  lo!^  en- 
thralled by  '  archseological  formulas.'  The  resjjlt  was  that  he 
went  the  other  way,  and  his  brief  career  was  mainly  shaped  by 
his  antagonism  to  the  '  form  of  thought  which  Oxford  exacted  of 
her  children.'  In  184S  he  resigned  his  fellowship,  and  in  the 
same  year,  a  little  earlier,  publisheji  the  Bptkk  of  Tober-na- 
Vuelkk,  a  'true  long-vacation  pastoral,'  in  classic4  Jisxameters, 
instmct  with  the  finest  aroma  of  el^ant  culture,  the  bright 
ioysof  coU^e  friendship,  the  humpur,  sj'mpathy,  sarcasm,  and 
luminous  tsTk  of  youth,  relieved  ^  picturesque  descriptions 
of  Highland  scenery  and  delineations  of  Highland  character. 
The  work  is  imperfect  in  art,  and'  is  now  breinning  to  fade  from 
the  memory ;  but  at  the  time  it  was  thought  to' indicate  a  new 
poet.  Next  year  (1840)  appeared  his  Amiianialia.  After  leav- 
ing Oxford,  C.  travelled  in  France,  Italy,  and  America,  w^s 
appointed  an  examiner  in  the  Education  Department  Qf  the 
Privy  Council  in  1853,  and  m  1S56  secretary  to  the  Commission 
of  Report  on  Militaiy  Education.  His  health  now  gave  way  ; 
after  visits  to  Greece  and  Constantinople,  and  a  short  return  to 
England,  he  was  again  ordered  to  the  Continent ;  but  was  car. 
ried  off  by  malaria  fever  at  Florence,  13th  Novemho- 1861.  C.'s 
nature  was  smgularly  pure,  tender,  and  strong,  aiid  his  talent 
incomparably  greater  than  his  fame  is  IJhely  to  fje.  See  Pesms 
by  A.  H.  C.  wilk  a  Memoir,  by  F.  T.  Palgraye  (Lond.  1S62). 

Clouted  or  Olotted  Creaip,  a  delectable  luxury,  prepared 
by  boiling  milk  on  which  the  cream  has  risen,  and  skimming  oif 
the  cream,  in  which  a  quantity  of  epagulated  casein  becomes 

tangled  by  boihng.^The  S.W.  of  England,  especially  Devonr 


s  noted  for  its  C.  C. 
Clove,  or  CtiUlawan  Bark  (see  Cinnamon),  is 


e  of  Ceylon 

Clove  GUHflower,  the  aromatic  scented  double-flowered  varie- 
ties of  Dianikus  CaryophyUus. 

CUnis  Nutirug,  the  fruit  of  Agaihephyllum  aromaticum,  one 
of  the  Lauracea,  which  is  aromatic,  though  the  keniel  which  it 
encloses  is  of  an. acrid  caustic  taste.  Thp  I«i*es  are  used  in 
condiment. 


Clo'ver,  or  Trefoil  { Trifplium),  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  order  Leguminasa  (sub-order  FaCUionaces).  There  are 
from  fifteen  to  twei(ty  British  species  of  Trifolium;  about  one 
half  are  pasture  plants,  the  rest  mere  wgeds,  of  no  economic 
importance.  The  cultivated  species  ot  C.  are— The'  red  C 
(7".  pratcnsi),  the  zigzag  C  (7^  medium^,  ihp  carnatioii  C. 
{T.  incamalum).  All  the  above  have  red  flowers.  Tlie  follow- 
ing spedes  have  pinkish  or  white  flowers:— The  Alsike  C.  (7". 
ij'in'fl'um),  the  white  or  Dutch  C.  {T.  ripens)}  v/hile  T. prociim- 
Sens  and  T.filifomu  have  yellow  flowers. 

The  red  C.  is  much  einployed  as  a  'shifting'  crop,  either  by 
itself  or  in  the  mixtures  known  to  the  farmer  as  '  seeds.'  It  is 
now  so  much  a  cultivated  plant  that  it  is  found  difficult  to  make 
it  stick  to  lands  as  perfectly  as  it  once'  did  :  such  soils  are  de- 
scribed as  '  C.  sick. 

The  zigzag  C,  sq  called  from  the  angular  bends  at  each 
joint  of  the  stalk,  is  a  lover  of  sandy  soil,  and  is  probably  only  a 
variety  of  the  red  or  broad-leaved  C.  It  is  usually  known  by . 
the  seedsmen  as  the  'pow  grgss,'  though  it  is  rare  to  find  two 
seedsmen  supplying  the  same  plant  under  that  name.  The  car- 
nation or  Mian  C.  isanintroductionfrom  theContineiit,  andis 
nsed  on  upland  soils  upon  the  white-crop  stubble  sown  in  tlie 
autumn.     There  are  several  varietiea  of  it. 

The  Alsike  C.  is  also  a  Continental  form.  From  possessing 
characters  intermediate  between  the  red  and  the  Dutch  C.  it 
gets  its  name  of  hybridaia,  though  its  hybcidity  is  not  ad- 
mitted by  botanists.    It  is  a  gofld  pastiire  gr^s?.    ITie  Dutdi  C. 


is  a  valuable  feeding  plant  in  dry  and  thhi  soils.  T.  proeumien. , 
the  hop  or  procumbent  trefoil,  is  a  different  plant  from  the  hop 
trefoil  of  the  farmer  (which  is  Medicago  lupjdina).  T.  jUiforme  is 
of  httle  importance  (Professor  Buckman).  Bokhara  C.  is  Meli- 
lotus  leucantha;  bosli  C.  and  Japan  C,  American  names  for  Les- 
pedeiajptaine  C,  an  American  name  ioi  Feialaslaiion ;  Soola  C. 
and  Maltese  C,  He(fysarum  ceronariuiK  ;  sweet  C,  an  American 
name  for  Mslilotus.     See  Medick,  Melilot,  and  Shamrock. 

Clover  Weevil  {Apisn\  a  genus  of  Coleopteia  or  Beetles  of 
the  section  Pmtatnera  and  family  Rhynchophora.  This  insect 
has,  therefore,  the  head  prolonged  to  form  a  rostrum  or  beak, 
and  derives  its  name  from  its  feeding  on  the  leaves  of  the  clover, 
the  larvK  eating  into  the  clover  flowei-s.  A.  ajrieans  infests  the 
red,  and  A.  favipes  the  white  cloyer.'  The  former  is  about  a  line 
or  a  httle  more  in  length,  and  is  coloured  of  a  dark-blue  or  blacltish- 

6lov^a.     S.ee  CARYOPHyLLus. 

CloVis,  the  Latinised  form  of  the  name  of  the  Frankish 
King  Hlodsitiig  (q.  v.). 

Clojme  ll^ish'Cael.  Cluain-uam^a,  •  the  meadow  of  the  cave'}, 
atownmfliecountyofCork,  Irelan(i,l5miles  E.  by  S.  of  Cork. 
Its  cpthpdral  dates  from  the  13th  c  C  was  once  a  separate 
bishops  see,  but  was  re-united  in  1835  "with  that  of  Cork,  from 
which  it  had  been  disjoined  in  1678.  'The  famous  Berkeley  was 
Bishop  of  C.  There  is  little  or  no  trade.  Pop.  (1871)  1235. 
St  Colman  MacLenin  founded  a  monastery  here  in  604,  and  the 
cave  from  which  the  place  is  named  is  still  tj)  be  seen. 

Clab  (whjch  has  been  conjecturally  derived  from  the  Old 
Eng.  cleojian,  '  to  cleave,'  and  Welsh  clapiaw,  '  to  form  into  a 
lump '),  may  be  applied  f  o  any  voluntacy  unincorporated  society 
possessuig  a  common  fund,  derived  from  the  contribuHons  of  its 
members,  and  generally  managed  by  a  committee,  who  are  not 
entitled  to  make  theirconstituents  liable  for  any  expenses  beyond 
the  purposes  for  which  tlie  C.  was  formed.    Clubs  for  dinner 

a  prominent  featul-e  in  the  early  religious  pr  social  gilds  (a  word 
connected  with  flie  Welsh  gviyl,  BreWn  gofl,  and  Gaelic  feill,  'a 
feast  or  holiday').  Thus  the  gild  of  Abbotsbury  had  a  yearly 
hanquet,  to  which  the  poor  wei-e  admitted,  the  members  being 
obliged  to  furnish  so  much  bread  '  well  boueted  and  thoroughly 
baked.'  Support  and  nursing  of  sick  gifd  brothers,  burial  of 
the  dead,  ^d  performance  of  religio;us  services,  were  also 
objects  of  the  early  gilds.  This  common  mfal  \ik&  bgen  derived 
ffom  tlie  old  Teutonic  sacrificial  banquet,  and  has'been  com- 
pared to  the  Greek  eranoi  (see  Bekker's  Chdrides,  ii.  239)  and 
the  banquets  of  the  Koman  collegia.  These  fraternities  were 
spread  ail  oyer  Catholic  Euippe  in  the  middle  ages,  there  being 
eighty  in  Cologne  and  one  hundred  in  Hamburg,  One  of  their 
ceremonies  is  curiously  preserved  in  '  the  march  of  the  members 
of  the  En'giirfi  benefit  societies  to  morning  sefvjce  ip  their  church 
before  the  midday  dinner,  the  ciicket-match  and  games  of  the 
afternoon,  and  the  evening  dance.-'  As  the  later  frith-gilds,  gilds- 
merchant,  and  trade-unicms  all  in  their  time  acquhed  a  'corporate 
existence,  theyseerohardiy  to  fall  under  the  term  C.  It  would,  of 
course,  be  impossible  to  mention  the  objects,  charitable,  political, 
convivial,  aiid  religious,  for  which  clubs  have  heen  formed. 
Among  others,  we  may  note  the  '  Mermaid'  of  Shajtespeare  ;  the 
'  King's  Head  and  Green  Ribbon  C,'  of  the  Shaftesbury  clique ; 
the  'C.'  of  Presbyterian  and  Tory  Jacobitps,  which  organised  in 
Pen^ton's  Tavern  the  opposition  to  the  Revolution  eetflement  m 
the  Scots  Parliament  of .  16S9.90.  Specunens  of  the  fantastic  club 
are  the  'Calf's-HeadC.,' whidi  (as.late  as  1735)  use'd  to  dine  off" 
calfs-head,  in  contempt  of  the  memory  of  Charies  1.,  solemnly 
burning  the  Ikon  BasilikS,  and  swearing  republicanism  over  Mil- 
ton's Defmsio  PopuH  Anglkani;  ;md  the  '  Ugly  C.,'  celebrated  by 
the  Speetalor,  of  which  the  qualifications  of  members  were  defined 
by  an '  Act  of  Deformity.'  Earlyih  the  l8lhp,  the  Hell-Fire  Clubs, 
which  used  Tartarean  names,  and  burned  sulphur  at  their  blasphe- 
mous meetings,  were  denounced  by  an  Order  of  Council  {28th 
April  1721).  In  the  latter  half  of  the  same  century  the  celebrated 
convivial  clubs  of '  The  Society  of  Bucks'  and  'John  Shaw's  Punch- 
House  '  were  formed  at  Liverpool  and  Mandiester  respectively. 
The  'Scramble  C,,'  and  the  'Oyster  and  Parched- Pea  C  of 
Preston  (which  included  among  its  office-bearers  an  Oystericus 
and  a  Clerk  of  the  Peas),  belonged  to  the  same  period.  Among 
the  political  clubs  of  the  period  of  tlie  French  Revolution,  may 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CLU 


OTtioned  the  C.  des  Enrages,  Breton  C,  Socifti  Publuok. 
The  '  Breton '  developed  into  the  '  C.  of  Friends  of  the  Constitu- 
tion '  and  after  it  met  in  the  hall  of  the  Jacobin  Convent,  the 
'Jacobins,'  who,  known  as  the  SociUs  Mere,  had  300  affiliated 
dubs  in  France.  Bamave,  Mirabenu,  and  Robespierre  be- 
longed to  it.  Still  more  violent  were  the  'Cordaiers,  among 
whom  were  DesmouUns  and  Danton.  Lafayette's  C.  was  the 
^«*(i'/anj,  or 'Club  of  1789,  Friends  of  the  Monarchic Constitu- 
tioa'  Of  the  same  complexion  was  the  C.  des  Menarchiem.  It 
was  the  '  Electoral  C. '  which,  meeting  at  the  HStel  de  Ville, 
constituted  itself  a  proviaonal  municipality,  and,  as  the  ai&ir  of 
the  Bastille  approached,  a  permanent  committee  for  arms.  Clubs 
for  amusements,  such  as  cricket,  boating,  chess,  debaHng,  are 
now  common.  The  London  '  Four-in-Hand  C  is  perhaps  the 
most  aristocratic.  In  France,  Italy,  Svritzeriand,  and  England, 
Alpine  clubs  have  existed  tor  many  years ;  their  IVansachem 
contdn  much  interesting  description  and  some  scientific  obser- 
vation. Dr  Ball  and  Mr  Tucker  have  been  the  most  successful 
members  of  the  English  Alpine  C.  Their  chief  advantage  bes  in 
the  certainty  of  reliable  guides  and  experienced  companions.  In 
181 2  the '  Roxburghe  C,,'  for  (he  printing  or  reprmtmg  of  a  limited 
number  of  copies  of  rare  and  interesting  hooks  or  documents, 
was  formed  on  the  occasion  of  the  public  sale  of  the  Duke  of 
Roxburghe's  library ;  it  was  followed  by  the  Maitland,  Spalding, 
and  Bannatyne  clubs  in  Scotland. 

Among  the  great  London  dubs  ought  to,  be  mentioned  the 
'  Rota  Coffee  C  tn  New  Palace  Yard,  to  which  Millon,  Mar- 
veU,  and  Harrington  belonged;  the  'October  and  Mareh  C., 
consisting  of  Tories  under  Barley  and  St  John  ;  the  '  K.t-Kat 
C '  in  Shire  Lane,  to  which  Halifax,  Marlborough,  Walpole, 
and  other  Whigs  bdonged  ;  '  Almack's  (originally  '  Brooke  s  ) 
Chocolate  €.,'  founded  in  Pall  Mall  in  1 764  i  '^WMte  s,'  removed 
to  St  lames  Street  in  1736,  to  which  Chesterfield,  Cibber,  and 
Eubb  Doddingtoii  bdonged;  'Turk's  Head  C.,'  to  which  in 
1761  Reynolds,  Johnson,  Burke,  and  Goldsmith  bdonged,  re- 
moved  to  Thatched  House,  and  now  the  '  Literary  C. ;  '  Cocoa- 
Tree  C  ,' where  Smollett  did  his  election  bribing;  'Beefsteak 
C.,'  founded,  with  the  motto  'Steaks  and  Liberty,  by  Lord 
Peterborough  in  honour  of  Peg  Wofiington,  to  which  Colman 
and  Garrick  bdonged,  and  from  which  Wilkes  was  expelled  for 
hia  Essiy  on  Woman,  'Will's  €.,'  where  Dryden  talked;  and 
'  Button's  C'  frequented  by  Addison. 

Olubb'ing,  a  disease  affecting  the  roofs  of  cabbages  and  allied 
plants,  the  result  of  which  Is  that  the  whole  force  of  vegetation 
IS  carried  upwards  to  the  leaf  and  stem,  causing  the  destruction 
of  those  parts.  It  is  a  local  disease,  and  probably  depends  upon 
peculiar  conditions  of  the  soil.  Mr  Berkley  recommends,  as  the 
most  effectual  preventive  of  it  in  districts  subject  to  the  disease, 
to  put  a  small  quantity  of  wood  ashes 
(he  root  of  each  plant  is  placed. 


■)  the  hole  in  which 


Club-Foot,  or  Talipes, 


ly  he  due  to  the  contraction  of  1 
lain  muscles,  or  to  the  paralysis  of 
others.  It  is  generally  congenital, 
but  is  sometimes  the  result  of  dis- 
ease or  destitution.  Four  kinds 
are  usually  described  bysurgeons, 
I.  Talipes  equinus.  The  muscles 
of  the  calf  are  contracted,  the  pa- 
tient walks  on  the  front  of  the 
foot,  and  the  heel  is  raised  from 
tlie  ground.  This  kind  is  usually 
a  result  of  teething.  2.  T.  varus, 
the  most  common  foiin  of  C-F. 
The  patient  walks  on  the  outer 
edge  of  the  foot.  3.  T.  vagus,  a 
rare  form,  compelling  the  person 
to  walk  on  thei»«ffl-aspect  of  the 
foot.  4.  T.  caUanms,  in  which 
the  person  walks  on  the  heeL 
Sometimes  we  find  several  of  these 
forms  in  the  same  foot  The  pro 
per  treatment  consists  in  dividmg 
the  tendons  of  the  contracted 
muscles,  by  a  thin  knife  under 
neath  the  skin,  and  applying 
position.       In    children    C   F    is 


Club-Graas,  a  common  name  for  Corynephorous,  a  grass  be- 
longing to  the  oat  tribe  {Avm<s),  by  some  not  considered  distinct 
from  Aira.  Though  rare  in  England,  it  is  generally  diffused 
diroughout  the  continent  of  Europe. 

Club-Hcrases,  in  London,  Law  Begaxding.  It  is  now 
settled  (Fleming  v.  Hector)  that  these  have  no  legal  character 
similar  to  commercial  partnerships  or  joint-stock  companies, 
and  that  the  members  are  not  liable  for  the  acts  of  their  secre- 
taries, stewards,  or  committees. 
Club-Mosa.  See  Lvcopodiacea!. 
Club-Ittish.     See  Scirpus. 

Olupei'dEe,  a  family  of  Teleostean  fishes  bdongmg  to  tlie 
sub-order  MaiacopteH,  and  indudmg  the  herrings,  pilchards, 
sprats,  sardines,  anchovies,  &c  It  is  distmguished  by  its  mem- 
bers possessing  scales  of  large  size,  by  the  wide  mouth,  into  the 
formation  of  which  both  maxillary  and  inter-maxillaty  bones 
enter  ■  by  the  single  dorsal  fin,  and  by  the  absence  of  a  second 
soft  or  adipose  fin.  Most  of  the  Cpossess  numerous  fylonc  reua, 
or  appendages  to  the  stomach.  The  ventral  fins  are  abdominal 
in  position  (Abdamituilia).  The  Air- Bladder  (q,  v.)  communicates 
with  the  throat  by  a  duct.  Sometimes  the  bdly  is  rendered  ser- 
rate by  the  presence  of  irregular  scales. 

Clupeaoc'idse,  a  family  of  Teleostean  fishes,  induded  in  the 
MalacopterouE  sub-order,  and  allied  to  the  Herring  family  {Clu- 
peida:,  a.  v.),  and  to  the  Pikes  {Esi-cida).  The  members  of  this 
group  are  both  marine  and  fresh  water  in  habits.  None  are 
found  in  British  waters.  The  genera  Arapaima,  HeUrotis,  and 
Butirinus  are  examples  of  the  C,  which  is  not,  however,  regarded 
as  a  typical  group  by  some  ichthyologists. 

Clu'Bia,  a  lai^e  genus  of  tropical  American  trees  or  shrubs, 
the  type  of  the  natural  order  Clusiacea  or  Cstitifene,  so  named 
from  Charles  de  I'Eduse  or  Clusius,  a  famous  botanist  of  (he 
1 6th  c.  C.  grandifiom,  with  its  large  leaves,  from  7  mcbes  to  a 
foot  in  length,  and  white  flowers  $  or  6  inches  in  diameter,  is  one 
of  the  beaudful  trees  of  the  tropics.  C.  itisigms,  or  wax-flower, 
is  a  Brazilian  and  Demerara  species,  whose  fioweis  excrete  a 
quantity  of  resm,  which,  when  rubbed  with  the  butter  of  the 
diocolate-nut,  is  used  by  the  Braailian  women  to  aUeviate  the 
pain  of  a  sore  breast  (Von  Martins).  A  similar  resin,  jiidded  by 
C.  alba,  C.  rosea,  and  C.  fiova,  ai  the  W.  Indies,  is  used  by 
the  Caribs  for  painting  the  bottom  of  their  canoes.  C.  Galacto- 
dendroii  is  one  of  the  Palo  de  Vaca,  or  '  cow  trees  of  Venezuela 
and  other  portions  of  S.  America,  so  called  from  the  milky  juice 
which  exudes  from  indsions  made  in  the  bark  being  used  as  a 
substitute  tor  milk.  It  is  affirmed  by  the  credulous  that  the 
'milk'  flows  mOTC  fully  just  before  the  full  of  the  moon;  one 
ti-ee  will  yidd  a  quart  in  an  hour.  The  milk  is  nourishmg, 
though  the  use  of  it  leaves  a  sensation  of  astringency  on  (he  hps 
and  palate.  C.  Duca  yields  the  duca  resm  of  Colombia,  which 
is  burnt  for  the  sake  of  its  agreeable  odour.  Many  of  the  species 
are  epiphytes— ;>.,  paiasites  on  the  stems  of  other  trees.  Alto- 
gether about  thirty  spedes  are  described. 

Cluaia'oeEe,  or  Guttiferse,  a  natural  order  of  trees  or  shrubs 
belonrine  to  the  Dicotyledons  (division  Tkalamijiora),  natives 
of  ihe  himiid  tropics  of  S.  America,  There  are  thh(y-two  genera, 
and  about  1 50  species  described.  Most  of  the  plants  have  acnd 
PToperiies,  and  yield  a  yellow  resin.  Among  the  chief  and  com- 
mon plants  of  the  order  are  Gambooge  (q.  v. ),  Mangosteen  ftint 
{Garoiina  Mansostana),  the  American  Mammee  apple  {Mamtaea 
Americana),  bitter  or  Weandee  oil  (from  C.  inophylium  of 
India),  the  batter-tree  of  Sierra  Leone  (Pentadesnia  bulpracea), 
&c 

Oluao'ne,  a  town  m  the  province  of  Bergamo,  N.  Italy,  near 
the  Serio,  17  miles  N,E.  of  Bergamo,  has  linen  manufactures, 
■md  a  trade  in  iron,  copper,  vitriol,  com,  &c.  Pop.  5500.  C. 
IS  also  the  name  of  a  small  river  of  N.  Italy,  which  joms  the  Po 
some  18  miles  S.  of  Turin. 

Clustered  CoI'Timiis,  or  Compound  Piers,  one  of  the 
richest  fcatui'es  in  Gothic  ecclesiastical  architecture,  when  the 
shafts  01  columns  are  attached  to  each  other  sometimes  for  their 
whole  length,  at  other  times  only  at  the  base  and  capital.    C,  C. 


e  susceptible  of  very  effective  adornment,  as  with  floriated 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Clu'tha,  or  Mol'yneux,  the  largest  river  in  New  Zealand, 
issues  from  Laie  Wanaka,  in  the  province  of  Otago,  in  44°  35' 
S.  lat.,  169°  zd  E.  long.,  and  after  a  S.E.  course  of  200  miles, 
falls  into  the  S.  Pacific  in  46°  18'  S.  lat,  169°  38'  E.  long.  Its 
principal  tributaries  are  the  Kawarau  (draining  Late  Wakatipu), 
Mannherikia,  and  Pomahaka.  The  C.  is  a  Tery  deep  and  rapid 
river,  and  was  computed  by  the  late  Mr  Balfour,  colonial  marine 
engineer,   to   discharge    1,690,000   cubic   feet    of   water   per 

Cluy'tia,  a  genus  of  Euphorbiaceous  plants,  natives  of  Africa, 
and  found  in  great  abundance  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  C. 
lanceolata.  is  said  to  be  used  in  Abyssinia  as  a  cure  for  dysentery 
ill  cattle. 

Olwyd,  a  Celtic  word  found  both  m  the  Cymric  and  Gaelic 
tongues,  and  derived  from  an  adjective  meaning  '  strong.'  Tliis 
adjective  is  seen  in  the  names  of  several  rivers  in  Scofland  and 
Wales  — if.^;,  the  'Clyde'  in  Lanarkshire,  and  the  'Cluden' 
near  Dumfries;  the  'C.,'  ' Cloyd,'  and  ' Clydach,'  in  Wales, 
which  were  probably  so  named  from  the  strength  or  rapidity 
of  their  current.  By  far  the  largest  and  most  unportant  is  the 
Scottish  river,  the  Clyde  (q.  v,).-  The  only  other  requiring 
notice  is  the  C.  of  N.  Wales,  which  rises  in  the  Bronbanog  Hills, 
in  the  S.W.  of  Denbighshire,  flows  in  a  northerly  direction  past 
Ruthin,  St  Asaph,  and  Rhyddlan,  and  falls  into  the  Irish  Sea 
between  the  shires  of  Denbigh  and  Flint,  after  a  course  of  30 

Clyde,  a  river  of  Scotland,  rises  in  an  amphitheatre  of  the 
Lowther  Hills,  in  the  extreme  S.E.  angle  of  Lanarkshire,  near 
the  sources  of  the  Tweed  and  the  Annan.  It  lias  its  origm  m 
the  Daer  Water  and  several  other  mountain  streams,  of  repute 
among  anglers.  After  flowmg  N.  for  some  20  miles,  and  sweep- 
ing round  the  E.  base  of  Tinto  Hill,  it  has  a  sinnous  course  in  a 
north-westerly  dhection  through  the  picturesque  Dale  of  C.  01 
Clydesdale,  till  it  expands  into  a  broad  estuary,  and  eventually 
into  a  firth  of  the  same  name.  Its  only  considerable  tributaries 
are  the  Douglas,  Avon,  Calder,  and  Leven,  and  the  principal 
towns  it  passes  are  Gla^ow,  Lanark,  Hamilton,  Renfrew,  Dum- 
barton,  Helensbui^h,  Greenock,  and  Gourock.  The  Vale  of  C. 
is  famous  alike  for  its  orchards,  its  coal  and  iron,  and  its  horses. 
By  far  the  most  singular  feature  of  the  upper  C.  itself  is  its  series 
of  romantic  fklls  near  Lanark,  where  the  bed  of  sandstone  and 
shale  has  been  ploughed  into  deep  gorges  and  gloomy  defiles, 
through  which  the  river  descends  some  230  feet  m  less  than  6 
miles.  The  falls,  which  are  beautifully  flanked  with  savage 
diffe  and  wooded  slopes,  are  four  in  number— (l)  Bonniton  Linn, 
consisting  of  a  single  leap  of  30  feet ;  (2)  Corra  Linn,  the  mo- 
magnificent  of  the  four,  havmg  one  cataract  of  90  feet,  and 
total  descent  of  120 ;  (3)  Dundaff  Linn,  a  miniature  cascade  of 
10  feet ;  and  (4)  Stonebyres,  forming  three  succesave  falls,  like 
Corra  Lmn,  of  70  feet.  At  Glasgow  the  C.  becomes  navigable 
for  large  vessels,  and  bfgins  to  assume  the  appearance  of  a  great 
trading  and  shipbuilding  river.  Its  estuary  rapidly  widens  below 
Dumbarton,  until  between  Greenock  and  Hdensbuigh  it  has  a 
width  of  4  miles ;  tiut  the  promontory  of  Roseneath  here  hinders 
its  further  extension,  staiidmg  well  out  into  the  channel,  and 
sepamtmg  the  Gare  Loch  from  Loch  Long,  both  arms  of  the 
estuary  stretchuig  in  a  northerly  direction.  After  sending  off 
Loch  Long  to  the  N.  and  Holy  Loch  to  the  W. ,  the  main  stream 
turns  abruptly  S.,  opens  into  the  Kyles  of  Bute,  but  continues 
along  the  coast  of  Renfrew  and  Ayr,  until  it  me^es  in  the  Irish 
Channel  at  Ailsa  Ciaig.  Its  length  to  Glasgow  is  75  miles,  and 
its  further  course  is  4S  to  Cantire,  where  it  is  considered  that  the 
Firth  of  C.  begms.  The  river  has  a.basin  of  1500  sq.  miles.  In 
1859  a  fort  (Mathilda)  was  erected  about  a  mile  to  the  W.  of 
Greenock  for  the  defence  of  the  C.  Sir  John  Hawkshaw  Issued 
a  report  on  the  pollution  of  the  C.  and  its  tributaries  in  1876. 

Clyde,  Lord.     See  Campeeli,  Sir  Colim. 

Clydesdale  Horse,  a  breed  which  originally  belonged  to 
Lanarkshire  and  Ayrshire,  but  whose  gi'eat  strength,  fine  action, 
noble  form,  and  substance  have  made  it  much  appreciated  in 
England,  on  the  Continent,  in  America  and  Australia.  It  is  the 
best  workhorse  m  the  world,  and  as  much  as  ^^1500  has  been 
given  for  one.     See  HoRSBS. 

Olys'ter  (from  Qt.klusc,   'Ivrash  out'),  or  En'ema  (Gr. 

■,(ma,  '  an  injection,'  from  miemi,  '  I  send  in '),  i.i  a  medicine 


which  is  injected  up  the  lower  bowel  the  1  q  1  forn.  It  is 
used  when  we  wish  to  empty  the  1  o«el=  speed  1)  or  vhon  the 
mot  swallow,  as  in  apoplexy  or  paralys  al  0  for  the 
purpose  of  conveying  into  the  syaten  sti  ulant  or  1  ourishing 
substances.  Turpentine  is  frequently  ad  n  n  stered  a  a  C.  to 
ouse  from  coma,  opium  to  relieve  pam  and  brin  ly  and  beef- 
a  to  nourish,  &c. 

Clytasmnea'tra,  according  to  Homer  a  d-iughter  of  Tyn- 
treus  and  Leda,  and  half-sister  of  Helen,  became  the  wife  of 
Agamemnon,  to  whom  she  bore  Orestes,  Iphigenia,  and  Electra. 
During  her  husband's  absence  at  Troy  she  fiirmed  an  adulterous 
connection  with  jEgisthus,  and  on  Agamemnon's  return  she 
murdered  him  in  the  bath  ;  a  crime  for  which,  seven  years  after- 
wards, her  own  son  Orestes  took  her  life. 

Onidos'colns,  a  genus  of  Eup/iorbiaceie,  consisting  of  shrubs 
or  herbaceous  plants  belonging  to  Africa.  C.  sliirmlans—a  native 
of  the  Southern  Slates  of  America- on  account  of  the  lacerated  seg- 
ments of  the  leaves,  which  are  covered  with  spreading  hair,  sting- 
mg  the  naked  feet  of  (he  negroes,  is  well  known  as '  Tread  Softly. ' 
Its  tuberoas  coots  are  eaten  like  those  of  cassava.  C.  ^iatnte- 
tokis  stings  even  more  terribly,  and  on  this  account  is  slninned  as 
cultivated  plant.  In  some  cases  the  persons  so  stung  will  fall 
down,  and  remain  quite  unconsdous  for  some  time.  In  even' 
case  an  eKcruciafing  pain  is  experienced,  which,  according  to  Mr 
Black,  from  whom  we  take  this  account,  'lasts  for  some  days, 
and  the  parts  swell,  and  sometimes  continue  swollen,  accom- 
panied by  an  itching  sensation,  for  months.' 

Oni'dus,  or  Gni'dus,  anciently  a  city  of  Caria,  Asia  Minor, 
on  the  W,  extremity  of  the  penmsula  of  Triopion  (now  Cape 
Krio),  which  formed  the  S.  side  of  the  Ceramic  B^.  A  Lace- 
demonian colony,  and  a  member  of  the  Dorian  Hexapohs,  it 
soon  acquired  wealth,  and  patronised  art— one  of  its  temples 
being  adorned  by  the  famous  naked  Venus  of  Praxiteles.  The 
larger  of  its  two  ports  was  formed  by  transverse  moles  carried 
out  into  the  sea,  one  of  which  is  still  almost  entire.  Eudoxu 
the  mathematician  and  friend  of  Plato,  was  a  native  of  C. 

Coacll.  The  word  is  said  by  Taylor  to  be  an  English  form 
of  the  Ger.  katsche,  which  itself  comes  from  the  Magyar  kote^, 
while  that  again  has  been  formed  from  Kottsee,  the  name  of  a 
town  in  Hungary.  The  C.  is  a  box-like  caniage,  with  four  wheels, 
mounted  on  springs  or  suspended  on  leathers.  Carriages  were 
employed  by  the  ancients  in  travelling.  The  carpenlum  of  the 
Romans  was  a  richly  decorated  two-wheeled  vehicle,  covered 
with  an  awnmg,  and  chiefly  used  for  the  conveyance  of  Roman 
matrons  in  the  days  of  the  Republic,  and  during  the  Empire  a  four- 
wheeled  carriage,  called  carruca,  was  invented ;  but  there  is  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  either  of  these  was  suspended  on  leathers. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  I3lh  c,  the  Queen  of  Charles  of  Anjou 
entered  Naples  in  a  carelta,  a  small  highly-adorned  car  ;  which, 
according  to  Beckman,  is  the  first  instance  of  the  use  of  a  C.  in 
Europe.  In  the  i6thc.  coaches  commonly  appeared  m  European 
state  ceremonies,  particularly  in  Germany;  and  in  1588  they 
had  become  so  general  that  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  fiirbade  his 
vassals  to  use  them,  in  so  far  as  they  discouraged  the  more 
manly  and  skilful  exercise  of  horsemanship.  In  that  cMvalno 
age,  m  England,  it  was  also  regarded  as  effeminate  for  men  to 
ride  in  coaxes,  which  were  introduced  from  the  Netherlands  in 
1564,  as  recorded  by  Taylor  the  water-poet.  The  earliest  car- 
riages m  England  during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  were  called  cka- 
Hats,  chara,  cars,  and  wAirlicoiis ;  tlie  chariot  being  the  oldest 
wheeled  vehicle,  and  primarily  only  a  w^gon  or  cart.  Private 
coacheswerenotuncororoonat  theendoftheifiihc,  . 
period  it  appears  that  carriages  were  divided  into  two  classes, 
coaches  and  caroches,  the  latter  being  lat^r  and  heavier,  though 
considered  more  stately  and  more  appropriate  for  court  pageantry 
than  the  former,  which  were  relegated  to  the  conntiy.  Carriages 
were  quite  common  throughout  Europe  generally  in  the  two  suc- 
ceeding centuries,  Hogarth  has  embalmed  in  his  pictures  the 
appeaiance  of  the  sumptuously  carved  and  gilt  carriages  of  his 
time,  and  they  certainly  look  ill-adapted  for  rapid  motion,  highly 
perched  as  the  bodv  is  on  slim  supports  between  the  two  widely 
separated  pairs  of  wheels.  An  example  of  English  coachmakin^ 
of  the  17th  c,  stilt  in  a  condition  for  use,  exists  m  the  '  Speaker  s 
C  It  is  made  of  elaboratdy  carved  oak  with  richly  painted  and 
gilt  panels,  and  measures  14  feet  from  ^le  to  axle,  the  total 
length  being  19  feet.     The  royal  s 


s  constructed,  for 


179 


vLiOOQle 


COA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOFjEDIA. 


COA 


the  coronation  of  Geoi^e  III.  in  1761.  Its  frame  is  composed 
of  eight  palm-trees  whose  branches  support  the  roof,  which  is 
surmounted  by  a  crown,  home  by  boys  emblematical  of  the  three 
kingdoms.  Various  figures  support  the  body  and  the  coach- 
man's box,  his  footbo^  being  a  scallop-shell,  and  the  whole 
stmcture  is  adorned  with  carved  trophies,  painted  allegorical 
and  mythologicd  designs,  &c.  Its  length  is  24  feet,  breadth 
Si  feet,  and  height  iz  feet. 

Hackney  Coaches  first  appeared  in  the  streets  of  London  in 
1625,  They  do  not  derive  their  name  from  Haclmey,  in  London, 
as  is  commonly  supposed,  but  from  the  French  haquenes,  a  cob- 
horse,  the  vehicle  to  which  the  anunal  was  harnessed  being 
called  cochi-h-hamien4t.  The  hansom  was  patented  in  1834,  but 
since  then  many  improvements  have  been  effected  on  the  original 
design.  About  the  siime  time  a  four-wheeled  vehicle  was  intro- 
duced into  London,  and  usurped  the  name  cab,  which  previously 
belonged  to  the  two-wheeled  cabriolet  imported  from  Paris  about 
1820.  It  is  said  that  Lord  Brougham  was  so  fascinated  with  the 
general  appearance  of  the  'cal^' that  he  ordered  a  better  finished 
C.  of  the  same  shape,  whi<^  has  since  borne  his  name,  and 
become  the  national  carriage  of  England.  Carriage-building  is 
carried  to  greater  perfection  in  England  than  in  any  other 
country,  and  of  the  numerous  varieties  of  pleasure  carriages,  the 
brougham,  landau,  and  bia-mcki  need  orjy  be  mentiened  for 
their  symmetry  and  elegant  form,  and  combination  of  strength 
with  lightness.  The  chief  kinds  of  wood  employed  in  carriage- 
building  are  ash  for  framework  of  bodies,  Honduras  mahogany 
for  panelling,  and  white  pine  for  seat-board?  and  under  part  of 
bodies  ;  the  wheel  spokes  are  formed  of  sapling  oak  or  hickory. 
Canadian  black  walnut  wood  has  irecently  been  found  to  be  an  ex- 
cellent substitute  for  most  of  these  woods.  The  painting  of  a 
carriage  is  a  most  tedious  process,  :uid  the  beautiful  glossy 
colour  is  only  acquired  by  a  great  number  of  successive  coats  of 
paint  and  vanush,  each  lay?r  after  dryhig  beuig  smoothed  and 
polished  before  another  is  applied.  See  ArchiEBlogia,  vol.  xx,, 
for  an  account  of  early  carriages  in  use  in  England. 


Ooagula'tion.  These  are  many  substances  which  exist  n  a 
soluble  and  insoluble  condition.  The  act  of  passing  from  he 
soluble  to  the  insoluble  stale  is  ternied  C.  'iTie  spon 
taneous  C.  of  the  fibrine  contained  in  blood  —  the  c 
ling,  as  it  is  termed — the  C.  of  albumen  by  heat,  as  n 
the  case  of  the  boiling  of  an  egg,  and  of  caseine  by  rennet  in 
the  manufacture  of  cheese,  are  familiar  examples  of  this  pheno- 

Coagulatum  of  the  Blood.— The  change  which  occurs  in  blood 
usually  after  removing  it  from  the  body  by  which  it  separates 
into  a  solid  and  fluid  portion.     See  Blood. 

Coa'ita,  or  Qua'ta  {Ateles  paniscas),  a  species  of  Platyrhme, 
S,  American  monkeys,  belonging  to  the  sedans  Ateles  (q.  v.),  or 
spider- monkeys.  The  C.  measures  about  a  foot  long  in  me  body, 
the  tail  itself  which  is  verj;  elongated,  measuring  a  feet.  The 
face  is  dark  coloured.  This  monkey  is  not  to  he  confounded 
with  the  Coifiti  (q.  v.),  or  Coatti-Mondi,  a  carnivorous  mammal. 

Ooai'ti  (Nasiia\  a  genus  of  Carnivorous  mammalia,  included 
in  the  family  Ursidn  or  Bears,  and  belonging  solely  to  the  New 
World,  being  found  m  Surhiam  and  Brazil.  In  this  genus  the 
mohir  teeth  ate  small,  and  the  canmes  compressed  and  sharp. 
The  mvizile  is  very  elongated,  proboscis4ike,  and  extremely 
mobile.  TTie  claws  are  long,  and  of  curved,  compressed  shape, 
and  the  tail  Js  also  of  considerable  loigth.  The  red  C.  (jV. 
nifa"),  or  C-Moudi,  has  a  fur  of  reddish -diestnut  coloui^  the  ears 
and  legs  being  black,  the  tail  banded  with  maroon  colour,  and 
the  lower  jaw  white.  It  is  fond  of  cHmbing  trees.  The  brown 
C.  {.N.  Narka),  or  Narioa,  has  a  brown-coloured  fur,  which  is. 
ometimes  m.ottIed  with  bkck,  and  tinted  with  chestnut.  The 
under  parts  are  coloured  pey.  The  fur  is  thick  and  coarse. 
The  C.  feed  on  both  animal  arid  vegetable  matters,  and  although 
shy,  may  yet  be  domesticated  with  success. 

Ooal  (Old  Eng.  col,  Dutch,  iool,  Fr.  koal,  Geu.  k^le,  a 
word  found  mdeed  ia  aH  the  Teutonic  languages,  and  having  its 
congeners  in  Latin),  is  the  name  given  to  a  substance  wWch  it 
is  much  easier  to  recognise  than  to  define,  and  the  question. 
What  is  C.  ?  has  at  once  baffled  the  law  courts  and  scientific 


I  So 


men  to  answer.  Dr  Percy  {Fuel)  has  thus  attempted  to 
distinguish  it  from  all  other  bodies.  'C.  is  a  solid,  stratified, 
mineral,  combustible  substance,  varying  in  Colour  from  daik 
brown  to  blade,  opaque,  except  in  extremely  thin  slices,  brittle, 
not  fh^ble  without  decomposition,  not  sensibly  soluble  in  ether, 
chloroform,  benzole,  or  oil  of  turpentine,  not  containing  suffi 
cient  earthy  matter  to  render  it  incapable  of  being  apphed  with 
advantage  as  a  source  of  heat  in  ordinary  fireplaces  or  m  fur 
naces.'  There  is  no  doubt  that  C.  is  vegetable  matter  which 
has  undergone  great  changes  from  the  length  of  time  it  has 
been  stored  up  within  the  earth,  and  the  various  influences  to 
which  it  has  there  been  subjected.  A  gradation  in  physical  as 
well  as  chemical  characteristics  can  be  traced,  leading  from  wood 
and  peat  at  one  extremity,  up  to  anthracite,  which  is  the  ultimate 
product  of  these  clianges  recognised  as  C,  Licbig  explains  the 
chemical  changes  necessary  to  produce  C.  from  wood  or  peat  by 
the  theory  of  the  ehmination  of  a  compound  of  hydrogen  and 
carbon  as  marsh  gas,  of  carbon  and  oxygen  as  carbonic  acid,  and 
of  hydrc^n  and  oxygen  in  the  form  of  water.  As  regards  phy- 
sical characteristics,  certain  varieties  of  peat  are  hard,  blad:,  and 
lustrous  like  C. ,  and  some  lignites  or  brown  coats  retain  so  much 
woody  appearance  and  stmcture  that  boxes  have  actually  been 
made  from  them. 

The  varieties  of  C.  are  usually  clasafied  as— (l)  Anthrac 
(2)  Bitummons  C,  and,  {3)  Lignite  or  brown  C,  ;  but  it  is 
possible  to  strictly  limit  any  class,  and  each  contains  within  itself 
many  minor  variations.  Anthracite  or  stone-C.  is  usually  of  a 
brilliant  black  lustre ;  it  has  a  conchoidal  fracture,  and  it  does 
not  soil  the  fingers  on  handling. '  It  is  often  called  Blind  C, 
on  account  of  the  difficulty  with  which  it  is  ignited  and  bums. 
It  includes  such  coals  as  contain  the  highest  proportion  of 
carbon,  its  range  being  from  go  to  95  per  cent.  Enormous 
deposits  of  anthradte  exist  in  the  eastern  division  of  the  great 
Pennsylvanian  C.-field  in  the  U.S.  Bituminous  C.  includes  the 
greater  proportion  of  C.  in  common  use,  and  nearly  all  the  de- 
posits in  British  C.-fields  come  under  tiiis  head.  It  contsiins 
gen  ra  y  rom  about  73  to  go  per  cenL  of  carbon,  leaving  out  of 

ccoun  he  ash  or  earthy  matter  always  present  in  variable  pro- 
port  n  Several  varieties  of  bituminous  C.  are  distinguished 
a       duo  their  mode  of  burning,  which  depends  chiefly  on 

h  e  proportions  of  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen  they 

am  am-C.  approaches  anthracite  in  its  properties  ;  dry 

non  ak  ng  C.  does  not  possess  the  valuable  property  of 
a  gu  na  neduringbiimmg  which  characlerisescakingor  house- 
hold C.  and  makes  it  so  valuable  for  domestic  use.  Cannel  or 
parrot  C.  differs  considerably  in  appearance  boat  ordinary  bitu- 
minous C,  being  of  a  dull,  lustreless,  black  colour,  uot  splitting 
into  thin  layers,  and  generally  devoid  ofvegetablestractore  under 
the  microscope.  Cannel-C.  contains  a  comparatively  large  per- 
centage of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  and  it  is  therefore  of  viuue  for 


gas  by  the  much  lai^er  proportion  of  ash  which  the  latter  ei 
tain.  Lignite  or  brown  C.  is  a  name  generally  restricted  to  such 
deposits  as  are  of  more  recent  origin  tlian  the  carboniferous  epoch 
to  which  the  great  C,-fielils  at  present  worked  belong.  Lignites 
vary  m  colour  from  a  light  earthy  brown  to  a  deep  lustrous 
bladi,  which  last  is  undistingaishable  from  ordinary  bituminous 
C,  and  Ihey  contain  from  50  to  70  per  cent,  of  carbon,  leaving 
out  of  account  the  ash  they  contain.  Tliey  also  usually  have  a 
large  percentage  of  water.  Deports  of  lignite  of  great  industrial 
value  occur  in  GMmany,  and  some  of  them  yield  on  distillation  a 
very  large  proportion  of  paraffin.  Taking  too  parts  of  carbon 
as  a  standard  of  comparison,  the  following  may  be  regarded  a 
showing  the  average  composition  of  these  leading  varieties  0 
C. ;— 


Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

OiygfTi. 

Lisniw  .    .    . 

i™ 

6-1j 

Althoogh  the  greater  proportion  of  the  C.  in  Europe  and 
America  belongs  to  the  deposits  of  what  is  known  as  the  carboni- 
ferous epoch,  it  must  not  be  concluded  that  C.  is  on  that  account 
a  product  peculiar  to  that  period.  In  Great  Britain  workable 
seams  of  C.  ate  found  in  oolitic  deposits  at  Brora  in  Sutlier- 
landshire,  and  C.  of  a  similar  age  is  also  found  in  Yorkshire, 


^ 


yLaOogle 


COA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


COA 


while  at  Bovey  Tracey,  in  Devonshire,  a  lignite  has  been  wovked 
which  belongs  to  a  period  so  comparatively  recent  as  the  Miocene 
age.  The  brown  C.  deposits  of  N.  Germany  are  not  older  than 
the  Wealden  of  England,  and  the  enormous  C;-fields  of  India 
and  China  are  supposed  to  have  been  formed  during  the  F«rmian 

C.-fields  are  very  widely  and  generally  distributed  throughout 
the  world,  and  the  total  quantity  of  C.  known  tO  exist  within 
ivailable  depths  is  at  present  great  beyond  compute.  France 
;ontaing  numerous  small  patches  of  carboniferous  deposits,  and 
n  the  N,  has  one  considerable  field  in  the  Departments  du  Nord 
and  Pas  de  Calais,  conterminous  with  the  lichC.-lield  of  Belgium. 
The  Belgian  C. -field  covers  an  area  of  326  sq.  miles;  and  has 
about  120  seams  of  C.  in  progress  of  active  working,  the  annual 
output  from  which  reaches  to  about  12,000,000  tons.  In  Prussia, 
the  Westphalian  C.-field,  althongh  long  known  and  worked,-  has 
only  of  recent  years  risen  into  great  importance,  its  yield  having 

It  extends  over  a  surface  of  200  sq.  miles,  contains  more  than 
sljity  workable  seams  of  C,  and  is  estimated  to  possess  about 
1,000,000,000  tons  of  available  C.  Prussia  alst)  contains  the 
eater  portion  of  the  Saarbrucken  field,  which  has  an  are£  of 
ariy  one  thousand  miles.  It  contains  seventy-seven  seams  of 
ore  than  2  feet  in  thickness,  measuring  in  all  Z40  feet  of  work- 
able C,  and  it  is  calculated  to  contain  2,750,000,000  of  tons 
within  reach  of  human  art.  The  C. -field  of  Silesia  also,  of  which 
the  limits  have  not  been  accurately  defined,  is  known  to  contain 
333  feet  of  C  in  seams  of  not  less  than  2j  feet  thick,  and  it  is 
estimated  to  contain  an  attainable  supply  of  at  least  50,000,000,000 
of  tons.  C.  also  is  worked  lat^ely  in  Saxony,  and  Austria  like- 
wise possesses  extensive  deposits  of  both  true  C  and  lignite.  It 
is  known  that  Spain  and  Russia  both  contain  extensive  C.-fields 
almost  entirely  unopened.  The  C.-fields  of  N.  America  cover 
an  enormous  area,  and  are  rich  in  workable  seams  of  excellent 
C.  In  the  British  provinces  it  is  estimated  that  there  are  8000 
sq.  miles  of  C.-bearing  area,  some  of  the  Seams  being  of  great 
thickness — one  at  Pictoa  in  Nova  Scotia  measuring  no  less  than 
37i  feet  across.  The  C.  deposits  of  the  U.S.  extend  over  an 
area  of  no  less  than  200,000  sq.  miles,  divided  into  five  separate 
fields.  Tiie  Appalachian  field  is  computed  as  equal  to  65,000 
sq.  miles  ;  the  Illinois  and  Indiana  field  has  51,000  sq.  miles  j 
Iowa,  Missouri,  and  Arkansas  are  together  credited  with  73,000 
sq.  miles  ;  Texas  has  3000,  and  the-  Michigan  field  is  estimated 
at  from  12,000  to  15,000  sq.  miles.  These  enoimous  deposits 
are  scarcely  even  yet  broken  into,  the  entire  produce  of  the  States 
for  1873  lieiiig  stated  at  28,343.964  tons,  of  which  no  less  than 
22,828,178  tons  were  anthracitic.  Professor  Oldham  reckons 
the  C-fields  of  India  to  contain  16,000,000,000  of  tons.  In 
recent  years  it  has  been  made  known  by  the  investigations  of 
Baron  von  Richthofen,  that  the  C.-fields  of  China  extend  over  an 
area  of  400,000  sq.  miles,  and  it  is  miderslood  that  the  opening 
up  of  these  vast  treasures  is  about  to  be  undertaken  by  the 
Chinese  Govemmenf. 

The  extraordinary  rapidity  with  which  the  annual  output  of  C. 
from  British  mines  has  increased  in  recent  times,  led  a  few  years 
ago  to  a  species  of  panic  regarding  the  possible  early  exhaus- 
tion of  our  mineral  wealth,  and  in  consequence  a  Rcwal  Com- 
mission was  appointed  to  '  inquu-e  into  the  several  matters 
relating  to  C.  in  the  United  Kingdom.'  As  a  result  of  the 
labours  of  that  commission,  we  have  the  most  accurate  and 
reliable  statistics  attfdnabte  regarding  the  limits  of  the  various 
British  fields,  their  available  contents,  and  the  rate  at  which 
they  are  being  worked  out.  TIjc  following  table  exhibits  the 
progressive  increase  of  the  demand  upon  our  C.-ficIds  since 
reliable  statistics  were  first  collected,  it  being  estimated  that 
the  consumption,  at  the  beginning  of  the  century,  was  about 


He  whole  aviulable  C,  in  ascertained  C.-fields,  according  to 
the  report  of  the  commissioners  in  1871,  including  only  such  as 
exists  within  4000  feet  of  the  surface,  and  seams  of  not  less  than 
one  foot  m  thickness,  amounts  to  90,207  millions  of  tons.  To 
this  amount  they  add  as  existing  under  Permian  and  recent  rocks, 
but  still  within  the  4000  feet  limit,  56,273  millions  of  tons  as  the 
probable  contents  of  fields  yet  unexplored,  making  an  ageregaie 
attainable  amount  of  C,  of  146,480  millions  of  tons.      Lying  at  a 


depth  ranging  from  40QO  to  10,000  feet,  in  all  the  fields  in- 
cluded in  the  above  estimate,  it  is  calculated  there  is  an  addi- 
tional quantity  of  more  than  48,465  milUons  of  tons.  But  as 
the  internal  temperature  of  the  earth  increases  at  the  rate  of  1° 
Fahr.  for  each  60  feet  dovniwards  from  the  surface,  and  as  there 
is  good  reason  to  believe  that  it  rises  in  much  more  rapid  pro- 
portion as  we  penetrate  inwards,  it  is  not  supposed  to  be  pos- 
sible, under  any  conditions  at  present  known,  to  work  at  a  depth 
of  more  than  4O00  feet,  while  at  the  depth  of  10,000  feet  the 
heat  must  be  much  greater  than  that  of  boiling  water,  and  the 
Shaft  of  the  pit  reafihing  to  that  depth  would  be  nearly  2  miles  long. 
The  total  available  deposit  of  workable  C.  is,  therefore,  for 
the  present  146,486  milUons  of  tofts,  and  of  that  amount  Scot- 
land possesses  9843  milUons  of  tons,  of  which  1800  millions  lie 
under  the  Firth  of  Forth;  Ireland  possesses  only  the  msignifi- 
cant  total  of  140  millions  of  tons,  little  more  than  the  output  of 
the  United  Kingdom  for  one  year.  In  judging  of  the  possible 
exhaustion  of  British  C.-fields,  three  methods  of  viewing  the  sub- 
ject  may  be  adopted.  Judged  by  the  annual  output  at  wMeh  we 
have  now  arrived,  it  is  easy  to  say  we  have  C.  which  will  furnish 
our  present  rate  of  supply  for  somewhat  more  than  one  thousand 
years.  Taking  the  alarmist  view  of  the  rapid  development  of  C.  - 
mining  during  the  past  quarter  of  a ,  century,  and  supposing  tlie 
demand  to  continue  progressive  in  the  same  ratio,  we  must,  ac- 
cording to  Mr  Price  Williams  and  others,  exhaust  our  C.-fields 
in  360  years.  Neither  of  these  views  lake  mto  account  the  con- 
ditions under  which  the  demand  for  C.  has  increased  so  rapidly, 
nor  the  probable  future  of  the  industry.  '  On  the  one  hand, ' 
say  the  commissioners,  '  the  rate  of  consumption  may  be  thrown 
back  to  any  extent  by  adverse  causes  affecting  our  national  pro- 
sperity, and  on  the  other  hand,  new  discoveries  and  develop- 
ments in  new  dufections  may  arise  to  produce  a  conbary  effect 
upon  the  consumption  of  C.'  They  also  point  out  that  long 
before  the  period  of  total  exhaustion  a  time  of  scarcity  and  dear- 
ness  would  first  be  reached ;  that  naturally  the  best  and  most 
accessible  seams  are  first  exhausted,  leaving  only  such  as  are 
more  difficult  to  win,  and  of  less  value.  Gradually  thus  we 
would  lose  the  easy  industrial  supremacy  we  now  possess  through 
C,  and  instead  of  exporting,  as  we  do  at  present,  it  would  be- 
come cheaper  to  import  C.  from  America  or  other  fields  fli 
work  out  liie  remnants  of  our  own.  Other  considerations  might 
be  adduced  pointing  towards  the  improbability  of  the  c< 
tion  of  British  C.  continuing  to  increase  at  the  rate  of  re 
periedCe.  Contmeutal  and  American  fieli 
opened  up,  and  worked  more  in  proporti 
hitherto ;  unproved  scientific  processes  and  machinery  are  yearly 
extracting  much  larger  proportions  of  calorific  effect  from  C. 
than  heretofore,  and  there  is  much  less  waste  in  the  mining  pro- 
cesses. The  introduction  of  improved  processes  in  metalluigy, 
such  as  the  hot  blast  and  the  Bessemer  process,  has  already  been 
the  means  of  effecting  enormous  economies,  and  In  almost  all 
directions  involving  the  burning  of  C,  great  room  for  other  1 


e  being  rapidly 


ts  yet  e: 


The  industrial  applications  of  C-  do  not  end  with  its  great 
value  as  a  calorific  agent.  Distilled  at  a  low  temperature,  it 
yields  paraffin  and  paraffin  oils  used  for  illuminating  and  lubri- 


also  of  great  value,  being  the  sources  of  ammoniacal  salts  in  Che 
case  of  the  liquor,  while  the  far  yields  aniline,  whence  the  C- 
tar  dyes  are  produced,  the  disinfectant  carbolic  acid,  pitch  for 
official  asphalt  and  other  useful  products. 

For  mining  of  G.  and  the  regulations  of  C.-mineS,  &C,,  See 
under  MfNfNG. 

Coikl'bEOOk  Dale,  k  valley  and  hamlet  in  Shropshire,  On  the 
Severn,  which  is  here  crossed  by  a  east-iron  bridge  of  more  than 
100  feet  span,  and  40  feet  high.  The  dale  has  a  valuable  coal- 
field, the  group  of  strata  enclosing  tlie  beds  having  a  thickness  of 
from  700  to  800  feet,  and  also  extensive  ironworks.  The  inha- 
bitants are  mainly  employed  in  the  foundries  and  collieries. 

Coal'flah.  {Merlaagus  carbonarius),  a  Teleostean  fish  included 
in  the  Gadida  or  Cod  family,  the  fry  or  young  of  which  ore  known 
as  Podliys,  whilst  the  adult  form  is  also  known  by  the  name 
of  Saitke.  The  length  varies  ftom  10  inches  to  i  or  \.\  feet ; 
the  upper  parts  are  of  a  deep  bluish-black  colour  ;  in  shape 
and  form  it  resembles  the  Whiting  (q.  v.)  very  closely.  The 
flesh  is  coarse,  but  is  eaten  salted  in  the  northern  parts   and 


COA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


islands  of  Scotland.     The  C.  occurs  also  > 
and  in  the  N.  seas.     It  is  vf 
kinds  of  bait, 

OoaUtion  is  a  term  applied  in  English  politics  to  the  union  of 
two  parties  or  portions  of  parties  for  the  attainment  of  a  common 
end.  The  most  noted  C.  m  British  history  is  that  of  1782,  when 
Lord  North  and  Charles  James  Fox,  the  leaders  of  opposing 
parties,  took  office  m  the  same  cabinet.  More  recently  (1853) 
the  C.  of  the  Whigs  and  Peelites  in  the  Aberdeen  tabinet  is 
memorable  m  comiection  with  the  Crimean  war.  If  Mr  Disraeli 
is  to  be  believed,  'England  does  not  love  coalitions' — perhaps 
because  they  have  never  been  successful,  and  lately  honest. 

Ooal-Miues,  Law  as  to.  A  coal-mine  is  legally  part  f  he 
lands  within  which  it  is  situated ;  but  it  may  form  a  sepata  e 
te.  A  proprietor  may  sell  the  surface  of  land,  reserving  h 
coal  and  other  minerals,  or  he-may  sell  the  latter  and  reserve  h 
former. 

Coal-Mines  Regulalkn  Ads  were  passed  in  1872  for  the  pur 
pose  of  consolidating  and  amending  the  Acts  relating  to  mu  e 
Under  tiie  Act,  no  boy  under  ten  years  old,  and  no  woman 
girl  of  any  age,  is  to  be  employed  in  any  mine  to  which  the  Act 
applies  below  ground.     The  Act  makes  regulations  regardmg 
hours  of  labour  and  meals.     It  also  deals  with  the  education  of 
boys  employed  undei^round.      Wages  are  not  to  be  paid  at 
public-houses.    Single  shails  are  prohibited.     A  daily  inspection 
by  a  competent  person  of  every  mine  is  directed,  and  a  great 
number  of  regulations  are  made  with  the  view  of  promoting 
healthfuhvess  and  safety  in  the  coal-mmes.    See  Metalliferous 
Mines  Regulation  Act. 
Coal-Tar.     See  Gas-Tar. 

Ooam'ings  of  ships  are  frames  of  wood  or  iron  placed  round 
hatchways  and  other  openings  in  the  deck  to  keep  out  water. 

Ooan'za,  Cuan'za,  or  Quaii'za,  after  the  Congo  (q,  v.)  the 
most  important  river  of  Lower  Guinea,  Africa,  rises  in  the  plateau 
of  the  mterior,  and,  after  a  course  of  600  miles  marked  by  nume- 
rous cataracts,  enters  the  sea  38  miles  S.  of  San  Paulo  de  Loando. 
It  forms  several  islands  near  its  mouth,  has  numerous  tributaries, 
irigable  for  laige  boats  as  far  up  as  the  lowest  cataract, 
about  iio  miles.  See  Valdei,  Six  Years  of  TravtlUf's  Life  in 
Western  Africa  (2  vols.  Lond.  1861). 

Ooaet-Gaard,  a  body  of  seamen  formerly  employed  by  the 
easterns  department  enclusively  to  keep  a  look-out  for  smugglers, 
but  since  1856  under  the  control  of  the  Admiralty,  and  liable  to 
be  called  to  serve  as  regular  sailors  on  board  ships  of  war.  The 
force  may  be  augmented  to  the  number  of  10,000  at  the  utmost. 
The  coasts  of  the  United  Kingdom  are  divided  into  eleven  dis- 
tricts, at  each  of  which  there  is  a  district  gunship,  while  there 
is  also  a  headquarteis  ship.  Able-bodied  seamen  employed  in 
the  service  are  divided  into  three  classes — boatmen,  commis- 
sioned boatmen,  and  chief-boatmen  ;  they  receive  high  sea-pay, 
free  house,  rent,  and  medical  attendance,  and  is,  40.  a  day  be- 
sides in  place  of  provisions.  They  are  drilled  in  the  serving  of 
land-batteries,  gunboat  exercise,  and  naval  gunnery.  The  num- 
ber of  the  C.-G.  on  shore,  officers  and  men,  provided  for  m  the 
naval  estimates  for  1874-75  was  4300  ;  and  the  expense  of  the 
C.-G.  service,  royal  naval  coast  volunteers,  and  royal  naval  re- 
serve was  ^i63,3il. 

Coast  Volunteers,  or  Boyal  Naval  Coast  Volunteers, 
an  attempt,  which  has  not  been  very  successful,  to  organise  sea- 
faring men  and  others,  in  connection  with   the  Coast-Guard 


1  Act  of  Parliament  passed  in  1853  to  raise  such  a  body, 
not  exeeedmg  10,000  ;  to  enrol  them  for  five  years'  service  ;  to 
have  them  exercised,  on  shipboard  or  on  shore,  twenty-eight  days 
every  year  ;  but  not  to  send  them  on  duty  beyond  $0  leagues  from 
the  coast,  unless  at  an  emei^ency,  when  they  might  be  sent  100 
leagues.  Theh  pay,  allowance,  and  rank  during  active  service 
is  the  same  as  that  of  able-bodied  seamen.  At  present,  1875, 
the  men  enrolled  in  the  C-  V.  do  not  number  looo. 

Coast'ing^  Trade  is  the  maritime  commerce  between  ports  of 
the  same  country.  Formerly  no  goods  or  passengers  could  be 
lawfully  carried  coastwise  from  one  port  of  the  United  Kingdom 
or  Channel  Islands  to  another  except  in  British  ships.     This 


ction  on  foreign  vessels  has  been  repealed  by  17  Vict.  c.  5, 
subject  to  the  Customs  Act,  1853,  and  the  right  of  retaliation. 
See  Navkation  Laws. 

Coatbridge',  a  town  in  the  parish  of  Old  Monkland,  Lan- 
arkshire, 8  miles  E.  of  Glasgow,  and  a  station  on  the  Caledonian 
Railway.  It  stands  in  the  centre  of  a  district  rich  in  minerals, 
and  is  near  the  great  ironworks  of  Gartsherrie,  Summerlee,  Dun- 
dyvan,  Calder,  and  Langloan.  In  the  immediate  neighbourhood 
are  upwards  of  fifty  smelting  furnaces.  C.  is  one  ot  the  most 
thriving  towns  in  Scotland,  the  pop.  having  increased  from  1599 
in  1841,  to  13,634  in  1871. 

Coat  of  Arms,  a  garment  worn  in  the  knightly  exercises 

nd  ac  ua   battles  of  the  middle  ages,  embroidered  with  the 

am     a       signia  of  the  wearer.     It  was  made  of  velvet,  fur, 

f      ver  or  of  gold,  and  descended  to  the  knee.    The 

ra  pplied  in  modem  heraldry  to  the  insignia  alone,  on 

fi  Id  they  are  emblazoned.     See  Hekaldhy,  Shield. 

Coat  of  Mail,  a  suit  of  armo 
m  f  linked  rings,  which  w 

001:110.1  is  a  steel-grey  metal,  occurrmg  in  small  quantities  in 
the  free  state  in  Meteoric  Iron  (q.  v.),  in  combination  with  arsenic 
as  tifi-vihite  C.  (CoAsj),  with  arsenic  and  sulphur  as  C,  glance 
(CoSAsJ,  and  with  arsenic  and  oxygen  as  C.  bloom  (3C0OAS3OS); 
it  is  also  present  In  many  copper  ores.  Before  the  discovery  by 
Scheurer,  in  1540,  of  the  beautiful  blue  colour  which  oxide  of 
C.  imparts  to  glass  when  fused  with  it,  compounds  of  the  metal 
possessed  no  value,  and  their  presence  in  the  mines  was  attri- 
buted by  the  superstitious  German  miners  to  a  malevolent  demon 
or  koboid,  who  was  supposed  to  have  placed  them  there  mstead 
of  the  useful  ores  wliich  they  resemble  in  appearance  ;  it  is  from 
this  curious  superstition  that  C.  derives  its  name.  MetalUc  C, 
was  isolated  by  Brand  in  1773.  It  may  be  obtained  by  strongly 
igniting  oxalate  of  C.  It  is  hard,  very  infusible,  and  magnetic, 
and  in  its  chemical  properties  and  compounds  resembles  iron. 
Its  atomic  weight  is  59,  and  the  symbol  for  its  atom  Co.  Chloride 
of  C.  (CoCl,)  IS  a  red  salt,  obtained  by  dissolving  oxide  of  C.  in 
hydrochloric  add  j  its  solution  is  employed  as  a  Symipathetic  Ink 
(q.  v) ;  nitrate  of  C  Co(NOa)a  is  prepared  m  a  similar  manner. 
C.  has  two  oxides,  the  protoxide  CoO,  and  the  sesqui-oxide 
CoaOs !  the  latter  is  used  for  staining  gkss  and  porcelain,  and 
is  obtained  as  a  black  powder  by  precipitating  chloride  of  C.  by 
a  solution  of  bleaching  powder.  When  C.  ores  which  have  been 
previously  roasted  are  fused  witli  sand  and  pearl  ash,  the  oxide 
of  C.  produced  by  roasting  the  ore  dissolves  in  the  glass  formed 
by  the  pearl  ash  and  sand,  with  a  magnificent  blue  colour,  whilst 
nickel,  copper,  iron,  Sc,  also  present  in  the  ore,  collect  at  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel  in  which  the  fusion  has  been  made  11 
metallic  mass  called  speiss.  The  blue  glass  when  finely  levigated 
forms  smalt  or  C.  uUramarme,  whilst  from  the  speiss,  nickel  is 
extracted.  Zaffi-e  is  an  impure  oxide  of  C,  obtained  by  roastuig 
C.  ores  with  sand.  Theiiard's  blue  is  prepared  by  igniting  a 
mixture  of  freshly-predpitaled  alumina  and  cartjonate  of  C,  or 
of  the  phosphate  of  alumina  and  C.  tinman's  green  is  obtained 
by  evaporating  a  mixed  solution  of  nitrate  of  C.  and  nitrate  of 
zinc  to  dryness,  and  caldning  the  residue, 

Coban',        wnGmC  mca         hR 

Dolce,  55  m        N         G        m 

sugar-cane      in  d  palrui         Ppm 

Indians)  14,    a 

Cotebett    William,         Eg  b  m      h 

Match  1762         F  mham  d 

father's  farm  8    h  th  F  d 

to  Nova  Sc  h         gh    huns  h  y  -md 

rose  to  the  rank  of  sergeant-major.  Discharged  in  1 791,  C,,  after 
spending  a  few  months  in  Paris,  settled  in  Philadelphia  as 
bookselfer  and  pamphleteer.  Here  he  wrote  hi  the  bitterest 
marmer  agdnst  free  thought,  free  mstitutions,  &c,,  and  w, 
twice  fined  for  libel  His  nam  de  fhime  was  Peter  Porcupini 
latterly  his  publicarion  became  periodical,  and  was  called  the 
Fatitical  Censor.  Returning  to  London. in  1800,  where  ie  was 
received  with  considerable  attention  by  public  men  of  Pitt  s 
party,  he  started  first  a  daily  paper  called  the  Po  ptne 
and  then  the  iVeekly  Register.  His  influence  may  be  nferred 
from  the  fact  that  Windham  stated  m  the  House  of  Con  mnns 
that  C.  deserved  a  statue  of  gold.     By  his  discuss  on  of  the 


y  Google 


•»- 


COB 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


COO 


.0  the  n 


treatyof  Amiensheconttibuted..  ~---i-— .-- 
1801  he  suddenly  went  over  to  the  Radical  side  of  politics,  eiwei 
because  he  was  slighted  by  Pitt  or  from  conviction.  This  led  to 
more  than  one  Tory  prosecution  followed  by  fine  and  imprison- 
ment In  1817  his  Twopenny  Tracl  alanned  (he  Government 
into  passing  the  'Six  Acts,'  and  C.  retired  for  two  years  to 
Amenca,  where  he  studied  agriculture,  and  drew  certain  conclu- 
sions on  'cottage  and  ferni  economy,'  which,  on  his  return  to 
Eneland,  he  tried  unsuccessfully  to  realise  on  two  farms.  In 
iSaq  appeared  his  Hhtoiy  0/  lie  Reformaimi  in  England  and 
Ireland,  which,  with  his  Legacy  la  Parsons,  expresses  his  opinion 
that  the  transactions  in  Church  property  at  the  Reformation  were 
fraudulent,  and  that  the  original  Catholic  endowments  should  be 
restored  to  educational  and  charitable  objects.  C.  was  now  a 
popular  leader  on  social  and  economic,  as  weU  as  politick,  ques- 
Sons,  as  may  be  seen  in  his  Advice  to  Young  Mm  and  Women, 
Foot  Man's  friend.  Sural  Sides,  Emigrants  Guide.  As  the 
Reform  Bill  drew  near,  the  political  interest  became  predominant. 
C  was  once  more  prosecuted  for  some  intemperate  language,  m 
which  in  the  Register,  he  had  defended  the  burning  of  threshing- 
machines  by  the  distressed  labourers  (Luddites)  as  leading  to  the 
i-eduction  of  tithes.  Returned  to  the  House  of  Commons  for 
Oldham  in  1832,  he  sat  there  for  three  years.  He  died  at  his 
form  of  Ash,  near  Famham,  18th  Jui 
pendence  and  energy  of  C.'s  character 


niles  N.  of  Copiapo,  has 


The  ru^ed  inde- 

ui^  =j.«  V somewlmt  m^ied 

by  an  inorfinate  vanity,  which  led'  him  to  regard  himself  as  one 
of  the  leading  men  in  Europe  of  his  time,  and  by  the  superficial 
knowledge  of  social  and  poUtical  institutions,  which  is  so  often 
the  bane  of  self-educated  men.  He  is  acknowledged  to  be  a 
master  of  plain,  forcible  prose  ;  and  the  warmth  of  his  public  and 
private  aifcctions  and  his  substantial  honesty  have  not  lieoi  seri- 
ously questioned.  C.  is  seen  at  his  worst  in  his  conceited  His- 
lery  of  George  IV.  See  an  admirable  essay  by  Professor  Thorold 
Rwere.  His  son,Jolin  Morgan  C,  published  a  complete 
co^ion  of  his  Political  Works  (2d  ed.  9  vols.  Lond.  1848). 

Cobden  Biohard,  an  English  polidcian,  bom  at  Dunford, 
near  Midhurst,  3d  June  1804,  was  the  son  of  a  small  gentleman 
farmer  In  1838  he  abandoned  his  career  as  a  calico-prmter  in 
Manchester  (which  had  been  rapidly  successfiil)  that  he_  might 
devote  himself  and  his  fortune  to  the  Anti-Corn  Law  agitation. 
He  seconded  Mr  J.  B.  Smith's  celebrated  motion  before  the  tfen- 
chester  Chambei-  of  Commerce,  and  for  nearly  sin  years  attmded 
the  Inner  Council  of  the  League,  which  met  twice  a  day  at  Wew- 
all's  Buildings,  Market  Street,  Manchester.  It  was  C.  who  gamed 
over  many  of  the  Chartists  and  the  clergy,  and  who  founded  the 
Anti-Corn-Law  Conference,  which  sat  m  the  Palace  Yard  to  watch 
the  Free-trade  motions  in  Parliament.  At  Dnivy  Lane  and  Covent 
Garden,  and  at  the  great  centres  of  Protectionism  through  the 
country  C.  and  Bright,  duriiK  the  memorable  year  of  1K43. 
seemed  to  carry  everything  before  them,  until  the  Times  itself 
declared  (iSth  November)  that  the  'League  was  a  great  fiict.' 
In  the  meantime  C.  had  been,  in  August  1841,  returned  to  Par- 
liament for  Stockport,  and  took  part  in  the  debates  on  Mr  C.  V U- 
lier's  annual  motion,  '  that  all  duties  payable  on  the  importation 
of  com,  RTain,  meal,  and  flour  do  now  cease.  Ini844  he  brought 
forward  his  motion  for  a  select  committee  to  inquire  into  the 
effects  of  protective  duties  on  imports  in  the  interest  of  the 
tenant  formers  and  farm  labourers  of  the  country.  He  was  le- 
plied  to  by  Mr  Gladstone.  After  the  tnuraph  of  his  principles 
in  1846  (a  triumph  which  Sir  R.  Peel  stated  in  Parliament  to  be 
main^due  to  C.'s  efforts),  he  vras  returned  unopposed  for 
the  W.  Riding  of  York,  which  he  represented  till  1857,  when 
he  was  rejected  by  his  constituency  for  having  offered  what  was 
considered  at  the  time  a  factious  opposition  to  I^rd  P^mer- 
ston.  In  1859  C.  was  chosen  by  Rodidale.  In  i860  he  earned 
through  the  Commercial  Treaty  with  France,  was  offered  a 
baronetcy  and  1  seat  in  the  Privy  Council,  but  declined  these 
honours;  soon  after  fell  into  bad  health,  and  withdrew  from 
political  life.  He  died  ad  April  1865.  C.  was  an  ardent  advo- 
cate of  free  trade  in  land,  viz.,  the  abolition  of  pnmogemlure, 
strict  settlements,  &c. ;  of  financial  reform,  in  which  he  mcluded 
the  substitution  of  direct  for  indutwt  taxation,  and  the 
quent  throwing  open  of  all  ports  ;  of  reduction  in  the  votes  for 
the  services,  as  involved  in  his  principle  of  non-intervention ; 
of  national  in  the  sense  of  undenommational,  education.  He 
spoke  against  the  confiscation  of  the  unarmed  vessels  belong- 
ing to  subjects  of  a  hostile  belligerent,  and  against  the  practice 


of  public  loans  bemg  negotiated  without  inquiiy  for  purposes  of 
tyranny  and  oppression.  Although  there  was  no  rhetorical  art  or 
epigram  in  C.^s  speeches,  they  were  marked  by  unaffected  grace 
antf  simplicity,  by  keen  logic,  and  by  an  abundance  of  well- 
chosen  and  accurately-stated  facts.  His  Politu:al  WrUtngs  wei-e 
pubhshed  in  2  vols,  (Lond.  1867). 

Oobi'ja,  or  Pnerta  la  Mar,  the  only  _seaport  of  Bolr  ' 
capital  of  the  province  of  Atacama,  300 
an  insignificant  trade.     Pop.  2380. 
Cotoi'tia.     See  Loach. 

Ooble,  or  Cobble,  a  low,  flat  boat,  wicli  the  stem  square. 
It'is  much  used  by  salmon- fishers. 

Coblenz',  or  Koblenz'  (ilie  Roman  Conjlumles),  the  capital 
of  Rhenish  Prussia,  situated  on  the  Rhine,  at  its  confluence  with 
the  Moselle,  is  a  fortified  city  of  the  first  rank.  It  is  connected, 
es  of  defence,  with  the  strongly  fortified  castle  of  Ehren- 

„.^.„ (q.  v.),  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Rhine.     The  old 

town  is  irregularly  built,  with  many  of  its  streets  narrow  and  ill- 
kept  but  the  new  town  is  well  built,  and  its  streets  aary  and  clean, 
■nie  church  of  St  Castor,  founded  early  in  the  gth  c,  stands  on 
tongue  of  land  jutting  out  between  the  Rhine  and  the  MoseEe  ; 
other  public  buildings  are  the  Government-house,  the  town-hall, 
the  king's  palace,  and  the  old  castle  of  the  Electors  of  Treves. 
There  are  manufactures  of  linen,  cotton,  fiimiture,  and  japan- 
waTe.  Vine  culture  engages  the  industry  of  many  of  the  mhabi- 
free  port,       '        '  '  "-".i. 


There 

Ehrenbreitstem 

Cob-Nnt,  a 


it  has  also  a  trade  in  volcanic 

-       -  "72)  28,748. 

le  castle  of 


in  garrison  2169  soldiers,  and 
!48£ 

arge  cultivated  variety  of  the  Hazel  (q.  v.).  The 
„  Hog-nut,  is  Omfkaba  triandra,  a  tree  of  the 

mtmia"order  'Bupk)rbiaceai.  Its  white  juice,  wliich  turns  blade 
in  drying,  is  used  in  Guiana  and  other  countnes  as  ink,  Ihe 
nut  is  wholesome  if  the  embryo  is  extracted ;  otherwise  it  is 
cathartic. 

Cob'ra  (Naja),  a  genus  of  Colubrine  snakes  belonging  to  the 
section  Venenosa,  and  included  in  the  family  Elapidie.  The  dis- 
tineuishii^  features  of  the  genus  Naja  are  the  possession  of  one 
or  two  smooth  teeth  behind  the  fioison  fangs,  and  the  power  of 
distending  the  loose  skin  at  the  sides  of  the  neck,  so  ^  to  fomi 
a  kmd  of  movable  hood.  The  Portuguese  name  of  the  C.  (C. 
da  cafiello)  means  '  hooded  snake.'  Tha  snake,.the  JVaja  tnfa- 
dianfoi  the  naturalist,  is  one  of  the  most  deadly  and  venomous 
of  known  serpents.  It  inhabits  India,  and  receives  the  name  ol 
'  spectacle  snake '  from  the  spectacle-like  mark  which  exists  on 
the  back  of  the  neck-a  mark  wanting  in  the  nearly-allied  Naja 
Haje  of  tfept.  The  C.  attains  a  length  of  3  or  4  feet  «nd  is 
coloured  of  a  pale  brovra  on  the  upper  parts,  and  a  lighter  lint 
below;  whilst  the  colour  is  vanously  marked  with  black,  and 
exhibits  variations.  Specimens  destitute  of  the  spectacle-mark 
come  from  the  Y..  Indies.  The  poison  proves  fatal  to  man  within 
a  comparatively  short  period. 

Colmre  or  Koburg,  capital  of  the  Duchy  of  Sase-Cobui^, 
Germany,  and  alternating  With  Gotha  as  the  residence  of  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg- Gotha,  is  situated  on  the  left  l^ 
of  the  Itz  The  town  is  mostly  old,  and  not  well-bmlt.  ul  its 
six  churches,  the  most  notable  is  the  MorUzkirche,  vrith  a  tower 
nearly  340  feet  high.  The  old  castle  of  flie  Dukes  of  C,  in 
whirf.  LuOier  was  Concealed  in  1 53°.  "ands  on  a  height:  500  feet 
above  the  town.  The  ducal  palace  was  erected  m  1549,  and  - 
the  principal  building.  C.  has  manufactures  of 
and  woollen  fabrics,  artistic  work  in  marij 
also  bleaching  and  dye  works,  breweri 
12,891.  Near  C.  are  the  ' pleasure-caE 
Kallenbei^. 

Cobure  Peninsula,  in  the  N.  of  Australia,  forms  the  N.W. 
extremity  of  Arnhem  Land,  to  the  W.  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpen- 
taria, and  partly  encloses  Van  Diemen  Gulf.  It  is  an Regular 
promontory,  about  50  miles  from  E.  to  W.,  but  sightly  con- 
nected with  the  mainland,  and  separated  from  Melville  Island 
by  the  narrow  channel  of  Dundas  Strait. 

Co'ca,  or  Ou'ca  {Erythroxylon  C),  a  shrab  of  the  natursd 
order  .fi'ri'(^ro*//oi;«?,theleavesofwhich  '      '    '"""'" 


J,  gold,  and  silver, 
...__  ,  ic.  Pop.  (1872) 
■e-castles '  of  Rosenau  and 


iively  chewed 


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COO 


by  miners  and  travellers  in  Peru,  mixed  with  a  little  unslaked  lime 
or  the  ashes  of  the  Quinoa  (q.  y.)  or  of  the  tnimpet-tree  ( Caroiia 
peltata).  They  have  an  effect  on  the  constitution  anal-^ous  to 
that  of  wine,  enabling  those  using  them  (o  bear  up  under  great 
iktigue  and  hunger.  Respiration,  so  difficult  at  high  altitudes, 
no  longer  becomes  a  labour  ;  the  desire  for  sleep  departs,  and 
the  spirits  attain  buoyancy  unknown  before.  Taken  Ijabitu  Uy 
and  in  large  quantities,  C.  occasions  various  biliary  and  stom  h 
disorders,  and  eventually  ruins  imnd  and  body.  Used  to  a  gr 
estent  with  tobacco,  it  produces  a  sort  of  intoxication.  S'uch, 
least,  is  the  account  given  by  the  native  Indians  who  have  g 
been  acquainted  with  its  use,  and  by  Spruce,  Tschudi,  Sche 
and  other  travellers.  Weddell  does  not,  however,  think  so 
highly  of  it,  affirming  that  it  does  not  supply  the  place  of  ood 
but  merely  deadens  the  sense  of  hunger  for  a  tune.  Its  use  is 
tiow  rapidly  spreading,  not  only  among  the  Indiana,  bnt  among 
the  Europeans  and  other  settlers  in  Peru.  Some  years  ago  S 
was  calculated  that  30,000,000  lbs.  were  annually  gathered,  ami 
that  the  use  of  the  drug  was  indulged  in  by  10,000,000  people. 
InBoIivia  alone  about  15,000,000  lbs.  are  produced  annuaUy. 
It  IS  probable  that  C.  owes  its  pecuUar  properties  to  an  oi^nic 
base,  to  which  Weddell  has  applied  the  name  of  coiaim,  whicli 
in  mam'  of  its  properties  resembles  thdni,  A  tonic  wine  has  been 
made  from  it,  and  this,  as  well  as  the  leaves,  may  probably  yet 
be  used  as  a  medicinal  agent. 

_  Ooooe^i,  Heinrioli,  Fredherr  von,  a  very  able  and  learned 
jurist,  was  bom  at  Bremen,  2Sth  March  1644,  went  to  Leyden 
to  study  law  in  r667,  and  to  England  in  1670.  Having  acquired 
a  profound  acquaintance  with  the  subject  in  all  its  branches,  he 
was  appointed  Professor  of  the  Law  of  Nations  at  Heidelbeig  in 
1672,  of  Jurispmdence  at  Utrecht  in  1688,  and  regular  Professor 
of  I^w  at  Frankfiirt  on  the  Oder  in  1690.  C.  was  sent  on  a 
mission  to  the  Hague  by  Friedrich  I.  in  1712,  and  after  his  return 
was  created  a  baron  of  the  empire  and  a  privy  councillor.  He  died 
iSlh  August  1719.  His  chief  work  is  his  jarii  PtMid  Pruden- 
iia  (Frankf.  1695),  which  was  long  used  as  a  teit-book  in  Ger- 
man universities.  Other  productions  of  C.  are  Anaiomta  Jarii 
Gentium  (FrankE  1718),  and  Gmtius  illustratus  {3  vols.  Bresl. 
1744-^8).— His  son  Samiiel,  born  1679,  succeeded  him  as  tso- 
fessoi  {1703),  but  devoting  himself  to  a  public  career,  rose  to  the 
highest  I^  position,  dying  {22d  October  1755)  High  Chancellor 
of  the  Prussian  state.  He  was  the  great  reformer  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice  in  Prussia.  His  great  professional  work  is 
the  Corpus  yitris  Fridericianum  (Berl.  1749-52).  Other  of  his 
writings  are  Jus  Civile  Coniroversum,  and  Novum  Systensa  Juris- 
prudentire  Naluralis  el  Romans. 

Cocce'jua,  Johann,  whose  original  name  was  Kocli,  bom  at 
Bremen,  9th  August  1603,  was  first  appointed  Professor  of  He- 
brew at  Bremen  (1629),  then  at  Franeker  (1636),  afterwards 


t  properties 


>   when  fresh, 


i  '"•">"' 01  .neoiogy  in  tne  same  place  (1043),  ^°-  nnaiiy 
lessor  of  Theolc^  at  Leyden  (1650),  where  he  died,  5th  Nov=^u.- 
ber  1669.  He  established  a  peculrar  theological  system  called 
tne  federal  method,  founded  on  the  idea  of  a  covenant  between 
God  and  man,  which  again  was  twofold— the  covenant  before 
the  feu  (of  works),  and  the  covenant  after  the  faU  (of  grace) ; 
the  latter  embracing  a  threefold  econ<Mny— prior  to  the  law, 
under  the  law,  and  of  the  gospd ;  and  also  a  school  of  biblical 
interpretation,  according  to  which  the  OH  Testament  history 
exhibited,  as  m  a  mirror,  the  history  of  Christ  and  of  the  Chris- 
tian Chuich,  and  which  carried  on  a  great  controversy  in  the 
Netherlands  during  the  17th  c.  with  the  opposite  school  of  Grotitis 
(q.  v.).  His  collected  works  were  published  at  Amsterdam  in  8 
vols.  (1673-75,  and  again  in  10  vols.  1701),  to  which  was  added 
his  Ofiei-a  Aiiecdala  in  3  vols.  (1706).  See  Conybeare's  Bamploa 
Lectures  (1824). 

Coccinell'a.     See  Laeybikd. 

Oocoill'ia,  a  cHmbing  cncurbitaceous  shrub,  common  in  the 
hedges  in  India,  the  ripe  fruits  of  which  are  used  by  the  natives 
in  tlieir  curries,  and  the  leaves  and  other  portions  are  also  used 
medicinally. 

Oooo'o,  Co'coa  Root,  or  Eddoes,  a  name  applied  to  various 
species  of  Colocasia  and  Caladium,  tropical  and  sub-tropical, 
closely  allied  genem  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Aracea,  the  andeiground  root,  or  Corras  (q,  v.),  of  which  are 
used  as  food,  e.g.,  C.  antiquBrum,  C.  escnlenta,  C.  macrcrhiza  (the 
laro  of  the  South  Sea  Mands— q.  v.),  C.  Hivialensis—^z  root 


of  which,  in  addition  to  its  nutriti 

stimulant,  diaphoretic,  and  enpectorant,  "The  leaves  of  C  antl 
quorum  when  raw  are  acrid,  but  by  boiling  they  lose  then-  aciid 
ity,  and  are  eaten  as  a  substitute  for  spinadi.  The  corms  of  C 
esculmla  are  sometimes  called  Yams  (q.  v.)  m  the  Vi  Indies, 
M  d  u  a.  Lecoq  has  described  curious  spasmodic  moiements 
ea  occmring  spontaneously,  at  irr^ular  intervals,  and 
d  ff     n   periods  of  the  day  and  night.    The  quivenug  was 

•"  tira^    f  sufficient  fwce  to  ring  litfle  hells  attached  to  the 
es     M  Lecoq  states  that  C.  eseulenia  is  qmte  destitute  of 
S  q    .),  and  he  attributes  the  phenomenon  to  the  incessant 

p  he  imprisoned  sap. 

Coocoloba.    See  Seaside  Grape. 

CoocoBteus  {Gr.  '  berry-boned  ■),  a  genus  of  extinct  Ganoid 
fishes,  included  in  the  sub-order  Ostracoslei,  and  hav  ng  the  head 
defended  by  a  lai^e  ganoid  ^ield,  the  plates  of  which  neie 
covered  with  small  tubercles  ;  the  presence  of  these  latter  giving 
origin  to  the  name  'berry-bone.'  A  ventral  01  steinal  shield 
also  existed,  but  this  latter  had  probably  no  connection  with  the 
upper  one.  A  lower  jaw  or  mandible  existed,  and  this  earned 
teeth  of  small  size.  The  Notochord  (q.  v)  was  persistent, 
but  the  neural  spines  of  the  vertebra,  their  hsemal  spmes,  and 
the  fin-rays  were  ossified.  This  genus  of  fishes  is  esclusively 
confined  in  Britain  to  the  Devonian  rocks.  Bauande  has,  how 
ever,  described  one  from  tlie  Silurian  rocks  of  Bohemia 

CoOe'Tiltia,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Mmisier- 
maeeie,  A  decoction  of  the  roots  of  C.  vUlosus,  an  Indian  species 
IS  used  in  cases  of  rheumatism,  &c. ,  and  the  fruits  supply  a  kind 
of  vegetable  mk.  "^  ' 

Ooceulus  Indious,  tlie  ftuit  of  the  Anamirta  Cocculus,  a 
plant  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Menispirmace^  a  native 
of  the  E.  Indies.  The  pericaip  contains  an  alkaloid  [Meiiisper- 
mint)  which  IS  not  poisonous.  The  seeds  are  very  poisonous, 
of  the  size  of  a  large  pea,  and  are  very  bitter.  They  owe  their 
poisonous  and  bitter  properties  to  Picrotoiin,  C,H,Oj,  a  white, 
intensely  biUer  substance,  ciystallising  in  needles.  C  1.  has 
been  used  to  give  bitterness  to  beer,  porter,  and  ale,  but  it  is 
forbidden  by  law  under  veiy  heavy  penalties.  It  is  sometimes 
used  to  desti-oy  lice.  In  some  countries  it  is  employed  to  stupify 
fish,  so  as  to  render  them  easily  caught. 

Oooe'uB,  a  genus  of  Hentiplerous  insects,  belonging  to  the 
sub-order  Hemoptera,  and  forming  the  type  of  a  tribe  named 
Coccina.  From  members  of  this  gemis  the  Cochineal  (q.  v.)  and 
Kermes  dyes  are  obtained.  Many  species  infest  our  hothouses 
under  the  general  name  (rf  bugs,  and  do  harm  to  our  plants  ■  but 
it  is  to  the  tropical  members  of  the  group  that  we  owe  our  dyes 
and  other  commercial  products — such  as  lac,  wax,  &c.  They 
are  all  minute  insects,  the  males  being  two-winged,  and  the 
females  wingless,  but  possessing  a  rostrum  or  beaked  process. 
The  females  infest  plants,  and  suck  nutriment  from  Uiem  by 
means  of  the  rostrum.  TTie  abdomens  of  the  males  are  usually 
provided  with  two  elongated  filaments.  The  C.  Oieris  is  a  well- 
known  British  species.  C.  caeH,  living  in  the  Nopal  or  Cattus 
opuntia  of  Central  America,  furnishes  Merican  cochineal.  C 
lacca,  of  the  K  Indies,  gives  us  lac.  The  females  alone  appear 
to  yield  the  colouring  matter.    See  Cochineal  Insect. 

Coc'oyx  is  the  inferior  or  posterior  terminal  portion  of  the 
vertebral  column.  In  man  it  consists  commonly  of  four  mdi- 
iry  veriebrie,  sometimes'  of  five,  rarely  of  three.  These 
"""■   "'"-  '"--   "^        "         "1  the 


Coccy'zi: 


See  Cuckoo. 


Oodiabani  ba,  the  second  largest  dty  of  Bolivia,  and  capital  of 
a  department  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Rio  de  la  Rocha,  is  the  see 
of  a  bishop,  and  has  fifteen  churches,  manufactnies  of  cottons, 
woollens,  leather,  saddles,  starch,  soap,  &c,  and  an  active  trade 
in  grain  and  fruits.  Pop.  40,678.  C  was  founded  in  1572,  and 
played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  Revolution  of  1815.— Tlie 
department  of  C.  is  rich  in  precious  metals,  and  grows  cotton, 
sugar,  dyewoods,  &c.  Area  26,481  sq.  miles;  pop.  (1865) 
349,892. 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


N.  bj  British  Malabar,  S.  by  Travancore,  W.  by  Indian  Ocean, 
and  E.  by  the  Ghauts.  Area,  1131  sq.  miles;  pop.  (1872) 
399,060.  It  is  divided  into  (i)  an  eastern  hill  region,  clad  with 
splendid  forests  of  red  cedar,  teak,  and  other  hmi  woods ;  {2] 
a  tract  of  plain  between  these  hills  and  a  lagune  or  backwater, 
which  extends  along  the  entire  coast,  and  (3)  a  strip  of  latid  be- 
tween this  backwater  and  the  sea,  covered  with  cocoa-tint  trees. 
The  rich  damp  pkuns  yield  rice,  pepper,  cardamons,  ginger,  betel- 
nuts,  yam^  arrowroot,  sweet  potatoes,  &c.,  while  the  plantations 
on  the  Nelianipathy  Hills  produce  excellent  coffee.  The  revenue 
is  ji;i2S,458,  being  ^£14,664  in  excess  of  expenditure  ;  there  are 
state  schook,  which  educate  up  to  the  university  entrance  ex- 
aminations; roads  and  bridges  are  made  and  maintained,  and 
the  present  Rajah  (Eava  Virmah)  has  established  a  system  of 
forest  conservancy.  C.  is  inhabited  by  a  Malayan-speaking 
people,  and  of  its  places  of  worship  2734  are  Hindu,  31  Mo- 
hammedan, 8  Jewish,  and  108  Christian.  It  is  specially  inter- 
esting as  belonging  to  the  portion  of  India  first  visited  by  Euro- 
pean adventurers.  The  stale  was  under  the  yoke  of  Hyder  All 
and  his  son  from  1776  to  1791,  and  the  first  treaty  of  the  Rajah 
with  the  English  was  in  1793,  when  he  agreed  to  pay  a  tribute 
of/30,ooo  a  year,  and  received  a  guarantee  of  aU  his  rights. 


Cochin,  a  seaport  in  the  district  of  Malabar,  |woi 
British  India,  and  formerly  capital  of  llie  ni" 
name,  is  situated  at  the  N.  point  of  the  nam 
ing  the  long  coast  stretch  of  backwater  ft 
some  trade  in  cocoa-nut  oil  and  libre,  pepj 
considerable  industry  in  shipbuilding.   Its  fi 
by  a  bar,  over  which  thece  is  a  depth  of 
TTie  water  is  brought  from 
temperature  is  78° 


a  of  Madras, 
of  the  same 
'  peninsula  separat- 
n  the  sea,  and  has 
r,  coffee,  &c.,  and  a 
;  harbour  is  injured 

.le  18  feet  of  water. 

iS  miles  off,  and  the  mean 
^jmprising,  besides  Hindus, 


Arabs,  Dutch,  Persians,  .  .  . 

guesefort  in  India,  erected  in  1503,  It  was  taken  by  tlie  Dutch 
in  1663,  and  by  the  British  in  1796. 

Oo'cMtt-Ohi'iia,  the  Anamese'  Empire,  occupies  a  Jong 
and  narrow  strip  of  territory  on  the  E.  coast  of  the  Indo-Chinese 
Pemnsida,  and  consists  of  the  inland  province  of  Anam,  and  the 
maritime  provinces  of  Tonquin  in  the  N.  and  C.-C.  in  the  S. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  China,  on  the  E.  and  S.  by  die  Gulf 
of  Tonquin,  the  China.  Sea,  and  Lower  or  French  C.-C,  and 
on  the  W.  by  Siam.  Area,  83,190  sq.  milesj  pop.  stated  at 
9,000,000.  A  mountain  range  tuns  N.  and  S.,  separating  the 
inland  from  the  two  maritime  provinces.  Spurs  from  this  cen- 
tral chain  occupy  much  of  the  area  of  Anam  and  C.-C.,  and 
numerous  streams  descending  from  it  flow  E.  through  the  latter 
into  the  China  Sea.  Anam  is  watered  by  the  Mekong.  TTie 
province  of  Tonquin  is  flat,  and  is  watered  by  the  great  and 
valuable  river  Song-koi,  which,  rising  among  the  mountains  of 
Vnnnan,  passes  through  rich  alluvial  plains  m  its  lower  course, 
and  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Tonquin. '  The  inhabitants  are  Mon- 
tis, Chinese,  and  Malays,  engaged  chiefly  jn  the  cultivation  of 
rice,  whidi  is  the  principal  article  of  food,  and  In  working  the  tin 
and  other  valuable  mines.  The  religion  is  Baddhism,  flie  form 
of  government  is  modelled  upon  that  of  China,  and  the  capital 
is  Hiie,  on  a  river  of  the  same  name  in  the  province  of  C.-C. 

History. — The  early  history  of  Anam,  by  which  name  the 
empire  is  always  spoken  of  1^  the  natives,  has  been  said  to  be 
'  either  a  wild  fable  or  a  revolting  redtal  of  internal  war,  anarchy, 
and  bloodshed,'  Little  is  known  about  it  with  certainty  until 
1624,  when  the  Christian  religion  was  introduced  into  the 
country  by  Portuguese  Jesuits  from  Macao.  In  1778  Warren 
Hastings,  Governor- Generid  of  India,  despatched  a  mission  to 
Anam  with  the  view  of  establishing  commercial  relations  with 
the  empire.  A  frightful  civil  war  was  then  r^ing  throughout 
the  country.  The  envoy  was  inhospitably  received,  and  was  at 
last  counselled  to  take  refuge  on  his  ship  in  the  harbour  of  Hue, 

afterwards  the  French' 
relations  with  Anam. 
Bishop  of  Adrian,  bi 


■,  usually  designated 
Pigneaux  de  Ediaine, 
ana  wno  wds  of  French  birth,  while  prosecutii^  a  Christian  mis- 
sion in  the  country,  became  intimate  with  the  reigning  sovereign, 
had  an  opportunity  of  affording  him  signal  services  which  led  to 
the  extension  of  his  sovereignly  in  Tonquin  and  Cambodja,  and 
thus  obtained  an  ascendancy  over  his  mind.  The  result  was  the 
ratification  of  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  between  ihe 
Anamese  sovereign  and  Louis  XVL  of  France  in  1787,  or  im- 


mediately thereafter.  This  treaty,  however,  led  to  no  results 
materiaEy  beneficial  to  France.  In  the  present  century  France 
has  been  more  successful.     See  C.-C,  Lower  or  French. 

Oootdn-Cliina,  Lower  or  Frencli  (Basse  Cochin- Chim),  a 
French  colony  in  the  extreme  S.  of  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula, 
consisting  of  tracls  of  land  on  both  sides  of  the  lower  course  of 
the  Mekong  or  Cambodja,  bounded  on  the  N.E,  by  C.-C,  on 
the  N.W.  by  the  kingdom  of  Cambodja,  and  on  Ihe  S.  by  the 
China  Sea.  Area,  21,716  sq.  miles ;  pop.  (1871)  1,335,842,  chiefly 
Anamites  and  Cambodjans,  but  embracing  over  20,000  Chinese 
engaged  in  commercial  pursuits,  and  about  600  European  civil- 
ians. The  colony  consists  of  the  sin  provinces  of  Saigon,  My- 
tho,  Bienhoa,  Vinhlong,  Hattien,  and  Angiang.  In  the  extreme 
N,  and  N.E.  (the  province  of  Bienhoa),  the  knd  is  covered  by 
spurs  of  the  moroilain  range  that  runs  S.  through  the  Anamese 
empire,  and  by  elevated  uplands.  This  hilly  district  is  pro- 
ductive in  indigo,  tobacco,  cotton,  sesamtmi,  hemp,  vegetables, 
earth-nuts,  sugar-cane,  betel,  maize,  mulbeny- trees,  &c.  Forests 
of  valuable  timber  trees  also  occur.  In  the  other  provinces  of 
the  colony  the  surface  is  flat,  the  soil  alluvial  and  rich,  and 
covered  by  an  intricate  and  widely  extended  network  of  ri' 


which,'  says  Louis  de  Came,- '  will  bear  comparison  with  the 
noblest  rivers  of  Asia.'  It  divides  itself  into  three  great  branches 
in  its  passage  through  Ihe  inland  districts,  and  these  are  again 
subdivided  mto  many  minor  branches,  forming  a  delta  40  miles 
wide  by  60  miles.  Other  important  streams  are  tlie  Donnai 
and  the  river  of  Saigon.  All  the  greater  rivers  are  navigable  for 
vessels  of  considerable  draught,  fliough  the  sandbars  at  their 
entrances,  over  which  the  water  is  seldom  more  than  frran  9  to 
12  feet  deep,  are  an  obstacle  to  navigation.  A  vast  tract  of  the 
area  of  the  colony  is  in  rice-fields,  and  rice  is  the  chief  product 
of  the  country.  In  1873  the  amount  of  rice  eupcaled  from  C.-C, 
was  272,000  tons,  or  over  50,000  tons  more  than  in  the  previous 
year.  In  1874  the  exfjort  of  rice  was  182,120  tons,  and  other 
exports  were  cotton,. silk,  sugar,  pepper,  coffee,  and  fish.  The 
only  great  seaport,  and  the  centre  of  commerce  of  (he  colom,  is 
Saigon  (q.  v.).  The  climate  is  not  considered  healfliy  for  Eimi- 
peans.  The  rainy  season,  that  of  flie  S.W.  monsoons,  lasts 
from  May  to  October,  during  which  the  temperature  ranges  from 
68°  to  86°  Fahr.  The  hottest  weather  occurs  in  the  months  of 
February  and  March.  The  administration  of  government  is  in 
the  hands  of  a  governor  and  connciL 

Hislory.— The  connection  between  France  and  the  Cochin- 
Chinese  empire  dates  from  the  latter  part  of  the  iSth  c,  when, 
in  17S7,  the  King  of  Anam,  in  return  for  services  performed, 
engaged  himself  by  treaty  to  cede  the  town  and  harbour  of 
Touran  or  Kwang-han,  •  with  the  territory  belonging  to  it,  to 
Louis  XVI.  The  King  failed  to  implement  his  treaty  by 
the  stipulated  transfer  of  territory,  but  he  yielded  so  fer  as  to 
treat  the  French  representatives  with  respect,  and  he  extended 
protection  to  the  French  missionaries.  In  the  succeeding  reign 
the   Christians  suffered  severe  persecution  at  the  instigation 


the  persecutions  bi  the  Christians  were  recommenceii,  until,  __ 
1847,  Captain  Rigault  di  GenouiUy  arrived  on  the  ^ores  with  a 
demand  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  treaty  of  17S7.  His  demand 
being  refused,  he  fired  into  and  destroyed  five  Cochin-Chinese 
junks.  The  relations  of  the  two  powers  remained,  however, 
unaltered— the  Anamese  persecutir^,  the  French  protesting — 
till  1857,  when  the  Anamese  Emperor,  Tu-duc,  fiercely  assafled 
the  CImsfisns,  and,  among  others,  murdered  a  Spanish  prelate. 
An  alhance  of  France  and  Spain  against  Tu-duc  was  the  result, 
and  on  the  30th  August  1S58  a  squadron  of  French  and  Spanish 
ships  appeared  before  Touran,  summoned  the  forts  to  surrender 
within  a  ^wea  time,  and  receiving  no  answer,  fired  and  took 
possession  of  the  town  and  forls  on  the  following  day.  The 
town  and  surrounding  territory  of  Saigon  was  Sken  by  ^e 
French  in  1859,  Mytho  and  Bienhoa  in  1861,  and  Vinhlong 
in  1862.  By  treaty  dated  May  26,  1862,  the  King  of  Anam 
engaged  to  pay  France  an  indemnity  of  1,000,000  sterling,  to 
cede  to  that  power  the  three  provinces  then  known  as  Lower 
C.-C,  and  to  guarantee  toleration  in  religion  and  commerce. 
Having  acquired  these  three  provinces,  the  first  care  of  the 
French  governor  of  the  new  colony  was  to  secure  the  peace  of  the 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


frontiers.     To  attain  Hiis  end  was  a  matter  of  no        11  d  fii    II5 
The  little  kinj;doin  of  Cambodja,  on  the  N.W.  of  th      1    y  li  d 
for  years  been  ravaged  by  Siam  on  the  W.  and  C   C        A 
on  the  E.      It  was  evident  to  the  French  aHlhont        fh  t  t 
qiiillity  was  only  to  be  secured  by  protecting  Cambod]      g       t 
her  rapacious  neighbours,  and  thus  guaranteeing  h      uid  pe 
dence.     Accordingly,   Rear-Admiral  de  la  Gra  d  i      w      d 
spatdied  to  the  Viceroy  of  Cambodja  (then  uiid  ai  ty  t 

Siam),  to  inform  that  ruler  tliat  henceforth  he     as  t  d 

himself  a  tributary  to  France,  and  a  treaty  giving  1  d  ty  t  h 
arrangement  was  ratified  between  the  two  poi  rs  A  im  t 
1863.  This  arraiwement  naturally  and  not  unexpe  tedly  1  d  f 
"      '  TTie  French  felt  themselves  call  d   po    t       p 

press  an  insurrection  of  a  section  of  Cambodj        as    ted  by 
Anamites  in  1867,  and  to  prevent  the  recurrence    f     mil     d 
turbances,  the  French  governor  wrested  the  thre         th  m  p 
vincesof  Lower  C.-C.—  Vinhlong,  Hattien,  and  A  gi    b     S 
this  period  the  French  have  applied  themselves  to  tlie  object  of 
developing  their  colony.    In  1866  an  expedition  was  oi^anised 
ipfore  lie  course  of  the  Mekong,  and  to  open  up  a  coro- 

cial  highway  by  this  river  between  the  western  provinces  of 

China  and  ^e  great  seaports  of  the  French  colony.  The  tlver, 
obstructed  by  impracticable  rapids,  and  with  an  irresistible  cur- 
rent, was  found  to  be  quite  unfit  for  navigation,  and  thus  the 
dream  of  making  Saigon  the  seaport  of  Yunnan  and  Szechuen 
vanished  conclusively.  But  the  resolution  to  extend  French  in- 
fluence in  Indo'China  has  not  been  abandoned,  and  in  further- 
ance of  this  aim  the  minutes  of  a  treaty  with  Anam  were  signed 
on  the  14th  March  1S74,  the  chief  conditions  of  which  were — 
Opening  three  ports  in  Tonqnin  ;  liberty  for  Europeans  to  reside 
therein ;  liberty  to  travel  in  the  interior  under  passport  from 
French  consul ;  leave  to  pass  Chinese  productions  through  Ton- 
quia ;  freedom  in  regard  to  the  Catholic  (Roman)  iaith  ;  obliga- 
tion that  French  protection  he  called  upon  in  case  of  interna] 
disturbance.  See  The  Land  of  the  White  Elephant,  by  Frank 
Vincent  (1873) ;  Travels  in  Indo-China  and  the  Chinese  Empire, 
by  Louis  de  Came,  member  of  the  commission  of  exploration 
of  the  Mekong  (1872). 
Ooall'ineal  Insect  {Coaus  Caeti),  a  species  of  the  Hemipter- 
113  genus  Coccus  (q.  v.),  which  lives 
n  the  Cactus  Opuntia  or  Nopal  of 
ij  Central  America,  and  on  other  spedes 
of  cacti  as  well — such  as  the  Cactus  or 
Opnntia  Tuna  of  Peru,  &c.  The  C. 
'  was  first  introduced  into  Europe 
1523  from  Mexico,  but  cochineal 
now  produced  in  the  £.  Indies  and 
giers,  as  well  as  in  Europe,  This 
■   ■      '        "  d    f  a  deep 


mulb 


Th 


d  d   e 


k  iled  by 
the  SI 


to  the 


hineal, 


70,000  ofth 

pound  of  CO  i  1 
ia  >v;^ed'L'n«cS"1'''wlnff-  ™P'"^t«^  35  375 
*         ll°s  femaLc.)'  Valued  at  jf588  bg 

Ooch'lea,  a  portion  of  the  internal-ear.    See  Ear. 

Oochlea'ria.     See  Scurvy-Grass, 

Cochlosper'mum,  a  genus  of  small  trees  and  shrubs  indi 
genous  to  tropical  India,  Africa,  America,  and  N.  Australia, 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  Flacoitrtiacax  (Bixinsa).  The 
stem  of  C.  Gossypium  of  India  yields  kuteera  gum,  used  as  a 
substitute  for  gum  and  tragacanth.  The  cottony  substance  which 
adheres  to  the  seeds  is  used  to  stuff  pillows,  &c  A  decoction 
of  the  roots  is  used  in  Brazil  as  a  cure  for  abscesses,  and  for 
pains  which  are  the  result  of  falls  and  other  accidents.  C.  Flan- 
ekoni  is  a  native  of  Western  Africa  ;  its  roots  yield  a  yellow  dye. 
C  thtctoHum  of  Senegambia  also  furnishes  a  yellow  dye,  as  well 
as  a  medicine  used  in  araenorrhcea. 

Cook,  a  name  applied  generally  to  the  males  of  Rasorta! 
Gallinaceous  birds,  but  spmetimes  restricted  to  denote  the  male 
of  the  common  or  Domestic  Fowl  (q,  v,).  In  the  C-birds  of 
most  Rasores  (q.  v.)  the  ornaments  displayed  in  the  form  of 
plumes,  brilliant  lustres,  wattles,  and  epidermal  appendages  ar< 
seen  to  greatest  perfection.    Tlie  presence  of  these  appendage- 


m  th    g      m  1 
p    ty    ymb  L      Th    b  d 
d         1  t    C   b  cam    th 
wh  1    th  t    f  Nas 


th 


C     bi    k— th     lat 


1  th      8th  c  tl   1 


try     ft      th 


k     f  d  t 


f    G 


tffgra  mbgwmby 

rs      d     M    Ibo      gh      dP  E  I    tl     W 

th    F       h  C  w        h  t     that    f  Sp  d        d 

colours  were  blended  when  the  armies  of  these 
...i  subsequently  combined.  When  in  1789  French  citizens 
generally  exhibited  the  'red,  white,  and  blue,'  it  was  partly  in 
.  :■  f  .  .  gj^jj-  is3ue(j  ill  1782,  which  forbade  all  who  were 

>  wear  the  regulation  white  C.  of  France.  The 
red  and  blue  were  added  as  being  the  colours  of  Paris.  The  tri- 
color  has  been  the  badge  of  the  French  army  since  the  Restora- 
tion, at  tlie  beginning  of  which  an  ineffectual  attempt  was  made 
to  establish  the  white  of  the  monarchy  as  the  sole  colour.  The 
Austrian  C.  is  black  and  yellow;  the  Prussian,  black  and  white  ; 
the  Belgian,  black,  yellow,  and  red— the  shape  on  the  Continent 
being  generally  a  flat  disc,  and  the  material  generally  leather, 

■    or  other  stuff.     On  the  fiat  disc  the  colours 

entrically.  The  adoption  of  the  C.  by  Euro- 
pean nations  was  only  the  systematising  of  ancient  usage.  The 
Plantagenet  family  was  named  afl:er  their  sprig  of  broom— 
Planta.  genista  ;  and  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  are  so  named  after  the 
badges  of  Lancaster  and  of  York. 

Cockatoo',  the  name  by  which  several  distinct  genera  of 
Scansorial  birds,  included  in  the  family  PdUacidm  or  Parrots,  are 
distinguished.  The  sub-family  Cacatu- 
ince  is  sometimes  formed  to  include  these 
birds,  in  which — the  true  cockatoos — , 
the  tail  is  broad  and  even,  and  the  head 
adorned  with  an  erectile  crest.  The 
bill  is  laiger  and  less  acutely  curved  than 
in  the  parrots.    These  birds  are  confinefl 


The  food 

and  the  nests  are  built  in  holes  of  trees. 

They  may  learn  to  spealt,  but  not  with 

the  same  distinctness  or  fluency  as  the  ^   _ 

parrots.     The  great  sulphur-crested   C   S^^s^ 

{C.  galirUa),  the  lesser  sulphur  crested  "^ 

C,  {Plyctdophus  or  C.  siilphiireus),  the 

galeated  C.  {CaUocephalon  gateatum),  and 

the  Banksian  C.  ( Calyptorhynchus  Bank-  Cockaioc.  (black). 

Hi)  of  Australia  are  well-known  forms. 

The  genera  Micro^ossiis  of  New  Guinea  is  also  included  in  the 

C.  family, 

Cock'atrice,  a  fabulous  monster,  said  to  be  hatched  by  a 
serpent  from  a  cock's  egg,  and  to  inflict  death  by  its  breath  and 
by  its  look.  The  wordoccurs  four  times  in  the  authorised  ver- 
sion of  the  Old  Testament,  where  it  evidently  means  a  venomous 
serpent,  and  is  probably  identical  with  the  reptile  named  by  the 
Greeks  basUiskos.     See  Basilisk. 

Cockbum  {pron.  Ci/btirn),  Henry,  a  notable  Scottish  advo. 
cate  and  judge,  was  born  at  Edinbui^h,  Octotier  26, 1 779,  educated 
at  the  High  School  and  University  of  his  native  city,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  ill  1800.  After  seven  years' waitmg  for  briefs,  he  was 
appointed  Advocate- Depute  to  the  then  Tory  Lord  Advocate  ; 
but  having,  through  his  long  and  intimate  friendship  with  some 
rof  the  chief  Liberals  of  the  time,  Horner,  Brougham,  and  above 
all  leffrey,  thrown  aside  the  political  principles  hereditary  in  his 
family,  he  was  dismissed  from  the  office,  C,'s  very  considerable 
ability,  his  shrewd  common-sense,  and  his  impressive  and  homely 
manner,  began  to  win  him  a  reputation  and  a  practice— particu- 
larly after  the  introduction  into  Scotland  of  jury  trial  in  civil 
causes.  In  1831,  under  the  Grey  Ministry,  he  was  made  Solicitor- 
General  for  Scotland,  and  in  1834  .became  one  of  the  judges  of 


-^ 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


the  Court  of  Session,  wheu  he  took  the  title  of  Lord  C.  He 
died  April  26,  1854,  at  iiis  leEidence  of  Bonaly,  near  Edinburgh. 
C.  was  not  a  voluminous  author,  although  he  wrote  some  articles 
for  the  Edinburgh  Review,  chietly  on  law  reform.  His  best- 
known  works  are  his  lAfe  of  Jeffi-ey,  published  in  1852,  and  the 
Memorials  of  Ms  Times,  published  two  years  after  his  death, 
containing  glimpses  of  the  Edinbuigh  society  of  the  time  in 
which  he  lived.  This  was  continued  by  the  publication  in  1874 
of  his  youTTcal,  in  2  vols.,  a  work  pimcipally  valuable  for  the 
news  gathered  by  C.  of  the  '  Disruption '  of  1843,  which  ended 
in  the  formation  of  the  Free  Church,  of  the  events  which  led 
np  to  it,  and  of  the  men  who  took  part  in  it.  A  volume  of  C.  's 
correspondence  has  also  been  published. 

Ooot'cliafer  [Mclolsnt/a  wlgan  )  the  nime  g  veil  to  a  beetle 

of  the  trbe  LammellKoiiu!   distingmshed  by  the  length   and 

size  of  the  leaves  of  which  the 

*^  *^r*  ^  .r^!^^  terminal  ]o  it  of   the   antennse 

^*^^^r^  ^^^^  '^  composed      These  leaves  are 

j^HLl,  ^^^^    largest  in  the  male  C,  and  fold 

/^Hv         iMW  "P  ''''=  ^  ''^"-     '^''^  ^-  ^^o^^ 

V'^^HLV      ^H  to  tie /ISy/iVA!^  or  leaf-eaters. 

I  ^^y  \  ^-ttAlLir  ^  '  °^^  ^  '°  England  and  Eu- 

/      B      \  -liOijiW     i^pg    rjnj^g  adult  feeds  on  leaves, 

Cocl   h    e     nd  Lai  T:  "'^  larvK  feed  ng  on  the  roots  of 

com  and  grasses.     The  C.  is  of 

Lfh  a  downy  wh  t       b  ta  c     and  is 

length.     It  spe  d  th 


nd   g 


h    B     h  u 


a  black  colour,  covered 

on  an  average  an  inch 

years  in  the  grub  or  larval  condition,  bii 

ence  as  the  adult.     The  larvse  are  very  d 

and  occasionally  immense  hordes  of  these  b 

tain  locahties,  and  devastate  the  plant-surr 

inv^on  occuned  in  Galway  in  Ireland  in    ba 

Oock'er,  one  of  the  spaniels,  nearly 
dog.     Its  colour  is  most  usually  of  a  blackish 
small  size,  and  is  employed  in  pheasant-shootii^.     Its  ears  are 
pendant,  but  the  tail  is  not  of  great  length. 

Oocker,  Edward,  an  arithmetician  and  caligcapher,  was  boni 
probably  in.  r63i  at  London,  where  he  died  about  the  year  1677. 
C.  was  a  schoolmaster  by  profession.  His  famous  Arithtnetie  was 
published  shortly  after  his  death  by  John  Hawkins.  C.  was 
also  the  author  of  a  small  dictionary,  and  of  a  book  of  Sentences 
for  writing,  called  C.'s  Morals. 

Cock'eimoutli,  a  parliamentary  borough  in  Cumberland,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Cocker  and  the  Derwent,  25  miles  S.W.  of 
Carlisle.  It  is  a  station  on  the  Penrith  and  Workington  branch 
of  the  North-Western  Railway.  C.  has  considerable  trade, 
manufactures  of  woollens,  linens,  cottons,  hats,  and  hosiery, 
tanneries,  breweiies,  and  dyeworks.  It  returns  one  member  to 
Parliament  Pop.  (1871)  6936,  The  poet  Wordsworth  was  a 
native  of  C.  C,  which  is  a  place  of  considerable  antiquity,  has 
the  ruins  of  a  castle  built  soon  after  the  Norman  conquest. 
There  is  a  fine  promenade  a  mile  long  on  the  N.  bank  of  the 
Derwent,  with  the  old  castle  at  one  end  and  wooded  cliffe  at  the 

Coot-Kghting:  is  now  prohibited  by  Act  of  Parliament, 
under  a  penalty  of  jf 5  for  each  day  that  the  offender  has  been 
coimeeted  with  it. 


,  frequent  and  troublesome  coi'n-weed  in  some  parts  of  Brit 
and  all  over  the  continents  of  Europe  and  America,  but  is  origin- 
ally a  native  of  Europe  or  the  W.  of  Asia.     The  seed  is  still 
sold  for  medicinal  purposes  in  Germany  under  the  name  of  black 

Cockle  {Cardiiim),  a  genus  of  LamelUbranchiate  mollnsca 
included  in  the  family  Cflraiflfl'fE,  the  members  of  which  possess 
equivalve  shells  of  heart  shape,  with  radiating  ribs  ;  the  mantle 
is  open  in  &ont,  and  the  syphons  are  short.  The  foot  ia  laige  and 
sickle-shaped.  The  common  C.  ( C  eduli)  is  a  well-known  edible 
mollusc  of  our  coasts.  It  is  enabled  to  take  leaps  of  consider- 
able extent  by  straightening  its  foot  suddenly,  and  leaping 
through  the  impetus  thereby  gained.  By  means  of  the  foot  also 
these  molluscs  burrow   in   the  sandy  coasts  in  which  they  ^e 


found.  A  great  many  species  exist.  C.  Junonee  is  a  second 
familiar  species.  Two  adductor  muscles  exist  for  the  purpose 
of  closing  the  shell. 


Coofney  (from  the  Fr.  cocagne — '  Fays  de  Cacagne  — 
imaginary  ^nd  in  medlseval  mythology  where  the  houses  a 


igne—'  J 
medlseval  mythology 
matte  of  cakes ;  perhaps  formed  from  the  Lat.  a^quinus,  from 
cequere,  '  to  cook '),  was  a  name  given  to  the  luxurious  inhabi- 
tants of  London,  as  opposed  to  the  less  etTeminate  denizens  of  the 
country.  'The  King  of  Cockeney' — i.e.,  of  London— occurs  in 
some  verses  ascribed  to  Hugh  Bagot,  Earl  of  Norfolk,  in  the 
time  of  Heniy  II,  'The  Land  of  Cockaigne'  is  applied  in  a 
popular  satire  of  the  13th  c.  to  a  Fool's  Paradise  for  monks, 
in  which  the  pleasures  are  all  sensual. 

Cook  of  the  Flaine  (Teiras  nrephasianus),  a  species  of 
grouse  inhabiting  N.  America.  It  is  the  largest  member  of  that 
family  found  in  the  New  World  ;  but  is  smaller  than  the  Caper- 
cailzie (q.  v.).  The  plumage  is  of  a  general  yelio wish-brown 
tmt,  the  under  parts  being  white,  whilst  generally  it  is  mottled 
with  dark  tints.  The  males  have  bare  sacs  on  the  neck,  which 
they  can  distend  at  will.  C.  occurs  in  California  and  Columbia. 
Its  flesh  is  bitter,  owing  to  the  bird  feeding  on  certain  herbs 
(Artemisia,  &c.). 

Cook  of  the  Itock  {Rupicala  aurantia),  a.  Dentirostral  (/?!- 
sessores)  bird,  belonging  to  the  Manakin  family  IJ^prinn),  and  so 
named  from  its  possessing  a  singular  double  crest  of  feathers  ris- 
ing from  the  sides  of  the  head,  whilst  the  upper  tail-coverts  give    , 
h   bird  the  appearance  of  a  cock-like  tail.     It  inhabits  Guiana, 
colour  is  a  fine  orange,  with  the  wing-gills  and  tail  black. 
An  ther  species  (R.  Peruviana)  is  found  in  Peru. . 
Cock  of  th^  Woods.    See  Capercailzie, 
Cook'pit,  a  theatre  in  which  gamecocks  used  lo  be  ex- 
hi    ted  fighting.      The  room  in  which   Her  Majesty's  Privy 
ncil  meets  at  Westminster  is  so  called,  because  it  was  built 
on  the  site  of  the  C.  of  the  palace  at  Whitehall.     In  nautical 
language,  the  term  is  applied  to  a  place  under  the  lower  gun- 
deck,  containing  the  rooms  of  seveml  junior  officers ;  here  the 
surgeon  keeps  his  medicine- chest,  and  attends  to  the  wounded. 

Cock'roack  (Blalta),  a  genus  of  Orthopterous  insects  belong- 
ing to  the  Cursorial  section  of  tliat  order,  and  included  in  the 
family  BlalUna.  All  the  legs  are  formed  for  running ;  the  head 
is  concealed  beneath  the  thorax ;  the  feelers  are  long  and  bristle- 
like ;  simple  eyes  or  ocelli  are  generally  wanting ;  wings  may  be 
wanting  in  the  females  only,  or  in  both  sexes  ;  Uie  hinder  wings 
fold  up  fan-wise,  the  front  wings  forming  elytra  or  wing-covers  ; 
spines  exist  on  the  tibise,  and  the  tarsi  are  five-jointed.  The 
body  is  flattened  and  ovate,  and  the  abdomen  is  terminated  by 
a  pair  of  jointed  appendages.  B.  orie?ilalis  is  the  common  C,  or 
black-beetle,  found  in  great  quantities  in  many  houses.  Tlie 
wings  in  this  species  exist  in  the  males  only,  and  are  rudimentary. 
These  insects  are  supposed  originally  to  have  been  imported 
from  India.  They  0<cur  also  in  ships,  a  second  species,  B. 
Americana,  being  found  in  the  latter  habitations.  TTiey  are  of 
nocturnal  habits,  devour  animal  and  vegetable  matters,  and 
exhale  a  disagreeable  smeU.  B.  giganlca  is  a  large  W,  Indian 
species,  also  named  the  Drummer,  from  its  making  a  knocking 
noise  in  the  night-time.  The  e^s  are  enclosed  in  homy  cases, 
and  are  arranged  therein  in  a  double  row,  each  egg  being  parti- 
tioned off  from  its  neighbour.    B,  Lappcnica  occurs  in  Lapland. 

Cooks'comti  (Celosia  crislata),  a  plant  belonging  to  the  natu- 
ral order  AuraHtianea,  is  a  native  of  the  E,  Indies,  and  is  now 
extensively  cultivated  in  our  conseiTatories,  and  in  the  open  air 
in  warm  localities. 

Cocksfoot  Qrase  {Daclylis),  a  genus  of  grasses,  of  which  one 
species,  D.  glamei-ala,  the  common  C,  is  generally  distributed 
over  the  cooler  portions  of  Europe,  Asia,  N.  America,  and  the 
N.  of  Africa,  In  Britain  it  forms  one  of  the  best  of  our  pasture 
grasses,  growing  weE  on  most  lands,  particularly  where  the  soil 
is  loamy  or  chalky.  It  is  also  suitable  for  growing  on  boggy 
soils  under  course  of  reclamation.  In  America  it  is  called  the 
orchard  grass.  Twenly-nine  species  are  described  by  Steudei. 
Cock's-Spur  Thorn.     See  CRAT.ffiGus, 


vLaOogle 


coo 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


brings  Ills  men  together  on  the  shortest  notice.  The  word  is 
formed  from  the  Welsh  each,  'a  boat,'  and  ' iwain,'  propeily  a 
servant,  but  here  the  petty  officer  in  command. 

Co'coa,  Oaca'o,  orCo'co  {Theohnma  C),  a  tree  belonging  to 
the  order  Byttmriuaa,  from  the  seeds  of  which  the  diinlcs  called 
C.  and  chocolate  are  prepared.  It  is  a 
native  of  Mexico,  Demerara,  and  other 
portions  of  tropical  America,  but  is 
now  naturalised  in  various  other  tro- 
pical countries,  such  as  Martinique, 
the  W.  Indies,  Colombia,  the  Phil- 
ippine Islands,  Guiana,  the  Canaries, 
&c.  About  the  year  1520  the  seeds 
were  introduced  into  Europe  as  a 
medicinal  agent  Tlie  tree  is  mueli 
branched,  and  attains  a  height  of  from 
J  ao  feet  on  an  average,  though 
iionally  if  grows  to  twice  that 
IlieighL  It  produces  ovoid  fruits,  each 
of  which  containsfrom  13  to  40  seeds — 
the  C  biavs  of  commerce.  After  be- 
ing shelled  and  bruised  to  pieces,  they 
constitute  C.  nUis.  The  seeds  are  ex- 
— (  luit,  and   tracted  from  the  fruits  by  their  being 

"-=    )  allowed   to  ferment  for  some  time, 

d    h         p      d  by  hand,  or  by  being  buried  in  the  earth 
11      p  Ip    becomes   rotten,   after  which    the    seeds  are 
d   ed    n   h      pen  air  or  by  means  of  a  fire.     The  last  method 
f    X         uig    I     seeds  produced  the  Cacao  tori  of  the   French 
man  f  rs      nd   is  by  some   considered   as    yielding    the 

bes    C      I        mmerce  there  ate  two  kinds  of  C,  viz.,  Carac- 
as C    f   m  C    aceas,  and  Island  C.  from   Bonrbou,  Mauri- 
h    W   I  d  es,  &o.,  whicli  is  less  esteemed  than  the  first- 
m  d  q    t  y      Most  of  the  C.  used  in  England  comes  from 
G  y  q    L  very  nutritious,  chiefly  owing  to  the  solt,  solid 

1  loi  wB       C  butter,  which  forms  more  than  50  per  cent,  of 
sh    ed  bea        The  rest  consists  of  starch,  gum,  mucilage, 
1  1  &c.,  and  a  cryslallisable  principle  called  Thea- 

b         M  ai   1  gous  to  Caffeine  (cj.  v.).     It  is  prepared  for  use  in 
y       First  it  may  be  prepared  as  Chocolate  (q.  v,), 
by  g  mdmg  up  the  roasted  seeds  with  their  outer  shells 
h    k    b    ween  hot  cylinders  into  a  paste,  when  it  is  then 
n     d  w  h     arch,  sugar,  &c.     ITiis  forms  common  C. ,  soluile 
&  h    C  nibs  already  mentioned.     This  latter  is  the 

if  m  f  C.  The  husks  are  sometimes  imported  from 
ly  d  1  ajneof 'niisei'abte,'andare  used  in  Ireland  and 
I    ly  f     m  king  a  thin,  though  wholesome  and  agreeahle,,  beve- 

g        f  with  the  poorer  classes  of  these  countries. 

Altogether  it  is  calculated  that  C.  in  one  form  or  another 
forms  the  beverage  of  about  50,000,000  of  people,  and  that  the 
consumption  is  about  100,000,000  lbs.  annually.  In  1S67 
nearly  12,000,000  lbs.  were  imported  into  Britain,  From  the 
pulp  which  surrounds  the  seeds  a  kind  of  spirit  is  distilled.  C, 
as  a  beverage,  is  nourishing  and  wholesome,  and  is  also  used  as 
a  menstniuu)  for  administering  various  medicinal  substances,  and 
the  bullaf\s  ofhcial  in  the  English  pharmacopceia.  As  an  emol- 
lient, and  as  an  ingredient  for  making 'suppositories,'  it  is  valu- 
able from  not  becoming  rancid.  C.  mixed  with  rice,  meal, 
starch,  sugar,  and  flavoured  with  vanilla,  constitutes  the  Racakmtt 
of  the  Arabs. 

Oo'coa-Nut,  or  Qooo-Nnt  {Cmos  nadfera),  a  species  of  palm, 
a  native  of  the  Indian  coasts  and  the  South  Sea  Islands,  but  now 
naturalised  in  suitable  situations  in  most  tropical  countries.  It 
always  prefers  the  vicinity  of  the  sea-shore,  though  sometimes 
found  at  a  con^derable  distance  inland.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
gracefii!  of  its  order,  often  rising  to  the  height  of  from  60  to  100 
feet,  in  a  stem  not  over  2  feet  in  diameter.  With  the  exception 
of  the  bamboo,  there  is  perhaps  no  plant  which  is  applied  to  so 
many  and.  so  varied  uses  as  the  C.  From  the  husk  surroimding 
the  nut,  coir  or  fibre  is  manufactured,  and  out  of  this  mats, 
brushes,  cables,  &c.,  are  made.  In  Southern  India  and  other 
countries  the  fiuits  form  one  of  the  staples  of  life.  The  oil  ex- 
tracted from  it  is  used  in  cookery  when  fresh.  By  pressure, 
steatine,  used  in  making  candles,  can  be  exlracted  from  it.  The 
shells  are  made  into  spoons,  drinking  cups,  lamps,  &c.  ;  when 
burnt  furnish  an  excellent  charcoal  and  lampblack.  'Toddy' 
is  made  out  of  the  fresh  Sap,  as  already  described.in  the  case  of 


other  palms,  and  vinegar,  arrack,  and  sugar  are  also  some  of  f  ht, 
products  of  this  juice.  The  leaves  are  used  for  thatchmg  house=, 
making  mats,  baskets,  hats, 
&c.  The  terminal  leaf  bnd 
is  boiled  and  eaten  as  a  pot- 
herb. The  hard  wood  is 
used  for  an  inlinite  variety 
of  purposes,  and  in  this 
country  is  familiar  under 
the  name  of  'porcupine 
wood,'  out  of  wmch  orna- 
mental boxes,  &c,  aremade. 
It  is  even  considered  that 
the  flowers  are  pOtent  as  an 


trmga 


,  the  r 


febrifuge,  and  the  milk  as  a 
cure  for  ophthalmia.  With 
this  category  of  uses  we 
have  byno  means  exhausted  Cocoa-nui 

the  list  of  economic  pur- 
poses to  which  the  C.  are  applied ,  which  are,  indeed,  almost 
endless.  There  are  about  a  dozen  other  species  of  Cocos,  one  of 
the  most  mteresting  of  which  is  C.  btdyracea  of  New  Granada, 
From  this  tree  foddy  is  also  extracted,  but  the  method  adopted 
is  somewhat  different  from  that  employed  in  other  countries. 
The  tree  is  cut  down,  and  a  long  cavity  excavated  in  the  trunk 
near  the  lop;  at  the  end  of  about  three  days  this  cavity  is  found 
filled  with  the  sap,  which  constitutes  'toddy.'  C  coronala,  a 
small  Brazilian  species,  has  a  quantity  of  starch  stored  away  in 
its  loose  pithy  interior,  which  is  used  as  food. 

The  Double  C,  the  Coca  tie  Mer,  Coco  de  Salomon,  Coco  des 
Maldives,  is  Lodoicea  Sechdlarum. 

Ooooa-Nnt  Beetle  {Baloccra  yiibus),  3  genus  of  Longicom 
Coleoptera  or  beetles,  the  larvse  of  which  inhabit  cocoa-i 
and  eat  into  the  stems.    The  larvEe  are  eaten  by  the  ni 
the  E.  Indies,  and  are  cf  large,  soft  conformation. 

Gdcoou',  the  shell  or  covering  of  fibrous  material  in  which 
many  species  of  insects  are  protected  during  their  pupa  or  chry- 
salis condition.  The  cocoons  of  several  species  are  of  very  great 
industrial  importance,  especially  those  of  the  moth  Sombyx  mori, 
or  the  silkworm,  which  is  the  source  of  all  ordinary  silk.  Several 
other  species  of  moths  yidd  silky  fibre  used  in  textile  manufac- 
tures, the  most  important  of  which  is  the  Tusseli  or  Tussurmoth 
of  India,  Antherma  fafhia,  which  Spins  a  large  grey-coloured 
C.  from  which  a  very  strong  silky  fibre  is  derived.  In  addi- 
tion, the  Ailauthus  moth,  Allacus  cynihia,  has  been  introduced 
from  China  for  culture  inFrance,  and  silk  isobtainedfroma  hybrid 
between  it  and  the  Armidy  moth  of  Bengal,  Attains  ricini. 
Among  other  valuable  cocoons  may  be  mentioned  the  Moonga  of 
Assam,  Antha-sa  assama,  which  forms  one  of  the  principal  ex 
ports  of  that  country ;  and  the  Mezankooree  of  the  same  region 
the  Antherad  meainkooria,  from  which  much  of  the  native  dress 
of  Assam  is  made;  and  theVama-mai  or  oak  silkworm  of  Japan 
AnlAema  yamamai,  which  has  been  introduced  into  E  rope 
There  are,  besides,  numerous  other  species  of  Bovibyx  itta  1 
Antherma,  which  yield  useful  silk  both  in  the  Old  and  New 
Worlds, 

Co'oTjm  OH,  a  vegetable  butter  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  at 
Indian  tree  [Gardnvi  furpunct)  belonging  to  the  same  genus  a; 
(he  mangosteen.  It  is  of  a  pale  greenish-yellow  colour,  and  very 
friable.  C.  is  exported  to  Briton,  where  it  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  pomatum. 

Opcy'tuS,  a  tributary  of  the  Acheron,  in  Epirus,  and  sup- 
posed by  the  ancient  Greeks  to  be  connected  with  the  lower 
world.  In  their  mythology  it  was  one  of  the  rivers  of  Hades, 
and  is  mentioned  in  the  Odyssey.  Virajl  also  assigns  it  a  place 
in  Tartarus,  as  with  the  Pyriphlegethon  flowing  into  the  Acheron. 
The  name  is  derived  from  kokuein,  to  shriek,  to  wail.  Hence 
Milton's— 

'  Cocytu^  named  oriaminlatiDn  loud 
Heard  Dti  Ih:  ruslul  stream.' 

f^tA.{Gadiis  Mofrhud),^  genus  of  Teleostean  fishes  belonging 
to  the  sub-order  AnacantMna,  and  to  the  family  Gadids,  which 
also  includes  the  haddocks,  whitings,  &c.  The  ventral  fins  are 
jugular  in  position,  that  is,  exist  on  the  throat  beneath  the  pecto- 
ral tins.     The  body  is  spindle-shaped.      The  scales  are  soft  and 


y  Google 


COD 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


COD 


of  small  size.  Tlie  median  fins  are  lai^e.  The  lower  jaw  is 
furnished  with  a  eirrhza  or  barbule.  Three  dorsal  and  two  anal 
fins  exist  The  fishery  of  Ihe  C.  forms  a  source  of  industry, 
which  gives  employment  to  thousands  of  men  on  the  coasts  of 
Britiun,  Holland,  Sweden,  Norway,  Iceland,  Newfoundland, 
and  dsewhere.  The  flesh  is  eaten  both  in  a  fresh  and  salted 
state.  The  air-bladder  and  roe  are  regarded  as  delicacies,  and 
from  the  liver  is  obtained  the  cod-liver  oil  which,  in  tubercular 
and  phthisical  complaints,  is  so  invaluable  a  remedy.  The 
fisheiy  is  carried  on  by  hand-lines  chiefly,  the  bdt  being  cuttle- 
fishes, shellfishes,  &c. 

Varieties  of  C.  (rock  and  red  C.)  exist,  and  the  Dorse  (q.  v.) 
is  sometimes  named  'Baltic  C  The  average  length  of  the  C, 
is  24  or  3  feet,  and  Its  weight  from  10  to  12  lbs. 

Oo'da  (Ital.  'tail,'  Lat.  cauda)  is  a  name  given  to     ph 
passage  sometimes  added,  like  a  peroration,  at  th        d    f 
musical  composition. 

Coda'rium,  e 

(DialiUm)    acutij 
Leone  fruits  knc 


13  of  plants  of  the  order  Legu  w  n  C 
<  and  C.  ebtudfolmm^yi^ii  th  S  m 
3  brown  and  velvet  tamarind      th    p  Ip 


of  which  has  an  agreeable  flavour,  and  is  very  ci 

Code  (Fr.  code,  Lat.  cedex,  older  form,  caiidfx]     A      11 
tion  and  chronological  arrangement  of  the  laws  of  a  si  1  m 

times  so  named,  but  this  is  usually  called  a  Digest,  ajid  by  C 
we  generally  denote  a  legal  system  which,  though  it  may  adopt 
some  existing  laws  and  customs,  is  founded  on  principles  funda- 
mentally new,  such,  for  instance,  as  are  advocated  in  the  Frag- 
ment on  Government  and  other  writings  of  Jeremy  Bentham. 
Roman  law  was  first  reduced  into  a  C.  by  order  of  the  Emperor 
Theodosius,  A.  D.  438.  This,  under  the  name  of  the  Tktodosian 
C;  continued  for  some  centuries  to  be  the  only  authoritative 
compilation  recognised  in  the  western  part  of  the  empire-  The 
C.  yastmian,  whose  authority  prevailel  in  the  eastern  division 
of  the  empire,  was  compiled  and  finished  by  Trlbonian  about  the 
year  533.  It  consists  of  the  Institutes,  or  elementary  principles 
of  Roman  law  i  of  the  Digest  or  Pandects  (q.  v.),  containing  the 
opinions  of  eminent  lawyers  i  of  a  new  C.  or  collection  of  im- 
perial ConstUutiiins ;  of  the  Novels,  or  supplementary  C.  These 
form  the  Corpus  Juris  Civilis,  as  published  about  the  time  of 
Justinian.  They  are  the  foundation  of  the  legal  systems  of  most 
of  Che  slates  of  Europe. 

The  old  laws  of  the  French  monarchy  were  founded  partly  on 
Roman  law,  partly  on  custom,  and  partly  mi  ordinances  of  the 
kings.  In  1800  Bonaparte  appointed  a  commissicn  to  form  a 
scheme  of  a  civil  C.  This  was  promulgated  in  i8o3--4  as  the  C. 
CMt  des  Franfois.  Under  the  Empire  it  was  named  the  C. 
.rt'o/i'/fliff,  by  which  name  it  isstill  known.  To  judge  of  its  value, 
we  should  read  reports  of  the  discussions  in  the  French  Council 
of  State.  See  Esprit  du  C.  Napoleon  Hri  de  la  Discussion,  by 
Locr^,  and  Analyse  Ratsonnh  di  la  Discussion  dil  C.  Civil  au 
Conseil  d'£tat,  by  Malville.  See  also  Savigny  On  the  Aptitude 
of  our  Age  for  Lgghlatinn,  translated  from  the  German  by  a 
barrister,  and  Rebbeig  Uba-  den  C.  Napoleon.  In  Thibaudeau's 
Memoires  stir  le  Consulat  the  original  expressions  of  Bonaparte 
in  discussion  are  preserved.  The  C.  de  F'rocidure  CJinV(i8o6) 
prescribes  the  forms  of  civil  process,  and  the  rules  of  the  courts' 
practice.  The  C.  d'Instruction  Criminelle  was  promulgated  in 
180S,  the  C.  de  Commerce  in  1808,  the  C.  Pmal  in  1810. 
Regarding  tjie  last,  Thibaudeau  says: — 'Napoleon  was  absent 
from  its  discussion.  He  said  that  the  laws  should  be  concise, 
and  leave  much  Co  the  judges  and  the  governmeiit  in  imposing 
the  penalty,  t>ecause,'  he  said,  'men  have  feelings  of  compassion 
unknown  to  the  law.'  Under  the  head  of  Vielations  des  rigle- 
tnents  rdalifs  aux  manufactures,  aax  commerce  el  auic  arts,  any 
ctMiliCion  to  lower  wages  is  puniiable  by  fine  and  imprisonment, 
and  workmen  combining  to  stop  a  mannfectory  are  to  be  punished 
ip  Che  same  way ;  leaders  in  both  cases  being  subject  to  severer 
penalties.  For  comments  and  strictures  by  French  jurists  on 
their  criminal  C,  ses  De  la  yuslice  Criminelle  en  France,  by 
Bdrenger,  and  L^ns  Pr^minaires  sur  le  C.  Penal,  by  Bavouse. 
For  a  general  view  of  the  judiciary  system  of  France,  see  Esprit 
des  Insliiitiions  yiidiciaires,  by  Meyer,  and  Des  Institutions  ymii- 
ciaires  de  rAiigleierre  compar&s  avec  ciUei  de  France,  ei  des  qucl- 
qties  autres  Atats,  by  Rey. 

Among  mediseval  codes  the  fullest  and  best  was  tliat  of  the 
Got&ic  Law,     It  was  initiated  hy  Alaric,  King  of  the  Visigoths, 


and  cnlai^cd  by  his  successoES.  The  second  was  the  Burgun- 
dian;  the  third  the  Salic  Law  (q.  v.),  whose  history  is  some- 
what obscure.  It  dates  from  the  exodus  of  the  French  from 
Germany.  The  fourth  or  Frisian  law  dates  from  the  times  of 
Pippin  and  Karl  Marlel.  The  Asegalntch,  a  set  of  Frisian  laws, 
was  composed  about  A.b.  1200.  A  complete  collection  of  them 
was  published  by  Richthofen  {Fries.  Rechisquellen,  1S40).  All 
these  codes  oltimately  merged  in  the  law  of  the  feudal  system. 

Codification  is  the  process  of  forming  a  C.  of  laws.  It  may 
be  either  done  by  public  authority,  as  in  the  cases  of  the  Codex 
Theodosianus  and  the  Codex  fustinianus,  or  it  may  be  done 
by  a  private  person,  as  were  the  codes  Gregorianus  and  Hermo- 
genianus.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  procure  the  codi- 
fi  f  f  th  1  w  f  E  land  N  tw'th  L  ding  th  m  t 
dcajfLodBglmth       h        hthtb  1ml 

t  tally       ff         1 

Cod  m         an  Alk  I    d  (q      }  p         t         p   m       d 
fi   t      t     t  d  f         th  t      b  t         by  R  b  q  S3       I 

11         ry  t  11        b  dy  p  g       b  tt      taot         d 

p  w    f  lly      Ik  I  t  1  th         d      t      f  rm 

y  t  a  It        d  ar    t     p  Tl        mp     t         f 

C  p         t  d  by  th   f   m  1    C   H   NO 

OodiEsum       g  f  Sp    g       t    {E  pho  b     s)      d 

g  t     h    M  1      as      d     1    d   t    th   N     f  A    t    1         C 

pi         t  tl     M  1  IS    ft         It      ted    bo  t  h    se        tl   t 

country,  and  used  for  fences.  The  leaves  are  strewed  on  the 
ground  on  festive  occasions,  and  are  also  used  to  decorate 
triumphal  arches.  When  chewed,  both  bark  and  roots  excite  a 
■*       ■     the  mouth. 


Ood'icil  (Lat   codicillus    a   dim.   of  codex)  is  a  supplement 
or  ad  the   testator,   adding  to,  ex- 

plain   g  g  his  former  disposition.     It 

may  am         per  is  the  will,  or  affixed 

to  It,  ra  r  and  deposited  in  a  differ- 

'"    "     placed.      In  gene- 


od 


the  s 


IS  that  rf 


ignature  and 

requi  A  ma    m       as  m  ny  codicils  as  he  pleases,  and 

the  last  IS  equally  valid  with  the  first,  if  not  contradictory.     See 

WlLI, 

Codlill,  or  Codling,  a  variety  of  apple,  for  boiling  or  roast- 
ing, and  thence  deriving  its  name,  which  is  probably  connected 
with  coddle  and  caudle,  the  origin  of  which  again  is  the  Lat.  cali- 


■),  and  destroy  much  fruit.    ITie  caterpillar; 
feet,  and  roll  up  leaves  to.  form  a  cocoon.      The  wings  are  shoit 
but  of  broad  conformation, 

Oodliver  (HI  is  obtained  from  the  liver  of  the  cod, 
torsk,  and  other  members  of  the  Gadidfe  family  of  fishes, 
the  chief  centres  of  its  production  being  Newfoundland  and 
Norway.  Three  varieties  are  known  in  commerce  by  the  names 
of  '  white,'  '  pale,'  and  '  brown,'  the  difference  in  colour  arising 
from  the  various  modes  of  preparation.  A  foarth  and  very  im- 
pure variety,  prepared  in  Norway,  is  largely  used  by  curriers 
under  the  name  of  cod  oil.  In  Newfoundland  the  process  of 
preparation  is  very  simple.  The  livers  are  taken,  as  fresh  as 
possible,  and  well  washed  to  remove  traces  of  gall,  &r  ;  they 
are  then  heated  in  a  boiler  with  steam  or  boiling  water  till  the 
oil  ris^  to  the  surface,  when  it  is  removed,  and  excess  of  water 
driven  off  by  heat.  The  oil  is  next  strained  through  cloth  bags 
of  different  degrees  of  fineness,  an  operation  which  effectually 
prevents  the  admixture  of  solid  extraneous  matter.  C.  O.  thus 
prepared  is  almost  devoid  of  smell,  taste,  or  colour,  and  possesses 
valuable  medicinal  properties.  In  Newfoundland  it  is  worth 
from  5s,  to  63.  per  gallon.  The  disagreeable  taste  and  smell  of 
ordinary  C,  O.  are  partly  due  to  the  putrefaction  of  very  minute 
pieces  of  livei  and  other  solid  impurities  not  removed  by  filtra- 
tion. Its  peoumate  constituents  are  olein,  palmitin,  and  stearin, 
with  small  quantities  of  butyric  and  acetic  acids,  and  a  peculiar 
substance  called  'gaduin.  When  taken  internally,  this  oil 
supplies  the  system  with  nutritive,  fatty  matter,  and  to  this  cir- 
cumstance its  _efiicacy  in  the  treatment  of  pulmonary  diseases  is 
to  be  attribute'd. 


^ 

HosteabyVjOOQlC 


*- 


COD 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


OodogTl'o,  a  to  n  t!  e  p  ov  e  ol  M  I  n  N  Ital)  nea 
the  Po,  24  miles  W  of  Pa  a  a.  a  Iway  ]un  tion  bet  ee 
Milan  amd  Piacenia  has  s  Ik  U  a  d  1  ne  ia  tones  and  an 
active  trade  in  ag     ultu  al  p  odu  e      Pop  9632 

Cod'rington,  Sir  Edward,  an  eminent  Bntish  admiral,  was 
bom  in  1770,  entered  the  nasy  in  1 783,  fought  under  Lord  Howe, 
and  at  the  battle  of  Tnifelgar,  in  1805,  was  captain  of  the  Orion. 
In  1S21  be  was  made  vice'Sdmiral,  and  in  1S37  commanded  the 
British,  French,  and  Russian  fleets  which  crushed  those  ofTurltey 
jind  Egypt  at  the  battle  of  Navarino.  Although  for  political 
reasons  he  was  recalled,  C.  continued  to  be  honoured  both  at 
home  and  abroad,  and  in  1837  reached  the  dignity  of  Admiral  of 
the  Red.  He  sat  for  Devonport  from  1832  to  1839,  and  died 
April  aS,  1851.  C.'s  son,  Sir  William  John  Oodringiioa, 
was  born  iSoo,  and  entered  the  army  as  an.  ensign  in  the  Cold- 
stream Guards.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean  war,  he  was 
made  commander  of  a  brigade  of  the  Light  Division,  took  part^ 
in  the  battles  of  Alma  and  Inkerman,  and  on  the  resignation  of 
General  Simpson,  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the 
English  forces.  On  his  return  to  England  he  entered  Parlia- 
ment as  member  for  Greenwich  in  1857,  but  acc^ted  the 
governorship  of  Gibraltar  in  1859.  He  was  made  a.  G.C.E.  in 
1865,  and  has  received  various  foreign  honours — French,  Sar- 
dinian, and  Turkish, 

Cod'ruS,  the  last  King  of  Athens,  according  to  the  Greek 
legend,  reigned  about  to58  B.C.  The  Dorians-  having  invaded 
Attica,  the  oracle  declared  that  their  success  depended  on  the  life 
of  C-  being  spared.  The  Attic  King,  learning  this,  entered,  the 
hostile  camp  in  disguise,  and  quarrelling  with  the  soldiers,  was 
slain.  On  this  the  Dorians  returned  home.  The  kingly  autho- 
rity was  henceforth  abolished  at  Athens  by  the  Enpatrids,  and 
Medon  succeeded  his  father  as  Archon  for  life. 

Goefflc'ieil.t  (Lat.  'together-making'),  in  algebra,  is  one  of 
two  factors,  simple  or  compound,  which  together  make  up  an 
expression.  Thus,  in  4  aiV,  4  ab\'^  is  the  C.  of  c,  4  ab^  of  i'^ 
4  ab  of  be',  abc  of  4  *£',  &c 

Cwltooni  or  Oohom,  menao,  Baron  Van,  a  great 
military  engineer,  was  bom  near  Leeuwarden,  in  Friesland,  in 
1641,  studied  fortification  under  his  uncle  Beraardus  Fnlleniua, 
Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Engineering  at  Franeker,  entered 
the  army  at  tlie  age  of  sixteen,  and  after  distinguishing  himself 
in  various  battles  and  sie§;es,  particularly  those  of  Maestriclit 
and  Namur,  rose  to  be  lieutenant-general  and  chief  director 
of  Dutch  fortifications,  and  the  trusted  engineer  of  William  III. 
Of  the  towns  he  fortified,  Bergen-op-Zoom  is  considered  to  be  that 
which  most  unmistakably  shows  his  genius.  C. ,  who  has  de- 
servedly been  called  the  Dutch  Vauban,  died  at  the  Hague, 
March  17,  1704.  He  wrote  several  books,  of  which  the  Nietewe 
VesimgboiiiB  ('New  System  of  Fortification,'  Leeuw.  1685,  new 
ed.  1702)  is  the  bestknown.  It  was  translated  into  many  Euro- 
pean languages.  See  Nicolas  Ypey's  Narratio  de  Jiebus  Gtstis 
Mermmis  Caiarni  {Fianek,  1771). 

OoeTioms,  so  called  from  the  en^neer  of  that  name,  are 
small  howitzers  or  mortars,  about  4}  inches  calibre,  which, 
being  easily  moved,  and  requiring  but  a  small  amount  of  powder, 
were  at  one  time  much  used  in  sieges,  especially  in  pouring  shells 
into  the  outworks  of  a  forti«ss. 

Coel,  a  town  of  British  India,  in  the  N.W.  province,  district 
of  Allyghur,  2  miles  S.  of  Allyghur  and  80  S.E.  of  Delhi,  It 
is  a  station  on  the  East  Indian  Railway,  and  the  residence  of  the 
civil  authorities  of  Allyghur,  with  which  town  it  is  connect  d  by 
a  fine  tree-shaded  avenue.     Pop.  (1872)  48,403. 

Ocelelinin'tlia,  literally  'hollow  worms,'  the  name  form  ly 
given  to  certain  groups  of  parasitic  worms  or  E»Joioa,  bel  g 
ing  to  the  sub-kingdom  Annuloida  or  EcAinaioa,  and  incl  d  d 
in  the  axiet  Ntmaiilmia  or  'round  worms.'  Owen  gav  th 
name  to  these  groups,  in  allusion  to  their  possessing  a  dist  t 
body-cavity,  and  in  contradistinction  to  the  Tape  Worms  (q  ) 
and  others,  which  possess  no  alimentary  cand  or  body-c  tj 
The  Ascaris  or  round  worms,  Slrongylus,  and  Fitan 
the  Guinea-worm,  are  illustrative  examples  of  C. 

Ocele-Syr'ia (Gr.  'HoUowSyria'i.nowknownby theA  b 
name  fiZ-SiS^d'a  ( '  the  deep  plain  '),  is  propetly  defined  by  Si  b 
as  the  VEdley  between  Libanus  and  Antilibamis  (about  lOO-m  1 


long  by  10  broad],  but  sometimes  erroneouslv  made  to  include 
the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  Lowland' Scotch  expression 
for  districts  similarly  depressed  is  exactly  the  same,  e.g.,  'The 
Howe  of  the  Meains,'  and  '  The  Howe  of  Fife.' 

CcsuEesthe'Bia,  a  term  designating  undue  susceptibility  to 
external  impressions.  Some  persons  are  susceptible  of  slight 
changes  in  the  circumstances  of  their  lives,  while  others  are  not 
so.  To  some  individuals  freedom  from  anxiety,  good  digestion, 
a  bright  sun  and  a  dry  bracing  air,  is  the  cause  of  cheemilness, 
exhilaration,  or  even  of  joy;  while  some  mental  cause  of  depres- 
sion, a  slight  disorder  of  digestion  or  of  excretion,  or  a  dull  day, 
may  cause  gloominess  and  even  despair.  (Carpenter's  Mental 
PAysielu^y.) 

Ote'nobites  ('dwellers  in  a  canobittm,'  from  the  G     ko  u) 
'common,' and  bios,  'life'),  the  name  given  to  monks      tl     4th 
e^  who  lived  together  in  the  same  dwelling  under  an    bb  t 
head,  as  distinguished  from  those  who  lived  alone  or  s  1  tary  as 
'  monks '  (m  the  original  use  of  the  word)  or  anchorites 

Ooann'ras,  the  pame  formerly  given  to  several  of  the  o-call  d 
Cestoid  Worms  (q.  v.),  which  are  now  ascertained  to  p  ent 
merely  stages  in  the  development  of  the  T!eniada  or  T  p  rm 
(q.  v.Jand  their  allies.  The  Ccenuri  are,  in  fact,  the  he  I 
Tteniada,  and  if  swallowed  by  a  second  animal,  dev  1  p  mt 
tapeworms.  Thus  the  C.  cerebrali'  found  in  the  bram  f  th 
sheep,  and  causing  the '  stagers '  of  that  animal,  when  swall  w  d 
by  the  S.Qe  developes  into  the  characteristic  tapewoi  { Ts  a 
serrcaa)  of  the  latter  form.  The  cystic  worms  exist  y  t 
bladder-like  bodies,  which  are  embedded  in  animals,  and  tt  hed 
by  a  short  neck  and  head — the  latter  being  the  head  of  tl  fut 
tapewocmi     See  also  Cestoid  Worms  and  T^sniada 

Ooe'rulein  is  a  dye  recently  introduced  for  dyeing  a  d  1 
printing,  and  is  obtained  by  treating  Gallein  (q.  v.)  h 
centrated  sulphuric  acid  at  200°  C.  (392°  Fahr.).  A  b  t  ful 
green  colour  Is  produced  by  dissolving  C.  in  an  alkalin  1  t  n. 
In  calico-printing  this  solution  and  the  mordant  alumina  yield  a 
rich  green,  wliile  iron  mordants  produce  a  brown  colour ;  both 
dyes  are  fast  On  treating  a  hot  aniline  solution  of  C.  witli 
alcohol  and  acetic  add,  an  indigo-blue  colour  results,  which  may 
be  communicated  to  wool. 

CofTee  {Coffea),  a  genus  of  Riibiacex 
opinions  differ),  consisting  of  between  fifty 
only  one  of  which  produces  the  fruit  from 
which  by  decoction  can  be  made  tlie 
beverage  known  as  C  Al!  are  shrubs  or 
small  trees  under  20  feet  in  height,  na- 
tives of  the  tr(T)ics — the  greater  number 
of  the  species  being  found  in  the  western 
hemisphere.  The  most  important  is  Cof- 
fea  Arabics,  which  giows  to  a  he^ht  of 
about  20  feet,  but  when  cultivated  is  sel- 
dom allowed  to  attain  to  more  than  10 
or  1 2  feet.  Though  now  cultivated  solely 
within  the  tropics,  the  native  country  of 
the  C.  shrub  is  the  mountainous  country 
at  the  extreme  S.W.  point  of  Abyssinia — 
the  word  €.  being  derived,  according  to 
some,  from  Cafa,  the  name  of  one  of  the 
Abyssinian  provinces ;  though  it  is  mote 
probably  the  Arabic  piakwak,  pro- 
nounced by  the  Turks  kahve,  whence  the 
¥     dica/l    T       Aby  ■  ■    "' --  ' 


Aba,      d  f   I 


tl     D     h 


A    b 
B  ag     by  th 


n  h     h     first 


h  misph  d  p  ted  p 

ag     d  y  h    d  tl   t    11  th 

BazIC    trlAm      a,tl     WId 
of  gl     pi    t    m  3t  p    b  biy  d 

Ga  den     t  A     i    d 


Its 
th     gh      t  first 


ag 


PP 


t—    M    Ed      d     w! 


y  Google 


COP 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


COG 


beverage  in  the  E  but  who,  to  save  himself  from  the  annoyance 
'  visitors  anx  oqs  to  taste  the  new  drink,  established  his  servant 
a  house  wheie  it  cOuld  be  bought  From  this  dale  the  use 
of  C.  rapidly  incteased,  and  spread  into  the  European  con- 
tinental countries,  where  it  is  now  more  used,  and  prepared 
;reater  perfection,  th-in  m.  Britain  At  the  present  time 
consumption  in  Europe  and  the  U.S.  alone  is  estimated 
joo,ooo,ooo  pounds— the  greater  part  of  this  being  from 
Brazil,  though  most  of  the  C  consumed  in  Britain  comes  from 
Ceylon.  In  1872  there  were  imported  into  Britain  166,269,052 
lbs.,  ofwhich  31,173,555  lbs.  were  retained  for  home  consumption. 
The  duty  on  this  import  was  14s,  per  cwt.  for  raw,  and  ad.  per 
lb.  for  roasted  beans.  The  consumption  for  the  whole  world  is 
estimated  at  7*0,000,000  of  lbs.  Of  this,  the  U.  S.  consumed  the 
greatest  quantity,  and  Brilam  the  least.  After  the  berries  are  lipe 
they  are  gathered,  and  deprived  of  their  outer  pulp  by  machinery, 
then  steeped  in  water  to  remove  all  mucilaginous  matter,  after 
which  the  parchment-like  covering  of  the  seeds  is  removed  by 
means  of  a  mill  and  a  winnowing  machine.  They  are  now  roasted, 
the  heat  not  only  reducing  the  berries  to  one-half  their  original 
built,  but  also  causing  the  development  of  a  volatile  oil  and  a 
peculiar  acid  to  which  the  flavour  and  aroma  of  the  C.  is  due. 
In  Sumatra  and  other  of  the  Malay  islands,  an  infusion  of  the 
roasted  leaf  is  used,  under  the  name  of  ,C.-tea.  It  is  Said  to 
contain  a  lai^e  quantity  of  CafFeine  (q.  v,),  which  constitutes  the 

frinciple  of  the  C,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  use  of 
may  extend.  In  Central  Africa  Speke  describes  the 
vea  as  chewing  the  C.-beans  instead  of  making  a  decoc- 
tion of  them.  The  physiological  effect  of  C  is  that  it  acts  as  a 
mulant  to  the  brain,  causing  sleeplessness,  and  is  accordingly 
ed  as  an  antidote  to  narcotic  poisons.  According  to  the  most 
widely  received  belief,  it  acts  like  tea  as  a  soother  to  the  vascular 
em,  and  by  preventing  waste  of  the  tissues  of  the  body,  enables 
1  support  life  on  a  less  quantity  of  food  than  would  be  other- 
e  required  for  tl^e  maintenance  of  animal  existence.  Cocoa 
(q.  v.),  Paraguay  Tea  (q.  v.),  and  other  beverages  .which  have  a 
simi^r  effect  on  the  system,  alio  contain  a  principle  analogous  to 
caffeine,  but  neither  Chicory  (q.  v.),  norany  of  the  mimerous  sub- 
stitutes for  C,  do  so,  or  have  any  pretensions  to  act  in  a  similar 
manner  on  the  system,  except  that  they  supply  to  the  palate  a 
sensation  not  unlike  that  of  C.  For  instance,  what  is -called 
Swedish  C  is  the  seeds  of  Astragalus  haticus. 

tssmct  t>f  C.  ia  a  very  concentrated  infusion  or  decoction, 
mixed  with  extract  of  chicory  and  bumed  sugar  until  it  is  of  the 
consistency  of  molasses.  A  teaspoonful,  mbted  with  boiling 
water,  makes  a  useful  substitute  for  the  Intimate  decoction  of 
the  ground  C.-beans.  The  name  WildC.  is  given  in  the  W. 
Indies  to  Faranua  odoraiissima,  Zudania  kelieides,  and  Eugenia 
distieha, 

Coffee-Bean-Tree,  or  Coffee-Tree,  Eentucky.  See 
Gymnocladus. 

Ooffee-Bug  {^Lecanium  cqgi-is),  a  genus  of  Hemiptera 
(Homoplefa)  belonging  to  the  family  Cocdiie,  and  so  named 
from  its  destructive  inroads  on  the  coffee  plantations.  Ceylon 
particularly  suffered  from  its  ravages.  Licanium  lUds  is 
allied  species  which  lives  on  the  Zlex  or  evergreen  oak  of 


The  red  ai 


n  destructive 


OofTer  (Fr. 


r,  '  a  chest ; '  Gr.  io^Mnos,   '  a  basket ')  is 

e  given  to  a  casket  for  keeping  jewels  and  other  ivalu- 

able  articles;  the  term  being  sometimes  applied  to  a  chest. 
In  architecture,  it  denotes  a  deep  panel  in  a  ceiling,  the  same  as 
a  caisson  ;  in  fortification,  a  particular  ikind  oi  cafrmniire.     See 

Caissok,  CaponniSre. 

'  Ooffer-Dam,  a  water-tight  enclosure  within  which  the  foun- 
dations (or  a  bridge  abutment,  quay  wall,  or  other  such  struc- 
ture may  be  excavated  and  tJie  masonry  built.  A  C.-D.  com- 
monly consists  of  two  continuous  rows  of  wooden  piles  'driven  in 
the  ground,  and  left  sufficiently  long  to  reach  above  high-water 
marit     The  rows  are  several  feet  apart,  and  the  space ; 

them  is  filled  with  clay  puddls   ""     "  ' ' —  "---'- 

pervious  to  water.  The  watt 
space,  so  that  excavation  and  t 
out  the  use  of  divers,  at  all  s 
cast-iron  has  in  a  number  of 
instead  of  the  wooden  .piling. 


.._  ._  make  a  thick  wall 
pumped  from  the  enclosed 
)n  can  go  on  within  it,  with- 
of  the  tide.     Of  late  years 
been  used  with 


Coffin,  a  chest  or  box  in  which  a  dead  body  is  interred. 
The  word  is  probably  derived  from  copkitms,  a  Latinised  form  of 
the  Greek  kophinos  ('  a  basket  0,  though  it  must  be  noted  that  no 
such  use  oikofihinos  was  known  to  the  ancients  themselves.  In 
the  East  at  the  present  day  a  dead  body  is  consigned  to  the 
earth  wrapt  merely  in  a  cloth  or  wind  ng  sheet  wh  ch  Moham 
medans  express  by  the  Arab  c  wo  d  kxfan  and  it  is  probable 
that  to  it  our  English  «ord  is  to  be  traced  In  eirly  times 
the  bodies  of  persons  of  d  stinction  vere  deposited  in  eofhns 
-'  when  Joseph  died,  'they  embalmed  hm  -md  he  was 
in  a.C,  in  Egypt.'  The  Egypt  ans  e  closed  embalmed 
bodies  in  cases  of  cedar  which  aie  still  found  in  a  state  of 
almost  perfect  preservation  from  the  dryness  of  the  rock  tombs 
whece  tliey  were  deposited.  Cofhns  of  wood  and  burnt  clay 
ha^e  been  found  at  Athens;  and  while  it  was  customary  for  the 
Greeks  to  burn  dead  bodies,  recent  investigations  seem  to 
ro«e  that  burial  of  unburnt  corpses  in  coffins  was  equally 
■equent.  Among  the  Romans,  too,  inhumation  In  cofiins  of 
rood  and  stone  was  practised.  Pliny  mentions  that  a  kind  of 
[one  found  near  Assos  in  Troas,  was  made  into  coffins  which 
speedily  consumed  the  corpse.  (See  Sarcophagus.)  Thekistvien 
or  C.  of  the  ancient  Britons  was  formed  of  rough  slabs  of 
stone;  during  the  tenth  and  two  following  centuries,  stone- 
coffins  were  in  common  ^use  in  England,  and  towards  the  end  of 
that  period  they  were  employed  in  the  interment  of  monks, 
whose  bodies  before  that  period  were  laid  in  the  earth.  Coffins 
hoth  of  lead  and  wood,  belonging  to  the  Old  English  and  later 
periods,  have  also  been  .discovered,  tl  ose  of  tl  T  n  plars  found 
in  the  Temple  Churdi  in  London  be  ng  of  th  fo  m  material. 
The  present  mode  of  sepulture  in  losed  ffiis  ha^  recently 
been  condemned  on  sanitary  grounds  reta  d  ng  as  does,  the 
lesolution  of  Ihebodyiinto  its.componenteleme  ts  a  dtheques- 
tion  of  adopting  cremation  has  been  openly  d  u  d.  As  a 
compromise  between  the  two  modes  ^l  Seymou  Haden  has 
suggested  the  use  of  coffins  of  basket  k  and  otl  er  easily 
perishable  materials  of  open  constru  t  n  wh  h  w  11  accelerate 
the  dissolution  of  tlie  .body,  by  freely  admitting  air  and  moistt  , 
and  in  cases  of  death  from  infectious  disease,  he  has  proposed 
to  use  a  double  basket  case,  the  intermediate  space  being  filled 
with  charcoal  powder. 

Coffin  also  Hgnities  the  raised  crust  of  a  pie,  and  in  this 
sense  it  is  frequently  used  by  Shakespeare  ;  and  the  whole  hoof 
of  a  horse's  foot  abcwe  the  coronet  is  so  named  in  veterinarj 

Oogg'eahali,  a  market-town  of  Essex,  on  the  Blackwater, 
40  miles  N.E.  of  London,  and  10  W.  of  Colchester,  is  : 
station  on  the  Great  Eastern  Railway.  It  is  connected  with 
Little  ,C.  (pop.  367)  by  a  .bridge  across  the  river,  and  conliuns  a 
beautiful  church,  St  Peter's,  restored  in  1868,  a  grammar-school, 
endowed  by  Shr  Robert,  Hitcham,  a  mechanics'  institute,  a 
public  library,  &c.  Its  manufactures  are  chiefly  silk,  velvets, 
patent  isinglass  and  gelatine.  In  1142  King  Stephen  here 
founded  a  Cistercian  abbey,  part  of  the  ground-plan  of  which 
was  discovered  in  1865.     Pop.  i{lS7l)  2916. 

Ooggia's  Oomet,  the  last  comet  visible  without  telescopic 
aid  to  our  earth,  appeared  in  the  summer  months  of  l874in  the 
northern  hemisphere.  The  nucleus  w^  bright  and  well-marked, 
and  the  tail  could  be  traced  for  a  considerable  distance  in  the 
sky.  Tietjen,  Schulhof,  and  Geelmuyden  have  given  calcula- 
tions which  all  agree  in  assigning  to  it  a  great  length  of  revolu- 
tion, the  period  deduced  by  the  last  being  10,445  J^^'s- 

Oogn'ftC  (Lat.  Cogniamm,  'the  comer  of  the  water;'  Fr. 
cein,  Lat.  caH«tr),  an  old  town  in  (he  department  of  Charente, 
France,  on  a  height  oserloolting  the  plains  of  the  Charente 
river,  zo  miles  W,  of  Angoul^me.  It  gives  name  to  the  famous 
brandy,  of  Whidh  it -eipocts  ^3,600,000  worth  annually,  and  has 
also  large  manufactures  of  leather,  linseed  oil,  and  pottery.  There 
are  two  important  fairs  held  here  in  May.and  November.  C.  is 
thebirthphice.ofFran9oisI.,  and  its  only  historical  building  is  a 
ducal  chateau,  now  converted  mto  a  store.     Pop.  (1 87 2}  12,761. 

Oog'iiate.    See  Agnate. 

Cog'nition,  or  Cog'n.iaoiiig',  is  a  process  in  Scotch  law  for 
inquiring  into  the  mental  condition  of  any  one  suspected  of 
being  idiotic  or  insane.  See  under  Beievjc,  Brieve  of  Idwtry 
and  J'ui-iosily. 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


COI 


s  tlie  -living 


Cognition  and  Sale  is,  in  lie  iaiv  of  Scotland,  tlie  name  gi^eii 
to  a  process  before  the  Conct  of  Session,  at  the  instance  of  a 
Pupil  (q.  V.)  and  liia  Tutors  (q.  v.),  for  obtaining  a  warrant  to 
seil  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  pupil's  estate. 

Cognitaum  CiBifo.— In  Soollana,  when  the  creditor  of  a  d 
ceased  proprietor  brings  an  action  against  the  heir  to  constitn 
the  debt  agjunst  him,  and  the  heir  renounces  the  sucoessio 
the  court  will  give  a  decree  for  the  debt.  This  is  called 
<ie^te  C.  C. 

CogniliBit  and  Sirsiiie  is,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  the  form  of 
entering  an  heir  in  burgage  property. 


Cog^OSOen'ti  (ItaL  foini  of  the  Lat,  cognossmles,  '  knowing 
sues '),  critics  in  matters  of  art,  whose  kmmiledge,  genuine  " 
otherwise,  is  their  title  to  the  ftmotion  they  assume. 

Oogno'vit  Actlo'nemj  an  English  law-term,  indicating  the 
written  confession  of  a  defendant  that  the  cause  of  action  -  -  -  ■    ■ 
him  is  just.     Judgment  may  tljen  proceed  on  the  C.  A.,  ai 
culion  follow  aecordmg  to  tlie  terms  agreed  to  in  the  wrti 

Oohabita'tion,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  me 
tc^ether  of  a  man  and  woman  as  husband,  and 
constitute  marriage  as  implying  contract.      See   Contsact, 
Marriage. 

Oolieir  or  Ooheir'esa,  one  of  two  or  more  persons  among 
whom  an  inheritance  is  divided.  See  Successiok,  Copak- 
CENAK.Y,  Common  Tenancy,  &c. 

Colie'Bioil,  that  property  of  a  homogeneous  portion  of  matter 
on  wliich  depends  its  resistance  to  any  straining  or  disrupting 
force.  It  is  thus  distinct  from  Adhesion  (q.  v. ),  which  is  a  similar 
molecular  attraction  subsisting  between  two  different  portions  of 
matter  in  contact.  Both  seem  to  be  superficial  attractions,  inde. 
pendent  of  mass,  and  quite  inappreciable  at  sensible  distances, 
C.  is  most  strongly  marked  in  staids,  and  its  experimental  deter- 
mination in  the  case  of  material  used  far  purposes  of  construction, 
is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  practical  engineering.  Liquids 
possess  the  same  property,  though  to  a  less  extent,  oflierwise 
they  could  not  hold  together  as  drops.  Further,  all  the  curious 
phenomena  of  Capillarity  (q.  y.)  are  due  to  the  simultaneous  and 
mutual  action  of  C.  in  the  liquid,  and  adhesion  between  the  liquid 
and  some  other  kind  or  kinds  of  matter.  The  so-calJed  C.  and 
submersion  ligures  of  Tomlinson  are  also  capillary  phenomena, 
which  are  best  noticed  here,  and  are  thus  proiduced.  Wlien  a 
drop  of  liquid  is  gently  placed  on  the  clean  surface  of  a  speciii- 
cslly  heavier  liquid,  the  former  is  observed  to  spread  out  accord- 
ing to  a  definite  pattern,  which  is  different  for  each  pair  of  liquids, 
thus  suggesting,  as  Tornlinson  pointed  out,  a  method  of  analysis. 
Tills  is  a  C.-figure.  Submersion- ligures  are  formed  by  the 
gradual  sinking  of  a  liquid  through  a  specifically  l%h(er  one;  and 
-ome  of  these  are  extremely  beautiful  and  regular,  the  vortex 
inga  produced  in  many  instances  beiag  sinenlarly  perfect  It  is 
common  error  in  popular  science  to  say  that  gases  have  no  C, 
lut  even  possess  among  the  particles  a  repelling  aotion.  Snch 
n  hypothesis,  however,  is  of  absolutely  no  use  In  the  molecular 
theory  of  gases,  and  adds  acomplexity  which  is  not  to  be  desired. 
C.  acts  between  the  particles  -when  they  are  sufflcimtly  near,  but 
owing  to  their  velocities  at  collisions,  these  particles  rebound  al- 
most instantaneously,  so  that  the  cohesive  forces  act  during  a 
practically  indefinitely  shoii  time,  and  are  not  sufficiently  great 
to  overcome  the  enei^  of  motion  of  the  particles. 

When  a  solid  is  heated  it  generally  expands,  the  molecules  being 
driven  fiirther  apart,  and  consequently  the  cohesive  forces  dimi- 
nished m  intensity.  Atlength  the  solid  melts,. and  themolecules 
acquire  a  certain  freedom,  the  enei^  of  heat  being  transformed 
into  energy  of  motion;  but  the  velocities  are  not  sufficiently  great 
fo  neutrdise  the  efiecis  of  C,  which  is  still  apparent.  By  the 
application  of  more  heat,  however,  the  fluid  expanding  becomes 
more  mobile,  expands,  and  the  molecules  get  more  active,  till  at 
last  their  velocities  become  so  great  that  the  effects  of  C.  are 
0  longer  evident— the  liquid  becomes  a  gas.  Thus,  though  in- 
rease  of  temperature  has  a  powerful  effect  upon  cohesive  forces, 
:  seems  to  be  only  because  the  distances  between  the  molecules 
and  their  velocities  arc  increased  ;  but  it  affords  an  argument  in 
favour  of  the  ene^fy-nature  of  heat,  placing  it  iu  the  same  cate- 
gory with  motion. 


;  kernels  of  a 


1  Lat.  co/ea,  used  by  For- 


OoTiort,  a  division  of  the  legion,  in  the  ancient  Roman 
armies.  There  were  always  ten  cohorts  in  a  legion,  and  during 
the  republic  these  were  all  equal  to  each  other.  Hence  thi 
strength  of  the  C.  varied  with  that  of  the  legion,  and  ranged  a. 
different  periods  between  300  and  600.  Under  the  empire  the 
fiiBt  C,  which  had  charge  of  the  eagle,  was  twice  as  strong  as 
each  of  the  other  nine.  The  word  was  sometimes  loosely  used 
in  the  general  sense  of  battalion. 

Cohune'  Oil,  a  valuable  oil  obtained  from 
Brazilian  palm,  Atiaka  cohune. 

Coif  (Fr.  coiffe,  a  head-dre 

tunatus),  a  defensive  hood  wl   _ 

soldier's  aimour  in  the  middle  ages, 
tinuous  with  the  haubetk,  and  sometimes  separate.  The  nai 
was  also  given  to  a  covering  for  the  head,  especially  of  the  tc 
sure,  worn  by  Roman  Catholic  priests.  In  legal  language,  .. 
is  the  cowl  or  cap  worn  by  serjeants-at-law — a  reiic  of  the 
ecclesiastical  character  of  lawyers.  To  become  a  serjeant-at-law 
is  the  same  thing  as  to  attain  the  Degrees  of  the  C. ;  after  which 
a  barrister  leaves  the  Inn  of  Court  which  called  him  to  the  bar 
to  become  a  member  of  Seijeanta'  Inn. 

Coimbatore',  the  chief  city  of  a  district  of  the 
in  the  province  of  Madras,  British  India,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Noyel,  a  tributary  of  the  Canvery,  on  an  elevated  and  dry  si 
tion  OH  the  southern  declivity  of  the  Neilgherries.  It  is  i 
hesdthy.asfrom  itsproximity  to  the  Palgatcheri,  a  depression 
versing  the  Western  Ghauts  from  E.  to  W. ,  it  is  ventilated  both 
by  the  N.E.  and  S.W.  monsoons.  C.  was  taken  by  the  British 
in  1783,  and  a^m  in  1790.  Pop.  12,000.— The  distrid  of  C. 
has  an  area  of  8470  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1872)  of  1,430,738, 
of  whom  1,386,915  are  Hindus,  and  15,549  Christians.  It  com- 
prises a  portion  of  the  Neilghetries,  one  peak  of  which  is  9000 
feet  above  the  sea-leveL  The  remainder  is  an  undulatmg  table- 
land of  no  great  elevation,  great  part  of  the  soil  being  fertile,  and 
producing  cotton,  rice,  and  tobacco. 

Ooim'bra  (anc.  Conembrica),  a  city  of  Portugal,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Beira,  on  the  right  banlt  of  the  Mondego,  110 
miles  N.N.E.  of  Lisbon,  built  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  in  the 
form  of  an  amphitheatre.  The  streets  are  steep,  narrow,  and 
ill-paved;  but  there  are  several  fine  buildings,  including  the 
cathedral  and  the  university — the  only  one  in  Portugal — ori- 
guially  established  in  ngo,  and  transferred  here  a  second  time 
from  Lisbon  in  1537.  George  Buchanan  (q.  v.)  was  for  some 
time  a  professor  at  C,  Being  accused  of  heresy,  he  was  im- 
prisoned in  a  monasteiy,  where  he  commenced  his  Latin  metrical 
version  of  the  Psalms.  Tlie  library  of  the  university  possesses 
60,000  volnmes.  C.  lias  mann&cSures  of  earthenware,  linen,  and 
woollen.  Pop.  (1871)  18,147.  Since  1816  the  university  has 
possessed  five  faculties — theoltw,  law,  medicine,  philosophy, 
mathematics..  It  has  a  Ubraiy  of  from  40,000  to  50,000  vols. , 
an  observatory,  a  chemical  laboratory,  and  a  museum,  with  an 
anatomical  theatre,  and  various  scientific  collections.  The  num- 
ber of  professors  and  lecturers  is  46,  and  of  students,  nearly  900. 

Coin,  Coining  {Fr.aiin,  Lai  «(«««,  the 'wedge 'by  which 
money  was  stamped).    See  Mint,  Money,  CuERENcy,  Numis- 

Coin,  Ooirung:,  Laws  Begrwding.     In  1861  the  laws  of 
the  United  Kingdom  relative  to  the  coinage  were  consolidated 
and  amended.    To  counterfeit  .the  gold  or  silver  coinage  is  felony, 
lishable  at  the  discretion  of  the  court  by  penal  servitude  for 
or  for  not  less  than  three  years.     To  diminish  or  lighten  the 
gold  or  silver  coinage  is  felony.  To  attempt  knowingly  to  pass  any 
counterfeit  C.  is  a  misdemeanonr  punisliable  by  imprisonment 
year,  with  or  without  hard  labour.     To  deface  the  coinage 
by  stamping  any  name  orworda  on  a  C.   is  a  misdemeanour. 
C.  defaced  is  not  a  legal  tender.    To  counterfeit  foreign  gold 
ver  C.  is  felony.    Havuig  coining  tools  is  a  felony,. render- 
ing the  possessor  liable  to  penal  servitude  ior  life.    The  Coinage 
Act  of  1870  consolidates  and  amends  the  laws  relating  to  the 
nage  and  to  the  mint.    Gold  is  a  legal  tender  for  any  amount. 
Silver  is  a  legal  tender  for  any  value  not  exceeding  forty  shil- 
lings, and  bronze  C.  is  so  to  the  value  of  one  shilling.     The 
Act  deals  with  the  defacing  of  light  C,  and  with  die  coining 
and  purchase  of  bullion  at  the  Mint.     See  Mint. 


yLaOogle 


COI 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


Coir,  or  Ooooft-WTit  F"b  e  '  m  t  '  1  f  lly  mpl  >  d 
in  the  manufacture  of      p  ds       t     fi.       It  p  es 

high  degree  all  the      q  li      q    lit     —  t      i4h    3  and 

elasticity.     In  the  L       d       I  lai  d         dag        d      p    maL   g 
form  a  considerable  b  an  h    f      dust  7        d        m    y    f 
prisons  and  industr   1      h    Is   th         p    t  d  fib  d  f 

making  cocoa-nut  m  t 

Oobc.    See  Job's  T 

Cojutepeo',  a  town  of  San  Salvador,  Central  America,  with 
a  pop.  of  15,000.  A  few  miles  off  Iheie  is  a  lalte  of  the  same 
name,  which  exhibits  a  remarltabie  phenomenon.  After  a  gale 
its  waters  assume  a  dark-greenish  hue  j  and  fish  in  considerable 
quantities  are  cast  ashore  dead 

Coke  (1 1 


od        1 


1  Uh  1 


t 


d  by  li 


1  th  t 


d    h 


,   imp 


gf     th 
Th 


t  th 


f  this  t     nea  ]y 


f  th 

d  th  Id  giadually      C 

f  comb  t  bl  matt  (ash)  b  t 
pure  carbon.  It  bums  freely,  without  smoke,  and  without  .caking 
or  dinkering  (q.  v.)  upon  the  fire  bars.  It  is  also  free  from 
some  of  tlie  impurities  of  the  coal  from  which  it  has  been  hiade, 
and  for  these  and  other  reasons,  it  forms  in  many  £ases  a  most 
useful  fuel.  It  was  at  one  time  nsed  ettclusively  for  many  pur- 
poses {e.g.,  the  smelting  of  iron),  for  which  it  is  now  found  prac- 
ticable to  use  the  fael  in  its  natural  state  as  coal.  C  can  only 
be  made  from  that  class  of  coals  known  as  '  caking '  coals, 
which  tend  to  soften  and  clinker  hy  heat,  and  which  it  is  on  that 
account  difficult  to  use  in  ordinary  furnaces  without  mixture  with 
some  non-caking  fuel.  In  its  conversion  into  C,  .coai  loses  from 
a  quarter  to  nearly  a  half  of  its  weight,  this  loss  including  the 
greater  part  of  its  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen.  The  cause 
of  the  phenomenon  of  caking,  or  forming  O,  is  not  at  present 
known.  It  has  been  connected  with  the  proportion  of  oxygen 
in  the  coal,  but  although  in  the  average  caking  coals  contain 
much  less  oxj^en  than  those  which  do  not  cake,  yet  analyses 
show  that,  in  many  instances,  tlie  ultimate  composition  of  speci- 
mens of  both  kinds  is  almost  identical.  It  is  probable  that  this 
Sroperty  of  calcing  (as  well  as  many  other  properties  of  coal) 
epends  rather  npon  the  proximate  than  upon  the  ultimate  con- 
stitution of  the  fuel,  and  of  tliis  we  have  as  yet  scarcely  any  ex- 
perimental knowledge. 

Ooke,  Sir  Edward,  an  eminent  English  judge  and  jurist, 
was  born  at  Mileham,  in  Norfolk,  about  1551.  He  was  edu. 
cated  at  the  free  grammarr school  of  Norwich,  and  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  and,  after  a  course  of  law  study  at  Clifford  s 
Inn  and  the  Inner  Temple,  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1578. 
His  professional  career  was  one  of  brilliant  and  rapid  success. 
He  nlled  in  succession  the  posts  of  Recorder  of  Norn'ich,  Re- 
corder of  London,  Solicitor-General,  Speaker  of  Ihe  House  of 
Commons,  aaid  Attorney. General.  Although  the  manner  in 
which  he  conducted  the  prosecutions  of  Essex  and  Raleigh, 
did  not  add  to  his  reputation,  he  gained  on  the  whole  a  high 
character  as  a  judge.  In  1606  he  was  appointed  Chief  Justice 
of  the  Common  Pleas,  as  a  reward  for  tlie  way  in  which  he  con- 
ducted tlie  prosecution  of  those  concerned  in  the  Gunpowder  Plo  t ; 
in  1613  he  was  made  Chief  Justice  of  the  King's  Bencli,  aijd  re- 
fused to  yield  a  jot  of  the  judicial  prerogatives  to  James  I.,  fpr 
which,  as  well  as  for  persistently  opposing  the  court  party  in 
Parliament,  he  was  both  disgraced  and  imprisoned.  Under 
Charles  I.,  he  continued  an  advocate  of  the  popular  cause,  and 
in  1628,  during  the  third  Parliament  of  that  monarch,  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  preparation  of  the  celebrated  Bill,  of  Rights. 
He  died  3d  September  1633.  C.  has  been  well  described 
by  Mr  Green  in  his  Short  Hisicry  of  tht  En^bh  People  as  '  a 
narrow-minded  and  bitter-tempered  man,  but  of  the  highest 
eminence  as  a  lawyer,  and  with  a  reverence  for  the  law  that 
overrode  his  every  other  instinct.'  His  works,  including  his  Re- 
poiis  and  Institutes,  the  fij-st  of  which  is  the  faifl.ous  C.  upon 
Littleton,  are  among  the  most  valuable  of  British  law  classics. 
100 


C  1  {F        doublet  of  cou,  'neck,'  from  the  Lat.  collum,  of 

t!  m  nificatlon],    applied    in    Alpine    geography    to   a 

t        p  ss    as  C.  a^B  Gfant,  C.  Ceroin,  C.  Longet,  &c. 

C  la  K  ll'a,  or  Gtoora  Nata,  the  seeds  oiCiila{Slercularia) 
et  at  tree  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Slerculiaceiz, 

h  b  t  g  t  pical  Africa,  and  extensively  med  as  a  condiment 
by  ll  t  es  of  the  western  and  central  portions  of  that  con- 
f.  t  d  by  the  negroes  of  the  West  Indies  and  Brazil,  into 
which  countties  it  has  been  introduced.  An  extensive  inter- 
tribal trade  is  carried  on  in  this  nut  by  the  Africans.  A  small 
piece  is  chewed  before  each  meal  as  an  appetiser  or  aid  to  diges- 
tion, and  to  improve  the  flavour  of  any  eatable  or  drinkable.  It 
has  an  astringent  taste.  Bitter  C.  is  obtained  from  Fernando 
P  but  its  source  is  not  yet  ascertamed,  though  it  is  believed  to 
b  derived  from  some  species  of  Gultifer<s,  There  are  also 
rid  varieties  of  the  true  C.-nut,  all  of  which  have,  however, 
m  lar  properties — among  others,  it  is  said,  those  of  Cinchona 
L    k(q.  v.). 

Colljerg-.     See  JColbeho. 

Gol'bert,  the  name  of  a  French  family  which  in  the  17th  c. 
p  duced  several  distinguished  men,  was  .descended,  according 
t  popular  but  now  discredited  tradition,  from  a  Scottish 
h  e  established  in  Champagne  as  early  as  the  t3th  c. 
Tl  so-called  '  tradition '  cannot  be  traced  beyond  the  rise  of 
th  gfeat  statesman's  fortunes,  and  probably  originated  in  a 
desire  to  find  for  hiin  ai>  ancient  and  aristocralic  origin.  Two 
branches  of  the  C.  family  iji  fhe  1 7th  c.  are  found  pursuing 
comijierce  —  one  at  Rheims,  the  othe?  at  Troyes.  To  the 
former  beloi^d  Jean  Baptiste  C,  Marquis  ^e  Seignelay, 
the  illustrious  French  minister,  who  was  bojii  at  Rheims, 
agth  August  1619,  and  received  a  practical  training  from 
the  Italian  ))ankers  of  Cardinal  Mazarin,  who  rec.ommended 
him  warm^  to  Louis  XIV.  When  appointed  .Cojnptroller- 
General  of  Finances  ii^  1661,  J\e  established  a  chamber  of  jus- 
tice, which  suppressed  great  fp.uds  in  the  coHecCion  of  the 
revenue^  Minister  of  Marine  in  1668,  he  gradually  acquired 
authority  over  the  kinds  and  rate  of  taxation,  the  public  regula- 
tion of  commerce,  ^icnlture,  and  manufactures,  in  fact,  the 
whole  non-mlBtary  administration  of  the  revenue.  On  his  in- 
dustry {he  worked  sixteen  hours  a  day)  and  his  integrity  depended 
much  of  the  gloiy  of  the  reign  of  the  '  Grand  Monarque.' 
He  raised  the  revenue  from  89,000,000  to  105,000,000  francs, 
and  reduced  the  debt  from  52,000,000  1032,000,000;  and  yet, 
fearing  the  prodigality  of  his  master,  he  steadijy  opposed  all 
boiiowing  iy  the  state.  As  Sally  had  favoured  agriculture,  C. 
paid  special  attention  to  the  cloth,  silk,  and  hat  trades,  &c.  His 
regulations  of  manufactures,  enforced  by  public  inspectors,  wer 
no*  doubt  intended  as  a  great  act  of  national  technical  education, 
but  they  hampered  inide  in  the  most  disastrous  maimer  down  to 
the  Revolution.  Political  ideas  led  hinj  to  prohibit  corn  exjjor- 
tatioij,  but  by  the  Languedoc  Canal,  the  creation  .and  repau-  of 
roads,  the  diminution  of  certaiij  feudal  burjiens,  he  (jeneiited 
agriculture  and  the  people  generally.  He  als.o  extended  the 
French  marme,  Brest,  Tpuloji,  Rochefort,  &o.,  dating  their  im- 

Siortance  as  nava!  stations  from  his  rule.  Ip  1663  and  i665  he 
ounded  the  Acadhnie'  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles-Leltres,  the  Aca- 
dimie  des  Sciences,  and  the  yardin  des  Planles,  thus  Continuing  the 
policy  ol  Richelieu.  He  had  also  the  happiness  of  assisting  such 
men  as  Corneille,  Moliire,  Racine,  and  Mezerai.  Latterly  the 
huge  ramenses  of  Louvois'  military  policy  and  of  the  court,  and 
the  suspicion  the  King  had  of  C.'s  ambition,  oppressed  him,  and 
made  his  position  difficult.  At  last  {m  ^njust  accusation  r' 
jobbery  in  some  fortifications  compellol  C.  to  retire,  and  li 
shortly  afterwards  died,  6th  Septemb^  1683.  No  man  contr 
bated  so  much  to  the  glory  of  Louis  XIV.'s  reigji.  C.'s  brother 
Charles  w^  created  Marquis  de  Croissy;  his  son,  JeaiL- 
Bftptiste,  who  succeeded  him  in  the  Marquisate  of  Seignelay, ' 
had  something  of  his  lather's  greatness;  another  son,  Jaoqiiea 
Nicolas,  beSime  a  prelate  of  the  Church ;  and  in  the  1 8th  and 
even  19th  c  the  family  had  still  some  names  of  mark,  See 
D'Mbigny's  Vie  de  C.  ijJ  the  Hommes  lUfistres  de  France,  and 
Pierre  Clement's  Lettres,  Imtruetions,  et  Menioires  de  C.  (Par. 
9  vols.  1862  et  leg.),  and  his  Histpire  de  C.  et  de  son  Adminis- 
tration (Par.  2  vols.  1875). " 


vLaOogle 


COL 


Great  EasI 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


its  port  and  suburb,  Hythe,  the 
.vigable  to  the  sea,  IJ  miies  distant,  and  corn,  malt, 
and  oysters  are  exported.  The  baize  and  silk  manufactures  have 
much  declined.  Among  its  notable  public  buildings  are  the 
Town-hall,  the  Com  Exchange,  the  Hospital,  and  the  Asylum 
for  Idiots.  C,  returns  two  members  to  Parliament.  Pop.  (1871) 
26,343.  C.  is  of  great  antiquity.  It  is  the  Roman  Ccmmlodu- 
MHm,  or  Celania ;  the  Col»g-c-Aiiter  of  the  English  conquerors, 
a  favourite  stronghold  of  the  Danes,  and  a  place  of  note  m  the 
times  of  Elizabeth  and  of  the  civil  war.  Roman  remdns  are 
abundant  in  the  neighbourhood. 

Oolohester,  Otiarlea  Ablrot,  Lord,  bom  at  Abingdon, 
Berkshire,  14th  October  1757,  and  educated  at  Westminster 
School,  and  Christ's  Church,  Oxford ;  entered  Parliament  iu 
1795,  and  soon  obtained  a  high  reputation  as  a  le^l  andadmini- 
stratire  reformer.  He  was  mainly  instrumental  in  establishing 
the  Royal  Record  Commission  and  the  Private  Bill  Office,  and 
in  passing  the  Act  for  taking  a  census  of  the  population.  C. 
from  i8d2  to  1S17  was  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
on  his  retirement  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  C,  with  a 
pension  of  jf4000  a  year.  He  died  Sth  May  1829,  See  Diaiy 
and  Correspondence  of  Ij»-d  C.  (L-ond.  1861), 

Ool'ohictmi,  the  meadow  saffron  or  '  Autumn  crocos,'  falsely 
so  called,  a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Mdanthacem.  C.  auium- 
nale  is  found  wild  in  many  parts  of 
England.  The  flower  expands  in  the 
autumn,  but  the  leaves  are  not  fully  de- 
I  veloped  until  the  ensuing  spring.  The 
dried  bulbs  and  seeds  are  used  for  the 
cure  or  alleviation  of  gout,  though  it  is 
only  a  dubious  remedy.  They  contain  a 
,  poisonous  principle  cdlCid  Cokhidm,  and 
*■  act  upon  all  secreting  o^^ans  as  a  seda- 
^tive,  though  rather  acrid,  and  apt  to 
-  ate  depression,  and  in  lai^e  doses 
in  death.     Cattle  are  not  nnfi«quently 

_ _     s  believed  to  have  been  the  basis  of 

Se  empiric~ai  medicine  for  the  gout  long  famous  as  Em  medi- 
cinale,  and  Dr  Royle  is  of  belief  that  C,  iiariegalum,  or  perhaps 
C.  bulbocodiddes,  furnished  the  Arabian  hecmodaclyls,  at  one 
tune  considered  so  potent  for  soothing  pains  in  the  joints. 

Oorchis,  anciently  a  province  of  Asia  Minor,  bounded  on  the 
W.  by  the  Pontus  Euxinus  or  Black  Sea,  on  the  N.  by  the  Can- 
casus,  on  the  E.  by  Iberia,  on  the  S.  by  Armenia,  and  coineiduig 
nearly  with  the  modem  Russian  province  of  Imerethia  and  the 
district  of  Miugrelia.  C.  was  from  (he  earliest  times  celebrated 
for  its  trade  in  linen,  As  the  birthplace  of  Medea,  and  the 
scene  of  the  adventures  of  the  Argonauts  in  qnest  of  the  Golden 
Fleece,  it  had  a  dubious  reputation  among  the  ancient  poets  as 
a  seat  of  sorceries  and  encnantroents. 

Oold  Cream,  a  simple  ointment,  applied  as  a  cooling  emol- 
lient to  inflamed  surfaces.  An  excellent  C.  C.  may  be  made  by 
melting  one  part  of  white  wax  in  four  parts  of  sweet  almond  oil, 
then  adding  gradually  three  parts  of  rose  water,  and  stirrmg  the 
mixture  constantly  to  render  it  homogeneous. 

Colde'nia,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  nafuriJ  order  Ekretiacem, 
consisting  of  shrubs  and  trees  from  India  and  Ceylon,  C.  pre- 
cumbens  is  used  in  India  in  a  powdered  state,  mixed  with  the 
seeds  of  the  fenugreek  {Ti^mella  Fcenugr/ecum),  for  the  pur- 
pose of  promoting  suppuration. 

Coldatream,  a  town  of  Berwickshire,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Tweed,  15  miles  S.W.  of  Berwick.  'Sop.  (187J)  1724.  It  was 
the  favourite  ford  for  the  passage  of  the  invading  English  and 
Scottish  armies  during  war.  Later  on,  from  its  proximity  io 
England,  it  became  as  'famous'  as  Gretna  Green  for  its  irre- 
gular or  clandestine  marriages. 

Coldstream  Guards,  al^er  the  1st  Foot  the  oldest  corf>s  in  tlie 
British  army,  one  of  the  three  regiments  of  Foot  Gnards  included 
in  the  Household  Brigade,  and  so  named  from  having  been  R^sed 
at  Coldstream  in  1660  by  General  Mont.  It  was  at  first  named 
'Monk's  Regiment.' 

Cole'brooke,  Henry  Thomas,  a  great  Orientalist,  third 

sonof  Sir  George  C,  was  born  at  London,  June  ij,  1765.    After 

residing  in  France  he  was  appointed,  in  1782,  to  a  writership  in 

India,  where  lie  became  a  judge  and  President  of  the  Board  of 

194 


injured  by  eating  it. 


Revenue.  Following  in  the  track  of  Sir  William  Jones,  he  de- 
voted himself  to  Sanskrit,  and  in  1797 publisheda  translation  of 
a  digest  of  Indian  laws.  He  laboriously  collected  and  studied 
andent  Sansitrit  MSS.,  and  contributed  to  the  Researches  of  the 
Calcutta  Asiatic  Society  learned  and  suggestive  essays  on  the 
Hindu  religion,  the  Sanskrit  language  and  poetry,  the  Vedas, 
&e.  He  was  appointed  President  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society 
of  Great  Britain  in  1S20,  and  died  in  London,  March  iS,  1S37. 
C.  was  a  man  of  wide  comprehension,  keen  critical  insight,  and 
deep  research.  He  was  one  of  the  first  scholars  who  revealed 
the  riches  of  the  Sanskrit  literature  to  Europeans,  and  his  edi- 
tion of  the  Amara  Cesha  (i8o8)  marks  an  epoch  in  Sanskrit- 
English  lexicc^raphy.  He  advanced  the  study  of  philolc^  not 
so  much  by  original  speculations  as  by  collecting  and  elucidating 
Sanskrit  works  formerly  inaccessible  to  Europeans,  on  which 
succeeding  researches  have  been  based.  Among  C.'s  other 
works  are  a  Sanskrit  Dietionary  and  Remarks  on  the  Musbandty 
and  Commerce  of  Bengal,  in  which  he  advocated  free  trade  with 
India,  His  Miscellaneous  Essays  were  published  in  2  vols.  1837. 
See  notice  of  the  life  of  C.  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic 
Society  (August  1838),  and  Walckenaer'a  Notice  Historiqae  sur  la 
Vie  ct  les  Ouvrages  di  C.  in  the  Mhnoires  of  the  French  Institute. 

Colea'ao,  Tlie  Bight  Bev.  John  William,  D,D.,  Bishop 
of  Natal,  South  Africa,  was  bom  January  24,  1814  ;  graduated 
as  second  wrangler  at  Cambridge  in  1836;  was  from  1838  to 
1842  assistant-master  in  Han-ow;  acted  as  tutor  in  St  John's 
Collie,  Cambridge,  from  1842  to  1846,  and  was  rector  of 
Fomoett,  St  Mary,  Noifoik,  until  his  appointment,  in  1854,  to 
the  bishopric  of  Natal.  For  the  first  part  of  his  Pmtateach  and 
Book  of  Joshua  (1862) — a  microscopic  mvestigation  of  Scripture, 
displaying  extraordinary  acuteness,  combined  with  an  almost 
morbid  eagerness  to  discover  contradictions  in  the  narrative — C. 
was  deposed  from  his  see  by  the  Bishop  of  Cape  Town,  but  the 
deposition  being  declared  illegal  by  the  Privy  Council,  he  was 
afterwards  reinstated  in  his  diocese.  On  revisiting  England  in 
1874,  he  was  forbidden  to  preach  in  their  dioceses  l^  the  Bishops 
of  London,  Oxford,  and  Lincoln.  C.'s  theological  views  have 
created  much  discussion  in  England  and  a  sdiism  among  the 
Anglians  of  the  Cape.  It  catmot  be  said  with  justice  that  any 
adequate  reply  has  yet  been  given  to  his  desfmctive  crltidsm. 
His  works  comprise  Miscellaneous  Examples  in  Algebra  ( 1848)  ; 
Plane  Tri^mameiry  (l?i$i) ;  Fillage  Sermons  {iS^i) ;  Tat  Weeks 
in  Natal  (1855) ;  A  Tramlation  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans 
{1S61);  Natal  Sermons  (1866);^  ZiHh  Grammar  and  Dictionary ; 
A  Zulu  Translation  of  the  Near  Testament;  The  Nem  Bible  Com- 
mentary  iy  Bishops  and  other  Clergy  of  the  AngHcan  Church 
Critically  Examined  (1871) ;  six  parts  of  hiis  Eentaieiich  and 
Book  of  Joshua  (1862-72),  and  Lcclures  or,  "  "  ■  ■  ■  ■ 
the  MoabiSe  Stone  (1S73). 

Ooleop'tera,  anorderof  Holometabolic  ('complete  m 
phosis ')  insects,  represented  by  the  numerous  kinds  of  Beetles, 
and  so  named  from  the  front  pair  of  wings  being  haid  and  horny, 
unfitted  for  flight,  but  forming  elytra  or  wing-cases  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  hinder  pair.  The  inna-  mai^ns  of  the  elytra  are 
generally  straight,  and  form  a  suture  when  approximated.  The 
mouth  is  eminently  masticatory,  and  consists  of  a  lairum  or 
upper  lip,  two  mandibles  Or  biting  jaws,  two  maxillre  or  lesser 
jaws,  3.laiiumox  lower  lip,  and^a^i  or  organs  of  touch  appended 
to  the  maxilla  and  labium.  'The  hinder  wings  fold  transversly 
when  at  rest.  Componnd  eyes  are  always  present.  The  an- 
tennse  or  feelers  vary  widely  in  form,  and  are  composed  generally 
of  eleven  joints.  The  chest  consists  of  a  pro-,  meso-,  and  meta- 
thorax — three  distinct  segments.  The  tarsus  consists  usually 
of  not  more  than  five  joints,  but  fewer  joints  may  be  devel<^d. 
The  larvie  generally  consist  of  thirteen  joints,  inclusive  of^  the 
head.  The  body  is  soft,  the  head  in  the  larvje  being  homy. 
'ITie  pupa  may  be  enclosed  in  a  cocoon,  but  its  parts  are  always 
to  be  recognised  as  they  lie  within  the  pupa-case.  Many  varia- 
tions  in  the  wings  and  wing.cases  exist,  aud  the  body  is  generally 
invested  by  a  hard  covering  of  chitinous  or  homy  material.  Tlie 
order  is  classified  by  the  number  of  joints  in  the  tarsi,  by  the 
shape  and  form  .of  the  aiitermfe,  and  by  other  salient  features. 

Coleorhiz'a  (Gr,  kokos,  '  sheath,'  rhiza,  'root'),  the  cellular 
sheath  which  covers  the  radicle  (and  afterwards  the  fihriUie)  of 
Dicotyledons,  as  it  pierces  the  lower  part  of  the  embryo,     " 


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Coleraine' (Irish  Gael.  Cuil-rathain,  'thecomerof  Ihefems,' 
alluding  to  an  incident  in  the  life  of  St  Patrick),  a  municipal 
and  parliamentary  borough  and  seaport,  county  of  Londonderry, 
Ireland,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Bann,  4  miles  above  its  mouth. 
It  is  a  station  on  the  Londonderry  and  C.  Railway  which  con- 
oecta  it  with  Belfast  and  Dnblin.  The  suburbs  of  Killowen 
and  Waterside,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  are  joined  to  C. 
by  a  handsome  bridge.  C.  has  manufactures  of  linen,  cotton, 
soap,  leather,  and  paper,  and  carries  on  a  large  trade  in  grain, 
pork,  butter,  whisky,  &c.  The  salmon  fishery  on  the  Bami  is 
one  of  the  most  valuable  in  Ireland,  Pop.  of  parliamentary 
borough  (1871)  6588.  C.  returns  one  member  to  Parhament. 
Although  ships  of  zoo  tons  can  discharge  at  the  quay  of  C,  the 
real  port  of  the  place  is  Portrush,  $  miles  distant,  which  has 
steam  communication  with  Glasgow  and  Liverpool. 

Coleridge,  the  name  of  an  English  family  distinguished  in 
literature  and  law.— Samuel  Taylor  C,  'logician,  metaphysi- 
cian, bard,-  but  most  memorable  as  bard,  was  bom  on  October 
jl,  1772,  at  Oltery  St  Mary,  in  Devonshire.  While  yet  a  child 
he  lost  his  fether,  who  was  vicar  of  the  parish.  His  education 
began  at  Christ's  Hospital,  where  Charles  Lamb  was  his  con- 
temporary. He  there  became  proficient  in  Greek,  but  accord- 
ing to  hiinseif,  preferred  metaphysics  and  theology  to  history  and 
poetry.  The  work  of  Mr  Bowles  (q,  v,),  however,  changed  his 
ideas  as  regards  the  last  of  these.  In  1791  C.  entered  Jesus 
College,  Cambri^e,  where  he  devoted  his  mind  to  classic,  but 
did  not  graduate.  Debt,  his  academic  failure,  and  a  cross  in 
love,  led  him  to  enlist  in  a  dragoon  regiment,  from  which  un- 
happy position  his  friends  procured  his  release  in  April  1794, 
after  four  months  of  soldiering.  Soon  afterwards,  at  Bristol,  he 
engaged  with  Southey  in  a  visionary  scheme  to  found  a  Panti'so- 
(racy,  or  ideal  communistic  settlement  in  America ;  but  scarcity 
of  funds  fortunately  arrested  this  at  the  outset  Here,  also,  a 
volume  of  poems  was  published,  and  in  the  next  year  (1795)  C. 
married  Miss  Fricker,  whose  sister  became  the  wife  of  Southey 
on  the  same  day.  He  now  lived  at  Nether  Stowey,  in  Someiset- 
shire,  while  Wordsworth  resided  at  All-Foxden,  a  neighbouring 
village,  Here  C.  remained  for  three  years,  during  which  some 
of  his  greatest  works — The  Ancimt  Mariner,  Chrislabel,  and 
Remorse — were  composed.  It  was  at  this  period  that  C.  preached 
Unitarianism  at  Taunton.  In  1798  the  first  edition  of  the  Lyrical 
Ballads  by  Wordsworth  and  C,  appeared,  and  in  the  same  year 
the  Wedgewoods  gave  him  the  means  of  visiting  Germany.  On 
his  return  he  translated  Schiller's  iVallenslein,  which  appeared 
in  iSoOv  C.  now  resided  at  Keswick.  From  1804  to  1806 
he  travelled  on  the  Continent,  spending  the  first  part  of  this 
period  in  Malta  as  secretary  to  the  governor.  In  180S  he 
lectured  in  London  on  poetry  and  the  fine  arts ;  but  from  this 
time  till  1816  he  was  under  the  mastery  of  opium.  In  that  yeai 
he  made  a  heroic  and  happily  successful  effort  to  break  off  the 
habit ;  and  coming  then  into  contact  with  Mr  Gilhnan,  lived  in 
his  house  at  Highgate  until  he  died,  after  four  years  confinement 
to  a  sick-room,  on  the  25th  of  July  1S34.  During  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  C.  was  an  orthodox  iVinitarian. 

C.'s  genius  was  subtle,  comprehensive,  and  eminently  original. 
As  a  Clitic,  he  shows  keen  insight  and  exquisite  taste.     As  a 

Sihllosophic  writer,  though  he  embodied  no  definite  scheme  and 
ounded  no  special  school,  and  is  at  times  misty  and  desultory, 
he  is  yet,  by  his  enthusiasm  and  learning,  by  the  vivilying  influ- 
ence which  he  exerted  over  reproductive  minds,  entitled  to  be 
considered,  as  John  Mill  said,  one  of  our  chief '  seminal '  thinkers. 
His  teaching  was  a  strong  check  to  the  Benthamism  of  his  day, 
and  his  marvellous  conversational  powers  lent  him  a  Socratic 
influence  over  many  of  his  youthful  contemporaries.  Along 
with  De  Quincey,  he  may  be  r^arded  as  the  first  interpreter  of 
German  thought  to  Englishmen.  His  chief  prose  works  are 
Statesman's  Manual  (1816),  Biographical  Skelchts  (1817),  Bia- 
graphia  lAteraria  (1817),  The  Friend  (lZ\Z),  Aids  to  Refection 
(1825),  ConsHtuSon  of  Church  and  Stale  (1830).  But  it  is  as  a 
poet  that  his  lame  is  highest  and  will  be  most  lasting.  The 
Ancient  Marina- B3\A  C.4«ift!irf,inwhichheintrodncFd  the  form 
of  lyrical  narrative  adopted  by  Byron  and  Scott,  are  full  of  thrill- 
ing  weirdness  and  enchanting  melody.  Kubla.  Khan  is  a 
bewitching  extravagansa  of  delicious  cadences  and  dreauny 
Oriental  splendour.  His  Ode  to  France,  Love,  Youtk  aMd  Age, 
and  other  shorter  pieces,  delight  us  by  their  tender  sentiment, 
soft  fanciful  colour,  and  unsurpassably  rich  and  sweet  music. 


The  ffymit  in  the  Vale  of  Chamouni  stands  apart  from  his  other 
works.  It  is  marked  by  sustained  and  lofty  imagination,  by 
solemn  and  austere  religious  sentiment.  His  dramatic  attempts 
part  of  his  characteristic  work  ;  they  neither  add  ti 
lie  ffimp      ^f^  C.  'q  T^i/nrro.'tihiiL  l.ileraria  :  Siecijm 


_ind  John  'bill's  Essay  in  his  LHssertations  and  Disctissions.- 
Hartley  C,  eldest  son  of  S.  T.  C,  was  bom  in  1796,  at 
Cleyedon,  near  Bristol  His  early  years  gave  evidence  of  great 
talent,  but  through  his  irregular  conduct  at  Oxford  Universi^ 
he  forfeited  the  Oriel  Scholarship.  After  some  profitless  life 
in  London  he  went  to  Ambleside,  and  there  remained  till  his 
death  in  1S49.  C.'s  sonnets,  though  admirable,  are  excelled 
by  his  prose  works,  of  which  the  chief  are  Li^es  of  Northern 
Wai-thies  and  Life  of  Massingtr,  Bae  Memoir  of  Hartley  C.  by 
DerwenI  C. ;  also  an  article  in  Macmillan's  Magadne,  voL  v, 
by  Lord  {formeriy  Sir  J.  D.)  C— Tbe  Eev.  Derwent  C. ,  son  of 
S.  T.  C,  was  bom  at  Keswick,  September  14,  iSoo,  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  served  as  a  tutor  in  Plymouth,  and 
was  from  1S41  to  1864  Principal  of  St  Mark's  College,  Chelsea. 
He  afterwards  became  rector  of  Hanwell,  Middlesex,  He  is 
author  of  a  Memoir  of  his  brother,  H.  C,  whose  poems  and 
prose  remains  he  edited;  of  a  work  on  The  Scriptural  Character 
of  the  English  Church,  and  of  a  Life  ofWinthrop  Mackworth 
Praed.  In  1861  he  addressed  two  letters  on  Education  to  his 
cousin  the  Right  Hon.  Su-  John  T.  C— Honry  NeleonC, 
son  of  S.  T,  C.'s  brother.  Colonel  C,  vras  bom  in  1800. 
He  wrote  a  work  entitled  Six  Months  in  the  West  Indies,  and 
an  Introduction  to  the  Greek  Classic  Foets,  but  is  best  known  for 
his  specimens  of  the  TaUe-Talk  of  S.  T.  C,  which  he  published 
in  1835.  He  contributed  to  various  periodicals,  and  died 
January  26,  1843.— The  Bight  Hon-  Sir  John  Taylor  C, 
nephew  of  S.  T.  C,  was  bom  at  Tiverton,  Devon,  in  1790.  He 
was  educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  became  a  fellow  of  Exeter 
College,  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the  Middle  Temple  in  1819, 
was  appointed  sergeant-at-law  in  1832,  judge  of  King's  Bench 
in  183s,  and  privy  councillor  in  1858.  He  was  made  D.  C.  L.  of 
Oxford  in  1852,  and  was  editor  of  the  Quaiierly  s&ij  G)i!ord's 
death,  published  an  edition  of  i'/flfiaioHe'j  Commentaries  in  1825, 
BiAs.  Memoir  of  KeblemliilKj.  He  died  Febraary  11,  1876.— 
IiOrd  C.,  Tii»  EigM  Hon.  JToliii  Duke,  son  of  the  above, 
was  bom  in  1821,  educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford,  and  called  to 
the  bar  at  the  Middle  Temple  m  1846.  He  was  made  Recorder 
of  Portsmouth  in  1858,  and  a  Queen's  Counsel  in  1861.  After 
contesting  Exeter  unsuccessfully  ui  1864,  he  was  elected  for  that 
city  in  1865  ;  was  made  Solicitor- General  in  1871,  and  m  1873 
was  appointed  Lord  Chief-Justice,  and  raised  to  the  peerage, 
with  the  title  of  Baron  C,  of  Ottery  St  Mary's,  Devon,  He  is 
a  man  of  fine  literaiy  as  well  as  legal  acquirements,  and  at  one 
time  contributed  10  various  periodicals. 

Ooleroon',  a  river  of  India,  (he  northern  branch  of  the  Can- 
very,  in  the  Camatie,  and  forming  through  the  greater  part  of 
its  course  of  93  miles  the  boundary  between  the  districts  of  Tri- 
chinopoly  and  Tanjore.  It  falls  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  120 
miles  S.S.W,  of  Madras.  From  the  constant  deepening;  of  the 
bedoftheC.andacorrespondingrisingof  thatof  (heCauvery, 
the  supply  of  water  in  the  latter  river  had  become  inadequate  to 
the  proper  irrigation  of  Tanjore.  This  was  remedied  by  throw- 
ing two  weirs,  locally  called  atiakatts,  across  the  C.  in  1S36, 

Cole'eosd.    See  Rape. 

Golet,  John,  an  English  scholar  and  patron  of  learning,  the 
son  of  Sir  Henry  C.,  a  city  kn^ht,  who  had  been  twice  Lord 
Mayor  of  London,  was  bom  in  1466,  studied  at  Magdalen  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  and  after  spending  some  time  in  Paris,  went  to 
Italy  to  learn  Greek.  In  1504  he  became  Doctor  of  Divinity, 
and  in  1505  Dean  of  St  Paul's.  The  death  of  his  father  in  1510 
gave  hun  the  possession  of  an  ample  fortune,  with  part  of  which 
he  at  once  began  to  found  St  Paul's  School.  After  a  gener- 
ous and  enthusiastic  career,  in  which  he  laboured  with  equal 
zeal  for  the  revival  of  learning  and  the  reformation  of  religion, 
he  died,  i6th  September  1519.  C.  had  a  thoroughly  modern 
mind-  An  intense  scorn  of  those  mediseval  beliefs  which  constitute 
the  peculiarities  of  Roman  Catholicism  animated  all  his  preach- 
ing ;  the  picture  of  Christ  drawn  by  the  Evangelists  appeared  to 
him  the  only  thing  worthy  of  absolute  reverence.  It  is  not  sur- 
195 


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prising  that  his  impatient  eloquence  alarmed  the  old-world  part)', 
and  but  for  the  help  of  the  liberal  Archbishop  Wareham,  he 
might  have  suiiered  persecution  as  a  heretic  Later  on,  in 
Henry's  teign,  C.  would  certainly  not  have  escaped  trouble. 
.  Among  hia  tmblished  works  are  a  treatise  on  the  saoronients 
of  the  Church,  and  two  treatises  on  the  Hierarchies  of  Dionysius  ; 


Oole'wort.     See  Beassica. 

Ool'i'brL     See  Humming-Eikd. 

Col'ic  {Gr.  MlVms,  from  kolon,  '  the  large  intestine  ')  is  a  dis- 
ease the  chief  symptoms  of  which  are  severe  griping  pains  in  the 
belly,  especially  round  the  navel,  occurring  in  spasms,  and  c^ten 
accompanied  by  constipation  and  vomiting.  The  face  has  a 
peculiar  anxious  expression.  Pain  may  be  alleviated  by  pres- 
sure, and  hence  C.  is  distinguished  from  inflammation,  in  which 
pressure  always  aggravates  the  p^n.  C.  may  be  due  to  indiges- 
tion, in  which  case  it  is  generally  accompanied  by  Flatulence 
(q.  V. )  i  to  accumulated  fecal  matter  in  the  intestines,  when 
relief  is  obtained  by  an'  active  pui^e ;  or  to  cold,  &c. ,  when 
opium,  chloroform,  ether,  or  belladonna  give  relief.  In  all  cases 
poultices  or  hot  fomentations  do  good.  Sometimes  C.  is  caused 
by  working  amongst  mjnetals,  as  copper  or  lead.  Copp^  C. 
and  lead  C.  are  characterised  by  the  severity  of  the  pgin  and  the 
length  of  the  spasms  ;  in  the  former  there  is  a  purple  line  round 
the  gums ;  in  the  latter  there  is  a  blue  line  round  the  gums.  In 
both  cases  Epsom  salts  should  be  given,  Lead  C,  is  often  called 
painter's  C,  because  painters  are  subject  to  it  from  working 
with  lead  paints. 

Colicoden'dron,  a  tropical  American  genus  of  Capfandaceie, 
all  of  which  have  acrid  properties.  C.  Yio  of  Brazil  possesses 
the  acrid  principle  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be  dangerous,  to  horses 
and  mules  (Von  Martins). 

Oolign'i  or  OoligTi'y;  the  n^me  of  a  French  femily,  'seig- 
neurs '  of  Chfitillon-sur-Loing  in  Burgundy,  from  whom  have  come 
several  distinguished  men, — Gaspard  de  0.,  Marshal  of  France, 
was  the  first  who  entered  the  French  service  after  the  annexa- 
tion of  Burgundy  by  I^uis  XL  He  accompanied  Charles  VIII. 
on  his  expedition  to  Naples,  and  Louis  XII.  in  his  conquest  of 
the  Miianese ;  was  created  marshal  by  Francois  I.  after  the  battle 
of  Marignano,  and  received  the  governorship  of  Champagne  and 
Picardy.  By  his  marriage  with  Louise  de  Montmorency,  daughter 
of  tlie  Constable  of  France,  he  greatly  increased  his  influence. 
C.  died  24th  August  1523.  Of  his  two  sons,  one,  Odet  de  0. 
(bom  1515,  died  1571),  became  a  cardinal  at  the  1^  of  ei^teen, 
but  having  embraced  the  doctrines  of  Calvin,  was  excommuni- 
cated by  the  Pope.  He  publicly  espoused  in  his  '  red  robes ' 
Elisabeth  de  Hauteville,  who  was  sometimes  called,  in  spite  of 
the  ecclesiastical  curse,  Madame  la  Cardinale.  When  the  civil 
war  broke  out,  Odet  tjipk  part  in  all  the  strifes  with  the  Guises, 
but  was  poisoned  by  his  valet  (at  whose  instigation  is  not  known) 
after  the  peace  of  1570.— A  still  more  notable  person  is  his 
younger  brother,  Gaspard  de  O.,  admii-al  of  France,  agreat 
soldier,  and  a  leader  of  the  Huguenots,  who  was  born  at  CMtil- 
lon-sur-Loing,  1,6th  February  1517.  Entering  (he  army  at  an 
early  age,  he  distinguished  himself  greatly  during  the  reigns  of 
Francis  I.  and  Hemi  II.  at  Cerisales,  Carignano,  Renin,  and  St 
Qaentin,  and  oti  othei:  occasions.  At  first  the  colleague  of 
Conde,  and  on  his  death  his  successor,  in  the  leadership  of  the 
Huguenots,  whose  doctrines  he  had  embraced  from  purely  con- 
scientious reasons,  he  fought  bravely  at  the  battles  of  Dreux, 
Jamac,  and  Monlcontour,  and  succeeded  in  securing  an  advan- 
tageous peace  for  his  party  m  1570.  After  an  attempt  had  been 
made  privately  to  assassinate  him,  on  the  instigation  of  the 
Guises,  who  were  jealous  of  the  influence  which  his  powerful 
mind  had  acquired  over  Charles  IX.,  C,  perished  in  the  Mas- 
sacre of  at  Bartholomew,  August  24,  1572.  See  De  la  Ponner- 
aye's  Histoirt  de  VAimral  de  C.  (Par.  1830).  The  family  con- 
tinued to  be  more  or  less  conspicuous  all  through  the  17th  c. 

Coli'ma,  the  capital  of  a  state  of  the  same  name  in  Mexico, 
with  a  pop.  in  1868  estimated  at  31,000.  It  is  in  a  fertile  pl^n 
near  the  volcano  of  C,  which  rises  12,003  ^^  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  Its  port,  of  the  same  name,  40  miles  S.S.W.  from  the 
city,  has  good  anchorage,  but  is  little  frequented.  The  state  of 
C,  one  of  the  Pacific  states  of  Mexico,  has  an  area  of  3745  sq. 


miles  and  a  pop.  of  65,827.  The  coast-line  extends  100  miles, 
and  the  land,  which  is  in  general  of  low  elevation,  yields  excel- 
lent cotton  and  many  tropical  products. 

Oolin.     See  Quail. 

Coll,  one  of  the  Inner  Hebrides,  N.W.  of  Mult,  Ai^ylcshiie; 
length  about  12\  miles;  greatest  breadth  3i  miles;  highest 
summit  326  feet.  Pop.  (1871)  733,  showing  a  decrease  of  56 
since  rS5i,  Much  of  the  soil  is  incapable  of  cultivation,  but 
some  spots  are  lemarkably  fertile.  The  inhabitants  neglect  the 
valuable  ling  fisheries  on  the  coast,  leaving  them  to  be  prosecuted 
by  fishers  from  a  distance. 

Ooll'ar-Beam,  a  piece  of  timber  connecting  horiiontally  op- 
posite rafters,  and  placed  above  the  level  of  the  feet  of  the 
rafter.    Also  the  stiaining  piece  of  a  queen-post  truss. 

CoH'aring',  the  neck  or  cylindrical  part  of  a  Doric  or  Tuscan 
column. 

OoUat'ejral  Seou'rity  is,  in  law,  a  security  besides  the  main 
one  for  payment  of  a  debt  or  for  the  discharge  of  an  obligation. 
Such  a  security  can  never  be  available  further  than  for  securing 
the  fulfilment  of  the  principal  obhgation. 

Oollateral  Sucoess'ion  is  the  succession  of  the  brothers  and 
sisters  of  the  deceased.  Formerly  in  Scotland  no  representation 
was  allowed  in  succession  to  personal  (movable)  estate ;  but 
now  the  issue  irf  a  predeceasing  next  of  kin  come  in  place  of 
their  parent  in  the  succession  to  an  intestate,  and  take  the  share 
to  which  the  parent  would  have  been  entitled.  See  Bkothers, 
Law  of  Succession  Auong,  Succession. 

OoUa'tion,  a  term  of  Scotch  law.  The  somewhat  analogous 
one  in  English  law  is  Hotch-pot  (q.  v.).  C.  is  a  provision  of  the 
law  of  Scotland  by  which  the  heritable  and  movable  (real  and 
personal)  succession  of  a  deceased  person  may  in  certain  circi 
stances  be  accumulated  into  one  mass,  and  divided  equally  among 
the  next  of  kin.  C.  may  take  place  either  between  the  lieir  in 
heritage  and  the  execntors,  or  amongst  the  younger  children.  If 
the  heir  accept  the  heritable  (real)  estate,  he  has  no  share  ir 
the  movable  (personal)  estate.  But  he  may  have  his  share  ii 
both  by  giving  up  his  exclusive  right  to,  that  is  collating,  the 

Collation  io  a  Benefice  is,  in  England,  the  act  by  which  a  bene- 
fice is  bestowed.      C.  comprises  presentation  and  institution. 

Coll'e,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Siena,  Italy,  23  miles  S.S.W. 
of  Florence,  on  the  Elsa.  It  is  a  bishop's  see,  has  a  cathedral 
and  castle,  several  manufactories,  especially  paper-mills,  and  a 
trade  in  the  com,  wine,  oil,  and  silk  produced  in  the  neighbour- 
hood.    Pop,  7552. 

OoEec'tions  at  Ohurcliea.     In  England  C,  at  C,  are  at  the 
disposal  of  the  incumbent  and  churchwardens.     Should  they  di 
agree  as  to  the  distributiim,  they  are  to  be  disposed  of  as  the 
ordinary  shall  appoint.    (.See  Offertory.)     In  Scotland  money 
is  still  collected  at  the  doors  of  churches.     Formerly  one-half  of 
the  sum  collected  by  the  Established  churches  was  given  in  sup- 
port of  the  poor,  the  other  half  was  formed  into  a  fund  for  the 
temporary  relief  of  sudden  distress.      Collections  at  dissenti 
churches  are  the  property  of  the  congregation.      By  the  presf 
Poor  Law  Act  it  is  provided  that  in  all  parishes  in  which  poo 
assessment  is  levied,  the  ordinary  church  collections  shall  belong 
to  the  kirk -sessions,  to  be  applied  to  no  other  purposes  than 
those  to  which  they  were  legally  applicable  before  the  date  of 
the  Act 

Ooll'eots  are  brief,  comprehensive  prayers  found  in  all  litur- 
gies, and  consisting  of  five  parts  ;  invocation,  the  reason  on 
which  the  petition  is  founded,  the  petition  itself,  the  benefit 
hoped  for,  and  ascription  of  praise  or  mention  of  the  Lord  Jesus, 
or  both.  They  were  so  called  probably  because  they  were  origin- 
ally concluding  prayers  offered  up  by  the  priest  alone,  in  which 
the  previous  devotLons  were  all  collected  or  summed  up,  or  be- 
cause in  the  C  the  voices  of  all  the  people  were  collected,  as  it 
were,  into  one,  instead  of  its  being  said  like  litanies.  See  Blunt's 
Did.  ofDectr.  avd  Hist.  Theology. 

Ooll'ege.  (Lat  ccllegium,  a  number  of  persons  united  by  the 
same  office  or  calling,  a  corporation  or  fraternity),  in  ancii 
Rome  was  an  association  or  corporation  with  a  certain  consti' 


yUoogle 


'^~ 


con 


TBE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


COL 


,  some  of  them  resembling  a  modem  guild,  some  being  of  a 

religious  character,  as  of  tlie  pontiffs,  the  augurs,-  &c,  and  others 

:emed  with  government  and  admin  isiration.      In  modern 

;s  a  C.  is  a  court  or  council,  as  of  cardinals,  bishops,  electors, 

J  a  society  or  corporation  banded  together  for  a  common 

object,  and  for  mutual  help  in  the  preservation  o!  their  pri- 
vileges, as  a  C.  of  physicians,  surgeons,  &c.     C  also  means  a 
church  inferior  to  a  cathedral,  which  S&  served  by  cleigy  hvmg 
iommon.    The  commonest  meaning  of  C,  however,  in  Eng- 
1  is  that  of  an  academic  establi^ment  endowed  with  re- 
ues,  and  connected  with  a  university,  whose  students  and 
teachers  live  together  in  particular  buildings  in  a  monastic  way, 
and  tlie  president  of  which,  with  the  other  officers,  teachers,  and 
students,  forms  a  corporation  independent  of  the  university.      In 
Scotland  C.  is  more  nearly  synonymous  with  university.     It  is 
in  the  case  of  those  of  Ghx^ow  and  Edinbui^h,  and  although 
ire  are  two  colleges  in  the  University  of  Aberdeen,  ^the  two 
:  simply  united  under  the  '  '" 


College  of  Arma.    See  Heralds'  College. 

Oolleg*  of  Justice.  This  term  has  in  Scotland  been 
applied  to  the  Supreme  Civil  Court,  composed  of  the  Lords  of 
Council  and  Session,  and  of  the  members  and  officers  of  court. 
i  court  receives  the  title  of  C.  of  J.  in  the  Act  of  1537,  and 
thejudgesof  it  were  in  1540  termed  senators.  By  the  Treaty  of 
Union,  no  person  csin  be  appointed  a  judge  of  this  court  who 
has  not  served  as  an  advocate  or  principal  clerk  of  session  for 
five  years,  or  as  a  Writer  to  the  Signet  (q.  v.)  for  ten  years,  The 
judge  must  be  at  least  twenty-five  yeara  of  age.  The  admission 
is  made  by  the  judges  in  virtue  of  a  letter  directed  to  them  by 
the  sovereign.  There  is  a  form  of  trial,  but  the  court  h^s  no 
power  to  reject  the  presentee.     See  Session,  Court  of. 

Oolle'giate  Olmrclies  were  parish  chukhes  turned  into 
capitular  foundations  to  accommodate  the  overflow  of  canons 
from  some  of  the  cathedrals.  They  are  thus  inferior  to  cathe- 
drals in  not  having  a  bishop's  throne,  although  a  bishop 

an  archbishop  was  sor-'^ ■--=  '^  *«-  -'■—"'-      '^• 

cott's  Sacred  Anh^olog 


s  head  of  the  chapter. 


OoU'ey, 


ir  Oollie,  the  name  given  to  a  Scottish  Shepherd': 
irigin  of  the  name  is  not  at  all  clear.  Probably  ■ 
colly,  '  grimy,  black, ' 


have  been  called 
its  first  breeder.  The  C.  : 
For  shrewdness  it  is  ni 
celled  by  the  Newfoundland^  or  the  St  Bernard.  It  seei 
combine  the  merits  of  both.  It  can  take  the  water  and  re 
like  the  former ;  it  can  gallop  up  precipices  and  descend  int 
vices  after  man  or  sheep  with  as  sure  a  step,  as  keen  a  see  , 
undaunted  intrepidity  and  gentle  carefnhiess  for  the  lost,  as  the 
latter.  The  sfories  told  about  the  acute  and  accurate  knowledge 
of  a  C.  dc«  are  very  numerous— indeed,  they  surpass  those  re- 
corded of  the  St  Bernard.  Hogg,  the  Ettrick  Sliepherd,  says 
that  at  one  tune  he  had  several  hundred  Iambs,  which'  he  was 
taking  to  the  fold.  They  scampered  off  over  the  hills  m  three 
separate  divisions  in  different  directions,  defying  all  efforts  to 
find  them.  Night  came,  and  the  search  had  to  be  given  np. 
The  dog  remained  at  his  task,  and  in  the  morning  he  was  found 
hi  a  gorge  standing  watch  over  the  whole  of  the  lambs.  The  C. 
is  an  ornamental  as  well  as  a  useful  dog,  and  is  now  much  sought 
ailer  in  London  as  a  ixt.  As  much  as  fifty  guineas  has  beai 
refused  for  one.  The  general  character  of  the  head  of  the  C. 
resembles  that  of  a  ton,  the  nose  pointed,  the  eye  rather  small, 
but  full  of  intelligence,  mingled  with  sagacious  craft,  the  ears 
half  prick,  the  tips  felling  over  somewhat,  neck  long  and  lapei^ 
shouldeis  and  brisket  deep,  back  rather  short,  coat  thick  and 
toi^,  tail  long,  full  feathered,  and  curling  well 


appointed  rector  of  Ampton  in  1679,  and  chosen  lecturer  at 
Gray's  Inn  m  16S5.  His  life  was  one  long  eontroveisy.  He 
was  strongly  opposed  to  tlie  Revolution  of  1638,  writing  bitter 
pamphlets  against  the  Government,  and  falling  foul  of  Bishop 
Burnet.  For  this  he  was  twice  imprisoned.  Tire  latter  portion 
of  his  life  was  occupied  with  a  more  useflil  strife,  which  he  com- 
menced with  a  pamphlet,  entitled  A  Short  Vitwoftks  Immorality 
and  Profanemss  of  the  English  Stage  (1698).  The  wits  of  the 
day,  induding  CoQgreve  and  Farquhar,  endeavoured  to  meet  C, 
but  he  beat  them  at  their  own  weapon  of  satire,  and  he  is  gene- 
rally credited  with  havii^  aided  much  in  purifying  the  stage. 
After  a  life  spent  in  literary  activity,  he  died,  26lh  April  1726. 
Among  his  other  works  may  be  mentioned  an  Ecclciiastkal  his- 
tory of  England,  and  a  translation  of  the  Meditations  of  Marcus 
Aurelius,  which  has  been  praised  by  Matthew  Amold. 

Collier,  John  Payne,  bom  in  London,  nth  January  1789, 
descended  from  the  celebrated  Jeremy  C,  and  for  a  time  law 
and  parliamenlary  reporter  on  the  staff  of  the  Morning  Chronicle, 
is  known  as  one  of  the  chief  living  commentators  on  Sliakspeare 
and  Shakspeare's  contemporaries.  In  1831  he  published  a 
History  of  English  Dravialic  Festry  to  the  lime  of  Shakspeare, 
and  Annals  of  the  Stage  to  the  RisloraHon.  It  was  followed  in 
1835  by  New  Facts  regarding  the  Life  of  Shais^eare.  The  work, 
however,  which  created  the  greatest  sensation  was  a  volume 
published  in  1853,  bearing  the  title  Hates  and  Emendations  to 
the  Text  of  Shakspeare's  Flays,  from  Early  Manuscript  Correc- 
tions in  a  Copy  of  the  Folic  of  1632,  in  the  Possession  of  y.  P.  C. 
The  publication  of  this  book  caused  a  prolonged,  fierce,  and 
somewhat  painful  controversy,  but  the  bulk  of  C.'a  emendations 
seem  now  to  be  accepted  by  ShakSpeatian  editors.  Among  the 
laler  noteworthy  works  of  C.  are  a  Bibliographical  Account  of 
Rare  Books  (1865),  a  series  of  reprints  of  the  productions  of  eariy 
British  poets  and  pamphleteers,  and  an  edition  of  Shakspcare, 
completed  in  1875. 

Colliers  and  Salters.  The  workmen  at  coal-pits  and  salt- 
works in  Scotland  were  formerly  under  servitude.  They  became 
bound,  independent  of  agreement,  merely  by  entering  the  works, 
to  perpetual  service  there ;  and  in  the  event  of  sale  or  aUenation 
of  the  ground  m  whicd  the  works  were,  the  right  over  the  work- 
men  passed  to  the  purchaser  without  express  grant.  This  slavery 
was  abohshed  by  Act  of  Parliament  1$  Geo.  HI.  c.  28  ;  made 
more  effectual  by  another  Act  passed  in  the  thirty-ninth  year  of  the 
reign  of  Geo.  III.     See  Coal-Mines  Regulation  Acts. 

Collimation,  Line  of,  the  straight  line  which  passes  through 
the  cenlire  of  the  objSct-glass  of  a  telescope  and  the  intersection 
of  the  wires  placed  at  the  focus.  The  difference  between  the 
actual  line  and  the  true  axis  of  symmetry  of  the  telescope  is 
termed  the  «T0^i'/C, 

Coll'ine  (Gr.  kolla,  '  glue '),  a  lerr:i  applied  to  gelatine,  isin- 
glass,- and  glue. 

CoU'lngwood,  Ctithbert,  Admiral  Lord,  an  English 


The  backs  of  the  fore-legs  should  be  feathered,  the  hind 
bare  from  the  hocks,  the  hips  wide  and  prominent,  and  the  hocks 
well  separated.  The  colour  varies  from  bluish-grey  and  tan  to 
lightish  grey,  from  black  and  wHte  and  fawn  to  black  and  tan ;  the 
latter  is  now  held  in  most  ftsteem.  An  absolute  necessity  to  the 
shepherd,  the  C.  makes  also  a  capital  ftatcbdbg.  Its  size  Varies 
from  about  18  inches  to  z  feet  in  height, 

Ooll'ier,  Jeremy,  a  nonjuring  divine  and  polemic,  was  born 
Z3d  September  1650,  and  studied  at  Cambridge  University  ; 


naval  commanderj  was  born  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  Septi 
ber26  1750.  From  the  early  age  of  eleven,  at  which  he  became 
a  midshipman,  he  served  in  the  navy,  his  thorough  seamanship, 
coolness,  and  courage  enabling  him  to  rise  rapidly  in  his  pro- 
fession. He  dUtinguished  himself  in  1794.  when  Howe  beat 
the  French  off  Brest,  and  in  the  battle  of  Cape  St  Vincent  in 
ng'ji  Finally,  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar  in  1805,  he  broke  the 
enemy's  line,  and  completed  the  victory  on  the  death  of  Nelson, 
whose  devoted  friend  and  admirer  he  had  been  throughout  life. 
He  was  rewarded  with  a  peerage.  C.  died-  at  sea,  March  7, 
1810,  lamented  by  the  country  and  his  sailors,  who  called  him 
their  'father.'  His  Despatches  and  Correspondence  were  pub- 
lished by  his  nephew  (Lond.  i8s8). 

Coll'ins,  Anthony,  a  noted  freethinker,  born  at  Heston, 
Middlesex,  in  1676,  and  educated  at  Eton  and  Cambridge.  He 
produced  various  shrewd  and  acute  works,  and  was  the  friend 
of  Locke  and  Le  Clerc.  C,  who  led  an  upright  and  benevo- 
lent  life,  died  13th  December  1729.  His  chief  work  is  a  Dis- 
course on  Freethinking.  He  also  wrote  an  Essay  concermng  the 
Use  of  the  Human  Understanding  (1707),  an  Znpiiry  eoncamng 
Liierty  and  Necessity  (1715),  and  a  faook  on  ihe  Givunds  and 
Aiase/is  of  the  Christian  Religion  (1724).  »"  "f  "!"=''  provoked 
vehement  controversies  in  their  days, 

197 


vGooqIc 


4- 


COL 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


COI, 


Colliiia,  ■William,  one  of  the  best  English  poets  of  last 
century,  was  born  25th  December  1721,  at  Chicliester,  where  his 
'    ■  a  hatter,      He  was  educated  at  Winchester  (where, 

to  Warton,  he  wrote  his  Persian  Eclogues  at  the  age 
;n),  and  at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford.     On  leaving 
rsity  he  went  to  London  as  a  literary  adventurer,  and 
'1  toiling  and  idling,  starving  and 


uncle  raised  him  above  urgent  want.  But  his 
fitted  him  for  intellectual  effort ;  he  became  nervous  and  par- 
tially insane,  and  died  I2lh  Jnne  1759,  in  his  thirty-ninlh  year. 
Haalitt  declared  that  C.  was  the  only  one  of  the  minor  poets  of 
whom  it  could  not  be  said  that  he  might  not  have  done  the 
greatest  things.  With  the  exception  of  Blake,  he  was  the  most 
purely  poetic  spirit  of  his  century.  .  His  Persian  Eclogues  (first 
published  in  1742,  and  again  In  1757  under  the  title  ^Oriental 
Eclogues)  won  the  praise  of  Goldsmith,  but  have  not  the  glow 
and  splendour  of  the  East.  His  Odes  ((746)  awoke  no  response 
in  the  public,  but  they  have  always  been  favourites  with  poetic 
minds.  Nothing  more  delicatdy  imaginative,  pensive,  and 
musical,  rich  in  colour  and  choice  in  diction,  was  produced 
in  the  l8th  c  That  on  The  Passicits  is  unsurpassed  for  bold 
and  vivid  personification,  and  exquisite  changes  of  melody; 
while  the  Ode  to  Evening  is  one  of  the  sweetest,  airiest  pieces 
in  the  language.  Every  word  is  faultless,  every  tone  is  true. 
SeeMoyThomas'sMemoir,  preftxed  to  the  Aldine  edition  of  C.'s 
works  (Bell  &  Daldy,  1S58). 

Oollms,  William,  K.A.,  bom  in  London,  iSth  September 
1787,  first  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Academy  in  1807,  and  was 
elected  Associate  in  1S14,  and  R.A.  in  1820.  After  the  death 
of  his  father  in  1812  he  foimd  himself  obliged  to  paint  portraits, 
though  the  special  branch  of  art  in  which,  in  the  earlier  part  of 
his  life,  he  took  most  delight,  was  landscape,  with  rustic  or 
homely  Inures.  In  1814,  however,  he  commenced  to  paiut  coast 
sceneiy,  and  followmg  this  path,  arrived  at  fame  and  fortune. 
C  died  in  London,  i7ih  February  1847.  Among  his  works, 
which  excel  in  truth  of  form,  chiaroscuro,  and  coloiu',  probably 
the  best-known  are,  '  Happy  as  a  King '  ( I S36),  '  The  Shrimpers 
Evening'  (1831),  and  tne  '  Fisherman  s  Widow'  ('835).    See 

Biography  (2  vols.  Lond,  1848),  written  by  his  son,  William 

Wilfeje  0.,  who  has  attained  high  distinction  as  a  novelist. 
He  was  bom  in  London,  January  1S24,  and  intended  for  a 
commercial  career,  but  turned  aside  to  literature,  commencing 
with  the  bic^raphy  of  his  father.  Among  his  earlier  fictions  ate 
AntoniHa  (1850)  and  SasU  (1852),  C,  became  a  fellow-woi-ker 
with  Dickens  in  Household  Words,  in  which  appeared  Afier 
DarHlS$6)  unA  TAe  Dead  Secrel  (iS^J).  An  immense  accession 
to  C's  popularity  was  given  by  his  iVbman  in  IVkite  (1859^0). 
Since  then  he  may  be  considered  to  hold  a  leading  place  among 
English  novelists.  Later  productions  are  Tlie  Mooiisione  (l86S|, 
Man  and  iVi/e  {1870),  The  Nea  Magdalen  (1873),  and  The  Law 
and  the  Lady  (1875).  Several  of  these  have  been  dramatised. 
All  C's  works  are  remarkable  for  vivid  portraiture,  startling 
incident,  and  a  surprising  intricacy  of  plot,  which  at  once  per- 
plexes and  captivates  the  reader. 

Oolli«'iou  of  Veeaele.  To  prevent  collisions  of  vessels, 
steering  and  sailing  rules  have  been  laid  down  by  the  Merchant 
and  Shipping  Amendment  (1862)  Act.  Where  loss  arises  from 
pure  acddent,  or  Act  of  God  (q.  v.),  as  it  is  termed,  the  loss  fells 
where  it  lights  ;  when  there  has  probably  been  fault,  but  no  one 
say  who  has  been  chiefly  to  blame,  tlieloss  is  divided  equally, 
n  proportion  to  tlie  respective  value  of  the  ships.  If  the  fault 
be  clearly  on  one  side,  the  owners  of  the  ship  in  fault  are  answer- 
able for  dam^e.  A  steam-vessel  is  bound  to  keep  out  of  the 
way  of  a  sailing-vessel. 

Oollo'dion  (formed  from  the  Gr.  kollaa,  '  I  stick  *)  is  a 
solution  of  a  particular  kind  of  gitn-cotton  (see  Cellulose 
and  Gut^-COTTON)  in  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  ether,  and  is 
largely  employed  in  photography  and  surgery.  C.  was  dis- 
covered by  Maynard,  a  physician  of  Boston.  The  best  kind 
of  gun-cotton  for  C.  is  prepared  by  soaking  I  part  of  cotton- 
wool in  a  cooled  mixture  of  16  patts  of  nitre,  12  parts  of  fuming 
sulphuric  acid  (Nordhausen  vitriol),  and  12  parts  of  ordinary 
oil  of  vitriol.     The  wool  should  be  stirred  about  in  the  mix- 

e  for  five  minutes,  then  washed  for  a  long  time  in  a  current 


of  cold  water,  squeezed,  and  allowed  to  diy  in  the  air.  To'pre- 
pare  C,  1  part  of  Ihe  gun-colton  is  shaken  in  a  bottle  with  16 
parts  of  etiier ;  after  some  time  1-2  parts  of  absolute  alcohol 
are  added,  and  the  mixture  agitated  till  the  wool  disappears. 
The  C.  thus  obtained  should  be  filtered,  C.  is  a  clear,  colour- 
less, and  more  or  less  mucilaginous  liquid.  Its  uses  depend 
upon  the  fact  that  when  spread  over  a  surfece  and  allowed  to 
dry,  a  tenacious  fihn  is  left,  which  adheres  closely  to  the  material 
on  which  the  C.  has  been  spread.  Thus  a  wound  or  raw  surface, 
if  painted  with  C,  becomes  covered  with  an  artificial  skin,  which 
completely  protects  it  from  the  air.  For  surgical  purposes^jri/? 
C.  is  emplojied.  This  consists  of  a  mixture  of  6  fluid  ounces  of 
C,  120  grains  of  Canada  balsam,  and  i  fluid  drachm  of  castor- 
oil.  C.  is  also  employed  in  making  small  balloons,  and  to  pro- 
tect caustic  substances,  &c.,  from  the  ^r. 

Collodionised  Paper  Process,  a  photographic  process,  invented 
by  Mr  Corbin,  which  consists  in  employing  negative  paper 
coated  with  gelatine  as  a  sapport  for  the  excited  collodionised 
film,  which  is  preserved  by  a  thin  layer  of  albumen  and  honey. 
To  render  the  film  sensitive  it  is  immersed  in  a  bath  of  aceto- 
niirate  of  silver,  after  whidi  it  is  washed  and  dried.  Immersion 
in  a  solution  of  gallic  acid  to  whicli  a  few  drops  of  acetonitrate 
of  silver  have  been  added  develops  the  picture. 

Coll'ot  d'HerboiS,  Jean  IHaria,  one  of  the  most  san- 
guinary and  ignoble  characters  of  the  French  Revolution,  was 
bom  at  Paris  in  1750.  He  was  at  first  an  actor  and  dramatist, 
but  became  prominent  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  distinguish- 
ing himself  as  one  of  the  most  violent  of  the  Jacobins — his  senti- 
ments being  generally  much  '  exalted '  by  liquor,  of  which  he  was 
ludicrously  fond.  Sent  ( 1 793)  by  the  Convention  to  Lyons  after  its 
surrender,  he  committed  the  most  fearful  atrocities,  1600  persons 
being,  at  his  orders,  destroyed  by  grapeshot  or  the  guillotine. 
He  contributed  to  ihe  fall  of  Robespierre,  but  was  nevertheless 
transported  to  Cayenne,  where  he  died  of  fever,  Sth  January 
1796.  Ttt  Nouvelle  Biographie  GMra/c  gives  along  list  of  C.'s 
comedies,  which  once,  se  h  d  m  success,  though  they 
are  now  only  rememl>ered  b     h         m        their  author. 

Gollu'sioil  is  a  de  ran  agreement  between 

'--   - '  "  ofhisright.    Wher 


s  the  eife 


law  of  making  void  any 

f  C.  frequently  occur 

and     sir  creditors;  and  as 

C.  in  cases  of  bank- 


H 


e  than  thirty  plays, 


in  arrangements  betwee    ba  it 
the  proof  in  such  cases 
have  created  certain  leg 

Ool'mau,  Qeorge, 

(1733-94).  "■as  bora  at  F 
successful  writer,  composing  or  1 
besides  writing  poems  and  publishing  translations, 
a  time  acting  manager  of  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  and  subse- 
quently purchased  the  Haymarket.  Of  his  pieces,  the  Jealous 
Wifi  shows  perhaps  the  most  ability.  His  son,  commonly 
known  as  '  the  VoUnger '  (1762-1836),  educated  at  Westminster 
School,  Christ's  College,  Oitford,  and  King's  College,  Aber- 
deen, was  also  an  indefatigable  writer  of  dramas,  receiving  large 
sums  for  many  of  them,  one  or  two  of  which  are  still  occasion- 
ally acted.  He  also  managed  the  Haymarket  Tlieatre,  and  for 
a  time  was  Examiner  of  Plays.  His  latest  work  was  a  memoir 
of  his  life,  which  was  published  under  the  'Ci'de  ai  Random  Pecords 
(Lond.  1830); 

Col'mar,  or  Kolmar,  formerly  the  capita!  of  the  French 
department  of  Haut-Rhin,  fell  to  Germany  in  1S70,  and  is 
now  the  capital  of  Ober-ElsSss.  Pop.  (1871)  23,311.  It  stands 
on  a  plain  at  the  confluence  of  Che  Lauch  and  Fecht,  about  2 
miles  from  the  foot  of  the  Vosges  Mountains,  and  is  a  station  on 
the  Strasbulg  and  Mulhouse  Railway.  The  most  remarliable 
buildines  are  the  cathedral  (1363),  H6tel-de-viile,  and  the  col- 
legei  which  contains  some  pictures  by  Albert  Durer.  It  has  a 
public  library  of  60,000  vols.  Its  chief  manufactures  are  linens, 
calicoes,  woollens,  silks,  p^er,  hosiery,  and  leather,  and  it  is 
the  entrepfit  for  cotton,  iron,  wine,  and  colonial  produce  for 
Switzerland.  Under  the  Franks,  C.  was  a  royal  court,  called 
Colamiaria,  round  which  the  town  grew  up.  The  Emperor 
Friedrich  II.  gave  it  municipal  rights  in  1226,  and  it  was  after- 
wards a  free  imperial  city.  lis  fortifications,  erected  in  1552, 
were  dismantled  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1673.    The  peace  of  Ryswiclt 


"4^ 


yLiOogle 


COL 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


(1697)  united  ii:  to  France,  in  whose  possession  it  remained  till 
1870. 

OoLoe,  a  market-town  in  Lancashire,  32  miles  N.E.  of  Man- 
chester, on  C.  Water,  a  tributary  of  the  Calder,  and  fit  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Midland  Railway  with  the  Lancashire  and  Vork- 
dlire  line.  MouEselines-de-laine  and  calicoes  are  manufactured, 
and  in  the  vicinity  coal,  slate,  and  Ijme  abound.  Archbishop 
Tillotson  received  the  rudiments  of  his  education  at  the  grammar- 
school  of  C.     Pop.  (1871)7335, 

Col'obua,  a  genus  of  Old  World  or  Catarhine  monkeys,  in 
which  alone,  of  all  Catarhina,  the  thumbs  are  absent  or  at  most 
very  rudimentary.  This  genus  is  allied  to  Semnn^theaa,  find 
the  C.  Ursinus,  C.  Satanas,  and  C.  Gmrem  are  famihar  species. 
These  monkeys  exclusively  inhabit  Africa.  See  also  Monkey. 
Oorooynth,  a  medicinal  substance  consisting  of  the  dried 
palp  of  the  bitter  cucumijer,  Cilnil/us  Cttiocyntki,  a  plant  which 
IS  a  native  of  the  S.  of  Europe,  and  bears  some  resemblance  to 
the  common  water-melon.  C.  is  a  light  spongy  yellowish-white 
substance,  intensely  bitter,  and  about  the  size  of  a  small  orange. 
It  is  unporled  chiefly  from  Smyrna,  Trieste,  France,  and  Spam. 
In  doses  of  2  to  8  grains  it  acts  as  a  powerful  tathartic,  produc- 
ing copious  watery  stools.  C.  is  apt  to  cause  griping,  which, 
however,  may  be  prevented  by  combming  it  with  henbaiie  or 
belladonna.  Its  active  principle  is  Colocyntkm,  C^f^^%. 
Cologne',  the  French  form  of  the  German  Kolm  (q.  v. ), 
Cologne  Yellow,  used  for  lacquering,  and  generally  as  an 
oil  or  water  colour,  is  a  mixture  of  chroniale  and  sulphate  of 
lead  with  sulphate  of  calcium. 

Colomba'no,  San,  a  town  of  N.  Italy,  province  of  Milan, 
in  a  hilly  district  9  miles  S.  of  Lodi.  In  the  vicinity  are  found 
felspar,  red  granite,  and  limestone.      Pop.  about  6000. 

Oolom'bia,  United  States  of,  fcamerly  New  Grana^, 
a  federal  republic  of  S.  America,  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  S.  by  Ecuador  and  BraziC  E.  by  Venezuela,  and  W.  by  the 
Pacific.  Area,  455,673  sq.  miles;  pop..(lS7l)  2,916,703.  It  is 
divided  mto  nine  states— Antioquia,  Bolivar,  Boj^a,  Gauca, 
Cundinamarca,  Magdalena,  Panama,  Santandtr,  Tolima.  In 
the  W.  it  is  traversed  by  the  gr^t  triple  range  of  the  Andes, 
alternating  with  lofty  plateaux,  while  m  the  E.  and  S.E.  it  is 
Spread  out  in  magnificent  lianas,  covered  with  dense  forests, 
and  forming  the  basm  of  the  upper  waters  of  the  Orinoco  and 
Rio  del  Negro,  Its  great  river  is  tlie  Magdalena,  which  flows 
throughout  the  state  from  N.  to  S.,  receives  the  Canca  and 
many  smaller  tributaries,  and  enters  the  Caribbean  Sea  after  a 
course  of  900  miles.  There  is  every  variety  of  climate,  from  the 
tropiial  heat  of  the  coasts  to  the  intense  cold  of  the  region  of 
perpetual  snow.  Of  the  products,  which  are  rich  and  various, 
the  chief  are  tobacco  (Ambalema  and  Palmira),  sugar,  coffee, 
mahc^any,  cinchona  lark,  ipecacuanha,  &c.  But  its  mineral 
wealth  is  still  more  important,  consistmg  of  gold,  platina,  silver, 
copper,  coal,  amber,  &c.  In  1874  '^^  '"'^  exports  amounted  to 
9,895,060  dollars.  Ei^land  receives  most  of  the  precious  metals, 
and  Germany  nearly  all  the  tobapco.  The  value  of  the  imports 
m  1874  was  11,218,840  dollars.  Beades  the  railway  across  the 
isthmus  of  Panama  (q.  v,),  there  is  a  short  Ime  between  Saban- 
ilk,  on  the  coast,  and  Barranquilla,  where  the  navigfition  of  the 
Magdalena  begins.  The  Magdalena  is  ascended  by  regular  Imes 
of  steam-vessels  for  some  800  miles.  Among  the  mdustries, 
which  are  all  somewhat  primitive,  the  chief  are  agriculture, 
cattle-breeding,  and  mining.  Antioquia  is  the  great  mining 
state,  and  yet  has  only  one  mine  (Zancudo)  supplied  with  good 
modem  machinery.  In  aU  there  are  (1876)  561  mines,  employ- 
ing 16,000  men,  and  producisg  gold  and  silver  to  the  value  of 
2,300,000  dollars  yearly.  The  capital  is  Bogota.  The  inhabi- 
tants of  the  interior  ai'e  mostly  Indians,  while  the  total  number 
of  white  men  does  not  greatly  exceed  one  million.  The  Colum- 
bians are  Roman  Catholics,  but  no  form  of  religion  is  protected 
by  law.  In  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  Catholic  clei^y,  a 
state  system  of  education  lias  been  established,  and  in  1874 
there  were  1845  schools  ahd  83,636  pupils.  The  press  is  free, 
and  Government  has  abolished  the  penalty  of  death  for  crime. 
Each  state  of  the  republic  is  'sovereign  and  independent,'  and 
sends  three  senators  to  Congress,  and  one  representative  to  the 
Lower  House  for  every  50,000  inhabitants.  The  army  consists 
merely  of  some  jopo  men. 


The  country,  origmaily  occupied  by  a  semi -civilised  tribe, 
called  Chibchas  or  Mvyscas,   was  conquered  by  Ximenes   de 
Quesado  (1536-37),  and  in  1718  was  formed  into  a  Spanish 
viceroyalty,  comprising  the  districts  Panama,  Bogota,  and  On'' 
In  1819  it  became  independent  of  Spdn,  and  was  formed  i 


jparate  republic  m  1833.  After  several  'revolutions,'  the  1 
slitution  was  finally  remodelled,  and  the  country  received  its 
present  name  on  the  20th  September  1861,  See  Powles,  Nem 
Granada,  Us  Inttmal  Resources  (Lond.  1863)  ;  Mosquera,  Com- 
pendw  de  Gtografia,  Getteral  ffaliHca,  Fisica,  y  S/vsial  dos  Slalos 
Unides  de  C.  ^Lond.  1866), 

Colom'bo,  a  Portuguese  corruption  of  Kalamhu,  itself  an 
Arabic  corruption  of  the  Cii^alese  Kalan-totia,  the  '  Kalany 
ferry ')  is  the  capital  of  Ceylon,  on  the  S.W.  coast  of  the  island, 
near  the  motith  of  the  Kiilany-ganga,  on  a  spit  of  land  pro- 
tecjed  by  a  fort  mamted  with  300  cannon.  It  is  the  residence 
of  the  English  governor,  the  seat  of  a  colonial  bishop,  and  has 
a  pop.  (1871)  of  100,238,  of  whom  less  than  6000  are  Euro- 
peans, the  remainder  consisting  of  a  motley  mass  of  Cingalese, 
Malays,  Malabarese,  Arabs,  Chinese,  Parsees,  and  other  Easterns. 
Among  the  more  notable  buildings  are  the  cathedral,  and  other 
Christian  churches,  Protestant  and  Catholic,  a  Mohammedan 
mosque,  a  militaiy  hospital,  and  an  orphanage.  The  houses, 
both  of  the  Europeans  and  natives,  are  so  hidden  in  clumps  of 
cocoa.palms,  and  other  tropical  trees  that  the  town  presents  the 
appeatfince  of  a  forest.  C.  may  be  divided  mto  the  Enrmiean 
or  White  Town  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  fort,  and  the  Petlah 
or  BlacV  Town,  in  which  most  of  the  magazines  and  warehouses 
are  situated.  TTie  espknade  of  Galle-Face  forms  the  public 
park  of  the  city.  C.  was  formerly  the  chief  station  for  steam- 
ships in  Ceylon,  but  they  now  mostly  resort  to  the  flourishing 
port  of  Point-de-Galle.  C.  possesses  a  European  society  of  con- 
siderable culture.  A  new  museum  is  nearly  completed,  whicli 
will  contain  an  Oriental  and  general  library,  and  a  museum  of 
natural  history  and  antiquities.  Grants  have  been  made  for  its 
endowment  from  the  colonkl  revenues.  C.  is  coimected  with 
Kandy,  in  the  centre  of  the  island,  by  a  railway  75  miles  long. 
Colon.     See  Punctuation, 

Colon,  a  portion  of  the  great  intestine.  See  Intestine. 
Colonel  (Fr.  from  the  Ital,  cchanelh,  a  dim.  of  colonna,  'a 
column  ; '  or,  according  to  othei-s,  but  with  less  probability,  it  is 
Lat.  currmalis,  from  ccrona,  '  a  crown '),  in  the  British  army,  is  the 
highest  oflicer  attached  to  a  regiment.  Except  in  the  Engineers  , 
and  Artillery,  the  office  is  a  sinecure,  bestowed,  presumably,  as  a 
reward  for  long  service,  Besides  the  regimental  rank  of  C, 
there  is  tiie  rank  of  brevet-C,  throng'h  which  every  officer  must 
pass  before  he  becomes  a  general  officer.  See  Brevet,  Gene- 
ral Officer, 

Colo'nia  do  Santisa'imo  Sacramen'to,  a  strong  seaport 
of  Uruguay  (Banda  Oriental),  on  the  N.  bank  of  the  Pkta, 
opposite  Buenos-Ayres.  In  1845  the  combined  English  and 
French  fleets  retook  it  fiom  Rosas,  then  Dictator  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  to  keep  &e  navigation  of  the  upper  part  of  the  river  free. 
Pop.  about  7000. 

Colo'nial  Corps  were  certain  regiments  forming  part  of  the 
regular  British  army,  but  devoted  to  the  service  of  the  colonies. 
As  the  colonies  became  self-ruling,  it  came  to  be  considered 
contrary  to  imperial  interest  to  keep  up  forces  not  available  for 
general  imperial  purposes.  The  C.  C.  have  accordingly  been 
disbanded,  except  the  Malta  Fencibies  and  two  West  Indian  regi- 

Col'oniea,  Lasra  of  Jtaglajid  regarding.    All  persons 

chaiged  in  any  colony  with  an  offence  committed  on  the  sea, 
may  be  dealt  with  as  if  the  offence  had  been  committed  within 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  colonial  court,  and  shall  receive  the  same 
punishment  as  would  have  followed  on  conviction  in  England. 
The  term  efl/oTy  includes  all  possessions  abroad  in  which  there 
is  a  legislature,  except  the  Channel  Islands  and  the  Isle  of  Man. 
Colonial  law  is  void  if  contrary  to  Act  of  the  Imperial  Parlia- 
ment ;  but  mere  inconsistency  with  instructions  from  the  Home 
Government  will  not  malte  it  void.  Since  ad  August  1858,  all 
powers  previously  exercised  by  the  Board  of  Control  and  by 


vLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


the  East  India  Company  oyer 

India,  have  been  exercised  by  the  Secretary  of  State  and  Council 

for  India.     See  India,  British. 

Oolonn'fl,  an  illustrious  Roman  ftmily,  which, takes  its  name 
from  a  small  village  on  the  Albau  Hills  in  the  jiravince  of 
Latium,  now  belonging  to  the  Rospigliosi-Pallavicini  family. 
It  traces  its  origin  to  the  Counts  of  Tuscnlum,  who  in  the  joth 
and  nth  centuries  enjoyed  the  highest  estimation  at  Rome,  but 
it  fiist  came  forward  independently  about  the  close  of  the  1 1  th 
c,  and  from  tliat  time  liil  far  on  in  the  l6th  it  played  a  part  sur- 
passed in  distinction  by  no  Roman  family  except  its  hereditary 
rival  and  (oe — the  Orsini.  By  numerous  fortresses,  built  all 
along  the  Alban  and  Sabine  Hills  to  the  very  borders  of  Naples, 
it  became  repeatedly  a  source  of  terror,  both  (o  the  Popes  and  to 
the  Roman  people,  whileit  was  perpetually  mixing  itself  np  in  the 
bloody  feuds  of  tlie  age.  Usually  tlie  Coionni  figure  as  the  heads 
of  the  Gliibelline  party,  but  oecasienally  they  are  also  found  on  the 
side  of  the  Guelphs.  The  sons  of  Giovanni  C.  (who  about  1278 
was  a  Roman  senator,  and  in  1288  Marchese  of  Ancona), 
Stefano  and  Agapito,  were  the  founders  of  the  two  still 
flourishing  lines  of  the  C.  family,  that  of  Pakstrina,  (now  repre- 
sented by  the  branches  of  C.  di  Sciarra,  and  Barberini-C),  and 
that  of  Paliano,  usually  called  the  line  of  the  Grand  Constable, 
withwliich  is  joined  the  subordinate  branch  C.-Sligtiano'ai  Naples. 
Pope  Martin  V.  (Oddone  0.),  with  numerous  cardinals,  gene- 
rals, statesmen,  scholars,  and  authors,  belong  to  it,  whose  names 
are  conspicuous  in  the  ecclesiastical,  political,  and  literary  his- 
tory of  Italy.  We  can  only  notice  here  Vittorio  O.,  the  most 
famous  poetess  of  Italy,  who  was  the  daughter  of  Fabruio  C, 
Grand  Constable  of  Naples^  and  was  born  at  Marino  in  1490. 
In  1507  she  was  married  to  Ferrante  d'Avalos,  who  soon  after 
came  to  his  father's  title — Marchese  de  Pescara — and  who  died 
in  1525  of  wounds  received  in  the  battle  of  Pavia.  Overwhelmed 
with  grief,  the  young  widow  sought  consolation  in  soUtude,  in 
study,  and  in  religion.  She  occupied  herself  witir  poetical  com- 
position, and  her  verse,  which  in  her  early  widowhood  musi- 
cally bewailed  her  lost  husband,  drew  its  inspiration  in  later 
years  from  elevated  religious  feeling.  Her  poems,  the  best 
edition  of  which  was  published  (with  a  memoir)  at  Rome  (1S40) 
by  Ercole  Visconti,  are  perhaps  t-oo  feitlifully  modelled  on  the 
style  of  Petrarch,  but  evince  an  exquisite  talent  and  genuine 
sentiment.  Her  beauty  and  talents,  which  ate  said  to  have  at- 
tracted the  affectionate  regard  of  Michael  Angelo,  are  cele- 
brated by  Ariosto  in  the  37th  canto  of  his  Furiosi?.  It  may 
here  be  noted  that  the  C.  Palace  in  Rome,  at  the  base  of  the 
Quirinal,  is  wo  rid- celebrated  for  its  gallery  of  art  and  its 
magnificent  gsii-dens.  See  Coppi's  Menioric  Colontusi  (Rome, 
■8551- 

Oolonna,  Cape  (anc  Suaiura  Fromotitorium,  Byron's 
'Sunium's  marbled  sleep'),  a  headland  of  Greece,  the  most 
southerly  point  of  Attica,  rising  almost  perpendicularly  from  the 
sea  to  the  height  of  269  feeL  Sixteen  columns  of  white  marble, 
the  remains  of  a  temple  of  Minerva,  crown  the  steep  and  give  it 


Colonnade',  a  series  of  columns,  placed  at  intervals,  and 
arranged  according  to  the  rales  of  art,  and  of  the  particular  order 
to  which  they  belong. 

Ool'onaay  ('  the  island  of  Columba '},  one  of  the  Inner  Heb. 
rides,  W.  of  Jura,  between  Mull  on  the  N.  and  Islay  on  the  S. 
Separated  from  it  by  a  narrow  channel  to  the  S.,  of  not  more 
than  100  yards  wide,  and  dry  at  low  water,  is  the  isle  of  Oronsay. 
Together  tliey  are  12  miles  long,  with  a  breadth  of  from  I  to  3 
miles.  Potatoes  and  barley  are  grown,  and  black  cattle  and  sheep 
of  a  superior  breed  are  fed  on  the  pastures.  Oronsay  contains 
the  fine  ruins  of  a  priory,  founded  by  the  .Lord  of  the  Isles. 
Pop.  of  both  islands  in  1871,  456,  being  a  decrease  of  142  since 
1S61. 

Ool'ony  has  been  applied  to  a  great  variety  of  settlements. 
The  limited  space  possessed  by  the  states  of  ancieijt  Greece  sug- 
gested the  Doric  colonies  of  Italy  and  Sicily,  and  the  Ionic  and 
jEolic  colonies  of  Asia  Minor.  This  was  voluntary  emigration  of 
persons  who  proposed  to  form  themselves  into  a  self-supporting 
society,  and  who  therefore  seldom  retained  any  connection  (ex- 
cept Ihat  of  a  common  religion)  with  the  mother  country.    Their 


origin  was,  however,  frequently  appealed  to  for  a  temper 
political  purpose,  and  they  were  liable  to  be  involved  in  the  w 
between  the  democratic  and  the  aristocratic  parties  in  Gree 
The  Greek  term  apoiMa,  or  '  departure  from  home,'  is  therefore 
different  in  meaning  from  the  Latin  cchma,  'plantation  of  tenant- 
farmers,'  which  was  made  necessary  by  the  disuse  of  the  agrarian 
law.  The  latter  weie  chiefly  in  the  conquered  provinces  of 
Italy ;  they  were  accompanied  by  the  cmgw  and  the  agrii?itnsor 
(who  overthrew  the  ancient  and  consecrated  the  new  boundaries) ; 
they  had  duumvirs,  quinqnennials,  and  decurions,  in  imitation 
of  Uia  consuls,  censors,  and  pKetors  of  Rome  ;  these  magistrates 
regulated  local  affairs,  but  political  sovereignly  remained  at 
Rome.  The  C.  was  regarded  by  the  better  class  of  plebeians  as 
an  exile,  as  a  renunciation  of  the  Roman  for  a  municipal  fran- 
chise, and  the  state  regarded  it  as  a  nursery  for  soldiers.  Fifty 
sudi  colonies  were  founded  in  Central  Italy  before  the  second 
Punic  War,  and  at  least  twenty  more  from  B.C.  197  to  B.C.  177 
in  Italian  Gaul,  Campania,  Apulia,  &c.  Some  of  these  colonies 
were  purely  military,  and  had  an  ensign  on  their  coinage  ;  others 
were  purely  civil,  C.  iogals,  and  had  a  plough  on  their  coinage. 
The  Roman  C.  differed  from  the  mutiidpium  in  this,  that  the 
former  was  entirely  governed  by  Roman,  the  latter  frequently  by 
local  law  and  custom.  Modern  examples  of  the  military  C.  are 
Gibraltar,  Aden,  Malta,  and  St  Helena.  Carthage  introduced 
a  different  system  of  colonisation  in  the  commercial  factories 
which  she  planted  round  the  Mediterranean,  and  which  were 
imitated  in  the  French  and  Dutch  settlements  In  the  East.  The 
modern  policy,  however,  as  in  the  Spanish  colonies  of  S.  America, 
and  in  the  African  and  Eastern  colonies  of  Portugal,  was  to  con- 
quer the  native  race,  and  keep  them  down  by  a  strong  govern- 
ment, the  members  of  wMcli  were  taken  from  .the  home  country. 
After  the  Seven  Years'  War  (1763)  England  gradually  took  the 
place  of  Fra  Easter  1  t  n.  Th  Engl  h  C  /a 
excellence,  was  h  w  p  t  d  t  Ral  igh 
Virginia,  or  m  m  t  f'  nsc  as  h  tl  P  Igr  m 
Facers  sailed  f  N  Engla  d  Th  q  t  f  th  p  m 
power  of  th  m  her  miry  wh  h  h  d  b  pec  1  t  ly 
raised  byMlynuxwth  gd  thih  11  trad 
d  by  h    f  I         f   h    d      t  IS    f  th 


itrikingl)    II    t 
Indian  and  Africa 
ence  to  the  Dai 
of  ParUament    p 


mt     yt 


p  rt 


0  d    la 


f h  t 

! 

aked      N 
n  t  Sp 


theles 
d     f 


by  A  t 


asf      d 
th 


cald 

reciprocity  was  a  stronger  link  between  the  colonies  and  the 
mollier  country  than  even  the  feeling  of  allegiance.  It  vras  held, 
even  in  the  time  of  Adam  Smith,  Ihat  it  was  important  to  bind  the 
colonieslobuy  the  manufactures  of  the  mother  countiy,  while  the 
latter  gave  the  colonies  a  preferential  market  for  raw  produce. 
This  monopoly  was  no  doubt  advantageous  to  the  colonifJ  capita- 
list, who  flourished  at  the  expense  of  the  British  consumer.  The 
practice  of  restrainmg  manufactures  in  the  colonies  is  curiously 
counterbalanced  byfhe  modem  protectionism  of  colonies,  who  find 
it  impossible  to  compete  with  the  free  trade  ofthe  mother  country. 
Most  of  the  British  colonies  have  rights  of  parliamentary  repre- 
sentation, of  debate,  and  of  iegislation,  of  deteiinining  the  sources 
of  public  revenue  and  expenditure,  of  enacting  laws  for  the 
security  and  control  of  property,  for  the  repression  of  crime,  &c. 
They  have  also  right  to  all  the  land  of  the  C.  not  granted  to 
private  owners,  "nieoretically,  the  acts  of  a  colonial  legislature 
are  liable  to  the  revision,  and  even  the  rejection,  of  the  Home 
Colonial  Office ;  this  was  recently  exemplified  in  the  question  of 
marriage  with  a  deceased  wife's  sister.  Appeals  from  the  colonial 
courts  are  taken  to  the  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council. 
The  C.  is  however  disabled  from  such  acts  of  independent  sove- 
reignty as  the  initiative  in  war,  alliances,  and  diplomacy  generally. 
Colonists  are  British  subjects,  and  are  treated  as  such  by  British 
consuls,  although  the  -colonies  pay  nothing  for  the  consular 
service.  After  the  doctrine  of  the  complete  sovereignty  of  the 
mother  country  had  been  abandoned,  the  doctrine  of  tutelage, 
advanced  by  Lord  Grey  in  defending  Lord  John  Russell's  colo- 
nial policy,  was  adopted.  This  led  to  Kaffir  and  Maori  wars,  to 
the  colonial  endoi«ments  of  the  Episcopal  Church,  and  the  clei^ 
reserve  m  Canada.  Great  Biitam  still  expends  ^3,620,093  per 
annum  on  her  colonies,  including  Heligoland,  Bermuda,  the 
Falkland  Islands,  and  the  Straits  Settlement,  and  the  military 
posts.     For  the  future,  it  seems  probable  that  the  cost  of  native 


yLaOOgle 


COL 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


COL 


in  the 


ta  will  be  thrown  on  the  colonies  themselves,  and  that  the 
duty  of  international  protection  only  will  remain. 

Col'oplion,  anciently  an  Ionian  city  of  Asia,  on  the  river 
Hales,  8  miles  N.  of  Ephesus,  was  of  little  historical  note, 
though  its  trade  in  resin  is  mentioned  by  Pliny.  Minmer- 
mus,  the  el^ac  poet,  was  a  native  of  C,  and  it  claimed  to 
be  the  biitliplaee  of  Homer.  The  Greek  proverb,  '  He  has  put 
the  C,  i.i.,  the  Snishing  stroke,  to  it,'  has  probably  no  reference 
to  tlie  city,  though  Strabo  says  it  originated  in  the  fact  that  vic- 
tory was  assured  to  the  party  on  whose  side  the  famed  Colo- 
phonian  cavalry  chained.  The  C,  or  inscription  at  the  end  of 
old  printed  books,  conttdned  the  printer's  name  and  the  date  and 
place  of  prmting. 
Colopli'oiiy.  See  Rosin. 
Colora'do  (Span,  '  ted  '),  the  name  of  two  rivers  in  the  U.S. ; 

one  rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and,  after  a  course  -' 

miles,   flows  into  the  Gulf  of  California  ;  the  other  rise; 
interior  of  Tewis,  and,  after  a  course  of  800  miles,  flows  jmu  mip 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Colorado,  one  of  the  United  States  of  N.  America,  is  situated 
among  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  bounded  by  Wyoming  on 
the  N.,  Kansas  and  Nebraska  on  the  E.,  New  Mexico  on  the 
S.,  and  Utah  on  the  W.,  and  has  an  area  of  104,500  sq.  miles. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norie  and  the  Arkansas. 
Pike's  Peak  is  11,497  feet  above  the  sea.  The  discovery  of  gold 
1857  led  to  its  settlement.  The  mineral  resources  of  C.  are 
imense,  includmg  not  only  gold,  but  silver  mines  of  great 
valne,  also  gypsum,  coal,  iron,  and  salt.  In  1870  the  yield  of 
minerals  amounted  to  $5,500,000,  and  real  and  personal  pro- 
perty was  valued  at  $20,343,303.  In  1S75  the  amount  of  gold 
and  silver  taken  from  the  mines  amounted  to  86,299,817.  In 
"  !  same  year  there  were  in  operation  735  miles  of  railway  C. 
s  admitted  as  a  'state'  in  1876.  Pop.  in  1S70  :  whites, 
,220;  blacks,456;  Chinese,?;  Indians,  7480.  Pop.  in  iSVs, 
„.,out  150,000.  The  state  capital  is  Denver;  other  towns  are 
Golden  City,  Mountain  City,  and  Central  City. 

Colorado  Beetle  (Dcryphoms  decemlineaium),  a  genus  ol 
beetles  noted  for  effecting  great  destruction  in  potato-fields,  and 
which  has  committed  great  ravages  in  America,  All  efforts  tc 
cheek  this  pest  have  been  unavailing,  the  plants  speedily  suc- 
cumbing to  the  attack  of  these  insects,  which  appear  frequently 
in  great  numbers,  and  spread  over  lai^e  districts  and  territories, 
Colorim'eter,  an  apparatus  of  great  value  in  the  art  of  dye- 
ing for  ascertaming  the  strength  of  dye-stuffs.  A  known  weight 
of  the  colouring  matter  to  be  tested  is  suitably  dissolved,  and  the 
colour  it  produces  compared  with  a  standard  solution.  The 
colorimetric  test  is  generally  applied  by  the  intensity  of  colour 
produced  by  an  ascertained  depth  of  the  solutions  in  two  different 
graduated  test-tubes. 

CoIosa'Ee,  a  city  of  ancient  Phrj^ia,  on  the  Lycos,  nov.-  the 
Ak-su,  a  tributary  of  the  Mieander.  Its  people  were  famed  for 
theur  skill  in  dyeing  wool,  but  what  Strabo  means  by  Collossean- 
dyed  is  now  unknown.  C.  was  one  of  the  early  Churches  of 
Asia,  and  to  its  members  Paul  addressed  an  epistle. 
Oolosse'om.     See  Amphitheathe. 

Colosa'us,  a  Greek  word  whose  origin  is  not  known,  signified 
a  statue  la^er  tiian  life,  but  was  more  frequently  applied  to 
those  enormously  lai^e  figures  which  were  so  femous  m  Egyp- 
tian, Greek,  and  Roman  art.  The  most  celebrated  I^tian  C. 
was  the  vocal  statue  of  Menrnon,  in  the  plain  of  Thebes. 
Among  the  colossi  of  Greece,  the  most  celebrated  was  the  bronze 
statue  of  the  Sun  by  Chares  of  Lindus,, which  all  agree  to  have 
been  upwards  of  loj  English  feet  high,  and  which  stood  at  the 
entrance  of  the  harbour  of  Rhodes,  though  there  is  no  authority 
for  the  statement  that  it  did  'bestride'  the  harbour  mouth. 
This,  like  the  statue  of  Memnon,  mentioned  above,  was  one  of 
the  Seven  Wonders  of  the  ancient  world.  Among  the  famous 
colossi  of  Phidias  were  the  ivory  and  gold  statues  of  Zeus  at 
Olympia,  and  of  Athene  in  the  Parthenon,  and  the  bronze  statue 
of  the  latter  on  the  Acropolis,  the  pomt  of  whose  spear  and  the 
crest  of  whose  helmet  were  seen  by  sailors  from  the  pomt  of 
Sunium.  At  Rome,  the  most  famous  colossi  were  t' 
Jupiter  on  the  Capitol,  the  bronze  statue  of  Apolb 


Library,  and  tlie  statue  of  Nero,  which  gave  to  the  adjoin- 
ing amphitheatre  the  name  of  Cokssmvi. 

Oolos'trum,  the  first  miik  of  mammalia,  disthiguished  from 
ordmaiy  milk  by  its  yellowish  colour  and  greater  thickness,  due 
to  a  lai^e  proportion  of  fatty  principles,  casein,  milk-sugar,  and 
solid  constituents.     See  Mii.K. 

Colour,  in  art,  means  that  combination  or  modification  of  tints 
which  is  specially  suited  to  produce  a  particular  and  desired 
effect  in  painting.  Among  the  old  masters,  the  greatest  colourists 
either  belonged  to  the  Venetian  school,  founded  by  Gioigione  at 
the  close  of  the  isth  c,  or  were  the  puijilsand  imitators  of  the 
leaders  of  that  school.  Titian,  Corre^o,  Paul  Veronese,  and 
Rubens  are  recognised  generally  as  the  greatest  colourists.  Tha 
excellence  of  C.  hes,  in  part  at  least,  in  Uie  subtle  harmony  which 
is  seen  to  exist  between  it  and  the  action  or  siiMested  meaning 
of  the  picture.  Local  Coleurs  are  the  natural  hues  of  objects 
arranged  in  special  localities  of  a  picture  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
ducmg  a  desired  picturesque  eflect.  Positive  Colours  are  the 
natural  hues  of  objects  unaffected  by  any  modification,  as  that 
of  distance,  reflected  light,  or  the  neighbourhood  of  colours  that 
weaken  or  otherwise  aifcct  them.  Niutral  Colours  are  those  tlie 
natural  force  of  which  is  modified  or  broken  by  the  reflected 
colours  of  surrounding  objects. 

Colour,  in  optics.  See  Chromatics,  Light,  Spectrum, 
Analysis. 

Colmr,  a  rhetorical  term  which  has  become  technical  in  Eng- 
lish law.  It  was  the  rule  in  pleading  in  Confession  and  Avoid- 
ance (q.v.)  to  admit  some  apparent  right  requiring  to  be  met  by 
the  allegation  of  new  matter.  This  was  called  giving  C.  to  the 
plaintiffs  claim.  The  form  has  been  set  aside  by  the  Common 
Law  Procedure  Act  (1852). 

Ooloiir-Blindneaa  is  a  peculiar  affection  consisting  of  an  in- 
ability to  distinguish  one  colour  from  anotlier.  It  is  often  termed 
Daltonism,  after  the  celebrated  philosopher  Dallon,  who  was  sub- 
ject to  this  Ejection.  The  most  common  variety  of  it  is  that  in 
which  the  person  cannot  distinguish  red  from  green.  Poppies 
among  green  corn,  or  ripe  fruit  on  a  cherry-tree,  have  to  them  the 
same  hue.  Others  can  only  distingnish  black,  white,  and  grey 
(whieii  is  really  a  mixture  of  black  and  white),  and  to  them  nature 
presents  neutral  tints  only.  It  is  said  to  be  more  common  in  the 
male  than  in  the  female.  A  harmless  defect  in  most  persons, 
it  may  be  very  serious  m  others,  as  in  pointsmen,  railway  guards, 
engine-drivers,  or  sailors,  who  have  to  know  the  meaning  of 
signals  made  by  coloured  lights.  The  cause  of  C.-B.  is  not 
known.  Three  theories  have  been  advanced :  (l)  That  it  is  a 
defect  of  the  stmcture  of  the  relina  of  the  eye  ;  {2)  that  it  is  a 
peculiarity  in  the  absorptive  power  of  some  of  the  fluids  or 
transparent  media  of  the  eye  ;  and  (3)  that  the  defect  is  in  the 
sensorial  centre  in  the  brain.  See  Eye, 
Oolour-Printing.  See  Polychrome  Printing. 
Colour-Sergeant  is  a  rank  in  the  army  usually  given  to  de- 
serving soldiers.  The  C.-S.  ranks  above  the  ordinary  sergeant. 
The  pay  is  as.  5d,  per  day. 

Colours,  Metals,  and  Fura,  are  the  three  tinctures  in 
Heraldry  (q.  v.).  The  metals,  which  are  or,  gold,  3.na  argent, 
silver,  represent  yellow  and  white,  and  always  lake  precedence 
of  tlie  C,  unless  the  contrary  is  specified.  The  five  C.  are 
asure,  blue  ;  guhs,  red  ;  sails,  black  ;  viri,  green ;  and  furpure, 
purple  ;  their  abbreviations  being  az.,  gu.,  sa„  vert,  puro.  Tennc 
or  tamny  an  orange  colour,  and  mtirriy  or  sanguine,  a  dark  crim- 
son are  sometimes  used,  but  very  seldom  now  in  English  heraldry. 
In  French  heraldry  vert  is  called  simple.  C.  and  metals,  when 
engraved,  are  represented  by  a  very  convenient  system  of  dots 
and  lines :  or,  by  dots  ;  argmt,  is  left  plain ;  ct.,  is  indicated  by 
liorizontal  lines;  £u.,  by  verdcal  lines;  la.,  by  horizontal  and 
vertical  lines,  like  a  small  check ;  vert,  by  diagonal  bnes  tior" 
dexter  to  sinister,  or  heraldic  right  to  left;  md  fiurfi.  the  n. 
verse  of  the  latter.  Tmne  is  represented  by  yertical  lines  down 
through  those  of  purp. ;  and  murr^  or  sanguine  by  diagonal 
lines  from  both  dexter  and  sinister,  crossing  eacli  other. 

Ooloura,  Military,  are  the  standards  and  other  flags  carried 
by  a  regiment.  They  are  sentimentally  regarded  as  symbolical 
of  the  achievements  and  renown  of  the  regiment,  and  as  form- 
ing an  important  part  of  '  the  pomp  and  circumstance  of  glori— " 


^- 


vLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


■:'  accordingly  in  battle,  when  defeat  has  been  inevitable, 
ve  soldiers  have  been  often  known  to  wrap  their  C.  round 
them,  and  to  die  in  llieir  defence— 


jd  field  of  Spain.' 
regiment  by  a  lady  is 


n  Hart- 


The  presentation 

mony  that  always  evokes  a  generous  and  loyal 

Oolt,  Samuel,  inventor  of  the  C.  revolver,  1 
ford,  Connecticut,  U.S.,  July  19,  1814,  and  in  early  life 
successively  a  sailor  and  a  'lecturer.'  In  1835  he  took  out  a 
patent  for  Che  invention  which  gave  him  fame  and  wealth.  In 
1837  his  revolver  was  used  successfully  in  the  Florida  war,  and 
Etill  later  in  the  Mexican  war.  C.  erected  large  works  in  Hart- 
ford, on  the  banks  of  the  Connecticut  river,  reclaiming  a  great 
deal  of  waste  land  for  this  purpose.     He  died  January  10,  1862. 

Colts'foot.  (See  Tussilago.)  Sweet  C  is  the  American 
name  for  Nardesma.     West  Indian  C.  is  Pothomorpha. 

Oolubri'na,  one  of  the  chief  divisions  of  Ihe  order  Ophidia 
(q.  V. )  or  Serpents  (o.  v. ),  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  all  its 
members  possess  solid  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  in  addition  to 
tlie  poison-fangs  with  which  that  jaw  may  be  provided.  The 
fangs,  when  present,  are  immovably  fiiced  in  the  mouth,  and  they 
may  Ije  deeply  grooved,  but  never  form  completely  hollowed  or 
'  caiialicuJated '  oi^ans.  The  head  gradually  tapers  off  into  the 
neck,  and  is  not  markedly  triangular.  It  is  covered  by  lai^e- 
sized  scales  or  saUa.  The  C.  are  divided  into  the  three  sec- 
tions, Innocua,  or  harmless  snakes  ;  ^uspicla ;  and  Venenosa,  or 
venomous  forms.  The  Innocua  possess  no  fangs  or  poison- 
gland,  solid  teeth  existing  in  both  jaws.  Of  this  group  the  Boas 
and  I^thons  (q.  v. ),  and  the  genus  Coluber,  represented  by  the 
common  ringed  or  British  snake  (C.  nalrix),  are  good  specimens. 
This  latter  snake,  fband  in  Britain  and  Europe,  inhabits  mossy 
places  generally,  averages  3  feet  in  length,  and  is  coloured  pale 
olive,  spotted  with  black  above  and  whitish  beneath.  I'lie  neck 
is  spotted  yellow.  The  Coluber  ElafhU  of  S.  Europe,  the  C. 
jSsculapU,  or  .^cnlapian  snake  of  Italy,  the  C,  or  Bascaiiim 
censtrictor  or  black  snake  of  America,  are  also  examples  of  tlie 
same  genus.  The  section  Suspecta  includes  snakes  with  fangs 
placed  far  back  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  having  solid  teeth  in,  front 
of  them.  These  are  all  Old  World  snakes  {Homolopsids),  &c., 
and  tiut  little  is  known  of  their  habits.  The  Colubrine  Venenesa 
have  fangs  in  &ont  of  the  upper  jaw,  with  solid  teeth  behind 
them.  To  this  group  belong  the  Coljras  (q.  v. )  or  Naja,  the 
HydropJdds,  or  water-snakes  of  the  E.  Indies,  and  many  others. 
As   implied  by  the  name  Vmenosa,   they  are  all   particularly 


Oolu'go.     See  Flying  Lemdr. 
Oolui 


mlja,  St,  the  apostle  of  the  Scottish  Highlands,  was 
born  at  Gartan  in  Donegal,  on  the  7th  December  521.  Fedh- 
iimidli,  his  fallier,  was  of  the  Cinel  Connal,  a  branch  of  whom, 
the  Hy  Neills,  gave  several  kings  to  tlie  N.  of  Ireland.  His 
mother,  Eithne  {Aini),  was  of  the  royal  race  of  Leinster.  He 
thus  possessed  the  advantage,  especially  valuable  among  a 
Celtic  people,  of  royal  lineage.  His  uncle  was  King  of  Ulster, 
and  he  was  related  to  Che  kings  of  Dalriada  in  Argyleshire,  his 
adopted  country.  He  was  baptized  Calum,  and  was  sub.ie- 
quently,  from  his  Christian  zeal,  caJled  Colum  Ciik- — i.e.,  '  Colum 
of  the  Church.'  He  began  his  education  at  Movile  (Magh-Mls, 
'  the  plain  of  the  lai^e  tree '),  under  the  celebrated  biahop  St 
Finnian,  who  ordained  him  as  deacon.  After  studying  some 
time  in  Leinster  under  an  aged  bard,  Gemman,  he  entered  the 
monasteries  of  Clonard  and  of  Glasnaoidliein  (Glas  Nevin)  near 
Dublin,  whence  he  returned  to  his  native  N.  When  twenty-five 
years  of  age  he  founded  the  Church  of  Derry  in  Ulster  {Daire, 
'oak  copse,'   the  foundation  of   the  since   famous    London. 


derry),  and  about  seven  years  kter  founded  the  monasteiv  of 
Durrow  {Daire-magh,  '  the  oak  copse  of  tlie  plain  or  field '). 
He  planted  various  other  churches  from  this  period  to  the  year 


Durrow  {Daire-magh,  '  the  oak  copse  of  tlie  pli 
He  planted  various  other  churches  from  this  peri< 
561,  when  an  event  occurred  whicli  was  the  great  crisis  in  his 
life.  Various  accounts  are  given  of  the  matter,  but  the  follow- 
ing is  the  best  authenticated  ;— C.  copied  a  psalter  belonging  to 
Finnian  withont  asking  the  owner's  permission.  (This  Iran- 
script  afterwards  became  famous  as  the  Cathaeh,  and  is  said  to 
be  still  preserved  by  the  O'Donnels  as  a  very  valuable  relic.) 


Finnian  cldmed  the  copy  as  his  property,  C.  refused  to  give  it 
up,  and  the  matter  was  referred  to  Diarmat,  King  of  Connanght, 
who,  on  the  principle  that  every  cmvis  (calf)  belongs  to  its  cow 
(or  mother),  ruled  that  eveiy  son-book  (copy)  belongs  to  its  book 
(the  original).  Far  from  yielding  to  this  decision,  C,  raised  a 
number  of  his  clansmen,  attacked  and  routed  King  Diarmat,  slay- 
ing several  of  his  followers.  For  this  affray,  which  was  called  the 
battle  of  Culdrevny,  C.  is  said  to  have  been  excommunicated 
and  banished  for  ever  from  Ireland  by  a  synod  of  Irish  bishops. 
This  is  improbable,  as  it  is  certain  that  he  afteiwards  revisited 
Ireland,  and  exerled  great  political  and  ecclesiastical  influence 
there.  The  battle  of  Culdrevny,  however,  seems  to  have 
induced  him  to  leave  Ireland  and  to  enter  on  his  missionary 
labours.  In  563,  C,  then  in  his  forty-second  year,  accom- 
panied by  twelve  attendants  or  friends,  some  of  them  relatives, 
set  sail  for  the  W.  of  Scotland.  Traditipn  states  tliat  he  first 
landed  at  Salen,  in  the  island  of  Muil,  but  finding  the  water 
unliealthy,  he  crossed  to  the  other  side  of  the  island,  and 
fixed  his  abode  on  loiia  (q.  v.).  This  small  island  has,  from 
bis  day,  been  called  /  Challum  CUle  ('the  isle  of  Colum  of 
the  Church  ').  The  name  lona  is  shown  by  Dr  Reeves  to  have 
arisen  from  the  mere  carelessness  of  a  transcnber,  and  has  notliing 
to  do  either  with  Hebrew  or  with  the  Latin  C.  Scotland  was  at 
this  period  mwnly  peopled  by  the  Southern  Picts  occupying  Wig- 
ton^ire,  &c,  the  Strathclyde  Britons  or  Cymri,  whose  capital  was 
Dumbarton,  the  Northern  Picts,  who  occupied  the  country  N.  of 
Athole  along  with  the  Hebrides,  and  the  Scots,  who  ruled  in 
At^yleshire,  Connal,  C.'s  near  relative,  reigned  tn  Aigyle,  and 
gave  him  whatever  right  he  himself  had  over  lona.  His  people 
had  embraced  Christianity  in  Ireland,  St  Ninian  had  ministered 
among  the  Southern  Picts ;  St  Mungo  was  at  that  time  labour- 
in?  in  the  kingdom  of  Strathclyde,  but  the  most  numerous 
of  the  w'hole,  tlie  Northern  Picts,  were  still  heathen.  Un- 
itelv  we  have  scarcely  any  account  of  the  manner  in  which 
and  his  fellow-missionaries  laboured  among  them,  but  St 
Adamnan  tells  of  his  reaching  the  dwelling  of  the  Pictish  king 
Brude,  near  Inverness,  and  after  being  for  some  time  refused  an 
interview,  at  length  converting  tliat  monarch.  He  also  relates 
that  Brochan,  King  Bnide's  chief  Druid,  had  a  slave  whom  C. 
ordered  him  to  release.  He  refused,  but  falling  dangerously  ill, 
he  besought  C.'s  intercession  for  his  recovery,  whidi  was  pro- 
mised, but  on  the  condition  of  the  slave's  raease.  This  was 
granted,  and,  along  with  similar  incidents,  must  have  greatly  ad- 
vanced C's  moral  influence.  In  the  Book  of  Dea-^  written  in  the 
nth  or  I2th  century,  we  read  that  he  and  his  pupil  Di-ostan 
came  to  Abtrdoboir  (Aberdour)  in  the  district  of  Buchan,  wiiere 
the  Mormaor  (high  steward)  Bede,  a  Pict,  gave  him  in  perpe- 
tuity that  town,  and  that  the  town  of  Deer  {Deur,  tear)  was  con- 
ferred on  him  owing  to  the  recovery  of  tlie  Mormaor's  son  through 
the  prayeis  of  the  Christians.  We  hear  of  C.  also  in  Skye,  and 
it  is  probable  that  he  visited  the  Orkneys,  while  some  of  his 
successors  took  up  their  abode  in  Iceland.  His  bic^rapher 
gives  neither  a  minute  nor  a  consecutive  account  of  his  tiavels, 
but  merely  fragmentary  details. 

We  learn  that  in  the  year  573  his  friend  Connal,  King  of  Dal- 
riada, died,  and  the  selection  of  his  successor  seems  to  have 
ijeen  mainly  left  to  the  decision  of  C,  He  chose  Aidan,  who 
proved  himself  the  most  talented  of  all  his  race.  Next  year  we 
find  him  and  King  Aidan  at  the  celebrated  convention  of  Drum- 
ceat  in  Ireland,  where,  through  his  influence,  various  disputes 
iKtween  Ai^le  and  Ulster  were  settled,  and  Argyle  was  made 
a  free  and  independent  kingdom.  At  this  convention  a  sentence 
of  death  was  passed  on  the  bards  for  their  rapacity  and  scur- 
rility j  but  C.  generously  pleaded  their  cause,  and  procured  a 
reversal  of  the  decree,  consenting,  however,  to  a  great  reduction 
in  their  number.  He  visited  his  churches  and  monasteries  in 
Ireland,  and  speedily  returned  to  his  beloved  lona.  Here, 
at  length,  in  the  year  597,  he  entered  into  rest,  and  the 
closing  scenes  of  his  life  show  that,  with  all  his  natural  violence  of 
temper,  he  had  learned  much  of  the  gentleness  and  benevolence 
of  his  pivine  Master,  On  Saturday  the  8th  June,  with  his  favour- 
ite attendant  Diormit,  he  visited  the  granary,  and  blessed  the 
food  of  his  family,  as  his  monks  were  called.  Returning  towards 
his  own  house,  he  rested  for  a  time  on  a  stone,  when  an  old 
white  horse,  employed  in  carrying  Che  milk  from  the  byre  to  the 
monastery,  rested  its  head  on  tlie  saint's  breast.  Diormit  was 
driving  it  away  when  C.  forbade  him,  caressed  and  blessed 
the  animal.      On  entering  his  house,  he  set  himself  to  his  favour- 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


e  work  of  transcribing  tlie  Sciiptures,  and  on  completing  the 
oth  verse  of  Psalm  xxxiv.,  laid  dowii  bis  pen,  saying  'Baitiien 
(one  of  his  monks)  must  do  the  rest.'  He  attended  vespers  in 
tlie  cliurch,  and  was  the  first  to  return  to  it  at  the  midnight  vigil. 
He  knelt  before  the  altar,  and  passed  peacefliUy  away  very  early 
in  themorningof  the  gth  June  597,  at  the  age  of  seventy-six. 

Many  interealing  questions  must  be  briefly  passed  over.  We 
read  of  his  conversing  with  his  Pictish  cousins,  yet  needing  an 
interpreter  in  preaching.  This  seems  to  prove  that  the  old 
Pictish  language  was  a  middle  dialect  between  the  Gaelic  and 
the  Cymric,  possessing  words  common  to  both,  but  in  several 
respects  differing  fiom  either. 

His  establishment  in  lona  was  simple  and  primitive,  but  not 
io  rude  as  is  often  supposed.  There  was  a  most  methodical 
arrangement  of  outhouses — or  faiin-otfices,  in  modem  language 
— among  others,  a  byre,  showing  the  eiTor  of  the  common  notion 
that  C.  permitted  no  cows  on  the  island.  We  also  have  mention 
aUke  of  a  kitchen  and  a  cook,  a  baker  and  a  butler ;  vide  Dr 
'Rseya's  Adamnatt,  ■p'f  334  2" 


As  to  the  Church 
it   is  clear  that  C.   him    If 
Bede  affirms  that  th    p    vi 
iect  to  the  Abbot  of  1 
like  apostolic  autto    y  was 
and  descended  to  h     si 
tliat  any  definite  '  sy     m     f 
adopted  by  them.     Th    £    i 
teries  and  300  churcljes  is  . 
■^  that  he 


blished  at  lona,  while 
as      m  re  presbyter,   yet   since 
d        1  the  bishops,  were  sul> 
m       conclude  that  something 
sed  by  the  great  missionary, 
h    gh  there  is  no  evidence 
les  as  cal  government  was  ever 
h      C.  founded  100  monas- 
evident  exa^eration,  but  it  is 
.._...  of  diffusing  Christianity  through 

the  N.  and  W.  of  Scotland  and  the  Hebrides,  He  greatly 
advanced  religion  in  Ireland,  and  his  successors  carried  the 
gospel  to  the  N.  of  England.  C.  was  a  man  of  great  enei^y 
and  determination,  but  liable  to  outbursts  of  violence.  He 
seems  to  have  possessed  an  athletic  frame,  and  Adamnan  de- 
scribes him  as  being  of  '  angelic  beauty.'  There  ace  few  men  in 
Scottish  history  more  deserving  of  national  gratitude.  His  bio- 
graphy, written  by  SI:  Adamnan  (q.  v.),  has  been  issued,  witli 
notes  and  illustrations  of  the  highest  value,  by  Dr  Reeves.  See 
alsoffiito-KWMO^J'iwj'/flnt;(Edmonston&Douglas,  Edinb,  1S75). 

Col'umbon  or  Oolumba'mis,  St,  a  native  of  Ireland,  was 
born  in  Leinster  alMut  the  middle  of  the  6tli  c  The  Christian 
religion  at  this  period  flonrished  in  Ireland  as  it  did  in  no  other 
country,  and  Irish  missionaries  went  out  far  and  wide  to  pro- 
pagate it.  C.  was  among  tlie  most  famous  of  these.  After  a 
training  at  flie  monastery  of  Bangor— whose  abbot  was  then 
Congall,  the  friend  of  Columba— C,  departed  for  France  in  589 
along  with  twelve  companions,  the  customary  number  in  such 
cases.  Here  he  established  religious  houses  at  Fontaine,  Anne- 
gray,  and  Luxeuil  in  Bur^ndy,  His  reproofs,  however,  offended 
King  Theodoric,  and  this,  together  with  a  dispute  as  to  the  cele- 
bration of  Easter,  compelled  the  Irjsli  monks  to  leave  the  country 
in  6ia  After  travelling  through  Switzerland,  C.  fotmded  in 
612  the  celebrated  monastery  of  Bobbio  amoi^  the  Apennines, 
on  the  river  Trebbia,  where  he  died  three  years  later,  having  by 
his  work  aided  much  in  advancing  Western  Christianity.  His 
writings,  which  are  in  Latin,  comprise  twelve  sermons,  a  monastic 
rule  famed  for  its  brevity  and  simplicity,  some  poems,  and  eccle- 
siastical treatises.  M.  Guizot  has  praised  his  sermons  for  their 
eloquence  and  power.  C.'s  works  are  contained  in  the  Collm- 
tanea  Sacra  of  Fleraming  (Louv.  16&7),  and  his  Life  was  written 
by  Abbot  Jonas,  a  successor  in  the  abbacy  of  Bobbio,  See  also 
Lanigan's  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Ireland,  vol.  ii.,  Bahr's  Gcs- 
chickU  der  Rikah.  Liter. ,  and  the  Benedictine  Histoire  Litth-mre 
dela  France.  C.'s  name  is  preserved  in  the  Lombard  town  of 
San  Colombano, 

Oolum.bar'ium  (I.at.),  a  dove-cot.  The  term  was  also  ap- 
plied to  a  sepulchral  chamber,  fitted  up  willi  niches  resembling 
the  holes  of  a  pigeon-house,  for  the  reception  of  funeral  urns, 
called  oils,  and  formed  of  baked  clay.  In  these  the  ashes  of  the 
freedmen  and  slaves  of  great  femihea  were  frequently  deposited. 
A  very  perfect  C.  was  discovered  at  the  Villa  Rufini  near  Rome 
in  1833. 

Oolum'bJa,  or  Or'egon.,  originally  a  vast  region  of  N.  Ame- 
rica, on  the  Pacific  slope,  extending  from  California  to  Alaska, 
It  was  claimed  both  by  Spain  and  England,  and  was  for  some 
time  a  cause  of  dispute  between  the  U.  S.  and  England.     By  the 


treaty  of  JuB 


I  1846,  the  present  boundary — 49°  and  Ihe  Strai 


(a  provmce  of  Canada),  t" 
the  territory  of  Washington. 

Ooltimbift,  British,  a  province  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
is  bounded  E.  by  the  Rocky  Mountains,  W,  by  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
S.  by  Washington  Territory,  and  N.  by  the  rivers  Simpson  and 
Peace.  It  includes  Vancouver's  Island  (q,  v.),  and  has  an  area 
of  213,000  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1S71)  of  10,586,  exclusive  of 
some  40,000  Indians.  The  province  has  a  rugged  coast-line 
of  some  700  miles,  along  whidi  are  scattered  numerous  islands, 
the  lai^est  after  Vancouver  being  Queen  ChaclBtle  Island,  Pitt 
Island,  and  Prince  Royal  Island.  The  mainland  is  traversed 
from  N.  to  S-  by  two  westerly  ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  is  watered  by  the  Eraser,  with  its  tributary  the  Thomson, 
and  by  the  Simpson,  the  Columbia,  and  the  Skeena.  The 
climate  varies  greatly,  according  to  the  altitude  and  distance 
from  the  sea,  but  in  the  most  populous  parts  it  is  temperate  and 
equable,  the  temperature  rangmg  from  75°  F.  in  summer  to  22° 
in  winter.  There  are  occasional  tracts  of  rich  arable  land,  anil 
the  hills  and  plains  everywhere  afford  excellent  bunch-grass 
pasture.  Immense  forests  of  cedar,  pine,  oak,  maple,  &c.,  offer 
inexhaustible  supplies  to  a  rapidly  grovring  timber  trade.  Sea- 
otters,  black,  red,  and  silver  foxes,  fiir  seals,  martens,  beavers, 
&e.,  yield  costly  furs,  while  there  are  also  buffaloes,  bears,  deer, 
goats,  and  grouse  and  other  game  in  abundance.  The  fish  found 
on  the  coasts  and  in  the  rivers  include  whales,  seals,  sturgeon, 
salmon,  cod,  halibut,  anchovies,  &c.  The  Eraser  is  specially 
famed  for  its  salmon  and  its  small  oily  '  oulachans. '  But  the 
importance  of  the  province  is  mainly  owing  to  its  vast  mineral 
resources.  The  mountains  are  composed  diiefly  of  granite  or 
mica-schist,  with  here  and  there  masses  of  sandstone,  limestone, 
and  intruded  trap,  interbedded  with  clay-slate  containing  auri- 
ferous quartE.  To  the  N.  coal-beds  and  iron  pyrites  Occiu-,  the 
latter  in  great  quantities.  Gold  is  found  everywhere,  and  among 
the  other  minerals  are  silver,  iron,  and  copper.  Inl87l  new  gold 
mines  were  opened  in  the  district  of  Ommica  and  Peace,  and  in 
that  year  the  total  yieldajoountedto^3oo,ooo.  Steam- vessels  are 
nowplyingontherivers,  and  the  projected  Interoceanic  Canadian 
railway  is  to  have  its  terminus  in  Vancouver's  Island,  after  passing 
through  the  province.  The  capital  is  Victoria,  and  the  other 
important  places  are  New  Westminster,  Eort  Alexander,  and 
Fort  George.  B.  C.  became  a  member  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  in  1871.  It  sends  five  representatives  to  the  Parliament 
at  Ottawa,  and  has  a  local  L^islature  and  Executive  Council,  and 
is  presided  over  by  a  Lieutenant-Governor.  In  lS70the  revenue 
of  the  province  amounted  to  £,\'yi.i>^,  the  expenditure  to 
^^100,523,  and  the  public  debt  to  ^372,328. 

Columbia  College,  New  York  city,  was  founded  in  1754, 
and  is  ihe  fifth  in  regard  to  age  in  tlie  U.  S.  It  is  controlled  by 
the  Episcopalians.  C.  C.  has  a  law  school,  and  a  flonrishit^ 
'School  of  Mines.'   President  (1875),  F.  A.  P.  Barnard,  LL.D. 

Columbia,  District  of,  is  the  seat  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States.  It  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Potomac,  at  the  head  of  sloop-navigation,  and  originally  be- 
longed to  the  state  of  Maryland  When  it  was  found  necessary 
to  establish  the  general  Government  m  a  district  free  from  any 
local  state  jurisdiction,  Maiyland  and  Vii^nia  gave  up  for  this 
purpose  a  piece  of  land  100  sq.  miles  The  part  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Potomac  was  afterwards  given  back  to  Vir^ia,  and 
the  D.  of  C.  is  now  60  sq.  miles.  It  is  governed  directly  by 
the  general  Government,  and  is  not  represented  in  Congress. 
The  chief  cities  are  Washington  and  Georgetown.  Pop.  of  dis- 
trict in  1S70,  131,700,  of  whom  about  one-third  were  coloured. 

Oolinribia  Biver,  or  Oregoa  (the  latter  is  the  Indian  name), 
the  largest  river  on  the  W.  side  of  N.  America,  rises  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  It  pursues  a  winding  course,  and  with  its  lai^e  and 
numerous  tributaries  drains  an  extensive  r^on.  Latterly  it 
flows  almost  due  W.,  near  the  N.  boundary  of  the  state  of  Ore- 

?on,  and,  after  a  course  of  1000  miles,  enters  the  Pacific  between 
!ape  Disappointment  and  Point  Adams.  It  furnishes  the  only 
harbour  on  the  Pacific  slope  between  San  Francisco  and  Port  Dis- 
covery, but  although  the  mouth  is  5  miles  wide,  there  is  only  4  or 
5  fathoms  of  water  at  the  bar.  Navigation  is  open  both  to  Eng- 
lish and  Americans,  but  vessels  can  only  ascend  about  100  1 
203 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


COL 


Eocli-Dov. 


s  discovered  by  Captain  Gray  of  Boston  in  1793, 
who  gave  the  name  of  his  vessel,  C,  to  it. 

Colum'bidse,  a  group  of  birds  usually  included  among  the 
sub-orders  of  the  Insessores  or  Perchers,  but  occasionally  consi- 
dered a  separate  order  of  the 
class  ^WJ.  The  C.  are  repre. 
sented  by  the  various  groups 
of  doves  and  pigeons.  They 
perch  on  trees,  a  habit  which 
oidinary  Rasores  do  not  ei- 
I  hibit.  The  upper  mandible 
IS  homy,  and  arched  at  its 
apex,  whilst  it  is  also  arched 
at  its  base,  where  the  nostrils, 
1  covered  by  a  cartilaginous 
■j  plate,  are  situated.  This 
I  plate  is  usually  covered  by  a 
soft  vascularmembrane,  which 
may  appear  in  the  form  of  a 
watt-like  process.  The  wings 
of  the  C,  are  more  powerful 
than  those  of  ordinary  Rasores. 
Thehinder  toe  is  as  well  developed  as  the  three  front  toes,  and 
is  placed  on  the  same  level  as  the  latter  digits.  These  birds 
are  aO  mont^amous,  aud  generally  pair  for  life.  Their  young 
are  bom  hi  a  naked,  helpless  state,  and  thus  differ  from  the 
young  of  Kasores.  The  crop  is  double,  and  of  large  siie.  The 
C.  inhabit  both  warm  and  temperate  climates,  and  from  their 
susceptibility  of  domestication  present  innmnerable  varieties. 
The  rock-dove  (Columbia  Livia)  is  the  prc^enitor  of  our  domes- 
tic breeds.  See  also  CAMtiEE  Pigeon,  Dove,  Fruit  Pigeon, 
GouRA,  Ground  Pigeon  or  Dove,  Passenger  Pigeon,  &c 

Col'tunbine  [Aguikgia),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
oiAeT RanuiUiiUicss.  Thereare  various  so-called  species — many 
no  doubt  only  varieties  of  each  other — of  which  the  best 
known  is  the  common  C.  {A.  vtUgaris),  long  a  favourite  garden 
flower,  and  at  one  time  esteemed  in  medicine  as  a  diuretic'and 
aperient.  Most  of  the  species  of  it  are  natives  of  the  temperate 
and  colder  regions  of  the  northem  hemisphere. 

Coluin.'bium,  or  Niolliillll,  a  rare  metal,  discovered  in 
1801  in  CciumbUt  from  Massachusetts,  and  since  then  in  a  few 
other  minerals.  C.  is  identical  with  Rose's  niobium,  and  not 
witli  tantalum,  as  supposed  by  WoUaston. 

Ooltun'biis  (the  Latinised  form  of  the  Ital.  Colomio,  Span. 
Colon),  Chiietoplier,  born  at  Genoa  in  1436,  was  the  son  of  a 
woolcomber,  and  was  sent  at  an  early  age  to  school  at  Pavia, 
where  he  showed  a  taste  for  geography,  geometry,  and  astro- 
nomy. At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  went  to  sea,  aud  after  having 
made  a  number  of  voyages  in  the  Mediterranean,  he  made  the 
bolder  venture  of  a  voyage  to  Iceland  in  I467.  About  1470  he 
settled  in  Lisbon,  and  married  PhiUipa  Palestrello,  the  daughter 
of  an  Italian  navigator,  who,  dying  soon  afterwards,  left  to  his 
son-in-law  all  his  charts,  maps,  journals,  instruments,  &c.  These 
C.  turned  to  account  liy  constructing  globes  and  maps  for  sale 
to  support  his  family,  AlMut  this  time  also  he  joined  several 
anccessive  expeditions  to  Guinea.  At  what  period  he  at  first 
conceived  the  idea  of  a  passage  westward  to  the  shores  of  India 
it  would  be  difficult  to  determine.  His  expeditions,  however,  to 
Iceland  (where  ha  may  have  read  the  record  or  beard  the  story 
of  the  earlier  Norse  discovery),  to  Madeira,  the  Canaries,  the 
Aiores,  and  [he  Portuguese  settlements  of  Africa,  suggested  to 
him  the  possibility  of  crossing  the  Atlantic.  His  magnanimous 
spirit  rose  to  the  conception  of  the  sea-passage  to  India,  and  he 
proposed  his  plans  for  the  discovery  of  this  W.  passage  succes- 
sively to  the  states  of  Genoa,  Portugal,  Venice,  France,  England, 
and  Spain.  His  project  was  regarded  for  many  years  as  the  hal- 
lucination of  a  visionary  j  but  amid  all  his  disappointments  the 
magnificence  of  his  scheme,  and  his  firm  conviction  that  he  was 
the  destined  instrument  of  Heaven  to  carry  the  banner  of  the 
cross  to  all  the  ends  of  the  earth,  comforted  and  fortified  his 
spirit  Years  spent  iu  pressing  a  disregarded  suit,  however, 
exhausted  liis  means;  and  when,  in  1480,  he  was  travellmg  witli 
his  little  son,  Diego,  in  Andalusia,  resolved  to  turn  his  back 
on  Spain  and  appeal  to  Fiunce,  he  found  himself  destitute 
of  the  bare  means  of  subsistence.  Stopping  before  the  convent 
of  La  Rabida,  he  begged  for  bread  and  water  for  his  child. 


Tliis  act  of  paternal  solicitude  directly  opened  up  the  hillierto 
closed  path  to  success,  to  the  most  splendid  discovery  in  ihe 
annals  of  the  race,  to  nev^r-dying  fame.  Attracted  by  C.'s  dis- 
tinguished appearance,  the  superior  of  the  convent  entered  into 
conversation  with  him,  discussed  his  schema  for  crossing  the 
Atlantic,  andfumishedhimwithmeansand  credentials  to  the  court 
of  SpMn.  Queen  Isabella,  after  some  time  spent  in  hesitation  and 
reflection,  declared  heiself  'ready  to  assume  the  undertaking.' 
The  airangements  between  C.  and  the  Spanish  sovereigns  were 
concluded  April  17,  1492.  Appointed  admiral,  viceroy,  and 
governor-general  of  all  such  lands  as  he  should  discover,  C  set 
sail  with  three  vessels— two  of  them  barques — and  ISO  men 
from  Saites,  near  Palos,  on  the  3d  August  1492,  and  after  a 
voyage  of  seventy  days  (during  one-third  of  which  he  was  de- 
tained refitting  at  the  Canaries)  he  discovered  the  New  World 
on  the  I2th  Octolier.  The  land  first  seen  was  one  of  the 
Bahama  Islands,  upon  which  C.  landed,  and  with  tears  of  joy 
and  devout  thanksgiving  he  solemnly  planted  the  cross  upon  it, 
and  named  it  San  Salvador.  He  also  discovered  the  isl  d  f 
Cuba,  San  Domingo,  &c.,  after  which  he  set  sail  for  Sp  d 

arrived  there  15th  March  1493.     After  this  time  C.  mad     1 
successive  voyages,  discovering  the  Caribee  Islands,  Pu  rt    R  co 
Jamaica,  Trinidad,  and  the  N.E.  coasts  of  S.  Amer  ea      Th 
victim  of  misrepresentations,  and   driven   by  his   ofS    rs        d 
crews  to  abandon  his  legitimate   object   of  discovery  f      t! 
search  for  gold,  and  for  the  illusory  El  Dorado,  the  latt     y 
of  C.'s  life  were  wasted,  he  lost  the  favour  of  King  F    dm    d 
and  on  20th  May  1506  he  died  at  Valladolid  in  po    rty      d 
neglect.      His  remains  were   buried  with   great  pomj       t   th 
King's  expense,  and  over  his  grave  a  superb  monu       t 
raised.     He  had  put  his  trust  in  princes,  and  he  had  h       w    d 

A  short  but  interesting  bit^aphy  of  C.  by  his  son,  D      F 
nando  Colon,  is  printed  in  Barcia's  Historiadorcs  fn     tm 
(5  vols,  Madr.  1749).     The  diary  of  C,  on  his  voyage    f  dis 
very  is  to  be  found  in  Navarrele's  Viages  dt  los  Esfiahola  (5      1 
Madr.   1825-37),   and  has  been  translated  into  Fre    h,  with 
annotations  and  additions,  by  Remusat,  Balbi,  Cnvier,  &c ,  under 
the  title  Rdalions  dis  gtmln  Voyagis  e?iirrpris  par  C.,  sukiies  dt 
divers  Lettres  ei  Pikes  tnMita,  &v.  (3  vols.  Par.  1828).   Recently 
(Lyon,  iS64)TorrehaspreparedaJftt«-i^twOT*&(iiof  C.'s  writ- 
ings.    We  may  also  note  the  biographies  of  C.  by  Bossi  (Mil, 
1818),  Irvine  (4  vols.  Loud.   1828),  Sanguinetti  (Gen.  1846), 
Reta  (Tur,  1846) ;  and  the  discussion  of  disputed  points  in  Hum- 
boldt's Cosmos,  and  Mxameii  Criliqne  de  VHUtoin  di  la  Gdogra- 
phie,  &•!. ;  and  also  in  Spotomo's  Codice  Diplimatico  Colombo- 

Columell'ft,  L.,  Ju'niua  Modera'tua,  the  most  copious 
and  best-informed  writer  among  the  Romans  on  raral  affairs,  was 
bom  at  Cidii,  and  flourished  in  the  early  part  of  the  1st  c  Any 
knowledge  that  we  possess  respecting  him  is  derived  from  casual 
notices  scattered  through  his  writings.  He  died,  probably  at 
Tarentum,  about  42  A.D.  C.'s  great  work,  De Ss  Mustica,  in 
twelve  books,  is  a  systematic  treatise  on  agriculture.  He  also 
wrote  De  Arboribus,  in  one  book.  The  most  complete  edition 
of  a  isthatofJ.G.  Schneider(Leips.  1794-97). 
RH  Suslica,  containing  an  account  of  the  varioi 
the  gradual  emendation  of  the  text  Translatior 
English,  French,  German,  and  other  tongues. 

Ooliunellla'ceee,  a  small  order  of  Dicotyledonous  plan 
consisting  of  Columella,  a  genus  of  plants  from  the  Andes,  co 
prising  two  or  three  species.  It  is  most  nearly  allied  to  t 
SaxifragaceiB,  among  which  it  may  probably  in  time  be  allowed 

Col'tlinil  (Lat.  columns),  a  pillar  of  various  materials,  either 
standing  alone,  orsupporling  asuperincnmbent  mass  of  building, 
or  itself  merely  an  architectural  decoration.    The  solit       C 
up  in  memory  of  some  person  or  event,  is  a  structur  gr 

antiquity.    Jacob  set  up  a  pillar  on  Rachel's  grave,         A  sa 
lom  in  his  lifetime  reared  one  for  himself,  because  h        d 
son  to  keep  his  name  in  remembi-ance.     It  was  not  i       m 
for  the  kings  of  the  ancient  East  to  inscribe  their  d    d  a 

pillar  of  stone,  the  latest  discovered  and  most   impo   an 
these  being  the  Moabite  Stone  (q.  v.),  above  3  feet  h  gh  and 
about  2  feet  in  breadth  as  well  as  in  Ihicltness.     ' 
specimens  of  the  solitary  C,  Poropey's  Pillar,  near 
in  Egypt,  the  columns  of  Trajan  and  Antonine  in 


....  Serif toi-ei 
MSS.  and  of 
of  C.  t 


yLaOOgle 


COL 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


COL 


London  Monument,  the  Vend6me  C,  and  that  of  July  in 
Paris,  the  Alexander  monument  in  St  Peteisbui^,  and,  latest 
and  grandest,  the  C.  of  Victory  erected  at  Berlin  in  1873.  "^X 
be  mentioned. 

The  C  in  architecture  which  supports  a,  roof  or  entablature 
preeents  a  special  aspect  of  the  civilisation  of  every  country  which 
fea  ever  found  time  to  enjoy  and  cultivate  the  arts  of  peace.  In 
the  architeotui-al  monuments  of  ancient  Egyft,  the  C.  is  always 
found  forming  a  portico  inside  the  building,  has  no  fixed  pro- 
portion between  tlie  diameter  of  the  shaft  and  its  height,  and 
frequently  resembles  the  trunk  of  a  palm-tiee,  Tiie  shaft  of  the 
■  man  C.  was  tall  and  slender,  and  the  capital  sometimes 
linated  in  two  half  bulls  placed  back  to  back.  Rawlin- 
in  liis  Fiiie  Greal  Monarchus,  gives  an  engraving  of  two 
capitals,  one  of  which  is  very  lilte  the  Ionic,  and  the  other 
rather  resembles  the  Corinthian  style.  The  C.  of  the  historical 
mains  of  India  has  a  massive  shaft  surcharged  with  ornamenta- 
in ;  the  capital  is  sometimes  spheroidal,  at  other  times  it  ex- 
hibits a  sculpture  of  the  Uon,  the  bull,  the  elephant,  or  some 
fantastic  animal.  The  kind  of  C,  however,  to  which  our  at- 
tention must  mainly  be  directed,  is  that  which  originated  in 
Greece,  and  which  with  modifications  has  been  reproduced  in 
all  countries  to  which  Greece  transmitted  its  civilisation  and  its 
1.  TheGreekC.maybedescribedasapiliarofwood,  stone, 
iron,  circular  on  the  plan,  and  rarely  polygonal ;  either  a 
truncated  cone— that  is,  with  the  diameter  of  the  shaft  diminish- 
ing upwards,  but  having  a  slight  swelling,  called  the  en!ads, 
atjout  a  third  of  its  height  from  the  base  \  or  cylindrical — that 
is,  with  the  diameter  of  the  shaft  the  same  from  base  to  capital. 
It  is  divided  into  three  principal  points,  the  bmi,  shaft,  and 
capital — respectively  its  foot,  body,  and  head. 

There  are  three  styles  or  orders  of  the  Greek  C— the  Dork, 
the  Ionic,  and  the  Corinthian;  and  to  these  the  Romans  added 
two  other  orders — the  Tuscan,  which  is  only  a  modification  of 
the  Doric,  and  the  Compositr,  which  is  a  combination  of  the 
Ionic  and  the  Corinthian  The  Doric  and  the  Ionic  columns  were 
in  Qse  as  early  as  th    3  tl   01}mp    I  656     "  '     '     '^ 


Doric  Columt 


Connh       C  1 


The  Doric  is  said  t    b        b  led  by  h    D     an 

was  frequently  empi  y  d  by  th  th       t     pi  d 

sponds  with  the  dig    li  d       1  h       t      trad  t      ally 

assigned  to  them.  It  has  b  th  f  t  f  th  C  ti  t, 
immediately  on  the  b  f  th  t  f  th  t  pi  Th  h  ft 
is  a  circular   stem  wh    h   th         tas  y      b    rv  bl 

Only  on  rare  occas  w  t  m  1  th  t  was  Uy  m 
posed  of  drums  laid  hth     wthtmt      btft      d 

to  one  another  with  d  Is  f  i  w  od  Le  gthw  this  C 
was  striped  with  c       1      md    t  ir  11  d  jii  /   ^    by  th 

Greeks,  ftutings  byusth  Ig  fwhhfmhp  gl 
On  the  shaft  rests  th  h  f  h  t  l  f  ry  st  1  — th 
capital.     It  consist      f  th       p  rt  — tl         h  t       t         1 

the  shaft,  from  whi  ht         ptdby  m  dtu 

called  amulds;  the  k  d  ns  m  t  pp  p  1,  an  is  g  Uy 
ornamented  with  several  amulets.  Above  this  is  the  principal 
feature  of  the  capital,  the  ccAinus,  a  circular  ledge  projecting 


forcibly  all  round.  It  is  the  supporting  power  of  the  C.  under 
the  weight  of  the  beams  and  roof  resting  upon  it.  Above  it 
there  is  the  third  part  of  the  capital,  the  formal-looliing  beaver, 
or  abacus,  a  square  slab  with  square  edges,  which  receives  the 
chief  beam  or  architrave.  The  height  of  the  Doric  C.  is  usually 
only  four  or  five  iengtlis  of  tlie  diameter  at  its  base. 

The  Ionic  C.  is  more  slender  than  the  Doric ;  this  and  its  more 
ornamental  appearance  bemg  supposed  to  give  expression  to  the 
lighter  and  more  versatile  chamcter  of  the  Ionic  people.  Its 
height  on  the  average  is  equal  to  eight  diameters.  The  iiase  has 
the/fini*  as  its  lowest  part,  and  abore  it  there  are  two  or  more 
bolster-like  prominences,  each  called  a  torus,  which  are  separated 
from  each  other  by  around  groove  called  'Aitscoita.  The  length 
of  the  diameter  dimmlshes  less  upwards  than  that  of  the  Doric, 
and  between  the  flutings  there  are  small  flat  bands  called  fillels, 
in  place  of  the  sharp  angles  of  the  massive  Doric  C.  The  neck 
is  embellished  with  ornaments ;  the  echinus  or  ovole  is  less  pro- 
minent, and  shows  the  '  egg-and-artow'  carving  which  gives  it 
the  latter  name.  But  the  capital  is  rendered  most  striking  bj,-  its 
volutes,  which  look  like  the  abacus  drooping  imder  the  weight 
of  the  architrave.  There  are  two  volutes  to  the  face  of  the  Ionic 
C,  and  two  to  the  back.  Sometimes,  however,  the  volutes 
are  placed  diagonally,  especially  on  the  C.  at  the  end  of  a  row. 
Above  them  is  a  small  slab,  also  ornamented,  which  receives  the 
architrave. 

The  Corinthian  C.  resembles  the  Ionic  in  the  proportions  and 
mouldings  of  the  base  and  shaft,  but  its  capital  is  very  strikingly 
peculiar  to  itself.  It  takes  the  shape  of  an  open  chalice  formed 
by  acanthus  laives.  There  are  two  rows  of  leaves,  one  above 
the  other,  eight  in  each  row,  the  stems  of  the  upper  leaves  ris- 
ing from  the  same  level  as,  those  of  the  lower.  In  the  inter- 
stices between  these  masses  of  leaves  are  seen  stems  with  smaller 
chalices  at  their  tops,  from  which  are  developed  two  stalks, 
each  of  which  droops  like  a  volute  Under  the  weight  of  the  aba- 
cus. The  sides  of  the  Corinthian  abacus  are  concave  in  plan, 
being  curved  out  so  as  to  form  a  sharp  point  at  each  con 
h  ch  is  cut  off'. 

No  authentic  examples  of  the  Tuscan  C.  have  been  left  fot 
b  ervation  j  but  it  has  been  constructed  according  to  a  descrip- 
t  given  by  Vitruvius  in  his  work  Dt  Architictura,  It  differs 
f  m  the  Doric  in  having  a  base  whicli  consists  of  a  phnth  and 
t  es  i  the  shaft  is  not  fluted,  and  the  neck  or  collaring  of  the 
pital  is  separated  from  the  shaft  by  a  small  convex  moulding, 
lied  an  astragal.  Like  the  Doric,  it  has,  as  its  diief  feature, 
tl     echino-abaciis  capital. 

The  C,  of  the  Comfositi  order  differs  from  that  of  the  Corin- 
tl  n  mainly  in  the  details  of  its  capital,  wliich  is  of  a  mixed 
h  racter,  blending  the  Ionic  volutes  with  the  Corinthian  foliage. 
The  outline  of  the  leaves  of  the  acanthus  is,  however,  bolder 
th  n  that  of  the  Corinthian,  and  instead  of  two  rows  of  leaves, 
th  re  are  sometimes  three,  between  which  volutes  appear  other 
fl  vers  also,  and  the  forms  of  men  and  animals.  The  order  to 
h  ch  this  C.  belongs  was  specially  affected  by  the  Romans,  the 
g  ater  number  of  their  large  edifices  being  built  in  the  Conipo- 
style.    See  Order,  Entablature. 

Colunm,  Military,  is  a  mass  of  soldiers  several  ranks  in 
d  pth.  A  C.  is  said  to  be  aftit  when  the  spaces  between  the 
ks  composing  it  permit  of  their  wheeling  into  line  ;  otherwise 
t  s  a  close  or  kalf-distance  C.  In  action,  authorities  are  not 
g  eed  as  to  the  relative  advantages  of  line  and  C, ;  English 
mmanders  have  generally  been  in  favour  of  the  former,  the 
F    nch  of  the  latter. 


Col'ii: 


o  any 


ColymTjidse,  a  family  of  {Bnvipennatis)  Natatores  or  Swir 
m  ng  birds,  represented  by  the  Grebes  (Podiceps)  and  Loons  ■ 
D  vers  [Colytnlnis),  the  latter  being  the  typical  forms.  They 
h  e  the  three  front-toes  united  by  a  web,  and  inhabit  the  coasts, 
king  their  food  in  the  sea.  In  the  grebes,  the  toes  are  united 
ly  at  their  bases  by  a  membrane,  and  preseitf  broad  lobes. 
The  beak  in  all  C.  is  conical  and  pointed,  and  the  legs  are  placed 
f     ixick  on  the  body. 

nthe 


vLiOOQle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


COM 


eldfera).     Other  species  of  i 


eld  a  similar  oil.     Tlie 
and  the  N.   of  Eiuope 
-         ,  T,  and  tlie  quantity  procured  averiiges 

about  oiie-thicd  the  weight  of  the  seed.  It  is  used  chiefly  for 
purposes  of  illumination.  Rape-cake,  the  residue  after  expres- 
sion of  the  oil,  is  useful  for  manure. 

Co'ma  (Gr.  kSma,  '  a  deep  sleep ')  is  a  term  used  in  medicine 
lo  describe  a  state  of  more  or  less  insensibility,  from  which  a 
patient  can  with  difficulty,  if  at  all,  be  roused.  In  severe  cases 
of  C.  there  is  on  the  part  of  the  patient  not  only  obhviousness  to 
all  aroiind  liim,  but  dilated  pupils,  strong  stertorous  breathing, 
and  flaccid  hands  and  legs.  C,  may  be  caused  by  Apoplexy 
(q.  V.  \,  in  which  case  the  person  cannot  be  roused  at  all,  and  one 
or  both  pupils  are  dilated  ;  by  Concussion  (q.  v. ),  in  which  the 
breathing  is  easy  and  the  pupils  natural,  while  the  patient 
in  general  soon  awakes  to  partial  consciousness ;  by  opium 
pDJsoning,  in  which  case  the  pupils  are  contracted,  the  breath- 
ing slow  and  stertorous,  and  the  patient  at  first  can  be  partiaUy 
roused  ;  or  by  intoxication,  in  which  case  there  is  generally  an 
alcoholic  smell  in  the  breath.      The  treatment  depends  on  the 

Goma  Bereni'ces  ('hair  of  Berenice"),  a  small  and  inconspi- 
cuous constellation  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  situated  between 
the  tail  of  Ursa  Major  and  the  head  of  Virgo. 

Comac'ohio  (the  ancient  Chw/och/ii),  a  fortified  town  and 
bishop's  see,  in  the  province  of  Ferrara,  Central  Italy,  be- 
tween 2  and  3  miles  from  the  Adriatic,  in  the  midst  of  an 
unhealthy  lagoon,  140  miles  in  circumference,  and  famous  for 
its  eel  culture.  Across  the  narrow  belt  of  mud  which  separates 
tlie  lagoon  from  the  Adriatic,  canals  have  been  constructed 
which  admit  the  fry  of  the  eel,  mullet,  &c.,  into  the  lagoon,  where 
they  fatten,  and  in  due  time  are  captured  and  sold.  About  a 
million  pounds  weight  are  caught  annually.  The  eel-harvest  is 
in  autumn,  and  the  men  employed  in  it  are  lodged  in  barracks. 
There  are  rich  saltworks  in  the  neighbouvhooi  Pop.  (of  the 
commune)  S476. 

Coman'clles.     See  Indians,  American. 

Comat'ula.     See  Crinoid. 

Oonia3''ftgtia,  the  capital  of  Honduras,  a  state  of  Central 
America,  on  the  river  UDua,  near  the  S.  edge  of  the  plateau  of 
C,  noted  for  its  beauty,  fertility,  and  line  climate.  The  town 
was  founded  in  1540,  became  the  seat  of  a  bisliop  in  1561,  but 
was  almost  destroyed  in  the  civil  broils  that  followed  the  '  eman- 
cipation '  of  the  country  from  Spanish  rule.  It  is  now  recovering, 
but  its  commerce  is  still  unimportant,  though  a  railway  to  Puerto 
Caballos,  and  to  Fonseca  Bay,  on  the  Pacific,  foreshadows  a 
futui-e  prosperity.  The  only  building  of  mark  is  the  cathedra], 
and  even  of  it  nothing  is  fine  but  the  outside.     Pop.  l8,ooa 

Oomb  (Old  Eng.  camb,  Dutch  kam,  Fris.  kaem.  Low,  Sc. 
kawi,  Ger.  iamm),  an  instrument  with  a  series  of  teeth  for 
arranging  or  fastening  the  hair,  as  well  as  for  dressing  and 
cleansing  wool,  flax,  &c.  Combs,  as  an  article  of  the  toilet,  are 
of  great  antiquity :  the  Greeks  and  Romans  used  boxwood,  ivoiy, 
and  metal  inlheir  construction,  but  there  is  no  evidence  to  show 
that  women  in  early  times  employed  combs  to  support  the  hair. 
Ancient  burial-places  in  England  have  furnished  examples  of 
bone  and  ivory  combs  belonging  to  the  Roman  and  Anglo-Saxon 
periods.  In  medieval  mventories  of  ecclesiastical  treasures, 
combs  are  frequently  mentioned,  for  it  was  customary  for  the 
priests  before  celebrating  mass  to  wash  their  bands  and  arrange 
their  hair.  These  ceremonial  combs  are  usually  carved  or  other- 
wise ornamented.  An  ivory  C.  which  belonged  to  St  Cuthbert 
is  preserved  at  Durham,  and  that  of  St  Loup,  of  ivory,  jewelled, 
and  carved  vrith  symboUcal  animals,  is  to  be  seen  at  Sens.  The 
materials  used  in  C. -making  are  horn,  bone,  wood,  ivory,  tor- 
toise-sheli,  hardened  india-rubber,  and  metal.  Horns,  having 
their  lips  cat  off,  are  rendered  pliant  by  heat,  split  up  in  the 
direction  of  the  grain,  and  prefised  flat.  In  the  manufectnre  of 
side  and  ordinary  dressing-combs,  a  piece  of  horn  of  the  required 
size  is  stamped  out,  and  from  it  two  combs  are  made  at  once  by 
means  of  the  farliitg-eiigine.  This  insenions  machine  is  provided 
with  a  tooth-cutter,  having  a  vertic^  movement,  and  by  means 
of  a  co^ed  wheel,  the  plate  of  horn  is  shifted,  as  the  cutter  is 
rising,  through  a  space  equal  to  the  interval  between  one  tooth 


♦- 


206 


of  the  C.  and  the  next.  When  all  the  teeth  are  cut, 
complete  combs,  the  teeth  of  the  one  fitting  exactly  into 
spaces  of  the  othei-,  are  parted  by  a  dexterous  pull.  ITie  teeth 
are  then  finished  ofl'  with  wedge-shaped  files,  called  the^raille, 
earlel,  ioppsr,  Sc,  and  the  whofe  smoothed,  buffed,  and  polished. 
Tortoise-shdl  is  similarly  operated  on.  Imitation  tortoise-shell 
combs  are  made  by  treating  thehom  with  nitric  acid,  and  staining 
it  with  a  composition  of  soda  ley,  quicklime,  red-lead,  and 
dragon's  blood.  Small-toothed  combs  are  cut  with  a  circular  saw. 
Cheap  and  durable  combs  are  now  extensively  made  from  vul- 
canite, in  much  the  same  manner  as  those  from  horn. 

Ooinbe,  Andrew,  H.D.,  an  eminent  physician,  was  bom 
in  Edinburgh,  October  27,  1797.  After  studying  medicine 
there  and  in  Paris,  he  commenced  to  practise  in  Edinburgh  ir 
1823,  was  appointed  physician-in-ordinary  to  the  King  of  Bel- 
gium (1836),  which  he  was  unable  to  retain  on  account  of  his 
health,  and  afterwards  a  physician-in- ordinary  to  the  Queen  in 
Scotland,  He  died  at  Edinbuigh,  gthAugust  1847.  Three  years 
later  bis  Life  and  Con-espondtace  were  pablished  by  his  brother 
George.  C.,  who  was  in  eveiy  sense  a  most  excellent,  amiable, 
and  benevolent  man,  has  enriched  medical  literature  with  various 
valuable  works,  of  which  may  be  mentioned  Management  of 
Infancy,  Fhysiokgkal  and  Moral  (li^  9th  ed.  i860,  revised 
by  his  friend  Sir  James  Clark),  Observations  on  Menial  J)e- 
rangemenl  (1831),  and  TMe  Principles  of  Physiology  applied  lo 
the  Presematian  of  Health  (1834,  15th  ed.  iS6o),  &c — CFeorge 
0.,  brother  of  the  preceding,  a  phrenologist  and  philosopher, 
was  born  October  21,  17S8,  at  Edinburgh,  where  he  was  edu- 
cated, and  became  a  writer  to  the  ^gnet  in  1812.  In  1816  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Dr  Spurzheim,  the  well-known  phreno- 
logist, and  ultimately  adopted  his  principles.  TTie  fruit  of  this 
conversion  was  seen  in  his  Essays  en  Phrenology  (1819),  and 
Elements  0/ Phrenology  (1824),  which  became  veiy  popular.  In 
182S  appeared  his  Constitution  of  Man  considered  in  Relation 
to  External  Objects,  which  caused  a  considerable  amount  of  hos- 
tile criticism,  many  maintaining  that  it  was  opposed  lo  revealed 
religion,  although  its  leading  principle,  the  hai-mony  of  the  con- 
stitution of  man  with  the  surrounding  world  making  it  incumbent 
on  him  to  study  the  laws  of  nature,  is  now  a  commonplace.  The 
real  objection  to  C.'s  philosophy  is  not  what  be  says,  but  what 
he  leaves  unsaid.  In  1S33  C.  married  Cecilia,  daughter  of  Ihe 
famous  Mrs  Siddons.,  In  1837  he  retired  from  the  practice  of 
his  profession  in  order  to  give  himself  up  to  scientific  and 
philosophical  study,  and  from  his  active  pen  proceeded  nume- 
rous books,  not  only  on  Phrenology,  but  on  Popular  Education 
{1833,  3d  ed.  1848),  Moral  Philosophy  {1840,  3d  ed.  1846), 
Criminal  Legislation,  and  Prison  Discipline  (1854),  while  he 
delivered  courses  of  lectures  on  subjects  with  which  he  was 
familiar,  in  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  and  on  the 
Continent.  His  last  work  was  published  in  1S57,  entitled  The 
Pelaiions  befieeen  Science  and  Scligion.  C.  died  I4lh  August 
,s-o  jjj5  collection  of  books  on  phrenology  has  been  placed 
L,i>.nAot»c'  Library,  Edinburgh. 

Com'beniiete,StapletonStapletonCottoii,'Vi8coimt, 

an  EngHsh  general,  son  of  Sir  Rotiert  Salisbury  Cotton,  was  born 
in  1773  at  Llewenny,  in  Denbighshire.  He  entered  the  army  in 
1790,  distinguished  himself  in  India,  especially  at  the  siege  of 
Seringapatam,  and  in  the  Peninsular  War.  In  1810  he  received 
the  command  of  the  whole  allied  cavalry  under  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,  and  fought  in  most  of  the  Peninsular  battles,  being 
wounded  at  Salamanca.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron 
C.  in  1814.  Among  the  numerous  offices  he  fitted  subsequently 
to  Waterloo  were  those  of  Governor  of  Barbadoes,  Commander 
of  the  Forces  in  the  West  Indies,  Commander-in-Chief  m  Ire- 
land, and  Commander-in-Chief  ui  India,  m  which  last  positiou 
he  captured  the  famous  fortress  of  Bhurtpore  in  182^.  In  the 
same  year  he  was  made  Viscount;  in  1852  he  succeeded  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  as  Constable  of  the  Tower,  and  in  1855 
was  made  Field- Marshal,     C,  died  February  21,  1865. 

Combina'tion  (in  sociology).  This  word  has  lately  come 
into  use,  legally  and  politically,  and  denotes  the  union  of  persons 
having  a  common  commercial  interest,  with  Ihe  view  of  promot- 
ing that  interest.  It  is  chiefly  employed  in  relation  to  the  pro- 
ceeding of  the  working  classes  for  retaining  monopolies  and 
advancing  the  rate  of  wages.  The  promotion  of  these  endi  is 
chiefly  sought  after  by  means  of  wliat  are  called  trades  ui/uns. 


i  the  Advo 


yLaOOgle 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


In  former  limes  combinations,  whether  of  workmen  against  their 
masters  or  of  masters  against  their  workmen,  were  illegal,  and 
pnnishable  summarily  by  justices  of  the  peace.  This  state  of  law 
was  altered  by  the  statute  of  6th  Geo.  IV.  c  129,  by  which  C. 
was  declared  legal  so  long  as  imaccompaliied  by  violence  and 
intimidation.  Trades  unions  and  combinations,  with  the  laws 
relating  to  them,  were  the  subjects  of  a  Royal  Commission,  which 
issued  Its  report  in  1869,  The  report  gives  a  complete  view  of  the 
recent  alterations  and  working  of  the  law  regarding  the  subjects 
of  inquiry.  This  led  to  the  passing  of  two  otiier  Acts  of  Parlia- 
ment in  1871.  By  these  it  is  provided  that  the  purposes  of  trades 
unions  shall  not  be  held  illegal  because  they  are  in  restraint  of 
trade,  50  as  to  render  void  or  voidable  any  agreement  or  trust 
executed  under  them.  Trades  unions  may  be  registered  under  the 
first  Act,  which  provides  for  the  tenure  and  protection  of  their 
property.  Under  both  Acts,  the  provisions  of  the  law  against 
violence  and  coercion  on  the  part  of  unionists  are  repeated  and  re- 
enacted,  and  criminal  unions  and  illegal  contracts  are  defined. 

To  render  C,  when  not  accompanied  hy  intimidation  of  others, 
illegal  is  plainly  an  infringement  of  personal  liberty.  If  two  or 
two  hnndred  men — for  the  principle  is  the  same  in  both  cases — 
agree  not  to  work  for  theu- masters  under  a  certain  rate  of  wages, 
they  have  just  as  much  right  to  do  so  as  their  masters  Imve 
to  agree  not  to  sell  the  produce  of  their  workmen's  labour  under 
a  certam  price;  the  right  in  each  case  being  unquestionable. 
It  is  equally  plain  that,  when  those  who  combine  also  try  to 
force  others  to  join  them,  they  are  infringing  on  personal  liberty. 
But  while  the  right  of  C  is  thus  properly  conceded  by  the  law 
to  servants  as  well  as  to  masters,  it  may  be  greatly  doubted 
whether  any  permanent  effect  can  be  produced  by  it  If  the 
workmen  of  England  cannot  or  will  not  work  at  a  rate  of  wages 
which  will  enable  their  masters  to  sell  theu^  produce  abroad 
cheaper  than  those  abroad  can  make  it  for  themselves,  it  is  plain 
that  the  trade  of  England  must  suffer,  and  thousands  be  thrown 
out  of  employment.  These  thousands  must  either  return  to  work 
at  a  louver  wage,  or  starve,  or  go  elsewhere.     See  Conspiracy. 


Combinations  (in  mathematics).     See  Permutations. 

Coiubreta'cefe,  the  Myrobalan  order,  a  natural  order  of 
Dicotyledonous  plants,  natives  of  the  tropics  of  America,  AMca, 
and  Asia,  containing  about  aoo  species,  remarkable  for  theu'  as- 
tringency.  Quuqualis  Indica  of  the  Moluccas  has  anthelmintic 
seeds;  Combrelum.  bafyrosum  of  S.E.  Africa  produces  a  vegetable 
butler.  Myrobalans  are  produced  by  various  species  of  Tsr- 
minalia.     See  Bedda  Nuts, 


popularly  df 
L  of  heat  and 


in  of 
heat  and  light,  when  it  is  raised 

sufficiently  high  temperature  in  air  or  oxygen.   The  phi 

of  C.  depends  upon  the  union  of  the  combustible  body  with 
oxygen,  which,  like  other  chemical      '  '      " 


it  has  burnt  away,  providmg  that  sufScient  air  is  present  to  sup- 
port its  C.  On  examming  the  substances  which  have  been  pro- 
duced, it  is  found  that  they  are  wholly  gaseous,  and  consist 
either  of  carbonic  oxide  (CO)  or  of  carbonic  acid  (CO2),  accord- 
ing as  the  supply  of  air  has  been  limited  or  excessive.  Candles, 
coal,  gas,  &c,  contain  hydrogen  in  addition  to  carbon,  and 
when  burned  produce  water  (HiO)  as  well  as  the  oxides  of  car- 
bon. The  process  of  respiration  is  another  and  very  beautiful 
instance  of  C  Venous  blood,  highly  charged  with  effete  and 
useless  matters  rich  in  carbon,  is  pumped  by  the  heart  into  the 
lungs,  and  is  there  exposed  over  a  large  surface  to  the  action  of 
the  oxygen  of  the  air.  The  useless  materials  of  the  blood  be- 
come oxidised  to  carbonic  acid  and  water,  and  escape  from  the 
body  during  the  act  of  exhalation,  while  a  new  supply  of  oxygen 
is  taken  into  the  lungs  again  during  inspiration  :  the  heat  pro- 
duced by  this  oxidation  or  slow  C.  is  carried  olF  to  all  parts  of 
the  system  by  the  purified  (arterial)  blood,  and  serves  to  main- 
tain rtie  temperature  of  the  body. 

The  term  C.  is  sometimes  used  m  a  more  general  sense  by 
the  chemists  to  denote  other  chemical  actions  than  those  of  oxi- 
dation, attended  with  extrication  of  heat  and  light.  Thus  when 
copper  or  antimony  in  a  state  of  fine  division  aie  thrown  into 
chlorine  gas,  they  become  redhot  and  burn  away,  and  in  the 


same  manner  when  a  lighted  candle  is  plunged  into  chlorine  it 

The  theories  regardmg  C.  have  varied  from  time  to  time,  and 
have  played  an  important  part  m  the  history  of  chemistry.  Per- 
haps the  most  remarkable  of  these  theories  is  tliat  of  FMogislon, 
first  brought  forward  by  Stahl.  Stahl  believed  that  all  com- 
bustible substances  contained  an  inflammable  material,  which 
received  the  name  of  PAlogistea,  terra  secunda,  or  terra  infiam- 
mabilis,  and  which  was  lost  when  they  were  consumed.  Lead, 
for  instance,  when  heated  in  air,  smoulders  away,  and  is  even- 
tually converted  into  a  yellow  powder  (litharge).  This  yellow 
pwder  Stahl  and  his  followers  believed  to  be  lead  deprived  of 
Its  phlogiston,  or  defklogisliaited.  On  heating  litharge  with  char- 
coal, metallic  lead  is  separated  and  the  charcoal  disappears.  To 
account  for  this,  it  was  assumed  that  the  dephlogisticated  lead 
took  phlogiston  from  the  charcoal  and  thus  returned  to  its  original 
state,  whilst  the  charcoal  lost  its  phlogiston  and  was  converted 
into  a  gas.  This  theory  was  overturned  by  Lavoisier,  who 
proved  conclusively  that  a  substance  did  not  lose  anythmg  when 
burnt,  but,  on  the  contrary,  gained  in  weight,  and  moreover  gained 
in  weight  by  an  amount  eijual  to  that  of  the  air  con^med.  The 
discovery  of  oxygen  by  Priestley  paved  the  way  for  Lavoisier,  and 
enabled  him  to  explain  the  conversion  of  lead  (Pb)  into  oxide  of 
lead  or  lithaige  (PbO)  when  heated  in  air,  and  the  sutsequent 
reduction  of  the  litharge  hy  the  charcoal,  which  removes  the 
oxygen  and  forms  with  it  the  gaseous  compound  carbonic  oxide. 

Com'edy,     See  Drama. 

Come'niiiB  {Xomeitsky),  Johann  Amoe,  an  educational  re- 
former, was  born  at  Comna,  near  Brimn,38lh  March  1592.  After 
completing  his  university  studies,  he  travelled  in  Holland  and 
England,  and  thereafter  resided  at  Lissa,  in  Poland  The  most 
important  of  his  ninety-two  works  are  ^nua  Linguarum  Hese- 
rata  (1631)  and  Oriis  Sensualium  Fictm  (1658),  Tlieir  object 
was  twofold — to  facilitate  the  acquisition  of  the  power  of  speajt- 
ing  and  writing  Latin  hy  weaving  numerous  Latin  words,  not  ex- 
clusively classical,  into  paragraphs,  in  which  they  might  be  easily 
learned  ;  and  to  combine  the  knowledge  of  things  with  that  of 
words,  by  treating  in  the  lessons  of  subjects  readily  intelligible  by 
the  pupils,  such  as  animals,  trades,  sports,  and  so  on.  These 
works  were  widely  popular  both  in  Germany  and  other  countries, 
and  have  been  frequenlly  translated,  imitated,  and  extended. 
From  bis  high  reputation  C.  was  invited  to  England,  to  Sweden, 
and  to  Hungary,  to  lud  in  organising  public  instruction.  Towards 
the  close  ofhis  life  he  settled  at  Amsterdam.  He  died  at  Naar- 
den,  15th  November  1671.  A  Life  of  C,  with  his  Essay  on  the 
EdzicatiiM  of  Youth,  has  been  published  hy  Mallalieu.  See  also 
Von  Raumer's  Gtschickte  der  Padagogik  (4  vols.  Stutt.  1846-55). 

Com'es  (Lat.  '  companion ')  was  the  name  given  in  the  later 
times  of  the  Roman  Empire  to  a  state  official.  Thus  we  find  in 
the  4th  c.  an  imperial  officer  in  Britain  called  Comes  littaris 
SaxoniH  {'y/toAea  of  the  Saxon  coast'),  i.e.,  of  the  E.  coast  of 
Britain,  already  exposed  to  the  ravages  of  Low  German  pirates. 
In  the  Teutonic  system  the  C.  was  originally  one  of  the  comitatus, 
or  personal  following  of  a  chiet  the  Old  English  name  for  whom 
was  first  .Sur/ or  Gesilk,  the  latter  of  which  means  exactly  the 
same  thing  as  C. ;  but  as  the  power  of  the  kings  grew,  Gesith 
was  dropped  for  Thegn  ('servant'),  which  gradu Jly  took  the 
place  of  the  older  Eerl.  The  result  was  that  Eorl  tlien  became 
distinctively  a  title  of  higher  rank,  and  implied  greater  power 
and  anthorily.  Under  the  form  of  Earl  |q.  v.),  it  now  denotes 
a  particular  grade  in  the  peerage,  and  is  held  to  be  the  equivalent 
of  Count,  for  the  wife  of  an  Earl  is  a  Countess.  See  Free- 
man's Norman  Conquest,  vol.  i.  c.  3. 

Com'eta  are  celestial  bodies,  distinguishable  from  planets  and 
stars  by  their  rapid  motions,  their  usually  irregular  forms,  and 
the  more  or  less  haiy  definition  of  their  edges.  Before  astro- 
nomy was  established  as  an  exact  science,  these  phenomena  were 
regarded  with  superstitious  dread,  and  each  received  the  credit 
of  havmg  occasioned  any  dire  calamity  which  occurred  after 
its  appearance,  such  as  famine,  pestilence,  war,  the  death  of 
some  great  person,  he  The  only  danger,  however,  which  can 
possibly  ensue  from  the  presence  of  a  comet  is  that  arising  froma 
collision  with  our  earth ;  but  as  to  the  consequences  of  such  a 
chance  we  cannot,  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  more  than 
speculate.  In  the  following  sketch  we  shall  first  consider  the 
peculiarities  and  characteristics  presented  by  C. 


y  Google 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOP^DTA. 


COM 


form  and  appearance,  their  orbits  and  motions  ;  then  pass  t 
enumeration  and  descriplion  of  some  of  the  more  celeb 
historical  appearances;  and,  in  conclusion,  discuss  a  few  of 
results  already  made  out  regarding  their  constitution,  tog  t 
with  the  various  speculations  and  theories  which  have  been  th 
out  of  late  years  bearing  upon  the  same  question. 

The  striking  feature  of  C.  when  seen  with  the  naked 
and  a  feature  which  at  once  distinguishes  them  from  otlier     I 
tial  bodies,  is  their  hairy-like  appendageorftKV— hence  the  nai 
&omLat.<:.wiB,'h         Th        t   fth  t       th  ^    o" 


ivithout  any  t 


uleu       Th 
■    C      DCS      t 

th 


t  ng    f      haay 


h 


ip 


! 


tl 


d  fees  wl  ei 


bee      b    rved 


been  remarked  that  thes 
turned  away  from 
never  approach  th      ea  ly         lar  f   m    f  th  se    f  th    pi      ts 
but  are  distinctly    11  ptical—    m  tun  t  t    b 

undistinguishable   f     th        mpa    t     ly  bn  f  t  m   tl        m  t 
visible  to  us,   from      [   rabol       Th  Iso      th    t     ted 

instances  of  hype  bl  btsthCd  nbghhf  rs 
cannot  return  to  the  solsir  system,  unless  perhaps  the  course  be 
permanently  altered  through  the  perturbing  influence  of  some 
of  the  larger  planets.  Again  C.  are  found  to  move  in  planes 
inclmed  at  all  angles  to  the  ecliptic,  and  to  revolve  round 
the  sun  with  a  motion  as  often  retrograde  as  direct.  As  a  comet 
approaches  the  sun,  it  diminishes  in  bulk,  though  to  us,  whom 
it  also  approaches,  it  may  appear  to  increase.  The  tail  is  a 
later  development,  and  is  not  present  when  the  comet  is  first 
observed  by  the  telescope.  It  is  subject  to  constant  changes  and 
pulsations,  sometimes  seeming  to  sweep  through  space  at  a 
speed  to  which  the  planetary  velocities  are  scarcely  comparable. 
The  head,  when  viewed  through  a  telescope,  not  unfrequently 
presents  the  appearance  of  a  series  of  concentric  luminous  rings, 
with  a  bright  nucleus  in  the  centre;  while  at  other  times  the 
nucleus  emits  on  the  side  next  the  sun  jets  as  it  were  of  flame, 
moving  and  vibrating  as  if  in  a  region  of  conflicting  currents. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  C.  of  modem  times  is  Halley's — 
interesting  especially  as  being  the  first  whose  periodic  revolution 
was  recognised,  and  whose  return  was  boldly  predicted  by  that 
celebrated  astronomer.  Notidng  the  great  similarity  between 
the  elements  of  the  C,  of  1531,  1607,  and  1682,  Halley  fixed  the 
reappearance  of  the  i68a  comet  for  the  year  1759.  As  the  time 
approached,  Clairaut,  calculating  from  the  observations  of  1682, 
and  taking  iuto  account  the  possibly  perturbing  influence  of 
Jupiter  and  Saturn,  fixed  its  perihelion  passage  for  April  13, 
1759.  The  true  date  was  March  12.  Messrs  Damoiseau  and 
Pontecoulant  calculated  its  next  return  for  November  7,  1835, 
and  the  calculation  differed  from  the  observed  time  by  less  than 
a  week.  Its  next  appearance  will  be  in  1910,  and  the  same 
comet  has  been  identified  with  those  of  1456  and  1378,  the  latter 
of  which  was  observed  by  the  Chinese.  It  is  noticeable  that 
this  comet  has  been  diminishing  in  splendour  at  each  reappear- 
ance, and  probably  after  a  few  more  returns  it  will  become 
invisible  to  the  naked  eye.  The  comet  of  1744  is  remarkable  as 
having  had  six  tails.  The  present  century  has  been  uncommonly 
rich  in  brilliant  C,  of  which  we  may  mention  the  two  great  ones 
of  1811  ;  those  of  iSig,  1825,  and  1S47 ;  that  of  1843,  whose 
head  was  only  96,000  miles  from  the  sun's  surface  at  its  per- 
helion  passage,  and  whose  tail,  not  less  than  a  hundred  million 
of  miles  long,  seemed  to  sweep  through  two  right  angles  in  two 
hours;  the  brilliant  appearances  of  1858  (Donati'a)  and  i86l, 
both  remarkable  for  the  rapid  evolutions  and  dissipations  of 
their  envelopes,  and  the  latter  further  interesting  from  the  now 
almost  settled  fact  that  the  earth  passed  through  the  extremity 
of  its  beautiful  fan-shaped  tail  on  the  evening  of  June  30  ;  and, 
lastly,  Coggia's  second  comet  of  1874,  This  list,  however,  gives 
little  or  no  idea  of  the  numerous  C.  visible  by  telescopic  aid,  and  far 
less  of  the  myriads  which  probably  exist,  but  which  have  hitherto 
escaped  detection.  The  most  interesting  of  these  telescopic  C, 
possessing  as  they  do  short  periods,  and  therefore  belonging 
more  to  our  system  than  their  farther-reaching  brethren,  are 
Encke's  (period  3^29 years),  De  Vice's  (5-46),  Winnecke's  (S'5i), 
Brorsen's  (5 '58),  Biela's  (6-6l),  D'Arrest's  (6-64),  Faye's  {7-44). 
Biela's  comet  was  discovered  by  that  astronomer  in  1826,  and 
identified  with  the  C.  of  1772  and  1805,  in  which  latter  year  it 
was  seen  by  Olbers  with  the  naked  eye.     In  1846  it  was  ob- 


d  t      plit  into  two  portions,  which  were  still  distinct  on  its 

t     pp      ante  in  1852.     In  1859  and  1866,  though  eagerly 

1     k  d  f       no  signs  of  its  existence  were  detected,  and  it  was 

fd  d  by  many  as  a  thing  of  the  past.      Mr  Hind,  however, 
1  t  d    ts  perihcUon  passage  for  October  6,  1872,  from  Dr 
M   h  bit  of  1866,  and  prepared  sweeping  ephemerides  for 

S  pt  mb  and  October,  with  variations  of  -I-  8  days  in  peri- 
h  k  passage.  It  escaped  observation,  however,  till  November 
3  ,  h  Mr  Pogson,  Madras  Observaloiy,  received  a  startling 
t  !  gr  f  ora  Professor  Kiinkerfues,  which  ran  thus :  '  Bieia 
t  h  d  rth  on  z7th;  search  near  Theta  CentaurL'  After  two 
m  g  f  vain  search,  a  glimpse  of  it  was  obtained.  Circnm- 
t  more  favourable  on  December  3,  when  the  comet 

was  ith  a  bright  nndeus  and  a  faint  but  distinct  tail. 

It  has  b  doubted,  however,  whether  this  comet  was  really 
B  1  and  was  not  rather  another  and  quite  a  distinct  body. 
C  gg  mall  comet  of  1873  has  been  identified  by  Professor 
W  f  Vienna  with  the  first  of  1818,  discovered  by  Pons  at 

Mar  dl  the  plane  of  whose  orbit  was  so  nearly  imrallel  to 
th  t  f  B  k's,  that  by  some  it  was  supposed  to  nave  been 
d  n  d  from  the  latter  by  a  splittmg  analogous  to  what  was 
b  dm  1852.      Every  year  several  of  these  hazy  telescopic 

bodies  are  discovered,  but  they  possess  little  interest  save  to  the 
astronomer. 

The  first  step  towards  the  true  comprehension  of  what  C.  really 
are  was  made  by  Tycho  Brahe,  when  he  demonstrated  in  1577 
that  they  were  extraneous  to  our  atmosphere.  Not  ranch  more 
than  a  century  later,  Newton  showed  them  to  be  subject,  like 
planets,  to  the  law  of  gravitation  ;  and  sometime  after  the  lapse 
of  another  century,  Arago  discovered  tliat  lart,  at  least,  of 
cometary  light  was  plartsed  by  reflection.  This  last  discovery 
has  been  fiilly  borne  out  by  the  recent  spectrum  investigations  of 
Huggins,  Donati,  Secchi,  Vogel,  and  others.  Unfortunately, 
no  comet  of  any  size,  with  the  exception  of  Coggia's,  which  was 
badly  situated  for  observation,  has  appeared  since  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  spectroscope  as  a  useful,  and  now  indispensable, 
instrument  in  astronomical  research  ;  and,  accordingly,  spectre- 
scopists  have  had  to  content  themselves  as  yet  wifli  Brorsen's, 
Winnecke's,  and  other  telescopic  C.  These  all  show  one  or 
more  bright  lines,  accompanied  by  a  more  or  less  faint  conti- 
nuous spectrum.  It  is  thus  apparent  that  C.  shine  partly  by 
reflection,  partly  by  their  own  light.  The  characteristic  bright 
lines  in  Winnecke's  comet  coincide  very  closely  with  the  briyht 
lines  in  the  spectrum  of  carbon  taken  in  defiant  gas  ;  but,  in  the 
majority  of  cases  hitherto  observed,  there  is  no  similarity  in  con- 
stitution to  any  such  hydrocarbon.  At  the  present  stage  of  our 
knowledge,  we  cannot  reason  further  concerning  the  composi- 
tion of  the  gaseous  portion  of  C. ;  but  this  at  least  is  made  out, 
that  probably  a  comet  consists  of  a  cloud  of  solid  particles,  held 
together  more  because  their  individual  orbits  are  somewhat 
similar,  than  because  of  their  own  mutual  gravitation,  and  that 
therefore  as  it  approaches  the  sun  it  shrinks  in  bulk,  the  orbits  of 
the  component  meteorites  rapidly  converging,  and  the  particles 
themselves  coming  into  frequent  colhsions,  thus  generating  suffi. 
cient  heat  to  volatilise  a  part  of  the  matter  and  giving  rise  to 
all  the  varied  changes  observable  in  a  comet's  head  by  telescopic 
aid.  This  theory  is  supported  by  the  coincidence,  first  noticed 
by  Ochiaparelli,  which  seems  to  exist  between  the  orbit  of  the 
August  meteors  and  that  of  the  second  comet  of  1862,  and  the 
fuitlier  seemingly  similar  connection  between  the  November 
meteors  and  the  comet  discovered  by  Kiinkerfues  and  Pogson. 
and  believed  by  them  to  be  Biela's.  When  the  meteor-cloud  is 
sufficiently  dense,  it  is  visible  as  a  comet ;  and  the  extremely 
eccentric  orbits  which  these  bodies  desciibe  round  the  sun,  the 
sometimes  great  inclinaiions  to  the  ecliptic,  and  their  frequently 
retrograde  motions,  show  that,  if  the  nebular  hypothesis  be 
granted,  C.  and  meteors  did  not  belong  originally  to  the  solar 
system,  but  are  later  importations  caught  up  from  surrounding 
space  by  the  attraction  of  the  sun  and  planets.  ■  AH  this  is  an  evi- 
(^nt  inference  ;  but  when  we  come  to  tlie  con^deration  of  the  tail, 
a  new  and  greater  difficulty  meets  UB.  It  is  scarcely  possible  that 
this  tail  can  be  one  and  the  same  material  a^wa'a^,  for  that  mat- 
ter should  be  translated  with  a  velocity  of  more  than  30,000  miles 
per  second— the  velocity  of  the  extremity  of  the  tail  of  the 
comet  of  1S43  during  its  perihelion  passage— is  inconceivable. 
To  meet  this  difficulty,  Sir  John  Herschel  has  speculated 
on  the  possibility  of  a  '  nigative  shadmu,  a  momentary  impres- 
sion made  on  the  luminiferous  ^ther  behind  the  comet.'     Pro- 


yLaOOgle 


COM 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


COM 


-4- 


Ty  d  11  h 


1    d     poll  lliis  idea,  and  has  explained 
1  y       P  3.    due  to  the  decomposition  by  the 

t    t  d      y      f  th  f  some  chemical  compound  sur- 

I    g  th        m  t — th    hfe  d  acting  in  some  mysterious  way 
1  B  t  f   t     t  lens  to  sunlight,  why  not  to  star- 

1   ht   1     ?    t     Ch         h  omes  the  necessary  organic  com- 

p   mi?    By  as  vm  p  f    ich  a  nature,  any  curious  pheno- 

m  Id  b   pi       bly     plained;  but  no  simplidty  or  better 

mp    h  f  th   f    t       gained.  ,  Professor  Tait,  however, 

m     1yd       rd    g  Ih     nee  p    valent  idea  that  C.  must  have  ck- 
n  ly  m  11  mas.  —       d     taken  for  granted  upon  (he  grottnd 
I   ne     m  t        779  be     n    eotangled  among  Jupiter's  satel- 
wl    1  w  t  pe     pt  bly  perturbed  by  the  encounter—- 

has  explamed  the  whole  mystery  as  an  optical  condition.  He 
likens  a  comet  to  a  swarm  of  sea-lar!cs,  viewed  at  such  a  dis- 
t  that  the  birds  are  not  individuall}/  visible  ;  and  jn  the  re- 
markable changes  of  form  which  such  a  swajrm  seems  to  undei^o, 
a  consequence  of  the  relative  changes  of  position  of  the  line  of 
sight  and  the  surface  in  which  the  birds  are  situated,  he  dis- 
covers an  explanation  for  all  the  varied  transforinations  observ- 
able in  a  comet's  tail.  Thus  (see  Cosmkal  Astronomy,  Good 
Words,  December  1875)  'the  gigantic  motions  of  the  tail  in 
sweeping  round  the  sun  may  be  merely  the  running  along  of  the 
optical  condition  of  visibihty  among  a  swarm  of  separate  objects, 
each  of  which  is  moving  with  a  velocity  neither  extravagantly 
greater  nor  extravagantly  less  than  would  characterise  a  planet 
or  other  portion  of  matter  at  the  sanje  distance  from  the  sun.' 
There  is  no  limit  to  the  size  of  the  component  meteorites,  but 
the  smaller  we  suppose  the  mt^rat  fragments  to  be,  the  greater 
must  be  the  average  distance  between  .contiguous  ,OD,es  in  order 
to  secure  transparency  to  starlight— the  less  therefore  the  mass. 
Upon  this  hypothesis,  the  passage  of  the  earth  through  the  hmd 
of  a  comet  would  he  fraught  with  great  danger;  but  the  pro- 
bability of  such  an  occurrence  is  evidently  ejtrernely  small,  if  we 
assume  that  C.  may  approach  the  sun  from  any  direction.  This 
assumption,  however,  may  require  modification,  if  future  re- 
search bear  out  the  discovery  of  M.  Houzeau,  that  of  209  C. 
considered  by  him,  the  major  axes  show  a  tendency  to  arrange 
themselves  parallel  to  the  double  heliocentric  meridiao  102°  2)J 
and  282°  3o',  being  onl^  28°  long,  from  the  point  tojyards  which 
die  solar  system  is  moving. 

Oom'frey  {Symphytum),  a  genus  of  plants  f>l  the  natural  order 
Boragmacea(<\.y.),  natives  of  Europe  and  theN.  of  Asia.  There 
are  only  a  few  species  known.  C.  ojkinale  and  C.  tuberosum 
are  natives  of  Britain,  not  uncommon  in  moist  shady  places. 
The  former  was  at  one  time  greath'  valued  as  an  application  to 
wounds,  and  the  yoang  blancied  shoots  (ire  sometimes  used  as 
a  potherb,  or  as  a  substitute  for  spinach.  The  voot  contains 
a  good  deal  of  starch  and  mucilage ;  accordingly,  when  finely 
scraped  '  and  laid  on  calico  to  the  thickness  of  a  crown-piece,  it 
forms  an  excellent  bandage  for  broken  limbs, '  Si,c.  (Bentley).  A 
large-sized  species— C.  aspenimum  of  the  Caucasus — may  yet 
become  of  some  value  as  a  fodder  plant  for  pigs  and  cattle, 
analysis  showing  it  to  be  rich  in  flesh-forming  principles:  it  con- 
tains much  gum  and  mucilage  and  but  little  sugar.  It  was  in- 
troduced into  this  country  in  1811,  but  js  as  y^t  only  cultivated 
as  a  giarden  plant, 

Ooiniiiea'  or  Comynes,  Philippe  de,  Sieur  d'Argen- 
ton,  a  famous  French  chronicler,  was  bom  near  Lille  in  1445. 
In  1464  he  entered  the  service  of  Charles,  Cpmte  de  Charolais, 
aftervrards  Charles  the  Rash  of  Bui^ndy,  hut  jn  1+72  he 
attached  himself  to  Charles's  rival,  Louis  XI.,  who,  within  five 
years,  made  him  one  of  the  richest  nobles  of  France.  Louis 
found  in  C.  an  astute  and  unscmpnious  agent  of  his  .cruel  and 

Eerfidious  policy.  After  the  deaUi  of  Louis,  Anne  of  Beaujeu 
anished  C.  from  the  court ;  but  though  a  decree  of  Patliament 
of  24lh  March  1488  had  condemned  him  to  lose  a  fourth  of  his 
estates,  and  to  ten  years'  banishment,  we  lind  him  as  early  as 
1493  again  engaged  in  important  missions.  He  was  employed 
both  hv  Charles  VIII.  and  Louis  XII,,  the  latter  of  whom  re- 
stored his  pensions,  but  withheld  his  confidence  from  the  minis- 
ter  of  Louis  XL  He  died,  17th  October  1509,  at  his  castle  of 
Argenton.  C's  Mhnoires  show  him  to  have  been  a  sagacious, 
clear-headed  statesman;  but,  though  admirably  written,  (hey 
offend  modern  feeling  by  the  cold-bloodedness  with  which 
they  detail  the  rnost  iniquitouS  and  revolti 
the  sole  merit  of  each  of  which  seems  to  be  i 
102 


first  edition,  which  is  imperfect,  was  published    t  P  '    *n  it,"-^ 

in  foUo.     The  best  is  that  of  Mile.  Dupont  (3  P        85 
C.  plays  an  important  pait  in  Scott's  Quenlin  D  d 

Comi'so,   a  town   of   Sicily,   province    of   N  3   rni! 

W.S.W.  of  Syracuse,  with  manufactures  of  pap  b 

Com'itaa  or  Comity  of  Nations,  a  term  m 

law,  signifying  the  effect  given  in  one  country  w       n 

institutions  of  another  in  questions  arising  lieti 

,of  both.    See  International  Law. 

Comi'tia  (Lat.  cum,  'together;'  eo,  'I  go'    w        h   g 
constitutional   assemblies   of  the  Roman  citize        d  m 

monetj  by  a  magistrate  for  the  election  of  magLsttates,  the  en- 
actment of  law,  the  declaration  of  war,  and  the  trial  of  citizens 
on  criminal  charges.  The  Comiiium  was  the  part  of  the  Forum 
where  the  C.  met  inearly  times,  though  afterwards  their  meetings 
were  usually  held  in  the  Campus  Mattiiis.  The  C.  were  of  three 
kinds,  C.  Curiata,  C.  Cmluriata,  and  C.  IHbuta,  in  which  the 
people  vote<J  respectively  in  curias,  centurieSj  and  tribes,  accord- 
ing to  the  three  modes  of  their  political  oi^nisation.  Each 
citizen  voted  in  his  own  curia,  century,  or  triVe  ;  bttt  each  curia, 
century,  and  tribe  had  only  one  yote  on  tlie  .question  submitted, 
and  its  vote  was  determined  by  the  majority  of  yoters  within  it. 
Thus,  as  some  centuries,  for  example,  contained  a  much  lai^er 
number  of  voters  than  others,  the  decision  inJEht  not  be  the  opi- 
nion of  the  gross  majority  of  the  assembly.  "HeCCuriataweie 
the  most  ancient,  and  were  composed  entity  of  patricians. 
The  C.  .Centuriata,  instituted  by  Serviiu  Tulliu^  were  truly 
national  assemblies,  comprehending  all  citizens,  whether  patri- 
cians oj:  plebeians,  who  had  property  to  a  certain  amount.  The 
C.  Tributa  were  originally  confined  to  the  plebeians,  and  were 
convened  for  the  first  time  in  the  trial  of  Coriolanus,  B.C.  491. 
The  word  C.  often  means  electitim,  as  the  C  were  yearly  con- 
vened under  the  republic  to  elect  magistrates.  "The  C.  Calata 
were  assemblies  convened  by  the  college  of  pontiffe,  at  which 
the  people,  sometimes  in  curise,  at  others  in  centuries,  did  --' 


sisted  chiefly  of  the  procia  ,  .,  , 

of  priests  and  kings,  and  tli,e  making  of  wiljs. 

Oomiu'a.    See  Pjjnctuaticw. 

Comma,  in  music,  a  small  interval  .(generally  corresponding 
to  a  vibration- ratio  of  81 :8o)  occurring  .between  the  true  pitches 
of  two  notes,  which  are  represented  by  one  only  in  the  oi^an, 
pianoforte,  and  qther  tempered  instruments.     See  Tempera- 

Commftndailt'  is  an  oificer  of  the  army  in  merely  temporary 
command.  The  designation  is  more  frequently  applied  in  foreign 
armies  than  in  the  British. 

Oommand'er,  in  t];e  British  navy,  is  ^  officer  next  in  rank 
above  a  lieutenant  and  mider  a  post-captain.  He  ranks  with  a 
lieutenant -colonel  ™  ^^  army,  and  is  unofficially  addressed  Cap- 
tain. The  full  pay  of  a  C.  is  ^l  per  day  ;  when  in  command 
of  a  sea-going  ship,  3s.  gd.  additional  The  half-pay  of  the  first 
hundred  commanders  on  the  active  list  is  los.  pec  clay,  flf  the 
remainder,  83,  6d.  A  C.  may  either  serye  as  second  in  command, 
or  command  independently,  according  to  the  rate  of  the  ship. 


_^ ,   j.__ ^  ,  itary  of  State  for 

War,  the  officer  commanding-in-chief  has  practically  the  control 
of  all  these,  except,  perhaps,  the  very  highest.  He  is  respon- 
sible for  recruiting  operations,  and  for  the  allocation  of  the 
troops.  The  commander  of  the  forces  in  India  has  the  title 
of  C.-in-C. 

Oomin'aD.dite,  Soci^t^  en,  is  the  French  equivalent  term 
for  what  we  call  a  'sleeping  partner.'     By  the  common  law  of 


vLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDJA. 


France,  a  pattner  of  this  kind  may,  by  agreement  with,  liis  asso- 
ciate, determine  Ihe  extent  of  his  liability  to  the  pablic.  The 
J'  istice  of  the  legal  principle  has  to  a  great  extent  been  recognised 
y  ourselves  in  the  passing  of  the  Lhnited  Liability  Act  (q.  v,). 
The  French  term  arises  from  the  commercial  meaning  of  the 
word  commander,  to  command.  It  is  applied  lo  the  authorising 
of  one  person  by  another  to  transact  busine^  on  his  account. 

Conunelyna'ceSB,  the  Spiderworts,  a  natural  order  of  Mono, 
cotyledonons  plants,  natires  of  the  E.  and  W.  Indies,  Anstralia, 
Africa,  and  N.  America.  The  nnderground  stems  of  many  of 
these,  on  account  of  Ihc  starch  which  they  contain,  are  used  for 
food.  In  the  jointed  hsura  of  the  Vii^inia  spiderwort  ( Tradaam- 
tia  Vh-giniia),  a  common  garden  flower,  and  other  species,  the 
singula  movement  known  as  Gyration  {q.  v.)  can  be  well  exa- 
mined. Ccmmelyna  caUslis  is  also  a  well-known  cultivated 
species.  Altogether  sixteen  genera  and  more  than  260  species  are 
described.  Some  are  accounted  astringent,  and  therefore  laseful 
as  applications  to  wounds  ;  others  are  emmenagogue,  &c. 

Commen'iiam.  When  a  beneficed  clergyman  is  promoted  to 
a  bishopric,  he  vacates  his  benefice  by  the  promotion  ;  but  for- 
merly the  sovereign  could  give  him  the  right  to  retain  it.     He 

IS  then  said  to  hold  it  in  C,  that  was,  ostensibly,  until  some 

e  else  should  be  provided  for  it.  Future  grants  in  C.  were 
abolished  by  6  and  7  Will  IV.  c  77. 

Commendator. — In  Scotkmd,  in  Roman  Catholic  times,  the 
revenues  of  a  benefice  during  a  vacancy  were  collected  by  an 
officer  called  a  C.  He  was  properly  a  steward  or  trustee  j  but 
the  Pope,  who  was  entitled  to  grant  the  higher  benefices  in  Cofi- 
tiundam  (q,  v.),  abused  the  power,  and  gave  them  to  commen- 
dators  for  their  lives.  This  abuse  led  to  the  prohibition  of  all 
commendama,  excepting  those  granted  by  bishops  for  a  term  not 
exceeding  six  raontlis. 

Comiueii'sura.bIe,  a  name  applied  to  two  numbers  or  quan- 
tities of  the  same  kind,  which  are  both  divisible  without  re- 
mainder by  a  third  number, 

Oomm'entry,  the  chief  town  of  a  canton  in  the  department 
AHier,  France,  in  a  hilly  region  on  the  CEil,  45  miles  S.W.  of 
Moulins  by  railway.  It  owes  its  great  and  sudden  prosperity 
to  large  coal-mines  in  the  vicinity,  and  to  an  extensive  iron- 
work, employing  1200  men,     Pop.  (1872)  9058. 

Oonun'erce,  Offen'oea  againat.  The  commercial  code  of 
the  country  has  undei^one  material  alterations  in  late  sessions 
of  Parliament,  and  many  regulations  founded  on  mistaken 
notions  of  the  public  interest,  and  which  interfered  with  the 
general  principle  of  commercial  freedom,  have  been  repealed. 
One  of  the  most  noteworthy  of  these  reforms  is  the  repeal 
throughout  (he  United  Kingdom  of  all  the  Acts  against  usury. 
By  tliis  repeal  the  capitalist  is  as  unfettered  in  the  employment 
of  his  money  as  the  landlord  is  in  the  disposal  of  his  land  and 
the  labourer  in  the  disposal  of  his  industry.      See  False  Pee- 

TENCES,  Frauds,  Smuggling,  Interest,  Chamber  of  Com- 

Commer'cial  Law.  See  Mercantile  Law, 
Commina'tion  (Lat.  comminatio,  'a  threatening')  is  the 
name  of  a  penitential  service  used  in  the  early  Christian  Church. 
It  is  still  read  in  the  Cliurdi  of  England  on  Ash  Wednesday. 
It  purports  '  to  read  the  genera!  sentences  of  God's  cursing 
against  impenitent  sinners,  gathered  out  of  the  seven-and- 
twentieth  chapter  of  Deuteronomy  and  other  places  of  Scrip- 
ture.'    See  Bingham's  Ecdts.  Anliqiiilies. 

Oommisga'riat  is  the  name  given  to  the  system  by  which 
armies  are  supplied  with  the  necessaries  of  life.  In  the  wars  of 
Queen  Anne's  reign  the  troops  were  supplied  by  contract,  a  plan 
which  is  said  to  have  led  to  considerable  peculation  on  the  part 
of  the  famous  general  who  conducted  tliem.  In  1793  a  commis- 
sary^eneral  was  appointed,  his  duty  being  to  superintend  the 
couiracis  for  supplymg  the  army  with  food.  In  1858  and  1S59 
a  new  organisation  was  introduced,  the  C.  being  made  a  depart- 
ment of  tlie  War  Office.  In  1870  it  was  merged  in  the  '  Control 
Department,'  by  which  the  civil  affairs  of  the  army  are  now  ad- 
ministered. The  ranks  of  the  C.  are  commissary,  deputy-com- 
missary, assistant- commissary,  and  sub-assistant  commissary. 

Commissary.  ™  ecclesiastical  law,  is  an  officer  who  acts  for 
the  bishop  in  a  remote  part  of  the  diocese.     In  Scotland,  follow- 


ing the  abolition  of  papal  authority  in  1560,  the  supreme  C.  court 
was  instituted  by  Queen  Maty  in  1563.  It  had  jurisdiction  in 
matrimonial  cases,  and  had  a  double  jurisdiction,  one  diocesan 
over  the  three  Lothians,  the  other  universal,  by  which  it  confiimed 
the  testaments  of  all  who  died  in  foreign  countries,  or  who  died 
in  Scotland  without  a  fixed  domicile.  It  also  reviewed  the  judg- 
ments of  inferior  commissaries,  of  whom  there  was  one  in  most 
of  tlie  principal  towns  of  Scotland.  The  powers  of  the  supreme 
■court  feibolished  in  1836)  were  gradually  transferred  to  the  Court 
of  Session;  those  of  the  inferior  courts  partly  passed  to  the  Court 
of  Session  and  partly  to  the  sheriff  courts ;  but  '  even  yet,'  says 
Sheriff  Dove  Wilson,  '  the  transference  of  jurisdiction  is  in  form 
incomplete.  In  certain  actions  the  sheriff  assumes  the  style  and 
title  of  C,  and  uses  a  seal  decorated  with  the  episcopal  mitre.' 
See  ThsIntroducHonloPracti€!oftke  Sheriff  Courts,-^}.  Dove 
Wilson,  advocate  {Edinb.  1875). 

Comirus'sion.  is  in  law  a  vvriting  or  impiied  mandate  autho- 
rising one,  or  more  than  one,  person  to  exercise  the  duties  and 
powers  belonging  to  another  or  to  others.  (See  AGENT.) 
There  are  various  legal  gpevations  conducted  by  C,  of  which  the 
following  are  the  most  important ; — 

Commissiort  of  Oyer  arid  Terminer.-— 1\a^,  in  English  law,  is 
a  C.  directed  to  the  judges  and  other  gentlemen  of  the  county 
to  which  it  is  issued,  dvecting  them  to  hear  and  determine  in 
cases  of  alleged  treasons,  felonies,  and  trespasses.  It  is  in  virtue 
of  this  C.  that  the  judges  on  circuit  dispose  of  criminal  cases.  In 
urgent  cases,  a  special  C.  of  O.  and  T.  is  granted.  It  may  be 
extended  to  Scofland,  provided  three  Lords  of  Justiciary  be  in 
theC. 

Commission  of  tht  Peace.  See  Justices  of  the  Peace. 
Commission  Jbr  taking Froof— la  the  Court  of  Session  in  Scot- 
land, as  well  as  m  the  inferior  courts,  parole  proof  may  be  talten 
under  a  C.  granted  by  the  court.  The  commissioner  is  delegated 
to  take  the  oaths  and  depositions  of  witnesses,  and  to  report  these 
to  the  court.  The  C.  is  invariably  accompanied  by  a  Diligence 
(q.  V,},  which  is  also  a  judicial  warrant  under  which  the  witnesses 
are  cited,  and  may  be  compelled  to  attend  the  commissioner  for 
examination.   The  Act  6  and  7  Vict  c  82,  makes  it  compulsory  on 

"' and  Havers  {q.  v.)  (!./.,  holders  of  writings)  to  attend 

a.  commissioner  appointed  by  the  Sootcli  courts ;  and  a 
ing  froui  an  English  or  Irish  court  has  the  same  power  of 
on  in  Scotland. 


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lission,  Armr,  i; 


vn's  warrant  constituting  a 
comnnssioneo.  omcer  m  tne  army.  Formerly,  under  what  was 
called  the  Parshase  System  (q.  v.),  the  various  ranks  were  mostly 
obtainable  at  a  fixed  price.  But  this  system  was  abolished  bj 
royal  warrant  in  July  1S71.  Commissions  in  the  probationary 
ranks  are  now  given  to  the  successful  candidates  in  competitive 
examination.  'The  limits  of  age  for  candidates  for  admission  by 
competition  to  the  cavalry  and  mfantry  are  seventeen  and  twenty; 
for  students  of  universities  who  have  passed  certain  examinations, 
the  limits  are  seventeen  and  twenty-one ;  for  B.A.  or  M,  A.  gra- 
duates, seventeen  lo  twenty-two.  To  qualify  for  lieutenant,  a 
sub-heutenant  must  serve  satisfactorily  in  a  regiment  for  twelve 
months,  after  which  he  must  study  at  a  military  college  and  pass 
an  exammation.  In  the  Artillery  and  Engineers,  candidates, 
selected  on  examination,  are  trained  at  Woolwich  Academy. 
Lieutenancies  are  given  to  cadets  who  have  paSSed  an  examina- 
tion on  the  subjects  of  instruction.  Further  examination  must 
be  passed  before  getting  a  captain's  C.  in  any  brandi  of 
the  service.  Promotion  is  now  by  '  selection,  tempered  by 
seniority,'  up  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant- colon  el  (see  Colonel, 
Brevet)  in  the  cavalry  and  infimtry.  In  the  Artillery  and  En- 
gineers it  is  by  seniority  alone.  Non-commissioned  officers  are 
the  sergeants-major,  sei^cants,  trumpeters,  drummers,  buglers, 
and  in  the  Life  Guards  and  Horse  Guards  the  corporals.  They 
mess  by  themseives,  and  tank  between  a  commissioned  officer 
and  a  private  soldier, 

OonuniBB'ionaire  is  an  attendant  attached  to  Continental 
hotels,  but  not  forming  a  part  of  the  establishment.  Thus  his 
services  are  not  charged  in  the  bill,  and  must  be  arranged 
with  the  C,  himself.  No  one  is,  of  course,  obliged  lo  employ 
him.  In  some  hotels,  though  not  in  many,  we  have  found  the 
C.  very  troublesome  and  officious,  offering  to  do  all  kinds  of 
petty  services,  such  as  posting  letters,  &c,,  for  which  he  expected 
wholly  disproportionate  payment.     There  are,  however,  many 


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occasions  on  which  the  C,  is  very  useful,  especially  to  those  who 
do  not  speak  the  language  of  the  country  in  which  they  are 
travelling.  Commissionaires  can  nearly  always  speak  English, 
and  generally  French  also.  For  a  day's  attendance  Ihey  usually 
expect  about  seven  francs ;  for  looking  after  the  registering  of 
luggage,  taking  tickets,  &c.,  in  starting  on  a  railway  journey,  or 
for  meeting  one  on  arrival,  and  looking  after  the  lu^ge,  &c., 
five  francs  is  the  proper  fee  of  a  C. 

Oommisaion  del  OrederS  is  an  Italian  expression,  used  to 
denote  the  extra  premium  chained  by  an  agent  or  factor  for 
guaranteeing  the  solvency  of  a  purchaser,  and  so  making  himself 
personally  liable  for  the  value  of  the  goods  which  he  has  sold 
for  his  principal.      See  AGENT. 

OommiaBion  Hercliaiit  is  a  merchant  who  sells  goods  on 
account  of  some  ouc  else.  The  C.  M,  is  paid  by  a  percentage, 
called  commission,  on  the  value  sold. 

Oommisaion  of  Aasemtly.    See  General  Assembly. 

CommiB'sioiier  in  Scotch  Banferuptoy.  Under  the 
Scotch  Bankruptcy  Act,  three  commissioners  are  cliosen  at  the 
meeting  for  election  of  trustee.  Their  duty  is  to  superintend,  to 
advise,  and  assist  the  trustee,  and  to  fix  his  remuneration. 
They  are  not  themselves  entitled  to  any  remuneration.  No 
one  can  be  a  C.  who  is  disqualified  to  be  a  trustee.     See  Bank- 

Coimnissioner  of  Police,  for  London  and  neighbourhood, 
is  appointed  under  19  and  ao  Vict.  c.  2.  The  C,  of  P.  and  the 
constables  are  empowered  to  enforce  regulations  of  the  Police 
Acts  respecling  houses  of  public  resort,  driving  vehicles  and 
cattle,  nuisances  in  thoroughfares,  &c.  They  have  also  power 
to  act  on  the  river  Thames,  and  they  may  at  any  time  go  on 
board  vessels,  and  take  cognisance  of  the  conduct  of  persons  on 


Ooxrunisp 


of  Justiciary.    See  Ji 


Court 


OommisBioners  of  Teinda.    See  Teind  Court. 

Cominissiorters  of  the  Jiiry  Court.     See  Jury  Trial. 

Commit'meat  for  Trial.  When  a  supposed  offender  is 
arrested,  the  justice  before  whom  he  is  brought  is  bound  imme- 
diately to  inquire  into  tlie  circumstances  of  the  alleged  crime, 
and  to  take  t&e  examination  of  the  piisoner,  and  the  evidence  of 
those  who  btuig  him,  in  writing.  If  the  charge  appear  ground- 
less, the  prisoner  must  forthwiih  he  dischai^d ;  otherwise  he 
must  be  commUtii,  or  give  Bail  (q.  v.)  for  his  appearance  to 
answer  the  accusation  at  next  sessions  or  assize,  and  the  prose- 
cutor or  person  injured  by  the  crime  charged  is  bound  over  to 
prosecute.  In  Scotland  the  information  is  generally  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  Procurator- Fiscal  (q,  v.],  and  C.  for  T.  or  dischsuge 
is  given  after  the  declaration  of  the  accused  and  the  Precogni- 
tion (q.  V.)  have  been  taken  before  a  magistrate.     See  Impri- 


Commitment  of  a  Bill.    See  Parliament. 

Commit  fee..  When  an  assembly  or  body  of  men  appoints 
a  few  of  its  members  to  do  special  acts,  or  to  make  special 
inquiry,  those  so  appointed  form  what  is  called  a  C.  It  may, 
however,  consist  of  only  one  member;  or  it  may  be  formed  of 
the  whole  body  malting  the  appointment  by  its  assummg  the 
functions  asually  discliarged  by  a  C.  Thus,  in  Parliament,  when 
the  various  clauses  of  a  measure  which  has  been  passed  on 
second  reading — and  thus  been  virtually  adopted  in  its  leading 
principle— come  lobe  considered,  a  'C.  of  the  whole  House' is 
formed  for  doing  so.  The  Speaker  leaves  the  chair,  which  is 
taken  by  the  Chairman  of  Committees.  (See  Parliament.) 
Select  committees  are  also  appointed  in  the  House  of  Commons 
and  in  the  House  of  Lords  for  the  consideration  of  private  bills. 

Oonunittee  of  Parliament.     See  Parliament, 

Conunix'tioil,  a  term  of  Scotch  law,  indicating  the  mingling 
of  two  or  more  substances.  C.  may  produce  a  new  subject,  as 
where  wine  is  miied ;  or  it  may  not  alter  the  nature  of  either 
substance,  as  where  grain  is  mixed.  This  distinction  is  of  some 
le^al  weight  in  questions  which  sometimes  arise  as  to  right  of 
property. 


Commodate,  in  Scotch  law,  is  a  gratuitous  loan,  the  bor- 
rower being  bound  to  restore  the  subject  lent  in  the  condition  in 
which  he  received  it.     See  Borrowing. 

Comm'odore.  A  captain  in  thenavy,  when  in  command,  has 
this  tille.  He  hoists  a  pennant  Indicative  of  his  rank.  Red  in- 
dicates a  C,  of  the  first  class,  blue  a  C.  of  the  second.  He  tanks 
with  a  brigadier -general  in  the  army.  The  pay  of  a  C.  of  the 
first  class  is  ^^3  per  day  ;  of  a  C.  of  the  second  class,  in  addi- 
tion to  pay  as  a  captain,  if  C.-in-chief,  ^t  per  day  ;  if  not,  los. 
per  day. 

Coimn'odus,  Lucius  Auxelius,  a  Roman  emperor,  bom 
l5l  A.D.,  the  son  of  M.  Anrelius  Antoninus,  who  educated  him 
with  unavailing  care.  On  his  ti.ther's  death  in  March  j8o,  C. 
concluded  an  inglorious  peace  with  the  Marcomanni,  and  repaired 
to  the  capital  to  share  in  its  dissipations.  His  character  immedi- 
ately  exhibited  itself  as  one  of  boundiass  licentiousness,  cruelty, 
cowardice,  meanness,  and  perfidy;  and  distinguished  virtue,  or 
conspicuous  excellence  of  any  kind,  soon  proved  fatal  to  its  pos- 
sessor. Resigning  the  government  into  the  hands  of  a  succession 
of  worthless  favourites,  he  rioted  in  debauchery,  and  gratified  a 
childish  vanity  by  exhibiting  himself  as  a  dancer,  a  cliarioteer,  a 
buffoon,  and  especially  as  a  gladiator  He  even  claimed  divme 
honours  as  Hercules.  Marcia,  a  favoonte  mistress,  witli  I^etus 
and  Eclectus,  two  officers  of  rank,  learning  that  they  weie 
mailted  down  on  the  tyrant's  tablets  foi  instant  death,  admims 
tered  poison  to  him  ;  but  this  operating  sIo«ly,  the)  mtioduced 
Narcissus,  a  famous  athlete,  into  his  chamber,  and  he  was 
strangled  on  the  night  of  December  31,  192  \  d 

Comm'on.  This  is  a  term  of  Enghah  and  Scotch  law,  but 
the  meaning  in  the  former  differs  from  that  in  the  latter.  In 
England,  C.  is  the  privilegeof  use  which  one  man,  or  the  public, 
has  of  the  properly  of  another  ;  such  as  the  right  to  walk  over 
or  to  fish  from  the  land  of  another;  hence  lands  over  which  such 
rishts  exist  are  called  commons.  The  S  and  9  Vict,  is  an  Act 
whose  objects  are  described  to  be  to  facilitate  the  enclosure 
and  improvement  of  commons  of  certain  descriptions,  and  held 
under  certain  rights,  which  obstruct  cultivation  and  tiie  produc- 
tive employment  of  labour. 

The  expediency  of  this  measure  has  been  much  questioned. 
'  We  look  with  the  utmost  jealousy,'  says  Mr  J.  S.  Mill,  '  upon 
any  further  enclosure  of  commons.  In  the  greater  part  of  this 
island,  exclusive  of  the  mountain  and  moor  district,  there  is  cer- 
tainly not  more  land  remaining  in  a  state  of  natinal  wildness 
than  is  desirable.  .  .  .  The  C.  is  the  peasant's  park.' 

Under  the  Act  a  Board  of  Commissioners,  (illed  the  Enclo- 
sure Commissioners,  is  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  expediency  of 
any  proposed  enclosure,  and  to  report  to  Parliament  regard- 
ing it. 

In  Scotland,  where  the  legal  nomenclature"  is  that  of  the 
Roman  law,  C.  rights  are  called  Setviludes  (q.  v. ),  while  a  C.  or 
commontry  is  a  ^iece  of  ground  belonging  to  several  persons, 
frequently  to  the  inhabitants  of  a  district  or  village,  the  right  of 
each  usually  amounting  to  nothing  more  than  a  servitude.  The 
C.  is  divisible  by  an  action  m  the  Court  of  Session,  at  the  in- 
stance of  any  one  having  an  interest.  Nice  questions,  howeviT, 
sometimes  arise  as  to  whether  a  tight  be  of  C.  property  or  of 
servitude  merely. 

Comnwn  Agent  is,  in  Scotch  legal  practice,  an  agent  or  soli- 
citor before  the  Court  of  Session,  employed  to  conduct  a  case  in 
which  several  parties  have  a  common  inteiest.  The  two  most 
important  occasions  for  the  appointment  of  a  C.  A.  are  in  the 
process  of  Ranking  and  Sale  (q.  v.),  and  in  the  process  of  aug- 
mentation and  locality.  (See  AUGMENTATION^  But  a  C.  A. 
is  also  sometimes  appointed  in  a  process  of  Multiplepomding 
(q-  ^-V 

Common  De^ior.—Whea  the  effects  of  a  debtor  have  been 
arrested,  and  several  creditoi-s  claim  a  share  of  them,  the  debtor 
is,  in  Scotch  law,  called  the  C.  D. 

Common  Forms. — By  this  term  is  meant,  in  English  law,  the 
technical  forms  of  expression  used  in  legal  wnt  ngs  Sta  utes 
have  been  passed  to  substitute  simpler  arid  more  generally  mtelli 


ts  value  or  difficulty,  has  rendered  difficult  the  substitution  of 

ntelligible  brevity  for  unintelligible  prolixity. 
Common  Goo/i. — In  law  this  term  is  tised  to  deno  e  he  1  roperty 


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orporation,  over  which  the  magistrates  have  a  right  of 
administration  solely  for  behoof  of  the  corporation. 

Common  Iitlerest.—T\m  teim  is  used  in  Scotch  law  to  denote 
jhe  interest  which  one  person  sometimes  has  in  the  preservation 
of  that  which  is  otherwise  absolutely  the  property  of  another. 
Thus,  the  proprietor  of  a  house  may  have  a  C.  I.  with  the  pro- 
prietor of  a  contiguous  house  in  a  chimney-can  which  is  the 
properly  of  the  latter,  if  the  falling  of  the  can  would  injure  the 
property  of  the  former. 

Common  Pmperly,  in  Scotch  law,  is  property,  whether  hen- 
table  or  movable,  belonging  to  two  or  more  proprietors  pro  indi- 
(See  INDIVISIBI^)  The  proprietors  share  the  profit  or 
loss  according  to  their  respective  interests,  and  the  consent  of 
all  is  requir^  in  the  manageqient  and  disposal  of  the  subject. 
Each  ioinl-owner  may  sell  his  right,  the  purchaser  taking  his 
place ;  and  the  right  may  be  adjudged  (see  Adjudication)  by 
the  creditors  of  the  C.  proprietors,  or  of  any  of  them. 

Common,  Tenancy  in,  or  Joint  -  Tenancy.  — This  term  of  English 
law  corresponds  to  that  of  C.  Property  (q.  v.)  in  Scotch  law.  It 
denotes  the  rights  of  property  vested  in,  two  or  more  persons,  no 
division  having  been  made  of  the  property.  The  owners  may 
agree  to  a  division,  or  any  one  of  them  may  under  equity  compel 
a  division 


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o  be  made.     See  Coparcenaev. 

)tt  Bench.  SeeBENCKand  Common  Law,  Court 

)n  Counts,  short  statements  of  the  cause  of  an 


n  made  in  a  Declaration  (q. 
Commoa  House,  or  Common  Boom,  was  an  apartment 
in  a  monastery,  presided  over  by  a  monk,  called  the  master.    A 
fire  was  constantly  kept  in  it  for  the  benefit  of  the  monks,  who 
were  not  usually  allowed  to  have  one  anywhere  else. 

Comm.011  Law.  The  laws  of  England,  like  those  of  most 
countries,  are  largely  regulated  by  customs  resulting  from  experi- 
ence, and  confirmed  by  judicial  decisions.  Law  so  constituted  is 
called  C.  L.  It  is  to  be  distmguished  from  law  created  by  statute 
{see  Act  of  Parliamemt,  Statute),  and  also  from  law  as 
created  or  modified  hy  Equity  (q.  v.).  C,  L.  is  overruled  by 
e  law,  and  may  be  set  aside  or  modified  by  equity,  except 
tters  criminal.  These  involving  public  security,  no  judge 
le  allowed  to  administer  them  otherwise  than  according  to 
the  letter  and  to.  established  anthorlty.  '  Immemorial  usage ' 
.11  C,  L,  does  not  refer  to  a  period  so  remote  as  to  be  beyond 
historical  record.  The  bounds  of  legal  memory  ate  limited  by 
3  Edward  I.  to  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Richard  I.,  from 
which  time  an  uninten-tipted  custom  acquires  legal  validity.  But 
as  Ais  rule  has  often  been  productive  of  injustice,  it  has  been 
provided  by  statute  that  thirty  years'  enjoyment  shall  constitute 
a  right  of  Ccmimon  (see  Common),  and  that  after  sixty  years  the 
right  is  absolute.  In  claims  of  right  of  way,  the  periods  are  twenty 
and  forty  years.  (See  Prescription  in  Law.)  The  dvil  and 
canon  laws  fomy  branches  of  the  unwritten  or  C,  L.  wWch, 
under  ditferent  restrictions,  have  been  adopted  in  the  Ecclesi- 
astical CouiBts,  the  Courts  of  Admiralty,  and  the  Chancellor's 
Court  of  the  University  of  Cambridge.  Decisions  of  courts  beuig 
the  best  evidence  of  what  the  C.  L.  is,  are  held  in  high  regai ' 
and  are-  pieserved  as  authentic  records  in  the  several  courts. 
ScotlancE,  6he  term  C  L.  is  used  by  many  of  the  writers,  and 
some  of  the  Acts  of  the  Scotch  Parliament,  to  signify  the  Roman 
law.  Bat  hi  Scotland,  as  in  England,  the  proper  meaning  is 
the  consuetudinary  law,  from  whatever  source  derived. 

Common  Law,   Courts  o/— The  Court  of  Queen's  Bench 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  C.  L.  in  England.     It  consists  of 
chief  justice  Mid  of  four  Puisne  judges.     It  keeps  all  inferi 
jurisdictions  within  bounds  of  their  authority,  and  may  remo.  . 
the  subject  of  their  proceedings  so  as  to  be  determmed  by  itself. 
It  controb  ail  civil  corporations  in  the  kingdom.     It  takes  ccg-. 
nisance  cS  both  criminal  and  dvil  cases.     It  is  a  court  of  apyeali 
to  which  may  be  removed  deteratinations  of  the  Court  of  Com- 
mon Pleas,  and  trf  inferior  courts  of  record  in  England.     Indict- 
ments removed  into  this  court  may  be  tried  either  at  bar,  that 
is,   at   the  bar  of  the  court,  during  term,   or  at   Ni^  Prius 
<q.  v.)  by  a  jury  of  the  county  out  of  which  the  indictment  is 
bwmght,  the  court  itself  being  the  principal  court  of  crinunal. 
jurisdiction  in  the  kingdom.      Indictments    moved    mto   the 
Queen's  Bench  the  court  may  order  to.  be  tried  at  the  Central 
Criminal  Court. 
The  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  like  the  oilier  courts  of  West- 


througliout  England  ;  but  it  has  no  cog- 

.>.»»..,v  ". ,  —  —  matters  of  a  public  nature.    There  is  one 

chief  judge  and  four  petty  judges.  They  sit  every  day  during  the 
four  terms  to  hear  and  determine  all  matters  of  law  arising  in 
civil  causes.  These  the  court  takes  cognisance  of  origmally  as 
well  as  on  removal  from  inferior  courts. 

The  Court  of  Exchequer  is  held  before  the  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer,  the  Chief  Baron,  and  four  fuisne  Barons.  The  chief 
business  of  the  court  was  formerly  to  take  cognisance  of  matters 
connected  with  the  public  revenue,  though  by  a  fiction  of  law, 
this  court  with  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench,  all  per- 
may  be  prosecuted  in  the  Court  of  Exchequer.  It 
time  a  court  of  equity,  but  by  5  Vict,  c,  5,  its  juris- 
diction m  equity  was  transferred  to  l3ie  Court  of  Chanceiy.  But 
retains  all  o^er  powers  which  it  previously  possessed. 
The  above  constitute  the  superior  courts  of  common  law. 
They  sit  at  Westminster,  and  are  commonly  called  The  Courts  at 
Westminster.  They  have  been  consolidated  by  the  Acts  of 
1873  and  1875.  (See  Court  of  Judicature,  Supreme, 
Acts.)  There  are  also  inferior  courts  of  common  law,  the 
only  important  one  of  which  is  the  County  Court  (q.  v.),  to 
which  the  corresponding  court  in  Scotland  is  the  SheiifF  Court 
(q.  v.).  There  are  the  Borough  Courts  under  the  presidency 
of  the  Recorder  (q.  v.).  See  Mayor's  Court  of  London, 
Stanakies, 

Conimon-Lcaa  Bar.  —That  portion  of  the  English  bar  which 
devotes  itself  to  practice  before  the  Common  Law  Courts  is  so 

Oommon  Prayer,  the  Sook  of,  is  the  liturgy  of  the 
Church  of  England  and  Ireland.  Till  the  time  of  the  Reforma- 
tion there  was  no  such  book  in  the  vernacular,  the  only  thing  of 
the  kmd  beii^  the  Latin  liturgy,  originally  derived  from  the 
Galilean  (see  Liturgy),  and  revised  by  the  Bishop  of  Salisbury, 
1085.  During  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. ,  in  1537,  Convocation 
published  a  book  entitled  The  Godly  and  Picus  Instiiuiion  of  a 
Christian  Man,  and  contaming  the  Lord's  Prayer,  '  Ave  Maria,' 
Creed,  Ten  Commandments,  Seven  Sacraments,  &c.  Of  this 
a  second  edition  was  published  in  1540,  under  the  title  of  A 
Necessary  Doctrine  and  Erudition  for  any  Christian  Man.  Tliese, 
however,  were  more  of  the  nature  of  a  confession  of  faith  than 
a  liturgy;  but  the  same  year  a  commission  was  appointed  to 
reform  therituals  and  offices  of  the  Church,  and  the  next  year  the 
prayers  for  processions  and  litanies  were  ordered  to  be  translated 
into  English  and  publicly  used.  In  1 545  the  King's  Primer  was 
published,,  containing  the  whole  mdming  and  evenuig  prayer 
very  nearly  the  same  as  in  the  present  B.  of  C.  P.  In  1547, 
under  Edward  VI.,  a  committee  of  divines  was  appointed,  whr 
composed,  first,  a  liturgy  proper,  or  order  for  the  Communioi 
(1547),  and  then  public  offices  for  Sundays  and  holy-days,  and 
for  Baptism,  Confession,  Matrimony,  Burial,  &c  This  liturgy 
was  approved  by  Convocation,  and  confirmed  by  Parliament 
and  the  King,  1548,  To  obviate  certain  objections,  the  book 
was  revised  under  Archbishop  Cranmer,  when  the  Sentences, 
Exhortation^  Confession,  and  Absolution  were  added  at  the  he- 
ginning  of  the  morning  and  evening  services,  the  Command- 
ments were  added  at  the  beginning  of  the  Communion  office, 
and  some  rites  and  ceremonies  considered  idolatrous  were 
removed ;  and  thus  revised,  it  was  again  confirmed  by  Parlia- 
ment, IS5».  Interdicted  under  Mary,  it  was  again  introduced, 
with  slight  alterations,  under  Elizabeth.  Nothing  more 
done  till  after  the  Hampton  Court  conference  under  James  .., 
when  some  trifling  alterations  were  made,  such  as  the  adding 
of  some  fbvros  of  thank^lving  at  the  end  of  the  Litany,  and  an 
addition  to  the  Catechism  regarding  the  sacraments.  After  the 
Restoration^  at  the  instance  of  the  Presljyterians,  another  revisal 
was  made,  the  chief  alterations  then  made  bemg  that  the  Epistles 
and  Gospds  were  taken  out  of  the  authorised  version  of  the 
Bible,  and  that  the  ofiice  of  Baptism  for  those  of  riper  years  a 
the  forms  of  prayer  at  sea  were  added.  The  B.  of  C.  P.  as 
now  stands  was  then  approved  by  Convocation,  1661,  and  ct 
firmed  by  Parliament  nest  year.  See  Blunt's  Diet,  of  Doct.  and 
Hist.  Theol.  (1875),  and  Annotated  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
('S75]- 

Commime.  The  dinner  of  members  in  colleges  and  inns  of 
court  is  so  called.  There  are  separate  .tables  for  the  Benchers 
(q,  v.),  for  the  barristers,  and  for  the  students  and  other  mem- 


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Gommons,  House  of.     See  Parliament. 

Oommon  Sense,  tlie  Pbilosopliy  of,  was  the  name  given 
by  Dr  Thomas  Reid  to  the  theory  by  which  lie  hoped  to  avoid 
the  sceptical  conclusions  which  Hume  had  drawn  from  the  ideal- 
ism of  Locke  and  Berkeley.  The  scepticism  of  Hume  had  indeed 
no  connection  with,  but  was  opposed  to,  the  idealism  of  Berkeley 
strictly  so  called,  viz.,  the  substantial  existence  of  the  ideal  world 
in  an  all-perceiving  mind;  but  it  was  undoubtedly  founded  on 
what  has  been  called  the  representative  theory  of  Locke,  as  ex- 
tended by  Berkeley  to  the  primary  qualities  of  matter.  The 
general  statement  of  Reid  was  that  there  are  in  the  mind  certain 
self-evident  principles  which  cannot  be  proved  by  any  arguments, 
but  which  must  be  accepted  as  the  ultimate  grounds  of  certainty. 
General  acceptance,  and  the  impossibility  of  explaining  them  by 
eariy  training  or  false  reasoning,  may  confirm  this  view,  but  the 
authority  of  these  prindples  lies  in  the  simple  consciousness  of 
them.  They  are  either  Cmtingoit;  for  example,  'those  things 
dq  really  exist  that  we  distinctly  perceive  by  our  senses ;  the 
probable  uniformity  of  nature  ;  \  there  is  a  certfun  regard  due  to 
f testimony- ■■* '' ' 


rs  of  fact ;'  or  Necessary,  c 


grammatical,  logical,  mathematical,  moral,  metaphysical,  and 
aesthetic  principles ;  for  example,  every  proposition  is  either  true 
or  false;  whatever  begins  to  exist  must  have  a  cause.  This  pro- 
cedure of  affirming  with  regard  to  every  unexplained  mental  fact 
not  merely  that  it  could  not  be  expl^ned,  but  that  it  was  un- 
sdentific  to  attempt  its  explanation,  bad  already  been  adopted 
by  Pfere  Bnffier,  who  declared  that,  among  others,  It  was  the  de- 
liverance of  C.  S.  that  'my  soul  prodoees  motions  in  my  body  ;' 
a  proposition  which  is  declared  to  be  inconceivable  by  some 
modem  physiologists.  The  C.-S.  philosophy  was  largely  modi- 
fied by  Dt^ald  Stewart,  who  introduced  the  phrase  'Funda- 
mental Laws  of  Belief,'  but  it  owes  its  final  statement  to  Sir  W. 
Hamilton.  On  the  leading  question  of  a  belief  in  an  external 
world,  he  says  ;  '  We  are  immediately  conscious  in  percepti 
an  ego  and  a  non-ego,  known  together  and  known  in  contti 
each  other.  This  is  the  fact  of  the  diialiiy  of  conscious 
This  view  he  calls  Natutal  Realism.  Alt  other  views,  Nihilism, 
Idealism,  Materialism,  &c,  he  declares  to  proceed  on  the  non- 
recognition  of  this  ultimate  dualism,  or  primitive  incomprehen- 
sible belief  that  a  material  worid,  sohd  and  extended,  exists,  and 
that  a  perceiving  subject  also  exists.  Hamilton's  doctrine  of  C, 
S,  on  this  question  is  therefore  quite  different  froin  the  " 
tible  su^estion'  of  '         '■"  — ^— '■  "— ' 


ernal  world  which  Reid  declared  I 


follow  upon  sensation.  On  other  points  Hamilton  accused  Reid 
of  having,  like  Beattie  and  Oswald,  regarded  C.  S.  as  an  appeal 
to  '  the  undeveloped  beliefs  of  the  unreflecting  many.'     C.  S.  re- 

Jdires  strict  anisirsalit^  and  necessity  as  well  as  ituomprchmsi' 
Hty  or  simplicity  in  its  prindples.  Necessity  may  be  the  result 
of  a  power  or  of  an  impotence  of  the  inind.  The  Cartesian 
cogilo,  ergo  sum,  and  the  intuitions  of  space  and  time,  are  examples 
of  ttie  former ;  the  law  of  the  conditioned  as  applied  to  the 
notions  of  causality  and  moral  freedom  and  substance  afcrds 
examples  of  the  latter, 

Ooxtunon  Time,  in  music,  is  a  rilytlm^  in  which  strong  and 
weak  accents  occur  alternately,  each  bar  or  measure  usually 
taking  eilher  the  form  strong,  weak,  or  the  form  strong,  weak, 
medium,  weak.  These  primary  subdivisions  may  be  indicated 
indifferently  as  crotchets,  quavers,  er  minims,  the  first  being  by 
far  the  most  common,  and  having  the  time  signature  f  and  } 
or  ^.  Each  of  them  may  be  ag«Q  subdivided 
parts,  the  relative  accentuation  of  which  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  primary  subdivisions.  Rarely  these  secondaiy  subdiiTsions 
are  thru  in  number  (<.?.,  each  crotchet  is  divided  into  three 
quavers,  &c),  in  which  case  the  rhythm  is  really  changed  " 

t  _^  :.  1 Compound  C.  T.  (q.  v.). 


is  known  ai 

Oomiiiti'ni  Dividen'd.0  Ac'tio,  in   Roman  law,  was 
action  for  the  division  of  what  was  possessed  in  common  by 
persons  or  more.      The  principles  of  the  Roman  law  on  this 
subject  are  adopted  in  the  law  of  Scotland,    See  Common  Pro- 
perty, Common  Tenancy,  &e. 

Commun'ion,  or  Holy  Commtmioii,  is  one  of  the  names 
given  to  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  doubtless  derived 
from  the  language  of  Paul  in  I  Cor.  x,  i6,  17,  although  he  does 
not  call  the  sacrament  by  the  name  of  C,  but  only  says  what  it 


or  does.  C.  also  meant  the  fellowship  of  the  Church,  expul- 
on  from  whicli,  therefore,  was  called  'excommunication.' 
Communion  Elements  {in  law).  In  Scotland,  in  a  pro- 
:ss  of  Augmentation  (q.  v.),  the  court  may  allow  for  C.  E.,  pay- 
)le  out  of  the  Teinds  (q.  v.)  of  a  parish. 
Conuntimon  Service.  See  Common  Prayer,  the  Book 
F,  and  LiTUKGY. 

Commu'nis  Err'or,  a  term  of  Scotch  law,  denoting  the  pre- 
valence of  an  erroneous  practice,  which  practice  has  been  relied 
on.  The  Court  of  Session,  in  case  of  C.  E.,  generally  pass  an 
Act  of  Sederunt  {q.  v,}  requiring  observance  of  correct  practice 
for  the  future,  but  without  decision  which  might  disturb  past 
judicial  procedure. 

Oomm'unism  means  the  n^ation  of  private  property  :  it 
describes  a  society  in  which  the  land  and  instruments  of  produc- 
tion would  be  held  as  joint  property,  and  used  for  the  common 
account,  industry  being  regulated  by  a  magistrate,  and  the  produce 
being  publicly  divided  in  equal  sJiaves,  or  according  to  wants, 
or  on  some  other  prindple  of  distributive  justice.     Socmlism 
does  not  involve  necessarily  the  abolition  of  private  property :  it 
merely  Insists,  as  in  St  Simonism  and  Fourierism,  that  the  land 
and  instruments  of  production  should  be  the  property  of  the  asso- 
elation  or  of  the  Government ;  as  was  the  case  in  the  original 
Teutonic  '  mark '  and  Indian  'village-community,' and  wouhl  be 
partially  the  case  ifthe  state  were  to  appropriate  the  '  unearned 
increment '  of  rent— j,^.,  the  increase  of  rent  due,  not  to  expendi- 
ture of  capital,  but  to  the  &ct  of  inferior  soils  being  forced  into 
cultivation  by  the  pressure  of  population     Of  C,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  monasteries  and  the  Moravians  give  examples  on  a 
small  scale.     In  most  cases,  however,  as  with  the  Essenes  of 
Palestine,  the  American  Shakers  (except  the  Inspiiationists  of 
Amanda  and  the  Separatists  of  Zoar),  the  American  Harmonists 
and  Rappists  at  Economy  and  Beaver  Falls,  marriage  is  entirely 
given  up,  the  sodety  being  recruited  from  converts  or  from 
adopted  children.     Robert  Owen,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Scotch 
Cornmunist,  who  founded  the  abortive  experimental  communities 
of  Orbiston  in  Lanarkshire  (1823)  and  Harmony  Hall  in  Hamp- 
shire (1843),  connected  with  his  C.  a  scheme  of  selection  and 
alternation  in  the  family  relations,  by  which  1 
(believed  by  Owen  to  be  wholly  the  produi 
not  of  heredity)  was  to  be  indefinitely  m. 
which  would  then  be  the  natural  support  of  ■ 
also  in  the  Repablii:  of  Plato,  is  not  charact< 
in  the  economical  sense,  was  advocated  by 
and  Proudhon  ;  these  men  would  not  have  1 
lity  of  the  affections,'  on  which  the  pioiects 
ier,  and  En&ntin  were  based.     It  is  objecte 
duids  would  be  tempted  to  shirk  work.     B 
social  system  most  work,  even  superinteiidei 
wages  or  salaries— a  state  of  things  which 
altered  by  the  general  adoption  of  piece-wt 
tion  of  workmen  in  profits.     C.  would  hi 
against  laziness  and  fraud  as  the  present  sysl 
marriage  has  been  renounced  by  some  Cor 
seem  much  ground  for  supposii^  that,  if  i 
society  would  unduly  multiply.     It  's  diffici 
force  and  direction  of  public  opinion  on  sue. 
real  difficulties  in  the  way  of  C.  are  the  disi 
ments   and  their  remuneration.     Here  the 
human  beings  comes  strongly  out     If  the  i 
is  to  be  maintained,  the  selection  of  work  co 
indifference.    Then,  are  wages  to  be  exaci 
teacher  of  science  and  the  hodman,  who  bo 
'possible '  ?    This  Blanc  calls  '  the  point  of  1 
and  Cabet, 'fraternity,'   No  doubt,  all  the  n 
tion,  except  the  desire  of  money  and  what  money  commands, 
would  remain,  and  many  false  and  degrading  motives  would  be 
starved  out ;  but  would  humanity  not  still  heap  wealth,  as  well 
as  honours,  upon  its  heroes?    The  differences  of  remuneration 
between  a  statesman,  a  physician,  and  a  bricklayer,  are  no  doubt 
to  some  extent  based  on  erroneous  conceptions  of  social  dignity 
and  on  the  differences  of  preliminary  outlay  ;  and  these  would 
partly  disappear  under  a  system  which  made  education  gratui 
tous  and  universal,  and  which  converted  private  profession  mto 
public  sei-vice.    We  have  no  example  of  a  Communistic  societj 
with  the  fundamental  institution  of  marriage. 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Sliakers  are  successflil  ecoiiomieally,  tat  the  members  become 
dull  and  stupid,  and  are  unable  properly  to  train  the  adopted 
children.  The  aldUrs  or  national  workshops  ■  of  the  French 
Revolution  of  1848,  as  that  of  the  tailors  at  H5tel  Clichy,  &iled 
from  want  of  maJiagement.  The  bonus-paying  concerns  of  Le- 
claire  (painters),  iSipont  (printers),  Briggs  (colliers),  have  not 
been  very  successful.  Of  iSo  associations  formed  on  Blanc's 
principle,  only  ten  subsisted  in  1867.  The  Communist  societies, 
such  as  the  Travailleurs  Egalitaires  and  the  Communisles  Revo- 
lutionnaires,  which  had  much  to  do  with  the  French  Revolution 
of  1848,  and  were  represented  in  the  Proyisional  Government, 
are  now  probably  swallowed  up  in  the  '  International.' 

Oomnmn'ity.  Voluntary  associations  have  no  persona  standi 
m  judicio,  but  by  special  statute  it  is  made  lawful  to  establish 
societies  for  raising  funds  to  refieve  and  maintain  membeca  during 
sickness,  and  to  provide  burial.  (See  Benefit  Friendly 
Societies,  Building  BewEriT  Societies.)  Joint-stock  banks 
may  by  statute  sue  and  be  sued  in  the  name  of  their  pti 
pai  officer,  on  cerlain  conditions  prescribed  in  the  statute. 
Corporation,  Joint- Stock  Company. 

Cominuta'tioii  of  Small  Penalties.  The  Act  28  and  29 
Vict.  c.  127,  provides  a  scale  of  equivalent  terms  of  imprison- 
ment for  failure  to  pay  penalties  between  los.  and  £%. 

Oomitiutatiort  of  Tithea.    See  Tithes. 

Comne'nua,  the  family  name  of  a  dynasty  erf'  Byzantine  em- 
perors (1057-1204)  and  of  emperors  of  Trebizond  (1204-1461). 
SeeBVZANTlNE  EmpIke,  section  headed  The  Comnmian  Dy- 
nasty; also  Christian  names  of  individual  rulere — e.g-^  Alexius 
CoMNENUs,  Anna  Comnbna,  ftc. 

Co'mo  (anc.  Comum),  a  dty  in  the  province  of  the  same 
name,  N.  Italy,  and  connected  with  Milan  by  railway,  is  situated 
at  the  S.W.  extremity  of  Lalte  C.  (q.  v.),  in  a  beautiful  valley, 
encircled  by  hills  and  clothed  with  groves  of  olive  and  chest-, 
nut.  The  dty  itself  is  ill-built  and  filthy,  bat  the  suburbs  contain 
some  magnificent  palaces  and  imposing  public  buildings.  C.  is 
surrounded  by  double  walls,  pierced  by  four  gateways,  splendid 
specimens  of  the  military  architecture  of  the  middle  ages.  The 
Byzantine  cathedral  (1396)  ts  faced  with  white  marble,  and  cbn- 
tsins  some  interesting  monuments.  Iron  foundries  and  marble 
quarries  are  in  the  vicinity ;  there  arc  manufactures  of  siiks, 
woollens,  hosiery,  gloves,  and  soap  ;  and  ft  considerable  trade  is 
carried  on  with  Italy  and  Switzerland  by  means  of  the  lake. 
Pop.  (1872)  24,350.  C.  was  the  birthplace  of  the  younger 
Pliny,  who  enriched  it  with  public  woits,  a  library,  and  other 


The  Lake  of  C,  (Hal.  Logo  di  Como,  Lat.  Larius  Lacas)  lies 
at  the  foot  of  the  Alps,  700  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It 
is  35  miles  long,  with  a  breadth  nowhere  exceeding  3  miles,  but 
generally  considerably  less,  and  a  depth  of  from  40  to  600  feet. 
The  lake  is  formed  by  the  river  Adda,  and  divided  in  its  south- 
ern portion  into  two  great  arms  by  the  rocky  peninsula  of  Bel- 
lagio.  The  scenery  is  smgularly  beautiful ;  hence  the  lake  is 
much  visited,  and  Js  traversed  in  all  directions  by  steamers. 
The  younger  Pliny,  who  had  several  villas  on  its  banks,  speaks 
of  it  with  much  affection. 

Comodo',  an  island  of  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  in  the  Strait 
of  Sapy,  between  the  islands  of  Sambawa  and  Flores.  It  is  35 
miles  long,  with  an  average  breadth  of  16  miles. 

Oom'orin,  Cape,  the  S.  extremity  of  Hindustan,  a  low  sandy 
point,  invisible  to  the  mariner  till  he  is  within  10  or  12  miles 
of  it.  Eighteen  miles  behind  it  is  the  Peak  of  C,  a  picturesque 
rounded  eminence  of  the  Western  Ghauts,  which  serves  as  a 
beacon  to  the  passing  ship. 

Com'orn,     See  Komohn. 

Oom'oro  Isles,  a  group  of  four  laj^  and  four  small  islands 
of  volcanic  origin,  in  the  middle  of  the  N.  entrance  to  the 
Mozambimie  Channel,  between  Madagascar  and  the  E,  coast  of 
Africa.  They  were  discovered  by  Houtman  in  1598.  The 
names  of  the  larger  ones  are  Angaziya  or  Great  C,  Mohilla, 
Mayotta,  and  Anjouan  or  Johanna.  They  rise  to  a  great  eleva- 
tion, and  can  be  seen  at  a  distance  of  from  Jo  to  60  miles.  The 
soil  is  fertile,  and  a  tropicd  vegetation  is  everywhere  seen — 
cocoa  and  areca  palms,  fine  timber  for  shipbuilding,  yams, 
bananas,  mangos,  ananas,  citrons,  &c  Rice,  maiie  cotton 
214 


30,000.  Mayotla  has  bee 
is  valuable  for  the  production  of  sugar.  Johanna,  the  most  pic- 
turesque and  prosperous  of  the  four,  is  a  favourite  victualling 
place  for  ships. 

Oom'panies'  Caausee  Conaolidation  Act.    See  Eail- 

Company.     See  Joint- Stock  Company,  Partnership. 

Company  of  a  Ship  includes  all  persons  engaged  in  the 
working  and  management  of  the  affairs  of  a  ship,  officers  as 
well  as  Crew  (q.  v.). 

Compar'ative  Anat'omy.    See  Anatomy. 

Coinpar'isOD,  in  grammar,  is  the  name  given  to  the  mode  of 
marking  the  degree  in  which  a  quality  is  attributed  to  an  object. 
It  is  customary  to  say  that  there  are  three  degrees  of  C,  posilivt, 
comparative,  and  superlative.  Exception  may  be  taken  to  this 
division  on  the  ground  [1)  that  tlie  '  positive'  does  not  express 
though  it  may  imply  C,  and  (2)  that  the  kind  of  C.  which  it 
implies  is  quite  differeut  from  that  which  is  expressed  by  the 
second  degree.  Simikr  objections  may  be  ui^ed  ogamst  calling 
the  third  or  highest  degree  one  of  C.  Admitting  that  the  phi-ase 
'degrees  of  quality' would  be  more  logical  and  more  simple 
than  '  degrees  of  C.,'  little  or  no  harm  can  ensue  by  retaining  a 
nomenclature  which  is  easily  interpreted  by  common  sense.  In 
English,  German,  and  some  other  languages,  there  are  two  ways 
ofexpressing  these  degrees—(i)  By  inflection,  wliich  is  the  preva- 
lent mode  in  Greek  and  Latin,  as  bi-ight,  brighter,  brightest;  (2) 
By  using  another  word  expressive  of  increase  or  decrease  of  the 
quality,  as  conspicuous,  more  (or  less)  conspicuous,  tnost  (or  least) 
conspicuous.  _  The  former  mode  is  preferred  in  words  of  one 
syllable,  or  in  words  of  more  than  one  where  euphony  would 
not  be  impaired.  As  a  rule,  it  is  only  adjectives  of  quality  that 
can  he  compared,  and  not  all  even  of  tliese.  Such  as  express  a 
quality  not  admitting  of  degrees— <;.f.,  r0u?id,  square,  whole,  kc. 
— cannot  be  compared. 

For  C.  in  rhetoric,  see  Figures  OF  Speech  and  Simile. 

Com^a«e,  an  instrument  for  indicating  the  magnetic  meri- 
dian at  any  locality.  As  this  meridian  lies  in  a  generally  N. 
and  S-  direction,  the  C.  is  of  special  use  in  giving  bearings  of 
any  object  from  a  fixed  place,  and  is  of  invaluable  service  to  the 
matinee  and  tmveller  as  a  guide  over  unltnown  I'egions.  All 
such  instruments  consist  essentially  of  a  magnet  suspended  so 
as  to  have  as  complete  freedom  of  motion  in  azimuth  as  possible. 
Tire  Mariner's  C.  is  familiar  to  all,  the  only  portion  visible 
fiom  above  being  the  lame  circular  card  whicli  is  attached  to 
the  bar  magnet,  and  marked  with  the  so-called  points  of  the 
C.  Each  quadrant  contains  eight  points,  which  are  named 
according  to  the  following  plan : — Beginning  at  N.  and  going 
lowanis  E.,  we  read  N.,  N.  by  E.,  N.N.E,,  N.E.  by  N., 
N.E.,N.E.  bvE.,  E.N.E,,  E.  by  N.,  K;  and  the  other  quad- 
rants are  divided  in  precisely  a  similar  manner. 

The  magnetic  needle  is  subject  to  a  variation  with  latitude, 
owing  to  the  non-coincidence  of  the  magnetic  and  geograpliical 

?oles,  so  tliat  it  usually  points  to  the  W.  or  E.  of  the  trae  N. 
liis  deviation  is  easily  corrected  ;  bat  a  much  more  irregular 
deviation  is  produced  by  the  reaction  of  the  ship's  iron  upon  the 
magnet.  Various  schemes  have  been  proposed  to  remedy  this, 
such  as  fixing  the  needle  at  the  mast-head,  tlius  reducing  the 
action  to  a  minimum,  or  by  using  two  parallel  magnets.  The 
metliod  employed  in  the  British  navy  at  present  is  to  have  the 
C.  at  a  sufficient  elevation  above  the  bulnarlts,  so  as  to  allow 
of  it  having  an  uninterrupted  sweep  of  the  horizon.  By  setting 
the  vessel  in  the  various  directions,  the  variations  of  the  needle 
may  be  obtamed  and  tabulated  for  future  use.  Sir  W.  Thomson 
has  shown  that  if  two  masses  of  soft  iron,  large  in  comparison 
to  the  size  of  the  needle,  be  placed  at  opposite  sides  of  the 
magnet,  the  effect  of  other  more  distant  portions  of  iron  will  he 
very  small  indeed  ;  and  accordingly  he  has  recently  constmcted 
a  very  sensitive  C,  differing  from  those  ordinarily  in  use  at  sea 
in  not  having  the  card  fixed  to  the  needle  or  needles,  which  are 
here  not  more  than  l^  inch  in  length,  and  which  are  as  nearly 
dead-beat  as  they  could  be  wished,  and  in  having  two  spheroid 
" " "  ;s  of  soft  ii-on  fixed  close  beside  the  double  needle. 


vLaOogle 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCVCLOPMDIA. 


OOM 


Oompaas'ee,  instruments  for  measuring  and  transferring  dis- 
lances.  The  Common  C.  consist  of  two  legs,  joined  together 
at  one  end  by  a  pivot-joint,  and  may  be  used  for  describing 
circles.  The  Beam  C.  serve  the  same  end,  but  are  more  accurate, 
and  Ijetter  capable  of  measuring  greater  distances.  The  points 
slide  along  a  straight  beam,  and  are  clamped  securely  at  the  re- 
quired distance.  Proportional  C.  have  two  pairs  of  opposite  legs, 
whose  lengths,  and  therefoi-e  the  distances  between  the  points 
of  each  pair,  can  be  altered  to  various  proportions. 

Oompasa'ionate  AlloVauoe.  Certain  annuities  to  chil- 
dren of  deceased  Biilish  military  and  naval  officers,  given  by  the 
state,  are  so  called.  They  are  tenable  by  boys  up  to  eighteen 
years  of  age,  by  girls  till  twenty-one  or  marriage.  They  range 
from  X%  to  £20  per  annum.  A  special  C.  A.  was  granted  in 
1855  and  1856  to  the  widows  and  children,  or,  in  some  cases, 
to  other  specified  relations,  of  military  officers  killed  in  the 
Crimean  war, 

Com'paas  Plant  {Silphium  lacinialum),  a  plant  of  the 
western  prairies  of  America,  so  called  because  it  is  said  to  turn 
the  faces  of  its  leaves  uniformly  in  a  N.  or  S.  direction  ;  'the 
leaves  on  the  developed  stems  of  the  flowering  plants  taking 
rather  an  intermediate  position  between  their  normal  arrange- 
it  on  the  stem  and  their  peculiar  meridional  position.  The 
settlers,  when  lost  on  the  prairies  on  a  dark  night,  get  their 
bearing  by  feeling  the  direction  of  the  leaves'  (Brown),  The 
reason  of  this  is,  that  owing  to  the  Stomata  (q.  v.)  being  more 
equally  distributed  on  both  sides  of  the  le.af  than  js  usual  in 
other  plants,  both  sides  are  equally  sensitive  to  light. 

Compear'ance,  a  term  of  Scotch  law,  denoting  the  appear- 
ance made  for  a  defender  in  an  action. 

Comptarer. — Any  one  not  called  in  an  action  in  Scotland  may 
compear  and  claim  to  sist  himself  on  the  ground  of  having  an 
interest  in  it.     If  his  claim  is  sustained  he  is  called  a  C. 

Compensa'tion,  in  physics,  a  method  for  eliminating  or 
neutralising  unavoidable  errors,  by  intro.ducing  others  equal  but 
opposite.     See  Pendulum  and  Balancb- Wheel  for  common 


Compensation,  in  law.  Where  two  persons  are  indebted  to 
each  other,  their  debts,  if  equal,  are  held  by  law  to  extii^ish 
eachother;  if  unequal,  to  leaveonlyabalance  due.  In  England 
the  allegation  of  trespass  or  wrong  done  by  the  plaintiff  cannot 
be  pleaded  by  the  defendant  in  an  action  as  a  set-off  against  the 
claim  of  damage.  The  defendant's  remedy  must  be  by  a  cross 
action.     This  k  greatly  the  doctrine  of  Scotch  law  also. 

By  a  legal  anomajy  no  action  used  to  be  maijitainabl.e  against 
a  person  who,  by  wrongfiil  act  or  negligence,  caused  the  death  of 
another,  while  the  ofl'ender  was  liable  if  the  sufferer  was  merelv 
hurt.  But  this  defect  has  been  remedied  \>y  Lord  Campbell  s 
Act,  which  provides  that  any  one  who  has  caused  the  death  of 
another,  even  under  circumstances  which  make  the  offence  felony, 
shall  be  liable  in  damage  at  the  instance  of  the  executor  or  ad- 
ministrator of  the  deceased  for  behoof  of  the  wife,  husband, 
parent,  or  child.  The  action  must  be  begun  within  twelve  months 
after  death, 

Com'petent  and  Omitt'ed,  a  Scotch  legal  phrase  denot- 
ing pleas  which  might  have  been  maiptained  in  a  suit,  but 
which  have  not  been  stated.  The  Court  of  Session  may  reduce 
their  own  decrees  on  the  emerging  of  way  new  fact  or  writing, 
unless  statement  or  production  has  been  wilfully  omitted  to  pro- 

Oompeti'tion  (which,  like  its  French  equivalent  concurrence, 
Bu^ests  the  idea  of  a  stru^le  for  a  prize)  has  been  denounced 
by  sociaUsts  as  a  principle  of  social  disorder,  and  lauded  by  op- 
timist writers  in  political  economy  as  the  force  which  overrules 
private  interest'for  the  general  good.  Practically,  howener,  C, 
may  be  best  described  as  the  absence  of  restriction  upon  indi- 
vidual judgment  in  industrial  affairs.  The  restriction  may  be 
enforced  by  eitlier  law  or  custom.  Thus  the  usury  laws  (demo- 
lished in  this  country  by  Bentham)  prohibited  the  taking  of  in- 
terest beyond  a  certain  rate ;  the  land-custom  of  India  fixed  the 
rent  payable  for  occupancy.  In  lact,  only  in  modem  times  has 
free  C.  under  contract  generally  superseded  the  rule  of  stains 
and  custom  among  advanced  nations.  Another  form  of  C. 
which  was  frequently  either  excluded  or  hampered  by  treaty 
was  that  between  different  countries  in  the  same  mariiet.    Either 


the  privilege  of  extrusive  importation  was  conceded  to  a  favoured 
colony  or  neighbour,  or  native  industry  was  bolstered  up  by  pro- 
hibitory duties  on  importation.  But  no  more  striking  change 
has  taken  place  Uian  with  respect  to  wages,  which  were  formerly 
regulated  either  by  statute  or  statutory  magistrates,  but  aie  now 
fixed  hy  agieement  between  capitalists  and  trade  societies,  both 
parlies  looking  to  the  actual  and  probable  state  of  trade.  Some 
of  these  restiictions  were  no  doubt  suitable  to  a  stationary 
society  isolated  from  othel:  societies,  but  with  regard  to  lliem 
all,  there  is  no  doubt  Ihat  they  were  incompatible  with  the  pro- 
gressive movement  in  industry  and  trade  which  has  marked  the 
last  century.  Each  country  devoting  itself  to  flie  department  in 
whidi  lit  has  .either  the  'greatest  superiority  or  the  least  infe- 
riority;' each  producer  endeavouring  by  ingenuity  or  economy 
to  secure  a  sale  by  furnishing  his  commodity  at  a  less  cost  to 
society  ;  each  capitalist  bidding  for  the  labour  he  requires,  and 
bidding  more  highly  for  the  more  skilled  labour  1  such  is  the 
picture  presented  by  perfect  C.  As  Bastiat  says,  its  tendency  on 
the  whole  is  to  give  every  one  a  larger  share  of  the  'gratuitous 
utility '  of  nature,  by  the  advantages  whidi  science  and  invention 
have  attained  from  nature.  But  this  ideal  C.  nowhere  exists. 
Manufacturers  and  traders  combme  to  presei-ve  prices  and  to 
sink  wages  ;  in  particular  industries  and  particular  nations  enor- 
ijious  vested  interests  oppose  the  introdnction  of  new  methods  ; 
trades  imLonism  endeavours  to  identify  the  individual  workman 
with  his  class.  It  is  therefore  equally  unjust  to  ascribe  to  C. 
the  great  achievements  of.modem  industry,  and- to  charge  it  with 
the  evil  results  of  modem  civilisation.  The  absence  of  public 
regulation  has  assuredly  not  .created  the  skill,  the  perseverance, 
the  enterprise  which  have  founded  so  many  trades,  nor  is  it  re- 
sponsible for  the  prevalence  of  commercial  dishonesty  or  for  the 
fact  that  population  presses  closely  On  the  means  of  subsistence. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  experience  of  the  national  aleiiirs  of 
Paris,  and  the  history  of  the  experimental  communities  founded 
on  socialistic  principles,  do  not  surest  that  any  scheme  for  pub- 
lic regulation  of  prices  and  wages  would  be  at  present  practi- 
cable, or  anything  but  disasttous.  It  is  only  where,  as  in  the 
case  of  railway  and  gas  companies,  &c.,  a  practical  monopoly 
in  a  district  exists,  that  the  state  can  wisely  even  specify  a  maxi- 
mum  price  or  a  maximum  profit.  The  evils  attending  on  C. 
can  only  he  lemoved  by  the  old-iashioned  and  unpleasantly  slow 
remedy  of  making  people  wiser  and  better  than  they  are. 

OompiSgne  (Lnt.  Compendium),  a  town  in  the  department 
of  the  Oise,  France,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Oise,  a  mile  below 
its  junction  with  the  Aisne,  and  60  miles  N.N.E.  of  Paris 
by  railway.  Pop.  (1872)  io,353-  Boatbuilding,  hosiery,  rope- 
making,  are  among  the  principal  industries  ;  and  there  is  a  trade 
in  coal,  wood,  and  grain.  The  chief  edifice  is  the  palace,  origin- 
ally built  by  St  Louis,  and  rebuilt  by  Louis  XIV.  Here,  on 
March  27,  1810,  Napoleon  I,  received  his  bride,  Maria  Louisa, 
Archdudiess  of  Austria.  It  was  also  a  favourite  hunting-seat  of" 
Napoleon  III.,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  vast  park.  Joan  of  Arc 
was  made  prisoner  before  the  walls  of  C.  in  143a 

Com'plement,  the  amount  by  which  a  given  magnitude  falls 
short  of  some  fixed  magnitude.  Thus  the  arithmetical  C,  of  a 
number  is  the  difference  between  it  and  the  next  higher  power 
of  ten  ;  the  C.  of  an  angle  or  arc  is  the  amount  by  which  it  falls 
short  of  a  right  angle  or  a  quadrant ;  the  C.  of  a  common  loga- 
rithm is  found  by  subtracting  it  from  ten. 

Oom'pline.     See  Canonical  Hours. 

Oompo'iiee,  Compony,  or  Gobony,  in  heraldiy,  is  a  term 
describing  the  field  of  any  charge  divided  into  a  single  row  of 
small  squares,  cltemately  a  metal  and  a  colour.  When  there 
are  two  such  rows,  the  field  is  said  to  be  cwn/w-C;  when  more 
than  two,  it  is  Cktckji  (q.  v.), 

Oompos'itEB,  Synanther'ete,  or  Aster'aeeES,  the  most 
extensive  natural  order  of  Dicotyledonous  plants,  belonging  to 
the  subdivision  CoralUflora  (or,  according  to  others,  to  the  Caly- 
clfiors),  herbs  or  shrubs,  universally  distributed.  In  Ihe  northern 
regions  these  plants  are  all  herbaceous,  but  in  ihe  southern 
hemisphere  they  are  occasionally  shrubby  or  even  arborescent. 
There  are  now  9000  species  known.  They  have  been  usually 
divided  into  the  following  sub-orders :— (i)  Tuhiliflora,  most 
abundant  in  hot  climates.  SeHecio,  Daisy,  Sc,  are  good  examples. 
(2)  LabiBtiJlora,  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  extra. tropical 


vGooqIc 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


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regions  of  S.  America.  MutUia  is  an  esample.  (3)  LiguHflom, 
most  abundant  in  cold  countries.  The  Chicory  [(|.  v.]  and 
Dandelion  (q.  v.)  are  examples.  Their  properties  are  variable, 
though  it  may  be  said  that  the  whole  order  is  pervaded  by  a 
bitter  principle,  so  that  most  of  them  are  tonic  Some  pos- 
sess laxative  and  anthelmintic  properties  j  others,  owing  to  the 
presence  of  a  volatile  oil,  are  aromatic,  carminative,  and  dia- 
phoretic. Acrid  stimulaiive  qualities  are  possessed  by  others, 
while  most  of  the  LiguUflmiz  abound  in  a  milky  juioe,  whicli  is 
bitter,  and  sometimes  narcotic  To  enumerate  all  the  economic 
plants  of  this  great  and  important  order  would  be  impossible 
within  our  space.  Wormwood  (q.  v,},  Chamomile  (q.  v.),  Ele- 
campane (q,  v.),  Tussiiago  (q.  v.).  Arnica,  &c.,  are  amOng  the 
medidna!  plants  fnrnished  I7  it.  The  Artichoke  <q.  t.),  salsafy, 
endive,  lettuce,  &c.,  are  eaten.  The  safHower  and  sawort 
supply  dye-stuffe.  The  sirrehont  ( Tarchstiaatlais  camphoratu^ 
of  ttie  Cape  of  Good  Hope  furnishes  a  close-grained  beautiful 
wood,  valued  by  cabinetmakers, 

Cknaposite  Orders  (in  architecture}.    See  Columk. 

Oomposi'tioii,  The  creditors  of  an  insolvent  person  are  said 
in  law  to  accept  of  a  C,  when  they  agree  to  give  him  a  discharge 
in  full,  on  his  paying  them  a  part  instead  S  the  whole  of  the 
debt  he  owes  them.  In  Engand,  the  creditors  ot  one  who  is 
insolvent  may,  without  any  proceedings  in  bankrupti.y  resolve 
to  accept  a  C.  ;  but,  to  make  the  resolution  bi  idmg  on  the 
minority,  it  must  be  carried  by  a  majority  in  number  and  three 
fourths  in  value  of  the  creditors,  at  two  m  ng  n  n  d  m  a 
prescribed  manner.     In  Scotland,  no  c    d  n  b       mpelled 


s  dsch 


d  under 


h  Act 


c  payment 


in  Scotland  to  thi 
y  a  Singular  Successo 

is  not  so,  the  superio 
it  of  the  figures  or  c 


■>  accept  a  C.  until  the  bankrupt  h      been 
sequestration.      Acceptance  of  C.  by  01 

bankrupt  and  r^nvests  him  in  his  estate.  H 
the  C.  only.  All  preferences  and  collusi  ag 
cuning  in  settlement  by  C.  are  void,  and  under 
a  creditor  who  has  obtained  any  prefee 
ment  for  his  consent,  ts  liable  to  the  !  ss  hi 
repayment  of  double  the  value  of  the  prefere; 
which  he  has  accepted.  See  Bankruptcy. 
Composition  to  a  Supa-ier  is  the  name  civei 
entry-money  j)aid  to  the  Superior  (q.  v.) 
(q.  v.).  The  amount  of  the  C.  is  someth 
is  called,  in  the  original  charter  ;  when 
is  entitled  to  a  yeaPs  rent  of  the  subject. 
OompOBition,  in  art,  is  the  arranger 
jects  of  a  picture,  or  of  the  different  memba-s  of  a  group  in  sculp- 
ture, or  of  the  lines  of  a  single  figure  in  painting  or  sculpture,  which 
is  found  best  at  once  to  impart  emphasis  to  the  prominent  idea  of 
the  work,  and  to  supply  a  fitting  environment  of  harmony  and 

OoirLposition   and.  Beaolution    of  Velocities  and 

I'orces  constitute  the  most  important  and  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  dynamical  science.  Suppose  a  body  to  receive  an  im- 
pulse in  a  northerly  direction,  which  would  produce  a  velocity  of 
10  miles  an  hour ;  and  suppose  it  further  to  receive  a  simultaneous 
and  equal  impulse  in  an  easterly  direction  ;  the  question  immedi- 
ately arises,  In  what  direction  and  with  what  velocity  will  the 
body  move  ?  At  the  end  of  an  hour  the  body  will  obviously  have 
proceeded  lo  miles  N.  and  10  miles  E.  ;  and  therefore  it  will 
have  travelled  in  a  N,E.  direction  with  a  velocity  of  ro ;^  z  miles 
an  hour.  This  principle  is  easily  extended 
to  the  general  case  of  any  two  velocities 
making  any  direction  with  each  other. 
Let  O  A  and  O  E  represent  in  direction 
and  magnitude  two  velocities,  which  are 
communicated  simultaneously  to  a  body 
at  O  ;  then  it  appears  by  a  simple  inspec- 
tion of  the  figure,  and  a  knowledge  of 
Newton's  first  law  (see  Motion,  Laws 
of),  that  the  body  vrill  move  with  a  velo- 
3  city  represented  in  direction  and  magni- 
tude by  O  C,  the  diagonal  of  the  parallelo- 
gram whose  sides  are  O  A  and  OB.  O  C  is  termed  the  resultant 
of  the  two  compontnt  velocities  0  A  and  0  B.  The  reverse  pro- 
blem, to  resolve  a  given  velocity  in  two  given  directions,  follows 
n  immediate  deduction  from  this.  Thus,  to  resolve  0  C  along 
O  P  and  O  Q,  we  have  simply  to  draw  through  C,  C  B  and  C  A 
parallel  respectively  to  O  A  and  O  B.     Forces  are  compounded 


dedudble 

tional  to  the  impressed  force,  and  takes  place  in  the  direction  of 
the  straight  line  in  which  the  force  acts  ; '  and  accordingly  we 
may  take  O  A  and  O  B  as  representing  in  direction  and  magni- 
tude the  forces  which  produced  these  velocities.  Hence  the 
resultant  force  is  what  would  produce  the  i-esultant  velocity  O  C, 
therefore  is  represented  by  O  C  in  both  direction  and  magni- 
tude.    See  Velocity. 

Compos'itor,     See  Printing. 

Gom'pos  Men'tis.     See  Insanity. 

Compoatell'a,  Order  of  St  James  of,  a  Spanish  order  of 
knights,  foujided  at  Santiago  de  C,  in  the  N.W.  of  Spain,  and 
sanctioned  by  the  Pope  in  1175.  The  original  founders  were 
thirteen  nobfemen  in  conjunction  with  the  canons  of  St  Eloy ; 
and  their  immediate  object  was  to  protect  against  the  Moors  the 
numerous  pilgrims  who  visited  C.  in  honour  of  the  relics  of  St 

iames  the  Elder,  patron  of  the  citj;  and  of  Spam,  which  were 
elieved  to  be  built  into  the  foundations  of  the  cathedral.  The 
affairs  of  the  order  were  controlled  by  a  council  of  thirteen,  and 
vows  of  poverty,  obedience,  and  celibacy  were  taken  by  the 
members  ■  but  the  order  being  entitled  to  retain  whatever  was 
Bon  f  om  the  Moors,  its  wealth  became  enormous  ;  and  its  power 
g  ew  so  formidable  as  to  excite  the  fears  and  jealousy  of  the 
c  own  The  fope  accordingly  transferred  the  grand-mastership 
of  the  order  permanently  to  the  crown  in  1522,  which  led  to  a 
rapid  decline  of  its  importance. 

Composts,  a  kind  of  manure  consisting  of  lime,  earth,  and 
OTgamc  refuse  matter  gathered  into  a  heap  to  promote  fermen- 
tation or  decay,  the  mass  being  turned  over  at  regular  intervals 
to  render  it  homogeneous  before  transferring  it  to  tlie  land.  C. 
available  for  one  or  more  of  the  cultivated  crops  may  be  made 
with  all  kinds  of  farm  refuse,  as  potato-haulms,  weeds,  leaves, 
hedge  dippings,  as  well  as  scourings  of  ditches,  road  scrapings, 
&c,  mixed  with  lime,  in  the  proportion  of  one  load  of  lime  to 
five  loads  of  refuse.  The  refuse  of  manufactures,  as  wool  and 
flax  waste,  hair  and  horn  clippings,  soap  waste,  ammoniacal 
liquor,  &c.,  mixed  with  earth,  constitutes  excellent  C. 

Oom'poand  An'imftls,  the  name  given  to  animals  which  are 
composed  of  a  greater  or  less  number  of  distinct  foims.  The 
included  organisms  of  a  compound  animal — of  which  tlie  Tape- 
worms, Polytoa  (q.  v.),  or  Sea-mats,  the  Z^^fnW  zoophytes,  and 
the  compound  Tunkatis  (q.  v.)  form  good  examples — are  termed 
toiiids,  whilst  the  entire  compound  form,  however  numerous  its 
zobids,  is  itself  named  the  individual.  Any  individual  animal 
m  loolt^  is  defined  as  the  result  of  the  total  develojiment  of  a 
single  egg.  Whatever  a  single  egg  gives  rise  to  is  an  individual, 
and  this  latter  may  be  simple,  or  consist  of  one  animal,  as  in 
higher  forms ;  or  be  compound,  as  in  the  examples  given.  The 
compound  form  at  first  consists  of  a  single  soSid,  which  by  a 
process  of  gemmation  or  budding  gives  rise  to  the  compound 
organism. 

Com.poxuid  Coiwiaoii  Time,  in  music,  is  a  rhythm  in  which 
the  primary  subdivisions  of  each  bar  are  accented  as  in  Common 
Time  iq.  v.).  Each  of  them,  however,  is  indicated  (in  ordinary 
musical  notation)  by  a  doited  crotchet,  minim,  or  semibreve — 
generally  the  former  (for  which  the  time  signature  ia  f ),  and  is 
subdivided  into  three  parts,  which  have  the  relative  accentuation ; 

Strong.  Weak.  Weak. 

Eack  of  l^iese  secondary  subdivisions  becomes,  according  lo  the 
notation  of  the  primary,  a  quaver,  crotchet,  or  minim,  and  are 
frequently  again   subdivided    into  two  parts,  upon  the  first  of 


which  the  st 


iS  falls. 


Compounding  of  Fel'ony,  or  Theft  Bote.  When  one 
who  has  been  robbed  takes  back  the  artide  stolen  on  an  agree- 
ment not  to  prosecute,  he  is  guilty  of  C.  of  F.,  and  is  punishable 
at  common  law  by  fine  and  imprisonment.  By  24  and  25  Vict. 
C,  96,  if  any  one  advertise  a  reward  for  the  return  of  any  property 
'  lost  or  stolen,'  and  in  such  advertisement  use  any  words  pur- 
porting that  no  question  will  be  asked  regarding  the  person  pro- 
ducing the  missing  property,  or  as  to  how  it  came  into  his 
possession,  he,  as  well  as  the  printer  and  publisher  of  the  adver- 
tisement, isliableinapenalty  of  ;f5o,  with  costs,  at  the  instance 
of  any  one  suing  for  the  same.      By  a  subsequent  Act,  no  acticn 


y  Google 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


for  the  peniiltj'  can  be  raised  without  concunence  of  the  Attorney 
or  Sohcitor  Genera).  Any  one  taking  a  reward  foe  helping  the 
owner  to  lecover  stolen  property,  unless  he  cause  the  thief  to  be 
bi  jught  to  trial,  is  guilty  of  felony. 

Compound  Interest  (in  arithmetic).  See  Interest, 
Oompoimd  Interest,  in  law,  or  interest  with  Annual  Rests, 
IS  nei  er  allowed  on  the  sum  in  the  original  obligation  or  agree- 
ment but  there  is  commonly  a  posterior  contract  to  accumulate 
inlere^,!  and  make  it  a  principal  bearing  interest.  This  is  the 
general  rule  of  law ;  but  in  cases  of  hardship,  annual  rests  may 
be  alloH  ed,  and  the  House  of  Lords  is  empowered  by  statute  to 
allow  C  I.  on  appeal  from  Scotland,  if  it  shall  think  fit  to 
do  so. 

Compound  Triple  Time  is  a.  rhythm  bearing  the  same  re- 
lation to  Triple  Time  (q.  v.)  that  compound, common  time  (above) 
bears  to  common  time.  Its  piimary  subdivisions  are  generally 
noted  either  as  dotted  minims  or  crotchets,  for  wliich  the  time 
signatures  are  respectively  f  and  J. 

Compressed-Air  Bath,  an  apparatus  invented  by  M.  La- 
bnti^  of  Paris  in  1832,  and  since  introduced  into  Ben-Rhyddmg 
and  other  hydropathic  establishments,  which  is  ef&cacious  as  a 
cure  for  asthma,  bronchitis,  phthisis,  &c.  The  increased  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere  produced  by  its  means  seems  to  invigor- 
ate the  lungs,  compelling  them  to  more  rapidly  perform  then 
functions  of  inhalation  and  exhalation,  and  thus  to  purify  the 
blood  and  restore  the  body,  and  especially  tlie  breathing  orgi  - 
to  a  healthier  and  more  natural  condition. 

Oompressibil'ity,  one  of  the  properties  of  matter,  in  virtue 
of  which  a  body  is  diminished  in  volume  under  increased  pressure. 
It  is  usually  accompanied  by  evolution  of  beat,  and  in  sucTi  cases 
the  application  of  heat  is  attended  with  expansion.  All  gases 
are  easily  compressible,  but  the  name  comp-cssiile  gas  is  restricted 
to  such  as  have  been  compressed  to  the  liquid  st*te.  Liquids  for 
long  resisted  all  attempts  at  mechanical  compression,  and  their 
C.  ys  exceedingly  small,  being  measurable  only  by  the  most  re- 
fined processes.  Solids  present  various  degrees  of  C^  but  its 
existence  proves  either  that  matter  is  porous,  or  tliat  the  ultimate 
particles  are  capable  of  compression,  the  former  at  any  rate  being 
probably  true, 
Compris'ing',  the  same  as  Apprismg\o^.  v.). 
Com'promise,  in  English  law,  is  understood  to  be  a  mutual 
promise  of  parties  to  submit  matters  in  dispute  to  arbitration, 
In  Scotland  the  analogous  terms  are  Saitnii  and  Refer. 

Compto'iiia,  a  genus  of  Deciduous  bushy  shrubs  belonging  to 
the  natural  order  Myricacea,  natives  of  N,  America,  and  named 
in  honour  of  Henry  Compton,  Bishop  of  London  about  the  year 
1 7 14,  and  rtie  introducer  of  many  exotic  plants  into  England, 
C.  asplen^olia,  known  in  the  U.S.  as  the  'sweet  fern,  is  em- 
ployed in  that  country  as  an  astringent  and  tonic  in  diarrhcea. 
In  France  it  ia  sometimes  called  Liquidambar  &  fmilles  de 
Ctttrack,  thoDgh  it  has  no  connection  with  the  true  Liquedam- 
bar  {L.  Styrncifltsa). 

Oompul'sion.  Acts  done  or  rights  granted  on  C,  or  under 
the  influence  of  Force  and  Fear  (q.  v.),  are  reducible.  (See  RE- 
DUCTION.)  It  is  a  sufficient  defence  against  a  criminal  cllai^e 
that  the  crime  was  committed  under  C. 
Oomputa'tion  of  Time.  See  Day. 
Computation  of  Time,  in  law.  Tlie  question  of  whether 
or  not  a  particular  period  of  time  has  legally  expired  may  have 
a  most  important  effect  on  the  rights  of  parties.  Thus,  in  Scot- 
land, where  the  granter  of  a  deed  challenged  under  tlie  law  of 
Deathbed  (see  Deathbed,  Law  of)  lived  for  fifty-nine  days 
and  three  hours  after  executing  the  deed,  the  court  held  it  to  be 
reducible,  on  the  gronnd  that  the  law  requires  the  granter  to 
have  lived  for  sixty  days,  without  counting  the  day  on  which  the 
deed  was  executed.  This  decision  was  affirmed  by  the  House 
of  Lords,  Had  the  granter  lived  to  the  morning  of  the  sixtieth 
day,  the  legal  maxim.  Dies  inceptas  pro  comphto  hahstw,  would 
have  been  applicable,  and  the  deed  would  have  been  good. 
There  has  been  a  decision  in  accordance  with  this  principle. 


of  Scotland,  Slight  earthquake  shocks  are  frequently  felt  here. 
"  .  ingenious  apparatus  has  been  contrived  and  stationed  in  a 
,.  rered  building  in  the  neighbourhood  (1875)  by  which  the  force 
and  direction  of  the  shock  is  registered.  C.  has  distilleries  and 
some  manufactures  of  woollens  and  cottons.  Pop.  (i8;i)  village, 
746;  parish,  igii. 

Comte,  Auguste,  the  founder  of  tlie  school  of  '  Positive 
Philosophy,'  was  born  at  Montpellier,  19th  January  1798,  of 
Catholic  and  royalist  parents,  and  eariy  gained  a  place  in  the 
iciilt  PelyUchmque  through  his  mathematical  talent.  Expelled 
from  that  institution  for  insubordination,  he  taught  matbematics 
privately,  became  secretaryto  Casimir  Perier,  and  from  1818-24 
was  associated  with  St  Simon,  who  no  doubt  inspired  him  with 
the  idea  of  reconstrncdng  sodal  order,  expressed  m  the  Plan  dei 
Tramux  N&essairis p<mr  Rhrganiser  la  ScciM  In  1824,  in  an 
essay  in  the  Froducttur,  C.  published  his  theory  of  progress  from 
the  military  ofi'ensive  r^fie  through  the  military  defensive  to 
the  industrial  padfic ;  this,  he  said,  depended  on  the  transition 
from  theological  conceptions  through  the  abstractions  of  meta- 
physics to  positive  conceptions.  Spiritual  reorganisation  must 
be  based  on  demonstrated  truth,  not  on  faith  in  the  invisible. 
Next  year  he  made  ao  unhappy  marriage,  when  he  had  only  one 
pupil.  General  Lamoridire;  and  in  i8s6,  before  an  audience 
containing  Camot,  Humboldt,  Poinsot,  De  Blainville,  &c,  he 
began  that  course  of  seventy-two  lectures  on  Positive  Philosophy, 
which  was  interrupted  by  his  insanity.  The  course  was  resumed 
in  1828,  and  afterwards  appeared  in  six  elabomte  volumes  be- 
tween 1830  and  1842,  During  that  period  he  was  in  easy  dr- 
cumstances,  but  the  character  of  his  doctrines  drove  hun  from 
office  and  employment,  and  after  receiving  aid  from  M.  Gtote, 
Sir  W,  Molesworth,  and  other  admirers  for  some  time,  he  gave 
up  working  for  bread,  and  lived  for  the  rest  of  his  days  on  an 
annual  subscription  from  his  disciples.  In  1845  began  hia 
friendship  with  Mile,  de  Vaiix,  which  seems  to  have  infused  a 
depth  and  tenderness  of  moral  and  sstheric  feelmg  before  un- 
known to  his  nature,  This  appears  in  his  second  ereat  work, 
SysUme  de  Poliliaiu  Fositivi,  in  four  volumes,  which  appeared 
between  1851  and  1854,  and  still  more  in  the  Caikhismc  Posi- 
tiviste  (1852),  His  latter  years  were  fnll  of  religious  mystici  . 
almost  asceticbm.  He  died  Sth  September  1857,  The  object 
of  the  Positive  Philosophy  has  been  described  '  as  the  condensa- 
tion of  all  knowledge  into  a  homogeneous  body  of  doctrine, 
capable  of  supplying  a  faith  and  consequently  a  polity,'  The 
value  of  C  's  Hierarchy  of  the  Science!  has  been  violently  disputed 
among  eminent  sauans,  but  with  the  exception  of  a  few  disciples 
(of  whom  Congreve,  Bridges,  Beesly,  and  Harrison  are  the  most 
promment  in  England),  all  have  joined  in  condemning  the  arti- 
ficial and  prosaic  ceremonialism  which  he  wished  to  substitute 
ibr  a  religion  growing  naturally  out  of  human  devotional  feeling. 
Thus  the  Catechism-  indudes  a  Trinity,  consisting  of  ( i)  Humanity 
or  Grand£ire;  (2)  Space,  or  Grand MUim;  and  (3)  the  Solar 
System,  or  Grcatd  Fdlichi,  This  has  been  wittily  called  '  Catho- 
licism minus  Christianity.'  On  the  other  hand,  his  view  of  the 
sciences  as  abstract  and  concrete;  his  treatment  of  sociological 
questions  as  requiring  a  combination  of  historical  generalisatioi 
with  deductive  reasoning  fcom  the  truths  of  psycholc^  i  his  warn 
ings  m  the  Politics  against  the  dangerous  notion  of  an  indefinite 

S.wer  of  variation  m  human  nature,  are  entitled  to  great  praise, 
inor  peculiarities  of  C's  system  are  that  he  does  not  recognise 
psychology  as  a  distinct  adence,  because  mental  life  is  merely  a 
counterpart  of  cerebral  function,  and  introspection  of  conscious- 
ness is  untrustworthy ;  and  that  he  does  not  discuss  the  general 
subject  of  sdenUfic  evidence.  Comtism,  as  a  philosophy  of  know- 
ledge, is  widely  accepted  ;  as  a  practical  faith,  it  is  absolutely 
stationary.  Tliere  ia  a  French  Positivist  periodical  edited  by 
Robinet,  Littrd,  the  autiior  of  the  Frenoh  dictionary,  is  cer- 
tainly the  most  illustrious,  perhaps  the  only  illustrious  name 
associated  with  the  system.  The  four  English  disciples  are, 
however,  now  engaged  upon  a  translation  of  their  master  s  large 
works.  See  Robinet's  I^otice  lur  I'CEuvre  et  sur  la  Vie  de  C. 
(Par.  i860),  and  Liltr^'s  C.  it  la  PhUosophie  Positive  (Par.  1863). 

Con  or  Col  (Ital.  'with'},  a  word  used  often  in  music,  as  C. 
fuoco,  with  lire  ;  C,  anima,  with  spirit,  &c 

Con'can,  a  maritime  territory  in  the  province  of  Bombay, 
now  subdivided  into  the  districts  of  Thana,  Kolaba,  and  Rut- 
nagiri. 


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CON 


Concave'  and  Oouves:',  two  relative  terms  applied  to  cnrved 
sur&ces;  the  former  when  an  intersecting  plane  lies  between  the 
surface  and  the  spectator,  tlie  latter  when  the  plane  lies  on  the 
further  aide.     See  Lens,  Mirror,  Optics, 

Conoeal'ing  Crime.  To  protect  a  criminal  after  commig- 
sion  of  a  crime,  is  an  offence  punishable  arbitrarily;  but  where 
protection  is  given  under  on  agreement  entered  into  before  com- 
mission, the  concealer  becomes  an  Accessory,  (q.  v. ).  Tlie 
equivalent  term  in  Scotch  law  is  art  and  part, 

Conceal'ment  of  Preg'naney.    See  Birth;  Pregnancy, 

CONCBALMENT  OF, 

OOQoentai'na,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Alicante,  Spain, 
4  miles  N.E.  of  Alcoy,  with  manulaetnres  of  linen  and  woollen 
fabrics,  of  soap,  paper,  and  bricks,  of  wine,  oil,  and  brandy,  and 
a  trade  in  cattle  and  grain.     Pop.  6100. 

Conoen'trio  circles  and  spheres  are  those  which  are  described 
with  the  same  centre.  C.  central  curves  and  surfaces  of  the 
second  order  have  the  same  focL  These  latter  possess  many 
curious  mutual  properties,  which  are  discussed  in  Salmon's  ana- 
lytical treatises. 

Concep'cion,  a  city  of  Chili,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Biobio, 
near  its  mouth,  with  a  pop.  in  1875  of  18,277.  I's  port,  Tal- 
cahuano,  on  the  bay  of  C,  is,  after  Valparaiso,  the  best  in  the 
republic,  eiporting  largely  hides,  tallow,  wool,  and  salted  beef. 
In  1870  the  imports  amounted  to  ^£'639,052,  and  the  exports, 
not  including  produce  shipped  to  other  Chilian  ports,  to2'270,i6o. 
"W^ frov'mce  of  C.  has  an  area  of  3589  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop. 
(1875)  of  151,365. 

Conoep'tion,  in  metaphysics.     See  Idea. 

Oonoeption,  Immaoulate.    See  Immaculate  Concep- 

Coaception  of  Our  Lady,  an  order  of  nnns  founded  in 
Portugal  ill  1484  by  Beatrix  de  Sylva,  sister  of  the  first  Count 
of  Poralegro,  and  confirmed  by  Pope  Innocent  VIII.  in  1489. 
At  first  they  followed  the  rule  of  the  Cistercians,  but  after  the 
death  of  BeatriK  de  Sylva,  Cardinal  Ximenes  imposed  on  them 
the  rule  of  St  Clara.  The  order  spread  into  Italy  and  France. 
Their  habit  is  a  white  robe  with  the  figure  of  the  Virgin  holding 
the  Child,  and  a  blue  mantle. 

Oon'oert,  a  name  given  to  any  musical  performance  except 
that  of  an  opera.  The  first  regular  series  of  concerts  seems  to 
have  been  instituted  by  '  tlie  Academy  of  Ancient  Music,'  an 
English  society,  which  was  formed  in  1710,  and  existed  until 
nearly  the  dose  of  the  last  century. 

Concerti'na,  a  musical  instrument  in  which  the  sounds  are 
produced  by  the  passage  of  air  through  reeds,  the  wind  being 
supplied  by  bellows  which  form  part  of  the  instrument,  and  can 
be  extended  and  compressed  by  the  hands  while  the  lingers  are 
left  free  to  manipulate  the  keys.  The  C.  has  no  importance 
musically. 

Concer'to,  a  musical  composition  in  symphony  form,  for  a 
solo  instrument  with  orchestral  accompaniment.  The  solo  parts 
in  the  modem  C.  are  generally  for  the  pianoforte  or  the  violin. 

Oon'cha,  a  portion  of  the  external  ear.     See  Ear. 

Conohif 'era  (Gr.  '  shell-bearing '),  a  name  given  to  the  class 
of  Lame! libranchi ate  mollusca.  The  name,  however,  is  worth- 
less, as  other  classes  of  mollusca  possess  shells.     See  Lamelli- 


Con'ohoid  of  Kioome'des,  a  curve  of  the  fourth  order,  in- 
vented by  that  geometrician  for  the  duplication  of  the  cube  and 
the  trisect  ion  of  the  angle.  It  may  be  traced  as  follows :  From  a 
given  point  let  straight  lines  be  drawn  to  intersect  a  given 
straight  line.  From  the  points  of  intersection  lay  off  along  these 
lines  on  both  sides  of  the  given  line  distances  of  constant  length 
h.  The  points  so  obtained  lie' on  the  C,  which  must  therefore 
consist  of  two  infinite  branches,  a  superior  and  inferior,  having 
the  given  sl:raight  line  as  asymptote.  Taking  the  given  point 
as  pole  and  a  as  the  perpendicular  from  it  upon  the  given  hne, 
the  polar  equation  is 


Conoliol'ogy  (Gr.  '  the  science  of  shells ')  is  now  obsolele  i 
a  separate  brandi  of  zoology,  since  to  understand  the  shell-stru. 
ture  of  any  animal  we  must  have  an  idea  of  the  animal  itsel 
The  name  is  mainly  characteristic  of  tlie  Clasiifcalory  period  of 
zoology,  when  Taxonsmy  was  deemed  eveiything  in  natural  his- 
tory, and  when  Structure  had  a  subsidiary  place.  See  Mol- 
lusca and  Shell. 

Con'olave  (Lot.)  is  the  place  in  which  the  cardinals  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  meet  for  the  election  of  a  new  pope,  o 
the  assembly  itself.  The  cardinals,  with  not  more  tlmn  two 
attendants  (called  conclavists)  to  eaiJi,.or  three  to  a  prince,  ar" 
locked  (hence  the  nalne)  into  a  huge  room,  which  is  generally  in 
the  palace  of  the  Vatican,  till  the  election  is  over,  having  theii 
food  passed  in  through  a  small  opening,  and  living  in  small  cells 
within  the  room.  The  canon  appointing  these  regulations  w 
passed  by  the  Second  Council  of  Lyon,  1274. 

Coii'oord.    See  Consonance. 

Concord,  a  pretty  town  in  Massachusetts,  near  the  Concord 
river,  iS  miles  N.W.  of  Boston.  On  the  iglh  0/  April  rj 
the  firstskiimishof  the  Revolution  took  place  here,  and  a  mo 
ment,  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  marks  the  spot  where  two 
English  soldiers  fell  C.  is  famous  as  the  residence  of  Ralph 
Waldo  Emerson ;  and  it  has,  at  different  times,  been  a  favourite 
residence  of  American  literati,  as  Hawthorne,  Thoreau,  Aleott, 
and  Hoar.     Pop.  {1870)  24IZ. 

Oonoord,  the  capital  of  the  state  of  New  Hampshire,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Merrimac  river,  59  miles  H.W.  of  Boston. 
It  was  formerly  called  Rnmford,  and  here  Benjamin  Thompson, 
afterwards  Count  Ramford,  resided  for  a  while.  The  town 
extends  along  the  river  for  Z  miles,  and  contains  the  State-house 
and  some  other  handsome  public  buildings.  It  has  a  thriving 
business  in  iron,  steel,  carriages,  leather,  and  woollen  goods. 
Pop.  in  1870,  13,241. 

Conoor'danc©  is  an  index  of  all  the  words  in  a  book  arranged 
alphabetically,  with  references  to  all  the  passages  in  which  they 
occur,  which  may  also  give  the  different  shades  of  meaning  ii 
which  the  words  are  used.  A  C,  was  first  felt  to  be  useful  o 
necessary  for  the  Scriptures,  which  were  continually  made  the 
subject  of  appeal  in  learning,  teaching,  and  disputation  on  reli- 
gious matters,  The  first  attempts  at  a  C.  were  made  by  Antony 
of  Padua  (1195-1231),  arui  Hugo  de  St  Chera  (died  1262),  both 
being  from  the  Vulgate.  The  first  Hebrew  C.  was  written  by 
R.  Natlian  (1448) ;  the  best  is  that  of  FUrst  (1840),  based  on 
Buxtorfs  (1632).  The  first  Greek  C.  to  the  New  Testament 
was  written  by  Birck,  a  Lutheran  clergyman  (1500-54).  The 
first  C.  to  the  English  New  Testament  was  made  l^  Thomas 
Gybson  (before  1540),  and  to  the  entire  Bible  by  John  Marbeclt 
(1550).  All  were  superseded  by  Cruden's,  1737,  which  is  yet 
tlie  best. 

The  best  secular  C.  in  the  English  tongue  is  Mrs  Cowdeil 
Clarke's  C.  to  Shakespeare  (Lond.  1845), ' 

Concor'dat  is  a  treaty  regarding  ecclesiastical  affairs  between 
the  Pope,  as  representing  the  Catholic  undivided  Church,  and  a 
particular  temporal  sovereign.  The  matters  treated  of  from  time 
to  time  have  been  such  as  the  right  to  nominate,  and  the  right 
to  confirm,  bishops ;  the  right  to  nominate  to  benefices  while  a 
bishopric  is  vacant ;  the  right  to  the  income  of  vacant  benefices  ; 
and  the  particular  taxes  of  aimales,  tenths,  &c ;  appeals  to  Rome ; 
the  authority  of  councils  and  of  national  customs  against  the  Pope 
individually.  The  rights  or  claims  of  the  national  Catholic 
Churches  used  to  be  expressed  in  pragmatic  rescripts,  as  in  the 
French  Pragmatic  of  St  Louis  (1258) ;  and  these  national  claim 
weregenerally  modified  by  concordats,  as  in  that  between  Leo  X 
and  Francis  I.  in  1516,  the  effect  of  which,  however,  was  postponed 
by  the  Ampliative  Dispositions.  Questions  of  the  treatment  0'' 
heretics,  of  the  Papal  power  of  excommunication,  of  the  reccptio: 
of  Papal  nuncios,  and  of  the  Fase,  Placito,  Exequatur,  Letters  of 
Fasatis,  or  Pladtum.  Regium  (the  authority  given  by  a  sovereign 
to  the  publication  in  his  territory  of  Papal  bulls  or  briefs),  also 
occurred  in  concordats.  In  1683  the  French  clergy,  founding  on 
the  Decrees  of  Constance,  issued  their  celebrated  declaration  as  to 
t^sRigalt,  which  was  acted  on  through  the  l8ih  c.  In  1801  a  C. 
was  arranged  between  the  Consul  mipoleon  and  Pius  VII,,  the 
nomination  of  bishops  being  by  the  first,  the  institution  by  the 
latter.    Under  the  Revolution  the  institution  of  the  constitutional 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


bishops  had  been  by  tlie  Metropolitan.  The  organic  articles  of 
the  same  year  carefully  provided  for  an  examination  of  bulls 
coining  into  France.  The  earliest  German  C.  is  the  Ca,lixtinum 
between  Emperor  Hemiich  V.  and  Calixtus  IL  in  II23.  The 
wiitings  of  Van  Espen  and  the  vigour  of  Joseph  II.  greatly 
weakened  the  power  of  the  Papal  nuncios  in  Germany  in 
the  iSth  c  The  German  C.  of  l8th  August  1855  was,  of  course, 
destroyed  when  the  N.  German  Confederation  came  into  exist- 


receiving  twenty-two  millions  realts  as  compensation  for  atinatss 
and  fees  on  brieis.  The  concordats  of  l6th  Match  1851,  and 
25th  August  1859,  are  more  &voutable  to  Rome.  In  fact,  Spain 
has  always  been  at  arm's  length  with  the  Pope  on  the  Ultramon- 
tane question.  Philip  II.  instituted  a  council,  'Concejo  de  la 
Camara,'  to  protect  the  constitution  of  tlie  national  Church,  and 
Philip  V.  appointed  a  general  agent  at  Eome,  through  whose 
Visto£-ui!Ki  communication  with  the  Vatican  on  certain  matters 
must  be  made.  In  1760  Benedict  XIV.  finally  admitted  the  right 
of  presentation  to  exist  in  Portugal.  Carvalho  strongly  resisted 
Papal  encroachment  in  the  beginning  of  the  19th  c  There  is  a 
Portugnese  C.  of  21st  February  1857.  The  Sardinian  and  Nea- 
politan concordats  have  now  lost  their  interest  The  Papal 
Encyclical,  named  Quanta  Cura,  pubUshed  with  a  syllabus, 
8th  December  1864,  and  the  bull  or  costituzione,  named  Faster 
j^tinms,  published  i8th  July  1870,  indicate  what  sort  of  C.  the 
Papal  power  desires  to  malte  at  the  present  day.  Under  the 
Italian  Statute  of  Guarantees,  the  Pope  is  merely  a  spiritual 
power.    The  Austrian  C.  was  practically  abolished  in  1874. 

Con'ooTirse,  a  term  of  Scotch  law. — Concourse  of  Actitms 
means  the  privilege,  not  usually  allowed,  of  bringing  more  than 
one  action  on  the  same  ground  of  right. — Concourse  of  the  Lord 
Advocate  means  the  necessary  concurrence  of  the  Lord  Advocate 
in  a  criminal  prosecution,  at  the  instance  of  a  private  individual. 

Oonerete  (Lat.  concretum,  'grown  together')  is  a  term  in 
philosophy  used  to  denote  the  opposite  of  Abstract  (see  Abstrac- 
tion). It  means  that  an  object  is  considered  not  merely  in 
reference  to  its  pure  essence,  but  as  we  find  it  in  actual  existence, 
invested  with  accidental  qualities  and  attributes  from  which  it 
can  be  dissociated  in  thought  by  an  exercise  of  the  reason. 
There  are  degrees  of  concretion  as  well  as  of  abstraction.  Take 
'  man '  as  an  example  of  an  abstract  notion.  The  idea  expressed 
by  the  word  is  stripped  bare  of  everything  but  the  mere  attribute 
of  humanity.  We  begin  the  process  of  concretion  when  we 
advance  to  the  conception  of  an  '  Aryan,'  still  farther  when  we 
reach  a  '  European,'  an  '  Englishman,'  a  'Londoner,'  &e.  ;  but 
the  proper  C.  is  none  of  these  ;  it  is  the  particular  individual  of 
whom  we  think,  and  in  whom,  the  various  properties  or  pecu- 
liarities cohere, 

Con'crete,  a  mixture  of  moitar  with  coarse  materials,  such 
as  gravel,  flint,  peebles,  &c.  At  one  time  the  French  term 
Beton  was  used  where  the  matrix  was  hydraulie  mortar,  and 
C.  in  other  cases,  but  the  latter  word  has  now  the  more  general 
meaning.  The  base  of  the  mortar  used  is  in  the  best  C.  a 
hydraulic  cement.  For  inferior  C,  lime  is  sometimes  used,  in 
which  case  '  poor '  limes  are  better  than  '  rich.'  The  mortar 
should  be  made  first,  and  the  additional  sand,  &c,  added  after- 
wards, although  in  England  sometimes  the  whole  of  the  sand 
required  to  make  both  the  mortar  and  the  C.  is  frequently 
added  at  once.  In  the  best  C.  Portland  Cement  {q.  v.)  is  gene- 
rally used,  in  the  proportion  of  I  part  of  cement  to  from  5  to 
10  parts  of  ^giegates  in  ordinary  cases.  C.  is  chiefly  used  for 
the  foundations  of  buildings  and  masonry  structures  in  general, 
and  of  late  years  it  has  found  mote  and  more  extended  appli- 
cation, both  in  foundations  and  superstructures  in  harbours, 
bre^waters,  and  other  marine  works.  For  these  purposes  hage 
blocks  of  C,  weighing  in  some  cases  hundreds  of  tons,  have 
been  constructed  in  suitable  moulds  on  shore,  and  when  hardened 
conveyed  to  their  destination  by  floating;  or  travelling  cranef 
In  this  way  the  labour  of  erection  and  building  below  the  watei 
line  is  veiy  greatly  reduced,  while  the  greatest  possible  stability 
is  attained. 

Conore'tion,  in  medicine,  is  the  formation  of  a  solid  sub. 
stance  either  in  some  tissue  or  in  the  stomach  or  bowels.  In 
certain  diseases  salt  of  lime  is  deposited  as  a  solid  mass  in  tht 
lung  or  the  tissue,  but  the  name  is  generally  applied  to  a  solid 


bstance  found  in  the  stomach  or  bowels,  formed  either  by  the 
•digested  food  matting  together  so  as  to  cause  an  obstruction, 
or  by  some  indigestible  substance  having  been  swallowed.  Con- 
>ns  are  much  more  common  in  nuninating  animals  than  in 
In  the  latter  they  sometimes  consist  of  hair,  cotton,  or 
other  substances.     Tliey  are  often  formed  in  concentric  rings 

anged  round  a  nucleus,  e.g.,&  gall-stone.    Concretions  are  apt 

be  originated  by  the  use  of  certain  medicines,  as  magnesia. 

hen  they  become  very  lai^  they  require  prompt  measures  on 
the  part  of  the  medical  practitioner.     See  Calculus. 

ConcuTjinag©.  This  connection  was  to  some  extent  recog- 
nised by  the  Roman  law ;  the  offspring  being  acknowledged  by 
the  father,  though  they  had  not  the  civil  tights  of  legitimate 
children.  Under  Augustus,  C.  was  only  sanctioned  between  a 
man  and  a  woman  of  greatly  inferior  social  position  to  himself. 
While  the  law  of  the  Christian  Chorch  sanctions  no  sexual  rela- 
Lship  except  by  marriage,  the  civil  law  of  various  Christian 
ntries  has  been  and  continues  to  be  much  more  lax,  more 
especially  in  its  application  to  the  marriages  of  royal  families. 
The  law  of  England  reduces  to  C.  every  marriage  in  tlie  royal 
family  of  Great  Britain  which  has  not  been  previously  approved 
of  by  the  sovereign,  if  the  prince  or  princess  contracting  it  is 
under  twenty-five  years  of  age.  And  if  the  prince  be  above 
twenty-five  years  of  age,  the  marriage  dees  not  hold  good  if  dis- 
approved of  by  Parliament     See  Morganatic  Marriage. 

CoD.ciirr'eiit  Jtirisdio'tion.  Where  jurisdiction  may  be 
exercised  in  the  same  cause  by  two  courts,  or  more,  they  are  said 
to  have  C.  J.  The  rule,  then,  is  that  the  court  which  first  exer- 
cises its  jurisdiction  excludes  that  of  the  others.  In  dvil  cases, 
the  plaintiff  may  cite  a  defendant  to  appear  before  any  competent 
court  or  judge. 

Ooncus'aion  (Lat.  concussio,  'a  shaking'jisaterm  in  medicine 
used  to  denote  an  injury  to  the  nervous  system  brought  on  sud- 
denly by  external  violence.  Sometimes  there  is  no  lesion  of  the 
nervous  substance  or  of  any  other  structure ;  at  other  times  there 
is  laceration  of  the  brain  or  other  serious  injury.  C.  is  followed 
by  insensibility  and  loss  of  all  voltmtary  motion ;  the  patient 
lies  quite  helpless ;  the  pupils  are  unaffected  by  light ;  the  pulse 
is  feeble,  and  the  bieathing  slow  and  scarcely  perceptible.  'There 
ate  degrees  of  C.  from  the  slightest  interference  with  the  func- 
tions of  the  nervous  system,  to  that  severe  case  in  which  the 
patient  dies  instantaneously.  In  the  former  cases  he  soon 
recovers  consciousness,  but  for  some  time  afterwards  he  suffers 
from  confusion  of  ideas,  often  accompanied  with  noises  in  the 
ears.  Frequently  there  is  vomiting.  The  proper  treatment 
consists  in  keeping  the  patient  perfectly  quiet  in  bed,  and  in 
attending  carefully  to  the  wants  of  nature.  When  there  is  para- 
1yds  of  the  bladder,  the  urine  must  be  drawn  off  by  the  Catheter 
(q.  v.).  During  convalescence  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  mo- 
dify the  reaction  by  purgatives  and  by  the  apphcation  of  cold 
lotions  to  the  head  ;  at  other  times  it  is  necessary  to  give  brandy 
and  other  stimuhints,  and  to  apply  heat  to  the  body.  In  all 
cases  the  patient  must  be  watched  with  great  care  for  some  days. 

Coacusaion,  in  law.    See  Force  and  Fear. 

Concussion  Shell.     See  Shells. 

Oon'de,  a  name  common  to  several  French  towns.  Of  these, 
the  best  known  are— (i)  O.,  or  C.  aur  I'Eaoaut,  a  town  and 
border  fortress  in  the  department  of  Word,  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Haine  and  Scheldt,  7  miles  N.N.E.  of  Valenciennes,  with 
an  arsenal  and  sluices  for  the  defence  of  the  town.  It  is  a  great 
entrepat  for  coaL  Pop.  (1872)  2818.— (2)  C.  sur  Noireau,  a 
town  in  the  department  of  Calvados,  25  miles  S.S.W.  of  Caen, 
where  the  Noireau  and  Durance  meet,  with  manufactures  of  cot- 
ton,naUs,  cutlery,  and  leather,  and  a  trade  in  flax,  thread,  horses, 
cattle,  &c  Pop.  (1872)  6422.  It  came  to  the  house  of  Bourbon 
in  1-^7,  and  gave  name  to  a  famous  branch  of  that  house. 

Oon'd^,  a  famous  French  family,  which  takes  its  name  from 
the  town  of  C.  (q.  v.),  can  be  traced  as  far  back  as  the  close 
of  the  I2th  c  In  the  year  1200  a  certain  Godfrey  obtained  part 
o[  the  barony  of  C,  and  was  thenceforth  known  as  Godfrey  de 
C.  His  grfeat-granddaughter,  Joanna  de  C,  in  1335,  married 
Jacques  de  Bourbon,  Comte  de  la  Marehe.  Their  second  son, 
Louis  de  Bourbon,  Comte  de  VendSme,  received  as  his  inheri- 
tance the  barony  of  C,  His  great-grandson,  Louis  de  Bourbon, 
in  virtue  of  his  relationship  to  the  royal  family,  took  the  title  of 


vLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CON 


Prince  of  C,  and  is  regixtded  as  the  founder  of  the  new  house 
of  that  name.  Louis  was  bom  7tli  May  1530.  He  was  a  son 
of  the  Due  de  Vend6me,  and  brolher  of  Antoine,  King  of 
Navarre,  and  fir^  distinguished  himself  in  arms  under  De  Brissac. 
He  defended  Meti  against  the  forces  of  Charles  V.,  assisted  in 
the  capture  of  Calais,  and  fought  on  the  field  of  St  Quentin. 
At  the  conspiracy  of  Amboise  he  resolved  to  head  the  Refoimed 
party  against  the  Guises,  and  was  only  saved  from  execution  by 
the  death  of  Francois'  II.  When  civil  war  broke  out  on  the 
massacre  of  Vassy,  C.  led  the  Huguenot  forces  from  the  Loire 
to  Paris,  and  afterwards  to  the  battle  of  Drevix  (1562),  which 
brought  temporary  peace.  On  the  renewal  of  the  war  at  St 
Denis  (1567)  he  and!  Coligny  were  still  tlie  recognised  leaders. 
C.  fell  at  Jamac,  Ijlh  December  1569,  after  mainlaining  a 
furious  but  unequal  contest  with  the  Duo  d'Anjou's  army. 
Although  chivalrously  brave,  C.  had  no  other  quali^  of  a  com- 
mander; lie  was  of  licentious  life,  although  he  professed  deep 
attaclunent  to  the  Reformed  Gospel. — Louie  IL  de  Bonrbon, 
Prince  deO.,  Itnown  as  'the  Great  C,'  bom  Sih  September 
l6zi,  was  great-grandson  of  the  preceding,  andsonof  the  feeble 

Since,  whose  wife  attracted  Henri  IV., and  thenephew  of  Prince 
enri  of  C,  who  fought  so  bravely  in  the  closing  scenes  of  the 
civil  war  of  the  Huguenots.  The  Due  d'Enghien,  as  he  was 
called,  received  a  careful  education ;  his  mother,  Charlotte  de 
Montmorency,  then  holding  a  sort  of  literary  court  at  the  HStel 
de  C.  Marrying  a  niece  of  Richelieu,  he  obtamed  high  command 
in  tlie  army,  and  just  as  Louis  XIII.  died  he  made  his  reputa- 
tion by  the  brilliant  victory  of  Rocroy  (19th  May  1643),  in  which 
the  Spanish  army  of  Fuentes  and  Albuquerque  was  completely 
ited,  a  result  to  which  C.'s  strategic  skill,  decision  of  move- 
ment, and  persona]  bravery  all  contributed.  He  next  co-operated 
with  Turenne  in  the  Fribourg  (Baden)  campaign  against  Mercy, 


and  Dunlchrk  marked  his  first  campaign  in  the  Nethei 
which,  after  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Lerida,  in  Catalonia,  he 
returned  in  1648,  and  by  his  crushing  defeat  of  the  Archduite 
Leopold  at  Lens  brought  about  the  Peace  of  Westphalia.  In 
the  Fronde  C,  supported  Masarin  and  the  queen-mother  against 
the  Frondeurs,  but  falUng  himself  into  disgrace,  he  afterwards 
attempted  to  oi^nise  a  still  greater  rebellion,  in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  Nemours,  Lorraine,  and  Le  Rochefoucauld,  &c.,  and 
opposed  by  his  companion  Turenne,  who  was  successful  at 
Gien,  but  defeated  at  the  Fauboui^  St  Antoine.  C.  was  in 
1652  declared  a  traitor ;  he  entered  the  service  of  Philip  IV,  of 
Spain,  and  for  six  years  conducted  a  brilliant  vrar  in  French 
Flanders  against  Turenne,  whose  victory  of  Dunes  (1658)  was 
followeii  by  the  Peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  C.  being  received  back 
'  ■  J  the  favour  of  Louia  XIV.  The  enmity  of  Louvois  and 
renne  gave  C.  the  chief  command  of  the  French  army  in 
Franche  Comte  (1668)  and  Holland  (l  672-74),  where  he  measured 
lis  skill  without  disgrace  against  that  of  the  Prince  of  Orange 
n  the  bloody  field  of  Senef.  His  old  age  was  spent  at  Chantiliy, 
uhere  La  Brayere  lived  with  him,  and  Boileau  and  the  other 
literary  stars  of  the  period  were  frequently  seen.  He  died 
nth  December  1686.  Bossuet,  who  latterly  had  great  influence 
over  him,  pronounced  a  magnificent  funeral  oration.  Very  dif- 
ferent estunates  of  C.'s  character,  his  political  ambition,  and  his 
behaviour  to  his  fi:iends,  have  been  formed.  His  militaiy  genins 
lay  chiefly  in  dEiring,  persistent  assault,  and  he  was  therefore 
not  sparing  of  human  life.  See  Lives  by  Lord  Mahon  (Lond, 
1840),  Lemercier  {Tours,  1844 ;  lOth  ed.  1S69),  and  Voivreuil 
(Tours,  1847),  There  is  also  an  interesting  Essid  mr  la  Vie  du 
Grand  C,  by  his  quairihne  dacendant,  Louis-Joseph  de  Bour- 
■  ,  H-deuant  Prince  de  C.  (1798;  2d  ed.  Par.  1806).  The 
_.__jt  recent  authority  on  C.  and  the  Fronde  is  Fitapatrick 
(1874). — Loiiis-Josepli  de  Bourbon,  Frince  de  C,  bom  at 
Chantiliy,  9th  August  1736,  was  the  son  of  the  Due  de  Bourbon, 
minister  of  Louis  XV.  He  first  distinguished  himself  at  Tohan- 
nisberg  (1762),  and  other  engagements  in  the  Seven  Year^  War. 
'  niy  and  financial  reform  and  a  splendid  hospitality  occu- 
1  his  attention  till  the  Revolution,  when  he  emigrated.  The 
corps  which  C.  then  formed  served  in  the  campaigns  of  Wurmser, 
in  the  Austrian  service;  in  the  English  service  at  Ober-Kam- 
lach  and  Biberach  (1796) ;  and  in  the  Russian  service  at  Con- 
stance (1799).  It  was  dischai^ed  in  1801,  and  C,  came  to 
England,  where  he  remained  at  Malmesburji  till  the  Restoration. 
He  died  13th  May  1818,     C.  was  the  grandfather  of  the  Due 


^- 


d'Engiiien,  whose  oflicial  murder  so  much  injured  Napoleon's 
reputation.  He  was  concerned  in  the  Pichegtu  conspiracy.  See 
Vii  du  Prince  de  C.  (3  vols.  Par.  1819-20),  by  Chamlielland, 
and  Muret's  Histoire  de  I'Amik  de  C.  (Par.  1844).  For  the 
entire  family,  see  Sevelinges'  Mimoires  de  la  Maison  de  C.  (Par. 
1S20), 

Conden'aer,  an  apparatus  for  cooling  vapours  down  to  the 
temperature  at  which  they  become  liquid.  There  are  various 
kinds  of  condensers  in  constant  use,  differing  considerably  m 
detail ;  but  all  work  upon  the  same  principle — namely,  that  of 
passing  the  vapour  through  a  tube  surrounded  by  material  at  the 
temperature  required  for  the  condensation.  The  name  C.  is 
also  applied  to  an  electrical  apparatus,  by  means  of  which  a 
charge  of  low  tension  distributed  over  a  conductor  is  concen- 
trated, so  that  its  otherwise  insignificant  effects  are  tendered 
visible  to  the  experimenter.  Its  action  depends  upon  the  theory 
of  electric  induction,  and  may  be  simply  conceived  of  as 
foEows.  Suppose  two  equal  flat  discs,  A  and  B,  formed  of 
a  good  conducting  material,  to  be  placed  close  to  each  other, 
with  only  a  thin  layer  of  some  non-conductor  between.  Let  A  be 
put  in  connection  with  the  source  of  electricity,  B  with  the 
ground.  The  charge  on  A  induces  an  opposite  cliarge 
on  B,  which'  reacts  upon  (he  charge  on  A,  thus,  as  it  were,  C ' 
guising  a  portion  of  iL  Now,  the  whole  charge  on  B  is  c 
guised,  but  only  a  portion  of  the  ehaige  on  A ;  that  quantity 
being  free  with  which  A  would  be  chaiged  if  the  C.  B  w 
not  present  The  more  nearly  equal  the  induced  charge  is 
the  inducing  chaise,  the  more  effective  the  C.  ;  and  the  ratio 
between  the  charges  is  dependent  to  a  great  extent  upon  tlie 
specific  inductive  capacity  of  the  non-conducting  separatmg 
layer.      See  DIELECTRIC,  ELECTRICITY, 

Condensing  Steam.- Engine.    See  Steam-Ekgine. 

Coudescen'denoe  is  the  name  given  in  Scotch  law  to  a  judi- 
cial pleading.  The  Summons  (q,  v. )  sets  forth  the  name  and 
designation  of  the  pursuer  (plaintiff)  and  defender,  and  the  con- 
clusions of  the  action.  The  statement  of  the  grounds  of  action 
are  set  forth  in  the  C.,  with  a  note  of  pleas  in  law  subjoined. 
The  C.  is  annexed  to  the  summons,  and  forms  part  of  it.  The 
Defences  (q.  v.)  must  be  in  the  form  of  answers  to  the  C,  with 
statement  of  the  defender's  allegations  of  fact,  if  necessary,  and 
a  note  of  liis  pleas  in  law.  The  summons  is  signed  by  a  Writer 
to  the  Signet  (q,  v.),  and  the  defences  by  counsel.  If  the  pur- 
suer do  not  choose  to  close  the  Record  (q.  v.)  upon  summons 
and  defences,  he  revises  his  C,  and  the  defender  revises  his 
defences.  The  record  is  then  adjusted  before  the  Lord  Ordinary 
(see  Greinaey,  Loed)  in  Chambers,  and  closed, 

Cottdeacendeuce  and  Claim.    See  Multiflepoihdinq. 

Condic'tiolndibitiisaterm  of  Roman  law  for  the  reclaim- 
ing of  money  paid  under  an  erroneous  belief  of  its  being  due. 
It  has  been  decided  by  the  House  of  Lords  (Wilson  v.  Sinclair, 
7th  December  1830),  that  when  a  person  pays  money  under  an 
error,  he  has  no  right  to  recover  unless  the  error  be  as  to  feet. 
Error  as  to  law  is  not  a  valid  ground  for  recovery. 

Condili'ac,  ^tienne  Bonnot,  AbbS  de,  a  French  philo- 
sopher, was  bom  at  Grenoble  in  1715.  In  the  course  of  a  stu- 
dious life  he  published  £ssai  sur  I'Orighu  des  Cunnaissamei 
Humaines  (1746),  TraiUdes  Systimes  (1749),  the  TraiU  des  Sm- 


&c  C.  died  3d  August  17S0.  At  first  a  disciple  of  Locke, 
describing  with  special  care  the  function  of  language  in  the  for- 
mation of  complex  ideas,  and  in  the  development  of  mental 
faculty,  C.  afterwards  maintained  that  innate  fecuities  were  as 
much  a  mistake  as  the  'innate  ideas*  which  he  ridiculed  in  Des- 
cartes, Malebranche,  and  Leibnitz,  and  that  all  knowledge  and 
all  mental  faculties  were  derived  from  sensibility,  being  in  fact 
only  '  sensations  which  transform  themselves  differently.  Thus 
memory,  attention,  judgment,  &c,  were  merely  sensations  per- 
sisting in  a  certain  way.  Similarly  all  the  emotions  were  trans- 
formed desires,  and  desire  was  simply  the  withdrawal  of  sensa- 
tion. It  followed  that  the  lower  animals  have  not  such  vivid 
sensations  as  man  (an  exceedingly  doubtfiil  matter).  C.'s  phi- 
losophy, partly  adopted  from  Gassendi  and  Hobbes,  and  en- 


yLaOOgle 


CON 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAIDIA. 


CON 


IhusiatticiUy  applied  by  Diderot,  De  Tracy,  and  the  other  ideo- 
logue', consisted  (l)  in  nominalism,  (a]  in  the  confusion  of 
a  with  ideation.  His  analysis  of  tlie  faculties,  proceed- 
this  confusion,  becomes  merely  verbal,  his  language 
constantly  assuming  the  separate  laws  of  mental  growth,  which 
his  theory  denies.  While,  however,  he  conceived  of  the 
operation  of  {i-g.)  memory  as  a  mere  mechanical  tendency  to 
motion,  growing  up  through  repeated  motions,  he  also  conceived 
the  soul  as  a  perfectly  distinct  entity,  of  whose  life  nervous  mo- 
tions were  only  the  occasional  cause.  His  theory  led  him  to 
attach  exaggerated  importance  to  language,  of  both  artificial  and 
natural  b^ns,  which,  if  properly  arranged,  he  regarded  as  being 
an  accurate  roister  of  human  experience.  Reasoning  was, 
therefore  speakii^  properly.  C.  is  remarkable  for  the  clearness 
and  simplicity  of  his  style,  and  is  perhaps  best  seen  in  his  criti- 
cism of  the  abstract  systems,  such  as  the  Leibnitzian  monads, 
the  ideas  of  Descartes,  &c  C.'s  (Eiaires  vitre  collected  and 
published  from  autograph  MSS.  in  23  vols.  (Par.  1798),  and 
another  edition  followed  in  32  vols.  (1803). 

Con'diments  are  agents  used  at  table  to  aid  the  alimentary 
funclions,  and  to  give  relish  to  such  aiticles  of  food  as  are  diffi- 
cult of  digestion,  as  fish,  vral,  vegetables,  &c  The  simpiler  C. 
are  salt,  butter,  sngar,  pepper,  mustard,  vinegar,  and  pickles. 
In  hot  countries,  where  the  digestion  is  more  liable  to  languish, 
stronger  C.  {e.g.,  betel  and  cuity)  are  in  extensive  use. 

Condi  tioil.  In  logic,  conditions  are  the  antecedents  which 
combine  to  produce  a  certain  effect,  the  antecedent  which  directly 
brings  about  the  effect  being  termed  the  cause.  Thus,  a  spark 
of  fire  might  be  termed  the  cause  of  an  explosion,  though,  in 
reality  it  is  only  the  apparent  occasion,  and  the  nature  of  powder 
a  C  necessary  to  produce  the  effect.  'The  teal  cause,'  says 
Mill,  'is  the  whole  of  the  antecedents.  Though  we  may  give 
the  name  of  cause  to  that  one  C,  which  brings  about  the  effect 
without  further  delay,  this  C.  has  no  closer  relation  to  the  effect 
than  any  of  the  other  conditions  has.'    See  Mill's  Zp^'t,  book 

Condition.  In  the  real  property  law  of  England,  it  was  at 
one  time  held  that  the  gift  of  an  estate  by  the  lord  to  a  vassal 
and  the  heirs  of  his  body  was  a  ^ft  on  C,  of  his  having  heirs  of 
his  body,  and  that  if  he  died  without  having  had  heirs  of  his 
body  the  estate  must  revert  to  the  lord.  The  C,  however, 
was  so  far  fulfilled  by  the  vassal  having  heirs  of  his  body,  that, 
even  though  they  predeceased  him,  he  might  alienate  the  land. 
An  estate  so  bffitowed  may  now,  by  certain  legal  procedure,  be 
made  an  absolute  gift. 

Cenditia  sisint  libiris  dscesssril. — By  Roman  law,  a  gift  of  estate 
made  when  the  donor  had  no  children  became  void  on  his  having 
children.  The  principle  of  tliis  law  is  recognised  in  Scotch  law 
in  testamentary  settlements  and  in  donations  mortis  iausa. 

Condi'tional  Obliga'tion.     An  obligation  dependmg 
condition  has  no  force  until  the  condition  exist,  but  the  granler 
cannot  revoke  the  ground  of  hope  which  he  has  given.    Contracts 
are  null  if  illegal  or  impossible  conditions  are  aimexed. 
such  conditions,  or  frivolous  conditions,  annexed  to  a  legacj 
merely  held  pro  non  scripiis,  and  non-compliance  does  not  affect 
the  right  of  the  legatee. 

CenStional  Legacy,     See  Cokditional  Obligation,  Le- 

Condiiianal  Imtitute,  a  Scotch  legal  term.  Under  destina- 
tions of  teal  property,  the  immediate  disponee  of  the  granter  is 
called  the  insHtale.  Those  to  whom  the  property  is  destined, 
ftdling  the  inslitate,  are  called  suhlilutes.  When  the  destination 
to  the  immediate  disponee  is  conditional,  he  is  called  a  C.  I. 
See  Disponee- Substitute. 


This 


.  fact  to  be  impossil 
.^erely  from  our  inability  to  conceive  its  possibility.  T 
arises,  not  merely  from  the  limitations  of  human  experience, 
which,  by  creating  certain  powerful  associations,  exclude  others, 
but  because  the  human  mind  may  be  naturally  incapable  of  con- 
ceiving many  things.  Besides  the  two  ordinary  meanings  of 
inconceivability,  however,  viz.,  impossibility  of  representing  the 


thing  as  an  image,  and  impossibility  of  realising  the  thing  a 
possible,  Hamilton  adopted  a  thiid,  viz.,  impossibility  of  ex 
plaining,  proving,  or  comprehending  under  a  more  general  no 
He  then  states  his  theory  ;  '  The  C.  is  the  mean  between 
vo  extremes — two  unconditionates,  exclusive  of  each  other, 
neither  of  which  can  be  conceived  as  possible,  but  of  whicli,  on 
the  principles  of  contradiction  and  excluded  middle,  one  must 
be  admitted  as  necessary,'  This  he  applies  to  the  antinomies  of 
space,  time,  free  will,  &e.,  maintaining  that  limited  and  unUmi- 
ted  space  are  alike  inconceivable,  but  yet  one  is  necessaij.  It 
has  been  objected  to  this  theory,  that  it  employs  the  word  in- 
conceivable  in  several  senses;  that  the  logical  dilemma  applies 
not  to  absolute  existence,  but  to  the  world  of  known  things,  and 
that  no  meaning  is  discovered  in  the  phrase,  '  mean  between  two 
extremes'  when  applied  to  propositions  in  which  different  pre- 
dicates are  affirmed  of  different  subjects.  A  warmer  interest 
has  been  imparted  to  the  discussion  of  this  theory  since  its  ap- 
plication by  Dean  Mansel,  in  his  celebrated  Bampion  Lectures  on 
the  Limits  0/ Jfelfgious  TAuugAI,  to  the  question  whether  a  know- 
ledge of  the  Absolute  and  Infinite  Being  is  possible  to  man. 
The  object  of  the  Bampton  Lectures  was  the  important  one  of 
displacing  all  ^  priori  criticism  of  the  doctrines  of  revelation,  as 
these  doctrines  deal  with  subjects  inaccessible  to  the  moral  sense 
and  intellect  of  man.  The  scholastic  discussion  of  these  abstract 
notions  was  therefore  taken  up  by  the  school  of  theology  who 
believe  that  revelation  is  best  defended  by  showing  its  adaptation 
to  the  wants  and  aspirations  of  the  human  heart.  .' 
table  in  such  a  discussion,  the  term  'Absolute'  w 
great  variety  of  meanings,  such  as  the  Perfect,  that  which  is  free 
from  relation,  that  which  is  self-existent  or  free  from  external 
conditions.  The  controversy,  so  fer  as  philosophical,  has  been 
admirably  summed  up  in  Bolton's  Inquisiiici  Phihsofkica.  In 
illustration  of  the  trifling  nature  of  some  portions  of  the  argument, 
it  may  l>e  noticed  that  from  the  acknowledged  principle  (which 
Sir  W,  Hamilton  had  successfully  established  against  Cousin's 
theory  of  an  intuited  Infinite)  that  all  consciousness  is  based 
upon  change  and  the  comparison  of  relations,  it  was  ai^ued  that 
the  Absolute  could  not  even  be  conscious  of  itself  since  any  re- 
lation conflicts  with  the  notion  of  tlie  Absolute,  relatives  being 
mutually  dependent  on  each  other,  In  this  way  it  became  easy 
to  demonstrate  that  a  Being,  defined  as  transcending  human 
consciousness,  was  not  the  subject  of  human  knowledge  apart 
from  revelation.  It  was  less  easy  to  explain  tlie  manner  in 
which  tlie  conditions  of  human  consciousness  were  set  aside  by 
revelation, 

Condona'tion  in  the  law  of  England  and  of  Scotland  mear 
forgiiiensss.  A  plaintiff  may  condone  an  offence  either  by  a 
act  implying  forgiveness,  or  by  complicity  with  the  wrong-doin 
of  the  defendant  C,  as  accessory  or  accomplice,  bars  Uie  su 
of  the  plaintiff.  The  word  is  chiefly  used  in  actions  of  divocc 
on  the  ground  of  adultery, 

Qar^AatiSarcarkamphusgryphiis),  an  American  species  of  Vul- 
ture  (q.  v.),  inhabiting  elevated  parts  of  the  Andes  and  of  large 
size,  the  average  length  be  g 
between  4  and  5  feet,  and  t  e  < 
expanse  of  wings  being  about  I 
14  feet.  The  tail  is  wedge  r 
shaped.  The  plumage  is 
black  ;  the  males  have  white 
wings,  and  their  heads  aie 
combed  and  provided  w  th  ' 
wattles.  The  beak  is  curve  \ 
at  its  tip.  The  food  cons  sis 
of  carrion,  and  these  birds  3 
consume  large  quantities  of 
food.  The  King  Vulture  {S 
papa],  another  species  of  il  s 
genus,  inhabits  Brazil  and 
Guiana.  Its  plumage  is  red 
above  and  white  beneath,  w  th 
black  tail  and  wings.  The  Califom 
is  a  third  species  of  the  genus  to  which  the  C.  belo  ^s 

Oondor'cet,  Jean  Antoine  Nicolas  de  Cantat  TiTai 
quia  de,  a  French  pliilosopher,  bom  at  Kil  e  0  t  P  a  dj 
17th  September  1743,  of  a  noble  family,  was  el  cated  by  he 
Jesuits  of  Rheims,  and  at  the  College  of  Navane   Pa  H  s 


Condo 


:e(S'  Col  for 


vLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CON 


talent  was  chiefly  mathematical,  and  his  8 


■773.  C.'s  election  as  secreta-iy  to  the  Acadimie  dss 
ScUmes,  though  Buffbo's  friend  Bailly  was  a  candidate.  In  this 
position  he  wrote  many  of  the  finest  Soges  in  French  literature, 
notably  those  of  Buffon,  D'Alembert,  Franklin,  Lafontaine,  &c. 
He  pled  warmly  against  celigioiis  distinctions  in  scientific  socie- 
ties, asking  whether  a  society  containing  the  Atheist  Aristotle, 
the  Catholic  Descartes,  the  Unitarian  Newton,  the  Calvinist 
Huyghens,  the  Deist  L^bniti,  the  Jansenist  Pascal,  the  Maho- 
metan Al  Haien,  &c.,  &c.,  would  not  be  the  best  of  its  kind. 
Drawn  by  his  friendship  for  Voltaire  and  Turgot  into  social 
discussions,  C.  wrote  against  Necker  for  free  trade  in  com 
and  against  the  feudal  taxations.  From  1776  to  1791  he  held 
a  position  resembling  the  Mastership  of  the  Mint.  TTie  lives  of 
Tutgot  and  Voltaire,  the  slavery  abolition  question,  and  religious 
equality,  occupied  his  attention  as  well  as  his  official  duties. 
His  activity  in  writii^  on  political  questions  immediately  before 
and  during  the  first  years  of  the  Revolution  was  great.  As 
member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  of  1791  and  the  Convention' 
of  1 792,  he  prepared  reports  on  the  question  of  peace  or  war,  was 
influential  in  t^ing  the  custody  of  registration  from  the  cleigy, 
strongly  opposed  the  capital  sentence  of  the  King,  and  was  con- 
snZted  on  all  constitutional  points  of  importance.  On  the  expulsion 
of  the  Girondins,  however,  he  was  denounced  by  the  Committee 
of  Public  Safety,  and  compelled  to  hide  for  six  months  in  the  house 
of  Mme.  Vemet,  where  he  composed  his  &mons  Esquissi  des  Pro- 
gri!  de  VEsprii  ffitmain,  afterwards  printed  by  order  of  the  Con- 
vention. Leaving  this  shelter,  which  exposed  his  friend  to  the 
penalty  of  death,  C.  escaped  from  Paris,  but  was  retaken,  and 
died  by  poison,  self-administered,  at  Bom^  la  Reine,  28th  March 
1 794.  C.  had  a  noble  wife,  who  strengthened  him  greatly  in  his 
separation  firomthe  aristocratic  party  to  which  he  bybirth  belonged, 
and  in  his  persecution  by  the  Terrorists,  whose  constitution  of  '93 
he  had  opposed.  She  was  the  sister  of  Marshal  Grouchy  and  the 
sister-in-law  of  Calianis,  She  translated  Adam  Smith's  Theory 
of  Moral  SenlimtMls  into  French.  During  her  husband's  con- 
cealment she  supported  herself  by  painting  portraits,  the  Govem- 


of  the  greatest  intellectual  figures  in  the  Revolution.  His  theory 
of  human  progress  has  been  blamed  as  establishing  a  rather  in- 
consistent division  of  history  into  periods ;  one  being  political, 
another  scientific,  another  religious.  His  conclusions  that  equality, 
or  equal  fretdom  of  nations  and  classes  (as  regards  trade,  wealth, 
edncalion,  government,  &c ),  will  be  established,  and  that  human 
nature  is  indelinitely  perfectible  morally,  physically,  and  intellec- 
tually, have  excited  much  mistaken  ridicule.  C.  in  fact  announced 
the  truth  that  the  mental  acquisitions  of  one  generation  are  not 
dissipated,  but  transmitted  to  its  successor  i  he  insisted  that  this 
might  take  place  with  regard  to  morality  as  wdl  as  intellect ;  he 
did  not  suppose  that  medical  science  would  ever  make  man 
immortaL  Complete  coLections  of  his  numerous  writings  have 
been  made  by  Garat  and  Cabanis  (22  vols.  Par.  1S04),  and  by 
Condorcet-C/Cimnorand  Arago  (12  vols.  Par.  1847-49). 

Oondottie'ri,  soldiers  of  fortune  of  the  14th  c,  whose  services 
in  warfare  were  sold  to  the  side  that  promised  most  plunder. 
The  quarrels  of  the  petty  Italian  states  gave  these  mercenaries 
constant  occupation.  Among  their  celebrated  chiefs  were  Francis 
of  Carmagnola,  and  Sforza,  who  became  Duke  of  Milan. 

CoiiduotiVity,  thermal  or  electric,  of  a  given  substance,  is 
the  amount  of  heat  or  electricity  which  flows  through  a  cube  of 
unit  volume  in  nnit  time,  the  difierence  of  the  temperature  or 
potentials  of  the  opposite  sides  bemg  unity.  The  late  Principal 
Forbes  has  shown  that  the  thermal  C.  of  pure  metals  is  probably 
inversely  proportional  to  the  temperature  from  absolute  zero,  and 
the  same  law  seems  to  hold  in  the  case  of  electric  conduction. 
This  law  is  deducible  from  theory,  upon  the  hypothesis  that  heat, 
dnring  its  conduction,  arranges  itself  exactly  as  it  would  do  if 
let  down  from  the  hotter  to  the  colder  part  by  a  perfect  engine, 
i,e. ,  so  disposes  itself  that  the  least  possible  amount  of  work  can 
be  got  from  it  during  the  operation.  (See  Thermodynamics.) 
Non-metallic  substances  are  in  general  bad  conductors  of  hea^ 
and  frequently  non-conductors  <«  electricity ;  and  these  increase 
in  conducting  power  as  their  temperatures  rise.  Liquids  are  of 
small  conducting  power  as  compared  to  solids,  and  the  experi- 


mental determination  of  their.C.  is  a  matter  of  considerable  diffi- 
culty, in  the  one  case  owing  to  the  disturbing  effects  of  the 
thermal  convection  currents  produced,  and  hi  the  other,  tf  the 
liquid  be  a  chemical  salt  or  compound,  to  the  electrolytic  ac 
and  polarisation  which  generally  supervene.  The  C.  of  gas£ 
still  more  difficult  of  determination,  radiation  and  convection 
playing  by  {ar  the  most  important  part      See  Electricity, 

Conduc'tor,  in  music,  the  director  of  a  performance.  Tlie 
C.  generally  stands  in  front  of  the  performers,  and  marks  the 
time  for  them  with  a  baton,  while  at  the  same  time  he  indicates 
the  expression  and  the  entrances  of  the  differeut  parts  or  instru- 
ments. The  C.  of  an  orchestra  must  be  distinguished  from"  the 
leader,  who  is  the  principal  first  violin. 

OondylTi;ra,     See  Star-Nosed  Mole. 

Oondy's  Fluid.     See  Manganese. 

Cone.     See  Fruit. 

Cone,  the  solid  formed  by  drawing  lines  from  every  point 
of  a  closed  plane  curve  to  a  given  point  not  in  the  plane  of  the 
curve.  If  the  C.  be  cut  by  a  plane  parallel  to  the  base,  the 
curve  of  section  is  similar  to  the  base,  and  the  sohd  bounded 
by  these  parallel  pknes  is  called  the  Jruslrum.  The  most  im- 
portant C. ,  however,  is  the  rigM  C. ,  which  may  be  generated  by 
the  rotation  of  a  right-angled  triangle  about  one  of  its  sides. 
If  it  be  inteisected  by  a  plane  perpendicular  to  tlie  axis  of  n 
tion,  the  curve  of  intersection  is  a  ca-cle ;  if  by  a  plane  inclined 
at  any  angle,  bnt  cutting  both  sides  of  the  C,  a^n  ellipse;  if  by  a 
plane  making  with  any  side  an  angle  equal  to  the  vertical  angle 
of  the  C,  ^farabola;  and  if  by  a  plane  making  any  inclination 
less  than  this,  a  hyperbola.  For  the  special  properties  of  these 
conic  sections,  reference  must  be  made  to  the  several  articles. 


.  a  town  of  N.  Italy,  province  of  Trei'iso,  2: 
miles  N.  of  Venice  by  railway,  with  several  churches,  an  hos 
pital,  and  manufactures  of  silks  and  woollens.     Pop.  6500. 

Oone-Shell,  a  genus  of  Gasteropodous  mollusca,  belonging 
to  the  family  Cot^s,  in  which  the  shell  is  inversely  conical ; 
the  aperture  long  and  narrow,  and  the  outer  lip  notched  near 
the  suture.  The  oiirctilum  is  minate  and  of  lamellar  stnic- 
tnre.  This  family  belongs  to  the  Siphonosiomatous  (or  '  siphon- 
mouthed  ')  division  of  Gasteropoda,  and  to  the  order  Prosobran- 
ekiala,  in  which  t!ie  gills  are  placed  anteriorly  to  the  heart 
These  molluscs  are  common  in  the  Mediterranean  and  in  tropi- 
cal seas.  Comis  imperialis,  C,  admiralis,  C,  nobUis,  C.  Uxluii, 
C.  Ussdlatus,  &c.,  are  familiar  species. 

Confarreft'tion,  a  Roman  form  of  marriage  ceremony,  de- 
riving its  name  from  the  panis  farreus  (bread  made  of  spelt) 
used  on  the  occasion.  The  children  of  parents  so  married  were 
alone  eligible  for  certain  offices  of  the  priesthood. 

Confeo'tioneiy.  Under  this  name  are  included  the  various 
manufactures  of  sugar  for  use  as  sweets,  or  bonbons,  as  they  are 
called  by  the  French.  The  simplest  form  in  which  sugar  is 
prepared  for  eating  is  when  it  is  crystallised  from  a  solution  into 
candied  sugar,  It  is  generally  prepared  from  raw  sugar,  and 
has  a  brown  colour ;  but  when  tinted,  refined  sugar  is  employed, 
and  the  colouring  material  added  to  the  solution.  The  c  y  al 
lisation  takes  place  around  thin  shps  of  wood  or  pieces  of  w  ne 
which  are  always  found  in  the  core  of  the  material.  Su  a  ed 
almonds,  cloves,  caravrays,  corianders,  &c.,  and  sweets  ha  ng 
a  core  either  of  fruit  or  baked  sugar,  as  in  the  case  of  pan 
drops,'  all  of  which  are  included  in  the  French  aragis,  a  e  hus 
prepared.  The  coves  ,of  fruit  or  sugar  are  placed  in  a  la  ge 
copper  pan,  revolving  at  an  angle  of  about  45°,  heated  by  s  e  m 
admitted  to  circulate  between  its  outer  and  inner  surfa  e.  The 
revolution  of  the  pan  at  this  angle  causes  the  materials  1  n 
it  to  be  in  constant  motion  tumblmg  over  each  other.  A  gentle 
stream  of  sugar  solution  is  allowed  to  trickle  continually  n  o 
the  pan,  and  the  continual  motion  of  the  materials  seen  es  a 
.proportion  to  eacli  separate  piece,  and  at  tlie  same  time  keeps 
them  fiom  adhering  to  each  other,  while  the  heat  dries  off  the 
superfllious  moisture.  Thus  the  cores  become  gradually  and 
umformly  encrusted  in  pure  sugar,  and  the  longer  tlie  process 
continues,  the  thicker  becomes  oie  coating.  Ordinary  lozenges 
{li-ochisini  druggists)  are  prepared  from  loaf-sugar  broken,  and 


yLaOOgle 


CON 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CON 


ground  to  a  fine  powder.  This  is  baked  up  into  a  stiff  cake 
with  a  pure  solution  of  gum  arable,  rolled  out  to  the  required 
thiekness,  and  the  lozenges  cut  out  by  hand  or  machine.  They 
are  then  put  aside  to  harden  and  dry  in  trays.  Tlie  paste  may 
be  tinted  with  any  colouring  ni9.terial,  and  flavourings  such  as 
peppermint,  ginger,  clove,  rose,  musk,  &c.,  are  introduced  in 
the  baking.  Medicated  lozenges  are  an  elegant  and  pleasant 
form  of  administering  minor  remedies  for  coughs,  cnildren's 
ailments,  &c,  when  suitable  ingredients  are  introduced  into 
the  paste  ;  bnt  the  use  of  lozenges  containing  morphia,  codeia, 
and- other  narcotic  substances  should  be  carefiillj'  guarded. 
Pastilles  are  preparations  containing  a  large  proportion  of  gum, 
in  which  the  sugar  is  ivholly  dissolved,  and  they  are  usually 
tinted  and  flavoured  with  fruit  essences.  Preparations  of  boiled 
sngar  form  a  distinct  class  by  themselves,  and  occur  in  a  variety 
of  forms,  such  as  'drops,'  barley-sugar,  rock,  balls,  &c.,  variously 
tinted  and  flavoured.  The  sugar  is  dissolved  by  heat  over  a 
fire,  care  being  taken  to  keep  it  from  burning,  and  when  poured 
out  in  thin  layers,  it  is  worked  up  into  its  various  forms,  after  it 
has  acquired  such  a  plasticity  as  enables  it  to  be  handled.  Toffee 
or  butter-scotch  is  made  by  boiling  up  sugar,  honey,  and  butter 
together,  bnt  frequently  the  honey  is  altogether  omitted  from 
the  preparation.  The  French  excel  in  the  preparation  of  vari- 
ous sweets,  and  their  fandattis  have  often  an  exquisite  flavour, 
and  ore  manufactured  in  a        "    "  ' "''   " 


Napoleon  when  he  destroyed  the  Holy  Roman  Empi 
It  consisted  of  sixteen  German  princes,  who  disowned  coimection 
with  the  ancient  empire,  allied  themselves  with  France,  and 
adtnowledged  Napoleon  as  protector  of  the  league.  It  under- 
took to  furnish  him,  in  war,  with  63,000  soldiers.  This  unpa- 
triotic alliance  was  dissolved  in  1S13,  on  the  fall  of  Napoleon, 
and  the  Germanic  Confederation  was  constituted  in  its  place  in 
1815. 

Con'ference,  in  English  law,  means  the  professional  inter- 
meet  professionally  for  friendly  deliberation,  the  meeting  is  called 
a  consultation. 

Conference,  Wealeyan.    See  Wesleyan  Conference. 

Oonfer'vEl,  the  type  of  the  division  of  green-spored  AlgiC 
(q,  V. ),  called  Conferaacim.  They  are  exceedingly  delicate,  thread- 
like, articulated,  cellular  plants,  found  mantling  the  siirfece  of  stag- 
nant pools,  and  constituting  much  of  the  '  scum '  of  such  collec- 
tions of  water.  When  dry,  the  masses  of  confervre  look  like 
cotton,  and,  indeed,  have  been  used  as  a  packing  instead  of  tow, 
to  support  fractured  Kmbs.  It  has  been  proposed  to  apply  these 
cotton-like  masses  to  economic  purposes,  but  the  project  has  not 
yet  taken  any  tangible  shape. 

Oonfea'sion,  in  the  ecclesiastical  sense,  means  the  acknow- 
ledgment of  sin,  accompanied  with  submission  to  penitential  dis- 
cipline, and  the  reception  of  an  authorised  sentence  of  reconcili- 
ation. All  Christians  admit  that  they  are  to  confess  their  sins 
to  God.  The  sacrifices  or  '  sin-offerings '  which,  from  the  first, 
were  offered  to  Jehovah  for  pardon  of  sin,  always  implied  C, 
of  that  sin,  whether  openly  expressed  or  not.  According  to 
the  Jews,  repentance  could  not  be  complete  without  C,  of  which 
their  Rabbis  enumerated  three  kinds,  The  ministry  of  John  the 
Baptist  WES  tased  on  the  same  principle.  In  the  early  Christian 
Church,  C.  was  practised,  along  with  other  exercises,  as  a  prepa- 
ration for  baptism ;  and  this  C  was  sometimes  public  and  some- 
times private.  In  the  case  of  public,  scandaious  offences,  trans- 
gressors were  obliged  particularly  to  promise  to  forsake  them ; 
but  no  public  or  particular  C  of  private  offences  was  required  of 
men  at  baptism,  beyond  what  was  implied  in  Che  general  renun- 
ciation of  Satan  and  all  his  works.  Those  who  were  gnilty  of 
public,  notorious,  and  scandalous  crimes  after  baptism  had  to 
laider^  public  Penance  (q.  v.)  before  being  again  admitted  to 
the  communion-  As  to  private  offences,  sometimes  public  C.  and 
penance  were  made  for  Ihem,  and  sometunes  a  pubhg  minister 
was  appointed  to  hear  men's  C.  and  dbect  their  repentance; 
but  this  vras  by  no  means  an  essential  condition  for  communion, 
much  less  was  auricular  C.  and  private  absolution  from  a  priest; 
it  was  all  a  matter  of  advice  and  firee  choice.  But  in  the  fourth 
Lateran  Council  (1215)  Pope  Innocent  III.  published  a  decree,  re- 
quiring it  to  be  held  as  an  article  of  faith  that  every  one  is  bound. 


by  a  positive  divine  ordinance,  to  confess  his  sins  to  a  priest, 
and  the  dogma  of  auricular  C.  was  fully  established  in  the 
Roman  Cadiolic  Church.  In  the  standards  of  tiie  Church  of 
England,  C.  is  permitted,  and  in  some  cases  recommended.  The 
practice  fell  into  almost  complete  disuse,  however,  alter  the  Re- 
formation i  but  in  modem  tunes  It  has  had  a  great  revival  in  the 
High  Church  party.  See  Bingham's  Antiquities  gfthi  Christian 
Church. 

Confession,  in  law,  means  avowal  or  admission  of  an  alle- 
gation. In  England,  in  a  criminal  case,  a  jury  may  convict  a 
prisoner  on  his  C.  without  further  evidence,  provided  it  be  made 
without  intimidation  or  bribe.  In  Scotland,  corroboration  is  re- 
quired, the  C.  being  merely  held  as  evidence.  In  a  civil  action, 
refusal  to  deny  an  allegation  within  the  knowledge  of  the  party 
is  held  as  C.  of  its  trutn.  C  before  an  ecclesiastical  court,  even 
though  followed  by  public  Church  censnre,  is  not  in  Scotland 
held  as  proof  m  any  civil  or  criminal  matter  by  a  lay  Court, 

Oonfession  and  Avoi'dance  is,  in  common-law  pleading 
in  England,  the  admission  of  an  allegation  of  the  opposite  party, 
but  with  the  addition  of  some  circumstance  which  destroys  its 
legal  effect. 

Confesaion,  Judgment  by,  in  England,  is  judgment 
against  a  defendant  on  his  admission  of  the  law  and  facts  alleged 

Confes'sional  is  an  enclosed  seat  or  recess  in  Roman  . 
Catholic  churches  in  which  a  priest  slls  to  hear  penitents  make 
confession.  The  usual  place  used  to  be  an  open  seat  in  the 
chancel;  the  modern  C.,  resembling  a  sentry-box,  with  a  small 
window  for  penitents  to  speak  through,  bemg  of  recent  Intro- 
duction. 

Confessions  of  Faith  might  be  called  elaborated  Creeds 
(q.  v.).  The  principal  C.  of  F.  extant,  which  were  composed  at 
the  time  of  the  Reformation  or  soon  after,  are  the  following  : — 
Confession  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  contained  in  the 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (q.  v.)  ;  Confession  of  the 
Lutheran  Church,  contained  In  the  three  ancient  creeds,  the 
Augsburg  Confession  (q.  v.),  and  Melancthon's  Apology,  the 
Articles  of  Schmalkald,  Luther's  Catechisms,  the  Concordien- 
formel,  and  the  Articles  of  Visitation  (1592)  i  Confession  of  the 
Reformed  or  Calvlnlstic  Churches — the  Helvetic,  Tetrapolitan, 
Gallic,  Palatine  or  Heidelberg,  and  Belgic ;  Confession  of  the 
Anglican  Church— the  Thirty-nine  Articles  (q.  v.) ;  the  Confes- 
sion of  the  English  arul  Scotch  Presbyterian  Church,  and  the 
Westminsler  Confession  of  Faith  and  Catechisms,  drawn  up  by 
the  Assembly  of  Divines  who  sat  at  Westminster  from  1643  to 
1649. 

Con'fldent  Person  means  in  law  an  intimate  associate  or 
dependent.  The  term  is  especially  applied  to  a  partner  in  busi- 
ness, steward,  agent,  or  servant  of  any  one.  Deeds  of  an  insol- 
vent person  in  favour  of  those  so  connected  with  him,  if  granted 
without  adequate  consideration,  are  in  Scotland  reducible  by 

statDie.    See  Conjunct  Persons,  Collusion,  Considera- 

Confidential'ity,  in  law,  denotes  the  legal  privilege  which 
some  communications  have.  Letters  between  agent  and  chent 
have  tlie  privilege  of  C.  No  action  of  damage  can  be  founded 
on  them,  nor  can  either  be  required  to  produce  them  in  a  suit  or 
action.  How  far  the  privilege  extends  has  been  the  subject  of 
much  legal  discussion.  It  has  been  decided  that  a  former  agent 
is  bound  to  secrecy,  and  in  England  the  tendency  of  decisions 
has  been  towards  a  wide  view  of  the  prlvil^e  (see  Dickson  on 
Evidence).  In  Scotland  It  Is  atlU  doubtful  whether  confessions 
made  by  a  criminal  to  a  clergyman  are  privileged.  In  England 
It  has  been  decided  that  they  are  not.  Physicians  are  not  en- 
titled to  withhold  communications,  however  confidential.  In 
Roman  Catholic  countries  the  '  Seal  of  Confession '  Is  held  in- 
violable. Husband  and  wife  are  admissible  as  witnesses  for  and 
against  each  other  in  civil  suits,  but  neither  is  a  competent  wit- 
ness against  the  other  in  a  criminal  case.     See  Evidence. 

Confiima'tion  is  a  rite  supplementary  of  the  sacrament  of 
baptism,  and  without  which  no  one  Is  admitted  to  the  sacra- 
ment of  the  Lord's  supper.  It  means  literaEy  a  strenglhenins, 
and  is  so  called  because  they  who  receive  it  are  understood  to 
be  strengfhe!ied  thereby  for  the  fulfilment  of  their  Christian 
duties.  There  has  been  a  controversy  between  Romanists  and 
223 


vLiOOQle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOFjEDIA. 


consisted,  besides 
the  immersion,  of  unction,  of  tlie  sign  of  the  cross  (the  seal  of 
the  Lord),  and  of  the  imposition  of  hands  accompanied  with 
prayer;  and  by  the  name  of  one  or  other  of  these  three  actions 
It  was  generally  linown.  Baptism  thus  consisted  of  a  negative 
and  a  positive  part  i  the  cleansing  from  sin,  signified  by  the  im- 
mersion I  and  the  importation  of  the  Holy  Spirit^  signified  by 
the  imposition  of  hands.  Now,  as  the  Holy  Ghost  was  given 
by  the  laying  on  of  the  apostles'  hands  (Acts  viii.  14-19,  and 
xix.  1-6),  this  power  was  reserved  exclusively  for  their  succes- 
sors, the  bishops.  Accordingly  tlie  latter  part  of  the  rite  of 
baptism,  which  afterwards  came  to  be  called  C,  could  only  be 
performed  at  the  same  time  with  the  immersion  (which  could  be 

{erformed  by  the  presbyters,  and  even  the  deacons)  if  the  bishop 
appened  to  be  present.  If  not,  it  was  performed  by  him  at 
the  first  opportunity,  for  which  purpose  he  went  periodically 
through  his  diocese.  It  was  not  till  the  13th  c,  however,  that 
C.  came  to  be  regarded  as  a  separate  ordinance  from  baptism, 
even  in  the  case  of  infants,  to  whom  at  first  the  eucharist  also 
was  given  at  the  same  time.  The  Council  of  Trent  (1545)  pro- 
nounced it  to  he  a  true  and  proper  sacrament.  In  the  Eastern 
Qiurdies,  baptism,  C,  and  the  eucharist  are  all  administered  yet 
in  immediate  succession.  In  the  Western  Churches,  for  the  last 
three  or  four  centuries,  a  delay  of  seven  years  has  been  inter- 
posed between  infant  baptism  and  C.  In  the  Anglican  Church, 
this  delay  is  extended  to  fifteen  or  sixteen  years.  See  EInnt's 
Diet.  cfDoct.  andHist.  Theology,  1875  ;  ^^VCi^^  Dkt.  of  Christ. 
Attl;  1S76  ;  Bingham's  £etl.  Ant. 

Confinnation,  in  English  law,  means  the  conveyance  of  a 
riglit  whidi  one  has  in  land  to  another  having  possession,  In 
Scotch  law,  C.  means  the  form  in  which  a  title  is  conferred  on 
the  executor  of  one  deceased  to  administer.  The  process  for  C. 
goes  on  before  the  Commissary  (q.  v.)  of  the  district 

Confirmati/m,  Chaiierof,  in  Scotch  conveyancing,  is  the  title 
of  a  chatter  granted  by  the  superior  to  the  purch^er  of  a  pro- 
perly. It  is  so  called  because  it  confirms  the  rights  granted  to 
the  purchaser  under  the  Disposition  (q.  v.)  in  his  favour,  and  tlie 
Saeme  (q.  v.)  following  upon  it. 

OonflBoa'tion  is  a  forfeiture  of  lands  or  goods  to  the  crown, 
being  part  of  the  punishment  of  certain  crimes.    See  AtTAINdeh. 

Con'flict  of  Laws.  There  is  no  kind  of  question  more 
perplexing  to  the  mind  of  lawyers  than  that  which  springs  from 
the  confiiction  of  the  law  of  different  states.  An  individual  may 
have  two  nationalities  by  parentage,  and  many  nationalities  by 
residence  and  tight  of  properly  in  various  countries  ;  thus  it  may 
be  very  difficult  to  say  under  the  law  of  which  country  this  indi- 
vidual or  his  right  of  property  ought  to  he.  Even  in  the  Roman 
Empire  the  C.  of  L.  was  very  embarrassing,  for  the  inhabitant  of 
one  province  was  not  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  magistrate 
of  another.  But  it  has  been  since  the  Roman  Empire  dissolved 
into  the  various  kingdoms  of  modem  Europe  that  the  full  force  of 
the  difficulty  has  been  felt.  In  the  United  States  of  Ametica 
it  has  been  also  very  greatly  felt,  owing  to  the  partially  inde- 
pendent character  of  the  states  fbtming  the  Union.  In  Great 
Erit^,  the  chief  conflict  of  law  has  arisen  from  tie  difference  in 
the  legid  doctrine  of  England  and  Scotland  respecting  the  con- 
stitution of  Marriage  (q.  v. ),  and  in  the  determination  of  other 
points  involving  questions  of  Domicile  (q.  v.).  See  also  Inter. 
NATIONAL  Law,  Comits  of  Nations. 

Confor'inable  Strata,  in  geology,  are  strata  deposited  one 
above  the  otlier  in  parallel  layers.  They  indicate  the  absence  of 
any  great  physical  disturbance  (save  perhaps  an  interrupted  but 
gradual  rise  or  fall  of  the  whole  district)  during  their  deposition, 
and  point  to  a  comparatively  short  geological  time  between  the 
formation  of  any  two.     See  Unconformable  Strata. 

Confton'tS,  or  ComTjattant,  in  heraldry,  two 
otherbeasts  of  prey, -face  to  face,  rampant 

Oonfu'cius  (a  Latmised  form  oi K'ung Fu-tste,  'the  Master 
Kung '),  the  son  of  Shu-leang  Heih,  a  brave  aoidier  of  ducal 
descent,  and  Chingtsae  Hen,  was  bom  in  the  district  of  Tsow, 
now  Yenchow,  Zlst  of  lotli  month,  B.C.  S5t.  His  father's  death 
left  him  poor.     After  a  studious  youth,  he  maj'ried  at  the  age  of 


lofp 


s,  and  afterwards 


nineteen,  and  then  became  keeper 
of  the  public  lands  and  fields.  At  the  age  of  t^ 
began  publicly  teaching  for  fees  the  '  doctrines  of  antiquity, '  In 
B.C.  528  he  lost  his  mother.  After  a  long  study  of  the  history, 
literature,  and  institutions  of  the  entire,  C.  obtained  from  Prince 
Ch'aou,  through  a  favourite  pupil,  Holie,  the  jneans  of  travelling 
from  his  native  state  of  Lu  (o  the  state  of  Chow,  where  be  met 
Laou  Tau,  the  founder  of  the  Rationalistic  sect  named  Taouists. 
Civil  commotion  in  Lu  next  forced  C.  to  retire  to  the  state 
of  Tse,  where  he  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  the  King,  and 
extended  his  knowledge  of  music  From  B.C.  515  to  501,  he 
remained  in  Lu  without  public  office,  but  with  an  increasing 
number  of  disciples,  Ai^er  the  expulsion  of  the  usurper,  Vang 
Hu,  C.'s  success  as  chief  magistrate  of  the  town  of  Chung-tu 
led  to  his  appointment  by  (he  Prince  Ting  (of  Lu)  as  Assistant- 
Superintendent  of  Works  (in  which  capacity  lie  carried  out  a 
survey,  and  many  agricultural  improvements),  and  latterly  as 
Minister  of  Crime.  His  determined  opposition  to  the  great 
private  families,  and  his  administrative  power,  made  him  many 
enemies  in  Lu  and  Tse ;  in  B.C.  496,  he  was  driven  from 
the  court,  and  spent  the  next  thirteen  years  in  wandering  from 
state  to  state,  chiefly  in  Wei,  Ch'in,  and  Ts'u.  In  483  he 
returned  to  Lu,  where  he  spent  the  last  five  years  of  his  life, 
consulted  occasionaUy  on  public  affiius,  bnt  chiefly  engaged  in 
revising  his  works  on  rites  and  history,  and  in  the  reformation 
of  music.  After  losing  his  son  Le,  and  his  disciples  Yeu  Hwuv 
and  Zsze-!u  by  death,  C.  himself  died,  on  the  nth  of  the  41(1 
month  B.C.  478.  His  disappointments  in  life  yieifi  compen- 
sated 1^  the  universal  veneration  of  his  memory.  His  classics 
have  become  the  text-books  of  instruction  in  all  schools  and 
colleges,  and  the  subject  of  competitive  examination  for  civil 
posts.  He  not  only  receives  titles  of  honour,  as  the  Ancient 
Teacher,  the  Perfect  Sage,  &c,  but  in  association  with  his  ances- 
tors and  fotu-  eminent  disciples,  he  is  regularly  worshipped  in 
temples  built  for  the  purpose,  the  Emperor  performing  an  act  of 
public  worship  twice  in  the  year,  Tlie  immense  literary  class  of 
the  empire  transmit  the  influence  of  C,  which  extends  to  the 
Taauist  and  Buddhist  population,  as  well  as  to  the  pure  Con- 
fucians. The  Chinese  classics  consist  of  the  Five  JCing  (or  can- 
onical works),  which  are  the  Yih  (Book  of  Changes) ;  tlie  Sliu 
(Book  of  History) ;  the  Shi  (Book  of  Poetry) ;  the  Le  Ke 
(Book  of  Rites) ;  the  Ch'un  Ts'ew  (Spring  and  Autumn),  a 
chronicle  of  events  from  731  to  480  B.C.  j  and  the  Four  Sin  (or 
writings),  which  are  the  Lun  Yu  (or  the  Confucian  Analects  or 
Digested  Conversations  of  C-) ;  the  Ta  Heo  (Great  Learning), 
attributed  to  Tsane  Sinj  the  Chun  Yung  (Doctrine  of  the 
Mean),  ascribed  to  K'ung  Keih,  the  grandson  of  C,  and  the  works 
of  Mencius.  These  works  (which  nave  been  the  subject  of  in- 
numerable commentaries)  were  first  completely  collected  by  the 
Emperors  of  the  first  and  second  Han  dynasty.  Since  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Christian  era  they  have  been  jealously  preserved  by 
the  state,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  original  teit 
was  put  together  from  scattered  bamboo  tablets,  which  the 
T'sin  dynasty  (B.C.  220-200)  had  endeavoured  to  destroy.  The 
Ch'un  Ts'ew  is  the  only  work  entirely  composed  by  C.  The 
great  feature  in  the  philosophy  of  C,  is  that  he  professes  to  base 
everything  on  the  past ;  to  revive  the  wisdom  of  elder  sa«es,  and 
the  purer  and  more  scrupulous  rites  and  ceremonies  of  former 
times.  Possessed  of  high  and  noble  conceptions  of  morality,  and 
of  a  warm  and  generous  disposition,  he  nevertheless,  in  accor- 
dance with  the  genius  of  his  race,  put  a  failh  m  the  minute 
external  regulations  of  life  which  is  pedantic  and  incomprehen- 
sible to  Europeans.  This  f^th  has  communicated  itself  to  the 
empire,  and  has  survived  through  many  political  revolutions  to 
the  present  day.  It  is  probable  that  C,  while  insisting  on  the 
duty  of  ancestor-worship  (a  form  of  human  service  revived  by 
Comte),  had  little  belief  in  the  objective  existence  of  the  Shang- 
Te,  or  Supreme  Spirit,  mentioned  in  the  Book  of  History,  or  of 
departed  relatives  and  friends.  '  To  give  one's-self  earnestly,' 
said  he,  '  to  the  duties  due  to  men,  and,  while  respecting  spiritual 
beings,  to  keep  aloof  from  them,  may  be  called  true  wisdom.' 
Both  his  poUtical  and  social  systems  assume  a  perfect  rigidity  of 
political  and  social  relations.  The  authority  of  rulers  over  their 
subjects,  of  husbands  over  their  families,  &c.,  although  theo- 
retically qualified  by  the  condition  that  those  in  anthonty  mast 
be  virtuous  and  benevolent,  was  vrith  him  an  ultimate  fact ;  this 
view,  however  false  when  applied  to  progressive  nations,  is  ap- 
parently justified  by  Chinese  history.     'The  gi-ass  must  bend,'  he 


yLaOOgle 


CON 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CON 


^- 


says,  '  when  the  wind  blows  across  it.'  In  the  same  way  women 
have  always  been  oppressed  in  China ;  '  talkativeness '  being  one 
of  the  seven  grounds  of  divorce  laid  down  by  C.  The  despotic 
principles  thus  applied  to  the  five  relations  of  society  (including 
those  of  friendship  and  of  elder  and  younger  brother),  must  have 
.  been  useful  in  establishing  the  centralisation  of  die  imperial 
power,  and  the  suppression  of  feudalism.  C.'s  negative  expres- 
sion of  the  Golden  Rule  of  Christ  has  often  been  commented 
on ;  his  ethical  code,  however,  permits  blood-revenge,  a  thir^ 
repugnant  to  Christian  ethics.     See  Legge's  Chinise  Clasdcs. 


on  the  St 

Cong^-d'^lire  is  the  sovereign's  licence  to  the  dean  and 
chajjter  to  elici  a  new  bishop  when  the  see  is  vacant.  It  is 
accompanied  by  letters-missive  from  the  crown,  naming  the  per- 
son lo  be  elected.  If  the  election  is  delayed  beyond  twelye 
days,  the  nomination  may  be  effected  by  letters-patent  from  the 
crown.  If  ,the  dean  and  chapter  elect  any  other  than  he  who 
is  named,  they  incur  the  penalties  of  a  Pnemanire  (ij.  v. ). 

Con'ger  Eel  [C.  vul^iais),  a.  genus  of  Teleostei,  included  iji 
the  sub-otder  Malacopiri  [afsda),  and  differing  from  the  ordinary 
eels  (Anguilla),  chiefly  in  the 
■*  length  of  the  dorsal  fins,  which 
commence  above  the  pectoral 
fins.     The  upper  jaw  is  larger 
than  the  under  Jaw.     The  tail 
is  elongated  and'^  pointed.    The 
CmiEerEd.  q    g    ^^^  attain  a  length  of 

from  3  to  6  feet,  and  a  thickness  equal  to  ihat.of  a  bumaji  leg. 
The  colour  is  a  brownish- black  above,  and  a  white  beneath.  Jt 
is  the  only  British  species,  and  is  fished  chiefly  on  the  S.  coasts 
of  Britain.  The  flesh  is  coarse,  and  used  for  food  only  by  the 
poorer  classes.  The  baits  used  in  its  capture  ai;e  small  fishes 
of  various  kinds. 

OongeB'tiOil,  in  medicine,  is  a  term  used  ito  d^ote  that  .con- 
dition in  which  there  is  excess  of  blood  in  a  part  of  the  system. 
It  IS  fthree  kinds  :—(i)  ^fijWC,  in  whichthere/sanhicreased 
fl  f  blood  to  a  part  through  the  arteries.  IJis  occurs  in  all 
local  uiflammations,  and  was  denominated  by  the  older  surgeons 
ti  term  tion  of  blood  to  tki  part.  It  may  result  from  the  appli- 
at  n  f  some  irritant,  as  is  seen  in  the  redness  produced  by  a 
mu  ta  d  poultice,  which  is  due  to  the  increased  flow  of  blood 
t  that  part.  Active  C.  often  ends  in  h;emor^h^e,  especially 
wh  n  tuated  in  a  mucous  membrane,  as  in  the  stomach  cgr 
[^i)Fasskii  C,  when  the  excess  of  blood  in  the  parts  is 
rant  of  tone  m  the  small  blood-vessels  (capjllariesl.  These 
capillaries  are  dilated,  and  the  circulation  of  the  blood  tn  (he  pa^t 
is  sluggish,  and  as  a  consequence  the  serum  of  tjie  blood  is 
exuded,  and  dropsy  is  the  result.  Passive  C.  is  often  the  result  of 
Active  C.  (3)  The  Mechanical  C.  of  some  authors  is  C.  due  to 
obstruction  in  some  vein,  as  a  tumour  pressing  on  a  vein.  Tight 
garters  will  produce  C.  of  the  lower  extremities.  Pregnancy 
often  produces  the  same  kind  of  C.  Mechanical  G  produces  a 
variety  of  passive  C.  in  active  C.  the  part  is  generally  briglw 
red ;  in  passive  C.  it  is  more  or  less  of  a  dark-purple  colotir. 
The  hitter  kind  is  often  seen  after  debilitating  diseases,  giviflgrise 


C.  present.  In  all  cases  the  cause  is  to  be  removed  if  practi- 
cable.  In  passive  C.,  iron  tonics  internally,  and  astringents,  as 
aium  or  zinc,  externally,  will  often  do  good. 

Con'gleton,  a  market- town  and  borough,  Qieshire,  on  the 
Dane,  33  miles  E.  of  Chester,  with  manufactures  of  cotton  and 
silk.  C.  silk  febrics  are  of  superior  qnalit)^.  Many  of  the  houses 
consist  of  timber-framing  and  plaster,  which  gives  the  town  a 
picturesque  and  ancient  appearance.     Pop.  (1871)  11,344. 

Conglom'erate,  orFuddiug'-Stone,  is  a  rock  composed  of 
water-worn  peebles  (usually  quartz  or  other  highly  siliceous 
ral),  cemented  together  by  a  matrix  of  Sand,  clay,  or  lime. 
It  indicates  the  position  of  a  former  coast-line,  and  a  subsequent 
depression  below  the  sea.  Breccia  differs  from  C.  in  being  made 
up  of  angular  fragments. 
104 


Oon'go,  Laire,  or  Kza'di,  a  lai^e  river  in  Lower  Guinea, 
flowing  into  the  Atlantic  at  lat.  6°  S.  Though  10  miles  broad 
at  the  mouth,  wilh  an  estimated  drainage  area  of  800,000 
miles  and  a  discharge  of  2,500,000  cubic  feet  of  water 
second,  it  is  not  navigable  for  any  distance,  owing  to  the  nui 
rous  rapids  which  mark  its  course.  In  his  Ttoo  2'rips  to  Gorilla 
Zand  and  the  Cataracts  of  the  Congo  (Low  &  Co.,  s  vols.  Lond. 
1876),  Captain  Burton  gives  mucli  new  information.  From  the 
Yellala  or  Great  Rapids,  116  miles  from  the  mouth,  the  total  fall 
is  390  feet;  .and  m  the  tirst  5  miles  of  this  distance  the  fell  is 
joo  feet,  liie  scenery  is  described  as  being  very  beautiful ;  but 
the  river  has  not  yet  been  exploi-ed  further  up.  Its  source  was 
formerly  supposed  to  be  among  the  Mossamba  Mountains,  in 
the  E.  of  Bengnelai  but  .the  recent  discoveries  of  Lieutenant 
Cameron,  in  his  late  journey  across  the  continent,  point  to  the 
great  probability  of  its  connection  with  the  central  water  system 
of  Afnca,  possibly  with  the  Lualaba  itself.  C.  is  also  the  name 
of  the  contiguous  territory,  a  very  fertile  and  lovely  country, 
producing  oil-palm^  sugar,  lemons,  and  other  sub-tropical 
fruits,  and  abounding  in  the  wild  animals  common  to  W.  Africa. 
In  his  Angola  and  the  Riser  Congo  (Macinillaiii  &  Co.,  2  vols, 
1876),  Mr  Monteiro  brings  msfty  new  fscts  to  light  regarding 
the  fauna,  flora,  and  geology  of  the  region  through  which  the  C. 
flows.  The  mineral  resources  are  immense,  but  can  never  be 
fully  developed  under  the  incompetent  .rule  of  Portugal, 

CoT^rega'tion  means — (i)  in  its  largest  sense,  the  visible 
Church,  or  the  whole  body  of  Cliristian  people  considered  as 
assembled  in  some  act  of  fellowship  ;  and  then  popularly  (2)  the 
worshippers  assembled  in  a  particular  place;  (3)  Again  it  was 
the  anciei3.t  name  for  ,a  Chapter  (q.  v. ) ;  and  (4)  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Churqh  it  means  a  couni^l  or  conrt.of  cardinals  And  other 
divines. 


Con'gxesa  is  the  term  applied  to  a  conference  of  European 
sovereigns,  nr  of  their  plenipotentiaries,  to  consider  matters  of 
international  interest,  and  generally  to  adjust  the  Balance  of 
Power  (q.  v.).  Such  were  the  Congresses  of  Vienna,  held  in  1815  ; 
of  Carisbad,in  j 8; 9,  fqr  adjusting  the  position  of  Germany;  and 
of  London,  iu  1826,  for  fixing  the  fote  of  Greece.  At  a  C.  there 
is  no  presentation  of  credentials  on  the  part  nf  the  member?, 
although  they  exchange  and  examine  the  warrants  uader  which 
they  act.  In  the  U.S..,  C.  has  another  meaning,  being  a  collec- 
tive nanie  /or  the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives,  or 
the  legislatLve  branch  of  the  Government ;  at  the  same  time  it  is 
jinderstood  that  even  there  it  had  originally  a  similar  meaning 
to  what  it  has  in  Europe,  being  first  applied  to  the  conferences 
of  del^ates  from  the  various  British  colonies  who  met  7th 
October  1765  io  consider  their  grie,vanccs. 

Gon'greve,  Willjam,  one  of  the  greatest  ,of  our  comic 
dramatists,  was  bora  in  Slaffbrd  in  February  1670,  and  educated 
at  Publin,  He  soon  abandoned  the  law — for  which  he  had 
studied— in  favour  of  literature.  His  first  comedy.  The  Old 
Bachelor,  written  at  the  age  of  twen^-three,  won  him  the 
patronage  of  Lord  Halifax,  through  iwhom  Jie  .ohtained  a  place 
m  the  Pipe  Office  and  a  post  in  the  customs.  After  writing  two 
comedies,  Th,e  Double  JJealer  and  Love  far  /jree,  he  produced 
the  Mourning  Bride,  a  stilted  tragedy,  which  met  with  enormous 
success.  His  last  comedy,  the  iVd^^ftke  IVorld,  being  coldly 
received,  he  gave  up  writmg  plays,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life 
in  wealthy  leisure.  He  died  igth  Jannary  1739.  His  career 
was"  eminently  successful.  Ministers  competed  to  offer  him 
sinecures  ;  poets  competed  to  praise  his  works.  Dryden,  Pope, 
Swift,  Steele,  and  Addison  ^were  tmited  in  admiration  of  him. 
There  is  Jittle  humour,  and,  excepting  in  Love  for  Lirve,  little 
feeling  in  his  plays,  hu(,  altliough  immoral,  they  are  free  from 
the  beastliness  of  Wycherley,  to  whom  C.  is  immeasurably 
superior.  The  Way  of  the  World  is  a  masterpiece  of  brilliant 
dialogue  ;  there  is  in  it  a  perpetual  sparkle  of  piquant  conceits, 
arch  raillery,  and  Sprightly  repartee  and  innuendo.  The  best 
edition  of  C.  is  that  by  Leigh  Hunt  (Lond.  1849).  See  also 
Thackeray's  English  Humourists,  and  Macaula/s  Essay  on  the 
Comic  Dramatists  of  Ike  Restoration. 


Congreve  Hooket.    See  Rocket. 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


The  student  is  referred  fo  the  w 


3  pi'operties  of  C. 


of  Gauss,  Poinsol,  and  Jorret  for  the 
numbers. 

Do'ni,  or  Ouneo,  an  episcopal  city  of  N.  Italy,  and  capital 
a  province  of  the  same  name,  at  She  confluence  of  the  Stuia 
and  Gesso,  4S  miles  S.W.  of  Turin,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  railway.  The  streets,  with  the  exception  of  the  principal 
one,  which  has  arcades  throughout  its  entire  length,  are  mere 
lanes.  The  position  of  C.  gives  it  a  large  trafiic  with  Iximbardy, 
Switzerland,  and  Germany,  the  merchandise  from  the  port  of 
Nice  for  these  countries  passing  tlirough  it.     Pop,  (1871)  22,882. 

Oon'io  Seo'tions.    See  Cone. 

Conif  ersB,  an  oi-dec  of  Dicotyledonous  trees  and  shrubs, 
chiefly  remarliable  for  the  seetjs  being  n«;k^,  and  lying  hejiind 
scales  (generally  woody),  which  make  up  die  compound  (ruit 
called  a  cone  (hence  the  narpe  C. ,  or  cone-bearers).  They  also 
constitute  the  subdivision  ffymnospain^,  or  naked  seeded 
plants.  There  are  two  sub-orders — (i)  Ahktime,  of  whiph  pinm 
aim,  and  Auracaria  Me  ejamjiles,  and  (2}  Cufiressinas,  of  which 
^tii/erus,  Cuprcssus,  aijd  Taxodimtn  maybe  taken  as  the  types. 
Some  of  the  species  are  rather  variable,  and  have  been  unneces- 
sarily multiplied  on  very  slight  grounife.  The  number  niay  be 
given  at  about  130 ;  they  are  distributed  ajl  over  the  world,  but 
chiefly  in  northern  aqd  temperate  chmates.  The  re^on  pf 
America  immediately  to  the  W.  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  is 
rich  in  some  very  beautiful  fopns,  e.g..  Sequoia  sempennrens  and 
Seguffia  ( Wellingtonla)  giganlea,  the  latter  of  whidi  js  one  of  the 
lat^est  known  trees.  It  grows  in  two  or  three  clamps  in  the 
Sierra  Nevada  and  vicinity,  in  California,  and  though  the  height 
of  these  'big  trees,'  as  they  a^e  called  in  California,  has  been 
much  exa^erated,  the  highest  reaches  325  feet,  and  the  stump 
of  one  which  had  fallen  before  the  grove  was  discovered  by  the 
whites,  is  30  feet  in  diameter.  A  house  is  now  erected  on  it,  in 
which  dancing-parties  axe  held.  Neither  this  species,  nor  its 
close  ally  Sequoia  ' umpervirens  (the  redwood},  has  been  ever 
found  in  the  neighbouring  gtate  irf  Oregon,  or,  indeed,  out  of 
California.  The  order  jjossesses  many  encellent  timber  trees, 
which  also  yield  resia,  pitch,  tar,  turpentine,  &c.  The  wood 
of  all  of  them  is  marked' with  dots  <3r  discs,  by  which  it  can  at 
once  be  distinguished  trader  the  laicroscope.  TTie  Vews  (q.  v. ) 
are  by  some  authors  eon^dered  as -a  trilje  of  C,  {Taxined\,  and 
by  others  as  a  distinct  tn-der  (Tasacm),  comprising,  in  addition 
to  the  yew  proper  \,Taxiu),  Daoydiuin,  an  Antaretiegenus,  one 
of  which  {Dacrydmrn  Ftunklim^ks,  the  Huon  pine  of^ustralia, 
and  the  Kakaterro  (Dacrydhtm  taxtfaiium),  of  the  same  country  ; 
while  the  Dimon  pine  (also  of  New  Zealand)  is  another  member 
of  the  same  genus,  viz.,  Dacrydium  cuprtsmtum,  Podocarpus,  and 
Salisburia.  TTie  Gnitaceic,  or  jointed  firs,  are  ajso  closely  allied 
to  this  order,  but  will  be  considered  separately. 

Coni'ine  is  an  Alkaloid  (q.  v.)  contained  in  hemloclt  (Ciwtam 
maculahim),  and  is  a  volatile  liquid,  boiling  at  168°  C.  It 
possesses  a  powerful,  pungent  odour,  like  that  of  tobapco,  and 
is  very  poisonous.  C.  is  a  strong  base,  and  forms  crystalline 
salts  with  acids.  Its  composition  is  represented  by  the  formula 
CsHjgN.     It  has  been  prepared  ^rtificisily. 

GonirOS'trBS,  a  sub-order  of  Insessorial  (q.  y.)  or  Perching 


apex.     Of  this  group  the  SparroiS's  (q.  v.),  hawfinch 

finch,  crows,  starlings,  hornbills,  finches,  and  larks  are  good 

examples.     These  birds  are  chieflj  granivoroua  in  liabits. 

Co'nium,    See  Hemlock. 

Ooujoin'mg  of  Pro'ceasee,  a  t^m  of  Scotch  law.  Where 
two  or  more  processes  in  the  Court  of  Session  relate  to  the  same 
matter  and  affect  the  same  parties,  the  court  may  conjoin  them. 
They  are  then  discussed  together  as  one  group- 

Cou'jugal  lUgMa,  a  Stiit  for  Sestitu'tion  of,  is  a  suit 
arising  from  a  hustiand  or  wife,  without  l^al  cause,  insisting  on 
hving  separately ;  in  which  case,  the  ecclesiastical  courts  will 
compel  them  to  come  together,  'if  either,'  as  Blackstone  re- 
marks, 'be  wealt  enough  to  desire  il. ' 


I  yoke  together')  is  the  grai 


divided,  with  the  view  of  exhibiting  collectively  the  various 
methods  of  denoting  the  relation  of  voice,  person,  number,  mood, 
and  tense.  These  relations  are  expressed  in  some  languages  (as 
in  Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin)  by  additions  to  and  alterations  upon 
the  verb-stem  ;  and  in  otliers  (as  in  English,  &c.)  by  distmct 
words.  As  the  mechanism  of  inflections  practically  draws  half 
its  facts  from  Latin  and  its  derivatives,  we  shall  take  Latin  as  an 
example  of  the  former  class.  In  Latin  verbs  the  inflections  in 
a  C.  express  the  voices,  active  and  passive  (sometunes  called 
reciprocal,  or  middle) ;  the  nnmbeis,  singular  and  plural ;  the 
persons  in  each  number,  first,  second,  third  ;  the  moods,  indiea- 
five,  subjunctive,  and  imperative ;  the  tenses,  present,  future,  and 
imperfect,  denoting  incomplete  action,  and  perfect,  future  per- 
fect, and  pluperfect,  denoting  complete  action.  .  There  are  also 
comprehended  in  C.  indeclinable  substantives,  called  infinitives, 
verbal  adjectives,  called  participles,  a  verbal  substantive.  Gerund, 
and  a  verbal  adjective,  Gerundm,  and  the  supines,  the  accusative, 
and  the  ablative  case  of  a  verbal  noun.  Every  person  in  the 
Latin  verb  is  a  complete  sentence,  the  simplest  form  being  fomid 
in  the  ^angular  of  &e  present  indicative  active,  where  we  have 
oiily  the  stem  and  the  person-word,  ania-s,  '  thou  lovest, '  The 
word  sciib-o--e-ur-}tt  exhibits  the  inflections  attached  to  the  stem 
to  express  the.various  verbal  relations  ;  sctit,  the  stem,  signifies 
writi;  er,  indicates  past  time;  e,  the  subjunctive  mood;  nl,  the 
person  in  the  plural,  '  Ih^ ; '  and  or,  tlie  passive  voice.  The 
ordinary  Latin  conjugations  are  four  in  number,  distinguished 
by  the  last  or  characteristic  letter  of  the  stem  '.  (l)  verbs  whose 
stems  etid  in  a;  (2)  in  s;  (3)  in  a  consonant,  in  u,  or  in  £;  and 
(4)  in  t.  In  English,  as  in  all  the  German  dialects,  there  are 
two  great  conjugations,  distinguished  by  the  form  of  the  preterite. 
The  first,  ealjed  the  Strong  C,  forms  the  preterite  from  the  root 
without  the  addition  of  any  foreign  element :  as  ride,  rode ; 
fiing,  flung ;  hold,  held.  The  second,  called  Weak  C. ,  comprises 
verbs  that  form  their  preterites  lilte  kill,  kill-ed ;  move,  niove-d ; 
dip,  dip-t.  The  verfe  of  the  Sti-ong  C.  are  comparatively  few 
in  number,  but  they  are  all  native  Englisli,  and  give  our  speech 
much  of  its  peculiar  strength  and  flavour  ;  the  Weak  C,  on  the 
oth^  hand,  is  recruited  by  all  the  contingents  derived  from 
other  languages,  ^ee  Latham's  UngHsh  Language  ch.  i.  ss. 
iy-25,  and  Whitney's  Language  and  its  Study.) 

Oon'jmtct  Feraous-  Under  the  Bankruptcy  Statutes  of 
Scotland,  all  those  who,  by  their  relationship  to  one  who  is 
insolvent,  would  he  legally  incapable  of  being  witnesses  or  judges 
in  a  cause  in  which  he  njight  be  concerned,  are  termed  C  P. 
Deeds  in  favour  of  any  conjunct  person  1^  the  insolvent,  if 
granted  without  adequate  j:onsideration,  are,  under  statute,  redu- 
cible.   See  CoHFiuENT  Persons,  Consideration. 

Coi^Tmo'tion,  in  astronomy.  Two  heavenly  bodies  are  said 
to-be  in  C.  wjien  they  occupy  the  same  portion  of  the  heavens, 
as,  for  instance,  the  sun  and  moon  at  new  moon.  When  Mercury 
arid  Venus  are  Jietween  us  and  the  sun,  they  are  said  to  be  in 
inferior  C. ,  and  when  the  sun  is  between  us  and  them,  they  are 
in  superior  C.  The  other  planets  can  pnly  be  in  superior  C. 
Chinese  history  records  a  C.  of  five  planets  in  the  reign  of 
the  Emperor  Thuen-hin  (2514-2436,  B.c,},  and  but  a  few  years 
past  we  liad  a  very  beautifiii  C.  of  Venus  and  Jupiter. 


whldi  join  sentences  and  independeiit  words.  They  are  either 
(i)  (^Bsrdiuale  C,  joining  independent  propositions,  as  aha,  and 
{C^atipe  C);  or,dse,\c.  [Diijimctkie  C.) ;  but, yd,  &.c.  (Ad- 
versative C.y,/iir,  hence,  &c  {lUatisi  C);  or  (2)  Suinrditmte  C, 
joining  a  principal  sentence  to  a  dqiendent  or  modifying  clause ; 
Jbr,  iecimse,  since,  as,  if,  unless,  lest,  that,  whetker.  Sec  Cb7>i- 
peund  C.  are  sacii  expressions  as  Hot  only,  nevertheless,  kiraiheit, 
pi-oaided  iliat,  &c  ;  and  C.  used  in  pairs,  as  either,  or,  both,  and, 
as  well  as,  Sic,  are  called  Correlatives.  C.,  whicli  are  of  compa- 
ratively recent  growth,  langnage  being  at  first  too  simple  to  re- 
quire them,  have  been  formed  lay  lessening  the  meanings  of  other 
words.  Thus,  as  and  also  are  contractions  from  the  Old  Eng. 
eal,  mid  ('alt(^elher,'  '  thus ') ;  oc  is  a  conti'action  from  c/Aa' ; 
and  originally  meant  agaiitst  (O.  H.  Ger.  anti) ;  the  conisnction 
than  comes  nom  the  adverb  then;  the  conjunction  therefore  from 
a  demonstrative  pronoun  and  a  preposition ;  the  conjimction  be- 
cause from  a  noun  and  a  preposition;  and  the  conjunction  that, 
from  the  pronoun  thai — such  a  phrase  as  'I  know/inihe  is  here,' 


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Conjunction  of  Cells,  a  term  applied  to  a  peculiar  pheno- 
menon of  reproduction  in  plants,  s\icJi  as  Daifiidas,  &c.,  when, 
as  among  ^e  Conferva,  two  cellular  filaments  approach,  each  one 
of  them  gives  forth  aprotuberance  which  unites  with  the  oppo- 
site cell,  after  whicli  the  two  contiguous  walls  get  absorbed,  so 
that  an  open  passage  is  left  between  the  two  cells.  Through 
this  opening  the  endochrome  of  one  Cell  (q.  v. )  passes  into  the 
other,  and  Ster  various  changes  becomes  a  Zoospore,  and  the  cell- 
water  burstuig,  liberates  the  spores. 

Conjunctly  and  Sev'erally,  a  Scotch  law-terra  denoting 
the  form  of  obligation  hy  which  two  or  more  persons  become 
each  bound  to  discharge  the  whole  obligation.  A  creditor  in 
such  circumstances  may  either  exact  performance  m  part  from 
each,  or  enforce  the  whole  obligation  against  one,  leaving  him 
0  seek  relief  from  the  rest.  The  corresponding  term  in  English 
aw  is  Joint  and  Several  (q.  v.},  ITiere  is  some  difference  there 
shown  in  the  law  of  the  two  comitiies  with  regard  to  joint  abli'- 


Con'juring,    See  Magic  and  Incaktation, 

Cona,  Loug'h,  a  lake  in  the  county  of  IWayW,  Ireland,  to- 
gether witli  Lough  Cullin,  from  which  if  is  separated  by  a 
narrow  channel,  crossed  by  a  bridge  called  the  Pontoon,  is  13 
miles  long  and  from  I  to  3  broad,  and  is  studded  with  isles. 

Connara'ceBB,  a  natural  order  of  caJydfloral  Dicotyledonous 
trees  or  shrubs,  consisting  of  about  forty-two  species,  natives  of  the 
tropics  of  America  and  of  the  Old  World.  The  best-known  of  Ihe 
six  or  seven  genera  are  Boswellia,  BalsanioiUndren,  and  Amyris. 
They  are  universally  characterised  by  the  abundance  of  fragrant 
resinous  or  gum-resinous  juice  which  \he^  possess.  A  few  furnish 
good  timber ;  some  are  poisonous ;  whOe  others  are  bitter,  pur- 
gative, or  anthelminlio.  Amyris  htxandra  and  A.  J^umien  are 
stud  to  yield  some  of  the  demi  of  commerce,  but  Ibis  is  more  than 
doubtfuL  Equally  doubtful,  according  to  Bentley,  is  tie  state- 
ment  that  A.  balsamifira  furnishes  one  of  the  kbds  of  Lignum 
Rhodium.  A.  commophhora  is  believed  on  better  grounds  to  be 
the  source  of  African  bdellium.  The  leaves  of  Balanites  ^gyli- 
aca  are  anthelmintic;  the  fruits  are  purgativef  and  the  seeds  yield 
a  fixed  fatty  oil  called  Zackun  m  Egypt.  Omphaloimm  Lam- 
bertii  of  Guiana  furnishes  lebra-wood.  For  the  other  economic 
products  of  the  order,  see  Balsamodendron,  Boswellia, 
Canarium,  Elaehrium,  and  Icicft. 

Conn'auglit,  the  westmost,  smallest,  and  most  barren  of  the 
fovr  provinces  of  Ireland,  bounded  N-  and  W.  by  the  Atlantic, 
S.  by  Munster,  and  E.  by  I-einster  and  Ulster,  comprises  the 
five  counties  pf  Galway,  Leitrim,  Mayo,  Roscommon,  and  Sligo. 
Its  greatest  length  is  lOj  miles  ;  its  greatest  bieadtb,  92  miles  ; 
area,  6863  sq.  miles.  The  W.  coast,  indented  with  numerous 
bays  and  harbours,  presents  a  great  variety  of  the  most  pictur- 
esque scenery.  From  1841  to  1871  the  population,  owing  to 
emigration  and  oilier  causes,  felj  from  1,420,705  to  846,313.  C 
is  Ibe  most  purely  Celtic  and  wretched  part  of  Ireland.  It  was 
long  ruled  by  the  O'Connors,  but  passed  under  Eiiglish  autho- 
rity in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  was  then  subdivided  into 

Connecticut  (pron.  Comteficuf),  one  of  the  original  tliirteen 
states  of  the  Union,  lies  between  Massachusetts  on  the  N., 
Rhode  Island  on  the  E.,  Long  Island  Sound  on  the  S.,  and 
New  York  on  the  W.  Area,  4674  sq-  miles.  Pop.  (1870) 
537,454.  It  is  watered  by  the  C,  the  HousatoHio,  the  Thames, 
the  Farmington,  and  the  Quinepiack.  Much  of  the  soil  is  poor  ; 
in  the  N.W.  it  is  hilly;  in  the  centre  it  is  sandy  afid  gravelly; 
but  in  the  valley  of  the  C.  rifuer  there  is  a  large  tract  of  fertile 
and  meadow  land,  extending  from  Wethersfield  into  Massa- 
chusetts, and  producing  lai^e  crops  of  hay,  tobacco,  mdze, 
onions,  and  fruits.  In  1871,  4761  acres  produced  8,094,000  lbs. 
of  tobacco,  valued  at  $3)023,500.  The  farm  pcoduceof  1870  was 
f26,482,l5a  C.  has  varied  mineral  resources,  as  iron  at  Salis- 
bury, cobalt  and  nickel  and  valuable  freestone  at  Portland.  It 
is  noted  for  its  numerous  industries,  and  every  stream  has  been 
utilised  for  machinery.  The  staple  manufactures  are  clocks,  car- 
riages, arms,  cutlery,  jilated  silver,  paper,  copper,  brass,  and  india- 
rubber  goods.  Banking  and  insurance  ate  extensive.  In  1870 
the  assessed  value  of  the  state  was  $425,433,237 ;  state  de'  "  ' 


?  was  $7,324,136,  and  the  county  and  town  debts  in  1875 

:  $13,995,000.    The  state  capital  is  Hartford.     Other  towns 

Newhaven,  Bridgeport,  Norwich,  'Waterbury,  Middletown, 

New  Britain,  and  New  London.     C.  is  celebi'ated  (in  America) 

for  its  education,  literature,  and  theology.    Eariy  in  this  century 

founded  a  school  fund  (from  the  proceeds  of  public  lands  in 
Ohio),  now  amounting  to  $2,046,035,  and  rendering  common 
education  almost  free.  Yale  College  (q.  v.),  in  Newhaven,  is 
of  the  foremost  in  the  United  States.  The  Wesleyan  Uni- 
vereity,  in  Middletown,  an  extensive  and  vigorous  institution, 
has  a  reputation  for  learning,  and  Trinity  College  (Episcopal), 
Hartford,  is  erecting  new  buiWings  on  a  magnificent  scale. 
There  are  also  ladies  schools  of  a  comparatively  high  order  in 
Farmington,  Hartford,  and  Newhaven. 

C.  ('the  land  of  steady  habits')  was  colonised  by  the  New 
England  Puritans,  who  arrived  in  Windsor  and  Hartford  in  1633, 
and  in  Newhaven  in  1638,  and  their  churches  were  established 
by  law  till  about  181S.  Charles  II.  granted  the  colony  a  chartec 
in  1661,  which  remamed  in  force  tilliSiS.  During  the  time  of 
James  II.  it  was  concealed  for  safety  in  the  'charter  oak'  tree. 

ConnecHcut  (Ind.  Qtmnstocut,  'the  long  river'),  the  largest 
river  between  the  Hudson  and  the  St  John,  rises  in  45°  i5^N. 
laf . ,  and  flows  S.  between  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire,  crosses 
Massachusetts  and  the  state  of  C,  and  enters  Long  Island  Sound 
at  Saybrook,  niter  a  course  of  400  miles,  and  a  descent  of  1600 
feet  from  its  source.  It  is  navigable  to  the  city  of  Hartford 
(50  miles}  for  vessels  drawing  8  feet  of  water.  It  is  famous  for 
its  shad,  a  large  and  most  delicate  fish.  The  dver  in  spring 
overHows  and  enriches  large  tracts  of  meadow  land,  and  the 
valley  presents  many  scenes  of  varied  and  cultivated  beauty. 

Conneo'tive.     See  Stamens. 

Connective  Tiss'ue.  This  name  is  given  by  modem  his- 
tologists  to  a  number  of  tissues  which  originate  from  the  same 
primary  structures  in  the  middle  layer  of  the  embryo.  (See  Em- 
bryo.) Although  wideljr  different  from  each  other,  both  chemi- 
cally and  histologically,  m  the  mature  condition,  yet  on  account 
of  tills  primary  relationship  Ihey  are  usually  grouped  together 
under  the  name  of  C.  T.  The  members  of  the  group  are  car- 
tilage, mucoid  tissue,  reticular  C.  X,  ordinary  C.  T.,  usually 
known  under  the  name  of  white  fibrous,  or  areolar  tissue,  fatty 
or  adipose  tissue,  bone,  and  one  of  the  prmcipal  substances 
entering  into  the  composition  of  tooth,  called  dentine.  A 
description  of  the  histological  characters  of  these  various  tissues 
will  be  found  under  their  appropriate  headings.  The  reasons 
for  groupmg  Uiese  tissues  together  are— (i)  EiMiyologlcal.  They 
are  formed  ftom  the  same  layer  of  the  embiyo.  (2)  Comfaralive 
hisiolasical.  In  the  bodies  of  lower  animals  these  tissues  fre- 
quently repkce  each  other ;  thus  what  in  one  animal  is  ordinary 
C.  T,,  in  another  is  reticular  C.  T.,  or  cartilage,  or  bone— or 
bone  may  be  replaced  by  dentine.  (3)  Pathologieai.  It  is  found 
that  in  morbid  changes  nearly  every  member  of  the  C.  T.  group 
mav  be  replaced  by  nearly  any  other,  either  by  metamorphosis 
or  by  reconstruction  from  the  offspring  of  the  original  tissue. 
The  C(  T.  group  form  a  framework  for  supportmg  the  other 
tissues,  such  as  vessels,  glandular  cells,  muscular  fibres,  and 
nerves.  In  disease,  as  Ms  been  shown  by  Virchow,  the  great 
German  pathologist,  the  C.  T.  group  is  often  the  most  active 
tissue  of  the  body,  and  many  luxuriant  growths  and  tumours 
may  be  traced  to  it.  According  to  Frey,  an  authority  in  matters 
relating  to  minute  structure,  3ie  histological  characters  of  the 
group  of  connective  tissues  are — The  embryonic  rudiments  consist 
of  aggregations  of  spheroidal  formative  cells,  having  no  membrane, 
and  enclosing  nudei.  A  soft,  homc^neous  intercellular  matter 
of  albuminous  character  is  formed  between  these  cells.  In  course 
of  time  the  cells  as  well  as  the  intercellular  substance  undergo 
changes.  The  intercellular  matter  divides  into  fibrous  masses  or 
fibriilfe,  while  the  cells  become  short  and  stunted,  or  may  unite 
tc^ether  by  long  processes  so  as  to  form  adelieate  network.  Some- 
limes  calcification,  or  a  dmosition  of  earthy  salts,  chiefly  those  of 
lime,  occurs  in  the  mtercellular  substance.  Comcidently  with  those 
histological  changes,  chemical  metamorphoses  also  occur — ''" " 
albuminous  matter  of  an,  early  period  giving  place  to  mut 
chondtin,  or  elastic  matter. 

Connoisseur  (Fr.  from  (old)  connoilre,  'to  know;'  Lat.  i  _ 
iioscere,  'to  become  acquainted  with')  is  one  whose  knowledge 
and  comprehension  of  art  is  complete  enough  to  entitle  him  ■ 


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pass  a  critical  judgment  in  music,  painting,  aad  sculpture,  or  in 
any  of  these.  T!ie  word  is  sometimes  mockingly  applied  to  pre- 
tenders, or  to  conosdtori  senza  ccgniziom,  or  judges  uninformed. 
See  CcMSNOSCBNTt. 

Oo'noid,  a  surface  generated  by  a  straight  line  which  moves 
parallel  to  a  given  plane  upon  two  fixed  lines  or  directors,  one  of 
which  is  rectilinear.  The  best-known  conoids  are  the  hyper- 
bolic paraboloid,  both  of  whose  directors  arc  straight  lines  in  dif- 
ferent planes,  and  the  sk^w  kelkold,  a  familiar  example  of  which 
is  aifonled  by  the  under  surface  of  a  spiral  staircase. 

Coa'quest,  a  term  of  Scotch  law  denoting  real  or  heritable 
eights  which  any  one  has  acquired  Ijy  purchase,  donation,  or 
Excambion  (q.  v. ) ;  real  estate  acquired  by  succession  being 
called  /urilage.  When  left  to  the  destination  of  law,  heritage 
descends  to  the  heir  of  line,  and  C.  ascends  to  the  heir  of  C. 
This  separation  of  succession  can,  however,  only  take  place 
where  the  deceased  has  died  without  lawful  issue,  havmg  a 
brother  older  and  a  brother  younger  than  himself,  or  havmg 
an  uncle  older  and  an  uncle  younger  than  his,  the  deceased's, 
father;  or,  in  the  event  of  there  being  issue  of  oneor  other  of  these 
brothers  or  uncles,  he  being  deceased.  In  such  cases,  heritage 
descends  to  the  immediate  younger  brother  of  the  deceased,  or 
to  the  next  younger  brother  of  his  father,  or  to  the  representatives 
of  either,  but  C.  ascends  to  the  immediate  elder  brother,  or 
□ncle,  or  representatives.  In  all  cases  the  full  relationship  by 
blood  eKcludes  the  half.  In  contracts  of  marriage,  the  C.  acquired 
during  marriage,  or  a  proportiou  of  it,  is  frequently  settled  on 
the  heir,  or  on  the  issue  of  (he  marriage ;  tmt  under  a  provision 
of  this  kind,  C.  is  held  to  mean  only  such  an  accession  of  estate 
as  makes  the  husband  richer,  and  does  not  therefore  necessarily 
include  all  that  he  acquires  during  the  marriage  by  singular  title. 
See  Ekothers,  Law  of  Succession  among. 

Oon'rad,  a  French  form  of  the  Germanic  Konrad  (q.  v.). 
ConsaI'vi,  Ercole,  Cardinal,  an.  eminent  Italian  ecclesi- 


tween  Napoleon  and  the  Papal  States  in  i8or,  aliliough  he  sub- 
sequently opposed  his  aggressions  upon  Rome.  During  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  he  distinguished  himself  as  a  reformer  of  abuses, 
alx)Udiiag  monopolies  and  feudal  taxes.  He  died  at  Rome,  24th 
January  1S24.  C,  who  was  a  moderate  and  sensible  pohfician, 
also  deserves  favourable  mention  as  a  patron  of  literature,  science, 
and  the  fine  arts.  See  Cr^tineau-Joly's  Mhaoires  da  Cardinal  C. 
<3  vols.  Par.  1864}. 

Conaangum'itT'  is  the  relationship  of  persons  descended 
from  the  same  ancestor^  It  is  either  lineal  or  coBatercU.  Lineal 
C.  exists  between  the  generating  and  the  generated;  thus  a  man 
is  lineally  relaxed  to  his  children,  grandchildren,  and  to  his  re- 
motest descendants.  Collateral  C.  exists  between  those  who 
have  had  a  common  ancestor ;  brothers,  cousins,  &e. ,.  are  so  re- 
lated.    Connection  by  marriage  is  called  Affinity  {%  v.). 

Oon'scienee.    See  Ethics. 

Oonacience,  Courts  of.  These  were  English  coutls  of  law 
for  the  recove™  of  small  debts.  They  have  been  almost  en- 
tirely abolishecL  See  CouNTX  Coukts.  For  Scotland,  see 
Sheriff  ;  Debts,  Small. 

Conscience,  Hendrick,  a  brilliant  Flemish  novelist,  and 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Flemish  or  national  school  of  litera- 
ture, was  bom  at  Antwerp,  3d  December  l8ia.  In  1830,  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Belgian  revolution,  he  entered  the  army  and 
served  six  yeara.  In  1837  he  publhhed  his  first  work.  In  het 
Wonderjaer  ('  The  Year  of  Miracles'),  and  at  once  found  him- 
self famous.  In  the  following  year  appeared  hjs  great  national 
romance,  De  Leemo  tian  Flanderen  ( '  The  Lion  of  Flanders '), 
and  from  thisdate  he  has  continued  annually  to  pour  forth  novels, 
romances,  sketches  of  country  life,  &Ci  He  was  appointed  As- 
sistant-professor in  the  University  of  Ghent  in  1S45.  In  1858  he 
publislied  an  autobiography  in  the  Sevue  CanteniparaiHe.  In 
1870  he  gained  the  'prize  of  literature ;'  in  1871  he  published  a 
romance,  entitled  De  Ka-ds  van  Vlanderm  ;.  in  1874  two.  stories 
of  contemporary  manners,  £>e  Kemvdss  Harten  and  Eene  Ver- 
Tiiardi Zaak;  and  in  1875  a  touching  tale,  entitled  Schandevrees 
('The  Fear  of  Shame').  Most  of  his  works  have  been  trans- 
lated into  all  the  great  European  tongues — English,  French, 


German,  Itnlian,  &o.  C.  is  a  fine  literary  artist,  clear  in  thought, 
pure  in  sentiment,  and  charmingly  picforia!  in  his  slfetches  of 
national  life. 

Con'sciouaaeea  has  been  detiued  by  Sir  W.  Hamilton  as 
the  recognition  by  the  'mind  or  ego  of  its  own  acts  or  affections.' 
This  includes  the  whole  of  human  knowledge,  but  it  is  objec- 
tionable as  suggesting  that  intellectual  effort  or  discrimination  is 
a  necessary  element  in  C,  whereas  intense  feeling  may  produce 
the  maximum  of  C.  accompanied  by  the  mmimum  of  intellecttral 
activity.  A^in,  Hamilton  includes  in  C.  an  immediate  know- 
ledge of  objects  external  to  the  mind,  but  present  in  time  and 
space,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  past,  the  future,  and  the  distant. 
This,  however,  is  to  fix  scientific  nomenclature  with  reference  to 
a  metaphysical  theory.  C.  is  simply  a  generic  name  for  all 
human  Eeelings  (including  therein  the  spiritual  side  of  ideas, 
emotions,  and  vohtions) '  which  rise  above  a  certain  intensity.' 
It  therefore  includes  the  complex  operation  of  belief,  whether 
the  belief  be  false  or  true,  i.e.,  corresponds  with  a  real  object  or 
not.  In  the  formation  of  tlie  habits  which  have  been  called 
'secondarily  automatic,'  we  find  mental  trains  sinking  out  of 
C.|  as  repetition  makes  them  easier,  and  therefore  less  in  need 
of  attention.  The  question  is  still  debated  whether,  in  such  cases, 
the  mental  product  is  realised  by  purely  physical  changes,  or 
whether  slight  modificWions  of  C  may  not  be  irrecoverably  lost 
by  the  memory.  This  is  closely  connected  with  the  larger  ques- 
tion whether  C  is  merely  the  spiritual  expression  of  parallel 
changes  in  the  brain,  or  has  itself  the  power  of  reacting  upon  the 
brain  and  impressing  a  direction  upon  the  nervous  force.  C 
was  also  applied  by  Reid  and  Stewart  to  the  self-introspection 
or  subjective  analysis,  which  they  regarded  as  the  most  powerful 
instmment  of  mental  science.  Whatever  they  find  in  C.  to  be 
'  universal  and  necessaiy, '  or  going  beyond  what  experience 
justifies,  is  on  this  methodpronounced  to  be  a  simple  or  ulti- 
mate deliverance  of  C.  Tlie  'experience'  school,  on  the  other 
hand,  contend  that  '  necessary  beliefs,'  of  which  the  opposite 
is  inconceivable,  are  easily  generated  by  experience  and  the  laws 
of  mental  association. 

Conscieusness. — This  is  a  mental  condition  for  which  it  is  im- 
possible to  give  a  definition  physiologically.  We  can  only  state 
some  of  its  conditions.  It  appears  to  depend  (l)  on  the  integ- 
rity of  grey  matter  on  the  surface  of  the  brain,  whicli  must 
not  be  torn,  cnt,  lacerated,  bruised,  or  compressed  by  accident; 
(2)  on  the  alisence  of  extensive  disease  of  the  grey  matter ;  {3) 
on  the  absence  of  compression  of  the  grey  matter  either  by  a 
foreign  body,  depressed  bone,  or  by  an  effused  fiuid,  such  as 
serum,  blood,  or  lymph  ;  and  (4)  on  a  healthy  quality  and  due 
supply  of  blood.  Tiie  blood  must  not  contain  any  substances 
wliich,  by  acting  on  the  grey  matter  of  the  brain,  cause  a  slate 

CoHscuitisness,  Double.     See  Double  Consciousness. 

Conacrip'tion,  or  compulsory  military  service,  as  opposed 
to  the  system  of  voluntary  enlistment,  was  the  nile  in  theancient 
republics  of  Athens,  Sparta,  and  Rome,  and  in  modern  times 
has  been  adopted  by  every  European  nation  except  the  British. 
At  Spatia  the  period  of  service  was  from  the  age  of  twenty  to 
sixty;  at  Rome,from  seventeen  to  forty-sbc.  It  was  not  till  1798 
that  Jourdan's  celebrated  law  of  C  was  passed  by  the  French 
Council  of  Five  Hundred,  making  five  years'  service  compulsory 
in  the  case  of  every  able-bodied  citizen,  and  enrolling  the  whole 
male  population  between  the  ages  of  twenty  and  twenty-five. 
Later  on,  for  the  purpose,  it  is  said,  of  evading  the  obligations  of 
the  Treaty  of  Tilsit,  Prussia  commenced  the  'short  service  and 
reserve '  system.  Under  the  French  law,  which  was  worked  by 
ballot,  certain  personal  substitutions  were  permitted  down  to 
1855,  when  dotatiott,  or  the  purchase  of  exemptions,  was  intro- 
duced. In  1872  compulsory  personal  service  for  nine  years  in 
the  regular,  and  eleven  years  in  the  territorial  army,  was  re- 
introduced. Sole  supports  of  families,  only  sons  of  widows, 
&c,,  are  exempted.  A  lar^e  portion  of  each  year's  contingent, 
however,  is  allowed  to  retire. after  six  months'  or  one  year's 
drill.  C  was  generally  adopted  in  Europe  during  the  Napoleonic 
wars,  and  it  is  part  of  the  recent  military  organisations  of  the 
great  powers.  The  Austrian  law  of  1868  prescribes  a  period  of 
twelve  years,  beginning  at  the  age  of  twenty-one ;  tiie  German 
Imperial  law  of  1871  also  requires  twelve  years— seven  years 
in  the  regular  army,  five  in  the  landwehr ;  the  Russian  ukase 
of  1S70  declares  liability  for  service  universal,  for  the  period  of 


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fifteen  years,  including  two  years'  furlough,  and  purchase  of  ex- 
emption at  a  higii  rate  being  permitted;  tlie  Italian  law  of  1S73 
declares  liability  for  service  to  extend  from  eighteen  to  forty, 
inclndina  a  furlough  and  the  service  in  tlie  local  militia.  In 
Spain,  Portugal,  and  Belgium,  exemptions  from  the  general 
liability  may  be  purchased.  In  Turkey  this  privilege  is  confined 
to  Christians,  the  sum  paid  being  called  bidel.  By  the  Canadian 
law  of  1868,  all  males,  except  members  of  certain  professions, 
are  liable  to  serve  in  the  militia  from  eighteen  to  sixty.  C. 
is  necessary  for  '  bloated  armaments ; '  for  moderate  establish- 
ments voluntary  enlistment  appears  to  be  more  eeonomieaL 

Oonseora'tion,  or  the  devoting  or  setting  apart  of  persons  or 
tilings  to  a  deity,  is  a  rite  which  has  been  practised  more  or  less 
by  most  nations,  heathen  as  well  as  Christian.  Among  the 
Isiaelites,  not  only  were  priests,  prophets,  and  kings  consecrated, 
which  in  the  case  of  the  first  was  done  by  washing  (symbol  of 
the  putting  away  of  the  filth  of  sin},  clothing  witii  an  official 
costume  (symbol  of  endowment  with  the  character  required  for 
the  office),  anointing  with  oil  (symbol  of  divine  life),  filling 
their  hands  with  a  wave-offering  (symbol  of  offering  praise  and 
thank^iving),  and  sacrifices,  but  also  the  Tabernacle  and  every- 
thing in  it,  Solomon's  Temple,  and  even  private  houses  (Ps. 
XXX.,  title),  and  the  waUs  of  their  cities  (Neh.  xii.  27).  In  the 
early  Christian  Church,  not  only  were  the  clergy,  virgins,  and 
widows  consecrated,  but  also  churches,  the  elements  in  the 
Eucharist,  the  water  used  in  baptism,  and  the  Chrism  (q.  v.) 
used  in  the  various  sacraments.  An  inferior  kind  of  C. ,  or  what 
was  in  some  cases  a  part  of  the  fuller  rite,  called  Benediction 
(q-  v.),  was  applied  to  a  multitude  of  persons  and  things — kings, 
travellers,  persons  receiving  the  sacraments,  churches,  altars, 
"        "'"    bells,   candles,    ashes,  palms,   churchyards, 

'  of  a  ship), 

fishings,  &c. 

Many  of  these  consecrations  and  benedictions  are  preserved 
in  the  Roman  CathoUc  Church.  In  the  Episcopal  Protestant 
churches,  bishops,  churches,  cemeteries,  and  the  isstrunisnta  of 
diviue  service  are  consecrated.  According  to  the  High  Church 
party  of  the  Anglican  Church,  '  the  right  appreciation  of  the 
Christian  practice  of  various  benedictions  is  ^ppily)  reviving 
among  both  clergy  and  people.'  See  Blunt'sZ>/rf.  of  Doet.  aiid 
mil.  TXifl/flgj- (1875). 

Conseguia'na,  a  volcano  of  Nicaragua,  Central  America, 
about  10  miles  from  the  Pacific,  on  the  S.  side  of  the  Bay  of 
Fonseca.  The  crater  is  3800  feet  above  the  level  of  the  country  ; 
its  waUs  descend  sheer  to  the  depth  of  200  feet,  and  it  is  half 
a  mile  in  diameter.  The  eruption  of  January  1835  desolated  a 
fertile  grazing  district,  studded  with  majestic  cedars,  which,  where 
not  uprooted,  stand  out  scorched  and  barkless. 

Conaent'.  In  all  contracts  in  themselves  good  by  law,  it  is 
understood  that  there  has  been  the  free  C.  of  the  parties  to  it. 
Thus,  if,  as  frequently  happens,  it  should  appear  that  there  lias 
been  a  misunderstanding  instead  of  an  understanding  in  a  nominal 
agreement,  or  that  one  of  the  parties  to  it  is  legally  incapable  of 
giving  C,  the  nominal  agreement  is  legally  null  or  reducible.  But 
if  acts  have  been  done  or  left  andone  on  either  side  under  an 
apparent  agreement,  neither  can  draw  back.  (See  Rei  Inter- 
VENTUS.)  Questions  involving  proof  of  C.  must  ever  continue 
to  give  rise  to  litigation,  from  the  infinite  variety  of  circumstances 
bywhich  it  may  be  proved  or  disproved,  or  by  which  it  may  be 
shown  to  kive  resulted  from  aberration  of  mind.  Where  C.  is 
the  result  of  essential  misconception,  it  is  of  course  only  nominal, 
and  therefore  invalid.  Even  where  no  ground  of  nullity  exists, 
C.  may,  under  certain  circumstances,  be  withdrawn.  See  CoN 
TRACT,  Promise. 

Conserva'tioii  of  Euergy.    See  Energy. 

Oonaervation  of  the  Peace.  Several  high  officers  of  th 
crown  have,  as  regards  preservation  of  the  peace,  jurisdictio 
throughout  the  kingdom.  Minor  officers  are  only  empowered 
to  act  within  their  own  juristliction.  See  Constable,  Jus 
OF  THE  Peace. 

Conser'vatiTe.    See  Whios  and  Tories. 

Oonser'vatoire  (Constrvalorhim),  the  name  by  which  the 
Continental  music-schools  are  known.  These  weie  originally 
benevolent  institutions,  in  which  musical  education  and  board 
were  given  gratuitously  to  poor  children.    They  have  now  to  a 


nfor 
lery  low  fees. 

Oonser'vatory  (Lat.  conservo, '  1  preserve ')  is  a  glazed  struc- 
ture, artificially  warmed  in  winter,  in  which  exotic  i>Iants  are 
grown.  It  is  kept  cooler  than  a  hothouse,  and  is  distmguished 
from  a  greenhouse  by  the  plants  in  it  growing  in  beds  on  the 
fteor,  and  not  in  pots  or  tubs  or  on  shelves.  It  also  differs  from 
an  orangery  in  not  having  an  opaque  roof.  The  largest  and 
finest  C.  in  the  kingdom  is  at  Chatsworth  (<^.  v.),  in  Derbyshire, 
the  seat  of  the  Duke  irf  Devonshire.  It  is  377  feet  long,  123 
feet  wide,  and  67  feet  high  in,  the  centre.  It  is  composed  wholly 
of  iron  and  glass,  and  furnished  the  idea  on  which  exhibition 
buildings,  from  that  of  1851  onward,  have  been  constructed. 
Among  the  other  principal  conservatories  in  this  country  are 
those  at  Alttm  Towers,  Staffordshu:e,  which  ate  300  feet  long, 
and  those  at  Mount  Edgcumbe,  near  Plymouth,  Wilton  House, 
near  Salisbury,  and  Kew  Gardens  and  tlie  Crystal  Palace,  near 
London.  Among  those  to  be  found  on  the  Continent,  may  be 
mentioned  the  conservatories  at  the  palaces  of  Schiinbnmn, 
near  Vienna,  and  Sans  Souci,  near  Berlin. 

Cou'sewes,  a  name  given  to  different  kinds  of  confection,', 
consisting  chiefly  of  fruits  preserved  in  sugar,  also  by  dru^ists 
to  palatable  compounds  enclosing  nauseous  medicines. 

Con'aiderant,  Victor- Prosper,  a  French  Socialist,  bom  at 
Salins,  Jura,  12th  October  180S.  He  entered  the  £ci>l^  Folytech- 
nique  in  1826,  but  withdrew  in  1831  to  propagate  Fourierism. 
On  the  death  of  Fourier  (1S37)  he  undertook  the  direction 
of  La  Fialaags,  the  oigan  i£  the  party,  and,  supplied  with 
funds  by  an  Englishman  named  Young,  he  made  a  trial  of  the 
system  of  the  Social  colony  or  Phalamlire  in  the  defartment 
of  Eure-et-Loire.  But  his  attempts  to  revolutionise  society  sig- 
nally failed.  For  his  share  m  the  democratic  movement  of  13th 
June  1849  he  had  to.  flee  into  Belgium,  whence  he  embarked  for 
Texas  to  m^e  a  new  trial  of  his  system.  Here  he  founded  a 
Societarian  community.  La  Khnmn,  which,  after  a  season  of 
fitful  prosperity,  finally  collapsed.  C.  returned  to  France  witll 
his  family  in  August  1869.  His  writings  are  numerous  but 
no  longer  notable.  We  may  specify  Desiinie  Sociaie  (3  vols. 
1834-44) ;  Expisitiort  Ahregie  du  Sys/hru  Fha!a?ist^isn  de 
Fouriir  (1845) ;  Thhi-U  da  Droit  de  Proprilti  it  du  Droit  au 
TravaU  {\%S,%). 

ConBidera'Uon,  in  law,  is  the  name  given  to  the  cause  or 
reason  of  granting  a  deed  or  other  obligation,  or  of  entering  into 
a  contract.  Where  the  obli^tion  is  incurred  without  C,  it  is 
called  oo/HBiari' ■"  England,  in  Scotland  gru/Bi'oKJ;  when  in- 
curred for  C.  it  is  so  termed  in  England,  and  in  Scotland 
oiieroM.  In  England  the  rule  of  law  is  that  a  contract  with- 
out C.  is- invalid,  except  under  a  formal  deed.  But  even  deeds 
may,  nndei'  certain  circumstances,  be  set  aside  if  granted  with- 
out C.  In  England  they  are  ineffectual,  by  statute,  against 
creditors  when  the  granter  is  insolvent  at  the  time  of  granting 
the  deed.  In  Scotland  tlie  law  is  similar,  no  proof  of  insolvency 
being  required  when  the  deed  is  in  favour  of  Confident  Perst  " 
(q.  V.)  or  of  Conjunct  Persons  (q.  v.), 

Consigil'llient.  In  mercantile  law,  this  term  is  generally 
applied  to  goods  delivered  or  ti-ansmitted  by  one  merchant  to 
another,  or  by  a  merchant  to  an  agent  or  factor  for  sale^  or  for 
other  specific  purpose.  The  bankruptcy  of  consigner  or  of  con- 
signee often  gives  rise  to  questions  of  great  legal  nicety  with 
respect  to  reputed  ownership,  and  on  other  points  connected 
witn  the  rights  of  the  parties  or  then'  creditors.  See  Deliveky, 
Stoppage  in  Thansitw,  Rejection  in  Transitu. 

Conaia'tory  (Lat  'a  standing  or  waiting  place,'  specially 
used  in  ancient  times  of  the  place  where  the  emperor's  council 
met),  denotes  an  ecclesiastictd  court  held  in  some  place  belong- 
ing to  a  cafliedral.  It  is  held  by  the  bishop's  chancellor  for 
determining  matters  under,  spiritual  cognisance.  Before  theestr 
blishmeiit  of  the  Court  of  Probate,  the  C.  courts  granted  probati 
of  wills  Ibr  Chattels  (q   v  ) 

Consolato  del  MarS  (Ital  '  the  consulship  of  the  sea',, 
a  code  of  maritime  Hw,  constructed  on  the  laws  and  trading 
customs  of  the  great  commercial  cities  of  the  Mediterranean — 
Venice,    Geni^,    Baicelona,  Marseille,  &C..     See  MERCANTILE 

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Con'sole  {Fr.  consok,  'a  pier-table'),  abrackef  or  corbel  of  any 
kind  in  classical  archi lecture.  It  is  used  as  a  support  for  the 
cornice,  or  to  place  figures  or  busts  upon.  Frequently  in  the 
form  of  the  letter  S,  it  is  sometimes  richly  oniamented.  It  is 
called  also  an  ancom.     See  Corbei,  Modilliow,  Bkackbt. 

Oonsol'idated  Fvmd.  The  aggre^te  produce  of  the 
blanches  of  the  public  revenue  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  paid 
into  the  Bank  of  England  to  the  credit  of  what  is  called  the  C. 
F.  It  is  chargeable  with  the  interest  of  the  national  debt,  alid 
it  is  mortg^ed  for  payment  of  a  yearly  sum  to  maintain  the 
Civil  List  (q.  v.). 

Consolida'tion.  When  applied  to  Acts  of  Parliament,  C. 
means  the  throwing  of  various  Acts  regarding  the  same  subject 
into  one  Act ;  this  tends  fo  secure  congruity  in  their  provisions. 
In  the  feudal  law  of  Scotland,  C-  means  the  reunion  of  the 
propeity  with  the  superiority  after  they  have  been  feudally  dis- 
joined. See  Dominium  Directum  and  Dominium  Utile, 
Crimihal  Statutes  Consolidation  Acts,  Railway  Acts. 

Ckm'aola.  A  portion  of  the  British  National  Debt  is  so  called. 
The  word  has  its  origin  in  the  Consolidated  Annuities  Act  of 
1757,  By  that  statute  a  variety  of  Government  stocks  were 
thrown  into  one  fund,  for  which  one  account  is  kept  in  the  Bank 
of  EngtaucJ.     See  DEBT,  NATIONAL. 

Con'eonance,  the  pleasing  effect  to  our  ears  of  the  combina- 
tion of  certain  musical  sounds.  The  physical  phenomena  which 
give  rise  to  C.  are  somewhat  comples,  and  are  only  now  begin- 
ning to  be  understood.  If  two  simple  tonesj  not  of  the  same 
pitch,  be  sounded  together,  they  cause  a  series  of  compound, 
waves  in  the  surroundmg  air,  which  go  through  a  continual  series 
of  changes  in  amplitude,  and  of  which,  therefore,  the  sound 
undei^oes  regular  changes  in  intensity.  The  number  of  times  in 
a  second  which  the  maximum  loudness  occurs  is  equal  to  tlie 
difference  between  tlie  number  of  the  vibrations  of  the  notes  in 
the  same  interval  of  time.  Each  recurrence  of  maximum  loud- 
ness is  called  a  beat.  C.  and  dissonance  differ  only  in  degree — 
not  in  kind — and  both  are  caused  by  these  beats,  which  when 
moderately  rapid  are  harsh  and  rough  (making  a  dissonant  in- 
terval), but  when  very  rapid  are  pleasant  (causing  C.).  ITie 
effect  of  the  beats  depends  upon  their  absolute  numUr  per  second  ; 
but  for  any  given  interval  this  will  be  much  less  in  a  low  than  in 
a  high  octave,  so  that  in  the  tatter  the  rapidity  necessary  to  con- 
vert dissonance  into  C  ia  reached  within  a  shorter  mferval  than 
in  the  former.  For  notes  in  middle  cornpass  the  maximum 
roughness  occurs  at  about  a  semitone,  and  C.  commences  before 
a  minor  third  is  reached.  The  interval  in  which  the  beats  are 
disagreeable  is  called  the  beating  distance. 

If  tlie  notes  sounded  together  are  simple,  that  is,  contain  no 
'Partial  Tones'  (q.  v.),  no  direct  dissonance  caJi  occur  be- 
tween them  when  ihey  are  beyond  beating  distance.  In  these 
cases,  however,  indirect  dissonance  occurs  when  the  interval  of 
a  major  seventh  is  reached  by  beats  between  the  Differential 
^q,  V.)  and  the  lower  primary  tone,  which  are  then  witliin  beat- 
ing distance.  But  nearly  all  the  musical  sounds  with  which  we 
have  to  do  contain  a  mlmbef  of  partials,  and  the  beats  between 
pairs  of  these,  or  between  one  of  them  and  one  irf  the  primaries, 
are  the  principal  causes  of  the  want  of  C.  of  intervals  larger  than 
a  minor  third. 

By  a  mathematical  enaminntion  it  can  be  readily  shown  that 
the  relative  smoothness  of  different  intervals — what  may  be 
called  their  degree  of  C. — can  be  exactly  accounted  for  in  the 
way  we  have  indicated.  It  mtret  be  remembered,  however,  that 
the  smoothest  intervals  or  most  per' 
those  in  which  our  ears  take  the  most 

Con'souants.    See  Letters. 

Con'sort  (Lat.  amsors,  •  a  sharer  or  partner  of  the  same  lot  T 
is  the  title  of  the  husband  or  wife  of  the  teigning  sovereign  of 
the  United  Kingdom,  A  Queen-C.  does  not,  as  other  women 
do,  accordmg  to  legal  theory,  fully  mei^e  her  personality  in  that 
of  her  husband,  who,  according  to  Coke,  is  held  lo  be  so 
engrossed  with  state  afiairs  that  he  has  no  time  for  such 
snpervision  of  domestic  matteft  es  ought  to  be  exercised  by  a 
private  individual.  The  Queen-C,  must,  therefore,  discharge 
the  domestic  functions  which  usually  belong  to  the  husband. 
Her  privileges  are  almost  exclusively  those  of  precedence  and  of 
etiquette.  The  husband  of  a  Queen-regnant  of  England  does 
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not  by  marriage  acquire  the  title  of  C,  or  any  English  title. 
Tlie  title  of  Prince-C.  was,  in  1857,  conferred  on  the  lale  hus- 
band  of  Queen  Victoria  by  letters  patent.  Tlie  tide  of  King-C. 
has  never  been  given  to  any  one  in  England. 

Conspir'aoy.  The  Lat.  eonspii-atio  denotes  a  harmony,  lit. 
a  '  breaUiing  together '  either  in  good  or  evil ;  in  modern  usage 
the  latter  sense  predominates,  but  does  not  exclusively  prevail. 
As  a  rule,  '  con^irators '  mean  mischief,  but  men  may  honour- 
ably conspu^  to  rid  themselves  of  a  lyi-anny.  In  law,  ihe  term 
C.  has  an  extensive  and  undefined  application.  It  infers  confe- 
deracy, and  for  a  criminal  object.  There  are  many  acts  which 
are  not  criminal  when  done  by  an  individual,  but  which  become 
so  when  effected  by  several  with  a  common  design.  Thus,  any 
one  attending  a  theatre  may  express  his  approval  or  disapproval 
of  the  piece  or  of  the  acting,  but  if  several  agree  to  condemn  a 
play  or  hiss  an  actor,  they  will  be  guilty  of  C.  (a  Camp.  35S). 
Any  combination  whose  object  is  to  injure  public  trade  or  to 
defeat  the  law  is  C.  The  punishment  is  line  and  imprisonment 
at  the  discretion  of  the  court.     See  Combination. 

Con'etalJle,  from  the  Old  Fr.  concslabk  (mod.  Fr.  conniiaik), 
Lat.  cojiies  stabuli,  '  overseer  of  the  (imperial)  stable,'  a  dignitary 
of  the  Roman  empire,  transferred  lo  the  Frankish  courts,  whose 
name  was  corrupted  into  comiacstabulus  and  comeitabulus  at  least 
as  early  as  the  gth  c.  Originally  the  commander  of  the  royal 
Frankish  cavalry,  the  C,  became  in  the  I31h  c.  the  commander 
of  all  the  military  force  of  (he  kingdom  ;  and  in  France  particu- 
larly the  name  recalls  soiiie  famoirs  historical  personages,  both 
good  and  bad.  Suppressed  by  Louis  XIIL  in  1626,  the  office 
was  revived  by  Napoleon,  who  created  his  brother  Louis  Grand 
C,  Marshal  Berthier  being  made  Vice-C.  At  the  restoration 
of  the  Bourbons,  the  office  was  again  abolished,  and  it  has  not 
since  been  restored.  In  England  a  Lord  High  C  was  appointed 
shortly  after  the  Conquest,  He.  and  the  Earl  Mareschal  {a  word 
of  similar  meaning)  were  joint  judges  of  the  Court  of  Chivalry 
(q.  v.).  The  office  was  abolished  by  Henry  VIIL,  on  the 
attainder  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingliam.  At  coronations,  and 
on  some  other  great  slate  occasions,  a  Lord  High  C.  is 
appomted  for  the  time.  In  Scotland,  the  Lord  High  C.  had 
anciently  the  command  of  the  king's  armies  while  in  the  fiekl 
in  absence  of  the  king.  He  was  likewise  judge  of  all  crimes 
and  offences  committed  within  four  miles  of  the  king's  person,  or 
within  the  same  distance  of  the  Parliament,  or  of  the  Privy 
Conncil,  or  of  any  general  contention  of  the  states  of  the  king- 
dom. The  office  is  hereditary  in  the  family  of  the  Earl  of  Erroi, 
and  is  reserved  by  the  Treaty  of  Union,  and  by  slatute  20  Geo. 
II.  c.  43.  It  confers  the  dignity  of  first  subject  in  Scotland  next 
to  those  of  royal  blood, 

C^ni/nte  0/3  Cnj*  was  in  ancient  times  the  keeper  of  a  castle. 
In  England,  constables  are  of  three  kinds — high  C,  petty  C, 
and  spedal  C.  The  office  of  high  C.  is  not  confined  to  any  pai'- 
ficnlar  town  or  parish,  but  extends  to  the  Hundred  (q.  v.)  to 
which  he  is  appointed.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  jietty  C.  extends 
to  the  parisli  or  borough  for  which  be  is  chosen.  The  special 
C.  is  an  auxiliary  appointed  on  emergencies.  The  general  legal 
duties  of  a  C  are  lo  prevent  violation  of  the  law,  and  to  appre- 
hend offenders.  In  discharge  of  then'  duty,  they  may  require  the 
assistance  of  bystanders,  who  are  bonnd  to  give  it  under  pain  of 
fine  and  imprisonment.  A  C.  may  break  open  doors  to  preserve 
peace,  and  he  may  imprison  withont  a  warrant,  on  a  reasonable 
chaise  of  felony  made  to  him. 

Oon'atance,  or  Kostnitz,  a  fortified  city  on  the  S.  or  Swiss 
shore  of  the  lalie  of  the  same  name,  but  belonging  to  the  Grand 
Duchy  of  Baden,  lies  at  ths.point  whei'e  the  Rhine  connects  the 
main  sheet  of  water  with  the  Untersee,  about  65  miles  E.  of 
Basel  by  railway.  It  communicates  by  bridge  with  Peters- 
hausen,  a  suburb  on  the  N.  side  of  the  Rhine.  The  most  notable 
buildings  are  the  fine  Gothic  cathedral,  begun  in  1052;  the 
bishop's  palace ;  St  Stephen's  Church,  built  in  831 ;  the  Fran- 
ciscan convent,  now  a  ruin  j  the  Dominican  monastery,  now  a 
cotton  factory ;  and  the  Kauf-haus,  or  merchants'  hall,  built  in 
1388  C  was  formerly  a  free  impeiial  town  Havmg  Mien 
under  the  baim  of  the  empu-e  in  1518  it  nas  ceded  to  Austria, 
which  handed  it  over  to  Baden  m  1810  C  has  manufactures 
of  cotton  siUt  witches  and  musical  mstruments  It  has  also 
sawimlls  and  many  of  the  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  fish- 
eries  and  m  cultivating  vmeyaids  and  gardens     Pop.  {1873) 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPjEDIA. 


CON 


b    g 


:  ice  (Lat.  Lacui  BHgaiilimis,  Ger.  Bodatset),  a  lake  of 

tral  Europe,  whose  N.  shore  is  German  (Baden,  Wurtem- 

"       "  1,  and  its  S.  shore  Swiss  (Thuigau  and  St  Gall) ; 


11     ,   -.,-.--,- 

m  280  to  1380  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  44  miles 
!  ng  nd  9  broad  (at  its  greatest),  and  attains  in  some  parts  a 
1  p  h  f  960  feet.  The  Rhine  traverses  it  from  E.  to  W.  Tlie 
1  k  IS  d  vided  into  two  arms— the  more  northerly  called  Uber- 
Img  n  Lake,  and  the  olJier  Zellersee  or  Untersee.  In  the  course 
of  lime  it  has  contracted  itself  considerably,  having  once  extended 
some  miles  further  from  the  beach.  A  singular  phenomenon  is 
its  stfdden  rising,  after  a  thaw,  from  the  melting  of  the  snovi'. 
Since  1824  there  have  been  steamers  on  the  lake.  Its  navi^- 
tion,  for  sailing  vessels  especially,  is  dangerous  when  the  wmd 
blows  strongly  from  E.,  S.,  or  N.W.  Numerous  species  of 
agualic  fowl,  as  many  as  sixty,  it  is  said,  and  twenty-five  species 
of  fish  belong  to  the  lake, 

Conatajice,  Council  of,  was  held  ei  the  town  of  C.  during 
the  years  1414-18.  Its  professed  puipose  was  to  bring  to  an 
end  the  'great  schism'  in  the  Church,  and  to  make  a  clean 
p  of  all  ecclesiastical  abuses.  The  council,  reluctantly  sum, 
moned  by  Pope  John  XXIII.,  who  foresaw  the  fate  that  awaited 
him,  was  attended  by  an  immense  mimber  of  dignitaries.  Be- 
sides the  Pope  himself  and  the  Emperor  Sjgismund  (the  famous 
super-gmmmatkam),  there  were  present  aoprinces,  140 counts, 
more  than  20  cardinals,  7  patriarchs,  20  archbishops,  91  hishms, 
600  other  prelates  and  doctors,  and  about  4000  priests.  TTie 
three  rival  Popes  of  the  time— John  XXIIL,  Gregory  XII., 
and  Benedict  XIII. — were  deposed,  and  a  new  Pope,  Marlin  V., 
was  elected.  Before  this  election,  however,  took  place,  the 
council  formally  declared  itself  the  supreme  judicial  and  legisla- 
tive authority  in  the  Churdi,  but  its  projected  '  reforms '  were  in- 
defiiJtely  postponed;  for  Martin  v.,  a  few  months  after  his 
election,  dissolved  the  council  in  alarm,  le^  his  power  should  be 
lessened  by  its  pretensions.  The  discussion  of  ecclesiastical 
reforms  was  first  resumed  at  the  Council  of  Basel  (see  Basel, 
CoDNCiL  of).  How  httle  this  splendid — or  perhaps  one  had 
better  say  showy — assembly  really  cared  for  the  advancement  of 
leaniii^  or  the  cause  of  truth,  is  seen  in  the  iniquitous  trial  of 
John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague  on  charges  of  here^.  Amoi^ 
their  bitterest  enemies  were  some  of  the  leaders  of  thisaaiwi- 
reforming  council,  which  is  more  likely  to  be  remembered  with 
abhorrence  for  the  burning  of  the  Bohemian  Reformers,  than 
with  respect  for  its  insincere  and  impotent  schemes  for  the  puri- 
fication of  the  Church. 

Oon'stant,  in  mathematics,  is  a  quantity  which,  entering  into 
an  analytical  expression,  does  not  vary  mider  the  conditions  of 
the  problem, — e.g-,  the  radim  and  co-ordinates  of  the  centre  of  a 
sphere  given  in  position  and  magnitude,  ntassva  the  equations 
of  motion  of  a  particle,  the /wrsij/frai'/Vv  in  those  of  a  projectile, 
the  energy  of  a  conservative  system  uninfluenced  by  external 


forct 


,  &c 


Coa'stant  de  Bebeoque',  Henri  Benjamin,  a  French 
politician  and  journalist,  was  born  at  Lausanne,  25th  October 
1767.  The  son  of  a  Swiss  officer  in  the  Dutch  service,  he 
received  much  of  his  education  at  Oxford  and  Edinburgh  (where 
he  met  Mackintosh  and  Erskine),  and  after  a  good  deal  of 
European  travel  (in  the  course  of  which  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  MarmonteJ,  Kant,  and  Gibbon),  married  and  settled 
for  some  years  in  Brunswick,  In  1795  he  began  at  Paris  his 
career  as  publicist  He  supported  Talleyrand  and  the  other 
moderate  republicans  who  formed  the  '  Constitutional  Circle,'  or 
'Club  of  Safely,'  opposed  to  Oie  'Cliehy,'  or  royalist  dub.  In 
1799  he  published  his  work  on  the  consequences  of  the  coun- 
ter-revolution of  1660  in  England,  and  entered  the  IVSmnat, 
from  which  he  was  expelled  by  Napoleon  in  1802,  and  even 
driven  out  of  France.  In  company  with  Madame  de  Stael  he 
went  to  Weimar,  where  he  saw  the  great  stars  of  German  litera- 
ture. He  translated  Sdiiiler's  IVallenstein  into  French.  After 
a  long  stay  at  GBttingen,  C.  returned  with  the  Bourbons  in  1814, 
and  relying  on  the  promises  of  liberty  in  the  Charte,  supported 
the  Government  in  the  youmal  des  D&als.  Daring  the  Hun- 
dred Days  C.  astonished  his  friends  by  accepting  a  place  in  the 
Emperor's  Conseil  d'etat.  Under  tlie  second  Restoration  he 
was  more  decidedly  in  oppo^tion,  attacking  Che  election  and 
press  laws  in  the  Mereure  and  the  Minerve,  and  insisting  in  his 
Cour^  :ie  Politique  ComHttitioneUe  (1817-30;  new  ed.  1861)  on 


the  observance  of  representative  principles  as  the  only  security 
of  social  order.  Tlie  biting  sarcasm  with  which  hehad  attacked 
the  oppressive  Government  proceedings  in  the  Lmne  and  Reg- 
nault  affeirs  was  displayed  to  great  advantage  in  the  discus- 
sions in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  to  which  he  was  elected  in 
1819.  Under  Charles  X.  he  opposed  the  Spanish  war,  the 
laws  of  sacrilege,  succession,  &c.,  and  in  the  Revolution  of 
1830,  along  with  his  friends  Laffite  and  Lafayette,  took  a 
leading  part.  He  died  8th  December  133a  In  the  midst  of 
politics  C.  found  time  to  elaborate  his  well  known  Religion  Con- 
sidMe  dam  sa  Source,  ses  Forme',  et  ses  Dh/doppemmts  (5  vols. 
Par.  1824-31),  in  which  he  traces  the  sentiment  of  religion 
tluough  the  various  positive  institutions  which  have  been  con- 
founded with  it,  and  explains  the  cansea  which  have  led  to  the 
growth  of  these  mstitutions,  and  on  «bicli  religion  itself  does 
not  depend.  His  remarks  on  savages  ate  especially  valuable. 
C.  left  behind  him  a  separate  h  ork,  Du  Potythlisnie  Roniain 
Considiri  dans  w  Rapforts  avec  la  Phtlosophie  Greeque  et  la 
Hel^ien  Chritienne  (Par.  1833).  In  politics  his  cardinal  dogma 
was  Individualism,  a  terra  of  dangerous  vagueness,  but  the  value 
of  which  he  could  hardly  exaggerate  during  tlie  Bourbon  rule. 

Oonstan'tia,  a  district  of  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa,  12  miles 
distant  from  Cape  Town,  on  the  E,  and  N.E.  slopes  of  the 
■Table  Mountain  range,  famous  for  the  excellence  of  its  wine. 
This  is  due  mainly  to  the  alkalies  present  in  the  soil,  but  also 
partly  to  tlie  shelter  afforded  to  the  vineyards  by  the  encircling 
hills.  The  export  (known  to  have  reached  1,000,000  gallons 
about  l86oJ  has  greatly  declined.  Tlie  vines  of  C.  were  brought 
from  Shiraz  in  Persia. 

Oonstanti'na,  a  town  of  southern  Spain,  province  of  Seville, 
40  miles  N.N.E.  of  Seville,  in  a  mountainous  district.  It  has 
manufactures  of  Soap  and  leather,  and  a  imde  in  corn,  wood, 
^nd  wuie.     Pop.  7000. 

Constantine',  the  capital  of  the  province  of  C,  m  the 
French  colony  of  Algeria,  19S  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Algiers,  stands  on 
a  rocky  height,  washed  on  three  sides  by  the  Rummel,  wliidi 
rushes  through  a  deep  ravine,  60  feet  broad.  The  town  is 
830  feet  above  the  river.  A  wall,  built  of  stones  sculptured  by 
the  Romans,  aiid  having  four  handsome  gateways,  surrounds  the 
city.  Tlie  streets  are  narrow  and  filthy,  and  none  of  the  public 
buildings  deserve  especial  notice,  C  has  manufactures  of 
woollen  stuffs,  saddlery,  boots  and  shoes,  and  a  trade  in  corn 
and  wax.  Pop.  (1872)  30,330,  of  whom  not  a  fourth  are  Euro- 
peans. C,  is  the  Cartha  ('city')  of  the  Carthaginians  and  the 
Cirta  of  the  Romans.  It  derived  its  present  name  from  Con- 
stantine the  Great,  who  rebuilt  it  after  it  had  been  destroyed  in 
the  wars  of  Ma5:entius. 

Con'stantine  L,  Caius  Tlavius,  Valerius  Anrelina, 
sumamed  the  '  Greal,'  was  the  son  of  Constanlius  Chlorus,  one 
of  tile  jouit  rulers  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  of  Helena,  a  woman 
of  obscure  origin.  Hewasbornat  Nais5us,in  Dacia,  A.D.  272  0r 
274.  Instead  of  going  with  his  father,  whose  provmce  was  Gaut, 
Spain,  and  Britain,  C.  remained  in  the  service  of  Diocletian 
(q  V  ),  till  his  popularity  with  the  soldiers  roused  the  jealousy 
of  Galerius  {q.  v.).  His  exploits  in  the  distant  East  are  recorded 
in  an  exag^rating  spirit  by  the  historians  of  later  times,  but 
there  is  no  doubt  that  in  an  atmosphere  of  danger  and  distrust 
he  acquu^d  a  wariness  and  strength  of  character,  a  penetration 
of  understanding,  and  a  courage  of  soul  that  marked  him  out  for 
future  greatness.  When  C.  found  that  his  life  was  really  in 
peril,  he  secretly  fled  to  his  father,  arrived  just  m  tune  to 
accompany  him  on  his  expedition  to_  Britain  (305),-and  toolt 

Eait  in  some  campaigns  against  the  Picts  or  Caledonians.  On 
is  Other's  death  at  Vork,  he  was  proclaimed  Augustus  by  the 
troops,  but  prudently  contented  himself  with  the  inferior  title  of 
Ciisar,  thereby  frustrating  the  malice,  tliough  he  could  not 
escape  the  hatred,  of  Galerius.  For  sin  years  he  remamed  a 
stranger  to  the  rest  of  the  empire,  but  fuU  of  activity  within  hLs 
province,  which  embraced  Britain,  Gaul,  and  Spain,  encourag- 
ing agriculture,  enfranchising  the  towns,  improvmg  political 
administration,  and  inspu-lng  the  turbulent  Franks  of  the  Rhine- 
land  with  a  wholesome  fear  of  his  power.  Like  his  father,  lie 
ignored  the  edicts  issued  against  the  Christians,  and  thus  the 
new  religion  rapidly  spread  in  the  W.  ot  Europe.  Meanwhile 
Galerius  was  ruling  so  tyrannically  that  the  Romans  called  in 
Mnxeiitius  (a  son  of  Maximianus,  formerly  a  colleague  of  Diocle- 


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CON 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


1}  to  help  them.  He  assumed  the  purple  along  with  hi 
icr,  defeated  Sevecus,  an  obscure  creature  whom  Galeriu 
L  invested  with  supreme  power,  aud  forced  Galerius  himself 
..  retreat  to  Pannoiiia.  But  father  ajid  son  now  quarrelled. 
The  former  took  refuge  with  C,  thenj;onspiTed  agdnst  his  bene- 
factor, and  in  310  was  strangled  at  Marseille.  Maxentius  next 
made  himself  so  hateful  to  the  people  of  Rome  that  the  senate  sent 
a  message  to  C,  to  come  and  save  them  from  their  Emperor.  C. 
thereuponcrossed  the  Alps(3tl),  defeated  the  armies  of  Maxell- 
tins  at  Turin,  Verona,  and  finally  at  Rome ;  his  rival  being 
tlrowned  while  attempting  to  escape  (312).  In  the  East,  affairs 
now  stood  thus  V- Galerius  had  long  had  a,  colleague,  Maxi- 
minus,  with  the  title  of  Csesar,  but  in  tlie  place  of  Severus  he 
put  another  called  Licinius.  This  ifeove  Maximiniis  into  rebel- 
lion, and  Galerius  was  compelled  to  gi'ant  the  purple.  His 
death,  in  312,  led  to  a  fierce  simple  between  Licinius  and 
Maximinus,  in  which  the  latter  was  vanquished,  and  soon  after 
poisoned.  The  Roman  empu-e  was  now  {314)  divided  be- 
tween C.  and  Licinius,  who  were  brothers-in-law,  the  Jhitter 
having  married  Constantia,  sister  of  C.  At  first'  they  were 
on  good  terms,  but  a  difference  of  policy  soon  showed  itself 
There  may  have  been  jealousy  and  plotting  on  the  part  of  the 
lesser  man,  but  the  great  fact  is,  that  in  the  final  straggle  l)e- 
tween  the  old  Paganism  and  the  new  religion  of  Christ,  iicinius 
made  himself  the  champion  of  the  former,  and  fell  with  the  wor- 
ship of  Zeus  and  Apollo.  After  two  conflicts  (314-31S  and 
323),  C.  remained  sole  master  of  the  Roman  world.  Almost 
the  first  solemn  act  of  his  monarchy  was  to  make  the  Christian 
relipoii  the  religion  of  the  state.  Everywhere  churches  arose 
and  temples  fell ;  the  statues  of  the  old  divinities  were  gra- 
dually removed  from  public  view ;  the  offices  of  state  were 
munly  conferred  on  the  followers  of  tlie  new  faith;  bishops 
were  invested  with  civil  autliorily,  and  money  was  liberally 
given  froin  the  imperial  treasury  to  relieve  the  wants  of  the 
Christian  poor.  In  325  C.  presided  at  the  first  "fficumenical 
Council  ever  held  by  the  Christian  Church,  the  Council 
of  Nictea  (q.  v. ).  In  330  he  IMd  the  foundations  of  his  new 
capital,  named  after  himself,  Constantinople  (q.  v.),  and  after 
a  career  of  enormous  activity  and  turmoil,  died  at  Nico- 
medeia,  22d  May  337.  The  chief  hlot  on  his  fame  is  the  execu- 
tion of  his  son  Crispus,  a  gallant  and  popular  youth,  who  was 
accused  by  his  stepmother,  Fausta,  of  incestuous  designs.  That 
many  other  persons  perished  at  the  same  time  (326)  may  perhaps 
surest  the  notion  of  a  political  conspiracy  being  tlie  real  cause 
of  the  odious  act.  The  siory  of  C's  conversion,  as  recorded  by 
Eusebius,  is  a  point  on  which  superfiuons  attention  has  been 
bestowed.  His  character  is  not  difficult  to  read.  It  was  massive, 
practical,  just.  He  weighed  the  influences  that  were  moving 
men,  and  long  before  he  proclaimed  himself  a  Christian  ^ad 
realised  the  fact  that  the  new  religion  was  the  strongest  and 
est  agency  in  the  state.  It  was  nataral  he  should  acknow- 
^  its  claim  to  a  divine  origin.  All  this  is  consistent  with  an 
adherence  to  certain  P^an  forms,  and  an  indifference  to  theolo- 
gical orthodoxy.  The  greatness  of  Christianity  lay  in  its  broad 
life-giving  power,  not  in  distracting  dogmas,  and  C.  loved  best 
moiferate  men  like  Eusebius,  who  tried  to  steer  a  middle  course 
between  the  fanatics  on  either  side.  See  Gibbon's  Decline  and 
Pall,  'S^a.txAer'i  KircAtngescAichte,  SXsxAey's  Hisloiy  eftke  Eastern 
Church  (Lond.  1861),  Manso's  Lebm  K.'s  dss  Grosstn  (Bresl. 
1817),  Keini's  Obei-lrilt  K?s  sam  ChristerUhum  (Zur.  1862),  and 
Burckhardfs  Die  Ziit  Kh  des  Gmsseii  (Bas.  1853). 

Oonstantine,  Faulovicb,  a  Ru^ian  grand-duke,  second 
son  of  the  Emperor  Paul  I.,  was  bom  8th  May  1779.  Reserved 
in  Italy  in  1 7^,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Austerlitz,  but  held 
no  important  command  till  1815,  when  his  brother,  the  Emperor 
Alexander,  appointed  him  generalissimo  of  the  Polish  armies. 
Having,  in  1822,  renounced  his  claims  to  the  throne,  his  younger 
brother,  Nicholas,  succeeded  on  the  death  of  Alexander  in  1825. 
C.  failed  to  conciliate  the  Poles,  who  broke  out  into  insurrection 
in  1830.  He  retired  to  BiaJystok,  which  he  was  ordered  to  quit. 
He  then  withdrew  to  Vitebsk,  where  he  suddenly  died,  27th 
June  1831.  See  Harringls  Der  Grosspirsi  C,  inie  er  -mar  (Leips. 
1832).— Jjonstantine  Ificolaevich,  Grand-Duke  of  Russia, 
and  second  son  of  the  late  Emperor  Nicholas,  was  bom  arst  Sep- 
tember 1827.  As  Graud-Admira!  of  Russia,  he  commanded  the 
fleet  in  the 'Baltic  during  the  Crimean  War,  and  at  its  close,  as 
leader  of  Ihe  old  Russian  party,  he  strenuously  opposed  the  Con- 
232 


cessions  made  to  the  Allies.  He  is  President  of  the  Council  of 
the  Empire,  and  chief  of  a  regiment  of  hussais.  He  is  also  pro- 
prietor of  a  regiment  of  Austrian  infantiy,  and  chief  of  a  regi- 
ment of  Prussian  hussars. 

Oonstantino'ple  (the  Turkish  Slambul  or  Islambul  is  a  cor- 
ruption of  the  Greek  £j  laii  pnlin,  '  into  the  city '},  so  named 
because  built  by  Constantine  the  Great,  occupies  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Byzantium  (q.  v.).  Its  splendid  position  on  the  promon- 
tory which  serves  as  a  connecting  link  between  the  Eastern  and 
Western  worlds  recommended  it  to  Constantine  as  the  site  of 
his  capital,  when  he  had  resolved  on  removing  the  seat  of  empire 
from  Rome.  The  nth  of  May,  A.D.  330,  is  marked  as  the 
birthday  of  the  new  city,  but -the  rites  of  inauguration  lasted 
forty  days.  Thenceforth  it  became  the  seat  of  the  Roman  em- 
perors till  the  reign  of  Valens  and  Valentinian,  when  the  empire 
was  divided;  after  which  it  continued  to  be  the  capital  of  the 
Eastern  or  Byzantine  empire  till  its  capture  by  the  Turks  in 
1453.  Since  that  time  it  has  been  the  residence  of  the  Turkish 
sultans.  The  city  proper  is  situated  on  a  triangular  promontory 
on  the  European  side  of  the  Thracian  Bosporus,  or  Channel  of 
C.,  an  arm  of  which,  the  Golden  Horn,  penetrating  above  5 
miles  into  the  land,  forms  at  once  the  northern  boundary  of  the 
city  and  a  magnificent  harbour.  On  the  opposite  side,  on  the  penin- 
sula of  -Pera,  are  the  suburbs  of  Galata,  Pera,  and  Tophana, 
while  Scutari  lies  on  the  Asiatic  side  of  the  Bospoius.  There 
are  in  all  eighteen  suburbs.  C.  was  formerly  completely  walled  in, 
but  its  ancient  defences  have  either  disappeared  or  are  in  a  dila- 
pidated condition,  with  the  exception  of  the  inland  or  W.  wall, 
a  fine  specimen  of  mural  architecture.  Erom  the  Golden  Horn 
the  city,  built  on  a  series  of  gentle  hills,  with  its  mosques,  min- 
arets, and  cypresses,  presents  an  imposing  appearance;  but 
the  int^ior,  with  its  narrow,  crooked,  filthy,  ill-paved  streets, 
swarming  with  hungry  masterless  dogs,  and  its  iU-built  houses 
of  wood  and  earth,  is  sadly  disappointing,  Condderable  im- 
provement has,  however,  taken  place  in  the  architecture  of  C.  of 
late  years,  from  extensive  quarters  of  the  city  having  been  de- 
stroyed by  several  great  fires,  and  the  spaces  thus  cleared  having 
been  rebuilt  with  substantial  structures  of  stone.  Of  its  344 
mosques,  the  most  interesting  is  that  which  was  formerly  the 
Church  of  St  Sophia,  built  in  the  reign  of  Justinian,  though  the 
lai^est  and  most  splendid  is  that  of  Suleiman.  The  SeragHo, 
or  palace  of  the  Sultan,  is  of  vast  extent.  Its  principal  en- 
ti-ance,  a  lai^e  and  lofty  gate,  has  given  origin  to  the  phrase 
'  the  Sublime  Porte,'  all  political  and  diplomatic  business  being 
supposed  to  be  transacted  under  it.  The  other  objects  of 
interest  are  the  two  obelisks  of  the  Atmeidan  (the  ancient 
Hippodrome),  the  Citadel  of  the  Seven  Towers,  and  numerous 
bazaars  and  caravanserais,  Galata  is  the  centre  of  trade,  Pera 
is  the  residence  of  Europeans  and  of  the  foreign  ambassadors, 
the  naval  arsenal  is  at  Hassim-Pa.sha,  and  Fanar  is  the  Greek 
quarter.  There  are  1200  elementary  and  300  higher  schools, 
35  public  libraries,  and  numerous  charitable  institutions.  The 
manufactures  of  C.  are  chiefly  in  steel,  arms,  leather,  saddlery, 
paper,  and  fez  caps.  In  1873  the  tonnage  of  British  and  foreign 
vessels  which  entered  the  port  of  C.  in  cargo  or  ballast  was 
about  3,000,000  tons;  of  those  that  cleared,  above  3,500,00a 
TTie  total  number  of  ships  that  entered  the  port  in  1872-73  was 
43,582 ;  tonnage,  4,S78,Soa  The  Turks  have  allowed  the 
carrying  trade  in  their  own  waters  to  laU  in  great  part  into 
the  hands  of  foreigners.  Still  a  considerable  portion  remains, 
for  the  movement  of  the  port  of  C,  )'.*■.,  the  total  arrivals  and 
clearings,  for  1873,  represented  a  tonnage  of  4,340,097.  An 
undei|;round  railway,  to  connect  the  lower  part  of  Galata  with 
Pera,  is  being  constructed.  Three  lines  of  tramways  have  been 
established  in  C,  and  one  on  the  Galata  side  of  the  Golden 
Horn,  Omnibuses  and  cabs  have  aist  been  recently  (1873)  in- 
troduced, and  the  city  is  thus  rapidly  acquiring  a  European 
character.  Railway  communication  will  soon  be  opened  with 
the  valley  of  the  Danube  ;  but  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  believe 
that  the  city  will  recover  its  former  greatness  until  the  rule  of 
the  Turk  has  passed  away. 

Con'atat,  Precept  of  Clare.    See  Clare  Constat. 

Conetella'tioil  (Lat.  con.  '  together,"  and  stella,  '  a  star '),  a 
grouping  together  of  stars  under  one  denomination.  The  an- 
cient astronomers  gave  to  each  C.  the  name  of  some  person  or 
Ihing  to  which  they  fancied  the  arrangement  of  the  stars  bore 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPJIDIA. 


CON 


le  resemblance  ;  and  this  method  of  nomenclature,  convenient 
in  many  ways,  was  recognised  and  eren  extended  by  later  and 
modem  astronomers.     The  work  of  Eudoxus  (370  B.C.),  giving 


ork  of  Eudoxus  (370 
the  constellations  recognised  in  liiS  day,  is  loi-t ;  but  Aratiis'paia. 
phrase  of  it  names  forty-five  constellations.  Ptolemy  in  his 
A  g  enumerates  forty-eight,  being  the  catalogue  constructed 
by  H  pparcbus.  Hevelius  added  twelve ;  Halley,  eight ;  Beyer, 
w  LaCaille,  iifteeni  which,  together  with  other  minor  addi- 

n    make  up  the  number  to  about  107.    Notwithstanding  the 
mp     of  certain  pious  astronomers  of  the  middle  E^es  to  over- 
h  h    mythical  nomenclature  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans 

B  d  instance,  substituting  the  twelve  apostles  for  the  signs  of 
h  d  ac),  the  ancient  names  have  continued  intact  to  this  day. 
-  Conetipa'tion  is  a  state  of  the  system  marked  by  want  of 
tone  in  the  muscular  coat  of  the  bowel,  rendering  the  peristaltic 
action  of  the  intestines  sluggish,  and  by  a  defective  secretion  of 
the  intestinal  juices  rendering  the  ffeces  more  dry,  and  conse- 
quently more  difficult  to  be  expelled.  It  is  generally  (though  not 
always)  caused  by  the  kind  and  quantity  of  the  food-swallowed, 
and  is  very  much  increased  by  a  sedentary  life.  The  treatment 
depends  on  the  canse.  When  due  to  diet,  a  purgative  should  be 
given,  and  great  attention  paid  to  the  food  ;  when  due  to  a  natu- 
ral sluggishness  of  the  bowel,  such  medicines  as  nux  vomica  or 
belladonna  are  productive  of  great  benefit.  C.  often  givesrise  to 
headache  and  other  serious  ailments. 

Oonstit'uent  Aaaembly.     See  Assembly,  National. 

Oonstitu'tiou,  in  politics,  signifies  the  system  of  a  slate  on 
which  its  executive  government  rests,  and  by  which  its  laws  are 
made.  The  term  may  also  be  held  to  embrace  these  Jaws 
whetlier  statutory  or  consuetudinary  ;  the  latter  being,  tlie  result 
of  tacit  constitutional  sanction.  The  basis  of  the  C,  of  a  state 
may  be  broadly  stated  to  be  the  will  of  its  people  having  mate- 
rial power ;  individual  influence  being  generally  regulated  in  its 
power  over  the  will  of  others  by  the  extent  of  the  individual's 
control  over  material  resources,  and  by  the  force  of  his  convic- 
tions. To  a  ceitain  extent  this  constitutional  basis  is  always 
inharmonious ;  hence  it  divides  into  political  parties,  each  of 
whidi  strives  by  getting  the  majority  to  direct  the  affairs  of  the 
state,  the  minority  being  Iwund  to  yield  ;  without  which  rale  in 
the  political  game  government  would  be  impossible.  And  the 
stabihty  of  the  C.  of  a  country,  and  the  benefits  which  flow  from 
that  stability,  depend  on  the  good  faith  with  which  this  rule  is 
observed.  In  England,  tierce  as  liave  been  the  politicai  contests 
of  the  last  hundred  years— over  Catholic  Emancipation  and 
Free  Trade,  for  example— the  defeated  minority  have  .happily 
never  appealed  to  the  last  tribunal — that  of  physical  force. 
How  difierent,  in  this  relpect,  has  been  the  history  of  France 
during  the  same  period  !  Whatever  be  the  form  of.a.couiitry's 
government,  even  though  it  be  a  pure  despotism,  the  basis  of 
the  government  is  the  same,  and  when  the  force  of  the  people 
is  in  favour  of  constitutional  modification  or  change,  it  will  effect 
this  either  by  pressure  on  the  self-modifying  power  of  the  C., 
or,  if  this  be  insufficient,  by  that  radical .  Aange  called  a  re- 
volution. 

In  England  the  supreme  power  is  divided  into  the  legislative 
and  executive.  By  constitutional  fiction  the  foimer  is  vested  in 
the  sovereign  and  Parliament  jointly,  the  latter  in,  the  sovereign 
alone.  Really,  the  legislative  function  is  exercised  by  Parlia- 
ment (q.  V.)  alone ;  the  executive  by  that  portion  of  the  Privy 
Council  (q.  v.)  called  the  Cabinet  (q.-v.),  though  it  does  i 
form  a  recognised  part  of  the  C.  of  England.  See  RIGHTS 
THE  People, 

Oonetitution,  Decree  of,  a  term  of  Scotch  law  usually 
applied  to  those  decrees  which  are  requisite  to  found  a  title  in 
the  person  of  the  creditor  in  the  event  of  the  death  of  the  debtor. 
But  every  decree  by  which  the  extent  of  a  debt  or  obligation  is 
ascertained  is  a  D.  of  C 

Constitutions  of  Clarendon.    See  Clarendon,  Con- 


Conatitutiona,  Provincial  were  decrees  made  in  the  pro- 
vincial synods  held  unde  anous  Archbishops  of  Canterbury, 
from  Stephen  Langton  nde  Henrv  III.  to  Henry  Chichele 
under  Henry  V.  The  last  were  adopted  by  the  province  of  York 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI. 

Consii'bstaiitia'tion.     See  Te  an  substantiation. 
105 


OonBuetud'iaary  Law  means  the  same  as  Common  Law 
(q,  V,),  that  is,  law  resting  on  custom  1  but  much  ofour  law  de- 
rived from  custom  is  now  made  statutory  also.  According  to 
the  doctrine  of  English  law,  the  negative  of  custom,  or  Desuetude 
(q.  V. ),  which  is  a  techfiical  term  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  does 
not  render  a  statute  inefiective.     See  also  Battei^  Trial  by. 

Con'avil  (foHJH/ii  =  ' those  who  go  together,'  'colleagues') 
was  the  highest  office  in  the  government  of  republican  Rome, 
embracing  both  the  entire  civil  authority  and  the  supreme  com- 
mand of  the  army.  On  the  expulsion  of  Tarquin  this  magis- 
tracy was  immediately  instituted — the  two  first  consuls  being 
Lucius  Junius  Brutus  and  Lucius  Tarquinius  Collatinus.  The 
consuls  were  two  in  number,  were  invested. with  e^ual  rights,  and 
held  oflice  for  one  year.  In  earlier  times,  the  chief  magistrates 
were  called  pralers,  the  title  C.  having  been  introduced  B.C. 
305.  The  C.  was  elected  in  the  comiHa  anturiala,  presided 
over  liy  a  C.,  except  when  the  appointment  of  a  dictator  had  put 
the  consular  power  for  a  time  in  abeyance.  Under  the  LJciman 
law,  in  B.C.  366,  L.  Sexlius  was  the  first  plebeian  C. ;  and,  after 
a  protracted  struggle  between  the  two  great  classes  in  the  state, 
both  consuls  were  plebeians,  B.C.  172.  .^  first  the  consuls  enjoyed 
all  the  privileges  of  the  kings,  except  the  priestly  power,  but 
they  lost  in  succession  ti^e  censorship  and  the  Judicial  power. 
They  w?re  held  in  check  by  each  C.  having  the  power  of  veto- 
ing the  other,  by  the  possibility  of  their  being  called  to  account 
at  the  close  of, their  term  of  office,  and  by  the  power  of  the 
senate.  When  emergencies  demanded  it,  the  seijate  passed  a 
decree  vidsrent  conad^s  nt  quid  rcsfubUca  dstrmiiiiti  cafcret, 
which  invested  them  with  unlimited  power.  Their  outward 
Ijadges  of  distinction  were  the  procession  of  twelve  lictors  with 
fasces  before  them  in  a  line,  whenever  they  appeared  in  public  ; 
the  toga  pralixta,  a  cloak  with  a  scarlet  border  j  and  the  seat, 
ornamented  with  jvory,  called  the  cmule  chair.  At  the  close  of 
the  republic,  the  office  of  C.  declined  in  power,  and  under  the 
empire  the  C.  was  merely  honorary,  elected  by  the  senate,  and 
sanctioned  by  the  emperor.  Sometimes  the. emperors  them- 
selves assumed  the  consulship. 

Consul,. Mercantile,  is  an  officer,  appointed  by  one  state  to 
reside  in  another  to  attend  to  the  interests  of  his  countrymen. 
Consuls  are  genei'illydivided  into  consuls-general,  consuls,  vice- 
consuls,  and  consular  agents.  AC.  should  be.  able  to  speak 
fluently  the  language  of  the  country  in  which  he  resides.  He  ought 
also  to  have  a  fair  knowledge  of  its  laws,  in  so  far  as  they  affect 
the  interests  of  the  merchants  or  travellers  of  his  country.  It  is 
the  duty  of  a  C.  to  endeavour  to  obtsun  redress  for  any  country- 
man who  may  appear  to  him- to  have  been  .illegally  treated 
wilh^  his  jurisdiction;  but  a  C.  is  not  called  on  to  interfere 
in  a  mere  dispute  between  a  countryman  and  a  foreigner.  If 
an  Englishman  abroad  be  robbed  or  cheated,  he  may  go  for 
advice  to  his  C,  who  ought  in  .courtesy  to  give  it,  but  for 
redress  he  must  look  solely  to  the  authorities  of  the  place.  A 
,C.  can  in  no  case  come  between  a  counliyman  and  the  law 
of  the  country  to  which  he. is  accredited;  to  which  law  the 
■  C.  is  himself  subject.  .He  Ims,  however,  the  privileges  of  an 
Ambassador  (q.  v.).      He  can  perform  the  acts  of  a  notaiy 

Eublic;  deeds  executed  by  him  being.valid,  and  held  as  done  in 
.ngland.  Tlie  marriage  of  British  subjects  abroad  is  made 
valid  by  recording  it  in  the  boflks  of  the  local  British  C.  The 
salary,  of  consuls  geiieial  ranges  from  £y^  to  ;£20oo  a  yeai , 
that  of  a  consul  from  £lixi  to  ^£1500,  that  ol  a  vice  consul 
from  £<^  to  jfSoo  There  is  no  office  m  which  suivity  of 
temper  and  mannei  is  of  more  Lonsequence  than  m  that  of 
a  C.  Some  travellers  m  every  difficulty,  real  or  imagmary, 
apply  to  their  C  ,  apd  so  encroach  upon  his  time,  and  e\pect 
him  to  interfere  when  interference  is  useless,  or  worse  Such 
annoyance  is  incidental  to  the  position,  and  shouU,  therefoit 
borne  with  equanimity.  The  most 
usually  those  connected  with  trade. 

Coi^tilate  (Lat,<r^»/nft*r,  'consulship'),  the  name  given 
to  the  chief  magistracy  of  the  French  republic  after  the  revo- 
lution of  the  .iStb.Bruraaire  (q.  v.}.  It  was  first  conferred  upon 
Bonaparte,  Siiyes,  and.Ducos,  by  the  nimp  of  the  Council  of 
the  Ancients  and  the  Five  Hundred.  On  December  13,  1799, 
Bonaparte  was  made  First  Consul,  with  absolute  power,  an 
income  of  500,000  francs,  and  all  the  pomp  and  circumstance 
of  monarchy,  and  held  the  office  till  1804,  when  he  made  himself 


LS  duties  of  a 


vLaOOgle 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CON 


Gonsulta'tiou,  Legal.    See  Conference. 

Consnm'ption.     See  PiiTHisis. 

OonsTimption,  in  political  economy.  In  considering  cer- 
tain questions  in  political  economy,  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish 
between  C.  which  is  temporary  and  reproductive,  and  C.  which 
is  unproductive.  Money  spent  in  improving  land  is  an  instance 
of  the  former :  the  human  labonr  and  mateiial  so  consumed  will 
bear  fruit  l^oney  spent  in  war  is  an  example  of  the  latter  :  it 
is  so  much  human  energy  thrown  avray.  In  these  instances,  the 
distinction  is  obvious,  but  it  is  often  more  or  less  obscure.  The 
'working-man's'  C.  of  food  is  clearly  reproductive ;  but  then 
who  are  working — that  is,  wealth. creating — men?  Tliat  the 
farmer,  the  miner,  and  the  manufacturer  are,  none  will  dispute  } 
but  have  not  the  physician  who  ministers  to  the  health  of  these, 
and  (he  author  who  instructs  or  amuses  them,  an  equal  claim  to 
be  so  regarded  ? 

Coil'taot.  In  geometry,  two  curves  are  s^d  to  be  in  C. 
when  they  have  two,  thru,  or  more  consecutive  points  in  common, 
constituting  contacts  of  the  Jb-st,  second,  &c. ,  orders  respectively. 
Two  Straight  lines  caimot  be  in  C.  without  completely  coinciding; 
and  a  straight  line  or  plane  can  only  have  a  C.  of  the^i-i^  order 
with  any  curve  or  sutiace,  being,  in  this  case,  a  tangent  or  tan^ 
gent  plane. 

Oonta'gion  (Lat.  '  touching  together ')  means  a  communica- 
tion of  disease  by  one  individual  to  another.  It  may  be  caused 
(i)  by  contact  with  the  diseased  person  i  (2)  by  contact  with  his 
clothes  or  materials  ;  (3)  by  contact  with  his  excretions.  The 
poison  is  thus  conveyed  from  one  individual  to  another,  and  then 
re-develops  itself  in  the  person  to  whom  it  has  been  carried. 
Contagious  diseases  are  only  propagated  by  the  poison  being 
conveyed  in  some  form  or  other;  consequently  some  countries 
are  exempt  from  particular  kinds  of  these — e.g. ,  Australia,  from 
smallpox.  How  such  diseases  first  arose  we  cannot  tell;  but 
now  they  only  spread  by  a  mode  which  does  not  account  for 
their  origin.   As  a  rule,  they  attack  the  same  individual  only  once. 

Contari'ni,  a  noble  and  illastrions  family  of  Venice,  rose  to 
eminence  in  the  irth  c,  furnished  many  doges,  warriors,  &c,  to 
the  state,  and  only  waned  with  the  republic  itself.  In  1380  the 
representative  C,  led  the  Venetian  fleet  against  the  Genoese,  de- 
feated them,  and  saved  Venice. — Ambrogio  C,  ambassador  to 
Persia  (1473-77),  wrote  an  account  of  his  travels,  Vtaggi  falH 
da.  Vinelia,  alia  Tana,  in  Persia,  in  India  e  in  Cimitantinojioli 
(Ven.  1543).— aiovanni  C.  (1549-1605)  was  an  historical  and 
portrait  painter. — Simone  C.  (1563-1633)  and  Gamillo  C. 
(1644-1722)  were  accomplished  HllSrBliurs. 

Contempt',  in  law,  is  an  offence  of  various  kinds.  The  em- 
bezzlement of  public  money  by  a  public  officer  is  a  C.  punishable 
under  pailiamentaiy  impeachment  by  fine  and  imprisonment. 
To  accept  a  pension  from  a  foreign  prince  without  consent  of  the 
crown  is  a  C.  of  the  Queen's  government.  So  it  is  to  drmk  to 
the  '  pious  memory'  of  a  traitor,  or  for  a  clergyman  to  absolve  at 
(he  gallows  a  criminal  persisting  in  the  treason  for  which  he  is 
about  to  suffer. 

Coniefitpt  of  Court,  thi'eatening  or  reproachful  words  used  to  a 
judge  on  the  bench  is  C.  of  C,  punishable  at  the  discretion 
of  the  judge  witli  fine  and  imprisomnent.  So  if  a  man  threaten 
'  '"  adversary,  or  endeavour  to  dissuade  a  witness  from  giving 


L  of  improper  comment  on  a  pending  cause.  The  ofiender  in 
sucn  a  case  may  be  summoned  before  the  court  and  ptmished 
summarily.  The  celebrated  Tichborne  case  gave  rise  to  much 
discussion  respecting  the  law  with  regard  to  C,  of  C. 

Contempt  of  Parliament  is  an  infrmgement  of  a  priiilege  of 
Parfiament.  These  privileges  are  lai^,  and  are  purposely 
kept  indefinite  to  suit  the  times.  In  the  famous  contest  be 
tween  the  House  of  Commons  and  the  newspaper  reporters 
in  1771,  J.  Miller,  of  the  London  Evening  Post,  was  arrested 
in  the  city  of  London  by  the  Speaker's  warrant  Miller  being 
brought  before  the  Lord  Mayor,  his  lordship  deckred  the 
arrest  illegal,  discharged  Miller,  and  committed  the  messenger 
for  assault.  The  House  of  Commons  sent  the  Lord  Mayor  and 
Alderman  Oliver,  similarly  implicated,  to  the  Tower  of  London, 
while  the  Speaker's  messenger  was  tried  at  Guildhall  for  the 
234 


assault,  found  gtiilty,  and  sentenced  to  fine  and  imprisonment. 
The  power  of  Pailiament  to  imprison  ceasing  at  the  end  of  the 
session,  on  the  day  of  prorogation  the  Lord  Mayor  and  Alderman 
left  the  Tower  in  triumph,  and  at  night  the  city  was  illuminated. 
The  contest  ended  in  practically  estabUshing  the  right  of  report- 
ing the  debates  of  Parliament,  but  the  resolution  affirming  tlmt  to 
do  so  '  is  a  notorious  breach  of  the  privileges  of  the  House,'  re- 
mains unrevoked  on  the  journals ;  and  every  now  and  then  this 


Con'ti,  House  of,  a  branch  of  the  house  of  Cond^  (q.  v. ), 
which  took  its  title  from  the  small  town  of  C,  not  far  from 
Amiens.— Armand  de  Bourbon,  first  Prince  of  C,  the 
brother  of  the  gi-eat  Conde,  was  bom  m  1629.  Although  of  a 
feeble  constitution,  and  originally  intended  for  the  Church,  he 
took  to  a  military  career,  first  as  the  opponent,  and  next  as  the 
ally,  of  his  brother,  and  distinguished  himself  in  Calabria.  He 
retired  from  the  world  in  r6|7,  gave  himself  up  to  works  of 
piety,  and  died  at  Peienas  in  1666. — His  eldest  son,  Louis 
Armand,  who  was  bom  in  1661,  died  of  smallpox  in  i6S^. 
Having  no  children,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Francois 
Louis,  bom  at  Paris  in  1664,  and  by  for  the  ablest  of  this  family. 
He  was  possessed  of  the  highest  military  talents,  which  would 
have  been  displayed  to  more  advantage  had  he  not,  during  the 
greater  part  of  his  life,  been  under  a  cloud  of  royal  displeasure. 
As  it  was,  he  distinguished  himself  in  Hungary,  and,  under  his 
friend  Luxemburg,  at  the  battles  of  Steenkiric  and  Neerwinden. 
In  1709  Louis  XIV.,  who  had  been  persuaded  by  the  great 
Condi  before  his  death  to  pardon  C. ,  appointed  him  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  army  in  Flanders,  but  he  died  in  the  same  year. 
His  scientific  attainments  were  considerable,  and  as  he  had 
many  popular  qualities,  he  was  much  regretted  by  the  French 
nation.  Saint-Simon,  In  his  Mhitoires,  has  given  a  fine  sketch 
of  his  character  and  appearance. — His  son,  Louis  Armand 
(1695-1727),  had  (he  cultivated  tastes,  if  not  the  brilliant 
genius  of  his  father,  but  unfortunately  he  succumbed  to  the  gross 
dissipations  of  the  Regency. — Louis  Franjois  (1777-76),  son 
of  the  preceding,  revived  the  military  fame  of  the  fimiily,  signal- 
ising himself  in  the  war  with  Austria  and  Sardinia ;  but  he  had 
the  misfortune  to  incur  the  aversion  of  Madame  de  Pompadour, 
and  during  (he  Seven  Years'  War  languished  in  retreat,  while 
the  French  troops  were  being  led  by  a  Soubise.  The  H.  of  C. 
became  extinct  in  the  person  of  his  son,  Loius  Franyois 
Joseph.  (1734-1S07),  who  died  in  Spain. 

Con'tinent  (Lat.  '  holding  tc^ther '),  a  term  usually  applied 
to  the  great  land  masses  as  distinguished  from  islands.  Ordi- 
nary speech  recognises  five  continents^^Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa 
constituting  the  Old  World,  and  America  and  Australia  the 
New  World.  Strictly  speaking,  the  Old  World  constitutes  but 
a  single  C,  the  separation  of  Africa  from  the  mass  by  the  Suez 
Canal  being  merely  artificial.  The  New  World  is  also  a  single 
C,  though  sometimes  the  two  Americas  rank  each  as  one.  In 
the  midst  of  seeming  irregularity  certain  uniformities  have  been 
long  observed.  Bacon  remarked  that  the  continents  ran  out  in 
points  towards  the  S.  and  broadened  towards  the  N. ;  Joh. 
Reinh.  Foister  made  these  southern  promontories  the  extremi- 
ties of  mountain  ranges,  while  archipekigos  ky  over  gainst  their 
eastern  sides,  their  western  being  hollowed  out  by  krge  bays. 
Steffens  recognised  only  three  continents,  consisting  each  of  two 
land  divisions  united  by  an  isthmus,  having  an  archipelago  on 
,  one  ade  and  a  peninsula  on  the  other.  These  are  ( 1 )  America  ; 
(2)  Europe,  with  Western  Asia  and  Africa  ;  and  (3)  the  remain- 
ing part  of  Asia  and  Anstralia,  formerly  connected  by  an  isth- 
mus, which  was  disi-upted  in  later  times.  Ritter  notices  that 
the  greatest  expansion  of  the  land  of  the  eastern  hemisphere  is 
from  E.  to  W.  ;  of  the  western,  from  N.  to  S.  Humboldt  cal- 
culated the  height  of  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  land  masses, 
with  the  exception  of  Africa,  at  lOoyiOj  feet.  A  special  mean- 
ing  of  lAe  C.  is  the  mainland  of  Europe  as  opposed  to  England. 

Continen'tal  Sye'tem  is  a  name  given  to  the  method  de- 
vised  by  the  first  Napoleon  for  cutting  off  connection  between 
England  and  the  Continent.  It  began  with  the  'Berlin  Decrees,' 
issued  November  21,  1806,  declaring  the  British  Islands  block- 
aded, and  prohibiting  correspondence,  commercial  or  otherwise, 
with  them  ;  declaring  all  merchandise  belonging  to  Englishmen 
.1  lawfui    prize,   and    even    Englishmen  themselves,  found  in  a 


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country  occupied  by  French  troops  or  by  th        Up  f 

war.  England  retorted  with  an  Order  C  1  J  ry  7 
1807,  prohibiting  all  neutral  vessels  from  t  g  y  p  t  b 
longing  to  France  or  her  allies,  and  confi  cat  ng      tl  g 

every  ship  that  violated  this  order;  and  th  w  f  11  d  th 
end  of  the  same  year  by  another  order,  pi  ng  d  th  sam 
restrictions  as  if  they  lud  been  blockad  d     U  h    b  d 

places  of  France,  and  her  allies  in  Europ    and  th         I  as 

well  as  every  country  with  which  England  as  t  war  and  f  m 
which  the  Englisli  flag  was  excluded.    Afl      th 


o  him,  was  given  up. 

Contin'gent,  a  word  of  ambiguous  sigi  fi  t  b  t  ppl  d 
usually  to  the  quota  of  troops  fnrnislied  by  t   b  ta  y         11   d 

-*-*--  "■■  "--    - -    -     --      '"'-     ■^   '         - --    '     ^  th 

lym 
emcjency. 
Cfontingent,  a  term  of  English  law    li       g  ty    f 

Contingent  Legacy. — If  a  legacy  be  left  t        y  th 

dition  of  his  attaining  the  age  of  twenty-  t      C         d  if  h 

die  before  that  age  the  legacy  lapses. 

Contingent  Remainder  is  when  an  est  t  m      d      ( 

Estate  and  Remainder)  is  limited  to  tak     ff   t     ti      t 
uncertain  person  or  upon  an  uncertain  event. 

Contingent  Use  is  a  use  limited  in  a  conveyance  of  land,  which 
may  or  may  not  happen  to  vest  according  to  the  contingency  ex- 
pressed m  the  limitation  of  the  use. 

Contingent  Deits  are  debts  due  in  a  certain  event.  Creditors 
in  such  debts  are  in  Scotland  allowed  to  rank  on  the  estate  of  a 
bankrupt.  A  discharge  under  the  sequestration  statute  in  Scotland 
is  effective  gainst  C.  D.,  but  in  England  the  rule  is  the  other  way. 

Conimgent  Processes. — In  Scotland,  when  processes  are  likdy 
to  throw  light  on  each  other,  the  first  enrolled  is  held  to  be  the 
leading  process,  and  those  stil^equenlly  brought  into  court  may  be 
remitted  to  the  same  judge  or  division  (see  Session,  Coukt  of) 
ob  contingenliam. 

Continued  Fraotiona,    See  Fractions. 

Contor'niate  (Ital.  contomo,  '  the  outline  of  a  design '),  an 
ancient  bronze  medallion,  having  a  curved  furrow  on  each  side, 
and  supposed  to  have  been  strudc  in  the  tune  of  Constantine  and 


■isted  aspect,  their  edges  presenting  crooked  and 
This  appearance  is  said  to  be  due  to  lateral  pressure,  or  to  sub- 
sidence and  pressure  of  curved  surfaces. 


Contraband  Goods  are  goods  imported  or  exported  with- 

p        g      fe         ities— -against  the  '  ban '  or  proclamation  of 

Vh       3i    buyer  of  C.  G.  knows  them  to  be  contraband, 

h  m      r  delivery,  nor  action  of  damages  for  breacli 

n  N      IS  an  action  competent  on  a  bill  of  exchange 

gi  C   G    n  the  hands  of  a  drawer,  or  of  his  trustee. 

^        S     U    G     N 

Contraband  ofWar  is  a  term  applied  to  certain  commodi- 
ties relative  to  war,  and  to  trading  in  them  with  the  belligerent 
slates.  A  neutral  state  may  carry  on  ordinary  trade  with  a 
country  at  war,  except  with  a  port  under  Blockade  (q.  v.),  but 
the  .trading-vessel  most  carry  no  C.  goods.  These  are,  gener- 
ally, all  implements  or  stores  pertainmg  to  war  by  land  or  sea. 
Whether  an  article  of  peaceful  commerce,  bat  which  is  also  of 
importance  in  war,  is  C,  is  a  question  whicli  has  given  rise  to 
much  discussion,  especially  relative  to  coal — a  superior  supply 
of  which  would  now  often  give  one  power  so  gieat  an  advan- 
tage over  another.  Lord  Chelmsford  said  in  the  House  of  Lords 
(rBth  May  1861)  that  any  Englishman  fitting  a  privateer  to 
assist  the  Southern  States  of  Ameiica  in  the  war  then  going  on 
would  be  guilty  of  piracy  j  but  it  is  not  held  that  this  would 
apply  to  the  crews  of  vessels  carrying  goods  C.  of  W. ;  but  were 
they  captured  by  the  belligerent  state  within  its  jurisdiction,  they 


gl  t  b    t      t  d  as  that  state  would  treat  its  own  subjects  in  the 

Cont  a  Bass,  or  Double  Basa,  the  lowest  stringed  Instm- 

Tl     C  -B.  used  in  this  country  has  three  strings  tuned  in 

f      tl      tl     1   vest  of  them  being  tuned  to  the  A  on  the  third 

1  dg     1        b  low  the  bass  staff.     The  German  C.-B,   has   a 

1      tl     t     g  tuned  to  the  E  below  this  A,  which  gives  it  some 

t    al    bl     dditional  notes. 

Cont  act  A  C.  is  defined  by  Erskine  to  be  '  the  voluntary 
g  m  t  f  two  or  more  persons,  by  which  something  is  to  be 
gl  p    f  rmed  on  one  part,  for  a  valuable  consideration, 

th  p  t  r  future,  on  the  other  part.'  To  this  we  would 
dd  1  ttler  an  be  no  such  thingas  an 'wfvolunlary  agreement.' 
(S  A  EE  ENT,  Consent,  Considekation.)  A  C.  by 
1  h  th  p  t  es,  or  any  of  them,  bind  themselves  to  do  what  is 
mp  bl  illegal,  or  immoral,  is  null  in  law  ;  but  all  facts  in 
tl   m    1  esl  g  Uy possihlemaybemade thesubject ofobligation, 

d  th  gh  p  formance  be  beyond  the  power  of  the  contracting 
p  ty  tl  f  t  will  not  free  him  from  liability  in  damage  fornon- 
pe  f  n  In  England,  contracts  put  into  writing  under  hand 

d  1  technically  called  deeds  or  specialities;  and  those. 
1    h  ar   m      ly  parole,  or  in  writing  not  under  seal,  are  called 

pi         tra  ts.     In  support  of  an  action  on  simple  C.  the 

ed  t  t  prove  that  it  was  founded  on  a  su^dsni  consider- 

at         S     Deed,  Covenant,  Considekation. 

Contract  of  Marriage. — Under  the  usual  form  of  C.  of  M., 
property  settled  upon  a  wife  is  protected  against  tlie  creditors 
of  the  husband.  She  has  also  power  to  dispose  of  the  principal 
by  win.  A  man  about  to  be  married  may  secure  a  provision 
for  his  wife  'in  consideration'  of  the  marriage ;  but  he  cannot 
defeat  the  rights  of  creditors  by  post-nuptial  C.  See  Married 
Women,  Peoperty  of. 

Oontraotil'ity  is  a  vital  property  manifested  by  certain  living 
substances  both  in  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms.  By 
virtue  of  this  property,  these  substances  change  their  form,  push 
out  and  retract  processes,  and  they  may  also  move  from  place  to 
place.  It  is  manifested  by  all  living  protoplasm,  whether  ob- 
tained from  vegetable  or  animal  living  forms.  It  is  seen  in  many 
of  the  humbler  forms  of  life  among  the  protozoa,  in  the  colour- 
less blood  coipuscle,  in  the  spermatozoon,  in  the  cilium,  in  mus- 
cular fibre,  and  in  minute  capillary  vessels.  At  one  time  it  was 
supposed  that  the  C.  of  muscular  fibre  depended  on  the  nervous 
system.  The  old  view  of  Haller,  however,  is  that  generally 
adopted  by  physiologists — namely,  that  C.  is  a  property  inherent 
in  the  ultimate  elements  of  muscular  tissue.  See  Blood,  Capil- 
laries, Cilia,  Muscular  Fibre,  and  Spermatozoa. 

Contrao'tiona.  The  great  labour  of  wrilmg  out  complete 
copies  of  ancient  works  byhand  caused  the  adoption  of  numerous 
C  in  the  manuscripts.  These  are  naturally  made  in  the  most 
frequently-recurring  words  and  combinations  of  letters,  and 
though  for  the  most  part  quite  evident,  they  have  caused  con- 
siderable difficulty  in  the  correct  interpretation  of  many  passages. 
These  C.  were  introduced  into  the  earliest  printed  books,  and 
continued  in  use  for  several  centuries  after  the  invention  of  print- 
ing, and  they  appear  in  those  reprints  of  the  books  of  the  middle 
ages  that  have  been  of  late  so  extensively  issued.  C.  have  been 
arranged  in  various  classes,  of  each  of  which  we  give  a  few 
examples.  A  straight  line  marked  above  a  letter  indicates  the 
omission  of  »i  or  B  following  it ;  thus  qua  =  guatn,  and  no  =  non. 
A  crooked  or  circumflex  line  above  or  ihrough  a  letter  indicates 
the  omission  of  one  or  more  letters  at  that  part  of  the  word  ;  thus 
dBs  or  ds  =  dominus,  gri  =  gratia,  B  =  David;  and  somedmes  a 
straight  line  is  used  in  the  same  way,  as  in  the  Latin  terminations 
unt,  int,enini,  &c.,  where  x^t  =  regiml,  3xi<L  (vert  = /iierunl. 
The  sign  "  above  a  letter  shows  that  er  or  re  has  been  omitted  ; 
thus  fficator  =  ntercalor,  and  {s  =  Ires.  The  absence  of  the  final 
letters  of  a  word  is  indicated  by  the  marks  ■.a,  or  ',  or  .  :  thus 
M'  =  Maniiis,  and  mag.  =  magister.  A  vowel  written  small  above 
a  contracted  word  indicates  the  omission  of  a  consonant,  and  a 
consonant  so  written  the  omission  of  a  vowel ;  thus  g°tia  =grcitia, 
and  fig'a  =figura.  One  or  more  letters  are  frequently  run  into 
another,  as  in  the  case  of  the  diphthongs.  Numerous  symbols 
of  an  almost  arbitrary  character  are  employed  to  represent  various 
syllables  or  words  ;  thus  quiq,  =  quihns,  and  oj  =  esl.  A  table 
of  the  C.  in  old  Greek  typography  is  contained  in  the  Greek 
Grammar  of  Professor  Geddes. 

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Contraven'tion,  in  Scotch  law,  denotes  any  act  in  violation 
of  a  legal  condition  or  obligation.  Tlie  term  is  specially  applied 
to  an  act  by  an  heir  of  entail  in  opposition  to  the  provisions  of 
the  deed,  and  to  acts  in  violation  of  Lawburrows  (q.  v. ). 

Contrftyei'va,  a  medicine  derived  from  the  root-stock  of 
Dorstenia  cotdrayerva,  D.  Homtoni,  D.  brazilimiis,  and  other 
species  of  plants  helonging  to  the  Mulberry  order  {Aforacea). 
..  They  are  natives  of  S.  America,  Mexico,  and  the  W.  Indies, 
are  dwarf,  perennial,  and  herbaceous,  and  are  generally  found 
growing  in  high  roclty  places.  Dorstenias  are  distinguished  by 
a  peculiar  mflorescence,  having  a  broad  concave  receptacle  con- 
taining both  male  and  female  flowers.  The  root-stock,  which 
is  the  part  used,  is  of  a  reddish-brown  colour  with  numerous 
long  yellow  fibres.  It  has  an  aromatic  odour,  a  warm,  pungent 
laste,  and  is  used  chiefly  in  America  as  a  tonic,  stimulant,  and 

OonteibTi'tion,  in  its  legal  sense,  is  generally  applied  to  con- 
tributions made  for  equalising  loss  incurred  by  sacrifice  made 
for  the  common  safety  in  a  sea-voyage.     See  Average. 

Oon'tumacy,  a  term  of  Scotch  law  denotiiio;  disobedience  to 
any  lawful  summons  or  judicial  order.  In  a  civil  case  the  only 
consequence  is  that  decree  will.  l>e  given  against  the  defender. 
In  a  criminal  process,  C.  is  punished  by  sentence  of  Fugitation 
(q.  v.).  The  equivalent  term  in  English  law  is  Default  (q.  v.). 
See  Decree  in  Absence. 


ning  with  Silurian  format  ions),,  may  attain  a  length  of  a  foot, 
and  a  breadth  of  over  an  inch.  The  genus  also  extends  into  the 
Mesoioic  rocks,  and  seems  to -die  out  in  the  Lias.  The  shell 
is  straight,  tapering  at  the  end,  of  four-sided  form,  with  its  sur- 
faces striated.  Occasionally  its  cavity  may  be  divided  inter- 
nally.    C.  smaia  from  the  Devonian  roclts  is  a  familiar  species. 

OonvaJJar'ia.    See  Lily  of  the  Valley., 

Con'veat.     See  Monastery. 

Conven'tiole  (Lat.  cotvusntkulum,  dim.  of  coimentus)  origi- 
nally meant  a  secret  assembly  of  the  monks  of  a  convent,  gene- 
rally to  secure  the  election  of  an  abbot.  In  its  modem  sense,  it 
was  originally  applied  to  the  meetings  of  the  followers  of  Wiclif, 
but  came  latterly  to  mean  any  assembly  for  worship  of  those 
who  departed  from  the  Established  Church,  and  in  this  sense  is 
associated  both  in  England  and^Scotland  with  the  coarse, tyranny 
of  the  Stuarts. 

Oonven'tiou  of  Eatatea.  In  Scotland,  before  the  Union, 
a  C.  of  E.  of  tlie  kingdom  used  to  be  summoned  to  impose  taxes 
in  any  emei^ncy.  These  conventions  were  formed  by  any 
members  of  the  three  Estates  of  the  Kingdom  (q.  v, )  who  could 
be  quickly  assembled,  and  without  the  formal  citation  required 
in  summoning  a  regular  Parliament.  The  power  of  the  Conven- 
tion was  limited  to  the  disposal  of  the  special  business  for  which 
it  was  convened.  Regularly  the  Estates  could  be  convened  only 
by  royal  authority  ;  but  when  necessary,  they  met  without  it,  as 
in  ttie  Convention  for  settling. the  government  at  the  Revolution 
of  1688.     See  Convention  Paki.iament. 

OonTention  of  Boyal  BurgliR     See  Burgh. 

Convention  Parliament..  An  Enghsh  Parliament  con- 
vened without  the  royal  authority  is  so  called.  Its  acts  are, 
according  to  the  theory  of  the  constitution,  invalid  without  ratifi- 
cation by  a^.Parliamenl  convened  by  writ  of  the  sovereign.  The 
Pariiament  which  restored  Charles  II.  was  a  C.  P.,  so  also  was 
that  which  disposed  of  the  crown  at  the  Revolution  of  1688., 
The  acts  of  these  Parliaments  were  subsequently  ratified  by  a. 
Pariiament  legally  convened.     See  Convention  of  Estates, 

GonTon'tional  Obliga'tion  is,  in  Scotch  law,.an  obligation 
resulting  from  agreement.  The  term  is  generally  used  in  con- 
tradistinction to  natural  or  legal  obl^ation,  which  arises  from, 
the  operation  of  law  independently  of  contract. 

Conver'gent  and  Diver'gent  Series  are  infinite  series, 
which  in  the  former  case,  however  far  taken,  never  reach  a  cer- 


tain finite  value,  though  they  may  be  made  to  differ  from  it  by  a 
quantity  less  than  any  given  quantity,  and  which  in  the  latter 
case  may  be  made  of  greater  value  tlian  any  given  quantity  by 
tailing  a  sufScient  number  of  terms.  i-i-i  +  i  +  S+  .  ..  - 
is  a  case  of  a  converging  series,  the  limiting  value  of  which  is  2  ; 
1  -H  3  -H  4  -H  8  -)-  .  ,  .  .  is  an  example  of  a  diverging  series, 
whicli  has  no  limiting  value,  however  great. 

Converaa'na,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Bari,  S.  Italy,  19 
miles  S.E.  of  the  town  of  Bari,  has  a  trade  in  the  wine,  oil,  flai, 
and  cotton  which  the  district  produces.    Pop.  10,000. 

Conversion  (Lat.  comiei-do)  is,  in  logic,  the  transposition  of 
the  subject  and  predicate  of  a  proposition.  Universal  negatives 
and  particular  affirmatives  are  converted  ty  saiifle  C.—e.g., 
'NoA  is  B,'£he  fwu-a-jf  of  wWch  is  '  No  B  is  A, '  and  'Some 
A  is  B  ' — converse,  '  Some  B  is  A.'  Universal  affirmatives  are 
converted  byC/»-itn^^£«f,  by  changing  their  quantity — (.^.,  the 
conT/ei-se  of  '  All  A's  are  B's '  is  '  Some  B's  are  A's, '  not  '  AU  B's 
are  A's,'  which  would  not  he  necessarily  true.  Particular  nega- 
tives are  converted  by  transferring  the  negative  (com  the  Copula 
(q.  V.)  to  the  predicate — e.g.,  the  converse  of  'Some  A's  are  not 
B's '  is  '  Some  not  B's  are  A's. '  C. ,  by  contraposition,  may  be 
applied  to  universal  afftmiaiives — e.g. ,  '  All  A's  are  B's, '  converse 


-'Alln 


is.    See  Concave. 


Conveyance  (q.  v,).  In  England  the  C.  is  generally  a  barrister, 
commonly  belonging  to  the  Equity  bar.  In  Scotland  it  is  gene- 
rally the  law-agent  who  prepares  deeds  of  conveyance ;  but  there 
the  term  C.  is  often  used  to  denote  one  who=e  special  business  it 
is  to  prepare  deeds,  while  agaii  denotes  one  who  specially  devotes 
himself  to  the  conduct  o(  lawsuits.  (See  Attorneys  and  Soli- 
citors.) Any  one  may  act  as  a  C.  who  chooses,  but  so  fo  do 
involves  responsibility. 

Cons/eyancing  is  the  preparation  of  deeds  for  the  transfer- 
ence of  property.  Great  legal  skill  is  required  for  this,  there 
being  certain  parts  in  deeds,  any  error  in  which  is  fatal  to  their 

valimty.  (See  Sobstantialia,  Error  in  Essentials.)  No 
clearness  of  ordinary  language  wiO  avful  in  C. ;  the  terms  used, 
to  be  effectual,  must  be  legal.  (See  Common  Forms.)  Usually 
the  term  C.  is  in  England  and  in  Scotland  limited  to  the  trans- 
ference of  real  (Scotch  hm-ilable)  property.  For  England,  see 
Copyhold,  Fee,  Estate  in  Freehold,  Leasehold.  For 
Scotland,  see  Charter,  Disposition,  Registration, 
Sasine, 

Con'vict.  Any  one  found  guilty  on  a  criminal  charge  may  be 
so  called ;  but  with  us  the  term  has  come  to  be  restricted  in  '■ 
application  to  those  whose  crime  is  punishable  with  penal  ssi 
ftifl'?;  a  sentence  which  was  some  years  ago  substituted  for  that  of 
Transportation  (q.  v.).  There  are  C.  establishments  in  various 
parts  of  Engknd.     In  these,  the  C.  is  generally  employed  on 

?ubUc  works,  such  as  the  breakwater,  quarries,  and  foctress  at 
ortland,  and  the  works  at  Chatham  and  at  Portsmouth.  The 
treatment  of  the  C.  has  ever  been  a  subject  of  ledslaiive  difUculty ; 
(he  difficulty  being  how  to  make  the  punidmient  sufficiently 
severe  for  the  protection  of  the  community  without  injuring  the 
mind  or.  body  of  the  C.  Without  disputing  that  these  are  the 
ends  to  be  sought  for  in  so  far  as  they  are  consistent  with  each 
other,  it  may  seem  a  little  inconsistent  that  the  law  should  be  so 
careful  of  the  mind  and  body  of  the  C,  sentenced  to  '  penal  servi- 
tude for  life,'  when  we  consider  that  that  sentence  is  the  most 
severe  but  one  which  the  law  can  give,  that  one  being  Death.  It 
has  been  found  that  the  negative  object  of  doing  no  injury  to 
mind  or  body  was  inconsistent  with  the  prison  discipline  of  pro- 
longed solitary  confinement.  Males  as  a  general  rule  broke 
down  under  it  at  the  end  of  about  nine  months  j  females  did  not 
succumb  usually  till  the  lapse  of  ft  few  months  more.  After 
about  nine  months  of  seclusion  the  convicts  are  now  associated, 
under  careful  inspection,  in  some  profitable  mechanical  work. 
According  to  the  Thirty-third  Refeni  on  Prisons  in  Scotland  for 
1871,  'the  disposing  of  the  prisoners  for  religions  instruction, 
according  to  the  denomination  to  which  they  profess  to  belong, 
still  creates  difficulties.  One  form  of  trouble  was  the  profession 
of  belonging  to  no  religion ;  another  arises  out  of  requests  to  be 


yLaOogle 


OON 


THE  CLOSE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


transferred  from  one  religious  register  to  another,  the  probable 
motive  of  such  a  request  being  usually  the  accomplishment  of 
some  scheme.' 

Convocft'tion  was  at  one  time  applied  to  any  assembly  of 
clergy,  as  a  diocesan  synod  or  a  provincial  council.  It  is  uow 
confined  to  the  assembly  of  bishops  and  clei^y  of  the  Anglican 
Church  summoned  by  the  mandate  of  the  archbishop.  From 
(he  Magna  Charta  to  the  37,  Hen,  VIII.,  this  body  assessed 
itself -and  the  clergy  whom  it  represented  for  pubhc  aids  without 
parliamentary  sanction.  By  the  celebrated /y<snsa»K«feJ  clause, 
Edward  I.  and  his  successors  had  endeavoured  to  convene  the 
proctors  of  tlie  clergy  in  Parliament.  This  (idled,  but  by  the  Act 
of  Submission  (25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  19)  the  C.  was  forbidden  to 
meet,  confer,  promulgate,  ot  cany  into  execution  (as  regards 
canons)  without  the  royal  licence,  or  to  do  anything  contrary  to 
the  prerogative,  the  common  law,  statute,  or  custom.  In  1665 
the  taxation  of  the  clergy  was  finally  transferred  by  Clarendon  to 
the  Commons  ;  hence  the  tight  claimed  by  the  clei|;y  to  vote  in 
parliamentary  elections,  although  it  has  been  settled  since  1553 
Ihat  no  member  of  C.  can  sit  in  Parliament.  After  preparing  the 
Act  of  Uniformity  the  C.  gradually  fell  into  disgrace  and  im- 
potence ;  and  its  criticisms  on  Toland,  Burnet,  Clarke,  Whislon, 
and  cliiefly  Hoadley  (in  the  Bangorian  controversy),  Jed  to  its 
being  practically  suspended  from  1717101840.  Burke  said  its 
function  was  to  pay  '  polite  ecclesiastical  compliments'  to  the 
king  and  then  to  dissolve.  Lately  it  has  shown  signs  of  life  on 
the  subscription  and  baptismal  sponsor  questions,  the  new  lec- 
tionary  and  the  ritual  question,  which  it  has  been  considering 
under  general  and  special  letteis  of  busmess  issued  by  the  crown 
in  1872.  The  C.  of  the  provmce  of  Canterbury  meets  in  St 
Paul's.  Itconsists,  approximately,  of  twenty-two  deans,  twenty- 
four  proctors  of  chapters,  fifty-three  archdeacons,  and  forty-four 
proctors  for  the  parochial  clergy.  Only  two  proctors  are  allowed 
for  the  parochial  clergy  of  each  diocese  ;  and  only  parsons,  vicars, 
and  perpetual  curates  can  vote,  stipendiary  curates,  deacons,  and 
the  laity  being  incapable  of  election.  Colonial  bishops  do  not 
appear  in  C,  Tlie  Lower  House  proceeds  to  the  election  of  a 
prolocutor,  organam  deri  or  Referendarius,  which  takes  place  in 
the  Jerusalem  Chamber.  Business  is  brought  forward  under  the 
name  o(  Gravanima  01  Re/ornianda.  Important  constitutional 
demands  may  be  in  the  form  of  a  petition  to  king  or  Parliament, 
and  are  called  Artiaili  cltri.  The  deliberations  of  the  Lower 
House  are  chiefly  conducted  through  committees,  but  the  Synodi- 
cal  Act  requires  the  presence  of  the  lower  cler^  in  the  Uppe- 
House.  The  Lower  House  has  no  right  of  initiative,  but  it  ha- 
ft fiii^  veto.  Proxies  may  be  used  by  members  who  are  not 
proctors.  C.  generally  sits  during  the  same  time  as  Parliament ; 
It  is  prorogued  by  a  schedule  of  contmualion  signed  by  the  aroh- 
bishop,  who  presides  in  the  Upper  House,  and  intimated  by  the 
prolocutor  to  the  Lower  House.  The  dignity  of  C  is  secured 
by  various  penalties  of  excommunication  contained  in  the  canons 
of  1603.  A  canon  of  C. ,  even  when  approved  of  by  the  sovereign, 
does  not  bind  the  laity,  who  can  tie  bound  only  by  an  Act  of  Par- 
liament; it,however,bindsthecIergyi«re«'c/a!'i!j/K;a.  Formerly 
an  app^  lay  So  the  Upper  House  from  the  ecclesiastical  courts 
in  matrimonial,  testamentary,  and  tithe  causes.  In  1864  C.  de- 
clared Essays  and  Reviews  heretical ;  it  has  no  power  to  proceed 
against  heretics. 

Oonvolvnla'cesB,  the  Bindweed  order,  a  natural  order  of 
Dicotyledonous  plants  belonging  to  the  division  CorelKflonc. 
Altogether  about  700  species,  and  forty-six  genera  are  known. 
Jalap  is  produced  from  the  vool  ot  Exo^mu/n  {Ipcm:sa)  Purga, 
Batatas  edidis  is  the  sweet  potato,  and  the  various  species  of  Cotivol- 
i^us  (q.  V.}  yield  important  medicinaj  substances.  The  species  of 
this  order  are  abundant  in  tropical  countries,  but  rarer  in  cold 
ones.  Most  of  them  twine  around  other  plants,  and  are  fre- 
quently seen  among  weeds  not  far  ftom  the  sea-shore. 

Convol'Tulus,  a  large  genus  of  twining  or  trailing  annual  and 
perennial  plants,  widely  distributed,  typical  of  the  order  Cofi- 
vobiulacin.  Most  of  them  have  showy  flowers,  expanding  during 
the  early  part  of  the  day,  and  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  peculiar 
resin  are  purgative.  C.  Scamatonta  furnishes  Scammony  (q.  v.). 
C.  dissecltis  abounds  in  hydrocyanic  add,  and  it  is  believed 
that  it  forms  one  of  the  species  from  which  the  '  liqueur  noyau ' 
is  prepared.  There  are  many  others  which  possess  in  a  more  or 
less  degree  the  same  qualities,  and  which  are  cultivated  in  our 
gardens  for  the  beauty  of  their  ilowers. '  C,  Scfpariiis,  a  shrubby 


species  of  the  Canary  Islands,  is  one  of  those  which  yield  rose- 

Oon'voy  (Fr.  conveys;  'to  conduct '),  a  naval  and  military  term, 
eaning,  in  tlie  former  sense,  a  vessel  or  fleet  appointed  to  escort 
merchant  ships  in  the  time  of  war,  or,  during  peace,  to  protect 
them  on  seas  infested  by  pirates.     In  Ae  military  sense,  a  C.  is 
detachment  of  troops  appointed  to  guard  provisions,  ammunl- 
on,  or  money  in  the  course  of  transit.    The  term  is  also  applied 
>  the  train  of  vra^ons  laden  with  these  stores. 
OonTul'aionaries,  an  extreme  sect  of  the  Jansenists,  origin- 
atiug  in  France  about  1730,     They  met  in  the  outskirts  of  Paris, 
at  the  tomb  of  one  Francis,  whose  violent  asceticism  they  imi- 
tated.    The  C.  pushed  fanaticism  to  frenzy    and  finally  ru  ned 
Jansenism  by  the  absurdity  of  their  excesses.      In  1733  their 
suppression  was  decreed  by  law;  but  it  was  many  years  before 
this  could  be  effected. 

ConTal'sions,  a  form  of  disease  commo  1  an  ong  ch  Idren 
It  consists  in  violent,  sudden  contortions  of  Ccitiin  muscles 
occurs  in  spasms,  is  quite  independent  of  the  vliI!  and  is  accom 
panied  by  insensibility  on  the  part  of  the  suffere:      " '— ■■ 


a  few 


condi- 


ofthebrai  ... 

tion  of  the  blood,  by  disease  of  the  kidneys,  when  the  effele 
products  of  the  system  are  not  eliminated  from  the  blood 
(uremic  C),  or  it  may  be  due  to  irritability  of  the  nervous 
tem,  produced  by  teething,  worms  in  the  intestines,  &c. 
treatment  varies  with  the  cause.  When  the  bowels  are  cc 
pated,  an  active  piu-galive,  as  scammony  or  jalap,  together  with 
a  cold  lotion  applied  to  the  head,  may  prove  very  beneficial.  Il 
the  disease  is  caused  by  worms,  these  must  be  removed  by  pro. 
per  remedies  i  a  warm  bath  often  does  good.  In  severe  case) 
inhalation  of  chloroform,  administered  by  a  physician,  is  ar 
excellent  application. 

Oon'way,  or  ATjerconway,  a  picturesque  town  in  the  N.E. 
of  Caernarvonshire,  N.  Wales,  at  tlie  mouth  of  the  Conway,  u 
miles  E.N.E.  of  Bangor,  and  a  station  on  the  Chester  and  Holy- 
head section  of  the  London  and  North- Western  Railway.  The 
principal  objects  of  interest  are  the  old  wall  with  its  battlements, 
the  splendid  old  castle,  reared  in  1283  by  Edward  I.  as  a  de- 
fence against  the  Welsh;  the  chain-bridge,  constructed  by  Tel- 
ford, and  the  tubular  bridge,  in  1848,  by  Stevenson  for  the  pro- 
prietots  of  the  Chester  and  Holyhead  Railway.  C.  has  some 
coasting  trade,  chieily  m  slates,  and  a  little  shipbuilding  ;  but  it 
owes  its  recent  prosperity  mainly  to  the  beauty  of  its  scenery, 
which  makes  it  a  favourite  summer  resort.  It  unites  with  Caer- 
narvon, Bangor,  Criccielh,  Nevin,  and  Pwelheli  in  returning 
one  member  to  Parliament.     Pop.  (1871)  2620. 

The  river  Conway  (Cymr.  Cyn-ivy,  '  chief  water,'  the  Toiso- 
hius  of  Ptolemy)  rises  in  a  small  lake,  Uyn  C,  on  the  borders 
of  Merioneth,  amidst  rocky  moors,  flows  in  a  northerly  direction, 
receiving  lesser  tributaries  from  the  E.  and  from  the  Snowdon 
range  on  the  W.  Its  sceneiy  is  perhaps  the  most  romantic  : 
Wales.  After  a  course  of  30  miles,  it  falls  into  Beaumaris  Ba 
hi  the  Irish  Sea.  The  C,  is  navigable  for  ships  of  100  tons  1 
miles  above  its  mouth. 

Co'iiy,  the  scriptural  name  of  a  mammal,  the  Myrax  Syriaa 
ai  Syria  and  Palestine,  usually  included  in  a  distinct  order  of 
mammalia — Hyracoidea — but  sometimes  classified  with  the 
rhinoceros,  on  account  of  sunilarity  in  the.  molar  teeth.  No 
canine  teeth  exist ;  the  lower  incisors  are  sliarp,  curved,  and 
grow  from  permanent  pulps.  The  front  feet  are  four-toed,  the 
hinder  three-toed,  and  the  toes  have  hoof-like  r 
clavicles  exist  The  nose  and  ears  are  short,  the  ti 
mentary,  and  the  placenta  is  deoiduate  and  lonary.  These 
animals  live  m  holes  in  rocks,  and  average  rabbits  ir.  . 
Hyrax  Capensis  of  S.  Africa  is  another  species.  SeealsoHvRAX 
and  Daman. 

Cony'za,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Comfosit, 
the  most  familiar  of  which  is  C.  sguarrosa  (or,  as  it  has  been 
called,  Inula  C),  is  well  known  in  England  as  Fleabane  and 
Ploughman's  spil:enard.  The  first  name  refers  to  the  property, 
which  it  is  widely  believed  to  possess,  of  driving  away  fleas  and 
other  insect  pests.    The  second  popular  name  is  probably  derived 


from 


ic  odou 


Itisa 


1  England  and  most  parts  of  Euiope. 


n  hedge  plant 


vLaOogle 


coo 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


■Co-obligaiits,  thougli  each  bound  to  a  creditor  for  the  whole 
of  a  debt,  are  liable  propoitionably  amongst  Iheraselves ;  and 
any  one  paying  more  than  his  share  is  entitled  to  relief  from  the 
rest.  See  Conjunctly  and  SEVERALLY,  CORREI  DflBENDl, 
Joint  and  Seveeal. 

Cook,  Captain  James,  the  son  of  an  agricuHural  labourer, 
was  born  at  Marton,  Yorkshire,  October  27,  1728,  and  appren- 
ticed to  a  habeidasher  at  the  fishing-town  of  Straiths.  His  em- 
ployment was  uncoi^enial,  but  the  sea  was  before  him.  After 
being  emplo;?ed  some  time  in  coasting  vessels,  he  entered  the  royal 
navy,  in  which  his  progress  was  rapid.  He  was  employed  to 
survey  the  coasts  of  Labrador  and  Newfoundland,  and  was  after- 
wards commissioned  by  the  Royal  Society  to  command  an  expe- 
dition to  the  Pacific.  C.'s  ship  was  the  Endeavour,  and  setting 
sail  in  her  on  the  26th  August  1 768,  he  successively  visited  Tahiti 
or  Otaheite,  New  Zealand,  discovered  and  took  possession  of 
New  S.  Wales,  sailed  W.  between  New  Guinea  and  Australia, 
and  past  Java,  &c. ,  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  arriving  in  Bri- 
tish waters  izth  June  1771.  Tliis  voyage  round  the  world  was 
productive  of  great  scieniilic  results.  In  July  1772  he  commanded 
the  Raolulion  and  ASumlure  on  an  expedition  to  the  Pacific  and 
Southern  Oceans,  fiora  which  he  returned  30th  July  1774,  Of 
this  long,  succes^ul,  and  most  interesting  voyage,  C.  has  himself 
given  an  account  in  his  Vaya^e  towards  the  S.  Pole  ami  Round 
the  World  in  H.M.  Ships  '  Resolution '  and  '  Adventure '  (7  vols. 
Dub,  1784).  On  I2th  Jul]?  1776,  C.,  in  the  Resolution,  accom- 
panied by  Captain  Clfirfee  in  the  Discovay,  sailed  on  a  voyage 
m  search  of  the  N.  W.  Passage.  He  proposed  to  discover  this 
passage  by  making  for  Behring's  Strait,  and  sailing  from  the 
Pacific  to  the  Atlantic  Beaten  back  by  ice,  only,  however,  after 
making  many  valuable  discoveries,  C.  was  stabbed  in  the  back 
by  the  savages  on  the  shores  of  Hawaii,  14th  February  1779. 
See  Kippis's  iy9  fl/ C.  (Lond.  1788). 

Oook'ery,  the  art  of  preparing  for  use  the  vanous  articles 
used  as  food  by  the  human  family.  The  first  object  aimed 
ooking  operations  is  to  render  food  more  easy  of  assimilation 
>  the  human  system,  next   it   is  sought  to  make  food  more 

Slatable,  and  C.  also  is  concerned  with  the  presentation  of 
>d  in  an  agreeable  form.  There  is  an  almost  endless  diver- 
sity in  the  sources  from  which  the  food  of  mankind  is  drawn, 
and  at  first  appearance  it  might  be  supposed  that  alimentary 
substances  are  so  varied  as  to  defy  any  classification  or  defini- 
tion. The  art  of  the  cook  to  appearance  further  complicates 
food  by  combining  various  substances,  and  so  treating  them  as 
to  present  made  dishes  under  an  endless  variety  of  guises.  Not- 
withstanding all  this,  the  number  of  alimentary  principles  is  veiy 
limited,  and  some  knowledge  of  them  tends  veiy  much  to  sim- 
plify the  essentials  of  C,  and  to  reduce  to  order  the  chaos  pre- 
sented by  an  ordinary  C.-book. 

Under  the  head  of  Food  will  be  found  a  classification  of  the 
alimentary  principles  which  must  entei'  into  every  perfect  human 
diet.  Of  these,  the  cook  is  concerned  with,  first,  the  nitrogenous 
or  albuminoid  substances,  such  as  the  fibrin  of  flesh,  the  albumen 
of  eggs,  the  casein  of  cheese,  and  the  gluten  of  flour  and  mea^ 
and,  secondhf,  with  the  non-nit  ri^enous  or  carbonaceous  elements, 
as  the  fat  of  oils  and  butter,  the  starch  of  flour  and  other  vege. 
table  substances,  and  sugar  derived  from  various  sources.  The 
proportions  in  which  these  substances  should  enter  into  a  proper 
diet  we  learn  from  experience  and  physiological  investigation, 
and  it  is  the  function'^of  the  cook  to  prepare  them  in  view  of 
such  knowledge  in  the  manner  least  wasteful  and  most  nutri- 
tious. Food  is  chiefly  prepared  by  submitting  it  to  high  heat, 
as  by  boiling,  roasting,  baking,  broiling,  stewing,  &c.  (See 
these  headings,  and  also  Breah.)  The  object  altdned  in  all 
s  is  much  the  same,  but  differences  of  flavour  restilt  from 
various  methods  of  preparation,  whicli  have  considerable 
influence  on  the  sapidity  and  relish  of  food.  By  the  action  of 
heal  albuminous  substances  are  coagulated,  as  in  boiling  an  egg, 
but  if  this  action,  is  carried  too  far,  the  albumen  becomes  hard, 
dry,  and  indigestible.  The  natural  juices  within  a  piece  of  meat 
are  retained  in  it  by  the  rapid  coagulation  by  high  heat  of  the 
albuminates  on  the  surfece  sealing  it  up.  The  action  of  heat  on 
starchy  substances,  such  as  flour,  causes  the  expansion  and  rup- 
ture of  the  starch  granules,  and  partly  changes  them  into  a  solu- 
ble condition,  thereby  rendering  them  fit  for  assimilation  and 
digestion.  Generally  tissues,  both  animal  and  vegetaWe,  are  ren- 
dered softer  or  more  easily  masticated  by  the  action  of  heat  in 


cooking,  and  being  presented  to  the  digestive  organs  in  a  stale 
of  minute  subdivision,  are  readily  dissolved  and  digested.  In 
the  preparation  of  food,  it  is  necessary  to  attend  to  the  compati- 
bility of  certain  substances  as  to  flavour  and  character.  Ob- 
viously herrings  and  preserved  fruits  are  mutually  destructive  in 
point  of  flavour,  and  onions  with  custard  are  equally  incom- 
patible ;  but  there  are  finer  shades  of  difference  than  these,  and 
It  is  a  point  of  great  but  frequently  overlooked  importance  to 
treat  food  so  as  to  preserve  and  develop  its  flavour  and  sapidity. 
Without  the  most  scrupulous  cleanliness  this  is  impossible,  and 
cleanliness  is  the  first  essential  of  good  C. 

There  is  no  art  on  which  human  health,  happiness,  and  com- 
fort are  more  dependent  than  on  C,  and  in  no  direction  can 
greater  economy  and  saving  be  exercised  than  in  dealing  with 
food.  A  knowledge  of  the  essential  nature  of  the  various  articles 
of  food,  and  of  the  proper  method  of  treatment  to  turn  them  to 
the  best  account  for  the  use  of  human  beings,  are  of  priceless 
consequence  to  any  housewife;  but  such  knowledge  does  not 
come,  as  too  many  imagine,  by  a  species  of  intuition.  In  respect 
of  this  most  essential  branch  of  domestic  economy,  British  house- 
wives have  hitherto  been  very  backward,  and  the  general  ame- 
lioration of  circumstances  which  has  extended  to  all  classes  has 
too  much  resulted  in  increased  wastefulness  and  misdirected  ex- 
penditure. Public  attention  has  now  been  prominently  drawn 
to  the  importance  of  elementary  knowledge  of  the  principles  of 
food  and  C.,  and  attempts  are  being  made  in  various  directions 
to  supply  the  want.  A  National  School  of  C,  has  been  estab- 
lished  in  London  to  teach  the  cooking  of  meals  suitable  for  all 
classes  of  society,  and  throughout  the  chief  towns  afliliated 
schools  have  been  instituted  The  subject  of  C.  is  also  receiving 
encouragement  in  elementary  schools,  under  the  code  of  regu- 
lations in  operation  in  connection  with  the  Education  Depart- 
ment. With  advancing  civihsation,  and  increasingly  artificial 
habits  of  hfe,  a  knowledge  of  the  best  methods  of  treating  food 
becomes  daily  more  indispensable  to  all  classes. 

In  his  primitive  state  the  range  of  man's  food  was  limited, 
and  his  cooking  operations  necessarily  simple.  Probably  the 
eariiest  inhabitants  of  the  world  lived  on  roots,  fruits,  and  the 
products  of  the  chase,  without  submitting  their  food  to  any 
cooking  process,  but  at  a  very  early  date  we  find  our  ancestors 
cultivated  cereals  and  prepared  them  for  food  by  roughly  bruis- 
ing the  grain  and  parching  it  on  hot  stones.  Actual  baking  of 
bread  was  also  practised  in  very  early  prehistoric  times,  as  is 
testified  by  remains  of  baked  bread  found  among  the  relics  of 
ancient  Swiss  lake-dwellings.  The  art  of  C.  was  canied  to 
considerable  perfection  among  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  gene- 
rally as  nations  progressed  in  civilisation,  especially  if  accom- 
panied by  wealth  and  luxury,  C.  was  studied  and  carefully 
regarded  in  proportion.  A  great  variety  of  dishes  and  elaborate 
banquets  of  the  Athenians  are  described  in  The  Deipnosophisls 
of  Athenseus,  and  costly  and  extravagant  luxuries  were  also  a 
feature  of  Roman  life  under  the  Empire.  Skill  and  resource  in 
C.  has  been  a  strong  point  in  the  domestic  life  of  the  French 
ever  since  the  middle  ages ;  and  it  is  not  in  high,  elaborate, 
and  expensive  dishes  that  their  ehefi  excel,  but  in  the  careful- 
ness, economy,  and  resource  of  their  cuisine  bourgeoise  they  are 

equally  deserving  of  praise  and  ;—:■-»"-       '"     '    'L-. 

med  frr "  "^   ' 

recipes  such  books 
any  but  the  comparatively  wealthy.  Eveiy  housekeeper  should 
leara  by  experience  as  much  as  possible,  and  at  least  it  is 
essential  that  she  should  be  able  to  cook  all  plain  everyday 
articles  of  food  exquisitely,  after  which  in  a  tentative  manner 
slie  may  essay  more  elaborate  dishes. 

Cookery,  Army.— Tht  preparation  of  the  food  of  soldiers, 
while  in  garrison  or  during  times  of  peace,  is  not  necessarily 
different  irom  cooking  on  the  large  scale  for  hospitals,  prisons, 
other  public  esfablialiments.     But  for  an  army  in  campaign, 
the  supply  and  proper  preparation  of  food,  seeing  the  soldier 
'  fights  on  his  beliy,   is  at  once  of  the  highest  importance,  and 
often  a  question  of  much  difficulty.     The  superintendence  of  the 
issue  of  rations,  and  the  charge  of  their  proper  cooking,  is  con- 
fined to  the  medical  department,  but  the  men  are  themselves,  as 
■<  possible,  instructed  in  tile  art  of  C,  for  whidi  purpose  a 
complete  school  of  C.  is  established  at  Aldershott.     Severtj 
kinds  of  apparatus  have  been  devised  for  baking  and  cooking 
food  in  the  field,  amongwhich  are  Captain  Warren's  compressed 
cooking  pot,    now  in  use  in   the  British  army,  and  in 


y  Google 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Germany  Beuerle's  Dampkochtopf,  both  based  in  principle  on 
Papin's  digester.  Steam-baking  ovens  have  also  been  used  in 
the  autumn  mantenvres  of  the  British  army  with  satisfactory  re- 
sults. The  introdnction  of  tinned  meats,  aiid  of  compressed 
foods  and  meat  estracts,  has  put  within  tlie  reacli  of  military 
authorities  a  convenient  means  of  supplying  healthy  anJ  suitable 
food  during  expeditious. 

Cook'ia,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Aurantiacea, 
named  in  honour  of  Captain  Cook.  The  fruit  of  C.  punctata, 
the  Tvampee  of  China  and  the  Indian  Archipelago,  is  greatly 

Cook,  Mount,  the  highest  mountain  in  New  Zealand,  is  situ- 
ated in  the  province  of  Canterbury,  and  forms  the  culminating 
point  of  the  Southern  Alps.    Its  height  above  the  sea-Ievel  is 


•3.- 


ofeet. 


stofN.  America,  terri- 
ts  entrance,  and  pene- 
i  named  after  Captain 


Cook's  Inlet,  a  gulf  on  the 
tory  of  Alaska,  about  60  miles 
trating  200  miles  into  the  intei 
Cooli,  who  explored  it  in  1778. 

Cook's  Islands,  Cook's  ArcMpelago,  Mangaia  Archi- 
pelago, and  later  Hftrvey  Islands,  agroup  of  islands  of  coral 
formation  in  the  S.  Pacific  Ocean,  visited  by  Cook  in  his  first 
voyage.  The  parallel  20°  S.  passes  nearly  through  the  centre 
of  the  group.  The  principal  members  of  the  group  are  Atiu, 
Harvey,  Mangaia,  and  Rarotonga  islands.  Water  is  scarce 
(except  in  Rarotonga),  and  tire  inhabitants  are  obliged  to  rely  in 
part  on  the  milk  of  the  cocoa-palm.  Vet  the  soil  is  tolerably 
productive.  The  bread-fruit- tree  and  Pisang  are  particularly 
abundant.  The  inhabitants  are  Polynesian  Malays,  like  those 
of  the  Society  and  Friendly  Isles,  and  are  skilled  in  various 
manufactures.  They  number  about  10,000,  most  of  whom  have 
been  converted  to  Chtislianity. 

Cooks'town,  a  town  in  the  county  of  Tyrone,  Ireland,  on 
the  left  bank  of  flie  Ballinderry,  14  miles  N,  of  Dungannon.  It 
consists  of  a  single  long  broad  street,  crossed  by  a  shorter  one  at 
right  angles,  and  has  a  small  trade  in  linen.    Pop,  (1871)  3624. 

Oook  Strait  divides  the  N.  and  Middle  Islands  of  New 
Zealand,  and  is  21  miles  wide  at  its  narrowest  part.  It  is 
named  after  Captain  Cook,  who  discovered  it  in  1770. 

Coolies,  or  Conlies,  from  being  originally  the  name  of  one 
of  the  hiil-tvibes  of  India,  passed  into  use  in  that  country  as 
a  generic  term  for  porters,  many  of  the  tribe  being  employed  in 
that  capacity  in  the  principal  towns,  in  much  the  same  way  as 
the  Gallegos  in  Spain.  Subsequently  the  word  has  come  to  be 
generally  employed  to  designate  labonrets  sent  from  India  and 
China  to  various  tropical  countries,  the  chief  of  which  ace  Mau- 
ritius, the  W,  Indies,  and  portions  of  S.  and  Central  America. 
A  warm  and  prolonged  controversy  has  prevailed  on  the  subject 
of  the  exportation  of  C.  On  the  one  hand,  it  was  alleged  that 
the  C.  were  subjected  to  much  cruel  treatment  or  neglect,  and 
were  slaves  in  fact  though  not  in  name.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
was  contended  that  they  were  much  better  olf  in  the  countries  to 
which  they  emigrated  than  in  their  native  lands— that  they  were 
treated  with  a  reasonable  amount  of  consideration,  and  were  on 
the  whole  contented  and  prosperous.  The  truth  probably  is,  that 
while  grievoas  wrongs  were  at  one  time  inflicted  upon  the  coolie, 
he  now  improves  his  circumstances  by  emigration,  at  all  events 
to  Bridsh  settlements.  Mr  Jenkms,  M.P.,  writing  in  1871  on 
the  condition  of  the  C.  in  British  Guiana,  spoke  of  the  system 
as  one  which,  '  spite  of  its  disabilities,  its  difficuldes,  its  present 
evils,  is  full  of  promise  ; '  and  he  added,  that  in  his  belief  it '  can 
be  made,  with  care,  skill,  and  honest  endeavour,  not  only  an 
organisation  of  labour  as  successful  as  any  hitherto  attempted, 
but  one  leading  to  almost  colossal  benefits '  ( The  Coolie,  Ais 
a^kts  and  Wrongs,  p.  367).  The  number  of  C.  introduced  into 
British  Guiana  from  India  in  the  season  1873-74  was  8299, 
besides  388  fi-om  China,  The  number  of  C.  at  present  in  the 
colony  is  about  55,000.  In  Dutch  Guiajia  the  employment  of 
C.  has  not  long  been  commenced,  but  in  French  Guiana  it  has 
existed  since  1856,  though  the  importation  of  C.  was  suspended 
for  several  years.  The  British  Vice-consul  at  Cayenne  reports 
that  the  C.  there '  are  very  fairly  treated  by  their  French  masters.' 
Most  of  them  embrace  the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  and  many 
femain  in  the  colony  'as  free  men,  and  become  French  citizens,' 
C.  brought  from  Jamaica  have  recently  been  introduced  into 


s  331,782,  of 


Colombia,  and  in  Costa  Rica  the  importation  of  Chinese  C.  com- 
menced In  1873.  E.  Indian  G.  are  employed  in  most  of  the  British 
W.  Indian  Islands,  as  well  as  to  a  small  extent  in  the  islands 
belonging  to  France  and  Denmark.  The  Administrator  of  Trini- 
dad, in  his  report  for  1873,  states  that  the  total  number  of  C. 
resident  on  estates  in  that  colony  at  the  end  of  the  year  was 
20,892.  Among  the  4065  who  arrived  during  the  year,  were  a 
number  who  had  formerly  served  in  Trinidad  under  indenture, 
and  who  had  returned  thither  from  India,  some  of  them  paying 
their  own  passages. 

Sir  W.  Grey,  Governor  of  Jamaica,  in  his  report  for  the  year 
1S72-73,  states  the  E.  Indian  population  of  the  island  at 
12,455,  of  whom  5880  were  serving  under  indenture,  1418  had 
served  five  years  under  indenture,  but  had  not  completed  ten 
years'  residence,  and  5157,  having  completed  ten  years'  residence, 
had  voluntarily  become  colonists.  Regarding  the  last  class,  the 
agent-general  for  immigration  states  that  '  everjTvhere  through- 
out the  country  the  time-expired  C.  maybe  foimd  in  comparatively 
affluent  circumstances,'  The  importation  of  Chinese  C.  into  the 
W.  Indies  received  a  severe  check  in  1867,  through  the  Chinese  , 
GoveiTiment  insisting  on  a  return  passage  being  granted  at  the 
end  of  five  years,  which  was  found  to  render  the  employment  of 
Chinese  C.  unremunerative.  A  Chinese  official  visited  Cuba  in 
1874  to  arrange  for  the  better  treatment  of  Chinese  C.  employed 
in  that  island. 

It  is  in  Mauritius,  however,  that  C.  are  most 
the  close  of  1873  the  population  of  the  island  vi 
whom  J 1 5,000  were  of  Indian  origin.  Coolie  Immigiaiiun  u 
Mauritius  began  in  1834,  but  was  suspended  in  1838  In  Jan- 
uary 1842  it  was  resumed,  inquiry  having  shown  that  the  immi- 
grants were  not  grossly  ill-treated,  as  had  been  alleged.  In 
1856  the  outbr^  of  cholera  caused  another  suspension  of  the 
immigration,  which  was  resumed  in  April  1857.  Due  regard 
being  now  hiid  to  maintaining  a  balance  of  the  sexes,  the  coolie 
population  of  Mauritius  is  increasing.  In  1873,  of  the  engaged 
labourers  on  estates,  5501,  or  about  8'40  per  cent.,  were  Indian 
Creoles.  The  deposits  in  the  savings-bank  for  Indians  at  the 
end  of  1873  amounted  to^l07,9l6.  The  condition  of  the  Indian 
population  is  spoken  of  by  the  officer  administering  the  govern- 
ment as  being  'fairly  prosperous,'  and  as  showing  a  marked 
improvement  on  some  preceding  years. 

Steps  are  being  taken  to  introduce  Chinese  C.  into  Cape 
Colony.  In  January  1876  an  agent  was  despatched  to  China 
to  make  the  necessary  arrangements,  the  Colonial  Government 
engaging  to  contribute  lC^  per  head  towards  the  expense. 

A  system  of  exportation  of  Chinese  C,  which  was  really 
nothing  bat  kidnapping,  was  carried  on  for  a  number  of  years 
from  Macao,  tmtil  it  was  finally  extinguished  by  the  action  of 
the  British,  Chinese,  and  Portuguese  Governments  in  1872-73. 
As  showing  what  atrocities  were  perpetrated  in  carrying  on  this 
traffic,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  in  twenty-three  out  of  thirty- 
eight  ships,  the  C.  mutinied,  and  in  thirteen  they  murdered  every 
European  on  board.  The  C.  themselves  suffered  si" 
heavily,  as  out  of  3553  shipped  on  board  seven  vessels,  2449 
perished  from  disease,  fire,  and  shipwreck. 

The  importation  of  Polynesian  native.'!  into  Queensland,  to 
work  on  the  sugar-estates  there,  has  been  carried  on  for  somt 
years,  and  the  same  practice  has  more  recently  been  adopted  ir 
the  Fiji  group.  The  condition  of  these  labourers  is  identical 
with  that  of  C,  but  they  are  not  known  by  that  name.  Stringent 
laws  were  enacted  by  the  Imperial  Parliament  in  1868  and  1S75 
to  prevent  the  trade  in  'Ubour,'  as  it  is  called,  from  being 
abused   and     fl    t  of  gunb  ats  's  employed  '    see'Uo  that  they 


Afric          on         N  N    V 

nished  w       a    u     u   y  m 

value  and       e  e  t,  and  a 

Bant  ma.    1    nas    ak      am 

b    ned  by 

Sir  Game    Wo  seley  Februa 

y    874,    n 

CofFe    Ca   a 

f  A  h  n 


W 


Cooper  Sir  Astley  Paeton  one    f  h   g  ea  B 

surge        «as     e     n        h    R      Sam       C  B      1 

Norfolkshire,  and  was  bom  at  the  rectory,  23d  August  171 
He  received  his  practical  training  imder  Mr  Cline,  and  attenc 
the  anatomical  lectures  of  John  Hunter.       He  soon  becam. 


239 


--♦■ 


ooo 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


COO 


-^ 


eat  aullioviiy  in  anatomy  and  surgeiy,  and  fiiled 
e  posts  of  Professor  of  Anatomy  in  Sui'geons'  Hall  (1792),  and 
sni^eon  to  Guy's  Hospital  (iSoo).  In  1804-7,  C.  published  hia 
celebrated  work  on  Hernia.  His  private  practice  rapidly  in- 
creased, and  in  1813,  in  which  year  he  received  the  Professor, 
ship  of  Comparative  Anatomy  in  the  College  of  Surgeons,  Ms 
income  reached  the  sum  of  ^21,000.  A  skilfnl  a,nd  daring 
experimenter,  he  attempted  (1817),  although  nnsuccessfully,  the 
tying  of  the  carotid  artery  and  of  the  aorta.  In  iSao  C,  who 
had  removed  0,  steafomatous  tumour  from  the  head  of  George 
IV.,  was  made  a  baronet,  and  till  his  death,  which  took  place 
I2th  February  i84r,  honours  poured  in  upon  him.  He  iiiled, 
besides  other  posts,  those  of  Piesklent  of  the  College  of  Sur- 
geons {1827),  and  Vice-President  of  the  Royal  Sodehr  (1830), 
while  he  was  made  a  D.  C.  L,  of  Oxford,  an  LL.  D.  of  Edinbui^h, 
and  a  member  of  the  French  Institute.  His  writings,  in  spite 
of  his  busy  Ufe,  were  numerous,  and  many  of  them,  especially  his 
treatise  on  tKe  Atialomjr  and  Dtsiases  of  tki  5r<(flrf  (1829-40), 
may  be  said  to  have  revolutionised  the  theories  on  the  sub- 
jects of  which  they  treat.  The  school  of  Hunter  was  fertile  in 
great  surgeons,  but  none  has  surpassed,  if  any  has  equalled,  the 
brilliant  and  original  C.  See  The  Life  of  Sir  Aitley  C.  (2  vols. 
Lond.  1842)  by  B.  Cooper. 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore,  one  of  the  most  popular  of 
American  novelists,  was  bom  at  Burlington,  New  Jersey,  U.S., 
September  15,  1789,  Educated  first  privately,  and  afterwards 
at  Vale  College,  he  entered  the  navy  at  the  age  of  thirteen 
as  a  midshipman,  and  served  in  it  for  six  years.  Retiring  into 
private  life,  he  married,  and  after  some  years  of  solitude  he  took 
the  reading  public  of  the  United  States  by  storm  with  his  novel 
of  The  Spy  {1823I.  This  was  followed  by  a  large  number  of 
other  fictions,  all  like  it  marked  hy  strong  nationality  and  great 
powers  both  of  narration  and  description.  The  chief  are  The 
Fionurs  (1822),  T&e  Pilai  (1823),  Lionel  Lincoln  (1824),  The 
Frairit  (i&2i).  The  Last  of  ihe  Mohicans  (1826),  The  Red  Rova; 
and  the  Walerwitch  (1828).  Some  of  these,  such  as  The  Pilot 
and  Thi  Last  of  the  Mohicans,  were  at  least  as  much  admired  in 
Europe  as  in  America;  but  while  C.  is  still  much  read,iespe- 
cially  by  boys,  he  does  not  stand  on  the  pedestal  on  which  he 
was  placed  by  his  earlier  admirers.  C.  visited  England  in  1827, 
and  published  some  sketches  of  European  society.  He  died  at 
Cooperstown,  New  York,  14th  September  1851,  C.'s  daughter, 
Siiaan  Fenimore  C,  born  1815,  is  an  authoress  of  some 
mark.  Her  books  are  chiefly  descriptive  of  country  life.  The 
chief  are  Rural  Hours  (1850),  Country  Rambles,  &'e.  (1852), 
and  Rhyme  ami  Reason  of  Coantry  Life  { \  854). 

Oooper,  Peter,  an  American  philanthropist,  was  bom  in 
New  York,  February  12,  1791.  About  1828  he  engaged  in  the 
business  of  glue  and  isinglass,  and  in  1845  he  erected  large  mills 
in  Trenton  for  iron-rolling.  The  fortune  which  C  acquired  in 
business  he  has  liberally  used  for  the  public  good.  Feeling  a 
deep  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  working  classes,  he  erected 
the  C.  Institute  in  a  central  part  of  New  York  city.  It  cost 
^^100,000,  and  this  bnilding,  with  all  its  profits  and  rents,  is 
devoted  to  the  education  of  the  people.  It  includes  a  free  read- 
ing-room, school  of  design,  galleries  of  art,  and  evening  classes. 
C.  isstilUi876)a.live. 

Coo'perage,  the  art  of  making  barrels,  casks,  and  other 
vessels  of  wooden  staves  and  headings,  banded  with  hoops 
TJje  art  early  reached  a  state  of  perfection,  for  Pliny  states  that 
such  vessels  wete  used  for  storing  wine.  Although  of  late  yens 
a  laige  numl>er  of  ingenious  machines  have  been  contrived  for 
the  production  of  casks,  &c.,  and  arc  employed  in  a  few  establish 
ments,  yet  the  C.  industry  is  practically  carried  on  manually 
The  manufacture  of  tight  or  wet  caslcs  for  holding  liquids  is  the 

St  important  .branch  of  C.     The  operations  of  the  cooper  eon 
in  shaving  and  planing  the  Dantzig  oak  staves  to  the  p  oper 

ve,  both  in  the  direction  of  the  length  and  breadth,  in  shapn  g 
Ihem  so  as  to  be  broadest  and  bulging  at  tlie  middle,  and 
gradually  tapering  to  the  ends,  in  bevelling  the  edges  and  end  , 
id  in  'cliinlng"  the  grooves  to  receive  the  heads.  The  staves 
e  then  brought  together  and  bomid  with  slightly  coned  iron 
hoops,  the  heads,  bevel-edged  and  slightly  ovalled,  are  driven 
"~'o  the  grooves,  and  the  bung-hole  bored. 


has  taken  place  of  recent  years.  (See  Joint-Stock  Com- 
pany.) Societies  are  formed,  whose  members  subscribe  a  capi- 
tal with  which  to  work  some  commercial  concern,  of  a  kind 
formerly  left  to  individual  enterprise  ;  the  object  being  to  share 
the  profit  among  the  members,  without  any  expenditure  of  time 
and  thought  by  the  general  body  of  them.  There  are,  of  course, 
co-operative  societies  whose  object  does  not  come  within  the 
above  definition.  (See  Benefit  or  Friendly  Societies, 
Building  Societies.)  In  this  article  consideration  is  re- 
stricted to  the  scope  of  societies  whose  design  is  as  above  stated. 
That  many  of  these  have  l>een  eminently  successful,  and  "many 
very  much  the  reverse,  is  a  fact  perhaps  to  some  extent  to  be 
accounted  for  by  causes  which  affect  co-operative  and  individual 
enterprise  alike.;  but  it  is  probable  that  the  main  cause  of  the 
difference  of  result  is  to  be  found  in  the  different  nature  of  the 
undertakings.  Where  a  business  requires  special  skill  and 
energy  to  make  it  succeed,  C.  will  f^.  Any  one,  conscious  of 
possessing  the  necessary  gifts,  will  rather  exercise  them  for  his 
own  advantage  than  for  flie  advantage  of  a  society ;  and  it  is 
vain  Co  expect  tliat  a  number  of  men,  having  no  special  ability, 
can  by  C.  compete  successfully  in  a  business  which  requires 
that,  with  an  individual  who  has  it.  Then  suppose,  by  good 
luck,  that  the  right  man  is  secured  to  conduct  the  affair,  he 
is  but,  so  to  speak,  the  president  of  a  republic— liable  to  have 
his  plans  checked  and  thwarted  by  timidity  of  shareholders, 
and  by  the  ignorance  and  consequent  self-conceit  of  directors. 
The  individual  trader,  again,  is  in  his  business  an  autocrat,  and 
acts  with  the  force  of  one.  Can  any  one  suppose  that  such  a 
busmess  as  that  of  the  late  Mr  Brass%  could  have  been  success- 
fully conducted  by  a  co-operative  society,  even  had  Mr  Biassey 
been  the  manager  of  it  ?  When  the  business  chosen  has  Ijeen 
such  as  any  man  of  average  ability  who  has  served  an  appren- 
ticeship to  it  may  conduct,  C.  has  been  generally  successful. 
Besides  supporting  abont  five  hundred  offeials,  the  profits  of 
the  Civil  Service  Supply  Association  of  London  have  been  enor- 
mous. In  Edinbuigh,  on  a  humbler  scale,  the  similar  institution 
—the  Rrafissional  and  CiuU  Service  Supply  Association— am- 
tinues  to  be.veiy  prosperous.  By  its  accounts  for  the  balf.year 
ending  29th  February  1S76,  the  profit  for  the  half-year  is  shown 
to  be  ;^4l8,  103.  Sd.,  while  the  salaries  and  wages  paid — in  a 
sense  prof t— lie  ^^1054,  173.  8d.,  while  the  number  of  mem- 
bers has  increased  from  1777  to  2101.  Such  institutions 
clearly  ought  to  succeed — competent  managers  and  sub-officials 
being  easily  got.  By  the  ready-money  system  on  which  they  are 
conducted,  the  honest  are  not  taxed  on  account  of  the  dishonest. 
Providing  their  own  customers,  they  are  not  obliged  to  'increase 
the  price  of  articles  to  pay  advertising.  Some  endeavours  have 
beenmadeof  recent  years  by  members  of  Trades  Unions  (q.  v.), 
as  opposed  to  capitalists,  to  cany  on  co-operative  productive 
trading.  These  have  not  been  successful,  nor  does  it  seem  as  if 
they  ever  could  be,  owing  to  the  antagonism  of  the  positions. 
The  aim  of  trade-unionism  is  to  force  up  the  rate  of  wages  ;  the 
success  of  C.,  as  applied  to  production,  depends  on  keeping  the 
rate  of  wages  low.  As  co-operators  the  workmen  are  their  own 
employers,  and  experience  has  shown  that  workmen  prefer  im- 
mediate to  postponed  enjoyment — high  wages  to  profits. 

Co-or'dinatee,  the  name  of  the  directed  quantities  which 
determine  the  position  of  a.  point  and  which  constitute  the  great 
peculiarity  of  Descartes  method  of  analytical  geometry.  The 
position  of  a  point  m  space  requires  for  its  determination 
thiee  numbera,  one  of  which  at  least,  must  be  a  rectilinear 
measure  Thus  the  summit  of  a  mountain  is  fixed,  if  we  know 
tl  e  number  of  pomts  of  the  compass  which  it  is  E.  or  W. 
of  N  the  dngle  of  elevation,  and  its  direct  distance  from  us  ; 
or  f  we  J  now  how  far  it  is  N  ,  E.  (or  W.),  and  its  vertical 
height  This  latter  is  a  case  of  the  method  in  question,  these 
distances  being  the  C  of  the  summit.  It  is  obvious,  however, 
that  It  IS  requisite  befoiehand  to  fix  three  arbitrary  directions, 
which  need  1  ot  be  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  but  which  are 
usually  so  tiken  for  convenience.  Take  then  in  the  plane  of 
the  paper  the  two  lines  OX,  OY,  to  represent  two  of  these  direc- 
tions, and  suppose  OZnot  in  the  plane  of  the  paper  to  be  the  third. 
These  lines  are  called  the  axes.  Talie  now  any  point  P,  whose 
position  is  to  be  determined  with  respect  to  these  three  direc- 
tions. Through  P  draw  FN  parallel  to  OY,  and  meeting  the 
plane  containing  OX  and  OZ  in  N.  Through  N  draw  NM  par- 
allel to  OZ,  and  meeting  OX  in  M.     MO,  PN,  NM,  are  the  C. 


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of  the  point  P  with  respect  to  the  three  axes  of  X,  Y,  and  Z ; 
snd  are  expressed  respectively  as  x,  y,  and  z.    If  the  axes  be 
mutually  reotangular,  the  C.  are  so  also,  and  therefore 
!'  +  >«  +  i'  =  Om  +  PN^  =  0P2. 

urface  of  a  sphere,  whose  centre  is  at  O,  OP 

Ti .1,  .     •  4.  s>  =  a=  represents  any 

point  on  the  sphere,  and 
15,  tlierefore,  called  the 
equalwn  of  the  sphere, 
ff  !  =  o,  the  equation 
ibecomea  j^  +  j^  =  a^, 
representing  a  circle  of 
■radius  a,  centre  O,  in 
the  plane  xy.  For.  any 
-value  of  y,  x  has  two 
equal  values,  one  posi- 
tive, the  other  negative ; 
and  thus  the  signs4-  and 
undergo  an  important 
of  meaning, 
ig  not  merely 
addition  and  subtrac- 
tion, but  direction.  In 
flane  analytical  geome- 

Sr  only  two  axes  are  re- 
y  as  the  ordtnats  and 
abscissa  (Lat.  'cut  otF).     See  Geometry,  Analysis. 

The  method  of  Polar  C.  has  been  already  hinted  at.  By  it  a 
point  is  fixed  by  the  length  sxiAihe  Direction- CoHnes  (q.  v.}  of  its 
J  radius  vector.     Its  most  practical  use  is  in  the  planetary  theoiy. 

Lagrange's  Gmeralissd  C.  deserve  a  word  of  notice.  The  C. 
represent  the  degrees  of  freedom  possessed  by  the  system  whose 
motion  is  under  consideration,  and  are  wholly  defermined  in 
each  special  case  by  the  conditions,  of -the  problem.  For  each 
co-ordinate  there  is  an  equation  of  motion,  and  hence  there  are 
as  many  equations  as  there  are  C.  The  combination  and  inte- 
gration of  these,  when  possible,  give  the  complete  motion  of  the 
system.  See  De  Moi^an's  Calculus,  and  Thomson  and  Tail's 
Natural  Philosophy,  vol.  i. 

Coorg,  or  Ourg,  a  province  uniJer  the  government  of  India, 
bounded  by  Mysore,  Malabar,  and  Canara,  with  an  areaof  2000 
sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  in  1873  of  168^12.  Till  1834  it. was  a 
native  principality.  It  is  now  subdivided  into  fourteen  executive 
districts.  The  country  is  hilly  and  rugged,  and  is  clothed  with 
forests,  which  in  some  places  abound  with  sandal  and  other 
valnable  kinds  of  wood.  Elephants,  tigers,  and  many  varieties 
of  birds  and  reptiles  are  among  the  fauna.  Where  (he  land  is 
fertile  it  is  generally  well  cultivated,  and  produces  rice  in  abun- 
dance. A  system  of  fortifications,  having  an  aggregate  length  of 
500  miles,  and  consisting  of  a  rampart  and  ditch,  evidently-very 
ancient,  presents  a  most  interestmg  problem  to  the  historical 

Coo'sy,  a  river  of  Hmduhtaiv  which  has  its  source  on  the 
southern  slope  of  the  Himalayas,  and  after  a  course  of  335  miles 
nearly  due  S.,  through  Nepaul  ind  Pumeah,  fails  into  the 
.  Ganges,  about  midway  between  Patna  and  Moorshedabad. 

Coot  {Fulica),  a  genus  of  Grallatonal  birds,  mcluded  in  the 
family  RaUidee  or  Rails.  The  toes  in  the  C.  are  fnnged  with 
broad  membranous  lobes,  somewhat  simibr  to  those  of  the 
Grebes  (q.  v.).  The  C.  is  sometimes  placed' more  intimately 
in  the  family  of  the  Gallinulina  or  waterhens.  The  common 
C.  (Fulica  atra)  occurs  in  Europe,  N.  Africa,  and  Asia.  It  is 
coloured  black  ;  the  wings  have  a  white  bar,  and  the  forehead  is 
also. white.  It  averages  from  13  to  16  inches  in  length,  and  has 
a  strong,  conical,  straight  bill.  The  C.  ilies  southwards  in  winter. 
The  American  C.  I.F.  Ameiicand)  occurs  in  N.  America. 

Cootellill,  a  town  in  Cavan  county,  Ulster,  Ireland,  on  the 
river  Cotagh,  12  miles  E.N,E.  of  Cavan,  has  a  considemble 
tmde  in  linen.     Pop.  (1S71)  1851. 

Gopai'va,  or  Copailja,  often  improperlv  called  balsam  ofC. , 
is  obtained  from  incisions  made  in  the  trunk  of  Cefaifa-a  multi- 
juga  and  other  species  of  Copaifera,  trees  belonging  to  the  Legu- 
minoss,  sub-order  Cssalpinia,  and  found  chiefly  m  the  valley 
of  the  Amazon.  It  consists  of  a  resin  and  oil ;  the  latter  is  used 
ill  medicine,  C.  somewliat  resembles  olive  oil,  has  a  peculiar 
106 


odour,  and  an  acrid  taste.  It  exudes  so  abundantly  after  an 
incision  has  been  made  in  the  tree,  tliat  as  much  as  12  lbs,  is 
sometimes  collected  in  a  few  hours.  C.  is  a  diuretic  and  cathartic, 
and  is  useful  in  cases  of  bronchitis  and  mucous  dischai^es. 

Co'pal,  a  resinous  substance  extensively  employed  in  the  arts. 
It  is  ^e  general  Mexican  name  for  resins  or  gums.  Mexican  C, 
is,  however,  now  derived  from  a  species  of  ffyniencra,  a  legu- 
minous tree.  Cofaifira  Gtdbmo-Hana  or  Guibowtia  copallifera 
is  the  source  of  most  of  the  recent  W.  African  C,  though  a  great 
portion  of  the  C.  sent  from  that  part  of  the  world  is  fossil-resin, 
produced,  according  to  the  hite  Dr  Welwitsch,  by  trees  which 
are  now  estinct  or  only  exist  in  a  dwarfed  condition,  Trachy- 
lobiuni  mossamiicense  has  been  shown  by  Dr  Kirk  to  be  the' 
source  of  Zanzibar  C.  The  valuable  Anixii  C.  of  the  same 
however,  semi-fossil,  and  was  probably  derived  from 


the  same  species  of  tree,  tien  existmg  in  forests  n 

The  exact  source  of  Brazilian  and  Angola  C.  is  not  known.  The 
■called  Indian  C.  is  the  produce  of  Valeria  Indica.  C.  is  also 
itained  fron  "   '  '        ' 

duce  of  Hymt 

varnishes,  lacquer,  i 
Oopal'chi  Bark,  the  bark  of  Cmton  pseudo-china  or  nlvnim, 

a  Euphorbiaceous  plant,  a  native  of  the  W.  Indies  and  Mexico, 

Copalm  Balsam,  or  Oopalme  d'Amedque  (Fr.).    See 

LlQUIDAMBAR. 

Oopan',  a  mined  city  of  Honduras,  on  the  borders  of  Guate- 
mala, Central  America,  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  an  alHuent 
of  the  Molagua.  The-ruins,  which  extend  for -2  miles  along  the 
hanks  of  the  C,  and  are, about  rjoo  in  number,  include  the 
remains  of  a  temple  624  feet  long,  pyramidal  structures,  and 
monoliths,  with  sculptures  and  hieroglyphs  identical  with  those 
of  Palengue. 

Gopartseneiy.  In  England,  when  an  estate,  of  inheritance 
descends  from  the  ancestor  to  two  or  more  females,  it  is  said  to 
be  an  estate  in  C.,  and  those  to-whom  it  descends  are  copar- 
ceners. Each  is  entitled  to  her  distinct  share,  though  the  pro- 
perty remains  undivided,  and  no  benefit  accmes  on  survivorship, 
the  right  of  each  descending  to  heirs.  C.  does  also  sometimes 
occur  among  males.  See  Gavelkind  ;  Common,  Tenancy  in  ; 
Common  Pkopekt.y, 

Copart'neiy,     See  Partnership. 

Cope  (from  the  same  root  as  cap  and  caj/e),  'a  semicircular 
vestment  worn  during  divine  service  by  Roman  Catholic  priests, 
reaching  from  the  shoulders  nearly  to  the  feet,  and  open  in  front, 
except  at  the  top,  where  it  is  fastened  by  .a  IrantJ,  clasp,  or 
mofte.  This  choir,  or  canonical ..C,  was,  prior  to  ^eM4th  c., 
distinguished  from  the  cappa  Jluvialis,  a  large  mantle  with  a 
pointed  hood  to  it,  which  was  worn  out  of  doors,  but  which  was 
subsequently  disused.  In  the  lath  c  a  custom^rose.of  putting 
sleeves  to  the  C.'bufPope  Innocent  III.,  in  the  fourth  Lateran 
Council,  forbade  these  cappa  manicaia. 

Cope,  Sir  John,  an  English  commander,  who  has  Obtained 
an  unenviable  immortality  through  his  surprise  and. defeat  at 
Prestonpons  by  Prince  Charles  Stuart,  .^rst  September  1745. 
A  clever  song  inwhith  the  defeat- is -celebrated  survives*to  this 
day.  C.'s  '  raw  dragoons' were  wretched  material  to  oppose  to 
h^-savage  Highlanders  in  the  first  flush  of  their  triumphant 
march  from  the  N.,  and  C.  has  perhaps  been  too  -Severely 
judged.  He  died  Knight'of  ithe  Bath  and  a  lieutenant-general, 
28th  July  1760. 

Co'peo,  a  Russian  copper  coin,'  the  hundredth  part  of  ;a  silver 
rouble,  or  three-eighths  of  a  penny  sterling.  The  C.was  at  first 
coined  of  silver.  The  name  is  connected  with  the  Russian 
word  for  a  lance,  the-C  having  anciently  borne  the  effigy  of  St 

Oopenha'geil-(E)an.  KjSbmhavH,  i.e.,  'merchant's  haven'), 
the  capital  of  Denmark,  partly  on  the  island  of  Seel  (Dan. 
SJadland)  and  yarHy  on  the  island  of  Aroak  or  Amager,  in 
the  Sound,  and  situated  so  low  that  it  has  to  be  defended  by  em- 
bankments against  inundation.  It  is  divided  into  three  parts— the 
Old  Town,  or  W.  part ;  the  New  Town,  or  E,  part ;  and  Chris- 
tianshavn  on  Amak,  connected  with  C.  proper  by  the  bridges 
Langehro  and  Knippelsbro.  The  channel  between  the  islands 
241 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


forms  a  splendid  harbour.  The- estimated  pop.  for  1875  was 
216,000.-  C.  has  suffered  frequently  from  fire,  Uie  old  houses  hav- 
ing been  for  the  most  part  constructed  of  wood.  These  have,  how- 
ever, been  replaced  by  structures  of  briclt  or  Nonvegian  granite. 
The  city  contains  numerous  squares,  of  which  the  finest  is  Kongens 
Nyton  (the  new  Kill's  Market).  It  is  central,  and  is  adorned 
with  a  colossal  leaden  statue  of  Christian  V.,  as  the  octagonal 
Frederik's  Place  is  with  an  equestrian  statute  of  Frederilt  V. 
The  fortifications,  once  strong,  liave,  with  the  exception  of  the 
citadel,  FredftikshavH,  been  dismantled.  The  most  notable 
structures  are  the  Frae  Kirke  {Church  of  our  Lad^),  the  metro- 
politan church  of  the  tmgdom,  which  suffered  during  the  bom- 
bardment of  1807,  but  h^  been  restored,  and  contains  some  of 
the  mastei-pieces  of  TTiorwaldsen ;  the  T.ririitati^  Kitke,  founded 
by  Christian  IV^  with  a  curious  round.tower  ;  Holmens  Kirke, 
with  monuments  to  lie  naval  heroes  Juel  and  TordeiijoW  J  the 
palace  of  Christiansborg,  of  vast  eWent,  with  decorations  by 
Thorwaldsen ;  and  the  castle  of  Rosenboig,  desiwied  by  Inigo 
Jones,  and  in  which  the  regalia  are  kept.  C.  is  rich  in  mjiseiuns 
of  antiquities,  natural  histoty,  luunismatics,  &c.  That  of  northern 
antiquities  is  peculiarly  interesting.  It  occupies  a  wing  of  the 
palace  of  Christiansborg,  and  contains  a  collection  of  stone  and 
bronse  implements,  raiding  ifrom'- the  rudest  prehistoric  times 
to  500  A.D.,  also  of  articles  in  gohi  and  silver  to  1000  A.D., 
and  specimens  of  Scandinavian  art  and  manufacture  to  the 
present  time.  The  Royal  Museum  of  Natural  History  is  rich  in 
loological  and  mineralogical  specimens,    Thorwaldsen  s  museum, 

Xned  ill  1846,  contains  the  bequest  made  by  him  to  the  nation 
his  own  works  and  numerous  collections.  T%e  university, 
founded  in  1478  by  Christian  I.,  but  whose  constitution  was  re- 
modelled in  1788,  has  had  amongits  professors  men  of  European 
repatation  in  their  several  departments.  It  is  well  endowed, 
has  about  forty  professors  and  1000  students,  a  library  of  200,000 
volumes  and  4000  MSS.,  among  whieli  are  rich  collections  in 
Old  Persian,  Old  Indian,  and  Old  Norse.  The  royal  library, 
founded  by  Christian  11 1.,. contains  500,000  volumes  and  3O,O00 
MSS.,  among  which  are  Rask's  Sanskrit  collection.  The  manu- 
factures, which  are  trifling,. and  chiefly  for  home  consumption, 
insist  of  woollens,,  linen,  sailcloth,,  lealher,  and  porcelain  ;  but 
.  is  still  the  centre  ofiall  the  foreign  commerce  of  Denmark,  and 
1 1S74  possessed  a  merchant  navy  of  398  vessels,  with  1  tonnage 
of  63, 1 18.  It  has.  railway  communication  witli  Korsor  and  Hel- 
singSr  ;  r^ular  steam  communication  with  Kiel,  LUbeck,  Stettin, 
Norway,  Sweden,  Russia,  France,  England,.and  America.  About 
the  middle  of  the  12th  c.  C.  was  a  small  fishing- village,' in  whose 
neighbourhood  Bishop  Axel  (q.  v.)  orAbsalon  built  afbrtresa 
called  AKelhuus,  to  repress  the  piracy  of  the  Baltic,  iln  1254 
the  village,  which  Saxo  Grammaticus  (q.  v.)  calls  Uris  Absa- 
lonua,  then  Portrn  Ma-calorttm  and  Caslrum  de  Hafnia,  received 
municipal  privileges,  and  in  1443  it  became  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom.  It  has  suffered  much  from  sieges  and  bombardments, 
but  its  most  grievous  lisaster  was  its  bombardment  by  the  British 
fleet,  September  2-5,  1807.  The  environs  of  C.  are  extremely 
beautiful  See  E.  'J.  Jonas,  'K.  und  Umg^ngen  (4th  ed.  Berl. 
1874). 

Coper'nieanSyBteiu.'The,  is  that  system  which,  represents 
the  sun  as  being  in  the  centre  of  the  solar  system,  and  the 
planets,  of  which  the  earth  is  one,  as  revolving  round  iL  It  is  so 
called  after  Copercicus  (q.  v.),  who  advocated  it  m  his  work  De 
Rivolutiem.hua  Orhimn,  but  who,  it  must  be  otiserved,  was  not 
the  first  founder  of  it,  that  merit  bemg  due  to  PythagoBas  (q.  v.). 
The  Newtonian  system  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
this,  however,  which  Copernicus  merely  brought  forward  as  a 
hypothesis,  and  tried  to  establish  by  much  faSe  logic  and  erro- 
neous conceptions.  '  He  imaging  the  universe  to  be  a  sphere,  in 
the  centre  of  whichthe  sun  was  immovably  fixed.  Round  this 
central  fire  the  planets  revolved  in  circles,  the  proof  of  this  being 
the  famous  Aristotehan  dogma  that  circular -motion  was  perfect. 
But  this  failed  to  agree  with  observation,  and  accordiiigly  Coper- 
nicus was  compelled  to  follow  the  same  course  as  Ptolemy  by 
introducing  into  his  sytem  complex  epicycles.  Many  of  the 
arguments  which  he  used  for  establishing  his  hypothesis  could 
have  been  easily  turned  against  him  by  an  intelligent  advocate  of 
the  Ptolemaic  system.  Notwithstanding  sucli  defects,  the  Di 
RivohttionxbU!  produced  a  powerfiil  effect,  and  prepared  the  way 
for  the  discoveries  of  Galileo,  Kepler,  and  Newton.  It  is  espe- 
cially valuable  for  the  generally  correct  explanation  of  some  fill 
242 


then  mysterious  astronomical  phenomena,  e.g.,  the  variations  of 
the  seasons,  the  precession  of  llie  equinoxes,  and  the  stationary 
and  retrogressive  motions  of  the  planets. 

Coperni'cia.  See  Carnahuba  Palm, 
Ooper'nioas  (the  Latinised  form  of  Koppemigk),  Nibolaua, 
a  famous  astronomer,  was  born  19th  February  1473,  at  Thorn, 
in  Prussia.  After  studying  medicine,  philosophy,  and  mathe^ 
matics,  especially  the  last,  in  the  University  of  Cracow,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Rome  in  1496,  where  he  met  with  the  celebrated 
Regiomontanus,  and  where,  in  1499,  he  became  Professor  of 
Mathematics.  On  his  return  to  Prussia,  he  entered  holy  ordei-s, 
became  a  canon  at  Frauenburg  in  1502,  and  occupied  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  in  his  ecclesiastical  duties,  in  giving  gratuitous 
medical  advice,  and  in  prosecuting  his  favourite  sciences  of  astro- 
nomy and  mathematics.  The  results  of  his  observations  led  him 
to  reject  the  Ptolemaic  system  of  the  universe,  and  to  propose 
the  one  which  goes  by  his  name.  (See  Copbrnicak  System.) 
It  was  with  this  end  in  view,  that  he  prepared  bis  great  work, 
Di  Oibium  CaUsHum  Revoliilvmikis,  Libri  vi.,  which  was  pub- 
lished at  NiimbCTg  in  1543,  a  few  days,  it  is  said,  before  his 
■death  (May  24).  C.  also  wrote  a  work  De  Lateribus  it  Angaiis 
jyiangulairutn  (1523),  several  letters  on  general  subjects,  and  a 
treatise  on  money.  The  first  biography  of  C,  that  of  Gassendi 
(i6s4),  of  which  an  English  translation  is  given.m  Martin's  Bio- 
graphia  PhilosopMa,  formed  for  200  years  the  groundwork  of  all 
othei'bii^aphies.  'It  is  only  in  quite  recent  times  that  researches 
in  archives  have  enabled  us  to  obtain  a  clearer  conception  of  C. 
and  his  work.  See  Prowe's  Zar  Siographit  des  K.  (Thorn, 
1852)  i  xa6.'Vber  das  Virhdltmss  ies  K.  tu  Herzog  Albreckt  von 
freiissiit  (Thorn,  1855)  ;  DePatria  Copemici  (Thorn,  i860);  and 
'Ober  die  Abhdngigkdt  des  K.  vsn  den  Gedanien  Griech.  PkSo- 
sophen  und  Astroiiomm  (Thorn,  1865). 

Copiapo',  a  namcapplied  in  Chili,  S.  America,  to  a  river,  a 
■village,  a  city,  and  a  district.  1.  The  river  rises  in  the  Andes, 
flows  in  a  N.  and  W.  direction,  and  after  a  course  of  120  miles 
lills  into  the  Pacific  2.  The  milage,  Porto  lie  C,  at  the  mouth 
of.the  river,  has.  parted  with  much  of  its  trade  to  the  flourishing 
seaport  of  Caldera.  3.  The  cily,  capital  of  the  province  of  Ala- 
cama,  lies  about  30  miles  up  the  river  from  the  sea,  and  on  the 
railway  between  Caldera  and  the  mining  centre  of  Juan  Godoy. 
It  exports  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  district.  In  1873  the  value 
ofits  exports  amounted  to  5429,766  dollars,  and  of  its  imports 
to  6,315,180.  Pop.  (1S75)  11,432-  4-  The  dislricl  is  rich  in 
silver,  copper,  and  cobalt.  It  is  projected  to  carry  the  railway 
in  C.  across  the  Andes  and  connect  it  with  the  Argentine  lines. 

Co'ping,  in  buildmg,  the  capping  or  covering  course  of  a 
wall,  which  may  be  flat,  or  it  may  be  sloping  or  round,  to  throw 
water  off.  The  term  cops  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  Merlons 
'(q.  v.),  or  rising  parts  of  battiements. 

Coplautl,  flfames,  an  Ei^lish  physician  and  author,  was 
bom  at  Deerness,  in  the  Orkneys,  in  1792,  studied  at  Edinbui^h, 
-.and,  after  travelling  in  Africa  to  study  epidemic  diseases,  settled 
in  London  in  182a  ,  He  died  July  12,  iS7a  C.'s  worlcs,  in- 
cluding his  Outlines  of  Pathology,  his  Elements  of_  PHysidogy,  his 
essay  on  Pestilential  Cholera,  and  above  all  his  Dictionary  of 
Practical  Medicine  (1830-58),  enjoy  a  very  high  reputation  both 
at  home  andabroaid. 

Copley,  Jobn  Sinsldton,  a  historical  painter,  of  Irish  ex- 
traction, was  born  at  Boston,  America,  1737,  came  to  England 
in  1774,  was  elected  E,A.  in  1783,  and  died  1815.  His  best 
works  are  the  Death  of  Lord  Chatham,  in  the  national  collection, 
and  the  Death  of  .Major  Pitrson,  which  was  the  property  of  his 
son,  the  kte  Lord  Lyndhurst  (q.  v.), 

Oopp'er  is  an  important  and  widely  distributed  metal,  and  has 
been  known  from- eariy  ages.  At  one  period  it  was  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  articles  and  implements  now  made  of  iron 
(see  Bronze  Age)— a  fact  which  ia  accounted  for  by  the 
occurrence  of  C.  in  the  native  or  uncombined  condition,  or  in 
ores  which  yield  the  metal  by  very  simple  processes.  C.  was 
called  by  the  ancients  ss  or  chalchos,  its  modem  title  of  C.  {La(. 
Cuprum)  being  derived  from  Cyprus,  an  island  in  which  formeriy 
C.  was  smelted  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  C.  is  found  in  various 
minerals,  the  most  important  of  which  are  C.  pyrites(CaS,^'^^i)i 
C.  glanee  (native  sulphide  of  C.l,  (CusS)  ;  malachite,  a.  basic  car- 
■  bonate  of  C.  {CuCOaCuHjOj) ;  also  red  C.  ore  (the  red  oxide  of 


y  Google 


'^- 


COP 


2HE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


C),  (CujO),  and  black  oxide  of  C.  (CuO).  Native  C.  occurs 
cvystallised  or  in  veins.  Tliere  is  a  vein  of  C.  in  the  neiglibour- 
liaod  of  Lake  Superior  in  W.  America,  which  in  some  places 
is  almost  two  feet  thick.  M5re  tlian  one-half  of  the  total  C. 
annually  extracted  is  smelted  in  Great  Britidn,  and  of  this  about 
one-third  conies  from  the  Cotnish  mines.  The  ores  rMsed  in 
Comwali  consist  for  the  greater  part  of  C.  pyrites.  Owing  to 
he  absence  of  coal  from  the  neighbourhood,  they  are  transported 
.  o  S.  WaJes,  where  that  mineral  is  abundant.  The  operations 
of  C. -smelting,  as  practised  at  Swansea  and  in  the  neighbourhood 
(the  seat  of  C.  industry),  are  complex,  though  theur  prmciple  is 
simple.  The  ores  after  sorting  are  roasted  on  tlie  bed  of  a  re- 
verberatory  furnace.  Here  much  of  the  sulphur  is  burnt  off  as 
sulphurous  acid,  and  arsenic  (also  frequently  present  in  the  ore) 
volatilises.  The  iron  by  this  treatment  is  converted  uito  ferric 
oxide  (Fe,Os),  which  subsequently  becomes  changed  to  ferrous 
oxide  (FeO)  by  the  reducing  gases  of  the  furnace.  The  fenous 
oxide  then  unites  with  silica,  originally  present  in  the  ore,  or 
which  lias  been  added  to  it  in  the  form  of^  sand  for  the  purpose, 
and  forms  a  fusible  slag,  whilst  a  tolerably  pure  sulphide  of  C. 
idns  {coarse  melal).  The  fused  sulphide  of  C.  is  drawn  off 
from  the  slag  and  again  roasted,  when  it  loses  the  whole  of  its 
sulphur  as  sulphurous  acid  (SO3),  and  metallic  C.  remains.  C. 
possesses  a  peculiar  red  colour  and  a  bright  lustre.  It  is  malleable, 
ductile,  and  remarkably  soft — a  property  which  enables  it  to  be 
hammered  into  various  forms  at  ordmaiy  temperatures.  It  fuses 
at  a  white  heal,  and  at  a  very  high  temperature  volatilises  as  a  green 
vapour.  In  dry  air  C.  remans  unchanged,  but  in  presence  of  mois- 
ture and  carbonic  acid,  it  becomes  covered  with  a  coat  of  basic 
carbonate.  Heated  in  the  air,  its  surface  becomes  covered  with  a 
film  of  black  oxide  of  C.  (CuO).  C.  is  soluble  with  effervescence 
in  nitric  acid,  nitrate  of  C,  Cu(NOa)i,  remaining  in  solution, 
and  nitric  oxide,  NO,  escaping  as  a  B:as.  Other  acids  do  not  act 
upon  it  at  ordinary  temperatures.  C.  forms  two  series  .of  com^ 
pounds  called  cupric  and  cuprious;  these  contam  respectively  one 
and  two  atoms  of  C.  united  to  the  same  amount  of  acid  or  electro 
negative  radical  Tlius  cupric  sulphate  has  the  form  la  CuSOj, 
cuprous  sulphate  CugSOi.  The  cupric  salts  are  the  most  n  i 
pottant.  Cupric  sulphate,  CuSOj.sHjO,  is  used  by  the  calico 
prmter,  and  is  caHei  blue  vitriol ;  it  has  also  been  employed  as 
a  cure  for  the  sntul  in  wheat,  and  in  medicine  as  1  caishc 
Cupric  ojtychloric,  CuCls,3CnO,4H|iO,  known  in  the  arts  as 
Brttnswisk  gratt,  is  employed  as  a  pigment.  Sckeele  s  grett  is  a 
cupric  arsenite  ;  verdigris,  a  basic  cupric  acetate.  C  s  largely 
employed  in  the  arts,  both  in  the  pure  slate  and  alloyed  Willi 
other  metals.  (See  Alloys.)  Its  salts  are  sometimes  employed 
in  medicine,  and  are  poisonous.  Small  quantities  of  C.  appear 
to  be  normal  constituents  of  cevttun  organs — the  kidneys  being 
one  of  them.  The  atomic  weight  of  C.  is  63 '4,  and  the  symbol 
for  its  atom  Cu. 

Oopp'eraa  is  the  sulphate  of  iron  or  ferrous  sulphate  (FeSOj 
7HaOJ.    See  Ikon. 

Copp'erin.g',  in  shipbuilding,  a  term  applied  to  theprocess  of 
sheatliing  the  botloms  and  sides  of  wooden  vessels  with  copper 
or  an  alloy,  to  protect  them  from  the  ravages  of  sea- worms,  and 
to  prevent,  by  the  slow  oxidation  of  the  metal,  the  accumulation 
of  vegetable  and  animal  growths,  which,  from  their  abundance, 
,  materially  impede  the  progress  of  ships.  Muntz's  patent  sheath 
ing  is  composed  of  sixty  parts  of  copper  and  forty  parts  of  zinc 
'Protective'  and  ' anti-fouling '  compositions  are  now  commonly 
,  applied  to  ships'  bottoms,  but  their  protective  power,  except  in 
two  or  three  cases,  is  very  indifferent,  anfl  a  really  good  and 
cheap  composition  is  still  a  desideratum. 

Copp'ermine  Eiver,  in  the  1;J.  of  the  old  Hudson's  Bay 
territory.  Dominion  of  Canada,  rises  in  a  small  lake  to  the  S 
of  Great  Bear  Lake,  flows  N.E.  for  about  no  miles  to  Point 
Lake,  after  leaving  which  it  takes  a  northerly  direction,,  entering 
'  Coronation  Bay  at  Bloody  Fall,  after  an  entire  course  of  some 
300  miles.  It  has  only  one  tributary  of  any  size,  and  is  rendered 
impassable  by  its  numerous  falls  and  rapids.  The  C,  along 
with  the  Indians  on  its  banks  and  a  mountain  range  to  the  W., 
receives  its  name  from  the  presence  of  copper  in  the  district,  and 
was  discovered  by  Lieutenant  Heame  in  1771. 

Copp'erplate  Printing.     See  Engkaving. 

C(g)'rolites,-the  name  given  to  certain  fossilised  substances, 
presumed  to  represent  the  petiified  excrements  of  fishes,  reptiles. 


&c,  and  which  occur  in  Mesozoic  and  Tertiary  deposits.  These 
C.  frequently  present  perfect  casts  of  the  interior  of  the  intestine, 
and  the  section  may  show  the  remains  of  scales,  teeth,  shells,  &c., 
which  have  resisted  the  digestive  processes.  C.  are  chiefly  com- 
posed of  phosphate  of  lime,  and  are  therefore  valuable  as  afford- 
ing a  capital  manure  for  the  agriculturisi  In  the  chalk  system, 
for  example,  beds  of  phosphatic  concretions  are  met  with  of 
coprolitic  origin.  The  names  'fossil  cones,'  '  beioar  stones, '&e., 
were  applied  to  C.  in  ignorance  of  their  true  nature. 

Coproa'ma,  a  genus  of  slirubs  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Cinchimaceix,  deriving  their  name  from  their  very  fetid  odours. 
The  leaves  of  C.  fiettdisstma  are  used  in  divining  the  will  of  the 
gods  by  the  New  Zealand  (Maori)  priests.  See  Bennett's  Gather- 
ings of  a  Naturalisl  in  Aiistralasia. 

Cop'tia,  or  Oold  Thread,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Ranuneuloiof,  consisting  of  a  few  species  found  in  America, 
N.E.  Asia,  and  one  in  Russia.  In  America  the  long  tliread- 
like  underground  stems  of  C  trifoliata  are  used  as  a  tonic  and 
material,  fiom  which  a  yellow  dye  is  extracted.    ' 

Copts  (from  Coptos  in  Upper  Egy^t)  are  a  sect  in  Egypt 
professing  a  corrupt  form  of  Christianity,  who  are  tlie  diieet 
descendants  of  the  Monophysites  (q.  v.)  in  Eg5T)t,  who  seceded 
from  the  Catholic  Church  when  their  tenets  were  condemned  by 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon  {451).  The  Arabian  conquest  ren- 
dered the  schism  irrevocable,  and  thns  the  Coptic  Church  was 
constituted.  The  C,  however,  are  much  more  than  the  relic  of 
a  Christian  sect ;  Uiey  are  the  only  living  representatives  of  the 
ancient  Egyptians.  In  numbers  they  do  not  exceed  aoo,ooo,  but 
have  thirteen  bishops,  and  a  patriarch  (of  Alexandria,  who,  how- 
ever, resides  at  Cairo).  The^  have  two  versions  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures — the  Memphilic,  in  the  Coptic  diaieet  of  Lower 
Egypt,  and  tlie  Thebait^  in  that  of  Upper  ^ypt.  The  Scriptures 
ate  still  read  from  these  in  their  public  worship,  but  as  the  language 
is  not  now  understood  either  by  people  or  priests,  they  are  afler- 
wardh  explained  in  the  Arabic,  which  is  their  vernacular.     An 


Cop'nla  (Ivat.  'band'),  the  logical  term  for  the  word  which 
joins  the  subject  and  predicate  of  a  proposition — e.g.,  '  Cfesar  is 
dead  '  Here  Cassar.  is  the  subject,  dead  the  predicate,  and  i>  the. 
C.  The  sign  of  predication  may  also  be  made  by  an  alteration, 
called  an  r>yfirft"ii»,,oa.tha  predicate — c^.,  '  water  flows ' — i>.,  is 
flowing.  For  the  confusion  to  which  a  dim  conception  of  the 
nature  of  tlie  C  has  given  rise,  see  Mill's  Logic,  book  i.  ch.  4. 

Cop'r  (Fr.  copie,  Lat.  eopia,  'plenty,'  Low  Lat.  'a  jKittern 
or  transcript,'  because  it  could  be  'frequently'  repeated),  in  art, 
a  work  in  painting,  sculpture,  or  engraving,  reproduced  by  one 
artist  from  the  original  design  of  another.  A  reproduction  of  a 
work  of  art,  executed  by  the  artist  himself,  is  called,  a  duplicate  or 
replica  ;  a  reproduction  in  plaster  of  a  work  of  sculpture  is  called 
a  Cast  {q.  v.). 

CbpVl 
stitutedT) 


of  the  lord  of  the  manor.  No  nght  of  C.  can  now  be  created, 
for  it  IS  r=qmsite  to  the  tenure  that  it  have  been  held  from 
immemornl  time  iti  vutue  of  copy  of  court  roll.  In  Ireland 
there  ace  no  lands  of  C  tenure,  but  m  England  it  is  by  it  that 
much  uf  the  land  contmues  to  be  held; ,  under  relaxation  of 
Its  more  oiiprons  ties  and  conditions.  Services  anciently  due 
from  them  having  mostly  fallen  into  desuetude,  a  C.  estate  has 
become  nearly  equal  in  value  to  a  freehold.  Subsisting  manorial 
rights  may  be  commuted,  and  copyholds  enfranchised  Under  pro- 
visions of  4  and  5  Vicf.  c.  35,  amended  by  sulisequent  statutes. 
TTie  tenant  or  lord  of  the  C.  land  may  compel  its  enfranchise- 
ment, and  the  extinction  of  a  claim  of  Heriols  (q.  v.).  When 
either  lord  or  tenant  requires-an  enfranchisement,  notice  is  to  be 
given,  and  unless  the  sum  be  agreed  upon,  the  amount  is  to  be 
ascertained  under  direction  of  the  C.  Commissioners,  whose 
award  is  to  have  equal  force  with  a  deed  of  enfranchisement 
under  the  C.  Acts. 

243 


vGooqIc 


COP 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


An  ordinary  conveyance  is  ineffectual  with  regard  to  C.  land. 
The  mode  of  transference  is  symbolical,  like  that  called  Resigna- 
ion  (q.  V.)  in  Scotland.  The  land  is  symbolically  surrendered 
0  the  lord  of  the  manor  or  his  steward,  who  again,  in  the  same 
way,  transfers  it  to  the  person  to  whom  the  transfer  is  to  be 
made,  and  on  the  desired  conditions.      See  CONVEYANCING. 

Copying  HachiueB,  a  term  applied  in  a  restricted  sense  io 
machines  for  producing  facsirniles  of  various  writings.  In  general 
the  copying  macliine  consists  of  a  heavy  metal  frame  fixed  to  or 
standing  upon  a  table,  and  having  above  it  a  flat  plate  of  the 
same  size,  which  can  be  raised  up  and  pressed  down  by  means 
of  a  screw.  In  connection  with  .the  machine,  a  book  full  of 
blank  tissue  paper  is  used.  A  page  of  this  is  damped,.the  letter 
to  be  copied  inserted  underneath  it,  and  the  whole  placed  be- 
tween the  plates  of  the  press.  The  movable  plate  is  forcibly 
screwed  down  upon  the  fixed  one,  and  by  the  pressure  an  exact 
copy  of  the  letter  is  impressed  upon  the  damped  page.  This 
copy  is,  of  course,  reversed,  but  the  paper  is  so  thin  that  it  can 
be  read  through  the  right  way  withont  difficulty.  Specially 
thickened  ink,  called  'copying  ink,'  must  be  used.in  writing  the 
letter  in  the  first  instance. 

Copj'iug',  in  photography,. is  the  name  g(ven  to  ■that  brancli 
of  the  art  which  deals  with  the  reproduction  of  pictures,  en- 
gravings, maps,  manuECTLpts,  &c..  In  employing  the  camera  fori 
C.  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  avoid  having  a  distorted  image,  to 
place  the  instrument  in  a  perfectly  horizontal]  position  with  the 
int  parallel  to  the  picture.  A  good  diffused  light  should  surr 
iind  the  picture,  which  should  be  unglazed  and  ieversed.  To 
.  aire  an  image  with  well-defined  edges,  a  lens  provided  with  a 
smaE  diaphragm  should  be  used.  Engravings  with  half-tuits  are 
not  adapted  for  sucoessful  reproduction.  To  produce  a  nega- 
tive with  perfect  transpacency  in  the  shadows,  an  old  collodion, 
mixed,  if  necessary,  with  a  fittle  dilute  tincture  of  iodine,  that 
adheres  well  to  the  glas5,.should  he  selected,  and  the  nitrate  bs,th 
should  be  of  full  strength.  A  good  negative  is  distinguished  by 
clear  delineation  of  the  lights  and  shades,  with  great  density  in 
the  opaque  parts.  In  printing  the  positives  a  highly-salted 
paper  will  yield  good  results,  free  from  (he  gloss  which  accom- 
panies the  nse  of  aibamen,  and  increased  intensity  and  brilliancy 
will  follow  the  employment?  of  an  extra  strong  'silver'  bath. 
For  rich  purple  toning,  a  bath  of  30  grains  acetate  of  soda,.  5 
grains  carbonate  of  soda,  and  10  oz-.  water  should  be  prepared 
twelve  hours  beforehand,  and  just  before  using  add  3  grains- 
chloride  of  gold  in  2  OS.  water.  The  bath  works  qnickly  when 
hot,  and  slowly  when  cold. 

Copyri^t,.  La^w  of.  The  intangibility  of  literary  property 
makes  the  framing  and  administration  of  laws  for  its  protection 
peculiarly  difficult.  Admitting  that  nO'  one  is  entitled  to  sell 
the  book  on  copy  tlie  picture  of  another  without  his  consent, 
there  still  renwuna  the  difficulty  of,  determining  whether  or  not 
one  book  is  essentially  the  same  as-  another,  or  whether  or  not 
one  picture 'is  essentially  copied  from  another.  Then  questions 
arise  as  to  the  reasonable  duration. of  C.  of  an  author  or  his  heirs, 
and  respecting  the  rights  of  others  to  translate  or  abridge  works. 
The  L.  of  £.. over  the  United  Kingdom  rests  partly  on  com- 
mon law  and  partly  on  statute.  .Undep  the  foLmer  it  has  been 
decided  ini  England  that  ^bsnafide  abridgment  of  a  book  is  a 
new  work,  and  however  it  may  injure  the  sale  of  the  original, 
that  it  does  not  violate  C. ;  and'in  the  case  of  Kearsley  11.  Carey, 
Lord  EUenborougb  held  that  a  variance  in  form  and  manner,  was 
a  variance  ifi  substance;  But  in  all  abridgments,  histories,  chron- 
ologies, didlionaries,  and  the  like,  it  must  be  left  to  a  jury  to  deter- 
mine whether  a  publication  complained  of  is  a  sei'vile  copy  and 
imitation, Mxa-rA.  to  supersede  another,  oran  original  work  on  the 
same  subject.  No  one  but  the  author  or  his  assignee  ■  has- the 
right  to  prmt  or  publish  original  notes  or.  additions  to  an  old 
work,  thoughthere  be  no  C  in  the  main  work  (Carey  ■».  Long- 
man. I  E.,R.  35S).    All  translations  at«C. 

An  alien  .author  may  obtain  a  British  C,  Myjirsi  publishing  his 
work  iit  Eiigland.  This  was  so  decided  by  Lord  Chief-Jkstice 
Campbell  (Boosey  v.  Jeffrey),  who  thereby  reversed'the  previous 
L.  ofC.  as  dtclared'by  the  superior  courts  in  the  case  o£  Boosey 
V.  Purday. 

It  has  been  decided'by  the  House  of  Loi-ds  (Jeffrey  i/.  Boosey) 

that  a  forever  hasC.  iii  a  work  composed  and  published  in 

England,  thoogh  he  has  only  been  resident  in  Euglaud  for  a 

day.     C.   has  been  considered  by  the  common  Iftw  as  a  eight 

244 


vested  in  an  author  ov  artist.  But  the  duration,  modification,  and 
mode  of  assignment  of  the  right  are  now  regulated  by  the  statute 
5  and  6  Vict,  c,  45.  After  the  passing  of  the  Act,  July  i,  1842, 
it  is  provided  that  in  every  book  published  in  the  lifetime  of  the 
author,  he  and  his  assignee  shall  have  C,  for  the  term  of  the 
author's  life,  and  for  seven  years  after  hia  death;  or,  if  these 
seven  yeacs  expire  before  the  end  of  forty-two  years  fi'om  the 
date  of  publication,  then  for  forty-two  years.  Thus,  for  any 
book  published  since  the  Act  took  effect,  the  C.  subsists  either 
for  forty-two  years  certain,  or  during  the  author's  life,  and  seven 
years  after  his  death. 

Regarding  books  published  before  the  Act  came  into  force,  and 
of  which  the  C.  then  existed,  provisions  are  made  by  which  the 
benefits  of  the  Act  may  be  secured  by  the  author  or  his  personal 
representative,  or  by  the  proprietor  of  the  C.  The  C.  of  a  book 
published  after  the  death  of  the  author  is  to  last  for  forty-two 
years  from  the  time  of  publication,  and  to  belong  to  the  proprie- 
tor of  the  manuscript  from  which  it  is  first  published  and  his  as- 
signee. To  prevent  the  suppression  of  any  book  of  importance, 
the  judicial  committee  of  the  Privy  Council  '  '  ' 

license  a  work  to  be  republished,  on  such  c 
think  proper. 

The  G  in  articles  in  encyclopedias,  revi 
iiv-periodicals  and  serial  works,  is  vested  in 
shall'  have  einplByed  and  paid  persons  to  \ 
right  to  republi.sh  articles  puhlislied  first  in 
verts  to  the  author  after  twenty-eight  years. 


ionditi. 

ews,  magazines,  and 
the  proprietors  who 
vrite  them ;  but  the 
periodical  works  re- 

_ '—.     ■       ,  Io  continue  for  the 

reminder  of  the  term  given  by  flie  Act.  During  the  twenty- 
eight  years  the  publisher  of  the  periodical  has  not  the  right  to 
publWi  the  articll;  separately,  without  the  consent  of  the  author 
or  of  his  assignee. 

A  perfect  copy  of  the  whole  of  eveiy  book,  and  of  every  sub- 
sequent edition,  with  additions  or  alterations,  is  to  be  delivered 
within  one  calendar  month  after  publication  to  the  British 
Museum,  and  within  a  month  of  demand  to  the  officer  of  the 
Stationers'  Company  for  the  following  libraries :  the  Bodleian,  the 
public  Library  of  Cambridge,  the  Advocates'  Library  of  Edin- 
buigh,  and  that  of  Trinity  College,  Dubiin,  or  the  .publishers 
may  send  the  copies  direct  to  these  libraries.  Non-compliance 
with  this  provision  renders  the  party  liable  to  a  penalty  of  ^^5. 

Ai  book. of  registry  is  to  be  kept  at  Stationers'  Hall ;  the  book 
to  be  open  to  the  inspection  of  ail,  on  payment  of  one  shilling 
for  every  entry  which  shall  be  searched  for  or  inspected,  and  a 
certificate  of  the  same  is  to  be  given  by  (he  clerk,  wlien  required, 
on  payment  of  five  shillings  ;  this  certificate  to  be  received  in  all 
courts  as  prima  facie  proof  of  the  proprietorship  or  C.  of  the 
work.  No  one  except  the  proprietor  of  the  C.  is  allowed  to 
import  into  the  British  dominions  any  copy  of  the  work  re- 
printed abroad,  under  the  penalty  of  Alo,  and  double  the  value 
of  every  eopy  imported.  C.  is  declared  to  be  jiersonal  property 
and  capable  of  bequest.  The  Act  extends  to  every  part  of  the 
British  dominions. 

Iniemaiionai  Copyright.— 'Zy  7  and  8  Vict,  c  12,  the  Queen  is 
empowered  by  Order  in  Council  to  direct  that  authors,  inven(ors, 
&c,  shall  have  the  protection  of  the  former  Act  within  the  British 
dominions.  In  accordance  with  this  statute,  treaties  of  interna- 
tional C.  have  now  been  carried  outbetween  the  United  Kingdom 
and  France,  Prussia,  Bel^um,  Saxony,  and  Sardinia.  There  is 
noitreaty  of  C.  between  England  and  the  U.  S.  of  America. 

Copyright  in  Lectures^  Letters,  and  the  Drama. — The  author  or 
assignee  of  any  lecture  has  the  sole  right  of  delivery,  printing  or 

Eublishing  ii  Printers  or  publishers  of  newspapers  publishing 
^tures-  without  leave  are  subject  to  penalties ;  but  (he  Act 
does  not  extend  to  lectures-delivered  at  colleges  or  schools, 
letter  is  the  property  of  him  to  whom  it  is  senf,  but  he  is  r 
legally  entitled  to  publish"  or  sell  it  without  the  consent  of  the 
writer.  The  author  of  any  play  or  opera  has  the  sole  right  over 
the  acting  of  it  within  the  British  dominions. 

Mngrazmigs,  Prints,  lithographs,  Faintings,  Drawings,  and 
Photographs  axi  all  C.  It  is  an  infringement  of  C.  to  copy  an 
engraving  by  photograph  (Gambart  v.  Ball  in  Court  of  Common 
Pleas,  1863).  The  property- of  designs,  prints,  and  engravings  is 
for  twenty-eight  years  from  the  date  of  publication. 

Designs  in  the  Mantrfacturing  Arts  are  protected  by  the 
Designs  Act,  by  which  C.  is  given  to  any  original  design  for  the 
ornamenting  of  any  article  of  manufacture.  The  term  of  protec- 
tion varies,  however,  accoi'ding  to  the  nature  of  the  manufacture. 
I  It  ranges  from  nine  months  to  three  years. 


y  Google 


4- 


COQ 


TJI£  GLOBE  ENCYCLOP.HDIA. 


COE 


Frtrngathe  Cafiynght.^-The  C.  of  cerlain  works%  encUisiyely 
vested  in  the  crown.  The  most  important  of  these  is  the  Bible. 
On  the  principle  of  preventing  a  civil  injury,  which  a  court  of  equity 

a  only  redress,  the  Court  of  Chancery  interferes  to  protect  the 

vners  of  literary  property,  by  issuing  an  injunction  to  restrain 
the  sale  of  pirated  copies,  and  an  order  to  produce  an  account 
of  such  copies  printed  and  sold. 

The  principle  on  which  the  court  interferes  being  the  protec- 
tion of  property,  there  must  be  a  clear  title  in  the  party  com- 
plaiiung,  and  the  work  must  be  of  snch  a  nature  that  damages 
might  be  recovered  in  a  court  of  common  law  for  pirating  it ; 
that  is,  the  work  must  not  be  immoral,  Uasphaiisus,  lUxlkus, 
norJfiitfte»i;'thatis,itmDst  not  be  so  in  its  general  tenor.  Thus 
it  has  been  decided  that  no  action  can  be  maintained  for  piratii^ 
a  work  which  professes  to  be  the  Amours  of  a  Cimrttsan.  An 
action  cannot  even  be  maintained  on  a  bilL  for  printing  a  grossly 
immoral  and  indecent  work.  In  Lawrtme  v.  Smith,  an  injunc- 
tion to  restrain  infringement  of  C.  was  refused  on  the  ground  of 
religious  heterodoxy. 

Coq'uerel,  the  name  of  two  French  Protestant  pastors,  who 
are  likely  to  have  considerable  influence  upon  the  destiny  and 
doctrine  of  their  Church.  The  elder,  Atlianase  Laurent 
Charles,  bom  at  Paris,  August  27,  Ii795,  became,  after  a  course 
of  education  at  Montauban,  first,  minister  of  the  Reformed 
Church  at  Amsterdam,  and  subsequently  (1830)  at  Paris.  He 
was  a  singularly  eloquent  pulpit  oratot,,  but  the  expression  of 
Rationalistic  or  Unitarian  opinions  led  to  the  division  in  the 
Reformed  Church  which  has  not  yet  been  healed,  although  what 
is  known  as  the  'Orthodox  party'  is  in  the  meantime  in  the 
ascendant.  C,  who  had  been  a  member  of  the  Corps  Legisktif, 
but  had  not  succeeded  as  a  politician,  died  January  10^  1868.  A 
.  collection  of  his  sermons  was  published  in  8  vola.  {1819-59). 
His  son,  Athanase  J'osue,  known  till  his- father's  death  as  C. 
fils,  was  bom  at  Amstei-dam  in  1820,  and  both  as  a  theologian 
and  as  editor  of  various  periodicals,  particularly  the  NouviUi 
Revue  de  TUalagk,  expressed  opinions  siraili.r  to  those  of  his 
father.  For  his  views  on  M.  Renan's  Vit  de.  Jisas,  he  was  sus- 
pended by  the  Paris  Consistoty  in  1S64.  He  was,  however, 
enabled  to  resume  preaching,  and  became  the  recognised  head 
of  the  '  Liberal '  section  of  the  Refoimed  Church,  He  was 
equally  well  known  as  a  lecturer,  and  as  an  active  wriler  of 
sermftns,  theolc^cal  treatLws,  and  ecclesiastical  pamphlets. 
Among  his  works  are  Jean  Calus  et  sa  Fa-mille,  Aluds  Hislorigue 
(1858),  La  Smnt-Bailhilemy  (l86o),  and  La  Conscknce  et  la  Foi 
(1867).     C.  died  at  Paris,  26lh  July  1875- 

Coquill'a  Nuts,  the  seeds  ai  Attdlea  Junifsra,  a  palm,  the 
wood  of  which  is  now  exported  from  S.  America  for  the  sake  of 
being  cut  and  polished  mto  buttons,  knobs  of  umbrellas,  and 
such-Hke  articles,  which  its  hardness,  susceptibiliiy  to  polish, 
and  beautiful  mottled  appearance  make  it  very  suitable  for  See 
Attalka. 

Ooquiiulio,  a  province  in  the  N.  of  Chih;  S.  America,  be 
tween  Alacama  and  Aconcagua.  It  is  one  of  the  laigest  provinces 
in  the  state,  having  an  area  of  13,300  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop 
(1S75)  of  157,463.  C.  is  richly  metalliferous,  especially  m  copper, 
■       ■'   ;so(V-'---  ■        ■      ■  "'■■■■ 


but  the  soil  is  torren  and  w 


;,  and  little  gram  is  pro- 
The 


<TB^,  Gael,  curach,   Swed. 

0   Lat.   earabus),  a   small 

I,  formed  of  a  wicker- 


„__, _.,  .  .eof 

tlie  best  harbours  in  ChilL  The  capital  is  La  Serena  {<\.  v. ). 
C.  is  also  the  name  of  a  small  town  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  C, 
on  a  fine  bay  with  secure  anchorage  and  a  good  depth  of  water. 
It  is  the  port  of  La  Serena,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail 
way,  and  lias  a  pop.  of  1270.  In  the.neiglibonrhood  arelaigt 
copper-smelting  works.  The  copper,  exported  (which  goes 
chiefly  to  England)  amounted  in  1873  to  15,000  tons,  valued  at 
/i, 125,000.    The  chief  imports  are  coal,  coke,  bricks,  and  griun. 

Ooqni'to,  the  Chilian  name  for  Jah^a  spectaUlis,  a  palm  found 
in  Chili,  and  the  sole  representative  of  its  ^enus.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  southern  American  palms,  existing  m  great  abundance 
between  latitudes  33°  and  35°.  The  sweet  syrup  known  in  Chili 
as  Miel  de  Palma  (palm-honey),  is  made  by  boiling  the  sap  of 
this  palm  to  the  consistence  of  treacle.  One  tree,  if  carefully 
'  -'--'  Svcuttinf  olf  the  crown  of  leaves,  will  vield,  in  the  course 
The 


exhausted,  n 


md  by  boys  a 


marbles,  while  the  leaves,  trunks,  &c.,  are  used  for  many  of  the 
purposes  to  which  all  palms  are  applied. 

Co'rft,  Go're,  or  Co'ri,  a  town  of  Central  Italy,  province  of 
Vellelri,  30  miles  S.E.  of  Rome,  in.  a  region  producing  wine 
and  oil.  Pop.,  4000.  It  was  an.  ancient  possession  of  the  Vol- 
sctans,  and  one  of  the  most  important  cities  of  Latium.  On  the 
hill  on  whiuh  it  is  built  are  still  the  interesting  ruins  of  two 
temples,  the  one  dedicaled  to  Hercules,  and  the  other  to  Castor 
and  Pollux. 
Cora'cias.  See  Roller.. 
Cor'aole,  or  Currach  (Wei.  at 
karf,  'a  yawl,'  claiming  a£6nity  I 
'  row-boat,  easily  carried  by  one 

or  slender  wooden  frame  covered  with  leather, 
other  flexible  waterproof  material,  used  in.  S.  Wales  and  else- 
where. The  origin  of  the  C.  is  unknown,  but  it  is  certain  that 
this  form  of  boat  has  come  down  to  us-  from  primeval  times. 
Herodotus  saw  skin-clad  boats  on  tlie  Euphrates,  and  in  Ches- 
ney's  Expeditjon  to  thi  Euphrates  mention  is  made  that  to  this 
day  the  basket-work  is  sometimes,  though  rarely,  covered  with 
leather.  The  ancient  Scandinavians  are  known  to  have  made 
voyages  of  discovery  in  similar  boats,  and  evidence  of  their  use 
in  Scotland  is  found  in  Bellenden's  Bystury  and  ChranikUs  of 
Scotland,  which  speaks  of  a  fishing-boat  called  a  '  currok '  as  '  ane 
bait  of  a  bull  hyd  bound  with  na  thing  hot  wandis^'  Less  than 
a,cenlury  ago  the  C.  was  to  be  seen  on  the  Spey.  On  the  W. 
coast  of  Ireland,  fishing  is  carried  on  in  curraghs  of  a  much  larger 
siae  than  usuaL  They  consist  of  a  li^t  skeleton  wooden  frame, 
covered  over  with  tarred  canvas,  measuring  20  feet  long  by  4 
feet  broad,  and  are  capable  of  carrying  fottr  men,  each  of  whom 
plies  two  short  oars. 

Goc'acoiiii  Bones,  so  called  from-their  supposed  resemblanci 
to  a  crow's  beak  (Gr.  iopax,  'a  crow'),  in  reptiles  and  birds  fom 
the  chief  support  of  the  shoulder- girdle  and  arm  or  fore-limb.  In 
fiie  monotremata  or.  lowest  mammals,  they  also  e: 
structures,  but  in  all  other  mammalia  as  mere  processes  of  the 
Scapula  (q.  v.)  or  shoulder-blades,  under  the  name  of  C.  pro- 
cesses. In  most  vertebrates  below  mammals,  and  in  monotremata, 
the  C.  extends  to  and  articulates  with  the  sternum  or  breastbone 
directly.  Jn  birds  it  is  the  great  support  of  the  wing,  and  forms, 
with  the  scapulte,  the  cavity  {glenoid  canity),  or  the  head  of  the 
humerus  or  bone  of  the  upper  arm,, 

Cou'aia,  Adantan'tios,  or  Diamant  Coray,  a 
his  name  in  French,  the  first  Hellenist  of  his  day,  » 
Smyrna,  27th  April  1748..  Having  studied  medicine,  he  settled 
in  Paris  in  1788.  The  French  Rev^ution  fired  him  with  the  idea 
of  emancipating  Greece  from  the  Turkish  yoke,  and  he  set  him- 
self to  inspire  his  countrymen  with  an  emulation  of  the  glory  of 
their  anusstors..  He  pubhshed  annotated  editions  of  many 
ancient  Greek  writers,  and  translated  into  modem  Greek  Bee- 
carta's  Det  Delitti  e  dcUePene  (1802}.  C.  died  at  Paris,  6th 
April  1833  See  Bios  Adamaittiou  Kara  Suggrap&tis  para  to 
idiou  (Par  1833).  Two  volumes  of  his  correspondence  wei 
published  at  Athens  in  1839. 

Cor'al  and  Coral  Islands:      C,  or  corallun 
given  to  the  hard  structures  developed  in  the  ti 
flie  highest  class,  of  Ccelenterate  animals, 
and  of  which  the  Sea-Anemone  (q.  v.)  or 
Actinia  may  be  taken  as  the  type.    C.  may   \ 
be  of  two  kinds,  sclerobasic  and  scleroder- 
mic.    The  latter  is  the  mote  typical  kind, 
and  exists  as  an  external  covering,  contain- 
ing tlie  polypes  or  animals  that  secrete  it 
This  variety  «f  C.  structure  is.  truly  secreted   I 
within  the  tissues  of  the  polypes,  being   j 
formed  by  the  enderoit-'Oi  inner  layer  of  the  V 
ectoderm   (the  outer,  tissue  of  the  body). 
Each  polype  thus.manufactures  a  little  cup 
of  C,  the  wall  of  which  is  known  as  the 
tieca,  whilst  internally  the  cavity  bounded 
by  the  theca  is  divided  into  chambers  or 
loculi  by  vertical  partitions.or  septa.   Some- 
times horizontal  partitions  or  '  '   '~  ' 
developed,  and  others  known  as  dissepiments 
may  also  exist;    A  sclerodermic   €'.  may 
readily  be  known  on  looking, at  it,  by  n 


icing  the  separate  little 


24s 


vGooqIc 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


COR 


cups  of  C.  structure,  which  the  individuals  of  the  C.  coloay 
fabricate.  Of  the  sclerodermic  corals,  which  are  the  chief  reef- 
building  forms,  the  Miidreparids  or  jiadrepores,  the  Astraiam 
(star-C),  Mmndrina  (br^n-C),  Tubipojids,  or  organ-pipe  C, 
&c.,  are  familiar  examples.  The  sderobask  or  second  variety 
of  C.  structure  exists  itiithin  the  oi^ranisms,  and  appears  as  a 
moie  or  less  sdid  central  rod  or  axis,  coated  by  the  living  polypes 
as  by  a  bark.  Of  this  kind  the  red  Q.rhis  or  mare's-taii  C,  the 
Gargmtia  or  sea-shrubs,  &c.,  are  good  examples.  The  sclero- 
basic  C.  is  secreted  by  the  enter  surface  of  the,  polypes,  and  not 
viilMn  their  bodies.  It  is  thus  named  by  Xyaxii  fiol-secrelion. 
The  euler  surface  of  Ihe  polypes  that  form  the  scUrobasic  C.  is  in . 
fact  inverted  and  turned  rmaards,  and  hence  the  C.  formed  by  the 
inverted  outer  surface  comes  to  exist  in  the  antre  or  interior  of 
the  living  tissues.  This  C.  forms  branching,  tree-Uke  organ- 
isms, and  from  its  nature  beats  little  or  no  share  in  reef-building. 
No  cups  or  separate  C.  structnres  for  each  of  the  polypes  can  be 
seen  on  inspecting  a  sclerobasic  C.  C.  is  not  always,  however, 
represented  by  such  definite  structures  as  denoted  by  the  preceding 
remarks.  Sometimes,  as  in  Alcyonaria — of  wMcli  Ateyonium 
(q.  V.)  is  a  good  example — a  sclerodermic  corallum  exists  in  the 
form  of  detached,  fusiform,  calcareous  spicula  or  needl6-like 
bodies,  and  the. same  may  Be  said  of  the  C.  secretion  of  foiTOS 
allied  to  our  Sea-Anemones  (q,  v.).  C.  may  also  be  of  horny 
consistence,  as  in  Corgimidis,  or'parlly  horny  and  partly  limy,  as 

Corals  require  for  (heir  life  two  great  conditions — a  tempera- 
ture of  sea  not  less  than  66°  Fahr.,  and  a  depth  not  greaterthan 
from  15  Co  30-fathom$.  A  belt  of  about  iSob  miles  oneach  side 
of  the  equator  marks  the  zone  of  distribution  of  coraJs.  The 
red  C.  (Corallium  ruiramY'is  found' in  the  Mediteirauean  Sea, 
ill  depths  of  from  25  to  50  feet,  and  lower.     It  appears  as  a 


I'SEl 

the  ehief"eharac'ters  which  give  red  G.  its  high  value. 

No  C.  i-eefs  exist  on  the  W.  coast  of  Africa  or  in  America, 
but  on  the  Australian  coasts,  E.  African  coasts.  Red  Sea,  Persiaji 
Gulf,  Indian  Ocean,  all  Polynesia;  W.  Indies,  and  Florida,  they 
occur  in  immense  numbers.  The  theory  of  C.  reeis  put  forward 
in  1845  by  Mr  Darwin  is  that  now  universally  accepted  as  ex- 
planatory of  the  erection  of  C.  islands.  A/ringing  re^  is  the  first 
stage  of  erection,  this  reef  fringing  the  shores  of  the  land  at  a 
depth  (15  to  30  fathoms)  suitable  for  the  polypes.  If  the  land 
begins  to  sink  or  subside,  the  lower  corals  are  carried  out  of 
iheir  depth  and  die,  whilst  those  at  llie  top  build  upwardsat  a 
rate  corresponding  £0  the  subsidence.  Thus  a  Sorrier  reef  is 
formed,  which  endoses  a  sheet  or  belt  of  water,  between  it.  and 
the  original  land.  If  the  barrier  reef  sinlt  in  its  turn,  an  atoll 
or  lagoon,  reef  (the  perfect  form  of  C.  island)  is  produced — 
this  latter  appearing  as  a  circular  ring  of  C,  enclosing  a  lalie 
or  lagoon  which  communicates  with  the  outer  sea  by  a  brealt 
in  the  C.  ring.  Darwhi's  theory  is  thus  wholly  dependent  on 
the  phenomena  of  the  subsidence  of  land  ;  and  his  views  have 
gradually  and  surely  siroplanled  the  old  ideas  that  the  C.  polypes 
began  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  and  built  upwards,  since  it  has 
been  shown  that  they  can  live  in  limited  depths  of  sea  only.  A 
depth  of  200  feet  is  about  the  maximum  depth  at  which  reef, 
building  corals  can  live.  Some  C.  reefe  are  of  large  size. 
The  great  barrier  reef  on  the  N.E.  coast  of  Australia  runs  unin. 
lerruptedly  for  a  length  of  more  than  1000  miles,  and  otfier 
reefs  and  atolls  are  proportionately  large.  Different  corals  mhabit 
different  parts  of  a  reef.  The  foundation  appears  to  be  ftJrmed 
by  Asirmas,  which  hve  at  about  6  fathoms  dqjth..  To  these 
succeed  Meandrinas  and  Porites;.  the  upper  parts  and  summit  of 
the  reef  being  formed  by  Madr^reSt  MUlepores;  and  Corgonidsk. 
The  reader  may  with  advantage  consult  Darwm's  work  on  C. 
Reefi,  and  also  Dr  Tames  D.  Dana's  Corals  and  Goral  Jslcmds 

(■8;s|. 

Cotal-Berry,  an  American  name  for  Sympharicarpus  vul- 
garis. 

Goi^allin,  a  red  colouring  matter,  first  obtained  in  1861  by  the 
German  chemists  Kolbe  and  Schuiitt,  by  healing  phenol  with 
sulphuric  and  oxalic  acids,  and  no W"  extensively  prepared  as  a 
commercial  product,  under  the  names  of  Aurin-  or  yellbw  C, 
and  Feonin  or  red  C.     The  conslitution  of  these  dyes  is  com- 


plex  and  slightly  different.  Aurin  yields  peonin  on  being  heated 
with  alcoholic  ammonia.  Yellow  C.  forms  a  stable  limo-lake 
with  excess  of  lime,  aud  is  employed  largely  by  papeislauiers. 
Red  C.  is  much  used  for  printing  fabrics  and  dyeing  wool,  but 
the  colour  fades  into  yellow  in  contact  with  acids,  unless  an 
alkaline  body  be  mixed  with  the  dye.  By  the  use  of  calcined 
mj^esia  in  an  alcoholic  or  aqueous  solution  of  red  C,  a  rich 
anddurable  Turkey  red  is  obtained, 

Cor'alliue  and  Coralline  Crag.  The  name  C,  often 
erroneously  supposed  to  denote  Coral  (q.  v.),  is  now  restricted, 
and  applied  in  zoology  to  indicate  various  kinds  of  Folyzoa,  or 
lower  mollnscan  animals.  Of  these  forms,  the  bull's-hom  C. 
(Scntparia  ckelala),  the  snake-head  C.  (jStia  angama),  the  coat- 
of-mail  C  {Csmellaria  loricala),  the  shepherd's-purse  C.  {No- 
tamia  bursaria),  and  the  bird's-head  C.  (Sugula  avicularia)  are 
familiar  examples.  The  C  C.  is  a  deposit  belonging  to  the 
Pliocene  period,. averaging  from  20  to  50  feet  in  tliickness, 
and  deriving  its  name  from  the  abundance  of  its  fossil  'corallines' 
or  Polyzoa  (q.  v.).  This  deposit  is  well  developed  in  Suffolk, 
and  of  its  polyzoa  the  genera  Cellepora,  Theoiioa,  and  faieicula- 
ria.  are  familiar  examples.  Many  marine  molluscs  (about  350 
species)  and  echinodemis  also  occur  in  the  C.  C. 

CowH  Rag,  a  formation  belonging  to  the  middle  Oolite  or 
Juras  series  (Mesosaic)  of  rocks,  and  consisting  of  from  1 50  to 
250  feet  of  limestone,  lying  above  the  Oxford  clay.  It  derives 
its  name  from  the  number  of  fossil  corals  found  in  it,  these 
fossils  belonging  to  such  genera  as  Isastraa,  Thamnastrss, 
Stylina,  and  ThecBsndlia.  In  Oxfordshire  and  Wiltshire  this 
deposit  maybe  typically  seen.  Abundant  mollusca,  echinoderms, 
and  a  few  fish  remains  occur  in  the  C  R. 

Coral  BiOOt,  the  common  name  for  CorallorAiza,  though 
sometimes  applied  to  Dentaria  dulbifera. 

Coral  Sea  is  that  portion  of  the  S.  Paeiiic  included  between 
Australia,  New  Guinea,  the  New  Hebrides,  and  the  29th 
parallel  of  S.  latitude.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  coral  reefs 
with  which  it  abounds,  and  which,  in  the  opinion  of  Dana 
{Corah  and  Coral  Iilaiids),  indicate  a  subsidence  of  the  land  of 
more  than  2©oo  feet.     See  New  Caledonia. 

Coral  Tree,   or  Coral  Flower,   the  common  name  I 
Erythrina  (q.  v.).      The  Coral  Plant  is  Jatropha  tiiultifda: 
Cor  Anglais,  a  species  of  bass  oboe,  not  now  used  in  the 

Cora'to,  a  town  in  the  S.  of  Italy,  province  of  Terra  de  Earl, 
25  miiesW.  of  Bart  It  has  some  fine  churches  and  convents, 
and  a  trade  in  wine,  oil,  and  southern  fruits.     Pop.  24,600. 

OorTjel  (Fr,  curbdlle,  'a  basket  ■),' in  Gothic  architecture,  a 
projecting  bracket,  sometimes  in  the  form  of  a  basket,  but  often 
variously  sculptured,  which  supports  a  superinoumbent  weight 
or  receives  the  spring  of  an  arch.  A  row  of  corbels  support- 
ing a  battlement,  parapet,  or  cornice  is  called  a  C.-table.  See 
Bracket,  Console,  Mobillioh., 

OorTiie,  Corby,  or  Corbeau  (I,at.  corxms,  'a  raven'),  in 
heraldry,  .bears  its  etymological  meaning. 

Qorliie-Stepa,  or  Crow^Stepa  (Fr.  eorbeau,  Lat.  corvus), 
in  architecture,  steps  up  tlie  sides  of  a  gable.  This  picturesque 
finish  to  the  end  wall,  as  it  narrows  along  with  the  slope  of  the 
roof,,!?,  frequently  to  be  met  with  in  old  houses,  especially  in 
Flandei-s,  Holland,  Germany,  and  Scotland.  The  popular  notion 
is  that  the  steps  are  meant  for  the  ciows.  The  top  step  is  called 
the  crow-stone. 

Cor'cboms,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  lime-tree  order  (7j7i- 
aaa\  containing  between  foity  and  fifty  species,  inliabitants  of 
both  hemispheres,  bat  generally  not  found  far  from  the  tropics, 
C.  capsularis,  an  annual  Asiatic  plant,  and  C.  ditorius,  a  closely 
allied  speciesj ,  both  much  cultivated  in  India,  yield  the  fibre 
so  well'known^  as.Jiite  (q.  v.),  and  the  fibre  used  in  making 
Gunny  Bags  (q!  y.)(  C,  olitorius—\hs  Cerelte  potagire  of  the 
Frendi  gardens,  now  naturalised  in  all  parts  of  tiie  tropics,  and 
as  far  N.  as-  the  Mediterranean — is  sometimes  called  the  Jew's 
mallow,  from  being  much  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  its  lender 
shoots  as  a  potherb  by  the  Jevra  of  Syria  and  the  East  gene- 
rally. C.  capsularis  (sometimes  also  called  Chinese  hemp, 
owing  to  its  being  extensively  cultivated  in  China)  is  used  also 


yLaOogle 


COR 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


COR 


for  the  same  purpose.  The  leaves  of  C.  liliquosus  of  the  W. 
Indies  and  tropical  America  are  used  by  the  negroes  in  the 
former  islands  and  by  the  inliabitants  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 
for  making  an  infused  beverage  called  te,  and,  as  the  name  would 
indicate,  used  as  a  substitute  for  tea. 

Oor'daga,  a  nautical  term  applied  to  the  nmniiig  rigging  of  a 
ship,  as  distinguished  from  the  standing  tigging,  and  also  to  the 
store  of  ropes  kept  in  reserve. 

Cor'day  d'Armana,  Mariane  Charlotte,  born  at  St 

Saturniii  in  1768,  the  second  daughter  of  a  poor  nobleman,  passed 
much  of  her  youth  m  a  monastery  at  Caen.  ;  She  studied  Rousseau 
and  Plutarch  incessantly.  Caen  became  a  retreat  for  the  Giron- 
dists when  they  were  expelled  from  the  Convention.  Excited 
■  1  their  tales  of  blood,  and  by  the  murder,  of. Colonel  de  Bel- 
uice,  C.  took  the  resolution  of  stfik'ing-a  blow  Jbr  the  peace  of 
her  country,  and,  with  an  introduction  from  Barbarou):,  went  to 
Paris  alone.  After  several  days'  watching,  she  was  admitted  to 
an  audience  with  Marat,  whom  she  killed  by  a  stroke  of.her 
knife  as  he  sat  in  his  bath.  She  confessed  and  justified  her 
ne  on  grounds  of  patriotism,  and  died  on  Jhe  scaffold,  w.i'h 
great  courage  and  serenity,  on  17th  July  1793. 

Cordeliers  ('wearers  of  the  knotted  cord')  was  the  French 
name  for  the  strictest  branch  of  the  Franciscans.  The  name 
received  a  new  significance  during  the  "^Revolution  in  1790,  when 
it  was  given  to  the  club  of  Danton,  Gamilie  Desmoolins,  Marat, 
and  Hebert,  which  met  in  a  Frandiscan  monastery, 

Oord-CFrEUS  {Spartina),  a  genus -of  grasses,,  of  which -one 
species  \S.  sliicla),  a  native  of  the  muddy  salt  marshes  of  the  E. 
and  S.E.  coasts  of  England,  is  used  for  mating  ropes.     Else- 

Gor'dia,  a  genus  of  plants  comprising  nearly  all  of  the  Car- 
diacta  (q.  v.),  and  containing  upwards  of  180  species,  mostly 
trees  or  shrubs.  The  fruits  of  C.  latifdia  and  C.  Myxa  of  India 
are  succulent,  mucilaginous,  and  emollient,,  and  are.,accovdingly 
eaten.  Under  the  name  of  SehesUns  or ,  Sebeslea-plum  they 
have  been .  employed  in  chest-complaints  as  pectoral  medicin^, 
a  use  lo  which  those  of  C.  Abyssittica  (Wanzey)  are  also  applied  in 
Abyssinia,  Those  of  C.  ( Varrania)  lotufidifylia  are"  used  to 
fatten  cattle.  The  bark  of  C  Myxa  is  used  inTndia  as  a  tonic, 
and  for  making  astringent  gargles.  Its  wo.od  is  said  to  bave 
been  that  employed  by  the  E^ptians  to  make  -their  mummy 
cases.  That  of  C.  Rnmfhii  is  brown  veined  with  black,  and 
smells  of  mask.  From  C.  Gnascanlhus  is  obtsuned  tlie  dark- 
brown-veined  and  fine-grained  timber  known  in  commerce  as 
Spanish  elm,  Prince  wood,  or  Bois  de  Chypre  ai  the  W.  Indies. 
Anacnhuite  wood,  imported  a  few  years  ago  as  a  tonic,  &c.,,i5 
obtained  from  C.  Boissieri. 

Cordia'oeEe,  a  tribe  or  sub-order  ai  .Bora^inaceiii,  though 
sometimes  described  as  a  separate  order  of  plants.  There  are 
about  200  species  known,  natives  chiefly  of^the  tropics  of  the 
Old  and  New  Worlds,  and  distritiuted  over  about  twelve  genera, 
but  most  of  these  have  been  delegated  to  the  genus  Cordia 
(»  v.). 

Oor'dioeps,  a  genus  of  Fungi  (q,fV.)  which  grows  am  dead 
leaves,  decaying  branches,  ergoted  seeds,  and  upon  the  pup^ 
and  larvffi  of  insects.  C.  Reierlsii  grows  upon  the  caterpillais  of 
a  species  of  New  Zealand  Hepialus.  One  species  attacks  wasps 
in  the  W.  Indies,  and  attains  a  considerable  size  before  the 
insect  dies.  The  Chinese  sell  C.  Sinmsis  in  little,  bundles,. under 
the  belief  that  it  is  a  drug  possessing  medicinal  propertits.     See 


Cor'don  (Vr.  cordon,  'aline,  a  girdle'),  in  militarjj  language, 
is  a  line  of  troops  drawn  round  a  town  or  district,  sufficient  to  pre- 
vent ingress  or  egress,  if  requisite.  If  the  sentries  so  placed  are 
intended  as  a  precaution  agtunst  some  contagious  disease,  they 
are  called  a  C.  smtitaire.  In  fortification,  the  term  means  the 
coping  of  the  escarp  or  inner  wall  of  a  ditch,  which  is  usually 
rounded  in  front,  and  projects  about  a  fool  over  the  masonry. 


Oor'dova,  or  Cor'doba,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  C, 
Spain,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Guadalquiver,  which  is  here 
crossed  by  a  Moorish  bridge  of  fifteen  arches,  65  miles  N.E.  of 
Seville.  Its  wall,  also  Moorish,  is  pierced  by  thirteen  gales,  of 
which  that  named  ./i/rt«^  consists. of  a  fine  arch  supported  by 
four  Doric  pillars.  There  are  numerous  large  squares,  and  many 
of  the  houses  possess  marble  porches,  and  have  sparkhng  foun- 
tains.in  their  courts.  The  streets,  however,  are  narrow  and 
filthy.  The  cathedral,  originally  a  mosque,  and  occupying  tlie 
site  of  a.Eoman  temple, of  Janus,  is  the  finest  in  Spam,  and  is 
famous  for  its  '  forest '  of  marbie,  jasper,  and  porphyry  pillars, 
of  ..which  there  are  still  850.  The  bishop's  palace,  now  degraded 
into  stables,  the  churches,  of  ..San  Hipolito,  of  Santa  Marina, 
of  San  Salvador,  ivith  some  monastic  buildings,  are  the  otlier 
most  remarkable  structures.      The  manufactures,  once  impor- 


:  the  opening  of  the  railway,  however,  to  Seville  and  Cadiz, 
mmerce  of  the  city  has  begun  lo  increase.  Pop.  41,963. 
5  founded  by  the  Consul  Marcellus  (B.C.  152),^    Under  the 


Romans  it  was  the  greatest  and  most  flourishing  dty  in  Spai 
and  the  seat  of  the  supreme  tribunal  for  Bietica.     In  the  6th 
it  became  the  see  of  a  Visigothic  bishop,  and  from  716  was  ti.c 
capital  of  the  Moslem  power  in  die  Peninsula.     It  reached  the    | 
height  of  its  prosperity  in  the  tune  of  the  Califs  Abd-nz- Rahman    | 
III.  and  LV.,  .when  it  is  said  (doubtless  with  exaggeration)  to 
have  been  upwards  of  20  rniles  in  circumference,  to  have  had    i 
200,oco  houses,  and  i,ooo,opo  inhabitants.     At  that  time  it    | 
posessed  a  famous  Moslem  university,  80  public  schools,  a  lib- 
rary of  600,000  vols.,  600  mosques,  900  public  baths,  and  many    ' 
.splendid  palaces.     Its  greatness  gradually  declined  after  its  con-    ' 
quest  by  Ferdinand  III!  of  Castile  in  1236.   The  Senecas,  father 
.and  son,  Liican  the  poet,  and  Averroes  were  all  natives  of  C. 

Cordova,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  C,  Argentine  Re- 
public, lies  in  a  beautiful  valiey  on  the  Primero,  an  affiuent  of 
the  Parana.  It.haa  a  cathedral,  a  trade  in  hides  and  wool,  and 
was  long  the  residence  of  a  bishop.  Pop.  (1869)  28,523.  The 
pnrvinceolC,,  in  the  hpart  of  the  repubUo,  has  an  area  of  58,997 
sq.  miles;  pop,  (1869)  2io;soS.  It  abounds  in  excellent  pas- 
turage, and  cattle  and  sheep  ate  reared  in  great  numbers. 

Cor'dovan,  Spanish  leather,  or  cordwain,  made  of  goatskins 
tanned  ?nd  dressed,  and  used  in  the  finer  kinds  of  boot  and  shoe 
making,  as  well  as  in  Iraoltbinding.  It  was  originally  manu- 
factured by  the  Moors  at  Cordova,  hence  the  name.  The  same 
fact  explains  why  shoemakers,  are  called  coydwainsn. 

Core's  (called  by  the  natives  Tsj'o-sjln,  by  the  Chinese  Kaoli, 
whence  the  Japanese  Korai,  the  origin  of  our  form.  Cored),  a  king- 
dom of  Eastern  Asia,  under  the  suzerainty  of  China,  bounded 
N,  by  Manchuria,  E.  by  the  Sea  of  Japan,  S,  by  the  Strait  of 
Corea,  and  W,  by.jaie'  Yellow  Sea,  and  a  neutral  uninhabited 
mountainous  district,  separating  it  on  the  N,  W,  from  the  Chinese 
provinces  ..of.  Shing-kii^|;.and  Liao-tong.  It  is  peninsular  in 
form,  and  h^  numerous  groups  of  islands  belonging  to  it  in  the 
Yellow  Sea  and  the  Strait  of  Corea,  of  which  the  lai^est  is 
Quelpaert,  Area,  91,400  sq.  miles;  pop.  estimated  at  from 
^,500,000  to  9,ooo,opo.  C.  IS  divided  into  eight  provinces ;  its 
capital  is  Kan-yang,  A  mountain  chain  traverses  the  penm- 
sula  through  its  entire  length,  covered  in  part  with  dense  forests, 
and  fairly  fertile,  especially  on  its  western  slope,  which  is  well 
watered.  The  qvers,  from  the  conformation  of  the  land,  are 
small,  the  chief  of  them  being  the  P'ing  Jang  and  the  Han, 
The  climate  is  excessively  hot  in  summer  and  cold  in  winter, 
and  the  rainfall  is  excessive.  Agriculture  is  not  in  an  advanced 
condition ;  but  the  S.  produces  in  abundance  wheat,  cotton,  rice, 
millet,  and  hemp,  and  barley  is  grown  in  th»  N.  ITie  rice, 
which  forms  the  principal  food  of  the  inhabitants,  is  inferior  to 
that  of  Japan.  Paper  and  ginseng  are  exchanged  with  the  Chi- 
nese. The  former  manufacture  is  important,  paper  entering  into 
the  construction  of  hats,  umbrellas,  clothing,  &cj  Corean  sabres 
and  poniards  are  much  prized  in  Eastern  Asia,  the  natives  being 
billed  workers  in  metaU, 

The  Coreaiis  are  of  the  Turanian  stock,  and  speak  a  poly- 
syllabic language  of  great  purity,  but  becoming  gradually  cor- 
rupted by  an  infusion  of  Chmese  words.  The  Chinese  character 
is  generally  used  in  writing.  The  religion  resembles  that  of 
China,  but  there  are  numerous  Buddhists.     C,  studiously  pro- 


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hibits  intercourse  with  other  nations,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese.  That  with  the  former  is  limited  to  the 
annual  embassy,  and  to  periodical  fairs  at  the  'Gate-town,'  near 
Fgng-hwang,  in  Manchuria,  while  the  Japanese  are  allowed  to 
trade  only  at  tlie  single  port  of  Fu-tselian.  Recently  ^ere  have 
been  disputes  between  the  Coreans  and  the  Japanese,  and  in 
1875  the  latter  threatened  to  invade  the  country.  In  -1592 
Christianity  was  introduced  into  C.  through  Christian  converts 
from  Japan.  Jesuit  missionaries  established  themselves  in  4784.; 
some  French  missionaries  obtained  afootmg  in  1835,  and  conti- 
nued to  proselytise  with  ranch  success  till  j866,  wlien  nine  of 
them  were  massacred.  A  Erench  retaliatory  invasion,  and  two 
American  expeditions,  have  not  succeeded  in  removing  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  Coreans  to  intercourse  with  outside  nations.  See 
Williamson's  j^arB(w I'w  A^  CMaa{\%^a),iXlAHistoiredt  l'£g- 
Hst  di  Cork,  par  Ck,  Dalltt,  Missianairt  Apostoliqve  (Par.  1874}. 

Coreg'tmus,  a  genus  .of  Teleostean  iishes,  included  in  the 
Salmon  feniily  (SiUmotiidaX  and  distinguished  by  the  lieight  and 
forward  position  of  the  first  dorsal  fin.  The  scales  are  lai^e, 
the  teeth  very  small  or  rudimentary.  The  pollaa  ,(C.  Pellan), 
occurring  in  Irish  loughs,  such  as  Loughs  Derg,  Erne,  and 
Neagh,  is  an  example  of  this  genus  ;  so  are  the  powait  of  Loch 
Loraond  and  Lochmaben,  and  the  gwy-mad  of  Welsh  and  Cum- 
berland lakes.  These  fishes  frequently  get  the  names  of  '  fresh- 
water herrings'  and  'herring  salmon.'  The  wliite  fish  of  N. 
America  is  the  C.  alius. 

Coreli'i,  Arcangelo,  an  Italian  rausiclan,  was  bom  at 
Fusignano  in  1653,  educated  under  Simonelli  and  Bassani, 
traveiied  much  through  Europe,  where  he  himself  and  his  com- 
positions were  everywhere  popular,  and  settled  in  Rome  in 
i68r.  He  died  iStli  Januaiy  (^3.  C.  has  been  justly  called 
the  father  of  modem  instrumental  mnsic;  his  trios,  for  violins 
and  bass,  with  organ  accompaniment,  although      *  ' 


they  w 


n  the  ti 


e  of  theh  con(poser. 


OorentjTi',  a  river  of  S,  America,  dividing  Dutch  from  British 
Guiana,  rises  in  the  mountain  range  which  forms  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  country,  flows  in  a  general  northerly  direction, 
and  after  a  course  of  300  miles  falls  into  the  Atlantic  120  miles 
E.S.E.  of  Georgetown.  Its  estuary  at  its  mouth  is  25  miles 
broad.  The  C.  is  navigable  for  boats  to  where  it  is  joined  by 
the  Cabalalw,  150  miles  from  the  sea, 

Ooreop'sis  (Gr.  '  maiden's  eye '),  a  genus  of  American  Her- 
baceous plants,  belonging  to  the  order  Compssita,  containing 
several  species.  The  flowers  of  C.  vtrtuHlata,  a  shrubby  peren- 
nial species,  are  used  in  N.  America  to  dye  clotli  red. 

Oorfe  Oaetle  (the  Corfit-gml  of  the  ChrimkU,  in  allusion 
to  the  '  gate '  or  '  gap '  in  the  ridge  that  runs  along  the  penin- 
sula), a  village  in  the  'isle'  of  Purbeck,  Dorsetshire,  24  miles 
RS.E.  of  Dorchester,  There  are  quarries  of  Purbeck  marble  in 
the  vicinity,  where  also  immense  quantities  of  potter's  clay  are 
dug  for  the  StaPforiishire  potteries.  Pop.  (i87l).l8€6.  From 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth  to  the  Reform  Bill  of  .1833  it  sent  two 
memba'S  to  Parliament.  The  village  grew  up  round  the  ancient 
castle,  which  seems  to  have  been  founded  in  the  loth  c,  though 
it  is  not  entered  in  the  Survey  of  William'I.  Here  Edward  the 
Martyr  was  murdered  in  979,  and  King  John  starved  to  death 
twenty-two  of  Arthur's  supporters  in  1202.  Here  also  Henry  of 
Montfort  was  imprisoned  in  1275.  Lady  Bankes  in  1642  held 
the  castle  for  six  weeks  against  the  forces  of  the  Parliament,  and 
Fairfax  dismantled  it  in  1645. 

Coi'fu  (anc  Conyra),  the  most  northerly  of  the  'Ionian 
islands,  is  about  40  miles  long,  witll  a  breadth  varymg  from  3  or 
4  to  about  18  miles.  Area,  227  sq.  miles  ;  pop.  (1871).  72,466. 
It  is  rocky  and  mountainous— one  peak,  Pandokiatora,  rising 
more  than  3000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  valleys  and  level  tracts 
are  feftite,  yielding  oil,  wine,  frait,  honey,  and  some  corn. 
Salt,  produced  from  the  marshes  communicating  with  the  sea, 
and  oil  are  the  chief  articles  of  export  Value  of  exports  in  1873 
;Ci63,i58i  of  hnports,  ^359.807.  The  tmim  of  C.  is  finely 
situated  on  an  elevation  overlooking  a  safe  and  spacious  bay  on 
the  E.  side  of  the  island.  It  is  the  seat  both  of  a  Greek  and  of 
a  Roman  Catholic  archbishop,  has  considerable  shipbuilding, 
248 


and  a  large  trade.  Pop.  (1871)  15,452.  The  University  of  C. 
was  suppressed  in  1864,  when  the  Septinsular  Republic  was 
annexed  to  Greece.  C.  is  also  the  name  of  a  nomarchy  extend- 
ing over  the  ai^'acent  island  of  Pasco,  and  having  an  area  of 
428  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1870]  of  96,94a 

Coriau'der  (Ccniandrum  satimim),  an  annual  plant  of  the 
natural  order  UmbclUfera,  is  a  native  of  Southern  Europe  and  the 
Levant,  and  cultivated  in  this  and  other  countries.  Tlie  seeds 
or  fraits  are  carminative  .and  aromatic,  and  are  accordingly  used 
for  flavouring  curries  and  spirits,  and  hi  making  comfits,  &c. 

OOriar'ia,  a  genus  of  sTirUbs,  by  some  considered  the  type  of 
a  separate  order  lforim-iaiea\  consisting  of  eight  species.  It  is 
most  nearly^allied  to  Ochnatea  (q.  v.),  but  its  Unities  are  by  no 
means  well  undeistood.  They  ate  natives  of  the  S.  of  Europe, 
Chili,  Peru,  New  Zealand,  and  one  (/>.  Nipalensis)  is  found  in 
Nepal.  The  fraits  of  the  latter  species,  as  well  as  those  of  C. 
sannentosa  of  New  Zealand,  are  eaten,  but  the  genus  generally  is 
regarded  with  suspicion,  the  sseds  of  C.  sarmmtosa  (the  '  wine- 
berry  '  shmb)  beii^  poisonous,  though  the  pericarp  of  the  fruit  is 
wholesome.  An  agreeable  'wine'  is  made  from  it,  which  tastes 
like  that  made  from  elder-berries.  The  seeds,  however,  cause 
convulsions  and  dehrium,  which  often  end  fitaUy.  Sheep  are 
frequently  poisoned  by  eatmg  the  plant.  The  fruit  of  C.  myrl'i- 
fdia;a.  European  species,  is  said  to  have  proved  fatal  to  some 
French  soldiers  who  partook  of  it  in  Catalonia.  The  leaves  l^ve 
been  used  to  adulterate  senna,  and  have  caused  tetanic  con- 
vulsions in  those  who  have  partaken  of  the  adulterated  drag. 
They  owe  their  poisonous  properties  to  a  glucoside  called  cifria- 
myriitu.     C.  is  also  used  in  dyeing  black. 

Coiiglia'no  (anc.  Corioianum),  a  town  of  Italy,  provmce  of 
Calabria  Citeriore,  overloolting  the  Gulf  of  Taranto,  from  which 
it  is  about  4  miles  distant.  It  has  a  citadel,  customhouse,  hos- 
pital, and  several  churches  and  convents,  and  a  trade  in  wine, 
oranges,  olives,  and  lemons.     Pop.  13,204 

Corin'g'a,  a  town  of  British  India,  province  of  Madras,  dis- 
;trict  of  Godavari,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  C.,  a  branch  of  the 
Godavari,  and  290  miles  N.N.E,  of  Madras.  Its  harbour  is  one 
of  the  finest  on  the  coast.  The  inhabitants  are  principally  en- 
gaged in  the  building  and'  repairing  of  coasting  vessels.  Pop. 
(1870)  15,000. 

Clorian,'a,  a  Greek  poetess,  a  native  of  Tanagi-a  in  Bceotia, 
flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the  5th  c,  B.C.,  and  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Pmdar,  from  whom  she  wrested  at  least  one  victory 
at  the  public  games  at  Thebes.  Her  poems,  chiefly  lyrical,  were 
composed  m  the  MdiK  dialect.  They  were  collected  in  five 
books,  but  only  a  few  fragments  remain,  which  may  be  found  in 
Bergk's  LyriH  Poets  Graci  (Leips.  1843).  Statues  were  erected 
to  her  in  several  towns  of  Greece,  She  is  often  spolten  of  under 
the  surname  of  J/aiaC  the  fly'). 

Cor'inth  (originally  Epkyrd),  one  of  the  most  famous  cities  of 
ancient  Greece,  stood  at  iheS.W.  extremity  of  the  isthmus  which 
connected  Hellas  with  the  Peloponnesus.  Its  citadel,  the  Aero- 
cormthus,  an  isolated  rock  1S86  feet  high,  together  with  the 
walls  which  connected  the  dty  with  its  port,  enabled  C.  to 
command  the  three  passes  which  led  from  the  isthmus  to  the 
Peloponnesus.  The  city,  lying  at  the  Ijase  of  this  natural  fortress, 
and  between  two  important  seas,  soon  became  a  great  commercial 
centre.  The  earliest  established  fact  in  the  history  of  C.  is  its  ' 
conquest  by  the  Dorians  led  by  Aletes,  who  with  his  descendants 
exercised  regal  sway  for  twelve  generations.  Tlie  Bacchiad 
oligarchy  succeeded,  under  whom  the  city  began  to  enlarge  its 
commerce  with  the  West,  establishing  colonies  in  Coreyra  and 
Syracuse ;  but  after  lasting  ninety  years,  this  oligarchy  was  over- 
thrown by  Cypselus,  aided  by  the  general  body  of  the' populace, 
BiC.  657,  and  a  democratic  '  tyranny '  followed  of  seventy-seven 
years,  during  which  C.  rapidly  prospered.  Under  Cypselus  and 
his  son  Periander  (b.c.  625-585)  it  formed  a  chdn  of  trading 
stations  on  the  coasts  of  .^tofia,  Acarnania,  Epmis,  and  Myria, 
and  spread  its  authority  over  the  whole  western  sea  ;  while  by 
its  colony  of  Potidsea  m  Thrace,  and  its  alliances  with  the  Greek 
towns  of  Asia  Minor  and  with  the  kin^  of  Lydia  and  t^pt,  it 
established  its  influence  in  the  East.  On  the  expulsion  m  Peri- 
ander's  son  a  moderately  aristocratic  system  was  again  intro- 
duced, and  C.  became  a  member  of  the  Peloponnesian  league 
under  the  leadersliip  of  Sparta,  and  as  such  took  part  in  the  great 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Peloponnesian  War.  Becoming  jealous  of  the  growing  power  of 
Sparta,  C.  united  in  B.C.  395  with  olher  Grecian  stales  against 
it,  and  in  the  | Corinthian  War'  that  followed  (B.C.  394-387) 
suffered  greatly'  After  the  battle,  of  Chsetoneia  (B.C.  338),  C. 
was  held  by  the  Macedonian  kincs,  but  as  a  consequence  of  the 
battle  of  Cynoscephalse  (B.C.  197),  obtained  Its  freedom,  entered 
the  Achiean  League,  of  which  it  became  the  centre,  and  was 
totally  destroyed  by  Mummius,  whe  carried  to  Rome  its  price- 
less works  of  art  {B.C  146).  A  century  later  it  was  rebuilt  by 
Julius  Cassar,  but  during  the  Empire  was  merely  the  shadow  of 
its  former  self.  St  Paul  founded  here  a  church,  to  which  he 
addressed  two  qiistlea.  In  1458  a.d.  it  was  captured  by  the 
Turks,  who  held  it,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  years  when  it 
was  in  the  possession  of  Venice,  till  1823,  In  1858  it  was  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake,  but  it  is  now  being  rebuilt.  It  is  in 
the  nomarchy  of  Ai^olis  and  Koriiithia,  and  had  in  1870  a  pop. 
of  1S62. 

Ancient  C.  was  famous  as  a  seat  of  art.  Here  painting  is 
said  to  have  been  invented,  and  st^uary,  especially  in  works  of 
bronze,  reached  especial  excellence.  Hence  statuary  metal  was 
known  as  Corinthian  brass.  As  a  result  of  its  wealth,  and  from 
its  being  a  resort  of  traders  and  mariners,  it  acquired  an  evil 
fame'for  licentiousness.  Some -if  the  conrtesana  of  C,  as,  e.g., 
Lais,  were  so  famous  and  extortionate  that  only  the  richest  mer- 
chants could  venture  to  approach  them. 

The  Gulf  of  Corinth,  or  Gulf  of  LefantB  {vac  Corinihiacus 
Sitms),  an  inlet  of  the  Ionian  Sea,  75  miles  long,  witli  an  average 
breadth  of  15  miles,  extending  eastward  through  the  centre  of 
Greece,  which  it  almost  divides  into  two  parts,  and  forming  the 
N.  boundary  of  the  Morea.  It  is  separated  from  the  Gulf  of 
Egina  by  the  Isthmus  of  C.,  which  is  m  places  not  more  than  5 
miles  broad.  Nero  attempted  to  unite  tlie  Ionian  and  jEgean 
seas  by  cutting  through  the  isthmtis,  but  he  found  the  engineer- 
ing difficulties  insuperable. 

Corinth'ians,  Epiatlea  to  the.  Two  were  written  by  the 
Apostle  Paul,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  in  57-59  A.  D.,  during  the 
period  in  which,  after  leaving  Corinth  (Acts  xviii.  18},  he  took 
up  his  residence  at  Ephesus  (Acts  xix.  i).  The  scope  of  the 
epistles  is  to  '  rebuke  party  contentions  and  other  fanatical  dis- 
orders, incidentally  defending  Paul,  as  teacher  of  an  all-embra- 
cing spiritual  religion,  in  opposition  to  those  who  assailed  Jiis 
authority  on  carnal  grounds.  It  is  also  supposed  from  i  Cor. 
V.  9  that  he  had  previously  written  to  the  Corinthians,  but 
nothing  further  is  known  of  the  epistle.  There  is  also  3i\  epistle 
to  the  C.  by  Clemens  of  Rome  (q.  v.). 

Corintli'iaii  Order.    See  Columm. 

Coriola'nua,  Caiua  or  Oeenue  Mawaus,  was  a  legendary 
hero  of  early  Rome,  whose  surname  was  conferred  from  the 
bravery  with  which  'he  charged  the  Volscian  home'  at  the 
capture  of  their  chief  city,  Corioli.  He  was  a  proud  and  im- 
placable enemy  of  the  commons,  and  for  having  advised,  during 
a  famine,  that  com  should  not  be  distributed  to  them  unless 
the  tribunes  were  disciiarged,  he  was  condemned  to  exile.  He 
joined  the  Volscii,  and  at  tlie  head  of  their  army  made  suc- 
cessful war  on  Rome,  and  advanced  to  the  Cluilian  dyke. 
He  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  the  entreaties  of  the  citizens,  till 
his  mother  Veturia  and  his  wife  Volurnnia,  accompanied  by  the 
noblest  matrons  of  Rome,  went  to  plead  with  him,  wlien  he  with- 
drew his  array.  He  died  in  exile.  The  date  of  the  legend  is 
490  B.C. 


Co'rii 


See  Skin. 


^- 


Co  k   (Sp  or ;       f    m    the    L  t         /    )         th  t 

b    1      f       p  !    sk{Q     cu       iir)  t         f  S     th 

Ep  dfNh  Afna,  dpeUybdt 
P  t  gal  Spa.  h  S  th  f  F  an  e,  d  th  Id  f  S 
d  dC  Th         ktg  fra3t4ft 

h  gh        as  3ft       diam  t  d  surpass       11    th 

tesmU         mkbldlpmtfftUltsu 
bkwlhtl      bp  dg         f     mp    ss  b  1  ly      d 

1    t    tyth  t        Irstpecl     ly  fitted  f     m    y     mm 
The      f     hhhgeatmssfthbkis      mp      d 
}  t  m     cally     m    ed         y  t       y    rs —         pe    t 

h   b        gi  1    ly         bIi    P         t         h    d       and  m       vig 

E    wth    f  th    t  d  1    d     t     tl     p  od    t         f  C      f 

fi  d    1         t    t  Tl     first       p   tak        h     th    t 

107 


mode  of  barking 
to  make  two  ' 

tudinai  cuts  or 
site  sides  of  the 


cylindrical  pieces  not 
less  than  l^  inch 
thick,  with  the  aid 
of  a  curved  imple 
ment.  While  in" 
the<;„  great  caie  is 
taken  not  to  injure 
the  inner  bark.    The  -Ccrli  Tree 

detached   pieces   are 

soaked  va  water  and  fliltened  by  heavy  weights  and  to  give  a 
closer  texture  the  C  is  slightly  charied  on  the  surface  over  a  fire 
The  imperviousness  of  C  to  liquids  and  its  compressibility  and 
elasticity,  render  it  extremely  suitable  for  stoppers  to  bottles  and 
for  bungs  to  barrels,  &c  ;  its  other  uses  are  mainly  as  inside  soles 
for  boots,  hat  frames,  life-preservers,  false  limbs,  mattresses,  S,nd 
the  construction  of  lifeboats.  With  caoutchouc  it  constitutes  the 
kind  of  floorcloth  called  Kamptulicon,  and  C-  chips  when  burned 
form  Spanisk  black.  In  Spain,  walls  are  lined  with  C.  to  over- 
come dampness.  In  the  Maiitime  Exposition  held  in  Paris  in 
1875,0  novelty  in  the  shapje  of '  C.  leather' was  exhibited.  It 
simply  consists  of  thin  sheet-C.  covered  on  both  sides  with  linen, 
and  its  suitability^  asadvocated  by  its  inventor,  M.  de  Berski,  for 
tent- coverings  .and  military  accoutrements  is  now  being  tested. 
Corks  for  bottles  are  mainly  made  by  hand,  being  cut  into 
the  ^cylindrical  or  tapering  shape  from  small  square  blocks 
by  means  of  a  btoad-bladed  knife,  very  tliin  and  fine  edged. 
Coil-cutting  is  an  important  mdustry  in  many  Spanish  and 
French  districts,  and  the  oorks  manufactured  in  these  countries 
excel  those  of  English  make.  Cork-cutting  machinery,  though 
in  operation  with  partial  success  in  some  places,  has  hitherto 
failed  to  supersede  manual  labour  to  any  great  extent.  One 
machine,  'of  peculiar  construction,  originally  made  by  Messrs 
Hammer  Sc  Butz  of  Philadelphia,  and  protected  by  patent  in 
this  country,  consists  of  mechanism  for  transforming  the  bark 
into  various  descriptions  of  corks  and  bungs,  all  the  successive 
operations  being  conducted  simultaneoudy  at  different  parts  of 
the  maclune.  Cork-cutting  is  a  most  n-asteliil  process,  the  clip- 
pings .and  trimmings  Constituting  70  per  cent  by  weight.  A 
new  use  has  recently  been  found  for  this  waste,  as  experiments 
at  Bordeaux  have  demonstrated  that  good  illuminating  gas  may 
be  obtained  from  it  on  distillation  in  close  retorts.  In  1873  the 
imports,  free  of  duty,  into  Great  Britajn  were  6814  tons  of  un- 
manufactured C.,  almost  all  from  Portugal,  and  5,680,206  lbs.  of 
manufactured  C,  one-half  of  this  quantity  being  French  produce. 
Cork,  Korkeir,  or  Korkalett,'aname  applied  in  the  High- 
lands of  Scotland  and  in  Shetland  to  a  Lichen  (q.  v.),  Lecanora 
lattarea,  which,  according  to  Dr  Lauder  Lindsay,  is  made  into  a 
domestic  dye  '  by  macerating  the  powdered  hchen  for  some  weeks 
p  t  d  m  with  the  addition  of  kelp  or  salt,  and  when  the 
q  t  run  on  or  purple  tint  is  obtained,  forming  the  paste 
t  b  11  1  mps  with  lime  or  burnt  shells,  and  hanging  it  in 
b  gs  t  dry  When  used,  it  is  powdered,  and  then  boiled  in 
t     with     1  ttle  alum  '  (Berkeley). 

C     k  ty  m  the  S.  of  Ireland,  province  of  Munster,  and 

p  t  1      f  th      county  of  the  same  name,   built  partly  on  an 

1    d      th   Lee,  and  partly  on  the  N.  and  S.  banks  of  the  river, 

1    d   t    t  f   m  Dublin  165  miles  by  the  Great  Southern  and 

West  m  R   1   ay.    The  Site  was  origlmaHy  a  swamp,  and  known 

Car     h        -Mumkan,  '  the  great  marsh  of  Mnnster,'  and  C. 

till      lied  Corcack  by  the  Irish-speaking  population.      The 

ty  h      p         s  streets,  handsome  public  buildings,  nine  bridges, 

p  bli    p    k  a  fine  cemetery  (after  the  plan  of  Pire-Ie- Chaise), 


249 


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and  the  Mardyke,  a  splendid  promenade,  a  mile  long,  and  shaded 
on  each  side  by  a  double  row  of  noble  elms.     Among  the  prin- 
cipal buildings  are  St  Anne  Shandon's  Church,  with  a  tower  170 
feet  high,  the  bishop's  palace,  and  Queen's  College,  the  Chamber 
of  Commerce,  Com  Exchange,  Customhouse,  County  Club,  &c. 
The  harbour  of  C.  is  distingui^ed  into  the  upper  and  lower,  the 
former  of  which  has  quays  extending  nearly  J  miles,  and  can 
accommodate  vessels  of^6oiD  tons.     The  lower  harbour,  formed  by 
(he  estuary  of  the  Lee,  is  one  of  the  safest  and  most  capacious 
in  the  empire.     It  contains  several  islands,   on  the  largest  of 
whicli.   Great  Island,    is  the  town  of  Cove,  now    Queens 
(q.  V. ).    The  other  islands  are  occupied  by  convict  and  ordna 
depots,  powder  magazmes,  and  a  bomb-proof  artillery  barrack 
1873  the  number  of  vessels  that  entered  the  port  was  2451, 
a  tonnage  of  638,047,  and  the  number  that  cleared  was  I 
with  a  tonnage  of  449.1^4.      The  principal  manufactures 
leather,  iron,  glass,  gloves,  malt  liquors,  and  whisky.     C 
ports  grain,  live  stock,  linen,  butter,  and  bacon.     It  has  return 
two  members  to  Parliament  since  1374.     Pop.  (1871)  100 
The  city  dates  from  about  the  year  600,  when  St  Barr  or 
ban-  founded  an  abbey  here.     It  was  long  held  by  the  D 
received  an  English  garrison  and  governor  in  1172,  but  was  twi 
recovered  by  the  Irish  before  the  close  of  the  century,  wh 
finally  came  under  English  authority.     It  was  faithful  to  E 
heth  during  the  insurrection  of  Desmond,  was  taken  by  C 
well,  and  again  by  William  III. ;  and  since  then  has  not 
the  scene  of  any  important  historical  incident.     C.  is  the  b   th 
place  of  many  notable  men;  the  pamters  Barry,  Butts,  and  Mac- 
lise,  the  sculptor  Hogan,  the  antiquary  Wood,  and  the  travellers 
Hostie,  Mittphy,  O'Leaty,  &c. 

Cork,  a  maritime  county  in  the  province  of  Munster,  and  the 
lai^est  in  Ireland,  having  an  area  of  1,849,686  acres.  It  is 
bounded  N.  by  Limerick,  EX  by  Tipperary  and  Watetford,  S.  by 
St  Geoi^'s  Chaimel,  and  W,  by  Kerry  ;  has  an  extreme  length 
of  no  miles,  and  a  breadth  of  7a  The  W.  part  is  ru^ed 
and  mountamous  ;  the  S.  and  E.  extremely  fertile.  The  coast, 
bold  and  rodcy,  has  numerous  indentations,  which  furnish  excel- 
lent harbours  and  roadsteads  ;  and  many  islands  lie  along  it,  of 
which  Cape  Clear  is  reckoned  the  most  solttherly  point  in  Ire- 
land. The  Baudon,  Lee,  and  Blackwater,  the  principal  rivers, 
ilow  eastward  in  parallel  courses,  separated  by  oflshoots  from 
Ihe  mountain  range  in  the  W.  ;  there  are  several  lakes,  but  of  no 
great  siie.  Tlie  chmate,  though  moist,  is  mild  aad  salubrious. 
The  soils  vary  much ;  dairy  farming  is  carried  on  extensively, 
and  the  butter  of  C-  is  of  superior  excellence.  The  cattle  are 
small,  but  yield  milk  in  abundance.  The  principal  minerals 
ai«  cool,  occupying  an  area  of  400  sq.  miles,  in  the  N.  W.  of  the 
coimty,  iron,  copper,  manganese,  limestone  and  brick  clay.  The 
copper-mines  are  the  most  valuable  in  Ireland-  The  principal 
manufacture  is  linen ;  there  are  also  numerous  distilleries  and 
breweries,  and  fishing  is  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent.  The 
countyreturnstwomemhersto Parliament.  Pop.  ('871)  517,076, 
a  decrease  of  27,742  since  1861,  or  at  the  rate  of  S'og  per  cent. 
The  Roman  Catholics  number  467,621,  or  88' 15  per  cent,  of  the 
population.  Fram  1st  May  1851  to  31st  March  1871,  266,678 
persons  emigrated  from  the  county  and  city  of  C.  The  antiqui- 
ties of  the  county  ate  stone-circles,  cromlechs,  raths,  caves,  and 
religious  houses.  There  are  also  some  remains  of  tliose  strong 
fortresses  and  towers  by  which  the  English  overawed  the  natives 
in  old  times  ;  but  perhaps  the  place  of  most  pleasant  and  abid- 
ing interest  to  a  stranger  is  BUmey  Castle,  the  ancient  seat  of 
the  M'Carthys,  and  famous  for  its  'stone,'  whose  virtues  ire 
delidously  described  in  Father  Prout's  Groves  of  Blarney. 

Oorleo'ne,  an  old  town  of  Siciiy,  province  of  Palermo,  on 
a  hill  near  the  source  of  the  Belici,  20  miles  S.E.  of  Alcamo. 
Convents  and  churches  are  the  principal  public  buildings.  Pop. 
15.350- 

Gorm  is  a  fleshy  underground  stem,  distinguished  from  a 
bulb  by  not  being  scaly,  but  only  covered  with  thin  membranes. 
It  may  be  de3erib>d  as  a  bulb  in  which  the  scales  are  all  solidi- 
fied into  one  mass,  or  it  may  be  regarded  as  'a  much  shortened 
rhiiome,  consisting  of  a  few  undeveloped  intemodes,'  Examples 
are  afforded  by  the  crocus,  arum,  tulip,  &c. 

Cor'meniu,  Louis  Marie  de  la  Haye,  Vieomte  de,  a 

French  statesman  and  jurist,  was  born  at  Paris,   6th  January 
1 788.    He  acquired  very  couaiderable  influence  during  the  reign 
250 


of  Louis  Philippe  by  his  knowledge  of  jurisprudence,  and  the 
strong  common  sense  which  he  brought  to  bear  upon  the  work 
of  practical  administration.  After  the  Revolution  of  1848  C, 
who  was  an  advocate  of  univeisal  suffrage,  was  made  piesident 
of  tlie  commission  wluch  was  appointed  to  remodel  the  constitu- 
tion. Subsequently  to  the  coup  d'Aat,  he  was  made  a  member 
of  the  Council  of  State  and  also  of  the  Institute.  He  wrote 
many  pamphlets,  and  is  the  author  of  a  work  on  the  adminis- 
trative law  of  France  {Droit  Administratif)  which  has  been  very 
popniar  His  £tudti  sur  les  Orateuri  Farlemtnlaires  and  Le 
ty  editions.    C.  died 


S,*. 


ul    , 


Graculus  cristatus),  being  found  i 
Britain.  The  common  C.  has  black 
plumage,  the  feathers  of  the  head 
and  neck  being  whitish.  It  is  about 
33  inches  long,  and  is  a  bird  of  powerful  flight,  and  exceedingly 
voracious,  feeding  on  fishes,  which  it  catches  with  great  dex- 
terity, often  throwing  the  prey  into  the  air  and  catching  it  in 
its  bill  so  as  to  swallow  it  in  a  convenient  manner.  The  green 
C.  is  of  a  green  colour,  and  the  fishing-C.  {P.  sinensis),  an  inha- 
bitant of  China,  is  trained  to  catch  fish  for  its  masters.  The 
name,  which  means  '  sea-crow,'  is  partly  of  Latin  and  partly  of 
Celtic  origin,  cor  being  the  Lat.  corvus,  and  mor  the  Welsh  and 
Armoric  for  'sea,'  allied  to  the  Lat.  laarixaA  tlie  Ger.  meer. 

Com  (Ger.  korn,  Goth,  kaum,  allied  to  the  Lat.  granum),  i 
term  applicable  to  any  grain,  but  usually  applied  to  the  seeds. of 
Cereals  (q.  v.)  used  in  making  bread.  In  different  countrie 
has,  however,  specific  meanings,  cliiefly  determined  by  the  m 
prevalent  use  of  the  grain  to  which  it  is  applied — e.g.,  in  Ai 
rica,  by  '  C  is  universally  understood  Indian-C  or  maize,  wliile 
in  Scotland  oats,  and  in  England  wheat,  are  more  generally 
understood  when  the  term  C.  is  used.  In  the  Bible  it  is  usually 
applied  to  wheat — e.g.,  when  Joseph's  brethren  wont  down  into 
Egypt  '  to  buy  C  Broom-C.  i^Sm-gkutii  Dora;  ICaffit-C,  pro- 
bably Sorghum  saccharatutn ;  goose-C,  yimcus  squarrosus ; 
Guinea-C.,  Sorghum  vulgari,  a  name  applied  in  the  west  Indies 
to  several  species  of /aHicw»i-bearing  edible  grain,  &c. 

Conui'ceEe,  tlie  Cornel  or  Dogwood  order,  a  family  of  Dico- 
tyledonous trees  or  shrubs,  rarely  herbs,  natives  of  temperate 
Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  contaming  in  all  about  forty  species 
and  new  genera,  of  which  Cerntis,  Beathamia,  and  Asctda  are 
types.  The  order  is  remarkable  for  its  tonic,  febrifuge,  and 
astringent  properties.  The  bark  of  C.  fsrida  (dogwood  bark), 
and  other  species  of  C,  is  esteemed  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada  as  a  substitute  for  Cinchona  (q.  v.),  and  contains  a 
similar  principle,  called  cornine.  The  astringent  fruit  of  C.  inas- 
cida  (the  Conieiian  cherry)  is  known  to  the  Turks  as  kraiiia, 
who  ose  the  juice  in  their  sherljets,  and  for  other  purposes  in 
which  an  agreeable  acid  flavour  is  valued.  The  fruits  of  C. 
suecica  are  eaten,  and  also  possess  tonic  properties.  The  seeds  of 
C  sanguinea  yield  a  fixed  oil  burnt  in  lamps.  Charcoal  is  ] 
pared  fram  the  wood,  though  the  'dogwood'  from  which  n 
of  the  charcoal  of  the  gunpowder- makers  is  made  is  Jiham 
Frangula  (Buckthorn,  q.  v.).  Conms  Nullaliial  N.W.  America 
is  a  very  handsome  shrub.  Thereare  numerous  other  minor  uses 
to  which  the  species  of  C,  are  applied.  See  Carnus,  in  Treas. 
of  Botany,  and  Blackie  in  Canadian  Naluralistt  i86a     ■ 

Oom  Aphis  (Aphis  g)anaria),  a  species  of  aphides  or  plant- 
lice,  so  named  from  its  habit  of  feeding  on  the  eare  of  corn, 
wheat,  and  barley,  and  of  thus  destroying  the  grain.     The  male 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


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:t  is  of  a  duU-greeii  colour,  tlie  female  of  a  yellov 


Coma'ro,  tlie  name  of  a  distinguislied  palrician  family  of 
Venice,  members  of  which  were  more  or  less  notable  for  four 
centuries. — BlaxcO  0.,  celebrated  for  his  eloquence,  was  elected 
Doge  in  1368,  and  compleied  the  conquest  of  Caiidia,  His 
[preat-grand daughter,  Oaterina  C,  born  in  1454,  married 
Jacques  Lusigiiaii,  King  of  Cyprus,  and  after  the  death  of  her 
husband  handed  over  the  government  of  the  island  to  her 
countrymen,  and  withdrew  into  private  life.  She  died  in  1510. 
But  perhaps  the  most  singular  member  of  tlie  fa,mily  was  Lodo- 
viCO  O.,  bom  in  1467.  lie  had  so  impdred  a  naturally  feeble 
siitntion  by  excess,  that  at  forty  death  seemed  inevitable, 
by  entirely  changing  his  course  of  life,  and  adopting  a  regi- 
men of  rigid  temperance  and  of  judiciously-regulated  exercise, 
he  lived  till  about  100,  dying  in  1566  or  1569.  When  very  old 
he  published,  in  four  successive  parts,  his  Ducorsidella  VilaSebria 
(Padua,  1558;  new  ed.  Venice,  1866),  which  has  been  trans- 
lated into  many  langirages,  and  even  into  Latin.  An  English 
translation  was  published  in  1779.  Other  Comari  who  merit 
notice  axe  Giovaimi  I.,  Doge  of  Venice  from  1625  to  1629 ; 
Iiuorezia  Eiena  0.  Rscopia  (died  1684),  famous  for  her 
knowledge  of  classics,  theology,  and  pliilosophy,  and  whose 
writings  were  edited  by  BaccMni  (Parma,  1685J ;  and  Gio- 
vamu  H.,  elected  Doge  in  1709. 

Corn  Beetle  {Ctuujus  testaceus),  a  genus  of  Beetles  or  Coleop- 
tera  (q.  v.)  of  small  size,  the  larvie  of  which  feed  on  wheat  and 
other  kinds  of  grain,  and  consequently  do  much  harm  in 
granaries. 

Oombrasll,  a  group  of  rocit  formations  belonging  to  the 
Bath  or  Lower  Oolitic  series,  and  averaging  in  Dorsetshire  about 
40  or  50  feet  in  thickness,  whilst  in  Mid-England  it  is  never 
more  than  15  feet  thick.  It  is  a  rubbly  iron  or  ferruginous  lime- 
stone, and  lies  in  thin  beds.  It  is  full  of  fossils,  the  Avicula 
echinala  (L.amellibranchiata)  and  Nudioliles  dumiularis  (Echino- 
derm)  being  the  most  typical  forms. 

Conx  Bruiser,  a  machine  for  bruising  oats  and  other  grain 
for  hoises,  cattle,  sheep,  and  pigs,  consisting  of  an  iron  frame, 
underneath  which  encased  is  a  fluted  barrel,  the  edges  of  whose 
grooves  are  sharp.  These,  when  turned,  press  the  com  against  a 
resisting  iron  surface,  and  speedily  bruise  it  to  any  form  desired. 

Oomciabe.     See  Ceakb. 

Oor'nea.    See  Eve. 

CorneiUe',  Pierre,  the  first  great  dramatist  of  France,  was 
the  son  of  an  inspector  of  waters  and  forests,  and  was  born  at 
Rouen,  June  6,  1606.  He  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits,  and 
began  business  at  the  local  bar.  An  incident  in  his  own  life 
suggested  to  him  the  plot  of  his  first  comedy,  M/liii,v\i\€ii 
he  wrote  in  1625,  and  brought  out  in  Paris  when  he  came 
there,  deserting  the  bar,  in  1629.  Milite,  and  the  plays  which 
immediately  followed  it,  such  as  Clilandre,  La  Veuve,  &c.,  had 
a  great  run  at  both  the  Marais  and  the  H8tel  de  Bourgogne. 
They' were  marked  by  simplicity  and  neatness  of  style,  impos- 
sible  mgenuity  of  plot,  and  complete  absence  of  humour,  but 
th^  formed  a  pleasing  contrast  to  the  pedantic  conceits  of  ScudiSry 
and  Viiud,  and  the  rongh  melodrama  which  Hardy,  Mairet, 
Tristan,  Rolrou,  and  others  manufactured,  chiefly  from  Spanish 
materials.  With  some  of  the  latter  C.  for  a  time  co-operated  at 
Richelieu's  Palais- Cardinal,  but  quarielling  with  his  patron,  he 
witlidrew,  and  in  1635  produced  his  first  tragedy,  Midk,  which 
was  followed  in  1636  by  his  masteipiece,  Le  Cid,  founded  on  De 
Castro's  play  Lai  Mseedades  del  Cid.  In  Spain,  however,  the 
stoiyof  Campeador's  love  and  conquests  had  taken  the  form  of 
an  historico-romantic  pageant,  C.  treated  the  subject  with 
oiiginojity,  preserving  unity  of  action,  and  centring  the  interest 
on  the  moral  struggles  of  the  principal  actors.  Its  success  was 
immense ;  beau  comme  le  Cid  becoming  a  popular  proverb. 
Next  came  Horace  (founded  on  Livy's  story  of  the  Horatii), 
Cinrta  (which  develops  Seneca's  brief  account  of  tlie  conspiracy 
against  Augustus  by  the  grandson  of  Pompey,  a.D.  4),  and 
Folysiicie,  a  story  of  Christian  conversion  in  Armenia  during  the 
persecution  of  Deciua.  In  Pompie,  C  has  followed  and  improved 
upon  a  portion  of  the  Pharsaba  of  Lncanus  ;  while  I^  Menttur 
[  1642),  the  most  successful  of  his  comedies,  was  based  upon  the 
plays  of  LiOpe  de  Vega  and  Alarcon,  from  the  former  of  whom 


C.'s  Don  Saiuke  ifAragon  (1650)  was  also  imitated.  C.  has 
been  called  the  father  of  French  tragedy,  but  his  genius  was  very 
unequal,  and  among  his  later  tiagedies,  ffii/yW  (1659)  was  the 
only  striking  success,  His  translation  of  the  ImitaHen  of  Christ 
of  A  Kempis  was  much  used  by  the  Jesuits  of  the  i/ih  c 
C.  died,  after  a  peaceful  domestic  life,  on  the  ist  October  1684. 
The  most  interesting  edition  of  C.  is  that  by  Voltaire  (I2  vols. 
Par.  1762);  the  most  complete,  those  by'Renouai'd  (l3  vols. 
Par.  1817),  Lefivre  (12  vols.  Par.  1824),  Didot  (12  vols.  Par. 
1854-55)-  and  Taschereau  (Par.  7  vols.  1857-62).  The  most 
convenient  is  the  select  edition  in  2  vols.  (Par.  1856),  having 
the  Life  of  C.  by  Fontenelle  prefixed,  and  some  plays  by  C.'s 
brother,  Thomas.  See  also  the  Lives  of  C.  by  Taschereau 
(Par.  1829 ;  new  ed.  1855),  Levasseur  (Par.  1843),  and  Guiiot 
(Par.  1852). 

Cornelius,  Peter  von,  founder  of  a  recent  Geiman  school 
of  art,  was  bgrn  16th  September  17S7,  at  Diisseldorf,  of  the 
picture  gallery  of  which  his  father  was  inspector.  He  was  care- 
fully educated  in  art,  and  at  the  age  of  nineteen  was  employed 
to  paint  the  cupola  of  the  old  churcli  of  Neuss  with  colossal 
figures  in  chiaroscuro,  in  which  he  displayed  considerable  gran- 
deur of  conception.  In  1810  he  removed  to  Frankfurt,  where 
he  executed  a  famous  series  of  designs  in  illustration  of  Goetlie's 
Faust,  and  in  iSll  went  to  Rome,  where,  in  alliance  with  his 
friends  Overbeck,  Schadow,  Schnorr,  and  othera,  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  regeneration  of  German  art,  an  object  which  lie  saw 
accomplished  in  his  ovm  day,  and  in  great  part  through  his  own 
instrumentality-  Tlie  young  artists  specidly  cultivated  fresco- 
painting,  and  C.'s  frescoes  the  '  Interpretation  of  the  Dream ' 
and  the  '  Recognition  of  the  Brethren,'  from  the  history  of 
Joseph,  won  for  him  the  favour  of  King  Ludwig  of  Bavaria, 
and  a  commission  to  decorate  the  new  Glyptothek  at  Munich. 
He  left  Rome  in  1S19,  but  his  frescoes  in  the  Glyptothek  were 
not  completed  till  183a  They  consist  mainly  of  two  series  of 
designs — one,  'The  Heroes,'  illustrating  the  chief  events  of 
the  Iliad  ;  the  other,  'The  Gods,'  the  subjects  for  which  were 
supplied  by  the  Greek  mythology-  A  'Last  Judgment'  in 
the  Ludwigs  Kirche,  Munich,  64  feet  high  and  30  wide,  is 
remarkable  at  once  for  its  size,  its  grandeur  of  conception,  and 
the  severity  of  its  style.  Other  worlts  are  his  designs  in  illus- 
tration of  the  NihehmgenUed  and  the  Gerusalsnime  Liherata  of 
Tasso,  the  frescoes  in  the  corridors  of  the  PinakotheU,  Munich, 
illustrating  the  history  of  Christian  art,  and  those  of  the  Campo 
Santo,  Berlin-  His  later  years  were  spent  chiefly  in  Berlin, 
where  he  died,  6th  March  1867.  See  Kiegel's  C.  der  Meister 
der  Deutscken  Malerie  (Hamb.  1866  ;  2d  ed.  1870),  and  Von  E. 
Forster's  Peter  von  C.  tin  Gedenkbuch  aus  sdnem  Lebi«  und 
Wirkeit  (Beri.  1875). 

Cornelius  Ne'pos.     See  Nepos, 

Oor'neU  Univer'sity,  one  of  the  moat  vigorous  of  the  newly 
endowed  colleges  of  the  United  States,  was  founded  by  Ezra 
Cornell  in  1868,  at  a  cost  of  about  /i52,ooo.  It  also  received 
Government  grants  as  a  state  agricultural  college,  amounting 
to  990,000  acres  of  land.  C.  U.  is  situated  in  Ithaca,  a  small 
town  in  the  western  part  of  New  York  state.  The  institution 
is  undenominational,  and  aims  at  being  naiienal.  The  students 
to  some  extent  combine  industrial  pursuits  with  study.  Gold- 
win  Smith,  a  brilliant  English  sdiolar  and  political  critic,  ex- 
patriated liimself  to  become  a  professor  here.— Ezra  Oomell, 
founder  of  the  university,  was  bom  at  Westchester,  New  York, 
January  1 1,  1807,  and  received  but  a  slender  education — a  cir- 
cumstance which  adds  to  the  greatness  of  his  generosity.  Devot- 
ing himself  to  mechanical  pui-suits,  he  eventually  became  deeply 
interested  in  telegraph  stock  and  Western  land  speculations,  and 
acquired  a  large  fortune.  C.  lives  (1S75)  in  Ithaca,  to  which 
town  he  has  presented  a  valuable  public  libraiy. 

Cor'net,  or  Oomet-a-Piston,  a  brass  wind  instalment  (with 
three  pistons  or  valves)  of  the  trumpet  class,  It  is  much  used  in 
military  bands,  and  to  some  extent  also  in  the  orchestra,  where 
it  can  generally  play  the  trumpet  parts. 

Comet  (from  the  Span,  eometa,  *a  standard')  was  formerly 
the  lowest  i-ank  of  commissioned  officer  in  the  cavalry,  equiva- 
lent to  eHsign  in  the  infantry.  The  special  duly  of  the  C.  was 
to  carry  the  standard.  He  also  assisted  the  capt£un  in  his  daily 
military  duties.  The  rank  was  abolished  in  1871,  that  of  sub- 
lieutenant taking  its  place. 


vLaOogle 


COR 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Oome'tO,  a  fortilieil  town  of  Italy,  province  of  Latium,  on 
the  kit  banlt  of  the  Marta,  4  milesfrom  its  mouth,  and  1 1  N.  of 
Civita  Vecchia.  It  is  built  from  the  neighbouring  ruins  of  the 
ancient  Tarquinii — a  place  peculiarly  interesting  to  the  ethno- 
logical and  antiquarian  student,  as  the  source  of  almost  all  our 
knowledge  of  Etiiiscan  life  and  ait  From  its  (ombs  many 
treasures  have  been  removed  to  the  Bntish  Museum  C  is  the 
seat  of  a  bishop,  and  has  a  Gothic  cathednl  of  tlie  glh  c  ,  and 
a  palace  of  the  15th  c,  now  an  mn.     Pop  4070 

Oora-Fly,  a  name  applied  generally  to  vanous  fhes  or 
Diptera,  from  tlieir  habit  of  pioducmg  in  the  larval  state  much 
disease  and  injury  in  corn  plants  The  Chloi  ops  tamofus  is  a 
familinr  example.  It  is  of  mmute  sad  ^'"^  coloured  yellow  with 
black  stripes.  The  larvse  deposited  in  the  young  plants  cause 
the  swelling  popularly  known  as  the  gBtil.  T)ie  specaes  of  the 
genus  Osdnis  are  also  named  '  corn.flies.' 

OoniGTonnd-Beetle(ZT^r»jp;**»j),aPentamerousCoIeop- 
teran  or  beetle,  the  lorvfe  of  which  burrow  in  the  ground  and  feed 
n  the  roots  and  stems  of  corn.  The  perfect  insect  is  about  half 
a  inch  in  length,  and  is  of  a  black  colour.  The  beetle  itself 
lives  on  the  ears  of  com,  barley,  &c.  The  larva  is  white  with  a 
brown  head  and  chest,  and  possesses  tufts  of  hair  ajong  the  sides 
of  the  abdomen. 

Cor'nice  (Gr.  korimis,  '  a  curved  line,'  '  a  flourish  '),  in  classical 
architecture,  the  uppermost  of  the  three  members  of  an  entabla- 
ture—the architrave,  ihe  fiieze,  and  the  C.  It  is  a  boriiontal 
moulded  projection,  and  is  chMacferistically  distinguishable  in 
each  of  the  orders.  In  Gothic  architectui-e,  a  plain  face  of  para- 
pet projecting  slightly  from  the  wall,  with  nnder  it  a  row  of 
blocks,  sometimes  plain,  at  other  times  variously  ornamented, 
over  which  there  is  usually  a  row  of  small  arches,  frequently 
res  as  a  C.  In  the  Decorated  style,  it  chiefly  consists  of  a 
slope  above,  then  a  deep  sunk  hoUow,  with  beneath  it  an  Astra- 
gal (q.  v.).  Several  small  mouldings  often  compose  the  C.  in  the 
Perpendicular  style  ;  but  details  of.  ornamentation  .exercised 
largely  the  fancy  and  ingenuity  of  workmen  in  all  these  later 
styles.     See  Column,  Entablature. 

Oom-Laws.  The  early  English  statutes  relating  to  the  com 
trade  took  the  shape  of  gener^  prohibitions  to  export  except 
under  royal  licence,  special  prohibitions  to  export  by  royal  procla- 
mation, prohibitions  to  import  or  export,  except  as  above,  at  cer- 
tiun  prices.  An  Act  of  1 670  prohibited  importation  while  home- 
corn  was  selling  at  less  than  533.  4d.,  and  in^osed  a  duty  on  the 
imports  at  a  higher  figure.  A  boupjy  was  ^ven  during  the  l8th 
c.  to  the  exporter,  but  in  1773  this  was  discontinued,  exportation 
was  prohibited  except  at  prices  below  44s.,  and  importation  was 
allowed  above  48s.  at  a  fixed  duty  of  6d,  Tlje  fignre  at  which 
importation  was  allowed  was  ^adually  Kused  to  80s.  for  wheat, 
40s.  for  barley,  and  26s,  for  oats  ;  and  in  1814  the  sUding  scale, 
in  which  the  duties  diminished  as  the  price  of  importation  rose, 
was  introduced.  The  intention  of  this  arrangement  was  the 
benevolent  one  of  nwking  the  pressure  of  taxation  lightest  when 
com  was  least  plentiful.  The  result  was  to  destroy  the  regulai'ity 
of  trade,  and  to  make  the  people's  food  thesubject  of  specuktive 
and  often  tuinous  conlracts.  The  shding  scale  not  only  hurt  the 
import  trade  more  than  a  fixed  duty  would  have  done,  but  it 
seriously  affected  domestic  agriculture  and  manufactures.  From 
1821  to  1830  the  annual  average  of  British  exports  fell  from  forty- 
one  to  thirty-six  millions.     In  1840  agricultural  wages  simply 

owners  to  the  parish,  because  the  poor-rates  exceeded  the  rents. 
The  systenj  of  protecting  home  agriculture  was  supported  by 
many  absurd  arguments,  inspired  partly  by  the  recollections  of 
the  Fvencli  war,  partly  by  the  stupidity  and  selfishness  of  the 
landlord  class.  These  arguments  are  sfiE  employed  in  the  United 
States  and  in  the  Colonies ;  but  although  so  late  as  1852  Mr 
Disraeli  declined  to  admit  that  the  repeal  of  the  C.-L,  was  '  wise, 
just,  or  beneficial,'  they  have  been  generally  abandoned  in  this 
country.  In  truth,  Ihe  interests  of  the  landlord  class  happened  to 
be  the  same  as  those  of  the  great  mass  of  the  nation.  The  rise 
of  rents  has  been  caused  by  the  growth  of  manuiacluves,  which 
implies  a  vast  additional  demand  for  agricultural  produce.  Manu- 
factures have  further  enormously  increased  the  value  of  land  by 
introducing  a  spirit  of  improvement,  and  stimulating  mechanical 
invention.  By  protection,  therefore,  the  landlords,  were  destroy- 
ing their  own  customers,  and  latterly  also  their  own  labourers. 


In  1B34  and  1838  Mr  Hume  and  Mr  Villiers  made  gallant 
efJbrls  at  least  to  secure  inquiry  into  the  evil.  In  1841  Lord 
Melbourne's  Government  proposed,  in  Heu  of  the  sliding  scale, 
a  fixed  duty  of  83.  per  quarter  on  wheat,  4s,  6d.  on  barley, 
3s  6d.  on  oats.  The  ministry  were  defeated,  and  Peel  came  m 
pledged  to  protection.  In  1S43  he  introduced  the  modified 
shding  scale  of  is,  pec  quarter.  In  the  meantime  the  majority 
agamsf  Mr  Villiers'  annual  motion  for  total  repeal  had  sunk  from 
303  in  1842  to  132  in  1845.  This  was  owing  to  the  activity 
of  the  Anti- Corn- Law  League,  formed  in  1839.  It  was  only, 
however,  under  the  pressure  of  the  com  famine  and  potato- disease 
of  1845  and  1846,  which  produced  very  great  distress,  that  Sir 
Robert  Peel  was  able  to  carry,  on  25th  June  1846,  his  bill  abolish- 
ing the  corn-duties  as  at  1st  February  1849,  and  in  the  meantime 
fixing  the  duly  of  los.  per  quarter  when  the  price  was  4SS.,  to 
fall  by  IS.  with  every  rise  of  is.  in  price,  till  on  reaching  53s,  it 
was  fixed  at  4s.  All  colonial  ^in  was  admitted  at  once  at  a 
duty  of  19,  The  Free-trade  majority  consisted  of  l  la  Conserva- 
tives and  227  Liberals.  Corn-taxes  were,  however,  not  finally 
abolished  in  1846.  There  remained  a  duty  of  is.  per  quarter, 
which  was  intended  by  Sir  Robert  Peel  as  a  registration-duty, 
and  was  converted  in  1863  by  Mr  Gladstone  Into  a  duly  of  3d. 
per  cwt.  Its  importance  will  be  seen  from  the  following  table 
of  its  produc" 


1S64. 


'^d'flSur'i  •^H^.ooo  ^5«>.«»  £-!n.''ao  £t».ooo  £itg,rao    £897,0= 

It  of  coui'se  produced  the  lai^est  revenue  when  the  homi 
failed  ;  it  involved  a  collateral  duty  on  arrowroot,  pot; 
sago,  and  other  farinaceous  substances,  and  it  raised  Ihe  price 
of  home  coin.  Every  oiw  therefore  applauded  Mr  Lowe  when 
he  abolished  it  on  12th  April  1869,  auhough  in  1871  Mr  Dis- 
raeli, who  has  always  opposed  remissions  of  indirect  taxation, 
denounced  this  measure  as  a  wanton  sacrifice  of  revenue.  We 
will  now  give  a  table  showing  the  q,uantities  of  wheat  and  wheat- 
flour,  barley,  and  oats,  imported-  into  the  United  Kingdom  at 
triennial  periods  from  1840.  Co  1870  mclusive,  and  for  1871  and 
1872.  It  may  be  explained  that  from  1834  to  1843  the  average 
Gazelle  price  of  British  wheal  was  s6s.  3d.  (tlie  highest  being 
70s.  8d,  m  1839,  the  lowest  39s.  4d.  in  183S) ;  from  1844  to 
1853  the  average  was  49s.  4d.  (the  highest  being  69s.  91'  ' 
1847,  the  lowest  38s.  6d.  in  iSjl) ;  from  1854  to  1863  the  i 
age  was  s6s.  nd.{lhe  highest  being  74s.  8d,  in  1855,  the  lowest 
43s,  9d.  in  1859) ;  from  1864  to  1873  the  average  was  52s.  8i' 
(the  highest  being  64s.   5d.  in  1867,   the   lowest  405.  2d.  i 


0... 

Ear  ty. 

C»ts 

iE5= 

10,850,604 

4.93".' 7! 

IV^V^^ 

.86* 

ass 

trtSJ^ 

.S:S 

The  reflection  which  these  figures  suggest  is  not  that  the  abo- 
lition of  the  C.-L.  has  greatly  or  permanently  lowered  the  price 
of  com  (althouglv  such  was  the  tendency  of  the  change,  other 
conditions  remaining  equal),  but  that  the  abolition  has,  in  con- 
nection with  other  fiscal  changes,  enormously  increased  the 
general  production  or  purchasing  power  of  theeoantry,  and  has, 
in  paiticular,  placed  the  country  almost  beyond  the  reach  of  a 
famine,  since  the  rise  of  a  few  shillings  in  the  price  of  coin 
brings  to  the  market,  millions  of  quarters  from  distant  districts, 
which  are  kept  by  the  expense  of  transit  from  ordinary  competi- 
tion. In  fact,  it  is  probable  that,  as  a  matter  of  economy,  not 
of  policy,  Britain  is  now  too  entirely  dependent  on  foi%ign  sup- 
plies of  grain,  A  committee  of  the  House  of  Lords,  appointed 
in  1873,  reported  that  out  of  20,000,000  acres  lequiring  drain- 
age, only  3,000,000  are  as  yet  drained.  It  must  be  kept  in 
view  that  wliile  com  tends  to  rise  in  cost  of  production  with  the 


yLaOogle 


OOR 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


COR 


reass'of  population,  and  to  fall  with  every  improvement  in 
agriculture,  ihere  is  a  necessary  limit  to  this,  because  an  inciease 
in  tlie  cost  of  producing  com  means  a  diminished  return  on  the 
industry  employed  in  producing  it ;  and  this  diminished  return 
— corn  being  the  principal  article  of  the  labourer's  consumption 
— involves  for  bim  diminished  means  of  support.  This  explains 
the  singular  fact  that,  allowing  for  depreciation  of  money,  the 
normal  price  of  wheat  has  not  risen  in  England  since  the  be- 
ginning of  the  17th  c. 

Gom-Moth  (Tinea  grandla),  a  species  of  moth  belonging 
lo  the  genus  Tinea,  which  also  includes  the  Clothes  Moths 
(q.  v.).  Its  larva  is  known  as  the  'C.  worm,'  and  destroys 
grain  stored  in  granaries.  The  moth  itself  is  of  a  yellowish- 
white  colour,  the  front  wings  being  variegated  with  grey,  brown, 
and  black  colours.  The  iarvas  also  attack  books,  pasteboard, 
and  similar  substances.  The  Bulalis  cereaOa  is  another  moth 
also  known  by  the  name  of  C.-M.  It  inhabits  America,  and 
lias  been  met  with  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  but  does  not 
occur  in  Britain. 

Oome  Bre  generally  produced  by  tight  boots  or  shoes,  and 
consist  of  hard  portions  of  the  cuticle,  the  result  of  alternate 
pressure  and  freedom.  They  are  generally  described  as  hard  C. 
and  soft  C.  The  latter  are  situated  generally  between  the  toes, 
and  are  kept  moist  by  the  na.tural  secretion  of  the  toes  ;  the  former 
are  situated  on  exposed  parts.  C,  are  very  painfvil,  and  are  more 
easily  prevented  than  cured.  Boots  and  shoes  should  never  be 
light,  but  should  always  be  large  enough  to  contain  the  foot  easy. 
For  hard  C.  the  best  treatment  is  carefully  to  remove  with  a 
knife  the  hardened  part  of  the  skin,  and  then  apply  some  sub- 
stance which  will  dissolve  the  C,  as  glacial  acetic  acid.  Sofl  C. 
are  best  treated  with  strong  nitric  acid. 

Com  Salad,  or  Lamb's  Lettuce  {Fedia  or  Valerianella), 
a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Valerianace/e, 
common  in  Britain  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  The  com- 
mon C.  S.  (F.  olitoria)  is  often  cultivated  as  a  salad,  more  be- 
cause  it  is  in,  perfection  early  in  spring,  than  because  of  its  taste, 
which  is  insipid.  V.  carinala  <the  vineyard  salad)  and  F., 
eriocatfia  (the  Italian  C.  S.)  are  also  similarly  used  os  the 
Continent. 

CoTH  Sa^sB-Y  {Cephus  fygm/sus),  a  species  of  Sawflies  {q.  v.), 
the  females  of  whicli,  by  means  of  their  peculiar  Ovipositors 
(q.  v.),  insert  the  eggs  in  or  near  the  ears  of  wheat  and  other 
cereals.  The  larva  consumes  the  substance  of  the  grain,  and 
passes  its  chrysalis  stage  in  the  stem.  This  fly  is  about  half  on 
inch  long,  and  of  a  black  colour  with  yellow  marks. 

Comstone  is  an  arenaceous  limestone,  in  which,  however, 
there  is  a  predominance  of  calcareous  matter.  It  is  a  grade  in 
the  passage  from  calcareous  sandstone  te  a  good  limestone,  and 
its  weathered  surfaces  are  frequently  of  a  dark  brown  colour,  due 
to  the  presence  of  peroxide  of  iron. 

Com  Thrips  ( Thrips  cerealium),  a,  genus  of  insects  variously 
regarded  as  belonging  to  the  Orlhopiera  {q.  v.)  and  included  in 
a  special  group,  Fhysofada.  The  C.  T.  does  great  injury  to 
wheat  crops,  both  by  eating  the  ears  ajid  stems  of  the  plants. 
The  tarsi  consist  of  two  joints,  and  the  foot  is  suclter-Iike.  The 
colour  is  black.     The  males  are  wingless,  the  females  have  four 


Oomuco'pia  {"LiX.  cornucopia,  'the  horn  of  plenty'),  in  clas- 
sical  mythology,  the  horn  of  the  goal  Amallhea,  who  suckled  the 
infant  Jove,  and  which  he  afterwards  through  gratitude  raised  to 
be  a  star,  is  now  referred  to  as  the  emblem  of  fruitfulness  and 
abundance.  In  architecture  and  heraldry  the  word  denotes  an 
ornament  representing  a  horn,  from  which  issue  flowers,  frujts, 
com,  &c  The  C.  is  frequently  found  on  ancient  coins,  espe- 
cially those  of  Sicily. 

Corn'waJl,  an  English  county,  forming  the  S.,W.  extremity  of 
Great  Britain,  bounded  on  all  sides  by  the  sea,  except  on  the 
E.,  where  it  is  separated  from  iDevonshire  by  the  Tamar.  In 
form  it  somewhat  resembles  a  right-angled  triangle.  Area, 
I3S9  sq.  miles;  pop.  (1871)  363,343.  On  the  side  stretching 
from  N.E.  to  S.W.  are  numerous  shallow  bays,  of  which  the 
principal  is  that  of  St  Ives,  while  Trevose  Head  is  the  most 
commanding  promontory.  The  S,  coast  has  much  deeper  in- 
dentations and    bolder  promontories.     Among  the  former  are 


the  harbours  of  Plymouth  and  Falmouth  and  Mount's  Bay,  and 
among  the  latter  are  Li2ard  Point  and  Land's  End,  ofi"  which 
are  the  Scilly  Isles  (q.  v.).  Through  the  centre  of  the  county 
from  N.E.  to  S.W.  extends  the  S.W.  continuation  of  the 
Devonian  range  of  hills,  forming  the  principal  watershed,  and 
from  which  tlie  land  slopes  seaward  on  each  side.  Tlie  grey 
granite  occurring  in  this  range  Is  rapidly  decomposed  when  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  and  has  formed  valuable  beds  of  kaolin,  or 
porcelain  clay,  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  finer  kinds 
of  ware.  The  old  red  sandstone  Strata  occupy  about  three- 
fourths  of  C.  The  hills  nowhere  rise  much  above  1300  feet,  and 
the  rivers,  numerous  but  short,  are  accessible  to  ihe  tide,  and 
their  mouths  form  valuable  harbours.  The  principal  river,  the 
Tamar,  has  a  course  of  56  miles.  The  climate  is  mild  but  variable, 
with  frequent  rain,  from  the  almost  insukr  situation  of  the  county. 
The  soil  in  the  elevated  districts  is  almost  bari-en ;  on  the  coast 
and  in  the  valleys  it  is  comparatively  fertile,  but  to  produce 
abundantly  it  requires  to  be  heavily  manured,  A  favounte  crop 
.- ._.___  j-Q^  raising  which  the  soil  is  so  well  adapted  that  in 


leplac 


under  crop  in  bare  fallow  and  grass  in  1875  ■ 
Of  these  there  were  under  corn  crops  145,953  acrra  i  "under  green 
crops,  60,042  acres;  under  clover  and  grasses  in  rotation,  135,932 
acres ;  and  under  permanent  pasture,  exclusive  of  heath  and 
mountain  land,  162,873  acres.  The  principal  com  crops  are 
wheat,  barley,  and  oats ;  green  crops,  turnips,  mangold-wurzel. 


There  a 


25,374  a. 


s  of  woods  and 


coppices. 


In  1875  the  number  of  cattle  in  C.  was  156,915 ;  of'sheep, 
438,925  ;  and  of  horses,  29,780.  The  fisheries  of  C.  are  of  great 
extent  and  importance  ;  the  distinctive  kinds  of  fish  being  mac- 
kerel and  pilchard,  the  latter  of  which  are  exported  m  vast 
quantities,  and  the  take  is.  sometimes  so  great  that  thejr  ore  sold 
for  manure.  But  its  mineral  wealth  is  w&t  mainly  distinguishes 
the  county.  In  1S70  there  were  raised  1 1,214  t<™s  of  iron  ore  ; 
56,526  tons  of  copper  ore  from  seventy-seven  mines,  from  which 
4148  tons  of  fine  copper  were  obtained;  8481  tons  of  lead  ore 
from  twenty  mines,  from  which  6360  tons  of  lead  wei-e  obtained  ; 
and  292,045  ounces  of  silver,  and  15,190  tons  of  tin  ore,  from 
which  were  obtained  about  10,  2Cnd  tons  of  tin, 

C.  is  the  Cassiterida  ('  tin  isknds ')  of  the  Phcenicians,  who 
traded  for  tin  with  C.  and  the  Scilly  Isles,  and  probably  formed 
the  word  from  the  Sanskrit  Kastlra,  much  tin  being  found  in 
the  islands  off  the  coasts  of  India  (I  Jissen,  in  K\\tzr's  Etdtumle). 
At  the  time  of  the  Roman  invasion  C.  was  inhabited  by  the 
J}am?io?iii  and  ComabH,  from  the  latter  of  whom  its  name  was 
Latinised  into  Comiibia.  The  Enghsh  invaders  called  the  people 
Com-woalhas  ('  the  stmngers  of  the  "  Com  "  or  "  horn  "  (Wei. 
Jttmou)  of  the  island '),  whence  the  modem  C.  The  county  is 
rich  in  British  and  Roman  antiqnities,  stone-cu-cles,  sepulchral 
tumuli,  remains  of  camps,  amphitheatres,  &o.  j  and  has  besides 
some  singular  natural  curiosities,  of  which  the  most  notable  are 
the  Logan  stones  and  Cheesewring.  From  its  remote  position, 
C.  was  naturally  the  last  part  of  the  S.  of  England  lo  yield  to 
the  English,  nor  was  it  finally  conquered  by  them  fiU  the  reign 
of  jEthelstan,  in  the  loth  c.  In  1329  C.  was  raised  to  a  duchy, 
which  is  hereditary  in  the  Princes  of  Wales,  In  the  Wars  of  the 
Roses  the  Cornish  men  were  Lancastrians ;  in  the  civil  war  they 
were  Royalists..  A  Cymric  dialect  (see  Cymric  Language  and 
Literature)  continued  to  be  spoken  down  to  the  middle  of  the 
18th  c,  and  has  given  some  words  to  the  English  tongue. 

CornflfOll'^,  Charles,  JT&^quiH,  an  English  general  and 
governor,  son  of  the  first' Earl  Cornwallis,  was  bom  December 
31,  1738,  and  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Cambridge.  After 
serving  in  the  Seven  Vears'  War,  and  holding  several  appoint- 
ments, including  Ihat  of  Governor  of  the  Tower  of  London,  he 
was  sent  to  the  United  States  to  command  against  the  colonists 
in  the  War  of  Independence.  He  gained  some  successes  over 
the  American  troops  in  1780  and  1781,  but  was  compelled  to 
surrender,  with  all  his  troops,  at  York  Town  in  Virginia.  Al- 
though this  disaster  precipitated  the  ruin  of  the  British  cause  in 
America,  C.  was  not  censured  when  he  returned  to  England, 
but,  from  1786  to  1793,  held  the  office  of  Governor -General  in 
India  and  commander- m-chief  of  the  troops  there,  signalising  his 
term  of  office  by  crushing  Tippoo  Saib,  and  by  a  series  of  admi- 
nistrative reforms  which  have  conferred  on  him  a  still  more  last- 
ing renown.  To  C.  is  owing  the  famous  '  permanent  settlement' 
of  the  land-question  in  Bengal  and  Behar,  by  which  the  lemin- 


^^ 


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were  invested  wilh  a  permanent  tenure  of  Uie  land  at  a 
fixed  and  unalterable  assessment.  He  also  introduced  great 
clianges  into  tlie  judicial  syslem  of  tlie  Bengal  Presidency,  con- 
fining the  collector  of  revenue  to  his  fiscal  duties,  and  establish- 
ing a  civil  court  in  each  district,  with  a  judge,  a  registrar,  and 
one  or  more  'covenanted'  assistants.  ReturniiiE  to  England, 
he  ias  raised  to  the  rank  of  marquis.  The  position  he  next 
obtained  was  that  of  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  during  his 
occupancy  of  it  he  succeeded  in  putting  down  tlie  Irish  RebelUou 
of  1798,  After  this  he  negotiated  tlie  Treaty  of  Amiens  (iSoa) 
with  France.  Appointed  a  second  time,  in  1804,  Governor- 
General  of  India,  C.  died  at  Ghaiipore,  in  the  division  of  Be- 
nares, in  the  same  year  (stli  October).  He  was  an  able,  honest, 
industrious  raler,  and  a  general  of  superior  capacity.  See  his 
Correspondetue  by  Ross  (3  vols.  2d  ed.  1859). 

Com  Weevil  (Calandrn  graftaria),  a  genus  of  beetles  be- 
longing to  the  Tetramerous  group  ol Rhynchsphora,  in  which  the 
tarsi  are  four-jointed,  and  the  head  prolonged  to  foira  a  forfras!  or 
beak.  This  beetle  is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length.  It  is  of 
a  dart-red  colour.  The  front  wings  or  wing-cases  aie  alone  pre- 
sent. The  larva  feeds  on  the  corn  grains,  and  the  eggs  deposited 
by  the  female  insects  are  usually  veiy  numerous.  The  remedy 
for  the  attack  of  these  insects  is  to  frequently  stir  and  shift  the 
grain.  The  rice  weevil  (C.  aiyea)  feeds  on  rice;  whilst  the 
Eirva  of  C.  paltimmm  of  S.  America  lives  in  the  stems  of  palms. 
Ooroira  (' a  little  garland  orcrown'),  the  innermost  or  second 
Horal  envelope  which  in  a  perfect  flower  intervenes  between 
the  calyx  and  the  stamens.  In  Monocotyledons  it  is  beheved 
to  be  wanting,  as  well  as  frequentljr  in  the  Apetaics  or  Mono- 
(hlamydeie  of  Dicotyledons.  The  pieces  of  which  it  is  made 
up  are  modified  leaves,  and  are  called  petals.  They  may  be 
eitlier  wholly  or  in  part  united  {Gamopelalaus  or  Motutpetalcus), 
or  entirely  separate  from  one  another  {Dialypelaloiis,  Polype- 
talmis).  The  shape  of  the  C  has  given  rise  to  various  de- 
scriptive terms,  such  as  bell-shaped,  salver-shaped, 
&c.,  and  according  as  the  petals  are  all  of  the 
or  of  different  sizes,  regular  or  irr^ular.  The  C.  may  have 
also  appendages  in  the  form  of  scale!,  spiirs,  &c.,  or  (hose 
vaguely -defined  glandular  or  other  appendages  at  the  base 
called  nectaries.  Each  petal  consists  of  the  liiab  or  blade,  and 
the  unguis  or  claw,  the  former  corresponding  to  the  blade  of  a 
Leaf  (q.  v.),  thelatterto  the  petiole  or  stalk,  and,  like  the  petiole 
of  a  leaf,  mav  be  present  or  absent,  long  or  short.  The  shape  of 
the  C.  generally  determines  the  form  of  the  flower,  and  as  it  is 
usually  the  most  brightly  coloured  part,  the  beauty  of  the  flower 
is  also  to  a  great  extent  dependent  on  it.  See  Calyx  and 
Perianth. 

Cor'ollary,  in  mathematics,  is  an  immediate  deduction  from 
a  demonstrated  proposition,  and  many  of  Euclid's  propositi 
might  be  proved  as  corollaries  of  some  foregoing  proposition. 

Corolliflo'we,  a  subdivision  of  Dicotyledonous  plants,  in 
which  the  stamens  are  usually  inserted  (or  seem  to  be  inserted)  in 
the  coroUa,  and  in  which  the  Corolla  (q.  v.)  is  gamopetalous, 
and  inserted  below  the  ovary.    The  heaths,  Labialu,  &e.,  are 

Coroman'del,  a  peninsula  in  tlie  N.  island  of  New  Zealand, 
30  miles  E.  of  the  town  of  Audtland.  It  is  traversed  by  a  rocky 
range  of  hills  in  which  gold  is  found,  and  has  been  worked  for  a 
number  of  years.  The  yield  is  fluctuating,  but  has  reached 
16,000  oz.,  worth  j,£'5o,ooo,  in  a  year.  Kapmga,  the  principal 
township,  is  a  thriving  little  place. 

Coromandel  Coast  (Ind.  Chela  Mandalam,  i.e.,  'the  land 
of  Chola,'  an  ancient  ruler  of  tlie  region)  is  the  name  of  the  K 
shore  of  the  Indian- peninsula,  province  of  Madras,  from  Caly- 
mere  {Kalamari)  Point  to  the  mouth  of  the  Kistna,  or  from 
about  lat.  10°  17'  to  15°  20'  N.     The  coast,  from  the  shall 
of  the  water  and  the  violence  of  the  N.E.  monsoon,  is  s     i 
gerous  that  ships  of  any  considerable  size  are  obliged  to        1 
several  miles  from  shore,  and  debarkation  is  effected  by 
of  native  boats. 

Coronnandel  Wood,    See  Calamaneee.  Wood. 

Coro'na,  orCrowtt,  in  botany,  arather indefinite  term,  Uy 


■r.  Various  forms  of  C.  may  also  be  seen  in  Stapelia  and 
other  genera  of  Asdsptadacia,  in  Sileiie  pemlula,  and  various 
Coryopkyllaces,  &e. 

Cororta,  in  classical  architecture,  the  lower  member,  or  drip, 
of  the  projecting  part  of  the  Cornice  (q.  v.).  In  the  language 
of  ecclesiastical  writers,  the  apse  of  a  chnrdi  is  called  the  C. — 
as  'Becket's  Crown'  in  Canterbury;  so  also  isalarge  circle  con- 
taining tapers  which  depends  from  the  roof  of  a  diurch,  or  in 
some  cases  stands  on  the  floor. 


Oor'onacll,  properly  Coranaich  (Gael.  Co-ranakh,  '  roaring 
or  howling  together'),  a  term  now  applied  almost  exclusively 
to  a  wild  lament,  consistii^  partly  of  inarticulate  w^lmg,  with 
which  the  Irish  and  the  Scottish  Highlanders  gave  expression  to 
their  sorrow  for  the  death  of  a  friend.  It  was  chanted,  like  the 
Latin  ululatfis,  over  the  dead  body,  but  the  custom  is  now  aban- 
doned. The  word  C.  has  long  been  familiar  to  the  Lowland 
litei-alure  of  Scotland — e.^., 


Oorona'ti 


'TliEootoiiach  stole  ^ 

he  ceremony  of  C,  and  the  use  of  the  crown 

„  „.. overeignty,   are  of  great  antiquity,      From 

the  Bible  we  learn  that  Solomon  and  Ahaziah  were  crowned. 
Among  the  Greeks  a  kind  of  crown  was  awarded  to  the  victors 
in  public  games  ;  and  to  citizens  of  especial  merit,  C.,  with  sub- 
stantial privileges,  was  a  frequent  reward  of  valour  among  the 
ancient  Romans — 


'Th™ 


et  iheni 


And« 


ton  hi 


.pet  50 


puiplf, 


In  Westminster  Abbey,  against  the  altar-screen,  stand  llie  tn 
C. -chairs  of  the  sovereigns  of  England.  One,  the  king's  chai 
covers  the  'Stone  of  Destiny,'  carried  off  from  Scone,  in  Sco 
land,  by  Edward  L,  in  rage.  The  other,  the  consort's  chai  , 
was  constructed  for  the  C.  of  Mary,  wife  of  William  III.  Both 
are  still  used  at  coronations.  In  the  Cottonian  MSS.  is  a  copy 
of  Hie  Gospels,  believed  to  be  that  on  which  the  Saxon  ki 
were  swotn.  (See  CEOWti.)  Consult  Chapters  an  Caronati 
(Lond.  1833),  and  Bohn's  Cydoprndia  0/ Politkal  Kmvikdge. 


66 -68°  N.,  long.  ioZ'-ilh°  W. 

Coronation,  Oati.  Previous  to  the  Revolution  of  1688  the 
form  of  this  oath  was  variable.  At  least,  if  there  was  a  regular 
form,  it  was  liable  to  be  tampered  with,  a  copy  of  the  oath  taken 
by  Henry  VIII.  being  in  the  Cottonian  MSS.  with  alterations 
in  his  own  writing.  The  present  form  of  C.  O.  was  fixed  by  a 
statute  of  William  and  Mary,  which  form  was  afterwards  altered 
to  suit  the  terms  of  the  Union  between  England  and  Scotland,  and 
Great  Britain  and  Ireknd.  The  sovereign  swears  to  'maintain 
the  laws  of  God,  the  true  profession  of  the  gospel,  and  the  Pro- 
testant reformed  religion  established  by  kw,'  also  to  '  maintain 
and  preserve  inviolably  tlie  settlement  of  the  nnited  Church  of 
England  and  Ireland,  and  the  doctrine,  worsliip,  discipline,  and 
government  thereof,  as  by  law  established,  within  England  and 
Ireland,  and  the  territories  thei  eunto  belonging  ; '  also  to  '  pre- 
sirve  to  the  bishops  and  clergy  of  England  and  Ireland,  and 
to  the  churches  there  committed  to  their  charge,  all  such  rights 
d  p  I  ges  as  do  or  shall  appertain  unto  them.' 
Th  ecurity  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  is  provided  for  by  a 
p  g  an  Act  of  Parliament  ratifying  the  Treaty  of  Union. 
I  h     by  enacted  that  'after  the  decease  of  her  present 

M  J    ty  (   hom  God  long  preserve),  the  sovereign  succeeding  to 
h  1     royal  government  of  this  kingdom  shall  in  all  time 

ng  (     t  at  the  coronation),  at  his  er  ha-  accession  to  the  crmim, 
d  subscribe  that  they  shall  maintain  and  preserve  the 
f   esa  d    ettlement  of  the  trae  Protestant  religion,  witli  the 
g      nun    t,  discipline,  and  worsliip  of  this  Church,  as  above 


y  Google 


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established,'  tliat  is,  as  establislied  by  Act '  1  Will,  and  Mary,  c. 
5.  llie  C.  O.  is  to  be  regaided  as  the  ratification  by  the  sove- 
reign of  a  compact  with  Parliament,  the  terms  of  which  compact 
may  be  altered  at  the  will  of  the  contracting  parties. 

Oor'oner  (lit,  'a.  ijwwi-officer').  In  England  the  C.  is  an 
otficec  possessing  both  judicial  and  ministeiial  authority.  In 
his  judicial  capacity  he  holds  inquisitions  in  cases  of  violent 
deaths.  It  is  part  of  his  duty  to  inquire  after  and  take  care 
of  treasure-trove,  wreck  of  the  sea,  &c.  The  C.  acts  ministe- 
rially in  the  e:tecution  of  writs  of  the  crown  when  the  sheriff 
is  disqualified.  Coroners  are  chosen  for  life  by  the  freeholders, 
but  they  are  removable  for  incapacity  or  misbehaviour.  The 
numher  for'each  county  is  not  fixed.     In  some  counties  there 

e  six,  in  some  there  'are  four,  and  in  others  fewer.     Their 

stiicts,  and  the  time  and  manner  of  electing  to  the  ofSce, 

e  regulated  by  an  early  statute  of  the  present  reign,  amended 
by  23  and  24  Vict.  c.  116.  ITic  court  of  a  C.  is  a  f/oj?  taHjf 
for  the  purpose  of  the  inquisition,  and  he  may  exclude  any  one 
who  is  present  merely  as  a  spectator  or  reporter.  A  news- 
paper statement  of  an  inquisition,  accompanied  with  comments, 
is,  it  seems,  libellous,  although  the  report  be  strictly  true. 
The  C.  may  order  the  disinterment  of  a  corpse.  It  is  an  indict- 
able offence  to  bury  a  body  liable  to  inquest  without  sending  for 
the  C.  The  office  does  not  now  exist  in  Scotland,  but  it  is  said 
to  have  existed. 

Oor'onet    See  Crown. 

Oor'poral  (Fr.  caforale,  Ital.  caporsle,  from  capi  (Lat.  caput), 
'  the  head ')  is  in  the  British  army  the  rank  immediately  below 
that  of  a  non-commissioned  officer.  Tlie  special  function  of  the 
C.  is  to  mamtain  discipline  among  the  private  soldiers  in  barracks 
or  in  camp.  The  pay  of  a  C.  is  from  is.  3d.  to  2s.  sd.  per  day. 
He  has  an  assistant  called  a  lance-C,  who  receives  no  extra  pay. 
In  the  navy,  there  is  a  sliipVC,  who  is  under  the  Mastei-at- 
Arms  (q.  v.).     See  COMMISSION,  Army, 

OorpDtal  (Lat.  corftis,  'the  body'),  a  linen  cloth  placed 
over  the  consecrated  bread  and  wine  after  the  celebration  of  the 
Lord's  Slipper.  In  England  the  term  is  applied  also  to  the 
linen  cloth,  or  rather,  according  to  old  usage,  two  cloths,  spread 
on  the  altar  while  the  sacrament  is  being  consecrated.  This 
cloth  is  also  called  palla,  Chrismak,  anti-mensia,  sindon, 
thronus. 

Oorporol  Pimislimeiit.     See  Flogging. 

Oor'pora  Iiu'tea,  a  name  given  to  peculiar  appearances  seen 
in  the  ovary  after  the  cKtrusion  of  an  ovum  fiom  a  Graafian 
vesicle.     See  Ovary. 

Corpora'tion  is  a  legally  fictitious  person  or  body  politic, 
created  by  roj'al  charter,  under  special  or  general  Act  of  I'arha- 
ment,  or  prescription.  It  holds  its  property,  rights,  and  immu- 
nities in  perpetuity.  A  C,  or  body  corporate  may  be  either  lay 
or  ealcsiaslual.     In  an  ecclesiastical  C.  the  members  are  the 


_.e  either  civil  or"eleemo5ynary,  the  former  are  estabhshed  for 
the  government  of  towns,  for  public  improvements,  or  for  the  ad- 
vancement of  commerce  and  learning.  Eleemosynary  corpora- 
lions  exist  for  the  administration  of  funds  devoted  to  charitable 
or  educational  purposes.  Corporations  are  either  sole  or  nggrcgate, 
that  is,  of  one,  or  of  more  than  one.  The  Queen  or  a  bishop 
is  a  C,  sole.  Corporations  aggregate  are  commonly  the  Mayor 
(q.  V. )  (in  ScotUnd,  the  Provost,  q.  v. )  and  burgesses  of  a  town, 
tlie  head  and  fellows  of  a  college,  the  dean  and  chapter  of  a 
cathedral  church.  A  name  is  essential  to  every  C.  The  powers 
usually  bestowed  on  corporate  bodies  are, — to  have  by  descent, 
election,  or  otherwise,  perpetual  succession,  to  sue  and  be  sued 
in  their  corporate  capacity,  to  purchase  lands  and  have  a  com- 
mon seal,  to  make  byelaws  for  the  better  government  of  the  C. 
But  they  can  make  no  byelaws  contrary  to  the  laws  of  the 
country.  A  C.  cannot  commit  felony  or  treason.  It  can  only 
appear  in  legal  proceedings  by  attorney  or  other  officers  autho- 
rised to  act  for  it. 

Under  recent  Acts  of  Parliament  any  society  of  persons  having 
a  legal  purpose  may  acquire  the  chai'acter  of  a  C.  See  Benefit 
Friendly  Societies,  Building  (Benefit)  Societies,  Joint- 
Stock  Companies,  Partnership.  See  also  Municipality, 
Burgess  Roll,  Town  Council. 


Corps  d'Arm^e,  a  term  formerly  confined  to  the  organisa- 
311  of  the  military  forces  of  the  more  powerful  nations  of  Con- 
iieiital  Eiu'ope  in  times  of  peace.  Each  C.  d'A.,  consisting 
iually  of  not  less  than  50,000  men,  had  the  staff,  artillery  park, 
and  all  the  equipments  of  a  complete  army.  The  teim  is  now 
generally  used,  iu  England,  as  elsewhere,  for  the  largest  division 
of  an  army  in  the  field,  which  is  subdivided  into  brigades,  and 
these  mto  regiments  and  battalions. 

Cor'pus  Oallo'sum.    See  Cerebrum. 

Cor'pus  Chiis'ti,  or.  Benet  College,  Cambridge,  was 
founded  in  1353  by  the  two  united  guilds  of  C,  C.  and  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin.  Archbishop  Parker  increased  the  endowments 
of  the  college,  and  left  to  it  his  manuscripts,  including  the  only 
authentic  manuscript  copies  of  the  Thirty-Nine  Articles,  Tliere 
are  twelve  fellows,  who  must  all  take  holy  orders.  Tlie  scholar- 
ships are  numerous,  and  some  of  them  are  valuable.  In  i^TS 
the  number  of  undeigraduales  was  144. 

Corpus  Christi,  Osford,  founded  in  1516  by  Richard  Fox, 
Bishop  of  Winchester,  -was  at  first  characterised  by  strmgent  dis- 
cipline, and  was  the  first  foundation  in  which  Greek  was  made 
imperative  in  an  academic  course.  It  now  consists  of  a  presi- 
dent, 20  fellows,  24  scholars,  and  2  chaplains.  The  fellowships, 
two  of  which  are  annexed  to  professors,  are  of  the  annual  value 
of  about  ,^200,  and  the  scholarships,  tenable  for  five  years,  of 
the  annual  value  of  £^.  Exhibitions,  to  be  competed  for  by 
the  commoners,  have  been  lately  instituted.  In  1875  the  num- 
ber of  undergraduates  was  59. 

Cor'pus  Qiris'ti  Fes'tival,  a  festival  called  in  France  the 
FHt  Dieu,  the  most  splendid  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
was  instituted  by  Pope  Urban  IV.  in  1264  in  honour  of  the 
consecrated  host,  and  ordered  to  be  kept  on  Thursday  after  tlie 
festival  of  the  Trinity,  odierwise  called  the  Octave  of  Pentecost. 
Grand  processions  are  its  chief  features. 

Cor'pus  Delic'ti,  a  Scotch  criminal  law-term  denoting  the 
leading  fact  specified  in  a  criminal  chaise.  Thus,  if  a  person 
be  charged  with  murder,  it  must  be  proved  that  there  has  been  a 
murder,  otherwise  C.  D.  is  not  established.  See  Circumstan- 
tial Evidence,  Evidence. 


Corr'ea,  a  genus  of  Rutaceou 
Eastern  Australia,  where  they  i 
The  leaves  of  some  of  them  are 


,  natives  of  Southern  and 
a  substitute  for  tea. 


Oorrec'tioii,  House  of.  See  Pkison,  Reformatory, 
Correction  of  the  Press.  The  functionary  of  a  printing 
estaiilishment  whose  business  is  to  delect  and  correct  the  errors 
of  the  compositor  is  called  the  '  Header.'  To  be  a  good  reader 
requires  more  natural  aptitude  and  more  practice  than  the  un- 
initiated would  expect  Besides  the  eirois  of  the  compositor, 
there  are  certain  kinds  of  erroi-s  of  the  author  which  must  be 
looked  to — faulty' spelling  or  punctuation,  misquotation,  &c. 
The  form  or  scheme  of  a  work,  that  is,  the  arrangement  of 
chapters,  paragraphs,  notes,  or  tabular  matter,  is  also  more  o" 
less  troublesome.  After  the  reader's  revision,  the  writer  0 
author  usually  revises.  An  author  should  write  his  work  a 
legibly  as  his  skill  in  penmanship  enables  him  to  do.  Heshould 
then  revise  and  correct  with  the  utmost  care.  In  his  proof,  if  he 
be  particular  regarding  his  composition,  he  will  surely,  despite 
his  own  care  and  that  of  the  reader,  find  many  blunders.  If  lie 
wish  to  save  expense,  corrections  should  be  made  so  as  to  cause 
as  little  derangement  of  apace  as  possible.  The  author  should 
revise  a  second  proof,  to  see  that  tlie  corrections  made  In  the  first 
have  been  carried  out.  TTiere  should  be  no  fresh  corrections  in 
a  second  proof,  if  the  author  has  been  duly  careful ;  but  the  fas- 
tidious writer  will  probably  find  that  correction  is  an  endless  task. 
Besides  femilianly  with  typography,  a  good  reader  must  have 
an  eye  to  note  each  word  and  letter,  while  at  the  sanie  time 
takes  in  the  meaning  and  connection  of  the  whole.  In  printing 
a  volume  it  is  usual  lo  correct  one  sheet  at  a  time,  but  sometimes 
it  is  more  convenient  to  take  a  proof  on  long  slips  before  divid- 
ing into  pages.  Corrections  are  marked  on  the  margin  by 
established  signs  understood  by  all  printers;  but  it  is  not  tieces- 
sary  that  the  author  should  use  these  signs  in  correcting.  He 
should  mark  the  margin  where  a  change  or  correction  is  to  '— 
made,  write  very  legibly,  and  be  careful  to  avoid  confusion. 
255 


vGooqIc 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


COR 


Oorreg'gio,  an  old  town  in  the  province  of  Reggio,  N. 
Italy,  in  the  Val  de  Molini,  12  miles  to  tlie  S.  of  tlie  Po,  and  5 
E,  of  Carpi,  a  station  on  the  Mantua  and  Modena  Railway.  It 
has  a  line  cathedral  and  a  rare  old  castle,  was  formerly  a  barony 
of  the  princely  family  of  C,  but  is  best  known  as  the  birthplace 
of  the  great  colourist,  Antonio  Allegri,  who  hence  derives  bis 
femoias  surname.     Pop,  11,693. 

Cone^g^io,  Anto'uio  Alle'gri,  derives  his  surname  from 
Correggio,  a  town  in  Modena,  near  which  he  was  bom  in  1494. 
To  this  great  painter  history  has  been  unkind.  His  career  and 
condition  in  life  were  at  first  misrepresented  and  encrusted  with 
unfounded  tradition  by  his  contemporary  Vasari ;  and  recent  in- 
vestigation has  but  tended  to  overthrow  tt^ditionary  evidence 
without  replacing  it  with  much  of  verified  fact.  Va^^ari's  narra- 
tive has  been  proved  to  be  fabulous  with  respect  to  most  of  his 
Blatements,  and  all  the  traditionary  matter  in  connection  witb  the 
le  of  C,  including  the  famous  AncK  io  sono pUlort  ['I  also 
a  painter'),  is  now  regarded  as  without  foundation.  The 
facts  recently  established  concerning  him  are  few.  His  father, 
legrini  Allegri,  was  a  merchant  of  Cotr^;mo  in  good  circum- 
ices ;  his  mother  was  Bemardina  PiaizSi  of  the  Aromani 
family.  C.  commenced  to  paint  in  boyhood,  but  from  whom  he 
received  tuition  is  unknown.  He  removed  to  Mantua  in  151 1, 
and  there  spent- some  time  studying  the  works  of  Ma.ntegna,  an 
artist  of  fair  ability.  He  returned  to  Correggio  in  1514,  and  in 
that  year  he  produced  his  first  authenticated  picture,  '  The  Ma- 
donna with  St  Francis,'  a  work  admirable  in  composition  and 
expression.  In  1518  lie  was  invited  lo  Parma,  and  there  he 
painted  the  frescoes  in  tlie  convent  of  San  Paolo  and  many 
"'"tures.  He  fell  heir  to  ail  his  uncle's  properly  in  Ijlp,  and  in 
same  year  married  Girolama  Mertin!,  who  brought  him  a 
small  dowiy.  After  residing  for  a  numlier  of  years  in  Parma, 
where  his  wife  is  supposed  to  have  died  aljout  152S,  C.  returned 
to  his  native  town,  and  died  there,  March  S,  1534,  aged  forty. 
His  pictures  are  characterised  by  perfect  chiaroscuro,  luscious 
and  splendid  colour,  and  a  bright  and  joyous  grace  of  style. 
There  seems  to  have  been  perpetual  sunshine  in  his  mind.  His 
children,  round  and  plump  of  limb,  roguish  in  expression,  and 
perfectly  graceful  and  beautirul  in  drawing,  are  beyond  criticism. 
The  Carracci  were  overwhelmed  and  delighted  with  the  loveli- 
ness of  his  Madonnas  and  his  children,  and  studied  his  works  to 
good  purpose  ;  while  Titian  is  reported  to  have  said  if  he  'were 
not  Titian  he  should  wish  to  be  C  In  modem  times  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds  studied  him  with  a  too  slavish  assiduity,  and  in  the 
luminous  eyes  of  Lis  cherub  faces  we  sec  the  design  and  the  ex- 
pression of  the  old  master.  C.  was  the  father  of  Reynolds' 
children.  Among  the  great  works  of  C  are  the  '  School  of 
Love,'  and  the  '  Eece  Homo,'  in  the  National  Gallery,  London ; 
the  'Madonna  Enthroned,'  'La  Notle,' Ihe 'Holy  Night,' and 
the  'Madonna  in  Gloiy,'  in  the  Dresden  Gallery  ;  the 'Sleeping 
Venus,'  and  the  'Mystic  Marriage  of  St  Catherine,"  in  the 
Louvre  ;  the  'Vine  Arbour,'  the  two  '  Angelic  Choirs,'  and  the 
'Madonna  delli  Seodilla,'  or  the  'Rest  after  the  Flight  into 
Egypt,'  in  Parma.  ,  See  A.  A.  la  C,  from  the  German  of  Dr 
Julius  Meyer,  edited  by  Mrs  Heaton  (Macmillan,  1S76),  and  the 
splendid  volume.  The  Works  cf  C.  at  Parma,  reproduced  in 
photography  from  the  ei^;ravings  of  Paolo  Toschi,  with  bio- 
graphical and  descriptive  notices  by  Louis  Fagan,  Prints  Depart- 
ment, British  Museum. 

Covreg'idor,  the  chief  magistrate  of  a  Spanish  town,  ap- 
pointed by  the  king.  In  Portugal,  the  name  is  nearly  synony- 
mous with  QM'c  judge,  an  administrator  of  justice. 

CotT^ze',  a  mountainous  department  of  Central  France,  part 
of  the  old  province  of  Limousin,  and  traversed  by  the  river  C, 
from  which  it  takes  its  name.  Area.  2265  sq,  miles ;  pop.  (1872) 
302,746.  It  is  in  part  richly  wooded,  though  barren  in  the  higher 
districts.  Its  rivers  are  the  C,  tlie  Dordogne,  and  tiie  Vezire. 
C.  has  ci^^derable- mineral  riches,  but  the  inhabitants  are  chie£y 
engaged  in  agriculture,  the  manufactures  being  almost  conlined 
to  the  making  of  firearms  at  Tulle.  The  department  is  divided 
into  the  arrondissements  of  Tulle,  Brine,-  and  Ussel. 

Oorrlb,  Lough,  a  lake  in  the  county  01  Galway,  Ireland, 

next  in  siie  to  Lough  Neagh,  being  27  miles  long  and  from  2  to  6 

broad,  with  an  area  of  68  sq.  miles.     C  is  only  a  few  feet  elevated 

above  the  sea-level.     It  has  numerous  small  islands,  with  some 

!S6 


tern  shores  are    en  a  kable 
or  their  beautiful  scene  y     Th  ough  subterranean  ch       els 
■eceives  the  waters  of  Lo  gh  Mask    a  d   d  schai^es    ts  OHn 
iuperfluous  waters  into  Gal  vay  Bij    3  mtles  distant 

Corr'idor  (Span,  coriedor,  a  runner,  from  correr,  Lat.  cur- 
'ere,  'to  ran'),  marchitecture,  a  gallery,  oropen  communication 
:o  the  different  apartments  of  a  house  or  public  building,  each  of 
whicli  has  a  door  opening  into  it, 

Cotrien'tea  (Span,  coi-riintis,  Lat.  curreates,  '  currents, 
rapids'),  the  name  of  a  province,  and  of  its  capital,  in  the  Argen- 
tine Ryiublic,  S.  America-— The  capital,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
rivers  Parana  and  Paraguay,  is  a  well-liuilt  town,  aud  possesses 
admirable  facilities  for  inland  and  foreign  commerce.  It  has  a 
tine  church  (San  Francisco),  and  a  natural  history  museum,  of 
which  Sonplaiid  {q.  v.)  was  director  from  1854  till  his  death. 
The  harbour  is  good,  and  the  town  has  an  important  trade  in 
timber.  Pop.  (1S69)  ll,2lS. — Tlie/^t^iBfi' embraces  the  northern 
portion  of  the  peninsula  formed  by  the  rivers  Parana  and  Uru- 
guay, the  southern  portion  being  occupied  by  the  province  of 
Entre  Rios.  The  greater  part  oftlie  surface  is  low  and  swampy, 
but  the  S.  and  E.  are  hilly.  Cotton,  tobacco,  rice,  sugar,  indigo, 
,  barley,  arrowroot,  sweet  potatoes,  and  various  tropical 
fruits  are  raised.     Area,  22,402  sq.  miles ;  pop.  (1869)  129,023. 

Oorro'eiire  Sublimate  is  a  compound  of  chlorine  and  mer- 
cury or  quicksilver,  the  composition  of  which  is  repiesented  by 
fomiuli  HgClj.  and  is  called  by  chemists  bichloride  of  mer- 
cury, or  mercuric  chloride.  C.  S.  is  prepared  by  heating  a 
mixture  of  zj  parts  of  mercuric  sulphate  (obtained  by  the  action 
of  sulphuric  acid  on  mercury)  \^th  I  part  of  common  salt  in  a 
subliming  apparatus.  C.  S.  rises  in  vapour,  and  condenses  in 
needle-sliaped  crystals  in  the  cool  part  of  the  vessel,  whilst  sul- 
phate of  soda  remains. 

HgSOj    -^    2NaCl    =    HgCls    -h    NajSOj 


Snlphale 


Chlori 


Sulpha  t' 


iblimaic. 
C.  S.  is  a  colourless  crystalline  body  much  more  read 
,in  boiling  than  in  cold  water ;  it  dissolves  also  wit 
alcohol  or  ether.  It  differs  from  mercurous  chloride  o 
(HgaClj),  not  only  in  chemical  composition,  but  a 
physiological  action,  it  being  a  most  deadly  poison,  ev  n 
towed  in  small  quantities.  Tlie  best  antidote  is  wlii 
C.  S.  is  a  preservative,  and  has  been  used  in  embalmi  g 

Oorr'ugated  Iron  is  made  by  passing  thin  sheet-iro 
revolving  Anted  rollers,  so  arranged  that  each  projec 
one  roller  coincides  with  a  hollow  upon  the  other.  T 
thus  corrugated  is  dipped  into  a  bath  of  molten  zi 
covered  with  a  thin  coating  of  that  metal,  or,  as  it  is  c  ec 
vanised.  The  corrugations  add  very  greatly  to  the  strength  of 
the  iron,  and  enable  it  to  be  used  for  wails  and  roofs  in  places 
where  as  mere  sheet-iron  it  would  be  impossible  to  employ  it. 
The  zinc  is  used  to  prevent  rust,  which,  if  it  be  once  allowed  to 
commence,  very  rapidly  eats  away  thin  iron  plates.  A  good 
coating  of  oil-paint,  renewed  at  intervals,  helps  very  much  also 
to  prevent  the  destruction  of  the  iron  from  the  same  cause. 

Corr'upt  Per'jury.     See  Peejitry, 

Corrup'tion  of  Blood.     See  Attaindhe,  Treason. 

Corryvrecli'aii,  or  OorrievTeb'in  (Gael.  'Brecan's  caul- 
dron'), a  strait  between  the  islands  of  Scarba  and  Jura,  Argyle- 
shire,  Scotland.  The  tides — running  sometimes  13  miles  an 
hour — round  a  pyramidal  rock  which  rises  with  a  rapid  slope 
from  a  great  depth  to  within  a  few  fathoms  of  the  surface,  cause 
a  whirlpool  very  dangerous  to  small  vessels  in  stormy  weather 
and  at  flood-tide.  The  name  was  first  applied  to  another  whirl- 
pool in  the  sound  between  Rathlin  Island  and  the  coast  of 
Antrim,  and  was  probably  transferred  to  the  Scotch  locality  by 
the  monks  of  loiia.  See  Joyce's  Irish  Names  and  Flakes, 
Second  Series,  pp.  408-410  (Dubl.  1875). 

Oor'sao,  the  name  given  to  some  species  of  dogs  or  Canids, 
the  best  known  being  the  Cynalofex  C,  found  in  Hindostan 
and  in  Central  Asia.  The  body  and  head  are  fos-like,  the 
ears  long  and  pointed,  the  tail  bushy,  and  the  limbs  slender, 
is  gregarious  in  habits,  and  lives  in  burrows,  feeding  on  small 
mammals,  buds,  and  even  insects. 


y  Google 


COR 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Oortair  {Span.  torjo«"fl,  fram  the Lat  <.iirsoi,  'arunner,' i.a, 
one  who  scours  the  sea),  a  terra  applied  in  the  S  of  Europe  to-a 

Ce  or  his  ship  from  the  N.  of  Afnca.  The  corsdrs  of  Bar- 
were  privateers  rather  than  pintes,  being  commissioned 
by  their  princes  to  prey  upon  the  ships  of  countries  with  which 
they  were  at  war. 


J.  (.872)  2 


35  7   . 


f  C 


>rfromN.  toS.,  th    cul    m  t    g  p      t    t  wh    1 
Monte  Eotondo, -has  a  height     f  g  faS  f    t     Otl  mm 

exceed  7000  feet,  and  for  the  g      t      part    f  th   y       tl   y  ai 
covered  with  anow,     C  is  water  d  by      m  m  E   t  earn 

of  which  the  chief  are  the  Golo  a  d  U     T  vjgn  Tl     m 


eitensiveiy  covered  with  f   i 


f 


fn  t 


lains  yn 
lai^efy  raised,  and  the  less  elevat  d 
Corsican  wine  has,  however,  nev  h  d  h  h  h  (  0 
of  the  principal  industries  is  fish  g— t  y  p  1  1  ard  and  aa 
duies  abounding  along  the  coast  Th  min  al  w  alth  f  th 
island,  which  is  considerable,  has  not  been  much  developed. 
C.  has  many  fine  natural  harbours  on  its  W.  coast.  The  capital 
is  Ajaccio,  Sartene  and  Copte  being  next  in  importance.  The 
Corsicans  are  in  speech  and  character  Italian.  The  Vendetta 
(q.  V.)  is  one  of  the  most  notable  of  Corsican  institutions. 

The  original  mhabitants  of  the  island  were  of  the  Ligurian 
stock.  After  the  conquest  of  the  seaboard  by  the  Etruscans,  a 
considerable  trade  was  developed.  At  a  later  period  the  Car- 
thaginians became  masters  of  C,  but  were  forced  to  surrender  it 
to  the  Romans  after  the  close  of  the  first  Punic  War  (3d  c.  B.C.). 
Roman  colonies  were  established  here  by  Martiis  and  Sulla,  and 
under  the  Empire  it  was  extremely  prosperous,  possessing  thirty- 
three  cities.  It  suffered  severely  from  tlie  devastations  of  the 
Vandals,  and  was  successively  subject  to  the  Greeks,  Goths, 
Longobards,  Franks,  and  Saiacens.  About  the  Iith  c.  it  passed 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Pisans,  and,  after  repeatedly  chang- 
ing its  rulers,  became  a  possession  of  France  in  1768.  See  Filip- 
pini's  Huktria  di  C.  (1594),  with  continuation  by  Gregoiy  to 
1769  (Pisa,  1828-32) ;  Gregoroviiis's  Wanderingi  in  C.  (2  vols. 
Shittg.  1854 ;  Eng,  transi,  by  Muir,  Edinb.  1855)  j  and  Galetti's 
ffistoire  IllusU-Js  de  la  Corss  (Par.  1863). 

Corsican  Moss,  a  name  applied  to  Gradlaria  (Plocaria) 
Hdminlhocorton,  a  species  of  seaweed  which  has  been  used  as  a 
vermifuge,  though  it  is  dubious  whether  its  virtues  have  not  been 
over-estimated.  According  to  Mr  Berkley,  Ijiurencia  obtusa, 
another  seaweed,  forms  the  greater  part  of  what  is  sold  in  the 
'  shops  as  C.  M, 

Oor'alet  (Fr.  corseht,  dim.  of  corps,  'the  body'),  a  cuirass,  or 
leathern  piece  of  defensive  armour  formerly  worn  by  pikemen. 
It  was  considered  pistol-proof.  In  entoraoli^  the  term  is  applied 
to  that  part — otherwise  called  the  Iherax—oi  a  winged  insect's 
body  to  which  the  wings  and  legs  are  attached. 

Gor'soied  was  a  piece  of  bread,  or  sometimes  cheese,  used  in 
early  times  in  England  in  a  form  of  h-ial  by  Ordeal  (q.  v.). 
Blackstone  says  it  '  was  consecrated  with  a  form  of  exorcism,  de- 
siring of  the  Almighty  that  it  might  cause  convulsions  and  pale- 
ness, and  find  no  passage,  if  the  man  was  really  guilty,  but 
might  turn  to  health  and  nourishment  if  he  was  iimocent.' 

Oor'so  (Ital.  'runnine'  and  'racecourse,'  from  Lat.  airsas), 
applied  to  the  running  of  horses  without  riders  ;  to  the  proces- 
sion in  ranks  through  the  principal  street  of  an  Italian  town, 
especially  at  the  Carnival ;  and  to  the  street  through  which  the 

ee  or  procession  is  wont  to  pass.    Hence  many  streets  in  Italy 

e  named  C,  the  most  famous  of  which  is  the  C  at  Rome, 
3500  paces  long,  from  the  Porta  del  Popolo  to  the  foot  of  the 
Capitol. 

Oort,  Comelis,  a  famous  Dutch  designer  and  engraver, 
bom  at  Horn,  1536,  and  after  studying  his  art  in  Holland,  went 
to  Venice,  was  received  into  the  house  of  Titian,  and  executed 
copperplate  engravings  of  a  number  of  the  works  of  that  master. 
Later  C.  removed  to  Rome,  where  he  founded  a  famous  school 


Cortes'  (Span.)  from  corte  (curia),  i.e.,  a  court  or  residence,  is 
in  Spain  (q.  v.)  and  Portugal  (q.  v.)  the  name  given  to  the  Legis- 
lative Assembly,  or  House  of  Representatives. 


y    th  h    J  11 


■   vith  tl         t   es  I 
h  tp  t     V  1    q 
pra  t     d    gn    It 
fid        th         mm 
I       5  8   C     tool    th 
by  "^   ■ 


h  q      t     f  r  ba.     H 

d  ght  g  Id      th  th 

ly       gned  t    tl  q    n 

maud     f  th     .^       a 
If   f      th 


f   M  X 


rath      f       btai      g  1^  t         f  Spanish 

as  hgldandpec  t  asp       bl'j^'tOi 

rd  rs     f  \    lasq  h  p     ted  C         mb  t  th     1  tt 

Id  th  F  bru  ry     5  9  f         H  At  his  ii  al 

mt        tCjAt  hhd      ly  man  es       d   55 

Id  th       f       I  dion        After  est  bl  shmg  h  m    If  m 

Tb         (h       h    first       twthM         )Cpocdedt 
p  int     eai  ^  e     Cm  ,  and  entering  mto  friendly  relations  with 
the  natives,    demanded    pern: "    ' 


peror  of  the 
fused.      After  burning 


his  capital,  Mexico,  which  w 
^  ships,  and  allying  himself  with  the 
Totonac  tribe,  and  with  the  republic  of  Ilascale  (which,  how- 
ever, at  first  resisted  the  Spaniards),  C.  a4vanced  to  Cholula, 
where  he  was  well  received,  but  where  Marina  soon  discovered 
a  plot  which  led  to  a  massacre  of  the  inhabitants.  On  8th 
November  1 5  ig,  C  with  400  Spaniards  and  6000  n? 
the  capital,  and  by  a  bold,  menacii^  attitude  contrived  to  get  the 
meek  and  superstitious  Emperor  into  his  custody  at  the  palace  of 
Axayacatl.  Montezuma  declared  himself  a  vassal  of  Charles  V. , 
gave'  up  enormous  treasures,  and  assigned  a  native  temple  (part 
of  the  Teocalli)  for  Christian  worship.  Ij;aving  Alvarado  ii 
command,  C.  was  now  obliged  to  descend  to  the  coast,  anc 
encounter  the  force  which  Velasquez  had  sent  out  against  bin 
under  Narvaei.  This  was  successfully  done,  but  onliis  retnrt 
to  Mexico,  he  found  that  the  slaughter  of  600  Caciques  had  a 
last  provoked  open  war.  A  long  struggle  was  ended  by  the 
Noike  Triste,  when  the  Spaniards  were  driven  out  of  the  capital, 
but  the  desperate  engagement  at  Otumba  (8th  July  1520),  in 
which  the  Aztecs  fled,  encouraged  C.  to  prepare  at  Tezcuco  a 
second  expedition,  in  which  a  large  number  of  natives  became 
his  allies.  After  a  terrible  siege  of  nearly  three  months,  marked 
by  the  loftiest  heroism  on  the  part  of  the  new  Emperor,  Guate- 
mogin,  and  his  people,  Mexico  fell  (13th  August  1521)  amid  the 
most  frightfitl  carnage  and  destruction  of  property.  Appointed 
Capt^n- General  of  the  conquered  territory,  C.  energetically  set 
about  the  work  of  reconstruction ;  he  rebuilt  the  capital,, 
founded  and  conferred  municipal  privileges  upon  the  colonies  of 
Zacatula,  Coliman,  San  Esteban,  and  Medellin,  introduced  the 
Franciscan  mission,  which  in  twenty  years  secured  at  least  a 
nominal  acceptance  of  the  Christian  religion  throughout  the 
country.  The  r^ulated  slavery  which  he  sanctioned  in  th< 
system  of  tncomaidwo  and  refiai-limiinlos  was  not  unsuited  tc 
the  Aztec  character.  In  1526,  partly  because,  without  apparent 
reason,  he  had  put  Guatemogin  to  death,  C.  was  recalled  to  Spain, 
where  he  was  received  with  great  honour.  Returning  (o 
America  as  military  governor,  but  without  civil  authority,  he 
spent  ten  years  in  exploring  the  Darien  isthmus  and  the  coast 
up  to  California.  The  arrival  of  the  Viceroy  Mendoza,  in  1540, 
disgusted  him  with  Mexico,  and  he  again  withdrew  to  Spain, 
where,  after  a  decided  rebuff  at  court,  he  died  near  Seville  on 
2d  December  1547.  His  great  wealth  was  devoted  partly  to 
the  erection  of  an  hospital,  a  college,  and  a  convent  in  Mexico. 
The  despatches  of  C.  to  Charles  V.  have  been  published  in 
English  (New  York,  1843).  See  Helps' Zj>o/C.  (2  vols.  1871), 
and  Prescott's  Conquest  of  Mexico. 

Oorti,  Organ  of,  one  of  the  delicate  apparatuses  found  in 
the  internal  ear  in  connection  with  the  terminations  of  [he 
auditory  nerve,  discovered  by  the  Marquise  di  Corti,  an  Italian 
nobleman,  and  hence  named  after  him.     See  Ear. 

Corto'na,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Arezzo,  Italy,  52  miles 
E.S.E.  of  Florence.  It  was  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of 
Etruiia,   and  possesses  the  massive  remains  of  masonry  known 


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OOB 


THM  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPALDIA. 


rf  Spain 
;s  of  tw< 


as  Cydopean  -walls.  The  Romans  founded  a  colony  here  in  ihe 
time  of  Sulla,  but  !t  is  not  mentioned  by  any  ancient  author  sub- 
sequent to  Pliny  and  Ptolemy.  C.  decayed  for  a  time,  but  re- 
vived after  the  I»th  c.  Its  cathedral  has  some  fine  paintings, 
and  its  museum  has  numerous  relics  of  antiquity,  especially 
bronzes.  Escellent  marble  is  worked  in  the  vicinity.  Pop.  up- 
wards of  3500. 

Ooru'fia,  a  fortified  seaport  at  the  extremity  of  a  small  p( 
sula  at  the  mouth  of  the  C.  river,  on  the  N.W.  coast  of  Sj 
province  of  C.  (part  of  tlie  former  GaJIcia).  It  consists  of 
towns,  the  upper  and  lower  (called  also  Pescaderia),  the  formt. 
of  which  is  walled,  and  has  a  citadel  whidi  protects  the  harbour. 
This  is  commodious  and  well  frequented  by  ships,  which  makes 
C.  one  of  the  most  prosperous  towns  iu  Spain.  In  1874.  3°4 
vessels  of  116,061  tons  entered  the  port.  It  has  manu&ctures 
of  cigars,  soap,  starch,  and  cotton,  and  its  sardine  fishery  is 
extensive  and  valuable.  Its  commerce  with  England  and 
America  is  considerable,  and  it  has  steamboat  communication 
with  Ferrol  and  flie  whole  N.  coast  of  S^n.  Pop.  30,137. 
C.  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Fh<finicians.  It  was 
known  to  the  Romans  under  the  name  of  Caroniuta  (whence 
the  modern  C),  From  its  hay  the  Armada  set  sail  in  1588, 
Ten  years  later  it  was  captured  and  burned  by  the  English,  and 
here  Sir  John  Moore  fell  after  a  glorious  repulse  of  the  French, 
i6th  January  1809.     'V'be  previme  abounds  in  copper  and  iron 

Corun'dum- {Hind,   karund),  3  mineral   species  which  in- 
cludes under  its  varieties  the  most  precious  stones— the  ruby,  the 
sapphire,  oriental  topaz,  and  oriental  amethyst,  as  well  ai    '    ' 
commonly  rect^ised  as  C  and  emery.    Commercially  the  ......^v 

C.  is  restricted  to  the  crystalline  forms  of  emery  forming  hexa- 
gonal dingy-coloured  crystals.  It  is  composed  essentially  of  pure 
alumina,  and  next  to  the  diamond  is  the  hardest  of  all  known 
substances.  It  is  found  abundantly  in  Asia  Minor,  the  Carnatio, 
Ava,  and  near  Canton,  besides  many  places  in  the  United  States. 
It  is  used  as  Emery  (q.  v.). 

Cor'vei,  or  Korvei  (Corbiia  mva  or  Saxamca),  formerly  a 
Benedictine  abbey  of  princely  rant,  on  the  Weser,  near  Hoxter, 
■  Westphalia.  It  dates  from  the  yeac  816,  and  its  first  monks 
■  -   colony  from  a  monastery   '  ""  '"      ""    " 


Acquiring  large  posi 
came  in  the  middle 


of  the  same  name  m  Picardy, 
npovtant  privileges,  C.  be- 
of  Christian  civilisation  in 
as  erected  into  a  bishopric 
it  owned  land  22  s(j.  miles 
with  io',aao  Inhabitants.  This  territory  came  mto  the 
possession  of  the  House  of  Orange  in  1S02,  and  of  Prussia  in 
1815.  It  now  belongs  to  the  House  of  Hohenlohe-Schillmgs- 
furst.  The  magnificent  Gothic  church  contains  numerous  in- 
teresting monuments,  hut  the  libiary  and  all  reliable  recocds  of 
the  history  of  the  abbey  have  been  destroyed.  A  Chronkon 
Carb^eiise,  published  in  1823,  is  of  doubtful  value.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Annahi  Corbejenses,  printed  in  Pertz's  Monummta  Ger- 
mama  Hiitorica  (vol.  iii,),  are  reckoned  genuine.  See  Wigand's 
GeschkhU  der  Abtd  K.  (Hoxter,  1819), 

Oorvette',  a  ship  of  war  ranking  next  to  a  frigate.  It  is 
flush-deeked  and  ship-rigged,  and  has  onp  tier  of  guns  only. 

Cor'Tidse,  the  Crow  iamily,  included  in  the  Conirostral  (ij.v.) 
section  or  siib-order  of  the  order  Insessores  or  Perching  birds, 
The  members  of  this  group  are  recognised  by  their  strong,  com- 
pressed, and  conical  bills,  covered  with  small  stiff  feathers  at  the 
base ;  by  the  ridge  of  the  upper  mandible  being  curved  and  its 
top  notched,  and  by  the  tarsi  being  '  plated '  in  front.     The  food 


Goryda'lia.     See  Fumaeiace^ 

OorygauM',   or  Korygaum,  a  village  in  the  district  of 
Poena,  province  of  Bombay,  16  miles  N.K  of  Poona,  memor- 
able for  the  defeat,  on  January  I,  1818,  of  the  Peishwa  (Bajee 
Kao)  of  the  Mahiattas,  whose  forces  (25,000  in  number)  were 
repulsed  with  immense  loss,  after  a  protracted  stru^le,  by  Cap- 
tarn  Staunton  with  a  mere  handful  of  sepoys  and  some  twenty- 
four  European  artillerymen. 
Oorylft'cess.     See  CArULlFEK^ffi. 
Cor'ylua.     See  Hazel. 
Oor'ym.b.    See  Inflorescence. 

Corymljus  If^r. korumios,  'thetop,"lhehead'),  amodeof 
dressing  the  hair  among  the  Greeks  to'  *y""£;  '*  '"  ^  cluster  or 
knot  on  the  top  of  the  head.  The  name  was  also  given  to  the 
cluster  of  ivy  leaves,  garlands,  or  berries,  with  which  Greek 
vases  were  encircled,  and  to  the  high  stems  of  ships. 

Oorynooar'piis,  a  genus  of  New  Zealand  frees  belonging  to 
the  natural  order  Myrsinact^,  one  of  which,  C.  liEvigatus,  is 
cultivated  in  this  country.  The  fruits  and  seeds  of  this  tree  are 
valued  as  articles  of  food  by  the  natives.  The  seeds  contain  a 
farinaceous  sulKtance  which  renders  them  nutritions,  but  if  eaten 
before  being  steamed  for  at  least  twenty-four  hours,  and  then 
being  either  buried  in  the  ground  or  allowed  to  soak  in  water 
for  some  days,  they  are  poisonous,  producing  partial  paralysis, 
spasmodic  pains,  and  giddiness. 
Cor'yplia.    See  Fan  Palm,  Gebang  Palm,  and  Talipot 

OoryphBe'tis  (from  Gr,  koruphi,  'a  summit'),  lit.  the  head 
an  or  leader,  but  specially  applied  in  the  Attic  drama  to  the 
leader  of  the  chorus.     Hence  any  one  of  admitted  pre-eminence 
his  art  is  called  a  C. 

Cor'yphen©  (Caryphsnd),  a  genus  of  Teleostean  fishes, 
family  Coryphanida,  having  a  compressed  body,  with  the  dorsal 
fin  running  Irom  head  to  tail,  and  the  head  as  if  abruptly  trun- 
cated. The  Dorado  (Coiyfh^na  kippuris),  foimd  in  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  and  elsewhere,  is  the  best  known  of  the  family. 
They  are  remarkable  for  their  iridescent  metallic  tints,  which 
i  through  a  series  of  changes  when  the  fish  is  dying,  giving 
....  to  many  poetical  allusions.  The  Dorado  is  also,  but  errone- 
ously, styled  'Dolphin'  (q.  v.). 

Cos,  known  in  more  ancient  times  by  the  names  of  Meropis 
and  Nymphsea,  is  an  island  on  the  western  shore  of  Asia  Minor, 
nearly  opposite  Halicamassus.  Its  modern  name  ia  Stanko  or 
Stanchio.  It  is  about  23  geographical  miles  in^length,  and  about 
65  in  circumference.  It  is  mountainous  in  the  S.  and  W.,  but  level 
and  fruitful  m  the  N.  and  E.  The  great  fertility  of  C.  gave  rise 
to  the  proverb,  applied  to  an  insatiable  person,  '  Quem  Cos  non 
nuttit,  liunc  neque  jEgyplus.'  C.  was  famed  for  its  ointment 
and  purple  dye,  and  specially  so  for  its  wine,  and  also  for  its  silk 
and  cotton  manufactures.  It  was  the  birthpkce  of  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus,  of  the  painter  Apelles,  and  of  the  physician  Hippo- 


;.     Various  sub-fami 
jays,  magpies,  choughs, 


es,  the  most  north-westerly  of  the  group, 
is  of  volcanic  origin.  It  is  fertile  and 
s  hogs,  wood,  and  wheat  to  the  .otlier 


of  both  animal  and  ph 
exist,  including  the  true  crows, 
nut-crackers,  &c. 

Cor'VO,  one  of  the  Azores,  th 
6  miles  long  by  3  broad, 
well  wooded,  and  expor' 
islands.     Pop.  about  loot). 

Cor'wen  ('  the  white  choir'),  a  town  in  Merioneth,  N.  Wales, 
on  a  height  overiooking  the  Dee,  10  miles  W.  of  Llangollen.  It 
is  said  to  be  the  spot  to  which  Owen  Glendower  retreated  when 
Henry  IV.  invaded  and  overran  Wales,  and  tradition  points  out 
his  sepulchre  in  the  parish  churchyard,  Pop.  of  parish  (1871) 
2464. 


The  chief  town,  C,  near  whlcli  stood  a 
temple  of  ^sculapius,  was  in  the  N 
to  Turkey,  and  has  a  pop.  of  Sooo. 

COBoin'itiin,  a  small  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Meaispermatem.  The  wood,  bark,  and  roots  of  C.  fmi- 
slrattiia  of  Ceylon  arevalued  as  stomadiics  and  tonics.  The 
wood  has  been  imported  and  sold  as  the  true  Calumba-root 
(Bentley) :  it  contains  itrieria,  and  yields  a  yellow  dye. 

Ooseinoman'oy  (Gr.  kosMnon,  mantra),  practice  of  divina- 
tion  by  means  of  a  sieve,  was  chiefly  used  for  the  discovery  of 
thieves.  The  sieve  having  been  suspended  by  a  pair  of  shears, 
and  mystical  words  spoken,  on  the  mention  of  the  thief's  name, 
the  sieve  turned  round. 

Cosen'za  (anc.  Constnlia),  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Cal- 
abria Citta,  Italy,  stands  in  a  valley  at  the  junction  of  the  Cratl 
and  Busento.  C.  has  manufactures  of  silk,  pottery,  and  cutleiy, 
and  a  trade  in  wine,  fruits,  and  fiax.  It  was  the  ancient  capital 
of  the  Bruttii,  and  was  an  important  town  during  the  middle  ages. 
Alaric  the  Visigoth  died  here  in  410.     Pop.  (1872)  17,753. 

Oos'maa,  commonly  called /«i';ctf//«M/«  ('Indian  voyager'), 
in  early  life  a  merchant  and  traveller,  afterwards  a  monk,  was  an 


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COS 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


COS 


^yplian  who  flourished  in  the  6th  c.  A.D.  His  chief  work,  tlie 
Tipographia  Christiana,  in  twelve  books,  was  written  to  prove  that 
the  earth  is  a  vast  plain.  It  contains  much,  and  in  general  ac- 
curate, historical  and  geographical  infonnatioa,  and  is  specially 
noted  for  its  description  of  the  MoHumenlum  AduUtanum  (see 
Adule).  Tlie  best  edition  is  that  of  Montfaucon,  in  his  ColkcHo 
Nova  Palruia  el  Sn-i/imTin!  Cracerum  (vol.  ii.  Par.  1706). 


plexlon.     Many  of  the  preparations,  c 


g  bismuth,  &C.,  ! 


Cosmog'ony  (Gr.  koimoi,  '  the  universe, '  and  ^He,  '  genera- 
tion ')  is  an  account  of  llie  genesis  or  creation  of  the  universe, 
or  the  science  which  treats  of  its  origin.  Every  nation  possessed 
of  on  antique  literature  has  also  a  C.,  held  by  those  who  believe 
in  it  to  have  been  committed  to  the  writer  by  divine  inspiration, 
and  to  differ  from  all  other  cosmogonies  exactly  as  truth  differs 
from  liclion  or  human  speculation.  The  germs  of  all  these  cos- 
mogonies and  theogonies  are  to  be  found  in  the  Vedas  and  Zend- 
Avesta,  the  most  primitive  extant  literature  of  the  Aryans.  (See 
Trinitv.)  In  the  first  chapter  of  the  Laws  of  Manu  (q.  v,}  we 
find  the  ancient  Hindu  C.  The  universe  existed  at  first  only  in 
the  divine  idea,  as  if  involved  in  darkness.  Then  first  God  created 
the  waters,  called  Hora,  because  the  pi:odact  of  God's  breath  or 
spirit  (of  bis  nostrils,  nara);  hence  he  is  called  Narayana  (moving 
on  the  waters,  cf.  Gen.  i.  2).  He  then  created  the  heavens  and 
the  earth.  The  creation  of  mankind  was  by  God  drawing  forth 
from  the  supreme  soul  miaif,  llien  consciousness,  then  dl  vital 
forms  endowed  with  the  qualities  of  goodness  and  darkness  (sin), 
and  the  five  senses.  He  gave  names  to  all  creatures,  and  being  to 
time  and  its  divisions,  to  the  stars,  planets,  mountams,  oceans, 
rivers,  valleys,  &c  That  the  human  race  might  multiply,  he  made 
them  half  male  and  half  female.  In  the  C.  of  the  Zend-Avesta, 
Ormusd  (q.  v.)  created  the  visible  worbi  by  his  word  in  six  periods 
or  thousands  of  years.  A  remarkable  analogy  exists  between 
the  cosmogonies  of  the  Phcenicians,  Hebrews,  and  Babylon- 
ians, which  are  all  evidently  derived  from  the  primitive  Ciialdean 
or  Accadiaii  trinity  of  Na  or  Ann  [ '  the  sky'],  Ea  or  Enci  ( '  the 
earth'),  and  Mulge  ('  the  lord  of  the  under  world').  In  the  begin- 
ning all  was  darkness  and_water ;  this  was  followed  by  the  divi- 
sion of  day  and  night ;  then  came  the  making  of  the  sun  and  the 
moon,  followed  by  (hat  of  animals  and  man.  The  Accadian 
mythology,  being  based  on  a  rude  astronomy,  was  very  fond  of 
the  number  saitn,  every  seventh  day  bemg  a  '  day  of  rest'  The 
basis  of  the  Phoenician  C.  is  the  Trinity  Baau  ('chaos').  Spirit, 
and  Mot,('slime') ;  of  the  Babylonian,  Sige  ('the  sky,  or  the 
primitive  substance  of  the  universe'),  Aos  ('the  earth'),  and  Eel 
('the  Demini^e  or  Creator').  Sige  bore  Moumi  (Heb.  mami, 
'  waters  ') ;  the  spirit  of  Aos  brooded  over  the  abysmal  deep,  and 
was  married  to  Davke(Phten.  iaAu,  Heb.  iniu.  Gen.  i.  2,  'empti- 
ness'). See  Sadth'i  Ainrriaii  Dis^iizieriei  [iSy^) ;  Muller's  Zsr- 
lures  on  the  Science  0/  Refigien  ;  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop 
(vol.  i,  1868-70) ;  Muir's  Origincd  Sanskrit  Texts,  &c  ;  Con- 
irihuliojts  to  a  JCtimeled^  of  the  C.,  Mythology,  fy'c,  of  the  Indians 
in  the  Vedic  Age  (vol.  v.  1S70). 

Coamora'ma  (Gr.  kosmos,  'order,'  'ornament,' and .fofvia,  'I 
see'),  an  exhibition  of  picbires  of  different  parts  of  the  world, 
which  are  placed  horizontally  on  a  table,  reflected  by  mirrors 
leaning  diagonally  opposite  them,  and  looked  at  through  a 
convex  lens  in  front  of  each  mirror.  The  pictures  are  illu- 
minated by  lights  so  placed  as  not  to  he  reflected  by  the  mirrors. 

Cos'roos,    See  Cosmogony. 

Coane,  a  town  of  France,  department  of  NiJvre,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Loire  and  Nohain,  33  miles  N.N.Wl  of 
Nevers,  with  which  it  has  railway  communication,  The  ruins 
of  its  forMfications  and  castle  show  it  to  have  been  a  place  of 
great  importance  and  strength  m  the  middle  ages.  It  has  several 
old  churches,  a  suspension  bridge  over  the  Loire,  manufactures 
of  chains,  anchors,  cutlery,  &c.,  and  a  trade  in  vegetables,  grains, 
wood,  wine,  and  cattle.     Pop,  (1872)  5024. 

Coss'acks  (Russ.  JCasak),  3  warlike  slave-people  of  S.  Russia, 
who  formerly  played  a  considerable  rSle  in  the  progress  of 
Russian  conquests,  from  their  efficiency  as  light  cavalry.     They 


still  constitute  an  important  part  of  the  Russian  army,  and  are 
settled  or  stationed  in  different  parts  of  the  kmgdom.  The  prin- 
cipal branches  of  this  race  arc  (l)  the  Malo-C,  or  C,  of  Little 
Russia,  of  whom  the  Saporoger  subdivision,  on  the  Dnieper,  are 
a  predatory  and  unruly  class ;  and  (2)  the  C.  of  the  Don,  nearly 
1,000,000  m  number,  who  hold  60,000  sq,  miles  irf  steppe-lands, 
and  form  a  distinct  government,  military  in  its  oi^anisalion,  and 
under  the  rule  of  a  Hetman,  who  holds  from  the  Emperor  the 
rank  of  general.  Their  chief  town  is  Novo-Tscherkask,  There 
are  also  several  Cossack  tribes  who,  from  the  localities  in  which 
they  are  stationed,  are  serviceable  as  frontier  guards— as  the 
Siberian  C.  on  the  S.  border  of  Siberia,  the  C  of  the  Caucasian 
line  (254,000,  divided  into  twelve  regiments),'  &c  See  Lesur's 
Histdre  dcsKosaquis  (2  vols.  Par.  1814),  and  Bronevskij's  Isloria 
Vonskova  Vojska  (2  vols.  Petersb.  1834). 

Oossimbazar'CCossim's  Market'),  a  suburb  and  the  port 
of  Moorshedabad,  on  the  Bbagirathi,  one  of  the  mouths  of  the 
(^nges.  Its  silk  manufactures,  once  famous,  have  much  de- 
clined. It  is  now  better  known  by  the  name  of  'English 
Bazaar,'  and  had  in  1873  a  pop.  of  12,859. 

Ooss'us.     See  Goat  Moth. 

Cos'ta,  Isaac  da,  a  poet  and  theologian,  was  bom  of  Jewish 
parents  at  Amsterdam,  January  14,  r798.  After  receiving  a 
liberal  education,  and  graduating  in  his  twentieth  year  as  Doctor 
at  Law,  he  renounced  Judaism  and  received  Christian  baptism, 
a  change  which  subjected  him  for  a  time  to  persecution.  Among 
his  best-known  works  are  his  version  of  Byron's  Cain  ;  his  Israel 


of  much  excellence.     He  died  at  Amsterdam,  April  28,  1 

Coeta,  Sir  Michael,  a  living  musical  composer  and  con- 
ductor, was  born  February  1810,  at  Naples,  and  educated  there. 
He  came  to  England  in  1828,  and  his  reception  was  such  as  to 
induce  him  to  settle  in  this  country.  He  has  been  the  conductor 
of  the  Royal  Italian  Opera  (Covent  Garden),  and  also  of  the 
Sacred  Harmonic  Society,  for  many  years,  and  received  the 
honour  of  knighthood  in  1869.  His  reputation  as  a  composer 
rests  chiefly  upon  two  oratorios  of  considerable  merit — EH  (pro- 
duced 1855)  and  Naaman  (produced  1864). 


United  States  of  Columbia,  and  extending  E.  and  W.  froi 
Caribbean  Sea  to  the  Pacific,  Area,  21,484  sq,  miles ;  pop, 
(1875)  estimated  at  about  200,000.  C.  R,  is  mtersected  diago- 
nally by  a  mountam  range.  There  are  numerous  volcanoes,  and 
earthquakes  are  frequent.  The  low  grounds  along  the  coasts  are 
Ten"  unhealthy.  The  soil  is  fertile,  the  principal  product  being 
coffee,  though  si^ar,  cocoa,  and  tobacco,  at  present  raised  only 
in  quantities  sufficient  for  home  consumption,  would  be  exten- 
sivdy  cultivated  were  there  railway  communication  to  allow  C, 
R.  to  compete  profitablywith  other  countries.  Of  the  railroad 
commenced  from  Alajuela  to  Limon,  only  42  out  bf  1 14  miles 
have  been  completed.  The  capital  is  San  Jose,  and  the  prin- 
cipal port  is  Punta  Arenas  ('  Sandy  Point '1,  ontheGulfof  Nicoya. 
The  value  of  the  exports  for  1874  was  ^912,800,  the  whole  for 
coffee  with  the  exception  of;^20,ooa  No  return  of  the  imports 
has  been  made,  but  it  is  supposed  that  there  had  been  a  consi- 
derable fallii^  off  as  compared  with  those  of  1873,  which  were 
.if  753iOO0.  'file  principal  imports  are  Manchester  goods,  silk, 
cloth,  hardware,  flour,  salt,  provisions,  and  wines.  Gold,  silver, 
and  copper  are  found,  but  mining  industry  has  g  eatly  decreased. 
There  is  no  manufacturing  industry.     In  the         g  m 

for  the  year  ending  April  1874,  the  revenue    as        m     d 
^562,517,  and  the  expenditure  at  ;£865,7r9,       n    8      a       n 
of  ^2,400,000  was  contracted  for  the  purpos  nsti         g 

railways  and  other  pubHc  worlis,  hut  very  lit  h  d 

C.  R.     The  procedure  of  the  financial  agents  wh    m  n      d   h 
loan  was  exposed  by  the  Committee  of  the  Ho  C  mm 

on  Foreign  Loans,   1S75,      The  government  is       p  b       n,     ts 
constitution  dating  from  22d  December    r87i       Th    P       d 
is  elected  for  four  years,  and  the  National  Cong  ess         m        d 
of  a  single  chamber. 

Cos'tello,  Louisa  Stuart,  an  English  auth  as  b    n 

1815.    She  became  known  to  the  literary  world  by  her  Spedinms 
of  tlie  Early  Podry  of  France,  published  in  1835.     From  that 


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COT 


time  almost  to  her  death  in  1870,  Miss  C. 
her  works  being  chiefly  accounts  of  travelling  touts,  histories, 
and  novels.  Her  style,  especially  in  tlie  description  of  scenery, 
is  very  pleasing.  Her  brother,  DucUejr  C,  is  also  a  writer  of 
tales  and  travels. 

Cos'ter,  Latirens  Janszoon,  claimed  by  the  Duich  as  the 
inventor  of  printing,  was  born  at  Haarlem  about  1370,  and  must 
have  commenced  to  practise  the  art  at  some  period  between  1420 
and  1426.  His  mvention,  said  at  first  to  have  been  used  by  him 
only  to  print  verses  of  the  Bible  and  moral  precepts  for  the  in- 
struction of  Ma  children,  was  afterwards  practised  for  gain,  but 
in  secret.  The  asastanta  he  was  compelled  to  employ  were 
sworn  not  to  divulge  his  secret  j  but  on  his  death  in  1439,  one 
of  them,  Johann  Gansfleisch,  stole  some  of  his  toois  and  types, 
and  set  up  a  press  at  Mayence.  C.  at  first  used  wooden  types, 
but  afterward  metal  ones,  cast  in  sand.  His  Speculum  Humane 
SalvatUmis,  commenced  with  wooden  blocks,  was  finished  with 
the  movable  metal  types,  and  presents  a  singular  mixture  of 
pages  in  fixed  and  movable  characters.  Before  he  availed  him- 
self of  cast  types,  his  impressions  were  produced  by  mbbing,  and 
tlie  page  was  printed  only  on  one  side ;  afterwards  he  used  the 
press,  and  pnnted  both  ^es  of  the  page.  Such  is  the  account 
given  by  the  Dutch,  which  is  pressed  with  much  cogency  by  M. 
Auguste  Bernard  in  his  HUioire  de  FOrigine  del'Imfrimerie,  and 
by  many  others,  among  whom  tlie  most  recent  is  Ottley  in  his 


Inquiry  into  the  Origin  of  Engraving  (Lond.  1 876).  See  also 
M.  Didol's  Essaisur  I' Art  Typcgraphjau!  (1852).  C,  died  about 
144a     For  the  argimients  infevour  of^  the  German  claini  to  the 


Costs  is  the  technical  name  in  English  law  for  expenses  in 
legal  proceedings.  Generally  the  C.  0?  the  saccessful  party  are 
mainly  paid  by  the  loser ;  but  there  are  in  all  lawsuits  extta- 
judidal  expenses  incurred  on  both  sides  which  each  party  will 
have  to  pay  for  itself,  whatever  be  the  issue.  Then,  while  one 
gains  on  the  main  point,  it  may  be  found  to  have  been  wrong 
on  minor  points,  which  wiE  cause  a  modification  of  C.  C.  are 
'taxed' — that  is,  the  items  are  allowed  or  disallowed — by  an 
officer  of  the  court,  called  the  master.  The  equivalent  legal  term 
in  Scotland  is  Expenses  (q.  v,).  (See  also  Auditor  of  the 
Court  of  Sessioh.)  In  actiona  for  libel  and  some  others,  the 
smallest  awai'd  of  damage  carries  full  C,  unless  the  judge  cer- 
tifies in  favour  of  the  defitdani,  which  deprives  a  plaintiff  of  C. 

Any  one  suing  in  fonna  pauperis  does  not  pay  C,  but  he  is 


Oostume  {Old  Fr.  cmalume,  Med.  Lat.  costuma  (Chartulary 
of  7051,  from  Lat.  cansuetadincm,  by  contraction,  'custom  or 
habit '),  dress  or  clothing;,  in  its  hiatoncal  relations,  and  regarded 
as  connected  with  dignities,  offidal  position,  and  functions.  C. 
is  thus  spoken  of  as  diaracteristic  of  particu^  periods  of  time, 
of  distinct  tribes  and  nationalities,  of  certcdn  stages  of  civilisa- 
tion, and  as  indicative  of  rank,  position,  and  power.  In  modern 
days,  the  incessant  fluctuations  of  fashion,  and  the  tendency 
of  our  civilisation  to  produce  a  level  uniformity  among  nations 
as  well  as  individuals,  have  greatly  interfered  with  the  con- 
tinuance and  development  of  the  characteristic  costumes  of  dif- 
ferent peoples.  But  as  the  so-called  leadei-s  of  fashion  operate 
only  within  certain  very  narrow  bounds,  and  fundamental 
changes  in  dress  are  slowly  effected,  we  are  warranted  in  say- 
ing that,  so  far  as  regards  male  attire  at  least,  the  C.  of  the  rgth 
c,  with  its  chimney-pot  hats  and  dress-coats,  is  as  characteristic 
as  that  of  any  preceding  age.  (See  Fashion.)  The  costumes  of 
classes,  however,  such  as  that  of  the  peasantry,  and  of  small 
isolated  communities,  are  rapidly  disappearing,  and,  indeed,  in 
the  most  advanced  countries,  have  almost  entirely  vanished.  In 
the  middle  ages,  and  down  to  comparatively  recent  times,  the 
costumes  of  various  social  grades  were  strictly  prescribed  by 
sumptuary  laws ;  and  even  had  freedom  of  choice  existed,  far 
less  variety  of  materials  was  available  than  can  be  commanded 
by  the  very  humblest  of  the  present  day.  Costumes  indicative 
of  rank  and  position  still  exis^  as  in  the  case  of  the  robes,  crowns, 
and  coronets  of  royalty  and  nobility,  and  many  professional, 
academic,  and  official  positions  are  indicated  by  peculiarities  of 
C.  A  characteristic  class  of  C.  is  still  rigidly  adhered  to  by  the 
'  fishwives  '  along  ihe  E.  coast  of  Scotland. 
260 


It  is  only  in  recent  times  that  the  study  of  C.  in  its  hi; 
torical  relations  has  come  to  be  pursued  with  care  and  pflini 
taking.  Artists  of  the  l6th  c,  in  dieir  treatment  of  all  Scriptural 
subjects,  from  the  Creation  down  to  the  Christian  era,  did  not 
hesitate  to  employ  the  C         h  t    tur       id  f   m  1  gard  f 

the  Renaissance   peti  d        d    imii         a  1  is   w        th 

rule  on  the  stage.      F      th      t  dy     f      c     t  C      t  tb     f 
becomes    necessary  to      bt  t  mpo     y      p    ae  t  t 

of  the   period   or   peopl  1        in  est  gati  d    f       th 

end  illuminated  MSS  »,       ed  1      carvi  os         d   p      t  d 

pottery  are  of  the  utmo  tl  "^hmmfthp  pi 
nations  of  antiquity  ar    f    t  m  t  ly    1 11  lai^  ly  1  bl  d 

ihey  yield  lai^  stores  of  info  mto  egdgthC  d 
other  ethnographic  relations  of  the  periods  f  h  hthyl  1  g 
With  such  sources  of  information  laid  op  by  th  1  b  rs  f 
archasologists,  fidelity  in  tlie  representation     f  C  mod   n 

essential  in  ail  delineations,  both  literary  d  t  t  Th 
artistic  treatment  of  the  C.  of  the  present  d  y  tt       f 

small  diflicuity,  especially  to  the  sculptor,  d  by  m  y  lists 
the  difiicnity  is  avoided  by  resorting  to  the  m  gr  f  I  fJ  g 
robes  of  antique  models.  This,  however,  as  d  f  bl  as 
tlie  representation  of  the  Virgin  in  the  guise  of  an  Italian  con 
taditia  by  Renaissance  artists.  The  unpromising  task  of  the 
faithful  and  artistic  management  of  modern  C  in  statuary  was 
veiT  fairiy  and  successfully  grappled  with  by  the  late  J.  H, 
Foley,  E.A. 

Cos'tus,  the  root  of  an  Arabian  plant,  at  one  time  believed 
to  have  been  allied  to  Cardefatam  corymbasain  ;  but  most  botan- 
ists now  adopt  the  views  of  Falconer  in  considering  it  to  be  the' 
Aplolasds  Lappa,  or  Aucklandia  C.  of  Cashmere,  used  as  a'per- 
fume  and  for  burning  as  incense,  and  by  th     CI '  as  ir 

aphrodisiac.  C.  is  also  the  name  of  a  genu  ftp  1  h  b 
belonging  to  the  order  Zingiieracea,  many    f  wh   h  a       ul 

Cos'way,  Richard,  B.A.,  of  Flemish     t  b 

at  Tiverton,  Devonshire,  in  1740,  studied  art  t         h  p  rp 
that  between  his  fourteenth  and  twenty-fou   h  yea   h     b        d 
five  premiuma  fi'om  the  Society  of  AJts.     H    w      p  t  d 

by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  elected  a  membe      f  th    R  y  1  A 
demy  in  I77r,  and  rapidly  acquiredfame  andf  rCu      as     p  mt 
of  miniature  portraits.     His  wife,  Maria  H  dfi  Id       as       m    t 
accomplished  musician  and  artist,  and  the  rec  p      ns  h    g 
his  house  were  among  the  most  brilliant  ofh      ra      Cdd4h 
July  182a 

Cot  (Old  Eng.  cote,  cyte,  'abed,'  'a  cottage'),  in  nautical  lan- 
guage, an  officer's  bed,  as  distinguished  from  a  seaman's  ham- 
mock. It  is  made  of  canvas  in  the  form  of  a  chest,  and  is  kept 
stretched  by  a  wooden  frame.  The  mattress  is  placed  within 
the  C. ,  and,  like  the  hammock,  it  is  suspended  from  the  roof  of 
the  cabin.  The  term  C.  is  also  applied  generally  to  a  child's  ' 
bed,  especially  the  swinging  cradle. 

OOte-d'Or,  a  department  in  the  E.  of  France,  and  part  of  the 
old  province  of  Bui^ndy,  named  from  the  chain  of^  the  C&te- 
d'Or  (' hill  of  gold, '  so  called  from  the  excellence  of  its  vintages) 
whk;h  traverses  it  from  N.  to  S.  Area,  3380  sq.  miles ;  pop. 
{1872)  374,510.     C.  is  watered  by  the  Seine,  the  Sa&ne,  and  the 


elevated  and  covered  with  coppice,  and  the  climate  salubrious. 
Iron  and  coal,  anthracite,  and  marble  are  abundant ;  there  is  a 
large  trade  in  lithographic  and  mill  stones,  and  also  in  wine.  C.  is 
divided  into  four  arrondissenients.  The  chief  towns  are  Dijon 
(the  capital),  Beaune,  and  Semur. 

Cdtes-d-U-Kord  ('coasts  of  the  North'),  a  department  in  the 
N.  of  France,  part  of  the  old  province  of  Bretagne.  Area,  2660 
sq.  miles ;.  pop.  (1872)  622,295,  From  E.  to  W.  it  is  traversed 
bv  the  Montagnes  Noires,  of  granitic  and  Silurian  formation,  the 
highest  point  of  which,  Menes  Haut,  is  iii2  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  The  lai^st  rivers  are  the  Ranee,  Ai^enar,  Blavet, 
and  Oust.  Flax,  hemp,  pulse,  beetroot,  and  even  maize  are  cul- 
tivated ;  the  hills  afford  excellent  pasture  ;  the  cattle  and  horses, 
especiaUy  the  latter,  are  tamed ;  and  aloi^  the  coast  are  valuable 
fislieries.  The  chief  manufacture  is  that  of  linen.  C.  contains 
five  arrondissements.  The  principal  towns  are  St  Brieuc  (the 
capital),  Dinan,  and  Guingaiiip. 


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Cotes',  Eoger,  a  mathematician,  was  lioni  loth  July  i6Sz, 
at  Biirbage,  Leicestershire,  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  took  his  degree  in  1 706,  and  was  appointed 
Plumian  Professor  of  Experimental  Philosophy.  In  1713  be 
published  a  new  edition  of  Newton's  Frind^a,  the  characteristic 
feature  of  which  is  the  preface.  The  high  expectations  which 
were  entertained  of  this  promising  genius  were  Highled  by  his 
premature  death  on  June  $,  1716.  He  published  a  few  papers 
in  the  PhiiosopMcoI  Transacliom,  and  his  principal  works  are 
HarDiottia  Mmsurarttm  (1722)  and  his  Lecltirei  on  Sfydroslaiics 
(1737),  both  posthumous  publications. 

Cotes'wold  or  Cots'wold  SUls  (Welsh,  caed,  '  wood,'  and 
Eng.  wold  (earlier  weald),  the  same,  hence  '  woody  hills '),  a 
range  in  Gloucestershire,  extending  from  N.  to  S.  upwards  of  50 
miles.  The  highest  pobt  is  Cleare  Hill,  I134  feet.  Tomips 
and  clover  are  cultivated  on  these  hills,  and  coarse-haired  sheep 
are  fed  there.  The  forests  from  which  they  derive  their  name 
have  disappeared. 


06'tlieii. 

Cotlmr'aus. 

Cotillon  (fro: 
or  petticoat,  ws 
tremely  popular 
the  diverse  qualii 


KiiTHEtf, 
See  Buskin. 

1  the  Old  Fr.  cole,  Lat.  cotlus),  literally  a  gown 

■    '   ■  "^        ■      ■  nee  ex- 

imbined 

>e  and  tbe  minuet,  greatly  re- 

entually  eclipsed.     In 

'  Nag  ctlilli>HS  bicnt-DCw  Irae  Fcanot' 

Ootin'ga  [Am^tlis),  a  genus  of  Insessorial  birds  belon^ng  to 

the  feraily  Ampdid^^  or  '  Chatterers,'  and  section  Dcatiroslra. 

It  is  S.  American  in  its  distribution,  and  the  bill,  which  is  of 


Cotiee',  or  Cotice  (Fr.  c6ti,  'a  side'),  in  heraldry,  a  diminu- 
tive of  the  Bend  (q.  v. ),  being  a  fourth  of  w  dtl  The  I  e 
diminudve  is  the  btndlit,  which  is  twi  easwdeas  tie  L 
Couped  at  its  extremities,  the  C.  becomes  a  nba  d 

Coiise,  or  Colice,  in  heraldry,  describes  a  bend  b  twe  n  t  0 
cotises,  a  fesse  or  bar  between  two  ba  rule  o  any  he  Id  c 
object  sided  or  accompanied  by  another. 

Cotoneas'ter,  a  genus  of  plants  cons  of  on  all 

trailing  shrubs,  belonging  to  Northern  Eu  ope  and  the  noun 
tains  of  India,  cultivated  for  the  beauty  of  their  foliage,  flowers, 
and  fruit,  the  iatter  being  (especially  in  the  case  of  C.  frigida  and 
C  affinis)  of  an  intense  scarlet  colonr,  and  remaining  on  the  trees 
for  the  greater  part  of  the  winter,  C.  vulgaris  is  beUeved  to  be  a 
native  British  species.  In  addition  to  those  mentioned,  C.  mkro- 
phylla,  C.  tnargmata,  C.  rotutidifoUa,  and  C.  buxiJoUa  are  among 
(he  most  valued  cultivated  species. 

Cotopax'i,  a  volcano  in  the  Cordilleras  of  tlie  Andes,  18,811 
feet  above  the  sea-level,  with  a  cone  rising  in  perfect  regularity 
4400  feet  above  the  plateau  of  Quito,  and  covered  with  snow 
almost  to  the  vei^e  of  the  crater.  Its  jlame  is  s^d  to  have  risen 
in  1738  to  the  height  of  3000  feet,  and  in  1803  its  internal  heat 
was  great  enough  to  melt  the  snow  on  the  exterior  walls  of  the 
cone,  the  summit  of  which  Humboldt  pronounces  inaccessible. 

Ootro'ne,  the  ancient  Croton  or  Crotona,  a  town  m  the  pro- 
vince of  Calabria  Ulteriore  II.,  Italy,  on  a  projection  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Esaro,  Its  streets  are  narrow,  and  its  harbour, 
protected  by  a  mole,  admits  only  vessels  of  light  dranght.  C. 
has  a  cathedral,  and  corn,  wine,  oil,  and  Bilk  ate  produced  in 
the  vicinity.  Pop.  above  7000.  The  ancient  C,  founded  by  a 
colony  of  Achreans  in  710  B.C.,  was  one  of  the  wealthiest  and 
most  famous  cities  of  S.  Italy.  The  inhabitants  excelled  in  ath- 
letic exercises,  and  the  celebrated  Milo  was  a  native  of  the  place. 
Pythagoras  founded  here  a  school  of  philosophy.  Tbe  city  was 
so  exliausted  by  the  ravages  of  the  second  Punic  War  that  the 
Romans  sent  a  colony  to  recruit  its  population  in  194  B.C.  Some 
ruins  are  still  visible  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  modern  town. 

Otrtt'a,  the  name  of  an  old  and  still  flonrishing  German  pub- 
lishing house.  The  first  publislier  of  the  name  was  Job. 
Georg  C,  the  descendant  of  a  family  which  had  removed  in 
the  beginning  of  tbe  rsth  c,  from  the  Milanese  to  Germany. 
He  acquired  hy  marriage  in  1643  the  book  trade  established  in 
Tiibingen  by  Brunn.      His  son,  job,.  Friedl.  C,  a  distinguished 


theologian,  was  bom  at  Tiibingen,  12th  May  1701,  and  died 
there,  31st  December  1779,  chancellor  of  the  university.  The 
grandson  of  the  last  mentioned  was  Job.  Friedr.,  Freiberr 
von  O.,  bom  at  Stuttgart,  27th  April  1764.  After  serving  some 
time  in  the  Austrian  army,  and  subsequently  practising  as  an 
advocate,  he  undertook  in  December  1787  to  conduct  the  femily 
publishing  business,  and  soon  distingoished  himself  by  his 
judgment  and  enterprise.  In  179S  he  established  the  still  in- 
Huential  Allgtmtint  Zeilung.  Other  periodicals  followed,  as 
the  Almanoih  fur  Damen,  the  MorgmNalt,  and  LUeraiurilaU. 
He  also  published  the  works  of  such  authors  as  Goethe,  Schiller, 
Herder,  Fichte,  Jean  Paul,  Tieck,  Voss,  the  brothers  Humboldt, 
and  Johann  von  Miiller.  Johann  Friedrich  retired  to  Stuttgart 
in  iSlo.  The  ancient  nobility  of  the  lamily  was  restored  in  his 
person,  his  title  being  Freiherr  C.  von  Cottendorf.  He  died 
29th  December  1832.  He  was  a  man  of  fine  character — liberal, 
pure,  and  unselfish  in  al!  his  actions.  The  business  of  the  firm 
is  widespread.  It  exists  in  seven  different  branches— (1)  The 
bookseUing  firm  of  J.  G.  C  at  Stuttgart ;  (2)  the  Allgemsine 
ZeUung  at  Augsbui^ ;  (3)  the  literature  and  art  estabhshment  at 
Munich;  (4)  the  publishing  firm  at  Leipsic  ;  (S)  the  publishing 
firm  at  Munich  i  (6)  the  Bible  establishment  of  J.  G.  C.  at  Stutt- 
gart and  Munich ;  (7)  the  book-printing  business  at  Stuttgart. 

Cott'age,  the  general  name  for  the  rural  dwellings,  small 
and  isolated,  of  the  poorer  classes.  Adjoining  each  C.  thei'e  is 
usually  an  allotment  of  ground  which  is  cultivated  by  the  occu- 
pants. The  cottages  of  the  agricultural  labourers  were,  till  a 
few  years  ago,  in  a  very  n^fected  condition,  and  the  recent 
improvements  in  their  construction  with  regard  to  ventilation, 
general  convenience  and  comfort,  and  economy  in  erection,  are 
m  great  measure  due  to  tbe  deliberations  of  the  Society  of  Arts, 
in  whose  youmal  much  valuable  information  may  be  obtained. 
A  neat  detached  house  for  persons  in  better  circumstances,  in 
town  or  country,  is  called  a  C.  oniL 

Cotfbus.    See  Kottbus, 

Cottin,  Sopbie,  a  favourite  French  novelist,  bom  at  Ton- 
n  ns  (Lot-et- Garonne)  in  1773.  She  married  a  banker  of  Bor- 
d  aux,  and  being  left  a  widow  at  the  age  of  twenty,  thenceforth 
followed  literature.  Her  chief  worlts  are  Claire  d'Albe  (1798), 
Mahdna,  AmUie  Mansfield,  MathSde,  and  (greatest  of  all)  Sliia- 
leth  ouUsExilisdeStl'Me.yabW^td.m  1806.  The  many  trans- 
la  ons  of  this  book  attest  its  popularity.  Madame  C.  died  at 
Pans,  August  25,  1S07.  A  coUecied  edition  of  her  works  was 
published  at  Paris  (J  vols.  Svo,  1817). 

Cott'on,  the  hairs  which  surround  the  seeds  of  various  species 
of  Gossyfium,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Maliiacas  (mallows,  hollyhocks,  &c,),  and  which  constitute  the 
well-known  textile  maleiial  of  that  name.  Between  twenty  and 
thirty  species  of  Gossyftum  are  imperfectly  described,  but  the 
real  number  of  distinct  forms  is  probably  much  less.  The  genus 
is  indigenous  to  Asia 
and  America,  but  it  is 
now  almost  universally 
cultivated  in  all  parts 
of  the  world  36°  N. 
and  S.  of  the  equator. 
They  are  herbaceous, 
or  shrubby  perennial 
plants,  varying  from  2 
to  15  feet  in  height. 
The  flowers  are  gene- 
rally large  and  showy, 
and  the  seeds,  which 
are  covered  with  the 
long  filaments  called 
'C.'(and  each  of  which 
consists  simply  of  long 
Cells,  q.  v.),  contain  a 
bland  oil,  used  for  va- 
rious purposes  in  tlie 
arts.  From  the  seeds 
is  also  formed  a  cake 
used  in  feeding  cattle.  Of  G.  harhadensi,  the  species  cultivated 
in  the  United  States,  there  are  two  well-marked  varieties— the 
long-staple  or  Sea  Island  C,  and  the  short-staple  Upland,  Geor- 
gian, or  bowed  C.,  which  forms  the  bulk  of  wbat  grows  in  Ame- 


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COT 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


COT 


lica.  EgyptiEui  and  Bourbon  C.  also  belong  to  this  variety.  In 
the  United  States  the  harvest  commences  in  August,  and  lasts 
until  December.  G.  herba^eum  is  a  native  of  India,  and  is 
grown  in  Persia,  the  Mediterranean  countries,  &c.  G.  pent- 
viaHum,  or  kidney-C,  is  indigenous  to  Peru,  Bahia,  and  other 

{arts  of  Brazil,  &c.  G.  arhoratjit  is  a  tree-like  plant  of 
ndia,  China,  &c,  but  commercially  is  of  Kttle  importance. 
The  term  'C.'  is,  however,  applied  tovarioas  other  plants — e.g., 
French  C.  is  CaloPropb  procira;  hivender  C,  Santolina  chams- 
cyparitms;  New  Zealand  C,  Hagianihui  htuHma;  silk-C, 
the  fibre  from  Botnbax,  Caiotropes,  CryftosUgia,  Ercodcndron, 
&o. ;  wild  Australian  C,  Comphccarpus  Jhtticesus  ;  wild  Natal 
C,  Ipeniaa  Germrdi,  &c.     The  C. -plant  of  Otago  is  Asielia. 

FroducHon  and  Cammci^e.—The  cultivation  of  C.  takes  rank 
in  extent  and  value  above  all  other  crops,  wheat  and  rice 
excepted.  The  enormous  demand  for  C.  manufactures  may 
well  be  conceived  when  it  is  borne  in  mind  itiat  almost  every 
individual  human  being  uses  C,  largely  for  dress  purposes 
besides  which  it  is  employed  for  a  vast  variety  of  domestic  pur 
poses.  Although  C.^now  occupies  this  pre-eminent  positioi 
among  manufactures,  it  is  only  within  comparatively  recent  times 
that  it  has  risen  into  importance.  It  is  known  to  have  been  culti. 
vated  and  used  in  India  and  China  at  least  500  years  B.C.,  but  il 
did  not  rank  as  a  great  European  staple  till  about  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century.  In  1700  the  amount  of  C -wool  consumed  in 
Great  Britain  did  not  exceed  1,000,000  lbs,,  yielding  employment 
to  25,000  operatives.  By  1775  the  consumption  had  risen  tc 
4,800,000,  after  which,  owing  chiefly  to  the  inventions  of  Har- 
greaves,  Arkwright,  and  Crompton,  the  industry  rapidly  deve- 
loped, and  we  find  that  in  1800  the  imports  of  C.  fibre  into 
Great  Britain  were  56,010,732  lbs.,  and  the  consumption  about 
50,000,000  lbs.  In  1S7S  the  C.  manufactured  in  Great  Britai 
weighed  1,228,543,470  lbs.,  giving  direct  employment  to  half 
million  of  operatives.  Thus,  within  a  century,  the  C.  trade  of 
Great  Britain  has  increased  more  than  250  fold. 

C,  as  a  crop,  is  cultivated  in  tropical  and  sub-tropical  regions, 
its  vrideSt  range  being  40°  on  each  side  of  the  equator.  Hum- 
boldt slates  that  the  three  species  Gessypium  barbade-nse,  G.  hir- 
lutum,  and  G.  religiasum  flourish  best  from  the  equator  to  34°,  in 
a  mean  annual  temi^erature  ranging  from  68°  to  82°,  while  G. 
kerbacamt  is  best  suited  for  more  temperate  climates,  with  a 
summer  heat  of  73°  to  75',  and  a  winter  temperature  of  not  less 
than  46°  to  48°.  The  great  C.-growing  region  of  the  world  is  the 
Southern  (formerly  slaveholding)  States  of  the  United  States, 
after  which  range  in  productiveness  Uie  E.  Indies,  Brazil,  various 
countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  W.  Indian 
Islands.  It  is  from  these  regions  that  the  European  demand  is 
at  present  principally  supplied,  but  in  China,  Japan,  and  other 
localities  a  great  amount  of  C.  is  grown  for  native  use.  Tbe 
colony  of  Queensland  is  capable  of  producing  almost  unlimited 
supplies  of  C  of  the  highest  quality,  and  a  considerable  quantity 
is  already  cultivated  by  the  colonists ;  while  in  Fiji,  and  other 
S.  Pacific  groups,  a  staple  only  equalled  by  the  famous  Sea 
Island  can  be  cultivated,  were  labour  difficulties  removed. 

In  the  United  States  the  C.-seed  is  sown  in  Mai-ch  or  early 
in  April.  The  ground  is  prepared  in  ridges,  and  the  seeds  are 
placed  in  small  clumps  about  18  inches  apart.  After  about  a 
week  the  young  plants  are  seen  above  ground,  and  when  (hey 
have  shot  out  their  third  or  fourth  leaf,  ihey  are  gone  over  and 
thinned  out.  Later  on  they  are  subjected  to  a  further  thinning, 
only  a  single  strong  plant  being  then  left  in  each  place.  In  from 
ten  to  eleven  weeks  after  sowing,  the  plants  blossom,  and  the 
bolls  continue  to  form  and  devdop  till  the  aulumn  frosts  nip 
the  plants.  In  India  the  sowing  takes  place  in  June,  and  the 
lio-„.^t  ij  picked  from  February  to  April  of  the  ensuing  year.  C. 
deHcate  crop,  easily  affect^  as  to  bulk  of  yield  and 
quality  by  climatic  conditions,  nature  of  soil,  method  of  culture, 
and  other  influences,  and  the  plants  are  also  peculiarly  liable  to 
suifer  fropi  the  attacks  of  various  insects.  When  fully  ripe,  the 
capsule  containing  the  fibre  and  seed  bursts,  exposing  tlie  C.  in 
a  snow-like  mass,  which  may  then  be  readily  detached  from  the 
husk  by  hand-picking. 

The  seeds  are  removed  from  the  C.  fibre  which  envelopes 
them  by  a  process  called  gitmiiig,  or  by  other  mecliaraeal 
a^ncy.    (See  Cotton- Spinning.)   The  C.  is  then  compressed, 

'eight. 


Americans  averaging  440  lbs.;  Brazils,  160;  Egyptiina,  560 
to  600 ;  W.  Indians,  200  to  220 ;  Surats,  380  to  40Q ;  and  Bin 
gals,  300  lbs.  C.  is  sampled,  or  its  quality  tested,  by  diawmg 
oat  the  fibres  of  a  small  tuft  between  the  fingers  and  thumb, 
so  as  to  lay  them  parallel  and  show  their  length  and  strength 
A  good  sample  should  be  bright,  clear,  smooth,  firm,  elastic, 
and  strong.  The  fibre  varies  in  natural  colour  from  a  puie  silky 
white  into  slightly  bhiish  and  reddish  tints,  and  in  the  case 
of  the  Nankin  C.  of  China  it  has  a  strong  yellowish  brown 
colour.  The  filaments  vary  in  length  from  ^ut  half  an  n  " 
to  fully  two  uiches  ;  when  not  more  than  an  inch  in  length  i( 
denominated  'short-staple,'  and  when  more  than  an  inch, 
ia  known  as  '  long-staple.  C.  ordinarily  contaius  about  6  per 
cent,  of  moisture  ;  but  exposure  of  bales  in  damp  situations  may 
cause  it  to  absorb  as  much  as  25  per  cent  of  water  without  feel- 
ing obviously  wet.  Damp  C.  is  extremely  subject  to  sponta- 
neous combustion,  and  when  any  portion  is  soaked  with  oil  it 
spontaneously  ignites  with  very  great  readiness. 

In  the  C.  trade  a  standard  graduated  scale  of  qualities  is 
recognised,  thatfor  Americans  being,  in  descending  series,  'fine,' 
'good,'  'good  6ur,'  'fully  fair,"  '  middhng  fair,'  'good  mid- 
dling,' 'middling,'  '  low  middling,'  '  good  oniinary,'  'ordinary,' 
'inferior.'    According  to  the  great  geographical  divisions  from 
which  the  fibre  is  derived,  stocks  are  classified  and  statistics 
compiled;  and  under  each  of  these  divisions  various  quali 
are  rec<»nised  and  prices  quoted  in  trade  Usts.     The  Liverpool 
Cotton  Brokers'  Association  arrange  then'  returns  under  these 
six  heads ; — (i)  Aiiurica?!.     This  includes  the  whole  produce  of 
the  United  States,  the  principal  varieties  of  which  are  Sea  Island 
01   Long  Geoigia  (the  famous  long-staple  C,  which  is  the 
finest  and  costliest  grown).  Upland  Georgia,  New  Ori      s,  M 
bile,  Alabama,  &c     (2)  Braiilian,  including  such  var      es 
Pemambuco,  Santos,  Bahia,  Maceio,  Maranham,  and  P      h  b 
(3)  Egypiimi.     (4)  Turh^  and  Gract,  a  division  which         d 
the  Mediterranean  region,  Egypt  excepted.     (5)  Wes       4ies 
Peru,  and  other  South  American  localities.     (6)  Eai       dia 
under  which  are  ranged  Bengal,  Tinnevelly,  Surats  or  B  mb 
Dhollerah,  Dliarwhar,  Broach,  and  Rangoon,  &c. 

The  followmg  table  exhibits  the  imports  and  consun  p 
C.  in  Great  Britain,  stated  at  intervals  of  ten  years       m    h 
beginning  of  the  century  down  to  1861,  with  the  same 
for  each  year  since  i860,  to  show  Uie  effects  of  the  Am 
dvil  war  on  the  trade.     It  also  exliibita  the  average  pri     p      b 
each  year  of  three  standard  qualities  of  C.     Tlie  imp  m 

various  countries  are  stated  in  thousands  of  bales,       d 
total  imports,  as  well  as  the  consamption,  is  given  ii   m 
of  lbs.      The  difference  between  the  imports  and  con    mp 
roughly  represent  the  amount  exported  from  Great  Br  -md 

fluctuations  in  stocks  held. 


aj3 


The  subjoined  statement  exhibits  the  annual  consump 
C,  for  the  years  1875,  1873,  and  1S60,  stated  in  millions  of  lbs., 
for  tlxe  various  C-consuming  countries  of  Europe  and  the  United 
States. 

The  total  consuming  capacity  at  various  dates  of  the  world 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


,375. 

^%Ti■ 

iSS^ 

Great  Erilain     . 
Gsmany    .        . 

i 

■I; 

i 

other  lands  are  increasing  in  a  more  rapid  ratio,  in  consequence 
of  which,  British  matiuiacturers  are  gradually  losing  the  great 
lead  which  they  long  held.  The  following  figures,  representing 
bales  of  400  Ite, ,  may  be  taken  to  represent  tne  consumption  of 
the  world,  and  its  proportional  distribution  : — 


..«, 

1S7S. 

l„.r=.^         1 

"" 

Per 

eale.= 

P« 

Bal=s, 

Per 

SiSlr. : 

Bombay    . 

3S 

%\ 

5,362,000 

■"■t 

s 

3»'6 

5,699,ow 

""■" 

7-'S1.»° 

.CO'O 

■■«'■•" 

•" 

Cottoa-Grass,  or  Cotton-Rush  (Eriofihgrum),  a  genus  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Cypsracem  (tribe  Scirpere), 
so  called  from  the  fine  silky  hairs  or  bristles  which  spring  froni 
tl\e  base  of  the  ovary,  and  give  the  plants  the  appearaiice  of  being 
topped  by  cottony  tufts,  especially  when  seen  waving  in  the  wind 
on  the  blefJc  moors  on  which  the^grow.  TUs  'cotton'  lias 
been  used  for  stuffing  pillows,  making  candle-wicks,  &c.,  and  it 
has  even  been  proposed  to  utilise  it  for  testile  purposes.  Tiie 
stem  of  the  Himalayan  species,  called  Bhabhur  (E.  sannabinttm), 
yields  a  fibre  of  which  strong  ropes  are  made.  There  are  several 
British  species  I.E.  angusiifihum,  &c),  the  leaves  of  which 
were  at  one  time  employed  as  a  remedy  for  diarrhtea,  and  tlie 
pith  as  a  vermifuge  for  tapeworm. 

Ootton,  Gun.     See  Gun-Cotton. 

Cotton,  Sir  Kobert  Bruce,  an  eminent  antiquary,  was 
born  at  Denton,  in  Huntingdonshire,  January  2J,  1570.  He 
was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  afterwards  resided  at  London, 
where  he  devoted  liimself  to  archeology,  and  collected  a  number 
of  charters,  deeds,  manuscripts,  &c  (in  many  cases  obtaining 
them  from  the  monasteries,  which  had  been  dissolved  half  a  cen- 
tury before},  of  the  gi-eatest  value  for  their  bearing  npon  the 
histoi7  and  constitution  of  Britain.  C.  was  knighted  by  King 
James,  who  employed  him  to  defend  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  against 
the  shameful  attack  of  Buchanan  (q.  v.),  and  published  a  pamphlet 
on  the  question  of  precedency  between  England  and  Spain,  and 
another  on  the  antiquity  and  dignity  of  Parliaments.  Latterly, 
however,  he  lost  the  royal  favour,  and  was  even  shut  out  from 
liis  own  library.     He  died  6lh  May  1631. 

The  Cotbrnian  lAbriay  is  the  libraiy  of  Sir  R.  E.  C,  con- 
siderably increased  by  hisson  and  grandson,  which  was  invested 
in  trustees  for  the  benefit  of  the  public.  Besides  coins  and  anti- 
quities,  it  consists  of  about  900  volumes,  a  large  number  of 
which  are  slate  papers  of  the  highest  value,  including  diplo- 
matic correspondence  between  England  and  the  Continental 
states  from  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  to  that  of  James  I.  ■  The 
library  was  placed  in  1730  in  Ashburnham  House,  Westminster, 
where  a  tire  partially  destroyed  some  of  the  volumes.  Among  the 
MSS.  that  suffered  severely  on  this  occasion  was  that  of  the  Old 
English  poem  of  Beowulf  (q,  v.).  As  the  work  had  not  then 
been  printed,  and  no  other  MS.  existed,  it  is  singalar  to  reflect 
that  the  most  ancient,  the  most  poetic,  and  the  most  picturesque 

Croduct  of  the  early  Teutonic  muse,  was  within  an  ace  of  abso- 
itely  vanishing  from  human  knowledge.    Tlie  Coitonian  Library 


Ootton-Seed  Oil,  a  secondary  product  of  the  culdvation  of 
cotton,  of  considerable  value,  is  found  in  the  oil  obtained  by 
expression  from  the  seeds.  The  seeds  are  treated  in  the  same 
manner  as  linseed,  and  yield  a  browni^i  fluid  oil  used  for  general 
purposes.  The  oil-cake  of  colton-seed  is  a  valuable  cattle-feeding 
substance. 

Cotton-Spiimmg,  The  various  industries  connected  with  the 
preparation  of  cotton  for  use  constitute  the  most  extensive  and 
important  of  all  textile  manufactures.  In  Great  Britain,  cotton  is 
indeed  the  staple  of  the  leading  industry,  giving  direct  employ- 
ment to  mor«  persons  than  any  other,  and  absorbing  the  largest 
amount  of  capital.  Though  it  is  only  in  recent  times,  and  prin- 
cipally within  the  present  century,  that  cotton  has  attained  a  pre- 
eminent position  in  manufacturing  industries,  the  fibre  has  been 
utilised  in  India,  China,  and  other  Oriental  countries  from  the 
most  remote  period,  and  the  indigenous  cotton  of  America  was 
employed  as  a  textile  material  before  the  discovery  of  that  con- 
tinent by  European  explorers.  The  manufacture  of  cotton 
embraces  spinnii^,  weaving,  bleaching,  calico  printing  and  dye- 
ing; but  only  C.-S.  will  be  here  deSt  with,  tlie  odiers  being 
noticed  under  their  respective  heads. 

The  first  operation  in  the  preparation  of  cotton  for  spinning, 
afl:er  the  fibre  has  been  gathered,  consists  oi  ginning,  or  separat- 
ing tlie  fibre  from  the  seeds  which  are  enclosed  withm  it.  Tliis  is 
chiefly  performed  at  the  place  of  growth  of  the  fibre,  previous 
to  packing  it  in  bales  for  exportation.  A  variety  of  meclianism 
has  been  adapted  for  the  operation,  the  most  common  being  the 
saw-gin,  in  which  a  Itind  of  revolving  circular-saw  apparatus 
tears  the  fibre  away  from  the  seed.  Cotton,  as  imported,  requires 
frequently  to  be  freed  from  the  grosser  impnrities  mixed  up  with 
it  by  means  of  the  willow,  an  apparatus  so  named  from  haying 
been  originally  a  cylindrical  box  or  basket  of  plaited  willows. 
It  now  consists  of  a  box  in  which  a  series  of  iron  spikes  revolve 
with  enormous  rapidity  over  a  gird-bottom,  and  in  Iheir  revolu- 
tion they  toss  about  and  open  the  cotton  fibre  fed  into  the 
apparatus,  the  impnrities  falling  through  the  bottom.  From  the 
willow  the  fibre  passes  to  lie  ofsmr  or  scutching  machine, 
which,  in  the  case  of  clean  staples,  is  the  first  apparatus  through 
which  the  raw  cotton  passes.  In  this  machine  all  the  matted 
lumps  of  the  cotton  are  teased  out  by  means  of  a  revolving,  beater, 
which  strikes  against  the  fibre  with  great  violence.  The  impurities 
from  the  cotton  fall  through  a  gird-bottom  under  the  beater, 
and  the  fibre  is  carried  forward  by  the  suction  of  a  fan-blast. 
From  the  first  opener  the  cotton  passes  to  a  second  machine  of 
the  same  nature  called  the  sprmding  frame  or  lap  machine, 
where,  in  addition  to  nndergoing  an  additional  opening  and 
blowing,  it  is  formed  into  a  spread  lap,  or  continuous  roll  of 
uniform  breadth  and  thickness.  The  material  is  now  ready  for 
carding,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to  disentangle  the  separate 
filaments,  and  lay  them  all  parallel  to  each  other.  The  carding 
engine  is  a  complex  apparatus,  the  principal  feature  of  which 
consists  of  a  series  of  cybnders  revolving  in  opposite  directions, 
such  cylinders  being  covered  with  leather  or  vulcanised  cloth 
studded  with  wire  teeth  or  hooks,  bent  forwai'd  in  the  direction 
in  which  the  cylinders  are  intended  to  revolve  when  in  opera- 
tion. Commonly  the  main  cylinder  of  the  carding  engine  is 
arched  over  by  a  series  of  flat  top-cards  or  jiats,  which  are 
toothed  and  stationary,  and  act  against  the  main  cylinder  revol- 
ving under  them.  For  fine  C.-S.  the  fibre  is  passed  through 
two  such  engines  ;— ist,  the  breaker  card,  which  delivers  the 
material  in  a  broad  thin  fleece ;  and  2d,  the^niihcr  card,  from 
which  the  cotton  issues  in  a  loose  riband  or  sliver,  ready  for  the 
drawing  fi^me.  Instead  of  the  finisher  card,  a  combing  machine 
is  sometimes  used  for  the  finer  qualities  of  yam,  by  whicli  the 
short  fibres  are  combed  out,  and  the  long  fibres  arranged  in  a 
beautiful  uniform  shver.  Still  further  to  render  the  fibres  parallel 
with  each  other,  and  to  produce  a  uniformity  in  the  sliver,  the 
material  next  passes  to  the  dmxdng  frame.  This  apparatus  con- 
sists of  three  pairs  of  rollers,  placed  behind  each  other,  and 
caused  to  rotate  at  different  rates  of  rapidity,  so  that  the  mate--"' 
fed  into  the  first  pair,  when  caught  by  the  more  rapidly  mc  „ 
second  pair,  is  drawn  out  lengthwise  in  proportion  to  the  diffe- 
rent rate  of  motion.  Between  the  second  and  the  third  pair  the 
same  difference  holds,  and  generally  the  drawing  frame  is 
arranged  that  six  slivers  fed  together  mto  the  first  pair  are  pa; 
263 


vLiOOQle 


COT 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


.it  of  the  third  elongated  six  times,  and  having  consequently  the 
Liekness  of  One  of  the  original  sllvei-s.  The  slivers  are  repeatedly 
subjected  to  this  operation,  tiE  by  doubling  and  drawing,  the 
sliver,  as  delivered  by  the  carding  engine,  is  drawn  out  to  c" " 
tliousEind  Umes  its  original  length.  The  drawn  sliver  is  n 
passed  to  the  slubbing  frame,  imere  it  is  further  drawn  out, 
ceives  a  slight  twist,  sufficient  to  hold  it  together  as  a  thin,  loose 
rope,  and  is  wound  on  a  bobbin.  In  the  raving  frame  the  coils 
from  two  bobbins  of  slnbbing  ace  united,  drawn  out  to  still 
greater  tenuity,  twisted,  and  wound  on  a  bobbin,  and  at  this 
point  th    '■'  ...:■....  ^     . 

throstle,  in  which  the  roving  is 

twisted,  and  wound  on  bobbins  in  a  series  of  continuous  ope 

,  and  (2)  the  mtde,  in  which  a  certain  length  of  roving  is 
first  drawn  out,  which  portion  is  then  twisted  and  wound  on 
;»ps.  Wlieu  two  strands  of  yarn  are  subsequently  twisted  to- 
gelher,  the  product  is  called  doubled  yam  or  thread. 


a  sufficient  tenuity. 


The  variety,  complexity,  and  ingenuity  of  the  numerous 
machines  employed  in  C.-S.  would  form  a  sufficient  subject  for 
many  volumes.  The  three  men  to  whom  C.-S.  owes  its  greatest 
advance  were  Arkwright,  Hargreaves,  and  Crompton  (q.  v.). 
Very  full  practical  details  of  this  most  important  art  will  be 
found  in  Mr  Evan  Leigh's  Science  of  Modem  C.-S.  (id  £  ' 
Manchester,  1S73). 

The  degree  of  fineness  of  cotton  ynm  is  estimated  by  the 
number  of  hanlts,  each  measuring  840  yards,  which  will  weigh 
I  lb.  Thus  a  hank  of  40's  means  a  hank  which  weighs  one- 
fortieth  part  of  I  lb.  Commercial  numbers  range  from  6s  to 
350's,  but  as  high  as  10,000's  has  been  spun,  and  Mr  T.  Houlds- 
worth  of  Manchester  exhibited  in  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851 
spun  yam  of  various  degrees  of  fineness  to  aiso's,  and  a  frag- 
ment of  muslin  woven  of  S4o8's. 

The  following  table  contains  a  summary  of  cotton  fac- 
tories, as  exhibited  in  a  parliamentary  return,  dated  August 
187s  :- 


Number  of   ■; 
ChiidrcQ     % 
under  13     i- 
>   Y=arsofAe=. 


implfiycd  in) 
mployed  in 


Cotton-'Weeii  {Diotu  mariHma),  a  plant  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Composite,  a  native  of  the  S.E.  shores  of  Europe 
and  of  N.  Africa.  It  gets  its  name  from  its  leaves  being  clothed 
with  dense  greyish  hairs,  which  look  like  wool. 

Cottonwood.     See  Poplab. 

Oott'iis,  a  genus  of  Teleostean  fishes,  including  the  species 
known  as  '  Bullheads  '  (q.  v. ),  some  of  which  are  marine,  whilst 
264 


others  inhabit  fresh  water.  They  belong  to  the  family  Triglida 
or  Gurnards,  and  are  remarkable  for  the  large  size  of  the  head, 
which  is  provided  with  formidable-looking  spines  and  pro- 
cesses. The  sea-scoi-pion  (C.  scorpius)  and  the  fether-Iasher 
{C.  buhalis)  are  common  British  species.  They  can  live  out  of 
water  for  considerable  periods.    Their  average  size  is  from  6  to 

Ootur'nix.     See  Quail. 


yLiOOgle 


COT 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


1   h  llo  ped '),  a  part  of  the  em- 

nen  sof        bsandherbaceousplants 
belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Crassulacm.     C. 
uiabilkus,     the    navel- 
wort,     pennywort,     or 
il  pe  nypies    is    a    con 
]  mon  plant  in  the  W  of 
J  England    and  in  son  e 
'  parts  of  Wales     Seve 
ral    species     especiaUy 
those  of   the   Cape  of 
Good  Hope  <,eg    C  or 
he  lata)    1  e  freqnently 
^      <^1   i-         f    B  cu  t  vated       C    Mia  is 

a  native  of  Portugal,  but  very  doubtfully  of  Britain. 

Oouch'ant  (Fr,  couchsr,  'to  lie  down"),  in  heraldry,  a  lion, 
or  other  beast,  lying  down  with  his  head  erect.     See  DoR- 

Coueh-Grasa,  "Wheat- Grass,  Dog-tJrasB,  QuickeEs, 

Squitch,  or  ftuitdl,  the  two  latter  names  being  also  given 
to  other  grasses  (Ti-iticutii  repms),  a  perennial  species  of  grass, 
belonging  to  the  same  genus  as  wheat,  common  ia  Europe 
and  N.  America.  Being  from  its  long,  spreadmg  roots  diffi- 
cult to  be  eradicated,  it  is  a  troublesome  weed  in  cultivated 
grounds.  C.  is  useful  in  binding  sandy  soils  together,  but 
though  the  roots  are  sweet  and  mucilaginous,  and  used  in 
Napfes  for  feeding  horses,  and  even  for  making  into  bread  in 
times  of  scarcity,  and  for  brewing  a  domeslic  beer  valued  as  a 
diuretic  and  diaphoretic,  the  foliage  is  not  greatly  esteemed  as 
a  feeding  material.  Its  leaves,  probably  owingto  a  volatile  oil, 
have  a  pungent  ilavour,  and  act  upon  dogs,  at  least,  as, a  power- 
ful emetic.  T,  repots,  owing  to  its  changeableness  in  different 
soils  and  localities,  has  been  split  up  by  some  botanists  into  a 
number  of  very  dou.btfully  distinct  'spedea,' 
Couch'ing'-     See  Catabiact. 

OOTi'cy,  Eenaud,  CiwteU'an  of,  a  trsuvire  of  -the  N. 
of  France,  of  whose  life  nothing  more  is  definitely  known  than 
that  he  lived  about  the  I2th  c,  and  was  a  crusader,  pro- 
bably with  Richard  Co^r-de-Lion  and  Ehilippe  Auguste.  Me 
is  known  for  his  eitremely  passionate  and  beautiful  iove-poems 
or  Chansons,  an  admirable  edition  of  which  was  published  iby 
Michel,  Paris,  in  1830. 

Ooue'pia,  a  genus  of  plants  of  "the  natural  order  CAryso- 
balanacea,  comprising  about  a  dozen  species,  all  natives  of  S. 
America.  The  fiuits  of  many  of  them  are  eaten— c.^,,  that  of  C. 
Ckrysocalyx,  planted  near  the  villages  of  the  Amazonian  Indians. 
The  Indians  use  the  bark  of  C.  Guianmsis  in  the  manufacture  of 
pottery. 

Cou'gar.     See  Puma. 

Oough'ing  is  a  symptom  of  irritation  in  the  resptratoiy  pas- 
sages, or  in  the  respiratory  organs  themselves.  Tins  irritation 
may  depend  upon  a  variety  of  causes,  and  it  is  .3.  symptom  of 
several  diseases  entirely  distinct  from  each  other.  -C.  may  be 
spasmodic,  depending  on  a  state  of  nervous  irritability,  without 
any  obvious  eliciting  cause  ;  ot  'it  may  be  occasioned  by  pres- 
sure on  the  lungs  from  obesity,  entailment  of  the  liver  and 
spleen,  the  gravid  uterus,  abdominal  tumours,,and  thelilte.  C 
may  dso  be  caused  by  the  inhalation  of  irritant  matters,  brought 
into  contact  with  the  fauces,  trachea,  or  bronchial  tubes.  Severe 
and  prolonged  C,  not  unfrequently  simalatmg  the  symptoms  of 
organic  disease  of  the  lungs,  is  often  caused  by  enlaigement  and 
elongation  of  the  uvula,  the  result  of  infiaramation  of  that  oigan, 
the  irritation  being  caused  by  the  uvula  tieliling  the  adjacent 
parts.  C.  may  also  depend  upon  the  absence  of  the  normal 
amount  of  mucous  secretion  in  the  respiratory  passages,  and 
when  such  is  the  case,  it  is  not  followed  by  expectoration  ;  or-it 
may  be  caused  by  an  excess  of  mucous  secretion,  as  in-ordinary 
catarrh  and  bronchitis.  C.  is  also  a  symptom  of  such  dis 
of  the  lungs  as  pn    m         and  ph  h  d     f        h 

affections  as  croup,  d  phth  na       d    1     p    g       gh.    T!     C     f 
asthma  Is  usually  a         p       d      tldtssii,dypce 
many  diseases   C.  i  d  ry    ympt  m      w        t     th 

piratory  oi^ans  be         fi    t  d  t  tl   th    g 


cou 


--i> 


mal  derange.... , 

acute  inflammation.  It  is  accompanied  with  febrile  symptoms,  as 
in  bronchitis,  pnenmonia,  and  frequently  in  phthisis ;  but  when 
chronic,  or  depending  on  local  irritation  only,  there  may  be  no 
pyrexia.  By  stethoscopic  and  other  means  of  diagnosis,  the 
nature  of  the  disease,  the  seat  thereof,  and  the  extent  to  which 
the  1  ngs  are  mplicated,  can  always  be  determined.  C,  in,  all 
eases   is  an  effort  of  nature  to  relieve  itself  from  a  source  of  icri- 

Ooulomb  Oliarlea  AugTistin  de,  a  well-known  French 
phys  c  St,  wa=  born  at  Ar^ouleme,  June  24,  i  n^.  His  fame  rests 
upon  h  s  experimental  researches  .in  electricity  and  magnetism, 
e  pec  ally  his  discovery  of  the  law  of  the  inverse  square.  (See 
loRiiON  Balance.)  Through  the  influence  of  the  projectors 
cf  a.earud  in  Bretagne,  C.  was  imprisoned  for  a  time  on  account 
sf  his  unfavourable  report  of  the  scheme.  In  1786  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  in  rSoO  of  the  Institute. 
C.  died  August  23,  1806-  Ms  principal  literary  productions  are 
his  memoirs  Sur  les  Aiguilles  Aimantks  (1779),  Sur  la  Stalique 
des  Voltes  (177?),  and  Sur  la  Chalear  {1804^. 

Coa'marine  is  a  crystalline  substance    c  dm 

Tonka  bean  [Dipteryx  odorata),  m  woodruff       d 
other  plants.     It  may  be  obtamed  by  extiact   g  T     k 
with   boiling   alcohol,  and    evaporating   die  ti        ti 

crystallises.    -C    has  a  pleasant  arc^natic  od 
burning.      IMhen  heated  it  melts,  and  may  be  h    d 

changed.     C.  has  been  prepared  artificially     il         mp  la 

represented  by  the  formula  CaHisOj. 

Oonn'oil,  in  the  New  Testament,  signifies  fl    J  wi      San 
drim  (q.  v.).     The  clergy  of  a  city  or  district,  p  b 

one  of  thrar  own  number  as  moderator,  form  d  ns 

court  or  C.  of  one  Church.     Of  this  nature  w      h  ng 

the  diurch  at  Jerusalem  recorded  Acts  xy.    wh   h  m 

times  called  the  first  Christian  C.     In  Ae  3d        h    moder 
was  developed  into  a  Bishop  (q.  1.),  who  presided  h 

cilsofthe  presbyters  of  his  diocese.    An  eccles       ea   C  p    p 
however,  is  a  meeting lof  delegates  from  ainumber  ed  ra 

Churches.  The  eusKmofiholding  such  counci  egan  am  g 
the  Gre^s,  who  were  accustomed  to  hold  s  il  assemb  es 
(synods)  in  connection  imth  .  a  political  confede 


first  the  councils  were  merely  provincial,  and  had  very  limited 
powers  ;  the  bishops  and  presbyters  came  as  the  ^  representatives 
of  their  churches,  and  were  presided  over  by  .a  Metropolitan 
(q.  v.).  The  earliest  councils  of  this  kind  of  which  there  is 
authentic  notice  were  those  which  met  concemmg  the  Montan- 
isls,  about  170.  These  councils  having  thus  come  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  highest  ecclesiastical  tribunal  :iii  the  several  pro- 
vinces, when  the  Church  was  established  and  consblidated  under 
Constantme,  it  was  easy  to  extend  the  idea  to  the  whole  Roman 
■Empire,  and  the  Emperor  suramonedia  genaral  or  (Ecumenical 
C.  (q.  V-)  to  discuss  matters  affecting  the  whole. Ciiurch  or  the 
general  principles  of  ChriEtiaitity,  The  authority  of  convening 
general  councils  in  the  East  -mas  exercised  by  the  Emperors ; 
the  Popes  afterwards  ^ercised  the  same  powerfin  (he  West. 

■Hie  fciur  general  eouncils  recognisedlby  all  Churohes  are  those 
of  Nicsea  (325),  of  Conslantinofae  (38i),.of  Epliesus  (43O1  and 
of  Chalcedon  (451).  The  chief  subject  disclosed  at  these  four 
was  the  doctrine  regarding  the  person  of  Christ  The  first  con- 
demned Ariiis  (q.  v.),  whodenied  the  proper  divinity  of  Christ, 
and  decreed  his  Craif -Godhead.    The  second  condemned  Apol- 

ilinaris  (q.  v,),  who  gave  to  Christ  only  an  incomjilete  human 
mature,  anddeiM-eed  his  ferficl  manhood.  The  Shird  condemned 
Nestorius  (q.  v.),  who  separated  Christ's  two  natures,  and  de- 
creed that  he  was  God  and  man  mdivisiUy.  The  fourth  con- 
demned Eutyches  (q.  n.),  who  confounded  (prist's  two  natures, 
and  decreed  that  he  was  God  and  man  distinctly.  The  Greek 
Church  recognises  other  three  in  addition  to  'the  above 
Coi^tantmople  (553),  at  nTuch  Ofigeh 
Con^juitinojae  (680),  atwhichithe  Monotheli 
d  mned;  IL  Nica^  (787),  at  which  image- 
lished.  The  Church  of  Rome:recognises,  in  auiuLiuu  lu  im 
n,  other  eleven:  IV.  Constantinople  (869);  I.  Later 
(  2),  II.  (11391.  in-  <"79).  IV.  {1215),  at  which  Pope  , 
nt  III,  forbade  the  formation  of  new  orders  of  monks; 

'  265 


s  condemned ;  III. 
tes(q.v.lwerecon- 
vorship  was  estab- 


vLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


cou 


Lyons  (1245],  at  which  Innocent  IV.  declared  Friedrich  II.  tin- 
worthy  of  the  imperial  throne  of  Germany ;  II.  Lyons  (1274), 
remarltable  for  the  new  regulations  it  enacted  for  the  election  of 
the  Popes,  including  the  shutting  up  of  the  cardinals  in  con- 
clave; Vienne  (1311),  at  which  the  Beghards  and  Beguines 
(q.  V. )  were  condemned  and  the  Kn^hts-Templar  suppressed ; 
Florence  (1439),  which  was  chiefly  occupied  in  settling  the  dis- 
putes between,  the  Greeks  and  Latins;  V.  Lateran  {1512), 
called  by  Pope  Julius  II.  in  opposition  to  that  of  Pisa ;  Trent 
(15451.  convened  to  settle  the  controversies  with  the  Protestants. 
The  French  divines,  however,  substilute  for  the  Councils  of 
Lyons,  Florence,  and  V.  Lateran,  those  of  Pisa  (1409),  by  which 
the  two  contending  Popes  were  excommunicated ;  Constance 
(1414),  at  which  the  discord  between  the  three  contending 
Popes  was  extinguished ;  and  Basel  (1431),  which  discussed  the 
""■"u  of  the  Greeks  and  Latins,  and  Ihe  reformation  of  the 


Church. 


freely  expressed  their  opinion,  and  often  gp.ve  decisions  opposed 
to  those  of  the  Popes;  for  it  was  long  till  the  Chmch  of  the 
West  especially  could  be  broagbt  to  regard  the  decisions  of  the 
Roman  Bishop  as  flnal.  Of  these  lot^  councils  the  chief  are  : 
Constantinople  (754),  called  by  Constantine  (son  of  Leo  the 
Isaurian)  against  image-worship;  Franlsfurt  (794),  called  by 
Charlemagne  against  image-worship ;  Constantinople  (E42), 
which  restored  ims^e-worship ;  Constantinople  (861),  called  by 
some  of  the  Greeks  a  general  C. ;  Constantinople  {879),  which 
contiimed  image- worship,  and  is  held  by  some  of  the  Greeks  to 
be  the  eighth  general  C, ;  Placentii  and  Clermont  (both  1095),  at 
which  Urban  II.  recommended  the  first  crusade;  Pisa  and  Milan 
(1511),  called  by  LouisXIL  of  France  to  oppose  Pope  Julius  II. 
The  most  important  Protestant  councils  have  been  llie  Synod  of 
Dort  (q.  v.)  in  1618,  which  condemned  Arminianism,  and  the 
Westminster  Assembly,  whicll  met  in  1643  to  aid  the  English 
Parliament  in  settling  the  government,  worship,  and  doctrines  of 
the  Church  of  England,  See  Neander's  and  Mosheim's  Kirchm- 
gesehichti,  Whatefy's  Kingdom  of  Christ,  Gieseler's  Cempendaim 
efEccl.Hist.,  Gaexiclt.e'a  Manual  0/ CiurcA /fis/.,  Hefele'a  and 
Walch's  GisckicAlen  der  Kirchaiversamml.,  and  Walcot's  Sacred 
A,-ch^dogy. 

Council,  Privy.     See  Pkivy  Council. 

Counoil,  Town.    See  Town  Council. 

Ooimcil  of  Ww,  is  a  conference  during  war  of  general 
officers,  or  of  the  superior  ofiicers  of  a  detachment,  to  advise  with 
the  commander.  The  British  military  code  leaves  the  taking  of 
this  advice  to  the  discretion  of  a  commander ;  but  the  French 
code  makes  special  provision  for  it,  especially  as  regards  the 


CoTin'sel.     See  Barrister,  Advocate. 

Ooimt,  or  Coonty  (Lat.  comes,  Fr.  cotats),  formerly  an 
official,  but  now  merely  an  honorary  title,  used  on  the  Conti- 
nent, and  corresponding  to  the  English  Earl  (q.  v.)  and  the 
German  Graf  (q,  v.).  On  the  breaking  up  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
the  title  Comes  (q.  v.)  was  retained  in  the  new  European  king- 
dom, and  under  Charlemagne  was  applied  both  to  military  and 
civil  officials.  In  France,  where  the  C  of  the  palace  ranked 
next  to  the  mayor  of  the  palace,  the  varions  Counts  or  gover- 
nors of  provinces  were  enabled,  as  the  Karoiing  dynasty  grew 
weaker,  to  acquire  jurisdictions  independent  of  the  crown,  and 
to  malce  their  titles,  which  they  took  from  thebr  respective  pos- 
sessions, hereditary.  Thus  ai'ose  the  powerfiil  Counts  of  Cham- 
pagne and  Toulouse,  independent  sovereigns,  who  appointed 
Connts  under  themj  who  are  known  as  Connls-palaiine.  After 
tlie  I2th  c  tlie  power  of  the  French  Counts  decreased,  the 
ditdsion  of  the  country  into  counties  was  destroyed,  and  since 
the  French  Revolution  C.  has  been  merely  an  honorary  title. 
In  England,  tlie  Norman  snccessors  to  the  possessions  of  the 
English  Earls  were,  for  a  time,  known  as  Counts.  Hence  Ibe 
wife  of  an  Earl  is  still  called  a  Countess.  C.-palatine  was,  in 
England,  applied  to  the  noble  or  churchman  (such  as  the  Earl 
of  Chester  and  the  Bishop  of  Durham)  who  exercised  royal  pre- 
rogatives within  his  county, 
266 


Ootmt  and  Eeck'oning^  is  the  name  given  in  Scotch  law  tt 
form  of  process  by  whicli  one  patty  may  compel  another  t< 
ccount  with  him  judicially,  and  to  pay  the  balance  which  may 
e  found  due.     In  these  actions,  a  remit  is  usually  made  to  an 

See  Accountant;  Accountant,  Chaeteeed. 


Coim'ter- Approach',  in  defensive  military  engineering,  : 
trench  leading  towards  the  besiegers  from  the  covered  way  of 
the  fortified  place,  and  frequently  ending  in  a  small  redoubt 
or  battery.  Its  object  is  to  get  a  point  from  which  to  enfilade 
the  trenches  of  the  enemy,  and  thus  keep  the  fighting  farther 
awav  from  the  besieged  fottress. 

Co.unter-Cbanged,  in  heraldry,  describes  a  field  divided  in 
such  a  manner  that  it  is  tinctured  in  part  with  metal,  in  part 
with  colour,  the  charges  being  reciprocally  of  the  same  colour 
and  metal. 

Coim'terfeit.     See  Coining. 

Ooun'terforta,  in  fortification,  are  buttresses  of  brick  or  stone, 
built  against  the  revetment  wall,  to  resist  the  ovttward  pressure  of 
the  rampart,  or  the  natural  ground  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
ditch.  Their  depth  is  usually  equal  to  the  mean  thickness  of 
the  revetment,  and  Ihey  are  placed  about  18  feet  p,pail, 

Ooun'tei^iiatda,  in  fortification,  are  small  outworks,  with 
parapets  and  ditches,  occasionally  constructed  to  cover  the  bas- 
tions and  ravelins  of  a  fortress.  They  run  parallel  to  the  faces  of 
these  interior  works,  and  their  crest  is  3  or  4  feet  lower  than 
theirs,  so  as  not  to  obstruct  the  defence,  when  the  enemy  has 
made  a  lodgment  on  the  countei^uard.  The  rear  parapet  never 
exceeds  18  feet,  that  there  may  not  be  space  to  establish  a  battery 
there  when  a  lodgment  has  been  made. 

Oonnter-Irr'itftntB  are  medicinal  agents  having  the  pro- 
perty of  irritating  that  part  of  the  body  to  which  they  are  ap- 
plied, and  of  thereby  eserting  a  curative  influence  on  diseased 
parts  or  organs.  They  are  chiefly  used  to  modify  the  vascularity 
and  nutrition  of  diseased  parts,  and  to  contiol  congestion  and 
inflammation,  on  the  hypothesis  that  the  production  of  artificial 
irritation  on  a  sound  part  of  the  body  affords  relief  to  a  pait  or 
organ  previously  diseased.  Such  agents  have  been  employed  by 
physicians  from  the  earliest  times.  They  are  divided  into  three 
classes,  viz.,  nibejBcienls,  epispastics,  and  caustics  or  esckaroi 
The  first  class  reddens  the  int^ument  by  dilating  its  capillary 
vessels  ;  the  second  class  disturbs  the  arrangement  of  its  organic 
constituents,  and  consists  of  blistering  agents,  which  cause  ar 
elevation  of  the  epidermis  with  a  secretion  of  serum  beneath  it. 
and  those  which  produce  a  pustular  eruption ;  the  third  class 
destroys  the  organisation  of  the  tissues  to  which  they  are  applied. 
The  more  prominent  effects  of  C-I.  aie  j>urely  mechanical,  an 
artificial  inflammation  being  produced  which,  when  duly  regu- 
lated, palliates  or  cures  those  which  arise  primarily  or  idio- 
pathically,  the  blood  beii^  withdrawn  from  the  congested  or 
inflamed  part,  and  accumi^ted  in  that  to  which  the  irritant  is 
applied.  C.-I.  are  applicable  chiefly  to  cases  of  pain,  conges- 
tion, or  inflammation,  the  cause  of  which  is  confined  chiefly  to 
the  affected  parts,  and  they  have  but  little  influence  upon  the 
local  developments  of  idiopathic  general  diseases,  as  fevers  or 
dyscrasi;e.  They  are  of  advantage  at  the  early  stage  of  diseases, 
when  there  is  local  deterrauiation  of  blood,  but  not  during  the 
stage  of  febrile  action.  When  the  intensity  of  the  febrile  action 
has  subsided,  as  indicated  by  the  pulse  being  softei-  and  less  fre- 
quent, the  appropriate  time  has  arrived  for  the  application  of 
C.-I.  to  obviate  the  effects  of  inflammation,  and  the  less  the 
extent  of  the  disease  the  more  amenable  it  is  to  this  mode  of 
treatment.  As  a  general  rule,  persons  of  a  nervous  and  irritable 
temperament,  as  delicate  females  and  young  children,  are  not 
benefited  by  C,  -I.  unless  appfied  mildly  and  with  much  caution  ; 
for  the  delicacy  and  fineness  of  the  skm  renders  them  intolerant 
of  pain,  and  an  injudicious  apjilication  may  result  in  general 
nervous  deiangement,  inflammation,  and  even  gaiarene  of  the 
parts  on  whidi  they  act.  None  but  the  milder  forms  of 
cutaneous  irritants  diould  be  applied  to  persons  who  have  a  fine 
and  dehcate  skin  and  great  nervous  susceptibility,  more  espe- 
cially to  infants  and  young  children.  Some  modem  physicians 
deny  the  efficacy  of  medlanal  C--I.  Professor  Hebra  of  Vienna 
maintains  that  all  such  measures  are  irrational,  useless,  and  cruel, 
and  in  this  opinion  he  was  followed  by  the  late  Dr  Anstie.  The 
value  of  C-I.,  judiciously  applied,  is  supported,  however,  by  the 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOFMDIA. 


esperience  of  many  centuries,  and  they  occupy  a  high  place  both 
in  domestic  and  scientific  medicine.  The  principal  C.-I.  are  acid 
sulphuricum,  ammonia,  tartar  emetic,  aqvia  fervens,  cantharides, 
capsicum,  "  '*  ' '  '  "      '"""'' 


i,  sabina,  i 


i,  mustard, 


tant  0 


JS  to  a  blistered  surfa  .  , 

kept  up  for  any  length  of  time  desired. 

Cotm'ter-Marohiiig.     See  Maeching. 

Coun'termines,  in  military  engineering,  are  chambers  orgal- 
leiies  excavated  by  the  defenders  of  a  fortified  place  to  mteccept 
the  mines,  discover  the  mining,  or  destroy  the  works  of  the  be- 
siegers. Listening  galleries  are  effective  means  of  defence,  since 
the  sound  of  apickaxe  can  be  heard  60  feet  through  the  grovmd, 
and  are  always  provided  in  a  latere  fortress,  also  envelope  and 
counterscarp  Ealleries,  and  passages  for  communication.  The 
countermining  was  a  remarkable  feature  of  Major  Inglis's  heroic 
defence  of  Lucknow  in  1857. 

CoTin'ter-PaB'sant,  in  heraldry,  describes  two  lions,  or  other 
beasts,  passing  each  other  -in  contrary  directions. 

Coun'terpoint  ('point  against  point '}  is,  in  music,  the  accom- 
panying  of  one  melody  or  theme  with  othecs.  Originally  this 
wasthe  only  form  in  which  any  melody  vras  harmonised,  while  in 
modem  music  (excepting  in  church-music  and  otalotios)  it  has 
been  to  a  great  extent  superseded  by  harmony,  which  relies  for 
its  effect  cather  upon  the  construction  and  precession  of  the 
whole  chords  than  upon  the  movement  of  the  dilferent  separate 
notes  of  which  each  consists.  There  are  many  treatises  on  C, 
ttie  authors  of  most  of  which  seem  to  have  taken  as  great  delight 
in  devising  combinations  possessing  no  merit  but  mgenuity,  as 
in  fostering  the  beauty  of  their  art.  The  art  of  C. ,  as  described 
in  these  works,  is  highly  complex  and  artificial,  hemmmg  the  com- 
poser round  with  all  sorts  of  restriction.';,  but  at  the  same  time 
Its  study  is  an  essential  part  of  a  musician's  education,  just  as  in 
many  other  branches  of  knowledge  the  learner  is  compelled  to 
work  under  strict  rules  at  first,  m  order  to  give  hira  greater  free- 
dom in  his  original  work  afterwards, 

Ooan'ter-Proof,  in  engraving,  an  impression  obtained  from  a 
proof,  while  it  is  still  wet  from  the  plate,  by  laying  it  on  a  sheet 
of  paper,  and  passing  them  through  a  press.  The  design  on  the 
.C,-P.,  being  the  reverse  of  the  proof,  is  in  the  same  dhection  as 
that  on  the  plate,  and  is  made  chiefly  as  a  means  of  judging  of 
the  success  of  the  engraver's  work. 

Coun'terscarp,  in  fortification,  is  the  wall  of  a  ditch  on  the 
besiegers'  side,  the  wall  next  the  body  of  the  fortress  being  the 
escarp  or  scarp, 

Ooun'terajgn,  in  militaiy  language,  isa  watchword  givendaily 
by  the  commander  of  an  armj:  durmg  actual  warfare  or  man- 
ceuvres,  the  pronouncing  of  which  is  a  warrant  for  being  allowed 
to  pass  the  sentinels  as  a  friend.  It  is  generally  some  simple 
word.  In  diplomatic  language,  the  C,  is  the  signature  of  a  secre- 
tary to  the  charter  of  a  kuig,  prelate,  or  other  superior,  as  a 
certificate  of  its  anthenticity.  In  the  middle  ages,  commoa  addi- 
tions to  the  C.  are  oblulit,  raognoint,  nlcgit  et  subscripsiL 

Coun'ter-Ten'or,  a  male  voice  singing — mostly  Xa^alsetlB — 
the  alto  part-  The  C.-T.  takes  the  upper  part  in  male-voice  music, 
and  sometimes  the  alto  in  mixed  choruses.  For  this  latter  pur- 
pose it  must  be  entirely  condemned,  for  it  is  artificial,  hard,  and 
quite  iranting  in  that  freshness  which  chatacterises  the  true  alto 
voice  of  women  and  boys, 

CoTin'ter-Vftir,  in  heraldry,  is  one  of  the  Furs  (q.  v.).  Vair 
exhibits  azure  and  argent  shields  or  bells  in  horizontal  rows, 
with  the  bases  or  points  of  tlie  tinctures  touching  on  each  other. 
C.-V.  shows  the  same  objects  with  azure  touching  on  aiure  and 
argent  on  argent.     See  Hhkaldry. 

Ooimtervalla'tion,  in  siege  operations,  is  a  chain  of  redoubts 
all  round  a  fortified  place  to  hinder  the  sorties  of  the  garrison. 
The  redoubts  are  either  isolated  or  connected  by  earthworks. 
A  similar  chain  of  redoubts  to  protect  the  besiegers  from  exter- 
nal attack  is  a  Circumvallation  (q,  v,), 

Coun'ties  in  England  and  Scotland  are  the  same  as  shires. 
(See  Shike.)     C.  are  districts  into  which  the  country  is  divided 


r  purposes  of  government  and  ad miiiisf  ration  of  justice.  Each 
ranty  in  England  is  ruled  by  its  Sheriff  (q.  v.).  Lancaster  and 
■uvhara  are  C.-palaline,  whicli  were  invested  with  an  indepen- 
dent jurisdiction.  Certain  cities  and  towns,  with  land  and 
territory  annexed,  having  hberties  and  jurisdiction  by  grant  from 
the  crown,  are  called  C.  corporate. 

Ooun'try  Danoe  (a  corruption  of  the  French  contre- 
danse),  a  dance  popular  in  England,  and  so  named  from'the 
difierent  couples  being  arranged  face  to  face.  It  is  a  species 
of  quadrille,  and  has  appropriate  figures  and  music 

County  Courts.  The  old  C.  C.  of  England,  kept  by  the 
sheriffs,  before  the  superior  courts  of  Westminster  were  erected, 
were  the  chief  courts  in  the  kingdom.  Their  powers  were 
gieatly  reduced  under  Magna  Charta,  and  their  jurisdiction 
limited  to  determination  of  trespasses,  and  of  debts  under  40s. 
The  dilatory  and  expensive  proceedmgs  of  these  tribunals,  and 
of  various  local  courts  for  the  recovery  of  small  debts,  led  to  the 
establishment,  in  1846,  of  the  present  C,  C,  with  more  efficient 
and  definite  powers. 

In  England  aiuJ  Wales  there  ate  502  courts,  divided  into  fifty- 
nine  circuits,  and  presided  ovec  by  sixty  judges.  These  are 
appointed  by  the  Lord  Oiancellor,  Each  must  be  a  barrister  of 
seven  years'  standing.  Their  salaries  are  all  about  ^£1500  a  year. 
To  each  court  there  is  attaclied  a  registrar,  who  is  apjiointed  by 
the  judge,  but  removable  by  the  Lord  Chancellor  for  misconduct. 
The  registrars  are  paid  according  to  the  number  of  plaints 
entered  in  their  districts.  Their  emoluments  range  from  ^50  or 
so  to  about  /'700  a  year.  There  are  twenty-three  treasurers, 
who  superintend  the  accounts.  These  are  appointed  and  re- 
movable by  the  Lords  of  the  Treasury,  their  salaries  being  ;i!7oo 


boUi  parti 
in  the  C.  C.  is  fi 
and  then  the  cai 
judge  of  the  supi 


It  of 
ly  be  se'ttlel  by  arbitration.    Judgment 
nless  the  subject  of  it  exceed jfS  in  value, 
n  only  be  removed  with  the  consent  of  a 
ourt.     Bythe  Act  of  1850(13  and  14  Vict. 
1  of  C,  C,  is  extended  to  the  recovery  of 
any  debt,  damage,  or  demand  not  exceeding  the  value  of  /50, 
after  deduction  of  an  admitted  sa-off.     See  Compensation. 

An  important  enlargement  was  made  in  the  powers  of  the  C. 
C.  in  186I,  whpn  au  Act  of  Parliament  gave  them  jurisdiction  in 
bankruptcy  in  cases  of  Petition  for  Adjudication  (q,  v.)  by  tlie 
insolvent,  when  he  stales  in  the  petition  that  his  debts  do  not 
exceed  ^300.  The  Bankruptcy  Act  of  1869  gave  to  the  C.  C, 
except  in  London,  a  general  bankruptcy  jurisdiction.  The  Act 
of  1852,  for  the  recovery  of  debts  in  the  city  of  London  aJ 
libetlies,  has  pr    is  mil     t       m     f  h  principal  provisions 

of  the  C.  C.  Aa 

County  Bates 
assessed  by  the  j    t 
ments  rateable  f 
payment  of  co 
prosecution  of  f  I 


h  parish  of  a  count; 

1      I      of  lands  and  teni 

Th  y  are  applicable   t 

f  county   buildings. 


s  hd  1  d      d  ai 


ended  by  15  and 


ling 'ablow,'  'a  stroke,'  (old  Fr. 
contraction  of  colapus,  from  the 
classic  Lat.  colaphus),  "is  known  as  the  first  word  of  certain 
expressive  phrases  which  have  become  uuiversally  cunent. 
rf'Aaisienifies  a  stroke  of  policy  ;  C.  de grace,  the  stroke  of  meicy 
by  which  an  executioner  ends  a  condemned  wretch's  sufferings  ; 
C.  de  maiu,  a  military  phrase,  meaning  a  rapid,  successful  attack 
— literally  a  stroke  of  the  hand  ;  C.  ifaii,  a  glance  of  the  eye- 
quick,  comprehensive  observation ;  C  aV  jn/fi/,  sunstroke 
C.  di  theatre,  a  stage  trick— surprising  efi'ects  in  real  life  as 
as  on  the  stage. 

Oouped'  (Fr.  ccuper,  'to  ci 
head  or  any  limb  of  a  lion  o: 
torn  off  with  a  ragged  edge, 
C.  close  is  applied  to  the 
part  of  the  neck  or  trunk 


r,  bend, . 


off'),  in  heraldry,  describes  the 
any  beast  cut  off  smoothly,  not 
ir,  as  the  heraldists  say,  erased. 
ame  kind  of  chai^  when  no 
.     The  term  C,  describes  also  a 

'  other  similar  charge  when  it  does  not  extend 

the  border  hues  of  the  shield, 

267 


vLaOogle 


♦- 


corr 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


COU 


Couple  (Lat.  copula),  Ihe  name  given  by  Poinsot  to  a  pair  of 
equal  forces  acting  in  dissimilar  directions  in  parallel  lines.  Such 
a  system  has  a  zero  resultant  acting  at  an  infinite  disiance,  yet  it 
does  not  balance,  the  motion  generated  being  one  of  rotation.  The 
ho  test  d  tan  between  the  dttections  of  the  forces  is  termed 
th  ana  d  the  product  of  either  force  mto  the  arm  the 
moment  Th  axts  is  a  straight  line  diawn  from  a  convenient 
,    p      t     f      f        ce,  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  C,  and 

p  es  t  by  Its  length  and  direction  the  magnitude  of  the 
m  n  t  d  the  direU  on  of  lotalion  If  the  rotation  be 
p     t       th  IS  drawn  towards  the  side  from  which  the  C. 

VI  w  d    if  n  gative,  towards  the  otJier  side      Hence  a  C, 

g  ded  f  m  the  direction  m  nhich  the  Has  points  is  one 
wluch  produces  a  positive  rotation,  and  thus  the  aifis  com- 
pletely determines  the  C  both  in  direction  and  ms^nitude  Thfr 
resultant  C,  of  two  given  couples  is  that  C  whose  axis  is  the 
diagonal  of  the  parallelogram  formed  by  the  axis  of  the-  two 
given  conples  in  precisely  the  same  mannei  as  inithe  Composition 
of  Velocities  and  Forces  (q.  y.).  It  is  evident,  then,  liat  tlie 
forces  acting  upon  a  material  system  may  be  all  reduced  to  a 
force,  a  C,  or  a  force  and  C.;  and  the  reduction  m^  be  so 
ordered  that  the  resultant  force  acts  perpendicular  to-  the  plane 
of  the  resultant  C,  in  whiah  circumstances  each.  wiJl  produce 
the  respective  effects  of  translation  and.  rotation  as  if  the  other 
were  not  present  For  the,  investigation'  an*  demonstration  of 
the  fundamental  propositions  ini  the  theoiy  of  couples,  see 
Thomson  and  Tait's  Elements  (^  Naliiral  Phiimopky,  Tod- 
hunter's  Analytiad-  Stalks,  Pratt  s  Mechanics,  aiid  Duhainel's 
Cottrs  de  MAamgue. 

Coupler,  a  piece  of  mechanism  in  an  oi^an,  by  means  of 
which  two  keyboards,,  or  one  manual  and  the  pedals,  can  be 
connected  together. 


Couplet  is.  the  name  given  to  any 
rhyming  verses,  but  is  more  strictly  used 

s  of  equal  length  and  rhythm,  embodying 


a  proverb  oi 

'  Gnat  wils  arc  BUto  to  madnesa  near  allied, 

.s  very  frequently  used  by  the  old  dramatists,  as 
including  passage  of  a  speech,  in  which  a  trai 
nounded  off  with  rhetorical  completion — 
.;  ihc  1»ll  invites 


Heal 


Uheav. 


a  lEiiell 


to  hell." 


Oou'pon.  (Fn  coupeis  'to  cut  off'),  a  certificate  or  warrant 
of  interest  on  dividendidue,  printed  at  the  bottom  of  transferable 
bonds  given  for  a^.  term  of  years,  and'  cut  off  and  presented  for 
payment  by  the  holderi    In  Great  Britain  a  C.  musfbe  stamped. 


Oourebevoir',  alownin  the  department  of  the  Seine,  France,, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine,  5  miles  N.W.  of  Paris,  with  manu- 
factures of  white  lead  and  brandy,  and  a  trade  in  wine,  brandy, 
and  wood;     Pop.  (E872)  9237 

Oou'rierfCFr,  coureu     from   n  Lat  a  mr      o  ran  )  a 

a  servant  of  the  Go  £mment  9  the  bea^p  of  mportant  de 
spatches  toi  and.  f  om  ambassadors  at  fore  gn  cou  s  T  e 
employment!  of  s  ah  mes  engers  is  of  grea  ant  qui  y  The 
Persian  cmgaros,,  or  mounted  L  wa  kept  a  ways  n  readmess 
at  certain  st^s  thro  g  out  tl  e  oun  ry  to  carry  the  k  ig  s 
despatches.  Among  the  Greek  the  C  was  he  0  iron  0 
a  man  who  could  run  all  day  The  Romans  s  yled  h  m 
cursor,  'runner.'  The  duteswerepe  ormed  chiefly  on  horse 
back.  In  the  m  dd  e  ages  cour  e  s  were  known  as  i  alart 
'trotters.'  In. the  17  h  and  18  h  centuries  they  we  e  siXeiru 
ning  footmen  in  Eng  and  Cou  ers  now  proceed  by  steamer 
rail,  or  hired  carnage,  as  well  as  on  horseback  \  generally  speak 
several  languages  ;  are  acijuainted  with  routes  and  officials,  and 
are  ftimished,  with  credentials  and  money  by  Government  The' 
term  C.  is  also  applied  to  a  private  attendant  ea  traveller^  who 
arranges  for  his  eroployen's  convenience  on  journeys.  He  usually- 
speaks  several  languages,  knows  the  best  routes,  hotels,  and" 
places  and  objects  of  curious  interest.  The  wages  of  this  kind 
268 


of  C.  are  from  ^$8  to  ;£lo  a  month,  independently  of  travelling 
expenses,  out  of  which  he  is  supposed  to  pay  his  own  bill  at 

Coimer,  Paul  Louia,  was  born  at  Paris,  4tli  January  1773, 
of  rich  bourgeois  parents,  and  after  a  successful  study  of  Greek 
and  mathematics,  entered  the  artillery  as  scholar  in  the  Camp  of 
Chalons  (1792).  Wliile  serving  in  the  army  of  the  Moselle 
(1794-95),  the  'army  of  England'  (1798),  and  in  the  French 
occupation  of  Rome,  C  found  time  to  keep  up  his  classical 
Studies.  He  superintended  the  ordnance  of  Paris  till  rSoi, 
translating  in  that  period  the  chief  orations  of  Cicero.  In  1803 
his  £,ioge  iPmiene  (a  work  of  Isocrates)  was  published.  In  1805 
he  served  in  Italy,  and  took  part  in  the  conquest  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  which  gave  an  insecure  throne  to  Joseph  Bonaparte. 
In  the  midst  of  the  guerilla  warfare  of  the  Sicilian  peasants 
against  the  French  general,  Reynier,  C.  continued  his  studies 
and  translations  of  Xenophon  (the  works  upon  Cavalry  and 
Equitation).  Misunderstandings  with  his  superiors  at  various 
Italian  stations  caused  him  in  1809  to  resign,  although  he  re- 
turned to  serve  for  a  short  time  in  the  concluding  campaign  on 
the  Danube.  Soon  after  he  made  at  San  Lorenio,  Florence, 
the  discovery  of  the  manuscript  of  Longus,  which  he  was  after- 
wards stupidly  accused  of  mutilating.  In  1S12  he  settled  in 
Paris,  published  his  translation  of  the  Daphias  and  CMoe  of 
Longus,aud  married  in  1S14.  The  management  of  his  estate 
in  Touraine  brought  liim  into  contact  with  the  absurd  pre- 
tensions of  the  restored  aristocrats.  C.  began  his  political 
writings  by  his  famous  Fetilisn  aux  Deax  Chambres,  and 
soon  afterwards  attached  himself  to  the  opposition  journal, 
the  Cinseur.  In  l8zi  his  Simple  Discours  involved  him  in  a 
political  trial  for  insulting  the  court,  resulting  in  a  sentence  of 
imprisonment.  His  Petition  des  Villageoa  qu'eit  impkhe  de 
denser  had  nearly  the  same  fate.  On  loth  April  1825  C.  was 
assassinated  on  his  estate  of  Vereta,  in  circumstances  which 
have  never  been,  rightly  explained.  His  exact  and  extensive 
learning,  fine  taste,  powerfii  satire,  and  simplicity  and  direct- 
ness of  style,  give  him  a  high  place  among  French  literary 
men.  In  some  respects  he  has  been  likened  to  Swift.  His 
Livret,  or  memonmdum-book,  gives  a  valuable  and  humorous 
picture  of  French  politics  and  society  after  the  Bourbon  restora- 
tion; His  complete  works  were  published  in  4  vols  (Par.  1834) 
by  Armand  Carrel,  with  an  essay  on  his  life. 

Courlaiil  (Slav.  Kars,  Ger.  Kiii-land),  a  Russian  Baltic 
government,  S.  of  Gulf  of  Riga,,  has  an  area  of  19,550  sq.  miles, 
and  a  pop.  (1870)  of  619,154-  It  is  mostly  covered  with  wood, 
consisting  of  beech,  pine,  alder,  birch,  and  oak,  and  is  in  gene- 
ral level  and  full  of  lakes  and  marshes,  the  highest  eminence 
being  Silberbeig,.  in  the  vicinity  of  Mittau,  the  capital,  only 
500  feet  hi^.  Distilleries  and  tilling  form  the  most  impor- 
tant sources  of  industny.  The  wealthiest  and  most  intelligent 
of  the  inhabitants  are  Germans ;  the  peasantry  are  for  the  most 
part  Letts.  The  territory  of  C.^  taken  under  the  protection  of 
Poland  in  1.561,.  was- mei^  in  Russia  in  1795.  At  one  time 
it  formed  two  duchies,  the  property  of  the  Teutonic  knights. 

Cour'sea,  iir  aj  ship,  are  the  whole  of  the  lower  sails— s'.^'., 
foresail,  mainsail,  mainstay-sail,  &c. 

Oonl'aiB.g;  is  a  mode  of  hunting  hares  by  greyhounds.  When 
a  hare  is  started,  it  ia  allowed  to  get  about  too  yards  in  advance 
of  the  dogs,  which  are  then  let  loose  from  the  'slips,'  or  cords, 
1  eld  by  the  'slipper,'"  and  fastened  to  the  dogs' collars.  The 
judge  keeps  his  eye  on  the  dogs,  and  notes  when  any  one  makes 
what  is  called  'a  point,'  that  is,  causes  the  hare  to  turn  or 
double,,''  as  it  is  called,  or  otherwise  gets  a  decided  advantage 
over  the  rest.  The  victory  is  not  necessarily  adjudged  to  the  dog 
whidi  kills  the  hare,  but  to  the  one  which  makes  most  '  points. 

Oooxt  (Fr.  cour.  Old  Fr.  court,  from  Lat.  coAortem,  'a  yard,' 
also  in  peasant  speech  cortan^  according  to  Varro ;  allied  to  the 
Teutonic  garden,  gartiit,  and  yard),  among  the  Franks  and 
other  Germanio  tribes  the  countiy-house  of  a  lord  or  cjiief,  where 
also  he  administered  justice.  Later  on  it  denoted  the  space 
enclosed  by  the  buildings  of  a  feudal  castle  ;  hence  it  came  to  be 
applied  to  those  persons  immediately  surrounding  the  chief,  In 
England,  when  we  speak  of  'the  C  we  denote  the  family  and 
household  of  the  sovereign. 

Court,  Presintathn  at,  or  introduction  to  the  sovereign,  can 


yLaOogle 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


..1  England  only  be  obtained  by  means  o 
been  already  introduced.  The  distinction  is  valued  as  a  stamp 
of  diaiacter  and  social  status,  though  not  usually  cared  for  by 
those  who  have,  distinguished  themselves  in  science,  literature, 
or  arl.  The  'C. -dress,'  which  must  be  worn  on  the  occasion, 
probably  forms  to  some  an  objection  to  going  through  the  cere- 
mony. It  is  antiqaaled,  fantastic,  and  expensive.  There  are 
special  days,  advertised  in  the  newpapers,  on  which  the  Queen 
holds  levees  and  drawing-rooms.  The  former  is  for  tlie  reception 
of  men  only ;  the  latter  chiefly  for  the  reception  of  women. 
The  greatest  drawing-room  of  the  year  is  usually  held  on  the 
Queen's  birthday.  The  names  of  those  who  wish  to  be  pre- 
sented must  be  sent  in  to  the  office  of  the  Lord  Chamberlain 
some  days  previously,  that  they  may  be  subtnitted  to  the  Queen, 
No  man  or  woman  of  doubtful  reputation  will  be  received. 
Lists  of  presentations  appear  on  the  following  day  in  the  prin- 
cipal London  newspapers.  Any  British  subject  who  has  been 
presented  at  the  C.  of  his  own  sovereign  has  a  right  to  be 
presented  at  any  foreign  C ,  J)y  the  British  Ambassador.  Tickets 
to  see  the  ceremony  may  be  had  by  application,  accompanied 
with  an  introduction  to  the  Lord  Chamberlain,  who  will  give 
requisite  information. 

Court  of  Judicature,  Supreme,  Acts  1873  and  1876 
(England).  The  statute  of  1875  is  to  amend  and  extend  the  Act 
of  1873,  and  is  to  be  construed  along  with  it,  the  Acts  together 
totally  (ianging  the  constitution  of  the  supreme  law  courts  of  Eng- 
land. The  new  law  came  into  partial  operation  on  1st  November 
1875.  Notwithstanding  the  principal  statute  {1873)  abolishing 
the  appellate  jurisdiction  of  the  House  of  Lords,  the  right  is  to  be 
reserved  until  November  I,  1876.  What  may  ultimately  be  doie 
with  regard  to  this  it  is  therefore  at  present  (1876)  impossible  to 
say.  The  constitution  of  a  High  C.  of  Justice  is  declared.  All 
actions  which  have  hitherto  been  commenced  by  writ  ia  the 
superior  courts  of  Common  Law  at  Westminster,  or  in  the  C 
of  Common  Pleas  at  Lancaster,  or  in  the  C.  of  Common  Pleas 
at  Durham,  and  all  suits  which  have  hitherto  been  begun  by 
a  bill  or  information  in  the  High  C.  of  Chancery,  or  by  a  cause 
in  rim  or  in  personam  in  the  High  C.  of  Admiolty,  or  hj  cita- 
tion or  otherwise  in  the  C  of  Probate,  shall  be  instituted  in  the 
HighC.  ofjustice  by  a  proceeding  to  be  called  anaclimi.  There 
are  to  be  divisions  of  the  C.  called  the  Queen's  Bench,  the 
Common  Pleas,  the  Exdiequer,  the  Chancery,  the  Probate, 
Divorce,  and  Admiralty  divisions.  Her  Majesty's  C.  of  Appeal 
is  also  constituted  by  the  Acts.  There  are  to  be  five  «;  officii 
judges,  and  as  many  other  judges,  not  exceeding  three,  as  Her 
Majesty  shall  from  time  to  time  appoint.  The  ix  officio  judges 
are  to  be  the  Lord  Chancellor,  the  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  England, 
the  Master  of  the  Rolls,  the  Lord  Cliief  Justice  of  tlie  Common 
Plefls,  and  the  Lord  Chief  Baron  of  the  Exchequer.  The  Lord 
Chancellormay,  by  writing  addressed  to  the  president  of  any  one 
or  more  of  certain  divisions  of  the  High  C  of  Justice,  request 
the  attendance  at  any  time,  except  during  the  spru^ 
circuits,  of  an  additional  judge  from  such  division  i 
(not  being  ex  offiiio  judge  or  judges  of  the  C.  of  Appeal),  at  the 
sittings  of  the  C.  of  Appeal,  and  a  judge  to  be  selected  by 
the  division  from  which  his  attendance  is  requested  shall  attend 
accordingly.  The  London  C.  of  Bankruptcy  is  not  to  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  High  C.  of  Justice.  No  appeal  on  a  final  decree 
is  to  be  pleaded  before  fewer  than  three  judges.  If  the  subject 
of  appeal  is  an  interlocutory  decree  or  order^  it  may  be  pleaded 
before  two  judges,  but  not  before  fewer..  New  relations  are 
made  respecting  circuits,  and  the  iixing  and  collection  of  fees  in 
the  High  C.  and  C.  of  Appeal  There  is  to  be  no  local  Venue 
(q.v.)for  the  trial  ofany  action,,  but  when  the  plaintiff  proposes 
to  have  the  action  tried  elsewhere  than  in  Middlesex,  he  shall 
in  his  statement  of  claim  name  the  county  or  jjlace  in  which  he 
proposes  the  action  shall  be  tried,  and  the  action  shall  be  tried- 
in  the  place  named,  unless  the  judge  order  otherwise. 

Court  of  Session  is  the  supreme  civil  conit  of  Scotland., 
It  was  instituted  in  1533  by  James  V.  Formerly  it  consisted  of 
fifteen  judges,  who  sat  in  one  court;  but  b^  48  Geo.  HL  c.  IJI, 
the  judges  were  required  to  sit  in  two  divisions,  and  by  i  Will. 
IV.  c.  69,  their  number  was  reduced  to  thirteen — the  Lord 
President,  the  Lord  Justice  Clerk,  and  eleven  Ordinary  Lords. 
The  Lord  President  and  three  Ordinary  Lords  form  the  First 
Division,  and  the  Lord  Justice  Clerk  and  the  other  three  Ordi- 
nary Lords  form  the  Second  Division. 


The  First  and  Second  Division  form  what  is  called  the  Inner 
Home.  There  are  five  permanent  Lords  Ordinary,  each  of 
whom  holds  a  court ;  the  courts  of  the  Lords  Ordinary  forming 
collectively  what  is  railed  the  Out^  House.  The  judgments  of 
the  Outer  House  are  subject  to  the  review  of  either  division  of 
the  Inner  House.  The  junior  Lord  Ordinary  officiates  in  the 
BUI  Chamber  (q.  v.)  during  session.  The  C.  of  S.  is  the  only 
court  in  Scotland  which  has  jurisdiction  over  heritage,  or  in 
questions  affecting  it.  With  a  few  exceptions,  no  action  re- 
specting Movables  (q.  v.),  where  the  interest  of  the  Parsuer 
'q.  v.)  IS  under  ,^25,  can  originate  in  the  C.  of  S.  The  jiidg- 
lents  of  inferior  courts,  except  that  of  the  small-debt  courts 
iee  Sheriff),  are  mostly  subject  to  the  review  of  the  C.  of  S. ;  and 
ven  when  this  power  is  excluded,  it  may  interfere  when  the 
uferior  courts  deviate  from  statutory  regulation.  The  judges 
Lold  their  office  ad  vUam  aat  culpam.  Their  appointment  is 
from  the  crown.     No  one  can  be  appointed  who  has  not  served 

advocate  or  principal  clerk  of  session  for  five  years,  01 
„  .,..ter  to  the  signet  for  ten.  Either  division  of  the  court  n  , 
call  in  the  aid  of  the  three  judges  of  the  other  division,  when 
equally  divided  in  opinion.  In  cases  of  extreme  difficulty  the 
Lords  Ordinary  are  also  called  in,  and  pleadings  are  heard 
before  the  whole  court,  or  is  presence,  as  it  is  called.  Judgments 
of  the  C.  of  S.  may  be  appealed  against  to  the  House  of  Lords 
within  two  years.     See  Appeal. 


Court  I 
Courtall'u 


See  Common  Law,.  Courts  o 


in  the  district  of  Tinnevellj',  province 
of  Madras,  700  feet  above  the  sea-level,  near  the  junction  of 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Ghauts.  From  the  salubrity  of  the 
atmosphere  and  the  picturesqueness  of  the  scenery,  it  is  much 
frequented  by  invalids.     Its  flora  is  singularly  rich. 

Cour'tesy  or  Cur'teay  of  Eagland.  When  a  wife  dies 
seized  in  fee  of  an  estate,  having  or  having  had  living  issue,  her 
husband  holds  the  estate  during  his  life,  and  is  called  Isiiant  by 
the  a  ofE. 

Courtesy  or  Ctirialiy  of  Scotland  is  i^it  &sms  right  of  a  husband 
in  Scotland,  and  dependent  on  essentially  the  same  conditions. 

In  both  countries-  the  child  must  be  the  mother's  heir ;  it 
consequently  appears  that  C.  falls  to  the  husband  as  the  father 
of  the  heir.  In  Scotland,  the  test  of  the  child  being  bom  alive 
has  been  decided  to  be  that  it  shall  have  been  heard  to  cry,  and 
this  rule  is  still  adhered  (o.  It  is  an  error  to  suppose  ti 
right  is  peculiar  to  either  nation. 

Courtesy  Titles  are  titles  accorded  by  society  (o  individuals  ■ 
who  have  no  legal  right  to  them.  The  term  is  chiefly  nsed  ir 
connection  with  the  titles  assigned  to  the  children  of  peers  in 
Great  Britain  and  in  Ireland.  The  eldest  son  usually  bears  the 
second  hi^iest  title  belonging  to  his  fether,  unless  the  inferior 
title  is  of  the  same  name  as  the  first,  in  which  case,  to  prevent 
confusion,  soma  other  title  belonging  to  the  father  is  assumed, 
or  the  family  surname  with  the  prefix  of  '  Lord.'  When  there 
is  no  secondary  title,  as  must  be  the  case  with  barons,  the  eldest 
son  has  the  courtesy  title  of  '  Honourable."     In  Scotland  he  is 

knownasthe  'Masterof ,'    The  yoimger  sons  and  daughters 

of  dukes  and  marquises  have  the  courtesy  title  of  'Lord'  or 
Lady'   prefixed  to  tlieir  Christian  n ' '™- 


and  daughters  of  earls, 
-  1p  ^ 


{,  and  barons  ai 


younger  si p —   

entitled  '  Honourable.'^  Wives  of  baronets  have  the  c 
title  of  'Lady,'  but  their  sons  and  daughters  bear  n 
Members  of  the  Queen's  Privy  Council  are  by  courtesy  'Right 
•  ■  '  ■  ^  ,.  ^  .  -f  f--i--j  -^  Scotland  are 
'Esquire' (q.  v.), 
,  limited   class,   i 


only 


though    properly   applicable   t 

almost  universally  assumed.  Ladies,  who  have  acqaired  a 
by  a  first  marriage  retain  it  by  courtesy  after  a  second  marr  ^  , 
though  the  husband  have  no  title;  but  their  rank  is  according 
to  that  of  the  second  husband.  No  courtesy  title  raises  the  bearer 
above  the  rank  of  a  commoner.  The  eldest  son  of  a  duke,  or 
any  son  of  any  peer,  may  therefore  sit  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons ;  so  may  an  Irish  peer,  but  a  Scotch  peer  cannot, 

OouEt  rool,  a  jester  formeriy  attached  to  a  court  or  royal 
household,  whose  business  it  was  to  help  to  make  the  time  pass 
agreeably  by  facetious  or  extravagant  remarks,  which  often 
pleased  in  proportion  as  they  were  personal.  The  institution  of 
the  office  is  of  very  ancient  date,  but  the  palmy  period  of  the 
269 


vLaOogle 


cou 


THE  GLOBE  MNCYCLOPjEDIA. 


cov 


C.  F.  was  dming  tlie  middle  ages.  Me  was  distinguished  by 
the  shaven  head,  the  jieaUed  cap  of  divers  brilliant  colouvs, 
generally  having  bells  attached  to  it,  the  cockscomb,  the  ass'a 
ears,  and  a  Eceptre  of  some  fantustic  shape.  He  also  wore  a 
collar  of  extravagant  dimensions,  and  a  dress  vi-hich  varied  with 
the  taste  or  the  caprice  of  his  master.  Some  of  these  officials  have 
obtained  a  name  in  history,  and  many  of  their  facetise,  which 
sometimes  expressed  shrewd  practical  counsel,  and  even  consider- 
able political  sagacity,  liave  been  preserved.  Of  court  fools  who 
have  become  historical,  among  the  best  known  are  Triboulet, 
the  jester  to  Francois  I.  of  France,  and  hia  successor,  Brnsquet ; 
Scogan,  jester  to  Edward  IV.  oEEngland;  and  Archie  Armstrong, 
the  last  of  his  order  at  the  English  court,  who  flourished  in  the 
reigns  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I.  Court  fools  survived  longest 
in  Russia,  but  are  now  extinct  even  there. 

Courtliaaa,  the  old  English  style  of  handwriting,  lu 
tinguished  from  the  modern  or  Italian  style.       It  is  so  n 
because  it  was  used  in  courts  of  law  after  it  had  been  generally 
superseded. 

Cotirt-Mftrtial  is  a  court  for  trying  naval  and  military  officers 
for  breach  of  naval  or  military  law.  No  capital  punishment  can 
be  inflicted  by  a  military  C.-M.  unless  nine  of  the  thirteen 
judges  concur.  When  the  court  does  not  eiceed  its  power,  there 
is  no  appeal  against  its  sentence  ;  but  it  requires  to  be  ratified  by 
the  Clown.     See  Articles  of  War,  Mutiny  Act. 

Cour'trai  (Flem.  Kortyyk,  the  LaL  CoHoriacum  of  the  NoHHa, 
afterwards  Curtric«m\  a  fortified  town  in  the  province  of  W. 
Flanders,  Belgium,  on  the  Lys,  zS  miles  S.  of  Bruges.  It  is 
connected  with  Ghent,  Lille,  and  Toumay  by  railway,  lias  fine 
churches  and  a  splendid  Gothic  town-hall,  manufactures  of  linen, 
lace,  thread,  tablecloths,  has  extensive  bleaching  and  soap-boil- 
ing works,  sugar-refineries,  &&,  and  the  finest  flax  in  Flanders 
is  grown  in  the  neighbourhood.  Pop.  (1874)  26,641.  llie  Battle 
of  the  Gold  Spurs,  so  called  from  700  gilt  spurs  being  stript 
from  the  French  knights  slaughtered  by  the  Flemings,  was  fought 
at  C,  July  II,  1302. 

Oourts,  Law.  For  England,  see  the  following  articles  :— 
Admiralty  Court,  Assize;  Chancery,  Court  or;  Com- 
mon Law,  Courts  of  (under  which  are  Courts  of  Queen's 
Bench,  Connnon  Pleas,  and  Excheqiur) ;  COUKT  OF  Judica- 
ture, Supreme,  Acts;  County  Courts;  Criminal  Court, 
Central;  Divorce  and  Matrimonial  Causes  Court; 
Lords,  House  of;  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy 
Council;  Probate  and  Wills,  Court  of;  Quarter 
Sessions,  General.  For  Scotland,  see  Admiralty  Court, 
Commissary,  Court  of  Session  ;  Lords,  House  of  ; 
Quarter  Sessions,  General  ;  Sheriff, 
Courtyard.     See  Farm  Buildings. 

Cou'aia,  "Victor,  an  illustrious  French  author,  was  born 
at  Paris,  28th  November  1792,  of  poor  parents.  He  was 
educated  at  tlie  ficole  Normale,  where  he  subsequently  taught 
classics,  till  the  inspiration  received  from  Laromigui^re  decided 
him  to  teach  philosophy  at  the  Sorbonne  under  Royer-Collard. 
The  relrt^rade  policy  of  the  Government  of  Louis  XVIII. 
drove  him  into  Germany,  where  he  met  Hegel  and  studied 
Plato  and  Proclus.  He  recommenced  his  lectures  in  1828, 
and  the  courses  delivered  during  that  and  the  two  following 
years  were  probably  unequalled  in  popularity  in  modern  times. 
To  this  his  handsome  figure  and  splendid  eloquence  greatly  con- 
tributed. After  the  Revolution  of  July  he  entered  the  Council 
of  Public  Instruction,  to  which  he  presented  his  valuable  reports 
on  education  (chiefly  primary)  in  Germany,  Prussia,  and  Holland. 
Created  a  peer  of  France,  he  did  not  cease  to  lecture  on  AristoUe 
at  the  EcoJe  Normale,  of  which -he  was  now  director.  He  was 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction  in  the  Thiers  ministry  of  184a 
His  speeches  in  the  Chamber  of  Peers,  especially  that  on  philo- 
sophy in  the  universities,  earned  for  him  a  higlr  reputation  as  a 
public  orator.  At  the  same  time  the  amount  of  hia  literary  work 
was  enormous.  His  editions  of  Proclus,  Plato,  Descartes,  De 
Blron,  Abelard,  his  works  on  the  philosophy  of  the  i8th  c,  on 
the  scholastic  philosophy,  on  Kant,  on  Aristotle's  metaphysics, 
his  book  upon  Mme.  de  Longueville,  and  his  edition  of  Pascal's 
Ftns^s,  all  contdn  valuable  material.  His  most  popular  work 
in  Great  Britain  is  the  Discoitrs  du  Vrai,  du  Beau,  el  du  Bien. 
C.'s  theory  that  there  are  in  every  act  of  consciousness  three 


fundamental  elements,  viz.,  an  element  of  plurality,  compounded 
of  finite  self  and  finite  not-self,  an  element  of  absolute,  infinite 
substance,  and  an  element  of  relation  between  the  finite  and  God, 
or  effect  and  cause,  has  been  criticised  by  Sir  William  Hamilton 
in  the  Edinburgh  Review,  and  is  of  course  rejected  by  all  who 
think  that  the  Icnowledge  of  God  comes  by  mference  from  ex- 
perience. It  is  these  same  elements  which  C.  afterwards,  in  his 
Cours  of  1828,  attempts  to  trace  in  a  philosophy  of  history, 
borrowed  for  the  most  part  from  Hegel ;  the  spontaneous  or  in- 
stinctive stage  of  intelligence,  which  corresponds  to  the  idea  of 
infinity,  passing  gradually  into  the  reflective  or  philosophical 
stage  which  distinguishes  the  three  elements.  The  '  East '  re- 
presents the  infinite;  the  finite  appears  in  Greece;  their  final 
harmony  in  the  modern  world.  To  this  C.  added  a  transcen- 
dental geography :  he  found  that  there  was  an  d  priori  fitness  in 
Asia  and  Europe  as  the  scenes  of  human  development  Similarly, 
war  was  only  a  violent  concussion  between  pardcnlar  ideas,  which 
the  belligerent  nations  conceived  as  universal  and  necessary. 
The  same  absurd  optimism  runs  through  his  estimate  of  great 
men,  and  is,  in  fact,  the  foundation  of  what  he  l^s  called  the 
Eclectic  system  in  philosophy.  According  to  this  system,  sen- 
sualism should  characterise  the  earlier,  idealism  the  later,  stages 
of  history  ;  the  opposite  being  the  feet.  C.'s  report  on  German 
education,  and  \i\s  Projet  de  Loi  of  2d  January  1833,  have  been 
ably  discussed  by  Sir  William  Hamilton  {Discussions).  C,  who 
died  at  Cannes,  Jannaiy  13,  1867,  left  a  considerable  school 
among  the  younger  F  end  th'nkers,  of  whom  M.  Janet  may  be 
taken  as  a  spec  n  en  Jules  S  mon  and  Jouffroi  have  also  been 
called  his  disc  pies  but  the  latter  had  much  greater  scientific 
capacity  than  hs  master  nho  was  less  a  philosopher  than  an 
eloijuent  and  learned  a  ei      with  a  taste  for  philosophical 

subjects,  and  an  unusual  power  of  hnpressing  his  enthusiasm  on 
his  pupils.  C  s  0  ks  were  published  in  a  collected  edition 
(22  vols.  Par,    846-47) 

Cous'ins,  rust.    See  Affinity,  Agnate,  Marriage. 

Ooutaneea',  a  town  m  the  department  of  La  Mancht 
France,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Soulle  and  Bulsatd,  with  a  fin 
cathedral,  one  of  the  towers  of  which  has  been  fitted  up  as 
beacon  to  ships  in  the  English  Channel.  It  has  manufactures 
of  drugget,  muslin,  and  thread,  with  a-good  trade  in  grain  and 
cattle.  Pop.  (187Z)  7278.  C.  is  the  CMlas  ConstanHa  of  the 
RomaJis,  and  was  the  see  of  a  bishop  in  the  5th  c  In  the  vici- 
nity are  the  nims  of  an  ancient  aqueduct. 

Coutar'ea,  a  genus  of  Cinclionaceous  trees  of  Guiana,  &cl, 
the  bark  of  one  of  which,  C.  spedosa  {Portlandia  hexaiidra),  is 
used  as  a  substitute  for  cinchona, 

Cou'thtm,  Georg;es,  born  at  Greet,  in  Auvergne,  in  1756, 
became  an  advocate  in  the  local  court  at  Clermont,  where,  by 
his  charitable  and  courteous  character,  he  grew  very  popular. 
In  1789  he  was  president  of  the  tribunal,  and  in  1791  was  sent  b> 
his  fellow-citiiens  to  the  Assemble  Legislaiif.  After  the  flight  tc 
Varennes,  his  opinions  changed;  he  demanded  the  deposition  of 
the  King,  and  in  1791  became  one  of  the  most  revolutionary 
members  of  the  Assembly,  and  afterwards  of  tlie  Convention,  in 
which  lie  gradually  attadied  himself  to  Robespierre.  He  pre- 
sided at  the  Lyons  massacres,  and  established  in  Auvergne  the 
system  of  requisitions,  levy  ea  masse,  and  revolutionary  com- 
mittees. At  last,  in  1794,  he  was  comprehended  with  St  Just 
and  Robespierre  in  tlie  same  decree  of  arrest,  and  was  executed 
28th  July  of  that  year.  Although  lame  tlirough  paralysis,  C. 
was  a  powerful  speaker  from  the  'Mountain,  He  proposed 
the  famous  test  of  purgation  for  the  Jacobin  Club,  and  passed 
;rrible  deci-ee  of  the  22d  Prairial  (June  1794),  extending  the 
law  of  the  suspecl. 

Cou'traa,  a  town  in  the  department  of  Gironde,  France,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Dronne,  z;  miles  N,E.  of  Bordeaux,  which 
it  supplies  with  flour,  and  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway, 
Henri  of  Navarre,  subsequently  Henri  IV.  of  France,  defeated 
the  army  of  the  I.eague  before  the  wails  of  C,  October  20,  15S7, 
Tlie  red  wine  of  C.  is  of  considerable  excellence.     Pop,  {r872) 

Cov'enant  (Heb,  betith,  Gr.  diathike)  is  applied  in  Scrip- 
ture to  contracts  both  between  man  and  man  and  between  God 
and  man,  although  it  could  only  be  applied  properly  lo  the  first, 
since  mutual  obligations  or  conditions,  and  mutual  advantages. 


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cov 


were  implied,  l.  The  manner  in  which  two  parties  enteved 
into  a  C.  was  by  taking  an  oath  (Gen.  xxi.  31,  32),  in  witness 
wliereof  was  set  np  a  memorial  stone  or  a  heap  of  stones  (Gen.  xxxi. 
45,  46)  >  tliey  feasted  together  ;  or,  the  most  solemn  ratification 
of  all,  they  cut  one  ot  more  beasts  into  halves,  laid  the  pieces 
opposite  each  other,  and  passed  between  Ihem,  as  much  as 
to  say,  'May  the  fate  of  these  animals  fall  upon  him  who 
breaks  this  C  Qer.  XKxiv.  18-20;  cf.  Gen.  xv.  S-lo).  2.  Ac- 
cording to  the  anthropomorphic  ideas  of  the  Old  Testament, 
covenants  are  also  spoken  of  as  made  between  God  and  man,  as 
in  Gen.  ;(v.  8-18,  and  xxviii.  20-22 ;  in  the  first  of  which  pas- 
sages, Jehovah  is  represented  as  passing  between  the  pieces  in 
the  form  of  a  flame  of  lire.  On  another  occasion,  when  riiaking 
a  C.  with  Abram,  he  gave  him  the  rite  of  circumcision  for  a 
sign,  as  he  gave  to  Noah  the  rainbow.  3.  In  the  New  Testament 
(Episdes  to  Galatians  and  Hebrews),  the  old  C.  or  testament 
made  between  God  and  his  chosen  people  at  Sinai,  with  Moses 
as  mediator,  is  opposed  to  the  newC.  between  God  and  liis  elect 


itmgaish  three  covenants:— (I)  The  C.  of  works, 
netween  God  and  Adam  when  the  latter  was  in  a,  state  of  inno- 
cence, and  representmg  all  his  posterity;  the  condition  on  the 
part  of  man  being  perfect  obedience,  the  promise,  life,  and  the 
penalty,  death.  (2)  The  C.  of  grace,  corresponding  exactly 
with  the  new  C.  of  the  New  Testament,  to  which  the  parties  are 
God  and — not  mankind  generally,  bnt— the  elect.  (3)  The  C. 
of  redemption  (deduced  from  Gal.  iii.)  between  the  first  and 
the  second  persons  of  the  Trini^,  the  former  engaging  to  give 
the  latter  a  certam  number  of  redeemed  sinners  for  his  Church  ; 
the  latter,  to  be  their  surety  and  substitute. 

Ooventmt,  in  the  law  of  England,  is  the  agreement  of  two 
or  more  persons  to  do,  or  not  to  do,  some  specified  act.  It  is 
created  by  Deed  (q.  v.).  In  a  C.  to  do  something,  the  action 
stipulated  for  must  be  lawful ;  and  if  the  Uiing  to  be  done  be 
legally  impossible,  the  C,  is  void.  A  man  may  bind  himself  not 
to  exercise  a  special  trade  or  profession  within  a  particular  place, 
but  a  general  obligation  in  restraint  of  occupation  is  contrary  to 
law,  and  void.     See  Contract, 

Covenant,  National,  the  name  of  the  religious  protest, 
binding  its  subscribers  to  support  the  Scottish  Presbyterian 
Church,  drawn  up  by  the  Scottish  clergy  in  163a  It  embodied 
the  Scottish  Confession  of  Faith  of  15S1,  and  arose  from  the 
effort  of  Charles  I.  to  introduce  ao  episcopal  litni^y  mto  Scot- 
land. It  was  signed  by  all  ranks  of^  the  community— nobles, 
gentry,  cleigy,  "and  commissioners  from  bm^hs  and  towns— in  the 
Greyfriars'  Churchyard,  Edinbuigh.  Copies  were  also  sent  to 
different  parts  of  the  country  for  subscription.  The  N.  C.  was 
ratified  by  Parliament  in  1640,  signing  beginning  February  28, 
1638.  See  Davidson's  Historical  Sketch  Illastralivi  of  the 
Natimal  Confissicn  of  Faith  (Edmb.  1849).— Solemn  League 
and  Covenant  was  a  modification  of  the  N.  C,  and  bound 
the   English  Parliament  in  alliance  with  the  Scottish  Presby- 


,   ,.._..   _,   the  Parliament,  September  25, 

1643.  Charles  II.  signed  it,  August  16,  1650,  but  repudiated 
it  in  1661,  when  it  was  ordered  to  be  burnt.  The  Scottish 
supporters  of  these  covenants  were  known  as  Covenanters,  and 
were  engaged  in  various  risings  gainst  the  crown  in  the  period 
between  the  Restoration  (l6fe))  and  the  Revolution  of  1688.  In 
1712  the  Cameronians,  a  section  of  the  Covenanters,  renewed 
the  signmB  of  the  covenants  ;  but  the  Church  of  Scotland  does 
not  require  adherence  to  these  documents  from  her  members. 

OoVent  Gar'den,  a  corruption  of  Convent  Garden,  so  cal 
from  being  formerly  the  garden  of  Westminster  Abbey,  is 
great  fruit,  flower,  and  vegetable  market  of  London.     The  n: 
interesting  days  for  inspecting  it  are  Tuesdays,  Thursdays,  and 
Saturdays,  and  especially  on  summer  mornings  as  early  as  three 
o'clock.    The  market  had  a  humble  orig'      bout  1656 
wooden  stalls.      C.  G.  gives  name  to  the  f  m         h 
December  7,  1732)  in  the  vicinity. 

Coventry  (the  'convent  dwelling;'  th   t  rm  lat       i  yh  mg 
the  Cymric   ire,    'a  dwelling  or  town         mm  C      w  II 

and  Wales),  a  town  in  Warwickshire,     n    1      SI     bo 
tributary  of  the  Avon,  about  iSJ  miles  fi  m  B  rmi  gliam        d 
6  from  Kenilworth.     It  is  a  station  on  tl     Lo  d  1  N  rth 

Western  Railway.     Its  churches  of  St  Michael  s,  St  John  ,  and 


ty  are  among  the  most  beautiful  in  England.  Many  of  the 
s  are  built  with  oaken  beams  and  projecting  stories  ;  in  one 
the  house  is  shown  where  Richard  Baxter  spent  two  years  during 
the  civil  war.  St  Mary's  Hall,  built  by  Henry  VI.  for  the  Mer- 
chants' Guild,  is  a  marvel  for  quaint  carving  in  black  oak,  and 
ine  of  the  few  pieces  of  historical  tapestry  in  England.  At 
ime  C.  had  a  great  woollen  manufacture  of  'yam  white 
stuffe,'  which  was  ruined  by  the  French  calico  trade.  The  silk 
and  ribbon  manufacture  and  watchmaking;  then  became  the  local 
industries  ;  both  suffered  greatly  about  1817,  when  the  repeal  of 
the  Statute  of  Apprentices  introduced  the  sweating  system  and 
half.pay  apprentices,  and  (he  workmen  were  as  yet  unable  to 
secure  the  observance  of  their  'statement  lists'  of  wages  and 
prices.  The  ribbon  trade  now  flourishes,  greatly  extended  by 
steam  machineij".  The  most  interesting  antiquities  are  the  old. 
charitable  mortifications  and  chantries,  such  as  Bablalie's  Hos- 
pital, Ford's  Hospital,  Bond's  School,  White's  Trust,  &c  It 
IS  not  thought  degrading  to  send  an  aged  member  of  a  family  to 
these  time-honoured  institutions,  of  which  the  buildings  are  of 
great  age  and  singularity.  The  ancient  walls  of  C.  were  demol- 
ished by  the  Royalists  in  1662,  the  town  having  sent  200  men  to 
Lord  Brooke.  The  story  of  Godlva,  the  wife  of  Leofric,  riding 
through  the  streets,  though  still  preserved  in  the  wooden  figure 
of  Peeping  Tom,  and  an  annual  procession  of  people  covered 
with  ribbons,  has  no  foundation  in  lacf,  being  told  for  the  first 
time  by  Matthew  of  Westminster  200  years  after  its  alleged 
occurrence ;  it  is  probably  a  repetition  of  a  similar  Herefordshire 
legend.  Leofric  built  the  monastery  which  long  formed  the 
glory  of  C,  its  population  falling  from  15,000  to  3000  upon  the 
dissolution  of  the  monasteries.  Before  that  it  was  called  the 
Chamber  of  Princes,  being  a  favourite  residence  of  English  kings. 
The  Farliammtum  Indoctorum  (1404),  so  called  because  lawyers 
were  excluded,  and  the  Farliammtum  Diabolimm  (1459),  for 
the  attainder  of  Yorkists,  were  held  in  C.  The  bishopric  of  C. , 
founded  in  656,  was  in  1121  united  with  the  see  of  Lichfield. 


give  alms  in  deserving  cases,  to  help  all  the  members  generally, 
and  to  hold  four  feasts  in  the  year ;  those  committing  any  offence 
to  be  expelled.  Many  of  the  old  trusts  are  qttainlly  expressed, 
as  in  Boniis,  where  lands,  &c.,  are  left  'for  the  maintennnce  of 


revolutionary  enthusiasm  at  C.,  and  a  society  for  constitutional 
information  was  formed,  which  gave  to  Burke  the  title  of  'Don 
Quixote  of  Despotism.' 

Coventry,  Sir  John,  a  member  of  the  Long  Parliament,  and 
of  Parliament  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  who  having  fearlessly 
opposed  the  policy  of  the  King,  and  having  in  a  speech  seemed 
to  reflect  on  his  amours,  was  assaulted  by  a  band  of  bravoes  from 
Whitehall,  commissioned  by  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  and  had 
his  nose  cut  to  the  bone,  2lst  December  1670,  This  outrage  led 
to  the  passing  of  the  Coventry  Act,  which  rendered  cutting  and 
maiming  a  capital  crime.  TTie  Act  was  repealed  in  182S.  C. 
died  about  1682. 

CoVerdale,  Milea,  one  of  the  earilest  and  most  distinguished 
English  Reformers,  was  born  at  Coverham,  Yorkshire,  in  14SS. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  became  an  Augustine  monk, 
but  adopted  the  Reformation  doctrines,  and  devoted  himself  to 
translating  the  Bible.  C.'s  translation  of  the  whole  Bible  was 
published  in  1535,  where,  is  not  quite  certain,  bnt  probably  at 
Ziirich.  This  was  the  first  complete  version  of  the  Scriptures 
printed  in  English.  He  also  superintended  the  edition  known 
as  the  Great  Bilik  or  Craamei's  Bible,  produced  in  1539.  In 
1551  C,  who  had  been  almoner  to  Queen  Catharine,  was  pro- 
moted to  the  see  of  Exeter.  Imprisoned  on  the  accession  of 
Queen  Mary,  but  released  through  the  Intereession  of  the  King 
of  Denmark,  he  went  to  the  Continent,  where  he  assisted  in  the 
p  paration  of  the  celebrated  Geneva  translation  (1557-60). 
(i)  e  Breeches  Bible.)  After  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  C. 
w  appomted  to  the  rectory  of  St  Magnus,  London.  He  died 
h  May  1567.     The  tricentenary  of  the  issue  of  C.'s  Bible  was 

1  brated  October  4,  1835. 

CoVerture  is  a  term  of  English  law  denoting  the  legal  status 

f  a  woman  during  her  marriage.     See  Divorce,   Husband 

D  Wife,  Marriage,  Divorce  and  Matrimokjai.  Causes 

L    URT. 

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Covillia',  a  fortified  town  in  the  province  of  Beira,  Portugal, 
with  manufactures  of  doth  and  h.ot  springs,  and  built  in  the  form 
oi  an  amphitheatre.     Pop.  about  7000. 

Oov'iiigt(m,  a  town  of  Kentucky,  U.S.,  on  the  river  Ohio, 
opposite  to  Cincinnati  (q.  v.),  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a 
suspension  bridge  Mid  ferries.  It  has  manufectures  of  cotton, 
hemp,  silk,  tobacco  and  iron  ;  and  laige  establishments  for  pack- 
ing pork,  &c.  Pop.  (1870)  1997. 
Oow.     See  Ox. 

CowTjane.  (See  Hemlock.)  Also  an  American  name  for 
Archtmora. 

OowTjerry.     See  Wiiortleberrv. 

Oowbird.  {Ccccyms  Amei-kanus),  also  called  the  American 
yellow-billed  cuckoo,  belongs  to  the  family  Cuculida,  of  the 
order  Scansores,  and  gets  its 
name  from  its  note,  which  re- 
sembles the  word  cmii.  It  is 
found  in  the  United  States,  and 
migrates  northwards  in  spring. 
Stragglers  iave  been  found  in 
Bfttain.  It  feeds  chiefly,  on 
caterpillars,  but  also  eats  vari- 
-ous  berries.  The  colour  of 
this  bird  is  dark-isrown  with 
sn  hues.  The  quills  of  its 
wings  are  cinnamon  colour, 
and  the  imder  parts  pure  wliite. 
Its  average  length  is  12  inches. 
Oowbridge,  a  parEamen- 
tary  borough  la  Glamoi^an- 
shire,  llj  nules  W.  by  S.  of  Cardiff,  unites  with  Cardiff  and 
Llantrissant  in  returning  one  member  to  Parliament,  One  gate 
of  its  ancient  wall,  built  at  the  close  of  the  11  th  c, ,  stiil  remains 
Pop.  (iS7i)ii34. 

Cowea  ('coves,'  Old  ^KT^^^ofan\  ■SRast,  a  seaport  in  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  lOj  miles  S.S.E,  of  Southampton,  attractive  from 
its  picturesque  appearance,  its  fine  hotels,  and  its  being  the  ren- 
dezvous of  the  Royal  Yacht  Squadron.  It  has  brass  and  iron 
foundries,  roperies,  and  sail-making  establishments.  Pop.  (1871) 
2489.— Eaat  Oowes  is  on  the  E,  side  of  the  estuary  of  the 
Medina,  as  W.,C.  is  m  the  W,  In  the  neighbourhood  is  Osborne 
House,  a  residence  of  Her  Majesty.    Pop.  (1871)2058. 

Oowhago,  Oowags,  or  Oowitdt,  the  short  brittle  hairs 
which  grow  on  the  pods  of  Mucuna,  a,  genus  of  plants  of  the 
order  Legumimsa  (sub-order  Pafiliariacae),  natives  of  tropical 
Asia,  Africa,  America,  and  the  Fiji  Idands,  C,  when  it 
sticks  to  the  skin,  causes  great  itchmg,  Adminis(ei-ed  in  treacle 
ir  honey,  C.  is  used  as  a  vermifuge  for  expelling  the  thread- 
worms. The  pods  of  M.  fmrims,  M.  urms  (the  ox-eye  bean 
of  the  W.  Indies),  and  M.  prurita  of  the  E.  Indies,  the  chief 
--es,  are  eaten  in  an  unripe  state.  M.  pmruns  is  the  chief 
e  of  C.  C.  cherry  is  the  fruit  of  Malpighia  urms.  New 
Zealand  C.  is  Biikn  spilosa.  The  name  is  also  applied  to  A^idoton 
urens  and  to  Tragia  volttbUis. 

CoVley,  Abraham,  son  of  a  London  grocer,  was  bom  in 
1618.  He  wrote  verses  before  he  was  twelve  years  old,  and 
published  his  Poetical  Biossoms  on  entering  Westminster  School, 
■  "le  age  of  fifteen.  When  an  andei^radiiate  at  Cambridge,  he 
e  the  most  of  his  Davidds.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
great  civil  war,  C,  a  devoted  Royalist,  was  driven  from  Eng- 
land, and  served  for  some  time  as  secretary  to  the  banished 
royal  family.  In  1656  he  returned  to  England,  and  studied 
After  the  Restoration  he  was  rewarded  by  the  free 
farm  at  Chertsey,  worth  about  ;^3O0  per  annum.  He 
died  at  the  age  of  fbrty-nine,  July  28,  1667,  Dr  Johnson  con- 
sidered C.  the  best  of  the  '  metaphysical  poets,'  as  he  named  those 
poets  who  substituted  fantastic  analogies,  intricate  conceits,  and 
misplaced  learning  for  genuine  poetic  beauties.  In  this  class  of 
writers,  however,  Donne,  rather  than  C,  deserves  the  first  place. 
C.  possessed  considemWe,  although  perverted,  poetic  powers,  as 
is  proved  by  his  delightful  translations  from  Anacceon.  C.'s 
essays  are  pleasanter  reading  tiian  his  poems,  being  full  of  leam- 
ionnd  reflection,  wit  and  humour,  and  written  in  a  fresh 
inimatel  style.  He  wrote  also  a  comedy,  The  Cutler  lif 
272 


CaleTiiaa  Street,  and  a  Discouns  eit  the  Government  of  Cromwell. 
His  works  were  edited  by  Hurd  (2  vols.  l2mo,  Lond.  1772). 
See  Johnson's  Life  of  C. 

Cowley,  Henry  Kiehard  Wellealey,  first  Earl,  the  only 
son  of  the  first  Baron  Cowley,  who  was  a  younger  brother  of  the 
great  Duke  of  Wellington,  was  bom  17th  June  1804.  His  career 
has  been  entirely  that  of  a  diplomatisl.  Beginning  as  attach^  at 
Venice  in  1824,  he  filled  various  important  posts  until  he  became, 
first,  British  ambassador  to  the  Germanic  Confederation  and  in 
1853  ambassador  at  Paris.  Along  with  Lord  Clarend  h 
presented  Britain  at  the  Paris  Congress  of  1856,  and  was  ea  d 
for  his  diplomatic  services,  in  1857,  Viscount  Dangan  nd  Ea 
C.     In  1865  he  vras  made  a  K.G.    Two  years  later  h  d 

from  his  post  at  Paris.    In  1870  C.  was  made  D.C.L  o  O       d 

Oow-Farsnip  {Bemeleuni),  a  genus  of  plants  of  th 
order  Umbellifira,  of  which  a  ntunber  of  jspecies,  widely  d  fi      d 
through  India,  Europe,  and  America,  but  raUier  difficul       dis 
tinguish,  are   known.      Some  are  cultivated  ;   but  e      ■^    H 
giganimnt  of  Siberia,  which  attains  a  heirfit  of  10  o  ee 

none  are  in  any  way  very  remarkable.    TTie  common  Bn 
species,  thehogweed.or  AjbiA,  of  Scotland  {.^  sphondy  urn 
used  for  feeding  pigs,  and  in  Scania  in   Sweden,  i         m 
times  at  least,  was  used  as  a  domestic  remedy.     The  le       ta  k 
of  a  Kamtschalkan  species  yield  a  sweet  exudation,  whi  h  is   sed 
in  the  preparation  of  a  spint.     The  roots  and  stems  ai  It  Ian 
tarn  aie  eaten  by  some  of  the  American  tribes,  and  th    y 
shoots  of  //.  pubesceiis  are  valued  in  the  Caucasus  as  an 
of  food  for  the  sweet  and  aromatic  juice  (Dickie).     H  p   ta 
and  otlicT  Siberian  species  have  been  recommended  fo 
tion  on  account  of  the  qnintity  of  herbage  which  they  y     d 

Oow'peil  Bild  {Mololkrus  pecoris),  a  member  of  th 
serial  family  Sturnids,  is  a  native  of  the  United  St         and 
migrates  N.  and  S.  according  to  the  season.    Like  the 
it  deposits  its  e^  m  the  nests  of  other  birds,  the  you  g  C   B 
being  found  by  itself  in  the  nest,  as  with  the  former  p  ras 
It  lives  on  the  insects,  Sc,  which  it  linds  associated  w  h 
and  takes  its  name  from  this  circumstance.     The  colour      d 
drab  with  green  tints,  the  upper  part  of  the  breast  being 
The  average  length  is  7  inches, 

OoVpa:,  ■William,  one  of  the  most  familiar  Engli  h  po  ts 
was  born  on  tlie  26th  November  1731,  at  Great  Berkh  p  d 
in  Hertford.  He  was  of  highly-connected  family,  hi  th 
chaplain  to  George  II.,  being  nephew  of  the  first  Earl  C  vq 
Loid  Chancellor.  When  six  years  old,  C.  was  sent  to 
at  Market  Street,  where  his  shrinking  sensitiveness  exp  d  h 
to  much  suffering ;  but  his  life  at  Westminster  School  f  m 
to  1748  proved  more  happJ^  Law  having  been  chosen  for  him 
as  his  profession,  C.  was  articled  to  an  attorney  for  three  years, 
and  afterwards,  in  1754,  called  to  the  bar.  He  eschewed  l^al 
studies,  however,  and  his  Temple  life  was  occupied  with  lighter 
literature.  His  father  being  dead,  and  his  income  scanty,  he 
accepted  in  1763  the  oflered  post  of  reading-clerk  to  the  House 
of  Lords !  but  nervousness  prevented  him  from  appearing  at  the 
bac  of  the  House  for  examination,  and  so  he  lost  it.  Reduced 
by  this  to  despair,  even  insanity,  he  attempted  suicide,  and 
only  moral  cowardice  hindered  his  purpose.  After  eighteen 
months  passed  in  a  private  asylum  at  St  Albans,  C.  went  to  live 
at  Huntingdon,  where  he  formed  his  friendship  with  the  Unwins 
— a  fortunate  one  for  him.  On  the  death  of  tlie  Rev.  Mr  Unwin 
{1767),  his  widow  removed  to  Olney,  Buckinghamshire,  and  C. 
went  with  her,  feeling  that  his  happiness  depended  on  this  inti- 
macy. Less  beneficial  was  his  intercourse  with  John  Newton, 
whose  stern  influence  actually  led  in  1773  to  a  renewal  of  the 
peet's  mental  trouble.  Shortly  before  this  be  had  begun  the 
composition  of  his  Olney  Hymns.  C. 's  convalescence  ivas  occu- 
pied in  gardening  and  the  rearing  of  tame  hares  j  while  the 
clieerful  sodety  of  Lady  Austen — -who  suggested  to  him  the 
inimitable  "fihn  GUpin,  The  Task,  and  the  Translalvm  of  Bomer 
— had  a  healthy  effect  on  his  mind.  John  Newton,  besides, 
left  Olney  in  1779,  in  which  year  the  Olniy  Hymns  were  pub- 
lished. The  success  of  The  Task  (1785)  was  verv  great,  and 
the  Homer  (1791)  sustained  its  authors  reputation,  besides 
obtaining  for  him  the  sum  of  j^iooo.  But  his  constitutional 
malady  again  returned.  Seeking  more  cheerful  scenes,  he  left 
Olney  for  Tuddenham  in  Norfolk,  accompanied  by  Mrs  Unwin, 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


OEA 


-4- 


He  had  neither  deep  passion 
n,  but  has  won  and  kept  his  place  by  his  pmity  of 
.his  graceful  and  truthful  handling  of  simple  themes, 
his  lutMd  and  vigorous  style,  and  especially  by  his  earnest  reli- 
gions vein.  Not  excepting  Milton,  he  is  our  truest  religious 
poet  The  Task  is  his  greatest  work ;  Convirsatien  perhaps  his 
cleverest.  In  the  one  he  shows  exquisite  feeling;  in  the  other, 
polished  wit.  John  Gilpin  has  always  been  and  must  ever  ce- 
main  popular ;  while  his  Ltllers,  with  their  charming  naivete  and 
sparklmg  clearness,  display  an  acute  and  cultured  iiitellecl,  and 
entitle  him  to  be  considered  one  of  the  most  charming  letter- 
writers  in  the  English  language. 

Soutliey  has  edited  C.'s  works  in  15  vols.  The  best  life  is 
that  by  Southey  (1835).  The  Globe  edition  (Macmillan  &  Co., 
1S70)  gives  an  account  of  the  preceding  literature  on  the  poet. 

Ckrwplaat  (Gymntma  lacHfirum),  a  native  plant  of  Ceylon, 
of  the  natural  order  Asdspiadacea,  gets  its  name  from  a  belief 
that  its  juice  supplied  the  place  of  milk  to  the  natives ;  but  in 
reahty  the  juice  is  only  lih  miEc,  not  used  as  a  substitute  for  it 
(Emerson  Tennant), 

CoViy  (Cr//-^),  a  genus  of  Gasteropodous  moUusca,  forming 
the  type  of  the  family  Cyprmids,  in  which  the  shell  is  convolute 

#y^  and  enamelled;  the  spire  is  concealed; 
/ife\  the  shell-aperture  naiTow,  and  channelled 
f  «1  at  either  end.  The  outer  lip  is  thick  and 
\  WL\  inllected  in  old  sheUs.  The  foot  is  broad, 
\  ^^)  ^""^  '^^  mantle  lobes  meet  over  Oie  lick 
\^  of  the  shell.  The  shells  form  typical  eij.- 
Cowry— o-jfriB  Stsiid„  ^^P'es  of  the  kind  of  shells  to  which  the 
name  Parcellanetts  or  'Poreelran'  is  ap- 
piled.  A  few  species  ate  British,  but  most  are  tropical.  The 
nioney-C.  (C.  menita)  is  so  named  from  its  being  used  as  a 
substitute  for  coins  in  many  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa.  It  is  of 
yeUowish  colour,  and  averages  an  inch  in  length.  In  Bengal  one 
C.  =  ^  of  2  ferthiiig  in  value.  Other  species  are  the  C.  tigris 
C.  Scolijis,  C.  argU!,  C.  hktrio,  C.  undala,  C.  Madagascar knsis, 
C.  Eurofiea,  &c    The  genus  Omjium  is  included  in  this  family. 

Oow'slip  {PHmula  vtrh\  a  common  plant  in  many  parts  of 
^land,  though  rarer  in  Scotland,  belongmg  to  the  natural  order 
Pnmulacea.  The  flowers  are  believed  to  possess  sedative  and 
diaphoretic  properties,  and  are  therefore  sometimes  used  as  ah 
anodyne  and  antispasmodic,  and  when  fermented  as  C.-wine 
employed  to  produce  sleep.  The  Virginian  C,  {Dodeeatheon 
Miadia).  3  member  of  the  same  order,  is  cultivated  in  our  gardens 
for  the  beauty  of  its  flowers,  which  is  indeed  the  main  recom- 
mendation of  its  genus.  The  same  name  is  sometimes  applied 
to  Msrtensia  or  Pulrtumarla  virgimca.  The  Jerusalem  C.  ' 
Fulmonaria  ^^'i-".';^ 


Coxe,  'William,  a  heavy  but  painstaking  historical  writer 
was  born  in  London,  March  7,  1747 ;  became  fellow  of  King's 
College,  Cambridge,  1768,  curate  of  Denliam,  near  Uxbiidge, 
1771,  rector  of  Eemerton,  1788,  and  archdeacon  of  Wilts,  1805. 
He  died  June  8,  1S28.  His  best  known  works  are  his  JUstmy 
of  the  Noun  Bf  Austria  (3  vols.  Lond.  1807),  !sa^  Memoirs  of 
y^hn  Duke  of  Marlborough  (3  vols.  1817-19).  He  also  wrote 
Memoirs  of  Sir  Robert  Walfole  and  Memoirs  of  the  Pelham  Ad- 


^  Cow-Tree,  a  name  applied  to  various  trees,  the  bland  milky 
mice  of  which  is  used  instead  of  milk.  For  instance,  the  Arbol 
de  Leche,  Pab  de  Vaca,  of  Caraccas  and  other  parts  of  S.  Ame- 
rica, is  Brosimum  Galactodtmiroti  (or  Galactodendron  utile),  one 
of  the  natural  order  Arctocarpaeea.  The  name  is  also  applied  to 
the  Uya.-'bya.XTa&ems  montana  uHlis),  one  a{  Oie  A iocyttaeea, 
as  well  as  to  Ficus  Saussureana  and  Other  species  of  figs,  and  to 
Clusia  Calactodeiuiron.  The  'milk  '  of  Brosimum  Galaclodtn- 
dron  is  said  to  he  of  as  good  quality  as  that  from  the  cow.  The 
tree  forms  lai^e  forests  on  the  sea-coast  of  Venezuela.  The  milk 
IS  obtained  by  making  incisions  in  the  trunk,  and  is  perfectly 
wholesorne  and  very  nourishing,  having  an  agreeable  taste  like 
cream,  with  a  balsamic  odour.  Its  composition  is  diiferent  ftom 
that  of  animal  milk,  containing,  as  it  does,  wax  and  fibrin,  a 
little  sugar,  a  salt  of  magnesia,  and  water.  After  a  few  days' 
exposure  to  the  air  it  sours  and  putrifies.  It  contains  upwards 
of  30  percent  of  the  resinous  substance  called  Gidaclin. 

Oow-Wheat  {Melampymm),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  order 
Serophulartaceis,  of  which  several  are  common  in  English  woods, 
pastures,  cornfields,  &c,  They  get  their  name  from  a  belief 
that  they  fatten  cattle,  and  give  a  yellow  tinge  to  butter  made 
from  the  milk  of  cattle  fed  on  pastures  in  which  they  abound. 
There  are  four  British  species.  The  generic  name  refers  to  an 
ancient  behef  that  bread  made  from  flour  miied  with  the  ground 
seeds  of  C,  had  a  tendency  to  become  black. 

110  ' 


,  Ct^r-pu,  or  Nu'tria  {Myopolamus  C.),  a  genus  of  Eodentia, 
included  in  the  Beaver  family,  Castorida,  and  largely  hunted  foi 
Its  tur.  It  inhabits  burrows  made  in  the  banks  of  rivers  in  CliiU 
and  elsewhere  in  S.  America.  The  hind-feet  are  webbed,  the 
tail  being  long  and  rounded,  scaly,  and  provided  with  scattered 
hairs.  It  averages  the  size  of  the  beaver— that  is,  from  2  to  ■: 
feet.  The  mmzle  is  pointed  and  the  ears  small.  The  fur  is 
of  a  general  yellowish  tint,  and  known  by  the  name  '  Racoondah.' 
In  some  years  1,000,000  of  C.  skins  have  been  unported  into 
Britam  from  S.  America. 

Crab  (Old  Eng.  craUa,  Sansk.  grabh,  'to  seize  or  grab') 
The  narne  applied  popularly  as  well  as  scientifically  to  many 

generaofC)3«i'ac«i(q.  v.),  included  in  the  order  ."^ '   ' 

('  ten-Iimbed')  of  that  class,  and  for  tlxe  most  pari 
Brachyura.  In  the  true  crabs, 
represented  thus  by  the  edible 
C.  or  'partnn'  (C.  paearus), 
and  the  smaller  or  shore-C.  ' 
(C.  misnas),  the  abdomen  is 
rudimentary,  and  is  tucked  up 
under  the  broadened-out  body, 
which  consists  of  the  cefhalo- 
thorax,   or   united   head   and 

chest  segments.  The  gills  are  contained  within  special  cavities 
existing  in  the  sides  of  the  body.  The  nervous  system  in  the 
crabs  consists  of  a  single  large  ganglion,  placed  venlrally,  or 
on  the  floor  of  the  body,  and  from  which  nerves  radiate  tlirough- 
out  the  body.  During  their  development,  crabs  undergo  a  meta- 
morphosis, the  first  stage  being  free-swimming,  possessing  a  tail, 
and  known  as  Zosa.  The  second  stage,  named  Megalopa,  is 
also  tailed ;  whilst  after  several  moults  the  Megaiopa  loses  il 
tail  and  assumes  the  form  of  the  perfect  C.  The  antenns^ 
:  never  of  great  length,  and  the  front  pair  of  legs  form  chela 
mpping-daws.  The  ^gs  are  attached  to  the  rudimentary  tail 
of  the  female. 

The  sub-order  Brachyura,  inctudiug  the  true  crabs,  are  repre- 
sented by  the  families  Cancerida  (edible  and  other  crabs,  belong, 
ing  to  the  genera  Cancer,  Mthm,  Xantho,  Perimela,  Galene, 
&C.J,  Maiada,  or  Spider  Crabs  (q.  v.),  and  Oxyste?Hida  (genera 
Donppf,  &a).  Ocypodida  (genera  Pimio-theres,  sea-crabs,  and 
Gecarcinidis,  or  land-crabs,  &c)  contains  the  representative 
groups  of  crabs.  The  sub-order  Anomura,  in  whicli  the  abdo- 
men IS  developed  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  but  not  so  perfectly 
as  in  the  Macrura,  includes  the  well-known  Hermit  or  Soldier 
Crabs  (q,  V. ),  Fagiaids,  the  mppidis,  the  Porcellanida,  or  porce- 
lam  crabs,  the  DrvmOdis,  HomoUda,  and  other  groups.  The 
abdomen  m  Anomura,  whatever  its  development,  does  not  bear 
the  feet  seen  ia  the  Macrura  (lobsters,  shvimps,  prawns,  &c). 
The  three  front  pairs  of  feet  are  well  developed,  and  the  first 
claws  are  generally  chetete.  See  also  Crustacea,  Decapoda, 
-"-1  -'ides  (such  asPEA-CRABH,  SpiDEa-CRABS,  &c.)descrip- 


■e  of  the  VI 


guadrilocular. 


IS  kuids  of  these  crustaceans. 


in  C.-A.,  Pyrui  bctccata  and  P.  prunijolia. 


Orabbe,  Oeorgre,  an  English  poet,  was  bom  at  Aldborough, 
Suffolk,  December  24,  1754,  His  father,  a  collector  of  salt- 
duties,  encouraged  his  early  poetic  proclivities,  and  strove  to 
procure  him  a  good  education.  When  fourteen  years  of  age  C. 
was  apprenticed  to  a  surgeon,  but  finding  the  profession  dis- 
tasteful, abandoned  it  and  went  to  seek  his  fortune  as  an  author 
in  London.  At  the  end  of  a  year,  being  in  danger  of  imprison- 
ment for  debt,  he  wrote  asking  help  from  Burke,  who  aiteiitted 
C.  into  his  friendship,  enabled  him  to  issue  his  poem.  The  Library 
(l7Sr)t  and  persuaded  him  to  enter  the  Church.  Aiier  being 
:urate  of  Aidborough,  C.  received  two  livings  in  Doi-setshire, 
ind  removed  in  1785  to  Strathern  Parsonage,  where  he  remained 
intil  1813.     He  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  at  Trowbridge,  Wilt- 


273 


y  Google 


OKA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CEA 


sliire,  published  his  TaUs  of  V,^  /Ml  m  1819,  Euid  died  February 

'  C's  poetry  descnbes  commonplace  themes  with  intense  and 
sometimes  painfnl  realism.  His  characteis  belong  to  the  hum- 
bleat  ranks— smu^lers,  poachers,  paupeis,  vagrants— whose 
natures  are  analysed  «ith  startlmg,  unspanng  accuracy.  He 
depicts  scenes  with  tedious  minuteness.  HaiTitt  said  that  C. 
described  the  interior  of  a  cottage  '  like  a  person  sent  there  to 
distrain  for  rent."  C.  has  been  called  a  Pope  m  worsted  stock- 
ings.  He  has  Pope's  correctness  without  his  nimble  wit,  fancy, 
and  glitterina  delicacies  of  language.  As  he  grew  older,  his 
verse  became  more  passionate,  touching,  and  forcible ;  it  forms 
a  link  between  the  school  of  Pope  and  the  school  of  Words 
worth.  C's  principal  works  are  The  Ubraxy,  The  V 
Tht  Borough,  Taia  m  Verse,.  Tales  of  the  Hall,  Sir  Eustace 
The  Ball  ofy«!lice.     See  Lifi  of  C.  (1S38)  by  his  son. 

Otab'etli,  Dirk  and  WOuter,  famous  masters  in  the 
glass-painting,  were  brothers,  and  flourished  during  the 
half  of  the  l6th  c.    They  appear  to  liave  been  bom  at  G 
in  S  Holland.     Wouter  died  in  icSe,  and  Diik  m  1601. 
most  splendid  examples  of  their  skill  are  the  painted  windo 
St  Janskirche,  at  Gouda,  of  which  seven  were  executed  by  D 
and  the  remaining  four  by  Wouter.     Other  churches  in  Be  gi  m 
and  'France  possess  excellait  examples  of  then'  art.     Alt 
friends,  these  brothers  were  so  jealous  of  theic  reputation    ha 
each  concealedfrom  the  other  the  secret  processes  by  whic 
achieved  their  efTecls.    These,  however,  appear  to  have 
costly,  for  tlie  artists  were  often  obliged,  for  want  of  maten 
work  as  ordinary  glaziePS. 

Cracked  Heels,  in  veterinary  medicine,  is  a  very  trouble- 
some condition  in  horse?,  the  chief  symptoms  of  which  are 
swelling  and  inflammation  of  the  lower  parts  of  the  legs  and 
hoofs  the  cracking  and  ulceration  of  the  skin,  and  the  presence 
of  a  foul-smelSng  and  often  bloody  dischai^e.  The  direct  causes 
of  the  affection  are  traceable  to  careless  groommg,  damp,  pro- 
longed  exposure  to  wet,  together  with  careless  feeding.  The 
treatment  consists  in  the  administration  of  afiene"*"  '"  ""■''- 
ticing  the  sores,  and  latterly  in  using  astringent  loti 

Oracovienno*  a  Polish  natfonal  dance,  taking  its  name  from, 
Cracow,  the  ancient  capital  of  Poland.  It  is.in.  J-timp,  and  is.  ac- 
companied by  singing. 

Cra'cow  (Pol.  Krakim,  Ger.  Krahan\  capital  of  a  chcle  in, 
the  crown-land  of  Gahcia,  on  the  Vistula,  about  70  mUes  N.  E.  of 
Vienna  by  rail.  It  contains  forty-six  churiJies,  four;  public  s^uarra,, 
a  castle  called  the  Kon^sburg,  and  a  Gothic  cathedra!,  with  the 
tombs  of  the  Polish  kings.  The  Univei^ity  of  €.,  founded  in 
1364,  and  for  a  time  a  famous  seat  of  learning,  was.  destroyed  by- 
tlie  mfluence  of  the  Jesuits,  but  was,  re-opened  in  181.7.  It 
has  a  valuable  libraiy,  a  botanfc  garden,  and.  a.  museum*. 
C  has  a  theological  seminary,  a  normal  school,  two  gymriasia, 
a  polytechnic  school,  a  litwaty  and  musical  association,  and  th» 
national  theatre.  The  streets  ai;e  generally  dark  and  narrow, 
but  the  thoroughfares  in  the  snburbs— of  which  there  are  four- 
teen—are much  wider  and  cleanpr.  The  old  walls  have  been 
converted  into  a  promenacte.  There  are  no  important  manu. 
factures,  and  the  trade,  formerly  very  extensive,  became  very 
in^gniticajit,  tiU  a  transit  trade  with  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Aus- 
tria, carried  on  by  the  Jews,  revived  while  C.  was  a  republic. 
The  r^way,  whieh  now  connects  the  city  with  Vienna  Beriin, 
Warsaw,  and  Leisbei^,  has  increased  trade.  Since  C.  came 
into  the  possession  of  Austria  it  has  ijeen  surrounded  by  exten- 
sive and  formidaye  fortifications.  Jews  form  about  a  fourth  of 
the  population,  which  was  in  1870,  49.835-  C.  was  foimd^d 
about  760  by  Krak,  Duke  of  Poland,  whence  its  name;  was  the 
capitalofPolaiidfroml320  tolfiog,  andinitthemonarchswere 
crowned  until  1764-  It  was  taken  by  Karl  XII.  of  Sweden  in 
1702,  by  the  Russians  in  1768,  was  added  to  Austria  m  £795, 
formed  into  a  republic  in  LS15,  and  finally  united  to  Austria 
in  1846. 

Craft,  in  naval  language,  is  a  term  applied  to  any  collection 
of  decked  vessels.  It  is  a  generat  designation  for  bai^, 
lighters,  hoys,  and  other  keels  employed  in  loading  and  unload-^ 


Orag,  a  local  nan 


v.o,s,  ^  .v-^-  — —  fi-- certain  Pliocene  deposits  m  Nor- 
folk and  Suffolk,  consisting  of  shelly  sands  and  gravels.  The 
Norwich  or  mammaliferous  C.  is  used  to  fertilise  soils  which  aie 
poor  in  hme.     See  Puocene. 

Craig-and-Tail,  in  geology,  signifies  a  hill  of  peculiar  confor- 
mation, with  a  bold  precipitous  cliff  or  escarpment  on  one  side,  and 
drawn  out,  as  it  were,  on  the  opposite  side  into  a  gently  sloping 
declivity.  Many  of  these  have  been  formed  through  the  action  of 
strong  currents  of  water,  or  even  of  ice,  the  tail  gradually  collect- 
ing on  the  sheltered  side.  The  majority,  however,  would  appear 
to  be  due  ratlier  to  the  direction  of  the  dip  of  the  beds,  whose  out- 
crop forms  tlie  escarpment.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Edinburgh 
la  al         d  ple=i  of  Craigs  and  tails— the  Castle 


H 


gm 


a  th 


ury     -ag 


pee 


H 


ed 


when  he  was  made  minister  J  .  ,  '  ,  , ..  ^ ... 
from  saying  to  the  'anointed  pedant'  what  he  thought  of  his 
conduct.  He  aided  in  drawing  up  the  Seiond  Book  of  Disdfiline, 
and  wrote  tlie  National  Covenant,  signed  by  the  King  m  1580. 
C.  died  December  4,  1600.— Thomas  O.,  a  Scotch  advocate, 
was  born  at  Edinburgh  about  1548,  educated  at  St  Andrews 
and  Paris,  fflled  various  posts  of  distinction,  including  those  of 
Justice-depute  to  Archibald  Earl  of  Argyle,  Justice-general  of 
Scotland,  and  advocate  for  the  Church  of  Scotland.  He  was  at 
the  same  time  a  favourite  of  James  VI.,  who  offered  him  the 
honour  of  knighthood,  which,  however,  he  declined.  C.  is  best 
known  foi  his  Ju!  Feudale.  He  also  wrote  respectable  verses, 
and  was  an  ardent  champion  of  the  claims  of  Scotland  to  be  in- 
dependent of  England,  t.  C.  died  at  Edinburgh,  26th  February 
1608..    SeeTytler'sZi>YC.(Edinb.  1823). 

Qraik,  George  Lillie,  an  English  author,  was  bom  in 
Fifeshire  in  1798.  Educated  at  St  Andrew's  University  for 
the  Church,  he  betook  himself  at  an  early  age  to  London  and 
to  literature.  Among  the  works  he  produced  at  this  period  of 
his  life  were  his  FursidC  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,  his 
History  of  British  Commerce,  and,  above  all,  his  History  of 
Literaiure  attd  Learning  in  Eng/andfrom  the  Norman  Conquest 
to  th4  Present  Time  (1844).  He  also  edited  the  Fictonal  History 
ofEngand,  and  contributed  to  the  Penny  Cyclopedia..  In  1S49, 
C  was  appointed  Professor  of  History  and  Engflsh  Literature  in 
Queen's  College,  Belfast,  and  among  his  writings  subsequent  to 
that  appointment  are  his  En^ish  of  Shakespeare  and  Outlines  of 
the  History-  of  0ie  English  Language,  which  have  both  been  very 
popular.  C.  died  Tune  25,  1866.  He  was  a  careful  recorder  of 
fects  and  a  suggestive  writer.  His  Histoty  of  Engish  Literature 
is  in  particular  a  collection  of  conscientious  and  sound  criticisms. 
Orail,  a  seaport  in  Fifeshire,  10  miles  S.E.  of  St  Andrews. 
Herring-fishing,  once  carried  on  here  to  a  great  extent,  but 
which  declined  from  the  herring  deserting  the  coast,  has  of  late 
years  much  revived,  and  would  increase  were  the  harbour 
improved.  C.  unites  with  St  Andrews,  E.  and  W.  Anstnither, 
Cupar,  Kilrenny,  and  Pittenweem  in  returning  one  member  to 
Parliament.  Pop.  (1871)  1126.  The  town  was  of  note  at  an 
early  period,  and  still  possesses  some  vestiges  of  an  old  castle, 
once  a  royal  residence,  and  of  a  priory  college.  From  the 
square  tower  of  the  ancient  parish  church  sprmgs  the  broach,  an 
architectural  feature  scarcely  found  in  Scotknd  out  of  Fifeshire. 
Archbishop  Sharp  was  at  one  time  minister  of  C. 

Orake  (  Crex),  a  genus  of  Grallatorial  or  Wading  birds,  be- 
longing to  the  femily  Ballida  or  Rails.  In  the  C.  the  bi 
is  aick  and  shorter  than  the  head.  The  wings  possess  a  small 
spur.      The  common   corncrake  {Crex  pratensii).  or  landrail, 


yLiOOgle 


ORA 


THE  GLOBE  E  VCi  CLOF  EDI  A 


OEA 


is  af  a  reddish-brown  colour,  marked  with  black  or  dark  brown 
The  tail  is  short  and  pointed.  It  is  a  migratory  bird,  being 
found  in  Britain  only  in  summer,  and  inhabits  comhelds  and 
marshy  lands,  its  harsh  cry  of  crtk,  crek,  being  very  famihar 
It  winters  in  S.  Europe,  N.  Africa,  and  Asia.  An  antilogous 
species  is  the  Carolina  tail  {C.  Carolina)  of  N.  Amenea, 
which  inhabits  marshes,  and  migrates  northwards  from  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  in  summer.  In  size  and  colour  it  resembles  the  corn- 
crake, its  plumage  being  streaked  with  white. 

Cramlie,  a  genua  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Cruriferix 
(q.  v.),  of  which  one,  C.  maritima,  is  well  known  as  Sea- 
Kale  (q.  v.),  found  wild  on  our  coasts,  and  also  cultivated  in 
gardens  for  use.  When  blanched  as  a  potherb,  it  is  eaten  in  the 
same  way  as  asparagus.  C.  tartarica  is  the  Tartar  ketiyes  or 
Taitarian  bread  It  is  not  cultivated,  but  the  root-is  eaten, 
either  boiled  or  sliced,  with  oi!,  vinegar,  and  salt,  in  the  countries 
of  which  it  s  a  native  See  Loudon's  E-ncyclapadia  o/Flaiiis, 
P-  557- 

Oramps  arc  a  variety  of  spasms  or  hypercenisis,  and  are 
caused  by  the  contiaction  or  tension  of  a  voltmlary  or  involun- 
tary muscular  structure  independently  of  volition,  and  accom- 
panied with  pam  Tl  ey  are  called  symfloinatic  when  they  depend 
upon  disease  in  other  parts  of  the  body  than  in  the  muscular 
tissues  affected,  as  in  affections  of  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow  ; 
and  idiopathic  when  the  disturbance  is  functional,  depending  on 
transient  lesion  of  the  nerves  and  their  sheaths,  or  on  hyper- 
Eemia  with  cedema  of  the  neurilemma.  C.  are  described  as 
tonic  when  the  muscular  contraction  is  continuous,  and  as  clonic 
when  intermittent.  They  are  caused— (i)  By  irritation  at  or  near 
the  seat  of  morbid  action,  such  as  from  sudden  change  of  tem- 
perature in  bathing,  exposure  to  cold,  over- exertion  of  the 
muscles,  or  from  bringing  muscles  long  disused   into  action; 

(2)  By  irritation  of  the  nerves  supplying  the  affected  muscles  ; 

(3)  By  irritation  or  leaon  of  the  spinal  marrow  at  or  near  the 
origin  of  the  nerves  supplying  the  muscles;  (4)  By  lesion  of  parts 
of  the  bram ;  (5I  By  irritation  of  the  digestive  visca-a,  the  gene- 
rative and  urinary  oi^ans,  the  action  being  transmitted  to  the 
external  muscles  ;  (6)  By  irritation  of  any  of  the  senses,  trans- 
mitted to  their  nervous  centres,  and  thence  reflected  on  parts 
connected  with  them.  C.  forms  a  prominent  symptom  in  many 
diseases  of  infancy,  in  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  and  especially  in 
Asiatic  cholera.  They  also  occur  durii^  and  after  convalescence 
from  certain  acute  and  chronic  disorders,  as  typhus,  enteric  and 
malarious  fevers,  Bright's  disease  of  the  kidneys,  epidemic 
diphtheritis,  &c  C.  are  relieved  by  friction  combined  with  emol- 
lient, stimulant,  or  opietic  liniments.  See  articles  on  Spa«ms, 
Convulsions,  Tetanus. 

Oran'aoh  or  Kron'aoll  (originally  Sunder  or  Siinder), 
Iiukas,  a  famous  German  painter,  bom  at  Kronach,  near  Bam- 
berg (Bavaria),  \a  1472,  was  appointed  court-paint  t  F  d 
rich  the  Wise  of  Saxony  in  1504,  and  was  employed  It  by  th 
House  of  Brandenburg  and  other  great  families.  H  sat  1  ty 
was  shown  by  his  buying  an  apothecary's  business  t  W  tt 
berg,  where  he  became  Buigomaster,  and  afterward  gag  g 
the  book  and  paper  tmde.  C.  allied  himself  to  th  us  f 
the  Reformation,  and  painted  with  affectionate  £ons  ss 

the  portraits  of  his  friends  Luther  and  Melancthon  H  d  d, 
i6th  October  1553,  at  Weimar.  Of  his  numerous  w  k  h  ch 
nearly  all  remain  in  Germany,  the  principal  are  Ita  p 
His  designs  were  Gothic,  wanting  in  unity  of  ide  d  ff  t 
and  in  his  historical  pictures  it  was  his  custom  to  tr  d  h 
own  portmit^  and  those  of  his  family  and  acquaint  F 

colour,  however,  power  of  characterisation,  and  labonoas  exe- 
cntion,  C.  was  one  of  the  greatest  artists  of  his  time,  though 
Diirer  and  Holbein  were  among  his  contemporaries.  His  chief 
work  is  the  Crvcifixion  in  Weimar  church.  His  engravings  on 
wood  and  copper  are  much  sought  after  by  amateurs.  His  son, 
Lukaa,  known  as  'the  Younger  C,,'  an  excellent  colourist  and 
famous  portrait-painter,  died  Burgomaster  of  Witt enberg  in  158S, 
See  Schuchardt  s  Lalias  C.'s  des  Aellem  Lcbcn  und  Wei^e  (2  vols. 
Leips.  1851). 

Cran'barry  {Oxycoccus),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
-Vacciniacem,  consisting  of  small,  slender,  or  creeping  evergreen 
shrubs.  There  are  tliree  species.  O.  ^Wkj^jji,  common  C,  is 
frequent  in  peaty  bog^  and  marshy  ground  of  Britain,  as  well 
as  in  simihr  or  mountainous  localities  in  Europe,  Siberia,  and 


N  Ameiica.  It  is  laigely  used  in  iarts,  preserves,  &c.  Before 
the  Lincolnshire  bogs  were  drained,  the  berries  were  sold  by 
the  cartload  m  Norwidi  market  In  the  market  of  Langton, 
in  Cumberiand,  as  much  as  /20  to  ^30  worth  of  the  fruit  was 
sold  foi  five  or  six  weeks  m  succession,  as  long  as  the  season 
lasted.  In  Sweden,  silver  plate  is  boiled  in  them,  that  the  acid 
in  the  fniit  may  clean  it. 

0.  trutcrocarpus  is  the  laige-fruited  or  American  C,  com- 
mon in  sandy  soils  from  Canada  to  Vii^inia.  Large  quan- 
tities are  used  in  the  country  and  exported  to  Britam.  It  can 
be  cultivated  to  advantage  both  in  Europe  and  America,  low 
coarse  meadows  planted  with  it  yielding  an  average  crop  of  80 
tp  100  bushels  of  berries  per  acre. 

A  'wine'  is  made  from  the  C.  in  Siberia,  and  a  tjeverage 
made  from  it  is  sold  in  St  Petersburg.  O.  erecta  { Vacdnum 
irythrocarpon)  is  a  anall  shrub,  a  native  of  the  Vu^ihian  and 
Carolinian  mountains,  producing  a  fine  fruit.  The  red  whortle- 
berry ( ViKcini-um  vitis  idisa)  is  sold  in  Aberdeen  and  other  places 
under  the  name  of  'cranberries.'  The  so-called  Tasmanian  C. 
is  Aslroloma  humijusum,  a  shrub  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Epacridace<B.  The  name  is  also  given  to  Stypkdia  adscmdetis,  a 
small  Australian  shrob  of  the  same  order,  and  in  New  South 
Wales  to  auotlier  Epacridaceous  shrub,  Lissanlhe  sapida,  which 
produces  red  acid  berries.  Tlie  name  is  apparently  derived  from 
the  idea  that  the  berries  are  eaten  by  cratus. 

Crait'brook,  a  small  town  ia  Keiitshire,  on  the  Crane,  28 
miles  S.W.  of  Canterbury,  and  the  principal  place  in  the  Weald. 
It  was  formerly  a  seat  of  the  woollen  trade,  introduced  by  the 
Flemings  ;  but  that  has  long  disappeared,  and  the  prosperity  of 
C.  now  depends  On  the  hop  trade.      Top.  (1871)  433I. 

Crane  (Old  Eng.  cran,  from  its  creaking  sound),  a  machine 
fOT  raismg  heavy  weights.  In  general,  a  chain  is  fixed  to  the 
object  to  be  lifted,  carried  over  a  pulley,  and  brought  down  to 
and  wound  upon  a  barrel  forming  part  of  flie  C.  Motion  is 
given  to  this  barrel  by  means  of  suitably  jaxjportioned  toothed 
wheels  ('spur  gearing'),  and  the  whole  is  set  in  motion  either 
by  men  working  handles  or  by  a  steam  or  other  engine.  Cranes 
wary  much  in  sMpe  and  arrangement.  In  the  common  jib-C. , 
the  mechanism  just  described  is  attached  to  the  lowei  part  of  a 
vertiod  C.-post,  and  the  chain-pulley  is  su^ended  from  the  upper 
£nd  of  a  long  inclined  post  or  jib,  of  which  the  lower  end  is  con- 
nected with  the  frammg  of  the  C.-post,  and  the  upper  end  secured 
by  di^ns  to  the  u[roer  part  of  the  same.  In  a  complete  travel- 
ling jib-C.  the  whole  is  placed  upon  a  low  truck  rumnng  on  rails, 
along  with  a  small  steam-engine  and  boiler.  The  jib  and  lift- 
ing apparatus  can  be  turned  round  the  post  so  as  to  lift  an  object 
situated  on  dther  side  of  the  tnidc,  while  the  upper  end  of  the 
jib  itself  tan  tie  raised  and  lowered  so  ^  to  suit  the  distance  at 
which  the  object  happens  to  be. 

Oran     (Old  Eg,  fr  m  the  -sotiiul  made  by  tlie  bird), 

th       p         t  t         f      f  m  ly    f  birds — the   Ovik/.?— belong- 

g  t  th  A  C  U  t  h  ving  affinities  with  the  Ardd- 
d  heion         d    1      with 


tr  ng     with      h    p 
d  Ih  tni     1 

Th 


edg 

h  11  V 

1    g      did      wtl 

d  rabl    p  rt         f  th    t  bise 
ha  e,  and  th     toes  ar    1 

pt  th    1    d  h   h 

is  ak  m  1  vat  d,  d  dis 
tinguishes  the  family  from  the 
herons  and  bitterns.  The  two 
outer  toes  are  connected  by 
a  small  web.  The  cranes  are 
all  large,  with  long  necks  and 
powerful  flight,  are  migratory, 
and  fly  at  a  great  height  in  the 
air,  vrith  a  steady . 


,    C.    {Gr» 


breeds  in  Northern  Europe 
and  Asia,  and  migrates  in  the 
winter    towards    the    tropics. 


Common  Crane, 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CRA 


is  pare  white  in  the  adult  state,  with  tl  I'p  ft!  '  gs  bl  !( 
The  demoiselles  [Anthrapoides  virgo)  a  LB 

aiica  pavonina),   which  are  among  th  b  h 

family,  inhabit  the  N,  of  Africa. 

Orane-riy  ( Tipula),  a  genus  of  D  p  fi 

belonging  to    the  Nimocera,   which  p  se  g 

thread-like  character.      The  crane-flies  ty  m 

TipuKdm,  in  which  the  proboscis  is  slio  d  n  ed  by 
fleshy  lips  enclosing  bristles.  The  cororaon  C.-'S.{T.i)kracea)  is 
the  typical  example.  Its  popular  name  is  'Daddy  longlegs.' 
The  larvK,  hving  in  moist  ground,  do  great  harm  by  attacking 
the  roots  of  grasses  and  cereals.  Cecidomya  (of  which  genus  C. 
disti-uctor,  or  the  Hessian  fly  of  the  United  States^  is  an  example) 
is  nearly  allied  to  Tipula. 

Cranesbill.     See  Gekanium. 

Oranganore',  the  most  southern  town  on  the  W.  coast  of  tlie 
district  of  Malabar,  province  of  Madras,  India,  So  miles  S,  of 
Calicut.  The  Dutch  took  it  from  the  Portuguese  in  1663.  It 
was  ceded  to  Britain  by  Tippoo  Saib,  who  seized  it  in  1790, 
after  it  had  been  in  the  possession  of  the  Rajah  of  Travancore 
for  a  year.  There  are  native  Jewish  and  Christian  congregations 
here,  which  are  said  to  have  been  fonnded  as  tar  back  as  the 
4th  and  5th  centuries. 

Oran'gon.    See  Shrimp. 

Cra'nia.  A  genus  of  Brachiopodous  mollnsca,  forming  the 
type  of  the  family  Oraniada,  exemplified  by  many  extinct  and  by 
some  existing  species.  In  this  family,  the  animal  is  fixed  to  sub- 
marine objects  by  the  ventral  or  lower  valve  of  the  shell  The 
arms  are  fleshy,  and  coiled  spirally.  No  hinge  or  articulating 
processes  exist.  The  upper  valve  is  limpet- shaped.  The  shell 
may  be  smooth  or  striped  or  spinous.  The  genus  C,  is  first 
represented  in  a  fossil  state  in  the  Sifuriati  rocks.  C.  pei-. 
sonala  is  a  living  species,  while  C.  Ignabtrgatsis,  of  the  Chalk 
rocks,  is  a  typical  fossil  form. 

Cra'nial  Nerves.  These  nerves,  nine  in  number  on  each 
side,  originate  in  some  part  of  the  base  of  the  brain  or  upper 

Sortion  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  pass  through  apertures  in  the 
oor  of  the  skull,  to  be  distributed  to  the  organs  of  sense  and 
other  stnlctures  in  the  head.  They  are  named  numerically  from 
before  backwards,  but  certam  of  them  have  additional  names, 

tiven  on  account  of  their  supposed  functions.  They  are  as  fol- 
)ws  ; — 1st  pair.  The  elfactory,  distributed  to  the  nose,  and  con- 
nected  with  the  special  sense  ^  smell.  2d  pair.  The  iptk,  pass- 
ing to  the  eyeballs,  and  connected  with  the  special  sense  of  sight. 
3d  pair.  Sometimes  termed  mofej-w  uiw/dciiiw,  nerves  of  motion, 
distributed  to  all  the  muscles  which  move  the  eyeballs,  with  the 
exception  of  the  external  rectus  and  superior  oblique  muscles. 
4th  pdr.  Termed  the  pathitid,  nerves  of  motion,  distributed  to  the 
superior  oblique  muscles  of  the  eyeball.  When  these  muscles  act, 
the  eyeball  is  rotated  upwards  and  outwards,  so  as  to  ^ve  apathe- 
tic expression  ;  hence  the  name.  5th  pair.  Trifacial  or  trigemi- 
nal nerves,  both  motor  and  sensory,  ccmferring  sensibility  on  the 
skin  of  the  face  and  side  of  the  head,  mouth,  lips,  cheeks,  and 
teeth  ;  also  sending  a  special  brandi,  the  lingual  of  the  5th,  to 
the  anterior  part  of  llie  tongue  (connected  probably  both  with 
taste  and  tactile  sensibility),  and,  lastly,  supplying  the  muscles 
of  mastication.  6th  pair.  Abductns,  a  motor  nerve  siwplyine 
the  external  rectus  muscle  of  the  eyeball,  7th  pair.  Divided 
into  two  portions — (l)  The  fadal,  or  perivi  dura  of  the  7th, 
beuig  the  motor  nerve  of  the  muscles  of  expression  ;  and  (2)  The 
auditory,  ixportio  mallis  of  iht  7th,  beingthe  nerve  of  the  special 
sense  of  hearing,  distributed  to  lie  ear.  8th  pair.  This  con- 
sists of  three  nerves — (1)  The glosso-pharyngeal,  the  special  nerve 
of  taste,  distributed  to  the  posterior  third  of  the  back  of  the 
toi^e.  (2)  The  pnaimogastrie,  or  pea-  vagum,  so  termed  on 
account  of  its  wide  distribution  in  the  neck,  chest,  and  abdomen. 
This  hnportant  nerve  supplies  both  motor  and  sensory  branches 
to  the  pharynx,  motor  and  sensory  branches  to  the  larynx,  branches 
to  the  heart,  which  exhibit  an  inhibitory  or  restraining  action 
over  the  contractions  of  that  oigan,  sensory  branches  te  the 
lungs,  motor  and  sensory  branches  to  the  eesophagus,  and  motor 
and  sensory  branches  to  the  stomach.  (3)  The  spinal  aeeei- 
suty,  a  motor  nerve,  distributed  to  the  stemo-cleido,  mastoid, 
and  trapezius  muscles  in  the  neck,  gtb  pair.  The  hypoglossal,  a 
"■"'■  ipplying  motor  power  to  the  muscles  of  the  tongue 


276 


1    th  intrinsic  and  extrinsic.   Each  crania!  nerve  [las  an  appai 

gin  from  the  base  of  the  brain,  and  a  deep  or  real  origin  from 
g  ey  matter  in  the  substance  of  the  organ.  The  deep  origins  of 
ne  C.  N.  are  still  imperfectly  known.  Details  regarding  these 
may  be  found  in  Cray's  Anatomy,  p.  495,  et  seq. 
Ora'niuni.  Anatomists  divide  the  skull  into  two  portions— 
e  C.  and  the  face.  The  C.  is  formed  of  eight  bones— the  occi- 
p  al,  two  parietal,  frontal,  two  temporal,  sphenoid,  and  ethmoid. 
TheC.  contains  the  brain,  and  thebase  is  perforated  by  numerous 
apertures  for  the  passage  of  nerves.     See  Skeleton. 

Grant,  in  machinery,  an  arm  or  lever  connected  with  a  shaft, 
and  having  a  rotative  motion  about  its  axis.  A  C.  at  the  end  of 
a  rotatingshaftis,  in  general,  simply  an  arm  of  wrought-iron  keyed 
upon  the  shaft,  and  having  a  pin  called  a  C.-pln  at  its  outer  er^ 
At  the  centre  of  a  length  of  shaft  the  C.  becomes  a  pair  of  ar 
(or  'throws'),  joined  by  the  C.-pin  at  llieir  outer  ends.  In  this 
case  the  C.  is  formed  either  by  bending  the  shaft,  or  (more  ci 
monly)  by  forging  a  large  projection  upon  jt,  and  subsequenlly 
working  this  into  tlie  required  form  by  suitable  tools. 

Oran'mer,  Thomas,  an  English  statesman  and  ecclesiastic, 
was  bom  at  Aslacton,  Nottinghainshire,  ad  July  14S9,  and  edu- 
cated ^t  Cambridge,  where  he  distinguished  himself  in  Greek  and 
divinity,  and  obtained  a  fellowship,  which  was  re-granted  to  him 
■  after  the  premature  death  of  his  wife  in  1513.  Refusing  an  office 
at  Oxfoi^  which  Wolsey  pressed  on  him,  he  remained  at  Cam- 
bridge and  Wallham  Abbey  till  1539,  when  his  sumestion  of  the 
inv^idity  of  the  papal  dispensation  in  the  matter  of  the  King's  mar- 
riage brought  him  into  notice.  Along  with  other  dlvmes,  he  was 
sent  to  Rome  to  challenge  the  marriage  as  against  the  Scriptures, 
the  Councils,  and  the  Fathers,  audio  collect  similar  opinions  from 
the  foreign  universities.  Clement  was  of  course  unconvinced  by 
his  arguments,  but  gave  C.  the  honorary  title  of  '  Supreme  Peni- 
tentiary. '  C.  also  attended  the  Emperor  at  Bologna  on  the  same 
business,  wrote  a  book  on  it,  and  was  a  leading  member  of  the 
Cambridge  committee  which  considered  it.  itenry  made  him  a 
royal  chaplain,  and  afler  the  marriage  of  Anne  Eoleyn,  C.  (in 

Site  of  his  ovra  second  marriage)  was  consecrated  Archbishop  of 
mterbury  on  30th  March  1533,  qualifying  his  oath  of  submis- 
sion to  Rome  by  an  exception  of  his  duty  to  God  and  the  laws  of 
the  country.  He  immediately  obtained  from  the  two  Houses  of 
Convocation  a  declaration  that  the  licence  of  Pope  Julius  was 
null  as  dealing  with  divine,  not  with  canonical  law,  and  that  the 
previous  marriage  with  Ferdinand  had  been  consummated ;  and 
then,  under  licence  from  the  crown,  opened  a  court  at  Dunstable, 
which  Catherine  refused  to  attend,  but  in  which  final  judgment 
of  divorce  was  pronounced,  23d  Silay  1533.  C.  assisted  in  the 
statutory  abolition  of  papal  authority  in  England,  but  generously 
tried  to  save  More  and  Fisher  when  they  declined  to  take  the 
oath  of  supremacy  and  to  acknowledge  the  Statute  of  Succession 
in  1534.  The  issue  of  a  second  edition  of  the  king's  Primer 
and  the  revision  of  TynddTs  Nfw  Testament  were  now  set  on  foot 
by  C,  who  also  vigorously  supported,  a^inst  Latimer  and  the 
Vicar-General  Cromwell,  the  first  Act  of  Dissolution  of  the  small 
monasteries  (1536).  He  even  said  that  cathedral  chapters  and 
all  clerical  coiporations  should  be  suppressed.  The  same  year 
he  was  obliged  to  pronounce  null  the  marriage  of  his  friend  Anne 
Boleyn,  whom  he  had  regarded  as  a  support  of  Reformed  reH- 
gion,  which  in  the  Articles  and  the  Bishop's  Book  he  was  gradu- 
ally introducing  to  the  Church.  He  was,  however.  In  1539, 
defeated  by  the  conservative  party  on  the  'Six  Bloody  Acts.' 
(See  Articles,  The  Six.)  In  1540  he  had  formally  to  dis- 
solve Heniy's  marriage  with  Anne  of  Cleves,  and  the  next 
year  to  initiate  the  proceedings  which  led  to  the  death  of 
Catherine  Howard.  As  before,  he  generously  interceded  for 
Cromwell.  In  spite  of  the  intrigues  of  Gardiner,  Norfolk,  and 
the  Catholic  party,  C  managed  to  keep  the  helm  of  ecclesiastical 
affiiirs  till  Henry's  death,  vigorously  promoting  Reformed  doctrine 
even  when,  perhaps,  as  in  the  King's  book,  he  did  not  personally 
accept  it.  His  Litany  was  an  important  contribution  to  the 
Church,  to  which  he  afterwards  added  the  First  Communion 
Book,  the  Prayer-book  of  1549,  and  lastly,  the  complete  Lituigy. 
On  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.,  C.  continued  by  his  Homilies 
and  the  circulation  of  Erasmus'  Paraphrase,  and  through  the 
Lituigy  Commission,  to  press  on  reform.  The  Forty-two 
Articfe  were  completed  by  him  before  Edward's  death.  He 
was  unwillingly  forced  to  sign  the  letters  patent,  extorted  by 
Northumberland's   conspiracy,   and   altering  the   succession    in 


-^ 


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OEA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


favour  of  Lady  Jane  Grey, 
when  mass  took  the  place  □ 
images  were  restored,  when  Gardiner  became  Chancellor,  and  a 
Catholic  Commission  was  created  to  tn'  Protestants  for  treason, 
heresy,  and  marriage,  C,  aloHg  with  Latimer  and  Ridley,  was 
thrown  into  the  Tower.  After  a  first  trial,  which  was  said  to  be 
irregular  because  the  country  was  then  unreconciled  to  Rome, 
C.  was  tried  at  Oxford  in  September  1555  for  'blasphemy,  in- 
,  and  heresy.'  It  was  not  till  February  1556,  long 
■ '  n  of  Latimer  and  Ridley,  that  the  final  sentence 


after  the 


C.  received  the  celebrated  letter  from  Cardinal  Pole,  and, 
hausted  by  the  anxieties  of  two  and  a  half  years'  imprisonment, 
he  issued  his  submission  to  the  papal  authority  and  his  confession 
of  Catholic  dogma.  In  spite  of  this,  he  was  publicly  burnt  at 
Oxford,  2lst  July  1556,  surprising  the  Catholics  by  recanting  Iris 
'  n  at  the  last  moment.  Mr  Fronde  strongly  insists  on- 
of  C.'s  character  (see  vol.  V.  of 
re  special  Lives  of  C.  by  Gilpin, 
Lebas,  and  Todd,  and  many  documents  under  his  hand  are  pre- 
served in  Strype's  Memorials  and  Jenkyn's  Rmumts.  C.  pub- 
lished in  1550  in  Latin  ^  Difimreoflhe  Trus  and  Catholic  Boc- 
liittt  of  the  Sacrament  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ.  His 
CaiecMsm  was  republished  at  Oxford  by  Bnrton  in  1829.  His 
chief  works,  edited  by  the  Rev.  J.  Cox,  were  printed  at  Cam- 
bridge 2  vols.  8vo,  1844-46. 

Oiaimog«S  e  name  given  in  Ireland  and  Scotland  to  arti 
ficial  and  n  akes,  formerly  used  as  habitations  tnd  strong 
ho  d    b        e  Ce    c  tribes.      Tlie  meaning  of  the  term  is  uncer 

a  n  bu  s  be  eved  to  refer  to  the  timber  employed  in  the 
cons  ruction  of  ese  remarkable  settlements.  The  Pfahlbauten 
or  p  le  bmldings  of  Switzerland  will  be  treated  of  under  Lake 
Dwellings  and  the  present  article  is  restricted  to  the  C 
prope    o    Pa  ka  rkbawten.    The  difference  between  the  tvi  o  is 

hat  he  forme  consists  of  dwellings  on  wooden  platforms  placed 
upon  p  les  d  ven  mto  the  bed  of  a  lake,  and  allowing  the  water 
f  ee  cou  -se  b  nea  h,  while,  in  the  latter,  the  huts  were  placed  upon 
jai  ds  con  tru   ed  in  the  maimer  described  below. 


Although  C,  are  mentioned  in.the  Irish  annals  so  early  as  the 
9th  c.,  they  were  unnoticed  by  archseologists  until  1839.  In 
that  year  drainage  operations  were  being  carried  on  at  the  Lake 
of  Lagore,  near  Dunshaughlin,  County  Meath,  and  while  a 
trench  was  being  cut  close  to  a  mound  which  had  formerly  been 
an  island  in  the  lake,  great  quantities  of  bones  were  discovered,  no 
less  than  I  Jo  cartloai&  of  fhem  being  taken  away.  Further  ex- 
amination showed  that  the  mound,  whose  circumference  was  520 
feet,  was  formed  by  posts  of  black  oak,  from  6  to  8  feet  in  length, 
mortised  into  beams  of  the  same  wood.  These  lay  flat  upon  the 
marl  and  sand  below  the  bog,  at  a  depth  of  16  feet  from  the  sur- 
face. The  upright  posts  were  connected  by  cross-beams,  and 
portions  of  a  second  tier  of  posts  were  resting  on  the  lower  ones. 
The  enclosed  space  was  sutdivided  by  oaken  beams,  the  sides  of 
which  were  in  some  cases  grooved  or  rabbeted  to  admit  panels, 
driven  down  between  them.  The  interior  of  the  chambers  thus 
formed  was  filled  up  with  black  moory  earth  and  with  bones, 
chiefly  of  cattle,  deer,  and  swine,  though  those  of  goats,  sheep, 
horses,  foxes,  dogs,  and  asses  weie  also  found.    There  were  also 


many  weapons,  ornaments,  and  Iiouaehold  utensils,  made  of  stc  , 
bone,  wood,  bronze,  and  iron.  These  remains  have  been  fully 
described  by  their  discoverer,  Sir  W,  R.  Wilde,  then  one  of  the 
secretaries  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy. 

In  succeeding  yeai-s'  many  more  C.  were  discovered  i  . 
Ireland,  especially  in  the  N.  and  the  valley  of  the  Shannon. 
As  a  rule,  they  were  built  upon  a  small  islet  in  a  lake,  or  on 
a  shoal  not  far  from  the  surface.  The  settlement  was  either 
circular  or  oval  in  shape,  and  was  marked  out  by  a  stockade  of 
piles.  Sometimes  there  was  a  double  ring  of  these.  They 
were  from  4  to  9  inches  in  diameter,  and  for  the  most  part  were 
young  oak-trees,  though  aldet-trees  were  also  employed.  They 
projected  above  the  water  several  feet,  and  probably  were  in' 
laced  with  branches,  so  as  lo  form  a  breastwork.  The  botl 
of  the  enclosure  was  covered  with  round  Ic^  from  4  to  6  feet  long, 
and  on  the  top  of  them  was  piled  a  mass  of  clay,  gravel,  and 
boulders,  to  a  height  of  about  a  foot  above  the  surface  of  the 
water.  On  the  island  thus  formed  a  platform  was  placed, 
covering  tlie  whde,  or  a  portion  of  its  area.  Flat  stones,  which 
had  apparently  been  used  as  hearths,  were  found  in  nearly  all  c£ 
near  the  centre  of  the  platform,  together  with  at  least  one  pai 
querns.  Occasionally  the  C.  was  connected  with  the  mainland  by 
a  causeway  or  a  bridge  of  planks,  but  more  frequently  it  could 
only  be  reached  in  a  boat  or  canoe. 

From  the  middle  of  the  9tli  to  the  beginning  of  the  17th  c, 
C.  are  mentioned  in  the  Irish  airaals.  They  were  originally  in- 
tended for  defence,  and  speedily  became  the  strongholds  of 
robber  chiefs,  who  carried  off  to  them  the  spoils  gathered  in  their 
raids,  and,  favoured  by  tiie  situation  of  their  fortresses,  were 
fi-equenfly  enabled  to  offer  a  successful  resistance  when  efforts 
weie  made  lo  root  them  out 

In  1857  the  existence  of  C.  in  Scotland,  at  Banchory,  in  Loch 
Cannor,  and  other  places,  was  first  brought  under  the  notice  of 
archaeologists  by  Mr  Joseph  Robertson.  In  1863  a  group  of, 
similar  structures  was  discovered  in  the  Loch  of  Dowalfon,  in 
Wigtownshire,  and  was  described  by  Lord  Lovaine  (now  Earl 
Percy).  Since  then  many  other  C.  have  been  discovered  in 
various  parts  of  Scotland,  Their  construction  is  exactly  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the  Irish  C,  and  a  like  similarity  exists 
with  respect  to  the  antiquarian  remains  found  in  them.  The 
Scotch  C.  are  frequently  mentioned  in  history  down  to  the  end 
of  the  rSth  c  Several  of  them  were  fortresses  of  considerable 
importance.  That  of  Lochlndorb,  in  Moray,  for  instance,  was 
regarded  of  so  much  importance  by  Edward  III,,  that  in  1336 
he  marched  with  an  aimy  to  its  relief;  while  that  of  Loch 
Cannor,  or  Kinord,  in  Aberdeenshire,  was  in  1648  dismantled 
by  order  of  the  Estates  of  Parliament.  In  September  1875  two 
large  canoes,  in  an  excellent  state  of  preservation,  were  drawn 
out  of  the  bed  of  this  loch. 

C.  have  also  been  discovered  in  some  of  the  smaller  lakes  of 
Switzerland,  but  in  the  larger  lakes  their  place  was  taken  by  the 
pile-buildings,  whose  conslruction  was  belter  adapted  lo  with- 
stand the  waves  of  extensive  sheets  of  water.  Remains  ofC. 
also  exist  in  the  northern  Island  of  New  Zealand,  and  Lieutenant 
Cameron  reports  (1876)  the  existence  of  similar  structures  in  the 
interior  of  Africa, 

See  "Wilde'-s  Catalogue  of  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  Irish 
Academy ;  Proceedings  of  the  Soyal  Irish  Academy,  vols.  i.  v. 
and  vii.  ;  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland, 
vol.-  iii,  ;  'K.^Wzi^sLakeDwellingsof  Switzerland  and  other  Paris 
ofEurofe,  translated  and  arranged  by  J,  E.  Lee  ;  and  Lubbock's 
Prehistoric  Times. 

Crape  (Fr.  crlpe),  a  gauze-like  fabric  made  of  raw  silk,  wo 
without  crossing,   stiffened  with  gum,  and  twisted  at  the  n 
which  gives  the  crispy  appearance  when  talcen  from  the  ioom. 
It  is  usually  dyed  blade,  and  is  much  used  in  mourning. 

Ora'shaw,  Eiobard,  'the  idol  of  Cowley,'  a  minor  poet, 
was  born  in  London  about  l6i6,  and  educated  at  Charter  House 
and  at  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  degree  in  1638.  He  was 
for  a  time  a  popular  preacher  in  the  IJngSsh  Church,  but  becom- 
ing a  Roman  Catholic,  he  went  to  Paris,  and  thence  to  Italy, 
whefe  he  became  canon  of  the  Church  of  Lotetto.  He  died 
about  1650.  C.'s  poems  are  devout  and  earnest,  but  inferior 
to  those  of  Herbert,  whom  he  imitated.  His  chief  works  a 
Steps  to  the  Temple,  The  Delists  of  the  Muses,  and  Carmen  Deo 
Nostra.  Pope  borrows  frequently  from  C,  especially  in  Ehisa. 
See  TumbuU's  edition  (J.  R.  Smith,  Lond.  1858). 

277 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Crassatell'a,  a  geiras  of  molluscs,  the  shells  of  which  are 
thick,  solid,  and  bulging,  attenuated  behind,  and  with  a  surface 
concentrically  furrowed.  An  internal  ligament  exists.  C.  is 
well  represented  by  living  species,  and  in  a  fossil  state  begins  in 
the  Cretaceous  TOcks.  C.  ponda-asa  (Terti^  Eocene)  is  a  fatni- 
liar  species.  The  genus  belongs  to  tke  family  CyprmU^,  of  the 
class  Lameliibranehiata. 

Craasulft'cess,  the  Ilouseleek  or  Slonecrop  order,  a  natuml 
order  of  Dicotyledonous  succulent  herbs  or  shrubs.  There  are  in 
all  about  forty-six  species  described,  included  under  twenty-fout 
genera,  found  in  dry  situations  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  but 
cliieHy  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Astringent,  refrigerant,  and 
acid  properties  are  characleristic  of  the  whole  order,  none  of 
which  are  of  much  importance.  CelyledoH  ^inbUicus  [<\.  v.)  was  at 
one  time  a  popular  remedy  in  hysterics,  and  an  external  applica- 
tion is  used,  to  destroy  warts  and  corns.  Of  late  it  has  been 
introduced  as  a  remedy  for  epilepEy,  against  which  tlie  C.  orbU 
culata  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  is  s^d  to  be  efficacious. 
Tlie  stonecrop  (iivi»B!  acri)  possesses,  accoi'ding  to  popular  be- 
lief, emetic  and  purgative  prc^erties.  It  is  very  acrid,  and  hence 
called  '  wall  pepper. '  S.  Tdephium  is  astringent,  and  in  Ire- 
land S.  dasyphyllum  rubbed  among  oats  is  reputed  a  certain 
cure  for  worms  in  horses  (Bentley,  Lindley).  Sanptrvsiium 
ieclomm  (the  houseleeli)  is  used  as  an  extern^  application  to 
wounds  i  Bryophyllum  calycinum  (q.  v.)  produces  buds  on  the 

edges  of  its  (eaves. 

Orass'us,  Lu'cios  Iiioin'inS,  one  of  the  greatest  orators 
that  Rome  ever  produced,  was  bom  BJ^.  140.  From  a  very 
early  age  onwards  he  displayed  pre-eminent  oratorical  abili^ 
iu  judicial  proceedings,  in  senatorial  orations,  and  in  popular 
addresses.  With  Q.  Scsevola  he  became  consul  B.C  gs,  and 
during  their  term  of  of&ce  was  passed  the  Lix  Licinia  Mucia  dt 
Civibtis  regundis,  compelling  ^1  who  were  not  citizens  to  leave 
Rome,  a  law  which  ^ded  in  provolsing  the  Social  War.  C.  was 
fond  of  luxurious  living,  and,  in  alln^ion  to  his  fine  house  and 
effeminate  manners,  he  was  called  by  Brutus  '  the  Palatine 
Venus."  He  died,  B.C.  91,  from  a  fever  brought  on  by  a  violent 
contention  in  the  senate  with  Philippns,  the  consul.  C  is  in- 
troduced by  Cicero  as  one  of  the  chief  interlocutors  in  the  De 
Oratori. — Mai'ouB  LiciniusDiVesO.,  the  Iriunwir,  wasboin 
about  B.C.  105.  He  escaped  to  Spain  jn  dread  of  the  enmity 
of  Marius,  for  resistance  to  whom  his  father  and  brother  had  lost 
their  lives.  After  various  adventures  C,  joined  Sulla,  b.c  83 
At  a  battle  in  Lucania,  71  B.C.,  C.  defeated  with  great  slaughter 
Spartacus,  the  rebel  hero  of  the  Servile  War.  In  B.C.  70  C 
and  his  envied  rival  Pompey  were  elected  consuls.  To  ga  n 
public  favour  during  his  consulship,  C.  gave  the  populace  a  ban 
c|uet  of  10,000  tables,  and  distributed  com  sufficient  to  supply 
the  family  of  every  citizen  for  three  months.  About  BjC.  60,  what 
is  known  as  the  first  triumidrats  was  formed  by  Gtesar,  Pompey, 
and  C,  his  position  in  which  C.  owed  to  his  enormous  wealth, 
amassed  by  rapacious  avarice,  and  to  a  reputation  among  the 
well-to-do  citizens  for  practical  talent,  which  his  acquisition  of 
this  wealth  had  oblained>for  him.  According  to  the  compact 
ol'ihsiriuimiirs,  Pompey  and  C.  were  re-elected  consiils,  B.C.  55, 
and  on  the  distribution  of  consular  provinces,  C.  chose  Syria. 
From  a  vain  ambition  for  military  fame,  he  wantouly  made  war 
on  the  Parlhians,  but  his  insatiaWe  cupidity  proved  Ihs  ruin,  by 
leading  him  to  neglect  his  military  duties  for  the  plunder  of 
temples.  He  was  betrayed  first  by  Arianines,  and  afterwards 
by  Andromachus,  and  after  suffering  defeat  at  Carrhie,  fell  by 
an  unknown  hand  in  a  treacherous  interview  with  Surenas,  the 
Parthian  general,  B.C.  53.  In  the  Parthian  expedition  C.  is  Said 
to  have  lost  20,000  men  killed  and  10,000  taken  prisoners. 
Orodes,  the  Parthian  king,  caused  melted  gold  to  be  poured  into 
the  mouth  of  the  lifeless  C,  saying,  '  Sate  thyself  now  with  the 
metal  of  which  thou  wert  so  greedy  in  life,' 

CratEe'gna  (the  hawthorn),  agenas  of  Dicotyledonous  plants 
belonging  to  the  natural  Ofder  Rosacea  (sub-order  Pomea),  natives 
of  Europe,  N,  America,  and  temperate  Asia  and  Africa.  The 
best-known  species  is  C.  Oxyacantha,  the  common  Hawthorn 
(q.  v.),  so  familiar  a  materia!  of  our  hedgerows,  found  in  nearly 
eveiy  part  of  Eiurope,  and  in  N.  Africa  and  Western  Asia.  It  is 
sometimes  called  the  '  May-tree,'  from  blossoming  in  May,  a 
month  also  in  which  most  of  the  other  species  of  C.  also  appear 
in  bloom.      With   the  exception  of  the  species  named,  none 

278 


are  natives  of  Britain.  The  cockspur  thorn  (C.  Crus-galli)  is 
a  native  of  N.  America.  The  Azorole  {C.  Azarelus)  and  the 
Aronia  (C  Aronia),  the  'haws'  of  which  are  sometimes  used 
for  desswt  of  tarts,  are  natives  of  the  S.  of  Europe  and  the 
X^vant  Among  the  otlier  cultivated  species  may  be  mentioned 
C.  nrienlalis,  C.  tanacetifolm,  C.  Mexicana,  and  C.  fyracantha, 
the  latter  being  a  native  of  tlie  Caucasus  and  the  S.  of 
Europe,  and  known  to  gardeners,  who  value  it  as  a  wall-tree, 
as  the  Pyracantha. 

OratBB'va,  a  genus  of  tropical  shrubs  or  trees  of  the  Cape 
order  (Capfiaridacsis),  C.  Nurvala,  of  the  Malal>ar  and  Society 
Islands,  is  planted  in  burial-grounds  as  a  sacred  tree.  Its 
leaves  and  other  parts  of  the  tree  are  aromatic,  bitter,  and 
stomachic.  The  bark  of  the  root  of  the  garlic  pear  (C.  gynandra), 
so  called  on  account  bf  its  strong  smell  of  garlic,  blisters  the 
skin  like  Spanish  flies. 

Crater  (Gr.  krater,  'a  bowl'),  the  funnel-shaped  cavity  on 


ICilauea,  in  the  island  of  Hawtdi,  forming  a  large  lake  of  molten 
lava  about  a  miles  in  circumference.  On  the  surface  of  the  moon 
numerous  large  cavities  are  observed,  which,  from  their  position 
and  general  appearance,  are  probably  the  craters  of  extinct  vol- 
canoes. Of  these,  the  most  interesting  are  tlie  ci-aiers  of  Coper- 
nicus and  Tycho,  55  a,nd  50  miles  in  diameter  respectively. 

Ciati'ntia,  a  representative  poet  of  the  old  Athenian  comedy, 
was  born  at  Athens,  B.C.  519.  He  wrote  twenty- one  comedies, 
none  of  which  are  extant,  and  he  gained  nine  victories,  one  of 
them  over  the  Clouds  of  Aristophanes.  He  made  changes  in  tlie 
outward  form  of  comedy,  as,  for  example,  by  fixing  the  number 
of  actors  at  three.  He  was  the. first  to  introduce  into  comedy 
reproachful  attacks  on  public  men  and  unsparing  satire  of  vice. 
C.'s  imagination  was  fervid,  and  his  style  impetuous  and  some- 
what grandiloquent.  In  the  Knights,  Aristophanes  (as  trans- 
lated by  Mitchell)  says  of  him— 

'  His  slep  was  as  the  tread  of  a  Sood  that  leave;  ils  bed, 
And  h^  maroh  k  was  rude  dcsolaiion.' 
C.  died  B.C.  422.— -C.  tlie  Yoimg'er,  an  Athenian  poet  of  the 
middle  conedv,  flo  rished  during  the  middle  of  the  4th  c.  B.C. 

&atipp  ua  was  a  1  eminent  peripatetic  philosopher  of  Myti- 
lenp  and  an  1  istructor  of  Marcellus  and  Cicero.  For  many 
years  he  lectured  on  philosophy  in  Athens,  where  Cicero  the 
Younger  and  subsequently  Brutus,  were  among  his  auditors. 
Cicero  entei  tained  a  very  high  opinion  of  him,  and  procured  for 
him  from  Cjesar  the  Roman  franchise.  After  the  battle  of  Phar- 
salia  C  accompamed  Pompey,  and  sootlied  the  spirit  of  the 
defeated  tnnmvir  with  the  consolations  of  philosophy.  He  does 
not  seem  to  have  written  any  philosophical  works. 

Ckatox'ylon,  a  genus  of  bushes  or  small  trees  of  the  St  John's 
wort  order  {Hyferimus\  natives  of  China,  the  Malaya  Penin- 
sula, Java,  and  neighbouring  islands.  About  ten  species  are  de- 
scrilied,  but  only  one — C.  HornschuckU  of  Java,  which  is  slightly 
astringent  and  diuretic— is  known  to  have  medicinal  properties. 

Grayer,  Oa^ar  de,  a  Flemish  historical  painter,  bom  at 
Antwerp,  1582,  diedat  Ghent,  27th  January  1669.  He  wonthe 
admiration  of  Rubens  and  the  friendship  of  Van  Dyck,  whom  he 
rivalled  in  portraiture.  His  pictures,  lofty  in  style  and  subject 
and  lai^e  in  size,  are  correct  and  vigorous  in  design,  and  fiill  of 
dignity  though  somewhat  cold.  About  forty  of  them  are  in  the 
churches  and  the  Museum  of  Ghent.  His  Virgin  and  Infant 
Jesus  Enthroned,  now  at  DUsseldorf,  was  purchased  by  the  Elector 
Palatine  for  80,000  frs.  , 

Oray'ftsli  i^Astacus  fltoAatilis),  a  species  of  Decapodoiis  cras- 
taceie  belonging  to  the  division  MaOTtra,  including  the  lobsters, 
shrimps,  &c.,  is  found  in  British  rivers.  The  family  Astacida, 
lo  which  the  C.  belongs,  has  the  anterior  pair  of  feet  very  large, 
the  appendage  at  the  base  of  the  outer  antennse  very  small,  and 
the  middle  segment  of  the  tail-fin  divided  transversely  by  a  suture. 
C.  is  chiefly  nocturnal  in  habits,  and,  like  the  lobster,  turns  red 
on  being  boiled. 

-Cray'oil,  a  French  word  meaning  a  pencil  (from  the  Lat. 
creta,  'chalk'),  is  applied  especially  to  a  small  cylinder  em- 
ployed in  drawing  on  paper.  It  is  usually  made  of  fine  pipeclay, 
coloured  with  metallic  pigments  and  carmine.  Delicate  softness 
rather  than  vigour  generally  characterises  diawings  in  C. 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


GEE 


Oream  (lit. '  froth,'  Fr,  crime),  the  rich,  fatty  part  of  Milk  {q.  v.), 
which  forma  a  yellowish-white  layer  on  the  surface  of  milk  when 
suffered  to  remfiin  at  rest.     Butter  is  made  from  it  by  churning. 

Oreaiu.  of  Tartar  is  Ihe  acid  or  bitartrate  of  potash,  the 
composition  of  which  is  represented  by  (he  forroulai  G4H5KOe, 
It  is  obf^ned  from  Algol  (g,  v.),  or  crude  tartar— Uie  very  im- 
pure bitartrate  of  potash  which  is  deposited  from  the  juice  of  the 
grape  during  fermentation.  The  a^ol  is  dissolved  in  boiling 
water;  the  solution  thus  obtained  is  digested  with  animal  charcoal 
to  remove  the  colouring  matter,  and  then  allowed  to  cool,  when 
C.  of  T.  separates  in  ifliite  crystals.  C  of  T.  is  comparatively 
insoluble  in  cold  water,  but  is  tolerably  soluble  in  boiling  water. 
It  is  used  in  medicine  as  a  diuretic  and  pui^tive. 

Ore'atine  (Gr.  ktms,  '  flesh ')  is  a  crystalline  substance  c 
tained  in  muscular  iibre,  hence  is  found  in  the  extract  of  me. 
It  also  occui-s  in  blood  and  urine,  and  in  the  substance  of 
brain.     In   order  to  extract  the   C.    from  meat,  the   latte 
mashed  and  digested  for  some  time  with  cold  water ;  the  clea 
aqueous  extract  thus  obtained  is  boiled  to  coagulate  albume 
filtered,  mixed  with  baryta  water,  agam  filtered  and  evapota   d 
to  a  syrup,  when  C.  crystallises  out  after  some  time. 

C.  has  the  composition  represented  by  the  formula  C4H7NaOj. 
It  has  been  prepared  synthetically.  Although  neutral  to  test- 
paper,  it  forms  crystalline  salts  with  several  acids. 

Oreat'inine  is  a  crystalline  substance  occurring  in  small 
quantities  in  the  urine  of  man  and  of  many,  animais.  It  may  be 
obtained  from  creatine  by  boiling  it  with  dilute  mineral  acids. 
C.  differs  from  creatine  in  containing  the  elements  of  a  molecule 
of  water  less  than  that  body,  its  coropcsition  bemg  expressed  by 
the  formula  QHfNjO.  Unlike  creatine,  it  is  a  powerful  base  ; 
it  unites  with  acids  to  form  crystalline  salts,  and  also  forms  com- 
pounds with  certain  salts. 

Cr^'billon,  Prosper  Jolyot  de,  a  French  dramatist,  bom  at 
Dijon,  1 3th  January  1674,  of  middle-class  parents,  was  intended  for 
the  law.  which,  however,  he  very  soon  lelt  for  a  literary  career  at 
Paris.  After  a  feilure,  he  was  encouraged  by  his  master  and  friend, 
Prieur,  to  produce  his  first  successful  tragedy,  Idomhiie,  which 
was  played  in  the  winter  of  1705-6.  In  1707  liis  taste  for  the 
gloomy  and  horrible  was  shown  in  Atrie  et  Tkyeste,  which  was 
performed  eighteen  times.  Considerable  skill  in  dramatic  situa- 
tion and  in  striking,  though  often  inflated,  description  mark  this 
play.  In  the  same  year  C.  married  Charlotte  Peaget,  whom  he 
had  previously  seduced,  and  the  death  of  his  father  in  embar- 
rassed circumstances  compelled  him  to  devote  all  his  time  to  the 
drama.  The  tragedy  of  Electre  (1709),  fomided  on  the  play  ol 
SophoeUs,  has  be^  bitterly  criticised  by  Voltaire  in  his  magi  de 
C.  (voL  Ixi.  of  collected  works),  because  it  makes  the  inspired 
servant  of  destiny  the  subject  of  an  insipid  affection  for  Itys.  In 
1711  appeared  his  best  tragedy,  Rkadamiste,  founded  on  the  old 
romance  Birhtke.  The  character  of  Zhtobk  is  admitted,  in 
of  the  sarcasm  of  Boileau,  to  be  very  powerfully  drawn ;  the 
play  is  also  peculiar  from  the  hatred  of  me  Roman  Empire  which 
It  shows.  The  remaining  plays  of  Xerxes,  Semiramis,  PytrAus, 
CiOUina,  Le  THumvirat,  following  at  considerable  intervals, 
have  no  lasting  merit.  CatUina,  completed  on  the  suggestion  of 
Madame  de  Pompadour,  and  produced  at  the  King's  expense  in 
1748,  had  a  brilliant  success  for  one  season.  In  spite  of  Ws 
extravagant  social  indulgence,  followed  after  his  baiJtruptcy  by 
the  most  morose  eccentricity,  C.  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy,  afterwards  royal  censor,  and  finally  one  of  the  royal 
librarians.  He  died  17th  Tune  1762.  He  is  still  ranked  among 
the  classical  tr^;edians  of  France,  and  has  been  called  the  French 
jEschylus,  but  he  is  quite  singular  in  his  want  of  literary  educa- 
tion and  taste.  His  genius  resembles  that  of  Marlowe.  Besides 
the  splendid  edition  of  C.  's  works,  published  by  order  of  Louis 
XV.  (2  vols.  Par.  1750),  there  are  editions  by  Didot  the  Elder 
(3  vols.  Par.  1812 ;  2  vols.  1S18),  and  by  Perelle  {2  vols.  Par. 
1S2S).  He  left  a  son,  Olaude  Prosper  Jolyot  de  C,  born 
at  Paris,  14th  February  1707,  and  educated  at  tlie  Jesuit  College 
'  Louis  le  Grand.'  C.  began  his  literary  life  by  writhig  opera-bouffe 
for  the  theatres,  then  formed  a  connection  with  the  '  Acaddmie  de 
ces  Messieurs,'  a  half-literary,  half-social  club  of  aristocrats,  to 
whom  his  talent  for  epigiammatic  versification  was  useful,  but 
soon  sank  to  the  manufacture  of  licentious  novels,  with  which  his 
name  is  chiefly  associated.  In  1734  appeared  Tansai;  in  1736 
Les  ^garments  iu  Cceur  a  de  r Esprit.     In  1740  he  married  an 


Englishwoman,  Lady  Stafford.  His  worst  book,  Le  Sepia,  was 
declared  to  be  indecent  by  Madame  de  Pompadour,  and  C.  was 
Vanished  from  Paris  for  five  years.     On  his  return,  however,  in 

755,  he  was  appointed  censor.     C.  died  April  iz,  1777.    There 

vas  a  certain  independence  m  his  writings  which  made  the  social 
and  political  allusions  very  efiective.      His  (Ettvres  Completes 

.ppeared  at  Paris  (7  vols.  1779). 

Ore'oy,  or  Oreee'y,  a  small  French  town  in  the  department  of 
the  Somme,  12  miles  N.N.E.  of  AbbeviUe.  Pop.  (1872)  1359. 
It  is  celebrated  in  history  as  the  scene  of  the  inglorious  defeat 
suffered  by  PhiKppe  VI.  of  France,  August  26,  1346,  at  the  hand 
of  Edward  III.  of  Engknd.  Froissart  numbers  the  English 
force  at  l6,oot^  which  is  probably  under-estimated,  and  the 
Fh         8  Tfl  fheFhh'iiyasd 

Ir      d  Phi  p  png  y 


C  e 


h 


I 


hhC  rak  ssdis 

the  N.  side  of  the  altar,  sometimes  on  the  S. 
When  there  is  one  on  both  sides,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  the 
one  on  the  epfetle-side  has  a  drain  and  a  shelf  to  hold  the  basin 
and  the  crnets;  the  one  on  the  gospel-side  holds  the  boots, 
candles,  and  ornaments  of  tlie  altar.  The  first  use  of  the  C.  in 
the  Roman  ritual  occurs  in  the  lime  of  Leo.  X.,  in  1516,  when 
the  custom  of  personal  offering  fell  into  disuse.  The  name 
is  derived  from  the  ceremony  of  tasting  the  elements  in  the 
pontifical  mass  (lUl.  eredsnzare,  'to  taste  before  presenting  to 
another ').  When  the  Pope  celebrates  on  Easter  Day  there  are 
three  credences.  Of  the  two  on  the  episUe-side,  one  holds  the 
deacon's  plate  >  the  other,  two  candles  and  the  necessaries  re- 
quired by  the  sacristan.  On  the  third,  which  is  on  the  gospel- 
side,  the  sacristan  washes  the  sacred  vessels  at  the  end  of  the 
creed;  he  also  drinks  of  the  wine  and  water;  and  finally,  at  the 
offertory,  tastes  of  the  particles  from  which  the  hosts  are  pre- 
pared, as  a  precaution  agdnst  poison. 

Creden'tialB  are  letters  given  to  an  ambassador  or  other 
official  sent  by  one  Government  to  another,   to  entitle  him  to 

Cred'it,    The  meanings  of  this  word  are  in  political  economy 


many  it  probably  se 

valueofC  incomi_ 

of  the  superiority  which  the  bo-C.  or  ready-money  system  of  deal- 
ing has  over  the  C.  It  is  plain  f  lial,  to  supply  the  requirements  of 
domestic  life,  scarcely  any  one  should  require,  or  can  ultimately 
be  the  better  of  receiving,  C.  By  a  C.  system  of  retail  deal- 
ing, the  prudent  and  honest  man  is  taxed  on  account  of  the  im- 
prudent and  dishonest,  and  even  the  most  prudent  man  is  liable 


dealing,  therefore,  the  ready-money  system  has  every  adyantaj 
'       * '        ■'  '■    '    ing  a  pandering  to  that  weakr — 

's,  which  leads  wem  to  prefer 


side  ;  the  opposite  being  a  pandering  to  that  weakness  of 
lan's,  which  leads  them  to  pri 
immediate  payment.     In  the  extensive 


man's,  still 

ring  debt  to  maki  „  ,   , 

defimgs  of  commercial  men  vCith  one  another,  howe'  , 
is  very  different  Suppose  a  retail  dealer,  seeing  his  way  to 
selling  ;£loo  prime  cost  of  goods  during  the  next  tliree  months 
forjifl30,  but  not  possessing ^100  with  whidi  to  make  the  pur- 
chase. Then,  on  the  question  of  whether  or  not  he  can  induce 
the  wholesale  merchant  to  mtrust  him  with  the  goods  with  three 
months'  C.  depends  his  profit  of  ^£30,  and  also  the  wholesale 
dealer's  profit.  The  principle  here  involved  is  of  universal 
application ;  but  that  C.  may  work  to  the  advantage  of  the  com- 
munity, it  must  rest  on  a  solid  basis  of  capital.  No  doubt,  if  a 
man  who  has  no  capital  can  persuade  the  world  that  he  has  an 
ample  one,  he  will — so  long  as  the  world  is  so  persuaded — get 
C. ;  but  then  without  capitid  the  delusion  cannot  last,  and  bank- 
ruptcy is  the  result  of  the  imposture.  In  commercial  ventures, 
the  capital  at  command  and  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  busi- 
ness must  be  prudently  regarded  in  taking  C.  The  giving  of  C. 
is  often  the  most  difficult  and  important  question  which  a  com- 
mercial man  lias  to  consider. 

279 


vLiOOQle 


ORE 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ORE 


-4- 


Cridll,  Cash.     See  Bank,  Banking,  and  Bomb. 

Credit,  Letter  o/C— The  letter  is  so  called  by  which  the  writer 
requests  the  person  or  firm  which  he  addresses  to  pay  money  to 
the  bearer  or  some  other  party  mentioned  in  the  letter.     Easiness 
may  be  transact^  by  means  of  a  L.  of  C.  between  any  two  per- 
sons or  linns,  bat  usually  it  only  passes  between  bankers  resident 
in  different  places.      It  enables  a  pei-son  paying  in  money  to  a 
bank  at  one  place  to  draw  it  at  another,  and  so  to  avoid  the  risk 
and  trouble  of  carrying  it.     For  the  convenience  so  afforded,  the 
bank  issuing  the  letter  charges  a  percentage  on  the  value  of  (he 
C,  the  rate  of  the  percentage  varying  according  to  the  rate 
exchange  between  the  places.     A  L.  of  C.  is  a  great  coiwf 
ence  to  any  one  going  to  a  foreign  place.    It  is  not  necess 
lo  draw  the  fiill  value  at  once.     You  present  your  letter,  say 
jC^OO,  to  the  banker  to  whom  it  is  addressed,  and  request  1 
to  give  you  the  foreign  equivalent  of  ^20.     This  is  endorsed 
on  the  letter,  and  there  remains  j^8o  at  your  C.     Even 
place  where  the  granter  of  the  letter  has  no  cortespondent,  little 
or  no  difficulty  is  usually  found  in  drawing  upon  it.      But  any- 
one  intending  to  go  from  place  to  place  abroad  will  find  the 
best  form  of  carrying  pecuniary  C.  to  be  Circular  Notes  (q. 
See  also  Exchanse. 

Credit  Fancier  is  the  French  term  for  a  loan  on  the  security  of 
land.  Three  companies  have  been  established  by  the  French 
Government  with  certain  privileges  iKiving  the  title  of  C.  F.  The 
loans  are  repajiable  so  that  principal  and  interest  are  exlii^uished 
at  the  same  tuue.  The  same  system  of  repayment  of  loan  has 
been  adopted  by  various  building  and  properly  investmrait  cran- 
panies  in  this  country.      See  Buildins  COMPANY.  , 

Credit  MabUier.      See  Mobilier,  Crebit. 

Cred'iton,  or  Eirton  (Old  Eng.  Cridian-tan,  'the  town  on 
■  the  Creedy'),  a  town  of  Devonshire,  8  miles  N.W.  of  Exeter, 
and  astation  on  the  N.  Devon  Railway.  The  Church  of  the  Holy 
Cross  is  a  fine  structure.  Slioeraaking  forms  its  chief  industry, 
though  formerly  it  had  manufactures  of  woollens  and  serges. 
Cider  is  also  made.  Pop.  (I871)  4222.  C.  is  the  biithplace  of 
St  Boniface  (q.  v.). 

Creditor.     See  Debtor,  Bankruptcy. 


Greeds  are  formal  statements  of  the  doctrines  t>eli"eved  by  the 
Church,  concisely  expressed  for  the  purpose-of  being  conveniently 
recited.  I.  The  Latin  credo  ('1  believe,'  whence  t>ie  English 
■d)  was  not  the  only  name  given  to  such  a  production.  Tie 
it  usual  name  was  Lat.  synwolum,  Gr,  symboloti,  which  was  a 
token  by  which  the  initiated  were  admitted  into  the  mysteries  of 
the  heathen  gods  j  and  when  we  know  how  much  the  early 
Christians  borrowed  from  the  heathen  (see  Middleton's  Lilter 
from  Rome),  and  remember  that  the  holy  mysteries  of  the  Oiurch 
re  also  concealed  from  the  uninitiated,  we  need  be  at  no  loss 
account  for  the  name,  considering  the  use  made  of  the  C. 
Anotlier  usual  name  was  Lat.  regula,  Gr.  kasion,  'the  rule,"  so 
called  because  it  was  the  authorised  standard  or  rule  of  faith. 
Other  names  were  Gr.  mathsma,  'the  lesson,'  grapke  and 
gramma,  '  letters  or  learning, '  so  called  from  the  Catechumens 
(q.  V.)  having  to  learn  it.  2.  The  first  use  of  the  CFeedwas  (i)  in 
the  preparation  of  catechumens  for  baptism.  They  had  to  repeat 
it  privately  to  the  catechist,  then  publicly  m  the  church,  and, 
lastly,  to  make  a  more  solemn  profession  of  it  at  the  time  of  bap. 
tism,  and  to  answer  questions  put  by  the  minister  relative  to  the 
several  articles  of  it.  From  this  it  came  naturally  to  be  used  (2) 
as  a  test  of  church-membership  ;  then  (3)  as  a  test  of  orthodoxy, 
and  (4)  in  a  liturgical  character.  3.  The  earliest  creed  made  use 
of  for  tlie  purpose  was  a  very  short  and  simple  one,  namely,  '  I 
believe  tliat  Jesus  Christ  is  the  Son  of  God '  (Acts  viii_  37} ;  but 
article  after  article  was  added  to  this  as  the  doctrme  of  the 
Church  was  gradually  developed.  The  idea  that  what  is  called  the 
Apostles'  Creed  was  composed,  as  some  say,  by  the  apostles  at  a 
council  held  before  leaving  Jerusalenir  some  going  so  far  even  as  to 
"  'jn  a  particular  article  to  each  apostle,  is  simply  absurd,  as  no 
who  knows  anythmg  about  the  development  of  Ciuistian  doc- 
a  needs  to  be  told ;  for  several  of  the  articles  in  it  were  not  m 
any  Greek  or  Latin  creed  for  the  first  three  or  four  centuries.  It 
was  most  probably  compiled  from  various  C.  used  by  the  primitive 
Church,  several  of  which  are  preserved  in  the  writings  of  the 
early  fathers.  There  are  fragments  to  the  writings  of  Irenwus, 
280 


Origen,  Tertullian,  Cyprian,  Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  and  Lucian 
the  Martyr,  and  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions,  and  more  perfect 
forms  under  the  names  of  the  C.  of  Jerusalem,  of  CECsarea,  of 
Alexandria,  and  of  Antioch,  in  none  of  which  are  the  articles  of 
the  Communion  of  Saints  and  Descent  mto  Hell  mentioned  ; 
nor  were  they  originally  in  the  Apostles'  or  Roman  Creed.  The 
article  of  the  Descent  into  Hell  was  almost  peculiar  to  the  creed 
of  Aquileia,  and  was  only  introduced  into  the  Apostles'  Creed 
about  600.  The  Nicene  Creed  (q.  v,)  was  drawn  up  at  the 
Council  of  Nicfea  (325),  with  special  reference  to  the  Arian 
heiesy  (see  Arius)  that  the  Son  was  not  equal  in  all  respects 
to  the  Father.  But  the  creed,  as  we  have  it,  is  that  of  the 
council  as  it  was  afterwards  enlarged  by  the  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople (381),  and  with  the  word  filiumte  ('and  fi:om  the 
Son-,'  in  reference  to  the  Procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit — q.  v.), 
which  was  aflervrards  added  by  the  Latin  Church,  and  caused 
the  inveterate  schism  between  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Churches  ivhich  has  continued  till  the  present  day.  The  so- 
called  Athanasian  Creed  (q.  v.),  attempted  to  be  fathered  0: 

great  opponent  of  Arius,  is  unquestionably  a  forgery  of  a  1 

later  time.  These  three  are  the  C.  proper  oif  ^e  Catholic 
Church,  and  all  that  existed  till  the  Reformation.  Aftei-  the 
doctrine  of  the  Church  of  Rome  had  been  defined  by  the  Council 
of  Trent  (q.  v.),  an  embodiment  of  it  was  published  under  the 
name  of  the  Creed  of  Pope  Pius  IV.  Confessions  of  Faith  (q.  v. ) 
are  simply  more  elaborate  C.  See  Le  Symbole  des  ApStres,  by 
Michel  Nichoks  (1867)  ;  Pearson  On  the  Creed;  Wateriand's 
Critical  History  of  the  Athanasian  Creed ;  Domer's  £nl- 
wieidimgsgeschichte  der  Lehre  von  der  Person  Christi  (Stuttg. 
1839) ;  and  Donaldson's  Critical  History  of  Chriitian  IMerature 
and  Doctrine  i^iSi^.  1864). 

Cree'per  {Cerihia\  tlie  type  of  a 
Insessorial  sub-order  Dentirostres. 
are  very  long  and  slender, 
the  outer  toe  being  longer 
than  the  inner  one,  and  united 
to  the  middle  toe  beyond- 
the  first  joint,  and  to  the  inner 
toe  up  to  the  latter  joint. 
The  hind-toe  is  long  and 
slender,  and  the  claws  are 
long  and  curved.  The  bill  is 
also  curved  and  slender.  The 
hinder  toe  is  very  mobile,  and 
all  the  toes  may  be  twisted  so 
as  to  make  the  claws  available 
for  holding  on  to  the  bark  of 


The  . 


both  Old  and  New  Worlds. 


C«=isr, 


TheBritishspeciesis  thel90wuC.(C/imaiflm),averagingabout 
5i  inches  iu  length..  It  also  occurs  in  Europe  and  N.  America. 
The  vrall-C.  {Ttchoironta  murarid)  of  S.  Europe  is  anotlier 
species.  The  food  consists  of  msects,  and  the  tail-feathers  assist 
in  climbing  the  trees. 

Creek  (Old  Eng.  crecea,  Dutch,  h-eek,  'a  bend  or  comer')  is 
a  small  inlet  on  a  low  coast.  In  America  the  word  is  synony- 
mous with  brook. 

Ore'ma,awalled  town  in  the  province  of  Cremona,  N.  Italy, 
on  the  Serio,  23  mife  N.W.  of  Cremona.  It  dates  from  the  6th 
c,  has  an  old  castle  and  cathedral,  and  some  silk  and  lace 
manufactures.    Pop.  about  900a 

Oremaa'ter  is  a  slender  muscle  found  in  the  human  being, 
investing  part  of  the  testicle  and  spermatic  cord.  It  derives  im- 
portance m  suisery  from  forming  one  of  the  coverings  of  an 
oblique  ingumal  hecnia,  where  a  portion  of  bowel  passes  obliquely 
through  the  ring  or  opening  through  which  in  early  life  the  te" 
ticle  passes  from  the  abdominal  cavity  uito  the  scrotum. 


See  Burial  01 


Oremo'na  (anciently  Creinenensis-ager,  a  Gallic  tribal  name), 
the  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name  in  Lombardy,  N. 
Italy,  on  the  Po,  46  miles  S,E.  of  Milan.  It  has  some  fine  build- 
ings, notably  a  splendid  cathedral,  which  has  a  clock-fewer 
(built  &om  754.  to  1284)  357  feet  high,  and  a  great  baptistery 
with  a  marble  vase  of  the  year  900.  C.  received  a  Roman 
colony  aig  B.C  (  soon  after  it  became  a  place  of  great  trade,  and 


yLaOOgle 


CBE 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ORE 


had  the  largest  amphitheatre  in  Upper  Italy.  Destroyed  by 
Vespasian,  it  did  not  regain  importance  till  tlie  middle  ages,  and 
'n  modem  times  it  has  again  declined.  It  has  manufactures  of 
iillt,  cotton,  and  earthenware,  and  was  formerly  famous  for  its 
violins  and  violin-sttings.  Hence  the  name  C.  became  a  general 
name  for  violins  made  at  C.     Pop.  (l  871), 28, 679. 

Orenel',  or  Orenelle"  (Fr.  crhskr,  'to  indent;'  from  the 
Lit.  crena,  '  a  notch '),  in  the  fortification  of  the  middle  ages, 
an  embrasure  in  the  battlements  of  a  castle  or  other  building, 
to  shelter  a  man  with  a  bow  iCnd  arrows,  or  some  other  weapon 
of  offence.    Buildings  so  provided  are  said  to  \x:.crendlaUi(. 

Crenelle,  or  Crenellated,  in  heraldry,  a  termused-to  describe-B 
charge  embattled,  or  drawn  like  the  .battlements  of  a  walL 

Oren'io  Acid  is  a  substance  occurring  in  cei 
springs,  and  was  discovered  by  pBerzelius.  CrenaEe 
is  a  frequent  ingredient  of  vegetable  mould.  C.  A.  is 
amorphous  substance,  said  to  have  the  composition 
the  formula  CijHijOg. 

Cre'ole  (Span,  criollo,  from  criar,  Lat.  creare,  ' 
word  used  in  S.  America,  Mexico,  or  the  W.  Indi 
one  born  in  any  of  those  countries,  but  who  is  of  E      pe 
traction.     It  is  sometimes  loosely  applied  to  a  mu 
tizo,  i.e.,  to  one  of  miied  blood  ;  but  this  is  not  itsp 

Ore'osote,  or  Kre'osote  (Gr.  kreas,  'flesh,'  a 
preserver '),  is  a  substance  much  used  as  an  antisep 
servative.  It  is  obtained  by  a  series  of  operations  m 
tar,  similar  to  those  by  which  Carbolic  Acid  (q.  -y.)  se  rated 
from  coal-tar.  Considerable  doubt  exists  as  to  th 
position  of  C,  and  indeed  it  is  not  certain  whefh 
linct  substance  or  a  mixture.  Much  of  the  C.  empl 
merce  is  simply  impure  carbolic  acid.  The  smok 
wood  owes  its  preservative  qualities  to  the  presenae 

CreoBOte  Plant.     SeeLAERBA. 

Creacen'do  (Ital.  '  growirlg'),  a  ipark  of  expres 
music  to  indicate  a  gradual  increase  of  loudness  un 
by  any  alteration  in  speed. 

Ores'cent  [Lat.  crescc 
the  moon  in  her  first  qua 
convex  edge.  The  C.  inontant,  that  is,  with  the  horns  upw!a\3s, 
which  is  the  symbol  of  (he  Turkish  Emmrc,  was  .originally  the 
arms  of  the  Byzantine  Emphe,  and  the  Turks,  when  they  over- 
threw that  empue,  adopted  it  as  their  chief -Jjearing. 

Crescent,  in  heraldry,  is  the  symbol  described  above,  and  is 
represented  as  montani,  inerescml,  or  decrescenl,  as  the  horns 
are  respectively  towards  the  chief,  the  dexter  side,  or  the  sinister. 
It  is  used  both  as  a  bearing  or  chaise,  and  as  a  mark  of  cadejicy 
or  difference. 

Oreacent,  Orders  of  the.  There  have  been  three  Q.  of 
the  C.  The  first  was  instituted  by  Carlo  L,  King  of  Naples  and 
Sicily,  in  I25S;  the  second,  by  Rene  Due  d'Anjou  in  -1448, 
the  badge  of  the  latter  being  a  gold  C,  with  the  words  Los  en 
croissant  ('Praise  by  increase')  enamelled  on  it;  the  third, 
which  is  still  in  existence,  was  established  by  the  Sultan  Selun 
III.  in  1801,  two  years  after  the  battle  of  Aboukir  He  had 
sent  a  C.  of  gold,  richly  mounted  with  diamonds,  to  Lord  Nel- 
son, which  the  English  admiral  wore,  calling  himself  occa^onally 
the  Knwht  of  the  C.  This  induced  the  Sultan  to  found  the 
order.  It  can  only  be  conferred  on  Christians,  since  Moham- 
medans are  forbidden  by  the  Koran  to  wear  such  decorations 

Crescent  Oity,  a  town  in  the  central  part  of  California,  in 
Tuolumne  county,  on  the  bants  of  the  Tuolumne  tjver,  a  branch 
of  the  San  Joaquin,  and  navigable  for  steamboats  10  miles  above 
the  town.  C.  C.  is  also  the  name  of  another  small  town  in  Cali- 
fornia, which  is  situated  on  the  Pacific,  and  has  a  pop.  of  458. 
It  is  also  the  popular  name  of  New  Orleans. 

Oreacentia'cesa,  the  Calabash  order,  a  natural  order  of  Corol- 
lifloral  Dicotyledonous  plants,  closely  allied  to  the  Bignoniacia, 
natives  of  tropical  and  sub- tropical  regions,  abounding  in  Mada- 
gascar, the  Manritius,  the  SeychelleSjand  other  islands  of  Eastern 
Africa,  between  30°  S.  and  30°  N.  The  order  is  also  represented 
in  America  and  Asia,  but  is  unknown  in  Europe  and  Australia. 
Altogether  thirty-four  species  and  eleven  geilera  are  described. 


Crescenlid,  Parmentkra,  Colea,  Kigelia,  &c.,  are  examples.  The 
properties  and  uses  of  the  order  are  unimportant.  The  fruit  of 
PamietitUra  edulis  (Quauhxilotl)  is  eaten  \y  the  Mexicans,  and 
that  of  P.  itrifera  (which  yields  wax,  and  from  the  fruit  being 
shaped  lilte  a  candle  is  called  the  '  candle-tree ')  by  cattle  in  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama.  The  fruits  of  Tanaecium  lUasmum  and  of 
Colea  Tdfairis  are  also  eaten.  The  wood  of  K^elia  pinnata  is 
used  for  canoes,  itc     See  Calabash-Tree. 

Orepi?,  a  name  given  to  many  plants,  the  pungent,  musfard- 
lilie  taste  of  which  makes  them  valued  as  salads.      The  1 
sometimes  Umited  to  the  genus  Lepidaim  (natural  ordi 
d/ers).     L.  sativum,  the   garden-C.  or  town-C.  is  a  n: 
Persia,  but  has  been  cultivated  '     ' ' 


d  f 


nfia 


r  Cm- 
native  of 
548.     It  is 

pepper), 
nt.     L. 

by  the 
andwich 


Thlaspi 


i  ^ 


bea 

Crest  (Lat.rjTjia,  .a  tuft,  peihaps  connected  witlii^r«c«r, 
grow'),  the  oiaaroent  which  was  placed  highest  on  a  hehnet. 
Herodotus  says  (he  Carians  were  the  rfirst  who  woBe  tufts  and 
feathers  in  this  manner.  In  classical  mythology  the  shield  of 
Minerva  bore  an  owl,  that  of  Mars  a  lion  or  tiger,  and  that  of 
Jupiter  Ammon  a  ram's  head.  Diodorus  Siculus  .asserts  that  the 
Kings  of  Egypt  bore  the  head  of  a  Eon,  a  bull,  or  a  dragon. 
Homer  describes  the  C.  as  made  of  hoise-hair,  in  which  he  i: 
followed  by  Virgil,  ^schylus,  in  the  Sezien  agaitist  Thihes, 
speaks  of  three  crests  on  one  helmet ;  and  Suidas  is  of  opinion 
that  Geryon  passed  for  having  thr^e  heads  because  he  wore  a 
triple  C,  Alexander  th^  Great;bore,a  ram's  head  to  snppott  his 
pretence  of  descent  from  Jupiter  Ammon,  Julius  Csesar  a  star  to 
indicate  his  relationship  to  Venits,  and  Pyrrhus  a  plume  between 
the  horns  of  a  goat.  In  the  Roman  army  the  C.  served  to  dis- 
tmgnish  the  various  centurions.  In  the  middle  ages  knights 
bore  a  plume  of  feathers,  generally  those  of  the  ostrich,  the  pea- 
Coc!c,iOr  the  heron,  Richai-d  I.  {Cceiir  di  Lien)  rendered  the 
hon  renowned  during  his  crusade.  Abont  the  linie  .of  Henry 
III.  the  C.  began  to  be  used  generally  as  a  .mark  .of.  distinct  ion ; 
hence  it  came  to  be  called  a  cognisance.  Jt  was  at  first  made  of 
light  material,  frequently  of  boiled  leather,  but  by  and  by  wood 
and  metal  were  employed,  and  the  C  became  smaller. 

In  medi;eTal  heraldry  the  C.  is  a  figure  or  device  used 
an  adjunct  to-the  shield,  and  represented  as  standing  on  a  cc 
net,  a  wreath,  or  a  cap  of  maintenance.  Though  soAietit 
identical  with,  it  is  generally  distinct  from,  (he  principal  charge 
on  the  shield.  The  dragon  and  (he  w^Tem  are  among  the  ear- 
liest .figures  borne  in  this  country.  The  li(»i  crowned,  now  the 
C.  of  the  royal  family,  was  first  assumed  by  King  Edward  III., 
wlio  fdsobore  an  eagle  or  raven.  The  Panache  (q.  v.)  alone,  and 
with  the  heads  of  various  animals,  appeared  early.  Fantastic 
emblems  soon  began  to  be  used  as  crests.  That  of  the  Duke 
of  Hamilton  is  said  to. commemorate  the  escape  of  Sir  Gilbert 
Hamilton,  in  1323,  in  the  di^uise  of  a  woodcutter.  The  C. 
of  the  Earls  of  Warwick  of  the  Beauchamp  family— the  last 
of  whom  died  in  1445 — is  a  bear,  muiiled  and  collared,  with  n 
ragged  staff  in  its  forepaws.      In  the   14th  c.  the  coronet, 


vLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


eath,  and  llie  cap  bsgan  to  be  emblazoned  under  the  C. ;  but 
the  C.-coroiiet  muM  be  uistinguished  from  one  indicating  princely 
or  royal  rank.  The  earliest  wreath  known  to  lieraldists  is 
engraved  on  the  memorial  brass  to  Su:  Hugli  Hastings  at 
Elsyng,  Norfolk,  and  dated  1347.  Tlie  wreitli  which  is  now 
gensrSly  used  consists  of  two  stripes  of  ribbon  twisted  into  a 
cord,  and  tinctured  with  the  principal  metal  and  colottr  of 
the  arms — the  first  coil  beLug  metal  and  the  second  colour. 
Heraldists  regard  the  significance  of  a  bearing  on  tlie  shield  as 
complete  without  the  C  ;  and  it  has  even  been  asserted  that  the 
latter  is  a  personal  bearing  only,  and  not  hereditary.  Early  and 
general  usage,  however,  pronounce  the  C.  to  !»  hereditary,  lilte 
the  coat-of-arms,  the  inventions  of  seal-engravers  and  coach- 

Sainters  being  disregarded.  See  Fairbairn's  Cresti  of  the  Fanii- 
a  of  Great  Britaia  and  Ireland  (T.  C.  Jack,  Edinb.  2  vols. 
i860). 

OrMte,  or  Great,  in  architecture,  an  ornamental  finishing, 
such  as  a  battlement  or  a  row  of  Tudor  flowers,  surmounting  a 
screen,  canopy,  or  other  similarly  subordinate  part  of  a  building. 
The  term  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  finial  of  a  gable  or  pin- 

Crest'ed,  in  heraldry,  indicates  that  the  comb  of  a  cock,  or 
other  bird,  is  of  a  different  tincture  from  the  body.  See  BaHBEU 
AND  Ckested,  Wattled  and  Combed. 

OresVicb,  Thomas,  K.A.,  an  English  landscape-painter, 
was  born  at  Sheffield,  iSii,  manifested  in  early  youth  a  feeling 
for  art,  to  gratify  which  he  removed  to  London  in  1828,  and  in 
the  same  year  exhibited  two  landscapes  in  the  Royal  Academy, 
of  which  he  was  elected  to  the  Associateship  in  1842,  and  to  the 
full  honours  ui  1851.  Sweetness  of  association  and  suggestion, 
together  with  an  almost  rigid  fidelity  to  nature — from  which  he 
invariably  painted  direct — are  the  characteristics  of  his  works, 
among  the  chief  of  whidi  are  '  The  Course  of  the  Grela,'  '  The 
London  Road  a  Century  Ago,'  '  Home  by  the  Sands,'  and  '  The 
Weald  of  Kent.'     C.  died  December  28,  1869. 

Creta'ceoiifi  or  Glialk  Rooks,  a  group  or  series  of  rocks 
belonging  to  the  Secondary,  Mesozoic  or  '  middle  life '  period, 
lying  above  the  Oolite  or  Jurassic  ^stem,  and  being  topped  in 
its  turn  by  the  Eocene  rocks,  or  eailiest  formations  belonging  to 
the  Kainozoic  or  Tertiary  rocks.  The  name  'C.'is  given  to 
these  roolts  from  the  very  general  occurrence  of  chalk  in  them. 
The  following  are  the  leading  divisions  of  this  system,  as  recog- 
nised in  Europe  and  America  ; — 

(I.   Maestrichl  beds. 

■^    Chalk. 


,,         ^      j3.  Chalk. 
Upper  C.      -j^^   Upper  Grcensand. 
(4.  Gault. 


Lower  C. 

The  Wealden  beds  derive  their  name  in  England  from  their 
special  development  in  the  Wealds  of  Surrey,  Sussex,  and  Kent. 
Their  lower  portion  is  known  as  the  Hastings  Sands,  and  attains 
a  thickness  of  from  500  to  1000,  feet.  iJie  upper  portion  is 
argillaceous  or  clayey,  with  sand  and  limestone  layers.and  is  from 
1 50  to  300  feet  thick.  The  Lower  Greensand  or  Neocomtan  in 
Britain  is  about  850  feet  thick,  and  consists  of  sandstones  and 
clays,  the  former  sometimes  of  green  colour  from  the  presence  of 
iron  silicate.  The>jH7i  of  the  Wealden  are  fluviatile  in  nature, 
and  consist  of  fresliwater  mussels,  paludinre  or  river  snails,  and 
the  like.  Those  of  the  Greensand  are  of  marine  origin,  and  con. 
sisl  of  shell  and  cuttlefish  remains.  The  Gault  occurs  in  the  S.  K 
of  England,  and  never  exceeds  100  feet  in  thickness.  Tlie  Upper 
Greensand  varies  in  thickness  from  3  to  100  feel,  and  consists  of 
sands  and  clays.  The  true  Chalk,  composed  of  chalk-matl,  while 
chalk  without  flints,  and  C.  with  flints,  is  well  developed  in  the 
S.  of  England  particularly,  and  is  an  extensive  rock  series.  The 
Maestricht  beds  occiu'  in  Holland,  and  consist  of  yellowish  lime- 
stotle  about  100  feet  in  thickness.  In  N.  America  the  Lower 
C  R.  are  hardly  represented.  The  Upper  C.  R.  occur  in  the 
United  States.  Foraminifera.  (q.  v.)  are  largely  represented  in 
the  Chalk,  the  true  Chalk  containmg  those  shells  especially. 
Corals,  Eihinaderms,  a  few  Crustacea,  many  molluscs,  fishes, 
reptiles,  and  birds  also  occur,  but  no  mammals  whatever  are 


Crete  (Gr.  Kreta,  Mod.  Gr.  KHti,  Turk.  Kmd,  Ital.  Candia, 
from  Arab.  AVwna'rt;, '  a  trench '),  an  island  and  vilayet  of  Tur- 
key, in  the  Mediterranean,  to  llie  S.  of  the  .^gean  Sea,  has  an 
area  of  3290  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1S64)  of  235,000,  of  whom 
162,000  are  Greeks  and  Jews,  and  38,000  Motuimmedans.  It 
is  160  miles  long  from  E.  to  W.,  and  has  a  breadth  of  from 
6  to  3S  miles,  while  the  coast,  especially  along  the  N.,  is 
indented  by  many  deep  bays.  A  mountain  range  traverses  the 
island,  culminating  in  the  three  groups  of  Spliakia  (Sioo  feet) 
in  the  W.,  Pselonti  (8060  feet)  in  the  centre,  and  Lasithi(7ioo 
feet)  in  the  E.,  and  receiving  in  part  the  name  Lead-  from 
the  ancients  on  account  of  the  formation  being  of  a  whitish- 
tinted  marble.  Tliere  are  few  rivers  of  any  size,  but  the 
island  contains  innumerable  springs.  The  climate  is  mild  and 
healthy.  One-half  of  the  soil  is  cultivated,  yielding  olives, 
Valonea  nuts,  locust  beans,  wine,  tobacco,  cotton,  silk,  &c.  In 
1 874  the  exports,  chiefly  olive  oil  and  soap,  amounted  to  i27i,9oa 
Cauea  (q.  v.)  is  the  capital,  and  the  only  other  pkces  of  note 
are  the  seaports  Candia  and  Retimo,  the  former  of  which  had  a 
pop.  of  some  l5,otX)  previous  to  1866,  when  it  was  in  great  part 
destroyed  by  storming.  Besides  the  zaptife  or  police,  there  are 
some  4000  r^ular  troops,  the  support  of  which,  together  with 
the  fortifying  of  Sudra  Bay  and  the  maintenance  of  a  few  forts, 
have  swallowed  up  the  public  fiinds.  The  mule-roads  of  the 
interior  are  at  times  almost  impassable,  and  no  attempt  is  now 
made  to  replace  bridges  destroyed  by  the  winter  torrents. 
Modern  Greek  is  the  prevailing  language.  In  early  times  this 
island  was  called  Idsa,  and  in  the  mythic  age  it  was  said  to  hi 
been  ruled  by  Saturn,  Jupiter,  Minos,  &c.  The  birthplace  and 
tomb  of  Jupiter  were  shown  by  '  the  lying  Cretans.'  During 
the  heroic  period  tlie  uJand  was  visited  by  Dorian  inv^deis, 
who  later  made  it  the  headquarters  of  the  worship  of  Apollo 
The  Homeric  poems  speak  of  the  '  ninety  cities '  of  C ,  and 
long  subsequently  the  inhabitants  were  still  gathered  into  inde 
pendent  and  often  hostile  towns.  Afterwards  Cnossus,  &or 
tyna,  and  Cydonia  (Kanea)  became  centres  of  states.  C.  held 
aloof  from  Greece  during  llie  historic  period,  was  conquered  by 
the  Romans  B.C.  67,  attached  to  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
empire  on  its  division  (364A.D.},  came  into  tlie  possession  of 
the  Arabs  in  823,  of  the  Byzantine  Greeks  once  more  in  961, 
of  the  Venetians,  by  purchase,  in  1204,  of  the  Turlcs,  after 
twenty-four  yeare'  fighting,  in  1668.  Various  unsuccessful 
attempts  have  been  made  to  throw  off  the  Turkish  yoke  and  to 
unite  C.  to  Greece,  the  latest  and  most  determined  effort  being 
that  of  1866-69.  See  Pashley,  Travels  in  C.  (2  vols.  Lend. 
1S37);  Raulin,  DescHft.  Phys.  de  PIU  de  Crile  [2  vols.  Par.  1867) ; 
Alexanian,  La  Tui-quie  el  la  Crlle  {1867). 

Cre'tiniam..     See  Cagots. 

Creuae,  a  central  department  of  France,  in  the  basin  of  the 
Loire,  has  an  area  of  2153  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1872)  of 
274,663,  The  country  is  hifly  in  the  S.,  where  it  adjoins  the 
mountain-land  of  Auvergne.  The  diief  products  are  rye,  buck- 
wheat, oats,  potatoes  ;  but  the  soil  in  many  parts  is  best  fitted 
for  pasturage,  and  cattle- rearing  is  the  cliiet  employment  of  the 
inhabitants,  numbers  of  whom  migrate  to  other  parts  of  France 
in  searcli  of  work.  C.  is  divided  into  the  arrondissements  of 
Aubusson,  Bourganenf,  Boussac,  and  Gu^reL  The  chief  town 
is  Gudret. 

The  river  C,  rising  in  Uie  S.E.  of  the  department  of  the  sa 
name,  pursues  a  N.W.  direction  for  14S  miles,   and  joins 
Vienne  about  30  miles  above  the  confluence  of  the  latter  with 
the  Loire. 

Oreuz'er,  Georg  Friedricli,  a  German  antiquary,  born  al 
Marburg,  10th  March  1771,  and  studied  at  Jena.  He  became 
Professor  of  Rhetoric  at  Marburg  in  1S02,  of  Philology  and 
Ancient  Histoiy  at  Heidelbei^  from  1804  to  1S48,  and  died  ijth 
February  1858.  His  greatest  work,  Sym&olii  and  Mytlwlogie 
der  aiten  VSlker,  besondtrs  der  Griechm  (4  vols.  Leips.  1810-12), 
of  which  an  enlarged  edition  (6  vols.)  appeared  at  Leipsic 
(1820-23),  involved  him  in  a  controversy  with  G.  Hermann. 
The  grossly  personal  attack  of  Voss  C.  did  not  reply  to.  Among 
his  other  numerous  works  was  a  complete  edition  of  Plotinus 
(3  vols.  4to,  Oif.  1835),  a  task  for  which  he  was  eminently  quali- 
fied by  bis  knowledge  of  the  Neo- Platonic  philosophy.  During 
1837-47  he  published  a  partial  collection  of  his  wrili  " 
(Deutseke  Schriften)  in  9  vols.,  the  last  of  which  contains  C'sai 


yUoogle 


ORE 


?'S£  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CEI 


biography,  Aus  dim  Leben  tines  alien  Piofissors.  A  second  edi- 
tion was  published  at  Paris,  illustrated  by  extracts  from  Por- 
pliyrius  and  Proclus.  His  Opitsmla  SeUcia  appeared  in  1854. 
See  also  Paralipomsna  da-  Lebensskisie  ernes  alten  Frofissors 
(Frankf.  1858). 

Oreuzot,  Le,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  SaSne- 
5l-Loire,  about  20  miles  W.  of  Chalons-sur-SaSue.  It  lies  in  a 
district  rich  in  coal  and  iron,  and  owes  its  immense  prosperity 
to  the  enterprise  of  the  Jate  M.  Sciineider,  President  of  the 
French  Coi-ps  Legislatif  under  the  Empire.  The  ironworks 
founded  hyhim  are  among  the  most  extensive  in  the  worlii ; 
there  are  foundries,  engineers'  works,  and  cannon  factories. 
Locomotives,  anchors,  and  all  the  heaviest  iron  manufactures 
aie  produced.  About  6000  men  are  employed  in  these  works. 
There  is  also  a  large  glasswotk.     Pop.  (1873)  20,011. 

3rew,  Slup's  (Old  Eng.  crudh,  '  a  crowd  '),  the  company  of 
n  belonging  to  a  ship,  vessel,  or  boat.  The  phrase  may  in- 
clude the  master  and  all  the  officers,  but  usually  it  denotes  the 
non-commissioned  officeis  and  seamen  only.  The  C  of  a  man- 
of-war  is  divided  into  subordinate  and  warrant  officers,  chief 
petty  officers,  iirst-class  working  petty  officers,  second-class 
^orking  petty  officere,  and  all  below  the  last.  Besides  this  five- 
ild  classification  there  are  smaller  gronps,  each  called  a  C, 
under  the  immediate  orders  of  the  boatswain,  the  cockswain, 
the  carpenter,   the  cooper,  &c     In  the  merchant 


list' 


STf 


0  the  ci 


author 


tails,   and    also   within   forty-eight    hours    after   his   a 


s  befori 


L   Cheshire   which  0 


homi 

Crewe  ('the  cross'),  a 
existence  and  prosperity  to  its  being  a  central  station  of  several 
important  railways.  Tlie  London  and  North- Western  Railway 
Company  have  here  their  works  for  the  construction  of  carriages 
and  locomotives,  and  for  the  repairing  of  plant.  In  1840  C. 
consisted  of  only  a  few  houses ;  in  1871  the  pop.  was  17,81a 
The  Church  of  St  Michael  is  a  fine  Gothic  structure,  and  there 
is  a  good  Meclianics'  Institute. 

Orew^eme  ('the  place  of  the  cross'),  a  town  of  Somerset- 
shire, 1 5  miles  S.E.  of  Taunton,  and  a  station  on  the  Yeovil  and 
Exeter  branch  of  the  London  and  South- Western  Railway.'  It 
'"""  "n  a  wooded  and  fertile  vale,  not  far  from  the  river  Parret, 
I  fine  church  (St  Bartholomew),  and  a  grammar-school 
founded  by  John  de  Coombe  in  1449,  and  some  manufactures  of 
sailcloth,  sacking,  dowlas,  and  stodcings.     Pop.  (1S71)  3557. 

Cribb'age,  a  popular  game  played  with  cards,  in  which  gene- 
rally two  complete  packs  are  employed,  and  the  points  made 
are  marked  with  pegs  wliich  fit  into  holes  arranged  on  the  top 
of  the  box  used  for  holding  the  C.  cavds.  The  game  is  interest- 
ing from  the  great  variety  of  chances  it  offers,  and  at  the  same 
lime  it  affords  considerable  opportunity  for  calculation  and  for 
the.  exercise  of  judgment. 

Orich.toii,  James,  known  on  account  of  his  learning  and 
accomplishments  as  '  The  Admirable  C. , '  was  bom  at  Elliock, 
in  Diunfriesshire,  August  19,  1560.  He  was  the  son  of 
Robert  Crichton  of  Elliock,  Perthshire,  who  for  a  time  held 
the  office  of  Lord  Advocate,  and  on  the  mother's  side  was 
d  d  f  Kng  Robert  11.  C.  was  educated  at  the 
rs  S    Andrews,  where  he  was  taught  by  Buchanan, 

ac        mg         he  popular  story,  made  such  prc^ess  that, 
ag  een,   he  had  mastered  ten  languages,  tie 

sciences,  and  all  the  accomplishments  of  a 
od.     C.  repaired  to  the  Continent  (1580),  and, 
e  to  be  believed,  vanquished  in  disputations 
R  nice,  Padua,  and  Mantua,  all. who  ventured 

un  in  eloquence  and  knowledge.  He  was 
n  the  tilting  ring.  At  Mantua  he  killed  in 
master  of  fence,  who  had  vanquished  all 
consequence  of  this  the  Duke  of  Mantua 
to  his  son  VmcenM  di  Goniago,  a  dissolute 
youth.  Durmg  the  Carnival  of  1583,  C  was  assailed  by  a 
band  of  masked  assassins  at  night,  and,  after  a  strugg  st  h 
life  (Tuly  3).     It  was  believed  at  the  time  that  it  was  h       wn 

EupiTs  hand  that  slew  him.    Some  of  C.'s  Latm  po  ms  n 

ut  possess  no  merit.  See  Tytler's  Lifi  of  C.  (Edinb  89  d 
1823),  and  Relatione  delta  malita  de  Jacomo  di  Cretonn  pnn  ed 
at  Milan  1830-31,  from  a  MS.  dated  1581. 


-if- 


Orick'et  [Gryllm),  a  genus  of  sallatorlal  or  leaping  Orthop- 
tcrous  insects,  belonging  to  the  family  Acheliua  (or  Gryllina). 
The  antennse  are  slender,  tapering,  and  very  long.  The  wings 
are  laid  flat  alongj  the  back  in  repose.  The  hinder  wings  are 
very  long,  and  project  beyond  the  fiiint  vrings  (which  form  elytra 
- ' when  folded).     Tlie  abdomen  m  both  s( 


vided  with  two  caudal  bristles,  and  the  females  r 


s  ovipo- 


three-jointed.  The  hind-legs,  i 
Sallaioria,  are  greatly  elon- 
gated for  leaping.  Tiie  chirp 
of  the  C  is  made  by  means  ■  '  "" 
a  serrated  plate  situated  c 
each  wii^-cover,  the  friction 
of  these  plates  producing  the 

well-known  sound.     G.  or  A.  " 

domestica  is  the  familiar  or  common  C.  The  field-C.  (A. 
campestris)  is  another  species;  the  Mole-C.  Cq.  v.)  [Grylletalpa 
vulgaris)  is  also  a  femiliar  member  of  thb  ftimily. 

Cricket  (of  doubtful  derivation,  but  perhaps  connected  with 
the  Old  Eng,  eric,  '  a  staff,  a  ctook ')  is  one  of  the  most  thor- 
oughiy  national  and  popular  of  sports.  The  fii-st  mention  of  it 
under  its  present  name  is  towards  the  close  of  the  17th  c  ;  but 
it  seems  to  have  been  a  modification  of  the  more  ancient  'club- 
ball.'  The  southern  and  south-eastern  counties  of  England  have 
long  been  noted  for  their  enthusiastic  attachment  to  the  game, 
which  vras  very  much  confined  to  these  districts  at  the  begin- 
ning of  this  century ;  but  so  rapid  has  been  its  spread-  of  late 
years,  that  there  is  scarcely  a  town,  village,  or  school  through- 
out Great  Britain  which  does  not  boast  of  its  C.-c!ub.  In  the 
colonies  and  United  States,  too,  wherever  tlie  English  language 
is  spoken,  it  is  steadily  gaining  ground. 

TTie  requisite  implements  are  wickets,  bats,  and  a  ball.  The 
wickets,  six  m  number,  are  '  pitched '  in  two  sets  of  three  each, 
the  distoce  between  the  sets  being  22  yards.  During  the  pro- 
gress of  a  game  the  centres  of  interest  are  the  batsmen,  who, 
bat  in  hand,  stand  each  before  one  Set  of  wickets.  They  are 
the  only  members  of  their  side  who  are  at  that  moment  en- 
gaged in  the  game ;  the  members  of  the  other  side  are  disposed 
in  various  positions,  as  bowler,  wicket-keeper,  and  fielders. 
From  the  one  set  of  wickets  the  bowler  delivers  the  ball  to- 
vrards  the  other,  with  the  object  of  hitting  it ;  and  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  batsman  to  prevent  this,  as  far  as  lies  in  his  power,  by 
stopping  the  ball  with  his-  bat,  or,  if  possible,  by  hitting  it  to 
some  vacant  place  in  the  field,  thus,  perhaps,  gaining  time  to  ex- 
change  places  with  the  other  batsman  before  the  ball  is  returned, 
and  scoring  a  'mn.'  If,  however,  the  ball  when  delivered  by 
the  bowler  should  strike  the  wickets,  or  if,  though  hit  by  the  bat, 
it  should  be  held  by  some  fielder  before  it  fourfl  the  ground,  or 
if  it  should  be  returned  to  either  end  of  tlie  pitch,  and  should  hit 
the  wickets  before  the  batsman  has  arrived  there, — -in  these  cases 
the  batsman  is  '  out,'  and  must  retire  and  give  place  to  another. 
The  wicket-keeper  stands  behind  the  wickets  towards  which  the 
bowler  bowls,  and  his  duty  is  to  stop  the  ball  if  it  should  pass 
both  batsman  and  wickets,  and  to  receive  it  when  returned  from 
the  field,  The  latest  innovation  in  the  method  of  play  is  the 
now  almost  universal  adoption  of  the  round-hand  style  of  bowling 
in  preference  to  the  original  ii?ider-ha?id  style.  In  the  foimer 
style  the  baE  is  delivered  with  the  hand  and  arm  raised  above 
or  to  tlie  same  height  as  the  shoulder  ;  in  the  latter,  the  arm  is 
kept  close  to  the  side,  and  always  below  the  shoulder. 

The  much  greater  speed  of  bowUng  which  is  possible  with  the 
round-hand  style,  has  necessitated  the  improvement  of  leg-guards 
(pads)  and  gloves  for  both  batters  and  wicket-keeper. 

The  maximum  dimensions  of  bat,  wicket,  and  ball,  the  length' 
of  the  pitch,  &C.,  are  fixed  by  the  authority  of  the  Marylebone 
C.-Club ;  and  only  by  its  council  can  any  change  be  made.  It 
has  lately  been  sn^ested  to  increase  the  length  of  the  wickets  by 
an  inch  or  so,  since  the  science  of  batting  is  cultivated  to  such 
a  greater  extent  than  that  of  bowling,  and  the  scores  made  by 
individual  batsmen  reach  such  high  numbers,  that  it  seems  almost 
impossible  for  a  match  of  importance  to  be  completed  within 
w  d  y  There  is  little  question,  however,  that  the  lai^e 
m  m  instances  are  due  as  much  to  indifferent  fielding 
as  11         batting.       This   is,  indeed,   one    of  the   great 

■dm  ro  ng  gentlemen-players  ;   and  much  of  the  success 

g    h      professional  elevens  may  be  attributed  to  their 

g  pe  or  proficiency  in  the  field.    The  visits  of  the 


vLaOogle 


CRI 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


'  All  England  Eleven,'  the  pick  of  Englisli  professionals,  to 
different  parts  of  Biiliun  and  the  Colonies,  have  done  much  to 
popularise  the  game.  For  a  detailed  account  of  the  laws,  bye- 
kws,  disposal  ol  the  field  according  to  the  nature  of  the  bowling, 
the  reader  must  refer  to  one  of  the  many  handbooks  on  the 
subject,  of  which,  perhaps,  the  best  are  The  G.-Ficld  (Lond. 
Longmans),  Lillywhite's  Guide  to  Cricketers,  (Lond.  Kent  &  Co.), 
and  Lillywhite's  Annual,  which  contains  accounts  of  the  leading 
clubs  throughout  tlie  kingdom,  with  noticesof  tJieir  more  im- 
portant matches. 

Cricklade,  an  ancient  town  of  Wiltshire>  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Thames,  40  miles  N,  of  Salisbury,  has  a  fine  church  (St 
Mary)  in  the  Normal  style.  It  has  an  imporlant  monthly 
market  for  fat  cattle.  It  returns  two  members  to  Pariiam^nt. 
Pop.  (1871}  6923;  of  the  parliamentary  borough,  which  in- 
cludes part  of  Gloucestershire,  43,622. 

Cricoid  Cartilage,  one  of  the.  cartilages. of  the  larynx.  See 
Laeynx. 

Crieff  (Gael.  Crmbh,  'a  tree '),  a  town  and  parish-  in  Perth- 
shire, beautifully  situated  at  tiie-foot  of  the  Grampians,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Earti,  17  miles  W.  of  Perth,  On  account  of  its 
line  climate  it  is  much  frequented  by  invalids.  Its  chief 
buildings  are  Morrison's  Academy,  Taylor's  Institution)  the 
hydropathic  establishment,  and  the  Masons'  Hall,  besides  many 
fine  mansions  in  the  neighbourhood,  of  which  Drummond 
Castle,  with  its  curious  gardens,  Ochtertyre,  and  Fenitower, 
are  the  most  noteworthy.  Not  far  off,  in  the  picturesque  Glen 
Almond,  is  Trinity  College  (1847),  lor  students  of  the  Episcopal 
commuiiiOTi.  A  branch- line,  opened  in  1856,  connects  C.  with  the 
Perth  and  Stirling  Railway,  The  chief  industries  are  the  tanning 
of  leather  and  the  manufacture  of  coarse  linens  and  worsteds. 
Pop.  (i-S^F)  4153.  Lying  as  it  does  on  the  edge  of  tlie  High- 
lands, C.  was  a  suitable  place  in  past  times  to  inflict  jnstice  on 
the  marauders  ftom  the  hills.  The  '  kind  gallows  of  C, '  where 
the  Earls  of  Strathearneitecuted  their  sentences,  stood  on  a  knoll 
to  the  W.  of  the  town.  Among  the  places  in  the  neighbourhood 
interesting  from  their  beauty  or  their  associations,  are  the  '  Sma' 
Glen, 'St  Fillans,  and  Loch  Eani. 

GrilFon,  Lonis  de  B^on  des  Balbes,  known,  as  'Tlie 
Brave,'  a  singularly  chivalrous  warrior,  was  bom  at  Murs,  Fro- 
vence,.in  1541.  Trained  to  arms  under  the  Due  de  Guise,  he 
obtained,  at  an  early  age  a  reputation  for  bravery,  distingnishing 
himself  especially  at  the  siege  of  Calais  and  the  capture  of 
Guines.  He  became  a  great  iavonrite  both  with  Henri  II.  and 
Henri  IIL,  ami  was  rewarded  for  his  services  with  a  number  of 
Church  benefices.  In  the  r6th  c  he  took  the  side  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  against  the  Huguenots,  fighting  agaiiast  the 
latter  at  Dreux,  JjunaCf.  and  Montcontour  ;  but  he  had  no  share 
in  the  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew,  and  was  opposed  to  the 
Catholic  League,  After  some  years  of  devotion.and  penance,  he 
died  at  Avignon,.  JDeceniber  2,  1615.  No  soldier  of  his  lime  has 
been  more  eulogised  for.  his  bravery  than  C.  See  L'Abb^  de 
C's  Vie  de  Laitis  dis  Balbes  de  Berlon  de  C,  &c..  (Par.  1S25), 
Serviez'  Histoire  ^  brave  C.  (Par.  1844),  and  Montrond's  His- 
toiredu  brave  C.  (Par.  1S45}. 

Orinie  is  a  violation  or  disregard  of  public  law  of  a  certain 
gravity.  It  may  be  divided  into  three  brandies — Treason 
(q.  v.).  Felony  (q..  v.},  and  Misdemeanour  (q.  v.).  Any  act 
coming  under  either  of  tliese  three  divisions  forms  the  subject  of 
Indictment  (q.  v.)  and  of  trial  by  jury.  Muior  offences  which 
are  not  crimes  ara  subject  to  tile  summary  jurisdiction  of  the 
magistracy,  without  indictment  or  jury.  There  is  no  permanent 
characteristic,  of  C^ — one  country  and  one  age  holding  an  act  to 
be  innocent,  perhaps  praiseworthyr^hich  another  age  or  another 
country  holda  to  be  highly  criminal  Malice  or  evil  intention 
is  often  the  essence  of  C,  and  is  in  all  cases  an  aggravation  of 
it ;  yet  C.  may  be  committed  without  malice  by  culpable  care, 
lessness  (see  Citlfa,.  Dote),  or  even  simply  from  ignorance  ol 
the  law.  (See  Bona  Fidis,  Isnokance  of  the  Law.)  Thus 
carelessness  on  the  part  of  a  railway  official  or  the  captain  of 
a  ship,  if  it  lead  to  disaster,  is  criminal.  So  might  it  be  held 
criminal  to  destroy  a  will,  even  though  under  the  belief  that 
to  do  was  of  no  consequence. 

Infants  under  seven  years  of  age,  and  insane  persons,  : 
legally  incapable  of  C.      The  degree  of  insanity  necessary  for 
exculpation  can  never  be  defined.     Compulsion  (q.  v.)  is  a     "" 


cient  defence,  if  clearly  proved,  against  a  criminal  charge.  Ex- 
treme want  is  not  an  exculpation,  but  it  is  good  ground  on 
which  to  found  a  recommendation  to  mercy. 

Intention  to  commit  a  C,  such  intention  having  conse- 
quence, is  criminal  to  the  degree  of  the  intention  ;  tlius,  if  A, 
intending  to  shoot  B,  shoot  C,  A  commits  a  C.  eqttal  to  kill- 
ing B.  Intention  to  commit  C.  is  criminal,  but  to  prove  inten- 
tion there  must  be  some  act  Such  acts  are  punishable,  but  not 
necessarily  to  the  same  extent  as  the  meditated  C.  But  this 
rule  of  common  law  as  to  proof  of  criminal  intention  is  modified 
under  certain  statutes,  by  which  it  is  declared  that  certain  cir- 
cumstances,, without  action,  shall  be  held  to  prove  criminal  inten- 
tion against  any  one,,  who  shall  be  punishable  accordingly. 
For  example,  "by  24  and  25  Vict.  c.  96,  it  is  declared  that  any 
one  having  in  his  possession,  without  lawful  excuse,  any  crowbar 
or  other  implement  of  housebreaking,  shall  be  guilty  of  a  mis- 
demeanour ;  the  presumption  here  being  that  there  is  proof  of 
intention  to  commit  buiglary,.  bui^lary  being  felony. 

Crime'a  (anc  ChersQiusus  Tsurica),  a  peninsula  in  the  S.  of 
Russia,  almost  wholly  surrounded  by  the  waters  of  the  Black 
Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Azof,  and  connected  with  the  mainland  by 
the  narrow  isthmus  of  Perdcop,  -which  varies  m  breadth  from  7 
to  12  miles.  It  farms  part  of  the  Government  of  Tanrida  (q.  v.), 
and  has  an  area  of  7650  sq,  miles,  with  a  coast-line  of  about  650 
miles.  The  S.  E.  coast  is  bold  and  predpitous ;  but  the  N.E 
low  and  broken,  and  washed  by  the  Sea  of  Aiof,  a  portion 
which,  almost  separated  from  the  greater  mass  of  water  by  the  long 
narrow  tongue  of  land  known  as  the  peninsula  of  Arabat,  forms 
the  stagnant  Sivash  {^Irid)  Sea,  which  gives  rise  to  strong 
and  offensive  smells,  and  sometimes  even  dries  up  from  the 
evaporation  produced  by  the  intense  summer  heat.    The  northern 

Eorlion  of  the  C.  is  a  low,  barren  waste,  abounding  in  numerous 
.kes  and  marshes  of  salt,  which  forms  one  of  the  staple  exports 
of  the  country.  The  southern  district,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
riQh,  beautiful,  and  hilly,  producing  grain,  olives,  grapes,  and 
even  oranges,  and  richly  adorned  with  the  summer  mansions 
the  Russian  emperor  and  nobles.  The  highest  peaks  are  ..„ 
Kimal  Agerek  (5000  feet)  and  Tchatyr  Dagh  (4983  feet).  The 
present  capital  is  Simferopol  (q.  v.),  m  the  ulterior.  The  other 
chief  towns  are  Baktshiserai,  Sebastopol,  Karasubazar,  Kafia, 
Kertch,  and  Perekop.  C.  formed  a  Tartar  Khanat  under  Turkey 
from  1478  to  1783,  when  it  was  subdued  by  Russia.  Two-thirds 
of  the  inhabitants  are  Tartars.  The  place  is  especially  interest- 
ing as  the  scene  of  the  most  important  events  of  the  war  in 
r854-5SbetweenRussiaand  the  allied  French,  English,  Turkish, 
and  Sardinian  armies.  See  Kinglake'a. -ffiito^' "^ '**  ^''^""'''' 
oj  the  Crimea  (Lond.  1863-75),  and.  Todleben's  Ddfeiue  ' 
SiwasteJ«tl  (St  Petersb.  1864'. 

Ori'menllepetaiidartim,  a  term  of  Roman  law,  indicating 
the  crime  of  acceptance  of  a  bribe  by  a  judge.     See  BARRATRY, 

Bribery, 

Criminal,  one  who  has  been  convicted  of  a  crime.  The  ac- 
cused is  sometimes  called  the  culprit  or  delinquent  in  England  ; 
in  Scotland  he  is  called  the  Panel  (q.  v,).  See  Accessary  ok 
Accessory. 

Criminal  Courts.     For  England,  see  AasKE ;  Nisi  PRius ; 

guARTER  Sessions,  Generai.!  Criminal  Court,  Central. 
sr  Scotland,  see  Assize  ;  Justiciakv,  Court  of. 

Criminal  Court,  Cmtral,  of  the  Old  Bailey,  is  for  the  trial  of 
crimes  and  offences  committed  in  the  metropolis  and  in  adja- 
cent districts.  The  sessions  are  held  twelve  times  a  year  a 
least,,  and  oftener  if  required.  Offences  on  the  high  seas  may  be 
tried  at  this  court. 

Criminal  Coiit/ersalion  is  the  legal  term'  in  actions  of  Divorce 
(q-.  v.)  for  the  C  intercourse  of  the  person  against  whom  the 
action  is  brought.     See  Adultery. 

Criiainal  Infonitatton.     See  Information. 

.  Criminal  Laso.    See  Crime,  with  articles  referred  to  therein  ; 

also  Criminal  Statutes  Consolidation  Acts. 

Criminal  Let/er^s. — In  Scotkind,  a  criminal  may  be  brought 
before  the  Court  of  Justiciary  eitheii  by  indictment  or  by  C.  L. 
These  riin  in  the  name  of  the  sovereign,  and  contain  a  warrant 
for  citing  the  witnesses  and  jury. 

CrimmalProeedum.  See  Arraignment,  Bait,  COMMITMENT 
BOR  Trial,  Indictment,  Information.  The  accused  havinj 

fused  to  answer,  or  pleaded  Not  Guiliy,  a  jury  is  sworn,  the  ind 


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meiit  opened,  the  eyidence  arraigned,  examined,  and  enforced 
by  the  counsel  foi-  flie  prosecution.  The  accused  tlien  makes  liis 
defence,  eiamining  or  cross-examining  witnesses  by  his  counsel 
or  attorney.  When  the  case  for  the  prosecution  is  closed,  the 
counsel  for  the  prisoner  addresses  the  jury,  and  he  may  examine 
witnesses  for  the  defence.  If  he  do  so,  unless  the  witness  be  to 
the  character  of  the  prisoner,  the  prosecuting  counsel  has  the 
right  to  reply.  The  judge  then  sums  up,  and  the  jury  deliberate 
on  their  Verdict  (q.  v.),  till  which  be  given  they  cannot  be  dis- 
charged. If  they  find  the  prisoner  not  guilty,  he  is  Uberaled. 
If  tbey  find  him  guilty,  he  is  said  to  be  convicted.  When  the 
chaise  is  capital  (see  Capital  Punishment),  the  prisoner  is 
then  asked  if  he  has  any  i-eason  to  give  why  judgment  should  not 
be  awarded  against  him.  If  he  has  nothing  to  say  in  Arrest  of 
Judgment  {q.  v.),  the  judge  pronounces  sentence.  If  there  be  no 
reversal  of  judgment  by  any  proceeding  in  error,  the  only  other 
way  of  avoiding  execution  cf  sentence  is  by  a  Reprieve  or 
Pardon  (see  those  articles,  also  Execution  and  Executionek). 
The  above  description  of  C.  P.  applies  to  England.  While 
essentially  the  same  in  Scotland,  the  forms  in  that  country  are 
somewhat  different.  Re^rding  these  differences,  see  Advo- 
cate,. Lord;  Arraignment,  Calling  the  Diet,  Crimi- 
nal Letters,  Indictment,  Not  Proven,  Precognition, 
Prosecution,  Prosecutor,  Procurator- Fiscaj.,  ¥erdict. 
Criminal  Statutes  Ccmnlidaliiiii  Acts. — Tliese  may  be  held  to 
be  the  iirst  practical  result  of  the  series  of  commissions  appointed 
during  the  thirty  years  preceding  theb  date.  There  are  seven 
Acts,  but  one  is  only  a  repealing  Act.  The  new  statutes  aie 
principally  a  re-enactment  of  the  consolidating  Acts  of  the  late 
Sir  Robert  Peel,  with  some  improvements  by  giving  a  more 
exact  description  of  offences,  with  a  corresponding  gradation  m 
their  punishments.  They  also  endeavour  more'  nearly  to  asM- 
mlUte  the  criminal  laws  of  England  and  Ireland. 

Crim'eon.     See  Red  ColoueSi 

OrinEm  Canal,  The,  g  miles  long,  24  feet  broad,  and  12 
deep,  with  15  locks,  cut  through  the  head  of  the  peninsula  of 
Cantire,  between  Loch  Gilp  and  Loch  Crinan,  to  avoid  the  long 
passage  from  the  W.  Highland  coast  to  the  Firth  of  Clyde-  round 
the  Mull  of  Cantire.  It  cost  ,£183,000,  andean  admit  vessels  of 
200  tons.  In  February  1859  the  resep-oirs  burst,  when  part  of 
the  banks  was  washed  away  and  more  than  a  mile  of  the  canal 
choked  with  debris.  To  repair  this  took  a  sum  of  j£i2,ooo, 
which  was  disbursed  by  the  Goveriunent. 

Crined  (Lat  crisis,  'hair'),  m  heraldry,  means  that  the  hau- 
of  a  man  or  woman,  or  tiie  mane  of  a  horse,  is  tmctured  differently 
from  the  body. 

Critt'gles  (Icel.  kringr,  '  a  circle  ■),  in  nautical  language,  are 
loops  in  the  bolt-ropes  of  sails,  formed  by  intertwisting  the  strands 
of  which  the  ropes  are  made,  and  commonly  confining  a  metal 
ring  or  thimble.  A  rope  passed  through  them  gathers  up  the 
bolt-ropes. 

Orinoid',  or  Crinoi'dea,  an  order  of  the  class  Echinodei-mata 
(q.  v.),  including  the  so-called  fossil  EncHnites  (q.  v.),  or  lily- 
stars,  the  Comatuia  {Antedcn)  rosacia,  or  rosy-feather  star,  the 
Pentacrini  of  tropic  seas,  &c.,  all  of  which  are  distinguished 
primarily  by  the  lact  that  they  are  attached  during  the  whole  or 
a  part  of  their  existence  to  the  sea-bed  by  a  jointed  flexible 
stalk.  Tlie  genus  Hhvu/crinas  is  a  good  example  of  a  typical 
existing  G.  The  body,  supported  on  this  stallc,  is  enclosed  in  a 
calyx,  or  cup-shaped  arrangement  of  calcareous  plates,  and  the 
mouth  is  central,  opening  upwards,  whilst  the  anus  or  vent  may  be 
present  or  absent.  The  aims,  from  five  to  ten  in  number,  are  not 
Msential  parts  of  the  body,  and  are  provided  with  fiMnules  or 
lateral  branches.     The  arms  are  grooved,  —''  '-  ~'  — "- 


the  ambulacra!  tubes  are  ^so  situated  there.  The  embryo  is 
fi-ee-swimming  and  ciliated.  The  rosy-feather  star  is  fixed  in  the 
early  part  of  its  life  only,  living  latterly  as  a  free,  staitisli-like 
form. 

Grin'oline  (from  Fr.  crin,  LaL  crinis,  '  hair '),  a  hooped  petti- 
coat made  of  horse-hair,  or  of  thin  hoops  of  whalebone  or  steel 
held  horizontally  by  vertical  bands,  revived  in  France  by  Empress 
Eugenie  in  1855,  and  shortly  thereafter  introduced  into  England. 


This  garment  had  its  origin  in  the  vertugade  at  ■verlugale  1 
by  ladies  in  France  and  Spain  in  the  l6th  c,  which  was  i: 
duced  iirio  England  from  Spain,  under  the  corrupted  r 
farthingaU,  in  the  reign,  of  Queen  Mary.  In  the  succeeding 
reign  of  Ehzabeth  the  '  wheel '  and  round  farthingales  attained 
enormous  dimensions,  and  gave  the  wearers  the  appearance  of 
standing  in  a  drum  or  in  a  bel!-shaped  cage.  Capricious  fashion 
retained  the  farthingale  till  the  time  of  Charles  II.,  though  it 
became  more  moderate  in  size,  after  which  it  gradually  died  out, 

ly  to  reappear  in  the  hooped  petticoat  of  the  18th  c,  and  the 
later  C.  The  C. ,  soon  after  its  introduction,  swelled  consider- 
ably in  circumference,  and  continued  to  be  worn  as  a  feshionable 
article  of  dress  for  a  number  of  years,  notwithstanding  itsobvious 
inelegance,  the  frequent  loss  of  life  occasioned  by  commg  m  con- 
tact with  fire,  and  the  ridicule  and  satirical  treatment  it  received 
^n  public  prints,  till  its  general  adoption  by  maid-servants 
and  other  inexplicable  causes  led  to  its  disuse  about  1866.  A 
fabric  composed  of  horse-hair  and  cotton,  used  for  ladies'  bonnets, 

also  known  by  the  name  '  C  ' 

Cil'num,  a  genus  of  very  handsome  plants,  of  the  natural 

order  Ainaryilidaaa,  comprising  11 "-- -'' 

Asia,  Australia,  S.  Ame 
rica,  and  W.  and  S.  Africa, 
while,  owing  to  the  period 
during  which  they  have 
been  cultivated  in  our  gar 
dens,  many  fine  crosses 
(hjbrids)  have  been  Intro- 
duced by  the  sliill  of  the 
horticulturist— ^.^.,  C.  ain~ 
abilc,  probably  a  natural 
cross  between  C.  precerum 
and  C.  KiylankuBi.  About 
the  only  species  known  to 
have  any  marked  proper- 


\   C. 


the- 


bulbs  of  which  are  believed 
to  be  emetic,  and  as  such 
are  in  some  parts  of  the 
East  employed  in  cases  of 
poisoning.  C.  Cafcnse  of 
S.  Africa  is  hardy  enough 
to  grow  in  a  protected  border 


Cri'eis  (Gr,  'a  jltdgment,'  from  krino,  'I  judge'),  a  term 
used  by  medical  writers  to  denote  a  sudden  change  in  the  condition 
of  the  patient,  significant  of  one  or  other  of  two  things— death 
or  recovery.  C.  is  often  accompanied  by  some  marked  phe- 
nomena, as  intense  sweating,  diarrhtea,  or  a  severe  shivering. 
Apart  altogether  from  the  doctrine  of  a  matsries  morbi,  the  law 
of^periodicity  in  many  acute  diseases  is  of  great  importance,  and 
one  too  oflen  neglected.  In  some  fevers  there  are  critical  hours, 
eg;  m  Ague  (q.  v.),  when  the  paroxysm  occurs  at  a  fixed  hour  ; 
in  others  there  are  critical  days,  eg. ,.  in  small-pox,  measles,  and 
scarlet  fever.  The  days  on  which  the  eruptions  appear  are  im- 
portant, and  constitute-  crises.  In  some  Fevers  (q.  v.),  the 
seventh,  fourteenth,  and,  twenty-first  days  are  also  considered 
critical,  but  there,  is,  perhaps^  an  admixture  of  medical  super- 
stition m 'such  notions. 

Cris'pin,  St,  according  ta  the  legend  of  the  Church,  was  of 
Roman  extraction  and  of  noble  birth.  About  the  middle  of 
the  3d  c.  he  fled  with  his  brother  Crispianus  from  Rome  to  Gaul, 
where  he  settled  in  the  town  now  called  Soissons.  While  acting 
as  a  Christian  missionary  he  made  shoes  for  the  poor,  hence 
in  latfir  times,  under  the  name  of  King  C. ,  he  became  and  con- 
tinues the  patron  saint  of  shoemakers.  C.  and  his  brother  suffered 
martyrdom  in  S87,  during  (he  persecution  of  Diocletian.  Their 
festival  falls  on  the  25th  of  October. 

Cias'ta,  a  term  used  in  anatomy  to  denote  a  crest  or  ridge. 
Thus,  we  have  the  C.  galli,  or  cockscomb  of  the  ethmoid  bone, 
the  C.  itii,  or  ridge  round  the  rim  of  the  iliac  or  hip  bones. 


Critli'imim.    See  Samphire, 
Croft'tia,    a  kingdom  of  the  Austro-IIunga 
forming  with  Austrian  Slavonia  (q,   v.)   a   ctov 


■n-land  proper ; 

28s 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


area,  16,780  sq.  miles;  pop.  (1869)  1,846,150,  exclusive  of 
the  military.  It  lies  E.  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  and  is  partly 
bounded  on  the  S.E.  byTuikey,  C.  proper  comprises  the  coun- 
ties of  Agram,  Warasdin,  Kreutz,  and  Fiume;  and  Slavonia, 
those  of  Pozega  Esselt  arid  Svrmien  The  Save  ind  the  Drave 
.,       ,     ,  .  \    {■Ca 


by 


f  th    J  1 


th    S       hi  h  ha 
■       th        -^^        1    i 
L   th      S    th     ^ 


tl  t 


Alp         d  d    p    all  y 


Th 


t 


Im 


a  f    ' 


Th   tap  tal  IS  Ag    n 

t  {^       )      Th     c 


tl     gh 


blood  d  La  gu  g 
Cthl  wth  tUgfGkCthlc 
d  hi  mbe  bel  g  t  th  G  eek  CI 
Th  h  t  hist  I  h  b  U  t  f  C  w  th  Pan  na, 
who  were  subdued  by  Augustus,  The  Croats,  or  Horvats— !*.«., 
dwellers  in  the  Carpathians,  and  after  whom  C.  is  now  named— 
took  possession  of  the  territory  in  64a  At  the  end  of  the  nth 
c.  it  was  incorporated  with  Hungaiy,  with  which  it  passed  in  1526 
into  the  possession  of  the  Hapsbutgs.  Together  with  Slavonia, 
the  Lilorali,  and  Fiume,  it  was  formed  into  a  crown-land. 
During  the  Hungarian  revolution,  the  long-standuig  jealousy  of 
the  Croats  towards  the  Magyars  found  expression  in  the  hostile 
action  of  the  Ban  Jellachich.  The  result  was  its  separation 
from  Hungary  m  1S49.  During  1S49-60  it  was,  like  the  other 
~  "n-German  parts  of  Austria,  subjected  to  a  centralising  legisla- 
'"      '        "'     it  received  agam  its  old 


national  cc 


le  20th  of  October  1 


Oro'chet-'W 

simple   k 
with  th 


Croo  d   Ii       G  m 

posed  0  fl 

■,^S.^A  g 

chatoyan 

Crock  eta  (Fr.  crocket,  dim.  of  .ret,  a  hook,  a  crook  ],  m 
Gothic  architecture,  ornaments  representing  curved  and  bent 
foliage,  and  placed  upon  the  angles  of  spires,  canopies,  and  pin- 
nacles, on  g^Mes,  and  on  the  weather  mouldings  of  doors  and 
windows.  Occasionally  C.  are  found  in  vertical  mouldings,  as  at 
Lincoln  Cathedral,  but  never  in  horizontal  situations.  About 
time  of  the  Renaissance,  animals  began  to  be  substituted  for 


Oroo'odile  [CrModilus),  a  genus  of  the  Reptilian  order  Civca- 
dilia,  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  the  fourth  tooth  in  the  lower 
jaw  is  laiger  than  the  others,  and  forms  a  canine  tooth,  which  is 
received  into  a  pit  excavated  in  the  border  of  the  upper  jaw,  so 
tha-t  it  is  visible  externally  when  the  mouth  is  shut.  The  hind- 
legs  are  bordered  by  a  fringe  of  serrated  or  toothed  confor- 
matioi^  and  the  toes  are  completely  united  by  membranes.  TTie 
snout  is  long,  obtuse,  and  flattened.  The  crocodiles,  as  types 
of  their  order,  present  good  examples  of  the  dermal  bony 
plates  and  scales  forming  their  cham-armout.  The  teeth  are 
implanted  in  distinct  sockets,  new  teeth  being  developed  from 
below,  and  ultimately  displacing  the  old  teet£  The  verlebrte 
are  procoslous — that  is,  hollow  in  front  and  convex  behind — as  in 
all  livii^  Croiodilin.  The  heart  is  four- chambered.  No  cla- 
vicles exist.  Two  vertebrte  compose  the  sacrum.  Tlie  Cloaca 
(q.  V.)  opens  by  a  longitudinal  aperture.  The  front  feet  have  five, 
and  the  hinder  ones  four  toes.  The  nose  opens  bv  a  sii^le 
nostril,  and  the  hinder  nostrils  open  very  far  back  in  the  mouth, 
a  conformation  rendering  it  ea^  for  these  animals  to  drown  their 
prey,  whilst  they  breathe  readily  themselves.  The  tongue  is 
attached  to  the  floor  of  the  month.  The  Nilotic  C.  (c.  NUoti- 
cus)  is  the  familiar  species,  attaining  a  length  of  from  20  to  30 
feet.  Species  of  true  crocodiles  also  occur  in  Asia  (such  as  the 
C.  paJuslrii  and  C.  hipBrcatus),  and  in  the  New  World,  where 
the  Alligators  (q.  v.)  are  also  found. 
286 


Cio'ous,  a   genus  .  of  Iridaceous  phnts    mcstly  nativi 
Southei-n  and  Eastern  Europe,  and  of  Asia  Mmor   though  i 
extend  as  far  N.  as  Central 
Europe.      Tliey    have    been 
long  cultivated  in  most  tem- 
p  rate  or  even  northern  parts 

f  Europe  and  America  for 
the   sake  of  their  lieautiful    ' 
fl  wers.      Saffron  (q.   v, 

btained  from  C.  salivus, 
while  C.  ■otmus,  C.  la^nsfio- 
rus  (and  its  variety  luteus\  C. 
p  rmaus,  C.  retimlatus,  &c., 
are  among  the  fevonrite  gar- 
dn  species.     The 'Cape  C 

(7ii^%'//ii,whilethenameln-  " 
I  an  C.  is  sometimes  applied 
t    the  orchideous  Pliionss. 

Orocua  of  An'timonyis 

a  compound  of  sulphide  of 
sodium  (NagS)  and  sulphide  of  antimony  (SbjSs),  and  is  obtamed 
during  the  extraction  of  antimony  from  its  sulphide. 
Croons  of  Mars  is  the  sesquioxide  of  iron  (FejOa). 
Owe'aua,  the  last  King  of  Lydia,  succeeded  his  father  Alyates, 
B.C.  560.     In  the  early  years  of  his  reign  he  pursued  an  unbroken 
career  of  conquest,  until  his  dominions  extended  from  the  northern 
and  western  coasts  of  Asia  Minor  to  the  Halys  on  the  E.  and  the 
Taurus  on  the  S.  When  at  the  height  of  his  wealth  and  grandeur, 
C.  (according  to  a  story  told  by  Herodotus)  asked  Soion  who  w 
the  happiest  man  he  had  ever  seen.     Solon  replied  that  no  mi 
s  to  be  deemed  happy  till  his  life  had  been  happily  closed.   By 
accident,  andasit  seemed  to  C.  in  fulfilment  of  a  dream,  he  lost 
accomplished  son  Atys  while  hunting.    C.  grewjealousof  die 
rapidly-rising  power  of  Cyrus,  and  determined  to  attack  hin: 

t,  before  doing  so,  he  elicited  from  the  Pythia  the  memorable 
nstances  of  the  ambiguity  of  ancient  oracles-^at  if  he  marched 
ainst  the  Persians  he  would  overthrow  a  great  empire ;  and 
at  he  should  flee  along  the  Heraius  when  a  mule  beoime  King 
the  Medes.    C  encountered  Cyrus  in  an  indecisive  battle  in 
ppadocia,  and  fell  back  on  Sardis,  where  he  was  totally  de- 
ted  by  Cyrus,  who,  fourteen  days  thereafter,  took  the  city.    C. 
s  condemned  to  be  burned,  and  when  on  the  pyie,  remember- 
ng  the  words  of  Solon,  thrice  uttered  his  name.     On  receiving 
an  explanation  of  this  occurrence,  Cyrus  released  C,  gave  iiim 
Barene,  near  Ecbatana,  as  a  residence,  and  treated  him  as  a 
friend.    C.  accompanied  Cambyses  on  his  expedition  into  Egypt. 
How  or  when  he  died  is  unknown.  ■ 

,  Oroft,  ■William,  D.IHub.  ,  one  of  the  greatest  English  cathe- 
dral composers,  was  bom  ui  1657,  and  educated  under  DrBlow, 
whom  he  afterwards  succeeded  (1708)  in  his  ofiice  at  the  Chapel 
Royal,  and  as  organist  at  Westminster  Abbey.  He  received  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Music  from  the  University  f  Oif  d  m 
and  in  1 724  pablished  Miisica  Sacra,  a  coUec  on  h  ms 

the  first  music  printed  from  engraved  plates.  -I  di  d  A  otj 
1727,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  H  mio  ns 
are  almost  all  anthems,  very  many  of  which  g 

quently  in  English  churches.    In  their  own  dep     m       th     ha 
seldom,  if  ever,  been  surpassed. 

Oro'ia,  or  Oro'ja,  the  bh-thplace  of  the  fan        S  an 
a  town  in  the  vilayet  of  Prisren,   European  T    k  m 

S.S.E.  of  Scutari,  on  a  height  500  feet  ab  p  d 

defended  by  a  castle.     Pop.  6000. 

Oroix,  St,  or  Santa  Cmz,  an  island  V        d 

E.  of  Porto  Rico,  and  belonging  to  Denma         A    a, 
miles  ;  pop.  (1870)  22,760.     It  is  very  fertile  an  ry 

inch  of  ground  is  cultivated.     The  chief  lorni  is  C  tad 

C.  is  also  the  name  of  a  river  which  flow  h    B 

Fundy,  N.  America,  after  a  course  of  55  n  d      rv 

the  boundary  between  the  state  of  Maine  a  d    h    p    vi 
New  Brunswick,  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada 

Oroler,  JohaWilaou,  a  politician  and  m  n  w 

had  a  considerable  reputation  in  his  time,  wa    b  , 

Ireland,  December  zo,  1780.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dub- 
lin, and  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  London,  and  was  called  to  the  Irish  bar 


yLaOogle 


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-* 


in  1 8o3.  Some  clever  satires,  and  a  Triatiscon  the  Slate  of  Ireland, 
Past  and  Present,  brought  him  into  prominence,  and  in  lSo7  he 
was  elected  member  for  Downpatrick.  Two  years  later  a  defence 
of  the  Duke  of  York  obtained  for  him  the  appointment  of  Secre- 
tary to  the  Admiralty,  which  he  held  for  twenty  years.  C.  is  per- 
haps best  known  by  his  articles  and  reviews  in  tlie  Qiiarteyly 
Rfaiew,  of  which  he  was  one  of  the  founders,  which  were  remark- 
able eyen  in  that  day  for  their  savage  partisanship  and  the  ex- 
treme bitterness  of  Uieir  personalities,  by  the  clever  caricature  of 
him,  under  the  name  of  '  Rigby, '  in  Mr  Disraeli's  Coningslry,  and 
by  his  annotated  edition  of  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson,  which  was 
severely  criticised  by  Macaulay  in  the  Edmlmrgh  KeaUw.  C. 
rendered,  however,  some  really  valuable  services  both  to  litera- 
e  and  to  art,  and  he  deserves  honourable  mention  foe  his 
ive  part  in  the  establishment  of  tlie  Athenseum  Club.  He 
died  at  Moulsey,  near  Hampton  Court,  Ai^usl  lo,  1857. 

Croker,  T.  Orofton,  a  popular  collector  and  author  of  Irish 
stories  and  legends,  was  bom  at  Cork,  15th  January  1798,  and, 
through  the  influence  of  his  friend,  though  not  relation,  John 
Wilson  C,  obtained,  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  a  clerkship  in 
the  Admiralty,  in  which  he  rose  till  he  had  a  salary  of  A^oo 
a  year.  Among  his  collectio  f  t  ri  f  I  1  d  1 '  A' 
searches  m  the  Suth  of  Ireland  d  Fai  y  L  gttid  nd  T  adtito 
a^the  South  oflreland  {1825)  are  p  h  p  th  m  t  t  t  g  All 
his  books,  especially  such  ess  lly  gin  1  es  B  y 
Mahotiey,  are  marked  by  humo  d  p  th  ba  h  g  m  1 
both  truly  Irish.    C,  who  wa,  an      th        t  ^ 

tired  from  the  Admiralty  in  185  S    iJ  P  H    d   d 

at  London,  8th  August  1854. 

Ciroly,  Kev.  George,  D  D        m    t     d  f  t  g  bl     vr  f 
of  romances,  magazine  articl      and  p    m         d  loq      t 

preacher,  was  born  at  Dublin  785  d  d  d  t  f  St 
Stephen's,  Walbroolc,  London,  4th  N  mb  86  C  as 
a  man  of  versatile  talents,  and  h  d  1  t        1         h         p  t 

tion  might  have  been  more  pe  t      Th       m  S  I  th  I 

is  perhaps  the  work  of  hi^  that  will  1      I         t 

Orom'arty,  a  bui^h  and        p    t  in  T  d  C       t  th 

N.E.  extremity  of  the  peninsul  wl  h  p  tes  fh  M  yf  m 
the  C.  Firth,  has  an  antique     pp  f         th    h      es 

the  ohier  streets  being  buUt  in  th  q  t  Fl  m  h  t)l  Th 
chief  industry — the  herring  a  d  wh  t  fi  1  g — has  d  1  d  f 
late,  but  there  are  manufacture  f  L  g  m  p  s,  I 
a  brewery.  C.  unites  with  Wick,  Dingwall,  Dornoch,  Kirk- 
wall, and  Tain  in  returning  a  member  to  Parliament.  Pop. 
(1871)  1476.     Hugh  Miller  was  a  native  of  C. 

Cromarty  Firth,  an  inlet  of  the  N.  Sea,  in  the  united  coun- 
ties  of  Ross  and  C,  opening  out  from  the  Moray  Finh,  18 
miles  long  and  from  3  to  5  miles  broad.  It  is  completely 
landlocked,  and  has  sufficient  depth  of  water  to  furnish  anchor- 
age for  the  largest  navy.  The  entrance,  ij  miles  wide,  is 
between  the  N.  and  S.  Sutors,  two  lofty  wooded  headlands, 
which  have  been  vividly  described  by  Hugh  Miller.  The  towns 
of  C,  Dingwall,  and  Invergordon  are  on  the  shores  of  C.  F. 

Cromartyshire,  in  the  N.  of  Scotland,  consists  of  numerous 
detached  portions  scattered  widely  over  Ross-shire.  Area, 
344  sq.  miles.  These  two  shires  now  form  a  single  county. 
See  Ross  and  CROMAaTV. 

Orom'dale  (Gael.'winding  valley'),  avillageon  the  E.  bank 
of  the  .Spey,  till  1870  included  in  Inveqiess-shire,  but  since  that 
date  in  Elgin,  by  Act  33"Biid  34  Vict.  c.  16,  Heie,  on  May 
I,  1690,  the  troops  of  William  III.  defeated  a  small  body  of 
Jacobites,  This  skirmish  forms  the  subject  of  the  song  known 
as  The  ffoHghs  of  C.     Pop.  of  parish  (1S71),  3817. 

Oro'iuer,  a  parish  and  fishing  village  on  a  bay  of  the  same 
name,  Norfolk^iire,  21  miles  N.  of  Norwich.  It  has  a  splendid 
beach  for  sea-bathing,  but  the  bay  is  called  by  the  natives  the 
Devil's  Throat,  so  dangerous  is  it  to  navigation.  C.  carries  on 
a  small  coasting  trade.     Fop.  of  parish  (1871),  1423. 

Cromlech  (Celt.  '  an  inclined  flat  stone ')  is  the  name  given 
to  one  of  the  unsculptured  stone  monuments  of  tbe  Celtic  races, 
commonly  called  Di-uidital  stones.  The  C.  has  been  defined  as  a 
large  stone  placed  like  a  table,  but  in  an  inclined  position,  upon 
other  stones  set  up  on  end,  A  rude  chamber  is  thus  formed  within  ; 


lepopulaj 


ssof'giaj 


grave,"  hag's  bed,' &c.  There 
IS  nor,  However,  in  such  monuments  one  unvarying  type  of  construc- 
tion ;  the  Logan,  or  rocking-stone,  and  the  monolith,  or  unhewn 
pillar  standing  alone,  are  perfectly  distinct,  but  the  C.  mei^es  into 
the  cirdeinA  the  altar,  which  are  also  found  largely  on  tlie  N.E, 
coast  of  Scotland,  and  on  the  diluvial  plain  between  Loch  Awe 
and  the  Ctinan  Canal.  Stenness,  in  Orkney,  and  Callemiah,  in 
the  Lewis,  are  the  sites  of  the  most  conspicuous  groups.  The 
dolmen  of  Brittany  and  other  parts  of  France  is  the  same  as  C. 
Two  of  the  largest  cromlechs  are  at  Plas  Nowydd,  in  Anglesea. 
Kit's  Coty  House,  in  Kent,  and  Chun  Quoit,  in  Cornwall,  may 
also  be  mentioned.  The  fact  that  cromlechs  aie  sometimes  sur- 
rounded {as  '  The  Eroadstone,'  County  Antrim)  by  a  circle  of 
standing  stones,  long  gave  currency  to  the  view  that  they  were 
Dmidical  remans.  Because  human  remains,  with  the  usual 
accompaniments,  have  been  found  in  churches,  they  have  been 
set  down  as  sepulchres.  Dr  Hibbert  regarded  those  of  Orkney 
as  equivalent  to  the  Scandinavian  titigs,  and  it  is  certain  that 
'  stannin'  stanes '  were  frequently  used  for  the  purpose  of  assem- 
bling courts  of  justice.  Astronomical  meanings  and  serpent- 
worship  have  also  been  read  into  these  remains  by  antiquaries. 
Fergusson  says  they  are  the  work  of  pai-tially  civilised  races  who 
h  d      m    ml  t       h  th    P  N      pp       mat   d  t 


C     I    t  h      f  th      wh 


t     p  t 


th 


A 


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f 


Pt 


^60 1     Latt    ly  1 
d     f  "^£5000  w  th  w!    h    h  w  h  Id        t      m 

p  (  essf  lly  w  tl    th     w    1th  ft  h     h  d 

1    g  lym  d  fl  h  C   d  ed  J         6     8  7      His 

t  as      11  d  tl       p         g  mul      f  t    p    t  k    g    f 

two  leading  characters  of  Aikwright's  machine  and  Hargieave's 
spinning-jenny.      See  French's  Life  of  C.  (i860). 

Orom'well,  OIiver,washomof  good  family  at  Huntingdon, 
April  25,  1599.  His  father,  Robert  C,  who  sat  as  M.P.  for 
Huntingdon  in  the  Parliament  of  1593,  was  a  younger  son  of  Sir 
Henry  C.  of  Hinchinbrook,  while  through  his  mother,  Elisabeth 
Steward,  he  was  connected  with  the  families  of  Hampden  and  St 
John,  and  even,  it  is  asserted,  with  the  House  of  Stuart.  He  was 
educated  at  school  at  Huntingdon,  and  afterwards  at  Sidney- 
Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  From  the  latter,  however,  he  was 
recalled  by  the  death  of  his  lather,  and  settled  first  on  the 
family  estate  of  Huntingdon,  and  subsequently  on  a  farm  at  St 
Ives,  marrying  in  1620  Elizabeth,  dau^ter  of  Sir  James  Bourchier, 
a  gentleman  of  landed  property  in  Essex.  C.  soon  associated 
himself  with  the  Puritan  party,  being  perhaps  prompted  to  do  so 
by  natural  melancholy,  which  showed  itself  in  early  years  in 
fancies  of  approaching  death.  He  was  fiist  returned  to  Parlia- 
ment in  1628,  for  the  borough  of  Huntingdon,  but  did  not  take 
an  active  part  in  its  proceedings  for  a  time,  although  he  actively 
opposed  the  tyranny  of  King  Charles,  by  reslsling  his  schemes 
for  the  drainage  of  the  Fens.  In  1640  he  took  his  seat  for  the 
burgh  of  Cambridge,  and  soon  was  '  much  hearkened  to '  as  a 
member  of  the  Parliamentary  party.  He  threw  himself  with 
heart  and  soul  into  the  war,  fought  with  a  troop  of  his  own 
raising  at  Edgehill,  and  spent  his  substance  in  equipping  two 
companies,  which,  in  1642,  be  asked  the  permission  of  Parlia- 
ment to  raise ;  and  it  was  he  who  saw  the  great  advantage 
that  would  be  derived  from  enlisting  rehgious  enthusiasm  and 
stem  morality  on  the  side  of  the  Parliament.  He  began  with 
his  own  regiment,  which  became  famous  as  '  the  Ironsides,'  ' 
the  experiment  proving  successful,  his  policy  was  extended  to 
whole  army,  henceforth  known  as  the  New  Model.  C. ,  who  had 
rapidly  advanced  to  the  position  of  colonel,  distinguished  himself 
2S7 


vLiOOQle 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CEO 


g  y  1  b  ties  of  MaTSton  Moor,  3d  July  1644,  and  New- 
fa  ry  h  tlie  celebrated  ' self-denying  ordinance'  was 
p  d  be  e  eutenant-general  of  the  Parlifunent  forces  under 
Fa  a.  ajid  as  uch  commanded  the  right  wing  of  the  Parlia- 
m  n  ry  rmy  the  decisive  battle  of  Naseby,  14th  June  1645. 
F  m  m  to  his  ideatii  C.  's  history  is  the  history  of  his 
un  ry  Af  the  king  fell  into  the  hands  of  Parhament,  he 
ni  h  d  n  urreclion  of  the  Scots  in  lavour  of  the  King,  at 
P  n  &  7th  August  1648.  After  the  esecution-of  the 
K  n_  h  -IS  ppointed  lieutenant-general,  and  quickly  and 
ly  amped  out  a  rebellion  in  Ireland.  When  the  young 
p  n  a  rw  ds  Chailes  II.,  landed  in  Scotland,  C.  superseded 
P  by  nd  wavering  Fairfax,  marched  into  that  country, 
and  totally  defeated  the  Scotch  under  Leshe  at  Dunbar,  Septem- 
ber 3,  1650.  The  RoyaUsts  haying  invaded  England,  C.  gained  a 
final  victory  at  Worcester,  Septembers,  l^Jl.  C.  now  found  him- 
self at  variance  witli  the  Rump,  which  had  become  a  mere  clique 
of  crotcheteers  and  talkers,  and  dissolved  it,  20th  April  1653.  He 
summoned  a  new  Parliament,  but  was  compeUed  to  dissolve  it 
also,  aithou^i  not  before  it  had  invested  him  with  the  title  of  Lord 
Protector.  From  thence  to  his  death,  although  he  repeatedly  sum- 
moned Parliaments,  he  was  really  al^olute  ruler  of  England;  and 
the  country  never  was  more.respectad  and  feared  abroad  than  dur- 
ing the  Protectorship  of  C. ;  and  although  he  was  never  popular', 
and  was  in  constant  danger  of  assa^sinationr-even  his  enemies 
admitted  the  wisdom  of  his  domestic  measures.  After  a  brilliant 
but  yet  melancholy  term  of  solitary  power,  he  died  September 
3,  165S,  on  the  anniversary  of  some  of  his  greatest  victories. 
In  1 66 1  his  remams  were  dragged  by  brutal  Royalists  from  their 
resting-pkce  in  Westminster  Abbey,  and,  along  with  those  of 
Eradshaw  and  Ireton,  hanged  at  Tyburn.  For  some  time  after 
his  death  C.  was  looked  upon  as  a  fanatic,  tyrant,  and  hypocrite ; 
but  that  shallow  and  ignoble  hypothesis  has  been  banished  from 
historical  literature  by  tlie  mdustry  and  genius  of  Carlyle.  He 
now  ranks  as  perhaps  the  greatest  and  (circumstances  considered) 
wisest  ruler  England  has  ever  had.  While  his  religion  was 
emphatically  a  matter  of  the  heart  and  soul,  he  was  no  bigot,  as 
tjie  manner  in  which  he  protected  the  Jews,  and  even  the  Uni- 
tarian Biddle,  showed.  In  his  brilliant  for^n  policy  there  oc- 
curred perhaps  only  one  mistake — his  considering  Spain,  and  not 
France,  as  the  Roman  Catholic  power  in  Europe  most  to  be 
feared.  See  Carlyle's  O.  C.'s LetUrs  and  Spesclus,  with  Ehidda- 
tions,  Guizot's  Htstoire  de  la  RSvobttion  d'Angltltrre,  and  Green's 
Shirrt  History  of  tht  English  People  (Lond.  1875). 

Richard  C.,  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Huntingdon,  October  4,  l6z6.  When  his  iaiher  became  Lord 
Protector,  he  made  his  son  First  Lord  of  Trade  and  Navigation 
and  Chancellor  of  Oxford.  Richard  [roved,  howeva-,  a  feeble, 
indolent,  and  self-indulgent  man ;  and  when,  on  his  father's 
death  in  1658,  he  succeeded  him  as  Lord  Protector,  he  was 
unable  to  contend  against  the  lections  that  opposed  htm  in  Par- 
liament and  in  the  army,  and  resigned  his  post  seven  months 
after  accepting  it.  He  ivent  to  flie  Continent,  and  returned  in 
1680,  when  he  assumed  thename  of  Clarke,  and  hved  in  retire- 
ment at  Cheshunt.     Tliere  he  died  m  1712. 

Oromwell,  Thomas,  the  real  author  of  the  great  ecclesi- 
astical and  political  revolution  accomplished  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.,  and  of  whom  it  has  been  well  said  that,  '  m  the  whole  line 
of  English  statesmen,  there  is  no  one  of  whom  we  would  willingly 
know  so  much,  no  one  of  whom,  we  really  know  so  httie,'  was 
bom  about  1490  near  London,  and  in  humble  circuinstances,  the 
popular  story  being  that  his  iither  was  a  blacksmith  at  Putney. 
For  a  time  he  led  a  roving,  adventurous  life,  was  engaged  when 
a  mere  hoy  in  the  service  of  the  Marchioness  of  Dorset,  and  took 
'  ■    the  Italian  war  as  a  common  soldier  or  '  ruffian,' 


described  himself  01 


id  himself  on  one  occasion  to  Cranmer,  oblahiing,  how- 
knowledge  both  of  the  language  and  of  the  politics  of 
Italy.  He  next  appears  as  a  commercial  ag;ent  to  a  Venetian 
merchant,  and  clerk  to  a  factory  at  Antwerp,  and,  probably  alter 
another  visit  to  Italy,  he  returned  to  England  about  1517.  At 
all  events,  he  is  found  about  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  as  a  thriving  wool  merchant  and  scrivener  in  Middle- 
borough.  C.  now  took  an  active  interest  in  pohtical  life,  and 
became  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons.  The  turning, 
pnint  in  his  life,  however,  was  his  becoming  the  confidential 
servant  of  Wolsey,  who  employed  him  in  the  unpopular  work 
of  suppressing  some  of  the  smaller  monasteries,  and  transferring 


had  the 


their  revenues  to  Ipswich  and  Oxford.  C.  stood  by  his  master 
to  the  last,  and  chivalrously  and  successfully  defended  him 
against  the  bill  of  impeachment  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
Owing,  perhaps,  to  his  suggestion  that  the  King  should  sub- 
stitute his  own  supremacy  in  the  Church  for  that  of  the  Pope, 
Henry  took  him  mto  favour  and  made  him  his  secretary  and 
a  piivy  councillor  lie  lose  rapidly  fiom  post  to  post  and  from 
honqur  to  honour  and  when  at  length  he  was  made  Lord 
Chamlerl-iin  and  Earl  of  EsaeT  he  was  the  most  powerful 
subject  and  statesman  m  Great  Enfam.  He  had  conceived  a 
defiiute  policy  and  earned  it  relentlessly  through.  It  was  to 
render  the  lUng  the  centre  of  all  authoi  ty  m  England,  by  re- 
ducing the  Church  in  the  la[n,uage  of  Mr  Green  {Short  Hisioiy 
of  th!  English  Piopli\  to  a  meie  department  of  the  State,  in 
which  all  authority  should  flow  from  the  sovereign  alone,  and 
in  which  his  will  should  be  the  only  law,  his  decision  the  only 
test  of  truth.'  C.  did  not  succeed  to  the  extent  he  intended, 
but  still  he  was  so  far  able  to  accomplish  his  intentions,  that  to 
this  day  the  polity  of  the  Church  of  England  remains  substantially 
the  same  as  it  was  created  by  him.  It  will'  always  be  remem- 
bered to  his  credit  that,  although  perhaps  for  purely  political 
reasons,  he  took  a  prominent  part  m  establishing  Reformation 
lies,  he  had  English  Bibles  placed  in  the  churches,  and 
le  youth  of  the  nation  taught  the  Creed,  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments,  and.the  Lord's  Prayer.  Hispolicy — particularly  his 
maintaining  a  laree  army  of  spies,  his  sending  to  the  block  every 
one  that  opposed  his  measures,  and  the  resolute  manner  in  which 
he  put  down  monasteries,  securing  for  him  the  title  of  Malleus 
Monachorum — raised  him  up  a  host  of  enemies.  Many  com- 
plaints r^arding  him  were  presented  to  the  King,  who  in  the  end 
deserted  him  for  promoting  his  marriage  with  Anne  of  Cleves,  to 
who'm  he  had  taken  a  dislike.  Ultimately  C.  was  arrested  and 
thrown  info  prison,  and  being  condemned  on  the  charges  of 
treason  and  malvei'sation,  was  executed  on  Tower  Hill,  aStli 
July  1540. 

Grouatadt.    See  Keonstadt. 

Crook,  a  lengthening  tube  used  in  brass  instruments,  which 
enables  them  to  be  played  with  the  same  fingering  in  different 

Orook'ed  Island,  one  of  the  Bahamas,  27  miles  E.  of  the  S. 
point  of  Long  Island,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  C.  I. 
Passage.  Area,  about  So  sq.  miles  ;  pop.  between  600  and  700. 
Lilic  most  other  islands  of  the  group,  it  has  a  considerable 
export  trade  in  salt. 

Crop,  or  Outcrop,  is  the  place  where  a  stratum  rises  to  tho 
surface  of  the  ground.  It  con-esponds  to  the  strike  on  a  level 
area.     See  Dip  and  Stkike, 

'drop.  In  Scotland,  the  landlord  has  a  Hypothec  (q.  v.)  over 
tlie  C.  for  the  rent  of  the  year  of  which  it  is  the  C.  ;  and  the 
right  continues  in  force  so  long  as  the  C.  remains  In  the  tenant's 
possession. 

Oropp'mg,  a  term  of  the  agricultural  law  of  Scotland  indi- 
cating stipulated  or  implied  conditions  of  farming  under  a  lease. 
What  is  called  the  elausi  of  inanag«me»l  is  now  generally  inserted 
in  leases.  It  provides,  among  other  thin^,  for  a  variety  or  rota- 
tion of  crops.  This  rotation  vaiies  according  to  the  soil,  climate, 
and  other  circumstance  of  the  farm.  Even  in  the  absence  of  such 
a  clause,  there  is  an  imphed  obligation  on  the  tenant  to  cultivate 
according  to  the  rules^pf  gogd  husbandry.  By  common  law  a 
tenant  is  restrained  from  such  gross  misman^ement  as  will  injure 
or  overwork  the  soil.  It  is  generally  provided  that  white  com 
crops  {i.e.,  ciops  which  are  allowed  to  ripen)  shall  never  be 
taken  from  the  same  land  in  immediate  succession,  and  that  a 
certain  proportion  shall  be  under  turnips,  or  plain  fallow,  every 
year,  and  be  sown  to  grass  with  the  first  corn  crop  after  turnips 
or  fallow.  The  clause  is  generally  enforced  by  penalty  in  case 
of  contfavention,  as  to  which  the  law  is,  that  the  tenant  is  not 
entitled  to  pay  the  penalty  and  to  mfringe  the  clause. 

Cro'tjuet,  perhaps  a  modification  of  the  old  game  of  Pall- 
mall,  is  a  favourite  lawn  amusement  of  modern  origin,  played 
by  any  nuniljer  of  peisons  np  to  eight,  either  individually  or  on 
'  sides.'  The  necessary  implements  of  the  game  are  wooden 
mallets,  balls,  also  0!  wood,  a  pair  of  pegs,  and  iron  hoops  or 
rings.     Tlie  rings  are  arranged  in  a  variety  of  ways,  a  common 


yLaOogle 


TBE  CLOSE  ENCYCZOPyEDTA. 


CRO 


111  being  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram,  and  the  pegs  are 
placed  at  the  starting  and  turning  points  of  the  game  respectively. 
The  object  of  the  game  is  to  drive  the  balls 
with  the  mallets  throngh  the  rings  outward, 
in  the  order  shown  in  the  diagram,  and  after 
'  pegging' — i-t;  hitting  the  peg  at  the  upper 
end — to  return   home   in  a   corresponding 
order,  taking  the  rings  on  the  off-side.     On 
fl   pegging  at   the  home-end,  the  player  has 
finished,  and  winning  is  reckoned  accord- 
.   ing  lo  the  order  in  which  this  is  accom- 
plished.  The  various  rules  of  this  interesting 
and  healthful  game  are  well  laid  down  in 
Jacques'  laws  and  ,Regulati'ms..of  the  Gante 

Oro'sier  (Med.  .Lat.itrivio,  from  crux,  'a 
~  cross'),  the  pastoral  staff  of  an  ajchbishop, 
surmounted  by  a  cross,  and-ao  distinguished 
from  that  of  a  bishop,  the  head,  of  which  is 
a  crook.  This  distinction  between  the  cross 
and  the  crook  dates  back  to  the   I2lh  c. 


Croqin.1.  Cross  fLat.  crux,   '  a  pale  or  stake;'  ',a 

cross'),  two  piei;es  of  wood  placed  trans- 
ve  selj  and  anc'ently  used  'n  a  mode  of  pu  ish  nent  wh'ch  pro- 
bably a  ose  liom  the  cus  om  of  fas  en  ng  culpr  ts  or  pnsone  s  to 
t  ees  and  leav  ng  them  to  dje  by  hunger  or  by  v  Id  beasts. 
The  Persa  s    Sy    ans    Pice    ca  s,   Egjp  ans    and  Ca    hagi- 


sued  hs 


oleof 


hment  wh  ch     .  _  . , 

de  the  govemme  t  of  tl  e  k  ngs, 

fl  cted  on  perso  s  of  all  condi- 

ons   m    Ife     but    late     only   on 

aves  and    he  v  lest  njaJefac  ors. 

Accord  ng   o  Roman  law  the  snf- 

fe  er  was  first  sco  i^d   and  then 

ipelled   o  carry 


eofex 


to  the 
de  the  toivn 
!  had  been 


passed       He  e  he  ■ 
naked    and  fastened  to    le  f  by 
y  ng  or  na  1  ng     The  pun  hment 
a   abo  si  ed  m  the  t  me  of  Con- 
an  ne     Ins  an  es  a  e  on    ecord 
of  pe  sons  be  ng  taken  do  vn  and 
Eurvvng    afe     rema  n  ng    some 
n  e  on  tl  e  C       Du   ng  the    e  gn 
of  Louis  XV    of  F  a  ce    several 
won  en  (rel  g  ousen  hus  asts  called 
jj  (.  j^  on  'uUo  aire  )  volun  a  ly  under- 

^      b  we  t  cnic  fix  on  as  a  ^art  of  their 

rel  g  ous  services. 
The  C.  was  in  form  either  simple  i-or  composite.  The  simple 
C.  {crux  simflex)  was  a  mere  stake  ou'.which-the  condemned 
was  impaled  (injxus),  or, on  which  ,he  iwas  fastened  by  the 
hands  crossed  above  his  head  (q^xus).  A-tree— hence  Seneca's 
phrase,  ia/ilix  Ueimm,  the  'accursed  tree' — was  convenient  for 
the  purpose.  There  were  several  forms  of  the  composite  C- 
(crux  coinfiiKia).  The  most.common,the.i:f«iK  ifeHijo/o— resem- 
bling the  letter  X,  from  d^ussis,  the  number  ten— is  also  called 
St  Andrew's  C,  implying  that  that  saint  was .  cnicified  on  an 
instrument  of  this  shape.  Anothar  form,  the  lau-C.  (cimx 
immissa),  vras  shaped  like  the  .Greek  -letter  lau  .or  T.  It  is 
called  St  Anthonys  C,  because.it  was  said  lo  have  .been  em- 
broidered on  that  saint's  cope.  A  variety  .of  Ihisdsi.the  crux 
ansala  C.  with  a  handle— from  cmsa,  "a  handle.'  It  has,a  circle 
at  the  head  of  the  upright  beam,  is  found  on  Assyrian,  and  Egyp- 
tian sculptures,  also  among  the  Copts,  Indians,  and  :Persians, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  symbol  of  a  divinity,  or  an 
emblem  of  life.  Tlie  most  historically  famous  is  the  crux 
immissa  or  cntx  cafiitala—\\te  Latin  or  High  C— which  has  the 
longer  upright  beam,  or  sHrpss,  projecting  above  the  cross-piece 
or  patibulum.  This  is  held  by  tradition  (o  be  the  form  of  C. 
on  which  Jesus  Christ  was  crucified ;'  the  tiUilus,  or  accusation 
on  which  he  suffered,  being  placed  above  his  head  seems  to  con- 
firm  this  supposition  ;  and  a  further  confirmation  is,  that  this  C 
112 


is  repeatedly  found  on  the  coins  and  columns  of  Conslanline  the 
Great.  The  Greek  Church  represents  the  instrument  on  which 
Jesus  Christ  was  crucified  as  having  the  transverse  beam  laid 
across  the  middle  of  the  upright  one,  both  being  equal.  This 
shape  is  called  (he  Greek  C. 

The  C.  became  an  object  of  veneration  lo  Christians  after  the 
crucifixion  of  Christ.  l"he  early  Christians  multiplied  models  of 
ii ;  and  after  Constantine's  victory  in  312  over  Maxentius,  through 
the  influence,. as  he  professed  to  believe,  of  the  sign  of  the  C, 
which  he  is  said  £0  have  seen  in  the  sky,  it  b^an  to  be  set  up  in 
public  places  and  on  public  buildings.  Then  also  the  custom  of 
crossing,  or  making  in  the  air  with  the  hand  the  sign  of  the 
C.,'beMn  to  prevail  Itwas  not  till  the  6th  c.  that  the  bare  em- 
blem of  the  C.  was  transformed  into  the  image  of  the  Crucifix 
(q.  v.). 

The  festival  of  .the  'Invention  of  the  C  is  held  on  the  3d  of 
May,  and  that  of  fhe '  Elevation '  on  the  14th  of  September.  "" 
former  commemorates  the  alleged  linding  of  tlie  true  C,  in 
year  326,  by  the  .Empress  Helena,  mother  of  Constantine  ;  the 
lattK'  its  re-erection,  in  the  year  628,  at  Jerusalem  by  (he  Em- 
peror Heraelius,  after  it  hadibeen  carried  away  by  the  Persians. 

The  C.  has  been  deeply  impressed  on  all  the  external  features 
of  Christian  civilisation.  It  has  been  extensively  used  as  the 
ground-plan  of  churches.  The  phm  of  llie  Cathedral  of  St 
Mark,  Venice,  is. a  Greek-C;  that, of  St  Jeter's  is  a  Latin  C. 
(q.-v.).  Churches  commonly  exhibit, the  C.  on  their  gable-ends. 
It  was  early  borne,  as  it  .still  is,  in  ecclesiastical  processions ; 
an  enormous  C.  made  of  wood  and  cardboard  is  carried  in  some 
of. these  processions. at  Rome,  balanced  in  a  waistband  round 
the  body  of  a  rnan.  The  C.  placed. over  the. altar  is  called  the 
.Rood  (q.  v.),  or  holy  rood. 

As  an  ornament  of  Christian ,  art,  the  iC  has  exercised  the 
ingenuity  of  artists  in  all  ages.  The  Romanesque  period  in- 
dulged in  great  luxury.in  this  respecl.ia  wooden. C.  being  over- 
laid with  gold  or  silver,  and  ornamented  .with  jewels,  gems, 
pearls, -enamelled  r^resentetions,  and  filigree  work.  In  the 
Gothic  epoch,  the  C.  had  generally  the  ends  of  its  four  arms 
trefoiled.  Reliquaries  of. the  most  elaborate  description  were 
constantly  jnade  in  the  shape  of  a  C. 

The  niemorial  C.  has  iuiall  the  ages  of  Christianity  been  a 
favourite  mode  of  expressing, regret  for  the  dead.  It, is  used  for 
Ibis  purpose  in  all  its  shapes  in  plaees  of  .interment.  One  form 
of  it,  the  Norman  C.,  is  a  Gothic  turret,  either  standing  on  the 
ground  or  elevated  a  few  steps.  Waltham  C,  near  London, 
erected  by  Edward  I.  in  memory,  of  .his  Queen  .Eleanor,  and 
recently  restored,  with  questionable  taste,  is  a  good  specimen. 
The  Runic  C,  sddto  be  of  Scandinavian,  origin,  and  named  after 
the  Runes  (q.  iv. ),  .to  vwhich  its  inscriptions  are  written,  seems 
to  have  been  frequently  set  up  in  memoiy  of  some  liero  of  the 
state  QTiOfithe  Church — some  king,  warrior,. ijr  bishop.  There 
were  formerly  many  of  these  in  the  Island  of  lona,  but  now 
Onlyone  remains — St  Martin's,  in  the.  cathedi-al  grounds.  They 
were  .common  in  Ireland— St  Lake's,  whigh  sttU  stands  in  the 
.county  of  Louth,  being  of  huge  dimensions. 

The  sanctuary  or  boundaiy  C.  marked  off- Church  lands,  and 
showed  the  people  on  their  way^to  church  vihere  to  kneel  when 
they  were  entering  sacred  grounds.  One ,  of  these  latter  is  stiil 
'    be  seen  on  a  field  near  the  paiish.church  of  Kilhonian,  Islay. 

The  iiiarket-C.  has  left  its  name  where  it  stood  in  many  towns 
of  England  and  Scotland.  It  is  noticeable  that  in  some  towns 
of  Ireland  the  market-place  is  called  rthe  j/iniiHOBii'— probably 
owing  to  its  diagonals  being^a  Gieek.C.  .Some  of  the  most 
famous  of  English  market-crosses,  as  at, Salisbury,  Chichester, 
Bristol,  and  Winchester,  are  designed  With  niches,  and  vaulted, 
open  chanjtsr.  These  crosses  seejn  to  have  been 
^oseA  as  ,prmcMng  staHcns- aoX3\Ay  .Bl  Paul's  C,  London,  of 
which  we  read  as  early-as.the  middle.of  the  13th  c.  The  neigh- 
Ijouriog  cathedral,  St  Paul's,  is  surmounted  by  one  of  the  laiges' 
constructed  crop.ses  in  fhp  wrtrld  a  Tivnl  fn  Hipt  rm  tit  PptAv'c  a 


n  fhe.wgrld,.a,rival.t( 


Lt  on  St  Peter's  ; 


constructed  ci 

'Cross,\a  heraldry,  one  of  the  honourable  ordinaries,  mny  be 
regarded  as  a  combination  of  a  fesse  with  a  pale.  It  was  usual 
for  the. Christian  warriorsiin  the  cmsades  and  for  pilgrims  to 
the  Holy  Land  to  wear  it  as  a  badge.  The  varieties  of  the  C. 
numerous  ;  but  when  the  blazon  is  a  simple  St  Geoi^e's 
always  understood  as  meaning  the  honourable  ordinary, 
re  two  classes  of  the  ornamental  C— those  in  which  the 
extremities  reach  to  the  outer  edge  of  the  shield,  and  those  whicii 
289 


— ^ 

HosteabyVjOOQlC 


CEO 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


-^ 


are  Couped  (q.  v.).  See  LipsUis,  De  Cruce ;  Gretser,  Di  Crucs 
ChrisH;  and  Lubke,  Ecclesiastical  Art  in  Germany,  &c,  also 
Eng.  trans.  (T.  C.  Jack,  Edinb.  1S73). 

Cross,  Order  of  the,  an  ecclesiastical  order  of  knighthood 
whicli  arose  in  Palestine  during  tlie  crusades,  as  the  Bethle- 
liemite  Order,  but  now  has  its  chief  seat  in  Bohemia,  where 
Cliurch  dignitaries  and  professors  of  the  University  of  Prague  are 
among  its  members.  In  the  13th  c.  the  knights  of  this  order 
became  monks,  and  in  1328  were  confirmed  by  Pope  Gregory 
IX.  as  a  monastic  community.  They  settled  chiefly  in  Poland, 
Austria,  Moravia,  Silesia,  and  Bohemia.  Their  badge  is  a  C.  of 
red  satin,  with  a  six-pointed  star  under  it  j  hence  they  are  some- 
times called  stelliferi  or  slar-bearers. 

Gross,  the  Sonthero,  a  bright  constellation  of  the  southern 
hemisphere,  consisting  of  four  stars,  the  line  joining  two  of  which 
points  to  the  S.  pole,  forming  with  the  line  joining  the  other 
two  a  very  perfect  a  The  brightest  star  is  nearest  the  .pole, 
and  is  between  the  first  and  second  magnitudes. 

CroBB,  Victoria,  a  British  order,  instituted  for  eminent  per- 
sonal  valour  in  1856,  at  the  close  of  the  Crimean  War.  A  single 
act  of  valour  may  win  this  decoration,  and  it  is  granted  to  a 
soldier  of  any  rank,  as  in  the  cases  of  Lieutenant  Marsham 
Havelock,  son  of  the  famous  general  Sir  Henry  Havelock,  at 
the  tattle  of  Cawnpore,  and  Uentenants  Sailteld  and  Home, 
Sei^eant  Smith,  and  Bugler  Hawthorne,  at  the  blowing-in  of 
the  Cashmere  Gate  in  1857,  during  the  suppression  of  the  Indian 
Mutiny.  The  order  is  said  to  have  been  founded  .in  imitation  of 
the  French  C.  of  the  Legion  of  Honour  ;  but  it  resembles  the 
ancient  English  decoration  of  the  partially-created  baron,  called 
a  Banneret  (a.  v.).  The  badge  is  a  bronze  Maltese  C^charged 
with  the  royal  crown  and  lion  crest,  below  which tis  inscribed  the 
motto,  '  For  Valour.'  On  the  clasp,  from  which  the  letter  '  V  ' 
hooks  the  C. ,  there  are  two  branches  of  lanrel ;  and  the  ribhon 
is  red  for  the  army,  bine  for  the  navy.  Tlie  pension  accompany- 
ing this  decoration  is  £,\o  a  year. 

Cross-Bill  in  Chancery  is  a  siHt^in  Chanceiyiinstituted  by 
a  defendant  against  the  plaintiff  in  a  pending  suit,  for  the 
purpose  of  making  a  claim  or  defence  which  cannot  be  made 
in  that  suit.      See  i-^arding  Scotch^Iaw,  CotjjoiNiNO  of  Pro- 

Orosaltill  {Zoria),  a  genus  of  Conirostral  (/Kjwjorio/)  birds, 

of  the  sub-family  Laxiatf,  in  nhich  the  mandibles  of  the  bill 

are   hooked   or  crossed,  and 

compressed  at  their  tips.    The 

he^d  is  lai^e,and  the  bill  st 

These  bu^  feed  on  the  seeus 

of  pine-cones,  and  their  bills 

are  well  adapted  for  extracting 

the  seeds  and  for  crushing  the 

cones,       The     common      C. 

{L/ixia  carviroslra),  the  parrot 

•C  (L  fiiyopsittacu5\  and  the 

white  wu^ed  C     [L    leucop 

tem),  occur  m  Bntain      The 

first   species    is   common    m 

CrnsBbiJl.  Europe  and  m   N    Anienca 

where  the  Hst  species  is  also 

found     The  common  species  rarely  breeds  in  Britain     TIil  nest 

IS  of  grass  and  twigs  and  placed  at  the  top  of  pine  trees. 

Crossl>ow.    See  Arbaiest,  Archery. 

Cross-Buns,  Good-Friday  cakes  with  a  cross  upon  them, 

long  popular  in   England,  where  they  are  hawked  about  the 

streets  of  many  towns  with   the  cry,    'Hot  cross-buns.'     The 

origin  of  this  practice  is  not  known  ;  it  is  perhaps  a  relic  of  a 

heathen  custom  adopted  by  the  early  Christian  Church. 

Crosse,  Andrew,  an  eminent  electrician,  was  bora  at  Fyne 
Court,  Broomfield,  Someisetshire,  June  17,  1784.  After  studying 
at  Oiford,  he  returned  to  his  family  seat  in  iSoJ,  where  he  devoted 
himself  to  electricity.  C.  made  many  successful  experiments  re- 
garding the  foimation  of  crystals,  and  formed  numerous  artificial 
minerals  through  the  agency  of  voltaic  currents.  He  communi- 
cated his  discoveries  of  thirty  years'  labour  to  the  British  Associ- 
tion  in  1836,  and  was  highly  commended  by  raiiny  scientific  men. 


Host  wonderful  discovery  was  the  apparent  generation  of 

in  atari  between  the  electrodes  immersed  in  a  highly  caustic 

solution.  For  this  he  was  clmcged  with  impiety,  and  was  forced  to 
defend  himself.  C.  died  July  6,  1855.  His  widow  published  a 
emoir  of  his  life  and  labours  (1S57). 

CrosH-Examination.  The  following  are,  in  England,  the 
chief  rules  affecting  C.-E.  Leading  questions  may  be  put;  irre- 
levant questions  for  the  purpose  of  injuring  the  credibility  of 
the  witness  are  inadmissible ;  when  not  put  for  this  purpose, 
some  latitude  in  questioning  is  usually  allowed.  The  witness 
may  be  aiksA  if  he  has  been  guilty  of  a  specified  crime,  but  he  is 
not  bound  to  answer.    See  EviDEKCE. 

CroSBopo'dia,  the  name  given  to  certain  kinds  of  zaorni- 
markings  or  Iracts  occurring  in  the  Silurian  and  other  rocks,  and 
formerly,  but  erroneously,  described  as  consisting  of  the  Ja/c  or 
actual  fossil  of  the  worm  itself.  C.  Scolica  of  the  Silurian  rocts 
is  a  good  eiample  of  these  appearances,  which  are  similar  to 
those  produced  on  modern  coasts  by  marine-worms  burrowing  in 
or  trailing  across  the  sand, 

Orossopteryg'idEe,  a  division  of  Ganoid  (q.  v.)  fishes,  so 
named  from  the  fin-rays  of  the  pectoral  and  ventral  lins  being 
arranged  so  as  to  form  a  fringe  around  a  central  lobe.  The 
living  Barramunda  (q.  v.),  or  Ceratodus  of  Australian  rivers, 
shows  this i arrangement  of  the  fins  ;  whilst  the  Polyptems  of  the 
Nile,  and  .the  extinct  genera  Osleobpis,  Megalkktkys,  Halofty- 
chias,  &c,,  are  good  fossil  illustrations  of  the  'fringe-finned' 
ganoids. 

jDrotala'ria.    See  Bengal  Hemp. 

Crotftl'idro,  a  family  of  Viperine  snakes,  represented  by  the 
'Crolalus  Aurridui,  or  Rattlesnake  (q.  v.)  of  N.  America,  and 
distinguished  by  the  presence  of  a  deep  pit  on  each  side  of  the 
nose  behind  ,the  nostril.  The  head  is  broad  and  flat,  scaly 
on.  the  crown,  and  scutellate  on  its  sides  and  on  the  nose.  The 
teeth  are  small.;  no  teeth  save  the  fangs  existing  in  the  upper 
jaw.  The.belly  is  covered  with  broad  shields.  The  tail  may  be 
provided  with  a  rattle  or  with  a  spine. 

OrO'taphite,  the  name  given  by  the  older  anatomists  to  the 
temporal  muscle  on  the  side  of  the  head,  from  krotaihos,  '  the 
temple.'    The  term  was  also  applied  to  the  temporal  bones  and 


Oxford,  when  he  became  Professor  of  Music,  and  in  1822  be- 
came Principal  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music.  His  anthems 
are  his  best-known  compositions,  but  he  wrote  also  for  the 
oi^n  and  piano.  He  was  the  author  also  of  some  good  theo- 
retical works.     He  died  29th  December  1847. 

Crotchet.     See  Music. 

Cwyto,  or  Crc'ton.     See  Cotrone. 

Oroton,  a  genus  of  Euphorbiaceous  plants.  The  seeds  of 
C.  Tigliuni  yield  Croton  Oil  (q.  v.).  The  seeds  of  C.  J'amna 
and  C.  PBlyandrum  are  also  purgative.  Most  of  the  species  are 
aromatic.  Among  these  may  be  ranked  C.  Eleuthsria,  of  the 
island  of  Eleuthera,  one  of  the  Bahamas,  which  yields  cascarilla 
bark.  The  Eau  de  Mantes,  a  spuituous  liquor,  is  made  from 
of  the  W.  Indies,  and  is  used  in  irregular  men- 
C.  lacHferum  and  C.  Draco  yield  a  cesm  used  in 
varnish-making.     Other  aromatic,  fragrant,  and  balsamic  species 

^         ,,      ,       ,...       .,..^...':^_.^__.     T,__,_^^  qT,g 

"    :eof 


Oroton  Oil  is  expressed  from  the  seeds  of  Crolon  Tigtium 
ee  Croton),  is  visdd,  of  a  yellowish-brown  colour,  an  acrid 
ste,  and  a  nauseous  odour.  It  is  an  exceedingly  powerful 
one-third  to  one  drop.  Externally  it  is  used 
of  C.  O,  to  seven  of  olive  oil,  or  some  other 
oil,  and  produces  pustules  on  the  skin.  It  is  good  for  counter- 
irritation,  as  in  internal  inflammations. 

Orotoph'aga  (Gr.  'tick-eaters'),  a  genus  of  Scansorial  birds, 
known  as  the  Anis  or  sub-family  Crolophagins,  the  typical  genus 
C.  being  confined  to  S,  America,  and  possessing  a  much-com- 


puigativi 


-♦ 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPjEDIA. 


CEO 


p     sed  b  h  he  upper  mandible  sharply  keeled. 

C  th     b        n  h  b   ckbird,  is  a  familiar  species,  and 

u       u    h      V  eeding  on  insects   such  as   ticks, 

i.c.   w  u  h     p   k     u         he  hides  of  horses  or  cattle. 

Oroan  an  nfl  mm  17  affection  of  the  windpipe,  accom- 
pan  d  by  the  m  n  a  membranous  exudation  on  the 
mu    u  a       a      Led     The  symptoms  at  first  are  those  of 

a      mm  d  b      th  y  soon  become  alanniiig.     Tlie  patient, 

g  n  ra  y  m         tiigh    une   awakens  with  a  sense  of  suffoca- 

nwihapuia  gh  called  by  physicians  'brassy.' 
Th  b  thing  q  k  and  there  is  a  peculiar  crimiing  noise 
as  h  a  rs  the  ng  There  are  occasional  spasms  of 
the  muscles  of  the  wmdpipe.  C.  is  always  worst  during  the 
night.  The  sufferer  is  ve^  restless,  and  is  frequently  seen  tearing 
at  his  mouth  or  throat  as  if  to  clear  the  windpipe  of  the  otitmc- 
tion  causing  impending  suffocation.  If  relief  be  not  obtained  in 
the  course  of  a  day  or  two,  death  ensues  from  exhaustion,  suffo- 
cation, or  convulsions.  C.  is  specially  a  disease  of  infancy,  being 
most  frequent  during  the  second  year.  It  is  rare  after  five' 
years  of  age,  and  is  more  common  among  boys  than  girls.  It 
occurs  chielly  in  cold,  damp  climates,  and  is  very  febil ;  one-half 
of  those  attacked  die,  and  generally  withm  two  or.  three  days.  The 
proper  treatment  is  to  give  emetics  and  purgative^.at  the  outset,, 
to  apply  hot  sponges  to  the  throat,  to  keep  the  child '- 


1  ai)-.,    Iq.  extreme 


„  „  to  the  sub- 
,  forming  Ijie  sub-family 
Coiiiinm,  are  known  by  their 
want  of  toothed, 


allow  it  to  inhale 

cases  Trache  Jlomy  (q,  v.)  sometii 

Crow  (  Cbtvus),  a  genus  of  In. 

ordei  Con  rostres  (q  v.).   The  tru 


the  ridge , 

by  the  long  and  rounded  wings, 
by  the  scaly  tarsi,  and  by  the 
two  lateral  toes  being  of  ei^ual 
5  ze.  Of  the  British  craws^  the 
Raven  (q.  v.)  ifiorvus,  corax), 
the  common  carrion  C.  (C. 
coro!ii\  the  rook  (C.Jhtgile- 
gus),  and  jfickdaw  (C  Ktam-. 
iCaii)  are  the  best  known.  The 
Roystoii  or  hooded  C.  (C. 
csrnix)  is  anothar'^ecies  found 
itain.  Variations  in  colour  between  these  forms  constitute 
the  chief  grounds  of  specific  disljnclion.  Other  species  of  crows 
are  the  N.  American  C.  (C.  Americaiim),  the  fishing  C.  (C.  assi- 
fragus)  of  the  United  States,  the  j^ibbering  C.  (C.  yamaicatsis). 
of  Jamaita,  the  smaller  ebony  C.  of  Ceylon,  or  Indian  C.  {C 
splendens),  &c  The  Choughs  (q.  v.)  are  nearly  r^ied  to  the 
crows,  but  are  usually  included  in  a  separate  sub-family;.(iVf*i" 
C6rai:!»^).  The  Alpine  C.  [I^r^AiK^ax  aipinus)  is.  one  of  the 
latter  bu^. 

OrowTterry,  or  OrakeTierry  (Empetnim),ssiaus  of  dwarf, 
creeping,  heath- like  shrubs,  beiongingto  the  naturaJ  order  Empei- 
riKoe,  found  in  high  latitudes,  and  on  high,  bleak  moorlands  and 
mountains  in  Scotland,  the  N,  of  England,  and  similar  parts  of 
Europe  and  America.  The  name  is,  however,  geneially  applied 
to  ^.  nigrum — the  black  berries  of  which  are  eaten  by  game- 
birds  and  also  by  crows,  whe  in  regions  where  this  berry  is  com- 
mon leave  the  fields  and  resort  to  the  Hillsides  to  live  on  it  till 
harvest-time  ;  hence  the  name  C  Its  berries  are  eaten  by  the 
Highlanders,  the  Russian  peasants,  afld  by  the  Greenlandera 
mixed  with  train-oil.  Boiled  in  alum,,diey  yield  a  purple  dye, 
and  are  used  by  the  Laplanders  for  dyeing  sable  and  otten  skins 
black.  E.ruirum,  of  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Horn,  has  edible  red 
bemes.  Tlie  Portuguese  Camarinheira  {Corema  alba)  is  closely 
allied  to  Empetrum,  and  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  an  acidu- 
lous liquor  used  as  a  drink  in  fevers.  By  spqie  authors, it  \%  de- 
scribed as  Empetrtint  lusilanicuiit. 

CroVfoot.    See  Ranunculus., 

Crowlaitd,  or  Oroyland,  an  ancient  town  in  the  '  Fais '  of 
Lmcohishire,  48  miles  S.S.W.  of  Lincoln.     It  consists  of  four 
"""■""'  separated  by  watercourses  with  willows  on  their  mai^in, 
triangular  bridge  of  three  segments  of  a 
,1 pjg^^  jujj  meeting  in  a  poi^l,  acr.osE 


the  Welland,  the  Nen,  and  a  large  drain  called  the  Catwater. 
It  is  supposed  to  be  as  old  as  the  time  of  Edward  II.  C.  has  also 
the  ruins  of  an  abbey  said  to  have  been  founded  in  the  8th  c 
It  was  frequently  destroyed  and  as  frequently  rebuilt,  and  part 
of  it  is  still  used  as  the  parish  church.  Ingulphus  was  one  of 
its  abbots.     Pop.  (1871)  2459. 

Crown,  an  ornament  wotn  on  the  head  as  a  symbol  of  regal 
or  imperial  station  and  dignity.  In  its  derivation  the  modem  C. 
comes  from  the  ceroHa  which,  among  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans,  was  bestowed  aa  an  honorary  reward  to  victors  in 
athletics  and  public  games  ;  but  in  its  real  significance  it  repre- 
sents the  diadem  or  circlet  which  was  worn  by  Oriental  and 
early  Roman  kings.  Crowns  mentioned  ia  Scripture  were 
wreaths  similar  in  nature  and  signification  to  the  honorary 
crowns  of  the  ancient  Romans.  Originally  crowns  were  plaited 
or  twisted  of  grass,  leaves,  Iwigs,  flowers,  or  other  inexpen- 
sive materials ;  but  gradually  they  began,  for  certain  purposes, 
to  be  made  of  precious  metals  and  stones,  and  some  of  them 
were  of  very  great  value.  Among  the  Romans,  who  bestowed 
crowns  with  a  very  lavish  hand,  the  classes  and  varieties  of 
such  decorations  were  very  numerous.  Crowns  of  various 
descriptions  and  materials  were  conferred  for  distinguished 
conduct  or  seiTice  in  military  or  naval  undertakings  ;  of  which 
type  the  amma  triumphalis  may  be  noted  as  an  example.  This 
was  bestowed  on  a  victorious  general  to  whom  a  public  triumpli 
was  decreed,  and  consisted,  first,  of  a  wreath  of  laurel  or 
bay  leaves  ;,  second,  a  golden  C,  presented  by  the  army  whid: 
he  had  led  to  glory ;  and  third,  another  C.  of  gold  contributed 
by  the  various  provinces.,  Emblematical  crowns  were  worn  by 
special  classes,  as,  for  example,  the  priests;  and  on  particular 
occasions,  such  as  funerals,  .wedtings,  and  social  festivities.  Tlie 
radiated  C,  which  vras  originally  reserved  for  deities  and  deified 
moyals,  was  adopted  by,  several  of  the  Roman  emperors,  Nero 
having  been  the  first  to  use  it  as.an  imperial  badge. 

The  crowns  of  monarchs-at  the  present  day  are  called  closed 
crowns,  iiecause  the  diadein-.or  circlet  is  overarched  by  a  series 
of  bands  or  arches,,  andi  the  use  of  closed  crowns  is  exclusively 
reserved  to  certain  members  of  reigning  houses.  ITie  first 
monarch  who  adopted  the  dosed  C.  was  Charlemagne,  and  his 
example  was  gradually  followed  by  European  rulers  till  the 
fashion  became  general.  In  England,  the  dosed  or  arched  C. 
was  not  introduced  tillithe  accession  to  the  throne  of  Henry  V., 
who  had  m^e  for.  himself  a  simple  C  with  two  arches. 
Since  that- period  the  royal  C.  of  England  has  undergone  many 
changes..  That  of  Her  Majesty  Queen  Victoria  has  two  arches, 
vfhich  rise  almost  perpendicularly  from  behind  the  four  crosses 
])at^es  which  heighten  the  cirdeL  Set  allemately  with  (he 
crosses  are  four  fleurs-de-lys,  and  surmounting  the  whole  at  the 
intersection  of  the  arches  are  a  mound  and  a  cross  patfe,  The 
cap  is  of  purple  velvet  lined  with  ewnine,,and  the  whole  C.  is 
ridJy  stadded  with  pearls,  diamonds,  and  other  predous  stones. 
The  crosses  on  the  C.  point  lo  the  title,  'Defender  of  the  Faith,' 
and  the  fleurs-de-lys  are  relics  of  the  EnglislV  claim  to  the  sove- 
reignty of  France.  The  state  C.  diffeis  Sipm  tfie  preceding  mainly 
in  superior  richness.  The  famous  iron  C.  of,  LonibOTdy,  now  pre- 
served in  the  Imperial  Schatzkammer  at  Vi^na,  was  originally 
all  gold,  but  in  the  6th  c.  it  was  strengthened  with  a  ring  of  iron 
made  '  of  a  nail  of  the  Cross,'  whence  it  received  its  appellation. 
The  signification  of  the  triple  C,  or,  tinra  of  the  Pope  has  been 
yariouslir  expired,  hut,  the  commonly  received  interpretation 
is  that  it  indicated  Ihe  sovereign  pontiff's  threefold  royalty — 
spiritual  over,  souls,  temporal  ov^^i  the  states  of  the  Church,  and 
ndxed  over  all  kings.  The  Vatican,  treasury  contains  several 
tiaras  which  have  been  presented  tn  the  reigning  Pope  at  various 
periods,  the  latest  bemg  one  gjwen  to  Pius  IX.  m  1S55  by  Queen 
Isabella  of  Spam,  which  wsiglis  3  lbs.  and  cost^rz,ooa 

The  Priace  of  Wales,  as  hdiv-apparent  to  the  British  throne. 
Itas  a  corpnetclosed  wJ'h  only  one  areh,  surmounted  witli  a  mound 
and  cross,.  Other.  memBers  of  the  royal  family,  dukes,  mar- 
quises, earls,  viscounts,  and  barons,  have  open  coronets,  which 
are  heightened  for  thdr  various  grades  according  to  strict  her- 
aldic order,  The  ehai^[es  of  heraldry  are  mostly  varieties  and 
modifications  of  ancient  crowns.     See  Mitre. 

Crown  Agent  is  the  agent  or  solicitor  in  Scotland  who, 
imder  the  Lord  Advocate,  takes  chaise  of  criminal  proceedings. 
The  appointment  lies  with  the  Lord  Advocate  for  the  time,  and 
1  held  ad  vilam  aut  ciilpani. 


".: ^1^ 

HosteabyVjOOQlC 


CRO 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CRU 


Crown.  Debts,  By  English  law,  debts  due  to  the  crown  have 
a  preference  over  all  debts  due  to  a  subject.  They  are  recover- 
able by  a  summary  process,  caUed  an  Estent  (q.  v.).  In  Scot- 
land this  rule  only  holds  with  regard  to  personal  or  movable 
property  ;  and  in  a  competition  affecting  heritage  the  crown  has 
no  privilege.  The  crown  privilege  is,  however,  good  against  the 
landlord's  Hypothec  (q.  v. ).  It  is  also  effectual  against  mercan- 
tile sequestration ;  consequently  a  dischai^e  under  the  Scotch 
Bankruptcy  Act  is  not  effectual  gainst  a  crown  debt. 

Crown  Imperial.     See  Fritihary. 

Crown  Lands.  Under  various  statutes  all  grants  or  leases 
exceeding  thirty-one  yeare  of  lands  belonging  to  the  crown  are 
void.  The  superintendence  of  C.  L.  is  now  vested  m  the  Com- 
missioners of  Woods,  Forests,  and, Land  Revenues  (q,  v.). 

Crown  Point,  a  fort  famous  in  the  French,  Iudian,,aiid 
Kevolutionary  wars,  stands  on. the  W.side  of  Lake  Champlaiii,, 
and  on  the  long  narrow  reach  of  the  ajjpet  or  southern  end  of 
the  lake.  Along  with  Ticondert^a,  it  guarded  the  pass  of  the 
great  military  route  between  New  York,  and  Montreal  which 

■  ire  has  made  by  the  Hudson.  River  and  Lake  Champlaii], 
•as  taken  from  the  English  in  1775  by  Ellian  Allen,  and  is 
a  ruin.  The  village  of  C.  P.  is  100  miles  N.  of  Albany. 
Pop.  of  township  about  2500. 

Crown  Solicitor  is  the  solicitor  to  the  Treasury  who  in 
state  prosecutions  in  England  acts  for  the  ciown.  In  Ireland  a 
C.  S.  is  attached  to  each-  circuit  His  duties  are  analogous  to 
those  of  the  Procurator- Fiscal  (q;  y.)  and  Crown  Agent  (q.,  v.)  in 
Scotland.    See  Prosecutor,  Prosecutioh., 

Cro\r-Stone.    See  Gosbie, Steps,. 

Cr03''don  (Fr.  Crok  dune,  '  chalk  hill,'  ftom  its  situation  on. 
the  edge  of  the  Thames  chalk  basin),  a  town  of  Surrey,  on  the 
Lolidon  and  Brighton  Railway,  10  miles  S.W.  of  Greenwich. 
There  are  several  railway  stations  at  C,  of  which  the  principal 
are  the  East,  West,  and.  New  C.  Its  main:  street  extends  along 
the  London  and  Brighton  road  for  more  (han  a  mile  and  a 
quarter,  and  is  flanked  on  both  sides  with,  respectable  shops 
and  seveml  handsome  buildings.  The  fine  old'  parish  church 
was  entirely  destroyed  by  fire  in  1867,  with  the  eitcei^tion  of 
the  tower ;  but  it  has  since  been  to  a  certain  extent  restored! 
It  has  several  other  good  Gothic  churches,  a  lai^  new  public 
hall,  and  numerous  mansions  and  villas  in  the  neighbourhood. 
The  cliief  trade  is  in.  corn  and  butter.  Two  annual  fairs  are 
lieid— the  one  on  July  5;  the  other  on  October  2.     Pop.  (1871) 

Crozet'  IslaJidk,  an^  uninhabited  volcanic  group  in  the 
Indian  Ocean,  385  miles  S.W.  by  W.  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  Thewestetn  extremity  of  the  Ini^ast  (Possession  Island) 
is  in  lat.  46t  la-  S.  and  long.  51°  30^  E..    Area.about  200  sq. 

Ciozoph'om,  a  genus  of  anmtal  or.  perennial  low-growing 
plants  (naturaI'orflfer.£a/*iir^«e), found  in  tropiiad  andNorth- 
ern  Africa,  and' extending  as  far  as  India.  C.  t^cterid,  a  native 
of  the  Meditenunean  countries,  is  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  the 
dye  called  Jiw^Jn/iV.whith  is  obtained'  from  it  by  grinding  the 
plants  (little  herbs.seldom  more  than  a  foot  high)  to  a  pulp  in  a 
mill,  when,  they  yield'  about  half  their  weight  of  a  dark-green 
juice,  which  becomes  purple  by  exposure  to  the  air  or  under  the 
influence  of  ammonia.  It  is  chiefiy  exported  to  Holland,  and  is 
prepared  forexpor^tian  by  soaking  coarse  linen  rags  or  socking 
with  it,  the  Mgs.being  previously  washed  clean.  After  soaking 
they  are  allowed  to  dfy,  and  are  exposed  to  the  influence  of 
ammonia  by  being  suspendeji  over  heaps  of  stable  manure.  Tliey 
are  then  pacUed'  ih  ^u^s,  and  ready  for  shipping  to  Holland.. 
Not  much  is  loiown  of  theuse  the  Dutch  put  the  dye  to,  but  it 
is  supposed  to  be  chiefly  employed;  as  a  colouring  matter  for 
cheese,  and  perhaps  coiuectiftneiy,  wihe;  &c.  (BlfSi  Jh  Treas. 
ef  Botany).     It' has  been  confoimded  witli  Litmus  (q-  v.), 

Cra'oianor  Oarman.  Carp  (Ct^^f^tM'farvi^f^),  a- species 
of  Cyprinida  (q.  v. )  or  Carps  (q.  v. ),  possessing  no  tentacles  or 
barbules  at  the  mouth,  and  a  sqitaret^iL  Thlslsh  inhabits  lakes 
and  rivers  of  N.  Europe  and  Asiai,  It:  has  been  found  in.  the 
niames.     !ts  flesh  is  palatable.. 


Cru'oiblas  are  vessels  empioyed  in  fusing  metals,  glass,  & 
Tliey  are  made  ofrefractory  materials,  and  are 
generally  of  aconical  shape.  The  substances 
used  in  their  composition,  are  various — pla- 
tinum, fireclay,  a  mixture  of  graphite  and  I 
fireclay  {Plumbago  C),  porcelaii    * 

CnicifOMBi  a  natural  order  of  Dicoty- 
ledonous herbaceous  plants  (rarely  shrubs), 
belonging  to  the  subdivision  T&alamifioris, 
so  called  because  the  four  petals  are  placed  in 
the  form-of  a  cross  ('cross-bearing').  Withthe 
exception  of  a  few  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Capparidaeia,  this  is  the  only  order  having  Crucible 

ielmdynainau!  stamens  (he.,  four  long  and 
two  short).  .Miont  1 730  species  and  over  205  genera,  distributed 
chiefly  in  temperate  climates,  are  known;  a  large  number  mhabit 
high  latitudes,  and  a  few  are  found  m  the  tropics,  chiefly  on  the 
side  of  monnfains.  f.SnroMMjit  ('wallflower  ),  Arabis,  Hesferis 
(' Dame's- viirfet,'  q-iV.),  Gi/Ji^a('sbepherd's  purse'),  Teesdalia, 
&c.,  are  examples.  Andscorbutic  and  pungent  properties,  fre- 
quently combined  with  acridity,  characterise  this  order.  The 
seeds  generally  contain  a  pungent  fixed  oil.  Many  of  them  con- 
tain sulphur,  and  the  watercress  contains  iodine(Miilder).  The 
Older  comprises  many  of  our  most  common  culinary  vegetables, 
but  not  a  single  poisonous  plant  All  the  plants  popularly 
known  as  Cress  (q.  v.).  Kale  (see  Braesica),  Mustard  (q.  v.), 
&c.,  belong  to  this  order.  Woad  {hatis  linclaiHa),  which  yields 
the  blue  dye  with  which  it  is  sdd  the  ancient  Britons  sfciined 
their  skins,  and  /.  indigoiica,  used  in  China  in  place  of  indigo, 
wallflower,  stock  {MsUhiola),  candytuft  [Iberis),  honesty  (Lun- 
aria  biennis),  and  other  favourite  garden  flowers,  are  also  mem- 
:  hers  of  tliis  oi'der.  It  has  various  subdivisions,  according  to  the 
.  natnit  of  the  fruit  and  the  way  (he  embryo  is  folded. 

•cis,.fa\ifi^,  'I  fix')  is  a  figure  of 
^several  centuries  till  Christian  art 
this  way  as  a  suffering  Saviour  ;  its 
at.first' being,  to. insfate  felth  more  tlian  pity,  by  remmding 
men  of  his  having  died  fon  them,  without  reference  to  the  agonies 
of; liis  death..  The  earliest  existing. crucifixes  ar 
long  to  the  gth  0.  ;  the  first  maition  of  tbein 


Cva'cifix  (Lat. 
Christ  on  the  cro; 
chosa  to  represent  Christ 


robed,!  with  no  nails,,  wounds*  or  crown  of  thorns,  and  without 
any  sign  of  pain.  Besides  the  figure  of  Christ,  there  are  also 
usually  a  number  of  minor  figures  on  the  C  The  ends  of  the 
transverse  beam  of  the  cross  are  occupied  with  figures  of  the 
Vii^n  and  St  John,  or  of  the  sun  and  mooni;  at  the  upper  end 
is  the  hand  of  the  Father  blessing  Christ  or  holding  a  vfreath;  at 
the  foot  is  the  serpent  and  a  skull;  or  the  four  ends  are  occupied 
by  the  attributes  of  the  four  Evangelists,  &c  See  The  Hisloiy 
of  Our  Lord,  by  Mrs  Jarrieson  and  li^y  Eastlake. 

Cru'den,  Alexander,  lo  whose  labours  British  divines  are 
much  indebted,  was  bom  at  Aberdeen,  3 1st  May  1 700.  H  a 
educated  at  Marischal  College  in  that  dly,  and  but  for  a  tend  y 
to  insanity,  would  have  entered  the  Church..  In  1722  he  w  n 
to  London,  where  he  was,  in  succeraion,  a^  private  tuto  a  book 
seller,  and  a  correctorfor  the  press..  Ih  1737  appeared  tl  wo  k 
with  which  Kis  name  will  always  be  associated,  his  C  n  p!st 
Concordance  of  Ike  Boly  Scripiura  of  Ijie  Old  and  t/ejv  T  la  — 
which  stands  still  the  first  of  its  kind.  Many  editions  ha  e  1 
published,,  that  of  Ghalmere  being  still  the  most  popula 
was  frequently,  deranged,  and  on  one  ocoaaon  he  -was  confined 
in  a  private  lunatic  asylum,  where,  according  to  his  own  state- 
ments,.he  was  harshly  treated.  His  delusion  that  he  was  divmely 
comroissibned  to  reform  the  people  resulted  in  his  taking  to 
himself  the  title  of  'Alexander  the  Gorraclor..'  He  was,  how- 
ever, a,  virtuous,  and.  benevolent  man.  C.  died  at  Islington 
November  1;  1770. 

Oruik'shank,  George,  an  eminent'  caricaturist,  was  hon 
in  London,  September  27,  1.792.  His  artistic  powers  showed 
themselves  at  an  early  age,  and  after  the  death  of  his  father, 
who  was  a  native  of  Aberdeenshire,  he  began  to  illustrate  books 
for  children.  Ha  sulraequently  illustrated  two  satirical  publica- 
tions. The  Scourge  and  The  Meteor,  while  his  illustrations  of  the 
political  squibs  of  the  late  William  Hone  attracted  much  atten- 
tion,    ■jurning  to  worthier  and.  more  ambitious  woik,  he  illus- 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CRU 


(rated  vorious  book?  of  fiction,  including  some  by  Ditkeiis,  such 
as  Oliver  I'lviit,  and  produced  pieces  hke  The  Bottl    eight  large 
plates,  depicting  the  vice  ol  intemperaHte,  ol 
igorous  aseaikiit,  being  personally  "  '"'"'  '■"" 


_  ,  who  IS  still  vigorous, 
.  in  alliance  with  simplicity  of 
IS  undeistood  to  bo  now  (1876) 


....  ,  hioh  he 

total  abstainer!     He  at 
laTned  the  Mghest'success  as  an  lUus'lrator,  and  a  position  not  un 
like  that  held  by  Htg-irth  as  a  teacher  of  morality  by  means  o 
satirical  sketches.    C  has  of  late  years  turned  his  attention  tc 
oil-painting.     Among  his  best  paintings  are  'Tarn  o'  Shanter, 
'Disturbing  a  Congregation'  (painted  for  the  late  Pi — =  '""" 
sort),  and  '  The  Worship  of  Bacchus.'     •"    ~l<^,=  =f.ll 
and  whose  character  shows  genr-  — 
heart  and  genuine  benevolence, 
engaged  on  his  autoh  ogtaphy 

Grui'ser  (Dut.  krmsin\,  'to  move  ciosswise,'  from  huis,  'a 
cross '],  a  Government  ship  chiefly  employed  in  watching  an 
enemy  or  pirates. 

Craitlme,  Oruitlmeach  (Lat  Cruthiut),  the  name  given 
liy  Irish  writers  to  that  branch  of  the  Celtic  race  which,  at 
the  dawn  of  history,  mhabited  both  the  N  of  Ireland  and  the 
N.  of  Scotland,  and  which  by  the  Latin  chroniclers  is  deno- 
minated PictL  No  satisfacloiy  etplanation  of  the  meaning  of 
the  tenn  has  yet  been  given,  and  it  is  needless  to  refer  '- 
the  various  (ahles  whioh  bnng  the  C  from  distant  countne; 
some  of  them  to  Iceland,  thence  £0  Scotland,  while  others 
verse  the  process.  But  it  deserves  notice  that  almost  all  these 
accounts  represent  them  as  soldiers  fiom  a  distance,  who  ob- 
tained wives  from  the  llrish,  and  whose  children  coiseqnently 
spoke  the  Irish  language  ,  and  this  probably  repiesents  the  fact 
of  their  being  intruJers  on  some  older  branch  of  Celts,  settling 
among  them  and  intermaiiymg  with  them  It  appears  that  as 
far  back  as  history  goes  the  C  possessed  Ulster  and  a  portion 
of  Meath,  while  at  the  same  time  they  held  the  whole  N  of 
Scotland— then  known  as  Alba,  the  name  Scotia  bemg  applied 
to  Iteknd,  or  Erin.  The  Pictak  Ckrentck,  written  m  the  nth 
c,  says  that  Cmithne,  the.  son  of  Cirge,  had  seven  sons— Fib, 
Fidach,  Fodla,  Kortren,.Cait,.Ce,  Ciran— and  that  they  divided 
Alba  into  seven  portions.  This  means  that  the  territory 
occupied  by  the  C.  consisted  of  seven  provinces  bearing 
the  above  names.  Fib  represents  Fife;  Eortren, .  the  western 
parts  of  Perthshire  ;.  Fodla,  Athole,  written  of  old  At-fodla  ; 
Circin,  in  old  wriliiigs,  MagH-circin,  now  Meams  ;  Cait,  Caith- 
ness. Tlie  remainmg  two  iKive  not  been  hitherto  identified  ;  but 
Dalkeith,  in  CA'a<^DaU-Ci,  '  the  portion  or  field  of  C^ '  may  re- 
present one  of  them,  while  Fidach  must  meantime  be  left  land- 
less. The  Scots,  another  Celtic  branch,  encroached  on  the  C. 
in  Ireland,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  6th  c.  established 
themselves  in  Ai^leshire,  eventually,  extendmg ,  then'  sway  over 
the  whole  kingdom,  to  which  they  gave  then-  own  name  of 
Scotland;  but,  as  the  name  Bkls  is  muchbeltex.  known  than 
that  of  C,  the  circumstances  of  this  change  of  name  and  dy- 
nasty, as  far  as  they  can  be  known,  will  be  given,  under  that 
heading.  The  only  thing.necessary  to  state  here  is,  that  the  com- 
mon idea  of  the  extinction. of  the  Picts,  orC,  by  the  Scots,  is 
alt(«ether  a  fable..  The  Kiiig  of  the  Scots,  Kenneth  M'Alpine, 
obtained  in  the  9th  e.  the  throne  of  Northern  Pictland  {Cruith- 
tieliiaitk)  by  inheritance.  Through  the  aid. of  its  inhabitants  he 
subdued  other  portions  of"  the  kingdom,  and  united  Scotland, 
as  it  finally  came  to  be  called,  under  one  head..  The  C.  or 
Picts  represent' the.old. Caledonians,  who  so  long, and  so  manfully 
resisted  the  Romans.  A  remnant  of  their  descendants,  it  can- 
not be  doubted,  still  occupy  the  ancestral  mountains. 

For  a  full-  account  of^  the  early  history  of  Scotland  see 
Skene's  various  writings  on  the  subject,  particulariy  his  introduc- 
tion to  the  Chronicles  of  the  Picis  and  S(bIs  3xiA.ii\s.  Celtic  Scoi- 
•land  (1st  vol!  Edinb.  1876),  a  work  which  entitles  him  to.be 
regarded  as  the  greatest  authority  on  the  Celtic  antiquities  of 
Scotland. 

Cruive  (perhaps  connected  with  the.  Old  Swed:  krabba),  the 
Scottish  name  for  a  trap,  consisting  of  a  sparred  chamber'or  en- 
closure placed'  iii  a  dike  or  dam  across  a  ritrer,  for,  catchiilg 
salmon.  Last  century  oruives  were  common  in  ttte  salmon-fishilie 
rivers  of  Scotland.  Their.use  ifi.  Great  Britain  is  now  illegal, 
See  Salmon  Fishing, 

The  namf 


Oru'ra,  a  tenn  used' in- anatomy  to  designate  the  roots  or  ped- 
uncles or  supports  of  any  structure.  Thus  we  have  the  C.  cer^M, 
or  peduncles  of  the  brain,  the  C.  cerehelli,  or  peduncles  of  the  cere- 
bellum, the  C.  of  the  diaphragm,  the  C.  of  the  corpora  cavernosa 
of  the  penis,  &c.,  &Q; 

Orurte'us.  Tlie  greatimuscle  in  front  of  the  Uiigh,  which  ex- 
tends the  leg  on  the  knee-jbint,  called  the  quadriceps  extensor,  is 
a'  laree  Heshy  mass  which  covers  the  front  and  sides  of  the  femur, 
and  \  usually  divided  by  anatomists  into  four  parts :  (l)  One 
occupying  the  middle  of  flie  thigh,  the  rectos- fertnoris ;  (z)  one 
port&n  occupying  the  outer  side  of  the  femur,  vastus  extemas ; 
(3)  a  third  portion  covering  the  inner  aspect  of  the  femur,  vastus 
internus;  and  (4)  the  remainder  covering  the  middle  of  the  femur, 
between:  the  two  last  named — the  C. 

Crusades' (Fr  i:rawiMtj,  from  «»ii^^  Lat.  ciyx-,  'across  )were 
the  military  expeditions  of  European  nations  during  the  nth,  I2th, 
and  l.3thceiituries  to  vindicate  the  right  of  Christian  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem,  and  latterly  to  seize  and  Hold  Jerusalem  against  the 
Turks,  From  thecaptureof  Jenisalem^by  Omar.in  A.D,  637  till  the 
reign  of  Hakem,  the  third  Fafunite  Calif,  the  Ghcistianinhabitants 
'  and  pilgrims  merely  paid  a  tax  to  the  Mohammedan  governor— 
Hamn  al.Rashid  having  dehrered  the  dtj'keys  to  Charlemagne. 
Hakem,  however,  persecuted  the  Christians,  and  mutilated  the 
rock  of  the  Sepulchre  and  the  Church  of  the  Resurrection.  As 
the  Catholic  Uiurch  commuted  penances  for  pilgrimi^s,  many 
Europeans  of  all  classes  continued  to  encounter  the  risks  of  travel 
and  persecution.  This  the  excitement  of  the  year  1000  favoured. 
After  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Turk  T(^I  Beg  in  1076, 
pilgrims  were  systematically  plundered  and  insulted,  but  it  was 
not  till  the  Turks  serionsly  threatened  the  Byzantine  Empire  that 
a  crusade  was  formally  proposed.  Gregoiy  VII.  had  seen  in 
this-  only  an  opportunity  for  ejttendmg  the  Papal  power,  but 
Urban  II.  was  rous«d  by^the  French  hermit,,  Peter  of  Picardy, 
into  real  entlinsiasm,.  and  at  the  general  Council  of  Clermont 
(November  1095)  invoked  Western  Euiope  to  defend  the  Holy 
Land.  First  Crusads.—iTi  March  10561  popular  expeditions, 
without  discipline  or  equipment,  began  to.heg  and  plunder  their 
way  to  Jerusalem.  The  first,  led  by  a-  Burgundian,  Gualtier 
Sam-Avoir  (Walter  the  Eennyless),  was  destroyed  in- Bulgaria ; 
the  second,  under  Peter  the  Hermit,  was.  cut  to  pieces  on  the 
plain  of  Nice  by  the  forces  of  the  Sultan  of  Rflm ;  the  third, 
consisting  of  German  peasants,  led  by  a  monk,  Godescha!,  per- 
ished brfore  Belgrade  through  the  Ireacheiy  of  the  Hungarian 
king  ;'the  fourth,  amounting  probably  to  200,000  [lei-sons,  after 
massacrmg  the  Jews  in  Mdnz  and  otlier  episcopal  cities,  was  ex- 
terminated by  the  Hungarian  army.  The  militair  crusade  of 
1096  divided  itself  into  four  expeditions,  organised  by  the  nobles 
without  the  help  of  any  monai-ciL  The  first  division,  from  the 
Rhine  and  N.  Germany,  was  led  by  Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  Due 
de  Brabant,  and  his  broUiers  Eustace  and  BaJdwm  ;  the  second, 
from. Central  France,  Normandy,  and  Britain,  was  led  by  Hugh, 
Comte  de  Vermandois,  Stephen,  Comte  de  Chartres,  Robert, 
Due  de  Normandy,  Robert,  Comte  de  Flanders,  and  Eustace, 
Comtede,  Boulogne  ;  the  third,  from  S.  Italy,  was  led  by  Prmce 
Bohemond  of  Tarenlo  and  his  cousin  Tanored  ;.  the  fourth,  con- 
msting  of  Provencals,  Spaniaids,  and  Lombards,  was  led  by  Ray- 
mond, Comte  de  Toulouse, witli  whom  was  Adbemar,  the  Pope's 
legate.  After  collisions  between  these  armies- and  the  Greeks  of 
the  Eastern  Empire,  andmuch  fighting  and  intriguing  "'  '"""- 
stantinople,  the  Empr  --  "---  -•■-■--^ •»■  -'t- 


J. Alexins  obtained.an  oath  of  fealty  froi 

lajorfty  of  the  leaders,  and  added  a  small' contingent  to  the 

forces.  On  20th  June  1097  the  crusaders  captured  Nic:ea,  and 
at  Dorylffium  decisively  defeated  Solyman,.  Sultan  of  RQm. 
While  the  nidn  body  crossedithe  Taurus,  Tancred  and  Baldwm 
penetrated  Cilicia.  The  unjast  claim  ofthe  latter  to  the  capture 
of  Tarsus  led  to  his  desertion-  of  tlie  general  crusade  and  his 
Armenian  expedition,  which  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the 
principality  of  Edessa.  The  crusaders  took  -Antioch,  3d  June 
1698,  but  were  besieged  there  by  a  host  of  Persian  Turks  under 
Kerboga,  whom  they  defeated  mainly  through  the  enthusiasm 
which  the  clever  imposture  of  the  Marseille  priest,  Peter  Barthe- 
lemy,  had  excited.  Bohemond  became  ruler  of  the  new  Christian 
principality  of  Antioch.  Greatly  reduced  by  famine  and  pesti- 
lence which  visited  them  at  Antioch,  the  army,  led  by  God- 
frey, Raymond,  &o.,  in  1099  marched  S.  to  Jerusalem,  now  in 
the  hands  of  the  Fatimite  Calif  of  Egypt  In  spite  of  the  gal- 
lant defence  of  Istahar,  the  crusaders,  after  a  siege  of  five  weeks, 
^93 


vLiOOQle 


ORU 


THE  GLOBE  MNCYCLOPMDIA. 


CBU 


entered  the  Holy  City,  and  massacred  the  Mussulman  and  Jewish 
inlmbitiiiils.  On  the  23d  July  log^ithe  Latin  kingdom  of  Jeru- 
salem was  foanded,  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  beooming  king  under 
the  title  of  Advocate  or  Defender  of:  the  Tomb  of  Christ.  By 
Godfrey's  victory  at  Ascalon  (12H1  August  1099),  by  the  energy 
of  his  successor,  Baldwin  B,  ini  reducing  Acre  { 1 104),  &c.,  and. 
in  founding  the  county  of  Tripoli  (nog),  and'  by  reinforcements- 
from  Europe,  the  new  kii^dora  was  strengthened  and  extended,, 
( See  BouiiLON,  Godfrey de.  }—  The  Second  Crusade,  prcreoked 
by  the  reconquest  of  Edessa  by  the  Emir  of  Mosal  in  1 1-44,  was 
preached  by  St  Bernard  {q;  v.),  under  the  auspices  of  Pope 
Eugenius  III.,  and  undertaken  by  Louis  VII.  of  France  and  the 
Emperor  Konrad  III,  Ailer  the  Geiman  army  had  been  almost 
entirely  destroyed  by  the  Suilan  of  Iconium,  Louis,  who  had 
been  detained  at  Coustantiiiople  by  the  treacherous  Manuel, 
joined  the  Emperor,  andiboth  reached  Antioch  with  a  ifagment. 
of  their  originid  forces,      An  abortive  attack  on  Damascus  in 


(who  succeeded  BaUwin  III.  at.  JeniBalein)  in  meddling  with 
the  affairs  of  Egypt,  and  the  dissensions  which,  the  election  of 
Guy  de  Lusignan  as  king  excited,  prepared  the  way  for  the  sud- 
den rise  of  Saladin,  who  cmsbed  the  Christian  army  at  Tiberias 
in  1 187,  seized  Jerusalem,  put  Antioch  under  tribute,  but  failed 
to  rednce  Tyre,  which  Konrad  of  Monlferrat  defended.  This 
led  (o  the  Third  Crumdei.  marked  by  the  first  imposition  by 
Euroijean  monarchs  of  the  Saladine  tithe  on  rents  and  mov- 
ables. The  siege  of  Acre  began  in  1189  ;  in  1190  the  Emperor- 
Friedrich  Earbarossa  led  his  army  toCilicia,  where  he  died; 
the  Duke  of  Swabia  proceeding  to  Aare,,  which  was  trained  in 
1 191,  on  the  arrival  of  Philippe  Auguste  and  Richard  Gceur  de 
Lion,  Philippe  having  returned  home,  Richard  won  the  victory 
of  Azotns,  and  captured  Jaffa  and  CEesarcai;  but  when,  m  wga, 
Jerusalem  was  reached^,  the  crusade  was  suddenly  abandoned, 
Saladin  agreeing  to  leave  the  coast-fortresses  m  the  hands  of  the 
Christians,  and  to  give  pilgrims  firee  access  to  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre.  This  truce  expiring,  and  the  crusade  proclaimed  by  Pope 
Celestin  III,  feiling  to  place  AJmeric  of  Lusignan  in  possession 
of  the  Holy  City,  Pope-Innocent  H'L,  seconded  by  the  preach- 
ing of  the  French  priest  Foulques,  set  in  motion  the  Fourth 
Crusads  in  120a  Its-  leaders,  the  Marquis  Boniface  of  Mont- 
ferrat  and  the  Comtes  de  Flanders  and  Blois,  arranged'  for  the 
transport  of  their  troops  by  the  Venetian  fleet,  and  joined  the 
Do^e  Dandolo  in  storming  Zara,.  a  city  subject  to  flungary.. 
Tins  having  placed  the  crusaders  in  opposition  to  the  wishes  of 
the  Pope,  they  agreed  to  espouse  the  cause  of  Alexius,  son  of 
the  deposed  Isaac  Angelus,  who  promised  that,  if  successful 
against  his  usurping  uncle  Alexius,  he  would  unite  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Churches  and  assist  the  crusade.  After  the 
double  siege  of  Constantinople  (1203-5),  which  resulted  first  m 
the  restoration  of  Isaac,  next  in'  the  usurpation  of  Ducas  Mur- 
zuphlos  and  the  murder  of  Alexius,  lastly  in  the  coronation  of 
Baldwin,  Comte  de  Flanders,  as  first  Latin  Einperor  of  the  East, 
and  the  division  of  the  empire  between  Venice  and  the  barons,, 
nothing  fiirther  was  heard  of  this  crusauie.  Montferrat  obtained 
Macedonia  and  the  republic  of  Venice,  Crete  and  three-eighths 
of  the  Asiatic  provinces.— 7&  Fifth  Grusade,  to  assist  Jean  de 
Brienne,  titular  King  of  Jerusalem,  agdnst  the  Sultan  Saphadin, 
who  had  succeeded  to  Saladinfs  power,  was  agreed  to  at  the 
Laierao  Council  of  1216,  called  by  Innocent  III.  The  prdirai- 
nary  campaign  of  Louis  of  Hungary  came  to  nothing,  and 
although  the  Germans  under  the  Duke  of  Austria,,  assisted  by 
the  French  following  of  Comtes  Nevers  and  La:  Marche,  and  the 
English  under  the  Earl  of  Salisbury;  inr  1219  took  Damietla 
after  a  siege  of  seventeen  months,  the  folly  of  Cardinal  Pela- 
gius  and  the  religious  orders  in  declining  the  protfered  cession 
of  Jerusalem,  led  in  1229  to  the  disastrous  advance  on  Cairo. 
In  1228  the  Emperor  Friedrich  IL  (q.  t.)  obtained  a  ten  years' 
treaty,  guaranteeing  the  occupation,  of  Bethlehem,,  Najareth, 
&e.,  and  free  access  to  the  Holy  City,  where  he  was  him- 
self crowned  despite  the  protest  of  the  Patriarch,  In  1238, 
the  Christians  having  been  driven  out  of  Jerusidemj  two  dis- 
tinct expeditions  were  oiganised,  together  known  as  the  Sixth- 
Crusade;  the  first,  consisting  of  French  knights  led  by  Thibaud 
of  Champagne  and  the  Comte  de  Eretagne,  was  victorious  at 
-Ascalon,  but  routed  at  Gaza ;  the  second,  arranged  at  the 
Council  of  Northampton,  was  headed  by  Richard  Earl  of  Corn- 
Wall,  brother  of  Henry  III.,  who  i:i  1240  drew  the  courts  of 


Damascus  and,  Cairo  into  a  treaty  for  the  cession  of  Jerusalem 
and  a  large  territory,  and  the  release  of  Christian  prisoners. 
The  invasion,  of  Palestine  by  the  Kharizmian  tribes,  expelled 
from  Persia  by  the  Mongols,  and  assisted  by  the  Sultan  of 
Egypt,  crushed!  the  Latin  state  ;  and  when  the  Kharizmians 
wereexpelledibylheSyrians  and  F^ptians  the  Christians  did 
notreKiin  their  rights..  At  the  Council  of  Lyon  (1245),  accord- 
ingl;y,  Popg  Innocent  IV.  proclaimed  a  Seventh  Crusade,  in  which 
Louis  IX,  of  France,  William  Longsword  of  Salisbury,  and 
others  from  Erance  and  England,  set  out  from  the  rendezvous, 
Cyprus,,  in  the  year  1248.,  Egypt  was  the  scene  of  battle. 
Damietta.  fell  easily,,  but  the  Mameluke  forces  of  Nejmeddin, 
the  Sultan,,  checked  the  invaders  at  Mansura,  cut  off  their  com- 
munication with  the  sea,  and  destroyed  the  crusading  army, 
;  taking  Louis  prisoner  in  125^  Louis,  after  bemg  ransomed,  spent 
four  years  m  fortifying  the  coast-fortresses  of  Palestme,  and  then 
withdrew  to  France..  In  IB65-68,  Bondocdar,  the  Mameluke 
usurper,,  attacked  Palestme,  almost  defenceless  from  the  fends  of 
the  military  orders,.  The  capture  of  Antioch  after  a  series  of 
victories  led  Clement  IK  to  proddm  tlie  Eighth  Crusade.  This 
consisted  of  the  fatal  expedition  of  Louis  IX,  to  Timis  (1270), 
and  the  energetic  campdgn  of  Prince  Edward  of  England  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Acre  (then  the  capital)  and  Nazareth  (1271- 
72),  which  forced  from  Bondocdar  a  ten  years'  peace.  The  reign 
of  Hugues  de  Lusignan  was  marked  by  the  leduclion  of  Tripoli 
and  Acre,  and  the  final  destruction  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem 
(1291).  The  Popes  sought  in  vain  to  raise  another  crusade. 
Enthusiasm  for  the  cross  had'  been  killed  by  the  growing  sense 
of  failure,  and  by  disgust  with  the  selfish  deahng  of  Rome, 
Many  theories  have  been  framed  of  the  religious,  political,  and 
intellectual  effects  of  the  C.  It  would  appear  that  aristocratic 
power  was  nowhere  directly  weakened  by  them,  nor  were  the 
ge(^aphical  outlines  of  religious  and  civil  power  altered.  The 
burning  of  Constantinople  was  a  serious  blow  to  learning  and  cnl- 
On  the  other  hand,,  the  C.  extended  the  commerce  of  the 
ipublics,  whooften  obtained,  for  transporting  troops, 
5..V,,.., ,,,  o,.reets  andi privileges  of  trade  in  towns  they  wonld  not 
otherwise  have  reached  so  soon..  To  this  increased  unportance 
of  trade,  which  appeared  in  many  transactions  as  the  creditor  of 
the  aristocracy,  and  to  the  general  quidiening  and  enkrgement 
of  ideas  which,  contact  with  new  nations  and  territories  always 
begets,  it  is  reasonable  lo  attribute  to  some  extent  the  rise  of 
municipal  libertie!^  which,,  especially  in  Germany,  marked  the 
I2lh  and  13th  centuries.  The  chief  liistories  of  the  C.  are 
those  of  Mills,  Michsud,,and  Cox.  Of  the  fourth  and  seventh 
C,  contemporary  accounts,  of  a  dramatic  and  interesting  idnd, 
have  been  left  by  Viliehardouin  and  Joinville.  Information  like- 
wiseabounds  in  the  Byzantine  historians  of  the  time.  See  also 
Heeren,  Sur  Vlnfitience  des:  Creisades. 

Cruata'cea,  a  class  ni  Arlhropoda  ot  Higher  Anrndosa,  dis- 
tinguished primarily  by  the  (act  that  in  its  members  the  head 
and  chest  segments  are  imited  to  form  one  piece,  known  as  the 
cephalotherax.  The  breathing  is  conducted  by  branchia  or  gills, 
but  ma^  also  be  efiected  by  the  general  surface  of  the  body. 
Two  pairs  of  antennm  exist.  The  limbs  are  more  than  eight  in 
number,  and  arebome  by  the  segments  of  the  abdomen,  as  well 
as  by  those  of  the  thorax.  The  name  C  is  derived  from  the 
general  presence  of  an  outer  crust  or  skm  of  calcai-eous  or  horny 
matter,  forming  an  exasMeton,  and  represented  by  the  'sliell' 
of  the  crab  or  lobster.  A  Metamorphosis  (q.  v.),  or  series  of 
changes  similar  to  that  seen  in  insects,  &c,  occurs  in  those  forms 
diu-ing  their  development  from  the  young  to  the  adult  state.  As 
in  the  Crabs  (q.  v.),.  the  young  appear  first  as  free-swimming, 
tailed  oi^anisms  named  Zolie,  and  afterwards  as  Megalopi^ ; 
assuming  the  perfect  or  tailless  form  in  the  next  stage.  The 
lower  C.  majr  pass,  in  some  cases,  through  a  very  complicated 


metamorphosis,  as  exemplified  in  BamMles  (q.  v.), 
'  C.  the  body  consists  of  twenty-one  joints  or  se 
segments  going  to  the  head,  chest,  and  abdomen  respec- 


cally ;  growth  taking  place  in  the  body  only  when  the  body 
is  soft  and  shell-less,  and  before  the  new  shell  is  secreted. 
Reproduction  of  lost  or  injured  limbs  takes  place  in  most  C. 
~'  ith  is  complicated,  cousisting  of  a  series  of  jaws,  which 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


n  higher  C.  gradually 
liver,  and  intestine  exist.  The  heart  may  be  wanting,  but  whei 
present  it  lies  dorsally,  and  consists  of  a  tubular  contractile  oi^an 
provided  with  valves.  Blood-vessels  exist  in  higher  forms.  The 
gills,  when  present,  may  be  situated  on  the  feet  .or  .enclosed 
within  the  body.  The  nervous  system  consists, of  a  ganghon- 
atcd  chain  of  nerves  lying  vertically  or  on  the  floor-of  the  body. 
The  C.  are  divided  and  classified  as  follows.  Tliey  inhabit 
both  fresh  and  salt  water,  and  some  genera  {(.g.,  Urine  Shrimps, 

j.  V.)  inhabit  brine  solutions  ;— 

Class  Crustacea. 
Sub-Class  I.— Epizcja. 
On/er  r.  Tchikyophthira,  Achiheres,  &c. 
„     2.  Khiaxefhaia,  I-ernsea,  &c. 

Sab- Class  II, — Cirripedia. 
Order  3.   Thormka,  Balani,  Barnacles,  &c 
„     4.  Alidominalia. 
„     $.  Afoda. 

Sub'CksS  ril. — Et^TOMOSTRACA. 
Order  6.    Oslracoda^ 
„     7.   Copsfeda,  \  Water-fleas. 
„      &    Cladocem,) 

„  9.  Phyllopoda,  Brine-shrimps,  &c 
„  10.  Trilebila  (Extinct),  TrJIobites. 
„    II.  MerQstofiiuta,  King-crabs,  Slc 

Sub-Class  IV.— Malacostkaca. 
Order  12.  Lcevtodipoda,  Caprella,  &C. 
„    13.  Isopoda,  Wood-lice. 
,,    I.J.  AmpMpoda,  Sandhoppera. 
„    15,  .5Jfljwa;>ei^,  Locnat-shrimps. 
„    16,  Decapoda,  Crabs,  Lobsters,  Shrimps,  and^'rawns. 

Crus'ta  Petro'sa,  a  substance  found  covering  the  fangs  of 
human  teeth,  and  forming  layers  in  some  examples  of  more  com- 
plicated teeth,  as  those  of  the  elephant  or  horse.  It  is  identical 
in  sliTicture  with  boue,  except  that  in  ,C.  P.  we  find  no  Haversian 
canals.     See  BoKE,  Teeth. 


Omat  of  tlie  Earth,  the  n: 


n  of  0' 


Suifaci 


n  by  geologist-s  to  tlrat 


isible  to  hum: 


spondiiig  to  the  outer  rind  of  our  planet,  into  which,  for 
several  thousand  feet,  we  have  been  able  to  penetrate.  This 
'  C  is  made  up  of  rocks,  variously  formed  and  arranged,  and  it 
is  the  province  of  geology  to  detetmme  their  relations,  formation, 

Cru'ys,  Comelis,  a  Dutch  naval  commander,  bom  June  14, 
1657,  whom  Peler  the  Great  induced  to  join  (he  Russian  service. 
He  superintended  the  malting  of  dockyards,  eauals,  and  ships  of 
war  m  Russia,  which  through  his  exertions  first  became  a  uaval 
power.     C.  died  in  1727. 

Crying,  Physiol'ogy  of.  This  is  a  modification  of  the 
ordinary  movements  of  respiration  excited  byta  mental  emotion. 
Though  excited  by  a  contrary  emotion,  it  is  nearly  related  phy- 
siologically to  the  act  of  laughing.  Frequently  an  individual 
maybe  between  n  'laugh'  and  a  'cry.'  In  both,  the  muscles  of 
expiration  are  convulsed,  and  the  breath  is  sent  out  in  a  series 
of  jerlts  through  the  open  glottis.  (See  Larynx.)  C,  un- 
like yawning,  coughing,  sneezing,  never  originates  in  the  respira- 
tory system,  but  is  always  an  expression  of  an  emotional  state, 
thongh  it  must  be  confessed  tha.t  in  states  of  great  general  weak- 
ness, C.  may  sometimes  occur  without  any  very  definite  emo- 
tional antecedent. 

Crjf'oUte,  a  native  fluoride  of  sodium  and  aluminum  (3NaF 
AlFs),  occurring  in  loi^e  deposits  at  Evlgtok,  Greenland,  a  d 
also  found  in  the  Urals.     It  is  a  source  of  Aluminum  (q.  v.). 

Oryoplt'oruB  (Gr.  hyos,  'co\A;'  p&cra,  "I  carry'),  a  giiss 
tabe  with  a  bulb  at  each  end.  The  one  bulb  contains  a  lit  e 
wattr,  (he  other  only  water-vapour.  When  the  ktter  is  placed 
in  a  freezing  liquid,  the  condensation  of  the  vapour  produces 
evaporation  of  the  water,  which,  being  accompanied  by  abstrac- 
tion of  heat,  transforms  the  water  into  ice. 

Crypaor'chia  (from  kncpto,  '  I  conceal ;  orchis, '  a  testicle '), 
a  condition  sometunes  met  with,  in  which  the  testicles  h,ave  not 
descended  from  the  abdominal  cavity  into  the  scrotum. 


C.  undui  (jiasgow  L 


Orypt,  a  term  used 
depression  in  a  mucous 
of  Lieberkijhn,  in  the 

Orypt(Gr,  kmpke,'  a  co 
'  I  hide '),  in  ecc  es  as  cal  a  cl 
wholly  nndergrou  d 
used  as  a  church  by 
the  early  Christ  ana 
forsafety  d  uring  the 
services,  and  also  as 
a  place  of  sepnlt    e 
The  largest  C.  does 
not  generally  ex  e  1 
beyond  the  limi  s  of 
the  choir  or  cha    el 
and   its  aisles,     nd 
is  often  much  sma 
ler  than  these.     It  is 
oarefnlly  construe  e 
and  plainly  finished 
York   Minster    and 
Worcester  and  Ro 
Chester      Cathed  al 
have  each  a  C,  o  d 
than      the     pre  e 
building.     That  unde        n  y 

largest  in  England  :  there  is  also  a  fi: 
thedral, 

Cryptogam'ia,  Cryptogams,  or  Cryptogamous  Plants 

(Or.  kiyplos,  'hidden,'and^flHJf,  'marriage'),  the  name  applied 
to  ferns,  and  their  allies  .the  hotse-tails,  cwb-mosses,  and  Marsi- 
leac&s,  mosses,  liver-worts  (Sepalics),  lichens,  fungi,  Cfmraceie, 
and  Algw,  which  do  not  produce  flowers  like  the  phanerogamous 
or  flowering  plants,  and  accordingly  have  no  seeds,  and  therefore 
noiCotyledons'{q,  vj).;  .hence  they  are  sometimes  called  AcoiyU- 
donous  Plants  (q.'V.).  Theyireproduce  in  various  ways  by  spores 
or  single  cells  without  emb^os.  Many  of  the  C.  are  parasitic, 
and  the  lower  orders  of  them  are  entirely  cellular ;  hence  they 
are  sometimes. called ■Ceiffa/a«w,{q.^ v.). 

Oryptog'rapliy  (Gr.  -ii-uples,  'secret,'  and  grapkein,  'to 
write")  is  the  art  of  communicating  by  signs  or  letters  unintelli- 
gible except  to  the  possessor  of  a  key  to  the  cryptograph. 
Various  methods  of  C.  were  practised  by  the  ancients.  Thus 
Ovid  recommends  iove-letters  to  be  written  in  milk,  and  after- 
wards to  be  made  legible  by  applying  soot.  C.  was  very  gene- 
rally used  by  diplomatists 'in  the  17th  c,  and  is  still  employed, 
especially  in  telegraphic  despatches.  One  method  of  C.  is  to 
write  with  metallic  solutions,  the  characters  being  afterwards 
disclosed  by  the  action  of  certain  gases,  but  more  commonly  a 
different  sign  or  letter  isused  for  each  letter  of  the  alphabet — a 
system,  of iC^known  ascM^e,  i.e.,  cipher.  A  cryptographic  ma- 
clime  for  transmitting  secret  correspondence  was  patented  in  i860. 
In  political  diplomacy  the  art  is  less  used  than  formerly, 

Cryatall'ine  Leas,  the  principal  refractive  structure  of  the 
■  eye.     See  Eye. 

Grystallilie  Rocks  are  hig;hly  metamorphosed  rocks,  i 
which  the  original  texture  has  disappeared,  and  a  new  chemici 
arrangement,  completely  altering  the  mineralogical  structure, 
has  rendered  the  texture  ctystalhne,  and  indistinguishable  from 
that  of  igneous  rocks.  The  chief  of  these  are  granite,  syenite, 
dio  te  and  1  allage  rock ;  and  this  connecting  of  the  igneous 
w  th  the  true  metaraorphic,  and  SO  with  the  aqueous,  seems  to 
wa  ant  the  conclusion  that  all  rocks  forming  the  cmst  of  the 
eartl  we  e  at  one  time  aqueous,  and  have  been  and  are  being 
ransformed  irough  the  agency  of  pressure  and  heat,  into  rocks 
me  a  orpl  c  and  igneous,  which,  gradually  worn  away  by  atmo- 
'jphenc  a  d  other  causes,  form  new  aqueous  rocks,  thus  ci 
1  let   g  the  cycle  of  geolc^ical  operations, 

GrystalIog'raph.y,  the  science  which  treats  of  crystalline 
forms  and  their  classification.  Most  minerals  assume,  in  virtue 
of  their  molecular  constitution,  a  r^ular  form,  which  is  Called  a 
crystal — a  form  which  is  symmetrically  arranged  with  respect  to 
three  or  more  definite  axes.  The  most  perfect  crystals  are  ob- 
tained, not  from  natural  minerals,  but  from  the  pure  salt  formed 


29s 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYOLOPMniA. 


CUB 


-■#• 


artificially  in  the  dieratcal' laboratory.  The  usual  melhod  is  by 
cooling  or  evaporating  a  saturated  solution  of  tiie  salt,  by  which 
means  the  crystals  gradually  separate  out,  the  size  depending 
chiefly  upon  the  rate  of  evaporation.  Fusion  and  slow  cooling 
may  be  employed  in  many.caaes^;  foriinstance,  inithe  ease  of  ssl- 
phur  and  some  metals,;  and  tg^  Qften  substances  such  as  iodine 
assume  a  crystalline  forra  when  passing  directly  from  the  gaseous 
to  the  solid  state.  Most  crystals  tend  to  split  in  particular  direc- 
tions, pai-allel  to  the.Eixis  (rf^rametry.;  and  they  very  frequently_ 
have  different  co-effidents  of  elasticity,  expansion,  and  conduc -' 
tivity  along  these  different  axes.  Their  optical  properties  ali 
point  out. theirstructural  character. 


Ic,  Regular,  or  Ct^k  System,  wllich  has  three  mutually  rectangn- '-. 
lar  and  equal  aiies.  The  most  important  forms-are  the  eu&e,  ' 
gular  octoAcdron,  and  rlmaHc  dudaahedtan,  which,are!met  » 
unddt  various  modific^ions,  among  the  metals,  liu  common  s 
the  alums,  fluor-spar,  diamond,  garnet,  spinede,  &C.  z.  The 
taelrie.  Square  .AdimatKf.oi  J^^midal  System,  which  has  also 
three  rectangular  axes,  two  of  which  only  are  equal.  These  forms 
occur  in  dreon,  apophylite,  yellow  potassium,  ferrocjranide,  &c. 
3.  T&e  RhoviJiohedral  or  Hexagonai  System,  wllich  has  four  axes, 
three  of  which  areegual,  co-planar,  and  inclined  to  each  other  at 
angles  of  60°,  while  the  fourth  and  principal  axis  is  perpendicular 
to  them  all.  The  principal  foiins  are  the  regular  six-sided  prism, 
the  rhojiibokedron,  the  tcalenehedron,  and  are  met  with  .in  ice, 
calcspar,  beryl,  quartz,  arsenic,  antimony,  &c  .  4.  .7^  TUmelric  i 
or  Shombic  System,  which  has  three  rectangular  but  unequal  axes. ' 
The  perspective  forms  of  these,  cfystals.are  very  like  those  of  the 
dimetric  system.  'Theyare  found  in  sulphur  crystillised  ata  low 
temperature,  nittiate  and  sulphate  of  .potassium,  sulphate  of 
barium.  ,5.  The  Motioclinic  or  OiligucFUsmntic'^slaii,  v/]iid.i 
has  three  equal  or  unequal  axes,  two  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  while  the  third  is  oblique  to  the  one  and  perpendicular  to 
the  other.  Such  crystals  are  exemplified  by  sulphur  cryslaUised 
by  fusion  and  cooling,  by  realgar,  sulphate,  carbonate  and  phos- 
phate of  sodium,  borax,  &c.  6,  Tie  TriditUc  or  Dozibly  Oblique 
Prismatic  Systetn,  which  has  three  obllqne  eqnal  or  unequaLaxes, 
being  therefore  of  great  variety  of  form  and  exceedingly  difficult 
of  study.  Such  forms  are  assumed  by  sulphate  of  copper  and 
nitrate  of  bismuth. 

Crystals  which  grow  by  equal  additionSi ail  round  retain. the 
original  form;  if  nie  additions  lake  place ' unequally,  but  still 
following  some  definite  .law,  a  new  but  connected  form  arises. 
Thus  a  cube,  which  increases  .except  at  the'Solid  angles,  will 
t>ecome  in  time  an  octohedron,  tlie  >  old  angles  being  now  the 
central  points  of  the  new  planes.  These  planes  are  called  the 
liEojwfarj' planes,  and.  the  modifications  thus  produced  from  the 
primary  form  are  termed  secondary  forms.  Any  standard  treatise 
on  mineralt^y,  such  as  Hauys  and  .Dana's,  contains  information 
sufficient  for  a  practical  understanding  of  the  subject,  which  is 
also  very  interesting  from  a  geometrical  point  of  view. 

Orystftll'omancy.a  once  popular  mode  of  divination  by 
means  of  crystals,  especially  of  the  beryl.  The  diviner  having  in 
1  low  voice  .'spoken  the  appropriate  farmuliE,  Tianded  the  crystal 
to  a  youth  or  virgin,  who  read  on  it,  or  obtained  by  inquiry  from 
spirits  who  appeared  in  it,  what  was  desired  to  be  known, 

Osft'ba,  a  marketrtown  in  the  county  of  Bekes,  Hungary,  and 
till  1846  the  largest  village  in  -Europe.  It  then  purchased  for 
Soo,ooo  florins  the  right  to  hold  markets  of  its  own.  It  is 
also  the  largest  Protestant  community  in  Hungaiy.  C.  has  a 
trade  in  cattle,  grain,  hemp,  and  wine.     Pop.  32,o(X), 

Csanad'  Palo'ta,  the  name  of  a  tovm  in  Hungary,  <ai  the 
MariiE,  with  a  pop.  (1869)  of  4013,  'It  became  the  seat  of 'a 
bishop  in  1096. 

Oso'ina  de  Korea,  Alexander  (properly  KSrSsi  Csoma 
.SiBn'o/-),a  Hungarian  Iravellerand  orientalist,  bornat'KflrSs  (Tran- 
sylvania) in  1790— according  to  somein  1798 — was  carefully  edu- 
cated, and  devoted  himself  to  philosophical  studies  at  the  col- 
lege of  Nagy-Enyed  from  1812  to  1815,  after  which  he  studied 
Oriental  languages  in  Germany.  The  di'Cam  of  his  youth  had 
been  to  travel  in  Central  Asia,  and  discover,  if  possible,  the 
original  seat  of  the  Hungarian  race.  With  this  object  he  assi- 
duously studied  geography,  ethnology,  philology,  and  history  at 
Gbttingen,  and  afterwai'ds  at  Temesvar,  Agram,  and  Buehaiest, 


In  1820  he  travelled' through  Bulgaria  and  Rumili  to  the  po 
Enos,  wherehe  shipped  for  Egypt.  Driven  out  of  Alexan 
by  the  plague,  he  set  out  on  his  travels  to  the  East,  passed  by 
Aleppoand  MoMil  to  Bagdad,  and  thence,  assisted  by  tlie  Eng- 
lish consul, proceeded  by  Kermanshah  and  Hamadan  to  Teheran, 
where  he  arrived  in  October-lSso.  Here  he  remained  four  months, 
studying  the  Persian  language.  In  March  rSsi  C,  dii^ised  as  an 
Armenian,  set  out  from  Teheran,  and  after  many  adventures  and 
hardships/arrived  on  the  i8ih  November  at  Bokhara,  whence, 
.joming  a  caravan,  he  travelled  by  Cabul  and  the  F 


with  the  Thibetan  tongue.  The  study  of  this. language,  hithi 
almost  unknown  in  Europe,  although  its  literature  deserves 
attention,  engaged  C.  for  several  years,-flrEt  with  the  Lama  of 
Tsanskar,  and  aftea'wards  in  the  Lamaist  convent  of  Kanum  01 
the  Upper  Sudej.  After  mastering  ■  the  language,  C.  repaired 
to  Calcutta,  where  his  labours  and  accomplishments  met  with 
a  cordial  acknowledgment  from  the  Asiatic  Society,  who  ap- 
pointed him  tlieir  librarian.  While  thus  engaged  he  produced 
his  two  great  works,  A-Gfavimar  -ef  the  TMbctan  Language  and 
An  Essay  taaards  a  DicUenary,  T/dbetan  and  English,  both  oE 
which  were  published  at  Calcutta. (1834.)  at  the  coat  of  the 
British  Govertmient.  For  the  Asiatic  Jiesearehes  iyoX.  xx.)  he 
also  wrote  a  synopsis  of  the  holy  books,  of  Lamaism,  In  furtlier 
prosecaiion  of  his  researches  he  resolved  (o  visit  Lhassa,  the 
.capital  of  Tliibef ;  but  while  on  the 'route  he  was  seized  vrith 
iiilness,  and  died-at  Darjeeling,  in  Sikltim,  Ilth  April  1842.  IfC, 
failed  to  discover  in  Thibetan  the  origin  of  his  native  Magyar, 
<he  at  least  merits  the  credit  of  having  been  the  first  to  bring 
that  language  and  its  literature  within  tlie  scope  of  European 
sdiolarship.  See  a  most  interesting  autobiographical  sltetch, 
read  before  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  Calcutta,  19th  April 
JS34,  and  ptiuted  in  vol.  i,  of  the  Journal  of  that  Society. 

-Caongrad',  a  market-town  of  Hungary,  on  a  tongue  of  land 
opposite  the  mouth  of  ilie  ICoros,  35  miles  N.  of  Szegedin.  It 
has  a  trade  iu'cattle,. timber,  and  tobacco.     Pop.  17,355. 

Otenoi'dei,  or  Ctenoid'  Fishes,  the  name  proposed  by 
Agassis,  not  generally  used  in  zoology,. to  indicate  fishes  such 
as  the  .flounders,  , perches,  Sc,  in  which  the  scales  have  their 
hinder  mai^ins  divided  into  '  comb-like '  structures,  ol'  set  with 
spines  so  as  to  resemble  combs.  New  opines  appear  to  be  deve- 
loped with  the  growth,  of  the  scales. 

Ctenopli'ora,  the  highest  order  of  the  class  Acli'iozm,  repre- 
sented by  delicate,  free-svidmmiiig  organisms,  such  as  Cyaiipe 
I^Bera^.&c,  and  distinguished  by  .possessing  ctenephercs,  or  paralle! 
rovre  oSCiiia  (q,  v.)  (vibratile  filaments),  arranged  in  comb-illte 
plates.  Nocoralstrustureisdevelopedin  theseoi^anisms.  There 
are  eiglil.  bands  of  ctenophores,  arranged  meiidionally,  in  Cydippe, 
a  familiar  member  of  the  group,  which  may  be  found  in  summer 
floating  on  the-sea  in  the  form  of.  a  clear,*  jelly-like  ball  of  lemon 
ihape.  The  mouth  is.  at  the  oml  or  lower  pole  of  the  body,  and 
a  stomacli  and  complex  system  of  canals  exists,  the  latter  re- 
presenting a  circulatory  system,  h^ctenoeyst  exists  at  the  apical 
or  upper  pole  of  the  botly  ;  this'latter,  consisting  of  a  small  cyst 
or  sac,  containing  fluid  and  limy  .particles,  and  supplied  with 
nerve  filaments  from  a  small ,  nervous  mass,  Tliis  ts  the  first 
definite  appearance  of  a  nervous  system  in  the  animal  series  as 
we  proce»i  upwards.  Cesium  Veneris,  or  '  Venus'  girdle,'  another 
of  the  C.,  is  a  long  band-like  organism  of  3  or  4  feet  long,  and 
at  night  shines. in;the  sea  wilKa  phosphorescent  flame. 

Oteaib'iuB,  a  Greek  mathematician  of  Alexandria,  who 
flomished  in  the  3d  c.  B.C.  He  is  famous  for  his  mechailicai 
inventions,  such  as  the  pump,  the  water-clock,  the  bent  syphon, 
and  for  .utilising,  along  with  hia  pupil  Hero  Alexandriiius,  the 
elasticity  of  the  air  as  a  motive  power. 

Ctes'iplioii,  a  dt;^  in  the  southern  part  of  Assyria,  on 
eastern  bank  of  the  Tigris.  It  rose  into  importance  on  the  decay 
of  Seleucia,  and  was  the  winter  residence  of  the  Parthian  kings. 
The  site  of  C.  has  been  identified  with  the  modem  Al  Madain, 


Ouba,  'the  Pearl  of  the  Antilles,'  and  the  one  colony  of  im 
lorlance  still  belonging  to  Spain,  is  tlie  largest  and  wealthies 
sland  of  the  W.  Indies,  and  is  situated  between  the  Mexicai 


yUoogle 


-•^ 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDI 4 


Gulf  on  the  W.,  the  Caribbean  Sea  on  the  S,,  and  the  Nicolas 
and  Old  Bahama  Channels  on  the  N.  Il  is  about  150  miles 
distant  from  the  two  great  peninsulas  of  Florida  and  Yucatan. 
It  is  740  miles  long,  70  miles  in  average  breadth,  extends  from 
E.  to  W.  lat.  19°  43-23°  la'  N.,  long,  74°  S'-Ss"  W.  Area, 
42p20sq.  miles;  pop.  {1S76)  1,400,000.  The  island  is  divided, 
into  \hietinttndenaas — the  western,  pop.  (1872)  1,034,616,  capital ; 
Havana;  the  central,  pop.  75,725,  capital  Puerto  Principe;  and' 
the  eastern,  pop.  249,096,  capital  Santiago  de  C.  The  coast, 
which  is  encircled  by  sandbanks,  coral  reefs,  and  small .  islands, 
is  for  the  most  part  low,  and  broken  by  inlets  which  form  excel- 
lent harbours.  Havana,  the  key  lo  the  Mexican  Gulf, , is  one  of 
the  finest  harbours  in  (he  world ;  along  the  nortliern  coast,  at 
Matanzas,  Nttevitas,  Nipe,  and  on  the  southern  coast,  .at  Cien- 
fuegos,  Santiago,  Guantanamo,  and  other  spots,  there  are  also  fine 
natural  harbours. 

The  island  is  traversed  in  the  direction  of  its  lei^th  hy  a  range 
of  hills,  comparatively  low  in  the  W.,  ,bnt  gradually  rising  to- 
w  d  the  E.  Above  Trinidad,  on  the  S.  coast,  the  rugged 
m  masses  are  not  without  grandeur,  while  the  rare  beauty: 

h  ast  and  inland  scenery  js  unsurpassed  by  that  of  the: 
m  wned  of  the  Mediterranean, lands.    The. western  deparl- 

m  n  w  ich  is  the  smallest,  is  for  the  most  part. level,  and  con-  ^ 
tarn  a  most  all  the  great  sugar  factories  and  tobacco  plantations, . 
wh  h  nstitute  the  enormous  wealth. of  .the  island.  In  the' 
al  d  partment  the  population  ,is  rgassed  in  the  capital  and 
n  a  ei  mall  towns  ;  the  rural  districts  are  chiefly  forests  and 
unpeopled  savannahs.  The  eastern  de^tment,  who-e  the. first; 
colonists  settled,  was  previously  well  cultivated  in  certain  districts.  1 
Much  of  the  interior,  however,  was  left  in  a  state.of.  nature,  and . 
many  tracts  are  still  described  as  '  waste.'  The  soil  is  so  fertile , 
that  when  neglected  for  a  short  time  it  becomes  rapidly  overrun ! 
with  vegetation.  The  principal  productions  are  sugar,  tobacco, 
coffee,  nee,  and  cotton.  The  sugar  cultiration  is  the  most  pro- 
fitable; the  tobacco  and  coffee  culture. has  within  recent  years 
been  much  neglected.  Many  of  the  most  flourishing  coffee  plan- 
tations have  been  converted  into  sugar  estates.  Since, the. civil 
war  and  the  abolition  of  slave-Jabour ;  in  America,  thaticountry, 
which  previously  grew  its  own  sugar,  has' become  dependent  upon 
C.  for  that  artide.  Of  the  whole,  amount  of  sugar  annually  pro- 
duced in  C.,  75  per  cent,  is  exported  to  the  United  States,  and 
only  15  per  cent,  to  Spain.  iJie  value  of  the  sugar, exported  in 
1872  was  over  jf20,ooo,ooa  L.arge  quantities  of  honey,. rum, 
wax,  tobacco,  and  cigars  are  also  exported  from  Havana.  The 
imports  of  C.  consist  principally  of  rice,  olive  oil,  fiour,  jerked 
beef,  shooks  (boards  and  staves  for  hogsheads  and  sugar-boxes), 
lard,  and  coals.  Over  1000  miles  of  .railway  are  in  operationiin 
the  W.  division. 

History. — C.  was  discovered  by  Columbus,, 38th  Octoberil453, 
and  was  occupied  hy  the  Spaniards  under  Di^o  Velasquez  in 
1511.  The  native  Indians  were  rooted. oat  about  i5k>.  In 
1584  Havana  was  fortified,  and  in  1777  the  government  of  the 
island  was  reconstituted  lUider  a  Captain-General.  Erom,l773 
Havana  continued  to  he  the  centre  of  the  slave-trade  of  the 
whole  of  Spanish  America.  The  island  suffered  from  insurrec- 
tions of  the  slaves  in  1844  and  1848.  Though  nominally  abol- 
ished by  law,  slaveiy  is  still  a  firmly-rooted  institution.  For 
this  and  for  other  reasons  the  conquest  or  purchase  of  theiisland 
has  engaged  attention  withm  recent  years  in  America.  Lopei 
landed  on  the  island  at  the  head .  of  an  American  filibustering 
expedition  in  1851,  but  was  captured  and  executed.  In  iS^ 
broke  out  the  insurrection  which  still  continues  to  smoulder. 
This  movement  had  its  origin  in  (he  hostile  relations  and  con- 
flicting mteresta  of  the  two  great  classes  of  the  free  popula- 
tion— the  Peninsulais  or  Spanish  imniigrMits,;and.  the.  Creoles  or 
native  Cubans.  The  Peninsulars  maintain  a  yoltmteer  foree  of 
60,000  men  thronghout  the  island,  and  practically  overrule  tie 
Captain- General  and  the  authorities.  The. Cubans  are  anxious 
for  the  aboUfion  of  slavery ;  the  Peninsulais,  embracing  all  the 
great  sug^r-planters,  are  determined  to  maintain  slavery.by  foree. 
In  1870  the  Moreb  law  was  premuigated,  declaring  every  slave 
free  on  reaching  the  age  of  sixty,  and  decreeing  the  liberty  of 
all  children  of  slaves  born  after  that  date.  This  Jaw,  which  has 
hitherto  remained  a  dead  letter,  has  done  mnch  morally  to 
strengthen  the  position  of  the  insui^ent  Cubans.  It  is  estimated 
that  from  1S68  to  1873  the  stmggle  in  C.  lias  cost  150,000  lives. 
See  the  works  of  A,  Gallenga  [Lond.  1873)  and  Townshend 
(rond,  1875). 
113 


Cu'bag'ua,  an  island  between  Venezuela  and  Margarita,  111 
the  Caribbean  Sea  It  is  -tbout  9  miles  long,  and  has  con 
iderable  pearl- fisheiies  C  was  discoveicd  by  Columbus  in 
498. 
Cube,  a  solid,  all  of  iwhose  six  sides  are  squares,  which  are 
necessarily  ail  equal.     The  volume  is  found  hy  multiplying  the 

of. the  base  by  the  height,  i.e.,  by  multiplying  theei^e  twice 

iccession  hy  itself.  Hence  we  have  the  expression  to  C.  a 
given  number,  the  C.  of  a  being  a  it  a  v.  a  =  a^.  To  extract 
the  C.-root  of  a  number  is  to  find  that  number  which  when 
cubed  will  praduce  the  original  number.     The  C-n>ot  of  h^ 

CuTbebs.or  Oubeb Pepper,  the  fruit  o^Fiper  Cubdia  {Culvba 
cffidnalis  oi.  other  botanist  )  a  cl  n  b  g  shrub  of  Java  and  other 
Indian  islands,  belonging  to  the  P peracem  C  are  about  the 
size  of  (black  pepper,  globular  wr  nkled  and  suppor  ed  on  a 
stalk.  They  have  .a  pec  1  ar  odo  r  and  a  warm  las'.e  like 
that  of  Camphor.(q.  Y.).  C  are  d  st  igu  shed  from  pepper  by 
their. lighter  colour  and  the  stalks — hence  often  called  stalked 
pepper?  They  contain  a  volat  le  o  1  (o  1  of  C  )  CnHaj, 
constituting  about  10  per  cent  of  C  al  0  a  «t  i  ind  a  crystal- 
line principle,  cubebin,  very  analogous  to  ptpenn,  found  in  pepper. 
C  arerused  in  medicine  to  arrest  mucous  discharges,  especially 
ihose  of. the  Urethra  (q.svi).  African  C.  is  the  fruit  of  Hpur 
ClmiL 

CuWic  Eqna'tion,.  Ml  equation  involving.the  cube  of  the  un- 
known quantity  with  either,  neither,  or  both,  of  the  lower  powers. 
.The  most  general  form  can  be  reduced  to  the  form  iK*  -^  iix  +  ^ 
=  o ;  but  the  further  reduction  hy  Cardail's  rule,  given  in  all 
the. more  advanced  text-books  of  algebra,  evolves  a  result  which 
is  the  sumiof  two  impossible  quandties,  except  when  two  of  the 
roots  .are  impossible  or  equal  Accordingly,  when  the  three 
roots  are  possible  and  different,  ordinary  algebraic  methods  fail, 
and  recourse  must  be  had  ito  trigonometry  for  the  general  solu- 
tion ;  but  in  this  instance  the  roots  are  usually  easily  obtained  by 
mere  inspection  For  details  the  reader  is  referred  to  Tod- 
hunter's  Theory  of  Equattons 

Onb'ical  Nitre  or  Ohili  Saltpetre  is  the. nitrate  of  soda 
(NaNO^,  and  is  impoited  in  large  quant  t  es  from  Chili  and 
Peru,  as  a  manure  and  foi  the  manuiai-ture  of  gunpowder  and 
nitric  acid,      .See  SooitlM 

Cub'it  (LaL  cubitus)  an  ancient  1  near  measure,  being  the 
length  of  the  arm  from  the  elbow  to  the  tip  of  the  middle  finger. 
The  Hebrew  C.  has  been  variously  estimated  from  19  to  22 
inches  ;  the  Roman  C.  was  about  17J  inches,  but.itjs  generally 
taken;  as,  equivalent  to. a  foot  and  a  half. 

OilihOid  Bone,. one  of  the  bones  formingjhe  arch  of  the  foot. 
[It  is  placed  on  the  outer -side  of  the  foot,  in  front,  of  the  os  calcis, 
and  behind  the  fourth  and  fifth  metatarsal. bones.  Its  name  indi- 
cates its  shape.    '  See  IToqt,  Tarsus. 

Cuok'ing-Stool.    See  Ducking-Stooi, 

QyiaiSloo  {Cuculw),  a  genus  of  Scan^orial  birds,  of  the  family 
Cucuiidn,  distmguished  by  the  compressed  .bill,  by  the  ridge  of 
the  arched  upper  mandible,  by  the 
membranous  nostrils,  by  the  long 


with  feathers.  The 
directed  backwards  or  forwards  at 
vriU.  These  birds.inbabit  the  Old 
Worid  exclusively,  and  (heir  name 
iisderivedfrom(heirBO^-note.  The 
common  C.  (Caculus  canonis)  ave- 
rages a  small  pigeon  in  size.  It  is 
of  a  greyish  colour,  the, breast 
being  marJced  vrith  brownish-black, 
and  the,  tail  black.  It  is,  migratory, 
arriving  ,in  Britain  in  April,  and 
flying  southwards  in -July.  The, food 
has  the  habit  of  laying    '  "  "'  ''"" 

that  its  young  may  be,.! 
Cxiyslts  Glandaritt!,  01 
and  Africa. 


of  other  birds,  so 
;,  hatched  by  foster-parents.  Tlie 
Spotted  C,  inhabits  S.  Europe 


vLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCVCLOPAiDIA. 


used,  to  denote  the 

Cu'cumber  (Ciuutitis  saliviis),  a,  tender  annual,  with  rough 
trailing  stems,  a.  native  of  Asia,  and  Egypt.  It  was  cultivated 
in  England  as  early  as  1337,  but  it  is  only  since  Henry  VIH.'s 
reign  that  it  has  become  a  common  table- vegetable.  Though 
accounted  by  some  cold  and  unwholesome,  ii  is  now  much 
used  as  a  salad ,  or  when  young  ighirMins)  as  pickles ;  and  the 
village  of  Sandby  in  Bedfuidshire  is  add  to  sometimes  furnish 

n  one  week  10,000  bushels  for  the  London  market  for  pickling. 

n  the  N.  a  hotbed  is  required  for  its  growth,  but  in  southern 
Britain  and  equally  warm  localities  it  is  grown  in  the  open  air. 
The  Indian  C.  is  Mededa  virgmka.  In  America  the  teim  one- 
seedtd  slar  C.  is  applied  to  Sicyos ;  snake  C.  is  Trichcsaiilkes 
colubrina  and  Cuaimis  fiexuosas ;  squirting  or  spirting  C,  £c- 
balium  agrisU  (Momordica  EUitmum).     See  Elaterium. 

OuOurbita'CBSB^thE  Gourd  or  Cucumber  order — a  natural 
order  of  Calycifloral  Dicotyledonous  herbaceous  plants,  climbers 
in  which  tendrils  take  the  place  of  stipules,  chiefly  natives  of  hot 
countries,  and  specially  of  the  E.  Indies  and  S.  America, 
though  some  are  found  in  the  N.  of  Europe,  N.  America, 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  Australia.  Bryonia  dioica, 
a  violent  emetic  and  putgalive,  sold  by  the  herbalists  under 
Ihe  name  of  White  Bryony  Mandrake  (q.  v.),  is  the  only 
British  species  of  the  order.  About  350  species,  distributed  over 
seventy  genera,  are  known,  ,  dlndlus  ColocynlhU  is  Colocynth 
(q.  v.).  The  various  species  of  Gourd  (q.  v.),  Melon  (q.  v.J, 
squirting  cucumber  (see  Elaterium),  pumpkin,  squash,  vege- 
table marrow,  &c,,  belong  to  this  order.  In  addition  to  the  use 
of  B.  dioica  already  given,  the  root  is  employed  as  an  external 
application  to  bruiiies,  and  the  young  shoots  are  eaten  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  asparagus.  The  roots oi  Monu/rdica  dioica  aaiBryonia 
nmbellaia  (of  the  £.  Indies}  contain  starch,  and  are  used  as 
food.  The  seeds  of  Tdfairia  pedala,  an  African  plant,  and  other 
species,  are  eaten  like  almonds,  and  yield  oil  by  expression. 
The  order  is  divided  into  three  subdivisions,  vIe.— (i)  Nhandi- 
rabae,  (a)  Cucurbitfie,  and  (3)  Sicyea. 

CudllQar,  a  purple  dyeing  substance  prepared  from  various 
lichens,  but  chiefly  from  Laanora  tarlarai,  by  a  process  similar 
to  that  for  making  arc/ul,  from  which  C.  only  differs  by  being 
prepared   in  the   form   of  a  dry  powder.      Tlie  manufaclure 

"s  commenced  by  a  Mr  Mackintosh  and   Dr  Cuthbert  Gor- 

n  at  Leith  about  1777,  and  the  name  of  the  dye  is  a  cor- 
ruption of  Cuthbert.  Formerly  the  collection  of  lichens,  called 
croltals,  for  the  preparation  of  C  was  an  important  industry  in 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  but  the  supply  now  comes  m>m 
Sweden,  Norway,  &c.,  and,  encept  for  domestic  dyeing,  no 
lichens  are  now  collected  in  the  Scotch  Highlands.  C,  as  a 
dye,  imparts  a  brilliant  bloom,  but  of  itself  is  fugitive,  and  is 
therefore  never  so  employed. 

Cuddalore',  a  seaport  of  British  India,  capital  of  S.  Arcot, 
province  of  Madras,  on  the  Coromandel-  coast,  ai  the  mouth 
of  the  Pennaur,  about  15  miles  S.  of  Pondicherry.  The  river 
is  obsliTicted  by  a  bar,  and  only  navigable  tor  boats ;  but  it 
is  in  conlemplafiou  (1875)  to  improve  it  and  the  whole  district 
by  a  system  of  irrigation.  The  town  is  three-quarters  of  a  mile 
long  and  half  a  mile  broad.  Pop.  25,000.  During  the  latter  half 
of  the  iSlhc.  it  was  a  place  of  great  strength  and  importance, 
and  on  the  capture  of  Madi'as  its  factories  were  transferred  thither. 
It  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1758,  recovered  by  the  British  in 
1760,  retaken  by  the  French  in  1^82,  and  finally  ceded  to  Eng- 
land in  1783. 

Cudd'apah,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Madras,  near  the  right 
bank  of  the  Upper  Pennaur,  80  miles  W.  of  Nellore,  on  the  Bom- 
bay and  Madras  Railway.  The  military  cantonment,  with  ample 
accommodation  for  European  and  native  troops,  is  the  principal 
feature.  The  former  palace  of  the  nabobs  is  now  a  courthouse 
and  prison.  Sugar-making  is  an  important  industry  in  the  vicinity, 
and  the  diamond-mines  of  C.,  about  7  miles  from  the  town,  are 
celebrated.  Pop.  10,000.— The  dislHct  of  C,  with  an  area  of 
9177  sq.  miles,  contains  1061  villages  and  1,343.763  inhabitants. 
Soda,  salt,  and  saltpetre  occur  in  large  quantities. 


Oudra'uia,  a  genus  of  climbing  spiny  slimbs  of  the  natural 
order  Artocarpaciiz,  natives  of  the  Moluccas,  Philippines,  India, 
and  tropical  E.  Africa.  The  heartwood  of  an  E.  African  species 
yields  a  light-yellow  dye. 

Cnd'TH^ed,  a  popular  name  for  various  plants  of  the  genera  of 
Gnaphalium,  FU^o,  and  AitUHnaria,  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Composite,  which,  from  the  heads  of  the  flowers  being 
chiefly  composed  of  involucral  scales,  preserve  an  apparently  un- 
changed condition,  so  that  they  are  generally  known  as  Ever- 
lasting Plants  (q.  v.).  A  dioica  (catsfoot)  was  at  one  time  em- 
ployed in  chest- diseases.    The  golden  C.  is  PUrocattloiivirgiilum, 

Oud'wortli,  Balph,  B.D.,  an  eminent  divine  and  philo- 
sopher, was  the  son  of  the  rector  of  Allec,  in  Somersetshire, 
whei«  he  was  bom  in  1617.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge, 
where  he  became  a  tutor,  held  the  livings  of  N.  Cadbury  and 
Ashlon,  the  Regius  Professorship  of  Hebrew,  and  the  masrer- 
ships  of  Clare  Hall  and  Christ's  College,  and  was  a  prebend  of 
Gloucester.  He  died  at  Cambridge,  June  26,  1688.  C.'s  chef 
d'ceuvre  is  The  True  Intellectual  System  of  the  Utdverse,  published 
in  1678  (new  ed.  4  vols,  by  Birch,  1830),  in  which  he  defended 
revealed  religion  against  materialists  and  atheists,  and  main- 
tained the  doctrine  of  a  rational  system,  of  knowledge  founded 
on  innate  ideas.  His  philosophy  may  be  considered  as  a  system 
of  Christian  Platonism.  C.'s  work  brought  him  much  fame,  and, 
on  account  of  the  fulness  with  which  he  stated  the  views  of 
opponents,  not  a  liitle  odium.  He  left  behind  him  various 
MSS.,  whidi  are  now  in  the  British  Museum.  One  of  these, 
a  Treatise  concerning  Eternal  and  Immatailc  Maralily,  pub- 
lished in  1731,  was  intended  to  form  the  secondpart  of  his 
InielUdual  Sysleat.  Principal  TuUoch's  work  on  lie  Rational 
Fhilasofhcrs  and  Philosophy  {1S74)  of  the  17th  c.  contains  a 
lucid  criticism  on  C.'s  position  and  mode  of  thought. 

Oueil'911  (Lat.  cancha,  '  a  shell,'  so  called  from  its  form),  a 
fine  old  city  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Castilk  la  Nueva, 
romantically  situated  amid  a  girdle  of  hills  at  the  height  of  3400 
feet  above  sea-level,  about  90  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Madrid.     ''■ 


fine  Gothic  cathe- 
e  celebrated  in  arts, 
The  bridge  and  eon- 
tlirice  sacked  by  tiie 


has  fifteen  churches,  twelve  convents,  and 
dral,  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  was 
literature,  and  manufactures.     Pop.  76c 
vent  of  San  Paolo  are  interesting.     C. 
French  in  1808,  iSro,  and  iBll. 

OuelUfa,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name  in  the 
i-epubhc  of  Ecuador,  S.  America,  lies  on  a  plateau  8640  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  a  bishop's  see,  and  has  extensive 
sugar-refineries,  wiUi  a  trade  in  grain  and  Peruvian  bark. 
Pop.  20,000. — The  province  of  C.  has  an  area  of  11,308  sq. 
miles,  and  a  pop.  of  171,300,  It  produces  sngar,  cotton,  and 
cochineai,  and  has  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  sulphur  mines. 

OueVa  de  Vera.    See  Vera. 

Cuirass'  [Fr.  ci,ir,  'leather,'  fioni  Lat.  coriiini,  'a  hide'),  a 
piece  of  plate-armour,  which  covered  both  breast  and  back,  from 
the  neck  to  the  girdle.  It  consisted  of  breastplate  and  back- 
plate,  which  were  fastened  to  each  other  by  stiaps,  hooks,  or 
buckles.  The  eailiest  C.  was  made  of  leather,  or  quilted  linen 
or  cloth,  so  tliick  as  to  be  proof  i^ainst  pistol  or  musket  shot 
The  G  was  used  by  the  Greeks  and  Ronians,  became  common 
in  Europe  about  the  middle  of  the  i^thc,  and  was  discontinued 
in  England  after  the  reign  of  Charles  H. ;  in  France  a  little  later. 

Cuirassiers,  heavy  cavalry  wearing  the  cuirass  which  Napoleon 
I.  reintroduced  after  it  had  been  for  about  a  century  disused,  and 
his  regiments  of  C.  were,  prominent  in  his  wars,  C.  still  form 
a  portion  of  the  French  cavalry.  Germany,  Austria,  and  Russia 
have  also  regiments  of  C.  Great  Britain  has  no  i-»iment  so 
named,  but  the  Household  Brigade — that  is,  the  Lrfe-Guards 
and  Royal  Horse-Guards  or  '  Blues  '—wear  a  cuirass. 

Ouissarta',  or Cuiasots'  [Fr.  euisse,  'the  thigh'),  thighpieces 
in  plate-armour,  made  of  small  strips  of  metal  riveted  over  each 
other. 

Ouja'cius,  the  Latinised  surname  of  Jacqaes  O'^as,  origi- 
nally Cvdaus,  a  distinguished  Fiench  jurist,  born  at  Toulouse  in 
1522.  He  became  Professor  of  Law  successively  at  Bourges 
and  Valence,  and  died  at  Boui^es,  4th  October  1590,  C.  ap- 
plied himself  to  the  study  of  Roman  law,  and  completed  what 


-4- 


yLiOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDJA. 


CtJL 


Alclat  bad  begun,  viz.,  he  restored  the  body  of  Roman  juris- 
prudence to  its  historical  sincerity,  and  is  the  Inte  founder  of 
the  historical  school  of  Roman  iaw,  since  further  developed  in 
Germany.  Of  the  numerous  writings  of  C,  the  excellent  edition 
of  Fabrot  (lo  vols.  fol.  Par.  1658-59 ;  new  ed.  by  Prato,  1859, 
ti  irg.)  merits  notice  forhavinga  chronological  table  of  the  several 
works.  See  Spangenbei^'s  C.  und  seiiu  Zeilgenessen  (Leips. 
i8z2). 


applied  to  a  class  of  ecclesiastics  who  appeared  in  Scotland  and 
Ireland  about  the  middle  of  the  gfh  c,  but  who  are  merged  in 
the  general  Church  after  the  close  of  the  lath  c.  They  did  not 
belong  to  any  of  the  great  regular  orders,  nor  were  they  secular 
priests,  nor  did  their  often  wealthy  communities  follow  any  in- 
variable monastic  rale.  Some  indeed  were  hermits,  but  most 
of  thera  conventuals,  among  whom  marriage  was  not  forbidden 
and  poverty  not  enjoined.  Their  history  shows  that  at  the  time 
the  Scottish  C  were  neither  nationally  ot^anised  nor  habituiiHy 
subject  to  Rome  ;  they  were  not  governed  by  the  bishops  of  the 
seculars,  but  they  had  their  grades  of  office  j  the  scoloch,  or 
stholir,  who  assisted  in  the  services,  being  the  lowest.  On  bap- 
tism, one  became  a  brother  or  sister ;  on  ordination  (which  in- 
cluded tonsure  of  the  fore  part  of  the  head),  one  became  a  presby- 
ter They  had  also  deacons,  who  superintended  works  of  charity, 
and  pi-^siH,  or  teachers  of  schools.  New  settlements  ^cana- 
bta)  were  founded  by  a  chief  presbyter,  or  abias,  and  twelve 
sBca  The  chnich  ipraloriuKi)  was  of  plain  wood  with  a  stone 
belfry  Families  of  catechnmens  probably  gathered  round  such 
mstitutions  ;  land  was  cultivated,  mait-kilns  and  meal-mills  were 
built  and  a  spiritual  teiTitory  was  formed,  over  which  the  abbas, 
or  an  epscopm,  presided.  It  was  at  one  time  thought  that  the  early 
Church  of  CoUimba  and  the  Culdee  communities  were  hLitori- 
cally  eonlinuous,  subordination  to  Rome  being  introd  d  f  th 
first  time  by  the  Saint-Queen  Margaret  and  her  ns  T 
lands  of  the  C.  were  not  exempt  from  the  gradual  se  il 
which  overtook  the  more  important  pious  gifts,  the        b  d 

the 'parson' Irequently  being  iaymen.     In  the  Cath 
(l  107-24]  manv  fraterifilies  became  canons -regular  0         A  gu 
tine  rule.  At  St  Andrews,  Lochleven,  and  Dunkeld,  gu 

canons  and  the  remaining  Medd  (a  prior  and  twel  h 

who  performed  service,  had  official  residences,  an     d    w 
minor  dues)  lived  for  some  time  alongside  each  o  B 

gradually,  as  the  parochial  and  cathedral  system  was  p  d 

Sie  earliOT  institutions  were  absorbed  by  cathedra     h  p 
parish  churcJi,  and  occasional  traces  of  their  eiiste 
fbnnd  later  than  the  14th  c.     In  some  cases  the  C.  h 
everything,  retaining  life-interests  ;  in  others,  the  t  as 

confined  to  parochial  fees  and  oblations,  the  tltlies  be  ng 
served  entire,  along  with  the  right  to  vote  in  the  elec 
bishop.     Even  where  the  name  is  lost,  the  corporati      is 
subsisting  in  the  form  of  ten  prebendaries  governed  by     p  o- 
vost.     Nlonymusk  (Aberdeenshne),  Brechin,  Lisnior     D         h 
and  Dunblane  are  ako  known  as  the  sites  of  Culdee  c  mm 
in  Scotland.   In  Ireland  the  C.  also  appeared  aBont  th   9  h 
DubUn,  Armagh,  and  other  places,  they  seem,  as  QoUeges  of  secu- 
lars performinp;  certain  functions   in   the  cathedrals,  to  have 
maintamed  a  distinct  existence  mnch  longer  than  in  Scotland. 
In  England  and  Wales,  although  the  name  of  culioris  clerici 
occurs,  and  the  name  of  Culdees  is  once  used  by  Giraldus  Cam- 
biensisas  equivalent  to  iri^/ei^  (' bachelors '),  ftere  is  no  trace 
of  the  Scotch  institutions.    They  have  been  likened  to;  the  min- 
sters, or  colleges  of  missionaries  in  S.W.  England ;,  also  to  the 
Austm  Canons,  and  to  the  followers  of  St  Chrodogang  of  Metz. 
See  Walcott's  Ancimt  Church  ia  Scotland;  Burton^  Hist,  of 
Scotland    Reeves'  C.  ;  Prececdings  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy, 
rSfio ,    tjrub's   Ecclisicutical   History  of  Scotland  (Aberdeen, 

Oul-de-sao,  a  tenn  used  in  anatomy  to  denote  a  pouch 
formed  by  the  infolding  of  a  membrane.  Thus  we  liave  the 
ail-de-sac  of  the  pleura,  or  the  pouch  formed  by  the  membrane 
projecting  into  the  root  of  the  neck,  so  as  to  cover  the  apex  of 
the  lung  in  that  region. 


Culenborg.     See  Kuilenbueg. 


CuliaOHJi',  the  capital  of  the  Mexican  -slate  Sinaloa,  on  the 
river  C,  which  flows  into  Hie  Gulf  of  Cali.f'oniia,  a  little  to 
the  S.  of  the  25th  parallel  of  N.  lat.  It  was  founded  in  1  «2 
Estimated  pop.  [1S68)  10,000. 

Culil'awan  Bark.     See  Clove  Bark. 

Oldl'en,  a  coast-town  and  royal  burgli  of  Banfikhire,  Scotland, 
H  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Banff,  at  the  mouth  of  the  C.  Bum.  It 
has  some  Hnen  manufactures  and  distilleries,  and  important  cod, 
salmon,  ling,  and  herring  fisheries.  Pop.  of  town  (1371)  2056. 
Cullen  House,  in  the  vicinity,  is  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Seafield, 

Gullen,  "William,  a  celebrated  Scottish  physician,  was  bom 
at  Hamilton,  in  Lanarkshu-e,  15th  April  1710.  He  studied  at 
the  grammar-school  of  Hamilton,  and  was  then  apprentice  to 
a  sui^eon  in  Gkisgow,  where  he  attended  some  of  the  classes 
m  the  university.  In  1729  lie  was  appointed  sui^eon  in  a  W. 
India  merchantman,  and  after  having  made  several  voyages, 
he  settled  in  the  parish  of  Shotts,  where  he  was  introduced  to 


the  Duke  of  Ar^le.     Leaving  Shotts,  he  studied  medicine 

two  winters  at  Edinburgh,  and  in  1736  commenced  to  pi 

at  Hamilton.     Here  he  secured  the  friendship  and  patronage 


of  the  Duke  of  Hamilton,  and  became  acquainted  with  William 
Hunter,  the  anatomist.      In  1740  he  graduated  as   M.D.   at 
Gla^ow,  where  he  lived  after  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Hamil- 
ton, and  where  in  1746  he  delivered  a  course  of  lectures  on  the 
theory  and  practice  of  medicine  in  the  university.    Next  year 
he  added  a  course  on  botany  and  materia  medica,  and  in  the 
session  following  a  course  on  chemistry,  '  directed  chiefly  to  the 
improvement  of  arls  and  manufactures.'    This  seems  to  have 
been  the  practical  foundation  of  the  medical  school  of  Glasgow. 
The  celebrated  Dr  Black  (q.  v.)  was  one  of  his  pupils  in  che- 
mistry,  and  by  directing  his  attention  to  the  doctrine  of  heat,  and 
empltying  hun  as  his  assistant  in  his  experiments,  C  contri- 
buted to  hisfiiture  fame.    On  the  2d  January  1751,  C.  was  made 
Professor  of  Medicine  in  the  University  of  Glasgow,  by  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Duke  of  Aigyle,  at  the  instance  of  Henry  Home, 
rwards  Lord  Karnes,  who  further  infiueneed  the  Duke  to 
C.  appointed  Professor  of  Chemistry  Jn  Edinburgh  Uni- 
ty, in  room  of  Dr  Plummet.     He  beg^n  to  lecture  tliere, 
without  opposition  from  the  senatus,  in  January  1756,  and 
ormally  elected  professor  in  July  following.     In  1757  he 
red  a  course  of  clinical  lectures  in  the  Royal  Infirmary  ; 
luary  1761  he  began  a  courae  on  materia  medica;  on 
N      mber  I,   1766,  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  the  Insti- 
es  of  Medicine,  his  old  pupil,  Dr  Black,  succeeding  him  in  the 
h      of  Chejrustry  i  and  in  1773  he  succeeded  Dr  Gregory  in  the 
h      of  the  Practice  of  Physic.   For  many  years  before  his  death, 
the  5th  February  1790,  he  alternated  the  duties  of  his  chair 
h  hose  of  a  practical  agriculturist,  having  in  177S  purchased 
mall  estate  near  Edinbui^h.     C.  was  an  ordinal  ftivestlgator 
d    loqnent  expounder  of  medical  science.     He  delivered  his 
tu  es  viva  voce,  with  only  a  few  notes  to  guide  him,  and  dis- 
ged,  amongst  his  students,  the  use  of  text-books,  previously 
us  .    He  combated  the  doctrines  of  Boerhaave,  then  currently 
pled,  and  encour^ed  independent  investigation.      By  his 
g    ality  and  enthusiasm  he  gave  an  impetus  to  medical  science 
he  Scottish  universities,  and  his  nosolcgica!  method  still 
rms  the  groundwork  of  the  classification  of  disease.     His  chief 
works  are  First  Unes  of  thi  Practice  of  Physic  (^&o}0.  1775); 
Synofsis  Msologics  Metkodicis  (1785);  a  Treatise  of  t/te Materia 
Medica  ( 1 789).   His  collected  works  were  published  at  EdinbuiEh 
in  1827  in  2  vols,  by  Dr  JoW  Thomson.     See  Life  afC,  com- 
menced by  Dr  Thomson  in  1S32,  and  finished  by  DrCraigie  in  1859. 
OuUe^a,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Valencia,  about 
2  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  JucBr,  on  its  left  bank,  and  about 
23  miles  S.S.E.  of  the  city  of  Valencia.     It  is  fortified,  has  an 
old  castle  and  extensive  barracks.     The  industries  of  the  neigh- 
bourhood are  farming,  fishing,  vine-culture,  and  the  production 
of  wine  and  oil.     There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  cattle,  and  a 
busy  coasting  trade,  extending  to  France.      Pop.  about  10,000. 

Oullo'den  (Gael.  CsilsSdir,  probably  Cul-oitir,  'the  back  of 
the  low  promontory'),  also  called  Driumuoss'ie  Uoor,  fiir- 
meriy  a  desolate  moor  near  the  shores  of  Beauly  Firth,  5  miles 
N.E.  of  Inverness.  Here  the  Highlanders  under  Prince  Charies 
Stuart  were  defeated  by  the  royal  troops  under  the  Duke  of 
Cumberland,  and  the  cause  of  the  Stuarts  was  crushed,  i6th  April 
1746.  Much  of  the  original  moor  is  now  under  cultivation. 
299 


vGooqIc 


OUIi 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CUM 


Culm  (Welsh,  cwlni),  a  provincial  term  for  an  inferior  kind  of 
anthracite,  used  chieiJy  in  the  making  of  lime.  The  antliracitic 
shales  of  N.  Devon  are  sometimes  called  the  C.  measures. 

Culm,  ill  botany,  is  the  peculiar,  jointed,, hollow,  cylindiia  stem 
of  grasses. 

CalminEl'tioii  of  a  star  is  the  moment  at  which  if  passes 
the  meridian,  being  then'  at^  its  highest  elevation  above  the 
horizon. 

Cul'ua,  a  town  ot  India,. in  the  executive  district  of  B&rdwan,. 
province  of  Bengal,  and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Hboghlji  .about 
50  miles  above  Calcutta.  There  is  a.  trade  in  rioe,  grain,  cot- 
Ion,  and  silk,  C.  being  a  convenieuf,  station  for  sisamets  plying 
between  Calcutta  and  the  upper  districts.  C.  has  numerous 
Hindu  temples,  and  is  ai  mission -station  of  the  Free  Church. 
Pop,  (iS72)  27,336. 

Cul'pa  (I.at.  'fault'),  is  a^term  ot  Scotch  liw,  the  doctrine 
regarding  which  it  has  talcen  from  the  Roman.    There  are  held 
to  be  three  degrees  of  C. — lata,  letns,  and  leuissima.     The  first 
'     gross   carelessness  or   omission,   which    may    be   criminal 
w  Ck-IMb),  andequivalentito  Dole  (q,T.)..    The  second  is  that 
degree  of  carelessness  which  one  genei^Uy  attentive  to  Ms  ofi^rs 
may  fall  into.     The  last  is-thal  slighter  degree  of  neglect  which 
must  occasionally  be  shown  even  bythe  most  circumspect.    C. 
(^wuand  C /iZ'WJiw'O  are  often  of  legal  importance  in  contracts, 
whether  constituted  by  implication  or  otherwise.     See  Borrow- 
ing, Commodate. 
Oul'pftble  Hom'icide.     See  Homicide  and  Murder 
s  a  prisoner  accused  but  not 
n  Scotland  hpand. 
roas  (Gael,  ml,  '  the  b 
back  or  nei:k  of  the  -penins 

of  Perthshire,  on  the  N.  shore  of  the  Firth  of  Forth, 
_2  miles  N.N.W.  of  Edinburgh.-     It"  stands  on  the- side 
hill,  and  possesses  the  ruins  of  a  chapel,  dedicateditosSt  K 
gem  (q.  v.),  and  of  a  Cistercian  abbey-  founded  in  1217.    Th 
chief  manufacture  now  is  of  linen.    There  was  a  consid 
trade  in  coal  and  iron  at  C.  during  thel6th  and  17th  centuries, 
C.  received  its  chartei^from  Jkmes  Vi;  in  1588,  and,  along  with 
Stirling,  Dfmfecmlihe,  Ihvetkeithiiig,  and  S.  Queensferry,  returns 
one  member  to  Parliament.    Pop.  (1S71)  467. 

Cultiros'tres  (Lat  '  knife-billed '  or '  ploughshare- billed '),  a 
family  of  &i  alJatoi  lal  or  Wading  birds,  with  elongated  bills,  which 
are  compressed  from  side  to 
side.  The  legsare  long  and 
slender,  the  tibire  being  un- 
(^alhered  fof  a  considerable 
portion  of  their  extent.  The 
feet  have  four  toes  each,  and 
the  bases  of  the  toes  are 
webbed.  TheCranes(q:v.l, 
Storks  (q,.  v.).  Herons 
(q.  v.).  Ibises  (q.  v.),  &c., 
ai'G  included  in  this  family. 
Oiiltiva'tor,  an  imple- 
ment^ with  six  or  seven  tines, 
or  curved,  broad  -  pointed 
pieces  of  icon  fox  penetrating 
ihe  soil;  Unlike  the  plough, 
theC,  dbes  not  tiu-n'  up 

l-^,      .A  r-^  .   If  I,-     ,    \         the- land    in    fiii-rows,.  but 
Crowned  Crane — fCiiitttvstresx  ^  ,..  !■■..■ 

tears  it  up,   leaving   it  in 

clods  through  which  air  has  free  access.    The  tines  can  be  set  to 

any  depth  required, -according  to  the  quality  of  the  ground  and  the 

crop  it  is  intended  to-bear. 

Oul'verin  (Fr.  couleuvi-ine,  from  csuleuvre,  Lat.  colubra,  'a 

snake '),  a  long  cannon  of  the  i6lh  c,  which  weighed  about  two 

tons  and  a  half,  and  carried  a  shot  of  about  iSlbs.      A  dani-C. 

carried  half  the  weight  of  shot,  and  weighed  about  a  ton  and  a. 

half. 

Cul'Tarfc  (Fr.  coavei-t;  'covered'),  an  arched  channel  built 
under  a  canal  for'pmposes  of  dl-ainage,  also  ihe  arched  drain  under 


Oii'mse,  a  coast-city  of  Campania,  near  C.  Misenum,  was 
founded  jointly  by  the  Chalcidians  of  Eubcea  and  the  Cymtcans 
of  jEolis,  and  was  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  most  famous  of 
the  Greek  colonies  in  Italy.  Its  wealth  and  prosperity  rapidly  in- 
creased,and  from  700-500  B.C.  it  was  the  foremost  city  of  Southern 
Italy.  C.  first  appears  in  history  as  successfully  repelling  an 
invasion  ot  Etruscans.  During  the  reign  of  the  despot  Aristo- 
demus  (B.C.  505-485),  Tarqoinius  Snperbus,  when  banished  from 
Rome,,  fled  to  C,  where  he  died,  b.c,  496.  C.  was  com- 
pletely overthrown  by  the  Sabines,  e-C.  420.  It  was  admitted 
,  to  the  Roman  franchise  in  B.C.  388,  and  in  the  second  Punic  War 
■  Sempronius  Gracchus  repulsed  Hannibal  from  its  walls.  From 
this  time  C.  appears  chiefly  as  a  place  of  luxurious  retirement 
for  wealthy  Romans.  Under  the  Empire  it  was  noted  for  the 
manufactiuft  of  red  earthenware  and  of  nets.  Accordmg  to 
tradition,.  C.  was  the  abode  of  the  Sibyl  (q.  v.).  Her  cave  was 
destroyed  by  Narses  in  the  siege  of  C,  but  an  artificial  excava. 
lion  on  the  banks  of  Iiake-Avemus  is  still  popularly  called  Grotia 
deUa  Smia. 

Ctima'im,  one  of  the  United  States  of  Venezuela,  S.  America, 
is  bounded  N.  by  the  Caribbean  Sea,  E.  by  the  Atlantic,  S.  by 
the  Orinoco,  and  W.  by  Caracas.  It  abounds  in  eseelient  pas- 
Itures,  and  cattle  are  extensively  reared.     Pop.  (1873)  55,47&- 

Cwniimfl,  the  capital,  of  the  same  state,  lies  at  the  mouth  of 

the  Manzanares,  on  the  Gulf  of  Gariaco.    Pop.  (1873)  9427.    It 

is  the  oldest  European  city  in  America,  having  been  founded  in 

1521    under  the  name  of  New  Toledo    ana   has  a  capacious 

FA  Th 


the  C.  lakes  and  waterlalls,,or  foices,,  celebrated  for  their  pic- 
turesque beauty.  Several  of  the  mountains  are  above  3000  feet, 
i^  Sea  Fell,  Helvellyn,-  and  Skiddaw.  Tlie  largest  of  the 
lakes  13  UUeswater  (q,  v.).  Windermere  (q.  v.),  Decwentwater 
(qjv.),  andWastwater  (q.  v.),  attract  numerous  visitors — the  first 
two  by  their  smiling,  beauty,  the  last  by  its  gloomy  grandeur, 
TTie  chief  rivers  are  the  Edenj  the  Esk,  and  the  DerwenL     Geo- 

ilogically  the  Lake  District  is  Silurian,  and  contains  numerous 
slate.quarries  ;:  there  is,  however,:  much  granite  and  trap,  and 
new  red  sandstone  crops  out  boldly  af  St  Bee's  Head.    C.  is 

:rich>  in  minerals,   including  coal,   uon  (especially  a  very  rich 

!iia»matiteore),  plumbago,  silver,. copper,  lead,  gypsum,  and  marl, 
and  there  are  laige  quarries  of  limestone,  marble,  and  slate. 
From  the  extreme  moisture  of  the  climate  (the  rainfall  at 
Keswick  is  68  inches  Minually),  stock-rearing  is  more  profitable 
than  grain-cropping ;  tlie  turnip  crops  are  generally  superior.  In 
1875  the  total  acreage  under  all  kinds-  of  crops  was  545, 716,  of 
which  96,668  were  tmder  corn,  46,695  under  green  crops,  and 

199,701  nnder>  clover,  sanfoil,  and  grasses  under  rotation.     C. 

'■  possesses  a  race  of  yeomen-proprietors,  locally  called  slalesmen, 
marked  by  their  shrewdness,  thrift,  and  independent  spirit.  The 

I  chief  manufactures  are  iron,  pottery,  paper,   and   flax.     The 

'  principal  towns  are  Carlisle,  Whitehaven,  Workington,  aud 
Gockermouth.  C.  returns  eight  members  to  Parliament — four 
for  the  county,  which  is  divided  into-.E.  and  W.  G,  two  for 
Carlisle,  one' for  Cockermouth,. Mid  one  for  Whitehaven.  See 
Cumbria. 

Oumberland,  a  town  in  Maryland,  capital  of  Alleghany 
county,  on  the  N,  bank  of  the  Potomac  in-the  Alleghany  Moun- 
tains,- 179  miles  W,  of  Baltimore.  It  is  contiguous  to  the  C. 
bituminous  coal  r^rioH,,and  has  a  large  trade.  Pop.  (iSjo) 
8656. 

Oiiinljerland,  a  manufacturing  town  in  Rhode  Island,  on 
the  Blackstone  River,  lo-miles  N.  of  Providence.  It  has  trade 
in  iron,  coiton,  and  shoes.      Pop.  (l8;o)  3882. 

Giimberland,  Eichard,  D.D!,  a  scholar,  nrchieologist,  and 
theologian,  was  born  in  London,  July   i;3,  1632.      After  hold- 


yLaOogle 


CUM 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOFMDJA. 


ing  subordinate  livings,  he  was  in  169 1  appointed  Bishop  of  Peter- 
borough, the  duties  of  which  he  discharged  with  perfect  fidelity 
till  his  death,  Octoberg,  1718.  C.  wrote  several  works,  the  chief 
of  which  is  his  treatise  De  Ltgibus  Nalur^  in  answer  to  Hobbes. 
His  thirst  for  knowledge  and  the  activity  of  his  mind  are  showni 
by  hia  learning  Coptic  after  he  had  reached  the  age  of  eighty-- 
three,  and  In  his  celebrated  saying,  '  It-  is  better  to  wear  out  than 
rust  out.' — Bicliard,  0.,  dramatist  and  miscellaneoiis  -writer, 
great-grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  grandson,on  the  mother's 
side,  of  Dr  Richard  Bentley,  was  born  at  Cambridge^  19th 
February  1733.  He  vras  educated  chiefly  at  Westminster 
School  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  of  whidi  he  became 
a  fellow.  Having  been  appointed  private  secretary  to  the 
Marquis  of  Halifax,  he  filled  various  offices,  and  was-sent  on 
a  special  mission  to  Madrid  and  Lisbon..  Finally,  he  was  made 
secretary  to  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  held  the  office  till  the  sap- 
pression  of  the  Board  in  1782,  when  he  retired  with  a  compensa- 
tion allowance.  C.  then  lived  at  Tunbridge  Wells,  w*.ere  he 
devoted  himself  to  literature,  producing  novels,  essays,  pamphlets, 
and  dramas.  He  died  at  London,  May  7,  iSiii  ManyoEhis 
plays,  especially  TAi  Wat  Indian,.  JJfe  JSw,  and  Thi  IVhal' 
of  Fortune,  were  popular  at  the  time  of  their  production,  and 
considerable  talent  is  nndonbtedly  displayed  in  hia-miscellaneous 
essays  under  the  title  of  The  Observer.  C.  was  a  vain  man; 
and  Sheridan  caricatured  him  in  his- farce  of  The  Critic  under 
the  character  of  Sir  Fretful  Plagiary..  Ho  wrote  Mem^s  of  his 
own  Life,  which  were  published  at  London  in  2- V0IS.1&16-7. 
(new  ed.  Lend,  and  Philad.  1856). 

Oumberland,  William  Av^ustu.8,-Dake  of,  second  son 
of  George  II.,  was  bom'  in  17ZI.  He  entered  the  army,  was 
wounded  at  Dettingen  in  1743,  and  defeated  by  Marshal  Saxe  at 
Fontenoy  in  1745.  In  1746  he  ended  the  second  rebellion  by 
the  victory  of  Culloden,  but  treated  the  conquered  Highlanders 
with  great -severity.  He  was  beaten,  by  Sase  at  Lawfieldi  in 
1747,  and  had  to  surrender  his  amiy  at  Kloster-Zeven  to  the  Due  de 
Ric!ielieuhii757.  C.  died  Ocloberjl,  1765.  ^ee.  Life  of  the  Duke 
o^C.  (Lond.  r7&6).  He  repeatedly  figures  in  Carlyle's  Zftjfcrj' n/ 
rriedrich  IT.,  and  is  touched  off  with  good-natured  mockery  ass' 
military  failure.  His  '  General  Orders'  of  1745-47  (Henry  S. 
King  &  Co.,  Lond.  1S76}  show  that  the-popular.  notion  of  his-> 
crudly  after  Culloden  is  at  least  exa^eialed. 

Omnberlaud  ^laad,  a  lacge  island  between  Davis'  Strait 
on  the  E.,  the  mouth  of  Hudson^s-Bay  on  the  W.,  and  Hudson's 
SlKUt  on  the  S.,  and  separated  by  a  nariow  channel  from  Cock- 
bum  Island  on  the  N. 

Otunberland  Fresbyteriane,.  an  American  sect  which 
arose  about  the  year  1810,  in  a  time  of  revival  and  excitement 
in  Kentucky.  The  presbytery  of  Cumberland,  thinking  that  the 
times  required  It,  ordained  some  men  who  had  not  gone  through 
the  usual  course  of  education,  and  hence  arose  a  secession  from 
the  Presbyterian  Church.  The  G.  P..  hold  the  usual  evangeli-- 
cal  doctrines,  with  an  Arminian  interpretatioa  They  are  most 
numerous  in  the  S.W.  States.  Ministers,  Iii6;  churches,  19485 
members,  130,000  ;  annual  contributions,  $507000.- 

Cum'berland  RiveiV  m  Kentucky,  U.S.,  rises  in  Che  Cum- 
berland Mountains,  and  flows  in' a' generally  westerly  direction 
for  nearly  600  miles,  tiU  it  joins  the  Ohio,, about  50  miles  above 
the  confluence  of  the  latter  with  the  Missisappi. 

OnmViays,  orOreat  and^Little  Gumbray  ('isknds  of 
the  Cumbrians  or  Cymri '),  two  idands  in  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  Be- 
tween the  Ayrshire  coast  and  the  island  of  Bute,  and  forming 
part  of  Buteshire.  G,  C.  is  aj  miles  long  and  ij  broad.  Pop.. 
1613.  The  village  of  Millport  in  G.-G.  is  a. favourite  sea- 
bathing resort  of  the  inhabitants  of  Gla-igow.  L,  C.  is  about 
a  mile  in  length  by  half  a  mile  in  breadth.  It  is  in  the  parish 
ofW.  Kilbride,  Ayrshire.  Eop.  11.  The  nameis  a  relio  of  a- 
remote  historical  period..    See  CuUbeja.. 

Cvuubrd  'PaaMj  an  important  pass  aoross  the  Andes;  on  the 
highroad  between  Santiago,  in  Chili,  and  Mendoza,  in'  the 
Ai^entine  Republic,  a  little  to  the  S.  of  Aconcagua,  Its  greatest 
height  is  12, 178  feet  above  the  sea^level. 

OuniT)ria,  or  Strathduyd','  the  kingdom  of  the  Northern 
Britons,  sii-etched  ui  the  6th  c  from  the  Clyde  to  the  Dee,, 
from  Dumbarton  to  Chester..  Strathcliiyd  was  the  earlier  name  of 
the  count ly  ;  that- of  G.  not  having,  been. given  till  the  10th  0. 


'as  the  last  retreat  ol  the  Romanised  Britons  '  (Burton).  Its 
history  is  very  obscure ;  and  lit  is  chiefly  memorable  as  the  scene  of 
the  labours  of  St  Kentigem.  G.  was  ruled  fi-om  an  early  date  by 
kings  of  Scottish  family,  but  was  independent  both  of  the  Dal- 
riaiBc  Scots  and.  of  the  Weati  Saxon  kingdom,  until,  in  924,  it 
submitted!  to  Eadmund  lie  Etderi  When  the  English  overran 
and-  occupied  the  district  whieli  is  now  Lancashire  and  York- 
shire, the  Cumbrian  kingdom  divided  into  two  states  j  there  was 
'  a  gap  between  the  Southern  Britons  and  those  of  Scotland' 
(Burton's  History  of  Scotland).  The  northern  division  was  then 
'nastheStrathcluydkm^omproper,itscflpitalbeing^it/«Vi^ 
Dumbarton),  and  Wmihem  the  seat  of  its  metropolitan 
church.  It  comprised  the  modern  counties  of  Dumbarton,  Renfrew, 
Ayr,-Lanaiit,  It^ether  with  the  whole  of  Galloway.  The  southern 
division  of  the  ancient  Strathduyd,  known  as  English  C,  was 
[ranted  by  Eadmund,  K^ng  of  England,  to  Malcolm  I.,  King  of 
Icotland,  in  94S>  '<>  '^  ^"^'^  onitenureof  military  service.  From 
that  time  it  remained  an  ■  appanage  of'  the  Scottish  crovro,  but 
%  distinctly  regarded  as-  an  English  territorial  lief.  Its 
capital  under.David  \\  v/as  Carlisle,  and  its  ecclesiastical  centre 
Glasgow.  See  Freeman's  Norman  Conquest,  i  p.  135,  et  seg.  ; 
and  in-:  his  Historical  Essays,  that  '  On  the  Relations  between 
the  Crowns  of  England  and  Scotland  ;,'  also  Palgrave's  Mnglisk 
Commonwealth,  i.  p.  440,  el  seSr 

dimiTii  Oil  of.  This  is  an- oily  liquid  obtained  from  the 
seeds  of  Cyiidnutn  cyminum.  It  has  a  pleasant  aromatic  odour, 
and  consists  of  a  mixture  of  a  hydrocarbon  called  cymole  (CjoII^j) 
and  an  oxygerated  body  called  cumincl  (Ci^ijO). 

Gimun''iii,  or  Oum'ia  {Ciiminunt),  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  UmbelHfem,  not  unlike  Fennel  (q.  v.)  ir 
appearance.  C.-seeds  are  the  fruits  of  C.  Cyminum.  "ihsy  an 
larger  than  the  Cacaway  (q.  v.)t  bnt  are  not  so  agreeable  o 
efficacious  as  thes^  though  used  for  the  same  purposes,  viz.,  a 
a  carminative  and  spice..  lit  Holland.-and  even  in  this  country, 
they  are  sometimes  put  into  cheese,  and  in  Germany  into  bread. 
The  volatile  oil  whioh  they  contain  is  known  as  oil  of  C.  The 
seeds  are  chiefly  brought  to  Britain  from  Sicily  and  Malta,  and 
are  to  some  extent  used  in  Swedenj.Nomay,  and  Denmark  to 
flavour  corn-spirit  [aquavit). 

The  fruits  of  Lagoecia  caminoides^  a  native  of  the  Levant,  and 
also  belonging  to  the  Umbelliferm,  have  similar  qualities.  The 
C.  of  the  Scriptures  probably  iuclHded  not  only  this  species 
but  also-the  black  C,  a  species  of  Ni^Ua  (q.  v.).  The  ancients 
considered  that  its  smoked  seeds  produced  pallor  of  the  coun- 

Ctun'nOOli  ('the  meeting  of  the  waters,'  from  the  Celt,  otniar, 
'meeting,'  and  mU,  'water'),  the  name  of  two  places.— Old  C. 
is  in  the  S.E,  of  Ayrshire,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Lugar,  near  to 
wliere  it  is  joined  by  the  Giasnock,  16  miles  E.  of  Ayr,  and  a 
station!  on>  the  Glasgow  and  South- Western  Railway,  whicli 
crosses  the  Lugar  about  aquarter  of  a  mile  from  the  town  by 
a  magnificent  viaduct   170  feet    in  height.      Pop.    including 

Earish  (1871),  4041.  The  manufacture  of  wooden  snutF-boxes, 
>r  which  G.  was  once  noted,  has  muoh  declined.  There  an 
rich  coal  ajid  iron  mines  in  the  district,  and  manufactures  of 
coarse  pottery  and  agricultural  implevpents. — Ifew  C.  lies  5 
miles  to  the  S.,  and  is  also  a  station  on  the  Glasf^ow  and  South- 
western Railway..  Pop.. 3434.  The  district  is  nch  m  minerals, 
including  coal,  iron,  plumbago,  and  antimony. 

Oimi'yii,  Oom'yn,  or  Cumm'iiig,  a  Scoto-Norman  family 
deriving  its  name  from  the  town  of  Comines  In  the  N.E.  of 
France,  and  descended  fi-om  an  ancient  femily  in  that  country.— 
Bobentus  de  O.,  who  came  to  England  at  the  Norman  con- 
quest, is  supposed  to  be  the  ancestor  of  all  of  that  name 
in  Scotland,  where  his  nephew  William  became  cliancellor. 
The  grand-nephew  of  the  chancellor  married  Hexilda,  grand- 
daughter of  the  Ring,  Donald  Bane,  and  niece  of  Malcolm 
Canmore;  His  great-grandson  by  this  marriage,  John  tbe 
Slac^  C,  Lord  of  Badenoch,  was  a  competitor  lor  the  Scottish 
crown  in  1292.— John  the  Bed  O.,  a  son  of  the  Competitor,  was 
the  rival  of  Bruce.  The  two  rival*  met  privately,  February  1 306, 
before  the  altar  of  the  convent  of  the  Minorite  Friars,  Dum- 
fries.  High  words-arose  about  treachery  and  falsehood,  and  Bmce 
stabbed  C.  and  fled..  The  Comyns,  who  had  by  alliances  ac- 
quired immense  power  in  Scotland,  were  almost  swept  away 
in. the  war  of  independence.  The  male  line  of  the  family,  how- 
301 


vGooqIc 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CUN 


•et,  still  survives,  and  ia  represented  by  Sk-  "William  Gordon 
Cvimming  of  Altvre.  See  The  Records  of  the  Bruces  and  the 
Caiundngs,  by  M.  E.  Cumming-Bruce,  187a 

Ounax'a,  the  scene  of  the  battle  described  by  Xenophon,  in 
which  Cyrus  ihe  Younger  was  defeated  and  slain  by  his  brother 
Artaxerxes  Mnemon  (401  B,c.).  The  exact  spot  is  not  quite  cer- 
tain ;  but  most  authorities  agree  in  placing  it  on  the  !eft  bank  of 
the  Euphrates,  nearly  60  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Babylon, 

Cimdm.amar'ca,  one  of  the  United  States  of  C  I  nb  b 
tainiiig  its  name  from  an  American  goddess,  who  g     h 

divinities,  was  worshipped  before  the  Mexicans        q       d    h 
country.     Ruiiis  of  temples,  broken  statues,  and  m      m 
now  the  sole  relics  of  a  forgotten  religion.     The    h    f 
Santa  Fe  de  Bogota.      Area,  57,000  sq.  miles     p  p    (  S7  ) 
409,602. 

Ou'neifona  (Fr.  llls-H-elou,    Ger,   iei/r/Ki-mig)  w  d 

sliajied,  is  the  name  given  to  the  wedge-shaped         rro   h  ad 
writing  used  in  the  triiingaal  public  inscriptions    f  h    P  rs 
monarchy  (the  three  languages  being  Persian,  M  chan  y 

thic,  and  Assyrian  or  Babylonian),  and  in  an  imm  ty    f 

inscriptions  on  cylinders,  tabkts,  bricks,  both  public  and  private, 
which  have  been  discovered  chiefly  on  or  near  the  sites  of 
Nineveh,  Babylon,  Asshur,  Sec,  and  "u  Egypt,  and  from  whtdi 
many  interesting  fr^ments  of  ancient  Assyrian  and  Chaldean 
history  are  now  being  constructed.  The  characteristic  example 
of  the  later  C.  b  the  Behistun  Inscription,  which  contains  a 
valuable  history  of  the  conquests  of  Darius.  (See  Behistun.) 
The  deciphering  of  C.  began  properly  m  the  19th  c.  R-eviously 
LOUS  baseless  theories  were  held.  It  was  said  to  be  the  work 
worms  (who  must  certainly  have  had  geometrical  instincts) ; 
remains  of  a  primitive  digital  alphabet ;  a  system  of  arbitrary 
sacred  talismans,  of  which  the  key  had  been  lost.  Niebuhr 
first  suggested  that  the  inscriptions  were  repeated  in  three  lan- 
guages, and  in  1802  Grotefend  of  Giittingen  deciphered  Gie 
-imes  of  Cyrus,  Darius,  Xerses,  and  Hystaspee,  or  eight  letters 
It  of  thirty  to  which  he  assigned  equivalents.  He  did  so  not 
from  anv  laborious  comparison  of  individual  signs,  but  by  a 
shrewd  historical  guess  as  to  the  probable  form  and  subject  of 
the  mscription.  (>otefend  wrote  chiefly  in  the  Mines  de  P  Orient 
(vols.  iv. ,  V. ,  vi. },  but  his  results  are  given  in  Heerea's  Researches^ 
by  Talboys,  vol.  ii.  Little  was  added  by  St  Martin,  whose 
studies  on  the  subject,  from  1833  to  1832,  are  preserv^  in  the 
Apayu  de  I'Origine  dis  Dkierses  &riturss  by  the  learned 
Klaproth.  The  important  characters  representing  m  and  » 
were  discovered  by  Rask  {Ueber  das  Alter  und  die  Eththeit 
.  der  Zend-spracke,  Berl.  1826).  In  1836  Burnouf  published  an 
elaborate  Mimoire  sur  Deax  Insaiptions  CunUformes  irotnii! pris 
d'Ifatnadan,  to  which  we  owe  (he  verification  of  the  chturacters 
for  k,  gh,  b,  and  z.  In  the  same  year  Lassen  of  Bonn  dis- 
covered twdve  characters  (including  j,  g,  w,  and  several  aspir- 
ates), which  he  pablished  in  Die  Alt.  Persisckm  Kiil-Inschriften 
von  Persepolis.  Rawlmson  in  1835,  from  personal  examination 
of  the  sculptured  tablets  at  Haniai&n,  deciphered  independently 
the  Achieineniaii  proper  nances,  as  Grotefend  had  done  from  ^e 
inscriptions  at  PersepoJis,  copied  by  Niebuhr.  The  collation  of 
the  Behistun  with  the  Elwend  further  supplied  the  native  names 
of  Arsames,  Ariaramnes,  Teispes,  Achjamenes,  and  Persia. 
Greatly  assisted  by  the  philologicaj  suggestions  of  Burnouf  s 
work  on  the  Zend-Avesta,  the  hmguage  of  which  is  supposed, 
with  the  exception  of  Vedie  Sanskrit,  most  nearly  to  approadi  the 
language  of  the  Persian  C,  and  by  the  further  discoveries  in  the 
C.  alphabet  of  Lassen,  Jacquet,  and  Beer,  Eawlinson  completed 
an  alphabet  which  was  substantially  original,  and  proceeded  to 
his  work  of  translation  of  the  Behistun  mscription,  which  was 
wholly  originaL  By  translation  here  is  meant,  not  the  mere  de- 
ciphering of  particular  names,  but  the  rendering  of  the  different 
members  of  a  seiitence  according  to  their  etymologies  and  gram- 
matical relations.  With  regard  to  the  origin  of  C,  Rawlinson 
thinks  it  possible  that  pictorial  representations,  and  not  mere 
arbitrary  arrangement,  may  have  led  to  the  formation  of  the 
primitive  phonetic  character ;  that  the  three  kinds  of  C.  do  not 
belong,  to  one  type  of  alphabet  and  language,  as  has  been  main- 
tained by  Botta  and  others,  but  that  the  Babylonian  is  the  oldest, 
and  has  probably  been  largely  derived  from  the  Egyptian  written 
character.  The  Babylonian  C.  of  the  third  column  in  the  Per- 
sian inscriptions  is,  however,  different  from  that  which  appears 
303 


on  cylindei-s  and  bricks  at  Shirar,  Birs  Nimrod,  &c.,  and  a 
as  a  lapidary  diaracler  on  Sir  Harford  Jones'  stone,  on  llie 
naked  rock  at  Sheilihan,  between  the  ancient  capitals  of  Resell 
and  Calah,  &c  The  latter  form  Rawlinson  considers  to  be  the 
primitive  C,  or  Babylonian  proper;  tlie  former  he  calls  the 
Achjemenian-Babylonian.  The  early  Chaldean  brick  inscrip- 
tions at  Warka  (ancient  Erechy  sometimes  pass  into  a  character 
formed  entirely  by  straight  lines  of  uniform  thickness,  apparently 
impressed  by  a  single  stamp,  which  has  been  called  hieratic. 
Th   1  s  said  to  be  pictorial,  a  'god' heingrepresentedby 

h  yed  star,  a  '  hand '  by  four  shorter  and  one  longer 
par  11  1  nnected  bya  perpendicular,  a  'house'  by  what  re- 
semW       h    rectangular  ground-plan  of  a  house.     A  singular 

h  us  d  for  the  feminine  of  one  (Fr.  une\  has  been  traced 

h    liL      ss  of  the  double-toothed  comb  used  by  Chaldean 

m  S    also  the  early  ideograph  for  '  Ifing'  has  been  said 

mbl     the   figure  of   a  bee,   an   Egyptian  emblem  of 

igi  From  this  C.  gradually  developed,  as  clay  took 

tl     pi         f  stone,  a  tool  with  a  triangular  point  in  ivory  being 

d      F    m  the  variety  of  dialects  the  C.  signs  came  to  h 
dtf  ph  netic   values.       The    Chaldean   Characters  are    .. 

lire  k  d  — letters  proper,  monograms,  and  determinatives. 
The  public  writings  are  chiefly  on  bricks;  those  on  the  sealed 
tablets  under  clay  envelopes  chiefly  contain  private  Contracts, 
wills,  &c.  In  the  same  way  tlie  Assyrian  branch  of  the 
complicated  C.  writing  Is  divided  into  (1)  the  Medo-Assyriaii 
alphabet,  which  (with  the  exception  of  the  trilingual  inscription 
of  Xerxes)  is  exdusively  found  on  the  rocks  at  Van  and  in  the 
neighbourhood,  and  wluch  occurs  at  Dash  Tappek  in  the  plain 
of  Mujandab,  and  on  the  stone  pillars  at  the  Pass  of  Kel-i-shin ; 
(2)  the  true  Assyrian,  which  is  found  on  the  marbles  of  Klior- 
sabad  and  in  the  ruins  of  Nineveh  and  Calah.  As  might  he 
expected  from  the  national  history,  the  Babylonian  and  Assyria 
characters  sometimes  overlap.  The  Assyrian  C.  is  much  lei 
archaic  than  the  Chaldean.  Only  a  few  straight  lines  are  seei  , 
and  the  wedge  often  appears  very  much  elongated,  or  contracted 
to  a  triangle,  or  broadened  out,  or  doubled  so  as  to  form  an 
arrowhead,  all  these  forms  assuming  various  directions.  The 
366  chief  characters  represent  syllables  rather  than  letters,  each 
of  the  sixteen  consonants  forming  six  syllables  by  means  of  the 
three  vowels.  A  second  efass  of  syllables  is  formed  by  two  c( 
sonants  and  a  vowel.  The  determinative  stroke  before  or  after 
merely  announces  what  class  of  noun  is  to  follow.  The  Median ' 
used  for  translation  in  all  Ihe  Achsmenian  trilingual  inscriplioi 
even  in  Egypt,  as  on  the  Suez  stone,  has  been  called  Scythic  a_... 
Turanian  by  Noma,  who  treats  it  very  fully  in  the  j/buntiU  of 
the  Asiatic  Society,  vol.  xv.,  1855.  It  is  not  certain  whether  this 
syllabarium  of  100  characters  was  invented  or  adopted  by  the 
Turanian  people  of  Zagros.  It  comes  much  nearer  the  idea  of 
an  alphabet  than  the  other  forms  of  C.  The  forms  are  simpler, 
live  wedges  being  the  maximum.  The  only  diagonal  sign  is 
the  single  wedge  which  separates  words.  Lastly,  there  is  tlie 
Elymean  C.,  which  is  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Mai  Amir,  the 
andent  city  of  the  Uxii,  and  which  has  been  copied  by  Layard. 
The  Babylonian  C.  varies  from  all  other  Semitic  writing  in  being 
written  from  left  to  i^ht.  Each  consonant  apparently  possesses 
a  mute  and  a  sonant  sign,  so  that  in  expressing  a  dissyllable  in 
which  such  a  consonant  was  medial,  either  or  both  of  the  alter- 
native forms  might  be  used.  The  vowel  sounds  are  inherent  in 
the  sonant  consonants  (perhaps  also  at  the  beginning  of  the 
mutes),  but  for  greater  deainess  it  was  permitted  to  represent 
the  vowels  by  definite  signs.  Redimdant  consonants  are  intro- 
duced (or  euphony.  These  are  among  the  causes  of  the  great 
diversity  in  the  orthography  of  G  AnoUier  feature  is  the  ci 
stant  occurrence  of  compound  vowel  articulations  in  Ihe  uitei 
of  words,  of  which,  owing  to  the  inherence  of  the  <i  m  the  pre- 
ceding consonant,  the  Second  element  only  is  expressed.  Gene- 
rally, it  varies  firoin  Sanskrit  in  possessing  no  aspirated  sonant ;  it 
only  has  the  surd,  the  aspirated  surd,  and  the  sonant. 

Besides  the  great  Behisfun  inscription,  there  are  many  of  less  im- 
portance scattered  through  the  Persian  Empire,  and  especially 
at  Persepolis,  Hamndan,  and  Van.  Many  of  these,  however, 
consist  simplv  of  a  formula  of  invocation  to  Ormazd  and  a  repe- 
tition of  royal  titles.  Thus,  on  the  ruined  pilasters  of  Murghab 
or  Pasai^dEe  appears  this  legend,  the  oldest  of  the  Persian  C. 
— 'Adam  Kurush,  Khshaya  thiya,Hakhamanishiya  !  I  am  Cyrus 
the  King,  the  Achremenian.'  The  trilingual  legends  of  Darius 
at  Persepolis  arc  chiefly  on  the  platform,  ihe  pillai-ed  colonnade, 


y  Google 


CUN 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOFAIDIA. 


CUP 


and  tlie  palace  marlied  G  on  Niebuht's  plan.  One  of  tliem, 
which  has  been  copied  by  Potter  and  Westergaard,  is  found  on  a 
liuge  slab,  26  feet  long  and  6  feet  high,  in  the  southern  wall  of 
the  platform.  It  appeals  to  Ormaid  to  save  the  province  of 
Persia  from  war,  slavery,  decrepitude,  juid  lying.  The  titles 
often  suggest  questions  of  history  and  get^raphy.  Thus  Darius 
puts  'Sparda'  among  the  list  of  countries  who  areafiaid  of  him, 
and  bring  him  tribute.  Does  this  mean  Lacedsemon,  or  merely  the 
Dorian  colonies  in  Asia  Minor?  Another  tablet  at  tlie  foot  of 
the  roountUin  Alwand,  near  tlie  town  of  Hamadati,  probably  com- 
memorates a  royal  visit  to  the  Median  capital.  Oimajid  appears 
in  the  amiable  character  of  dadar.  Or  giver  of  justice.  The 
Median  and  Persian  inscription  of  Niksh-i-kiistam  on  the 
rock'hewn  sepulchre  of  Darius  near  Persepolis  was  for  long 
a  ■  riddle  to  travellers.  Dr  Fryer,  quoted  in  Sir  William 
Onseley's  Travels  (ii.  296),  was  content  'to  stare  on  tliem 
from  beneath,  tliey  being  fit  only  for  atlasses  or  winged-folk  to 
loolt  into,  there  being  no  passage  into  them.'  A  French  artist, 
more  ambitious,  wis  dn«n  up  b)  a  rop^,  but  Wcjtergaanl  s 
copy  was  taken  by  means  of  a  powerful  telescope  The 
writing  IS  probably  subsequent  to  the  expedition  of  Mai 
domus  (B  C  492)  and  refeis  to  the  Greeks  as  Scythians  be- 
yond the  sea.  Othei  members  of  the  Darius  aexies  uf  C 
wntmgs  were  found  on  a  Babylonian  cylinder  m  the  British 
Museum,  on  the  Suez  stone  near  the  embouchure  of  the  old 
canal  leading  from  the  Nile  to  the  Red  Sea  and  on  the  win 
dow-frames  of  the  palace  of  Daniis  at  Peisepolis.  llieie  is  also 
a  considerable  number  of  Xerxes  inscriptions.  Those  at  Hamadan, 
as  they  relate  no  history,  contdn  no  admonition,  and  do  not 
even  solicit  the  protection  of  Auramasda,  are  pi-obably  memo- 
rials of  the  annual  journeys  made  from  Babylon  to  Ecbatanaby 
the  old  'road  of  Semiramis,'  across  Mount  Orontes,  by  the 
Ganj  Namek,  a  route  coincidmg  with  that  of  Isidore  from  Kan- 
gawar  to  Artaman.  At  PersepoUs  the  Xerxes  inscriptions  con- 
sist of  |l)  the  statements  of  title  in  the  doorways  (both  over  the 
king's  head  and  on  the  folds  of  his  robe),  and  as  a  border  to  the 
fiilse  windows  of  the  palace  ;  {2)  more  elaborate,  but  quite  for- 
mal, statements  (including  a  reference  to  the  building  of  the 
palace),  which  appear  on  the  interior  pilasters  and  on  the 
sculptured  staircase  leadmg  to  the  terrace  of  the  Hall  of 
Columns.  The  twelve  small  tablets  over  the  colossal  animals  on 
the  two  great  portals  long  remained  inaccessible  to  travellers, 
although  their  existence  was  observed  by  Gemelli  Carreri,  who 
visited  Persepolis  towards  the  end  of  the  1 7th  c ,  and  by  Taver- 
nier(i663).  The  name  of /Si/'m  for  the  palace,  or  metropolitan 
building,  as  distinguished  from  the  country,  province,  or  state, 
occurs  here.  Another  pilaster  legend  at  the  S.  W.  comer  of  the 
palace  indicates  that  both  Darius  and  Xerxes  took  a  part  in  its 
construction.  All  these  inscriptions  are  contained  in  Lassen's 
Treatise  efC.  Inscriptions,  in  '^WKXrasxxi^  Memoirs  on  Persian  C, 
in  ZeUsckrift  fUr  die  Kuudt  dss  Morgenlandes,  voL  vi.,  and  the 
Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society,  voL  x.  Plates  will  be  found  in 
Morier's  Trariels,  Onseley's  Travels,  Rich's  Babylon  and  Perse- 
polis, Porter's  7'ravels  in  Georgia,  &c  See  also  Heerens'  Se- 
searcAeSyhy TaWioys,  vol.  ii.  There  is  a  trilingual  C  writing  re- 
latmg  to  Xerxes  on  the  vase  of  tiie  Comte  de  Caylus,  of  which 
tliere  is  a  duplicate  on  the  vase  found  at  Halicatoasins  by  Mr 
.  Newton.  It  has  a  hieroglyphic  transfixion,  to  which  Cham- 
pollion  and  Grotefend  attached  the  greatest  importance  as  a 
source  of  phonetic  values  before  the  C.  writing  was  properly 
understood.  Loftus  recovered  at  Susa  some  fragments  of 
vases  with  a  Xerxes  legend.  After  the  time  of  Xerxes  tiie  C. 
seems  to  have  fallen  info  disuse.  No  record  of  Artaxerxes 
Ijingimanus  or  of  Artaxeraes  Mnemon  has  been  discovered, 
and  the  attribution  of  the  cyhnder  and  Suez  stone  to  the 
intervening  reign  of  Darius  Nothus  depends  on  mere  con- 
jecture. The  Duildings  at  Persepolis  ascribed  to  this  period 
of  the  Achiemenian  dynash-,  though  elaborately  sculptured, 
have  no  writings.  After  the  lapse  of  a  century  Arlaxerxes 
Ochus,  fourth  in  descent  from  Xerxes,  resumed  the  ancient  art  of 
composition.  We  have  of  this  monarch  two  inscriptions  at  Per- 
sepolis—one  on  the  northern  face  of  the  platfotm,  marked  H  on 
Niebnhr's  plan,  the  other  on  the  western  staircase  added  to  the 
palace  by  Artaxerxes.  In  these  he  traces  his  descent  from 
Hystaspes  (whom,  however,  he  does  not  call  '  royal, '  thus  differ- 
ing from  the  Behistuu  inscription  of  Darius),  espltuns  that  he  has 
made  this  well-sculptured  meoeoiniasiiory  for  his  nam  convenience, 
and  calls  on  Ormazd  and  Mithia  (the  sun)  to  protect  him.     Both 


inscriptions  are  marked  by  bad  grammar,  which  lias  been  the 
despair  of  decipherers.  The  words  'for  his  own  convenience' 
are  supposed  to  refer  to  a  private  entrance ,  from  a  pavilion  to 
die  palace.  There  is  another  C.  w^riting  relative  to  Artaxerxes 
Ochus  on  an  Egyptian  vase  of  grey  porphyry  in  the  treasury 
of  St  Mark's  at  Venice.  It  has  a  very  singular  hier<^typhic 
equivalent,  deciphered'by  Sir  Gardener  Wilkinson,  and  the  royal 
name  is  d^atled  into  ArdaMchasche.  In  tliese  strictly  Peraian 
inscriptions  there  are  tliirty-six  or  thirty-seven  forms,  expressing 
twenty-three  distinct  sounds.  The  size  of  the  character  varies 
from  two  inches  to  one-sixth  of  an  inch. 

Cun'eifi»^m.  Bones.  These  are  three  bones  in  the  tarsus 
or  arch  of  the  foot,  so  named  on  account  of  their  wedge-like 
shape.  Witli  the  cuboid  hone  they  form  the  anterior  row  of  the 
tarsal  bones.  They  are  termed  from  their  position,  internal, 
middle,  and  external.     See  Foot,  Tabsus. 


n  of  letters, 
ir  Dumfries, 
apprenticed 
n  Dumfries, 


Cunn'mgliEua,  Allan,  a  Scottish  poet  and 
was  born  7th  December  l?34,  at  Blackwood, 
His  parents  were  humble,  and  at  an  early  age  he 
to  a  stonemason.  He  worked  haul  at  his  busine 
while  he  gave  his  leisure  to  the  Muses.  He  first  (1810)  became 
known  beyond  his  native  country  in  connection  with  Cromek's 
Remains  ofNithsdale  and  GtUloway  Song,  to  which  he  gave  what 
purported  to  be  old  ballads,  but  were  really  his  own  composition. 
After  this  he  was  acknowleged  to  be  among  Scottish  poets  next 
in  power  to  Hogg,  and  gained  the  high  esteem  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  who  called  him  '  Honest  Allan.'  He  removed  to  London, 
where,  after  being  for  a  ^ort  time  a  parliamentary  reporter,  he 
became  manager  in  Chantrey's  studio.  Meanwhile  he  wrote 
steadily,  his  works  induding  novels,  poems,  a  drama,  and  such 
books  as  a  Life  of  Barns,  a  Life  of  Sir  Danid  Wilkie,  Lives  of 
BriHsh  Painters,  &c.  Yet  he  always  considered  literature  as  hia 
staff,  not  his  crutch.  C.  died  October  29,  1S42.  He  will  be  best 
remembered  for  his  poems  and  songs,  which,  though  somewhat 
florid,  are  genuine  and  thoronghh'  Scottish.  The.  best  bio- 
graphy is  tlat  coniaming  extracts  from  his  correspondence  and 
works  by  the  Rev.  David  Hogg  of  Krkmahoe  (1875).— Peter 
C,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom  at  Pimlico,  April  7,  1816. 
In  r834  he  received  a  Government  situation,  and  devoted  his 
spare  time  to  literary  work,  the  varied  character  of  which  may 
be  judged  from  the  titles  of  sonie  of  his  books — Sandbosk  of 
London,  Lifi  of  Ini^  Jones,  lAfe  of  Druihmond  ef^  Hoiaithortt- 
den,  editions  of  Johnson's  XJiwo/'j'*i(/Wj,  Goldsmith's  Work, 
Horace  Walpole  s  Litters,  &c.  C,  who  contributed  largely  to 
magazines,  died  May  8, 1869. 

Ctutuiu^bam'io,  a  genus  of  lofty  and  graceful  Coniferous 
trees,  of  which  only  one  species,  C.  sinensis,  a  native  of  Southern 
China,  is  known.     It  canj  however,  only  be  grown  in  ponserva- 

Cunonia  ceee  ( O  h  anth  -ued),  a  mtural  or  ler  of  Dicotyle 
donous  plants  closely  allied  to  the  eaxifiages.  About  a 
hundred  spec  cs  and  twenty  genera,  natiies  chiefly  of  tropical 
regions  and  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  and  especially  of 
Austidii,  are  known  Wannianma,  Caihcmna,  Ceratopetabim, 
and  Caldclutma  are  examples  They  hive  astringent  properties, 
and  some  haie  been  used  for  tamimg,  while  otheis  exude  a 
gummy  excretian 

Cup,  Divination  by,  a  mode  of  divining  still  practised 
among  the  vulgai,  by  e\amining  the  arrangement  of  the  sedi 
ment  in  the  bottom  of  a  teacup  The  practice  h-is  been  hor 
rowed  from  the  ancient  E^yptiins,  who,  aflei  thiowing  pieces 
of  the  precious  metals  into  a  C  of  water  m  which  engiaved 
gems  had  been  placed  mvol.ed  the  infeinal  gods  to  furnish  ihe 


nfoim 


Oupa'nia,  a  genus  of  trees  or  shrubs  of  the  natural  order 
Sapindace^,  numbering  about  fifty  species,  found  inmost  tropical 
countries,  but  most  abundantly  m  S.  America.  C.  edulii,  or 
Sligkid  sapida,  is  the  Akee-tree  of  the  W.  Indies,  where  the 
negro  women  use  the  distilled  water  of  tlie  flowers  as  a  cosmetic 
"liie  seeds  are  surrounded  by  a  succulent,  slightly  acid  aril,  which 
is  much  esteemed  as  an  article  of  food.  A  decoction  of  the  seeds 
is  said  to  be  efficacious  in  diarrhoea.  The  lofty  tuliptree  of  east- 
ern tropical  Australia  (C.  or  HarpuHa  pendula)  has  a  light- 
coloured  wood,  interspei-sed  with  darker-coloured  patches,  and 
is  valued  by  the  cabinetmaker  from  its  being  susceptible  of  a 
303 


vLiOOQle 


CUP 


THE  .GLOBE  EMCYCLOP^DJA. 


CUE 


the  c 


s  fact 


high  <Iegi-ee  of  polish.     DfSprus. 

that  the  embryos  of  C.  cineria,  3.  Pewvian  species,  '  fall  —  -. 

the  seeds,  while  .the  outer  coating  or  husk  of  the  seeds,  with 

theit  atil  contained  in  the  burst  capsules,  still. remain  on  the 

trees.'     The  'Loblolly  woods'  of  Jamaica  also  .belong. to  this 

genns. 

Cupar  oc  Conpar-Angus,  a  town  partly  in  Perthshire  md 
partly  in  Forfarshire,  on  the.IsU,  about  13  miles  N.E.  of  Perth, 
and  a  station  on  the  railway  from  Perth  to  Aberdeen.  It  has 
bleach  fields,  maaufacbires  of  coarae. linen  fabrics,  and  a  trade  in 
timber.  Fiom  its  occupying  the  centre  of  Strallimore  ('  the  great 
valley'),  it  is 


Mearns.  The.cema 
boiirhood  of  the  tow 
erected  a  monastery 

Cupar-Fite,  the  ci 


called  jthe  capital  of  the  'How'  of 
Roman  camps  are  in  the  neigh- 
ite  of  one  of  which  Malcolm  .IV. 
ns.  Pop.  (1871)^149. 
_  m  of  Fifeshire,  on  the  Eden,,27 
miles  N.  by  ,E. 'of  Edinburgh,  and  a  station  on  the  EtHnburgb, 
Perth,  and  Dundee  section  of  the  Nortii  British  Railway.  1  he 
principal  manufacturas  .are  linens  and  bricka,  and  there  are 
breweries,  tanneries,  and  .floor- mills.  Pop.  (1871) -.5105.  C. 
was  erected  intoaropl  bni^h  by  David.II.  in  .1363.  Sir  David 
Lyndsay's  satiric  interlnde  of  The  lliree  Estatis  was  acted  lin 
1555  on  amojindat  the  E.  end  of  the  towip,  on  which  stood  an 
ancient  castle  of  the  Macduffs,  Thanes  of  Fife.  C,  unites  with 
St  Andrews,  Kiltenny,  Crail,  .Pittenweem,  and  ,E.  and  W.  An- 
struther  in  sending  a  member  (o  Parliament 

Gu'pel  and  CupeUa'tion.    See  Assay,  Silver,  and  Lead. 

Cup'id  (Lat.  ni^id<^,  from  nipio,  'I  desire'),  a  modification 
of  the  Greek  Eros,  when  hiswor&ip  was  transferred,  from  Greece 
to  Rome.  He  is  generally  described  as  a  son  of  Venus,  either 
by  Mercury,  Mars,  or  even  by  Jupiter,  C.  was  the  god  of  sen- 
sual love,  who  swiyed.alike  gods,  raen,.and  all  living  creatures. 
His  attributes  are  the.bovf,  arrows,  quiver  and  golden  mn^s, 
and  from  the  blindness  of  his  action  he  is  oftenirepresented  with 
bandaged  eyes.  Originally  conceived  of  as  a  model  of  petfect 
youthful  beauty,  he .  gradually ,  came  to  be  represented  as  a 
chubby  boy, 

Cu'pola  (Ttal.  from  the  same  root  as  the  Eue.,i^jS)iis  the  con- 
cave ceiling  or.  vault  forming  the  roof  of  a  building.    See  Dome. 

Oupola,  a  small  blast-furnace  used  for.  the  re-melting  of  raw 
pig-iron,  in  order,  that  it  may  be  oast  into  suitable  forms  in  the 
Foundry  (q.  v,). 

Oupp'ing,  a  airgical  operation  now  somewhat  rare,  but  at 
one  time  so  frequent  that  it  was  generally  performed  by  spetialists 
called  'cuppers.'  It  is  of  two  kinds— -ifrv  C.  aaiwd  C.  The 
former  consists  in  producing  congestion  of  a  part,;  the  latter,  in 
abstractingblood  from  a  part  to  which  dry  C,  hasijust  been 
applied.    The  instraoQcnts  necessary  for  the  purpose  are — ir)  a 

glass  resembUne  a  common  tumbler.;  |a)  a  spirit-lamp  (when 
lese  are  not  at  hand,  a  candle  and  a  common  tumbler  will  serve 
the  pupose) ;  and  (3)  when  wet  C.  is  to  be  performed, .an  instru- 
ment containing  lancets  (scarilicator)  itopierce  the  .skin,  that 
blood  may  be  withdrawn.  .The  lancets  are  concealed  withui  the 
instrument,  and  by  moving  a  trigger  they  project  through -slits 
and  cut  the  skin.  Their  number  varies,  but  they  are  so 
arranged  as  to  cut  exactly  to  the  required  depth.  In  C. 
the  part  is  first  sponged  with  hot  water,  which  produces  local 
congestion.  The  air  is  exhausted  from  the  glass  by  means  of 
(he  spuit-lamp,  and  the  glass  is  then  quioltly  placed  on  the  part 
already  sponged.  This  increases  much  the  flow  of  blood  bo  the 
part.  This  part  of  the  operation  is  dry  0.  The  scarifioator  is 
now  applied,  which  cuts  the  skii),  and  the  glass  having  the  air 
re-exhausted  by  the  spirit-lamp  is  again  applied,  and 'is  bow 
rapidly  filled  with  blood.  The  number  of  glasses  will  depend 
on  the  amount  of  blood  to  be  abstracted;  each  g^ss  takes 
about  four  or  six  ounces  of  blood.  The  lancets  must  be  so 
arranged  as  only  to  cut  through  the  true  sUtn  ;  when  ihey.cut 
deeper,  the  fat  underneath  the  skin  prevents  the  free  escape  of 
the  blood. 

Ou'piile,  the  cup  in  which  the  fruit  (acorn)  of  the  oak  and  the 
nut  of  the  Spanish  chestnut  is  contained,  and  is  a  sort  of  in- 
volucre composed  of  a  number  of  adherent  bracts.  It  is  also 
applied  to  a  cuplike  body  found  in  some  fungi,  such  as  Peiiza. 


Cu.pulif'er8e,.or  Ooryla'cese,  the  Oak  or  Mastwort  order, 
.a  nalural  order  of  Dicotyledonous  plants,  consisting  of  trees  and 
shrubs,  abundant  in  the  forests  of  temperate  regions,  though  a 
few  are  found  m  the  highlands  of .  tropical  and  hot  climates.  In 
all  about  300  species,  distributed  over  eight  or  nme  genera,  are 
described,  (^lerais  (oak),  Cmylm  (hazel),  Caslaitea  (chestnut), 
Carpinis  (hornbeam),  are  the  best  known.  C.  are  mainly  im- 
portant for  producing  excellent  timber,  though  the  seeds  of 
many  of  them  are  edible,  and  others  have  astringent  barks  and 
cupules.  See  also  AMENiFEa..s:. 
>"Oupreso'iiS  and  Oupresslinee.     See  Gvpkbss. 

Ourapa'o,  one  of  the  West  India  Islands,  lies  E.  of  the 
opening  to  the  Gulf  of  Mttracaibo,  about  75  miles  off  the 
Venezuelan  coast,  S.  America.  Ai^  315  sq.  miles;  pop. 
(1S73)  21,900.  The  capital,  Willemslad.is  situated  on  the  S. 
coast.  Like  the  neighbouring-, islands,  of  Aniba  (pop.  4487)  and 
aien  Ayre,(pop.  3980),  C.  produces  tobacco,  maize,  figs,  cocoa- 
nuts,  .citrons,  oranges,. &C.,  and  carriss  on, an  export  trade  in 
maize, beans, cattie,salt,&c,,chie9y,withthecontiguous  coast  It 
gives  name  toa  liqueur  (fajijfoa)  or  sweetened  spirit,  which  owes 
Its  peculiar  flavour  chiefly  to.the  rind  of  Curajoa  Oranges  (q.  v.). 
.In  addition  to  that  ingredient,  a  proportion  of  cinnamon,  mace, 
and.other  sweet  spices.ia  used  in  the  preparation  of  cura9oa. 
C.  was  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1527,  conquered  by  the 
Dutch  in  1634,  taken  by  the  English  in  .1807,  and  restored  to 
the  Dutch  in  1S15. 

CttraQOa  Oranges, 'the  j immature  fruits  of  the  ordinaiy 
Seville  or  bitter  orange.  Citrus  vulgaris  of  Risso,  They  are 
■valued  for  their  rind,  which  has  a  very  pleasant  aromatic  odour 
and  -Si  bitter  ta-ste,.,and  is  largely  used  in  medicine  as  an  aromatic 
tonic,  and  In  the  preparation  of  the  lavoiirite  liqueur  curofoa. 

Cu^rarine  isiian  Alkaloid  (q.  v.)  contained  in  curara,  iirari, 
•wosrara  ax  v)ooralit&.Ttsai.is^&  substance  used  by  the  S,  American 
Indians  to  poison  their  arrows.      C.   is  an  amorphous  body 

,  with  a  bitter  taste.  It  acts  as  ai violent  poison  when  introduced 
directly  into  the  bloii)d,  .hut  is  comparatively  harmless  when 
swallowed.  Its  physiological. action  is  peculiar,  for  it  paralyses 
(he  nerves  of  motion  without  affecting,  those  of  sense. 

Curass'OW,  or  Haeo'O  {Crax),  a  family  of  Rasorial  birds  (Cro- 
cida),  representing  in  America  the  Old  World  pheasants,  llie 
bill  is  arched,  the.nostrils  are  basal, the  wings  short  and  rounded, 

.  the  tail  long  and  very  broad,  the  tarsi  stout,  the  toes  slender, 

,  and  the  hind  toes^as  long,  and  situated  in  the  same  plane,  as  the 
front  toes.  The  common  crested  C.  ( Crux  altctor)  is  as  large  as 
a  turkey,  and  occurs  in  Brazil  and  Guiana.  Its  colour  is  black, 
the  belly  and  tail-crests  white.  The  head  has  a  crest  of  tufted 
feathers.  The  red  C.  ( C.  ruira)  has  been  domesticated  in  Holland, 
Another  species  is  the  C.  giaHcera,  and  this  latter,  and  the  Pauxi 
or  Oiirax  fiaim,  has  a  knob  or  tubercle  at  the  base  of  the  bill. 
Qtifrate  (lit.  'one  who  has  the  mte  (Lat.  c«ra)  of  souls') 

■is  the  lowest  degree  in. (he  Church  of  England.  By  r  and  3 
Vict  c.  lo5,  iwhere  an  incumbent  does  not  duly  reside,  the 
bishop  is  empowered  to  grant  a  certain  fixed  salary  to  the  C, 

.imt  of  the  proceeds  of;the  benefice.  This  shall  not  be  less  than 
^80.  a  year,  unless' the  value. of  the'benefice  is  under^So  a  year  ; 
in  which  event  the  salary,  of  the  C,  shall  be  the  full  value  of  the 

Cuiatell'a,  a  genus  of  small  .DilHneaceous  trees  from  tropica! 
Africa,  the  rough  leaves  of  one  of  which  ( C.  Amerkana)  are  used 
im  Guiana  for  polishmg. 


of  their  appo!n(men(,  and  the  condition  of  those  c 
whom. their  guardianship  or  cmatory  extends.      They  m^  be 
classed  as   C.  to  a  mind';  C.  to  an  idiot,  C.  bonis,  and  C.  ad 

Curator  to  a  Minor.— k.  minor  in  Scotland,  until  he  ai 
puberty  (see  Age),  which  in  males  is  fourteen  and  in  females 
twelve  years,  is  imder  the  guardianship  of  a  tutor.  (See  Pupir,, 
Tutor.)  From  puberty  to  majoriri"  he  is  under  a  C.  The 
guardianship,  in  both  cases,  vests  without  I^al  formality  in  the 
father,  unless  the  child  is  forisfamiliated.  (See  Forisfamilia- 
TION.)     When  the  father  is  dead,   or  legally   disqualified,   the 


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CUE 


minor  has  lai^ely  the  choice  of  iiis  curators,  but  tl  e  appo  nt 
ment  requires  the  sanction  of  the  court.  All  deeds  exe  uted  o 
contracts  entered  into  by  a  minor  without  consent  of  h  ourato  s 
are  ineffectual  against  the  minor,  but  they  may  be  1  eld  b  nd  ng 
on  the  other  party.  The  terra  in  English  law  corresj  ond  g  to 
C.  to  a  M,  is  Gjtardiaii  (q.  v.). 

Caraiar  to  an  Idiot  is  appointed  under  a  brieve  of  Chancery 
(See  Brieve.)  He  is  intrusted  with  the  person  as  well  as  w  th 
the  estate  of  his  ward.  The  court  appoints  to  the  office  the 
nearest  male  relation  on  the  father's  side,  except  when  a  wife  is 
fetuous ;  in  which  case  the  husband  liecomes  C  Curators  to 
insane  petsons  are  subject  to  the  provisions  of  the  Pupils'  Pro- 
tection Act  (q.  v.), 

Curaisr  Bonis. — When  an  heir  is  deliberating  whether  or  not 
he  shall  enter  (see  Entry  of  an  Heir),  when  an  infant  is 
without  a  tutor,  when  a  succession  opens  to  one  resident  abroad, 
when  trustees  have  declined  to  accept  or  cannot  legally  do  so, 
and  in  similair  cases,  the  court  appoints  a  C.  B.  He  is  subject 
to  the  provisions  of  the  court's  Act  of  Sedenmt  relative  to  judicial 
factors  (see  Judicial  Factor),  and  to  the  provisions  of  the 
Pupik'  Protection  Act  (q.  v. ). 

C«raifir  adLiiem  is  appointed  by  the  court  to  attend  to  the 
interest  of  a  minor  in  a  lawsuit  or  in  other  judicial  proceedings. 
When  a  minor  has  curators  at  the  beginning  of  legal  procedure, 
they  act  as  curators  ad  litem. 

Curb,  in  veterinary  science,  means  a  strain  of  the  esfensor 
ligaments  or  tendons  running  down  the  back  of  the  'hoclc'  in 
horses.  This  lesion  occurs  chiefly  from  sudden  starts  or  great 
exertion,  or  from  the  effort  made  in  keeping  back  a  heavy  load 
in  descending  a  bilL  The  sjimptoms  are  swelling  and  in- 
flammation  in  the  joint,  and  consequent  lameness,  which  may 
disappear  afterwards,  when  the  animal  has  been  exercised  for 
some  time.  The  treatment  consists  in  rest  and  fomentations 
during  the  active  stages  of  the  inflammation,  tcgether  with  cold 
applications  afterwards,  and  blistering  to  allay  any  tendency  to 
swelling  that  may  remain. 

Cui'caa.    See  Piiysic-Nut. 

CurOuTigW,  a  genus  of  herbaceous  plants  of  the  natnral  order 
Hypoxidacem,  natives  of  S.  Africa  and  tropical  Australia  and 
India.  The  roots  of  C.  crcMoides  are  tised  in  Travancore  as 
a  native  cure  for  gonocchrea,  menorthtegia,  &c.,  and  the  fleshy 
roofs  of  some  species  (like  C  starts  of  the  Ladrone  Islands)  are 
eaten.     Most  of  the  genus  is  bitter  and  aromatic. 

Onrculio.     See  Weevii- 

Ourcu'ma,  a  genus  of  annual  plants  ef  tlie  natural  order 
Zingiberacea.  Turmeric  (g.  v.)  consists  of  the  old  tubers  of  C. 
longa  and  other  species.  The  young  tubers  are  colourless, 
and  furnish  a  kind  of  arrowroot.  East  India  arrowroot,  or  C 
starch,  is  obtained  by  bruising  and  powdering  the  tubers  of  C. 
anpistifolia,  and  then  throwing  the  powder  into  water.  Starch  Is 
also  obtained  from  C.  ml'esi^ens,  C.  leucorhi^a,  &c  Zedoary 
tubers,  used  in  India  as  an  aromatic  tonic  and  as  a  perfume, 
are  furnished  by  C.  aromstica  aJid  C.  Zidoria. 

Cnrd  (casein  of  milk)  is  a  composition  similar  to  the  fibrin  of 
wheat,  the  legumen  of  bean  and  pea,  and  the  albumen  of  egg.  It 
has  been  suggested  by  Mulder — and  the  suggestion  is  generally 
accepted — tMt  the  cheesy  matter  in  milk  is  derived  directly  and. 
without  much  change  from  the  food  upon  which  the  animals  live. 
From  a  gallon  of  new  milk  I  lb.  of  C.  is  produced  on  the  ave- 
rage, but  Alderney  and  Guernsey  cattle  will  give  more.  According 
to  DrVoelcker,  thenltimate  elements  of  C.  are  carbon  53'S7, 
hydrogen  7-14,  nitrogen  15-41,  oxygen  22-03,  sulphur  I'li, 
and  phosphorus  074  per  cent.  Cnrds-and- cream  form  a  delight- 
ful dish,  for  which  Devonshire  is  specially  femous. 


signal  for  the  people  to  put  out  their  fires  and  retire  for  the  night. 
The  introduction  of  this  pmctice  into  England  has  been  as- 
cribed to  William  the  Conqueror,  who  is  s£ud  to  have  used  it  as 
a  means  of  preventing  tiie  IJnglish  from  assembling  in  the  even- 
ing to  concoct  plans  of  rebellion.  'Ilie  tradition  is  sufficiently 
ludicrous.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  owed  its  intoduction 
into  England  to  the  same  cause  that  made  it  common  throughout 
114 


Eu  ope — viz. ,  as  a  regulation  to  prevent  fires,  which  were  1 
f  quent  when  houses  were  built  of  wood.  The  evening-bell  still 
ru  g  in  man);  places  in  England  is  called  the  C,  and  though  the 
0  g  nal  signification  has  long  passed  away,  the  word  has  woi 
a  abiding-place  in  our  language,  mainly  through  the  line  ii 
Gia.ys£legy — 

'  The  curfcw  tolls  the  knell  of  psrling  day." 

Onrl,  a  destructive  disease  in  potatoes — a  variety  of  chlorosis 
— m  which  the  tubers  '  produce  deformed  curled  shoots  of  a  pallid 
tint,  which  are  never  perfectly  developed,  and  give  rise  to  min  ' 
tubers.  It  is  supposed  C.  arises  fram  the  tubers  being  ovem]^ 
It  is  a  local  disease,  and  quite  unknown  in  many  districts 
(Berkley). 


Sandpip 
curved  downwards  towards   ts 
tip.     The  fece  and  head  ar 
feathered.     The  tail  is  sh  rt 
and  the  wings,  when  at  rest 
reach  to  the  tail.      The  C 
not  migratory.    It  inhabits  th 
sea-coBSts,    generally,   of   ti 
Old  World,  and  also  of  Austra 
iia.     Its  food  is  chiefly  worm 
and  molluscs,  and  its  cry 
of  a  peculiar  shrill  kind. 


Wild  as  the  SI 
From  ctag  to 


Linarthet 


■Lady  of, h, 
built  among  gr 
ph/copus)  is  smaller  than  ti      f 


heath      Th    wl   nbrel  (A: 
pec  es      d         1  o  found 
d  th    E  q  miauK 


Culling,  a  Scottish  game  on  the  ice,  popular  with  all  ranks. 
It  is  usually  played  on  frozen  lakes  and  rivers,  though  arti- 
ficial ponds  ate  becoming  common.  Set  matches,  calfed  ban- 
spiels,  are  played  between  rival  clubs  and  parishes,  and  even  be- 
tween different  divisions  of  the  kingdom.  A  body  of  rules, 
generally  held  as  binding,  has  been  issued  by  the  CaJedoniatt 
Curling  Club.  C.  is  pkyed  with  flattish  circular  stones,  about  9 
inches  in  diameter,  from  30  to  45  lbs;  in  weight,  with  handles  in- 
serted in  the  upper  surface,  while  the  under  is  carefully  polished. 
A  rink  is  formed,  from  30  to  40  yards  long  and  3  broad,  at 
each  end  of  which  concentric  circles  {ir/nt^s)  are  drawn,  the 
inner  one  being  named  the  ta,  which  is  the  curler's  aim— the 
game  much  resembling  that  of  bowls.  At  some  distance  short 
of  each  tee  a  transverse  line  is  drawn — the  hag-scors — stones  faihng 
to  cross  which  are  put  off  the  ice.  The  game  is  nsually  31 ;  the 
players,  four  on  each  aide ;  the  last  player,  o\  director,  being 
called  the  skip;  and  a  frequent  challenge  is  fov  a  dinner  of  beef 
and  greens.  The  gam^  is  graphically  described  in  Guy 
Mcmniring,  and  Bujiis'  Tain  Samson  was  an  adept  in  it :  the 
following  stanza  froiji  the  humorous  Elegy  conlains  several  of 
the  technical  terms  of  the  game  : — 

t  He  nras  the  king  o'  a'  the  core, 
Or  up  the  rink  like  Jehu  roar 
But  now  he  bga  on  Death's  hsg-score—, 

Oarr'aii,  Jolm  Philpot,  a  distinguished  Irish  baiTister, 
orator,  and  wit,  was  bom  of  humble  parents  at  Newmarket,  neai 
Cork,  July  24,  1750,  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and 
the  Middle  Temple,  London,  and  was  called  to  the  Irish  bar 
in  1775.  By  his  power  as  a  ready  and  sarcastic  speaker  he 
speedily  reached  forensic  eminence,  and  in  1784  entered  Par- 
liament, in  which  he  became  celebrated  as  one  of  the  ablest 
opponents  of  the  policy  of  the  Government  towards  Ireland. 
After  the  Union,  to  which  he  was  opposed,  C.  was  made,  in 
tSo6,  Master  of  the  Rolls.  He  resigned  this  post  in  1813,  and 
retired  on  a  pension  to  Lopdon,  where  he  died,  October  14, 1817. 
His  wit  and  other  attractive  sodal  qualities,  shown  in  such  books 
as  Recollections  of  C. ,  will  long  keep  C  's  memoiy  green  in  the 
hearts  of  Englishmen  as  well  as  of  his  own  countrymen.  " 
3°5 


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Life  sfC.  (Loud.  1819),  by  his  sou,  J.  Pliiipot  Curran,  by  Phillips, 
and  by  O.  Regau. 

Curr'ant,  the  common  name  for  vavious  species  of  plants  of 
the  genus  RUies,  but  most  generally  applied  to  S.  -n-^rum  and 
S.  rubntm,  the  black  and  red  C,  of  our  gardens.  The  red  C, 
is  a  native  of  the  5.  of  Europe  and  of  Asia,  and  perhaps  N. 
America,  Euid  is  most  likely  only  naturalised  in  Britain.  The 
white  C.  ia  a  variety  of  the  red  C,  the  result  of  cultivation, 
and  in  addition  there  are  many  other  varieties  and  intermediate 
forms.  The  black  C.  is  a  native  of  most  woods  and  the  banks 
'  streams  in  Europe  and  the  N.  of  Asia,  Both  it  and  the  red 
■e  highly  priied  for  preserving  in  the  fofm  of  jams  and  jellies, 
It  is  lai^ly  grown  in  some  parts  of  the  Continent  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  the  Liqueur  de  Cassis.  There  are  many  other 
closely- allied  species  in  America,  India,  &c.  The  redTflower- 
ing  C.  (Ji.  sanguineum),  Bo  common  au  ornament  of  our  shrub- 
beries in  spring,  is  a  native  of  Aroeiica  to  the  W.  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  It  was  introduned  into  Britain  in  1E26.  Its  berries, 
though  insipid,  are  not  poisonous.  £.  auream  is  an  orna- 
mental shrub  from  the  s^me  regions,  producii^  a  fine-fiaTOured 
berry.  The  term  C.  is  applied  ii)  Australia  to  Leucopo^a 
Richd,  one  of  the  EpacHdacea.  Its  berries  are  wholesome. 
The  Indian  C.  of  Ameripa  is  Sympkoricarpus  racemtmu  (the 
snow-berry).  The  native  C.  of  New  S.  Wales  is  also  Leuco- 
pogon  SicAii,  while  the  same  name  is  given  In  Tasmania 


a  small  variety  of  the  ordinary  vine  {Vilis  pim/era),  cultivated 
chiefly  in  the  Ionian  Islands.  They  are  most  extensively  nsed 
in  cakes  and  puddings,  bat  of  themselves  are  bighly  indigestible, 

Otirraiit-"Win.e,  a  beverage  prepared  from  the  fermented 
juice  of  the  herries  of  the  red  currant  (Ribes  rubnim),  fo  which  a 
proportion  of  sugar  is  added.    C.-W,  is  a  favourite  domestic 

f (reparation,  and  a  wholesome  and  pleasant  drink,  A  kind  of 
iqueur  is  aimikrlj'  prepared  with  the  Biore  strongly  flavoured 
black-currant  berries. 

Onrr'eiicy,  the  name  applied  to  the  medium  of  exchati) 
circulating  medium  used  at  any  time  and  place .    Its  «ses,  c 

and  indirect,  are  obvious  :  the  chief  are  the  establishment  0    

mode  of  calculating  value,  the  facilitation  of  exchange  where 
barter  could  not  take  place,  and  tlie  saving  of  expense  and  trouble 
in  the  exchange  itself.  Each  of  these  primitive  advantages  sug- 
gests a  great  expansion  of  commerce.  They  have  been  realised 
separately ;  as(l)  in  the  African  conventional  nnit  or  macute,  which 
had  no  ]»hysieal  existence  at  all ;  (2)  in  the  cattle  and  fur  C,  of 
many  nations  without  foreign  trade.  Now,  however,  the  precious 
metals  are  oniversaily  recognised  as  the  best  basis  for  exchange  i 
and  by  the  mercantile  school  were  long  considered  as  the  only 
permanent  wealth ;  a  fallacy  which  led  to  the  early  prohibitions 
of  importation  and  the  bounties  on  exportation.  The  durability 
and  divisibility  of  gold  and  silver,  their  aniforra  quality  when 

Eure,  and  the  facility  with  which  the  quality  may  be  tested, 
ave  secured  them  the  first  place ;  copper  derivmg  its  C .  chiefly 
from  the  mint-mark,  and  from  being  confined  to  small  trans- 
actions, Copper  w^,  however,  extensively  used  at  Roma,  and 
iron  was  exdasively  used  ?,t  Sparta.  The  C.  metals  fluctuate 
little  in  intrinsic  value  (although  the  occasional  discoveries  of 
gold-fields,  l.g.,  in  Australia  and  California,  produce  wide  and 
sometimes  violent  effects  on  trade),  hut  it  was  necessary  to  pre- 
vent fraud  that  the  central  Government  (wherever  sudi  existed) 
should  guarantee  the  purity  of  the  C,  and  direct  that  it  should  be 
accepted.  Hence  state  coinage  and  the  prohibition  of  private  coin- 
ing, a  privilege  which  was  frightfully  abused  m  systematic  debase- 
ment iy  the  kter  Capetian  Kings  of  France  and  by  the  Roman 
Emperors  of  ihe  East,  &c.  In  Scotland  (where  James  I.  had 
directed  the  money  tobeofthelikeweightand  fineness  as  that  of 
England),  there  were  mints  in  Edinburgh,  Aberdeen,  Perth, 
Dnmbartpn,  Roxburgh,  Stjriing,  Glasgow,  and  Linlithgow.  Not, 
withstanding  thjs  variety  of  local  coinage,  there  was  a  great 
dearth  of  C.  uj  Spotl^nd ;  and  the  '  sterling '  silver  penny  ot  tiie 
English  Plantsgenets  {which  had  taken  the  place  of  the  silver 
pepny  of  the  '  Easterlings '  or  Baltic  trading  communities)  varied 
so  much  from  the  Scots  money,  that  ultimately  j^ioo  Scots  was> 
equivalent  to  ,^8,  6s.  8d.  of  sterling  money.  An  Act  of  James 
II.  (1456)  fried  to  retrieve  the  C,  by  enacting  that  several  foreign 
cpins  in  use,  such  a^  Henry  nobles,  dolphins,  Rhenish  gniklings. 


&c.,  should  '  be  cried,'  or  pass  for  more  than  their  intrinsic  value  ; 
and  that  the  coins  were  to  remain  in  the  country,  In  England, 
tiie  rude  process  of  mmting  by  shears  and  hammer  had  led  to 
extei^ive  clipping  and  to  the  institution  of  the  horse-mill.  The 
clipped  coin,  not  being  called  in,  displaced  the  milled  coin ;  and 
this  produced  a  state  of  uncertainty  and  injustice  from  which  the 
nation  was  rescued  in  [695  by  th^  Coinage  Act,  due  to  the  joint 
efforts  of  Looke,  Somers,  and  Montague,  The  new  C.  was 
restored  to  its  ancient  weight  and  fineness,  and  the  clipped  money 
was  made  illegal  tender  after  a  certidn  date,  When  the  milled 
silver  was  fiilly  in  circulation,  (he  price  of  tlie  golden  guinea  fell 
from  30s.  to  SIS.  6d.  At  the  Treaty  of  Union  a  uniform  C.  was 
adopted  for  England  and  Scotland,  compensation  being  given 
for  losses  through  diange  of  denomination,  Tlie  Scots  merks 
{lid.  more  valuable  than  the  English  shillings)  were  called  in  by 
'  unpremeditated  proclamations  | '  but  the  premium  was  claimed 
for  i'40, 000  worth  of  English  shillings  which  had  been  circulating 
in  Scotland  as  equivalent  fo  Scots  merks.  In  spite  of  the  faci- 
lities for  smu^ling  and  melting  afforded  by  the  small  bulk  of  the 
precious  metals,  the  British  system  has  survived  a  good  many  com- 
mercial crises.  The  value  of  the  C.  depends,  in  the  first  place,  on 
the  supply  (f.e.,  all  money  in  actual  circulation)  and  the  demand 
(i.e.,  all  goods  oflTered  for  sale) ;  in  the  second  place,  supply  and 
demand  remaining  constant,  it  depends  on  cost  of  production. 
The  relation  between  the  C.  and  prices  is,  however,  considerably 
modified  by  the  use  of  bills  of  exchange,  accommodation  bills, 
promissory-notes,  and  cheques.  These  are  the  instruments  of 
credit.  The  experiments  made  in  inconvertible  paper  C,  such 
as  the  assignais  of  the  French  Revolution,  show  that  while  the 
substitution  of  a  paper  for  a  metallic  C.  held  in  reserve  is  a  national 
gain,  any  further  increase  of  paper  is  a  national  robbery.  The 
Austrian  irredeemable  paper  florin  varies  in  value  from  1 1  to  7 
fframmes  silver.  Accordingly,  not  merely  the  Bank  of  England, 
but  thebanksof  issue  in  Scotland,  are  carefully  restrict  ed  m  their 
note-issue  by  reference  to  their  store  of  bullion.  From  r797  ti 
1S19  the  cash  payments  of  the  Bank  of  England  were,  in  conse 
quence  of  the  war,  suspended,  large  hoards  of  bullion  being  re 
quired  for  military  purposes ;  and  there  was,  at  one  time,  1 
controversy  whether  the  resumption  of  cash  payments,  under 
Peel's  Act  of  1S19,  did  not  unduly  benelit  those  who  had  ad- 
vanced money  to  the  state  during  the  depreciation  caused  by  the 
suspension.  The  present  system  of  banking  in  Great  Britain 
was  settled  by  peel's  Bank  Charters  Acts,  1844-45  *7  ^^  ^  ^''^'■ 
c.  3?,  and  S  and  9  Vict  c  3S).  A  dispute  having  arisen  as  t< 
the  right  of  Scotch  hanks  to  do  business  at  public  offices  ii 
England,  it  is  possible  that  before  long  the  Scotch  privilege  of 
issuing  notes  to  the  average  amount  in  circulation  during  the 
year  endi)^  1st  May  1845,  fil«s  the  amount  of  bullion,  may  he 
absorbed  in  the  system  of  ont  bank  ot  issi  ''  ■■  "^  ■■  •  "■ 
dom.  It  has  lately  been  suggested  thi ' 
should  charge  a  coinage-due  for  the  e: 
amounts  to  about  one-fifth  per  cent. 

porters  pay  merely  a  commission  for  interest  and  assaying  to  the 
Bank  of  England.  Mr  Lowe  thinks  the  chaise  should  be  made 
by  reducing  the  sovereign  froni  113  to  112  grains  fine.  The 
real  object  of  this  is  to  equalise  tlie  sovereign,  the  25-ftanc  piece, 
and  the  20-mark  piece.  Such  a  gold  imit  would  be  of  great 
service  in  preventing  or  mitigating  crises  in  international  trade. 

CuM'eiita,  Ocean.  In  treating  of  these,  tlie  most  permanent 
of  oceanic  movements,  we  shall  first  enumerate  the  more  im- 
portant C,  of  which  carefiil  charts  are  annually  prepared  by  the 
British  Admiralty,  and  then  consider  the  physical  causes  which 
give  rise  to  the  phenomena. 

According  to  Captain  DupeiTcy,  there  are  three  great  C. 
flowing  N.  out  of  the  Antarctic  Ocean.  Tiie  ^rst  flows  in  a 
generally  easterly  direction,  till  it  slrikes  the  W.  coast  of  S. 
America.  Here  it  divides,  the  one  branch  travelling  southward, 
warming  the  shores  of  Patagonia,  rounding  Cape  Horn,  and 
then  striking  E.  by  N.  towards  the  S.  of  Africa,  uniting  at  the 
same  time  with  the  saond  Austral  current.  This  combined  cur- 
rent separates  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  into  two  branches,  the 
one  flowing  eastward  to  Australia,  and  ultimately  mixing  with 
the  westerly  equatorial  C.  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  other  striking 
N.  along  the  W.  coast  of  Africa  as  far  as  the  Gulf  of  Guinea, 
where  it  is  turned  out  across  the  Atlantic  in  a  due  westerly  direc- 
tion towards  Cape  St  Roque,  in  S.  America.  Here  it  divides, 
the  one  brancli  coasting  down  by  Brazil  till  it  meets  the  fiist 


le  for  the  United  King- 
it  the  British  Government 
ipenses  of  minting,  which 
At  present  bullion  im' 


yLaOOgle 


CUR 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CUE 


Austral  current,  the  second  continuing  in  a  north-westerly  direc- 
tion towards  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  whicii  it 
enters,  and  is  then  deflected  through  the  Strait  of  Florida  across 
the  Atlantic  towards  the  NiW.  coast  of  Europe,  constituting 
the  Gulf  Stream.  The  Gulf  Stream  divides  at  the  Azores, 
one  part  still  directing  itself  towards  the  N.W.,  and  washiiig, 
through  the  agency  of  its  nnmeroua  rftmjfieations,  the  shores  of 
Spain,  Fmnce,  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  Denmark,  Norway,  and 
Spitzbergen,  the  otlier  part  turning  S.  then  W.,  thus  forming 
the  N.  eq^uatorial  current,  which  is  separated  from  the  Si  equa- 
torial by  a  narrow  reversed  current  flowing  towards  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea.  Returning  now  to  the  point  at  which  Ihejffrf  Austral 
current  breaks  on  the  W.  coast  of  S.  Amenca,  *e  may  trace  the 
course  of  the  northern  branch.  Afler  coasting  along  by  Chili 
and  Peru,  it  is  deflected  across  the  Pacific  towards  the  E.  Indies, 
constituting  the  great  S.  equatorial  current  of  the  Pacific.  It  is 
much  broken  up  by  the  numerous  islands  of  Australasia  ;  and  a 
portion  of  it  travels  S.  to  the  E.  coast  of  Australia,  where,  making 
a  detour,  it  mingles  its  waters  with  the  third  Austral  current, 
which,  after  flowing  B.  along  the  S.  coast  of  Australia,  has  now 
struck  N.E.  towards  New  Zealand.  In.  the  N.  PacifiCj  a  drift- 
aimnt  (one  due  to  the  action  of  a  prevailing  wind),  flowing  Ei 
then  S.E.  along  the  N.  American  coast,  is  reversed  off  the  Cali- 
fomian  seaboara,  and  returning  towards  China,  forms  the  N. 
eq^uatoiial  current  of  the  Pacinc,  which  is  separated  from  its 
companion  current  by  a  mtrrow  easterly-directed  current,  as  in  . 
the  case  of  the  corresponding  movements  of  the  Atlantic  A 
portion  of  the  N.  equatorial  Sows  up  to  Japan ;  hut  the  greater 
part  turns  N,  and  N.E.,  nniting  with  the  original  drift-current 
of  the  higher  latitudes,  thHs  forming  an  endless  circulating  stream 
of  water,  The  branch  of  the  second  Austral  current  which  flows 
eastward  to  Australia,  uniting  with  a  portion  of  the  third  Austral 
strtam,  turns  N.,  and  ultimately,  as  before  mentioned,  forming 
the  westerly- directed  current  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  gives  rise  to 
the  Moiamblque  curfent  between  Africa  and  Madagascar,  which  is 
continued  S.  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  but  here  it  is  stopped  by 
the  opposing  current  from  the  W.  and  turned  back  towaras  Aus- 
tralia. Of  the  C.  which  have  their  orig^  in  the  N.  Polar  seas, 
the  most  important  is  the  Labrador  current,  which,  travelling 
S.  past  Labrador  and  Newfoundland,  has  been  recognised  in  the 
Ckalleiigtr  soundings  in  a  cold  sub-current  far  S.  off  the  United 
Slates  coast.  These  are  the  principal  constant  C  There  are 
others,  however,  deserving  notice,  which  occur  espedally  in  the 
Indian  Ocean,  and  flow  one  way  in  summer  and  the  contrary 
way  in  winter.  Olhers  again  appear  and  disappear  in  such  a 
desultory  manner  that  they  are  as  yet  little  understood.  The 
most  interesting  and  important  of  these  O.  C.  to  Europe  is 
undoubtedly  the  well-known  Gulf  Stream,  whose  temperature, 
higher  as  it  is  than  that  of  the  waters  through  which  it  passes, 
must  have  a  considerable  effect  in  modifying  and  equalising  the 
climate  of  Western  Europe.  It  would  be  wrong,  however,  to  give 
this  ocean  river  the  whole  credit  for  the  great  difference  existing 
between  the  moist,  temperate  climate  of  Scotland  and  the  cold, 
bleak,  and  frigid  climate  of  Labrador.  The  prevailing  W.  and 
S.W.  winds,  laden  with  vapour  due  to  the  evaporation  of  the 
waters  of  the  Atlantic,  are  perhaps  as  important  an  element  in 
the  phenomenon.  The  Gulf  Stream  is  not  distinguishable  fiDm 
the  surrounding  water  In  our  latitudes,  hut  in  the  earlier  pffi't  of 
its  course  it  is  distinctly  marked  off,  being  of  a  deep-blue  tinge, 
and  having  at  its  margin  au  evident  ft^bank,  produced  by  the 
condensation  of  the  water  vapour  as  it  passes  from  a  warmer  to 
B  colder  atmosphere.  As  it  enters  the  Atlantic,  it  has  a  velocity 
of  five  miles  an  hour,  and  a  temperature  of  89°  Fahr. — some  12° 
warmer  than  the  adjacent  sea. 

"Ilie  great  cause  of  O.  C.  is  the  action  of  prevailing 
winds.  The  eqlatorial  trade-winds,  for  instance,  induce  upon 
the  ocean  a  surface  flow;  and  as  an  outflow  must  necessarily 
give  rise  to  an  indraught,  we  liave  here  an  explanation,  taking 
into  account  the  effect  which  the  distribution  of  land  must 
have,  of  the  generation  of  the  great  African  and  S.  American 
coasting  C,  the  occurrence  of  endless  Sb-eams  of  circulating 
water,  and  the  existence  of  the  Austral  C.  Other  causes,  of 
course,  may  be  at  Work,  yet  the  great  gsReral  cause  is  probably 
the  effect  of  aerial  C,  which  arise  from  differences  of  tempera- 
ture and  pressure.  The  rush  of  waters  out  of  the  estuary  of 
gome  large  river  may  t)e  felt  fot  hundreds  of  miles  out  to  sea  ; 
differences  of  ^linity  and  temperature  May  also  give  rise  to 
ocean  movements;  but  it  seems  impossible  that  such  causes  could 


produce  streams  so  constant  in  direction  and  rate  of  flow,  so 
river-like  in  their  comparative  narrowness,  sind  so  easy  of  recog- 
nition, as  these  O.  C.  afe.  In  I844  Captain  Maury,  oile  of  the 
first  to  show  the  importance  of  charting  the  various  C,  attempted 
to  prove  the  existence  of  a  general  polar  set  of  equatorial  water, 
accompanied  by  a  creep  of  polar  water  along  the  bottom  towards 
the  equator.  His  Reasoning  was  based  Bpon  the  lower  tempera- 
ture and  less  salinity  of  polar  as  compared  with  equatorial  water. 
But  if  the  assumption  concerning  the  salinity  be  true,  it  would 
be  physically  impossible  for  polar  water  to  descend  below 
equatorial  water,  because  of  the  necessarily  less  specific  gravity 
of  the  former.  Dr  W.  B.  Carpenter,  however,  dropping  the 
salinity  point,  has  argued  that  there  must  he  what  he  calls  a 
verticil  circulation  of  the  nature  above  mentioned,  because  the 
sinking  of  the  heavy  polar  surface- waterj  due  to  its  low  tempera- 
ture, must  be  accompanied  by  a  surface  infllix  of  a  specilically 
lighter  water,  which  therefore  must  eome  originally  from  tlie 
equator.  The  equilibriam  is  restored  by  the  flow  of  the  cold 
polar  waters  along  the  ocean-bed  towards  the  equator.  Owing 
to  the  greater  velocity  of  rotation  at  the  equator  than  at  higher 
latitud^j  this  snrface-set  must  gradually  shoot  ahead  of  the 
earth,  and  therefore  have  a  general  motion  to  the  N.E.  or  S.E, 
according  as  the  flux  is  towards  the  N.  or  S.  polo  ;  and  the 
respective  return  under-surface  flows  must  be  directed  towards 
the  S.W,  &nd  N^W.  Sufficient  investigation  has  not  yet  been 
made  to  test  the  truth  of  this  theore,  though  Professor  Wyville 
Thomson  finds  no  evidence  in  its  favour  fiom  his  recent  Chal- 
lenger expedition. 

The  best  current-charts  are  those  of  the  Admiralty,  that  in 
W.  and  A.  K.  Johnston's  Physical  Geography,  the  one  in  Stieler's 
Hand  Atlas,  and  those  in  Maury's  Pkysieal  Geography  ef  the  Seas. 

Curr'ie,  James,  H,D.,  the  biographer  and  editor  of  Bums, 
was  bom  in  Dumfriess- shire.  May  31,  1756,  studied  medicine  at 
Edinburgh,  and  settled  as  a  practitioner  in  Liverpool  in  1781. 
He  died  at  Sidmouth,  August  31,  1805.  His  edition  of  Burns 
realised  j£l400  for  the  benefit  of  the  widow.  A  professional 
work.  Medical  Reports  on  the  EffecU  of  Water  as  a  Rimedji  in 
Febrile  Disease  (1797),  showed  that  his  views  on  this  subject  were 
in  advance  of  the  time. 

Omr'yoonil),  an  iron  comb  for  currying  or  dressing  down 
horses.  It  is  made  np  of  several  noldied  plates  fastened  to  an 
iron  back  parallel  to  each  other. 

Curr'ying.    See  Leather. 

Ourr'y  Pow'der,  a  condiment  of  East  Indian  origin,  very 
extensively  employed  in  Oriental  food,  and  at  the  same  time  a 
fevourlte  stimulant  relish  in  European  countries.  It  is  a  very  eom- 
ples  preparation,  the  leading  ingredient  being  turmeric  powder, 
to  which  are  added  ground  corianders  and  black  pepper,  with 
occasionally  cardamoms,  cayenne,  cummin,  fenugrek,  &c. 

Cur'sing  and  Swearing.    See  Swearing. 


CluWres,  the  order  of  Running  birds  represented  by  the 
StrulMonida  or  ostriches,  rheas,  emeus,  and  cassowaries,  and  the 
Apterygida  or  New  Zealand  Apleryx  (q.  '».),  This  order  is  dis- 
"nguished  by  the  flat  nature  of  the  breastbone  os-  sternum,  by 


!n  all  but  Afieryx ;  the  ostriches  have  two  toes  onlvj  while  the 
others  have  three  toes.  The  claws  are  blunt  nails,  and  the 
imder  suflaces  of  the  toes  are  broadened  to  form  soles  in  running. 
The  barbs  of  the  feathers  are  unconnected  and  loose.  The  pelvis 
(as  in  (he  ostriches)  is  unusually  strong  and  firm,  and  m  these 
latter  birds  the  pubic  bones  unite  to  form  a  symphysis— 3,  con- 
formation seen  in  no  other  bird.    The  C.  correspond  to  Huxley's 


HaMtiB,  or  those  birds  with  flat  shield-like  breastbones. 
Oiii'talii.    See  Fortification. 


vLaOOgle 


CUE 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOFMDIA. 


joined  the  once-famous  'Erook  Farm  Associalion,'  and  went 
Ihrougli  that  curious  pliase  of  existence  for  eighteen  months.  He 
then  proceeded  to  Concord,  the  home  of  Emerson  and  of  the  trans- 
cendental philosophy  of  New  England,  visited  Europe  in  1846, 
and  returned  to  America  in  1850.  C.  was  then  employed  on  the 
stafrofthe^rtoK'^^  Tribune,  and  wrote  the  Z,»/hj£a/wi^(i85i); 
became  editor  of  Putnam's  Monthly ;  and  since  1E53  has  been 
a  popular  Lyceum  lecturer.  For  a  long  time  he  has  edited. 
Harpers  Weekly  and  Harfei's  Monthly.  Among  his  otlier 
works  may  be  mentioned  Patiphar  Papers,  Hawadji  in  Syria, 
and  Prue  and  I. 

Cuirtis'ia,  a  genus  of  Comaceie  (q.  v.).     C.  faglnm  of  S. 
Afiica  furnishes  the  wood  from  which  tha  natives  make  their 
jr  assagay,  shafis;  hence  the  tree  is  usually  called  Assagaj^ 
y-wood. 


Otu'tiius,  Ernst,  a  German  antiquary  and  philologer,  was 
bom  at  LUbeck,  September  2,  1814,  He  studied  philology 
at  Bonn,  GBltingen,  and  Berlin,  was  appointed  professor  at 
Berlin  in  1844,  and  also,  in  the  same  year,  tutor  to  Friedrich- 
Wilhelm,  Crown-Prince  of  Prussia.  In  1856  C,  accepted  the 
Professorship  of  Philol(«y  and  Archieology  at  Gbttingen,  a 

it  he  held  till  1865,  Trtien  he  was  removed  to  a  similar  chair 

Berlin.  He  has  been  smce  1853  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Science  at  Berlin,  and  since  1870  director-general  of  the  mu- 
is  of  the  same  city.  C.'a  principal  works  are,  Anicdcla 
Delphka  (Berl.  184.3) ;  Inia-ipmnes  Atticte  Duodedm  (BerL 
1843);  Die  Akropolis  mn  Athm  (BerL  1844);  Pdoponnssos 
(Gbtha,  1851-52),  a  scientifio  and  pictoriai  delineation  of  the 
Greek  Peninsula,  embradng  its  history,  legends,  and  monuments 
of  art )  Die  lanier  vor  den  lotdschat  Wandemng  (BerL  1855) ; 
Zur  Gsschichte  des  We^bams  hd  dm  Gri^&en  (Berl.  1855) ; 
Abkandkmg  iiber  Griak.  Quell-  und  BruHneransehri/iat  (G6tt. 
iSsg);  Gneci.  Gesckickte  (3d  ed.  BerL  1869),  translated  into 
English  by  A,  W.  Ward,  1868-70).  Other  works  of  C.  are  At- 
HsxAe  Studien  (Catt.  1863-64)  ;  GStHnger  Festreden  (Berl.  1864) ; 
SUbm  ICarten  our  TopograpAie  mm  Attica  (l868);  Die  Knimn- 
den  Figurat  der  Altgrieeh.  Kunst  (BerL  1870);  Dey  Ceha-ti- 
tag  des  Deutschen  Raisers.— QeoTg  O.,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, also  a  famous  philologer,  was  born  at  Liil^eck,  April 
16,  1 82a  He  studied  philology  at  Berlin  and  Bonn,  and  gdned 
his  degree  of  doctor  at  Berlin  in  1842,  by  an  essay  De  Noini~ 
Hum  Griecorum  Formatione,  He  was  sulffiequently  professor  at 
Dresden,  Berlin,  Prague,  and  Kiel,  till  in  l86a  he  was  ap- 
pointed Professor  of  Classical  Philology  and  joint-director  of 
the  classical  seminary  at  the  University  of  Leipsic  C.'a  princi- 
pal  works  are  Die  Sprackvergiaehuitg  in  iArim  Va-hSitnas  mr 
Clasmchm  FMlologie  (Dresd.  1845,  2d  ed.  1848) ;  Spraehvet- 
gldchende  Bdtrage  xur  Griech.  und  Lai.  GrammatiUBaX.  1846); 
Grundzil^  der  Griech.  Etymologie  (Leips.  1858-62) ;  Griech. 
Sdadgi-aminatik  (Prag.  1852,  9th  ed.  iSjo) ;  Srlaatemngen 
{Pnig.  1S64,  2d  ed.  1870) ;  Studien  ear  Griech.  und  Lai.  Crani- 
matTh  (vols.  i.-iii.  I^ps.  1868-71). 

Cvirtiua,  Uetttm  or  Metiue,  according  to  Roman  legend, 
was  a  noble  youth  who,  when  the  Forum  had  opened  in  362  B.C., 
and  the  soothsayers  had  declared  that  the  chasm  could  only  be 
filled  by  throwing  into  it  the  most  valuable  possession  of  the 
state,  exclaimed  that  the  greatest  wealth  of  the  state  was  a 
brave  citizen  in  arms,  and  mounting  his  horse  in  full  armour, 
leapt  into  the  cliasm,  which  immediately  closed  over  him. 

Ourtius,  Rufus  duintue,  a  Roman  historian,  author  of 
the  very  inaccurate  work  De  Rebus  Gestis  Alexandri  Magni,  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  lime  of  Vespasian.  The  first  two 
books  of  the  ten  of  which  the  work  originally  consisted  have  been 
lost,  and  there  are  numerous  gaps  in  the  remaining  eight.  The 
first  edition  was  printed  at  Venice,  probably  about  1471,  and 
among  the  best  modem  ones  are  those  of  J.  Miitzell  (Berl. 
1841)  and  of  Zumpt  (Bruns.  1849  ;  ad  ed.  1S64).  Investigations 
as  to  his  age  have  been  published  by  NJebuhr,  Buttmann,  and  G. 
Finder. 

the  rate  of  change  of  direc- 


Our'vatnre  of  a  plan 
11  n    h 

g    h  IV 


isth 


tha    h    C 


rdeii 


tangents  at  these  two  points  Sff.  If  the  are  be  very  small,  it 
may  be  treated  as  a  part  of  a  circle,  when  SB  may  be  taken  to 
represent  the  angle  between  the  radii  of  C.  Hence  we  have 
ultimately,  as  Si  is  taken  smaller  and  smaller,  jSfl  =  Ss;  and, 

therefore,  talcing  the  limit,  the  C.  is  ;%  ~  —,  where  )■  is  the  radius 
of  C.  The  method  commonly  employed  for  obtaining  an  expres- 
sion for  r  at  any  point,  is  to  find  the  circle  which  has  contact 
of  the  first  and  eecond  order  with  the  curve  at  that  point.  A 
curved  line  not  confined  to  one  plane  is  called  a  curve  of 
double  C. 

Ourre,  as  defined  by  Euclid,  is  a  line  no  part  of  which  is 
straight.  In  analytical  geometty,  however,  thei^  must  be  some 
definite  relation  between  its  Co-ordinates  (q.  v.)  which  is  ex- 
pressible by  an  equation.  Curves  whose  equations  contain  only 
powers  of  the  co-ordinates  are  termed  a/geiraii:;  but  if  other 
functions,  such  as  sines,  tangents,  logarithms,  enter,  they  are 
called  transcendental  curves.  Curves  are  classified  according  to 
the  number  representing  the  highest  power  of  the  co-ordinates. 
The  straight  line  is  of  the  first  order ;  the  conic  sections  are  of 
the  second,  and  are  called  quadrics  ;  the  cissoid  and  witch  are 
of  the  third  order,  or  cubics  ;  and  the  conchoid  and  cardioid  are 
of  the  fourth,  or  quartics.  For  many  curious  properties  of  some 
of  these  higher  curves,  see  Salmon's  Higher  Plane  Curves. 

Curves,  Anticlinal  and  Synclinal,  are  geological  terms 
applied  to  the  ridges  and  troaglis  of  undalating  strata.  The 
former  are  indicated  by  the  same  series  of  strata  dipping  away 
on  both  sides  from  an  imaginary  line  parallel  to  ridges,  and  the 
latter  by  the  same  series  dipping  towards  a  corresponding  line 
from  both  sides  of  it.  Thus  a  valley  may  be,  and  very  com- 
monly is,  really  an  anticlinal  curve;  and  these  C.  often  occur 
in  continual  succession  over  a  plane  area,  so  that  the  phy- 
^cal  configuratidn  of  a  district  can  be  no  indication  of  the  geo- 
logical structure.  The  imaginary  lines  about  which  the  beds 
may  be  supposed  to  be  bent  are  termed  respectively  the  anticlinal 
and  ayncliical  axes.     Werf  perfect  examples  of  these  C.  are  found 

Cur'wen,  the  Rev.  John,  founder  of  the  Tome  Sol  fa 
method  of  teaching  music,  was  bom  at  Heckmondwike,  York- 
shire, in  1816,  and  educated  at  Coward  College  and  University 
College,  London.  He  became  an  Independent  minister  ui  183S, 
and  a  few  years  afterwards  his  attention  was  called  to  the  sub- 
ject of  teaching  children  music  in  connection  with  his  Sunday- 
school.  In  1841  he  vi^ted  Miss  Glover's  school  at  Norwich, 
and  afterwards  tried  her  system  with  some  success.  His  own 
notation  and  system  (see  ToNic  Sol-Fa  System)  tie  developed 
gradually  from  this  time,  without  any  idea  at  first  of  the  re- 
volution it  would  effect  in  the  musical  edncation  of  Ihe  country. 
C.  became  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church  at  Plaistow, 
Essex,  in  1844,  and  retained  his  chaise  until  failing  health  and 
the  growing  cares  of  his  musical  work,  which  he  felt  it  his  duty 
to  carry  on,  compelled  him  to  I'esign  it  in  1865.  He  is  now 
(1876)  President  of  the  Tonic  Sol-fa  College,  an  institution 
founded  by  him  in  1862  to  grant  certificates  of  proficiency  m 
music  and  promote  musical  culture.  C.  devotes  most  ol  his  time 
to  the  duties  of  this  office,  to  the  publication  of  the  Tome  Sol  fa 
Reporter,  and  to  spreading  the  knowledge  and  love  of  music 
among  the  people. 

His  works  include  a  Grammar  t>/  Vocal  Music,  a  number  of 
courses  of  lessons  and  exercises  in  choral  singing  adapted  to 
different  classes,  a  book  on  analytical  harmony,  ffotii  to  Ohsei've 
Harmany,  Commonplaces  of  Music,  Lectures  on  Psalmody,  &c. 

OorzolEt  (anc.  Corcyra  Nigra,  from  its  dark  pine  forests; 
Slav.  Karkar),  a  beautiful  island  in  the  Adriatic,  off  the  coast 
of  Dalmatia.  It  is  25  miles  long,  with  an  average  breadth  of  4 
miles  ;  area,  68  sq.  miles  ;  pop.  6500,  many  of  whom  are  engaged 
in  the  eoast-Ssheries.  C.  is  still  for  the  most  part  covered  with 
wood,  the  pine  attaining  a  great  size  and  yielding  excellent  ship- 
timber.  There  is  a  town  of  the  same  name  in  the  N.E.  comer 
of  the  island  with  a  pop.  of  Moa 

Ous'oos.     See  Lemon-Gkass. 

OuBOuta'cesB,  the  Dodder  order,  a  natural  order  of  corolli- 
floral  Dicotyledons,  considered  by  some  as  a  sub-order  of  Con^ 
vohiulacea,  consisting  of  leafless  parasitic  climbing  plants.  There 
are  about  fifty  species,  included  under  four  genera,  chiefly  nati 


yLaOOgle 


THE.  CLOSE  ENCYCLGE^mA. 


CUT 


of  temperate  climates.  They  pOSsess  acrid  and  purgative  pro- 
perties, and  are  often  destructive  to  flax,  clover,  and  other  crops 
round  Which  they  chmb.  After  the  suckers  get  attached  to  the 
■  n  of  the  plant  on  which  it  is  climbing,  the  dodder  separates 
''  n  with  the  soil.     See  Dodder. 


Ousll'ftt  Dove,     See  Pegeon. 

Cusp  (Lat.  cuspis,  'a  point'),  in  geometry,  is  a  stationary 
point  of  a  curve,  at  which  there  are  two  branches  with  a  common 
tangent.  When  the  branches  are  both  on  the  same  side  of  the 
tangent,  the  C.  is  ramphoid ;  when  on  opposite  sides,  seratnid. 

Cuaa'o,  or  Eouss'o,  the  flowers  and  tops  of  Brayera  anlhel- 
mintica,  a  tree  about  20  feet  high,  a  native  of  Abyssinia.  It 
belongs  to  the  Rosaces.  C.  is  used  in  medicine  in  doses  of  a 
quarter  to  half  an  ounce,  given  as  an  infusion  to  destroy  tape- 
worms. It  was  introduced  into  Europe  about  the  middle  of  the 
present  centucy. 

Cus'tard  (CyiuT.  eivstard,  from  caws,  'cheese'  or  'curd;' 
comp.  Lat,  caseus),  a  kind  of  pudding  prepared  from  milk  and  eg^ 
well  whipped  up  together,  and  allowed  to  set  by  the  application  of 
heat.  The  dish  is  flavoured  by  the  addition  of  aromatic  essences, 
such  as  lemon-peel,  orange-peel,  almond,  nutmegs,  &c.  It  is 
highly  digestible  and  nutritious,  and  as  it  takes  the  most  delicate 
flavours,  it  can.  be  rendered  exceedingly  pleasant. 

Gustald-Apple,  the  name  given  to  the  fruits  of  various 
species  aiAnona,  S.  American  and  W.  Indian  shrubs  and  trees, 
t«)es  of  the  order  Ananacea,  Several  are  cultivated  for  the  sake 
of  their  fruits.  The  sour-sop  of  the  W.  Indies,  which  often 
weighs  a  lbs.,  and  has  an  agreeable  acidulous  flavour,  is  the 
fruit  of  A.  murkata.  The  sweet-sop  {A.  squamosa')  is  a  native 
of  the  Malay  Islands,  but  is  now  extensively  cultivated  in  the 
W.  Indies.  Its  luscious  pulp  is  esteemed  by  Some  tastes,  and 
the  seeds  contain  an  acrid  principle  fatal  to  insects,  on  which 
account  the  natives  of  India  use  them  powdered  and  mixed 
with  the  flour  of  the  gram  (CUer  arittinum)  as  a  wash  for  the 
hair  (Royle).  The  Merimoyer  (A.  CAertmolia)  is  considered 
by  the  Peruvians  as  the  most  delicious  fruit  in  the  world.  The 
common  C.-A,,  or  bullock's  heart  (^A,  reticulata),  is  a  native 
of  the  W.  Indies,  but  is  cultivated  in  the  E.  Indies  and  other 
tropical  countries  ;  it  is  not  so  much  valaed,  as  the  other  fruits  of 
the  genuB,  The  C.-A.  is  also  valued  for  its  fragrant  leaves 
and  aromatic  woods.  The  wood  of  the  alligator-apple  (A.  paliis- 
liis)  is  used  in  place  of  cork ;  the  fruit  has  a  pleasant  taste, 
but  is  dangerous  to  eat  on  account  of  its  narcotic  properties. 
The  N.  American  C.-A.  is  Asimina  triloba. 

Ctis'tody,    See  Imprisonment, 

Cus'tom.  In  law,  the  word  is  applied  to  general  or  local 
usage.  In  the  former  case  it  falls  to  be  determined  by  a  judge, 
in  the  latter  by  a  jury.  When  the  right  of  an  individual  arises 
from  usage,  it  is  not  called  C,  but  Prescription  (q.  v.).  Uni- 
form C,  has  almost  the  same  legal  effect  as  statute.  See  Com- 
mon Law. 

Oua'tomary  Froeliold  is,  in  English  law,  a  kind  of  tenure 
of  estate  practically  the  same  as  Copyhold  (q.  v.). 

Customs  Duties  are  duties  levied  on  commodities  exported 
or  imported.  They  were  first  authorised  by  statute  in  the  3d 
Edward  L,  and  the  mode  long  employed  in  their  collection  was 
to  fix  a  certain  rate  of  vaJue  on  each  kind  of  merchandise,  and 
io  grant  on  these  rates  a  subsidy,  generally  of  is.  per  £\  of 
value  in  the  book  of  rates.  The  present  book  of  rates  was 
formed  in  1692,  and  in  connection  with  official  valuation  has 
been  useful  In  denoting  the  comparative  quantities  of  commodi- 
ties passing  through  the  customs,  but  not  their  real  or  dalared 
value.  Tlie  Customs'  Consolidation  Act  of  1853  is  a  complete 
embodiment  of  the  law  regarding  the  customs.  Importation  of 
the  following  articles  is  prohibit^  under  penalty  of  forfeiture  or 
destruction  of  the  commodity  :— Copyright  books,  extracts  or 
essences  of  cofl^ee,  chicory,  tea,  or  tobacco,  immoral  books,  prints, 
and  similar  articles. 

Persons  may  be  searched,  and  severe  penalties  are  enacted 
against  any  endeavour  to  contravene  or  evade  the  law.  Offer- 
ing to  bribe  or  revmrd  a  customhouse  officer  is  prohibited  under 
H  penally  of  £200. 

The  British  revenue  for  the  year  ending  31st  March  1873 


was  ji'76,608,770,  of  which  there  was  derived  from  customs 
^21,033,000, 

Legislation  regarding  customs  has  various  and  formidable 
difficulties  to  contend  with.  In  the  first  place,  while  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  Public  Revenue  (q.  v.)  make  it  impossible  to  dis- 
pense with  customs,  the  principles  of  Free  Trade  (q.  v.)  must,  in 
imposing  them,  be  as  litue  contravened  as  is  consistent  with  that 
exigence  Then  the  duty  must  not  be  raised  to  a  height  jwhicU 
will  discourage  lawful  importation,  and  make  smuggling  re- 
munerative To  do  this  is  a  double  evil^it  causes  loss  to  the 
revenue,  and  demoralises  the  people.      See  Bonded  Ware- 

Oua  tOrallotiae  is  the  office  at  a  seaport— or  abroad  at  a 
frontier  or  seaport — where  the  Customs  Duties  (q,  v.)  are  levied. 
The  collection  and  management  of  the  customs  of  the  United 
Kingdom  and  of  the  Uritish  possessions  abroad  are  under  the 
control  of  a  board  of  commissioners.  They  are  appointed  by 
the  crown,  and  are  under  llle  authority  of  the  Lords  of  tlie 

Oua'tos  ftotiilo'nmi,  the  keeper  of  the  rolls  or  records  of  the 
county  in  England.    The  office  does  not  now  exist  in  Scotland. 

Oua'trin.    See  KifsTKiN, 

Cutoh.     See  KuTCH. 

CutllTjert,  a  monk  of  Jarrow,  who  wrote  the  letter  containing 
a  graphic  and  touching  account  of  the  death  of  the  Venerable 
Bede.  C.  had  been  a  disciple  of  Bede,  and  became  afterwards 
Abbot  of  Jarrow,  His  letter  is  printed  in  Stevenson's  edition  of 
the  Historia  EccUsiastica  of  Bede  (Loud.  1838).  The  Engli  " 
reader  wdll  find  it  in  Bohn's  translation,  edited  by  Dr  Giles, 

Cuthbeirt  of  Canterbtiry,  a  Mercian  bishop,  obtained  the 
see  of  Hereford  in  736,  became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
in  740,  and  died  in  75S.  He  is  memorable  as  the  author  of  a 
letter  to  St  Boniface  (q.  v.)  dealing  with  Church  corruptions, 
which  is  reprinted  in  Hussey's  edition  of  Eede's  Hisimia  Eicle- 
siastka  (Oxon.  1846). 

Outibert,  St,  of  Durham,  the  Apostle  ofNorthumbria,  was 
bom  about  635.  He  was  a  native  of  Bemieia,  that  district  lying 
between  the  Tweed  and  Tees,  and  passed  his  boyhood  at  the  little 
lowland  village  of  Wrangholm,  on  the  southern  edge  of  the 
Lammermoors.  The  early  years  of  C  gave  his  character  a  dis- 
tinctive bent.  He  was  a  sliepherd — a  seer  of  visions,  as  shep- 
herds have  been  in  aU  ages.  As  he  tended  his  flock  by  night, 
the  heavens  seemed  to  open  above  him,  and  a  crowd  of  bright 
angels  winged  upwards,  bearing  the  soul  of  St  Aidan  to  glory. 
This  wonder  befell  him  in  his  fifteenth  year ;  a  nature  like  his, 
fervid  and  ample,  was  impressed  profoundly,  and  he  must  become 
a  monk,  C.  accordingly  entered  the  monastery  of  Melrose,  an 
offshoot  from  the  older  house  at  Lindisfarne.  The  youth,  how- 
ever, was  no  drfeaming  visionary,  but  an  earnest  worker.  The 
semi-heathen  people  that  surrounded  him  woke  his  missionary 
ardour,  and  he  mmistered  for  years  among  the  Northumbrians 
with  equal  patience  and  zeal.  Leaving  Melrose,  he  shifted 
his  sphere  of  labour  southward.  The  Council  of  Whitby,  by 
its  decision  that  Roman  ecclesiastical  rule  should  be  adopted 
by  the  English  Church,  caused  bitter  dissensions  in  the  reli- 
gious houses.  Wearied  with  these  strifes,  C,  who  had  become 
Prior  of  Lindisfarne,  withdrew  in  676  to  a  barren  islet  off  the 
Northumbrian  coast.  Building  with  his  own  hands  a  rude  hut 
of  turf  and  driftwood,  he  wished  to  end  his  days  as  a  hermit  on 
this  lonely  rock.  His  former  career  had  been  one  of  active 
effort  in  spreading  his  faith,  and  now  he  felt  that  his  closing 
span  would  best  be  given  up  to  meditation  and  prayer.  But  the 
fame  of  his  sanctiy  did  not  allow  C.'s  reduse  life  to  continue. 
Ecgfrith,  king  of  the  Northumbrian  English,  was  an  ambitious 
monarch,  warrmg  against  the  Pictish  Britons  of  the  N.  The 
presence  in  his  dominion  of  a  man  so  saintly  as  C.  would  cer- 
tainly bring  success,  therefore  he  besought  him  to  return.  Bishop 
Trumwine,  whom  the  Picts  bad  driven  from  his  see,  added  his  en- 
treaties. The  venerable  saint  consented  reluctantly,  and  in  684 
again  became  Bishop  of  Lindisfarne,  Next  year  King  Ecgfrith 
marched  against  the  Picts,  and  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Nech- 
tansmere.  C.  was  said  to  have  foreseen  and  foretold  the  dis- 
aster. He  resigned  his  bishopric  in  687,  and  retired  to  the 
island  where  he  had  lived  as  an  anchorite.  There  he  died  two 
months  after.  A  monk  of  Lindisfarne  saw  from  the  «'atch-toi 
309 


vLaOOgle 


CUT 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


of  liis  monastery  a  light  on  the  lonely  islet  of  St  C.,  which  was  the 
appointed  signal  that  the  old  man  was  no  more.  His  remains 
were  taken  to  Lindisfarne,  and  being  found  incorrupt  at  the  end 
of  eleven  years,  the  belief  arose  that  so  they  would  continue. 
Danish  attacks  forced  the  monks  to  bear  their  precious  relic 
inland,  and  in  945  it  was  taken  to  Durham,  whereit  was  thought 
to  work  many  miracles.  After  the  Reformation  the  coffin  was 
buried  under  the  cathedral  pavement,  and  remained  there  till 
1827,  when  it  was  opened,  and  the  bones  of  the  saint  were  found. 

The  diaracter  of  St  C.  resembles  strongly  that  of  Columba, 
only  that  the  former  was  more  ot  an  ascetic.  Both  were  evan- 
gelists of  an  eminently  practical  nature ;  ndther  was  distinguished 
for  scholarship  or  erudition.  St  C.  wag  a  spiritual  enthusiast, 
and  yet  aman  of  strong,  firm  mind.  The  union  of  these  qualities 
gave  him  his  great  influence  over  his  countrymen.  The  reverence 
bestowed  on  him  in  lifetime  lasted  for  generations  after  he  was 
gone.  The  Church  held  as  a  festival  the  annirersary  of  his 
death,  and  a  cloth  wliich  he  was  said  to  have  used  in  celebrating 
mass  was  carried  as  a  standard  by  English  armies.  St  Edmund, 
St  Thomas-&-Becket,  and  St  C,  rank  together  as  the  three  fore- 
most saints  of  the  mediseval  English  Church. 

None  of  the  early  English  ecclesiastics  have  llad  so  milch  light 
thrown  upon  their  lives,  both  by  contemporary  records  and  by  la  ter 
investigation,  as  St  C.  Bede  has  left  an  account  of  him  both  in 
verse  Odber  de  Mifaailis  SamH  CutkberchU Efiscofi)  and  in  prose 
(Liber  ds  Vita  a  MiracuUs  SancH  Cutkbarhti  LinSsfamensa 
Episcofi).  There  is  also  a  HiUcrta  Trantlattonu  SamH  Cuth^ 
berii  preserved  in  the  Acta  Sanclorunt,  voL  iih,  and  two  works, 
one  a  Life  the  other  an  account  of  his  mu^es,  by  Reginald  rf 
Durham.  More  recent  biographies  are  those  of  Raine  {SI  C, 
Durh.  1828)  and  of  Eyre  {History  sf  St  C,  Lond.  1849).  An 
interesting  slf  etch  of  StCi  is  given  in  Green's  J^iuri  History  of  the. 
EngHsh  People  (1875). 

Ou'tiole{Lat.i™ft«i/ii,diffl.  of  (OT/&, 'the  skin'),  the  epidennis 
or  uppermost  layer  of  the  skin.  It  is  composed  ot  layers  of 
epidermic  cells,  which  become  more  and  more  flattened  from  the 
surface  of  the  true  skin  outwards,  until  on  the  surface  they  form 
hard  dry  scales.    See  SkIH. 

Cutia  Vera,  the  true  skin,  covered  by  the  epidermis,  and 
.  resting  on  close  connective  tissue,  in  the  meshes  of  which  there 
are  often  numerous  fat  cells.     See  Skin. 

Ctitlass  (Fr,  coutdas.  Old  Fr.  coulfeJas,  from  Lat.  euUeUus, 
dim.  of  cutter,  'a  knife'),  a  broadsword  used  by  sailors  in  hand- 
to-hand  encounters,  It  is  about  three  feet  long,  is  very  heavy, 
and  has  only  one  catting  edge. 

Cutlery  (Fr.  coutellerie,  from  couteau;  Old  Fr.  coutel  and 
collet ;  Lat.  cullcllus,  dim.  of  cu/iiw,  'a  knife'),  a  terra  under  which 
is  included  cutting  uistmments  such  as  pocket  and  table  knives, 
forks,  scissors,  razors,  scythes,  sickles,  and  machine  knives  gene- 
rally. The  cutting  instrument  which  were  used  by  the  primitive 
inhabitants  of  the  world,  before  metalluisical  operations  were 
understood,  consisted  of  sharp-edged  fishes  of  flint  or  otlier 
hard  stone,  which  they  fashioned  with  wonderful  neatness. 
Remains  of  such  flint-knives  are  very  abundant.     Cutting  im- 

Elements  of  iron  or  steel  were  not  febricated  till  alter  a  kind  of 
ronie  had  been  long  used  for  the  making  of  knives  and  all 
other  metallic  implements.  From  very  remote  times  the  manu- 
facture of  C.  has  been  identified  with  the  town  of  Sheffield,  and 
it  to  the  present  day  stands  at  the  head  of  all  centres  of  this 
industry.  Its  fame  was  widespread  even  m  tlie  days  of  Chaucer, 
who  mentions  its  peculiar  manufacture — 

'A  Shefelde  tliwitde  bare  he  in  hla  ho^e,' 
The  processes  through  which  a  piece  of  C.,  such  as,  for 
example,  a  razor,  has  to  pass,  are  very  numerous,  when  we  con- 
sider the  low  price  at  which  such  articles  are  sold,  A  raior, 
selling  with  case  complete  for  one  shilling,  has  to  undergo  the 
following  series  of  operations ; — A  piece  of  rolled  cast-steel 
sufPcient  for  the  blade  is  cut  off  a  rodl  It  is  heated  and  ham- 
mered into  the  rough  form  of  the  razor,  in  which  state  it  is 
called  '  the  mould.'  The  '  tang '  is  next  hammered  into  shape, 
and  a  hole  pierced  in  it  for  riveting  the  blade  into  the  scales. 
It  is  thereafter  'smithed' — j'.iv,  heated  and  hammered — into 
proper  shape,  and  the  name  and  mark  of  the  maker  is  stamped 
on  it.  Next  the  blade  is  hardened  by  heating  and  sudden 
plunging  into  cold  water;  it  is  ground  at  the  tip,  the  baclt  is 
rounded,  the  tang  finished  with  the  file,  and  a  file-surface 
3:0 


t  d  by  f 


given  to  the  inside  of  the  tang.      It  is  then  ground  on  a  grind- 
stone, and  polished   on  a  wheel   covered  with  buff  leather, 
when  it  is  ready  for  putting  into  the  scales.    The  scales  of 
cheap  razors  are  made  of  horn-lips,  which  are  first  shaved  and 
scraped,  and  nest  moulded  into  shape  by  heat  and  pressure  in 
irioulds  of  the  proper  form.    These  are  thereafter  polished  on  the 
buffing'wheel ;  the  blade  is  riveted  in,  and  the  razor  is  thus  com- 
plete.   Table-knives  go  through  an  analogous  series  of  processes, 
but  there  are  many  different  ways  of  forming  and  fastening  the 
tang  into  the  handles,     In  the  making  of  steel  forks,  a  'web'  of 
steel  is  beaten  out  of  tlie  required  breadth  and  thickness,  and  by 
a  powerful  stamping-press  the  prongs  are  stamped  in  this  web. 
"The  piece  is  then  annealed  and  the  prongs  cut  out  of  the  stamped 
web.      After  grinding  and  pointing,  the  prongs  are  opened  out, 
filed,  and  smoothed.     They  are  then  set  int    th      p    p     p 
tion,  hardened,  ground  on  a  dry  stone,  glazed        d  b         1    d    n 
a  buffing-wheel,  when  they  are  ready  for  ha  dl   g  th       m 
knives.     The  tang  in  forks  and  knives  is  us    lly  m  d      f      n 
which  is  welded  on  to  the  steel  at  an  early  stag     £  th    p 
Of  recent  yeats  machinery  has  been  adapted  t    th         uld   g    f 
knives,  &c.,  and  in  such  cases  steel  is  used  for  th   t    g  as  w  " 
as  the  blade,     The  dry  grinding   of  C.  1    a  p      1     ly 
healthy  occupation,  owing  to  the  particles    f    teel      d     1 
settling  on  the  lungs  and  oiig^nattng  'grinde     asti  m        M 
means  have  been  tried  to  obviate  this  great    vil      ft      m 
against  the  will  of  the  grinders,  who  pref       h    t   lif    a: 
high  pay  to  good  health  and  faif  wages,    Th   m    1    fti       tp 
ventive  has  been  found  to  be  a  powerful  blast 
drawing  away  the  minute  particles  by  a  chan    1  h 
ing  over  each  grindstone     Even  with  thi  I 

with  wet  grinding  itself,  the  occupation  of  gr   d 
healthy,  and  the  average  duration  of  their  1         is 
that  of  men  employed  in  ofdinaiy  healthy  trades. 

Law  as  /n  Cuttety.—Bj  59  Geo.  III.  c  7  a 
manufactured  with  a  hammer  may  be  stamped  tl  th  /^  / 
a  hammer,  any  time  after  the  forging,  and  pievious  lo  the  grind 
ing  or  polishing.  Using  such  device  on  C.  not  made  with  the 
hammer  subjects  it  to  forfeiture,  and  any  one  having  it  is  liable 
to  a  penalty  of^S.  Any  one  stamping  on  C.  the  word  London 
or  London  ntade,  or  words  of  similar  import,  unless  the  article  is 
made  in  London  or  within  20  miles  of  it,  or  having  an  article  so 
stamped,  is  liable  to  a  penally  of  £io,  with  forfeiture  of  the 

■  Outtack'  ('royal  residence'),  the  capital  of  a; 
trict  of  the  same  name,  Orissa  division,  province  of  Bengal, 
India,  at  the  beginning  of  the  Mahanadi  delta,  230  miles 
S.W.  of  Calcutta.  It  has  little  trade,  its  natural  commercial 
advantages  being  neutralised  by  the  periodic  flooding  or  the 
river,  to  guard  against  which  it  is  banked  round.  C.  is 
connected  with  Calcutta  by  an  irrigation  canal.  Pop,  (1871) 
50,878.  The  district  is  subject  to  the  same  vicissitudes  as  the 
town,  has  little  trade,  but  is  said  to  contain  iron  ore.  Area, 
3178  sq.  miles  ;  pop.  (1871)  1,494,784.  The  other  chief  towns 
are  Jajpore  (10,753)  and  Kindrapara  (10,682). 

Cutt'er  (so  called  from  its  cutting  the 
motion)  is  a  small  sailing  vessel  having 
like  a  Sloop  (q.  v.).  In 
the  navy,  a  C.  is  a  large 
Clinker-built  (q.  v.)  boat, 
of  which  every  man-of- 
war  has  at  least  two. 

Cutt'ings  are  port  ons 
of  the  branches  of  trees 
and  shrubs  inse  ted  into 
the  ground,  and  wh  oh 
by  sending  forth  adventi 
tious  Roots  (q  V  )  from 
the  stem,  enable  the  cut 
ting  to  lake  root  m  the 
ground,  and  produce  a 
tree  or  shrub  die  same  as 
that  from  which  it  was 
taken.  It  is  essential  to  '. 
success  that  a  bud  should 

be  left  on  the  cutting,  and  ^"""■ 

that  the  bark  should  not  be  stripped  off  in  pushing  it 


yLaOogle 


CUT 


THE  aiOBE  ENCYCLOFMDIA. 


OTA 


Outt'leflsh,  tlie  name  applied  popularly  to  any  member  of  the 
Molluscan  pl^ss  dphalofoda  {q,  v. ),  in  which  the  body  is  enclosed 
in  a  muscular  mantle-sac,  the  gilla  being 
two  or  four  in  number,  and  the  effete  water 
of  resj  iration  being  ejected  by  sn  infundi- 
\  #«/am"or'funnel,'  Cuttlefishes  are  divided 
into  the  fouc-gilled,  or  Tetra&ranchintf,  and 
JhbrincMate,  or  two-gilied  forms.    Of  the 
four  gilled  forms,  the  Pearly  Nautilas(^3H- 
tilus  PampiliHs),  with  its  numerous  arms, 
destitute  of  suclcers,  its  external  many- 
chambered  shell,  and  its  want  of  an  inkv 
sac  IS  the  only  living  example.   The  latter 
group  includes  all  other  living  cnttlefishes 
together  with  the  extmct  Belemnites  (q.  v.). 
1   The  ^iiBff<OBitat(q,v.)  and  allied  forms  are 
1  entinct  cuttlefishes  belonging  to  the  Tetra- 
I  branchiate  section.     Gigantic  cuttlefishes 
'  1  ave  been  met  with  of  late  off  the  Irish  and 
N  American  coast.  The  sheE  in  two-gilled 
cuttlefishes  is  inteme.1,  and  exists  as  the 
'  pen   or  '  cuttle-bone.'    In  the  Argonaut 
^"  "™  or  paper-nautilus  (A.  argo),  the  shell  is 

external  but  it  is  not  a  true  shell,  being  sBcreted  by  two  of  the 
arms,  and  not  by  tl  e  Mantle  (q.  v.),  The  two-gilled  pittlefishes 
are  able  to  seize  prey  by  means  of  the  nvimeroua  acelabiila  or 
sucliers  with  wh  ch  their  arms  are  provided. 

Gavier  Georges  Chretien  Lipoid  Dagobert, was  born 
a.t  Montbel  ard  23d  Augu  t  1769,  where  his  father  had  retired 
afler  serving  with  distmction  m  the  French  army  of  the  Seven 
Years'  War.  His  taste  for  natural  history  is  Said  to  have  been 
first  exdted  by  a  copy  of  Buffon,  the  illustrations  of  which  he 
was  copying.  By  the  kindness  of  the  WUrtemberg  family  he 
obtained  a  tmiversity  education  at  Stuttgart,  where  he  studied 
natural  sdenoe  in  the  Cama-alwisserwhaft,  at  Administrative 
Science  Department  of  the  Academia  Carolina,  An  engagement 
as  tutor  in  a  noble  French  family  living  on  the  coast  of  Nor- 
mandy, where  he  remained  from  1788  to  1794,  gave  C,  an 
opportunity  for  personal  observation  of  marine  animals,  which 
led  him  to  the  systematic  study  of  anatomy,  A  correspondence 
with  Geoffrey  St  Hilaire  drew  C.  to  Paris,  where  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Such  men  as  Lamargk,  Jussieu,  &c.,  and  was 
appointed  a  member  of  the  Commission  of  Arts  and  Professor 
at  the  Central  School  of  the  Pantb^n,  From  this  he  became 
Professor  of  Comparative  Anatomy  at  the  Museum,  then  at  the 
College  de  France,  then  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  He  also 
lectured  at  the  Athenseum'.  C.  and  St  Hilaire  produced  to^ 
gether  the  celebrated  Mimciris  sitr  une  Nmtvdle  Division  dfs 
Mammifires,  and  several  others,  in  which  the  Linn^au  classes 
of  insula  and  i/erma  were  divided  into  molluscs,  insects,  vermes, 
echmoderms,  and  zoophytes ;  molluscs  being  subdivided  into 
cephalopods,  gasteropijds,  and  acephala,  C.'s  celebrated  Legons 
iAnalomU  Cetiipar/e,  delivered  at  tlie  Museum,  contain  the 
theory  of  a  rational  harmony  between  different  organs  and  their 
functions,  leading  to  a  division  into  four  great  types,  which  was 
afterwards  fully  developed  in  the  S^ne  Atmaal  ^trihui  dapris 
ion  OrganisaHon,  pubHshed  in  1816,  Special  lines  of  inquiry 
were  directed  to  the  systems  of  digestion  and  circulation  in  mol- 
luscs, and  to  fossil  remains  generally.  Especially  in  the  latter 
inquiry  his  theory  of  rational  harmonies  was  of  use  in  filhngnp  the 
connections  between  isolated  remains,  as  jn  his  determination 
of  the  species  of  elephants  from  observation  of  the  teeth  and  lower 
jaw  and  of  a  drawmg  of  the  skulls  ;  also  in  his  classification  of 
the  fossil  remains  of  Montmartre,  Important  services  were  thus 
rendered  to  palieontology  and  geoltwy,  C  and  Brongniart  making 
a  jo'  t  stud  f  the  g  I  gical  conditions  of  animal  life,  which 
h        m  ed   p  n  hi  Secherches  sur  les  Ossemim  FossUes 

S  wh   h  b    £>!   (B      sur  les  RholuHons  du  Globe  is  an 

ntr  d  n,  Th  R  g  Animal  was  intended  to  furnish  not 
nly  h  es  o       till       assification,  but  to  apply  principles 

BO  tab  d  o  a  »  g  groups  1  the  latter  design  was 
p      y  d         IB  ]i    H   aire  NaiureUi  des  Poissani,  a  work 

wh   h  C   w  IS   d  by  Valenciennes,  and  in  which  above 

5000    p  fis     a      d  scribed.     In  the  meantime  public 

rs  fl      et  p  n  h  m      He  became  perpetual  secretary 

h     D     artment  of  Nalural  Sciences,  an 

1I        es  ng  the  well-linown  French  l-ycia 


or  public  schools  ;  he  drew  up  the  report  of  180S  upon  Natural 
Sciences ;  he  was  sent  on  important  educational  missions  to 
Italy,  Holland,  and  the  Hanseatic  towns.  Before  the  abdication 
of  Napoleon  be  was  made  a  councillor  of  state,  and  under  the 
Restoration  monarchies  he  held  high  posts  in  the  bureaux  of 
Education  and  Public  Worship,  and  as  President  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  the  Interior  for  the  last  thirteen  years  of  his  life  he 
effected  many  useful  reforms  in  the  teaching  institutions  of  France^ 
After  the  Revolution  of  July  he  was  made  a  peer.  He  died  13th 
May  1833.  In  poUtics  C,  occupied  the  position  of  a  moderate 
Liberal.  The  closing  years  of  his  Ijfe  were  marked  by  a  keen 
controversy  with  St  Hilaire,  who  maintained  that  real  analogies 
existed  even  between  molluscs  and  vertebrates,  and  also  that 
species  were  variable.  See  Lee's  Menmres  of  Paron  C.  (Lond. 
1833),  and  Pasquet's  Slogede  C.  [Par.  1833). 

OtixliaVeii,  or  Eirxhaveii,  a  town  of  N.  Germany,  in  the 
amt  of  Rilzebiitlel,  belonging  to  Hamburg,  is  situated  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Elbe,  on  its  left  bank,  65  miles  N,W.  of  Hamburg 
by  railway.  It  has  a  good  harbour,  a  lighthouse,  bathing  estab- 
lishments, and  is  the  port  from  which  the  Hamburg  steamers 
ply  in  winter  when  the  Elbe  is  frozen  over.  Pop,  (1872)  3810, 
In  and  near  C.  are  iive  strong  forts, 

OuyaTja,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Matto  Grasso,  Brazil, 
on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  a  tributary  of  the  Paraguay,  73  a 
naval  and  military  arsenal,  has  several  churches,  an  hospital,  a 
theological  school,  S:c,,  and  some  export  trade  in  gold,  diamonds, 
ipecacuanha,  and  hides.    Pop.  7000. 

ChTP  or  Kuyp,  Albert,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
painters  of  the  Dutch  school,  the  son  of  Jacob  or  'Old'  G,  a 
landscape  and  portrait  painter,  was  bom  at  Dordrecht  in  1605. 
He  painted  landscapes  with  cattje,  moonlights,  wmter  pieces, 
canal  Scenes,  &c.,  and  all  of  them  with  splendid  success.  De  ■ 
Waagen  says  of  him — 'In  elevation  of  conception,  knowledge 
of  aeria!  perspective,  with  the  greatest  glow  and  warmth  of  the 
serene  atmosphere,  C.  stands  unrivalled,  and  may  justly  be  called 
the  Dutch  Claude,'  It  is  easy  to  dislingnish  in  his  pictures  the 
time  of  day  intended  to  be  represented.  The  most  ardent  col- 
lectors of  examples  of  C,  have  been  Englishmen,  and  the  majority 
of  his  worlis — which  within  the  last  century  have  wonderfully 
increased  in  valne^-are  in  English  public  and  private  collections. 
The  precise  date  of  his  death,  whii^  took  place  after  1683,  is  un- 
knovm.-^BeiJamiii  0„  his  naphew,  painted  historical  genre 
pictures  with  much  power. 

Ouz'OO  (the  'navel 'or  'centre'),  the  second  town  of  Peru, 
formerly  the  seat  of  the  Incas  and  capital  of  their  empire,  situated 
amid  magnificent  scenery  in  the  valley  of  a  lofly  tableland,  at 
the  height  of  about  12,000  feet  above  sea-level,  and  at  the  dis- 
tance  of  over  400  miles  E.S.E.  of  Lima.  Its  valley  is  watered 
by  the  Guatanay,  one  of  the  extreme  head-waters  of  the  Amazon. 
Tlie  town,  which  is  regular,  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  of  a  so-called 
university  and  several  schools,  a  museum  founded  in  1848,  and 
two  hospitals.  Among  the  remains  of  the  old  Peruvian  empire 
are  the  ruined  walls  of  the  temple  of  the  sun  and  the  ruins  of  the 
palace  of  the  Incas  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  of  Sacsahuaman,  Pop. 
25,000,  who  produce  excellent  goldsmith's  and  lace  work,  carv- 
ings, and  cotton  and  woollen  cloth.  Sugar-refining,  soap-maldng, 
&C.,  are  oarried  on.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  employment,  and 
the  country  around  is  as  fertile  as  it  is  beautiftil.  The  dimate 
is  agreeable  and  healthy.  For  an  account  of  the  wealth  and 
magiiificence  of  ancient  C,  see  Prescott's  Conquest  of  Peru,  an 
authority,  however,  which  certain  recent  writers  have  ventured 
to  consider  not  quite  trustworthy. 

Cy'amne  BalEena'ruin.     See  Whal&Louse. 

Oyan'ic  Acid,  a  liquid  substance  best  obtained  by  distilling 
its  polymer,  Cyanuric  Acid  (g.  v.).  C  A.  has  a  very  pungent 
smell,  recalling  that  of  acetic  acid,  and  exercises  a  corrosive 
action  on  the  skin.  -When  kept  for  a  short  time,  it  suddenly 
becomes  a  white  ctystalline  mass  of  cyamelide.  C.  A.  is  a  mono- 
basic add,  having  the  composition  expressed  by  the  formula 
CN(OH),  and  forms  crystalSne  salts  in  which  its  hydrogen  is 
repkced  by  metals.  When  its  vapour  comes  in  contact  with  dry 
ammonia  gas,  a  white  crystalline  powder,  the  cyanate  of  am- 
moninin,  is  formed,  which  when  boiled  with  water  suffers  a 
molecular  change,  and  becomes  converted  into  Urea  (q.  v.). 


y  Google 


-* 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Cynic 


Cyamg 


i    ^ 


s  gaseous  at  ordinary  temperatures,  but  may  be  condensed 
.  liquid  by  subjecting  it  to  cold  or  pressure.     It  has  an  odour 
recalling  Chat  of  bitter  almonds,  and  burns  when  'gn*t  d      th 
very  characteristic  peach-coloured  flame.    It  is  s 
and  alcohol.    Its  solutions,  when  kept,  deposit  a  b    wn 
called  Para-C,  a  body  having  the  same  percentag       m 
as  C  itself,  but  probably  polymeric  with  it.    (See  M        M 

C.  is  interesting  as  affording  an  excellent  instance  foa 

radieal  or  group  of  elements  behaving  like  a  singl        m 
''    chemical  rdations  it  closely  resembles  chlor        as 
1  by  an  inspection  of  the  following  formulie — 
;  chlorine       .       .        .         Ct.  I  Free  cyanoesn    .  N) 

IrocWoricacid       .       .        Hd    Hydrocysnio  add  H 

aidoof  potasaum  .       ,       KO    Cyanide  of  pol=«ii. 
iride  of  mercury    .        .    HgQ.    Cyanids  of  mei 
XKblorous  acid      .        .  atOH)  |  Cyanic  acid 

See  Hydkocyanic  Acid,  Potassium,  &c 

Oyano'sia  (Gr.  'blueness'  or  'blue  diseaseT  is  a  condition 
in  which  there  is  a  blue  or  purple  colour  of  the  skin,  due  to 
an  admixture  of  venous  and  arterial  blood,  depending  in  most 
cases  on  a  malformation  of  the  heart.    See  Heart,  Malforma- 

Cyan'otype,  a  photographic  process  discovered  in  1842  by 
Sir  John  Herschell,  in  which  sensitive  paper  is  prepared  by  wash- 
"  "  in  a  solution  of  citrate  of  ammonia  and  iron,  and  after  ex- 
posure in  the  camera,  the  image  is  developed  by  means  of  a  solu- 
■■  11  of  ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  which  produces  a  violet-tinted 
picture,  A  solution  of  carbonate  of  sodium  acts  as  a  neutrali- 
sing agent  and  fines  the  image. 

Cyana'ric  Acid,  is  a  white  crystalline  substance  obtained  by 
heating  urea  till  ammonia  ceases  to  be  given  off — 
jCONaHj  =  CsNj(OH)a  +  sNH, 

Ursa-  Cyanuric  acid.       Ammonia, 

.  is  a  tribadc  acid,  forming  crystalline  salts  in  which  one,  two, 

-  three  atoms  of  its  hydrogen  are  replaced  by  metals.     When 

rongly  heated,  C.  becoines  converted  inlo  Cyanic  Acid  (q,  v.)^^ 

C3Ns(0H)j     =     3CN(0H) 


Cyan. 


Cyatli'ea,  a  gen«s  of  tree  ferns,  abundant  in  S.  America,  the 
W.  Indies,  India,  the  Malay  and  Pacific  Islands.  Some  are 
lofty,  and  cultivated  in  our  conservatories  and  gardens.  The 
pulp  within  the  trunk  of  C.  medttUarU  and  C.  dealbata,  fine  species 
of  New  Zealand  and  the  Pacific  Islands,  is  eaten  by  the  natives 
of  these  countries. 

Oyt'ele,  a  genus  of  Trilobites  (q.  v. )  belonging  to  the  family 
ChtintTida,  In  which  the  body  segments  number  eleven,  the 
caudal  shield  being  composed  of  few  segments.  They  are  found 
as  fossils  in  the  rocks  from  the  Upper  Cambrian  to  th^  Devonian 
series,  most  plentifully  in  the  Silurian  system. 

Cybele.     See  Rhea. 

Oycada'ceEe,  or  CycadeES  {Cycads),  a  natural  order  of 
Dicotyledonous,  small,  palm-like,  unbranched  trees  or  shrubs, 
allied  to  the  Conifirn  (q.  v.),  nadves  chiefiy  of  the  temperate 
and  tropical  regions  of  America  and  Asia,  and  also  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Madagascar,  and  Australia.  There  are 
about  fifty  species  and  seven  genera,  of  which  Cycas,  Dien, 
Efwephalartos,  and  Zamia  are  the  best  known.  The  stems  and 
seeds  of  the  plants  of  most  yield  mucil^e  and  starch — e.g.,  in- 
ferior sago,  prepared  from  the  stems  of  C.  dramfUs  (of  the 
Moluccas)  and  C.  revoluta  (of  Japan),  the  latter  being  known  as 
Japan  sago,  though  none  of  it  is  imported  into  Europe.  The 
seeds  are  edible,  and  from  those  of  Dhn  sduh  the  Mexicans 
prepare  arrowroot.  Mncipkartos  is  Caffre-Bread  (q.  v.).  Arrow- 
root is  obtained  from  the  stems  of  Z.  integrifoHa,  of  the  Bahamas 
and  other  W.  Indian  islands,  though  not  exported  to  Europe. 
312 


Cy'cbla,  a  genus  of  Teleostean  fishes  found  in  the  rivers  of 
S.  America,  and  belonging  to  the  &mily  Chromidii.  The 
typical  fishes  of  Brazil  and  Guiana  belong  to  this  genus. 
The  teeth  are  minute,  but  closely  set  in  the  mouth,  and  the 
colours  are  very  varied  and  briUiant,  The  genus  Ckromis,  of 
which  the  C.  NUolicus  of  the  Nile  is  an  example,  is  nearly  allied 
to  C     The  chromis  of  the  Nile  is  about  two  feet  long. 

Oy       d  e.  an       reece. 

C   d    m  n,  genus  of  perennial 

ra  dacem,  with  beaullful 

fl  h  art         pe      ea  es, 

be  M 


th     p  p  guag 

countriesa3'sowbrfad.'  The  root- 
stocks,  especially  of  C.  hsdernfi- 
lium,  are  drastic  and  emmenagogue, 
and  a  stimulant  ointment  is  prepared  I 
from  them  which,  when  applied  ex- 
ternally by  friction,    is  reputed  a 

powerful    vermifoge    for   diiidren,         ^ 

The  active  principle  of  the  genus 

isgw/flwiww,  which  acts  on  the  animal  system  like  Curarine  (q.  v.). 

Many  of  them  are  cultivated  in  our  gardens  as  spring  flowers. 

OyclelGr.  'circle'),  a  name  applied,  chiefly  in  astronomy,  to 
a  period  or  interval  of  time,  after  the  passing  of  which  the  same 
phenomena  occur  in  the  same  order  and  circumstances  as  they 
did  throughout  the  former  period-  Cycles  are  only  approxi- 
mately correct,  since  the  periodic  time  of  no  known  natural 
phenomenon  is  commensurable  with  our  day.  The  more  im- 
portant articles  are  mentioned  raider  the  special  headings 
Golden  Number,  iNDiCTigrr,  Metoj^ic  Cycle,  Period,  &c, 

CyololJKUloMa'ta  (Gr.  '  drcle-gilled '},  a  term  sometimes 
used  ill  the  classification  of  Gasteropodoiis  (q.  v.)  moUusca,  and 
applied  to  those  forms  in  which  the  gills  are  placed  in  a  circular 
ni(inner  round  the  body,  and  generally  between  the  '  Foot '  and 
'Mantle' (q.  v.).  The  cyclobranchiate  arrangeinent  is  well  seen 
in  the  Limpets  (q.  v.)  and  Chitons  (q,  v.). 

Oy'eloid  (Gr.  '  circle-like'),  the  curve  generated  by  a  point 
taken  upon  the  circumference  of  a  circle  rolling  along  a  given 
straight  line.  It  has  many  interesting  and  cui^ous  properties, 
some  of  which  are  proved  ^mply  and  neatly  upon  lunematical 
prindples  in  Thomson  and  Tail's  Elements  of  Natural  Fhilesephy, 
part  i.  s.  104,  Its  evolute  is  an  equal  and  similar  C. ;  its  area 
is  three  times  that  of  the  generating  circle ;  it  is  the  curve  of 
swiftest  descent  from  one  point  tq  another  not  in  the  same  vertical 
line  ;  and  a  heavy  body  sliding  withont  frictioij  down  the  ai 
an  inverted  C.,  imder  the  action  of  a  constant  force,  will  take 
exactly  the  same  time  to  reach  the  lowest  position,  from  what- 
ever point  of  the  curve  it  starts.  Huyghens  applied  this  property 
to  obtain  a  perfectly  isochronous  pendulum. 

Cycloid  rishea,  or  Oycloi'dei,  and  Oyoloid  Scales, 

the  name  applied  to  the  commonest  variety  of  fish-scales, 
seen  in  most  of  our  (amiliar  fishes  {e.g.,  salmon,  herring,  &c.), 
each  scale  consisting  of  a  homy  plate  of  more  or  less  rounded 
form,  T!ie  outluie  is  smooth,  or  at  most  wavy.  Agassiz  called 
such  fishes  Cycloidei,  but  his  arrangement  has  not  been  followed. 
Most  Teleostean  fishes,  but  not  all,  aie  Cycloidei. 

Cyclope'^  Ar'eMteottiFe  is  the  napie  given  to  walls  of 
massive  unhewn  stones,  because  in  ancient  Greece  such  walls 
were  fabled  to  have  been  built  by  the  Cyclopes  (q.  v.).  There 
are  veroains  of  these  walls  on  the  sites  of  Tiryns,  MyeeUEe,  and 
other  places  in  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Italy,  and  Sicily.  They  are 
built  of  huge,  uncemented  blocks,  which  are  generally,  as  at 
Tuyns,  of  iriegular  polygonal  shape,  not  fitted  together,  but 
having  the  gaps  between  them  filled  with  smalt  stones.  Occa- 
sionally, as  at  Larissa,  the  stones  are  smooth  and  fitted  into  each 


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CYN 


other.  At  Mycenze  the  Hocks  are  comparatively  regular,  and 
are  arranged  in  horizontal  lines.  These  sinicturea  are  thought 
to  be  Pelasgian,  but  nothing  certain  is  known  of  their  origin. 
They  are  alluded  to  by  Homer,  who  speaks  of  'the  walled 
Tiryns,'  and  'the  well-built  Myceos.'  The  C.  A.  of  the  aucient 
Etrurian  towns  was  probably  Pelagian.  Parts  of  the  C.  A.  of 
Cortona  remain,  one  fragment  being  120  feet  high.  The  name  C, 
can  be  extended  to  various  structures  in  America  and  Asia, 
.0  the  walls  of  Cuzco  in  Peru,  and  to  the  ruins  of  the  citadel 
of  Persepolis.  ITie  duns  or  hill-forts  of  Britain  ace  likewise 
specimens  of  C.  A.  See  M.  Petit-Radel's  Rscherche!  sur  Us 
Monumens  Cydopkns, 
Cyelope'dia.    See  Encyclopedia. 

Cyclo'pea  (Gr.  '  clrcuIar-eyed '),  in  Greek  mytholc^y,  a 
gigantic  race  of  shepherds,  dwelling  ou  the  S,W.  coast  of  Sicily, 
first  mentioned  in  the  Odyssiy  (Ik.).  They  were  cannibals. 
Their  chief,  Polyphemus,  is  described  as  having  but  one  eye 
in  his  forehead.  Hesiod  mentions,  ouly  three  C— Brontes 
('Thunderer'),  Steropes  ('Lightning-Flasher'),  and  Aiges 
('the  Bright'  or  '  Fiery'),  also  one-eyed,  who  were  the  sons  of 
Uranus  and  Gjea,  and  foiled  thunderbolt  for  Zeus.  For  having 
provided  him  with  that  with  which  he  slew  Asclepius  they  were 
themselves  killed  by  Apollo.  Later  they  aie  represented  as  the 
srvants  of  Heph^stus,  with  their  worktop  in  .i^tna.  The  C. 
3  whom  the  walla  known  as  Cyclopean  are  attributed  (see 
Cyclopean  Architecture)  were  considered  by  Plato  ss 
eiely  types  of  uncivilised  man.  Coi  {Manual  of  Mythology) 
impares  them  to  the  Trolls  or  Frost-giants  of  Northern  mylho- 

Oyclo'pia,  a  genus  of  S.  African  shrubs  of  the  order  Leguird- 
twss.  The  leaflet  of  G.  gmistoides,  a  plant  cultivated  in  our 
greenhouses,  is  called  the  'bush  tea,'  from  its  agreeable  lea-like 
smell.  A  decoction  of  it  is  used  as  an  expectorant  in  chronic 
catarrh  and  consumption, 

Ojr'clopS,  one  of  the  best-known  '  water-fleas,'  or  Entomos- 
tracous  Crustacea  (q.  v.),  included  in  the  order  Copepoda  of  that 
class.  The  head  and  chest  are  protected  by  a  caraiiace.  The 
feet  number  five  pairs.  Each  foot  has  divided  extremities  and  is 
provided  with  h^rs.  The  eye  is  angle,  and  two  pairs  of  an- 
tenna exist.  The  females  cany  the  e^s  in  two  external  ovisacs. 
A  single  congress  with  the  male  fertilises  the  female  for  life.  The 
young  pass  through  a  metamorphosis.  These  forms  occur  plen- 
tifully in  our  fresh- water  lakes  and  streams. 

Cydop'tenis.    See  Lxjmp-Socker. 

Cyclo'sia  (Gr.  'circulation'),  the  movement  of  the  latex 
or  milky  sap  in  the  lactiferous,  or  milk-vessels,  of  various 
species  of  plants.  The  assertion  that  this  movement  is  merely 
mechanical,  from  one  part  to  another  when  the  plant  is  in- 
jured and  the  juice  is  allowed  to  escape,  is,  in  all  likelihood, 
erroneous,  for  the  movement  can  be  well  seen  if  the  under  sur- 
face of  tlieleaf  of  Celandme  (q.  v.),  the  bracts  of  the  common 
bmdweed,  the  lower  surface  of  the  split  stipules  of  the  India- 
rubber  plant,  &C.,  be  put  under  the  microscope,  and  a  strong 
reflected  sunlight  be  thrown  on  it.  The  movement  is  some- 
times very  rapid,  at  other  times  slower ;  and  the  direction  of 
the  circulation  can  be  changed  at  will  by  the  interception  of  the 
sunlight.  It  is  not  the  result  of  evaporation,  (Brown's  Manual, 
p.  4+) 

Cydo'Dia.    See  Quince. 

Cyg^net,  the  name  given  to  young  swans. 

Cye'nus.    .See  Swan. 

Oygmis,  a  northern  constellation,  one  of  whose  stars,  Deneb, 
forms  with  Vega  and  Polarb  a  brilliant  right-angled  triangle. 

Oyl'inder  (Gr.  'a  roller'),  the  general  name  for  a  surface 
generated  bya  straight  line  moving  parallel  to  itself.  The  sections 
by  a  series  of  parallel  planes  are  similar  and  equal.  If  the  section 
by  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  generator  be  an  ellipse,  then  there 
will  be  two  different  series  of  parallel  planes,  whose  sections  are 
circles.  These  are  termed  the  j»*-<:iiK*-i5)y  sections.  When  the 
perpendicular  section  is  a  circle,  we  have  the  ?ighl  C  of  Euclid. 

Cylinder  Axle.     See  Nave. 
115 


Cy'ma  (Gr.  hiiria,  'a  wave'),  in  arehitecture,  a  wavy- lined 
moulding,  consisthig  of  a  hollow  and  a  round.  The  C.  r^cta  has 
the  hollow  above  the  round ;  the  C.  rtziersa  has  the  round  above 
the  hollow.     They  are  called  ogees, 

Cymtal  (Gr.  kumbalan,  from  kuviie,  'the  hollow'  of  any 
vessel),  a  musical  instrument  of  percussion,  consisting  of  two 
metal  plates  which  can  be  struck  a^inst  each  other.  The  C  is 
of  very  great  antiquity. 

Cy'me.    See  Inflorescence. 

O^m'ophane  (Gr.  kuma,  'a  wave,' and /iaiHo,  'I  appear'), 
a  variety  of  Chiysoberyl  (q.  v. ),  which  shows  a  milky  opalescence 
or  '  wave  of  light,'  and  is  mudi  pri?ed,  when  cut  m  cabochon,  by 
jewellers,  who  call  it  opalescmt  chryosolite, 

Oyni'rio,  or  Eym'ric,  Language  and  Literature.  The 
Cymric,  as  well  as  the  GaeUc  branch  of  the  Celtic  language,  shows 
the  peculiar  characteristic,  the  differentia,  ofthe  Celtic— i?.,  what 
may  be  called  initial  as  well  as  terminalional  inflection,  a  diange 
on  the  beginning  as  weE  as  on  the  ending  of  its  words ;  but 
though  these  changes  differ  so  much  in  each  of  the  dialects  into 
which  Cymric  is  subdivided  as  to  warrant  their  being  classed  sepa- 
rately, the  general  resemblanceofthe  laws  which  regulate  them  is 
sufficiently  strong  to  prove  them  all  to  be  of  one  family. 

The  Cymric  is  divided  into  three  branches — Welsh  proper, 
Cornish,  and  Breton  or  Armoric.  The  English  public  knew  almost 
nothing  of  any  literature  contained  in  these  languages  until  Edward 
Lhuyd,anaccomplished  scholar,  published  in  X'jo-j^a&Archmologia 
Brilannka,  showing  that  in  "Welsh  many  ancient  treasures  were 
preserved.  His  wori:  excited  very  little  attention  at  the  time.  In 
1764  the  Rev.  Evan  Evans,  and  twenty  years  later  E,  Jones,  Esq., 
published  specimens  of  the  old  poems  of  Wales,  accompanied 
with  English  translations.  Two  Scotchmen,  Laing  and  Pinkerton, 
who  had  taken  a  very  prominent  part  in  denouncing  the  Gaelic 
Ossian  as  a  forgery,  denounced  the  Welsh  bards  in  the  same  style, 
and  were  listened  to,  although  they  were  profoundly  ignorant  both 
of  Gaelic  and  of  Welsh.  Sharon  Turner  answered  them  with  con- 
siderable ability  in  his  Viiidisation  of  the  Geniditsness  of  Ancient 
British.  Poems  (1803).  In  1801  Owen  Jones,  a  native  of  Myvyr, 
in  Wales,  who  devoted  much  time  and  money  to  the  illustratiiig  of 
his  country's  literature,  published  a  collection  of  great  extent  and 
value  under  the  title  of  TkeMyvyrian  Atchaology  of  Wales.  Two 
accomplished  writers,  Mr  Stephens  (Litsratare  of  She  Kyinry, 
1840),  and  Mr  Nash  (Taliesin,  the  Bards  and  Druids  of  Britain, 
1858),  laboured  hard  to  prove  that  the  great  majority  of  poems 
published  by  him  are  spurious,  while  they  admitted  a  few  to  be 
genuine  and  ancient  The  question,  however,  has  been  conclu- 
sively disposed  of  byJJr  W.  F.  Skene,  who  in  1868  published 
^e  Four  Ancient  Books  of  Wales,  with  a  translation  and  a  learned 
and  exhaustive  dissertation.  He  assigns  the  poems  ascribed  to 
the  four  great  bards,  Taliesin,  Aneurin,  Llywanm  Hen,  and  Myrd- 
din,  to  the  7th  c,  and  considers  that  they  were  written  down  at 
various  periods  from  the  12th  to  the  15th  centuries.  Tliere  are 
no  traces  of  poetic  composition  from  the  7th  to  the  12th  centuries 
preserved,  but  during  the  next  two  centuries  great  literary  activity 
manifested  itself  both  In  N.  and  S,  Wales,  and  the  writings  of  no 
fewer  than  seventy-six  authors  are  handed  down  in  circumstances 
which  forbid  any  question  of  their  eennineness. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that,  in  the  old  poems,  Arthur  (q.  v.)  is 
spoken  of  without  romance  or  extravagance  as  the  Guledig,  or  war- 
leader,  who  fought  many  successful  battles  against  the  enemies  of 
his  country,  while  in  the  later  ones  the  popular  romances  concern- 
ihg  him  are  found  full-biown.  Much  of  the  Welsh  literature  is  of 
great  historical  value,  and  the  Welsh  deserve  praise  beyond  any 
of  their  Celtic  cousins  elsewhere  for  still  publishing  newspapers 
and  periodicals  in  their  native  tongue. 

Little  need  be  said  of  the  Cormsh  dialect  of  the  Cymric.  It 
was  spoken  in  Cornwall  until  after  the  middle  of  last  century. 
The  English  has,  however,  entirely  dispkced  it,  and  it  is  chiefly 
through  the  Archsologiea  Cormt-Britanniea  of  Dr  Pryce,  pub- 
lished m  1790,  that  a  knowledge  of  it  must  now  be  sought. 

The  Armoric  or  Breton  is  still  spoken  by  a  numerous  people 
in  the  N.  of  France,  and  is  much  better  known.  See  Breton- 
Literature  under  Bretagne. 

Oynan'clie  (Gr.  Iiuon  '  a  dog,'  and  aneho,  '  I  strangle  '),  an 
inflammatory  disease  of  the  throat.    See  Throat,  DISEASES  OF. 


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CYP 


Montpellier,  or  French  scammony,  a  violent  pui^adve,  is  in.  tlie 
juice  of  C.  MpnspeUitcufn  mixed  with  other  purgative  substances ; 
and  the  sap  of  C.  ovalifoUum,  a  native  of  Penang,  supplies  good 
caoutchouc  {See  IneIA-Ruebeil.)  The  leaves  of  C.  {Sden- 
oslemmd)  Argel  are  used  to  adulterate  Alexandriaji  senna.     See 

also  ViNCETOXICUM, 

Cynarocepli'aUe,  a  division  of  Composite  (q.  v.). 

Gyu'icS,  a  philosophic  sect  founded  in  the  4tli  c,  B.C.  by  Antis- 
Ihenes  (q.  v.),  an  Athenian  and  disciple  of  Socrates,  The  C. 
were  so  called  either  from  the  Cynosarges,  a  gyniiiasium  where 
their  founder  taught,  or  fromthe  Gr.i«ni&s('do^sh'),  because 
of  their  snarling  captiousness,  or  of  the  bestiality  into  which 
they  sank.  Their  tenets  were  Socratio  in  so  far  as  they  advo- 
cated ethisal  is  opposition  to  physical  inquiries.  They  made 
virtue  synonymous  with  self-denial  and  contempt  of  fortune. 
Their  bracing  but  narrowing  teaching  appeared  in  nobler  form 
in  tlie  Stoical  school.  Among  the  most  famous  C.  were  Dio- 
genes (q.  v.),  Crates,  ajjd  RJenippuS. 

Oyn'ips.     See  Gai^-Fly. 

Gyu'odon.  a  genus  of  grasses,  only  one  (C  Dactylon)  of  llie 
fourteen  species  of  which  is  a  native  of  Britain.  It  inhabits  the 
southern  coasts  of  England.  Its  roots,  in  common  with  those  of 
another  species  {C  linmre),  are  reputed  to  possess  some  of  the  pro- 
perties of  sarsaparilla.  In  India  it  is  known  as  Dhob,  Doot&o, 
and  is  one  of  the  chief  fodder  grassei, 

Cyuomo'riimi,  a  genns  of  plants  belonging  fo  the  natural 
order  Balanophoraces.  C.  coccimavi  is  found  in  the  island  of 
Malta,  and  more  particularly  on  a  single  rock  in  the  islet  of 
Gozo;  is  fiingus-Jooking  in  appearance,  and  was  long  celebrated 
as  the  Fiifig«s  MetUensis-  It  is  found  in  the  Levant,  Northern 
Africa,  and  the  Canary  Islands,  where  it  is  esteenjed  as  an  article 
of  food.  It  was  formerly  highly  esteemed  as  a  styptic  and 
astringent,  and  was  ujed  in  MallA  to  produce  abortion ;  and  at 
one  period  was  so  ipuch  valued  as  a  remedy  for  dysentery, 
&c,  that  the  rock  on  which  it  grew  w^  carefiifiy  watched,  and 
its  produce  deposited, in  a  Government  oiEce,  whence  it  was 
sent  as  a  precious  gift  to  friendly  sovereigns  by  the  Grand-master 
of  the  Knights  of  Malta.  Even  under  the  British  Government, 
until  recently,  the  office  of  keeper  of  tlje  rock  was  kept  up. 

Oyn'oBTire  (Gr.  Kynosoura,  'the  tail  of  the  Aug'),  a.  name 
given  to  Ursa  Minor,  a  northern  constellation,  whose  tail  ter- 
minates in  the  Pole-star.  It  was  the  object  by  which  travellers 
and  mariners  directed  their  course,  and  hence  tas  arisen  its  meta- 
phorical application  to  anything  to  which  attention  is  strongly 
directed  :— 


The  £j 


-Miiii 


UAlltgrs. 


Oynoau'ru 


Oj^pera'cese,  orOarioin'effi,  a  natural  order  of  glume-bearing 
Monocotyledonous  plants,  of  which  about  I20  genera  and  2000 
Species  are  known.  They  are  found  all  over  the  world,  though 
chiefly  in  moist,  cold,  and  temperate  regions.  Some  ate  demul- 
cent, others  bitter  and  astringent.  The  long  underground  stems 
qS  Carae  arettfna  bind  togcBier  drifting  sands,  and  are  for  that 
purpose  planted  on  parts  of  the  coast.  The  herbage  of  one  of 
theni  has  very  nutritive  properties,  but  the  order  possesses  no 
marked  economic  or  medicinal  species.  The  creeping  under- 
ground stems  of  Carac  armaiia  have  been  used  as  a  substitute 
for  sarsapajilla,  under  the  name  of  Go-man  sarsaparilla;  and 
the  species  known  aji  'carnation  glasses'  (C  hirta,  C.  precox, 
&c)  are  erroneously  believed  to  cause  'rot'  in  sheep.  Bria- 
pherum,  ,or  Cotton-Grass  (q.  v.),  and  the  Papyrus  of  the  Nile 
(q.  v.),  alsi?  bejong  fo  this  order.  See  also  Cypbrus,  Carex, 
ScXRppSj  and  BUJ.E0SH. 

Cype'ms,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Cyperaces, 
most  of  the  species  of  which  are  tropical.  The  tubers  or  corms 
of  many  are  mucilaginous  and  nutritious,  while  those  of  others 
are  bitter  and  medicinaL  Among  the  latter  may  be  classed  C. 
Isngut,  file  rhizomes  of  which  ace  astrii^ent,  tonic,  and  sto- 
macbie,  (uid  were  at  <me  tune  employed  in  medicine,  but  now, 
from  theii  odour  of  violets,  are  more  valued  in  perfumery,  as  are 
some  of  the  Indian  species.  The  tubers  of  C.  ismlenhu  (the 
SoucAel  comsstii/e  of  Am^f^i  ds  tare  of  the  French)  are  used  for 
3'4 


be  substituted 
Iso  employed  in  making  Orgmt 
(q.  v.).  Unlike  most  of  its  oi'der,  its  roots  contain  a  fixed  oil. 
The  tubers  of  C.  tuliosus  and  ^minalns,  though  small,  can  be 
used  as  an  article  of  food.  From  C.  texHlis  of  India,  and  other 
species,  mats,  &c.,  are  woven.  The  roots  ,of  olher  species  bind 
drifting  sands  tc^ether. 

CjrprBa'a.     See  Cqwry. 

Oy-Prfee,  a  term  of  English  legal  doctrine.  In  ccrtam  ci 
where  the  will  of  a  testator  cannot  be  precisely  carried  0  t 
court  will,  by  the  doctrine  of  C.-P.,  administer  as  closely  ace 
ing  to  the  will  as.  the  law  permits. 

Cypress  {C^presias),  a  very  large  genus  of  evergreen  trees 
and  shruts,  type  of  the  Cupressinece  family  of  conifers.  L  sem 
psrvirats  of  Persia  and  the  Levant  is  planted  in  burial  grounds 
It  lias  two  well-marked  forms,  C.  fastigiaia  and  C.  horLontalu 
C.  torulosa  of  the  Himalayas  is  an  elegant  species,  naturali  ed 
in  parts  of  England.  C.  glauca,  another  Indian  species,  though 
hardy  in  Portugal,  can  seldom  stand  our  winters  witho  t  pro 
tection,  C.  Junebris  of  China  is  a  valuable  ornamental  hardy 
evergreen.  C.  macrocarpa,  Goveniana,  Laiesottiana,  and  other 
species  from  N.  W.  America,  are  well  known  as  hardy  ornamental 
trees.  The  wood  of  C.  sempeniirtns,  believed  to  be  the  cidar 
wood  and  gnphsr  ■amgd  of  the  Bible,  is  perhaps  tlie  most  durable 
of  all  woods.  AH  of  them  are  highly  scented,  and  at  one  ti  ne 
this  balsamic  odour  from  the  wood  was  believed  to  be  saJu 
tary  in  chest-diseases.  The  term  C.  is  also  applied  to  Taxodu  m 
{ihnbald  C  of  America) ;  tlie  broom  C.  and  summer  C.  to  A(>i;i(n 
scoparia ;  deciduous  C.  to  TaxoMum  dislichuni ;  ground  C.  to 
Sanlolina  Chamncyparissui ;  the  embossed  C,  is  Glyptosirobus ; 
the  yellow  C  or  cedar  is  Tkujopds  borsalis  {Ctiprtssas  Niii- 
kalnsii).  Thuja gigatflea  [T.  Memdeai)  is  never  known  by  that 
name  in  its  native  region  (N.  W.  America), 

Oyprees  Kaees.    See  Exostosis. 

Oyp'riaq.,  Thtiscius,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  Church,  w 
born  at  Carthage  about  290.  He  was  highly  educated,  1: 
came  a  teacher  of  rhetoric,  and  was  converted  to  Christianity 
in  245.  As  the  brilliancy  and  popularity  of  his  lectures  had 
won  lum  ^  great  reputation,  tlie  pagan  paity  was  intensely  cha- 
grined at  his  .change  of  faith,  and  sought  to  cover  him  with  ridi- 
cule. C.  was  indifferent  to  its  censure  and  reproaches,  devoting 
himself  to  the  study  of  the  Bible  and  his  favourite  author,  Ter- 
tullian.  On  account  of  his  zeal  and  earnestness  in  religion  he 
was  made  a  presbyter  a  few  months  after  his  baptisr 
Bishop  of  Carthage  in  24S.  C.  's  episcopal  career  was  spent 
amidst  the  storms  of  persecution  and  theological  strife,  and  his 
writings  are  marked  by  an  intense  and  high-wrought  feeling. 
During  the  Decian  persecution  (250)  he  retired  into  conceal- 
ment for  a.bout  tjvo  yeais,  bi)t  his  enforced  seclusion  was 
not  spent  iij  idleness.  Letter  after  Jette)-  was  shot  forth  from 
his  retreat,  full  of  w^aming,  direction,  exhortation,  and  he  was 
never  more  vigilant  in  his  episcopal  supervision  than  when 
ho  dared  not  show  his  fece  in  Cartilage.  On  his  return  he  w 
engaged  in  a  controversy  regarding  &e  reception  of  the  lapsed 
— that  is,  those  who  during  the  persecution  had  publicly  re- 
nounced Christianity — as  well  as  in  the  Novatian  controversy.  In 
257,  in  the  persecution  under  Valerian,  C.  was  banished  to 
Curabis.  Here  as  usual  his  pen  was  active.  Recalled  a 
by  the  governor,  in  consequence  of  the  rigorous  edict  that  all 
bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  were  to  be  put  to  death,  C.  \ 
executed  at  Carthage  in  presence  of  an  immense  crowd.  I 
genuine  writings  consist  of  eighty-two  epistles  and  thirteen 
treatises.  On  account  of  his  high  ideas  of  episcopal  power  he 
has  always  been  a  great  authority  in  the  Roman  Catholic  and 
other  Episcopal  Churches.  The  best  editions  of  C.'s  works  a 
those  of  Bishop  Fell  (1682),  and  of  Maran  [Par.  1726),  The 
isanEnglishtranslation(i868.-69)inClark's.rf»&-Mf(Bi'.FoCAtrj-. 
See  Retlbere's  CypHanus  dargisieUt  tuah  Seinetn  Lebin  und 
"  -'        '  "    v\  /. 


Oyprin'ldee,  a  family  of  Teleostean  fishes  represoited  by 
the  Carps  (q.  v.).  Minnow,  Bleak  (q.  v.).  Roach,  Barbel  (q,  v.). 
Bream,  Tench,  &c.  In  this  family  die  moudi  is  small  and 
the  jaws  toothless,  the  upper  jaw  being  formed  by  the  inter- 
■" '     inlerior  pharyngeal  bones, 


maxillary  bones.     Teeth  e 


y  Google 


CYP 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPjEBIA. 


CYR 


•A 


and  these  teeth  bite  against  Ihe  base  of  the  skull,  which  is  covereii 
with  horny  plates.  The  head  is  small  and  dorsal  fin  single. 
No  pyloric  cieca  eiist,  and  the  air-bladder  is  generally  divided. 
Most  C.  inhabit  fresh  water. 

C}ipinidiE  is  also  the  name  given  to  a  family  of  Lamelli- 
branchiate  moUusca,  including  shells  belonging  to  the  geneta 
Cyprina,  Ctassatella  (q.  y,),  Isocardia,  or  heart-cockles,  Car- 
dita,  &c  The  shells  are  equivalve  and  closed,  the  ligament  ck- 
ternal,  and  the  mantle  lobes  united  posteriorly,  and  pierced  by 
two  siphonal  apertures.  The  foot  is  th  cL  and  tongue  shaped 
Cyprina  itself  begins  as  a  fossil  in  the  Tiias. 

Cjfprmodoii'tidEe,  a  family  of  Teleostean  fishes  distin 
guided  by  having  small  jaw  teeth  but  numerous  teeth  m  the 
throaL  The  branchiostegal  rays  are  five  or  six  The  whole 
of  the  head  is  scaly,  and  no  adipose  or  soft  dorsal  fin  esists 
To  this  family  belongs  the  cunous  An  lUeps  (q  v  }  or  star  gaaer 
of  Surinam,  and  the  genus  Oresims  of  fa  America 

Oy'pris,  a  genus  of  Entomostracous  Crustacea  (q.  v.)  be- 
longing to  the  order  Ostracoda.  The  C.  form  familiar  fresh- 
water  fleas.  They  possess  a  bivalve  shell  or  carapace,  from 
which  the  feel,  ilumbering  two  or  three  pairs,  are  protruded  at 
vrili.  The  carapace  is  closed  by  an  adductor  muscle.  A  pair 
of  tail-appendages  subserve  locomotion.  Gills  exist  on  the 
hinder  jaws.  C.  vidua  and  C.  tris-striata  are  familiar  spedes. 
This  genus  is  represented  in  a  fossil  state  in  Mesozoic  and  Kaino- 

Cy'prua  (Gr.  Knproi,  mod.  Gr.  Kehris),  an  island  belong- 
ing to  Turkey,  in  the  N.E.  of  the  Levant,  its  eastern  extre- 
mity, Cape  Andrea,  being  95  miles  W.S.W.  of  Antioch.  Us 
greatest  length  is  143  mUes,  and  its  greatest  breadth  55  miles. 
Area,  3682  sq.  miles;  pop.  (187^)  135,000,  of  whom  two-thirds 

e  Greeks.  The  mountains  are  grouped  in  two  chains,  one 
_  ..nning  pai-allel  to  the  N.,  the  other  to  the  S.  coast  The  latter 
is  the  Timber,  reaching  in  Mount  Ttoodos  (anc  Olympus)  an 
elevation       66       ee       Be  es  lies  a  great 

T^ey,  ric  m  locust  beans, 

sumac,  all  ch  po  Sal  xh  ustible  in  the 

lagoons,  t  g    wn  an  wool  fofms  a 

staple  art  mm  is  so  dry  that 

frequently  as  73  the  crops 

dueed  to  g  ea  m  gy  has     ot  been  fully 

investigat    ,  ul         m  th  he  chains  are 

of  igneous  origin,  being  flanked  by  limestones,  sandstones,  and 
slates,  Cwl,  sulphur,  and  various  rranerals  might  be  worked  to 
advantage,  bnt  the  people  are  indolent  and  ignorant.  Anciently 
is  famous  for  its  copper-nrines^— the  name  'copper'  being 


kosia  ;  the  diief  ports,  Lamaka  and  ramagnsta  ;  the  former  is 
also  the  residence  of  the  European  consuls.  The  andent  capital 
of  C.,  Paphos  fq.  v.),  was  held  to  be  a  favourite  abode  ofVenus. 
C.  was  ruled  by  petty  kings  till  it  was  subdued  by  Cyrus  of 
Persia.  It  was  subsequently  conquered  by  the  Greeks  in  477  B.C. ; 
was  annexed  to  Egypt  about  323  B.C,,  and  became  a  Roman 
province  in  58  B.a  After  the  division  ot  the  Roman,  it  formed 
part  of  the  Eyiantine  Empire.  In  648  A.D,  it  was  taken  by  the 
Saracens,  from  whom  it  was  soon  retaken  by  the  Greeks.  In 
803  it  was  captured  by  Harfln-al-Eashid,  but  was  won  back  by 
Nicephorus  II.  Richard  I.  of  England  reduced  it  in  II91,  and 
ceded  it  the  succeeding  year  to  Guy  de  Lusignan,  whose  descen- 
dants reigned  over  it  till  1489,  when  Caterina  de  Comaro  (q.  v.) 
sold  it  to  ihe  Venetians.  It  was  finally  taken  by  the  Turks 
in  August  1571.  See  Engel's  J&pn>s  (1841),  and  Unger  and 
Kolschys'  Zfe  Insel  Cypem  (1865),  for  details  regardmg  its 
natural  history,  dimate,  products,  &c. ;  also  De  Mas  Latrie, 
Nistnire  de  Vile  de  C.  ssus  U  Signs  dis  Princes  de  la  Maison  dt 
Lusignan  (Par,  1861-62). 

Cyp'selua.    See  Swift. 

Cyr,  Saint,  L'^cole,  a  village  in  the  department  of  Seine- 
et-Oise,  France,  in  the  great  park  of  Versailles,  12  miles  S.W. 
of  Paris,  is  notable  in  connection  with  an  institution  [Maison  di 
St  C-)  founded  here  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1686,  for  the  upbringing 


of  250  daughters  of  the  nobility.  This  building  was  erected  at 
the  desire  of  Madame  de  Maiutenon,  who  retired  to  it  on  the 
death  of  the  King  to  spend  the  remainder  of  her  life^  In  1793 
it  was  converted  into  a  military  hospital,  and  in  1806  Napoleon 
transferred  hither  the  military  school  of  Fontainbleau,  where  it 
mcsxemaiaed.  asVaeMcole  Sp&iale  Militaire  de  St  C,  edu- 
cating some  300  officers,  infantry  and  cavaliy,  of  (he  general 
staff,  and  of  the  marines. 

Oyrenale  Scliool.     See  Aristippus. 

Oyrena'iOfl,  anciently  a  district  of  N.  Africji,  named  after  its 
apitil,  Cyrene  (q.  v, ),  In  its  widest  sense  it  included  the  re- 
gion stretdiing  on  the  N.  from  Carthage  on  the  W.  to  Egypt  on 
the  Ej,  and  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  oasis  of  Phaiania 
(Fezzan)  on  the  S.  The  Greek  colony,  however,  estabhshed  here 
11  the  7th  c.  B.C.,  occupied  only  the  tahleland  of  Barca  (q.  v.)  and 
the  terraces  between  it  and  the  coast.  Fanned  by  cool  sea- 
breezes,  and  sheltered  by  the  broad  plateau  from  the  hot  winds 


regions  of  the  globe,  and  furnished  a  succession  of  harvests  for 
eight  months  of  the  year.  Com,  wine,  oil,  honey,  and  fruits  of 
all  kmds  abounded,  and  tlie  district  was  famous  for  its  breed  of 
horses-  From  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies  C.  was  sometimes  called 
Pentapolis,  from  its  five  chief  cities,  Cyrene,  Barcfi,  Tenchdra, 
Hesperides,  and  ApoUonia.  C,  after  being  a  Roman  province, 
was  subdued  by  Chosroes  (a.D.  616),  and  finally  overrun  and 
wasted  by  the  Arabs  (a.d.  647).  The  whole  re^on  is  rich  in 
valuable  remains  of  antiquity.  See  Earth's  Watldetungm  durch 
die  KiistenJander  des  Mitlelmetres  (Sei\.  1849). 


niinated  aiwut  450  B.C-,  when  a  repubhc  was  established.  It 
sutiequently  became  a  Roman  colony  with  the  title  of  Flavia. 
C.  was  long  the  chief  Greek  colony  in  Africa,  and  several  of  its 
sons  were  distinguished  in  the  annals  of  Hellenic  intellect ;  as  the 
poet  CaDimachus,  a  scion  of  the  royal  house  of  Bftttus,  the  philo- 
sophers Arisiippus  and  Carneades,  the  polyhistor  Eratosthenes, 
and  the  rhetorician  Synesius.  Eitensive  ruins  still  mark  the  site 
of  the  dty.  See  Smith  and  Porcher's  History  cflhe  Seeeni  Dis- 
coveries at  C.  (Lond.  1865). 

Cyr'il,  St,  of  Jeruaalem,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  Church, 
was  born  about  315.  Of  his  earlier  j^ars  nothing  is  known,  but 
his  writings  evmce  a  superior  education.  He  was  elected  bishop 
of  Jerusalem  in  351.  In  the  Arian  controversy  then  raging  he 
formed  one  of  the  middle  party,  called  Semi-Arians,  but  was 
nevertheless  persecuted  by  the  stricter  Arians,  through  whose  in- 
fluence he  was  banished  from  Jerusalem  three  times.  His  per- 
sistent and  unscrupulous  opponent  was  Acacias,  Metropohtan 
Bishop  of  Ciesarea.  In  381,  at  the  Coraidl  of  Constantinople,  he 
joined  the  Nicene  party,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  debates. 
He  died  in  386.  C.  is  chiefly  distinguished  for  his  catechetical 
works  (edited  by  Toutlee,  Par.  1720 ;  and  by  Reischl  and  Rupp, 
Munidi,  1S48-60),  in  which  he  set  forth  the  doctrines  of  the 
Church  in  a  popular  style.— St  C.  Of  Alexandria,  born  at 
Alexandria  about  the  end  of  the  4th  c,  was  educated  among  the 
monks  in  the  Nitrian  desert,  and  then  succeeded  his  unde  as 
Bishop  of  Alexandria  (412).  He  immediately  attacked  the 
Novatians,  and  liad  their  churches  shut  ap,  got  the  Jews  ban- 
ished from  the  dty  and  their  synagogue  pulled  down,  and  occa- 
sioned other  insurrections  in  Alexandria.  He  must  be  held 
responsible  in  some  measure  for  one  of  the  most  odious  crimes  in 
history — the  murder  of  Hypatia  (q.  v.) — in  so  far  as  he  inflamed 
the  passions  of  a  fanatical  and  ignorant  community.  C.'s  chief 
controversy  was  with  Nestorius,  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  who 
disapproved  of  the  name  'Mother  of  God,'  as  appUed  to  the 
Vh^in  Mary.  At  a  council  held  at  Alexandria  {430),  C.  accused 
Nestorius  of  blasphemy  against  Christ,  and  Nestorius,  in  turn, 
accused  C.  of  Apollinarianism.  (See  ApollinAris,)  A  council 
was  convened  at  Ephesus  to  settle  the  dispute,  in  which  C.  pre- 
sided, and  before  dl  the  bishops  had  arrived  Nestorius  was  con- 
demned and  banished.  When  the  other  Eastern  prelates,  for 
whom  C.  would  not  wait,  arrived,  he  himself  was  deposed  by 
them,  and  a  controversy  was  thus  begun  between  the  E.  andW. 
Churches,  which  was  not  settled  at  the  death  of  C,  444.  In  the 
religious  strifes  of  the  time  C.  plays  a  foremost  part.  The  popes 
31S 


vLiOOQle 


^- 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CYS 


gave  him  the  most  extensive  powers  and  the  most  unbounded 

E raise,  and  the  Coptic  and  Ab^sinian  Christians,  among;  whom 
e  is  known  a&Kerlos,  call  him '  the  world's  doctor.'  C.^  works 
indade  Di  Adaraiicme  ^  Colin  in  SpirUii  d  Verilale;  Glapkyrmn 
Fentateuckum  ('  Polished  Discourses  on  Uie  Pentateuch ') ;  Cam- 
intntarius  in  Isaiatn;  Cmrnmniartm  in  Duodedm  Prophetaa 
Mittores;  Cwiwientariusiayiiaimis Svangeliuin ;  ExflanaHoin 
Psalmos;  In  I^uli  Episinlas  Qaatuor  ;  Commmlarms  m  Lwam, 
and  various  fragments.  The  best  edition  is  in  Migne's  Fatre- 
iogiie  Cursus,  Series  Crsca  (lovols.  Par.  1859). 

OyrU  and  Utetlio'dius,  called  the '  Apostles  of  the  Slaves, ' 
were  two  brothers  of  distinguished  family,  bom  in  Thessalonica 
in  the  9th  C.  M.  first  embraced  a  military  career,  and  rose  to  the 
rank  of  general,  while  C.  (whose  proper  name  was  Constantine) 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  languages,  for  which  he  displayed 

iieculiar  aptitude.  The  Slavic  tongue,  in  various  dialects,  had 
ong  been  in  use  in  the  valley  of  the  Danube ;  it  had  even  pene- 
trated as  far  S.  as  the  Peloponnesus,  and  in  a  commercial  centre 
like  Thessalonica  the  brothers  had  no  difficulty  in  acquiring  a  iami- 
liar  acquaintance  with  it.  At  Constantinople  whither  C.  went  to 
complete  his  studies,  he  was  soon  known  as  '  the  Philosopher.' 
Chosen  by  the  Emperor  Michael  III.  to  preach  die  gospel  to  the 
Khasars,  who  had  requested  the  services  of  a  Christian  missionary, 
he  appears  to  have  met  with  some  success  among  the  Turanian 
tribes  of  the  Ural;  but  the  real  commencement  of  the  evan- 
gelical career  of  the  brothers  was  their  mission  to  the  Bul- 
garians, whom  they  converted  to  Christianity,  and  provided  with 
an  alphabet  adapted  from  the  Greek,  by  means  of  which  tWa 
Slavic  people  soon  acquired  through  tran^tion  some  knowledge 
of  the  Gr;eco- Christian  literature.  In  863  C.,  accompanied  by 
M.,  who  had  now  become  a  monk,  were  sent  ly  the  Emperor 
to  the  Moraviaji  king.  The  Slaves  of  Moravia  and  Pannonia 
had  been  Christians  for  about  a  century,  but  were  dissatisfied 
with  their  ecclesiastical  dependence  on  the  German  see  of  Salz- 
burg. They  received  with  joy  men  who  could  enable  them  to 
celebrate  divine  worship  in  their  own  language.  The  brothers 
spent  four  years  in  oreanising  a  Slavic  service.  In  867  they  were 
invited  to  Rome  by  the  Pope,  and  were  consecrated  bishops. 
It  was  at  this  time  that  Constantine  took  the  name  of  C,  and 
shortly  after  died,  13th  Februaiy  868.  M.  returned  alone  to. 
his  great  work,  and  became  Archbishop  of  Moravia  and  Pan- 
nonia. The  Latin  Liturgy  was  generally  displaced  by  the  new 
Slavic  one,  and  the  Supremacy  of  the  Archbishop  of  Sakburg  was 
more  and  more  threatened.  The  latter  appealed  to  the  Pope, 
and  charged  M.  with  numerons  heresies.  In  the  end,  however, 
M.  got  a  verdict  in  his  favour,  but  after  a  long  struggle  with  the 
Latin  priests  of  Pannonia,  he  withdrew  to  Rome  in  881,  where 
he  died.  The  exact  date  of  his  death  is  not  known.  The  brothers 
have  a  great' place  in  Christian  history.  They  gave  a  national 
character  to  the  religion  of  the  Slavic  peoples.  The  alphabet 
invented  by  C,  and  called  the  '  Cyrillic  alphabet '  (Slav.  Kyril- 
litsa),  was  adopted  by  the  larger  portion  of  the  eastern  Slaves, 
e.g.,  Bulgarians,  Serbs,  Bosniaks,  Russians,  &e. ;  it  was  after- 
wards modified  and  enlarged  in  the  different  countries,  accord- 
ii^  to  their  respective  needs,  and  the  modem  Russian  and  Servian 
alphabets  are  direcOy  derived  from  it.  See  Stredow^y's  Sacra 
MartmuB  Ifislctia,  siae  Vila  SS.  CyrilH  aMetkodU  (SaUb.  1710} ; 
"Dahrovi^j's  Cyril  und  Method,  aer  Slawea  AposleH2T3g.  1823). 

Oyrilla'ceEe,  a  small  natural  order  of  Dicotyledonoas  plants, 
most  nearly  allied  to  the  Heaths  or  Saxifrages,  consisting  of  shrabs 
or  small  trees.  There  are  only  sii  species  known,  constituting 
four  genera,  from  N.  or  S.  tropical  America,  They  have  no 
known  properties  or  economic  uses. 

Cy'rue,  The  Great  (called  by  Greek  historians  Palaios  and 
Proieros),  said  to  be  the  son  of  Cambyses  (the  Persian)  and  Man- 
dane,  whose  father  Astyages,  the  son  of  Cyaxares  and  King  of 
Media,  had  endeavoured  to  destroy  him  as  destined  by  prophecy 
to  usurp  the  throne,  probably  succeeded  his  grandfather  in  the 
year  B.C.  559,  when  he  changed  his  name  {Agradatus)  for  the 
Persian  Kobresih,  or  sun.  The  first  volume  of  the  Histories  of 
Hetedstus  contains  a  number  of  picturesque  stories  about  his 
birth  and  childhood.  After  subduing  the  principal  towns  of 
Media,  C.  in  546  conducted  a  great  expedition  against  Crcesus 
of  Lydia,  whom  he  defeated  at  Thymbra,  and  took  prisoner  at 
Sardis,  and  afterwards  made  a  satrap  of  his  new  empire.  The 
Greek  colonies  of  Asia  Minor,  with  the  exception  of  Miletus, 
316 


formed  against  C.  the  Pannonian  League,  which  received  mon 
support  from  Sparta ;  but  C.  was  recalled  to  the  S.  by  a  revo 
at  home.  In  the  year  538  he  was  engaged  in  the  conquest  of 
Babylonia,  where  the  luxm-ious  Belshazaar  offered  only  a  feeble 
resistance.  His  later  campaigns  seem  to  have  been  directed 
against  Bactriana,  Maigiana,  and  Sogdiana,  the  territories  form- 
ing the  upper  basin  of  the  Oxus.  C.  probably  penetrated  as  far 
as  the  MassagetK  and  Sacte,  and  Ctesias  has  left  an  account  of 
an  expedition  against  the  Derbicc^  In  one  of  these  C.  w 
killed,  B.C.  539.  His  name  is  thus  associated  with  the  predon 
nance  of  the  Persians  over  the  Medes,  and  of  the  Zend  natlo 
over  the  Semitic  The  CyrefmMo.  of  Xenophon  is  not  a  history, 
but  a  kind  of  ethical  romance. — C^ma  we  "SToung^r  was  the 
son  of  Darins  Nothus  or  Ochus,  King  of  Persia,  and  Paiysatis. 
While  governor  of  Asia  Minor  he  had  assisted  the  Spartan  gene- 
ral Lysander  against  the  Athenians  at  jEgos-Potamos  (B.C.  405). 
Accordingly  when  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  the  eldest  son  of  Darius, 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  and  C.'s  first  conspirai^  had  failed,  it 
was  chiefly  from  Sparta  that  he  obtained  the  army  of  13,000 
Greeks  which,  under  the  command  of  Clearchus,  accompanied 
him  on  his  famous  expedition  from  Sardis  in  401  B.a  At  Cunaxa, 
between  Pyite  and  Babylon,  on  the  Euphrates,  he  encountered 
his  brother,  whom  the  satrap  Tissaphemes  had  warned  of  his 
approach.  C.  was  killed  and  his  Asiatic  troops  dispersed,  but 
the  Greeks  held  their  ground,  and  began  from  (he  battlefield 
their  wonderful  'Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand'  {Katabasis)  up 
the  Tigris  valley,  through  the  highlands  of  Armenia  to  Trapezua 
on  the  Black  Sea.  From  the  accounts  left  by  Xenophon  (who 
was  a  leader  in  the  retreat),  C.  appears  to  have  been  intelligent 
and  of  a  good  disposition.  The  Cyropsdia  of  Xenophon  relates 
to  the  elder  C.  It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  route  of  C.  east- 
ward through  Laodicea,  Iconiutn,  Tarsus,  and  Beisea,  with  the 
routes  of  Alexander  and  the  Crusaders. 

Cyst  (from  kysHs,  'a  bladder'),  a  bag  or  tunic  in  animal 
bodies^  which  includes  morbid  matter  as  a  secretion  or  an  endo- 
genous growth,  entirely  or  for  the  most  part  its  own  product. 
Cysts  ate  formed  (i)  by  a  morbid  growth,  having  a  distinct  ele- 
mentary groundwork  derived  from  cells  or  their  nuclei ;  (2)  by 
obstraction,  dilatation  and  growth  of  natural  ducts  or  sacculi ; 
and  (3)  by  enlargement  and  fusion  of  the  areolar  spaces  in  con- 
nective tissue — the  walls  becoming  condensed,  and  the  inner  sur- 
face secreting  fluid  like  a  serous  sac.  Simple  or  barren  cysts 
contain  fluid  matter  ;  compottnd  01  prdi/erous  cysts  contam  vari- 
ously oreanised  bodies  ;  sebtueetts  or  epidermal  cysts  are  formed 
from  enlarged  hair  follicles ;  mammarji  cysts  from  enlarged 
lactiferous  tubes ;  ovarian  cysts  from  enlaced  Graefian  vesi 
des  i  sanguineous  cysts  from  dilated  blood-vessels,  and  fror 
hfemorrhage  into  the  cavity  of  serous  cysts ;  ^innmal  cysts  i 
connection  with  the  synovial  membrane  of  the  sheaths  of  ten 
dons  ;  mucous  Cysts  in  connection  with  mucous  membrane  andthe 
duels  of  mucous  glands.  Nabothean  cysts  have  their  seat  at  the 
cervex  uteri,  and  ranula  is  an  enlargement  of  the  duct  of  the  sub- 
lingual gland.  Serous  cysts  or  hygromata  have  thin  or  honey-like 
contents  of  a  yellow  or  brownish  colour,  and  colloid  cysts  have 
ghie-like  contents.  Proliferous  cysts  are  compound.  The  cystic 
duct  is  the  membranous  canal  liiat  conveys  the  bile  from  the 
hepatic  dnct  into  the  gall-bladder.  The  cystic  arteiy  is  a  branch 
of  the  hepatic     See  Tumors. 

Oya'tio  Worms,  the  name  formerly  given  to  the  scolices  01 
resting  latvie  of  T(sni^iAi  or  tapeworms  (which  exist  in  th( 
form  of  bladder-like  cysts),  under  the  idea  that  they  were  ol 
themselves  distinct  and  separate  forms.  (See  also  Cestoid 
Worms,  Ccenurus,  Echinococcits,  Staggers,  and  Tape- 
worm.)   The  name  hydatids  is  synonymous  with  C.  W. 

Cysticer'cTis  (Gr. 'bladder-tail '),  the  name  given  to  the  sco- 
lices of  tapeworms,  and  formerly  to  some  species  of  Cystic 
Worms  (q.  v.),  as  the  name  Ctsnurm  was  given  to  others.  All 
cystic  worms  themselves,  however,  are  merdy  stages  in  the  deve- 
lopment of  tapeworms  ( Tsmadd),  and  not  distinct  and  separate 
animals.  The  C.  eellttlosa  found  in  the  pig,  and  constituting 
measly  pork,  is  the  immature  form  of  the  common  tapewoi-m  of 
man  {Tmnia  solium).  Tlie  C.pidfirtms  of  the  rabbit,  if  swal- 
lowed by  a  fox,  becomes  the  Tcsmo.  pisifonms  of  the  latter,  just 
as  the  C.  fasciolaris  of  the  mouse  becomes  the  T.  crassicollis  of 
'     Ctenuitts  eerebralis  from  the  brain  of  the  sheep,  if  swal- 

serrala.     See ' 


-^ 


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Oysflae  is  a  cryslalliiie  substance  contained  in  certain  rare 
urinary  calculi,  aiid  has  tlie  composition  represented  by  the  for- 
mula C,H,NSOa. 

Oysti'tis,  inflammation  of  the  bladder.    See  Eladdek,  Dis- 

Cyat'olitlies  (Gt.  ' bladder-stones'),  clusters  of  cryslalsfound 
tn  the  superficial  cells  of  nettles  and  some  other  species  of  the 
order  Ut-Hcacas,  and  various  genera  of  Acantkaces,  &c.  They 
are  globular  or  club-shaped  and  of  various  other  forms,  '  usQally 
hanging  by  a  short  stalk  in  an  enlarged  cell ;  their  principal 


very  deEcate  organic  covering  closely  applied  to  every  part. 

Oyt'isuB,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Leguminonx 
(sub-order  PapiUonacem).  Laburnum  (q,  v,)  and  other  species 
re  much  esteemed  as  ornaments  in  shrubberies  and  greenhouses. 
See  also  Broom, 

Cyt'oblasts,  a  name  given  to  new  active  cells  in  animal  and 
vegetable  structures.-  Sometimes  the  term  has  been  restricted  to 
the  nucleus  of  the  celL    See  Cell. 

Cyt'oplasm  is  a  semi-fluid  molecular  material  in  which  cells 
may  originate  or  grow.     See  Cell. 

Oyz'icae,  a  peninsula  of  Anatolia,  projecting  into  the  Sea  of 
Marmora,  and  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  sandy  isthmus. 
It  stretches  from  E.  to  W,  l8  miles,  and  from  N.  to  S.  9  miles. 
C.  was  once  an  island,  its  connection  with  the  mainland  being 
attributed  to  Alexander  the  Great.  Cherry-orchards  and  vine- 
yards now  surround  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  of  C,  which  in 
size  and  beauty  was  one  of  the  foremost  cities  of  Asia. 

Gzacki,  Tadeuaz,  a  Polish  author  and  administrator,  was 
bom  August  28,  1765,  at  Poryck,  Volhynia.  He  held  the 
posts  of  director  of  the  crown  archives  at  "Warsaw,  and,  as  mem- 
ber of  the  commission  of  inquiry  into  the  Polish  revenue,  did 
his  best  to  give  new  hfe  to  the  trade  and  industries  of  Poland. 
But  his  chief  efforts  were  devoted  to  the  improvement  of  the 
education  of  his  countrymen  in  the  Polish  provinces  of  Russia 
under  the  Emperor  Alexander.  In  1807  he  was  appointed 
deputy  of  Prince  Caartoryslti,  who  had  the  tare  of  public  instruc- 
tion in  the  Polish  government  of  W,  Russia,  By  energy,  per- 
Bonal  liberality,  and  strong  appeal  to  the  patriotic  feelings  of  his 
countrymen,  he  was  enabled  to  establish  eighty-five  primary 
schools  in  Volhynia,  twenty-six  in  Podolia,  and  fifteen  in  the 
Polish  Ukraine,  besides  a  great  lyceum  at  Krzemienietz.  C. 
died  8th  February  1813,  at  Dubna,  Volhynia,  Of  his  works, 
which  are  numerous  and  varied,  one  of  the  most  valuable  is  that 
upon  Lithuanian  law.  In  1833,  by  the  order  of  the  Czar  Nicho- 
las I.,  the  sdentific  establishments  founded  by  C,  were  abo- 
lished, the  artistic  and  literary  treasures  collected  at  Krzemien- 
ietz  were  carried  away,  partly  to  St  Petersburg  and  partly  to  the 
new  Russian  University  at  Kiew.  See  History  of  the  Life  and 
Woris  of  C,  by  Osinski  (Krzemienietz,  lSt6). 

Gzar  (Russ.  tsary,  'king,'  probably  a  corruption  of  the  By- 
zantine Eaisar,  Lat.  Ciesar,  though  some  etymologists  seek  for 
its  origin  in  the  sar  that  ends  the  names  of  Assyrian  kings),  a 
title  of  the  Emperor  of  Russia.  It  was  in  partial  use  as  early 
as  the  I2th  c, ;  but  it  was  not  till  the  l6th  c.,  when  Ivan  II., 
surnamed  the  Cruel,  caused  himself  to  be  crowned  C.  of  Mos- 
cow (1547),  that  the  Muscovite  princes  formally  adopted  the  title. 
After  the  conquest  of  Little  Russia  and  Smolensk  in  1654,  they 
called  themselves  Czars  of  all  the  Russias — ie.,  of  Great,  White, 
and  Little  Russia.  The  word  is  now  practicaUy  equivalent  to 
emperor.  The  consort  of  the  C.  is  named  Czarina,  his  eldest 
son  Cesarevitch,  and  his  eldest  daughter  Cesarevna. 

Czartorys'ki,  a  celebrated  Polish  family  of  Lithuanian 
origin,  which  can  be  traced  back  to  the  I4lh  c  In  the  same 
century  also  appears  a  Russian  branch  connected  with  the  line  of 
Rurik,  and  possessing  the  village  of  Czartorysk  in  Volhynia,  from 
which  the  later  name  of  the  family  is  derived.  The  ktter  first 
became  Polish  in  the  person  of  Fedorovki  C,  who  in  1570 
subscribed  the  union  of  Lithuania  with  Poland.  With  Geoi^ 
Ivanovicz  C  (died  1622)  the  family  passed  over  iioai  the  Greek 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  in  1633  the  heads  of  the  family 
were  made  princes  of  the  German  empire  ;  in  1785  they  received 


♦- 


the  Austrian  'Indigenat,'  and  in  178S  the  Hungarian  Diet  c 
fened  on  them  the  rank  of  '  magnates.'  For  a  considerable 
period  the  family  flourished  in  two  main  lines,  an  elder  at 
Novogorod,  and  a  younger  at  Klevan.  The  former  became  ex- 
tinct in  the  time  of  Sigmund  the  Elder ;  the  latter  was  sub- 
divided into  two  branches,  that  of  Zukov  and  that  of  Konec, 
of  which  the  latter  became  extinct  in  the  male  line  in  the  person 
of  Prince  Joseph  Clemens  C.  (died  1810).  To  the  Zukov  line 
belonged  Prince  Blichael  Fnedricli  0.,  bom  26th  April  1696, 
died  Grand -Chancellor  of  Lithuania,  13th  August  1775.  His 
nephew,  Friuoe  Adam  Easimir  0.,  bom  ist  December 
1734,  noted  for  his  wealth,  intelligence,  and  learning,  was  a 
candidate  for  the  throne  of  Poland  after  the  death  of  August  III., 
but  was  defeated  through  the  influence  of  the  Empress  Cathe- 
rine of  Russia,  who  favoured  Stanislas  PoniatowslL  After  the 
first  partition  of  Poland,  C,  who  had  extensive  estates  in 
Galicia,  entered  the  Austrian  service,  rose  to  the  rank  of  field- 
marshal,  but  vras  never  untrue  to  Poland.  At  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  he  headed  a  deputation  to  the  Russian  Emperor,  and 
submitted  to  him  a  'Constitution'  for  his  native  country.  C. 
died  at  Sieniawa  in  Galicia,  19th  March  1823.— Prince  Adam 
Oeorg:  0.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom  at  Warsaw,  Jan- 
uary 14,  1770.  After  an  education  at  Edinburgh  and  London, 
he  took  part  in  the  second  Polish  partition  war.  Being  after- 
wards taken  to  St  Petersburg  as  a  hostage,  he  gained  such 
favour  with  the  Emperors  Paul  and  Alexander,  that  he  filled  in 
succession  the  posts  of  ambassador  to  Sardinia,  assistant  to  the 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  curator  of  the  Univeraty  of 
Wilnaibut  when  the  Revolution  of  1830  broke  out,  he  gave  both 
hisheart  and  his  property  to  hiscountrymen,  and  in  1 83 1  became 
head  of  the  National  Government  When  the  insurrection  was 
cmshed,  C.  was  specially  excluded  from  the  amnesty,  and  went 
to  live  in  France.  The  most  notable  event  in  his  later  life  was 
the  hberation  of  his  seifs  in  Galicia  in  1848.  C.  died  at  Mont- 
fermeuil,  near  Paris,  July  26,  1861.  His  eldest  son.  Prince 
Witold,  bom  eHh  June  1S24,  is  the  present  head  of  the  family. 

Ozftslau  (Boh,  Caslimia),  a  town  of  Bohemia,  46  miles 
E.S.E,  of  Prague.  Its  deanery-church  steeple  is  the  highest  in 
Bohemia.  C.  has  manufactures  of  brass,  coffee  Substitutes,  beet- 
root sugar,  and  alcohoL  Pop.  (1869)  5998.  During  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  the  place  suffered  much.  Near  it,  on  the  1 7th  May 
1742,  the  Austrians  were  defeated  by  Friedrich  IL  of  Prassia. 

Czechs,  the  name  given  to  the  branch  of  the  great  Slavic 
family  which  has  spread  farthest  west  Driven  forward  by  the 
Avari(q,  v.),  they  came,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  6th  c. ,  into  the 
country  now  called  Bohemia  (q.  v.).  The  C.  are  first  mentioned 
by  the  earliest  Russian  chranicler,  Nestor,  who  wrote  during  the 
latter  half  of  the  nth  c. 

Language  and  Literature. — The  Czech  language,  a  branch  of 
the  widely-spread  Slavic,  is  spoken  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and, 
with  some  modifications,  by  the  Slovacks  iu  the  N.  of  Hungary. 
In  the  I5tt  c.  it  began  to  be  written  in  Roman  characters.  It 
has  forty-two  open  vowels  and  distinctly  marked  sounds,  is  rich, 
precise,  and  euphonious,  and,  like  the  classical  languages,  is  ruled 
by  quantity  rather  than  accent.  In  its  complicated  grammar  there 
is  a  dual  number,  while  there  is  no  separate  form  for  the  passive 
voice.  The  best  grammars  are  those  of  Burian  (3d  ed.  Vienna, 
1850),  Koneczny  (3d  ed,  Vienna,  1855),  Tomiczek  (4th  ed, 
Prague,  1S65),  The  best  lexicons  are  those  of  Franta-Schnman- 
sky  (Prague,  1859),  Koneczny  (3d  ed.  Vienna,  1855),  Rank 
(1871).  The  Czech  literature  began  to  clearly  develop  itself  in 
the  t3th  c.  ;  there  are  even  traces  of  it  as  far  iJack  as  the  loth  c 
Tlie  rhyming  Chronicle  of  Dalimit  (1314),  the  Manualfor  Chil- 
dren by  Schtitny  (1376),  and  the  poem.  The  Council  of  the  Beasts, 
by  Smil  von  Pardubilz  (1384),  are  famous  books  of  the  times 
before  Huss.  The  era  introduced  by  that  Reformer  (1469- 
1526)  gave  a  powerful  impetus  to  prose.  Doctrinal,  polemi- 
cal, devotional,  and  political  writings  became  numerous.  The 
Travels  of  Postupik  (1464)  and  Lobkowitz  (1493)  may  be  men- 
tioned, and  also  the  political  writings  of  Ctibor  of  Cimbui^  (1494) 
and  Cornelius  of  Wschehrd  (1520).  The  Augustan  age  of  Czech 
literature  was  from  lS26-l62a  During  this  period  the  Bohe- 
mians were  free  and  prosperous.  Literature  was  fostered  by  the 
two  universities  at  Prague,  and  the  language  became  matured. 
The  names  of  Strg^c  and  Lomniki  of  Budecz  are  famous  in 
poetry;  Bartosch  (died  1544),  Sixtas  of  Ottersdorf  (died  1583), 
Blahoslav  (died  1571),  Brzezan  (died  l6lo),  and  Dacicky  (died 
31? 


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CZB 


1629)  are  eminent  as  historians,  and  Benesdiowstty  and  Ab- 
raham of  Gintecrod  as  stiidenta  of  language.  The  Bible  was 
tcanslated  and  published  1579-03.  But  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
(1618-48)  was  an  irreparable  disaster,  not  only  to  the  hterature 
but  to  the  nationnhty  of  the  C.  During  that  war,  the  Jesuits  burnt 
most  of  the  boolis  which  had  been  produced  between  I414  and 
1^35.  An  imperial  decree,  issued  in  1774  and  also  in  1784,  pro- 
hibiting the  use  of  the  Czech  language  in  the  higher  schools, 
was  another  disaster  to  Czech  literature  ;  but  the  writings  of  the 
historians  Count  Kinsliy  (1774),  Pariaelt  (died  1823),  Prochazka 
(died  1804),  the  popular  author  Krainerius  (1783),  and  the 
poet  Jungnmnn  (iSoO  kept  it  alive.  Since  iSiS,  however, 
CMch  literatnre  has  had  fair  scope.  The  language  has  been 
permitted  by  imperial  edict  in  the  higher  schools ;  valuable  re- 
mams  of  old  literature  have  been  discovered,  and  fresh  literature 
has  been  lately  prodnoed.  Poetry,  belles-lettres,  liistory,  archEe- 
olc^y,  and  sdence'  are  assiduously  cultivated.   Among  the  newer 

goets  are  Kollar  (died  1852),  Caelakovsky  (died  185a),  Agnell 
obneider,  Vinariczky,  Tomicek ;  the  fabulist  Zahradnik ;  the 
lyrical  poets  Marek,  Turinski,  Hanka,  Kamaryt,  Chmelinski, 
Stule;  the  idyllic  Langer ;  the  dramatists  Stzepanek,  Machac- 
zek,  Klicpera,  and  Ulclkovsky;  the  didactic  Jabloiiski ;  the 
epic  poets  Huievskovski,  Negedly,  Holy,  and  Wocel.  Among 
the  national  historians  are  Palacky  and  Tomek  ;  Schafarik  and 
Wocel  are  distinguished  in  Czechic  antiquities;  Jungmann, 
Schafarik,  Hanka,  and  Presl  ill  Ciechic  philology.  For  a  his- 
tory of  the  national  literatnre,  see  the  worts  of  Dobrowsky  (2d 
ed.  1818),  Jungmann  (1825),  Count  Thun  (1842),  Wocel  (1845), 
Wenzig  (1855),  and  particularly  Hanus  in  his  Quettenkunde  der 
BShm.  Literalurgeschkhte  (1868). 


OzKQs'tOchau,  or 
of  St  Paul  the   Her 
318 


(Pol.  Jdiitpgora),  in  [lie  government  of  Warsaw.  In  the  church 
of  the  monastery  is  the  (amoHS  dark-brown  Madonna  which  the 
legend  asserts  to  have  been  painted  by  St  Luke,  and  which  h 
made  C.  the  favourite  resort  of  Roman  Catholic  pilgrims 
Russian  Poland.  In  1655,  by  the  help,  it  was  believed,  of  the 
Vii^in,  the  monastery,  manned  by  70  monks  and  150  soldiers, 
withstood  for  thirty-eight  days  io,6oo  Swedes  and  a  part  of  the 
Polish  army.  The  Emperor  Alexander  allowed  the  works  to  be 
demolished  after  C.  came  into  the  possession  of  Russia  in  1813. 
At  the  foot  of  the  mount  on  which  the  monastery  stands  lie  the 
two  towns  of '  Old '  and  '  New '  C,  which  carry  on  a  lively  trade 
in  amulets  and  images.    Pop.  Il,62l. 

Gzem'owiiz  (Slav. '  Black  Town 't,  the  capital  of  the  crown- 
land  of  Bukowina,  in  Austro-Hungary,  on  the  Pmth,  13S  miles 
S.E.  of  Leraberg  by  railway.  It  has  a  Greet  cathedra],  hard- 
ware manufactures,  and  a  conaderable  trade  between  the  Mol- 
dau  and  Bessarabia  in  timber,  wool,  skins,  cattle,  and  brandy. 
Over  the  river,  here  760  foet  wide,  stretches  a  bridge  of  six 
arches.     Pop.  (1872)  33,884. 

Ozer'ny,  Gteorg,  popularly  AiijB(^?g?  ('Black  George'),  a 
Servian  leader,  was  born  at  Vishevac,  near  Belgrade,  December 
21,  1771,  and  was  originally  a  swineherd  and  drover.  He  was  led 
to  take  an  active  part  against  the  Turks  by  the  plunder  of  his 
cottage  in  iSoi  by  janissaries.  Gathering  round  him  a  band 
of  discontented  Servians,  and  secretly  supported  by  Russia,  he 
raised  an  insurrection  against  the  Turks,  and  nltiinately  cap- 
tured Belgrade.  He  was  even  recognised  in  1808  by  the  Porte 
as  Prince  of  Servia,  but  a  new  struggle  with  Turkey  taking  place, 
he  had  to  Hee  to  Russia,  and  then  to  Austria  in  1S12.  C. 
returned  to  Servia  in  1817,  but  was  murdered  in  the  July  of  that 
year  at  the  instigation  of  Mnce  Milosch,  the  new  ruler  of  Ser' 
When  the  latter  was  deposed  in  1842,  C.'s  second  son,  Ales- 
ander,  known  as  Karadgordjsniich  ('  son  of  Black  Geoige '), 
was  elected  his  successor,  but  was  obliged  to  resign  in  1858^ 
See  Forsyth's  Slsvonmn  Frcruineis  (Lond.  1876), 


y  Google 


^- 


TflE  GLOB^  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


D. 


formed  llie  fourth  letter  In  the  Phoenician 
alphabet,  and  it  holds  the  same  place 
in  all  the  alphabets  derived  from  that 
urce.  Its  Semitic  name  was  daUlk,  which 
cans  '  a  door,'  and  is  femiliar  to  us  throngh 
i  Greek  equivalent,  delta.  This  name  is 
thought  to  be  derived  from  the  original  form  of 
the  letter  (A),  like  a  tent-door,  which  is  the  same 
both  in  Fhcenician  and  Greelc,  and  is  scarcely  altered 
in  the  Roman  capital.  The  pronunciation  of  the 
letter  D  has  also  retained  a  similar  Qniformity.  The 
sound  which  it  enpresses  in  English,  it  expresses 
I  everywhere,  except  in  the  Spanish  and  modem  Greek 
languages,  in  both  of  which  it  is  pronounced  like  tk. 
D  belongs  to  the  class  of  consonants  called  Dentals, 
and  is  readily  interchangeable  with  the  other  members  of  the 
same  class,  especially  wifli  th  and  t.  Examples  of  this  change 
are  thios  in  Greek  and  dms  in  Latin,  dell  or  daU  in  EngliSi 
and  thoX  in  German.  A  good  example  of  a  double  change 
is  iod  in  German,  which  in  English  becomes  '  death.'  D  is 
filso  interchanged,  though  less  r^ularly,  with  /  and  r,  Odia- 
sens  and  dairu  in  Greek  correspond  to  Ulysses  aoA  lacrima  in 
Latin ;  and  in  Latin  itself,  ar-cesso  is  only  a  surviving  archaic 
form  of  ad'caso.  As  b  has  an  affinity  for  wi,  so  D  «ihibits  a  ten- 
dency to  afEbc  itself  after  «,  originally  as  a  mere  euphonic  change 
in  protnmciation,  but  finally  as  a  recognised  alteration  in  spell- 
ing. Thus,  the  Latin  tina-  lieeomes  the  English  '  tender ; '  and 
'  kind '  is  <nily  another  form  of  '  kin. '  When  followed  by  J,  D 
sometimes  becomes_?i  as  '  journal '  from  diumus;  and  when  con- 
joined with  s  it  forms  the  origin  of  e.  As  a  numeral,  D  stands 
ibr  500,  being  manifest^  a  condensation  of  It).  As  an  abbrevia- 
tion, it  is  best  known  as  standing  for  doctor  in  D.D.  and  M.D. ; 
and  d-d.  is  to  be  understood  as  meaning  dotto  dedit. 

n  the  scale  of  C 

Dab  (Platsssa  limafida),  a  genus  of  Teleostean  fishes  belong- 
ing to  the  family  fleuroneclida,   or  Flat-fishes.     The  D.   is 
recognised  fey  the  rough  or 
^^■nM^BBMk  somewhat  spiny  nature  of  its 

m^^^^^B^^^^  back,  henc^  the  specific  name 

4^/K^^^^^^^t^L  /ivMHifa  or 'fite-haclced.'   It 

^I^H^^^^^^^^^^^^K  is  of  lighter  cojoi^r  ^an  the 
fWMJBR^^^^^^^Hm^H  allied  Flounder  (q.  v,),  and 
M^^^H^^B^y^  the  lateral  line  is  more  curved 
^'WK^^^^^r  <^han  in  the  latter  fish.     The 

^^^^S^^^^^  average  length  is  I2  inches. 

j-,^j^  The  smooth  or  lemon  D.  {P. 

microcepbala)  is  a  second  spe- 
cies, with  a  snialkr  liead  and  still  lighter  colour  than  the  com- 
mon D. 
Dab-Chiok.     See  Grebe. 

Da  Capo  (ItsJ. '  from  the  beginning ')  and  Jisl  Segno  (Ital. 
'  from  the  sign '),  terms  useij  in  mnsic  to  indicate  "■  repetition 
from  the  commencement,  or  from  the  mark  58";  respectively, 

Da«o'a  {Sansk.  Da-akM, '  the  hidden  goddess,'  from  a  statue 
of  Dui^a  found  there),  the  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name, 
in  the  province  of  Bengal,  British  India,  on  the  Burha  Gunga 
{'  Old  Ganges '),  40  miles  K  of  Goalband,  the  present  terminus 
of  the  Eastern  Bengal  Railway,  and  190  miles  N,E.  of  Calcutta, 
across  the  Gangetic  delta.  It  1^  180  mosques,  jao  Brahmanical 
temples,  a  Government  college,  numerou?  sdiools,  an  hospital, 
and  several  ruined  palaces,  ^o  ten  bridges,  thirteen  ghSts,  seve- 


ral bazaars  and  public  fountains.  But  it  is  no  loiter  celebrated 
for  its  manufacture  of  striped  and  figured  muslins  and  delicate 
Kasheeda  or  embroidered  cotton  cloth,  having,  indeed,  few  in- 
dustries now  beyond  the  production  of  lac,  dye,  soap,  cheese,  and 
the  gold  and  silver  ornaments  which  find  a  market  in  Calcutta 
em  account  of  their  ingenious  and  original  designs.  As  many  as 
from  200  to  300  elephants  are  usually  kept  in  the  dep8ts  here  for 
sale.  In  1871  the  lainlall  at  D.  was  82  inches,  and  the  mean 
temperature  was  72°  Fahr.  Pop.  (1872)  69,212,  including  a 
small  number  of  Portuguese,  Gi'eek,  and  Armenian  mercliants. 
In  1608  D.  was  made  the  seat  of  aovemment  of  the  Nabobs  of 
Bengal.  It  reached  the  height  of  its  prosperity  under  Aurung- 
ffibe,  and  later  was  visiled  by  the  Portuguese,  Dutch,  and 
Freneh,  who  here  ra^cted  factories.  The  British  gained  pos- 
session of  the  city  and  sl;^e  in  1765,  but  descendants  of  the 
native  ruler  were  granted  allowances  till  as  late  as  1845. — The 
district,  which  is  intersected  by  numerous  rivers,  yields  great 

Slantities  of  rice,  tea,  indigo,  &c.,  and  has  manufactures  of  coarse 
Oth,  cocoa-nut  oil,  country  paper,  and  iron  and  brass  imple- 
ments. Area,  2897  sq.  miles ;  pop.  (1872)  1,852,993,  of  whom 
lpOSO.131  are  Mohammedans,  793,789  Hindus,  only  actg  being 
Europeans,  and  7245  native  Christians.  The  prevailing  lan- 
guage is  Bengali. 

Sace,  Dart,  or  Dare  {Lnuiscm  vulgaris),  a  genus  of  fresh- 
water Tdeostean  fishes,  included  in  the  femily  Cyfritdd^  (q.  v,) 
of  that  order.  It  is  allied 
to  the  Chub  {q.  v.).  Roach 
(q.  v.).  Barbel  (q.  v.),  and 
Bleak  (q.  v.),  and  is  gene- 
rally found  in  slowly-running 
streams  in  England  and  on 
the  Continent  It  is  a  dullish 
blue  on  the  upper,  and  white 
on  the  under  parts  ;  the  gill- 
covers  and  chedis  being  sil- 
veiy  white.  The  average 
weight  is  about  three-quarters  .,_  _  , — 

of  a  pound,  but  a  half-pound  ~' 

fish  is  COnridered  a  good  tajife.  i>ace. 

In  sljape  jt  is  somewhat  elongated.  Tlie  scales  are  smaller  than 
those  of  the  roach.  The  flesh  is  not  of  particularly  fine  quality. 
The  D.  js  fished  for  with  line  and  float,  tmted  with  red-worm, 
lobworm,  gentles,  or  files.  It  is  very  voracious,  and  very  lively 
in  its  movements.     The  spawning  sesison  is  in  April  and  May. 

Da'cia,  the  countiy  of  the  Daci,  originally  called  Getm,  a 
people  of  Thracian  origin,  comprehended,  in  its  widest  accepta- 
tion, the  countries  now  known  as  Hungary  (K  of  the  Theiss), 
Transylvania,  the  Bnkowina,  the  S.  ofGalicia,  Moldavia  (W. 
of  the  Pruth},  Wallachia,  and  the  Banat  of  Temesvar.  Of  the 
history  of  the  Daci  before  the  time  of  Philip  of  Macedon  almost 
nothing  is  known,  but  even  then  (335  B.C.)  they  were  a  power- 
ful race,  and  had  established  themsdves  on  both  sides  of  tlie 
Danube,  In  292  B.C.  they  compelled  the  Thracian  Icing,  Lysi- 
machus,  who  had  invaded  their  territory,  to  surrender  with  his 
whole  army.  Curio,  the  first  Roman  general  who  penetrated 
as  far  N.  as  the  Danube,  did  not  dare  to  attack  them.  Augus- 
tus, ifi  10  B.c,,  sent  Lentuhis  against  them,  but  without  success. 
From  this  time  the  wa^s  between  the  Romans  and  the  Dacians 
were  frequent;  and  eventually  the  latter,  under  their  king, 
Decehalus,  ohtsuned  such  a  decided  advantage  over  Domitian 
as  to  compel  him  to  accept  their  terms  and  pay  a  yearly  tri- 
bute. Thus  matters  continued  tiU  Trajan,  in  loi  A.D.,  set  out 
through  Pannonia,' crossed  the  Theiss,  marclied  along  the  valley 
of  the  M.aros  info  Transylvania,  and  defeated  them  in  a  great 


vGooqIc 


DAC 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DAG 


battle  near  Thorda,  on  a  field  called  to  this  day  Frat  de 
Traian  (Trajaa's  field).  Decebalus,  however,  soon  broke  the 
conditions  of  peiice  imposed  by  the  Emperor,  and  in  104  A.D. 
'I'tajan  again  set  out  against  them.  The  Daci,  unable  to 
defend  tlieir  capital,  fired  it  and  fled ;  while  their  leader,  to 
avoid  captivity,  stabbed  iumself  D,  now  became  a  Roman 
province ;  colonists  were  sent  thither ;  a  bridge  was  built  across 
the  Danube,  and  the  country  was  intersected  by  three  great  roads. 
In  the  time  of  Aurelian  (370-275  a.d.)  the  Romans  abandoned  D. 
to  the  Goths.  After  submittiiiB  to  the  Gepidie,  Lombards,  and 
others,  it  fell  imder  the  dominion  of  the  Magyars  in  the  9th  c. 
See  Wilkinson's  Wallachia  and  Moldavia,  and  Paget's  Hungary 
and  Transylvania. 

Sa'oier,  Andc^,  a  French  scholar  and  critic,  was  born  of 
Protestant  parents,  near  Castres,  in  Languedoc,  April  6,  1651. 
After  studymg  at  Sanmur  under  Leftvre,  whose  daughter  Anne 
he  afterwards  married,  he  went  to  Paris  in  1672.  There  he  was 
employed  to  prepare  for  the  Dauphin's  use  an  edition  of  various 
classics,  known  as  the  Delp&in  Ediiioa.  D.  and  his  wife  re- 
nounced Protestantism  in  1685.  He  became  librarian  of  the 
Louvre,  member  of  the  Academie  des  Inscriptions,  and  secre- 
taiT  of  the  Academie  Fransaise.  He  died  September  18,  1722. 
D.  s  once  brilliant  reputation  as  a  critic  has  greatly  faded  ;  bis 
editions  and  translations  are  very  indifferent.  See  Nic^ron, 
Mhuares. — His  wife,  Aade  D.,  bom  at  Saumur  in  1651, 
rivalled  her  husband  in  erudition,  and  shared  in  his  edito- 
rial labours.  Her  chief  work,  a  translation  of  the  Iliad  (1711), 
involved  her  in  a  controversy  with  Lamotte.  She  attacked 
him,  said  Voltaire,  like  the  head  of  a  collie,  and  he  answered 
like  a  polite  and  witty  woman.  In  the  great  controversy  as  to 
the  respective  merits  of  ancient  and  modern  literature,  along 
with  La  Fontaine  aiid  Poileau  she  advocated  the  ancients  against 
Ferrault,  Lamotte,  and  others.  Madame  D.  executed  transla- 
tions of  Terence,  Flautus,  Anacreon,  and  Aristophanes.  She 
died  August  17,  1720.  See  Sainte-Beuve's  article  Sur  Madame 
D.  in  his  CauserUs  dii  Ltindi. 

Daooits'  (Beng.  '  robbers '},  a  term  used  in  India  for  a  class 
of  robbers.  They  live  apart  in  a  semi-savage  State,  and  some- 
times go  in  gangs  of  forty  or  fifty. 

Saoo'ta.    See  Dakota. 

Bocryd'iiuo,  m  botany,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order 
Taxaces,  indigenous  to  New  Zealand,  Tasmania,  and  the  E. 
Indies.  The  principal  New  Zealand  species  is  I>.  taxifiUitm, 
which  in  a  few  cases  reaches  a  height  of  200  feet,  and  yields  a 
valuable  timber.  D.  FranklinU,  tlie  Huon  pine  of  Tasmania,  is 
a  noble  tree,  yielding  very  valuable  timber  as  well  as  splendid 
spars  for  ships. 

JiBXi'tyl  (Gr.  doilylos,  'e,  finger,'  because  each  finger  con- 
sists of  one  long  joint  and  two  short  ones)  is  the  name  of  a 
trisyllabic  foot  in  Latin  and  Greek  versification,  of  which  the 
first  syllable  is  long,  and  the  other  two  short,  as  cirmma.  In 
dactylic  verse  the  D.  is  the  prevailing  foot,  and  the  only  other 
foot  admissible  in  it  is  the  spondee.  The  most  important  of  the 
dactylic  verses  is  the  Hexameter  (q.  v.).  In  English  verse  a 
D.  consists  of  one  accented  and  two  unaccented  syllables,  as 
l^iacy. 

Datftylis.    See  Cocksfoot  Ghass, 

Dactylop'teniB.    See  Fi.ying  Guenard. 

Daotylorhiz'a,  a  disease  of  carrots,  turnips,  and  other  agrl- 
cultaral  plants,  in  which  the  root  divides  and  becomes  hard  and 
worthless.  It  is  commonly  called  '  fingers  and  toes. '  Mr 
Berkley  thinks  that  it  is  not  properly  a  disease,  but  only  a 
tendency  in  the  plant  to  revert  to  the  wild  state,  and  can  only 
be  remedied  iiy  a  careful  selection  of  seed,  It  mttst  be  disi 
ringuished  from  'ajibury,'  which  is  caused  by  the  attacks  of 

Da'do  (Ilal.  'a  die,'  'a  cube'],  in  classical  architecture,  de^ 
notes  the  solid  block  or  cube  which  forms  the  body  of  a  pedes- 
tal between  the  base  mouldings  and  the  cornice.  The  name  is 
also  applied  to  wainscoting  about  the  height  of  a  chidr-back, 
which  resembles  a  continuous  pedestal  round  a  room. 

Bador',  a  town  of  Belnchistan,  5  miles  E.  of  the  Bolan 
Pass.  The  principal  products  of  the  neighbourhood  are  cotton, 
sugar,  madder,  and  several  kinds  of  grain.  Pop.  about  3000, 
320 


The  Brhish  here  defeated  a  Kelat  force  in  November  1840. 
The  heat  at  D.  is  so  intense  that  it  has  reddened  the  unbumt 
bricks  of  the  ancient  sepulchres. 

Sse'dalus  (Gr.  '  the  cunning  worker '),  a  famous  artist  and 
mechanician  of  the  heroic  age  of  Greece,  is  represented  as  an 
Athenian  of  the  royal  race  of  the  Erechtheidte,  being,  according 
to  some,  the  son,  accordingto  others  the  grandson,  of  Eupalamus, 
the  son  of  Erechtheas.  To  D.  is  ascribed  the  invention  of  car- 
pentry and  most  of  its  tools — the  saw,  the  axe,  the  plumb-line, 
the  auger — and  glue.  Among  his  greatest  achievements  in 
sculpture  and  architecture  were  the  Cow  of  Pasiphae,  the  Cretan 
Labyrinth,  the  Colymbethra  near  Megara  in  Sicily,  the  impreg- 
nable rock-fortress  and  dty  near  Agrigentum,  in  wliich  were  the 
palace  and  treasury  of  Cocalus ;  the  temples  of  ApoUo  at  Cumie 
and  Capua,  that  of  Artemis  Britomartis,  in  Crete ;  the  Propy- 
Is^on  to  the  temple  of  Hephcestus  at  Memphis ;  an  altar  on  the 
Libyan  coast  sculptured  with  lions  and  dolphins,  and  many 
wooden  statues  of  gods  and  heroes.  In  naval  architecture  the 
invention  of  the  mast  and  yards  is  attributed  to  him,  and  that  of 
sails  to  his  son  Icarus — the  fabled  wings  by  which  they  essayed 
to  cross  the  ^gean. 

Ssen'dele,  Hermaim  "Willem,  a  Dutch  commander,  was 
bomatHattem,  inOelderiand,  in  1762,  quitted  Holland  in  1787 
in  consequence  of  a  revolution,  and  in  1 793  aided  Dumourier  with 
the  volunteer  coips  caUed  Frcmcs  Strangers.  He  held  important 
commands  in  the  Republican  army  until  1S03,  when  he  fell 
under  suspicion  and  left  the  service.  Three  years  later,  however, 
he  was  restored  by  the  French  King  of  Holland.  He  defeated 
the  Prussians,  conquered  E,  Friesland,  and  was  made  general  of 
the  Dutch  cavalry.  In  1S07  he  was  appointed  goveVnor-general 
of  all  the  Dutch  possessions  in  the  E.  Indies.  D.  ruled  Java 
from  180S  to  181 1,  and  compiled  a  valuable  work,  Slaat  der 
Neda-liaidschtn  Oost-Indische?i  Bezitlingen.  On  the  fall  of 
Napoleon,  the  new  King  of  Holland  retained  his  services,  f 
D.  was  engaged  in  colonial  government  till  his  death,  2d  May 
1818. 

Daffodil,  or  Dafiy-down-dilly  (a  corruption  of  the  Gr. 
aiphodil"!).  It  is  doubtful  if  the  yellow  D.  (Narcissus  pstudo- 
nareissm),  now  naturalised  in  Scotland,  is  a  native  of  that 
country.  It  is,  however,  indigenous  to  England  and  most  pa 
of  Europe.  There  are  Several  other  species,  all  natives 
southern  countries,  more  particularly  of  tliose  bordering  the 
Mediterianean,  Narcissus  poelicas  is  one  of  the  most  common 
white  cultivated  forms.  'The  msh-D.  is  N.  triandrus,  an- 
other species  of  the  section  to  which  it  belongs ;  the  Peru- 
vian D.  is  Istnene  Ataaacaes  ;  the  sea-D.,  Ismene  calalhina.  The 
bulbs  are  puigative  and  emetic  For  a  description  of  the  species 
see  Baker's  recent  Synapsis  of  the  genus  (1874), 

Dagg'er  (Celt,  dag,  '  a  point '),  a  short,  pointed,  two-edged 
sword  or  rapier^  used  by  all  peoples  from  prehistoric  times 
the  present  epoch.  The  broad-bladed  short  sword  of  the  and 
Greeks  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  this  weapon  of  offence,  of 
which  almost  every  country  has  its  own  peculiar  form.  The 
poniard,  dirk,  French  misericords,  or  'D.  of  mercy,'  Italian 
stiletto  and  anilace  (Fi'ench  langue  de  iteaf),  Malay  creese  or 
kriss,  and  Persian  kaman,  are  all  varieties  of  the  D.  The  mark 
of  reference  +  is  called  a  D,  or  obelisk. 

DaghfiBtan'  (Tartar,  Tagh  staa,  'mountainous  country '),  a 
province  in  the  lieulenancy  of  Caucasus,  Russia  in  Asia,  on  the 
W.  side  of  the  Caspian.  Area,  11,040  sq,  miles;  pop.  (1871) 
448,299.  It  is  traversed  by  spurs  of  the  Caucasus.  In  the 
valleys  good  crops  of  grain  are  produced,  also  of  silk,  saffron, 
madder,  flax,  and  tobacco.  The  population  is. composed  of 
Lesghians,  Turks,  Tartai-s,  D,  Arabs,  Armenians,  and  Jews. 

I>ag;obI^  or  Baghopa,     See  Tope. 

Dag'obert  I.,  sumamed  the  Great,  one  of  the  Merwing 
kings  of  France,  He  was  born  about  6qO  ;  succeeded  his  father, 
Hhlotar  II,,  in  628;  warred  successfully  agtunst  Gascons,  Bre- 
tons, Saxons,  and  Slavonians  ;  first  opp^>sed  and  then  favoured 
the  clergy ;  reformed  the  Prankish  laws ;  died  at  Epinay,  and 
was  buried  at  St  Denis,  m  638,  He  was  an  able  bnt  a  cruel 
and  licentious  king,  He  is  said,  after  conquering  the  Saxo  , 
to  have  caused  all  those  whose  stature  was  greater  than  the 
length  of  his  sword  to  be  slain. 


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DAH 


Ba^be,  or  Dagen,  a  Russian  island  in  the  Baltic,  N.  of 
Osel,  and  included  in  the  Government  of  Esllionia,  has  an  a 
of  420  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  10,000.  It  is  separated  fi 
Vorma  Island,  on  the  E.  by  Mago  Sound,  and  forms,  from  .., 
rocky  character,  the  chief  danger  to  ships  entering  the  Gulf  of 
Finland,  Its  capital  is  Keinis.  On  the  W.,  the  promontory 
of  Dagerort  has  a  lighthouse. 

Da'gon  (Heb.  dag,  '  fish '),  the  national  deity  of  the  Philis- 
tines, resembling  in  form  the  body  of  a  fish,  with  the  head  and 
hands  of  a,  man  (1  Sam,  v.).  Like  the  Indian  Vishnu  and  Baby- 
lonian Odalcon,  it  was  a  symbol  of  water  and  of  the  generative 
and  vivifying  principles  of  nature,  which  produce  their  effects 
through  the  influence  of  water ;  for  which  the  fish,  with  ' 
immense  fecundity,  was  specially  adapted.    The  correspond 

female  element  vras  the  Syrian  goddess  Atargates  (2  Mace 

26)  or  Derceto,     See  Layard's  Nineaeh,  Sic,  Stark's  Gosa,  and 
Selden'a  Z>e  Diis  Sytiis, 

Daguerre'otype,  a  positive  photographic  process  named 
after  M.  Daguerre,  who,  m  1839,  made  known  to  the  Academy 
at  Paris  that  photographs  of  great  beauty,  in  nicety  of  detail  and 
gradation  of  light  and  shade,  could  be  produced  by  developing 
by  means  of  mercaiy  the  latent  image  obta.iiied  on  a  sensitive 
surface  of  salts  of  silver.  The  details  of  the  process  are  as  fol- 
lows : — A  copper  plate,  coated  on  one  side  with  a  film  of  silver, 
is  highly  polished,  and  rendered  sensitive  to  light  by  being 
esposed  in  darkness  to  the  vapour  of  iodine,  thus  forming  an 
iodide  of  silver  of  a  reddish-yellow  colour.  On  exposure  of  the 
iodised  plate  in  the  camera  for  a  short  time,  a  latent  image  is 
formed  which  is  developed  by  the  vapour  of  mercury,  which  ad- 
heres to  the  parts  a.tfected  by  light,  or,  in  other  words,  the  lights 
of  the  picture,  while  the  shadows  are  represented  by  the  bladt- 
ened  pohshed  metal.  The  picture  is  al^erwards  fixed  by  uniner- 
sion  in  a  solution  of  hyposulphite  of  sodium.  .  It  was  afterwards 
found  that  the  image  acquired  greater  strength  and  an  improved 
appearance  by  being  coated  with  a  tioiling  solution  of  hyposul- 
phite of  gold.  The  most  important  improvement  that  has  been 
effected  upon  the  original  process  is  that  the  silvered  plate  is 
rendered  extremely  sensitive  by  employing  the  vapours  of  iodine 
and  bromine  successively.  The  D.  process  is  now  seldom  ptac- 
tised  ill  Great  Britain, 

D'Agueaeeaii,     See  Aguesseact. 

Dahl,  Jotann  Christian  Clausen,  a  Norwegian  painter, 
bom  at  Bergen,  February  24,  17S8.  After  residing  at  Copen- 
hagen, and  visiting  the  Tyrol  and  Rome,  he  was  chosen  Pro- 
fessor  of  Painting  a,t  Dresden,  where  he  died,  October  14,  1857. 
Hia  works  consist  of  powerful  landscape  and  marine  paintings. 
Among  others  may  be  mentioned  '  Winter  in  Zeeland.'  '  View 
of  Beigeti,'  'Scene  in  the  Neighboiirhood  of  Christiania,'  and 
'  Winlei-  Scene  on  the  Banks  of  the  Elbe.' 

Dahl'gren,  John '  A.^  a  distinguished  officer  of  the  Uniied 
States  navy,  was  bom  in  Pennsylvania  in  iSlo,  rose  to  eminence 
during  the  civil  war,  and,  after  the  death  of  Admiral  Foote, 
was  appointed  to  the  supreme  command  of  the  national  fleet. 
He  iVas  admu-al  of  the  squadron  that  blockaded  Charleston,  and 

ferformed  most  efficient  service.  .  D.  died  at  Washington,  I  Ith 
aly  1870.  He  is  perhaps  "most  widely  known  in  Europe  through 
the  invention  of  a  cannon  called  by  his  name,  and  which  has 
been  introduced  into  the  United  States  navy,  .  This  gun  is  con- 
stmcled  with  a  very  heavy  mass  of  metal  at  the  breech  end ;  in 
front  of  the  tnmnion  it  is  light.  ■  He  wrote  a  Retort  en  Thirty- 
iwo-Fmnders  {iZifi),  Shells  and  Shell-Gum  (\%l(i),  &c.  ,  .  ; 
-  Balilia,  a  well-known  genus  of  Herbaceous  plants  belonging 
lo  tlie  natural  order  Composite,  cultivated  in  gardens  for. the 
beauty  of  its  flowers.  ■,  It  is  a  native  of  Mexico,  and  waa  named 
in  honour  of  Dahl,  a  pupil  of  Lmnieus  (q.  v.),  though;  owing 
to,  the  name  having  been  preoccupied  by  another  plant,  it  is  also 
known,  especially,  on  the  Continent,  by  the  name  of  Georgina.- 
More  than  2000  cultivated  varieties  of  this  plant  are  described, 
but  all  are  descended  from  two  wild  ^ecies — viz.;  D.  superflua 
and  D.  fi-astanea ;  or,  according  to  some,-  these  two  are  only 
varieties  of  each  other,  and  may  be  referred .  to  one  type,  3. 
vaiiabilis.  In  Mexico  the  D.  grows  on  sandy  meadows  5000  feet 
above  the  aea,  and  though  introduced  iiito  .England  in  1789,  it 
was  not  thoroughly  established  as'  s  gardeii  pknt-  until  1814. 
Owing  to  careful  cultivation,  its  garden  varieties  have  now 
arrived  at  great  perfection,  chiefly  by  .'artificial  selection '  and 
116 


Hybridismg  (q.  v.),  and  the  production  of  double-fiowered  forms 
In  Mexico  the  bulbs  are  used  as  food,  and,  owhig  to  tlie  quantity 
of  Intdiaie  (q.  v.)  which  they  contain,  are  imtritinus.  In  igoo 
they  were  introduced  into  France  for  that  punjose,  but  on 
account  of  their  acridity  and 
'medicinal  flavour',  weie 
disliked  by  men  and  cattle 
and  the  attempt  to  grow 
them  on  a  large  scale  has 
now     been     discontinued 


early  frosts,  and  the  tuber's 
have  to  be  laken  np  and 
stored  away  in  winter  out  of 
the  reach  of  frosts. 

Dahl'mann,  Friedricli 
Chriatoph,  a  German  his 
torian  of  Swedish  descent 
was  bom  at  Wismar,  May 
17,  1785.  After  studying  at 
the  Universities  of  Copen  Dahl  a  \      a 

hagen  andHalle.he  devoted 

himself  to  history'  the  fVuits  of  vh  ch  were  shown  particularly  in 
his  Forschungen  auf.  dem  GeUete  der  Deutstkm  Geschkhtt  (Alt. 
i822-a3),  and  his  edition  of  the  Chronik  von  Dil&marsen  (1827), 
D,,  who  had  been  appomted  secretary  to  the  States  of  Slesvig- 
Holsteiii,  allowed  himself  to  be  drawn  into  the  arena  of  politics, 
and  expressing  loo  independent '  opinions,  was  refused  the  pro- 
motion he  would  otherwise  have  obtained.  So  he  accepted,  iii 
1829,  the  Professorship  of  Political  Science  at  Gottijigen,  which 
post,  however,  he  resigned  when  King  Ernst  suppresaed  the 
Hanoverian  constitution..  D.  then  lived  for  a  time  in  Leipsic 
and  Jena.  In  1842  he  accepted  the  chair  of  History  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Bonn.  The  Revolution  of  1848  brought  back  D.  to 
public  life.  He  became  the  head  of  the  constitutional  parlia- 
mentary Liberals  in  the  German  Diet,  and  was  at  one  time  asked 
to  form  a  ministry.  Foiled,  however,  by  the  Reactionary  party, 
he  retired  finally  from  political  life,  and  devoted  himself  entirely 
to  teaching  and  writing.  He  died  at  Bonn,  December  5,  i860, 
leaving  imhhished  a  history  of  Friedrich  II.  of  Prussia,  to  whidi 
he  had  set  himself  during  the  last  years  of  his  life.  D.  has  lelt 
behind  him  many  valuable  historical  works,  including  Quellen- 
kunde  dtr  Deutschtn  Cesckuhte  {i%-^o ;  3d  ed.  1871);  Geschichte 
Ddriemarks  (3  vols.  Hamb,  1S40-43)  ;  Geschichte  der  ERglischsit 
Hevqlulinn  (Leips.  1844;  6th  ed.  1864);  and  CisMchte  der 
Francos.  Revolution  {Leips.  184S ;  3d  ed.  1864).  See  Biogra- 
phy o/D.  by  Springer  (1870). 

Dahomey',  a  native  state  of  W.  Afiica,  on  the  coast  of 
Upper  Guinea,  extends  from  the  Volta  river  on  the  W.  to  Fort 
Badagry  on  the  E. ,  and  has  an  estimated  area  of  3960  sq.  miles, 
and  a  pop.;  of  some  iSo.Oaa  The  country  rises  in  a  gently 
sloping  plane  for  about  200  miles  inland  to  the  base  of  (he 
Kong  Mountains,  has  a  rich  soil  of  reddish  clay,  is  watered  by 
many  minor  streams,  and  yields  i^otton,  sugar,  tobacco,  indigo, 
yams,  melons,  oranges,  limes,  pine-apples,  and  other  fruits,  and 
beans,'  pease,  maize,  millet,  and  Gumea-com  in  abundance. 
Wild  animals  are  numerous,  including  the  lion,  liger,  elephant, 
hytena,  the  boa,  and  other  reptiles.  .  The  inhabitants  are  a  tall, 
well-made,  and  warlike,  but  savage  race,  partly  employed  in 
agricultiire,  and  practising  a.  rude  form  of  fetish- worship  made 
up  of  ridiculous  ceremonials  and  extensive  hiunan  sacrifices.  All 
the'females  in  the  slate  belong  nominally  to  the  king,  and  at  a 

fand  yearly' festival  there  is  a  general  distribution  of  wives, 
he  present  king  has  of  late  years  (1876)  given  great  annoyance 
to  European  traders.     He  is  said  to  possess  an  army  of  15,000 
trobpsj-of  whom'  2560  are  Amazona,  vowed  to  celibacy,  and  dis- 
tinguished for'their^blobdthii^tiness.     There  are  many  villages, 
but  the  bnly  considerable  town  is  Abomey  or  Agbome,  the  capi- 
1,  sitiiafed  95  iniltes'inland  from  its  small  port  of  Whydah.     It 
surrounded  by  jn'ud-^built  walls  and  by  a  ditch  some  four  miles 
cheumferbnce,"  but  only  contains  some  20,000  inhabitants,  tlie 
houses  beiiig  widely  scattered  within  the  enclosure.     See  Bur- 
ton's Mission  to  GeUU,  KingofD.  (Lond.  1864),  and  Skertclily's 
D.  as  it  is  (U,nd,.  I^IZ). 

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Dali'ra,  a  maritime  distnct  of  Algeria  'hotween  Oran  and 
Algiers,  eiiiefly  notable  in  connect  on  with  ihe  1  o  r  ble  massacre 
by  the  French  of  the  Ouled  Rtahs,  a  Kabyle  tube  that  fought 
stubbomljr  in  the  revolts  of  Abd  el  Kader  In  June  1845  this 
tribe,  which  had  sought  refnge  in  some  eatenstve  caves  refused 
to  surrender  to  Colonel  Pelissier,  who  thereupon  choked  the 
entrances  to  their  retreat  with  fescines  and  engulfed  the  whole 
band,  numbering  some  Soo,  111  a  lemble  death  by  s  iffocation 
and  bumiog. 

Sailld  (Lat.  DaUtt:us\  Jean  a  Fiench  Protestant  tlieologian, 
born  at  Cliatelherault,  6tli  January  1594.  Alkr  fi  nh  ng  his 
Studies  at  Saumur,  he  wasintrubted  in  i6izwith  ihe  education  of 
the  grandsons  of  Duplessis-Momay.  In  1625  he  was  appointed 
pastor  and  professor  at  Saumur ;  the  following  year  he  was 
ti-anslated  to  Paris,  where  he  was  a  pastor  for  forty-tliree  years. 
D.  died  April  15,  1670.  Among  his  warmest  friends  were  Con- 
rart  and  Balzac  His  masterpiece  is  his  Tr(ati  de  VEmploi  des 
Saints  Fires  pour  le  ^gement  des  diffh-rnds  qui  stmt  Aujow^hui 
en  la  Religum  (Gen.  1632 ;  Eng.  trans.  1651),  in  wMch  he  did 
much  to  shatter  the  anthority  of  the  fathers.  Among  his  other 
wridnga  may  be  mentioned  his  Apologie  pour  les  £glises  Ri- 
Joritties  (1633;  Engl.  (rans.  1653),  and  La  Foy  fondie  siir  ies 
Sainles  Ventures  (Char.  1634),  and  zo  vols,  of  eermons.  Even 
his  adversaries  admit  his  important  services  to  the  history  of  the 
Church  by  his  learned  researches  into  church  antiquities.  See 
Abr^gd  de  la  Vie  lie  DailU,  aivec  le  Catalogue  de  ses  Outrages,  by 
his  son,  Adrien  Daille  (Gen.  and  Par.  1670). 

Daily  Council  was  the  court  which,  in  Scotland,  immediaf  e!y 
preceded  the  institution  of  the  College  of  Justice  (q.  v.),  and  from 
which  the  present  court  derives  its  title  of  'Council  and  Session.' 
See  Court  of  Sesston, 

Daimiel,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Spain,  province  of  Ciudad- 
Real,  on  the  Azuar,  20  miles  E.N.E.  of  Cindad-Real  by  railway. 
It  has  a  good  Gothic  cliurch,  an  hospital,  fine  public  gardens  and 
promenades;  its  industries  chiefly  consist  in  the  production  of 
woollens,  linens,  blond  lace,  leather,  and  pottery.     Pop.  12,500. 

Dair-el-Eam'ar,  or  Deir-el-Eamr,  a  town  in  Syria,  on  a 
Elope  of  Lebanon,  13  miles  S.S.E.  of  Beyrout,  is  the  capital  of 
the  Druses  (q,  v,).  The  inhabitants,  who  are  estremely  indus- 
trious in  cultivating  the  mulberry,  the  olive,  and  the  vine,  number 
about  8000.  Near  D.  are  the  ruins  of  the  palace  of  the  Emic 
Beshir,  mler  of  the  Lebanon  from  1788  to  iS4a 

Dai'ry,  the  department  of  a  farm  connected  with  the  pro- 
duction of  inilk,  the  manufacture  of  butter  and  cheese,  and  the 
various  industries  arising  out  of  thekeeping  of  milch-cows.  The 
word  is  derived  from  Uie  old  English  d^,  a  servant-maid  in 
charge  of  cows  and  milk.  The  D.  on  a  mixed  ^irm  is  generally 
a  subadiary  concern,  cows  being  kept  on  such  primarily  to  supply 
the  wants  of  the  family  and  sa'vants ,  and  for  breeding  stock  for 
fattening.  In  certiun  districts,  however,  where  Ihe  herb^e  and 
climatic  conditions  are  favourable,  D.  farming  is  practised, 
and  the  chief  aini  of  the  farmer  in  these  cases  is  the  production 
of  milk,  butter,  and  cheese.  D.  farming  is  ia^ly  practised  in 
Ayrsliire  and  the  S.W.  of  Scotland  generally,  tlie  S.  of  Ireland, 
Holland,  Uenmark,  and  Switzeiland,  and  in  New  York,  Ohio, 
Illinois,  and  others  of  the  United  States.  When  a  D.  farm  is 
GO  situated  that  its  produce  can  be  readily  dispo<ied  of  in  large 
towns  aS  milk,  this  ia  generally  done,  and  in  such  a  case  the  D. 
Operations  -ttre  much  simplified.  Some  dairies  are  devoted 
prindpally  to  the  producrion  of  cheese,  and  on  tiiese  the  only 
residual  product  is  whey,  which  is  used  for  feeding  pigs.  In 
the  case  where  butter  is  the  staple,  skimined  milk,  i.e.,  milk 
deprived  of  its  cream,  and  churned  or  butter  milk — healthy  and 
nutritive  beverages — remain.  Cheese  is  made  from  skimmed 
milk,  but  chcpse  is  valuable  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  lat 

Certain  breeds  of  cattle  are  regarded  as  especially  suitable 
for  D.  stock,  while  others  ate  valued  for  fattening  for  the 
market  In  Gireat  Britain  the  Ayrshire  and  Alderney  cattle  are 
in  greatest  repute  for  D.  purposes ;  the  former  on  account  of  the 
large  quantity  of  milk  Ihey  yield  on  comparatively  poor  feeding, 
and  the  latter  for  the  great  richness  of  their  milk,  which,  how- 
ever, is  small  in  quantity.  The  shorthorn  breed  is  highly 
esteemed  at  once  as  good  milkers  and  as  kindly  fattening  stock. 
On  tliis  account  shorthorns  are  preferred  by  town  dairymen,  wlio 
323 


are  obliged  to  renew  their  stock  frequently,  h  m 

conveniently  by  feeding  off  for  tlie  butcher 
drawn.     Small  breeds  of  cattle  are,  as  a  ru      be        m  II 
proportion  to  their  weight  than  the  larger  ki  d      See  A  hsh 

The  Byre  (q.  v.)  or  cowhouse  of  a  D.  fa  m    h      d  b 
spacious,  well  ventilated,  and  conveniently  d  d 

tlie  animals,  removing  offal,  &c.     In  the  s      m         d 
months  cowS  are  turned  out  to  the  grass  p 
if  the  'bite'  is  good,  little  more  is  required  p    pe 

feeding  in  winter,  or  when  growing  grass  is 
matter  of  serioaa  importance.     The  nature      tl         d  gi 
a  most  powerful  influence  on  the  richness  an   fl  h   n 

secreted.  Cows  fed  on  brewers'  grains,  or  'draft,'  give  a  large 
yield  of  thin,  watery,  insipid  milk ;  turnip-feedmg  is  at  once 
detected  by  the  strong  'nip'  it  communicates  to  milk  and  butter 
made  therefrom.  The  winter  feeding  on  a  first-class  Ayrshire 
D.  farm  '  consists  in  giving  each  cow  in  the  morning  6  lbs.  of 
hay ;  at  nine  o'clock  they  have  steamed  food,  consisting  of  ci  ' 
hay,  turnips,  bean-meal,  and  occasionally  ground  oilcake,  or  li: 
seed-meal  seasoned  with  salt.  At  noon  each  gets  4  lbs.  < 
hay,  and  at  4  p.m.  steamed  food  as  in  the  morning.  In  the 
course  of  the  day  each  gets  30  lbs.  of  raw  turnips.  A  stable 
pailful  of  steamed  food  is  the  measure  each  gets  at  a  tlrae. 
During  the  day  they  have  water  between  the  intervals  of  meals.' 
Condiraental  foods  are  in  favour  in  some  dairies. 

The  largest  yield  of  milk  is  secured  by  frequent  milking,  and 
if  quantity  is  aimed  at,,  cows  are  milked  three  times  a  d 
When  rich  milk  for  butter  or  cheese  is  desired,  milking  twice 
a  day  is  the  rule.  The  average  yield  of  milk  varies  within  a 
wide  limit,  according  to  breed,  feeding,  state  of  health,  mterval 
since  last  calving,  Slc.  ;  but  the  yearly  average  has  been  stated 
to  range  between  4900  and  2400  quarts.  It  is  on  record  that  a 
cross-bred  cow,  between  a  shorthorn  and  Galloway,  gave  as  much 
as  forty-five  quarts  a  day.  A  cow  not  in  calf  wilt  continue  to 
give  milk  for  several  years,  but  the  quantity  gradually  falls  off, 
and  when  in  calf  they  become  dry  several  weeks  before  calving. 
The  milit  of  a  newly-calved  cow  is  always  richest  in  fat,  and 
what  is  first  drawn  off  is  very  high-coloured,  and  known  as  colo- 

The  D.  proper,  or  milk-room,  should  be  a  cool  apartment,  so 
situated  as  to  be  as  far  as  possible  kept  at  a  uniform  tempeiature. 
An  essential  condition  of  the  very  first  importance  in  a  D,  is 
the  most  scrupulous  cleanliness  of  every  comet,  implement,  and 
operation.  1  here  should  he  nothing  to  which  foreign  matter  or 
any  noxious  odour  adheres ;  marble  shelving,  glazed  dishes  and 
glazed  lile-  flooring  should,  if  possible,  be  used,  and  ail  wooden 
implements  should  be  washed  and  scalded  and  thoroughly  dried 


any  odour  should 
im  quickly  absorbs  all 
■  made  from  it-  Milk 
ime,  and  after  thicken- 
igled  that  they  ce 


Nothing  that  will  c 
be  allowed  to  come  near  tlie  milk, 
smeHs,  and  reproduces  them  in  th( 
sours  and  thickens  quickly  in  the  su 
ing,  the  cream  particles  become  s 

rise  to  the  surface ;  but  with  a  well-situated  D.  and  suitable 
milk-vessels,  the  cream  can  be  secured  before  this  occurs.  Cream 
rises  quickest  in  high  temperatures,  and  when  milk  is  exposed 
in  shallow  dishes.  When,  therefore,  cream  is  to  be  secured  for 
butteT-makmg,  shallow  milk  dishes  are  used ;  but  when  Ihe 
manufacture  of  cheese  is  the  object,  the  separation  of  milk  in 
cream  is  avoided,  the  milk  b  poured  into  deep  vessels,  and  in 
the  best  dairies  it  is  gently  agitated  by  working  a  kind  of  rake 
through  it.  As  soon  as  the  milk  is  brought  from  the  byres  it 
should  be  passed  through  a  fine  mesh  sieve  to  free  it  from  short 
hairs  and  any  impurities.  When  the  milk  is  to  be  creamed,  it  is 
poured  into  the  shallow  milk  dishes,  and  under  ordinary  circum- 
stahces  the  whole  of  the  cream  will  have  risen,  and  be  ready  to 
skim  off,  in  from  eighteen  to  twenhF-four  hours ;  but  in  hot 
weather  it  is  desirable  to  cream  earlier.  Aftei  Ihe  c 
been  skimmed  off,  its  butter-making  qualities  are  not  injured  by 
its  souring,  and  the  frequency  of  churning  is  a  mitter  of  con- 
In  America  a  system  of  co-operative  D.  working  his  been  in 
practice  fof  sevend  years,  with  gieat  advantage  as  legards  economy 
of  labour,  certainty  of  working,  and  quality  of  produce.  The 
associated  dairies,  as  they  are  called  in  America,  are  chiefly 
concetTied  '^th  cheese-makii^,  and  each  D  farmer  pledges 
himself  to  siipply  milk  in  certain  quanlities  and  of  pure  quality. 
A  certificate  is  given  to  each  conlribiitor  of  piilk  when  his  milk 


yLaOogle 


♦- 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPjEniA. 


DAL 


has  been  measured  out  and  emptied. into  the  tanks.  By  this 
system  lai^e  quantities  of  milk  of  uniform  quality  are  kept  imder 
the  best  conditions,  and  operated  on  by  the  most  approved 
methods  and  apparatus.  Such  associated  dauies  have  been  in- 
troduced in  Cheshire  and  Derbysliire,  and  in  Sweden,  Switzer- 
land, and  other  Continental  localities.  A  new  D.  industry,  the 
Reparation  of  condensed  milk,  has  recently  arisen.  The  milk 
IS  evaporated  to  a  certain  point  by  low  steady  heat,  and  a  pro- 
portion of  ground  sugar  added  to  it.  In  this  form,  when  put 
m  soldered  tins,  it  will  remain  sweet  and  wholesome  for  a  con- 
siderable period ;  and  when  sufficient  water  is  added,  it  has  the 
appearance,  taste,  and  qualities  of  new  milk,  with  only  a  little 
additional  sweetness.  So  perfect  indeed  remains  the  substance 
of  the  milk,  that  on  allowing  the  condensed  milk  to  stand  after 
dilution,  cream  forms  on  its  surface. 

The  manufacture  of  butter  and  cheese  will  be  treated  of 
under  these  heads  respectively,  (See  also  Churn.}  The  ques- 
tion of  the  comparative  profit  and  advantage  of  selUng  D.  pro- 
duce as  milk,  or  in  the  form  of  butter  or  cheese,  is  one  which 
entirely  depends  on  situation  and  local  circumstances.  Cheese- 
making  is  evidently  an  industry  which  can  only  be  profitably 
cultivated  on  a  large  scale.  See  Morton's  Dairy  Farming, 
Horsfall's  Dmry  Management,  and  Stephens'  Book  of  the  Farm. 

Da'is  (Old  Fr.  dias  or  dih, '  a  table,'  Low  Lat,  d/scal),  denoted 
in  the  middle  ages  (l)  the  high  table  on  a  raised  platform  at 
the  upper  end  of  a  hiill  or  refectory,  (z)  the  seat  oniraich  guests 
sat  at  the  high  table,  and  (3)  the  canopy  over  the  whole.  The 
last  became  the  most  common  use  of  the  term,  and  thas  we  read 
of  the  D.  of  a  throne,  altar,  shrine,  stall,  font,  statue,  or  any 
object  which  has  a  cloth  of  estate,  canopy,  or  heaven  over  it. 

Dai'ay  {£i^/it;  Old  Eng.  daeges sags,  'eyeof  day'),  the  name 
of  a  genus  of  plants,  plentiful  in  grassy  meadows  m  Europe, 
and  represented  in  America  by  B.  inUgrifolia,  confined  to 
Tennessee,  Arkansas,  and  the  neighbouring  r^ons.  lu  Con- 
tinental Europe  are  found  some  species  not  native  to  Britain, 
but  none  of  such  interest  as  the  common  D.  {Billis  petmnis), 
which,  under  the  English  name  of  D. ,  the  Scotch  gawan,  the 
French  margtierite,  Slc,  has  been  celebrated  ty  poets  in  many 
languages  as  the  emblem  of  modesty,  purity,  and  fidelity,  and 
as  such  was  worn  at  tournaments  by  knights  and  ladies  during 
the  age  of  chivalry.  Among  the  English  poets  of  the  D. 
re  all  wlio  have  touched  upon  pastoral  subjects,  from  Chaucer 
>  Burns.  The  allied  genus  BeUiam,  comprising  five  species 
closely  allied  to  Bdlis,  is  found  in  the  S.  of  Europe.  The 
African  D.  is  Athatiima  annua;  the  Australian  D.,  Vitta- 
denia  triioba;  the  blue  D.,  Clehilaria  vulgaris;  the  Swan 
River  D. ,  Braekycome  ibaidifoHa  ;  the  ewe-D.  is  Tornisn/il/a ; 
French  D.  or  Paris  D.,  Argyranthemum  frutsscem ;  horse-D. 
moon-D, ,  Ckrysanthsmum  Leuccmthtmum ;  Mexican  D. , 
Erigsnm  (Leptostdma)  maximum;  native  D.  of  New  Zealand, 
Zags7iopAora.     The  name  D.-tree   is  applied   to  Olearia  and 

Baisy,  Michaelmas.    See  Aster. 

Dako'ta(from  'D,  Indians'),  a  territory  in  the  United  States, 
constituted  in  1861,  bounded  E,  by  Minnesota  and  Iowa,  S.  by 
Nebraska,  W.  by  Wyoming  and  Montana,  and  N,  by  the 
Dominion  of  Canada.  Area,  150,932  sq.  miles.  Pop.  {1S70) 
14, 181,  exclusive  of  Indians.  If  is  the  advanced  post  of  Western 
settlers.  The  Missouri  flows  through  it  from  N.W.  to  S.E., 
and  N.  Red  River  flows  along  its  E.  frontier  into  Manitoba. 
The  largest  sheet  of  Water  is  the  Mini  WaJtan,  or  Devil's  Lake. 
The  land  is  mostly  prairie,  and  in  the  S.  is  very  fertile,  yielding 
crops  of  wheat,  oats,  and  maiae,  besides  sugar-cane  and 
5CCO.  The  wmters  are  intensely  cold,  but  the  climate  is  very 
healthy.  The  buffalo  and  deer  abound,  and  the  fiir  trade  is  vain- 
able.  The  N.  Pacific  Railroad  intersects  D.  from  E.  to  W.,  and 
has  a  length  in  the  territory  (1875)  of  304  miles.  The  solitudes 
of  the  Black  Hills  have  recently  (1876)  become  the  busy  scene 
of  gold-raining,  and  coal,  iron,  and  copper  are  also  found.  In 
S70  the  assessed  value  was  $2,924,489  ;  cash  value  of  farms, 
.2,085,265.  Yankton,  the  capital,  lies  in  the  S.E.,  on  the 
Missouri. 

Dakota  Indiana.    Sec  Indians,  North  American. 

Dalai'-Lama'.    See  Lamaism. 


Dalamow.  or  Dalmow,  a  town  in  the  commissionership 
of  Oude,  on  the  Ganges,  68  miies  above  Allaliabad,  with  two 
temples  of  Siva,    Pop.  (1S72)  5654. 

Dalaradia,  properly  Dalaraidhe,  a  tribe  of  Picts  or  Cmi- 
tkne  (q.  v.  J,  who  occupied  the  southern  half  of  the  county  of 
Antrim  and  the  greater  part  of  the  county  of  Down.  According 
to  the  annals  of  Tighemach,  the  founder  of  the  race  was  Fiacha 
Araidhe,  who  lived  about  the  middle  of  the  3d  c.  The  annals 
of  Ulster  distinguish  between  the  Irish  and  Scottish  Picts,  calling 
the  former  Cruithnii,  and  the  latter  Picti  or  Pictores. 

Dalberg,  or  Dalburg,  the  name  of  an  old  German  family 
raised  to  the  rank  of  barons  of  the  empire  in  the  17th  c — Karl 
Tlieodor  Anton  Maria,  Baroa  von  D.,  bom  at  Hern- 
sheim,  Febraary  8,  1744,  was  educated  at  Gottingen  and  Heidel- 
berg, and  studied  canon  law  at  Worms,  He  became  chamber- 
lain of  tliat  city  (an  office  hereditary  m  the  family  from  the  nth 
c.)  and  Governor  of  Eifurt.  D.  died  at  Regensburg,  of  which 
place  he  was  archbishop,  February  10,  1817.  His  reputa- 
tion stood  high  as  a  political  ruler,  student  of  science,  author, 
and  patron  of  letters.  Among  his  chief  works  are  BetracMung 
iibir  lias  Uniuersam  (Frankf.  1777;  6lh  ed.  1S19) ;  Von  dent 
Rmflusseda-  Wissenschafienund KpnsteinBeitehungaufSfeni- 
liehe  Jhiie  (1793);  Erundsatse  da-  jEstkstih  (FrankC  1791), 
See  Kramer^s  Karl  Theod.  von  J).  (Leips.  i8zi).— Wolfgang 
Heribert,  Baron  von  D.  (born  1749,  died  1806),  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  the  friend  to  whom  Schiller  addressed  his 
Briefs.  See  Kofllia's  IgiandundD.  (1S65).— Joliann  Fried- 
ridi  Hugo,  Baron  von  D.  (bom  1760,  died  1803),  a  third 
brother,  was  a  writer  on  music  and  antiquities. 

Dalber'gia,  a  large  genus  of  Leguminous  plants,  consisting 
of  forest  trees  and  climbing  shrubs,  natives  of  the  tropics  of  the 
Eastern  hemisphere.  D.  Sisso  of  Bengal  and  the  provinces  as 
far  N.  as  the  Punjab  yields  a  fine  compact  timber  called  Sissu 
or  Sissum,  which,  on  account  of  its  durability,  is  employed  as 
sleepers  on  the  Indian  lines  of  railway,  m  the  construction 
of  gun-carriages,  for  the  crooked  'knees'  of  ships,  and  for 
all  purposes  connected  with  house  -  building.  D.  sksoidss 
yields  the  timber  called  blackwood  and  rosewood  in  Madras, 
where  it  is  employed  in  rriaking  gun-carriages.  D.  nigra  of 
Brazil  supplies  much  of  the  'rosewood'  sent  (o  Europe  from 
that  connt^.  D.  latifolia,  also  called  blackwood  and  E.  India 
rosewood,  is  the  Sal  (q.  v. )  of  Bengal.  D.  monetaria  of  Surinam 
yields  a  resin  not  unlike  Dragon's  Blood  (q.  v.). 

Daleoarlia,  or  Dalar'ne  ('  the  land  of  dales  or  valleys "),  an 
ancient  province  of  Sweden,  now  included  in  the  Ian  or  prefec- 
ture of  Kopparberg,  of  which  Falun  is  the  capital.  The  country 
is  poor  and  hilly.  The  name  is  still  dear  to  the  inhabitants  from 
the  effective  assistance  given  by  the  Dalecarlians  to  Gustavus 
Vasa  in  freeing  Sweden  from  the  Danish  yoke  in  1521. 

D'Alembert,  Jean  le  Bond.    See  Alembert. 

Dalgar'no,  Oeor^,  was  bom  at  Aberdeen  about  1626.  He 
was  educated  in  Manschal  College,  and  afterwards  at  Oxford, 
where  he  taught  a  grammar-school  until  his  death,  August  28, 
1687.  D.  invented  the  finger-alphabet  for  the  dei^  and  dumb, 
treatingof  the  subject  in-Da^jca/oco^^aj,  or  the  Deaf  and  Dumb 
Man's  Tutor  (Oxford,  1680).  He  also  wrote  a  treatise  on  a 
universal  language.  His  writings  show  great  learning,  pre- 
vision, and  originality. 

Dalhou'sie,  Fox  Maule  Kamaay,  Earl  of,  was  bom 
at  Brechin  Castle,  April  22,  1801.  He  entered  the  79th 
Highlanders  in  1819,  and,  atter  serving  in  Canada  mider  his 
uncle  the  Earl  of  Balhoasie,  retired  as  captain  in  1S31.  In 
1835  he  entered  Parhament  for  Perthshire  as  a  Whig,  and  sat 
for  this  county  for  two  years,  and  sutisequently  for  the  Elgin 
Burghs  (1830-41)  and  for  the  city  of  Perth  (1841-52).  In 
1852  D.,  hitherto  known  as  Fox  Maule,  on  the  death  of 
his  father  became  Baron  Panmure,  and  filled  in  succession 
the  offices  of  Under-Secretary  for  the  Home  Department, 
Vice-President  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  President  of  the  Board 
of  Control,  and  Secretary  at  War  (1855-58).  His  conduct 
in  the  latter  post,  during  (he  war  with  Russia,  excited  a 
good  deal  of  criticism.  D.  retired  from  political  life  hi  1858, 
when  Lord  Palmerston  resigned.  In  1S60,  on  the  death  ot  his 
cousin  the  Marquis  of  D.,  he  succeeded  to  the  title  of  Earl,  and 


3-3 


vGooqIc 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DAL 


the  following  year  assumed  the  additional  name  of  Ramsay.  D., 
who  had  married  in  183 1  the  Honourable  Montagu  Abercromby, 
eldest  daughter  of  the  second  Baron  Abercromby  (died  1853), 
died  July  6,  1874,  without  issue,  and  has  been  succeeded  by  his 
cousin,  Geoi^e  Ramsay,  I2tli  Earl  of  D.,  bora  April  12,  1806. 
Outside  of  politics,  D.  will  be  chiefly  remembered  for  his  devo- 
tion to  the  Free  Church  of  ScotlaniS,  his  last  public  act  being  to 
second,  in  1874,  the  nomination  of  Dr  Rainy  to  the  Principal- 
■  ship  of  the  Edinburgh  New  College. 

DalhOTisie,  Marquis  of,  James  Andrew  Brotin- 
Eamsay,  one  of  the  most  energetic  Indian  administrators  that 
Great  Brilam  has  produced,  was  the  third  son  of  the  ninth  Earl 
of  D.,  and  was  bom  at  Dalhousie  Castle,  April  22,  1812.  Edu- 
cated at  Harrow  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  D.  in  1838,  by  the 
death  of  his  only  surviving  brother,  succeeded  to  the  honorary 
title  of  Lord  Ramsay,  and  as  such  contested,  although  in  vaiu, 
in  1835  tiie  representation  of  Edinburgh  in  the  Conservative 
interest.  In  1837  he  entered  Parliament  for  Haddingtonshire; 
but  his  father,  who  had  been  Govembr  of  Canada,  dying  the 
following  year,  D.  became  a  member  of  the  House  of  Peei-s. 
In  1843  ne  showed  his  vigorous  administrative  powers  and  his 
industry  as  Vice-President  of  the  Board  of  Trade  under  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  and  still  more  so  tWo  years  later  as  chief  of  the 
same  department  in  the  time  of  the  railway  mania.  In  1847 
he  succeeded  Lord  Hardinge  as  Governor- General  of  India, 
and  arrived  at  Calcutta,  January  12,  1848.  At  once  D,  threw 
himself  heart  and  soul  into  the  work  of  improving  the  inter- 
nal administration  and  developing  the  resources  of  India.  He 
established  roads,  lines  of  railway,  telegraphs,  and  irrigation 
works  on  a  vast  scale ;  reformed  and  cheapened  the  postal  ser- 
vice ;  improved  the  system  of  education,  and  placed  the  various 
sects  in  the  country  on  a  more  rational  footmg  towards  each 
other.  Above  ail,  he  extended  the  Indian  empire  of  Britain, 
conquering  Pegu  and  the  Punjab,  and  annexing  several  great 
doininions,  the  chief  of  which  was  Oude.- ,  Whether  the  policy 
of  the  'great  annexer'  was  always  wise  has  been'  seriously 
doubted,  and  many  beheved  that  the'  Indian  mutiny  during 
the  rale  of  liis  successor  was  to  be  traced  to  this  policy,  which 
has  been  described  by  a  French  critic  as  brmqiies  ei  pnd^Ua. 
But  it  was  heartily  approved  of  b^  the  Ei^lish  natioa  In  1849 
he  was  made  a  marquis,  and  obtained  the  thanks  of  both  Houses 
of  Parliament  and  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  in  185a  he 
was  appointed  Constable  of  the  Castle  of  Dover  and  Warden 
of  the  Cinque  Ports.  His  health,  however,  gave  wa)|  before  he 
left  Calcutta  in  1 856,  and,  after  a  loi^  and  painful  illness,  he 
died  at  Dalhousie  Castle,  19th  December  1S60,  D.  married  in 
1836  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  Marquis  of  Tweeddale.  She 
died  in  1853,  .leaving  no  male  issue,  and  the  title  of  marquis 
became  eitinct,  the  eatldom  reverling  to  D.'s  cousin.  Baron 
Panmnre.  See  History  of  the  Mai-quis  of  D.'s  Administration 
ef  British  India  (2  vols.  Lond.  1863-64). 

Dal'ias,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Almeria,  Spain,  18  miles 
W.S.W.  of  Almeria,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  mines  of  lead  and 
antimony.  Pop.  about  9000.  Agriculture,  mining,  and  fishing 
are  the  olher  industries.  The  principal  buildings  were  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake  in  1804.     There  are  favourite  mineral  '     ' 


ir  the  tc 


.  DBl'keitli(GaeLi&/, 'afield,' andfflrfi, 
row  field;'  or  from  cath,  'battle,'  'field  of  battle'),  an  ancient 
market-town  and  burgh  of  barony,  6  miles  S.E.  of  Edinburgh, 
between  the  N.  and  S.  Esks,  consisting  principally  of  one  long 
street.  The  fine  old  Gothic  parish  church  dates  from  the  16th  c. 
Tliere  are  several  handsome  churches  belonging  to  different 
denominations,  and  an  Episcopal  chapel  built  by  the  Duke  of 
Buccleuch  within  the  grounds  of  D.  Palace.  The  palace  was 
erected  about  1700,  on  the  site  of  a  very  old  castle,  once  termed 
the  Lion's  Den,  from  the  haughty  Earl  of  Morton  having  resided 
in  it.  The  estate  of  D.  was  purchased  from  Morton  by  Buccleugh 
in  ifi42.  One  of  the  largest  grain-markets  in  Scotland  is  held  at 
D.  The  town  has  manufactures  of  woollens  and  brushes,  be- 
sides tanneries  and  iron-foundries,  and  there  are  valuable  coal- 
mines in  the  neighbourhood.  Pop.  (1871)  6386.  See  Scott's 
Frovindid  Atitiqiiiliis. 

Dall'aa,   Gteorge  Mifflin,  an  American  diplomatist,  was 
bom  at  Philadelphia,  July  10,  1792.     After  a  brilliant  career  at 
Princeton  College,  he  spent  a  short  time  in  a  subordinate  dlplo- 
3H 


ic  post  at  St  Petersburg,  and  then  settled  down  to  the  prac- 
of  law  in  his  native  city,  where  he  filled  several  important 
offices,  including  that  of  district-attorney  of  Philadelphia.     In 
"      he  was  appointed  United  States  minister  at  St  Petersburg, 
.,_,  ./as  recalled  in  two  years.    From  1844  to  1849  he  held  the 
office  of  Vice-President  of  the  United  States.     In  1S56  he  be- 
came minister  at  the  British  court,  and  was  intrusted  with  the 
settlement  of  the  Central  American  question.     In  this  capacity 
he  gained  the  respect  of  all  with  whom  he  came  in  contact,  was 
an  especial  favourite  with  Lord  Palmerston,  and  dilig 
died  the  political  institutions  of  England.     D.  was  sue 
1861  at  the  court  of  St  James  by  Mr  C.  F.  Adams.     H 
December  31,  1864. 

Dalles'  (Fr.   dalk.  'a  flagstone'),   the  name  give 
French  voyagmrs  to  the  rapids  on  the  Columbia  or  Greg 
forming,  along  with  the  cascades,  magnificent  scenery   b 
midable  obstructions  to  navigation.     In  the  D.,  lofl        al 
basaltic  rock  rise  from  either  side,  leaving  a  narrow  p    sag 
one  point  only  58  yards  in  width,  through  which  the  an^ry 
rash  with  fearful  rapidity. 

Dalma'tia,  the  most  southerly  crown-land  of  Au  es 

along  the  N.E.  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  and  is  hemmed 
land  side  by  Croatia,  Bosnia,  and  Herzegovina.     A    a,    SS 
sq.  miles;  pop.  (1869)456,961,  of  whom  nine-tenlhs 
(Morlaks  of  Servian  descent),   30,000  Italians  (mos 
towns),  and  some  300  Jews.      It  consists  of  a  strip  of        d     60 
miles  long,  and  having  an  extreme  breadth  of  60  m  es.    Th 
coast,  abounding  in  magnificent  natural  harbours,  is  s  d  d 

by  a  fringe  of  islands,  most  numerous  in  the  N.  and       g 
the  S.,  of  which  the  principal  are  Brazza  (q.  v.),  Lissa  ( 
Issd),  Lessina  {Pharos),  and  Curzola  {Black  Korkyrs       D 
divided  into  thirteen  districts — Benkowacz,   Cattaro    C 
Imoski,    Knin,   Lesina,   Macarsca,    Ragtisa,    Sebeni         S 
Spalato,  and  Zara.    The  mainland,  nestling  between  th   D 
Alps  (q.  V.)  and  the  sea,  is  watered  by  few  rivers,  t  - 

being  the  Cettina,  Kerka,  Termanja,  and  Narenta.     I  f  ce 

is  in  great  part  swampy,  while  one-ninth  of  it  is  cov    ed 
forest ;  only  18  per  cent,  is  cultivated,  yielding  chieflym  d 

barley.     There  is  also  an  extensive  cullivalion  of  the  and 

olive,  and  among  the  fruits  are  the  fig,  almond,  and  h  h 
Along  the  coast  is  found  the  richest  alg»  vegetat  n 
Europe.  The  climate  of  D.  is  hot  but  healthy,  un 
swampy  regions,  where  fever  prevails  during  certai 
The  mean  temperature  is  62-S°Fahr.,  while  its  range  ia  from  19 
to  95°.  ■  D.  has  valuable  coast -fisheries  of  anchovy,  mackerel, 
and  tunny.  With  fine  pastures,  it  is  celebrated  for  its  sheep- 
farming,  but  the  wool  is  little  exported.  In  1872  it  liad  673,605 
sheep,  and  also  280,656  goats,  16,975  horses,  and  26,322  swi— 
D.  produces  large  quantities  of  Maraschino,  as  well  as  sc 
forty  other  kinds  of  dessert  wines.  In  various  parts  of  the  m: 
land  and  archipelago  asphalt  is  found,  and  there  are  iron  1 
coal  mines.  Zara  is  the  capital,  and  the  other  great  trading 
places  are  Spalato,  Cattaro,  and  Ragusa.  D.  sends  five  deputies 
to  the  Reicbst^,  and  has  a  Landti^  of  its  own,  consisting  of 
forty-three  members.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  .  an 
archbi^op  at  Zara,  and  in  D.  the  number  of  its  adherents 
amounts  to  377,121  ;  the  members  of  the  Greek  Church  number 
78,305.  The  Slavs  speak  the  dialect  of  Herzegovina.  As  a 
race,  the  Dalmatians  are  intelligent  and  handsome ;  the  untutored 
Moriak  is  bold,  independent,  and  cunning.  D.  is  first  known 
as  a  'ledge  of  Hellenic  land,'  protected  by  its  hills  from  the 
native  Irarbarians  of  Illyricura.  It  was  conquered  by  Augustus 
23  B.C.,  becoming  the  S.  part  of  tlie  province  of  Illyricum.  In 
489  it  was  captured  by  the  Goths,  and  in  turn  by  the  Slavs 
(620).  Towards  the  end  of  the  9th  c  the  coast -land  fell  into  the 
handsof  the  Croatian  princes,  one  of  whom,  Cascimir  Peter,  took 
the  title  of  King  of  D.  (1052).  On  the  extinction  of  this  dynasty 
(lioo),  King  Odisbus  of  Hungary  seized  part  of  the  territory, 
while  the  other  portion  placed  itself  under  the  prolection  of 
Venice,  By  the  peace  of  Passarovitz,  1718,  Venice  ceded  a 
small  piece  of  D.  to  Turkey,  and  by  the  peace  of  Campo-Fovmio, 
1796,  Venetian  D.  was  transferred  to  Austria.  In  1805  Napo- 
leon  annexed  part  of  D.  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  in 
1805,  having  also  captured  Hungarian  D.,  he  united  the  parts, 
thus  formine  the  province  of  Illyiia.  It  agam  became  Austrian 
in  1814,  and  was  made  a  crown-land  in  i8r6.  See  the  works  of 
Peter  {z  vols.  1S57I  and  Noe  (iSjo). 


y  Google 


DAL 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


DAL 


Dalmat'ie  (Lat.  tanka  Dalmatud,  from  Dalinatia),  the  cha- 
racteristic dress  of  deacons  in  (lie  early  Christian  Church,  is 
a  tunic  extending  to  the  knees,  with  long  wide  sleeves  open  at 
the  sides,  and  ornamented  with  two  purple  stripes,  the  angusti 
clam  of  the  Roman  dress.  The  simpler  and  older  form  was 
^e  colobium  (Gr.  kelobos,  'sliort'),  which  had  only  very  short 
sleeves.  When  the  other  clergy  began  to  wear  the  Chasuble 
(q.  V.)  the  D.  wss  cotaceded  to  the  deacons,  as  more  elaborate 
than  the  colobium,  because  they  had  nothing  over  it,  although 
it  was  reserved  for  those  at  Rome  till  about  the  loth  c,  when  it 
became  generally  the  proper  dress  for  deacons.  See  Wolcott's 
Sacred  Archaoloi}i{,\?i&,),za\d.liii,xaoa,'5VisliariuviChrislianuiii. 

Dalri'ftdft.  In  the  3d  c  Cairbre  Ruighthadu— i.if,,  'Cairbre 
of  the  long  arm,'— a  prince  of  Munster,  removed  to  Ulster,  where 
his  posterity  attained  considerable  power.  Bede  calls  him 
Reuda,  other  historians  Riada.  In  506  aband  of  his  descendants, 
numbering  156,  and  led  by  Loarn,  Angus,  and  Fergus,  three 
sons  of  Ere,  crossed  to  the  opposite  coast  of  Argyleshire,  and 
look  possession  of  Kintyre  and  Knapdale,  founding  the  very 
small  'kingdom  of  D.'  lu  course  of  time  they  conquered  the 
whole  mainland  of  the  county  as  far  as  Diumalbanor  the  modern 
Tyndmm.  The  northern  Picts  or  Caledonians  maintained  an 
idmost  constant  warfare  with  them,  and  in  the  8th  c  appear  to 
have  utterly  defeated  them  (having  burned  their  capital,  Dun- 
Add,  near  Loch  Crinan,  to  the  ground).  Their  history  from  the 
following  century  is  involved  in  great  obscurity,  but  at  tlie  close 
of  that  period,  their  leader,  Kenneth  MacAlpine,  appears  as  king 
alike  of  D,  and  of  the  northern  Pictland.  It  is  believed  that  he 
acquired  the  new  territory  by  inheritance  tlirough  his  mother. 
He  proved  to  be  a  man  of  great  ability,  subdued  both  the 
Strathclyde  Britons  and  the  southern  Picts,  thus  reducing  Al- 
bainn  (as  it  was  then  called  and  is  still  known  to  all  Gaelic 
speakers)  nnder  one  sceptre,  and  eventually  imposing  on  it  the 
name  of  Scotia  or  Scotland. 

Daliy  (Gael,  'king's  field,'  or  'level  field'),'  the  name  of 
several  places  in  Scotland,  of  which  the  most  important  are— 1. 
A  town  of  Ayrshire,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Gamock,  19  miles 
S.W.  of  Gla^ow,  and  a  station  on  the  Glasgow  and  South- 
Western  Railway.  It  owes  its  prosperity  to  the  development  of 
its  extensive  coal,  lime,  and  iron  fields.  There  are  numerous 
blast-furnaces  in  the  neighbourhood.  There  is  also  a  large 
woollen-mill,  giving  employment  to  numerous  hands.  Pop, 
(1S71)  5214.  a.  A  village  m  Kirkcudbrightshire,  Scotland,  on 
the  river  Ken,  15  miles  N.N.W.  of  Castle-DougUs.  Pop.  (1871) 
637,  as  against  639  in  1S61. 

Dalrjrm'ple,  an  ancient  Scottish  honse,  which  takes  its  name 
from  the  estate  of  D,  in  Ayrshire,  which  it  held  in  the  14th  c 
'The  family  came  into  notice  in  the  Ijth  c.  for  adherence  to  Lol- 
lardism,  and  John  D.  of  Stair  was  among  the  first  Scottish 
gentlemen  who  embi-aced  the  Reformation  doctrines.  His  son, 
JamesS.  of  Stair,  was  a  firm  supporter  of  the  Scottish  Ref or- 
mation  oC  1560. — James  D.,  Vieeount  Stair,  grandson  of 
the  last,  was  born  at  Drummnrchie,  Ayrshire,  May  1619,  He 
studied  at  Glasgow  University,  became  captain  in  the  army  raised 
to  vindicate  the  Covenant  (q.  v.),  and  in  1641  was  made  Pro- 
fessoc  of  Lt^ic  in  Glasgow,  an  office  which  he  resigned  before, 
his  call  to  the  bar  in  l^.  A  Presbyterian  and  a  Royalist,  he 
was  in  1649  appointed  Secretary  to  the  Commission  sent  to 
HoUand  by  the  Scottish  Parliament  to  invite  Charles  II.  to 
accept  the  crown,  a  mission  in  which  D.  showed  considerable 
tact.  In  1657  he  was  made  a  judge  under  the  Cromwell ian  rule, 
an  office  m  which  he  was  confirmed  at  the  Restoration,  and 
which  he  offered  to  resign  in  J663  rather  than  sign  the  Declara- 
tion Oalh.  In  1664  he  was  made  a  baronet,  in  1671  Lord  Pre- 
sident of  the  Court  of  Session,  and  during  the  next  ten  years 
occupied  himself  in  composing  InsHtuHons  of  the  Lam  of  Scoi- 
land.  In  16S1  he  procured  the  insertion  in  the  Test  Act  of  a 
clause  which  rendered  the  Act  contradictotj'  and  invalid.  The 
persecution  to  which  he  was  henceforth  subjected  forced  him  in 
16S3  to  withdraw  to  Leyden,  where  he  occupied  himself  mainly 
with  philosophy  until  1688,  when  he  sailed  for  England  with 
William  of  Orange.  He  was  reappointed  President  of  the  Court 
of  Session,  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  and  was  the  King's  chief 
adviser  in  Scottish  afiairs.  He  died  at  Edinburgh,  November 
23>  1^5'  Hs  '^^s  "•  "i^"  °f  great  sogadty  and  learning,  of  sin- 
cere but  imimpassioned  patriotism,  ofamiable  but  almost  phleg- 


matic temperament.  His  chief  works  are  his /«jft'A«'w«J  (j^  (;4« 
Lata  of  Scotland  (1681),  on  which  his  reputation  mainly  rests, 
and  his  Phyiiologia  Nova  Experimentali!  (Leyd.  1686),  in  which 
he  sought  to  overthrow  the  Copemican  theory. — John  D. ,  Pirst 
Earl  of  Stair,  eldest  son  of  the  above,  was  bom  in  Wigtou- 
shire  in  1648.  He  became  an  advocate,  and  defended  Argyle  in 
his  trial  for  treason.  In  1686  he  was  made  Lord  Advocate,  in 
1688  Lord  Justice  Clerk,  and  in  1691  Secretary  of  Stale.  '  His 
memory  is  stained  by  his  complicity  in  the  Massacre  of  Glencoe- 
(q.  v.).  He  became  Viscount  Stair  in  1695,  was  made  Earl  of 
Stair  in  1703,  was  largely  occupied  in  preparing  the  way  for  the 
Act  of  Union,  and  died  JanoanF  8,  1707.— Jolm  D.,  Second 
Earl  of  Stair,  son  of  the  first  Earl,  was  bom  at  Edinburgh,  July 
20, 1673.  Having  accidentally  shot  his  elder  brother,  he  was  edu- 
catedaway  from  home.  He  studied  at  the  Universities  of  Leyden 
and  Edinbuigh,  fought  as  a  volunteer  under  the  Earl  of  Angus 
in  1692,  was  aide-de-camp  to  Marlborough  during  the  campaign 
of  1702,  in  1706  became  commander  of  the  Cameronian  Regi- 
ment and  the  Scots  Greys,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Ouden- 
ard,  Malpiaquet,  and  Ramilies.  He  became  E^l  of  Stair  in 
1707,  and  in  1718  went  as  British  ambassador  to  Paris,  where 
he  skilfully  counteracted  Jacobite  intrigues,  but  whence  he  was 
recalled  in  1720,  owing  to  his  quarrel  with  Law,  the  Minister  of 
Finance.  He  lived  in  retirement  at  Newliston  near  Edinburgh 
unlil  1742,  when  he  was  made  commander  of  the  British  boops 
in  Flanders,  and  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Dettingen  {1743)- 
He  died  at  Edinburgh,  May  9,  1747.  He  was  an  able  diploma- 
tist and  soldier.  St  Simon  characterised  him  as  '  extravagant, 
ardent,  and  ambitious,"  See  Graham's  .4 «)ia/r  of  Viscount  and 
First  and  Second  Earls  of  Stair  i^&wA).  \i-]l).     - 

Dalrymple,  Sir  David,  afamons  Scottish  judge  and  author, 
the  son  of  Sir  James  D.  of  Hailes,and  gieat-grandson  of  the  first 
Lord  Stair,  was  bom  at  Edinburgh,  October  28,  1726.  He 
was  educated  at  Eton,  and  at  the  Universities  of  Edinbuigh  and 
Utrecht ;  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1 748,  and  won  considerable  repu- 
tation as  a  pleader;  in  1766  was  made  a  judge  of  the  Court  of 
Session,  witb  the  title  Lord  Hailes;  and  in  1776  was  nominated 
one  of  the  Lords  of  Justiciary,  which  office  he  held  till  his  death, 
November  29,  179a.  D.  was  a  man  of  admirable  character  and 
varied  acquirements.  Amid  his  judicial  labours  he  was  a  volu- 
minous author  of  works  displaying  at  once  profound  learning  and 
the  graces  of  an  Attic  style.  Among  his  works  are  A  Discourse 
on  the  Gouirie  Conspiracy  (I7S7) ;  Memorials  and  Leilers  Rela- 
ting to  the  History  of  Britain  m- the  Reign  of  y canes  I.  of  England 
(1762) ;  Memorials  and  Letters  ReloHng  to  ike  History  of  Britain 
in  the  Reign  of  Charles  I.  (I766)[  Histtrrical  Memoirs  Concern- 
ing the  Provmcial  Councils  of  tlce  Scottish  C/e«>'(l766) ;  Remarks 
onthe  History  of  Scotlandi.i'jT^;  Remams  ofCmislian  AntiquUy 
(1776-80);  Disptisitioit  Concerning  the  Antiqidly  of  the  Christian 
Church  (1783) ;  Annals  of  Scotland,  from  the  Accession  of  Mal- 
colm III.,  Sumamed  Canmore,  to  the  Accession  of  Roliert  I.  {1TI6); 
Annals  of  Scotland,  from  the  Accession  of  Robert  I.,  Surnamed 
the  Bruce,  lathe  Accession  of  the  House  of  Sluarl  (1779I.  He 
also  edited  various  early  Scottish  poems,  &c.— Alexander  D., 
a  Scottish  geographer,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  bom 
at   New  Hailes,   near   Edinbuigh,   July  24,   1737.      He  1 


n^^y 


3  Madra 


of  the  East  India  Company.  The  study 
of  documents  on  the  commerce  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago 
prompted  him  to  resign  his  post  and  sail  for  these  islands,  with 
the  view  of  creating  a  lucrative  traffic.  At  Siilu,  he  made  a 
favourable  commercial  treaty  with  the  Sultan,  but  hia  projects 
were  ruined  by  the  outbreak  of  smallpoi  among  the  natives.  He 
revisited  England  in  1765  to  ventilate  his  mercantile  scheme, 
which  the  Government  would  not  embrace ;  went  back  to  Madras 
as  a  member  of  council  in  1775,  returned  to  England  m  1777, 
was  appointed hydrographer  to  ttie  East  India  Companyin  1779, 
and  died  at  Marylebone,  June  9,  1808.  He  wrote  a  large 
number  of  geographical  treatises,  political  pamphlets,  &c. 

Dal'ton,  a  town  in  Fumess,  Lancashire,  16  miles  W.N.W,  of 
Lancaster,  connected  with  both  the  Lancashire  and  Cumberland 
railway  systems,  and  not  far  from  the  magnificent  ruins  of 
Fumess  Abbey.  There  ate  iron-foundries  in  the  vicinity,  and 
a  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in  the  malting  of  grain.  Pop. 
(1S71)  9310.     Romney,  the  painler,  was  a  native  of  D. 

Dalton,  .Tnliti,  was  born  at  Eaglesfield,  in  Cumberland, 
September  5,  1766.  In  1781  he  removed  to  Kendal,  where  be 
325 


vLiOOQle 


DAL 


TBE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DAM 


became  an  usher  in  his  cousin's  school,  and  began  a  f .  . . 
of  meteorological  records  which  he  continued  with  the  greatest 
regularity  to  the  day  before  his  death.  In  1793  he  obtained 
the  chair  of  Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy  in  the  New 
Colltge,  Manchester,  became  a  member  of  the  literary  and  Phi- 
losophical Society  in  that  city,  and  shortly  afterwards  contri- 
buted his  first  paper  on  some  Extraordinary  Facts  Rdatmg  to  the 
Vision  of  Colours.  It  was  supested  by  his  inability  to  distinguish 
certdn  colours — a  peculianty  wiiich  is  known  as  Daltonism 
(q.  v.),  and  which  seems  to  have  been  due  to  the  yellowish  tinge 
of  the  refractive  matter  of  his  eye.  In  the  Manchtster  Transac- 
tions for  1802  several  other  papers  appear  by  liira,  bearing  upon 
meteorological  subjects,  upon  evaporation,  and  upon  the  relations 
subsisting  between  the  pressure  volume  and  temperature  of  per- 
manent gases.  From  these  is  deduced  D.  's  law  that  the  pressure 
of  a  gas  at  constant  volume  is  proportional  to  the  temperature, 
which,  tc^ther  with  other  important  principles  there  laid  down, 
has  greatly  aided  the  experimental  determination  of  the  specific 
gravity  of  gases.  Many  other  valuable  contributions  to  science 
are  to  be  found  in  the  PkilosopMcal  Transactions,  in  Thomson's 
Annais  of  Philosophy,  and  in  Nicholson's  Philosophical  Journal. 
In  1793  appeared  his  Meleerological  Essays  (2d  ed.  1S34).  In 
1803  D.  began  the  working  out  of  Ms  atomic  Uieory,  an  out- 
line of  which  was  given  in  the  third  chapter  of  the  first  volume 
of  his  A'ew  System  of  Chemical  Philosophy  (1808),  while  a 
further  development  and  application  appeared  in  the  second 
volume  of  the  same  work,  two  years  later.  In  1817,  he  be- 
came President  of  the  Manchester  IJterary  and  Philosophical 
Society,  and  in  1821  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society, 
from  which  he  received  a  gold  medal  in  1826  for  his  scien- 
tific discoveries.  In  1827  the  third  volume  of  the  Nha  System 
of  Chemical  Philosophy  was  published,  the  most  important  part 
of  which  is  the  appendix,  in  which  he  treats  with  his  diaracter- 
istic  sagacity  of  various  thermal  properties  of  gases.  At  the 
second  meeting  of  the  British  Association  at  Oxford  in  1833,  the 
University  conferred  upon  D.  the  degree  of  D.C.L.,  and  at  the 
Edinbuigh  meeting  in  1834  he  was  made  LL.D.  In  1833  D, 
received  from  Government  a  pension  of  £iyt,  which  in  1836 
was  increased  to  ;S;300.  D.  died  at  Manchester,  July  27,  1844. 
The  present  development  of  the  atomic  theory,  with  which  D.'s. 
name  must  ever  be  associated,  is  given  under  the  article  Atomic 
Theory.  D.'s  merits  as  a  chemist  were  as  fully  appreciated  on 
the  Continent  as  in  his  native  country.  He  was  a  foreign  Fellow 
of  the  Institute  of  France,  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
Berlin  and  Munich,  and  of  the  Natural  History  Society  of  Moscow. 

Dal'tonism.  Certain  individnals  are  more  or  less  deficient 
in  the  power  of  discriminating  colours.  This  is  D.,  fi-om  the 
name  of  the  distinguished  chemist  who  was  himself  the  subject 
of  it.  It  is  sometimes  termed  colour-blindness.  The  most  com- 
mon form  of  D.  is  an  inability  to  distinguish  red  from  green, — 
thus  ripe  cherries  can  be  distinguished  from  the  leaves  of  the 
tree  only  by  tlieir  form.  In  other  cases  blue  and  green  are  con- 
founded. In  most  cases,  the  colour-blindness  is  for  lie  red 
rays.  Frequently  low  tones  of  colour  give  rise  to  the  same  sensa- 
tion as  certain  mixtures  of  black  and  white — producing  grey. 
D.,  in  all  probability,  depends  on  some  peculiarity  of  the  struc 
ture  of  the  retina.  It  is  well-known  that  the  periphery  of  the 
na  shows  defective  perception  of  the  different  colours— red 
appearing  grey ;  green,  blue  ;  green,  yellow,  &c,  ;  and  it  would 
appear  that  D.  is  '  only  an  extension  of  the  want  of  perceptivity, 
normal  in  the  periphery  of  the  retina.' 

Dalziel',  Thomas,  of  Binns,  W.  Lothian,  a  Scottish  general, 
born  about  1599.  He  took  the  royal  side  in  the  dvil  war,  and 
held  the  town  of  Canickfergus  for  the  King;  was  a  major- 
general  at  Worcester,  where  he  was  captured,  but  escaping 
from  prison,  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Czar  of  Muscovy,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  the  wars  against  the  Turlcs  and  Tartars. 
In  1665  he  returned  to  ScotJand,  and  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  forces  there.  On  the  28th  of  November  1666  he 
suppressed  a  rising  of  the  Covenanters  at  Pentland,  with  more 
humanity  than  might  have  been  expected  from  a  man  of  his 
ferocity  of  temper,  intensified  by  Russian  service  and  a  fanatical 
loyalty  to  his  King.  After  the  execution  of  Charles  I.  he  never 
shaved  his  beard,  which  grew  down  to  his  middle,  and  this, 
"  pupled  with  his  antique  dress,  never  failed  to  gather  round 
iin  a  crowd  of  boys  when  he  appeared  in  London.     D,  died 

'326 


Dam'agee,  in  law,  is  the  pecuniary  recompense  due  to  one 
person  who  has  sustained  loss  or  injury  through  the  fault  of 
another.  In  England,  an  action  for  D,  can  only  be  brought 
before  the  Common  Law  Courts  (q.  v.),  as  the  Court  of  Chancery 
(see  Chancerv,  Court  ofJ  will  not  interfere  when  a  plaintiff 
can  have  his  remedy  at  common  law.  Every  illegal,  unwarrant- 
able, or  malicious  act,  whether  fraudulent  or  not,  by  which 
another  is  injured  in  his  worldly  interest,  m  his  person,  or 
feelings,  founds  a  civil  claim  for  D.  against  the  person  who  has 
caused  the  Joss  or  injury.  D.  for  breach  of  contract  are  only 
due  wiien  it  is  impossible  to  enforce  specific  performance,  and 
even  when  a  specific  penalty  is  annexed  to  failure,  so  long  a 
performance  is  possible,  the  debtor  in  this  obligation  is  no 
entitled  to  pay  the  penalty,  and  so  get.  quit  of  the  obligation 
Where  a  jiarticnlar  subiecthas  been  lost,  destroyed,  or  injured, 
without  ctimmality  on  the  part  of  the  person  culpable,  the  peri 
sustaining  the  loss  is  only  entitled  to  D.  according  to  the  r 
value  of  the  loss,  not  according  to  the  sentimental  value  whidi 
he  may  attach  to  the  subject  But  if  the  culpable  person 
criminally  caused  the  injury,  the  sufferer,  in  estimatmg  D., 
entitled  to  have  weight  given  not  only  to  the  value  of  the  subject 
sentimentally,  but  to  possible  consequences.  A  master  is  civilly 
liable  for  the  negligence  of  his  servants  or  others  employed  by 
hun.  Formerly,  in  England,  no  action  for  D.  vras  mamtainable 
against  a  person  who  by  wrongful  act  or  negligence  caused  the 
death  of  another,  though  tlie  offender  was  liable  if  the  sufferer 
was  only  hurt,  but  this  defect  of  law  has  been  remedied  by  Lord 
Campbell's  Act,  which  provides  that  any  one  who  has  wrongfuEy 
or  neglectfully  caused  the  death  of  another  shall  be  liable  in  D. , 
even  though  the  circumstances  of  the  act  make  it  felony.  The 
action  is  only  competent  to  the  wife,  husband,  parent,  or  child 
of  the  person  killed. 

Dam'aging   Maimfactures,  MaeMnery,   or  DTines. 

The  Act  24  and  25  Vict.  c.  97,  enacts  special  penalties,  ranging 
from  two  years'  imprisonment  to  penal  servitude  for  life,  for  these 
olfences. 

Daman',  a  fortified  seaport  of  Guierat,  India,  at  the  mouth  of 
a  river  of  the  same  name.  Pop.  6000,  many  of  whom  are  ( 
ployed  ip  shipbuilding.  Ships  in  the  harbour  are  safe  from  the 
S.W.  monsoon,  and  outside  the  bar  there  is  good  anchorage. 
Endemic  fevers  prevail,  caused  by  the  brackishness  of  the  water. 
J>.  belongs  to  the  Portuguese. 


.    ,  -.  — —  Hyras;  ijlyiax),  an  anomalous  genus 

of  mammaUa,  a  distinct  order  [Hyracoidid),  and  sometimes 
regarded  as  included,  from  certain  resemblances  in  the  teeth,  in 
the  family  Rhinocerolida,  or  that  of  the  Khitioceroses.  Even  in 
the  character  of  its  placenta  (which  is  zonary  and  deciduate)  it 
differs  from  the  Rodmtia,  with  which  order  it  has  also  been 
supposed  to  possess  structural  relations.  Hence  the  genus  D. 
stands  as  the  type  of  a  somewhat  aberrant  group  of  mammals, 
intermediate  between  the  Ungalata  or  hoofed  mammals  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  Rodents  and  Insictivora  on  the  other  hand. 

The  genus  D.  is  represented  by  several  spedes,  of  which  the  H. 
Syriacus  of  Syria  (supposed  to  be  the  '  cony '  of  Scripture),  and 
the  ff.  Capeiisis,  'lOip  Das,'  or  'Cape  Badger'  ofS.  Africa,  are 
the  best  known.  The  H.  of  Syria  is  a  small  rabbit- like  animal,  the 
front  feet  having  four,  and  the  hind  feet  three  toes.  The  nails 
are  flat  The  body  is  covered  with  fur,  and  the  snout  is  divided  as 
in  Rodentia.  There  are  four  teats  in  tlie  groin  and  two  in  the  axilke. 
From  twenty-nine  to  thirty-one  dorso^umbar  vertebrEC  exist,  a. 
numiier  rarely  exceeded  in  mammals.  The  adult  has  eight  in- 
cisors, no  canine  teeth,  sixteenpremolars,  and  twelve  molai^  The 
outer  upper  incisors  are  small,  but  the  inner  large  and  curved, 
and  grow  throughout  life.  They  are  coated  in  part  with  enamel, 
like  the  incisors  of  rodents.  The  molars  resemble  those  of  the 
rhinoceros.  The  uterus  is  two-homed.  The  Syrian  H.  is  of 
dark-brown  colour,  and  the  Cape  H.  wants  the  long  black  hairs 
of  the  former.     No  clavicles  exist,  and  the  tail  is  rudimentary. 

Bamar',  a  town  of  Yemen,  Arabia,  120  miles  N.N.W.  of 
Aden,  witli  5000  weli-bniit  houses,  the  governor's  castle,  and  a 
college  for  the  Zcites,  which  is  well  attended. 

Sitmaace'niQ^,  Damaskee'nm^,  Bam'asking,  terms 
employed  indiscriminately  to  denote  the  production  of  distinct 
styles  of  artistic  ornament  on  iron,  steel,  &c,,  and  derived  fiom 
Damascus,  where  the  manufacture  of  Damasked  Sled  (q.  v.) 


yLaOogle 


DAM 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DAM 


attained  great  celebrity.  D.  is  an  entirely  different  process  from 
that  by  which  damasked  steel  is  produced,  being  the  inlaying  of 
gold  or  silver  threads  in  incisions,  representing  some  design 
under-cut  in  metal.  The  threads  are  worlced  iij  witli  a  blunt 
tool,  and  the  whole  afterwards  ^ed  and  bunushed.     This  art 

13  successfully  pi^a,ctised  by  the  ancients,  and  during  the  Renais- 

nce  in  Italy,  Germany,  and  Sp^n,  arms  and  armour  were  so 
enriched.  Indian  gold  D.,  called  koftgari,  and  produced  chiefly 
in  the  Punjab,  possesses  great  aitistic  excellence, 

Samaace'iius,  Joaxuues,  afterwards  sumamed  Ghrysorr- 
hoas  ('Golden  Stream'),  from  his  eloquence,  was  bom  at 
Damascus  about  700  A.D.,  became  a  monk  of  St  Sabas  near 
Jerusalem,  and  died  about  760.  He  was  the  last  theologian  of  the 
Greek  Church,  and  his  writings  form  the  starting-point  of  syste- 
matic theology.  His  best-known  work  is  Dt  Fide  Orlhedoxa,  a 
complete  system  oftheologyderlved  from  the  fathers.  D.  sought 
to  propagate  the  Aristotelian  philosophy,  but,  like  most  ecclesias- 
tical writers  of  the  times,  was  extremely  credulous  and  untruthful. 
He  has  been  canonised  both  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches. 
The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  by  P.  Mich,  Lequien 
(a  vols.  Par.  171Z). 

Dainaa'cTia  (Titrk.  and  Arab.  Dimishk  S  SMm),  one  of  the 
oldest  cities  in  the  world,  and  the  capital  of  Syria,  Asiatic  Tur- 
key, lies  in  the  delightful  plain  of  Chutah,  at  the  E.  base  of 
Anti-Iibanus,  and  at  an  elevation  of  2238  feet  above  the  sea. 
It  is  surrounded  by  gardens  and  orchai'ds  for  a  circuit  of  some  30 
miles,  and  in  its  approach  it  has  a  splendid  appearance.  '  Taper- 
ing minarets  and  swelling  domes  tipped  with  golden  crescents 
rise  up  in  evety  direction  from  the  confused  mass  of  white-ter- 
raced.roofs,  while  in  some  places  their  tops  gleam  like  diamonds 
amid  the  deep-green  foliage.'  The  Barrada  (the  Abana  of 
Scripture)  flows  past  D.  in  an  easterly  diiection,  to  be  Joined 
by  the  Phacpar  (mod.  I'kfga)  in  the  Bahr-el-Merj.  The  city  is 
enclosed  by  dilapidated  wails,  dating  chiefly  from  Roman  and 
Arabic  times.  Its  streets  are  gloomy  and  narrow,  and  are  made 
hideous  by  uncared-for  refiise-heaps  and  stagnant  pools,  and 
still  more  by  crowds  of  vagrant,  ravenous  dogs.  The  '  street 
called  Straight'  (Acts  ix.  11)  runs  about  a  mile  from E.  toW., 
and  is  the  most  spacious  where  all  are  miserably  narrow.  The 
private  houses  ate  generally  mean,  prison-like  structures  of  grey 
mud,  but  the  interiors  of  those  of  the  better  class  are  furnished 
and  adorned  with  the  most  lavish  magnificence.  The  principal 
public  building  of  D.  is  its  famous  Grand  Mosque,  originally  a 
Semitic  shrine  or  temple.  According  to  Fergusson,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  make  out  its  original  form  in  consequence  of  so  much 
Moslem  and  Christian  rebuilding.  It  occupies  one  side  of  a 
great  square  (163  by  108  yards),  and  the  interior  is  portioned 
into  nave  and  aisles  by  rows  of  Corinthian  columns,  supporting 
the  roof  in  the  style  of  the  old  basilicas.  The  quadrangle  is 
entirely  paved  with  tesselated  marble,  andia  ornamented  with 
beautiful  fountains.  An  hospital  for  the  sick  is  attached  to  the 
Mosque.  Another  notable  building,  the  Great  Khan,  consists 
of  alternate  layers  of  black  and  white  marble,  and  has  a  gracefi;! 
cupola,  supported  on  granite  pillars.  There  is  also  an  extensive 
citadel,  an  imposing  serai  or  palace,  besides  248  minor  mosques, 
and  many  monasteries,  bazaars,  caravanserais,  baths,  caft^,  &c 
.  D.  has  now  but  a  tithe  of  its  once  famous  manufactures  of  silks, 
cottons,  cloth  of  gold,  jewellery,  cabinet-work,  leather,  horse- 
trappings,  sword- blades  (see  Damascenihs),  &c  It  is  still,  how- 
ever, a  great  centre  of  the  caravan  trade,  and  receives  from  Bri- 
tain calicoes,  hardn'ares,  sugar,  &c.,  to  the  value  of  some  £200,000 
yearly.  The  September  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  which  has  a  strongly 
commercial  as  well  as  a  religious  charactei',  is  under  Govern- 
mental protection,  and  costs  the  treasury  £^0,000  yearly.  Con- 
sisting formerly  of  as  many  as  60,000  persons,  the  caravans 
have  greatly  fallen  off  since  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal.  The 
pop.  of  D.  is  estimated  at  from  120,000  to  150,000,  of  whom 
rive-sixths  are  Mohammedans,  15,000  Christians,  45,000  Jews, 
and  4000  Druses  (q.  v.).  The  last  of  these  occupy  a  quarter  of 
the  city  by  themselves,  D.  is  a  city  of  unknown  antiquity.  It 
is  alluded  to  in  Genesis  xiv,  15,  and  for  a  long  period  was  closely 
coimected  with  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Jiidah.  It  was  in 
the  possession  successively  of  the  Assyrians,  Babylonians,  and 
Persians.  Under  the  Persians  it  was  made  capital  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Syria,  but  it  fell  into  Che  hands  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
after  the  battle  of  Issus.  During  the  long  wars  of  the  SeleucidEe 
and  the  Ptolemies,  D.  had  no  separate  history,  belonging  some- 


-j  the 


power  and  sometimes  to  the  other.  The 
Romans  under  Pompey  subdued  Syria,  and  made  D.  the  capital 
of  the  provmce  of  Syria,  64  B.C.  In  633  it  was  seized  by  the  Calif 
Omar;  in  1401  Timur  partly  destroyed  it  by  fire,  and  in  1516 
it  was  taken  by  the  Sultan  Selim  I.  It  has  ever  since  remained 
in  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  except  during  an  interval  of  eight 
years  (183Z-40),  when  it  was  mider  the  rule  of  Ibrahim  Paslra. 
In  1B60  the  Druses  broke  loose  upon  the  Christians,  kilhng 
some  4000,  and  carrying  off  many  of  the  women  as  prizes  for  the 
harem.  The  French  macadamised  road  was  opened  between  D. 
and  Beyrout  in  1863.  See  Porter's  FHi  Ytars  in  D.,  Addison's 
B.  and  Palmyra,  Pococke's  Description  of  tki  East,  also  article 

Dam'fwk,  a  woven  fabric  m  which  elaborate  patterns  of 
foliage,  flowers,  wreaths,  scrolls,  Sc,  are  introduced,  said  to 
have  been  first  made  at  Damascus.  The  "production  of  the  pattern 
depends  on  the  arrangement  of  the  weft  and  warp  yarns  in  twill- 
weaving,  the  gloss  or  lustre  on  the  weft  being  distinct  from  that 
of  the  warp  thieads,  which  run  at  right  angles  to  Uiem.  In  D. 
weaving,  the  design  for  the  fabric  has  first  to  be  prepared  and 
drawn  on  '  point '  paper,  that  is,  paper  ruled  into  small  squares 
which  correspond  with  the  threads  in  the  web.  The  weavmg  is 
done  in  the  Jacquard  machine  (see  Jacqtjard),  prerious  to  the 
invention  of  which,  about  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  the 
weaving  of  D.  was  effected  by  a  very  cumbrous  and  tedious  pro- 
cess. Damasks  are  chiefly  made  in  linen,  and  used  for  toilet 
and  table  covers,  napkins  and  towels,  but  woollen  fabrics  and 
silks  are  also  amilarly  woven,  and  used  principally  for  furniture 
cloths.  In  fmniture  damasks  the  pattern  is  sometimes  produced 
by  the  use  of  different  colours,  and  a  cheap  D.  for  furniture  and 
hangings  is  now  made  of  a  union  of  cotton  and  woollen  yams. 
The  chief  British  seats  of  the  linen  D.  manufacture  are  Belfast  in 
Ireland  and  Dunfermline  in  Scotland,  that  being  the  staple  textile 
industry  of  these  two  towns. 

Damasked  Steel,  When  steel  preseiits  a '  watered,'  waved, 
contorted,  or  fibrous  surface,  as  in  the  highly-prized  Damascus 
blades,  it  is  spoken  of  as  damasked.  The  peculiar  markings  are 
due  to  the  crystallisation  of  the  iron  and  carbon  from  particular 
treatment  in  cooling.  Carbon  is  present  in  excess  of  the  ordinary 
proportions,  and  by  the  action  of  acids  on  the  metal  of  unequal 
composition,  and  consequently  of  varying  degrees  of  solubility, 
patterns  of  a  certain  order  may  be  strengthened.  The  finely- 
watered  blades  of  Indian  manufacture  are  made  of  'wootz,'  or 
Indian  steel,  and  different  qualities  of  iron,  fo^ed  into  t>ars, 
welded,  spirally  twisted,  and  beaten  out  flat.  The  blades  are 
stud  to  be  hardened  by  being  fixed  while  redhot  to  a  wheel  put 
in  rapid  motion.  Very  successful  imitations  of  the  real  'damask  ' 
have  been  produced  by  French  manufacturers.  Grey,  black,  and 
brown  '  damasks '  result  by  mixing  quantities  of  platinum,  silver, 
and  palladium  with  the  steel. 

Dftm'asna,  a  Spaniard,  succeeded  Liberius  as  Bishop  of 
Rome,  366  A.D.,  after  a  sanguinary  contest  with  Ursmus.  He 
was  active  in  suppressing  Arianism  and  also  Apollinarianism, 
for  which  puipose  he  held  several  councils  and  wrote  a  number 
of  letters.  His  zeal  was  also  excited  against  the  Luciferians 
(q.  v.),  the  Donatists  (q.  v.),  and  the  Priscillianists  (q,  v.).  In 
retum  for  this  his  own  private  character  was,  rightly  or  wrongly, 
attacked.  An  edict  of  Valentmian's,  that  the  dergy  should  not 
l^acies  from  pious  ladies,  was  said  to  have  been  aimed 
^  illy  at  him,  and  he  was  directly  charged  with  immorahty 
lefore'  a  council  held  at  Aquileia,  but  was  acquitted.  From 
382  till  his  death  in  384,  he  had  Jerome  (q.  v.)  for  his  secretary, 
who  was  engaged  at  the  time  on  his  vei-sion  of  tlie  Bible.  See 
Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of  Che  Roman  Empire,  chap,  xxv, 

Dambur,  a  village  in  Ceylon,  45  miles  N.W.  of  Kandy, 
named  from  a  vast  rock -temple  of  Buddha,  containing  carvings 
of  Buddha,  one  of  which  is  of  colossal  size. 

Dame  (Fr.  daine,  Lat.  domina,  '  the  mistress  of  the  house '), 
a  title  of  honour  formerly  given  in  England  to  a  lady,  under- 
standing the  latter  term  as  the  correlative  of  gentleman.  It 
is  now  little  used  in  England,  but  is  applicable  £0  married 
women  of  all  classes.  Madame,  shortened  into  niadam,  is  still 
used  on  special  occasions,  and  in  ceremoniously  addressing  a  lady 
in  a  letter  ;  but  it  is  not  now  the  custom  in  England,  aa  it  was  in 
former  times,  for  ladies  and  gentlemen  in  addressing  a  lady  orally 


principally  a' 
before  a  coi 


vLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


to  aaj"  madame,  or  ma'am.  In  France,  again,  it  is  considered 
discourteous  to  omit  llie  title  in  addressing  a  married  woman, 
whatever  be  her  social  rank.  In  Spain,  it  is  proper  to  address 
a  lady  or  a  gentleman  in  the  third  person,  by  a  term  perhaps 

auivalent  to  'your  honour'  in  England.    In  France,  the  Virgin 
ary  ivas  styled  by  way  of  pre-eminence  Noire  Dame.      .    . 

Dftme's  Violet  {ffei/ttii),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Cfiifjftris,  natives  of  themiddle  and  S.  of  Europe.  The  com- 
mon D.  v.,  or  white  rocket  (S.  matnmaiis),  is  found  apparently 
wild  in  Britdn,  but  is  doubtless  an  escape  from  the  many  culti- 
vated varieties.  Its  flowers  are  soentie^  by  day  but  perfumed 
at  night.  It  is  cultivated  in  pots  in  Germany,  as  it  was  at  one 
lime  in  England;  hence  its  name.  Another  species,  ff.  tristis 
(Ihe  night-scented  rocket),  is  a  favourite  house-flower  ill  parts 
of  the  Continent. 

Dam'iena,  Bobert  Fransoia,  was  born  at  TieiUloy,  in 
Artois,  in  1715.  His  yonth,  passed  in  service,  was  so  vicious  that 
he  earned  the  sobriquet  of  Roba-t  Is  Diabli.  On  account  of  a 
s  compelled  to  seek  refuge  in  B  ' 
[756,  took  his  resolve  to  assassinate  Louis 
of  January  of  tlie  following  year,  he  stabbed  the  King  while  he 
was  leaving  Trianon.  D.  was  instantly  captured.  During  his 
trial  he  behaved  with  great  coolness;  on  hearing  the  sentence 
he  only  said,  '  It  will  be  a  rough  joncney.'  After  frightful  tor- 
tures he  was  put  to  death,  March  aS,  1757.  .  His  motive  for  the 
murder  could  not  be  determined.  The  people  accused  in  turn 
the  Jesuits,  the  Jansenists,  tiie  Dauphin,  and  the  Parliament,  of 
complicity  in  the  crime  ;  but  the  assassin  revealed  nothing^  See 
mces  orig.  et  frocM.  du  Precis  faU  a  Sub.  Fraitf.  D.  (Par.  1757), 
s:!AVi^dsRsb.Frms.I3.'^3.t.■^^i,^). 

Damiett'a,  called  by  the  natives  Damiab.,  Arab..  Dimiat 
(anc.  Tamiathis  was  four  miles  lower  down),  a  seaport  of  Lower 
Egypt,  about  eight  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  eastmost  branch  of 
the  Nile.-  The  mouth  of  the  stream  is  protected  by  two  Martello 
towers  with  dicular  batteries.  In  the  13th  c.  it  began  to  be  a 
flourishing  place,  and  was  long  famous  for  its  manufactures  of 
leather  and  cloth  (it  gives  name  to 'dimity') ;  but  its  industrial 
activity  has  long  declined,  and  its  formerly  flourishing  commerce 
has  been  absorbed  by  Alexandria.  Rice  and  flax  of  excellent 
quality  are  extensively  grown  in  the  district,  and  thei-e  is  some 
trade  in  the  former  and  in  fish.     Pop.  (1872)  29,383. 

Danun'ar,  an  Oriental  word  signifying  lesin,  applied  in 
commerce  to  varieties  of  resmous  substances.  The  gum-D.  or 
D.  resin  of  Biilish  commerce  is,  however,  the  produce  of  pine- 
trees,  to  -which  the  generic  name  D.  has  been  given.  The  chief 
of  these,  and  the  principal  source  of  the  D.  of  our  market,  is 
the  Amboyna  piue  [D.  orimlalis),  a  tree  growing  to  a  height  of 
zoo  feet,  found  in  the  East  Indian  Archipelago.  It  produces  a 
beautiiiil,  almost  colourless,  transparent  resin,  which  constitutes 
the  best  portion  of  the  resin  imported  as  Singapore  D.  The 
Kauri  pine  of  Nevi"  Zealand  {£>.  Auslralh)  is  the  source  of  the 
gum-Kauri  or  New  Zealand  D.  of  commerce.  The  tree  now 
flourishes  only  in  the  North  Island,  but  the  resin  is  found  in 
many  places  m  a  fossil  condition.  It  is  only  the  fossil  gum 
wliich  IS  of  commercial  value.  It  forms  considerable  monnd^  to 
which  annual  additions  are  made  by  exudations  round  the  trunks 
of  liviiig  trees,  Other  species  of  Dammara  in  the  Pacific  Islands 
yield  similar  resins.  Along  the  skirts  of  the  Himalayan  Mountains 
in  India  there  exist  immense  forests  of  a  valuable  timber  tree, 


Black  D. 

is  produced  in  India  from  canarium  strictum,  and  white  D.  or 
piny  varnish  exudes  from  Vateria  Indka.  A  kind  of  D.  is  also 
yielded  by  Popea  mUranlha,  a  tree  very  common  in  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  Borneo,  Sumatra,  &c.,  and  probably  some  portion  of 
the  Singa,pore  D,  of  commerce  is  obtained  from  this  source. 
The  D.    imported  into   England  makes   very  clear,  hard  var- 

Danunara,  a  genus  of  Conifers.,  found  iu  the  islands  ef  the 
Malay  Archipelago,  New  Zealand,  and  New  Guinea-  D. 
Bostralis,  the  Kauri  or  Cowdie  pine  of  New  Zealand,  yields  a 
hard,  brittle  resin  like  copaL  In  commerce  it  is  known  as 
Australian  copal,  Kauri  gum,  and  Australian  dammar,  and  is 
chiefly  used  for  the  manufacture  of  varnishes.  D.  orimtalis 
yields  Indian  dammar.  The  timber  of  D.  auslralis  is  valued 
328 


for  masts  and  spai-s.  D.  ntacrBphylla,  of  the  South  Sea  Quee 
Charlotte  Islands,  D.  Moorii,  New  Caledonia,  D.  obiusa,  of  New 
Hebrides,  and  D.  orientalii,  are  ail  handsome  trees  of  this 
genus.  .  The  latter,  which  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Moluccas, 
and  grows  to  the  height  of  100  feet,  yields  a  kind  of  fine  trans- 
parent dammar. 

Damma'dah,  a  tributary  of  the  Hoogly,  rises  in  the  district 
of  Behar,  province  of  Bengal,  flows  E.  and  S.E,,  and  joins  the 
Hoogly  near  its  mouth,  after  a  course  of  nearly  40a  miles.  Its 
valley,  traversed  for  nearly  IDO  miles  by  the  Calcutta  and  North- 
Western  Railway,  is  ricli  in  coal  and  iron. 

Damnum,  in  Roman  law,  signified  any  loss  sustained  in  per- 
son or  property.  In  Scotch  law,  damnum  absque  injuria  denotes 
losses  for  which  the  sufferer  has  no  legal  right  of  compensation 
against  the  person  causing  his  loss.  Thus,  where  a  new  school  is 
established  to  the  detriment  of  one  previously  estabUshed,  the 
latter  sustains  damnum  absque  injuria. 

Damnum  Fatali,  a  term  of  Scotch  law  denoting  inevitable 
accident     See  Act  of  God. 

DEun'ooles  was  a  companion  of  Dionysius  the  Elder,  tyrant 
of  Syracuse,  who,  as  Cicero  relates,  flattered  that  monarch  by 
extolhng  his  power  and  felicity.  Dionysius  placed  the  sycophant 
amidst  the  luxuries  of  a  magnificent  banquet,  and  suspended 
over  his  head  by  a  single  horsehair  a  naked  sword.  W' 
D.  observed  his  danger  he  formed  a  truer  estimate  of  re 
honours,  .  . 

Da'moD  and  Pyth.'ias,  or  Piiin'tiaa,  two  Pytliagoreans 
of  Syracuse,  of  whom  the  latter  was  condemned  to  death  for 
plotting  against  Dionysius  I.  '  He  obtained  permission  to  leave 
Syracuse  to  arrange  his  affairs,  and  D.  willingly  offered  himself 
as  a  pledge  for  his  friend's  return.  He  returned  just  in  time  to 
prevent  the  sacrifice  of  D.'s  life  for  his  own,  and  Dionysius, 
struck  with  admiration  of  their  friendly  devotion,  pardoned  P., 
and  requested  to  be  admitted  to  their  friendship. 

Dam'per,  a  movable  door  in  a  fine  or  diimuey  by  which  the 
passage  of  air  through  it  can  be  checked  to  any  required  extent. 
Dampers  in  a  pianoforte  are  hammers  which  rest  upon  the 
strings,  and  thus  prevent  their  souiiding  except  so  long  as  ''" " 
corresponding  keys  are  held  down.  A  pedai  is  always  provid 
which,  when  pressed,  lifts  the  whole  of  these  dampers  off  the 

Bam'pier  Archipelago  and  Strait  are  named  alter  the 
celebrated  navigator. — ;The  archipelago  consists  of  about  twenty 
small  rocky  islands,  sifiiatedckse  to  tiieN.W.  coast  of  Australia, 
in  S.  iat.  30°-2l''andE.lorig.  Il6°-Il8°.^-Thej;ra^,  which  is  35 
miles  broad,  divides  the  islands  of  Waigiou  and  New  Guinea, 
and  is  situated  iii  E.  long.  131",  a  few  miles  S.  of  the  equator. 

Dampier,  William,  navigator,  buccaneer,  and  author,  born 
of  a  good  family  in  the  parish  of  East  Coker,  Somersetshire,  i 
1652,  joined  a  vessel  at  Weymouth  as  a  boy,  and  sailed  succcf 
sivelytoBayonne,  Newfoundland,  and  in  1673  to  the  East  Indies 
He  afterwards  jomed  the  naval  service;  and  fought  in  two  battles 
against  the  Dutch.  J  ■  He  is  next  heard  of  as  overseer  of  a  planta- 
tion in  Jamaica ;  but  after  six  months'  expeiience  of  this  peace- 
able employment,  he  embarked  in  1675  at  Kingston  for  Cam- 
peachy  Bay,  where  he  was  engaged  in  logwood-cutting  till  1678, 
when  he  refuined  to  London,  ■  Sailing  again  in  1679  for  Cam - 
peachy,  he  joined  a  compaiiy  of  filibusters,  and  in  16S&  he  was 
one  of  a  number  of  360  buccaneers,  who,  having '  crossed  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,' burnt  the  fort  and  town  of  Santa  Mada, 
seized  a  number  of  canoes  on  the  coast,  and  in  these  attacked 
and  captured  eight  Spanish  ships  which'were  lying  at  andior 
about  two  leagues  from'  Panama.  D.  afterwards  scoured  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  during '1683-8S  was  actively  engaged  in 
buccaneering  off  the  coasts  of  Africa,  America,  the  Philipjjines 
and  China,  the  Moluccas,  and  New  Holland, '  Di^usted  with 
the  cruel  and  violent  practices  'of  his  companions,  he  resolved 


„  the  vessel, 

sailed  off  in  a  small  boat^  hoping  to  reach  Alchin.  Of  the 
eight'  adventurers,  only  D.  and  another  reached  the  coast  of 
Sumatra  alive.  Setting  out  again  in  search  of  fortune,  D.  arrived 
England,  l6th  September  1691,  and  publkhed  his  Voyage 


Round  the  World,  which  attracted  ii 


yLaOOgle 


DAM 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DAN 


Government  commissioned  him  to  uiidetlake  a  voyage  of  dis- 
:oveiy  in  the  regions  which  he  had  already  explored,  and  D, 
iailed  from  the  Downs,  6th  January  1699,  He  explored  the  N, 
;oast3  of  New  Guinea,  cleared  the  passage  now  known  as  D. 
Straits,  and  discovered  many  islands  W,  of  New  Guinea.  On 
lis  return  home  he  was  wredted.  D.  was  never  afterwards  in- 
trusted with  full  command,  though  he  made  at  least  two  other 
voyages,  the  one  in  1704,  the  other  in  1708-11,  as  pilot.  After 
the  latter  date,  D.  is  no  more  heard  of,  and  the  year  of  his  death 
is  untnown.  He  is  tlie  anthor  of  A  New  Veyags  Sound  the 
World  (Lond.  169S),  an  Accoimt  of.  the  Philippines,  and  an 
Aecitunf  ef  Ncai  Holland.  His  Tvotlts  have  considerable  descrip- 
tive power  and  a  fresh,  nautical  flavour,  and  show  a  clear, 
shrewd,  and  observant  mind.  See  Pinkerton's  ColkoHoti  of 
Voyages  and  Traneh,  and  Burney's  History  of  the  Buccaneers  of 
America  (Lond.  1816). 

Bamping  off,  a  term  used  by  horticulturists  to  expre  s  the 
death  of  plants,  such  as  young  seedlings,  by  an  excess  of  moistuie 
ill  the  soil  and  atmosphere,  especially  in  stoves  and  hotbedb 

Dam'sons.'    See  Prunes. 

Damugg'o,  a  large  town  on  the  Niger,  Upper  Guinea,  com 
posed  of  circular  mud-built  huts  supported  by  ribs  of  wood. 
Considerable  trade  is  carried  on,  and  j^s  and  Indian-corn  are 
the  chief  agricultural  products.      Pop.  uncertain. 

Ban.     See  Dotf. 

Dfln  (Heb.  'judgment')  vras  fhe  fifth  son  of  the  patriarch 
Jacob.  The  tribe  was  the  most  numerous  of  all  {62,700,  Num. 
i,,  64,400,  Num.  xxvi.}  except  Judah,  although  the  territory  it 
received  in  the  land  of  Canaan  was  the  smallest.  It  was,  how- 
ever, the  most  fertile  part  of  the  country,  and  tempted  the  Ca- 
naanite  neighbours  to  seek  to  possess  it,  during  which  contest 
Samson  appears  On  the  scene.  Perhaps  on  this  account  the  tribe 
migrated  to  the  N.  and  took  possession  of  the  town  of  Laish, 
which,  under  the  name  of  D.,  was  afterwards  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  country. 

Dan'a,  Bioliard  Henry,  an  American  poet,  bom  at  Cam 
bridge,  Massachusetts,  November  15,  1787,  and  educated  t 
Harvard  University.  He  entered  the  legal  profession,  but  so 
adopted  literature.  In  rSiS  he  became  editor  of  the  North  An 
rican  Eeviao,  and  published  fhe  Idle  Man  in  1821.  His  early 
poems,  Thi  Dying  Saven  (1825),  the  Baeainetr  and  other  Iben 
(1827),  and  his  Poems  anil  Prose  Writings  (2  vols.  1850),  ha 
won  for  him  a  considerable  reputation  as  a  poet  and  essayist — 
Bioliard  Henry  D.,  son  of  the  preceding,  lawyer  and  autho 
was  bom  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  August  I,  1815,  and 
educated  at  Harvai-d.  He  made  a  voyage  to  the  Pacific  as 
common  sailor,  and  gave  his  experience  m  Ttvo  Years  before  the 
Mast,  his  most  popular  work.  D.  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
.  1840,  published  The  Seaman's  Friend  (1841),  and  contested 
Essex,  Massachusetts,  against  General  Butlei',  in  1867,  for  a 
seat  in  Congress,  but  was  defeated.  He  edited  Wheaton's  Inter- 
national Lara  (t866).  President  Grant  nominated  him  (1876) 
United  States  Minister  to  England,  but  the  Senate  rejected  the 
nomination  b_y  a  vote  (April  5)  of  thirty-six  against  seventeen. — 
James  Dwig^ht  D.,  LL.D.,  an  American  geologist  and  mine- 
ralogist of  European  reputation,  born  at  Utica,  New  York, 
Febraary  12,  1813.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1833, 
published  his  Mineralogy  in  1837,  accompanied  Wilkes'  explor- 
ing expedition  m  the  Pacific  Ocean  (1838-42),  and  was  busy  for 
several  years  after  in  giving  the  scientific  world  the  results.  D. 
is  antlior  of  s.  Report  on  Zoophytes  (Wash.  1 846),  Geology  of 
the  Pacify  (Wssh.  1846),  Crustacea  (Wash.  1852),  Coral  Reefs 
(Philad.  1S53),  and  Manual  of  Geology  (1862).  In  1855  he  was 
appointed  Professor  of  Natural  History  and  Geology  in  Yale 
College,  and  is  a  lucid  and  eloquent  expounder  of  science, 

Dan'aS,  daughter  of  Acrisius,  King  of  Ai^os,  was  confined 
by  her  father  in  a  brazen  tower  to  prevent  the  fulfilment  of  an 
oracle  that  a  son  to  whom  she  would  give  birth  would  cause  his 
death.  But  Jupiter  wooed  the  maiden  in  a  golden  shower,  and 
she  became  the  mother  of  Perseus,  whereupon  Acrisius  shut  the 
mother  and  her  child  in  a  chest,  and  exposed  them  on  the  sea. 
Their  floating  prison  drifted  to  Seriphos,  where  it  was  found  by 
Dictys,  a  fisherman,  who  conveyed  its  tenants  to  his  brother. 
King  Polydectes.  According  to  tlie  common  legend,  Polydectes 
became  enamoured  of  D.,  but  dreading  Perseus,  now  grown  up, 
117 


he  sent  him  to  subdue  the  Goi^ons,  and  secure  for  him  the  head 
of  Medusa,  which  he  alleged  he  would  present  to  I-Hppodamia 
as  a  wedding-gift.  Perseus  returned  with  the  trophy,  retired 
with  his  mother  to  Ai|fos,  and  inadvertently  slew  Acrisius, 
thereby  fulfilling  the  ora5e. 

Dan'aiis,  son  of  Belus  and  Anchinoe,  was  originally  King  of 
Libya,  while  his  brother,  ^gyptijs,  ruled  over  Arabia.  The 
brothers  having  quarrelled,  D.  fled  in  the  ship  Armais  with  his 
fifty  daughters,  and  eventually  reached  Ai^os,  of  which  he  was 
chosen  king.  The  fifty  sons  of  jEgyptns  came  to  Atgo?  and 
asked  their  cousins  in  marriage.  To  this  D,  consented,  at  the 
same  time  providing  each  of  the  brides  with  a  dagger,  and 
enjoiniiig  them  to  slay  tlieir  husbands  on  the  night  of  the  nup- 
tials. This  they  all  did  except  Hypennnestra,  who  spared  Lyn- 
ceus.  D.  persecuted  him  for  a  time,  but  became  reconciled  to 
him,  and  appointed  him  hts  successor.  As  a  punishment  for  theit 
ci  ime,  the  Danafdes  were  compelled  in  Hades  to  fill  continoally 
a  vessel  full  of  holes.     From  D.  the  Argives  were  called  Danai. 

Dan'avirke,  a  long  wail  in  Slesvig,  about  8  miles  long, 
from  S4  to  40  feet  high,  ascending  from  the  Slei  to  the  river 
Trene,  Tradition  says  it  was  built  in  the  roth  c,  by  King  Gorm 
and  his  wife  Thyra.  It  was  restored  and  strengthened  in  1850, 
but  vras  captured  by  the  Austro-Prussian  troops  in  the  Damsh 
war  of  1865. 

Danliy,  Trancia,  a  historical  and  landscape  painter,  bom 
near  Wexford,  November  16,  1790,  and  educated  at  the  Royal 
Dublin  Society.  In  1820  he  removed  to  Bristol,  and,  after  resid- 
ing for  several  years  in  Switzeriand,  settled  at  Exmouth.  He 
died  in  1861.  Most  of  his  great  works  are  illustrative  of  Scrip- 
ture or  profane  history,  such  as  'The  Deluge,'  'The  Passage  of 
the  Red  Sea,'  '  Marius  among  the  Ruins  of  Carthage.'  D.  was 
an  Associate  of  the  Royal  Academy. 

Dance  of  Dcatli  (Lat,  Chorai  Machabaorum,  Ger.  Todttn 
Tans,  Fr.  La  danse  Macabre),  an  allegory  which  look  its  origin  in 
th  4th  symb  1  SI  g  the  sway  of  death  over  all  men  under 
h     m  g     f  ih    d  Visual  representations  of  death  were 

fit        d  m        ft  r  the  spread  of  Christianity,  and  the 

It  1  t      b  th    m  St  popnlar  effi|  ■      •■     ■  ■  ■ 

ft 


Monkish 


M  d  asval  grotesquerie  played  with  the  notion 
d  th    p  fit         f  death,  made  the  siteleton  the  medium 

f  b    1    q         d  m    k  ry,  and  finally  was  wont  to  depict  it  in 

th        t  d  p    t        of  dancing.     The  allegory  is  presented 

tw    f  rm  — th   dram  tic  and  the  pictorial.     The  drama  first 

pp  d  G  m  y  and  was  a  sort  of  religious  pantomime, 
be  g  t  d  th  h  ches.  Death,  the  centre  figure,  sur- 
rounded by  persons  of  all  stations,  engaged  in  a  dance,  during 
which  the  characters  vanished  one  by  one,  to  indicate  that  they 
had  died.  Later,  in  France,  this  crude  idea  was  elaborated  into 
the  Danse  Macabre,  a  set  of  brief  dialogues  between  Death  and 
his  companions,  who  were  generally  twenty-four  in  number. 
The  title  is  perhaps  taken  from  the  Maccabees,  the  drama  being 
perfotmed  on  the  festival  of  the  seven  martyred  brothers,  whose 
story,  is  told  in  the  seventh  chapter  of  that  book.  Early  in  the 
iSth  0.  the  drama  reached  Spain,  nndec  the  title  P>anfa  General 
de  los  Muertos.  The  pictorial  aspect  of  the  allegory  succeeded 
the  dramatic  It  arose  in  France,  but  took  deepest  root  in  Ger- 
many. England  also  has  specimens  of  the  pictured  D.  of  D., 
received  Irom  Paris.  The  subject  became  pommon  in  painting, 
sculpture,  and  tapestry-work — the  skeleton  leading  to  the  tomb 
a  crowd  of  personages  dressed  in  the  fashion  of  the  day,  and 
typical  of  all  classes.  Very  ancient  specimens  ewst  at  Liibeck, 
in  Auveipie,  and  at  Basel.  The  last  is  said  to  have  been  painted 
in  commemoration  of  the  ravages  of  a  plague.  In  the  15th  c., 
when  the  drama  was  lost  sight  of,  the  pictured  D.  of  D.  assumed 
new  forms,  and  entered  laigely  into  popular  art.  The  subject 
was  frequently  used  in  the  decoration  ofpublic  buildings,  as  in 
the  series  of  bas-reliefs  on  fhe  fagade  of  the  Castle  of  Dresden, 
and  the  paintings  in  the  cloister  of  Old  St  Paul's,  London.  The 
antique  idea  culminated  in  the  fifty-three  designs,  called  Ivia- 
giHes  Mortis  of  Holbein,  the  Gerrpan  painter.  See  Peignot's 
Recherches  surlesDanses  da  Morts  (Par.  1826) ;  Donee's  Disser- 
tation, prefixed  to  Holbein's  B.  of  D.  ;  Donee's  D.  of  D.  (Lond. 
1833);  and  Russell  Smith's  edition  of  Holbein's  Z>.  of  D.,  with 
introduction  and  notes  (1849}. 

329 


vLiOOQle 


DAW 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DAN 


Danoette,  or  Sause,  m  heraldry,  one  of  the  two  zigzag 
dividing  or  border  lines,  having  an  indentation  larger  than,  the 
other,  which  is  called  the  tndcntfd  line.  In  early  blazonry  a 
ftssi  D.,  and  sometimes  a  series  olfmils,  or  elongated  lozenges, 
conjoined /iT^/fWi',  is  styled  simply  a  D, 

Dan'cing'  may  be  defined  as  a  rhythmical  movement  of  the 
limbs.  Among  ail  people  and  in  every  age  it  has  found  favour 
with  youth,  and  in  most  of  the  ancient  nations  it  was  an  essen- 
tial feature  of  religious  worship.  Moses  and  Miriam  danced 
when  the  Israelites  passed  through  the  Red  Sea.  '  Praise  him,' 
says  David  (Ps.  L),  '  with  the  timbrel  and  dance  ;'  and  the  same 
monarch,  we  are  told,  danced  before  the  sik.  Among  the  Greeks 
the  significance  of  D,  had  a  very  wide  range.  The  dance  of  the 
Eumenides  or  Furies  typified  the  vengeance  of  heaven  on  the 
sins  of  earth  ;  wliile  certain  hymns  and  dances  in  the  market- 
places were  enpressive  of  the  gratitude  of  man  to  heaven.  The 
famous  Pyrrhic  dance  represented  the  overtaking  of  an  enemy 
and  doing  battle  withliim.  Dances  of  a  solemn,  mystical  nature 
were  introduced  into  the  representations  of  the  Greek  tragedies. 
The  Romans,  ag^n,  aeem  to  have  regarded  D.  as  an  effeminate 
amusement.  In  1650  D.  was  prohibited  in  Scotland  by  an  Act 
of  the  General  Assembly.  In  otir  own  time  it  is  by  many  not 
only  regarded  as  effeminate  but  as  immoral  ■  While  the  latter 
view  may  be  regarded  as  a  relic  of  that  puritanical  spirit  which 
Scott  has  so  skilfully  drawn  in  his  character  of  David  Deans — 
whose  righteous  wrath  at  the  notion  of  his  daughters  dancing 
will  be  remembered — ^it  must  be  admitted  that  public  D.  is  not 
always  secure  from  the  accusation.  To  private  D.  the  only  objec- 
tion is  one  of  hygiene.  To  spend  the  hours  usually  given  to 
sleep  in  crowded,  overheated  rooms  must  be  hurtful  to  health, 
ajid  therefore  to  beauty. 

Dancing  and  Musk  LUmce. — By  as  Geo.  II.  cap.  36,  the 
keeping  within  the  cities  of  London  and  Westminster,  or  within 
twenty  miles  romid,  without  licence  from  the  Quarter  Sessions, 
any  house,  garden,  or  place  for  public  dancmg,  music,  or  other 
public  entertainment,  is  prohibited  under  a  penalty  of  ;£loo  on 
the  keeper.  The  house  is  to  be  held  disorderly,  and,  as  such,  to 
be  dealt  with  according  to  law. 

Dancing  Mania,  an  epidemic  of  frequent  recurrence  in  the 
middle  ages,  and  most  common  in  the  large  German  towns.  It 
was  a  wild  hysteric  encitement,  finding  vent  in  convulsive  ges. 
tures  and  dehrious  motion.  Many  only  feigned  to  be  so  affected ; 
but  the  disorder  was  to  a  great  extent  real,  its  victuns  losing  all 
power  of  will,  and  sometimes  in  their  madness  committing  suicide. 
The  most  extraordmary  outburst  of  tliis  mania  occurred  towards 
the  end  of  the  14th  c.  It  began  in  the  city  of  Aix-la- Chapelle 
among  those  assembled  for  the  Feast  of  St  John.  Reiipous  en- 
citemeut  rose  to  the  extremes  of  frenzy  ;  men  and  women,  utter- 
ing maniacal  cries,  danced  through  the  streets.  The  epidemic 
spread  over  all  Holland  and  part  of  Germany  to  Stiasboui^  and 
Cologne.  Crowds  of  maniacs,  their  tanks  joined  by  many  pre- 
tenders, went  dancing  through  the  country,  and  much  riot  and 
profligacy  ensued.  In  Italy,,  where  it  was  frequent  in  the  isth  c. , 
D.  M.  was  known  as  Taranlism,  being  attributed  to  the  bite  of 
the  Tarantula  spider.  The  malady  became  known  as  St  Vitus's 
Dance,  and  was  cured  by  immersion  in  cold  water,  according  to 
the  remedy  of  Paracelsus.  It  died  out  in  the  17th  c.,  and  is 
now  met  with  only  jn  isolated  cases.  See  Hecker's  Epidemics 
eftke  Middle  Ages. 

Dandeli'oa  (Taraxacum  dens  leenis,  T.  officinale,  or  Leon- 
todtni  7'araxicum),  a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Composite, 
common  in  pastures  and  by  waysides  all  over  Europe,  and  now 
naturalised  jn  America  and  most  other  temperate  parts  of  the 
world.  The  popular  name  is  a  corruption  of  Denis  du  lion— 
lion's  teeth— and  refers  to  the  incisions  on  the  margins  of  the 
'  rundnate '  leaves.  The  root-stock  is  used  as  a  tome  and  ape- 
rient in  liver  complaints,  and  as  a  diuretic.  The  leaves,  though 
disagreeably  bitter,  when  blanched  are  sometimes  used  as  a  sal^, 
and  the  rhizomes  are  used  in  the  same  way  as  cliicory  for  mix- 
ing with  coffee.  The  whole  plant  is  permeated  by  milky  juice, 
and  contains  resin,  inulme,  sugar,  and  a  crystalline  principle 
ed  taraxacin.  It  is  eagerly  eaten  by  rabbits  and  other  wild 
animals,  and  in  default  of  mulberry  leaves  is  used  to  feed  silk- 

Dan'dolo,  an  illustrious  Venetian  house,  from  which  four 
Doges  were  chosen.     The  moat   distinguished  of  these  was 


Enrioo  D.,  elected  in  1192.  He  governed  with  wisdom  and 
energy,  and  persuaded  the  .Venetians  to  furnish  ships  to  the 
warriors  of  the  fourth  crusade  in  izol.  As  the  sum  stipulated 
for  the  fleet  was  not  paid  by  the  crusaders,  D.  induced  them  to 
assault  Zara,  a  town  of  Dalmatia  in  rebellion  against  Venice. 
After  its  capture,  the  crusaders  and  Venetians  proceeded  to  Con- 
stantinople, which  they  assailed  under  pretence  of  .detlironiiig  a 
usurper.  D.,  who  was  blind  and  above  ninety  years  of  age,  led 
the  attack  by  sea,  and  was  the  first  to  leap  ashore.  The  city  w 
taken,  and  the  deposed  Isaac  and  his  son  Alexius  were  restor 
to  power,  but  an  msurrection  arising,  vwre  summarily  executed, 
and  the  Byzantine  Empire  divided  among  the  Latins  and  Vene- 
tians. D.  was  offered,  but  declined,  the  crown,  accepting  instead 
the  title  of  Despot  of  Rumania.  This  conquest  added  con- 
siderably to  the  Venetian  dominions.  He  died  at  Constantinople, 
14th  June  1205.    See  Andrea  D.'s  Chronicle  m  Muratori, 

Dan'ebroff,  or  Dannebrog^  Oriler  of  (Old  Dan.  '  banner 
of  the  Danes'),  the  second  or  red-cross  order  of  knighthood  u> 
Denmark,  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Kuig  Waldemar  II. 
in  1219,  The  order  was  revived  in  1693,  was  reconstituted  ir 
1808,  and  is  conferred  for  eminent  civil  or  military  services  on 
persons  of  all  ranks  and  ages.  The  decoiallon  is  a  gold  cross 
patee,  enamelled  with  white,  and  suspended  by  a  white  ribbon 
embroidered  with  red. 

Dane'geld,  or  Danegelt  (Old  Eng,  '  Danish  payment '),  a 
tribute  paid  by  the  English  to  the  Danes  to  stop  their  ravages. 
It  was  first  raised  by  .^thelred  II.  in  991,  and  again  in  I003, 
and  levied  after  expulsion  of  the  Danes  to  pay  fleets  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  coasts.  The  tas  was  suppressed  by  Eadward  the 
Confessor  in  1051,  but  revived  by  William  tlie  Conqueror,  and 
abolished  by  Stephen.  Every  hide  of  land— that  was  as  much  as 
one  plough  couid  plough,  or,  as  Bede  says,  as  much  as  could 
maintain  a  family — was  taxed,  at  first  at  is.,  afterwai-ds  at  7s. 

Danelftgli,  properly  Denala'gu  ('Danish  law'),  the  name 
given  to  the  district  in  England  which  jEIfred  ceded  to  the 
Danes  under  Guthnim  by  the  treaty  of  Weddraore,  878  A.D.  It 
was  called  D,  because  it  was  governed  by  Danish  law.  It  in- 
cluded the  greater  part  of  England,  comprising  Northumbtia, 
East  Anglia,  most  of  Essex,  and  most  of  East  Anglia,  or  alt 
eastern  and  most  of  central  England,  from  the  Thames  to  the 
Firth  of  Forth.  Eadward  the  Elder  won  back  Merda,  Essex, 
and  East  Anglia,  but  in  the  reign  of  Eadmund  (940-946)  Watlmg 
Street  waa  again  made  the  boundary  between  the  D.  and  Wesses. 
The  name  D.  was  disused  after  the  Norman  conquest. 

Danemo'ra,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Gothland,  Sweden, 
S2  miles  N.  of  Upsala,  famous  for  its  extensive  iron-mines.  There 
are  seventy-nine  shafts  in  the  neighbourhood,  of  whlcli  seventeen 
are  worked.  The  iron  is  of  the  best  quality,  and  large  quantities 
of  it  are  exported  to  England.     Pop.  (1874)  10S9. 

Dan'iel  (Heb.  '  God  is  my  judge '),  Ihe  Book  of,  consists 
of  two  parts :  chs.  i,-vi.  contain  the  history  of  D.  and  three  other 
youths  who  had  been  carried  away  to  Babylon  on  the  capture  of 
Jei'usalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar;  chs.  viL-Kii.  contain  the  account 
of  four  visions  which  occurred  to  D.,  written  down  by  himself. 
The  general  voice  of  tradition  has  been  that  the  first  part  of  the 
book  is  authentic  history,  and  that  the  D.  mentioned  was  the 
author  of  the  whole.  Modern  criticism,  however,  maintains  that 
the  book  was  composed  as  late  as  about  the  time  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  (175-164  B.C.),  i,e.,  three  and  a  half  centuries  later 
tiian  the  time  specified  in  the  book,  the  historical  narrative  of 
D,  being  a  disguised  but  unmistakable  representation  of  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  Jews  under  Antiochus,  as  described  in  the 
books  of  the  Maccabees  (cf.  D.  iii.  with'  I  Mace,  i,  and  a  Mace 
vi.  vii. ;  also  D.  iv.  and  v.  with  I  Mace.  i.  zt  ff,,  and  a  Mace 
V.  15  ff.).  According  to  this  view,  the  names  of  the  four  youths 
— D.,  Mishael,  Hananiah,  and  Aiariah — were  found  among  the 
exiles  who  returned  from  Babylon  (Neh,  viii.  4,  x.  2,  6,  23), 
See  Bleek's  Inti-oducHon  to  the  Old  Testammt. 

Dan'iel,  Samuel,  an  English  poet,  was  bom  in  1562  near 
Taunton,  Somersetsliire.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  was  tutor  to 
Lady  Anne  Clifford,  afterwards  Countess  of  Pembroke,  and  held 
an  office  at  the  coutt  of  James  VI.  He  resided  generally  in  the 
country,  and  died  at  Beckington  farm,  in  Somersetshire,  Octo- 
ber 14,  l6lg,  His  chief  work  is  the  History  cf  the  Civil  IVars 
between  YorM  and  Lancaster.  It  is  prolia:  and  languid,  with  much 


yLaOOgle 


DAN 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DAN 


pensive  meditation  and  occasional  bursts  of  eloquence.  The 
verse  is  sweet  and  limpid,  and  the  diction  carefully  sifted.  D.'s 
style,  says  Professor  Lowell,  is  as  modem  as  Tennyson's. 
Among  D.'s  otlier  works  are  The  Complaint  of  Sosamutid,  Tra- 
gedy i/fCleopaira,  Tht  Quern's  Arcadia,  MusopAUas,  and  Somtlts. 
la.-^iose,\ie-vnoiea,Iiistotyof,Ettgla»daaAa.Definieef£hynie, 
which  Swinburne  calls  'one  of  the  most  perfect  examples  of 
sound  sense,  of  pure  style,  and  just  judgment  in  the  literature  of 
criticism.'  D.'s  poetical  works  were  published  at  London  in 
a  vols.  (1718). 

Daniell,  John  Frederick,  D.O.Ii.,  F.R.S.,  a  distinguished 
chemist,  was  bora  in  London,  March  12,  1790,  became  Professor 
of  Chemistry  at  King's  College,  and  died  March  14,  1845.  He 
is  widely  known  as  the  inventor  of  the  galvanic  cell  and  hygro- 
meter which  bear  his  name,  and  he  is  the  only  person  that  ever 
obtained  the  three  Koyal  Society  medals.  His  chief  work  is 
Meteorological  Essays  (1823),  besides  which  he  wrote  an  Essay 
on  Artificial  Climate  (iSz^),  an  Introduction  to  Chemical  Phih- 
tophy  (1839),  and  several  valuable  papers  read  before  the  Royal 
Society. 

Dan'isli  Language  and  Literattire.  The  D.  L.,  an  off- 
shoot of -the  Scandinavian  branch  of  the  Teutonic  fajnily  of 
speech,  though  spoken  only  by  the  Danish  people,  has  been  for 
400  years  past  the  written  language  of  Norwegians  also.  Runic 
inscriptions,  &c.,  prove  that  in  the  lolh  c.  one  language,  called 
the  '  Danish  tongue '  (donsk  tunsa),  prevailed  in  the  three  Scan- 
dinavian kingdoms,  Iceland,  the  Faroe,  Orkney,  and  Shet- 
land Isles,  and  some  parts  of  England  and  Scotland,  This 
separated  in  the  nth  c.  into  two  main  divisions:  a  Nor- 
wegian-Icelandic and  a  Dano-Swedish,  the  latter  distinguished 
by  its  rejection  of  the  h  sound  before  /,  r,  and  »,  and  the  sub- 
stitution of  single  long  vowels  for  the  old  diphthongs:  The 
Danish  side  of  this  Dano-Swedish  already  in  the  13th  c.  showed 
three  dialects:  (l)  'Skaansk'  (Scanian),  which  most  resem- 
bled the  old  language;  (2}  '  Sjcellandsk'  (that  of  Zealand] ;  and 
(3)  'Jydsk'  (of  Jutland),  which  differed  most  from  the  old, 
owing  to  its  weakening  or  changing  many  vowel-sounds  and 
word-forms.  In  the  two  last,  inflectional  endings  fidl  off,  find 
vowels  are  lost,  a,  i,  and  »  are  gradually  reduced  to  a  less  dis- 
tinct a  or  a,  while  the  hard  mutes  /,  A,  and  t  still  remain  after 
vowels  in  lie  13th  c,  as  is  on  the  whole  yet  the  case  in  Nor- 
wegian and  Swedish.  At  this  time  the  vocabulary  was  entirely 
of  native  origin,  encejit  some  Greek  and  Latin  words  introduced 
along  with  Christianity;  but  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries  the 
language  reached  what  is  essentially  its  present  form.  Based  on 
the  dialect  of  Sjoslland,  it  preserves  the  character  of  a  distinct 
and  hom(^neous  speech,  whose  chief  characteristics  are  that 
t  or  (in  pronouns)  d  is  substituted  for  the  soft  IM,  and  the  softer 
i,  g,  d  for  the  hard  /,  b,  t,  and  that  the  inflections  are  re- 
duced to  a  few  forms,  substantives  presenting  only  the  posses- 
sive in  J,  and  merging  masculine  and  feminine  in  common  gender. 
Verbs  lose  person,  and  generally  (except  in  the  imperative)  num- 
ber also,  as  the  singular  was  aJreuiy  beginning  to  supplant  the 
plural.  The  vocabulary  of  prose  writeis  in  this  period  received 
considerable  additions  from  Low  German,  especiallv  nouns  in 
■ked,  and  verbs  with  the  prefixes  be-,  for-,  una-, 
er-  and  an-.  But  these,  unusual  in  the  poetry, 
rare  in  the  spoken  language  of  the  14th  and  rsth 
influence  of  High  German  began  chiefly  in  the  l6th  c,  and  ap. 
pears  in  various  words  formed  anew  after  the  German  fashion, 
which  yet  bear  but  a  small  proportion  to  the  portion  of  the  D.  L. 
that  has  sprung  from  purely  Scandinavian  sources. 

Literalare. — Before  the  Reformation  the  softer  and  weaker 
dialect  of  the  Old  Norse,  spoken  by  the  people  of  Denmark,  was 
not  to  any  extent  a  written  language,  for  the  clergy,  then  almost 
the  only  educated  class,  naturally  preferred  Latin  to  the  yet  un- 
formed  mother-tongue.  Of  these,  Saxo-Grammaticus  (q.  v.) 
wrote  in  the  end  of  the  iztii  c.  a  valuable  histoiy  of  Denmark. 
The  writings  intended  for  the  laily  were  in  Danish,  and  consisted 
of  (l)  laws,  and  {2}  tminteresting  chronicles,  partly  in  prose  and 
partly  versfi  d     B  f        th   wh  I     th   lit  rat         '  " 


n  the  mid 
though  un 


a-      H 


printing  introduced  into  the  country,  but  for  a  lime  little  activity 
was  shown,  except  in  the  printing  of  the  laws,  class- manuals, 
and  Catholic  service-books  that  had  been  used  in  the  middle 
ages.  The  intellectual  movement,  however,  tliat  preceded  and 
accompanied  the  Reformation,  issued  in  a  far  more  widespread 
literary  interest,  and  m  the  publication  of  Danish  trandations  of 
Scripture  and  devotional  books,  as  well  as  numerous  theological 
and  polemical  writings.  The  language,  being  incessantly  em- 
ployed, became  more  plastic,  though,  at  the  same  time,  it  was 
greatly  impregnated  with  Germanic  ingredients.  Christiern 
Pedersen  displayed  a  correctness  and  ease  in  style  hitherto  un- 
known ;  and,  indeed^  the  influence  of  tlie  great  religious  movement 
may  easily  be  seen  in  the  steady  progress  of  literature  till  1660. 
It  resulted  in  learned  Latin  and  popnlar  Danish  books  (chiefly 
in  theology,  still  the  favourite  science},  which,  though  subjected 
to  a^  strict  censorship,  and  becoming  less  fi-esh  after  the  Refor- 
mation period,  yet  showed  much  talent  and  acuteness.  The 
greatest  names  are  those  of  Hemmingsen  in  the  l6lh  and  Broch- 
mand  in  the  17th  c.  Theology  was  not  now  confined  to  the 
clergy,  but  was  cultivated  by  many  of  the  nobles,  and  especially 
by  Rosencranlz.  Physical  science  had  the  celebrated  Tyge 
Brahe,  whose  observations  and  discoveries  excited  the  admira- 
tion of  Europe;  medicine,  the  two  Bartholins  and  Ole  Worm, 
also  famous  as  a  naturalist.  Science  could  not  be  successfully 
cultivated  without  fluency  in  Latin  composition,  which  was, 
accorduigly,  written  by  many  with  ease  in  both  prose  and  versei 
At  the  same  time  the  native  language  was  not  neglected.  Saxo's 
book  was  translated  into  good  Danish  by  Bedel,  who  also  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  the  old  Kiempeviser ;  Clausson'a  translation 
of  Snotre  Sturiason's  Hdmskringla  ('  Sagas  of  the  Kings  from 
Odin  to  Sverre ')  was  eagerly  read  by  many,  and  the  beginning 
of  the  17th  c,  was  marked  by  an  increased  interest  in  Danish 
antiquities  and  the  old  Icelandic  literature.  The  poetry  of  this 
whole  period  was  of  less  value  than  its  prose,  for  the  hymns  of 
the  Reformation  were  more  pious  than  poetical ;  but  towards  its 
close  there  appeared  a  highly  gifted  poet,  Arrebo.  Still  his 
genius  could  neither  wholly  supply  the  deficiencies  of  his  native 
language,  nor  make  up  for  the  want  of  taste  in  an  age  whose 
poetic  nourishment  vras  the  romances  and  stories  that  are  n 
the  amusing  reading  of  the  lower  orders. 

From  the  Peace  of  Roeskilde  in  i65o,  which  gave  to  Sweden 
the  Danish  provinces  on  the  other  side  of  the  Sound,  the  litera- 
ture becomes  somewhat  poorer.  The  old  nobility  that  had 
favoured  learning  now  lost  their  influence,  and  the  court  showed 
little  interest  in  it  Science,  however,  was  still  cultivated,  s  " 
versifiers  abounded,  but  there  were  two  who  rose  above  the  n 
and  wrote  in  better  Danish  and  with  purer  art — ^Bording  and 
Kingo. 

It  was  Holberg  who,  in  the  first  half  of  the  18th  c.,  created  a 
new  era  in  literature  and  popular  thought.  The  wide  range  of 
his  productive  activity,  his  uniform  exceilence  in  all  departments 
of  literature,  his  wit  and  humour,  his  litjeral-mindedness  and 
natural  point  of  view,  were  in  themselves  an  education  to  the 
people.  In  the  separate  fields  of  poetry,  however,  Reenbei^, 
Falster,  and  Helt  were  his  successful  rivals  ;  and  to  this  period 
belong  also  the  original,  though  unequal,  JSsltesangsr  1^' Soas&  in 
Pr^se  of  Heroes^  of  Sortetup,  the  lyrics  of  Stab,  and  the 
hymns  of  Brorson. 

With  the  accession  of  Frederlk  V.  in  1746  begins  a  higher  de- 
velopment in  literature  and  language,  due  partly  to  Latin  being 
more  restricted  to  learned  works,  and  partly  to  the  study  of  foreign 
models.  In  the  Academy  of  Sorii,  restored  in  1747,  Sneedoiff 
edited  the  weekly  PatrinUsk  Tilskner  ('  Patriotic  Spectator ') 
Kraft  wrote  philosophy;  Schytte,  political  works;  and  Schoning, 
a  learned  history  of  Norway.  Encouraged  by  the  patronage  of 
many  public  and  private  societies,  and  the  steady  liberality  of 
the  Government,  every  department  of  knowledge  was  now  culti- 
vated, but  no  one  can  be  said  to  have  made  an  epoch  in  any  par. 
ticular  science.     Pontopiddan  (q.  v.)  was  of  less  note  in  theology 


It  expositor  of  Christian  philosophy,  and 

as   bly  supported  by  Bastholm  in  the  struggle  of  the  Church 

;       1^  free- thinking.     Many  of  the  poets  in  this  period  were 

uccessfvil  prose  writers,  as  are  Brun,  Abrahamson,  Pram, 

1       e  versatile  and  lively  Rahbek.   Others  confined  themselves 

oetry.    Of  these,  the  most  notable  are  TuUin,  whose  Maidag 

■day')  and  longer  didactic  poems  are  full  of  natural  descrip- 

331 


vGooqIc 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPjEBIA. 


DAN 


(' Love  without  Stockings')  is  a  masterpiece  of  pure  eomedj';  and, 
omitting  a  long  list  of  minor  poets,  Baggesen,  who,  whether 
aeriouE  or  gay,  was  invariably  successful  in  expressing  original 
thought  in  beautiful  verse. 

The  igth  c  inherited  from  the  iSth  great  enlightenment,  faci- 
lity, and  culture,  but  also  a  monotonous  elegance  of  style,  mock- 
sentiment,  superficial  science,  and  recklessness  in  rehgious  and 
political  thought.  In  Denmark,  the  last  decade  in  particular 
was  marked  with  these  blemishes,  but  about  the  opening  of  the 
century  there  appeared  a  tendency  towards  a  truer  perception 
of  nature  and  human  life,  due  partly  to  tlie  fresh  phUosopliy  and 
poetry  of  Germany,  and  partly  to  the  influence  of  the  French 
Revolution.  This  had  already  effected  much  in  the  first  four- 
teen years  of  the  century,  which  are  more  striking  for  a  widely 
diftiised  scientific  spirit  tlian  for  any  lat^e  number  of  learned 
men,  Mijnter  was  the  most  erudite  writer  of  the  period,  and 
did  much  for  Clinrch  history  ;  and  Miiller's  Systematic  Tkeolagy 
Minsiderahle  merit.  Two  great  religions  authors  of  different 
;,  Mynster  and  Grundtvig  (q.  v.),  already  gave  earnest  of 
their  fature  influence.  The  new  philosophical  ideas  of  Steffens 
(q.  V.)  created  great  interest,  and  a  philosophical  spirit  showed 
itself  also  among  scientific  men.  The  two  Oersteds  were  famous, 
the  one  as  a  jurist  and  the  other  as  a  physicist ;  but  history, 
especially  that  of  Denmark,  was  the  favourite  study,  and  was 
cultivated  by  Werlaulf,  Simonsen,  Baden,  NyerUp,  and  Molbech. 
Grundtvig  interpreted  Scandinavian  mythology,  and  Rask  (q.v.) 
published  his  mtroduction  to  the  Old  Icel^dic.  Poetry  blos- 
somed with  equal  luxuriance.  Oehlenschlager  (q.v.),  the  father 
of  igfh  c.  art  in  the  national  literature,  founded  the  Roman- 
tic school  of  Danish  poetry,  giving  it  a  wholly  Scandinavian 
colouring.  Grundtvig  and  Staffeldt  were  the  other  two  poets 
of  the  period ;  but  the  latter  cared  little  to  please  the  mul- 

From  l38otol8l4  Norway  was  politically  united  to  Denmark, 
and  an  independent,  though  often  scarcely  distinguisliable,  Nor- 
,  thern  element  was  merged  in  Danish  literature  ;  but  since  their 
sepaiation,  Norwegian  literature  has  successfully  claimed  in- 
dependence. Since  1814  Denmark  has  seen  the  complete 
development  of  the  views  of  Grundtvig,  while  other  theological 
schools  have  been  well  represented.  Especially  noteworthy 
are  the  remarkable  Christian  philosopher  Martensen,  the  sar- 
castic but  deeply  earnest  S.  Kjerkegaard,  the  acute  and  ortho- 
dox Rudelbadi,  and  the  clear  rationalist  Clausen.  Kolderup- 
Rosenvinge,  Laraen,  and  Scheel  wrote  ably  on  law ;  Kayser 
and  David  on  political  economy.  Grundtvig,  F.  E.  Miiller,  and 
the  learned  Finn  Magnnsen  (q.  v.)  have  been  of  great  service  to 
early  Danish  history  and  mythology,  as  also  Rafn  (q.  v.),  Peter- 
sen, Thomsen,  and  Woraaae  (q.  v, ).  Mediieval  and  modem  his- 
tory were  further  treated  by  the  writers  belonging  to  the  earlier 
part  of  the  century,  as  well  as  by  many  younger  men,  of  whom 
Wegener,  Schiem,  and  Estrup  merit  notice.  In  philolcCT,  the 
Danish  lexicographer  Molbech,  the  Orientalist  Westetgaard,  and 
the  great  I.atin  scholar  Madvig  (q.  t.)  are  famous.  Philosophy 
has  been  cultivated  by  Sibbern,  Nielsen,  and  Brochner,  and  the 
natural  sciences  have  had  numerous  students.  Among  the  poets 
of  this  period  we  still  find  Oehlenschlager,  Grundtvig,  and  Bag- 
gesen (q.v.).  Ingemann  has  had  great  power  as  a  lyrist,  dramatic 
poet,  and  novelist,  and  Heiberg's  fine  taste  and  keen  insight  are 
evident  in  his  poems,  but  especially  in  his  dramatic  works.  The 
latter  was  the  father  of  the  Danish  -aauda/ille,  but  ilia  EbierhM 
(*  The  Hillock  by  the  River ')  displays  quite  different  talent. 
Blicher's   sketches  of  common  Jutland  life,  and    Fru  Gyllen- 

■Whil 

hrsvme  ('  Gftost  Letters'),  has  been  conspicuous  in  ail  fields  of 
poetry,  Andersen  (q.  v,)  is  naturalised  in  every  part  of  the 
civilised  world.  Paludan- Miiller's  Adum  Homo  is  a  striking 
and  origmal  work.  We  may  also  mention  the  comic  dramatist 
Bogh,  and  among  recent  novelists  H.  F.  Ewald,  Goldschmidt, 
and  the  still  greater  BergsOe.  See  Kraft  and  Nyerup,  Almin- 
dtligt  Lileraturlexicon  13  vols.  Copenh.  1777-84)  ;  Erslev, 
Aliimdeli^  Forfaiifr- Lexicon  (4  vols.  1842-56) ;  Rahbek, 
Bidi-ag  tu  dm  damke  ZHgterkmsls  HUtmie  (1800);  Fiirst, 
Briefe  Sier  die  ddn  Literatur  (2  vols.  1816) ;  HBst,  Danske 
BiUiograpkis  (1843-53) ;  Petersen,  Bdtrage  tatr  Dan.  Literatur 
(5  vols.  1853-61). 
332 


Dankali',  or  Dauakil,  an  independent  Abyssinian  state, 
extending  along  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea  from  tlie  Peninsula  of 
Burl  to  the  Gulf  of  Zajucra.  The  land  is  barren,  and  the  inha- 
bitants consist  of  about  70,000  nomads  and  fisheis.  They  are 
indolent,  cruel,  and  fanatically  devoted  to  lalamism. 

Dann'ecker,  JtiltaDn  Heinrioli  von,  a  celebrated  German 
sculptor,  was  born  near  Stuttgart,  October  15,  1758.  His  father 
was  a  groom  in  the  service  of  the  Duke  of  Wiirtembeig,  who 
became  his  patron,  and  gave  him  an  education.  D.  had  early 
success  in  his  art ;  he  went  to  Paris  in  1783,  and  to  Rome  two 
years  after.  At  that  city  he  Remained  till  1790,  when  he  re- 
turned to  Germany,  and  was  appointed  Professor  of  Sculpture 
in  the  Academy  at  Stuttgart.  There  he  resided  till  his  death, 
December  8,  1841.  Heathen  mythology  supplied  D.  with  his 
earlier  subjects,  among  which  are  the  '  Dryad '  and  '  Love  and 
Psyche.'  Of  his  later  works,  chiefly  Christian,  the  principal  is 
his  colossal  '  Christ,'  which  the  sculptor  was  eight  years  in  com- 
pleting. His  portrait-busts  are  also  admirable.  No  one  could 
make  stone  express  the  physical  lineaments  of  character  better 
than  he.  His  'Schiller,'  'Lavater,'  'Gluck,' &c,  won  him  a 
great  popularity.  See  Griinelsen  and  Wagner's  Dh  Werke  in 
liner  Auswahl,  mil  einer/i  I.ebeiisab'-iS!  des  Masters  (Hamb. 
1841). 

Dan'te  (contracted  from  Duiante),  AligHe'ri,  born  at 
Florence,  8th  May  1265,  was  the  son  of  a  Guelph  lawyer,  who 
was  banished  from  Florence  during  the  government  of  Novello, 
tbepudeita  of  the  Ghibelllne  Manfred  of  Hohenstaufen.  D.  was 
educated  by  his  mother.  Donna  Bella,  and  Bmnetto  Latlni, 
Secretary  of  the  Florentine  Republic,  and  subsequently  at 
Bologna,  the  '  Mater  StiuUorum, '  and  the  great  Law  College  of 
Padua.  In  1290  Beatrice  di  Portarini,  whom  D.  had  tenderly 
loved,  but  who  had  married  into  the  Bareli  family,  died.  D. 
then  produced  his  yita  Nucva,  which,  with  his  other  canzonets 
(he  was  intimate  with  three  eminent  troubadours),  procured  for 
him  the  name  of  'the  poet.'  D.  served  in  the  wars  against 
Arezzo  and  Pisa.  After  an  unhappy  marriage,  in  I291,  with 
Gemma,  daughter  of  Manesso  Donati,  which  resulted  in  a  sepa- 
ration, he  rose  to  ofSce  in  the  Supreme  Council  of  Friori  (six  in 
number),  when  the  civil  wars  between  the  Bianchi  and  Neri 
broke  out.  Charles  of  Valois,  called  in  as  mediator  in  I302, 
sentenced  D.  to  exile  and  an  oppressive  fine.  Shortly  after,  a 
revolutionary  tribunal  sentenced  him  to  be  burned  alive  along 
with  the  other  Bianchi,  who  wished  to  resist  the  extreme  preten- 
sions of  the  Pope.  In  1 309  he  wrote  his  treatise  De  Mmarchia. 
After  wandering  from  one  city  to  another,  and  joining  in  one  or 
two  forcible  attempts  to  re-enter  Florence,  D.  died. at  Raveima, 
14th  September  1321.  At  his  death  he  belonged  to  the  party  of 
the  Verdi,  or  DtmecitUic  Ghibellinea,  as  distinguished  from  the 
SeccM,  or  pure  Imperialists.  Doubts  exist  as  to  the  part  actually 
taken  by  D.  in  public  affairs  Bi  Florence,  and  in  diplomatic 
missions  at  Rome  and  Paris.  To  the  year  1305  belong  II  Con' 
vits,  in  which  Beatrice  appears  as  Philosophy,  and  a  treatise 
on  the  Italian  language,  De  Viilgari  Eloqiimlia.  The  Diaina 
Comtiiedia  was  begun  in  1300,  but  not  completed  for  many  years. 
Hence  events  subsequent  to  1300  are  prophesied.  Sismondi 
asserts  that  D.,  who  was  ignorant  of  the  drama,  used  the  woi-d 
'  comedy '  merely  i>ecause  he  thought  Virgil  alone  entitled  to  the 
word  'epic'  The  poem  is  divided  into  the  Inferno,  Vae  Pur- 
gatorio,  and  the  Parsdiso.  Virgil  and  St  Bemfuii  conduct  D. 
through  tliese  divisions  of  the  invisible  world,  with  tiie  vj 


whole  may  be  seen  m  the  first  canto  of  the  Inftmo,  where  a 
panther  represents  Florence,  or  Envy;  a  lion,  France,  or  Ambi- 
tion ;  a  she-wolf,  the  court  of  Rome,  or  Avarice  ;  a  greyhound, 
our  Saviour  or  his  vicegerent,  the  Emperor  of  the  Romans; 
Vircii,  Human  Wisdom ;  and  Beatrice,  Heavenly  Wisdom. 
Hell  is  represented  (quite  difierently  from  Milton's  conception, 
and  from  the  early  Christian  conception,  which  placed  it  in  the 
centre  of  the  earth)  as  an  inverted  cone  from  the  surface  to  the 
centre  of  the  earth,  with  a  dark  valley  at  the  mouth  called  Limbo, 
and  nine  circles  appropriated  to  different  degrees  of  crime.  Like 
Michael  Angelo,  D.  uses  the  traditions  of  classical  mythology  to 
furnish  these  I'^ons.  He  is  a  good  Catholic,  and  represents  the 
wise  and  good  of  antiquity  as  lying  in  tears  and  groans,  caused, 
nob  by  actual  torture,  but  by  the  irrevocable  want  of  baptism. 
Purgatory  is  a  Steep  mountain  in  the  hemisphere  opposite  to 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


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b     I  mb  d  th      ^h  bef 


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a]  and       taphy      1  H 

pocalypt  1  dg       t  th 

ur   r     th  II     f  Italy  P 

P  rad  tl  t  ugh  th 


f  tl     Moo  ,  M 


Venus,  the  Sun,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn.  The  eighth  heaven 
contains  the  triumph  of  Christ,  and  the  Virgin  and  Adam  also 
dwell  there.     In  the  ninth,  or  eiUpyrean,  is  a  manlfestati 


veiled  by  three  hierardiies  of  angels.  This 
wonaenui  poem  is  written  in  the  liria  rima,  in  which  three 
verses  are  so  arranged  that  the  middle  line  of  each  coaplet  rhymes 
with  the  fiist  and  the  third  verses  of  the  succeeding.  The  verses 
are  all  eiidecasyllabic,  generally  consisting  of  five  iambi,  followed 
by  a  short  syllable.  The  Divina  Comnudia  speedily  became  a 
national  book  m  Italy.  The  Prince  of  Milan  m  1350  caused  a 
pubUc  commentary  to  be  written,  and  two  professorships  were 
founded  to  promote  the  study  of  it.  Among  his  chief  commen- 
tators are  Landino,  Bargigi,  Bianchi,  and  CoCterilL  Foiu'  edi- 
tions of  the  work  (those  of  FoHgno,  Jesi,  and  ManCora,  each  of 
date  14,7a,  and  an  undated  one  of  Naples)  in  the  British  Museum 
formed  the  basis  of  a  magnificent  reprint,  pubhshed  under  the 
care  of  Lord  Vernon  and  Sir  A.  Panizai.  The  original  readmgs 
of  another  Naples  edition  (1477)  are  given  in  Sei  Cmls  Lesioni 
dslla  Divina  Coimnedia,  &c.,  by  Dr  Enrico  C.  Barlow  (Williams 
and  Noi^te,  1875).  The  best-known  translations  into  English 
are  those  of  Gary  (1814),  Wright  (1833),  Pollock  (1854),  and 
Longfellow  (Lond.  1867).  One  may  also  note  an  excellent  prose 
tranSatiott  of  the  Infirno  by  Dr  John  Carlyle  (1849).  The  Vita 
Nturva  has  been  admirably  translated  hy  D,  G,  Rossetti  in  his 
Early  Italian  Pats  from  Cialle  d'Aicama  to  D.  (Lond.  i86ij. 
The  De  MonarcMa,  written  to  prove  that  universal  dominion 
should  belong  to  the  head  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  is  a  valu- 
able source  of  information  regarding  Che  Goelph  and  Ghibelliue 
controversy.  See  Boccaccio's  Vita  di  D.  ;  Rinuncini's  Vita  di 
D. ;  Artand  de  Montor's  Hisf.  de  D.,  l84r  ;  Delecluze's  D. 
et  la  Poisie  Amourmse  (1851);  Leigh  Hunt's  Stories  from,  th: 
Italian-  Pests;  Balbo's  Life  and  Tunis  of  D.,  translated  by  F. 
Banbury  (gvo,  Lond.  1852), 

Dan'ton,  Georges-Jacilues,  was  born  28th  October  1759  at 
Arcis-sur-Anbe.  The  Revolution  found  him  a  briefless  advocate. 
He  joined  Marat  and  Desmoulins  in  the  Cordelier  Club,  and 
enjoyed  the  confidence  of  Mirabeau.  His  eloquence  made 
him  a  power;  'his  rhetoiical  tropes  are  aJl  gigantic,  energy 
flashes  from  his  black  brow,  menaces  in  his  athletic  figure,  rolls 
in  the  sound  of  his  voice,  reverberating  from  the  domes."  He 
had  the  courage  to  defy  the  arrest  issued  by  Le  Chatelet,  to 
denounce  the  ministers,  and  call  for  the  deposition  of  the  King. 
In  1792  D.  became  Deputy-Procureurof  the  Revolutionary  Com- 
mune, incited  the  Marseillese  to  attack  the  Swiss  Guard  of  the 
Tuileries,   an  event  which  made  him  Minister  of  Ji     ' 


sacres.  He  observed  that  '  a  revolution  conld  not  lake  place 
according  to  geometrical  principles  ! '  Entering  ihe  National 
Convention,  he  undertook  various  missions  to  the  Netherlands, 
and  did  what  he  could  to  forward  the  death  of  Louis.  He  con- 
stantly urged  the  levy  of  fresh  troops,  and  created  the  Revolu- 
tionary Tribunal.  In  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  he  defini- 
tively sided  with  Robespierre  against  the  Girondins,  whom  he 
wished  to  save  from  extremities.  He  opposed  the  Feasts  of 
Reason,  and  passed  the  law  for  payment  of  forty  sous  per  diem 
lo  the  poorer  deputies.  After  the  fall  of  the  Hebertists,  Robes- 
pierre found  it  necessary  to  get  rid  of  D.,  and  accordingly,  on 
the  proposition  of  the  Committees  of  Public  Safety  and  General 
Security,  the  Convention  sent  him,  along  vrith  the  two  Desmou- 
lins, Herault  de  S^chelle,  Fabre  d'Eglantine,  Delacroix,  Wes- 
termann,  and  Philippeaux,  before  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal, 
which  condemned  them  to  death  for  a  conspiracy  against  the 
national  representation  and  the  Reptiblic,  and  tending  to  re- 
store the  monarchy.  D.  was  g:uillotmed  5th  April  1794.  The 
charges  of  private  immorahty  and  public  peculation  agiunst  D, 
have  to  some  extent  been  refuted  by  Robinet  in  his  Memoirs  sur 
sa  Vis  Privit  (Par.  1865),  3.tiA.  Pi-ach  des  Danloniens,  published 


Z.  Politique  Positive,  ll 


Dan'ube,  a  French  form  of  the  Lat.  Datmiius,  from  a  Celtic 
t  dan  or  don,  meaning  water,  accordiiie;  to  Adelung,  is  'the 
p]  r  water' (Ger.  Z'i'»fl«,  Hun.  i)ajM).  'flie  Greek  name  Ister, 
ppl  ed  by  the  later  Roman  poets  to  the  entire  river,  was  given 
ng  nally  only  to  the  lower  part.  TheD,  rises  in  the  Black  Forest, 
in  Baden,  2665  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  is  formed  by  the  con- 
fluence of  the  brooks  Brege  and  Bregach  at  Donaueschingen,  Its 
general'dicection  is  from  W.  to  E.,  its  length  about  1750  miles,  and 
its  basin  about  25QOOO  sq.  miles.  After  the  Volga  it  is  the  largest 
river  in  Europe.  It  flows  at  first  E.  by  N.  through  Wiirtembei^ 
and  Bavaria,  past  Ingolsladt  and  Regensburg,  and  at  Passau 
enters  the  Austiian  dominions.  Passing  Linz  and  Vienna,  it 
reaches  Hungary  near  Presbure,  whence  to  Waitzen  it  con- 
tinues to  flow  £.  ;  then  Cuming  S.  past  Festh  and  Buda,  it  holds 
on  in  this  direction  until  joined  by  the  Drave,  when  it  Sows  S.S.E. 
to  Belgrade,  from  which  point  to  Orsova  it  separates  Servia  from 
Hungary.  A  little  below  Orsova  it  passes  the  '  Iron  Gate,'  where 
till  1847-49  the  water  formed  a  rapid  that  obstructed  navigation, 
but  by  blasting  the  rocks  this  hindrance  was  in  a  great  measure 
removed.  During  the  remainder  of  its  course  it  forms  the 
boundary  between  Bulgaria  and  Rumania,  entering  the  Black  Sea 
by  three  main  branches,  of  which  the  Sulina  is  commercially  the 
most  important.  Till  it  reaches  Dim,  where  it  becomes  navi- 
gable, the  D.  is  hemmed  in  by  abrupt  slopes,  In  its  lower 
course  it  expands  greatly,  and  in  many  places  on  the  borders  of 
Bulgaria  is  studded  with  islands.  Its  delta  is  covered  with  rei 
and  trees.  No  fewer  than  sixty  navigable  rivers  contribute 
swell  the  volume  of  its  water,  which  is  nearly  as  great  as  that  of 
all  other  streams  that  empty  themselves  into  the  Blade  Sea. 
The  principal  affluents  on  the  right  are  the  Iser,  Lech,  Drave, 
Save,  and  Marava;  on  the  left,  the  Ens,  Theiss,  Sereth,  and 
Pruth.  The  trade  of  the  D.  is  chiefly  in  wheat,  timber,  hides, 
tallow,  and  maize. 
DanuTiiaii  Principalifciea.     See  Rumania. 

Dan'zig  ('the  fort  of  the  Danes,'  Pol.  Gdansk),  next  to  St 
Petersburg  the  most  important  haven  in  the  N,  of  Europe,  and 
the  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name  in  the  provmce  of 
Prussia,  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Vistula,  z  miles  from  its  mouth, 
on  D.Bay,  and  216  N.E.  of  Berhn,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
railway.  It  has  many  fine  buildings,  and  is  intersected  by  the  two 
streams  oftheMottlau,abranch  of  Sie  Vistula,  which  has  previously 
received  the  Radaune — and  hence  it  has  been  called  '  the  northern 
Venice.'  D.  is  a  fortress  of  the  first  tank,  and  the  chief  station 
of  the  Prussian  navy,  having  extensive  wharves,  arsenals,  marine 
depots,  &c  It  is  an  entrepot  for  Poland,  Hungary,  and  parts  of 
Lithuania,  as  well  as  for  W.  Prussia.  Its  port  is  Neufahrwasser, 
on  the  coast  (pop.  3866).  The  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula 
only  allows  vessels  of  some  nine  feet  of  draught  to  approach  the 
city.  Between  the  two  arms  of  the  Mottlau  lies  the  Speicher 
Island,  which  has  stores  capable  of  containing  half  a  million 
quarters  of  grain,  and  which  is  kept  uninhabited  as  a  precaution 
against  fire.  The  city  is  divided  into  the  Vorstadt,  Speicheiinsel, 
Niederstadt,  Langgarten,  Altstadt,  and  Rechstadt.  The  older 
houses,  which  are  richly  ornamented  with  sculpture,  are  old- 
fashioned,  irregular,  and  unique,  giving  to  D.  an  appearance  of 
quaint  originaBty.  D.  has  a  lai^e  Gothic  townhouse,  built  in 
the  14th  c.,  and  containing  a  fine  collection  of  paintings.  Its 
ft:oteStant  Marien  Klrche  dates  from  1343-1503,  and  has  a  clock- 
tower  338  feet  high,  to  smaller  towers,  37  beautifully  painted 
wmdows  (1845),  and  the  famous  so-called  D.  picture,  a  'Last 
Judement,'  attributed  to  Jan  van  Eyck,  but  more  probably  the 
work  of  Hemling.  The  other  public  buildmgs  of  D.  include  an 
admiralty  college,  a  school  of  navigationj  a  library  of  45,000 
volumes,  a  fine  Gothic  exchange,  several  literary  and  art  socie- 
ties, and  a  new  theatre.  D.  has  laige  manufactures  of  brandy, 
liqueurs  (Dan^igsr  Goldwasser),  sugar,  chemicals,  cloths,  beer, 
tobacco,  &c.,  and  an  active  trade,  chiefly  in  grain,  seeds,  spirits, 
and  timber.  In  1875  the  grain  and  seed  exported  amounted  to 
160,695  tons;  the  -ralue  of  the  timber  to  jC 1, 904, 62 5.  Tlie 
number  of  vessels  that  entered  the  port  was  1669  of  525,264 
tons;  cleared,  1645  of  517,555  tons.  The  chief  imports  are 
coffee,  rice,  and  herrings.  In  1 874  the  import  of  Scotch  herrings 
amounted  to  117,659  barrels,  D.  has  railway  connection  «""'- 
333 


vLiOOQle 


DAO 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DAB 


Moscow,  and  vi&  Warsaw  with  Odessa  on  the  Black  Sea.  Pop. 
(1871)  S8,9?5,  of  whom  23,428  are  Roman  Catholics  and  2625 
Jews.  It  is  mentioned  as  early  as  the  6th  c,  and  in  995  was 
made  ihe  capital  of  Pomerajiia.  Long  an  object  of  contention  be- 
tween Danes  and  Swedes,  it  was  captured  by  the  Teutonic  knights 
in  1310,  and  was  soon  after  a  flourishmg  member  of  ttie  Hanse 
League,  From  1454  till  1793  it  belonged  to  Poland;  at  the 
latter  date  it  came  into  the  possession  of  Prussia,  and  has  since 
remained  so,  except  during  lie  period  1 807-14,  when  it  was  one 
of  Napoleon's  short-lived  duchies.  The  district  of  D.  resembles 
Holland  in  its  general  aspect,  and  in  the  occtipations  and  char- 
acter  of  the  people.  Besides  D.  the  chief  towns  a.re  Thorn  and 
Elbing.    Area,  3035  sq^.  miles ;  pop.  {1871)  525,012. 

Daoudnugar',  or  Daudnugg'er,  a  town  in  the  executive 
district  of  Gya,  province  of  Behar,  British  India,  on  the  Sone, 
90  miles  E.  of  Benares,  has  manufactures  of  coarse  woollen  and 
cotton  .fabrics.     Pop.  (1872)  10,05a 

Daph'ne,  a  genus  of  shrubs  or  small  frees  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  ThymeUaceiE,  the  species  of  which  are  widely  dis- 
tributed over  temperate  and  tropical  Europe,  Asia,  America, 
and  Australia.  The  flowers  are  fr^rant,  but  the  berries  are 
poisonous,  and  the  whole  of  the  plants  possess  an  acidity  which 
in  some  cases  even  amounts  to  causticity.  The  mezereon  (D. 
Mezereuni)  is  a  common  shrub  in  gardens,  and  is  rarely  found 
wild  in  this  country.  The  bark  has  been  used  in  medicine  as  a 
sudorific  and  alterative  in  scrofiilous,  venereal,  and  other  dis- 
eases.  D.  Laureola,  the  spuige  laurel,  also  occurs  in  woods  of 
this  country,  and  is  as  aaid  as  Ihe  preceding,  but  is  not  used  in 
medicine.  In  Nepal,  the  tough  fibrous  inner  l^rk  of  Z>.  canna- 
bina  and  D.  Edgworthii  (Edgworthia  Gardneri)  is  employed  in 
malting  paper  of  a  very  superior  qualify,  which  does  not  suffer 
from  the  attaclcs  of  insects  or  from  damp,  and  is  tough,  and  not 
liable  to  break  when  folded.  In  India  and  Chma  deeds  and 
records  are  made  of  it ;  as  in  Madagascar  is  lie  bark  of  Dais 
Madagasmrmsis,  belonging  to  a  closely  allied  genus.  That  of 
Cnidia  daphnoides  and  G.  {Lasiosephon)  eriocephala,  allied  species 
(the  bark  of  the  latter  being  also  used  in  India  to  poison  fiiih), 
is  made  into  ropes. 

Among  the  other  species  cultivated  in  this  country  are  D. 
Pontka,  D.  atpina,  D.  Cmorum  (all  hardy),  D.  odora,  D.  indica, 
and  D.  chinemu,  which  can  only  be  grown  m  a  greenhouse. 

Daphne,  a  maiden  daughter  of  the  river-god  Peneua  in 
Thessaly,  was  associated  in  numerous  traditions  with  Apollo. 
When  the  god,  enamoured  of  her  beauty,  pursued  her,  D.  was 
saved  by  her  mother,  Ge,  opening  and  receiving  her,  and  on  the 
spot  where  she  disappeared  the  evergreen  laurel-tree  sprang  up. 
According  to  Ovid,  D,  herself  was  changed  into  the  laurel-free. 

D.,  a  magnificent  grove  and  sanctuary  sifua,ted  5  miles  S.W.  of 

Anfioch,  was  formed  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  who  built  in  the  midst 

a  celebrated  temple  to  Apollo  and  Diana,  and  around  it 

there  rose  '  a  stately  and  populous  village.'    The  traditions  of 

mythological  D.  were  interwoven  with  the  place  j  the  tree 

1  which  Sie  was  changed  was  pointed  out,  and  one  of  the 

springs  was  named  after  that  on  Mount  Parnassus.     For  many 

;es  the  grove  was  the  resort  of  innumerable  pilgrims,  who,  amid 

i  sensuous  gratifications,  combined  the  pursuit  of  pleasure  with 

e  rites  of  religion.    By  the  zeal  of  the  Christians  of  Antioch 

i  altar  and  oracle  were  deserted,  and  its  complete  destruction 

5S  effected,  perhaps  by  Christian  ir---^^-  ' 

.  iliaii.     Its  correct  site  is  probably 

Pococlte  and  Richter. 

Daph'nia.     See  Water-Flea. 

Darabgherd',  or  Darali',  an  oh 

Fars,  Persia,  150  miles  S.E.  of  Sliira 
and  lemon  groves  in  a  fine  plain,  and 


date-palms.     Numei....  _ 

mild  tobacco,  celebrated  throughout  India  and  ^ 
grows  in  the  neighbouriiood.  D.  sends  lemon-juici 
every  port  of  Persia.  Pop.  from  15,000  to  2O,O00. 
D'Arljlay,  ISadaitie,  whose  maiden  name 
Eumey,  was  bom  at  Lynn  Regis  in  1752.  She  w 
daughter  of  Dr  Charles  Butney  (q.  v.),  the  musiciai 
of  Evdina,  published  anonymoiely  in  1778,  wc 
authoress  great  repute ;  and  tbis  was  sustained 
appeared  in  1782.     After  holding  a  post  at  cou 


in  the  province  of 
lands  amid  orange 
:led  by  some  30,000 
ler  importance,      A 


334 


won  the  young 
by  Cecilia,  which 
rt  for  some  years. 


she  married  a  French  officer.  Her  later  works  are  much  inferior 
to  the  early  ones,  though  they  procured  her  large  sums  from  the 
publishers.  Madame  D'A.  died  at  Bath  in  1S1.O.  Htr  Diary 
and  Zetl^s  (1842  and  1846)  preserve  a  picture  of  contemporary 
society,  as  well  as  of  her  own  life.  See  Macaulay's  £isay  on 
Madame  D'A. 

Dardanelles' (named  from  the  towers  that  guard  the  entrance), 
are  the  straits  joining  the  Archipelago  to  the  Sea  of  Marmora. 
The  ancient  name  was  Hellespont  (Helle's  Sea),  from  the  fable 
of  HeUe  and  her  brother  Phryxis,  The  channel  is  50  m" 
long,  of  an  average  breadth  of  two  miles,  and  at  one  point  i 
only  half_  a  mile  broad.  The  current  from  the  Black  Sea  fli. ..  _ 
through  it  at  the  rate  of  a  league  an  hour,  and  the  consequent 
difficulty  to  an  enemy  of  approaching  Constantinople  is  greatly 
increased  by  strong  defences  most  favourably  placed.  In  480 
B.C.,  Xerxes  crossed  the  D.  by  two  bridges  from  Abydos  in  Asia 
to  Sestos  in  Europe,  and  in  B.C.  334  it  was  crossed  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  The  feat  of  swimming  across  the  D 
ciated  in  ancient  times  with  the  name  of  Leander,  and  i  m  d 
times  with  that  of  Byron. 

Dares,  the  reputed  author  of  a  pseudo-history  of  tl     f  U    f 
Troy,  popular  in  the  middle  ages,  and  even  in  the    6th 
Chaucer  places  D.,  with  Homer  and  others,   on  th    hu.h    I 

Sedesfal  in  the  house  of  fame,  and  refers  to  D.,  not  to  H  m 
>r  the  deeds  of  Troihis.  The  Greek  version  of  D. ,  at  t 
attributed  to  the  D.,  priest  of  Hephsestus,  mentioned  in  th  II  ad 
is  supposed  to  have  been  (he  work  of  a  Sophist,  and  w  e.  t 
in  the  3d  c.  B.C.,  but  is  now  lost.  A  Latin  prose  work  D 
PhrygH  de  Exctdio  Trmis  Historia,  has  been  preserved  This 
i3eitherafebricationofthe5th,6th,or  7fhcenturie3,o  p  hp 
an  abridgment  from  the  Latin  epic  by  Joseph  of  Exeter,  who 
flourished  about  the  12th  c.  It  was  translated  into  French  verse 
in  the  izlh  c,  and  was  first  printed  at  Coli^ne  in  1470.  This 
work,  which  is  of  no  value,  was  said  to  be  a  translation,  by 
Cornelius  Nepos,  from  the  original  Greek.  It  is  generally  printed 
along  with  Dietys'  Cretensis.  The  best  edition  is  by  Diederich 
(8vo,  Bonn,  1837), 

Dar  "Eya  {i.e.,  'Fur  land'),  formerly  an  important  nal 
state,  now  an  annexed  territory  of  Egypt,  is  situated  in  the  E.  of 
the  Sudan,  and  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Sahara,  S.  by  the  Bahr  ' 
Homr,  a  tributary  of  the  White  Nile,  E.  by  the  steppe  of  Kor 
fan,  and  W,  by  the  forests  of  Waday.  Area,  some  106,000 
miles ;  pop.  variously  estimated  from  500,000  to  5,000,000. 
is  in  general  an  oasis-land,  and  is  traversed  from  N.  to  S.  by  the 
ru^ed  granite  range  of  the  Marrah,  which  sends  down  man 
streams,  forming  on  the  W.  the  feeders  of  Lake  Tchad,  but  o! 
the  E.  shortly  losing  themselves  in  the  waste.  Tlie  fertile 
valleys  in  the  Marrah  Hills  produce  dates,  rice,  bananas,  citrc 
onions,  cucumbers,  pepper,  hemp,  cotton,  tobacco,  &c.  There 
is  also  much  copper  and  u-on;  the  copper  taltes  a  prominent 
part  in  the  commerce  of  the  entire  Sudan.  Among  the  wild 
animals  are  the  lion,  panther,  hy^na,  elephant,  rhinoceros,  wild 
ox,  gazelle,  and  monkey.  The  Ftirs  are  an  intelligent,  active, 
well-built  people,  with  straight  hair  and  thin  lips,  speaking 
a  language  that  contains  a  large  infusion  of  Arabic  words. 
Mohammedanism  has  prevailed  in  D.  since  the  middle  of  the 
i8tli  c,  Tendelty  is  the  capital  (pop.  8000),  and  the  other  chief 
towns  are  Kobbe,  Zeghawa,  and  Gija.  D.,  which  has  of  late 
years  been  a  great  centre  of  the  slave  trade,  was  annexed  by 
Egypt  in  1874-75.  See  Ebn-Omar-el-Tounsy,  Veyage  au  D. 
(Par.  l845). 

Dar'g'aiJ,  'William,  a  projector  of  railways,  bom  about  iS 
at  Carlow,  Ireland.  After  working  in  a  surveyor's  ofiice,  and 
under  Telford  in  England,  he  returned  to  Ireland,  where  he 
engaged  in  the  chief  engineering  schemes,  and  amassed  a  la  _^ 
fortune.  He  was  the  contractor  for  the  Dublin  and  Kingston 
Railway,  the  first  line  laid  in  Ireland,  and  was  the  main  promoter 
of  the  Dubhn  Exhibifion  of  1853,  to  which  he  contributed 
jfjOiOoo.  D,,  who  was  an  enterprising  and  public- spirited  man, 
died  February  7,  {867, 

Da'rien,  or  Tlraba,  Ckilf  of,  the  most  southerly  arm  of  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  United  States  of  Colombia,  170  miles  from  N.  to 
S.,  and  125  across.  On  its  western  side,  near  its  southern  extre- 
mity, its  chief  tributary,  the  Atrato,  empties  itself  into  the  Bay  of 
Choco.  ThelsthmuBofD.,  more  generally  known  as  the  Isth- 
mus of  Panama  (q.  v.),  of  which,  however,  it  is  properly  a  continua- 


yLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DAB 


le  point  only  30  miles  across.  Two  schemes  have  been 
3  traverse  it  by  a  ship-canal,  and  thus  afford  direct 
communication  between  the  Alhuitlc  and  Paciiic  Oceans.  The 
intempktes  the  junction  of  the  Gnlf  of  D.  with  that  of  San 
Miguel,  on  the  western  side  of  the  isthmus,  and  the  other  that  of 
the  Atrato  (q.  v.)  with  the  San  Juan.  A  railway  across  the  isthmus 
was  completed  m  1854.     See  Aspinwall. 

Sarien,  Scheme,  Tlte,  a  disastrous  conmierdal  enterprise 
projected  on  behalf  of  Scotland  by  William  Palerson,  founder 
of  the  Bank  of  England,  who  hopei^  by  planting  a  colony  on  the 
Isthmus  of  Daiien,  to  form  a  connecting  mart  between  the  eastern 
and  western  hemispheres.  In  the  year  169;,  when  Paterson  dis- 
closed his  grand  scheme,  Scotland  was  the  poorest  country  in 
Europe.  The  occupation  of  D.  promised  to  render  it  a  ware- 
house for  the  wealth  of  the  East.  The  magnificence  of  the  pro- 
ject greatly  excited  the  people,  and  led  them  to  overlook  the 
obstacles  to  its  execution.  Colonists  unaccustomed  to  a  high 
temperature  even  in  simimer  were  unfit  to  endure  labour 
under  a  tropical  sun.  It  was  improbable  that  Spain  would 
tolerate  a  Scotch  colony  in  the  heart  of  its  transatlantic  do- 
njnions,  or  that  England  would  incur  a  war  with  Spain  for 
the  benefit  of  Scotland  ;  nor  could  Scotland,  without  the  help 
of  England,  successfully  oppose  Spain  in  America.  To  do  so,  a 
navy  required  to  be  created,  and  an  armed  force  sufficient  to 
defend  the  isthmus  t^iunst  the  vice-royalties  of  Mexico  and  Peru 
However,  the  Company  was  constituted  by 
Act  of  Scotch  Parliaraent,  to  which  the  Lord  High  Commissioner 
gave  the  royal  sanction  on  z6th  June  1695.  The  shares  were 
fixed  at^ioo  each.  £4<x>,txx>  was  immediately  subscribed  for, 
of  which  ^220,000  was  paid.  This  may  seem  a  small  sum  con- 
sidering the  national  excitement ;  but  if  it  be  remembered  that  the 
whole  amount  expected  to  be  paid  into  the  imperial  exchequer  by 
Scotland  at  the  date  of  the  Union  (1707)  was  but  ^^151,000,  the 
^220,000  seems  sufficiently  large.  The  Duke  of  Hamilton,  the 
Duke  of  Queensberry,  and  Lord  Belliaven  took  ;£^30O0  of  stock 
each.  The  Duke  of  Argyle  took  ;$  1 500  worth.  The  cities  of 
Edinbtugh  and  Gla^ow  took  each  £yx>o  worth,  and  the  city  of 
Perth  ji'zooo. 

On  25th  July  1698,  iive  ships  with  1200  men  sailed  from  the 
Forth;  and  on  the  1st  of  November  following  anchored  near  the 
tl  F         f  w  m      h    m  tt  nt  fairly;  bat  with  the 

IP  hfp  gth  algntyfth  limate  began  to  tell  with 
f  f  1  ff  t  S  ppl  g  d  Tlly  f  I  d  and  none  were  to  be 
1    d  f    m       i^hb  1  Th    Spaniards  began  to  arm 

ag  t  th  w  ttl  m  t  Th  F  h  dependencies  eagerly 
ft  d  istance  t  th  Span  d  I  England,  both  Houses 
f  Pari  m  t  p  1 1  d  th  Kmg-  gainst  the  scheme.  In 
f  th  E  i,lish  colonies  prohibited 
1  f  d  tureis.  Meanwhile  in 
1 11  h  gher.  The  riches  of  the 
p  p  f  h  day,  were  great  beyond 
)9  f  h  ps  with  I300  men  were 
.  :  th  N  Caledonia.  These  were 
y  the  General  Assembly  to  divide  the  colonists  into 
ons,  to  appoint  ruling  elders,  to  constitute  presbyteries, 
boar  for  the  propagation  of  divine  truth  among  the 
pagan  Darlen.  This  second  expedition  found,  in  place  of  a 
y,  wilderness.  The  castle  of  New  Edinbuigh  was  in  ruins. 
The  huts  had  been  burned,  and  the  site  marked  out  for  the  new 
capital  was  now  a  jungle  inhabited  by  wild  beasts,  A  fleet  of 
eleven  Spanish  vessels  anchored  off  New  Edinburgh;  while  an 
army  of  Spaniards  and  Indians  blockaded  the  fort  by  land. 
Before  the  end  of  March  a  treaty  was  signed,  by  which  the  Scotch 
bound  themselves  to  evacuate  Darlen  in  fomieen  days  ;  and  on 
the  nth  April  1699  they  departed.  Few  of  the  survivors  saw 
their  native  land  again.  Many  hired  themselves  as  labourers  to 
the  planters  of  Jamaica.  Two  of  the  ships  were  lost  on  the 
voyage  home;  The  books  and  documents  of  the  Company  may 
be  seen  in  the  Advocates'  Library,  in  Edinburgh.  See  Burton's 
Account  cflhc  £>.  S.,  printed  for  the  Bannatyne  Club. 

Dari'us  (Or.  Darcios,  anc  Pers.  Daraish  aiDaiyush;  the 
mod.  Pers.  Dara  or  Darai,  means  'lord'),  was  the  titular  desig- 
in  of  several  Persian  kings,  and  probably  meant  the  ruler, — 
Darius  I.,  eldest  son  of  Hystaspes,  satrap  of  Persia,  with  sis  fel- 
onspirators,  murdered  the  false  usurper  Smerdis  the  Magian. 
conspirators  determined  to  adopt  the  monarchical  form  of 
government,  and  D.,  by  a  well-known  device  of  his  groom,  was 


th  g 

d  th   m 

r        th  d 

I  A  "- 

h  d  b   th  I 


-k- 


chosen  king,  B.C.  52 1.  D.  strengthened  his  position  by  marrying 
the  two  daughters  of  Cyrus,  the  daughter  of  Smerdis,  and  the 
daughter  of  Otanes,  the  chief  conspirator.  He  divided  his  empire 
into  twenty  satiapies,  and  settled  the  tribute  to  be  paid  by  each— 
a  work  of  great  difficulty,  inconsequence  of  the  previous  remlssio: 
of  taxes  by  Smerdis  for  a  period  of  three  years.  The  Babylon 
ians  revolted,  but  after  a  siege  of  twenty  months,  their  city  wa 
taken  by  the  stratagem  of  Zopyrus,  about  B.C.  516.  Three 
years  afterwards  D.  invaded  Scythia,  crossing  me  Thracian 
Bosporus  with  immense  forces,  but  the  expedition  completely 
failed.  Incensed  at  the  aid  given  by  the  Athenians  and  Eretrians 
to  the  Ionian  provinces  in  their  revolt  against  him,  D,,  B.C.  492, 
sent  Mardonlus  to  subdue  Greece,  but  the  fleet  was  wrecked  in  a. 
storm  ofl'  Athos,  and  a  great  portion  of  the  army  was  slaughtered 
by  the  Brygians  in  Thrace.  A  second  expedition  was  despatched 
under  Datis  and  Artaphemes,  which  reached  Europe  in  safety, 
only  to  suffer  complete  defeat  at  Marathon,  B.C.  490.  D.  made 
every  effort  to  renew  the  war,  but  death  ended  his  projects,  B.C.  485. 
— Darius  U.,  sumamed  successively  Ockus^-ci^Netkus,  was  one 
of  the  seventeen  bastard  sons  of  Artaxerxes  I.,  Long^manus. 
He  declared  war  agEunst  Sc^dianus,  who  had  murdered  Xerxes 
II.,  and  was  chosen  to  succeed  him  on  the  throne.  D,  was  com- 
pletely subject  to  bis  eunuchs  and  to  his  wife  Parysafis;  and 
his  reign  was  a  succession  of  insurrections,  ofwhich  the  chief  was 
that  of  AmyrtasuE  in  F^pt.  D.  died  B.C.  405-404. — Darius 
lU.,  sumamed  Codomannus,  owed  his  elevation  to  the  throne  to 
the  murder  of  Arses  by  Bagoas,  B.C.  336.  He  was  distinguished 
alike  by  moral  excellence  and  personal  beauty.  Bagoas,  foiled 
in  an  attempt  to  poison  his  sovereign,  himself  perished  by 
poison.  D.  vainly  tried  to  oppose  the  advancing  power  of  Alex- 
ander. After  the  battle  of  Arbela,  b.c  331,  he  fled  before  the 
Macedonian  conqueror,  and  after  renewed  efforts  to  retrieve 
his  fortunes,  was  perfidiously  murdered  by  Bessus,  satrap  of 
Baetria,  B.C.  330. 

Darjeel'ing,  or  Darjiling,  a  sanitary  station  for  British 
troops  in  an  executive  district  of  the  same  name,  Cooch  Behar, 
province  of  Bengal,  British  India,  7400  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  Though  the  atmosphere  Is  humid,  and  there  is  an  annual 
rainfall  of  120  Inches,  the  climate  is  healthy.  Pop,  (1872}  3157. 
D.  was  acquired  from  the  Rajah  of  Siliklm  in  1835, — The  dis- 
trict  of  D.  is  noted  for  its  extensive  and  profitable  cultivation  of 
the  tea-plant,  and  has  an  area  of  1234  sq.  miles  and  a  pop,  (1872) 
of  94,712. 

DarTing,  a  name  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  geography  of 
Australia,  and  derived  from  one  of  the  early  governors  of  New 
South  Wales. — I.  An  important  and  remarkable  river,  formed  by 
the  confluence  of  the  Sogan,  Barwon,  Bokhara,  and  Culgoa 
rivers,  in  atxiut  30°  S.  lat.,  146°  25' E.  long.  After  its  formation 
the  D.  receives  scarcely  any  tributaries,  the  only  noteworthy 
exception  being  the  Warrego.  The  D.  flovre  for  650  miles  in  a 
S.W.  direction,  till  it  unites  with  the  Murray  at  Wentworth, 
Its  banks  are  of  soft  earth,  frorii  30  to  40  feet  high,  and  are 
lined  with  lofty  trees.  The  average  breadth  of  the  D.  is  60 
yards,  but  in  flood-time  it  has  been  known  to  overflow  Its  banks 
for  a  couple  of  miles.  It  flows  through  a  vast  and  arid  plain  of 
clay,  varied  by  grassy  patches  and  swamps.  The  area  of  its  basin 
is  about  198,000  sq.  miles. — 2.  A  large  pastoral  district  in  the 
S.W.  of  New  South  Wales,  watered  ij  the  rivers  Darling  and 
Murray,  and  estimated  to  contain  an  area  of  50,000  sq.  miles, — 
3.  The  D,  Downs  are  an  extensive  district  of  splendid  pastoral 
country,  in  the  southern  portion  of  Queensland.  They  measure 
about  lao  miles  by  50,  are  well  watered,  and  will,  in  their  best 
parts,  carry  one  sheep  to  two  acres  in  natural  grasses.  — 4.  The  D. 
range  of  mountains  in  W.  Australia  extends  N.W.  from  Point 
D'Entrecasteaux,  in  the  extreme  S,W,,  for  250  miles.  Its 
highest  point  reaches  an  altitude  of  3500  feet. 

Darling,  Grace,  a  heroic  girl,  daughter  of  the  keeper  of 
Longstone  Lighthouse  on  the  Fame  Islands,  was  born  at  Bam- 
borough,  November  24,  1815.  When  the  iwyajv*!'??  was  lost 
among  these  islands  on  the  6th  September  1S38,  Grace,  then 
in  her  twenty-second  year,  persuaded  her  father  to  venture  with 
her  to  the  rescue.  Amid  imminent  peril  they  gained  the  wreck, 
and  saved  the  nine  remaining  on  it.  This  noble  action  elicited 
general  applause,  which  Grace  did  not  long  enjoy,  as  she  died  cE 
consumption,  October  20,  1842.  See  Life  qf  Grace  D.,  by  Eva 
Hope  (Lond.  1876). 

335 


vLiOOQle 


DAE 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPJIDIA. 


Darlington,  or  Dam'ton,  a  town  in  the  county  of  Durham, 
on  the  Skenie,  17^^  miles  S.  of  Durham  by  railway.  The  streets 
diveige  from  a  central  market-place.  The  most  noteworthy 
■'■fice  is  St  Cuthbert'a  Church,  founded  in  1169,  with  a  spire 

5  feet  high.  The  principal  manufactures  are  carpets,  flax, 
and  wool-spinning ;  there  are  also  tanneries,  and  biass  and  iron 
foundries.    D,  returns  one  member  to  Parliament,    Pop.  27,729. 

Darm'etadt,  a  town  of  Germany,  the  capital  of  the  Giand- 
Duchy  of  Hessen,  on  the  elver  D.,  15  miles  S.  of  Frankliirt-on- 
the-Main.  It  consists  of  an  old  and  new  town  ;  the  latter  has 
main  streets,  which  cross  eEich  other  at  right  angles,  and  con- 
many  fine  buildings ;  the  former  has  narrow,  Ul-built  streets. 
In  the  centre  of  the  Luisenplatz,  the  finest  public  square,  is  a 
lofty  Doric  coluiim,  surmounted  by  a  statue  of  the  Grand-Duke 
Ludwig  I.  Other  buildings  of  note  are  the  old  ducal  palace, 
with  a  picture  gallery  containing  many  fine  paintings,  and  a 
library  of  200,000  volumes,  the  new  palace,  the  residence  of 
the  Grand-Duke,  the  opera-house  (burned  in  1871),  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  (a  rotunda  with  twenty-eight  Corin- 
thian columns).  D.  has  manufactures  of  carpets,  carriages, 
tobacco,  and  machinery.  Pop.  with  Bessungen  (1871),  39,594. 
D.  is  mentioned  as  early  as  the  5th  c,  but  first  came  to  Hessen 
in  1479,  and  became  the  residence  of  the  Landgrafs  in  1567. 

Dar'nel  {LoUupi  ieinulentum],  a  genus  of  grasses  common  in 
cornfields  in  England  and  niany  parts  of  Europe.  The  grain 
has  long  lieen  reputed  poisonous,  but  recent  researches  have 
rather  thrown  doubt  on  this,  and  attribute  its  injurious  proper- 
a  parasitic  fungus,  or  to  some  cause  apart  from  the  grain 
itself. 

Dame'tal,  a  town  in  the  department  of  Seine- Inferieure, 
France,  2^  miles  E.  of  Rouen.  Two  streams  which  traverse  the 
town  afford  water-power  for  cloth  manufactories.  There  are  be- 
sides spinning  and  dyeing  works.      Pop.  (1872)  5636. 

Damley,  Senry  Stevrart,  Lord,  eldest  son  of  the  Earl 
of  Lennon,  was  bom  at  Temple  Newsome,  in  Yorkshire,  7th 
December  1546,  was  carefully  educated  under  the  eye  of  his 
mother,  and  displayed  a  distinct  turn  for  literature.  In  1565  he 
married  his  kmswoman,  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  who,  it  is  com- 
monly said,  was  attracted  by  his  handsome  appearance ;  but  it 
is  not  improbable  that  the  grand-nephew  of  Henry  VIII.  was 
reckoned  a  first-rate  political  match.  He  was  nineteen  when  he 
arrived  in  Scotland  to  marry  his  cousin,  she  being  then  twenty- 
two  and  a  half.  A  son,  afterwards  James  VI.,  was  bom  to 
them,  19th  June  1566,  and  on  the  gth  of  February  1566,  before 
he  had  completed  his  majority,  D.  was  murdered  at  the  Kirk-of- 
Field,  a  lonely  house  ouUide  the  city  walls,  on  the  site  of  which 
stands  the  Uniyersity  of  Edinbu^h.  A  quaint,  tender  ballad 
ascribed  to  him  is  printed  by  Maidinent  in  his  Scfltisk  Ballads 
and  Songs  (Edinb.  Paterson,  l368).  Tliere  can  be  little  doubt 
that  D.  has  been  maligned  by  history, 

Dar'ter,  or  Smalce-Biid  {Pialm  anhiti-sa),  a  ^engs  of  Nata- 
torea  or  Swimming  birds,  belonging  t©  the  sub-faravly  Fhtiita  and 
family  Pekcanid^.  Their  popular  name  is  derived  from  their  habit 
of  moving  their  snake-iike  head  and  neck  very  quickly  about  as 
..^  ...ij  -!._  r_,- —  ^^  trees.  They  are  found  in  Africa 
n  D.  is  deep-green  in  colour,  with  a 


it  amid  the  foliage  of  ti 
and  America.     ITie  ei  ~ 


sharp.     LevaiDant's  D.  {P.  Lmiaillantii)  inhabits  Africa,     Both 
are  e>:pert  fishers. 

Dart'ford  (Old  Eng.  Daermiaford,  'the  ford  over  the 
Darent'),  a  town  in  Kent,  on  the  rirer  Darent,  17  miles  by  rail 
E.S.E,  of  London,  with  powder,  paper,  oil,  and  com  mills, 
iron-foundries,  roller  manufactories,  and  cotton  and  silk  print- 
ing establishments.  The  first  paper-miil  in  England  was  built 
here  by  Sir  J.  Spielman,  who  died  in  1 607.  There  still  exist  the 
ruins  of  an  Augustine  nunnery  founded  in  1375  by  Edwsid  III. 

Pop.  (i8;i)  8298. 

Dart'moor,  a  tableland  in  Devonshire,  23  miles  &om  N.  to 
S.,  and  20  from  E-  to  W„  with  an  area  of  fully  130,000  acres  of 
heath,  bog,  and  rock.  Its  highest  elevation.  Yes  Tor,  is  2050 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  bnt  several  other  smnmits  are 
nearly  as  high.  Geologically  it  is  for  the  most  part  of  granitic 
formation,  witji  rich  veins  of  tin,  copper,  and  manganese,  and 
strata  of  Devonian  slate  and  sandstone.  Much  of  the  soil  is 
336 


peaty,  but  it  affords  pasture  to  numei'ous  cattle,  sheep,  and  a 
smail  breed  of  horses  known  as  Dartmoor  or  Exmoor  ponies. 
D.  is  remarkable  for  the  number  of  its  British  remains,  including 
cairns,  barrow.i,  kistvaens,  rock-piilars,  and  the  Gi^ey  Wethers, 
a  circular  Druidical  temple.  D.  Prison,  erected  in  l8o5  for  the 
detention  of  French  prisoners  of  war,  is  now  a  convict  depot. 
Numerous  streams  rise  in  D,,  among  which  are  the  Dart  (from 
which  it  takes  its  name),  Teign,  Taw,  Plym,  and  Avon. 

Dartmoor  Slieep  are  a  Small  hardy  race,  wild  and  restless, 
whose  original  home  is      th       re  an         D 

shire  and  Cornwall.    I      ze  h  m  ag 

on  killing  being  about 
highly  esteemed  for  its 
Their  wool  is  soft  an 

upon  pasture  too  poor  ce  ee 

white  faces   and   legs     an 
Leicesters,  heavy  Iamb 

Dart'moath,  a  seaport  and  market-town  of  Devonshire,  32 
miles  S.S.W.  of  Exeter,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail- 
way, It  is  built  in  terraces  on  the  fece  of  a  steep  rock,  and  has 
its  streets  connected  by  flights  of  steps.  The  harbour  is  de- 
fended by  a  battery,  and  at  its  entrance  are  the  remains  of  a 
castle  built  by  Henry  VII.  The  streets  are  narrow,  d  y 
of  Ihe  houses  are  old,  and  decorated  with  wood-carvi  g  Tb 
harbour  is  commodious  and  safe,  D.  is  a  Channel  q 
port.       Many  of  the  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  th     1  g 

pilchard,  and  stock  fisheries,  and  the  town  has  a  good  M  d 
ranean  trade.  Shipbuilding,  ropemaking,  and  the  m  f 
of  paper  are  carried  on.     Pop.  (1871)  5338. 

Dartmouth  Colleg^e,  New  Hampshire,  U-S.,  was   hart      1 
in  1769.     It  grew  out  of  an  earlier  Indian  school,  and  ec 
its  name  from  Lord  Dartmouth,  president  of  the  origin  I  trn  t 
In  1815-19  the  college  became  the  subject  of  litigatio  5 

of  which  was  that  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  d  d 
inviolability  of  chartered  property.  D.  C,  comprises  an  a 
medical,  and  scientific  school,  with  an  observatory.  In  1870 
there  were  29  teachers  and  289  students  ;  in  the  medical  depart- 
ment, 14  teachers  and  52  students;  income  from  endowments, 
19000  i  other  sources,  $20,000. 

Dartos,  a  thin  layer  of  involuntary  muscular  fibre,  endowed 
with  contractility,  found  immediately  beneath  the  skin  of  the 
scrotum.  By  its  contractile  action  the  testes  are  drawn  up,  and 
the  skin  of  the  scrotum  is  wrinkled. 

Daru',  Kerre  Antoine  IToel  Bruno,  Oomte,  an  author 
and  politician  of  the  earlier  Napoleonic  period.  Bom  at  Mont- 
pellier,  January  12,  1767,  he  became  a  soldier  at  an  early  age, 
and  in  1791  was  made  intendant  of  the  ajmy  of  Brittany.  He 
translated  the  Odes,  Epistles,  and  Satires  of  Horace.  During 
the  Revolutionary  period  he  was  of  little  account,  but  became 
a  favourite  with  Napoleon  I.,  and  was  for  a  time  his  War  Minis- 
ter. After  the  return  of  the  Bourbons,  D.  devoted  himself  to 
literatuje,  producing  excellent  histories  of  Venice  and  Brittany. 
He  died  September  5,  1829.— His  son,  Oomte  Napoleon  D., 
the  godson  of  Napoleon  I.  and  the  Empress  Josephine,  was 
bom  at  Paris,  June  11,  1807.  Throughout  life  I*-,  who  is  one 
of  the  best  of  French  political  economists,  has  been  an  Orleanist. 
After  the  soup  d'itat,  he  retired  into  private  life,  but  keenly 
opposed  the  Second  Empire,  In  1870,  how^ej,  he  became 
Mmister  of  Foreign  Affairs  under  M.  Oilivier,  but  retired  from 
his  post  when  the  Emperor  agreed  to  submit  his  fate  to  a 
pllbtsciti.  D.  did  his  best,  as  a  member  of  the  Committee  of 
National  Defence,  and  in  his  own  department  of  La  Manche,  to 
drive  off  the  German  invaders,  and  m  1871  was  returned  to  the 
National  Assembly.  Ho  has  written  an  important  treatise  Di 
Chemins  dl  Far  {V&T.  1843). 

Dar'win,  Erafl'tnns,  was  bom  at  Elton,  Nottinghamshirf 
December  iz,  1731.  After  studying  at  Can|bridge,  and  faking 
the  degree  of  M.D,  at  Edinbui^h,  he  settled  at  Lichfield,  where 
he  became  celebrated  as  a  physician,  physiologist,  and  poet. 
He  died  at  Derby,  August  18,  1802.  His  sdenliSc  speculations 
are  mostly  erroneous  but  suggestive.  His  poetry,  although  occa- 
sionally brilliant,  is  ingeneral  tedious,  fantastic,  and  mechanical. 
D.'s  chief  works  are  the  Botank  Garden  <l  7S1 ),  in  two  parts — first, 
the  economy  of  vegetation,  second,  the  loves  of  the  plants  (ridi- 
culed in  Canning's  Lpvis  of  the  Triangles) ;  Zotmomia  (1793-96) ; 


yLaOogle 


■f- 


DAR 


TB-£  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


^^  fAytolma,  or  FAUasophy  a/ Agriculture  a?!dGatdening(iZ!Xi). 
See  Life  of  D.  (Lond.  1804),  by  Miss  Seward.— Cliarlee  D 
one  of  the  greatesl  of  living  nftturalists,  was  bom  at  Shrews- 
bury, February  12,  JS09.  His  father  was  Dr  Robert  D.,  son 
of  Erasmus  D.  After  studying  at  Edinbui^h  University,  and 
taking  the  degree  of  B.A.  at  Cambridge  in  1831,  he  went 
round  the  world  as  naturalist  in  H.M.S.  Beagle,  retuminn-  to 
England  in  1836,  His  interesting  and  popular  Voyagi  'of  a 
J\!alunaist  gives  an  account  of  this  ciicumnavigatiop.  In  1839 
he  published  yhumal  of  .Researches  itao  the  Geology  mid  Natural 
History  of  the  Varieus  Countrits  Visited  by  BJI.S.  Pea^e;  in 
1840-43,  the  Zoology  of  tie  Voyage  of  H.M.S.  Se^Oe;  in  1842, 
The  Structure  and  nistHbutien  of  Coral  Reefi  (new  ed.  1876] ; 
in  1846,  Geological  Obsematiims  on  S.  America;  and  in  1851-53 
Monograph  of  the  Pedunculated  and  Sessile  Orrefiedia.  These 
works  gave  him  a  wide  and  sohd  reputation,  which  was  vastly 
^tended  in  1859  by  the  publication  of  a  remarkable  book  On 
the  Origin  of  Species  by  Means  of  Mitural  Selection.  D.  there 
contends  that  all  existing  species  arose  from  pre-existing  species, 
and  probably  from  a  primitive  germ,  through  tialural  selection  ; 
the  oi^anisms  best  fitted  for  surrounding  circumstances  surviv- 
ing, while  the  weaker  disappeared  in  the  struggle  for  existence 
(See  DARWinrAN  Theory.)  He  published  J^ertilisation  of  Oi^- 
chidna  1862,  Variation  of  Animals  and  Hants  under  Datnestica- 
Hon  m  1867  (new  ed.  1876),  and  the  Descent  of  Man  in  1871  (new 
ed.  1874).  In  tliis  work  he  seeks  to  prove  that  man  is  descended 
from  '  a  hairy  quadruped  with  a  tail,  probably  arboreal  in  its 
habits.  His  latest  works  are  The  Expression  of  the  SmoHons  in 
Man  and  Animals  {iSyz)  and  InsecOvarous  Plants  (iK-jS).  D.  isa 
member  of  many  foreign  and  British  scientific  societies,  and  has 
received  the  Royal  and  Copley  medals  from  the  Royal  Society, 
and  the  Wollaston  Palladium  from  the  Geological  Society. 

Darwin  Mount,  6800  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  on  the 
S.W.sideof  King  Charles's  South  Land,  Tierra  del  Fuego  — D 
Sound  is  a  cliannel  between  York  Minster  and  Sandwich  Rocks 
on  tlie  S.W.  coast  of  Tierra  del  Fuego. 

Sarwin'ian  Theory,  the  theory  of  tlie  origin  and  modi- 
fications of  animals  and  plants  promulgated  by  Charles  Darwin, 
It  takes  as  its  basis  the  tendency  to  variation  oiraerved  in  the 
species  of  living  beings,  in  virtue  of  which  new  varieties,  merg- 
ing mto  permanent  races,  are  produced.  This  principle  of  varia- 
tion  will  in  turn  affect  the  i-aces,  and  from  the  variation  of  these 
latter,  new  races— which  are  so  different  from  the  original  species 
as  to  entitle  them  to  rank  as  new  j^fiej- are  evolved.  Thus 
the  D.  T,  is  one  of  evolution.  It  holds  the  evolving  of  new  races 
and  through  these  of  new  species,  and  thus  does  not  allow  for 
any  secondary  causes,  or  any  purely  creatizie  influence.  Such  is 
tlie  pnmaiy  idea  of  Mr  Darwin's  rheory,  and,  as  subsidiary  to 
this  idea,  he  introduces  the  principle  of  natural  selection,  as 
that  whereby  th?  new  races  are  first  mdieated.  Thus  'nature,' 
according  to  Darvnn,  'selects'  and  perpetuates  the  individuals 
of  a  species  which  have  any  peculiarities  before  those  which 
resemble  the  species,  And  in  perpetuating  the  points  wherein 
such  individuals  differ  from  their  neighbours,  nature  is  initiating 
a  new  race  and  species,  for  the  variations  become  reproduced 
and  intensified  as  time  passes.  'Artificial  selection,'  as  prac- 
tised by  man  in  the  breeding  of  catlle  and  sheep.  In  fact,  imSaf  es 
the  '  selection '  of  nature.  Again,  the  numbers  of  animals  and 
plants  produced  are  held  to  be  far  too  numerous  for  preserva- 
tion i  and  a  perpetual  '  struggle  for  existence '  (i.f.,  for  food  and 
the  Conditions  of  living)  takes  place  amongst  the  various  species 
of  animals,  and  amongst  the  individuals  of  each  species.  Tlie 
individuals  which  tend  to  variation  are  those  which  nature  will 
'select'  for  preservation  before  the  others;  and  this  variation 
results  in  the  evolution  of  new  races  and  species.  Then,  grant- 
ing that  time  past  has  been  infinite,  there  can  be  theoretically 
no  reason  why  all  the  diverse  and  existent  types  of  life  should  not 
have  been  evolved  from  pre-existing  types  and  species,  or  pri- 
marily from  a  few  primitive  beings ;  orfrom  one  primeval  organ- 
ism. The  subsidiary  theory  of 'sexual  selection^  is  founded  on 
the  belief  that  males  and  females  may  select  their  mates  from 
advantages  or  peculiarities  in  colour,  &c,,  and  that  this  process 
will  give  rise  to  variation, 

The  chief  objections  to  this  ingenious  theory  are  founded; 
(l)  on  the  inability  of  'natural  selection'  to  account  for  the 
origin  or  initiatory  stages  of  variations  ;  (2)  that  variation  may  be 
rfwftTft-ilBWf  to  individuals;  (3)  that  variations,  to  be  perpetuated 


■  in  detached  ii 


(,  !)ut  in  very  many  C! 
ion,  in  Darw     " 


u'ie,  of 


(4)  on  the 

differences  in  some  species ;  (5)  that  variation  cannot  be  proved 
to  be  of  indefinile  extent,  but  that  it  is  highly  probable  that  limits 
to  the  variation  of  every  species  exist ;  (6)  that  palEeontology 
does  not  supply  fossil  oi^nisms  to  fiil  up  the  structural  gaps 
between  living  species,  and  so  complete  the  continuous  succes- 
sion of  organisms  required  by  the  D.  T  ;  and  (7)  that  past  time 
as  calculated  by  physicists,  would  not  have  sufficed  for  the  slow 
evolution  of  the  existing  races. 

.  The  whole  matter  is  as  yet  hypolhelical  in  its  bearings  and 
nature.  Subsequent  research  and  the  lapse  of  years  alone  can 
prove  its  truthfulness  or  falsity.  See  the  works  bearing  on  tlie 
theory,  as  mentioned  in  article  Chakles  Darwin  ;  also  Herbert 
Spencer's  Principles  of  Biology  (1864)  and  Spontaneous  Genera- 
tion, &c.  (1870),  which  show  the  extension  of  the  principle  of 
the  theory;  and  St  George  Mivart's  Genesis  of  Species  I1876) 
which  sets  forth  the  most  feasible  objections  to  the  Darwinian 
hypothesis. 

Daeh.'kov,  Ekateri'na  RomanoVna,  a  noted  Russian 
princess,  was  bom  28th  March  1 743.  When  eighteen  years  old 
she  shared  in  the  conspiracy  which  set  the  Empress  Catharine  II. 
on  the  tlirone.  Her  iridependent  spirit  led  eventually,  however, 
to  a  quarrel  with  the  Empress,  and  she  left  Russia  for  European 
travel.  In  Engknd  she  became  known  to  Garrick,  Blair,  Robert- 
son, and  other  eminent  men.  Having  reconciled  herself  to  Catha- 
rme,  she  returned  to  court  in  1782,  and  nej.t  year  founded  the 
Russian  Academy.  On  the  Empress's  death  in  1796,  the  Prin- 
cess lost  her  offices,  and  lived  in  retirement  till  her  death,  at 
Moscow,  l6th  January  i8ia  Besides  composn^  several  come- 
dies and  other  works  in  Russian,  she  actively  assisted  in  the 
publication  of  the  Dictionary  of  the  Russian  Academy.  See 
Memoirs  of  the  Princess  D.,  Lady  of  Honour  to  Cathanne  II 
by  Mrs  Bradford  (3  vols.  Lond,  i860). 
Daa^tire,  in  natural  history,  a  group  of  carnivorous  mar- 
[pials  fonning  the  family  Dasyurtda.  They  are  now  con- 
fined to  Tasmania,  though  their  fossil  remains  have  been  found 
on  the  mainland  of  Australia.  They  differ  from  the  opossum 
(Fhalangista)  m  their  dentitioa,  in  then:  feet  being  formed  for 
terrestrial  prt^ession,  and  in  the  tail  bemg  clothed  with  hair, 
and  not  prehensile.  Dasyurus  ursinus,  the  typical  species,  is  iS 
inches  long,  without  Ihe  tail,  and  covered  with  coarse  black  hair. 
From  lU  intensely  savage  disposition  it  is  colonially  termed  the 

Tasmanian  devil     It  ir  — ' '     -  ' 

slai^         „         . 

it  is  rapidljf  bemg  exterminated,  and  is  now  confined  to  the 
less  accessible  parts  of  the  island.  The  Tasmanian  wolf  or 
tiger  (Thylacinus  cynocephalus)  is  a  lai^er  species  of  D.,  and 
resembles  D.  ursinus  in  its  character  and  habits. 

Date  (Fr.  date,  Lat.  datum,  'what  is  given').  To  preserve 
an  exact  record  of  a  succession  of  events,  some  fixed  point  of  time 
or  ^h  roust  be  assumed  as  the  basis  of  tlie  reckoning.  In 
Scripture,  time  is  measured  by  generations,  or  by  the  reigns  of 
kings-  Some  Greek  historians  reckoned  by  the  epbon  and 
kings  of  Sparta,  or  by  the  archives  of  Athens.  Three  genera- 
tions are  usually  held  equivalent  to  100  years.  Newton  counts 
the  average  of  a  reien  or  succession  at  twenty  years.  Before  the 
invention  of  letters,  the  preservation  of  an  exact  record  of  the  events 
which  mark  the  lapse  of  time  must  have  been  impossible ;  to  do 
so  even  now  is  difficult.  The  Christian  era  is  universally  em- 
ployed in  Christian  countries,  It  b^ns  on  1st  January  in  the 
fourth  year  of  the  194th  Olympiad,  and  in  the  7S3d  from  the 
legendai^  foundation  of  Rome.  The  Mohammedan  e?a,  called 
the  Hegira  [q,  v.),  begins  with  the  flight  of  Mohammed,  a,d. 
6a2.  A  knowledge  of  the  epochs  at  which  the  wortd  has  been 
held  to  begiti  in  diEferent  countries  and  ages  is  indispensable  to 
the  student  of  history.  For  example,  the  Englisji  Revolution, 
known  as  the  Revolution  of  168S,  would  have  been  the  Revo- 
lution of  1689  had  the  year  then  begun  on  ist  January ;  the 
event  having  taken  place  in  February  of  the  year  which  would 
have  been  1689  but  for  the  fact  that  then  the  year  began  with 
25lh  March.  There  was  but  on^  calendar  in  use  in  Europe, 
until  Pope  Gregory  introduced  thg  'Gregorian  Calendar' in  1582. 
It  rectified  an  accumulation  of  error  by  striking  ten  days— 5th  to 
15th  October— out  of  the  year  1582.  The  new  style  was  at  once 
generally  adopted  in  Roman  Catholic  countries,  but  the  'old 
style,'  or  Julian  Calendar,  remained  in  use  for  a  long  lime  in  Pro- 
337 


vLiOOQle 


DAT 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPJ1.DIA. 


1  still  followed  in  Russia  Eoid  Greece,  and  in 
many  Eastern  countries.  In  Great  Britain,  the  alteration  of  the 
style  was  long  successfully  opposed  by  popular  prejudice  ;  btit  in 
1 75 1  an  Act  of  Parliament  was  passed  lor  the  adoption  of  the  new 
style  in  public  and  legal  transactions,  The  difference  of  the  two 
styles,  which  was  then  eleven  days,  was  removed  by  ordering  the 
day  following  sd  September  1752  to  be  counted  the  i4lh  Septem- 
ber. At  the  same  time  the  first  day  of  the  legal  year  was  changed 
from  25th  April  m  England  to  1st  January.  In  Scotland,  by 
an  Act  of  the  Scotch  Privy  Coundl  of  1599,  the  year  1600  was 
appointed  to  begin  on  the  1st  January  ;  ajth  March  havuig  been 
previously  held  as  the  first  day  of  the-year  in  Scotland.  The 
following  are  valuable  works  on  the  subject  of  dates— Z'^rt 
de  VMfier  les  Dates,  compiled  by  the  Benedictmes  (1783-1820, 
newed.  1818-44);  Phyfair's  Chronology  ^,\^%i,)■,  Blair's  Chran- 
elogy  (new  ed.  by  Sir  H.  Eilis,  1844,  and  by  Mr  Rosse  m  1856) ; 
The  Oxford  Chroicohgical  Tables  (1838! ;  Sir  Harris  Nicolas* 
Chronology  of  History  i^svi  ei  1852) ;  Hales'  Chronology  (1S30) ; 
H,  Fynes  Clinton's  Fasti  ffelienid  el  Fasti  Romani  (1824-50), 
Dates  were  affiled  to  grants  and  assignments  by  18  Edward  1., 
1390.  Before  this  time  it  was  usual  at  least  to  pass  lands  with- 
out dating  the  deed  of  conveyance  (Lewes),  Numerous  instru- 
ments of  assignments  enrolled  among  our  early  records  eslab- 
lish  this  fact  (Hardie).  See  Chronologv,  Calendar,  Year, 
Month,  Day,  Cycle, 

Date-Falm  f^Phientx),  a  genus  of  palms,  of  which  about  a 
doien  species  are  known,  all,  vrith  the  exception  of  two  found 
in  South-Easteni  Africa,  confined  to  Northern  Africa  and  tropi- 
cal Asia.  The  D.-P.  {F.  daciylifera)  is  laigely  grovm  over 
Northern  Africa,  and  more  sparingly  m  Western  Asia  and 
Southern  Europe.  In  some  countries  it  is  the  chief  food  of  the 
Inlmbilants,  as  well  as  of  horses  and  camels.  The  poor  con- 
struct huts  of  its  leaves  ;  ropes  and  coarse  cloth  are  made  of  the 
fibre  surrounding  the  base  of  the  leaves  ;  the  stalks  are  used  for 
crates,  bafJsets,  brooms,  and  walking-sticks;  houses  are  built 
of  the  wood;  the  buds  are  eaten  as  potherbs ;  lagbi,  an  intoxi- 
cating drink,  is  made  from  the  sap,  and  the  date-stones  are 
ground  into  food  for  camels.  P.  ^Iveslris,  common  orer  India, 
K  the  '  wild  date,'  and  by  some  is  believed  to  be  the  parent  of 
the  cultivated  one.  '  Toddy'  is  obtained  from  it  by  cutting  ofF 
the  young  flower-spike,  and  date-sugar,  much  used  in  India,  by 
boiling  this  juice.  It  is  said  that  130,000,000  lbs.  are  annually 
extracted  from  it  in  India,  and  that  320,000,000  lbs.  is  the  annual 
quantity  of  palm-sugar  obtained.  Arrack  (^.  v.)  is  toddy  dis- 
tilled. P.  paitfdosa,  a  gregarious  Indian  species,  covers  consider- 
able tracts.  P.  acaidiSf  farin^era,  and  spi-nosa  are  dwarf  spe- 
cies, the  first  being  found  in  the  damp  valleys  of  the  Himalayas, 
at  5000  feet  elevation.  From  P.  fdrin^a  an  inferior  kind  of 
sago  is  extracted.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Fr.  datte,  Gr. 
daktylos,  from  its  supposed  resemblance  to  afnger. 
Pate-Pltim  [Diospyros),  a  genus  of  Deciduous  trees  of  the 
■  Ebony  order  (Ebenacrs).  Above  a  hundred  species  are  known, 
mostly  natives  of  Asia  and  the  Mauritius,  while  about  a  dozen 
are  found  in  America,  and  three  or  four  in  Africa.  Nearly 
[dl  are  confined  to  the  tropics — a  few  extending  as  &r  N.  as 
44°.  Ebony  (q.  v.)  and  the  various  kinds  of  wood  known  as 
ironwood  are  the  produce  of  this  genus.  Others  are  valued  for 
their  fruit.  The  common  D.-P.,  pisliamin,  European  lotus,  or 
date  of  TrebizCHui  (Z».  Lotus),  is  a  tree  20  to  40  feet  in  height,  a 
native  of  the  coasts  of  the  Caspian,  and  now  cultivated  in  the  S. 
of  Europe  for  its  yellow,  sweet,  astringent  fmit,  about  the  size  of 
a  cherry.  It  bears  well  in  the  S.  of  Britain-  The  persimon 
(probably  a  corruption  of -/^*awiiB},  or  Viiginian  D.-P.  (A  Vir- 
giniana),  attains  a  height  of  50  or  60  feet,  and  produces  wood 
hard  and  elastic,  though  liable  to  split,  llie  fruit  is  astringent,  but 
when  mellowed  by  frost  is  eatable.  It  h.  pounded  and  niade  into 
cakes  vrith  bran,  from  which,  by  adding  yeast  and  water,  a  kind 
of  beer  is  brewed,  or  by  fermenting,  a  spirituous  liq^u " "  ""  " 
bark  is  bitter,  febrifugd,  and  has  been  employed  wil 
in  inftntile  cholera  and  diar^hcea.  The  Chinese  D.-P.,  or  Kaki 
{D.  Kaki),  is  dried  and  cured  by  the  Chinese  to  make  sweetmeats, 
called  Figucs-caques  in  France.  The  fruit  of  n  decaiidia  is  sold 
in  the  markets  of  Cochin-China, 

Datiaca'oese,  a  small  natural  order  of  Dicotyledonous  plants, 
containing  four  species  and  three  genera  of  herbs  and  trees, 
distributed  over  N.  America,  Northern  India,  Siberia,  the  Ma- 
338 


layan  Islands,  and  the  S.E,  of  Europe.     Except  the  DaH'sca 
cannabina  of  Crete,  &c.,  the  root  of  which  is  employed  in  Cash- 
mere as  a  yellow  dye,  the  order  has  no  economical  qualities. 
Da'tive.    See  Declension, 
Datu'ra.     See  Thorn-Apple, 

Daubenton,  Louw  Jean  Marie,  a  French  naturalist,  born 
at  Mont  Bar,  in  Burgundy,  29th  May  1716.  After  a  youth 
spent  in  the  study  of  theology  and  medicine,  he  was  associated 
with  Buffon  (whose  sight  was  now  failing)  at  the  Jardin  du  Roi. 
D.,  who  was  made  curator  and  demonstrator  in  the  Cabinet  of 
Natural  History,  did  the  measurements,  the  dissections,  the 
calculations,  in  fact,  the  whole  anatomical  description  in  the 
part  of  the  HisMire  tiatwelle  relatii^  to  mammalia— 1>.,  the  first 
fifteen  volumes.  A  coolness  then  arose  between  the  two  friends, 
which  was  afterwards  removed.  D.'s  laborious  accuracy  was 
a  useful  check  on  the  brilliant  generalisations  of  Buffon.  Be- 
sides arranging  the  large  collections  of  the  Cabinet,  D.  took  up 
the  subject  of  fossil  remains.  He  wrote  the  general  subject 
of  natur^  history  for  the  Encyclopidti  M&hodtqja,  and  cc~ 
municated,  between  1754-64,  many  papers  on  minerals  to 
Academy  of  Sciences.  He  held  chairs  of  Natural  History  and 
Minerali^y  under  the  Revolution.  He  died  ist  January  1800. 
He  interested  himself  in  rural  economy,  and  the  introduction  to 
France  of  Spanish  sheep.  His  character  was  very  simple  and 
idest,  but  his  scientific  eminence  is  undisputed.  See  Cuvicr, 
itici  sur  la  Vie  el  les  Outrages  de  D.  {in  the  Mimoires  de 
I'lnstitut,  L  iii,), 

Dauljenr,  Oharles  GUes  Bridle,  M.D,,  T'.B,S.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Botany  and  Chemistry  in  Oxford  University,  is  best 
known  for  his  investigations  into  the  chemistry  of  volcanic  act*"'' 

of  his  works  tekite  to  such  phenomena,  and  those  n 
worthy  of  mention  are  A  Description  of  Active  and  Ex£i?id  Vol- 
(1826),  A  Notice  of  the  Thermal  Springs  of  N.  America 
.-^-„  and/(  Sketch  of  the  Geolo^  of  N.  America  (x%^.  His 
Lalures  on  Agriculture  (1841)  and  Climate  (1S62)  are  the  most 
valuable  of  his  other  publications.  D,  died  December  12,  1867. 
Daa'cuB.     See  Cakrot. 

Daum'ier,  Henri,  was  bom  at  Marseilles  in  rSto,  He  has 
became  knovm  in  France  as  a  telling  caricaturist.  Many  of  the 
happiest  sketches  in  Charivari  on  the  political  events  and  lead- 
ing public  men  of  the  time  have  been  due  to  his  fertile  and  play- 
fiil  genius.  Among  his  productions  are  Zes  Philanthropes  du 
Jour,  Idylles  Parlemmtatres,  Les  Bons  Bourgeois,  Les  Reprei  ■  ■ 
tants  Reprisentis,  inspired  by  the  Revolution  of  1848. 

Bann,  an  old  and  illustrious  Austrian  family,  originally  from 
the  neighbourhood  of  Trier.  The  ancestral  castle  occupied  a 
rock  near  the  Uttle  town  of  D.,  whence  the  family  name.  Aa 
early  as  the  nth  c.  the  Dauns  were  conspicuous  in  political  life. 
One  branch  of  the  iamily  settled  m  Austria  in  the  17th  c.  Its 
most  famous  member  was  Leopold-Josepti-Mftria,  Graf  von 
D,,  Austrian  field-marshal,  who  vi'as  bom  at  Vienna,  24th  Sep 
tember  1705,  In  thewar  with  the  Turks  (1737-39)  ^^  in  *■ 
later  war  of  the  Austrian  succession  he  greatly  distinguished  him 
self,  and  was  made  field-marshal  for  his  services  in  the  campaigns 
against  the  French  in  the  Netherlands  in  1746-^8.  D,  reorga- 
nised the  Military  Academy  at  Vienna,  and  materially  modified 
the  Austrian  military  system.  As  imperial  commander-in-chief 
in  the  war  with  Friednch  II.,  D,  showed  himself  a  truly  great 
commander,  triumphing  over  the  Prussians  at  KoJlin,  Hochkir- 
chen,  &c,,  and  compelling  Friedrich  to  raise  the  siege  of  Prague, 
Dresden,  and  Ohnutz.  Ultimatelv  D,  sufi'ered  defeats  at  Leu- 
then,  Torgau,  Burkersdorf,  Reichenbach,  &c.  Carlyle  {Fried- 
rich,  vol.  vi,  p.  375)  calls  him  'an  honourable,  imperturbable, 
eupeptic  kind  of  man.'    D.  died  sth  February  1766, 

Sau'pbin  (Lat.  Dslpkinus),  formerly  the  title  of  the  eldest 
son  of  the  King  of  France,  but  originally  given  in  the  I2th  c  to 
Qu^o,  lord  of  Vienne  in  Dauphine,  and  contmued  to  succeeding 
Comtes  of  Vienne.  In  1349  the  childless  Humbert  H-  made 
Charles  of  Valois,  grandson  of  Philippe  VI.  of  France,  his  heir, 
on  condition  that  the  heir-apparent  to  the  crown  should  bear  the 
title  of  Dauphin  de  Viennois.  The  title  was  abolished  after  the 
Revolution  of  1830, 

Dan'pMnS,  formerly  a  province  of  France,  comprising  the 
present  departments  of  Hautes-Alpes,  Isere,  and  DrSme.    After 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DAV 


forming  a.  part  of  Ihe  first  Burgundian  kingdom,  the  monarchy 
of  the  Karolings,  and  the  second  Burgundian  Itingdom  of  Aries, 
it  was  in  1032  bequeathed  by  Rudolf  III.  to  the  German  Em- 
peror, and  remained  along  wilh  the  rest  of  Burgundy  in  the 
closest  anion  wiih  the  German  Empire  till  1349,  when  Humbert 
II.,  the  territorial  lord,  transferred  the  sovereignty  to  France, 
See  Dauphin, 


Dauw,  Feechi,  or  BurclieU's  Zebra  ( Equus  or  Zebra  Bur- 
ckdlii),  a  species  of  Equidm  or  Horses,  allied  to  the  tme  Zebra 
((^.  v.),  and  found  in  S.  Africa,  particularly  S.  of  the  Orange 
River.  The  stripes  on  the  body  are  not  so  black  as  those  of  the 
lebra,  and  do  not  extend  all  down  the  limbs  as  in  the  latter,  but 
are  confined  to  the  head,  body,  and  upper  portions  of  the  legs. 
The  D.  cannot  be  thoroughly  tamed  or  domesticated. 

D'Av'enant,  Sir  'William,  poet  and  dramatist,  born  in 
1605  at  Oxford,  where  his  father  was  an  innkeeper,  was  educated 
at  Lincoln  College,  and  became  page  to  the  Duchess  of  Eich- 
mond.  His  first  play,  Albovine,  King  of  the  Lombards  {idlf)), 
was  followed  by  other  dramas  and  masques.  On  Ben  Jonson's 
death,  in  163S,  D.  became  laureate.  He  lived  a  chequered  life 
until  the  Restoration,  which  secured  his  fartunes ;  and  he  con- 
tinued to  manage  the  theatre  and  write  plays  till  his  death,  7th 
April  166S.  He  was  buried  ui  Westminster.  D.'s  merits  as  a 
poet  have  been  somewhat  overlooked.  Though  his  long  epic, 
Gendiitrt,  is  now  quite  lost  sight  of,  it  contains  ingenious  think- 
ing happily  expressed,  and  some  of  Ilia  lyrics  are  graceful  and 
spirited.  See  Wood's  Athena  Oxonimsis. — Dr  Charles  D' A., 
son  of  the  preceding,  a  writer  on  political  economy,  was  bom 
in  1656  and  died  in  1714.  Among  his  works  (a  selection  of 
which  was  published  in  5  vols.  8vo,  by  Whitworth  in  1771)  are 
ADiscmirseupon  Grants aud Resump^sm  {llfxi).  An  Essay  upon 
the  Balaitct  of  Power,  &c 

BaT'enpOrt,  a  city  of  Iowa,  U.S.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Mississippi,  below  the  upper  rapids.  It  is  built  at  the  foot  of  a 
bluff  opjiosite  to  Rock  Island  City.  The  river  is  here  spanned 
by  a  railroad  bridge  15SZ  feet  long,  and  21  feet  above  high- 
water  mark.  D.  Imis  two  colleges,  one  for  males  and  another 
for  females,  flour  and  saw  mills,  breweries,  foundries,  coach, 
locomotive,  soap,  and  candle  works.  The  place  was  settled  in 
1S36.     Pop.  (1840)  600,  (1850)  1848,  (1870)  20,03a 

Davenport,  Bev.  Johit,  a  distinguished  Puritan  divine, 
was  born  at  Coventry,  in  England,  1598.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  became  minister  of  St  Stephen's,  London,  and  went 
over  sea  with  the  first  Puritan  settlers  of  New  Haven,  Connecti- 
cut, in  1638.  He  remained  their  minister  for  thirty  years,  and 
died  in  Boston  in  1670. 

Dav'entry  (Celt.  Dwy-mion-trse,  'the  town  of  the  two 
rivers  '),  also  Daintree  ('  the  town  of  the  Danes '),  a  municipal 
borough  in  Northamptonshire,  13  miles  W.  of  Northampton, 
between  the  rivers  Learn  and  Nen,  and  near  the  Grand  Junction 
Canal,  WMpmaldng  and  shoemaking  are  the  chief  industries. 
Before  the  lime  of  railways  it  was  a  great  thoroughfare  foe  the 
N.W.  of  England,  and  as  many  as  eighty  coaches  passed  through 
it  daily.  Pop.  (1871)  4051.  At  Danes'  Hill,  half  a  mile  from 
the  town,  is  one  of  the  latest  encampments  in  England.  In  ft.e 
neighbourhood  is  the  battlefield  of  Naseby. 

Da'vld  (Heb.  'the  beloved').  King  of  Israel,  was  the 
youngest  sou  of  Jesse.  He  first  appears  on  the  scene  when  he 
was  anointed  king  by  Samuel  (l  Sam.  xvi.),  and  about  the  same 
tune  was  sent  for  to  soothe  King  Saul  (q.  v.)  by  playing  on  the 
harp.  Yet  there  is  another  account  of  his  first  introduction  to 
Saul  in  chap,  xvji.,  apparently  by  another  writer,  who  was  igno- 
rant of  the  events  recorded  in  chap.  ivi.  According  to  the  nar- 
rative, D.  was  admitted  into  the  palace,  received  Michal,  Saul's 
daughter,  to  wife,  and  contracted  a  remarkable  friendship  with 
Jonathan,  his  son;  but  owing  to  the  jealousy  and  hatred  of  Saul, 
was  soon  obliged  to  flee.  He  fled  first  to  Achiah,  King  of  Gath, 
and  being  discovered  by  the  Philistines  to  be  the  slayer  of  Goliath, 
escaped  their  vengeance  by  feigning  madness.  Alter  staying  there 
about  sixteen  months  (i  Sam.  xvii.  7),  he  betook  himself  to  the 
Cave  of  AduUam,  gathered  a  band  of  from  400  to  600  outcasts, 
and  led  the  life  of  a  freebooter  for  above  twenty  years.    (Samuel, 


alivi 


t  the  ti 


of  his  flight,  I  Sam.  xix.  r8,  died  in 
the  eighteenth  year  of  Saul's  reign^os.  Ant,  vi.  13,  5  ;  and 
Saul  reigned  forty  years.  Acts  xiii.  21— which  gives  at  least  twenty- 
two  years. )  On  the  death  of  Sanl,  D.  became  king  of  his  own 
ttibeof  Judah(2  Sam.  ii.  4),  while  the  other  tribes  elected  Ishbo- 
sheth,  Saul's  son.  Chiefly  through  the  influence  of  Abner,  the 
general  of  Ishbosheth's  army,  who  deserted  his  master,  and  then 
by  the  assassination  of  that  prince,  D,  became  Kmg  of  Israel 
seven  years  after.  He  fixed  his  capital  at  Jebus,  hitherto  held 
by  the  Canaanites,  under  the  name  of  Jerusalem  (q.  v,),  where  he 
reigned  till  his  death,  thirty-three  years  after.  Under  D.  the 
empire  of  the  Israelites  rose  to  the  zenith  of  its  power,  being 
extended,  by  the  conquests  of  neighbouring  tribes,  &om  the  Eu- 
phrates to  the  Mediterranean,  and  his  reign  was  ever  afterwards 
looked  back  to  by  his  countrymen  as  the  golden  age  of  the 
national  history,  D.'s  complex  character  is  the  grandest  in  the 
Old  Testament,  though  there  are  stains  on  its  glory.  He  leaves 
on  us  the  impression  of  a  nature  aglow  with  religious;  poetic,  and 
patriotic  enthusiasm;  he  was  capable  of  the  tenderest  and  most 
romantic  sentiments,  though  inflexible,  and  at  times  even  cruel, 
in  the  execution  of  his  purposes.  He  combined  the  chivalry  of 
the  hero-king  with  the  clear  insight  of  the  statesman  and  the 
rapt  fervour  of  the  poet,  the  prophet,  and  the  devotee.  His 
lyrics  hold  the  foremost  place  in  devout  literature.  One  cannot 
imagine  a  time  whett  they  will  cease  to  be  an  inspimtion  and  a 
solace  to  Christendom.  The  variety,  breadSi,  and  depth  of  reli- 
gious experience  which  they  contain  furnish  the  best  reason  for 
regardmg  David,  with  all  his  imperfections,  as  the  truest  and 
noblest  type  of  Christ  in  Old  Testament  history.  In  deep  tragic 
knowledge  of  the  human  heart  none  of  the  Hebrew  saints  and 
^es  come  so  near  to  the  '  Man  of  Sorrows,'  The  whole  Chris- 
tian  Church  has  practically  admitted  this,  for,  next  to  the  words 
of  our  Lord  himself,  it  has  always  reckoned  the  'Psalms'  (q.  v.) 
to  be  its  most  precious  heritage  of  spiritual  truth.  See  Ewald's 
Gcschichte  dcs  Volkes  Israel  (Eng.  transl.  1869). 

David  I.  (sometimes  called  St  David,  though  never  canon- 
ised). King  of  Scotland,  was  the  third  son  of  Malcolm  Can- 
more  by  the  English  Princess  Margaret,  sister  of  Eadgar  ^the- 
Img,  He  was  born  about  ro8o,  and  passed  his  youth  at  the 
English  court,  together  with  his  sister  Eadgyth,  who  was  mar- 
ried to  Henry  L  of  England.  D.'s  eldest  brother,  Eadgar,  who 
died  in  1 107,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  neit  brother,  Alexander, 
separated  the  principality  of  Stralhclyde  from  the  rest  of  Ihe 
kingdom,  and  conferred  it  on  D.,  and  by  his  marriage  in  iioS 
with  Matilda,  heiress  of  Waltheof,  Earl  of  Northumberiand,  he 
became  Earl  of  Huntingdon,  and  was  thus  not  only  heir  to  the 
Scottish  crown,  but  a  powerful  English  noble.  He  now  became 
intimate  with  the  Nonnan  knights  of  England,  which  in  the 
sequel  powerfully  influenced  the  course  of  Scottish  history;  for 
having  quelled  an  insurrection  of  the  men  of  Moray,  he  dealt 
with  tlie  territory  of  the  subjugated  chief  as  a  feudal  forfeiture, 
and  portioned  it  out  among  Norman  strangers,  who  thus  became 
crown  vassals.  In  1 1 24  he  succeeded  his  brother  Alexander  on 
the  Scottish  throne.  In  1127,  as  Earl  of  Huntingdon,  he  swore 
to  Henry  I.  to  support  the  right  of  Henry's  daughter  Matilda 
to  the  English  crown,  and  when  Stephen  of  Blois  seized  it,  D. 
invaded  England,  and  took  possesion  of  all  the  strongholds  of 
the  N.  except  Bamborough.  Stephen  advanced  to  meet  him 
with  a  formidable  force,  but  an  agreement  was  made,  by  which 
David's  son  Henry  was  invested  with  his  English  fiefs,  and  the 
claim  to  Northumberland  left  open.  An  insult  to  Henry  at  the 
English  court  induced  D.  to  ravage  the  northern  counties  in 
1138;  but  being  deserted  by  Bruce,  Baliol,  and  other  Norman 
barons,  his  motley  force  of  Scots,  Picts,  Orcadians,  Sfrathclyde 
Britons,  English  of  Lothian,  and  Normans,  was  signally  de- 
feated at  the&mous  'Battle  of  the  Standard,' near  Northallerton. 
In  1139  peace  was  concluded  at  Durham,  and  Prince  Henry 
made  Earl  of  Northumberland.  Two  years  later  D.  invaded  Eng- 
land in  fevour  of  his  niece,  and  narrowly  escaped  being  taken 
prisoner.  The  close  of  his  life,  otherwise  tranquil,  was  sad- 
dened by  the  death  of  his  son  Henry.  D.  died  at  Carlisle,  24th 
May  ri53,  and  was  buried  at  Dunfermline.  D.,  like  all  the 
children  of  St  Margaret,  was  devoted  to  the  Church.  He  began 
the  establishment  of  the  bishopric  of  Glasgow  while  he  was  yet 
Prince  of  Strathclyde.  In  his  reign  were  founded  or  enlarged 
the  bishoprics  of  Dunkeld,  Moray,  Aberdeen,  Ross,  Caithness, 
Brechin,  Dunblane,  and  Galloway;  and  to  the  same  time  also 


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belong  the  religious  houses  of  Holyrood,  Melrose,  Jedburgh, 
Kelso,  Dryburgh,  Newbattle,  and  Kinloss.  He  increased  the 
number  of  royal  burghs,  and  granted  many  privileges  and  im- 
munities to  the  burghers.  Latin  culture  fiist  found  a  home  in 
Scotland  under  his  rouniticent  patronage,  and  to  him  may  be  as- 
cribed the  decisive  completion  of  that  civilians  policy,  begun  by 
his  fethec,  which  saved  Scotland  from  the  rude  rule  ctf  the  Celt. 
See  Eulegium  Davidis  Regis  ScalorunCy  by  iEthelred,  Abbot  of 
Rievaulx,  printed  in  Pinlterton's  Vilis  Antiqius  Sanctorum  Scotiie 
(Loud.  1789), 
David  II.    See  Bruce. 


studios  of  Boucher  and  Vien.  In  1775  he  gained  the  grand 
prize  of  Rome,  in  which  city  he  spent  the  next  five  years,  chiefly 
drawing  from  the  antique.  He  then  b^an  to  paint  sub- 
jects chiefly  classical;  his  'Horatio'  being  his  best  before 
the  Revolution.  The  Constituent  Assembly  and  the  National 
Assembly  (of  which  he  was  a  member}  commissioned  pictures 
from  him  for  the  nation,  and  he  arranged  the  artistic  ofiects  in 
the  fStes.  His  friendship  for  Robespierre  caused  his  imprison- 
ment for  a  year  hi  1794.  The  murders  of  Marat  and  Pell^tier 
werecommemorated  fay  D.  in  two  pictures.  In  1799  his  'Rape  of 
the  Sabines '  was  completed.  Napoleon,  made  D.  his  first  painter, 
and  sat  for  the  famous  portrait  in  which  he  is  ascending  Mount 
Bernard  on  horseback.  His  official  pictures  for  the  throne- 
room  at  the  Tuileries  were  of  inferior  merit.  Banished  by  the  law 
of  rfith  January  1816,  and  expelled  from  the  Institute,  D.  went 
to  Brussels,  where  he  cainted  '  Mara  Disarmed  by  Venus,' 
'  Cupid  and  Psyche,'  &c'.,  and  where  he  died,  29th  December 
1E25.  See  Miel's  Notice  sur  J.  L.  David  (l334),  and  Dele9iuie's 
David  et  son  icele  {\%$$). — Pierre  Jean  D.,  bom  at  Angers, 
izth  March  1789,  first  came  into  notice  about  18 10,  when  he 
carried  off  the  Academy  priie  by  a  bas-relief  of  '  Epaminondas.' 
After  studying  at  Rome,  he  established  his  reputation  as  a  sculptor 
by  the  statue  of  tlie  'I3rand  Cond^'  for  Versailles.  In  1826  he 
became  Professor  at  the  School  of  Painting,  and  in  1831  com- 
menced the  sculptures  of  the  Pantheon.  He  sat  in  the  Consti- 
tuent Assembly  of  1848,  and  was  banished  temporarily  in  1851. 
He  died  5th  January  1856.  Among  his  has-rehefs  may  be  men- 
tioned the  'Marches  Mililaires' for  the  HStel  de  Ville,  Paris; 
among  colossal  medallions,  '  Casimer  Perier'  and  'G.  St  Hil- 
aire ;  among  busts,  'Washington,'  'Beranger'  'Bentham,' 
'Humboldt,'  'GMie/'Rossini;' among  statues,  'Cuvier,'  'Jean 
Bart,'  and  'Talma;'  the  tombs  of  Generals  Foy  and  St  Cyr  at 
Pere  la  Chaise,  and  the  monument  to  Botzaris  at  Missolonghi, — 
Ffilicien  D.,  a  French  musical  composer,  was  bom  March 
8,  l8lo,  at  Cadenet,  Vaucluse.  He  was  educated  among  the 
Jesuits  at  Aix,  where  he  became  a  chorister,  and  in  1830  was 
admitted  to  the  Conservatoire,  Paris,  having  shown  his  composi- 
tions to  Cherubmi,  who  was  then  director  of  that  institution.  D. 
advanced  rapidly  in  his  musical  studies  ;  but  in  1831  quitted  the 
Conservatoire,  and  jomed  the  Sunt-Simonians.  for  whom  he  com- 
posed several  hymns.  On  the  brealdng  up  of  that  ftatemily  D. 
travelled  to  the  East,  and  on  retummg  to  Paris  in  1835,  published 
unsuccessfully  Milodiis  Oriaitales,  which  he  had  composed  during 
his  travels.  His  succeeding  works,  such  as  Le  Pirate  aud  La  Sir- 
ondeiles,  attracted  dight  notice ;  but  in  1844  his  Ode-symphonie, 
Dherl,  had  a  brilliant  reception,  and  spread  his  feme  through 
Europe,  He  has  smce  composed  Christophe  Colomb  (1847) ; 
V£dm  {1848};  La  Pirle  du  Bridl,  a  comic  opera  (1851! ;  Her- 
culanmm,  au  opera  (1859);  and  Lalla  Ssokh,  a  comic  opera 
(1862).  In  iS5z  he  was  made  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour, 
and  in  1869  librarian  to  the  Paris  Conservatoire  de  Musique. 

David,  a  prosperous  town  on  the  left  bank  of  a  river  of  the 
same  name  in  Panama,  United  States  of  Colombia,  on  the  fron- 
'tier  of  Costa  Rica,  with  a  pop.  of  upwards  of  5000,  and  exports 
of  rice,  coffee,  hides,  and  gold-dust. 


as  Archbishop  of  Caerleon,  the  head  of  the  Welsh  Church,  but 
to  avoid  the  inroads  of  the  English,  transferred  the  see  to 
Menevia,  thence  called  St  David's  (q.  v.).  D.  founded  several 
churches   in   Wales,  strongly  combated  Pelagianism,  and  was 


famous  for  sanctity  and  eloquence.  Many  miracles  are  recorded 
of  him,  as  of  the  ground  rising  beneath  him  while  he  was  preach- 
ing, and  of  a  spring  at  St  David's  gushing  forth  in  response  to 
his  prayer,  He  died  about  600.  Many  Welsh  churches  were 
dedicated  to  him.  See  Historia  S.  Davidis  by  Giraldus  Cam- 
David's,  St  (the  British  Mynyw  and  Roman  Menevia),  a  very 
old  episcopal  city,  Pembrokeshire,  Wales,  near  the  rugged  pro- 
montory of  St  David's  Head,  the  westmost  point  in  Wales.  About 
519,  St  David,  the  patron  saint  of  Wales,  transferred  the  metro- 
politan see  from  Caerleon  to  St  David's,  which  during  the  middle 
ages  was  an  important  city,  from  the  numerous  pilgrims  attracted 
to  it  by  the  sanctity  of  the  shriiw,  and  the  rich  offerings  brought 
by  them.  It  is  now  only  an  msignificant  village,  wiih  a  pop. 
in  1871  of  2155.  The  cathedral,  the  bishop's  palace,  St  Mary's 
College,  and  some  ruins,  occupy  a  space  surrounded  by  a  lofty 
embattled  wall  more  than  three-fourths  of  a  mile  in  circuit.  The 
cathedral,  founded  in  llSo,  is  cruciform,  and  generally  in  the 
Transition  Norman,  thoi^h  Early  Englbh  and  later  stales  occur 
in  portions.  It  contains  the  tomb  of  the  Earl  of  Richmond, 
father  of  Henry  VII.,  and  monuments  of  Giraldus  Cambrenais, 
Anselm,  and  other  early  bishops.  Not  the  least  distinguished  of 
its  many  eminent  bishops  was  the  late  Connop  Thirlwall,  the 
historian  of  Greece,  See  the  Histmy  of  the  Cathedra!  of  Si  D. 
by  E.  Freeman  and  Basil  Jones, 

Da'vies,  Sir  John,  son  of  a  lawyer  at  Westbury,  Wiltshire, 
was  bom  in  1570.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  and  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1595.  Next  year  he  published  a  poem  on  dancing,  called 
Orchestra.  In  1598  his  irregularities  led  fo  his  expulsion  from 
the  Middle  Temple,  when  he  went  to  Oxford,  and  wrote  his  chief 
poem,  Nosce  Teipsum,  treating  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  In 
the  re^  of  James  I.,  D.  filled  the  highest  legal  offices  in  Ireland, 
and  in  1613  was  Speaker.of  the  Iri^  House  of  Commons.  He 
sat  in  the  Enghsh  Parliament  in  1620,  and  died  December  7, 
1626.  D.'s  legal  and  poHtieal  works,  of  which  the  chief  is  A 
Disetrvery  of  the  True  Causes  why  Ireland  has  never  betn  Subdued 
nnti!  the  Beginning  of  this  Seiga,  are  ot  high  value,  but  his  poems 
more  markedly  display  his  abihty.  His  verse  is  harmonious,  the 
language  choice,  and  the  thought  just  and  often  philosophic. 

Dav'ila,  Enrico  Caterino,  bom  near  Padua,  30th  October 
1576,  belonged  to  a  family  driven  from  Cypms  by  the  Turks. 
Catherine  of  Medici  was  his  godmother.  After  the  deatli  of 
Henri  III.  and  the  capitulation  of  Paris,  D.  served  five  years 
under  the  banner  of  Henri  IV.  He  then  occupied  a  high  mili- 
tary and  civil  post  at  Venice.  D.  was  assassmated  m  1631. 
The  best  edition  of  his  Historia  delle  Guerre  Civili  de  Francis  is 
that  of  Milan  (6  vols.  1807).  There  is  a  French  translation  from 
the  Italian  by  Mallet  de  Grosley  (1757).  Although  biassed  in 
favour  of  his  godmother,  D.  gives  an  eleeant  and  truthful  ac- 
count of  the  period  (1559-98).  He  stands  below  Machiavel  and 
Guicciardini,  but  above  Sarpi  and  Bentivoglio. 

Da  Vin'oi,  Leoiiardo,  the  chief  of  the  Florentine  painters, 
and,  according  to  Hallam,  '  the  first  name  of  the  iSth  c,'  was 
the  illegitimate  son  of  Piero  Antonio,  a  notary,  and  was  bom  in 
the  Val  d'Amo  in  1452.  Noted  from  early  youth  for  his  beauty 
and  artistic  promise,  he  was  trained  by  Verocchio,  then  the 
greatest  artist  in  Florence,  whom  he  soon  surpassed  in  painting; 
and,  moreover,  devoted  hunself  to  sculpture,  poetry,  music, 
architecture,  and  mechanics.  In  14S3  he  visited  Milan,  where 
he  became  designer  of  pageants  for  Ludovico  Sforia,  and  painted 
his  '  Last  Supper '  in  the  refectory  of  a  Dominican  church.  This 
fresco,  finished  in  1497,  is  now  only  faintly  visible.  In  1498 
the  French  took  Milan,  and  D,  retumed  in  poverty  to  Florence. 
Henceforth  his  life  was  one  of  wandering.  To  the  years 
1498-1503,  his  most  actively  creative  period,  belong  the  works 
'La  Giaconda,' — the  'Vierge  aux  Rodiers'  of  the  Louvre, — 
his  masterpiece,  and  the  '  Battle  of  the  Standard,'  produced  in 
competition  with  Michael  Angelo,  Raphael  watching  both  artists 
as  they  worked.  In  1514  D.  revisited  Rome,  where,  though  a 
supreme  political  indifferentist,  he  was  suspected  of  French  sym- 
pathies by  the  anti-Gallican  party,  and  accordingly  tumed  to 
France  at  the  invitation  of  Francis  L,  who  gave  him  the  Chateau 
de  Clou  in  the  valley  of  the  Masse,  wliere  he  died,  May  2,  1 5 19. 
There  is  an  indefinable  charm  and  mystery  in  his  life  and  works ; 
his  genius  is  enigmatical  as  well  as  versatile  and  fascinating. 
He  often  trifled  with  his  superb  powers,  losing  himself  in  strange 


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fancies  aud  intricate  designs.  He  was  the  leader  of  the  return 
to  nature  in  the  painting  of  the  15th  c.  (see  Renaissance),  and 
fixed  for  ages  the  pictorial  type  of  the  Saviour,  His  paintings 
are  marked  by  fondness  tor  bizarre  effects,  by  patient  refined  exe- 
cution, by  the  subtle  exotic  beauty  of  his  female  faces,  the 
modelling  of  which  is  said  to  be  unequalled.  His  favourite  sub- 
jects are  moving  waters  and  foces  with  a  perplexing  smile.  D. 
uiidettook  various  architectural  and  engineering  labours,  led  the 
water  of  the  Adda  to  Milan,  nmde  a  navigable  canal  200  miles 
long,  and  planned  vast  schemes,  such  as  the  perforating  of  moun- 
tains and  raisingof  great  buildings.  He  carefuily  Studied  plants, 
crystals,  and  the  stars,  and  aliticipated  many  recent  discoveries 
and  inventions.  His  thirteen  books  of  MSS. — written  from  right 
to  left — are  still  unedited.  See  Vasari's  Le  Vtte  de  pm  acel- 
lenii  Pitteri,  Sculiorie  ArcMlttte,  the  first  edition  of  1550,  and 
also  the  new  edition,  Florence  1846-57,  in  whicli  the  history 
of  D.  is  modified;  ArsJne  Houssaye's  Histob'e  de  Leonard  da 
Vina  (Par.  1867),  an  admirable  book,  the  chief  authority  on 
D. ;  and  Pater's  Studies  in  the  History  oftht  Renaissnnee  (Lond. 
Macmillan,  1 8  73). 

Ba'via,  JefferBon,  the  leader  of  the  greatest  civil  war  of 
modern  times,  was  bom  in  Kentucky,  June  3,  1E08.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  Military  Academy  in  ifeS,  and  served 
in  the  Black  Hawk  War,  1831-33.  D.  became  a  cotton-planter 
and  a  keen  advocate  of  that  interest,  entering  the  arena  of  Con- 
gress in  1845  as  a  'Democrat.'  He  fought  with  distinction  In 
the  Mexican  war,  entered  the  U.  S.  Senate  in  1S47,  and  became 
Secretary  of  War  under  President  Pierce  (1853-57).  D.  had 
long  championed  state  rights  and  slaveholding  interests,  and  at 
length  ied  on  the  secession  of  1861.  He  was  chosen  President 
of  the  Confederate  States  for  six  years.  After  the  collapse  of 
the  South  he  was  taken  prisoner  at  Irwinville,  Georgia,  May  to, 
1865,  and  detained  in  Foi'tress  Monroe  for  two  years,  but  was 
included  in  the  amnesty  of  1S68.  D.  now  follows  business  pur- 
suits, eschewing  politics,  and  is  engaged  (1876)  on  a  history  of 
the  war  in  which  he  played  so  conspicuous  a  part, 

Bavia,  John,  a  celebrated 
16th  c,  was  born  in  the  paris 
mouth,  Devonshire.  He  made  three  voyages  between  1 585  and 
1588  in  search  of  the  N.W.  Passage,  discovering,  in  the  first, 
ts  which  bear  his  name.     !E^  subsequently  accompanied 


pirates  off  the  coast  of  Malacca.  D.  invented  a  quadrant,  which 
was  subsequently  superseded  by  Hadley's,  and  was  the  author  of 
The  Werld'i  Mydrographkal  Bescriftion  and  The  Semnan's 
Secrets  (both  1595).  An  account  of  his  discoveries  is  given  in 
Hakluyt's  Voyages  and  in  Harris's  CoUectisa  of  Voyages, 

Davis,  Sir  Jolm  TYanois,  bom  in  London,  1795,  went  to 
China  in  the  suite  of  Lord  Amherst,  1816,  joint  commissioner 
with  Lord  Napier  in  1834  in  arranging  affairs  with  China,  and 
British  plenipotentiary  to  China,  and  governor  and  commander- 
in-chief  of  Hong-Kong,  1843-48.  He  was  created  baronet, 
184s,  and  KC.B.,  1S54.  D.  is  one  of  the  most  authoritative 
writers  on  China,  its  people,  and  its  recent  history.  His  chief 
works  are  Chinese  Novels  Translated  (Lond.  1822) ;  Chinese 
Moial  Maxims  (Macao,  1S23) ;  The  Chinese,  a  General  De- 
scrifUon  of  the  Empire  and  Us  Inhabitants  (Lond,  1836-57); 
China  during  the  War  and  since  the  Peace  (Ijjnd,  1S52);  Chinese 
MisceOames  (1865). 

Bavis  Strait,  discovered  by  John  Davis  (q.  v.)  in  1585,  is 
the  southern  half  of  that  great  inlet  of  the  Atlantic  running  N. 
between  Greenland  on  the  E.  and  Baffin's  Land  on  the  W.  It 
is  in  lat.  60°  to  70°  N.,  and  it  varies  in  width  from  160  to  over 
3O0mile3.  Itisthegalefrom  the  Atlantic  to  Baffin's  Bay,  Smith 
and  Lancaster  Sounds,  &c.,  and  though  its  western  shores  are 
hampered  with  heavy  ice  throughout  almost  the  whole  year,  it 
is  freely  navigated  (along  the  Greenland  coast)  by  fleets  of 
whalers  during  the  summer  months. 

Da'vlson,  John,  the  author  of  the  well-known  Discourses  on 
Prophecy,  was  born  at  Morpeth,  28th  May  1777,  and  educated 
at  Oxford,  where,  between  1810  and  1817,  he  was  tutor  of  his 
college  (Oriel),  public  examiner,  and  preacher  at  Whitehall  In 
1826  he  was  made  prebendary  of  Woicester,  and  shortly  after 
rector  of  Upton- upon -Severn.     He  died  6th  May  1834.      D. 


had  great  learning  and  clearness  of  judgment.     'His  Discourses 

Da'vit,  on  shipboard,  a  sort  of  crane,  with  a  curved  arm  pro- 
jecting outwards,  placed  in  paire  at  the  sides  and  stem  of  a 
vessel  to  facilitate  Che  raising  and  lowering  of  boats,  and  on 
which  the  boats  are  slung  ready  for  any  emergency.  A  stout 
beam  of  timber,  fitted  to  the  fore  channel,  for  hoisting  the 
anchor  to  tlie  top  of  the  bow  without  injury  to  the  ship's  sides 
from  the  flukes  of  the  anchor,  receives  the  same  name. 

Davout'  (commonly,  but  inaccurately,  written  Davoust), 
Louis  Ifioolae,  a  celebrated  French  marshal  and  lieutenant  of 
Napoleon,  was  born  ofa  noble  family  at  Annoux,  in  the  old  pro- 
vince of  Burgundy,  lodi  May  1 770.  He  studied  at  the  military 
school  of  Brienne  at  the  same  time  as  Bonapatte,  and  entered  the 
army  in  1785.  D.  distinguished  himself  on  numerous  occasions, 
accompanied  Bonaparte  to  the  East,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the 
victory  of  Aboukir  (1799).  In  the  Napoleonic  campaigns  (from 
1805  to  1809),  including  the  battles  of  Jena,  Austerlifz,  and 
Wagram,  he  played  a  most  brilliant  pari,  being  rewarded  with  the 
titles  of  Duke  of  Auerstadt  and  Prince  of  Eckmuill.  Appointed 
Governor  of  Poland,  he  obtained  an  evil  reputation  by  the  harsh- 
ness of  his  military  despotism  and  by  his  personal  rapacity.  In 
the  Russian  campaign  he  gallantly  supported  his  chief,  and  after 
the  retreat  from  Moscow  became  Governor  of  the  lianse  Towns, 
which  ofSce  he  held  till  the  restm'ation  of  the  Bourbons.  After 
Bonaparte's  return  from  Elba,  D.  was  his  War  Minister,  and  com- 
manded the  army  which  capitulated  under  the  walls  of  Paris. 
He  was  made  a  peer  of  France  in  1S19,  and  died  Jnne  i,  1823. 

Da'vy,  Sir  Humphrey,  a  celebrated  chemist,  was  bom  at 
Penzance,  Cornwall,  December  17,  1778.  Afler  a  preliminary 
education  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  surgeon  and  apothecary  in 
his  native  town  in  1795,  occupying  his  leisure  time  with  the 
study  of  science,  mental  and  physical.  His  first  published  expe- 
riments, upon  the  decomposition  of  carbonic  acid  by  plarits, 
appeared  in  the  Contributums  to  Physical  and  Medical  Know- 
ledge, Piincipallyjrom  the  West  of  England,  edited  by  Dr  Bed- 
does,  who  in  1 798  made  D.  the  superintendent  of  his  Pneumatic 
Institute,  dien  recently  established  at  Clifton.  Here  he  made 
his  famous  experiments  in  the  respiration  of  nitrous  oxide,  nitric 
oxide,  mai^  gas,  and  carbonic  acid,  which,  communicated  to 
the  Royal  Society,  obtained  for  him  a  great  reputation  as  a 
chemist,  and  an  appomtment  in  1801  as  lecturer  of  chemistry 
in  the  Royal  Institution  at  London.  In  1806  his  Bakerian 
lecture,  On  Some  Chemical  Agencies  of  Electricity,  ^vk  the  results 
of  his  experiments  in  what  is  now  known  as  electrolysis,  and  the 
following  year  witnessed  the  decomposition  of  the  so-called  fixed 
alkalies,  and  the  discovery  of  the  substances  constituting  their 
bases.  In  1S08  D.  demonstrated  that  what  Berthollet  had  su 
posed  to  be  a  compound  of  oxygen  and  muriatic  acid  was 
reality  a  simple  substance,  which  he  called  chlorine ;  and 
the  same  time  overthrew  Lkvoisier's  theory  of  acids,  which  w 
in  general  acceptance  among  the  chemists  of  that  day.  In  iS 
he  also  discovered  and  experimented  upon  iodine,  a  substance 
resembling  chlorine  in  many  of  its  properties.  D.  was  knighted 
in  181Z,  and  received  i.  baronetcy  in  1818,  while  he  was  making 
his  second  tour  on  the  Continent  In  1815  his  attention  was 
directed  to  the  subject  of  mine  explosions,  and  he  was  thus  led 
to  the  invention  of  his  Safety  Lamp  (q.  v. ),  an  invention  which 
alone  Would  entitle  him  to  a  high  position  among  British  men  of 
science.  In  1820  he  succeeded  Sir  Joseph  Banks  as  President 
oftheRoval  Society,  but  resigned  m  1827,  in  Consequence  of  fail- 
ing health,  A  visit  to  Italy  did  not  restore  him ;  and  he  died 
at  Geneva,  May  29,  iSag,  his  death  being  no  doubt  hastened 
by  his  early  experiments  on  gases.  His  collected  works  (9  vols. 
1839-40)  were  edited  by  his  brother,  Dr  John  D.,  who  also  pub- 
lished Fragmentary  Remedns  (Lond.  1858).  His  last  work  was 
entitled  Consolations  in  Trccvd,  or  the  Last  Days  of  a  Philosopher. 
See  Ufe  of  Sir  H.  D.,  by  J.  A.  Paris  (2  vols,  Lond.  1831). 

Bawall'a  {Hypophlhalmus  dawalla),  a  Teleostean  fish  belong- 
ing to  the  family  of  the  Silundnat  Sheat-Fishes.  It  occurs  in  the 
rivers  of  Guiana,  and  averages  about  two  feet  in  length.  Tlie  snout 
is  elongated,  and  the  teeth  are  numerous  and  of  minute  size.  No 
scales  exist.     Its  flesh  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  nutritious  quali- 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


Station  by  relays  of  men,  usually  consisting  of  eleven,  the  stations 
being  from  9  to  1 1  miles  apart.  Tliere  are  now  Goveniment  post- 
wagons,  or  tlie  horse- D.,  seated  for  four  and  serving  as  a  bed 

DaVley  Mag'iia,  a  town  in  Shropshice,  3i  miles  S.E.  of 
Wellington,  with  blast-fumaces,  bar-iron  mills,  collieries,  lime 
and  tile  works.     Pop.  of  town  and  parjsh  (1871I,  11,254, 

Dawlisll,  a  village  on  the  S.  coast  of  Devonshire,  and  a 
station  on  the  South  Devon  Railway,  It  was  formerly  an  insigni- 
ficant fishing  hamlet,  but  from  its  beautiful  situation  in  a  valley 
between  the  mouths  of  the  Teign  and  the  Eite  lias  now  be- 
come a  favourite  watering-place.     Pop,  (1871)  3624. 

DaVson,  Jolm.  William,  LL.D.,  naturalist,  was  bom  at 
Pictou,  Nova  Scotia,  in  October  1820.  After  studying  for  some 
years  at  Edinburgh  University,  he  returned  home,  and  has  since 
wholly  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  natural  science.  He  has 
greatly  increased  our  knowledge  of  the  palteontology  of  Canada, 
and  is  the  discoverer  of  the  oldest  known  form  of  organic  life, 
the  EosoSn  Canadaui,  which  belongs  to  the  Laurentian  formations. 
.  D.  is  Vice-chancellor  of  the  M'Gill  University  at  Montreal,  and  a 
member  of  many  scientific  societies  of  Europe  and  America. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  his  Arckaia,  or  Sludia  of  the 
Cosirwgeny  and  Natural  Hislmy  of  the  Hdirea  ScHptura  (1858), 
his  Acadian  Geology  (ad  ed.  1868),  and,  most  important  of  all, 
his  Devonian  and  Ca^-bsniferims  Flora  of  £astem  JV.  America 
(2  vols.),  published  by  the  Geol(»icaI  Survey  of  Canada.  His 
latest  works  are  TX*  Story  ef  the  Earth  and  Man  (1872),  in 
which  he  combats  Darwin's  views  on  the  origin  of  man,  and  his 
HoTim  of  Life  (1875). 

Dax  (the  Aqua  Augmta  Tarbellica  of  "the  Romans),  a  town  in 
the  department  of  Landes,  France,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Adour, 
20  miles  N.E,  of  Bayonne,  with  manufactures  of  pottery  and 
liqueurs,  and  a  trade  in  wine,  corn,  timber,  hams,  honey,  wax, 
&c.  Its  hot  saline  springs,  with  a  temperature  of  158°  Fahr.  at 
their  source,  are  efficacious  in  rheumatic  complaints.  Pop. 
(1872)  7850,     The  name  D.,  formerly  Acqs,  is  a  corruption  of 

Say  (Old  Eng.  dag,  Ger,  Tag,  allied  to  Lat.  dies  and  divum, 
from  a  Sansii.  root,  div,  'to  shine'),  commonly  denotes  the  time 
during  which  the  sun  is  above  the  horizon,  being  thus  opposed  to 
night ;  but  the  term  is  also  applied,  in  astronomy,  to  one  com- 
plete rotation  of  the  earth,  taken  with  reference  to  some  celestial 
body.  Thus  the  sidereal  £}.  is  the  time  which  elapses  between 
two  successive  culminations  of  the  same  star ;  and  fiom  the  earKest 
historic  period  this  interval  of  time  has  not  appreciably  altered. 
Its  consistency  recommends  it  to  the  astronomer,  who  divides 
it  into  twenty-four  sidereal  hours,  and  these  again  into  minutes 
and  seconds.  The  solar  D.  is  similarly  measured  by  means  of 
the  sun  J  but  owing  to  the  orbital  motion  of  the  earth  giving 
rise  to  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun  among  the  stars,  it  is 
longer  than  the  sidereal  D.  This  difference  is  never  twice  suc- 
cessively the  same,  a  circumstance  which  arises  from  two  causes, 
viz.,  the  varying  velocity  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit,  and  the  ob- 
liquity of  the  ecliptic.  The  duU  or  mean  solar  D.  is  the  solar 
D.  which  would  be  given  by  the  earth  moving  with  its  mian 
velocity  in  a  circular  orbit  and  mating  365'3425  revolutions 
in  one  Gregorian  year.  This  mode  makes  the  days  all  the 
same  length,  and  the  noon  of  the  civil  D.  sometimes  precedes, 
sometimes  follows,  the  true  solar  noon.  Most  modem  nations 
place  the  b^inning  and  end  of  the  D.  at  midnight — an  arran- 
gement somewhat  inconvenient  to  the  astronomer,  whose  ob- 
servations thus  freqnently  extend  over  a  time  embracing  parts 

Day,  in  law,  is  twenty-four  hours,  beginning  at  midnight. 
Most  European  nations  reckon  so.  All  the  days  of  the  week  ex- 
cept Sunday,  or  fast-days  appointed  by  Government,  are  called 
lawfal  days.  No  legal  execution  against  person  or  property 
can  be  done  except  on  a  lawful  D.  But  cmninal  warrants,  or, 
in  some  circumstances,  warrants  for  apprehending  a  debtor, 
may  be  granted  and  executed  on  any  D.  Under  statutes, 
various  acts  and  contracts  are  rendered  illegal  if  done  or  entered 
into  on  Sunday,  See  Lord's  Day  Acts,  Sabbath,  Public 
Houses. 


man  of 
1748; 


studied  at  Oxford,  and  afterwards  entered  the  Middle  Temple. 
He  sympathised  with  the  Americans  in  the  war  of  independence, 
and  was  an  advocate  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade  and  for 
parliamentary  reform.  But  he  is  remembered  now  only  for  his 
Sandfird  and  Merlon  (1783-S9)  and  History  of  Little  Jack.  He 
died  28th  September  1789.  An  interesting  and  amusing  sketch 
of  D.  's  character  and  ludicrous  mishaps  in  search  of  a  model 
wife  is  to  be  found  in  the  Saturday  SeiHiw  of  May  13,  1876. 

Day -Fly  {Ephemera),  a  genus  of  insects  belonging  to  the  order 
Neuroptera  (q.  v.),  and  not  to  the  order  Diptera,  or  that  includ- 
ing the  common  flies.     See  Ephemera. 

Day-Iiily  \HimerocaU{s\  a  genus  of  Liliaceous  plants,  of  the 
species  cultivated  in  our  gardens.  H.  flsva  (of  Hungary,  France, 
Siberia,  and  China),  and  H.  fuhia,  a  native  of  the  Levant  and 
France,  both  fibrous- rooted  perennials,  produce  abundant  foliage 
which  is  eagerly  eaten  by  cattle. 

DayleBford,  a  town  in  the  colony  of  Victoria,  78  miles 
N.W,  of  Melbourne,  It  is  the  centre  of  an  important  gold- 
mining  district ;  the  form  in  which  mining  operations  are  now 
chiefly  carried  on  being  quartz- crushing.  Pop.  5700;  of  the 
district,  19,000. 

Bays  in  Baak  are,  in  England,  certain  days  in  term  when 
writs  are  returnable,  or  when  the  party  shall  appear  in  court 
upon  tlie  writ  served.  They  are  so  called  in  contradistinction 
to  days  at  Nid  Prius  when  trial  by  juiy  took  place. 

Days  of  Orace  are  the  three  additional  days  formeriy 
allowed  by  custom,  and  now  by  the  law  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
for  payment  of  a  Bill  of  Exchange  (q.  v. )  which  has  come  to 
maturity.  If  the  third  day  fall  on  a  Sunday,  the  bill  is  payable 
the  day  before.  If  it  fiill  on  a  bank  holiday,  it  is  payable  the  day 
after.  The  number  of  D.  ofG.  allowed  for  payment  of  a  bill  in 
different  countries  varies. 

Dayton,  a  flourishing  city  in  the  S.  W.  of  Ohio,  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Mad  and  Great  Miami  rivets.  Its  streets  are  well 
laid  out  and  adorned  with  many  fine  residences  and  public 
buildings  ;  among  others,  the  marble  courthouse,  after  the  Par- 
thenon. Il  has  flour,  saw,  oil,  paper,  and  cotton  mills,  breweries, 
farming  implements,  and  railroad  cars.  The  prosperity  of  D. 
had  its  origin  in  the  Miami  Canal,  connecting  the  city  with  Lake 
Erie  (1829].     Pop.  (1870)  30,473. 

DayB'maii,  an  umpire.  The  word  occurs  once  in  the  autho- 
rised version  of  the  Scriptures,  in  Job  ix.  33—'  Neither  is  there 
any  D.  betwixt  us,  that  might  lay  his  hand  upon  us  lioth,'  It 
occurs  also  in  Spenser  in  a  similar  sense.  The  word  so  trans- 
lated in  Job  comes  from  a  root  meaning  'to  rebuke,'  The 
origin  of  the  English  word  Is  found  in  the  old  meaning  of  Day 
— 3ie  day,  i.e.,  of  settling  a  cause  judicially. 

D'Aza'ra,  Don  Pelix,  a  Spanish  naturalist  and  traveller, 
bom  at  Barbunales,  Aragon,  iSth  May  1746,  After  obtaining 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  the  Spanish  army,  he  was  sent 
to  S.  America,  as  one  of  the  commissioners  to  settle  the  boun- 
daries of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  possessions  there.  He 
remained  in  S.  America  for  twenty  years,  devoting  his  leisure  to 
the  investigation  of  the  natural  history  of  the  New  World,  and 
published,  on  his  return  to  Europe,  Apuntamientos  para  la  His- 
toria  Natural  de  tos  Paiaros  del  Rirguay  y  Jiio  de  la  Plata,  of 
which  an  English  translation  by  W.  Percival  Hunter  was  puii- 
lished  at  Edinburgh  in  1838.  D'A.  died  in  Aragon  in  t8li.— 
His  brother,  Don  Joaejiti  Nioliolaa  D'A.  (1731-1804),  v" 
a  distinguished  diplomatist. 

Doa'con  (Gr.  diakenoi,  'an  attendant'),  a  certain  kind  of 
minister  in  the  Christian  Church.  It  is  generally  assumed  that 
the  institution  of  the  office  is  described  in  Acts  vi,,  and  that  the 
duties  of  it  in  the  Apostolic  Church  were  entirely  connected 
witli  temporal  affairs.  According  to  another  view,  the  seven 
whose  appointment  Is  described  in  Acts  vi,  were  merely  special 
commissioners  to  meet  a  special  emergency,  and  a  class  of 
deacons  or  servants  existed  from  the  first  in  imitation  of  the  con. 
stitution  of  the  synago^e  with  its  ministers  (Luke  iv,  20),  or 
even  as  a  necessity;  which  seems  to  be  indicated  by  the  'young 
men'  of  Acts  v.  But  the  qualities  of  the  D.,  almost  equal  to  those 
required  fora  bishop  described  in  1  Tim.  iii,,  indicate  that  he  was 
more  than  a  merelay  attendant     In  the  Post-Apostollc  Church, 


y  Google 


DBA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Bt  any  rate,  deacons  were  regarded  Bs  ministers  of  the  same  kind 
as  the  presbyters  and  bishops,  though  of  an  inferior  kind ; 
they  were  not  called  priests,  but  ministers  or  Levites,  Before 
the  institution  of  the  inferior  orders — readers,  exorcists,  &c.^the 
D.  performed  all  the  duties  afterwards  distributed  to  these.  His 
duties  were— (I)  To  fake  care  of  the  sacred  utensils ;  (?)  to  receive 
the  offerings  of  the  peojile  ;  (3}  to  distribute  to  the  people  tlie 
elements  at  the  Eucharist,  after  these  had  been  consecrated ; 
(4)  to  direct  the  people  in  their  devotions;  (5)  sometimes  to 
raud  the  Gospel,  and  baptize  ;  (6)  to  preach  when  licensed  by 
the  bishop ;  (7)  to  be  the  bishop's  aimoner,  secretary,  and 
sometimes  his  representative,  and  generally  to  he  his  eyes,  ears, 
and  right  hand.  His  dress  was  the  alb  and  stole,  then  the  colo- 
bium,  and  finally  the  dalmatic.  In  modem  Episcopal  churches 
the  D.  ranks  as  the  lowest  of  the  three ,  sacred  orders,  and  acts 
as  the  priest's  assistant  in  divine  service,  but  hfis  no  independent 
cure  of  sotils. 

Z'ftn:i'««j.— Whether  or  not  the  institution  was  as  old  as  that 
of  the  deacons,  there  existed  very  soon  in  th  p  imti  CI  ch 
a  class  of  female  servants  who  performed    U  th  ffi       to- 

wards the  females  of  the  congregation  wh  h  th  d^i  ns  did 
for  the  men.  According  to  the  primitive  egul  t  th  y  had 
to  be  widows  who  had  borne  children,  be  mar     d  and 

sixty  years  of  age ;  later  they  were  allow  d  t  be  vi  g  nd 
only  forty  years  old.  Tlie  order  grad  lly  d  d  t  the 
Western  Church  from  the  sth  c,  but  was  reta  d  th  G  ek 
till  the  rath.     See  Bingham's  Ecclidastkal  A   I  pat 

Beacon  of  a  Trade.  The  president  for  the  time  of  certain 
corporations  in  Scotland  is  so  called.  Before  the  passing  of  the 
Burgh  Reform  Act,  the  deacons  of  the  crafts  were  ex  officio 
members  of  the  town  council  in  royal  burghs,  and  represented  the 
trades.  But  by  the  Act  above  mentioned  it  is  provided  that  the 
D.  shall  no  longer  l;e  a  member  of  the  town  council  in  virtue  of 
his  office.  The  D.-Convener  of  the  Trades  in  Edinburgh  and 
Gla^ow  continues  to  be  a  constituent  member  of  the  town 
council.  The  D,  is  preses  of  the  incorporation,  and  signs  the 
record  of  its  acts. 

Dead,  a  word  used  in  nautical  phrases  or  names,  and  in  general 
indicating  fixedness  or  passivity ;  as  D.  -^es — immovable  blocks 
used  for  tightening  rigging  ;  D.  -lights — wooden  shutters  used  tc 
replace  glass  windows  in  stormy  weather,  iic. 

Dead,  Judgment  of  tlie.  In  ancient  Egypt  the  bel 
seems  to  have  been  that  immediately  after  death  Ihe  spirit  of  th 
departed  was  led  by  the  goddess  of  truth.  Ma,  before  Osiris,  th 
judge  of  the  dead.  The  form  of  trial  is  symbolised  in  th 
papyrus  rolls  found  among  the  mummies.  An  ostrich  feathe 
as  a  symbol  of  truth,  is  seen  in  one  scale  of  a  balance,  anc 
a  vessel  in  form  of  a  human  heart  in  the  other.  Forty-tw 
gods,  each  presiding  over  a  special  sin,  appear  as  judges,  while 
a  female  hippopotamus  appears  as  prosecutor.  The  scales  are 
watched  by  the  gods  Horus  and  Anubis,  the  result  in  each  case 
being  noted  by  Thoth- Hermes,  the  justifier.  According  to  Dio. 
dorus  there  was  a  form  of  human  tnaL  If  the  result  ofthls  was 
unfavourable,  funeral  rites  were  withheld. 

Dead  Freight.  A  merchant  who  freights  a  whole  ship 
must  pay  the  shipmaster  for  unoccupied  space.  This  due  '" 
called  the  D.  F,  It  is,  strictly  speaking,  a  sum  owing  as  dama 
for  loss  of  freight ;  therefore,  the  shipmaster  has  no  lien  over  t 
goods  on  board  in  security  of  his  claim,  which  can  only  be  made 
effectual  by  a  personal  action  against  the  freighter.  But  lien  may 
be  constituted  by  stipulation  in  the  charter-party. 
Deadly  Night'sliade.  See  Belladonna. 
Dead  Nettle  {LamtunC),  a  genus  of  Labiate  plants.  The 
white  D.  N,  (Z.  album),  the  purple  D.  N.  (Z.  purpureum),  and 
L,  incisuTo,  are  all  common  British  wayside  and  nedge  weeds. 
The  two  first  are  sometimes  used  as  potherbs  in  Sweden.  The 
name  is  also  applied  to  the  allied  genera  Galeopsis  and  Goleab- 
doloTi,  some  species  of  which  ( G.  telrahii  and  G.  versicolor,  or 
hemp-nettle)  snare  with  the  D,  N.  proper  the  reputation  of  hav- 
ing stinging  hairs,  capable  of  causing  great  irritation,  especially 
when  the  plant  is  drying,  though  they  are  as  yet  unknown  to 
the  botanist. 


Dead  Sea,  the  Locus  Asphaltites  of  the  Greeks,  the  Salt 
Sea,  the  Sea  of  the  Plain,  and  the  Eos!  Sea  of  Scripture,  and  the 
Sti^rZ*('Seaof  Lot')  of  the  Arabs,  is  situated  in  the  S.W.  o( 
what  was  anciently  Palestine,  now  comprised  in  the  vilayet  of 
Syria,  The  name  D.  S.  fiiat  occurs  in  Justin  {Mare  mortuum) 
and  Pausanius  {Thalassa  tieira).  The  greatest  length  of  the 
lake  is  46  miles,  its  greatest  breadth  10,  and  its  area  290  sq. 
miles.  Soundings  of  about  S50  fathoms  have  been  taken  in  its 
northern  part ;  but  the  southern  half  is  shallow,  one-fourtli  of  its 
length  not  exceeding  3  fathoms.  At  its  northern  end  it  receives 
the  Jordan,  and  small  variable  streams  enter  it  on  each  of  the 
other  sides;  but  as  it  has  no  outlet,  its  siu-face  being  131a  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean  (and  therefore  '  the  most 
depressed  sheet  of  water  in  the  world' — Stanley),  its  suijerfluous 
waters  are  carried  off  by  evaporation,  which  accounts  in  some 
measure  for  their  e:(cessive  saltness.  The  average  of  niue  expe- 
riments, made  at  different  times  by  eminent  chemists,  shows  a 
specific  gravity  of  I'ISSB,  that  of  pure  water  being  I  ■000.  Tlie 
water  is  so  saturated  with  salt  that  it  can  take  up  only  one- 
eleventh  of  its  own  weight,  while  that  of  the  Atlantic  can  take 
up  one-sixth.  The  depression  occupied  by  the  D.  S.  is  now 
proved  to  be  a  volcanic  crevice,  and  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
region  volcanic  formations  are  found  in  considerable  number. 
It  is  believed  to  be  the  seat  of  those  'Cities  of  the  Plain'  that 
were  consumed  by  fire ;  and  in  the  middle  ages  credulous  pQ- 
grims  beheved  that  they  could  catch  a  glimpse  of  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah  through  the  depths  of  the  penal  waters.  But  the 
Scriptural  narrative  forbids  us  to  believe  that  the  catastrophe 
was  caused  by  submersion.  The  geolc^  of  the  district,  no  less 
than  the  names  Sodom  and  Bela  (Zoar),  su^ests  an  earthquake 
or  a  volcanic  eruption.  The  limestone  cliffs  forming  the  sides  of 
the  depression  exhibit  a  remarkable  regularity  of  height  through- 
out their  course,  the  western  side  having  an  elevation  of  1000  feet, 
and  the  eastern  of  2000.  Both  are  nearly  destitute  of  vegetation, 
except  where  a  spring  bursts  from  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  or 
where  a  perennid  stream  fills  the  rift  in  the  precipice  with  aca- 

'  i.    The  epithet  Z^i^was  applied  to  this  sea  from  the  belief 


that 


_  _    .tmosphere  was  inimiod  to  life;  but  there  is  nothing 
h  althy    thinthlk  th        bydwht      turally 

heat   fth     1ml  d  th   p   turesq 

t  d     m     g  CI      t         b  di 


S     tland    th  t  p    t    f 


dp         f  by  will      If 
■half 


h  d  by       th 

estate  is  D.  P.  If  he  leave  a  widow  and  no  children, 
goes  to  the  widow  as  jfiis  Relicta  (q.  v. ) ;  if  he  leave  a  child 
children,  but  no  widow,  one-half  goes  to  the  children  as  Ligiiim 
(q.  V,);  and  in  either  event  the  other  half  is  D.  P.  If  he  leaves 
a  widow  and  a  child  or  children,  the  movable  estate  is  equally 
divided  into/aj  relicts,  legiUtn,  and  D.  P.  These  le^l  divisions 
may  be  altered  by  marriage-contract,  or  by  renunciations  or  dis- 
charges by  the  wife  or  children. 

Deaf  and  Dumb,  The,  or,  more  correctly,  Deaf-Mutea 
(Fr.  Seurds-muets,  Ger.  Taubstummen),  are  those  who  suffer 
simultaneously  from  the  want  of  the  powers  of  speech  and  of 
hearing.  A  popular  &llacy  regarding  this  aiffiction  is  that  it 
twofold  In  its  nature,  implying  malformation  or  incapacity  in  I 
speaking  as  well  as  in  the  hearing  oigans,  whereas  the  power  of 
articulation  is  undeveloped  in  the  deaf-raute,  or,  in  other  words, 
he  is  dumb  merely  in  consequence  of  his  deafness.  It  will  be 
observed  that  a  perfect  ear  is  necessary  in  acquiring  the  power  of 
expression,  since  the  primary  means  of  so  douig  is  by  imitating 
the  sounds  we  hear  uttered  by  others.  If  a  person,  therefore, 
be  unable  to  hear  from  Infency,  it  is  impossible  for  him  to  leam 
the  constituent  elements  of  oral  language  ;  and  ifunaided,  hemust 
remain  dumb  even  though  possessed  of  the  perfect  organs  of 
speech.  "Thus  dumbness  is  the  inseparable  accompaniment  of  a 
congenital  deafness.  Also  if  a  child  lose  the  power  of  hearing 
before  acquiring  the  faculty  of  speech,  it  inevitably  i 
dumbness.  But  when  the  deafness  is  acddental,  and  occi 
an  adult,  itis  not  necessarily  followed  by  a  loss  of  utterance.  The 
deaf  man  continues  to  Speak  as  before ;  but  even  in 


vLaOogle 


DEA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA, 


DBA 


when  the  ear  no  longer  performs  its  controlling  function,  if  great 
attention  be  not  paid  by  others  to  the  regulating  of  his  voice,  it 
rapidly  changes  cliaracter ;  he  speaks  in  a  lower  tone,  accentuates 
his  words  badly,  and  eyenCually  becomes  all  but  unintelligible. 
Congenital  deafness  most  often,  perhaps,  results  directly  from 
defiaent  action  of  the  auditory  nerve,  and  is  generally  incurable. 
That  accruing  from  accident  may  be  due  to  various  causes  ;  its 
curability  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  cause,  and  the  particular 
chaiBcter  and  extent  of  the  injury.     See  Deafbess. 

The  statistics  bearing  on  the  snbject  of  deafTdumbness,  now 
comparatively  full  and  authentic,  do  not  reach  further  back  than 
[he  year  1850.  Since  that  year  various  commissions  have  in- 
quired into  the  causes  of  deainess,  the  locaUsation  of  deaf-mutes, 
their  social  condition,  education,  &o.  (See  Seports  on  the  Status 
of  Disease^  Social  science  also  has  been  directing  attention  to 
the  possibility  of  reducing  the  extent  of  the  evil  by  stricter  con- 
fonnitv  to  hygienic  discipline.  It  is  impossible  indeed  to  say 
what  diare  the  good  done  in  this  way  may  have  had  already  in 
bringing  about  the  favourable  state  of  aifairs  to  be  noted  in  a 
comparison  of  the  returns  for  iSjI  with  those  for  1871.  The 
total  number  of  the  deaf-dumb  in  Britain,  according  to  the  census 
of  185 1,  amounted  to  17,300,  or  I  in  every  1590  of  a  population 
of  27,511,801.  The  following  are  the  numbers  as  given  in  the 
census  of  April  3,  1871  :— 


England, 
Scotland, 
Ireland, 


M33 
3.461 


5.^56 


S.554 

In  this  year  the  population  had  increased  to  31,845,379,  while 
the  actual  number  of  deaf-mutes  had  declined,  and  the  propor- 
tion had  fallen  to  I  \a  1644.  The  total  nurnber  of  deaf-mutes 
in  Europe  is  eslunated  (1875)  at  200,000,  of  which  Germany  has 
35,000,  or  I  in  every  1200  inhabilants ;  France  22,000,  or  i  in 
1640.  Taking  as  an  average  r  in  every  1400  men,  or  700  in 
every  million,  there  js  a  grand  total  of  700,000  deaf-mutes  in 
the  world.  Of  these,  the  proportipn  of  males  to  females  is  as  4  to 
3,  while  only  3  out  of  every  10  have  received  instruction. 

The  distribution  of  deaf-mutes  in  England,  as  clearly  shown 
by  the  returns,  is  not  only  disproportionate  in  the  various  dis- 
tricts, but  is  fixedly  so,  in  a  planner  mdicating  a  connection  be- 
tween the  prevalence  of  deafness  and  the  physics!  character  of  a 
country.  And  on  a  closer  examination  of  the  statistical  evidence, 
it  is  at  once  seen  that  deafness  is  decidedly  more  common  in 
mountain  regions  than  in  level  districts,  in  rural  parts  than  in 
cities  and  industrial  centres.  It  would  also  appear  that  one  of 
the  commoner  catises  of  its  prevalence  is  the  malaria  arising  from 
swamps  or  stagnant  waters,  or,  indeed,  any  general  impurity  of 
the  atmosphere.  The  elucidation  of  such  facts  as  these  is  all- 
important,  as  showing  that  the  evil  is  not  altt^ether  inevitable, 
and  as  pointing  out  a  path  for  modem  science  and  philanthropy. 
The  various  mstitutions  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  for  the 
education  of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  with  the  dates  of  their  fotmda- 


IS  follows  in  1871  ; — 


tion  and  the  number  of  their  ir 
Emgi-and  I 

Mir^U  Branch, 


Bath,  1S41,      .        .        .        .        ™    BelfMi,  JS31,    . 

Including  the  above,  there 
throughout  Europe.    There  an 

30  in  Italy,  ao  in  Austria,  12  in  Switzerland, ^ .,  j  .„ 

the  Netherlands,  4  in  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway,  2  in 
Russia,  IS  in  the  United  States,  and  i  in  the  Dominion  of 
Canada, 

The  education  of  deaf-mutes  is  encompassed  by  inconceiv- 
able difficulties.  Not  only  is  the  deaf-mute  destitute  of  all  ideas 
derived  from  or  connected  with  sound,  but  he  is  deprived 
of  the  veiy  means  by  which  instrnctioii  is  usually  conveyed, 
and  is  entirely  ignorant  of  the  power  of  words.  To  him  the 
speakmg  voice  is  a  nonentity.  He  can  only  hold  converse  by 
344- 


I  in  Germany,  48  in  France, 


means  of  a  few  imperfect  natural  signs.  His  knowledge  is  con- 
fined to  what  he  may  have  seen  j  the  conception  of  past  ages, 
distant  countries,  of  a  fiiture  world,  or  of  a  Deity,  are  all  beyond 
his  grasp.  In  the  education  of  such  a  one  the  teaclier  has  to 
commmiicate  the  medium  of  a  complete  language,  as  well  as  the 
entire  mass  of  ideas,  to  a  mind  in  a  state  of  utter  infancy. 

The  methods  employed  in  the  education  of  deaf-mutes  are 
principally  three  in  number^as  named  by  the  French,  piimiqus, 
phanohgiqut,  graphique.  Of  these,  the  first  deals  in  signs,  and 
consists  of  (l)  dactylology,  or  the  art  of  spelling  with  the  fingers; 
and  (2)  mimology,  or  the  language  of  gestures.  The  second 
method  is  distinguished  by  the  employment  of  oral  ifleans  of 
instruction;  it  is  divided  into  (i)  phonology,  or  'artificial 
speech;'  and  {2)  labiology,  or  'reading  On  the  lips.'  '~ 
graphic  method,  which  is  not  less  important  as  an  end  than 
as  a  means,  comprehends  alphabetic  writing  and  the  notation 
of  gestures.  The  advocates  of  the  sign-system  can  point  t 
its  great  practical  success,  and  are  supported  by  the  fai 
that  instructed  deaf-mutes  generally  employ  it  when  conversin 
among  themselves.  The  oi-al  system  is  viewed  by  many  as 
higher  form  of  tuition,  inasmuch  as  it  enables  the  deaf-mute  t 
hiMd  intercoui'se  with  society  at  large.  Germany,  the  home  t 
the  latter  system,  is,  however,  almost  the  only  country  in  which 
it  extensively  prevails,  although  it  is  also  taught  in  a  modified 
manner  in  a  few  of  the  schools  of  England  and  France. 

The  language  of  natural  signs  or  gestures,  the  'mother- tongue' 
of  the  uneducated  deaf-mute,  is  an  important  auxiliary  of  the 
teacher.  The  deaf  and  dumb  take  evident  delight  in  its  use, 
and  by  its  means  they  can  give  life  and  force  to  their  ideas. 
Their  only  resource  when  unprovided  with  instruction,  it  is  1 
ried  to  a  wonderful  degree  of  expressiveness,  capable  of  rapidly 
conveying  question  and  answer,  or  even  the  sustained  flow  of 
ideas  m  a  lengthy  narrative.  '  To  this  rude  though  powerful  mode 
of  intercourse,  which  all  the  deaf  possess  in  a  higher  or  lower 
degree,  those  who  are  intelligent  add  signs  of  description  t^ 
which  they  are  able  to  explain  facts  and  circumstances  that  have 
been  brought  under  their  observation.  The  teacher  takes  advan- 
tage of  this  method  of  communication  to  add  to  ■  their  stores  of 
knowledge,  to  enrich  and  extend  the  sphere  of  their  thoughts. 
.  .  .  Thus  a  conventional  language  is  formed  which  assists  in 
their  intellectual  culture.'  But  such  intercourse  leaves  the  pupil 
entirely  ignorant  of  the  structure  of  sentences,  and  therefore  it 
must  be  made  subsidiary  where  the  object  is  to  teach  a  syntac- 
tical language. 

Dactylology,  or  the  finger-language,  is  based  on  the  'manual 
alphabet,'  and,  in  the  words  of  Degerando,  gives  to  material 
writing  the  movableness  of  speech.  'There  is  a  one-handed  and  a 
two-handed  alphabet ;  the  latter  is  that  In  common  use  in  England, 
the  former  on  the  Continent  of  Europe  and  in  America.  Geoi^e 
Dalgamo  (q.  v.),  a  Scotchman,  issued  the  first  English  alphabet  in 
his  Didascolocophus  (16S0).  Either  of  those  now  employ&i  may  be 
learned  by  an  hour's  practice  ;  they  are  often  taught  to  the  deaf 
and  dumb,  leather  with  the  written  alphabet,  in  a  few  days. 

The  office  of  phonology  is  to  give  to  the  deaf-mute  the  power 
■  articulating  the  language  that  he  cannot  hear.    To  impart  th 
power  is  a  task  requiring  the  gieatest  patience,  and  a  k     wl  dg 
of  the  vocal  oi^ans.    Only  one  pupil  can  be  taught    t     t  m 
The  teacher  proceeds  by  slowly  uttering  the  vowel  and  t 

sounds,  carefiilly  showing  how  the  mouth  and  tongii  dis 

losed,  and,  as  prepress  is  made,  gradually  rising  to  syll  bles 
irords,  and  sliort  sentences.     At  first  the  pitch  and       t       ti 
V-e  faulty,  the  high  sounds  amounting  to  a  scream,  the  ) 
title  better  than  a  growl,  while  others  are  nasal  or  drawl   g     I 
..  report  on  the  subject,  the  Rev.  Geoije  E.  Day,  of  Am     ca 
says,  'This  process  is  correctly  called  by  German  writers       / 
CM  spmiiitg ;  much  time  must  necessarily  be  devoted  t     t  and 
with  the  greatest  efibrts  only  a  defective  nfterance  can  b 
ably  expected.'    It  is  certainly  true  that  those  who  are  bom  deaf 
rarely  if  ever  acquire  coiTectness  or  fluency. 

Reading  on  the  lips  is  the  counterpart  of  phonology,  as  it 
enables  the  deaf-mutes  to  ascertain  what  is  said  by  others.  It  is 
performed  solely  by  the  assistance  of  the  eye,  and  is  liable  to 
certain  restrictions,  e.g.,  that  the  deaf-mute  be  near  the  speaker, 
that  there  beplenty  oflight,  &c.  Dr  Johnson,  at  the  close  of  the 
ysumey  to  the  Western  Islands,  speaking  of  Braidwood's  pupils, 
remarks  that  '  it  is  an  expression  scarcdy  figurative  to  say  that 
they   hear   with  the    eye. '       The   manner  of  teaching   to  read 

■■  e  lips  is  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  training  the  deaf  to 


yLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DEA 


spealt,  and  it  may  be  said  that  the  process  is  more  successfu 
a  rule.     But  the  aptest  pupil  is  unable  to  take  part  in  a  general 
conversation,  or  to  follow  a  public  speaker. 

Afterall,  itisof  fargreater  importsjice  thatthedeaf  and  dumb 
can  be  taught  to  read  and  write  than  that  they  should  be  able  to 
speak  or  follow  the  conTersation  of  others  imperfectly,  Reading 
done  will  bring  within  their  reach  the  bidden  treasures  of  know- 
ledge, while  writing  affords  an  accurate  means  of  comjaunication 
where  finger-langus^  fails. 

The  history  of  the  educational  treatment  of  the  deaf  and  dumb 
is  little  else  than  a  page  from  the  record  of  modern  philanthropy. 
Various  nations  of  early  times  regarded  the  deaf  as  laboutrnf 
under  the  curse  of  heaven.  Aristotle  declared  that  tliey  coult 
not  participate  in  knowledge.  The  Roman  code  incapacitated 
those  bom  deal  of  making  a  will,  and  placed  them  under 
various  other  civil  disabilities.  St  Augustine  in  the  4th  c 
excluded  this  class  from  the  Church,  interpreting  in.  too  literal 
a  sense  St  Paul's  fides  ex  audUtt.  We  are  told  by  Bede  that 
a  deaf  man  was  taurfit  to  repeat  words  and  sentences  by  St 
John  of  Beverley  in  6S5.  Eight  centuries  elapse  before  we  read 
in  the  works  of  Rodolpbus  Agricola  of  Groningen  of  another 
deaf-mute  who  was  taught  to  read  and  write.  Fifty  years  later 
the  versatile  Professor  of  Pavia,  Jerome  Cardan  (1501-76), 
founded  the  theory  on  which  the  education  of  the  deaf  and  dumb 
rests,  announcing  that,  as  written  characters  and  ideas  may  be 
connected  together  without  the  intervention  of  sounds,  as  in 
hieroglyphics,  the  instruction  of  the  deaf  is  not  impossible.  Soon 
afterwards,  Pedro  de  Ponce,  a  Benedictine  at  Ona  (1520-S4), 
gained  a  wide  reputation  for  teaching  deaf-mutes  to  speak  and 
write.  In  1620,  Juan  Paulo  Bonet,  a  Spaniard  like  Ponce,  and  a 
monk  of  the  same  order,  invented  a  one-handed  alphabet.  Hence- 
forth the  subject  b^an  gradually  to  receive  more  attention  ;  vari- 
ous systems  were  tried  and  discarded,  and  fresh  boolM  continued 
to  announce  new  theories.  Among  the  more  distinguished  writers 
and  workers  in  connection  with  the  subject  were  Drjohn  Bulwer 
(1648),  Dr  William  Holder  (1669),  Drjohn  Wallis  (1670),  and 
George  Dalgamo  {16S0),  in  England  ;  Van  Helmont  ( 1667),  and 
Tohann  Konrad  Amman,  a  Swiss  physician  (1690),  In  Holland; 
Kaiser  (1710),  Georg  Raphel  (1718),  Arnold!  (i778-i84r),  and 
Samuel  Heinicke  (1729-90),  in  Germany;  Rodrigue  Pereire, 
a  Portuguese  (1715-80),  the  Abbi  Deschamps  (1779),  the 
Abb^  de  I'Epee  (1784),  and  the  Abbi  Sicard  (1742-1822),  in 
France.  The  earliest  schools  established  were  those  of  L'Ep^ 
at  Paris  (1760),  and  of  Thomas  Braidwood  at  Edinbui^h  (1760). 
These  were  followed  by  the  foundation  of  similar  institutions  at 
Vienna,  Berlin,  Prague,  Sc  Heinicke,  like  Braidwood,  was  an 
able  teacher  of  the  articulation  school  The  management  of  the 
schools  of  Paris  and  Bordeaux  was  transferred  to  the  state  in  1791- 
See  Dr  Joseph  Watson,  Insti-uclian  of  the  Deaf  and  Ihaab 
(Loud.  1820) ;  Rev.  Geoi^e  E.  Day,  Report  on  the  Various  Sys- 
tems in  Europe,  &c  (1846) ;  Picard,  Thhrie  des  Signes  pour 
V Instruction  des  Sma-ds-maets  (Par.  i8o8,  new  ed.  1828) ;  Bibian, 
Marmd  d' Enseignemait  Pratique  des  Saurd-muets  (Par.  1827) ; 
Dr  Blanchet,  La  Sia^miaiti  (1850) ;  Reish,  Der  ersle  Unter- 
richt  des  Tauistuinmen  (Leips.  1834)  ;  and  Heil,  Der  Taui- 
stumme  mid  seine  Bildung  (Hildbuigh,  1865).  The  Organ  der 
Tau&slammen  undBlindin  Anstalten  has  been  issued  by  Mathies 
since  1855. 

Deaf  and  Siunb,  Iiaw  Kegardlng'.  By  the  Roman 
law,  those  born  deaf  were  held  incapable  of  entering  into  a 
contract.  In  England  and  in  Scotland  their  legal  capacity 
(see  Capacity,  Legal)  is  a  question  of  fact  which  will  be  de- 
termined, if  necessary,  by  a  jury.  By  the  law  of  England,  a 
child  bom  deaf  and  blind  is  regarded  as  an  idiot.  But  it  is 
to  be  supposed  that  the  law  would  continue  to  hold  this 

IV  if  the  child  was  capable  of  education  and  received  it.     For 

omplete  account  of  the  le^lation  relative  to  the  deaf  and 
dumb  from  the  earliest  times  down  to  1B24,  with  a  list  of 
authors,  see  the  work,  in  Latin,  of  C.  Guyot  of  Gronlgen, 

Deafness  can  only  be  understood  by  careful  study  of  the 
anatomy  of  tlie  ear  and  of  the  complicated  organs  of  hearing. 
It  is  very  common,  and  may  exist  at  any  age.  It  is  sometimes 
congenital— often  results  from  fevers,  especially  measles,  scarlet 
Tever,  &c.,  and  is  generally  present  to  a  greater  or  less  degree 
111  the  aged.  All  degrees  of  D.  occur,  from  the  slightest 
impairment  of  the  sense  of  hearing  to  complete  iivsensibility  to 
the  vibrations  of  sound.  Speaking  generally,  it  may  be  caused 
119 


by  anything  which  inteiferes  with  the  consciousness  of  the  im- 
pression of  sounds,  by  some  obstruction  in  the  auditory  pas- 
sages, by  disease  of  the  organs  of  hearing,  or  of  the  brain, 
rendering  the  person  unconscious  to  the  impression  produced  on 
the  Auditory  Nerve  (q,  v.).  A  common  cause  is  some  obstruc- 
tion in  the  external  ear,  as  any  foreign  body,  introduced  by  acci- 
dent or  othei-wise.  Interfering  with  the  passage  of  the  air  to  the 
meinbrana  lympani.  A  still  more  frequent  cause  is  a  Polypus 
(q.  V.)  erowii%  in  the  exlernal  ear.  But  the  most  frequent 
cause  of  ail  is  accumulation  of  wax  {cerumen).  This  is  fortu- 
nately one  which  is  easily  removed,  by  syringing  the  ear  with 
tepid  water.  In  some  cases,  it  is  desirable  to  previously  soften 
the  wax  with  almond  oil  or  an  alkaline  lotion.  Inflammation  of 
the  membrane  of  the  ear,  or  drum  as  it  is  popularly  called,  is 
another  cause  of  D.,  especially  when  the  inflammation  ends  in 
ulceration  and  perforation  of  the  membi-ane.  Such  mflamma- 
tion  is  to  be  treated  by  appropriate  remedies  ;  and  when  there  is 
rupture  of  the  membrane  from  this  or  any  other  cause,  a  simple 
but  very  effective  remedy  is  to  introduce  daily  a  small  piece  of 
cotlon  wadding,  or  to  use  an  artificial  membrana  tympani.  Tli' 
arliiicial  membrane  consists  of  a  thin  piece  of  caoutdiouc,  roui 
which  is  attached  a  small  silver  wire.  In  either  case  the  e 
requires  to  be  washed  out  daily  and  the  substance  reintroduced. 
Not  unfcequently  the  cause  of  D.  is  some  defect  in  the  tyn 
panum  or  middle  ear.  This  cavity  is  normally  fjlled  with  a 
through  the  Eustachian  Tube  (q.  v.),  and  dnri^ig  each  act  1 
swaUowing  air  enters  into  the  middle  ear,  so  that  when  this  tube 
is  obstructed  by  inflammation,  the  sense  of  hearing  is  greatly 
destroyed.  Disease  of  the  bones  of  the  middle  ear,  or  impair- 
ment of  their  mobility,  due  to  rheumatism  or  gout,'  sometimes 
causes  D,  The  obstruction  in  the  Eustachian  tube  may  be 
removed  by  passing  the  Eustachian  catheter,  or  by  other  appro- 
priate means.  Again,  D.  may  result  from  disease  of  'i}axi»tenial 
ear,  inflammation  spreading  to  it  from  the  middle  ear.  The 
term  nervous  D.  is  applied  to  all  obscare  forms  of  D.  It  ought  to 
be  limited  to  that  kind  of  D.  due  to  an  affection  of  the  auditory 
nerve  or  disease  of  the  brain.  Probably  in  old  age  the  1 
hearing  becomes  incapable  of  transmitting  to  the  brain 
sions  produced  by  sound — a  paralysis  of  the  nerve  not  unlike 
that  condition  of  the  optic  nerve  causing  that  kind  of  blindness 
called  amaurosis.  This  kind  of  D.  is  incurable.  More  fre- 
quently, however,  it  is  due  to  functional  disorder  of  the  nerve 
caused  by  a  blow,  a  fall,  by  a  loud  noise,  by  a  medicine,  or  by 


n  of  the  brain. 


D^'alc,  Frftncis,  the  constitutional  liberator  of  tlungary,  was 
bom  of  a  noble  Magyar  family,  at  Kehida,  in  Szalad,  October  1 7, 
1S03.    He  studied  at  Komom  and  Raab,  and  after  gaining  some 
reputation  as  a  barrister,  became  a  member  of  the  National  Diet 
in  1S32.     In  breaking  down  the  exclusive  privileges  of  the  Mag- 
yar aristocracy,  and  in  opposing  the  extension  of  imperial  abso- 
lutism to  Hungary,  he  mst  attained  distinction  as  ^  sagacious 
and  patriotic  statesman.     As  Mjuister  (if  justice  in  the  liberal 
Batthyanyt  mitiistry,  he  strove  vainly  19  avert  the  revolutioriaiy 
war  of  1&1.8.     While  tlie  conflict  raged,  and  the  Empire  seemed 
crumbling  to  pieces,  he  held  aloof,  siding  as  little  with  Kossuth's 
republican  violence  as  with  the  Austrian  (jovernment  and  its 
Slavic  malcontents.     On  the  suppression  of  the  Hungarian  insur- 
rection D.  withdrew  into  private  life,  and  did  not  return  till 
the  Franco-Italian  war  extorted  concessions  from  the  fears  of 
Austria.      Solferino  and  the  loss  of  Lombardy  are  traceable  to 
the  just  disaffection  of  Hungary.     Following  on  the  peace  came 
(i85o)  the  offer,  through  the  Schmerling  lilinistry,  of  a  constitu- 
tion common  to  the  whole  monarchy.     But  for  five  years  this 
was  unHinchingly  resisted  by  D.,  now  representative  of  Pesth, 
and  leader  of  the  Moderate  party.    His  chums  were  the  constitu- 
tion of  1848,  a  Hungarian  ministry  responsible  to  the  National 
Diet  alone,  the  release  of  the  ^evolutionary  ?xiles,  ai}d  the  resti- 
tution of  their  property.     After  the  furth^  lesson  of  Sadowa 
(1866),    and  acting  on  the  advice  of  Baron  von  Bewst,  Franz 
Joseph  at  last  granted  the  whole  of  these  demands.     The  ancient 
independence  of  his  country  was  recognised,  and  D.  asked  no 
are.    The  last  ten  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  loyal  service 
that  Austro- Hungarian  monarchy  which  in  no  smEul  measure 
^es  to  him  its  harmonious  prosperity  and  strength.     D.  died 
nuaiy  28,  1S76.     His  obsequies  were  attended  by  the  legisla- 
te, by  representatives  of  the  Emperor,  and  by  all  ranks  and 
;tions    of   his  countrymen.       His   chief   chaiacteristics   were 
345 


vGooqIc 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


compre' 
kmSin 


lioiiesty  of  purpose,  sagacity,  and  strength  of  will,  rather  than 
the  more  brilliant  qualities  of  the  diplomatist  and  orator.      But 
above  all,  he  was  inspired  by  a,  love  of  justice  and  of  iiis  country, 
il  (the  '  valley,'  a  form  oiDale),  a  municipal  borough   sea 
port,  and  watering-place  in  Kent,  8  miles  N.N.E     f  D 
the  coast  between  the  N.  and  S.  Forelands,  and      lu.  t   g    f 
Upper  and  Lower  D,     The  inhabitants  are  mainly  occup   5 
boatbuildii^  foi:  which  D.  is  famous,  sailmaking  p  I  ting       d 
victualling.    D.   is  one  of  the  Cinque  Ports,      d  th      fB     1 
residence  of  the  Warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports  B  W  1        C    tl 
a  mile  to  the  S„  which,  with  D.  Castle,  built  by  H      y  VIII 
in  IS39.  and  Sandgwn  Castle,  at  the  N.  end  of  th    t      i,  d 
fends  the  neighbouring  coast.     D.  vmites  with  Sandw   1       d 
Walmer  in  returning  two  menibers  to  Parliament      P  p  (  8;  ) 
8009, 

Beal'fish  {Trachypttrus),  the  name  of  a  genu  f  T  1  t& 
fishes  included  in  the  family  Trachyplsridie,  and  distinguished 
by  an  elongated  body  destitute  of  scales  and  of  compressed 
form,  by  a  single  long  dorsal  fin,  by  the  absence  of  an  anal  fin, 
and  by  the  taif-iin  not  being  iu  a  line  with  the  axis  of  the  body, 
but  rising  vertically.  Large  ventral  fins  exist.  The  body  is  so 
imressetl  that  a.  specimen  three  feet  long  maj-  not  exceed  a  paper 
'■■  •ti  thickness.  The  colour  is  silveiy-white.  Six  feet  is  not 
an  uncommon  length  of  these  fishes.  The  best-known  spedea 
is  the  Vaagmar  {Iraikypierus  arctkus)  of  the  Northern  Seas. 

Deals  (Old  Eng;  d<^las,  'parts,'  from  dielan,  to  'deal'  or 
'  divide '),  a  term  properly  applied  to  the  thicknesses  to  which  any 
piece  of  timber  is  cut  up,  but  now  generally  restricted  to  pine 
wood,  and  to  the  particular  sizes  in  which  it  is  imported  from  Baltic 
ports.  The  size  of  sjich  D,  js  3  inches  thick  and  9  inches 
wide.  They  are  sold  by  the  '  hundred, '  in  which  there  are  120 
pieces. 

Deau  ancl  Otoptei!'  are,  in  England,  the  council  of  the 
bishop  to  advise  him  in  religious  matters.  The  chapters,  con- 
sisting of  canons  or  prebendaries,  are  sometimes  appointed  by 
the  sovereign,  sometimes  by  the  bishop,  and  sometimes  elected 
by  each  other.  Deaneries  and  prebends  may  become  void,  like 
a  bishopric,  by  death,  deprivation,  or  resignation, 

Deam.  Forest  comprises  az,OQo  acres,  between  the  Severn  and 
the  Wye,  Gloucestershire.  It  belongs  to  the  crown,  and  about 
the  half  of  it  is  enclosed  for  the  growth  of  navy  timber.  It 
is  divided  into  six  walks.  The  inhabitants,  who  had  formerly 
many  privileges,  and  have  still  the  liberty  of  pasturage  and  fuel, 
and  the  right  of  minine — a  sixth  of  the  pi-oduce  bemg  reserved 
for  the  crown — are  chiefly  miners.  D.  F.  is  governed  by  a  lord- 
warden,  six  deputies,  four  verdurers,  a  conservator,  and  cliief 
forester,  offices  vested  by  inheritance  in  the  Wyndham  family. 

Dean  of  Paciilty.  The  corporation  of  advocates  or  bar- 
risters in  Edinburgh  is  called  the  Facal/y  of  Advocates,  and  the 
D.  of  F.  is  elected  annualiy  to  preside  at  their  meetings  and  to 
sign  their  acts.  Usually  the  dean  is  re-elected  till  he  is  pro- 
moted to  the  bench.     See  Advocate, 

BeV)-  Pf  Chiild,  in  Scotch  bnrghs,  was  originally  the  head 
of  the  guild  brethren  or  merchant  Company.  He  w^  also  a  judge 
in  mercantile  and  marine  causes  within  the  burgh.  His  duty  is 
now  limited  to  the  care  of  buildings.  He  must  see  that  fhey 
are  sufficient,  and  that  they  are  erected  according  to  law.  His 
judgments  are  liablp  to  review  bj  the  Court  of  Session.  In 
Edinburgh  the  D.  of  G.  court  consists  of  the  dean  and  the 
former  dean,  ftnd  3  council  of  merchants  and  tradesmen  annualiy 
chosen.  No  building  can  be  erected,  taken  down,  or  niaterially 
altered,  without  sanction  of  this  court,  which  has  also  jurisdiction 
in  regtdatiug  weights  and  measures, 

BeaxiB  of  the  Ohajiel  BoyaL  The  chapel  royal  in  Scot- 
land was  a  collegiate  cliurch  founded  by  the  Scottish  kings  for 
their  own  use,  the  superior  of  which  was  called  Dean  of  the 
Chapel  Royal.  This  benefice  was  after  the  Reformation  con- 
ferred first  on  the  Bishop  of  Galloway,  and  afterwards  annexed 
to  the  See  of  Dunblane.  On  the  abolition  of  Episcopacy  in 
1690,  the  revenues  fell  to  the  crown,  the  spvereign  bestowing 
them  on  one  or  more  of  the  clergymen  of  the  Church  of  Soot- 
land,  who  are  called  deans  and  chaplains,  and  hold  the  appoint- 
ment at  the  royal  pleasure.  In  accordance  with  the  recommen- 
dation of  the  Universities  Commission  {1S58),  tlie  revenues  have 
34S 


been  divided  into  six  parts,  attached  respectively  to  the  chairs 
of  Divinity  and  Biblical  Criticism  in  the  Universities  of  Edin- 
burgh, Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  and  St  Andrews. 

Death  (Ger  tod  allied  to  Gr  thatiatos).     Tlie  body  is  com- 
p      d     f  t  d      gan     ea  h     f  wl    h      ts  t 

■     ■      depe  d    tly     1  th      th  I     tl      p    f  m 


f   1 


gan 


1  t 


by  th     D 
b         d  t 

d      1  ped 


h  Iff  ta  . 

gr  h      m  t  nty    d    Im 

h      f        th  t  y  h        tw    f  rm      r  D  — (  )  M !  cul 

th    D      f      d     d  al  t  ss  es         d  (a)  t  th    D 

f  tl     wh  1    b  dy     M  1      1      D   is    h         iseq  f  th 

t  ppa„      f  th  t      t  rpl  y  b  tw        tl      tiss  d  tl     fl    d 

1  b  I        th    bl    d         ta      g      t      ly      t  h        m  It      b  t 

1  yg   1,  wth     t  wh   hth  t  flf        mp  ssbl 

Tills  form  of  D.  is  continually  taking  place  in  the  body       d 
unless  it  affects  a  large  portion  of  the  fabric,  it  does  not  mt    f 
with  the  general  life  of  the  body,  or  what  may  be  I        d  th 
somatic  life.     At  some  period  or  other,  however,  s  ro  ti 
general  D.  takes  place  from  the  failure  of  action  of      m 
portant  oigan  or  oigans.     Thus  somatic  D.  will  follow   t  pp 
of  the  heart's  action  ;  but  the  tissues  live  for  some  time  aft         d 
and   mclecular  D.  slowly  supervenes.     The  various  f  f 

somatic  D.  are  as  follows— 

(i)  Syiicofe,  or  failure  in  the  propulsive  power  of  the  heart. 
Tliis  occurs,  for  example,  in  D.  by  fainting.  The  individual 
becomes  suddenly  pale,  drops  down,  and  expires. 

(2)  Asthenia,  or  slow  failure  of  the  heart  s  action  from  dete- 
rioration  of  its  tissue  by  iatty  degeneration,  or  from  deficiency 
of  blood,  as  ailer  excessive  hEemorrhage. 

(3)  Asphyxia,  or  D.  resulting  from  some  obstruction  to  tht 
aeration  of  venous  blood  in  the  lungs.  This  may  be  caused  ir 
many  ways.  For  example,  occlusion  of  the  air  passages,  pres- 
sure on  the  chest  so  great  as  to  prevent  its  expansion,  puncture 
of  the  pleural  cavities,  or  the  breathing  of  irrespirable  gases.  In 
asphyxia  venous  blood  is  sent  to  the  brain,  and  so  affects  its 

(4)  Coma,  or  D,  resulting  from  interference  with  the  func- 
tions of  the  brain.  Pressure  on  the  brain,  or  the  circulation 
through  Its  capillaries  of  certain  poisons,  such  as  alcohol,  may  . 
cause  D.  by  coma. 

(5)  Necramia,  or  D.  of  the  blood,  as  happens  occasionally 
in  malignant  fevers. 

Thus  D.  may  commence  St  the  Iieart  (sudden,  syncope  ;  gra- 
dual, asthenia) ;  at  the  lungs  (asphyxia) ;  at  the  brain  (coma) ; 
or  in  the  blood  (necr^emia). 

D.  may  sometimes  be  simulated,  as  in  'trance'  or  'catalepsy,' 
where  we  find  all  the  functions  of  the  body  so  feebly  performed 
as  to  be  scarcely  perceptible.  The  surest  test  by  which  to  dis- 
tinguish real  from  apparent  D.  Is  the  condition  of  the  muscu- 
lar system.  After  real  D,,  nmscle  gradually  loses  its  irrita- 
bility, so  that  it  does  not  contract  when  excited  by  electrical  or 
other  stimulation.  Loss  of  irritability  is  followed  by  cadaveric 
Rigidity  (q.  v.),  and  this  in  turn  is  followed  by  pufrefeictive 
chaises.  So  long  as  a  muscle  remains  irritable  it  is  not  dead  ; 
loss  of  irritability  and  stiffening  is  a  sure  indication  that  D.  has 
taken  place. 

Death,  Legal.    See  Civii.  Death. 

Death,  Piinishinent  of.     See  Capital  Punishment. 

Death-Bed,  Law  of  (in  Scotland)  By  this  law,  which  is 
peculiar  to  Scotland,  the  heir  of  heritage  is  entitled  to  reduce 
any  deed  by  which  he  is  injured,  if  granted  by  his  predecessor 
within  sixty  days  of  D.,  provided  he  was  suffenng  from  the 
disease  of  which  he  died  at  the  date  of  the  deed,  and  did  not 
subsequently  go  unsupported  to  kiik  or  market  If  the  maker 
of  the  deed  be,  at  its  date,  suffering  from  one  disease,  and  die  of 
another  or  by  accident,  the  deed  is  not  reducible.  In  counting 
the  sixty  days,  the  day  of  signing  the  deed  is  not  reckoned ;  but 
ij:  is  sulficient  that  the  granter  has  survived  until  the  running  of 
any  part  of  the  sixtieth  day.     See  Computation  of  Time. 

Death's-Head  Voth  {,Ackerontia  Airapos),  a  species  of  moth 
belonging  to  the  family  Sphittgidie  or  Hawk-Moths,  and  distin- 
guished as  a  genus  by  tlie  non-angulated  sharp  wings,  by  the 
sliort  proboscis,  and  by  the  antennie  or  feelers  being  hooked  a' 


yLaOOgle 


DEIA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DEB 


their  tips.  The  hinder  wings  are  small.  The  popular  name  of 
the  moth  is  derived  from  a  whitish  patch  on  the  back  of  the 
thorax,  resembling  eitaclly  a  human  skull  and  collar-bone.  The 
front  wmgs  are  blacidsh-brown  above,  with  slripea  and  markings 
of  black  and  red.  colour  at  the  edges.  The  hinder  wings  are 
yellowish,  with  two  bluish-grey  bands.  The  chest  is  blackish- 
brown,  with  the  skull-like  marking.  The  caterpillar  of  this  moth, 
which  may  attain  a  length  of  five  inches,  is  yellow,  with  a  tuber- 
cuiatcd  body,  and  is  marked  on  its  sides  with  seven  oblique  bands 
of  a  green  colour.  The  back  is  spotted  black  and  blue,  and.  the 
tail  bears  a  prominent  horn-like  process.  The  moth,  which  is 
found  in  almost  every  part  of  the  Old  World,  attains  an  expanse 
of  wing  measuring  five  or  sli  inches.      It  makes  a  grating  noise, 

{robably  by  grating  the  abdomen  agiunst  the  chest,  and  lias  long 
een  dreaded  by  the  ignorant  and  superstitious. 

Deaths,  Begistration  of.    See  Registration. 

Beatb-Watch.  (Anebiuni),  the  name  popularly  given  to  certain 
insects  belonging  to  the  Cokoptira  or  Beetles,  and  to  the  family 
Piinida  (section  Pentamerd)  of  that  order,  from  their  producing 
a  rapping  sound  by  knocking  their  heads  against  wood-work. 
This  sound,  dreaded  by  the  superstitious,  is  the  signal  of  one 

sect  to  its  neighbonr.    "VazAnoUumstriaiHmixAA.tessdatum 

e  familiar  species,  and  are  also  termed  Borers  (q.  v.)  ftonl  their 
habit  of  infesting  wood.  The  A.  tecsdstum  attains  an  average 
length  of  a  quarter  of  an  Inch,  and  is  of  a  dull  grey  colour.  Its 
rapping  is  heard  most  fv'equently  towards  the  end  of  spring. 

Debacle  (Fr.  'a  breaking  up')  bused  in  France  to  denote 
the  breaking  up  of  the  ice  in  a  river  or  harbour,  and  by  English 
geologists  lo  denote  the  sudden  irruption  of  a  flood  which  leaves 
ils  path  strewn  with  promiscuous  debris. 

Deba'taMe  Land.  A  tract  of  country  on  the  border  of 
England  and  Scotland  was  so  called,  from  having  formerly 
been  the  subject  of  contention  between  England  and  Scotland. 
In  1542  commissioners,  appointed  by  the  two  crowns,  divided  it 
by  a  line  drawn  between  the  rivers  Esk  and  Sark,  the  northern 
division  being  given  to  Scotland  and  the  eastern  to  England. 
It  continued  for  long  to  be  the  haunt  of  freebooters. 

Se  Be'ne  Ese'e,  a  term  of  English  law,  signifying  the  admis- 
sion that  something  done  may  be  allowed  to  stand  for  the  pre- 
sent ;  but  that  it  must  ultimately  stand  Or  fall  by  the  result  of 


Deben'ture  (lit.  'the  acknowledgment  of  a  debt,'  from  4e- 
here,  'to  owe 'J.  A  written  instrument  chaining  Government  with 
payment  of  a  specified  sum  is  so  called.  A  Customhouse  D.  is  a 
certificate  authorising  an  eicporter  of  escisable  goods  to  receive  a 
Drawback  (q.  v, )  equal  in  value  to  the  excise  diities  which  have 
been  paid  on  them.  To  forge  a  customhouse  D.  is  felony.  A 
Railway  Z".  is  a  deed  of  mortgage  given  by  a  railway  for  bor- 
rowed money.  The  D.  is  preferable,  both  as  regards  payment 
of  the  interest  as  it  falls  due  and  as  regards  repayment  of  the 
principal  sum  at  the  stipulated  date,  to  any  claim  on  account  of 
any  kind  of  shares.  Railway  debentures  are  Usually,  therefore, 
a  safe  and  legal  investment  for  trust  flinds-  They  are  tranife- 
able  without  trouble  or  expense,  the  original  expense,  including 
brokerage,  being  paid  by  the  company.  Interest  warrants  or 
Coupons  (q.  v.)  are  attached  to  the  deed.  The  usual  rale  of 
interest  on  a  railway  D.  is  4  per  cent,  in  England. 

Debitor  Won  PreTOu'initux  Dona're,  a  legal  maxim  signi- 
fying that  a  debtor  is  not  presumed  to  make  a  gift  to  his  creditor. 
Thus,  when  a  debtor  gives  money  to  his  creditor  without  assigning 
any  reason  for  so  doing,  it  is  presumed  to  be  in  payment  of  the 
debt ;  but  this  presumption  may  be  overcome  by  proof  to  [he 
,    contrary. 

Deb'Jtum  Tun'di  is  in  Scotch  law  a  debt  attached  to  land, 
and  having  a  lien  over  it.  A  Fat-Duty^  {□.  v.)  and  arrears  of  i(3i- 
Av.ij  are  deiila  fundi.  .Rents,  tithes  {;W«iwJ,  and  similar  burdens, 
though  dues  coimected  with  land,  are  not  debita  futidi.  Debts 
constituted  by  this  title  may  be  made  effectual  by  Poinding  of 
the  Ground  (q.  v.). 


■s  the  earth  dug  from  the  ditch  to  form  the  parapet. 

I  lie  rsmeitiif  again,  is  the  earth  and  other  — •---'-^ -.*  -■ 

struct ing  the  rampart  and  paiapet. 


Deb'orab  (Heb.  'a  bee'),  a  prophetess  who  judged  Israel 
(Judges  iv.  v),  .and  under  whose  direction  Barak  (q.  v.)  delivered 
the  northern  tribes  from  the  oppression  of  Jabin,  King  of  Hazor. 
She  accompanied  to  battle  the  ill-armed  band  Barak  had  col- 
lected, and  her  exalted  enthusiasm  was  the  means  of  their  gain- 
ing a  great  victory  over  the  Canaanite  host  The  pjean  which 
she  and  Barak  sing  together  quivers  at  once  with  grateful  devo- 
tion and  vengeful  glee.  It  is  a  miracle  of  Eastern  poesy  and 
passion. 

Debou'ching  (Fr.  rf/((«(f&!^,  'to  pass  out,' from  ^ow^e,  'the 
mouth'),  in  military  lan^age,  is  to  march  out  from  a  wood,  defile, 
or  other  confined  position. 

Detoreo'zin,  the  capital  of  the  comilat  of  Bihar,  and,  next 
to  Pesth,  the  chief  trading  town  in  Hungary,  120  miles  E.  of 
Pesth  by  railway.  The  streets,  though  broad,  are  filthy,  and 
stately  public  edifices  contrast  oddly  with  surrounding  hovels."' 
There  are  several  churches  and  a  fine  cathedral  The  Reformed 
College  has  a  library  of  20,0Qo  volumes,  twenty.four  professors, 
and  2000  students.  The  Honv63s  who  fell  at  the  battle  of  D. 
in  1849  are  commemorated  by  a  monument,  and  a  statue  was 
erected  m  1S71  to  the  poet  Csokonaij.  D.  is  the  seat  of  a 
Ronian  Catholic  and  of  a  Greek  bishop.  The  chief  manufac- 
tures are  coarse  woollens,  leather,  soap,  tobacco-pipes,  earthen- 
ware, and  articles  of  cooperage.  There  is  a  largetrade  m  horses, 
cattle,  bacon,  wine,  corn,  oils,  ewe-milk  cheese,  tobacco,  water- 
melons &c  D.  has  four  annual  fairs  and  the  largest  swine- 
market  in  Hungary.  Pop.  (1869)  46,111,  of  whom  two-thirds 
ars  Magyars,  and  the  greater  number  are  P    '    "  ~ 

the  seat  of  Kossuth's  Government  in  1S49. 

Debmiaed',  in  heraldry,  an  animal  or  any  other  charge 
bruised  out  or  debarred  by  a  bar  or  any  other  ordinaiy.  An 
ordinary  may  debruise  an  ordinary. 

Debt.  In  English  law,  debts  are  classified  as  specially  dehts 
and  sintple  debts.  The  former  are  constituted  by  deed,  or  by  a 
record  or  judgment  of  court,  or  by  a  Recognisance  (q.  v.). 
The  latter  are  those  arising  without  intervention  of  deed  or  of 
judgment.  D.  constituted  by  deed  bears  interest  from  its  date. 
D.  under  judgment  bears  interest  from  date  of  judgment  at  4 
per  cent. ;  it  is  effectual  agamst  land  which  a  defendant  may 
possess,  and,  if  d  ly  registered  it  is  effectual  against  a  pur- 
chaser. The  registration  must  be  renewed  every  five  years. 
Simple  D.  bears  no  interest  In  Scotland,  the  main  division  of 
D.  is  into  heritable  and  movible  Rega»ding  the  former,  see 
article  Bond. 

MsBoMe  Debt  is  in  Scotland  liquidatsd  (Scot,  'liquid'), 
contingent,  or  ftitme  The  fiist  is  D,  constituted  against  the 
debtor  by  written  obligation  or  by  decree  of  a  court ;  the  second 
is  D.  depending  on  an  event  which  may  or  may  not  happen 
(see  Contingent  Debts)  ;  the  third  is  when  the  liability  is 
certain,  but  when  the  time  for  payment  has  not  arrived. 

Debt,  Action  of:  In  England,  this  is  the  proper  form  of 
action  for  recovery  of  a  debt,  when  the  amount  of  it  has  been 
ascertained  by  judgment  of  court  or  under  a  bond.  It  may  in 
some  cases  be  followed  in  debt  otherwise  constituted, 

Debt,  NationaL  The  N.  D.  of  England  at  the  Revolution 
of  1688  was  3^^64,000.  It  was  chiefiy  in  the  form  of  terminable 
annuities,  specially  charged  upon  eertaui  branches  of  the  revenue. 
The  system  of  borrowing  on  annuities  for  terms  of  years  and 
lives  -KBS  continued  by  Government,  until  the  magnitude  of 
the  debt  rendered  the  method  no  longer  practicable.  At  the 
Peace  of  Ryswick  in  169?,  the  N.  D.  was  found  to  be  nearly 
;£'l5,otx),ooo,  and  the  revenue  was  deficient  ^i'S.oo 


this 


a  the 


--    ing  debt  was  paid.  Exchequer  orders  w_._   ,.  ^__  

discount.  On  the  death  of  Queen  Anne  in  1714,  the  debt  had 
increased  to  £'>,(>,  175,460,  bearing  an  annual  charge  for  interest 
and  annuities  of  ^^3,063,135.  On3iEt  December  1748,  after  the 
treaty  of  Aix-!a-Chapelle,  it  was  nearly  ;j76,ooo,ooa  During 
the  short  interval  of  peace  which  followed.  Government  was 
enabled,  on'  29th  November  1 749,  by  the  rise  in  the  price  of 
stocks,  to  reduce  the  interest  on  the  4  per  cents,  to  3  per  cent. 
In  1751  various  stocks  were  consolidated  into  one  fund.  TTiis 
was  the  origin  of  the  present  consolidated  3  per  cent,  annuities, 
or  consols.  The  Seven  Years'  War,  beginning  in  1736,  added  to 
the  debt  ^52,219,91? ;  and  by  the  end  of  the  American  war, 


347 


vGooqIc 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DEB 


the  total  was  ^231, 843,63 1.  At  the  Peace  of  Amiens  in  i802, 
'as  ^^537.653.008  ;  and  at  the  Peace  of  Paris  in  1815,  it  had 
reached  the  enormous  total  of  ^861,039,049. 

The  debt  and  annual  charge  for  interest,  per  head  of  the 
population,  were  respectively  in  1820  ^39!  and  £i,  Ss,  In 
1864  these  figures  had  decreased  to  /a6i  and  17s.  ^tL 

For  the  financial  year  ending  31st  Match  1874,  the  public 
debt  of  the  United  Kingdom  was  as  follows  ; — Capital  of  unre- 
deemed funded  deht,  .^723,514,005;  estimated  capital  of  ter- 
minable annuities,  j^5l, 28^640;  total,  ;£774,8o3,64S  ;  and  the 
unfunded  debt  was  ^^4,479,600 — total  of  the  N.  D.  at  31st 
March  1874,  ^779.283,245.  The  difference  between  'funded 
debt'  and  'unfunded  debt'  is  that  the  state  does  not  under 
take  to  pay  the  former.  In  place  of  repayment  they  give  a  per 
petual  or  terminable  annuity;  nevertheless  the  name  of  the 
creditor  is  entered  in  the  books  of  the  Bank  of  England  as  hold 
ing  so  much  Government  stock.  This  stock  is  transferable  by 
eulry  in  the  boolts  of  the  Bank. 

British  Government  stocks  are  as  follows ; —  Three  per  Cent.  Cirn- 
sols.  (Seeabove.)  Debt  dm  lo  Ihe  Bank  of  England,  £11,01^,100. 
'"  e  Banks,  Banking.)  Nsai  %  per  Cent.  Annuities.  This 
:k  originated  in  1830  by  the  conversion  of  the  new  4  per  cents, 
which  had  been  formed  in  iSa2  from  the  navy  5  per  cents. 
New  %per  Cent.  Annuities  originated  at  the  same  date  and  in 
the  same  way.  New  3i  per  Cent.  Annuities  were  created  in 
1853,  as  were  also  Ntza  24  per  Cent.  Annuities,  the  Irish  Funds, 
Savings'  Bank  AnwmUis.  By  Actof  l864,/24,ooo,ooo  of  3  per 
cent,  stock,  standing  in  the  names  of  the  Commissioners  for  the 
reduction  of  the  N.  D,  in  the  books  of  the  Bank  of  England,  is 
ered  to  be  cancelled,  and  in  place  of  it  is  created  a  perpetual 
charge  On  the  Consolidated  Fund  (q.  v.).  Annuities  of  Terms  of 
"  <rs,  created  under  59  Gea  III.  c  34.  Annuities  Terminable 
1885  ;  these  were  created  I6th  April  1855,  and  expire  April 
885.  Jied  Sea  Telegraph  Company's  Annuity  of  ;£36,ooo  was 
Ued  by  25  and  26  Vict,  c  39,  and  expires  4th  August  1908. 
Life  Annuities  under  various  Acts.  In  1829  Mr  FinMson,  the 
Government  actuary,  fotmd  that  the  tables  which  had  been  used 
in  calculating  these  annuities  caused  an  annual  toss  to  the  public 
of  about  .^100,000,  owing  to  the  unproved  value  of  htunan  life. 
The  consequence  was  the  introduction  of  the  tables  now  in  use. 
See  Fenn  on  the  Funds,  a  new  edition  of  which  valuable  work 
is  issued  every  two  years. 

Formerly  Exchequer  bills  were  the  only  form  of  unfunded 
debt.  They  were  first  used  as  currency  to  supply  the  want  of 
metallic  money  during  the  great  re-coinage  of  1695.  Another 
d  of  unfunded  debt,  called  Exchequer  Imnds,  was  introduced 
by  Mr  Gladstone  m  his  scheme  for  commuting  some  of  the 
public  stocks  in  1853.  Tiie  Exchequer  bonds,  to  the  value  of 
/'6,ooo,ooo,  issued  during  the  Russian  war  (1855-56),  as  well  as 
those  issued  since,  are  of  a  different  character ;  having  been 
made  absolutely  payable  at  par,  at  fixed  periods  varying  from 
three  to  six  years.  These  have  been  properly  treated  as 
unfunded  debt.  Since  the  creation  of  the  3  per  cent  con- 
sols, their  lowest  price  has  been  in  1799,  when  they  fell  to 
;f52,  5s.  8d.  In  1844,  1845,  1852,  and  1853  they  rose  above 
par  ;  the  highest  price.  £,V>2,  having  been  in  1S52. 

For  long  the  N.  D.  of  the  United  Kingdom  was  the  largest 
in  the  wotM.  It  is  now  somewhat  exceeded  by  that  of  France. 
The  debt  of  the  United  Slates  of  America  is  now  about  450 
millions  sterling;  but  in  France  and  in  the  United  States,  the 
rale  of  interest  payable  to  the  fundholders  being  considerably 
higher  than  in  England,  the  pressure  of  debt  is  greater  relatively 
to  its  magnitude  than  it  is  with  us.  The  debt  of  Italy  is  nearly 
400  millions;  that  of  Anstria  and  Hungary,  about  350  millions. 
Spain  owes  over  260  millions.  Turkey  200  millions ;  Russia, 
about  140  millions;  Holland,  about  70  millions;  the  German 
Empire  about  70  millions.  Some  regard  the  N.  D.  of  England 
as  a  huge  financial  incubus,  which  ought  to  be  got  rid  of  at  any 
cost  of  extra-taxation  or  reduction  of  expenditure  ;  others,  again, 
regard  it  as  a  national  blessing,  in  so  ^  as  it  is  a  safe  means  of 
investing  trust  funds.  It  would  unquestionably  have  been  better 
that  the  debt  had  never  been  incun^ — that  is,  that  state  expen- 
diture had  always  been  fully  met  by  revenue.  But  the  debt 
represents  the  bygone  fact  of  so  much  waste  of  human  labour ; 
and  this  fact  can  never  he  undone.  In  spile  of  the  immensely 
greater  debt,  the  country  is  immeasurably  richer  than  it  was  two 
centuries  ago ;  but  it  would  have  l)een  so  much  richer  still  Imd 
it  nol  spent  so  many  hundred  millions  in  fighting.  Yet  the  one 
348 


aim  of  a  country  ought  not  to  be  the  accumulation  of  wealth.  If 
our  forefathers  have  bequeathed  to  us  a  huge  debt,  from  them 
we  inherit  the  British  Empire,  laws,  and  institutions,  by  whose 
means  we  have  created  a  commerce  and  wealth  never  before 
known  in  the  world. 

The  plan  of  paying  the  debt  by  a  Sinking  Fund  (q.  v. )  is 
transparently  fallacious.  The  expediency  of  paying  it  by  extra- 
taxation  depends  on  the  moral  nature  of  the  people.  In  so  far 
as  the  extra- taxation  would  be  met  by  extra-economy,  there 
H  ould  be  gam,  but  no  further  than  this. 

Debt  or  and  Ored'itor,  I.aws  of.  With  the  progress  of 
civil  sation  the  power  which  law  gives  to  the  C.  over  the  D. 
dimmishes  In  the  earlier  stages  of  society,  the  view  which  the 
law  takes  of  the  relationship  between  a  man  and  his  family  is 
that  the  latter  is  merely  a  part  of  the  property  of  the  fotmer. 
Even  in  ancient  Rome  a  father  had  power  of  life  and  death  over 
his  children  He  could  sell  or  resign  them,  instead  of  paying 
damages  incurred  thro^h  their  ^ult.  The  acquisitions  of  a  son 
were  called  Pectilium  (q.  v. ),  the  term  applied  to  the  portion  of 
a  slave.     Hence  it  logically  followed  that  the  law  which  gave  a 

C.  power  over  the  person  of  his  D.  gave  him  power  oyer  the 

D.  's  family,  the  family  being  regarded  as  merely  property.  Ac- 
cording to  the  law  of  Moses,  a  poor  man  might  be  sold  to  a  rich 
one,  and  compelled  to  serve  him  as  '  an  hired  servant '  (Lev. 
XXV.  39). 

With  the  progress  of  civilisation  and  commerce,  these  laws 
gradually  relax,  until  in  the  final  stage  it  is  seen  that  a  C. 
ought  to  have  no  direct  power  over  the  person  of  his  D.,  and 
that  this  power  ought  to  be  vested  in  a  judge.  In  commercial 
failures  it  is  found  that  the  fault  is  often  wilh  the  creditors  them- 


C,  see  Debts,  Recoveky  of.     See  also  Staple, 

Debtors  Abacoa'ding.  (See  Debts,  Recovery  of.)  Ab- 
sconding shareholders,  or  shareholders  intending  flight,  may  be 
arrested,  or  their  effects  seized,  under  the  provisions  of  the  Joint- 
Stock  Companies'  Act.  Debtors  in  Scotland  intending  to  ab- 
scond may  be  dealt  with  under  a  warrant  of  Meditalio  Fugn 
(,.  v.). 

Debtors,  Imprui'omiient  of.  (See  Debts,  Recovery  of.) 
In  Scotland,  a  debtor  to  the  value  of  £?t,  6s.  8d.  may  still  be  im- 
prisoned. (See  Caption,  Diligence.)  The  first  step  is  for  the 
Messenger-at-Arms  (q.  v.)  to  touch  the  shoulder  of  the  debtor 
with  his  wand,  and  to  tell  him  that  he  is  a  prisoner.  After  this, 
should  the  debtor  escape,  even  to  the  sanctuary  of  Holyrood,  the 
messenger  may  follow  and  convey  him  to  prison.  The  amount 
of  the  debt  is  entered  in  the  jtul-books,  and  should  Che  prisoner 
escape,  the  magistrates  are  liable  for  the  debt.  A  messenger 
must  not  take  payment  of  a  debt  imless  instructed  to  do  st  '  ' " 
business  being  to  execute  personal  diligence. 

Debta,  Eeoov'ery  of.  The  rule  of  law  which  allows  only 
taxed  costs  to  a  successful  liligant,  leaving  him  to  pay  the  differ- 
ence between  them  and  the  law  charges  of  his  legal  adviser,  may 
be  on  the  whole  the  best  mte  which  can  he  adopted ;  but  its 
operation  oflen  results  m  great  hardship  in  the  case  of  a  person 
suing  for  a  debt  of  moderate  amonnt.  He  may  gain  his  case  vfith 
costs  (Scot,  law,  expenses),  and  yet  find  the  value  of  the  subject  of 
litigation  greatly  exceeded  by  his  ovra  share  of  the  expen; 
And  if  his  opponent  who  lias  lost  is  ruined  by  the  result,  ] 
must  pay  even  the  costs  which  the  law  has  awarded  to  him.  In 
such  questions  the  aim  of  the  law  shouhi  be  simplicity  and  quick- 
ness of  operation ;  because  it  is  better  that  there  should  be  a 
chance  of  some  injustice  being  done  in  ascertaining  on  whose  side 
the  right  is,  than  that  injustice  should  certainly  be  done  in  mak- 
ing the  party  on  whose  side  the  right  is  pay  more  than  the  right 
is  worth  in  order  to  make  it  eSectual. 

By  I  and  2  Vict  cap.  no,  the  power  to  arrest  in  Mesne  Process 
(q.  V.)  was  abolished.  The  Act  7  and  8  Vict.  cap.  g6,  abolishes 
arrest  aa  final  process,  and  prohibits  imprisonment  upon  any  judg- 
ment obtained  in  any  court  where  the  debt  recovered  did  not 
exceed  j^2o,  exclusive  of  costs. 

These  two  Acts  bemg  found  somewhat  unfair  in  (heir  operation 
towards  certain  classes  of  creditors,  especially  towards  retail 
tradesmen,  an  improvement  was  attempted  in  the  session  follow- 
ing the  passing  of  the  last  Act  referred  to.  By  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  127, 
it  is  provided  tliat  any  creditor  obtaining  a  judgment  or  order 


yLaOogle 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


from  any  conrt  of  eotnpetent  jurisdiction  in  England,  in  respect  of 
a  debt  not  exceeding  ;^20,  besides  costs  of  suit,  may  obtain  a 
summons  against  his  debtor  from  any  commissioner  of  baniiniplcy, 
or  from  any  inferior  court  for  the  recovery  of  small  debts  having 
jurisdiction  in  the  district  in  which  the  debtor  resides.  After  pro- 
cedure, if  the  court  find  for  the  plaintiff  it  will  order  payment  of  the 
debt  in  instalments,  or  otherwise ;  and  the  court  may,  in  case  of 
fraad  or  contumacy,  commit  the  debtor  to  prison.  The  Act  of  1869 
abolishes  imprisonment  for  debt,  escept  in  certain  cases,  but  it 
does  not  affect  the  power  of  the  court  to  commit  a  debtor  to 
prison  as  above  noted ;  this  power  being  not  to  imprison 
for  the  debt,  but  for  fraud  or  contumacy ;  and  the  imprison- 
ment is  at  the  instance  of  the  court,  not  of  the  creditor.  The 
Act  of  1869  makes  many  other  important  provisions  in  the  rela- 
tionship of  debtor  and  creditor.  Any  debt  not  exceeding  ^50 
may  be  sued  for  in  the  county  courts  of  England,  If  a  plaintiff 
bring  his  action  before  a  superior  court  for  a  debt  not  exceeding 
^20,  or  not  exceeding  ;^S  '"  a"  actio"  of  Tot  [q,  v,),  he  will  have 
no  costs  awarded,  unless  by  special  order  or  certificate  of  the 
court.     Sea  County  Courts. 

In  Scotland,  debts  not  exceeding  £ii  may  he  sued  for  in  the 
sheriff's  small-debt  court.  If  a  creditor  or  debtor  appear  by 
agent,  it  must  either  be  by  consent  of  parties,  or  by  permission 
of  the  sheriff.  No  record  of  evidence  is  taken,  and  the  whole 
procedure  is  rapid — we  might  say,  ofien  hasty  and  superficial. 
Doubtless  it  is  better  to  have  a  question  of  jf  10  or  ;£l2  so  dis- 
posed of — the  expense  of  which,  even  to  the  loser,  does  not 
exceed  a  few  shillings— tlian  to  have  the  value  of  the  original 
question  wholly  merged  by  the  first  legal  step  in  the  question 
of  expenses,  as  would  surely  be  were  the  case  entangled  in 
a  lawsuit  before  the  superior  courts.  But  might  not  there  be 
a  ga  rihunal  by  which,  in  a  small  matter  as  well  as  in  a  great 
deuce  could  be  exhaustively  gone  into  and  weighed  with 
del  b  ration,  without  the  hitervention  of  a  country  agent,  a 
ownag  nt,  and  counsel — and  without  the  enormous,  and  usually 
disp  portionate,  expense  of  so  complex,  and,  as  it  seems  to  us, 
unn  essary  machinery? 
Th  Debts  Recovery  Act  of  1867  has  made  many  important 
m  us  in  the  law  of  Scotland  tegarding  R,  of  D.  Debts  be- 
en £12  and  £y>,  which  would  prescribe  if  not  sued  for  in 
h  y  ars  (see  Pkesceiption),  may  now  be  sued  for  before 
h  ff's  smaU-debt  Court.     In  actions  of  this  class,  agents 

a  wed  to  appear.      If  the  debt  does  not  exceed  ^^25  there 

IS  an  appeal  from  the  sheriff-substitute  to  the  sheriff;  and  if 
the  debt  exceed  £2^  an  appeal  may  be  made  to  the  Court  of 
Session.  Where  the  debt  does  not  exceed  £12,  there  is  no 
appeal  from  the  judgment  of  the  small-debt  court. 

Debts,  Recovery  of,  Abroad. — It  is  a  very  common  error 
that  Frendi  tribunals  take  no  cc^nisance  of  suits  between  per- 
sons who  are  not  subjects  of  France,  and  that  a  debtor  may 

■     -^  ,     The 

another 

before  a  French  tribunal  unless  there  has  been  a  decree  or 
judgment  of  a  conrt  of  their  own  country  in  favour  of  the 
claimant ;  but  on  proof  of  such  decree  or  judgment,  a  French 
court  will  give  effect  to  it;  and  it  is  believed  that  the  same  rule 
of  law  holds  in  Belgium.  But  it  ia  very  difficult  in  either  of 
these  countries  to  enforce  payment  of  a  debt  against  a  creditor 
who  has  escaped  from  his  own  country  before  procedure  has 
been  taken  against  him. 

D£ba't  (Fr,  dibut,  '  the  first  throw  at  play  %  a  French  word 
dpd  Elhd  igh  firs  pp  ce  of  an  aclor, 
pbipl  ydllwhsefl        e  depends  on 

pip  I  Im  1        ly   pphed  to  appear- 

h       ag      h    w    d    il3u  a  dibutante,  for  actor 

ssmk  Dl        galsbn    ntroduced  into 

Eg 

De  a  den  a  (F    f   m  L      rf      d      i*  fall  away'),  a 

pi  h    h    1        rt  1  f  n,   after  a  britliant 

maturity,  begins  to  wane,  la  called  a  time  of  D.  .  Thus  Greek 
sculpture  after  the  age  of  Pericles,  Latin  literature  after  the  age 
of  Augustus,  and  Italian  painting  from  the  17th  c.  downwari^, 
are  said  to  belong  to  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  Italian  decadences. 
In  French  literature,  the  years  from  1770  ts  1800,  or,  accord- 
ing to  some,  till  the  Romantic  movement  of  1830,  are  called  the 
French  D,  A  period  of  D.  is  generally  marked  in  literature  by 
an  overstrained  and  over-coloured  style,  as  in  the  late  Latin 


poets,  and  in  art  by  complicated  refinements,  as  in  the  Byzan- 
tine school.  Individual  works  belonging  to  a  D.  are  not  neces- 
sai-ily  inferior  to  those  of  earlier  times. 

Seo'agon,  a  geometrical  figure  with  ten  sides  and  ten  angles, 
A  regular  D.  has  all  its  sides  and  angles  equal,  and  is  inscribable 
in  a  circle.  If  r  be  the  radius  of  the  circle,  the  side  s  of  the  D. 
isj  =  ir(V5-l). 

Deoais'nea,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Larda- 
abalacem,  named  in  honour  of  the  French  botanist  M.  Decaisne. 
There  is  only  one  species  {D.  iasignis),  found  in  the  Himalayas 
at  the  height  of  from  6000  to  10,000  feef.  Its  fruit  is  sweet  and 
wholesome,  and  eaten  by  the  Lepchas  and  other  Himalayan 

Dec'alogrue  (Gr.  'the  ten  words')  is  the  name  given  by 
the  Greek  fathers  to  the  law  of  the  two  tables  received 
by  Moses  from  the  hand  of  God  on  Mount  Sinai,  The  com- 
mandments  have  been  variously  divided  and  distributed  to  the' 
two  tables.  I.  In  the  catechisms  of  the  Greek,  Anglican,  and 
all  the  Reformed  Churches  (except  the  Lutheran),  following 
Origen,  ver.  2  of  Exod.  xx.  is  made  merely  a  prefece;  the  first  com- 
mandment is  ver.  3  ;  the  second,  4-6  ;  the  third,  j  ;  the  fourth, 
S-ll  ;  the  fifth,  12;  the  sixth,  13;  the  seventh,  14;  the  eighth, 
15;  the  ninth,  16;  and  the  tenth,  17,  2.  According  to  the  TMmud 
and  the  modem  Jews,  Exod.  xx.  2  is  the  first  commandment ;  the 
second  is  3-6,  and  the  rest  as  above.  3.  The  Masorefic  division, 
which  is  that  followed  in  the  Lutheran  and  Trent  catechisms, 
makes  ver.  3-6  the  first  commandment,  and  then  divides  the  last 
into  two  ;  so  that  the  ninth  is  '  Thou  shall  not  covet  thy  neigh- 
bour's house' (otherwise  'wife,' which  is  first  in  Deut.  v.  2i);  and 
the  tenth,  the  rest.  As  to  what  belonged  to  each  table,  Philogave 
five  to  each  ;  the  opinion  in  the  Greek  and  Reformed  Churches  is 
that  the  one  contained  the  first  four,  or  our  duty  to  God,  and  the 
other,  the  last  six,  or  our  duty  to  man  j  according  to  the  Maso- 
retic  arrangement,  the  division  being  made  at  the  same  place, 
the  tables  contain  three  and  seven  respectively. 

Decamps,  Alexandre  Gtabriel,  a  French  painter,  born  at 
Paris,  March  3,  1803.  He  studied  under  M,  Abel  du  Pujol, 
travelled  in  the  East,  was  made  a  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour  in  1839,  and  died  at  Fontainebleau,  August  22,  i860. 
He  painted  landscapes,  animals,  and  genre  and  historical  sub- 
jects, and  was  remarkable  for  boldness,  variety  of  style,  lofti- 
ness of  conception,  and  genuine  humour. 

Deoandolle,  Auguatin.  Pyrame,  an  illustrious  French 
botanist,  born  at  Geneva,  4th  February  1778,  was  descended 
from  an  expatriated  family  of  Protestant  Provenfals,  to  which 
the  printer  of  the  Caldorian  Press  belonged.  He  gave  signs  of 
poetical  genius  when  young,  but  the  teachings  of  De  Saussnre 
and  Bonnet  at  Geneva  inclined  him  to  physical  science.  Coming 
to  Paris  m  1796,  he  was  placed  at  the  Jardin  des  Plontes,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  geographical  botany  and  physio- 
logy. He  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Cuvier,  Humboldt,  Lamarck, 
Berthollet,  and  other  distinguished  savtms.  For  Lamarck  he 
edited  the  Floi-e  Fran^aise,  completed  in  6  vols,  m  1815.  Tkt 
Hisleire da  Flantes  Grasses  {/^-m\s.  1799-1803)  was,  however,  his 
first  important  work.  The  popularity  of  his  lectures  on  botany 
at  the  Collie  de  France,  and  an  essay  on  the  fertilisation  of 
the  Dunes  on  the  Netherland  coast,  secured  him  an  important 
Government  mission  (1806-12),  viz.,  to  report  on  the  agriculture 
and  botany  of  the  territories  on  the  Rhme  and  in  Italy  which 
had  been  added  to  France.  In  1813  D.  succeeded  Broussonet 
in  the  chair  of  Botany  at  Monfpelier,  but  was  obliged  in  1817 
to  return  to  Geneva,  where  he  taught  natural  history,  and  latteriy 
became  a  member  of  the  Representative  Council  and  of  the 
Helvetic  Diet.  He  died,  9th  September  1843,  D.  is  the  his- 
torical successor  of  Jussieu.  Of  wide  scientific  vision,  he  has 
left  behind  him,  in  his  Signi  Vegdahitis  Systima  Naturals  (2  vols. 
Par.  1818-Z1),  a  colossal  attempt  to  describe  all  the  varieties 
of  plants,  with  their  synonyms,  and  references  for  drawings  and 
description  of  localities.  His  Prodromtis  of  the  same  subject 
has  been  completed  in  10  vols.  (1826-46}  by  his  son  Alphonse 
(bom  28ih  October  1806),  to  whom  he  bequeathed  his  herbarium 
of  70,000  specimens.  See  Mhnoires  et  Souvenirs  of  the  father 
by  the  son  (1862),  Alphonse,  who  has  also  written  on  the  Laws 
of  Botanical  Ncmettctaturt  (1867),  and  on  the  Geographical 
DistrihtiHon  of  Physical  Groups  in  the  Vegetable  Kingdom 
(1874),  succeeded  Agassis  as  a  member  of  the  French  Institute. 


349 


vGooqIc 


DEC 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DEO 


Deoapita'tion.    See  Capital  Pitnishment. 

Deeap'oda  (Gr.  '  ten-footed ').  the  highest  order  of  Crmtacea 
(q.  v.),  represented  by  Ihe  erabs,  lobsters,  shrimps,  &c.  The  D. 
are  distinguished  by  the  general  development  of  the  'shell,' 
by  the  walking  legs  numbering  five  pairs,  by  the  first  and  some- 
times other  pairs  of  legs  being  provided  vrilh  chsla  or  nipping- 
clavfs,  and  by  the  month  appendages  being  numerous,  and 
modified  for  mastication.  The  (l)  Anamamas  decapods  are  re- 
presented by  the  hermit  or  soldier  crabs  ;  the  (2)  Brachyura  by 
the  ordinary  erabs ;  and  (3)  Macrura  by  the  lobsters,  shrimps, 
&c.    See  also  Crab  and  Ckustacea. 

Decap'olie  (Gr.  '  the  region  of  the  ten  cities '),  a  district  of 
Palestine,  lying  chiefly  E.  of  the  Jordan,  bnt  including  a  small 
part  of  Galilee,  was  so  named  from  containing  ten  cities,  whidi 
are  generally  given  as  Damascus,  Philadelphia,  Rhaphana, 
Scythopolis,  Gadara,  Hippos,  Dioa,  Pella,  Gerasa,  and  Cana- 
tha.  These  cities  probably  held  privileges  from  the  Roman 
Senate,  and  seem  to  have  been  free  from  Jewish  authority.  D. 
was  fully  200  mites  long,  with  a  breadth  of  60. 

Deoszea',  Hfoie,  Duo,  a  French  statesman,  bom  at  St  Mar- 
tin-du-Laye,  Gironde,  September  28,  1780.  After  holding 
various  civil  ofiices,  he  was  made  a  cabinet-councillor  by  Napo- 
leon in  1807 ;  in  1814  became  a  captain  in  the  National  Guard, 
and  fought  at  the  siege  of  Paris;  held  office  under  Louis 
XVIIl  ;  was  made  Corate  in  1816,  and  in  1818  Minister  of  the 
Interior,  in  which  capacity  he  gave  great  attention  to  commerce 
and  manufactures.   In  1819  he  was  made  President  of  the  Coun- 

I,  and  shortly  afterwards  Due  D,     After  the  Revolution  of 

130  he  devoted  himself  to  the  advancement  of  manufactures 
^He  died  24th  October  i86a    D. 

s.— 1 

D.,  was  born  May  19,  rSig,  served  as  French  Minister  and 
Envoy  at  the  courts  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  was  elected  to 
the  Conseil  G^^ral  in  1867,  and  to  the  Assembly  in  1871.  In 
1873  he  was  apMiinted,  and  still  continues  (1876),  Minister  of 
Foreign  AfiMrs.  Formerly  a  leading  member  of  the  Right  Centre, 
he  has  greatly  contributed  to  the  wise  and  moderate  foreign 
policy  of  his  country. 

Decazeville,  a  town  in  the  department  of  Aveyron,  France, 
not  older  than  1830.  It  owes  its  existence  and  prosperity  to  its 
ironworks,  said  to  be  the  largest  in  France.     Pop.  (1S72)  4548. 

Deoo'an  (Sansb.  Dakschina,  '  the  south '),  the  geographical 
name  of  the  portion,  of  the  Indian  Peninsula  S.  of  the  Vindhya 
Mountains,  forming  a  plateau  from  1400  to  3000  feet  high  be- 
tween the  E.  and  W.  Ghats.     Area  about  500,000  sq.  miles. 

Deceb'altia,  a  title  of  honoar  among  the  Dacians,  probably 
equivalent  to  the  English  king.  The  D.  mentioned  by  Dion 
Cassius  was,  durmg  the  reigns  of  Domitian  and  Trajan,  a  dan- 
gerous enemy  of  Rome.  Between  85  and  90  A.D.  he  defeated 
the  Roman  generals  in  Mcesia,  and  frightened  Domitian  into 
purchasing  a  dishonourable  peace.  Trajan,  however,  restored 
the  honour  of  the  Roman  arms,  and  after  suffering  several  disas- 
trous defeats  D.  committed  suicide,  A.D.  105. 

Deceif.     See  Fhaud. 

Deoemljer  (Lat.  the  'tenth  month'  or  'peiiod'),  with  us 
the  last  month  of  the  year,  but  with  the  Romans,  before  the 
reformation  of  the  calendar  bj?  Julius  Ciesar,  the  tenth  (hence  its 
name),  their  year  beginning  with  March. 

Deoem'viii,  a  title  of  various  public  functionaries  at  Rome, 
(l)  The  first  and  most  celebrated,  the  D.  LegUus  Scribendis, 
ocording  to  the  Roman  legend  which  passes  for  history,  entered 
n  office,  451  B.C.,  for  the  purpose  of  framing  a  code  of  laws 
n  the  return  of  the  three  commissioners  who  had  been  sent  to 
Greece  to  collect  the  laws  of  the  different  states,  ni  accordance 
with  the  Lex  Tei-entUia.  Previous  to  their  election,  a  dispute  as 
to  whether  the  'Ten'  should  be  patricians  or  plebeians,  was  set- 
tled in  favour  of  the  former.  On  their  appointment  aU  other 
magistrates  were  suspended,  and  the  D.  were  intrusted,  in 
addition  to  their  legisladve  powers,  with  the  sole  government  of 
ilitary,  during  their  year's  tennre  of  office. 
They  drew  up  a  body  of  laws,  which,  after  receiving  the  approval 
350 


of  the  Senate  g 

and  hung  up  D 

appointed,  01  th  A 

Claudius,   bei  g  tyra  as 

striking  contr  rs      W 

as  before  onl  g      ag    ra  as  es 

before  hhn,  e 

not  the  fasces  al  m  ig 

authority.     A    tl  se  es  gi 

but  an  unjust  m 

case  of  Virgi  p  d 

downfall  of  t       D      m   rs   449  es 

of  laws  were  ni         th         b    rs   w  w 

above  mentio  rm  m  us     wel      T  as 

of  all  the  Rom         w  Z>  Ltliha       Si  ttibm    7ud 

magistrates  w  w  h  cases  w      m    tu    d    bo 

B.C.   Oftheea  ryand     nsdct 

is  known,  Angustus  gave  them  the  presidency  of  the  Caitum- 
viri;  bat  they  maintained  a  separate  existence  to  the  latest  days 
of  the  Empire.  (3}  D.  Satris  Faciundis,  or  £).  Sacrorum,  were 
members  of  an  ecclesiastical  college,  and  held  office  for  life. 
Their  chief  duties  were  the  care  and  inspection  of  the  Sibylline 
books,  and  the  celebration  of  the  games  of  Apollo,  and  of  the 
secular  games.  The  number  of  these  oracle-keeperB  was  origin- 
ally two  {Duumviri),  increased  to  ten,  369  B.C.,  of  whom,  after 
367  B.C.,  five  were  patricians  and  five  plebeians.  Their  number 
was  increased  by  Sulla  to  fifteen,  {4)  D.  Agyis  Dividundis, 
were  occasionally  appointed  for  dividing  the  public  lands. 

Deoep'tion  Island,  one  of  the  New  Shetland  group,  Ant- 
arctic Ocean,  so  called  from  presenting  to  persons  looking  at  it 
from  a  distance  a  striking  resemblance  to  a  ship,  D.  I.,  which 
is  volcanic,  and  abounds  m  hot  springs,  is  a  mere  ring  of  land, 
composed  of  alternate  layers  of  ashes  and  ice,  surrounding  a 
deep  circular  lake,  5  miles  in  diameter,  and  communicating  with 
the  sea  by  an  opening  600  feet  wide. 

Decern',  in  Scotch  law,  is  to  decree.  Before  the  judgment 
or  Interlocutor  (q.  v.)  of  any  court  in  Scotland  can  be  extracted 
so  as  to  warrant  execution,  it  must  import  a  decree.  Hence  all 
extractable  judgments  close  with  the  word  '  decern,' 

Decld'uo,  a  membrane  formed  in  the  interior  of  the  preg- 
nant uterus  from  the  mucous  membrane  of  that  oi^an.  At  first 
single,  it  ultimately  forms  two  layers— (i)  the  V.  vera,  which 
lines  the  uterus,  and  (2)  the  D.  reflexa,  which  covers  the  exterior 

of  the  ovum.    See  Generation,  Placenta. 

Deoid'uona  Trees.    See  Leaf. 

Dec'imee  C(arT)ales,  the  tenth  sheaf  of  the  cut  corn,  which 
the  rector  of  the  parish  had  a  right  to  take  from  the  ground. 

Dedinit  Inclui/e,  Teinds  {q.  v.)  which  have  never  been  sepa- 
rated from  the  stock,  and  which  are  not  demandable  by  the 
titular  (see  Teinds)  or  minister. 

Dedma  Kestorite,  parsonage  tillies,  due  from  all  kinds  of  grain 
produced  by  culture. 

Didma  Vicaris,  vicarage  tithes,  due  only,  according  to  use 
and  wont,  from  certain  articles — wool,  grass,  fish,  eggs,  &c. 

Detfimal  Frac'tion  is  a  fraction  whose  denominator  is  any 
power  of  ten.  Thus  ^^"  is  a  D,  F.,  and  may  be  written 
'2^nnF.  Of  simply  I2'345— in  which  latter  case  it  is  csW^udecimal, 
the  foint  indicating  where  the  digits  stop.  The  decimal  portion 
is  a  mere  continuation  of  the  integral  portion.  Thus,  in  the 
number  above,  we  have  tens  and  units  before  the  point,  and 
tenths,  hundredths,  thousandths,  after  the  point.  Accordingly, 
the  ordinary  rules  for  addition,  subtraction,  &c.,  apply  as  in 
the  case  of  integers.  A  common  fraction  is  reduced  to  a  D.  F, 
by  multiplying  numerator  and  denominator  by  such  a  number  as 
will  malte  the  latter  a  power  of  ten  j  thus,  i.  =  -5-  1=  -5 ;  3.  _ 

3Ji^  =  li  =  7S,5=?Jii33  =  6e«=.fi'  l^°his  last  case 
4  X  25       «™  3      3  X  333      999 

there  is  no  power  of  ten  divisible  by  three ;  but  the  farther  wa 
take  the  multiplier  3333  . .  ,  we  can  make  the  denominator  nearer 
a  power  often  tJian  by  any  given  difference;  and  accordingly  we 
say  5  =  'fi  ;  where  6  means  6  repeated  as  often  as  necessary  for 
the  approximation. 

Decimal  fractions  seem  to  have  been  mtroduced  by  Regiomon- 


yLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DEO 


tanus,  in  1464  ;  but  tlie  first  treatise  on  the  subject  is  fhe  Prac- 
liqus  d' Arithmitiqus  of  Steirnus  (1582).  Tliis  mode  of  calcu- 
lation is  now  almost  univei-sally  practised  in  the  civilised  world, 

Dec'imal  Notation.    See  Notation, 

Decimal  Sya'tem  of  weights,  measures,  and  coins,  is  a  sub- 
ject  which  has  of  recent  years  attracted  great  attention,  both  at 
home  and  abroad.  On  account  of  the  facilities  which  it  offers 
lor  calculation,  it  will  no  doubt  in  time  supersede  all  the  old 
and  cumbrous  methods ;  ahd  when  that  is  effected  throughout 
Europe,  it  will  be  the  first  step  towards  establishing  a  universal 
and  international  system.  The  most  perfect  example  of  the  D. 
S.  is  found  in  France,  though  the  same  prmciple  obtains  in  the 
coini^  of  the  United  States,  Belgium,  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  and 
other  cotmtries.  The  French  unit  measure  of  length  is  the  melre 
(^39-3709  inches) :  the  superficial  unit  is  the  aM![loosq.  metres; 
the  solid  measure,  the  j««(l  cubic  metre) ;  the  liquid  or  dry  mea- 
sure, the  litrs  (l  cubic  decimfetrej ;  and  the  unit  of  weight  is  the 
gramme,  being  the  weight  of  a  cubic  centimetre  ot  pure  water 
at  a  temperature  of  zero  centigrade.  The  dice-,  hedv-,  kilo-, 
myria-gramnte,  &c.,  represent  respectively  ip,  100, 1000,  10,000, 
&c.,  grammes ;  while  deci;  cmli;  milli-grainme,  &c.,  are  respec- 
tively I,  'oi,  "oor  parts  of  a  gramme.  The  same  prefixes  are 
similarly  used  with  the  other  measures.  The  miit  coin  is  the 
frani: ;  the  d&wie  and  ceiiiimt  being  respectively  ■!  and  'or  of  a 
franc  The  former,  however,  is  not  now  used— accounts  being 
kept  simply  in  francs  and  centimes, 

Deeima'tion  (Lat.  decern,  'ten'),  a  military  punishment,  by 
which  every  tenth  man  was  selected  by  lot  for  death,  when  a 
lai^e  body  of  men  had  in  concert  committed  some  grave  military 
offence. 

Deo'imi,  in  music,  a  name  sometimes  used  for  the  interval 
of  a  tenth,  or  octave  and  a  third. 

Deci'eion.  The  D.  of  a  court  is  its  pronounced  judgment  in 
a  cause.  In  Scotland,  the  word  is  usually  applied  to  the  printed 
reports  of  cases  decided  in  the  Court  of  Session.  In  England 
the  decisions  of  courts  of  law  carry  greater  authority  in  defer- 
mining  the  law  than  they  do  in  Scotland ;  though  in  the  latter 
country,  two  or  more  consecutive  decisions  of  the  Court  of  Ses- 
sion, not  changed  by  the  House  of  Lords,  are  held  to  determine 

De'cius,  the  name  of  a  plebeian  family  famous  in  Roman 
legend  through  the  heroic  self-sacrifice  of  two  of  its  members. 
PublimS  D.  Mus,  one  of  the  consuls  in  the  Latin  war  of  340 
B.C.,  at  a  battle  near  Vesuvius,  when  his  troops  were  wavering, 
sought  death  in  the  tanks  of  his  enemies  after  solemnly  devoting 
himself  and  them  to  the  infernal  gods.  The  sacrifice  was  ac- 
cepted, and  victory  remained  with  the  Romans.  His  son,  also 
Publius  D.  Mus,  imitated,  witli  the  same  happy  result,  the 
paternal  example  on  the  battle-field  of  Sentinum,  Z95  B.C.,  and 
closed  a  brilliant  career  by  a  patriotic  death.  Among  the  later 
emperors  one  bore  the  name  of  D.  His  lull  name  was  Cajus 
UessiuB  Quintns  Trajanus  !D.,  but  he  was  a  Faimonian  by 
birth,  and  no  relation  of  the  old  Roman  family.  Elected  em- 
peror by  the  soldiers  of  Mcesia  in  249  A.n.,  he  ruled  vigorously 
for  two  years,  but  in  251  fell  in  battle  with  the  Goths.  His 
reign  is  chiefly  memorable  for  a  fierce  persecution  of  the  Chris- 

Deok  (Old  Eng.  daan,  '  to  cover ;'  comp.  Ger,  dsckm,  allied 
to  the  LaL  tegeri,  and  Gc.  slegein),  the  plankea  floor  or  plat- 
form of  a  ship,  laid  on  transverse  beams  and  half  beams,  and 
lonritudinal  carlings  supported  on  pillars,  and  intimately  secured 
to  nie  sides  of  the  vesseL  Besides  providing  accommodation 
and  shelter,  decks  are  of  great  structural  value  in  binding  together 
the  sides  of  the  ship,  and  in  maintaining  its  proper  form.  They 
are  slightly  curved  transversely  to  facilitate  the  free  flow  of  water 
to  the  scupper  holes.  A  lai^e  vessel  is  usually  constructed  with 
upper,  main,  lower,  and  orlop  decks ;  the  last  named  being 
lowest,  and  used  for  stowage  of  cables,  &c  j  and  over  the  upper 
deck,  at  opposite  ends  of  the  ship,  are  the  forecastle  and  quarter- 
deck. 

Decfer,  Sir  Matthew,  was  a  Dutchman  naturalised  in 
London,  where  he  began  business  in  1702,  received  a  baronetcy 
for  his  commercial  emmence  in  1716,  and  entered  Parliament  in 


1719.  He  died  18th  March  1749,  having  served  only  four  years 
in  Parliament.  In  1739  D.  wrote  an  essay  on  thecauses  of  the 
decline  of  foreign  trade,  consequently  of  the  value  of  the  lands  of 
Britain,  and  of  the  means  to  restore  both.  In  1743  appeared 
the  pamphlet,  which  reached  a  seventh  edition  ui  1756,  contain- 
ing what  is  known  as  D.'s  scheme.  It  is  best  described  by  the 
title  ; — Serious  ConsHerations  on  the  stveral  High  Duties  ■which 
the  Nation  in  Generai  [as  ■meU  as  Trade  in  Particular')  Labours 
under;  with  a  Proposal  for  Preventing  the  'Punning'  of  Goods, 
Discharging  the  Trades  from  any '  Search,'  Raising  all  the  Public 
Supplies  by  one  Sin^t  Tax.  This  was  a  house-tax,  wMch  D.  cal- 
culated would  bni^  in  ^6,000,000  per  annum. 

Declara'tion,  in  English  law,  is  the  pleading  in  which  a 
plaintiff  in  an  action  at  common  law  states  his  case  against 
the  defendant.  See  Judgment,  Default,  Nolle  Prosequi, 
Pleading. 

Doclaration,  Dying.  In  England  and  in  Scotland  the 
general  rule  of  law  is  that  secondary  or  hearsay  evidence  is  in- 
admissible in  a  trial ;  but  testimony  given  by  any  one  in  the  be- 
lief of  impending  death,  who  does  not  live  to  be  examined  at 
the  trial,  is  an  exception  to  the  rule.  It  may  be  proved  bjr 
parole  evidence ;  but  will  probably  have  greater  weight  if 
written  and  duly  tested.  In  case  of  murder  the  D.  D.  of  the 
murdered  man  weighs  heavily.  Evidence  of  this  kind  is  ad- 
missible in  favour  of  the  accused  as  well  as  against  him. 

Declaration  in  Criminal  Frocednie.  In  Scotland  tlie 
statement,  if  any,  made  by  a  prisoner,  on  being  apprehended  and 
brought  before  a  magistrate,  is  called  his  declaration.  It  is  the 
duty  of  the  magistrate  to  inform  the  prisoner  that  it  is  optional 
for  him  to  m^e  a  declaration  or  not,  but  that,  if  he  does,  it  may 
he  used  against  him  at  the  trial.  If  the  prisoner  chooses  to 
make  a  statement,  and  be  in  a  fit  state  of  mind  to  do  so,  and 
does  not  appear  to  be  under  the  influence  of  promises  or  threats, 
his  narrative  and  answers  on  examination  are  written,  and  read 
over  to  the  prisoner,  who  along  with  the  magistrate  must  smi 
each  page  of  the  document.  If  the  prisoner  cannot  write,  the 
magistrate  must  sign  on  his  behalf.  The  examination  is  com- 
monly conducted  by  the  Procurator-Fiscal  (q,  v,).  The  declara- 
tion not  being  on  oath,  has  no  force  against  any  one  but  the 
prisoner. 

Declaration  in  Place  of  Oatb.  Quakers,  Moravians, 
and  Separatists  objecting  on  religious  grounds  to  take  an  oath 
are,  in  civil  and  criminal  cases,  allowed  by  statute  to  substitute  a 
declaration  or  Affirmation  (q.  v.).  This  privilege  is  onlj-  ac- 
corded to  other  Christians  in  civil  cases,  A  false  declaration  is 
Peijury  (q.  v.).     See  also  Oath, 

Declaration  of  Title.  'B^j  Act  25  and  26  Vict  c.  67,  persons 
having  an  interest  in  land  in  England  may,  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances, obtsun  a  judicial  declaration  of"^  their  title,  so  as  to 
enable  them  to  give  an  indefeasible  title  to  a  purchaser  for  a 
valuable  consideration.  The  declaration  is  asked  for  by  petition 
to  the  Court  of  Chancery,  No  petition  is  admissible  as  to 
Copyhold  (q.  v.)  land  or  customary  tenure.  Appeal  and  peti- 
tion against  declaration  are  allowed.  Similar  procedure  is  .com- 
petent under  Scotch  law  by  what  is  called  Declarator  (q.  v. ). 

Dedar'ator,  a  form  of  action  before  tlie  Court  of  Session  in 
Scotland,  by  which  judicial  recognition  is  sought  of  some  right 
which  the  pursuer  {plaintiff}  supposes  himself  to  possess.  Where 
the  declaratory  conclusions  regaVd  property,  they  are  generally, 
though  not  necessarily,  followed  by  petitory  or  possessory  ones. 
In  an  action  of  D.,  the  pursuer  must  show  the  consequent  right 
which  will  accrue  to  him  on  the  court  making  the  declaration 
asked  for.  The  form  of  action  is  a  common  one  in  questions  of 
constitution  of  marriage.  (See  Marriage.)  Declaratory  action, 
which  is  a  valuable  and  important  form  in  the  law  of  Scotland, 
is  being  limited  in  its  application  in  English  law.  See  De- 
claration OF  Title. 

Decleneion  (Lat.  de,  •  down,"  and  clino,  Gr,  Mim,  '  1  bend ; ' 
literally  the  bending  dovin  of  a  worf's  terminal  letters),  is  the 
system  of  the  changes  of  form  or  cases  by  which  nouns,  pro- 
nouns, and  adjectives  express  their  various  relations  to  othei 
words.  These  cases  are  distinguished  by  changes  in  the  word  tc 
be  declined,  or  by  using  separate  words  (prepositions) ;  and  from 
one  point  of  view  there  might  be  as  many  cases  as  prepositions 


351 


vLiOOQle 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


r>BO 


in  a  language.  In  l!ie  Aryan  tongues  the  eaaenendings  have  been 
formed  by  the  fusion  of  separate  words,  and  tlieir  origin  is  almost 
unknown.  Languages  tend  to  simplify  D.  In  the  oldest  Aryan 
(q.  V.)  tongues  we  find  a  rich  system  of  declensional  forms,  which 
g^dually  Ssappeacs  from  more  modem  tongues.  No  fewer  than 
eight  cases  occur; — T^^Abloiioe,  denoting  the  relation  j^urn,  and 
ending  in  t  or  d — e.g.,  old  Latin  ecquod,  from  a  horse  ;  the  Loca- 
tivs,  denoting  the  relation  in,  and  ending  in  i;  the  Instrumental, 
denoting  the  relation  ■with  or  by,  ending  in  a;  the  Data/e,  the 
relation  <£Jhi-  before  a  noun,  ending  in  ai;  Ihe  Gmitivi,  denot- 
ing possession,  ending  in  asya  or  as ;  the  Accusatk/e,  ending  in 
m,  and  denoting  that  the  word  is  the  object  of  the  action  of  a 
verb,  or  is  governed  by  a  pronoun  with  the  sense  of  motion  to- 
wards ;  and  the  Vocative  or  interjectional  case,  identical  in  form 
with  the  Nonunative,  which  originally  ended  in  j.  In  Latin  we 
find  the  Locative  and  Instrumental  fiised  with  the  Dative  and 
Ablative.  In  modern  Romanic  languages  the  declensional  end- 
ings have  almost  vanished.  Old  English  had  Nominative,  Geni- , 
five,  Dative,  Accusative,  Vocative,  and  Instnunental  cases  (see 
ENtiLisH  Lakguage),  and  several  plural  endmgs,  as,  an,  u,  a, 
a.  Now  there  are  only  three  cases — Nominalwt  (Lat.  nomiaa, 
'  I  name '),  the  form  m  which  a,  noun  is  used  when  it  is  the  sub- 
ject of  a  sentence ;  the  J'assesik/e  (Lat,  possideo,  '  I  possess  '),  the 
form  denoting  possession;  and  Ihe  Objec^vt  (Lat.  sbjkio,  '  I  throw 
towards'),  used  when  a  notm  is  the  object  of  the  actiop  of  a  verb, 
or  comes  after  a  preposition.  The  Possessive  (expresses  a  rela- 
tion by  the  suffix  J,  a  contraction  from  th^  Old  English  genitival 
ending  er.  The  difference  between  Nominative  and  Objective  is 
determined  Holelj"  by  the  sense  and  position  of  flia  words.  See 
Morris's  Historical  Outlines  of  SHgiisA  Accident  (Macmillan, 
1873),  Whilney's  Lalures  on  Language,  and  Latham's  English 
Langiiage  (Lond.  (841  ;  new  ed.  1865). 

DeoTina'tion,  in  astronomy,  is  the  angular  distance  of  a 
heavenly  body  N.  or  S.  of  the  celestial  equator,  and  is  measured 
along  the  arc  of  a  great  circle  passing  through  the  body  and  llie 
poles.     It  corresponds  to  lalilude  in  geography. 

IDedinatiop,  of  the  Mftgnet'i(;  Ifee'dle  is  the  angle  of  de- 
viation from  the  true  astronomical  N.  of  a  magnet  suspended  sn 
as  to  have  free  motion  in  a  horizontal  plane.  Tiiis  deviation 
of  course  due  to  the  change  in  position  of  the  magnetic  pole,  ai__ 
is  undergoing  a  continual  alteration  for  each  locality.  From 
observations  made  at  Paris  since  the  year  1580,  the  D.  has  altered 
from  ii°30'E.  to  ZiflfJ^.m  1852,  atotal  variation  of  31°  50'. 
In  1663  the  needle  pointed  due  N.,  tlie  D.  being  then  zero. 
The  magnetic  meridians  are  so  drawn  that  the  tangent  to  the 
curve  at  any  point  represents  tlie  direction  in  which  the  D. 
needle  points;  and  these  meridians  all  converge  towards  the 
spot  where  Sir  J.  C.  Ross  found  the  angle  of  inclination  to  be 
09"  59'i  or  nearly  perpendicular.  {See  DiPPIN G-Needle,  ) 
Tlie  D. -needle  for  measuring  this  variation  is  a  highly  magnelised 
needle  delicately  suspended  In  a  closed  box,  whidi  iis  surmoimted 
by  a  telescope  for  ascertaining  the  triie  astronomical  N. 

Declin'atiire,  a  term  of  Scotch  law  denoting  objection  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  a  judge.  This  may  be  on  the  ground  of  his  being 
interested  in  the  suit,  or  of  the  case  being  beyond  his  province, 
or  of  his  bearing  enmity  to  one  of  the  parties,  or  of  his  being  too 
nearly  related  to  one  of  them, 

Decoo'tion  (Lat.  'a  boiling  down'),  a  medicinal  preparation 
obtained  by  boiling  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period  some  vegetable 
substance  in  water.     See  Infusion. 

Decompoei'tioii,  in  chemistry,  signifies  the  breaking  up  of 
a  compound  into  its  elements,  or  into  substances  of  a  less  com- 
plex nature  than  itself.  Thus  the  passage  of  the  electric  current 
through  water  (slightly  accidulated  to  make  it  conduct)  causes 
its  D.  into  the  elements  of  which  it  is  composed,  viz.,  oij^en 
and  hydrogen.  Again,  the  action  of  a  high  temperature  on  chalk 
(carbonate  of  lime)  is  to  cause  its  D.  mto  lime  and  carbonic  add. 
CaOCOa      =       CaO       +       COe 


each  may  be  considered  as  composed  are  mutually  intetcl  an.  d 
Thus,  when  solutions  of  nitrate  of  baryta  and  sulphate  ol  po  a  h 
are  mixed,  a  white  precipitate  of  sulphate  of  baryta  1  p  o 
duced,  and  the  solution  (which  may  be  filtered  fron  this  p  e 
cipilate)  contains  nitrate  of  potash. 

BaONsOj  +  K1OSO3  =   BaOSO,  +  KsON  O, 

Niiratcof         Suiphateot        Sulphatcof         Niitalc   f 
baryta,  potash,  baryta,  pota  h 

The  nitric  acid  (NjOs),  before  combined  with  baryta  (BaO)  has 
now  become  transferred  to  the  potash  (K,0),  before  combmed 
witli  sulphuric  acid  (SO3),  whereas  the  sulphuric  ac  d  has  left 
the  potash,  and  has  combined  with  the  baryta.  Both  of  the 
original  compounds  have  been  decomposed,  and  in  tl  eir  plice 
two  new  ones  have  been  produced.  Such  changes  are  of 
frequent  occurrence. 
Decomposition  of  Torcea.  See  Composition  &c 
Dec'orated  Style,  also  called  the  Middle,  Pointed  or  Ed 
wardian  style  of  Gothic  architecture  (Fr.  ogival  s  ainfa  re) 
arose  naturally  out  of  the  Early  English,  First  Pointed  or  Pla 
tagenet  style,  and  as  nattirally  led  to  the  Perpendici  kr,  Tl  d 
Pointed,  or  Tudor  style.  These  three  styles  of  Gothic  may  be 
said— without  meaning  to  affix  precise  dates— to  have  flourished 
in  England  during  the  13th,  the  14th,  and  the  15th  centuries  re- 
spectively.  Decorated  English,  the  architecture  of  the  14th  c, 
flourished,  according  to  Rickman,  from  1307  to  1377,  and  ac- 
■ng  to  Fergusson,  from  1272  to  1377.  During  this  period, 
"T  some  time  previously,  all  the  artistic  genius  of  the  country 
<^,...»  to  have  found  expression  in  the  noble  buildmgs  which 
arose  evei-ywhere.  The  amount  of  mental  activity  and  enthu- 
siasm striving  after  perfect  architectural  form  during  this  time 
resulted  in  the  erection  during  the  D,  or  middle  period  of  Gothic 
of  the  most  perfect  raedijeval  structures  m  England.  From  the 
D.  period,  Gothic  architecture  declined,  and  gave  way  eventu- 
ally to  the  classical  Renaissance.  The  arrangement  of  huiidings 
rom5ii.o.l  (bo  .■o.no  in  the  period  under  consideration  as  "-  " 


ndforsc 


Double  Decomposition  is  an  expre 
signify  the  change  which  occurs  when 
act  upon  one  another  in  such  a  manni 
353 


don  used  by  chemists  to 
two  compound  substances 
■  that  the  groups  of  which 


The  arches  of  the  windows  were  Still  pointed  as  in  the  First 
Pointed  style,  but  the  head  of  the  arch  was  decorated  with 
richer  and  much  more  intricate  and  delicate  ornamentation. 
The  vanning  was  also  richer  and  more  intricate.  This  richness 
was  obtained  by  the  introduction  of  intermediate  rilra,  which, 
crossing  each  other,  produced  stars  and  other  figures  at  the  points 
of  intersection.  In  the  earlier  part  of  this  period  ihe  window 
tracery  was  geometrical,  consistmg  of  circles,  triangles,  &c  ;  in 
the  latter,  flowing  curves  were  introduced  into  the  window 
tracery.  In  D,  Gothic,  mullions  were  employed  instead  of  pillars 
and  shafts  for  windows,  and  in  the  carving  of  capitals  a  greater 
freedom  of  eiecution  and  wealth  of  lavish  ornament  are  observ- 
able. New  mouldings  and  new  applications  of  carvings  and  foli- 
age were  introduced;  decorations  in  colour,  painted  glass,  and 
mural  paintings  were  carried  to  an  astonishing  degree  of  perfec- 
tion. This  marvellpus  development  of  architecture  in  England 
took  place  by  the  exercise  of  native  genius  alone,  and  was  in  no 
sense  due  to  imported  art  or  extraneous  aid  of  any  kind.  In  some 
instances  the  traditipns  of  French  arrangements  were  adhered  to, 
as  at  Westminster  Abbey;  'hut  even  there,'  says  Fei^usson, 
'  the  design  is  carried  on  in  so  English  a  manner,  with  details  so 
purely  English,  as  to  make  us  feel  even  more  strongly  how 
essentially  native  the  style  had  become.'  Lincoln  Cathedral,  the 
W,  front  of  York  Minster,  parts  of  Ely,  Lichfield,  Worcester, 
Wincliesler,  Norwich,  and  Canterbury  Cathedrals,  and  Hexham, 
Howden,  Dorchester,  Adderbury,  Stanton. Harcourt,  and  Bloxam 
Churches,  may  be  mentioned  as  characteristic  examples  of  this 
style.  See  Fergusson's  History  of  Architecture  in  all  Countries 
(Murray,  Lond.  1874). 

Decou'pl^,  or  UncoupTod,  in  heraldry,  means,  parled  or 
severed ;  applying,  for  example,  to  the  ends  of  a  Chevron  (q.  v.). 

Deooy'ing  of  Children.     See  Aedbction. 

Decree',  in  England,  is  the  decision  of  a  court  of  equity,  and 
is  the  same  as  judgment  at  common  law.  In  Scotland,  D.  or 
decreet  is  the  final  judgment  of  a  court.  Decrees  are  either  con- 
'  -  or  absolvitor;  the  former  is  the  term  when  decision  is 
of  the  pursuer,  the  latter  when  in  favour  of  the  defender. 
See  DbCerk. 


y  Google 


DEO 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DBH 


Dora  in  Abseiue,  in  Scotland,  is  equivalent  to  nonsuit  aga 
a  plaintiff,  ot  'judgment  by  default'  against  a  defendant  _ 
England.  Where  a  D,  in  A.  is  sought  to  be  reduced,  the  party 
seeking  reduction  must  pay  tfie  expenses  previously  decreed  tor ; 
and  if  he  obtains  the  reduction,  he  is  not  entitled  to  repayment 
of  these  previous  expenses. 

Decrees  of  God,  in  the  language  of  theology,  are  'his  eter- 
nal purpose,  whereby  he  hath  foreordained  whatsoever  comes  to 
pass.'  The  doctrine  (as  dogmfi)  originated  with  Augustine,  and 
rests  on  the  two  postulates  of  Original  Sin  inherited  from  Adam  in 
consequence  of  die  iall,  and  the  irresponsible  Sovereignty  of  God. 
From  these  pi'einises  Augustine  argued  that  an  absolute  election 
of  certain  individuals  to  eternal  Kfe,  though  resulting  purely  from 
the  divine  will,  is  not  unjust.  For  since,  both  by  original  and 
actual  sin,  all  are  transgressora  of  God's  law,  it  were  no  injustice 
if  all  had  been  left  to  perish  ;  therefore  there  is  no  injustice  in 
the  free  election  of  some  to  eternal  life.  The  complement  of 
which  is,  that  since  the  number  of  the  elect  can  neither  be  in- 
creased nor  diminished,  all  the  rest  of  mankind  are  personally 
reprobated  to  etema!  damnation.  But,  even  amoi^  those  who 
are  agreed  as  to  the  nature  of  tlie  D.  of  G.,  there  have  been  two 
views  as  to  the  order  in  which  they  took  effect ;  the  one  called 
the  Supra-lapsarian,  the  other  the  Sub-  or  Infra-lapsarian.  Ac- 
cording to  the  first,  Election  and  Reprobation  preceded  the  pur- 
pose to  create  the  world  and  permit  the  fall,  and  therefore  God 
created  some  men  to  be  saved  and  some  to  be  lost.  According 
to  the  second,  God  decreed — 1st,  the  creation  of  the  world;  ad, 
the  fall ;  3d,  the  election  of  some  to  eternal  life ;  4th,  the  re- 
demption of  the  elect ;  5th,  to  leave  the  residue  erf  mankind  to 
suffer  the  just  punishment  of  their  sins.  See  Hodge's  SwUmaik 
Thedogy  (i&T^). 

Decrepita'tion  (Lat.  de  and  crepitare, '  to  crackle ')  is  defined 
in  Johnson's  Dictionaiy  as  'the  cradiling  noise  which  salt  makes 
over  the  fire.'  This  crackUng  sound  is  often  observed  when 
other  salts  are  heated.  It  is  caused  by  the  sudden  conversion 
of  small  quantities  of  water  contained  widiin  the  crystals  into 
steam,  which  bursts  them  in  pieces. 


a'do  (Ital. '  diminishing '),  a  mark  of  expression  used 
in  music  to  indicate  a  gradual  decrease  of  loudness  unaccom- 
panied by  any  alteration  in  speed. 

Deore'taHs,  The,  form  the  second  and  smaller  part  of  the 
Corpus  Juris  Canonici  of  tlie  Church  of  Rome.  It  was  added 
in  1230  under  Pope  Gregory  IX.,  and  comprised  all  the  addi- 
tions to  the  canon  law,  in  the  shape  of  judicial  replies  by  eccle- 
siastical authorities  to  cases  submitted  to  them,  which  had  been 
made  since  the  publication  oi  the  De^ntum,  or  first  part,  in  1150. 
See  Blunt's  DUI.  of  Boar,  and  Hist.  Theology  (1872). 

DeoxetumetDecr^talia.  The  body  of  the  canon  law  con- 
sists, first,  of  the  Decrelum,  which  is  a  collection  of  the  opinions 
of  the  fathers,  popes,  and  Church  conncils  made  by  a  Benedic- 
tine monk  towards  the  close  of  the  lalh  c,  in  imitation  of  the 
Roman  Pandects  j  and,  secondly,  of  the  DecretaJia,  which  were 
collected  by  Pope  Gregory  IX.  nearly  a  century  afterwards  from 
the  decretal  rescripts  or  epistles  of  the  popes.      See  Canon 

Iteoasea'tiaa,  a  term  used  in  anatomy  to  denote  the  crossing 
of  fibres  from  one  side  to  the  other.  Thus  we  have  the  D.  of 
the  fibres  of  the  optic  nerves,  and  the  D.  of  the  motor  fibres  of 
the  Spinal  Cord  (q.  v.)  in  the  Medulla  oblongata  (q.  v.). 

Bed'imua  Potesta'tem  ('  we  have  given  power')  is  a  writ 
of  Chancery  authorising  commissioners  to  take  an  examination. 
When  a  justice  intends  to  act  under  a  commission  of  the  peace, 
he  sues  out  a  writ  of  D.  P.  from  the  clerk  of  the  crown  in 
Chancery,  empawetmg  persons  named  in  the  writ  to  administer 
the  oaths  previously  required, 

Dedao'tion.  is  a  species  of  reasoning,  of  which  the  most  im- 
portant examples  are  to  be  found  in  mathematics  and  general 
physics.  D.  starts  from  a  known  truth,  law,  or  proposition,  and 
passes  to  a  previously  unknown,  i.e.,  previously  unexplained, 
truth.  The  premise  in  D.  may  be  in  the  shape  of  a  universal 
proposition  ;  its  generality,  of  course,  varies  with  the  more  or  less 
abstract  nature  of  the  subject-matter.  The  conclusion  may  be  in 
the  shape  of  a  particular  proposition,  but  may  also  be  a  principle 
o[  wide,  application  ;  sometimes  of  precisely  the  same  width  as 
120 


the  premise.  D.  is  generally  opposed  to  induction,  or  the  in- 
ference of  a  general  conclusion  previously  unknown  from  a  com- 
parison and  sifting  of  particular  instances.  Practically  the  modes 
differ,  and  are,  indeed,  opposite :  bat  substantially,  and  in  the  end, 
the  mental  process  is  the  Same  j  it  is  the  identification  of  similars 
under  the  variety  of  conditions,  The  assumption  which  under- 
lies D.  as  well  as  induction,  and  which  renders  their  conclusions 
true  in  fact  as  well  as  formal  in  logic,  is  that  from  identic^  con- 
dilions,  positive  and  negative,  the  same  result  invariably  follows. 
Hence  the  rules  of  the  syllogism  which  have  been  contrived  to 
test  the  validity  of  inferences,  and  which  by  Hamilton,  (leber- 
weg,  and  others,  are  applied  to  induction  as  well  as  D.,  must 
not  be  confounded  with  the  act  of  inference  itself.  By  the  use 
of  symbols  sufficiently  abstract  and  significant  the  principal 
forms  of  inference  may  be  adequately  represented  (as  by  Jevons) 
in  the  equation  or  substitution  of  similars  by  a  logical  engine 
(exhibited  at  the  Royal  Society),  or  (as  by  Boole)  by  means  of  a 
special  mMhemalical  formula.  The  type  of  D.,  however,  will 
always  be  :  All  A  is  B  i  C  is  A,  .  ■.  C  is  B.  But  the  combination 
of'two  general  propositions,  where  their  joint  result  admits  of 
being  calculated,  leads  to  still  more  important  results.  In  such 
inexact  sciences  as  history,  all  that  D,  can  accomplish  is  to  ex- 
plain and  make  rational  the  previous  empirical  generalisations 
or  inductions. 

Dee  (probably  connected  with  the  Cymric  dyfi,  '  smooth'),  the 
name  of  several  rivers  in  the  island  of  Britain,  of  which  the  most 
notable  are— I.  The  D.  in  England,  which,  rising  in  Merioneth- 
shire, traverses  parts  of  Denbigh,  Flmt,  Mid  Cheshire.  From 
Chester,  where  it  is  100  yards  broad,  it  is  conveyed  by  an  artificial 
tidal  canal,  9  miles  long,  and  navigable  for  ships  of  large  burden, 
into  the  noble  estuary  which  connects  it  with  the  Irish  Sea.  It 
has  a  course  of  So  miles.  Its  waters  were  deemed  sacred  by  the 
ancient  Britons.  Drayton,  m  his  PolyolUon,  calls  it  an  '  ommoiis 
Hood;'  and  Milton,  who  i-efers  to  it  (in  Zytn&j}  under  the  name 
of  Da/a,  speaks  of  its  '  wisard  stream.'— 2.  The  Aberdeenshire 
D.,  which  has  its  sources  in  live  wells  near  the  summit  of 
Braeriach,  and  after  a  course  of  96  miles  &dls  into  the  German 
Ocean  at  Aberdeen,  About  6  miles  above  Castleton  of  Braemar 
it  rushes  through  a  narrow  cleft  called  the  Linn  of  P.  Twelve 
miles  of  its  course  is  through  Kincardineshire,  after  which  it  re- 
toadies  Aberdeenshire,  and  thenceforward  forms  th?  boundary 
between  the  counties.  Balmoral  Castle  is  on  Uie  D.— 3,  The 
Kirkcudbrightshire  D.,  which  rises  in  the  N.  of  the  county,  pur- 
sues a  south-easterly  course  of  about  4  miles,  and  then  unites 
with  the  Ken.  After  a  further  lake-like  course  of  10  miles,  it 
falls  into  the  sea  at  Kirkcudbright  It  is  navigable  for  7  miles 
from  its  mouth. 

Dee,  John,  a  celebrated  mathematician  and  astrologer,  was 
bom  at  Loudon,  12th  July  1527,  studiedat  Cambridge  and  Lou- 
vain,  at  the  latter  of  which  places  he  took  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Civil  Law,  He  returned  to  England,  obtained  Churdi  preferment, 
and  a  pension  under  Edward  VI. ,  nearly  lost  his  life  in  the  reign 
of  the  '  Bloody  Mary,"  and  acted  as  Queen  Elizabeth's  '  intelli- 
gencer' or  political  agent.  Meanwhile  he  had  gained  the  repu- 
tation of  a  sorcerer,  and  in  1574  his  country  residence  of  Mort- 
lake  was  '  wrecked '  by  a  mob,  himself  and  his  family  escaping 
with  difficulty.  How  far  D.  clauned  to  be  an  astrolc^er  is 
doubtful,  but  it  is  certam  that  he  was  an  alchemist,  and  along 
with  a  man  named  Kelly  visited  various  Continental  courts  pre- 
tending to  raise  spirits.  Returning  once  again  to  Etigiand,  he 
me  Warden  of  Manchester  College,  and  held  the  office  for 
years.  D.  died,  December  1608,  in  great  poverty,  leaving 
behind  him  many  works,  chiefly  of  a  scientific  character,  which 
in  manuscript  are  embedded  in  the  Cottonian  and  other  collec- 
tions. In  1842  D.'s  private  diary  was  published  by  the  Cam- 
bridge Society.     See  Athene  Ca»labrigiauii. 

Deed,  in  law,  is  a  formal  written  instrument,  executed  and 
authenticated  according  to  certain  technical  forms  (see  Common 
Forms),  setting  forth  the  terms  of  an  agreement.  Every  D. 
requires  a  party  or  parties  capable  of  contracting  obligation,  and 
subject  to  no  legal  disqualification,  actual  or  presumed.  See 
Consent,  Idiot,  Pupil,  Minor,  Marriage;  Deathbed, 
Law  of;  Bankrupt,  Conjunct,  Confident,  Fraud.  A 
D.  must  be  founded  upon  a  valuable  consideration  (see  CoN- 
not  on  fraud  or  collusion  to  deceive  purchasers 
The  last  requisite  to  a  D.  is  the  attestation  or 

3S3 


vLjOOqIc 


DEE 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DEF 


ctecution  of  it  in  presence  of  witnesses,  though  this  is  in  most 

ses  only  required  for  preservation  of  evidence,  the  attestation 

t  being  an  essential  part  of  the  D.    For  manner  of  execu- 

m  in  England,  see  Signing,  Sealjng,  and  Deuveey.     For 

Scotland,  see  Tbsting-Ciause,  Witness,  Registration  oj^ 

DS  AND  Writs,  Holograph. 

is  not  essential  to  a  D.  that  it  should  be  dated.     TVhere  no 

is  inserted,  the  time  will  be  reckoned  from  the  delivery.   See 

Charter,  Will,  Disposition,  Indenture,  Delivery  of 
*  Deed. 

Deed  Poll,  in  the  law  of  England,  is  a  deed  made  and  exe- 
cuted by  one  party.  The  etymologi^  derivation  of  the  term  is 
that  a  D.  P.  is  close  c%tt  or  shaved,  while  an  Indenture  (q.  v.)  is 
indented  at  the  top. 

Deem'ster,  Dempster,  or  Doomster  (orig.  Demtr  or 
Demere,  '  a  judge,'  froni  demon,  '  to  judge,'  mod.  '  deem'-ster 
(orig.  sire),  being  a  feminine  termination),!' the  nanie  given  m 
Scotland  to  the  (rfEcer  who  formerly  pronounced  the  doom  (Old 
Eng.  dom)  or  sentence  of  death  on  condemned  prlsonBis  in  the 
High  Court  of  Justiciary.  His  office  of  D. ,  to  which  was  super, 
added  that  of  public  executioner,  no  longer 
of  Man  the  word  re''" —  "'"  ' 
'  demtters '  are  jtidges. 

Deer  (Old  Eng.  deor,  any  wild  animal  or  beast ;  comp.  Ger 
thier,  Lat/era,  Gr.  tifr),  a  family  of  Ungulala,  or  hoofed  quad- 
ds,  belonging  to  the  Ruminant  (q.  v.)  division  of  that  group 
The  D.  ai'e  Artiodadyle  ungu- 
lata,  that  is,  possess  an  even 
number  of  toes.  The  horns  or 
antlers  of  the  D.  are,  firstly,  of 
solid  nature;  and,  secondly,  are 
deciduous,  or  shed  annually 
ITiis  first  character  distinguishes 
them  from  the  Antelopes  (q  v  ), 
which  belong  to  the  femily  Cauir- 
comia  or  '  hollow-homed'  ru- 
□linants,  and  which  are  not  in 
any  sense  to  be  confiised  with 
the  CervidiE  or  D.  The  antlers 
are  more  or  less  branched ;  the 
munber  and  complexity  of  the 
branches  increasing  as  the  animal 
advances  in  years.  They  are  shed 
and  reproduced  at  the  breeding 
, the  frontal  bone.  They  are  repro- 
duced by  a  process  resembling  that  of  the  production  of  new 
bone  in  man.  A  sensitive,  hairy,  and  vascular  skin,  named  the 
'velvet,'  at  first  covers  the  antlers,  but  as  growth  proceeds  is 
worn  off  The  horns  of  the  Cervidm  are  borne,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  reindeers,  by  the  males  alone,  file  other  charac- 
ters of  this  group  comprise  the  presence  of  a  tsar-pit,  larmier, 
or  lachrymal  sinus,  a  gland  of  sebaceous  nature,  situated  be- 
neath each  eye.  This  structure  secretes  a  waxy  substance,  the 
fiinction  of  which  is  undetermined,  although  from  its  strong  odour 
it  has  been  thought  to  be  associated  with  the  sexual  instmcts  of 
these  animals.  The  teeth  generally  number  thirty-two,  and,  as 
in  ^  ruminants,  no  upper  incisors  exist.  The  lower  incisors 
number  six,  the  lower  canines  two,  the  premolars  and  molars 
six  ip  each  jaw.  In  some  D,  [e-g.,  Muntjak),  upper  canines  exist. 
D.  are  found  all  over  the  world,  save  in  Australia  and  S.  Africa. 
The  antelopes,  indeed,  take  the  place  of  the  D.  in  the  latter 
eontment  The  more  important  species  of  D.  will  be  described 
in  special  articles  (<;.^. ,  Cakjacou,  Reihdbbe,  Sta(j,  Elk,&c.). 
The  Musk  D.  (q,  v.),  (MoscMdis),  it  may  here  be  noted,  form 
of  themselves  a  distinct  family.  They  are  distinguished  from  the 
Cervida  chiefly  by  the  jftesence  of  canine  teeth  in  both  jaws,  and 
by  the  absence  of  horns  in  both  sexes.  The  canines  of  the  males 
form  tusks,  but  those  of  the  females  are  of  small  size, 

Deer,  or  Deir,  Old  (Gael,  dir,  now  deur,  'a  tear,'  ftom 
DroEtan's  tears  at  parting  with  Columba ;  or  more  probably  dair, 
'an  oak"),  a  parish  of  Buchan,  Aberdeenshire.  St  Columba  and 
St  Droslan  planted  a  church  here  about  jSo.  Two  miles  W.  of 
the  pariah  church  stood  a  Cistercian  abbey,  founded  by  Wiljiam 
Cnmyn,  Earl  of  Buchan,  about  1219,  The  land,  now  lai^ely 
peat-moss,  was  once  covered  with  oaks.  For  local  culture,  ^ 
Club  of  D,  was  formed,  1868.  SieeVeiex's  Peai-Mbsses  o/Suihan 
(Aberd.  1876). 
354 


er  (Mais). 


Deir,  Book  of.  After  the  Reformation,  some  MSS.  of  the 
Abbey  of  Deir  found  their  way  to  the  library  of  Cambridge 
University.  MrH.  Bradshaw,  of  that  libi'ary,  discovered  in  i860 
among  them  the  B.  of  D.,  containing  the  Gospel  of  John,  with 
parts  of  the  other  Gospels,  in  Latin,  in  the  writing  of  the  9th 
c.  ;  also  Visitation  of  the  Sick,  with  a  Celtic  rubric  of  a  later 
date.  In  writing  of  the  I2th  c  are  various  Celtic  notes,  relating 
that  Columcille  and  Drostan  came  from  Hi  to  Aberdour,  and 
received  a  grant  of  Deir.  This  rare  and  authentic  Gaelic 
memorial  sheds  much  light  upon  that  period.  See  Stuart's 
B.  ofD.  (Spalding  Club,  Edinb.  1869). 

DeerbOulLd,  or  Staghoimd,  a  variety  of  dog  closely  allied 
to  the  Bloodhound  (q.  v.),  and  believed  to  result  fi-om  the  inter- 
hieeding  of  the  latter  with  the  greyhound.  The  D.  is  a  large 
di^,  with  hair  of  moderate  length,  and  generally  of  light-brown 
or  tawny  colour.  It  possesses  great  speed,  strength,  and  powers  of 
endurance.  Its  scent  is  also  powerful  and  It  is  courageous  enough 
to  often  master  an  infuriated  stag  at  bay.  When  stag-chasmg 
was  in  vogue,  this  breed  of  dogs  was  much  cultivated,  but  lately 
it  has  been  much  neglected.  The  D.  used  in  Deerstalking 
(q,  v.)  is  either  tlie  staghound  proper,  or  a  breed  in  which  this 
latter  variety  is  represented. 

Deer  Mpuae,  or  Jumpmg  MouBe  [Meriones),  a  genua  of 
Eodtiuia  found  m  America,  recognised  by  the  great  relative 
length  of  the  hind-limbs,  and  by  Uie  want  of  hairs  on  the  tail 
They  also  difter  from  the  ordmary  mice  in  some  insignificant 
details  in  their  dentition  The  best  known  species— the  Cana- 
dian J    M    {!H  Cmmdmsis)  and  the  M  Labradoricus^hfatt- 

DeerBtaJting,  the  art  of  tracltmg  deer  for  the  purpose  of 
shooting  them  The  hunter  is  obliged  to  resort  to  a  series  of 
manceuvres  on  account  of  the  delicate  sense  of  smell  and  cau- 
tious instmcts  of  the  game  Typical  D  is  only  practised  in  the 
Scottish  Highlinds  A  perfei-t  knowledge  of  the  entire  '  forest' 
or  deer-ground  is  the  first  essential  in  the  sportsman  or  his  guide, 
since  advantage  may  sometimes  have  to  be  taken  of  the  most 
apparently  trifling  feature  which  the  ground  may  present.  The 
dogs  or  deerhounds  employed  must  be  trained  to  perfect  silence 
and  obedience.  The  deerstalker  is  greatly  at  the  mercy  of  the 
wind  and  weather.  The  fine  scent  of  deer  necessitates  the 
hunter's  advance  up  or  against  the  wind  ;  whilst  concealment, 
through  wearing  a  dress  of  much  the  same  colour  as  the  ground, 
and  by  cautiously  moving  about  under  shelter,  must  be  attended 
to.  Advance  from  higher  to  limer  ground  upon  the  game  is 
generally  preferred,  as  the  deer  are  apt  to  look  to  the  low  ground 
as  the  source  of  danger;  and  in  valley  and  low-ground  stalking, 
frequently  advance  1ms  to  be  made  in  the  pron,e  position.  The 
deerstalker  may  at  length  arrive  within  a  hundred  yards  of  the 

Juarry,  and  selecting  the  finest  animal  of  the  herd,  alms  for  the 
joulder,  or  slightly  behind  this  point  When  the  deer  is  not 
mortally  wounded,  the  honnds  are  slipped,  and  chase  is  begun. 
The  attendant  'gillies'  disembowel  the  dead  deer;  this  pro- 
cess, termed  gralTocMng  in  hunting  parlance,  being  supposed  to 
keep  the  flesh  from  becoming  tainted.  '  Driving*^  the  deer  to- 
wards certain  points  is  employed  when  a  large  party  of  shooters 
are  present,  but  this  latter  procedure  has  none  of  the  finesse  of 
true  '  stalking.' 

Deer-Stealing'.  This  offence,  if  committed  in  the  enclosed 
portion  of  a  park,  ia  by  statute  felony,  punishable  by  two  years' 
imprisonment  viith  hard  labour.  If  the  deer  be  in  nnenclosed 
ground,  the  punishment  for  the  first  offence  is  a  fine  not  exceed- 
ing £S°  J '"  the  latter  case,  asecond  offence  is  felony.  In  Scot- 
land, shooting  deer  in  a  park  without  permission  is  regarded  as 
theft  i  if  the  deer  is  outside  the  park,  the  offence  is  punishable 
by  iine.  A  proprietor  is  not  entitled  to  kill  deer  trespassing  on 
his  properly,  but  he  may  drive  them  off. 

Be  TactO  is,  in  law,  a  tiling  actually  done  or  existing.  A 
king  de  facto  is  one  in  possession  of  sovereignty.  A  king  de 
jure  is  one  who  ia  considered  to  have  a  right  to  a  crown,  but  is 

Deffeoa'tiou,  the  act  of  voiding  the  feeces  Iw  the  anus,  is 
accomplished  'by  the  combined  contraction  of  the  abdominal 
muscles,  and  the  simultaneous  opening  of  the  sphincter  or  ring- 
like muscle  which  keeps  the  anal  opening  closed.  Previous  to 
the  action  of  the  abdominal  muscles,  the  glottis  is  closed  so  aa  to 


yLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBM  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


prevent  the  upward  motion  of  the  diaphragm,  and  thus  the 
abdominal  wall  presses  with  advantage  on  the  bowels.  These 
""'' e  assisted  by  the  contraction  of  the  walls  of  the  """' — 


The  anal  opening  is  controlled  by  a  ganglii 
situated  in  the  lower  part  of  tlie  spinal  cord,  su  _ 
ettent,  to  the  control  of  the  will.     Thus  D.  may  be  delayed  by 


powerful  efforts  of  the  will,  hut  if  the  fseces  press  firmly  on  the 
'imer  surface  of  the  sphincter  ani,  the  effort  of  the  will  ia  soon 
if  no  avail.  Accorihog  to  most  authorities,  the  desire  for  D. 
s  the  result  of  the  sensation  caused  by  the  descent  of  the  fjeces 
from  the  sigmoid  flexure  of  the  colon  mto  the  rectum.  In  some 
circumstances,  however,  the  rectum  may  be  loaded  with  feces 
without  any  desire  to  void  tliem, 

Defama'tioii.    See  Libel. 

Defaillt'  is  an  English  law-term  usually  held  as  expressing 
the  fact  of  non-appearance  in  court  on  the  day  assigned, 
though  the  term  is  applicable  to  any  omission.  If  a  plaintiff 
makes  D.  in  appearance,  he  will  be  nonsuited.  D.  on  the  part 
of  a  defendant  ensues  in  'judgment  by  default.'  In  either  of 
these  cases,  the  parly  may  be  reponed  on  payment  of  expenses. 

Defeaa'ance,  Deedof,  in  English  law,  is  adeed  which  coun- 
teracts the  operation  of  another  deed.  A  provision  in  a  deed 
which  modifies  the  main  provision  is  called  a  amditioH  ;  when 
the  modification  is  by  a  separate  deed  it  is  called  a  defiasance, 
which  may  be  held  fraudulent,  but  is  not  necessarily  so.  For 
Scotch  law  as  to  this,  see  Disposition  Absolute,  Wadset. 
Jefen'cea,  in  Scotch  law,  is  the  general  name  given  to  the 
M  offeied  for  the  defender  for  cutting  away  the  grounds  of 
on  stated  in  the  Libel  {q.  v. ).  Such  pleas  are  generally  all 
stated  in  the  first  paper  put  into  process  for  the  defender ;  and 
in  the  judicial  procedure  in  ordinary  actions  that  paper  is  called 
theD. 

Defau'dant.  In  English  law,  he  who  begins  an  action  is 
termed  the  plainiiff;  the  person  against  whom  it  is  brought  is 
termed  the  defindaiU.    In  Scotch  law,  the  name  used  is  defendtr. 

Sefen'der  of  the  Faith,  a  title  conferred  on  Henry 
VIII.  by  Pope  Leo  X.  in  1521  for  the  vigour  of  his  ortho- 
dosy.  Though  recalled  on  the  King's  espousing  the  cause  of 
the  Reformation,  it  has  been  used  by  English  sovereigns  ever 

De  Fideli.  The  oath  de  fiddi  administralions  is  an  oath 
taken  by  persons  on  entering  on  the  duties  of  some  public 
appointments.     A  breach  of  it  does  not  constitute  perjury. 

Defila'ding,  in  fortification,  is  divided  into  horizontal  and 
vertical.  The  object  of  the  first  is  to  di  ect  the  laces  of  a  work 
3  that  the  enemy  cannot  enfilad   th     m  ak     h  m   n  re- 

erse  ;  and  of  the  last,  so  to  arr  h     h  igh  h     r-i.mpart 

that  the  enemy  cannot  see  into  d  fha     h    m  m  y  be 

safe  from  direct  tire. 

Defile'  (Lat.  filwm,  'a  thte  d  tary    ai  g    g     any 

passage  so  narrow  that  troops  can  rs  y    n  _^      or 

wilh  a  small  number  abreast. 

Definite  Propor'tions.    S     A  om     The  e. 

Deflni'tion  (Gr.  korismos)  is  th       m  and     d     y        e- 

ment  of  the  contents  of  a  notion  I  mu  a  as  con  ain  he 
superordinate  or  genus  notion,  and  h      p     fi    d  IT  which 

makes  the  species  distinct.  "  D.  is  so  used  as  a  powerful  weapon 
of  dialectic  by  Plato  in  the  Gorgias,  where  he  defines  rhetoric,  and 
n  l^eXipuMk,  where  he  defines  the  virtues.  The  Greek  terms 
used  in  the  Themtetas  for  genus  and  spedes  are  koinen  and 
diapkora.  Aristotle  calls  D.  the  exact  knowledge  (gndrismos)  of 
a  substance.  '  Specific  difference '  is  a  translation  by  Boethius 
from  Aristotle's  phrase  diaphera  adopois.  The  rule  is,  that  D. 
should  mention  the  proximate  genus,  but  this  is  not  always  fol- 
lowed— i.g. ,  a  circle  is  never  denned  as  a  conic  section,  but  as  a 
plane  figure.  The  connection  in  wliich  a  D.  is  given  will  often 
surest  that  a  remoter  genus  and  a  larger  specific  difference 
should  be  used.  Opposite  views  of  D.  are  to  be  found  in  Hegel, 
who  merges  D.  in  the  dlalecdcal  genesis  of  the  notion,  and  Mill, 
who  maintains  that  D.  is  merely  of  the  meaning  of  names,  and 
not  of  things.  All  names,  even  those  denoting  a  single  abstract 
quality,  which  have  a  meaning,    may  therefore   he  defined,   if 


not  from  their  content  or  coimotation,  then  from  their  causes. 
Mill,  therefore,  does  not  recognise  the  ordinary  division  of  real 
and  nominal  definitions.  The  meanings  of  substantial  and  gene- 
tic, essential  and  attributive  D.  will  be  found  in  worlS  on 
formal  logic  D.  obviously  merges  into  exposition,  description, 
and  explanation,  and  different  definitions  of  the  same  notion  are 
possible  where  a  reciprocal  dependence  of  essential  attributes 
exists ;  as  in  the  various  definitions  of  a  circle  by  the  cnrve  of 
the  straight  line  which  produces  it,  by  the  equidistance  of  points 
in  the  circumference,  and  by  the  section  parallel  to  the  base  of 
the  right  cone.  The  great  faults  of  D.  are  too  great  width 
narrowness,  redundancy,  tautology,  figurative  expression, 
mere  negations,  or  reference  to  subordinate  notions.  The  circle 
or  diakUon  occurs  where  A  is  defined  by  B,  and  then  B  by  ^ 
e^.,  'A  feeling  is  pleasant  when  it  is  desired  because  of  itself.' 
Plato's  D.  of  the  idea  of  good  as  the  sun  in  the  kingdom  of  ideas 
is  a  splendid  specimen  of  figurative  D. 


Def.eo'tiDn, 

direction  of  mot 
tlon  (q.  v.). 
Defluz'ioQ. 


See  Catarrh. 


De  Foe,  Daniel,  an  English  classic,  was  born  in  London 
in  1661.  He  mas  intended  for  the  Dissenting  ministry,  but, 
after  leaving  Nemington  Green  School,  became  an  agent  in 
the  hosiery  trade.  He  began  writing  pamphlets  at  the  age 
of  nineteen,  joined  Monmouth's  rising  in  1685,  traded  t 
Spain  for  wool,  became  banltrapt  in  1692,  started  a  par 
tile  manu&ctory,  and  in  1693  was  made  accountant  to  th 
commissioners  of  glass-duties,  an  office  which  he  held  until 
1699.  In  1701  his  True  Bom  Englishman,  a  satire  in  favour 
of  William  HI.,  won  him  that  king's  good-will,  but  in  1703, 
the  irony  of  his  Short  Way  wilk  the  Oisseniers  being  misunder- 
stood, he  vras  imprisoned  untU  1704,  when  he  was  libeiated 
through  the  influence  of  Harl^,  and  taken  into  Government 
service.  In  1706  he  was  sent  to  Edinburgh  as  a  secret  agent 
to  promote  the  Union — a  mission  which  he  skilfully  executed. 
On  the  accession  of  Geoi^e  I.,  D.  did  not,  as  was  o 
posed,  retire  from  his  connection  with  Government, 
employed  to  write  under  Jacobite  colours,  and  thus,  as 
'take  away  the  sting'  from  an  obnoxious  journal,  Di 
later  years  he  betook  himself  to  fiction,  pubhshing  . 
Crusoeia  i']1%3:dA  Moll  Flanders,  youmal  of  Ike  Fiagae,  Colonel 
Jack,  Captain  Singleton,  Duncan  Campbell,  and  Roxana  between 
1720  and  1724.  He  wrote  also  Memoirs  of  a  Cazw/ar  (undated). 
He  died  at  London,  April  26,  1731.  D.  was  a  patriotic  contro- 
versialist, honest  in  his  aims,  if  not  very  scrupulous  in  his  means. 
His  voluminous  writings  amount  to  210  works  in  prose  and 
verse,  but  his  fame  as  a  novelist  has  led  to  foi^etfulness  of  his 
labours  as  a  pamphleteer.  His  style  is  homely,  graphic,  and 
perspicuous,  and  his  vocabulary  is  of  almost  Shakespearian  rich- 
ness. His  novels  are  autobiographic  in  form,  and  characterised 
by  an  irresistible  air  of  veracity,  due  to  his  skilful  manipulation 
of  minute  and  prosaic  incidents.  Rohinson  Crusoe  is  a  universal 
source  of  delight.  See  ljte'%  U/e  0/ D.  (1869),  Masson's  SnVii^ 
Naiielists,  and  Zl.'j  Works,  edited  by  Su:  Walter  Scott,  9  vols.,  in 
Bohn's  British  Classics. 

Deforoe'inent,  a  term  of  English  law,  denoting  the  holding 
of  any  land  or  tenement  to  which  another  has  the  right.  The 
party  wrongfully  keeping  possession  is  called  the  deforcianl.  In 
Scotch  law,  D.  is  an  act  of  contempt  of  the  law,  consisting  in 
violent  opposition  of  a  duly  empowered  officer  in  the  execution 
of  his  duty.    In  extreme  cases  D.  may  be  held  a  capital  crime. 

DefraTid'ing  of  Credit'ors.  Creditors  may  be  defrauded 
by  the  funds  of  their  debtor  being  concealed,  hy  their  being  con- 
veyed to  favourite  creditors,  or  by  the  undue  increase  of  debls 
against  the  estate  of  the  debtor.  Creditors  have  redress  by 
common  law  and  under  the  bankruptcy  statutes  of  England  and 
Scotland.     See  Bamkruptcy. 

Defrauding  the  Beatnue. — Any  contrivance  by  which  an  im- 
perial tax  or  duty  is  evaded  constitutes  this  offence.  By  the 
treaty  of  Union  between  England  and  Scotland,  the  law  regard- 
ing it  is  the  same  in  the  two  countries, 

Degeran'do,  Toi.  Marie,  Baron,  a  French  philanthropist 
and  philosopher,  was  born  at  Lyons,  29th  February  1772,  and 
after  various  vicissitudes  served  in  thearmy  of  Massena  asacora-    | 


35S 


vGooqIc 


DEG 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


mon  soldier.  While  tlras  employed  he  wrote,  among  other  philo- 
sophical  treatises,  Mistcire  tom^ark  dis  Systhnes  de  PkUosophk, 
raativemeiH  attx  Fritidpsi  des  Counaissances  Hapiatnes  (Par. 
1803),  which  is  considered  one  of  the  hest  French  works  on  the 
philosophy  of  history.  In  1804  he  was  admitted  into  the 
Acadimie  des  Inscriptions  et  des  Bellas  Lettres,  while  he  also 
rose  high  in  office  under  Napoleon.  D.  was  a  philanthiopist  as 
well  as  ethical  philosopher,  writing  Le  Vtsiteur  du  Pamirs  (Par. 
1820),  Educati<ra  des  Sourds-MuOs  de  Naistana  (Par.  1S27), 
and  I?es  Progris  de  ^Industrie  (Par.  1841).     He  was  made  b 

Ser  in   1837,  and  died  November   12,   1S42. — His  son,  A. 
egerando,  has  atlained  some  repute  as  a  writer  on  historical 

Degg'endorf,  a  town  of  Lower  Bavaria,  on  the  Danube, 
near  the  spot  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Kolbach,  29  miles  N.W. 
of  Passau.  The  river  is  here  crossed  by  a  woodeu  bridge  1200 
feet  long.  To  one  of  the  fine  churches  of  the  Geiersberg  thou- 
sands of  pilgrims  yearly  repidr,  when  its  'doors  of  grace'  are 
opened.  The  town  has  linen  and  pottery  manufactories,  wax 
retineries,  and  trade  in  cattle,  fruit,  and  wood,  and  some  river 
traffic  Pop.  (1871)  5452.  D.  was  conquered  and  destroyed  by 
Ottoltar  II.  of  Bohemia  in  1266,  was  the  scene  of  a  massacre 
of  the  Jews  in  1337,  suffered  severely  in  the  'Thirty  Years' 
War,'  and  was  reduced  to  ashes  in  1743  during  the  Austrian 
War  of  Succession. 

Deglut'ition  is  the  act  of  swallowing.  Two  stages  are  dis- 
tingaiSied  :— (i)  The  bolus  of  food  is  pushed  backwards  towai-ds 
the  anterior  arch  of  the  fauces  by  the  application  of  the  tongue 
to  the  hard  palate,  (2)  When  the  bolus  has  passed  between 
the  anterior  pillars  of  the  fauces,  these  are  closed  by  the  con- 
traction of  two  small  muscles  termed  the  palaio-glossi,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  root  of  the  tongue  approaches  the  soft  palate. 
Thus  the  bolus  is  prevented  from  passing  forward  into  the 
mouth.  The  entrance  to  the  posterior  apertures  of  the  nostrils 
is  occluded  by  the  closure  of  the  posterior  pihars  of  the  fauces, 
the  elevation  of  the  soft  palate,  or  velUm  pendulum  paUti,  so 
that  its  free  border  touches  the  back  of  the  pharyni,  and  by  the 
uvula  fiOing  up  Ihe  little  chink  or  gap  between  the  posterior 
pillars  of  the  fauces.  At  the  same  time  the  hyoid  bone  and  the 
larynx  are  approximated  and  drawn  forwards  and  upwards  hy 
the  action  of  various  muscles,  so  tliat  the  root  of  tlie  tongue  is 
bent  backwards  and  pressed,  along  with  the  epiglottis,  ujjon  the 
opening  of  the  larynx.  The  food  is  prevented  from  entering  the 
larynx  by  the  approximation  of  the  true  vocal  cords,  and  by  the 
apposition  of  the  epiglottis  to  the  openmg.  Thus  it  is  prevented 
from  passing  into  (a)  the  mouth,(4)  the  nose,  and(i;)  the  larynx,  and 
it  has  no  way  left  for  it  but  to  pass  into  the  cesophagus  or  gullet, 
into  which  it  is  propelled  by  the  action  of  the  constrictors  of  the 
pharynx.  While  the  bolus  is  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
tonsils,  it  is  covered  over  with  mucus,  so  as  to  facilitate  its  pas- 
sage.  D.  is  a  purely  automatic  action.  To  excite  it  a  stimulus 
must  be  applied  to  the  fauces.  Once  the  mechanism  has  been 
set  agoing,  no  effort  of  the  will  can  arrest  it,  D.  is  also  per- 
formed when  the  will  is  in  abeyance,  as  during  sleep,  in  profound 
coma,  or  afier  removal  of  the  cerebral  hemispheres.  It  is  an 
excellent  example  of  a  reflex  action,  the  centre  of  which  is 
situated  in  the  medulla  oblongala.  The  sensory  impressions  are 
conveyed  to  the  centre  chiefly  through  the  glosso -pharyngeal 
nerves,  branches  of  the  fifth  to  the  fauces,  and  the  superior 
laryngeal  brandies  of  the  pneumo-gostric  to  the  pharynx.  The 
motor  impressions  travel  along  the  pharyngeal  branches  of  the 
pneumo-gastric,  branches  of  the  hypoglossal  to  the  musci  f 
the  tongue,  motor  filaments  of  the  recurrent  laryngeals 
pneumo-gastrics,  branches  of  the  fifth  to  the  elevator  mus  es 
the  lower  jaw,  branches  of  the  facial,  and  lastly,  branches 
cervical  plexus, 

Degrada'tion,  a  term  of  English  law,  denoting  an  e 
astical  censure  by  which  a  clergyman  is  divested  of  hi 
orders.      Summary  D.   is  by  word  only.      Solemn  D. 
stripping  the  offender  of  the  insignia  of  his  office,    A  nobleman 
or  knight  may  be  similarly  degraded,  when  attainted  of  treason. 
Degra'ded,  in  heraldry,  having  steps  or  placed  upon  steps ; 
said  of  a  Latin  cross,  or  crvss  calvary,  on  steps,  which  diminish 
as  Ihey  rise  towards  the  centre. 

Degree',  in   angular  measure,  is  the   90th  part  of  a  right 
angle;  and,  as  a  circular  measure,  is  the  arc  comprised  by  ' 

3sa 


radii  which  make  such  an  angle  betwi 
cumference,  then,  is  divided  into  3G0  d 
made  Up  of  sixty  minutes,  and  each  n 


ach  of'  which  is 

^  ..  subdivided  into 

J    The    French,    however,    have    introduced  the 

Decimal  System  (q.  v.)  here,  as  in  all  their  methods  of  measure, 
a  right  angle  being  made  up  of  loo  degrees,  each  D.  of  too 
inutes,  and  each  minute  of  100  seconds. 
Degree,  in  music,  a  term  sometimes  used  in  reference  to  Ihe 
relative  position  of  two  notes  upon  the  staff. 

Degree,  University,  originally  Implied  a  Ikentia  doctndi, 
or  licence  to  teach  withm  the  university,  as  is  still  the  case  with 
the  prhiat-doctnt  of  modem  German,  universities.  The  modern 
D.  is  reci^nised  by  public  legislation  outside  the  univers  ty  as 
qualifying,  when  other  conditions  are  fulfilled,  for  the  exe  c  se 
of  certain  learned  professions  ;  but  fa-  se  it  is  merely  a  fo  m  1 
by  the  university  that  the  graduate  has  passed  h  0  gl 
■"   '  idy,  and  shown  a  certain  pcofic  c ' 


..rtained  by  examination.  The  conferring  of  degrees  an  I  he 
appointment  of  examiners  were  generally  in  the  hands  of  1  e 
Chancellor,  who,  in  the  case  of  an  Episcopal  city,  was  of  en  tl  e 
bishop  or  his  nommee.  The  licenlia  docendiia  the  school  ome 
times  attached  to  univer^ties  was  a  different  matter,  and  was 
often  sold  to  incompetent  persons.  The  earliest  degrees  known 
are  probably  those  in  Arts  con'  ''  '  "  '  ■  -"  ■ 
and  which,  according  to  De  Be  , 
sity,  were  introduced  by  Iruerius  mto  the  University  of  Bologna 
in  1 150,  and  thence  transferred  to  Paris,  In  theory  all  degrees 
are  conferred  by  the  crown,  or  in  eariy  Catholic  limes  by  tlie 
Pope,  through  the  nniversitles  empowered  to  that  effect  in  bulls 
or  cimrters ;  the  qualifications  being  ascertained  by  each  i-'aailty, 
or  body  of  teachers  or  graduates,  who  were  privileged  to  lecture 
and  make  statutes.  The  first  degrees  given  at  Paris  were  in 
Arts  i  the  inferior  D.  (given  with  a  robe  (o  the  medical 
student  of  two  years'  standing  who  had  passed  an  examin 
lion,  and  to  the  student  in  canon  law  of  three  years'  stan. 
ing)  was  that  of  Bachelor  (q.  v.).  The  term  is  said  to  ha' 
been  first  introduced  to  universities  by  Gregory  IX.,  and  h 
been  extensively  adopted.  The  names  Masler  and  Doctor  at  fii-st 
referred  indiscriminately  to  all  teachers  in  the  univeisity  who 
had  obtained  graduation;  but  later  Doctor  was  appHed  to 
the  teachers  of  law,  theology,  and  medicine,  and  Master  re- 
stricted to  teachers  of  philosophy,  classics,  mathematics,  &c, 
condition  of  even  the  imperfect  D.  of  Bachelor  to 
lurse  of  lectures  under  some  Master  of  the  Faculty  in 
which  the  D,  was  taken.  This  obligation  continued  when  a  full 
D.  was  taken;  hence  the  phrase  of  'necessary  regency'  ■ 
period  of  compulsory  teaching,  after  which  graduates,  if  they 
pleased,  might  become  honorary  regents.  At  Paris  there  was 
an  eariier  stage  than  that  of  Bachelor— viz. ,  that  of  Determiner, 
who,  after  two  years'  study  m  grammar  and  philosophy,  made 
certain  declarations  that  he  would  complete  the  three  and  a  half 
years'  study  required  for  Bachelor  in  Arts.  The  Bachelor  w 
distinguished  from  the  Master  by  a  round  cap,  in  place  of  the 
academical  iiood.  A  second  period  of  three  and  a  half  years' 
study  was  gone  through  before  the  fiill  D.  was  obtained; 
there  was  a  futther  ceremony  by  which  the  magisler  becain 
socius  of  the  Faculty.  At  Paris,  peculiar  solemnity  attachec 
the  D.  of  'D.D.,'  fifteen  years'  study  being  neces  rj 
Bologna,  the  gianting  of  degrees  had  in  the  12th  c.  b 
polised  by  separate  colleges  of  canon  law,  philosophy,  m 
cine  doctors,  which  had  each  a  prior,  and  held  pnbli  m 
d  ddg  the  cathedral.     In  all  1 

F  m      h       attained  some  degree        in 


gan 


ig    fied 


of  c 


^  .. the  right  to  admit  \  as 

by    h    doc    rs    P  pe  H         us  III.   decreed  that  al   p 
n  egr         h  der  the  superintende 

h      CO        Th    lam    gi         o  the  second  or  publi 
tion  was  conventns ;  prior  to  wMclithe  candidate,  hav   g    i 
the  examen  by  vote  of  the  Faculty,  was  called  a 
having  a  right  to  lecture  with  the  permission  of    h 
Even  unlicensed  students  might  after  a  period  of       d 
licence  of  teachmg,  and  by  an  exhaustive  thesis  or      po 
gam  the  title  of  Bachelor.      Bologna  is  remarkable  f 
that  women  have  there  received  degrees  and  lectured 


-^ 


yLaOogle 


DBG 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


subjects.  The  graduates  had  to  bear  the  expense  of  tie  magrn- 
ficent  procession  which  preceded  graduation-  The  hgentei  of 
Bologna,  or  those  who  actually  lectured,  correspond  to  the 
regents  of  other  nniversities.  In  modem  times,  the  examination 
generally  proceeds  by  public  examiners  together  with  represen- 
tatives of  the  universities.  Such  degrees  as  the  Oxford  B.A., 
M.B.,  andB.C.L,  are  obtained  by  fees,  residence  and  examina- 
tions;  otheis,  as  the  Oxford  M.A.,  M.D.,  and  D.C.L.,  by  fees 
and  residence.  Generally,  at  Orford,  a  certificate  is  required 
from  two  of  the  four  schools  of  Bers  humaniares,_  natural 
science,  mathematics,  and  law  and  natural  history  ;  htera  hu- 
nianicrts  being  one.  In  Arts  the  public  examinations  are  pre- 
ceded by  responsions !  in  divinity  a  disputation,  in  medicine  a 
dissertation,  and  in  muac  a  composition,  is  generally  required. 
At  Cambridge  there  are  a  few  points  of  nominal  difference.  The 
first  exammation  is  called  the  '  UtUe  Go,'  and  the  honours 
examinations  are  called  the  matliematical,  classical,  and  mora! 
science  triposes  respectively.  Every  D.  must  be  signed  by  the 
Master  of  the  College  to  which  the  candidate  belongs,  and  before 
the  D.  is  conferred  by  the  Vice-Chancellor  a  grace  or  supplkat 
must  have  been  obtained  from  the  Sena,te.  The  boards  of  theo- 
It^cal,  legal,  and  medical  studies  control  the  ex(  """'  '"" 
degrees  in  these  subjects  respectively.  The  disti 
of  the  University  of  London  is  that  it  "'-"!—■ 


tary  of  State  with  regard  to  their  cwriailum.     Tliis  u 


Deinotlie'ri 


See  DiNOTHERIUM. 


le  thing 


who  have  not  been  at  any  institution.  At  Durham  degrees  are 
conferred  by  the  Warden  and  Convocation.  In  Scotland  the 
curricula  for  degrees  were  affected  at  the  time  of  the  Reforma- 
tion by  the  piiiiciples  on  the  subject  laid  down  in  the  First  Book 
af  Disciplitu,  and  as  regards  Glaigow  in  the  Nova  Eticth,  or 
charter  granted  by  James  VI.  Their  constitution  was  bene- 
ficially changed  by  the  Universities  Scotland  Act,  1858.  At 
Dubhn  University  the  undergraduates  are  classified  into  junior 
and  senior  Freshmen  and  junior  and  senior  Sophisters ;  and  after 
taking  the  first  D.  the  graduate  becomes  successively  a  junior, 
middfe,  and  senior  Bachelor,  By  payment  of  money,  an  ordinary 
student  or  pensioner  may  become  a  Fellow-commoner  and  as- 
sociate with  Fellows.  The  siaars  are  bursars  who  by  examina- 
tion have  earned  a  right  to  enjoy  their  commons  free. 

Degree  of  Kindred.  By  the  law  of  England,  a  man  may 
not  marry  his  mother  or  step-mother,  his  sister,  his  son's  or 
dangbter's  daughter,  his  father's  daughter  by  his  step-mother,  his 
aunt,  his  uncle's  wife,  his  son's  wife,  his  brother's  wife,  his 
wife's  daughter,  his  wife's  son's  daughter,  his  wife's  daughter's 
daughter.  Marriages  within  the  prohibited  degrees  are  not 
merely  voidable,  but  they  are  absolutely  void  if  solemnised  after 
passing  of  the  Act  of  31st  August  1835,  and  the  children  of  the 
connection  are  illegitimate.  (See  Marriage.)  The  prohibition 
appKes  to  relationship  by  Affinity  (q.  v.) ;  see  also  Agnate, 
Consanguinity.  A  judge  within  a  certain  degree  of  relation- 
sliip  to  a  party  to  a  lawsuit  is  disqualified  from  acting.  See,  in 
Scotch  law.  Declinature.  For  effect  of  D.  of  K.  in  bank- 
ruptcy, see  Conjunct  and  Confident;  in  marriage,  see 
Divorce. 


Degrees  of  liambeth.  Under  a  statute  of  Henry  VIII., 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  is  authorised  to  confer  all  degrees 
which  can  be  given  by  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  ; 
but  a  degree  of  Lambeth  does  not  bestow  the  privilege  of  a  univer- 
sity degree.  In  former  times  the  Pope  had  the  power  so  trans- 
ferred to  the  archbishop. 

Degrees  of  Nobility.     See  Nobility. 

De'i  Gra'tia  is  a  pious  formula  which  has  been  much  in  favour 
among  the  dignitaries  of  church  and  state,  as  indicating  that  they 
bold  their  office  or  position  by  '  the  grace  of  God  ; '  from  which 
it  will  of  course  follow  that  man  has  no  right  to  deprive  them  of 
it.  This  tenure  of  office  is  still  by  courtesy  held  to  be  that  of 
our  own  sovereigns  ;  but  'the  divine  right  of  kmgs  to  govern 
wrong,'  which  received  a  rude  shock  at  the  execution  of  Charles 
1.,  was  in  England  conclusively  abolished  at  the  Revolution  of 
1688.     See  Divine  Right. 


De'ism  (from  Lat.  Deus^ '  God ')  ought  to  mean  the  san 
as  Theism  (Gr.  (;toj,  'god'),  vii.,  a  belief  in  God,  whati 
character  of  (he  God  believed  in  may  be,  and  on  whatever  kind 
of  evidence  the  belief  may  be  based.  Both  words,  however,  have 
acquired  special  significations.  Theism  now  means  the  philo- 
sophical and  religious  affirmation  of  God  on  grounds  of  natural 
reason  :  in  general  (as  in  the  case  of  Theodore  Parker  and  Mar- 
tineau,  who  may  be  called  absolute  tlieists),  on  the  ground  of  i 
priori  evidence,  contained  in  the  religious  and  intellectual  in- 
'  'tions  of  human  nature,  but  sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
...called  Christian  theists,  on  the  ground  of  the  design  and 
beneficence  exhibited  in  nature,  confirmed  and  enlai^ed  by  the 
revelation  of  Christ.  D.,  on  the  other  hand,  although  some- 
I  loosely  used  to  express  dislike  or  alarm,  or  to  exdte  these 
feelings  agdnst  one's  opponent,  has  a  definite  historical  meaning. 
It  means  the  principles  of  the  English  fi-eethinkeis  of  the  I7ih 
and  l8th  centuries,  who  aigued  for  natural,  as  against  revealed, 
religion,  and  to  whom  Locke,  Addison,  Bentley,  Berkeley, 
Campbell,  Chandler,  Clarke,  Conybeare,  Derham,  Ditton, 
Foster,  Gerard,  Hoadley,  lenyns,  Jortln,  Lardner,  Leland, 
Parker,  Ray,  West,  and  above  all,  Bishop  Butler,  replied. 
Toland,  the  disciple  and  translator  of  Giordano  Bruno,  the  author 
of  C/irisHanity  not  Mysterious  (1696),  of  Amyntor,  Nasarsnus, 
and  the  Origin  of  the  Jraiish  Nation,  &c.,  was  perhaps  the  most 
learned  and  acute  of  the  theolc^ical  deists.  He  was  expelled 
from  the  English  Church.  Anthony  Collins,  more  a  philanthro- 
pist than  a  theologian ;  Thomas  Woolston,  who  was  tried  for 
blasphemy,  and  died  in  prison  for  resolving  the  Christian  miracles 
into  allegories  ;  Matthew  Tindal,  the  author  of  CArisliamlf  as 
Old  as  the  Creation ;  Chubb  and  Morgan,  the  authors  of  various 
tracts  which  once  enjoyed  a  great  popularity,  are  also  among 
the  deists.  Lords  Bolingbroke  and  Shaftesbury,  and  in  the 
earlier  part  of  the  17th  c.  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury,  contributed 
less  directly  to  the  same  school  of  thought.  The  two  posi- 
tions of  D.  are  these— (l)  An  intellectual  scepticism  as  regards 
the  Christian  miracles,  and  generally  as  to  the  value  of  mira- 
culous evidence  ;  (2)  a  vehement  desire  for  intelligible  religious 
truth,  such  as  involves  notliing  contrary  to  human  reason  and 
morality.  Butler's  famous  rep&;  which  has  always  since  been 
regarded  as  the  mainstay  of  English  orthodoxy,  consists  in 
admitting  the  objections  made  against  revelation  (which,  like  bis 
follower  Mausel,  he  holds  to  be  essentially  mysterious),  and  in 
pointing  out  that  similar  objections  may  be  uiged  against  natural 
theology,  which  has  no  miraculous  evidence  to  support  it.  A 
generous  estimate  of  the  Deists,  from  the  Christign  point  of 
view,  win  be  found  in  Herder's  Adrastea. 

Dekk'er,  Tliomas,  an  Elizabethan  dramatist,  bom  about 
1570,  died  proliably  about  1637.  He  was  satirised  by  Ben 
Jonson  in  the  Poetaster,  and  retorted  happily  in  his  Satiromaslix. 
His  plays — of  which  the  best  are  Old  Fortunatus  and  the  Honist 
WAar^— contain  passages  of  exquisite  pathos  and  of  almost 
infantile  simplicity  and  beauty.  He  wrote  in  conjunction  with 
Webster,  Ford,  and  Middleton,  and  was  active  as  a  pamphle- 
teer. Haalitt  said  he  could  not  show  his  admiration  for  D. 
sufficiently,  andl^mb  pronounced  his  character  of  Orleans  to  be 
almost  as  poetical  as  Romeo.  See  Hailitt's  Elizabethan  Litera- 
ture, and  Ward's  English  Dramatic  Literature  (Loud.  1875). 

Del  {Arttxarpitsfubescens),s.  species  of  f  i-ee  allied  to  the  Bread- 
Fruit  (q.  v.),  a  native  of  Ceylon,  and  the  wood  of  which  is  em- 
ployed in  shipbuildmg,  &c. 

De  la  Beche,  Sir  Henry  Thomas.    See  Beche. 

Delabeo'lea,  a  genus  of  north-eastern  An-stralian  trees  be- 
longing to  the  ratural  order  Sterculaces.  D.  rupestris  is  the 
bottle-tree,  so  called  on  account  of  the  middle  of  the  trunk  being 
bulged  out  like  a  barrel.  It  yields  a  mucilaginous  gum  like 
gum-tragacanth,  which  is  nutritious,  and  used  by  the  aborigines 
in  times  of  scarcity.  The  wood  is  remarkably  loose  in  tex- 
ture. 

Delacroix',  Ferdinand  Victor  Eugene,  the  son  of  the 
Secretary  to  the  Council  of  Ancients,  was  bom  at  Charenton,  St 
Maurice,  near  Paris,  26th  April  1799.  After  becoming  knc 
an  art  critic,  he  began  his  career  as  a  painter  by  producing  in  182a 
'Dante  and  Virgil  in  Hell,' the  subject  of  which  is  the  descrip- 
tion in  the  third  canto  of  Dante's  Interna  of  the  poet's  crossing 

■Ml 


vLiOOQle 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Acheron  in  Charon's  boat.  This  was  followed  by  the  '  Massacre 
of  Scio,'  which  commemorates  Turkish  cruelty  m  the  Greek  in- 
surrection of  1822  ;  '  Sai-danapalus  Dying  in  the  midst  of  the 
Slaughter  of  his  Wives ;'  'Liberty  guiding  the  People  on  the 
Barricades  of  1830 ; '  and,  among  others,  two  pictures  on  sub- 
jects taken  from  Scott's  novel  of  Qaeniin  Duraiard.  A  Govern- 
ment mis^on  to  Morocco  supplied  D.  with  the  materials  for  his 
greatest  colour- picture,  '  The  Women  of  Algiers '  (1838).  Later 
came  '  Medea  Fleeing  from  Jason  afEer  the  Murder  of  Creusa  ;' 
'  Cleopatra  preparing  for  DeMh  ; '  '  A  Shipwreck,'  in  which  the 
crew  are  drawmg  iota  for  death.  These  are  merely  the  leading 
subjects  among  a  number  and  variety  probably  unsurpassed  by 
any  other  single  artist.  D.'s  great  allegorical  pictures  of  'Jus- 
tice,' '  War,'  '  Agriculture,'  and  '  Industry,'  on  the  ceiling  of  the 
Palais  Bourbon,  are  well  known.  Besides  many  decorations 
of  public  buildings,  he  produced  lithographic  illustrations  of 
'Hamlet,'  'Macbeth,'  and  Gothe's  'Faust?  He  died  August 
13,  1863,  It  is  for  his  yetement  expression  and  brilliant  con. 
trast  of  tints  that  D.  is  admired  ;  hia  drawing  is  loose.  He  is 
considered  the  head  of  the  French  Romantic  school  of  the 
19th  c,  and  he  has  himself  described  his  position  as  opposed 
to  that  of  the  classical  Louis  David  {Remie  des  Deux  Monda, 
July  1S54).  See  T.  Gautier'a  Histaire  du  Romnnticisme,  and  C. 
Bandelaire's  L'Arl  RomartHque. 

Delagtfa  Bay,  an  almost  landlocked  inlet  on  the  S.E.  coast 
of  Africa,  between  Natal  and  Sofala,  much  frequented  on  account 
ofits  safe  and  ample  anchorage.  It  receives  the  Delagoa,  Manice, 
Machavanna,  and  other  rivers,  and  its  shores  are  low,  swampy, 
and  malarious  in  summer.  The  Portuguese  have  a  trading  settle- 
ment here,  with  a  pop.  of  I0",ooo,  mostly  natives.  A  railway 
was  projected  between  the  Transvaal  Republic  and  D.  B.  in  the 
beginning  of  1 8  76. 

Delam'bre,  Jean  Baptist©  Joseph,  a  French  astronomer 
and  mathematician,  was  born  at  Amiens,  September  19,  1749. 
His  first  work  in  astronomy  was  the  construction  of  tables  for 
Uianns,  then  recently  discovered  by  Sir  W.  Herscheil.  His 
Tables  du  Soleil,  de  yiipUer,  de  Satunu,  d"  Vratms  et  dc!  Saidlites 
de  yu^eir  (ijg2),  secured  his  election  as  a  member  of  the.Aca- 
d^mie  des  Sciences;  and  soon  after,  with  Mechain,  he  under- 
took the  measiu-ement  of  the  arc  of  the  meridian  from  Dunkirk 
to  Barcelona,  the  results  of  which  appeared  in  his  -Sine  du 
Systhne  M^riqus  Didmal  (1S06-1O).  In  1807  he  succeeded 
his  friend  Lalojide  in  the  Coll^  de  Francej  and  m  1814  pub- 
lished Ws  Trmli  £ Asironomie,  He  Subsequently  wrote  several 
histories  of  his  favourite  science  during  the  ancient,  medieval, 
and  modem  periods,  a  task  for  which  his  fine  scholarship 
eminently  qualified  lum.  D.  died  at  Paris,  August  lo,  1822. 
See  Fourier's  S,logt  de  D.  in  the  Mimoircs  dc  fA^adAnie  des 
Sciences  {i.  iv.),  and  Dupin's  Notke  sur  D.  in  the  Revue  Ency- 
(lofidique  (t.  xvi.  1822). 

Delsiie',  John  Thadeus,  son  of  William  F.  A.  D.,  for 
many  years  financial  manager  of  the  TimeSy  was  bom  in  London 
in  1817.  After  graduating  at  Oxford,  D.  entered  the  editorial 
department  of  that  journal,  succeeding  the  late  Mr  Barnes  as 
editor  in  1S41.  It  is  largely  due  to  his  energy,  tagt,  and  know- 
ledge of  men  and  of  society,  that  the  Times  has  become  the  most 
powerful  newspaper  in  the  world,  D.  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1S47,  but  never  practised, 

Delaroohe',  Patil,  a  brilliant  French  painter,  born  at  Paris 
in  1797,  was  tliesonof  a  valuator  of  art  products  at  (he  Mont-de- 
Viiti.  A  pupil  of  Baron  Gros,  he  struck  out  for  himself  a  middle 
path  between  the  romantic  and  classical  schools.  Hence  he  has 
been  called  the  modem  Eclectic,  and  the  Casunir  Delavigne  of 
painting.  His  style  is  marked  by  elevation  and  sunplidty  of  con- 
ception, picturesque  colouring  withoutexaggeration,  andscrupu- 
lous  care  in  details.  Among  hJs  earliest  pictures  (1834)  may  be 
mentioned  'Vincent  da  Paul  preaching  on  Behalf  of  Deserted 
Children  before  the  Court  of  Louis  XIII,,' and  'The  Examination 
of  Joan  of  Arc'  Later  came  '  Cromwell  I.ooking  at  the  Corpse  of 
Charles  L',  'The  Execution  of  Lady  Jane  Grey,'  and  the  '  Death 
of  the  Duke  of  Guise.'  D.  spent  four  years  in  his  decorative 
painting  of  the  saloon  of  the  Palais  des  Beaux  Arts ;  it  contdns 
more  than  eighty  figures  of  great  artists  of  all  ages  in  appropriate 
costume.  Nearly  all  his  subjects  are  historical ;  one  of  his  latest 
( 1S5 1 )  being  that  of  '  Marie  Antoinette  before  the  Revolutionary 
Tribunal,'  when  she  made  her  famous  appeal  to  the  mothers  of 
358 


des  Cont. 


IS  lUuslres,  \ 


Delavigne',  Jean  Frarteols  Caaimir,  a  famous  French 
lyrist  and  dramatist,  bora  at  Havre,  4th  April  1793,  was  the 
son  of  a  merchant  in  humble  circumstances.  Through  the 
kindness  of  the  Corate  de  Nantes,  who  gave  him  a  sinecure  in 
a  public  office,  D.  was  able  to  cultivate  his  poetical  taste. 
His  pieces,  Waterloo  and  the  Bevastatitm  du  Mush,  better 
known  as  the  MessSniennes,  protests  against  the  concessions 
granted  to  theAlliesbythe  Government  of  Louis  XVIII,,  made 
him,  after  B^ranger,  the  most  popular  poet  in  France.  Four 
dramas,  V^res  SidMennss,  Les  Coniidiens,  Le  Paria — suggested 
by  Demaistre's  Lepreux  d'Aoste—and  L' Scale  des  JW/flrai{pIayed 
by  Talma  and  Mademoiselle  Mars),  procored  his  admission  to  the 
Academy  in  1825.  The  insurrectionary  movements  in  C^ce 
and  Italy  afibrded  him  subjects  for  a  second  set  of  Messinitnnes ; 
the  Revolution  of  1830  inspired  hia  splendid  march-song,  '" 
avant !  marchons  centre  leurs  canons,  i  travers  le  fer,  le  feu 
bataiUons.  Courons  \  la  victoire  I'  The  Polish  insurrection  ] 
duced  La  Vtirsovienne  and  the  Dies  Trie  of  Kosciusko, 
severe  labour  in  producing  his  dramas  of  Louis  XI.  (1832),  Don 
Juan  d'Autrickt  (1835),  and  La  Fille  du  Cid  (iSig),  mined 
his  health;  he  died  nth  December  1843,  Like  Beranger,  D. 
was  a  thoroughly  conscientious  man  of  letters,  and  more  than 
once  refused  the  tempting  offers  of  Charles  X.  His  chief  friend 
was  the  comic  dramatist  Scribe.  There  are  numerous  editions 
of  D.'s  works;  that  of  1845  contains  a  biography  by  his  elder 
brother,  Germain,  himself  a  prohfic  writer  of  vaudwilk  and 
oph-a-comique. 

Bel'aware,  one  of  the  smallest  of  the  original  thirteen 
slates  of  tlie  Union,  forma  part  of  the  peninsula  between  the 
Chesapeake  and  the  D.,  and  has  an  area  of  2120  sq,  miles,  and  a 
pop.  (1870)  of  125,015.  The  D.  river  and  bay  bound  it  on  the  E. 
Much  of  the  soil  is  poor  and  sandy.  Bog-iron  ore  and  shell  marl 
are  found,  and  porcelain  clay  abounds.  In  1870  the  farms  w 
valued  at  $46,712,870,  and  their  products  at  $8,171,667;  and 
there  vrere  148  woollen  factories.  There  were  {1876)  285  m" 
of  railway.  D.  haa  a  lai-ge  school-fund  and  two  colleges— 
Brandywine  and  D.  College,  It  sends  one  member  to  the  House 
of  Representatives,  and  two  to  the  Senate.  Before  the  war  D. 
was  a  slave  state,  and  it  is  siill  noted  for  the  antique  custom; 
of  the  pillory  and  the  whipping-post  for  criminals.  Dover  ii 
the  capital,  Newcastle  the  seaport,  and  Wilmington  the  lai^eat 
town.  D,  derives  ita  name  from  Lord  De  la  Warr,  who  entered 
the  bay  in  1610.  In  1627  it  vras  colonised  by  Swedes  and  Finns, 
whose  descendants  still  survive.  The  Dutch  seized  it  in  1655, 
but  gave  place  to  the  English  in  1664.  It  formed  part  of  Penn's 
colony  of  Pennsylvania. 

Delaware  River  (Ind,  Makerishiton)  rises  on  the  W,  of  the 
Catskills  in  New  York,  and  flows  in  a  very  sinuous  covi 
southward  for  300  miles  till  it  enters  D.  Bay.  It  separates  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania,  and  further  on  bounds  New  Jersey  on 
the  E.,  and  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware  on  the  W.  The  upper 
part,  between  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  presents  varied  ai  ' 
striking  scenery ;  and  southward,  as  the  river  pierces  the  mou 
taina  at  the  Water  Gap,  the  views  are  unique  and  grand.  The 
largest  ahips  can  ascend  to  Philadelphia,  and  steamboats 
Trenton,  the  head  of  tide  water. — Delaware  Bay,  into  which 
the  river  enters,  is  65  miles  by  30,  and  forms  a  highway  for 
vessels  of  every  size.  There  is  a  large  breakwater  near  the  en- 
trance, at  Cape  Henlopen,  to  protect  shipping. 

Delawares.     See  Inhians,  Amgrtcan, 

Deleb'  Palm,  a  palm  found  in  great  abundance  near  Lake 
Tchad,  and  other  portions  of  the  interior  and  W,  of  Africa,  be- 
ieved  to  be  a  species  of  Borassus  allied  to  B.  fiabelRfimnis,  the 
Palmyra  Palm  (q.  v.).  The  fruit  is  prized  by  the  natives,  who 
also  extensively  use  as  an  article  of  food  the  tender  roots  pro- 
duced by  the  young  plant. 

Delec'tuB  Perso'nse  (Lat.  'choice  of  person').  When  cer- 
in  legal  relationships  are  entered  into,  it  is  understood  by  law 
..lat  one  of  the  parties  has  some  special  qualification  in  the  opinion 
of  the  other ;  and  therefore  that  he  who  has  the  special  qualifi- 
cation Is  not  entitled  to  put  another  in  his  place.  D.  P.,  in 
Scotch  law,  denotes  this  legal  doctrine.     Thus  under  a  contract 


yLaOOgle 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DEL 


of  Society  (q.  v.).  or  FarbnersMp  (q.  v.),  the  admission  of  a  new 
— tner  by  succession  or  alienation  is  barred  by  D.  P,,  unless  tlie 
tract  stipulates  that  partners  ore  to  be  succeeded  by  their 
heifs,  or  empowers  partners  to  assign  their  simres.  In  Scotland, 
a  tenant  under  an  agricultural  lease,  unless  its  term  be  longer  than 
ihat  of  ordinary  human  life,  is  barred  by  D.  P.  from  subletting. 
In  leases,  however  short,  of  urban  subjects  there  is  no  D.  P.,  con- 
sequently these  may  be  sublet,  unless  there  is  a  stipulation  to 
the  contrary.      See  LEASE. 

Delega'ted  Juriadio'tion,  as  contradistinguished  from  pro- 
per jurisdiction,  is  that  which  is  communicated  by  one  judge  to 
another.  Jurisdiction  cannot  be  delegated  without  express  power 
given  m  the  grant.      See  DEPUTY. 

Del'egates,  Court  of.  In  England,  the  supreme  court 
of  appeal  in  ecclesiastical  and  maritime  causes  was  formerly 
constituted  by  a  statute  of  Henry  VIII.,  forbidding  appeal 
in  ecclesiastical  causes  to  the  court  of  Rome.  The  C.  of 
D.  was  abolished  by  statute  in  the  reign  of  William  IV.,  and 
its  functions  transferred  to  the  Judicial  Committee  of  the 
Privy  Council.     See  Privy  Council,  Judicial  Committee 

Delf  (Old  Eng.  *  a  delving ')  is  used  in  heraldry  to  describe  a 
block  of  tuif  or  coal.  A  D.  ttnnS\s  said  to  be  the  proper  abate- 
ment for  one  who  has  revoked  a  challenge,  or  departed  from  his 
word.     See  Abatement,  TennE, 

Delft  ('a  canal,'  from  Dutch,  delveti,  'to  dig'),  a  very  ancient 
town  of  S.  Holland,  on  the  Schie,  ro  miles  N.W.  of  Rotterdam  by 
rail,  intersected  in  every  direction  by  canals  crossed  by  69  briifees, 
generally  of  stone.  It  was  formerly  famous  for  its  pottenes, 
whence  D.-ware  is  still  a  name  for  ceritun  kinds  of^  earthen- 
ware. Tobacco-pipes  are  largely  manufactured.  The  most  inte- 
resting edifices  in  D.  are  its  churches.  The  Old  Church,  of  the 
nth  c.,  contains  the  monuments  of  Admirals  Tromp  and  Hein, 
and  of  Leeuwenhoek  the  naturalist ;  the  New,  of  Prince  William 
I.  of  Orange  (who  was  assassinated  at  D.  in  1584),  and  of  Gro- 
tius,  D.  is  the  seat  of  the  state  arsenal,  and  has  a  new  and  im- 
portant polytechnic  school      Pop.  (1S69)  21,536. 

Its  harbour  is  Delfsha-oen,  a  town  on  the  right  bank:  of  the 
Maas,  2  miles  W,  of  Rotterdam,  defended  from  inundations 
by  stroi^  dykes  and  flood-gates.  D.  has  distilleries,  breweries, 
sawmills,  shipbuilding  yards,  and  iron-foundries,  and  considerable 
shipping.    Pop,  (1S69)  4836. 

Dellli  (Moham.  Shakjehanabad),  formerly  the  largest  and 
finest  city  of  India,  and  the  residence  of  the  Great  Moguls, 
now  the  capital  of  a  division  and  district  of  the  same  name, 
province  of  the  Punjab,  British  India,  is  situated  near  the  W.  bank 
of  the  Jumna,  630  miles  N.W.  of  Calcutta,  and  650  N.N.E.  of 
Bombay,  on  the  Punjab  and  Delhi  Railway.  It  is  7  miles  ia 
circumference,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  grey  granite  wall  30  feet 
high,  strengthened  in.  1 803,  and  again  in  1 838,  and  which  is 

Creed  by  four  gates  opening  on  the  river,  and  by  seven  on  the 
d  side.  The  streets  are  narrow  and  crooked,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  two,  which  are  respectively  90  and  120  feet  broad,  and 
each  about  a  mile  long.  These  run  from  the  palace,  the  one 
to  the  Agra  gate,  the  otlier  to  the  Lahore  gate,  and  are  both 
supplied  with  water  in  stone  channels  of  red  granite  raised 
above  their  level ;  but  are  disfigured,  like  the  other  streets,  by 
the  occurrence  of  small  blocks  of  houses  planted  itregularly  in 
their  centre.  D.  is  divided  into  a  Hindu,  Mohammedan,  and 
European  quarter.  The  Mogul's  palace,  a  miniature  town  in  itself, 
on  the  water-«de,  surrounded  t^  a  wdl  of  more  than  a  mile  in 
circumference,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  monmne  ts  fid 
Moslem  architecture.  This  building  contains  the  htm  bl 
Mosque  of  Aurungzebe,  splendidly  ornamented  w  th  eulp 
ture,  has  an  open  audience-Iiall,  also  of  white  ma  bl  n  h 
mosaic  and  relievos,  and  is  embowered  among  beau  ful  gard 
in  which  are  many  fine  baths  and  fountains.  The  ch  f  b  Id  g 
within  tlie  city  is  the  Mosque  of  Shah  Jehan  (163  37)  fam  d 
throughout  the  East  as  the  most  beautiful  in  India  It  t  d 
on  a  rocky  elevation  of  some  30  feet,  and  is  built  of  bl  d 
red  sandstone.    The  Hindu  temples  are  comparativ  ly  m  d 

diminutive.     Near  D.  is  the  pyramid  Kuttub  Minha      80  feet 
high.     In  the  European  quarter  there  is  the  offic  a)  p  1  ce 
Protestant  church,  the  college,  the  arsenal,  and  barra  k       Th 
College  of  D,,  founded  in  1792,  and  affiliated  to  th    U  ty 


of  Calcutta,  has  separate  departments  for  English,  Arabic,  Per- 
sian, and  Sanskrit,  and  receives  Government  grants  raising  its 
revenue  tO;^40S8  yearly.  In  1872-73  it  was  attended  by  thirty- 
six  students.  The  chief  manufactures  of  D.  are  cotton  cloths, 
exquisite  embroidery,  rare  gold  and  silver  wares,  and  delicately 
carved  ivory.  It  receives  British  manufactured  goods,  large 
quantities  of  fruits,  and  Cashmere  and  Cabul  shawls  for  embroi- 

estabtished  at  D  , 
especially  in  Persian  and  Arabic  The  modem  D.  was  founded 
by  Shall  Jehan  in  1631.  Beyond  its  walls  are  the  desolate  ruins 
of  the  ancient  city  of  the  Patan  kings.  Pop.  (1868)  154,417,  of 
whom  71,530  are  Hindus  and  66,120  Mohammedans.  D.  is  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  a  certain  rajah  from  whom  it  received  its 
name.  In  the  Mahabharata  it  is  called  Indraprastha,  the  residence 
of  the  mythical  Pandus,  or  Children  of  the  Sun.  D.  was  long  occu- 
pied by  native  Indian  kings.  In  lOl  I  it  was  stormed  and  sacked 
by  Mahmnd  of  Ghuzni,  and  in  1 193  the  Ghuridish  Sultan  Mo- 
hammed, founder  of  the  first  Afghan  dynasty,  made  it  the  capital 
of  an  empire  extending  to  Bengal.  Timur  took  D.  in  1398,  but 
on  his  death  foliowed  a  long  period  of  bloodshed  and  anarchy. 
In  1450  the  Lody  dynasty,  of  Patan  or  Afghan  origin,  con- 
quered  the  empire,  but  were  displaced  in  1526  by  Baber,  a 
descendant  of  Timur,  and  the  first  Great  Mogul.  D.  rose  to 
its  greatest  prosperity  in  the  times  of  Akbar  and  Aurungzebe. 
It  was  taken  and  plundered  by  Nadir  Shah  (1738),  after  which 
it  never  recovered  its  splendour.  The  British  under  Lord  Lake 
captured  the  city,  and  relieved  the  Emperor  from  the  tyranny  of 
the  Rohillas  and  Mahvattas,  October  l5,  1803.  During  the 
Mutiny  it  was  seized  by  the  Sepoys,  May  11,  1857,  and  after 
a  siege  of  seven  days,  was  retaken  on  the  30th  of  September.— 
The  district  of  D.,  which  lies  between  the  Ganges  and  the  deserts 
of  Multan,  is  only  in  parts  well  irrigated  and  fertile,  and  has  an 
area  of  1273  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  {1868)  of  621,675,  "^  whom 
about  tlu-ee-fourths  are  Hindus  and  one-fifth  Mohammedans. 

Delict'  and  Delin'quenoy.  The  law  of  Scotland,  following 
that  of  Rome,  divides  delinquencies,  as  grounds  of  civil  claim 
for  reparation,  into  delicts  and  qziaii  delicts,  the  former  beii^ 
ofiences  committed  with  criminal  purpose,  the  latter  being 
offences  arising  from  gross  negligence.  Offences  belonging  to 
the  latter  class  do  cot,  like  the  former,  always  afford  ground  for 
criminal  prosecution,  as  well  as  for  action  for  Damages  (q.  v.), 
but  they  very  often  do.     See  Ckime,  Culpa,  Dole. 

Delilah.  (Heb.  'the  languishing'),  a  courtesan  mentioned  in 
Judges  xvi.,  and  lamous  in  connection  with  Samson  (q.  v.). 

Delillo',  Jaoques,  a  French  poet  and  professor,  was  bom  at 
Aigues-Peise,  in  Auvergne,  June  22,  1736.  He  was  educated 
at  the  College  de  Liaieux,  Paris,  and  finally  became  Prefessor  of 
Belles  Lettres  in  the  university  of  that  city,  was  presented  by  the 
Comte  d'Arfois  with  the  revenues  of  the  abliey  of  Saint-Severin 
(30,000  livres  a  year),  went  to  Constantinople  in  1784  in  the 
suite  of  the  Comte  de  Choiseul-Goufiier,  became  I^ofessor  of 
Belles  Lettres  in  the  university  of  Paris  on  his  return,  lost  his  for- 
tune and  nearly  his  life  at  the  Revolution,  and  quitted  France  for 
Switzerland  after  the  Reign  of  Terror,  but  remmed  in  1801,  and 
resumed  the  duties  of  his  chair.  He  died  May  i,  1813.  D.'s 
finest  work  is  lus  charming  translation  of  Virgil's  Ge(/rgics  {l'}6^). 
Besides  this  he  produced  many  elegant,  harmonious,  and  felicitous 
poems  af  a  didactic  aad  descriptive  character,  of  which  the  finest 
are  Les  yahiins  {1774),  VHoMnie  des  Champs  (1800),  and  La 
ConversciUon  (1812).  A  complete  edition  of  D.'s  works  was 
published  in  1824  (new  ed.  2  vols.  1844). 

Delir  um  (Lat.  from  ddirare,  '  to  wander  in  mind,'  di  and 
/  t  g       toftliestraight  lineinploughing;' 'toerr,  wander, 

g   w      g)       tate  of  mind  inwhich  theideasare  wild,  irregular, 

d  m  ted,  or  do  not  correspond  with  the  truth  or  with 

is  bl  (ml  objects.  D.  may  be  caused  by  whatever  tends 
t  d  t  b  th  healthy  functions  of  the  brain,  and  is  a  frequent 
sympt  m    f    great  variety  of  diseases  and  injuries.    It  varies  in 

t  ns  ty  f  m  mild  incoherence  to  the  most  exalted  forms  of 
f    nay        I  J  ries   of  the   cranium,   morbid  growth  within  its 

vity    d         s  ot  the  brain-tissue  and  its  vessels,  and  serous 

ff  my    esult  in  D.      It  is  also  caused  by  tiie  action  of 

p  g  edients    in  the  circulation,   and  is  a   common 

ympt  m     f  fvers  and  several  acute  diseases.      Violent  mental 

t  me  t      thet  of  a  depressing  or  elevating  nature,  may  give 

359 


vLiOOQle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


n  attack  of  ai 


s  also  frequently  caused, 


tecminal  distribution  of  the  nerves,  as  during  pregnancy,  lacta- 
tion, and  by  tile  disturbance  arising  from  utenne  diseases,  and, 
in  sonie  cases,  from  pain  alone.  D.  is  not  a  disease  per  se;  so 
that  the  treatment  to  be  adopted  is  not  uniform,  but  must  de- 
pend upon  the  nature  of  the  disease  witli  which  it  is  associated, 
and  of  which  it  is  a  symptom. 

Deliritim  Tremeps  is  a  form  of  delirium  accompanied  with 
tremors  or  trembling,  principally  of  the  hands  and  arms.  This 
condition  may  be  a  symptom  of  organic  disease  of  the  brain  or 
nervous  systeoi,  of  apoplexy  and  sun-stroke.  It  is  occasionally 
caused  by  excessive  and  prolonged  mental  excitement  from  over- 
work of  the  brain  in  connection  with  literaiy  pursuits,  business, 
speculations,  gambling,  And  snch  like ;  or  it  may  be  the  result  of 
certain  acute  diseases  which  act  on  the  nerves  or  nerve- centres, 
as  fevers,  or  of  accidents  and  surgical  operations  followed  by 
shock.  In  such  esses  it  is  sometimes  called  ddh-atm  nervosum. 
The  term  p.  T.  is  generally  applied  to  such  cases  as  are  caused 
by  the  escessive  abuse  of  alcohohc  stimulants,  and  the  disease 
may  be  produced '  by  a  single  but  prolonged  debandi,  or  by  a 
long-continued  course  of  dissipation.  In  the  former  case  it  de- 
pends on  blood-poisoning  from  alcohol;  and  in  the  latter  there 
is,  in  addition,  saturation  of  the  brain  substance,  and  admixture 
of  the  serum  of  its  ventricles  with  alcohol.  Alcohol  is  absorbed 
directly  by  the  blood-vessels,  without  change  or  decomposition, 
and  passes  rapidly  into  the  circulation,  acting  as  a  direct  poison 
upon  the  nervous  tissues  through  which  tlie  infected  blood  cir- 
culates. ■  It  is  cumulative  in  its  action,  and  has  been  detected, 
by  analyses,  in  the  blood,  urine,  bile,  the  fluid  of  serous  mem- 
branes, the  brain  substance,  and  the  liver.  The  long-continued 
presence  of  alcohol  in  the  brain  results  in  organic  disease  of  that 
organ ;  and  D.  T.  depends  on  the  effect  prodnced  on  the  ner- 
vous centre,  the.  pathological  changes  being,  in  some  instances, 
softening ;  in  others,  induration  of  the  cerebral  or  cerebellar  sub- 
stance with  increase  of  the  sub-arachnoid  serum.  There  is  also 
steatoniatoce  degeneration  of  the  small  arteries  of  the  brain, 
causing  atrophy  of  its  convolutions  and  also  cedema.  The  nerve 
substance  of  the  brain  becomes  poisonously  affected,  resulting  in 
a  permanent  loss  of  cerebral  power.  The  disease  is  sometimes 
called  delirium  i  potu,  or  delirium  ebriosiiatis. 

The  symptoms  of  D.  T.  are  both  mental  and  physical,  and  the 
following,  which  are  the  more  prominent,  are  invariably  present. 
There  is  great  agitation  and  loss  of  control  of  the  mental  func- 
tions, and  of  certjdn  muscles  of  the  body.  In  addition  to 
delirium,  more  or  less  vivid,  there  is  a  morbid  anticipation  of 
impending  danger,  with  hallucination  and  spectral  illusions,  ren- 
derii^  the  patient  dangerous  to  himself,  as  he  may  endeavour  to 
leap  out  from  a  window  to  escape  from  imaginary  foes  in  pursuit 
of  him.  In  the  early  stages  the  patient  is  usually  coherent 
when  the  attention  is  fixed,  but  incoherent  when  left  to  his  own 
thoughts.  In  the  later  stages  there  is  incessant  muttering  deli- 
rium. The  prominent  physical  symptoms  are,  loss  of  control 
over  certain  of  the  voluntary  muscles ;  the  tongue,  when  pro- 
truded, is  tremulous ;  theie  are  convulsive  movements  of  the 
extremities ;  the  hands  and  arms  tremble,  and  shake,  so  that  it 
is  impossible  to  hold  a  pen  or  convey  a  cup  of  liquid  to  the 
mouth  ;  there  is  also,  frequently,  subsidius  iatdinum,  and  com- 
plete deprivation  of  voluntary  motion.  There  is,  generally, 
sleeplessness  ;  but  when  sleep  is  procured  it  is  accompanied  with 
frightful  dreams,  and,  when  awake,  the  ocular  spectra  have  the 
most  horrible  and  repulsive  forms, 

The  treatment  proper  for  such  cases  consists  in  the  stoppage 
of  the  stimulant  which  has  been  the  cause  of  the  malady,  the 
judicious  administration  of  opiates  to  calm  the  nervous  system 
and  procure  sleep,  nourishing  ajticl^s  of  diet,  and  the  gradual 
elimination  of  the  poison.  One  attack  leaves  the  brain  per- 
manently weakened,  and  predisposes  to  a  second  ;  and  repeated 
attacks  result  in  a  state  of  fatuity  oj-  death.  The  only  safety, 
therefore,  consists  in  total  abstmence  from  alcohohc  stimulants, 

Selisle,  Bouget.  See  Lisle,  Rouget  be, 
Delitzscli',  an  old  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  llobber,  l£  miles  N.  of  Leipzig,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  raQway.  It  has  manufactures  of  woollen  cloth, 
hosiery,  and  tobacco,  and  several  important  annual  &irs.  Pop. 
US7i)8iri. 
360 


Delivery.     See  Parturition. 

Delivery  of  a  Deed.  While  a  deed  or  writing  remains  in 
the  custody  of  the  granter  or  of  his  agent,  never  having  been 
delivered,  it  is  not  binding.  To  make  it  so,  it  must  have  been 
delivered  either  to  the  grantee  or  to  a  third  party ;  when  put 
into  th(  hands  of  a  third  party,  the  legal  presumption  seems  to 
be  that  it  has  been  delivered  to  him  unconditionally  for  behoof 
of  the  grantee,  but  this  presumption  may  be  overeome. 

Dell'a  CniB'oaii  Sdiool,  a  name  adopted  by  certain  English 
residents  at  Florence,  who  began  about  1785  to  publish  affected, 
frigid,  and  siQy  verses  in  two  English  daily  newspapers.  Their 
efftisions  produced  a  host  of  imitators,  equally  fluent  and  equally 
intoteiflbfe,  and  the  journals  were  flooded  by  verses  in  the  style 
of  Pope's  Song  by  a  Person  of  Qualify,  This  literary  nuisance 
was  at  length  abolished.  Horace  Smith  ridiculed  it  in  the 
Rejected  Addresses ;  and  GifFord,  in  his  ^n&iflrf  ( 1 794)  SMAMimiiad 
(1796I,  extinguished  the  pestilant  versiSers  as  completely  as 
the  follies  of  the  H8tel  de  Rambouillet  were  extinguished  by 
Moliere. 

Dell'ya,  a  seaport  in  Algeria,  49  miles  E.  of  Algiers,  identi- 
fied by  Bartle  with  the  Kusucitrrium  of  Piiny.  The  climate  is 
healthy,  and  the  vine  and  olive  flourish,  D,  has  trade  in  grain, 
oil,  and  salt,  and  is  the  chief  mart  of  the  Kabyles.  Pop.  (1S72) 
2257. 

Delolme',  Jean  Iionia,  was  bom  in  1740  at  Geneva.  He 
became  an  advocate,  but  had  to  fly  to  England  on  account  of  the 
political  cyinions  expressed  in  his  Bscamen  de  Trois  Parts  des 
Droits.  D.  published  his  Constitution  de  VAngUttrre,  ou  &tat 
du  Gotivenieaeiit  Anglais  comfiari  (wec  la  Forme  Republicaine  et 
avec  les  aulres  Monarchies  de  I'Eurofe,  at  Amsterdam,  in  J771, 
and  his  English  translation  in  1772.  After  suffering  great 
poverty  he  returned  about  1 775  to  Switzerland,  where  1^  died, 
July  10,  1806.  Besides  the  Constilutum  de V Angleta^e,-3.?/a^i!{A!R 
though  superficial  book,  once  popular,  but  no  longer  considered 
an  authority,  D.  wrote  a  History  of  the  Flagellants  (1782),  An 
Introduction  to  Defois  History  of  the  Union,  and  Observations  on 
th^  Window-Tax. 

Delorme',  Marian,  one  of  the  great  courtesans  of  French 
history,  was  born  about  1612  near  Chalons-sur-Marne.  Going 
to  Paris,  and  making  no  attempt  to  live  virtuously,  her  beauty 
brought  her  numerous  lovers,  while  her  fondness  for  intrigue  led 
her  to  take  an  active  interest  in  tlie  politics  of  the  time.  She 
espoused  the  side  of  the  Frondeurs,  and  incurred  the  hostility  of 
Maiarin,  who  was  even  on  the  point  of  throwing  her  into  prison, 
when  she  died,  at  the  age  of  thirty-nine.  Long  after  this  even^ 
a  curious  report  got  aMoat,  and  was  widely  ^lieved,  that  she 
had  escaped  to  London,  returned  to  Paris,  and  after  marrying 
three  husbands,  lived  to  the  age  of  izg,  D.  is  the  subject  of 
one  of  Victor  Hugo's  most  powerful  dramas, 

X>eloa,  called  also  Ortygia,  Cyntbus,  &c.,  the  central  isle, 
and  the  smallest,  of  the  Cyclades  in  the  ^gean  Sea.  Accord- 
ing to  the  common  Greek  myth,  D,  appeared  on  the  deep  at  the 
stroke  of  the  trident  of  Poseidon  (hence  its  name),  and  was 
fixed  by  Zeus  to  afford  a  resting-place  for  Latona,  as  she  fled 
from  tlie  wrath  of  Her&  on  the  eve  of  the  birth  of  Apolio  and 
Diana.  The  island  was  originally  inhabited  by  lonians  ;  was  the 
seat  of  an  Amphictypnic  Council,  and  the  centre  of  the  worship 
of  Apollo,  whose  festival  was  celebrated  here  with  unusual 
splendour.  Its  saci'ed  character  was  respected  by  the  Persians, 
and  in  477  B.C.  it  was  chosen  as  the  seat  of  the  tteasuir  of  the 
confederacy  against  Persia.  It  was  purified  by  the  Athenians, 
426  B.  c, ,  when  all  tombs  and  human  remains  were  removed  from 
it,  and  it  was  declared  pollution  for  a  dog  to  enter,  or  for  a 
human  being  to  be  bom  or  to  die  on  the  island.  Four  years  after, 
deeming  the  purification  incomplete,  the  Athenians  banished  all 
the  inhabitants  also.  The  bronze  and  bronze  vessels  of  D,  were 
famous.  After  the  destmction  of  Corinth  by  Mummius,  146 
B.C.,  D.  became  a  great  commercial  centre,  and  it  continued  to 
flourish  till  the  Mithridalic  war,  when  it  was  pillaged  and  crippled 
beyond  recovery.  Numerous  fragments  of  marble  stmetures  lie 
scattered  over  the  island  ;  the  remains  of  tiie  temple  and  colossal 
statue  of  Apolio  may  still  be  traced,  but  the  architectural  glories 
of  D.  were  carried  off  centuries  ago  to  adorn  Venice  and  Con- 
stantinople. 


yUoogle 


DEL 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Del'phi,  a  town  of  Phocis,  situated  in  the  vale  of  the  Pleistus, 
and  enclosed  behind  by  a  rocky  barrisr,  through  a  cleft  in  which 
issues  the  Castalian  spring,  was  famous  as  the  seat  of  the  oracle 
of  Apollo.  The  original  name  of  this  oracle  was  Pytho,  and  the 
sanctuary  was  at  first  superintended  by  the  town  of  Crissa.  On 
its  decline  D. ,  whose  population  had  come  from  the  Dorian  town 
Lycoreia,  became  an  independent  state,  and  through  the  oracle 
rose  rapidly  in  influence  and  wealth.  Its  affairs  were  administered 
by  the  noble  &milies  of  the  town  ;  and  whenever  the  oracle  was 
to  be  consulted,  the  Pythia  took  her  seat  upon  a  tripod,  placed 
above  an  opening  in  the  ground,  in  the  centre  of  the  temple  of 
Apollo,  through  which  arose  an  intoxicating  smoke.  This  smoke 
so  affected  the  Pythia's  brain  that  she  became  delirious,  and  in 
that  state  gave  utterance  to  sounds  that  were  believed  to  express 
the  reply  of  the  god  to  those  who  had  come  to  consult  the  oracle. 
The  answers  stiU  extant  are  generally  in  hexameter  verse  and  in 
the  Ionic  dialect.  ITie  FV thia  was  a  native  of  D, ,  ui  early  times 
a  maiden,  but  subsequently  always  above  iifty  years,  and  gener- 
ally taken  from  some  family  of  poor  country  people.  Innumer- 
able benefactors  loaded  the  shrines  with  gifts,  and  even  in  the 
8th  c.  B.C.  the  feme  of  the  oracle  was  widespread.  The  first 
celebration  of  the  Pythian  Games  took  place  in  b,  c.  5S6.  In 
B.C.  J48  the  temple  was  destroyed  by  fire,  and  was  rebuilt  at  a 
cost  of  ;fllS,D0O  sterling.  In  succeeding  centuries  it  was  fre- 
quently plundered. — as,  for  example,  by  the  Phocians  at  the 
time  of  tie  Sacred  War,  by  Sulla,  and  by  Nero.  The  oracle 
was  closed  in  the  general  extirpation  of  pagan  rites  by  Theodosius. 
The  site  of  the  ancient  town  ia  now  occupied  by  Castri,  a 
wretched  village. 

Delphinap'tera,  a  genus  of  Cetacea  or  Whales,  belonging  to 
the  Dolphin  femUy  {DslpAmiiiis\,  and  represented  bjr  such 
forms  as  the  £>.  Fa-omi,  or  the  '  right  whale  porpoise '  of 
the  S.  Seas,  by  the  J).  ComnKrsomi,  by  D.  bm-iatis  of  the  N. 
Pacific,  and  by  other  ip^des.  The  species  of  this  genus  have 
no  dorsal  fin,  and  have  the  jaws  prolonged  tQ  forai  a  rOstrum  or 
beak,  flattened  from  side  to  side.  The  first-mentioned  species 
averages  five  feet  m  length.     Numerous  teeth  exist 

Delpbin.  OlaseicB,  an  edition  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
classics,  chiefly  edited  by  Huet,  tutor  to  the  Dauphin,  son  of  Louis 
XIV.,  for  the  use  of  his  pupil— 'in  usum  Serenissimi  Deiphini.' 
Thirty-nine  eminent  scholars  aided  in  the  preparation  of  the 
work,  which  is  now,  however,  of  little  value.  Valp/s  Variorunt 
Latin  daisies  (in  141  vols.  Liond.  1819-30)  contain  the  Delphm 
notes  and  Interfrdatio. 

Delplim'idse  and  Dolphi'nus,    See  Dolphin. 

Delphinium.     See  Larkspur  and  Stavesacke. 

Del'ta,  in  geology,  the  name  given  to  the  roughly  triangular 
space — resembling  the  Greek  letter  4  (delta), — formed  near  the 
mouth  or  estuary  of  a  river  by  the  dividing  of  Its  main  channel. 
The  apex  of  the  triangle  points  up  the  river,  and  Riarks  the  poiiit 
at  which  the  division  takes  place,  A  D.  land  is  the  great  re- 
ceptacle of  the  detritus  or  debris  brought  down  by  the  river,  and 
hence  it  frequently  occupies  hundreds  of  sq.  miles  covered  with 
alluvial  soil,  and  with  vegetable  mid  other  matters.  The  D.  is 
frequently  extended  seawards  by  increasing  deposits  of  the  river. 
Deltas  occur  most  typically  in  lakes  and  tideless  seas,  such  as 
the  Mediterranean.  "D.  formations  are  of  the  highest  interest 
to  the  geologist,  as  explaining,  in  some  aspects  at  least,  the  pro- 
cess of  cool  fotmation  and  other  allied  points, 

Itel'uge,  Tlie,  as  commonly  understood,  is  the  flood  which 
drowned  the  whole  human  race  tut  Noah  and  his  family.  The 
biblical  narrative,  literally  interpreted,  requires  us  to  believe 
that  this  was  a  flood  which  covered  the  whole  earth,  and  so  it 
WHS  always  understood  till  the  increasing  light  of  science  and 
criticism  revealed  the  objections  to  such  a  belief. 

The  chief  of  these  are  the  siiiallness  of  the  ark,  the  present 
distribution  of  animals  on  the  globe,  the  varieties  of  human  lan- 
guage, the  ash-cones  of  extuict  volcanoes,  which,  older  than  the 
supposed  time  of  the  flood,  could  not  have  been  touched  by  it, 
the  quantity- of  water  required,  the  necessary  destruction  of  most 
marine  animals,  as  well  as  all  in  the  ark,  owing  to  the  change  of 
climate,  and  of  freshwater  fish  and  plants  by  the  water,  &c. 

For  a  time  it  was  thought  that  all  these  difKculties  were 
avoided  by  supposing  merely  a  partial  D.  But  tliis  question 
has  been  entirelysuperseded  by  recent  Assyrian  discoveries,  which 
121 


appear  to  show  that  the  Hebrew  record  is  only  a  national  form 
of  a  widespread  Semitic  legend.  The  Babylonian  version  just  dis- 
covered points  in  the  direction  of  a  solar  myth.  It  is  on  a  tablet, 
which  is  one  of  twelve,  containing  myths  corresponding  to  the 
months  of  the  year  and  the  signs  of  the  zodiac,  and  all  relating 
to  a  solar  hero,  Gisdubhar.  The  story  of  the  flood  is  on  the 
eleventh,  corresponding  to  the  month  called  in  Accadian  '  the 
rainy,'  our  January,  over  which  Aquarius  presided.  See  Smith's 
Assyrian  Exphratisns  and  Discoverks  (1875),  and  Ckaldaan 
Account  of  Genesis  (1876), 


Civet-cat  family.  It  is  alhed  to  the  genus  Viveri'a  itself, 
but  differs  from  the  dvets  in  having  a  very  slender  body,  long 
legs,  and  elongated  '  whiskers. '  It  does  not  possess  any  scent- 
pouches.  Its  colour  is  greyish,  with  four  broad  saddle-shaped 
bands  of  brown  crossing  the  back.  The  sides  are  variegated 
with  brown,  the  legs  are  spotted,  and  the  tail  encircled  with 
alternate  brown  and  grey  rings.  The  muzzle  is  pointed.  The 
D.  is  by  no  means  common,  and  its  habits  have  npt  been 
thoroughly  ascertained, 

Delvi'no,  a  fortified  town  in  the  vilayet  of  Janina,  Albania, 
European  Turkey,  the  seat  of  a  Greek  bishop,  with  olive  planta- 
tions in  the  vicinity,  and  a  trade  in  oil  and  other  local  produce. 
Pop,  (1873)  7Soa 

Demand'  and  Supply".  It  is  a  question  among  political 
economists  whether,  as  a  rule,  the  demand  for  anything  en  ' 
the  supply,  or  whether  the  supply  precedes  the  demand, 
shall  endeavour  to  answer  the  general  question  by  considering 
the  two  following  questions  as  illustrative:—!.  Does  the  earth 
produce  wheat  because  men  want  bread,  or  do  men  eat  bread 
because  the  earth  produces  wheat  ?  2.  Do  men  wish  ti 
fest  because  locomotives  have  been  invented,  or  were  locomotives 
invented  because  men  wished  to  travel  fast. 

In  the  production  of  wheat  there  are  two  concurrent  agencies 
—human  hunger  and  the  natural  power  of  the  earth  for  produc 
ing  wheat.  If  we  must  determine  which  is  antecedent,  we  mns 
certainly  hold  the  earth  to  have  had  power  either  of  producing 
wheat  or  other  fruit  capable  of  sustaining  human  lue  before 
human  life  came.  Findmg  wheat  good  and  nutririous,  the  natu- 
ral supply  is  augmented  1^  art  and  induEtty.  In  answer  to  the 
second  question,  it  is  plain  that  the  demand — that  is,  for  speedy 

Eassage  from  one  place  to  another — is  antecedent  to  the  supply  ; 
)comotives  not  being  the  produce  of  the  earth,  but  of  human 
ingenuity.  Human  necessities  and  wants  are  the  demand,  supply 
is  the  result  of  this  force  acting  on  human  ingenuity  and  or  '"" " 
'     '  capability  of  our  planet  ;  and  if  the  capability  to  su 


life  had  not  pi 

forces  act  and  react  on  one  anomer. 

Adam  Smith  has  shown  that  it  is  the  : 
not  the  man  who  spends  it,  who  adds 
luntry.     Plainly  the  more  wealth 


life  could  not  have  been.     These 

n  who  saves  money, 
the  wealth  of  his 
produces,  or  is  the 
of  pToducmg,  and  the  less  he  consumes,  the  richer  does  lie 
become  ;  and  what  is  true  of  the  individual  is  true  of  men  collec- 
tiveh' ;  but  while  demand  is  the  force  which,  acting  on  capability, 
produces  supply,  consumption  is,  in  most  articles,  a  necessary 

wine,  but  to  continue  buying  it,  there  would  be  a  continuous  accu- 
mulation of  the  wine — that  is,  so  much  accumulation  of  wealth ; 
but  then,  if  they  ceased  to  drink  the  wine,  they  would  certainly 
cease  to  buy  it,  and  production  would  stop  and  wealth  diminish. 

Dem'avend,  Mount,  an  extinct  volcano,  on  the  borders  of 
Irak-Ajemi  and  Mazanderan,  Persia,  21,00a  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  It  is  the  loftiest  peak  of  the  Elbutz  chain,  is  conical 
in  form,  and  the  top  is  entirely  composed  of  a  soft  rock  from 
which  sulphur  is  dug.  At  its  base  there  ate  seveial  hot  springs. 
D.  in  Persian  tradition  occupies  a  place  corresponding  to  that  of 
Etna  in  the  myths  of  Greece. 

Demliea,  Lake  of,  in  the  plateau  of  N.  Abyssinia,  lies  6000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  about  150  miles  in  circumf 
ence,  and  studded  with  cultivated  islands.     It  receives  and  <. 
charges  the  waters  of  the  Blue  Nile. 

Dembin'ski,  Henry,  a  Polish  general,  bora  near  Craci 
January  16,  1791,  joined  the  Polish  army  in  1809,  shared  in 
French  invasion  of  Russia,   and  distinguished  himself  at 
3t)l 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


battle  of  Leipsic  in  1813.  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon  he  re- 
Inmed  to  Poknd,  was  appointed  commander  of  a  brigade  in 
the  Polish  revolution  of  1830,  and  shone  conspicuoua  at  the 
battles  of  l>iv  and  Kuflew.  After  his  repulse  of  the  Russians 
on  the  Narar,  and  his  able  retreat  Ihrougn  Lithuania  in  1831, 
he  was  made  general  of  the  Polish  forces.  When  Warsaw  sur- 
rendered, D.  took  refuge  in  France,  visited  Egypt  in  1833  in 
the  expectation  of  a  war  with  Russia,  iii  1849  transferred  his 
services  to  the  Hungarians  against  Austria  and  Russia,  and  was 
made  general  of  the  Hungarian  army  by  Kossuth.  After  the 
defeat  of  Kapolna  and  resignation  of  Kossuth,  D,  fled  to  Turkey, 
and  returned  to  Paris  in  1851,  where  he  died,  June  13,  1864. 
See  D.'s  Mimoires  sur  la  Campagne  di  Lithuanie  (Strasb, 
1832)  and  D.  in  Ungem,  by  A.  H.  Danien  (Lond.  1S75). 
Demen'tia.     See  Insanity. 


ships  of  considerable  burden  for  nearly  ioo  miles. 

Semesne'  (Old  Fr.  demaiiM,  Lat.  dominium,  'lordship'). 
Lands  next  to  the  lord's  mansion,  and  which  he  kept  for  the  sup- 
port of  his  household,  were  in  old  times  called  the  D.  In  ouv 
day  it  denotes  the  right  of  an  owner  of  land  in  Fee  Simple  (q.  v. ). 
See  aJso  Domesday  Book. 

Deme'ter.     See  Cekes. 

Demef  rina,  the  name  of  three  kings  of  Syria.— i.  D,  Soter, 
grandson  of  Antiochus  the  Great,  spent  his  early  years  at  Rome 
as  a  hostage,  whence  he  fled,  partly  through  the  helpof  Polybius, 
when  twenty-three  years  old,  and  established  himself  on  the  throne 
of  Syria.  He  conciliated  the  senate  and  secured  his  recognition  as 
king,  but  acted  so  despotically  towards  his  neighbonrs,  that  the 
Jews  under  Judas  Maccabeus  took  up  arms  and  defeated  his  gene- 
ral, D.  fell  in  battle  [B.C.  150)  iwfainst  an  impostor  named  BaJas, 
whose  claims  were  supported  by  the  Romans,  the  Jews,  and 
.Attalus,  King  of  Pergamus. — 2.  D.  Dioator,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, after  remaining  in  exiie  for  soma  years,  recovered  the  kingdom 
from  Balas  by  the  assistance  of  Ptolemy  Philometer,  but  the 
infant  son  of  Balas  being  set  up  as  a  pretender  against  him,  D. 
lost  Antioch  and  a  great  part  of  Syria,  and  withdrew  to  Baby- 
lon. His  army  was  soon  after  destroyed  by  the  Parthians,  and 
himself  taken  prboner  (B.C.  138),  After  a  captivity  of  ten  years 
he  was  re-established  on  the  throne,  but  his  soldiers  and  subjects 
having  become  disaffected,  he  was  assassinated  at  Tyre,  B.C.  125. 
— 3.  I>.  Kao89ra&,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  held  with  his 
brother  for  a  time  the  whole  of  Syria.  War,  however,  broke 
out  between  the  brothers,  and  Philip,  having  blockaded  D,  in  his 
camp,  compelled  him  to  surrender  at  discretion.  He  remained 
in  honourable  captivity  with  Mithridates,  King  of  Parthia,  until 
his  death.  His  coins  bear  date  from  2lS  to  224  of  the  era  of  the 
Seleucidte,  i.e.,  from  94  to  88  B.C. 

Demetrio?,  or  Dmitri,  son  of  Ivan  IV.  ('the  Terrible'),  Ciar 
of  Russia.  On  his  father's  death,  in  1584,  D.  was  esiled  by 
Boris  Godounof  to  Ouglitch,  and  there  died.  The  authorities 
proclaimed  that  he  had  killed  himself  in  an  epileptic  fit,  but  the 
people  believed  he  was  assassinated  by  Boris,  who  usurped  the 
throne  in  1 598,  on  the  death  of  Fedor,  Ivan's  other  son.  The 
unpopularity  of  the  usntpei'  at  length  prompted  a  succession  of 
romantic  deceptions.  Four  persons  came  forward,  two  of  whom 
declared  themjelyes  to  be  the  son,  and  two  the  grandson  of 

The_;?«^  pseudo-D.  appearedin  1603.  He  was  a  servant  of 
Pruice  Adam  Wizniowiecki,  and  was  aided  by  his  master,  by  the 
Palatine  of  Sandomir,  and  by  Sigismund  III.,  King  of  Poland. 
Boris  had  grown  unpopular  ;  and  though  he  declared  this  D.  tp 
be  an  apostate  monk,  called  Grishha  Otrepiev,  had  to  yield  in 
1 604.  D.  raled  wisely,  but  his  marriage  with  Marina,  daughter 
of  the  Palatine,  and  his  Polish  leanings,  cost  him  the  throne. 
He  was  slain  at  Moscow  in  t6o6,  in  a  riot  stirred  by  Prince  Vas- 
silii  Shuiski,  who  became  Czar. 

The  second  impostor  appeared  in  1607,  declaring  himself  to 
be  D,,  and  that  he  had  escaped  from  the  Moscoif  riot.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  really  a  Jew,  but  was  accepted  by  Marina  as 
her  husband,  and  found  supporters.  He  iras  put  to  death  in 
t6lo.  Alike  fate  befell  the  i^n/ pseudo-D. ,  who  pretended  to 
362 


be  the  son  of  the  first.  The  fourth,  who  did  tlie  same,  was 
enecuted  at  Moscow  in  1613.  These  false  Demetriuses  have 
formed  a  favourite  theme  for  poets  and  novelists;  a  dramatic 
fragment  by  Schiller  deals  with  one  of  them.  See  Prosper  Meii- 
m^e's  Episode  di  VHistoire  de  Russia. 

Detnetriae,  Pltalereua,  so  called  from  his  birthplace  at  the 
demos  of  Phalenis,  was  '  the  Admirable  Crichton  of  his  time,  the 
last  of  Attic  orators,  statesman,  poet,  and  warrior.'  D.  was  born 
B.C.  325,  educated  at  the  school  of  Theophraltus,  and  in  B.C. 
317,  on  the  death  of  Phocion,  placed  by  Cassander  oyer  the 
administration  of  Athens,  which  he  conducted  for  ten  years  with 
so  much  success,  that  the  Athenians  erected  no  fewer  than  360 
statues  in  his  honour.  Success,  however,  rendered  him  reckless ; 
and  on  the  approach  of  Itemetrius  Poliorcetes  to  Athens,  B.C.  307, 
D.  was  compelled  to  fiee.  He  lived  for  many  years  at  the  court 
of  Ptolemy  Lagi  at  Alexandria,  and  it  is  believed  that  by  his 
influence  the  foundation  was  laid  of  the  femous  Alexandrian 
Library.  The  successor  of  Lagi  sent  D.  into  exile  in  Upper 
Egypt,  where  he  died  about  283  b.c.  His  works,  which  are 
enumerated  by  Diogenes  Laertius  to  the  number  of  fifly,  have  all 
perished. 

Demetritia  Poiiorcetes.    See  Antigonus. 

Dem'i,  or  Dem'y  (Fr.  'a  half),  in  heraldry,  the  upper, 
front,  or  dester  half,  as  a  DAicn-rampant.  D.  usually,  but  not 
always,  indicates  the  dexter  hslt  per-pah  in  inanimate  objects. 

Demi-Bas^tion,  in  fortification,  a  half-bastion,  consisting  of 
one  face  and  one  front,  and  usually  terminating  the  faces  of  a 
crown-work  or  horn-work, 

Dem'idoff,  a  celebrated  family  of  Russian  capitalists,  founded 
by  Wikita  D.,  bom  a  serf  in  Peter  the  Great's  time.  He 
amassed  enormous  wealth,  first  by  the  manufacture  of  arms,  and 
then  by  Siberian  iron-foundries,  which  he  first  eslablished  in 
1699.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  noble  in  1720,  and  left 
two  sons,  one  of  whom,  Akinfij  D.,  worked  still  more  exten- 
sively the  metals  of  the  Ural  range,  and  established  the  iron- 
works of  Nijni-Tagilsk,  still  the  greatest  in  Siberia.  In  recog- 
nition of  his  labours  and  riches  he  was  made  Counsellor  of  State. 
See  Spasskij,  Shisniopisame  AMu/ja  D.  (Petersb.  1833).— Pro- 
copij  D.  {died  1786),  son  of  the  preceding,  founded  the  School 
of  Commerce  at  Moscow,  which  was  removed  to  St  Petersburg 
in  r8oo,— Paul  QrigorjeTicli  D.  (died  1821),  nephew  of 
Akinfij,  was  the  founder  of  the  D.  Museum  at  JaroslavL — 
NikolaJ  Nikititcli  D.  (born  1774),  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  both  soldier  and  author.  He  raised  a  regiment  against  the 
French  in  1812,  and  did  good  service.  He  died  in  182S,  and 
two  years  later  his  works  were  published  at  Paris  under  the  title, 
Opuscuks  d'Econotme  Politique  et  Pritik.  — Aaiatoli  D. ,  son  of 
Paul,  was  distinguished  as  a  literary  man,  a  savan,  and  a  philan- 
thropist. Both  Russia  and  other  countries,  especially  Italy,  in 
which  he  long  resided,  owe  to  him  many  useful  educational 
and  charitable  institutions,  A  translation  of  his  Travels  was  ' 
published  at  London  in  1853.  D.  married  Princess  Matliilde, 
daughter  of  Jerome  Bonaparte,  in  1 840,  but  their  union  was 
dissolved  five  years  after.  D.  possessed  one  of  the  most  splendid 
art  collections  in  Europe.     He  died  at  Paris,  29th  April  1870. 

Denti-Lnne,  in  fortification,  a  work  composed  of  two  faces, 
forming  a  salient  angle  towards  the  outside  of  the  fort,  and  in- 
tended to  cover  its  curiam  or  wall,  as  well  as  the  shoulders  of 
the  adjoining  bastions, 
two    demi-gorges    nea 

Ravelin. 
Xleinir'-Hissar'  ('  i 

European  Turkey,  . 


L  castle  '),  a  fortified  town  in  Roumelia, 
iles  N.E,  of  Salonica,  with  less  than 
3000' inhabitants.  It  takes  its  name  from  an  old  fort  which 
crowns  the  hill  at  the  foot  of  which  it  is  built. 

XteiuLse',  in  English  law,  is  the  term  applied  to  the  convey- 
ance of  an  estate  in  fee,  or  for  life,  or  a  term  of  years. 

Bemise  of  the  Crown.  By  the  law  of  England  the  sove- 
reign never  dies  ;  for  on  the  death  of  the  reigning  monarch  the 
royal  dignity  vests,  and  the  kingdom  is  eo  iiistaiile,  in  legal  lan- 
guage, demised  to  the  heir  to  the  crown. 

IJoiii'i8eiJi'iq.iiaver,  in  music,  anote  of  which  the  duration  is 
half  that  of  a  semiq^uiver,  or  one-eighth  that  of  a  crotchet.  See 
Notation. 


y  Google 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DEM 


Demiurge  (Gr.  '  a  workman,'  lit.  a  workman  of  the  demos, 
or  people),  according  lo  the  Gnostics  {q.  v.),  was  the  creator  of 
the  world.  All  the  Gnostics  maintained  a  twofold  creation  : 
one  evolved  diKctly  out  of  the  Divine  essence,  and  another  pro- 
duced by  God's  plastic  power  out  of  pre-eiisting  matter— the 
framer  of  the  latter  lower  creation  not  being  the  author  of  the 
higher  world  of  animation,  but  the  D. ,  a  bdng  far  inferior  to  the 
supreme  God.  Some  believed  the  D.  to  be  the  representative 
of  the  supreme  God  on  this  lower  stage  of  existence,  and  the 
highest  of  all  emanations  from  his  substance ;  others  reg;arded 
him  as  absolutely  hostile  to  God,  and  identified  him  with  Jeho- 
vah, the  God  of  the  Jews.     See  Neander's  KirckengescMchte. 

Demmin.',  z.  town  in  the  province  of  Fommem,  Prussia,  lies 
in  the  valley  of  the  Peene,  75  miles  N.W.  of  Stettin.  It  consists 
of  D.  proper,  which  is  walled,  and  three  suburbs ;  has  manufac- 
tures of  woollens,  linens,  hosiery,  leather,  and  tobacco,  distil- 
leries and  breweries,  and  a  trade  in  com  and  malt.  Pop,  (1871) 
9050.  D.  is  one  of  the  oldest  Slavic  towns  of  Pommern,  and  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Karl  the  Great  is  mentioned  as  an  important 
seat  of  trade.  In  the  fierce  stm^les  between  the  Teutonic  and 
Slavic  race,  that  occupy  a  good  part  of  the  middle  ages,  D.  suf- 
fered severely,  and  again  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Demoo'racy  is  a  Greek  word  meaning  the  power  or  rule  of 
the  general  body  of  the  people,  not  of  the  mob  or  poorest  classes. 
Thus  at  Athens  there  was  a  D.  as  distinguished  from  the  tyranny 
of  a  noble  family,  and  the  oligarchy  of  a  wealthy,  priestly,  or 
mihtaiy  class.  But  the  Athenian  D.  did  not  contain  the  metad,  or 
the  slaves.  Nor  among  the  free  citizens  who  enjoyed  the  various 
political  franchises  and  dischat^ed  the  political  duties  was  there 
complete  equality  of  rights,  any  more  than  equality  of  conditions. 
TTie  Solonian  Constitution,  as  much  as  the  Servian  Constitution 
at  Rome,  recognised  classes  of  citizens,  whose  rights,  or  some  of 
them,  were  measured  by  their  property.  The  degree  in  which 
the  demos  participates  in  the  government  of  itself,  directly  or 
indirectly,  is,  however,  not  so  fundamental  a  question  as  tms — 
On  what  principle  is  the  Government  conducted?  It  is  of  course 
humanly  possible  that  even  a  despot  could  be  found  of  suf&dent 
intelligence  and  benevolence  lo  ensure  the  happiness  of  the  great 
mass  of  his  subjects.  But  this  is  not  sufficient  for  permanent 
security.  The  despot  dying,  either  his  son  or  an  elected  succes- 
sor would  reign,  or  there  would  be  a  revolution.  In  any  event, 
there  would  be  no  indisputable  record  tliat  government  was  to 
proceed  according  to  the  ascertained  interests  of  the  many ;  there 
would  be  no  ftee  constitutior^  Hence  the  argument  of  democrats 
is,  that  by  the  universEd  eiiperience  of  history  it  has  been  found 
that  constitutions  in  which  the  mass  of  tte  people  has  no  power, 
direct  or  indirect,  except  the  extremely  indirect  menace  of  revolu- 
tion, have  tended  to  the  exaltation  of  the  family  or  class  having 
power,  and  to  the  debasement  and  the  denial  of  rights  of  the 
unenfranchised,  tmrepresented  class.  This  is  generally  conceded, 
and  hence  the  idea  of  representative  government — via.,  that  the 
people  are  to  govern  themselves.  In  modem  times  the  business 
of  government  has  become  so  multifarious,  and  so  much  of  it  is 
intrusted  to  local  machinery  by  the  permissive  system,  that  the 
ailment  for  D.  as  a  means  of  elevating  the  moral  tone  and 
developing  the  mental  enetgies  of  the  people  is  very  powerful. 
The  great  dangers  of  D.  are  a  low  grade  of  intelligence  in  the 
representative  body,  and  in.  the  popular  opinion  which  controls 
it,  and  class  I^lslation.  This  has  always  been  a  real  difficulty 
in  human  affairs.  No  doubt  one  policy  reconciles  all  the  legiti- 
mate interests  of  a  nation,  but  a  social  class  may  be  as  grievously 
in  error  about  its  own  interests  as  about  the  interests  of  another 
class ;  it  may  even  fot^et  the  interests  of  all  other  classes,  and 
identify  itself  with  the  nation.  These  chances  are  increased  when 
a  class  is  not  only  numerically  the  strongest,  but  intellectually 
and  morally  the  weakest.  The  commonest  method  of  prevent- 
ing these  evils  is  the  restriction  of  the  suifrage  to  those  whose 
material  position  is  supposed  to  guarantee  in  some  measure  their 
moral  and  intellectual  fitness  for  the  franchise.  Such  a  restric- 
tion rests  on  deeper  grounds  than  the  constitutional  masdm,  '  No 
representation,  no  taxation ; '  the  imenfranchised  must  depend 
on  the  patriotism  of  those  who  represent  the  enfmuchised.  But 
D.,  as  frequently  practised,  is  unequal  in  fiivour  of  the  pre- 
dominant class  which  happens  to  be  enfranchised.  In  all  con- 
stituencies (which  are  not  framed  on  a  logical  plan,  but,  as 
burghs,  counties,  &c.,  are  the  result  of  historical  growth), 
very  often  only  a  numerical  niajotily  is  represented,  bnt  the 


minority  is  never  represented.  Hence  a  vote  of  delegates  re- 
turned on  this  principle  may  represent  the  wishes  of  an  actual 
minority  of  the  nation.  The  necessity  of  a  representation 
of  minorities  is  partly  concealed  by  the  fact  that  nowhej-e  is 
the  suffrage  extended  to  all  men  and  women  in  the  area  of  vot- 
ing.   Another  plan  soggested  for  use  in  Great  Britain  is  that  of 


or  exceeding  a  third  of  the  constituency,  would  b 
attempted  no  more,  to  return  one  out  of  three  members, 
the  voters  having  only  two  votes.  Mr  Garth  Marshall  has 
advocated  the  cumulative  vote,  which  has  been  snccessfuUy 
worked  in  recent  school-board  elections.  Such  plans,  how- 
ever, leave  untouched  the  case  where  a  minority  is  made  up  of 
several  constituencies.  The  most  comprehensive  suggestion  on 
the  subject  isthat  of  Mr  Thomas  Hare.  He  lakes  as  his  unit  of 
representation,  not  equal  electoral  districts  (the  plan  which  is 
being  largely  adopted  on  the  Continent),  but  the  quota  of  elec- 
tors readied  by  dividing  the  enfranchised  population  by  the 
number  of  seats.  Every  candidate  obtaining  that  quota  would 
be  returned,  and  every  elector  would  be  entitled  to  vote  for  all 
the  candidates  in  an  order  of  preference,  his  vote  being  counted 
for  only  one  (Hare's  Treatisi  on  Ihe  Election  of  Represejiisiives). 
This  system  oi  personal  representation,  as  it  is  called,  would  en- 
tirely supersede  the  necessity  of  what  have  been  called  fancy 
franchisfs,  viz.,  privileges  of  voting  conferred  on  bodies  who  are 
supposed  to  have  special  intelligence  or  special  interests  to  pro- 
tect. The  objections  which  have  been  made  to  it  are  chiefly 
practical :  the  suspicion  to  which  the  central  office  for  analysing 
the  votes  would  be  exposed;  and  the  risk  of  the  American 
'  ticket '  system,  or  mass-voting  on  a  prepared  list,  being  intro- 
duced. The  fallacy  consists  in  supposing  that  the  entire  votmg 
would  be  revolutionised  by  a  device  which  has  for  its  object  the 
special  oiganisation  of  minorities.  Mr  Hare's  plan  is  in  opera- 
tion in  Denmark  (where  it  had  been  thought  out  independently 
by  M.  Andrae).  It  would  probably  be  necessary  to  limit  the 
number  of  secondary  or  contingent  votes  to  be  given.  But  so 
many  strong  beliefs  and  entire  schools  of  thought  are  unrepre- 
sented by  the  present  system,  that  protiably  some  form  of  personal 
representation  will  ere  long  become  general. 

Detnoc'ritus,  a  celebrated  philosopher,  born  at  Abdera,  in 
Thrace,  about  460  B.C.,  disciple  of  Leucippus,  travelled  exten- 
sively in  quest  of  knowledge,  and  after  spendmg  his' inheritance, 
returned  home  in  great  poverty.  He  visited  Babylon  and  Meroe, 
spent  a  considerable  time  in  Egypt,  and  even,  according  to  some, 
reached  India  and  Ethiopia,  He  was  a  man  of  upright  character, 
of  great  modesty  and  disinterestedness,  and  of  such  immense  dili- 
gence and  acquisitiveness,  that  he  excelled  in  rEinge  of  knowledge 
all  the  earlier  Greek  philosophers.  For  his  worth  and  wisdom 
his  fellow-citizens  greatly  honoured  him ;  while  his  sterling  merit 
is  said  to  have  secured  for  him  even  the  good  opmion  of  the  arch- 
scoffer  Timon,  whose  tongue  spared  no  man  else.  Accordmg  to 
a  tradition,  he  put  out  his  eyes  that  he  might  pursue  his  studies 
unmolested ;  but  it  is  much  more  likely  that  he  lost  his  sight  by 
severe  application  to  study.  From  his  irresistible  inclination  to 
look  at  the  comical  side  of  things,  and  to  laugh  at  hnman  follies, 
he  acquired  tlie  name  of  '  the  laughii^  philosopher. '  He  studied 
and  wrote  on  physical  science,  mathematics,  grammar,  music,  and 
philosophy ;  but  only  a  few  fragments  of  his  voluminous  writings 
remain.  D.'s  system  of  philosophy  was  an  expansion  of  the  atomic 
theory  of  Leucippus — that  the  universe,  material  and  mental, 
consists  ot  minute,  indivisible,  and  impenetrable  atoms.  These 
atoms  he  assumes  as  the  ultimate  ground  of  nature  ;  necessity  as  . 
the  cause  of  all  existence.  In  other  words,  he  ignores  design, 
but  admits  the  reign  of  law.  Gods  and  men  are  alike  the  aggre- 
gates of  atoms.  This  theory  was  adopted  by  Epicurus  and 
ardently  advocated  by  Lucretius.  Inward  peace,  a  conscience 
without  reproach,  freedom  from  fear  and  passion,  he  considers  as 
the  ultimate  objects  of  human  endeavour.  D.  died  about  357 
B.C.  A  good  collection  of  the  fragments  of  his  writings  was 
published  by  Mullach  (Berl.  1S43). 

Detn'odex,  a  peculiar  genus  of  mites  [Acaiina),  represented 
by  the  species  D.  foUiculamm,  which  inhabits  the  sebaceous 
follicles  of  the  human  skin,  especially  near  the  nose.  This  para- 
site is  of  minute  size  and  fljoroughly  harmless. 

Demoiselle,   the  name  of  a  species  of  Crane  {Seop,  or 
Anthiopides  virgd),  sometimes  known  as  the  Numidian  crane, 
363 


vLjOOqIc 


DEM 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DEM 


This  bird  o 


11  Africa,  Asia,  and  E.  Europe.  Its  graceful 
9  liave  procured  for  it  its  French  sobriquet.  It? 
height  is  about  3  or  3^  feet.  The  colour  is  a  bluish-grey ;  the 
ear-tufts  are  white,  and  the  head  itself  is  a  deep  black  colour. 
The  breast  hasatuftofdeep.iron-grey  plumes,  and  the  secondary 
feathers  form  a  prominent  upper  tail,  which  droops  over  the 
primaries  and  t^-featheis.  The  nostrils  are  narrow.  To  this 
genus  the  Stanley  crane  {S.  or  A.  paradisaus)  of  the  E.  Indies 
also  belongs.  The  name  D.  is  also  given  to  the  Libillulidis  or 
Dragon- Flies  (q.  v.). 

Demoi'Tre,  Abraham,  a  mathematician,  known  best  by  the 
formula  in  analytical  trigonometry  which  bears  his  name,  was 
bom  at  Vitri  in  Champagne,  May  26,  1667,  but  passed  most  of 
his  life  in  England,  where  he  had  taken  refuge  after  the  revoca- 
tion of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  The  appearance  of  Newton's  Prin- 
apia  stimulated  his  mathematical  studies,  and  he  soon  acquired 
a  high  reputation  in  the  science.  An  intimate  friend  of  Newton, 
Leibnitz,  and  Bernouilli,  he  was  nominated  by  the  Royal 
Society  to  decide  the  famous  controversy  between  &e  first  two. 
D.  died  at  London,  November  27,  1 754.  His  chief  works  are 
his  Miscellanea  Analytka  (1730),  Doctrine  of  Chances  (1716, 
'738,  1756),  Annuities  on  Lives  {1724,  174O,  1750),  and  several 
memoirs  in  the  Fkilosophical  Transactions, 

Demoli'tion,  the  art  of  destroying  a  structure,  is  part  of  the 
professional  education  of  a  militaiy  engineer.  Under  this  head 
he  is  taught  how  to  destroy  works  and  buildings  ;  what  quantity 
of  gunpowder  is  required  to  blast  masonry  of  a  given  thickness  ; 
how  to  determine  the  line  of  least  resistance ;  and  similar  matters 
in  military  operations. 

Demo'niaos,  persons  believed  to  be  possessed  by  Demons 
(q,  v.).  It  was  the  popular  belief  of  the  Jews  [except  the 
Sadducees)  at  the  time  of  Christ,  and  of  many  other  nations 
centuries  before,  that  demons,  especially  the  spirits  of  bad  men, 
entered  the  bodies  of  men  to  torment  them.  It  was  believed 
that  a  man's  soul  could  go  in  and  out  of  hia  body  during  sleep, 
and  also  that  demons  could  be  dravra  in  with  the  breath,  of  which 
yawning  and  sneezing  were  proofs.  Along  with  this  there  was 
the  belief  that  diseases  were  due  to  supernatural  causes ;  a  belief 
which  had  two  phases  :  first,  that  diseases,  pestilences,  &c.,  were 
due  to  the  anger  of  God  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  15) ;  and  secondly,  accord- 
ing to  dnalistic  ideas  (see  Devil),  that  these  were  the  work  of 
the  devil  and  his  agents.  So  firm  a  hold  had  this  belief  on  the 
human  mind,  that  it  was  not  till  the  17th  c  that  it  even  began  to 
be  checked  by  writers  on  medical  science.  .  From  the  fusion  of 
these  two  beliefs  resulted  a  firm  conviction  that  those  diseases 
especially  which  were  more  mysterious  in  their  symptoms,  a^  in 
sanity,  epilepsy,  St  Vitus's  dancej  dumbness,  &c.,  were  caused 
by  demons  who  had  iheir  abode  in  the  persons  afHicted. 

In  the  New  Teslament  Chiist  is  represented  as  'casting  out 
demons  ;'  and  as  science  now  finds  it  difficult  to  recognise  in  the 
manifestations  of  the  infirmities  of  D.  any  evidence  of  a  super 
human  canse^  except  in  the  sense  in  which  all  things  are  migi 
nally  of  divine  origination,  various  interpretations  of  the  cures 
have  been  offered,  of  which  the  most  rational  is  that  the  lan- 
guage used  concerning  them  represents  the  popular  belief,  pro- 
bably that  of  the  evangelists  too,  who  looked  at  the  phenomenon 
only  from  a  religious  point  of  view,  and  is  therefore  not  to  be 
interpreted  as  inculcating  scientific  knowledge.      After  all  has 


been  said  that  can  be  said 
dibie  that  physical  evil  had 
apart  from  personality — is  a  mean 

evil  spirits ;  but  that  they 
Christian  notion.     By  pagan  n 

every  order  of  beings  sup 
the  inferior    deities,  or    to 
and  men,  some  of  whom 
nant     The  dualistic  idea  (       D 
Egyptians,  &c.,  was  not  kn 
stage  of  their  reli^ous  devel  pm 
of  all  evil  as  well  as  all  goot      sa. 
disasters,  and  even  the  tem  ta 
of  God  and  his  angels  (Exo 
apocryphal  books   the   infl 
mistakably  app 


fi 


:e  plainly  in  the  belief  in  wicked  spirits, 
of  the  belief  that  these  were  fallen  angels 
appears  in  the  Book  of  Enoch.  Satan  by  this  time  had  a  dis- 
tinct kingdom  and  a  residence  in  the  subterranean  hell,  from 
which  tens  of  thousands  of  fiends  constantly  streamed  obedient 
to  his  behests.  Their  favourite  haunts  were  deserts  and  wilder- 
nesses, but  there  they  grew  weary,  and  as  they  wandered  about 
finding  no  rest,  their  great  resort  was  to  take  ttp  their  abode  in  a 
human  body.    See  Demoniacs. 

In  the  New  Testament  there  is  distinct  reference  to  a  hier- 
archy of  evil  spirits  as  well  as  of  angels  (Eph.  vi.  12,  &c.)  j 
and  the  figurative  langu^e  of  St  Paul  (I  Cor.  x.  30),  in  speak- 
ing of  the  heathen  gods  as  devils,  perhaps  led  to  the  theory  of 
later  writers  that  they  were  literally  D.     At  any  rate  the  whole 
heathen  Pantheon  vras  transformed  into  a  Pandemonium.     The 
belief  in  a  parallelism  between  the  powers  of  light  and  the  powers 
of  darkness  also  multiplied  devils  to  match  the  multiplication  of 
saints.     These  holy  men  were  continually  assailed  by  them,  but 
were  nniformly  able  to  vanquish  them  by  the  sign  of  the  cross, 
a  drop  of  holy  water,  or  an  appeal  to  the  Viigin.     The  period 
including  the  13th  and  four  succeeding  centuries  has  been  called 
'  the  devil's  own,'  from  the  extent  to  which  the  belief  in 
spirits  then  prevailed.     Every  destructive  or  terrifying  ph« 
menon  of  nature,  every  pain  or  disease  which  afflicted  mar 
beast,  every  accident,  the  roost  trifling  as  well  as  the  most  e 
ous,  all  were  the  work  of  the  devil,  his  imps,  or  his  age 
(See  Witchcraft.)    In  a  book  published  about  the  middlt 
the  i6fh  c,  giving  the  popular  notions  regarding  the  infernal 
hierarchy   (Weir's   Pseuasmonarchia  Damonuiti),    seventy-two 
princes  are  named,  and  their  subjects  estinmled  at  7,405,926 
devils.     See  Ukerl's  Uber  Damonen,  Heroea  and  Genien  (Leips. 
1850);  RoskofF's  GescMc&te des  Teufrls  (Leips.   1870);  Lccky's 
History  of  Rationalism  in  Europe  (1865) ;  Maury's  Histoire  de 
la  Magie  (Par.  1860) ;  Farrar's  Idfe  of  Christ  (iSjo). 

Demonstra'tion  (Lat.  dtmonstrare,  'to  point  out'),  in  mathe- 
mathics  or  logic,  is  the  process  by  which  a  tesult  is  shown  to  be 
a  necessary  consequence  of  pre-established  premises, 

Demonatra'tion,  an  exhibition  of  military  force  to  check  or 
deceive  an  enemy,  and  by  causing  a  division  of  his  troops,  to 
weaken  him  at  a  point  where  the  real  attack  is  intended. 

He  Mor'gan,  Augnatus,  the  son  of  Colonel  De  M.  of  the 
Madras  army,  was  born  on  the  island  of  Madura,  near  the  coast 
of  Java,  June  27,  1806.  He  entered  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, in  1824,  and  look  his  B.A.  degree  as  fourth  wrangler  in 
1827  In  1828  he  was  elected  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  Lon- 
don University  an  office  resigned  m  1831,  but  resumed  in  1836, 
and  held  till  his  death  March  18,  1871  His  extensive  know- 
ledge, combined  with  his  clear,  Iceiiil,  and,  when  necessary, 
saicastic  style  of  writing,  rendered  him  a  powerful  controver- 
sialist He  has  written  a  treatise  on  almost  every  branci  of 
pure  malheinatics,  on  arithmetic,  algebra  trigonometry,  proba- 
bihbes,  &c  ,  and  his  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus,  published 
by  the  Society  for  the  Diftusion  of  Useful  Knowledge,  is  the 
most  complete  treatise  on  the  subject  ever  produced  in  England. 
His  numerous  articles  in  Ihe  Penny  Cyclopsedia  make  up  nearly 
one-sixth  of  the  whole  twenty-seven  folio  volumes.  His  Budget 
of  Paradoxes,  which  originally  appeared  in  the  Alhensum,  is  full 
of  quiet  chuckling  humour.  His  treatment  of  the  most  cele- 
t  d  lai  lants  to  the  discovery  of  perpetual  motion  and  the 
q  mg  f  the  circle  is  particularly  delightful. 
Demos  thenea,  the  greatest  orator  of  antiquity,  and  one  of  ihe 
bl  t  1  racters  in  history,  was  born  in  the  Attic  borough  of 
te  .  385.     When  he  came  of  age,  he  prosecuted  his 

gu  d  US  f  r  their  mal-adminisf  ration  of  the  properly  bequeathed 
y  h  f  th  r,  and,  aiter  much  delay,  obtained  a  verdict  against 
m,  th  ten  talents  (,£2400)  damages.  Stimulated  by  his  loss 
f  fortune,  and  encouraged  by  his  success  in  the  courts,  D.  devoted 
mself  to  a  public  career,  and  assiduously  Strove  to  overcome 
e  physical  disadvantages  of  his  feeble  constitution  and  stam- 
ering  speech.  In  B.C.  358,  Philip  of  Macedonia  commenced 
e  attack  on  the  northern  allies  and  possessions  of  Athens,  which 
as  his  first  step  towards  the  overthrow  of  the  liberties  of  Greece, 
he  unflinching  and  patriotic,  though  unsuccessful,  opposition  of 
D,  to  the  Macedonian  agression  is  embodied  in  his  famous  ora- 
ons  against  Philip,  the  first  of  which  vras  delivered  B,C.  352 ; 
nd  in  the  three  Olynthiac  orations  he  endeavoured  to  avert  Ihe 


y  Google 


TBE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Amphictyotiic  League,  and  steadfastly  pursued  his  plans  for  the 
subjugation  of  Gi-eece.  He  was  elecled  general-m- chief  of  the 
Amphictyonic  army  in  B.&  339,  and,  in  the  next  year,  Greek  in- 
dependence was  completely  destroyed  in  the  disaslrous  battle  of 
Chteroneia.  jEschines,  the  rival  of  D,,  and  the  leader  of  the 
Macedonian  party  in  Athens,  endeavoured  to  prove  the  illegality 
of  the  proposal  of  Ctesiphon,  that  D.  should  receive  a  crown  in 
Dgnilion  of  his  noble  public  career;  and  D.  triumphantly  re- 
plied in  an  oration  that  has  been  justly  ranked  as  the  master- 
piece of  ancient  eloquence.  The  death  of  Philip,  B.C.  336,  and 
of  Alexander,  B.C.  323,  afforded  delusive  grounds  of  hope  to  the 
Greek  patiiots  ;  and  on  the  latter  event,  D.  was  recalled  from 
the  exile  into  which  he  fled  when  punished  for  his  alleged  pro- 
tection of  the  rebel  Harpagus.  The  Macedonian  power,  how- 
ever, was  still  in  the  ascendant.  Antipater  marched  to  Athens, 
and  D.  fled  to  the  temple  of  Neptune,  in  the  island  of  Calauria, 
where  he  took  poison,  and  died,  B.C.  322. 

Demotic  Aipliabet.     See  Hieroglyphics. 

Demot'ioa,  a  town  in  the  vilayet  of  Adrianople,  province  of 
Rumili,  European  Turkey,  2Z  miles  S.  of  Adrianople,  with 
manufactures  of  silks,  woollens,  and  potteiy.  It  is  defended  by 
a  ciladel,  and  contains  a  palace,  in  which  several  Sultans  resided 
before  the  Turks  captured  Constantinople.  Karl  XII.  of  Sweden 
found  an  asylum  here  for  some  time  after  his  defeat  at  Pultowa. 
Pop.  estimated  at  10,000. 

Detn'pster,  Tliomas,  a  learned  professor  and  voluminous 
writer,  was  born  at  Muiresk,  Aberdeenshire,  about  1579,  and 
educated  at  Aberdeen  and  Cambridge,  whence  he  repaired  to 
France.  Here  he  assumed  the  title  of  Baron  of  Muiresk, 
and  obtained  a  professorship  in  the  College  of  Beanvais,  which 
was  afterwards  exchanged  for  one  at  Nfmes.  Repairing  to 
Italy,  he  taught  first  at  Pisa  and  afterwards  at  Bologna  and  at 
Butri,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  which  he  died,  September  16, 
1625.  The  best  known  of  D.'s  works  is  his  Histoi-ia  EccUsiastka 
Genlis  Sictomm  (1627),  which,  though  in  some  respects  a 
valuable  and  leained  work,  is  justly  discredited  on  account  of 
its  deliberate  falsehoods  and  misrepresentations.  A  reprint  was 
made  for  the  Banuatyne  Club  in  1S29. 

Denmrcenta  (Lat.  demulcar,  'I  soften')  are  medicines  for 
internal  use,  taken  for  the  purpose  of  lubricating  the  mucous 
membranes  when  these  aie  inl&med.  D.  are  given  for  inflam- 
mation of  the  stomach,  the  air  passages,  and  the  urinary  organs. 
Examples — Mucilage,  marsh  mallow,  and  linseed  tea. 

Demurr'age  (fr  m  th     F     dune  Lat    d  ma  t 

delay'),  in  mercant  I  !  w  th  all  w  ce  p  d  b^  th  e. 
porter  of  goods  to  tl  wn  f  th  ess  1  wh  n  t  blig  d 
to  wait  for  goods  by  d  h  Uiy  ru  ^  d  y  (d  y 
aHowed  to  load  or      1    d        1  p)       th      b  f  ft      th 

voyage,  or  while  sh  tgf  yDgldig 

or  unloading,  the  risk    f  1  1  y  1      w  th  th    f    ight  ft      1     d 

ing  or  unloading,  it      wththshpvn  RfpedyfD 

is  usually  stipufoed  for  in  the  charter-party. 

Demurr'er,  an  English  law-term,  denoting  a  legal  difficulty 
which  must  be  determined  by  the  court  before  an  action  can  go 
further.  A  D.  therefore  ia  an  issue  on  a  point  of  law.  It  con- 
cludes an  allegation,  but  denies  or  questions  the  inference  sought 
to  be  drawn  from  it. 

Demy',  a  size  of  paper  frequently  referred  to.  For  printing 
paper  it  measures  22^  inches  by  17  j;  for  drawing,  writing,  and 
account-book  .papers,  20  by  154.  D.  blotting-paper  is  22^ 
inches  by  I7f. 

Denain',  a  to'""  iitlic  department  of  Nord,  France,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Scheldt  (here  navigable),  and  6  roiles  W.  of  Valen- 
ciennes. It  occupies  the  centre  of  a  coalfield,  and  coal  and  iron 
are  extensively  raised.  D.  has  several  blast-furnaces.  Pop. 
(1872)  10,430. 

Den'arr  Scale.     See  NoTATtON. 

Denar'ins  (Lat.  dcfii\,  the  principal  silver  coin  among  the 
Romans,  was  first  coined  B.C.  269.    It  originally  contained  ten, 


ad  afterwards  sixteen  asses  (see  As),  and  was  in  value  equivalent 

>  about  8Jd. 

DenTligll  (Welsh  Din-baeh,  '  little  fortress '),  the  capital  of 
Denbighshire,  near  the  centre  of  the  vale  of  the  Clwyd,  30  miles 
W.  of  Chester.  It  is  situated  on  the  sides  and  at  the  base  of  a 
limestone  hill,  which  is  crowned  with  a  ruined  castle,  built  in 
1284  by  Henry  de  Lacj",  on  the  site  of  one  still  more  ancient. 
D.  consists  mainly  ot^  one  street.  There  is  a  free  grammar- 
school,  founded  in  1727,  and  an  orphan-school  for  55  girls, 
founded  in  i860  with  funds  left  in  1540  by  a  Welshman  named 
Howeil.  Leather,  wool,  shoes,  and  gloves  are  manufactured. 
D.  unites  with  Ruthin,  Holt,  and  Wrexham  in  returning  one 
member  to  Parliament,      Pop.  (1S71)  6323. 

Den1)iglisliire,  a  maritime  county  of  N.  Wales,  havmg  the 
Irish  Sea  on  the  N.,  Flint,  Chester,  and  Salop  on  the  E.,  Caer- 
narvon on  the  W.,  and  Montgomery  and  Merioneth  on  the  S. ; 
length,  41  miles;  average  breadth,  17;  area,  613  sq.  miles; 
pop.  (1871)  105,102.  Its  general  character  is  mountainous,  but 
in  the  N.  there  are  some  level  tracts,  and  the  vales  of  Llan- 
gollen, of  the  Conway,  and  of  the  Clwyd  are  noled  for  their 
beauty  and  fertility.  On  the  hills  sheep,  ponies,  and  goats  are 
reared ;  barley,  oats,  and  potatoes  are  grown  on  the  uplands ; 
and  the  valleys  produce  heavy  wheat  and  pulse  crops.  In  1 867 
238,593  acres  were  under  ciillivation ;  67,837  under  com  crops  ; 
17,415  under  green  crops;  35,357  under  clover  and  grasses  in 
rotation,  and  111,051  under  gi-ass  not  in  rotation.  The  chief 
mineral  products  are  coal,  iron,  slates,  lead,  and  copper.  The 
county  returns  two  members  to  Parliament.  D.  possesses  nume- 
rous British  remains  of  the  Roman  period  or  earlier,  as  tumuli, 
barrows,  forts,  fifc.  To  later  times  belong  Ofla's  Dike,  and  Watt's 
Dike,  which  runs  parallel  to  it  on  the  E.,  works  consisting  of  a 
ditch,  with  forts  at  intervals,  and  constructed  to  protect  the 
English  of  Mercia  from  the  irruptions  of  the  Welsh. 

Den'derall  (the  Tentyra  of  Strabo,  and  the  Coptic  TaUarl, 
Tliyn'-Athor,  i.t.,  the  abode  of  Athor,  a  contracted  form  of 
Aphrodite),  a  ruined  town  of  Upper  Egypt,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Nile,  celebrated  for  its  temple,  the  best-preserved  structure 
of  its  kind  in  the  land.  It  was  dedicated  to  Athor,  and  its 
oldest  portion  dates  from  the  period  of  the  later  Ptolemies.  It 
contains  sculptured  portraits  of  Cleopatra  and  her  son  Czesarion, 
and  the  names  of  the  C^sars  from  Tiberius  to  Antoninus  Pius 
14-161).     It  is  220  feet  long  by  50  broad,  and  has  a  por- 


iblematic  figures.  A  smaller  sculpture  of  mylhological  figures 
the  ceiling  of  one  of  the  lateral  chambers  was,  in  1821,  by 
th  permission  of  Mehemet  All,  cut  out  by  M.  Lelotrain,  and 
b  ught  to  the  Paris  Museum.  Other  buildings  were  a  temple 
f  Isis  and  a  Typhonium,  all  enclosed  with  a  brick  wall,  in  some 
p  ts  35  feet  high  and  15  feet  thick,  forming  a  square  with  a 
d    of  1000  feet. 

Den'dermonde  ('the  mouih  of  the  Dender;'  Flem.  Ter- 
de),  a  town  in  the  province  of  E.  Flanders,  Belgium,  at  the 
conduence  of  the  Dender  and  the  Scheldt,  iS  miles  E.  of 
Ghent  by  rail.  It  has  a  citadel  built  in  15S4.  The  church  of 
Notre  Dame  contains  two  pictures  by  Vandyke.  Princi  ' 
manufactures,  woollens,  lace,  potteiy,  &c  Pop.  8300. 
opening  sluices  of  the  rivers,  D.  compelled  Louis  XIV.  to  r! 
the  siege  in  1667,  but  it  was  taken  by  Marlborough  in  1706,  and 
again  by  the  French  in  1745. 

Dondrer'petoii  (Gr.  'the  tree-lizard'),  agenus  of  fossil  and 
extinct  Amphibians,  belonging  to  the  order  Labyrinikodontia, 
and  found  within  the  trunks  of  Sigillaria  (q.  v.),  or  certain  fossil 
trees  in  Nova  Scotia.  The  genus  is  founded  on  several  small 
bones  discovered  in  a  Sigiltaria  trunk,  two  feet  in  diameter,  and 
wholly  converted  into  coal.  D.,  according  to  Owen,  shovre 
affinities  with  Archegosaurus  (q,  v.},  from  the  plicated  structure  of 
the  teeth,  the  sculpturing  of  the  cranial  plates,  and  Ihe  relations, 
size,  &c.,  of  Ihe  bones  of  the  limbs. 

Den'drite  (Gr.  dendrites,  having  the  property  of  a  dendron  or 
tree),  the  name  applied  to  the  hydrous  oxide  of  manganese, 
occurring  in  limestones,  trachytes,  and  other  rock-substances, 

36s 


vLaOogle 


DEN 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DEN 


and  which  from  its  peeuliai- branching  or  plant-like  crystallisation 
is  sometimes  mistalten  for  fossilised  plants  and  mosses. 

Dendrograp'aus,  an  important  fossil  genua  of  Hydyosaa 
(q.  V. )  or  Zoophytes,  exclusively  found  in  the  Upper  Cambrian 
and  Lower  Silurian  rocks.  The  species  of  this  genus  have  been 
referred  by  paleontologists  to  the  modern  order  of  the  Sertula- 
rMa  (q.  v.),  or  '  sei-firs,'  as  well  as  to  the  extinct  order  of  the 
Graptoiitida,  or  GraptoUtes  (q.  v.).  D.  Hailianus  is  a  familiar 
species,  and  exists  in  the  form  of  a  plant-Uke  organism,  spring- 
ing from  a  stout  footstalk,  which  was  probably  attached  to  some 
fixed  object,  like  our  modem  zoophytes.  The  branches  bear  on 
one  side  a  series  of  cups  or  csUules,  resembling  tiie  '  thecse '  of 
living  sea-firs,  each  of  which  cups  must  have  contained  a  little 
polypUi,  or  single  member  of  the  zoophytic  colony.  In  D.  the 
cups,  like  those  of  gmptolites,  partially  overiap  each  other. 


m  applied  to  the 
e  especially  of  the 
ioua  groups  of  the 
LIS  and  endogenous 


.Den'drolito  {Gr.  'tree-stone'),  a  general 
fossilised  trunks  of  trees,  characteristic  moi 
Carboniferous  age.  The  trees  belong  to  va 
vegetable  world,  but  chiefly  to  the  acrogenoi 

divisions  of  the  plant  kingdom.     Since  me  n  ^ 

of  fossil  botany  or  Palaofkytalogy  has  been  undertaken,  fossil 
plants  of  all  kinds  have  been  directly  referred  to  their  respective 
groups  ;  and  the  use  of  such  collective  and  general  terms  as  D.  is 
-  w  greatly  done  away  with. 


among  the  'deep-sea'  corals  a]id  reef-building' forms.  The 
species  of  D.  derive  their  name  from  their  branching  tree-like 
shape.  D.  nigriscens  is  a  familiar  species.  It  is  regularly 
branched,  possesses  deep  cells,  and  the  tentacles  of  the  polypes 
are  cleft  or  divided  in  aiongitudinal  manner.    It  is  found  in  the 

Den'dropMs  (Or.  'tree -snake'),  and  Dendroph'idss,  a 
genus  and  family  of  Colubrine  (q.  v. )  snakes,  So  named  from  their 
habit  of  frequenting  trees.  In  this  family,  which  occurs  in  Africa 
and  S.  America,  Che  body  is  long  and  slender,  five-sided,  and  the 
upper  jaw  is  larger  than  the  lower.  The  scuta  or  head-shields 
are  long  and  regular,  and  the  scales  are  narrow.  Bucephalus 
and  Ahalulla  are  ^miiliar  genera. 

Seueb',  a  brilliant  star  of  the  first  magnitude,  in  constellation 
Cygnus,  forming  ivith  V^a  and  Polaris  an  evident  right-ajigled 
triangle.  Near  it  is  the  small  double  star  61  C;^:ni,  interesting 
as  having  a  large  proper  motion,  and  being  one  of  the  nearest 
stars  to  our  system — according  to  Bessel  650,000  times  more 
distant  than  the  sun.  is  from  the  earth. 

Xlen'gue  [JCisuahiH,  E.  African,  from  ki-dinga,  the  prefix 
ki  being  the  diminutive  or  personal  form.     The  term  dinga  is 

w  obsolete  in  E.  Africa,  except  as  the  designation  of  this  dis- 

>e  ;  and  as  such,  it  is  used  with  the  word  p!pp,  an  evil  spirit. 

).'  or  'Denge'  is  a  Portuguese  form  of  the  E.  African  term 

Hnga-pepo,  signifying adisease  marked  by  the  sudden  accession 
of  cramp-like  pains,  which  are  supposed  by  the  natives  to  be 
caused  by  an  evil  spirit].  D.  searlatina  rhmmatica  has  been 
defined  as  'a  peculiar  febrile  disease  conjoined  with  sudden 
:re  pains  In  the  small  joints,  which  swell,  succeeded  by 
eral  heat  of  skin,  intense  pain  in  the  head  and  eyeballs,  and 
appearance  of  a  cutaneous  eruption  on  the  third  or  fourth 
day.'  D.  has  occasionally  appeared  as  an  epidemic  disease  in 
the  E.  and  W.  Indies,  the  Southern  U.S.,  the  pottsion  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  and  even  as  far  N.  as  New  York.  In  America  it  is 
called  the  Break-bone  Feiie;  and  was  epidemic  there  in  1S24-38, 
1847,  1850,  and  1860.  The  disease  has  probably  been  derived 
from  E.  Africa  m  connection  with  the  slave  trade,  D.  has  never 
appeared  as  an  epidemic  in  Europe.  The  latest  epidemic  of  D. 
broke  out  at  Zanzibar  in  1870,  and  spread  thence  over  Arabia, 
India,  and  China  along  the  lines  of  human  intercourse.  D.  is 
usually  accompanied  with  obstinate  constipation.  Quinine  has 
no  influence  over  the  disease,  except  during  the  febrile  stage, 
but  the  exhibition  of  iodide  of  potassium  is  attended  with  the 
it  favourable  results.  The  disease  has  been  described  by  Drs 
Twining,  Mouat,  and  Goodeve,  and  more  recently  1^  Dr  Christie 
of  Zanzibar  (TVoHj-.  of  the  Med.  and  Phys.  Soc.,'^axa!a.  j8;i). 

Den'ham,  Sir  John,  an  English  poet,  was  the  son  of  the 
Chief  Baron  of  Exchequer  in  Ireland,  and  was  born  at  Dublin 
■  1615.  After  an  education  at  Cambridge,  he  studied  law  in 
366 


Lincoln's  Inn.  In  1641  his  tragedy  of  The  Scphy  appeared,  and 
was  hailed  with  plaudits  which  are  now  as  foi|;otten  as  the  play 
itself.  Cooper's  Hill,  a  pleasant  descriptive  poem  still  worth 
reading,  was  produced  in  1643.  Previotisly  to  the  Restoralioj 
D.  had  to  leave  England,  but  his  later  life  was  prosperous,  and 
spent  in  the  King's  service.  He  died  in  March  r66S,  Pope's 
praise  has  made  D.  a  permanent  name  in  English  literature ; 
id  those  to  whom  the  smooth  vigour  of  Cooper's  Hill  is  quite 


unknown  still  remember  the  Ime — 


'WhMl 


■tngth  aqd  Waller'i 


■S3  join.' 


Deni'al,  inlaw,  imports  no  more  than  not  confessing.  It  does 
not  amount  to  a  positive  assertion  of  the  falsehood  of  that  which 
is  denied.  See  Confession,  Confession  and  Avoidance, 
Confession,  Judgment  by. 

Deni'na,  Carlo  Giovanni  Maria,  a  well-known  Italian 
historian,  was  bom  at  Revello,  in  Piedmont,  February  28,  1731. 
He  studied  at  Turin,  and  in  1754  was  appointed  Professor  of 
Humanity  at  Pignerolo,  but  lost  his  seat  by  writing  a  comedy 
which  offended  the  deigy.  Subsequently  D.  was  appointed 
Professor  of  Rhetoric  in  Turin  University.     This  office  he  lost 

2  giving  provocation  to  the  monks  in  his  ZHscorso  siill'  hnpiego 
'le  Persaiie  (Flor,  1777),  and  bemg  banished  from  Italy,  he 
went,  in  1 782,  on  the  invitation  of  Friedrich  the  Great,  to  Beriin. 
There  D.  lived  and  wrote  till  1S04,  when  Napoleon  appointed 
him  his  librarian.  D.  died  at  Paris,  5th  December  1813.  He 
was  the  author  of  numerous  works,  mainly  historical.  Among 
the  chief  of  these  are  Belli  Pivolueiom  d'Jlalia  {3  vols.  Tur. 
1769-70);  Essaisurla  Vie  et  le  Jiigne  du  FrAUric  II.  (3  vols. 
Beri.  1790-91);  Sloria  ddF  Italia  Occidmlale  (6  vols.  Tur. 
1S09-10).  D.  also  wrote  a  heroic  poem,  La  Hussiade  (Beri. 
1799-1800),  in  honour  of  Peter  the  Great.  See  Rifiessi,  Mimorie 
sopra  la  Vita  el  le  Opsre  di  Carlo  D.  (Parma,  1 799), 

Denis,  St,  a  town  in  the  department  of  Seine,  France,  on 
the  rivulets  Croud  and  Rouillon,  6  miles  N.  of  Paris,  and  within 
the  outer  Ihie  of  the  fortifications.  The  Abbey  Churdi,  built  by 
Dagobert  I.  on  the  site  of  the  chapel  that  covered  the  remains 
of  St  D.,  became  the  mausoleum  of  the  kings  of  France.  The 
National  Convention  decreed  its  destruction  in  1793,  when  its 
tombs  were  rifled,  and  the  royal  dust  thrown  ignominiously  into 
ditches.  Napoleon  I.  commenced  its  restoration,  which  was 
completed  by  successive  governments,  with  so  much  care  that  it  is 
now  one  of  the  most  splendid  ecclesiastical  structures  in  France, 
The  ciypt  contains  statues  of  the  French  kmgs  from  Hlodwig  to 
Louis  XVI.  St  D,  has  dyeworks,  printlields,  bleacheries,  flour- 
mills,  and  chemical  works,  and  an  active  inland  trade.  Pop. 
(1872)  28,Sio, 

Denis,  St,  or  Denys,  St,  the  patron  saint  of  France,  the 
founder  of  the  Galilean  Church,  and  the  first  Bishop  of  Paris 
a  Christian,  missionary  who  came  from  Rome  to  Lutetia  (1 
in  251,  where,  after  making  many  converts,  he  was  martyred  by 
command  of  the  Roman  governor,  Pescennius,     His  body  w 
taken  from  the  Seine  by  a  heathen  lady,  Calulla,  who  became 
Christian,  and  buried  the  saint  in  her  garden,  on  the  spot  whe 
the  Abbey  of  St  D.  (q.  v.)  now  stands.     D-  has  been  confounded 
with  Dionysius  the  Areopagife  (q,  v.).      The  Acts  of  St  D.  a 
a  foi^ery  of  the  7th  or  8th  c    Montjoye  St  D.,  was  long  the 
war-cry  of  France.     See  De  Launoy's  Be  Duoius  Dionysiis. 

Den'i2en(01dFr,i^'«a»i,  onewhoisflW«i;  Mo6.Ft.dan  , 
Lat.  deinius,  '  from  within,'  i^.,  'the  city')  is  an  alien  bom  who 
has  obtained  letters  of  denization,  which  entitle  to  purchase  and 
transmit  lands,  though  not  to  inherit  them.  The  right  to  grant 
letters  of  denization  Is  a  prerogative  of  the  crown.    See  Alien. 

Denizli,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  vilayet  of  Aiden,  100 
miles  S.E.  of  Smyrna,  has  many  lai^e  bazaars,  and  some  manu- 
factures of  leather  (morocco),  silks,  articles  of  dress,  &c     Pop, 


.  .  ,_  .  _i.  Danmark),  the  smallest  of  the  three  Scan- 
dinavian kingdoms,  in  the  N.  of  Europe,  embraces  the  peninsula 
of  Jutland,  and  the  islands  Seeland,  Moen,  Fiinen,  Laaland, 
Falsler,  Boraholm,  &c  It  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Skagerak,  an 
inlet  of  the  North  Sea,  E.  by  the  Cattegat,  the  Sound,  and  the 
Baltic,  S.  by  Slesvig,  and  W.  by  the  North  Sea.  Its  lat.  extends 
from  54°  32'  (Gjedserodde,  the  S.  point  of  Falster)  to  57°  45'  N. 
(Cape  Skagen  m  Jutland),  and  its  long,  from  7°  47'  (Blaavand- 
shuk,  '  the  hom,*^  on  the  W,  of  Jutland)  to  12°  37'  E.  (Helsin- 


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The  great  island  groups  Jie  to  (he  S.  E,  of  Jutland,  and  in  the 
entrance  to  the  Baltic.  By  far  the  laj^est  island  is  Seeland, 
separated  from  the  Swedish  coast  liy  the  Sound  {On  Suttd, 
'  Eat  Sound,'  from  its  shape),  which  narrows  to  24  miles  at  Hel- 
siiigor.  In  the  Sound  are  the  islands  Amager  and  Saltholin, 
and  to  the  S.  of  Seeland  lie  Moen,  Falster,  Laaland,  and  several 
of  smaller  size.  The  Great  Belt  passes  between  Seeland  and 
another  group,  consisting  of  Funen  {Pym),  Langgland,  Arni, 
Taasinge,  &c.  To  the  N.  of  the  Fiinen  group  are  the  i^ands 
Hesselo,  Seiero,  Samso,  Hjelra,  Thuno,  and  Endelave,  and  to 
the  N.,  in  the  Cattegal,  Anholt,  Osb,  and  Hirsholm.  These 
islands  have  ^erally  tugged,  rocky  coasts,  and  are  pointed  in 
a  southerly  direction.  Some  9?  mCes  E.  of  Seeland  is  the  soli- 
tarv  island  of  Bornholm.  D.  Tjas  an  entire  coast-line  of  3855 
miles.  Copenhagen  (q,  v.)  is  the  capital,  and  chief  among  the 
other  towns  are  Aarhuus,  Eanders,  Odense,  Roskilde,  and  Hel- 
singor.  The  foreign  possessions  of  D.  are  the  FftToe  Islands, 
.Iceland,  Greenland,  St  Croiic,  St  Thomas,  and  St  Tohn  in  the 
W.  Indies. 

'.meral  Aspect. — The  surface  of  mainland  and  islands  alike 

ingularly  flat,  and  is  elevated  but  little  above  the  levd  of  the 
The  greatest  heights  in  Jutland  are  Hiramelibei^  (530 
feet)  near  Silkebo^,  and  Eiers-Bavnehoi  (522  feet),  in  a  central 
sandy  range  forming  the  watershed  between  the  N.  Sea  and 
the  Baltic,  and  terminating  in  the  extreme  N.  in  Cape  Skagen, 
or  Skagen's  Odde.  In  the  W.  of  the  peninsula  there  are  stretches 
of  sandy  heath  {dunes)  and  swampy  morass,  alternating  with 
more  or  less  fertile  parts.  The  E,  is  a  rich  corn-land  of  Sne 
valleys,  with  here  and  there  forests  of  beech,  elm,  birch,  alder, 
and  pine.  Seeland  is  also  well  wooded,  and  in  the  S.  is  very 
productive.     D.  is  richly  watered  by  small  streams,  of  which  the 

it  important  are  the  Guden-Aa  (87  miles),  entering  the  Baltic 
near  Randers,  and  the  Ribe-Aa,  Varde-Aa,  and  Stor-Aa, 
flowing  into  the  North  Sea.  There  are  numerous  lakes,  as  the 
Arte,  Fure,  Esrom  in  Seeland,  and  the  Fill,  Tastum,  Lang,  Jnul, 
■""3  See,   &c.,  in  Jutland,  none  of  which  are  of  any  great  depth 

iize.  The  coast  is  greatly  indented,  and  is  generally  sandy 
and  shelving  ;  the  inlets,  or  fjords,  oci»sionally  form  good  har- 
bours. In  the  N.  of  Jutland,  Hjorring  and  ITiisted  have  been 
insulated  by  the  Lymfjord  breaking  through  the  isthmus  Har- 
boore-Tange  into  the  North  Sea  (In  1825).  The  principal  inlets 
besides  the  LymQord  are  the  Ise^ord  in  the  N.  of  Seeland,  the 
Odensefjord  or  Stegestrand  in  Fijnen;  and  on  the  E.  of  Jutland 
the  Mariagerfjord  (20  miles  long),  the  Randers^ord  (15  miles), 
the  Horsensfjord  (ro  miles),  and  the  magnificent  Veilefjord,  which 
'—  admit  ships  of  war.    The  Lymfjord,  which  is  the  most  ex- 

iive  of  these  arms  of  the  sea,  varies  in  depth  from  27  to  53 
feet,  and  sends  off  several  branches,  as  the  A^ersund,  Skivefjord, 
Hjarbukfjord,  Eeg^esund,  Vilsund,  &c  It  contains  the  islEUids 
'lors,  Fnur,  Livo,  Oland,  &c.,  and  its  waters,  which  are  saltish 
■e  subject  10  a  regular  tide.     The  W.  coast  of  Jutland  is  one  of 


the  most  dangerous  in  the  world  to  shipping,  owing  to  its  shifting 
sandbanks  and  frequent  mists  [Havgafsn).  In  the  N.  it  forms 
the  expansive  Bays  of  Tannis  and  Jammer,  and  further  S.  is 
broken  by  the  Lymfjord,  NissumHord,  Stadilfjord,  and  Ringk- 
jobingfjord.  The  most  northerly  of  the  N.  Frisian  islands,  Fano, 
Maud,  &c.,  which  belong  to  D.,  lie  off  the  coast  of  Ribe. 

Climate,  Giolcgy,  Botany,  S'f.—The  climate  of  D.  is  some- 
what severer  than  that  of  Britain,  but  milder  than  that  of  N. 
Germany.  It  is  free  from  violent  extremes.  From  March  to 
September  winds  from  the  W.  and  N.W.  prevail;  during  the  other 
five  months  S.W.  and  W.  are  the  most  common  winds.  The  cold 
piercing  N.W.  wind,  which,  in  the  beginning  of  the  year,  sweeps 
overtheN.  of  Jutland  and  along  the  W.  coast,  is  called  the  Skai. 
For  about  one-fifth  of  the  year  (69  days)  tiie  slty  is  quite  cleai' ; 
in  winter  the  W.  districts  are  frequently  shrouded  in  thick  mists. 
In  the  course  of  the  year  Copenhagen  has  157  days  of  rain,  and 
a  fall  of  23  inches  ;  Ringkjiitiing  on  the  W.  coast  of  Jutland  has 
aoo  days  and  a  fall  of  29^  inches.  The  former  of  these  places  is 
fairly  representative  of  the  rest  of  D.,  and  has  a  mean  temperature 
of  3I°'I  F,  in  winter,  43''7  in  spring,  63°-5  in  summer,  and  49°-i 
in  autumn.  TVith  the  exception  of  Bornholm,  which  is  partly 
covered  with  volcanic  rocks,  like  the  adjoining  coast  of  Sweden, 
D.  consists  almost  entirely  of  Tertiary  formations.  Chalk  comes 
to  the  surface  in  Moen,  in  the  S,  of  Seeland,  and  in  many  parts 
of  Jutland.  D,  is  singularly  devoid  of  minerals.  Bornholm  yields 
annually  some  40,000  tons  of  an  inferior  coal,  but  peat  is  the  fuel 
in  general  use.  Blue  marble,  sandstone,  and  potters'  clay  are 
found  in  various  parts.  On  the  W.  coast  of  Jutland  there  is  a 
slight  yield  of  amber.  The  subsoil  usually  con.sistS  of  layers  of 
dark-blue  clay  {hlaalair),  or  beds  of  peat-moss.  On  several  of 
the  islands  the  clay  is  of  a  reddish  colour,  being  mixed  with  fine 
sand.  It  is  generally  rich  in  vegetable  remains,  but  contains  no 
trace  of  large  land  animals.  The  upper  soil  contains  much  sand, 
and  is  often  of  a  fine  gravelly  nature.  In  the  islands  and  in  parts 
of  Jutland  there  are  tracts  of  rich  marshy  loam,  composed  chiefly 
of  bituminous  marl.  D.  is  on  the  whole  a  fertile  country.  In 
1874  a  total  of  442Z  sii  miles  were  under  cultivation,  while  674 
were  covered  with  wood,  and  5567  were  in  pasture.  Some  three- 
fifths  of  the  inhabitants  are  engaged  In  agriculture.  The  most 
productive  parts  are  Moen,  Loiland,  Falster,  Seeland,  and  Funen; 
the  W>  of  Jutland  has  been  greatly  improved  by  assiduous  cul- 
tivation during  the  last  twenty  years.  In  J871  the  amount  of 
oats  produced  was  1,017,222  budiels,  of  barley,  834,944,  of  rye, 
800.915,  of  wheat,  156,815,  and  of  potatoes,  117,805,  There 
is  also  some  production  of  hemp,  lin^  and  tobacco.  In  the  S. 
of  Seeland,  Moen,  and  Fiinen  gardening  is  a  favoujite  occupa- 
tion, and  the  chief  fruits  produced  are  apples,  pears,  cherries,  &c. 
The  indigenous  vegetation  is  almost  identical  with  that  of  N. 

Zoology. — The  wild  aninmls  of  D.  have  almost  entirely  dis- 
appeared since  the  decline  of  the  lai^e  forests.  The  wild  boar, 
however,  still  exists,  and  among  the  animals  that  abound  are  the 
deer,  the  polecat,  the  fox,  the  hare,  &c.  All  the  ordinary 
domestic  animals  of  Europe  are  reared  successfully.  Jutland 
has  a  celebrated  breed  of  horses,  admirably  adapted  for. light 
cavalry.  Great  attention  is  paid  also  to  the  rearing  of  horned 
cattle.  In  1873  the  number  of  horses  exported  was  7088,  and 
of  cattle  71,256.  Of  birds,  the  chief  are  the  eider-duck,  wild- 
goose,  partridge,  thrush,  and  snipe.  The  Lymfjord  abounds  in 
swans.  From  60,000  to  70,000  men  are  engaged  in  the  fisheries, 
and  among  the  fish  caught  are  the  turbot,  torsk,  salmon,  herring 
{strammin^,  mackerel,  cod,  flat-fish,  and  eels.  Along  the  E.  of 
Jutland  occur  large  oyster-beds, 

Industries  and  Comtnerct. — As  might  be  expected  from  the 
comparative  absence  of  coal  and  iron,  the  manufactures  are  few 
and  of  no  great  importance.  As  a  rule,  the  peasantry  are  self- 
supplied  with  the  ordinary  articles  of  clothing  and  furniture. 
Copenhagen  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  manufactures,  which 
are  mainly  silks,  cottons,  leather,  porcelain,  tobacco,  and  chemi- 
cals, Randers  is  the  centre  of  the  glove  industry,  and  Tondem 
is  noted  for  its  lace.  There  are  also  lai^  breweries,  distilleries, 
paper- factories,  sugar-refineries,  &c.  D,  has  an  admirable  posi- 
tion for  commerce,  lying  in  the  great  trading  highway  of  N. 
Europe.  Its  trade  is  chiefly  with  Germany,  Great  Britain, 
Sweden,  Russia,  Brazil,  France,  the  United  States,  and  the  W. 
Indies.      The  principal  exports  are  cattle,  prepared  meats,  grain. 


flour,  bides, 
coal. 


leather,   and  g 


irstfd,   and  c 


.mports,  coffee,  raw  melals, 
oilcake,    dye-stuffs,    sugar, 

36/ 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DKN 


w  tobacco,  and  timber.  In  1874  the  total  value  of  the  exports 
amoujited  to  1^9,578,912,  of  the  imports  to /'l2,920,768.  Tlie 
number  of  foreign  ships  that  entered  the  ports  of  D.  was  21,27s, 
•^f  933)320  tons,  while  the  merchant  navy  of  D.  embraced  2846 
vessels,  of  2i2,6oS  tons. 

Railways  and  Finaria.^^^  the  absence  of  good  roads  the 
rwlway  system  in  D.  is  of  greatly  increased  importance.  It  now 
'1876)  extends  throughout  Jutland  £0  Aalborgand  Frederikshavn 
n  the  N,,  and  is  connected  with  the  Slesvig-Holstein  Railway, 
while  Fiinen,  Seeland,  and  Falster  are  also  traversed  by  hues  of 
various  lengths.  In  1875  there  were  in  all  636-6  jniles  of  rail- 
way, and  1534*4  miles  of  telegraph  hnes,  transmitting  762,609 
messages.  There  are  also  many  important  canals.  Tlie  bud- 
get revenue  for  1875-76  was  ;^2,S50,48l  ;  the  expenditure, 
£,2, 506, 50S ;  and  in  the  same  year  the  public  debt  amounted  to 
;£il,l53,Sit.  The  cental  system  of  coinage  was  adopted  on  the 
iSth  of  January  1875.  Of  this  system  the  unit  is  the  iire,  of 
which  100  make  a  l^crtm  (crown),  18  of  which  are  equal  to  the 
English  pound  sterling.  The  English  ton  has  also  taken  the 
place  of  the  old  taist  as  the  unit  of  tonnage. 

Giniemment,  Army,  and  Navy,  ^. — According  to  the  Liberal 
constitution  of  June  5,  1849,  D,  is  governed  by  a  hereditary 
monarchy,  and  by  a  National  Assembly  or  Rigsdag.  Executive 
power  is  vested  in  the  king  and  his  responsible  ministers.  The 
Rigsdag  is  composed  of  two  Houses^the  Landslhing,  a  body  of 
sixty-six  representatives  of  the  better  classes,  of  whom  twelve  are 
chosen  for  life  by  the  king,  the  others  being  elected  for  eight  years  j 
and  the  Vol&slhing,  consisting  of  some  hundred  members  (one  to 
every  16,000  of  the  inhabitants),  elected  for  three  years  by  uni- 
versal suffrage.  Dating  the  annual  session  of  the  Rigsdag,  a 
finaudal  budget  is  submitted  by  the  ministry.  The  Rigsdag 
appointsfourassistant  judges  to  the  Supreme  Court  (HSustera), 
wluch  sits  in  Copenhagen,  and  which  admits  appeals  from  all 
the  lower  courts.  Civil  cases  are  tried  primarily  before  courts 
of  conciliation,  composed  of  peisons  of  local  position  and  influ- 
ence. Since  the  reforms  of  1807  all  subjects  of  the  kingdom  above 
twenty-one  years  of  age  are  liable  to  regular  military  service  lor 
eight  years,  and  for  other  eight  years  in  the  reserve.  Exemption 
is  allowed,  however,  on  payment  of  certain  sums.  In  1875  the 
arm^  consisted  of35,975  men  and  103 1  officers,  with  a  contingent 
raising  it  to  $2,656  on  a  war  footing.  The  principal  fortresses, 
besides  the  capital,  are  Kronborg,  Nyburg,  and  Frederlcia.  The 
navy  consists  (1875)  of  33  vessels  (7  iron-clads)  of  23,470  horse- 
power and  314  guns. 

Ethnography,  Religiim,  and  Education. — The  Danes  belong  to 
the  Scandinavian  branch  of  the  Teutonic  family.  They  are  a 
strong,  muscular  people,  with  regular  features,  light  hair,  and 
blue  eyes.  In  deposition  they  are  patient  and  plodding,  and 
are  rather  distinguished  for  sincerity  and  sense  than  for  wit  or 
sprightliness.  'flie  established  religion  is  Lutheran,  but  complete 
toleration  prevails.  The  Reformed  religion,  to  which  the  king 
must  adhere,  was  introduced  in  1536.  There  are  seven  bishops, 
who  are  nominated  by  the  king.  In  1874  there  were  of  otlier 
creeds  4290  Jews,  1857  Roman  Catholics,  2128  Mormons,  3223 
Baptists,  &o.  Education  is  compulsory  for  children  between 
the  years  of  seven  and  fourteen,  and  the  system  is  in  many 
other  ways  admirable.  Every  adult  in  the  kingdom  is  said  to 
be  able  to  read  and  write.  The  number  of  state  or  parish 
schools  is  over  2600,  while  there  are  also  16  lyceums,  many 
academies,  and  6  training  colleges  for  teachers  in  the  public 
sthools.  Besides  the  university  (founded  1478),  with  its  5r  pro- 
fessors and  1200  students,  the  capital  has  a  military  high-school 
since  1830,  an  academy  of  agriculture,  with  16  professors  and 
an  art  academy  (10  professors),  founded  in  1843. 

History. — It  is  probable  that  some  part  of  Jutland  wa.    h 
original  home  of  those  Cimbri  (q.  v.)  who,  along  with  the  T 
tones,  ravaged  Gaul  and  threatened  Italy  in  the  time  of  ^  ai 
(113-101  B.C.).    At  any  rate,  the  peninsula  was  known  to  R 
writers  under  the  name  of  the  Chersonesus  dmiricus.     O    hi 
prehistoric  period  there  are  many  interesting  remains,  as  tain 
cromlechs,  &c. ,  which  have  been  carefully  examined  by  the  an 
quarians  of  N.  Europe.     From  the  S.  of  Jutland,  as  well  asfr  m 
the  N.  of  GennMiy,  came  those  Saxons,  Angli,  Frisians   and 
Jutes,  who,  in  the  5th  and  6th  centuries,  invaded  and  possess 
the  island  of  Britain.     Their  numerous  emigrations,  exte  dmg 
over  more  than  a  hundred  years,  greatly  depopulated  tie  p 
sula,  into  which  now  poured  the  Danes,  who  had  hitherto 
leslricted  to  Seeland  and  part  of  the  Swedish  coast.    These 


comers  subdued  the  whole  mainland  as  far  S.  as  the  Eyder 
the  Saxon'border,  and  formed  among  themselves  a  gioup 
'gaus,'  or  states,  ruled  by  petty  kings  (smad  kongar),  one  of 
whom,  Gothik  or  Gottfried,  even  ventured  to  make  war  on 
Karl  the  Great  (804-810).  In  826  Ansgar  {q,  v.)  entered  S.  Jut- 
land with  the  news  of  Christianity.  Gorm,  the  Old,  rose  against 
the  new  feith,  and  succeeded  in  conquering  the  territories  where 
it  had  taken  root  before  his  death  in  936.  His  son,  Harald  Blaw- 
zahn  ('  Blue-Tooth '),  did  homage  to  the  German  Emperor  Otto 
I.,  was  converted  to  Christianity  (965),  and  made  Norway  a  fief 
of  the  Danish  crown.  The  old  Odin  worship  maintained  a  footing 
in  D.  for  200  years  longer,  and  its  later  heroes  were  fabled  in  the 
Krempevisev  (see  Danish  Language  and  Literature)  and 
the  Eddas  (q.  v.).  England  was  completely  conquered  by  Knud 
(Old  Eng.  Cnut),  a  grandson  of  Gorm,  who  died  1035,  Civil  war, 
which  had  meantime  been  disturbing  D.,  was  stamped  out  by 
Valdemar  I.  the  Great  (1157-82),  and  his  son  Knud  VI.  (1182- 
l2or)  subdued  Holstein  and  Pommem.  Valdemar  II.  added  to 
the  kingdom  Lauenburg,  Mecklenburg,  and  Esthonia.  Erik, 
Valdemar's  eldest  son,  was  killed  in  battle  (1250)  by  his  brother 
Abel,  who  made  himself  Duke  of  Slesvigor  S.  Jutland,  and  later 
King  of  D.  (1326-30).  Valdemar  IV.  Atterdag  (1340),  granted 
Slesvig  in  fief  to  the  Duke  of  Holstein  (1386).  (See  Slesvig- 
Holstein.)  His  daughter  Margaret  (q.  v.  ],  a  great  queen,  wife 
of  King  Hakon  of  Norway,  conquered  Sweden  (q,  v.)  in  13S9, 
and  left  the  three  Scandinavian  kingdoms  to  be  niled  by  her 
favourite  grand-nephew,  Erik  of  Pommern.  The  three  coun- 
tries, bound  together  by  the  Calmar  Dnion,  20th  July  1397, 
were  soon  lost  by  Erik.  Tlie  Swedes  achieved  independence 
in  144S,  and  the  Danes  in  the  same  year  raised  Christian  of 
Oldenburg,  a  descendant  of  the  old  royal  line,  to  tlie  throne. 
Christian  I.  (q.  v.),  who  founded  the  long  line  of  Oldenbnrg, 
was  also  chosen  by  Norway,  1450,  and  by  Slesvig-Holstein, 
1460.  From  Christian  IL  (q.v.),  '[he  Wicked'  (1503-23),  the 
crown  was  transferred  lo  his  uncle  Frederik  I.,  who  again 
united  D.  with  Norway  and  Slesvig-Holstein  (1523-33).  Chris- 
tian III.  (q.  v.),  son  of  Frederik  (crowned  1536),  uniied  Sles- 
vig-Holstein in  perpetuity  to  D.,  codified  the  laws  in  the 
'Recess  of  Kolding,' and  introduced  the  Reformation  (1536),  but 
had  little  conlroi  over  the  lawless  nobility.  Frederik  11, 
(1559-88)  fought  against  Sweden  for  seven  years,  and  Christian 
IV.   (1588-1648)  also  made  a  vigorous  effort  to  hold  the  king- 


sions  were  seized  by  Karl  X.  (1657),  and  the  fiefdom  of  Slesvig 
was  lost.  On  Septembers,  i56o,  Frederik  was  granted  supieme 
power  by  the  three  estates.  Christian  V.  (1670-99]  instituted 
serfdom,  and  greatly  oppressed  the  middle  classes.  In  the  leign 
of  Frederik  IV.  the  disputed  claim  to  Slesvig  was  recognised 
(1720),  and  in  the  same  year  Sweden  ceded  to  D.  the  right  of 
receiving  the  Sound  dues.  A  long  period  of  tranquillity  follows, 
chiefly  marked  by  the  restriction  of  the  aristocratic  privileges, 
the  abolition  of  servitude  (1787),  and  the  general  improvement 
of  art,  trade,  and  agriculture.  In  the  beginning  of  the  19th  c 
Frederik  VI.,  regent  from  1784,  king  1808-39,  by  his  attitude 
towards  Napoleon,  involved  D.  in  a  ruinous  war  with  Sweden, 
England,  Prussia,  and  Russia— the  chief  events  of  which  weie 
tlie  battle  of  Copenhagen  under  Nelson  (1801),  the  storming  of 
the  capital  itself  {1807),  when  tlie  entire  fleet  was  surrendered 
to  the  English,  and  the  subsequent  cession  (1814)  of  Norway 
to  Sweden  under  Bemadotte.  Christian  VIII.  (1839-48)  made 
an  effort  to  convert  all  the  Danish  possessions  into  one  united 
state  and  his  scheme  was  taken  up  by  his  son  Frederik  VII 
848  63       I      848   h   D    h  S  es  d  H         n,       h 

h  an         Pru    a,  b    k  p  h       b 

u  n      ^r       ed  b      h  k  h 

Cm        nd  Dan  h   nh  b     n        B      af  rugg 

th        bell    n  was  u    y  q        d  ry       Jnd     d 

T   y  25     85a     Th    d  O  d  nb    g    n  d  d    n    448 

p     d     n    h    dea  h       F  ed     k  VI       N       mbe      S      863 
Pnn       Chn      n  S  esvig  H         nSn      bugG      kbg 

ec     ed    h  wn     h    ugh   h  an  Ch 

V  nnfrmtyhth  Lndn         My8 

3         Aga       hqes  hac         nmhduh      was 

d  ThP  Agubgy 

h  Fedk  SsvgH  w  pn 


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the  Confederation  was  working  for  the  sole  possession  of  tlie 
duchies.    On  the  1st  of  February  1864  an  Auatro- Prussian  force 
crossed  the  Eider,  .and  subsequently  l^d  waste  the  country 
fer  N.  aithe  Lymfjord.     The  Danes,  who  had  unhappily  been 
led  to  expect  the  assistance  of  England,  were  soon  overwhelmed 
in  the  unequal  contest,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna  (30th  Octo. 
ber  1864)  had  to  surrender  Lauenborg,  Holstein,  and  Slesvig  to 
the  discretionary  disposal  of  Prussia  and  AustriEL    The  future  of 
the  duchies  was  made  the  question  which  led  to  the  struggle  for 
supremacy  in  the  Confederation  between  the  two  great  powers. 
Since  the  war  of  1S66  Prussia  has  remained  silent  as  to  the  fate  of 
Slesvig-Holstein,  which  meantime  ruiks  as  a  German  provin 
The  Slesvi^iers  made  a  futile  attempt  to  rouse  public  feeling 
the  subject  in  1E75,     For  geography  and  statisljcs,  see  the  works 
of  Bergso  (Copetih.  1844-53),  Frster  (i: 
1845-47  an*  1867),  Kohl  (2  vols.  1846), 

Sarauw,  1863),  Both  (t867J,  and  the  official  khunil  dei  PrituU 
paux  Fails  Statislipies  du  Danemark  (Copenh.  1S74} ;  for  history, 
Allen's  Haandbogi Fadrelandds Historie (6th  ed,  Copenh..  1863, 
German  ed.  by  Falck,  Kiel,  1842),  and  Dahlmann,  Gackkhle 
von  D.  to  1523  {3  vols.  Hamb,  and  Gotha,  1840-43). 

Denn'ewitz,  a  village  in  the  province  of  Brandenbui^, 
Prussia,  42  miles  S.S.W.  of  Berlin,  where,  on  September  6, 
1813,  General  Tauentiien  with  45,000  Prussians  (mostly  larsd- 
■wskr),  after  desperate  fighting,  forced  70,000  French,  Saxons, 
and  Poles,  commanded  by  Marshal  Ney,  io  commence  a  retreat. 
At  this  decisive  moment  Bemadotte,  Crown-Prince  of  Sweden, 
joined  the  Prussians  with  upward.s  of  seventy  battalions  of  Rus- 
sians and  Swedes.  The  defeat  of  the  French  was  instantly 
turned  into  a  rout.  They  lost  from  15,000  to  20,000  men,  and 
43  pieces  of  cannon  ;  the  allies  from  Jooo  to  6000. 

Deim'ia,  John,  the  son  of  a  saddler,  bom  in  London  in  r5S7, 
was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  after  travelling  on  the  Conti- 
nent, settled  at  London  as  a  professional  critic.  He  produced 
numerous  plays,  poems,  and  tracts,  joined  the  Whig  party,  and 
assailed  his  poUtical  and  literary  opponents  with  rancorous 
abuse.  In  return.  Swift  satirised  him  with  merciless  wit,  and 
Pope  '  executed '  him  in  the  Dumiad.  He  is  now  chiefly  known 
through  the  terrible  retaliation  which  his  '  frensied '  strictures 
provoked.  In  his  bhnd  and  poverty-stricken  age  a  play  was 
acted  for  his  benefit,  to  which  Fope,  forgetful  of  former  strifes, 
contributed  a  prologue.  D.  seems  to  have  beeti  of  a  Boar  and 
suspicious  nature,  but  to  have  possessed  some  critical  insight. 
He  died  January  5,  1734.    See  DTsraeli's  Calamines  afAtUhors. 

Deuon,  Dominique  Vivant,  Baron,  was  born  at  ChSloiis- 
£ur-Sa6ne,  January  4,  1747.  For  a  time  he  was,  ostensibly,  a 
student  of  the  law,  but  really  of  the  fine  arts,  a  page  of  the 
chamber  and  a  gentle man-in-ordiuaiy  to  Louis  XV,  His  great 
artistic  powers,  however,  came  out  after  the  Revolution,  when  he 
accompanied  Bonaparte  to  Egypt,  and  in  1802  published  his 
Voyage  dans  la  Bassi  et  la  Haule  Egypie,  the  engravings  in  which 
were  greatly  admired.  Bonaparte  was  much  attached  to  him, 
and  made  him  Ins^ctor-General  of  Museums,  and  D.  accom- 
panied him  on  various  of  his  expeditions,  the  result  being  the 
addition  of  the  art  treasures  of  more  than  one  conquered  city  to 
the  Louvre.  The  celebrated  Column  in  the  Place  Vend&me  was 
constructed  under  his  direction.  D.,  who  was  an  editor  of  con- 
siderable merits,  was  dismissed  from  his  offices  in  1815  after  the 
fall  of  his  master.  He  died  April  27,  1825,  much  respected  for 
his  excellent  personal  qualities  as  well  as  for  his  high  taste  in  art. 
His  most  important  work,   left  unfinished  at  his  death,  was 


(4  vols.  Par.  with  315  plates). 

De  non  apparen'tibus  et  non  existen'tibus  e'adem 
eat  rat^O,  a  maxim  of  Scotch  law  signifying  that  lost  deeds  or 
writings,  whose  import  cannot  be  proved,  are  to  be  held  as  non- 
existent,    See  Pkoving  of  Tenor, 

D&ioue'm.ent  (Fr.  from  dStmrnr,  'to  iintiej'  Lat.  de  and 
ttsdare'),  strictly  the  unravelling  or  discovery  of  a  plot,  but  gene 
rally  applied  to  the  catastrophe  of  a  play  or  romance.  A  D 
should  arise  natiu^Hy  out  of  the  plot,  and  should  be  recondite 
enough  to  exercise  agreeably  the  reader  or  hearer's  mgenuity 

Dene,  Pater,  a  once  famous  Roman  Catholic  scholar  and 


l6go.  His  life  is  almost  unlmown,  the  epitaph  on  his  tomb  at 
Malines  being  our  only  source  of  information  regarding  his  career. 
We  leam  from  it  that  D.  was  for  twelve  years  theological  reader 
or  professor  at  Malines,  where  he  likewise  became  canon,  peni- 
tentiary, priest  of  St  Romuauld's,  and  for  forty  years  president 
of  the  college.  He  died  February  15,  I77S-  His  great  work 
is  his  Thiologia  Moralis  et  £>ogiiiatUa,  a  minute  and  curiously 
casuistic  vindication  of  Roman  Catholic  tenets  in  ethics  and 
theology.  It  has  no  scientific  merit,  bnt  is  well  known  on  the 
Continent,  and  is  the  lavourite  theological  text-book  in  Roman 
CathoUc  colleges.  An  edition  of  this  work  was  published  a 
Dublm  in  1832, 

Den'sity  (Lat.  datsiias,  from  densus,  '  thick ')  of  a  body  is  the 
quantity  of  matter  comprised  in  unit  volume  ;  or  is  given  by  the 
equation  Vp  —  M,-  where  V  15  the  volume,  M  the  mass,  and  p 
the  density  of  the  body  in  question.  It  is  practUally  the  same 
as  Specific  Gravity  (q.  v  ) 

Denta'lium,  or  Tooth  Shell,  sometunes  called  the  '  Ele- 
phant's Tusk '  from  its  shape,  belongs  to  the  Gasterefodous  class 
of  molluscs,  and  to  the  family  Dentahdit,  in  which  the  shell  is 
tubular,  symmetrical,  and  of  curved  shi-pe,  open  at  both  ends, 
and  with  an  entire  (koiostomalous)  citcular  aperture  or  mouth. 
The  foot  is  pointed,  and  has  symmetrical  Mpipodia  or  side-lobea. 
Huxley  places  D.  in  the  ckss  Ftsropoda,  iiom  its  possessing  a 
rudimentary  head,  a  neural  flexure  trf  intestine,  the  presence  of 
the  epipodial  lobes  of  the  foot,  and  from  its  development,  I), 
arcuaium  is  the  familiar  species.  Fossil  species  of  D.  occur 
in  the  Devonian,  Carboniferous,  Mesozoic,  and  Tertiary  form  a- 

Denta'ria,  a  genus  of  herbaceous  perennial  pkints  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  CriKiJene,  and  more  commonly  known  by 
the  popular  name  of  Toothwort,  of  which  then-  scientific  one  is 
the  Latin  translation.  There  are  many  species,  natives  of  tem- 
perate America  and  Europe.  The  roots  of  Z>,  diphylla  (Pepper- 
wort)  have  a  pungent  taste,  and  are  used  by  the  settlers  in  the 
region  of  America  where  it  is  found  as  a  substitute  for  m 
D.  bidbifera  is  a  native  of  the  southern  portions  of  Englai 

Denta'tuB  Mau'ius,  according  to  some  Maroua  Curlus, 
the  most  famous  of  the  Curii,  was  said  to  have  derived  his  sur- 
name  of  D.  from  having  been  born  with  teeth.  He  was  of  Sa- 
bine descent.  After  holding  the  office  of  tribune  of  the  people, 
he  was  elected  consul  in  290  B.C.,  and  compelled  the  Samnites 
to  sue  for  peace  after  they  had  waged  war  against  Rome  for  forty- 
nine  years.  Immediately  after  he  subdued  (lie  Sabines,  and  thus 
celebrated  two  triumphs  in  his  first  consulship.  In  his  second 
consulship  (B.C.  275),  D.  defeated  Pyrrhns,  King  of  Epirus,  near 
Beneventum,  as  he  was  returning  from  Sicily,  and  obliged  him 
to  quit  Italy,  His  triumph  was  distinguished  by  four  elephants, 
the  first  ever  seen  at  Rome.  The  booty  taken  from  Pyrrhns  was 
wholly  given  up  to  the  republic  Elected  consul  for  a  third  time 
(274  B.C. ),  he  brought  the  final  war  with  the  southern  Italians 
to  a  successful  issue.  In  B.C.  272,  during  his  censorship,  D. 
built  an  aqueduct  which  brought  the  water  of  the  Amo  into 
Rome.     He  also  dug  a  canal,  by  which  the  waters  of  Lake 


Velinus  w 


itated  ii 


)  the  ri 


r  Nar  from  a  height  of 


140  feet,  This  is  the  famous  Cascata  del  Marmore,  which  in- 
spired the  splendid  stanzas  of  Byron  {Childe  Harold,  Can.  iv.  st. 
69-72),  He  then  retired  to  his  Sabine  farm,  to  devote  the  rest 
of  his  life  to  agriculture.  D.  is  the  type  of  the  old  Roman 
'  '  ''  '  flavoured  wi  ' 
\  d    fhm 

Den'tex,  a  genus  of  T  1      t    n  fish     m  I  d  d      tl    f  m  ly 
Sparidte  (Sea- Bream,  &c )       Tl       g  {     h    Yl  D        Ig    is 

is  a  familiar  species,  is  f   ml         th     M  d  t  rrai  &  a,        d 

occasionally  on  the  S.   Bnt   I  t         It   has  mp         d 

body,    somewhat   resembi       Ih     p      I      n    h  pe,   h  si  gl 

continuous  dorsal  fin,  scaly   1     k     and  n  m  m  n  t    t    th 

with  several  largerteethofp  nt  d  nf  m  t  n  Th  Z)  In 
was  tlie  D  of  classical  w  t  rs  Its  a  ag  1  gth  is  fr  m  3 
to  4  feet,  inrt  its  weight  f  n  8  t  30  lb  It  is  eat  b  tl 
fresh  and  pickled  in  the  L      nt 

Den'tifriees  (Lat  dtn  t    tl         d  /  I  n  I  ) 

prepaiations  for  cleansing  tl     t    tl        Tl       1    ly    1         g     f 

the  teeth  is  of  the  greatest   mp     t  1     h    h     Id  b       arly 

inculcated  on  children.      If  t      h  1    1>     I        d      d 

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examinee!  for  incipient  decay,  not  only  toothache,  but  many  more 
remote  ctiU  would  be  averted,  for  much  imperfect  digestion 
arises  from  imperfect  mastication.  Many  preparations  ajre  puffed 
as  wonderful  D-,  but  one  tooth-powdet  is  as  good  as  another. 
If  the  taste  be  not  objectionable,  soap  nibbed  on  the  tooth- 
brush is  a  p^'tect  dentifrice.  The  commonest  tooth-powder  is 
finely  ground  chalk,  to  which  some  aromatic  ingredient,  such  as 
Orris  powder,  is  added, 

Den'tine,  a  tubular  structure  forming  the  chief  part  of  the 
Teeth  (q,  v.). 

DentirOB'tres  (Lat.  'tooth.beaked '),  one  of  the  four  sub-orders 
of  the  order  Inscs^oris,  or  Perching  birds,  chiefly  distinguished 
by  the  opper  mandible  being  notched  in  its  lower  margin  near 
the  tip.  Most  of  the  D.  are  insect-eaters.  The  chief  families  are 
the  Shrikes  {Laniid^),  Fly-catchers  {Musdeapada),  Thrashes 
{Mendid^),  Tits  (PaHna),  and  Warblers. (A>MHB'ff). 

Den'tjs  ry  as  m  g  i^ery  and  dental  mecha- 
nics, is  th  ases  of  the  teeth,  and  who 
fashions  a  B  of  D.  have  been  greatly 
advanced  k  ar  h  g  ry  anch  having  been  formu- 
lated int  egula  co  ca  mic  instruction,  and  the 
mechanic     se          h       g  be                y  reformed  by  the  appli- 

Dental       g      —  ns  in  dental  surgery  are 

{l)scalmg,  (  )     g  „,  (3)      pp    gi  and  (4)  extracting. 

Scaling  is  the  removal  of  tartar  from  the  base  of  tlie  teeth  by 
means  of  small  pointer!  stpd  instfuments,  and  is  a  most  necessary 
operation,  as  the  accumulation  of  this  substance  absorbs  and  irri- 
tates the  gums,  and  gradually  loosens  and  decays  the  teeth.  As 
a  preservative,  it  ought  to  be  undeigone  periodically,  especially 
wlien  the  teeth  are  not  r^ularly  ^cleaned. — Regumtmg  is  the 
restoring  of  overcrgwded  or  displaced  teeth  to  their  proper 
position,  by  the  gradual  pressure  of  'regulating  plates.'  Teeth 
that  have  been  regulated  require  to  be  maintained  in  their  new 
position  for  some  six  months.  — Stopping,  or  Staffing,  is  a  process 
performed  by  filling  in  the  hollow  of  a  decayed  tooth,  so  as  to 
slay  the  progress  of  decay  and  save  the  nerve  from  exposure. 
It  is  often  necessary,  however,  lo  destroy  tlie  nerve  before  stop, 
ping,  and  this  is  best  done  by  applying  a  pellet  of  cotton  wool 
steeped  in  arsenious  add,  chloride  of  zinc,  or  carboUc  acid,  for 
a  period  of  at  least  twelve  hours.  The  decayed  hollow  must 
then  be  carefully  scooped  out  with  the  '  excavators '  till  the  hard 
wall  of  dentine  is  l^d  bare.  For  a  temporary  stopping  the 
substance  commonly  used  is  gutta-percha ;  the  chief  permanent 
stoppings  are  gold,  white  enamel  fillings,  and  amalgams.  After 
the  hollow  is  well  dried,  the  stopping  is  pressed  firmly  in,  and 
the  plug  is  smoothly  finished  off  at  the  proper  height  of  the 
tooth.  In  gold  stopping,  which  is  by  far  the  most  difficult 
process,  the  strips  of  gold-leaf  or  pellets  of  '  sponge-gold '  are 
packed  so  that  Uieir  ends,  and  not  their  flat  surkces,  shall  present 
at  the  top  of  the  cavity.  The  gold  would  be  apt  to  peel  off  if 
laid  in,  like  the  other  plnga,  in  biyera.  The  top  is  finished  off  by 
burnishing,  —Extracting  ought  to  be  the  last  remedy  of  the  den- 
tist, as  it  is  also  the  operation  he  is  oftenest  called  upon  to  per- 
form. It  requires  the  use  of,  at  least,  some  five  pairs  of  forceps, 
and  of  an  elevator  or  tooth-punch  ;  the  forceps  are  adapted  to  the 
variety  in  size,  form,  and  situation  of  the  different  teeth.  The 
tooth  to  be  e;itr^ted  must  be  carefully  seized  by  a  sound  part, 
and  its  detachment  bam  the  socket  should  be  by  a  lateral  or 
semi-rotaiy  motion  in  the  direction  in  which  if  will  offer  the  least 
resistance.  This  necessarily  presupposes,  on  the  part  of  the  ope- 
rator, a  knowledge  of  the  anatomical  peculiarities  of  the  teeth. 

To  arrest  the  progress  of  decay  in  the  teeth  is  the  first  object 
of  the  dentist,  and  hence  the  importance  of  scding  and  stopping. 
But  when  a  tooth  is  too  much  decayed  to  admit  of  stopping,  and 
is  occasioning  pain,  it  is  to  be  removed  altogethar.  It  may  be 
well  to  stale  that  a  skilled  dentist  can  best  decide  whether  a 
tooth  should  be  treated  by  stopping.  In  the  extraction  of  teeth, 
ansesthetics,  local  and  general,  are  now  widely  used ;  chloroform 
and  ether  giving  place  rapidly  to  nitrous  oxide  gas.  This  last, 
although  it  requires  to  be  used  cautiously,  like  other  aniesthelics, 
may  be  safely  employed,  except  on  children  under  seven  years 
of  age,  or  when  the  patient  is  very  old,  or  of  plethoric  habit,  or 
when  he  suffers  from  hemoptysis  or  pulmonary  disease, 

Smtal  MecAanics.—Tias  department  of  D.  mainly  deals  with 
(he  replacement  of  lost  teeth  by  artificial  ones.  It  also  embraces 
370 


the  treatment  of  deformities  of  the  mouth,  as  in  cleft  palate. 
(See  Palate.)  The  manufacture  of  the  teeth  employed  by  the 
dentist  has  risen  into  an  independent  industry  of  great  impor- 
tance, in  which  there  is  a  strong  competition  between  the  great 
producers,  basing  on  various  inventions,  and  holding  as  secret 
their  different  processes.  The  composition  of  which  the  teeth  are 
generally  made  consists  of  certain  proportions  of  kaolin  (white 
clay),  silei^  and  felspar  ;  none  of  these  minerals  are  fusible  at  a 
low  temperature,  nor,  when  fused,  are  they  acted  upon  by  acids. 
After  an  elaborate  system  of  moulding,  enamelling,  and  baking, 
the  teeth  receive  their  colours  and  shades  from  a  delicate  mani- 
pulation of  metallic  oxides.  Tlie  main  operations  of  the  dentist 
are — ( 1 )  Taking  an  impression  of  the  mouth  in  beeswax,  plaster 
of  Paris,  or  in  certain  compositions;  {2)  casting  a  model  from 
tlie  impression  in  plaster  or  in  zinc,  occasionally  with  a  counter- 
die  in  lead  ;  (3)  forming,  by  means  of  the  dies,  a  vulcanite  base, 
a  celluloid  base,  or  plates  in  gold,  denial  alloy,  or  in  alloys  of 
gold,  copper,  silver,  platinum,  &c  ;  and  (4)  adjusting  and  fixing 
the  teeth  upon  the  base  or  plate. 

The  dentures  may  be  either  partial  or  complete,  i.e.,  may  either 
embrace  a  few  or  an  entire  set  of  teeth.  Single  teelli  are  usually 
fixed  in  a  peculiar  manner.  A  pivot  attached  to  the  artificial 
tooth  is  passed  into  the  natural  pulp  cavity,  which  has  been 
previously  prepared  ;  when  a  wooden  pivot  is  used,  it  is  main- 
tained in  position  by  the  swelling  of  the  wood,  when  of  metal, 
the  pivot  is  properly  fastened  with  mastic,  &c.  The  vulcanite 
base  is  in  more  general  use  than  the  gold  plate,  and  its  construc- 
tion necessarily  is  now  carried  to  great  peifection.  Tlie  celluloid 
base  above  mentioned  consists  of  collodion,  a  preparation  of 
camphor  and  gun-cotton,  and  was  first  produced  m  1871.  It  is 
easily  prepared,  and  is  light  and  comfortable  to  wear,  while  its 
pink  is  natural  in  appearance.  See  Tomes'  Systim  of  Dental  Sur- 
gay  (aded,  Lond,  1876),  Oakley  Coles'  Dmtal  Mechanics  (Lond. 
1873),  and  Sewill's  Anatomy  and  Dental  Surgery  (Lond,  1878), 

Denti'tlon,  the  name  applied  to  the  process  of  tooth- 
development  and  succession,  and  also  to  the  arrangement  and 
description  of  the  various  teeth  found  in  the  mouth,  particularly- 
of  Mammalia  (q.  v.).  Most  mammals  have  two  sets  of  teeth, 
and  are  hence  termed  difhyodont^  those  in  which  one  set  only 
is  developed  are  termed  monophyodont.  The  first  set  is  named 
the  taSk,  temporary,  or  dedduoHs  set  The  teeth  in  mammals  are 
never  united  by  bony  nnion  or  ankyliiiis  with  the  jaw-bones,  as 
in  lower  forms  ;  and  they  are  confined  to  thejaw-bones,  being 
developed  from  alveoli  or  pockets.  The  different  kinds  and 
structure  of  teeth  are  described  in  the  article  TEETH  {q.  v.), 
and  their  functions  under  the  head  of  DIGESTION  (q.  v.). 
Naturalists  express  the  arrangement  of  the  teeth  in  any  animal  by 
3.dintal  formula.    The  dental  formula  of  man  runs  as  follows  :— 

I,  I::!        C.  i-^        P.-M.  ?~^         M.  ill.3  =  32 
2-2  i-i  2-a  3-3 

And  that  of  the  sheep,  for  example,  is  thus  stated ; — 

I,  ?^        C,  5^        P.-M.  3^3         M.   3^3   =  32 
3-3  i-i  3-3  3-3 

The  meaning  of  these  convenient  formulse  is  readily  understood. 
The  letters  stand  for  the  various  hinds  of  teeth  (incisors,  canines, 
prsemolars,  and  molars).  The  figures  above  each  line  indicate 
the  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw ;  those  beloiB  the  line  indicating  the 
teeth  in  the  lower  jaw ;  whilst  the  fiirther  division  of  the  figures, 
above  and  below  each  line,  uidicate  the  number  of  teeth  in 
each  side  of  each  jaw  respectively.  We  read  the  D.  formula 
of  man,  then,  as  expressing  that  he  has  2  incisors  in  each  side  of 
each  jaw  ;  I  canine  in  each  side  of  each  jaw ;  2  premolars  in 
each  side  of  the  upper,  and  the  same  number  in  each  side  of  the 
lower  jaw  ;  and  3  molars  in  each  side  of  each  jaw— making  a  total 
of  32.  Similarly  in  the  sheep,  there  are  no  incisors  and  no 
canines  in  the  upper  jaw,  but  6  incisors  (3  in  each  side)  and  2 
canines  (l  in  each  side)  of  the  lower  jaw;  and  then  there  are  6 
premolars  and  6  molars  in  both  upper  and  Jower  jaws.  In 
man  the  teeth  are  developed  in  little  sacs  {d^tal  sacs)  formed  in 
the  gums,  the  little  pafrilla  or  process  enclcsed  in  each  sac 
becoming  encnisted,  as  it  were,  by  the  hard  structures  of  the 
tooth,  and  the  papilla  itself  forming  the  pulp  of  the  future  tooth. 
The  temporary  or  milk-teeth  are  gradually  pushed  out  by  the 
permanent  teeth,  or  they  may  decay  or  be  absorbed.  Tlie  milk- 
teeth  of  man  number  ip  in  each  jaw,  and  thus  comprise  4  in- 
cisors,  2  canines,  and  4  molars.      Tligse  10  teeth  are  replaced 


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DBP 


by  the  permanent  teetfi,  and  in  addition  6  other  teeth  appear  in 
the  permanent  set  of  each  jaw,  the  latter  heing  the  true  molars, 
which  are  thus  not  represented  in  the  milk  seL  Tlie  permanent 
teeth  are  being  developed  during  the  formation  of  the  milk- 
teeth,  each  permanent  tooth  being,  in  fact,  developed  in  a  little 
sac  partitioned  off  from  the  dental  sac  in  which  its  milk 
predecessor  is  formed.  In  the  seventh  month  after  birtli,  the 
central  (lower)  milk  incisors  generally  appear,  the  molars  about 
the  thirteenth  month,  and  the  milk  set  may  be  completed  from 
tlie  eighteenth  month  to  the  second  or  even  third  year  of  life. 
The  permanent  teeth  appear  about  the  seventh  year  of  life ;  the 
first  irae  molar  generally  being  developed  before  the  other  teeth, 
and  being  soon  followed  by  the  permanent  central  incisors.  The 
permanent  canines  appear  about  the  twelfth  yearof  life;  and  the 
last  molars,  or  'wisdom  teeth,'  may  vary  in  their  development 
from  the  siKleenth  or  seventeenth,  to  the  twenty-first  or  twenty- 
third  year  of  life. 

D'Entrecaeteaux',  the  name  given  in  memory  of  a  French 
navigator  to  an  archipeUgo,  cape,  and  channel  in  Australasia.  — I . 
The  H)r4j>/a^-o  lies  in  the  S.  Pacific,  E.S.E.  of  New  Guinea,  in 
S.  lat,  io°,E.  long.  151°.— 2.  The  cape  is  on  the  S.W.  coast  of 
W,  Australia,  in  S.  lat.  34°  52',  K  long.  116°  i'.— The  channel, 
about  40  miles  in  length,  and  from  3  miles  to  g  miles  in  breadth, 
divides  Brun^  Island  from  the  S.  £.  coast  of  Tasmania,  its  centre 
being  m  S.  lat.  43°  25,'  and  E.  long.  147°  6'.  It  contains  several 
exo^ent  harbours. 

Denuda'tion  (Lat.  '  the  making  nudi  or  bare  ')  in  geology, 
the  terra  applied  to  the  wearing  away  of  rock  masses,  and  to 
the  consequent  laying  bare  of  underlying  rocks.  The  chief  agents 
which  eSect  D.,  are  rivers,  glaciers,  and  ice  action  generally, 
rain,  atmospheric  action,  &c.  D.  is  thus  another  name  for  the 
reconstruction  of  rocks,  since  from  the  matters  taken  from  the 
land  new  sedimentary  formations  are  produced.  The  considera- 
tion of  D.  leads  the  geologist  to  study  how  the  features  of  our 
earth  have  been  sculptured  out.  The  process  of  D.  may  be 
divided  into  subairM  D. ,  as  effected  by  rivers,  ice,  &c.,  and 
•marine  D.,  as  effected  by  the  sea  and  its  tides.  Subaertal 
denudations  cut  down  the  land  sur&ces  info  valleys,  whilst 
marine  D.  tends  to  form  plains. 

Deob'struents  (from  Lat  ai,  '  away,^  and  obsinitre,  '  to  ob- 
struct ')  are  medicines  which  remove  any  abnormal  enlargement 
or  tumour.  Certain  medicines  when  taken  internally,  or  when 
rubbed  on  the  skin,  cause  absorption  of  enlaiged  glands  and 
other  tumours.  Among  the  most  powerful  of  these  are  iodine, 
bromine,  and  mercury,  with  their  several  preparations, 

SeObnnd',  a  town  of  British  India,  district  of  Siiharunpore, 
N.W.  Province,  20  miles  S.E.  of  Suharunpore,  between  the 
Hindun  and  Kali  Nuddee,  branches  respectively  of  the  Jumna 
and  the  Ganges,  and  on  the  railway  from  Suharunpore  to  Mosuf- 
fumu^ur.     Pop.  (1872)21,714, 

Se'odand.  Formerly,  by  the  law  rf  England,  any  personal 
chattel  (see  Chattel)  which  by  accident  caused  the  death  of  a 
human  being  was  forfeited  to  the  crown  or  lord  of  the  manor, 
that  it  might  be  sold  and  the  proceeds  distributed  among 
the  poor.  D.,  as  the  name  imports  {I>a>  dandum),  was  origi- 
nally an  atonement  to  God  for  the  unfimely  death  of  one  of  his 
creatures,     Deodands  are  abolished  by  9  and  10  Vict.  cap.  62. 

De'odar.     See  Cedar. 

Deodar',  a  protected  independent  state,  in  the  N.W,  of 
Guzerat,  India,  with  an  area  of  80  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  200a 
Each  village  forms  the  capital  of  an  independent  community. 
D.  having  become  a  haunt  of  robbers,  the  East  India  Company 
assumed  the  protection  of  it  in  1S19. 

Deo'dorisers  are  chemical  substances  which  have  the  power 
of  destroying  odours.  D.  may  or  may  not  be  Antiseptics  (q.v.) 
or  Disinfectants  (q,  v.). 

C^on,  The  Ohevalier,  a  famous  diplomatic  agent,  was  born 
of  an  ancient  family  at  Tonnerre,  Burgundy,  2d  October  1728, 
He  was  employed  on  a  mission  to  St  Petersburg  in  1755,  was 
aide-de-camp  to  Marshal  Broglio  in  the  campaign  of  1702,  in 
1763  accompanied  the  Ducde  Nivemoiato  England  as  secretary, 
whose  place  he  filled  when  the  Due  left  this  country,  till  he  was 
superseded  by  the  Comte  de  Gtierchy,     In  1771  his  sex  began  to 


be  doubted,  since  he  had,  from  caprice,  or  from  purposes  of 
intrigue,  dressed  as  a  female.  He  returned  to  France  in  1777, 
when  he  assumed  the  female  dress  at  the  request  of  the  queen, 
and  in  1785  revisited  England,  where  he  died.  May  21, 1810,  when 
medical  inspection  put  the  question  of  his  sex  beyond  doubt. 
D,  wrote  various  historical  and  political  works,  which  were  pub- 
lished m  13  vols,  in  1775. 

Deoxida'tion,  or  Beduc'tion,  signifies  the  removal  of  oxy- 
gen  from  a  substance.  Most  metals  are  separated  from  their  ores 
by  D.,  for  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  ore  is  an  oxide  of  the  metal, 
oris  converted  by  roasting  into  the  oxide.  (See  Metallurgy.) 
The  deoxidising  agent  employed  In  the  extraction  of  metals 
generaCy  contains  carbon — an  element  having  at  a  high  tem- 
perature a  strong  affinity  for  oxygen.  When  the  oxide  is  heated 
with  carbon,  the  latler  abstracts  its  oxygen,  and  combines  with 
it,  forming  carbonic  oxide  (CO)  or  carbonic  add  (COj).  Car- 
bonic oxide  is  itself  a  powerful  reducing  agent,  being  prone  to 
take  up  ox^en  and  pass  into  carbonic  acid.  Thus  carbonic 
oxide  is  often  purposely  produced  (by  bumine  carbon  in  a  limited 
supply  of  air)  for  the  purpose  of  reduction,  mstead  of  acting  on 
the  substance  to  be  reduced  wilh  carbon  alone.  This  is  the 
case  in  Iron  Smelting  (q.  v.). 

Depart'ment  (Fr.  dlparUmeni),  a  name  widely  applied  in 
England  to  a  section  of  the  administration,  as  the  Home  D.,  the 
WarD,  &C.,  but  used  to  designate  a  territorial  division  of  France 
since  1789.  After  the  abolition  of  the  aristoci-acy,  Mirabeau  sug- 
gested that,  as  the  existence  of  large  provinces  tended  to  prevent 
centralisation  and  to  foster  local  power,  a  subdivision  should  be 
made,  and  this  was  followed  by  the  redistribution  of  the  thirty- 
four  provinces  into  eighty-three  departments  by  decree  of  the 
Assembly  dated  i6th  February  179a  These  departments,  named 
usually  after  geographical  features,  were  subsequently  increased 
to  140,  but  were  ag^in  reduced  to  eighty-three  at  the  peace  of 
1814.  Their  number  has  varied  greatly  with  the  vicissitudes  of 
the  nation,  and  now  amounts  to  eighty-seven.  They  elected 
their  own  governors  till  Napoleon  I.  took  away  the  privilege, 
and  established  the  right  of  the  head  of  the  state  to  place  over 
eacha/j-^iand  a  cmsdl de prifectwe.  The  D.  is  divided  into 
arrondissements,  eacli  of  which  is  under  a  sttus-priftt,  while  the 
arrondissements  are  subdivided  into  cantons,  and  these  again  into 
communes,  corresponding  somewhat  to  our  parishes.  Several  of 
the  states  of  Central  itnd  S.  America  have  adopted  a  division 
into  dcpartimientes,  wliich  correspond,  however,  only  in  name  to 
those  of  France. 

Depen'ding  Action.  In  Scotch  law,  an  action  is  held  f o  be 
in  dependence  from  the  moment  of  the  Citation  (q.  v.)  until  the 
final  decision  of  the  House  of  Lords,  should  an  appeal  be  made 
to  that  tribunal.  During  dependence,  the  pursuer  is  entitled 
to  use  Inhibition  (q.  v.),  or  Arrestment  (q.  v,),  as  security  for 
fulfilment  of  the  decree  by  the  defender,  should  judgment  be 
against  Mm. 

Dephal  (Arlocarpus  Lakocchd),  a  tree,  a  native  of  India,  the 
fruit  of  which,  tliough  eaten,  is  inferior  to  that  of  its  congeners,  the 
Bread-Fruit  (q.  v,}  and  Jack  (q.  v.).  The  wood  is  used  for 
building,  the  root  for  dyeing,  and  the  thick  tenacious  juice  for 
birdlime. 

Depil'atories,  or  Epil'atoriee  (Lat,  de,  and  e  or  ex, '  from,' 
and  pUus,  '  a  hair '),  are  substances  used  to  remove  hair  from  the 
face  or  body.  The  safest  D.  are  made  with  quicklime  and  other 
ingredients,  as  sulphate  of  sodium  and  starch,  made  into  a  paste 
and  applied  to  the  part.  Sulphide  of  barium  has  been  used  for 
D.  instead  of  quicklime.  Orpiment,  the  yellow  sulphide  of  arsenic, 
is  sometimes  mixed  with  lime  to  form  D.  D.  containing  arsenic 
are  dangerous.  Orpiment  one  ounce,  quicklime  one  pound, 
starch  ten  ounces,  and  sufficient  water  to  make  a  paste,  13  sup- 
posed to  constitute  the  famous  D.,  the  Rusma  of  the  Turlcs. 


Deposit  (Lat.  'a  laying  down'),  in  geology,  a  name  glyen 
.0  sedimentary  or  aqueous  rocks  made  by  the  Denudation  (q,  v,) 
md  '  laying  down '  of  other  formations.  Deposits  are  marini 
vhen  formed  in  the  sea,  lacustrine  in  lakes,  ^ifiart'ii  m  rivers, 


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Deposit,  in  English  law,  a  bailment  of  goods  to  be  kept  by 
Ihe  bailee,  ■without  reward,  and  deliTereil  accoi-ding  to  the  object 
and  purpose  of  the  tnist.  (See  Bailment,  Borrowing,  Car- 
riers, Trover.)  The  principles  of  the  Roman  law  regarding 
D.  have  been  adopted  by  modem  nations  ;  and  in  Scotland  the 
name  of  the  contract  is  preserved.  He  who  depoaitsis  called  the 
defosilor;  he  who  receives,  the  dipasilary.  The  contract  is  com- 
pleted by  delivery  of  the  subject.  The  right  of  propeity  and  risk 
remains  with  the  depositor,  on  whom,  if  the  subject  is  injured  or 
destroyed  accidentally,  the  loss  fells.  The  depositary,  until  the 
subject  is  demanded  back,  is  liable  only  for  gross  negligence;  but 
if  he  unduly  deky  to  re-deliyer  the  subject  after  requisition,  he 
will  be  liable  for  an  accident  There  are  special  kinds  of  D. 
See  Consignment  ;  Naut.^  Caupones,  Stabularii  ;  Trust, 
Stoppage  in  Transitu. 

Deposition,  in  English  and  Scotch  law,  signifies  the  testi- 
mony of  a  witness  taken  in  writing.  Information  gjven  on  oath, 
and  the  evidence  of  witnesses  before  magistrates  and  coroners, 
put  into  writing  in  the  words  used  by  the  witnesses,  or  as 
rly  so  as  possible.  The  peison  who  makes  oath  judicially  is 
colled  a  deponent.  Evidence  in  the  Court  of  Chancery  was 
formerly  taken  in  written  answers  to  written  questions.  By  the 
Law  of  Evidence  (q.  v.)  a  D.  cannot  be  received  where  the  wit- 
ness can  be  himself  produced,  unless  he  has  become  insane  since 
giving  his  testimony.     See  Dying  Declaration. 


Depositio: 


a  ecclesiastical  s< 


a  clergyman  for 


o  degradation  from 
his  office — that  is,  a  total  and  perpefnal  suspension  of  the  power 
and  authority  committed  to  him  in  his  ordination,  reducing  him 
to  the  condition  of  a  layman,  and  removing  all  emoluments  he 
yman.  In  churches  which  hold  the  indelible 
,  e  clei^  may  be  deprkied  but  cannot  be  di- 
graded.  See  Bingham's  j*«^.  of  (he  Ckristtaat  Church,  and  Blunt's 
Dictionary  of  Doctrinal  and  Historical  Theology. 

Depot  (Fr.  lA^;,  from Lat. ij!;,  ' down,' and /pjjVam,  'placed'), 
in  military  language,  a  place  where  army  stores  are  kept  and 
recruits  trained.  The  term  is  now  usually  applied  to  that  por- 
tion of  a  brigade  which  remains  at  home  while  the  rest  are  upon 
foreign  service.  The  regimental  D.  system  has  existed  in  the 
British  army  since  about  1 8,25,  but  it  was  not  completely  deve- 
loped until  1873,  when  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  were  distri- 
buted into  military  districts  and  subdistricts,  each  of  the  latter 
apportioned  to  a  brigade  with  a  D,,  and  having  a  lieutenant- 
colonel  appointed  to  it.  The  sum  of  ^£3, 500,000  was  voted  by 
the  House  of  Commons  in  1872  to  provide  for  the  development 
of  the  D.  system.  Formerly  a  man  enlisted  into  a  regiment  or  a 
battalion  of  the  line,  he  now  enlists  into  a  brigade,  and  is  drafted 
off  as  required.  Canterbury  is  the  cavalry  D,  for  the  whole 
country,  and  under  the  Localisation  of  Forces  Act,  there  is  an 
infantiy  D.  for  each  subdislrict.  Thus  brigade  D.  No.  2  is  in 
Carlisle;  to  it  the  34th  foot,  the  55th  foot,  and  the  Cumberlaiid 
and  Westmoreland  militia  and  volunteere  look  as  the  place  where 
■ained.  In  the  monthly  army  reports 
the  headquarters  and  the  D.  of  a  regiment  are  always  given. 
See  Districts,  Military. 

Depres'sioa,  Angle  of,  in  trigonometry,  is  the  angle  whicli 
the  line  drawn  from  the  spectator  to  an  object  belovr  him  makes 
with  the  horizontal  plane.  Hence  the  D.  or  dip  of  the  horizon 
is  this  D.  from  the  tme  horizontal  plane,  due  to  elevation  of  the 
observer  above  the  surface  of  the  earth.  This  is  the  true  dip, 
with  which  the  observed  dip  never  agrees,  on  account  of  the  re- 
fractive power  of  the  atmosphere.  The  true  dip  in  minutes  gives 
the  distance  to  the  observed  horizon  measured  m  nautical  miles, 
an  exceedingly  convenient  rule  for  the  mariner,  to  whom  the  dip 
is  of  the  greatest  importance. 

Depriva'tion  is  an  ecclesiastical  censure  whereby  a  clergy- 
man is  deprived  of  all  the  revenues  and  privileges  of  his  benefice, 
and  all  control  over  it.  It  may  be  temporary  or  perpetual.  Per- 
petual D.  necessarily  forms  a  part  of  Deposition  (q,  v.),  along 
with  degradation,  and  temporary  D.  is  one  of  the  forms  of  Sus- 
pension {q.  v.). 

De  Proftm'dia  ('out  of  the  depths'),  the  first  words  in  the 
Latin  "Vulgate  of  the  130th  Psalm,  forming  part  of  the  burial 
service  in  Ihe  Roman  Catholic  Church.     It  is  appropriately  sung 


at  the  moment  when  the  body  of  the  dead  is  committed  to  tl 
'depths'  of  the  earth,  and  the  hearts  of  pious  motirnei-s  ca 
only  be  cheered  by  the  closing  assurance  of  a  '  plenteous  ri 
demption. ' 

Dep'tford  ('the' deep  ford  '),  a  town  partly  in  Kent  and  partly 
in  Surrey,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Thames,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Ravensboume,  4  miles  K  of  Loudon.  It  consists  of  the  two 
parishes  of  St  Nicholas  and  St  Paul,  the  former  containing  in  1871 
a  pop.  of  6474,  and  the  latter  a  pop.  of  53,714— total,  60,188, 
most  of  them  employed  in  the  Royal  D,  Dock  and  Victualling 
Vavds,  and  in  pnvate  machine-works  and  shipbuilding  yards. 
The  Master  and  Brethren  of  the  Trinity  House  of  D.  Slrond 
have  a  hall  and  two  sets  of  almshouses  here.  D.  forms  a  i 
of  the  parliamentary  borough  of  Greenwich,  which  sends  I 
members  to  Parliament. 

Deptford  Dockyard  was  established  for  shipbuilding  purposes 
by  Henry  VIII,  in  1513,  and  was  subsequently  used  also  as 
a  victualhng  depot  for  the  British  navy.  In  1S65  shipbuilding 
was  discontinued,  the  slips  being  unfit  for  the  large  war-ships, 
and  D,  D.  was  for  a  short  time  the  principal  victualling  yard 
for  the  British  navy  at  home  and  foreign  stations.  It  also  sup- 
plied clothes,  bedding,  and  other  naval  stores.  In  March  31, 
1869,  it  was  purchased  by  Mr  J.  P.  Austin  for  ;f7O,0oo,  who 
sold  part  of  it  to  the  Corporation  of  London  for  ;f  94,640,  to  be 
used  by  them  as  a  market  for  foreign  cattle.  It  was  opened 
for  this  purpose  011  December  28,  1871. 

Dep'uty  (Fr.  depute,  from  Low  Lat.  deputo  =  Class.  Lat. 
ddego,  '  I  send  or  place  in  the  stead  of  another '),  one  who  ex( 
cises  an  office  under  another.  The  principal  is  liable  for  the  ai 
of  his  D.,  but  the  grantet  is  not  liable  for  the  acts  of  his  assignee. 
No  judge  has  the  power  to  appoint  a  D,  unless  authorised  to  do 
so  by  the  grant  to  himself.  A  D,  appointed  by  a  D,  is  usually 
called  a  substitute.  See  ASSIGNS,  ASSIGNMENT,  Delegate! 
Jurisdiction,  Sheriff. 

De  Quin'cey,  a  great  English  prose  writer,  was  the  son  0 
a  Manchester  mercliant;  and  was  born  at  Greenhay  near  Man 
Chester,  August  15,  1785.  He  received  his  early  education  a. 
Bath  and  at  Manchester,  and  was  a  student  at  Oxford  from  1803 
to  l8o3.  Thenceforth  untQ  1829  he  resided  chiefly  at  a  cottage 
in  Grasmere  in  the  Lake  country,  becoming  intimate  with  Words- 
worth, Coleridge,  and  Southey,  and  contribliting  largely  to  jour- 
nals, especially  to  the  London  Magatme  xaA  Blsckwood.  During 
this  period  he  became  a  confirmed  opium-eater,  havine;  at  f  " 
indulged  in  the  drug  to  allay  physical  pain.  In  1816  he  1 
taking  8000  drops  a  day,  but,  after  several  years  of  suffering  and 
mental  lethargy,  he  to  a  great  extent  renounced  Ihe  habit. 
Little  is  known  of  his  life  nntil  1843,  when  he  settled  at  Lass- 
wade,  near  Edinburgh.  He  died  at  Edinburgh,  December  8, 
1859.  D.  was  an  exquisite  writer  and  scholar,  and  a  fascinat- 
ing conversationalist,  but  his  fragmentary  works  are  evidently  the 
outcome  of  a  fitfiil  and  relaxed  though  powerful  genius.  'They 
are  distinguished  by  imaginative  grandeur,  subtle  originality,  and 
a  luxuriance  of  erudite  diction,  and  are  unsurpassed  for  the  stately 
pomp  and  artful  melody  of  the  sentences,  but  are  occasionally 
marred  by  a  wayward  fondness  for  paradox.  D,  claimed  to  have 
introduced  '  a  new  mode  of  impassioned  prose,'  in  which  the 
writer's  individual  experiences  are  rendered  interesting  by  tlie 
splendour  of  the  literary  setting,  as  in  his  Conjissions  of  an  English 
Ofiunt'Eata;  his  Autobiography,  and  in  the  dreamy,  fiery  rhap- 
sodies of  the  Suspdria  de  Prcfiindis,  the  finest  of  all  his  works. 
His  other  writings  comprise  critical  essays  on  Homer,  Milton, 
Shelley,  Wordsworth,  Greek  tragedy,  the  Greek  orators,  &c  \ 
biographies  of  Shakespeare,  Pope,  Goethe,  and  Schiller ;  superb 
historic  or  visionary  descriptive  pieces,  such  as  The  Cirjars,  yean 
of  Arc,  The  ReooU  of  the  Tartars,  Th^  Englisk  Mail- Coach ;  exiA 
miscellaneous  articles  on  the  most  varied  subjects— 7S«  TMan 
Sphinx,  Folitical  Economy,  Judas  Iscariot.  His  peculiar  humour 
is  shown  in  his  Murder  Considsi-ed  as  one  of  the  Fine  Arts.  D. 
was  among  the  first  writers  who  leavened  English  literature  with 
German  thought.  Most  of  his  productions  are  contamed  in  the 
last  edition  of  his  works  (16  vols,  Edinb.,  A.  &  C.  Black). 

Derajat'  (from  dera,  'a  camp'),  a  frontier  district  of  the  Pun- 
jab between  the  Suliman  Mountains  and  the  Indus,  250  miles  in 
length  with  a  maximum  breadth  of  60  miles.  It  is  watered  in 
the  N,  by  the  Gannil.  D.  is  held  by  Pathan  tribes  in  the  N., 
who  number  3000  fighting  men,  and  by  Belooch  tribes  in  the  S, 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DEE 


DerTjend,  or  Derbent  ('  the  shut-up  gates '),  capital  of  the 
govecnment  of  Daghestan,  Beiitenancy  of  the  Caucasus,  Asiatic 
Russia,  on  the  W.  shore  of  the  Caspian.  Pop.  15,739.  It  lies 
at  the  mouth  of  a  defile,  is  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram,  three 
miles  long  by  half  e.  mile  broad,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  massive 
wall  with  two  large  gates.  D.  is  the  ancient  Albania  Pylm,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  originally  fortified  by  Darius  I.  as  the  key 
of  the  Persian  Empire  on  that  side.  Much  saffron  is  grown  in 
the  neighbourhood,  and  there  are  manufactures  of  copper  and  iron 
vessels  and  woollen  stuffs. 

Derby,  the  county  town  of  Derbyshire,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Derwent,  at  the  fringe  of  a  raining  district,  and  I32 
miles  N.N.W.  of  London  on  the  Midland  Railway.  It  stands 
in  a  beautiful  and  fertile  valley,  and  is  built  mostly  of  brick, 
tlie  chief  buildings  being  the  town-hall,  the  new  market-hall, 
corn  exchange,  the  bprough  jail,  the  infirmary,  the  theatre,  and 
the  count)'  lonatic  asylum.  D.  contains  thirteen  churches,  of 
which  the  chief  are  All  Saints  and  St  Alkmund.  In  1867  Mi-  T, 
Bass  presented  the  municipality  with  a  recreation  ground.  Its 
gramma  school  was  founded  in  I  l6z.  There  are  large  markets 
he  e  on  Tuesdays  and  Fridays.  The  chief  manufactures  are  of 
silk  on,  iron,  chemicals,  paper,  and  porcelain.  The  famous 
D  la  distinguislied  for  its  beautiful  flower-painting,  has  been 

m  n  red  here  since  the  middle  of  the  l8th  c.     (See  OM  D. 

Ana  I^  doTy.  by  J.  Haslem,  Lond.  1876.)  The  cutting  and 
po  li  ng  of  Derbyshire  marble  or  flint  spar  is  also  a  large  in- 
du     y      Pop.  (1871)  49,773.     The  name  D.  is  derived  either 

m  D  raly,  the  name  which  the  Danes  gave  the  English 
Ni/i  Mil  rihige,  or  from  Dsrventio,  the  Roman  station  whicli 
s  ood  opposite  the  site  of  the  present  town,  or,  most  proliably, 

a  on  raction  from  Derwsntb^,  the  village  on  tlie  Derwent, 
D    etums  two  members  to  Farhament. 

DerTjy,  the  titular  name  of  a  great  English  femily,  which  took 
its  rise  in  the  lordship  of  Slanleigh  {Stony  Lea},  in  the  county  of 
Derby,  afterwards  exchanged  for  another  property  in  Stafford- 
shire. The  most  distinguished  of  the  earlier  members  of  the 
family  are  Thomas  Stanley,  whose  father  vras  made  Lord 
Sfanley  in  1456,  and  who,  at  the  battle  of  Bosworth,  by  espous- 
ing the  side  of  the  Earl  of  Richmond  against  Richard  III., 
ensured  the  success  of  the  former,  and  crowned  him  as  Henry 
VII.  He  was  in  148;  rewarded  with  the  dignity  of  Earl  of  D. 
and  the  position  of  Lord  High  Steward  of  England. —Janaea 
Stanley,  seventh  Earl  of  D.,  who  took  the  Royalist  side 
during  the  civil  war,  having  been  talfen  prisoner  at  the 
iiattle  of  Worcester  in  1651,  was  beheaded  at  Bolton  in  the 
same  year.  His  widow,  Charlotte,  daughter  of  the  Due  de 
Tremouille,  is  &mous  for  her  gallant  defence  against  the  Parlia- 
mentary forces  of  Latham  House  and  the  Isle  of  Man,  which 
flirot^h  marriage  had  come  into  the  possession  of  the  Stanley 
family.  She  had  in  the  end  to  yield,  but  lived  to  see  the 
restoration  of  Charles  H,  To  the  present  centurj'  belong 
two  illustrious  members  of  the  family.  Edward  Geoftrey 
Smith-Stanley,  14tli  Earl  of  D.,  was  born  at  Knowsley 
Park,  Lancashire,  March  29,  1799.  He  was  educated  at  Eton 
and  Christchurch,  Oxford,  where,  in  1819,  he  gained  the  Latin 
veree  prlie.  D.,  then  known  as  Mr  Stanley,  threw  himself 
keenly  into  politics  on  the  Whig  side,  was  returned  for 
Stockbridge  in  182D,  and  subsequently  for  Preston,  Wmdsor, 
and  N.  Ijincashire.  In  1S30  he  became  Chief  Secretary  for 
Ireland  under  the  administration  of  Earl  Grey,  took  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832,  and 
carried  two  important  measures,  the  one  relatingto  Irish  Chnrch 
tempoKdities,  and  the  other  giving  national  education  to  Ire- 
land. At  the  same  time  he  reached  the  first  rank  among  parlia- 
mentary speakers  by  his  fiery  eloquence,  which,  aided  by  a  singu- 
larly fine  presence,  gamed  for  him  the  title  of  the  '  Rupert  of 
Debate,'  and  by  his  quickness  of  retort,  which  has  been  compared 
to  an  instinct.  He  was  looked  upon  as  the  ablest  opponent  of 
O'Connell  in  his  movement  for  the  repealof  the  Union.  In  1833 
he.became  Colonial  Secretary,  and  carried  the  measure  for  eman- 
cipating the  slaves  in  the  West  Indies.  In  1834  D.  seceded  from 
the  Cabinet  on  the  Irish  Chnrch  question,  and  subsequently  was 
identified  with  the  Conservative  party.  He  became  Colonial 
Secretary  in  the  Peel  administration  of  1841 ;  in  1845,  when  Sir 


Robert  Peel  brought  in  his  bill  for  the  repeal  of  the  corn  laws, 
he  withdrew  from  it,  and  became  the  chief  of  the  Piotectionist 
party.  D.,  after  his  succession  to  the  earldom  in  1851,  thrice 
became  Premier— in  1852,  only  for  a  few  months ;  in  1858-59, 
when  he  was  overthrown  on  the  question  of  parliamentary  reform ; 
and  m  1866-68,  when,  with  the  help  of  Mr  Disraeli,  he  carried 
the  eiisting  Reform  Act,  which,  however,  was  so  completely 
modified  by  the  Liberal  opposition.  Chat,  according  to  the  un- 
impeachable testimony  of  the  Duke  of  Bucclench,  nothing  was 
left  of  the  original  bill  but  the  word  'whereas.'  In  February 
1868  failing  health  compelled  him  to  resign  office,  and  he  was 
succeeded  as  Premier  by  Mr  Disraeli.  He  died  October  23, 
1869,  his  last  public  act  being  to  protest  in  the  House  of  Peers 
against  Mr  Gladstone's  bill  for  the  abolition  of  the  Irish  Church. 
D.  was  a  man  of  high  scholarship,  as  is  shown  by  his  translation 
of  Homer's //aia' into  unrhymed  iambics  (2  vols.  Lond.  1864), 
which  has  received  just  praise  for  its  elegance  and.  exact  ren- 
dering of  the  original.  But  it  is  not  poetry  :  it  is  only  admir- 
able verse,  expressed  in  faultless  'House  of  Commons'  English. 
In  1852  D.  was  elected  to  succeed  the  Duke  of  Wellington  as 
Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Oxford.  In  1825  he  married  the 
second  daughter  of  the  first  Lord  Skelmersdale,  by  whom  he  had 
a  considerable  family. — Edward  Hemy  Smith-Stanley, 
IStli  Earl  of  D.,  eldest  son  of  the  above,  was  bom  at  Knows- 
ley Park,  July  21,  1826,  and  educated  at  Rugby  and  Trinity  Col- 
lege, where  he  took  a  first  class  in  classics,  in  addition  to  other 
honours,  in  1848.  In  December  of  the  same  year,  and  while 
absent  in  America,  Lord  Stanley,  as  he  was  then  styled,  was 
elected  M.P.  for  King's  Lynn,  and  in  1850,  after  a  tour  in  the 
West  Indies,  made  his  mark  in  the  House  of  Commons  by  a 
speech  upon  our  sugar  colonies.  In  the  course  of  a  tour  in 
the  East,  D.  was  appomted,  March  1852,  Under-Secretary  for 
Foreign  Affairs  under  his  father's  first  administration.  D., 
who  at  this  time  was  thought  by  many  to  be  more  irf  a  Libe- 
ral than  of  a  Conservative,  was  in  1855,  on  the  death  of  Sir 
William  Molesworth,  offered  the  seals  of  the  Foreign  Office  by 
Lord  Palmerston,  but  declined  to  quit  his  party.  In  1S58,  under 
his  father's  second  administration,  D.  became,  first  Colonial,  and 
then  Indian  SectetB,ty.  It  was  while  he  held  the  latter  office  tliat 
the  Indian  mutiny  was  suppressed,  and  the  management  of  our 
Indian  Empire  transferred  from  the  East  India  Company  to  the 
Home  Government.  In  his  &ther's  third  administration  of 
1866,  and  in  the  succeeding  administration  of  Mr  Disra 
D,  held  the  seals  of  the  Foreign  Office,  and  obtained  (at 
time)  much  popularity  by  his  settlement  of  the  Luxembourg 
difficulty.  ■  He  greatly  assisted  Mr  Disraeli  in  carrying  tlirough 
his  Household  Suffrage  Bill.  D.,  who  succeeded  to  the  peerage 
in  1869,  again  became  Foreign  Secretary  in  February  1874,  on 
Uie  resignation  of  Mr  Gladstone  and  the  accession  to  power 
of  Mr  Disraeli.  This  office  he  at  present  (1876)  holds.  D.  has 
always  shown  a  strong  interest  in  social,  educational,  and  econo- 
mical questions,  and  has  served  as  a  member  of  several  Royal 
Commissions,  including  the  Cambridge  University  Commission, 
1856-60,  while  he  was  chairman  of  the  Commission  on  the  Sani- 
tary State  of  the  Indian  Arniy  in  1859-61,  and  of  that  on  Patents, 
1863-64.  He  was  installed  Rector  of  the  University  of  Glasgow, 
April  1, 1869,  and  on  December  18,  1875,  Rector  of  that  of  Edin- 
bui^h.  D.  is  strangely  unlike  Ms  periervid  and  chivalrous  sire. 
He  is  the  reverse  of  eloquent,  is  distinguished  simply  by  strength 
and  sobriety  of  judgment,  by  the  practical  philosophy  "of  his 
singularly  lucid  speeches,  by  freedom  from  sentimentality,  and 
a  strong  tendency  to  '  minimise '  what  others  consider  great. 

Derby-Day,  the  second  day  of  the  Grand  Spring  Meeting  at 
Epsom,  when  the  Derby  stakes  of  50  sovereigns  each,  instituted 
by  the  Earl  of  Derby  in  1780,  are  iiin  for.  It  falls  on  the 
Wednesday  after  Trinity  Sunday,  and  is  the  great  London  holi- 
day. Shops  are  shut,  and  Parlianient  does  not  sit.  For  hours 
the  road  from  London  to  Epsom  presents  a  throng  of  vehicles  of 
every  kind,  and  fte  humours  of  the  road  resemble  the  Roman 
Saturnalia.     Trains  a ^  -  -  "- '■—  -'  -'— '  -'— -1-   "•"' 


before  the  event  of  the  day  o 
withp   as  k         f    11 

of  the  D  Mu    u 


it  short  intervals,  and 


les  off,  the  Downs  i 
F  'th' 
hK  n 


e  covered 


S    if   d       d   C 


vLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Aiea,  1025  sq.  miles;  pop.  (1871)  379,394.  Tiie  S.  and  S.E. 
parts  of  D,  are  comparatively  level,  and  genei-ally  fertile  and 
weli-cultivated,  but  the  N.  and  N.W.  portions  are  mgged  and 
hilly,  and  remarkable  for  the  romantic  beauty  of  the  scenery. 
Precipices  and  caverns  abound,  and  the  streams  sometimes  dis- 
appear among  (he  cavities  of  the  limestone  formations.  The 
hills  seldom  exceed  1800  feet ;  the  Peali,  the  highest  elevation, 
is  onlyj  2000.  Tlie  chief  river  is  the  Trent,  with  its  tribn. 
taries  the  Derwent  and  Dove.  Tlie  scenery  of  the  lattec  is  pre- 
eminently beautiful.  Smaller  streams  are  the  Wye  and  the 
Rother.  There  are  warm  mineral  springs  at  Buxton  and  Mat- 
lock, and  numerous  calcareous  springs  m  various  parts  of  the 
coimty,  which  inerust  substances  immersed  in  them.  D.  is  rich 
in  minerals ;  coal,  iron,  lead,  line,  manganese,  copper,  mineral 
oil,  marble,  fluor  spar,  alabaster,  pipeclay,  and  chert  being 
found.  It  is  intersected  by  six  canals  and  various  railways. 
The  climate  is  cool  and  moist,  especially  in  the  higher  parts ; 
wheat,  barley,  and  oats  are  the  principal  crops,  but  much  of  thf 
land  is  in  pasture.  More  thB,u  five-sevenths  of  the  area  of  D. 
is  cultivated,  there  being  (1875)  73,698  acres  under  com  crops, 
22,404  under  green  crops,  34,344  under  clover  and  grasses  in 
rotation,  and  363,087  under  grasses  not  in  rotation.  Dairy  hus- 
bandry is  extensively  carried  on.  The  chief  manufactures  are  ol 
cotton,  sillt,  worsted,  porcelain  and  marble,  spar  and  alabastei 
ornaments.  Chief  towns  ; — Derby,  Ashbourne,  Buxton,  Chester- 
field,  and  Belper.  D.  returns  six  members  to  Parliament,  Thei-e 
are  many  British  and  Roman  antiquities. 

Derbyshire  Spar.     See  Fluor  Spak. 

Derec'skS,  a  town  of  Hungary,  !2  miles  S.  of  Drebreczin, 
Near  it  are  four  lalies  from  which  soda  is  obtained,  and  in  one 
of  which  small  pearls  are  found.  Lake  Fingoto,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, is  celebrated  for  its  baths.     Pop.  (1870)  7334. 

DecelUUU,  East  (Old  Eng,  Deorham),  a  town  in  the  centre 
of  the  county  of  Norfolk,  r6  miles  W.N.W.  of  Norwich,  with 
a  spacious  market-place.  Tlie  poet  Cowper  was  buried  in  the 
old  church.  D.  has  manufactures  of  agricultural  machines,  ami 
an  active  trade  in  corn  and  cattle.     Pop.  (1871)  3689. 

Der'elict  {La(,  derdklum,  'anything  abandoned'),  an  Eng- 
lish law-term  signifying  anything  forsalcen,  or  left,  or  wilfully 
cast  away.  D.  lands  suddenly  left  by  the  sea  belong  io  the 
crown ;  but  if  the  sea  recede  gradually,  the  gain  goes  Io  the 
owner  of  the  adjacent  lands.  (See  AtLVVlON.)  A  ship  does 
not  become  D.  until  she  has  been  abandoned  by  her  master 
and  crew  without  intention  of  returning.  When  D,,  fiis! 
comers  are  entitled  to  talte  possession  of  her  and  claim  Salvage 
{q.  V.)  fiom  the  owner  or  person  having  right  to  the  wreck. 
Under  the  Merchant  Shipping  Act  the  Board  of  Trade  is,  with 
consent  of  the  Treasury,  authorised  to  appoint  in  any  district  a 
receiver  of  wreck,  who  has  due  power  to  fulfil  the  duties  of  his 
position.  Articles  washed  ashore  must  be  delivered  to  the  re- 
ceiver, who  has  power  forcibly  to  suppress  disorder  or  plundering. 
Description  of  wreck  is  to  be  without  delay  affixed  to  the  nearest 
customhouse ;  and  if  the  value  of  the  wreck  exceed  £,1-0,  a  de- 
scription must  also  be  sent  to  Lloyds  (q.  v. ).  If  no  one  proves 
himself  the  owner  withm  a  year  from  the  receiver  taking  posses- 
sion, then  the  wreck,  on  payment  of  salvage  and  expenses,  is  to 
be  given  to  tlie  person  having  the  right  to  it,  which  may  be  the 
lord  of  the  manor,  the  mayor,  the  admiral,  or  the  crown. 

Serelic'tion,  a  term  of  Scotch  law  nearly  equivalent  to  the 
English  term  Derelict  (q.  v.).  Stray  cattle,  if  ownership  is  not 
proved  within  a  year,  are  escheated  to  the  Crown  [  but  if  the 
thing  found  be  inanimate,  the  owner  may  reclaim  within  forty 
years.  See,  regai-ding  land  left  by  the  sea,  article  Allitvion, 
The  word  is  also  used  in  the  law  of  Scotland  regarding  teinds 
(tithes)  relative  to  valuations. 

Derg,  Lougll  (Gael.  •  the  red  lake '),  in  the  S.  of  Donegal 
county,  3  miles  long  by  z\  broad,  has  many  smaJl  islands,  one 
of  which.  Station  Island,  is  famous  as  a  place  of  pilgrimage. 
Between  10,000  and  15,000  pilgrims  visit  it  annually  from  1st 
June  to  15th  August.  It  is  only  about  an  acre  in  extent,  but 
tliere  are  two  small  chapels  on  it,  with  a  house  for  the  officiating 
priests,  and  some  cabins.  The  river  Derg  flows  from  Lough  D. 
for  17  miles  to  the  Foyle.— Another  and  a  much  larger  1„  D. 
is  unly  an  expansion  of  the  Shannon.  It  lies  between  Tip- 
374 


Deriva'tioni.     See  Etymology, 

Iteriva'tion,  in  medicine,  a  term  used  by  the  older  physicians, 
signifying  the  drawing  of  humours  from  one  part  of  the  body  to 
another,  and  thereby  effecting  a  cure.  It  is  not  much  used  by 
modem  writers.  A  good  example  of  what  is  meant  consists  in 
placing  a  blister  behind  the  ear  to         fi  ff 

Der'iua  (Gr.),  the  name  give  Tl 


Deimatol'ogy  (Gr.   derma, 
course ')  is  that  branch  of  medic         hi 
the  Skin  (q.  v.). 

Dermat'ophytea,  low  forms       F    g  g 

parasitically  on  the  skins  of  man  od        g 

Ringworm  (q.  v.),  Favus  (q.  v,),  m 

eases.      The  best  application  for  g        m 

Dermea'tea,  a  genus  of  Cole  B  ngi 

the  family  Dirmestidie,   and  to 
anlennffi  are  shorter  than  the  thora 
best-known  species  is  the  D.  I  be 

larvtB  of  which  are  found  in  baco  & 

about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long  g  D 

m-uriims,  D.  vulpinus,  and  D.  fa 
species. 

Dermop'teroua  Fklies  (G  ed 

now  generally  used,  for  fishes  [e.g    la 
of  the  medium  fins  are  very  soft. 

Derr'Jok,  a  kind  of  Crane  (q. 
and  generally  when  a  great  heigh  r)  ng  ra 

required.     It  is  fitted  with  a  mo  d 

end  to  a  mast  supported  by  slays,  an         g      ca 
at  any  point  within  the  height  an 

angle  of  the  jib  is  varied  by  tu     ng        arr  m 

nected  with  the  jib-head  by  a  ch  pa   es 

at  the  apex  of  the  crane.     The  m    h       m        th 
l^  hand  or  steam  power.     Of  m 

ble  of  transporting  a.  load  from  on   p  ac  ,        flo       „ 

are  the  most  important.     They  are  of  immense  power,  and  arc 
extremely  effective  in  raising  vessels,  placing  machinery,  &c. 

"DBT^-nBhiTzr^.  Dtrziisck,  'apoorman  orbe^;ar,'fromrtl(7Wo, 
'  to  beg '),  the  name  of  a  class  of  Mohammedan  devotees,  very 


(q.  v.).  They  live  partly  in  monasteries,  partly  as  VE^ants, 
and  are  divided  into  various  orders,  each  of  which  imposes  its 
peculiar  novitiate  and  religious  exercises,  which  are  strictly  ob- 
served, and  are  very  severe.  They  engige  in  frequent  fastings, 
mortifications,  and  circular  dances.  Their  dances,  which  are 
accompanied  by  violent  cries  and  contortions,  are  often  pro- 
longed until  the  performers  faint.  In  their  frenzies  Ihey  burn  and 
gash  themselves  with  red-hot  swords.  They  are  accredited 
with  great  sanctity,  and  with  power  to  heal  diseases  and  interpret 

Der'went,  a  principal  river  of  Tasmania,  near  the  centre  of 
which  it  rises  in  Lake  St  Clair.  After  a  windi  _ 
falls  into  D'Entrecasteaux  Channel  by  an  estuary  varying  from 
I J  to  4  miles  in  breadth.  Hobart  Town  (q.  v.)  is  situated  on  its 
right  bank,  13  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  for  9  miles  higher  up 
the  D.  is  navigable  for  shi])s  of  any  size 

Der'wentwater  (Celt,  'the  bright  or  clear  water'),  also 
Kes'wick  X<ake.  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  English  lakes, 
the  S.  of  Cumberland,  and  is  formed  by  an  expansion  of 
the  Derwent,  3^  miles  long  by  ij  broad,  with  sleep  banks,  and 
doited  with  wooded  islands,  of  which  Vicar's  Island,  Lord's 
Island,  and  St  Herbert's  are  the  largest.  At  the  foot  of  the  lake, 
in  the  gateway  of  Borrowdale,  are  Scawfell,  Great  End,  Glara- 
mara,  and  Castle  Crag,  Sometimes  there  floats  on  the  surface  a 
mass  of  soft  earthy  matter  known  as  the  'Rocky  Isle.'  D. 
abounds  in  trout,  pike,  and  perch.     Keswick  stands  on  its  N. 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


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shore,  and  the  Cataract  of  Lodi>te  (celebrated  by  Stiutliey),  with 
a  fall  of  TOO  feet,  is  near  its  N.E.  corner.  D.  has  a  depth  of  72 
feet,  and  lies  222  feet  above  the  sea. 

Derwentwater,  James,  Earl  of,  a  gallant  but  unfortu- 
nate Jacobite  leader,  was  bom  in  1 6S8.  His  father  died  in  1705, 
and  D.,  who  had  been  educated  in  France,  returned  to  the 
family  seat  of  Dilston,  in  Northumberland,  where,  becoming 
ItnowTi  as  a  Jacobite,  warrants  were  issued  for  hia  apprehension 
[714.  He  threw  himself  into  the  rising  of  1715,  was  taken 
ioner  at  Preston,  removed  to  London,  and  beheaded,  24th 
imary  1716.  D.,  for  whom  much  sympathy  was  felt  by  the 
public,  was  the  last  Earl  of  the  name. . 

Derza'vin,  Gabriel  Bomanovicz,  a  Russian  lyric  poet, 
was  bom  at  Kazan,  14th  July  1743.  Hestudied  at  the  gymnasium 
there,  joined  a  regiment  of  Gujuiis  in  1762,  and  foe  his  skill  in 
drawing  and  mathematics  was  placed  in  a  military  school  by  Count 
Schuvalov.  His  talents  soon  became  known,  and  under  the 
Empress  Catherine,  and  the  Emperors  Paul  and  Alexander  I, 
he  filled  some  of  the  highest  offices  of  the  state.  In  1804  he 
withdrew  from  public  life,  and  till  his  death,  21st  July  1816,  de- 
voted himself  entirely  to  poetry.  His  best- known  ode,  addressed 
Tb  God  (translated  into  English  by  Bowring  and  others),  owes 
something  to  Young's  Night  TAoughls ;  but  nis  plher  works  are 
free  from  imitation.  His  sentiments  are  pure  and  his  ideas  lofty  ; 
but  his  language  is  too  riclily  metaphorical,  and  sometimes  passes 
iiito  Oriental  eitravagance.  His  collected  works  (S  vols.  St 
Petersb.  1810-15)  were  republished  by  the  Russian  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1864-65,  His  posthumous  memoirs  were  published 
at  Moscow  in  1S60. 

Desagruade'ro^  (Sp-  'the  channel ')  is  the  name  of  several 
waters  in  S.  America,  of  which  the  most  important  are  : — I.  A 
river  of  Bolivia,  which  rises  in  Lake  Titicaca  at  a  height  of 
12,850  feet,  and  after  a  course  of  iSo  miles  enters  Lake  Aullegas, 
12,280  feet  above  the  sefL  This  is  probably  the  highest  rivet  in 
the  world. — z.  A  river  of  the  Argentine  Confedfantion,  which  is 
fed  by  a  multitude  of  streams  from  the  E.  side  of  the  ^des,  and 
flowing  through  lakes  and  salt  marshes,  is  lost  in  Urrs  Laiiguen  or 
the  Bitter  Lake,  among  the  deserts  pf  the  interior,  about  CI 
miles  from  the  source, — ■•  *  1°''"  "  '^^  '^  "'  '"'■'i'  ■"  •"■' 
long  and  5  broad,  with 

Dgsaix'  de  Veyg^oux',  I^oaia  Charlee  A^^toine,  a  cele- 
brated general  of  the  days  of  the  first  French  Republic,  was 
bom  of  a  noble  family  in  Auvergne,  August  17, 176S,  and  enterjed 
the  army  as  a  second  lieutenant  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  Always  a 
skilfirl  and  intrepid  leader,  by  1796  he  became  commander  of 
a  division  of  the  Army  of  the  Rhine,  and  defended  Fort  Kdil  for 
nearly  two  months  against  the  Ausirians,  until  forced  to  sur- 
render. In  1798  he  accompanied  Bonaparte  to  Egypt,  accom- 
plishing the  conquest  of  Upper  Egypt  in  about  eight  months, 
and  from  his  power  of  conciliation,  as  well  as  his  just  adminis- 
tration, obtaining  from  the  natives  the  title  of  The  y^si  Sultan. 
Returning  from  Egypt,  D.  fell,  June  14,  iSdo,  at  the  battle  of 
Marengo,  by  a  musket-ball,  while  leading  a  great  and  ultimately 
triumphant  attack  en  the  Austrian  hne.  A  statu?  to  the  memory 
of  D,  has  been  erected  in  the  Place  Dauphlne"  at  Paris.  See 
Beker's  Miade  Hisierique  sur  Dhaix. 

Des'caut,  or  Bisect  (Sp.  dhcante,  fn 
and  cmio,  '  I  sing ; '  a  variation  in  singing, 
mufic,  a  second  part  sung  along  with,  and  i 
to,  the  plain  song  or  church  melody.  It  " 
which  the  Church  seems  to  have  allowed  the  Gregorian  melodies 
to  be  harmonised,  and  was  probably  introduced  from  the 
northern  countries,  where  singing  in  parts  seems  to  have  been 
natural  to  the  people  from  yery  early  times.  D.  was  permitted 
by  the  Church  in  the  nth  c  and  was  at  first  improvised,  but 
gradually  came  to  be  ntten  down  and  developed  into  Coitn/er- 
/oial  (q.  V. ) 

Sescartes  Ren^  o  e  of  the  most  renowned  philosophers 
of  France,  is  b  rn  at  La  Haye,  in  Touraine,  31st  March 
15961  and  was  the  soi  of  a  French  of&cer  who  had  fought 
against  the  Huguenots  Educiled  by  the  Jesuits  of  La  Fl&che, 
he  served  as  a  \a\  nf»er  at  the  siege  of  La  Rochelle,  and  aliier- 
wards  in  Holland  der  Pr  nee  Maurice,  whete  he  also  wrote  a 
reatise  on  music  andsome  mathematical  papers.  He  next  served 
1  Bohemia  and  Hungary.      After  wandering  for  several  years 


It  Lat-  ^j>,  '  ap^, ' 
>r  part-singini),  in 

an  accompaniment 

s  the  first  ' 


through  Europe,  he  settled  at  Paris  in  1626,  the  year  of  Bacon's 
death,  and  for  some  time  discussed  the  principles  of  his  new  philo- 
sophy against  the  scholastics  and  peripatetics  whom  he  met  at 
Richelieu's  salon  and  elsewhere.  In  1629  he  went  to  Holland, 
where,  under  Egmont,  greater  freedom  of  thought  prevailed,  and 
where  he  remained  foe  twenty-five  years,  until  Voet,  the  rector 
of  Leyden,  aoiused  him  of  atheism,  when  he  returned  to  Paris, 
and  was  shortly  afterwards  invited  to  the  court  of  Stockholm 
by  Queen  Christina,  who  called  him  her  '  illustrious  master.' 
There  he  was  carried  off  by  pneumonia,  nth  Febniary  1650, 
He  died  professing  the  Catholic  religion.  In  1793  the  National 
Convention  ordered  his  remains  to  be  transferred  to  the  Pan- 
theon. There  is  a  complete  edition  of  D.'s  works  by  Cousin 
(II  vols.  Par.  1824-26),  and  a  convenient  selection  of  the 
philosophical  writinas  by  Jules  Simon  (new  ed.  with  introduc- 
tion. Par.  1865).  The  latter  consists  of  the  famous  liiscaurs  de 
la  MAkode  pour  Mm  conduirt  sa  Setson  et  richercMr  la  Verili 
dans le!  Silences' (xdyf);  the  Meditatiaties  de  PrirnA  PhilosopkiA 
(1641),  with  D.'s  replies  to  th      bj    t  f  Gassendi,  Hobbes, 

Amauld,  Cateras,  De  Mersen  d    th         and  Traiii  des 

Passions  de  VAme.  In  h  Pn  pia  Phil  opld^  (l^4)  i'" 
lakes  up  the  subject  of  ge  I  phy  and  states  his  theory 
of  vortices,  by  which  he  e  pi  d  th  f  rm  lion  of  the  stars 
in  the  centre,  and  the  gral     1  g  t  f  planets  and  co- 

mets.   This  theory  (which  U    ly  d        d  ted)  has  notliing 

in  common  with  the  modem  th  ry  f  rt  rings  in  molecular 
physics,  D.  applied  his  '  Metliod  in  three  scientific  works  on 
Dioptrics,  Optics,  Meteorology,  and  Geometry.  In  the  last,  he 
first  applied  algebra  to  the  geometry  of  curves,  explained  the 
formation  of  his  '  ovals,'  and  laid  down  a  general  rule  for 
the  determination  of  tangents  to  curves.  The  Cartesian  equa- 
tion will  be  found  in  all  works  on  algebra  In  a  posthumous 
work,  Traill  de  VHomme  et  de  la  Foimalton  du  Fatus,  D 
states  the  tlieory  of  animal  spirits,  or  of  the  nervous  system, 
as  a  hydraulic  mechanism,  which  Professois  Huxley  and 
Clifford  have  revived  as  at  least  an  accurate  general  conception 
of  the  automatism  of  the  human  body  and  brain  The  same 
train  of  thought  runs  through  the  treatise  of  the  Passions,  m 
which  most  grotesque  physical  explanations  are  given  of  the 
several  emotions.  As  a  metaphysician,  D  admitted  as  funda- 
mentally true  the  idea  of  self  as  a  thinking  substance.  All 
equally  distinct  ideas  would  also  be  true,  unless  God  impressed 
on  them  a  false  appearance.  It  thus  becomes  important  to 
prove  the  existence  and  the  character  of  God.  There  must  be 
as  much  reality  in  the  cause  as  in  the  effect  i  and  existence 
cannot  be  separated  from  the  idea  of  the  essence  of  God,  for 
non-existence  yould  be  imperfection.  In  this  ^ay  mind  and 
matter,  being  distinct  ideas,  are  proved  to  be  distinct  in  reality 
as  subslanges,  otherwise  God  would  be  wanting  in  power.  This 
is  the  famous  argument  4  priori,  which  has  been  much  more 
logically  stated  by  Spinoza  and  the  Rey.  Moses  Lowman,  but 
which  in  substance  is  aa  old  as  the  Eleatic  school  of  Greek  philo- 
sophy. This  distmclion  of  mind  and  matter  into  substances  led 
to  tlie  theory  of  occasional  causes,  according  to  which  all  pheno- 
mena (especially  those  where  matter  apparently  acts  on  mind, 
and  Tncf  ver^a)  were  produced  by  divme  volition,  determined 
by  the  assemblage  of  physical  or  psycliical  conditions.  The 
courageous  scepticism  of  D.  was  of  good  example  as  a  mental 
attitude,  but  he  added  nothing  to  positive  psychology  and  he 
introduced  into  modem  philosophy  the  fallacy  that  there  is  an 
absolute  test  of  tmth  besides  verification  bv  experience.  The 
Scotch  Common-sense  School  have  confounded  his  position  with 
that  of  Locke  and  Berkeley,  with  whom  he  had  nothing  in  com- 
mon except  the  tniism  that  what  the  mind  immediately  knows 
is  a  mental  modification.  See  BaiUet's  Vie  de  D.  (Par.  1691). 
and  Boi-das-Dumoulln's  Le  Carihianisme  (Par.  1843). 

BesoliBni'ps,  Eiiata<!lie,  a  French  poet,  was  bom  at  Vertns, 
in  Champagne,  about  1340-  He  studied  at  Orleans  University, 
travelled  into  Italy,  Germany,  and  Hungary,  and,  according  to 
his  own  statement,  was  for  some  time  captive  among  the  Saracens. 
He  was  a  great  court  favourite,  but  always  poor,  and  his  pro- 

£erty  in  Champagne  was  pillaged  by  the  English,  whom  he 
eartily  abuses  in  his  ballads.  He  died  about  1409.  'He 
is,'  says  Besant,  '  the  most  real  French  poet  of  his  century.' 
His  works,  comprising  90,000  verses,  display  grim  humour  and 
fierce  satiric  energy,  and  give  a  valuable  picture  of  his  times. 
He  resembles  Jean  de  Meun,  from  whom  he  occasionally  bor- 

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rows.  Professor  Moiley  suggests  tbat  Chaucer  mny  have  taken 
the  idea  of  the  Flowtr  and  the  Leaf  from  one  of  D,'s  ballads. 
See  Foides  Morales  de  D.,  edited  by  M.  Crapelet  {Par.  1832), 
Eesant's  French  Humourists  (Bentley,  1S73)  aj\d  Early  French 
Poels,  and  Gidel's  Histoirede  la  LUeraiure  Franfaise  (Par,  1875). 

Descen'dauts  are  all  those  descended  from  a  common  ances. 
tor.  See  Collateral  Succession,  Conquest,  Descent, 
Heir,  Succession. 

Descent'.  By  the  law  of  England,  real  properly  can  only  be 
acquired  by  D.  or  by  purchase.  (See  Purchase  OF  Estates.) 
J>.  or  hereditary  succession  is  the  title  by  which  real  property 
devolves  by  law  on  the  heir  from  his  ancestors.  D,  at  common 
law  is  lineal  or  collatentL  Lineal  D,  is  from  the  father  to  son, 
and  from  son  to  grandson,  and  so  on.  (See  Collateral 
Succession,)  The  person  next  in  the  line  of  succession  is  Hie 
Heur-Apparent  (q.  v.),  or  the  Heir- Presumptive  (q.  v.). 

Des'eret.    See  Utah, 

Dea'ert  (Lat.  desertus,  'solitary,'  'waste'),  the  general  name 
of  a  flat,  unproductive  region,  or  uninhabited  wilderness.  Ac- 
cording to  AJni  Bone,  a  D.  properly  so  called  always  indicates 
the  site  of  a  large  gulf  or  inland  sea  of  comparatively  recent  geo- 
logical time.  Although  the  word  is  specially  applied  to  the  Sj^aia 
(q.  v.),  a  D.  is  not  necessarily  a  sandy  waste,  but  may  bloom  with 
vegetation  like  the  prairies,  llaHos,  pampas,  and  selvas  of  Ame- 
rica. Other  varieties  are  the  salt  plains,  as  of  Cashgar  (q.v.),  and 
stony  or  rocky  deserts,  like  those  of  Arabia,  Labrador,  Patagonia, 
&c.  One  of  the  characteristics  common  to  all '  deserts  where  no 
men  abide, '  is  the  scarcity  of  food  and  wafer.  It  is  impossible  to 
say,  notwithstanding  what  has  been  done  in  Algeria,  whether 
the  discovery  of  the  Artesian  Well  (q.  v, }  will  ever  materially 
augment  the  number  of  oases.  As  affecting  the  conditions  of 
climate,  the  D,  plays  an  important  part,  acting,  so  to  speak,  as 
a  great  heat-reservoir.  It  was  calculated  that,  had  the  Sahara 
been  flooded,  as  projected  in  1875,  tliere  would  have  followed  a 
fall  of  several  degrees  of  the  temperature  of  S,  Europe.  Mineral 
riches  are  not  unfrequently  found  in  waste  regions,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  'D.of  Atacama,'  intheN,  of  Chili,  where  valuabledeposits 
of  silver  and  copper  have  been  discovered  of  late  years.  See  G. 
von  Humboldt's  Ansichten  der  Natur  (id  ed,  Stutt.  and  Tiib. 
1849). 

I>eser'tioil,  in  martial  law,  is  the  offence  of  a  soldier  or  a 
sailor  quitting  the  army  or  the  navy  without  being  discharged  or 
having  leave  of  absence.  By  the  annual  Mutiny  Act,  mihtary 
D.  is  pumshable  with  death,  or  such  other  punifjiment  as  a 
court-martial  may  award.  Inducing  any  one  to  desert  from 
the  army  was  formerly  punishable  with  death.  The  punish- 
ment is  now,  by  statute,  penal  servitude.  In  the  navy,  by  the 
Articles  of  War,  '  every  person  who  shall  desert,  or  entice  others 
to  do  so,  shall  suffer  death,  or  such  other  punishment  as  a  court- 
maitial  shall  think  fit,'  In  the  merchant  service  a  seaman  who 
deserts  the  ship  forfeits  his  wages,  and  renders  himself  liable 
to  imprisonment.  But  it  is  not  held  to  be  D.  if  the  seaman 
forthwith  enter  into  Her  Majesty's  service.  Neither  is  it  D. 
if  the  master  compel  the  seaman  to  quit  the  ship  by  hai-sU 

Desertion  of  Spouae.  In  England,  under  the  Divorce  and 
Matrimonial  Causes  Acts,  a  sentence  of  Judicial  Separation 
(q.  V.)  may  be  obtained  by  husband  or  wife  on  tlie  ground  of 
Adultery  (q.  v.),  cruelty,  or  desertion  without  legal  cause,  for 
two  yeaia  and  upwards,  A  wife  deserted  by  her  husband  may, 
by  application  to  the  proper  authority,  obtain  an  order  to  pro- 
tect any  money  or  property  which  she  may  become  possessed  of 
against  her  husband  or  any  one  claiming  in  his  right.  During 
the  continuance  of  the  protecting  order  the  wife  is,  relative  to 
property  and  contracts,  on  the  same  footing  as  if  she  had  ob- 
tained a  decree  of  judicial  separation. 

In  Scotland,  wilful  D.  on  the  part  of  husband  or  wife  of 
the  other  may  be  Ihe  ground  of  an  action  of  adherence  or  of 
divorce  under  the  statute  of  1573,  c.  55.  If  the  wife  desert  her 
husband  she  forfeits  her  claim  to  Alunent  (q.  v.).  It  is  ques- 
tionable  if  she  would,  on  his  death,  have  a  right  to  Terce  (q.  v.). 
the  statute  enacting  that  offenders  shall  '  tyne  and  lose  their 
tocher,  et  donationes  propter  ntipfias.'  An  offending  husband 
must  restore  to  the  wife  her  tBchtr,  and  fulfil  to  her  all  provisions, 
legal  or  conventional.  As  in  England,  a  wife  deserted  by  her 
376 


husband  can  now  in  Scotland  obtain  protection  of  her  earnings 
or  other  acquisitions  ;  but  the  process  for  obtaining  it  is  more 
difficult  in  Scotland  than  in  England. 

Desertion  of  the  Diet,  See  Diet,  Desertion  of. 
Desertion  of  a  Tenant.  In  Scotland,  when  a  tenant  neg- 
locts  to  cultivate  his  land,  the  landlord  is  entitled  to  eject  him, 
and  to  resume  possession.  The  action  is  valid  by  common  law, 
but  as  the  fact  of  D.  may  be  questionable,  the  action  ought  to 
be  laid  on  the  Act  of  Sederunt  of  1756, 

Desicc'ants  (from  Lat.  desuco,  '  I  dry  up ')  are  medicines 
used  to  dry  up   some  wa 

Desioqa'tlon  is  the  process  of  drying.  The  desit 
apparatus  much  used  in  chemi- 
stry and  physics,  and  usually 
consists  of  a  bell  jar  placed  over 
a  vessel  containing  sulphuric 
acid  or  chloride  of  calcium; 
this  vessel  is  covered  with  wire- 
gauze,  and  on  the  gauze  is 
placed  the  substance  or  appa- 
ratus to  be  dried.  Owing  to  the 
strong  attraction  for  water  pos- 
sessed by  the  two  substances 
mentioned,  complete  D. 
pidly  accomplished. 


uf)  dene 


Deeign'  (Lat  dsHgno,  '  I  mark 
general  sense,  any  intention,  scheme,  or  plan  of  ai 
which  bears  tiaces  of  constructive  forethought  is 
work  of  D.  Hence  the  adaptation  of  means  to  ends  observable 
in  nature,  and  the  general  harmony  and  order  of  ihe 
have  been  advanced  as  confirmatory  evidence  of  an  intelligent 
designer,  Tliis  argument  is  admirable  as  an  i  ' 
character  of  the  effect  to  the  nature  of  the  c  . 
tulates  a  belief  in  the  divine  ejtistence.  See  Paley's  Natural 
Theology,  tlie  Biid^ewater  Treatises,  the  S'tmett  Frise  Essays, 
and  Ueberweg's  History,  i,  383. 

Pesign,  in  art,  signifies  either  a  tentative  sketch,  < 
position  of  subject-matter,  as  opposed  to  Ijje  execution  of  a  finislied 
picture.  In  the  latter  sense,  the  ancient  Greek  sculptors  and 
the  great  Italian  painters  excelled  in  the  striking  boldness  and 
exquisite  grace  of  their  designs,  as  seen  especially  in  the  marbles 
of  the  Parthenon,  in  the  statues  of  Michael  Angelo,  and  in  Raf- 
faelle's  famous  cartoons. 

Design,  Stihools  of.    See  Schools  of  Design. 

Designs,   Oopyrjg'ht  in.       This  is   mainly  regulated   by 
the  Designs  Act,  by  which  the  grant  of  copyright  is  given  to  a 
original  design,  whether  applicable  to  the  ornamenting  of  a 
article  of  manufacture,  or  of  any  substance,  artificial  or  natur: 
or  partly  artificial  and  partly  natuial.     The  application  of  t 
design  is  not  necessarily  for  protection  to  be  within  the  United 
Kingdom  ;  and  the  protection  is  given  though  the  inventor  and 
proprietor  be  foreigners.     See  Copyright,  Law  of. 

De'sio,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Milan,  N.  Italy,  i  r  miles 
N.  of  Milan,  and  a  station  on  the  Milan  and  Como  Railway,  lies 
in  the  midst  of  gardens  and  vineyards,  and  is  beautified  by  fine 
trees  and  fountains.  Pop.  5500,  engaged  for  the  most  part  in 
tillage  and  the  breeding  and  pasturing  of  cattle. 

Desirade',  or  Dgaea'da,  one  of  the  Leeward  Islands,  W, 
ludies,  belonging  to  France,  6  miles  long  and  z  broad.  It  iies  4 
miles  E.  of  Gnadelonpe,  of  which  it  is  a  dependency.  Pop.  (1S71) 
1637.  D.  was  the  first  islaiid  discovered  by  Columbus  in  his 
second  voyage,  1493. 

Dea'man,    See  MtrsK  Rat, 

Desmid'iete,  or  Desmidift'oess,  a  natural  order  or  sub-order 
of  green-spore  d  (chlorospermous)  Algje,  remarkable  for  their  mode 
of  reproduction  and  many  curious  forms,  'The  more  typical 
species  of  the  group,'  writes  Mr  Berkley,  '  as  the  name  implies, 
consist  of  a  chain  of  connected  joints,  increasing  by  the  continued 
addition  of  two  new  half-joints  in  the  centre,  so  that  the  twr 
extreme  members  of  the  diain  are  the  oldest,  and  the  two  h 
the  centre  the  youngest.      In  the  majority  of  ins 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


r,  tlie  disarticulation  takes  place  on  the  formation  of  the 
:  new  half-joints,  in  sucli  a  manner  that  the  two  nevp'  indivi- 
duals consist  of  half  the  old  plant  connected  with  half  of  the 
new,  a  mode  of  increase  whidi  obtains  also  in  the  Dmtomaceis 
(q.  V.)-  Fructification  takes  place,  though  rarely,  by  the  con- 
jugation of  two  individuals  by  means  of  laleral  tubes  or  simple 
contact,  as  in  Coajugafa,  the  spore  affecting  interesting  forms, 
and  being  often  strongly  spinulose,  the  spines  being  occasionally 
complicated  in  structure.  The  new  individual  is  produced  from 
this  by  tlie  formation  of  a  vertical  partition  in  the  cenlye,  and  the 
subsequent  formation  of  two  newlialf- joints  so  that  the  proper 
form  of  the  species  is  sot  attained  till  the  third  generation,  if 
so  soon.'  D.  differ  from  Diatomacae  in  their  green  colour  utd 
the  absence  of  silex  ;  hence  they  shrivel  up  and  lose  their  natural 
form  in  drying.  Pools  and  ranning  streams  are  their  favourite 
habitats ;  they  are  sometimes  found  m  brackish,  but  never  in  salt 
water.  None  are  applicable  to  any  econocaic  purpose.  See 
Conjugation  and  Swarmikg. 

Jesmon'ous,  a  genus  of  tropical  American  palms,  resembling 
the  calami  in  general  appe^ance.  B.  macracanthos,  the  Jaci- 
tara,  a  common  specie  of  the  Amazon  or  Rio  Negro,  owing  to 
the  sharp  curved  spears  in  the  leaf-stalks,  obstructs  the  traveller 
by  catching  hold  of  his  garments.  The  Indians  manufacture 
various  implements  of  it;  among  others,  the  strainers  used  in 
squeezing  the  mandioc  juice  are  plaited  out  of  slripE  of  the  stem. 
Desinoulma,  Camille',  one  of  the  most  typical  and  bril- 
liant of  the  early  French  Revolutionists,  was  born  at  Guise  in 
Picardy,  in  1 762,  and  studied  for  the  bar,  but  never  practised. 
He  was  seized  with  the  revojutionaiy  fever,  and  wrote  some  works 
advocating  the  establishment  of  a  republic  in  France  of  the 
ancient  or  classical  type.  D.'s  fiery  utterances  were  mainly  in- 
strumental in  leading  the  population  to  destroy  the  Bastille  on  the 
night  of  the  14th  July  1789.  His  first  idol  had  been  Mirabeau, 
but  after  the  death  of  the  latter  he  attached  himself  to  Danton, 
Next  to  Danton  and  Marat  he  was  the  most  influential  member 
of  the  Cordeliers  Club,  He  became  a  member  of  the  National 
Convention,  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  alUiough  ' 


his  HUtoire  iks  Brissolim.  After  he  saw  what  excesses  the  reign 
of  the  Terrorists  was  leading  to,  he  attacked  the  members  of 
the  Committee  of  Public  Safety.  In  consequence  he  was  arrested, 
along  with  Danton,  March  30,  1 794,  and  was  executed  with  him, 
April  S,  saying,  when  asked  his  age,  that 'he  wasof  the  same  age 
as  the  ben-  sans-^cirisile  Jesus,  thirty-three  years,  an  age  fatal  to 
Revolutionists.'  A  fortnight  afterwards  his  wife,  Lucye  D,,  who 
had  attempted  to  arouse  popular  fiseling  i^  his  favour,  was  also 
executed,  D.  was  a  writer  of  powerfii  imagination  and  great 
humour,  although  deficient  in  moral  resolution ;  in  quieter  times 
he  might  have  been  a  great  wit,  if  not  a  great  poet.  An  edition 
of  his  works  appeared  in  the  BibliotlSqui  Charfsn&er.  See 
■  CatnilU  D.,  iMcde  R,  ^ude  sur  lei  Dantomsts,  by  Jules  Claretie 
(Par.  Plon,  1875),  and  an  English  translation  of  his  Memoirs 
(Lond.  1876). 

Des'na,  a  river  of  Rusaa,  an  affluent  of  Sie  Dnieper.  It  rises 
50  miles  S.E.  of  Smolensk,  traverses  the  governments  of  Smo- 
lensk, Orel,  and  Tchemigov,  and  after  a  course  of  more  than 
500  miles,  lalls  into  ^  DnipSr  near  Kiev.  It  is  navigable  to 
Eriansk. 

Des'potJsm  (from  Gr.  detpotis,  '  lord  or  master ')  is  a  form  of 
government  having  lis  ori^n  in  superstition,  under  which  the 
welfare  of  a  community  4s  subordinated  to  the  interests  of  adass 
or  individual.  In  the  latter  case,  if  the  individual  clothed  with 
'the  divinity  that  doth  hedge  a  Hng'  is  of  a  strong  rac«^  and 
intellectual  nature,  the  foim  of  rule  is  not  without  soiaething  to 
recommend  it.  Under  the  ffireclio»  of  o»e  wise  man  the  fffac- 
tical  force  of  a  people  is  greater  than  whoi  they  are  free.  This 
fact  was  acted  on  'ay  the  ancient  Romans,  by  the  creation  pf  a 
Dictator  {q.  v.)  in  times  of  great  public  peril.  Ei^land  was,  per- 
haps, never  so  powerful  as  when  its  whole  enei^  was  directed 
by  the  wis9om  and  iron  will  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  Nevertheless  a 
free  form  of  government  is  to  t>e  preferred  ;  the  despotism  of  a 
weak  or  narrow-minded  ruler  being  an  unqualified  evil. 

Dess'alines,  Jacques,  one  of  those  extraordinary  characters 
whom  the  circumstances  attending,  or  following,  the  French 
Revolution  brought  into  prominence,  was  bom  about  1760,  on  the 


123 


Gold  Coast  of  Africa,  and  became  a  slave  to  a  free  black  in  St 
Domingo.  After  the  liberation  of  the  slaves  there  in  February 
1754,  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  disturbances  that  occurred 
in  flie  colony.  He  became  lieutenant  to  Toussaint  I'Ouverture, 
and,  after  his  capture,  leader  of  the  insurgents,  and  finally  drove 
the  French  out  of  the  island,  October  1803.  When  the  people 
declared  themselves  independent,  D.  was  proclaimed  Emperor  of 
Hayti,  under  the  title  of  Jean  Jacques  I,  His  tyranny  and  cruelty, 
however,  provoked  hatred,  and  on  the  I7tli  October  1806  he  fell 
a  vicUm  to  a  conspiracy  by  a  negro  named  Christopher  (q.  v.), 
who  succeeded  him  as  Emperor  Henri  I.  of  Hayti, 

Sessau',  a  town  of  Northern  Germany,  capital  of  the  Duchy 
of  Anhalt,  oji  the  left  bank  of  the  Mulde,  about  3  miles  above  its 
confluence  with  the  Elb^  and  80  miles  S.  W.  oif  Berlin  by  rail. 
It  is  walled  on  three  sides,  and  protected  on  the  fourth  by  the 
river.  Its  principal  building  is  the  ducal  palace  (1748)  with  a 
picture  gallery  and  an  extensive  library  containing  numerous 
MSS,  of  Luther,  The  manufactures  are  woollen  and  linen  cloth, 
leather,  hosiery,  and  tobacco.  Pep.  (1871)17,459.  Mendelssohn 
wasasatiweofD. 

Destinft'tion,  in  Scot(3i  law,  the  series  of  heirs  Called  to  the 
succession  of  heritable  or  movable  property  by  provision  of  law, 
or  to  movable  property  under  a  will,  is  termed  a  D.  ;  but  the 
term  is  usually  limited  to  a  nomination  of  successors  under  a 
vrill.  For  rules  of  succession  in  heritable  and  movable  property 
by  provision  of  law,  see  Succession.  For  rules  as  to  destination 
of  movables  'fyj  will,  see  Ijegacy,  Tkstamenx,  Ligitim,  Jus 
Relict^  By  the  law  of  Scotland  heritage  eaanot  be  conveyed 
in  form  of  *  test  will  aod  testament.  Regarding  execution  of  - 
settlemeat,  indudmg  heritage  as  well  as  movable  estate,  s 
article  Wili,.  An  absolute  proprietor  of  heritage  is  under  1 
legal  restraint  as  to  the  distribution  H 

put  a  daughter  in  place  of  a  son,  or 
an  elder  one,  or  he  may  ewlude  all  h, 

Deetruc'tion.  of  Bee'ords,  Will     and  W     ing 

Engird,  by  24  and  25  Vict.  cap.  96  per 

any  fiaudulent  purpose  take  away  or     uie  ig        ngu 

to  any  public  office,  <x  belonging       an  m 

process,  he  is  liable  to  penal  servitu  ea        B 

same  AiDt  any  one  wlio  fraudulently  cai 

any  testaraentaiy  writing  is  guilty  o     el         an 

servitude  for  life, 

DeBu'etudo   (Lat.    desuetudo,    '  rm 

law  indicating  the  legal  doctrine  ma 

force  by  the   gradual  estaiblislimen  ag  ry 

provisions,  without   these   being   r 
Mere   non-usage,    however,    even  graa 

time,  will  not  abrogate  a  statute      oh 
community  to  repeal  by  contrary  pm  m 

Englajod  the  rule  of  law  is  that  ma  ns 

however  .imsuited  to  the  altered 
repealed  expresssly,  or  by  implicat 
the  latter  case,  the  repeal,  accordSng       B     ks 
understood  only  when  the  matter  of  ea 

repugnant  that  it  neeesaarily  unplies  m 

Act  says  that  a  juror  v^ott  such  a  tri  £ 

a  year,   and  a  new  statute  aflerw 
markB,     Fcr  a  remarkable  instanc 

this  doctrine  of  English  law  has  bee  ed  rnies  ! 

article  Battel,  Trial  by.    Since  i  Eng 

statutes  has  been  published,  contami 
whitJi  »je  111  force. 


le  of  D.m  Scotland 


app3ies  only  to  statutes  made  previous  to  the  Union,  and  ei 
them  its  apphcation  is  nncettain. 

'Det&eh'vaeo.HFr.dAaci^mtKtt  tmmdSsc^r,  'to disengage'; 
in  military  language,  a  compacafively  small  number  of  troops 
detached  from  the  main  body  for  some  special  duty.     In  naval 

language,  also,  a  D.  of  one<ir  more  ships  under  a  separate  1 

mand  is  spoken  of. 

Detain'ar,  in  English  law,  the  name  of  a  writ  which  lay 
against  prisoners  in  the  Marshalsea  or  Fleet  Prison,  directed  to 
the  marshal  or  the  warden,  directing  him  to  detam  the  prisoner 
until  lawfully  discharged. 

Deter'tninantS,  a  symbolic  method  of  modem  mathematical 

analysis,  by  which,  among  otherthings,  the  solution  of  equations 

377 


vLiOOQle 


DET 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA, 


DEV 


of  several  unknown  quantities  becomes  a  mece  matter  of  inspec- 
tion. A  determinant  maybe  defined  as  the  algebraic  sum  of  all 
the  possible  products  obtained  by  penauting  the  sufSxes  of  the 
expression  01*5^304— t  t*"*  S'S"  teing  changed  for  every  jwy/^ 
perrantation.    Thus  t!ie  determinant  of  the  third  order  is 

and  is  usually  written  thus  ; — 


;  but  for  tliese  the  student 
has  Salmon's  ffi^i^r -4;- 
geira,  Dodgsan's  D.,  and  Balzer's  Tiaa-ie  und  AmoejiduTig  der 
Deierminanteu.  A  short  treatise,  with  some  of  the  comraoner 
applications,  is^lso  given  at  the  end  of  Todhunter's  Theory  of 
Bquatiens. 

Det'jaiie,  in  English  law,  the  name  of  an  action  against  one 
who  refuses  to  restore  goods  intrusted  to  him.  (See  Deposit, 
and  the  articles  there  referred  to.)  The  action  of  D,  has  been 
almost  wholly  superseded  by  the  more  convenient  one  for  the 
plaindff  of  Trover. 

Det'mold  :(orieinatly  7X   i     /?'  'th   pepl'        U        \ 
of  assembly "),    the  capital  u  D 

Germany,  on  the  Werra,  E  W 

miles  S.W.  of  Hanover,    It     ns 
and  is  encircled  by  pleasant 
irgs  are  the  palace,  the  gyn  th 

are  several  charitable  instil  m       ly 

public  library,  established  in  D 

ancient  Teutohirgiiim.     On         G  g      boi  m 

from  D.,  -is  .the  Hermann         m  1  ss 

erected  to  the  memory  of  H  rm 
Varus  and  his  legions  (B.C.  9       P  D 

Detoua'tioB.  signifies  a.  s 

Detri'tiae  (Lat,  '-worn  down'), 
accumulation  of  debris  or  fragment 

Detroit'  (Fr.  ■'  the  strait '),  the  chief  city  of  Michigan,  stands 
on  the  tight  tanik  of  the  D,  tiver,  opposite  Windsor,  in  Canada, 
526  miles  N.W,  of  Washington.  The  city  extends  along  the 
river  several  nnles,  tOid  the  site  rises  gradually  to  a  hei^tt  of 
40  or  SO  feet.  Its  dhief  public  buildings  are  the  courthouse, 
customhouse,  post-office,  the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  the 
i£,  and  the  churches.  D.  is  the  great  centre  of 
s,  banking,  and  produce  in  the  state,  rdlroads  con- 
necting it  with  all  potts  of^the  States  and  Canada,  and  the  river 
givii^  it  the  unequalled  waterway  jjf  the  lakte.  The  industry 
comprises  tiuiuy  steam  sawing- mills,  diipbuilding,  foundries, 
with  copper-smelting  in  the  vicinity,  D.  has  a  medical  college, 
St  Philip's  College,  and  many  public  and  private  schools.  In 
1858  the  debt  was  $300,000,  and  the  assessed  value  of  pro- 
perty $16,360,000.  In  r875  the  debt  was  $3,382,900,  and  the 
assessed  value  $90,000,000.  D.  t«is  first  visited  by  the  French 
in  1610,  settled  by  them  in  1701,  and  taken  by  die  British  in 
1760.  Pop.  (1870)  79,577i  (1875)  101,023.— De/miiffiver  Aovs 
S,  irom  take  St'  Clair  25  miles  to  Lake  Erie,  with  a  breadth 
of  ttu^e-quarteis  of  a  mile,  and  is  deep  and  naviga.ble. 

Betfingen.  ('the  people's  home  .or  town'),  a  village  cf 
Lower  Francoriia,  Bavaria,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Main,  about 
8  miles  N.W.  of  Aschaffenburg,  notable  only  for  the  victory 

f  lined  here  .on  the  27th  of  June  1743  by  the  allied  army  of 
nglish,  Hanoverians,  Austrians,  and  Hessians,  amounting  to 
40,000  men,  and  commanded  by  Geoige  11.  of  England,  over 
Uie  French,  58,000  strong,  under  the  Due  de  Noailles.  The 
latter  lost  26<g  men,  and  me  allies  at  least  as  many.  The  battle 
of  D.  was  the  last  occasion  in  whidi  an  English  sovereign  M>peated 
on  the  field.  See  Cailyle's  ffiyimy  sf  Friedrkh  11.  o/Nussia. 
Deucalion  (the  'bright '  or  'brilliant'?),  in  Greek  mythology, 
a  king  of  Phthia,  .and  son  of  Prometheus  and  Clymene.  When 
Zeus,  to  punish  the  wickedness  of  men,  had  sent  a  flood  over 
Hellas,  D.  vrith  his  .wife  Pyrrha  entered  an  ark,  previously  pre- 
pared on  the  advice  of  his  father,  and  they  alone  were  saved. 
On  the  ninth  day  the  ark  rested  on  Mount  Parnassus.  There 
D.  sacrificed  to  Zeus,  who  sent  Hermes  to  grant  any  prayer  he 
might  offer.     Having  priwed  for  the  restoration  of  the  human 

378 


race,  he  and  his  wife  were  ordered  to  cover  their  heads,  and 
cast  their  mother's  bones  behind  them  as  they  went  their  way. 
Judging  that  the  earth  was  their  mother,  they  cast  stones  behind 
them,  when  those  thrown  by  D.  became  men,  and  those  by  Pyrrha 
women.  D,  is  the  ftither  ef  Hellen,  from  whom  sprang  the  Hel- 
lenes or  Greeks,  and  of  Protogeueia  ('  the  first-hom ').  Cox,  in 
his  Mamml  ef  Mythology,  finds  in  the  names  evidence  of  the 
mythic  perversion  of  solar  phenomena. 

Be'us  ex  Hach'ina,  a  phrase  used  by  the  ancients  in  allusion 
•to  a  piactice  not  anfrequeut  in  the  .classical  theatre  of  biingiiig 
about  the  solution  of  ,a  difficulty  in  tiie  plot  by  the  intervention 
of  a  .god,  who  descended  on  the  stage  in  a  kind  of  machine. 
Horace  {Ars  I'oeliea)  obliquely  censures  the  abuse  of  this  un- 
skilful artifice- 


Tile  phrase  has  been  borrowed  by  the  moderns,  who  have  given 
it,  however,  a  wider  application, 

Deuteron'omy  (Gr.  'the  second  law')  is  the  fifth  book  of 

the  Bible.     According  to  Jewish  and  Christian  tradition,  it  was, 

like  the  rest  of  the  Pentateuch  (q.  v.),  the  composition  of  Moses. 

It  is  almost  entirely  made  up  of  discisurses  of  Moses  to  the 

ople  regarding  the  way  in  which  Jehovah  had  guided  them 

rough  the  desert,  and  setting  forth  anew  his  commands;  the 

nly  historical  part,  with  (he  eKception  of  iv.  41-43,  being  the 

ast  four  chapters.     Modern  critics  endeavour  to  prove  that  the 

aim  of  the  aiithor  was  not  historical,  but  hortatory  with  reference 

the  xarcumstances  of  his  own  time — ^about  the  time  of  Heze 

ah  and  Josiah,  if  not  as  late  as  the  Babylonian  e^dte — to  suil 

hich  he  brought  prominently  forward  those  laws  which  weii 

en  needed,  ^tered  some  of^  the  earlier  ones,  and  gave  neii 

nes  altogetlier ;  which  treatment  is  shown  pariicdarly  in  the 

ws  relating  to  the  priests  and  Levites,  and  the  offering  of  sacti- 

ea  in  one  place.     See  Bleek's  EinlHtung  in  die  Heil.  Schrift 

<BerL  3d.  ed.  1870). 

Beut'zid,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  PhitaiUU 
pkaceie.  many  of  which  are  cultivated  in  our  greenhouses.  They 
are  natives  of  India,  China,  and  Japan.  The  leaves  of  D.  scaira 
of  Japan  is  covered  with  siliceous  star-shaped  hail's— favourite 
objects  under  the  microscope — ^and  are  used  by  wood-polishers 
in  Japan.  Similar  hairs  are  seen  on  D.  staminia. 
Deux  Fonts.     See  Zwbibrucken. 

Dev'apraya'ga,  a  town  in  the  feudatory  state  of  Gutwhal, 
Hindustan,  i2  miles  W,  of  Sruinuggur,  in  the  fork  of  the  Aluk- 
nunda  land  the  Bhagiratti,  henceforth  named  the  Ganges,  the 

Srt  of  which  deemed  most  sacred  by  the  Hindus  being  at  D. 
ence  it  is  the  resort  of  numerous  pilgrims,  but  its  fixed  popu- 
lation consists  of  1000  Biahmans.  In  the  upper  part  of  the  town 
is  a  temple  60  feet  high,  built  of  large  bloclts  of  squared  stone 
piled  up  without  mortar.  Three  basins  have  been  excavated  in 
the  solid  roclt  below  the  level  of  the  stream.  D.  is  2266  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Devel'opment  of  Doc'tmw  is  related  Co,  but  not  to 
confounded  with,  the  Roman  Catholic  doctrine  of  Tradition  (q.  v.), 
according  to  which  there  is  a  supplementary  revelation  over  and 
above  that  contained  in  the  Bible,  and  which  has  been  handed 
down  outside  of  the  Scriptures,  A  certain  theory  of  D.  of 
D.  is  indeed  held  by  some  Roman  Catholics,  namely,  that 
^though  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  are  all  in  the  Scriptures, 
they  are  there  only  in  their  rudiments,  and  that  the  Church, 
under  the  tuition  of  the  Spirit,  comes  to  understand  all  that  these 
mdlments  imply,  and  to  expand  them  in  their  fulness.  The 
orthodox  Protestant  doctrine  is,  that  '.all  the  facts,  truths,  doc- 
trines, and  prindples  which  enter  into  Christian  theology  are  in 
the  Bible,  as  fully  and  clearly  at  the  beginning  as  they  are  now.' 
Still  progress  has  been  made  in  theolt^cal  knowledge  as  well 
as  in  physical  science.  As  the  science  of  astronomy,  for  example, 
is  always  advancing,  wTiile  the  stracture^if  the  heavens  remains 
ever  the  same,  so  the  Bible,  which  contains  the  great  truths  of 
revelation,  is  always  becoming  better  understood,  and  the  repre- 
—  '-tions  of  the  early  lathers  regarding,  for  example,  the  doc 
of  the  Trinity,  as  compared  with  the  clear,  precise,  and 
stent  statements  in  fiie  creeds  Of  the  Churcli,  are  like  the 
astronomy  of  Pythagoras  compared  with  that  of  I.a  Place.  An- 
other theory,  initiated  by  Schleiermaclier,  and  founded  on  the 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DBV 


philosophy  of  Schelling  and  HeEc!,  is  that  humanity  is  a  generic 
life  which,  assumed  into  union  with  the  divine  life  of  the  Son  of 
God,  and  thus  raised  to  a  higher  power,  is  communicated  fcom 
him  by  a  natural  ppDCess  of  development  to  the  Church,  and  that 
Cliristian  theology  is  not  the  systematic  exhibition  of  what  the 
Bible  teaches,  but  tiie  interpretation  of  this  life.  Without  regard 
to  any  theory,  the  D.  of  D.  seems  to  be  the  change  which  the 
definitions  of  doctrines  teaching  certain  essential  truths  continu- 
ally undergo  partly  at  least  under  certain  external  eauses,  such  as 
differences  of  climate,  national  character,  personal  feelmgs  and 
pasaons,  court  intrigues,  priesUy  imposition,  the  fanaticism  of 
monks,  and  the  internal  principles  nf  human  reason.  See  Donald- 
son's CHHcal  History  of  Christian  Literature  and  Doitrlne  from 
the  Death  of  the  Apostles  Is  the  Nicine  Council  (Edinb.  1864). 


o  halves,    B,  Second  stage,  in  whSi  'the  two  primary  seg- 
ire  divided  lo  form  four.    C,  More  advanced  slage,  in  ivhicTi 

sgnunuticn  of  eeg,kngwnas  the  '  miilbecrv-llke  coujitjon :' 

lr.._;j..     ._    i..:.ji__,  „,„hm.,/   R.    p„™.„  nf 


ctofECBuchoffjiBB   ii.  layers  c.  „ ,  ., 

area  vasculoaa  ;  d  a,  dorsal  lamina ;  f,  placed  □□  primitive  groove, 

mllive  divisions  of  the  biaia;// i(eiit5bra)platea,ocrudipenlary 

the  seed  of  a  plant  undergoes  in  its  progress  from  Its  immafnre 
form  to  assume  either  directly  or  indirectly  the  likeness  of  the 
parent-form.  The  oviim  or  egg  of  any  animal  furnished  by  the 
female  organs  of  reproduction  requires  to  be  fertilised  or  im  - 
piegnated  by  contact  with  tlie  male  clemejit  or,  spermatic ^«/i/. 
take  place  either 
yo,  when  placed 
amid  suitable  conditions^  develops  into  the  perfect  form.  Re- 
garding the  snbject  of  animat  development  as  a  w,hole,  VonBaer 
long  ago  laid  down  the  grand  law  that  development  proceeds 
'from  the  general  ts-  the  sps^al' — in  other  words,  that  in  the 
development  of  the  eggs  of  all  animals  a  certain  common  track 
was  pursued  at  first,  and  that  from  this  common  point  the  pro- 
cess of  development  tended  to  diverge  more  or  less  widely, 
according  as  the  egg  belonged  to  an  animal  form  high  or  low  in 
the  scale.  This  expression  of  the  spedalisalion  of  the  process  of 
development  is  known  sis  Von  Bast's  law;  and  as  exemplified 
in  each  sub-kingdom  or  type  of  animals,  it  is  seen  that  all  the 
members  in  their  development  present  at  first  a  common  arg/Tieral 
type  of  form,  which,  however,  as  development  praceeds,  diverges 
in  each  individual  case  more  or  less  typically,  and  in  a  manner 
corresponding  to  the  rank  of  perfection, in  which  the  adult  forms 
show.  Von  Baer's  law  tended  to  correct  a  notion,  Icaig  since 
exploded  in  its  typical  aspect — but  likely  (0  become  revived  by 
evolutionary  views  of  the  relations  of  living  beings — that  the 


nimal  lil 


vertebrate  embryo  would  lliui;  first  correspond,  it 
was  mamtained,  to  aprotosoiin,  then  to  a  ccelenteiate,  or  radiate, 
then  to  an  articulate  and  a  mollnsc,  and  would  only  finally 
assume  Uie  perfect  vertebrate  form..  This  view  is  wilhout 
found^ion  ;  no  stfeh  panoramic  view  of  lower  types  being  seen  in 
the  vertebrate  course  of  development..  The  influence  of  Mr 
Darwin's  researches  and  views,  it  may  be  noted,  has  undoubtedly 
been  to  reinstate  a  form  of  this  old  belief  in  the  favour  of 
naturalists.  Thus,  believing  that  the  various  groups  of  animals 
are  descended  from  one  another  by  true  gencralion,  it  is  easy  to 
conceive  that  in  the  development  of  any  form,  stages  should  be 
perceived  coiresponding  to  the  various  ancestral  modifications 
through  which  the  developing  oi^nisni  attained  its  own  and 
present  aspect.  Development,  or  embryology,  in  this  view,  and 
to  quote  Mr  Darwin's  own  words,  '  rises  greatly  in  interest  when 
we  look  at  the  embryo  as  a  picture,  more  or  less  obscured,  of 
the  progenitor,  either  in  its  adult  or  Utval  state,  of  all  the 
members  of   the  same  great  class'  {Origin  of  Species,  6th  ed. 


ane     B  Further  development  of 

*  chorion ; '  b,  cutaneous  or  serous  layer  of  eermii 
miicoaa  layer  of  terminal  membrane;  d,  Jurthe 
germinal  area  to  ftrm  the  emhryonic  mass':  j  ft  e 
fayer  10  foim  Iha  doisal  lamlns,  C,  Relation  > 
{/Ti'^'irMiuf™   """""'""'"'"''""'"""'■ 


bladder;/ er 


groups  (see  Protozoa,  CCEtENTERATA,  Echinozoa,  &c.); 
but  the- more  general  features  in  the  development  of  animals  may 
be  briefly  sketched  in  the  present  instance.  In  the  lowest  group 
or  Frolotea,  in  which  the  occurrence  of  true  or  sexual  reproduc- 
tion is.  denied  by  many  zoologists,  development  is  hai>fly  spe- 
cialised at  all.  At  the  most  (as  in  Infusoria  and  Cregarina, 
&c.),  the  egg  or  developing  body  undei^oes  a  process  of  internal 
division,  corresponding  to  the  semmtation  of  the  yolk  (Fig.  I, 
A,  B,  C,  D)  in  higher  anunals.  The  e^  then  ruptures,  and  the 
contained  or  divided  segments  escape,  and  require  but  little  fur- 
ther change  lo  convert  them  into  forms  similar  to  Iheic  parent 
organisms.  In  Coslenterates,  and  it  may  also  be  noted  in  sponges, 
the  egg  first  appears  to  nndeigo  a  process  of  segmentfition  or 
division  of  its  internal  parts.  I'hese  parts  ot^  cells  next  coalesce 
to  form  the  itasioderm  ( Fig.  2,  A,  b,  i)  or  primitive  germinal 
membrane,  out  of  which,  in  all  animals,  the  subsequent  parts  of 
the  embryo  are  evolved.  And  in  Ccelenterates  this  blastoderm 
appears  simply  to  separate  into  two  layers — the  outer  of  which 
becomes  the  ectoderm,  or  outer  wall,  and  the  inner  the  endoderm 
o5t  inner  walh  of  the  equally  simple  co;Ienterate  body.  In  jinnu- 
losa  and  Mollusca  (q.  v.)  the  egg  undergoes  a  similar  process  of 
segmentation,  the  embryonic  body  reaching  a  higher  d^ee  of 
specialisation,  and  developmg  distinct  hemal  (blood)  and  ?ieural 
(nervous)  regions.  Broadly  speaking,  in  the  latter  cases,  the 
serous  or  outer  layer  (Fig.  2,  Bj  b)  of  the  blastoderm  gives  origin 
to  the  organs  of  animal  life  (nervous  system,  &c,),  whilst  the 
inner  or  mucous  layer  (Fig.  2,  B,  c)  develops  the  digestive  or 
alimentary  tract  and  other  organs. 

Coming  nest  to  the  vertebrate  group  of  animals,  in  which  tlie 
process  attains  its  highest  phase,  we  may  note  Ihat  the  egg  (see 
379 


vLiOOQle 


DBV 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPALDIA. 


DBV 


Ovum)  consists  (as  in  lower  formi)  of  an  outer  {vittliiiie)  mem- 
brane, of  the  enclosed  t«fe//w  or  _j'd/^,  snd  o!  the  terminal  nesic/e, 
with  its  included  ^jMiaa/j/oi.  Tiie  eggof  the  bird  presents  an 
example  of  a  femiliar  and  readily  accessible  kind  for  the  study 
of  vectebKite  development.  It  consists  of  an  outer  porous  sM!, 
throunh  which  air  may  pass  out  and  in  during  the  D.  of  the  E.  ; 
■  a  s%e/l  membrane,  Umng  the  shell  j  of  the  cdbmnm  or  white, 
ranged  in  layers  i'  ofthetwotwisteden^oriA7^iw«,oneateithec 
end  of  the  egg,  and  which  ser»e  to.  ptotect  the-  yoBc  fton*  shock 
or  injury ;  of  the  yolk,  enclosed  in  its  miellini  itfsmirane  ;  and 
of  the  blastoderm  or  ckalricula,  lying  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
yolk.  This  latter  is  the  actual  seat  of  the  chang;es  in  develop- 
ment, and,  it  must  benoted,  has  been  formed,  as  above  described, 
by  the  process  of  fecundation  whidi  has  taken  pkioe  within  the 
hen's  body,  find  before  the  egg  was  laid.  Thns  the  hen's  eg^, 
as  it  is  usually  seen,  contains  the  embryo,  which  has  already 
undergone  the  stages  corresponding  to  the  yolk-segmentation 
1  to  all  animals,  save,  perhaps,  the  protozoa.  The  egg 
},  before  being  laid,  indeed,  exhibited  the  parts  above 
noted  as  common  to  the  e^  of  all  animals ;  but  the  essential  part 
of  this  egg  alone  undergoes  the  process  of  segmentation,  and  the 
blastodinn  or  dcalricula  of  the  fully  formed  egg,  enclosed  in  its 
yolk  and  white,  comra  therefore  tarepresentinitself  the  true  and 
actual  embryo  irf  the  bled.  All  the  other  parts  (yolk,  while,  &c.) 
are  merely  accessory  structures.  The  blastoderm  of  the  egg 
appears  to  possess  an  outer  white  rim  or  edge,  containmg  a  cir- 
irea  of  transparent  kind,  which  in  turn  contains  an  opaque 
space.  Beneath  the  eicatrieula  the  yolk  mass  is  less  solid,  and 
assumes  a  Hask-shaped  appearance,  iTie  btastoderm  itsejf  ex- 
hibits a  composition  of  two  layers,  an  upper  one  {e^iiiiist)  or 
s  layer,  composed  of  small  granular  cells,  and  an  undei; 
layer  (hypoblast)  or  mucous,  of  larger  cells,  whilst  a  middle  layer 
{meioblast)  or  vascular  layer  is  afterwards  developed.  The  ver- 
tebrate characters  become  early  impressed  upon  the  developing 
embryo,  by  the  formation,  in  the  dorsal  or  upper  part  of  the  blas- 
toderm, of  the  ,^T»nV(i«  ^romw  (Fig.  I;  Eff,  mthe  floor  of  which 
the  NotochDrd  (q,  v.),  or  early  representative  of  the  spine,  is 
formed.  Soon  the  vertebrte  are  developed  on  each  side  of  this 
groove,  which,  meanwhile,  becomes  a  canal,  enclosmg  tiie  future 
spinal  cord.  The  outline  of  the  body  is  now  also  liegut;iing  to,  be 
formed,  and  at  Che  end  of  the  second  day  of  incubation  the  vasn 
cular  layer  of  the  Mastoderm  develc^  a  little  ptilsatiag  point, 
flie  punctum  saliens,  or  primitive  heart.  The  serous  layer  forme 
the  amninn  (Fig.  2,  C  a),  which  is  fully  coi^leted  by  the  fourth 
day,  and  the  mucous  layer  duly  gives  origin  to.  the  abdominal 
organs.  About  the  sixth  day  of  incubation  the  bird-like  charstcters 
of  the  embryo  begin  to  be  more  marked.  At  the  tenth  day  the 
yolk  diminishes  in  bulk,  and  rapid  growth  occurs  from  Che  eighth 
to  the  tenth  day  indnsive.  Feathers  are  develc^ied,  beginning  at 
the  ninth  or  tenth  day,  and  the  beak  and  toes  are  well  developed 
at  the  sixteenth  day.  The  bones  begin  to  be  ossified  from  theie 
cartUages  abont  the  eighth  or  ninth  day  (Von  Baer).  At  the  fois- 
teenth  day  Che  chick  shifts  its  position  and  lies  lengthways  in 
the  egg,  and  on  the  twentiethday  orso,  thebeak  is  thrust  through 
the  shell-membrane,  and  the  bird,  leaving  behind  it  the  useless 
parts  of  the  amnion,  altantois,  and  chorion,  emerges  into  the 
world.  Development  and  reproduction  aje  said  to  be  oviparous 
when  they  take  place,,  as  in  the  Mrd,  -anlhoiff  the  parent's  body. 
When  the  eggs  are  retained  within  Uie  body  of  the  parent  (as  in 
some  snakes,  &c.)  until  the  young  ate  hatched,  the  anininl  is 
said  to  be  m/i-vbiiparota ;  and  when  Che  e^s  lure  not  only  fer- 
tilised within  the  body  of  Che  mother,  but  are  wholly  developed 
therein,  development  is  said  to  lie  viviparous.  See  also  Metji.- 
IS  and  R^ROBtlCTtON. 


Development.  Theory.    See  Species, 

DeVenter,  commonjy  Sem'ter  (Lat,  Daveniria),  an  ancient 
town  in  the  province  of  Overyssel,  Holland,  on  the  Tftsel,  J5 
miles  E.S.E.  of  Amsterdam,  fortified  by  a  wall  and  diCch.  The 
principal  buildings  are  the  townhouse,  courthonse,  and  prison. 
D.  has  numerous  hospitals  and  several  high-class  educational 
ns.     The  chief  industries  are  iron-foundries   and  the 


Saxons  in  778,  and  again  by  the  Norsemen  in  883,  i 
made  an  imperial  fortress  by  Lothar  of  Saxony  in  1 1 23 
ing  the  middle  ages  it  was  a  famous  Hanse  town,  an( 


c  ranked  after  Antwerp  and  Amsterdam  as  an  emporium 
of  trade,  and  is  still  flourishing,  tliough  neither  so  femous  nor 
I  conspicuous  as  formerly. 

Devia'tion  of  a  Ship.  Under  the  contract  of  afl'reighfment, 
a  vessel  be  compelled  by  weather,  by  an  enemy,  or  by  acci- 
dent, to  deviate  from  the  appointed  line  of  voyage,  no  claim 
arises  to  the  freighter  against  the  owners  j  and  it  is  now  held 
that  the  master  may  detain  the  cavgo,  though  formerly  the  rule 
was  that  he  was  bound  to  forward  it  in  another  ship.  An 
unnecessary  D„,  beii^  an  alteration  of  risk,  discharges  the 
underwriter,  "tiie  onus  probandi  lies  on  the  person  alleging  D. 
Device',  in  heraldry,  an  emMematic  design,  borne  upon 
armour  or  on  banners.  The  term  is  derived  from  the  vesltalla 
divisa,  or  parti-coloured  uniforms  by  which  Italian  retainers  were 
distinguished  in  the  13th  c.  Devices  were  used  to  mark  different 
warrioEs  early  in  the  middle  ages.  Henry  II.  bore  the  D.  of 
the  broom-plant,  at  planiOrgenista,  as  emblem  of  his  name, 
Plantogenet.  Tlig  devices  of  the  Holies  of  York  and  Lancaster 
— the  red  and  white  tosea — became  famous  in  the  civil  wars. 
In  th?  l6th  c.  painted  or  carved  devices  were  very  common  in 
noblemen's  dwellings. 

Dev'il  {du  diabolos,  'tcaducer'),,  in  Chiislian  theology,  is  a 
personal  evil  spirit,  the  cause  of  all  evil,  and  the  active  enemy 
of  God  and  man.  One  c£  the  first  tasks  of  man's  imagina- 
tion, in  his  primitive  stafe,  15  to  account  for  the  phenomena  of 
nature.  On  the  one  hand  there-  appears  to  be  a  beneticent 
power,  who  scattei^s  welcome  gifts  upon  men ;  on  the  other,  a 
harsh  and  cruel  power,  that  ewers  the  sky  with  blackness,  sweeps 
awHiy  hjs  home  with  torrent  or  tempest,  starves,  freezes,  or 
scorclffis  him,  poison^  him.  with  exhalations,  casts  him  to  the 
beast  of  prey ;  'One  a  god  trf  light  smiling  in  the  sunbeam, 
the  other  a  god  of  darkness  scowling  in.  the  Chunder-cloud  ;  (he 
one  ruling  by  good  and  gentle  spirits,  the  other  by  fierce  and  evil 
spirits.'  Here  we  have  the  origin  of  the  dualism,  or  worship  of 
two  gods,  which  prevailed  among  the  andent  Indians,  Persians, 
Egyptians,  and  many  other  nations;  for  instead  of  the  good 
deities  alone  being  worshipped,  as  might  be  supposed,  the  terrible 
gods  were  mpre  adored  than  ^ey,  from  fear  of  their  vengeance. 

The  monotheism  of  tlie  Hebrews  Ifted  them  far  above  the 
pfrplexicies  of  the  di^istic  idea.  Belief  «i  a  D  nowhere  ap 
pears  in  the  eail  er  books  rf  the  Bible      In  Genesis  the  ser 

Eent  which  tempted  Eve  is  not  repiesented  as  a  great  being 
oslile  to  God,  though  in  later  times  that  interpreCaCion  was 
accepted  as  the  only  adequate  explanation  of  the  phenomenon 
After  the  captivity  the  D  was  discovered  under  the  disgi  ise 
of  the  serpent  (Wis  11  23,  24),  the  symbol  of  the  Persian 
Aliriman,  Neither  is-  there  any  dualism  implied  m  the  cere 
monial  coimftcted  with  Aza?el  (Lev  xvi  8,  10,  'scapegoat  ), 
for  he  is  not  a  personal  being,  and  the  goat  is  not  oflered  to 
him;  he  is  merely  a  personification  of  abstract  iinUeanness, 
although  the  prototype  of  Azazel  is  the  Egyptian  Set  The 
first  deftnite' appearance  of  the  doctrine  afterwards  so  fully  de 
veloped  \s  in  the.  Book  of  Job.  According  to  the  introduction 
of  this  book,  among  the  '  sons  of  God '  who  surround  Jehovah's 
throne  there  is  a.  Satan  (Heb;  '  adversary '),  whose  part  it  is  to 
speak  against  man,  and  bring  misfortunes  on  mankind,  bat  who 
seetiB  as  much  a  servant  rf  God  as  the  other  angels,  A  slight 
development  of  the  Idea  appears  in  the  jffopheoies  of  Zechariah, 
where  Satan,  although  still  merely  the  a«cuser,  is  rebuked  for 
his  attack^  on  Joshua,  the  high-priest,  and  on  Jerusalem ;  so 
that  he  is  already  beginning  to  be  oj^osed  to  Jehovah.  It  is  at 
this  point  that  the  influence  of  the  Persian  dualism  which  took 
effect  during  the  captivity  appears.  The  Jews,  of  course,  did 
not  adopt  die  dualism  of  that  religion.  The  grand  idea  that 
Jehovah  shaped  and  directed  all  things  was  so  strong  in  them 
tiiat  they  did  not  lecoil  from  the  consequence  that  not  only 

Slagues.  and  disasters,  bat  even  moral  evil,  must  be  in  some 
eep,  myeterions  way  the  work  of  God ;  and  on  the  part  of 
some  of  the  nobler-minded  prophets  there  was  a  direct  protest 
against  the  duallstic  notions  when  they  began  to  take  effect  (see 
Isa.  ilv.  7).  To  others,  however,  Jehovah^  moral  purity  seemed 
to  suffer  from  this  conception,  and  the  conception  of  Satan 
gradually  developed  from  that  of  an  '  adversary '  into  that  of  the 
tempter  of  mankind.  The  change  in  the  conception  of  the  moral 
world  is  well  seen  in  the  account  of  the  temptation  of  David  to 
number  Israel,  as  given  in  2  Sam.  xxiv.   I,  where  it  is  said 


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3  have  been  Jeliovali  who  moved  him  to  do  it,  and  by  the 
Chronicler  (3d  c  B.C.),  who  makes  it  the  work  of  Sataii  (I  Chron. 
xxi.  l).  It  would  be  very  difficult  to  fell  how  far  the  Jewish 
conception  of  Satan  was  influenced  by  the  Persian  belief  in 
Aliriman  ;  but  the  likeness  between  the  Hebrew  and  Persian  evil 
powers  graduEdly  became  so  great  tliat  it  was  easy  to  confuse 
them — the  distinction  between  them,  however,  being  manifest, 
namely,  (hat  Ahdman  is  physical  evil  which  has  also  become 
moral  evil,  while  Satan  is  moral  evil  becoming  physical  evil. 
TIhs  explains  the  unbounded  influence  which  he  had  acquired  in 
the  physical  world  before  the  time  of  Christ  (see  Demoniacs), 
The  growth  of  this  influence  is  dearly  seen  in  the  Apocryphal 
books,  which  all  contain  either  Alexandrine  or  Persian  elements. 
In  the  Book  of  Wisdom  the  evil  spirit,  there  first  called  ^aiolos, 
the  devil,  is  identified  with  the  serpent  of  Genesis.  He  now 
resides  in  a  subterranean  hell,  and  heads  an.  army  of  evil  spirits, 
many  of  whom  are  imdoabtediy  Persian— 1(.^.,  Asmodeus  (Tobit),, 
Pers.  Athsma-dava.  Others  are  mentioned  in,  the  Boq4i  of  l^noch, 
which  contains  also  tlie  earliest  form  of  the  belief  about  tlie  fall 
of  the  evil  angels  from  heaven.  Tlie  likeness  to  Ahriman  begins- 
distmcUy  in  fliis,  that  the  D.  now  adds  hatred  to  God  to  his 
hatred  of  man,  and  ahhough  he  does  not  make  war  directly  on 
God,  seeks  to  spoil  liis  creation,  by  waguig  war  on.  man. 

An  extraoi-dinary  developm^t  of  the  doctrine  finds  espres- 
sion  in  the  New  Testament.  The  D.  has  now  taken  his  position 
as  the  author  of  all  evil.  The  solution  of  the  problem  regarding 
the  origin  of  evil  is  given  in  \  John  iii.;;  il  comes  from  the  D. 
His  nature  is  the  negation  of  aU  that  is  real  and  true  iQ  God,  of 
Ught,  of  love,  and  of  life.  But  being  now  east  out  from  heaven 
and  all  communion  with  it,  he  can  no  longer  inflnence  God 
against  men ;  he  therefore  vents  his  1^  directly  on  mpn  them- 
selves. He  is  especially  the  aatagonist  of  Christ  and  of  Chris- 
tians ;  and  necessarily  so,  siiice  the  mission  of  the  Messiah  (q.  v..) 
was  by  a  victorious  straggle  with  Antichrist  {q.  v.) — the  'Piince 
of  the  demons,'  the  '  Ruler  of  the  power  of  the  air,'  the  '  Ruler 
of  this  world' — to  establish  the  '.kmgdom  of  heaven.' 

In  flie  early  Christian  centuries  many  influences  combined  tft 
foster  this  notion  of  an  antagonistic  parallelism  between  the 
kingdom  of  light  and  the  ki^gdpm  of  daritness,  and  to  establish 
more  definitely  the  conception  of  a  kingdom  of  the  D.  opposed 
to  the  kingdom  of  God ;  th?  persecuted  Church  representing  the 
latter,  the  persecuting  world  the  former..  Hence  expulsion  from 
the  Church  was  'giving  over  to.  Satan,'  and  every  iiew  convert  to 
Christianity,  before  being  baptized,  was  ei^rdsed,  or  had  ths 
D.  driven  out  of  him  (see  Exorcism),  and  was  required  to  abju^ 
the  I>.  and  all  his  works.  The  notions  about  this  opposition 
were  most  fully  developed  in  the  theory  of  redemption,  which, 
as  taught  by  Ireiiiens,  was  as  follows  i^ — Man  having  by  (he  fall 
become  the  D.'s  rightful  property,  it  wouM  haye  been  unjust  on 
the  part  of  God  to  depeiv^him  by  yiolence  of  his  own.  Accord 
ingly  the  D.  was  able  to  stipulate  that,  if  he  gave  up  his  claims 
on  man,  Christ  should  b«  handed  ovwtohim.  But  in  this  tians 
action  he  was  outwitted^,  for  when  1)e  got  Christ  he  found  that 
he  could  not  keep  him.  Having  swallowed  the  'bait'  of  his 
human  nature,  he  was  so  tortured  by  tlie  '  hijok '  of  his  divinity 
that  he  was  glad  to  let  him.  go. 

During  the  following  centuries,  and  on  through  the  Middle 
Ages,  the  doctrine  of  Ore  fall  of  Satan  and  the  evil  angels  was 
fully  developed.  To,  account  fot  the  faU  of  man,  the  fill  of  tlie 
angels  had  to  liappen  before  tiiat  event.  According  to  Augus 
tine,  they  were  created  on  the  first  daj  of  (jenesis  1 ,  when  God 
said  'Let  there  be  light,'  and  fell  on  the  second,  when  He 
divided  the  waters  under  the  firmament  from  the  watera  above  the 
firmament.  The  details,  of  their  fall  ^ere  filled  ii^  from  texts  of 
Scripture,  Thus  the  fall  1^  the  arch-fiend  was  due  to  pnde  and 
envy.  According  to  St  Bernard's  exposition  ^  Isaiah  mv  12 
13,  he  was  cast  out  of  heaven  because,  althoijgh  entitled  as  a 
seraph  to  stand  above  the  throne  of  God  (Isa.  vi.  2),  hd  pre- 
sumed to  sit  in  the  presence  of  th^  Eternal,  The  other  angels 
fell  through  lust  (Gen.  vi.  4)1  To  the  D.  was  now  (before  the 
9th  0.)  given  a  body  of  an  endless  variety  of  form  and  feature, 
borrowed  from  the  different  pagan  mythologies — fiery  eyes,  red 

IirotiTiding  tongue,  large  horns,  a  long  tail,  the  hoof  of  a  horse 
of  the  centaurs),  or  the  doven  hoof  of  the  satyrs,  &c.  He  and 
his  imps  made  a  prey  of  men  at  large.  Now  too  arose  the  notion 
tliat  a  compact  could  be  made  with  the  D.,  by  which  the  soul 
could  be  exchanged  for  the  object  of  one's  greatest  desire.  "' ' 
led,  in  the  13th  c,  to  the  execution  of  witches  and  sorci 


the  supposed  servants  and  accomplices  of  the  D.  {See  Witch- 
craft.) It  may  here  be  noticed  that  the  name  Ltidfer  (Lat. 
'light-btinger')  was  given  to  the  D.  from  a  mistaken  interpre- 
tation of  the  apostrophe  in  Isaiah  xiv.  12,  '  How  art  thou  fallen 
from  heaven,  O  Lucifer,  son  of  the  mornjng.' 

The  vulgar  conception  of  the  D.  in,  modem  times  has  been 
materially  afiected  by  the  writing  of  two  men — Milton  and 
Goethe.  Milton,  by  his  Paradise  Lost,,  familiarised  his  country- 
meawith  the  llieological  traditions  of  Italian  literature  and  art, 
from  which  tlie  whote  scheme  (rf  his  drama  was  boiTowed  j  but 
it  had  the  effect,,  in  the  mind  eyen  of  those  who  could  not  look 
beneath  the  surface,  of  d^estit^  the  Jf.  of  bis  flesh  and  blood, 
horn  aa3  hijof  nature,  whilst  in  reality  the  poet  idealised  Satan 
altc^ether,  and  the  hero  of  his  drama  was  Evil  in  the  abstract. 
The  design  of  Goethe,  in  his  Fatist,  was  very  similar.  Mephis- 
topheles  was  simply  'our  own  ignorant,  besotted,  dogmatising, 
supei;stitious,  animal  nature,  ciutivated  and  developed  at  the 
expense  of  the  intellectual  in  us.'  The  poet's  aim  was  (o  show 
that  this  is  the  teal  nature  of  the  Evil  Spirit  to  which  was  given 
so  materialistic  a  form  in  the  middle  ages,,  tliat  this  is  the  real 
'Ruler  of  the  world'  of  apostolic  times. 

Recent  writer  on  the  D.  speak  of  him  as  a  jft/dw*  majestji, 
because  even  '  those  who  profess  belief  m  his  existence  live  abso- 
lutely as  if  they  held  no  such  belief; '  and  how  great  is  the  con- 
trast between  the  belief  of  the  present  day  and  tliat  of  the  middle 
ages  may  be  seen  by  a  study  of  witchcraft.  Those  who  now 
^fuse  to  believe  in  tte  existence  c^  sudi  a  being  hold,  neverthe- 
less, that  thei^  is  embodied  in  the  conception  of  a  personal  D. 
a  great  truth — that  no  action,  in  respect  of  mo^ty,  stands  purely 
on  its  own  merits,  bu[  involves  a  principle  which  extends  llirough 
all  time  and  ^  spaqe ;  the  piinciple,  namely,,  that  by  any  sinful 
action,  of  by  resisting  evil  on  any  particuli-  occasion,  we  take 
the  side  of,  or  we  resist  eyil  in  the  abstract,  or  aU  evil,  past,  pre- 
sent, and  to  come.  Th?  belief  in  the  existence  of  the  D.  may 
be  said,  at  present,  to  be  on  its  trial.  There  is,  beyond  all  ques- 
tion, a,  profound  and  widespread  saspicUm  of  the  unreality  of  a 
personal  Agent  in  the  mind  of  Christendom  |  but  so  many  grave 
issues  seem  \.p  depend  on  the  acceptance  i>r  rejection  of  the  doc- 
trine, that  men  will  probably  remain  undedded  in  their  convic- 
tions till  they  dearly  see  what  the  surrender  of  the  belief  really 
implies.  If  Miything  be  imperilled  whieh  sustains  and  strengthens 
the  religious  life,  men  will  prefer  to  acknowledge  a  forbidding 
mystery  rather  than  allow  their  sense  of  the  dire  nature  of  evil  to 
be  permanently  weakened.  See  Roskoff '9  Gesikichte  dts  Teufds 
(Leips.  1870),  Buckle's  Hisloty  of  Civilisetion,  and  Kuenen's 
Godsdienst  van  la-iul  (Haarl.  l86g  ;  Eng,  transl.  1S75). 

Devil'^Bit.    See  ScABiosAi. 

Devise'  is  an  English  law-term  signifying  properly  a  gift  of 
real  estate  by  a  last  will  and  testament ;  a  form  of  conveyance, 
tnartts  causa,  which  the  English  law  admits.  The  giver  is  called 
tl  e  devtsai ,  and  he  to  whom  the  estate  is  given  is  called  the 
dansse  But  the  term  ia  now  applied  to  all  legacies.  The 
power  of  D  evtends  not  only  to  property  possessed  by  the  ti 
tat-or  It  the  time  of  making  his  will,  but  to  all  that  he  m 
acquue  subsequently  When  a  resident  of  one  county  holds 
real  propeity  in  another,  lex  fei  sila  prevails.  See  Will, 
Domicile. 

Sen  zes  a  town  m  the  centre  of  Wiltshire,  near  the  Avon 
and  Kennet  Canal,  22  miles  N.N.W.  of  Salisbury.  It  has  silk- 
Ihrowing  mills,  and  'inufE  and  malt  manufactures.  Its  corn- 
market  IS  the  higest  m  the  W.  of  England,  It  returns  one 
member  to  Parliament  Pop.  (1S71)  6839.  D.  took  its  rise; 
frottt  a  castle  built  here  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  by  Roger  Bishop 
<^  Salisbury  The  name  is  a  corruption  of  the  Latin  Divism,  So 
called  from  being  the  point  on  the  road  irom  London  to  Bath 
where  the  Roman  and  Celtic  districts  divided. 

Beronian  System  |Ger.  Ohire  Gratswacke),  the  name  given 
by  Sedgwick  and  Murchison  to  the  rocks  developed  in  the  S.  of 
England  and  the  Rhine  lands  near  Coblenz,  which  occupy  a  geo- 
logical position  above  the  Silurian  and  below  the  Carboniferous 
formations.  Tlie  Old  Red  Sandstone  (q,  v.)  of  Wales,  Scotland, 
Russia  is  similarly  situated ;  but  in  how  far  these  two  series,  dif- 
fering considerably  from  each  other  both  as  regards  their  lilho- 
l<^ical  and  fossil  character,  are  strictly  contemporaneous  it  is  ' 
possible  to  say,  since  in  no  place  do  they  touch.  There  seem; 
have  been  a  physical  barrier  stretching  across  England  and 


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DEW 


N.  of  Central  Europe  S.E.  towards  the  Black  Sea,  on  the  S.  side 
of  which  salt-water  deposits  of  the  D.  type  were  formed,  and 
the  N.  large  lagoons  or  inland  sheets  of  water,  giving  rise  to  t 
Old  Red  Sandstone.  The  D;  S.  is  divided  into— ( i )  I%e  Lyta 
Beds,  or  Lower  D. ,  a  series  of  hard  nnfossilifeppus  siuidstones 
resting  on  chlorite  slates,  wMch  contain,  traces,  of  animal  life  in 
the  form  of  corals  ami  gasteropods  f  (2J  TIa  Jlfrucombi  Beds,  or 
Middle  D.,  grey  schists  and  limestone,  Ule  latter  containi:^  a  veiy 
typical  braduopod,  the  Strin^sphalus  Burtini,  besides  nujne- 
rous  corals,  cnnpids,  and  gasteropoda  quite  distmct  from  the 
Silurian  and  Car>oniferons  forms  (  {^.Thf  Barnstaple  and  Mar- 
toBod  Beds,  or  Upper,  D.,  consisting  of  sandstones  and  stales, 
which  abound  in  marine  fossils,  a  nnmtsec  being  iflentic^l  with 
those  of  the  Carboniferous  system.  In  the  district  of  the  Rhine, 
Harz,  and  Thiolinger-Wald,  these  tliree  subdiviaion?  are  also 
recognised.  In N.  Amen'pathe  roclts  seem  intemiediate  iiichar- 
acter  between,  the  true  D.  and  the  Old  Red  Sandstone.  Fossils 
corresponding  to  the  types  of  both  formations  are  obtained,  and 
the  upper  strata,  show  the  same  carboniferous  character  as  in 
England.  Land  plants  are  numerous  in  the  N.E.j  and  coaf 
seams,  the  oldest  known  in  the  world,  occur  here. 

DeVonport,  a.  borough  and  naval  aroenaJ  in  Devonshire;  on 
the  Hamoaze,  a  part  of  the  estuary  of  the  Tamar,  2  miles 
W.N.W.  of  Plymouth,  and  a^S-miles  W.S.W.  of  London.  R 
was  narried  Plynmutk  Dock-  unHl  1824.  The  town  stands  on  a 
height,  and  is  defended  wi  the  N.,  E.,  and  S.  sides  by  a  wall 
12  feel  high,  andia  fosse  cut  in  the  scJid  rock  toa  depth  of  from 
12  to  20  Teety  while  the  sea-entrance  is  protected  by  forts  with 
heavy  batteries.  The  houses  aie  genetdly  well  built,  and  the 
streets  regular,  vrith  marble  footpaths.  Water  is  supplied  from 
Dartmoor.  The  importance  of  D.  springs  from,  its-  dockyard 
and  arsenal,  which  contain  everything  necessary  for  building  and 
equippmg  ships  of  war.  The  docks  cover  an  area  of  100  acres. 
A  basin  and  two.of  the  docks  were  begun  in  the  reign  of  Wil- 
liam HI.,  and  two  other  docks  m  the  reign  of  George  III.  The 
north  basin,  finished  in  1868,  is  900  feet  long  by  400  wide.  TTie 
port-admiral  and  governor  have  olficial  readences  in  D.,  and 
there  are  extensive  barracks  and  military  hospitals.  Pop.  of 
parliamentary  borough  (1871),  64,034,  almost  wholly  dependent 
on  the  royal  arsenal  Besides  ropemakingr  saJlmaking,  and 
anchor-foiging,  there.are  breweries,  soapworks,  and  a  large  trade 
in  victualling  ships.     D.  returns  two  members,  to  Parliament 

Devonshire  (the  Roman  Dampaitia,  a  Latinised  form  of  the 
Celtic  Dyfnaint,  '  the  deep,  valleys.'),  a  county  m  tlie  S.W.  of 
England,  bounded.  N;  by  the  Bristol  Channel,  S.  by  the  English 
Channel,  W.  by  Comwtdi,  and  E.  by  Dorset  and  Somerset.  Area, 
2586  sg.  miles  ;  pop.  {1871)  601,374.  R  has.a  rocky  urecipitons 
coast-line  of  160  miles,  in  the  N.  indented  by  Barnstaple  or  Bide- 
ford  Bay,  in  the  S.  by  Plymouth  Sound,  Bigbury  Bay,  Start 
Bay,  Tor  Bay,Exmouth  and  LymeRiy.  The  county  is  in. great 
part  hilly,  and  famous  for  its  beautiful,  streams  and  valleys.  The 
small  cmimfei  on  its  N..  coast  are  not  surpassed  in  picturesque 
daintiness  by  any  coast  scenery  in  Britain.    The  centi^  and  S.W. 


specially  n 
Along  the 


the  Taw  and  Torridge  ;  those  entering  the  Enghsh  Chan- 
the  Exe,  Teign;  Dart,  Tamar,  and  Tavy.  The  Dart  is 
y  notable  for  its  wild  beauty  and  its  legendary  renown, 
.long  the  S.  coast  the  climate  is  extremely  mild,  in  winter 
attracting  many  invalids.  The  famed  val»  of  Exeter  includes 
over  120,000  acres  of  the  finest  land  in  England,  In  1.875  '''^ 
number  of  acres  of  com  crops  was  291,92;  ;  of  green  crops, 
'56,938;  of  clover,  sanfoin,  and  grasses,  l&J,58o;  and  of  per- 
manent pasture,  exclusive  of  heath  or  mountain  land,  426,434. 
In  the  same  year  there  werejc^ 700  horses,  218,153  cattle,  976,158 
sheep,  and  84,898  pijp.  The  chief  exports  are  live  stock,  the 
famous  cider,  and  daily  produce,  especially  Iwitter  and  clotted 
cream.  There  are  manuiactures'of  druggets,  serges,  hnen,  car- 
pets, leather,  &c.,  and  also  valuable  pilchard,  mackerel,  doty, 
and  salmon  fisheries.  The  formation  of  D.  is  for  the  most  part 
Devonian,  inteq>osed  with  igneous  rocks,  but  in  the  N.E.  it  is 
Carboniferous.  The  tin-mines  are  the  most  celebrated  in  the 
world,  and  among  the  other  minerals  are  copper,  gypsum,  Bovey 
coal,  marble,  and  porcelain  clay.  Exeter  is  the  capital,  and  the 
other  chief  towns  are  Plymouth,  Devonport,  Tavistock,  Tiverton, 
and  Barnstaple.  The  county  returns  six  members  to  Parliament. 
D.  was  the  seat  of  an  early  civilisation,  through  '  ' 
382 


with  Phcenician  or  Carthaginian  merchants.  At  Plymouth  and 
elsewhere  large  collections  of  bronze  weapons  and  ornaments 
have  been  found,  showing  these  to  have  been  gathering-places  of 
pre-Roman-traders.  The  Tamar  is  the  old  border  river  of  the 
W.  Saxons  and  Britons,  and  overhanging  it  is  Kingston  Down, 
the  Hengestadun  of  the  Chronicle,  where  Ecgherht  defeated  a 
united  British  and  Danish  force  in  835.  The  sloping  bank  of 
the  riyer  is  dotted  with  barrows  of  unknown  antiquity. 

Devonshire,  Dukea  of.  The,  House  of  D.  takes  its  rise 
in  the  I2th  c.  in  the  Gounts  or  Earls  of  Devon.  In  1556  the 
earldom  reverted  to  the  Cavendish  famHy  (see  Cavendish),  the 
third  of  whontwas  created  Duke  of  D.  m  1694.    The  House  of 


1^  has  never  takeii  a  very  prominent  part  in  EiigUsh  politics,  but 
inguished  for  its  firm  adherence  to  the  Whig  party. 
table  members  of  the  family  are  William  Caven- 


has  been  distinguished  for  its  firm 

The        ■      -  ■  ■ 


diali,  rirst  Divte  of  D.,  bom  asth  J^uary  i^  served  in 
the  navy,  opposed  James  ITi  in  Parliament,  was  a  witness  in 
favour  of  Lord  Russell,  became  Earl  of  D.  in-  [684,  and  in  1694 
Duke  of  D.  He  was  one  of  the  regency  during  William  III.'s 
aliscnce,  and  died  Angust  r8,  1-707. — Geor^ianft  Spencer, 
Dudies»  of  B,,  youiigest  daughter  of  ■John,  Eari  Spencer. 
Bom  9th  June  1757,  she  married  William  Cavendish,  Duke  of 
D.,  in  1774.  Her  beauty,  wit,  audacity,  and  accomplishments 
made  her  one  of  the  most  celebrated  women  of  lier  day.  The 
Duchess  was  an  ardent  Whig,  and  the  firm  friend  of  Fox.  She 
wrote  Msmormtdums  of  the  Foci  of  the  Cmmiry  in  Sv/iiserland 
{1799),  and  a  poem,  The  Passage  of  St-  Gothard  (1803),  not 
undistinguished  by  elegance  and  fancy.  She  died  March  30, 
1S06.— ■William  SpeSoe):  Oavendieh,  Bfacth-  Duke  of  D., 

son  of  William  Cavendish  and  Georgiana  Spencer,  was  bom 
May  2r,  1790;  He  was  a  strong  advocate  of  Catholic  eman- 
cipation, was  Lord  Chamberlain  in  the  Grey  Ministry,  and  sup- 
ported Reform.  He  took  great  interest  in  art  as  well  as  in 
politics,  and  his  art  collections  were  among  the  finest  in  England. 
He  died-  unmarried,  i8th  January  1858,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  cousin,  William  Oavendifdi,  SeTenth  Duke  of  D., 
born-  27th  April  1808,  a  moderate  and-  enlightened  politiciaru 
He  took  part  in  the  foundation  of  London  University,  of  which 
he  was  Chancellor  from  1836  to  1856,  and  succeeded  Prince 
Albert  as  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Cambridge  in  1862. 
His  son,  the  Marqnis  of  Hartington  (q,  v.),  is  at  present  (1S76) 
leader  of  the  Liberal  party  in  the  House  of  Commons. 

Devr  is  the  deposition  of  moisture  from  the  air,  which  h 
been  cooled  below  the  minimum  temperature  at  which  it  ci .. 
rel£un  in  suspension  the  quantity  of  vapour  present.    This  critical 
temperature  is  called  the  dew-point;  and  it  is  the  te 

at  which  the  deposition  begins  to  take  place  if  the  a._   _ 

j'ected  to  a  continual  coohng  process.  During  the  day  the  heat 
of  the  suii  evaporates  the  mfflstuie  of  the  eartli's  surface,  and 


■s  the  a- 


arrested,  the  surface  radiating  the  heat  it  formerlv  ab- 
sorbed, and  cooling  if  uncheeked,  below  the  dew-point,  where- 
upon the  D.  is  deposited.  Such  \%.  the  theoiy  established  by 
Dr  Wells,  and  generally  accepted  now.  Clouds,  by  obstructing 
radiation,  check  this  deposition;  and  winds,  ty  constantly  renew- 
ing the  air  in  contact  with,  a  given  surface  of  ground,  have  the 
same  effect,  since  sufficient-  time  is  not  permitted  for  the  required 
Cioolmg  to  take  plac?,  D..  falls  chiefly  on,  calm,  serene  nights, 
and  earliest  upon,  the  objects  which  radiate  fastest  When  the 
temperature  is  at  or  bdow  o?  C,  the  D,  takes  the  form  of  hoar- 
frost,, the.,  vapour  passing  at  once  i«to  the  solid  state.  The  D. 
falling  m  England  annually  has  been  estimated  by  Dalton  as 
equal  to. a  bed  of  water  fiye  inches  deep. 

DeVas,  a  toyvn  of  Malwa,  Central  India,  on  an  affluent  of  the 
Chumbul,  and'  capital  of  a  petty  state  of  the  same  name,  taken 

ider  British  protection  December  18,  1818;     It  is  governed  by 

■0  chiefs,  descended  from  two  brothei-s  of  a  Mahratta  family, 
who  possess  eqiial  authority,  ^d  have  each  the  right  of  adop- 
tion. Area  of  district,  256  sq.  miles  ;  pop.  25,000;  revenue, 
about  ^^42,500. 

DewTserry  {Ruhus  easius\,  a  Rosaceous  plant  allied  to  the 
Bramble  (q.  v. ),  which  belongs  to  the  same  genus,  common  in 
many  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia.  R.  procumbtns  and  Canadensis 
ai-e  the  D.  of  N.  America.  Both  produce  an  edible  fruit,  that 
of  the  American  species  being  much  superior.  A  kind  of  '  wine ' 
is  made  from  the  juice  of  the  British  D.     See  RuBUS, 


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THE  GLOBE  BNCYCLOF^DIA. 


DHU 


De  Wett'e,  WiUielni  Martin  Leberecllt,  a  femous  Ger- 
man theologian,  was  born  at  Ulla,  near  Weimar,  r4tlijanuary 
1780,  studied  at  Jena,  and  was  appointed  Professor  of  TTieology 
at  Heidelberg  in  1809.  Called  to  Berlin  in  1810,  he  was  Pro- 
fessor of  Tlieology  there  till  1819,  when  he  lost  his  chair  for 
meddling  with  politics,  but  was  soan  after  appointed  Professor 
of  Theology  at  Basel,  where  ha  remained  till  his  death,  j6lh 
June  1849.  D.,  following  out  the  principles  of  Jacobi  (q,  v.), 
laboured,  like  Schleiermadier  (q.  v.),  to  inCrodace  a  more  pious 
mode  of  contemplating  the  mysteries  of  Cheistianity,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  merdy  inldlec^ual  mode  of  Rationalism.  Hence  he 
was  regarded  by  Rationalists  as  a  mystic,  ^though  those  who 
know  only  his  free  criticismof  the  sacred  ■cation  and  mythological 
treatment  of  the  OH  Testament  class  him  with  the  RationSists 
themselves.  In  reality  he  advocated,  though  in  a  conditional 
and  philosophical  manner,  old  Lutheran  orthodo!^.  Among  his 
best-known  works  are  his  £dtrS,ge  lur  Sinldtung  in  das  Alts 
Tisiament  (Halle,  2  vcJs.  l8o6-7j ;  Cammmtar  iiber  die  Psalmen 
(Heid.  1811);  Lehrbuch  iia- HtstoHsch-Kritiichen  EitiMtung in 
die  BiM  Attm  und  Musk  Testaments  (BerL  2  vols.  1817-26); 
Lehrbuckder  Christlichea  Dogtiiatikl^ffA.  2  vols.  1813-16);  Das 
Wesm  (ks  Christlichea  Claabens  (Basel,  1846). 

De  Witt,  Jan,  a  great  DutcTi  statesman,  was  torn  at  Tlort 
in  1625.  His  father,  Jakoli  De  Witt,  was  a  strong  opponent 
of  William  II.,^Prince  of  Oange,  and  the  hatred  descended 
to  the  son,  who,  afta:  receiving  a  careful  education,  entered 

iiublic  life,  and  was  sent  by  the  States  of  Holland  to  Zea- 
md,  to  persoade  that  province  against  an  Orange  policy. 
De  W.  further  showed  ability  of  another  sort  by  pablishing  a 
mathematical  treatise  titled  Elimenta  Lmearum  Curaarum,  At 
this  time  he  was  chosen  Pensionaty  of  Holland,  and  in  tlfis 
capacity  he  did  his  best  to  deprive  the  House  of  Orange  of 
power,  and  even  to  abolish  the  office  of  Stadtholder.  He  so  lar 
succeeded  that  in  1654,  at  the  end  of  the  war  With  England, 
an  article  was  secretly  inserted  ia  the  Ireaty  wilTi  Cromwell,  in 
virtue  of  which  the  House  of  Orange  was  deprived  of  all  slate 
offices.  Subsequently,  however,  the  influence  of  De  W.  declined, 
particalarly  after  Holland  was  mvaded  by  the  French  (1672),  and 
the  Orange  party  carried  the  devation  of  William  III.  to  the 
office  of  commander  of  the  Dutdi  forces.  In  the  first  cawpSign 
the  troops  were  beaten,  and  tbe  popular  hatred  against  De  W. 
rose  so  nigh  that  he  and  his  brother  Cornelius,  who  had  been 
accused  of  conspiring  against  the  Prince  of  Orange,  were  attacked 
and  murdered  by  a  mob,  at  the  Hague,  August  20,  1 672.  The 
Memoirs  of  De  W.,  published  in  1667,  contain  valuable  informa- 
tion about  the  political  history  of  J:be  time, — Cornelius  De 
W,,  brother  of  Jan  De  W,,  was  bom  at  Dort,  June  23,  1623. 
When  young  he  served  in  the  navy,  and  on  the  fall  of  the  Orange 
party  in  1650,  was  made  burgomastOT  of  Dort,  and  deputy  for 
W.  Friesland  and  Holland.  He  was  an  able  coadjutor  to  Jan 
De  W.,  and  showed  great  political  talents.  He  distinguished 
hiniself  in  a  sea-fight  under  DeRuyter  in  1672,  but  was  shortly 
afterwards  murdered  'along  with  his  brother. 

DewBTbury,  a  town,  in  the  W.  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Calder,  30  miles  S.W.  of  York,  and  186  miles 
N.  N.  W.  of  London  by  raSway.  It  is  noted  for  its  manufactures 
of  blankets,  woollen  doUia,  carets,  shoddy,  &c.  In  the  vicinity 
are  collieries  and  ironworks.  Pop,  of  munidpa!  borough  (1871), 
24,7;64  ;  of  parliamentary  borough,  constituted  in  1867,  and  in- 
cluding Batley  and  Soothil],  54,94a  D.  returns  one  member  to 
Parliament. 

Dextrine.     See  Bs-Itish  Gum. 

Day"  (perhaps  from  Turkish  dai,  'an  uncle  by  (he  mother's 
side '),  the  former  title  of  the  chief  of  Algiers,  corresponding  to 
the  Bey  of  Tunis  and  Tripoli.  The  D.  was  first  appointed  by 
the  Algerians  about  1600.  The  office  became  independent  of 
the  Sultan  about  1623,  and  "was  abolished  at  the  French  conquest 
of  Algiers  in  1830. 

Deyater,  Ijouia  de,  a  Flemish  painter,  bam  at  Bruges  in 
1656.  He  studied  under  Jean  Maas,  resided  for  sIk  years  in 
Rome,  and  also  for  some  time  in  Venice,  alter  wliich  he  returned 
to  his  native  place.  Of  a  deeply  religious -disposition,  he  rarely 
went  mto  society,  and  somewhat  ,of  the  gloom  of  his  life  is  re- 
flected in  his  worli.'!.  Of  these,  the  principal  Jtre  'Tiie  Death  of 
the  Virgin,'  'The  Resurrection  of  Christ,   'The  Appearance  of 


Christ  tq  the  Three  Marys,'  and  the  'History  of  Judith,'  in  sev-.„. 
parts.  His  manner  is  bold  and  large,  evincing  a  strong  Italian 
taste,  while  his  colour  is  bright,  ivarm,  and  pure.  To  give 
prominent  effect  to  the  ivork,  on  the  chief  parts  of  his  sul^ect 
he  occasionally  slurs  and  sacrifices  the  selling.  In  later  life  D, 
abandoned  his  art  for  music  He  died  at  Bruges  in  1711.  Hi 
daughter,  Anne  D.  (died  1746),  won  consideuable  reputatioi 
both  in  music  and  painting.  She  wrote  a  Life  of  her  father.  Sci 
Deschamps,  Vies  des  FdnU-es  Flamands,  vol.  iii, 

Dhalac',  an  island  in  the  Red  Sea,  9  miles  from  the  coast  of 
Dankali,  Abyssinia,  of  very  irregular  form,  and  about  120  miles 
in  circumference.  It  iaof  coral  formation,  and  is  mostly  sandy, 
with  a  few  grassy  spots  in  the  rainy  season,  affording  pasture  tO 
asses,  goats,  sheep,  and  antelopes.  Dubellu,  the  ptincipai  vil- 
lage, hnporfs  millet  and  dates  from  the  opposite  coast  of  Arabia, 
and  exports  pearls,  sharks'  fins,  and  turtles.  D,  having  no 
spring  rain-water  is  preserved  in  tanks  and  cisterns.  The  sur- 
rounding islets  (orni  the  D.  Archipelago. 

Dha'mi,  one  of  the  twenty-Six  Cis-Sul-lej  Mil-states  of  India. 
Area,  40  sq.  miles  ;  pop,  5500.  It  has  an  devation  of  4000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  In  feudal  subordination  to  the  go- 
vernment of  the  Punjab,  it  pays  360  Rs,  of  its  annual  revenue 
of  8000  Rs,  as  a  tribute. 

Dhai',  .a  town  in  the  Bhopawar  Agency,  Central  India,  nearly 
3000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  surrounded  by  a  mud  wall, 
while  the  fort  is  defended  by  walls  30  feet  high.  Pop.  formerly 
estimated  at  100,000.  D.  ^  now  greatly  decayed.— The  state 
of  the  same  name,  of  which  D,  is  the  capital,  and  in  which  opium 
is  largely  caltivated,  has  an  aieaofaogi  s^.  miles,  and  a  pop.  of 
125,000. 

Dhar'war,  atown  in  the  S.  of  the  province  of  Bombay,  capital 
of  adistrict  of  the  same  name  noted  for  its  cotton  growing.  It 
has  government  schools  for  Mahratlas  and  Canarese.  Pop.  {1S71) 
35,000,— The  flijft-6;i  of  D.  has  an  area  of  4517  sq,  miles,  and  a 
pop.  of  S64, 1 88.    Canarese  is  the  prevalent  language. 

D'H^belot,  Bartliaemy,  a  great  French  Orientalist,  was 
horn  of  good  family  at  Paris,  December  4, 1625,  After  studying 
Eastern  tongues,  and  travelling  to  Italy,  Louis  XIV.  gave  him 
a  pension  and  Professorship  .of  Syriao  in  the  College  de  France 
ill  1693.  D.  died  at  Paris,  December  8, 1695,  His  great  work, 
BiMiothiqus  Orieniale,  ou  Dictionnaire  Umversd  conienani  lout 
ce  ?w(  fait  c(mnaitre  Its  Ptupks  de  f  Orient  (Par,  1697),  wril 
originally  in  Arabic,  is  a  treasury  of  teaming  relating  to  the 
literature,  history,  religion,  &c.,  of  the  Arabs,  Turks,  and  Per- 
siansj  still  unsurpassed  in  Orient^  -schdlarship.  D.  also  wrote 
Anlhulogie  OrientaU  and  Dictionnaire  Aiti&e-Persien-Turc.  Edi- 
tions j>f  the  BibliatA^U!  viexe  published  at  Paris  in  1697,  and 
at  Maestricht  m  1778,  A  supplement  was  added  in  1781,  con- 
taining the  History  of  Tat;tary  by  Vixtelon,  and  a  translation  by 
Galland  of  remarkable  Oriental  sayings. 

Dhole,  or  Khol'stm  {Cuon  Zhethtensis),  a  species  of  wild 
deg  inhabiting  the  western  frontiers  of  Briti^  India.  In  size  it 
averages  an  ordinary  retriever,  and  exhibits  a  rich  brown  or  bay 
colour,  dairkest  on  the  feet,  muzzle,  and  tail.  In  habits  tlie  D. 
is  shy,  although  when  hunting  in  packs  it  may  evince  courage. 
The  ears  are  pointed  and  erect.  The  term  D.  is  also  applied 
to  nearly  allied  varieties  of  dogs  common  in  Ceylon  and  else- 
where, and  often  known  by  the  name  of  Red  Dogs.  The  genus 
•CArysais  includes  the  latter  ^arielies. 


Dhol'ka,  a  town  in  the  district  of  Ahmedab 


ieof 


Dbolpore',  a  capital  of  a  Jit  state  of  the  same  name,  Rajput- 
tana,  34  miles  S.S.W.  of  Agra.  Pop.  900a— The  state  is  sepa- 
rated from  Sindia  by  the  Chumbul,  and  was  increased  by  a 
grant  of  territory  in  1805.    Area,  162G  sq.  miles ;  pop,  500,000, 

Dliubbru',  .a  semi-ruined  town  of  India,  in  the  protected 
state 'of  Baroda,  en  .a  tributary  of  the  Nerbudda,  7  miles  S,E.  of 
Baroda.  It  is  surrotmded  by  colonnaded  walls,  affording  eitten- 
sive  views  of  the  fine  alluvial  country,  and  has  richly-sculptured 
temples,  and  an  immense  tank,  approached  by  splendid  flights 
of  stairs.    Monkeys  swarm  in  the  deserted  buildings.    Pop.  500. 

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DHU 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Dhun'elie,  or  Dhan'cM  {Sisbania  acalaiia),  an  annual  plant 
of  the  natural  order  Leguminosii,  a  native  of  India, ,  where  it  is 
cultivated  for  tlie  sake  of  its  fibre,  which,  as  it  bears  frequent 
wetting,  is  valuable  for  nets,  &c.,  though,  from  its  contracting  too 
much  when  drying,  it  is  unfitteil  for  ropes,  ships'  cordage,  and 
such  uses.  It  isalsofoundio  the  W.Indies  and  tropical  Africa. 
It  is  prepared  m  much  the  same  way  as  Sunn  [q.  v.). 

Dhwals^'ri,  or  Dhawalagi'ri  ('the  "White  Mountain'), 
one  of  the  loftiest  peaiis  of  the  Himalayas,  is  situated  in  Nepaul, 
and  has  a  heiglie  of  s6,  S6a  feet. 

Diabe'tea  (Gr>  diabetes,  'a  flowing  through,'  from  dia, 
'through,'  haitidtt,  'to  go')  is  a  disease  in  which  there  is  an  in- 
creased flow  of  urine  accompanied  by  much  thirst.  Two  kinds 
are  described  by  medical  writers,  D.  Mcltitits  and  £>.  ImsifiSus. 
The  former  is  a  disease  of  which  we  know  neither  the  origin  nor 
patholi^y,  and  consequently  its  treatment  is  not  saliefactoiy.  It 
IS  characterised  by  increased  flow  of  urine,  cont^ning  sugar 
allied  to  Grape-Sugar  (q.  v.),  and  cdways  of  a  high  specific 
gravity.  The  patient  complains  of  great  thirst,  hot  dry  skin, 
constipatioD,  and  general  debility.  He  gradudly  becomeS'enia- 
ciated,  with  a  sweet  breath,  a  great  tendency  to  disease  of  the 
lungs,  and  generally  a  voracious  appetite.  Sugar  is  found  in  the 
blood,  and  Jn  most  of  Che  secretions  and  ntcretions  of  the  body. 
D,  MitlUtis  probably  depends  on  disordered  functions  of  the 
liver,  possibfy  due  to  irritation  of  the  nervous  system.  The 
treatment  consists  in  abstaining  from  sugary  and  starchy  food  as 
far  as  possible,  and  Imng  chiefly  on  animal  food.  Milk  has  been 
highly  rec^mnaended.  Of  medicines,  opium,  iron,  and  quinine 
are  the  best.  Turkish  baths  are  sometimes  beneficial,  but  in 
point  of  fact  D.  Mdlitus  is  seldom  if  ever  cured,  D.  Insipidtu 
is  a  different  disease  ;  the  chief  symptoms  are  great  thirst,  and 
an  enormous  increase  of  urine,  of  a  light  specific  gravity,  but  con- 
taining no  sugar.     Steel-drops  may  be  taken  with  advantage. 

DiableretB,  a  rnotrntain  in  the  Bernese  Alps,  has  a  height  of 
lo,572.feet,  and  ischiefly  notable  on  account  of  two  -enormous 
and  destructive  landslips  (hence  its  significant  name),  which  took 
place  on  its  ades  in  1714  and  1749  respectively.  It  is  com- 
posed of  limestone,  and  the  huge  masses  were  undermined  by 
the  percolation  of  glacier-water; 

Dift'cliyloii,  lead  plaster,  made  by  boiling  together  lithai^e 
(oiide  of  iead),  olive  oil,  and  water.  D.  mixed  with  resin  and 
soap,  and  spread  on  clotli.,  foiins  the  common  or  sticking  plaster. 
The  name  was  applied  by  the  Gredss  to  an  onollient  plaster 
composed  of  the  jnices  of  herbs. 

Di'adem  (Or.  dia^ma,  from  din,  'across,'  and  de3,  '1 
bind '),  originally  the  blue  and  white  band,  or  fillet,  worn  by 
Asiatic  monarcl^  round  the  tiara,  fastened  behind,  the  ends 
being  allowed  to  fatl  loosely  over  the  shoulders.  Sometimes  it 
was  broad  and  adorned  wim  ■costly  jewels,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Persian  kings  ;  sometimes  narrow  and  phdn,  *)r  plaited,  as  in  that 
of  Bacchus,  who  is  generally  represented  in  ancient  sculptures 
with  this  ornament,  and  is  mentioned  by  Pliny  as  its  inventor. 
The  diadems  of  the  Egyptian  divinities  had  the  figure  of  a  ser- 
pent upon  them.  Alexander  the  Great  adopted  the  D.  from  the 
Persians,  and  Antony,  during  his  amonrwith  Cleopatm,  assumed 
the  Egyptian  badge.  Gradually  it  became  the  recognised  em- 
blem of  sovereignty  among  the  'Western  nations,  and  was  assigned 
by  sculptors  to  various  divinities.  Noneof  the  Roman  emperors 
wore  it  tlU  the  time  of  DiodeBan.  By  the  additioE  of  gold  and 
gems  it  went  on  increasing  in  size  till  it  became  the  modttn 

E>™(,.v.). 

Dise'resis  {Gr.  diairesis.  'a  dividing''),atenn  used  in  grammar 
to  denote  the  resolution- of  a  diphdong  ch-  of  a  contracted  syllable 
into  two  syllables,  as  Lat.  aulie,  aulai,  silii^,  dliia.  The  term  D. 
is  also  applied  to  the  mark  ■.  placed  over  one  of  the  vowels  to 
indicate  that  it  is  to  be  pronounced  separately  from  the  pracediiOg 
or  succeeding  one,  as  the  case  msqj  be. 

Diag^O'sis  (Gr.  from  dia,  '  thoroughly,'  and  gigiKskem,  'to 
know')  means,  in  medicine,  that  knowledge  of  a  disease  which  the 
physician  can  obtain  by  careful  examination  of  the  patient.  To 
make  a  perfect  D.  the  family  and  the  personal  history  of  the 
patient  must  be  considered,  the  condition  and  functions  of  the 
oi^ns  of  the  body  and  the  abnormal  symptoms  present  carefully 

-'  3S4 


;ting  «  poini 


I  non- adjacent  angles  of 
aight  iines  which 
together,  is  (se 


Per- 


mutations AND  Combinations)  ^i2 — ii  Now,  if  those 
points  be  taken  as  the  angles  of  a  rectilinear  figure,  «  of  these 
straight  lines  are  the  sides  of  fiie  figure,  and  therefore  "^"~'i.  _  „ 

or  — ! 32  5s  .the  number  .ef  diagonals.    Thus  a  pentagon  has  S, 

an  octagon  20,  and  a  nonagon  27,  Tlie  D.  of  a  solid  is  a  line 
joining  any  two  non-adjacent  solid  angles  ;  a  cube  has  4. 

Diagonal  Soale,  a  form  of  scale  used  for  the  accurate  and 
convenient  measurement  of  small  subdivisions  of  any  given  unit 
of  lenglJi.  If  we  suppose,  as  an  illustration,  the  unit  to  be  one 
inch  and  the  required  subdi^slonto  be  into  one-hundredth  parts, 
it  is  easily  seen  that  atthougb  it  would  be  possible  to  divide  a 
straight  line,  measuring  an  inch  in  length,  inlo  one  hundred 
equal  parts,  and  then  to  make  meiasureraenls  upon  a  scale  so  eon- 
Etrucled,  the  smallness  of  the  intervals  would  make  both  the 
operation  difficult  and  the  measurement  inconvenient.  By 
means-of  a  D.  S.  this  could  he  done  easily  and  without  having 
to  set  out  any  smaller  dimension  than  j^^th  of  an  inch.  The  pro- 
cess is  as  follows  : — Draw  eleven  parallel  lines  at  any  convenient 
disiance  (say  Jth  of  an  inch)  apart,  calling  them  O.,  I.,  If,,  III., 
.  .  .  3C,  beginning  at  the  bottom.  Crossing  all  these  at  right 
angles,  draw  two  parallel  lines  exactly  one  inch  apart,  and  di- 
vide this  inch  upon  lines  O.  and  X.  into  tenths.  Let  the  line 
marking  the  left-hand  end  of  the  measured  isch  intersect  O.  and 
X.  in-o,  fflid  number  the  tenths  r,  2,  3,  So.,  towards  the  right. 
Then  draw  lines  joining  o  on  O.  with  i  on  X.,  i  on  O,  with  2 
on  X,,  and  so  on,  and  the  D.  S.  ia  complete.  The  lines  OX.  and 
01  intersect  in  the  point  o  upon  O,,  and  are  ^  of  an  inch  apart 
jipon  X. ;  at  each  intwmediate  line  I.,  II.,  III.,  &c.,  they  are 
therefore  I,  2,  3,  &c,,  lenlhs  of  one-imik,  that  is,  hundredths,  of 
an  inch  apajrt,  and  simih^ly  with  the  liaes  12,  23,  &c.  Thus  any 
required  dimensions  in  hundredths  oi  an  inch  can  be  measured 
upon  one  or  other  of  the  inttsmedinte  lines ;  for  example,  forty- 
mne  hundredths  is  the  distance  from  t^ie  line  OX,  to  the  line  45 
measured  upon  the  parallel  IX.  and  so  on. 

Diag'oras,  a  Greek  poet  and  philosopher,  son  of  Telecleides, 
was  a  native  of  Melos,  one  of  the  Cyclades.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  a  disciple  of  Democritius  r£  Abdera;  and  from  his  open 
avowal  of  disbelief  in  the  popular  theology  he  was  branded  as 
an  athdst.  Besides  this,  vmy  little  regarding  his  Career  is  known 
!ot  certain.  He  had,  however,  taken  up  his  abode  in  Athens  as 
early  as  424  B.  c, ,  for  Aristophanes,  in  his  comedy  of  the  Clouds, 
which  was  performed  in  that  year,  refers  to  him  as  a  celebrity. 
From  the  epithet  Melian,  applied  to  Socrates  in  the  passage,  it 
has  'been  conjectured  th^  the  latter  was  a  pupil,  or,  at  all  events, 
an  acquaintance -of  D.  In  411  B.C.  D.,  having  got  involved  in  a 
lawsuit  at>out  impiety,  found  it  expedient  to  nee  from  the  city. 
Though  a  price  was  set  upon  his  head,  he  managed  to  reach 
Pallene,  from  which,  after.a  time,  he  west  to  Corinth,  where  he 
died.  While  irreiigion  was  the  ostensible  ground  of  accusation, 
the  refd  comer-stone  of  his  •offending  was  doubtless  of  a  political 
nature.  All  accounts  represent  D.  as  a  man  of  exemplary  con- 
duct, stainless  morals,  and  signal  earnestness  of  purpose.  Among 
his  phQosophlcal  works  was  one  entitled  Pkrygioi  Logoi,  in  which 
he  explained  and  defended  his  opinions.  D.  seems  also  to  have 
had  some  reputation  «s  an  orator. 

Si'aJ  (Low  Lat.  iMalis,  from  dits,  'a  day,  a  space  of  time'), 
or  Sun-Dial,  an  instrument  of  great  asitiquity  for  measuring 
time.  Since  Uie  invention  and  introduction  of  clocks  and 
watches,  it  has  become  of  less  and  less  use,  till  now  it  is  re- 
garded as  a  mere  astronomical  toy.  Herodotus  says  the  Chal- 
deans taught  its  use  to  the  Gredra  ■;  and  Anaiimander  gets  the 
credit  of  having  made  a  D.  in  550  B.C.  L.  Fapirius  Cursor 
placed  the  first  one  seen  at  Rome  on  the  temple  of  Quirinns, 
and  divided  the  day  into  twenty-four  hours  (293  B.  c ). 

A  D.  usually  consists  of  a  plane  surface,  in  the  centre  of  which 
is  fixed  the.  slyk,  whose  shadow  cast  by  the  sim  upon  the  plate 
indicates  the  time  by  Its  position.  From  the  same  centre  ar 
drawn  the  lines  which  represent  the  hours,  and  it  is  the  layini 
down  of  these  lines  which  constitutes  the  great  difficulty  attend 
ing  the  making  of  a  D.    That  edge  of  the  style  whose  shadow 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DIA 


gives  the  time  must  point  towards  the  pole  of  the  heayeos — or, 
more  correctly,  muBt  be  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  earth.  It  is 
apparent,  then,  thatatanygiven  time  the  sun,  theedgeofthestyle, 
and  the  shadow  will  be  in  the  same  plane,  which  plane,  passing 
through  the  centre  of  the  earth,  rotates  uniformly  with  the  sun, 
taking  twenty-fonr  hours  to  complete  one  revolution.  The  prob- 
lem is  then  reduced  to  finding  the  lines  of  intersection  on  a  given 
plane  of  twenty-four  other  planes,  which  all  pass  through  the 
same  line  given  in  position,  and  which  malte  witli  each  other  the 
same  angle  of  15°.  Tliese  Imes  of  intersection  will  not  in  general 
make  the  same  angles  with  each  other ;  a  feet  which  may  be 
easily  shown  by  slicing  an  orange  in  a  direction  not  at  right 
angles  to  the  axis,  when  It  will  be  seen  that  though  each  lith  is 
of  the  same  size,  the  eiposed  surface  of  each  on  the  newly-cut 
circle  will  not  he  so.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  D.  be  horizontal, 
or  even  plane,  though  in  the  latter  case  the  laying  down  of  the 
hour-lines  is  rendered  much  more  difficult,  .and  indeed  is  best 
done  practically  by  comparison  with  a  stan^rd  D.  Next  to  the 
cbramon  horizontal  D.,  the  vertkalJ}.  is  the  one  most  frequently 
met  with.  It  is  usually  fined  upon  the  waJl  of  a  chnrch  or  house, 
and  if  possible  faces  one  of  the  cardinal  points.  If  it  does  not 
do  so,  it  is  termed  a  dfclining  vertkal  D.,  and  the  investigation 
of  its  hour-lines  becomes  much  more  complicated.  The  style  is 
usually  the  straight  edge  ot  a  thin  plate,  or  a  wire  ;  but  a  ^it  or 
hole  in  a  thin  plate,  allowing  the  light  to  pass  through,  will 
answer  the  purpose  jnst  as  wdl.  The  time  indicated  by  the  D. 
is  of  course  the  true  solar  time,  and  agrees  with  the  mean  time, 
or  that  shown  by  a  good  clock  only  at  four  different  times  of  tlie 
year,  which  occur  at  about  the  middle  of  April,  the  middle  of 
Tune,  the  beginning  of  September,  and  the  end  of  December. 
--  disagreement  with  mean  or  civil  time,  and  the  necessity  of 


™s'( 


applying  a  correction  which  varies  from  day  to  day,  are  decided 
objections  to  the  employment  of  sun-dials  as  lime- indicators. 
Farther  disadvantages  arise  from  the  impossibility  of  getting  a 
clearly-defined  edge  to  the  shadow  cast  by  the  style;  and  con- 
sequently of  obtaining  even  an  approximately  accurate  estimate 
of  time  from  a  D.  of  convenient  size ;  and  also  from  atmo- 
spheric refraction,  which  has  the  effect  of  throwing  the  shadow 
a  trifle  towards  noon  at  ail  times.  Accordingly,  a  correction 
must  be  made,  which  varies  with  the  stm'ii  altitude,  and  which 
must  be  subtracted  for  all  honrs  before  noon,  and  added  for 
all  hours  after  noon.  On  the  more  elaborately  constructed  sun- 
dials tables  of  corrections  for  every  day  in  the  year  were  fre- 
quently inscribed.  For  an  account  of  some  curious  dials,  see 
Brewster'a  edition  of  Feigusson's  Lectures;  also  Delambre's 
Astrottomie  Attdmne,  and  Montusla's  Histoire  dis  MutkJma- 

Di'aleot,  in  the  narrowest  sense  a  local  variety  of  a  language, 
has,  since  the  development  of  philology  and  consequent  recogni- 
tion of  the  connections  between  various  tongues,  been  applied  to 
languages  of  kindred  origin.  Thus  Greek,  Latin,  German  are 
spoken  of  as  Aryan  dialects,  having  sprung  from  a  common  Aryan 
source.  In  the  earlier  and  more  restricted  use  of  the  word,  the 
Greek  language  contained  four  distinct  dialects,  the  Boric,  jSolic, 
lonii:,  and  Attic.  The  Doric,  marked  by  the  broad  sound  of  the  a, 
IS  simple,  rough,  and  unpolished.  It  prevailed  in  the  Pelbpon- 
sus.  The  iEolio,  resembling  the  Done  in  roughness,  was  pecu- 
liar to  BcBOtia,  the  adjoinmg  dStriots,  and  variousiEoIian  colonies. 
The  Ionic  was  soil,  flowing,  melodious,  especaally  rich  in  com- 
binations of  vowels.  It  was  confined  to  part  of  Asia  Minor  and 
the  neighbouring  islands.  The  Attic  was  at  first  closely  shnilat  to 
the  Ionic,  but  through  the  spread  of  commerce  and  the  influence 
of  the  Dorians  andJSolians,  became  a  distinct  D.,  more  succinct 
and  nervous  than  the  Ionic,  more  polished  and  euphonious  than 
the  Doric  and  jEolic.  Through  the  political  and  literary  great- 
ness of  Athens  the  Attic  becune  the  Greek  D.  in  which  writers 
of  evay  state  wrote.  It  was  at  first  restricted  to  Athens  and 
the  nei^bourhood,  but  after  the  Roman  conquest  was  generally, 
though  not  universally,  adopted  throughout  Greece.  The  process 
of  gradual  dialectic  divergence  from  a  common  stock  is  strikingly 
shown  in  the  rise  of  the  Romance  languages  from  the  Latin. 
The  Latm  tongue,  even  in  its  pahniest  era,  embraced  two  dia- 
lects—the poliSied  Latin  of  the  literary  and  refined  classes,  and 
the  scrmo  plebeius  or  ruslicas.  These  differed  vridely  in  vocabu- 
lary and  accent ;  the  classic  virherare,  equus,  and  ptigna,  for 
example,  being  represented  in  the  vulgar  Latin  by  bailuere,  cabal- 
124 


lus,  and  ballualia,  while  stabul-um,  oraculum,  dupUcare,  ponere, 
&c,  are  contracted  in  the  j>Iebeian  D.  to  slab'lum,  sra^liim,  dup- 
V are,  pan' re,  &c.  From  this  vulgar  Latm,  which  must  be  distin- 
guished from  the  Zow  Latin,  a  corrupt  literary  medium  extin- 
guished during  the  barbarian  invasions,  wose  the  Romanci  or 
New  Latin  directs,  comprising  the  French,  Provencal,  Spanish, 
and  Portuguese,  the  Rhito- Romanic  of  S.  Switzerland  and  the 
Wallachian.  Before  the  Gothic  invasions  began  to  influence 
the  Latin  speech,  that  language  was  tending  to  simplify  its  in- 
flections, and  alter  the  barbarians  settled  in  the  empire,  gram- 
matical disoiganisation  immensely  increased.  TTie  Gothic  tribes, 
discarding  the  inflectional  endings,  ' seized,' says  M.  Littr^,  'or 
the  solid  part  of  the  word,  the  kernel  which  offered  them  resis- 
tance ;'  and  thus,  for  example,  the  Latin  sdticitare,  minislerittm, 
ssiiinare,  become  the  French  souldsr,  mesiier,  and  esmer.  Before 
the  end  of  the  8th  c  the  Liisgua  Romana  Jitntica  was  the  com.- 
mon  speech  of  the  Gothic  settlers  round  the  Mediterranean,  and 
gradually  various  dialects  became  defined,  from  what  had,  for  a 
lime,  been  a  kind  of  linguistic  debris.  TTiese  different  dialects 
did  not  arise  from  an  original  variety  of  speech  among  the  Teu- 
tonic triites,  but  from  historic  events  subsequent  to  the  general 
adoption  of  the  Lingua  Rustica.  Thus  the  Spanish  was  modi- 
fied by  the  Arabic  of  the  Saracen  conquest  of  Spain.  Such 
Gennan  words  as  were  preserved  amid  the  Latino.  Suttica  a: 
somed  a  Latin  form— the  German  banu,  algd,  marahscalh,  lini 
calh,  for  example,  becoming  the  Romanic  battnum,  aladiiip , 
mariscallus,  siniseallus,  before  appearing  as  the  modem  French 
Ai»,  alleu,  tnarkhal,  sinichal.  Through  time  the  Romance  d 
lects  diverged  more  widely,  and  each  branched  into  vario 
minor  dialects,  one  of  which,  generally  through  some  fortuitous 
circumstance,  became  at  last  the  classic  national  speech.  The 
same  process  is  seen  in  the  Teutonic  tongues.  The  Alemannic, 
Frankish,  and  Suabian  were  the  dominant  German  dialects  until 
the  High  Gernian  was  rendered  the  national  speech  by  the  in- 
fluence of  Luther's  High  German  translation  of  the  Bible. 
Similarly  Tuscan  was  rendered  the  classic  D.  of  Italy  because 
used  by  Dante  for  his  Dieina  Corn-media.  For  the  vmIous  dia- 
lects of  English,  see  ENGLISH  Language.     The  use  of  the 


word  D.   is  somewhat  vague  and  perplexing. 

every  language  is  a  D.  m  regard  to  its  kindred  tc..^ 

speech  whence  it  mainly  sprang,  while  a  local  variety  of  a  lan- 


d  tongues  and  the 


guage,suchas  Scottish  iii  relation  to  English,  is  likewise  citrrectly 
spoken  of  as  a  D.  After  an  indefinite  amount  of  linguistic  varia 
tion  and  development,  a  minor  D,  may  become  an  independen 
tongue,  as  Portuguese,  which  was  at  first  considered  a  corrupt 
D.  of  Spanish.  Scottish  is  not  a  different  language  from  Eng- 
lish, nor  is  it  In  any  sense  a  corrupt  form  of  the  latter.  It 
was  originally  Northumbrian  English,  and  its  first  peculiarities 
showed  themselves  when  it  was  cut  off  from  Southern  influence 
by  the  union  of  the  English  Earldom  of  Lothian  with  the  old 
Gaelic  kingdom  of  Scotland  and  the  Cymric  principality  of 
Strathdyde.  It  is  now  a  mere  ruin,  but  it  still  preserves  in  its 
splendid  decay  many  old  English  forms  which  have  long  ceased 
to  adorn  the  classic  tongue  of  the  South.  See  Gidel's  Littera- 
hire  Fran^aise,  Whitney's  Language  lind  the  Study  of  Langu- 
age, Oliphant's  Standard  English,  and  Skeat's  Bibliographical 
List  of  the  Works  published  or  in  MS.  illustratkie  of  vi  ' 
Dialects  of  English  (Lond,  1876}, 

XKLalec'Ua  (&< 

with')  means  a 
the  D.  art  mean 
another.  Plato 
speculation  as  n 
been  revived  in  re 
limited  the  term 
from  positive  d< 


flie  Gr.  dialegomai,   '  I  hold  c 

iveisy,  dispute ;  and  hence 

of  discussing  a  subject  by  quesi ' 

the  term  to  the  process  of  metaphysical 

of  logical  inference ;  and  this  use  of  it  has 

ent  times ;  for  eitaniple,  by  Hegel.    Aristotle 

o  the  logic  of  probabilities  as  distinguished 

mstration,     The  word  is  also  employed  in  its 

ivalent  to  logic,  the  science  of  the  formal  laws 

. __  j[^g  application  of  the 


.pphed  th 


versality  as  eqi 
of  thought,  and,  i 
laws  of  reason  ra 
than  to  the  attaini 

Di'allage,  an  hydrated,  calcareous  augite,  varying  in  colour 
from  pale  green  to  grey  and  brown.  Bronzite,  so  named  from 
its  colour,  is  a  nearly  allied  mineral,  being  the  hydrous  repre- 
sentative of  the  magnesian  augites.  Z>,  rock  is  a  generally  palish 
green  or  grey  rock,  granitic  or  porphyritic  in  appearance,  and 
composed  of  labtadorite  and  D. 

385 


vLiOOQle 


DIA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPALDIA. 


DlA 


Bi'tdo^ue,  : 


1,  is  especially  applied  to  dramaSc 
nritings  in  which  two  or  more  persona  are 
represented  discussii^  any  topic.  Among  the  tmeients,  who  were 
fond  of  this  form  of  literature,  and  used  it  for  gay  and  serious 
themes,  Plato,  Cicero,  and  Lucian  {Dialogue  of  the  Bead)  are 
memorable.  In  later  times  it  was  adopted  in  Italy  by  Petiarca, 
Machiavelli,  Algarotti.  Galileo,  Gelli,  &c. ;  in  France,  by  Sar- 
rasvn,  Malebranche,  F^^lon,  Fontenelle,  Diderot,  St  Mard,  and 
Galiania  ;  in  Germany  and  the  Low  Countries,  by  Erasmus,  Les- 
sii^  Mendelssohn,  Engel,  Jacobi,  Herder,  Schelling,  Wieland; 
ill  England,  by  Ascham,  Spenser,  Berkeley,  Hurd,  Addison, 
Lyttelton,  and  others.  The  chief  English  work  in  D. — outside 
the  drama— is  Landor's  Imaginary  Conversaliims,  which  are  of 
almost  peerless  beauty  of  style. 

Diamagnet'ic,  a  term  applied  tiy  Faraday  to  those  bodies 
which  appear  to  be  repelled  by  either  pole  of  a  magnet.  Bis- 
mtith  and  antimony  had  long  been  recognised  as  having  such  a 
property,  but  they  were  regarded  as  mere  curiosities  till  Faraday 
in  the  course  of  his  experiments  showed  that  matter  of  almost 
every  kind,  solid,  liquid,  and  gaseous,  was  capable  of  being  re- 
pelled or  attracted  by  a  magnetic  pole.  Substances  which,  like 
icon  and  nickel  are  attracted  by  a  magnet,  are  called  for  dis- 
tinction paramagnetic.  If  a  cod  of  a  paramagnetic  Solid,  or  an 
elongated  cylinder  of  thin  glass,  containing  a  paramagnetic  liquid, 
be  suspended  between  the  poles  of  a  strong  magnet,  it  will  either 
arrange  itself  axially,  at  in  the  line  joining  the  poles ;  and  if  a 
D.  substancebe  similarly  treated,  it  will  arrange  itself  iyMo;onfl//f, 
or  at  light  angles  to  the  line  joming  the  poles.  A  veiy  ingenious 
method,  invented  by  Plucker,  of  showing  the  magnetic  nature  of 
a  liquid,  is  to  pour  a  little  into  a  watch  glass  which  rests  upon 
the  poles.  If  the  liquid  be  parnmagnellc,  its  uppec  surfece  be- 
comes simply  concave  ;  hut  if  D.,  there  are  two  concavities,  one 
over  Ae  termination  of  eadi  pole .  A  stream  of  gas,  if  directed 
through  between  the  poles,  will  continue  in  its  course  intersecting 
the  axial  line  if  the  gas  be  pai^magnetic,  but  will  be  divided  so 
as  to  pass  onboth  sides  of  this  line  if  it  be  p.  Another  method 
employed  by  Faraday  to  make  the  effect  more  apparent  was  to 
float  a  Eoap-bubble  tilled  with  the  gas  in  the  magnetic  field. 
Tliis  test  was  found  very  delicate.  These  phenomena,  at  first 
sight  so  ivreconcilahle,  are  easily  explicable  upon  Faraday's 
theory  of  action  through  a  medium,  especially  when  taken  in 
connection  with  the  experimentally  established  fact  that  a  sub- 
stance ordinarily  D.  acts  as  a  paramagnetic  body  in  a  medium 
more  D,  than  itself,  and  a  paramagnetic  body  acting  in  a  medium 
more  paramagnetic  than  itself  behaves  as  a  D.  substance.  In 
other  words,  Uiese  D.  bodies  behave  with  respect  to  the  magnetic 

traction  in  the  same  way  as  a  balloon  ascending  does  to  the 
H^vitating  attraction  of  the  earth.  Taking  air  as  the  medium, 
uie  more  important  paramagnetic  bodies  are  ;  iron,  nickel,  cobalt, 
manganese,  palladium,  platinum,  chromium,  sealing-wax,  plum- 
bago, shell-lac,  charcoal,  oxygen,  &C  ;  and  the  D.  ;  bismuth, 
antimony,  gold,  copper,  silver,  anc,  tin,  cadmium,  mercury, 
sodium,  rock  crystal,  alum,  glass,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  india- 
cubbec,  lithai^e,  wood,  starch,  sugar,  beef,  apple,  blood,  water, 
alcohol,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  carbonic  acid,  coal-gas,  S[c. 

Diamanti'no,  the  name  of  a  river  and  of  two  towns  in  Brazil. 
The  river,  supposed  to  join  the  Paraguay,  rises  in  the  province 
of  Matto  G rosso.  Eighty  miles  N.N,  W,  of  Cuyaba  it  is  joined 
by  the  Ouro,  where  the  smaller  of  the  two  towns  named  D. 
stands.  The  name  was  given  to  it  from  the  diamonds  found  in 
the  neighbourhood.  Pop.  4500.  The  \atgtt  town,  formerly 
Tejuts,  is  in  the  province  of  Minas  Geraes.  It  lies  5700  feet 
above  the  sea,  is  well  bnilc,  and  has  a  fine  climate.     Pop.  12,000. 

Diam'eteP,  in  elementary  geometry,  a  straight  line  passing 
through  the  centre  of  a  figure.  For  central  curves  and  surfaces 
of  the  second  order,  each  D.  bisects  a  system  of  parallel  chords. 
This  property  has  led  to  a  wider  definition  of  the  ■term,  appli- 
cable to  all  curves,  viz. ,  a  D.  is  the  polar  line,  with  respect  to 
the  curve,  of  an  infinitely  distant  point.    See  Poles  and  PoLARS. 

Di'amond  (Fr.  diamant,  a  corruption  of  the  Gr.  adamantines, 
'unbreakable'),  the  hardest  and  most  brilliant  of  all  precious 
stones,  and,  excepting  the  ruby,  the  most  piecious.  It  is  gene- 
rally coloucless  or  pale  yellow,  but  is  occasionally  blue,  green, 
or  red.  It  reflects  all  the  light  vMcb  falls  on  it  at  an  angle  of 
incidence  greater  than  a^°  13',  and  its  power  of  refraction  is 
2'487,  that  of  common  glass  being  I  '525.  To  these  qualities  ate 
3S6 


due  its  brilliancy  and  sparltle.  Being  the  hardest  of  all  know 
substances,  it  can  only  be  cut  and  polished  with  its  own  dual 
■The  D.  is  composed  of  pure  carbon  in  a  peculiar  allotropic  cor 
dition,  but  the  means  by  which  it  has  assumed  that  form  hav 
not  been  explained,  and  all  attempts  to  produce  diamonds  by 
artificial  means  have  failed.  D.  is  combustiUe  in  oxygen,  the 
combustion  producing  pure  carbonic  acid,  just  as  happens  in 
the  burning  of  common  charcoal,  and  under  high  heat  can  be 
changed  into  a  form  of  graphite  or  black-lead.  Diamonds  are 
at  present  obtained  from  three  localities— India,  Brazil,  and 
Cape  Colony,  In  India  they  are  pretty  widely  distributed, 
occurring  in  the  Deccan  in  the  alluvium  of  rivers,  in  Bnndelkund, 
and  at  Sumbulpore  on  the  Mahanuddy,  The  D.  is  much  scarcer 
in  the  East  than  formerly.  In  the  17th  c.  the  famous  D.-mines 
are  said  to  have  occupied  Go.ooo  persons.  A  targe  proportion 
of  the  diamonds  brought  to  the  market  at  the  present  day  are 
found  in  Matto  Grasso,  Braiil,  where  also  the  D, -yielding  soil 
is  widespread.  The  discovery  of  rich  D,  deposits  in  Griqua 
Land  West,  S.  Africa,  was  only  made  in  1867.  From  that  time 
till  the  beginning  of  1876  the  washings  had  yielded  diamonds  to 
the  value  of  ^12,000,000,  beingat  the  rate  of  ;^2,cx)0,ooo  yearly. 
In  1875  there  were  over  6o,ocx)  diggers  in  the  fields,  of  whom 
15,000  were  Europeans.  The  atones  found  ace  mostly  small  and 
of  inferior  colour  or  water.  One  stone,  however,  the  'Star  of  South 
Africa,'  found  in  1869,  we^hed  83J  carats,  and  was  valued  at 
^20,000,  and  another  of  147  caiats  was  unearthed  in  1873,  while  a 
valuable  blue  one  was  found  in  1876.  The  existence  of  diamonds 
in  Australia  has  also  been  demonstrated,  and  they  have  been 
fomid  in  Borneo,  Sumatra,  and  Java,  and  in  the  Ural  Mountains. 
The  cutting  and  polishing  oi  diamonds,  tipon  the  success  of 
which  the  beauty  of  the  stones  depends,  is  chiefly  performed  by 


Jews  in  Amsterdam,  and  the  industry  demands  great  care  am 
skill  In  many  cases  the  roiigh  stones  require  to  be  split  o 
cleaved  into  form  before  cutting  is  begun,  and  for  the  succes 
of  this  delicate  opera,tion  tlie  workman  must  take  advantage  of 
the  cleavage  lines  of  the  stone.  Diamonds  are  chiefly  cut  into 
the  form  of  single  or  double  brilliants.  In  this  form  the  stone 
consists  of  two  principal  parts— the  bezil  and  the  pavilion.  The 
bezil  extends  from  the  table  a  to  the  girdle  6,  and  tlie  pavilion 
from  the  girdle  to  the  cutlet  c.  The  facets  which  touch  the 
table  are  called  star  facets  ;  those  which  touch  the  girdle  either 
from  above  or  below  are  skill  facets.  In  the  single-cut  bril- 
liant the  table  is  square,  and  the  whole  stone  presenls  thirty- 
eight  facets.  The  other  forms  of  the  D.  are  the  table-cut,  a  form 
only  fouiid  in  old  stones,  and  the  many-sided  rose-cut,  in  which 
brilliancy  is  sacrificed  to  size. 

Tlie  value  of  a  D.  depends  on  its  brilliance,  purity  of  colour, 
freedom  from  flaws  or  specks,  and  its  shape  and  size.  By  a  D. 
of  the  first  or  second  '  water  '  is  meant  one  comparatively  free 
from  cloading  and  imperfections.  A  peculiarity,  such  as  a 
bjue,  green,  or  red  hue,  gives  the  stone  an  exceptional,  and 
sometimes  an  exorbitant,  value.  Diamonds  are  subject  to  great 
fluctuations  jn  valne,  and  the  recent  discovery  of  the  Cape 
deposits  have  caused  a  considerable  depreciation  in  price.  Up 
to  a  weight  of  5  carats  (20  grcdns)  the  value  is  estimated  by 
the  weight,  and  Mr  Hany  Emanuel  gives  a  table  of  the  value 
of  perfect  brilliants,  from  which  we  make  the  following  extracts. 
It  should  be  stated  that  the  table  in  question  refers  to  a  pei-iod 
previous  to  the  discovery  of  Cape  diamonds,  A  brilliant  weigh- 
ing half  a  carat,  ;^S,  lOs.,  three-quarters,  ^9,  los.,  one,  £\i, 
one  and  a  half,  ^^38,  two,  £(,^,  two  and  a  half,  £&%,  three, 
;£l2S,  four,^220,  five,j,f330.  Above  that  weight  the  price  of  the 
stones  increases  rapidly,  and  the  value  becomes  a  question  of 
individual  baigaining, 

A  few  diamonds  of  uncommon  size  are  Itiiown  to  exist,  some 
of  which  have  a  remarkable  history.  The  Koh-i-noor  ('  mountain 
of  light '),  which  is  now  among  the  British  crown  jewels,  is  a  D. 
which  has  figured  in  Indian  annals  from  a  very  remote  period, 
and  been  the  objept  of  pmch  qipidily  and  intrigue.     When  it 


yLaOOgle 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DIA 


:o  the  possession  of  the  Queen,  in  1850,  it  was  an  irregu- 
larly sliaped  and  tatlier  lustreless  mass,  weighing  1S6  carats. 
By  subsequent  cutting  its  weight  was  reduced  to  loaj  carats, 
but  it  was  formed  into  a  brilliant  of  unequalled  purity  and  sparkle, 
and  its  value  is  now  estimated  at  ^1,000,000  sterling.  The 
largest  D.  is  asserted  to  be  the  Braganza,  a  Brazilian  stone  in 
the  Portuguese  crown  collection.  Its  weight  is  stated  at  no  less 
than  1880  carats,  but  the  genuineness  of  the  stone  is  doubted. 
Next  in  weight  comes  the  Mattan  D.  of  Eomeo,  an  uncut 
stone,  weighing  367  carats.  Of  other  well-known  stones  are  the 
Orloff,  in  the  Russian  frown  collection  ( i<jn\  carats) ;  the  Regent, 
or  Pitt,  among  the  French  crown  jewels  (136I  carats) ;  the 
Emperor  of  Austria's  brilliant  (139^  carats} ;  and  the  Brazilian 
Star  of  the  South  (izs  caiats).  The  King  of  Portugal  also  owns 
a  Braiilian  stone  of  1381^  carats,  and  the  Emperor  of  Brazil,  the 
Sultan  of  Turkey,  and  the  Shah  of  Persia,  are  known  to  possess 
!ome  valuable  stones. 

Diamonds  have  an  industrial  value  for  the  cutting  of  glass  and 
the  polishing  of  gems.  The  stone  used  in  the  D.  rock-boring 
machines  in  use  is  the  carbonado,  boart  or  black  D,  of  Brazil, 
a  stone  of  no  lostre  or  value  as  a  gem,  but  which  possesses  the 
ardness  of  the  precious  D.  See  Dieulafail's  Diamonds  and  Pre- 
ious  Slrmes,  &c.  (Blackie,  1874),  and  Emanuel's  Diamonds  and 
Freciaiis  Sionei,  &c.  (new  ed.  Loud.  1875)  j  also  articl   Carbon 

Diamond  Beetle  (CarfH/inim/iTifl/w)  a  genus   fC  1    p     a 

or  Beetles,  belonging  to  the  Tetramera,  and  so  named  f 

,        J     _,       goi^eous  hues  and  Inslres. 

H  \j~J  **^       to  the  Weevils  (q.  v.),  and 

i.   Jft   M  °f  ^  golden  green,  with  two  bl    k  ba  dt, 

T^lar  on  the  thorax.     It  is  found  n  B  aail  and 

^3K|^  other  pacts  of  S.  America, 

-MmB£^^  Diamond  Harboar,  on  tlie  left  side 

f^r    W^^K\   ^te  of  the   Hoogly,   the   port  of  Calcutta, 

I  Vr  I  from  which  it  is  distant  about  30  miles 

1^1  S.S.W.     D.  H.  is  very  unhealthy,  espe- 

^  ^^         cially  during  and  immediately  after  the 

Dkniond  B;tile.  periodical  rains.    The  adjacent  rice-fields 

yield  heavy  crops.    Since  the  opening  of 

ning  Town,  on  the  Nautch  river,  the  trade  of 


all!  d 


D.  H.  has  declined. 
Diamond  ITecMace,  a  costly  o: 
e  of  the  strangest  episodes  it  " 


nent  which  gave  rise  to 

^...  .J.  .  n  ii'rench  history.     It  was  made 

for  Madame  du  Barry  by  Bcehmer,  the  King's  jeweller,  was 
formed  of  500  diamonds,  and  valued  at  about  ^80,000.  On  the 
death  of  Louis  XV. ,  it  could  find  no  purchaser,  and  the  Cardinal 
de  Rohan,  a  rich  libertine,  persuaded  by  a  clever  adventuress,  De 
Lamotte,  that  the  Queen  viewed  him  with  favour,  procured  it  as 
a  gift  for  Marie  Antoinette.  On  February  I,  1786,  Rohan  took 
the  ornament  to  Versailles,  and  next  day,  Villette,  an  accom- 
plice of  De  Lamotte,  carried  it  off  with  the  words  De  par  la 
reini.  Having  thus  duped  Rohan,  De  Lamotte  and  her  associ- 
ates Hed  from  Paris,  and  began  to  sell  the  diamonds,  but  were 
shortlyflung  into  the  Bastille  along  with  Rohan.  De  Lamotte  was 
branded  and  imprisoned  for  life,  but  the  others  were  acquitted. 
The  aSiir  led  to  mucli  scandal,  and  fastened  an  odium  on  the 
.een  among  the  Parisian  populace,  which  dung  to  her  to  the 
t,  and  helped  to  sharpen  the  people's  fury  against  her.  See 
Carlyle's  £>.  N.  in  his  Mis^dlatKOiis  Essays. 

Diftn'a,  a  Roman  goddess,  identified  in  the  confusion  of  the 
mythologies  with  the  Greek  Artemis,  the  goddess  of  hunting, 
was  the  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Latona,  and  twin-sister  of 
Apollo.  The  place  of  hec  birth  was  Delos  (q.  v.}.  As  the 
huntress- queen,  she  is  represented  as  a  fi" 
masculine  figure,  with  bare  limbs  and  buski 
bow  and  quiver,  and  attended^by  hounds. 


_,  _ oftheSun- 

god  she  £  regarded  as  the  Moon-goddess,  and  represented  a; 
wearing  a  crescent  on  her  forehead.  As  a  benignant  goddess  in 
voked  by  women  in  travail,  she  is  called  Lmme,  IlitAyia,  and 
Genitalis  ;  in  the  cross-roads  she  was  worshipped  as  Trivia,  and 
from  her  triple  character  as  a  celestial,  terrestrial,  and  infernal 
deity,  she  received  tiie  name  Trijormis.  She  was  the  goddess  of 
chastity — her  own  is  not  unimpeached,  as  witness  her  amours 
with  Endymion,  Pan,  and  Orion — and  as  such  severely  punished 
those  who  attempted  to  violate  her.  At  Ephesus  she  had  a 
splendid  temple — one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world — in 
which  she  was  represented  as  'the  many-breasted,'  symbolising 


%  which  the  fork 


the  fertility  of  the  earth.  At  Alicia,  according  to  Strabo,  she 
was  ministered  to  by  a  priest,  one  of  whose  quail  lications  always 
was  that  he  had  murdered  his  predecessor.  At  Sparta  she  was 
propitijited  by  human  victims  ;  but  goats,  kids,  boars,  and  oxen, 
were  her  usual  offerings.  The  name  D.  is  the  feminine  form  of 
Dianus  or  Janits,  and  is  akin  to  the  LaL  Juno,  the  Gr.  Zeus, 
md  the  Sansks.  i>)""".  '  the  sky.'  The  solar  origm  of  the  myth 
s  apparent  even  in  its  later  and  poetised  form. 

Diana  Monlcey  ( Ceriopithicus  Diana),  a  species  of  Catar- 
line  monkeys,  found  in  Guinea,  Congo,  and  other  parts  of 
Africa,  and  attaining  a  length  of  about  4J  feet  It  is  distin- 
guished by  a  long  iriiite  beard,  and  by  a  crescentic  white  line 
on  the  forehead.  The  fur  is  generally  chestnut,  the  lower  jiarts 
being  bright  orange.  The  hands  are  black.  The  D.  is  mtel- 
ligent  and  of  cleanly  habits. 

Dia'no,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Salerno,  S.  Italy,  45  miles 
S,E.  of  Salerno,  near  the  river  Galore.  It  has  a  strong  castle,  and 
several  chvu'ches  and  convents.     Pop,  about  7000. 

Dian'thue.    See  Pink. 

Diapa'son,  in  music,  is  a  word  used  in  several  senses.  In 
ancient  writings  it  was  used  for  the  octave ;  in  France  at  present 

means  pitch,  white  in  this  country  it  sometimes  signifies  the 
h  le  range  or  compass  of  a  voice  or  instrument.     In  the  organ 

me  of  the  principal  stops  are  called  diapasons ;  they  are  of 
e  ght-feet  pitch,'  the  note  corresponding  to  any  key  being  of 
th     ame  pitch  as  in  the  pianoforte. 

Diapason  Riffulalor,  an  instrument  invented  by  M.  Duhamel, 
and  improved  by  M.  Bregnet,  which  is  capable  of  measuring 
m  nute  intervals  of  time.  It  consists  essentially  of  a  revolving 
slowly  advancing  cylinder,  on  which  a  sinuous  line  is  produced 
by  a  style  fixed  laterally  to  a  prong  of  a  diapason  or  tuning- 
fork.  The  time  of  vibradon  of  the  fork  being  known,  tlie  num- 
ber of  sinuosities,  impressed  while  a  cerlam  occurrence  lasts, 
gives,  by  a  simple  calculation,  the  time  of  duration.  M.  Breguet 
fixed  the  apparatus  to  dockwork,  so  as  to  regulati 
of  the  cylinder,  and  lengthen  the  time  durii 

Diapede'sis  [Gr.  '  a  leaping  through  ').  Under  certain  ab- 
normal conditions,  both  red  and  colouriess  corpuscles  of  the  blood 
may  leave  the  blood-vessels  without  rupture  of  their  walls.  This 
is  D.  The  red  corpusdes  sometimes  escape  during  venous  con- 
gestion,  when,  in  consequence  of  the  high  pressure,  the  plasma  is 
first  squeezed  out,  and  afterwards  the  red  corpuscles.  The  colour- 
less corpusdes  leave  the  vessels  by  virtue  of  their  power  of  amoe- 
boid movement  in  Inflammation  (q.  v.}.  When  the  web  or 
mesentery  of  a  frog  is  seen  under  the  microscope  in  a  state  of 
inflammation,  the  colourless  corpusdes  may  be  observed  ding- 
ing to  the  walls  of  the  vessels,  and  actually  passing  through  these 
into  the  surrounding  tissues.  The  conditions  seem  to  be  sufficient 
slowness  of  the  blood  stream,  and  a  peculiar  adhesiveness  of  the 
colourless  corpusdes,  the  result  of  inflammation. 

Di'aper  (from  'iPIpres,  because  manufactured  at  Ypres  ii 
Flanders  ;  Fr.  diapre,  diaspre,  '  marbled,  or  variegated ; '  ItaL 
diaspro,  Lat.  diaspms,  'an  ornamental  textile  stuff;'  Lat.  and 
Or.  iaspis,  'jasper,' which  was  much  used  in  ornamenting  jewel- 
lery) is  a  variety  of  linen  or  other  cloth,  figured  with  a  pattern, 
and  produced  by  a  process  of  twilling,  in  use  chiefly  for  table-linen 
and  towelling.  .D.-work  in  architecture,  in rouralpainting,  and 
decorarive  art  generally,  is  the  covermg  of  a  flat  surface,  which 
might  otherwise  have  a  monotonous  and  bald  appearance,  with 
a  repeated  floral  or  arabesque  pattern.  The  D.  is  often  used  ii 
heraldic  painting  to  relieve  and  vary  fields  of  black  and  white, 
but  this  arbitrary  decoration  does  not  form  part  of  the  heraldic 

Diaphaa'oaoope  (Gr.  diapkanos,  '  transparent,'  and  siop/o, 
'  I  see  %  a  box,  with  or  without  a  lens,  for  exhibiting  transparent 
photographs  or  other  pictures.  It  is  frequently  combined  with  a 
Stereoscope  (q^.  v.). 

Diaphoretics  (Gr.  diaphorttika,  from  diaphordn,  'to  throw 
off')  are  medicines  which  promote  insensible  perspiration  by 
opening  the  pores  of  the  skin,  or  by  stimulating  the  glands  which 
secrete  the  sweat.     Acetate  of  ammonia,  antimonials,  Dover's 

I  powder,  and  very  spedallytheuew  drug  5fe*oro»^i(q,  v.),  are  ex- 
amples- and  hot  baths,  as  the  Turkish  bath,  may  also  be  regai-ded 

'        '^  387 


vLiOOQle 


DIA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOP-^.DIA. 


DIA 


^.^ 


as  D.  After  using  them,  great  caution  is  necessary  for  some  time 
to  prevent  the  patient  catching  cold. 

Di'apttragm  (Gr.  diafihragma,  'a partition  wall;'  in  Eng, 
midriff.  Old  Eng.  midriff  '  the  middle  of  the  hrif,  or  bowels  '| . 
Tliis  IS  a  pardtion  between  the  abdominal  and  tiioracic  cavi- 
ties, formed  partly  of  membrane  and. partly  of  muscle.  The 
muscular  fibres  arise  from  the  bodies  of  several  of  the  upper 
lumbar  vertebtaf,  from  two  arches  external  to  diese,  from 
the  cartilaginous  end  of  the  sternum,  and  from  the  cartilages  of 
the  six  lower  ribs.  They  ail  pass  towards  the  centre,  and 
unite  with  a  strong  tendinous  membrane,  of  a  trefoil  shape,  called 
the  central  tendon  of  the  D.  The  D.  is  perforated  ^  three 
lai^e  holes  for  the  passage  respectively  of  the  aorta,  the  ceso- 
phagns,  and  the  vena  cava.  During  relaxation  of  the  D.,  as 
after  death,  it  presents  an  arched  form,  the  convexity  of  which  is 
directed  towards  the  thorax.  By  contraction  of  the  muscular 
fibres  the  D.  centre  descends,  the  convexity  becomes  less,  and 
consequently  the  vertical  diameter  of  the  thorax  is  increased,  as 
in  inspiration.  When  the  D.  relaxes  the  centre  ascends,  as  in. 
expiration.    The  D.  is.present  only  in  mammalia.    See  Respiha- 

TtON-MSCHANISM, 

Diaphiagm,  a  perforated  plate,  employed  in  optica]  instru- 
ments for  cutting  off  all  superfluous  light,  thus  increasing  the 
sharpness  and  brightness  of  the  image. 

Dlarbeb'r  (anc  Amida,  Arab.  Amid,  Turk,  Kara-Amid),  a 
fortified  town,  and  the  capital  of  a  vilayet  of  the  same  name, 
Afliatic  Turkey,  lies  on  the  Tigris,  195  miles  N.E.  of  Aleppo. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  Nestorian  metropolitan,  of  a  Jacobite  patriarch, 
and  of  a  Roman  Catholic  and  an  Armenian  bishop,  and  has  a 
great  khan,  occupied  by  the  garrison,  25  mosques,  g  churches, 
and  many  baths  and  bazaars.  The  climate  is  hot  and  unhealthy 
in  summer,  but  cold  in  winter.  The  Tigris,  whidi  is  here  crossed 
by  a  stone  bridge,  is  often  frozen  over.  D.  lies  m  the  trading- 
way  between  Bagdad  and  Constantinople.  Its  manufactures, 
which  have  suffered  from  the  introduction  of  European  goods, 
are  chiefly  morocco  leather,  cotton  and  silk  stuffs,  copper  utensils, 
and  pipe-heads.  It  was  formerly  one  of  the  most  flourishing 
trading  places  In  Turkey,  but  its  pop.  of  400,000  was  decimated 
by  the  plague  in  1756-57.  Pop.  (1872}  34,000,  of  whom  13,000 
are  Mohammedans  and  11,300  Armenians,  D.  occupies  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Amida,  which  became  a  Roman  colony  in 
230  A,B.,  and  the  seat  of  a  Christian  bishop  in  325.  It  was 
fortified  by  the  Emperor  Constantine.  After  Wng  in  the  hands 
of  various  Turcoman  dynasties  and  of  the  Persians,  and  being 
sacked  by  Timur  (1394),  it  was  finally  annexed  to  Turkey  by 
Seliml.  in  1515,— The  lif'/o^rf  forms  the  E.  portion  of  Kurdistan, 
and  Is  watered  by  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  It  is  in  part  inha- 
bited bynomads.  Area,  37,685  sq.  miies ;  pop.  (1S64)  708,288. 
Diarrhce'a  (from  Gr.  dla,  'through,'  and  rheo,  'I  flow'), 
a  disease  characterised  by  frequent  discharges  of  liquid  fteces 
from  the  boweia,  commonly  called  purging.  It  is  generally 
accompanied  with  pain,  nausea,  foul  tongue,  a  bad  odour  in  the 
breath,  flatulence,  and  in  many  instances  fetid  stools.  It  has 
many  causes,  as  indigestible  food,  unripe  fniit,  n  eg  1  bl 
meat  which  has  commenced  to  decay,  too  fat  m 
damp,  heat— the  last  called  '  summer  cholera ; '  o  m  be 
to  drinking  foul  water  or  partaking  of  some  purga  medi 
D.  is  also  a  frequent  symptom  of  some  other  dis  se 
Phthisis  (q,  v. ),  and  typhoid  fever  and  cholera.  T 
depends  on  the  jmrticular  cause.    When  D.  is  du  mm 

tating  substance  m  the  bowels,  a  small  dose  of  op 
is  benefidal  to  the  patient ;  when  due  to  irritation 
opium  is  one  of  the  quickest  and  most  eflicacious  O 

astringents,  gallic  acid,  chalk,  and  lime-water  are  D 

is  not  generally  a  fatal  disease,  except  in  aged  a 
persons,  or  in  those  affected  with  consumption  and 
disMses.     His  much  more  common  in  hot  than  in  cold  climates, 
in  the  former  of  which  it  often  partakes  of  the  dysenteric  form 
See  Dysentery. 

Biarthro'sis,  a  term  used  in  anatomy  to  denote  a  particular 
form  pf  joint,  such  as  that  of  the  elbow.  Here  we  have  plates 
of  cartflage  covering  the  articular  surfaces  of  the  bones.  The 
joint  IS  Imed  in  every  part  by  a  membrane,  termed  a  syiumial 
membrane,  which  secretes  a  fluid  which  lubricates  the  joint. 
The  bones  are  held  together  by  strong  fibrous  ligaments,  consti- 
tuting membranous  capsules,  bands,  or  cords  ;  and  they  are  like- 


wise kept  in  apposition  by  the  tension  of  surrounding  muscles 
and  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.     See  Joints. 

Di'ary  (Lat,  diarium,  from  diis,  '  a  day  ')  at  first  meant  the 
daily  allowance  of  food  to  slaves,  and  aftervrards  a  notebook  of 
daily  Incidents,  which  is  its  present  signification.  Every  one, 
but  especially  professional  men,  will  find  a  minute  or  two  in  the 
morning  or  evening  well  bestowed  in  keeping  a  short  and  simple 
D.  Every  one  must  be  guided  by  his  own  tastes  and  occupations 
regarding  the  matter  which  he  entere  in  it.  The  name  of  the 
month  should  eitlier  be  written  each  day,  or  denoted  by  some 
mark  ;  because  if  only  written  for  the  first  day,  on  referring  to  the 
D.  there  Is  trouble  in  finding  out  what  month  the  incident  toot 
place  in.    A  D.  is  specially  useful  in  travelling. 


I,  the  Greek  name  for  a  small  interval  (having  a 

vibration  fraction  equal  to  fJSJ),  which  occurs  between  the  true 
pitches  in  two  keys  of  a  note  which,  in  the  tempered  scale,  is 
made  alike  in  both.     See  Enharmokic  and  Temperament. 

IK'astaaa  is  a  nitrogenous  substance  developed  during  the 
germination  of  seeds,  and  is  characterised  by  the  remarkable  pro- 
perty  of  causing  starch  to  be  converted  first  into  dextrine,  and 
later  into  grape-sugar.  (See  Glucose.)  In  the  process  of  malt- 
ing graui  is  allowed  to  sprout,  and  the  germination  is  then 
checked  by  heat.  The  malt  thus  prepared  contains  a  store  of 
D.  more  than  sufficient  to  convert  the  starch  contained  along 
with  it  in  the  grain  Into  sngar.  On  mashing  or  boiling  the  malt 
with  unmalted  grain,  the  starch  in  both  is  converted  into  grape- 
sugar,  which  dissolves  in  the  water  and  forms  the  sv/ect  worl  of 
the  brewer.  The  grape-sugar  in  the  wort  is  subsequently  eon- 
verted  into  alcohol  during  the  process  of  fermentation.  The 
proportion  of  D.  In  malt  is  very  minute,  seldom  ■exceeding 
o,oo3  to  0.003  per  cent.;  but  the  smallness  of  the  quantity  is 
compensated  by  the  extraordinary  activity  of  the  D.,  i  part  of 
the  latter  sufficing  to  convert  2000  parts  of  starch  into  grape- 
sugar.  D.  has  never  been  prepared  in  a  sufficiently  pure  slate 
for  analysis.  lu  the  impure  condition  it  may  be  obtained  by 
extracting  malt  with  water,  maintaining  the  solution  for  some 
time  at  a  temperature  of  70°  C,  filtering  from  the  albuminous 
principles  coagulated  by  this  treatment,  and  finally  precipitating 
by  absolute  alcohol.     Prepared  in  this  manner  D.  is  a  white 

Sias'tole  Is  dilatation  of  the  heart  and  arteries  when  the  blood 
enters  their  cavities.  It  is  the  opposite  to  systole,  when  the 
heart  and  arteries  contract  to  send  forth  the  blood.    See  Ciacu- 

LATION  OF  THE  BLOOD,  HeART. 

Diather'maiiOTis  (Gr.  dia,  'through,'  thermos,  'heat'),  apro- 
perty  possessed  by  certain  substances,  notably  by  cock-salt,  of 
allowing  radiant  heat  to  pass  through  them  in  the  same  way  as 
transparent  bodies  permit  of  the  passage  of  light.     See  Heat. 

Diftth'esis  (from  Gr.  dia,  •  through,'  and  iheiii,  •  a  placing  or 

arranging')isatermusedby  the  older  physicians  to  describe  the 

constitution  of  an  individual  rendering  the  person  peculiarly  liable 

to  certain  diseases.      It  is  transmitted  from  parent  to  child.     We 

ak    fth   g    t    D    th  D    tuber    i       D 

Bl      ma     cB      B  a    m  o 

Al  ^ 


derive  Iheir  nounshroent  from  the  medium  in  which  they  live. 
They  are  found  both  in  salt  and  fi-esh  water,  on  damp  rocks  and 
walls,  flower-pots,  glass  of  hot-houses,  and  often  in  collections  of 

?)wdery-looking  matter  at  the  bottom  of  standmg  pools.  The 
ripoli  limestone  beds,  of  great  thickness,  are  almost  built  up  of 
extinct  species  in  a  fossil  condition,  hence  this  rock  is  well  adapted 
for  polishing.  In  Sweden  large  quantities  are  found  in  a  fossil 
state  in  the  mountains,  and  under  the  name  of  5e)-^  Afrf/ (moun- 
tain meal)  are  mixed  with  flour  as  food,  though  they  can  have 
no  direct  nutritive  qualities.    The  order  is  found  in  every  part  of 


y  Google 


DIA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DIG 


-#■ 


the  world,  and  on  the  Polar  Seas  in  such  abundance  as  to  give 
the  green  discoloration  to  tliose  parts  which  the  whalers  note  as 
the  favourite  haunts  of  the  true  whale  (Balana  mysHcclus).  Dr 
Hooker  also  found  the  Antarctic  Ocean  stained  of  a  brown  colour 
with  them.  They  form  the  food  of  many  mollusca ;  hence  in  the 
Elomochs  of  fishes  which  have  fed  on  these  mollusca,  and  in 
the  guano  of  birds  which  have  lived  on  the  fishes,  numbers  of 
unique  forms  are  frequently  found.  An  immense  number  of  species 
has  been  described,  and  the  list  is  always  being  increased  by 
new  discoveries.  But  it  is  doutjtfiil  if  some  of  the  so-called  new 
species  are  not  immature  forms  of  others  already  Itnowu. 

Diaton'io  (' by  tones '),  a  term  used  in  music  to  describe  the 
arrangement  of  the  notes  of  the  scale  upon  which  all  our  mnsic 
IS  based  The  Greek  '  D.  genus '  seems  to  have  been  based  upon 
the  scale  of  C  major,  and  not  to  have  included  the  same  relative 
mterials  in  any  other  key,  and  the  fact  that  a  D.  scale  could  be 
based  upon  any  note  of  any  pitch  whatever  had  to  fight  its  Way 
mto  full  reci^nition  during  the  first  ten  centuries  of  our  era.  Il 
should  be  remembered  that  wliile  the  D,  scale— with  such  modi- 
fixations  as  those  which  occur  in  what  we  call  minor  stales — is 
the  only  one  which  satisfies  our  ears,  and  the  only  one  possessing 
cerlam  mathematical  properties,  it  is  only  one  of  a  great  number 
of  possible  scales.  The  Eastern  nations,  for  instance,  use  sub- 
'"'  of  the  scale  which  are  as  mtolerable  to  our  ears  as 

strange  to  them. 
Di'atribe  {Gr.  diatribe,  lit.    '  a  tubbing  through '),  a  name 
applied  originally  to  a  prolonged  discussion  or  critical  analysis, 
now  synonymous  with  a  bitter  invective  or  severe  critidsm. 

Diaz,  or  Dias,  Bartolommeo,  was  one  of  the  distinguished 
Portuguese  navigatois  of  the  second  half  of  the  15th  c,  whose 
feats  are  sung  in  Camoens'  Lusiad.  In  1486  he  led  an  expedi- 
tion fitted  out  by  Joao  IT.  beyond  the  point  on  the  Guinea  coast 
which  had  been  reached  by  Cam  and  D'Aveiro.  With  two 
vessels  of  only  50  tons  burden  D.  pushed  on  to  Algoa  Bay, 
subsequently  named  by  the  British  Port  Elizabeth.  .Sailing 
along  the  Caffre  coast,  he  entered  in  laL  34°  30"  the  Great  Fish 
River  (called  by  the  Dutch  Grote  Vis  Riverj,  but  at  the 
Island  of  Cruz  was  compelled  by  the  entreaties  of  his  sailors 
to  turn  back.  He  gave  the  name  of  Cabo  Tormentoso  ('  Cape 
of  Storms  'J  to  what  was  shortly  afterwards  known  as  the  Cabo  de 
Buena  Espetanza  (' Cape  of  Good  Hope').  Returning  to  Lis- 
bon in  December  1487,  he  accompanied  Vasco  di  Gama  on  a 
portion  of  his  famous  voyage,  for  which  D,  had  built  the  ships 
St  Raphael  and  SI  Gabriel.  He  perished  in  a  great  storm  which 
shattered  the  fleet  of  Cabral  after  its  discovery  of  Brazil  in  1 500. 
See  Lopez,  Histmia  da  Conquista  da  IntHa.  —  Mieuel  D. , 
bom  in  Aragon,  was  a  friend  and  companion  of  Columbus. 
Leaving  the  colony  of  Isabella,  he  established  himself  near 
the  mouth  of  tlie  river  Ozema,  in  Hayti,  from  which  he  in- 
troduced his  countrymen  to  large  gold-mines.  When  in  1500 
Bobadilla  superseded  Columbus  as  governor  of  the  islands, 
&c.,  of  the  New  World,  D.  was  Alcalde  of  San  Domingo,  and 
resisted  the  entrance  of  the  new  governor.  After  a  period  of 
disgrace  he  was  made  governor  of  Porto  Eico.  He  died  in  1514. 
See  the  Histories  of  Columbus  by  Lamattine  and  W.  Irving,  and 
I.as  Casas,  Mslaria  general  de  las  Indias  (2  vols.  Par.  1822). 
Dibl)Ie,  a  simple  implement  once  used  in  fields,  now  only 
gardens.  It  is  of  wood,  and  is  15  inches  long  with  a  cross- 
the  handle  j  the  shaft  is  round  and  tapering,  of  about 
Dibbling  is  too  slow  for  farm  practice, 
HiLuoiia"  iuuiiu  uy  experiments  in  thick  sowing  to  yield  better 
results  than  drilling.  Experiments  with  oats  in  dibbling,  drill- 
ing, and  sowing  broadcast  show  that  of  360  grains  p&ced  in 
the  ground  there  resulted  of  dibbled  plants  270;  of  drilled 
plants,  357 ;  of  broadcast,  226,  Yet  dniUng  is  much  more  ad- 
vantageous up  to  a  certain  point  than  dibbling.  Of  108  seeds, 
dibbling  yielded  Ijo  plants,  and  driUing  163. 

DiVdin,  Cliarlee,  the  musician  and  song- writer,  was  born  at 
Southampton  in  1748.  His  musical  talent  showed  itself  very 
earlyj  an  opera.  The  Shepherd's  Artifice,  of  which  hehadwritien 
both  the  words  and  the  music,  being  produced  at  Covent  Garden 
Theatre  in  1761.  D.  remained  before  the  public  as  suiger,  actor, 
ir  theatrical  manager  until  1805,  when  he  retired  in  somewhat 
straitened  circumstances.  Government,  however,  granted  him  a 
pension  of  j^2oo  a  year  until  his  death,  25tk  ApririSr4,  D.  is 
'     '■■-  -;a-song5,  of  which  he  wrote  (both  words 


and  music)  nearly  1200.  Coming  at  a  time  when  the  English 
navy  was  actively  employed,  and  naval  affairs  were  in  everybody's 
mouth,  these  spirited  songs  won  unbounded  popularity,  which 
not  a  few  of  them  still  retain.  A  fine  edition  with  diawiigs  by 
Cruikshank  wal  published  in  1S61.  Besides  his  sea-songs  D. 
wrote  a  History  of  the  English  Stage  (5  vols.  Loud.  1795),  and 
Profsstional  Life  (2  vols.  Lond,  1S02).  His  two  sons,  diaries 
(died  1833)  and  Thomas  (died  1841)  were  both  theatrical 
writers  of  some  mark.— Thomaa  Trognall  D.,  nephew  of 
the  writer  of  sea.songs,  was  born  in  1776  at  Calcutta.  Having 
studied  at  Oxford,  he  joined  the  legal  profession,  but  took  orders 
in  1804;  from  which  time  till  his  death,  November  18,  1847,  his 
life  was  devoted  to  bibliography.  D.'s  works  show  wide  research 
and  tireless  industry,  but  are  marred  by  lack  of  exact  scholar- 
■  ship  and  critical  discernment  The  chief  are  Typographical  An- 
tiquiHes  0/ Great  Britam  (1810-19),  Bibliographical  Decameron 
(1817),  Library  Companion  (1824),  and  Jiemtniseences  of  a  IJte- 
raryLife(i&5t). 

Ditranohia'ta  (Gr.  '  two-gill ed '),  the  name  applied  to  an 
order  of  Cuttlefish  (q.  v.}  distinguished  by  the  possession  of  two 
branchise  or  gills,  and  not  more  than  eight  or  ten  arms  j  by  the 
arms  being  provided  with  suckers;  by  the  presence  of  ar  '  ' 
sac,  and  by  the  shell  being  internal,  or,  if  external,  not  i 
bered.  In  this  order  are  the  paper  nantilus  or  Argimaul,  the 
Octop!  or  Pouipss,  the  Squids,  Sfiirula,  the  extinct  Belemnites, 
&c  The  companion  order,  Telrabranchiata,  is  represented  by 
the  pearly  nautilus  alone. 

Dice  (plur.  of  die)  ■  are  small  cubes  made  of  ivory  or  bone, 
with  blatJt  dots,  ranging  in  number  from  one  to  six,  on  each  of 
their  sides,  and  much  used  in  games  of  chance  or  hazard. 
They  are  subject  by  Act  of  Parliament  to  a  du^  of  20s.  a 
pair.  If  found  in  any  place  suspected  of  being  a  '  common 
gammg-house,'  under  the  Act  33  Hen.  VIII.  c  9,  they  are 
held  as  proving  the  suspicion  true,  unless  the  contrary  be  shown. 
(See  Gaming,)  When  D.  are  fairly  made,  there  is  no  way  of 
shaking  the  D.-box  so  as  to  throw  a  given  number,  but  profes- 
sional gamblers  sometimes  'load'  their  dice— j'.f.,  plug  them  with 
lead  on  a  particular  side — so  that  the  highest  number  generally 
turns  up. 

Dieen'tra,  a  genus  of  Fumariaceous  plants  (the  Diclytra  01 
Didytra  of  De  CandoUe).  D.  Cuctillaria  is  the  'Dutchman'; 
Breeches'  of  the  United  States ;  . 
D.  Canadensis,  the  squirrel- 
com;  D.  farinosa,  a  species! 
from  Virginia  and  N.  Carolina,  fl 
much  cultivated  in  our  gar- 
dens ;  but  the  best-known  spe- 
cies is  Z>.  spectabUis  of  Northern 
China  and  Siberia,  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  the  genus, 
introduced  in     -  - 


a  the 


)f  the  house 


S  the  pi 

)eIore  it  can  attain  to  full  per- 
ection.  It  isoneofthefavour- 
te  plants  of  the  Chinese. 

IHchlamyd'eoiU  (Gr.  dis; 
ng'),  abotan 


Diolyi 


both 

calyx  and  corolla.  De  Candolle  divided  Dicotyledonous  (q.  v.) 
plants  into  D.  (including  Thalanriflor^,  Calycifloris,  and  CorelH- 
Jlors)  and  MonBohlamydem,  which  formed  a  subcW  by  itself. 

Dicbot'omoiu!  (Gr.  dichotcmos,  '  cut  into  two  equal  parts '), 
a  botanical  term  signifying  havii^  the  divisions  always  in  pairs, 
and  equally  applicd>le  to  branches,  veins,  the  forking  of  ferns, 
and  the  fronds  of  algie.  The  stem  of  the  mistletoe  and  the 
branching  of  the  Doom  Palm  (q.  v.)  are  examples. 

Dich'roiein(fr8mlheGr.tfij, 'twofold,' and  f^nar,  'colour'),  a 
pr^erty  possessed  by  certain  crystals  and  minerals,  which  present 
difierent  colours  when  viewed  by  transmitted  light  in  different 
directions.  Thus  mica  is  nearly  opaque  in  one  direction,  but 
transpareiU:  and  of  a  different  colour  in  anotlier.      Crystals  of 


best  known  for  h 


vLaOOgle 


DIO 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Die 


Diok  Bequest,  The,  is  a  fund  established  by  James  Diclt, 
'of  Fiiisbury  Square,  London,' to  maintain  and  assist  couiitiy 
parochial  schoolmasters  in  the  counties  of  Aberdeen,  Banff, 
and  Moray ;  not,  however,  in  such  a  way  as  to  relieve  any 
one  from  legal  obligations  to  support  Ihem,  or  to  diminish 
endi  support,  but  'in  such  manner  as  shall  seem  most  likely 
to  encourage  active  scliool masters,  and  gradually  to  elevate 
the  literary  character  of  the  parochial  schoolmasters  and 
schools  aforesaid.'  Mr  Dick,  bam  at  Forres,  1743,  on  his 
death  in  1828,  left  the  bulk  of  a  large  fortune,  acquired 
chiefly  in  the  W.  Indies,  for  the  above  purpose.  The  bequest 
amotmted  finally  to  .^118,787;  the  annual  income  remaining 
.0  be  distributed,  after  deducting  aE  expenses,  is  on  an  aver- 
age about  ^£4000.  To  ensure  the  literary  proficiency  of  the 
schoolmasters,  the  Imstees  instituted  an  examination  in  lite- 
ature  and  science ;  and  no  teacher  can  par^cipate  in  the  D. 
J,  till  he  have  passed  this  examination.  Again,  to  ensure  the 
efficiency  of  the  teachiiig,  Ihey  attached  a  certain  money  value 
to  instruction  in  the  higher  branches,  and  the  manner  in  which 
these  are  taught  is  taken  -into  account,  as  judged  by  a  '  visitor '  or 
inspector.  The  proportion  paid  to  a  teacher  depends  on  the 
statistics  of  his  school,  the  report  of  the  visitor,  and  the  charac- 
ter of  his  examination.  Those  who  pass  with  distinction  receive 
permanently  a  higher  grant,  and  unusual  proficiency  is  further 
rewarded  by  a  sura  of  money  at  the  time.  The  report  of  the 
■  *lor  on  the  school  determines  whether  the  teacher  shall  re- 
fe  the  amount  to  which  his  statistics  entitle  him,  less  than 
that  amount,  or  more.  The  lowest  grant  is  about  /18,  the 
highest  about  £60.  Since  the  passing  of  the  Education  (Scot- 
land) Act  of  1873,  the  trustees  have  resolved  to  admit  only  one 
public  school  in  each  parish  to  the  benefit  of  the  D.  B.,  except 
where  there  is  a  population  above  2000.  They  have  also  attached 
a  higher  money  vdue  than  formerly  to  instruction  in  the  higher 
branches.  These  steps  have  been  taken  with  the  view  of  coun- 
teracting what  is  believed  to  be  the  tendency  of  the  Government 
Education  Code  to  sacrifice  the  higher  branches  io  general  effi. 
ciency  in  the  lower.  See  Report  on  Educalion  in  connection 
with  the  D.  B,,  by  Simon  S.  Laurie,  1865. 

Dick'ena,  Charles,  an  English  novelist,  was  born  at  Sand- 

fort,  near  Porlsea,  Hampshire,  February  7,  1S12.  His  father, 
ohn  D.,  for  some  time  a  clerk  in  the  Navy  Pay  Office,  seems 
to  have  been  an  amiable,  though  unfortunate  and  improvi- 
dent man  ;  his  family  were  sometimes  in  great  straits  while  he 
i  an  inmate  of  Marshalsea  Prison,  and  in  consequence  D. 
had  at  an  early  age  to  shift  for  himself.  The  first  place 
he  filled  was  a  menial  one  in  a  blacking  vrarehouse  ;  from  this 
he  went  as  a  clerk  to  an  attorney's  office  in  Chancery  Lane, 
London,  where  he  showed  a  taste  for  theatricals ;  finally, 
he  qualified  himself  for  the  post  of  parliamentary  reporter. 
The  first  situation  he  obtained  as  such  was  on  the  Trut 
Sun;  he  next  proceeded  to  tlie  Morning  C&raiiuU,  y/heia  his 
ability  and  industry  won  him  the  admiration  and  encourage- 
ment of  the  editor,  the  well-known  John  Black.  In  the  evening 
editions  of  the  Chronkk  D.  first  showed  his  powers  as  a  humourist 
by  his  essays  entitled  Shstches  by  Soz  (1836).  The  same  year 
he  married  Catherine  Hogarth,  daughter  of  a  fellow-labourer  on 
the  ChronicU.  The  SkelcAis  iy  Bon  were  succeeded  by  a  work 
which  at  once  raised  D.  to  the  first  rank  among  English 
humourists.  This  was  the  Pickwici  Papers,  which  has  probably 
evoked  more  innocent  laughter  than  any  other  book  in  the  world 
before  or  since.  Some  of  the  characters,  such  as  the  two  Wellers 
and  Pickwick  himself,  are  immortal,  D.  was  now  recognised 
as  a  great  artist,  and  was  warmly  appreciated  by  the  first  critics 
of  the  age.  His  next  work  was  a  novel  with  a  more  ambitious 
plot  {Nu&olas  NicMeby),  which,  besides,  had  a  moral  'purpose,' 
namely,  to  paint  the  weaknesses  and  barbarities  of  tlie  cheap- 
sdiooi  system.  It  was  not  less  successful,  and  D.  continued 
to  pour  forth  fiction  after  fiction,  all  of  which  were  greedily  de- 
voured, and  most  of  which  exposed  soiaal  sores  and  delineated 
individual  peculiarities.  The  chief  are  Thi  OldCtmcsity  Shop, 
Bamaby  Rudge,  Oliver  Twist,  David  Cofiperfidd  (m  the  opinion 
of  many  his  finest  work),  Martin  Chu^altmit  {the  fruit  of  a 
voyage  across  the  Atlantic),  Domity  and  Son,  Bliak  House, 
Hard  Times,  A  Tale  of  Two  Cities,  Little  Dorrit,  Great  Ex- 
pectations, and  Our  Mutual  Friend.  D.'a  faculty  of  humour 
Degan  to  flag  towards  the  end,  and  his  pathos  had  alwa; 
tendency  to  become  maudlin,  yet  many  of  his  characters,  sue 
390 


Little  Nell,  Mrs  Gamp,  Agnes,  Mieawber,  Tom  Finch,  Fagin, 
and  Pecksniff,  are  unique  in  literature.  Probably  no  novels  have 
had  such  a  healthy  and  genial  moral  influence  as  those  of  D. 
His  boundless  enei^  required  and  found  other  vents.  He  was 
a  clever  actor,  and  wrote  an  opera.  The  Village  Coquettes,  which 
was  acted  once  in  1836 ;  he  travelled  much,  and  there  is  no 
livelier  account  of  travel  than  his  American  Notes  for  General 
Ciradation  (1842).  As  a  writer  of  Christmas  stories  he  is  un- 
rivalled, in  proof  of  which  one  need  only  name  his  Christmas 
Carol,  Chimes,  Cricket  on  the  Hearth,  and  Dr  Marigold's  Prescrip- 
tions; and  as  a  public  reader  of  his  own  worl^  he  obtained 
great  and  merited  popularity.  D.  even  attempted  journalism  ; 
he  took  part  in  starting  the  Daily  News  in  I S45,  and  was  long 
editor  of  a  popular  weekly  magazine.  Household  Words,  after- 
wards meiged  into  All  the  Year  Round,  and  now  conducted  by 
his  son.  D.  died  June  9,  1870,  leaving  behind  him  an  un- 
finished novel,  The  Mysleiy  of  Edwin  Drood.  His  Ufe  has 
been  written  by  his  most  intimate  personal  friend,  the  late  Mr 
John  Forster  (3  vols.  Loud,  1872-74). 

Dick'Bon,  Bavid,  a  notable  Scottish  divine,  born  in 
1583,  at  Glasgow,  was  mmister  of  Irvine  from  1618  to  1641, 
when  he  was  elected  Professor  of  Divinity  in  his  native 
town  ;  helped  to  draw  up  the  Confession  of  Faith,  and  was 
ejected  from  the  Church  for  nonconformity  in  i66z,  the  year 
of  his  death.  D.'s  works  comprise  commentaries  on  Hebrews, 
Matthew,  and  the  Psalms,  Therapeutica  Sacra,  and  a  Treatise  on 
the  Promises. 

Diokso'nia,  a  genus  of  Fems,  mostly  arborescent.  The  silky 
hairs  from  the  caudex  of  Z>.  Culcita  of  Madeira  and  of  D.  chryso- 
tricha  of  Java  are  used  in  Holland  and  Germany  as  a  styptic, 
and  for  stuffing  beds,  cushions,  &c.  The  hairs  of  the  latter  sjie- 
cies  is  imported  under  the  name  of  Pahoe  Kidang.  D.  antarctica 
of  Australia  is  now  a  common  ornament  of  our  greenhouses, 
while  others  are  found  in  Juan  Fernandez,  Brazil,  St  Helena, 
Colombia,  and  Java. 

Diootyle'dons,  Dicotyledo'neEB,  Diootyle'dones,  or 
Dicotyie'donoua  Plants,  one  of  the  two  great  subdivisions 
of  flowering  plants,  distinguished  by  the  plants  having  two  seed 
lobes,  netted  veined  leaves,  the  wood  of  the  stem  in  concentric 
circles,  and  the  parts  of  the  flower  generally  four  or  five,  or  mul- 
tiples of  four  and  five.  About  7000  genera  and  ^0,000  species 
belong  to  this  division,  which  is  again  subdivided  into — ( l)  Tha- 
lamifiorai  (q.  v.);  (1)  Calydjlors;  (3)  CarolHfiorie  (q.  v.) ;  (4) 
Monochlamyd^i/^y.);  and  sometimes  (j)  Gynmosprma  (q-v.), 
or  naked-seeded  plants,  all  the  other  divisions  having  the  seeds 
enclosed  in  seed-vessels,  ox  Angiospermous.  Hooker  and  Ben- 
tham  add  another  gfoup  intermediate  between  Thalamij{or<x 
and  Corolliflora,   caUed  Discijtorte.      See  Cotyledon,   Root 

Dicot'yleB,    See  Peccary. 

Dicra'nitim,  a  genus  of  Mosses  (q.  v,),  containing  nimierous 
species,  some  of  which  are  very  common  on  the  ground,  moist 
rocks,  or  more  rarely  on  trunks  of  trees  in  Britain. 

Diota'tor,  in  republican  Rome,  an  extraordmary  magistrate, 
with  absolute  power,  appointed,  when  the  state  was  in  great 
peril,  for  the  execution  of  some  unusual  public  act,  such  as  the 
celebration  of  solemn  games.  A  D.  was  chosen  for  six.  months 
by  one  of  the  consuls,  in  obedience  to  a  senatorial  decree,  but 
was  expected  to  resign  on  fulfilling  the  duty  for  whicli  he  was 
elected.  The  office  was  at  first  confined  to  patricians,  but  was 
afterwards  thrown  open  to  the  plebs.  Although  an  autocrat  in 
military  matters,  a  D.  had  to  conform  to  law  m  civil  acts,  and 
when  chosen  for  some  special  purpose,  might  be  successfiilW 
opposed  if  he  sought  to  control  otlier  affairs.  It  is  said  that  a  D. 
could  not  spend  public  money  without  permission  of  the  senate, 
and  it  seems  to  have  been  illegal  to  wield  dictatorial  power 
iieyond  the  lunits  of  Italy.  A  D.'s  insignia  were  four  lictors 
who  carried  secures  or  axes  in  their  fasces.  The  office  was  estab- 
lished, it  is  said,  501  B.C.,  fell  foe  a  time  into  disuse,  was  re- 
vived during  the  second  Punic  War,  after  which  it  became  extinct, 
the  prolonged  dictatorships  of  desax  and  Sulla  being  unconsti- 
tutional.    On  Czesar's  death  the  office  was  abolished, 

IKo'tionary  (Low  Lat.  diciionarium),  a  book  hi  which 
words  with  their  peculiar  meanings  are  arranged  in  alphabetical 
order ;  or,  in  a  wider  sense,  a  book  in  which  a  subject,  or  a 


yLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPjEDIA. 


A 


branch  of  a  subject,  is  treated  under  heads  alphabetically  classi- 
fied. A  D.  demands  a  cerlaiii  definite,  systematic  arrangement 
of  information,  and  is  thus  distinguished  troni  a  mere  catalogue. 
A  D.  of  the  Greet  language  is  generally  spoken  of  as  a  lexiayn, 
and  a  D.  of  geography  as  a  gazetteer.  The  terms  glcssaiy  and 
vocabulary  are  almost  synonymous  with  a  D.  of  a  language. 
For  dictionaries  of  facts,  see  Encyclop.«dia. 

Dktwnanes  of  Wordt. — The  earliest  of  such  dictionaries  is 
the  Lexds  Homenkai  or  HomerU  LexUon  o!  the  time  of  Augus- 
tus, but  the  first  which  has  any  pretensions  to  completeness  is  the 
Greek  D.  of  Suidas,  a  Greek  lexicographer  of  the  nth  c.  The 
Latin  Thesaurus  of  Robert  Estienne  (1535),  shows  a  marked 
advance  in  D. -making  npon  the  work  of  Suidas,  and  the  Greek 
Thesaurus  of  Henri  Estienne  (1572)  has  been  the  basis  of  suc- 
ceeding Greek  dictionaries.  Other  dictionaries  deservmg  men- 
tion are  the  EtyniologUum  Mag?iinn,  a  Greek  lexicon  of  the 
lotli  c,  worthless  in  its  etymologies,  but  a  storehouse  of  in- 
teresting and  quaint  traditions ;  the  Fhiaseokgia  Generahs — a 
Latin  D. — by  W,  Robertson  (1681) ;  the  Etymoleguen  Lingua 
Latins  of  Vossius ;  the  Latin  D.  of  Forcelhni  (Padua,  1771) ; 
the  Latin  D.  of  Freund.  The  best  Greek  and  Latm  dictionaiies 
recently  published  in  England  are  the  Latm  English  D  and 
English-Latin  D.  of  W.  Smith ;  the  Latin- English  D.  of  Riddle 
and  White;  the  Greek- English  Lexicon  of  ijddeU  and  Scott. 
Notable  polyglot  dictionaries  are  Whiter's  Etymologkon  Mag- 
nunt  (1800-2Z)  i  Minsheu's  B,  of  Elsvm  Language  (Lond. 
1617).  Among  the  best  dictionaries  of  foreign  toi^ues  are  the 
DUHotmaire  de  SAcadhaie  Franfoke;  the  Italian  Vocaholario 
degli  Academiei  delta  Crusca  ;  and  the  Spanish  Dicdonarii)  de  la 
Lengua  CsiiellaHa  compuesto  por  la  Real  Academia  Eipafisia 
(Madr.  1726).  Among  English  dictionaries  may  be  specified 
Elisha  Cole's  English  D.  (1677) ;  Booth's  Analytical  D.  of  the 
English  Language ;  Johnson's  English  D.  (1755),  a  really  great 
work,  which  made  an  epoch  in  English  D.-making,  but  which  is 
very  defective  in  etymology  ;  Jamieson's  Etymological  D.  of  the 
Scottish  Language  (i  808) ;  Boucher's  Glofsary  of  Archaic  and 
Frovmcial  Words  ;  Wright's  D.  of  Obsolete  and  Provincial  Eng- 
lish; Crabb's  Technological  R  (1859);  and  Webster's  Complete 
D.  of  the  English  Language  (new  ed.  J864), 
Dic'tum  de  Kejr'Uworth.  was  an  edict  of  Henry  III, .given 
K  e,  commuting  the  penalties  incurred  by  cer- 

b  mto  five  years'  rent  of  their  legally  forfeited 

D  cty  ogens  {Dictyogencs),  one  of  Lindley's  subclasses  of 

M  ed       (    V,),  which,  while  agreeing  with  the  general 

h  nsti  he  class,  differ  from  it  in  having  the  wood  of 

hu  m      rr    ged  in  a  concentric  manner  like  that  of  Dico- 

d       (q      )  wh  le  the  leaves  have  reticulated  or  netted  ■ 

£h   Oi,      m   S        ea,  Trilliaceie,  &c.,  are  among  the  mo^ 

p     ai       d  rs      D    It  may,  however,  be  noted  that  some  ^fociK 

d       ac  n  eluded  among  D.,  have  also  netted  veined 

Dio'tys  Creten'ais,  the  alleged  author  of  a  Latin  history  of 
the  Trojan  war,  which  differs  widely  from  Homer,  chiefly  in 
excluding  all  supernatural  agency.  It  is  asserted  in  the  preface 
that  the  original  was  composed  by  D.  of  Cnossns,  who  accom- 
panied Idomeneus  to  the  Trojan  war,  that  it  was  buried  in  the 
author's  grave  till  exhumed  by  an  earthquake  in  the  time  of 
Nero,  that  it  was  then  brought  to  Rome  by  one  Eupraxis  and 
translated  into  Greek,  from  which  Greek  translation  the  Latin 
IS  made  by  Q.  Septimius  Romanus.  All  that  is  actu- 
ally known  about  it  is,  that  a  Greek  work  under  the  name  of  D. 
is  frequently  quoted  by  the  Byzantine  writers,  which  was  pi-o- 
bably  written  m  Greek  about  the  time  of  Nero,  and  afterwards 
translated  into  Latin,  The  chief  literary  value  of  the  work  con- 
ts  being  the  principal  channel  through  which  the  legendary 
lore  of  Greece  flowed  into  the  romances  of  the  middle  ages,  pass- 
ing thence  into  popular  tales  and  ballads.  D.  is  generally  printed 
along  with  Dares  (q.  v. ).  The  best  edition  is  that  by  Diederich 
{Bonn,  1837). 

Dioyn'odon,  a  genus  of  extinct  reptiles,  included  by  Owen  in 
the  fossil  order  ^BowiflaWi/ia.  InD.  the  fi:ont  portions  of  the  jaws 
'--''-'— ^  and  formed  a  beak-like  structure,  which  probably 


teeth  of  rodents)  grew  throughout  life  froi 


n  land,  and  had  well-developed 

Didae'tie  Po'etry  (Gr,  didaskein,  '  to  teach ')  is  that  species 
of  poetry  which  has  for  its  avowed  object  the  instruction,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  mere  entertainment  or  gratification,  of  the 
reader.  Many  poems  of  the  highest  order,  whether  lyric,  epic, 
or  dramatic  in  form,  are,  of  coiu^,  in  a  sense  D.,  but  the  term 
is  generally  restricted  to  such  as  seek  to  inculcate  information 
on  some  definite  subject  or  range  of  subjects.  When  tlie  theme 
is  happily  chosen,  and  the  work  eieeuted  in  a  masterly  style, 
the  advantages  of  verse  over  prose  are  undoubted,  and  the  result 
has  been  that,  in  almost  all  languages,  we  find  an  abundance  oi 
D,  P.,  embracing  an  almost  endless  variety  of  subjects.  Among 
the  Greeks  the  Works  and  Days  of  Hesiod  ;  among  the  Romans 
the  De  Rerum  Natura  of  Lucretius,  the  Giorgics  of  Virgil, 
and  the  Efistles  and  Satires  of  Horace,  are  notable  examples ; 
while  numerous  D.  poems  in  English  and  other  European 
tongues  have  attained  to  the  rank  of  classics.  No  small  charm 
is  imparted  to  such  works  by  the  skilful  introduction  of  episodes 
and  illastrations,  such  as  the  tale  of  Arislteus  and  his  Bees,  and 
the  legend  of  Orpheus  and  Eurydice  in  the  Georgics. 

Didel'phys.     See  Opossum, 

Di'derot,  Deois,  a  French  encyclopedist,  bom  at  Langres 
in  October  1713,  was  the  son  of  a  respectable  cutler,  who  had 
him  partly  educated  for  the  Church  at  the  College  d'Harcourt. 
Declining  to  enter  either  the  Church  or  the  law,  D.  supported 
himselfby  teaching  mathematics,  Latin,  and  Greek.  In  1744  he 
married  Mile.  Annette  Champion,  whom  he  speedily  deserted  for 
the  more  witty,  but  less  virtuous,  Madame  de  Puisieux.  To  this 
period  belong  his  Fetis&s  Philosophiques  (which  was  publicly 
burned)  and  his  Lettre  sur  hs  Aj/eugles,  which  introduced  him  to 
Voltaire,  who  contested  its  attieistic  conclusions,  and  to  the 
prison  of  Vmcennes,  where  he  was  visited  by  Rousseau  (Confess. 
B.  viiL).  On  his  release  he  formed  a  lasting  attachnient  for  Mile. 
Voland  :  his  letters  to  her,  from  1759  to  1774,  give  a  graphic 
account    of  the    'family   of  atheists,'^  w.,   D'HolBach,   Galiapi 


He  steadily  excluded  all  Jesuit  and  Jansenist  contributors  from 
the  theological  department;  and  after  the  withdrawal  of  D'Alam- 
bert,  confronted  alone  the  storm  of  opposition  which  the  Ency- 
elopSdie  excited  from  the  court,  the  Church,  the  theatre,  the 
Sorboniie,  and  the  law.  He  had  as  friends  only  Madame  de 
Pompadour,  M.  de  Choiseul,  and  M.  de  Malesheibes  ;  but  he 
refused  Voltaire's  advice  to  fly  to  Russia,  and  continued  for 
thirty  years  to  work  with  tlie  courage  of  his  convictions.  He 
wrote  the  articles  on  the  mechanical  arts;  but  in  his  editorship 
and  his  occasional  compositions  he  displayed  the  most  wonderful 
range  of  information  and  facility  of  composition.  D.  was  fre- 
quently the  dupe  of  his  own  good  nature,  so  that  he  must  have 
died  in  poverty  had  the  Empress  Catherine  not  pensioned  him. 
Louis  XV.  declined  to  help  D.'s  candidature  for  the  Academy, 
saying,  '  He  has  too  many  enemies.'  In  1 773  he  visited  his  bene- 
factress at  St  Petersburg.  His  chief  later  works  are  Jacques  le 
Faialisle,  La  Seligieuse,  and  Essai  sur  les  Rlgnes  de  Claude  et  de 
Niron.  He  died  30th  July  1 784,  from  a  slight  stroke  erf  apoplexy. 
D.  had  frequently  suffered  from  over-eating.  Before  his  death  he 
had  just  eaten  an  apricot,  and  asked  his  wife,  '  How  the  deuce 
that  could  hurt  him?'  In  spite  of  the  calumnies  of  La  Harpe  and 
the  mistakes  of  Naigeon,  D.  appears  to  have  been  occasionally 
visited  by  religious  feeling.  See  his  article  PROVIDENCE  in  the 
EnclyclopMie.  D.  was  one  of  the  most  industrious  and  enthu- 
siastic writers  of  the  l8th  0.,  and  disseminated  his  opinions  with 
rare  courage  and  unflagging  toil  Hisworks  are  pregnant,  fresh, 
and  vigorous,  but  he  produced  no  literary  masterpiece,  his  best 
work  being  proliably  his  dialogue  Le  Nevea  de  Raaieau,  a  brilliant 
realistic  satire,  which  Goethe  translated.  His  style  is  rambling, 
opaque,  and  declamatory,  for  which  he  has  been  called  the  most 
391 


vGooqIc 


DID 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


-• 


Gecman  of  French  authc 
Bion  were  better  seen 

montel  says  that  to  know  D.  from  his  writings  only,  is 
know  him  at  all.  There  is  a  complete  edition  of  D.'s  works  in 
15  vols.  (Par.  1798),  and  a  select  edition  in  Didot's  French 
Library.  See  John  Morie/s  Didtrot  (Lond.  1875),  Bersol's 
article  on  D.  in  his  £tud(s  sur  le  Dix-ktd^me  SUcle,  and  Carlyle's 
Miscellanies,  vol.  v. 

Bi'dO,  or  EUe'sa,  daughter  of  Agenor  or  Belus,  King  of  Tyre, 
married  her  uncle  Sichieus  (by  some  called  Acirbas),  priest  of 
Hercules.  SichEeus  having  been  murdered  by  Pygmalion,  the 
and  successor  of  Belus,  who  desired  to  obtain  his  immense 
isnres,  the  disconsolate  D.,. taking  with  her  her  husband's 
wealth,  sailed  with  some  Tynans,  touched  at  Cyprus,  where  she 
secured  wives  for  her  followers,  and  at  last  safely  landed  on  the 
AlVican  coast.  Here  she  purchased  from  King  Jarbas  as  much 
i  as  could  t>e  enclosed  by  a  bull's  hide — no  small  extent  of 
territory,  inasmuch  as  she  cut  the  hide  into  the  narrowest  thongs 
possible— 'and  on  the  site  built  Byrsa  (Bull's  Hide}.  Strangers 
flocked  to  the  new  colony,  which  eveiy  day  acquired  greater 
commercial  importance.  D.  then,  with  the  consent  of  the  Lib- 
s,  built  Carthage,  which  rapidly  grew  in  power  and  prosperity. 
;n  King  Tarbas,  smitten  with  the  charms  of  the  Tyrian  prln- 
s,  asked  her  in  marriage,  and  threatened  her  with  war  in  the 
nf  of  refusal.  D.  asked  and  obtained  three  months  to  con- 
;r  the  proposal ;  but  before  the  expiry  of  the  time  she  erected 
a  funeral  pile,  and,  sword  in  hand,  offered  herself  a  willing  sac- 
rifice to  the  manes  of  Sichseus.  After  her  death  she  was  wor- 
shippai  as  a  divinity.  Ancient  writers  are  not  agreed  as  to  the 
date  of  the  founding  of  Carthage,  bat  it  probably  took  place  from 
forty  to  one  hundred  years  before  the  building  of  Rome, 
The  anachronism  committed  by  Vitgil  in  the  EpuodeofjEneas 
andD.-^ons  of  the  most  charming  creations  of  antiquity — has 
been  frequently  remarked  by  ancient  and  modem  writers. 

Dido,  the  name  of  a  beautiful  genus  oE  Lepidoptera  or  Butter- 
flies, belonging  to  the  family  Nymphalids  of  that  order,  and  found 
in  Brazil  and  Guiana.  The  wings  are  blackish -brown  above, 
with  markings  of  pale-green,  whilst  the  under  surface  is  choco- 
late-coloured, with  green  patches  bordered  with  silvery  white, 
The  cateipillars  ate  green,  with  red  and  white  stripes.  The 
wuigs  in  the  D.  {Cithoda  Z>.)  have  a  stietch  of  4  or  S  inches. 

Di'dot,  the  name  of  a  famous  Fiench  family  of  publishers, 
printers,  and  papermakers. — I.  Franpois  D„  born  at  Paris 
in  1689,  founded  (^  I'msiigne  de  la  Bible  iP  Or,  Rut  Fa'!'&)  the 
celebrated  firm  in  his  native  city,  and  issued,  among  other  works, 
Abbe  Prevost's  Veyagcs  in  20  vols.  He  died  November  2, 
1757,-3.  Frangois  Amljroiae  D.,  son  of  Franjois,  was 
bom  1730,  and  carried  typography  to  greater  perfection  than 
had  been  previously  known  in  France.  His  editions  include 
Longus  (3  vols.  1778),  Tasso  (2  vols.  1784-86),  and  Bitaub^'s 
translation  of  Homerlravois.  1787-88).  He  died  July  ro,  1804. 
— 3.  Pierre  TranpoiB  D.  (born  1732,  died  1795),  was  brother 
of  the  former,  to  whose  success  he  greatly  contributed  by  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  paper. — 4.  Pierre  D.,  eldest  son 
of  Francois  Ambroise  D.,  bom  1760,  is  principally  remem- 
bered for  his  splendid  folio  editions  of  Vi^l  (1798),  Horace 
(1799)1  and  Racine  (3  vols.  1801-5),  Denon's  Voyage  dans  la 
Basil  et  la  Haute  Egyfte  (»  vols.  1802),  and  also  for  Boileau's 
(Eujires($  vols.  1815),  all  characteiised  by  faultless  orthography 
andprinting.  HediedDecember3i,  1853. — 5.  His  brother,  i'ir- 
minD.  (born  1764),  iswell  known  in  connection  vrith  the  process 
of  stereotyping,  which  he  applied  extensively,  Bjj  this  means  he 
vastly  reduced  the  price  of  books,  selling  his ,  Virgil,  a  gem  of 
printing,  for  sevenpence.  It  enabled  him  also  to  issue  an 
immense  number  of  French,  Italian,  and  English  classics.  He 
died  April  24,  1S36.— 6.  Heuu  D.  (bora  1765,  died  1852), 
son  of  Pierre  Francois,  had  a  strong  mechanical  taste,  and  ac- 
quired some  reputation  as  an  engraver.  The  'microscopic' 
letters  founded  by  him  are  miracles  of  clearness  and  delicacy. — 
7,  D.  Saint  LSger,  brother  of  the  preceding,  manager  of  the 
paper  factory  of  Essonne,  invenled  the  machine  for  making  the 
paper  called  Sans  Fin.  The  business  long  carried  on  Under  the 
name  of  Firmin  Didot  Fr^res  is  now  Fnmin  Didot  Frires, 
Fils,  &  Cie.  From  the  enormous  catalogue  of  their  publications 
we  may  enumerate  the  Bibliothique  Franfoise,  Colkdum  des 
Classiques  Francois,  Bibliathlqtie  da  Auteurs  Gr^s,   the  new 


edition  of  Thesaurus  Grmcs  Lingua,  and  the  Nauvelle  Bio' 
graphie  Ginirale.-  See  Werdet's  Atudes  BibliograpMques  sar  '" 
FamUli  des  D.  (Par.  1S64). 

Didym'ium.     This    metal  accompanies    Lanthanum    ; 
Cerium  (q.  v.)  in  all  their  coinpounds  found  in  nature,  ; 
derives  its  name  from  the  cireumstance  [didumos,  Gr.  'twini   , 
D,  was  discovered  m  .1841  by  Mosander.     Its  symbol  is  Di,  and 
its  atomic  weight  48.    Neither  D.  nor  its  salts  have  any  practical 

Die',  St,  a  town  in  the  deparlment  of  the  Vosges,  France, 
on  the  Meurthe,  25  miles  E.N.E.  of  fipinaL  It  is  a  bishop's 
see,  and  has  a  cathedral  and  fine  chuich.  There  are  manu- 
factures of  cotton,  and  a  trade  in  corn,  cattle,  flax,  leather,  iron- 
mongery,  &c.  In  the  neighbourhood  are  iron  and  copper  mines, 
papermiUs,  and  dyeworks.     Pop.  (1872)  9454. 

DieSfenba^h,  Johaim.  Friedrioh,  a  celebrated  German 
surgeon,  was  bora,  February  I,  1794,  at  KHnigsberg,  became 
Professor  of  Clinical  Surgery  at  Berlin  in  1832,  and  died  Novem- 
ber ii,  1847.  His  chief  works  are  CIUrurg.Erfakrungen\AyeAs. 
\%2.q-%^),  Durchschnddung  der  Sihmn  und  MHskdn{_l%\\),vcA 
nil  OperaHijeChirurnei.2  vols.  1844-49),  the  last  unquestionably 
placing  him  among  the  first  surgeons  of  the  world. 

Die'g^,  San,  a  town  of  Califomia,  at  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  state.  It  has  one  of  the  best  liarbours  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
6  miles  long,  with  a  depth  of  6  or  7  fathoms  close  to  the'  shore. 
The  town  is  divided  into  the  old  or  Spanish,  and  the  new  or  Ameri- 
can. There  is  a  trade  in  hides,  tailow,  fish,  and  salt;  and  gold, 
copper,  quicksilver,  and  coal  are  said  to  be  found.  Pop.  (1870) 
230a 


ion  (q.  V.)  acts.  Faraday  discovered  that  the  charge  induced 
upon  a  conductor,  placed  at  a  given  distance  from  a  charged  con- 
ductor, varied  with  the  D.  employed,  being  dependent  upon  what 
ha  termed  the  specific  inductive  capacity  of  the  D.  He  w  as  tl  us 
led  to  the  conception  of  the  theory  of  action  through  a  med  u  - 


_any  : 


I  fac< 


the  induction  is  equal  to  the  chaige.     Aconplete 

discussionof  the  theory  of  the  D.  and  of  action  through  an  ed  nm 
will  be  found  in  Clerk  K^vie&'s' Eicilridly  and  M gn  Usm 
(2  vols..  Clarendon  Press,  Oxf.  1873). 

Dielyt'ra.     See  Dicentra, 

Diep'enbeok,  Abraham  Van,  a  Dutch  painter,  bom  at 
Hertogenbosch  (Bois-le-Duc)  in  1607,  became  famous  as  Ihe 
first  painter  on  glass  of  his  time,  but  abandoning  glass-pain  ling, 
entered  the  school  of  Rubens  at  Antwerp,  devoting  himself  to 
study  under  that  master.  After  a  tour  in  Italy  he  returned 
to  Antwerp,  and  re-entered  the  studio  of  Rubens  in  the  capacity 
of  assistant  in  1641.  His  versatility  Was  great,  and,  besides 
such  pictures  as  his  'Cmcifixion'  (at  Coblentz),  his  'Eliza- 
beth and  Clelia'  (Berlin),  &c,  he  showed  excellent  taste  and 
great  i^cility  in  painting  on  tapestry  and  panelling,  and  in  de- 
signing title-pages  and  other  decorative  work.  His  'Temple 
of  the  Muses,'  a  series  of  fifty-nine  designs  from  Ovid's  Meta- 
morphosis, and  a  work  of  great  genius,  was  reproduced  iu  copper- 
plate by  the  best  engravers  of  the  time.  His  colouring  and 
composirion  were  excellent,  his  ingenuity  exhaustless,  but  his 
work  was  always  hurried  and  wantine  in  finish.  Many  examples 
of  his  glass-paintings  are  preserved  at  Antwerp.  In  1641  he 
was  elected  Director  of  the  Academy  at  Antwerp,  where  he  died 
in  1675.     See  Decamps,  Vies  des  Peintres  HoUandais. 

Dieppe  (Old  Norse,  Duipa,  'the  deep  water'],  a  seaport 
and  watering-place  of  France,  department  of  Seine-Inferieure, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Arques,  here  divided  into  two  streams,  45 
miles  *N.  of  Rouen  by  railway.  It  is  a  fortified  town  of  the 
fourth  rank,  the  seat  of  a  tribunal  of  the  first  instance,  and  of  a 
communal  college ;  has  a  Gothic  church,  St  Jacques,  dating 
from  the  end  of  the  13th  c,  the  beautiful  church  of  St  Remy, 
a  castle  of  the  15th  c,  two  hospitals,  an  exchange,  and  a 
theatre.     There  are  elegant  bathing  HaUissements,  and  several 

?ublic  squares,  numerous  fountains,  fine  quays,  and  promenades, 
he  harbour  consists  of  three  ba^is,  admits  vessels  of  1200  tons, 
and  annually  receives  some  4000  vessels  of  500,000  tons.    There 


y  Google 


DIE 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DIE 


a  regular  steam  service  with.  Newhaven,  and  great  iium- 
s  of  Englishmen  pass  through  D.  on  their  route  for  Rouen 
and  Paris.  The  exports  are  cottons,  sil-lis,  woollens,  fruits,  frc, 
and  the  imports  iron,  steel,  coal,  and  timber.  D.  has  manufac- 
tures of  lace,  articles  of  ivory  and  bone,  as  also  shipbuilding 
yards,  au^-refineries,  distilleries,  and  sawmills.  Its  leading 
industry  is,  peihaps,  in  herring  and  cod  fisheries,  and  in  the 
management  of  the  enormous  beds  of  oysters  in  the  vidnity. 
Pop.  (1872)  20,160.  To  (he  W.  of  D.  lies  the  suburb  ofPollet, 
remarkable  for  the  entire  contrast  its  inhabitants  present  to  those 
of  Upper  Normandy  in  speech,  dress,  and  manners,  on  which 
account  they  have  been  t^en  for  the  descendants  of  the  Saxons 
who  settled  here  in  the  times  of  the  Mei-wings.  D.  is  first 
kiiovra  historically  in  1196,  and  subsequently  became  a  flourish- 
ing French  port.  It  rose  to  the  height  of  its  prosperity  under 
Francois  I.  The  ships  which  carried  the  first  French  colonists  to 
Canada  sailed  hence.  But  the  fortunes  of  D.  sank  with  the  revo- 
cation of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (l635|,  and  tlie  town  was  all  but 
destroyed  by  tlie  English  and  Dutcli  forces,  July  i;,  1694.  It 
was  rebuilt  by  royal  command  on  the  Peace  of  Ryswijk,  and 
aijain  bombarded  by  the  English,  14th  September  1803.  The 
Germans,  mider  Manteuffel,  seized  D.  9th  December  1870. 

Die-Sinking,  the  art  of 
cised,  on  a  block  of  steel,  call( 
the  reproduction  of  a  number  of  identical  dies,  used  in  striking 
medals,  &c.  The  art  is  best  displayed  in  tlie  making  of  medals 
and  coins.  A  piece  of  fine-grained  steel  is  fashioned  into  a 
rough  die-blocli,  and  is  strengthened  by  a  ring  of  iron  to  prevent 
its  cracking.  The  rough  die-block  having  been  softened  by 
annealing,  and  a  -smooth  suiface  formed  on  it  on  the  lathe,  the 
die-sinker  sketches  and  engraves  in  outline  his  design  upon  it. 
After  delicate  manipulation  with  difTerenUy  shaped  tools  or 
jjravers  of  many  sizes,  he  produces  a  finished  '  matrix.'  While 
the  die  is  being  engraved,  technically  called  'roughed,'  the  die- 
■-ker  takes  irequent  casts  in  clay  or  type-metal  to  test  the 
rectness  and  progress  of  the  work.  A  number  of  duplicate 
s  are  prepared,  as  injury  might  result  to  the  original  from 
itinual  use  in  the  press.  The  first  step  in  the  mnltiplica- 
n  of  dies  is  to  harden  the  matrix  by  protecting  the  design 
with  a  charcoal  paste,  heating  the  steel  to  a  bright  cherry-red, 
and  then  exposing  it  to  a  falling  stream  of  water.  It  is  next 
cleaned,  tempered  by  being  ttdsed  to  a  certain  temperature, 
"" "  slowly  cooled  in  oil  or  water,  and  'lapped,'  or  poHshed. 
_  iece  of  steel  of  the  same  quality  as  the  die  is  now  turned  on 
the  lathe  to  the  form  of  a  truncated  cone,  made  quite  smooth, 
and  carefully  annealed.  The  matrii  being  placed  beneath  a 
powerful  press,  the  narrow  end  of  the  annealed  piece  of  steel  or 
'punch'  IS  placed  upon  it,  and  by  a  succession  of  light  blows 
is  sunlc  into  the  matrix  till  the  design  appears  in  perfect  relief 
npon  the  pnnch.  The  blows  require  to  be  slight,  as  the  punch 
is  apt  to  crack,  and  softens  after  each  blow.  From  the  puncli, 
which  is  strengthened  with  an  iron  collar  and  hardened,  a  series 
of  impressions  are  obtained  on  soft  steel,  and  fram  these,  subse- 
qnently  hardened,  the  medals  or  coins  are  struck  by  means  of  a 
press.  All  metals  except  tin  have  to  be  annealed  after  each 
blow  in  the  press  to  prevent  cracking.  Dies  for  stamping  note- 
paper,  &c,  and  for  fine  kinds  of  metal  ornaments,  are  prepared 
by  the  die-sinker.  For  inferior  stampedmetal  ornaments  the  dies 
are  chiefly  cast,  and  afterwards  touched  up  with  a  graver. 

Di'es  Inoep'tus  pro  Oomple'to  Habe'tiir,  a  legal  maxim 
signifying  ihat  a  day  begim  is  a  day  ended.  See  Computation 
OF  Time. 


mediieval  piety  in  song.    The  modem  world  has  nothing 

!)arable  to  it  in  awe-stricken  devotion  and  hallowed  fear.  The 
lymn  has  been  ascribed  to  the  General  of  the  Minorite  Order, 
Matthaus  Aquasparla  (died  1302),  to  Cardinal  Frangipani  {died 
1394},  to  Malabranca,  Bishop  of  Ostia  (1274),  to  Bonaventura 
(q.  v.j,  to  St  Bernard-  (q.  v.),  and  even  to  Gregory  the  Great 
(q.  V. ).  But  Luke  Wadding,  the  learned  historian  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan Order  {Annates  Minor.,  Lugd,  1625),  assigns  the  author- 
ship to  Thomas  of  Celano,  a  native  of  the  Abruzri,  and  pupil  and 
friend  of  St  Francis  of  Assisi.  Thomas  diedabout  the  middle  of 
the  I31h  c,  and  his  name  is  first  mentioned  in  connection  with 
-     poem  about  the  end  ofthe  r^th  c.     There  are  three  different 


125 


texts  of  the  D.  I.— (i)  That  of  the  Roman  Missal,  which  is  the 
one  best  known  ;  (2)  the  Manttian  ;  (3)  that  given  to  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Ziirich  (about  1475}  by  Fehx  Malleolus  (Ger.  Bdmnur- 
lein),  Provost  of  Soiothnrn  and  Chorherm.  The  relative  value 
of  these  texts  is  still  the  subject  of  critical  discussion.  The  hymn 
itself  first  became  part  of  the  litui^  of  the  Church  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  14th  c.  It  has  been  repeatedly  translated  into  Ger- 
man, English,  and  other  tongues.  Lisco,  in  his  monographs  on 
the  D.  I.  and  the  Stabat  Mater  (Berl.  1840-43),  enumerates  sixty 
versions  of  the  former,  of  which  August  Wilhdm  von  Schlegel's 
is  probably  the  best.  Crashaw,  Macaulay,  and  Lord  Lindsay 
are  among  those  who  have  tried  to  render  it  into  Englisl 

Di'esis,  in  music,  a  small  interval  (vibr.  fraction,  fff )  01 
under  the  same  circumstances  as  Diaschisma  (q.  v.). 

Diest,  a  strongly  fortified  town  in  the  f)rovince  of  S.  Brabant, 
Belgium,  32  miles  E.N.E.  of  Brussels,  with  manufactures  o( 
hosiery,  beer,  and  gin.  The  Church  of  St  Sulpitius  is  the  only 
building  of  note.     Pop,  7720. 

Die'terichfl,  JoacMmFriediiohCaiiistiaii,  a  great  vete- 
rinary surgeon,  was  bom  at  Stendal,  Prussia,  1st  March  i 
entered  the  Veterinary  Collie  of  Berlin  as  a  bursar  in  il 
and,  after  examination,  was  named  in  1817  superior  veterinary 
suigeon.  He  was  sent  to  France  at  the  expense  of  the  Govern- 
ment to  study  stud-keeping  and  horse-breeding,  and  pursued  the 
same  study  further  m  Wiirtemberg,  Bavaria,  Austria,  and  Hun- 
gary. On  his  return  he  occupied  a  chair  in  the  Veterii^ry  Col- 
lege of  Berlin  till  l8a3,  was  appointed  to  a  post  in  the  General 
Military  School  of  Berlin  in  1830,  and  appointed  Pi-ofessor  ir 
Ordinary  in  1841.  His  works,  which  have  been  translated  intt 
various  languages,  are  widely  used  in  Germany.  Among  then 
are  Handiuck  der  Veteramer-CMmr^  (Berl.  1822,  0th  ed, 
18451 ;  Uebir  die  Hulfbeschlp^lainst  (BerL  1823)  j  Handbuck  der 
Spedelleri  PathclogU  and  ThmiUefUr  Landzmrtke  und  ThierUreie 
(BerL  1828,  3d  ed.  iSjl) ;  Hattdbuck  der  Gebmiskiilfe  (Berl. 
1845) ;  BeTtenmmgen  der  eitiiieine»  Eegionen  uiid  ThdU  des  auy- 
sim  F/erdeiorpers  (Berl.  1853),  &c. 

Dietet'ios  is  that  department  of  science  which  treats  of  food. 
The  question  of  the  kind  of  food  best  suited  for  man  may  be 
treated  either  theoretically  or  practically.  Theoretically,  food 
may  be  considered  as  consisting  of  various  alimentary  or  proxi- 
mate principles,  each  of  which  has  specific  physiological  pro- 
perties ;  or  practically  food  may  be  regarded  as  composed  of 
these  collectively,  in  such  proportions  and  in  such  physical  states 
as  fit  the  food  for  the  maintenance  of  life.  It  is  the  practical 
aspect  of  the  question  of  food  which  forms  the  subject  of  D. 
As  an  example  of  a  natural  food,  take  milk.  It  contains  the 
following  alimentary  principles  : — Nitrogenous  matter  (casein 
chiefly,  with  small  quantities  of  other  albumenoid  matter),  falty 
matter  or  butter,  a  carbo-hydrate  in  the  form  of  sugar  of  milk 
(lacline),  and  inorganic  matter  comprising  salts  and  mater. 
Here  we  find  a  combination  of  principles  present,-  designed  in 
the  economy  of  nature  for  the  purpose  of  sustaining  life  during 
an  early  period  of  mammalian  existence..  An  egg  is  another 
example  of  a  compound  food  or  material  contaming  all  the  prin- 
ciples necessary  for  the  development  and  growth  of  the  body  pf 
the  chick,  It  has  also  been  shown  by  experiment  that  food  con- 
taining a  combination  of  principles  is  required  to  nourish  the 
body  of  an  animal.  Tims  gelatine,  albumen,  fibrine,  and  fat, 
taken  separately,  nourish  animals  for  a  very  limited  period,  and 
in  an  incomplete  manner.  A  truly  nutritions  food  must  contain 
a  mixture  of  these,  along  with  saline  materials  and  water.  In 
addition,  a  certa  n  amount  of  saj.  d  y  or  fl  vour  s  required  ti 
make  the  fbod  pala  ab  e 
of  the  fo 
affected  by  the  exigenc  es  of  the  cl  n 
by  his  habits  of  1  fe      Exerc  se  and  exposure  to  cold  ii 

the  demand  for  food    «h  le  a  sta  e  of   nact  v  y  and  a  

climate  have  usua  y  the  oppos  e  effect  Again  dwellers  in  the 
Arctic  regions  consu  e  an  ei  ormous  quant  y  of  the  r 
efficient  kind  of  heat- producing  material — oleaginous  mattei, 
fat, — -while  the  inhabitants  of  ihe  tropics  live  chiefly  on  vegetable 
products  containing  principles,  such  as  starch,  belongmg  to  the 
carbo-hydrate  group  of  bcraies.  In  a  temperate  clime,  we  find 
men  living  more  on  a  mixed  diet,  The  following  table  by 
Moleschott  may  be  regarded  as  representing  the  necessary  cc 
biuation  of  alimentary  principles  for  maintaining  health,  ii 
39J 


vLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DIF 


j,„r..a. 

I.  ...v.. 

Ingrains. 

y^h 

^ 
'% 

wgs 

^  50        S  Th     a  es  of  water-free 

aJ  p     d  4  d    ary  food.     For 

h  agizdmdg  date  amount  of 

w    k  ffi  d  ry        d  d    onsist  of  about 

S  ak  as    6  n,  6        for  dinner — in 

all,  3001. 

When  we  examine  the  dietaries  of  persons  engaged  ir  various 
ways,  we  find  a  correspondence  between  the  work  done  and  the 
food  constuned,  and  here,  as  has  been  well  said,  there  is  a  har- 
mony between  the  dictates  of  experience  and  the  suggestions  of 
science.     In  order  to  ascertain  the  value  of  any  dietary,  the  com- 

Siosition  of  the  constituent  articles  requires  to  be  known.  The 
oUowing  ta.ble,  compiled  from  Dr  Letheby's  Cantor  Ltdurts  on 
Food  {\%^a■,  1st  ed.  p.  6),  represents  the  percentage  composition 
of  several  of  the  more  common  articles  of  diet :- 


W.,a-, 

Slarph. 

S„g,r. 

F... 

S:.lls. 

3 

.5-5 

,- 

Cabbage  .        . 

n 

=  ■3 

Errand  porter 

^' 

"' 

... 

87 

... 

"'' 

prisons,  hofipitals,  &c. 
Adult  in  full  %aldi,  wich  m 


As  regards  the  effect  of  anima!  and  vegetable  food  on  the 
system,  the  following  statements  may  be  made; — (l)  Animal  food 
increases  the  amount  of  fibrin  in  the  blood,  renders  the  blood 
richer  in  red  corpuscles,  and  produces  firmness  of  muscle  with 
an  absence  of  superfluons  fa.t.  (2)  Vegetable  food  increases  the 
deposition  of  fat,  is  less  stimulating  than  animal  food,  and  ap- 
peases hunger  for  only  a  short  time;  otheiwise  its  nutritious 
value,  if  capable  of  being  digested,  is  quite  as  great. 

Diet  of  iKfanis. — The  proper  food  for  an  infant  is  the  milk 

of  the  mother.     Failing  this,  the  nearest  approach  to  the  best 

food  is  the  milk  of  another  woman.      A  wet-nurse  should  be  free 

from  constitutional  taint,  and  in  a  healthy  coudition.     Her  milk 

394 


should  he  sufHcient  in  quantity  and  good  in  quality,  and  she 
should  have  borne  a  child  about  the  same  time  as  the  mother  of 
the  infant  given  into  her  charge.  But  if  no  wet-nurse  can  be 
got,  the  next  best  substitute  for  the  mother's  milk  is  the  milk 
of  the  cow.  This  milk,  as  seen  in  the  following  table,  is  the 
nearest  approach  to  what  is  wanted,   and  it  is  easily  pro. 


Sugar  and  salt's      '. 

Milk  of                              j 

W..... 

C, 

0.a.. 

A... 

if 

Ji 

85&. 

&% 

,..« 

-» 

,„.„     1    .«■..     1 

To  render  cow's  milk  suitable  for  the  infant,  it  is  usually  diluted 
with  water  and  sweetened  with  sugar.  Farinaceous  food,  con- 
sisting of  bread,  biscuit-powder,  flour,  rusks,  &c.,  are  not  really 
suitable  for  infant  life,  although  rnuti  used.  Liebig's  food  for 
infknts,  derived  from  malt-flour,  wheat-flour,  cow's  millc,  bicar- 
bonate of  potash  and  water,  is  more  suitable.  As  regards 
practical  dietetics  and  the  food  for  invalids  suffering  from  various 
diseases,  see  Dr  Pavy's  Treatise  on  Food  and  Dietetics  (2d  ed. 
Loud.  187s), 

Die'tridh  of  Bern,  one  of  tlie  characters  in  the  old  German 
epic  the  Nieietungen  jJed  {q.v.),  and  a  favourite  hero  in  German 
legend  and  song.  In  the  Niebelungea  Lied  he  is  one  of  Etzel's 
(Attila's)  chief  vassals,  and  revenges  the  death  of  Siegfried  bv 
bringing  Guntber,  the  Bui^ndian  king,  and  Hagen,  Siegfried  3 
murderer,  captive  to  Queen  Chriemhilt.  D.  is  only  of  secon- 
dary importance  in  the  Ni^hmgen  Lied,  but  is  the  central  figure 
in  a  great  cycle  of  Gothic  tales.  In  the  fieldenbuch,  or  Book 
of  Heroes,  written  by  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach  and  Heinrich 
von  Ofterdingen,  D.  is  represented  as  seeking  adventures  in  a 
fairyland  in  the  TV^'<  ^"^  '^  riding  to  Chriemhilt's  rose-garden, 
and  forcing  the  almost  invulnerable  Siegfried  to  hide  beneath 
Chriemhilt's  veil.  Other  sagas  tell  how  D.  was  head  of  a  band 
of  heroes,  and  was  crowned  Emperor  of  Rome.  In  the  com- 
paratively late  tale  of  D.  and  Sigenat,  D.  is  shut  up  in  a  tower, 
and,  like  Ragnor  Lodbrog,  is  attacked  by  snakes,  but  escapes. 
The  story  of  D.  and  Ecke  greatly  resembles  the  Volsunga  saga, 
and,  according  to  some,  can  be  connected  with  the  IHad.  It 
paints  D,  as  the  bravest  of  all  warriors,  and  as  beloved  by  the 
beautiful  Queen  Seburk,  whose  pleading  for  D.'s.life,  according 
to  Mr  Cox  {Mythology  of  Ike  Aryan  Netiions,  i.  305),  symbolises 
the  Dawn  pleading  for  the  life  of  the  Sun.  D.  likewise  appears 
in  German  legend  as  a  ghostly  midnight  hunter,  answering  to 
King  Hugh  in  France  and  Heme  the  Hunter  in  England.  This 
heroic  and  mythical  D.,  or  Thiderick,  is  identified  wiih  the  great 
Ostrogothic  conqiiccor  Theodoric  of  Verona  (q.  v.).  See  Lud- 
low's Popular  Epics  of  the  Middle  Agis. 

Di'eta  of  Compear'aiioe,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  are  the  days 
on  which  a  party  to  a  dvil  or  criminal  process  is  cited  to  appear 
in  court.  In  criminal  cases,  the  indictment,  or  Criminal  Letters 
(q.  v.),  must  be  called  on  the  precise  day  for  which  the  accused 
is  cited.    See  Summons,  Indictmbnt,  Induci.«  Legales. 

Diez,  Firiedrich  CliristiEUi,  an  illustrious  Romance  schokr, 
was  bom  at  Giessen,  Marcli  !5,  1794.  After  serving  as  a  volun- 
teer against  Napoleon  in  1813,  and  living  as  a  pnvate  tutor  at 
Utrecht,  he  went  to  Bonn  in  1822,  where  Tie  was  appointed  Pro- 
fessor of  Modem  Literature  in  183a  Hedied2djunei876.  D, 
was  deeply  versed  in  ancient  and  modem  tongues,  and  by  Ms 
two  great  works,  Grammalik  der  Somanischin  Sfracken  (Bonn, 
3  vols.  1836-42,  new  ed.  1S50-60),  and  Btymologisches  WSrtet- 
bmk  der  Sotnan.  Sprachen  (Bonn,  1853,  2d  ed.  2  vols.  1861-62, 
3d  ed.  1S70),  which  have  been  translated  into  English  and 
French,  founded  the  philol<^  of  the  Romance  languages ,  Among 
his  other  works  zxe  Die  Foesie  der  Troubadours  (1826),  and  Uebn 
die  erst!  Fortug.  Kanst  und  Hoffoesie  (1863]. 

DifferenoeB,  in  heraldry,  devices  to  indicate  feudal  alliance 
!ind  dependency,  but    not  "blood -relationship.    Another  view  is 


yLaOogle 


DIP 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DIF 


that  D.  are  used  by  the  brothers  and     tl        d  d     t       f  i 

family  after  the  death  of  their  father,      1  1     m    k       f  C  d       ■ 
(q.   V.)  are  employed  during  his  lifetim        D  ff    t  d    ' 

ways  immmerable,  by  modifications  of  t      t        a  d     f    11  th 
charges — ordinaries,  sub- ordinaries,  and     is    Jlan  W  m  i 

cannot  bear  D. 

Differences,  CalOTilus  of  Knite,  a  b  h  fi  Ife  1  a 
of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  discuss  f  es  a  d  q  es 
tions  of  annuities,  &c     The  law  which  the  si '-" 


following  numbers  give  an  example  of  thi 
Series,  l8  27  40  58  gz        113        153 

First  differences,  9  13  iS  24         31  39 

Second  differences,     45678 
Third  differences,  I  I  I  1 

The  law  is  evident  in  the  row  of  second  D,,  whil§  fte  fourth 
obviously  vanish.  It  is  apparent,  then,  that  given  any  term  and 
tlie  corresponding  differences,  the  other  terms  can  Ue  calculated. 
The  two  fundamental  formufe  are — 


n_(n_ 


r)   , 


where  i*^^^  u^,  &c.,  are  the  (x  +  «)th,  *tlj,  &e,,  term  of  the 
series  «i  +  Wj  +  jij  +  .  ,   ,  ,  and  where  4b ^  ~  u     ,      —  u 
A'a^  =  AA«j  =  A»j  ^  ,  -  i«^,&c,  Fortheproofandappli- 
cation  of  these,  the  reader  is  referred  to  De  Moi^an's  Differtn- 


Diflferen'tial,  in  muac,  is  a  third  note  produced  when  any 
two  tones  are  sounded  aunultaneously.  Its  pitch  is  that  corre- 
sponding to  the  digermce  bitatem  thi  number  of  vibrations  of  the 
tvro  primaries.  The  D.  has  an  important  effect  on  tl^e  foiison- 
ance  of  certain  intervals.      See  COBSONANCE, 

Differential  Calculus.     See  CALCULua 

Differential  Eqna'tions  ate  equations  in  which  differential 
coefficients  of  the  variable  quantities  enter.  They  are  divided 
.  into  two  classes,  ordinary  and  partial— '^e  foHner  having  only 
one  independent  variable,  the  latter  more  than  one.  D.  E.  are 
also  distinguished  by  their  order  and  degret — the  order  being  that 
of  the  highest  differential  coefficient  present,  and  the  degree  cor- 
responding to  the  highest  power  to  which  any  differential  coeffi- 

.     ,         .       /d^v\,        dv 
cient  IS  raised.      Thus  ( ^  j  +  «  ^  +  it  b  ^  is  of  the   third 

order  and  second  degree,     If  X,  Xj,  X.,,  &c.,  be  functions  only 
of  j:,  the  equation 

dx^  dr"  oV"  ^ 

is  called  a  linear  eq^uation  of  the  Hfh  order,  the  dependent  vari- 
able y  and  its  derivatives  being  all  of  the  first  degree.  Such 
equations  are  of  great  importance,  being  of  very  frequent  occur- 
rence in  physical  problems.  The  standard  treatise  on  the  sub- 
ject is  Boole's  Z>.  £  .  "  "  "  " 
IS  very  complete  and  well  worthy  ot  study. 
Differential  Thermometer,     See  Thermometer. 


close  to  an  opaque  body.  It  was  first  observed  by  Gdmaldi, 
and  much  studied  by  Newton,  who  supposed  it  to  be  due  to 
a  kind  of  molecular  force  subsisting  between  the  maque  body 
and  the  light  corpuscles.  Let  a  narrow  beam  of  sunlight,  enter- 
ii^  a  darkened  room,  fell  upon  a  plate  which  is  perforated  by 
an  exceedingly  small  hole  or  slit  If  the  light  transmitted 
through  this  minute  aperture  be  tecrived  upon  a  white  wall  or 
sheet,  the  small  light-spot  will  be  surrounded  by  several  concen- 
tric rings  of  coloured  light  with  intermediate  rings  of  darkness. 
The  experiment  may  be  varied  so  as  to  present  most  startling 
and  beautiful  phenomena,  all  of  which,  however,  can  be  explained 


upon  the  undulatory  tlieory  of  light  with  a  simplicity  almost 
onceivable,  D.  is,  in  fact,  a  case  of  Interference  (q.  v, ).  If 
a  mall  opaque  disc  be  interposed  in  a  beam  of  sunligiit,  the 
1  dow  cast  IS  found  to  have  a  small  bright  spot  m  the  Centre. 
This  is  another  case  of  D. ;  and  a  general  idea  of  the  manner  in 
which  it  is  explained  may  be  got  from  a  consideration  of  the 
ffect  an  obstacle  has  upon  a  wave  travelling  along  the  surface 
f  a  sheet  of  water.  Where  the  crests  of  the  two  halves  so  formed 
m  et,  a  larger  wave  will  be  produced,  but  where  ci'est  meets 
hollow,  there  will  be  no  wave  apparent ;  and  darkness  is  the 
absence  of  that  undulatory  motion  which  constitutes  light.  The 
complete  explanation  requires  the  aid  erf  higher  mathematics,  for 
which  we  refer  to  Fresnel's  memoir  before  ttie  Academy  of 
Sciences  Sur  la  Z>.  de  la  Lunah-e  (1826).  A  D.-gratitig  is  a 
transparent  surface  ruled  with  numerous  lines,  so  close  that  they 
cannot  be  singly  observed.  By  means  of  such  an  apparatus  a 
series  of  most  perfect  spectra  is  obtained  when  a  beam  of  sun- 
light, transmitted  through  it,  is  received  upon  a  screen.  These 
spectra  are  free  from  the  objection  which  holds  for  prismatic 
spectra,  that  the  violet  portion  is  too  much  extended.  Further, 
it  is  easily  demonstrable,  upon  the  principles  of  interference,  that 
the  distance  of  any  pcrlion  of  the  spectrum  from  that  point  on 
the  screen  which  is  ui  the  same  line  with  the  sunbeam  and  the 
centre  of  the  grating,  is  proportional  to  the  wave-length  of  the 
light  at  that  part  of  the  spectrum.  This  greatly  increases  the 
value  of  such  gratings,  which  are,  however,  exceedingly  scarce. 

Diffu'aion,  the  gradual  intermingling  of  two  liquids  or  gases. 
If  over  a  strong  and  coloured  saline  solution,  such  as  sulphate 
of  copper,  or  bichromate  of  potash,  water  be  poured  gently  so 
as  n.ot  tp  disturb  the  solution,  the  process  of  D.  will  become 
very  apparent.  For  measuring  the  rate  of  D.,  however,  this 
method  is  not  sufficiently  exact.  Sir  William  Thomson  employs 
a  number  of  glass  heads,  whose  specific  gravities  are  different, 
but  all  intermediate  between  those  of  the  two  liquids.  As  D.  goes 
on  the  beads  gradually  separate,  and  indicate  by  their  positions 
the  specific  gravity  at  any  depth  of  the  solution.  Another  method 
adopted  by  the  same  physicisS  is  to  measure  the  refractive  indices 
of  the  various  layers  of  the  diffusing  liquids.  There  are  many 
pairs  of  liquids,  such  as,  water  and  oil,  which  do  not  mix,  and 
therefore  do  not  diffuse,  apd  there  are  others  in  which  the  D.  is 
only  partial,  the  final  result  being  the  lighter  liquid  mixed  with  a 
small  proportion  of  the  heavier  floatmg  upon,  and  distinctly 
marked  off  from,  the  heavier  liquid,  mixed  with  a  small  propor- 
tion of  the  lighter.    This  is  the  case  with  ether  and  water. 

Every  gas  is  capable  of  D.  into  every  other  gas— a  fact  first  re- 
marked by  Priestly.  Graham,  who  mvestigated  the  phenomenon 
thoroughly,  has  shown  that  ihe  rate  at  which  the  D.  of  any 
substance  goes  on  is  proportional  to  the  rate  of  variation  of  the 
strength  of  that  substance  in  the  fluid  as  we  pass  along  m  the 
direction  of  the  D.;  exactly  the  law  which  holds  for  conduction 
of  heat  and  electricity.  He  also  deduced  from  his  experiments 
that  the  rates  of  D.  of  two  gases  are  inversely  proportional 
to  the  square  roots  of  their  densities— the  lightest  diffusing  most 
rapidly.  If  a  porous  solid  be  intercepted  between  the  two  gases, 
D.  takes  place,  acconjing  to  Graham,  in  the  s?me  way  that  it 
would  have  done  if  there  had  been  no  septum  present  ;  Bunsen, 
however,  regards  the  phenomenon  as  dependent  upon  capilkrity, 
and  doubts  the  ti;ulh  of  Graham's  law  of  densities.  There  is 
another  class  of  cases,  differing  from  the  last  in  the  fact  that  the 
diaphragm  is  not  in  the  ordinary  sense  porous.  Thus,  if  a  soap- 
bubble  be  blown  with  carbonic  acid  gas,  the  gas  is  continually 
passing  through— being  absorbed  on  the  interior  sniikce,  passed 
in  a  state  of  solution  through  the  film,  and  given  off  at  the  exte- 
rior surface.  Hydrogen  and  other  gases  behave  similarly  with 
respect  to  caoutchouc;  but  their  rates  of  passage  have  no  con- 
nection with  those  of  ordina^  D.,  being  rather  a  chemical  than 
a  mechanical  action. 

Graham  distinguished  what  he  called  colloid  and  crys&illotd 
substances;  the  former  being  capable  of  uniting  temporarily  and 
loosely  in  various  proportions  with  other  substances,  the  latter 
always  combinmg  in  definite  proportions.  Glue  is  a  colloMbody, 
forming  a  jelly  with  various  proportions  of  water;  sails  are  e^yj- 
talltHd.  They  are  easily  distmguished  by  the  difficulty  with 
which  all  colloid  bodies  diffuse  through  a  porous  solid,  crystal- 
loids diffusing  with  ease.  If  a  colloid  substance  be  combined 
with  some  liquid  or  crystalloVd  solution  in  different  proportions 
throughout  its  mass,  D.  takes  place  through  the  colloid  body  till 


vLaOogle 


DIG 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPjEDIA. 


structure  is  homogeneous — an  interesting  analogy  to  tlie 
tendenqr  whicli  an  unequally  lieated  bo<ly  lias  to  come  to  a  uni- 
form temperature.  It  is  on  this  theory  that  Graham  explains 
passage  of  hydrc^en  through  iron  and  palladium  at  a  high 
temperature,  the  metak  acting,  with  respect  to  the  gas^  as  colloid 
substances.  See  Graham's  Mimoin  in  the  Philosephical  7i-ans- 
acliims  prior  to  1851,  Graham's  Chsmisiiy,  Bunsen's  Casometry, 
translated  by  Roscoe,  and  Clerk  MaswelJ's  Theory  of  Heat. 

Sigamma,  a  letter  once  occupying  the  sixth  place  in  the 
Greek  alphabet,  which  gradually  fell  into  entire  disuse.  It  was 
called  D.,  i.e.,  double  gamma,  from  its  resemblance  to  two 
nmas  placed  one  on  the  other,  ^  p.  The  D.  existed  in  the 
e  of  Homer,  but  is  not  found  written  in  any  extant  copy.  In 
pronunciation  it  answered  to  the  English  v.  The  manner  of  ita 
disappearance  may  be  illustrated  liy  a  comparison  of  the  Greek 

DigTjy,  n  seaport  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  province  of 
Nova  Scoiia,  on  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  It  has  an  active  industry  in 
the  curing  of  pilchards,  which  are  prized  on  account  of  their 
flavour,  and  are  iinown  as  LHgbtes  in  the  fish  trade.  There  are 
also  valuable  herring  and  mackerel  fisheries,  and  some  ship- 
building and  lumbering.      Pop.  (1871)  130a 

Digby,  Sir  Eenelme,  the  son  of  Sir  Everard  D.,  one  of 
the  men  who  suffered  for  participation  in  the  Gunpowder  Plot, 
was  bom  in  1603,  at  Gothurst,  in  Bncltinghamsiiire.    He  distin- 

?iiished  himself  at  Oxford,  and  after  two  years'  travel  on  the 
lontinent  was  knighted  by  James  I.  Charles  I.  appomted 
]im  to  numerous  offices,  and  in  1628  he  sailed  with  a  squadron 
,0  the  Levant,  where  he  defeated  the  Venetians,  He  also  fought 
with  the  Algeiines,  Originally  a  Protestant,  D.  became,  in  1636, 
a  Roman  Catholic,  When  the  civil  war  commenced  he  was  im- 
prisoned as  a  Royalist,  but  was  released  in  1643.  For  a  long 
time  he  resided  and  studied  in  France,  returning  to  England  in 
1661,  and  dying  there,  nth  June  1665.  D.,who  was  a  learned  man, 
and  an  adherent  of  what  is  known  as  '  flie  corpuscular  philo- 
sophy,' is  the  author  of  numerous  works,  induding  A  7i-mlise  of 
the  Nature  of  Bodia,  an  inteipretation  of  Thi  Taimtysaond 
Stanza  in  the  Second  Book  ofSpinsei's  Faerie  Queetle,  and  Two 
Treatises  on  the  Nature  of  Bodies  and  of  Man's  Soiile.  His  pri- 
vate memoirs  were  published  in  1827. 

Di'gest,  the  name  given  tothePandectsof  the  civil  or  Roman 
law,  as  containing  Legalia  prseefta  excellenter  digesta.  See  Code. 

Digaa'ter,  Papia'a,  a  strong  metallic  vessel,  lightly  fitted 
with  a  lid,  and  provided  with  a  safety  valve.  It  is  used  for  sub- 
jecting bodies  to  a  higher  temperature  than  could  be  obtained 
by  mersly  boiling  water  in  the  nsnal  way  ;  for  the  steam,  l>eing 
unable  to  escape,  increases  the  pressure  upon  the  water,  the 
boiiing-point  of  which  is  consequently  raised. 

Digestion.  This  is  a  term  given  to  the  processes  by  which 
the  food  is  changed  into  a  condition  suitable  for  being  absorbed 
into  the  blood-vessels  or  by  the  lacteals.  During  the  course  of 
D.  the  food  is  changed  physically  and  chemically ;  it  passes 
through  various  oigans,  and  it  is  acted  on  by  various  juices.  In 
the  mouth  the  food  is  divided  and  comminuted  by  the  teetlr.  It  is 
mixed,  at  the  same  time,  with  the  various  fluids  which  compose 
the  saliva.  Having  been  reduced  to  a  pulpy  mass,  it  is,  by  the 
action  of  the  tongue,  passed  backwards  info  the  pharynit,  and 
by  the  successive  contractions  of  the  muscles  of  the  phaiynx  it 
is  propelled  into  the  cesophagus.  T^iis  tube  leads  from  the 
pharynx  into  the  stomach,  which  is  a  receptacle  for  the  food,  and 
the  cavity  in  which  the  chief  digestive  processes  occur.  In  the 
stomach  the  food  is  subjected  to  three  actions  ; — (l)  To  a  triturat- 
ing movement,  effected  by  the  contractions  of  the  muscniar  walls 
of  the  stomach,  by  which  it  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  juice 
secreted  by  glands  in  the  lining  membrane  of  that  organ,  called 
the  gastric  pace;  (2)  to  the  chemical  action  of  the  gastric  juice ; 
and  (3)  to  the  influence  of  a  temperature  of  about  100°  F.  The 
food  is  thns  further  reduced  into  a  pultaceons  or  gruel-like  mass 
called  chyme,  and  as  it  ts  partly  liquified,  portions  successively 
pass  into  the  small  intestine  {see  Stomach),  while  the  larger 
masses  are  left  behind  in  the  stomach  to  be  Either  acted  upon. 
In  the  small  intestine  (see  IntestineJ,  which  is  about  i^  to 
20  feet  in  length,  the  chyme  is  uiised,  as  it  is  slowly  propdled 
along  the  bowel,  with — (l)  The  intestinal  juice;  (2)  the  bile; 
and  (3)  the  pancreatic  juice.  By  these  juices  certain  of  the  con- 
stituents of  the  food  are  further  acted  upon,  and  the  alimentary 
396 


matters,  thus  liquified  and  prepared,,  are  gradually  absorbed  by 
the  blood-vessels  of  the  intestinal  mucous  membrane  and  by  the  ' 
lacteals,  and  become  chyle.  The  indigestible  portion  of  the  food 
is  passed  by  the  muscular  action  of  the  walla  of  the  small  intes- 
tine (see  Peristaltic  Action)  into  the  large  intestine,  from 
which,  with  certain  refiise  or  excrementitious  substances,  i1 
expelled  by  the  act  of  Defsecation  {q.  v.). 

The  action  lA  the  various  digestive  fluids  on  the  proximate 
constituents  of  food  may  here  be  briefly  summarised,  while  re- 
ference is  made,  as  to  the  structure  of  the  various  organs  and  as 
to  the  composition  of  the  various  fluids,  to  the  followii^  head- 
ings : — Mouth,  Pharynx,  Deglutition,  CEsophagus,  Sto- 
mach, Gastric  Juice,  Intestine,  I.iver,  Saliva,  and 
Panckbas.     Five  digestive  fluids  act  on  the  food  ; — 

(l.)  Salbia,  which  converts  starch  mto  sugar,  and  assists  in 
D^lutition  or  Swallowing  (q.  v.). 

(2.)  Gastric  fuiee,  which  acts  on  the  albuminous  matters,  con- 
verting them  mto  Fej>iones  (q.  v.),  or  soluble  modifications  of 
albumen. 

(3.)  Bile,  which  separates  the  refuse  from  the  nutritious  matter 
of  the  chjmie,  neutralises  any  excessive  acidity  of  the  chyme 
caused  by  the  gastric  juice,  aids  in  the  absorption  of  fat  by 
covering  the  surface  of  the  mucous  membrane  with  an  alkaline 
fluid,  stimulates  the  peristaltic  action  of  the  bowels,  and  arrests 
putrefactive  changes.     See  Bile,  Liver. 

(4.)  Pancreatic  jtdce,  which  emulsionises  fatty  matter,  splits 
up  certain  fats  into  glycerine  and  the  corresponding  fatty  acid, 
converts  starchy  matter  into  si^ar,  and  converts  peptones  into 
two  substances  called  Leudne  and  Tyrosine  (q,  v.),  whicli  are 
then  absorbed  and  taken  to  the  liver. 

{5.)  Intestinal  juice,  which,  so  far  as  is  known,  combines  the 
actions  of  all  the  odier  juices,  and  acts  on  the  albuminous, 
starehy,  and  fatty  principles. 

The  conditions  favourable  for  good  D.  in  the  stomach  are — 
(l)  A  temperature  of  about  100°  F. ;  (2)  constant  movement  of 
the  walls,  which  brings  in  succession  every  part  of  the  food  in 
contact  with  the  mucous  membrane  and  gastric  juice ;  (3)  the 
removal  of  such  portions  as  have  been  fully  digested,  so  ti  ' 
what  remains  undigested  may  be  brought  more  completely  ir 
contact  with  the  solvent  iluld ;  and  (4)  a  state  of  softness  a 
minute  division  of  the  aliment. 

According  to  the   celebrated  experiments  of  Dc  Beaumt 
upon  St  Martin,  a  Canadian,  who.  on  5th  June  1822,  met  w 
a  severe  gunshot  injury,  the  result  of  which  was  a  peimani 
fistula  or  opening  into  the  stomach,  the  rapidity  of  D,   var 
according  as  the  food  is  more  minutely  divided,  whereby  the 
eittent  of  surface  with  which  the  gastric  fluid  can  come  in  Co 
tact  with  it  is  proportionally  increased.     Liquid  substances  s 
for  the  most  part  absorbed  by  the  vessels  of  the  stomach  at  om 
and  any  solid  matters  suspended  in  the  liquid,  as  in  soup,  s 
concentrated  into  a  thicker  material  before  the  gastric  juice  ai 
upon  them.    A  full  meal,  counting  of  animal  and  vegetable 
substances,  may  be  converted  into  chyme  in  about  an  hour,  and 
tlie  stomach  may  be  left  empty  in  two  and  a  half.     Rice  and 
tripe,  in  St  Martin's  case,  were  di^sted  in  about  I  hour  ;  eggs, 
salmon,  trout,  vension,  and  apples,  in  li  hours  ;  tapioca,  bailey, 
millc,  liver,  and  white  fiah,  ui  2  hours  ;  turkey,  lamb,  and  pork, 
in  2\  hours  i  beef,  mutton,  and  fowls,  in  3^  hours ;  and  veal 
in  about  4  hours.     The  followmg  circumstances  no  doubt  also 
affect  D.  ;— (l)  The  quantity  of  food  taken — the  stomach  should 
be  moderately  filled,  but  not  distended ;  (2)  the  time  which  has 
elapsed  since  the  last  meal,  which  should  be  always  long  enough 
for  the  food  of  one  meal  to  have  completely  left  the  stomach 
befijre  more  is  introduced ;  (3)  the  amount  of  exercise  previ 
and  subsequent  to  a  meal,  gentle  exercise  being  favourable 
over-eierlion  injurious  to  D. ;  (4)  the  state  of  mind,  tranquillity 
of  temper  being  usually  essential  to  quick  and  due  D.  ;  (5)  the 
bodily  health ;  (6)  the  state  of  the  weather  ]  (7)  the  period  of 
life,  D.  being  more  active  in  the  young  than  in  the  old. 

The  quantity  of  digestive  fluids  secreted  daily,  according  to 
the  estimates  of  Bidder  and  Schmidt,  which  are  pro'.ably 
(with  the  exception  of  the  last  two)  at  least  2^  per  cent,  too 
high,  is,  in  pounds  avoirdupois  : — Saliva,  3'^  ;  bile,  3'S  ;  gastric 
juice,  I4-I ;  pancreatic  juice,  0'44;  intestinal,  o '44. 

The  survey  of  the  digestive  functions  throughout  the  animal 
series  leads  us  to  contemplate  very  wide  variations  in  the  form 
and  complexity  of  the  assimilative  apparatus.  "  In  the  Pro- 
toioa  (q.  v.),  or  lowest  animab,  the  bodies  of  which  are  c 


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DIO 


posed  of  tlie  simple  albuminous  substance  known  as  Sarcode 
-  •  Protoplasm  (q.  v.),  food  particles  are  taken  into  the  in- 
i-lor  of  the  body,  and  are  there  digested  amid  the  protoplasmic 


,Aii,hi 


Bubstance.  This  sabslaace,  therefore,  constituting  of  itself  a 
living  being,  assumes  the  functions  of  a  digestive  system.  Even 
'  tl  ese  lower  animals,  an  essential  diffeience  fi-om  plants  naay 
be  perceived  in  the  process  of  D.,  in  that  they  receive  thdr 
n  tr  ve  matters  within  their  bodies,  and  digest  them  internally, 
wh  St  n  piants  the  process  of  nutrition  goes  on  in  the  external 
surfaces  and  outer  tissues  of  the  oiganisms.  Some  of  the  pro- 
toioa  (i  g ,  Gregatrndy^  and  some  more  highly  organised  animals 
also  {f  g  tapeworms),  live  by  simple  imbibition^-that  is,  by 
s  mply  absorbing  the  fluids  on  which  they  subsist  And  in  snch 
fo  ms  no  distinct  or  specialised  mouth,  stomach,  or  other  diges- 
t  ve  appa  atus  exists.  In  none  of  the  protozoa,  eKcept  in  the 
Infu  0  al  {q.  v.)  animalcules,  does  a  mouth  exist;  and  in 
the  latter  no  digestive  system  is  specialised,  food  being  digested 
by  tl  e  protoplasm  of  which  the  body  is  composed.  In  the 
Ccelenterate  animals  (represented  by  the  hydr^,  sea-anemones, 
zoopliytes,  corals,  &C,),  a  stomach-sac  may  be  wanting,  as  in 
all  Hydrozoa,  and  food  is  digested  simply  within  the  general 
cavily  of  the  body.  But  in  the  sea-anemones  and  other 
Bctinozoa  a  distinct  stomach-sac  is  specialised,  although  this 
latter  structure  is  open  inferiorly,  and  communicates  thus  with 
the  body-cavity.  Tent-acles  are  also  now  found,  by  means  of 
which  the  food  is  drawn  towards  the  month-opening,  which  is 
always  developed.  In  Annuloida  or  echinozoal  animals  (such 
as  sea-urchins,  starfishes,  sea- cucumbers,  &c.),  a  perfect  digestive 
system  is  usually  to  be  found,  although,  as  in  the  tapeworms, 
already  noticed,  a  digestive  apparatus  may  be  wanting,  possibly 
in  consequence  of  their  degraded  condition  as  internal  parasites. 
In  Annulosa  (such  as  worms)  the  digestive  system  is  of  tolerably 
perfect  structure,  and  when  we.  advance  to  the  higher  members 
of  the  iatter  sub-kingdom  (such  ■  -  •  > 
&c.),  V     -   ■  ' 

Kupplementar:,      „  .  .  =  . 

Stomach,  intestine,  bUiary  or  liver  tubes  are  found,  with  a  heart 
and  blood-vessels  for  the  circulation  of  the  nutritive  fluid.  In 
higher  Crustacea,  such  as  lobstera,  &c.,  the  digestive  structures 
become  still  further  specialised,  the  liver  especially  becoming 
):ietter  developed.  In  Mollusca  (such  as  cuttlefishes,  sn^ls, 
oysters,  &c.),  salivary  glands,  teeth-like  structures  for  the  tritura- 
tion of  the  food,  and  a  large  liver  exist,  In  Vertebrata,  and 
among  fishes  representing  the  lowest  group  of  the  class,  the 
digestive  system  may  include  not  only  a  mouth,  teeth,  stomach, 
and  intestine,  but  also  a  liver,  pancreas  or  sweetbread,  and  other 
structures.  In  Amphibia  (i^.  v.)  a  spleen  is  also  present,  and  in 
reptiles  some  further  speciahsation  exists.  In  birds  no  teeth  are 
developed ;  but  a  guliet,  crop,  gizzard,  and  proventriculus  or 
true  stomach,  together  with  an  intestine,  intestinal  cceca,  liver, 
pancreas,  spleen,  and  other  glands  are  found. 
It  may  be  noted  that  vertebrates  differ  froni  all  lower  animals 


in  possessing  a  d  stinctly  developed  laclcal  or  Alsoibent  Sys- 
tem, that  is,  a  specal  system  of  vessels  tie  function  of 
which  is  to  receive  the  products  of  D  from  the  digestive 
canal  and  transfer  them  to  the  blood  system,  where  they  mingle 
with  the  current  of  the  circalation  and  thus  repair  the  bodily 
waste.  And  as  a  rule  of  the  most  universal  character  through- 
out the  entire  animal  sene'i,  it  may  also  be  reroembe  ed  that  the 
digestive  system  of  an  animal  feeding  upon  plants  or  vegetable 
food  is  longer  and  of  more  complicated  natu  e  than  that  of  an 
animal  feeding  upon  flesh  The  cont  ast  between  the  digestive 
systems  of  a  grain  eating  and  a  flesh  eatn  g  bird  in  th  s  respect 
is  seen  to  be  very  mark^  a  id  the  contrast  is  equally  well  ob- 
served in  the  difference  between  the  digestive  system  of  the 
larval  frog  or  t^pole  an.d  tlint  of  the  carnivorous  adult  frog. 

In  mammalia  broad  variations  i(i  the  form  and  complexity  of 
the  digestive  systems  are  noticeable.  In  some  the  system  is 
comparatively  simple,  whilst  in  others-^as  in  some  marsupials, 
but  most  notably  in  the  case  of  the  ruminants  (sheep,  oxen,  &c,), 
or  those  that  '  chew  the  cud ' — the  stomach  evinces  a  highly 
complex  nature.  The  structure  of  the  ruminant  digestive  system 
will  be  noted  under  the  head  of  Ruminant  (q.  v. )  and  Rumina- 
tion (q.  V. ).  Variations  exist  in  the  mammalian  digestive  organs 
chiefly  in  the  relative  length  of  the  intestinal  canal,  in  tlie  nature 
and  number  of  the  teeth,  in  liie  development  of  the  tongue  and 
other  appendages,  and  in  the  glands  connected  wiUi  the  system. 

Dig'it  (Lat  digitus,  'the  finger'),  in  arithmetic,  the  name 
given  to  each  of  the  symbols,  O,  I,  2,  3,  &c.,  to  9  ;  in  astronomy, 
the  twelfth  part  of  the,diameter  of  the  sun  or  moon.  Tn  anatomy 
the  name  is  applied  to  the  fingers  and  toes  of  the  Vertebrata. 

Di^tal'ine  is  the  active  principle  of  the  common  foj^love 
{Digitalis  purpurea).  It  is  ColOBrless,  crystalline,  and  sparingly 
soluble  in  water;  dissolves  more  readily  in  alcohol  and  ether, 
and  is  very  bitter  and  poisonous.  Considerable  doubt  exists  as 
to  its  true  chemical  composition.  It  belongs,  however,  to  the 
class  of  bodies  called  Glucosides  (q.  v.),  for  when  boiled  with 
dilute  acids  it  takes  up  water  and  splits  into  Glucose  (q,  v.)  and 
other  products.     D.  is  a  valuable  medicme, 

Big^italis,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  otder  Scrophu^ 
lariacecs.     ITiey  are  biennisda  or  perennials,  with 
large  showy  flowers  in  long  one-sided 
racemes.     They  ate  natives  chiefly  of 
Europe  and  the  N.  of  Asia.      D.  is 
often  cultivated  in  gardens,  especially 
the  yellow  D.  granaifiora.     Only  one 
species  is  native  in  Britain — D.  pui 
purea,  the  common  purple  foxglove 
It  grows  from  2  to  4  feet  high,  with 
beautiful   flowers   jotted  inside.      It 
occurs  in  dry  Iiilly  places,  roadsides 
and  plantations.  Itaboundsin  Western 
and  Central  Europe,  and  extends  as 
fer  as  Scandinavia.    The  ieav<s  of  V 
purpurea  are  used  in  medicine.    They 
are  collected  from  wild  plants  in  Bri- 
tain when  about  two -thirds  of  thb 
flowers  are  expanded.  They  are  used  as 
powder  tincture  and  infusion.    In  largo 
doses  D.  is  an  irritant  poison,  and  in 
small  doses  it  depresses   the  heart's 
action,  and  increases  the  flow  of  urine, 
cine  in  certain  kinds  of  heart-disease, 
dropsies  depending  on  heart-disease ;  but 
action,  it  should  fe  administered  with  grt 
principle  is  Digtlaline  (q.  v.). 

Digita'rift.    See  Millet. 

Digitigrft'da  ('toe-walkers'),  the  nai 
tion  of  the  mammalian  oixier  of  Camimiri 
members  walk  on  the  tips  of  their 
from  off  the  ground.  Examples  of  such  forms  are  found 
.Fir/sote  (tigers,  lions,  cats),  Caw^rfa  (dogs,  wolves,  &c.),&c.  Some 
forms  {e.g,,  Musteiida  or  weasels)  are  termed  semi-planligi-ada, 
since  they  apply  only  part  of  the  sole  to  the  ground  in  walking ; 
whilst  the  bears  are  wholly  Plantigi-ade,  and  apply  the  entire 
sole  of  the  foot  to  the  ground. 

Digue,  the  capital  of  the  department  Basses-Alpes,  in  a  wild 
'    gorge  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Bleoue,  45  miles  N.E.  of 
397 


Kgitalis  purpurea, 
t  is  a  valuable  medi- 
nd  veiy  specially  in 


i,  the  heel  being  raised 


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DIH 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DIL 


Nice.  It  is  surrounded  by  walls  flanked  with  towers,  is  the  seat 
of  a  bishop  (since  340),  of  a  Communal  college,  and  of  a  theo- 
li^cal  seminary,  and  has  manufactures  of  woollens,  colours, 
hosiery,  &c.,  and  an  active  trade  in  dried  fruits,  wine,  honey, 
wax,  and  cutlery.  In  the  ificinity  is  the  beautiful  Castle  of  Mali- 
jay,  and  the 'rillagei^j^Aj(pop.  2165),  where  a  pleasant  wins 
resembling  champagne  is  made.  Pop.  (1872)  6877.  D.  is  the 
Roman  ZHaia  (probably  from  the  Cymr.  din,  a  fortified  height ; 
cognate  with  the  Gael,  dun,),  and  was  the  capital  of  the  Bpdion- 
tici,  but  has  no:  antiquities.  Napoleon  issued  at  D.  his  procla- 
mation of  4tU  March  iSiS, 

DiTlong,  the  name  of  a  part  of  the  Dzangbo  or  Machang 
Sanpo,  chief  tributary  of  the  Brahmaputra.  It  forms  the  potr 
tion  between  Thibet  and  the  confluence  with  the  great  river  in 
Assam.  Sorne  15  miles  E.  is  the  Dibong,  the  lower  part  of  the 
Kempu,  another  branch  of  the  Brahmaputra, 

Di'jon,  Ihe  capital  of  the  department  Cflte  d'Or,  France,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Suzon,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Ouche,  195  miles 
S.E.  of  Paris  by  railway.  It  lies  n^x  the  base  of  the  vine-ciad 
MonC-Affrique,  at  the  N.E.  end  of  the  Cote  d'Or  range,  and  has 
gardens,  promenades,  and  tree-^shaded  ramparts,  which  make  it 
one  of  the  finest  towijs  of  France.  The  chief  buildings  are  the 
Catliedial  of  St  Jinigne,  rebuilt  for  the  third  time  at  the  ea&. 
of  the  I2th  c-i  aid  iKiving  a  graceful  spire  300  feet  high;  the 
church  of  Nfttre  Dame,  pronounced,  by  M.  Viollet-Ie-Puc  the 
finest  Burgundian  building  of  the  ijth  c. ;  that  of  St  Michael, 
in  which  flie  external  details  pre  Grecian  and  the  interior  pure 
Gothic ;  the  townhall,  formerly  the  palace  of  the  Dukes  of  Bur- 
gundy, and  containing  in  its  raHfinilicent  saloons  a  rare  collection 
of  scientific  and  art  subjects,  and  a  valuable  library  of  50,000 
volumes.  The  seat  of  a  celebrated  academy  and  of  various 
educational  institutions,  D.  has  also  manufactures  of  woollen 
cloths,  blankets,  glue,  mustard,  beer,  baskets,  iron,  saltpetre,  &c., 
and  a  trade  in  grain,  wine,  oil,  and  wool  to  the  value  of  seventy 
million  francs  yearly.  Pop.  (1872)  36,697.  During  the  Roman 
invasion  a  village  on  the  slope  of  Mont-Afftique  was  occupied 
by  Ceesar  as  a  camp,  and  fortified,  receiving  the  name  of  jpiiw 
or  DiMs-dunum  (Celt.  '  the  fort  on  the  two  waters ').  It  subse- 
quently prospered,  and  in  the  middle  ages  became  the  capital  of 
Burgundy.  The  Germans  besieged  D,  on  the  31st  of  October 
1 870,  after  which  it  capitulated,  and  was  for  a  time  the  head- 
quarters of  Werder.  A  struggle  between  Manteuffel  and  the 
annies  of  Bourbaki  and  Garibaldi  toolc  place  in  the  vicinity, 
January  21-23,  1^71' 

Sik'ovra,  a  town  of  the  Soudan,  in  the  kingdom  of  Bomu, 
60  miles  S.  ofKuka,  and  30  of  Lake  Tchad.  It  is  the  centre 
of  a  great  cotton-field,  and  cairies  on  extensive  cotton  manufac- 
tures.    Pop.  about  30,000. 

Dilapida'tion,  in  English  law,  when  an  incumbent  allows  the 
parsonage  or  outhouses  to  decay,  or  pulls  down  any  building,  or 
destroys  trees  belonging  to  his  benefice,  tie  is  subject  to  an  action 
for  D.  at  the  instance  of  bis  successor.  But  an  incumbent  is  not 
bound  to  maintain  painting,  papering,  or  other  ornanient.  Under 
the  Eccle^astical  Dflapidations  Act  surveyors  of  D  are  ap 
pointed  for  each  diocese,  who  are  to  inspect  buddi  igs  and  report 
to  the  Wshop.  If  the  incumbeijt  reft  se  or  neglect  to  repa  r  in 
accordance  with  the  report,  the  bishop  may  seqnestrafe  the  re 
venues  of  the  benefice  for  tl:e  purpose  When  the  works  are 
executed,  the  incumbent  is  protected  from  further  hab  hty  f^r  ii\e 
years.     The  Act  provides  for  fire-insurance  S.c 

DH'atory  Defenoe",  a  term  of  Scotch  law  for  a  plea  for 
avoiding  the  conclusions  of  an  action  without  entenng  on  its 
merits,  such  as  the  pursuer's  want  of  title 
'  Silenun'a  is  in  logic  an  argument  present  ng  ttio  or  more 
alternatives,  each  of  which  is  fatal  to  the  oppos  te  arg  ment. 
Any  position  which  presents  a  choice  of  evils  is  spoken  of  as  a 
D.     The  popular  equivalent  is  s.Jix. 

Bilettan'te  (Itai.  pL  dileUanti,  Lat  diligentes  or  the  post 
classical  dUectores),  a  term  used  in  England  France  and  Germany 
to  denote  an  amateur,  primarily  of  rnusic,  but  afterwards  of  the 
kindred  arts.  The  name  first  meant  'a  lover  of  art ;'  it  was 
then  applied  to  one  who  dabbled  in  art  ;  and  has  lastly  become  a 
depreciatory  term  conveying  the  notion  of  a  shallow  critic  or 

DUettanti  Society,  the,  was  founded  in  1734  by  a  gentleman 


who  had  travelled  in  Italy.  It  met  at  the  Thatched  Hous 
Tavern  in  St  James's  Street,  at  first  merely  for  informal  talk  o.. 
the  subject  of  art.  In  1764,  however,  the  society's  funds  having 
increased,  its  members,  who  were  about  sixty  in  number,  sent 
out  an  expedition  to  Greece,  The  monuments  of  ancient  times 
were  examined,  and  the  enterprise  bore  rich  fi'uit  in  two  volumes 
on  the  Anliquilies  of  Ionia.  A  second  expedition  was  despatched 
to  Asia  Minor  m  1811,  which  residted  in  two  works.  The  Un- 
edited Antiquities  of  Atlica  (1817)  and  Antique  Sculpture  {iB^^). 
This  society,  by  its  liberality  and  judiciousness,  did  much  to 
elevate  and  conect  th?  public  taste. 

Sil'igeuce,  a  term  of  Scotch  law,  used  in  three  unconnected 
meanings: — I.  In  its  ordinary  sense,  as  indicating  the  care  which 
the  law  requires  every  one  to  bestow  on  the  subject  of  a  contract. 
(See  Crjme,  Culpa,  Dole.)  2.  It  means  the  warrant  of  a 
court  to  enforce  attendance  of  witnesses  or  production  of  writ- 
ings. 3.  The  term  is  applied  to  the  process  of  law  by  whicli  per- 
sons, lands,  or  efi'ects  are  attached  in  execution  of  Sentences  and 
Decrees  (q.  v.),  Of  in  security  of  debt.  In  the  second  sense,  the 
English  general  equivalent  term  is  Subpcena  (q.  v.).  See  also,  as 
applicable  to  this  meaning,  Havee,  Incident  Diligence. 

Biligenoe.  In  France  a  stage-coach  is  called  La  D.  It 
has  generally  three  divisions — the  coupi,  the  iniJriear,  and  the 
rotonde  or  ianquetlf,  la  booking^  a  receipt  should  be  taken. 
As  with  ourselves,  the  system  of  diligences  has  been  almost 
superseded  by  that  of  railways.  In  Scotland,  the  word  was,  ii 
former  times,  used  to  denote  a  slageicoach.  Every  one  wil 
remember  the  celebrated  Howes  Fly  or  Queensfe^  D.  of  The 
Antiquary.  In  Spain,  La  Diligenii^ — the  name  one  would  sup- 
pose bei^  satirically  bestowed— slill  flourishes ;  but  no  one  who 
dislikes  dirt,  vermin,  and  the  smell  of  garUc  should  travel  by  D. 

Dilke,  Gharlea  Waitwortli,  a  well-known  English  critic 
and  journalist,  was  bom  8th  December  1789,  served  in  the 
Navy  Pay-OfSce,  took  to  literature,  contributed  to  the  Wesi- 
mimt/r  Review,  &c,,  became  (1830)  editor  and  proprietor  of  (he 
Alheiiieum,  and  established  the  £>aily  News  in  1 846.  He  edited 
Old'  English  Flays  {6  vols.  Lond.  1814),  wrote  ably  01 
and  other  curious  questions  of  literary  history,  and  died  at  Alice 
Hole,  Hampshire,  loth  August  1864,  See  TheFapersofaCritic, 
Selected  ^omtlu  Writings  of  the  late  C.  W.  M.,Tmih  a  Biographi- 
cal Shttch  iy  his  Grandson  (2  vols.  Murrjiy,  1875),  containing 
original  letters  from  Charles  Lamb,  Keats,  Hood,  Haydon,  Lord 
Lytton,  Dickens,  Savage  Landor,  &c. — Sir-  Charles  Went- 
worth.  S.,  eldest  son  of  the  former,  was  bom  in  London.  iSth 
February  1810,  studied  at  Westminster  School  and  Cambndge, 
and  was  one  of  the  active  originators  of  the  Industrial  Exhibition 
of  1 851.  A  member  of  the  Society  of  Arts  from  1844,  he  received 
a  baronetcy  in  1 86z.  He  died  at  St  Peteisburg,  1  llh  May  1 869  — 
His  son.  Sir  OliaEles  Weut-wortli  3>  was  bom  at  Chelsea, 
September  4,  184^  g  aduated  at  Cambndge  m  l865,  and  tra- 
velled round  the  VI  Olid  giving  his  expeiiencesm  Greater  Britain, 
a  Record  of  Timiel  at  En^ish  Spiakmg  Ceimlnes  (2  vols  1868I, 
in  which  he  traces  the  influence  of  lace  on  government,  and  of 
climate  upon  race  D  who  s  a  Ridical  in  polit  cs  was  elected 
member  of  Parliament  for  Lhelsca  11  I'^S'^  and  wis  re-elected 
»i874. 

Dill  (4mthurii)  a  genus  of  Umbell  ferous  jknts.  The 
common  D  (1  gtaze  lens)  a  common  pkut  of  the  Cape  of 
Qool  Hope,  E^ypt,  the  Mediterranean  countries  &c.,  is  aro- 
maliL,  and  used  as  a  flavouring  material  for  pidiles  sauces,  &c., 
while  the  seeds  or  rather  fruits  areusedasaremedyforflalulence, 
aid  to  allev ate  the  gnping  action  of  ^rgative  medicines  on 
ufant=  in  the  foi  m  ofi?  water  SowaD  {i  Jit(  n)  of  Bengal 
p  oduces  a  fru  t  much  used  as  an  ingredient  in  cu  ries.  It  is 
believed  to  be  the    anise  seed   of  the  New  Testament. 

DlUema'cese,  a  natural  order  of  Dicotyledonous  plants,  allied 
to  Ranuticiilacers  (q.  v.),  natives  principally  of  Australia,  India, 
and  equinoctial  America.  Above  230  species  and  30  genera  are 
known  Of  these,  SUlenia,  Candollea,  and  Telracera  are  ex- 
amples. Most  are  astringent,  and  are  used  for  applying  to 
wounds,  and,  in  Brazil,  for  tanning.  The  add  calyces  of  some 
species  of  Dillmia  (Z>.  scabreUa,  and  D.  speciosa),  owingto  their 
acid  taste,  form  in  India  an  ingredient  in  curries.  The  a 
fruit  of  D.  speciosa  is  eaten  with  sugar,  and  the  juice  mixed  with 


a  cooling  drink  in  fevers.     A  decoction  of 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DIN 


the  leaves  of  D.  relma  is  employed  in  Ceylon  for  cleansing  foul 
ulcers.  The  wood  of  some  trees  of  the  same  genus  {D.  fimta- 
gyna,  &c)  is  also  vecy  hard  and  durable.  Some  species  are 
also  cultivaled  for  the  sake  of  their  evergreen  foliage  and  beauti- 
ful flowers. 

Dilman',  a  torni  in  the  province  of  Aierbijan,  Persia,  50 
miles  N.N.W.  ofUrumiyah,  in  the  fertile  plain  of  Selmas,  and 
surrounded  by  gardens.  The  streets  are  clean,  but  the  baiaara 
are  ill  supplied.  Pop.  about  15,0001  Four  miles  distant  from 
D.  are  the  ruins.of  the  old  town  of  D. 

miolO,  Lake,  in  the  interior  of  S.  Africa,  Muati  Janvo's 
kingdom,  475  miles  W.  of  Bangweolo,  is  an  expansion  of  the 
Le^ba,  a  branch  of  the  Zambesi,  and  is  10  miles  long,  and  has 
an  extreme  breadth  of  4  miles.  It  was  discovered  by  Livingstone 
in  1856.  See  his  Misdonary  Travels  and  Reseatches  in  Smtth 
Africa  (new  ed.  Lond.  i8;5). 

Dil'uents  (from  Lat.  diluo,  'I  wash  away')  are  medicines 
which  Increase  the  watery  portion  of  the  blood,  and  render  the 
SKcretions  less  acrid  and  viscid.    The  best  diluent 


Silu'viutu  (Lat.  'a  wasliing  away'),  the  name  given  in 
geoli^y  to  such  superficial  accnmuktions  of  debris  or  matter  as 
may  have  resulted  from  the  wearing  action  of  rivers,  or  been  de- 
posited  on  a  land  surface  by  the  action  of  water.  The  muddy 
sediment  left  on  land  by  the  overflowing  of  Et  river  is  a  diluvial 
deposit  in  this  sense — the  only  one  m  which  the  term  can  be 
applied  in  modern  geological  science.  Formerly  the  term  dilu- 
^al  deposits  was  given  by  the  advocates  of  the  '  diluvial '  or 
'flood  theory  to  collections  of  matter  which  they  believed  h&d 
been  left  by  the  flood  of  Noah— a  flood  credited  by  them  with 
the  power  of  having  caused  all  recent  events  in  the  history  of 


thew 


rid. 


Dime'  (Fr.  originally  disnie,  from  Lat.  dedma,  'tenth'),  the 
tenth  part  of  an  American  dollar ;  but,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
French  <an'jK«(ofwhich  the  name  is  merely  a  doublet),  used  but 
little  in  commercial  life. 

Simen'siOQ.  (Lai.  dimeiisio,  '  a  measuring '),  in  geometry,  a 
line  is  of  one  D.,  a  surface  of  two— length  and  breadth — and  a 
solid  of  three.  Thus  also  space  is  of  ihiee  dimensions,  three 
numbers  being  necessary  and  sufficient  to  fix  the  position  of  a 
point  in  space.  The  dimensions  of  an  algebraic  expression  is 
obtained  by  taking  the  algebraic  sum  of  tlie  indices  of  the  factors 
which  enter;  thusrr-a-or o'^i-'i/-'  is  of  2  (  =  3  +  i  +  2-4), 


of  - 


:,  dimensioi 


Dimidia'tion  (Lat  dimidiatie,  'a  halving'),  in  heraldry,  a 
mode  of  impalement  in  marshalling  Coats  of  arras,  which  was  In- 
troduced as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  14th  c.     It  consists  in 
cutting  two  shields  by  a  vertical  line  through  the  fess-point, 
placing  together  thedexter  half  of  theraie  and  thesinister  half  of 
the  other,  and  thus  forming  a  new  composition.     B 
nary  etfects  were  often  produced  by  D.,  one  of  whic 
the  seal  of  the  Cinque  Ports — the  sterns  of  the  sh 
fore  partsoftheleopards  showing  unheard-of  monste 
ment  by  complete  coats  of  arms  instead  of  halves  has     pe 
D.  in  English  heraldry. 

Dimmuen'do  (in  music).     See  Deckkscendo. 

Dimin'utivea,  words  which  convey  the  idea  o        m 
or  of  smallness  compared  with  the  meaning  of  the  w 
they  are  derived.    D.  may  be  formed  by  adding  a     tt 
ters,  as  1!°,  a  diminulive  termination  now  almost         fi    d 
Lowland  Scotch,  in  lassie,  mousie,  iaaUs ;  or  as  ori 
Mn  in  inannikin  and  lambkin  (comp.  Ger.  chen,  as  madcken) ; 
en  in  kiiten  ;  I  in  iiereel,  a  small  hawk,  from  tierce.     The  dimi- 
nutive termination  ling,  as  in  darting,  '  little  dear, ' 


♦- 


as  nouns  can  become  D.,  as  iiihiiish,  greenish.  In  Latin,  D.  end 
always  in  Ins,  la,  or  luiiu  They  are  common  in  all  languages, 
the  modern  German  and  Tuscan  being  especially  rich  in  them, 

Dim'ity,  a  cotton  fabric  used  principally  for  bed-fumiture, 
&c.,  said  to  owe  its  name  from  having  been  origmally  a  manu- 
facture of  Damietta  in  Egypt. 

Simor'ptiiem.  Of  late  years,  chiefly  owing  to  the  observa- 
tions of  Charles  Darwin,  it  has  been  discovered  that  in  several 
plants  belonging  to  different  orders  two  forms  are  found,  the  one 
form  having  long  stamens  and  a  short  pistil,  the  other  a  long 

Eistil  and  short  stamens,  and  with  different-sized  pollen  gmins, 
ut  differing  in  no  appreciable  way.  Snch  plants  are  called 
Dimorfhic.  The  common  primrose  is  an  example.  These  two 
forms  act  towards  each  other  almost  exactly  as  if  they  v 
separate  specias,  instead  of  merely  forms  of  the  same  spec 
with  no  difference  appreciable  to  the  ordinary  observer.  In  such 
a  case,  the  pollen  of  the  long-stamened  form  must  be  carried 
attached  to  the  bodies  of  insects  to  fertilise  the  long  pistilled 
form,  and  that  of  the  short-stamened  form  to  fertilise  the  short- 
pistilled  form  ;  otherwise  it  acts  like  so  madt  inert  dust.  The 
object  of  this  and  similar  arrangements  for  cross  fertilisation  seems 
to  be  to  prevent  too  close  interbreeding.  See  also  FERTILISATION 
and  TEiMospHtsM. 

Dmior'phoua  Bodies  are  those  which  crystallise  in  two  dis- 
tinct forms — that  is  to  say,  in  forms  belonging  to  different  crystal- 
line systems.  (See  Crystali.ograehy.  )  Sulphur  fiimislies  an 
excellent  instance  of  dimorphism.  Native  sulphur  if.e.,  sulphur 
occurring  in  the  free  state  in  nature)  is  found  in  octohedral  crystals 
belonging  to  the  rhombic  system,  and  where  ciystals  can  be  ob- 
tained artificially  by  allowing  a  solution  of  sulphur  in  bisulphate 
of  carbon  to  evaporate  spontaneously.      But  if  sulphur  .  , 

and  then  allowed  to  cool  slowly,  it  crystallises  in  quite  a  different 
shape.  This  second  modification  of  sulphur  is  easily  obtained 
by  fusing  a  few  pounds  of  sulphur  in  a  dish,  allowing  the  fused 
mass  to  cool  until  a  crust  forms  on  its  surface,  and  then  perfora- 
ting the  crust  with  two  holes,  through  one  of  which  the  sulphur 
slilT  remaining  fluid  is-potuwi  away,  whilst  the  other  serves  to 
admit  air.  When  all  the  Hltid  portions  have  been  poured  ofl^,  the 
dish  is  broken,  and  it  will  then  be  found  that  its  surface  is  covered 
with  a  cake  of  solid  sulphur  from  which  transparent  amber- 
coloured  needles  jut  out.  These  needles  are  oblique  prisms. 
Carbonate  of  lime  is  another  D.  body.     It  o  ■....- 

two  ^tinct  minerals,  to-,  arra/        '  ' 

spar.     The  crystals  of  arragonite 
of  Iceland  spar,  rhombs. 
Dinagepore',  a  to' 

capital  of  the  district  of 
Pop.  (1872)  13,042,      It  is  a  poor 
most  part  mere  huts.— The  dist 
Report  of  the  Province  for  1S71 

Pop.  1,501,924. 


and  calc  spar 
e  ortho-rhombii 


pnsms;  those 

vovince  of  Bengal, 
iles  N.  of  Calcutta, 
being  for  the 
jf  D.  has  (Administration 
of  4126  sq.  miles. 


D''nan  (f   m  Cymr,  din,  '  a  fortress '),  a  town  in  the  depart- 
m  es  du-Nord,  France,  on  the  Ranee,  14  miles  S.  of 

SI  he  summit  of  a  steep  hill,  upwards  of  200  feet 

and  surrounded  by  high  old  walls,     The  older 
ow  and  filthy,  and  many  of  the  houses  are  built 
most  noteworthy  edifice  is  the  Cathedral  of  St 
S  mate  Gothic  edifice  with  a  line  spire.     D.  has 

es   f  linen,  cotton,  and  woollen  goods,  nails,  beetroot 
ga  some  tanneries,  salt-refineries,  and  bat^e-building 

as  a  good  coasting  and  inland  ti^e.     In  the  neigh- 
re     vourite  chalybeate  springs.     Pop,  {1872)  7089. 
Sman.  mr.  'the  fort  on  thestream'),  a  town  Inlhepro, 

N  m  r,  Belgium,  on  the  Maas,  14  miles  S.  of  Namur. 
The  principal  buildings  are  the  citadel,  occupying  the  summit  of 
a  lofty  pyramidal  limestone  rock,  the  Church  of  NStre  Dame, 
and  the  H&tel  de  Ville,  formeriy  the  palace  of  the  Piinces  of 
Li^ge.  There  are  manufactures  of  hats,  woollen  stuffe,  stained 
paper,  cutlery,  &c.,  besides  tanneries,  breweries,  soap-works,  salt- 
refineries,  and  mills  (or  sawing  marble.  D.  is  famous  for  its 
gingerbread,  'ITie  town,  which  dales  from  the  6th  c,  was 
strongly  fortified  as  early  as  the  12th  c.    Pop,  (1S66)  7266, 

Dinapore',  a  town  and  military  station  in  British  India, 
province  of  Behar,  district  of  Patna,  on  the  tight  bank  of  the 


399 


vLiOOQle 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Ganges,  about  12  miles  N.W.  of  Patna.  Pop,  of  D.  Nizamut 
(1872),  37,914;  pop.  of  cantonment,  14,17a  In  the  mutiny  of 
1857  tliree  native  regiments  here  rose  against  their  offieers,  and 
ill  spite  of  the  presence  of  a  European  force,  were  allowed  to 
withdraw  from  Uie  cantonment  with  comparative  impunity. 


in  of  tUe  Julian  Alps,  and  separates  Turkey  from  the 
Austrian  coast-lands.  It  is  some  230  miles  long  from  Fiume  to 
the  river  Narenta,  and  has  few  heights  of  more  than  7000  feet. 

Dindigal',  a  town  in  British  India,  province  of  Madras,  dis- 
trict of  Madura,  247  miles  S.W.  of  the  city  of  Madras.  It  is 
neatly  built,  and  the  bazaar,  which  is  well  supplied,  is  lined  with 
trees  onbothEides.  The  fort,  onarocky  elevatianaSofeethigh, 
is  supplied  with  water  from  a  well  on  the  rock  01  enormous 
depth.     Pop.  between  6000  and  7000. 

Ding'elfiteclt,  Franz  von,  a  German  poet  and  novelist,  bom 
30th  June  1S14,  at  Haisdorf  near  Marbui^,  studied  at  Marburg, 
and  was  for  some  time  teaclier  in  the  Gymnasium  at  Fulda, 
&i  1 843  he  was  appointed  librarian  and  reader  to  the  King  of 
Wiirtemberg,  in  1850  manager  of  the  Court  Theatre  at  Munich, 
in  1S57  general  superintendent  of  the  same  at  Weimar,  in  1867 
director  of  the  Court  Opera  at  Vienna,  and  in  1871  of  the  City 
Theatre  there.  D.'a  cliief  works  are  Lieder  ana  Kosmo^lit. 
Nachliwachtirs{\%^\  Gedkhtei^iA  ed.  1858),  Naiht und Morgm, 
Neue  Zeitgedichte  (1851),  the  novels  Heptameron  (2  vols.  1&4.1), 
Umer  dm  Srdi  (1840),  NmieUenhu:h  (1850),  Die  A>nazsm(i%i&'f, 
the  tragedy  Dai  Hans  des  Bamweldt  (1850),  Studien  und  Kopim 
nack  Skakespeare  ( 1857),  and  translations  of  several  plays  of  the 
great  English  dramatist.  Delicacy  of  sentiment,  pictorial  beauty, 
and  epigrammatic  terseness  of  reflection  are  D.'s  most  conspi- 

Dia'gle  (Gael.  Daingmn-m-Chais,  '  the  fort  of  O'Cush,'  the 
ancient  family  of  proprietors  before  the  English),  the  most  westerly 
town  in  Ireland,a  seaport  and  favourite  sea-bathing  place,  county 
of  Keny,  on  tlie  N.  side  of  the  bay  of  the  same  namfc  39  miles 
W.N.W,  of  Killatney.  The  harbour  admits  vessels  of  300  tons. 
Some  of  the  older  houses  are  built  in  the  Spanish  style,  which 
gives  the  town  a  pleasantly  antique  appearance,  D.  exports  corn 
and  butter  to  Liverpool,  and  imports  iron,  coal,  salt,  and  earthen- 
ware.     Pop.  (1871)  2117. 

Dm'go,  in  natural  history,  a  species  of  dog  indigenous  to  Aus- 
tralia. In  appearance  aud  disposition  it  much  resembles  the  wolf. 
Its  average  height  is  a  little  less 
than  2  feet,  and  its  average  length 
2  J  feet.  Its  general  colour  is  a  red- 
dish brown.  The  tail  is  bushy, 
like  that  of  a  fox,  though  in  a  less 
degree.  The  D.  is  a  ferocious 
-■  .inimal,  and  works  havoc  among 
the  flocks  of  the  colonists,  delight- 
ing in  killing  as  many  sheep  as  it 
can.  It  does  not  bark  or  growl, 
lilte  other  dogs,  but  erects  its  hair-like  bristles  when  angry.  It 
is  capable  of  domestication,  but  being  less  trustworthy  than  the 
shepherd's  dog,  it  is  generally  treated  as  a  foe,  and  exterminated 
as  fast  as  possible. 

Ding'-wftll  (Scand.  'hill  of  justice  ;'  Gael.  Invsrpeffer,  'at  the 
mouth  of  the  Peffer'),  a  royal  burgh  and  the  capital  of  Ross- 
shire,  Scotland,  lies  at  the  head  of  the  Cromarty  Frith,  18  miles 
S.W.  of  its  mouth  in  the  Moray  Frith,  and  17  N.W.  of  Inverness 
by  railway.  It  has  an  antique  appearance,  is  approaciiable  to 
vessels  of  9  feet  draught,  and  has  some  export  trade  in  wool  and 
cattle.  Along  with  Tain,  Dornoch,  Wick,  Kirkwall,  and  Crom- 
arty, it  returns  one  member  to  Parliament,  Pop.  (1871)  2125. 
The  chief  objects  of  historical  interest  are  the  traces  of  an  old 
castle  of  the  Ross  family,  and  a  conical  hill  supporting  a  vilri- 
lied  fort,  probably  the  '  nill  of  justice '  from  which  D.  originally 
took  name.  In  the  vicinity  l^e  village  of  StrathpefFer,  nestling 
in  a  sheltered  and  picturesque  valley,  attracts  large  numbers  of 
invalids  to  its  chalybeate  and  sulphurous  springs, 

Din'ka,  a  pastoral  people  of  Central  Africa,  in  the  Upper 
Nile  district,  to  the  S,  of  the  eonfitience  of  the  Eahr-el-Ghaial 
and  the  White  NHe,  and  occupying  an  area  of  from  60,000  to 


70,000  sq.  miles.  They  are  one  of  the  most  extensive  and 
unique  of  African  races,  peculiar  aUke  for  their  cleanliness,  their 
civilised  tastes  and  pursidts,  and  their  ferocity  in  war.  Veiy 
dark  in  colour,  they  are  taller  than  Engli^men,  and  have  thick 
lips,  contorted  features,  and  shallow  foreheads.  Their  hair  is 
cut  short,  and  is  adorned  with  ostrich  feathers,  in  imitation  of 
the  heron.  No  covering  is  worn  except  by  Ihe  women,  who 
are  scrupulously  clad,  and  who  wear  heavy  iron  rings  on  their 
wrists  and  ankles.  Both  sexes  break  off  the  lower  incisors,  a 
practice  that  renders  their  language  inaiiiculate.  The  dwelhngs 
of  the  D.  are  conical,  well-buut  huts,  and  are  scattered  in  clusters 
over  the  cultivated  pldns.  Nearly  tlie  whole  of  their  vast  tern- 
tory  is  a  steppe  of  dark  alluvial  clay,  unbroken  by  a  single  hill, 
mass  of  rock,  or  large  tract  of  forest.  Of  the  cultivated  plants 
the  chief  are  soighum,  penicillaria,  beans,  earth-nuts  [archis), 
earth-peas,  sesame,  yams,  and  Virpnian  tobacco.  The  domestic 
animals  are  the  ox  (of  the  zebu  race),  the  sheep,  goat,  and  dog. 
A  village  of  a  few  huts  has  seldom  less  than  2000,  and  sometimes 
as  many  as  10,000  cattle.  An  estimate  of  the  total  number  of 
cattle  gives  three  for  each  inhabitant  The  ox,  which  is  never 
kUled,  is  the  object  of  exclusive,  almost  religious  care.  What- 
ever of  religion  the  D.  has,  centres  in  an  institution  called  the 
Cogyjor,  wnicli  embraces  a  society  of  necrouiancers  and  ju^lers. 
There  is  much  tribal  disturbance.  Since  about  1S55  the  various 
efforts  of  the  Khartum  slave-dealers  to  subdue  the  Dinkas  have 
completely  failed,  and  it  is  even  at  some  risk  that  parties  venture 
threugh  their  territory  to  reach  Bongo,  Niam-Niam,  Mittu,  &c. 
All  the  early  captives  taken  to  Egypt  were  conveited  into  soldiers, 
and  still  form  a  conspicuous  element  in  the  ranks.  See  Dr 
Schwemfurth's  Heia-t  of  Africa  {s  vols.  Lond.  1873). 


Catholic  church  and  a  handsome  Protestant  one.  Fortified  ander 
Heinrich  I.,  and  created  a  free  city  of  the  empire  in  1351,  D.  was 
greatly  reduced  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  has  since 
suffered  much  from  religious  dissensions.     Pop,  (1872)  5212. 


Dinor'nis  (from  the  Or.  otMiij,  'terrible,'  ander«si,  a  'bird'}, 
in  natural  history,  the  name  of  a  genus  of  extinct  wingless  birds 
of  great  size  whose  remains  are  abundantly  found  in  New 
Zea^nd.  The  D.  was  first  brought  under  the  notice  of  the 
scientific  world  by  a  paper  read  by  Professor  Owen  in  1S39 
on  the  fragment  of  a  shaft  of  a  femur,  6  inches  long.  From  this 
fragment  Professor  Owen  deduced  the  former  existence  in  New 
Zealand  of  a  laige  bird  combining  some  of  the  leading  charac- 
teristics of  the  ostrich  and  the  dodo,  and  subsequent  discoveries 
have  proved  the  general  accuracy  of  his  deductions.  Tlie  D.  is 
generally  known  in  New  Zealand,  ahke  to  the  Maoris  and  the 
colonists,  under  the  name  of  the  Moa.  Scientific  examination 
of  the  bones  discovered  in  different  parts  of  the  colony  has  re- 
sulted in  the  establishment  ■'f  several  distinct  species.  The 
lat^est  of  these,  D.  gigantaa,  must  have  been  from  10  to  II  feet 
hi^  ;  while  D.  didyfirmis  attained  a  height  of  4  feet  only,  The 
leg-bones  of  the  D.  are  of  an  exceedinMy  massive  description, 
and  the  toes  of  D.  ekfhanlopes  rival  in  this  respect  those  -if  the 
elephant,  whence  Its  name.  Deposits  of  D.  bones  have  been 
found  in  many  parts  of  New  Zealand,  but  especially  in  the  pro- 
vinces of  Otago  and  Canterbury.  The  most  remarkable  disco- 
veries of  this  nature  have  been  made  in  the  Dunstan  district  of 
Otago  and  the  Glenmark  district  of  Canterbury.  In  caves  in 
the  former  locality  there  has  been  found  a  ned:  with  the  skin 
and  some  of  the  feathers  attached,  as  well  as  a  thigh-bone  with 
a  latge  piece  of  the  flesh  adhering  to  it.  In  the  same  neighbour- 
hood were  also  found,  50  feet  below  the  surface,  some  D.  feathers 
in  an  excellent  state  of  preservation.  They  were  of  a  chestnut- 
brown  for  the  basal  two-thirds,  shading  off  into  black,  with 
white  tips.  A  vexed  controversy  has  ansen  among  naturalists 
as  to  the  probable  date  of  the  extinction  of  the  D,  On  the  one 
hand,  it  is  claimed  that  the  freshness  and  situation  of  the  remains 
prove  that  the  D.  has  not  been  extinct  for  mere  than  a  century  ; 
and  on  the  other,  that  it  was  exterminated  by  a  race  of  autoch- 
thonts,  prior  to  the  arrival  in  New  Zealand,  500  years  ago,  of 
the  Maoris,   who  have  no  legends  regarding  it.  That  the  D.  was 


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hunted  and  eaten  by  a  savage  race  is  proved  by  the  discovery  of 
bones  and  e^shells,  some  of  them  charred,  in  old  native  cook- 
ing places,  along  with  stone  implements.  Being  a  slow,  un- 
gainly bird,  unable  to  fly,  its  means  of  escaping  pursuit  were 
small.  The  remains  of  a  large  species  of  D.  have  been  found  in 
the  Leichhardt  Downs,  Queensland,  85  feet  below  the  surface. 
Further  particulars  reearding  the  D.  remains  discovered  in  New 
Zealand  will  be  found  in  the  TranuKtions  of  the  New  Zmland 
Institute,  vols.  iv.  and  v. 

Smo&ati'ria,  or  Deinosaiiria  (Gr.  'terrible  lizards'),  an 
order  of  extinct  Reptiles,  distinguished  by  the  variable  nature  of 
the  skin-scales,  by  possessmg  teeth,  by  the  development  of  two 
pairs  of  limbs  adapted  for  walking,  and  by  the  absence  of  cla- 
vicles or  '  collar-bones. '  The  pelvis  approaches  ¥ery  nearly  in 
its  character  to  that  of  Cursor  af  or  Eunnmg  Birds.  TTie  order 
is  represented  by  such  forms  as  Migalcsaums,  Compsogtiaihus 
(q.  v.),  and  Jguanodim  (q,  v ),  the  remims  ot  which  occur  in 
Oolitic  and  Cretaceous  strata. 

DinoUierlum,  or  Seinothenimi  (Gi  'terrible  beast'), 
an  extinct  genus  of  Proboscidea  oi  elephant  like  mammalia,  the 
fossil  remains  of  which  occur  in  Miocene  formations  of  Europe 
and  of  India,  D.  giganleum  is  a  familiar  species.  In  the  D,, 
molar  and  piEeniolar  teeth  are  developed,  the  upper  jaw  possess- 
ing no  incisor  or  canine  teeth.  The  lower  jaw  possessed  two 
lai^  tasks  formed  by  the  lower  incisor  teeth,  these  tusks  being 
bent  dommBards  and  backwards.  Instead  of  upwards  as  in  living 
elephants.  These  animals  must  have  attained  a  very  lai^  size, 
and  probably  used  their  tusks  for  grubbing  up  the  roots  of  the 
aquatic  plants  upon  which  they  fed. 

Di'ooesan  Oonrts.     See  Consistohy  and  Commissary. 

Di'ocese  (Fr.  from  Gr.  dioikesh,  'administration')  is  the 
territory  of  a  bishop's  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.  England  is 
divided  ecclesiastically  into  two  provinces — Canterbury  and  York 
— each  of  which  is  subdivided  into  dioceses;  each  D,  is  sub- 
divided into  archdeaconries,  and  each  archdeaconry  into  parishes. 
Formerly  there  were  in  Scotland  the  Archbishop  of  St  Andrews, 
entitled  The  Primate  of  all  Scotland,  sxiA  the  Archbishop  of  Glas- 
gow, entitled  The  Primate  of  Scotland.  Under  them  were  twelve 
bishops,,  who  each  had  a  D.  Scotland  is  now  ecclesiastically 
divided  into  presbyteries.      See  PRESBYTERY. 

Diooletia'nue,  Vale'rius,  was  bom  near  Salona,  in  Dal- 
maiia,  245  A,D.  He  was  of  humble  origin,  but  having  entered 
the  army,  ha  served  with  distinction,  and  rose  to  high  command 
under  Probus,  Aurelian,  and  Carus.  In  2S4,  after  the  murder 
of  Numerianus,  the  troops  assembled  at.Chalcedon  and  unani- 
mously invested  D.  with  the  supreme  power.  His  first  act 
was  to  slay  with  his  own  hands  Aper,  captain  of  the  guard,  who 
was  believed  by  the  soldiers  to  be  guilty  of  the  late  Emperor's 
death.  The  death  of  Carinus,  the  surviving  colleague  of  Nume- 
rianus, in  the  hour  of  victory,  and  by  the  hands  of  his  own  offi- 
cers, left  D.  undisputed  master  of  the  situation,  and  he  used  his 
victoiy  with  singular  moderation.  His  reign  Is  remarkable  for 
the  changes  eflected  by  him  on  the  form  and  constitution  of 
the  sovereignty,  and  by  the  substitution  of  the  dress,  manners, 
and  court  style  of  Persia  for  those  of  Rome,  revolutions  which 
were  intended  to  provide  for  the  defence  of  the  empire  and  for 
the  security  of  the  Emperor.  In  286  D.  assumed  as  colleague 
Maximianus  Herculius ;  and,  since  the  dangers  that  threatened 
the  Roman  dominions  were  increasing  alike  in  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Africa,  a  further  partition  of^uithority  was  made.  In  2g2  the 
two  Augusti,  D.  and  Maximianus,  assumed  as  subordinate  col- 
leagues, under  the  title  of  Ciesars,  Constontius  Chlorus  and  Gale- 
rius.  The  empire  was  divided  among  the  four  potentates,  and 
their  efforts  to  re-establish  it  were  crowned  with  success.  Masi- 
mianus  routed  the  Mauretanians,  Constantius  secured  Britain,  D. 
subdued  Egypt,  and  Galerius  triumphed  in  the  East.  These 
splendid  victories  were  celebrated  at  Rome  in  the  twentieth  year 
of  the  reign  of  D,  by  a  magnificent  triumph,  which  was  memor- 
able as  being  the  fast  ever  witnessed  in  that  cUy.  In  305 
D.,  now  exhausted  by  anxiety  and  toil,  abdicated  tiie  throne,  and 
after  eight  years'  retirement  oear  Salona,  died  in  313.  In  303 
p.  stained  his  name  by  authorizing  the  last  and  fiercest  of 
the  ten  great  persecutions  inflicted  on  the  Christians  by  the 
Roman  Emperors. 

Dioda'ti,  GHovaimi,  a  Calvinistio  theologian,  was  bom, 
probably  at  Lucca,  6th  June  1576.     While  D.  was  still  a  child. 


his  family  emigrated  to  Geneva  on  account  of  their  ProtesI 
opinions.  Such  was  his  precocity,  that  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
he  was  appointed  a  Professor  of  Hebrew.  Distinguished  ; 
staunch  reformer  and  an  eloquent  preacher,  lie  became, 
1608,  a  pastor  of  the  Reformed  Church,  and  in  1609  a  Professor 
of  Theology.  He  jllayed  an  important  part  in  drawing  up  the 
articles  of  the  Synod  of  Dort,  where  he  represented  the  Genevan 
Church.  He  died  at  Geneva  in  1649.  D.,  wlio  was  the  author 
of  several  theoli^ical  works,  translated  the  Bible  into  Italian 
(i6q7)  and  into  French  (1614).— His  nephew,  Cfliarles  D. 
(died  1638),  was  a  schoolfellow  and  beloved  friend  of  John  Milton, 
who  lamented  his  untimely  death  in  one  of  his  most  exquisite 
poems,  llie  S^aphium  Damimis.    See  Masson's^iton  (voL  L). 

Si'odon,  a  genus  of  Tela/slean  (q.  v.)  fishes,  belonging  to  the 
group  Plectogtiathi  (q.  v.),  and  including  forms  popularly  known 
as  Globe-Fishes,  Sea-Porcupines,  and  the  like.  They  belong  to 
the  division  of  (jtwwiWl'n;  {'naked-toothed')  fishes,  a  name  ap- 
plied to  them  from  the  projecting  nature  of  the  jaws,  which 
appear  in  the  front  of  the  month,  covered  with  shining  ivory.  The 
name  D.  itself  ('double-toothed')  is,  in  fact,  derived  from  the 
apparently  tooth-like  form  of  the  jaws.  The  nearly-allied  genus 
Tetraodon  (q.  v.)  has  the  jaws  divided,  so  as  to  present  ^e 
appearance  of  four  teeth.  Of  the  diodons,  the  D.  ^mus, 
or  hairy  urchin-fish,  and  the  I),  hyslrix,  are  fajniUar  species. 
These  fishes  possess  "Cofi  power  of  inflating  their  bodies  with  air 
to  a  considerable  extent;  and  thpir  appearance  when  distended, 
together  with  the  formidable  array  of  spines  with  which  their  skin 
i^  provided,  is  very  cuiious  and  imposing.  This  power  of  infla- 
tion serves  apparently  as  a  means  of  defence,  The  D.  hystrix 
may  attain  the  length  of  la  or  14  inches,  and  with  neighbour- 
ing species  occurs  chiefly  in  warm  seas. 

Siodo'rus,  Sic'tilTiB,  bom  at  Agiium,  in  Sicily,  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Czesar  and  AugHstus,  He  was  the  author  of  a 
universal  history  from  the  earliest  times  down  to  Julius  Cjesar's 
Gallic  wars,  and  in  the  preparation  of  this  work  he  spent  thirty 
years.  It  consisted  of  forty  books,  of  which  fifteen  alone  are 
extant,  vis.,  books  i.-v.  and  xi.-xx.  It  was  called  by  the 
author  the  BibHaiheca,  or  lAbrary,  and  was  written  in  a  lucid 
style ;  but  its  confusion  and  contradictions  are  so  great  as  to  de- 
prive it  of  nearly  all  historical  value.  The  best  modem  edition 
is  that  of  Dindorf  (Lelps.  6  vols.  1828-31). 

Dice'ciouB  (lit,  'two  habitations')  is  a  term  used  in  botany 
to  express  the  fact  of  a  plant  having  the  flowers  containing  the 
stamens  on  one  individual  of  the  species,  while  those  with  the 
pistil  are  on  another.  Willows  are  common  examples,  hemp  and 
the  date-palm  are  less  familiar.  Dicedamly-kermaphredite  plants 
are  those  in  which  the  flowers  are  Hermaphrodite  {q.  v.),  but 
yet  in  none  of  which  both  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  perfect. 
In  one  flower  the  stamens  may  he  perfect  and  the  pistils  imper- 
fect, and  -vice  versa. 

Diog'snes  the  Oymic,  born  at  Sinope,  in  Pontus,  about  B.C. 
412,  went  early  in  life  to  Athens,  where  he  became  one  of  the 
few  pupils  of  Antisthenes,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Cynics. 
The  youth  of  D.  had  been  spent  in  dissolute  indulgence,  but  his 
character  now  changed,  and  he  becanie  emphatically  an  austere 
man,  wearing  coarse  clothes,  living  on  plain  food,  sleeping  on 
the  bare  ground,  and,  finally,  if  the  conunon  story  be  tme  (although 
probably  it  is  not),  residing  m  a  tub.  At  Athens  D,  was  noted 
for  his  free  and  pungent  raillery,  and  for  his  indiscriminate  ridi- 
cule of  all  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  literature,  art,  or  science.  A 
ship  in  which  he  was  sailing  to  jEgiua  was  taken  by  pirates, 
and  D.  was  cairied  to  Crete,  where  he  was  sold  to  Xenlades  of 
Corinth,  whose  '  ruler '  he  speedily  became,  and  with  whom  he 
resided  till  his  death,  at  the  age  of  ninety,  B,  c.  323.  In  a  well- 
known  interview  with  Alexander  the  Great,  which  commenced  by 
the  king's  announcing,  'I  am  Alexander  the  Great,'  D.  replied, 
'And  I  am  Diogenes  the  Cynic.'  To  the  king's  further  inquiry 
whether  he  could  serve  him  in  any  way,  D.  answered,  '  Yes  ;  you 
can  stand  out  of  the  sunshine.'  Alexander  is  reported  to  have 
said  ;  '  If  I  were  not  Alexander,  I  should  wish  to  be  Diogenes.' 
The  philosophy  of  D.  inculcated  the  abnegation,  so  fsx  as  prac- 
ticable, of  all  sensual  gratifications. 

Dio^^enes  Iiaer'tina,  a  philosopher  of  Lagrte  in  Cilicia, 
whence  his  sumame,  wrote  a  jliitory  of  the  Greek  Philesof hers  in 
ten  boolcs.  The  work  is  valuable  for  the  information,  anecdotes, 
and  quotations  which  it  contams,  but  is  utterly  destitute  of  plan. 


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rfsion,  and  critical  ability.  The  peiiod  of  D.  is  uncertain, 
being  by  some  assigned  to  the  ad,  by  others  to  the  3d.  c  after 
Christ.  The  first  complete  edition  of  the  Lives  is  that  of  Basei 
(4to,  1533) ;  the  best  modern  edition  is  that  by  Hiibner  (2  vols. 
8vo,  Leips,  1S28-31). 

Di'omede  Islands,  three  in  number  (Fairway,  Crusenstem, 
and  Ratamanow),  are  situated  in  Behring's  Strait,  between  East 
Cape  and  Cape  Prince  of  Wales,  and  form,  as  it  were,  the  frag- 
mentary links  of  a  chain  which  had  once  connected  the  con- 
tinents of  America  and   Asia.    They  are  uninhabited  and  of 

Diome'dee,  in  Greek  l^;end,  the  son  of  Tydeus  and  D^pyla, 
and  successor  of  Adrastua  in  the  Idngdoni  of  Atgos,  was  one  of  the 
Bpig<mi  who  toolt  Thebes.  In  the  Trojan  war  lie  distinguished 
himself  beyond  al!  the  Greeks  except  Achilles.  He  went  to  Troy 
with  eighty  ships,  and  under  the  protection  of  Athene  exhibited 
matchless  prowess,  vanquishing  m  single  combat  Hector  and 
.^neas,  and  woundmg  even  Venus  and  Mars.  With  Ulysses  he 
took  the  Palladium  from  Troy,  slew  Rhesus,  and  bore  awa.y 
his  steeds.  At  the  &ueral  games  of  Patroclus  he  won  the  chariot 
race,  and  overcame  the  T^emonian  Ajax  with  the  spear.  On 
the  conclusion  of  the  war  he  returned  to  A^os,  only  Lo  learn  that 
his  wife  jEgialeia,  had  been  unfiuthful  in  his  absence.  In  wrath 
and  disgust  he  went  to  ,^tolia,  but  agiin  setting  out  for  Aigos, 
was  driven  by  a  storm  (o  Daunia  in  Italy.  He  there  married 
Euippe,  daughter  of  Daunos,  assisted  the  Trojans  agamstTumus, 
and  founded  a  number  of  cities.  He  died  at  an  advanced  age- 
some  say  by  the  hand  of  Daunus— and  was  buried  in  one  of  the 
islands  olT  Cape  Gai^anus. 

Dionse'a.  In  the  Southern  States  of  America,  and  more  par- 
ticularly about  Wilmington,  in  S.  Carolina,  is  found  the  most 
remarkable  D.  mascipula — familiarly  known  as  Venus'  fly-trap. 
Every  leaf  bears  at  its  summit  an  appendage  which  is  probably 
the  true  blade,  while  what  seems  the  leaf  is  only  an  expanded 
winged  petiole.  A  mid  rib  divides  this  appendage  into  two 
equal  parts,  on  the  upper  surface  of  which  are  three  or  four 
hairs,  and  along  their  margins  are  also  rows  of  long  closely  set 
hairs  and  bristles.  On  an  insect  alighting  on  the  blade  so  as  to 
touch  the  hairs,  the  two  sides  close  so  as  lo  crush  the  insect  to 
death,  while  at  the  same  time  a  fluid  is  exuded.  The  recent  re- 
searches of  Mr  Darwin  and  others  leave  little  doubt  that  this  fluid 
acts  as  a  digester,  and  that  the  substance  of  the  fly  or  other 
animai  matter  is  absorbed  into  the  substance  of  the  plant, 
and  in  some  way  assists  in  its  nutrition.  Not  less  remarkable  is 
the  fact  discovered  by  Dr  Burdon- Sanderson,  that  this  closing  of 
the  leaf  of  D.  is  accompanied  with  electrical  phenomena,  analo- 
gous in  Uieir  nature  with  those  which  occur  when  nervous  or 
muscular  actions  are  induced  in  animals.  See  Darwin  on  Carni- 
vorous Plants  (187s) ;  Tate,  Proc.  of  Nat.  Hist.  Sea.  of  Midland 
Inslibtie  (1875) ;  Thos.  Balfour,  Trans.  Bat.  Ssc.  Edin.  (1875). 
Di'on  Caea'iTis  Oocoeia'nus,  a  celebrated  Greek  writer  and 
historian,  was  bom  at  Nicrea,  in  Bithynia,  155  a.d.  After  bis 
fether's  death  (180  A,D.)he  repaired  to  Rome,  and  under  a  succes- 
sion of  emperors  attained  the  highest  official  positions.  His 
greatest  work  is  a  Histojy  ef  Same  from  the  time  of  jEneas  to 
that  of  Alexander  Severus,  in  eighty  books,  of  which  only  eighteen 
(36th-54th)  with  fragments  of  others  are  extant  Of  some  of  the 
books  there  are  abridgments  by  Xiphilinns  and  others.  D.  spent 
ten  years  in  collecting  materials  for  this  work,  and  twelve  more 
in  its  composition.  In  critical  acumen,  grasp,  and  vigour,  he  is  far 
behind  Thucydides,  whom  he  took  as  his  model ;  but  his  history 
is  exhaustive,  honest,  and  notwithstanding  a  rhetorical  tinge  and 
peculiarities  of  style  and  language,  eminently  valuable.  Besides 
his  history,  D.  wrote  a  book  on  Dreams  and  Prodigies,  now  lost. 
He  died  at  his  native  Nicaia.  The  date  of  his  decease  is  not 
known.  The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  of  Sturz  (Leips. 
1824-43). 

Bi'on  ChryBOs'tomus  ('  the  Golden-Mouthed '),  also  called 
Coccdanus,  a  surname  derived  from  the  Emperor  Coccetus  Nerva, 
whose  favour  and  friendship  he  enjoyed,  was  horn  at  Pnisa,  in 
Bithynia,  about  the  middle  of  the  1st  c.  after  Christ.  He  im- 
proved an  excellent  education  by  foreign  travel.  Though  con- 
fining himself  to  no  particular  sect  or  school,  he  had  a  pre- 
ference for  the  Stoic  and  Platonic  systems.  Being  looked 
on  with  suspicion  at  home,  he  went  to  Rome,  from  which,  on 
account  of  Dointtian's  hatred,  he  was  compelled  to  flee.    After 


ng  Thrace,  Mysia,  Scythia,  &c.,  he  returned  on  the  murder 
of  Doraitian,  96  A,D.,  and  was  honourably  received  by  Nerva,  of 
whose  claims  to  the  purple  he  was  an  enthusiastic  advocate. 
Trajan,  Nerva's  successor,  esteemed  him  so  highly  that  he 
allowed  him  to  ride  with  him  in  his  golden  chariot.  D.  died 
Rome,  117  A.D.     As  a  man  he  was  beloved  and  esteemed, 

d  as  an  orator  universally  admired.  Of  his  works,  eighty 
complete  orations,  and  fragments  of  fifteen,  on  a  vast  variety  of 
subjects,  remain  to  attest  his  eminence  as  a  rhetorician  and  as  t 
writer  of  pure  Attic  Greek.  His  chaste  style  and  brilliant  era 
torical  powers  won  the  golden  opinion  of  Niebnhr.  The  critical 
edition  of  his  works  by  Reiske  (s  vols.  8vo,  Leips.  1784)  is  still 
considered  the  best. 

Dionys'iuB  the  Aieop'agite  was  a  member  of  the  Areo- 
pagus at  Athens,  who,  according  to  Acts  xvii.,  was  converted  by 
the  Apostle  Paul,  wliich  is  all  that  is  said  of  him  in  the  Nen 
Testament.  The  historian  Eusebius  relates  that  Dionysius 
Bishop  of  Corinth,  wrote  an  epistle  to  the  Athenians,  in  whicl 
he  mentions  D.  the  A.,  St  Paul's  convert,  as  the  first  Bishop  of 
Athens.  He  is  chiefly  famous  on  account  of  certain  writings, 
probably  belonging  to  the  end  of  the  5th  c,  which  Were  forged 
under  his  name,  and  first  appeared  in  the  Monothelite  contro- 
versy, about  523.  The  object  of  the  writer,  who  has  been  called 
the  father  of  mysticism  in  the  Christian  Church,  was  to  show 
that  the  real  doctrines  of  Christianity  were  identical  with  those 
of  his  own  philosophy — -Neo-Platonism ;  the  substance  of  his 
system  being  that  the  universe  ts  an  efflux  of  the  life  of  God. 
The  writings,  the  titles  of  which  are  .The  CelestialHierarchy, 
The  Terrestrial  Hierarchy,  Mystkal  Theology,  and  Twehie 
Epistles,  had  an  unbounded  influence  in  the  Greek  Church  from 
the  first }  and  when  translated  into  Latin  by  Scotus  Erigena, 
helped  greatly  to  develop  the  tendency  to  Pantheistic  mysticism 
which  afterwards  prevailed  in  the  Western  Church.  See  Nean- 
der's  Kirchengeschichte,  and  Hodge's  Systematic  Theology. 

Dionysius  the  Iildex,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  was  born  m  431 
01430  B.C.  He  commenced  life  as  a  clerk  in  a  public  office,  but 
early  took  part  in  the  political  affairs  of  Syracuse.  In  406  he 
secured  the  deposition  of  the  commanders  who  had  failed  m  the 
conduct  of  the  Carthaginian  War,  and  was  himself  one  of  those 
appointed  in  their  stead.  He  next  succeeded  in  obtaining  by 
intrigue  the  removal  of  his  colleagues,  and  became  general  auto- 
crator  in  405.  D.  confirmed  his  power  by  ingratiating  him- 
self both  with  the  troops  and  with  the  populace,  subdued  partly 
by  firmness  and  partly  by  good  fortune  several  revolts  against 
his  authority,  and  successfully  attacked  the  Chalcidian  cities  of 
Sicily.  In  397,  after  extensive  preparations,  he  declared  war 
i^inst  Carthage.  In  the  first  campaign  he  encountered  no 
opposition,  and  took  Motya,  an  important  stronghold,  but  in 
the  following  year  Himilco,  with  a  great  armament,  totally  de- 
feated the  Syracusan  fleet,  and  compelled  D.  to  shut  himself  up 
within  the  walls  of  Syracuse.  A  pestilence,  however,  broke  out 
among  the  Carthaginians,  and  D.  was  thus  enabled  to  attack  them 
suddenly  and  successfully.  The  Carthaginians  renewed  the  > 
in  393  and  392,  but  on  both  occasions  were  defeated  by  D,, 
and  peace  was  then  concluded.  Through  his  allies,  the  Locrians, 
D.  obtained  extensive  influence  throughout  the  S.  of  Italy, 
and  during  the  remaining  twenty  years  of  his  tyranny  he  em- 
braced every  opportunity  of  maintaining  and  increasing  his 
power.  He  died  m  367.  Strange  as  it  may  seem  in  the  case  of 
so  vigorous  and  unscrupulous  a  tyrant,  D.  devoted  himself  assidu- 
ously to  poetry,  and  one  of  his  dramas  carried  off  the  first  prize 
at  Athens.  He  also  courted  the  society  of  men  distinguished  in 
literature  and  philosophy. 

Dionysius  tlie  Young:er,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  -was  the  son 
of  the  preceding,  by  Doris  of  Locri,  and  at  the  age  of  thirty 
succeeded  his  father,  B,  c.  367.  D.  had  never  been  permitted  to 
take  part  In  public  afiairs,  and  being  encouraged  in  vicious  excesses 
by  Philistus  the  historian,  became  unpopular  with  the  Syra- 
eusans,  whom  he  further  alienated  by  the  banishment  of  Dion. 
On  the  retnm  of  Dion,  the  Syracusans  revolted  against  D.,  who 
repaired  to  Locri,  which  he  ruled  with  the  utmost  cruelty  for 
several  years.     H  er  d  S    acuse  by  treachery  ten  years 

after  his  expul  b      w  npelled  to  yield  to  Timoleon 

in  343.     He  s  h       m     d      of  his  life  at  Corinth  in  " 

gradation  and  d      tu 

Dionysius  of  Hal  C»  nassus  flourished  in  the  ist  c.  b 
his  death  havi  g  d  fler  B.C.  7.     He  went  to  Italy 


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:.  29,  and  spent  twenty-two  years  at  Rome  in  studying  the 
Latin  language  and  liieralure.  His  rhetorical  and  critical 
treatises — such  as  his  Ars  Sheiorica  and  his  criticisms  on  the 
Greek  orators — are  of  great  value.  His  chief  work  is  his  Archa- 
ehgia,  or  Roman  history,  in  twenty  books,  of  which  only  the  first 
nine  have  reached  us  complete.  This  work  contained  the  his- 
tory of  Rome  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  year  b.  c.  264,  and 
discussed  fully  all  that  relates  to  the  Roman  constitutioo,  reli- 
gion, history,  and  antiquities. 

Dioaysiaa  Tllrax,  or  the  Thracian,  was  a  celebrated  Greek 
grammarian,  who  taught  at  Rome  about  B.C.  80.  He  is  remem- 
bered for  tlie  merit  of  his  grammatical  works,  and  for  his  eipla- 
ions  and  criticism  of  Homer.  His  grammatical  treatise  was 
used  in  schools  for  many  centuries. 

DIonysiiiS,  surnamed  Periege'tee,  from  his  being  the  au- 
thor of  a  periegisis  (Gr.  'geogra^ical  description  of  the  earth') 
in  Greek  hexameters,  was  a  native  of  Africa,  and  lived  pro- 
bably in  the  latter  pact  of  the  3d  or  beginning  of  the  4th  c 
His  work,  which  is  still  extant,  is  written  tersely,  and  was 
translated  into  Latin  by  Rufus  Festus  Avienus,  and  also  by  the 
grammarian  Priscian.  There  still  exist  a  commentary  upon  it 
by  Enstathius,  and  a  Greek  paraphrase  and  Scholia.  The  edilio 
prUtc^s  appeared  at  Ferrara  in  1512,  with  a  Latin  translation. 
It  was  also  printed  at  Venice  by  A,  Manutius  in  1513,  but  the 
best  edition  is  that  of  G.  Bemhardy  (Leips,  1828). 

Mony'eoB.     See  Bacchus. 

Diophan'tine  Anal'srsia,  a  branch  of  algebra  which  treats 
of  the  solution  of  undeterminate  questions,  such  as :  To  find  three 
commensurable  numbers  whose  squares  are  in  arithmetical  pro- 
gressiorL  The  name  is  derived  from  Diophantus  (q,  v.),  who 
solved  a  great  many  questions  of  this  kind. 

Diophan'ttia,  a  Greek  algebraist,  who  flourished  at  Alex- 
andria probably  about  tlie  4th  or  51h  c.  of  the  Christian  era. 
^■^ntucla,    after  Abulpharagiua,  places   him  at  365  A.D. ;  but 

!  date  is  of  little  consequence  except  with  reference  to  the 
question  whether  he  obtained  his  algebra  from  the  Hindus,  or  is 
to  be  regarded  as  the  sole  inventor  of  his  methods.  From  an 
epitaph  in  Greek  verse,  discovered  by  Sachet,  we  gather  that  he 
marned  when  thirty-three  years  old,  that  his  son,  born  five  years 
after  the  marriage,  died  at  the  age  of  forty-two,  four  years  before 
himself,  and  that  D.  therefore  lived  eighty-four  years.  The  in- 
formation is  given  in  the  form  of  an  algebraic  problem.  Of  the 
thirteen  books  of  his  Ariihrndica,  only  six  are  extant.  There  is 
also  one  other  book,  De  Multangulis  Numais.  The  first  printed 
edition  was  in  Latin,  by  Xyknder  (Basel,  1575) ;  Bachet  de 
Meziriac  published  the  original  Gtedt,  with  l^tin  version  and 
valuable  notes  (Paris,  1621) ;  but  the  best  is  by  Fermat  (Tou- 
louse, 1670).  Miss  Abigail  Baruch  Lousada  left  a  complete  Eng- 
lish translation,  which  has  unfortunately  never  been  published. 

Diop'sis,  or  Stalk-Eyed  riy,  a  genus  of  Diptera  (q.  v. )  or 
Flies,  belonging  to  the  fiimily  Muscida,  and  distinguished  by  the 
elongation  of  the  sides  of  the  head  to  form  stalks  for  the  eyes. 
Diopsis  thorackus  is  a  familac  species  of  this  group,  the  i-epresen- 
tatives  of  which  mostly  occur  in  warm  climates. 

Diop'tiicB.     See  Optics, 

Siora'ma.     See  Panorama. 

Diosoorea'oeSB,  the  Yam  order,  a  natural  order  of  Mono- 
cotyledonous  plants,  belonging  to  Lindley's  sub-class  ZJiciv'SWis', 
chiefly  tropical  plants.  Tamus  communis,  the  Black  Bryony 
{q.  v.),  is  the  only  British  representative,  There  are  about  160 
species  and  seven  genera.  Tamus,  Tesludinaria,  and  Dioscoria 
are  examples.  The  Yams  (q.  v.)  are  among  the  most  important 
plants  of  the  order.     The  Elephant's  Food  (q,  v.)  is  another. 

IMoscor'ides,  the  author  of  thirty-nine  epigrams  in  the  Greek 
Anthology,  is  thought  to  have  lived  in  E^ypt  in  the  time  of 
Ptolemy  Euergetes.  His  epigrams,  chiefly  on  the  ancient  poets, 
were  included  in  Meleager's  Garland. 

DiOBCorides,  the  name  of  several  physicians  and  medical 
writers  of  antiquity. — I.  D,  Fedacias  or  Fedauiu^  of  Ana- 
2arba,  in  Cilicia,  flourished  in  the  1st  or  2d  c.  He  wrote  a 
treatise  on  Materia  Medua,  a  work  of  immense  research,  and 
for  many  ages  a  standard  authority,  also  a  treatise  on  Fohons 
and  another  on  Vervmiaus  Animals.  Some  minor  works  have 
been  ascribed  to  him,  but  on  insufiicient  grounds.      His  De 


MiUetia  MiMca  has  been  translated  into  Italian,  French,  Ger- 
man, and  Spanish,  and  an  Arabian  version  of  it  in  MS.  is  to  be 
found  in  several  European  libraries.  The  first  Greek  edition 
was  published  by  Aldus  Manutius  (fol.  Ven.  1499),  The  best 
edition  is  still  that  of  Saracenus  (Frankf.  1598) ;  the  most  re- 
centthat  of  Sprengel  (Leips.  1829-30).— 2.  D.  Fhaoas,  so  called 
from  the  moles  or  freckles  on  his  face,  lived  in  the  2d  or 
1st  c  B.C.  His  medical  works,  of  which  several  are  mentioned 
by  ancient  writers,  have  perished. — 3.  A  grammarian  and  pro- 
bably a  physican  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Hadrian,  who  devoted 
his  attention  to  medical  literature,  and  edited  an  edition  of  the 
works  of  Hippocrates. 

Dip  and  Strike  are  terms  used  in  geology.  The  '  dip '  is 
the  downward  inclination  of  beds  with  reference  to  the  horizontal 
plane,  and  requires  for  its  determination  two  numbers — viz.,  the 
inclination  of  the  beds  to  the  horizontal,  and  the  point  of  the 
compass  towards  which  they  slope.  The  'strike'  is  tlie  line 
drawn  at  right  angles  to  the  dip,  corresponding  to  the  outcrop 
when  the  surface  is  level. 

Diphthe'ria  (from  Gr.  diphihera,  any  leathery  material),  the 
name  given  to  a  contagious  and  epidemic  disease  of  great  severity, 
affecting  chiefly  the  throat  and  neighbouring  parts.  It  is  essen- 
tially a  blood  disease,  characterised  by  the  formation  of  a  false 
membrane  on  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  and  throat,  D.  gene- 
rally commences  with  headache,  sickness,  oflen  diarrhea  and 
cliilliness,and  is  soon  followed  by  great  prostration  and  the  for. 
mation  of  dirty  whitish  patches  on  the  back  of  the  mouth,  at  first 
small,  but  soon  coalescing  so  as  to  form  a  membrane  whose  ap- 
pearance has  been  compared  to  that  of  'damp,  dirty,  washed 
leather.'  When  this  membrane  begins  to  peel  off  there  is  a  most 
offensive  odour  in  the  breath,  and  frequently  the  patient  is  unable 
to  swallow.  D.  is  a  very  fatal  disease,  and  generally  in  a  short  time. 
Thetreatmentconsistsinsupporting  the  patient's  straigtii,  giving 
iron  tonics  internally,  and  applying  Condy's  fluid,  or  other  disin- 
fectant to  the  throat.  Recovery  is  often  followed  by  paralysis  of 
some  of  the  muscle  The  patient  should  be  kept  warm  in  bed, 
and  the  air  in  the  room  ahoiiid  be  hot  and  moist. 

Diph'thong:  (Gr.  di,  'twice,'  ana.  pkihengQ^  'a  sound')  is 
the  blending  of  two  vowel  sounds  into  one  syllable,  e.g.,  ou  in 
'  house,' Qi  in  'aisle,' and  oi  in  'oil.'  The  distinction  sometimes 
made  between  a  D.  to  the  eye  and  a  D.  to  the  ear  is  incorrect. 
There  can  be  no  D,  which  is  not  a  D.  to  the  ear. 

Diph.'yea,  a  beautiful  genus  of  oceanic  Hydrojioa  (q.  v.),  or 
Zoophytes,  belonging  to  the  Order  Calycqphoridie,  and  consisting 
of  a  delicate  thread-like  canosarc  or  connecting  medium,  bearing 
the  various  polypites,  or  individual  animals  of  which  this  com- 


rganisi 


■shaped  Nectocalyca,  t 
bells,' by  means  of  which  the  organism  is  supported  in  the  water. 
Each  of  the  polypites  is  protected  by  a  glassy  '  bract,'  or  hydro- 
phyllium.  I),  appmdiculaia  is  a  familiar  species  of  this  genus  of 
Calycophorida,  and  occurs  in  the  Mediterranean  and  warm  seas. 

Diplaoan'thus,  a  genus  of  extinct  Ganoid  fishes,  of  which 
D.  gracilis  is  a  familiar  example.  This  genus  belongs  to  the 
femily  Acanthodida,  the  members  of  which  possessed  small 
scales,  and  a  spine  implanted  in  the  fiesh  in  front  of  each  fin. 
No  operculum  was  developed.  D.  had  two  dorsal  fins,  and  is 
confined  solely  to  Devonian  rocks.     The  tail  was  heterocercal. 

Diploe,  the  cellular  bony  structure  between  the  two  plates  or 
tables  forming  the  flat  bones  of  the  skull.  These  cells  are  filled 
with  a  reddish  pnlpy  substance,  similar,  when  examined  micro- 
scopically, to  the  niarrow  of  bones. 

Mplog^lOSS'ua,  a  genus  of  Laceetilia,  or  Lizards,  found  in 
Cuba.  The  colour  of  the  beat-known  species  {D.  sagm)  is  grey 
with  bronze  tints,  whilst  a  black  streak  marks  each  side.  The 
D.  is  an  active  little  creature,  and  inhabits  dry  localities. 

ap'sTlS,  a  genus  of  Graptoliti 
of  Hydrozoa  (q.  v.)  or  Zoophytes.  _  1  _ 
prisits  is  a  familiar  species,  ranges  in  Britain  and  N.  America 
Irom  the  Upper  Cambrian  strata  to  the  upper  strata  of  the 
Lower  Silurian  rocks  ;  but  in  Bohemia,  D.  occurs  in  Upper  Silu- 
rian rocks  also. 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DIP 


:e  for  profes 


named  in  it  having  been  granted  a  degree  oi 
sion^  practice. 

Diplom'aoy  is  the  art  of  managing  international  affairs  by 
means  of  ambassadors  and  other  officers  accredited  by  one  state 
to  another.  (See  Ambassador,)  A  diplomatist  requuvs  to  be 
a  man  of  great  tact  and  good  temper,  ready  In  all  social  cere- 
monial to  conform  to  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people 
among  whom  he  is  resident.  Infinite  tact  is  required  in  matters 
involving  questions  of  precedence.  Precedence  is  conceded  to 
crovmeti  heads,  and  a  head  crowned  is  held  to  maintain  its 
dignity  under  all  reverses.  In  making  a  treaty,  the  usual  prac- 
tice is  to  make  as  many  copies  as  there  are  parties  to  it.  Each 
state  gets  a  copy  with  precedence  to  its  own  name.  In  other 
matters  the  precedence  of  the  various  powers  of  Europe  and  of 
the  United  States  of  America,  from  time  to  time,  is  by  what 
is  called  the  Atitmat,  which  is  determined  by  lot.  Maritime 
international  ceremonial  is  arranged  by  compact.     See  Salute, 

Diplomat'ics  is  the  art  of  readmg  ancient  writings,  combined 
with  scientific  knowledge  of  their  circumstances.  The  term  has 
been  superseded  by  the  more  descriptive  one  of  Paiffiography 
(q,  V,), 

Diplop'terus,  a  genus  of  fossil  Ganoid  (q,  v,)  fishes,  inchided 
in  the  group  CrosiOpteiygidts.  This  form,  which  has  representa- 
tives in  tlie  Devonian  and  Carboniferous  rocks,  iiad  two  dorsal 
fins,  rhomboidal  and  smooth  scales,  and  lobate  tins.  Like  all 
C«)jjo/4Hy,5!^(' fringe-finned 'J,  the  species  of  D,  had  the  paired 
fins  each  in  the  form  of  a  central  lobe  covered  with  scales,  and 
having  the  fin-rays  attached  to  its  sides. 

Dip'ltoi,  an  important  order  of  the  class  of  fishes  represented 
by  the  LepidoHrms  (q.  v.),  or  Mud-Fishes  of  Africa  and  S, 
America,  and  by  the  Ceratodtis  or  Barramunda  (q.  v.)  of 
Australian  rivers.  Probably  Dr  Giinther's  idea  that  the  D, 
should  be  riewed  as  a  subdivision  of  the  Ganoid  fishes  is  correct 
and  trustworthy.  As  a  distinct  order,  the  D.  are  recognised  by 
possessing  fish-like  bodies  ;  the  skull  has  distinct  cranial  bones 
and  a  lower  jaw,  but  the  spine  is  represented  by  a  notuckord 
(q.  V. ),  and  no  bony  spinal  elements  exist.  Small  cycloid  scales 
cover  the  body.  The  pectoral  and  ventral  fins  (in  Lepidosirm)  are 
filamentous  in  chajacter,  and  in  Ceraiodus  consist  each  of  a 
cential  rod  with  lateral  branches.  The  taii-fin  is  median  and  ver- 
tical. The  heart  is  three-chambered.  The  breathing  is  conducted 
by  gills  and  also  by  rudimentary  lungs,  formed  by  the  modified 
'  Air-Bkdder'  {q.  v.).  The  nostrils  open  posteriorly  into  the 
throat.  In  respect  of  the  last  three  characters,  these  fishes  differ 
from  all  others.  Lepidodrm  is  said  to  have  external  gills  like 
amphibians  in  its  young  state. 

Dipp'el'S  Animal  Oil  (Oleum  cornu  cervi  ricUficatuni).  This 
is  a  colourless  transparent  liquid,  obtamed  by  repeatedl^  recti- 
fying the  liquid  products  arising  from  the  destructive  distillation 
of  animaJ  matter  (bone,  horn,  &c,).  It  was  first  prepared  by 
Dippel,  an  apothecary  hving  in  the  17th  c  and  was  employed 
by  him  as  a  medic  m  and  highly  re- 

fractive,  and   has        p  ea,  an  like  cinnamon. 

Exposed  to  the  a  gr       al  m  n,     D,'s  A.   O, 

consists  of  a  mixtu  g  stances,  part  of 

which  are  bases  co  g  p  unds  of  carbon 

and  hydrogen,  p  product  in  the 

tu  of  Bone  Black 
occasionally  em- 
medicine   as   an 

Water  Ousel 
tkus  or  Hydro- 
is    a  species  of  In- 
,  belonging  to 

d  to  the  Thrush 
eru  ida).  The  ge- 
h  it  belongs  is 
edbythe  bill  being 

h         p       ds.    The  open- 
ing of  the  nostrils  is  of  semi- 
rounded,  and  have  their  third  and 
il  is  short  and  even.     The  larsi  are 


lar^e,  the  outer  toe  being  longer  than  the  inner  one.  The  D. 
frequents  rapid  streams  and  rivers,  and  exhibits  quick,  jerking 
movements.  Its  average  length  is  about  7  inches,  and  its 
colour  brown  on  the  upper  parts,  a  rusty  red  below,  with  the 
throat  and  breast  white.  The  food  consists  of  insects,  crusta- 
ceans, and  the  eggs  of  fishes.  The  D.  is  remarkable  as  differ- 
ing ao  completely  in  habits  from  all  the  other  members  of  its 
family.  It  dives  with  great  ease,  and  can  remain  below  water 
for  some  time,  keeping  itself  under  water  by  the  action  of  its 
wings.  Tlie  nest  is  formed  of  moss,  and  has  a  dome-hke  shape. 
The  eggs  number  five,  and  are  coloured  white.  The  D.  may 
produce  two  or  even  three  broods  in  a  year, 

Cipp'ing^-Neeclle  is  a  magnet  suspended  so  as  to  have  aa 
free  motion  as  possible  round  its  centre  of  inertia  in  a  vertical 
plane.  It  is  found  that  . 
such  a  needle,  if  n 
on  the  magneti 


netic     meridian, 
needle  gives  thedi 
tion  in  which  the 
restrial  magnetic  foi 
acts.    The  magnet 
as  delicately  s 
as  possible,  a 
vided  with  a  vertical 
graduated 
(marked     e 

figure)   for  measuring  D  ppmg  Nssdle 

the  amount  of  the  dip, 

and  an  aiimuth  circle  (Z)  for  fiimg  the  vertital  ..ircle  m  the  true 
direction,  which  is  found  by  means  of  a  declination  needle.  (See 
Declination  of  the  Magnetic  Needle.)  Since  the  mag- 
netic axis  rarely  coincides  exactly  with  the  geometrical  axis  of  the 
magnet,  the  needle  must  be  reversed— the  side  which  at  fiist 
faced  E.  how  facing  W.— and  the  mean  of  the  two  readings 
taken  as  the  true  reading.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  have  any 
iron  or  steel  adjustments  about  the  mstrument,  else  the  results 
would  be  rendered  valueless.  /,  /,  f,  are  microscopes  for  read- 
ing the  angles  j  and  «  is  a  spirit-level  for  securing  the  horizon- 
tality  of  Z  and  the  perpendicularity  of  e.  From  observations 
with  such  an  instrument.  Sir  J.  C.  Ross,  in  1831,  fixed  the  mag- 
netic  pole  in  Boothia  Felix,  N.  America,  near  lat.  70°  N.  and 
long.  96°  W.,  where  he  found  tlie  dip  to  be  89°  59'— nearly  per- 
pendicular. 
Dipsacft'ceeB  and  Dip'saoua.  See  Teazel, 
IHp'saa  (from  Or.  Mpsa, '  thirst '),  a  genus  of  Colubrine  snakes, 
of  which  the  D.  or  Eitiifsas  cynodon  of  Asia  and  the  Philippine 
Islands  is  an  example.  The  neck  and  tail  are  very  slender,  thS 
bead  being  broad  and  of  triangular  shape.  The  colon 
variegated  with  brown,  The  ancients  believed  that  tl 
was  constantly  seeking  water,  hence  its  name. 

DipBoma'nia  (from  Or.  dipso^  '  thirst,'  and  man 
ness'),  the  name  given  to  an  intense  craving  for  intoxicatmg 
liquors.  So  strong  is  this  craving  for  alcohoHc  drink  in  some 
persons  that  they  wiU  sacrifice  everything  to  obtam  iL  Of  late 
years,  much  difference  of  opinon  has  been  expressed  in  regard  to 
the  question  whether  D.  is  insanity  or  not,  sonte  physicians 
maintaining  that  tt  is  a  kind  of  madness,  others  that  it  is  only  a 
kind  of  wickedness.  D.  ought  to  be  distinguished  from  true 
insanity ;  but  though  few  physicians  would  commit  dipsomaniacs 
to  a  lunatic  asylum,  most  believe  that  they  should  be  put  under 
restraint,  because  of  their  being  altogether  incapable  of  taking 
care  of  themselves,  and  also  on  account  of  the  misery  they  bring 
upon  their  families.  D.  most  freijuently  occurs  among  mem 
bers  of  femilies  in  which  there  is  a  hereditary  tendency  ti 
insanity,  and  the  tendency  to  the  disease  is  fostered  by  the 
habitual  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  from  early  periods  of  life,  in 
many  cases  even  from  infancy.  Several  attempts  have  recently 
been  made  to  legislate  on  D.  in  the  British  Pariiament,  but  as  yet 
without  effect.  There  are  excellent  institutions  in  Britain  for 
tlie  cure  of  drankardSj  but,  unfortunately,  there  is  no  law  by 


-* 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DIB 


Dpte  (l(G       tw    TV    ged  )  d  r  of  Insects  represented 

by  Ih  f  1  ar  F!i  (q  )  d  tl  wo-winged  forms.  Tlie 
"  1  ded  in   th     H  1       tab  1      group  of  the  insect 

s,  th  t        t       th   m  mbers    f  whi  h      d    g  n- 

//  (   M  tam    ph        (q      )       d   h  w  tl     th       chara  t  n  tic 

tgesfant  tplla  In  nest  paf     or 

hyl      and      prftwgd      d  l'^       Thftnt 

pan-   f  w    g  1  1         t  d       th       mse  t    tl     pi  ce 

f  th      b      t  hi  d  g    b     g      ppl   d  by      p         f  hla- 

m    t  us     i^  ns    t    m  d  A  ft«-  pois        p  es       d  t     be 

sem  eabi  th         ect  b  1         g  th  m         h      fl  ght, 

Th    p    th  rax         first      gm     t     t  th      h    t  1      )  all, 

and,    al  h     h        tl        tw      th  gm     t  g     e- 

rally  f     d  int  ngl    mass      Th    1     d       la  g         d  the 

y  p    m    ent      Th     m     th        f      tl      m    t  part     f      c- 

1     al  k    d  (        I  )    and  th      t         h        f  eq      tly  of 

mpo    d       t    e.     Ih     1  g  Uy  long,   and  end  in 

ft    p  ngy  bod  es  by  f  wh   h  these  insects  are  enabled 

t      btam     firm  f    tl   Id  th      d  perpendicular  surfaces. 

I  dd  tl  t  th  mp  d  y  b  me  l^  the  head,  several 
?(  or  s     pi      y     m  y   1  t ,  and  the  anlenn:e  or  feelers 

situated  on  the  part  of  the  head  between  the  eyes.  The 
wings  may  be  wanting  altogether  in  some  D.,  and  the  skin  of  the 
larva  for  the  most  part  forms  a  pupa  case  for  the  chiysalis.  In 
some  flies  (such  as  m  Fii^panfi,  the  young  larvie  reside  within 
the  body  of  the  mother,  and  there  become  pupie ;  and  m  Csci- 
domyia  or  the  Hessian.fly,  each  larva  produces  within  itself 
another  larva,  which  latter  feeds  on  the  primitive  larva  and  be- 
comes the  fiiture  fly.  See  also  articles  relating  to  the  various 
kinds  of  flies,  such  as  Cbane-Fi,y,  Hessian-Fly,  &c. 

Diptera'oeee,  or  Dipterocarpa'cete,  the  Sumati-a  Camphor 
order,  a  natural  order  of  Dicotyledonous  trees  with  resinous  juice, 
natives  of  the  forests  of  tropical  India,  with  the  exception  of  the 
genus  Lophira,  which  is  found  in  tropical  Africa,  though  by  some 
this  genus  is  made  the  type  of  a  separate  order  {Lophiracea). 
There.Me  about  fifty  species  and  seven  genera  in  the  order,  all  of 
whith  owe  their  pecnliarities  to  the  presence  of  the  resinous 
Juice.  Wood-oil  or  Gurgun  balsam  is  yielded  by  the  trunks  of  B. 
lavis  or  turUnattts  of  the  W.  Indies,  The  oil  is  used  in  India 
for  painting,  and  is  employed  for  much  the  same  purposes  as 
Copaiva  (q.  v.).  Dryo&ilanops  oromaHca  yields  Sumatra  cam- 
phor (see  Camphor).  Jiopea  udoraia  of  Eurmah  yields  a  styptic 
resin.  Skor^a  [Vatiria)  robusta  is  the  Sal  (q.  v.)  of  India,  and 
yields  Dhoona  pitch.  Valeria  indica  yields  the  oleo-resin  Itnovra 
as  white  Dammar  or  piny  rosin,  used  in  India  for  making  candles 
and  as  a  varnish.  Pmy  tallow  or  v^elable  butter  of  Canara — 
a  concrete  oil— is  obtained  from  the  fruit  of  this  plant,  and  has 
lately  been  imported  into  this  country  as  a  local  application  in 
rheumatism,  &c.  (Bentley).  See  Anime,  Copal,  Dammar,  and 
Varnish-Tree. 

liip'teruB,  a  genus  of  extinct  Ganoid  (q.  v.)  fishes,  confined 
exclusively  in  their  distribution  to  the  Devonian  and  Old  Red 
Sandstone  rocks.  Two  dorsal  fins  existed,  and  the  body  was 
covered  with  smooth  overlapping  scales,  flie  head  had  a  kind 
of  hehnet-covering,  and  the  teeth  were  conical  in  form. 

Dip'teryx,  a  genus  of  Leguminous  plants.  The  seeds  of  D. 
oderataai  Guiana,  owing  to  the  presence  of  Coamarine  (q.  v.), 
are  very  pleasantly  scented,  and  under  the  name  of  Tonquin, 
Tonga,  or  Itonka  beans,  are  used  for  perfuming  snuff,  &c.  The 
Eboe  nuts  of  the  Mosquito  Coast  {D.  EhSmsis)  are  also  fragrant, 
and  yield  a  fatty  oil  much  used  for  anointing  the  hair  of  the 
natives.     The  limber  is  heavy  and  yellow  coloured. 


■s  of  wires, 

wood,  the  inner  sides  of  which  were  covered  over  with  wax, 
which  was  written  on  with  the  stilus.  There  was  a  raised  margin 
round  each  to  prevent  the  wax  of  the  one  tablet  rubbing  against 
that  of  the  other.  Diptychs  were  employed  especially  for  public 
registers.  They  were  small  enough  to  be  held  in  the  hand, 
rarely  exceeding  eight  inches  by  four.     Instead  of  wood,  ivoiy 


used,  and  these  were  often  riclily  carved 
or  chased. 

Dip'iis.     See  Jerboa. 

Di'rect  dad  Ret'rogT^ade,  two  astronomical  terms,  applied 
to  the  motion  of  a  planet,  according  as  it  appears  to  move  in  the 
zodiac  from  W.  to  E.  or  from  E.  to  W.  When  it  is  moving 
neither  way  it  is  said  to  be  stationary. 

Direo'tion-Oo'sines  are  the  cosines  of  the  angles  which  a 
given  line  makes  with  three  rectangular  axes  given  in  position. 
Take  any  point  {x,  y,  e]  upon  the  line  through  the  origin,  whose 
D.-C.  are  /,  m,  n  ;  then  if  r  be  the  distance  of  this  point  from 
the  origin,  we  have  at  once  x  =  Ir,  y  =  mr,  x  =  nr.  Squar- 
ing and  adding,  we  obtain  (P  -^  m*  +  »')  »•'  =  »■"  ■)■  j"'  -I-  a* 
=  1^,  or  /'  -I-  ot'  -f-  «°  =  I.  Again,  if  there  be  another  line, 
whose  D,-C.  are  /',  m',  n',  the  an^e  which  it  makes  with  the  first 
is  that  angle  whose  cosine  =  /?-!-  mnf  +  nti.  These  two 
fundamental  formula  are  of  great  and  growing  importance  in 
physical  investigations. 

Diiec'tor.  In  commercial  concerns  it  is  usual 
of  men — commonly  about  ten  or  twelve — whose 
meet  at  short  fixed  intervals  to  consult  together  about  the  affairs 
of  the  concern,  and  to  advise  and  assist  the  manager.  The  mem- 
bers of  this  body  are  called  the  Ordinary  Directors.  There  is 
commonly  another  body  called  the  Extraor^miy  Directors. 
These  have  no  business  functions,  and  are  chosen  as  a  rule  from 
their  social  position  being  supposed  to  add  to  the  r^utation  of 
tlie  joint-stock  undertaking.  Ordinary  Directors  being  paid 
officers,  it  may  be  held  that  they  are  bound  to  make  themselves 
thoroughly  conversant  with  the  affairs  of  the  undertaking;  on 
the  other  hand,  the  remuneration  is  commonly  insufficient  to  make 
it  reasonable  to  suppose  that  they  can  afford  time  for  this,  when 
the  concern  is  extensive  and  complicated.  On  the  whole,  the 
view  of  the  commercial  community  seems  to  be  that  a  D.  is 
entitled  to  rely  on  the  statements  of  the  manager,  unless  these 
be  such  as  ought  to  excite  the  suspicion  of  a  man  of  ordiuaiy 
business  intelligence.  But  where  this  is  the  case,  he  is  not  en- 
titled to  shut  his  eyes.  He  is  bound  to  have  the  matter  of  sus- 
picion probed  to  the  root,  and,  if  necessary,  to  consult  the  share- 
holders. Clearly  the  position  must,  in  certain  eitcamstances,  be 
one  of  great  danger  and  difficulty.  As  if  disposing  of  all  objec- 
tion to  the  plenary  responsibihty  of  a  D.,  the  general  truth  is 
sometimes  stated,  that  there  can  be  no  excuse  for  the  neglect  of 
a  voluntarily  accepted  tnist.  But  the  question  is  as  to  the  exact 
nature  of  the  trust.  A  D.  is  not  a  manager.  His  function  is  to 
advise,  not  in  ordinary  circumstances  to  mvestigate. 

Leem  Regarding  Directors. — The  following  are  the  leading 
provisions  of  the  Joint-Stock  Companies'  Act  affecting  directors  : 
That  a  director  shall  vacate  his  office  by  the  acceptance  of  any 
other  office  of  profit  in  the  company,  by  being  concerned  in 
any  contract  with  it,  or  by  bankniptcy ;  that  at  the  first  ordi- 
nary meeting  after  incorporation  all  the  directors  shall  retire  from 
office,  and  that  at  the  first  ordinaiy  meeting  in  each  subsequent 
year  one-third,  or  the  number  nearest  one-third,  shall  retire  : 
those  retiring  who  have  been  longest  in  office.  They 
eligible.  Directors  may  delegate  their  powers  to  comr 
Minutes  of  business  transacted  at  directors'  meetings  are  to  be 
carefully  made,  and  signed  by  the  chairman.  Dividends  are  only 
to  be  paid  from  profit,  and  if  a  dividend  is  declared  when  the 
company  is  known  by  the  directorsto  beinsolvent,  or  when  pay- 
ment of  the  dividend  will  make  it  insolvent,  they  shall  be  jomtly 
and  severally  (see  JOINT  AND  Sevekal)  liable  for  the  debts  then 
exisling  of  the  company,  or  which  shall  be  contracted  while  they 
remain,  respectively,  in  office. 

By  24  and  25  Vict,  c  96,  directors,  members,  or  officer'  of  any 
body  corporate  or  public  company  fraudulently  appiopiiatmg 
property,  or  keeping  fiaudtilent  accounts,  or  wilfully  destroy- 
ing or  vitiatii^  books,  or  other  writings,  or  pubhshmg  any  false 
statement  with  intent  to  deceive,  are  guilty  of  a 
punishable  with  penal  servitude  or  imprisonmen 
degree  of  guilt.     See  Joint-Stock  Companies. 

Direc'toiy  was  the  executive  power  in  the  n 
of  the  Thermidoriens  introduced  in  1795.  It  was  a  council  of 
five  persons,  who  had  the  conduct  of  peace  and  wai,  the  execu- 
tion of  the  hiws,  and  the  geneml  administration  without  legisla- 
tive functions.  The  D,  along  with  the  formation  of  the  Double 
405 


ordmg  tl 


vLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DIS 


Council  {vii.,  the  Ancients  and  the  Five  Hundred)  distinguish 
this  Constitution  of  year  3  from  the  Girondist  Constitution  of 
1791,  the  Democmtic  monarchy  of  1792,  and  the  Jacobin  Con- 
stitution of  1793.  The  '  decrees  of  the  two-thirds,'  \q  which  the 
Old  Convention  insisted  on  modifying  the  proposd  of  the  eleven 
Girondist  commissioners,  kd  to  tlie  '  Day  of  the  Sections '  (4th 
October  1795),  in  which  Bonaparte  destroyed  the  National  Guards 
in  the  Rue  St  Honor^.  Barras  and  Camot  (who  replaced  SieyJs) 
were  the  most  prominent  Directors,  all  of  whom  were  elected  by 
the  two  Councils.  The  D.  soon  became  unpopular  in  spite  of 
Bonaparte's  brilliant  campaigns.  They  crushed  the  Babceuf  Con- 
spira^  (1797),  and  Rchegru  and  the  Royalist  party  on  the  18th 
Fructidor ;  but  their  policy  of  bascule,  or  seesaw  between  the 
Moderates  and  the  IManeze  Club  in  home  affaire,  their  crael  Law 
of  Hostages,  and  their  misunderstandings  with  Bonaparte,  who 
was  the  idol  of  the  army,  paved  the  way  for  the  negotiations  of 
Sieyis  which  resulted  in  the  Revolution  of  iSth  Brumaire  and 
the  Consulate. 

Direotory  for  Public  Worship  of  God,  one  of  the 
works  of  the  Westminster  Assembly,  drawn  up  in  1 644.  Geoi^e 
Gillespie,  the  Scottish  commissioner,  had  a  chief  hand  in  framing 
it.  TTie  order  of  worship  prescribed  begins  with  an  invocation ; 
a  chapter  from  each  Testament  is  read  ;  and  the  Lord's  Prayer 
and  other  set  forms  are  used.  Baptism,  marriage,  and  rebuke 
are  to  be  public  ;  and  burial,  without  ceremony.  The  General 
Assembly  of  the  Chureh  of  Scotland  adopted  the  D.,  February 
3,  and  the  Scottish  Parliament  ratified  it,  February  6,  1645. 
The  D. ,  however,  was  not  recc^nised  at  the  Revolution  Settle- 
ment, nor  at  the  Union.  The  book  was  the  expression  of  a  fond 
illusion  that  uniformity  of  worship  could  be  established,  so  as  to 
secure  the  happy  unity  of  the  kirks  of  the  three  kingdoms.  See 
ADirectory  fir  the  Public  WorMf  of  God  l^^asb.  1645);  Prin- 
cipal Lee's  Hist,  of  Church  of  Scotland  i^eiaAi.  i860);  Dr  R. 
Lee's  Reform  of  th  Church  of  Scotland  (Edinb.  1864)  5  and 
Minutes  of  Wistminster  Assembly  (Edinb.  1874). 

Direc'trix,  in  geometry,  is  a  straight  or  curved  line  on  which 
depends  the  descngtion  of  a  curve  or  surface.  A  point,  whose 
distances  from  a  given  point  and  straight  line  bear  a  constant 
ratio  to  each  other,  describes  one  of  the  Conic  Sections  (q.  y.). 
This  straight  line  is  the  D,  of  the  curve  in  question.  If  a  surface 
be  generated  by  the  motion  of  a  line  which  always  rests  on  other 
fined  lines,  these  latter  are  sometimes  called  directrices,  but  more 
frequently  directors  ;  the  moving  line  is  called  a  generator, 

I>irk,  a  Scottish  da^er  or  poniard  formerly  carried  by  High- 
land chieftains ;  also  the  name  for  the  short  sword  worn  as  a 
side-arm  by  midshipmen  in  the  British  royal  navy. 

Dirk  Hartog  iBlaud  is  one  of  several  islands  forming  a 
breakwater  for  the  eitensive  inlet  of  Shark  Bay,  on  the  W,  coast 
of  Australia.  D.  H.  L  is  high,  and  about  40  miles  long  by  10 
broad.      It  lies  in  S.  lat  25°  aS'-ze"  6',  and  E.  long.  113°. 

Dir'eohau  (PoL  Ssczsao),  a  town  of  W.  Prussia,  on  the  Vis- 
tula, and  on  the  Eastern  Railway,  21  miles  S.S.E.  of  Danzig. 
It  has  iron  and  machine  work^  large  mills,  a  cattle-market,  and 
an  active  timber  trade.  The  Vistula  is  here  crossed  by  an 
immense  iron  bridge,  2844  feet  long  and  37  feet  high,  erected 
1850-60.     Pop':  (1872)  7758. 

Dirt-Beds,  a  name  given  by  geologists  to  certain  deposits 
embraced  "by  the  Portland  or  Upper  Oolite  rocks,  and  more 
especially  in  connection  with  the  Purbeck  beds  of  these  forma- 
tions. The  name  'D.-B.'  is  applied  to  these  formations  by 
Suarrymen,  and  denotes  old  soils  in  which  vegetable  matter  is 
lickly  interspersed.  These  beds  are  in  all  likelihood  old  land 
surfaces  formed  between  strata  of  marine  origin  by  the  inter- 
mittent elevation  of  the  latter.  Fossil  cycads  {Mantellia)  form 
their  chief  vegetable  remains. 

Disabil'Ity,  in  English  law,  is  legal  incapacity.  It  may  be 
absolute,  as  by  Outlawry  (q.  v.) ;  or  it  may  be  partial,  as  from 
minority  (see  Age)  or  Coverture  (q,  v.).     See  also  Capacity, 

Diaban'ding:,  in  military  language,  is  the  breaking  up  of  a 
battalion  or  regiment.  It  generally  occurs  when  peace  is  pro- 
claimed after  war,  [he  officers  being  placed  on  haif-pay,  and  the 
men  discharged.  But  it  was  also  resorted  to  in  India  to  punish 
the  mutiny  of  the  native  troops— the  first  instance  being  the  D. 
406 


of  the   19th  regiment  of  native  infantry  at  Barrackpore  on  the 
1st  of  March  1857. 

Disbar'  is  to  degrade  a  barrister- at-law.  The  pow  t  D 
in  England  belongs  to  the  Benchers  (q.  v.)  of  the  fo       I  f 

Court.    No  barrister  who  has  been  disbarred  can  pleid  bef 
the  courts  of  law.     The  last  exercise  of  the  power  wa  874 

Disc,  or  IMsb,  a  somewhat  vague  term  in  systemat    b  I    j 
generally  applied  to  any  oigan  'intervening  betwe  n  th 
mens  and  the  ovary,'  and  may  be  in  the  form  of  a  rin        seal 
Frequently  it  consists  of  metamorphosed   stamens  f    ramg 
inner  whorl.     Sometimes  it  is  glandular  and  secrete       h      y 
like  fluid  ;  in  this  case  the  older  botanists  called  it  Ih   ne  t   y 

Disc  and  Diacob'olns.     See  Quoits. 

Diseharg*'.  A  verbal  obligation  may  be  dissolved  by  a  ver- 
bal D.,  but  a  written  obligation  requires  a  written  D.  ;  the  rule 
of  law  being  that  the  same  solemnities  required  to  constitute 
an  obligation  are  required  to  entinguish  it. 

Disohar'gillg',  in  the  navy,  is  relieving  the  ship  of  the  com- 
mission under  which  it  is  placed  in  active  service,  the  officers  on 
full  pay  and  the  crew  on  the  wages  list.  The  fact  that  ofiiceis 
and  crew  can  only  serve  on  board  ship  puts  them  on  a  different 
footing  from  the  officers  and  men  in  a  regiment.  Soldiers  are 
on  permanent  pay  during  peace  and  war,  sailors  only  while  the 
ship  is  in  commission,  D.  leaves  the  men  off  the  wages  list, 
and  the  oflicers  mostly  on  half  pay. 

Dis'eina,  a  typical  genus  of  Brachiopodous  oUusca,  repre- 
sented by  living  forms,  and  also  by  fossil  species,  which  begin 
in  the  Siiurian  period.  The  family  Disdnida  is  recognised  by 
the  shells  being  attached  to  fixed  objects  by  a  fleshy  stalk  or 
peduncle,  which  passes  through  the  ventral  valve.  The  charac- 
teristic arms  of  the  BracMopoda  (q.  v.)  are  fleshy  in  Disdnida, 
and  the  valves  or  halves  of  the  shell  are  not  articulated  by  any 
distinct  hinge.  The  shell  in  D.  is  circular,  its  upper  valve  being 
limpet-shaped,  the  lower  valve  being  flat  or  convex.  D.  circe, 
and  D.  feUpsa  are  well-known  fossil  species  from  Silurian  rocks. 

Dis'cipline,  The  Pirst  Book  of,  or  PoUoie,  an  important 
landmark  in  the  reformation  of  the  Scottish  Church.  After  the 
overthrow  of  Popery  and  the  adoption  of  the  ancient  Confession 
in  1560,  a  commission,  dated  April  29  of  tliat  year,  was  given 
to  John  Knox  and  fiveothers  todrawup  a  B.  of  D.  Accord- 
ing to  this  B.  of  D.,  the  minister  was  to  be  admitted  with 
consent  of  the  people  and  the  approval  of  the  ministers  ;  ordi- 
nation by  imposition  of  hands  was  disapproved  of ;  readers  were 
to  be  provided  for  destitute  places ;  the  country  was  to  be 
divided  into  ten  districts,  with  superintendents  for  planting 
churches,  appointing  ministers,  and  visiting  vacant  places  ;  elders 
and  deacons  were  to  be  elected  aimually  ;  every  church  was  to 
have  a  schoolmaster ;  and  the  ancient  pa  r  mony  of  tl  e  Chu  ch 
was  to  be  devoted  to  the  threefold  suppo  t  of  tl  e  m  n  stry 
education,  and  the  poor.  This  book  was  dated  May  20  IJDo 
and  on  January  27,  1J60-61,  it  Has  s  bscnbed  11  sec  et  coun 
cil  by  twenty-sii:  noblemen  and  gen  lemen  bu  t  was  never 
ratified  by  Parliament.  It  failed  to  become  law  because  tho^e 
who  held  the  patrimony  of  the  Church  did  not  rega  1  Knox  s 
'  devout  imagination  '  with  favou  See  The  F  rst  a  d  Se  o>d 
Booke  of  D.  (Edinb.  1621);  MCrea  Life  of  Kiox  (Ed  b 
1812);  Knoi^s  Hist.  Eef.  (Laing's  ed.,  Edinb.  1848);  and 
Cunningham's  Charch  Hist.  Scotlcmd  {^\t^.  1859).— The  Se- 
cond B.  of  D.  vras  the  result  of  an  effort  to  make  the  Church 
of  Scotland  more  strictly  Presbyteriiui,  The  great  reformer, 
Andrew  Melville,  and  some  others,  were  appointed,  April  24, 
1576,  by  the  General  Assembly,  a  committee  to  perfect  the 
regulations  of  the  Church.  As  the  fruit  of  their  labours  they 
presented  the  Second  B.  of  D.,  which  was  sanctioned  by  the 
General  Assembly,  April  24,  1578.  This  book  set  up  a  more 
elaborate  form  of  Presbylerianism,  and  made  a  more  complete 
distinction  between  civil  and  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.  Patron- 
age was  abolished,  also  the  titles  of  abbots,  and  the  superiority 
of  bishops  ;  ministers  were  to  be  elected  by  judgment  of  elder- 
ship and  consent  of  the  people ;  ordination  was  to  be  by  laying 
on  of  hands  ;  and  the  various  Church  courts  were  appointed. 
The  Second  B,  of  D.  was  registered  among  the  Acts  of  the 
Church  by  the  Assembly,  April  1581 ;  but  it  never  was  ratified 
by  Pariiameut,  and  never  became  a  binding  law  of  the  Church, 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DIS 


Disdaim'er,  in  English  law,  is  a  plea  of  denial  or  of  renun- 

Disolama'tion,  in  Scotch  law,  signifies  the  disavowal  by  a 
vassal  of  some  one  who  is,  or  claims  to  be,  his  Superior  (q.  v, ). 
The  penalty  of  D.  on  frivolous  grounds  is  forfeiture  of  the  Fee 
(q.  v.).  But  any  reasonable  excuse  will  exempt  tlie  vassal  from 
the  penally. 

Diaoob'oli,  a  term  formerly  applied  by  Cuvier  fo  certain 
genera  of  fishes,  exemplified  by  the  Lump-Suckers  (q,  v.),  &c., 
with,  sucking-discs  formed  by  the  united  ventral  fins  on  llie  lower 
surface  of  their  bodies.  The  term  is  not  now  used,  lump-suckers 
being  mduded  in  the  Gobiids  or  Gobies  (q.  v.). 

Bieooph'ora  (Gr.  '  disc-bearers'),  a  name  given  in  modem 
loology  to  a  subclass  of  Hydrozoa  (q.  v,),  represented  by  the 
true  Medusidie  (q.  v.),  or  sea-blubbers  and  jelly-fishes.  These 
organisms  may  be  defined  as  possessing  a  free,  oceanic  body 
{hydmsotna),  consisting  of  a  single  natacalyx,  or  swimming-belf, 
from  the  roof  of  which  a  single  looid  or  polypite  hangs.  A  system 
of  canals  runs  through  the  swimming-bell.  Many  forms  at  one 
time  regarded  as  Medusa  are  now  known  to  be  merely  the  free- 
swimming  reproductive  bodies  of  zoophytes. 

Dla'cord,  in  music,  an  interval  producing  Dissonance  (q.  v.). 
Strictly  speaking,  an  interval  is  said  to  be  dissonant  if  the  notes 
of  which  it  consists  have  any  musical  relation  to  each  other,  and 
discordant  if  they  have  none. 

Dia'count  is  the  deduction  made  from  a  debt  paid  before  it  is 
due.  To  discount  a  Bill  of  Exchange  (q.  v,),  or  a  draft,  means 
'o  enchange  it  under  deduction  of  a  percentage  on  account  of  its 
lot  having  reached  maturity.  When  this  is  done,  it  is  the  custom 
of  money-dealers  to  subtract  the  interest  accruing  during  the 
time  between  the  date  of  their  purchase  and  the  date  at  which 
the  bill  or  draft  falls  due.  This  causes  the  real  cha^e  to  be 
iter  than  the  nominal  one,  the  interest  being  received  by  the 
lender  before  it  is  due.  Thus,  if  yon  discount  a  bill  of  ^loo  due 
three  months  hence  at  5  per  cent.,  yon  will  receive^ioo  less 
iofiCS — that  is,  ;£'98,  155.;  but  if  you  then  lend  your /gS,  15s. 
for  three  mouths  at  5  per  cent,  it  is  plain  that  the  interest 
accruing  during  the  period  cannot  be  so  much  as  the  interest  on 
;£loo  which  has  been  deducted.  In  a  true  calculation  of  D., 
therefore,  the  question  to  be  answered  is— What  sum  will,  at  the 

f'  ren  rate  of  interest,  at  the  end  of  the  given  period,  amount  to 
e  value  of  the  deferred  payment?  The  rule  for  ascertaining 
this  is — Find  the  amount  of  ^i  in  the  given  time,  and  by  that 
divide  the  given  sum,  and  the  quotient  is  the  answer.  Thus, 
What  is  the  value  of  ^i'loo  to  be  received  three  months  hence, 
interest  at  5  per  cent.  The  interest  of  £,\  for  a  year  will  be  Is., 
and  for  three  months  3d.,  =  £,O-0lZ^.  The  amount  of  £l 
therefore  for  the  period  is  ;£'l"Ol25  ;  and  the  value  of  ^irxi 
three  months  hence  is  =  t-VAt  =^  ^^98*7^5  =  jC9S  15  3j 
The  interest  on  which  for  three  moiuhs  at  5  pet 


To  find  the  amount  of  a  given  suni  improved  at  compound 
interest  at  any  rate,  and  for  any  number  of  years,  the  rule  is — 
Multiply  the  amount  of^t  for  a  year  so  often  into  itself  as  there 
are  years  proposed,  and  the  last  product  multiplied  by  the  ptin- 
cip^  gives  the  ansvrer.  Thus — What  will  jfro  amount  fo  in  tliree 
years  at  5  per  cent,  compound  interest — I  "05  x  1  05  x  i  '05  = 
■157625  X  iO;iii-57625  =^ii,  IIS.  5d. 
By  D.  is  also  understood  the  depreciation  of  any  share  or  atocit 
below  the  original  value.  Thus,  when  a  bank  share  on  which 
)0  has  been  paid  will  only  bring  ^90  in  the  market,  it  is  said 
»  at  a  D.  of  10  per  cent   The  converse  position  is  called  being 


onths'  currency.  When  it  goes  above  5  per  cent,  the  fact 
indicates  commercial  disturbance.  In  recent  times  the  rate  has 
more  than  once  risen  as  high  as  10  per  cent.  The  provincial 
banks,  in  their  D.  rates,  follow  the  lead  of  the  Bank  of^ England. 
See  Interest. 


Discre'tion.  According  to  English  law,  if  an  agent  or  trus- 
tee is  instructed  to  act  according  to  his  D,,  he  must  act  according 
to  law  and  reason.   The  law  of  Scotland  recognises  Ihe  same  rule. 

Dia'CuB  proligerus,  a  small  heap  of  grauular  cells  found 
within  a  graafian  vesicle,  and  on  which  the  ovum  rests.  See 
Gkaafian  Vesicle  and  Ovum. 

DiBOua'aion  is  a  technical  term  of  Scotch  law,  signifying  a 
demand  for  payment  against  a  principal  debtor  or  against  heii's. 
Formerly  cautioners  (see  Caution),  unless  bound  jomtly  and 
severally  (see  Joint  a.nd  Several)  with  the  principal  debtor, 


t  the 


could  insist  on  the  creditor  enforcing  his  demand 
principal  debtor  in  the  first  place,  or  to  disi 
called.     By  the  Mercantile  Law  Amendment . 


of  their  ancestors  are  liable  for  his  debts ;  but  they  may 
insist  on  being  sued  in  a  certain  order.  Where  a  special  heir  is 
burdened  with  a  debt,  the  creditor  must  discuss  that  heir  before 
he  can  insist  agamst  the  heir-at-law.  But  where  the  debtor  does 
not  chaise  any  special  heir  with  payment  of  a  general  obligation, 
the  D.  must  ti  in  legal  order.  See  Representation,  Passive 
Title. 

Disdi'aclasts,  minute  doubly-refracting  molecules,  which, 
according  to  Briicke,  form  part  of  the  ultimate  structure  0/ 
muscle.      See  MusCLE. 

Diaease'  (lit.  the  opposite  of  lase),  a  medical  term  for  that 
condition  of  the  system  in  which  there  is  a  deviation  fram 
health.  D.  may  or  may  not  be  accompanied  with  pain,  but 
there  is  always  a  departure  from  the  normal  standard  of  health. 
D.  may  be  local  or  general,  structural  or  functional,  curable  or  in- 
curable, the  latter  always  ending  in  death.  The  classification  of 
D.  is  called  Nosology  (q.  v.),  and  the  changes  in  structure  caused 
by  it  form  the  subject  of  Pathology  (q.  v.). 

Disease,  Acta  Beepectin^.  By  29  and  30  Vict.  c.  35, 
and  32  and  33  Vict.  c.  96,  provision  is  made  for  the  prevention 
of  contagious  D.  in  certain  towns  which  are  military  stations. 
By  the  Sewage  Utilisation  Act,  the  sewer  authorities  iii  England 
are  in  boroughs  the  municipal  corporation ;  in  other  towns,  those 
intrusted  with  cleansing  or  paving.  Several  amending  Acts 
have  been  passed.  By  the  Sanitary  Act  of  l856,  a  liouse- 
owner  may  be  called  on  to  remedy  deficient  draining  within 
reasonable  time.  If  water  supply  is  inadequate,  the  authorities 
may  dig  wells,  make  reservoirs,  &c.  The  Act  defines  a  Nuisance 
(q.  v.),  and  provides  agdnst  infection.  Cattle-plague  is  dealt 
with  by  the  last  Act.  Cattle  may  be  slaughtered  to  ascertain 
the  nature  of  a  D,  No  animal  is  to  be  moved  alive  from  any 
infected  place.  Local  authorities  are  to  appoint  an  inspector, 
who,  when  plague  is  found  to  exist,  is  to  make  an  official  declara- 
tion of  the  place  infected. 

IMseaaea  of  Plants  may  be  referred  to  four  causes— (1) 
Parasitic  fiingl  or  other  plants  attacJting  the  tubers  ;  (2)  Insects 
causing  galla,  fissures,  wounds,  &c  ;  (3)  Poisonous  gases  in  the 
air  or  soil,  or  any  poisonous  material  so  placed  as  to  affect  nutri- 
tion ;  (4)  Atmospheric  or  other  causes,  '  so  affecting  the  plants 
as  to  alter  the  conditions  of  nutrition  by  giving  a  redundancy  or 
deficiency  of  air,  light,  moisture,  warmth,  &c  The  principal 
D.  are  noticed  in  this  work  under  their  own  names. 

Di^oji'oTir,  a  term  of  mercantile  law,  denoting  the  re- 
fusal of  the  drawee  in  a  bill  of  exchange  or  cheque  to  accept 
or  pay  it.  If  a  bill  be  presented  and  acceptance  refused,  or  a 
qualified  acceptance  only  offered,  prompt  notice  must  be  given 
to  all  the  parties  to  whom  the  holder  intends  to  apply  for  pay- 
ment. In  case  of  a  foreign  bill,  notice  should  be  sent  by  first 
post  or  earhest  opportunity.  Generally,  in  bolh  foreign  and  in- 
land bills,  notice  is  given  nent  day  to  the  immediate  endorser, 
who  is  allowed  a  day  to  give  notice  to  those  who  are  liable  to 
him.  Delay  in  giving  notice  frees  the  drawer  and  endorsers 
from  liability.  No  particular  form  of  notice  is  required,  but  it 
is  well  to  send  a  copy  of  the  bill.  A  person  having  taken  a 
cheque  in  payment  of  a  debt  cannot  Sue  for  the  debt  until  the 
cheque  has  been  dishonoured ;  but  a  creditor  is  not  bound  to 
accept  a  cheque  (case  of  Hough  v.  May,  N.  &  M.  535).  If  the 
holder  of  a  cheque  accept  payment  in  biinlt-notes,  and  the  bank 
fail,  the  holder  has  no  recourse  against  the  drawer  of  the  cheque. 
See  Bill  of  Exchange,  Cheque. 

io? 


vLaOogle 


DIS 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Dieinfec'tftnts  are  substances  whigh  by  a  chemicid  action 
destroy  contagious  matters  or  effluvia  from  decaying  animal  and 
vegetable  subaiances.  Chlorine  (q.  v.)  is  one  of  the  best  and 
most  powerful  D,  It  decomposes  the  compounds  of  hydrogen, 
and  thereby  substitute^  a  harmless  for  a.  hurtful  compound. 
BleacliinK-powder  depends  for  its  action  as  a  disinfectant  on 
the  chlonne  it  conies,  as  well  as  chlorate  of  soda.  By  adding 
an  acid  to  these  substances  free  chlorine  is  given  off  more  freely. 
Charcoal,  permanganate  of  potash,  or  Condy's  fluid,  chloride  of 
zinc,  or  Burnett's  disinfecting  fluid,  sfeel  drops,  sulphur  d  ud 
hydrate  of  chlorine,  and  carbolic  acid,  are  all  useful ;  b  d  y 
heat,  when  it  can  be  applied,  is  probably  the  most  efiic  t  f 
allD, 

Diain'tegrator,  a  machine  for  pulverising,   or  disii  t  gr  t 
iiig  various  soft  or  hard  materials,      The   patent  D.      f  M 
"•'       las    Carr,    M     tp 


ores,  rock,  asphalt       t  ti 
cial   manures,    peat,  h 
clays,    oilcake,   al       f 
mixing  moist  sugars   th 
ingredients  of  mort      1. 
is  here  figured.     It 
sists  of  a  pair  of  c      1 
metal  discs,  A  and  B  fi    d 
to  two  separate  sh  ft 
one  side  of  the  m    h    e, 
the  shaJl  of  the  right  h    d 
disc  working  through  th 
tubular  shaft  of  th     1  ft 
hand  one  without  t      I 
ing  it ;   an   arrang  m    t 
T).  .  ,      _  wliich  leaves  the  n  ppe 

^      '  D,  by  which  the  m    h 

i  fed  with  materials,   unobstructed  with  driving-belts      Th 
inside  faces  of  the  discs  are  studded  with  four  concentric  ri  gs 
cages,  of  very  strong  projecting  bars,  or  beatera,  C  j  the  n  g     f 
beaters  in  one  disc  occupy  the  opposite  alternate  interst  f 

the  other,  and  the  discs  are  driven  in  opposite  directions  at  a 
high  speed,  varying  from  350  to  500  revolutions  per  minute. 
The  material  to  be  ground  b^g  introduced  through  the  hopper, 
3  beaten,  in  its  passage  through  the  machine,  with  great  vio- 
lence by  the  beaters  ofthe  sncceBslve  cages  revolving  in  oppo- 
dir  f  ns,  so  that  disintegration  is  thoroughly  effected  be- 
ll p  les  reach  the  end  of  their  zigiag  course  to  the 
I      m  of  the  discs.     A  mineral  D.,  44  feet  in  diameter, 

a    p       n     from  5  to  K  tons  of  material  per  hour,  according 
th    h  rd      s  of  the  material  and  the  degree  of  fineness  re- 
[  T      disintegrating  floannill  of  the  same  inventor  has 

ruction,  and  its  efficiency  may  be  judged  from 
ne  seven  feet  in  diEuneter  produces  as  much 
1  quaUty,  as  thirty  pairs  of  millstones,  and 


Dislooa'tion  (Lat.  '  a  displacing ')  0 
which  form       '  "   '        "    '"""'       ^    ""^  " 


e  displaced,  and  put  'out  of  joint.' 
is  often  the  result  of  violence,  but  some- 
limes  of  disease;  and  occasionally  it  is 
congenital,  as  in  club-foot.  Some  joints, 
from  their  oonstrnction,  especially  the 
liall  and  socket  joints,  as  the  ^loulders 
and  biff  joints,  are  the  most  common 
seats  of  D.  After  these  it  occurs  most 
frequently  in  the  elbow.  It  is  rare  in 
children  and  in  old  age  j  in  the  latter, 
fracture  is  common.  D.  is  hable  to  recur 
in  the  same  joint.  Surgeons  divide  it 
into  partial  and  complete.  In  the  latter, 
nmnnicatesvriththe  joints.  The  symptoms 
e  distordon  of  the  limb,  much  pain,  and  often  swelling  m  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  joint  There  is  generally  inunobility  of 
the  limb,  and  always  inability  to  use  the  joint.  In  all  cases  of 
D.  there  is  more  or  leSs  laceration  of  the  parts  around  the  joint. 
The  treatment  consists  in  returning  the  bones  into  their  proper 
position,  and  maintdning  them  until  the  lacerated  tissues  are 
'  '  '  This  is  effected  by  the  surgeon  in  different  ways, 
ng  to  the  joint  implicated.     When   it  is  necessary  to 


n  external  wound 


apply  traction,  the  surgeon  often  does  this  by  means  of  a  hank 
of  worsted  applied  in  such  a  way  that  the  traction  does  not 
cause  the  worsted  to  tighten  round  the  limb.  For  this  purpose 
the  method  adopted  is  what  is  termed  the  '  clove-hitch.'  Occa- 
sionally it  is  necessary  to  use  pulleys.  In  all  cases  it  is  good  to 
give  chloro    rm 


Dieloca 


Faiil 


nal     al     ed  th 


1  ult    )  al  ra  ar 

t         The  study  of  faults  is  ot  immense  importance  to  the 
m  ce  their  occurrence   in  beds  of  coal  may  seriously 

t  f  vith  the  continuity  of  the  seams,  and  cause  much 
t      bl       d  expense  in  determining  the  exact  effects  of  the  D. 

d   th     altered  relations  of  the  strata.     The  terms  'hitch,' 

Ip  Ide,'  'heave,'  and  'throw,'  are  applied  by  miners  to 
f    lis 

B     mal  Swamp,  a  large  morass  on  the  boundary  of  Vii^nia 

d  N  Carolina,  30  by  10  miles,  having  an  area  of  300  sq. 
m  1  It  was  formerly  covered  with  immense  trees  and  dense 
bru  hwood,  and  was  a  famous  refuge  for  runaway  slaves,  but  is 

w  p  rt  ally  cleared  and  drained.  It  contains  Lalte  Drum- 
m  d  and  is  crossed  by  the  D.  S.  Canal,  23  miles  long  and  6J 
feet  d     p 

D  m  S,  St,  in  mediseval  legend,  is  the  name  of  the  penilent 
th   f 

Diso  derly  House.    See  Nuisance. 

D  p  t',  in  gunnery,  is  half  the  difference  between  the  dia- 
m  f  tlie  breech  and  muzzle,  and  is  of  great  importance  to 


own  view,  is  empowered  by  God  to  release  from  vows,  and  to 
authorise  marriages  within  degrees  of  relationship  prohibited  by 
the  canon  law.  In  former  times,  at  least,  it  was  a  simple  matter 
to  apply  the  power  to  a  wide  department  of  civil  affairs,  by  de- 
claring that  they  bore  upon  jiffairs  eceleaiasticid.  It  is  now  of 
couise  only  in  Roman  Catholic  countries  that  D-  is  of  any  effect. 
In  England  it  was  abolished  by  Henry  VIII.,  the  power  of  the 
Pope  in  a  very  restricted  fof-m  being  then  conferred  on  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury, 

Disper'aioil,  of  a  pencil  of  light-rays,  is  the  angular  separa- 
tion ofthe  extreme  rays  of  the  spectrum  after  emei^cnce  from 
the  prism,  or,  more  correctly,  is  llie  difference  of  the  indices  of 
Refraction  (q.  v.)  of  these  extreme  rays.  Experiment  shows 
that  the  dispersive  powers  of  different  materials  for  light  are  not 
proportional  to  their  refractive  indices,  a  fact  which  renders  pos- 
sible an  achromatic  arrangement  of  lenses.     See  Optics. 

Displayed',  in  heraldry,  is  a  term  applied  to  any  bird  of 
prey  with  its  wings  expanded. 

Disposi'tion,  in  art,  is  the  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  a  pic- 
ture so  that  the  form  and  colour  of  each  part  shall  have  its  due 
effect.  It  differs  from  composition,  in  which  the  arrangement 
or  design  has  for  its  dm  and  purpose  the  production  of  a  gene- 
ral effect,  to  which  all  the  parts  contribute 

Bieuoaition,  in  Scotch  law,  is  a  deed  f  1  t  by  h  ch 
either  heritable  or  movable  properly  is  co  yd  Tl  p  r-on 
to  whom  it  is  granted  is  called  the  dispone 

Disjioiiiriin  of  Heritage. — The  disponer  ml  f  tl  1  ed 
'  sells  and  dispones,'  or,  where  the  deed        g    f    t  f!      ^i 

grants,  and  dispones,'  the  subject  of  the  d    d  t    th  r, 

who  is  called  the  disponee. 

ZHsposilioH  of  Mfsaila  is  a  deed  by  wh   h  th    dp  n- 

veys  his  movable  estate,  wholly  or  partially   t     Ih    d  sp      e. 


yLaOogle 


DIS 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DIS 


This  deed  can  only  be  made  effectual  by  delivery  of  tlie  subjects 
conveyed. 

Disposition  and  Settleinsnt  is  a  deed  by  which  a  persan  pro- 
vides for  the  general  disposal  of  his  property,  heritable  and 
movable,  after  his  death.     See  Destination,  Will. 

Disposition  insecurity. — This corresponde  to  mortgage  in  En- 
land,  and  will  be  explained  under  HerttabU  Security. 

Sisraell,  Benjanun,  a  distinguished  statesman  and  man  of 
letters  of  the  19th  c,,  is  the  eldest  son  of  Isaac  Disraeli,  and  was 
boni  in  London,  December  31,  1805.  He  was  privately  edu- 
cated, and  his  first  literary  attempt  was  a  translation  ai  Adonais, 
me  of  the  eclogues  of  Theocritus.  D.  was  articled,  while  in  his 
eens,  to  a  solicitor,  bat  the  work  proving  irksome  and  injurious 
d  his  health,  he  abandoned  it,  and  after  extended  travel,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Lnckhart,  the  son- 
n-kw  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  then  editor  of  the  Quarterly 
Seview,  he  settled  down  to  literary  work.  In  l8a7,  however,  he 
made  his  first  successfid  Mt  in  public  with  the  brilliant  and  roman- 
'  tic  novel  of  Vivian  Grey,  which  was  followed  by  The  Wondrmis 
7'ali  ofAlrpy,  The  Yoiatg  Duke,  Cotitarim  Plemiag,  and  Nai' 
rietta  Temple,  all  of  which  obtained  for  their  author  notoriety 
rather  than  fame.  At  the  same  time  D.  prepared  the  way  for 
his-entrance  into  pohtlcal  life  by  publishing  Ixion,  A  Vindicct- 
tiim  0/  the  BrUish  Censlitution,  and  a  poem,  Th^  ResobiHonary 
Epic,  which  nobody  is  supposed  to  have  ever  read.  Again  D. 
travdled,  this  time  in  the  East,  and  on  reiurning  plunged  into 
the  political  strife  that  attended  the  great  Reform  agitation.  He 
became,  in  1832,  a  candidate  for  the  burgh  of  Wycombe,  and 
as  he  was  recommended  by  Hume  and  O'Connell,  it  has  been 
inferred  that  he  b^an  his  active  political  career  as  a  Radical, 
though  he  has  himself  hivariablj'  affirmed  that  his  political  con- 
duct has  been  from  first  to  last  consistent.  In  183J,  when  he 
conlested  Taunton,  unquestionably  as  a  Tory,  and  under  the 
auspices  of  Lord  Lyndhurst  and  Sir  Robert  Peel,  he  was 
beaten,  and  came  h:to  collision  with  O'Connell  and  his  son, 
the  latter  of  whom  he  challenged  to  fight  a  duel.  At  last,  in 
1S37,  at  the.  age  of  thirty-two,  he  was  elected  a  member 
for  Maidstone.  In  making  his  maiden  speech  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  he  was  so  disconcerted  by  the  laughter  which 
greeted  his  peculiar  rhetoric  and  exaggerated  gestures,  tliat  he 
sat  dovm,  saying,  however,  before  he  ffld  so,  'I  will  sit  down 
now,  but  the  time  will  come  when  you  will  hear  me.'  D.  then 
carefully  studied  both  elocution  and  the  temper  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  the  result  was  soon  seen  in  a  marvellous  par- 
liamentary success.  In  1S41  he  exchanged  the  constituency  of 
Maidstone  for  that  of  Shrewsbury,  Mainly  by  new  novels,  com- 
bining fiction  and  politics,  the  chief  of  which  were  S^  and 
"  ningiby,  he  became  known  as  the  chief  of  the  '  Young  England 
party.  His  fortune  as  a  partisan  was  made  when,  on  Sir  Robert 
Peel  becoming  a  convert  to  free-trade  doctrines,  he  attacked  that 
great  statesman  with  fiercely  eloquent  and  persistent  invective. 
Identifying  hunself  with  the  Protectionists,  D.,  who  had  ex- 
changed Shrewsburv  for  Buckinghamshire,  became,  in  1 848,  on 
the  death  of  Lord  George  Bentmck,  their  acknowledged  clijef. 
In  1852,  after  publishing  a  bic^raphy  of  Lord  George  Ben- 
tinck,  he  became  Chancellor  of  3ie  Ejichequer  in  the  cabinet 
of  Lord  Derby.  Since  then  the  history  of  D.  may  be  said  to 
be  that  of  the  Conservative  party.  In  the  three  administrations 
of'Lord  Derby  he  held  the  post  of  Chancellor  of  the  Exche- 
quer, passing  in  the  last,  with  the  unwelcome  assistance  of  the 
Liberal  opposition,  the  Reform  Acts  which  are  now  law. 
When  his  chief  resigned  the  Premiership  in  February  1868, 
D.  succeeded  to  it.  In  the  end  of  the  same  year,  however,  he 
resigned,  the  general  election  of  the  time  returning  a'majo- 
rity  against  him  on  the  Irish  Church  question.  In  Maich 
1874,  another  general  election  giving  his  party  a  great  ma- 
jority, and  causing  his  rival  Mr  Gladstone  to  resign,  D.  was 
again  called  to  the  post  of  First  Lord  of  the  Treasmy,  an  office 
which  he  still  (1876)  holds.  In  addition  to  the  novels  already 
mentioned,  D.  has  written  Tancrcd  and  Lothair  (1870).  He  has 
"filled  numerous  honorary  public  offices;  he  is  D.C.L.  of  Ox- 
ford and  LL.D.  of  Edinburgh,  and  he  now  holds  for  a  second^ 
term  the  office  of  Rector  of  Gla^ow  University.  In  1839 
D.  married  Mary  Anne,  daughter  of  Mr  John  Evans,  of  Brance- 
ford  Parlt,  Devon,  and  widow  of  Mr  Wyndham  Lewis,  his  col- 
league in  the  representation  of  Maidstone.  Mrs  Disraeli  was, 
in  Bclinowledgment  of  her  husband's  political  services,  raised, 
127 


November  28,  t868,  to  the  peerage,  under  the  title  of  Vis- 
countess Beaeonsfield.  She  died  December  15,  1872,  at  the  age 
of  eighty-three,  leaving  no  issue.  No  living,  and  hai-dly  any 
dead,  politician  has  been  the  subject  of  such  various  and  con- 
flicting criticism  as  D.  His  sincerity  and  sagacity  have  been 
repeatedly  challenged ;  his  incapacity  for  business  seems  to  be 
almost  universally  admitted,  his  serious  eloquence  excites  no  en- 
thusiasm or  admiration,  yet  his  tact,  audacity,  ironical  pleasantry, 
subtle  humour,  and  unfaihng  courage,  have  won  him  a  personal 
popularity  which  his  great  rival  could  never  secure,  and  which 
no  modem  statesman,  except  Lord  Palmerston,  has  enjoyed  in. 
equal  measure.  D.  was  created  ESirl  of  Beaeonsfield  m  1876. 
Disraeli,  Isaa£,  one  of  the  best  English  literary  anecdotists, 
IS  born  at  Enfield  in  1766.  His  father,  Benjamin  D.,  was 
the  descendant  of  a  Hebrew  family  that  had  been  driven  from 
Spain  to  Venice  by  the  persecutions  of  the  Inquisition,  and  settled 
in  business  in  England  in  1748,  where  he  made  a  fortune. 
D.  was  educated  at  Amsterdam  and  Leyden,  and  devoted  him- 
self from  an  early  age  to  hterature.  He  at  first  attempted  satirical 
"""tiy,  hut  found  his  vocation  in  hterary  and  historical  studies. 
;  first  volume  of  his  Curiosities  0/  Literature  appealed  hi  1791. 
It  is  a  classic  in  ils  way.  It  was  followed  by  A  Dissertation  en 
Anecdotes  (1793),  Essay  on  the  Moaners  and  Csfiius  of  the  Lite- 
rary Character  (1795),  Inqmry  into  the  LOeraiy  and  Political 
Character  of  King  fames  H^l%l6),  Commentaries  oii  the  Zifi  and 
Reign  of  Charles  I.  (182S-31),  Eliot,  Hampdtn,  etUdPym  (1S32), 
Calamities  and  Quarrels  of  Authors,  and  Amenities  of  Lita-ature 
(1841).  D,  has  a  quaint,  felicitous,  hut  artificial  style,  on  which 
his  brilliant  sou's  is  distinctl}^  modelled.  But  the  elder  never  dis- 
played the  golden  graces  of  the  younger.^  D.  died  at  Bradenham 
House,  Budts,  in  184S.  A  collected  edition  of  his  works,  with 
a  Life,  was  published  in  1858  by  his  son,  who  has  borne  affection- 
ate testimony  to  the  studious  habits  and  happy  disposition  of  his 
father. 
Disrup'tion.  See  Free  Chukch  oP  Scotland. 
des,  a  market-town  of  Norfolk,  in  the  vale  of  the  Waveney, 
18  miles  S,S.W.,  of  Norvrich,  has  brush  manufactories,  brew- 
eries, and  malting  estahlisliments.  St  Mary's  Church  is  a 
handsome  Gothic  building,  with  a  square  tower  containing  a 
peal  of  bells.  Skellon,  the  poet-laureate  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIL  and  Hemy  VIIL,  was  rector  of  D.      Pop.  (1S71)  3851. 

Diasec'tion,  the  method  followed  in  anatomical  schools  of 
displaying  the  structure  of  the  body  in  the  dissecting-room,  so  as 
to  enable  each  student  to  obtain  as  much  information  as  possible 
without  mterference  with  neighbouring  dissectors.  The  body  is 
usually  divided  into  ten  parts,  five  on  each  side  of  the  body, 
which  are  left  in  connection  with  one  another  until  the  D.  is 
far  enough  advamJed  to  admit  of  their  being  separated.  See 
Quams  Anatomy,  vol  li.  p.  1047- 

DiBBectum  'Wounds  are  poisoned  wounds  received  during 
dissection,  or  in  making  a  post-mortem  examination  of  a  dead 
body.  The  virus  or  poison  may  be  that  of  the  disease  from  which 
the  person  died,  or  simply  the  vims  of  putrefaction.  The  former 
is  the  more  dangerous.  A  body  is  more  apt  to  produce  serious 
results  immediately  after  death  than  at  a  later  stage.  D.  W. 
are  generally  caused  by  a  pimcture,  and  tlie  more  freely  they  bleed 
the  less  is  the  danger  to  the  person  wounded,  because  ^  blood 
flowing  from  the  wound  has  a  tendency  to  wash  out  the  poison. 
When  D.  W.  do  not  Weed  freely,  the  wound  should  be  enlareed 
with  a  clean  Imife,  and  in  all  cases  washed,  sucked,  and  after- 
wards cauterised  with  nitrate  of  silver^  or  by  actual  cautery. 
Frequently  D.W.  cause  great  constitutional  disturbance.  Some- 
tiroes  they  are  followed  by  abscesses  m  the  armpit,  and  gangrene 
of  the  diseased  limb,  necessitating  amputation,  and  even  causing 
death.    In  the  robust,  however,  they  seldom  prove  dangerous. 

Diasen'ters,  the  name  applied  in  Great  Britam  to  those  reli- 
gious  communions  which,  differing  in  either  doctrine  or  discipline, 
or  both,  from  the  Episcopal  and  Presbyterian  Churches  estab- 
lished by  law  in  England  and  Scotland,  do  not  participate  in  the 
public  support  of  these  churches.  During  the  i6th  c  m  Eng- 
land Catholics  and  Puritans  were  persecuted  with  extreme 
rigour.  The  first  instance  of  actual  punishment  inflicted  on  Pro- 
testant D.  was  in  June  1567,  when  a  company  of  100  were  seized 
at  worship  in  Plummer's  Hall,  and  several  sent  to  prison.  The 
idea  of  teleration,  which  France  had  proclaimed  m  the  Edict  of 
409 


vLiOOQle 


DIS 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


Nantes  ( \  598),  was  unknown.  Whitgifl  controlled  the  policy  of  the 
Church  towards  D.,  and  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  17th  c.  Arch- 
bishop Laud,  by  the  aid  of  the  High  Commission  (which  the 
royal  prerogative  had  aimed  with  illegal  powers  to  fine,  impri- 
son, pillory,  and  mutilate),  had  alrnost  succeeded  in  stamping 
out  all  visible  signs  of  Nonconformity.  Under  Cromwell  the 
Puritans  were  as  intolerant  and  meddling  as  Laud ;  they  prohi- 
bited the  use  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  j  they  defaced 
churches  and  burnt  pictures.  On  the  Restoration  it  was  made  a 
crime  to  attend  a  dissenting  place  of  worship,  the  penalty  being 
transportation  on  a  third  offence,  and  death  on  return ;  and  a 
further  test  was  imposed  on  sucli  divines  as  had  been  deprived  of 
their  benefices  for  Nonconformity,  i.e.,  for  not  accepting  the 
English  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  (Tlie  Act  of  Uniformity  is 
13  and  14  Car.  IL  c.  4.)  This  pwsecution  increased  under 
James  II.  In  1687,  however,  James  iliought  of  banding  all 
Nonconfcamists  against  the  Establi^ed  Church,  ajid  granted  a 
partial  measure  of  toleration  for  Scotland,  Cathohcs  and  Quakers 
getting  the  right  of  public  worship,  Presbyterians  only  that  of 

Eivate  worship.  Ihis  was  f<^owed  by  the  nnconstitutional 
eclaration  of  Indulgence,  which  repealed  not  only  the  penal 
laws  against  Catholics  and  Puritans,  but  even  the  tests  for  civil 
and  military  office.  The  '  Five  Mile  Act '  and  the  '  Conventicle 
Act '  had  previously  been  modified  in  operation  l^  a  similar 
declaration  (rf  Charles,  which  was  immediately  cancelled  as 
illegal  The  D,  now  separated  into  the  Cotirt  pMty,  led  by 
Lobb  (Independent),  Care,  Alsop,  and  Rose  well  (Presby- 
terians), and  Penn  (Quaker),  and  the  Church  party,  to  which 
Baxter,  Howe,  and  Bunyan  belonged.  The  latter  were  in  a 
great  majority ;  and  in  spite  of  the  dforts  of  the  Board  of  Regu- 
Mtors  of  Corporations  (who  dismissed  Tory  and  appointed 
Puritan  magistrates  and  officers  by  hundreds),  the  D.  supported 
the  cause  of  tlie  constitution,  and  even  sympathised  with  the 
Bisliops  in  the  Tower.  From  what  is  called  the  Revolution 
Settlement—a  tolei'ation  without  equality  of  civil  rights — the 
Unitarians  were  excepted,  and  the  celebration  of  the  Catholic 
mass  continued  to  be  for  long  prolubited.  In  1 779  ^e  ministers 
of  dissenting  congregations  and  schoolmasters  were  relieved  from 
the  necessity  of  subscribing  the  Doctrinal  Articles  of  the  Church 
(19  Geo.  Ill,  c.  44).  As  m  the  case  of  Dr  Calamy,  howevei, 
this  subscription  had  frequently  been  dispensed  with,  and  the 
Occasional  Conformity  Act  of  1711  freed  non-subscribers  from 
the  penalties.  After  the  French  Revolution  a  tide  of  liberal 
legislation  set  iu.  In  1813  an  Act  repealed  the  excepting  clause 
of  the  Toleration  Act  against  Unitarians,  and  also  the  Act  of 
William  which  made  it  blasphemy  to  deny  the  divinity  of  Christ, 
The  same  statute  led  to  the  passing  of  the  Act  57  Geo.  III.  c 
70  for  Ireland,  which  extended  complete  tolgiafion  even  to 
Unitarians.  The  Irish  Toleration  Act  did  not  pass  till  1719, 
and  required  no  declaration  of  belief  in  the  Trinity.  The  Test 
and  Corporation  Acts  followed  in  i8a8,  and  the  universities 
have  since  been  thrown  open  10  D.  No  measure,  with  re^rd 
to  their  legal  position,  has  excited  greater  interest  than  the  Dis- 
senters' Chapels  Act,  7  and  8  Vict,  c,  45,  which  was  carried 
through  by  Lord  Lyndhurst,  Sir  Robert  Peel,  Sir  W,  Follett,  and 
Mr  Gladstone.  The  question  was  whether  chapels,  burial-grounds, 
schools,  and  ministers' houses,  in  the  possession  of  Unitarian  con- 
gregations, should  be  forfeited,  because,  at  the  tune  of  the 
original  endowment,  the  congregations  held  different  opinions  in 
theology.  The  Court  of  Chancery,  in  the  case  of  Lady  Hew- 
ley's  trust,  &c,,  had  decided  that  new  trustees  must  be  appointed, 
and  an  Act  tlien  became  necessary  to  secure  other  trusts  in  a 
similar  position.  In  Che  proceeding  it  appeared  that  when  in 
1719  the  'Bill  for  strengthening  the  R'otesttuit  interest'  (5  Geo. 


I.  I 


4)w 


13  of 


the  Schism  Act  (12  Anne,  c  7),  and  the  '  Occasional  Conformity 
Act, '  an  attempt  was  made,  and  failed,  to  add  to  the  Oath  of 
Abjuration  a  declaration  of  belief  in  die  ever-blessed  Trinity, 
and  tliat  in  the  celebrated  Salter's  Hall  Controversy  (1719)  a 
general  meeting  of  all  the  English  D.  declined  to  say  that  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trmity  should  be  a  term  of  communion.  The 
three  great  bodies  of  English  D,— the  Presbyterians,  Baptists, 
and  Independents^have  a  joint  oi^anisation  called  lie  '  Three 
Denommations,'  with  the  light  of  addressing  the  sovereign  in 

Kesence.  This  right  has  been  lately  exercised,  D.  from  the 
ational  Established  Chnrdi  in  Scotland  can  hardly  he  said 
to  have  existed  prior  to  Erskine's  secession  of  1733 
Cameronians,  or  HiiJ  Mei    "      '  •     ■     ■  ■•     -^ 


IJ  Men,  the  descendantsot  the  Remonstrant 


of  the  Sanquhar  Declaration,  were  rather  the  growth  of  the  wars 
of  the  persecution,  and  their  principles  put  them  out  of  relation 
with  all  other  classes.  In  1747  the  Associate  Synod  split  into 
the  Burghers  and  Anti-Burghers,  and  those  again  into  tlie  New 
Light  Burghers,  the  New  Light  Anti-Burghers,  tlie  Old  Light 
Burghers,  and  the  Old  Light  Anti-Bui^hers.  At  the  present 
time  the  bulk  of  these  secessions  from  the  Established  Church 
are  reunited  in  the  United  Presbyterian  Church,  The  Episcopal 
Church  was  tolerated  under  the  Act  S  Geo.  I.  c.  a8,  only  qualified 
'  "  Lg  allowed  to  hold  divine  service.  They  had  them- 
;e  dispute  iretween  the  College  I 
and  the  Usagers  under  Gadderer.  The  C 
identified  with  the  Rebellion  of  1745,  that  statutes  were  passed 
narrowing  the  definition  of  a  congregation  (so  as  to  encroach  on 
private  worship),  and  requiring  letters  of  orders  from  English  or 
Irish  bishops  in  every  case.  There  was,  of  course,  a  good  deal 
of  secret  Catholicism,  the  princiml  stations  of  Jesuitism  Iwing 
Mimches,  Edinburgh,  Aberdeen,  Braemar,  and  Stralhglass.  In 
1773  there  were  only  seven  Jesuit  missionaries  in  Scotland.  In 
the  N.  of  Ireland  the  Piesbyterian  D.  lived  in  harmony  till  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  c,  when  the  Trinitarian  and  Unitarian 
parties,  under  Drs  Cook  and  Montgomery  respectively,  separated, 
each  retaining  its  share  of  the  Regiam  Dimum  down  lo  the 
Irish  Church  Act  of  1869.  In  1854  Mme  excitement  was 
created  by  Lord  John  Russefl's  Ecclesiastical  Titles'  Act,  prohi- 
biting the  use  of  British  geographical  names  in  the  titles  of  the 
Catholic  clergy.  The  Act  was  never  put  in  force.  The  question 
of  Dissenters'  right  to  burial,  with  an  appropriate  service  in  the 
parish  churchyard,  is  still  disputed.  See  Herbert  Skeat's  His- 
tmy  of  Free  Churcka. 
Dissenters,  Laws  Kegarding,     See  Act  of  Tolera- 

Dissep'imeuts.     Pee  Pistil  and  Fruit, 
Dissolu'tion  of  Marriage.    See  Divorce,  Divorce  and 
Matrimonial  Court. 


Dissol'ving  Views  are  produced  by  em 
lanterns,  so  arranged  that  their  respective  images  may  ne 
imposed  on  the  screen,  and  that,  as  the  one  is  made  ti 
away  gradually,  the  otlier  increases  in  brilliancy,  thus  producing 
tlie  appearance  of  the  one  dissolving  almost  imperceptibly  into 
the  other. 

Diae'onance,  in  music,  a  disagreeable  roughness  produced 
when  certain  notes  are  sounded  together.     See  Consonance. 

Dia'taff  (Old,  Eng.  distaef,  '  the  bunch  or  tuil  of  flax  on  the 
staff'),  an  implement  formerly  used  for  holding  flax,  wool,  or 
other  fibres  in  the  process  of  spinning  yam  from  them.  It  is 
mentioned  in  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  '  She  layeth  her  hands  t! 
tlie  spindle,  and  her  hands  hold  the  distaff; '  and  frequent  aliU' 


it  by  Homer  and  other  classical  n 


used  for  scene-painting,  the  decoration  of  staircases,  &c.,  and 
within  recent  years  in  house-decoration,  in  which  the  chief  mass 
or  field  of  colour  is  often  laid  on  in  D.,  relieved  by  a  border  in 
stencilling,  or  partly  stencilled,  partly  hand-painted.  The  brilli- 
ancy of  some  of  the  older  pictures  in  D.  was  obtained  by  using 


..  varnish  of  wax  dissolved  m  an  etherons  oil.  One  drawback  of 
painting  in  D.  is  that  it  is  difficult,  owing  to  the  rapidity  with 
whidi  the  vehicle  dries,  to  blend  or  graduate  the  tints.  Yet  in 
D,  the  painters  of  the  early  Cologne  school  developed  a  beautiful 
and  glowing  style  of  colour.  The  improved  method  of  painting 
in  oils  invented  by  Van  Eyck,  about  the  middle  of  tlie  iSth  c, 
superseded  D,  for  strictly  pictorial  arts,  and  since  1500  easel 
pictures  have  been  painted  almost  exclusively  in  oils. 

Distemper,  a  disease  affecting  young  dogs,  very  much  as 
infantile  fevers  affect  childrMi.  It  appears  to  be  an  inflammatory 
affection,  often  very  acute  in  its  earlier  stages,  and  indudng  in 
some  dogs  symptoms  not  unlike  those  of  madness.  The  sym- 
ptoms of  D.  are  loss  of  spirits  and  appetite,  dislike  for  exertion, 
dull  eyes,  and  coldness  of  the  body  and  limbs.  The  bowels  are 
often  evacuated  spontaneously,  dtschai^es  appear  from  the  nose 
and  eyes,  and  vomiting  may  occur.     In  some  dogs  the  nervous 


y  Google 


DIS 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOP^DJA. 


symptoms  are  greatly  exaggerated,  and  exldbited  in  convulsive 
spasms ;  whilst  as  the  disease  progresses,  the  raflamimatorj'  action 
appears  to  extetid  down  the  respiratory  passages,  and  to  affect 
the  bronchial  tubes  and  lungs.  The  disease  usuaily  attacks  dogs 
from  the  third  to  the  sisth  month  of  their  age ;  but  it  also  shows 
itself  much  later,  D.  appears  to  be  contagious  from  one  young 
dog  to  another,  and  to  affect  different  kinds  of  dogs  very  vari- 
ously. It  tends  to  run  a  definite  course,  and  the  dog  rarely  or 
never  suffers  from  a  second  attack.  The  treatm 
giving  from  two  to  three  grains  of  calomel  daily 


1  nulk; 


s  powders  may  also  be  given  with  advantage 


ent,  and  the  eyes  and  head  generally  should  often  be  Ijathed 
with  lukewarm  water,  the  animal  being  guarded  from  subse- 
quent cold.      Indeed  he  must  be  carefully  tended  from  fij:at  to 


affections. 

Dlstilla'tion  (Fr.  from  Lat,  de,  and  stiUatto,  '  a  dropping '), 
is  one  of  (he  oldest  chemical  processes,  and  was  much  in  vogue 
with  the  alchemists. 

The  object  of  D.  is  to  separate  volatile  from  fixed  substance';, 
or  volatile  substances  from  one  another.  The  pnnaple  of  the 
process  is  simple.  When  heat  is  applied  to  a  mixture  of  fixed 
and  volatile  substances,  ebullition  eventuallj  takes  place,  and 
the  volatile  substances  are  gradually  converted  into  vacooi  If 
this  vapour  be  caught  and  cooled,  it  will  return  to  the  hquid  con 
dition,  whereas  the  fixed  substances  remain  in  the  vessel  in  which 
the  miKture  was  originally  heated.  Thus  if  sea-water  be  heated 
till  it  boils,  steam  is  given  aS,  and  the  steam  if  cooled  yields  pare 
water,  whereas  the  saline  ingredients  present  in  the  sea-water, 
being  fixed  substances,  remain  unvolatilised.  Most  ships  intended 
for  long  voyages  are  fitted  with  the  proper  apparatus  for  distilling 
sea-water ;  and  thus,  if  there  be  sufficient  fuel,  fresh  water  may  be 
obtained  at  any  monient.  In  the  case  of  the  separation  of  vola- 
tile substances  from  one  another,  advantage  is,  taken  of  the  &ct 
that  the  most  volatile  body  is  the  first  to  b^cgme  vapour,  so  that 
if  the  first  portion  of  vaponr  be  cooled,  the  resulting  liquid  con- 
tains the  greater  part  of  the  most  volatile  substance,  whereas 
the  liquid  obtained  by  cooling  Che  last  portions  of  vaponr  con- 
tains most  of  the  least  volatile  substance.  Tliis  process  ol frac- 
tional D.  will  be  explained  mora  fully  further  on. 

The  apparatus  in  which  D.  is  performed  is  called  a  stiU,  and 
assumes  various  forms  ;  but  it  consists  essen^ally  of  two  parts — 
a  vessel  in  which  the  liquid  to  be  distilled  is  heated  {body  of  Ike 
still),  and  one  in  which  the  vapour  is  cooled  {condmser).    The 


in-Cmd=i 


simplest  form  of  the  still  is  that  in  which  the  body  of  the  still 
is  a  glass  retort,   and  the  condenser  a  fiask  immersed  in  cold 
water.       The   vapour   arising   from   the   liquid    boiling   in   the 
retort  passes  into  the  flask,   and  there  condenses  to  a  liquid. 
But  sneh  an  apparatus  is  inconvenient  for  distilling  large  quan- 
tities, because  the  water  nsed  in  cooling  soon  grows  warm  (from 
the  <gieiX  amount  of  heat  given  out  during  the.  transformation  of 
a  vapour  into  a  liquid),  and  roust  therefore  be  frequently  changed, 
which  disarranges  the  whole  apparatus.     To  obviate  this,  use 
is  made  of  the  worm-condenset  (Fig.  l),  a  coil  of  pipe  immersed 
in  a  vessel  through  which  a  current  of  cold  water  is  flowing. 
The  cold  water  ai-rives  by  a  tnbe  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the 
:ssel,  and  escapes  by  a  tube  placed  near  the  top.    Another  con- 
;nient  form  of  condenser  was  invented  by  Liebig  (Fig.  2).     It 
insists  of  a  narrow  lube  passing  through  a  broad  one,  and  fitted 
to  the  latter  by  means  of  corks.     The  broad  tnbe  is  provided 
with  two  smaller  branches,  one  at  each  end.    Tlirough  the  lower 


with  two  smaller  branches,  one  at  each  end.  Through  the  lower 
branch  cold  water  is  made  to  enter,  and  after  traversing  the 
whole  length  of  the  tube,  flows  out  through  the  upper  branch. 


fig.  a-Li=big's  Cond=i.s«. 
Thus  the  narrow  tube  (into  which  the  vapour  from  the  boilnig 
Iqiid  entpis)  is  kept  cold  liy  a  stream  of  water  flowmg  over  ■ 
exteiinal  surface. 

Fractutnal  pislillafiim. — It  was  stated  above  that  when  a  ir 
hire  of  substances  of  diferent  degrees  of  volatility  is  heated,  the 
most  volatile  is  ihe  first  to  assume  the  state  of  vapour  ;  so  tt  ' 
on  distillilig  a  mixture  of  volatile  bodies,  the  most  volatile  pas 
over  first,  leaving  the  less  volatile  to  follow.  But  complete 
separation  by  means  of  a  single  D.  can  only  be  effected  when 
the  temperatures  at  which  the  different  bodies  boU  are  widely  re- 
moved from  one  another,  and  only  then  if  the  different  liquids 
are  not  chemically  allied.  The  first  portions  of  the  distilled 
liquid  or  distillate  always  contain  the  largest  proportion  of  the 
most  volatile  body,  and  the  latter  portions  least.  On  subject- 
ing the  first  distillate  ox  fraction  to  a  redistillation,  and  collect- 
ing the  first  portions  that  pass  over  separately,  they  will  be  found 
to  contain  a  still  lai^er  proportion  of  the  roost  volatile  substance, 
and  on  repeating  the  process  for  a  greater  or  less  numljer  of 
times  according  to  circumstances,  the  most  volatile  body  c 
in  most  cases,  be  completely  isolated.  In  the  same  manr 
by  repeatedly  rejecting  the  first  portions  of  the  distillate,  and 
collecting  the  last,  and  by  repetition  of  the  process,  the  least 
volatile  body  may  be  obtained  in  a  pure  condition.  In  con- 
ducting a  fractional  distiilation,  a  thermometer  is  immersed  in 
the  vapour  of  the  boiling  liquid,  and  throughout  the  process  the 
temperature  is  carefully  observed.  As  soon  as  ebullition  com- 
mences the  temperature  is  noted,  and  the  distillation  allowed  to 
pioceed  till  the  thermometer  marks  a  certain  rise  in  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  vapour.  The  vessel  into  which  the  distilled  Hquid 
is  flowing  is  now  changed,  and  the  distillation  continued  during  a 
fresh  interval  of  temperature.  The  vessel  is  again  changed,  and 
so  on  till  the  whole  of  the  liquid,  or  as  much  as  may  be  required, 
is  distilled.  The  first  fraction  (i.e. ,  the  hquid  which  comes  over 
during  the  first  period  of  the  D.)  is  again  distilled,  collecting  as 
before  in  separate  vessels ;  and  this  process  is  repeated  until  the 
boiling-point  of  the  first  fnaction  i-emains  constant — constancy  in 
the  temperature  of  a  boilmg  liquid  being  a  criterion  of  its  purity. 
If  it  be  desired  to  separate  the  liquid  boiling  at  a  higher  tem- 
perature, the  last  fraclions  are  ^milarly  treated,  except  that  the 
more  vohLtiJe  portions  are  set  aside,  the  less  volatile  alone  being 
redistilled. 

Alcohol  is  rectified  by  fmctional  D.  Pure  alcohol  boils  at 
78°  C,  water  at  100°  C.  A  mixture  of  the  two  will  commence 
boiling  at  a  temperature  below  100°  C,  and  the  nearer  to  78° 
C.  the  more  alcohol  it  contains.  In  rectifying  alcohol,  the 
mixture  of  alcohol  and  water  is  distilled  till  the  temperature  of 
the  vapour  reaches  too?  C.  During  this  rise  the  whole  of  the 
alcohol  passes  over,  and  the  residue  in  the  retort  is  pure  water. 
In  tolerably  dilute  solutions  all  the  alcohol  has  passed  over  when 
a  third  of  the  mixture  has  been  distilled.  The  alcohol  thus 
rectiged  stili  contains  a  considerable  proportion  of  water.  On 
submitting  it  to  a  second  D.,  and  collecting,  as  before,  only 
those  portions  which  boil  below  100°  C,  it  may  be  further 
purified.  And  on  repeating  the  process  finally,  collecting  only 
that  portion  boiling  within  ro"  C.of  78°  C,  a  very  strong  alcohol 
may  be  obtained,  containmg  only  13  per  cent,  of  water.  Owing, 
however,  to  the  great  attraction  of  alcohol  for  water,  it  can  never 
be  completely  freed  from  the  latter  by  rectification  alone. 


yUoogle 


DIS 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DIT 


riie  process  of  D.'  is  of  much  practical  importance.  All  liinds 
of  spirits  are  prepared  by  its  means  from  dilute  solutions  of 
alcohol.  Coal-tar  is  separated  into  benzine  (from  which  the 
aniline  colours  are  manufactured),  into  oils  for  lubricating  niachi- 
neiy,  into  heavier  oils  for  preserving  wood,  and  into  a  variety  of 
other  products.  In  the  manufacture  of  perfumes  from  flow 
the  latter  are  distilled  with  water,  and  the  steam  carries  al 
with  it  their  essential  oil,  which  condenses  along  with  the  ste 
and  may  be  readily  separated  from  the  water. 

Destructive  Distillatiim.—'YbtK  are  many  substances  which, 
thongh  not  volatile  in  themselves,  are  nevertheless  resolved  "by 
heat  either  partiaEy  or  wholly  into  volatile  products.  If  such 
substances  be  heated  inastlU,  the  volatileprodncts,  asfastasthey 
are  formed,  pass  Into  Oie  condenser,  and  there  assume  the  liquid 
condition.  This  is  the  process  of  destructive  D.  Wood  is  a  sub- 
ice  which  cannot  be  volatilised  intact,  but  when  heated  suffers 
complete  decomposition,  and  yields  various  volatile  products, 
together  with  charcoal,  which  is  a  fixed  substance.  The  destruc- 
tive D.  of  wood  is  carried  out  on  the  large  scale  on  account  of 
the  valuable  substances  contained  in  wcod-tar  (the  volatile  pro- 
ducts arismg  from  the  operation),  as  well  as  on  account  of  the 
charcoal.  From  wood-tor  most  if  not  all  the  acetic  acid  of  com 
rce  is  prepared.  It  also  contains  wood-spirit  or  naphtha, 
osote,  pariifine,  various  hydrocarbons,  &c.  The  process  of 
gasmaking  Is  another  instance  of  destructive  D.  Coal  is  heated 
m  iron  or  fireclay  retorts  ;  here  it  suffers  decomposition,  and 
is  resolved  mto  various  volatile  sulistances,  and  into  coke  (a  com- 
pact form  of  charcoal).  The  coke,  being  a  fixed  substaflce, 
remains  in  the  retort,  whereas  the  volatile  bodies  pass  off  as 
vapour,  and  are  made  to  traverse  a  considerable  length  of  wide, 
iron  tube,  cooled  externally  by  the  air.  In  this  tube  various 
liquid  and  solid  bodies  condense,  forming  a  black  viscid  liquid 
called  coal-tar ;  whereas  the  permanently  gaseous  products  (gas) 
pass  on  unaffected,  and  after  travetsmg  various  ptirifying  app"- 
atuses,  at  length  enter  the  gasometer  or  store-chamber.  1 
products  of  the  destructive  D.  of  substances  are  generally  nur 
IS  and  of,  a  highly  complex  character,  but  this  is  not  always 
:  case.  Thus  if  oxalic  acid  be  distilled,  it  is  resolved  mto 
bonic  acid,  carbonic  oxide,  and  water. 

CeHsO,     =     CO,     -I-     CO     -H     HaO 


Distilleii'  Waten  Spriiig-waterconta,in5variousimpuri 
among  which  are  salts  of  ammonia,  lime,  and  magnesium.  When 
it  is  distilled,  these  impurities  renudn  b^ind,  and  pure  water 
passes  over.  It  is  well  to  reject  the  first  portions  of  the  D.  W., 
as  they  are  apt  to  contain  a  little  ammonia,  and  the  last,  as  they 
may  contain  traces  of  hyd|i3chioric  acid.  Where  D.  W..  cannot 
be  procu.-ed,  rain-  water  may  be  substituted,  foir  it  is  water 
tilled  by  the  sun's  heat.  It  is  insipid,  vidthout  odour,  and  is  i 
for  malting  many  ofilcinal  preparations  in  medicine. 

Distilled  Watere  are  prepared  by  distilling  water  along 
with  the  parts  of  plants  containing  volatile  oils,  as  lavender- 
water,  peppermint-water,  &:c. 

Distress',  in  English  law,  signifies  the  seizing  of  the  personal 
effects  of  a  debtor,  and  holding  them  a.s  security  for  the  debt,  or 
selling  them  in  payment  of  it.  D.  is  now.  chief^  enforced  by 
landlords  against  tenants  for  non-payment  of  rent  Executors 
may  distrain  on  behalf  of  the  testator  before  or  after  Probate 
(q.  v. ).  A  husband  may  distrain  during  his  wife's  life  for  arrears 
of  rent  of  her  land  or  houses  accruing  before  or  during  marriage. 
All  chattels  found  on  the  premises,  whether  the  proper^  of  a 
tenant  or  a  stranger,  may  be  distrained  ;  but  dogs  and  wild 
animals,  implements  of  trade,  and  other  aMieles  in  use,  are  exempt 
from  D.  Nothing  can  be  distrained  which  cannot  be  returned 
in  as  good  a  state  as  when  taken.  D.  must  be  in  propojtion 
to  the  sum  distrained  for.  See  Ejectment,  Replevy,  and 
Sale.     For  Scotch  law,  see  Hypothec,  Sequestration  for 

Distrihu'tions,  StatntB  of.  The  division  of  the  personal 
property  of  those  who  die  intestate  in  England  is  regulated  by 
the  32  and  23  Car.  II.,  called  by  this  name.  After  payment  of 
debts  and  iiineral  expenses,  if  the  deceased  leave  a  widow  and 
children,  one-third  goes  to  the  widow,  and  the  other  two-thirds 
n  equal  portions  to  the  children  ;  or,  if  any  of  the  children  be 
412 


dead,  to  their  Issue  in  equal  portions.  IF  there  be  no-  children 
nor  lineal  descendants  of  children,  one-half  goes  to  the  widow 
and  the  residue  to  the  nearest  of  kin  of  the  deceased,  or  their  rs 
presentatives.  If  there  be  children  but  no  widow,  then  the  whol 
is  divided  among  the  children  or  their  representatives.  If 
child  has  been  portioned,  the  portion  will  be  held  as  part  of  hi 
share.  An  heir-at-law  is  entitled  to  hia  full  share  of  the  personal 
estate.  If  there  is  neither  wife  nor  children  living,  nor  repre- 
sentatives of  deceased  children,  the  whole  property  goes  to  the 
father  of  the  deceased.  If  he  !ias  no  father  living,  the  whole 
goes  to  the  mother,  brethien,  and  sisters  of  the  deceased  in  equal 
portions.  If  there  are  neither  brothers  nor  sisters,  the  whole 
goes  to  the  mother.  If  the  mother  be  dead,  the  whole  goe^ 
the  brothers  and  sisters  and  then-  children,  foiling  all  these,  the 
whole  goes  to  the  grandfather  or  grandmother.  After  these, 
uncles,  aunts,  and  nieces  share  equally.  Failing  all  the  above- 
mentioned  irelatives,  the  whole  goes  to  the  nearest  of  kin, 

Bis'tricta,  Military,  certain  divisions  into  which  the  country 
is  marked  off  for  purposes  of  efficiency  in  recruiting  and  oiganis- 
ing  the  army.  Prior  to  the  passing  of  Mr  Cardwell's  Act  in  1872 
for  localising  the  forces,  England  was  divided  info  four  districts, 
Scotland  "f^^  one,  and  Ireland  had  five.  (See  BRIGADE,  DEPOT.) 
Now  there  are  in  England  laae  general  districts,  each  of  which 
has  headquarters,  as  follows  ; — The  northern,  with  Manchester  as 
its  headquarters ;  the  eastern,  with  Colchester ;  the  western, 
Devonpott ;  southern,  Portsmouth ;  the  Chatham ;  the  south- 
eastern, Dover ;  the  home,  the  Horse  Guards,  London ;  the  Wool- 
wich; the  Aldershot  Scotland  is  one  general  district,  with 
headquarters  at  Edinbuigh.  Jersey  is  a  miUtaiy  district ;  Guern- 
sey and  Aldetne-y  anothei:.  In  Ireland,  there  are  the  Belfast  dis- 
trict ;  the  Dublin ;  the  Cork ;  and  the  Curragh. 

Ditch.,  in  agriculture,  a  deep  trench  excavated  along  the  sideg 
of  a  field  to  serve  as  a  main  channel  for  the  drain-water.     " 
modem  farming,  ditches  are  frequently  converted  by  the  use 
drain-tiling  into  covered  sltdces. 

Ditch,  in  fortification,  is  the  excavation  in  front  of  a  parapet 
rampMt,  and  one  of  the  chief  defence- works.  The  earth  taken 
from  it  supplies  a  parapet  m  field  fortification,  and  the  greater 
body  of  the  material  for  a  rampart  in  permanent  works.  It  is 
kept  dry,  unless  when  actual  danger  is  apprehended  from  with- 
out. The  inner  slope  of  the  D.  is  the  scarp  ;  the  outer,  the  coun- 
terscarp, 

DithjT:am'bus,  a  name  of  Bacchus,  the  origin  of  which  is 
unknown,  was  a  species  of  poetry  invented  by  Arion,  and  cul- 
tivated by  the  Doric  lyric  writers,  and  afterwards  at  Athens.  It 
was  first  used  in  honour  of  Bacchus,  but  afterwards  also  of  other 
goifc.  It  was  elevated,  but  often  bombastic  in  style,  was  accom- 
panied by  flutes,  and  gradually  lost  its  regular  choral  or  anti- 
strophic  character. 

Dit'marah,  or  Dithinarch'en  {i.e.,  the  Deutsch  or  Ger- 
man marsh-lands),  a  fertile  coast  district  m  the  W.  of  Holstein, 
between  the  estuaries  of  the  Elbe  and  the  Eider,  has  an  area  of 
500  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  some  50,000.  It  has  a  flat  coast, 
indented  by  a  great  Wy,  and  its  chief  towns  are  Meldorf,  Bruns- 
biittei,  and  Heide.  In  the  time  of  Karl  the  Great,  D.  was  ruled 
by  Abbio,  or  Albion,  the  companion  in  arms  of  Witleldnd,  s..-.. 
became  a  province  or  Gau  {Thiatmaresgaho)  of  tiie  Prankish 
empir6inB04.  It  formed  part  of  the  Markgrafdom  of  Stade,  and 
later  (1474)  of  the  Duchy  of  Holstein,  which  had  been  granted 
in  feoffment  to  Christian  I.  of  Denmark  in  1460.  In  1500  D. 
revolted,  and  after  a  vigor«is  struggle  nnder  Wolf  Isebrand, 
threw  off  the  Danish  yoke,  and  remained  an  independent  state 
till  Frederik  II.  again  subdued  it  in  1559.  The  famous  Dith- 
rnarsisches  Landbuch,  or  legal  Code  of  D.,  was  drawn  up  by 
forty-eight  jud^  in  1321,  printed  in  1497,  revised  m  1567,  and 
imposed  anew  m  I7ti-  See  Toh.  Adolfi,  Chroriik  des  Landes  D. 
(a  vols.,  ed.  bj^  Dohlmann,  Kiel,  1827) ;  MicheJsen,  Urhmdm- 
huch  Tmr  GeschicMe  des  Lartdes  D.  (Altona,  1834);  and  a  Samm- 
lang  Altdiihmarscher  RechtsquelUii  (Altona,  1842). 

Ditt'any  {Dictamma),  a  small  genus  of  Rutaceous  plants, 
natives  of  Southern  Europe,  Asia  Minor,  &c.  D.  Fi-axinella  and 
D.  alius  (common  D.,  bastard  D.,  or  Fraxmella)  Imve  been 
long  cultivated  in  gardens  for  the  fragrance  of  their  leaves  and 
their  handsome  flowers.  The  inflorescence  and  the  outer  parts 
of  the  flowers  themselves  are  covered  with  glands  secreting  a 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOF^DIA. 


■esinouE  or  oily  volaiile  matter,  which  ignites  with  a  flash  in  hot 
veather  when  the  flowers  are  fading,  if  a  light  is  applied  to  it 
rhe  white  thick  bitter  root  was  at  one  time  much  used  in  medi- 
:ine  as  a  tonic,  aromatic,  stimulant,  diuretic,  antispasmodic,  and 
emmenagogue.  The  D.  of  Crete  is  Or^attui/i  Dictamaas,  a 
plant  of  another  order.  (See  Marjoram.}  The  name  is  also 
applied  to  Cumla  nihraiiaia,  while  D.  Fraxindla  is  calkd 
bastard  D. 


The   beni 


:  o(  D. 


marked  saponaceous  properties,  '  making  a  lather  even  with  salt 
water ;  used  as  a  lotion,  they  are  useful  in  skin- diseases,  and 
when  eaten  produce  giddiness, ' 

Diu'  (Sansk,  Dvipa,  '  an  island '),  a  Portuguese  island  in  the 
S.  of  the  peninsula  of  Guzerat,  Hindustan,  at  a  short  distance 
from  the  coast,  has  an  area  of  two  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop,  of 
I  l,ooa  It  was  famous  in  early  times  on  account  of  the  splendid 
temples  of  Mahadeva,  destroyed  by  Mahmud  of  Gbizni  in  1024. 
Seized  by  the  Portuguese  in  1515,  it  soon  after  became  one  of 
the  most  flourishuig  places  of  trade  in  India,  The  fortified  town 
of  D.  lies  at  the  E.  end  of  the  island,  a^id  js  the  seat  of  the  Portu- 
guese governor,  who  is  subordinate  to  the  Governor-general  of 

Diuret'ios  are  medicines  which  increase  the  quantity  of  the 
urine,  chiefly  by  stimulating  the  kidneys.  They  are  mostly 
given  ijidropsies..  D.  diminish  the  watery  portion  of  the  blood, 
and  hence  cause  absorption  of  fluid  from  serous  cavities  and  from 
the  meshes  of  areolar  tissues.  Examples  are  the  salts  of  potash, 
broom,  foxglove,  and  juniper. 

Divan',  a  word  at  very  varions  signification,    In  Persian, 
iffti^a  means  *a  bookof  many  leaves,'  'an  accountibook,'  'a  col, 
lection  of  books,'  '  a  senate  or  council,'    In  European  languages 
it  signifies  a  register,  a  muster-roll,  a  collection  of  poems,  any 
administrative  Turkish  court,  but  especially  a  privy  council  or 
cabinet  of  the  Sultan  of  Turkey,     It  also  is  applied  to  the  room 
in  which  such  a  coandl  sita-rrand  hence  to  any  room  for  the  re- 
ception of  distinguished  guests^rand  to  the  low  seats  or  cushions 
for  their  accommodation ;  for  which  reason  the  name  D,  is  ap- 
plied to  a  sort  of  sofa  by  the  Western  nations  of  Europe.     The 
Turkish  D.  or  State  Chancellorship  includes  the  greater  number 
of  the  officials  known  under  the  name  ol  fualemit  or  secretaries, 
id  consists  of  five  grades  of  officials,  of  which  the  highest  grade 
irresponds  wilh  that  of  a  general  of  division, 
Di'ver,  or  Loon  ( Colymbm),  a  genus  of  Natatores  {q.  v,  \  or 
ivimming  birds,  belougmg  to  the  iamily  Colymbid^,  and  dis- 
tinguished  by   the   long,    com- 
pressed bill  with  curved  tip,  by 
the  short  tail,  the  short  tarsi^  the 
three  front  toes  b«ng  webbed, 
and  the  first  and  second  quills 
being  the  longest  in  the  wings. 
Of  these  birds,  the  Great  North- 
era  D.  {C.  gl,iuiaiu).  is  the  best 
known.  ■  It  attains  a  lei^h  of  2i 
or  3  feet,  and  is  green,  black, 
.and  purple  above,  with  a  white 
'''  breast  and  abdomen.    The  neck 
id  upper  breast  are  lianded  with 
ra  black  collars,  and  th^  black 
"^  of  the  back  is  variegated  with 
short  white  s(reaks.     This  bird 
is  common  on  the  N.  coasts  of 
Britain,    The  e^s  number  two, 
aaiK-Drown ;  tUe  nest  is  little  more  than  a  Iiare  patch  on 
und.     The  black-throated  D,  (C,  ari^tiem).  and  the  red- 
1  D.  (C.  seplentiioniilis)  are  two  other  British  species. 
The  former  is  marked  boldly  with  black  and  white  on  the  back  ; 
the  latter  is  of  smaller  size,  and  has  a  reddish  throat.    The  'red- 
throated  D.'  is  sometimes  known  as  the  Sprat  loon;  and  tlie 
Great  Northern  D.  as  the  loon  and  ember  goose. 
Diver'gent.    See  Convergent. 

Dividend,  in  bankmptcy.is  the  share  which  a  creditor  ranked 
on  the  estate  has  in  any  fund  faUing  to  be  divided.  When  a 
creditor  has  not  been  ranked  in  time  to  share  in  any  declared 
D,,  if  he  prove  his  debt  in  time  to  share  in  a  subsequent  one,  he 


U  Norlheri 


is  entitled  to  the  arrear,  which  is  called  an  equalidng  D.     The 
term  is  also  applied  to  the  periodical  (usually  half-yearly)  interest 
or  profit  arising  from  the  public  funds  or  from  joint-stock  under- 
Dividing  En'ginfi.     See  Graduation, 

Divi-Divi,  the  pods  of  Casalpinia  coriaria,  a  great  legumi- 
nous tree,  a  native  of  S.  America. '  It  is  yeiy  rich  in  tannin,  and 
is  extensively  imported  for  the  use  of  larmers  and.  dv?i^  D.  is  a 
strong  astringent  substance. 

Divina'tion  (Lat  divinatio),  the  pjesensioa  or  discovery  of 
things  future  or  hidden,  by  rites,  omens,  or  other  supernatural 
agency.  The  Latin  terra  was  used  in  a  more  ijestricted  sense 
than  the  Greek  {maniike),  which  laCtet  signifies  the  ascertaining 
of  the  will  of  heaven  by  any  means  whatever,  whether  through  the 
roouth  of  the  inspired  seer  or  by  the  skill  of  the  diviner.  In  all 
ages,  and  under  all  religious  systems,  the  desire  to  penetrate  the 
nnrevealed  and  to  kivow  the  future  has  prevailed  in  a  greater  or 
lesser  degree.  This  yearning  is  rooted  deeply  in  the  human 
heart,  and  doubtless  had  its  rise  in  the  almost  universal  behef  that 
gods  and  men  had,  at  one  time,  met  face  to  face.  The  belief 
that  the  gods  care  for  man  gave  birth  to  anothcE— that  they  sent 
indications  of  thek  will ;  hence  it  became  the  aim  of  mankind  to 
interpret  these  manifestations.  The  Chaldeans  had  recourse  to 
astrology,  aiul  tried  to  read  the  future  by  the  aid  of  the  stars. 
The  Greeks,  and  after  them  the  Romans— ^through  Apollo,  god  of 
prophecy,  and  his  inspired  priesthood ;  through  sacred  books ; 
by  dreams  and  lots ;  by  the  flight,  feeding,  and  chattering  of 
birds;  bytheentrfdls  of  beasts;  by  placing  straws  on  red-hot  iron  ; 
by  appearances  u\  the  heavens,  such  as  comets,  thunder,  light- 
ning, eclipses ;  and  in  countless  other  ways — strove  to  know  the 
will  of  heaven.  In  the  middle  ages  the  same  beUefs  prevailed, 
and  the  already  extensive  catalogue  of  objects  big  with  &te  was 
increased.  Even  yet,  D.  flourishes  in  phases  varying  from  the 
fortune-telling  of  the  gipsy  to  that  strange  delusion  spiritualism. 
The  seeds  of  D.  have  become  so  rooted  in  our  everyday  life  and 
that  they  almost  escape  our  notice,  but  reference  to 


magpies,  the  number  thirteen  at  table,  tlie  first-foot,  the  fact  of 
stumbling,  meeting  a  hare  (the  witch's  steed),  the  fixing  of  the 
wedding-day,  grouts  in  the  (ea-cup,  the  burning  of  nuts  at 
Hallowe'en,  filling  of  salt,  &c.  Both  in  ancient  and  modem 
times  omens  have  been  drawn  from  sneezing,  and  nurses  stil! 
exclaim  when  a  child  sneezes,  'Bless  theehil4'  'God  bless  it,' 
just  as  the  ancient  Greek  cried  Zea  sSsoii !  '  Zens  save  thee ! ' 
Many  of  the  above-named  modes  of  taking  omens  or  reading  the 

future  were  comparatively  harmless,  as  they  c  — '  ''      ' 

luded  inquirer  oiJy  ;  but  matters  were  much  n 
the  diviner  sought  to  ascertain  the  guilt  o: 
accused.  Recourse  was  then  had  to  an  ordeal,  and  the  mdivldual 
was  condemned  or  acquitted  according  as  he  stood  the  test  im- 
posed. The  principal  modes  of  D.,  which  wiU  be  found  under 
their  proper  heads,  were  Axinomancy,  Belomancy,  Bibliomancy, 
Botanomancy,  Capnomancy,  Cheiromancy,  Coscinoroancy,  Crys- 
tallomancy,  Geomancy,  Hydromancy,  Lithomancy,  Oneiro- 
m^cy.  Pyromancy,  Rabdomancy,  Teraphim, 

Divine  Bigfllt.  In  former  times  the  monarch  was  "bj  a 
party  r^arded  as  the  representative  of  the  deity,  and  conse- 
quently as  having  no  moral  responsibility.  Much  learning  has 
been  shown  in  seeking  to  mamtain  or  refute  this  view.  That 
the  king  rules  jure  dwino  forms  the  groundwork  of  the  learned 
-"'-■rvBhafivtJ^^nsio  Regis  frs  Carelol.  of  the  learned  Clau- 


dius Salm 


itroveisy  the 


each  other  freely  in  classical  Latin — asinus  (ass),  fscus  (beast), 
and  sacb-llke  terms  being  freely  dealt  between  thera.  See  the 
CoTivocatiim  Book  of  1603;  Archbishop  Leslie's  Power  of  the 
Prime ;  Sherlock's  Case sf  Reastame  to  Supreme  Pooia-s {\h%si\; 
Mackenzie's  Jas  Regium  (1683) ;  for  the  modern  High  Church 
view,  Dr  Pusey's  Sermon  on  the  $tk  of  November  (1837),  and 
also  Allen's  Royal  Prerogative  (1849). 

Divine  Service,  a  tenure  by  which  the  tenant  was  bound  to 
perform  some  special  D.  S.  for  the  lord  of  the  manor^as  to 
sing  so  many  masses. 

Div'ing.    See  Diving-Dress,  Pearl  and  Sponge  Diving. 


y  Google 


DIV 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOF^BIA. 


Diving-Bell,  a  vessel  open  at  one  end  only,  and  of  various 
shapes,  wliich  can  be  lowered  into  water  with  the  open  end 
downwards,  and  replenished  with  freah  air,  so  that  men  within  it 
can  breathe  freely  and  work  beneath  the  water.  The  earliest 
reliable  account  of  anythirig  resembling  the  modern  D.-E,  is  a 
quotation  by  Caspar  Schotl,  a  Jasuit'piiest,  in  1664,  from  a  book 
by  John  Taisnier,  The  passage  desaibes  how  the  latter,  in  1538, 
saw  two  Greeks  descend  into  the  water  in  a  lai^e  inverted 
'kettle'  suspended  by  eopes.  After  this  time  the  D.-B,  often 
engaged  the  attention  of  ingenious  mechanicians,  but  It  was  Dr 
Haiiey,  F.R.S.,  who,  in  1I20,  proposed  the  changes  whicli first 
rendered  it  really  useful.  Tiie  great  difficult;?  in  the  way  of  its 
use  was  ihe  want  of  adequate  means  of  replenishing  the  air  in  it, 
so  as  to  make  it  possible  for  men  to  remain  in  it  for  any  con- 
siderable length  of  time.  Dr  Haliey's  principal  invention  was  an 
arrangenjent  by  wljich  barrels  of  air  coiild  be  lowered  to  the  men 
in  the  bel],  and  their  contents  allowed  to  pass  info  it,  whjle  the 
.fonlair  could  at  the  same  time  be  discharged,.  In  spite  of  the 
praeticability  of  this  plan,  Haliey's  D.-B,  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  inttodiice4  mio  engineermg  operations.  Smeaton  (q,  v.) 
was  the  first  to.  entploy  the  D.'B.  fo;;  this  purpose,  and  to.  him 
seems  also  to  be  due  the  first  use  of  i^  force-pump  to  supply  the 
bell  with  air.  The  first  engineering  work  of  any  magnitude  in 
which  the  D.-B.  was  employed  was  Ramsgate  harbour  (1788), 
for  which  Smeaton  was  the  engineer.  Since  that  time  it  has  come 
into  general  use  among  engineers,  and  is  constantly  employed  in 
the  preparadon  of  submerged  foundations,  the  laying  of  masonry 


r,  &c. 


B.  commonly  used,  which 
It  is  mjde  of  cast-iron, 
and  is  suspended  by 
tackle  from  a  boat  or 
acafFoHnig  The  upper 
part  of  it  contains  small 
pajies  of  thick  glass, 
which  aie  sufficient  m 
bright  weatker  to  give 
light  to  llie  menmside 
The  pipe  from  the  air 
pumps  IS  connected 
with  the  top  ol  the 
bell,  and  is  fitted  to  a 

.  valve  opening  inwa  ds 
As  the  bell  is  giadi 
ally  lowered,^  tir  is 
pumped  into  it  to  pre 

I)W..-J.».  ..  ....ir.lrady.nit 

"  becomes    cumpre  sed 

By  continually  adding  air,  the  water  is  kept  out  of  the  bell  As 
soon  as  the  bell  has  reached  the  required  position,  the  workmen 
signal  to  stop  lowering.  Signals  for  various  pmposes  can  be 
given,  according  to  a  preconcerted  code.  Air-pumps  are  ijon- 
tantly  at  work  vrfiile  the  bell  is  under  water,  the  used-up  air  con- 
tinually escaping  under  its  lower  edge,  and  coming  to  the  surface 
in  bubbles.  The  pressure  of  the  air  in  the  bell  depends  upon  the 
depth  to  which  it  is  immersed.  It  seldom  exceeds  double  the 
atmospheric  pressure,  whicli  corresponds  to  a  deptlu  of  between 
30  and  40  feet.  Breathing  in  sucli  a  dense  atmosphere  causes 
considerable  discomfort  to  those  unaccustomed  to  it,  but  no  per- 
manent ill  effects  to  the  workmen.  The  greatest  depth  under 
water  at  which  work  has  been  done  is  about  120  feet  This  was 
reached  in  the  foundation  of  the  St  Louis  Etidge,  for  making 
which  an  air-tight  caisson  (similar  in  principle  to  a  D.-B.)  was 
employed.  The  pressure  here  was  more  than  four  times  as  great 
as  that  of  the  atmosphere,  and  the  men  could  remain  in  the 
caisson  only  about  twenty  minutes  at  a  time, 

ntym^-DrSBs,  a  watertight  dress,  including  a  helmet,  so 
arranged  that  its  wearer  can  move  freely  under  water.  Some  kind 
of  dress  wliich  answei'S  this  purpose  more  or  less  imperfectly  has 
been  long  known,  but  only  within  the  last  few  years  has  it  been 
brought  into  a  really  practicable  form.  The  dress  is  of  india- 
rubber  cloth,  and  the  helmet  of  metal,  the  latter  having  plates  of 
glass  opposite  the  eyes,  and  a  nozjle  for  the  allachment  of  the 
air-pipe.  The  diver  has  lead  weights  on  his  chest  and  back, 
and  descends  into  the  water  by  a  rope-ladder  from  a  boat  or 
414 


wharf.  He  can  give  signals  by  means  of  a  cord,  and  can  remain 
submerged  for  five  Or  six  hours.  The  employment  of  divers  in  . 
a  dress  instead  of  a  diving-bell  is  now  very  common.  Not  only 
would  it  often  be  very  inconvenient  to  fit  up  the  necessary  appa- 
ratus for  the  heavy  bell,  but  often  also  the  work  can  be  done 
more  satisfactorily  by  divers  tliaii  by  workmen  who  cannot  get 
beyond  a  very  confined  space. 

Divm'ing  Bod,  a  forked  branch,  usually  of  haiel,  formerly 
believed  to  have  the  power  ofindicating  a  treasure,  mineral  vein, 
a  spruig  of  water,  &c.,  by  bending  towards  the  thing  sought. 
In  modem  practice  the  diviner  is  placed  in  contact  with  a  metal- 
lic or  other  magnetic  substance.  The  art  is  still  practised  in  Italy 
and  the  S.  of  Fi-ance,  under  the  names  of  metalloscopy  or  kydro- 
scafy,  according  as  the  object  sought  is  a  metalUc  vein  or  a 
spring  of  water.  Men  of  science  have  professed  their  belief  m 
the  D.  R,,  though  some  pf  these  aiie  not  clear  as  to  the  cause  of 
its  influence.  Bayle's  DicHon^iry,  in  the  notes  to  the  article 
'  Abari.s,'  Contains  some  interesting  facts  bearing  on  the  subject. 
See  also  De  Quincey  on  Sertilege. 

Sivir'igi,  a  town  in  the  vilayet  of  Sivas,  Asia  Minor,  on  the 
Tshalta,  a  tributary  of  the  W.  branch  of  the  Euphrates,  33  miles 
W.S.W.  of  Egin.  It  is  situated  in  a  hilly,  re^on,  is  elevated 
about  1000  feet  above  the  sea,  has  some  trade  in  fruits,  and  is 
to  form  a  station  on  the  projected  railway  to  Eisingjan.  Pop. 
io,0OD.     D.  was  the  ancient  Tepkraie. 

Divieibil'ity,  the  propei-ty  which  all  matter  possesses  of 
being  separated  into  parts.  To  what  extent  the  process  may  be 
carried  oil  is  a  matlep  of  speculation,  the  general  belief  being  at 
the  present  time,  however,  that  matter  is  ultimately  composed  of 
mdivisibl©  partides  called  atoms.  (See  Atom.)  There  are  some 
very  striking  eiamples  iij  physics  of  this  general  property.  Gold- 
leaf  has  been  obtained  of  a  transparent  thinness  ;  and  a  film  of 
the  same  metal  can  be  formed  not  exceeding  the  ten-millionth  of 
in  inch  A  single  grg-in  of  blue  vitriol  tints  five  gallons  of  water. 
Amvik  giain  thatlias  perfumed  a  roop  for  years  shows  no 
diminution  in  its  weight.  The  animal  kingdom  gtves  many  ex- 
amples of  extreme  attenuation  of  matter. 

DiviBion,  a  fiindamental  rule  of  arithmetic,  which  gives  the 
method  of  finding  the  number  of  times  one  figure  contains  an- 
other The  nur^er  to  be  divided  is  the  dioidsnd,  that  whicli 
divides  IS  the  divisor,  and  the  result  of  the  operation  is  the  quo- 
tient When  the  dividend  contains  the  divisor  an  exact  number 
of  times  the  former  is  said  to  be  d-au  bh  by  the  latter  The 
^istrnpttve  symbol  of  D.  ift  ^  ;  thus  «  —  i  n  eans  the  operat  n  of 
dividmg  a  by  b.  The  same  th  ng  s  far  n  o  e  f  equen  ly  ex 
pressed,  especially  Ift  algebra,  by  the  fract  onal  for  n    na  nely 

?  The  usual  methods  of  D,  a  e  to  be  f  u  I  a  )  t  atise 
on  ar  tlimetic  or  algebra. 

Sivieion,  Military,  a  section  of  a  1 ; 
general,  usually  consisting  of  two,  and  s( 
gades  (see  Brigade),  and  embracing  infantry,  c 
lery.    The  number  of  divisions  in  an  army  vo 
the  number  of  men  in  the  field  or  the  scale  of  a  war. 

Dwision,  Natval,  was  a  secondaiy  section  of  a  fieet,  forming  a 
third  part  of  a  squadron,  of  which  there  were  usually  three  in 
the  most  complete  English  fleets.  The  term  is  now  practically 
abolished  since   the   adoption  of  iron-clad  and.  heavily-armed 

Division  of  Latoor  is  of  two  kinds :  ist,  simple  co-opera- 
tipn,  which  may  bp  illustrated  by  the  case  of  two  greyhounds 
running  together  and  killing  more  hates  than  four  greyhounds 
running  separately ;  or  by  the  case  of  sawing  timber,  rowing  a 
laige  boat,  &c. ;  2d,  complex  co-operation,  where  '  one  body  of 
men  having  combined  Ijlieir  labour  to  raise  more  food  than  th^ 
require,  another  boi^  gf  men  are  induced  to  combine  their 
labour  for  the  purpose  of  producing  more  clothes  than  they  re- 
quire,' to  be  exchanged  gainst  the  surplus  food  (Wakefield's 
Notes  to  Adam  Smith}.  Such  is  the  geometrical  defi  iition  of 
political  economy,  hut  in  reahty  the  growth  of  D.  of  L.  is  m  ch 
more  natural,  more  complex,  and  less  conscious,  and  is  modified 
at  eveiy  stage  by  the  positive  institutions  of  society  such  as 
slavery,  castes,  craft  guilds,  trades'  unions,  &c.  The  produc 
tion  of  a  coat  nowadays  requires  the  following  trades  — Sheep 
breeder,  sheep -feeder,  wool-dresser,  wool-spinner,  wea\er    Ijer 


ol  three,  bn- 
ilry,  and  artil- 
4  according  to 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOF^DIA. 


DNI 


and  tailor,  without  counting  the  carriers,  wholesale  merchants, 
factors,  &C.,  who  act  as  middlemen  between  different  classes  of 
manufacturers.  All  tliese  persons  require  to  be  provided  wilh 
food,  lodging,  fiiel,  and  clothing ;  hence,  within  limits,  it  maybe 
said  that  the  existence  of  one  unportant  branch  t>f  indttstiy  re- 
quires the  existence  of  all  others.  Hence,  not  only  does  D.  of 
L.  inaease  the  quantity  of  production,  it  renders  possible  a  great 
many  kinds  of  production.  It  has  been  said  that  no  country  has 
a  productive  agriculture  unless  it  has  a  large  town  population 
or  an  export  trade  to  supply.  The  increase  of  ^ill  sa  g 
of  time,  and  the  saving  of  material  sufficiently  explain 
L.  increases  the  quantity  of  produclioo.  M.  Say  m 
there  are  70  operations  in  cardmating  ;  M.  Babbag  h 

are  102  in  watchmaking ;  and  yet  the  products  of  the 
operations  are  sold  very  cheaply.     Many  great  niecia  m 

provements  have  also  been  suggested  by  the  attait  on 
vidual  workmen  being  concentrated  on  single  proc     es 
D.  of  L.  is  at  all  times  necessarily  limited  by  the  ma 
article,  and  by  the  nature  of  the  employment.     Whet 
tion  can  be  carried  on  most  ef&dently  on  a  lai^e  sea 
fore,  a  question  depending  not  merely  on  theoretical  ag 

of  D.  of  L.,  but  also   on  such  ciieuinstances  as  th 
population,  the  means  of  communication,   the  real      d 
of  the  community,  &0. 

Divorce'.     Previous  to  the  Divorce  and  Matrtmon  al 
marriage  could  only  be  dissolved  in  England  by  an  A 
meni     At  that  time,  an  apparent  marriage  might 
nail  on  the  ground  of  Degree  of  Kindred  (q.  v.)>        B  g  m 
(q.  v.),  and  on  some  other  grounds ;  but  the  effect  eg 

declaration  was  to  establish  the  feet  that  marriage  h 
existed,      D,  of  course  presumes  the  existence  o    m        g 
Under  the  Act  referred  to,  a  husband  may  obtain  D         3i 
ground  of  his  wife's  adultery .    A  wife  may  D.  her 
the  ground  of  incestuous  adultery  and  of  some  other  gr        ff 
Condonation  (q.  v.)  or  Collusion  (q.  v.}  bars  D.     D     rti 
however  long,  is  not  sufUcient  ground  for  D.  unless  a 
with  adultery.     (See  Desertion  op  Spouse,  Jum 
RATION.)    After  D.  husband  or  wife  may  marry  agai  wi 

the  paramour. 

By  the  law  of  Scotland,  D.  may  l>e  had  on  the  ground  of 
adultery,  or  o£  wilful  desertion  for  four  continuous  years.  But 
neither  of  these  grounds  dissolves  the  marriage  ipso  jure.  The 
offender  forfeits  all  pecuniary  benefit  which  might  otherwise 
accrue  to  him  or  her  from  the  marriage.  Condonation  or 
collusion  also  bars  D.  in  Scotland.  Recrimhiation  does  not ; 
guilt  may  affect  the  pecuniary  interests  of  Jiacties, 


slituted  under  the  Acta  of  1857  and  1858.  In  it  is  vested  all 
authority  in  suits  of  divorce,  separation  (see  Judicial  Sepa- 
ration), nullity  of  marriage,  and  restitution  of  conjugal  tights. 
It  has  jurisdiction  in  all  matrimonial  matters  except  maniage 
licences.  The  full  court  consists  of  the  Lord  Chancellor, 
the  judges  of  the  superior  courts  at  Westminster,  and  the 
judge  of  the  Probate  Court,  who  is  judge  in  ordinary.  Either 
party  to  a  suit  may  appeal  against  the  decision  of  the  judge 
sitting  alone  to  a  full,  court  within  fourteen  days.  Sittings 
of  the  full  court  are  held  during  the  seventh  and  five  following 
days  of  sitting  in  each  term,  and  on  sudi  other  days  as  the  judges 
think  proper.  Either  parl^  to  a  suit  for  dissolution  or  declara- 
tion of  nullity  of  marnoge  may,  within  one  calendar  month, 
appeal  against  the  decision  oi  a  full  court  to  the  House  of 
Lords,  if  sitting,  or  if  not  sitting,  within  fourteen  days  after  its 


Dix'on's  Entranoe,  off  the  Pacific  coast  of  N.  America,  is 
the  strait  between  Prince  of  Wales  and  Queen  Charlotte  Islands, 
and  an  inlet  receiving  the  Simpson  River.  It  is  about  100  miles 
long  from  W.  to  E.,  and  partly  separates  British  Columbia  from 

Dixon,  'William  Hepworth,  an  English  author,  descended 
from  an  old  Puritan  family,  was  bom  at  Newton  Heath,  in  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  June  30,  iSzi.  After  beingfor  a  short 
time  in  a  Manchester  mercantile  house  he  took  to  litemture,  and 
settled  m  London  in  1S46,  wh^^  he  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1854.  He  first  attracted  attention  by  his  yohn  Howard  and  the 
Prison  World  of  Europe  { i  S49),  and  two  series  of  essays  On  the 
Literature  ofthi  Lmiier  Orders  and  On  London  Prisons,  originally 


published  in  the  Daily  Nnas.  D,  now  devoted  himself  almost 
entirely  to  historical  and  biogra])hical  works ;  published  a  bio- 
graphy of  William  Penn  (1851),  which  obtained  notoriety  from 
Its  answer  to  the  charges  made  arainst  the  great  Quaker  by 
Macanlay;  a  Life  of  Sobert  Blake  {l&is,)  ;  The  Personal  Bislory 
of  Lord  Bacon  (i86o) ;  Her  Majat/i  Tcmia-  (1871) ;  and  the 
Hittory  of  Tmo  t^eens  (1873-74).  He  has  latterly  published 
several  works  dealing  with  the  political,  social,  and  domestic  life 
of  foreign  peoples,  of  which  the  chief  are  New  America  (1867), 
ual  Wives  {\Wi),  FretR  %  a     The  S       er      872 

yate  CongueiliiSfs).     F    m    85         859D   was  d 
th    Athenceum.    As  a  writ      his     y  e       p   tu  esq       epigram 
m         and  racy,  but  is  ma   ed  by  a  g      as  u  -an 

is  distasteful  to  scho 
Bizful',  the  chief  trading        n         Ui  P  rs  a         a 

er  of  the  same  name,  at  h  ang    o  30  m 

N         of  Shustar.     It  has  an    n  baz  ar    bu  h 

g        supplies  of  victuals,  and  has  a  line  climate.      To  the  N.W. 
D   the  river  is  crossed  by  an  old  stone  bridge  of  twenty  arches. 

D  z'ier,  St,  a  flourishing  town  in  the  department  Ilaute- 

M      e,  France,  on  the  river  Marne,  30  miles  S.E.  by  N.  of 

ns-sur-Mame  by  railway.     It  has  a  theological  school,  s 

ha   ber  of   commerce,   a   new  townhall,  and    the    ruins    oi 

d  castle.      Its  main  industries  are  iron-smelting,  cotton- 

ng,  and  barge-bnilding,  and  it  has  also  an  active  trade  ir 

et  woods,  groin,  millstones,  &c.    Pop.  (1872)  8167.    In  the 

m    die  ages  D.  was  called  St  L>esiderii,  from  being  the  last  resl- 

mg     ace  of  Bishop  Desiderius  of  Langres.     It  was  long  an  im- 

nt  fortress,  and  in  1544  resisted  for  six  weeks  the  army  of 

es  V.  of  Spain,  its  capitulation  only  being  brought  about 

tually  by  the  governor's  treacheiy.     On  25th  January  1S14 

th    Russian  general  Prince  Tscherbatov  fought  the  French  at 

D       nd  drove  them  back  on  Vitry,  but  two  days  later  Milhaud 

ec    ered  the  tovm  from  Prince  Lanskoi.     The  Prussians  on  the 

January  displaced  Lagrange's  division,  and  held  D.  till  the 

Ih  March  following,  when  the  French  urider  Marshal  Oudiiiot 

Djez'zar  ('the  Butdier'),  the  surname  of  an  adventurer  named 
Achmed,  bom  in  Bosnia  about  1735,  came  into  the  hands  of  a 
slave-dealer  in  Constantinople,  was  bought  at  Cairo  by  AJi-Bey, 
and  earned  his  surname  and  the  affectionate  regard  of  his  maE 
by  the  facility  with  which  he  got  rid  of  all  persons  obnoxiouE 

court.     In  1775  he  was  appointed  Pacha  of  Acre.    He  exerci 

a  commercial  monopoly  here,  and  extorted  arbitrary  impositions 
from  a  community  of  French  merchants  who  had  settled  at  Acre, 
Eventually  he  expelled  the  French  consul  and  merchants,  and 
sacked  the  consulate.  This  insult  to  the  French  flag  Was  one 
of  the  considerations  which  determined  Napoleon's  expedition 
into  Syria.  On  the  20th  March  1799  Napoleon  opened  the 
si^e  of  Acre,  but  so  obstinate  was  D.'s  defence,  that  after 
attempting  for  two  months  to  reduce  the  town,  the  French  were 
obliged  to  retire.  D.,  though  a  monster  of  cruelty,  was  possessed 
of  great  military  and  administrative  capacity.    He  died  m  1S04. 

Dmitrov'Cthe  town  of  St  Demetrius'),  a  town  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Moscow,  Russia,  on  [he  Jakhroma,  40  miles  N.  of 
Moscow,  with  silk  and  woollen  manufactures,  tanneries,  and 
a  trade  in  linen,  wax,  and  tallow.     Pop,  (1869)  7529. 

Dnie'per  (Gr.  Borystkmes  Danapris,  Turk.  Ohu,  Tartar, 
Exi"),  after  the  Volga  and  Danube  the  largest  river  of  Europe, 
rises  among  forest  marshes  in  the  government  of  Smolensk. 
Its  general  direction  is  S.,  but  in  its  lower  course  it  sweeps 
first  to  the  S.E.  and  then  to  the  S,  W.  and  W.,  and  after  a  course 
of  more  than  1000  miles  falls  into  the  Biack  Sea  below  Kherson, 
Its  embouchure  {Limaii)  forming  a  gulf  on  the  W.  side  of  which 
lies  Odessa.  In  its  mouth  there  is  an  archipelago  of  forty 
islands,  on  several  of  which  there  are  forts.  It  is  navigable 
nearly  its  whole  length,  the  impediments  produced  by  the  nume- 
rous sandbanks  and  rapids  in  its  lower  course  below  Ekateri- 
noslav  having  been  partly  removed  by  blasting,  and  partly  over- 
come by  hydraulic  works  constructed  at  the  expense  of  the  state. 
Annually  it  is  frozen  for  from  80  to  g;  days.  Its  affluents  from 
the  E.  are  the  So]  and  the  Desna,  from  the  W.  the  Pripet  and 
the  Beresina.  The  D.  traverses  some  of  the  finest  governments 
of  the  empire — IWohilev,  Minsk,  Kijev,  Poltava,  Ekaterinoslav, 
and  Taurida — and  conveys  their  products  to  the  Black  Sea. 
415 


vLiOOQle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


There  is  also  some  trade  with  the  Baltic  by  canal 

between  the  D.  and  the  Beresina  and  Dwina.     At  the  mouth  of 

the  D.  ate  valuable  fisheries  of  sturgeon,  herring,  carp,  &c 

Dnie'stOT  (anc.  Tyras,  Taras,  Danasttrrus,  Turk.  Tier),  a 
river  of  Europe,  rises  on  the  N.  of  the  Carpathians,  in  Anstrian 
Galicia,  but  is  mostly  in  Russia.  It  enters  the  Black  Sea  30 
miles  S.  of  Odessa,  after  receiving  thirty-seven  affluents,  and 
after  a  course  of  upwards  of  500  miles.  The  navigation,  which 
almost  wholly  downwards,  is  chiefly  occupied  with  the 
riofwof  " 
the  mouth 

So'a1>  (Sansk.  'two  rivers;'  comp.  Lat.  dues  agua)  is  the 
name  given  to  the  long,  narrow  strip  of  coimtty  in  India,  N.W. 
Province,  lying  between  the  Jumna  and  the  Ganges,  and  stretch- 
ing from  Allahabad  to  the  Himalayas.  It  includes  the  divisions 
of  Mirat,  Agra,  and  part  of  Allahabad,  and  is  m  great  part 
extremely  fertUe.  But  the  name  is  also  applied  generally  in 
Northern  India  to  any  similar  region.  The  Punjab,  for  instance, 
is  subdivided  into  a  number  of  Doabs, 

Dobell',  Sydney,  an  English  poet,  was  born  in  1824,  neat 
London,  where  his  father  was  a  wine-merchant.  He  was 
educated  at  Cheltenham,  and  early  revealed  his  poetic  genius. 
Having  served  as  a  clerk  in  his  father's  office  imdl  1850,  he 
publidied  the  Roman,  an  impassioned  dramatic  poem,  warmly 
espousing  the  canse  of  Italian  freedom.  After  travelling  in 
Switzerland  he  resided  in  Edinburgh  until  1857,  when  he  re- 
moved to  Cheltenham  and  the  Isle  of  Wight.  He  published 
Balder,  a  fervid,  gloomy,  and  pathetic  poem,  in  1854;  Sonnets 
o«  the  War,  written  along  with  Alexander  Smith,  in  1853  ;  and 
England  in  Thne  of  War,  a  collection  of  exquisitely  musical, 
touching  lyrics,  in  1856.  In  1865  he  produced  a  pamphlet  on 
Parliammtary  Sefbnii,  in  which,  like  Hare  and  Mill,  he  advo- 
cated a  'graduated  suffrage.'  Bad  health  hindered  his  literary 
activity  during  his  later  years.  His  En^nd's  Day  (1871)  is  a 
defiant  lyric  against  Grant,  Bismarck,  and  Gortschakoff.  D.  died 
November  14,  1874,  In  analytic  subtlety  he  at  times  rivals 
Brownmg ;  his  melody  of  verse  is  almost  equal  at  times  to 
Shelley's.  His  notes  and  memoranda  were  pubhshed  as  Thoughts 
on  Art,  FhUosophy,  and  Religion  in  1876,  with  a  prefatory 
note  by  hia  friend  Professor  Nichol.  See  The  Podical  Works  of 
D.,  also  edited  by  Professor  Nichol  (1875). 

DSlteln,  a  town  of  Saxony,  on  an  island  formed  by  the 
Mulde  and  Miihlgraben,  36  miles  S.E  of  Leipsic  by  the  Mulde 
and  Chemnitz  RaUway.  It  has  manufactures  of  linens,  woollens, 
braSEware,  &c.,  also  bleachiields  and  worsted  mills,  a  trade  in 
butter,  and  important  cattle  and  horse  fairs.  Pop.  (1871)  10,078. 
Sobrow'ski,  Joseph,  a  Bohemian  philologist,  born  at 
Gyermet,  Hungary,  17th  August  1753,  studied  at  Deutschbrot, 
where  he  acquired  the  Bohemian  language,  that  of  his  childhood 
having  been  German.  He  afterwards  studied  at  Klattau  ani" 
Prague.  In  1774,  on  the  dissolution  of  the  Order  of  Jesuits,  ti 
which  he  had  attached  himself,  he  withdrew  to  Prague,  where 
he  published  his  first  work,  FragmaUum  Pragmse  EvangelH  S. 
Mara,  vulgo  aulo^rafhi  (iTjS).  From  1780  to  1 7S7  he  edited 
at  Prague  a  journal  of  Bohemian  and  Moravian  literature.  From 
1792  to  1795  he  visited  Denmark,  Sweden,  Russia,  Italy,  Gei 
many,  and  Switzerland  in  search  of  MSS,  illustrative  of  Bohemia 
history.  After  his  return  he  exhibited  symptoms  of  ments 
.  derangement,  which,  in  1801,  necessitated  his  removal  to  a 
asylum.  Recovering  his  reason  in  1803,  he  lived 
at  Prague  and  sometimes  in  the  country.  He  died  at  Bi 
6th  January  1829.  D.'s  principal  works  are  Scripiores  Serum 
Bo/iemicarum  (2  vols.  Prag.  1783^-84),  in  which  he  had  Pelzel 
for  a  collaborateur ;  Gesckickle  der  BShm.  Sprachc  und  Altera 
Literatur  (Pi-ag.  1792);  Die  Bildsamheit  der  Slav.  Sprache 
(Piag.  t^^l)) ;  Deutsch'Bohm.  IVHrta-huch  (;Pre^.  1802-21),  in 
preparing  which  he  was  assisted  by  Leachka,  Puchmayer,  and 
Hanka ;  and  Tttstituiiones  Lingua  Slavoniae  Dialecti  Veteris 
(Vienna,  1833) ;  &C.'  See  Palacky,  Jos.  D.'s  Leien  und gdshrtis 
Wirken  (Prag.  1833). 

Dobmd'sclia,  the  ancient  Scythia  Minor,  the  N  .E.  part  of 
Bulgaria,  bounded  N.  and  W,  by  the  Danube,  E.  by  the  Black 
Sea,  while  its  southern  boundary  has  not  been  determined.  It 
was  the  scene  of  numerous  impoitant  operations  during  the  Turlio- 
Eussian  War  (1854-56). 
416 


DocB'tfe,  heretics  in  the  early  Christian  Church  who  held 
that  the  body  of  Jesus  Christ  was  nothmg  but  a  phantom  or 
appearance  (Gr.  dokesis,  hence  the  name),  or  that,  if  substantial, 
it  was  of  a  celestial  substance.  The  heresy,  whicii  is  supposed  to 
be  referred  to  in  several  passages  of'  the  New  Testament,  and 
the  foundation  of  which  is  ascribed  to  Simon  Magus,  to  Cassian, 
and  to  Tatian,  was  founded  on  the  dualistic  notion  of  the  essen- 
tially evil  nature  of  matter,  so  that  the  divine  nature  could  not 
be  supposed  to  unite  itself  with  a  material  body  and  thereby  ex- 
pose Itself  to  tlie  pollution  from  which  it  vras  the  object  of  Christ 
to  fi'ce  mankind,  combined  with  the  other  favourite  Orienla!  no- 
that  a  higher  spirit  has  the  faculty  of  presenting  itself  to  the 
_j  _  in  various  sensible  but  unsubstantial  forms.  See  Neander's 
Kirchengeschickts  and  Blunt's  DicHonaiy  of  Sects,  &c. 

Sock,  an  excavated  enclosure,  usually  provided  with  gates, 
formed  in  connection  with  a  river  or  harbour  for  the  reception  of 
ships.  Docks  are  of  two  kinds,  -met  and  dtj,  A  wet  D.  is  a 
basin  in  which  the  water  is  maintained  at  a  uniform  level  by 
shutting  the  gates  before  the  ebb  of  thS  tide,  for  facilitating  the 
loading  or  unloading  of  vessels  lying  at  the  qua^  or  jetties. 
A  diT  D.  or  graving  D.,  for  repairing  the  exteriors  of  ships, 
is  a  long  and  narrow  excavated  basin  with  curved  ends,  lined 
with  raasoniy,  and  left  dry  by  the  ebbuig  of  the  tide,  or  ren- 
dered so  by  pumping.  A  ship  is  floated  in  at  high  water,  and  is 
steadied  in  a  vertical  position  by  means  of  '  shores '  and  wedges. 
At  low  water  the  entrance  is  closed,  and  the  remaining  we 
pumped  out.  When  the  repairs  are  completed,  the  water  is  again 
admitted,  and  the  vessel  floated  out.  ITie  walls  of  a  dry  D. 
slope  inwards  towards  the  bottom,  and  all  round  steps  or  'altars' 
are  constructed  to  allow  of  ready  access  to  all  parts,  and  also  to 
serve  as  supports  for  the  shores  which  hold  the  vessel  upright. 
An  inverted  arch  of  masonry  is  usually  constructed  as  a  foun- 
dation for  D.  walls,  which  are  thickest  at  their  base,  and  are 
puddled  with  clay  behind  the  granite  or  concrete  facing,  so  a-s 
to  be  perfectly  watertight.  Cast  iron  has  been  used  for  the 
walls  at  the  entrance  to  the  Victoria  (London)  Docks,  the  iron 
plates  being  backed  with  concrete  and  coped  with  granite.  As 
a  protection  from  abrasion,  fenders  of  timber  are  often  secured 
to  the  faces  of  D.  walls. 

Gates  or  caissons  are  fitted  at  the  enti-ance  to  docks,  to  shut 
out  or  keep  in  the  tide.  Small  gates  are  formed  of  wood,  large 
ones  of  wrought  iron.  The  gates  of  the  new  South  Docks  at  ' 
Isle  of  Dogs,  in  the  Thames,  are  of  the  latter  material,  and 
cellular,  having  two  skins  separated  by  horizontal  and  vertical 
riljs,  Gates  are  usually  in  two  parts,  and  the  inner  and  outer  up- 
right posts,  called  the  heel  and  mitre- posts,  are  generally  of  green- 
heart  timber.  Each  leaf  swings  on  pivots,  working  in  sockets  of 
gun-metal  or  chilled  cast  iron,  and  is  supported  at  the  mitre-post 
on  a  roller  which  runs  on  a  curved  iron  pathway.  The  sides  of 
the  gates  are  curved  outwards,  so  as  to  resist  better  the  pressure 
of  the  water.  Caissons,  ship-like  in  form,  with  stem  and  stern  pro. 
jections  to  fit  into  grooves  in  the  masonry,  are  found  convenient 
for  closmg  D.  entrances.  They  are  built  of  wrought  iron,  and 
are  divided  into  compartments,  with  apertures  for  the  admission 
of  water.  To  close  a  D.  entrance,  the  caisson  is  floated  into  its 
proper  position,  and  water  being  admitted  to  some  of  the  com- 
parttoents,  it  sinks  down  into  the  stone  recesses;  by  pumping 
the  water  out,  the  caisson  is  readily  rerao  d,  A  h  g  il 
of  timber  is  embedded  in  the  masonry  at  h  bot  m  f  D 
entrance,  and  against  it  the  base  of  the  ga  k    1    f   h 

caisson  presses  closely,  preventing  the  passag     f  w 

In  recent  docks,   gates  are  opened  ai  d    h  t  by  hydra  1 
machinery,  a  power  which  is  now  used  f       mptyi  g  gra 
docks,  and  working  the  swing-bridges,  c  p  t   is  d 

other  D.  conveniences.    To  fiirther  the  perf    m  f  bus 

every  facility  is  provided  in  doclts.    There         11  k    ds    f  h 
ing  apparatus  and  mooring-posts  j  rails  are  laid  along  the  qnays 
having  connection  with  the  great  railway  systems  ;  extensive 
warehooses  and  cellarage  for  the  storage  of  goods,  jetties  to  ai 
commodate  vessels  of  considerable  draught.  So. 

5?Bjc;j^  is  frequently  resorted  to  to  clean  wet  docks  of  the  mud 
that  is  constantly  being  deposited.  The  docks  being  allowed  to 
run  dry,  the  mud  is  thrown  into  deep  channels,  and  carried  away 
by  the  scouring  water  that  has  meanwhile  been  admitted  ' 
them  from  sluices. 

The  docks  of  Great  Britain  surpass  in  extent  those  of  any 
other  country.      The  most  remarkable  examples  are    to    be 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA, 


DOC 


London  Docks,  and  Victoria  Doclta,  The  tola!  atea  of  the 
Liverpool  and  Birkenhead  docks  and  basins,  Irrespective  of 
jjraving  docks,  amounts  to  421  BCtes,  ivith  a  wail  quay-face 
1  miles  long.  The  graving  docks  number  eighteen,  having 
1  aggregate  length  of  floor  of  upwards  of  two  miles;  the 
Ilerculaneum  graving  docks  ace  the  largest  and  the  most  recent, 
the  floor  of  each  being  750  feet  long.  There  are  also  impoi 
docks  of  both  kinds  at  Bristol,  Hul^  Southamptf  ^  '  ' 
Shields,  Leith,  Dundee,  &c 

Other  Ai-rangsmmts  Jiir  affbriingAccm  to  Ship^  Exttriorj. — 
In  past  times  beaching  and  careening  were  resorted  to.  In  the 
former  operation  the  Vessel  was  run  on  to  the  beach,  so 
that  it  was  left  high  and  dry  by  the  ebb  of  the  tide  ;  in  the 
latter,  it  was  heaved  over  first  on  one  side  and  afterwards  on  the 
other,  so  that  the  keel  was  raised  out  of  the  water,  by  means  of 
power  applied  to  the  masts,  which  were  properly  strengthened 
for  the  great  strain.  In  some  situations  H,  slip  or  Inclined  plane, 
with  wheels  and  hydraulic  machinery  for  dra^ng  a  vessel  out 
of  the  wafer  is  adopted.  (See  Slip,)  In  America  vessels  are 
raised  out  of  the  water  by  means  of  a  scrcTii  D.,  or  timber  frame 
raised  or  lowered  by  means  of  screws  and  other  machineij'. 

Floating  Docks. — In  localities  where  the  construction  of 
graving  docks  would  be  enormouily  expensive,  a  most  convenient 


B,  Leirel  at 


substitute  is  found  in  a  floating  D.,  which  has  the  advantage 
Ijf  being  independent  of  the  tide,  In  the  United  States  limber 
structures  of  this  nature  have  been  in  use  for  many  years.  In 
Great  Britain  iron  has  been  recently  employed  in  their  construc- 
tion. The  Spanish  port  of  Ferrol,  on  the  Atlantic,  possesses  a 
floating  D.,  made  after  the  designs  of  Mr  G.  B.  Rennie,  wholly 
constructed  of  plate,  angle,  and  T-iron  riveted  together.  It  re- 
sembles an.  oblong  rectangular  box  without  top  or  ends,  and 
measures  350  feet  long,  105  broad,  and  37J  high  from  the  floor 
of  the  D.  Tlie  base  or  pontoon  and  side  walls  are  hollow, 
and  divided  into  Vi'atertight  compartments,  strengthened  by 
open  lattice  girders  and  diagonal  bracing,  which  give  the  structure 
^reat  rigidity.  The  upper  chambers  in  the  side  walls  are  air- 
tight, and  keep  the  D.  from  sinking  too  low. when  water 
is  admitted  by  sluices  and  distributed  by  pipes  through  the 
lower  chambers.  When  the  D.  is  sufiiciently  submerged,  the 
sluices  are  closed,  and  the  vessel  to  be  docked  is  drawn  in  be- 
tween the  side  walls.  The  water  in  the  chambers  being  then 
pumped  out,  the  D.  rises  gradually,  lifting  the  vessel,  which  is 
steadied  with  the  usual  appliances,  completely  out  of  the  water, 
as  shown  in  the  foregoing  figure.  The  displacement  of  water  by 
the  base  equals  13,000  ton^  and  deducting  the  weight  of  the  D, 
itself,  5000  tons,  a  susta-initig  or  lifting  power  of  8000  tons  re- 
mains. An  iron  floating  D,,  of  different  construction  was 
launched  at  North  Woolwich  in  1868,  and  towed  in  the  folr 
lowing  year  to  Bermuda,  where  it  has  successfully  docked 
first-class  men-of-war.  It  is  U^sliaped  in  section ;  the  double 
sides  and  bottom,  20  feel  apart,  are  divided  into  compartments, 
and  a  adsson  Is  fitted  at  each  end.  To  dock  a  vessel,  some  of 
the  compartments  are  filled  with  water  to  sink  the  D.  Euf&- 
ciently,  and  then  water  is  admitted  into  the  inside  by  valves  in 
the  caissons,  till  the  sea  outside  and  inside  has  the  same  level. 
The  caissons  are  next  taken  out,  and  the  ship  led  in  over  the 
128 


central  line  of  blocks.  The  D.  is  afterwards  raised  about  10 
feet  by  partly  emptying  the  chambers,  the  caissons  are  placed 
in  position,  and  the  water  remaining  inside  the  D.  is  run 
into  the  side  balance- chambers,  leaving  the  vessel  dry.  To  un- 
dock  the  vessel,  the  side  chambers  are  filled  up,  and  water  let 
into  the  inside  of  the  D,  by  the  openings  in  the  caissons,  which 
are  then  removed  and  the  ship  led  out.  Pontoons  capable  of 
supporting  small  vessels  may  be  used  in  connection  with  this  D. 
The  Bermuda  floating  D.  affords  facility  for  the  examination  of  its 
own  base,  by  filling  the  upper  chambers  of  one  side  with  water. 

Hydraulic  Lift  Dock. — This  is  another  ingenious  contrivance 
for  the  dry-docking  of  vessels.  One  of  them  may  be  seen  at  work 
at  the  Victoria  Docks,  London.  On  two  parallel  sides  of  a 
channel  300  feet  long  and  60  feet  broad,  sixteen  upright  cast-iron 
columns,  in  a  row,  are  sunk  into  the  ground.  At  the  base  of  each 
column  there  is  an  hydraulic  press,  and  the  top  of  each  piston 
or  ram  carries  a  cross-bead,  from  the  ends  of  which  two  iron 
girders  are  suspended  by  iron  bars.  These  girders  extend  across 
the  ejtcavation  to  the  cross-head  of  the  corresponding  column  on 
the  opposite  side,  There  are  flius  thirty-two  girders  forming 
a  kind  of  platform  capable  of  being  raised  or  lowered.  On 
this  platform  rests  a  wrought-iron  pontoon,  open  at  the  lop, 
having  sufficient  buoyancy  to  support  a  vessel.  To  apply  the 
apparatus,  tlie  girders  and  pontoon,  weighted  with  water,  are 
sunk  to  the  bottom  of  the  lift,  and  the  vessel  to  be  raised  is  drawn 
in  directly  over  the  centre  of  the  pontoon.  The  rams  are  then 
slowly  raised  by  hydraulic  power,  the  vessel  being  at  the  same 
time  secured  by  wedges  and  blocks.  When  out  of  the  water, 
the  pontoon  is  emptied  by  valves  which  are  afterwards  closed. 
The  girders  being  again  lowered,  the  pontoon,  with  tlie  vessel 
upon  it,  remains  afloat,  and  may  be  towed  to  a  convenient  spot. 
As  many  vessels  as  there  are  pontoons  can  be  docked  in  a  similar 

Dock  {Lapathuvi)  a  sub-genns  of  Ruviex  (see  Sorrel),  con- 
taining those  plants  which  are  not  acid,  and  the  flowers  of  which 
are  almost  invariably  hermaphrodite.  Most  of  them  are  trouble- 
some weeds,  though  thw  may  grow  in  watery  places.  The  roots 
of  the  great  water-D.  (A  hydrolapitthum)  are  administered  as  an 
antiscorbutic,  and  ware  looked  upon  by  the  Druids  with  super- 
stition. The  roots  of  other  species  are  also  astringent,  and  can 
be  employed  raedicinally  in  rheumatism  as  styptics,  as  astringent 
gargles,  or  as  a  dentifrice.  Monk's  rhubarb  {_R,  alfiiniu)  has 
been  employed  in  place  of  tnie  rhubarb,  but  is  not  so  powerful. 
The  roots  of  D.  have  also  been  employed  in  dyeing,  In  all,  there 
are  eleven  British  species  of  D. 

33ock'et,lin  English  law,  is  a  record  in  the  courts  containing 
an  entry  of  judgment.  Striking  a  D.  is  when  a  creditor  gives  a 
bond  to  the  Lord  Chancellor  to  prove  his  debtor  to  be  a  bank- 
rupt.    See  DoQUET, 

Dock'ini^  Horses.  When  yonngwork-horsesaresent  to  grass, 
they  are  docked,  i.i.,  six  Joints  of  their  tails  are  amputated,  the 
object  bang  to  keep  the  naturally  long  tails  from  being  incom- 
moded in  the  trams  of  a  cart.  The  cutting  is  accomplished  by 
aid  of  a  machine  similar  in  form  to  a  pair  of  nutcrackers.  , 

Bock  Warrant.  When  goods 'are  consigned  in  a  Bonded 
Warehouse  (q.  v.),  a  certificate  is  granted  called  a  D.  W.  When 
a  transfer  is  made,  the  warrant  is  endorsed  with  an  order  to 
deliver  to  the  purohaser.  An  entry  in  the  warehouse  books 
completes  the  transference.  When  a  D,  W.  is  lost,  a  new  one 
will  only  be  granted  on  security  of  indemnification  to  the  com- 
pany should  loss  arise  in  consequence. 

Tiodk^Y&x^,  a  naval  arsenal  for  the  construction,  repairs, 
and  equipment  of  ships,  A  D.  visually  embraces  building  slips, 
repairing  docks  and  basins,  workshops,  and  all  the  madiinery 
and  too^  necessary  for  the  manii&ctuce  of  anchors,  cables,  and 
Other  adjuncts  of  a  ship  and  storehouses.  The  royal  dock- 
yards in  Great  Britain  are  at  Portsmouth,  Devonport  (Ply- 
mouth), Chatham,  Sheemess,  and  Pembroke.  Woolwich  and 
Deplford  dockyards  were  closed  in  1869.  Early  in  this  century 
the  English  dockyards  were  in  a  very  backward  condition  ;  n 
they  are  unequalled  for  completeness. 

Dockyard  and  Naval  Statiens. — The  Harbour  Regulation 
Act  provides  for  the  security  of  the  ports,  harbours,  and  navi- 
gable rivers  of  the  United  Kingdom.  It  regulates  the  moor- 
ing and  placing  of  private  ships,  restricts  tlie  keeping  of  gun- 
powder on  board  ship,  &c 


vLiOOQle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DOD 


Doo'tor  (from  Lat.  doceo,  '  I  teach  '),  a  title  at  first  bestOH-ed 
on  one  who  Could  tead:  a  special  art  or  science,  but  now  applied 
to  one  who  has  taken  the  highest  degree  in  law,  diuinity,  physic, 
Tlie  title  was  probably  firet  sanctioned       " 


Emperor  Lothar  II.  to  introduce  Ihe  dignitj".     The  title  then 

?issed  into  the  faculty  of  diyini^ — Peter  Lombard,  Bishop  of 
aiis,  being  made  D.  of  divinity  by  the  Paris  UniTersity  in  the 
middle  of  the  i2th  c  The  first  D.  of  medicine  was  Gulielmo 
Gordenio,  of  Asti  College,  elected  I),  artium  ex  nudicina  in 
1329.  The  title  was  not  introduced  into  the  English  univeraitiea 
until  the  reign  of  John  or  of  Henry  III.      See  DbGKEE. 

Doctors'  Commons  is  the  college  of  civilians  in  London 
founded  by  Dr  Harvey,  the  Dean  of  Arches,  in  1 568,  for  the  pro- 
fessors of  the  civil  law.  In  it  were  situated,  prior  to  the  transfer  of 
the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  and  the  opening  of  the  Probate  and 
Divorce  Courts  in  Westminster,  the  residences  of  the  judges  of  the 
spiritual  and  admiralty  courts.  It  was  also  the  abode  of  the  doctors 
of  the  civil  law  practising  in  London,  who  for  diet  and  lodging 
commoned  together ;  hence  the  name  of  D.  C.  To  the  coUege 
belonged  a  certain  number  of  advocates  and  proctors.  The 
Court  of  Arches,  which  is  the  chief  ecclesiastiral  court  of  the 
province  of  Canterbury,  and  the  Adipiralty  Court,  stijl  remain 
in  the  once-(enowned  D.  C. 

Doo'tnaa>ite  means,  in  the  first  place,  a  ^epular  priest  or 
clerk  of  the  Chrisdan  doctrme.  In  this  sens;  it  'i&s  been  dis- 
placed in  the  French  language  by  rdigioKtudrt.  JJndgr  Ihe 
Bourbon  Restoration  it  wa?  applied  to  a  set  of  political  men,  who 
professed  to  deduqe  their  ideas,  half  liberal  half  conservative, 
from  a.  coherent  body  gf  political  theory.  This  fraction  of  the 
Chamber  existed  in  1816,  when  the  name  was  iirst  applied  to 
Royer-CoUariJ  by  tjie  Nain  yaune  R^ugU,  a  French  newspaper 

1>ub1ished  at  Brussels.  M.  Cousin  ^d  the  I)uc  de  Brogliewere  cuso 
eading Doctrinaires.  Bijf  theirrepresentatiyemaniwasGuizot,who 
in  1822,  by  an  Esmyinthe  Origin  and  Daielopmcat  of  the  Emlisk 
Canslitui&fit  revived  that  eicessiye  adniiration  pi  de  Jacloie^- 
tiraacy  whidi  Montesquieu  and  De  Lolme  Iiad  already' eyinged 
for  the  English  Constitution.  He  endeavoured'to  construct  a 
political  eclecticism  on  (he  ruins  ofBoulainvilliersthe  feudalist, 
Dubos  the  monarchist,  De  Mably  the  democrat,  and  De- 
maistre  the  theocrat.  Practically  the  Doctrinaires  were  for  ex- 
tension of  the  Charls  of  Louis  XVllI.,  and,  therefore,  opposed  the 
absolutism  of  Charles  X.  Under  Louis  Philippe,  however,  most 
of  them,  now  beyond  middle  age,  were  unable  to  move  with  the 
times;  and  it  has  been  said  that  the  Doctrinairismof  M,  Guizot, 
when  in  power,  was  sufficient  to  excuse  the  Revolution  of  1S48. 
Hence  D.  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  an  unpractical  pedant — 
in  vulgar  language ,  a  political  prig.  In  England  the  terra  was 
applied  to  Bentham  and  fltjier  writer?  in  the  ff'ts/imiisier  Seviero, 
TtoAd,  Gharlw,  the  assumed  name  of  Hugh  Tootel,  an  Eng- 
lish Roman  Catholic  historian,  who  was  born  near  Preston, 
1672,  studied  at  Douay  and  at  St  Gregory's,  Paris,  entered  the 
priesthood,  and  settled  (169?)  as  a  preacher  in  Lancashire.     He 


papef^,  letters,  &c.      This  worlt  was  published 

vols,  folio  (1737-39-42),  apd  a  new  and  corrected  edition  was 

b^n  by  the  late  M.  A.  Tiemey,  but  only  fiye  vols,  appeared 

(1839-43).    D.  wrote  many  other  works.      He  died  Febniary  27, 

1742-43- 

Dodd,  William,  LL.D.,  a  popular  divine,  was  born  at 
Bourne,  in  Lincolnshire,  June  1729,  graduated  as  B.A.  at  Clare 
Hall,  Cambridge,  and  then  went  to  London,  where  he  soon  gained 
s  wide  reputation  foi  effective  preaching.  After  holding  a  prebend 
{n  llie  collegiate  church  of  Brecknock,  he  i^s,  through  the  in- 
fluence of  his  former  pupil.  Lord  Chesterfield,  rijade  a  chaplain 
to  thp  King,  but  lost  the  office  for  trying  to  acquire  the  living  of 
St  Georges,  Hanover  Square,  by  bribery.  In  return  for  the 
ipftpy  favours  lie  had  received  from  his  generous  pupil  and  patron, 
he  forged  a  bond  for  £2000  in  the  name  of  that  nobleman,  for 
which  act  he  was  condmned  at  the  Old  Bailey,  24th  February 
1777,  and  executed  on  the  S7th  Jane  following.  D.  was  meanly 
ambitious,  and  nourished  habits  of  luxurious  wastefulness.  Of 
his  many  works,  tjie  chief  are  a  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  The 
Beauties  of  Shakespeare,  Reflections  on  Death,  and  Sermons  mi 


ike  Miracles  and  Parables.  See  D.'s  Memoirs,  prefixed  to  his 
Thoughts  in  Prison. 

Dodd'ed  CaVtle  are  animals  witltout  horns.  Tlie  name  Is 
also  given  to  cattle  which,  naturally  havuig  horns,  have  had  them 
cut  off  to  prevent  them  goring  their  neighbours  in  the  field  or  fold. 

Dodd'er,  a  genus  of  anpual  leafless  plants,  of  the  natural 
order  Cttseuloiem  (q.  v.),  which  originally  take  root  in  the 
ground,  but  afterwards  become  parasitic,  £^d  sever  their  con- 
nection with  the  soil.  Tliere  are  two  British  species,  C.  Euro- 
pica,  which  chiefly  attaches  itself  to  thistles,  oats,  &c.,  and  C. 
Epithymjim,  a  smaller  plant,  which  gpws  on  thyme,  &:e.  In 
addition,  tliere  are  now  naturalised  in  ghe  English  flora  two 
Other  species  or  varieties,  probably  originally  introduced  with 
foreign  seed,  vi&,  C.  Epilinum,  the  flax  D  ,  and  C  Tit/oln,  the 
clover  D.  They  are  all  very  iroublesonie  to  cultivated  crop?, 
and  the  only  remedy  is  to  sift  out  the  seed  of  the  D  which  has 
got  mixed  with  that  of  the  cultivated  crop 

Dodd'ridge,  Philip,  a  Nonconformist  preacher  and  tlieo 
logian,  bora  at  London,  June  26,  1702  He  was  educated 
at  Knibworth,  Leicestershire,  of  «hich  plate  he  became  a 
minister  in  1722,  and  whence  in  1725  he  removed  to  Market 
Harborough,  where  he  opened  a  school  About  1730  he 
settled  as  a  dissenting  minister  in  Northampton  Badhealth 
induced  him  to  visit  Lisbon,  where  he  died,  October  26,  1751 
His  chief  prose  works  are  Pour  Sermons  on  the  Education  of 
Children  (1 732)  :  The  Absurdity  and  Itaquity  of  Persecution  for 
Comeie?i<:?Saie{lT^6);  The  PamUy  Expositor  (i-j^Z) ;  Riseand 
Process  of Religionin  the  Saul  (1744);  Course  of Lectuies  (11(1^). 
D.  is,  however,  best  known  by  his  hymns,  which  glow  wirfi 
impassioned  devotion,  and  jiistly  rank  among  the  finest  products 
of  the  evangelical  mnse. 

Dodec'agon  (from  Gr.  dSdeia,  '  twelve '),  an  equilateral  and 
equiangular  plane  figure  of  twelve  sides.  If  a  be  the  length  of 
the  side,  the  area  is  approximately  ii'igta^. 

Dodeoalied'roa  (from  Gr,  dodcha,  'twelve,'  and  hedra,  a 
'  seat '  or  '  basis  '),  one  of  the  five  regular  solids,  being  bounded 
by  twelve  equal  pentagons  and  thirty  equal  edges,  and  having 
twenty  equal  solid  angles.  If  a  be  the  lenglhofeach  edge,  tlia 
superficial  area  is  approximately  20-6457  •='.  and  the  solid  con- 
tents 7-66312  a?. 

Sod'erlein,  Ludwig,  an  eminent  German  philologist,  was 
bom  at  Jena,  igtli  December  1791,  studied  at  Munich  under 
Thiersch,  at  Heidelberg  jinder  Creujer  and  Voss,  and  at  Berlin, 
where  be  graduated,  under  Wolf,  Bockh,  and  Buttmann.  In 
1815  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Philology  at  Berlin,  removed 
to  Erlangen  in  1819,  where  in  1827  he  became  Director  of  the 
Philological  Seminary.  He  died  November  9,  1863.  D.  edited 
the  works  of  Tacitus,  the  Epistles  and  Satires  of  Horace,  and 
produced  Lat,  Synonymy  und  fitymologien  (6  vols.  Leips. 
1 83S) ;  Handbuch  der  Lat.  Eiymologie  (Leips.  1 841 ) ;  Hcmerisches 
Glossarium  (Leips.  1850-58). 

Do'do,  a  singular  wingless  bii-d,  which  has  become  extinct, 
through  human  interference,  within  the  last  300  years.  It  in- 
habited the  island  of  Mada- 
gascar. Most  naturalists  re- 
legate it  to  the  Rasorial  birds, 
as  possessing  its  nearest 
ing  ally  in  the  Dtdunculus  fi 
strrgirostris,   or   tooth-billed  ^ 

{ligeon  of  the  Navigator 
inds.    It  was  a  clumsy  bird,  I 
larger   than    a   swan, 
weighing   about   40   or 
lbs.     The  Dutch  navigators 
named  it  dod-aer,   of  which  ^ 
word   the    English   D.    is 
corrnption.    Various  writei 
describe  the  D.,  but  it  aj 
pears  certain  that  the  bivc. 
being   unable  to  fly,  offered 
an  easy  prey  to  the  sailors 
who   visited   Mauritius.      A 
specimen  was   deposited   in 
the  Ashmolean  Museum  at  Oxford,  but  unfortimately  was  allowed 
to  go  to  waste ;  the  head  and  feet  being  alone  preserved.     A 


Dodo. 


yLaOogle 


DOD 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DOG 


good  representation  is  contained  in  the  British  Museum.  The 
'  >  were  short  and  stout,  the  feet  had  each  four  toes  ;  the  tail 
.s  also  short,  and,  like  the  rudimentary  wings,  carried  a  tuft 
of  plumes.  The  bill  was  large,  and  prominently  curved  and 
hoolted ;  the  plumage  a  greyish  brown,  that  of  llie  females 
being  paler.  The  D.  was  said  to  lay  but  one  lai^e  egg.  It  is 
curious  to  note  that  the  wingless  Solitaire  (3.  v.)  or  Pezohaps 
disappeared,  lilte  the  D.,  from  tlie  adjacent  island  of  Rodriguez. 

Dodo'na,  a  town  in  Epiras,  was  tiie  seat  of  the  oracle  of 
Zeus,  whicli  was  the  most  ancient  in  Greece.  Homer  attests  its 
antiquity,  and  describes  the  Selli  or  Helli,  who  were  the  inter- 
irelers  of  Zeus.  The  god  was  believed  to  dwell  in  the  stem  of 
n  oak,  and  the  priests  interpreted  his  will,  as  instructed  by  the 
branches  of  the  tree.  In  later  times,  the  oracles  were  interpreted 
by  three  old  women.  D.  waned  in  influence  with  the  growing 
importance  of  Delphi,  and  though  it  lone  continued  to  be  con- 
sulted, and  to  enjoy  wide  celebrity,  its  advice  was  chiefly  sought 
hy  the  neighbouring  tribes.  In  B.C.  219  the  temple  was  de- 
stroyed by  Dorimachus,  general  of  the  ^tolians.  The  site  of 
D.  has  not  yet  been  clearly  establislied. 

Dodsley,  Bobert,  an  English  author  and  publislier,  was 
bom  at  Mansfield,  Nottingham,  in  1703.  The  son  of  a  poor 
schoolmaster,  he  was  forced  by  bad  health  to  serve  as  a  footman, 
in  173a  published  The  Musi  in  Livay,  or  tki  Footman's 
Mis<dlany,  a  volume  of  poems,  wliich  was  fidlowed  by  KUty,  a 
Pastoral,  and  The  Ssail  is  a  Dunce.  In  1775  his  drama  The 
Toyshop  was,  throiigh  Pope's  inflttenee,  acted  at  Drury  Lane, 
with  such  success  that  D.  was  enabled  to  open  a  bookseller's 
shop.  He  became  a  prosperous  publisher,  and  wrote  various 
plays,  of  which  the  most  popular  were  The  King  and  the  Miller 
ofMansfiiU  (1737),  Sir  John  dcUe  at  Court,  Thi  Blind  Beggar 
af  Bethnal  Green,  and  above  all  Cleone,  which  met  with  bound- 
less applause.  He  published  several  of  the  works  of  Johnson 
and  Pope,  and  started  various  periodicals,  such  as  The  Public 
Register,  The  Museum,  The  Annual  Register.  D.  died  at  Dur- 
ham, September  35,  1764.  He  is  best  known  now  for  his  Select 
ColUctiBn'ofOM Plays  (iz  vols.  1780). 

Dog  {Caitis),  a  genus  and  the  type  of  a  family  (Caniils)  of 
Carnivorous  mammalia.  The  family  includes  not  only  the  does, 
but  their  near  allies  the  foxes,  wolves,  and  jackals.  As  a  family, 
these  animals  are  distinguished  by  their  pomted  muzzles,  smooth 
tongues,  and  by  possessing  claws  incapable  of  being  retracted 
as  in  the  Felida  or  cats.  The  front  feet  each  possess  five  toes, 
and  the  hinder  feet  four  digits.  TJiey  are  Digidgrade  (q.  v.),  in 
that  they  walk,  like  lions,  &c,  on  the  tips  of  their  toes.  The 
molar  teeth  in  this  family  number  either  twelre  in  the  upper  Jaw 
and  fourteen  in  the  lower  jaw,  ot  fourteen  in  either  jaw,  "rwo 
or  three  ot  the  molars  on  each  side  are  provided  with  tubercles 
or  blunt  processes.  In  the  genus  Canit  itself— to  which  the  wolf 
{C.  lupus)  and  jackal  (C.  aureus)  also  belong— the  incisor  teeth 
number  six,  the  canines  two,  the  prtemolars  eight,  and  the  molars 
four  in  each  jaw.  The  pupil  of  the  eye  is  round.  The  tail  is  of 
moderate  size,  and  is  covered  with  short  hair.  The  subject  of 
the  relations  of  the  various  varieties  Or  kmds  of  dogs  assumes 
the  same  difficult  aspect  in  treatment  as  that  of  determining  the 
exact  nature  of  the  breeds  of  other  animals,  such  as  the  ox  and 
sheep,  which  have  been  extensively  cultivated  and  reared  byman ; 
and  the  question  becomes  still  more  difficult  when  we  attempt  to 
determine  the  relationship  of  the  so-called  zeilii  breeds  of  dogs 
to  their  more  domesticated  neighbours.  Some  naturalists  incline 
to  the  belief  that  m  the  present  day  the  D.  is  only  known  to  us 
as  a  domesticated  animal ;  and  these  anthorities  regai-d  the  wild 
races  as  having  sprung  from  domesticated  breeds.  Others  again 
maintain  the  distinct  and  primitive  nature  of  cettdn  wild  dogs — 
such  as  Ihe  hunting  D.  or  Lycasn  fnctus  of  S.  Africa,  and  the 
Dhole  or  Cn-m  Dukhumsis  of  British  India — and  believe  that 
these,  or  similar  forms  may  represent  the  progenitors  of  the  many 
exisdi^  breeds  of  dogs.  Mr  Darwin  inclines  to  the  belief  that 
the  breeds  of  the  domestic  D.  'are  descended  from  several  wild 
species,'  and  he  says,  'it  cannot  be  doubted  that  there  has  been 
an  immense  amount  of  inherited  variation  ;  for  who  will  believe," 


spaniel,  &c. — so  unlike  all  wild  canidk — ever  existed  in  a  state 
of  nature?'  Another  equally  important  subject  is  the  question 
of  the  fertility  or  sterility  of  the  progeny  of  the  wolf  and  D. 


when  interbred.  We  know  with  certainty  that  all  our  existing 
breeds  of  dogs  can  interbreed ;  and  also  that  the  D.  will  inter-i 
breed  with  the  wolf  and  the  jackal,  although  the  eiact  extent  of 
the  fertility  of  the  wolf  and  D.  bi^d  lias  not  been  determined. 
Probably  the  fertility  is  not  affected  by  time,  and  in  this  view  the 
common  parentage  ot  descent  of  the  D.,  wolf,  and  jackal  might 
be  assumed  by  evOlutionbts.  Lfi  Roy  instances  a  D.  whose 
great-grandfather  was  a  wolf,  and  which  showed  its  wild  origin 
particularly  '  by  not  coming  in  a  straight  line  to  his  master  wheu 
called*  (Datwin).  The  entire  subject  of  (he  origin  of  the  breeds 
or  races  of  dogs  becomes  further  complicated  when  we  reflect 
that  ndtntalists  are  by  no  means  clear  imong  themselves  as  to 
the  chafacters  which  arfl  to  be  deemed  purdy  specific  in  their 
naturt,  and  those  which,  on  the  contrary,  are  only  of  varietal 
value.     Until,  therefore,  decisive  information  be  obtained  as  to 

'hat  characters  constitute  a  true  species,  and  what  are  those  of  a 

xere  variety,  the  exact  relationships  of  the  dogs  must  remain  a 

latter  of  conjecture  and  dispute. 
The  characters  of  dc^  naturally  vary  with  the  particular  breed 

r  race  to  which  they  belong,  and  information  on  this  head  may 
be  sought  for  ni  the  separate  articles  devoted  to  ihe  various  kinds 
of  dogs.  The  period  of  gestation  in  the  D.  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  wolf— 63  days— and  this  feet,  together  with  the  close 
similarity  in  the  skeleton,  has  by  some  naturalists  been  cited  as 
evidence  in  support  of  their  similarity  of  origin  and  close  relation- 
ship. An  aigument  against  this  identity  is  derived  from  the 
obsSTvation  that  dogs  when  left  to  themselves,  and  when  existing 
as  nearly  as  possible  in  a  state  of  natural  freedom,  do  not  tend 
to  become  savage  or  to  exhibit  wolfish  characters.  From  the 
most  ancient  times  the  D.  has  been  the  companion,  and,  without 
exaggeration,  one  may  say  the  'friend,'  of  man.  The  ancient 
records,  both  sacred  and  secular,  attest  ihe  close  companionship 
of  the  human  and  canine  races,  and  in  ancient  EgyiJt  the  D. 
assumed  a  high  place  in  the  phases  of  animal-worship.  Tlie 
average  life  of  the  D.  varies  according  to  its  race,  but  in  general 
is  about  twelve  years.  The  intelligence  of  these  animals  also 
depends  raudi  upon  the  breed  and  trainii^.  The  shepherd's  D., 
Scotch  terrier,  and  Newfoundland  D.,  prolmhly  possess,  of  all  the 
breeds,  the  greatest  natural  intelligence.     See  also  Species, 

Laws  Regarding  Dogs. — To  allow  any  mischievous  dog  to  go 
loose  or  unmuzzled  is  an  indktaMe  offence ;  and  if  the  Aag 
injure  any  one,  he  wiU  have  ground  for  a  claim  of  damage 
against  the  owner,  but  not  unless  the  owner  has  had  notice 
of  the  dog  having  bitten,  some  one  before.  By  28  and  29  Vict, 
c.  60,  the  owner  of  a  dog  is  liable  in  damage  for  any  in- 
jury done  by  it  to  cattle  or  sheep ;  and  in  Engkmd  it  is  not  neces- 
sary for  the  party  claiming  damage  to  prove  that  the  owner  pre- 
viously knew  of  the  dog's  mischievous  propensity.  In  Scotland 
this  Smowledge  must  be  proved,  it  having  been  so  decided  by  the 
House  of  Lords,  reversing  the  judgment  of  the  Court  of  Session, 
in  the  case  of  Fleming  v.  Orr,  April  3,  1853  (l  Macqueen). 
(See  Damages.)  By  34  and  25  Vict.  c.  96,  any  person  con- 
victed of  stealing  a  dog  before  two  or  more  justices  may  be 
imprisoned  for  six  months,  or  forfeit /ao  more  than  the  value  of 
the  dog.  A  second  oflence  is  &  misdem«aHour,  punishable  by 
eighteen  months'  imprisonment,  with  or  without  hard  labour. 
To  receive  money  for  restoring  a  stolen  dog,  or  corruptly  under 
the  pretence  of  restoring  one,  is  punishable  with  eighteen  months' 
impri!onment.     The  duty  on  a  dog  is  5s.  and  shepherds'  dogs  are 

DoglJftlie  {^Apocynum),  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
natm-al  order  Apoeynaceci  (q.  v. ),  The  fly-trap  {A.  androsiejni- 
foUum)  of  N.  America  is  cultivated  in  this  country.  '  Tlie  five 
scales  in  the  throat  of  the  corolla  of  this  jJant  secrete  a  sweet 
liquid,  which  attracts  ilies  and  other  insects  to  settle  on  them ; 
the  scales  are  endowed  with  a  peculiar  irritability,  the  cause  of 
which  has  not  been  accurately  determined,  but  which  causes 
them  to  bend  inn^s  towards  the  centre  of  the  flower  when 
touched,  and  to  retain  the  unlucky  flies  as  prisoners.  Numbers 
of  dead  flies  may  be  seen  in  the  several  flowers  of  this  plant. 
The  movement  of  the  scales  probably  serves  to  scatter  the  pollen 
on  the  stigma '  (Masters).  The  bark  of  the  root  is  emetic,  dia- 
phoretic, and  tonic,  but  in  large  doses  more  or  less  poisonous 
and  acrid.  From  the  fibrous  bark  of  the  Canadian  or  Indian 
hemp  (A.  eammMnutn)  and  A.  kypercifblium  the  Indians  pr" 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


:s  the  properties  of 

Dog'days.    See  Canicular  Days. 

!Dog:e  {Lat.  dux,  Eng.  duke),  the  title  of  the  pcincipal  execu- 
tive magistrate  in  the  Venetian  and  Genoese  republics.  The 
Venetian  dogate  goes  back  to  697,  when  Anafesto  Paoluccio 
was  elected.  At  that  period  the  doges  were  actual  sovereigns, 
but  their  supremacy  soon  began  to  arouse  popular  jealousy.  The 
D,  Orso  was  killed  in  737,  and  for  some  years  an  annual  magis- 
tracy ruled  the  republic.  But  the  life-dogate  recommenced  in 
742,  and  front  that  year  till  1 1 72,  forty  doges  held  the  power, 
upon  which  limitations  were  imposed  in  1032.  Of  these,  only 
half  were  allowed  to  die  a  natural  death.  In  1172  the  constitu- 
tion underwent  a  change.  The  Great  Council  of  480  obtained 
the  right  to  choose  the  D.  Sebastiano  Ziani  was  tlje  first  ruler 
under  the  new  order,  and  in  his  dogate  began  the  ceremony  of 
the  wedding  of  the  Adriatic  (See  BucENTAUR.)  Six  members 
of  the  Great  Council  were  delegated  to  advise  the  D.,  and  the 
sixty  Pregadi,  or  Venetian  senate,  performed  a  similar  function. 
Thus  the  power  of  the  D.  was  greatly  circumscribed,  but  he  still 
remained  Captain-General  of  the  Forces.  After  r3t(Jfhe  appoint- 
ment of  the  Council  of  Ten  reduced  the  D.  to  a  political  non- 
entity, his  office  to  a  mere  state  show,  with  a  few  unimportant 
Eivileg^,  and  several  heavy  drawbacks.  TTie  last  D.  of  Venice, 
odovico  Manin,  Was  elected  in  1788,  the  dogate  lapsing  with 
the  fall  of  the  republic  in  1797.    See  Venice. 

The  republic  of  Genoa  was  also  governed  by  doges,  of  whom 
the  lirst  was  Simon  Boccanegra,  elected  in  1339.  The  Genoese 
dogate  was  held  at  first  for  life,  like  the  Venetian,  but  under  the 
new  constitution  of  1528  (see  DoRiA)  was  restricted  to  two 
years.  The  power  of  the  D.  was  solely  executive,  legislative 
functions  being  discharged  by  councils.  In  1804  the  republic 
and  the  dogate  both  ceased  to  exist.  See  Genoa,  and  Hallam's 
Middle  Ages,  chap,  iii. 

Dog^ah,  a  name  applied  generally  to  certain  genera  of 
fishes,  closely  allied  to  the  sharks,  and  included  with  the  latter 
forms  in  the  order  Elasmobranchii  (q.  v.).  The  D.  belongs  to 
the  group  Plagkslomi  (q.  v.),  in  whidi  the  mouth  is  transverse, 
and  on  the  under  surface  of  the  head.  The  gills  exist  in  the 
form  of  pouches  or  sacs,  and  open  externally  on  the  sides  of  the 
neck  by  distinct  apertures.  The  pectoral  fins  exist  on  the  breast, 
the  ventral  fins  being  abdominal  in  position.  The  dogfishes  con- 
stitute the  family  Squalidis,  which  includes  numerous  genera. 
Thus  the  genus  ScylHum  embraces  the  little  D.  {S.  tamculum), 
the  rock  D.  {S.  caMus),  and  other  forms.  The  genus  Fristidu- 
nts  is  esemplified  by  the  black-mouthed  D.  {P.  milamatofivus). 
The  tope  or  miller's-dog  is  the  Galeus  cams  of  the  natm:alist,  the 
smooth  hound  or  D.  being  the  Mustelus  vulgaris.  Another 
common  species  is  the  picked  D.  (Acanlhias  vulgaris).  These 
fishes  are  all  common  in  British  waters,  and  a.re  bold  and  vora- 
cious in  habits.  See  also  articles  on  the  separate  species  of 
Dishes. 

Dog-Fox,  a  term  applied  to  the  male  fox,  and  also  to  certain 

Einera  of  dog-like  animals  belonging  to  the  farnily  Camdis  (see 
og),  and  represented  by  the  Corsac  (q.  v.)  and  other  species 
included  in  the  genus  Cynalopex. 

Dogg:'er,  a  kind  of  sea-going  fishing-boat  used  by  the  Dutch. 

Dogger-Bank,  a  great  sandbank  in  the  N,  Sea,  extending 
from  35  miles  E.  of  Flamborough  Head  to  60  miles  off  Jiitland. 
In  some  places  it  is  60  miles  broad,  and  9  fathoms  in  the  shal- 
lowest part  near  England.  It  has  valuable  cod-fisheries.  The 
Dutch  and  English  fleets  fought  a  drawn  battle  here  in  1781. 

Dog-Gxasa.     See  Couch-Grass. 

Sog^ma  (Gr.  'a  decree')  means  primarily  a  decree,  edict,  or 
statute,  as  in  Luke  iL  I,  Acts  xvi.  4,  &c,  In'theology  it  means 
.  properly  a  positive  statement  of  doctrine  derived  ftom  divine 
revelation  and  enunciated  by  the  Church  ;  or,  in  a  looser  sense, 
the  peculiar  doctrine  of  a  particular  section  of  rtie  Church,  in 
which  sense  it  is  synonymous  with  an  article  of  a  creed.  In 
the  early  Church,  D.  was  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  the 
Christian  religion  or  the  feith  of  Christ,  as  the  expositors  gene- 
rally supposed  St  Paul  used  it  inEph.ii,  15;  and  it  has  a  similar 
meaning  yet;  so  that  D.  is  Christian  doctrine  generally,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  a  D.  or  doctrine. 
420 


The  history  of  D  ,  or  of  the  gradual  development  of  the  doc 
trines  of  the  Christian  Church,  formerly  treated  only  in  connec 
tion  with  ecclesiastii^  history  or  dogmatic  theology,  has,  01 
account  of  its  e>.tent  and  importance,  been  recently  advanced 
into  a  special  part  of  Church  history.  In  this  position  it 
forms  the  transition  from  Church  history  to  dogmatic  theolc^, 
Its  bisis  being  bibhi-al  theology,  while  dogmatic  theoli^y 
contmnally  supplies  it  with  materials.  Dogmatic  theoloCT 
proper  is  the  rationale  of  the  whole  D.  of  the  Catholic  Church 
at  a  particular  time,  and  the  subject  of  the  history  of  D.  is 
the  D.  as  it  presents  itself  in  the  various  stages  of  its  develop- 
ment, (See  Development  of  Doctrine.)  Comparative 
dogmatic  theolt^y  (Ger.  symboiik)  lias  for  its  object  a  survey 
of  the  distinguishing  principles  of  the  different  sections  of  the 
Church  as  embodied  m  their  confessions  of  faith  ;  and  stands  in 
the  same  relation  to  the  history  of  D.  as  the  Church  statistics  of 
any  particular  period  stand  to  ecclesiastical  history.  The  first 
attempt  at  compiling  a  system  of  d(^matic  theology  was  made  by 
Origen  (q.  v.).  Augustine  also  wrote  a  work  on  Christian  doc- 
trine. But  the  fourSer  of  systematic  theology  was  John  Dama- 
scenus  (q.  v.),  and  the  structure  was  completed  in  the  Scholastic 

Eiod,  from  the  8th  to  the  16th  c  Since  the  Reformation,  the 
man  Catholic  Church,  regarding  Protestants  in  the  same  light 
as  the  early  Church  regarded  heretics,  has  found  it  necessary  to 
exhibit  her  doctrine  definitely  in  new  confessions  of  faith.  Pro- 
testants have  also  set  forth  their  distinguishing  principles  in  con- 
fessions which  had  reference  to  the  ChuixJi  of  Rome,  to  the 
controversies  within  the  Protestant  Church  itself  {,e.g.,  between 
Lutherans  and  Calvinists),  and  to  the  tenets  of  heterodox  sects 
(^.^.,  Baptists,  &c.).  See  Hagenbach'sZi^)-*«finW-Z)i?^;fn^f- 
sckiihte  (2  vols  1840-41,  Eng.  trans.  1846) ;  antj  Neander's  Bag-- 
mengeschichte  (Halle,  1856,  Eng.  trans.  Bohn,  2  vols.  1858). 

Dogs,  Isle  of  {Poplar  Marshes),  a  projection  or  peninsula  of 
the  northern  bank  of  the  Thames,  3^  miles  E.S.E.  of  St  Paul's, 
is  insulated  by  the  West  India  Docks,  which  are  cut  across  the 
isthmus  of  the  peninsula  from  the  E.  bank  of  the  river  on  the 
one  side  to  the  W,  bank  on  the  other.  It  has  an  area  of  about 
a  mile  s()uare,  and  though  ui  the  midst  of  a  district  of  great 
activity,  its  appearance  is  squalid  and  uninviting. 

Dogshores,  pieces  of  wood  so  placed  as  to  prevent  motion 
in  a  ship  about  to  be  launched  when  all  other  supports  are  taken 
away.     See  LAUNCHING. 

Doga'tail  Qraes  [Cynosunis),  a  very  numerous  genus  of 
grasses,  natives  of  Europe  and  Asia.  Tlie  crested  D.  G.  {C. 
irislatus)  is  the  only  one  of  the  two  species  found  in  Britain  of 
any  value  as  a  pasture  grass.  From  its  shining  yellow  seeds  it 
is  sometimes  known  as  the  goldseid. 

Dog'wood  or  Dogljerry.     See  Coknace^. 

Doiley,  or  Doi'ly  (perhaps  from  Dutch  divaal,  '  a  towel '), 

on  whidi  glasses  are  laid  when  the  table  is  being  spread  for 

Doit  (Dut.  ditii,  duyt:  Ger  deul,  from  Venet,  daolo,  a  piece 
of  eight  soldi,  da  oto  soldi;  compaie  Fr.  d'huil,  de  huil,  of  eight), 
an  old  Dutch  copper  coin,  of  which  eight  went  to  tl:e  s^mer  or 
halfpenny.  It  was  also  a  division  of  the  English  grain  Troy.  It 
is  used  1^  the  old  English  writers  to  mean  a  coin  of  most  trifling 
value,  or  a  matter  of  no  consideration.  See  Shakespeare's 
Ccrriilantis,  act  i.  SC.  5. 

Dokk'um,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Friesland,  Holland,  on 
the  Ee,  llj  miles  N.E.  of  Leeuwarden,  with  a  haven  accessible 
to  the  lai^est  sea-going  ships.  It  has  shipbuilding  yards,  brew- 
eries, distilleries,  potteries,  and  wool-carding  establishments, 
and  a  trade  in  wool,  cattle,  butter,  and  cheese.  St  Boniface 
(q.  V.)  was  slain  here  in  755.     Pop.  (1864)  4535. 

Dolab'ra,  in  Latin,  a  halchet  or  splitter  (from  dolare,  'to 
split,'  allied  to  the  Old  Eng,  daelan  and  the  Ger,  theilm,  'to 
divide').  In  Latin  it  means  a  military,  an  agricultural,  and  a 
butcher's  implement.  Specimens  are  represented  on  the  columns 
of  Trajan  and  Antoninus, 


Dol'ce  (Ital.  from  the  Lat.  duke),  s 


ir  sweetly,  used  a 


y  Google 


DOL 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Dol'ci,  Carlo,  or  Carlino,  a  famous  Florentine  painter,  was 
bovnin  i6l6.  He  came  of  a  family  of  ailisls,  Ms  father,  grand- 
fatlier,  and  uncle  being  all  painters  of  repute  in  Florence.  His 
life  was  passed  in  the  pursuit  of  his  art,  and  he  produced  many 
fine  works.  He  died  at  Florence,  1 7th  Jfannary  1 686.  D.'a  style 
is  marked  by  extreme  delicacy  and  pnrity  of  colouring,  and  by 
elaborate  finish.  His  range  of  subject  was  limited  to  madonnas, 
saints,  holy  families,  and  kindred  themes.  The  most  noted  are 
his  '  St  Cecilia,'  '  St  Anthony,'  '  Conception  of  the  Virgin,'  and 
'  Christ  Blessing  the  Bread  and  Wine.'    t>      Bald  n      ^  Lfe  nf 

C.  D. 

Dole,  in  Scotch  law,  is  defined  as  the  n    ss  ntial 

to  guilt.      Gross  carelessness,  however,  is  a        ase      nmi- 

nal,  without  evil  intention.      This  the  is  r\         n       D. 

See  Culpa. 

Dole,  a  town  in  the  department  of  Jura   F  h   b  au- 

tiful  Val  d'Amour,  on  the  Doubs,  and  on  he  Rh  n  and  Rhine 
Canal,  28  miles  S.E.  of  Dijon  by  railway.  It  has  A  tribunal  of 
the  first  instance,  a  Jesuits'  college,  a  public  library  of  36,000 
volumes  and  617  MSS.,  an  art  gallery,  a  museum  of  antiquities, 
&c,  and  is  the  centre  of  large  iron  indastries  and  of  an  active 
trade  in  corn,  timber,  and  marble.  Its  chief  buildings  are  the 
lai^  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  dating  from  the  i6th  c,  the 
Hatel-Dien,  of  the  17th  c,  the  Pakua  de  Justice,  formerly  a 
Franciscan  convent,  and  the  ruins  of  a  Roman  bridge.     Near 

D.  are  a  mineral  spring  and  marble  and  millstone  quarries. 
Pop.  (1872)  11,679.  The  town  existed  before  the  invasion  of  the 
Romans,  from  whom  it  received  the  name  Dola  Siquanoruvc. 
It  stood  on  the  Roman  road  from  the  Rhine  to  Lyon,  and  has 
still  many  remjuns  of  this  period,  as  the  ruins  of  two  aqueducts, 
an  ampiiitheatre,  and  a  temple.  Later  it  became  capital  of 
Franche-Comt^,  the  seat  of  the  parliament,  and  of  a  university 
(1423-81),  and  was  strongly  fortified,  but  was  taken  by  Charles 
of  Amboise  for  Louis  XI.  in  1479.  In  1636  it  was  attacked  in 
Tain  by  the  Prince  of  Cond^,  and  in  1668  eagerly  espoused  the 
cause  of  Louis  XIV.,  who  now  made  himself  master  of  Franche- 
Comt4  and  who  razed  the  fortifications  of  D.  in  1674-  The  Aus- 
trians  under  Bubna  here  forced  the  passage  of  the  Doubs,  6th 
January  1814.  D.  was  the  headquarters  of  Garibaldi  during 
the  war  of  1870, 

Dol'erite,  a  term  given  hy  geologists  to  a  group  of  igneous 
roclfs  of  a  dark  green  or  grey  colour,  and  composed  of  felspar 
(triclinic)  with  magnetic  iron  and  olivine.  The  typical  D.  is  a 
'  crystalline-granular  mixture  of  labradorite  and  augite  with  mag- 
netic iron.'  It  often  contains  small  quantities  of  the  carbona' 
of  iron  and  lime. 

Doles,  at  funerals  (from  to  deal,   'giving  money  or  bread 
charity  ; '  hence  to  dole,  '  giving  grudgingly ').  This  is  a  custom  of 
the  early  and  middle  ages,  probably  founded  upon  the  Cathi 
doctrine  of  prayers  for  the  dead.     D.  were  given  to  procure  1 
for  the  departed  spirit ;  and  the  usage  at  one  time  prevai 
throughout  Great  Britain  of  giving  something  to  all  classes  of  the 
community  at  a  funeral.      A  slight  resemblance  to  this  Christian 
custom  may  be  traced  m  the  recent   funeral  of  the  Tarkish 
Sultan,  when  a  crowd  of  the  poor  followed  to  gather  the  small 
coins  tlirown  to  them  on  that  occasion. 

Doig^U'y  ('  dale  of  hazels '),  the  county  town  of  Merioneth, 
N.  Wales,  on  the  Wnion,  3  miles  above  its  estuary,  and  46  W. 
of  Shrewsbury.  It  is  prettily  situated  near  the  base  of  Cader 
Idris,  and  its  industries  are  chiefly  woollen  (Welsh  tweed)  and 
flannel  weaving,  tanning,  bleaching,  &c.  The  Wnion  is  here 
crossed  by  a  stone  bridge  of  seven  arches.  Pop.  (1871)  2217, 
a  number  greatly  increased  in  summer  by  visitors.  In  1404 
Owen  Glendwr  held  a  parliament  at  C,  and  there  allied  himself 
with  Charles  VI.  of  France. 

Dolioliooepli'alic,  a  term  first  introduced  by  Retzius  to 
denote  human  skulls  which  are  much  elongated  from  before  back- 
wards, as  distinguished  from  those  termed  brachyisphali^,  which 
have  neaily  as  great  breadth  as  they  have  length.     See  Skull. 

Doricltos,  a  genus  of  Leeuminous  plants,  including  several 
shrubby  annual  and  perennid  herbaceoas  species  cultivated  for 
their  flowers,  seeds,  or  yonng  pods,  which  are  boiled  for  the 
table.  About  sixty  or  seventy  rather  dubious  '  species '  have 
been  described,  from  the  tropical  and  temperate  regions  of  Asia, 
Africa,   and   America,     Among  the  beat-known  species  is  D. 


sisguifedalh,  of  the  W.  Indies  and  tropical  S.  America.  In 
France  it  Ismuch  cultivated  for  the  succulent  young  green  pods, 
which  are  boiled  for  table.  The  tuberous  root  as  well  as  the 
pulse  of  D.  tuhiresus  of  Martinique  are  eaten.  The  horse-gram 
of  the  E.  Indies  is  D.  imiflorus.  The  tubers  of  Fachyrhieus,  an 
aUied  genus,  ace  also  used  for  food. 

Dolls,  or  Sft'ta,  a  town  of  Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Ko- 
mom,  about  40  miles  W.N.W.  of  Pesth,  consists  of  the  Lake 
Town  (T&vSros)  on  a  small  lake,  and  the  Upper  Town.  The 
Esterhazy  castle  and  gardens,  arid  an  old  castle  now  in  ruins, 
said  to  have  been  for  some  time  a  residence  of  Mathias  Corvinus, 
are  mteresting.  There  are  warm  baths.  Pop.  6100,  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  woollen  goods  and  Faience  marble. 

Doll,  a  toy  in  imitation  of  the  human  figure,  made  of  all 
varieties  of  material,  from  the  article  of  shreds  to  the  elaborately 
dressed  miniature  of  French  fashions,  costing  from  2000  to  3000 
francs.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Sonneberg  in  Thunngia  not 
less  than  32,000  individuals  find  employment  in  the  mannfacture 
of  toys,  and  of  dolls  alone  there  are  exported  from  that  locality 
annually  24,000,000.  The  materials  used  in  D.-making  are 
papia--m&ch4,  vulcanised  india-rubber,  &c. 

Doll'ai;,  a  foim  of  the  Ger.  thaler  {Low  Ger.  dahler;  Dutch, 
daler),  from  thai,  'a  valley,'  because  first  coined  in  Bohemia, 
about  the  close  of  the  I5lh  c  From  the  German  empire  the  coin 
passed  into  Spain  and  the  Low  Countries,  and  thence  to  the 
New  World,  Tlie  D.  is  now  best  known  as  the  United  States 
unit  of  money.  The  United  States  silver  D.,  probably  adopted 
fromtheSpanish,weighs4iai  grains  of  standard  silver,  one- tenth 
alloy.  The  cen^  answering  to  the  English  halfpenny,  is  the 
hundredth'part,  the  nominal  value  of  the  D.  being  4s. 2d.,  but  New 
Yorlt  exchange  on  London  is  about  $4'87  for  ;^I.  During  the 
late  war,  paper  money  was  made  legal  tender,  and  at  present 
gold  is  worth  Il2f  in  greenbacks. 

Dollar  {dol  at  dal,  'a  vale,'  and  ar,  aird,  'a  height,'  'the 
vale  among  the  hills'),  a  village  in  Clackmannanshire,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Devon,  at  the  foot  of  the  Ochils,  10  miles 
E.N.E.  of  Stirling,  is  chiefly  noted  for  a  flonrishing  academy, 
founded  and  endowed  by  Captam  John  M'Nab,  a  native  of  the 
parish,  in  1818,  at  a  cost  of;£So,ooo.  Classics,  modem  kngiuages, 
English,  and  the  arts,  are  taught  by  a  principal  and  nineteen 
teachers.  The  noble  ruins  of  Castle  Campbell,  an  ancient  seat 
of  the  Ai^yle  family,  lie  a  mile  N,  of  D.  On  the  banks  of  the 
Devon  there  are  numerous  bleachworks.      Pop.  (1S71)  2123. 

Doll'art,  The,  a  gulf  of  the  N.  Sea,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ems, 
between  the  provinces  of  Gronineen  and  E.  Friesland,  about  10 
miles  long  by  7  broad.  It  was  formed  by  irruptions  of  the  sea 
in  1277  and  1530.     Much  of  it  has  been  reclaimed. 

DoU'inger,  John  Joseph  Ig:iiatius,  bom  at  Bamberg, 
38th  February  1779,  was  at  first  a  Catholic  curate  in  Fran- 
conia,  then  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History  at  Ascliaffenbej^ 
(Church  Training  School),  and  latterly  at  the  University  of 
Munich,  a  chair  which  he  subsequently  resigned  to  Mohler, 
taking  himself  that  of  dogmatic  theology.  In  1826  his  Die 
Lehre  voit  der  Eacharistie  in  den  drd  trsten  yahfhunderUn,  and 
in  1838  his  Lshrbuck  dtr  Kirchengsschichti  (which  superseded 
a  standard  work  by  Hortig),  gave  promise  of  his  later  indepen- 
dence. As  editor  of  the  Histsrisch-psliiischi Bldtler,  he  wrote  on 
semi-pohticat  subjects,  as  the  mixed-mairiage  question,  debated 
between  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne  and  the  Prussian  Qovera- 
ment,  Tractarianism,  &c  In  1845  he  entered  the  Bavarian 
Parliament  as  an  Ultramontane,  but  lost  his  chair  there  and  in 
the  university  through  the  influence  of  Lola  Montez.  In  the 
National  Pariiament  of  Frankfurt  he  elaborated  the  definition  of 
the  relations  of  Church  and  State,  which  amounted  almost  to 
complete  separation.  In  1853  he  protested  against  theproposed 
coronation  of  Napoleon  III,  by  Pope  Pius ;  and  also-  produced 
his  famous  Hippolytu!  und  Kallisim,  a  work  on  the  Roman 
Church  in  the  3d  c,  written  against  the  views  of  Baur,  Bunsi 
Lenormant,  &c.,  in  the  controversy  raised  by  the  publication 
WAW^  PhUosaphumma.  In  1857  appeared  his  .ffij*i^OTi''5awj  a 
Judentham  (translated  into  English  by  DameU  in  1862), 
attempt  to  appreciate  the  social  forces  which  favoured  or  : 
tarded  the  spi-ead  of  Christianity.  His  work  Kirclu  -und 
Kirchen  (1861),  in  which  he  delinilely  argues  against  the  tem- 
poral power  of  the  Pope,  has  also  been  translated  into  English 
421 


vLiOOQle 


♦- 


DOL 


TBE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DOM 


liy  M'Cabe.     In  spite  of  his  formal  excom  mimical  ion  

April  1871  for  having  resisted  the  docti-ines  of  the  Encyclical  of 
1864  and  the  Definition  of  1S70,  D.  has  since  received  many 
honours,  e^.,  in  1871,  the  degree  of  D.C.L.  from  Oxford,  the 
rectorship  of  Ms  own  university,  the  Order  of  Merit  from  the 
Bavarian  king,  the  Presidency  {on  Liebig's  death)  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Science  at  Munich,  and  in  1S74  the  Order  of  the 
Red  Eagle  from  the  Emperor  of  Germany.  In  September  " 
he  presided  at  the  Bonn  Alt-Catholik  Conference,  wher 
declared  that  the  Eucharist  was  not  a  perpetual  renewal  of 
the  propitiation  of  Christ,  and  that  he  was  not  bound  by  the 
Tridentine  Decrees.  Among  D.'s  other  works  may  be  mentioned 
Muhamimd's  Religion  (1838),  and  Die  Keformation,  ihre  itinere 
EnhokMung  und  ibrc  Wirkungen  (1846-48),  and  a  work 
on  prophecy,  translated  into  English  by  Hummer  (1873). 
The  bill  for  transferring  ecclesiastiad  property  to  a  committee 
of  the  ratepayers  and  communicants  Jn  each  parish  of  the  empire 
will  greatly  strengthen  the  Old  Catholic  party,  of  whom  D.  is 
the  head,  but  he  is  now  probably  too  old  to  undertake  the  task 
of  reconciling  the  ideas  of  Catholic  and  Teutonic  unity. 

Doll'ond,  Jolm,  F.B.S.,  was  bora  in  Spitalfields,  London, 
June  10,  1706.  He  began  businessas  a  silk-weaver,  occupying  his 
leisure  hours  with  the  study  of  matliematics,  anatomy,  Uieology, 
and  physical  science,  till  1752,  when  he  set  up  with  his  son  Peter 
as  an  optician.  In  1 753  he  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society 
his  improvement  on  the  telescope,  and  soon  after  he  entered 
into  a  controversy  with  Euler,  who  denied  the  conclusiveness  of 
Newton's  experiments  on  the  possibility  of  obtainii^  refraction 
without  colour.  This  led  him  to  repeat  Newton's  experiments, 
and  to  solve  the  problem  which  Newton  had  deemed  insoluble 
— viz.,  an  achromatic  combination  of  lenses.  For  this  gi-eat  dis- 
covery D.  received  the  Copley  medal  from  the  Royal  Society. 
He  died  November  30,  1761.     See  Kelly's  Ufe  of  D. 

Dol'men  (Cym.  ; stone  table'),  the  name,  chiefly  used  in 
France,  of  an  interesting  class  of  prehistoric  monuments,  similar 
to  vvhat  are  known  as  Cromlechs  (q.  v.)  in  this  country.  They 
are  found  in  great  numbers  in  Bretagne,  but  are  also  to  be  met 
with  along  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  in  Friesland,  (he  Nether- 


Alriea.-  The  principal  dolmens  in  France  are  the  famous  Pierre 
Couverte  near  Saumur,  the  Table  de  C&ar,  not  far  from  Lak- 
mariaker,  in  Bretagne,  the  Pierre  du  Mesnik  at  Morvilliers, 
the  Pierre  de  Gargantua  m  Ence-et-Loice,  and  the  vast  stone 
catacomb  on  the  small  island  of  Gavrinis,  in  Morbihan.  The 
Pierre  Couverte  is  a  rude  structure,  covering  an  area  of  65 
feet  by  17.  Its  walls  consist  of  ten  unhewn  blocks,  about  six 
feet  high,  and  it  is  roofed  over  with  four  immense  slabs.  The 
D.  was  long  looked  upon  as  a  sort  of  altar,  and  identified  wiih 
Druidical  sacrifices,  but  antiquaries  are  now  agreed  in  regarding 
it  as  a  place  of  sepulture. 

Dol'omlte,  or  Bitter  Spar,  a  mineral  composed  of  the  car- 
bonates of  lime  and  magnesia,  and  represented  by  large  masses 
of  magriesian  or  dolomitic  limestones,  which  occur  in  the  Oolitic 
formations.  All  dolomitic  rocks  contain  a  proportion  of  car- 
bonate of  iron,  which  sometimes  exceeds  that  of  the  magnesian 
carbonate.  In  such  cases  they  are  named  Ankerite.  D.  is 
usually  brown  or  yellow,  is  very  friable,  and  appears  to  result 
from  the  gradual  metamorphosis  of  common  limestone,  the  car- 
bonate of  magnesia  taking  the  place  of  the  original  carbonate 
of  lime.  From  its  susceptibility  to  the  action  of  the  weather,  it 
does  not  make  a  good  building  stone, — a  fact  well  shown  by 
the  weathered  and  wasted  appearance  of  the  new  Houses  of 

DorpMn  (Delpkinus),  a  genus  of  Cetacean  mammalia,  form- 
ing  the  type  of  the  family  Delpkinida,  which  also  includes  the 
Narwhals  (q.  v.)  and  Porpoises  (q.  v.).  The  dolphins  are  dis- 
tin^iflhed  from  the  whales  bj^  their  smaller  size  of  body,  by  pos- 
sessing numerous  teeth  of  conical  shape  in  both  jaws,  and  by  the 
nostrils  being  united  and  placed  far  back  on  the  upper  aspect  of 
the  head.  This  single  nostril,  or  blowAole,  as  it  is  termed,  is 
crescentic  in  shape,  and  placed  transversely.  The  head  forms 
about  one-seventh  of  the  entire  length  of  the  body.  The  dol. 
phins  are  recognised  by  the  elongated  snout,  and  by  the  head 
beiug  separated  from  the  snout  by  a  depression.     A  somewhat 


hook-shaped  dorsal  fill  exists  in 

common  D,  {Delpkinus  delphis)  p 

average  length  is  about  s( 

feet,  but  specimens  measu 

ten  feet  are  not  unknown.    The   ■ 

back  is  black   in  colour,  the  - 

sides  greyish  white,  and  the^^^ 

abdomen  silvery.    The  eyes  are 

small,  and  the  aperture  of  the  Common  Dolphin 

ears  very  mmute.    The  female 

D.  produces  but  one  young  at  a  birth.  These  animals  tend  then 

youlig  with  great  care  and  fidelity.     The  D.  is  found  in  th( 

European  seas,  and  also  in  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean,     It 

is  a  lively,  playful  anunal,  often  accompanymg  ships  in  shoals, 

and  for  lon^  distances.     The  bottle  nosed  D    (D  tursio)  is  a 

second  species,  which,  however,  possesses  fewer  teeth  than  its 

better-known  neighbour.     The  French  name  the  D   Bee  d'Oie 

(goose-beak)  and  Oil  de  Mir  (sea  goose),  from  ita  prominent 

Dolphin,  Bla«k,  a  name  given  to  the  Aphis  fahs,  a  species 
of  Aphis  (q.  V.)  or  plant-louse,  found  often  in  immense  numbers 
on  the  bean.  It  derives  its  name  from  its  black  colour.  These 
aphides  cause  great  devastation  in  crops  and  gardens,  and  gar- 
deners remove  flie  top  of  the  plants,  for  the  reason  that  these  pests 
first  appear  hi  that  situation. 

Dom-'Boc,  or  Doom-Book  ('book  of  dooms  or  sen- 
tences '),  tlie  code  which  Alfred  the  Great  compiled  from 
the  code  of  Ine  of  Wessex,  the  earliest  extant  collection  of 
West  Saxon  law,  and  the  code  of  Offa  of  Meroia.  .,^lfred 
was  satislied  with  expunging,  modifying,  and  arranging  pre- 
ceding enactments,  and  added  few  original  laws.  Corporal 
punishment  was  assigned  for  many  offences  formerly  punished 
by  a  line  or  blood-wile,  severe  penalties  were  imposed  1 
perjury  and  sacrilege,  labour  on  Sundays  and  holy  days  w 
strictly  forbidden,  and  the  right  of  private  revenge  was  i 
stricted.  Throughout  there  is  visible  a  tendency  to  aggrandi 
the  kingly  power,  alien  to  the  early  spirit  of  Teutonic  gover 
ment.  The  Ten  Commandments  and  part  of  the  Mosaic  law 
were  prefixed  to  Alfred's  code,  of  which  Dr  Panli  says,  '  So 
strong  an  infusion  of  biblical  principles  is  scarcely  to  be  met  with 
in  any  other  collection  of  laws  belonging  to  the  middle  ages. 
Nowhere  do  we  find  the  idea  of  combining  the  old  Teutonic  with 
the  Judaic  Christian  law  into  a  uniform  whole  carried  into  such 
a:fect  practical  application.'  See  Vaa\i\  Life  of  Alfred,  sect, 
,  and  Thorpe's  Ancient  Laws  of  England,  ioL  i. 
DombroVabl,  Jan  Henryk,  a  famous  Polish  general,  bom 
at  Pierzowice,  Cracow,  August  29,  1755.  He  joined  a  regiment 
of  Uhlans  in  1770,  became  aide-de-camp  in  ft.e  Saxon  service, 
inguished  himself  in  the  campaign  of  the  Poles  against 
the  Russians  in  1792.  In  the  Polish  struggle  cS  1794  he  de- 
feated the  Prussians  at  Labisjyn  and  Bydgoszcz,  and  after  Kos- 
defeat  at  Macieiowice,  nobly  declined  a  high  post  in  the 
Prussian  army.  In  1 796  he  was  empowered  by  the  French  Direc- 
tory to  raise  the  Polish  Legion— e.  body  of  Poles  who  fought  under 
the  French  flag  with  the  ultimate  hope  of  freeing  their  country. 
These  Poles  signalised  themselves  at  the  battles  of  the  Trebia, 
Novi,  and  others  ;  but  the  Polish  interests  being  ignored  at  the 
Peace  of  LuneiiUe  (1801)  and  of  Amiens  (1S02),  D.  quitted  the 
French  service  for  that  of  the  short-lived  Italian  Republic,  and 
afterwardsofthe  kingdom  of  Naples.  When  the  French  entered 
Poland  in  1806  he  rejoined  Napoleon,  and  called  on  all  Poles  to 
win  back  their  freedom.  His  countrymen  responded  e^rly, 
and  until  the  Peaceof  Vienna  (i8og)wereably  and  bravely  kd by 
D,,  who  also  covered  the  French  retreat  at  theBere^nain  1S12, 
and,  on  Poniatowski's  death,  became  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Poles.  After  1815  he  retired  to  his  estate  at  Varsovice,  which 
had  been  given  him  as  3  national  reward.  Here  he  busied  him- 
self with  arranging  his  memoirs  until  his  death  on  June  26, 
1818.  See  Chodzko's  Histoire  des  Lhions  Polonaises  en  Italie 
(Paris,  1829). 

Dome  (Lat.  domus.  Low  LaL  doma,  Ital.  duonio,  Fr,  dSme, 
Span,  donibo),  in  architecture,  the  spherical  or  concave  ceiling  of 
a  building.  Early  in  the  middle  ages  D.  was  applied  to  a  church 
( '  God's  house, '  Domus  Dei),  and  from  such  structures  being 
often  surmounted  by  a  cupola,  the  word  acquired  its  present 
meaning.     Of  modern  domes,  the  most  celebrated  is  probably 


yLaOogle 


DOM 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


-A 


grea 


that  of  St  Peter's  m  Rome.  T 
being  a  feet  more  than  that  of 
the  interior  is  139  feet,  being  3 
theon.  TTie  traveller  will  har 
wonder  than  St  Peter's  from 
Pantlieon  [La  Sulenda)  is  the  mo     m  D 

existence.     It  is  supported  by  da  am 

exclusive  of  the  wails,  which  a  k. 

St  Paul's  in  London  the  D.   1  magu  ea 

While  the  general  effect  is  powerful  and  giand,  the  outline  is 
varied  and  graceful.  Unquestionably  an  invention  of  the  Romans, 
it  was  at  Constantinople  that  the  D.  was  first  employed  In  eccle- 
siastical buildings. 

DomenicM'no,  properly  Domeni'oo  Zcunpie'ri,  one  of 
the  first  ptunters  of  the  Bolognese  school,  bom  in  Sologiia,  1581, 
studied  first  under  Calyaert  and  afterwards  entered  the  school  of 
the  Caracci.  His  first  important  work  was  the  decoration  of  the 
Nolfi  Chapel  at  Fano.  After  studying  in  Lombardy,  he  went  in 
1604  to  Rome,  where  he  painted,  among  other  great  works,  a 
Madonna  of  marvellous  beauty  for  Cardinal  Aquechi.  His 
magnificent  '  Communion  of  St  Jerome'  (1614),  now  one  of  the 
chi^  treasures  of  the  Vatican,  his  'Martyrdom  of  St  Agnes' 
in  the  Museum  of  Bologna,  and  'Diana  Hunting'  (Bovghese 
Gallery),  are  among  the  greatest  of  his  pictures.  He  studied 
architecture,  and  on  the  accession  of  Gregoiy  XV.  (1621),  was 
appointed  architect  of  the  Vatican.    The  Aldobrandini  Palace 

-~     ■■'-    -»s  built  after  bis  drawings.    In  design  and  in  truth 

,  D.  ranks  the  first  of  his  school,  while  his  colour  is 
brilliant  and  delicate.  He  was  persecuted  by  the  jealousy 
of  contemporaries,  and  his  death,  April  15,  (641,  at  Naples,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  caused  by  poison. 

Domea'day  Book,  the  name  of  the  grefit  stfitislicpl  sui-vey 
of  England  drawn  up  by  order  of  William  the  Conqueror  dur- 
ing ihe  years  1081-86.  The  name  is  the  12th  c.  form  of  the 
0&  English  dmmsdaeg,  the  'day'  on  which  a  local  court  gare  its 
'  dooms"  or  decisions ;  the  D.  B.  thus  meaning  the  boolt  com- 
piled from  inquiries  made  on  local  court  days,  and  perhaps,  from 
the  prevalent  fears  of  the  conquered  English,  had  an  additional 
reference  to  the  'day  of  judgment.'  Its  technical  narne  was 
Liber  de  Wintonid,  as  it  was  at  one  time  preserved  in  the  trea- 
sury at  Windiester.  Camden  calls  it  the  '  tax-book  of  kipge 
William.'  The  object  o(  the  survey  Was  to  show  the  king  to 
whom  and  in  what  proportions  the  country  lyas  allotted,  to  gu»rd 
small  landholders  against  the  encroachments  of  the  great  pro- 
prietors, and,  in  general,  to  fecihtate  administrative,  legislative, 
and  fiscal  measures.  'Domesday,'  says  Mr  Freeman,  'is  the 
first  known  statistical  document  of  modem  Europe  ;  it  was  the 
first  survey  of  the  kind  which  *ad  been  made  since  the  days  of 
the  elder  Roman  Empu*e.'  It  was  compiled  by  commissioners 
from  information  rendered  on  oath  by  the  chi^f  laymen  ^nd 
churchmen  of  each  district.  The  survey  gives  the  name  of  each 
estate,  the  name  of  its  ovmec  in  the  reign  of  Eadward  and  in  the 
teign  of  WiUiam — for  the  reign  of  Harold  is  sjndiously  ignored — 
its  extent  and  the  number  and  size  of  its  woods,  pastures,  ponds, 
&c,  the  number  of  freemen  and  villeins  upon  it,  its  total  value 
in  William's  andinEadwgrd'stijns,  and  the  wealth  of  every  free- 
man. It  is  of  great  historical  value  as  a  minute  and  thoroughly 
faithful  picture  of  England  before  and  immediately  after  the 
Norman  conquest.  It  is  not  a  mere  colourless  inventory,  but  is 
rich  in  details,  which  throw  light  on  the  manner  of  the  confisca- 
tion of  English  estates,  on  the  division  of  the  country  into  shires, 
&c,  on  the  different  condition  of  various  districts,  and  likewise  on 
the  character  of  William.  It  is  marked  by  an  lir  of  consistent 
impartiality  in  its  statements  of  the  rival  claims  of  Englishmen 
and  Normans,  King  William  himself  being  in  one  place  included 
among  those  wrongfully  holding  the  lands  of  others.  The  law- 
iiilness  of  William's  succession  to  Eadward,  and  of  the  transfer  of 
lands  from  Englishmen  to  Norman^  is  throughout  assumed,  and 
the  nature  of  llie  great  confiscation  is  carefully  veiled  imder  legal 
euphemisms.  '  Domesday  teaches  us  better  than  any  other  wit- 
ness of  these  times  can  teach  us,  that  the  England  of  the  I  Ith  c. 
and  the  England  of  th  9  h  a  Q  nd  the  same  thing.  Never 
was  there  a  dry  legal  d        f  11    f  human  interest  of  eveiy 

kmd  as  the  great  s  y  f  E  gl  d  (Freeman).  The  taxes 
were  raised  accordii  g  t     th     d  of  the  country  given  in 

th'e  D.  B.  until  1552  wl  n  a  w  ey,  called  popularly  the 
Nem  D.  B.,  was  mari        "^e    G    si  I  Inlrodiistien  to  D.  B.,  by 


D  m  Bti     Auu 


e  extensive  ;  and  his  d  mand   f       rt'  1       f  f    d 
ury,  year  by  year  open  so    ces  pp 

nent  into  his  catalc^  es  hi  h 

tmknown  kind ;  while  he  may  also 
qualities  and  phenomena,  by  intetb 
forming  those  combinations  of  their 
qualities  or  substances  most  in  de  SB 

Species,)     The  circumstances  Iha  es 

of  animals  are  those  that  present  to       mal  al    es  an 

condition:  to  which  they  have  been  a  m 

state,  although  in  many  cases  they  m  p        mse         m 

or  less  completely  to  other  environme  ts  ed 

ings.     We  shonld  perhaps  distingui      be  ma 

and  cullkiatka  of  animiUE  on  the  one  hand,  and  their  complete 
domisHcatioti  on  the  other.  The  silk-moth,  cochineal  insect, 
ox,  and  horae,  &c ,  may  strictly  speaking  be  described  as  '  culti- 
vated '  by  liian,  whilst  in  the  same  sense  we  may  talk  of  the  dog 
and  cat  as  '  domesticated.'  But  apart  from  strict  etymological 
reasons,  the  terra  '  domesticated '  is  used  to  include  all  animals 
of  use  to  man,  to  the  breeding  of  which  he  gives  his  attention. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  specify  the  various  and  diverse  animals 
which  are  of  use  to  inan,  or  to  indicate  the  many  different 
sources  which  are  being  at  the  present  lime  opened  up  for  fresh 
experiments  in  the  cultivation  of  commercial  zoology.  Piscicul- 
ture (q.  v.),  for  example,  is  beginning  to  give  unportant  results 
even  in  its  early  stages  of  cultivation,  and  other  departments  of 
biology  cannot  fail  in  the  future  io  afford  as  gratifying  evidence 
of  the  rich  stores  that  await  our  attention. 

Domestjo  Ar'eliiteoture.  The  first  consideration  in  build- 
ing a  house  ought  to  be  to  make  it  healthful,  the  second  should 
be  to  make  it  convenient,  and  the  third  to  make  it  pleasing  to 
the  eye.  These  ends  being  in  no  ^n3^  antagonistic,  it  ought  to 
be  pos^ble  to  attain  them  alh  Efncient  drainage,  with  the 
means  for  efficient  ventilation,  are  the  chief  requisites  for  a 
healthful  house.  Of  course,  the  means  existing,  it  must  be  seen 
that  they  are  properly  exercised.  The  inattention  of  the  poorer 
classes  to  airing  their  little  rooms,  by  opening  their  windows,  Is 
most  blamable,  and  the  evil  effects  of  it  ought  to  be  pointed  out 
forcibly,  and  dne  ventilation  insisted  on  by  those  in  a  position  to 
do  so.  Sleeping  jn  kitchens,  or  in  little  rooms  or  alcoves  off 
kitchens,  shonld  be  avoided  ;  hence  in  D.  A.,  where  means  are 
suffident,  it  should  be  made  impossible  to  do  so.  In  the  houses 
of  the  middle  and  professional  classes,  servants'  sleeping-rooms 
should  be  above-ground — at  all  events,  quite  apart  from  the 
kitchen.  The  arrangement  of  water-closets  is  a  very  important 
matter,  which  has  so  far  not  reached  perfection.  Every  middle- 
class  house  ought  to  have  three  or  four,  with  carefully- arranged 
communication  with  the  house,  but  not  in  the  heart  of  it.  As 
regards  convenience,  arrangement  of  staircases,  cupboards,  closets, 
&c.,  the  two  latter  we  the  important  points.  Scotch  honses 
have  generally  more  than  English  houses  ;  but  it  is  to, be  feared 
that  tliis  sometimes  leads  to  the  abuse  of  their  being  kept  in  dusty 
confusion.  An  airy,  well-ventilafcd  larder  is  a  point  of  great 
consequence.  It  also  should  be  well  apart  from  the  hot  kitchen. 
In  our  country,  to  keep  out  the  cold  must  of  course  always  be  a 
main  object  of  D.  A.;  in  Southern  climes  it  is  to  keep  out  five 
heat.  With  us  the  problem,  of  the  day  is  from  a  minimum  con- 
sumption of  fuel  to  extract  a  maximum  of  heat. 

Domestic  Slaa'agement.  A  considerable  and  perhaps 
increasing  number  of  people  are  forced  to  lament  over  the  insol- 
uble nature  of  the  problem  how  to  make  one  bank-note  do  the 
work  of  two.  Seeing  that  this  is  impossible,  the  only  plan,  with 
a  narrow  income,  to  make  'ends  meet,'  is  to  lessen  the  work 
to  be  done  by  self-denial  and  thrift,  and  out  of  expenditure 
so  regulated  to  extract  as  much  rational  pleasure  as  possible. 
■To  attain  thrift,  careful  account-keeping  Is  a  necessity.  With 
all  housekeepers  who  do  not  attend  to  this  it  is  a  subject  of  con- 
stant wonder  where  money  goes  to.  You  have  exceeded  your 
433 


vLiOOQle 


DOM 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DOM 


income  one  year ;  keeping  careful  accounts  for  the  next  will  not 
bring  back  that  which  is  gone,  but  by  so  doing  yon  will  discover 
where  the  leak  is,  or  where  the  many  leaks  are.  On  one  side 
enter  all  sums  received ;  on  the  other  side  there  should  be  various 
columns  of  £  s.  d.,  headed  according  to  the  various  branches  of 
your  expenditure  ;  thu^  rent  and  taxes,  coal  and  gas,  bulcher. 


periodically  balanced.  If  this  system  be  carefully  carried  .  ., 
the  mystery  cannot  fail  to  be  solved.  It  will  probably  be  found 
to  consist  largely  in  a  wholly  incredible  consumption  of  various 
articles.  In  r^uliting  expenditure  the  first  consideration  should 
be  given  to  matters  affecting  health.  When  incomes  allows,  let 
every  one  have  an  airy,  cleanly,  and  cheerfal  home.  (See  Domes. 
TIC  Architecture.)  Let  there  be  fitting  decoration.  In  and 
about  the  cottages  of  the  poorer  classes  there  is  no  decoration  so 
pretty  as  flowers,  and  they  cost  almost  nothing.  Perfect  clean- 
liness, it  is  lo  be  feared,  requires  a  certain  income ;  yet  much 
may  be  done  by  means  of  two  ineBpensive  articles — a  tub  and 

The  art  of  cookery  ahovild  be  carefully  studied  by  all  women 
of  the  lower  and  middle  classes,  and  even  by  those  of  tlie  higher. 
It  would  be  well  that  they  should  acquire  a  certain  amount  of 
gaalronomical  acumen ;  because  there  is  often  a  very  unhappy 
discrepancy  in  this  respect  between  a  man  and  his  wife.  Women 
are  often  unable  themselves  to  see  the  difference  between  a  good 
article  of  food  and  a  bad  one,  and  they  think  their  husbands  uu- 
reasonable,  who  see  a  very  great  difference.  Then  by  means  of 
science  a  good  dinner  may  be  had  for  less  cost  than  a  bad  one 
unscientifically  prepared.  Besides,  good  cookery  is  essential  lo 
healtL  So  also,  especially  in  our  climate,  a  woman  ought  to 
have  an  economical  and  hygienic  knowledge  of  clothing.  Many 
young  cliildren  die  annually  from  being  insufficiently  clothed  i 
purposely  sometimes,  under  the  mistaken  notion  of  '  hardening ' 
them.  With  regard  to  the  furniture  of  a  house — we  speak  here 
rather  ofthe  houses  of  the  middle  classes— harmony  is  especially 
to  be  studied.  Showy  articles  should  be  avoided.  In  themselves 
they  are  probably  not  highly  tasteful,  and  in  combination  with 
other  articles,  perhaps  somewhat  faded,  the  effect  is  unhappy. 
A  drawing-room  ought  to  look  what  it  ought  to  fe,  a  room  for  use 
and  not  for  show.  It  ought  not  to  look  as  if  it  was  only  used 
on  special  occasions.  We  should  study  to  produce  a  tasteful, 
cheerful  effect  in  selecting  and  arranging  the  furniture.  Let 
signs  of  rational,  pleasant  occupation  be  habitually  seen  in  it, 
books — hooks  for  reading,  that  is,  not  for  show-:^muslc,  and 
needlework  of  a  rational  kind. 

With  respect  to  the  difficult  question  of  servants,  it  would  be 
well  if  women  of  tlie  middle  or  even  somewhat  higher  classes 
would  learn  to  do  much  for  themselves  which,  from  false  notions 
of  dignity,  they  depend  on  servants  doing.  But  as  llie  relation- 
ship will  probably  always  be  necessary  in  some  measure,  the 
responsibility  of  improving  the  terms  of  it  must  obviously  rest 
with  the  mistresses,  for  the  plain  reason  that  they  have,  as  a  rule, 
received  a  better  education  and  culture. 

Domicile  is  the  place  of  residence  of  any  one  according  to 
law.  The  D.  of  a  minor  is  that  of  the  father,  unless  the  child 
he  illegitimate,  when,  having  no  father  in  the  eye  of  the  law,  the 
D.  is  that  of  the  mother.  A  married  women  has  tlie  D.  of  her 
husband,  which  she  retuns  on  his  death  till  she  acquires  another. 
The  place  where  a  man  lives  is  presumed  to  be  his  D.  ;  but  the 

E resumption  may  be  overcome  by  proof  of  an  intention  of  going 
ick  to  a  former  residence.  Mere  temporary  absence  from  home 
does  not  change  D,  But  in  many  cases,  after  legal  residence 
has  been  determined,  there  arise  questions  of  the  utmost  nicety 
in  the  application  of  international  law.  For  enample,  a  Scotch- 
man and  a  Scotchwoman  had,  in  Scotland,  sin  intimacy,  from 
which  issue  was  afterwards  bom  in  England,  the  father  and 
mother  having  gone  into  England  before  any  of  the  children  were 
born,  and  continuing  to  reside  there,  where  the  father  subse- 
t^uently  married  the  mother.  Accoi-ding  to  Scotch  law,  an  illegi. 
timate  child  is  made  legitimate  by  the  subsequent  marriage  of  its 
parents.  By  English  law  it  is  not  so.  The  question  then  was, 
were  the  children  in  question  entitled  as  lawful  issue  to  Scotch 
heritage  ?  The  Scotch  court  held  that  they  were  legitimate,  and 
the  House  of  Lords  affirmed  the  decision. 

The  general  rule  of  law  is  that  personal  property  follows  the' 
person  of  Ihe  owner,  and  on  his  disease  must  be  distributed 
424 


according  to  the  law  of  the  country  of  his  D.,  though  the  mode 
ia  which  the  subjects  vest  in  the  successors  is  according  to  the 
lex  rei  sita.  Real  property  descends  according  to  the  law  of 
tlie  land  in  which  it  is  situated.  A  will  is  now  valid  in  England, 
and  always  has  been  in  Scotland,  if  executed  accoiding  to  the 
law  of  the  country  in  which  it  is  made.  See  Kokeign  Law, 
Application  or. 

Dominant,  in  music,  the  note  a  fifth  above  the  key-tone.  In 
connection  with  the  chord  of  the  D.  and  of  the  '  D.  seventh,' 
see  Cadence  and  Chord. 

Bom'inaut  Xen'emeiit,  in  Scotch  law,  is  the  name  of  a 
tenement  in  favour  of  which  a  servitude  exists.  The  tenement 
over  which  the  servitude  is,  is  called  the  strvUnt  knemenl. 

Domia'go,  San,  the  capital  of  the  Dominican  Republic 
(q.  v.),  lies  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ozaroa,  in  a  deep  bay  on  the  S. 
side  of  the  island.  It  is  quadrilateral  in  shape,  and  is  surrounded 
by  ramparts.  Its  principal  buildings  are  a  cathedral  (1540), 
large  barracks,  an  arsenal,  a  palace,  and  several  convents  and 
churches.  Onlj'  smaE  vessels  can  enter  the  harbour,  and  tliere  is 
therefore  but  little  trade.  Pop.  15,000.  D.  was  founded  by 
Eartolommeo  Columbus  in  1494,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the 
first  European  settlement  in  the  Western  World,  It  was  sacked 
by  Francis  Drake  about  1586.  The  name  of  the  city  has  super- 
seded Hispaniola  as  applymg  to  the  whole  island,  which  is  also 
generally  known  as  Hayti  {q.  v.),  although  including  the  Domi- 
nican Republic.  D,  is,  besides,  the  name  of  several  small  rivers, 
settlements,  and  villages  of  S.  America. 

Dom'inia,  Be  Ctuzman,  St  (in  Span.  Domingo  de 
Guzman),  was  bom  in  1170  at  Calarvegua,  Old  Castille. 
According  to  Some,  he  belonged  to  tlie  old  family  of  Guzman, 
which  had  made  alliances  with  royalty,  but  this  statement  is 
somewhat  dubious.  He  was  early  distinguished  as  a  leamed  theo- 
logian and  a  fervent  missionary.  After  studying  from  his  four- 
teenth to  his  twenty-third  year  at  Valentia  University,  he  became 
canon,  and  in  1198  archdeacon  of  Osma,  in  Castille.  Being  un- 
successful as  a  preacher  m  his  efforts  to  convert  the  Albigenses, 
he  ginned  permission  from  Innocent  HI.  to  call  in  military  force 
against  the  heretics  of  Southern  France,  whom  he  persecuted 
with  relentless  fanaticism,  (See  Albigknses.)  His  admirers, 
however,  declare  that  he  strove  to  mitigate  the  horrors  of  the 
war  which  he  had  mainly  provoked.  This  crusade  gave  rise  to 
the  Inquisition  (q.  v.),  of  which  D.  is  the  reputed  founder,  biit 
which  in  his  time  was  not  definitely  organised.  He  established 
the  order  of  the  Dominicans  (q.  v.),  and  is  said  to  have  invented 
the  rosary.  D.  died  at  Bologna  in  1334,  having  won  the  title  of 
'  burner  and  slayer  of  heretics.'  Many  grotesque  miracles  were 
ascribed  to  him,  and  he  was  said  to  &ve  converted  100,000 
souls.  He  was  canonised  in  [334,  D,  was  a  man  of  sincere 
but  implacable  and  misapplied  religious  zeal,  and  thongh  he 
seems  to  have  been  visited  by  occasional  gleimis  of  tendemess, 
his  fiery,  persistent  intolerance  Stands  in  marked  contrast  to  the 
angelic  mildness  of  St  Francis.  He  is  mentioned  in  Dante's 
Farndiso  (c,  xii.)  as  a  fellow-labourer  with  the  Saviour.  See 
Theodoric  du  Pay's  Vila  S.  Dominki,  Lacordaire's  Vie  de  Saint 
D.,  and  Principal  Tulloch's  St  D.  tmd  SI  Frauds. 

Dorojni'edi  or  Dominique,  the  largest  British  island  in  the 
Lesser  Antilles,  W.  Indies,  lies  between  Guadeloupe  and  Mar- 
tinique, and  has  an  area  of  2gi  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1S71)  of 
27,178.  It  is  traversed  by  ragged  mountdns,  of  volcanic  origin, 
which  rise  in  one  peak  to  a  height  of  5314  feet.  There  are 
many  streamy  and  in  various  parts  hot  and  suljihurous  springs. 
The  climate  is  moist  and  unhealthy,  the  soil  singularly  fertile. 
In  the  valleys,  besides  coffee,  sngar,  and  cacao,  are  grown  indigo, 
cotton,  bananas,  l:)atates,  and  fruits.  The  hillsides  are  clad  with 
forests  of  rosewood  and  other  valuable  timber.  In  1870  the 
exports,  chiefly  rum,  cacao,  and  sugar,  amounted  to  ^62,251 ; 
the  imports  to  ^60,377.  The  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants 
are  liberated  slaves ;  a  number  of  the"  whites  are  descendants 
of  the  old  Spanish  settlers.  Roseau  or  Charlotteviile  (pop. 
6000),  on  the  S.  coasi,  is  the  capital;  and  the  only  other  consi- 
derable place  is  the  haven  of  Portsmouth.  D.  was  discovered  by 
Columbus  on  the  3d  November  1493  (a  Sunday,  hence  its  name, 
'The  Lord's  Day')  but  remidned  unoccupied  till  1759,  when  its 
possession  was  assumed  by  the  English.  It  was  captured  by  the 
French  undei'  Bouille,  7th  September  1778,  but  was  restored  to 


yLaOOgle 


DOM 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


DON 


-A 


England  in  17S3.  In  iSo2  England  suriendered  it  to  France 
evenfualiy  to  receive  it  again  on  the  peace  of  1814.  Between  D 
and  the  islet  Les  Saintes,  Rodney  gained  his  famous  victory  ore 
the  French  fleet  under  Grasse,  April  12,  1782. 

Domin'ioal  Letter,  or  Sunday  Letter,  one  of  the  sevei 
letters  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  used  to  mark  the  days  of  the  year 
A  marking  the  1st  of  January,  B  the  2d,  and  so  on  ;  A  marking 
theSfh,  15th,  22d,  &c.,and  all  days  which  have  the  same  letters 
falling  on  tlie  same  day  of  the  week.  Consequently  all  the 
Sundays  of  the  year  are  marked  by  the  same  letter,  which  is 
hence  called  the  D.  L,  (from  DUs  Dominica,  '  the  Lord's  Day,' 
or  Sunday).  The  ist  of  January  1S75  falling  on  Friday, 
Sunday  is  the  3d,  and  the  D.  L.  for  the  year  is  C.  Common 
years  consisting  of  fifty-two  weeks  and  one  day,  tlie  D.  L.  for 
the  next  year  is  one  earlier;  but  leap-years  having  two  days 
more  than  fifty-t^vo  weeks,  and  the  29th  of  Fehrrtary  having  no 
letter  atlached  to  it,  have  necessarily  two  Dominical  letters,  the 
first  for  January  and  Februaiy,  and  the  second,  which  is  the  letter 
immediately  preceding,  for  the  Sundays  of  the  rest  of  the  year. 

Domm'ioaa  BepulJlic,  Tlie,  forms  the  Spanish  or  eastern 
part  of  the  island  of  Hayti  (q.  v. }.  It  was  early  colonised  by 
Spain !  but  in  1795  it  became  French,  as  the  west  part  of  the 
island  had  already  been.  In  1814  France  relinquished  its  autho- 
rity in  favour  of  Spain.  The  colony  threw  off  the  yoke  of  Spain 
in  1822,  and  united  with  the  negro  republic  of  Western  Hayti, 
but  again  asserted  its  independence  in  1S43.  In  1861  it  once 
more  placed  itself  under  the  government  of  Spain.  A  revolt, 
however,  broke  out  in  1863,  and  Spain  finally  relinquished  its 
changeful  child,  Tlie  D.  R.  has  an  area  of  20,596  sq.  miles, 
.and  an  estimated  pop.  (l87S)  of  136,500.  Its  chief  productions 
are  tobacco  and  sugar.     The  capital  is  San  Domingo  (q.  v.). 

Domin'ioans,  a  religious  order  organised  by  St  Dominic 
(q.  v.),  who  established  the  order  of  Dominican  nuns  in  i2o6, 
andof  Dominicaii  monks  at  Toulouse  in  121$,  the  last  foundation 


and  intended  to  war  against  heretics,  was  known,  after  Dominic'i 
death,  as  the  Tertiarians,  an^  induded  members  of  both  sexes. 
The  D.  were  also  known  as  Predicants — Chaucer's  'frire 
prechours  '—or  preaching  friars,  in  England  as  Blade  Friars,  and 
in  France  as  Jacobins,  from  their  convent  in  the  Rue  St  Jacques, 
Paris.  Tliey  rapidly  grew  in  power  and  numbers,  and  were  dis- 
tinguished by  their  bitter  hatred  of  heretics.  (See  Albigenses.) 
They  preached  in  the  streets,  administering  the  communion 
from  portable  altars,  and  wandered  as  missionaries  into  Asia. 
The  Popes,  of  whorn  they  were  staunch  allies,  granted  them 
many  privileges,  freed  them  from  episcopal  authority,  and  in 
1272  recognised  them  as  a  mendicant  order.  They  received  the 
entire  control  of  the  Inquisition  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy ; 
and  ceasing  to  be  mendicants  in  14Z5,  htjd  wealthier  benelices 
than  any  other  order  possessed.  Along  with  their  rivals  the 
Franciscans,  with  whom  they  had  fierce  controversies  (see 
Schoolmen),  thej-  wftre  all-powerful  in  the  Church,  and  very 
influential  in  politics,  until  the  rise  of  the  Jesuits  (q.  v.).  The 
D.  were  opposed  at  times  by  the  regular  clergy,  and  by  the 
University  of  Paris,  GuillaumeSt  Amour,  Doctor  of  the  Sorbonne, 
wrote  a  treatise  against  them,  which  was  answered  by  the  great 
Dominicaii  Thomas  Aquinas  (q.  v.),  and  condemned  by  Pope 
Alexander  IV.  They  devoted  themselves  to  polemic  theology 
and  to  foreign  missionary  work.  To  their  order  belonged 
Albertus  Magnus  (q.  v.)  and  La  Casas  (q.  v,).  They  were  at 
first  governed  by  the  rule  of  St  Augustine,  with  some  addi- 
tional regulations,  and  wore  a  robe,  a  black  cloak,  and  a  black 
pointed  cap.  In  the  iSthc  the  D.  possessed  looo  monasteries. 
Dom'inis,  Marcaa  Antonius  de,  a  theologian  and  malhe- 
matidan,  bora  in  1566,  at  Arba,  an  island  on  the  coast  of  Dal- 
matia,  educated  by  the  Jesuits  at  Loretto,  and  afterwards 
taught  philosophy  and  mathematics  at  Padiu  and  other  Ital- 
ian towns.  He  was  successively  Bishop  of  Segni  and  Arch- 
bishop of  Spalatro,  but  having  offended  the  Inquisition  by  some 
writings  tinctured  with  Protestantism,  he  passd  over  into  Eng- 
land m  1616,  where  James  I.  appointed  him  Dean  of  Windsor. 
In  161.7  he  published  the  (irst  volume  of  his  £>t  RepuMicA  Eccle- 
siasticd,  in  which  he  disputed  the  supremacy  of  the  Pope.  He 
afterwards  returned  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  but  his  orthodoxy 
was  always  suspected,  and  Urban  VIII.  imprisoned  him  in  the 
129 


Castle  of  St  Angelo,  where  he  died  in  September  1624.  The 
Inquisition  caused  his  body  to  be  disinterred  and  burned  with  his 
writings.  In  his  De  Radiis  Vims  el  Lucis  in  Vitris  Perspectivis 
et  Irids  {Ven.  1611,  410)  he  first  satisfactorily  explained  the 
phenomenon  of  the  rainbow.  His  other  works,  in  Italian,  were 
translated,  some  of  them  into  French  and  some  into  Latin. 

Domin'iiun,  a  Roman  law-term  denoting  ownership. 

Dominium  Directum  and  Dominium  Utile. — The  former 
term  in  Scotch  feudal  law  denotes  the  right  vested  in  the 
Superior  (q.  v.)  of  a  heritable  (real)  subjed.  The  latter  term 
denotes  the  right  of  use  and  profit  vested  in  the  vassal.  See  also 
SiiPERioEiTY,  Consolidation, 

Dom'ino  (Lat.  domintts,  '  lord '),  originally  a  hood  worn  by 
the  canons  of  a  calhedi-al,  later  came  to  mean  a  woman's 
mourning  veil,  and  eventually  a  loose  silk  cloak  with  a  hood, 
worn  by  persons  of  either  sex  at  a  Masquerade  (q.  v.). 

Dom'inoa,  a  game  usually  played  with  twenty-eight  oblong" 
pieces  of  ivory  or  bone,  which,  with  the  exception  of  tlie  blanks, 
are  marked  with  dots  ranging  In  number  up  to  double  six,  There 
are  various  forms  of  the  game,  which  is  one  of  some  antiquity. 

Dom'mus  Li'tis,  a  term  of  Scotch  law,  denoting  the  person 
having  the  real  interest  in  a  lawsuit,  though  nominally  neither 
pursuer  nor  defender. 

Domitia'nus,  1.  Flavius,  son  of  Vespasian,  and  younger 
brother  of  Titus,  was  born  at  Rome,  A.D.  52.  After  his  father 
had  been  established  as  emperor,  D.  took  part  in  the  administra- 
tion of  Italy,  but  his  career  was  marred  by  gross  licentiousness 
and  savage  cnidty.  He  was  jealous  of  the  fame  both  of  his 
father  and  of  his  brother,  and  the  early  death  of  the  latter  has 
been  attributed  to  him.  D.  succeeded  Titus,  A.D.  81,  and  in 
the  opening  years  of  his  reign  displayed  much  enei^  and  liber- 
ality. The  extei-nal  affeirs  of  Rome  under  D.  were  of  little 
moment,  being  confined  to  an  expedition  against  the  Chatti, 
A.D.  84,  in  which  D.  was  succesrful,  and  an  attack  on  Decebalns, 
king  of  the  Dacians,  who  defeated  the  Romans,  A.D.  87. 
A.D.  84,  D.  withdrew  Agricola  from  his  great  career  in  Britain, 
and  fi'om  mean  jealousy  condemned  him  to  private  life.  During 
the  latter  part  of  bis  reign  he  gave  free  vent  to  his  wild  and 
cruel  passions.  He  sought  the  favourof  the  soldiers  by  increased 
pay,  and  of  the  common  people  by  lavish  gifts  and  pnblic  shows  ; 
while  he  shed  with  appaUing  frequency  and  fi'eedom  the  noblest 
blood  of  Rome,  and  obtained  a  fresh  supply  of  treasure  by  c 

fiscating  the  property  of  the  wealthiest  citiiens.    He  was  assa 

nated  by  conspirators  belonging  to  his  own  household,  and  with 
the  knowledge,  if  not  indeed  at  the  instigation,  of  his  wife 
Domitia,  A.R.  96. 

Do'mo  d'Osa'ola,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Novaro,  N. 
Italy,  on  the  Tosa  or  Toccia,  here  crossed  by  a  long  bridge. 
It  lies  in  the  beautiful  Val  d'Oscella,  at  the  S.E,  base  of  the 
Simplon,  and  is  the  chief  key  to  the  South  Alpine  tours.  The 
Simplon  can  be  scaled  hence  in  seven  hours.     Pop.  2587. 

Sou,  an  Italian  and  Spanish  contraction  of  the  Lat.  domii.  ... 
lord'  or  '  master.'  The  Portuguese  form  is  dom,  the  Old  Eng. 
'jin  or  duun.  In  Spain  and  Portugal  the  word  is  applied  as  a 
title  to  all  persons  of^noble  birth,  including  kings  and  princes, 
but  it  is  also  bestowed  in  courtesy  on  those  who  are  not  grandees. 
The  Latin  form  was  originally  assumed  by  the  popes,  and  de- 
ended  from  them  to  all  ecclesiastics  and  scholars.    Hence  the 

ons'  of  English  colleges,  and  the  'dans'  of  old  English  poetry 
■Dan  Chaucer,  Dan  Lydgate,  &c.    Tennyson  has  restored  the 
word  to  modern  English  in  his  Dream  of  Fair  Women. 

Don,  (anc  Tanais,  connected  with  the  Celtic  ajim,  'water' 
■  'river'),  a  river  of  Russia,  issuing  from  Lake  Ivan-Ozera, 
„  >vernment  of  Tula,  and  after  a  S.E.  and  then  a  S.W.  course, 
fallmg  into  the  Sea  of  Azof  by  three  months,  its  entire  length 
being  about  900  miles.  The  navigation,  on  accojmt  of  the 
shallowness  of  the  channel  from  sandbanks,  is  conducted  princi- 
pally by  flat-bottomed  boats.  The  traffic  on  the  lower  waters  is 
important,  owing  to  the  fisheries  of  the  D.,  and  the  convey- 
ice  of  Siberian  produce  to  the  S. 

Don,  a  river  in  Aberdeenshire,  rising  in  an  elevated  marshy 
district  between  the  counties  of  Aberdeen  and  Banff,  and  falling, 
after  a  course  of  78  miles,  into  the  sea  a  mile  N.E,  of  Old  Aber- 


vLiOOQle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DON 


the  sea, 

Don,  or  Dvu3,  a  river  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  rises 
near  the  borders  of  Chesliire,  and  after  a  course  of  55  miles  falls 
into  tlie  Aire,  which  soon  after  johis  the  Ouse.  By  means  of 
canals  and  cuttings  it  is  navigable  to  Sheffield,  a  distance  of 
about  40  miles. 

Donagliadee',  a  seaport  of  Ireland,  county  Down,  on  the 
Irish  Channel,  opposite  the  Copeland  Islands,  and  18  miles  E. 
of  Belfast  by  railway.  It  has  considerable  flax-mills,  some  in- 
dustty  in  embroidering  muslin  for  the  Glasgow  market,  and  an 
export  trade  in  cattle,  grain,  limber,  and  potatoes.  The  harbour 
is  commodious,  and  tlwre  are  productive  line  and  trawling  fish- 
eries. A  conicd  mound,  140  feet  high,  to  the  N.  of  the  town, 
commands  a  splendid  view  of  the  Irish  and  Scottish  coasts.  D. 
is  connected  by  submarine  telegraph  with  Portpatrick,  in  Wig- 
tonshire,  Scotland,  distant  22  miles.     Pop.  (1871)  2664. 

Don'aldeon,  Jolm  WiUiain,  a  distinguished  philologer, 
was  born  in  London  in  1811.  He  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  London,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  His  first  work 
was  The  Theatre  0/ Ike  Greeks,  which  was  followed  (1839)  by  the 
Niw  Cralylm  ;  or,  Contribu&msiimardsa  more  Accuraie  Knmv- 
ledgi  of  Ike  Greek  Language,  an  important  work,  which  reached 
a  fourth  edition  in  1868.  His  Varronianus,  a  critical  and  his- 
torical introduction  to  the  ethnography  of  ancient  Italy,  and  to 
the  philological  study  of  the  Latin  lai^uage,  appeared  in  1844, 
at  which  time  he  held  the  head-mastership  of  the  grammar- 


of  his  life  in  tuition.  Among  his  other  works  may  be  ojentioned 
yaskar,  an  endeavour  to  identify  in  the  Pentateuch  fragments  of 
the  lost  Book  of  Jashar  ;  a  Gje^  and  a  Latin  Grammar ;  and  an 
essay  on  Classical  Scholarship.  li)  1S56  D.  was  appointed 
classical  examiner  in  the  University  of  London.  He  died  iji 
1861.— James  D.,  a  Scottish  schoolmaster  and  scholar,  was 
bom  in  Aberdeen  in  1831.  He  studied  at  the  universities  of 
Aberdeen  and  of  Berlin.  In  1856  he  was  appointed  a  classical 
master  in  the  High  School  of  Edinbuigh,  of  which  he  became 
rector  in  1866.  D.  has  published  several  classical  text-books, 
but  is  best  known  by  his  valuable  Critical  History  ofCkrhHan 
Literature  and  Doctrine,  from  the  Death  of_  the  Apostles  to  the 
Nicene  Council,  in  three  vols. ,  the  first  of  which  has  been  rdssned 
under  the  title  of  The  Apostolical  FcUkers,  and  by  his  edition  (in 
conjunction  with  Professor  Roberts  of  St  Andrews)  of  a  transla- 
tion of  the  entire  Ante-Nicene  Fathers  (Clark,  Edinb.  1866-72). 


Lectures  ott  the  History  of  Edtuation  in  Prussia  and  England, 
and  on  Kindred  Topics.— Saiasa  D.,  an  Edinburgh  printer,  be- 
queathed in  r830;^2t5,ooo  to  build  and  endow  an  hospital  for 
the  maintenance  and  education  of  poor  children.  A  magnificent 
building,  in  the  Tpdor  style,  was  erected  at  the  west  end  of 


DonateU'o  (properly  I^onato  di  Betto  Bardi),  one  of 
the  greatest  of  Italian  sculptors,  bom  at  Florence,  J383,  was 
taken  early  under  the  protection  of  a  liberal  Florentine  named 
Martelli,  and  received  lessons  in  sculpture  from  Lorenzo  Bicci. 
His  first  work  was  an  'Annunciation,'  still  preserved  at  Flor- 
ence, and  of  which  the  draperies  in  basso-relievo  are  treated  in 
the  spiiit  of  the  antique.  This  work  won  for  the  sculptor  ap- 
plause, commissions,  and  the  friendship  of  Lorenzo  and  Cosmo 
di  Medici,  for  whose  family  he  afterwards  executed  a  noble 
monument.  A  great  work,  nicknamed  by  the  Florentines  Za 
ZuccoTU  (the  Baldhead),  is  the  finest  of  his  ^  statues  decorating 
the  exterior  of  the  campanile  of  Florence  Cathedral.  His 
marble  statue  of  St  Mark  (St  Michael's  Church,  Florence)  drew 
from  Michael  Angelo  the  exclamation,  '  Why  do  you  not  speak 
to  me?'  and  the  great  bronze  group,  'Judith  and  Ilolofemes,'  is 

riounced  by  Vasari  a  work  of  '  great  excellence  and  mastery. ' 
died  December  13,  1466. 


Dona'tion.  A  D.  in  expectation  of  death,  or  mortis  causa, 
implies  the  reversion  of  the  property  to  the  donor  should 
he  recover.  To  be  a  valid  gift,  in  a  question  with  an  heir  or 
executor,  there  must  be  actual  delivery  of  the  thing  meant  to  be 
given.  Accordingly,  a  receipt  for  stock  will  not  give  the  stock, 
because  stock  does  not  pass  by  receipt,  but  by  transfer.  But 
right  to  a  bank-note  will  pass  by  delivery  of  the  note.  A  D.  is 
often  revocable,  but  no  deed  is  presumed  in  law  to  be  a  D. 
if  it  admit  of  another  construction,  and  when  there  is  doubt,  the 
law  holds  a  transaction  to  have  been  for  Consideration  (1^.  v.). 
Donations  between  husband  and  wife  are  revocable  ;  but  if  the 
donor  die  without  revoking,  his  or  her  representative  cannot 
revoke.     A  reasonable  post-nuptial  contract  is  not  revocable. 

Don'atJstS,  a  sect  of  the  early  Christian  Church,  founded  by 
Donatus,  who,  being  defeated  in  his  candidature  for  the  bishop- 
*    of  Numidiain3M,  and  refusing  to  admit  that  the  ^mo'K'iff-J, 


of  the  clergy  as  had  yielded  up  the  Scriptures  to  the 
tes  during  times  of  persecution,  were  eligible  for  eccle- 


magistrates  during  times  of  persecution,  w 
siastical  ofiices,  withdrew  with  numerous  fisUowers  from  the 
Cathohc  community.  The  D.  soon  became  powerful  in  Africa, 
and  in  330  possessed  172  bishops.  They  asserted  that  the 
traditors  had  broken  the  line  of  apostolical  succession,  that  the 
integrity  of  the  Church  depended  not  on  the  succession  of 
bishops,  but  on  the  holiness  of  each  of  its  members.  They 
professed  to  hold  a  doctrine  of  perfect  purity,  and  carefully  re- 
baptized  each  convert  they  made  from  the  Catholic  Church.  In 
348,  when  efforts  were  made  to  suppress  them,  tliey  ravaged  N. 
Africa  as  bands  of  fanatical  mataudera,  under  the  name  Cir- 
cumcelliones,  and  were  frequently  seized  with  a  frenzied  desire  foe 
martyrdom.  The  D.  were  extinguished  when  the  Saracens  invaded 
Africa,  See  Neander's  Dogmengesckickte  (Eng.  trans.,  Bohn,  vol. 
ii,  p.  394),  and  Optatus  MUevitoitus,  edited  by  M.  Dupin  (Paris, 
1700). 

Dona'tus,  .fflliufl,  a  grammarian  and  rhetorician  at  Rome 
in  the  middle  of  the  4th  c,  and  tutor  of  St  Jerome.  His  trea- 
tises, embracing  a  pietty  comprehensive  system  of  Latin  gram- 
mar, were  for  many  centuries  the  standard  work  on  the  subject, 
and  formed  the  basis  of  most  of  the  elementally  books  of  the 
kind.  In  such  (repute  were  they  during  the  middle  ages,  that 
the  word  Donat  or  Donet  came  to  signify  lesson  or  rudimentary 
treatise.  D.  was  also  the  author  of  an  interesting  and  valuable 
commentary  on  five  of  Terence's  plays.  The  work  entitled 
Scholia  in  yEneida,  which  teats  the  name  of  D.,  is  generally  con-' 
sidered  to  be  by  TSlierius  Claudius  D.,  a  grammarian  of  later 
date  and  inferipr  calibre,  lyhg  wiote  a  worthless  and  slipshod 
Life  of  Virgil, 

Don'ftuworth,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  25  miles  N.N.W.  of 
Augsbui^,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Wernilz  and  Danube.  Pop. 
300a  It  has  manufactures  of  linen  and  leather,  and  a  trade  in 
cattle,  flax,  linen,  and  WJDOl.  D.  is  memorable  as  the  place 
where  the  Protestant  League  originated  in  1607,  whose  foi-ma- 
tion  was  the  immediate  cause  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Do'uax,  a  genus  of  moUusca  belonging  to  the  class  Lamelli- 
branchiata,  and  to  the  section  Siphonida  of  that  class.  This 
genus  belongs  to  the  family  TeUinidic,  The  shell  is  wedge- 
shaped,  witli.the  point  rounded.  Fossil  species  of  D.  occur  in 
the  Eocene  rocks. 

Con  Beni'to,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Badajoi,  Spain,  lies 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Guadiana,  60  miles  W.  of  Badajoz  by 
railway.  It  has  some  woollen  manufactures,  and  an  active  rive 
trade  in  oil  and  wine.     Pop.  14,800. 

Don'caBter  (Roman  Danum,  Old  Eng.  Don  Ceasire\  ; 
market-town  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Don,  37  miles  S.W.  of  York,  and  156  miles  N.N.W.  of 
London  by  rail.  It  has  some  manufaetures  of  cotton  and  wool- 
spinning,  glovemaking,  and  hosiery,  besides  manufactures  of  iron, 
brass,  and  agricultural  machines.  D.  races  are  among  the  most 
iamous  in  the  kingdom.  The  St  Leger,  run  in  September, 
brings  out  some  of  the  finest  horses  in  Englajid.  Pop.  {1871) 
18,768. 

Don  Coss'acks.     See  Cossacks. 

Don'da-ndu'gu  {Kisuaheli,  from  donda,  'ulcer;'  and  ndugu, 
'brother'— brother-ulcer),  a  peculiar  form  of  ulceration,  con- 
fined to  the  lower  extremities,  endemic  m  Zanzibar  and  Eastern 


yLaOOgle 


DON 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DON 


Africa.  This  formidable  disease  is  common  in  inter-trapical 
e  especially  after  the  rainy  seasons,  and  it  probably 
depends  oii  the, development  of  larv^  from  eggs  deposited  by 
-  :e  species  of  insect.  The  ulcer  is  always  situated  on  Ihose  parts 
.  os^  while  the  natives  are  travelling,  with  bare  feet  and  legs, 
through  mud  and  water,  and  most  generally  on  the  shin-bones, 
the  gastrocnemius  muscle  or  its  insertion,  the  instep,  and  the 
toes.  On  the  first  appearance  of  the  disease  there  is  not,  gene- 
rally, very  severe  pain ;  the  skin  is  smooth  and  glazed,  and  the 
sub-lying  tissues  have  a  b<^y  feeling,  and  not  fluctuating  as  in 
abscess ;  in  the  centre  there  is  a  small  spot,  like  an  abraded 
pimple,  eiaiding  a  little  serous  matter.  An  incision  made  at 
this  stage  leveSs  an  extensive,  deep-seated  slough ;  but  if  left 
to  itself  the  glaied  skin  soon  separates  as  a  siough.  In  severe 
cases  the  sloughing  proceeds  with  great  rapidity ;  tendons  are 
laid  bare,  and  the  bone  is  denuded  of  periosteum  ;  joults  are 
opened,  and  the  toes  or  foot  may  be  separated  from  the  limb. 
The  disease  is  of  the  most  loathsome  description,  both  in  ap- 
pearance and  odour ;  it  is  very  fatal,  and  those  who  recover  are 
generally  permanently  lamed.  Death  results  from  purulent  ab- 
sorption, from  extreme  exhaustion,  and  occasionally  from  Iwemor- 
rliage.  This  disease  seems  to  be  allied  to  the  ulcer  Yemenensis, 
immon  m  Arabia.  The  late  Dr  Livingsbjne  was  confined  to 
is  hut  at  Bamlrarre,  in  Central  Africa,  for  eighty  days  with  this 
disease,  The  antiseptic  is  the  only  mode  ol  treatment  of  any 
avail.  The  disease  was  first  described  by  Dr  Christie  (CkoUra 
Epidemics  in  E.  Africa,  MacmiUan,  1876). 

Don'dra  Head,  the  southera  extremity  of  the  island  of  Cey- 
lon, and  the  site  of  the  ancient  Singhalese  capital,  of  which  many 
IS  still  exist.  A  village  of  the  same  name  in  the  vidnil^ 
has  a  pop.  of  900. 

Don'egal  (Celt.  Dun-na-n  Gall,  '  the  fortress  of  the  foreign- 
ers,' ie.,  of  the  Danes),  a  market-town  and  seaport  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Eslce,  D.  Bay,  D.  county,  ag  miles  N.E.  of  SligO.  Near 
the  town  are  the  ruins  of  a  castle  once  belonging  to  the  Earis 
of  Tycconnel.  D.  exports  grain  and  butter.  Pop.  (1S71) 
1502,  The  chronicle  of  the  town  is  contained  in  the  Annoh  of 
the  Emir  Mailers,  written  at  D, 

e  county  in  the  N.W.  of  Ireland, 


Stm^ttl,  a 

yiiice  of  Ul  t 
niles.  It  ha 
218,334,  bemg 


mles  1 


th 


dth 


f    87    sq        I  d      p  p    (  87  J  of 

f     906  th  f    861. 

_     _     _  mty  I    la  d       E  g  1   in 

the  N.W      ttai  It  f  246      f    t       Th         ast- 

line  of  395  m  1  d    ted  by    an        bay        d  1    gh  ,  of 

which  L  gh  Swilly  5  1  1  g  M  y  I  d  f  nge 
the  coast  f  wh  h  th  hi  f  th  N  Arra  I  lands.  The 
streams  a  m  btmU,  tlpmplbegtl      Foyle 

and  the  Swilly.  Of  the  lakes,  the  most  noteworthy  is  Lough 
Derg  (q.  v.).  Granite,  metamorphic  rocks,  ^raywacke,  trap, 
and  carboniferous  limestone  compose  the  subsoil.  The  climate 
is  moist.  Much  of  the  soil  is  poor,  but  the  S.E.  is  fertile.  The 
principal  crops  are  oats,  potatoe^  and  flax  ;  there  are  manufac- 
tures of  linen  and  worsted  stockings ;  and  fisheries  of  herring, 
cod,  sole,  and  mackerel  Tlie  trade  of  D.  is  principally  carried 
on  through  Londonderry.  Among  the  minerals  are  marble,  lead 
and  copper  ores,  manganese,  and  pipeclay.  Lifford  is  the  capital 
of  the  county.     D.  returns  two  members  to  Parliament. 

Dongarpur',  the  capital  of  a  native  state  of  the  same  r 
in  Central  India,  155  miles  N.N.E.  of  Baroda.  It  is  fortified,  and 
has  a  pop.  of  some  6000,  The  Rajput  stateof  D.,  which  is  an  off- 
shoot of  that  of  Odeyur,  has  been  long  governed  with  tact  and 
intdligence.  It  is  in  part  a  wild  hill-country,  inhabited  by 
feudatory  tribes.  Area  1000  sq.  miles.  Its  revenue  amounts 
to  ^^7500.  The  Maharawal  received  the  right  of  adoption  in 
1S62. 

Don'gola  (N'ew),  DIarakali,  Easa  Dongola,  or  El 
Ordell,  the  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  Nubia,  on 
tlie  left  bank  of  the  Nile.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  Egyptian  pasha, 
and  a  flourishing  place  of  tmde,  with  a  fort,  well -stocked  bazaar, 
and  a  pop.  of  6000.  It  was  founded  by  the  Mamlukes,  on  the 
loss  of  Old  D.,  the  ruins  of  which  are  still  visible  75  miles  S.S.E., 
on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Nile.  Near  New  D.  is  the  charm- 
ing islet  of  Aigo,  on  which  have  been  found  many  Egyptian  and 
Nubian  antiquities. 


Do'nia,  Statute  de,  is  tlie  statute  of  13  Edward  I.  c.  i.  It 
is  sometimes  called  tlie  statute  of  'great  men,' as  chiefly  concern- 
ing the  upper  class  and  their  interests.  It  created  the  power  of 
entailing,  by  enacting  '  that  the  will  of  tlie  giver,  according  to  the 
form  in  the  deed  of  gift  manifestly  expressed,  shall  be  henceforth 
observed."     See  Entail. 

Donizett'i  Oaetano,  an  Italian  musician,  bom  at  Ber- 
gamo, in  North  Italy,  25th  September  1798,  studied  at  Bologna, 
and  for  some  time  served  in  the  Austrian  army.  He  de- 
voted himself  at  first  to  church-mosic  (for  writing  which 
he  was  aingnlariy  Unfitted),  but  afterwards  to  the  opera.  His 
operas  are  over  sixty  in  number,  among  the  best-known  being 
VEliiir  d'Amsre,  La  Fille  du  Regiment,  Lucia  di  Latnmennoor, 
and  iMcreua  Borgia.  D.'s  music  is  more  trivial,  and  his  talent 
less  than  that  of  Rossini,  of  whom  m  many  respects  he  was  a 
follower.  The  flowing  melody  of  his  music  has  caught  the 
popular  ear,  but  the  greater  portion  of  it  hardly  deserves  serious 
attention.    D.  died  at  his  birthplace,  Apnl  8,  1848 

Don'jon  (from  the  Low  Lat  domiiito,  '  a  loidship,  contracted 
domnio,  domgio,  dongeo),  or  Dun'geon,  ongmally  the  principal 
building  of  a  distiict,  or  the  strong  lower  of  a  fortiess.  The 
form  donjon  is  now  apphed,  in  foitilication,  to  a  laige  tower 
or  redoubt,  to  which  a  garnson  may  retreat  in  else  of  need ; 
dungion,  to  an  nnderground  prison,  such  as  used  tu  be  a  por- 
tion of  the  strong  towei  of  a  fortress. 

Son  Ju'aa,  an  imaginary  personage,  whose  story  s)  mbolises 
the  same  idea  as  the  old  German  legend  of  the  Tannhauser — the 
idea  of  a  soul  in  which  regard  for  the  spiritual  has  been  burned 
out  by  ungovei-nable  lust.  According  to  the  popular  version  of 
the  legend,  D.  J.  is  a  young  nobleman  of  Seville,  whose  rare  in- 
tellect and  courage  enable  him  for  a  time  to  pursue  with  im- 
punity a  career  of  eclectic  profligacy.  Having  slain  the  father  of 
one  of  his  victims,  in  impious  bmvado  he  challenges  tlie  Supreme 
Power  to  animate  the  murdered  man's  statue,  which  he  mock- 
ingly invites  to  a  feasL  Tlie  statue  arrives  as  he  requested,  and 
carries  the  blasphemous  libertine  down  to  helL  This  legend 
has  been  frequently  embodied  in  literature.  It  was  acted,  as 
a  spiritual  play  entitled  Athdsta  Fuiiitinals,  in  the  Spanish 
churches  and  monasteries,  but  was  first  cast  into  tegukr  dmnm- 
tic  form  in  El  Bwlador  de  SeiMla,  by  Gabriel  Tellez,  an  imitator 
and  contemporanr  of  Calderon.  In  this  play  D.  J.  appears  as 
tlie  sombre  but  impressive  incarnation  of  godless,  sensual  sin. 
Translated  into  Itahan  by  Cicc^nini,  the  drama  passed  from  Italy 
to  Paris,  and  gave  rise  to  MoliJre's  Feslin  de  Pierre,  where  D.  J.  is 
represented  as  an  unscnipulous,  plausible  scoffer  and  voluptuary, 
but  fallen  from  the  grandeur  of  the  Spanish  poet's  creation:  The 
legend  has  served  also  as  a  groundwork  for  Shadwell's  Zi^rfwif, 
for  Merimee's  Les  Ames  du  Purgatoire,  and  for  the  plot  of 
Mozart's  Don  Giirvaiim.  Byron's  D.  J.  has  only  the  name  in 
common  with  the  legendary  character ;  he  is  merely  a  youth 
who,  bemg  detected  in  an  intrigue,  leaves  Spain  to  pursue  a 
course  of  adventures  in  Greece,  Turkey,  Russia,  and  Enghmd. 
•nntiVny  Engine,  a  small  auxiliary  engine  used  on  bosird 
ship  for  filling  up  the  boilers  and  doing  other  work  when  the 
main  engines  are  not  in  motion. 

Dram,  Ilol)ert,  or  Robert  Mackay,  bom  in  the  county  of 
Sutherland  in  1714,  died  1778,  probably  the  only  one  of  the 
Gaelic  bards  who  has  received  more  attention  and  praise  than  his 
productions  deserve.  His  poems  were  published  in  1829,  with  a 
highly  laui^tory  preface,  and  his  clansmen  raised  a  monument  to 
him  with  inscriptions  in  Latin,  Greek,  Gaelic,  and  English.  He 
is  frequently  spoken  of  as  a  poet  of  the  highest  order ;  but  in 
truth,  while  one  or  two  of  his  songs  possess  considerable  merit, 
the  great  majority  are  commonplace,  often  interlarded  with 
English  words,  and  frequently  disfigured  by  sucli  coarseness  as 
ou^t  to  have  prevented  their  having  ever  been  published. 

Donne,  John,  an  English  poet  and  divine,  was  bom  miS73. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  studied  law  at 
Lincoln's  Inn.  Becoming  master  at  the  death  of  his  father,  a 
London  merchant,  of  property  worth  £jiCO0,  he  went  abroad, 
and  accompanied  the  expeditions  of  Essex  to  Cadiz  and  the 
Azores  in  1596-97.  Returning  to  England,  he  became  secretary 
to  Lord  Chancellor  Ellesmere,  whose  niece  he  secretly  married. 
For  this  he  was  imprisoned,  and  on  beuig  liberated  had  to 
recover  his  wife  by  a  lawsuit.  He  remained  a  poor  dependant 
4.27 


vGooqIc 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


on  his  friends,  until  James  VI.,  pleased  with  his  bool;  Tke 
Pseudo-Martyr,  induced  him  to  talte  orders,  and  made  him  his 
chaplain.  He  tiecame  famous  as  a  preacher  and  a  poet,  was 
made  Dean  of  St  Paul's  in  1623,  and,  after  receiving  further 
preferment,  died  March  31,  1631.  His  poems,  consistmg  of 
elegies,  satires,  epistles,  and  erotics,  display  a  strange  union  of 
pthos  and  affectation,  delicacy  and  coarseness.  They  abound 
m  fantastic  and  jarring  conceits  ;  their  verse  is  often  harsh,  and 
their  thought  crude ;  but  amid  their  tangled  intricacies  runs  an 
undercurrent  of  melody,  and  verses  of  the  purest  poetry  occur. 
His  Sermons  (1640)  are  full  of  deep  thought  and  iar-fetched 
illustrations.  Ben  fonson  called  D.  'the  lirst  poet  in  the  worid 
in  something.'  See  Isaac  Walton's  Zj/e  o/iJr  J.  Z>,,  prefixed 
to  the  first  edition  of  his  Strnioiis. 


Boo,  Q-eorge  Thomas,  a 


leiit  engraTCr,  boni 


artists  and  the  old  meters,  such  as  Wilkie's  '  Knox  Preaching 
before  the  Lords  of  the  Covenant,'  Etty's  'Combat,'  Correggio^ 
'Ecce  Homo,'  and  RafEielle's  '  Infant  Christ.'  D.  was  appointed 
Historical  Engraver  in  Ordinaty  to  the  Queen  m  1842,  an  E.A. 
in  1856,  and  was  Chairman  of  tne  London  International  Exhibi- 
tion of  1862.  His  engraving  of  Piombo'a  '  Raising  of  Lazarus,' 
finished  in  1864,  was  the  resuh  of  eight  years'  labour. 

Dooia  or  Doutn  Falm.  (Hyphane  Thebaka),  a  palm  of 
Upper  Egypt,  Central  Africa,  Nubia,  Abyssinia,  and  Arabia, 
remarkable  for  its  repeated  forkiugs  in  a  dichotomous  manner. 
It  will  grow  in  the  sandiest  soil,  and  in  some  of  the  most  desert 
pacts  it  is  the  prevailing  or  sole  tree.  The  fruit  tastes  somewhat 
like  gingerbread,  hence  it  is  sometimes  called  the  gingirbreadtrie. 
From  the  fibres  of  its  leaf-stallis  ropes  are  made.  An  infusion 
of  the  fruit  is  gently  aperient,  and  accounted  salutary  in  fevers. 
The  hard  albumen  of  the  seed  is  turned  into  beads  and  other 
little  ornaments.  The  hard,  tough  wood  is  useful  for  making 
various  domestic  articles.  There  are  a  few  other  species  of  the 
genus,  which  extends  as  far  S,  as  Natal. 

Doom'ster.     See  Deemster. 

Doou  (Celt,  'the  dark  water'),  rendered  by  the  muse  of 
Bums  the  most  classic  of  Scottish  streams,  rises  in  Locli  Enoch, 
in  the  S.K  of  Ayrshire,  and  flows  through  Loch  D.  Emerging 
from  the  loch,  it  rushes  through  the  magnificent  wooded  ravine 
of  Glen  Ness,  and  after  a  course  of  30  miles,  falls  into  Ayr  Bay, 
about  3  miles  S.  of  the  town  of  Ayr.  Not  lar  from  its  mouth  is 
the  cottage  in  which  the  poet  was  bom,  the  monument  erected 

'"  '■■" ^orv,  Allowa  Kirk,  the  Auld  Bri^,  and  all  the  ms^io 

of  '  Tam  o'  Shanter.' 


DoornTjoOm  (Dutch,  '  thorn-tree '),  the  name  given  by  the 
Dutch  Boers,  and  now  generally  adopted  in  S.  Africa,  for  Aca- 
cia horriila,  the  most  common  tree  in  the  wastes  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  &c.  Its  hard,  tough  timber  is  used  for  house- 
carpentry.     See  Acacia. 


D     rs  Do  rw  y    h 


II  ' 


f  n 


mglydifficult  to  fit  with  adoororto  close  by  any  knoi 

Tlie  difficulty  was  obviated  at  a  later  period  by  inserting  a  liutel 

half  way  up  the  opening.     Below  this  lintel  thejambs  were  nearly 


perpendicular,  while  above  it  they  sloped  so  as  to  form  a 
ment,  which  was  sometimes  filled  witlj  sculpture.  In  the  1 
tecture  of  the  ancients  the  doorways  were  usually  rectangular; 
though  sometimes  the  jambs  had  a  slight  inward  slope.  In 
later  Roman  architecture  they  were  sometimes  arched  ;  and 
when  rectangular,  an  architrave  or  suit  of  mouldings  ran  ro 
them,  and  around  the  top;  these  mouldings  were  often  hea 
and  more  numerous  than  round  tlie  sides,  and  were  supported  at 
each  end  by  a  truss  or  bracket  The  doors  of  tlie  ancients  wer~ 
made  of  wood,  metal,  and,  rarely,  of  marble,  and  were  swung  upo 
pivots  working  in  sockets.  In  the  doorway  of  the  Old  Engtis 
church  of  Monlcwearmouth  in  Durham,  the  arch  is  round  and 
rests  upon  pillars,  '  evidently  copied,'  says  Fergusson,  ' 
turned  posts  in  wood.'  The  Norman  doorways  were  heavily 
enriched  witli  ornaments,  and  show  surprismg  variety  of  design. 
The  arch  was  commonly  semicircular,  but  was  also  segmental  ur 
horseshoe  in  form.  The  mouldings  round  the  arch  were  some- 
times so  numerous  that  their  breadth  nearly  equalled  that  of  the 
doorway  itself.  Shafts,  sometunes  circular,  sometimes  octagonal, 
and  occasionally  ornamented  with  zigzags  or  spiral  mouldings, 
and  with  capitals  enriched  with  figures  and  foliage,  were  used  in 
thejambs.  The  original  Norman  doors  present  little  01 
tation  with  the  exception  of  the  iron  of  tlie  hinges,  which  often 
extended  more  than  half  across  the  door,  in  fanciful  scroll-work. 
The  west  door  of  Lichfield  (1275),  in  the  Decorated  Style  (q.  v.), 
is  an  example  of  the  architecture  of  the  period  in  its  highest  per- 
fection. The  chapter-house  door  at  Rochester  is  excessively  rich 
in  ornament,  and  is  satisfactory  in  design  ;  but  there  is  little  free- 
hand carving  in  its  decoration,  the  greater  number  of  the  forms 
being  produced  by  instruments.  In  this  great  work  the  tendency 
towards  the  more  mechanical  arrangement  of  the  Perpendicular 


square — the  spandrels  being  lilled  with  tracery,  foliage,  or  sculp- 
ture; and  the  doors  were  usually  panelled,  and  enriched  with 
tracery.  Of  modern  ornamental  buildings,  the  doors  and  door- 
ways are  most  commonly  designed  in  the  Early  English  01 
Decorated  spirit. 

Doct'uet,  or  Dook'et,  an  old  English  word  denoting  a  sum- 
mary of  a  voluminous  writing.  Attestations  or  declaration) 
annexed  to  written  instruments  are  called  doquets.  The  notarial 
D,  is  a  curious  example  of  ancient  style. 

Dor.     See  Dung-Beetle. 

Do'r»  d'Is'tria,  the  pseudonym  of  Helena  Ghika,  Princess 

Koltzoff  ■  Massalslty,  a  Wallachian  authoress,  bom  of  a  noble 

family  at  Bucharest,  January  22,  1829.     Her  early  studies  and 

travels  made  her  an  accomplished  linguist,  and  at  the  age  of  fifteen 

she  undertook  to  translate  the  IHad  into  German.     She  composed 

several  dramas  when  very  young;  became  famous  for  her  liauty 

and  acquirements  ;  and  in  1849  married  Prince  Kollzoff-Mas- 

salsky,  whom  she  accompanied  to  the  Russian  court.      After 

fil    h      1        Is  she  published  La   Vie  Monastique  dans  r£giist 

ris,  1855),  under  the  pseudonymD.  d'L,  in  allusion 

or  Danube.     Among  her  other  works  are  La  Smtse 

Geneva,  1 856)  ;  Gli  Eroi  dilla  Sumenia  and  ISunie- 

0,  both  in  Italian  ;  Le!  Femines  en  Orient  (Zurich, 

D    Femmes  par  sate  Fenime{\Zfyn);  La  VAiiiisnne  {1&64); 

de  LacsHek'iligues{iZ(>^),Si.c.  Her  works  are  pervaded 

ve  of  fi^edom  and  Christianity.     She  has  produced 

ides  in  French,  Italian,  and  German  journals,  has 

inting  with  success,  and  been  chosen  a  member  of 

m  ties  which  had  never  before  admitted  a  woman. 

D      fa  town  of  Persia,  province  of  Khuzistan,  on  the 

the  Jarahi,  about  44  miles  from  the  Persian  Gulf. 

tan      m  a  marshy  plain,  its  houses  are  mostly  of  reeds,  and 

p  rcled  by  a  thick  mud  wall.     It  is  the  diief  seat  of 

C  abs.     The  climate  is  unhealthy,  and  fever  is  pre- 

va  D    las  a  trade  in  rice,  wool,  and  Arab  cloaks,  for  the 

of  which  it  is  femous.     Pop.  atiout  8000. 

D       as  Sooi'ety.    Chaiitahle  societies  of  ladies  are  some- 

d,  from  the  verse  Acts  ix.  39 — 'And  all  the  widows 

weeping,  and  showing  the  coats  and  garments  which 

Dorcas  made  while  she  was  with  them.'     The  object  of  the  D. 

the  clothing  of  the  poor  and  liie  employment  of  poor  needle- 


yLaOogle 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DOB 


Dor'ohest6r(OM  Eng.  Dorce-ceaster),  the  county-town  of  Dor- 
selshire,  situated  on  tlie  Frome,  140  miles  S.W.  of  London  by 
rail.  D.  is  a  pleasant  town,  consisting  mainly  of  tliree  streels,  the 
chief  buildings  being  the  shire-hall,  guild-hall,  St  Peter's  Church, 
the  town  exchange,  and  the  jail.  Pop.  6915.  D.  has  consider- 
able trade  in  agiicultural  produce,  and  brewing  is  carried  on,  tlie 
ale  of  D.  being  famous.  The  town,  which  was  nearly  ruined  by 
a  tire  in  1613,  was  the  scene  of  several  battles  in  the  civil  war. 
Near  it  are  the  remains  of  a  Roman  camp  and  amphitheatre. 
Roman  urns,  coins,  &c. ,  have  been  found  in  the  neighbourhood. 

Dordogne',  a  south-western  department  of  France,  foimed 
out  of  the  province  of  Pirigord.  Area,  3536  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
(1873)  480,141.  Tlie  surface  is  hilly,  with  level  uplands, 
narrow,  fertile,  well.watered  valleys,  and  several  moors  and 
marshes.  The  N.  is  mostly  woody  or  barren  ;  the  S.  rich  in 
com  and  'rines.  D.  is  remarkable  for  its  numerous  streanis  and 
ponds.  It  is  named  from  die  river  D.,  which  rises  in  Mont  Dor, 
and  of  which  the  chief  tributaries  are  the  Ceon,  Isle,  and  Haute- 
Vezfere.  The  climate  is  generaEy  mild,  though  the  winter  in  the 
uplands  is  severe.  The  ciief  products  are  vines,  chestnuts,  maiie, 
rye,  and  buckwheat.  There  are  mines  of  coal,  icon,  lead,  copper, 
and  quarries  of  granite  and  sandstone.  The  leadii^  industries 
are  mining  and  the  manufacture  of  woollens,  charcoal,  paper, 
brandy,  cutlery,  &c ,  but  there  is  also  a  large  trade  in  iron,  wine. 


Ribcrac,  and  Sarlat. 

Dor^,  Paul-Guatave,  a  French  painter  and  designer  of 
great  fertility  and  fancy,  was  born  at  Strasbourg  in  January 
1832,  was  laJcen  to  Paris  in  1845,  studied  at  the  Lyefe  Cliarle- 
magne,  and  after  1848  was  engaged,  along  with  Bertall  (q,  v.), 
to  contribute  sketches  to  the  Journal  four  Sire.  From  this 
dale  sketches,  cartoons,  and  pictures  have  come  teeming  from  his 
hand  in  the  most  marvellous  profusion.  To  attempt  to  enume- 
rate more  than  hiaprincipal  works  would  be  undesirable.  He 
first  exhibited  m  the  Salon  in  1848,  and  his  sketches  of  the 
Battle  of  Ahna  (1855)  and  Battle  of  Inkerman  (1857)  attracted 
considerable  attention.  In  i860,  and  subsequently,  he  exhibited 
a  series  of  impressive  cartoons  illustrative  of  the  Dimna  Com- 
midia.  Later  he  contributed  a  vast  number  of  drawings  to  the 
journal  pour  Trms  and  to  many  other  periodicals,  and  also 
illustrated  tlie  works  of  Rabelais  (1854);  the  IVandiring  yew 
(1S56)  i  the  Conits  DrSIaHques  of  Balzac  (1856) ;  the  Centa  de 
Ptrraull  (1861);  Montai^e's  Essids  (1857);  Taine's  Voyage 
BUx  PyrmSes  (1859),  &c.  The  works,  however,  by  which  he 
has  earned  a  European  fame  are  illusti-ations  of  Dante's  Inferno 
(1861);  Don  (^dxote  (2  vols.  fol.  1863);  the  Bible  (2  vols. 
1865-66);  Fonttdne's  Faiks  (1867);  Dante's  Purmiorio  and 
Paradiso  {1868) ;  Tennyson's  Uylh  (l866-68)  ;  Milton's  Works 
(1866);  a  collection  of  drawings  entitled  IJmdon  (1870);  and 
Coleridge's  Atident  Mariner  (1^7$).  D.  is  ^ecially  happy  in 
rendering  weird,  unearthly  subjects,  to  the  effect  of  which  his 
gloomy  tecAntgue,  consisting  of'^  engraved  white  lines  ou  a  black 
ground,  greatly  contributes.  His  grim  humour  finds  vent  in 
-aaionidly  grotesque  exaggerations  of  life  and  nature.    The 

in  objection  to  his  art,  apart  from  the  defects  of  execution,  b 
general  duiness  of  tone,  and  the  consequent  want  of  atmosphere, 
point,  and  lirigLtness. 

Do'ria  (originally  B'Oria,  the  children  of  Oria,  wife  of 
Arduin  of  Narbonne,  in  the  first  half  of  the  I2ih  c),  the  name 
of  an  ancient  patrician  family  of  Genoa,  which  has  furnished  a 
long  succession  of  hisioric  names. — Antonio  D.,  elected  consul 
in  1154,  greatly  advanced  the  trade  and  commerce  of  his  native 
city.  In  the  straggle  between  the  Gueffs  and  Ghibellmes,  the 
Dorias,  with  few  exceptions,  took  the  side  of  the  latter,  and  were 
'n  consequence  highly  favoured  by  the  Hohenstauffens.  They 
irere  also  conspicuous  in  the  conflicts  of  the  Genoese  famihes  for 
political  supremacy,  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  for  a  time  almost 
unlimited  power.  Their  rule  was  the  golden  time  of  Genoa. 
During  the  14th,  isth,  and  l6th  centuries,  their  renown  as  com- 
manders of  the  Genoese  fleet  was  sustained  by  a  series  of  bril- 
lia,nt  victories  over  the  fleets  of  the  Pisan  and  Venetian  republics. 

:  most  notable  member  of  the  family  was  Andrea  !>.,  Irarn 
at  Oneglia,  30th  November  1468.  He  served  in  the  papal  guard, 
and  under  Various  Italian  potentates';  and,  as  captain -general  of 


the  Genoese  galleys,  warred  on  the  Moorish  pirates, 
with  Francois  I.  against  the  Emperor  Karl  V.,  and  commanded 
the  French  fleet  ^vith  signal  success.  Finding,  however,  that 
his  native  city  was  oppressed,  he  went  over  to  the  Emperor,  and 
in  1528  drove  the  French  out  of  Genoa.  Karl  offered  to 
make  him  sovereign,  but  he  patriotically  refused,  and  was 
called  'Father  and  liberator  of  his  country.'  He  formed  a 
government,  with  a  council  {signoria)  and  a  doge,  who  held 
office  for  two  years.  In  153S  he  fdded  in  the  taking  of  Tunis, 
and  in  1541  commanded  the  naval  force  in  the  Emperor's  unfor- 
tunate expedition  to  Africa.  Fieschi's  conspiracy  troubled  his 
closing  yearn,  but  this  he  crushed,  and  lived  in  great  state  at 
Genoa  till  his  death,  November  25,  1560.  See  Lorenzo  Capel- 
loni's  Vita  del  Principe  S.  (Venice,  1569) ;  Carlo  Sigonio's  De 
Vila  el  Cestis  Andrew  Doria  (Geneva,  1586).  The  family  still 
survives,  and  is  represented  by  several  branches ;  that  of  Andrea 
by  the  Prince  Doria  Pamfili  in  Rome,  and  the  Prince  of  Melli 
and  Valmontone,  who  occupies  the  palace  of  his  great  a 

Do'rians.  The  inhabitants  of  Doris,  a  small  mountain! 
trict  of  Greece,  lying  between  mounts  CEta  and  Parnassus,  and 
embracing  the  valley  of  the  river  Pindus.  They, are  said  to  have 
derived  their  name  from  Dorus,  the  son  of  Hellen,  and  are  vari- 
ously represented  as  inhabiting  Doris,  Phthiotis,  and  the  whole 
country  N.  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf  The  last  account  best  agrees 
with  the  historical  importance  of  the  D.,  who  formed  one  of  the 
four  chief  peoples  of  ancient  Greece,  and  conquered  the  greater 
part  of  the  Peloponnesus — a  feat  which  they  accomplished  under 
the  leadership  of  the  Heradidie.  During  the  historical  period  a 
great  part  of  the  Peloponnesus  was  subject  to  them.  They  founded 
numerous  colonies  in  Asia  Minor,  Sicily,  Southern  Italy,  and  the 
islands  of  the  jEgean.  The  D.  are  mentioned  only  once  in 
Homer  (Od,  lix.  I77),and  then  as  a  Cretan  tiibe  :  their  conquest 
of  the  Peloponnesus  must  therefore  be  placed  after  his  time.    Like 


,  they  V 


,   unpi 


iished. 


people.  Their  character  is  written  both  ii 
architecture,  and  stands  out  in  striking  coi 
more  polished  neighboura. 

Dor'iQ  Order.    See  Column. 

Do'ris,  a  familiar  genus  of  Gasteropodous  molluscs,  including 
those  forms  familiarly  named  '  sea-lemons. '  These  molluscs  be- 
lot^  to  the  order  O^thabranckiaia  of  their  class,  and  possess  ni 
shells  in  their  adult  slate,  but  have  the  gills  present  in  the  form 
of  beautiful  plumes,  situated  towards  tlie  hinder  extremity  of  the 
body,  and  which  can  be  retracted  or  expanded  at  will.  The 
head  is  provided  with  tentacles,  and  eyes  are  placed  behind  .the 
tentacles.  These  animals  ate  sometimes  named  '  sea-slugs,'  from 
the  resemblance  to  the  more  familiar  land  Gasteropods  of  that 
name.  The  sexes  are  united  in  the  same  individual,  D.  Johns- 
loni  is  a  familiar  species  among  the  British  examples  of  this  genus. 

Dor'islaua,  Isaac,  a  Dutchman  who  came  to  England  in  tlie 
early  part  of  the  17th  c,  and  was  made  lecturer  on  history  in 
Cambridge  University  by  Fulke  Lord  Brooke  in  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  He  lost  this  post  for  his  avowed  re- 
publicanism, became  judge-advocate  in  the  royal  army,  embraced 
the  cause  of  the  Parliament,  helped  to  draw  up  the  accusation 
against  the  king,  and  was  nmrdered  by  several  exiled  royalists. 
May  2,  1849,  at  the  Hague,  where  he  had  been  sent  as  ambas- 

DorTmig,  a  market-town  in  the  heart  of  Surrey,  on  the  Mole, 
29  miles  S.W.  of  London  by  the  South-Eastern  Railway.  It  is 
picturesquely  situated,  and  is  composed  in  great  part  of  fashion- 
able villas.  There  are  several  handsome  churches,  among  them 
tliat  of  St  Barnabas,  with  a  spire  I  Jo  feet  high,  built  "by  Sir  G. 
Scott  in  1859.  D.  has  some  trade  in  flour,  clialk,  and  lime,  and 
gives  name  to  a  certain  breed  of  fowls.  Pop.  (1870)  5419.  D 
is  on  the  Roman  road  between  London  and  Chichester. 

Dor'mant  (Fr.  dormir,  '  to  sleep '},  in  heraldry,  describes  ai 
animal  lying  on  the  ground  with  its  forepaws  outstretched,  and  it: 
head  resting  on  them.    CoueAanI  describes  it  with  the  head  erect 

Dormant  or  Poten'tial  Vital'ity,  a  term  given  to  certain 
phenomena  observed  in  some  animals  and  plants,  wherein  the 
vitality  of  the  organisms  appears  to  exist  in  a  state  somewhat 
analogous  to  that  we  familiarly  teim  suspended  animaliott  in 
man.  Thus  the  seeds  of  plants  may  be  kept  in  a  dried  parched 
429 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DOE 


state  for  many  years,  and  yet  spring  into  heaJtliy  plants  when 
placed  in  their  natural  conditions — namely,  in  moist  earth.  Tlie 
familiar  examples  of  wheat  and  peas  found  in  ancient  mummy 
cases  illustrate  the  occurrence  of  P.  or  D.  V.  in  plants.  And  a 
no  less  remarkable  instance  of  D.  V.  is  the  case  of  certain 
seeds  which  had  been  covered  over  in  Greece  by  the  refuse  of 
le  mines  not  worked  since  the  classic  ages.  These  seeds,  on 
being  recently  uncovered,  sprang  up  into  phmts,  and  reintroiiuced 
o  that  neighbourhood  plants  which  had  been  unknown  since 
2  times  of  the  ancients.  In  animals  an  example  of  D.  V.  is 
;n  in  the  case  of  the  Rotifera  (q.  v.),  or  '  wheel  animalcules,' 
highly-organised  beings,  of  mmute  size,  and  common  in  all  our 
fresh-water  pools.  These  beings  may  be  arCilicially  desiccated, 
.  as  they  are  dried  in  nature  by  the  summer  sun,  from  the 
pools  in  which  they  live.  They  may  be  blown  about  aa  mere 
dust-specks  by  the  wind,  and  may  continue  in  this  mumniified 
state  for  months  and  years.  Vet  on  the  addition  of  a  little 
moisture  they  at  once  resume  all  the  functions  of  their  lives 
with  renewed  vigour.  Other  animals  {such  as  sn^ls),  and 
other  animalcules  (such  as  the  Bell  animalcules),  &c.,  may 
similarly  exhibit  an  apparent  suspension  for  lengtliened  periods 
of  all  their  vital  functions.  Instances  which  are  sometimes  given 
of  insects,  of  fishes,  and  of  other  animals  exhibiting  tllis  slate  of 
D.  V.  are  not  to  be  accounted  true  examples  of  these  phenomena. 
~'  e  quiescent  state  of  an  insect  undeigoing  its  metamorphosis  is 
t  (o  be  compared  to  the  seemingly  total  suspension  of  all  the 
functions  oi  life,  as  seen  in  Rotifera;  and  such  fishes  as  the 
Lepidosirens  (q.  v.)  or  mud-fishes  (see  also  Dipnoi),  when  lying 
packed  in  their  mud-nests,  are  not  destitute  of  vitality  any  more 
than  a  hybernating  bear  or  mouse  can  be  said  to  be  dormant. 
In  the  one  esse  we  have  apparently  complete  cessation  of  all 
vitality,  in  the  other  the  animals  ate  simply  in  a  state  of  tor- 
pidity, but  breathe  and  exhibit  other  evidences  of  the  presence 
of  life.  When  we  inquire  as  to  the  conditions  which  affect 
organisms  so  as  to  produce  D.  V.,  or  those  in  virtue  of  which 
beings  of  high  structure  can  apparently  have  their  functions  tem- 
porarily annihilated,  we  find  that  biology  can  say  nothing 
definite  in  reply.  To  say  that  D.  V.  ensues  as  a  result  of  the 
withdrawal  of  natural  sun'oundings  (as  in  the  drying  of  the  Roti- 
fera), is  simply  a  restatement  of  facts,  and  not  an  explanation  of 
the  rationale  of  the  phenomena.  We  must,  however,  carefully 
distinguish  between  the  use  of  the  terms  revitaKse  and  reimii. 
We  can  revive  tlie  beii^  which  exhibits  D.  V.  or  suspended 
animation  by  restoring  it  to  its  due  surroundings,  but  we  cannot 
revitalise  a  dead  oigaoism.  Much  confusion  lias  arisen  in  dis- 
cussing this  subject  from  the  indiscriminate  use  of  these  terms. 

Dor'mel  (Fr.  dartiiir,  Lat.  dorfnire,  'to  sleep'}  is  an  attic 
room  formed  by  raising  a  gable  resting  on  the  rafters,  and  pro- 
jecting vertically  above  the  sloping  roof  of  a  house,  and  was  so 
called  because  it  was  a  contrivance  resorted  to  for  increasing  the 
sleeping-accommodation  of  a  house.  D.-windows  (Fr.  hicarnes) 
have  often  been  made  an  important  detail  in  Gothic  architec- 
ture, and  the  flamboyant  lucames,  constructed  in  France  towards 
the  end  of  the  iSlh  and  beginning  of  the  l6th  centuries,  were 
especially  elegant. 

l>or'mitory  (Lat.  dorndtorium,  from  dormh-s,  'to  sleep'), 
the  sleeping-hall  of  a  religious  house,  boarding-school,  hospital, 
&c,  in  which  a  number  of  beds  for  the  inmates  are  ranged.  The 
D.  of  the  Abbey  of  Fontinelle  (constructed  in  the  8th  c.)  was  2oS 
feet  long,  27  broad,  and  64  high.  In  later  times  the  D,  of  a 
monastery  was  often  a  series  of  cells,  all  opening  upon  a  long 
gallery. 


Dor'iuouse  (Afwtroi),  a  genus  of  Rodmlia  (q.  v. )  belonging  fo 


from  the  true  mice,  being 
^arly  allied  to  Ihe  Jerljoas 
(q.  v.),  squirrels,  &C.     The  family 
is  known  by  the  smoothness  and 
compressed  form  of  the  incisor 
teeth,  the  molars  numbering  eight 
in  each  jaw,  and  having  trans- 
verse markings  on  their  crowns. 
_^j  The  genns  Myoxus,  represented 
*S    by  the   lerot  or  garden  D.  (M. 

?uerdmis\  and  by  the  common  D. 
Af.  01  Muscardinu!  avdlanarius), 
of  moderate 


is  known  by  its  membei 

long  whiskers.    The  front  feet  have  four  toes  and  a  I'lidimentary 


thumb,  the  hinder  feet  live  toes.  Tlie  lail  is  long  and  hairy. 
The  members  of  this  genus  are  confined  to  the  Old  World, 
and  occur  mostly  in  Europe.  The  common  D.  attains  a  length 
of  five  inches,  is  white-throated,  of  a  light  reddish-brown  on  the 
upper,  and  a  lighter  tint  of  the  same  colour  on  the  under  parts. 
It  is  nocturnal  in  habits,  and  its  nest  is  built  usually  in  some 
secure  nook  in  a  tree.  The  food  consists  of  corn  and  nuts.  The 
D,  sleeps  during  winter ;  hence  its  name.'  The  young  number 
three  or  four  at  a  birth.  The  lerot  occurs  in  S.  Europe,  and 
attains  a  length  of  eight  inches.  Its  colour  is  grey,  tinted  with 
red  above  and  white  below,  and  a  patch  of  bla<±  below  the  eye. 
It  commits  much  havoc  in  fmit-gardens.  The  fat  D.  or  loire 
{M.  gits),  found  also  in  S.  Europe,  was  formerly  eaten  by  the 
Romans,  and  was  fattened  in  cages  named  gliraria, 

Dontljini,  or  Tom'biireiLC  thorn-dwelling'),  an  industrial 
town  of  Austria,  in  the  crown-land  of  Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg,  8 
miles  S.  of  the  Lake  of  Constance.  It  has  manufactures  of  spin- 
ning, weaving,  and  embroidery.     Pop.  (1869)  8444. 

Dor'noch  (Gael.  Dor-n-ach,  'the  field  between  two  waters'^, 
the  capital  of  Sutherlandshire,  Scotland,  and  the  only  town  m 
the  county,  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  D.  Firth,  l  i\  miles  E. 
from  (he  Bonar  Bridge  station  of  the  Highland  and  Sutherland 
Railway.  It  is  a  royal  burgh  (since  162S),  was  formerly  the 
residence  of  the  Bishops  of  Sutherland  and  Caithness,  and  has  a 
cathedral  said  to  date  from  the  nth  C,  which  was  destroyed 
by  fii-e  in  15  70,  and  partially  restored  in  1837.  It  is  now  used  as 
the  parish  church.  1).  attracts  many  summer  visitors  for  bathing 
and  golfing.  Along  with  Wick,  Cromarty,  Dingwall,  Kirkwall, 
and  Tain,  it  returns  one  member  to  Parliament     Pop,  (1870) 


Dorogobush',  or  Borogobouge,  a  town  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Smolensk,  Russia,  on  the  Dnieper,  50  miles  E.N.E.  of 
Smolensk,  It  is  well  built,  and  has  ten  churches.  It  was  partly 
buraed  by  the  French  under  Eugene,  in  their  retreat  from  Moscow, 
27th  October  1812.     Pop.  (1869)  9099. 

Dor'pat,  or  IDorpt  (Rus.  Gari^,  Esth,  Tartoli«),  a  town  on 
both  sides  of  the  Embach,  government  of  Livonia,  Russia,  150 
miles  N.E.  of  Riga.  It  is  mostly  built  of  brick  or  wood,  and 
has  a  granite  brii%e  across  the  Embach,  which  is  frozen  from 
the  end  of  October  to  the  middle  of  March,  Us  famous  univer- 
sity, fomided  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  163:2,  suppressed  in  1710, 
and  re-established  by  Alexander  I.  in  1802,  is  now  attended 
by  650  students,  and  has  a  library  of  80,000  volumes,  botanical 
gardens,  &c.  The  language  of  the  people  is  Esthonian,  but  that 
of  literature  and  of  the  learned  is  German.  There  is  an  active 
trade.  Pop.  (1867)  20,780,  of  whom  many  are  Germans.  D. 
was  fomided  by  (he  Russians  in  1030,  and  was  taken  by  the 
Teutonic  Knights  1223,  afterwards  becoming  an  important 
member  of  the  Hanse  League.  It  lias  been  the  seat  of  a  bishop 
since  the  13th  c,  came  into  the  possession  of  Poland  in  1583,  of 
Sweden  in  1625,  and  was  partly  destroyed  by  Peter  the  Great 
in  1704. 

Dorse  (Gadus,  or  Morkua  callaiias),  a  species  of  CadidiE  or 
Cod — somewhat  doubtfully  regarded  as  a  distinct  species — found 
in  the  northern  seas  and  in  the  Baltic.  From  its  liability 
to  variation  in  colour  it  has  received  the  name  of  '  variable 
cod.'     Its  average  length  is  two  feet.     It  is  hai-dly  known  in 

Dortet,  House  of,  an  old  English  family,  settled  in  Sussex, 
which  traces  its  origin  from  Hildebrand  Sackville,  one  of  the 
followers  of  William  the  Congueror,  The  chief  members  of  the 
family  are  the  followmg  ;— Thomas  Sackville,  the  first  Earl 
of  D,  (See  Sackville.)  Edward  Sackville,  grandson  of  the 
above,  was  bom  in  1590.  James  I.  viewed  hini  favourably,  and 
put  hun  at  the  head  of  the  troops  sent  to  aid  the  Elector- Palatine 
in  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  In  1621  he  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  the  French  court,  and  in  1624  succeeded  to  the  title  Earl  of 
D.  Although  Ciiarles  I.  was  very  partial  to  liim,  D.  often 
opposed  the  king's  unconstitutional  acts,  and  in  1640,  when  he 
was  one  of  the  regents  appointed  during  the  king's  absence  in 
Scotland,  exposed  and  prevented  the  massacres  arranged  to  take 
place  in  Ireland  in  October  164I.  In  1641,  as  President  of  the 
Council,  he  strove  to  reconcile  the  king  and  Parliament,  but 


-^ 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DOU 


mediation  proving  useless  he  espoused  (he  royal  cause,  and  fought 
bravely  at  Edgehiil,  He  died  at  Witham,  July  17,  1652. 
Ckirendon  says  he  vras  distinguislied  for  wit  and  learning.  He 
left  two  sons,  Eiclwrd  D.,  born  in  1622,  who  was  a  member 
of  the  Long  Parliament,  imprisoned  as  an  abettor  of  StrafTord,  be. 
came  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Sussex,  and  died  in  1677 ;  and  CHiarles 
Sa^kville,  Karl  of  D.,  who  was  bom  at  Witham  in  1637, 
went  to  sea  under  the  Duke  of  York  in  1665,  and  on  the  night 
before  the  sea-fight  in  which  the  Dutch  Admiral  Opdam's  vessel 
was  blown  up  composed  his  weli-ltnown  ballad,  To  all  ynt 
Zadies  new  on  Land.  He  was  a  distinguished  patron  of  litera- 
ture, and  the  friend  of  Dryden,  Waller,  and  Butler,  whose  Sudi- 
tras  he  introduced  to  the  royal  notice.  He  opposed  James  II.'s 
despotic  measures,  and  vras  a  favourite  courtier  of  William  III., 
whom  he  accompanied  to  Holltuid,  and  who  made  him  Loiii 
Chancellor.  D.  died  at  Bath,  January  19,  1706.  He  was 
highly  praised  by  Prior,  and  by  Pope  in  his  Epiiapk  on  D.  His 
writings  conast  of  satires  and  songs,  which,  though  trifling,  are 
generidly  elegant  and  piqu-int  Hia  son  Lionel  wis  made 
Duke  of  D  by  Georee  I  m  1720,  and  died  in  1765  Ihe  title 
became  extmct  in  1843,  on  the  death  of  Charles  Germftin, 
nephew  and  succeasor  of  that  Duke  of  D  who  was  Byron'a 
youthful  friend 

SOTBetaMre,  a  southern  county  of  England,  bounded  S 
by  the  English  Channel,  W  by  Devon  E  by  Hamj  shirt,  and 
N.  by  Somerset  and  Wilts  Aiea,  987  5  sq  miles  ,  pop  (1871) 
195,537.  It  IS  1^=1  '"  t^^  N-'  '"'t  ^  traversed  by  chalk  hills 
(Dorset  Heights)  in  the  centre.  The  coast-line,  75  miles  long,  is 
deeply  indented  on  the  E.  by  Poole  Harbour,  while  in  the  W.  it 
forms  part  of  Lyme  Bay.  It  is  in  places  precipitous,  occasion- 
ally standing  out  in  bold  headlands,  as  at  Swauage,  St  Albans 
(934  feet  high),  and  the  Bill  of  Portland.  The  chief  rivers  of  D. 
are  the  Stour,  Trent,  and  Frome.  In  the  W.  the  formation 
js  oolitic,  in  the  E.  cretaceous.  D.  is  an  agricultural  county, 
and  the  principal  occupations  are  er^i^og  ^'^^  '^^T  ^"^ 
sheep'  farming.  In  1S7S  ""ere  were  474,034  acres  under 
cultivation— 115,808  acres  being  in  com,  and  62,870  in  green 
crops,  while  54,691  were  under  clover,  sanfoin,  and  grasses 
in  rotation,  and  234,541  were,  exclusive  of  heath  and  mountain- 
land,  in  permanent  pasture.  The  number  of  cattle  was  76,348, 
and  of  sheep,  518,316.  There  is  a  laige  export  trade  ui  dairy 
produce,  and  in  Portland  and  Pnrbeck  building-stone,  coarse 
marble,  and  potter's  clay.  Dorchester  is  the  capital,  and  the 
other  notable  towns  are  Poole,  Bridport,  Sherborne,  Portland, 
Weymouth,  and  Melcombe-Regis.  There  is  ample  means  of 
inter-communication  by  the  London  and  South- Western  and  the 
Somerset  and  Dorset  railways.  The  coimly  retiu'ns  three  mem- 
bers to  Parliament.  D.  has  many  interesting  British  and  Roman 
remains,  as  barrows,  stone-cird.es,  camps,  amphitheatres,  &C. 
The  ruins  of  Coife  (q.  v.)  Castle,  a  residence  of  the  West-Saxon 
kings  of  England,  are  among  Ihe  finest  in  the  island. 

The  Dorset  SAeep,  in  form  of  head  and  horns,  resembles  the 
bladifaced  ewe  sheep,  but  the  whiteness  of  its  face  shows  it  to 
be  less  hardy,     Dorset  sheep  are  to  be  found  in  many  parts  of 
England,  and  also  in  Scotland.    They  are  long  in  the  leg,  light 
in  flioulder,  and  their  average  weigKt  per  quarter  is  from  ao  ' 
a5  lbs.    The  wool  is  of  good  quality,  but  the  fleece  is  l^ht,  4 
5  lbs.  being  a  good  clip.    Their  chief  merits  are  their  excellence 
as  nurses,  and  their  great  fecundity,  twins  with  the  ewes  being 
common  circumstance.    Their  lambs  are  dropped  in  Octotier 
November, 

Dort,  or  Dor'treoht  (from  Old  Ger.  tri/i,  'pasture' 
'meadow,'  'the  pasture  on  the  water'),  an  ancient  ton-n  on  1 
island  on  the  Maas,  province  of  S.  Ilolland,  Notheriands, 
miles  S.E.  of  Eottwdam,  partly  fortified  on  the  land  side.  It 
is  admirably  situated  for  trade,  having  not  only  the  Rhine  and 
the  Maas  in  its  vicinity,  but  being  furnished  with  numerons  canals. 
Large  raiis  of  wood  fJiDm  Switzerland  and  Upper  Germany  are 
floated  down  on  the  Rhine  to  D.,  which  has  numerous  saw- 
mills, extensive  shipbuilding  yards,  salt  and  sugar  refineries, 
manufactures  of  tobacco,  and  a  trade  in  seeds,  grwn,  oil,  and 
flax.  Pop.  (1874)  25,577.  D.  is  famous  in  Church  history  fot 
a  great  synod,  hdd  in  1618-19,  which  condemned  the  doctrines 
of  Acminius  (q.  v.).  The  hall  in  which  the  divines  met  is  now 
converted  into  a  ptyhouse.  It  is  perhaps  still  more  memorable 
as  the  place  where  the  United  Provinces,  after  the  expulsion  of 
the  Spaniards,  held  their  first  Assembly  in  1572. 


Dort'mund,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Westphalia,  Prussia, 
on  the  Cologne  and  Minden  Railway,  47  miles  N.N.E.  of  the 
former  city.  Its  railway  station  is  one  of  the  lai^est  on  the 
Continent,  with  Immense  workshops  for  the  manufacture  of 
colling  stock.  D.  has  also  manufactures  of  woollen,  Unen, 
cotton,  tobacco,  and  cutlery,  breweries,  and  flour-mills,  and  is 
the  centre  of  an  miportant  niimng  district.  It  is  a  very  old 
town,  and  figiires  in  the  romantic  and  fabulous  history  of  the 
dark  ages.  D.  was  already  a  town  in  the  year  80O,  and  was 
afterw£uds  variously  called,  in  roedifeval  Latin,  Tkroiniania, 
Tmtmanna,  Trulmottia,  Trtmonia;  in  German,  Trolfmaids 
and  Dortmunde.  It  was  a  free  imperial  city  and  a  member  of 
the  Hansealic  Le^ue,  lost  its  prosperity  during  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  but  has  recovered  it  in  recent  times.  Its  old  walls 
(i2th  c),  pierced  by  five  gales,  have  been  almost  wholly  re- 
moved.    Pop.  <!87i)  44,420. 

Do'ry,  or  John  Dory  (Zeusfaber),  a  well-known  species  of 
Teleostean  fishes,  usually  regarded  as  included  in  the  Scomberidte 
Dt  Mackerel  family,  and  distinguished,  as  a  genus,  by  possess- 
ing a  divided  dorsd  im,  the  frontorspinous  part  of  whldi  is  less 
developed  than  the  soft  portion.  The  body  is  deep,  and  bony 
plates  exist  along  the  bases  of  both  dorsal  and  anal  fins.  The 
name  'J.  D.'  is  supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of  the  French yniiBS 
dorh,  a  term  given  to  this  fish  from  the  brilliant  yellow  colour  of 
its  body.  The  body  is  compressed,  and  the  head  curiously 
shaped,  the  mouth  being  very  protnisible.  Each  ray  of  the 
first  dorsal  fin  gives  off  long  lendril-hke  processes.  The  colour 
exhibits  a  general  yellowish  hue,  but  the  tints  which  pass  over 
the  body  as  the  fish  is  dying  are  as  varied  as  they  are  beautiful. 
The  food  of  the  D.  consists  chiefly  of  smaller  fry  and  cuttlefishes. 
Its  flesh  is  highly  esteemed.  It  is  also  known  by  a  peculiar  black 
mark  on  each  side,  which  superstition  ascribes  to  the  mark  of  the 
apostle  Peter's  finger  and  thumb,  as  he  took  this  fish  from  the 
water  to  obtain  the  tribute- money.  The  average  length  is  about 
sixteen  inches.     The  D.  occurs  ui  most  of  the  seas  of  Europe. 

Dott'erel  {Charadrius  Morniellm)  a  species  of  ChaTadHad(^ 
or  Plovers,  occurring  in  Britain,  in  N.  Europe  and  N.  Asia, 
but  also  migrating  to  the  S.  of  Europe  in  autumn.  The 
plumage  is  of  a  general  brownish  tint  on  the  upper  parts,  the 
cheeks  and  tViroat  being  white,  whilst  the  breast  and  under  parts 
are  white.  The  average  length  of  this  bird  is  8  or  g  inches. 
It  is  captured  for  the  London  market  in  lai^e  quantities,  and  is 
in  reality  shy  and  wary,  although  usually  reckoned  a  stupid 
animal 

Dou'ai,  or  Douay,  an  andent  tovra  of  France,  department  of 
Nord,  on  the  Scarpe,  21  miles  by  railway  S,  of  Lille,  and  about 
70  miles  S.E.  of  Calais.  Of  its  once  formidable  fortifications 
there  are  some  remains,  and  its  notable  buildings  and  institutions 
are  the  Church  of  Notre  Dame  (partly  of  the  1 2th  c.)  5  the  artil- 
lery magasine  and  barracks  ;  the  imperial  cannon- foundry  j  the 
Hotel  de  Ville,  a  magnificent  Gothic  structure,  with  beautiful 
belfry;  the  library  (40,000  vols.);  the  museum  of  natural 
history,  antiquities,  and  art ;  a  college  for  tlie  education  of 
English  Roman  Catholics,  a  university  academy,  and  schools  for 
law,  physics,  mechanics,  chemistry,  mathematics,  gunnery,  and 
for  the  training  of  male  and  female  teachers.  The  industrial 
establishments  comprise  machine-shops,  foundries,  lace  and 
thread  factories,  and  chemical  works.  D.  is  connected  by  a 
number  of  canals  and  by  the  river  Scheldt  with  the  chief  towns 
and  departments  of  Belgium,  and  it  is  the  centre  of  an  active 
trade  in  oil,  sngar,  soap,  brushes,  linen  goods,  madiines,  and 
instruments,  &c  Pop.  (1872)  18,341, 
Douai  Bible.  See  Bible. 
;Double  Bass.    See  Contra-Bass. 

Double  Con'acioTisness  is  the  name  of  a  morbid  mental 
condition,  generally  of  periodic  recurrence,  wiiich  remains  un- 
connected with  the  ordinary  mental  life  of  the  patient,  but  the 
separate  portions  of  which  coalesce  through  memory  and  the 
oidinary  laws  of  iissociation,  and  thus  form  the  material,  if  not 
the  distinct  conception,  of  a  second  personality.  The  stronger 
developments  of  this  have  occurred  in  the  cases  of  hjFSterical  and 
insane  patients  j  but  there  is  a  milder  form  in  which  somnam- 
bulism, along  with  a  consciousness  of  external  impressions, 
alternates  with  healthy  normal  consciousness.  The  magnetic 
I  deeper  does  not  remember  after  waking  what  he  has  smelled, 
431 


vLiOOQle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DOU 


tasted,  heard,  spoken,  or  done  during  the  sleep ;  but  when  sub- 
jected to  magnetism  again,  tlie  memory  of  Ibat  and  ail  previous 
magnetic  sleeps  revives.  The  sense  of  identity  is  often  lost  in 
the  magnetic  sleeper,  allhough  the  sleeper  may  speak  witli 
accuracy  of  things  known  to  him  in  his  usual  state.  It  is  not 
known  what  causes  the  'fault'  in  Ihe  menial  connections.  It  has 
been  hypothetical] yassKned  to  the  independent  action  of  the  two 
hemispheres  of  the  cerebrum  (Holland,  On  the  Brain  as  a  BouMi 
Organ).  It  is  not  proved  tliat  the  hemispheres  do  act  in  this  man- 
ner ;  were  that  known,  the  problem  would  then  be  to  connect  this 
independent  action  with  the  morbid  conditions  of  D.  C,  and  to 
explain  how  the  isolation  is  produced  and  terminalei,  and  how 
the  experience  of  the  isolated  hemisphere  is  prevented  from 
afterwards  coalescing  with  the  healihy  action  of  the  whole  brain. 
The  idea  of  imconscious  cerebration,  or  of  mental  life  without 
consciousness,  does  not  to  any  extent  explain  the  phenomena  of 
D.  C,  althongh  it  suggests  how  portions  of  experience  lost  to 
ordinary  consciousness  oiay  be  reached  by  a  ware  of  neiTous 


Double  Flat,  in  musical  notation,  a  sign  indicating  that  fm 
the  note  to  which  it  is  prefixed  a  note  two  semitones  lower  is  to 
be  substituted,  A  Double  Sharp  indicates  the  similar  sub- 
stitution, of  a  note  two  semitones  A^her. 

Double-Sbott'mg  was  the  practice,  in  the  naval  tactics  ol 
an  earlier  day,  of  loading  a  gnu  with  double  the  usual  weight  of 
shot  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  destructive  power.  The 
design  of  modem  cannon,  and  the  perfect  condition  in  which  it 
is  necessary  to  maintain  them,  render  this  practice  impossible  at 
the  present  day,  whil6  the  rapidity  gained  by  the  adoption  of 
the  contrivance  of  breech-loading  renders  it  unnecessary. 

Doublet  {Fr.  doiibUt,  from  douBU,  'doubled,'  because  lined), 
-Tarficleofapparel  resembiingajaokel  '  '  ■-  ■  —  ■  ■ 
om  France  about  the  middle  of  the 

classes  for  upwards  of  200  years.     Its  

by  constant  change  of  shape :  the  original  garment  was  sleeveless, 
but  sleeves  were  afterwards  added ;  at  one  time  it  was  tight- 
fitting,  at  anotlier  time  loose;  again  'pease-cod  bellied,'  then 
lon^  watsied ;  till  it  finally,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  lost  its 
individuality  and  was  superseded  by  the  waistcoat. 

Doubling  of  tbe  Cube.  See  Duplication  (if  the 
Cube. 

Doubloon'  (Span.  t/iiHon  and  doblon,  'double'),  the  name 
of  a  gold  piece  of  the  value  of  two  pistoles.  During  the  i8th  c 
and  subsequently,  the  value  of  the  D,  varied  at  different  times. 
For  some  time  previously  to  1772  the  value  had  been  ^3,  is.  lod.; 
in  that  year  the  pieces  were  called  in.  They  were  subsequently 
reissued  of  the  value  of  ^3,  4s.  8d.  The  valne  of  the  dublon  de 
Isabella,  issued  in  1848,  is  £1,  os.  8d. 

Doubs,  a  frontier  department  of  France,  bounded  N.  by 
Haute-SaSne  and  Alsace,  W.  by  Jura,  E.  by  the  Jura  range, 
and  narrowing  in  the  S,  almost  to  a  point.  Area,  2018  sq. 
miles  J  pop.  (1872)  286,888,  It  is  chiefly  watered  by  the  river 
from  which  it  takes  its  name,  and  has  the  Oignon  for  its  western 
boundary.  The  countiy  is  veiy  mountainous,  presenting  three 
distinct  zones  in  climate  andproductions  — (i)  The  rich  vine P^;«^ 
to  the  W.,  between  the  rivers  D.  and  Oignon ;  (2)  the  Mbyeniis- 
Monlagne,  rising  to  a  height  of  about  900  feet,  and  affording  good 
pasture ;  and  <3)  the  Haiile-Monlagne,  running  from  N.E.  to 
S.W.  (from  2000  to  4000  feet  high),  partly  covered  with  pine 
forests.  Agriculture  Is  gradually  improving.  D,  is  specudly 
rich  in  minerals,  including  iron,  coal,  gypsum,  and  marble.  It 
possesses  many  mines,  siilaige  furnaces,  and  seventy  ironworks. 
In  addition  it  has  many  active  industries,  and  is  traversed  by  the 
Rhone-au-Rhin  Canal,  and  by  the  Dijon-i-Belfort  Railway, 
Besangon  is  the  capital,  and  the  other  important  towns  are 
Montbeliard,  Pontpamer,  and  Baumeles-lDames, — The  rimr 
D.  rises  in  the  S.E.  of  the  department,  flows  N.E.  along  the 
French  lionlier,  forms  a  sharp  loop  within  Swiss  territory,  and 
after  several  windings  proceeds  in  a  S.W.  direction,  eventually 
joining  (he  SaSne  below  D61e,  after  a  course  of  1 15  miles. 

Dough  (Old  Eng.  dah,  from  dea-mian,  'to  moisten'),  the 
mixture  of  flour,  yeast,  salt,  and  water,  prepared  by  bakers  for 
putting  into  the  oven  to  make  bread. 

Doug^las  {GzA.  Dtibkglaise,  '  black  stream '),  the  chief  town 
in  the  Isle  of  Man,  lies  on  a  fine  bay,  on  llie  S.E.  side  of  the 
433 


island,  at  the  mouth  of  a  small  river  of  the  same  name.  From 
the  beauty  of  the  scenery,  and  the  salubrity  of  the  air,  it  is  a 
favourite  sea-bathing  place.  A  deep-water  kuiding  pier  has 
been  recently  erected.  The  older  and  lower  part  of  the  town  is 
quaint  and  not  uninteresting.  Castle  Mona,  formerly  a  residrace 
of  the  Duteof  Athole,  is  now  a  hotel.  D,  has  some  hnen,  paper, 
and  woollen  manufactures.  Pop.  (1871)  13,972). — Another  town 
of  the  same  name  in  tlie  county  of  Lanark,  Scotland,  has  a  pop. 
(i87r)ofi37i. 

Douglas,  the  Family  of.  The  origin  of  this  famous 
Scottish  family  is  unknown,  but  they  were  'rooted  in  the  countiy 
at  the  time  when  the  Norman  adventurers  crowded  in'  (Burton). 
Accordmg  to  a  legend,  the  name  D  was  derived  fiom  the  ex- 
clamation of  a  Celtic  chief,  who,  bemg  sought  by  a  Scottish  king 
alter  a  victory  due  to  his  prowess,  cned  '  Shclto  I>u  §ias'  {'be- 
hold the  dark-grey  man'),  and  was  rewarded  waha  valley  in 
Clydesdale,  which  was  henceforth  Ijiown  as  the  Valley  of 
D.,  and  whence  his  descendants  took  then  name  The  first 
of  the  house  known  in  histtry  is  ■Wilbam  of  D.,  a  kins- 
man of  the  powerful  house  of  Murray,  who  1  vcd  at  the  end  of 
the  r2th  and  beginning  of  the  I3fh  centuiies,  and  probably  drew 
his  title  from  his  lands  on  the  D.  Water,  in  Lanarkshire.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Arcbibald  or  Erkenblad  of 
D.,  who  was  made  a  knight,  and  left  two  sons,  William  and  An- 
drew. From  Andrew  descended  the  Douglases  of  Dalkeith  and 
the  Earls  of  Morton.  The  estates  of  D.,  now  considerably  ei 
larged,  j^sed  in  succession  to  William  and  to  his  sons  Hugh 
and  William,  surnamed  the  Hardy.  This  SirWilliam  Of  D., 
after  various  exploits  in  which  he  showed  the  reckless  hardihood 
characteristic  of  the  family,  joined  Wallace  in  1297,  yielded  to 
Edward  I.,  and  died  in  prison,  at  York,  about  1302.  He  held 
land  on  both  sides  of  the  Border  and  in  various  counties  of  Scot- 
land. Hisson,  the  GoodSir  James  of  D.,  was  tlie  heroic  and 
skilful  associate  of  Brace  in  the  Scottisli  War  of  Independen 
He  was  siunamed  the  'Black  D.'  from  his  dark  complexif 
He  was,  tlie  beau  idhl  of  knighthood,  and  was  said  lo  he 
fought  in  seventy  battles  and  been  victorious  in  fifty-seven, 
compliance  with  Bruce's  dying  request  (see  Bbuce),  Sir  Jan 
sailed  for  the  Holy  Land,  bearing  the  king's  heart  in  a  silver 
casket,  and  fell  in  a  fight  in  Andalusia,  in  1330,  against  the 
Moors  of  Granada.  In  memory  of  this  expedition  the  Douglases 
bore  a  bloody  heart  and  a  crown  upon  theu^  shields.  The  Good 
Sir  James  was  sncceeded  by  his  brothers  Hugh  and  Archibald. 
The  latter  married  tlie  daughter  of  John  Comyn  of  Eadenoch, 
and  his  son  William  became,  in  1357,  first  Earl  of  D,,  and, 
through  marria^,  also  Earl  of  Mar.  His  son  James,  second 
Earl  of  D.,  married  Margaret,  eldest  daughter  of  King  Robert  II., 
and  fell  at  Otterbum,  in  1388.  As  he  left  no  sons,  his  sister  ' 
herited  the  Earldom  of  Mar,  while  Archibald  D.,  sumar 
the  Grim,  a  natural  son. of  the  Good  Sir  James,  succeeded  to 
the  Earldom  of  D.  He  added'by  marriage  the  barony  of  Both- 
well  to  his  estate,  and  married  his  eldest  son  and  daughter  to 
the  eldest  son  and  daughter  of  the  king.  He  died  in  1401.  His 
son  Archibald  made  an  alliance  with  France,  and  in  reward 
for  his  sei-vices  in  the  Frencli  wars  was  made  Count  of  Longue- 
ville  and  Duke  of  Touraine.  He  was  slain  at  Vemeuil  in  1424. 
Thefortunesof  the  House  ,ofD.  culminated  witli  his  son  Archi- 
bald, who  also  fought  in  the  French  cause.  He  died  in  1439.  At 
this  time  the  Douglases  held  two-thirds  of  Scotland  S.  of  Edin- 
burgh, besides  various  estates  in  the  N.  The  people  viewed 
them  as  the  champions  of  Scotland  against  England,  especially 
after  the  victoiy  of  Otterbum,  and  since  they  had, 
single-handed,  won  back  the  Border-lands  which  Edward 
Ballot  had  ceded  to  Edward  III.  Moreover,  through  the 
marriage  of  the  Good  Sir  James's  brother  with  the  sister  of 
the  Red  Comyn  and  the  niece  of  Baliol,  the  Douglases  could 
found  a  most  plausible  claim  to  the  Scottish  tin-one,  and  but  for 
Baliol's  unpopularity  they  would  have  contested  the  accession  of 
Robert  II.  Bitter  rivalry  arose  between  the  Stuart  kings  and 
the  Douglases.  William,  Archibald's  successor,  a  youth  of 
seventeen,  was  murdered  along  with  his  brother  m  Edinburgh 
Castle  in  1440  by  King  James  11.,  a  crime  popularly  spoken  of 
as  the  '  black  dinnour  of  Earl  D.'  The  Scotti^  Earldom  of  D. 
was  held  by  the  murdered  stripling's  indolent  grand-uncle,  James 
the  Gross,  until  1443,  when  William,  son  ofjames,  inherited  the 
D.  domains  both  m  France  and  Scotland,  This  WiJiiam 
of  D.  was  lieutenant-general  to  James  II,,  united  Galloway  tc 


yLaOogle 


DOU 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DOU 


with  his  cousin,  the  Fair  Mdd  of 
Galloway,  and  ruled  almost  as  an  independent  sovereign  until 
1452,  when  James  II.  enticed  him  to  Stirling  Castle,  under  pre- 
tence of  wishing  a  conference,  and  there  stabbed  him  to  death. 
His  brother  James  declared  war  with  the  Iceaeberous  king,  but 
shortly  fled  to  England,  leaving  Archibald  and  Hugh  D.  to  con- 
tmue  the  strugde.  They  were  beaten  at  Arkinholm  in  1455  by 
George,  fourth  Earl  of  Angus,  who  belonged  to  a  younger  branch 
of  the  Douglases  which  was  then  at  feud  with  the  great  house, 
but  by  which  the  fortunes  of  the  &mily  of  D,  were  afterwards  re- 
stored. James  of  D.,  who  had  fled  to  England,  made  a  raid  into 
Scotland  with  Albany  in  James  III.'s  reign,  was  captured,  and 
spared  on  condition  of  entering  Lindores  Monastery.  Houee 
of  Angus. — This  family  sprarigfrom  a  Haison  between  William, 
first  Earl  of  D.,  and  Mai^ret  Stewart,  Countess  of  Angus  and 
Mar,  whose  descendants  became  Earts  of  Angus.  After  the  vic- 
tory at  Arkinholm  the  fourth  Ear!  of  Angus  was  rewarded  with 
tlie  dominions  of  thej>eiten  Douglases.     Hence  the  popular  re- 


died  in  1462,  and  was  succeeded  by  Archibald,  nicknamed 
'  Bell-the-Cat "  (see  James  III.),  who  was  for  some  time  Warden 
of  the  East  Marches  and  Lord  High  Treasurer  of  Scotland, 
His  eldest  son  fell  at  Flodden,  his  third  son,  Gawin  D.  (q,  v.), 
entered  (he  Church,  and  his  son  by  a  second  marriage.  Sir 
Archibald  D.  of  Kilspindie,  became  Lord  Treasurer  of  Scotland 
under  James  V,  He  was  succeeded  by  Archibald,  son  of  the 
George  D.  slain  at  Flodden.  Archibald  rnarried  Margaret,  widow 
of  James  IV.,  and  sister  of  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  by  whom  he 
had  a  daughter,  afterwards  mother  of  Henry  Damfey  {q.  v.). 
During  the  minority  of  James  V.  Scotland  was  distracted  by 
feuds  between  Angus  and  the  Hamiltons.  In  the  battle  knovni 
as  '  Clean  the  Causeway,'  fought  in  the  High  Street,  Edinburgh, 
the  Hamiltons  were,  for  a  time,  thoroughly  beaten ;  and  Angus, 
being  made  guardian  of  the  young  king  in  1526,  was  practically 
sovereign  till  1528,  when  Tames  escaped  fr©m  his  custody. 
Thenceforth  his  power  dwindled,  and  finally  his  estates  were  for- 
feited, and  himself,  after  a  stubborn  resistance,  was  driven  into 
England.  On  the  death  of  James  V.  in  1542,  Angus  returned 
to  Scotland,  and  was  reinstated  in  his  former  possessions.  He 
3  in  1556.  Hewas  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  upon  whose 
death  the  Earldom  was  held  ty  Ardlibald,  the  '  Good  Earl,' 
and  from  1588  to  1591  by  Sir  William  D.  of  Glenbervie,  great- 
grandson  of  Archibald  Bell-the-Cat.  The  old  privileges  of  Uie  D. 
family  were  restored  to  his  son  'William,  tenth  E^  of  An^us, 
who  was  appointed  lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom,  and  privi- 
leged to  lead  the  van  in  battle,  cany  the  crown  at  a  coronation, 
and  give  the  first  vote  m .  Parliament.  He  became  a  Roman 
Cathohc,  and  died  at  Paris  in  r6ii.  WiUiam,  eleventh  Earl  of 
Angas,  was  in  1633  made  Marquis  of  D.  One  of  his  sons  was 
made  Ear!  of  Selkirk  in  1646,  another  Earl  of  Forfar  in  1666,  and 
another  Earl  of  Dumbarton  m  1675.  Archibald,  the  grand- 
son of  the  first  Marquis  of  D.,  was  made  Duke  of  D.  in  1703, 
a  title  which  expired  with  the  decease  of  the  first  duke  in  1761, 
when  the  Marquisate  of  D.  descended  to  the  seventh  Duke  of 
Hamilton,  who  belonged  to  a  younger  branch  of  the  D.  femily. 
TheD.  estates,  however,  were  in  the  great  'D.  cause'  transferred 
from  the  Duke  of  Hamilton  to  a  son  of  Lady  Jane  D.,  sister  of 
the  first  Duke  of  D.  The  new  heir  received  the  title  Baron  D.  of 
D.  Castle  in  1790,  a  tiUe  which  became  extinct  on  the  death  of 
the  fourth  Lord  D.  in  1857.  The  D.  estates  then  fell  to  the 
Countess  of  Home.  Barle  of  Morton. — The  Earls  of  Morton 
e  lineal  descendants  of  WilUam  of  D.,  the  first  D.  known  to 
history.  ,  Sir  William  D.  of  Liddesdale,  son  of  Sir  Archibald  of 
D.,  the  successor  to  the  first  William  of  D.,  in  1320  obtained  the 
lordship  in  Dalkeith  which,  along  with  other  lands  descended 
■  3  his  nephew,  Sir  James  D.  of  Dalkeith,  whose  eldest  son 
larried  a  daughter  of  Robert  III. ;  and  their  grandson  was, 
1  1458,  made  first  Earl  of  Morton.  ,^e  present  inheritor  of 
the  title  is  the  direct  descendant  of  William  of  D.,  the  chief  of 
theD.  family  in  the  12th  c  Hoti«e  of  Uarch  fuid  Queens- 
berry.— The  descendants  of  Sir  WilKam  of  D.  of  Drumlanrig, 
illegitimate  son  of  the  second  Earl  of  D.,  became  Counts  of 
Drumlanrig  in  1628,  Marquises  of  Queensberry  in  1633,  Dukes 
of  Queensberry  in  1684,  and  Earls  of  March  in  1697.  In  iSio, 
on  the  death  of  the  fourth  Duke  of  Queensberry,  the  title  Duke 
of  Queensbeiry  and  the  lands  of  Drumlanrig  devolved  upon 
"  .e  Duke  of  Euccleueli,  the  title  Earl  of  March  upon  the  Earl 
130 


of  Wemyss,  and  the  title  Marquis  of  Queensberry  to  Sir  Cliarles 
D.  of  Kelhead.  See  Douglas's  Feeragt,  by  Wood;  Chalmer's 
Caledonia  (LooA.  1807);  Cosmo  Innes's  Segistrum  Episcopalus 
Meravknsis  (Edmb.  1846).;  and  Kegistrum  Honoris  de  Msiton 
(Edinb.  1853);  Hume  of  Godscroft's  History  of  ike  Houses  of 
D.  and  Angus  (Edinb.  1748) ;  and  Burton's  History  of  Scotland, 
especially  ch.  xxviiL 

Sooglas,  Gaiwin,  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in  1474,  was  the 
third  son  of  Archibald  Earl  of  Angus,  surnamed  '  Bell-the- 
Cat,'  He  vras  educated  al  St  Andrew's  University,  and  enter- 
ing the  Church,  became  successively  Rector  of  Hawick,  Pro- 
vost of  St  Giles  at  Edinburgh  in  1501,  and  Bishop  of  Dunkeld  in 
1516.  Party  strifes  finaEy  lost  him  his  see,  and  he  had  to  take 
refuge  at  the  court  of  Henry  VIII.  He  is  said  to  have  received 
a  pension  from  the  king,  and  lived  on  terms  of  friendship  with 
the  foremost  men  in  England,  tiQ  hisdeath  of  thepkguein  1522. 
By  his  own  wish,  he  wi^s  buried  in  the  Hospital  Church  of  the 
Savoy,  Di's  first  literary  essay  was  a  ttandation  of  Ovid's  De 
Kemedio  Amoris,  bnt  this  has  been  lost.  In  1501  he  wrote  the 
Paliss  of  Honour,  dedicated  to  James  IV.  This  is  an  allegorical 
poem,  inculcating  the,  principles  of  duty,  its  idea  perhaps  taken 
from  Chaucer's  Tenipts  of  Fame.  That  Bunyan  i>orrowed  from 
it,  as  has  been  supposed,  is  very  unlikely.  D.'s  next  poem  was 
King  Hart,  an  allegory  of  human  life,  in  which  the  heart  of  man 
is  represented  under  the  type  of  a  monarch.  This  work  shows 
its  author  to  have  been  acquainted  with,  the  Hers  Plowman  of 
Langland.  A  short  poem  in  four  stanzas  by  D.,  called  Con- 
scienei,  is  also  preserved.  In  1512  he  began  his  great  work,  the 
Translation  of  the  jEndd  of  Virgil,  which  was  completed  just 
two  months  before  Flodden.  This  was  the  first  rendering  of  the 
jSmid,  or  indeed  of  any  Latin  classic,  into  English  verse,  and 

Elves  the  twelve  books  with  original  prologues,  characterised 
y  a  diffuse  splendour  of  description.  The  work  is  marked  both 
by  strength  and  simplicilry.  D,  is  the  first  writer  who  applies 
the  Celtic  name  '  Scotch  '  lo  the  dialect  of  English  used  N.  of 
the  Tweed.  His  complete  works  have  been  elaborately  edited 
by  Mr  Small  (4  vols,  Edinb.  1874).  The  first  volume  contains 
a  careful  and  exhaustive  life  of  the  poet. 

Bouglas,  OenBTal  Sir  Howard  Bart ,  G  C  B  son  of 
Admiral  fair  C  D  ms  bormt  Gosport  in  1776,  early  entered 
the  armj,  served  in  the  Pen  isular  War  in  1808  0,  and  was 
Governor  of  NeH  Brunsw  ck  fiom  1823  to  1S29  He  success 
fiilly  contested  Liveipsol  in  1832  and  1835,  was  Lord  High 
Commissioner  of  the  Ionian  Islands  from  1835  to  1840,  and 
M.P.  for  Liverpool  from  184a  to  1847  He  became  a  general 
in  1851,  and  died  November  rS6l  He  wrote  treatises  on 
If  aval  Gunnery  and  Nazal  Evolutions,  Considerations  on  the 
Value  and  Impoilance  of  the  British  and  H  Anieruaji  Fro 
vinces,  and  An  Essay  an  the  Pnnctfles  and  Consti  action  of 
Military  Bridges,  ic 

Doui^lae,  John  D  D  ,  wae  bom  in  1721  at  Pittenvteem 
Fifeshire,  and  after  being  educated  at  Oxford,  entered  the  Church 
of  England,  and  rapidly  (1750)  obtained  preferment,  being  made  in 
1787  Bishop  of  Carlisle,  and  in  1792  Bishop  of  Salisbury.  He 
died  May  18,  1807.  D,  was  not  undistingnished  in  literature. 
He  was  mtimate  with  Dr  Johnson,  and  the  most  notable  of 
bis  contemporaries.  He  is  faintly  remembered  for  his  vindication 
of  Milton  against  the  forgeries  of  Lauder,  and  still  more  faintly 
for  his  answer  to  Hume  in  his  Criterion,  qr  a  Discourse  on 
Miracles  (1754).     B.  also  edited  Cook's  Third  Voyage. 

Douglas,  Stephen  Arnold,  an  American  statesman,  was 
bora  at  Brandon,  Vermont,  April  23,  1813.  He  began  life  as  a 
cabinetmaker,  but  afterwards  studied  law  and  settled  in  Jackson- 
ville, Illinois,  where  he  was  known  by  the  sobriquet  of  the 
'  Little  Giant,'  D.  was  chosen  State  Secretary  in  1840,  a  judge 
in  1841,  entered  tHe  House  of  Representatives  in  1843  as  a  De- 
mocrat, and  was  a  senator  from  1847  to  1861.  He  advocated 
Popular  Sovereignly  in  tlie  Territories,  and  in  1854  his  Kansas 
and  Nebraska  Bill,  repealing-the  Missouri  Compromise,  let  loose 
rent  of  political  passion  over  the  whole  country.  D.  was 
the  presidential  candidate  of  the  Northern  Democrats  in  i860, 
when  Lincoln  was  elected.  He  died  3d  June  1861.  D.  was 
idolised  as  a  leader  in  the  Western  States.  A  splendid  monu- 
ment, costing  f8o,ooo,  was  erected  to  his  memory  at  Chicago, 
on  the  banks  of  Lake  Michigan, 

433 


vLiOOQle 


DOU 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Douglass,  Frederick,  an  Americsm  orator,  was  bom 
negro  mollier  and  white  father  at  Tuckahoe,  in  Maryland,  a 
1817.     He  was  a  slave,  first  on  a"  plantation  and  afterwar 
Baltimore,  but  having  taught  himself  to  read  and  write,  esc  p  d 
from  bondage  at  the  age  of  twenty-one.    For  a  time  he  wotlted 
on  the  wharfs  of  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  bnt  soon  attracting  n 
by  his  gifts,  was  employed  as  an  agent  of  the  Aiiti-Slauery  Soel 
In  1845  he  publidied  his  Autobiegrapky,  and  soon  after  vi 
England,  where  the  thrilling  slory  of  liis  life,  and  Ms  m 
oratory,  excited  much  sympathy.     For  some  years  he  was  e 
of  a  paper  in  Rochester,  N.Y„  and  in  185s  wrote  My  Bond  g 
ind  Freedom.     In  I S70  D.  became  an  editor  in  Washington       d 
.n  187a  was  the  Erst  in  the  list  of  presidential  electors  diosen   y 
the  Repubricans  of  New  YoTk  sUte. 

Bonne  (Gael,  'the  hill '),  a  town  in  the  parish  of  Kilinadock, 
Perthshire.  It  is  famous  for  its  fairs,  the  town  standing  at  a«ie 
of  the  entrances  to  the  Highlands.  D.  Castle  is  a  ruinous  fori, 
with  massive  walls  and  towers,  picturesquely  crowning  a  steep 
green  bank  on  the  Teitli.     Pop.  of  parish  (1871),  3170. 

Doni,  a  town  of  Belgiiun,  province  Hainault,  9  miles  S.W. 
by  W.  of  Mons.  In  its  neighbourhood  are  several  iron  and 
coalmines;  weaving,  bleaching,  tanning,  &c.,  are  also  carried 
.on.    Pop.  (1873)  8501. 

Bou'ro  (Celt,  'the  water'),  or  Duero,  one  of  the  largest 
rivers  of  the  Spanish  peninsula,  rises  in  the  N.  of  the  province 
of  Soria,  flovre  first  S.E.  towards  the  town  of  Soria,  then  turns 
S.,  and  finally  W.  tctwards  and  through  Portugal,  ultimately  fall- 
ing into  the  Atlantic  at  Oporto,  after  a  course  of  480  miles.  For 
about  52  miles  it  foiTus  the  boundary  between  Portu^l  and 
Spain.  It  is  generally  rapid  and  unfit  for  extensive  navigation, 
but  traverses  a  imturally  rich  and  picturesque  country. 

Dove,  a  general  name  given  to  all  the  members  of  the  Colnni- 
Mii/e  or  Pigeon  family,  but  used  only  in  a  popular  and  general 
sense,  the  term  being  without  any  specialised  signification. 
Tlie  name  is  probably  derived  from  the  same  root  as  the  word 

Dove,  in  Christian  art,  was  r^arded  as  symbolical  of  purity, 
and  is  for  that  reason  carved  upon  the  tombs  of  infants  and  young 
girls.  It  was  the  recogiiised  type  of  the  Holy  Spirit  fcom  the 
circumstance  that  the  Spirit  descended  upon  lie  Saviour  in  the 
shape  of  a  D,  To  signuy  that  at  baptism  the  infant  is  admitted 
into  the  Church,  the  D.  is  often  carved  on  the  covctb  of  fonts  in 
many  English  and  foreign  churdies.  Frequently  a  gold  or  silver 
D.  was  suspended  from  the  vault  of  the  ciborium  in  which  the 
Holy  Eucharist  is  pi%served.  In  baptistries,  also,  a  pigeon  ot 
gold  was  kept  for  the  same  purpose.  In  old  pictures  the  D. 
frequently  appears  either  as  the  symbol  of  purity,  of  the  puri- 
fied soul,  or  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  A  simple  gold  nimbus,  or  one 
encircling  a  black  cross,  often  surrounds  its  head,  and  seven 
rays  proceeding  from  its  head  signify  the  seven  gifts  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  The  figure  of  a  D.  with  an  olive  branch  is  the  emblem 
of  peace,  while  one  rising  from  the  lips  of  dying  saints  is  em- 
blematical of  the  flight  of  the  disembodied  spirit.  A  D.  with 
six  wings,  two  attached  to  the  head,  two  to  the  shoulders,  and 
two  to  the  feet,  is  a  type  of  the  Cliristian  Qmrch. 

Do've,  Heinrioh.  Wilhelni,  a  German  j^ysicist  and 
meteorologist,  was  born  at  Liegnitz,  in  Silesia,  October  6,  1803, 
studied  at  Breslau  and  Berlin,  became  in  iSsg  Professor  of 
Natural  Philosophyat  Berlin,  and  has  since  applied  himself  chiefly 
to  the  investi^ion  of  ineleorological  phenomena,  as  climate, 
winds,  &c  The  sciences  of  optics  and  electricity  have  also 
claimed  a  share  of  his  attention,  his  most  practical  discovery 
being  proliably  the  application  of  the  stereoscope  lo  the  detec- 
tion of  foiged  bank-notes.  His  principal  worits  are  (7eier  Mais 
und  Messen  (1835),  Meteorolog.  Untersuckmtgett  (1837),  Unter- 
suckungai  iin  GeUet  der  Indtiklions-eleklrici/Sl  (1843),  Tempera- 
tarlafeln  (1848),  Monatdsothermm  (1850),  Ceseti  der  SUirme 
(l85l),  and  Die  WUtetungsers^Aeinungm  des  nordl.  Deutschlands 
(1858-63,  newed.  1864).  He  is  best  known  in  England  by  his 
treatise  on  the  Distribution  ej  Heat  on  the  Surface  of  the  Globe, 
published  by  the  British  Association  in  1853. 


held  to  be  theft,  and 


h    Od  I 


irefix),  a  r 


g  «i 


Ch   h  n 


Du  ng 


Cent,  at  the  entrance 
p     of  the  N.  Downs, 
Eastern,  and  77  by  the 
d  D         R  ilw         It  is  the  chief  of  the 
nd  their  government. 

D   ha.    on  d  ra  reased  in  jiopulalion 

a  n     IS    d  h       b  ei      dened  and  improved, 

a  number  of  its  old  and  interestmg  buildings  restored,  large  and 
elegant  commercial  and  other  establishments  erected,  and  its 
suburbs  much  eirtended.  The  principal  recent  buildings  are  the 
hotels,  the  marine  telegraph  offices,  and  (he  lines  of  residences 
bailt  along  the  Esplanade,  Marine  Parade,  and  East  Cliff'.  St 
Mary's  and  St  James's  churches,  in  both  of  which  structures 
Norman  features  are  Still  traceable,  have  recently  been  restored, 
and  the  ancient  Maison  Dieu  was  restored  (1861),  and  in  part 
rebuilt,  from  designs  by  A.  Poynter.  On  the  S.E.,  on  the  cliffs, 
is  D.  Castle,  a  powerful  but  unfinished  fortress,  embracing  with 
its  old  and  new  works  an  area  of  about  50  acres,  and  fortified 
by  walls,  ditches,  bomb-proof  magaiine,  batteries,  &c.  In  tlie 
teirracks  there  is  accommodation  for  from  3000  to  4000  men. 
Other  heights  around  the  town  are  surmounted  by  barracks  and 
fortifications.  The  commercial  activity  of  D.  arises  chiefly  from 
the  circumstance  that  it  is  the  great  port  of  intercommunicaliou 
between  England  and  the  Continent.  In  1873,  2134  vessels  of 
335,l50tonsentered  andcleared  the  port.  Extensive  works  have 
long  been  carried  on  at  the  port  of  D.,  with  the  view  of  making 
it  a  harbour  of  refuge.  Of  these,  one  of  the  most  important  vras 
the  Admiralty  Pier,  commenced  in  I S74,  designed  to  enclose  an 
area  of  520  acres.  A  submarine  cable  was  laid  from  D.  to 
Calais  in  1850.  D.  sends  two  members  to  Parliament.  An 
important  British  stronghold  prior  to  Cesar's  invasion,  it  was 
the  DubHs  of  the  Romans.  Owing  to  its  position  on  that  part 
of  the  English  coast  nearest  to  France,  it  has  frequently  been 
the  scene  of  important  events  during  the  history  of  the  country. 
D.  was  the  point  at  which  Csesar  made  his  first  attempt  to  land. 
It  was  created  one  of  the  Cinque  ('five')  Ports  by  Edward  the 
Confessor.  The  town  was  restored  and  strengthened  by  William 
the  Conqueror,  It  was  attacked  and  plundered  by  a  French  fleet 
in  1195,  and  its  castle  has  been  frequently  besieged.  The  defen- 
sive works  were  greatly  strengthened  in  1745,  when  avisit  of  the 
Pretender  was  expected,  and  again  in  1804,  when  Napoleon 
threatened  invasion. 

Dover,  the  capital  of  Delaware,  U.S.,  is  situated  on  a  rising 
ground,  5  miles  W.  of  Delaware  Bay,  and  65  miles  S.S.E.  of 
PMIadelpliia  by  railway.  It  has  a  handsome  state-house,  a 
library  of  30,000  volumes,  and  six  churches,  while  the  streets 
ran  at  light  angles,  and  are  lit  with  gas.  There  are  laige  sleani 
flour  and  saw  mills,  and  a  trade  cliiefly  with  Philadelphia  in  flour 
and  fraiL     Pop.  (i8jo)  1906. 

Do'veron,  or  DeVeron,  a  river  of  Scotland,  rises  on  the 
slope  of  the  Buck  of  the  Cahrach  (Cairngorm  range),  Aberdeen- 
shire, flows  N.  in  that  county  for  about  7  miles,  and  then  in  a 
faierally  N.E.  direction,  paitly  in  Aberdeenshire,  partly  in 
anffshire,  and  partly  between  the  two,  till  passing  Banff,  it 
enters  !he  sea  after  a  course  of  about  55  miles.  D,  and  its 
affluent  the  Bogie  are  both  good  trout -streams. 

Dover's  Powder,  consists  of  i  part  of  ipecacuanha,  ipart  of 
opium,  and  8  parts  of  sulphate  of  potadi.  The  dose  is  ro  to  la 
grains.  II  Is  a  powerful  diaphoretic,  producing  copious  perspira- 
tion, and  is  veiy  beneficial  at  the  onset  of  a  cold.  D.  P.  is  often 
sold  in  shops  under  the  name  of  Sweating _Pomikr. 

Dover  Strait  (Rom.  Prelum  Gollimm;  Fr.  Pas  de  Calais), 
the  narrow  seaway  between  Great  Britain  and  the  Continent, 
leading  N.  into  the  North  Sea,  and  S.  into  the  English  Channel. 
It  vanes  in  width  from  about  ao  to  25  miles,  the  distance  from 
Dover  lo  Cape  Grlsnez  being  21  miles,  and  to  Calais  254  miles. 
It  varies  in  depth  from  2  to  30  fethoms,  and  recent  su  rveys  seem 
to  prove  that  its  bottom  is  farmed  of  homogeneous  beds  of  chalk, 
and  that  the  project  of  boring  a  submarine  tunnel  through  these 


-4- 


yLaOogle 


7'HE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


DOX 


beds  is  practicable.-  This  project  is  at  present  (1876)  under  con- 
sideration by  the  most  eminent  engineers  of  England  and  France. 
In  July  1875  Captain  H.  Webb,  late  of  the  English  mercantile 
marine,  swam  across  the  Sirait  in  twenty-two  hours,    , 

DoVre  Tjeld.     See  Nokway  and  Sweden. 

Dow,  Itou,  or  Douw,  Gerard,  a  Dutch  painter,  bom  at 
Leyden,    1701  Apvil    1613,   entered  at  tlie  age  of  fifteen  intc 
the  studio  of  Rembrandt,  and  painted  there  for  three  years. 
The  vigorous  and  original  character  of  his  genius  is  evinced 
by  the  fact  that  though  daring  these  three  years  he  attained 
to  much  of  Rembrandt's  power  of  eolonr  and  of  light  and 
shade,  he  freed  himself  from  the  influence  of  the  great  master 
of  chiaroscuro,  and  devoting  himself  exclusiyeiy  to  the  atady 
of  nature,   created  a  style  which  was  as  remarkable  for  its 
deUeacy   and   perfection   of   finish    as    Rembrandt's  was    for 
breadth  and  unique  effect.    The  threads  of  lace  and  texture 
of  carpets  are  distinguishable  in  his  smallest  works,  which,  not- 
withstanding this  devotion  to  detail,  are  powerful  in  effeef  and 
splendid  in  colour.    His  '  Dropsical  Woman,'  the  most  rem:  ' 
able  of  his  works  for  number  of  figures,  correct  and  various 
pression,  magical  effect  of  light,  and  wonderfiilly  mimrte 
SHCcessfni  work,  was  bought  by  tie  King  of  Sardinia  for  30, 
francs,   ajid  is   now    in  the  Louvre.      Other  works  are 
'Mountebank,'  'Dentist,'  'Grocer,'  'Fiddler,'3ndthe  'Interior 
of  a  Household,'  in  which  the  painter  represents  his  mother 
reading  the  Bible  to  her  aged  husband.     His  portrait,  painted 
by  himself,  was  valued  at  Paris  in  1S37  at  10,700  francs.     D. 
died  at  Lq-den  in  February  1675. 


A  'queen-D.'  is 

Dower  (Fr.  douaire,  from  Lat  dotarium,  and  that  from  das), 
in  English  law,  is  that  portion  of  property  to  which  a  wife  is 
entitled  on  the  death  of  her  husband.  D.  is  either  by  common 
law  or  custom.  By  the  first,  the  widow  is  entitled  to  one-Uiird 
of  the  estate  during  her  life.  The  second  varies  with  the  custom 
of  the  place.  By  Gavel-kind  {q.  v.)  it  is  one-half.  By  3  and  4 
Will.  IV.  c,  105,  women  married  after  ist  January  1834  cannot 
claim  D.  out  of  land  disposed  of  by  their  husbands  during  tlieir 
life  or  by  will ;  and  aiw  partial  encumbrance  effected  by  a 
husband  is  good  against  D.     See  Bah  of  Dower,  Jointure. 

Dowlais,  a  town  in  Glamorganshire,  and  a  station  on  the 
Brecon,  Merfhyr,  and  Rhymney  railways,  I  j  miles  N.E.  of  Mer- 
Ihyr  Tydvil,  is  the  seat  of  one  of  the  largest  ironworks  in  the 
world,,  the  property  of  the  Guest  Eimily.  These  iljorks,  which, 
with  the  colleries,  employ  11,000  men,  compris&l  (l8j6)  19 
blast-furnaces,  140  puddling-fumaces,  and  10  rolling-mills,  and 
produce  150,000  tons  of  iron  annually.,  Steel-mafcing  is  also 
extensively  carried  on  by  Siemen's  and  Bessemer's  processes. 
The  town  has  a  public  library  and  literary  institute.      Pop. 

(.8761.9,000. 

Dowlas,  a  coarse  linen  cloth  which  was  widely  used  as  a 
shirting  before  tlie  introduction  of  calico,  but  has  been  alijiost 
entirely  superseded  for  the  purpose  by  that  fabric. 

X>owlat'abad  ('Abode  of  prosperity ')i  a  fortified  town  of 
India,  in  die  territory  of  the  Nizam  of  Hyderabad,  on  a  tiibutary 
of  the  Godavaii,  15  miles  W.  of  Aurungabad,  and  165  E.N.E. 
of  Bombay.  It  is  now  in  part  deserted,  and  has  but  little  trade. 
A  strong  isolated  rock-fortress,  500  feet  high,  commands  the 
town.     Pop.  about  8000. 

Down,  a  maritime  county  in  the  S.E.  cf  the  province  of 
Ulster,  Ireland  :  greatest  length  about  50  miles,  greatest  breadth 
3S  ;  area,  957  sq.  miles,  of  which  more  than  a  half  is  under  till- 
age, and  nearly  a  third  in  pasture.  The  coast-line  of  67  miles 
is  indented  by  the  inlets  of  Belfast  Lough,  3  miles  broad  and  15 
deep  ;  Strangford  Lough,  10  miles  deep,  with  a  breadth  varymg 
from  4  to  3  miles ;  and  Dundrum  and  Carlingford  Bays.  TTie  S. 
of  the  county  is  occupied  bytheMourne  Mountains,  which  rise  in 
Slieve  Donard  to  2796  feet,  while  a  smaller  groiip  occupies  the 
centre.  With  these  exceptions  the  soil  is  for  the  most  part  level, 
and  tolerably  fertile,  especially  on  the  banks  of  the  streams, 


which,  as  well  as  the  lakes,  are  generally  small.  Tlie  Upper 
Bann  and  the  Lagan  are  the  principal  rivers.  Oats,  wheat,  bar- 
ley, potatoes,  turnips,  man  gold- wurzel,  and  Hax  are  the  principal 
crops ;  linen  is  the  chief  manufacture,  much  of  which  is  woven 
in  the  houses  of  the  small  farmers  ;,  and  there  are  numerous  flax 
and  cotton  mills.  The  principal  exports  are  grain,  dairy  pro- 
duce, pork,  and  hides,  with  hosiery,  cotton,  leather,  thread,  and 
coarse  woollens  manufactured  in  the  county.  The  chief  towns 
are  Downpatrick,  NewtonardSi  Newry,  and  Ponaghadee.  The 
county  retnma  two  members  to  Barliiunent,  the  borough  of 
Downpatrick  one  ;  and  D.  contains  besides  parts  of  three  pailia- 
mentajy  boroHglis — Belfast,  Lisbum,  and  Newry.  Pop.  (1S71} 
293.449,  of  whom  123,841  were  Presbyterians,  91,378  Roman 
Catholics,  and  65,650' Protestant  Episcopalians. 

Downliain  SI»iket  (Old.  Eng.  dun,  'a  hill,'  and  ham,  .. 
dwelling'),  a  town  in  the  countyof  Norfolk,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Ouse,  40,  miles  W.  of  Norwich,  with  a  bell-foundry  and 
a  miKtard  mannfacloiy.  It  was  long  celebrated  for  its  butter- 
market^  which  has  now  been  removed  to  SwaEtham.  It  has  also 
a  laigehorse-f^r.     Pop.  (1871)  275a. 

Down'Ing  College,  Cambridge,  founded  by  Sir  Geoige 
Downing,  of  Gamlir^ay  Park,  whose  will,  dated  20th  December 
1717,  directed  that  on  the  failure  of  certain  relatives  to  whom  his 
estates  were  devised  in  succession,  these  should  be  employed  to 
found  a  college.  The  charter  was  received  22d  September  1800, 
but  the  buildings  were  iwt  ready  for  the  reception  of  undergra- 
duates tiU  May  1821.  The  foundation  consists  of  a  master,  a 
professor  of  law,  and  another  of.  medicine,  eight  fellows,  two  of 
whom  were,  resident,  and  oi)e  of  these  in  orders.  The  non- 
resident fallows  hold  their  fellowships  for  twelve  years.  In  1875 
the  numberof  undergraduates  was  51. 

Downpat'rick  ('  Hill  of  Patrick '),  or  Down,  named  fror 
an  intrenched  dun  near  th.e  cathedral,  the  capital  of  the  county 
of  Down,  on  the  righj;  bank  of  the  Quoile,  263  miles  S.E.  of 
Belfast  by  the  Belfast  and  County  Dovra  Railway.  It  is  divided 
mto  the  English,  Irish,  and  Scottish  quarters ;  the  streets  are 
steep,  and  the  houses  well  builL  Quoile  Quay,  about  a  mile  from 
the  town,  can  accommodate  vessel  of  loo  tons  burden.  D.  has 
manufactures  of  linen,  soap,  and  leather,  imports  coal,  iron,  salt, 
and  bark,  and  exports  grain,  cattle,  pigs,  and  potatoes.  It  returns 
one  member  to  Parliament.  Pop.  of  parliamentary  borough 
(1S71),  4155. 


ing  pasture.       L  m  gi  Eg 

garallet  ranges  oa  ru         g  m  E. 

■om  the  middl  H  as      tl  D 

minaling  atBhHd  ND  g 

sea  at  Dov^r.    T  dg  ex  eed    00 

height,enclose  the  valley  known  as  the  Weald  (q.  v.).  The  well- 
known  breed  of  sheep  to  which  the  S.  D.  give  name  attests  the 
quaKly  of  the  pasturage. 

The  Do7mis  is  also  the  name  of  a  roadstead  ofF  the  E.  coas 

Kent,  between   Deal   and  Eamsgate  and  within  the  Goodwin 

Sands.     It  is  8  miles  long  by  6  broad,  and  affoi'ds  anchorage  of 


2  fathoms. 


Downfcon  ('Hill-town'),  an  old  town  of  Wilt^ire,  6  miles 

E.  of  Salisbsry,  on  the  Avon,  here  divided  mlo  three  streams, 
has  a  graramar-schooli  a  paper- factory,  tanneries,  and  malt- 

g-houses.      A    conical  mound  still  remains  of  its  old  castle. 

7p.  (1871)  3654.  Near  D.  is  the  estate  and  residence  of 
Standlinch,  the  gift  of  the  nation  to  Lprd  Nelson's  heirs. 

DowOiTree,  a  name  given  in  the  W.  Indies  to  Ochroma 
Lagopus,  one  of  the  Mahiacem  [sub-order  Bombacea),  the  cork- 
wood of  Jamaica,  on  account  of  its  downy  seeds  being  used  to 
tuff  beds,  &c, 

Doxol'ogy  (Gr.  from  doxologeS,  '1  give  glory  to'),  a  hymn 
of  praise  to  God,  of  which  there  have  been  several  in  use  in  the 
Christian  Church,  viz.  r— (i)  The  Little  D„  or  Glaria  Fatri,  the 

r'nalformofwikichwas  'Glory  be  to  the  Father,  and  to  the  Son, 
to  the  Holy  Ghost,  world  without  end,  Amen."    The  words 
is  it  was  in  the  beginning,'  &c.  (supposed  to  have  been  added 
435 


vLiOOQle 


DOY 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DEA 


by  the  Council  of  Nice  ag^nst  Ariaiiism),  began  to  be  used  in 
the  Western  Church  (eitcept  in  Spain)  Ln  ilie  7lh  c.  (2)  The 
Great  D.,  or  Gloria  in  Excelsh,  the  angelic  hymn  of  Luke  ii.  14, 
which  has  been  chiefly  used  in  the  Communion  Service.  (3)  Tlie 
Trisagion,  or  seraphic  hymn  of  Isa.  vL  3,  but  varied  from  the 
original,  {4)  The  Hallelujah,  which  was  either  a  repetition  of 
tliatword  itself  (=  'Praise  the  Lord'),  after  Rev.  xix.,  or  one 
of  the  Hallelujah  Psalms.  (5)  The  last  paragraph  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer  (in  Matl,).  See  Ingham's  EccUs^  Aitfiq.^  Walcott's 
Sacied  Archeology,  &o. 

Doyle,  Bicliai'd,  one  of  the  greatest  of  English  comic  artists, 
was  bom,  of  Irish  extraction,  in  1826.  He  gained  his  reputation 
originally  as  a  clever  sketcher  for  Punck,  in  the  5th  Tol,  of  which 
(i£|6)  appeared  his  first  contribntions.  In  1850,  however,  he 
threw  up  a  connection  with  this  periodical  that  was  bringing 
fame  and  fortune,  on  account  of  its  attacks  upon  Cardinal  Wise- 

ji  and  Roman  Catholics  generally.  D.  illustrated  the  worl^ 
various  well-known  anthora,  including  Leigh  Hunt  and 
Thackeray,  and  contributed  to  the  Cm-nhUl  Magifdnt  many 
sketches, -(^.,  the  'Bird's-eye  Views  of  Society.'  He  published 
The  Continental  Tour  0/ Brown,  Jona,  and  Robinson  (1854) ;  a 
Christmas-book,  In  Fairyland:  Pictures  from  lie-  Elf  World 
(1865),  and  since  then  has  devoted  himself  to  water-colour 
painting. 

Do'zy,  Beiohart,  a  pi-ofomid  Oriental  scholar,  was  born 
February  21,  r820,  at  Leyden,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  doc- 
tor in  1844,  and  was  appointed  librarian  of  the  Oriental  MSS. 
belonging  to  the  university,  in  1850  eilraordinaiy,  and  in  1857 
ordinary.  Professor  of  History.  He  established  his  reputation  in 
the  learned  worid  by  his  Dictiimnaire  dHaiUi  desi.  Noins  dss  Vile- 
mints  chee  Us  Arabes  (Amst.  1845).  This  was  followed  by  a 
series  of  works  which  shed  a  wholly  new  light  on  the  history  of 
the  Arabs  in  North- Western  Africa  and  Spam  during  the  middle 
ages.  The  chief  are  Scriptorum  Arabian  Loci  di  AbbaJitts 
(3  vols.  Leyd.  1S46-63) ;  the  editions  of  Abd-i^-.Wahid  al  Marre 
Ko3hi's^wf!wy''/'''=-^''«'''*^'*^(Leyd.  1847);  of  Ibn-Badrun's 
Commentaire  ffislorique  sar  le  PoOne  iIba-Abda%  (Leyd.  184SI, 
with  introduction,  notes,  and  glossary ;  and  of  Ibn  Adhavi  s 

History  oj  Africa  and  Spaifi  (3  vols.  Leyd.  1848-52)-     "' 

lerpieces,  however,  a,K  Rechirches  "      ""■".-■      '  >- 


tr  I'Histoa-e  et  la  UttSrature 


v  ed.  I 

J. J , ,,  .  __ ,.   .         ZiltM 

dss  Arabes  d'Espagne  (2  vols.  Leyd.  1855-61)  ;  and,  above  all, 
his  Histoire  des  Mustdmans  d'Espagne  jiuaii'&  la  ConquSte  de 
PAndcdousie  far  les  Almora/i/ides  (4  vols.  Leyd.  1S61).  Later 
wiitings.of  D.'s  are  Het  Islamisme  (Harl,  1863),  and  Die  Israeli 
ilen.  sen  Mekka  (Leips.  1864). 

Bradi'enfele  {'Dr^on's  rock'),  one  of  the  Siebei^ebirge,  or 
Seven  Mountains,  8  miles  S.E.  of  Bonn,  rising  1056  feet  above 
the  Rhine,  and  crowned  by  a  castle  which  commands  a  view  as 
far  as  Cologne,  20  miles  distant.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  legend  of  a  dragon,  which  inhabited  a  cave  within  it,  and 
was  killed  by  the  hero  of  the  Nilbdungen  Ued. 

Dracli'ma,  Brachm,  Dram  (Gr.  drcukme  ox  dragme,  'a 
handful ')  was  a  weight,  and  also  the  principal  silver  coin  of  the 
Greek  currency.  Of  the  D.  there  were  two  standards  of  different 
weights  and  values— the  Attic  and  the  i^ginelan.  The  former  was 
chiefly  in  circuktion  in  Northern  Greece,  the  maritime  states,  and 
Sicily,  and  was  equal  to  about  9|d.  English  money  ;  the  latter 
was  used  in  Boaotia,  in  parts  of  Northern  Greece,  and  in  all  the 
Peloponnesian  states  except  Corinth,  and  averaged  about  is. 
I  Jd.  In  either  case  the  D. ,  which  always  consisted  of  6  obols, 
was  the  looth  part  of  a  mina,  and  the  6opoth  part  of  a  talent. 
The  mma  and  talent  were  not  coins,  but  expressions  of  compu- 
tation denoting  the  weight  of  the  money.  Tlie  D.  varied  in 
weight,  under  the  different  standards,  from  6sJ  to  no  grains. 
Thus  the  mina  at  the  kiwest  estimate  —  15  oz,,  or  nearly  I 
lb.  avoirdupois ;  at  the  highest  =  I  lb.  9|  oz.  avoirdupois.  In 
the  modem  Greek  currency  the  D.  consists  of  lOO  lepta,  and  = 
SJd.  sterling.  The  English  avoirdupois  D.  =  37^  troy  grams  ; 
the  apothecary's  D.  =  60  troy  grains,  or  a  little  less  than  the  D. 
of  the  Attic  standard.     (Hussey,  Ancient  We^kfs  and MottQi.) 

Dra'oo  (Gr.  DrakSn),  a  famous  lawgiver  of  Athens,  whose 
enactments,  called  thesMoi  in  contradistinction  to  the  no»ioi 
of  Solon,   weie   drawn  up   about   621    B.C.      D.'s   code   was 


I    punishn 


of  death  being 
atfised  to  almost  every  crime,  iience  it  was  said  that  the 
'laws  of  D.  were  those  of  a  dragon'  {Gr,  drakon),  and  '  that 
they  were  written  not  in  ink,  but  in  blood."  Their  influence, 
however,  was  in  the  highest  degree  beneficial,  inasmuch  as 
the  administration  of  justice  was  no  longer  arbitrary,  but  placed 
on  a  settled  basis,  Moi-eover,  a  most  salutary  result  of  his  leps- 
ladon  was  the  establishment  of  the  EphebE  or  court  of  appeal 
in  cases  of  unintentional  homicide.  The  extreme  harshness  of 
h(S  laws,  however,  rendered  them  not  only  itnijopular,  but 
odious ;  and  under  Solon's  milder  code  capital  punishment  was 
abolished  in  the  case  of  all  crimes  save  murder.  Owing  to  the 
disfavour  of  his  fellow- citizens,  who  deemed  his  laws  rigorous 
beyond  endurance,  D.  was  obliged  to  repair  to  jEgina.  Here 
he  was  received  lit  the  theatre  with  ah  enthusiastic  welcome  that 
proved  fetal  to  him ;  for  he  was  stifled  by  the  garments  that 
were  showered  upon  him  in  token  of  respect  and  admiration. 

Draco,  a  northern  constellation  filling  Uie  space  between 
Ursa  Minor  and  Ursa  Major,  Hercules  and  Lyra.  7  Draconis,  a 
star  of  the  second  magnitude,  and  the  brightest  in  the  constella- 
tion, is  situated  in  tlie  stKught  line  joining  Deneb  and  Arctums, 
and  is  celebrated  as  the  star  by  which  Bradley  discovered  the 
aberration  of  light. 

Draoon'tiuin,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  Arum  family 
(/Jrace«),  natives  of  the  E.  and'W.  Indies.     Tlie  flowers  of  son 
like  those  of  the  Arum  femily,  have  very  disagreeable  odoii 
One  species,  P.  polyphyllum,  has  a  powerful  action  on  the  n 
vous  system,  and  is  used  in  America  for  asthma. 

Draft,  in  mercantile  affairs,  is  a  written  order  by  a  creditor 
addressed  to  his  debtor  calling  o  '  '  '  _ 
the  drawer  or  to  a  third  party.  Acceptance  (q.  v.)  completes 
the  transference  of  the  debt  from  the  drawer  to  me  payee. 

Drag,  an  apparatus  used  for  increasing  (he  friction  of  a 
vehicle  upon  a  road,  so  that  in  going  down  hill  its  speed  may  be 
easily  controlled,  and  it  may  not  press  upon  the  horses.  In  it 
most  common  form  it  consists  of  an  iron  slipper  which  can  b 
plcteed  under  one  of  the  wheels  (upon  the  road),  and  is  attached 
by  a  cliain  to  the  body  of  the  vehicle.  It  is  now  for  almost  all 
fast-running  carriages  superseded  by  a  Brake  (q.  v.),  which  CE 
be  applied  instantaneously  by  the  driver's  hand  or  foot. 

]}rag'omaii  (Fr.  drj)gmifn,  ItaL  dmgomanno)  is  a  very  old 
word.  It  probably  comes  through  the  Spanisli  form  Ii 
and  trujaman,  from  the  Arabic /ari^CTi^,  'an  interpreter.'  The 
Ijdw  Latin  form  of  the  word  was  htrcMtnattnus,  the  Low  Greek 
dmgoupiaiios^  The  French  chroniclers  VHleharrlouiri  and  Join- 
ville  mention  an  officer  named  'drughemant,' whose  business  it 
was  '  enromancer, '  or  to  put  into  French,  the  Saracenic  de- 
spatdies.  It  is  now  applied  generally  to  the  guide  or  interpreter 
in  the  Levant  districts,  but  specially  to  the  ofiicial  interpreter 
attached  to  foreign  embassies  or  the  consular  service  in  the 
Turkish  empire.  The  D.  is  a  recognised  function  in  the  elaborate 
training  system  of  the  Frenph  consulate.  The  D.  frequently  re- 
presents the  consul  in  courts  of  justice  when  cases  are  being  tried 
which  afiect  the  consul's  fellow-countrymen.  The  British  system 
of  Chinese  interpreters  much  requires  extension. 

Drag'911,  in  zoology,  a 
adjective  '  flying ')  to  denote  . 
Draco  volans  of  tte  Eastern 
Archipelago,  which  can  sustain 
themselves  in  th?  £ur  by  means 
of  a  parachute-like  expansion 
of  the  skin,  supported  on  cer- 
tain of  the  specially-extended 
front  ribs.  The  name  Great  p. 
is  also  given  to  another  species 
of  lizard  (Ada  .Guianensis)  inha- 
biting tropical.  America,  and 
from  4  to  6  feet  in  length.  Cer- 
tain fishes  (f^.,  the  Pegasus 
draco)  are  named  sea-dragons, 
from  their  weird  looks,  and  are 
included  in  the  order  Teliosiei. 


yUoogle 


DRA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


0  contend  wili  which  was  the  task  of  heroes.     Hercules, 

Apollo,  and  Perseus  are  all  represented  as  slayers  of  dragons. 

The  D,  was  a  favourite  fiction  of  the  Greek  poets ;  a  D.  kept 

the  garden  of  the  Hesperides,  and  the  chariot  of  Medea  -was 

drawn  by  dragons,  these  animals,  from  their  clearness  of  vision, 

according  to  the  solar  myth,  being  supposed  to  bear  the  sm\ 

thiough  the  heavens.     In  the  Vedic  mythology  the  D.  Vritra  is 

the  antagonist  of  Indra.     In  the  Nthelungert  Lud  the  D.,  as  in 

the  Greek  mythology,  was  a  destructive  agency  which  the  hero 

t  himself  to  cope  with.      In  the  Apocalypse  the  angel  lays 

lold  on  the  D.,  that  old  serpeni,  which  is  llie  devil.'     Hence 

[inters  and  sculptors  often   represent  the  trinmph  of  Chris- 

mity  over  unbelief  by  a  D.  transfiKed  or  trodden  under  foot. 

lie  most  famihar  instance  of  this  is  the  picture  of  St  Geotge  and 

the  D.     It  was  a  common  embleni  on  the  sliields  ^nd  banners  of 

the  Teutonic  knights  who  first  upttled  in  England.     The  Celts 

selected  the  D.  as  the  emblem  of  sovereignty,  and  in  Christian 

.rt  it  was  emblematic  of  sin.      In  heraldiy  the  D.  is  a  common 

imblera,  and  when  other  animals  ai;e  represented  as  dragons 

behind,  they  are  technically  knouf"  ^  dragonnis.      See  Mai 

Miiller's  Coniparaiive  Mythology  in  O^ond  E&ayi  for  1856,  and 

Cox.'s  Manual  qf  MylMogy  {iSGy). 

Dragon  Blood,  or  Gum  Dragon,  a  resinous  e^yid^tion 
from  the  trunks  of  Lrecs  of  various  orders.  Most  of  it  is  obtained 
from  Ftsracarfius  di-a^o,  a  leguminous  tree  of  g,  America,  and 
from  the  red  sandal-wood  tree  (F.  saiilalimn)  of  the  E.  Indies. 
It  is  also  yielded  by  Daliirgia  monelaria  of  Guiana,  £^d  in 
Meiico  by  the  euphorbiaceous  Croton  di!aco.  Some  is  obtained 
from  (he  dragon  tree  of  the  Canaries.  It  is  found  in  the  caves 
of  the  Guanches  or  ancient  inhabitants  of  these  '  fortunate  isles,' 
and  is  believed  to  have  been  used  in  embalnung-  It  is  not  now 
known  in  America.  D,  B,  i&  soluble  in  oils  and  turpentine; 
it  enters  into  the  composition  of  som^  of  the  nvost  esteemed 
varnishes,  is  used  for  dyeing  horn  the  cijouc  of  tortoisershell,  in 
the  composition  of  tooth-powders,  various  tinctures,  &c  It  is 
not  now  used  in  medicine.  Dumonoraps  draco  {Calamus  driua) 
a  native  of  the  Malay  Islands,  yields  also  D,  B  hence  it  is 
known  as  the  D.  B.  palm.  The  resin  eludes  from  the  rti.e 
frails,  while  inferior  kinds  ai;e  got  by  boiling  the  fra  ts  after  Ihey 
have  been  shaken. 

Dl'ag^<met  [Caltionyiniis),  a  ^nus  of  Teleostean  fislies  be 
lon^ng  to  the  family  GobUii/e  or  Got^es^  and  dislingui  he!  by 
havmg  the  ventral  fins  separate  and  distinct,  two  dorsal  fiis  and 
one  small  gill-opening  on  each  side.  The  Gemmeous  D  (C 
Ip-a),  also  known  as  the  foxfish,  sculpin,  and  gowd;e  is  a 
familiar  species.  .  Its  length  is  from  10  to  1 1- inches  and  is 
dazzling  in  colour,  being  yellojv  on  the  upper  and  white  on  the 
under  parts.      The  first  i;aya  of  the.  dorsal  lin  are.  gieatly  elon 

Dragon-Fly  {LiMMa),  a  well-ltnowii  genus  of  NaiTop- 
i,  forming  the  type  of  the  family  laibelltilid^,  which 
'   '  lown  by  the  large  globula,r 
_.    ,  the  long  abdomen,  and 
Fthe  deep  thorax.   The  antenn:e 
y  short,    and  the  nian- 
>r  laiver  pai^  of  jaws  are 

/developed.  The  varie- 
D.-F.  (Z.  vartigala)  is  a 
common  species,  as  also  the  Z. 
cancdiala.  These  insects  are 
familiar  to  ajl  from  theit  bright 
aiure  hues,  the  large  size  of 
their  wings,  and  their  peculiar 
ffishua  Grandis,  gyrating    %ht,    usitally    near 

pools  of  water.  Tlie  French 
have  named  them  demohelks,  from  t^  grace  and  agility  of  theii 
movements.  They  undei^o  a  hemimetabolic  or  incomplete 
Metamorphosis  (q.  v.).  Ttia  larvae  are  aquatic,  and  appear  as 
active  grubs,  provided  with  a  powerful  masticatory  apparatus, 
,  like  a 'mask,' with  which  they  war  on  weaker  insects.  They 
breathe  hy  means  of  branchiis  or  gills  in  the  hinder  part  of  the 
body  i  the  water  which  has  been  used  in  breathing  being  fordbly 
ejectwJ  from  this  cavity,  and  thns  propels  the  larvs  forward. 
After  passing  ten  or  eleven  months  in  the  larval  and  chrysalis 
states,  the  insect  usually  attaches  itself  to  some  water-plant,  and 
as  the  larval  skin  splits  along  the   back,   the  perfect  winged 


crges  therefrom,  and  after  drying  its  wmgs,  launches 


Dragon,  Oreen,  a  plant  belonging  to  the  Arum  family,  with 
peculiar  black  fetid  flowers,  and  a  spoiled  stem,  somewhat  re- 
sembling the  skin  of  a  serpent ;  hence  its  name,  and  also  its  sup- 
posed virtue  of  curing  the  bites  of  serpents,  It  Is  a  native  of 
Southern  Europe. 


Dragounadea'-  (froi 


,  'adragoon'),  the  1 


iued,v 


IS  of 
nthe 
rcfens  of  LouJE  XIV.  and  Lo'ujs  XV,  The  tntendants  Foucault 
and  Baville  were  the  chief  organisers  of  the  moveroent  in  Poitou, 
Montauban,  Beam,  and  Langnedoc  ;  but  the  Catholic  clei^y,  the 
pious  Bourdaloue  as  well  as  the  intolerant  Fl^chier,  were  its 
animating  spirit.  When  in  1685  the  Edict  of  Nantea  (1598) 
and  the  Edict  of  Grace  (Nlmes,  \&Z9)  were  both  revoked,  the 
cavalry  already  quartered  in  the  districts  undertook  to  suppress 
the  assemblies  or  conventicles  {then  pronounced  to  be  illegal), 
and  iai^e  d^tricts  being  defined  as  ^insurrectionary,'  they 
were  authorised  tiy  Louvois  to  ijse  every  yiojence  in  carrying 
out  the  penal  laws.  One  town  in  the  C^venues,  St  Hippo- 
lyte,  paid  240,000  livres  in  three  months  for  billeting  (Beiiott, 
Hkt<nreder£ditdiNantis)._  The  D.  were  contir  '  ' 
soldiers  could  be  spared,  down  to  1750.  T^ere 
Edict  of  Toleration  till  1 787, 

Dragon  Itopt,  a  plant  of  the  Arum  family,  whose  tuber  is 
used  in  America  as  a  stimulant  of  the  secretions  in  chronic  bron- 
chitis and  other  afTcctions  of  the  chest,  and  also  for  ulceration 
of  the  month. 

Dr^«n's  Moutli,    See  Boca, 

Dragoon'  (Fr.  dragon),  a  name  originally  gtven  to  a  light 
horseman  trained  to  fight  on  foot  as  well  as  oft  horseback  ;  now 
applied  in  the  British  service  to  feeavy-ca,vaky  soldiers,  who  are 
armed  with  swords  and  breech-loading  carbines,  and  who  wear 
brass  h.elmet3  Dragoons  were  iirst  raised  in  France  in  1660  by 
Mareschal  de  Brissac  Markham  [Sealdier'ii  Accidence,  1645) 
states  that  the  dragoons  of  his  time  were  armed  with  a  '  faire 
dJigon  and  Meyrick  accordingly  presumes  that  the  soldiei 
took  their  name  from  their  chief  weapon.  The  dragon  was 
shortii,  ea-m  or  carbine,  and  bore  on  its  muBzle  the  worked  head 
of  the  fabulous  b.east  indicated — which  was  believed  to  spout 

Drag6r  a  town  cm  the  S.E.  coast  of  Ainager,  a  small  island 
m  the  Sound  with  a  harbour  for  small  vessels,  and  a  pop.  of 
about  2000  cliiefly  occupied  in.  trading,  fishing,  linen- weaving, 
and  bleaching  It  is  an  important  pilot-station,  and  the  inhabi- 
tants collect  much  salvage.  D.  vras  an  important  place  in  the 
middle  ages  owing  to  the  herring.fishery  in  the  Sound. 

Djagiiign'aji,  the  capital  of  the  department  of  Var,  France, 
at  the  foot  of  the  woody  Malmont,-on  a  tributary  of  the  Aliens, 
45  ipiles  N.E.  of  Toulon  by  railway.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  court 
of  the  first  instance,  and  of  a  communal  college,  and  has  a 
ijourthouse,  a  hospital,  a  public  Ubraiy,  a  theatre,  a  botanical 
garden,  smd  fme  promenades.  Its  manufactures  are  chiefly  wine, 
oil,  silks,  soap,  leather,  and  brandy.  Pop.  (1872)  7625,  D,  is 
an  old  town,  and  was  at  oiic  linie  Strongly  fortified. 

Drain'age  signifies  cuttings  In  the  ground  to  carry  off  super- 
Huous  water  from  the  soil  and  subsoil.  There  are  few  subjects 
that  have  created  more  discussion  than  D.,  and  of  late  years  some 
have  doubted  its  profitableness.  Complaints  have  been  made 
that  in  dry  hilly  regions,  since  D.  was  introduced,  the  fallen 
rain  dischai^es  itself  too  quickly  into  the  rivera,  swelling  them 
inordinately,  and  thereby  doing  harm  to  low-lying  lands.  The 
general  experience,  however,  is  that  D.  has  vastly  increased  the 
productiveness  of  land,  turning  marshes  and  barren  clay-lands 
into  fertile  fields,  and  removing  malaria  from  the  atmosphere. 
The  benefits  from  the  draining  of  land  were  noticed  in  the  days 
of  Columella,  but  were  not  taken  advantage  of.  Open  drain; 
and  ditches  have  been  in  use  from  time  immemorial,  and  in  spiti 
of  scientific  and  practical  teaching  still  exist  to  an  unprofitable 
extent.  On  many  farms  in  Great  Britdn  the  cuttings  for  con- 
veying away  water  are  uncovered,  and  consequently  inefficient, 
as  they  fill  with  weeds,  preventives  of  outfall.  The  arching  over 
ot  many  would  cost  comparatively  little.  The  land  reclaimed 
437 


vLiOOQle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DEA 


the  nature  of  ifie  soil.     Deep  drains  are  essentially ^  , 

clayey  soils,  not  so  mnch  on  friable  or  medium  soils  ;  neither 
the  latter  need,  the  pipes  be  so  closely  together.  Di-ains  made 
thirty  years  ago  on  very  heavy  clay  land,  enly  12  feet  apart,  and 
2  feet  8  inches  in  depth,  filled  with  stones  above  the  pipes,  have 
been  found  to  answer  well ;  bat  those  42  feet  apart,  5  feet 
deep,  with  l-inch  pipe  have  proved  better.  Deep  drains  take 
longer  to  remove  the  water  than  shallow,  bat  the  soil  where  4  or 
S  feet  D.  is  practised  is  never  liable  to  get  sour.  Drains  less 
than  3  feet  in  depth  are  now  eschewed  by  all  practical  men,  so 
also  is  the  placing  of  stones  or  gravel  upon  the  tops  of  the  pipes. 
To  prevent  the  choking  of  drains,  it  is  recommended  that  small 
pipes  passing  through  fences  or  near  trees  should  be  of  iron,  as 
plants  are  sure  to  enter  crevices  in  clay  tiles.  The  tiles  iised 
now  are  not  so  uniform  m  size  as  foiiBierly,  but  thw  are  generally 
round  with  a  bore  of  2  hiches  ui  diameter,  and  a  length  of  from 
12  to  15  inches.  CoUars  preventing  the  encroachment  of  weeds 
or  efflux  of  water  are  used  at  thg  joinings.  The  profit  to  the  farmer 
of  draining  heavy  wet  land,  4  feet  deep,  at  fi-oni  24  to  45  feet  apart, 
Mr  Bailey  Denton  shows  to  be  je.  Oct  per  acre.  Dram-cutting 
has  been  accomplished  with  ploughs  in  some  parts,  but  as  a  rule 
the  spade  prevails.  These  implements  gradually  narrow  as  diey 
cut  from  the  surface  of  tlie  soil  to  the  bottom  of  the  drdn.  The 
main  drain  ought  to  be  cut  at  the  lowest  level  of  the  field.  i;nto 
that  its  tributary  tiles  should  dischai^  theh  waters  right  and- 1^. 
Steam -plonghing  has  dona  much  to  eradicate  the  furrow-drain- 
ing system.  See  R«T.  Adam  Dickson's  Tnattse  of  Agriculture  ; 
Sie^be-a\  Book  of  the  Farm  ;  M.ttiA's  Ifow  to  Parm  Profitably; 
Monthly  Magaeine,  1798;  Bailey  Denton's  iJrfltWK^;  Robert- 
son's i'urjiiy' ^/'J/iiiCflj'i/as,  1795, 

Brainage  Tabes  are  suiglcal  appliances  made  of  india- 
rubber  or  caoutchouc,  of  various  degrees  of  thickness,  and  ii( 
some  cases  medicated  with  carbolic  acid  or  other  disinfectants. 
Tliey  are  used  to  eyaciw,te  chronic  abscesses  or  other  collections 
of  pus,  as  in  empyema,  when  the  siu^eon  considei;s  it  madvis- 
able  to  evacuate  the  pus  by  g,  free  incjsion.  They  aie  introduced 
a  the  abscess  by  means  of  a  trochai  and  canula,  and  tied  so 
that  the  matter  drains  away  slowly,  either  through,  or  more  fre- 
quently along  the  sides  of  the  tubes.  D.  T,  are  sometimes  in- 
serted into  wounds  to.  allpw  deep-seated  matter  to  escape  ss  soon 
as  it  is  formed. 

Drake,  Friedrioh,  a  German  sculptor,  wgs.born  at  Pyrmont, 
June  23,  1S05,  and  studied  mider  Ranch  at  the  Berlin  Academy. 
'"'--  -umerous  works,  which,  are  chaste  and  massive,  include 
j  (Jos.  Jakob  Moser  in  Osnabriick,  a  colossal  Friedr, 
Wilhelm  III.  m  the  Berlin  Thiergarten,  and  another  in  Stettin, 
Kauch  and  Schinkel  in  Berlm,  an  equestrian  statue  of  Kmg 
Wilhelm  in  Colc^ne,  1867,  statuettes  of  the  brothers  Humbojdt, 
of  Goethe,  &c),  groups  {e.g.,  on  the  Berlin  Schlossbraeke),  busts 
(Oken,  Ranke,  &c.),  mythological  works,  and  genre  pieces. 

Drake,  Sir  Pranciis,  one  of  tlje  grea.test  of  English  saiiora, 
was  bom,  about  1540,  in  a  cottage  on  the  Taxy  in  Devonshire. 
IS  educated,  at  the  expense  of  Sir  John  Hawlfins,  in  Kent, 
whither  his  fether,  a  zealous  Puritan,,  had  been  forced  to  fiy. 
He  went  to  sea  when  very  young,  and  made  yarioiis  coasting 
voyages,  besides  visiting  the  Contment,  until,  fired  by  the  ex- 
'  ploits  of  Hawkins,  he  loined  that  commander  in  an  ill-fated 
expedition  to  the  Spanish  Mdn,  D.  relumed  in  poverty,  and 
vowed  revenge  on  Spain,  his  inflexible  hatred  of  which  was 
fostered  by  his  losses  and  his  Puritanical  training.  He  then 
nade  several  cruises  in  the  W.  Indies,  where  he  vrent  through 
uany  wild  adventures,  and  became  a  terror  to  Spam.  In  1572 
he  pillaged  Nombre  de  Dios,  and,  in  the  same  year,  from  a 
'highandgoodly' tree  in  Darien,  first  saw  the  Pacific,  and  'be- 
sought Almighty  God  to  give  him. life  and  leave  to  sail  once  in 
an  English  ship  on  that  sea.'  In  1577  D.  sailed  from  England 
for  S.  America  with  five  ships  and  161  men,  passed  the  Strdts 
of  Magellan,  till  then  untraversed  by  Englishmen,  and  plundered 
and  destroyed  all  along  the  coasts  of  Chili  and  Peru.  He  sacked 
various  ports,  took  the  treasure-galleon  which  sailed  from  Lima, 
and  then,  his  one  remaining  ship,  tlie  Pelican,  being  loaded 
with  spoils  in  value  of  about  .£500,000,  sailed  boldly  for  the 
Moluccas,  rounded  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  anchored  in 
Plymouth  harbour,   September  24,   r579.      He  was  received 


with  general  enthusiasm,  and  was  knighted  by  the  Q  d 

the  Pelican   was  long  presei-ved  at    Depttord.      Thi  ^ 

though  barren  in  geographical  results,  had  a  mighty  mo  al    I 
and  emboldened  D.'s  countrymen  for  the  coming  struggl         h 
Spain.    In  1585-86,  D.  revisited  the  Spanish  Indies,  pi     1 
ing  Vigo  on  his  outward  voyage,  sacking  Santiago,  and         gi  g 
Carthagena  and  San  Domingo.      In  1587  when  the  A       d 
(q.  v.)  was  about  to  sail,  D„  with  thirty  small  vessels       t     d 
Cadiz  harbour,  burnt  a  hundred  storeships  and  gall  y     th 
swept  the  coast  to  Cape  St  VincHit,  destroyed  fourlaig   ca  ties, 
and  ended  by  descending  on  Corunna.     This  gallant  a  d  skilf  1 
dash  at  the  Spanish  ports,  whicli  he  called  a  'singei  g    f   h 
Spanish  king's  beawi,'  delayed  the  saiUng  of  the  A  m  d    f 
above  a  year,  and  enabled  Elizabeth  to  prepare  her  d  f      es 
In  1588  he  served  as  vice-admiral,  under  Howard,  in    h    fi 
which  drove  back  the  Armada,  a  result  largely  dne  to  D      pi 
did  seamanship  and  fiery  daring.    Had  not  he.  been  ch    1   d  by 
Howard,  the  rout  of  the  Spaniards  would  liave  been  e 
disastrous.     On  returning  from  an  unsuccessful  expedition  to 
Portugal  in  1589,  he  was  made  member  of  Parliament  for  Ply- 
mouth, which  he  provided  with  water  by  an  aqueduct,  20  miles 
long,  built  at  his  own  expense.    In  1595  he  set  eut  for  the  W. 
Indies,  but  unfortunately  quarrelled  with  and  finally  separated 
from  Hawkms,  who  shared  with  him  the  command  of  the  fleet. 
After  a  brave  but  unsuccessful  attack  on  Puerto  Rico,  he  burnt 
Rio  de  la  HaclM,  Eancheia,  Santa  Martha,  and  Nombre  de  Dios, 
when  a  disease  broke  out  among  his  men,  of  which  the  great 
navigator  died,  December  27,  1595.    More  than  any  other  man, 
D.  was  the  founder  of  England's  naval  greatness,  and  the  sin- 
cerity of  his  pstiiiotism  was  shown  in  the  readiness  with  which 
he  sacrificed  his  wealth  to  aid  in  repellmg  the  Armada.    He  was, 
says  Fuller,  '  chaste  in,  his  life,  just  m  Lis  dealings,  true  of  his 
word,  merciful  to  those  tlial  were  under  him,  and  hating  nothing 
so  much  as  idleness,  contemning  danger  and  refusing  no  toil' 
Zit'S.i.no'Nh  Ufi  of  Admiral  So:  F.  Z>..(Lpnd.  1844),  and  Ptic- 
chas's  PUgrims. 

Dra'ma  (Gr.  drama,  fi-om  draS,  '  \  act '),  or  Dramatic 
Po'etry,  is  essentially  the  poetry  of  action.  Its  form  is  dialogue. 
It  differs  from  every  other  species  of  composition,  whether  epic, 
lyric,  or  descriptive,  inasmuch  as  it  seeks  to  place  before  the 
mind  an  impersonal  r^resentation,  by  the  WTiter,  of  the  actions 
of  others  in  a  series  of  scenes  of  animated  discourse  and  lively 
movements,  by  which  the  story  is  vividly  portrayed  and  naturally 
evolved  as  a  changing  and  progressive  phase  of  human  existence. 
In  colour,  interest,  intensity,  and  charm,  it  sui-passes  all  other 
forma  of  poetry,  for  whereas  the^  exhibit  phases  of  thought  or 
feeling  or  fancy,  D,  P.  deals  with  action,  which  is  life  itself.  The 
elenjents  of  tup  dramatic  art  %Ee  universid.  In  the  lowest  stages 
of  civilisation  we  discern  mde  attempts  to  impart  amusement  by 
dramatic  representation,  and  even  among  diildren  we  see  the  art 
m  embryo— in  the  mimicry  d  their  seniors,  and  in  their  celebra- 
tions of  weddings  and  funerals. 

D.  P.  is  divided  into  tragic  and  comU.  The  former  is  cha- 
racterised by  eamestaess,  the  latter  by  mittli.  Instances  of 
vigorous  dramatic  composition  are  to  be  found  m  tlie  Hebrew 
Scriptnres,  e^.,  in  Job  and  in  the  Song  of  Solomon  ;  and  also  in 
the  ballads  of  the  Greek  rhapsodists,  who  doubtless  combined 
the  functions  of  Ihe  actor  with  those  trf  the  bard :  but  we  must 
seek  the  birth  of  the  legitimate  D.  in  the  Greek  festival  of 
Dionysus.  The  enthusiasm  peculiar  to  the  worship  of  the  wine- 
god  was  in  itself  calculated  to  develop  the  dramatic  art.  Both 
trag^y  and  eontedys^raa^  up  in  Greece  about  580  B.C.  The 
origin  of  both  terms  has  bem  disputed.  Tragedy  (from  tragos, 
'  a  goat,'  and  od?,  'a  song 'Vis  variously  explamed  as  the  song  at 
which  a  goat  was.  sacrificed,  or  for  which  a  goat  was  the  pnze, 
or  ia  the  performance  of  which  the  actors  were  clad  in  goatskins. 
Some  derive  comedy  from  kimos,  '  a  revel,'  others  from  ,iamS, 
'  a  village, '  and  oile.  It  may  thus  mean  either  the  revellers'  song 
or  the  village  song.  The  D.,  according  to  Aristotle,  had  its 
origin  in  the  dithyramb,  and  in  its  earliest  form  seems  to  have 
been  little  more  tlian  a  choral  song  by  a  rustic  smeared  with  the 
lees  of  wuie.  By  and  by  an  interlocutor  was  added,  who  filled 
up  the  breaks  in  the  soiyj  by  a.  nattatlve.  Down  to  the  times 
of  Thespis  (536  B.C.)  and  Phrynichus  {512  B.C.),  tragedy  made 
but  little  way.  The  former  introduced  regular  dialogue,  and 
made  one  entire  story  occupy  the  pauses  in  tlie  chorus.  Thus 
tlie  chorus  became  in  time  suboi-dinate  to  the  dialogue.     It  was 


yLaOogle 


DBA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


not,  however,  till  the  appearance  of  jEacliylus  tiiat  the  Greets 
hEid  a  regular  theatre.  He  gave  tlie  D.  life  and  divinity,  and 
invested  it  with  pomp  and  splendour.  His  compositions  are 
characterised  by  simplicity,  harmony,  and  sublimity,  Sophocles, 
thirty  years  his  junior,  and  in  the  delineation  of  human  nature 
perhaps  his  superior,  strove  in  the  serene  contemplation,  of  hnman 
destiny  to  portray  ideal  heroism,  and  to  clothe  all  he  touched 
with  enduring  loveliness  and  beauty.  He  added  a  third  actor, 
and  otherwise  improved  the  stage.  Euripides  appealed  rather 
to  the  sensibility  than  to  the  imaginatkm  of  his  audience  By 
metaphysical  subtleties,  eloquent  disputations,  startling  effects, 
and  scenes  qf  suffering,  he  mars  his  work,  while  he  lacks  the 
serenity,  grandeur,  and  religious  awe  which  reign  in  .^schylus 
and  Sophocles. 

Greek  comedy  rose  with  Susarion,  an  itinerant  m 
[5S0  B.C.),     Epichamius  and  Phorraes,  according 
(PoeL  sec.  li.),  were  the  first  to  fashion  fables,  wh  gi 

le  from  Sicily ;    while  Crates  introduced  them        A 
!  most  famous  names  of  this  period,  that  of  the  O  med 

Magnes,  Cratinus,  Eupolis,  Pherecrates,  and  A     top 
Of  these,  the  last  is  by  far  the  grraitest     The  Mi         Cm 
includes  about  forty  names.    The  most  celebrate 

?haneB,  Eubulus,  Anaxandrides,  Alexis,  Araras,  P 
'imocles.  None  of  their  works  have  reached  u 
respect  the  Middle  differed  from  the  Old  Come 
are  not  ^reed,  and  some  critics  reject  this  division.  N 

Comedy,  which  includes  the  names  of  Menander,  Philemon, 
Diphilus,  Apollodorus,  and  Posidippus,  is  a  minture  of  tragedy 
and  comedy.  It  is  a  direct  growth  from  Euripides,  whom  its 
poets  r^arded  as  their  master.  Of  Menander  and  Philemon — 
tlie  most  celebrated — only  fragments  remain. 

The  Romans  were  not  of  a  dramatic  turn.  Their  eariiest  rude 
ideas  of  the  art,  and  even  their  term  for  a  player  (Mstrio),  were 
derived  from  the  Etinscans  ;  their  farces  [FaSu/a  Atdlana)  from 
tiie  Oscans  ;  while  the  higher  compositions  of  livius  Androni- 
cus,  Nasvius,  Enniiis,  Pkutns,  Csedlius,  Terence,  Pacuvius,  and 
Attins  were  either  reproductions  or  adaptations  of  Greek  originals. 
Of  the  comic  writers,  we  can  judge  only  by  the  extant  works  of 
Plautus  and  Terence.  The  plays  of  the  former  have  a  Roman 
vigour  and  freshness  which  impart  to  them,  notwithstanding 
their  Greek  origin,  a  great  amount  of  originality  ;  but  they  are 
inferior  to  those  of  Terence  in  felidty  and  purity  of  language. 
Of  the  early  period  of  tragedy  we  know  nest  to  nothing  ;  among 
,  (he  lofty  attempts  of  the  Augustan  age  we  learn  that  the  Midea 
of  Ovid  was  much  admired.  The  dramas  of  Seneca,  though 
often  bombastic  and  turgid,  scarcely  merit  the  vitnperation  of 
Bemhatdy  and  Schlegel,  for  they  contain  passages  of  great 
beauty,  and  are  interesting  as  the  only  entive  Latin  tragedies 

For  fourteen  centuries  after  Seneca,  tlie  D.  slumbered  in 
Europe.  Italy  was  the  scene  of  its  revival.  In  most  Euro, 
pean  countries  the  mysteries,  miracle  plays,  and  moralities  of 
the  middle  ages  were  the  germ  of  the  modem  D.  (See 
Miracle  Plays.)  In  Italy,  however,  the  new  D.  did  not 
spring  mainly  from  the  msdijeval  religious  plays,  but  was  partly 
a  result  of  the  Renaissance,  and  partly  a  continuation  of  the 
comic  theatre  of  ancient  Rome.  The  ReEaissance  (q.  v.)  called 
forth  pieces  based  on  Seneca^  Plautus,  or  Terence,  couched  at 
first  in  Latin,  but  dealing  with  contemporary  history.  These 
were  common  in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries,  and  among  the 
best  writers  of  them  irere  Mussato,  Landovico,  Bemardin,  and 
Petrarch  (q.  v.),  the  foundersof  the  Academic  schooL  Graduflliy 
Latin  was  disused  in  dramatic  works  ;  comedies  were  written  in 
Italian  by  Ariosto,  Aretino,  and  Macchiavelli ;  and  early  in  the 
l6lh  c.  tragedy  was  inaugurated  by  Trissino's  Jo/:4o»iiia  (IS'S)- 
In  antagonism  io  this  learned  school  there  arose  a  vigorous 
popular  D.,  not  a  growth  of  the  Renaissance,  but  a  direct  de- 
scendant from  the  Mimi  and  FaMa  Atdlana  of  a.ucient  Rome, 
whidi  had  lingered  through  the  middle  ages  in  the  niral  dis- 
tricts of  Italy,  and  in  the  15th  c.  were  known  as  conlrasti,  as 
commidia,  and  as  farsa  (see  Farce).  From  these  contrasti, 
laughable  impromptu  dialogues,  sprang  the  cemmtdia  delt  arte, 
or  sctnarii,  farcical  pieces,  the  plot  of  which  was  sketched  before 
representation,  while  the  dialogue  was  improvised  by  the  actors. 
These  became  very  popular,  and  helped  to  mould  the  rising 
comedy  of  France.  The  Italian  pastoral  D.,  which  largely  in- 
fluenced English  poetry  (see  English  Litekature),  was  quite 
aloof  fiom  the  early  religious  plays,  and  purely  a  fruit  of  the 


Renaif 


:,  spniiging 


from  the 


lent  idylls,  and  aimmg  al 
mythologica'  "^ 


fanciful  delineation"' of  Arcadian  and 

leading  pastoral  plays  were  Poliziano's  (g.  v.)  Orfin  (1472), 
Tasso's(q.  v.)  Aminla  (1513!,  and  Guarini  s  (q.  v.)  Pastor  Fido 
(1583).  The  pastorals  gave  bhth  to  the  Opera  (q.  v.).  Comedy 
flourished  richly  in  the  i6tli,  but  waned  in  the  17th  c,  the  <s)»;- 
»«iA"b  <^/' <wft  Bupplanling  the  csmmedia  eittMta,  or  Academic 
pieces,  and  tending  to  crystallise  character  into  a  few  types, 
until,  in  the  l8th  c. ,  Goldoni  (q.  v.)  restored  genuine  comedy,  and 
Alfieri  (q.  v.)  reinstalled  classic  tragedy.  Among  later  Italian 
writers  of  tragedy  are  Monti,  Manzoni,  and  Niccolini, 

The  Spanish  D.  began  with  the  great  national  movement  at 

tlie  close  of  the  1 5th  c,  and,  tmUke  the  Italian  D.,  was  wholly  alien 

from  the  Greek  andRomantheatre,  but  flowed  through  the  iwA^- 

-  or  interludes  from  the  Catliolic  religious  plays,  on  which 

autas  saemmentales  or  devotional  dramas  of  many  famous 

ors  were  based,  and  from  tlie  old  chivalrous  ballads  and 

pics,  whence  it  drew  its  romantic  colouring.     The  earliest  true 

mas  are  the  Mingo  StSulgn,  a  satiric  pastoral,  written  in  the 

half  of  the  isth  c,  and  La  Celeilma,  a  kind  of  historic 

edy,  written  about  1450.    The  Spanish  D.  was  distinguished 

florid  style,  intricate  plots,  and  a  pervadhig  glow  of  patri- 

and  religious  fervour.     The  ciief  Spanish  dramatists  were 

antes  (q.  V-),  Lope  de  Vega  <q.  v.),  and  CaWeron  (q.  v.). 

nd  to  these  were  Alarcon,  Molina,  Moreto,  and  Soils,   The 

g     test  receat  dranmtlst  is  Movatin  (q.  v.). 

The  Portuguese  D.  arose  in  the  i6th  c  with  Miranda,  who  fol- 
lowed Plautus  and  Terence ;  Ferreira,  whose  Igftea  de  Castro  was 
modelled  on  Greek  tragedies;  and  Gil  Vicente  (g.  v.),  the  greatest 
dramatist  of  Portugal,  who  founded  a  Romantic  school.  Since 
Vicente,  Portu^  has  produced  no  dramatist  of  very  high  merit. 
The  French  D.  was  descended  from  the  medieeval  mysteries, 
&C.,  through  the  fMces  and  telus,  or  satiric  pieces  of  the  iSth  c 
The  best  writer  of  SBtia  was  Pieire  Gringoire,  and  one  of  the 
farces,  PUtvt  Paihelin,  is  the  earliest  example  of  genuine  comedy 
in  French.  The  first  tragedy  was  the  Climtra  (1552)  of 
Jodelle,  who,  with  his  followers  La  Peruse  and  Garnier,  imitated 
Seneca,  In  the  l6th  c,  comedy,  though  still  cmde,  was  more 
vigorous  than  tragedy,  being  sprightly,  fluent,  and  sarcastic.  It 
was  largely  oast  in  octosyllabic  verse,  and  its  chief  writers  were 
Jean  de  la  Taille  and  Larrevy.  At  Uie  beginning  of  the  I7lh  c. 
a  romantic  D.  was  arising  in  France,  hut  Moliire  (q.  v.),  the 
greatest  French  dramatist,  displaced  the  comedy  of  intrigue  by 
the  comedy  of  character  and  manners,  and  his  contemporary, 
Comeille  <q.  v.),  founded  the  French  -classic  school  of  tragedy. 
This  clasHi:  D.,  which  was  brilliantly  represented  by  Racine  (q.  v.) 
and  Voltaire  (q.  v.),  and  which  attained  its  zenith  under  Louis 
XIV.,  was  marked  by  rigid  adherence  to  the  Unities  (q.  v,),  by 
formal  and  often  over-emphatic  rhetoric  ;  and,  though  generally 
wanting  in  passion  and  natural  variety  and  freedom,  possessed 
many  noble  reflective  and  declamatory  passages,  and  great  purity, 
stateliness,  and  finidi  of  style.  After  the  death  of  Voltaire,  the 
French  D.  dwindled  until  the  rise  of  the  Romanticists  (see 
Romanticism),  who,  about  1830,  led  by  Hugo  (q.  v.),  founded  a 
new  school,  after  a  bitter  struggle  with  the  Ckissicists.  Tlie  best 
of  the  new  romantic  plays  were,  compared  to  tlie  dramas  of  Cor- 
neille  and  Racine,  less  chaste  and  pale,  more  rich  and  turbid  in 
diction,  more  flesible  and  musical  in  verse,  wider  iii  range  of 
character,  and  more  impassioned  in  its  representation.  The 
most  recent  French  P.  is  deeply  stained  with  lascivious  sen- 
sationalism. 

The  German  D.  has  had  no  continuous  development,  and  has 
never  displayed  the  bright  luxuriance  of  the  Enghsh  and  French 
theatres.  In  the  l6th  c.  the  religious  plays,  under  the  influence 
of  Hans  Sachs  (q.  v.)  and  Ayrer,  expanded  Into  a  popular  D,, 
and  in  the  17th  c.  there  vras  marked  dramatic  prepress  in  Silesia. 
In  the  l8th  c.  an  exotic  school,  imitative  of  the  French  D., 
arose,  but  was  checked  by  Lessing  (q.  v.),  who  founded  a  real- 
istic and  impassioned  national  D.  The  greatest  German  drama- 
tists since  Lessing  are  Goethe  (q.  v.)  and  Schiller  (q.  v.).  For 
the  Gei-man  romantic  school,  including  Tieclt,  Arnim,  Halm, 
Komer,  &c,  which  chose  Shakespeare  as  model,  see  Roman- 

The  English  D,  was  an  outcome  of  the  mysteries,  &c., 
through  the  moralities  and  interludes  of  the  16th  c.  The  first 
English  comedy  is  Udall's  Ral^h  Roystcr  Dsyster,  the  prototype 
of  the  numerous  comedies  of  London  life,  acted  before  1557,  and 
the  first  tragedy  is  Gorhoduc,  or  Ferrex  and  Ponex,  acted  in 
439 


vLiOOQle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


1562.  From  1580  to  1596  the  chief  dramatists  are  Peele,  Greene, 
and  Marlowe,  and,  secondary  to  these,  Lodge,  Kyd,  Munday, 
Cheltle,  and  Nash.  Their  works  were  bombastic,  sensuotis,  and 
charged  with  lawless  and  fieir  imagination.  The  mature  Eliza- 
bethan D.,  represented  by  Shakespeate,  Jonson,  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher,  Dekker,  Webster,  Ford,  and  Massmger,  blended  an 
artistic  beauty  bora  of  the  Renaissance  with  an  unrivalled 
strength  of  passion  and  wealth  of  thought  kindled  by  the  national 
energy  and  progress.  Shirley  links  the  Elizabethan  with  the 
Restoration  D.,  in  which  ti-agedy  sinks  into  rant,  and  poetic 
comedy  gives  place  to  a  comedy  of  manners,  tameless,  vigorous, 
and  sparkling  with  tlie  clearest  wit.  The  chief  names  of  this 
period,  in  which  French  influences  prevail,  are  Dryden,  Shad- 
well,  Lee,  Crowne,  Otway,  Eowe,  Congreve— '  the  Englisli 
Moliire '— Wycherley,  Vanbtugh,  and  Farquhar.  In  the  18th 
c.  tragedy  declined,  Johnson  and  Addison  attempting  it  unsuc- 
cessfully; but  spirited,  humorous  comedies  were  produced  by 
Gibber,  Colman,  Cumbeiland,  and  especially  by  Goldsmith  and 
Sheridan.  In  the  19th  c.  many  writers  have  composed  noble 
dramatic  works,  especially  Shelley,  Landor,  Coleridge,  Byron, 
and  Taylor,  which  are  not  suited  for  representation.  Joanna 
Baillie,  Sheridan  Knowles,  Talfourd,  Bulwer  Lylton,  and  West- 
land  Maraton  have  sought  to  infuse  poetry  into  acting  plays ; 
and  among  the  poets  who  have  recently  adopted  the  dramatic 
form  are  Swinburne,  Tennyson,  Browning,  and  Nichol.  The 
present  acting  D.,  which  has  suiTered  greatiy  from  the  ascend- 
ancy of  spectacle  and  burlesque,  is  seen  at  its  best  in  the  realistic 
comedies  of  Robertson  and  Albery,  the  beautiful  whimsicalities 
of  W,  S.  Gilbert,  the  tragedies  of  Wills,  the  sensational  plays  of 
Wilkie  CoUins,  and  the  farces  of  Byron,  See  Donaldson,  7'healre 
sfthe  Greeks  (1849) ;  Sohlegel,  Verlesimgm  iiber  Dramatische 
Kimst  und  Liieratur  (ad  ed.  Heidelb.  1817);  Freytag,  I3ii 
Technikdes  Dramas  (Leips.  1865) ;  Klein,  Gesckichle  des  Dramas 
{2  vols.  Leips.  1865) ;  Ward,  English  Drmmlic  lAlerature 
(2  vols,  Lond.  1875) ;  and  also  English  Literature. 

Dramatic  Works,  OopyxigM  in.  By  3  and  4  Will.  IV. 
c.  IS,  the  authorof  any  dramatic  work  has  for  life  the  sole  control 
of  its  theatrical  representation.  Should  he  die  within  twenty- 
eight  years  from  the  date  of  publication,  the  right  accrues  to 
his  assignee  for  the  remainder  of  that  period.  The  Act  has 
been  extended  to  musical  compositions.  See  Copyright,  Law 
Eegahding. 

Dramm'en,  the  third  seaport  of  Norway,  on  the  Drams^ord, 
at  the  moutli  of  Drams-Elv,  30miles  S.W.  of  Christiania.  It  con- 
sists of  tln-ee  separate  parts — Bragernas,  Stromsij,  and  Tangen, 
which  are  connected  by  bridges.  Its  manuElctures  are  beer,  to- 
bacco, cordage,  &c.,  and  it  has  the  largest  timber-trade  in  Nor- 
way. In  1873  it  enported  233,000  tons  of  various  woods,  chiefly 
to  Germany,  Holland,  England,  and  France.  There  belonged  to 
the  port  (1875)  245  vessels,  of  which  only  three  were  steamers. 
The  value  of  the  imports  in  1873  was  ;i;33,940,  of  the  exports 
/S3,523.     Pop,  (1870)  15,458. 

Dra'per,  John  William,  LL,D,,  an  American  savant,  was 
born  at  Liverpool,  England,  May  5,  i3il,  emigrated  to  the 
United  States  in  1833,  and  graduated  in  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  1836,  in  which  year  he  was  appointed  Professor  of 
Chemistry  in  Hampden  and  Sydney  Coll^,  Virginia.  In  1S39 
he  became  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  University  of  New 
York,  and  two  years  later  assisted  in  starting  the  Universih' 
Medical  College  of  New  York,  with  whidi  he  was  connected  till 
1868.  His  chief  works  are  Organisatian  ef  Plants  {tB^),  Text- 
Book  of  Chemishy  (1846),  Natural  Philosophy  {1847},  Human 
Physiology  (1856),  Histoiy  of  the  Intellectual  Development  of 
Europe  (1863),  Futtire  CMl  Poliey  of  America  (1S65),  PMaso- 
pkical  History  of  the  Civil  War  {1867),  and  The  Hutory  of  the 
Confiiet  ietween  Jieligien  and  Science  [King  &  Co.,  Lond.  1874). 

Dra'perjr  (Fr.  drop,  'doth'),  in  painting  or  sculpture,  the 
clothing  of  the  human  figure.  The  fit  disposition  of  D,  is  an 
important  object  in  art,  and  in  modern  times,  from  the  com- 
paratively unbecoming  nature  of  dress,  oft'ers  considerable  diffi- 
culties to  the  artist.  This  difficulty  is  sometimes  eluded  by 
draping  a  figure  in  antique  costume,  or  in  a  loose  cloak,  but 
many  great  sculptors,  and  notably  Thorwaldsen,  have  coped 
successfully  with  the  disadvantages  of  modern  costume.  In  re- 
presenting  D,,  attention  must  be  paid  to  historic  accuracy  in  the 
dress  painted  or  chiselled,  to  the  action  represented,  and  to  the 
^40 


outlines  of  the  figure  covered  by  the  D.  The  object  of  the 
sculptor  is  to  impart  to  D,  a  conventional  repose  and  a  firmness 
that  does  not  prevent  it  from  being  transparent  and  flowing. 
See  Costume  and  Fashion, 

Draught  or  Draft  of  water  of  a  vessel  is  the  depth  to  which 
she  is  immersed  when  afloat.  A  scale  of  feet  is  marlted  at  one 
or  both  ends  of  the  ship,  by  which  the  D,  can  be  at  once  known 

Draughts  (Ft.  les  dames,  Ger.  damenspiel),  a  game  played 
by  two  persons  on  a  board  similar  to  that  used  in  chess.  Each 
player  has  twelve  'men'  or  pieces,  one  set  being  black,  the  other 
white.  These  are  placed  on  the  white  (in  Scotland  on  the  black) 
checks,  occupying  at  the  beginning  of  the  game  the  first  three 
rows  before  each  player.  They  are  moved  forwards  in  a  diagonal 
or  zigzag  direction,  and  only  one  square  at  a  time.  When  a 
piece  has  safely  readied  the  adversary's  end  of  the  board,  it  is 
made  a  '  king,"  being  crowned  with  another  piece  for  the  stdce  of 
distinction,  and  thenceforth  having  the  additional  power  of 
moving  backwards.  The  sole  object  of  the  game  is  to  capture 
or  '  tsJce '  the  opposing  '  men,'  or  to  hem  them  in  so  as  to  hinder 
further  progress.  A  piece  can  only  be  taken,  i.c.,  conveyed  from 
the  board,  when  it  is  placed  immediately  in  tlie  way  of  another, 
and  a  check  behind  it  is  left  blank.  The  victorious  piece  is  then 
lifted  over  the  one  taken  and  pUced  in  the  empty  square  beyond. 
As  a  general  rule,  in  playing,  it  is  best  to  concentrate  one's  forces, 
and  to  keep  none  of  the  men  'at  home.'  Success  greatly  de- 
pends on  getting  an  early  king.  D.  is  less  scientific,  but  more 
popular  than  chess,  to  which  it  holds  much  the  relation  of 
ba^telle  to  billiards.  It  has  been  said  that  '  life  is  too  short  for 
chess,'  but  a  game  at  D,  occupies  little  time,  and  is  a  recreation, 
nolastudy.   See  ffandAoai of  Gamfs  for  Gentlemen  {Lond.  1876), 

DravB,  or  Drftu,  one  of  the  chief  tributaries  of  the  Danube, 
rises  in  the  Pusterthal  on  the  S,E.  frontier  of  the  Austrian  'iVrol, 
flows  E.  through  the  crown-lands  of  Carinthia  and  Steiermark, 
and  E.S  E.,  forming  the  boundary  between  Hungary  on  the  N. 
and  Croatia  and  Skvonia  in  the  S,,  to  its  junction  with  the 
Danube,  about  10  miles  below  Essek.  It  is  382  miles  long,  and 
becomes  navigaMe  at  Villaoh,  in  Carinthia,  whence  downwards 
there  is  considerable  traffid 

Dravidiau  Langxiagea  and  Peoples,    The  te      D  has 

been  applied  by  philologists  to  a  group  of  cognate  1  gua4 
whose  present  home  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  S,  fl  d 
The  name  itself  isderived&omilroi^Va,  the  Sanskritapp  11  t  n 
for  the  Tamil  country,  the  most  ancient  and  powerf  1  f  th 
Southern  Indian  kingdoms;  and  the  name  Tamulian  1  is  b  n 
sometimes  used  for  the  entire  group.  The  D.  L.,  which  all 
form  to  a  common  type,  belong  to  the  more  highly-d  1  ped 
stage  of  the  so-called  Turanian  family  of  speech.  They  are 
agglutinative  in  the  fundamental  portions  of  their  grammar ; 
but  they  also  exhibit  incipient  inflections,  which  can  for  tlie 
most  part  be  reduced  to  separate  words  incorporated  with 
the  roots.  Their  alphabet  is  manifestly  derived  from  some 
prototype  of  the  Devandgari  character ;  but  it  diffeis  from  the 
Sanskrit  proper  in  beii^  rounded  rather  than  angular,  and 
cursive  rather  than  either  inscriptional  or  capital.  The  D. 
group  of  languages,  which  comprises  five  chief  members,  has 
been  subdivided  by  Professor  'Wilson  into  the  two  following 
branches  : — (i)  Telugo,  Camata  or  Canarese,  and  Tuluva  i  (2) 
Tamil  and  Malayalam.  Telugu  is  spoken  by  about  14,000,000 
people  in  the  N,E.  of  the  Madias  Presidency ;  this  language 
is  die  sweetest  of  the  five,  but  its  literature  is  composed  of 
translations  from  the  Sanskrit.  Camata  is  spoken  in  the  Car- 
natic  and  the  State  of  Mysore  by  about  5,000,000;  its  literature, 
though  recent,  is  partly  original.  Tuluva,  which  is  largely  mixed 
with  tlie  Camata,  is  spoken  by  only  some  J  50,000  persons,  living 
on  the  westem  coast  between  Cochin  and  Goa.  Tamil  is  spoken 
by  abont  10,000,000,  who  live  in  the  tract  between  Madras  city. 
Cape  Comorin,  !ind  Mysore  ;  it  boasts  an  indigenous  literature, 
cultivated  as  early  as  the  9th  c ,  and  the  Tamil  race  is  by  far  the 
most  civilised  and  energetic  of  the  D.  peoples,  Malay^am  is 
spoken  by  about  2,500,000,  inhahitiog  what  is  known  as  the  Mala- 
bar coast,  which  mns  up  on  the  W.  ftom  Cape  Comorin  ;  nearly 
two-thirds  of  this  language  ace  said  to  be  of  Sanskrit  derivation. 
Besides  these  five  languages,  it  has  lately  been  discovered  tliat 
certain  barbarous  tribes  in  the  middle  of  the  peninsula  use  dialects 
which  can  certainly  be  referred  to  a  D,  type.    Among  these  are 


-4. 


yLaOogle 


DBA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


the  Gondhs  of  Central  India,  tlie  Kandlis  of  Orissa,  the  Uraons 
of  Chota  Nagpore,  and  the  Rajmahalis  bordering  on  the  Ganges ; 
these  number  collectively  neatly  3,000,000,  It  has  also  been 
conjectured  that  other  tribes,  dwelling  as  far  N.  as  tlie  iopes  of 
the  Eastern  Himalayas,  are  D.  in  origin,  though  no  longer  so  in 
language.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  one-sixth  of  the  total 
population  of  India  is  D.  See  A  Comparative  Grammar  of  thi 
Dranidian  and  Souih-lndiim  Family  of  Languages  by  the  Rev. 


Drawback  is  used  i 


to  denote  the  paying  back 


bounty  enables  the  esporter  to  sell  below  natural  cost  The  ob- 
ject of  the  D.  is  that  commodities  on  which  taxes  fall  may  be 
exported  for  sale  abroad  as  if  they  had  not  been  taxed.  It  is 
therefore  defended  by  Adam  Smith  as  remedying  the  ineqnalities 
of  taxation  varying  in  different  countries ;  otherwise  peculiar 
facilities  of  production  would  be  required  to  compete  against  a 
commodity  i>roduced  and  not  taxed  abroad.  ITie  system  of 
warehousing  imports  for  exportation  does  away  with  D. ,  because 
it  avoids  taxation.  In  certain  cases  the  D.  exceeds  the  tax,  and 
then  forms  a  bounty.  The  Act  l6  and  17  Vict,  c,  107,  provides 
that  persons  intending  to  claim  D.  shall  give  notice  to  the  officer 
of  excise ;  that  no  D.  shall  be  paid  on  goods  less  in  value  tlian 
the  D.  claimed,  or  upon  tobacco  not  wholly  manufactured  from 
imported  tobacco ;  that  goods  relanded  after  D.  has  been  paid 
for  exportation  shall  be  forfeit,  as  well  as  the  ship  from  which 
they  were  relanded.  Great  dtfficulty  is  often  caused  by  the  ex- 
periments to  determine  the  gravity  of  samples  of  beer  for  exporta- 
tion, on  which  the  amotmt  of  D.  depends.  See  also  Debenture 
and  Impohtation. 

DraVing',  the  art  of  representing  objects  or  natural  sceneiy 
in  black  and  white  or  in  colour  upon  a  flat  surface.  In  ordinary 
parlance  a  D.  is  a  representation  of  an  object  or  series  of  objects 
in  outline,  with  or  without  lights  and  shadows,  and  executed  in 
pencil,  chalks,  sepia,  or  Indian-ink.  In  the  constructive  arts, 
a  D.  is  apr^>aratory  plan  in  which  the  proportions  of  amachine, 
building,  &c.,  are  accnratelyset  out  for  the  guidance  of  the  con- 
structor. In  art,  the  term  has  a  much  wider  signification.  A 
water-colour  D.  may  be  a  highly-finished  painting  in  whidi  no 
drawn  Huts  appt^ar,  The  term  D.  is  algo  applied  to  a  prepara- 
tory study  or  sketch  in  oils  of  a  Eubiect,  or  pari  of  a  subject,  to 
be  aftenrards  worked  up  into  a  finished  picture  in  oil-painting. 
Elementary  D.  is  now  regarded  as  an  essential  branch  of  primary 
education,  and  as  such  is  taught  in  all  schools ,  while  in  the  army, 
and  in  many  professions  and  trades,  the  ability  readily  ^nd 
graphically  to  delineate  common  foiras,  plans,  sketch-maps, 
scenery,  &c,,  is  regarded  as  an  accomplishment  second  only  in 
importance  to  writing.  D.  defines  the  forms  of  objects  by  means 
of  outline  ajid  shadow,  and  renders  the  relation  between  near 
and  distant  objects  apparent  \>y  the  help  of  Perspective  (q.  v. ). 
According  to  Greek  feble,  a  girl  who  drew  the  outline  of  the 
shadow  ofher  lover's  profile  on  a  wall  created  the  art,  Ardices 
and  Telephanes  are  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  have  indicated 
the  roundness  of  the  figure  by  the  process  of  hatching.  Mono- 
chrome, or  drawing  in  one  colom',  using  tints  of  varying  depths, 
is  said  to  have  been  first  practised  by  Philocles  and  Cleanlhes. 
The  invention  of  this  process  led  the  way  to  the  use  of  various 
colours  in  the  representation  of  objects — in  other  words,  to  the 
art  of  painting.  Among  the  Greelts,  D.  was  studied  rigorously 
and  thoroughly.  Pamphilus,  the  instructor  of  Apelles,  required 
his  pupils  to  study  the  art  ten  years.  D.  is  the  basis  of  all 
art,  and  while  it  13  ail-important  at  the  commencement  of  an 
art  training,  it  is  little  less  so  at  all  succeeding  stages.  In  D., 
to  a  fer  greater  degree  than  in  colour,  the  expression — the  soul, 
so  to  speak — of  a  picture  or  other  work  of  art  consists.  Without 
D.,  colour  has  no  intelligence.  As  the  greatest  merit,  therefore, 
of  the  greatest  work  of  art  resides  in  the  quality  of  its  D., 
it  is  manifest  that  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  the 
art  and  apei-fect  training  in  its  practice  is  indispensable  to  saccess 
in  high  art.  In  teaching;  D.,  the  prevalent  practice  in  the  schools 
of  the  Continent,  namely,  to  teach  the  pupil  to  represent  nature 
by  means  of  light  and  sliade,  rather  than,  as  with  us,  by  rigid  out- 
line, is  undoubtedly  the  preferable  method,  rigid  outline,  except 
in  tbeforms  of  crystals,  &c.,  being  in  nature  practically  unknown. 
An  excellent  work  on  D.,  as  applied  to  the  ornamental  arts,  has 
recently  been  written  by  E.  S.  Burchett,  lecturer  on  geometrical 
131 


and  perspective  D,  at  the  National  Art  Drawing  School,  South 
Kensington.  See  Ruskin's  Ele!)icnts  of  D.  m  Three  Lessons  far 
Beginners  (Lond.  1857). 

Dra-wing  and  ftuar'tering,  the  form  of  capital  punishment, 
still  legally  in  force,  for  Treason  (q.  v. ),  is  that  the  criminal  shall 
be  drawn  on  a  hurdle  from  gaol  to  gallows,  and  hanged  ;  and  tliat 
afterwards  the  body  shall  be  divided,  and  then  quartered.  It  is 
the  privilege  of  the  sovereign  to  chaJige  the  punishment  of  D. 
and  Q.  into  beheading. 

Draislng^-Board,  a  board  upon  which  paper  is  fixed  in  order 
that  it  may  be  diawn  upon.  For  many  engineers'  drawings  the 
paper  is  merely  attached  to  the  board  by  drawing-])inB  or  ' 
sealing-wax;  but  for  more  elaborate  drawings,  or  for  wa... 
colours,  the  paper  is  attached  by  glueing  all  round  while  damp. 
The  glne  hardens  very  rapidly,  and  the  paper,  as  it  slowly  dric 
and  shrinks,  is  stretched  perfectly  smootlj  and  flat. 


Drayton- in- Hales,  or  Market -Drayton,  a  town 
Shropshire,  on  the  Fern,  19  miles  N.N.E.  from  Shrewsiniiy, 
and  153  miles  N,W,  from  London,  It  is  an  old  town,  and  is 
supposed  to  be  the  Caer-Drailhon  of  the  Romans.  The  parish 
church  was  bnilt  in  the  reign  of  Stephen.  D.  has  nianufactures 
of  paper  and  haircloth,  markets  on  Wednesday  and  Saturday, 
and  several  fairs  in  the  year.     Pop.  (1871)  4039. 

Drayton,  Hicliae],  an  Eliaabethan  poet,  was  bom  : 
HartshilJ,  near  Atherston,  Warwickshire,  in  1563,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  educated  at  Oxford,  but  little  is  known  of  his  life. 
He  produced  Harvionie  of  the  Church,  his  first  work,  a  para- 
phrase of  parts  of  Scripture,  in  1591;  Idea:  Shepkeri^s  Garland 
fashioned  m  Nine  Eclogues,  in  1593  ;  Idea's  Mirror,  Amours  ii 
Quatonaim,  a  number  of  sonnets,  and  the  tale  of  Endymiei 
and  Phabe,  in  1594 ;  Moriinuriados,  afterwards  recast  under  the 
title  of  The  Baront'  Wars,  in  1595  ;  England's  Heroical  Epistles 
in  1598;  Polyolbion\a.i6l3r-'M;  and  7%  Bailie  of  Agincaure  ia 
1627.  Hediedini63i,  and  was  bviried  in  Westmbstet  Abbey. 
D.  was  a  true  poet,  but  forfeited  popularity  by  the  prosaic 
theme  and  tedious  length  of  his  chief  work,  the  Fglyolbion, 
a  metrical  guide-book  to  England  and  Wales,  in  buoyant  Alex- 
andrme  verse,  and  full  of  noble  patriotic  and  descriptive  pas- 
sages. The  Battle  of  Agincourt,  a  fiery,  vivid  lyric,  one  of  the 
finest  wac-poenis  in  tlie  language,  is  said  to  baye  been  the  model 
of  Campbell's  Battle  of  the  B(Stic.  The  most  charming  of  D.  's 
works  is  Njrmphidia,  a  Tale  of  PaeryJand,  wrought  with  the 
nimblest,  brightest  fancy,  abounding  in  delitate  oddities  of  con- 
ception and  choice  touches  of  colour.  See  Hooper's  edition  in 
6  vols,  of  The  Complete  Works  ofMi(hqel  D.,  of  which  3  vols,  had 
appeared  in  1876. 

Dreara'iu^  is  the  activity  of  the  mental  faculties,  more  or 
less,  during  sleep.  Some  suppose  that  even  in  the  most  pro- 
found sleep  we  dream,  although  the  dreams  may  not  be  remem- 
bered. Of  this  there  is  no  proof,  and,  on  the  contrary,  it  is 
highly  probable  that  in  profound  sleep  the  cerebral  centres,  on 
the  activity  of  which  all  our  mental  states  depend,  are  in  a  state 
of  complete  rest.  Others  suppose  that  D.  is  a  mark  of  imperfect 
sleep.  Usually  in  D.  there  is  a  less  complete  encluslon  of  sen- 
sory impressions  than  in  deep  sleep,  and  tbiis  the  dream  may 
be  influenced  by  external  impi-essions,  although  the  mind  is  not 
consdons  of  them  as  such.  In  D.  the  cerebrum  is  partially 
active,  while  the  sensoriam,  or  that  part  of  the  nervous  system 
which  is  the  first  recipient  of  impressions  on  the  senses,  is  capable 
of  being  excited,  not  only  by  impressions  on  the  sense-oi^ns, 
such  as  eye  and  ear,  but  by  inferences  transmitted  to  it  by  tlie 
cerebrum.  In  D.  there  is  no  volitional  control  over  the  current 
of  thought,  and  there  is  usually  an  utter  want  of  coherency  in 
the  images  that  appear  before  the  mental  eye.  Nor  does  this 
excite  any  surprise  in  the  dreamer.  In  D.,  also,  trains  of  thought 
pass  through  the  mind  with  great  rapidity,  so  tliat,  during  a  fcw 
mmutes,  events  happen  which  in  the  waking  stale  might  occupy 
hours  or  even  days.  Time  seems  to  be  abolished.  In  D.  some- 
times sensibility  to  external  impressions  may  be  entirely  sus- 
pended, and  sometimes  not.  In  the  latter  case,  suggestions  may 
be  made  to  the  mind  of  the  dreamer,  as  by  whispering  into  his 
ear.  To  such  an  extent  may  this  be  done,  that  the  train  of 
441 


vLiOOQle 


DBH 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


thought  of  the  dreamer  may  be  controlled  by  others,  and  he  may 
eyen  be  made  lo  act  his  dreams  by  speech  or  muscular  move- 
ments, while  ail  the  time  he  is  quite  unconscious  of  any  such 
suggestions,  and  may  have  no  recollection  of  them  when  he 
aw^es.  Such  forms  of  D.  may  be  regarded  as  transitional  to 
the  slate  of  Somnarabulism  (q.  v,), 

Dredg*,  a  kind  of  net  for  dragging  or  sweeping  the  bottom 
of  the  sea,  lakes,  or  rivers,  and  retaining  the  animals,  Sc,  that 
enter  it.  The  oldest  and  most  lamiliar  form  of  D.  is  that  impor- 
tant item  of  deep-sea  fishing-gear,  the  oyster-D,  The  zoologist's 
D.,  a  most  valuable  implemetit  of  scientific  research  as  regards 
marine  fauna,  differs  from  it  in  size  and  detail.  The  open  irame 
takes  a  pyramidal  form,  at  its  base  are  two  iron  scrapers,  and 
suspended  from  them  a  bag  of  closely-netted  twine,  enclosed  in 
an  outer  net  of  hide. 

Dredging  in  .deep-sea  and  scientific  exploration  has  of  late 
years  assumed  a  high  importance,  as  making  us  acquainted  with 
the  fauna  or  life  uf  deep-sea  areas.  Dredgmg  may  now  Ik  car- 
ried on  at  a  depth  of  four  or  more  miles,  the  iSief  obstacle  to  the 
descent  of  the  D.  (vii,,  the  action  of  the  strong  under-currents, 
which  tend  to  sweep  the  D.  away  from  the  ship  in  the  diree. 
tion  of  the  surface)  having  been  overcome  through  the  use  of 
heavy  weights,  which  are  attached  to  the  D.-rope  at  intervals, 
and  which  thus  gradually  pull  the  machine  to  the  ground.  The 
equipment  of  a  scientific  dredging  expedition  is  no  light  matter, 
as  may  be  learned  from  a  perusal  of  Professor  Wyville  Thom- 
son's work.  Tie  Depths  of  the  Sea  (Macmillan,  Lond,),  in  which 
full  details  as  to  the  management  of  the  D.in  deep  water,  as  well 
as  other  interesting  information  regarding  deep-sea  exploration, 
will  be  found. 


or  canal,  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  navigation  or  con- 
structive operations.  The  most  simple  apparatus  is  the  bag- 
and-spoon  dredger,  consisting  of  a  laige  spoon-shaped  frame, 
with  a  leaiher  bag  suspended  from  it,  attached  to  a  long  pole. 
It  is  raised  by  means  of  a  winch,  a  chain  being  attached  to  the 
E^oon.  For  deepening  canals  in  Holland,  or  for  excavating  for 
pier-foundations,  &c,  this  dredger  is  much  resorted  to.  For 
deepening  the  bed  of  a  river  and  maintaining  an  open  channel 
for  large  ships,  or  for  cutting  the  bar  of  a  river,  the  steam 
dredger  with  a  chain-and-bucket  system  is  invariably  employed. 
The  annexed  cut  shows  its  general  features.  A  movable  frame 
or  ladder  carries  an  endless  chain  with  a  series  of  buckets  at- 
tached. The  buckets,  full  of  material,  ascend  on  the  upper  side 
of  the  ladder,  and  as  they  turn  the  cam  at  the  top  to  descend  oij 
the  under  side,  they  empty  their  contents  into  a  bai^e  beneath. 
In  some  dredgine  vessels  the  bucket  system  is  worked  through 
an  opening  amidships,  in  others  over  their  extremity.  Some 
vessels  have  a  double  bucket  system,  workmg  on  each  side, 
Laige  dredges  are  fitted  with  a  screw  propeller,  and  some  are 
capable  of  raising  500  toris  of  silt  per  hour.  An  ingenious  method 
of  dredging  was  recently  patented,  in  which  hydrauHc  power 
raises  the  dredged  material.  Two  pipes,  descending  one  on  each 
side  of  a  boat,  are  joined  at  their  lower  ends  ly  a  curved  pipe 
with  an  (yen  rake-shaped  mouthpiece.  By  the  forward  move; 
ment  of  the  boat,  mud,  shingle,  &c.,  are  forced  into  the  moulh- 
442 


Dreisa'ena,  a  genus  of  Lamellibrandiiate  (q.  v.)  mollusca 
found  in  the  fresh  waters  of  Britain,  and  represented  by  the  D. 
p^ymsrpha.  This  mollusc  (the  shell  of  which  resembles  that  of 
the  common  mussel  in  shape,  but  wants  the  inner  lining  of  nacre 
or  mother-of-pearl)  is  believed  to  have  been  originally  introduced 
into  this  country  from  the  Black  Sea  It  has  become  thoroughly 
acclimatised  in  this  country,  and  appears  in  some  localities  in 
immense  numbers.  The  D.  belongs  to  the  Mytilida  or  mussel 
femiiy,  and  has  (he  mantle  closed  except  at  two  points. 

Dres'den,  the  capital  of  Saxony,  is  beautifully  situated  on 
both  banks  of  the  Elbe,  1 10  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Berlin,  and  78 
N.N.W,  of  Prague.  It  is  divided  into  the  AUsfadt  and  Fried- 
ricksladt  on  the  left,  and  Neustadt  and  Antonstadt  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Elbe,  which  is  here  crossed  by  the  splendid  old  Augus- 
tan bridge  ofseven  arches,  and  by  the  new  iron  railway  (or  Marien) 
bridge.  The  city  has  several  squares,  gardens,  and  promenades, 
as  well  as  the  famous  Briihl  Terrace  overhanging  the  river.  It 
is  a  great  centre  of  culture,  standing  high  in  musical  science,  and 
having  earned  the  name  of  the  '  German  Florence'  on  account 
of  its  rich  art- collections.  Its  principal  buildings  are  the  uncouth 
Royal  Palace  (begun  J534),  with  its  green  domes  and  its  rare 
collection  of  precious  stones  and  gold  and  silver  work  ;  the 
Zwinger  Palace,  containing  a  museum  of  natural  history,  a  splen- 
did cabinet  of  engravings,  and  a  collection  of  fools  and  mathe- 
matical instruments  ;  the  world-famous  Museum  or  art  gallery; 
the  Japanese  palace,  remarkable  for  its  royal  library  of  305,000 
volumes,  and  for  its  porcelain  and  classical  antiquities ;  the 
Frauenkirche,  with  a  tower  of  335  feet;  the  Catholic  Hof 
Kirche,  which  has  one  of  Silbermann's  oigans ;  a  new  Jewish 


synagogue  ;  the  New  Theatre  (1872);  an  arsenal;  and  orangery. 
The  D.  picture  gallery  contains  about  200O  works,  chiefly  of  the 
Italian  and  Flemish  schools.    Of  the  former,  Eaphaers  'Sistina 


Madonna,'  Correggio's  '  La  Notte,'  and  Titian  s   '  Venus'  and 

'  Tribute-Money,'  are  the  most  celebrated  sr 

also  pictures  by  Franda,  Paul  Veronese,  Gi 

nardo  da  Vinci,  Bellini,  Pemg^no,  the  Carac 

Tlie  Flemish  collection  is  singulatly  rich,  ei 

mens  of  Rubens,  31  by  Vandyck,  many  of  R 

Breughel,   RuysdaSl,  Gerard  Dow,  and  Te 

other  more  notable  names  represented  are 

and  Claude  Lorraine.     D.  has  a  fine-art  aca 

good  schools  and  public  inslitutions,  some  1 

an  extensive  trade  on  the  Elbe.     It  is  tl 

of  five  Kulways.     To  the  S.  of  the  city  lie: 

picturesque  region  known  as  '  Saxon  Switser 

177,089. 

The  oldest  portion  of  D.,  the  Sorben  colony,  is  known  to  have 
existed  as  early  as  i2o5.  lu  14S5  it  became  the  residence  of  the 
Albertine  line.  The  Reformation  was  here  welcomed  by  Hein- 
rich  the  Pious,  1539.  The  town,  which  had  been  burned  in  1491, 
was  in  great  pact  newly  built  under  August  II.  and  August  III. 
By  the  Peace  of  D. ,  the  Austrian  War  of  Succession  was  brought 
to  a  close,  26th  December  174S.  Its  fortifications  were  begun 
in  iSlo,  and  three  years  later  followed  the  Battle  of  D.  (q.  v.). 
In  the  revolution  of  1849  the  city  saffered  much  from  barricade 
struggles.  ITie  D.  Conference  for  remodelling  the  constitution 
of  the  German  '  Bund '  sat  fix)m  23d  December  185010  15th  May 
1851.  The  Prussians  occupied  D.  in  the  Austro- Prussian  war 
of  1866.  See  Gottschalk,  D.  und  seine  Umeekin^n  (loth  ed. 
Dresd.  1866] ;  Klemm,  Chronic  von.  D.  {1847) ;  Lindau,  Ge- 
schiehie  der  Stadt  D.  (2  vols.  2d  ed.  1863) ;  and  Dresdener  Gale- 
rif^wri  (2ded.  l?,^6)  \  SQim.(ex,2-'iiArer  &r  ^onigl.  Getmldtealerie 
m  D.  (1864). 

Dresden,  the  Battle  of,  was  the  last  of  the  great  victories  of 
Napoleon.  This  city,  the  central  point  of  the  French  operations 
in  August  1813,  was  held  by  St  Cyr  with  some  30,000  troops, 
when  file  allied  army  unexpectedly  appeared  on  the  23d,  But 
the  advantage  of  a  surprise  was  thrown  away.  The  Auslrians 
delayed  action  till  the  arrival  of  Klcnau's  left  wing.  On  the  26th 
the  attack  began,  but  tliat  morning  Napoleon,  who  had  been  in 
Silesia,  reached  D.  with  his  Giiaras.  The  assault,  though  bril- 
liant, was  repulsed,  and  after  two  days'  fighting,  the  allies  retreated 
on  the  night  of  the  27th.  On  quitting  the  city  (7th  October) 
Napoleon  left  there  some  30,000,  who  were  besieged  by  the 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DRI 


Russians,  and  who,  after  a  period  of  misery  and  /amine,  capitu- 
lated, and  were  made  prisoners  of  war. 

Biess.  The  influence  of  D,  on  health  is  very  great,  and  gene- 
rally underrated,  espedaUy  by  women.  In  mild  weather  in  -ma. 
■  ter,  say  during  a  temperature  of  50°  in  January,  compliunts  are 
rife  that  the  weather  is  relaxing,  those  complaining  being  dressed 
predselj'  in  the  same  way  as  they  would  be  were  the  tempera- 
ture 20  lower.  They  dress  according  to  the  season,  not  accord- 
ing to  the  temperature.  Now,  seeing  that  da^s  in  January  may 
lie  as  warm  as  mild  ones  in  April,  and  days  in  May  may  be  as 
cold  as  January,  while  one  day  in  January  differs  by  30°  from 
another,  the  error  is  so  obvious  that  it  is  strange  that  it  should 
re<jmre  to  be  pointed  ouf.  There  is  probably  no  surer  indication 
of  a  woman  having  good  sense  than  when  she  dresses  as  ration- 
ally as  she  can  without  opposing  Fashion  (q.  v.)  too  strongly, 
preferrmg  simplicity  and  good  taste  to  show  and  extravagance. 

Dreux,  a  town  of  France,  department  of  Eure-et- Loire,  on 
the  river  Blaise,  45  miles  W,  of  Paris.  It  has  manu&ctures  of 
sei^e  and  coarse  cloth,  tanneries,  iron-foundries,  and  dyeworks, 
and  a  trade  in  grain  and  cattle.  Pop.  (1872)  6197.  D.  was  the 
scene  of  a  battle  in  1562,  in  which  the  Huguenots  were  defeated, 
and  their  leader,  the  Prince  of  Cond^,  taken  prisoner.  The 
ruins  of  the  ancient  castle  of  the  Comtes  de  D.  contain  a  fine 
chapel,  built  by  Louis  Philippe  as  a  burying-piace  for  the  Orieans 

Drey'se,  Johaim  Nicolas  von,  the  inventor  of  the  needle- 
gun,  was  bom  at  Siimmerda,  near  Erfurt,  November  22,  1787. 
From  1S09  to  1814  he  worked  in  the  imperial  armoury,  Paris. 
Thenceforth  he  devoted  himself  to  the  manufacture  of  lire-arms, 
and  in  t827  produced  the  first  model  of  a  needle-gun,  an  inv 
tion  which  he  afterwards  developed,  and  which,  in  1840,  i 
adopted  in  the  German  army.     D-  was  placed  at  the  head  of 
large  manufactory  of  fire-arms  in  Somraerda,  and  appointed 
privy-councillor.    He  died  December  9,  1867. 

Driffield,  Great  (Old  Eng.  DHffdda),  a  market-town  in  tl 
East  Riding,  York,  196  miles  fiom  London  by  rail.  It  stands 
a  fertile  district  at  the  foot  of  the  Wolds,  and  consists  mainly  f 
one  street.  The  chief  buildings  are  the  corn-eschange,  th 
mechanics'  institute,  and  All  Saints'  Church.  D,  has  manufac- 
tures of  wool  and  cotton,  and  several  foundries,  and  flour  and 
bone  mills.  Several  tumuli  have  been  found  in  the  neighbour- 
hood.   Pop  (1871}  5067. 

Drift,  a  name  applied  in  various  senses  in  geology.  Thus  it 
may  be  used  to  denote  sand  and  other  loose  matters  which  have 
been  blown  by  winds,  and  which  have  been  collected  together 
to  form  'sand-dunes.'  ITiese  'drifted  sands'  become  consoli- 
dated by  the  growth  in  them  of  various  hardy  grasses,  such  as 
the  sand-grass  (Carex  arauaia).  Sand-dunes  are  most  common 
along  seabosrds  where  high  winds  prevail,  as  on  the  sea-coasts 
of  France  and  Spain,  which  face  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  On  the 
coasts  of  Devon,  Comvrall,  Norfolk,  and  Nairn,  in  Britain,  sand- 
drifts  may  also  be  seen.  The  name  D.  is  applied  more  dis- 
tinctively, however,  in  geology  to  the  glacial  deposits  belonging 
to  the  Pleistocttit,  Recent,  or  Post-Pliocene  period  of  the  Kaiuozoic 
rocks.  These  deposits  are  evidently  the  result  of  ice-action,  and 
are  also  known  under  the  names  of  'boulder  clay,'  'till,'  &c. 
They  occur  in  Britain  as  far  S.  as  the  Thames,  over  S.  and  Cen- 
tral  Europe,  and  in  N-  America  as  far  S.  as  the  39th  parallel. 
They  appear  as  sands,  clays,  and  gravels,  representing  ice-carried, 
debris,  and,  as  in  Wales,  may  occur  at  heights  over  2000  feet 
above  the  sea-level.  The  fossils  of  the  D.,  as  might  naturally  be 
expected,  are  referable  chiefly  to  living  species  of  northern  or 
Arctic  kind ;  and  many  characteristic  shells  (such  as  Peclen 
IslatuHcus,  FusHS  Islandicus,  Scalaria  Greenlandiea,  &c)  occur 
in  this  formation.     See  also  Boulder  Clay. 

Drill  (Pafiig  leucopkaus),  a  species  of  Catarhine  monkeys  very 
neariy  aUied  to  the  mandrill  (.f.  maimim),  and  inhabiting  the 
Guiiiea  coast.  The  colour  is  not  so  brilliant  as  in  the  latter 
species,  nor  are  the  cheekbones  so  prominent.  The  upper  parts 
are  of  a  greener  hue  than  those  of  the  mandrill.  The  face  and 
ears  are  black,  and  the  soles  of  the  feet  are  hairless.  The  D.  is 
smaller  than  its  neighbouring  species,  but  in  habits  it  closely  re- 
sembles the  mandrill. 

Drill,  a  stout  twilled  linen  fabric  used  for  such  articles  of 
dress  as  require  great  strength  and  durability- 


Drill,  an  instrument  used  for  boring  metal,  stone,  wood,  glass, 
1V017,  and  other  hard  substances.  tJrdinary  drills  are  made  of 
very  hard  steel,  and  they  are  worked  either  in  the  lathe  or  the 
brace,  or  by  the  bow  and  string,  &c.  For  rock-boring  the 
diamond  rock-D.  is  now  generally  adopted— an  mstrument  with 
cutting  edges  made  of  the  so-called  black  diamond  (the  boart  or 
carbonado)  of  Brazil 

DriU,  in  agriculture,  is  applied  to  the  rows  in  which  any  crop  is 
sown,  and  also  to  the  implement  used  for  sowing  seed  in  rows,  as 
opposed  to  broadcast  sowing. 

DriU  is  the  instruction  of  officers  and  men  in  the  ttse  of  arms 
and  m  the  evolutions  of  the  field.  Until  within  the  last  few  years 
the  avstem  of  military  manteuvrea  was  based  on  a  system  of  D. 
which  consisted  in  a  series  of  changes  of  formation  chiefly  from 
hne  to  column  and  from  column  to  line.  But  recent  warfare  has 
proved  that  an  attack  in  colamn  is— since  the  vast  improvements 
lately  made  in  the  range  and  precision  of  artillery  and  small  arms 
~a  thing  no  longer  possible.  Again,  an  attack  in  rigid  line  is, 
owing  to  the  impossibility  of  facing  modem  lire  in  any  close 
formation  whatever,  equally  impossible.  The  column  and  line 
therefore  having  practically  ceased  to  exist  as  formations  in  actual 
warfare,  the  whole  aim  and  system  of  D.  has  been  changed. 
Attack  is  now  only  possible  in  skirmishing  order  with  supports 
and  reserves  in  rear.  But  the  attack  in  skirmishing  order  pre- 
supposes a  considerable  degree  of  individual  freedom  of  action  ■ 
and  under  present  conditions  the  aim  of  all  D.  is  to  develop,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  regulate,  that  freedom  of  action.  Thus  the 
scope  of  D.  has  within  late  years  been  greatly  extended.  The 
object  of  military  traming  is  no  longer  to  ensure  mechanical  pre- 
cision  in  the  performance  of  unvarying  evolutions,  but  to  develop 
I  ral  pt  t  d  d  )  dgm  t  that  in  the  advance  in  loose 
d  ry  I        bl      d     nta^      ff   ed  by  the  ground  may  at  once 

b    perc     ed      d  d  by  ea  h  individual  combatant.     The 

ptit  d  djdgi  t  frrdt  however,  cannot  be  attained 
by  tl  Id  y  t  f  D  I  kirmishing,  men  are  so  vridely 
sc  tt      1  that  th      m  t      an  no  longer  be  controlled  by 

w  d  f  mm  d  A  g  t  degree  of  responsibility  must 
tl      f      b      p      dmthn  imissioned  officers  and  in  the 

m  th  m  I  cs  B  t  b  f  these  can  be  safely  intrusted  with 
this  degree  of  responsibility  and  freedom  of  action,  they  must  be 
regularly  trained  to  act  tt^ether  in  skirmishing  order  over  a  wide 
extent  of  country.  This  training  it  is  one  of  the  main  objects  of 
the  Autumn  Manceuvres  to  provide.  For  details  of  the  new  D., 
reference  is  made  to  the  recent  r^ulalions,  and  to  the  orders 
issued  ftom  time  to  time.  See  Wellingten  Prae  Essay,  hy  Lieut 
F.  Maurice  (Blackwood,  1872} ;  Captain  Brackenbuiy's  Tactics 
of  the  Three  Arms  ;  and  CAaiiggs  of  Tactics  Comegumt  on  the  Im- 
prmiemeia  <f  Weapons  and  ether  Circuinstances,  by  Lieut. -Col 
Middleton  (Mltchel  &  Co.,  Lond.  1873], 


Drim'ys.    See  Winter's  Baek. 

DrinTdng  U'aagos,  The  ceremony  of  drinking  healths,  or 
of  uttering  a  pious,  friendly,  or  moral  sentiment  before  taking 
wine,  has  doubtless  had  its  origin  in  the  religious  observances  of 
antiquity.  In  the  Bible,  we  have  frequent  mention  of  a  '  drink- 
offering  '  to  the  true  God  as  well  as  to  false  gods,  and  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  a  libation  to  the  gods  was  a  usual  part  of 
religious  ceremony.  Our  own  custom  of  health- drinking  is  pro- 
bably of  Teutonic  origin  ;  though  we  do  not  find  the  introduc- 
tion of  Christianity  to  have  been  followed  by  the  suppression 
of  drinking  habits  among  our  ancestors,  or  even  by  the  dimi- 
nution of  Ihem.  '  The  introduction  of  Christianity,'  says  Mllner 
(Archanlogia),  'among  oar  ancestors  did  not  at  all  contribute 
to  the  abolition  of  the  practice  of  wassailing.  On  the  contrary, 
it  began  to  assume  a  kind  of  religious  aspect,  and  the  wassail- 
bowl  itself,  which  in  the  great  monasteries  was  placed  on 
the  abbot's  table,  at  the  upper  end  of  the  refectory  or  eating- 
hall,  to  be  circulated  among  the  community  at  discretion,  re- 
ceived the  honourable  appellation  of  "Poculum  Charitatjs." 
This  in  our  universities  is  called  the  "grace-cup." '  The  late 
Lord  Cockbum  in  his  Memoirs  gives  an  amusing  and  inter- 
estmg  account  of  the  fashion  of  drinking  healths  and  toasts,  as 
ivailed  in  fashionable  society  m  Scotland  in  the  end  of  last 
ry,  and  during  the  first  quarter  of  the  present  century. 
Abroad  there  is  a  nominal  drinking  iiaage  consisting  in  the  uni- 


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TBE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


versai  expectalion  of  servants,  drivers,  &c.,  with  whom  the  tra- 
veller may  come  in  contact,  of  a  small  gratuity,  four  heirs  (Ger. 
Irinkgeld).  In  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  it  used  to  be  the 
custom  to  speed  the  parting  guest  with  what  was  called  a  deack- 
an-dmris  or  stimip-cup  ;  for  which  the  landlord  of  an  inn  made 
no  charge.  See  Dunlop's  D.  U.  of  Great  Britain,  Memoirs  of 
lAird  Cockhurii,  and  Reminiscemss  of  Changss  of  Social  Life  in 
Scotland  by  the  Very  Rev.  Dean  Ramsay. 

Dlip'stOne,  a  projecting  moulding  over  the  heads  of  door- 
ways, windows,  arches,  niches,  &c,,  which  receives  its  name  from 
the  use  it  subserves  of  throwing  off  rain-water.  From  its  posi- 
tion it  is  always  ornamental^  and  in  many  sitnations  in  which 
there  is  no  exposure  to  rain,  this  weather-moulding,  as  it  is 
Bometimes  called,  is  retained  simply  from  its  value  as  an  oma- 
menl.  In  Early  English  the  D.  was  a  small  arched  moulding, 
deeply  hollowed  on  the  under  side,  the  ends  of  the  arch  usually 
restmg  on  a  corl>el  or  boss  of  foliage ;  in  the  Decorated  style  it, 
like  every  other  detail,  was  much  enriched,  being  fi-equently 
crocketed  and  surmounted  by  a  finial,  so  as  practically  to  form 
a  canopy  ;  in  the  Perpendicular  style  it  assumed  a  square  form 
over  the  doorway. 

Driver,  or  Spanker,  in  ships,  the  name  of  a  lai^e  sail 

Driving,  Law  Begwding.  Under  statute,  no  stage-coach 
is  allowed  to  carry  more  passengers  than  it  is  constructed  for.  A 
space  of  i6  inches  must  be  allowed  to  each  passenger.  Penalties 
are  enacted  against  intoxication  or  negligence  on  the  part  of  any 
one  employed  about  the  coach,  and  against  careless  or  furious 
driving.     See  Carriers. 

Drogh'edtb  (Irish  Gael.  Broichead-Atha,  'the  bridge  of  the 
ford '),  a  seaport  of  Ireland,  forming  a  county  by  itself,  enclosed 
within  the  counties  of  Louth  and  Meath,  province  of  Leinster, 
4  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Boyne,  and  31  miles  N.  of  Dublin 
by  railway.  There  Is  a  railway  viaduct  95  feet  high  across  the 
Boyne,  and  a  lattice  railway  bridge  across  the  Roy3  CanaL  Of 
recent  structures  the  chief  are  the  waterworks,  which  deliver  an 
ample  supply  of  good  water,  the  townhall,  with  assembly-room 
to  accommodate  700  persons,  the  cotton-factory,  and  flax-mills, 
in  which  the  bulk  of  the  working  population  are  employed, 
There  are  tanneries,  breweries,  a  number  of  u-on,  salt,  and  soap 
worlu,  and  a  shipbuilding  yard.  At  the  entrance  to  the  harbour 
are  three  lighthouses.  Grain,  cattle,  and  provisions  are  ex- 
ported, and  tea,  brandy,  and  timber  are  imported.  In  1873,  810 
vessels  of  144,335  '""^  entered,  and  816  vessels  of  144,135  '""s 
cleared  the  port.  Pop.  of  parliamentary  borough  in  1871, 13.24^. 
An  important  synod,  summoned  by  the  Pope^  Legate,  and  the 
effect  of  which  was  greatly  to  extend  papal  authority  and  influ 
ence  in  Ireland,  was  held  here  in  1152.  D.,  as  a  frontier  towr 
of  the  pale,  was  an  important  military  station  between  the  14th 
and  17th  centuries.  Here  Irish  Parliaments  were  frequently 
held,  and  the  right  to  coin  money  was  exercised.  The  town 
was  captured  and  its  garrison  destroyed  by  Cromwell  in  1649, 
and  in  1690  it  surrendered  to  the  royal  forces  after  the  battle  of 
the  Boyne.  Of  the  fortifications  scarce  a  remnant  exists  ;  but 
there  are  a  nnmber  of  interesting  remains  of  old  religious  houses, 
BS  the  Dominican  and  Franciscan  friaries,  and  the  Hospital  of 
St  Mary. 

Droh'obioz  ('  the  woody  place'), a  town  of  Austrian  Gslicia, 
on  the  Tisminica,  a  tributary  of  the  Dniester,  about  45  miles 
S.W.  of  Lemberg.  It  contains  a  military  training  school,  and 
has  important  saltworks.    Pop.  (1869)  16,^0  inhabitants,  mostly 

Broit  d'Aubaine  (Lat,  alibi  naii),  a  usage  in  France, 
abolished  in  1819,  by  which  the  movable  estate  of  an  alien  be- 
came the  property  of  the  sovereign,  any  will  made  notwithstand- 
ing. Exemptions  were  made  in  favour  of  the  Scotch,  Savoyards, 
Swiss,  and  Portuguese. 

Droits  of  the  Admiralty.    See  Admiralty  Droits. 

Droit'wich.  (Lat,  Salina:),  a  parliamentary  and  municipal 
borough,  Worcestershire,  in  the  valley  of  the  Salwarp,  and  a 
Station  of  the  Bristol  and  Birmingham  and  W,  Midland  Rail- 
Way,  7  miles  N.E.  of  the  city  of  "Worcester,  It  is  connected 
with  the  Severn  by  a  canal.  The  manufacture  and  export  of  salt, 
got  from  the  brine-wells  by  evaporation,  constitute  the  principal 
444 


.rade  of  the  town.      The  name  is  derived  from  wich   or  wick 
(the  Scandinavian  vig,  'bay,'  as  salt  was  oblamed  by  the  eva- 
poration  of  sea-water  in  diallow  bays),  and  droit,   '  tax.'     It 
thus  signifies  the  salt-springs  where  the  fax  was  paid.     Pop. 
'  871)  municipal  borough,  3504;  parliamentary  borough,   9510. 
ime  Roman  remains  have  been  found  here. 
Dromatlie'ritun,  an  eitinct  genua  of  Marsupial  (q.  v.)  mam- 
alia,  the  remains  of  which  (consisting  of  the  lower  jaw)  are 
;ceedingly  interesting  as  forming;  one  of  the  earliest  traces  of 
ammalian  existence  on  our  globe.     The  D.  remains  occur  in 
the  Tiiassic  rocks  of  N,  America,      D.  was  a  mammal  of  small 
f,    and    appears  to  have  been    very    nearly   related    to    the 
little  Myrmscobim  fasciatus,  or  banded  ant-eater  of  New  South 
Wales,    Z>,  sylvtstre  is  the  name  which  has  been  given  to  the 
D.  remains.     The  lower  jaw  contains  '  ten  small  molars  in  a  con- 
tinuous series,  one  canine,  and  three  conical  incisors — the  latter 
being  divided  by  short  intervals  '  (Owen), 

Drdme,  a  department  in  the  S,E.  of  France,  bounded  on  the 
W.by  the  Rhone,  which  separates  it  from  the  department  of 
Ardeche.  and  surrounded  on  the  N.E.,  E,,  and  S.  by  the  depart- 
ments of  Isfere,  Hautes-Alpes,  Basses-Alpes,  and  Vaucluse,  In 
the  E,  the  country  is  covered  with  mountains  (highest  peak  8068 
feet),  giving  rise  to  westward-flowing  streams,  the  chief  of 
which  is  the  Drome  (length  103  miles).  In  the  S.  there  are 
ranges  of  vine-dad  hills,  and  fertile  plains  with  numerous  mul- 
berry plantations,  supporring  an  extensive  local  silk  husbandry. 
Area,  2519  sq.  miles;  pop,  (1872)  320,417,  One-half  of  the 
area  is  cultivable,  and  vineyards  and  forests  occupy  large  tracts. 
The  raw  silk  produced  amounts  to  585,000  lbs.  annually, 
worth  ten  million  francs.  The  four  vineyards  of  Die,  Douzere, 
Saillans,  and  Mercurol  alone  produce  thirty-three  million 
gallons  of  highly-esteemed  wines  named  w'jri  du  Rhont  annu- 
ally ;  but  the  finest  vineyard  is  tha  L  Erm  ag  which  pro- 
duces the  red  wines  of  Meal  and  Gneffleu  d  h  white  wines 
of  Baume,  Muret,  and  Seaacoule  and       g    areexteu. 

sively  manufectured  ;  there  are    30      k  es   and  numer- 

ous potteries,  tanneries,  &c.    Sil        mb  me,  honey, 

wax,  and  olives  are  exported.     Th    d  p  raversed  from 

N,  to  S,  along  the  banks  of  the  Rh  ne  b         L  d  Avignon 

Railway.      Valence  is  the  chief  to  Ti 

Drom'edary  ( Camelus  dromsdarius),  a  species  r>iC  mlds 
Camels  (q,  v.),  also  known  under  the  names  African  and  A 
camel,  and  distinguished  by  its  possessing  a  single  h  mp       1 
This  species  in  other  respects  resembles  its  new;hbou      h     B 
trian  camel  (C,    Bactrianus),   which  has  two  humps      h      tw 
spedes  being  said  to  breed  together,  whilst  their  hybr  dp    g 
is  also  said  sometimes  to  be  fertile.     The  D.  is  by  far   h    m 
valuable  of  the  two  species  in  so  far  as  its  usefulness       m  n 
concerned,     It  is  a  much  more  elegant  animal  than  th    B 
camel,   and  is  altogether  swifter  and  more  agile.     Tl      D 
much  used  for  riding,  the  keiries  or  '  swift  camels '  be    g  1  ghl 
bred  and  trained  animals  of  this  species.     The  averag     p    d    f 
the  D.  is  from  8  to  10  miles  per  hour,  but  their  power     f  p         g 
over  long  tracts  depends  rather  upon  their  endurance   h  si 

speed.    See  also  Camsi.. 

DrOmore'  (Irish  Gael.  Druim  Mor,  'great  ridge'),  a  cathe- 
dral town  in  the  county  of  Down,  on  tlie  Lagan,  17  miles  S.W. 
of  Belfast  by  railway.  Pop.  (1871)  2408,  principally  employed 
in  the  preparation  of  flax,  and  in  linen  manufactures  and  muslin 
embroidery.  The  see  of  D.,  which  also  gives  name  to  a  Roman 
Catholic  bishopric,  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  St  Colman 
(6th  c),  and  was  incorporated  (Act  3  and  4  Will,  IV,  c  37)  in 
the  diocese  of  Down  and  Connor,  Jeremy  Taylor  was  Bishop 
ofD. 


Bron'theim 

(q.  v.). 
Drone-Ely 

Flies  belonging 
resemblance  to  t 
ma^ots,'  and  a 

the  Ge 

man  form  of  the  Norwegian  Ti 

ndhjem 

Erislalis  teitax),  a  genus  of  Diptera  (q.  v.),  or 
to  the  family  Tabamdm,  and  noted  for  its  close 
e  hive-bee.     The  larvse  are  known  as  '  rat-tailed 
e  found  in  mud. 

Drop'ay  (Gr 

of  the  body,  or 
arise  from  variou 

into  the 
s  causes 

from  hydSr,  '  w 

meshes  of  tl(e  a 
as  inflammation 

ter')is  anac 
of  the  serou 
eolar  tissue, 
or  effusion 

rz 

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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


DRU 


cavity  of  the  chest  after  pleurisy ;  or  it  may  be  due  to  disease  of 
the  liyer,  heart,  kidneys,  or  other  internal  organs.  The  treat- 
ment varies  with  the  cause;  diuretics,  purgatives,  diaphoretics, 
and  tonics  are  all  beneficial. 

Drop'wort.     See  Spir«a  and  Water  Dropwort. 

DvOBBra'oeBe,  the  Sundew  order,  analural  order  of  Dicotyledo- 
nous plants,  the  leaves  of  which  ate  oftencovererl  with  glandular 
hairy-looking  prolongations  of  the  substance.  There  are  about 
ninety  species  and  seven  genera  known,  most  of  which  are  inhabi- 
ts of  bogs  and  marshy  places.  Acrid  and  slightly  acid  pro- 
lies  are  the  characteristics  of  the  order.  The  exact  relatives 
of  the  order  are  doubtful,  but  probably  Hooker's  view,  that  it 
should  be  placed  near  the  Saxifragacae,  is  correct.  It  is  found 
in  Europe,  India,  China,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Madagascar,  N, 
and  S.  America,  and  Australia. 

Dros'te-HuIsTioff,  Annette  Elizabeth,  rreiin  von,  was 

born  at  the  family  seat  of  Hiilshoff,  near  Miinster,  January  12, 
1798.  Her  constitution  was  delicate,  and  her  hfe  one  of  almost 
unbroken  retirement.  In  her  later  years  she  began  to  embody  the 
deepest  and  tenderest  experiences  of  the  female  mind  in  a  series 
of  lyrics  and  poetic  tales.  Her  expression  is  at  times  misty, 
but  this  is  far  mote  than  atoned  for  by  her  originality  of  thought 


duced,  and  certainly  takes  a  foremost  place  among  modem 
writers.  Sh  d'  d  M  y  4,  848.  Seehet  Gca'i.ii's  (Stutt.  1844, 
2d  ed.  186  )   D  hch  Jakr  nedsl  einaii  Anhartg  rtligiSser 

Gedickte  (=%t  It  853,  d  d.  1857),  and  Zfftj:^  (?a*m  (Hanov. 
i860,  3d   d.    87  )      S      b  bucking's  A.  von  D.  (ad  ed,  1871), 

Drouet  Jean  Baptiste,  Oomte  d'Erlon,  an  eminent 
French  m  rsl  1  b  m  July  29,  1765,  at  Rheims,  entered  a 
regiment      f       1     t  1792,    and  distinguished  himself  m 

the  camp  on  1  tl  th  German  frontier  and  in  the  Penin- 
sula, H  w  f  thiul  t  the  fortunes  of  his  master,  Napoleon, 
and  was  mm  d  f  th  first  corps  d'armk  at  Waterloo.  In 
1832,  aft  th  r  It  f  July,  he  received  the  command  of 
the  army  f  V  d^  d  (  834-35)  '^'^^  '^*  po^'  °f  Governor- 
general  of  Alg  D  who  was  made  a  marshal  in  1843,  died 
January  25,  1844. 

Drou'yn  de  Lhuya,  ^doiiard,  a  French  statesman,  was 
born  in  Paris,  November  19,  1805.     He  carried  off  all  the  first 

prizes  at  the  College  Louis-le-Grand,  was  initiated  int "■'  — 

as  ckargi  d'affaires  at  the  Hague,  and  afterwards  held 

post  in  Spam.     In  his  politiail  career  D.  distinguished  himself 

mainly  1^  his  opposition  to  M.  Guizot,  whom  he  helped  to  - 

throw  in  February  1848.  When  Louis  Napoleon  was  Pres 
of  the  French  Republic,  D.  was  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs, 
and  held  the  same  portfoHo  after  the  coup  d'slat.  In  consequence 
of  the  results  of  the  Conferences  of  Vienna  of  1S55  in  regard  to 
the  Crimean  war,  he  resigned,  to  be  recalled,  however,  in  1S63. 
He  resigned  arain  in  1866,  but  received  many  imperial  dignities, 
including  (he  Grand  Cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  After  the 
fell  of  the  Empire  at  Sedan,  D.  withdrew  to  St  Heliers,  Jersey. 

DroVers  ('drivers,'  i.e.,  of  cattle)  are  those  who  buy  cattle 
in  one  market  to  sell  in  another.  They  are  traders  subject  to 
the  bankrupt  laws.  The  name  is  also  commonly  applied  to  those 
whose  business  is  to  drive  cattle  to  or  from  the  markets,  In  the 
metropolis  they  are  classified  as  ccaintiy,  butcher,  and  London  D. 
They  are  requhed,  imder  a  penalty  0/405.,  to  wear  a  tidcet,  to 
take  a  yearly  licence,  and  to  use  no  stick  whidi  has  not  5>een 
marked  by  the  clerk  of  the 

^Drowning,  death  from  submersion  in  water,  was  commonly 
practised  in  the  middie  ages  as  a  form  of  capital  punisli 
and  as  sudi  was  only  abolished  in  Scotland  in  16S5  a 
Austria  in  1776.  Much  attention  has  been  recently  devoted  to 
the  subject  of  the  recovery  of  pereons  after  apparent  death  from 
D.,  and  the  following  are  now  established  rales  ; — (l)  Place  the 
body  in  a  horizontal  position,  and  gently  move  it  from  a 
to  a  half-prone  position,  or  retract  the  arms  with  slight 
(2)  rub  the  limbs  upwards  with  dry  doths ;  and  {3) 
Respiration  (q.  v.)  either  by  direct  inflation  of  the  lungs  by  the 
breath  or  by  bellows.     See  Asphyxia. 

Droyls'den,  a  growing  suburb  of  Manchester,  four  miles  E. 
of  that  city,  and  a  station  on  the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  Rail- 


way.   It  has  several  good  churches,  a  literary  institute,  spinning- 
mills,  dyewotks,  printfields,  &c     Pop.  (iSjl)  676S. 

Droyeen,  Johann  Gustaf,  a  German  historian,  born  at 
Treptow,  in  Pommern,  July  6,  1808;  studied  at  Stettin  and 
Berlin ;  became  professor  in  Berlin  in  1S35,  and  Professor  of 
History  at  IGel  in  1S40;  was  elected  to  the  National  Assembly  in 
1848;  appointed  professor  in  Jena  in  1851,  and  again  in  Berlin, 
1859.  His  writings  indude  CttcMchts  AltxBHders  da  Grossen 
(Berlin,  1833) ;  Gischichte  del  Sellatisnnu  jHamb.  1836-43) ; 
Vorlesutigm  Hher  dit  GescMehie  do-  Fnikdiskriege  (Kiel,  1846) ; 
Lebm  des  FddmarschaUs  Grajia  York  ■vou  Wartcnhirg  (Berlm, 
iSji,  id  ed.  1854) ;  Ueber  PreUueU-  nnd  das  System  der  Gross- 
niachle,  Aclehmdssige  Geschichie  der  D&nischen  FoHtik  (Hamb, 
1850).  Later  works  are  his  Geschichie  der  Prtuss.  Polilii  {la  vols. 
1855-70) ;  Urkundtn  und  AclenstOckt  lur  GeschicMe  des  Grossen 
Kurfufsten  (1864-65) ;  and  translations  of  ^schylus  (3d  ed.  lS63) 
and  Aristophanes  (2d  ed.  1869). 

Drugg'et,  a  coarse  woollen  fabric,  either  woven  or  felted, 
chiefly  employed  as  a  crumbcloth  for  laying  over  carpets,  or  as 
an  inferior  kind  of  carpeting. 

Drugs  are  medicinal  substances  used  by  the  physician  to 
cure  disease  and  alleviate  human  suffering.  They  are  derived 
from  the  animal,  miheral,  and  vegetable  kingdoms. 

Dru'id,  the  name  for  priest  among  the  ancient  Celtic  nations. 
Zeuss  {Gramm.  Ce!t.,vo\.  i.  p.  8)  derives  it  from  dna,  an  old 
Celtic  term  for  oak-tree.  The  Druids  taught  their  pupils  by 
means  of  verses,  which  were  committed  to  memory,  but  never 
allowed  to  be  written ;  consequently  we  have  no  record  by  them- 
selves eitlxer  of  their  doctrines  or  their  ritual,  and  derive  such 
scanty  knowledge  as  we  have  of  them  from  writers  who  were 
strangers  to  their  language  and  hostile  to  tiieir  tenets.  Cffisar 
{Bell,  Gall.  vi.  13)  is  our  principal  authority,  although  many 
other  authors,  Greek  and  Latin,  write  concerning  them. 

The  Druidical  system  was  skilfully  and  elaborately  organised. 
Like  the  Magian  in  Persia,  it  drew  to  itself  almost  the  entire 
power  of  the  slate.  Its  priests  naturally  regulated  everythingper- 
taining  to  divine  worship.  They  had  also  the  complete  control  of 
the  education  of  the  people,  and  further  secured  to  themselves 
the  exclusive  mterpretation  both  of  the  dvil  and  the  criminal 
law.  If  any  one,  high  or  low,  opposed  their  decrees,  'they 
interdicted  him  from  the  sacrifices,'  a  sentence  with  conse- 
quences so  ruinous  that  no  one  could  withstand  them.  Besides 
possessing  these  extensive  powers,  the  DiTiids  were  exempt 
from  militaiy  service  and  taxation  ;  consequently  admission 
to  their  ranks  was  an  object  of  ambition  to  the  highest  in  the 
land,  and  the  rivalry  for  the  office  of  supreme  head,  or  arch-D., 
often  led  to  bloody  warfare.  The  Druids  held  the  immor- 
tality and  the  transmigration  of  soul'  taught  geography  and 
astronomy,  discussed  the  na  u  e  of  th  ngs  and  the  powers  of 
the  immortal  gods.  The  p  eparatory  traming  of  candidates 
sometimes  occup  ed  twenty  years,  and  both  Sirabo  and  Lncan 
speak  of  thei  pos  ess  gap  ofound  sp  ntual  discipline.  In 
Gaul  they  wo  sh  ppe  i  the  G  eek  a  d  Roman  deities,  ptmci- 
pally  Mercury  but  also  Mars  Apollo  Jup  ter,  and  Minerva,  to 
all  of  whom  they  offe  ed  h  man  v  cl  n  sacrifice.  Probably 
the  Gauls  learned  the  above  names  fro  n  their  neighbours,  the 
Italians  ;  but  in  Bntain,  whence  the  Gauls  derived  their  Druidi- 
cal knowledge,  the  sun,  imder  the  name  of  Bel,  appears  to  have 
been  the  principal  object  of  worship.  In  the  S.  as  well  as  in  the 
N.  of  Scotland,  the  beginning  of  summer  is  still  known  as  Beltein 
(q.  v.),  and  the  beginning  of  winter  is  in  all  the  Gaelic-a peaking 
districts  known  by  a  word  signifying  'the  fire  of  peace,'  At 
both  these  terms  the  fire  on  every  hearth  throughout  the  land 
was  extinguished,  and  every  householder  had  to  go  to  the  D.  to 
obtain  sacred  fire  directly  from  him.  None  dared  lend  it  to  his 
neighbour.  We  have  the  memory  of  this  old  tyranny  still  pre- 
served in  some  Highland  districts,  where  people  wiil  on  no 
account  allow  any  fire  to  be  taken  out  of  their  houses  at  either  of 
the  above  seasons,  and  we  have  the  kindling  of  (ires  upon  hill- 
tops both  in  the  islands  and  on  the  mamland  (where  those  who 
observe  it  can  give  no  account  of  the  practice,  except  that  it  is  a 
habit  derived  from  their  ancestors),  evidently  a  remnant  of  the  old 

The  oak-grove  is  said  to  have  been  the  favourite  place  of 
Druidical  worship,  and  peculiar  sacredness  was  attached  to  the 
well-known  mistletoe,  a  parasite  of  the  oak.     Many  of  their 

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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOP.-EDIA. 


DRIT 


temples  have  been  well  called  'groves  of  atone,'  where  several 
stone  pillars  are  ranged  in  concentric  circles,  with  a  lai^e  slab 
sometimes  resting  on  the  tops  of  two  of  these  pillars.  Olhers  of 
these  'Druidical  stones,' or 'circles,' as  they  are  popularly  termed, 
are  arranged  with  less  regularity ;  but  at  Camac  in  Brittany, 
Avesbuty  and  Stonehenge  in  England,  Stennis  in  Orkney,  and 
Callemish  in  L«wis,  as  well  as  in  man)j"  other  places,  they  pre- 
sent rude  but  very  remarkable  and  imposing  proofs  of  mechanical 
power  and  aliill.  Some  modem  antiquaries  miuntain  that  these 
great  pillars  are  only  monuments  to  the  dead  ;  but  there  seems 
no  valid  reason  to  question  the  general  belief  that,  like  so  many 
of  our  churches,  they-formed  both  temple  and  tomb,  and  this 
belief  is  conlirmed  by  the  tact  that,  in  very  many  parishes  in 
Scotland,  the  Christian  church  is  known  by  the  name  applied  to 
the  old  Druidica!  circle,  clachan  =  the  '  stones.' 

It  is  also  said  that  Druidism  was  never  known  in   Scot- 


Druids,  In  the  Gaelic  Bible  the  magicians  of  I^ypt  are  called 
Druids,  In  common  discourse,  a  person  who  by  persuasion 
acquires  complete  control  of  another  is  said  to  exercise  Druidism 
over  him,  and  the  meteors  known  as  shooting  stars  are  called 
'the  death  of  a  D.,' implying  the  belief  that  their  souls  ascended 
in  fiery  chariots.  The  Dmidical  woiship  was  forbidden  by  the 
Emperor  Claudius  as  early  as  55  A.D.  It  is  said  that  a  few  years 
later  thousands  of  the  priests  were  massacred  in  Mona,  or  Anglesey, 
by  the  Roman  general  Suetonius  ;  but  thej[  retained  power  until 
the  Celtic  nations  were  converted  to  Christianity. 

Brum,  a  well-known  musical  instrument  of  percussion.  The 
katle-D.,  of  which  every  orchestra  has  at  least  two,  is  the  most 
important  form  of  the  mstrument.  It  is  made  of  copper,  and  by 
screws  which  alter  the  tension  upon  the  D,-head  can  be  tuned 
to  any  musical  note  within  a  certain  limited  range.  The 
ordinary  dik-D.  ai  military  bands,  and  the  t>ass  or  'big'  D., 
which  is  also  used  in  the  orchestra,  have  a  sound  of  some  sonor- 
ousness, but  not  of  definite  pitch,  and  are  useful  chiefly  in  mark- 
ing rhythm. 

Di-um  was  the  name  of  a  somewhat  uproarious  evening 
assembly  of  the  fashionable  about  the  middle  of  the  iSth  c, 
chiefly  convened  for  the  purpose  of  card-playing,  and  so  called, 
accoi-ding  to  Smollett,  'from  the  noise  and  emptiness  of  the  en- 
tertainment.' A  large  party  of  the  kind  was  styled  a  'drum- 
major.' 

Drum,  in  machinery,  a  short  hollow  cylinder  of  iron  or 
wood,  revolving  on  a  shaft  or  axis,  useful  for  driving  aii  kinds  of 
mili-gearjng  and  machinery  by  means  of  an  endless  belt  or 
band.  The  beating  apparatus  in  the  threshing- maciiine  is 
termed  the  D. 

Drum  of  Uie  Ear.  Properly  speaking  this  is  the  middle  ear, 
or  tympanum,  although,  in  ordinary  language,  the  term  is  fre- 
quently used  to  denote  the  membrane  between  the  external  ear 
and  the  middle  ear — ■membrana  tynipaia.     See  Ear. 

Drnm-Fiell,  a  general  name  given  to.  those  fishes  which, 
like  the  Maigres  (q.  v.),  make  a  kind  of  giunting  noise,  but 
applied  more  'specially  to  the  Pogonias  c&romis  or  bearded  D.-F. 
of  the  N.  American  coasts,  which  produces  a  noise  closely  resem- 
bling the  beating  of  a  drum.  In  this  Teleostean  fish,  which  is 
included  in  the  family  Scianida,  the  chin  is  provided  with  many 
small  barhihs  or  lilaments.  The  first  dorsal  fin  is  provided  with 
ten  spines,  whilst  the  anal  fin  is  two-spined, 

Dnun-Uajor,  an  army  officer,  equal  in  rank  to  a  sergeant 
of  the  line,  who  superintends  all  '  time  bugling,'  as  the  calls  tor 
the  men  to  dress,  for  felling  in,  reveille,  tattoo,  &c,  train; 
drummers  and  fifers,  and  is  supposed  to  regulate  the  pac 
the  line  of  march.  In  the  days  of  '  flogging  it  was  the  duty  of 
(he  D.-M.  to  train  the  dnimmers  to  wield  the  'cat.' 

Drumm'er,  a  person  in  every  regiment,  not  to  be  con 
fqranded  with  any  of  the  drummers  in  the  regimental  band  o- 
music.  He  conveys  instructions  by  various  beats  of  the  drum; 
drums  out  any  soldier  discharged  in  disgrace,  and  used  to  inflict 
the  lash  when  the  soldier  was  flogged.     See  Beat  of  Dritm, 

Drummer  {Blatta  gigantea),  a  laige  species  of  Cockroach 
(q,  V. )  common  in  the  West  Indies,  and  named  from  the  no'  "■ 
makes  during  the  night,  chiefly  by  knocking  its  head  ag 


Drumm'ond,  Captain  Thomas  Henry,  a  distinguished 
I'll  engineer  and  inventor,  was  born  at  Edinburgh,  1797,  ob- 
tained a  cadclship  at  Woolwich,  and  was  engaged  by  Colonel 
Colby  in  the  British  trigonometrical  survey  of  iSzo.  While 
engaged  in  this  survey  he  produced  the  famous  light  known  by 
his  name  (see  Dexjmmond  Lioht),  and  also  invented  a  Helio- 
stat  (q.  V, ),  an  instrument  for  the  vivid  and  distant  reflection  of 
un's  rays.  He  was  appointed  head  of  a  commission  to 
mine  the  boundaries  of  boroughs,  according  to  the  provi- 
of  the  Reform  Bill  of  1831.  In  1S35  he  was  raised  to  the 
post  of  Under-Secretary  for  Ireland,  and  before  long  gained  the 
confidence  of  all  classes  by  his  unflagging  energy  and  intelli- 
gence. As  head  of  a  commission  he  made  a  valuable  report  on 
a  railway  system  for  Ireland  in  1836.  He  died,  keenly  regretted 
by  his  own  friends  and  by  the  friends  of  Ireland,  April  15,  1840, 
?,ss  Wl^trsna-n's  Memoir  of  7'homas  H.  D.  (Edinb,  1S67), 

-  Drummond,  William,  the  chief  Scottish  poet  of  the  17th 
c,,  was  born  of  an  old  and  honourable  family,  at  Hawthomden, 
December  13,  1585.  D.  was  educated  at  the  High  School  and 
University  of  Edinburgh,  graduating  in  1605,  after  which  he 
lelt  for  the  Continent  to  study  civil  law.  From  1606  to  1608  he 
resided  in  France,  and  in  i5og  relumed  to  Scotland.  Next  year 
his  father  died,  when  D,  found  himself  master  of  the  family 
estate  and  of  ample  means,  and  abandoned  legal  studies  for  the 
life  of  a  student  m  his  retreat  at  Hawthornden,  His  first  pub- 
lished work,  an  elegy  on  the  death  of  Prince  Henry,  entitled 
Teares  on  the  Death  of  Mceliades,  appeared  in  1613.  In  i6r5 
he  published  Poems,  Amorous,  FUnerall,  .Dhilnc,  Paslorall,  in 
Sonnets,  Songs,  Sixiains,  Madrigals,  the  prevailing  tone  of  which 
is  sad,  for  his  betrothed  had  died  in  the  previous  year.  His  next 
work,  Forth  Feasiim,  a  Panegyric  to  the  Kin^s  Most  Excellent 
Majesty,  celebrated  Kii^  James's  visit  to  Scotland  in  1617.  In 
1618  Ben  Jonson  spent  two  or  three  Weeks  at  Hawthomden,  an 
event  recorded  inD.'s  Notes  of  Ben  Jonsim's  Conirersatiims  at 
Harmthomdm,  discovered  by  Mr  Laing  in  tiie  Advocates'  Library, 
Edinburgh.  In  I623  appeared  his  last  poetic  work,  the  Fknaers 
1)/ .Suw,  religious  poems,  to  which  was  appended  the  CWr  - - 
Grave,  a  brief  prose  essay  on  death.  Two  years  kter,  D, 
visited  France,  and  probably  the  Low  Countries,  Germany,  and 
Italy.  He  returned  in  1630,  and  in  163s  married  EKiabeth 
Logan,  a  member  of  the  Restalrig  family.  In  1633  D.  began 
his  History  of  Scotland  undtr  the  Five  Jameses,  andj^during  his 


.._. said  to  have  hastened  his  death,  December  4,  1649. 

D.'s  verse  is  pensive  and  thoughtful,  and,  in  general,  colored 
by  a  sensuousness  derived  from  Spenser.  The  vulgar  Folemo- 
Middinia{Oviiaid.,  1691)  would  be  a  violent  contrast  to  his  usual 
style  were  its  authenticity  less  problematical.  D,'s  sonn  , 
which  gave  him  the  title  of  'The  Scottish  Petrarch,'  show  him 
perhaps  to  greatest  advantage,  being  more  natural  than  his 
longer  pieces.  His  works  contain  a  decided  pastoral  element, 
and  his  Italian  studies  imparted  to  his  poetry  a  peculiar  melody. 
D.  stands  almost  alone  in  Scottish  poetry  between  Gavin  Douglas 
and  Allan  Ramsay, 

D.'s  collected  works  were  edited  by  Bishop  Sage  and  Tliomas 
Rnddiman  (Edinb.  1711) ;  by  Lord  Dundrennan  and  Mrlrvir" 
for  the  Maitland  Club  in  1832  ;  and  by  Cunningham  (1833)  ai 
Tumbull  (1857),    See  Masson's  D.  of  Hamlhomdai  (Macmiilan, 
IS73)- 

Dmmmoiid  Island,  in  the  N,W.  entremity  of  Lake  Huron, 
is  20  miles  long  and  10  broad,  and  belongs  to  Michigan.  Theri 
is  a  settlement  nere  which  carries  on  some  tiade. 

Drummond  Idgbt,  or  Idmeliglit,  is  produced  by  the 
play  of  an  osyh  yd  rogen  flame  upon  a  cylinder  or  ball  of  lime,  which, 
becoming  vividly  incandescent,  evolves  an  intensely  brilliant  and 
pure  white  light.  The  oxygen  and  hydrogen  Mses  are  stored 
separately,  and  are  only  allowed  to  miiigle  near  m.e  nozule  of  the 
blowpipe,  because  of  the  highly  explosive  character  of  the  n 
ture.  Altliough  lime  Is  very  refractory  under  the  blowpipe,  the 
prolonged  act'o  of  the  dame  upon  one  point  causes  it  to  cramble 
away,  thereby  desl  oy  ng  the  steadiness  of  the  light,  but  this  dis- 
advantage is  m  a  na  ner  met  by  turning  the  cylinder  of  lime 
on  its  axis  by  clockw  o  k  Etpe  ments  were  made  with  the  lime- 
light as  early  as  1820  but  Leuieriant  Drummond,  R.E.,  in 
1826,  was  the  h  st  to  app  y  t  p  actically.     While  conducting  a 


y  Google 


DEU 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DRY 


trigonometrica!  survey  of  Ireland  and  Scotland  he  used  the  light, 
placing  it  in  the  focus  of  a  parabolic  reflector,  for  signalling  be- 
en distant  and  lofty  eminences.  On  one  occasion  he  made  a 
cessfui  observation  by  means  of  it  between  stations — Ben 
Lomond  in  Stirling  and  Knock  Layd  in  Antrim — 95  miles  apart. 
In  1861,  the  South  Foreland  lighthouse  was  fitted  with  the  lime- 
"-ht  apparatus.  As  the  ligftt  results  from  incandescence  of  the 
e,  there  is  no  combustion  of  atmospheric  ait  and  no  forma- 
tion of  carbonic  add  gas,  bttt  in  regard  to  the  extension  of  the 
limelight  to  ordinary  illuraination,  these  sanitary  advantage  are 
neutralised  by  the  inconvenience  in  preparing  the  gases  and  the 
absence  of  continuity  of  the  light.  It  is  chiefly  employed  to 
enhance  scenic  effects  and  for  magic-lantern  exhibitions. 
DriiTik'eaiieaa.     See  Intoxicatioej. 

Drunkenness.  Persons  completely  drunlt,  being  incapable 
of  legal  consent  {see  Consbnt  and  Contract),  cannot  enter 
'  ■  I  a  contract  or  obligftlion  ;  but  a  minor  degree  of  mtoiication 
may  be  insufficient  to  reduce  a  contract,  unless  fraud  is  proved 
against  the  other  party  to  it,  D.  does  not  excuse  crime,  though 
in  minor  cases  it  may  be  held  to  pall»te  it.  To  be  drtmk  pri- 
vately is  not  an  oflence  against  law ;  but  to  be  dnrolt  in  public 
is  an  offence  punishable  by  fine. 

Drnrajapatam',  or  Durgmanz^attvm',  a  seaport  of 
British  India,  province  of  Madras,  district  of  Mellore,  64niiles 
S.  of  Nellore,  and  60  N.  ofMadras.  Itlies  on  aninlet  of  Black- 
wood Harbour,  the  safest  haven  on  the  Coromandel  coast,  and 
near  the  entrance  to  Pwlicat  Lake,  which  has  been  artificially  ex- 
tended to  Madras  city.     Pop,  8000, 

Dru'ry,  Itaii,  a  naturalist,  bom  in  London,  February4,  1725, 
was  a  goldsmith  in  the  Strand  for  several  years,  but  eventually 
abandoned  himself  to  the  study  of  natural  history.  His  ehirf 
work  was  his  lUastralians  of  ExstU  Entomology  (2  vols.  Lond. 
1873-82),  with  its  excellent  drawings,  D.  died  January  15, 
1804. 

Dru'ses,  a  people  inhabiting  the  less  fertile  parts  of  the 
mountains  of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon.  They  have  arisen 
from  a  mingling  of  Kurds,  Arabs,  and  the  Mardi,  a  tribe  from 
the  Caspian,  and  have  derived  their  name  from  Drusi,  probably 
a  tailor — modern  iroite—viUo  lived  in  the  iith  c,,  and  preached 
the  divinity  of  Hakim,  a  Calif  still  adored  as  a  god  by  the  D., 
and  expected  to  come  as  a  measiah  through  Central  Asia  from 
China.  They  also  worship  a  golden  calf,  but  the  rites  of  their 
religion,  which  seems  a  mixture  of  Christian,  Sadducee,  and 
Mohammedan  doctrines,  are  concealed.  They  at  present  nuraber 
about  80,000,  and  are  divided  into  two  classes,  the  Okals 
and  the  jakals.  The  Okals,  or  the  learned  section,  are  initi- 
ated in  the  mysteries  of  the  Druse  creed,  profess  rigid  morality, 
and  form  a  senate  for  administering  affairs.  The  Jakak,  or  un- 
ieamed,  can  rise  to  the  class  of  Oksis  flirough  a  long  and  severe 
novitiate.  Many  of  tlie  Okala  retire  to  plpces  of  worship  on 
lofty  summits,  called  Holowas,  several  o(  which  arg  dedicated 

tob  and  other  prophets.    The  D.  are  famed  for  their  fine  breed 
orses,  and  for  their  slcill  in  the  use  of  the  djereeii  or  javelm. 
;urious  belief  that  they  are  mystically  connected  with  the 
Scotch,  and  possess  the  same  faith,  has  spread  among  them, 
The  D.  attained  their  greatest  prosperity  in  the  first  half  of  the 
17th  c.;  under  the  Emir  Fakardin,  but  since  his  death  in  1631 
have  been  nominally  subject  to  (he  Turks.    With  tha  Maronites 
(q.  v.),  or  Christian  tribes  of  the  Lower  Lebanon,  they  have  hsA 
long  and  bitter  feuds,  and  iit  i860  horrible  massacres  were  per, 
petrated  by  both  parties.     The  D,  are  a  brave  ftnd  intelUgent 
■--ce,  and  do  not  practise  polygamy.     They  cultivate  vines  and 
im  on  the  terraces  which  they  have  raised  on  the  sides  of  the 
ountains.     Their  chief  manufactures  are  shawls,  mantles,  &c., 
silk;  and  for  .local  wants,  wine,  arradt,  yarn,  and  soap.  Their 
chief  town  is  Dair-el-Kamar  (q.  v.), 

Dru'sue,  a  distinguished  Roman  family,  of  which  the  follow- 
ing were  the  most  remarkable  members  ; — I.  21,  Living,  who 
became  qonsul  B.C.  112,  and, who  throughout  his  official  career 
i  the  successful  representative  of  the  senatorial  party,  and 
opponent  of  C  Gracchus.— z.  M.  LiTJas,  son  of  the  former,  was 
arly  a  strong  partisan  of  the  senate,  but  subsequently  displayed 
;real  skill  in  manipniating  the  mob,  whom  he  bought  over  by 
onciliatory  laws  and  lavish  gifts.     The  social  irritation  thus 


caused  was  inflamed  by  the  favour  shown  to  the  Latins  and  other 
foreigners,  and  the  career  of  D.  closed  in  an  intricate  network 
of  conspiracy  and  intrigue.  Arrogant  In  disposition,  he  dledmi- 
regretted  by  all,  B.C.  91.— 3.  Nero  Olandius,  commonly  called 
D,  Senior,  stepson  of  Augustus,  brother  of  Tiberius,  and  father 
of  Germanicus,  was  born  B.C.  38.  He  acquired  the  highest 
distinction  both  in  administration  and  in  war.  He  defeated 
the  Rhjetians  (B.C.  15),  subdued  tumults  among  the  Gauls 
12),  and  in  pursuit  of  their  allies  advanced  to  the  German 


Ocean.     Thereafter,  during  a 


■s  of  brilliant  c: 


npaigns,  h 


subjugated  in  succession  the  leading  tribes  of  the  Germans,  and, 
at  the  expense  of  fearful  bloodshed,  established  over  them  the 
supremacy  of  Rome.  He  received  after  death  the  agnomen 
Germanicus.     He  died  B.C.  8, 

Dry'ads  (from  Gr.  drus,  '  an  oak '),  inferior  divinities  in  the 
Greek  mythology,  who  came  into  existence  with  particular  trees 
and  died  with  them.     See  Nymphs. 

Dry'dem,  John,  an  English  poet,  ivas  born  at  Aldwincle, 
Nortlmmptonshire,  August  9, 1631.  He  belonged  to  a  good  family 
of  staunch  Puritan  pnnciples,  was  educated  under  Busby  at 
Westminster,  and  took  the  degree  of  B-A.  at  Cambridge  in  1653. 
Having  inherited  property  worth  £40  a  year  on  his  father's  death 
in  1654,  be  sltidjed  at  Cambridge  until  1657,  when  he  entered  on 
a  litera^  career  in  London.  In  1658  he  produced  ^*™ii;.SirtBtaw 
OK  the  Death  o/Olfuir  Crofiiwell,  and  at  the  Restoration,  chang- 
ing, as  Johnson  says,  with  the  nation,  offered  a  tribute  to  Charles 
II.  hi  his  Astrsa  Redux.  In  1663  he  married  Lady  Elizabeth 
Howard — a  nnion  which  proved  unhappy.  The  Wild  Gallant, 
his  first  play,  and  the  Rival  Ladies,  a  tragi-comedy,  were  acted 
in  1663,  and  his  rhymed  tragedy,  the  Indian  Qjieen,  was  very 
succesrful  in  the  followmg  year^  The  Great  Plague  of  1665 
closing  the  theatres,  D.  for  a  while  gave  up  play- writing  to  cele- 
brate the  Dutch  war  and  Great  Fire  of  1666  inhis  Annus  Mira. 
hilis.  Between  1668  and  1670  he  produced  several  plays,  which 
wop  great  popularity,  and  about  this  time  he  engaged  to  write 
three  plays  a  year  for  tte  King's  Theatre,  in  return  for  an  annual 
share  in  the  profits  eqijal  to  ^300  or  ^£'400.  In  1668  he  advo- 
cated rhyming  tragedies  in  his  Essay  on  Dramatic  Poetry,  and 
was  chosen  laureate  in  1670 ;  but  in  1671  the  town  was  set  a-laugh- 
ing  by  the  Rehearsal,  a  farce  written  by  Buckingham  and  BuCer, 
ridiculing  D.'s  tragedies,  and  caricaturing  himunder  the  name  of 
Bayes.  D.  continued  to  compose  plays  with  less  success  than  for- 
merly up  to  l68l,  when  he  produced  Absoloni  and  Achitopkel,  a 
satire — the  best  which  had  as  yet  been  written  in  English — de- 
nouncing Shaftesbury's  and  laonmovith's  schemes  to  oust  die 
Duke  of  York  from  the  succession.  He  attacked  Shaftesbury 
again  in  the  Afedal;  cruslied  Shadwell,  a  Whig  poetaster,  in 
MacFlecki'oe ;  and  defended  the  Church  of  England  in  Religia 
laid  (1683).  After  the  death  of  Charles  II.,  lamented  in  D,'s 
Thrimdia  Aagustalis,  he  abandoned  the  Anglican  for  the  Romish 
faith,  a  change  of  which  the  sincerity  is  denied  by  Macaulay, 
but  maintamed  by  Bell,  D.'s  recent  editor.  He  defended  his 
new  religion  in  the  Hitid  and  the  Panther  (1687),  an  elaborate 
aUegory,  in  which  the  different  Churches  appear  as  beasts.  The 
Revolution  removed  him  from  the  laureateship,  and  ended  his 
controversial  career,  In  his  old  age  he  had  to  write  for  a  liveli- 
hood, He  translated  Juvenal,  Pereius,  and  Vireil(l696);  wrote 
the  Ode  on  SI  Cecilia's  Day,  a  masterpiece  of  changing  rhythmi- 
cal effects;  and  in  1700  published  \m  Fables,  adaptations  from 
Boccaccio  and  Chaucer,  the  most  graceful  and  fancifiil  of  all  his 
writings.  During  his  closing  years  he  was  regarded  as  a  literary 
dictator,  holding  his  court  at  .Wills'  Coffeehouse  among  the 
young  wits  and  noblemen.  He  died  on  the  1st  May  1701,  and 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey, 

D.  does  not  belong  to  the  highest  class  of  poets,  for  he  is 
wanting  in  imagination,  passion,  and  tenderness.  His  cardinal 
merits  are  clearness,  keenness,  and  vigour.  As  a  playwright, 
seelting  to  combine  the  incompatible  characteristics  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan and  the  French  drama,  he  produced  hybrid  tragedies 
and  indecent  comedies ;  strained  after  sublimity,  and  floundered 
into  rant;  offered  obscenity  instead  of  humour,  and  stilted  rhe- 
toric instead  of  eloquence,  As  a  satirist  he  is  unequalled  among 
Englishmen.  No  other  is  so  comprehensive,  fervid,  and  penetra- 
tive ;  none  unites  such  majesty  of  verse  with  sndi  trenchancy 
of  epithet ;  none  shows  such  mastery  of  metrical  lo^c.  But  he 
was  not  a  satuist  of  the  noblest  type.  He  did  not  attack  the 
wickedness  of  his  age.  His  translations  are  somewhat  unfaithful ; 
447 


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DRY 


THE  GLOBE  ENCVCLOFMDIA. 


7,  and  the  si 


his  Uufniomeliness  occasionally  outrages  the  Virgilian  art,  and 
his  tales  from  Boccaccio  and  Chaucer  want  the  subtle  charm  of 
the  original.  His  prose  is  at  once  dignified,  incisive,  and  idioma- 
tic. He  was  a.  great  literary  reformer  as  well  as  a  great  satirist ; 
he  pulled  English  verse  of  conceits,  and  instead  of  a  crabbed 
and  flimsy,  left  a  flexible,  natural,  and  robust  poetry.  The  best 
editions  of  D.  are  Bell's,  in  three  vols.,  with  an  admirable  bio- 
graphy ;  and  the  Globe,  edited  by  W.  Chxistie,  which  has  the 
best  text.  Critical  estimates  of  D.  may  be  found  in  Masson  s 
and  Lowell's  Essays,  and  in  Taine's  English  Litiraturs.  See 
also  Ward's  History  ef  English  Dramatic  Literature  (1S75). 

'Drfvag  Macliuies,  A  variety  of  contrivances  are  m 
operation,  chiefly  in  bleaching,  calico-printing,  and  dyeworks,  for 
effecting  the  rapid  drying  of  textile  substances  in  the  various  pro- 
cesses connected  with  these  arts.  The  apparatus  chiefly_  relied 
on  in  bleaching  and  calico-printine  is  a  aeries  of  tiimed-if  on  or 
copper  cylinders,  mounted  in  a  frame  and  heated  by  steam, 
around  which  the  material  passes,  and  is  carried  forward  by  their 
revolution.  A  number  of  substances,  however,  such  as  thread 
and  yam  in  the  hank,  cannot  be  treated  by  such  an  arrange- 
ment, and  for  these  a  machine,  called  the  hydro-estractor,  is  em- 
ployed. It  consists  essentially  of  a  cylindncal  metalhc  drum, 
mounted  on  a  pivot,  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  turned  with  great 
velocity,  and  the  drying  is  effected  by  the  centrifugal  force  thus 
communicated  to  the  material  placed  vrithin  the  drum  and  the 
particles  of  water  it  contains.  Drying  is  also  effected  in '  stoves ' 
or  apartments  heated  to  a  high  temperature  either  by  steam. 

Drying  Oils.    See  Oils. 

Dry'opliis,  a  genus  of  Ophidia,  or  Snakes,  forming  the  type  of 
a  special  femily  of  Colubvine  (q.  v.)  serpents,  and  represented 
by  such  forms  as  the  D.  acuminata  or  golden  tree-snake  of 
Mexico.  In  these  snakes,  which  are  also  represented  m  the 
Old  Worid,  the  body  is  long  and  slender,  and  the  head 
whilst  the  upper  jaw  is  longer  than  the  lower  jr—  -"■^  ' 
pointed. 

Dry-Plate  Processes,  photographic  processes  by  which 
dry  sensitive  plates  are  prepared  and  preserved  for  subsequent 
use,  thus  obviating  the  inconvenience  of  a  field-operator  carry- 
ing his  various  chemicals  and  a  tent  or  dark  room  in  which  to 
work.  In  the  wet  collodion  process  the  plate  must  be  mani- 
pulated while  the  film  is  moist,  because  when  dry  it  becomes 
insensitive  and  impei-vions  to  the  developing  liquid  ;  but  m  prac- 
tising the  dry  process  the  sensitive  plate  may  be  prepared  at 
home,  exposed  in  the  camera  some  days  or  weeks  afterwards, 
and  developed  at  home.  Dry  plates  are  not  quite  so  sensitive  as 
wet  plates,  and  consequently  requite  longer  exposure.  Various 
dry  processes  are  practised,  and  for  practical  details  of  two  of 
the  principal— the  collodio-albumen  process,  and  the  diy  collo- 
dion process  of  Dc  R.  H.  Morris— Hardwick's  Photagraphtc 
Chemistry  m^y  ht  consulted.  See  also_  Thomson^ /("irfp/y^nK^ 
Handbook  of  Phi 
Tissandier  (Lond. 

Dry-Point,  a  finely-pointed  needle  used  to  cut  fine  lines  in 
engraving,  and  so  called  because  in  using  it  the  tool  alone  is  em- 
ployed—no acid  being  used.  The  hues  so  produced  are  as  dur- 
able as  they  are  delicate. 

Dry-Kot,  a  disease  of  wood  caused  by  the  attacks  of  various 
species  of  fungi,  the  root-like  mycelium  of  which  spreads 
through  the  substance,  destroying  all  liefore  it.  The  best  remedy 
consists  in  careful  selection  of  wood,  '  perfect  ventilation,  and 
patient  seasoning,  added  to  the  employment  of  such  kinds  of  wood 
for  particular  purposes  as  may  be  most  suitable  to  (he 
situation  they  are  mtended  to  occupy.'  Saturating  the  timber 
with  creosote,  which  coagulates  the  albumen,  and  makes 
it  enter  into  combinations  unfit  for  v^fetation,  is  one  of  the 
favourite  modem  remedies.  D.-R.  may,  however,  also  be 
caused  by  a  slow  chemica!  combustion,  quite  independent  of 
fungi,  Wfll-seasoned  timber  will  last  long  without  being  at- 
laclted  by  D.-R.  In  England  there  is  found  wood  in  many 
buildings  a  thousand  years  old  j  and  wood  in  a  perfect  state  of 
preservalion  was  taken  from  behind  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon, 
where  it  Iiad  been  placed  zooo  years  ago.  Charred  blocks  of 
wood  have  been  fomid  during  Layard's  exi 
See  also  Kvanising. 
448 


Dry  Stove,  in  gardening,  is  a  house  in  which  a  high  tempera- 
ture, combined  with  dry  air,  is  maintained,  for  the  purpose  of 
growing  cacti  and  other  fleshy  plants  which  belong  to  hot,  and 


Du'al.  The  term  applied  in  grammar  to  a  form  which  exist! 
in  some  languages  m  nouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs,  when  onlj 
two  persons  or  things  are  spoken  of.  For  example,  in  Greek, 
anthropos'if.  'anian,'  antkrdpd,  'two men,'  anthripoi,  'men.  San- 
skrit, Arabic,  Ancient  Greek,  and  Hebrew  all  have  a  D.  number, 
the  latter  in  nouns  only.  Gothic  and  Old  English  also  have  it  tc 
some  extent,  the  former  in  verbs,  the  fetter  in  the  pronouns  of 
the  rst  and  2d  person— iw;i:,  'we  two,'  git,  'ye  two."  The  words  duo 
and  aviho  scarcely  warrant  us  in  assuming  that  such  a  form  ever 
existed  in  Latin.  The  fact  that  it  is  only  in  ancient  languages 
that  we  find  a  D.  form  goes  to  prove  that  it  is  not  a  refinement 
of  speech— not  an  abridged fonn  ofthtflural  lahich  usage  after- 
wards limited  to  the  tuanber  lino,  as  Buttmann  and  others  have 
held,  but  that  it  is  one  of  the  earliest  births  of  language  j  that  it 
indicates  a  lack  of  the  power  of  abstraction,  and  that  it  gradually 
disappears  on  the  development  of  that  power, 

Du'alism,  iti  religion,  is  the  deification  of  two  principles,  ab- 
solute good  and  the  greatest  evil.  As  an  absolute  good  and  an 
absolute  evil  cannot  coexist,  it  has  often  been  supposed  that  the 
evil  prindpla  was  originally  good,  but  lost  his  first  estate.  But 
as  mutation  would  imply  inferiority  and  dependence.  It  has 
again  been  supposed  that  good  and  evil  are  only  manifes- 
tations of  one  absolute  being,  and  that  e--'  *■"' 
will  ultimately  disappear.  D.  was  a  n 
long  before  Zoroaster.    Plutarch  ar 

that  there 


,   translated  from  the  French  of  G. 


being  only  negative, 
faith  in  Per'- 

^^^ _ ebothDuali 

The  ManichMism  that  disturbed  early  Christianity  wi 
ofD.     In  philosophy,  tlie  term  is  applied  ■ 
*     the  known    -' ' — '  '-""  ■ 


...atnally  independent,  the  laws  of  the  one  not  admitting  of 
explanation  by  those  of  the  other.  In  metaphysics  D.  means  the 
coexistence  of  substances  of  which  the  essences  exclude  each 
other.  The  metaphysical  alternative  is  the  existence  of  a  solitary 
substance,  of  which  everything  else  is  3,  mode,  or  modification  of 
an  attribute ;  the  scientific  alternative  is  one  aggregate  of  pheno- 
mena with  a  twofold  aspect, 
Dul)arr'y.     Sec  Bakry,  Comtessb  de. 

Dubit'za,  or  Dublcza  (Slav,  'the  piace  of  oak-trees'),  a 
frontier  fortress  of  Turkey,  Bosnia,  pn  the  right  bank  of  tlie 
Unna,  six  miles  above  its  confluence  with  the  Save.  It  was  fif^ 
quently  besieged  by  the  Austrians,  was  stormed  by  them  in  1685 
and  16S7  and  again,  after  a  heroic  defence  by  the  Turks,  m  1788. 
Pop.  about  6000.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  Unna  is  the  strong 
fortress  of  Austrian  D.  with  30OO  inhabitants, 

Dttb'lin  (Irish  Gael.  Dulh-linn,  '  black  pool,'  of  which  the 
Eblana  of  Ptolemy  is  probably  a  cormption),  capital  of  Ireland, 
and  one  of  the  finest  cities  in  the  empire,  is  situated  on  the  mouth 
of  the  Liffey,  at  the  head  of  Dublin  Bay.  It  is  divided  mt 
two  nearly  equal  parts  by  the  Liffey,  which  runs  from  W,  f 
E.,  and  affords,  with  the  great  tlioroughfare  running  from  N.  to 
S  from  Rutland  Square  by  Sackville  Street,  Carhsle  Bndge, 
Westmoreland  Street,  and  Grafton  Street  to  St  Stephen  3  Green,  a 
key  to  the  topography  of  the  city.  The  north-eastern  is  the  most 
aristocratic  quarter,  while  the  business  portions  are  the  centre 
and  N  W  where  are  chiefly  the  residences  of  the  middle  classes. 
D  is  'surrounded  by  the  Circular  Road,  neariy  9  miles  lor^, 
forming  a  favourite  drive  and  promenade.  Ofi"3hoot3  of  the 
Widtlow  Mountains  occur  to  the  southward  of  D.,  and  the  fine 
mountain  scenery  constitutes  a  picturesque  background  to  many 
of  the  street  views  on  the  S.  side.  The  river  is  spanned  by 
nine  bri.tees,  the  last  or  most  easterly  of  which  is  Carlis  e 
Bridge,  which  connects  the  two  great  thoroughfares  Sackville 
and  Westmoreland  Streets,  and  is  the  point  from  which  the 
finest  views  of  the  pubUc  buildings  and  the  river  are  obtained.  Of 
these  latter,  Uie  chief  are  (on  the  S.  side  of  the  nva)  the  Bank 
of  Ireland,  formerly  the  Irish  Parliament  House,  of  wluch  the 
old  House  of  Lords  remams  substantially  unaltered,  while  the 
House  of  Commons  has  been  converted  into  a  cash  office  ;  it  is 
a  large  classical  edifice,  with  porticoes  and  colonnades,  standing 
on  the  N.  side  of  College  Green;  Trinity  College  (see  Dublin 
UnivEKSlTY),  on  the  E.  side  of  College  Green,  consisting  of 
several  quadrangles  occupying  an  area  of  about  40  acr^:  the 
chief  facade  is  a  handsome  elevation  in  Portland  stone,  in  ttie 


y  Google 


DUB 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DUB 


Corinthian  style  of  architecture ;  the  Library  of  the  college,  and 
the  New  Museum  ;  the  Castle,  consisting  of  a  series  of  buildings 
SiUTOUnding  two  courts,  stands  on  high  ground  at  the  W.  end 
of  Daine  Street,  but  is  neither  remarliable  for  its  architectural 
merits  nor  imposing  in  its  proportions ;  the  Cathedral  of  St 
Patrick,  with  the  memorial  stones  of  Swift  (once  Dean  here)  and 
of  'Stella;'  the  General  Post-Ofdce ;  Customhouse;  the  Ex- 
change ;  the  Four  Courts,  on  the  N.  side  of  the  river,  between 
■Whitworlh  and  Richmond  Bridges,  an  imposing  classical  build- 
ing, consisting  of  a  centre,  flanked  by  a  square  on  each  side, 
fmd  occupied  by  the  Superior  Courts  and  Courts  of  Chancery, 
Queen's  Bench,  Common  Pleas,  and  Exchequer;  the  Roman 
Catholic  University ;  Nelson's  Monument  (134  feet),  from  which  a 
fine  view  of  the  city  and  environs  is  obtained  ;  the  Rcnral  Irish  Aca- 
demy, contaming  a  valuable  collection  of  natiomJ  antiquities ; 
the  National  Gallery  of  Ireland,  with  collections  of  works  in 
sculpture  and  paintmg ;  the  Cathedral  of  Christ  Church,  to  the 
W.  of  the  castle,  containing  some  very  fine  work  in  Eariy 
English  ;  and  the  Exhibition  Palace,  in  which  the  International 
Exhibition  of  1865  was  held,  and  in  which  oratorios  and  concerts 
on  a  large  scale  are  now  occasionally  given.  The  societies, 
hospitals,  educational  institutions,  and  theatres  are  numerous. 
Of  the  parks  and  squares,  the  chief  are  the  Phienix,  in  the  ex- 
treme W.  of  tlie  city,  and  on  the  N.  side  of  the  river,  a  magnifi- 
cent enclosure  of  1 75a  acres,  in  which  military  displays  frequently 
take  place,  and  containing  the  Welhngton  testimonial,  an  obelisk 
SOS  feet,  and  erected  in  memory  of  the  great  Duke's  achieve- 
ments, at  the  cost  of  £2%<xia  %  St  Stephen's  Green  (20  acres)  ■ 
Merrion  Square  {13  acres) ;  Collie  Park ;  Rutland  Square,  &c 
The  Rotunda,  between  SacWille  Street  and  Rutland  Square,  is 
a  noble  suite  of  puhlic  rooms  for  concerts  and  festive  and  other 
meetings.  D.  is  the  seat  of  an  Anglican  and  Roman  Catholic 
archbishop.  The  S.W,  district  of  the  town,  named  the  IMniies, 
was  at  one  time  occupied  by  an  industrious  and  pi^sperous  com- 
munity of  silk-weavers,  the  descendants  of  a  Huguenot  colony 
that  settled  here  in  the  reign  of  William  III.  The  silk  industry 
has  died  out  in  the  locality,  and  the  Liberties  now  comprise  the 
most  squalid,  unattractive,  and  turbulent  quarter  of  the  city.  No 
national  manufacture  except  that  of  Irish  poplin  centres  in  D., 
and  the  industrial  establishment,  cotton  and  linen  fabrics, 
breweries,  distilleries,  &c. ,  are  engaged  mainly  in  the  supply  of 
local  wants.  Water  communication  with  the  W,  and  S,  of  Ire- 
land is  ruEuntained  by  the  Royal  and  Grand  Canals ;  from  five 
railway  stations  lines  of  Kulway  radiate  to  different  parts  of  the 
country,  but  the  most  valuable  means  of  access  is  the  port 
of  D.,  from  which  large  steamers  ply  regularly  to  Holyhead, 
Liverpool,  and  Glasgow,  The  harbour,  which  freely  adillits 
vessels  of  900  tons,  has  been  greatly  improved  by  the  construction 
of  two  breakwaters.  In  1873,  8104  vessels  of  1,692,990  tons 
entered  and  cleared  the  port.  The  total  value  of  the  imports 
in  1S74,  consisting  chiefly  of  wheat  and  other  cereals,  wine, 
spirits,  sugar,  petrdeum,  tunber,  and  jute,  was  .^^3,316,073  ;  the 
total  value  ik  the  ^pOrts  (1S74),  consisting  chiefly  of  chemical 
products  and  preparations,  spirits,  glass  goods,  and  beer,  was 
£S°,  178,  The  amount  of  customs  revenue  for  1874  was^f  868,455- 
Pop.  (1871)  246,326,  of  whom  195,180  are  Roman  Cathohcs ; 
pop.  of  parliamentary  borough,  267,716.  The  city  aiud  the 
University  return  two  members  to  Parliament  respectively.  D. 
is  first  mentioned  by  Ptolemy.  It  originally  occupied  the  ridge 
(hat  now  forms  its  centre,  and  was  occasicmally  called  in  Irish 
Gaelic  Drum-Col-CoilU,  '  hill  of  hazelwood.'  Its  early  history 
is  veiled  in  obscurity.  The  Danes  held  it  from  S36  till  the  end 
of  the  I2th  c.  It  capitulated  to  the  English  in  1169,  and  was 
subsequently  visited  by  Henry  II.,  who  granted  its  first  charter. 
The  English  strengthened  the  fortifications,  and  erected  a  castle 
(i23o).  Various  charters  and  privileges  were  received  from 
Henry  III,,  Edward  I.,  and  Henry  IV.  The  city,  which  had 
been  in  great  part  destroyed  by  fire,  was  rebuilt  and  extended 
from  13 16.  Many  great  improvements  have  been  made  since  the 
i8th  c  The  abortive  attempt  at  insurrection  planned  by  Robert 
Emmett  took  place  in  D.  in  1803.  See  Gilbert's  Mslory  of  D. 
(Dublin,  1862). 

Dublin,  a  maritime  county  of  Leinster,  Ireland,  having  the 
Irish  Sea  on  the  E.,  and  inland  the  counties  of  Meath,  Kildare, 
and  Wicklow.  Length,  32  miles  ;  average  breadth,  12  miles  ; 
area,  226,895  statute  acres,  of  which  100,236  are  under  tillage, 
91,503  in  pasture,  4716  under  wood,  wliile  30,440  are  waste 
132 


lands — bog,  hill,  &e.  There  are  SO,754  inhabited  dwelling, 
houses,  and  23,020  out-offices  and  farm- steadings.  Pop,  (1S71) 
405,262.  The  coast  is  50  miles  in  length  ;  its  diief  features  are 
Dublin  Bay  (6  miles  wide  and  7  deep)  and  the  Hill  and  Head 
(500  feet  high)  of  Howth.  Off  the  shore  are  the  Skerries,  Ire-  ■ 
land's  Eye,  and  Dalkey  Island.  The  surface  is  fiat,  with  the 
Wicklow  Hills  occupying  the  S.  border.  The  climate  is  temper- 
ate ;  the  prevailing  wintG  are  from  the  W.;  and  the  soil,  for  the 
most  part  shallow  and  ^velly,  is  productive  in  the  districts 
around  the  capital  and  lymg  along  the  borders  of  Meath.  The 
chief  crops  are  cereals  and  potatoes.  The  cattle  in  1S75  num- 
bered 53,764.  The  principal  river  is  the  Liffey.  D.,  the 
capital,  and  Kingston  are  the  chief  towns,  and  all  the  manufac- 
tures of  the  county  (sewed  muslins,  cottons,  &c.)  are  carried  on  in 
and  around  the  former.  The  county  contained  in  1871  266 
primary  and  89  superior  schools,  includmg  three  collies. 

Dublin  ■CTnivoreity,  or  Trinity  Oolle^  Dublin, 
founded  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  was  incorporated  by  charter  or 
letters  patent  on  the  3d  March  1591,  under  the  title  of  'The 
College  of  the  Holy  and  Undivided  Trinity  near  Dublin.' 

History. — In   1591   the  city  of  Dublin  presented  to  it,   by 

free  grants  the  '  site,  ambite,  and  precincts  of  the  former  m 

tery  of  All  Samts  or  All  Hallowes.'  The  building  was  begu 
the  13th  March  1591,  and  was  open  to  receive  students  01 
9th  January  1593.  In  1595  the  Queen  granted  to  the  College 
knds  to  the  value  of  ^160  per  annum,  and  in  1610  James  also 
granted  to  it  lands  in  Armagh,  Fermanagh,  and  Donegal.  Since 
flie  foundation  of  the  College,  charters  and  Acts  of  Parliament 
have  been  passed,  extending  the  privileges  of  the  University, 
and  making  such  alterations  as  were  from  time  to  time  deemed 
necessary.  In  1613  James  I.  granted  to  its  Provost,  Fellows,  and 
Scholars  the  r^ht  of  electing  two  burgesses  to  represent  the 
University  in  Parliament.  Ey  the  Act  of  Union  (1800J  the 
number  of  representatives  was  reduced  to  one,  but  the  right  to 
elect  two  members  was  restored  to  D.  Ui  in  terms  of  the  Irish 
Reform  Bill  (2  and  3  Will.  IV.  c  88).  In  1637,  by  charter  of 
Charles  I.,  fellowships  were  made  tenable  for  life ;  the  power 
of  making  statutes  was  taken  from  the  Provost  and  Fellows, 
and  reserved  to  the  crown,  and  the  crown  assumed  the  privilege 
of  appointing  the  Provost  The  statutes  of  Charles  I.  underwent 
considerable  modification  between  1637  and  the  middle  of  the 
present  century.  They  were  revised  in  1855  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  a  toyal  commission,  but  the  constitution  of  D.  U. 
was  not  thereby  materially  affected.  By  enactment  the  provost- 
shipj  fellowships,  and  foundation  scholarships  could  only  be  held 
by  members  of  the  Church  of  Ireland,  but  the  Act  36  Vict,  c. 
21,  removes  all  religions  disabilitiesi  An  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  affiliate  D.  U:  with  the  Catholic  University,  Magee  College 
(Belfast),  and  the  Queen's  Colleges  of  Cork  and  Belfast,  led 
to  the  defeat  of  the  Gladstone  Government,  nth  March  1873. 
In  1874  it  was  enacted  that  a  University  Council  should  be 
elected  to  co-operate  in  the  regulation  of  the  studies,  lectures. 


ship  can  be  created  by  the  Pi-ovos"t  and  Senior  Fellows  without 
the  consent  of  the  Council. 

Constilulioii  and  Cm/ernrnml. — By  the  charier  of  foundation 
Queen  Elizabeth  appointed  one  Provost  and  three  Fellows  and 
three  Scholars  (in  name  of  more)  to  conduct  the  busmess  of  the 
corporation,  confer  degrees,  elect  officials,  &c.  The  original 
constitution  is  still  maintained,  and  the  Provost  and'Senior  Fel- 
lows form  a  board  of  management,  whose  acts  must  receive  the 
sanction  of  the  Senate. 

Church  Patronage. — The  right  of  presentation  to  a  number  of 
livings  was  vested  in  the  Provost  and  Senior  Fellows  in  1610, 
but  all  rights  of  church  patronage  were  swept  away  by  the  Irisli 
Church  Act,  32  and  33  Vict,  c,  42. 

The  Senate  consists  of  the  Chancellor  and  such  Doctors  or 
Masters  as  have  their  names  on  the  college  books, 

ITie  Caput  of  the  Senate  consists  of  the  Chancellor  or  liis 
of&cial  representatives,  the  Provost  or  Vice-Provost,  and  the 
Senior  Master  non.  regent. 

Order  offiank  ii  lie  College. — The  Frmiost^  who  is  appointed 
by  the  crown.  The  Fellows,  absolved  from  the  obligation  to 
enter  into  priest's  orders  by  letters  patent  of  1 874,  and  who  be- 
come Seniors  in  the  order  of  seniority,  are  chosen  by  examina- 
tion. They,  with  tlie  professors,  form  the  examining  staff.  The 
449 


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jHnior  Fellows,  with  the  professors,  form  the  lectnring  staff. 
The  teaching  in  the  obligatory  courses  in  Arts  is  cliiefly  performed 
by  the  Junior  Fellows,  most  of  whom  are  tutors.  Noblemen, 
sani  of  noblemen,  and  Bai^dnds,  who  enjoy  special  privileges. 
Doctors  in  the  three  Faculties,  Bachelors  in  IXvitiily,  and  Maslers 
of  Arts,  Surgery,  and  Engineering  are  entitled  ia  vote  at  the 
election  of  parliamentary  rtroresentati^es,  so  long  as  ^eir  names 
are  on  the  college  books.  Fellinv  Comnumers  have  the  privilege 
of  dmmgat  the  Fellows' table.  JcAo/ow  on  the  foundation,  who 
number  seventy,  have  free  commons,  pay  only  half  the  usual  fees 
'■  '■  ■e  exempt  from  college  chains  or  (&«K- 


students,  have  free  commons,  and  are  exempted  fr 

admitted  by  annual  examination,  Mid  hold  their  sizarships  for 

four  years.     The  number  of  Sijars  is  restricted  to  thirty. 

Entrance  is  fay  examination  in  dassics,  composition,  &c.  Each 
student  on  entrance  places  himself  under  the  tuition  and  guar- 
dianship of  a  Tutor- Fellow, 

Terms,  Course,  &v. — There  were  formerly  four  terms  ;  there 
ire  now  (since  1833)  only  three — viz.,  Mkhadmas,  or  Oc- 
ober  Term,  beginning  lotti  October,  ending  20th  December ; 
Hilary,  or  January  Term,  beginning  10th  January,  ending  on 
the  Feast  of  the  Annunciation  %  and  Trinity,  or  Midsummer  Term, 
ig  15th  April,  ending  30th  June.  Students  in  the  first 
5nd  years  of  their  undewraduate  course  are  named  Junior 
and  Senior  Freshmen  ;  in  the  third  and  fourth  years.  Junior  and 
Senior  Sophisters  ;  in  the  fifth  year,  Candidate  Bachelors;  aad 
after  graduating  B.A.,  Junior,  'Middle,  and  Senior  Bachelors. 
Terms  are  kept  either  by  residence  and  attendance  on'  lectures,  or 
by  passii^  the  twm  examinations. 

Professors. — There  are  nearly  forty  professors  in  Divinity,  Law, 
Arts,  and  Science,  and  also  assistant  professors  and  lecturers. 
Of  the  professorships  founded  within  recent  years,  the  more  im- 
portant are  the  Professorship  of  Irish  (founded  1840),  of  Ecclesi- 
astical History  (1850),  R^ius  Professorship  ot  Sui^ery  (1852), 
Civil  Engineering  {1852),  Arabic,  Hindustani,  and  Persian 
(lSs6),  Latin  (1870),  and  Comparative  Anatomy  (1872). 

D^rees  are  publicly  conferred  by  the  Chancellor  or  Vice- 
Chancellor  in  the  senate  or  congregation  of  the  University.  No 
oath  or  declaration  need  be  made  by  any  candidate  to  obtain  a 
degree.  To  talce  the  degree  of  E.A.  tlie  student  must  keep  the 
terms,  and  pass  an  examination  at  the  end  of  hb  second  year, 
and  another  at  the  close  of  his  curriculum.  A  Mastir  of  Arts 
must  be  B.A.  of  three  years'  standing  ;  a  Bachelor  in  Dioiniiy 
must  be  M.A.  of  seven  years'  stan^ng;  a  Doctor  in  Drninily 
mustbeB.D.  of  five  years' standing,  and  in  priest'sorders.  For 
the  degrees  of  Bachelor  in  Laws,  Medicine,  Sui^oy,  and  Civil 
Engineering,  candidates  miist  first  have  graduated  B.A. 

Studentships. — By  letters  patent  of  1858,  fourteen  studentships 
are  founded,  at  a  salary  not  exceeding j£i 00  per  annum  for  each, 
tenable  for  seven  years,  and  open  to  all  rehgious  denominadons. 

Dabnit'zft,  a  small  town  of  European  Turkey,  province  of 
Rumili,  7S  miles  W.  of  Philippopolis.  Pop.  about  6000,  em- 
ployed in  the  ironworks  and  vineyards  of  the  vicinity. 

Diib'no  (Slav,  'the  oak-wood  '),  a  town  of  European  Russia, 
government  of  Volhynia,  70  miles  N,E.  of  Lemberg  in  Austrian 
Galicia.  Here  from  1774  til!  the  annexation  of  Western  Poland 
by  Russia  the  Polish  nobility  held  their  annual  session.  Tlie 
great  fairs  formerly  held  here  are  now  held  in  Kiev.    Pop.  7687. 

Du'bois,  Ouillaume,  Cardinal,  one  of  the  moat  successful 
bat  least  respectable  statesmen  France  has  produced,  was  the 
son  of  an  Auvergnese  apothecary,  and  was  bom  at  Brives-la- 
Gaillarde,  6th  September  1656.  He  bec^ne  tator  to  the  Due  de 
Chartres,  and  maintained  his  influence  by  encouraging  the  vices 
of  his  patron.  When  the  latter,  as  Due  d'Orleans,  became 
R^ent  in  1715,  D.  rose  (o  the  first  position  in  France.  In  1717 
he  contributed  largely  to  the  negotiation  of  what  is  known  as 
the  'ttipie  alliance'  between  Britain,  Holland,  and  Fiance, 
which  changed,  for  the  time,  the  traditional  policy  of  his  country. 
In  17ZO  he  became  Archbishop  of  Cambray  ;  in  1721  a  cardinal. 
D.  died  at  Vecsailles,  August  10,  1723,  a  victim  to  his  own  de- 
bauchery. He  was,  however,  an  able  statesman,  and  in  a  less 
vicious  and  sensual  age  might  have  proved  a  blessing  to  France. 
The  Mhnoirss  which  appeai-ed  under  his  name  (Par.  4  vols. 
1829)  arc  not  authentic. 


Dubov'ka,  a  market-town  and  river-port  of  European  Russia, 
in  the  government  of  Saratov,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Volga. 
An  active  trade  in  com,  fish,  and  cattle  was  formerly  carried  on 
between  D.  and  Katchalinsk  on  the  Don,  but  is  now  somewhat 
decayed.     Pop.  12,03a 

Dubuque',  a  flourishing  city  of  Iowa,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Mississippi,  199  miles  W.  of  Chicago.  The  principal  build- 
ings are  the  market-house,  city  hall,  and  customhouse.  It  is  a 
great  depot  for  the  Iowa  lead-mining,  about  half  a  million  dollars 
being  exported  annually.  D.  has  a  trade  in  flour,  timber,  shot, 
&c.  It  IS  connected  both  E.  and  W.  with  important  railroads, 
and  has  a  large  river  traffic  by  the  Mississippi.  There  is  a 
German  Presbyterian  Theol<^cal  School  here.  The  town  de- 
rives its  name  from  a  Frenchman  who  attempted  a  settlement  in 
178S,  but  the  first  permanent  settlement  began  in  1S30.  Pop. 
(1870)  18,435. 

Duoange'.    See  Dufresne. 

Ihi'cas,  M!icbael,  a  Byzantine  historian,  who  flourished  to- 
wards the  middle  of  the  15th  c.  After  the  capture  of  Constan- 
tiuoplein  1453  by  the  Turics,  D,  sought  a  retreat  in  Lesbos,  and 
was  employed  by  the  tributary  prince  of  that  island  in  various 
diplomatic  missions  to  the  Tarkish  sultans.  On  the  annexation 
ofXesbos  to  the  Ottoman  Empire  in  1462,  he  retired  to  Italy,  and 
tliere  composed  his  Historia  BymnUna,  commencing  with  the 
creation  of  the  worid,  and  ending  with  the  talring  of  Lesbos. 
D.'s  history  is  a  valuable  authority  for  the  reigns  of  Joannes 
Paleolc^us  and  his  successors  Manuel,  Joannes,  and  Constanline. 
It  also  contains  a  reliable  account  of  the  siege  and  sack  of  Con- 
stantuiople,  and  has  been  largely  used  by  Gibbon,  who  remarks 
that  D.  'writes  with  truth  and  freedom  ;  but  the  style  is  a  bar- 
barous obscure  jargon,  full  of  Turkish  words  and  strange  con- 
structions.' A  foho  edition  of  the  History  was  published  in 
Greek  and  Latin  at  Paris  {1649).  It  was  also  edited  by  Bekker 
(1834)  for  the  Bonn  series  of  Byzantine  historians,  along  with 
an  early  Italian  translation  found  at  Venice  by  Ranke,  It  has 
been  translated  into  French  by  Cousin. 

Suo'at  (Ital.  ducaio,  from  Lat.  dux,  'a  leader'  or  'duke'),  a 
coin,  generally  of  gold,  but  sometimes  of  silver,  first  coined  in 
Sicily  in  the  12th  c  Tlie  D,  was  a  favourite  coin,  and  was  issued 
from  all  the  German  mints,  and  from  most  of  those  in  N.  Europe, 
The  value  of  a  D.  in  Austria,  Russia,  and  Hamburg  is  about 
gs.  4d. !  the  silver  D.  of  Sicily  is  3s.  4d, ;  and  the  Spanish  plate 
D„  4S.  2d. 

DttCa'tO,  Cape  (anc.  Lsacalas),  the  S,  extremity  of  Santa 
Maura,  one  of  the  Ionian  Islands  (the  ancient  Zeiicas  or  Leu- 
cadid).  It  still  retains  the  evil  reputation  it  had  of  old  as  a  pro- 
montory dangerous  to  the  mariner.  On  its  W.  side  is  the  famous 
'  Lover^s  Leap '  of  Sappho,  a  ru^ed  white  cliff  rising  2000  feet 
perpendicularly  from  the  sea. 

Du'ces  Te'cum  is  the  name  of  a  writ  in  English  law  com- 
manding a  person  to  appear  in  court,  and  to  bring  with  him 
writings  or  other  proof  which  may  be  required  in  an  action.  In 
Scotch  law,  a  'diligence  gainst  havers'  is  nearly  equivalent 
to  the  English  wiit  of  D.  T.    See  Diligence,  Havers. 

DuobeBne',  Andrd,  an  industrious  French  historian  and 
genealogist,  was  born  at  Isle-Bouchard,  Toutaine,  in  1584,  be- 
came royal  geographer  and  historiographer,  and  died  30th  May 
1640,  being  crushed  under  a  cart  while  on  his  way  from  Paris  to 
his  country-seat.  His  labours  obtained  for  him  the  title  of  Fire 
de  I'Hisloire  de  France.  Among  his  most  valued  works  are  His- 
toric Normannorum  Scriptores  Anliqid  (1619),  Hisloires  G^nh- 
logiqiies des  Maisoas  Cdliires  (i62r-3i),  and  Historic  Francorum 
Scriptores  (1 636-49).-— His  son,  FianQOia  H.,  who  was  born 
at  Paris  in  1616  and  died  m  1693,  followed  in  his  father's  foot- 
steps, finished  some  of  his  works  (the  elder  D.  left  upwards  of 
100  volumes  in  MS.),  and  also  filled  the  post  of  historiographer. 
He  wrote  diiefly  on  ecclesiastical  history,  and  among  his  best 
works  are  a  Histoire  des  Fapes  (1653)  and  a  Histoire  des  Car- 
dinaux  Franfais  (1660-66). 

Dacbobort'zi  ('sptrit-fighters'),  a  mystic  sect  in  Russia,  in 
some  points  resemtJing  the  Quakers,  and  distmguished  chiefly 
by  thek  disr^ard  of  the  sacraments,  and  by  having  neither 
priests  nor  churches,  TTiey  received  their  name  from  refusing  to 
take  the  oath  of  military  service.     The  first   D.    appeared  in 


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W  Id  Duck 


Moscow  and  othev  cities  about  the  lieginning  of  tlie  iStli  c, 
and  during  the  reigns  of  Catherine  II.  and  Paul  I.  were  severely 
persecuted,  but  complete  toleration  was  granted  them  by  Alex- 
ander L  They  then  settled  in  the  S.  of  Russia,  on  the  Mo- 
loclina,  living  in  peace  and  order  till  the  appearance  of  an 
impostor  named  Kapustin,  whose  doctrine  of  transmigration, 
and  profession  of  being  animated  1^  the  soul  of  Christ,  led  to 
dissension  and  bloodshed.  In  1841  the  sect  was  removed  to  tlie 
district   of  Acliallfalaki  in  Trans- Caucasia.      There  they  still 


linen  fabric  used  for  labourers'  sniockfrocks 
aprons  &c 

ap].  lie  t  to  1  umero  s  genera  and  spec  es 
1  mmi  ig  I  lids  belonging  to  the  section, 
L 1  nelkrmtres  and  to  the  fami  y 
Anatids  of  that  order  The 
true  Ducks  (sometimes  included 
io  form  the  sub-&iraly  Ana 
iitice  as  dist  ngnished  from  such 
forms  as  the  Pultgtiima  or  po 
chards,  meiga  isers  {Me  gms) 
and  liked  birds  are  dist  1  gui^hed, 
by  the  hiDjier  toe  being  small  and 
1  ndunentary,  by  its  bemg  provided 
with  a  narrow  membianous  lobe,  and  by  its  being  unconnected 
with  the  other  toes  by  flie  web  or  membrane-  Trie  laminte,  or 
plate-like  structures  in  the  upper  bill,  are  large  and  projecting  ; 
and  the  Hbit^,  or  shins  (as  in  the  pochards),  are  naked  at  their 
enlremities.  The  ducks  are  gr^arious  in  habits,  and  usually 
migrate  in  large  flocks.  The  maleaare  generally  larger  than,  the 
females,  and  whilst  the  former  are  gaily  coloured,  the  latter  are, 
usually  of  darker  tints.  They  frequent  ftesh  waters,  and  g^pe 
for  their  food,  consisting  of  insects,  iarvK,  worms,  &c. ,  amongst 
the  mud.  They  usually  moult  twice  a  year,  in  June  and  Novem- 
ber, and  at  the  former  period  the  males  eihibit  the  less  gauijy 
plumage  of  the  females.  The  nest  is  rudely  constructed  oij,  the 
ground,  usually  among  the  reeds  frilling  lakes  and  rivers.  The 
eggs  may  number  fourteen,  and  the  young  ai:e  markedly  actiY? 
from  the  moment  after  quitting  Ite  egg. 

Good  examples  of  this  extensive  siib-family  (m  whiet  the  ft-a- 
chai  or  windpipe  is  of  curiously  twisted  conformation,  and  produces 
the  harsh  ciy  of  these  birds)  are  the  common  D.  (Anas  ioschas), 
or  mallard,  the  original  stock  from  which  ou^  domestic-  varieties 
have  been  derived,  (See  Mallard.)  These  birds  in  their  wild, 
slate  select  each  a  single  mate,  the.  male  attending  the  female 
during  incubation  ;  whilst  curionsly  the  ordinary  domestic  drakes, 
like  tie  cock,  usually  mate  with  numerous  partners.  Included 
in  the  sub-family  AnaUns,  vrith  the  true  Ducks,  are  the  Teals 
{Querguedula],  Widgeons  [Mareai),  Shoveller  Ducks  {Anas),  and 
Pintails  (Dafila),  all  of  wWch  are  described  in  the  special  articles 
of  these  names.  ^ 

Duck-BilL  See  OnNiTiioRKYHCHUS. 
Duck'ing-Stool,  a  contrivance  consisting  of  a  eude  chair 
fixed  on  the  end  of  a  beam,  working  on  a  pivot  in  llie  centre, 
and  capable  of  being  lowered  or  raised  at  pleasure.  This  beam 
extended  over  a  dam  or  river,  and  its,  puqiose  was  the  punish- 
rnent  of  scolding  wives.  The  culprit  wag  placed  in  the  chaii; 
and  ducked  in  the  water  sufficiently  often  to  cool  her  temper. 
The  use  of  the  D.-S.  b^an  in  the  latter  past  of  the  15th,  and 
was  common  imtil  the  middle  of  the  iSth  c  A  D.-S.  pi;esei;ved 
at  Leominster  was  actually  in  use  as  late  as.lSog. 

Duck'weed  (Lemiui),  a  genus  of  niinu,te  floating  plants,  be- 
longing to  the  natural  order  Aracea,  as,  according  to  most 
modem  authors,  to  a  separate  order,  Lemtmce^  or  Pistiaces.  The 
green  covering  of  stagnant  pools  is  due  to  one  of  the  species, 
viz.,  L.  minor.  Four  in  all  are  natives  of  Britain,  The  root, 
surrounded  by  a  sheath  or  ampulla,  hangs  loosely  in  the  water, 
while  the  Sowers,  which  are  rarely  seen,  and  are  without  calyx 
or  corolla,  spring  out  from  immediately  beneath  the  little 
roundish  green  frond.  They  increase  rapidly,  and  bud  from  the 
maigin  of  the  fronds. 

SucloB,  Charles  Fmean,  a  witty  French  writer  of  memoirs, 
essays,   Slc,  was  born  at  Dinan,  February  12,  1704. 


In  IJ46  he  was  made  a  member,  ancJ  afterwards  perpetual 
secretary,  of  the  Academy.  He  died  at  Paris,  March  26,  1773. 
His  chief  works  are  his  Comidh-aticns  sur  Us  Mattrs  de  ce  SikU 
(1750),  Mimoiris  pourisniir^l'HisliartdHDix-huitUmeSikle, 
3aA  Mhmires  Sarets  sur  U  Ripude  Louis XIV.,  la Ri^nce  cth 
Rigni  de  Louis  XV.  (1791),  See  his  (Euvres  CimtplHes  (10  vols. 
Par.  1806). 

Dncrot,  AugTiate- Alexandre,  a  French  general,  was  bom 
at  Nevers  in  18 1 7,  served  in  Algeria,  and  in  the  Italian  campaign 
of  1859,  and  was  made  general  of  division  in  1865.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  German  war  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  first 
division  of  the  first  army  corps,  under  Marshal  MacMahon.  He 
fojight  well  at  Sedan,  and  refused  to.  sign  the  capitulation  treaty. 
Escaping  from  prison  at  Pont-i-Mousson,  he  took  an  active  part 
m  the  defence  of  Paris,  and  subsequen^y  became  a  member  of 
the  National  Assembly  (1871),  and  was  appointed  commander- 
in  chief  of  [fee  eighth  corps  in  1872.  He  is  the  author  of  La 
y<iiimdsdeSsda:nl\t^l),I)el'£lat-iii^'ortldesI>mrentes  Amies 
(1871),  and  La  VMti  sur  VAlgMe  (1871),  §«.  D.  is  strongly 
opposed  to  democracy, 

Zhict,  an  anatomical  term  sigiiilying  the  lube  which  conveys 
the  secretion  away  from  a  gland.  Thus  we  have  the  D.  of  the 
liver,  the  D.  of  the  parotid  gland,  &c. 

Ductility,  the  property  possessed  by  various  solids  of  being 
drawn  out  lo  a  great  length  without  fracture.  This  property  is 
most  laarked  in  metal^— gold,  silver,  and  platinum  being  the  most 
ductile.  A  grain  of  gold  can  be  spread  over  an  area  of  225 
sq,  feet,  and  a  platinum  wire  has  been  obtained  u-.ijjth  of  an 
inch  iji  diameter,  by  drawing  it  out  in  the  interior  of  a  silver 
wire,  which  was  then  dissolved  away  by  nitric  acid.     At  high 


elhini 


flexibility, 
cular  forces,  i 
temperature. 

Du.  DefPand,  Marie  de  Vichy  Chamjond,  BEaxqtuse, 
an  accomplished  French  lady,  born  of  a  noble  but  not  wealthy 
Burgundian  family  in  1697.  She  was  educated  at  a  convent  in 
Paris,  became  early  infected  with  scepticism,  and  in  1718 
married  J,  Du  D.,  Marquis  de  la  Lande,  a  union  which  was 
shortly  dissolved.  She  then  mingled  with  the  gayest  and  roost 
polished  Parisian  society,  became  the  centre  of  a  brilliant  literary 
coterie,  and  is  said  to  lave  formed  many  liaisons.  She  was  inti- 
mate witl),  Volttdre,  who  admired  her  wit^  and  corresponded 
with  her  i^  prose  and  verse.  About  1753.  she  nominally  retired 
to  a  convent  in  the  Rue  St  Domiwqney  but  by  means  of  3  secret 
stais  continued  to  receive  the  most  distinguished  literati  of  the 
day,  and  among  others  EoufHers,  Montesquieu,  Hume,  Walpole, 
Voltaire,  and  D'Alembert.  She  died  at  Paris,  September  24, 
1 78<^  Madame  D.  was  an  icy-hearted,  daizling  woman,  of.a  type 
almost  peculiar  to  the  l8th  c.  She  left  no  work  except  her 
letters,  which  D'Alembert  pronounced  to  be  models  of  epistolary 
style.  See  Cowespondettce  inidite  de  Madame  D.  ajiec  D'Alem- 
bert, tr's.  (3  vols.  1810),  and  Horace  Walpole'a  Carrespondmce, 

Du'devant,  SCadame.    See  Sand,  George. 

Dudley,  a 
ounded  by  Sti  _ 

lai^ely  engaged  in  the  iron  and  glass  trade,  OverlooTting  the 
town  is  a  mined  castle.  D.  returns  one  member  to  PariiamenL 
Pop,.  (1871)  of  the  municipal  borough,  which  is  co-entensive 
wifn  the  parish,  43, 782 ;  of  the  parliamentary  borough,  82,249. 

Dudley  Limestone,  a  limestone  of  Silurian  age,  included 
in  the  subdivision  of  that  period  known  as  the  Wenloclc  Series, 
and  so  named  from  its  rich  development  near  Dudley  (q.  v.),  as 
at  Wren's  Nest  and  Castle  Hill.  Its  chief  fossils  consist  of 
Crustacea  or  Trilobites— among  which  is  the  famous  '  Dudley 
locust '  ( Calymene  BlumenbachU) — corals,  polyzoa,  mollusea,  and 
echinodermata, 

Du'el  (ItaL  duello;  Lat.  dttellam,  the  original  form  of  heltam, 
'  a  war  between  tioo  [larties ').  Duelling,  as  a  judicial  trial,  had 
its  ori^n  in  that  primitive  state  of  society  in  which  might  is  held, 
not  only  as  the  Origin  of  right,  but  as  the  principle  by  which,  right 
is  transmitted.  No  doubt  a  supei'stitious  belief  that  God  would 
directly  interfere  in  the  combat,  and  guilt  be  so  ascertained,  was 
451 


vLiOOQle 


DUH 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DUG 


also  at  the  root  of  the  practice  during  the  middle  ages.  Trial  by 
battle  was  then  a.  congenial  institution,  fighting,  plundering,  and 
revenge  being  almost  the  only  serious  business  of  the  feudal 
barons.  Ludwig  the  Pious  was  the  first  Franltish  king  who 
allowed  litigants  to  decide  their  dispute  by  arms.'  To  some 
extent  the  practice  was  introdnced  into  England  by  William  the 
Conqueror.  Females  were  not  called  on  to  submit  to  the  trial, 
but  all  males  were,  between  fifteen  and  sixty  years  old ;  eccle 
siaslics  being  allowed  to  fight  by  proxy.  The  D.  has  especially 
thriven  in  France.  During  the  first  eighteen  years  of  the  reign 
of  Henri  IV.,  4000  gentlemen  ate  said  to  have  been  kiUcd  m 
personal  combat.  It  is  to  the  credit  of  that  monarch  that  he 
opposed  the  practice.  In  i6oa  he  alluded  to  it  with  disappro- 
Imtion  in  an  edict  dated  from  Blois  ;  and  in  l6og  he  added  to 
penalties  already  imposed  confiscation  of  goods,  imprisonment, 
and  degradation  of  all  concerned  in  the  combat.  These  measures 
were  probably,  however,  rather  due  to  the  influence  of  the  Due 
de  Sully  than  to  the  feelings  of  Henri  himself;  nevertheless 
the  Comte  de  Boutteville  and  the  Marquis  de  Beuron  were 
beheaded  for  fighting  in  opposition  to  the  royal  edict.  Dur- 
ing the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.,  a  series  of  bloody  combats 
between  noblemen  took  place  in  France.  On  one  occa- 
sion the  principals,  the  Dukes  of  Beaufort  and  De  Nemours, 
fought  with  four  friends  on  each  side.  NeiRours  and  two  others 
were  killed.  Such  events  detennmed  the  King  to  do  all  in  his 
power  to  stop  the  practice.  In  1679  he  issued  an  edict  against 
it,  and  the  terms  of  this  edict  he  resolutely  enforced,  rrfnsmg 
pardon  to  all  offenders.  In  England  the  D.  was  never  so  much  in 
fashion  as  in  France  ;  eventually  the  trial  by  battle  was  allowed, 
so  late  as  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  It  was  allowed  indeed,  though 
not  resorted  to,  in  the  present  century.  (See  Battel,  Trial 
BY. )  In  consequence  of  a  D.  between  the  Duke  of  Hamilton 
and  Lord  Mohun  in  1712,  in  which  the  former  was  killed  by 
the  latter,  with  circumstances  presumptive  of  murder,  a  bill  was 
brought  into  Parliament  to  restrain  the  practice,  biit  was  rejected. 
In  1765,  a  famous  D.  was  fought  between  Lord  Byron  and  Mr 
Chaworth,  the  subject  of  qijarrel  b^ing  the  quantity  of  game  on 
theif  respective  manors.  Mr  Chaworih  was  killed.  In  the  D. 
between  lifajo^  Campbell  and  Captain  Boyd  in  1S08,  the  latter  ■ 
was  kiEed,  and  the  former  hanged  for  murder,  on  the  dying 
declaration  of  Epyd  that  he  had  been  bullied  into  fighting 
privately  and  without  seconds.  The  last  fatal  duel  in  England 
was,  we  believe,  between  Colonel  Mumo  and  Captiun  Fawcett, 
in  1 844.  The  former  killed  the  latter,  and  fled  from  the  country. 
He  returned  a  f™  years  afterwards,  was  tried  and  found  guilty 
of  homicide,  anq  punished  by  imprisonment. 

DuilHng,  Laai  Segarding. — To  kill  any  human  being  with  de- 
liberate intention  of  doing  so  is,  in  law,  murder ;  and  the  act 
is  not  palliated  by  the  preface  of  a  challenge,  nor  by  the  doer 
hazarding  his  own  life  by  the  deed.  Nor  will  any  provocation 
lessen  the  degree  of  crime.  To  kill  a  man  in  a  dMberate  duel 
under  provocation  of  calumny,  however  great,  constitutes  mmrder 
against  principal  and  second,  and  against  the  second  of  the 
deceased.  Such  is  the  doctrine  of  the  law,  but  it  is  never  strictly 
enforced  unless  the  conduct  of  the  accused  has  been  considered 
dishonourable.  It  has  been  enforced  where  it  was  held  proved 
that  the  man  killed,  was,  coerced  by  hjs  opponent  into  fighting 
privateh"  and  withpnt  seconds. 

In  1S44,  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  age,  three  new 
articles  of  war  were  issued,  with  the  view  of  abating  duelling  in 
the  army.  Ol^cers  in  any  way  concerned  in  a  duel,  even  nega- 
tively, by  not  endeavouring  to  prevent  aii  intention  to  fight  of 
which  they  are  aware,  are  liable  to  be  ca.shiered  or  to  minor 
punishment.  Approbation  is  to  be  given  to  those  who,  having 
given  offence,  endeavour  by  explanation  or  apol<^  to  obviate 
it,  and  to  those  who  readily  accept  aj>ol(»y  or  explanation. 
Where  adjustment  is  by  these  means  found^to  be  impossible, 
it  is  recommended  to  suotnit  the  matter  to  the  arbitration  of  the 
commanding  officer. 

Duet',  or  Duet'to,  a  piece  of  music  for  two  performers.  The 
form  duo  is  also  sometimes  employed. 

Dtifi*,  Rev.  Alexander,  D.D,,  LL.D.,  a  distinguished 
missionary,  was  born  in  1808,  near  Pitlochry,  Perthshire, 
educated  at  the  University  of  St  Andrews,  and  in  1829  was 
sent  out  by  the  Church  of  Scotland  as  its  first  missionary 
to  India.  At  Calcutta  he  threw  himself  into  the  work  of 
educating  and  Christianising  the  natives  of  India  with  great 

45  3 


eneigv,  and  the  institution  which  he  founded  in  Calcutta  for 
aiding  both  works  is  the  largest  of  the  kind  in  India.  In  1836 
D  visited  Scotland,  and  endeavoured  to  diffuse  a  missionary 
spiiit  mto  its  Churches  j  the  following  year,  in  recognition 
of  his  senices,  he  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  In  184.3  ^^ 
joined  the  Free  Church,  and  in  1851,  on  the  occasion  of  a 
second  visit  to  Scotland,  was  appointed  Moderator  of  the  Free 
Assembly  In  December  1863,  ill-health  compelled  D.  to  quit 
India  hnally.  Smce  then  he  has  held  the  post  of  Professor  Of 
Evangelistic  Theology  in  the  New  College,  Edinburgh  (in  con- 
nection with  the  Free  Church),  In  1873  he  was  a  second  lime 
made  Moderator  of  the  Free  Assembly,  D.  is  a  voluminous 
writer,  especially  on  Indian  and  missionary  subjects,  his  chief 
works  being  New  Era  fir  ths  English  Languags  and  LUeratari 
in  India  (Edinb.  1837) ;  India  and  Indian  Miishnst  Miisions 
tht  Chief  Endof  the  Christian  Church,  and  Qualifications,  Dalies, 
and  Trials  of  an  Indian  Missionary  (all  In  1839) ;  The  Jesmis, 
Ihetr  Ongm,  &=(.  (1850) ;  and  Letters  on  the  Indian  SebeUioit 
(1S58),  D.  established  and  for  a  time  edited  the  Calcutta 
SevisTa,  and  contributed  materials  for  the  celebrated  India 
Educa,tion  Despatch  of  1854. 

Dufoqi;^,  ChiUlaume,  Henri,  a  distinguished  Swiss  general, 
waslx)rnatConstance,  15th  September  l7S7,3tudied  at  the  ^cole 
Polytechjiique,  in  Paris,  and  became  an  officer  of  engineers  under 
Napoleon  I.  in  1809,  In  1831  he  was  appointed  chief  of  the 
Swiss  general  staff,  and  directed  the  trigonometrical  and  general 
survey  of  the  country,  the  result  of  which  appeared  in  tlie  map 
of  Switieriand,  twenly-liye  sheets,  1843-65.  He  led  the  Swiss 
army  in  1847,  and  brouglft  the  Sonderbund  War  to  a  rapid  close 
by  the  yictories  of  Freiburg  ajid  Lucw>e.  For  these  services  he 
received  fconi.the  Di?t  a,  'sn;ocd  (if  htmour'  and  a  gift  of  40,000 
francs,  His  conservatism,  however,  alienated  the  democrats  of 
Geneya,  who  contrived  ta  deprive  him  of  his  public  offices  in 
1848.  Nevertheless,  he. still  acted  frequently  as  a  secret  or  official 
embassy  bet^reen  the  Diet  and  the  court  of  the  Tuileries,  and  was 
returned  to  the  Council  of  Geneva  in  1856.  An  international 
conference  as  to  the  treatment  of  wounded  in  time  of  war,  held 
at  Geneva,  was  presided  over  by  D.  in  1864,  and  he  also  pre- 
aieA  at  the  festival  of  the  reunion  of  Switierland  and  Geneva  in 
1869.  D.  died  at  Geneva,  14th  July  1875,  He  wrote  a  Treatise 
iinthcArtaieryofAndentandMedi,evalTimis{\%ef^,!>.ManMcdof 
Mitilary  Practice  (1842),  and  Pa-manent  Fortifieaiion  (iSjo). 

Dufresne',  Obarles,  Seigneur  Su  Cange,  a  distinguished 
historian  and  philolf^t,  bom  of  an  ancient  and  noble  family  of 
Picard),  December  iS,  1610,  at  Amiens,  at  the  Jesuit  College 
of  n  hich  he  received  his  early  edncation  He  afterwards  studied 
law  at  Orleani,  became  p^rlia,mentary  advocate  in  Pans  in 
1631,  but  retired  to  ^miens  to  devote  himself  exclu'Jively  to 
study  D  died  at  Pans,  23d  October  1688  He  was  familiar 
with  the  languages,  the  laws,  the  archseoiogy,  and  pakeo 
graphy  of  antiquity  For  erudition,  at  once  wide  and  deep, 
he  was  the  most  distiugui'hed  man  of  his  century  His 
two  greatest  works  are  the  Glossarmm  ad  Scnptoies  Medus  et 
Injitme  Zatinitatis  and  the  Glossanutn  ad  Scriptures  Media  el 
Infims.Ciseiiahs  The  foimer,  published  in  three  vols  at  Pans 
in  167S,  was  extended  by  the  Benedictines  of  St  Maur  to  six  vols, 
in  1 733,  and  to  ten  vols,  (by  the  addition  of  a  supplement  ty  Car- 
pentiert  in  1766.  The  fi^  of  Didot  produced  a  new  edition, 
edited  by  M.  Henschel  {Par.  1844),  and  a  second  supplement  was 
produced  by  Diefenbaph  (Frankf.  1857),  Of  the  latter  work,  ori- 
ginally published  in.  Paris  in  168S,  a  second  edition  was  published 
by  Didot.  Among  his  historical  wotlts,  t^e  chief  are  the  Histoire 
de  I  Empire  de  Constatttinafle  sous  Ifs  Ei^pereurs  Franfuit  (Par. 
1657),  and  the  Historia  Byaantina  (Par.  1680).  Very  valuable 
also  are  the  following  monographs— yoiowuKf  Einnamus  (Paf, 
1670),  fohannis  Zonane  Annales  (16S7),  and  the  Chronicon 
PaschaU  (i688).  D.'s  humoui:  and  his  gracious  and  sociable 
dispositioii  woil  for  him  as  many  friends  as  his  vast  learning 
gained  him  admirers.  See  Feugfere's  Aiudcs  sur  Da  Cange 
in  the  March  and  April  parts  of  the  journal  de  rinstruclion 
Publique  (Par.  1852). 

Dug'dale,  Sir  'William,  one  of  the  first  of  British  archseo- 
logists,  was  bom  at  Shustokc,  Warwickshire,  12th  September 
1605.  Encouraged  by  his  father  in  historical  and  antiquarian 
sWdies,  he  became  at  a  comparatively  early  age  a  pursuivant-at- 
arms,  and  after  the  accession  of  Charles  11.,  whom  he  had  always. 


yLaOOgle 


1>- 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DUK 


as  a  Royaiist,  supported,  was  appointed  Norroy  Kiiig-at-arms,  and 
finally  Garter  Kiiig-at-arms,  while  about  the  same  time  he  was 
knighted.  He  died  roth  February  1686.  He  bequeathed  twenty- 
seveii  folio  MS.  volumes  to  the  University  of  Oxfofd,  which  ure 
now  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  Ashmolean  Museum,  and  Heralds' 
College.  Among  his  woiks  are  A?iiiquiiies  of  IVarwicksMre 
{l6$6),  Tie  AnciiHl  Use-ofBeaidtig  Amu{\(&7^  newed.  1811), 
Mislorical  Memoirs  of  the  English  Zaws  (l665,  3d  e4,  1680), 
and  above  ah,  Monaslicaa  Anglkamnn  (1655-73),  of  which  D. 
was  rather  the  editor  than  the  author,  and  of  which  an  enlarged 
edition  was  issued  by  Bandinel,  Caley,  &  Ellis  in  1817-30  (new 
ed.  1846).  The  autobiography  of  D.  is  to  be  found  in  the  2d  ed. 
of  his  Hislo?y  of  SI  Paul's  Cathedral  (1658).  It  was  reprinted 
by  Hamper,  with  his  journal  and  correspondence,  in  1827. 

Dugong'  {ffalkore),  a  genus  of  Sirenian  {%.  v.)  mammalia, 
allied  m  some  respects  to  the  Cetacea  or  Whales,  and  found  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Africa,  on  the  shores  of  Ihe  Indi^  pcean,  on 
the  coasts  of  Ceylon,  and  in  N.  Australia,  This  genus  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  crescentic  fomj  of  the  tail-fin.  The  incisor 
teeth,  which  the  males  alone  posspsg,  are,  of  Ijy^  size,  and 
number  two  in  the  upper  jaw,  none  existing  in  tlie  lower  jaw, 
and  the  only  other  teeth  being  ten  molars  in  each,  jaiW.  No 
dorsal  fin  is  present,  and  the  hind  liinb^  are  wholly  wanting. 
No  outer  ear  is  developed.  T^ere  is  only  Ohe  set  of  teeth,  and 
these  possess  no  enamel  or  rppts.  The  heart  in  the  D.  is  deeply 
cleft  externally  at  ite  apex,  so  that  the  ventricles  are  separated 
for  about  half  their  extent.  These  animals  may  attain  a  length 
of  26  feet.  They  are  herbivorous,  and  frequent  the  shallow 
waters  of  coasts  and  the  estuaries'  ol  rivers.  The  riiammary 
glands  are  situated  on  the  breast 

Duguay'-Trouin,  BenS,  a  French  adraha?,  was  born  at 
St  Malo,  June  10,  1673,  aud  early  showed  a  passion  for  the  sea. 
As  commander  of  a  privateer  in  the  war  against  England  and 
Holland,  he  gained  the  notice  of  Louis  XIV^,  who  presented 
him  with  a  sword,  and  in  (69^  gave  him  the  command  of  a  fri- 
gate. His  subsequent  career  was  vfijy  brilliant ;  it  was  affirmed 
in  the  letters  of  nobility  granted  hiin  that  he  had  taken  twenty 
sliips  of  war  and  300  merchant'Ships.  His  fame  reached  its 
climax  in  1711,  when  he  captured  Rio  Janeiro,  which  had  10  be 
ransomed  for  610,000  crusados.  D.'s  last  achievement  v,ss,  in 
173I,  to  chastise  the  pirates  of  the  Levant,  who  had  been  injur- 
ing French  commerce.  He  died  at  Paris,  27th  September  1736. 
The  Mhnoires  of  D.,  pubKshed  by  Beauchamps  (4  vols.  Par. 
1740),  show  him  to  have  been  in  private  a  good  and  modest 
man  ;  his  ruling  passion  was  devotion  to  Louis  XIV.  See  also 
Bistdrs  de  D.  by  M.  De  la  Landelle. 

Du  Gues'olin.     See  Guesclin,  Beetrand  du. 


Dui'da, 

in  the  S.  and  1 
less  steep  with 
dreda  of  miles  i 


of  Venezuela,  S.  America,  perpendicular 
at  the  summit,  and  clothed  where  it  is 
;sts.  It  is  8500  feet  high,  and  for  hun- 
mark  to  voyagers  on  the  Orinoco, 


Ju'isburg,  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia  15  miles  N,  of  Dils- 
seJdorf,  and  connected  by  a  canal  Ijoth  with'  the  Ruhr  and  the 
Rhine,  It  has  impor^nt  woollee,  cottmi,  hosiery,  leather,  soap, 
and  glue  manufactures,  sonie  sugar  refining  and  a  growing  trade 


Duk     (L.t,   d  %,    F 


and  the  command  which  they  exercised  over  the  troops  of  the 
department  was  independent  of  the  authority  of  the  magistrate.' 
On,  the  d^ay  of  the  R,o»an  Empire,  the  more  pureW  military 
rank  of  D.  began  to  take  precedence  of  that  of  count.  In  France, 
provinces  were  acquired  by  the  various  dukes,  who  so  increased 
in  number  and  in  power  as  almost  totally  to  eclipse  ihe  autho- 
rity of  the  crown,  the  right  to  dispose  of  which  they  arrogated. 
They  assumed  the  state  of  princes,  coining  their  own  money,  and 
making  war  in  their  own  n,ame.  Towards  the  close  of  the  15th 
c,  Charles,  sumamed  the  Bold,  D.  of  Burgundy,  was  perhaps 
the  richest  and  most  powerful  prince  of  his  time.  When  Count 
of  Charolais,  in  aiiiaoce  with  the  D.  o^  Bretagne,  he  made  war 
against  Louis  XL,  Ring  of  France.  Th^  defeated  the  king  at 
Montlhiiy,  and  threatened  to  take  Pans,  The  result  wa-  - 
treaty  by  which  the  counties  of  Bouli^tie,  Guinea,  and  P 
thieu,  with  several  towns  on  the  Somme,  were  ceded  to 
Charolais,,  With  his  ultimate  defeat,  lyhen  D,  of  Burgundy, 
01!  Sth  January  1477,  TO?J  be  said'^o  have  eijded  the  power 
of  file  French  dnkes  as  opposed  to  that  of  the  crown. 
The  Archduke  Maximilian  manying  the  heiress  of  Charies 
the  Bold,  their  daughter  was  by  treaty,  in  1482,  betrothed 
to  the  eldest  son  of  Jjjuis  XI.,  afterwards  Charles  VIII.,  and 
the  counties  of  Burgundy  and  Artois  were  handed  over  to 
Fiance.  The  Duchy  of  Bretagne  fell  to  Frangois  I.  of  France  by 
marriage  in  153!.  The  duchies  subsequently  given  to  members 
of  the  royal  family  of  France,  and  to  other  distinguished  sub- 
jects, were  entirely  subject  to  the  crown.  The  holders  were  of 
the  first  rank  of  the  nobility  of  France ;  but  their  power  and  posi- 
tion were  totally  difierent  frcjpi  that  of  the  former  dukes. 

In  England  the  title  of  D.  was  frem  the  first  merely  a  title  of 
honour.  ^The  first  English  D,'  was,  the  Black  Prince,  created  D. 
of  Cornwall  by  his  father,  Edward  III,,  in  1335.  In  1350  the 
same  king,  created  his  cousin  Henry  D.  of  Lancaster,  on  whose 
death  the  king  conferred  the  duchy  on  John  of  Gaunt  and  his 
heirs  for  ever,  apart  from  the  crown.  TTie  oldest  extant  duke- 
dom in  England  is  that  of  Norfolk.  Sir  William  Howard  was 
a  Chief-Justice  of  the  Common  Pleas  in  the  reigns  of  Edward  I, 
a(id  Edward  II.  Sir  John  Howard,  a  grandson  of  the  judge,  was 
Sherifl"  of  Norfolk,  and  held  other  important  posts.  His  grand- 
son. Sir  Robert  Howard,  married  the  corheiress  of  the  noble 
house  of  Mowbray,  and  was  cieated  Lord  Howard  and  D.  of 
Norfolk  in  1483. 

The  English  D.  mnks  after  the  peers  of  the  royal  blood  and 
the  two  Archbishops  of  York  and  Canterbury,  In  1876  there 
were  twenty-one  dukes  in  England^  namely,  Norfolk,  whose 
title  was  created  as  early  as  1483,  Somerset  (»546),  Richmond 
(1675),  Grafton  (1675),  Beaufort  (1682),  St  Albans  (1684),  Leeds 
(1694),  Bedforii  (1654)1  Devonsiiire  (1694},  Marlborough  {1702), 
Rutland  (1703),  Brandon  (1711),  Portland  (1716),  Manchester 
(1719),  Newcastle  {1756),  Northumberiand  (1766),  Wellinglon 
(■1814),  Buckingham  and  Chandos  (1S22J,  Sutheriand  (1833), 
Cleveland  (1833),  and  Westminster  (,1874),  There  are  also 
seven  Scottish  dukes  and  one  Irish  D.,  but  these  only  sit  in  Par- 
liament as  marqiiises,  earls,  viscounts,  or  barons. 

In  Scotland,  the  title  of  D,  of  Albany  {q.  v.) — an  ancient  name 
for  Gaelic  Scotland — was  conferred  by  an  Act  of  the  Scotch 
Council  on  the  brother  of  King  JSobert  III.,  then  Regent,  in 
June  1398,  The  title  was  forfeited  by  the  son  of  the  first  D. 
C  f  d  gain  on  Alexander,  son  of  James  II.  of  Scotland,  it 
b  cam  t  ct  in  1536.  It  was  conferred  on  Lord  Darnley,  on 
CI  1  I  on  James  11.,  arid  on  Frederick,  second  son  of 
G    rg   IH      See  Archduke. 

Duk  of  York's  School-  (properly  Tte  Bojral  Military 
ABylum}  n  institution  for  the  support  and  education  of  the 
ch  Id  f    oldiers  and  non-commissioned  officers  at  Chelsea, 

w     f      d  d  by  the  Duk*  of  York  in  iSoi,     It  is  supported  by 

p    1  tary  grant  under  the  Army  Estimates.     At  first  both 

jal  and  f  male  children  were  on  the  foundation,  but  now  only 
males  wh  must  have  lost  one  or  both  parents,  are  admitted. 
Th  b  ys  linden  no  obligation  to  enter  the  army  after  com- 
pl  ti  g  th      ourse  of  education,  but  nearly  all  of  them  do  be- 

m  Id  rs  and  many  of  them  enter  the  regimental  bands, 
Th  se  wh  -t  not  fit  for  the  army  on  leaving  the  school  are 
pp       t    ed  to  trades.      In  1875   the  number  of  boys  in   the 

h     1  w      458.     The  proportion  of  boys  from  this  school  who 

t  th  rmy  every  year  is  86  per  cent.  The  establishment  of 
th         h     1        now   (1876)   raised  to  500  boys,    which  will  be 

453 


vLiOOQle 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DUM 


catiied  into  effect  as  soon  as  tlie  requisite  accommodation  is  pro- 
vided. Tlie  Normal  School  for  tlie  training  of  army  scliool- 
maiters  forms  a  biandi  of  tliis  institution,  and  consists  of  forty- 
two  students  and  pupil-tOEichers. 

Dukinfield,  a  town  in  Clieshire,  England,  ^  miles  N.N.E. 
of  Stockport,  has  extensEve  collieries,  cotton-factories,  and  fire- 
clay works.     Tqi.  (tS?:)  14,085. 

.V.  Mktonich,  near  the 

Albania,  not  far  from  the  mouth  of  the  Bojana,  on  the  Adriatic, 
18  miles  S.W.  of  Scutari.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Catholic  tishc^, 
and  has  a  ft^t,  and  an  active  trade  in  oil  and  timber.    Pep.  7ixx>. 

DuToime^i  an  ancfent  stringed  ii^trument  (probably  the. 
psaltery  of  the  GM  Testament),  in  which  the  sounds  were  pro- 
duced by  striking  wires  with  hammers  held  in  the  hands.,  It 
was  named;  frofu   the  sy^eetness  (Lat.   dulds,  'swe^t')  (rf  its 


Dul'cite,  or  Sul'oose,  is,  a  sweet  crystalline  substance  con- 
tdned in seyeral plants,  m'Melanofiytmm  nmprupi^Scrophtilaria 
nodosa,  Rititfaftnus  crista  galH,  &o. 

D,  is  isomeric  with  Mowiite  (o.  v.),  both  of  these  bodies  hav-. 
ing  the  conqioaition  represented  by  the  formula  QHijOg,  They 
are  nearly  related  to,  the  sugars  and,  starches,  as  will  be  s^en, 
from  the  following  formula  ^-~ 

:bH3,05        CsHioOb        CisHssO,, 


Dolae,  or  DUl'iafc,  the  first  name  being  the  form  now  used 
in  Scotland,  the  second  the  pure  Gaelic,  employed  in  Ireland 
{Rkodymmia  falmata),  denotes,  one  of  the  red  s^weeds  very 
common  on  the  British  coasts  and  other  parts  of  the  northern 
hemisphere,  and  in  the  Greciaji  ArehipeUgo.  It  is  eaten  eithef  raw, 
roasted  between  hot  tongs,  of  with  vinegar,  by  the  poorer  classes  , 
At  one  time  it  was  regularly  sold  about  the  streets,,  and  in  Edinr 
burgh,  a  few  years  ago,  no  cry  was  more  famjliar  tbw»,  'Wha'll 
buy  ma  dulse  and  tang  J"  Sheep  are  fond  of  it,  Mid  in  Kam, 
schatka  a  kind  of  fermented  Ijquiw  is  n^de  from  it.  In  Ice- 
land,  where  it  forms  an  important  article  of  food,  it  is  some- 
rimes  boiled  with  milk.  The  name  D.  Is  afeo  given  in  England 
to  Iridaa  edalis,   while  pepper-D,   is  Lmirentia  pitmatifida. 


Both  ar 


seaweeds,  and  ai 


sdiMe. 


Dul'wich,  a  picturesque  village  of  Surrey,  4J  miles  S,S.E. 
of  St  J'anl's,  London,  now  practically  within  the  bounds  of  the 
metropolis.     Pop.  in  1S71  of  registration  sub-district^  4041. 

The  College  of  God's  Gift,  or  D.  College,,  founded  and  en- 
dowed  by  Edward  Alleyn  in  1619,  consisted  originally  of  three 
sides  of  a  quadrai^le,  but  was  considerably  enlarged  in  1869. 
Originally  it  maintained  a  headmaster,  under- masters,  chaplcun, 
six  poor  brethren,  six  poor  sisters,  and  twelve  poor  scholars.  It 
is  now  an  important  educational  institution  for  the  children  of 
parents  residmg  on  the  manor,  and  has  a  revenue  of  abc^t 
;£i2,ooo.    In  the  pictiire  gallery  is  8.  fine- collection  of  old  wor^. 

Duman'gae,  a  prosperous  t«wn  in  the  island  of  Panay,  Phil- 
ippines, province  of  Iloilo,  has  a  pop,  of  25,00a  It  exports 
exquisite  pii5a  fabrics,  and  has  soioe  fisheries  of  trepang  (sea-slug) 


Dttmaa^,  Alexandre  Davy,  one  of  the  most  popular 
French  novelists,  was  born  at  Villers-Cotterets,  iaPicardy,  July- 
24,  1803.  His  father,  who  bore  the  same  name,  was  the  son  of 
the  Marquis  Davy  de  la  Pailleterie  by  a  negress,  and  D.'s  negro 
descent  showed  itself  strongly  in  his  personal  appearance,  char- 
acter, and  even  the  style  of  his  fictions.  D.  seems  to  have  had 
a  poor  education,  owing  to  the  death  of  his  father  while  he  was 
a  child,  and  little  that  is  definite  is  known  of  him  until  in 
1826  he  is  found  in  the  household  of  the  Due  d'Orleans.  His  first 
work  was  a  volume  of  Noiwelles.  The  production,  three  years 
later,  of  an  historic  drama,  Henri  III.  it  sa  Cour,  pleasing  the 
Parisian  mania  for  Romanticism,  made  D.'s  reputation.  '  From 
that  date  onward  he  poured  forth  a  prodigious  number  of  dramas 
and  fictions,  all  of  which,  though  disfigured  by  a  bombastic  style 
and  by  egotism  and  licentiousness,  were  successful ;  nor  was  his 
454 


popularity  appreciably  diminished  when  several  writers,  includ- 
ing M.  Alphonse  Karr  and  M.  Eugene  de  Mirecouct,  proved 
in  1844  and  1845  that  a  number  of  the  works  that  bore  his  name 
were  written  by  hacks  in  his  pay.  The  best  knovni  of  his 
countless  works  are  perhaps  his  Les  Tivis  Mbusqtutaira  (8  vols. 
1844),  and  Le  Comte  ds- Monte-Criito  (12  vols.  1841^5).  The 
latter  has  gone  through  innumerable  editions,  and  has  probably 
been  read  by  more  people  than  any  other  work  of  the  same  class. 
D.  lived  a  brilliant,  restless,  extravagant  life.  He  began  to  write 
hisownATAffcimin  1852,  and  died  at  Puys,  near  Dieppe,  Decem- 
ber 5,  1870..  See  his  Life  by  Percy  Fitzgerald  (a  vols.  Lond. 
1873),— Alexandre  I>.,  popularly  known  as  D.fis,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Parfe,  July  28,  1824,  was  educated  at  the 
College  Bourbon,  and  at  the  age  of  seventeen  published  a  volume 
of  poems,  Z«  PkkfS,  de  yeunesse,  which,  however,  had  but  a  scant 
success,  and  D.  became,  like  his  father,  a  writer  of  dramas  and 
novels,  all  of  tbjeni  deJing  with  the  worst  side  of  French  life. 
His  fii-st  essay  in  this,  direction,  .fit  Damt  atix  Camelias  (2  vols, 
4848),  was  interdicted  when  fast  produced,  but  the  interdict  was 
withdravm  in  185a  Among  D..'s  subsequent  works  are  the 
dramas  of  Visits  de  JVixes  and  £a  Pri?icesse  Geerges  (1871),  and 
a  pamphlet,  L'Homme  Femmtt_  produced  in  1873,  and  drama- 
tised unde^  the  title  £a  Femrm  de  Claude  in  1873,  in  which  he 
attacks  the  French  marriage  system,  and  tlie  play  (1875)  of 
L'Elrangh-e.  D.  was  installed  as  a  member  of  the  French  Aca- 
demy, FebruaiT  H,  1875.  As  a  writer  of  French  fiction  he  has 
a  reputation  which  appears  grotesquely  disproportionate  to  his 
genius  and  literary  power, 

Daitib.    See  Deaf  anp,  Dumb,, 

Dambar'tQli  (Gael.  Dun-Breatun,  'the  liiU-rorl  of  the  Bii- 
tons'),  a  seaport,  an^  the  capital  of  Dumbartonshire,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Leven,  close  to  its  junction  with  the  Clyde.  It 
is  I5|  miles  W.N.W.  of  GJa^w,  and  58  miles  W.  of  Edin- 
bui^h.  D,.  has.  extensive  shipbuilding  yards,  marine-engine 
works,  iron-ibrges,  brass-foundnes,  and  roperies.  Pop.  of  par- 
liamentaiy  borough  (1871),  11,404.  D,.unites  with  Kihnamocit, 
Renfrew,  Rutherglen,  and  Port-Glasgow  in  returning  one  mem- 
ber. On  A  fiat  at  the  confiuenee  of  the  Leven  and  CTyde  stands 
the  fampus  Rock  of  D.,  with  if s  eajstle,  one  of  the  four  stipulated 
to  be  kept  in  reptur  1^  the  Articles  of  Union.  The  rock,  which 
is.  of  basalt,  is  560  feet  high^amile  in  circuit  at  the  base,  and  at 
high  water  is  almwt  completely  insulated.  D.  is,  according  to 
some,  the  Latin  Theodosia,  and  was  for  a  time  capital  of  the 
British  kingdom,  of  Strathdyde, 

!Diimbaiton&hire,  or  the  Leupox,  a  county  in  the  W.  of 
Scotland,  consisting  of  two,  detached  portions,  the  smaller  of 
which  is  enclosed  1^  Stirling  and  ijiaark,  and  the  lai^er 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  Perth,  on  the  E,  by  Loch  Lomond  and 
Stirling,  on  the  S.  by  the  Clyde,  and  on  the  W.  by  Loch  Long 
and  Ajgyle;  Length,  35  miles ;  average  breadth,  7J  miles ; 
area,  2,70  sij.  miles.  The  northern  part  is  mountainous,  Ben 
Voirlich  bejng  330P  feet  high  j  the  southern  part  is  in  general 
low,  and  is  fertile  ^p&.  well  cultivaied.  D.  has  nine  fresh-water 
lakes,  the  lai^st  of  whiclt  is  Ben  Lpmogd.  The  chief  river 
is  the  Leven,  which  falls  into  the  Clyde.  The  formation  con- 
sists erf  mica-slate  in  the  N.,  with  dykes  of  whinstone  and  green- 
stone ;  Lower  ^lurian  toH^u^  the  S,,  and  Old  Red  Sandstone 
ajong  the.  Clyde  estuary.  The  principal  gi-ain  crop  is  oats,  but 
barley  and  Virheat  are  grown,  and  turnips  and  potatoes  yield  large 
crops.,  The  hills  and  high  gtonnds  furnish  pasture  for  black 
cattle  and  bfeckfaced  sheep.  In  1873  there  were  45,207  acres 
in  crop  and  grass,  of  which  lo,4i;4were  under  com  crops,  4599 
under  gi;een  crop,  and  the  remainder  in  grasses  under  rotation, 
or  in  permanent  pastu^e^  The  chief  industries  are  shipbuilding 
and  machine-making  at  Dumbajtonj  bleaching  and  calico-print- 
ing in  the  Vale  of  the  Leven  i  and  there  are  besides  iron-foun- 
dries, breweries,  and  tanneries.  Coal,  freestone,  limestone,  iron- 
stone, and  slates  are  produced.     Pop.  (1871)  58,857. 

Samdam',  a  town  of  British  India,  province  of  Bengal,  in 
one  of  the  twenty-four  Pei^nnahs,  8  miles  N.E.  of  Calcutta. 
It  has  lai^e  cantonments,  and  is  the  headquarters  of  the  Bengid 
Artillery.  There  is  a  cannon-foundry  here,  which  has  procured 
for  B.  the  name  of  the  Woolwich  of'^  India.  Pop,  (1872)  5179. 
At  D.  the  Sepoys  first  openly  resisted  the  use  of  greased  car- 


I.  leads  to  the  Pir  Panjal,  < 


yLaOOgle 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DUN 


Dumfries'  {Gael.  Dun-Phris,  •  the  fort  of  the  bush '),  the 
county-towii  of  Dumfriesshire,  and  the  chief  place  in  the  S.  of 
Scotland,  stands  on  a  slight  rising  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nith, 
33  miles  N.W.  of  Carlisle,  and  70  S.  of  Glasgow  by  rsul- 
way.  It  is  a  pictnresque  town,  partly  encircled  by  hills,  is  built 
mostly  of  dark  freestone,  and  is  clean,  well  lighted,  and  paved. 
Among  the  principal  buildings  are  the  Town  Council  Chamber, 
the  Trades  Hall,  the  County  Courthouse,  the  County  Buildings, 
the  National  Bank,  and  the  D.  and  Maxwelltown  Mechanics' 
Institute.  .  Two  bridees  span  the  Nith,  one  of  which  was  built 
in  the  13th  c.  The  cliief  manufactures  are  leather,  hosiery,  hats, 
and  glue.     The  trade  consists  mainly  m  wool,  freestone,  wheat, 


days  and  Fridays,  and  four  large  feirs  during  the  year.  Pop. 
•  (1871}  I5,43S.  D.  probably  dates  from  the  8th  c,  and  its  pos- 
session was  long  contested  between  the  Scottish  and  English 
kmga.  In  the  Minorite  Convent  at  D.  Bruce  slew  the  Red  Comyn 
in  1305.  The  town  was  plundered  and  burnt  by  the  Highlander 
in  the  Rebeliion  of  1 745.  Here  Bums  died  in  1 796.  D.  sends 
a  member  to  Parliament,  along  with  Annan,  Sanquhar,  Loch- 
maben,  and  Khkcudbright.  See  MacdowaR's  Hislery  of  Dum- 
friesshire (new  ed,  1876}. 

•Dumfties'shire,  a  county  in  the  S.  of  Scotland,  bounde 


shire,  and  W.  by  Kirkcudbrightshire  and  Ayrshire.     Area,  1129 


feU  (33O4},  Lowther  Hill  (3130),  and  Black  Latg  (2890). 
kigest  rivers  are  the  Nith,  Annan,  and  Esk,  which  divide  the 
counties  into  the  three  districts  Nithsdale,  Annandale,  and  Esk- 
dale.  These  rivers  all  rise  in  the  N. ,  and  flow  S.  into  the  Solway. 
The  geological  formation  is  mainly  Lower  Silurian,  with  New 
Red  Sandstone  in  the  S.  and  carboniferous  limestone  in  the  S.E. 
The  soil  is  fertile  in  the  lowlands,  and  the  high  districts  afford 
good  pasture.  In  1 867  there  were  50, 134  acres  mider  com  crops, 
26,496  under  green  crops,  54,632  clover  and  grasses  under  rota- 
tion, and  89,575  grass  not  broken  up  in  rotation.  The  principal 
minerals  are  coal  and  lead,  and  limestone  and  red  sandstone  are 
quarried.  Sheep  and  cattle  rearing  is  largely  carried  on,  but  tlie 
manufactures  are  not  extensive,  the  chiefbeing  cotton-spinning, 
hosiery-making,  tanning,  and  brewmg.  D.  is  traversed  by  the 
Caledonian  and  Glasgow  and  South-Western  railways.  The 
most  important  towns  are  Dumfries  with  its  suburb  Maxwell- 
town,  Annaii,  Lockerbie,  and  Mofiat. 

Dummow',  or  Dumoli,  a  town  of  British  India,  Central 
Province,  and  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  1 30  miles 
S.W.  of  Rewah.  It  is  well  snpplied  with  water,  and  has  an  ex- 
tensive bazaar.  Pop.  (1872)  791 1.— The  district  or  Peigurmah 
has  an  area  of  2800  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  {1872)  of  283,625. 

I>u'niOiit,  Pierre  fitienne  Louis,  celebrated  as  the  literary 
assistant  of  Mirabeau  and  the  elucidator  of  Bentham,  was  born 
at  Geneva,  July  18,  1759.  He  was  trained  for  the  mmistry  of 
the  French  Protestant  Church,  and  officiated  both  in  Geneva 
and  in  St  Petersburg.  The  tenor  of  his  life  was  changed  by  his 
coming  to"  England,  first  as  reader  to  Colonel  Barr^,  and  next 
as  librarian  and  tutor  in  tiie  house  of  Lord  Shelbume,  after- 
wai'ds  Marquis  of  Lansdowne.  This  brought  him  the  acquain- 
tance of  the  leading  English  Whigs,  Fox,  Sheridan,  and  parti- 
cukrly  of  Sir  Samuel  Komilly,  The  outbreak  of  the  French 
Revolution  took  D.  to  Paris,  where  he  became  the  friend  of 
Mirabeau,  whom  he  dded  in  the  preparation  of  his  politick 
writings  and  speeches.  In  1791,  on  his  return  to  England, 
he  came  in  contact  with  Bentham,  and  adopted  enUiusIasticaEy 
that  philosopher's  views  of  legislation.  Bentham  gave  D, 
his  manuscnpts,  and  the  latter,  by.translatmg  his  ideas  into 
lucid  French,  made  Bentham  known  to  the  civilised  world.  The 
chief  are  Traitls  de  Li^laUon  CHiiU  et  Pinole  (Gen.  1802) ; 
Tkhrie  des  Panes  et  des  S&ompenses  (Gen.  1810)  ;  Tadique  dts 
Asseinilks  Ligislaliiies  (Gen.  1815) ;  Preuves  Judidaires  (Gen. 
1823).  D.  returned  to  Geneva  in  1814,  where  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Representative  Council,  and  tried  to  rednce  Ben- 
thamism to  practice.  He  died  at  Milan,  September  29,  1829. 
In  1832  M.  J,  L.  Duval  published  from  D.'s  MSS.  Souvenirs 
sur  Mirabeau  el  sur  les  deux  Preim'ires  Asseml/ees  L^islatives,  a 


book  of  considerable  historical  value.  See  Candolle's  ^'olice  si. 
la  Vie  et  les  Acrils  de  M.  D.  (1S29). 

Dumoii'riez,  Charles  Francois,  a  French  general,  was  bor 
at  Cambrai,  25th  January  1739,  entered  the  armyatan  earlyage, 
and  first  saw  service  in  the  Seven  Years'  War.  After  a  few  years  of 
restless  wandering  and  varied  employment,  D.  rose  into  favour  at 
the  time  of  the  French  Revolution,  and  attaching  himself  to  the 
Jacobin  Club,  became  first  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  next 
general  of  the  army  against  the  Allies.  His  skilful  military 
movements  in  179*,  when  he  won  the  victory  of  Jemapes,  drove 
the  invadei's  front  the  soil  of  France,  saved  the  Republic,  and 
made  him  the  idol  of  Paris.  He  next  overran  and  almost 
conquered  the  Netheriands,  and  would  have  been  the  first  man 
in  France  had  he  not  entered  into  negotiations  with  the  enemy 
for  the  re- establishment  of  constitutional  monarchy.  The  Con- 
vention denounced  him  asa  traitor;  hisarmyrefused  tolisten  to 
hia  scheme;  and  he  had  to  seek  shelter  in  the  Austrian  lines. 
After  this  D.'s  life  was  one  of  exile  and  pamphleteering.  He 
died  at  Turville  Park,  Henley-upon-Thames,  March  14,  1823. 
Wellington  is  said  to  have  utilised  some  of  his  hmts  regarding 
an  invasion  of  France.  The  Mbnoi>-es  du  Gfn/ral  D.,  by  him- 
self,  appeared  at  Hamburg  m  r796,  and  La  Vie  et  les  Mitnoim 
da  ChUral  D.,  at  Paris  (j8»2-24}.  An  admirable  portrait  of 
D.  is  given  in  Cariyle's  History  of  the  FreacA  Hevohitiim. 

Dun,  a  word  found  both  in  the  Celtic  and  Teutonic  family  of 
languages,  but  probaMy  belonging  to  the  former,  and  signifyine 
in  both  cases  a  hill  or  fort.  It  is  often  modified  into  dum  and 
don,  and  appears  in  Dunedin  (Edinbui^h),  Dunfermline,  Dun- 
dee, Dunblane,  Dumbarton,  Dumfries,  Dunstable,  Dundalk, 
Donegal;  probably  also  in  London,  Huntingdon.  The  same 
root  appears  in  the  Ger.  diliten,  Fr.  dunes,  Eng.  dmans. 

Dii'na  (Lithuanian,  Dangiwa  ;  Russ. '  W.  Dvina'),  one  of  the 
most  important  rivers  m  the  W.  of  Russia,  rises  in  ^e  govern- 
ment of  Tver,  near  the  head-watas  of  the  Volga,  flows  Uirough 
a  thickly-wooded  country,  first  m  a  S.W.  and  then  in  a  N.W. 
direction,  and  enters  the  Gulf  of  Riga,  on  the  Baltic,  after  a 
course  of  some  650  miles.  It  receives  the  Lutschossa,  Ulla,  and 
Disma,  and  pa-sses  the  towns  Velij,  Vitebsk,  Poloczk,  Disna, 
Diinabur^  and  Riga,  while  its  right  bank  is  traversed  by  the 
Moscow  and  Riga  Railway,  The  D.  is  navigable  to  ocean  ^ 
sels  only  as  far  as  Riga,  where  it  is  2400  feet  broad,  but  river  ci 
ascend  to  Velij,  a  distance  of  400  miles.  Mudi  timber  is  floated 
down  the  river.  The  ULIa  is  cotmected  with  the  Dnieper  by  the 
Beresina  Canal,  thus  linking  together  the  Baltic  and  the  Black  Sea. 

Dii'naburg,  a  fortified  town  in  the  government  of  Vitebsk, 
Russia,  on  the  Diina,  and  100  miles  S.E.  of  Riga  by  railway.  It 
has  an  arsenal,  a  strong  fortress,  and  a  tlte-de-pont,  which  is  con- 
side  d  t  rp  e.  Itsl  d  growing.  Pop.  (1869)29,462. 
D.wa  Idd  L  n  277,  and  wasdestroyedbythe  Czar 
Iva  IV  576  It  fin  lly  became  Russian  in  1656.  D. 
resi  t  d  a  tt  k  by  O  d  t  n  1S12,  but  was  taken  by  a 
comb  d  F  1  and  Prt  -m  force,  under  Macdonald,  in  the 
sam   y 

Dimbar"  1.     t       H  dd  ngtonshu'e,  29  miles  E.  by  N. 

of  Ed  b  gh  w  1  lit  connected  by  railway.  The 
old  harb  be  n  d  ffi  It  f  apcess  from  sunken  rocks  at 
its       t  a       w  h    b  the  Victoria,   was  constructed 

in  844  wh  h  w  II  fitted  f  fishermen.  There  are  valu- 
able h  fi  h  n  h  D  with  Haddington,  North  Ber- 
wick, Jedburgh,  and  Lauder,  returns  one  member  to  Parlia- 
ment. Pop.  (1871)  3320.  It  is  an  ancient  town,  and  grew  up 
under  the  shelter  of  the  castle  of  D.,  the  chief  seat  of  the 
Earls  of  D.  and  March,  the  ruins  of  which  eroivn  a  rock  n 
the  harbour.  The  castle  of  D.  played  an  important  part  in  _._ 
War  of  Independence.  It  was  taken  by  Edward  I.,  and  sheltered 
Edward  II.  after  Bannockburn.  In  1338  Black  Agnes,  Countess 
of  D.,  defended  it  successfully  for  nineteen  weeks  against  the 
Earl  of  Salisbury,  in  the  absence  of  her  husband.  The  battle 
of  D.,  in  which  Cromwell  defeated  the  Scots  under  Leslie,  was 
fought  September  3,  1650.  Of  this  a  graphic  account  is  given 
in  Carlyle  s  Oliver  CromvielVs  Litters  and  Speeches. 

Donbar,  William,  next  to  Burns  the  greatest  Scottish  poet, 
was  bom  in  Lothian,  about  146a  He  took  the  degree  of  M.A. 
at  St  Andrew's  University  in  1479,  and  having  wandered  as  a 
Franciscan   iriar  through   England  and    Picardy,  seems,  after 


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i,  to  have  served  as  a  eletk  to  foreign  embassies,  and  in  1500 
received  an  annual  pension  of  £10.  Hencefortli  he  lived 
chiefly  at  court.  In  1501  he  visiEed  England,  and  in  1503 
celebrated  the  marriage  of  Tames  IV.  with  Margaret  Tudor  in 
his  poem  of  the  The  ThrissiUandthiRois.  A  ro^  favourite,  he 
obtained  frequent  gratuities  in  aiidition  to  his  pension — which 
IS  riused  to  ^80  a  year— but  sought  a  benefice,  in  numerous 
;tcical  petitions,  invain.  After  S'lodden  his  name  vanidies  from 
the  royal  accounts,  and  he  probably  died  about  1520.  D.  is  a 
powerful  and  versatile  writer.  His  works  comprise  picturesque 
elaborate  allegoHes-^uc^i  as  the  Gpldyn  Ta'f^exai.  The  ThnsslU 
and  the  ^oii— and  ludicrous  and  satirical  pieces,  full  of  a  mad- 
cap, riotous  humour,  and  a  wealth  of  language  reminding  us  of 
Rabelais.    His  imagination  luxuriates  in  brilliant  descriptions,  or 

fkyswhimsioalfreats  with  themost  venerable  and  terrible  themes, 
[e  paints  with  equal  felicity  the  fresh  beauties  of  a  May  morn- 
ing and  the  grotesque  horrors  o(  a  carnival  of  fiends.  Tliere  is 
frim  satiric  earnestness  in  his  bance  of  the  Sruin  Deidly  Synm!, 
Sep  pathos  in  his  Lameai  fir  the  Makaris,  and  an  astonish- 
ing command  of  coarse  vituperation  in  his  Flytmg  with  his 
friend  and  brother-poet,  Walter  Kennedy.  He  wrote  also  The 
Fenyeif  Freir  of  TUnglatrd,  The  Tina  Maryil  Wsiiien  and  the 
Weda,  JTie  yusiis  hetuix  the  Tailyeearis  and  the  Sowlans,  Tlu 
Visitation  of  St  Frauds,  Dunhams  £>reani,  &c.  See  Icing's  ed. 
of  D.  {Edinb.  1834}. 

Dtmblane',  a  village,  but  forfnerly  an  episcopal  citv,  in  Perth- 
shire, Scotland,  on  the  Allan,  6  miles  N.E.  Of  Stirling,  and  a 
station  on  the  Scottish  Central  Railway.  Its  old  cathedral,  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  David  I.  in  1 141,  was  rebuilt  at>out  IZ40, 
and  part  of  it  is  now  used  as  the  parish  church.  Leighton, 
Bishop  of  D,  from  1661  till  1672,  bequeathed  his  library  to  the 
clergy  of  the  diocese.  The  building  in  which  it  is  deposited 
bears  the  Inscription  'Bibliolheca  Leighton iana.'  Pop.  (iSJi) 
1921.    D.  was  anciently  the  seat  of  a  Culdee  convent. 

Dun'oan,  Adam,  Lonl,  Tiscount  of  Caxuperdown,  a 
famous  British  admiral,  was  bom  in  Dundee,  July  Ij  1731.  He 
entered  the  navy  as  midshipman  in  1746,  was  promoted  to  a  post- 
captaincy  in  1761,  distmguished  liimself  greatly  under  Keppel 
ill  his  attaclt  upon  Havana,  and  nnder  Rodney  off  Cape  St  Vin- 
cent, became  Rear-admiral  of  the  Blue  in  1 789,  and  Vice-admiral 
of  the  Blue  in  1793.  In  1795  he  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  British  fleet  in  die  North  Sea,  and  on  Octo- 
lier  J  7,  1797,  won  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Dutch  fieet  off 
Camperdown.  D.  received  a.  pension  of/'2O0O  a  year,  the 
thanks  of  Parliament,  and  a  sword  of  honour  from  the  City  of 
London,  and  was  created  Viscount  D.  of  Camperdowil.  For  a 
time  he  served  against  the  Batavian  Republic,  and  in  1799  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  Admiral  of  the  White.  He  died  near  Edin- 
burgh,  4th  August  1 804. 

Duncan,  TlloniaB,  a  Scottish  artist,  -was  bom  at  Kinclaven, 
Perthshu'e,  May  24,  1807.  He  was  a  distinguished  pupil  of  Sir 
William  Allan  at  the  Trustees'  Academy,  and  succeeded  him  as 
its  head.  His  industry  and  ability  enabled  him  at  an  early  age 
to  attain  the  distinctions  of  R.S.A.  and  A.R.A..  and  the  posi- 
tion of  Professor  of  Colouring  and  Drawing  in  the  Academy  of 
Edinburgh,  and  he  seemed  to  be  entering  on  an  exceptionally 
brilliant  career  when  he  was  cut  off  by  sudden  illness  at  Edin- 
burgh, May  25,  184S.  D.  had  few  rivals  during  his  short  but 
active  life  as  a  portrait  and  historical  painter  and  a  depicter  of 
Scotch  character,  more  especially  its  humorous  side.  Among 
his  larger  works  may  be  noticed  '  Prince  Charles's  Entry  into 
Edinburgh  after  the  Battle  of  Prestonpans,'  exhibited  iti  London ; 
'  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  Signing  her  Abdication  ; '  '  Martyrdom  of 
John  Brown  of  Priesthill,  1685  ; '  and  '  Wishart  Dispensing  the 
Sacrament  on  the  Day  of  his  Martyrdom,  March  i,  1548.' 

Dun'oanaby  Head  (aiic  Berubium),  the  N.E.  headland 
of  Scotland,  in  Caithness,  14  miles  E.  of  John  o'  Groat's  House. 
It  is  a  wild  promontoiy,  of  Old  Red  Sandstone,  about  100  feet 
high,  worn  by  the  sea  mto  deep  gullies  {ghses),  and  standing  out 
o  the  Pentland  Firth  in  cavemed  ledges.  Duncansby  Staclts 
:  two  insulated  oolnmns,  the  haunts  of  myriads  of  aquatic  birds. 
Near  D.  II.  is  a  small  village,  the  ferry  to  the  Orkneys. 

Dnndalk'(rtishGael.i)»«.i?nj/^n, 'thefort  ofDelga.'aFir- 
bolg  chief  in  the  mythic  history  of  Ireland),  a  seaport  of  Ireland, 
capital  of  the  county  of  Louth,  at  the  head  of  D.  Bay,  and  at  the 


month  of  the  Castletoii  River,  50  mites  N.  of  Dublin  by  railway. 
The  port  and  harbour  have  been  much  improved  in  recent  years, 
and  steam-vessels  ply  regularly  to  Liverpool,  exporting  thence 
cattle,  grain,  butter,  and  e^s.  In  1873,  '^99  vessels,  of 
297,504  tons,  entered  and  cleared  the  port.  Pop.  of  parlia- 
mentary borough,  rettimmg  one  member,  was,  in  1871,  II, 377- 
D.  was  the  residence  of  Edward  Bruce  during  his  brief  tenure 
of  Northern  Ireland  (1315-18].— D.  Bay,  S  miles  broad,  ex- 
tends 7  miles  inland,  and  is  from  I  to  6  fathoms  deep. 

Dundas',  a  town  m  the  province  of  Ontario,  Dominion  of 
Canaii,  on  Burlington  Bay,  at  the  W.  end  of  Lake  Ontario,  40 
miles  S.W.  of  Toronto.  It  is  situated  at  the  head  of  the  Desjar 
dins  Can^,  on  the  Great  Western  Railway,  has  extensive  mill; 
and  factories  wrought  by  water-power,  and  a  trade  m  agricultural 
produce.  Pop.  (1871)  3135. — A  British  island  of  the  same 
name  lies  in  the  Pacific,  off  the  coast  of  British  Columbia,  to  the 
S.E.  of  Queen  Charlotte  Island,  and  has  an  area  of  380  sq. 
miles.— D.  Strait,  in  N.  Australia,  separates  Melville  Island 
and  Coburg  Peninsula,  is  the  N.  inlet  of  Van  Diemen  Gulf,  and 
has  a  iffeadth  of  20  miles.— IX  Oaatle,  the  territorial  residence 
of  the  D.  family,  is  situated  in  Linlitligowshire,  on  the  Forth, 
near  S.  Queensferry.  The  manor  was  a  grant  of  the  Earl  of 
Marcli,  of  date  1150, 

Dundaa  of  Amiston;  the  name  of  a  Scotch  family  cele- 
brated  for  the  number  of  its  members  distinguished  in  the 
political  and  legal  history  of  the  country.  Among  the  most 
eminent  of  the  earlier  of  these  are  Sir  James  D.,  governor  of 
Berwick  in  the  reign  of  James  VI,,  from  whom  he  received 
the  honour  of  knighthood ;  Sir  Ja^nee  D.,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, who  became  a  judge  of  the  Court  of  Session  in  1662, 
under  the  title— derived  from  the  family  estate— of  Lord  Amis- 
ton,  but  who  lost  his  office  because  he  refused  to  abjure  the 
'  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  i '  and  Bobert  B.,  grandson  of 
the  preceding  (tuid  son  of  Sir  Robert  D.,  who,  lilte  his' father, 
obtamed  a  seat  on  the  bench),  who  was  bom  December  9, 1685, 
rose  to  fill  the  posts  of  Solicitor- General  and  Lord  Advocate, 
was  returned  for  the  comity  of  Midlothian  in  the  British  Parlia- 
ment in  1722,  and  in  1737  was  raised  to  the  bench  under  what 
may  be  considered  the  family  title  of  Lord  Amiston.  Finally  in 
1748  he  became  Lord  President.  He  died  in  1753.  His  son, 
Robert  D.,  bom  i8th  July  1713,  also  attained  to  tlie  positions 
of  Lord  Advocate  and  Lord  President  {1760)1  His  death  took 
place  at  Edinbuighj  13th  December  17S7.  The  most  notable 
member  of  the  family,  however,  was  Heniy  D.,  Viacovmt 
M^ville  and  Baion  IJuBira,  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  born  in  1741,  and  educated  for  the  Scotch  bar,  to  which  he 
was  called  in  1763.  Di  by  his  talents  and  industry  won  a  high 
position,  while,  as  a  member  of  the  General  Assembly,  he  gave 
indications  of  tllat'  eloquence  which  subsequently  gained  him  a 
position  in  Parliament.  In  1774  D.  was  returned  as  member 
for  the  county  of  Edinbui^h  ;  in  1775  he  was  made  Lord  Advo- 
cate. His  political  career  was  more  remarkable  for  brilliancy 
than  for  consistency.  He  managed  to  serve  under  Lord  North, 
Lord  Rockmgham,  and  Loid  Shelbume,  and  became  finally  the 
right-hand  man  of  the  second  Pitt,  under  whom  lie  held  various 
offices,  including  those  of  President  of  the  Board  of  Control, 
Treasurer  of  the  Navy,  and  chief  Home  (or  in  reality  War)  Sec- 
retary. D.  was  a  clever  and  industrious  politician,  if  not  a 
great  statesman;  and  he  will  always  1«  associated  with  the  mea- 
sures under  the  Pitt  administration  for  enrolling  volunteers  to 
oppose  a  French  descent,  and  for  restoring  the  estates  in  Scot- 
land forfeited  on  account  of  the  rebellion  of  1745-  Under  the 
Ad dington  administration  he  was  raised  (in  1802)  to  the  peerage 
as  Viscount  Melville  and  Baron  Dunira.  FoUr  years  later  he 
was  tried  for  '  malversation,'  in  his  capacity  of  treasurer  of  the 
navy,  but  vras  finally  acquitted.  After  this,  however,  he  lived 
chiefly  in  retirement  in  Edinburgh,  where  he  died,  27th  May 
t8ll. 

Sundee'  (Gael.  Dun-Diadhaidh,  'sacred  dune  or  hill,'  Lat. 
Taodumim),  a  royal  burgh  and  flourishing  seaport  in  tlie  S. 
of  Forfarshire,  situated  on  the  N.  side  of  the  Firth  of  Tay,  50 
miles  N.N.E.  of  Edinburgh,  and  20  E.N.E.  of  Perth  byrailw 
It  is  the  third  largest  town  in  Scotland,  and  the  chief  seat  of 
linen  manufactures,  being  indeed  '  the  maker  of  the  sacking,  the 
bagging,  and  the  wrapping  of  the  world.'  It  lies  pleasantly 
between  D.  Law  (525  feet  high)  and  Balgay  Hill,  and  stretches 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOF^DIA. 


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le  three  miles  along  the  Tay,  which  has  here  a  breadth  of 
miies.  Its  chief  public  buildings  are-  the  Albert  Institute 
and  Free  Libmry,  erected  at  a  cost  of  ^^30,000  ;  a  Town-hall, 

1  Roman  Ionic,  with  a.  spire  140  feet  high ;  the  Royal  Ex- 
cliange,  in  the  Flemish  Pointed  style  of  the  igth  c.  ;  the  Kin- 
iiaird  Hall,  a  massive  Italian  edifice,  capable  06  accemmodatuig 
10  persons ;  the  Infirmary,  in  the  Tudor  style,  forming  three 
sides  of  B  square  ;  the  High  School,  an  elegant  Grecian,  building ; 
handsome  court  buildings;  and  the  Moi^an  Hospital,  for  the 
education  and  upbringing  of  joo  boys,  erected  at  a  cost  ot£8o,<MO 
(1867-6S}.  To  the  E.  of  the  town  is.  the  Baxter  Park,  a.  splendid 
expanse  of  37  acres,  gifted  to  D,  by  the  late  Sir  David-  Baxter  ; 
to  theW.  on  Balgay  Hill  there  is  another  publjc  parlt,  some  60 
acres  in  extent;  and  ornamented  wllh.fine. woods.  The  prosperity 
of  D.  is  in  great  part  owing  to.  its  magrvificent.  docks,  which  have 
been  constructed  since  1851,  a*  a  cost  of  over  ^£700, 000.    There 

-e  five  wet  docks,  a  graving  desk,  a  large  tidal  harbour,  besides 

(lensive  sea-wails  and  quays,  a  pier,,  and  great  shipbuilding 
yards.  The  chief  industries  nas  the  manufacUire  of  tax-yaias 
and  linen  fabrics  (Osnaburgs,  ducks,  canvas,  sheetings,  &c.), 
silks,  cottons,  jute,  eoi-dage,  iron,  machinery,  kid-gloves,  confec-. 
tions  (the  famous  D.rnarmalade),.&c.  D.has  also  establishments 
for  shoemaking  by  machinery,  breweries,  and  considerable  ship- 
building. The  Unen  industry  employs  over  fifty  steam  spinning- 
mills,  ten  power-loom  factories,  besides  numerous  hand-labour 
works,   and   produces   goods   to  the  annual    value  of   about 

r The  valueof  the  flan, hemp,andiutemanufactures 


consequence  of  this  industry,  it  has  of  late  ye^  become  ^e 
of  the  seal  and  whale-fiEhing  tradt:.  The-  success  of  the  latter 
"  ctuates,  but  over  a  series  of  yeara  the  fishing  is  found  a  remu- 
rative  industry.  The  other  imports  are  timber,  coals,  iron-, 
le,  tar,  &c.  D.  has  regular  steam  communication  with.  Lon- 
don, Newcastle,  Liverpool,  Stockton,  Glasgow,  ^Ci,.aiidis  easily 
accessible  by  raifway.  A  few  miles  to  the  W;  of  D.,  one  of 
the  largest  iron  bridges  in  the  worid  is  in  course  of  construction 
(to  be  completed  in  1877)  across  the  Tay.  It  is  to  consist  of 
ninety  spans,  several  of  which  will  be  245  feet  long,  and  88  feet 
above  the  level  of  high-water.  Its  cost  will  exceed  ^fsooiooo,  a 
sum  entirely  subscribed  by  the  North  British  Railway  and  the 
bridge  shareholders.  The  town  returns  two  members  to  Parlia- 
ment Pop.  (1871)  121,975.  ^-  ^™-5  formerly  walled,  and  was 
twice  in  great  part  burned  by  Edward  I.  (1296  and  1303).  It 
shared  a  like  fate  at  the .  hands  of  the  I)uk,e  of  Lancaster  in 
1385.  In  the  r6th  c.  D.  -was  tlje  first  Scottish  town  to  re- 
nounce Popery,  chiefly  through  the  inflqgnce  of  Jaraes  Hali- 
burton.  It  was  pillaged  by  Montips^  in  1645,  an^  Ijy,  Genera) 
Monlt  in  1651. 

Sundon'ald,  I^oioajs  Cochr^e,  ^arl  of,  and  oqe  of 
the  greatest  of  British  sailors,  was  born  at  Cnlross,  Perthshire, 
December  14,  1,775.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  entered  the 
navy,  taking  seriiLpe  under,  his  uncle.  Sir  Alexander,  Cochrane, 
and  his  services  as  coromander  of  the  litlle  slpop  Speeiiy,  particu; 
larly  in  the  dadng  exploit  of  capturing  the  Spapjsh  ftigate  £i 
Gamo  off  Barcelona,  gained  him.  a  post-capt^ncy  in  iSoi.  As 
commander  fii^t  of  the  /WAw,^and.3id)sequently  oi  L'ImfiMeuse, 
D.  did  great  dam^e-  to  Spanish  commerce,  sm^  distinguished 
himself  ui  European  and  in  African  waters  by  successful  action? 
against  the  French.  5'or  leading  five  ships  against  a  French 
fleet  in  the  Basque  Eoa4s  in  1809  he  was  made  a  Knight  of  the 
Bath,  but  having  ofipnded  the  ministi-y  hy  bringing  Lord  Gam- 
bier,  his  superior  officer,  to  a  court-marlial  for  incompetency,  he 
was  not  allowed  furlhef  naval  service.  In,  1814,  on,  the  chaige 
of  originating,  for  stock- exchange  swindling,  &,  ffdse  rumour  tliat^ 
Napoleon  had  abdicated.,  he  was  expelled  Ironi  Farjiament,  in 
which  he  had  sal  since  1807  as  the  Radical  member  for  West- 
minster, deprived  of  ^1  his.  honouf?,  finpi.  £\<XiO,  and,  ordered 
to  stand  in  the  pillory.  TTie  last  part  of  the  sentence  was  not 
enforced ;  his  constituents,  who  believed>in  his  innocence,  which 
has  since  been  established,  paid  his  fine,  and  afterwards  re- 
elected him.  From  l8lg  to  1828' his  expliuts  at  sea  greatly 
furthered  the  national  Independence-of  Chih,  Brazil,  and  Greece. 
In  1830,  on  the  advent  to  power  of  Earl  Gwy's  administration, 
D.  returned  to  England,  and  was  reinstated  in  all  his  honours, 
became  commander  on  the  N.  American  and  W.  Indian  stations, 
and  rose  to  the  rank  of  Rear-admiral  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
133 


He  succeeded  to-  tJie  Earldom  in  183*^  and-  gave  up  his  kter 
years  to  nava!  improvements,  to  the  invention  of  'infernal 
machines'  for  the  wholesale  destcuclion  of  an,  enemy,  and  to 
writing  the  story  of  his  life,  which  appeared  in,  1S59  under  the 
title  of  The  AiUobiogi-aphy  of  a  Seaman.  He  died  October  31, 
i860,  and  was  interred  in  WestininstEr  Abbey.  Among  D.'s  other 
werks  are  Obsirvaiiotis  on  Rural  Affairs  (1847),  and  Narrative 
of  Services  in.  Ike  LBeration  of  Chili,  Petti,  and  Brssil  {2  vols. 
1858). 


Dune'din,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Ot^o,  New  Zea- 
land,  is  picturesquely  situated  at  ihq  head  of  Otago  Harbour,  an 
arm  of  the  S.  Pacitic  14.  mil«  lon^  and  at  the  base  and  on  the 
slopes  of  hil)s.  D.  was  founded  in  1S48,  and  until,  1861  was  a 
small  and,  unimportant  place.  The  discovery  of  rich  gold-deposits 
at  Gabriel's  Gully  in  that  year  caused  a  great  influx  of  population, 
and  D.  rapidly  rose  Co  the  position,  which  it  still  holds,  of  being 
the  foremost  commercial  town  in  New  Zealand.  In  spite  of 
numerous  natural  difficulties  it  is  well  laid  out,  containing  about 
ninety  streets,  each  66  leet  broad,  and  for  the  most  part  paved 
and  lighted  with  gas.  I<  is  also- well  supplied  with  water  from 
a  reservoirs  D.  is  a  see-  of  the  Anglican  and- Roman  Catholic 
Churches.  Itcontainsanumber^finepublic  and  private  build- 
ings, and  possesses  a  rising  university.  Four  daily,  five  weekly, 
and  two  monthly  newspapers  are  published  in  D.  The  pop.  of 
Ihe.  municipality  at  the  census  ef  LS74  was  18,500;  with  the 
suburbs,  26,000.  The  trade  statislicsofD.  for  the  twelvemonths 
frpm  1st  Octqber  1873  tq- 30th,  September.  1^74  show  the  imports 
tp  h^v^.anlQjintBd  ip^,^ifi2i,ffjl,  apd  the  exports  tO;^l, 740,650. 
The  twoprjnciii^I.  lt«iiifj  comwising  the  latter  w^re  15,797,779 
lbs.  of  wool,  of  the  value  of  ^59,451.;  and  141,564  oz.  of  gold, 
vahied  at  ,£568,954.  There  were  also  exported  ^^86,733  worth 
of  wheat,  and  ^^55,074  worth  of  preserved  meals. 

Danes,  the  name  given  to  the  sandhiDs  which  occur  along 
the  seaboard  of  the  Netlierlands  as  far  as  the  frontier  of  France. 
They  have  been  produced  by  the  action,  through  an  indefinite 
period  of  time,  of  strong  winds  from  the  German  Ocean,  and 
they  serve  as  a  natural  barrier  to  protect  the  country  from  the 
destructive  encroachments  of  the  sea.  In  certain  places  they  are 
covered  with  grass  or  heath,  and  pine-trees  have  been  planted 
here  and  there.  Though  not  available  even  for  pasturage,  they 
are  yet  invaluable  as  bulwarks  of  the  rich  lowlands  of  the  inte- 
rior," Tlley  occasionaHj.  attain  so  grpat  an  elevatioA  as  to  hide 
the  view  of  the' sea  from  the  steeplas  of  the  towns, 

Dnnfenttline  {Gsei.  Dun-Fharlaia,  '  the  fort  of  Pkarlain.  or 
Farlnne,'  the  legendary  founds  of  the  city),  a  rgyal  burgh  of 
ScQtland,  in  the  W.  of  Fifeshire,  3-  miles,  N.  of  the  Firth  of 
?o[Jh,  and  13  W.N.  W,  of  Edinbuigh,  and  a  station  on  tiie  Stir- 
ling and  D-.Kailway.,  It  has  many  l^ndsom?  private  and  public 
modern  buildings,  and  is  noted  specially  for  its  damask  linen- 
weaving.  The  other,  industries  are'flax-spinning,  bleaching,  iron- 
founding,  brewing,  &c.j  and  in  the  vicinity  are  laige  coal-mines. 
Along  vrith  Stirling,  Inverteithing,  Queensferry,  and  Culross, 
D.  sends  one-member  to  ParhamenL  Pop.  {1871)  14,963.  D. 
was  already  a  place  of  some  importance  in  the  nth  c.  Makolm 
Canmore  and  his  queen  Margaret  founded  3  Benedictine  Abbey 


place  to  the  present  parish  church  in,  r8l8-2l.  The-  kilter 
building  has  a  square  tower  100  feet  Wgh,  round  the. turret  of 
which  runs  the  inscription  '  King  R.obert  the  Bruce '  in  open 
stonework.  Edward  I,  passed  the  winter  of  1303-43!  D.,  which 
was  made,  a  royal  burgh  by  James  VI.  in  ijSSi  D.  was  the 
birthplace  of  David  11. ,  James  I.  of  Scotland,  and;  Charles  I., 
and  its,  ^bey  is  the  resting-place,  of  Malcolm,  Canmore,  St 
Mar^ret,  Edgar,  Alexander  I.,  David  I,  Malcolm  the  Maiden, 
Al^ander  III.,  Robert  Bruce,  his  qnpen.Eliza^th  and  nephew 
Randolf,  Annabella,  queen  of  Robert  III,,  and  Robert  Dulte  of 
Albany,  gov,enior,  of  Scotland.  TJlie  skeleton  of  Robert  the 
.Bruce  was  disinterred  and  a  cast  taken,  of  the  royal  cranium  in 


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ordinary  sense,  horse,  cow,  sheep,  pig,  and  pigeons'  D,,  the 
preference  for  securing  growth  may  be  given  to  the  last,  if  ap- 
plied to  barley  or  wheat,  but  its  limited  production  mokes  it  of 
little  iiccount  in  ordinary  farm-management,  although  doubtless 
it  is  quite  equal  in  plant-nut ritivene^s  to  that  of  the  Inrds  which 
left  guano  deposits  ia  Peru.  Horse-D.  is  much  appreciated, 
and,  mixed  with  cow  and  sheep  D. ,  niitkes  an  excellent  njsnune. 
All  artificial  substances  are  inferior,  everything  considered,  to 
that  which  is  made  in  the  stable,  byre,  or  shed ;  and  the  only 
regret  farmers  have  is  that  they  cannof  obtain  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  it.  The  quality  of  D.  purchased  from  towns  or  made  on 
the  homestead  is  not  preserved)  as  well  as  it  ought  to  be.  It 
should  not  be  eM)osed  to  sun  and  wind,  which  rob  it  of  its  vir- 
.  tue,  but  should  be  put  up  in  heaps,  mixed  'mth  earthy  as  then 
its  savour  and  fructifying  powers  are  preserved  for  months. 
Some  fanners  are  of  opinion  that  D.  is  best  made  in  covered 
courts,  and  carried  direct  from  thence  to  the  fields.  Dnnghiils 
should  be  frequently  turned,  and  not  placed  in  projdmity  to 
drEUns,  as  tlie  liquid  percolates  through  the  earth  downwards, 
and  tends  to  choke  the  drain,  See  Stf^en,'s  Book  of  ike  ffarni ; 
Gent's  Systema  Agriaiilura  (pubjished  11669),;  Mechi's  Pt^fitaih 
Farming  ;  Karnes's  Cmtlcmatt  Parn^i  sjid  Hosliin's  Ckroaicles 
cfa  Clay  Farm. 

Dungannfou  (Irish  Gael.  Durt^G^atiaiim,  'Geaiwji's  fort'), 
a  town  in  the  county  of  Tyrone,  Irelsjiii.'il.  miles  N.W.  of 
Armagh,  with  manufectiires  of  linen,  coajse  pottery,  fiie-brick, 
and  tues,  and  having  in  the  neighbou^l^od  the  largest  lime- 
quarries  and  collieries  in  Ulster.  IX  retajus  one  member  to 
Parliament.  Pop.  (1871)  3886,  of  iylw>iii;  more  than  OBe-haJf 
arc  Roman  Catholics. 

nJungar'vatt  {Irish  Gael.  DB>t-G!i!:bhain,  '  GaBvati's  for^ 
tress '),  a  seaport  in  the  county  of  Waterford,  Ireland^  ^p  miles 
E.N.E.  of  Cork.  Pop.  (1S71)  7719.  The  inhabitants  are  cliiefly 
engaged  in  tlie  hake  and  herring  fisheries,  and  fish,  giain,  butter, 
and  cattle  are  exported  D.  returns  wie  member  to.  PajliSira^. 
It  is  a  iavourite  sea-bathing  cesort  in  sunun^i-. 


linguished  by  its  members  having  (be  anlennse  terminated  by 
dub,  formed  of  several  flat  leaf-TiJte  appendages.    The  popular 
le  of  these  beetles  has  been  detiyed  from  their  habit  of  depo- 


,  siting  their  eggs  anvrngst  mwiniie,  whilst  a  few  feed  upc*i  decays 
ing  mattera  of  like  kintt  The  fiimily  Geotrupid^,  for  eitampU, 
includes  a  familiar  esampde  of  D.-B^  the  Glvira/^.  sUnopa- 
fiiii,  '  dor '  or  '  shard-borne '  beetle,  sojnetiiHes  also  njmed  the 
'  watchman '  lieetle.  This  specie^  attains  a  length  of  about  an 
inch.  It  is  of  black  colour,  and  infests  S^lds  for  the  pu^se  of 
depositing  its  eggs  amid  cow-dung.  Nearly  allied  is  the  famoQS 
Searabnas  sactr,  or  sacred  beetle  of  the  Egyptians,  which  also 
deposits  its  ^gS  in  manure.  A  North  American  species  of  D.-B. 
{Gyi7inpp!eurus  piiula^-iuij  appeals  to  roil  the  pellets  of  manure 
to  the  place  where  they  are  to.  be  bwied  ift  the  groimd^ 

Dun'geon.     See  DonjON, 

Dimfceld'  (Gael.  Dun-Chailliam ;^  in  the  Fictish  Chrwiicle 
IJunealden,  possibly  '  hagel  hill '),  a  vigage  and  burgh  of  barony, 
formerly  a  city,  in  Perthshite,  on  tile  left  bank  of  the  Tay,  15 
miles  N.N.W.  of  Perth,  and  situated  amidst  the  most  romanjic 
scenery.  Pop.  (1S71)  783.  Tlie  ancient  cathedral,  120  feel; 
long  by  ^  broad,  built  about  IZ3CS  is  now  included  within  the 
grounds  of  the  Duke  of  Athole,  which  contain  2Cr  sq,  miles,  ol 
larch-wood,  together  with  the  first  larches  planted  m  Britain. 
These  were  brought  from  thj  T^tol  iji  1737,  wid  at  first  treated 
as  greenhouse  plants.  D.  was  a  bisht^'s  gee  from  1127  to 
l638,  but  its  ancient  abbey,  whose  Culdees  composed  the  cathe- 
dra! chapter,  was  famotis  in  (he  ecclesiastical  annals  of  the  king- 
dom at  a  much  earlier  date,  and  may  peiihaps  dale  front  t&e  lime 
of  Kenneth  MacAlpin.  See  Skene's  Celtic  Scotland,  vol.  i. 
(1876). 

Dtinkirk'  (Fr.  Dtmkerque,  '  the  kirk  of  the  dunes  or  downs '), 
a  seaport  in  the  department  of  Nord,  France,  on  the  Strait  of 
Dover,  15a  miles  N.  of  Paris,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail- 
way. It  is  a  fortified  town  of  the  third  rank,  and  has  a  tribunal 
of  the  first  instance,  a  government  navigation  school,  a  commu- 
nal college,  a  public  library,  and  picture  gallery.  Its  principal 
squares  are  the  Champ  de  Mars,  and  the  Place  Jean  Bart,  in 
458 


which  there  is  a  statue  of  the  naval  hero,  erected  in  iSo5.  The 
most  notable  buildings  are  the  town-hali  {1644),  theGothic  church 
of  St  Eloi  (IS^)>  "i'li  "^  tower  28o  feet  high,  and  a  fine  peal  of 
bells  (since  1853),  the  barracks  for  2000  men,  an  exchange, 
a  military  hospital,  and  a  theatre.  D.  is  the  entrepot  of  the 
N.,  a  railway  centre,  and  the  key  to  an  extensive  system  of 
canals.  It  has  regular  steamboat  communication  with  London, 
Hull,  Rotterdam,  St  Petersburg,  &c  Its  manufactures  are 
chie%  sailcloth,  fishiag-nets,  leather,  soap,  sugar,  spirits,  &c  ; 
iheie  ate  also  valuable  cod,  hercing,  and  oyster  fisheries.  The 
imports  include  all  kkids  of  colonial  produce.  Although  &r 
from  picturesque,  D.  annually  attracts  many  visitors  for  sea- 
bathing. Pop.  (1872)  34,350.  D.  was  founded  near  the  church 
of  St  Eloi  by  Count  Baldwin  of  Flanders,  960,  but  was  burned 
by  the  English  in  13SS,  About  140P  it  was  fortified,  and  it  long 
con^nued  an  object  of  contention  between  France,  Spain,  and 
England.  In  1540.  it  was  lakea  from  the  Spaniams  by  the 
English,  in  155S  captured  by  the  French,  and  in  terms  of  peace 
restored  to  Spiun.  It  was  seized  by  the  great  Cbnd^  in  1646, 
but  was  again  regained  by  tlie  Spaniards,  In  1658  Turenne 
Qaptufwi  D.„  which^  according  to.  treaty  with  Cromwell,  was 
made  o^er  to  Engknd ;  four  years  kter  Charles  II.  sold  it  to 
Louis  XIV..  for  five  million  iivres.  After  the  Peace  of  Utrecht 
(1713),  the  fortifications  were  ra^ed  ^d  the  harbour  filled  up, 
but  tliek  restoration  was  allowed  by  the  Peace  of  Paris,  17S3. 
The  allies  besieged  D.  in  17^3,  bui  were  forced  to  retire. 

Saalin,  or  Puire  ( Tringa  cincliis),  a  species  of  Tnnginn^  (or 
sub-family,  including  the  sandpipers  ajjd  other  allies)  found  in 
Britain  and  other  parts  of 
Europe  in  winter,  bflt  more 
commonly  on  Uie  eastern 
coasts  of  N.  America.  The- 
average  length  is  S  oc  9  inches. 
The  pliupage  varfes  greatly 
wiJh  ^  sea^oBS  of  the  year, 
but  birawii  hues  predominate 
generally, 

Dun'nww  and  Flitcli  of  .^ 
Baopn.    D.,  Great  and  Little,  ' 
are  two  villages  of  Essex,  9 
milss  E,  of  Bishop  Stortford  Bunlin. 

by    railvray,    andr    35    miles 

N.N.E.  of  Lpndoa,  Of  Great  D.  the  pop,  in  1871  was  2983  ; 
of  Little  D.,  2  miles  E.  Qf  the  larger  village,  the  pop.  was 
359..  A  lichly-endowed  prioiy,  founded  in  1104  by  Lady  Juga, 
sifter  of  Ralph  Baynard,  formerly  existed  at  Little  D.,  and  here 
the  aticient  custom'  of  tlie  D.  Flitch  had  its  origin  during  the 
reign  of  Henry  HI,  Tbjs  custom  eo^ists  in  presenting  a  F.  of 
B.  to  '  whatever  married  couple  will  go  to  the  priory,  and  kneel- 
ing on  two  sharp-pointed  stones,  wiy  swear  that  mey  have  not 
rairelkd  noi  repented  of  their  marriage  vithin  a  year  and  a 
y  after  its  celebration.'  From  the  chactijlaty  of  the  monastery, 
now  in  the  British  Museum,  it  is  proved  that  the  bacon  was 
Maimed  and  won  thiee  times  i)efore  the  dissolution  of  religions 
houses.  It  was  last  awapdei  legitimately  at  the  Priory  Church 
ini75i^  Since  th^t  time  th^  custom  ^eiiiained  in  abeyance  till 
1S51,  when  it  w^s  revived  at  Great  Dl  The  last  presentatioi 
of  the  flitch  took  place  I71h  July  1876,  by  consent  of  a  jury  of 
six  mcddens  and  six  bachelors.  These  interesting  revivals  of  a 
commendable  custom  have  taken  place  under  the  superintendence 
of  Mr  J.  W..  Savill  of  D.,  to  whom  all  '  claims '  on  the  part  of 
^nslant  and  even-[?rt^ere3  couples  are.  sent. 

Dunn'et  Head  (Gael.  Dan-Niiiet,  '  the  fort  of  the  bright  or 
open  place'?),  the  most  northerly  point  of  Scotland  in  Caithness, 
13  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Duncansby  Head,  l^-t,  58°  40'  N.,  long.  3° 
2l'  W.  It  is  of  Devonian  formation,  much  corrugated ;  has  a 
teight  of  from  joq,  to  600  feet,  and  supports  a  lighthouse. 

Dtmnott'ar  Gastje  (GaeL  Dun-Oitir,  '  the  fort  of  the  low 
promontory '),  on  the  coast  of  Kincardineshire,  73J  miles  N.E. 
of  Perth,  and  1 J  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Stonehaven,  on  a  rock  160 
feet  above  the  sea.  It  was  once  the  seat  of  the  Earls  Marischal 
of  Scotland,  but  is  now  a  ruin.  After  a  six  months'  siege  it 
capilulaied  to  Cromwell's  troops  in  1651,  Many  of  the  Q)ve- 
nanters  were  imprisoned  in  D,  C.  during  the  troubled  times  of 
Charles  11.  and  James  II. 


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IJuiLOis.  Jean,  Oomte  de  Dunois  et  Long^eviUe, 
popularly  known  as  the  Bastard  of  Orleaiis,  was  the  illeKilimile 
son  of  Louis  Duke  of  Orleans,  the  brother  of  Charles  VI.,  onil 
■WHS  born  almut  14.03.  Aided  by  the  great  enthusiasm  which 
Jeanne  d'Arc  had  kindled  in  France,  he  drove  baclt  the  English 
Jrom  Orleans  and  won  the  battle  of  Palay  in  1429.  After  the 
death  of  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  D.  carried  on  with  uninterrupted 
success  the  war  for  French  freedom^  d  living  the  English  from 
all  tlieir  conquests  except  Calais,  and  at  the  last  even  from  Nor- 
mandy and  Guienne.  He  became  the  idol  of  France,  was  popu- 
larly Blyled  Li  IAblrate%tr  de  la  France,  and  deserved  the  admiia- 
tion  he  inspired.  Charles  VII.  made  him  his  Grand  Chamber- 
lain. Louis  XI.,  on  ascending  the  throiw,  ^owed  his  dislike 
to  D,,  as  to  the  other  favourites  of  his  predecessor,  by  depriving 
him  of  his  oflices  and  honours.  D.,  greatly  incensed,  joined  the 
confederation  of  discontented  nobles  known  as  La  Ligut  du 
Bien  PubHc,  which  broi^ht  the  king  to  his  senses  and  led  Co  the 
Peace  of  Conflans  (1465),  By  it  D.  was  restored  \a  his  honours 
and  posts.  He  died  November  24,  146S.  D.  Irad  a  reputation 
for  gallantry,  and  in  the  Mimoires  Stcr^es  de  la  Caur  de  Charles 
VII.  is  described  as  the  lov^  of  Queea  Marie  of  Anjou.  He 
was  twice  married.  His  first  wife  was  the  daughter  of  the  Pie- 
sident  Laimet,  and  his  second  Marie  d'Harcouit,  daughter  of  the 
Comte  de  Montgomery.  From  this  second  marriage  is  descended 
the  French  family  of  Longueville, 

njunoon',  a  favourite  sea-bathing  village  in  Argyleshire.  on 
the  Firth  of  Clyde,  25  miles  N,  byW.  of  Glasgow.  Pop.  (1871) 
3756.  Numerous  well-built  villas  extend  along  the  shore  both. 
N.  and  S.  of  D.,  and  the  rains  of  an  ancient  castle,  formerly  a 
residence  of  the  Argyle  Jamily,  crown  a  green  conical  knoll  near 
the  pier.  The  name  is  of  idoubtful  derivation.  ItmaybeZ>»«- 
Nodka,  '  the  new  fort,'  or  Dun-Addhean,  '  Ae  fort  of  gti^ls,' 
or  more  probably  Dun-Omkain,  '  the  fort  of  foam.'' 

Dimae  (perhaps  Gael  DuH-sith,  changed  into  JDun-si,  '  fairy 
hill '  or  '  hiil  of  peace '),  a  burgh  of  barony  and  market-town, 
Berwickshire,  Scotland,  35  miles  S.E.  of  Edinburgh,  on  the 
Whitadder,  at  the  foot  of  D.  Law,  which  is  630  feet  high,  and 
on  the  summit  of  which  are  ti'aces  of  the  camp  formed  by  Gene- 
ral Leslie  and  the  Covenanters  in  1639.  The  tovm  is  \«ell  built, 
and  iiad  in  187J  a  pop.  of  z5r8.  D.  is  (he  birthplace  of  Boston 
(q.  v.),  author  of  the  Fourfild  Stats. 

Dunainn'ane,  a  sub-range -of  the  Sidiaw  Hills,  about  7  miles 
N.E.  of  Perlh,  crowned  with  a  hill-fort  of  concentric  ramparts. 
It  overlooks  a  vast  district,  including  Bimam  Hill  (q.  v.). 

Sane  Scotua,  John,  one  oftbe  greatest  of  the  schoolmen, 
,  was  born  about  1265,  most  probably  at  Duose  In  Berwickshire, 
though  some  assert  Dunston  in  England,  and  others  Down  in 
Ireland,  to  have  been  his  birthplace.  When  a  boy,  he  entered 
the  Fcanciacim  institiaion  in  Newcastle,  and  afterwards  studied 
at  Oxford,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by  knowledge  of 
logic,  law,  mathematics,  and  scholastic  theology,  and  where,  ia 
1301,  he  was  made  theological  professor.  His  lectures  were 
listened  to  by  crowds,  there  bdng  then,  we  are  told,  30,000 
students  at  Oxford.  In  1304  he  removed  to  Paris,  and  amazed 
his  hearers  by  his  dialectic  subtlety,  whick  earned  for  him  the 
title  of  the  '  Stibtle  DoctOT.'  He  was  appointed  Professor  of 
Theology  in  FwJs,  and  taught  with  brilliant  su<:cess  until  130S, 
when  he  visited  Cologne,  being  commissioned  by  his  order  to 
oppose  the  Beguines,  and  found  a  university  there.  He  was  re- 
ceived atCologne  with  extraordinary  enuiusiasm,  but  shortly 
after  his  arrival  was  cut  off  by  apo^exy,  November  8,  1308. 
A  legend  cHngs  to  D.  as  to  most  of  the  gneat  schoolmen.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  buried  alive,  and  to  have  dashed  out  his 
brains  against  the  coffin.  D.  holds  a  veiy  important  place  in  &e 
history  of  mediseval  thought.  He  gained  an  immense  number 
of  followers,  known  as  Scotia,  in  opposition  to  the  Thomisis,  or 
adherents  of  Thomas  Aquinas,  with  whom  IX  was  in  utter 
antagonism  in  regard  to  divine  pace,  free-will,  and  especially 
(he  immaculate  conception  c^  the  Virgin,  a  doctrine  which  he 
seems  to  have  originated.  (See  Nominalists  and  Rbali«is.) 
His  skill  in  slarting  new  definitions  and  new  themes  for  diicns- 
sion  was  especially  valued  in  an  age  when  speculalion  was  con- 
fined to  a  novel  setting  of  orthodox  doctrine.  It  has  been  said 
D.  sometimes  anticipates  Spinoza,  but  in  sucli  cases  he  pro- 
bably did  not  see  whilher  his  dialectic  tended.  From  the 
opposition  shown  by  his  followers  to  the  revival  of  letters. 


Duiuman,XD.d.  hence  dunce,  came  to  mean  one  stupid  or  slow 
at  learning.  Most  of  D.'s  vohiminous  works  were  ediled  by 
L.  Wadding  {l2  vols.  Lyons,  1639),  See  his  Life  by  Wadding, 
and  Boyvin's  FhUosopMa  Scoii. 

Svin'stable  ('  the  market-place  of  the  hill '),  a  town  in  Bed- 
fordshire, at  the  base  of  the  D.  chalk-downs.  Tiie  principal 
industry  is  the  manufacture  of  strawpl^t  and  bonnets.  In 
winter,  great  numbers  of  larks  are  captured  in  the  neighbour- 
hood and  carried  to  the  London  market.  The  parish  church  is 
part  of  the  priory  founded  here  fey  Hemy  I.,  wlio  also  built  a 
mansion  hi  the  neighbourhood.     Pop.  (1871)  4558. 

Dum'stan,  St,  was  born  m  925  a.d.,  near  Glastonbury, 
Somersetshire.  His  father,  Heorstan,  was  a  wealthy  thane,  and 
his  uades  were  bishops  of  Wells  and  Wincbester.  As  a  youth 
he  was  remarkable  for  lesa^ning  and  skill  m  painting,  music,  and 
metallurgy,  and  quickly  became  a  favourite  of  King  j^thelstan, 
but  was  driven  by  jealous  enemies  from  llie  court.  He  then 
became  a  monk,  but  by  no  means  an  austere  recluse.  On  the 
contrary,  he  studied  literature  and  music,  gathered  many  pupils 
about  him,  and  won  the  affections  of  a  rich  lady,  who  placed  her 
fortune  at  his  disposal.  About  ihis  time  he  is  said  to  have  had 
2  grotesque  adventure  with  Sataa,  whom,  sioccading  to  Robert 
of  Gloiicester,  he  seized  by  the  nase  with  his  red-hot  tongs  for 
peeping  into  his  cell  at  Glastonbm^r.  On  the  death  of  his  rich 
patroness  he  retnmed  to  court,  which  envious  intriguers  again 
forced  him  to  quit,  Isut  King  Eadmimd  appointed  him  Abbot 
of  Glastonbury,  accra-ding  to  the  English  Chronicle,  in  943. 
This  would  render  liis  birth  in  925  very  dubious,  as  he  could 
scarcely  be  an  abbot  when  only  eighteen.  According  to  others, 
he  was  chosen  abbot  In  947.  On  Eadred's  accession  in  946, 
D.  began  lo  shine  forth  as  a  clear-sighted,  adroit,  unscrupulous 
statesman,  edvocating  broad  and  conciliatory  measures.  He 
secured  the  alHance  of  the  Scottish  king  against  the  Northimi' 
brians  by  ceding  the  country,  between  the  Forth  and  Tweed, 
but  Eadwig's  succession  in  955  int^rupted  his  wise  schemes 
of  consolidation.  Enraged  by  an  insult  which  D.  oifered  the 
queen,  the  new  king  stripped  him  of  his  offices,  and  forced  him 
to  seek  safety  in  Flanders  j  whereupon  M^tia  and  Northumbria 
proclaimed  Eadgar  king,  and  recalled  D. ,  who,  after  Eadwig's 
death  in  958,  was  elected  ArchUshop  of  Canterbtuy,  and  during 
Eadgar's  reign  was  virtually  the  secularas  well  as  the  ecclesiastical 
head  of  England.  Instead  of  Wiouring  blindly  for  the  aggran- 
disement of  Wessex,  he  endeavcured  to  consolidate  the  entire 
realm,  ^and  to  pursue  a  truly  national  policy.  Through  his 
inSuence  Northumbria  was  split  into  three  parts,  but  their 
i^d  rights  were  fiilly  reserved  to  its  Danish  inhabitants.  He 
enforced  justice,  promoted  education,  reformed  the  mint,  and 
strove  to  restore  purer  morals  among  the  laity  and  stricter  dis- 
dpline  in  the  Church.  Aided  by  die  Bishops  of  York  and 
Winch^ter,  he  laboured  with  fanatical  energy  to  institute  a 
celibate  elerey,  and  expelled  from  the  Church  such  priests 
and  dignitaries  as  refused  to  separate  from  their  wives.  On 
Eadgar's  death  in  975,  he  procured  the  coronation  of  that  king's 
son  Eadwsud,  and  m  a  Witenagemol  held  shortly  afterwards  at 
Calne,  in  Wiltshire,  is  said  to  foive  confounded  his  enemies  by 
a  '  miracle.'  The  part  of  the  floor  on  which  his  opponents  were 
placed  was  made  to  give  way  suddenly,  while  D.  and  his  paity 
remained  unhuit.  But  his  mfluenee  fell  on  Eadward's  assas- 
sination. The  S.  country  proclaimed  .^thelred  kmg,  the  N. 
seceded,  and  D.'s  long-cherished  project  of  a  united  England 
was  shivered  fora  time.  In  grief  and  defeat  he  retired  to  Can- 
terbuiy,  where  he  died  ia  9S8,  D.  possessed  abundant  and 
versatUe  talents,  which  he  streauously  cultivated  and  applied. 
In  Chitrch  questions  he  was  narrow  and  intolerant,  but  as  a  states- 
Koan  he  was  shrewd,  hberal,  and  even  patriotic.  The  ends  which 
he  inflexibly  pursued  were  to  unite  England  intoa  compact  mon- 
archy, to  extend  tlie  influence  of  the  Enghsh  Church  in  civit  af&irs 
at  home,  white  rendering  it  entirely  phtsfic  to  the  papal  sway. 
D,  wrote  an  adaptation  of  Benedicts  Rale  qf a  Monastic  Life,  3mA 
a  CemwienlBTy  tn  the  Ben^ictifie  Sule.  See  Robert  of  Glouces- 
ter's Ufe  of  D.,  English  Chronicle,  Mabillon'a  Acta  Sanclorum, 
Kemble's  Saxons  in  England,  and  Freeman's  History  of  the 
Nonmm  Conquest  o/Englakd,  vol.  i, 

Duode'oimal  Scale  (Lat.  ifaiiifewa,  "twelve')  is  (he  division 
of  unity  into  twelve  parts,  each  of  these  again  into  twelve,  and 
so  on.     Though  it  has  the  advantage  of  being  divisible  by  2,  3, 


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DUP 


4,  and  6,  yet  (lie  derfmal  scale  is  ■ 
venient  for  our  Notation  (q.  v, ). 

Duode'oimo  (Lat  dmdtdm,  '  twelve '),  a  ferm  applied  to  a 
volume  on  account  of  the  size  of  its  page.  A  page  D.  is  the  I2lh 
part  of  a  page  foKo,  the  lattw  bemg  the  large  sheet  called  a 
broadside  once  folded ;  just  as  a  quarto  is  its  4th  part,  and  an 
oaavB  its  8th.  The  well-known  contractions  for  the  thiee  words 
are  4to,  Svo,  i2mo. 

Duode'niini.  The  atall  intestine  is  aiwiSed  Into  three  parts: 
the  first,  10  or  l2  -inches  in  length,  immediately  succeeding  the 
stomach,  is  the  D. ;  the  upper  two-^iifths  of  the  remainder  is  the 
jgunum,  and  the  lower  three-fifths  the  ileum.  The  D.  is  ihe 
shortest  and  widest  part  of  the  intestine.  It  describes  in  its 
course  a  curve  somewhat  like  that  of  a  horse-shoe,  in  the  con- 
cavity  of  which  we  lind  the  head  of  the  pancreas. 

Biipanloap,  I'elix-Aiitoliie-Fhlli'bert,a  French  church- 
man, was  born  at  St  Felii,  Savoy,  January  3,  1802.  He  studied 
theology  at  Farts,  became  a  priest,  aqd  won  notice  as  an  excel- 
lent preacher  and  calechist.  After  refiising  various  charges  in 
Paris,  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Sacred  Eloquence  m  the 
Sorbonne  in  184^,  -and  Bishop  of  Orleans  in  1849.  In  1848 
he  attended  the^ieathb£<i  of  Tall^jfaid.  In  1 854  he  was  made  a 
member-ofthe  Academy,  and  since  1850  he  has  tdsen  part  with 
considerable  enei^  and  keenness  in  politics,  arguing  for  the 
rights  of  the  Popeas  a  temporal  sovereign  against  Edm.  About. 
He  was  returned  to  the  National  Assembly  tn  1S7J,  and  has 
voted  with  the  Rigltt.  Among  his  works  are  &ia»tilts  Chain's  de 
tous  Us  yours-di-1'.Annie  (3d  ed  1S37) ;  Miomeldis  Cattchismis 
(1838) ;  Des  AssiKialions  Religteuses,  Dela  BiuiScaltoit'Seligiaiie 
(1845);  SmtveraineU  Temporelle  du  Pape  (1849)^  LeItrfS  sur 
rEducaiion  ParHculHre  (1849). 

Dupin',  Andr^  UEirie  Jean  Ja^qaee,  a  French  jurist  and 
politician,  was  bom  1st  February  1783  at  Varzy,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Nifevre.  Educated  at  Paris,  D.  took  the  Orleanist  aide 
in  French  politics,  opposed  in  1815  in  the  Chamber  of  Repre- 
sentatives the  proposal  to  proclaim  Napoleon's  son  as  his  suc- 
cessor, defended,  along  with  Berryer,  Marshal  Ney,  and  subse- 
quently acted  as-CQunsel  for  the  English  officers  Vfho  aided  the 
escape  of  liavalette,  for  Biiranger  in  1821,  and  for  the  JimrnoZ 
desBibats'm  183a  When  l/ouis  Philippe  ascended  thethrone 
after  the  revolution  of  that  year,  D.  was  made  Procureur-G^n^ral 
in  the  Courtof  Cassation.  In  183a  he  was  elected  President  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  'and  held  the  office  for  eight  years. 
The  cou^  iiiat  of  185*,  followed  by  the  confiscation  of  the 
Orleans -estates,  caused  D-  to  retire  from  public  life,  hut  in  1S57 
he  resumed  his  former  post  in  the  Court  of  Cassation.  His  last 
public  act 'H^ffi  in  186^  to  protest  in  the  Senate  against  the  growth 
of  Parisian  luxury.  He  died  loth  November  1865.  D.  was  the 
author  of  a  nilmher  of  valuable  works,  particularly  on  law. 
Among  these  ace  his  treatise  Sw  la  Librt  BlpHse  des  Accush 


(1830)5  Manuel  du  Droit  Public  EccUHastique  ^%t,-^-  Rigles 
Gmfo-ales  de  Droit  et  de  Morale  tities  de  VEcriture  Sainte 
(1857).  See  MhtoiresdiM.  D.  (1855-60). — Frftneoia  Fierre 
Ohaxles,  Baron  D.,  a  French  geometer  aid  statistician, 
the  brother  of  ffie  preceding,  was  bom  at  Varzy,  October  6, 
1784,  entered  llie  iiavy  as  an  engineer,  and  was  much  em- 
ployed as  such  in  France  and  the  Ionian  Islands.  In  1814  lie 
visited  Great  Britain,  and  examined  its  financial,  commercial, 
industrial,  naval,  and  military  resources,  the  result  being  his 
Voya^  dans  la  Grande  Bretagne  (Par.  1820-34),  and  Force 
CommirdrUe  de  la  Grande  Bnlagni  (l8s6).  D.  threw  himself 
heartily  into  the  work  of  teaching  artisans  science,  established  a 
Conservatoire  des  Arts  el  M&iers  at  Paris,  aud  became  its  Pro- 
fessor of  Geometry.  In  1824  he  obtained  the  honour  of  aharony. 
D.,  who  through  the  revolutions  of  1830  and  1848  had  been  a 
Liberal,  was  elected  a  senator  after  (he  toup  d'etat  of  1851.  He 
died  Januaiy  1873,  D.  has  pubhShed  numerous  -works,  chiefly 
on  sbitistical,  industrial,  scientific,  and  educational  subjects. 

Bupin,  Louis  XUiea,  a  French  historian,  Itom  of  an  old 
Norman  family,  at  Paris,  iT&June  1657.  He  studied  at  the 
College  d'Harcourl,  «itered  the  Church,  and  was  through  life 
persecuted  for  his  liberal  -ayimems,  being  accused  -of  treating  the 
Vivgin  and  the  Fathers  with  disrespect.  His  favourite  scheme 
was  to  unite  the  Roman  Catholic,  Greek,  and  English  Chiu-ches, 


lie  died  at  Paris,  June  6,  1719.  Among  his  voluminous  writings 
are  Nouvelle  BiUiothique  des  Aateurs  EccUsiastimies  (Par.  5SV0IS. 
I686-1704);  Histoire  des  Juifs depms  Jesus  Christ  jusqii'h  Pri- 
seHl{¥s.t.  1710);  Hisloire  Profane  (Par.  6  vols.  1714),  &c.  See 
Niceron's  Mhioires. 

Dup'ficate  'B.i.'tia.     See  Proportiow. 

Duplica'titHl  of  the  Oube,a  cel^Mated  problem  of  antiquity, 
also  known«s  the  '  Delian  pEOblem,'  from  .the  legend  that  when 
the  island  of  Delos  was  'being  ravaged  by  a  pestilence,  the 
oracular  response  was  that  the  pestilence  would  cease  if  the  altar 
ef  Apollo  w£re  doubled,  still  retaining  its  cubical  shape.  Being 
B,  case  of  flie  aoluKon  of  a  cubic  equation,  it  could  not  be  solved 
merely  wiA  the  aid  of  the  circle  and  straight  line.  Hippo- 
orates  of 'Chios  ieducedat<o  the  jwoblem  of  inserting  (wo  mean 
proportionals  between  itwo  given  liaes,  which  was  solved  by 
Archimedes,  Eutocius,  Pappus,  Mcomedes,  and  others,  by  means 
of  higher  curves. 

Dupon't,  Jaoqtiea  Charles,  a  representative  French  Liberal 
politician  of  the  early  part  of  the  iglh  c,  was  bom  27ih 
February  1767,  at  Neubourg  in  Normandy,  and  came  into 
prominence  in  1813,  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  when  he  acted 
as  Vice-!Ptesident  of  the  Corps  Legislalif.  Returned  lo  the 
Clhamber  of  Representatives  for  the  department  of  Eure, 
and  generally  known  as  De  I'Eure,  D.  continued  a  parlia- 
mentary Lilwfal  in  opposition  till  the  revolution  which  drove 
Charles  X.  from  the  throne  in  1830,  when  be  was  appointed 
to  the  Ministry  of  Justice,  an  office  which  he  threw  up  in  six 
months  on  account  of  what  be  considOTed  <the  retrc^ade  ten- 
dencies of  the  king.  When  the  revolulitm  of  1848  took  place, 
D.  again  came  to  the  front,  being  made  President  of  the  Pro- 
visional >Govemment.  In  the  Legislative  Assembly,  however, 
which  succeeded  the  Constituent  Assembly,  D.,  whose  opinions 
were  too  moderate,  didna(  find  a  place.  He  died  at  his  estate  of 
Rougepierre  in  Normandy,  3dMatcli  1855.  By  his  friends  he 
was  titled  LAristide  de  la  Tribune  Franfoise, 

Diipp'el,  or  Dybb'cfl,  a  village  of  Sesvig,  in  the  Sundevitt 
peninsuhi,  opposite  Sonderbni^,  acted  in  the  Germano-Daiiish 
warforits  ailKnQ\\ra«a\s{Z>iippeierSchan7e),  built  by  the  Danes, 
•and  'taken  by  'the  Prussians  after  a  month'-s  fighting,  April  18, 
1864. 

Dupuis,  Oharlaa  I^ancois,  the  «nn  >of  a  village  school- 
master, was  born  at  Trie-le-(:hateau,  »6th  October  1742.  He 
studied  law  and  metaphysics  at  Lisieux,  where  he  was  also 
a  Professor  of  Rhetoric.  An  enlhjisiasm  for  astronomy,  de- 
rived from  Lalande,  suggested  ta  him  that  the  zodiac  was  a 
kind  of  national  calendar  for  ^riculture  and  other  matters, 
and  that  the  explanation  of  the  varying  religious  myths  was 
to  be  found  in  the  constellations,  interpreted  by  reference  to 
the  pursuits  of  each  tiatian.  His  first  publications  brought  him 
an  invitation  from  Friedrich  II.  to  Berlin.  His  chief  work, 
JJOri0nedetousles  Cultes,ou  la  Jieligiert  Uiiiverselle,  10  vols.  8vo, 
with  atlas,  appeared  in  1795.  As  a  member  of  the  National 
Convention,  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  and  the  L^islative 
body,  he  showed  moderation,  and  a  desire  for  liberty  based  on 
education.  As  a  member  of  the  Institute  {in  the  departments 
of  literature  and  fine  arts,  and  history  and  ancient  literature)  he 
advocated  the  claims  of  the  Pelasgi  to  be  considered  the  universal 
parent  stock— he  considered  them  to  have  come  from  Ethiopia 
— and  discussed  the  results  of  the  commission  to  Egypt,  which 
he  had  helped  to  arrange.  D.  died  near  Dijon,  29th  Septem- 
ber 1809.  Stt  Notice  H^origue  sur  la  Vitde  D.,  by  his  wldovr 
(Par.  1813). 

Dupay'tFen,  GiiiHa\ime,  a  famona  French  surgeon  and 
anatomist,  was  born  at  Pierre  Buffi^re,  6th  October  1777. 
In  1801  he  became  Chef  des  Trmiaux  Anaioniiques  in  the 
College  de  la  Marche,  Paris.  Here  he  made  important  vivisec- 
tions with  refereneeto  the  timcticais  of  the  sympathetic  and  to  the 
■consequences  of  tying  Ihe  thoracic  duct ;  and  followed  Bichat 
into  patholopcal  anatomy,  his  autopsis  of  cases  of  organic  lesion 
numbering  more  than  rooo.  D.  successively  became  assistant, 
iead-sm^eon,  and  Brofessorof -Clinical  Sui^eiyat  the  H&tel-Dieu. 
He  was  made  a  baron  by  Louis  XVIII.  Patronised  by  Charie* 
X.,  he  wished  to  rival  the  political  career  of  Cnvier,  but  (aileiB 
■in  Ms  candidature  for  a  seat  in  Parliament.  He  died  8th  Feb 
ruary  1835.     D.^exoelled  as  a  teacher  in  the  ckiss-room  and  ii 


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waid,  and  as  a  brillknt  suigeon  ;  lie  was  without  lextensive 
.ccurale  scientific  cange,  and  has  been  detected  in  dishonest 
plagiarism  and  intentionally  false  reports  of  the  success  of  his  own 
operations.  His  most  important  memoLrs  are  scattered  -through 
the  5&!«Tio/ of  Corwisart,  the  BuIliHtt  of  the  Medical  Eaculty,  the 
Medical  Library,  and  General  Repertory  of  Anatgmy.  See  Bio- 
grapMe  de  D.  (I^.  Didot,  1855), 

Dnqueane',  Abraltam,  IKarqaia,  a  famous  French  naval 
officer,  born  at  Dieppe  in  1610,  lirst  attracted  public  notice  for 
eallantry  in  an  engagement  with  the  Spaniards  off  the  Isles  de 
Lerin  in  1637,  and  afferwards  successively  at  Corunna,  Tarragona, 
Barcelona,  &c.  Afl«r  the  death  of  RicheUeu,  D.  -entered  the 
service  of  Sweden,  then  at  war  with  the  Danes,  defeated  tlie 
Danish  fleet  (1643),  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  vice-admiral,  but 
soon  returned  to  the  service  of  France,  took  part  against  the 
Frondeurs,  and  reduced  Bordedun-  He  was  next  engaged'  in 
chastismg  the  Bafbary  pirates  'in  the  Western  Mediterranean, 
tiestroyed  the  combined  fleets  of  Spain  and  Holland  under  De 
Euyter  off  the  coast  of  Sicily  in  16^6,  and  was  rewarded  by 
Louis  XIV.  with  the  rank  of  Marquis.  His  last  exploit  was  the 
successful  bombardment  of  Genoa  in  1684.  D.  was  the  only 
itestant  exempted  from  banishment  on  the  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  in  1685.     He  diedin  1688. 

Du'ra  Ma'ter,  a  strong  fibrous  membrane  which  closely  lines 
the  interior  of  the  skvAl,  -aid  foBms  a  loose  sheafli  in  the  spinal 
canaL  The  two  other  membranes  -protecting  the  brain  are  the 
Arachnoid  and  Pia  Mater  {q.  v.). 

Dura'men,  or  Heait-Wood,  the  innermost  or-oldest-fbrmed 
wood  in  an  exogenous  stem.  It  is  generally  darker  coloured. 
See  Stem. 

Durance',  vxi  impetuous  rtver  of  France,  rises  in  the  Ilautes- 
Alpes,  near  Mo«t  Gen^vre,  flows  S.  tbrou^  the  Easses-Alpes, 
then  W.,  forming  the  boundary^line  between  Vaucluse  *^nd 
Bouches-du- Rhone,  and  joins  the  Rhone  between  Avignon  and 
Tarascon,  50  miles  from  the  sea.  It  is  180  miles  long,  but 
owing  to  its  rapid  current  no  paj:t  of  its  course  is  navigable. 
Much  timber  is  floated  down  from  the  upland  forests.  An 
aqueduct  has  been  constructed  from  the  D.  (0  Mu^iHe,  5s  miles 

Duran'go,  orBuadia'na,  the  capital  of  a  stale  of  the  same 
name,  Mexico,  is  situated  6500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
It  has  a  handsome  square,  a  cathedral,  four  monasteries,  and  a 
Jesuit  college.  The  climate  is  healthy  and  cool,  and  there  are 
ri(ji  mines  of  gold,  silver,  and  iron  in  Sie  Tidnity.  D.  has  a 
trade  in  horses,  cattle,  "and  leather.  Pop.  about  20,00a  The 
state  is  traversed  by  the  Sierra  Madro.  The  sur&ce  is  roeky 
and  the  soil  poor,  but  there  are  vakable  mines  of  gold,  silver, 
and  iron.    Area,  42,5*0  sq.  miles.     Pop.  0873)  185,077. 

Diiraz'zo  (the  Dyn-acckana  of  the  Romans,  whence  D^  as 
well  as  the  DrtO^ich  of  the  Turks  and  the  Bartz  of  the  Slavs), 
a  fortified  town  and  seaport  ot  Albania,  Turkey  in  Eurt^ie,  on 
the  Adriatic,  exports  gram,  oil,  «iid  tobacco,  and  imports  Maa- 
chester  and  Eh-ming^m  goods  and  colonial  produce.  Pop. 
(1871)7000.  D.  is  Ihe-GreSc  £^'i/iHn«iM,  which,  from  its  favour- 
able position  on  the  Adriatic  and  fertile  territoiy,  soon  became 
rich  and  powerful  The  enpulsien  of  the  oligarchs  ultimately  led  to 
the  Peloponnesian  War  (q.  v').  Dyrrachium  did  not  occupy  the 
exact  site  of  Epidamnns,  but  a  high  and  roi^ky  peninsula  near 
it,  and  received  its  name  from  tire  rttggsdnsss  of  the  situation. 

Durbli(ai''gall,  the  capital  of  a  district  st  the  same  name, 
province  of  Bengal,  some  5  miles  W.  of  the  Gogari,  a  branch  of 
the  Ganges,  and  62  miles  N.E.  ot  Patna.  It  is  the  residence  of 
the  Maharaja  of  O.,  mho  is  perhaps  the  wealthiest  zemindar  in 
Bengal,  having  a  rent-roll  of  ;i200,00a  Pop.  (1872)  l47.4Sa 
— The  disirkt,  which  was  formed  out  of  the  old  coUeotorate  of 
Tirhut,  January  1S75,  is  bordered  on  the  S.  by  the  Ganges,  and 
produces  much  rice,  barley,  marua,  opium,  &c.,and is  celebrated 
for  its  tobacco  and  indigo.  It  was  the  centre  of  distress  during 
the  Behar  famine  of  1874.  Area,  3334  sq-  miles ;  pop,  (1872) 
2,197,324. 

Durtn  (the  Marcodurum-oi  Tacitus,  meaning  '  the  frontier- 
place  on  the  river,' from  ffmi-^f,  'a  frontier,' and  i&f,  'water'), 
a  walled  town  on  the  Roer,  Rhenish  Prussia,  18  miles  K  by  N. 
of  Aix-Ia-Chapetfe.     Pop.  (l8jl)  12,862.     D.  has  manufactures 


in  1543- 

Diir'er,  Alljreclit,  agreat  German  painter,  was  flie  son  of  a 
Hungarian  goldsmith,  and  was 'born  atNiimbei^,  2 1st  May  1471. 
In  i486  he  left  his  father's  trade  and  became  an  apprentice 
of  Wohlgemufh,  the  leading  pdnler  In  Nitmberg.  After  his 
'  wander^hre, '  he  executed  as  his  masterpiece  the  ■drawing  of 
Orpheus.  He  then  made  the  unfortitilate  mafriage  with  Agnes 
Frey  which  has  been  so  touehingly  describe  in  Leopold 
Schefer's  novel,  TkeArtisfs  Married  Life  1^%.  transL,  Chap- 
man, 1848).  His  friends  Hartraan  'and  Piikheraior  have  told 
how  unhappy  this  selfish  woman  made  him.  We  have  also 
the  artist's  journal  of  his  travels  in  tht  Netherlands  with  his 
wife  and  the  maid  Susanna,  and  his  Ittters  to  Pirkheimer,  chiefly 
from  Venice  (published  in  ^(A«^./l.  D.,  by  Friedrich  Campe, 
182S),  but  these  contain  *o  complaint  of  bis  wife,  whom  he 
ti-eated  with  great  kindness.  On  his  travels  he  was  f^ted  by  the 
Emperors  Maximihan  and  Karl  V.,  the  King -of  Denmark,  Mar- 
garet,  Governess  of  the  Nelheclands,  and  by  flie  painters  Of  Biiiges 
and  Antwerp.  When  In  Hrfly  he  -met  Raphael,  mtlh  whom  he 
exclBinged  portraits.  Two  portraits  of  D.,  painted  try  himself, 
still  remain  at  tiie  Florence  and  Munich  galleries.  He  died 
broken-heMted,6thApuli52a  D.  wasadesigner,  painter,  archi- 
tect, sculptor,  and  engraver  on  wood  as  well  as  metal.  Among  his 
pictures  may  be  mentioned  '  Maiius  on  the  Ruins  oJ  Carthage  j' 
the  '  Martyrdom  of  St  Bartholomew,'  which  the  Emperor  Rnidolph 
placed  in  Prague;  the  '  Mariyrdorn'of  the  Ten  'Rionsa-Bd  Saints,' 
which  is  itt  Vienna.  Prague  has  also  las  '  Adam  and  Eve,'  and 
NUmberglias  the 'Twelve  Apostles.'  He  Is  considered  to  have 
thrown  imaginative  expression  and  fidelity  to  nature  into  the 
schoel  of  Van  Eyck.  Among  his  engravmgs  proper  may  be  men- 
tioned the  'Knight  and  Death,'  the  'Four  Naked  Women,'  &c 
D .  is  said  lo  "have  been  the  first  to  use  nitric  acid.  His  outs  on 
wood  and  leather  of  the  '  Passion  of  Jesus  Christ '  aie  well  known 
through  the  cheap  reprint  issued  by  Smith  &  Elder.;  his  'Life 
of  Mary '  and  '  St  Eustatlus  Kneeling  before  a  Stag '  we  per- 
haps  the  finest  of  the  woodcuts.  Among  Ws  portraits  may  be 
mentioned  'Erasmus,'  'Melancthon,'  andlis friend  'Pirkheimer.' 
D.  also  published  works  on  ffuman  Pi-opcrHon,  Forlificatioa, 
and  the  Useef  ihe  Compass  and  Square  (edition  pubfished  at 
Amheim,  1605).  "Wonderfiil  stories  are  told  of  liis  manual  pre- 
cision. There  is  in  his  work  a  fantastic  element  strai^e  to  the 
modem  eye.  D.  was  a  Protestant,  and  the  finish  and  truthful- 
ness of  his  works  evince  a  deep,  almost  austere,  religious  feeling. 
See  Lives  of  D.  by  Heller  (1827),  A.  von  Eye  (2d  ed.  1868),  and 
W.  B.  Scott  (1869)  i  and  Le  Feinlre  Graveur,  vol.  iri.,  by  Bartsch 
(Vienna,  1 808). 

Du'ress,  in  English  law,  is  the  pJea  of  Compulsion  (q.  v. )  by 
one  who  hasfailedin  an  obligatiOTi  or  who  has'-committed  a  mis- 
demeanour.    If  proved,  the  pica  is  effectiwe.    .See  ■alscs  Ckime. 

DTJr'fey,  TUoma*,  a  writer  of  triflmg  anacreontics,  &c., 
was  born  .at  Exeter  about  1630.  He  was  mlended  for  the  law, 
but  took  to  play-wriiing,  and  tecame  a  favourite  With  Charles 
II.,  and  a  well-known  author  of  songs,  odes,  anil  licentious 
comedies.  Like  Moore,  he  used  to  sing  his  own  songs  in  his 
ilinmgs  out.  He  led  a  jovial,  careless  life,  and  Jied  during  the 
reign  of  Geoi^  L,  iu  17*3.  His  songs  were  collected  under 
the  fitle  Pills  io  Purge  Mdatuhoh.  He  wtote  a  satire  called 
Suaef's  Ghost,  or  NuMras,  ihe  Fourth  Fart. 

Durliam  (Old  Eng.  Dun-Holm,  'the  Mil  on  the  holm'  or 
'meadow,'  an  ancient  episcc^  dty  of  Englaodjand  capital  of 
the  county  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Wear,  13  miles  S.  of  New- 
castle, and  258  N,W.  of  London  by  railway.  It  is  nearly  en- 
circled by  the  liver,  has  the  remains  of  old  walls,  arul  is  mainly 
built  on  the  steep  sides  of  a  hill,  surmounted  by  an  ancient 
cathedral  and  a  castle.  The  banks  of  flie  Wear  are  now  occu- 
pied by  sloping  gardens  and  beautifiU  pubfic  walks,  and  the  river 
IS  spanned  Iw  three  bridges  (two  of  date  1120  and  1170  respec- 
tively), and  by  a  railway  viaduct  of  eleven  arches.  The  majority 
of  the  houses  have  a  qudnt,  picturesque  appearance,  in  harmony 
with  the  natural  beauty  of  the  spot  and  with  the  grandeur  of 
the  cathedral.  In  a  form  nearly  resembling  a  Latm  cross,  the 
cathedral  comprises  bold  specimens  of  Norman  and  of  the  various 
English  styles,  covering  an  area  of  55,700  feet,  and  having  a  nave 
&l  feet  wide.  Its  length  inside  is  4J3  feet,  and  its  chief  feature 
461 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


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is  tliree  richly  ornamenled  towers,  tlie  highest  of  which  (216 
feet)  was  built  in  the  13th  c.  The  Chapel  of  the  Nine  Altars,  at 
tlie  E.  end,  is  in  pure  and  elegaot  Early  English.  In  the  same 
end  there  is  an  immense  circular  light  of  line  stained  giasa,  while 
the  interior  pilUrs  and  the  screen  are  festooned  with  rare  csu'viiag. 
Cardinal  Wolsey  was  for  sorae  time  prelate  of  D.,  and  the  cathe- 
dral cortaiBs  l^  tombs  of  St  Cuthbert  and  Beds.  The  castle, 
which  is  in  Romaaesque,  was  founded  by  William  the  Con- 
qneror  about  1072,  and  contains  a  splendid  doimitory.  It  lias 
formerly  the  residence  of  the  bishop,  but  is  oow  appropriated  to 
Ike  Unisersiiy  of  D.,  incorporated  in  1837,  with  power  to  graot 
<leerees  in  (l)  arts,  classics,  and  matliematics ;  (a)  m  tlieolcgy; 
and  (3)  in  physical  science.  Tie  University,  which  possesses  a 
revenue  of  ^£3000  a  year,  has  6  professorsliips,  and  is  attended  by 
flora  90  to  100  students.  It  has  ll  fellowships  and  upwards  of 
20  sdiolarsliips.  Thareare  schools  of  (Aysicd  science  connected 
with  it.  Besides  the cathedjal,  D.haa  six  parish  churches,  alsoa 
county  infirmary,  public  Elo^ries,  assembly-rooms,  mechanic' 
institute,  &c.  "The  chief  manufactures  ace  woi^ens,  carpels, 
paper,  and  iron  and  brass  wares.  Near  D,  are  collieries  and 
mineral  springs.  The  town  returns  two  members  to  Parliament. 
Pop.  (1871)  1^406.  AbQut  the  year  995  Bishop  Ealdhun  brought 
hather  from  Oiester-le- Street  the  remains  of  St  Cuthbert,  and 


however,  was  fiist  begun  by  Bishop  WiUiam  de  Carilepho  about 
1093,  and  was  not  completed  till  near  the  end  of  the  isth  c.  In 
1290  the  prior  and  convent  of  D.  founded  a  college,  whidi  was 
abolished  on  the  dissolution  of  monasteries  (1539),  revived  fey 
Cromwell  during  the  Commonwealth,  and  again  suppressed  at 
die  Restorajtioa. 

I>urliam,  a  county  in  the  N.E.  of  England,  boumded  N,  by 
Northumberland,  E,  by  the  German  Ocean,  S.  by  Yorkshire, 
and  W.  by  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland,  has  an  area  of  973 
sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1871)  of  685,089.  It  lies  between  the 
Tyne  and  the  Tees,  and  in  tlie  W,  its  surface  is  hilly  and  heathy, 
wMle  it  has  afloaat-hne  of  32  miles,  chiefly«Oiisisling«f  magne- 
aan  limestone  cliffs.  The  formation  throughout  is  mainly  mill- 
stone grit,  coal  measures,  permian,  aad  trias.  D.  is  famous  alike 
for  its  rich  co»l  defjosita  and  for  its  Teeswater  breed  of  short- 
homed  cattle.  It  is  intersected  by  the  river  Wear,  and  has  a 
good  soil  of  diy  loam  and  clay.  In  1875  there  were  95, 198  aaes 
in  iicm  crops,  34,804  in  green  crops,  56,339  under  clover,  san- 
foin,  and  grasses  in  rotation,  a-sd  202,249  of  permanent  pasture  j 
also  17,200  horses,  63,125  cattle,  207,599  sheep,  and  11,526  pigs. 
Tlieie  are  considerable  dairy-farming  and  eattle-rearing.  The 
chief  industry,  howler,  is  coal-minmg,  there  being  over  240 
collieries.  Several  of  the  pits  reach  to  a  depth  of  100  falioms, 
and  extend  horizontally  for  many  miles.  The  other  minerals  are 
limestone,  freestone,  blaclc  marble,  ironstone,  slate,  lead,  &c, ; 
and  the  manufactures  include  iron,  chemicals,  glass,  pottery,and 
alkalies.  There  is  also  much  iron-smelting  and  shipbuilding.  D. 
s  the  capital,  and  the  other  towns  are  Sunderland,  Gateshead, 
Hartlepool,  S.  Shields,  Darlington,  and  Stockton.  Four  mem- 
bers are  sent  to  Parliament  by  the  county.  D.  waS  included 
(547-827)  in  the  Anglian  kingdom  of  Northumbria.  It  was  en- 
dowed at  a.  later  period  with  palatine  privileges  vested  in  the 
bishop,  having  the  power  to  hold  padiaments,  coin  money,  raise 
taxes,  &c.  These  privileges,  whtdi  D.  enjoyed  in  eommoa  with 
■'  ;  counties  Chester  and  Lancaster,  were  resumed  by  the  crown 
1836.  D.  possesses  many  British  and  Roman  antiquities,  and 
■era!  fine  Castles  and  other  remains.  See  Registrum  Falatiniim 
Dundmsme,  vol.  iii.,  edited  by  S«  T,  D.  Hardy  (Master  of  the 
Rolls  Series). 

Durham,  Jobs  George  LamMon,  Eaii  of,  an  EnglisJi 
Liberal  politician,  was  boin  April  12,  1792,  at  Lambton  Hall, 
in  the  county  of  Durham,  and  the  seat  of  his  father,  a  gentlenran 
of  small  estate  but  ancient  family.  He  was  educated  at  Eton, 
sei-ved  for  a  short  time  in  a  hussar  regiment,  and  was  returned 
in  lSr3  for  his  native  connty.  D.  soon  showed  himself -an  ad- 
vanced Liberal,  opposed  the  Corn-Law  Bill  of  1815,  the  Alien 
Acts  of  the  Castlereagh  ministry  in  i8l6,  the  measures  to  repress 
public  meetings  after  the  '  Manchester  massacre '  of  1819,  and 
endeavoured  to  pass  a  scheme  of  parliamentary  reform.  In 
1828  be  was  created  Baron  D.   Two  jrears  later  he  became  Lord 


Reform  Bill  of  1832.     Ill  health  compelled  him  to  retire  I 
the  government,  when  he  was  made  an  ear),  and  in  1833 
sent  on  a  special  mission  to  Russia.     During  the  insurrec 
in  Canada  of  1837-38,  D.  was  sent  out  as  Governor- General,  but 
excited  the  ili-will  of  the  Canadians,  and  was  censured  by  the 
Home  Parliament  for  transporting  the  lead««  of  the  rebellion  to 
Bermuda,  and  resigned  the  office.     He  died  at  Cowes,  Isle  of 
Wight,  July  28,  1840. 

Dtirham,  ^meon  of,  an  English  chronicler  of  the  12th  c, 
who  taught  at  Oxford,  and  wrote  Latin  annals  of  England  to 
the  reign  of  Henry  I.  His  book  is  specially  valuable  for  the 
history  of  the  N.  of  England,  and  was  continued  by  John  of 
Hexham. 

Dtt'rian,  or  Durion  {Durio  zibethtKiis),  a  fruit-lree  of  the 
Malay  AtchipeiaEo,  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Slei-ailiaceis. 
Though  it  has  a  most  offensive  odour,  it  is  one  of  the  most  deli- 
cious of  fruits.  '  A  rich  custard,'  says  Mr  Alfred  Wallace, 
'  highly  flasoured  with  almonds,  gives  the  best  general  idea  of  it.' 
The  unripe  diirians  are  cooked  as  a  potherb,  the  pulp  is  salted 
and  preserved,  and  the  seeds,  as  large  as  pigeon's  eggs,  are 
roasted  and  eaten  like  chestnuts.  It  is  successfully  cultivated 
in  Ceylon  and  India,  where  it  commands  a  high  price.  One 
tree  wiU  yield  shout  200  durians  in  a  year, 

S&k'beitll,  one  of  &ia  pretlii^t  towns  in  the  Rhenish 
Palatinate,  Bavaria,  on  the  Isenach,  10  miles  N.  of  Neustadt 
by  railway.  It  has  a  fainous  sausage-market  (since  1494), 
and  a  consido^ble  wine  trade.  Many  visitors  are  attracted  by 
the  grape-cure,  and  by  the  ne^bouilng  salt-baths  of  Philipps- 
hall.  Pop.  (1872)  5572.  D.,  the  dA  Thumighdm,  was  the 
fesidenee  of  the  Frantdsh  dukes  of  Iha  Salian  branch.  It 
was  rebuilt  afl:^  the  destructStai  of  the  issUe  of  the  counts  of 
Leinlngen  by  the  Elector  EaJatlne  Friedrich  in  1471,  and  again 
after  its  devastation  by  the  French  in  l639.  About  a  mile  S.W. 
of  D.  are  the  beautiful  ruins  of  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  Lim- 
burg,  fpunded  by  Konrad  II.  in  1030.  Near  the  abbey,  and  on 
the  summit  of  Kastanienberg,  is  iie  Heidtnmautr  ('  heathens' 
wall '),  a  rampart  supposed  to  be  ^  Roman  caigin,  and  enclos- 
ing an  area  of  2  sq.  miles. 

Durlach,  a  town  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  Germany, 
on  the  Pfinz,  3  miles  E.  of  Karlsruhe  by  railway.  It  lies  at  the 
foot -of  a  vine-covered  hill  (the  Thurmbetg),  and  is  further  linked 
to  Caxlsruhe  try  B  canal  and  aia  awenue  of  poplars.  Its  manufac- 
tures are  delf-ware,  tobacco,  beer,  vinegar,  &c.,  and  it  has  a 
well-known  fruit-market.  Pop.  (1872)  6327.  D.  was  the  capital 
of  Baden  before  Karlsruhe  vras  founded  in  1715. 

Ihi'roe,  a&rand-OhffiBtoplie-Micliel,  Duo  de  Friuli,  was 

bom  at  Pont-i-Mousson,  October25,  1772.  He  served  as  aide- 
de-camp  to  Bonaparte  in  the  Italian  and  Egyptian  campaigns. 
His  services  to  the  Consul  in  1799  procured  him  a  generalship, 
several  important  embassies,  affli  the  post  of  Grand  Marshal  of  the 
Palace.  He  carried  through  the  peace  with  Saxony  (1806),  the 
cessiwi  by  Chiles  IV.  of  his  rights  to  the  throne  of  Spain,  and 
the  armistice  of  Znaim  (1808).  The  scene  between  the  Emperor 
and  D.  on  the  field  of  Markrasdorf  (where  the  latter  was  killed, 
May  22,  18J3)  is  well  known. 

Durr'a,  Dour'a,  Dmra  Mill'«t,  or  Tn'dian  MUlet.  Sffe 
Sorgho  Grass. 

Dunr'eiiberg'C  barren,  mount'),  a  village  of  Prussian  Saxony, 
6  miles  S.S.E.  of  Mersebui^,  with  important  saltworks,  estals- 
lished  in  1763,  which  produced  in  1871  22,150  tons  of  salt  by 
evaporation.     Pop.  267. 

DiirT'eaatein  ('barren  rode'),  a  village  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Danube,  Lower  Austria,  44  miles  W.N.W.  of  Vienna, 
with  the  ruins  of  tSie  ftalress  m  which  Leopold  Duke  of  Austria 
imprisoned  Rfchad  Cceur-de-Lion  on  his  return  from  Palestine, 
1191.    Pop.  650. 

DuTWey  (Wel^  dwr^  'water,'  and  Old  Eng,  ley,  'meadow,' 
i.t.,  'the  water-meadow,'  from  the  Broadwell  spring  in  the  vici- 
Dity],  a  market-town  in  Gloucestershire,  near  the  Coleswold 
Hills,  14  miles  S,  by  W.  of  Gloucester,  with  fulling-mills  and 
breweries.     Pop.  (1871)  2413, 

Duruy,  Victor,  a  French  historian,  born  at  Paris,  Septem- 
ber w,  181 1,  for  many  years  Professor  of  History  at  Rheims  and 


yLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE.  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DUY 


Kfteiwai-ds  at  the  ficole  Polytechnigue,  has  especially  devoted 
himself  to  hislorical  geography.  This  sulgect  he  .has  treated  in 
several  works  dealing  with  the  Roman  Republic  and  Empi 


Empire.  His  programmes  and  circulars  eitdCed  much  cnticism 
amongbothCatholics  and  liberals, and hjsffiirfo/raCiWJiffB/DroiHe, 
for  use  in  the  Lyceum,  was  written  for  the  purpose  of  political 
ptopagandism.  On  his  resignation  in  1869  the  grateful  Emperor 
made  him  a  Senator  with  a  '  dotation '  of  30,000  francs.  D.  's, 
chief  works  are  Giographis  Histariqui  da,  Moym  Age  (1839), 
GhgmpMe  Historiqut  de  la  Frame  (1840),  Hutoire  des  Roin^s 
etdesPeupUs  saumis  d  liHr.nommaiiffii  {1840-44),  HistoU-e  Mo- 
dern! {1863),  and  Introdmtion  Girtirale  it  I'Mulpire  t*  Frame 
(1865). 

Dusio'yon,  a  genus  of  Canid^,  ot  Dogs  (q.  v.),  inhabiting 
S.  American  flat-lands,  and  living  gre^riously  in  burrows  in  a 
wild  state.  They  appear  to,  be.  susceptible  of  domestication, 
and  possess  elongated  bodies,  sharp  muzzles,  and  bushy  tails. 

Biias'eldorf,  the  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  in 
Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  where  it  is 
joined  by  (he  DUsselbach,  21  mjles  N.N.W.  of  Cologne  by  rail- 
way. It  is  a  handsome  town  with  wide  regular  sfcteels,  niimerous 
squares,  fine  gardens,  and  promenades.  Its  maita  divisions  ai:e 
the  Altstadt,  on  the  rigiit  bank  of  the  Dusselbach;  the  Neu- 
stadl,  on  the  Rhine  (bmlt  1690-1716) ;  the  Karlstadi.on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Diisselbach,  fouadwi  by  the  Elector  Kail  Theodot 
in  1787;  andthemodemFrie^ichstadt,  forming  the  S.  side.  The 
principal  buildingsare  theCoUogiateChurch,  ctmtainingthe  tombs 
of  the  Dukes  of  Jijlich  and  Bei« ;  the  heautiful  Church  of  St  An- 
drea,  formerly  belonging  to  the  JesBJts  ;  the  old  electoral  pglape  ; 
the  governor  5  palace ;  the  town-hall  { 1 567) ;  the  obsecva.tory ;  aj 
public  library  of  50,000  vols.. ;  and  a  theatre  ([865).    The  old 


lection  of  some  14, 500  origuial  drawings  (by  Leasing,  Achenb&fih, 
Knaus,  Schirmer,  &c ),  ^d  24,000  copperplate  engravings.  D.. 
had  formerly  a  splendid  aft  gallery  (foiincfed  in  1690,  and  rei. 
moved  to^  Munich  in  I805),  containing  the  most  perfect  collection, 
of  the  woi-lis  of  Rubens  and  the  other  mastap  of  the  Flemish  and 
Dutch  schools.  The  celelaated  ait  academy  was  established 
by  Karl  Theodor  in  1767,  was  nurtured  by  Cornelius  and  Scha- 
dow,  and  has  been  unde^  the  cate  of  Bendemanp  since- 1859, 
D.  is  also  one  of  the  musical  centres  on,  the  Lower  Rhine.  lis 
industries  are  rapidly  increasing,  ami  It  enjoys  every  advantage 
of  position,  and  completft  comiminlcation  by  river  and  lailwayi 
Among  the  manufactuteSiaie  cottons,  colours,  leather,  tobacco, 
chemicals,  cacri^es,  and  tapesiiy,  and  there  isconsider^e  trad? 
in  books  and  articles  of  viitn.  Pcy.  (1871)  69,351.  D.  was  a 
town  as  early  as  1 2S8,  and  was  thp  i;esidence  of  the  Dukes  of 
Jiilich,  Kleve,  Berg.  It  was  taken  by  the  Fl;ench  m  1795,  re- 
stored to  Bavaria  at  the  Peace  of  Luneville,  180B,  anij  to  the. 
Duchy  of  Berg  in  1806,  along  wkh  which  it  came  \ft,  Prussia  £n 
I8IS. 

Duet-Ball,  a  disease  ii^  bosses,  provolted  by  loo.  njiuchfood 
compased  of  com  and  barley-dust.  The  disorder  affects  chiefly 
the  intestinal  canal.  Its  presence  is  made  known  by  a  haggard 
countenance,  a  distressed  eye,  distended  belly,  and  hurried  re- 
spiration. The  ball  is  sometiioics  aboy(  foui;  inches  ia  diam^er, 
and  as  hard  as  i^o^ 

Dust-Brand.     See  Smut. 

Dutcll  Gold  is  a  very  ductile  and  malleable  alloy  of  ^pper 
and  line,  containing  nearly  85  per  cent  of  the  former.  It  can 
be  beaten  out  into  extremely  thin  leaves,  resembling  gold-leaf, 
for  which  it  is  a  chief  substitute.  Wheo.  triturated,  it  forms  a 
'  bronze  powder. ' 

Dutch  Liquid  was,  discovered  in  1795  by  the  Dutch  diemi^s 
Deiman,  Pacts  van  Trooskiyk,  Bond,  and  Lauweienburg.  It  is 
a  componnd  of  olefiant  gas  or  Ethylene  (q.  v.)  with  chlorine, 
liaving  the  composition  represented  by  the  formula  CjHjCLi. 
D.  L.  is  readily  obtained  bj  allowing  chlorine  and  ethylene  to 
come  in  contact.  It  is  a  colourless  crily  liquid,  havinga  peculiar 
chloroform -like  odour,  and  a  sweet  aromatic  taste.  It  is  heavier 
than  water,  and  boils  at  825°  C 

Butch  Bushes.    See  Equisetace.^. 


Dutena,.  Louis,  a  French  1  hilologist  and  author,  was  bora 
atlours,  i6thjaiiiar)  17^0,  of  a  Protestant  family.  At  the  agf 
of  eighteen  he  wrote  a  tragedy,  Le  Ketmtr  d'  Ufysse  a  Ilhaqas, 
which  vras  atted  with  success  at  Orleans.  About  1750  he 
came  to  England,  where  he  Miplfed  himself  to.  Oriental  lan- 
ginges  and  mathematics.  While  chaplain  aod  secretary  tc 
Mackenzie,  the  Enghsh  minister  at  Turin,  he  undertook  a  com- 
plete edition  of  Leibmtj,  which  appeared  in  6  vols,  in,  1769. 
The  latter  part  of  his  hfe  was  passed  at  Elsdon,  Northjimbeijland, 
where  he  had  obtained  a  living.     He  belonged  to  the  Academi 

■  des  Inscriptions  of  Paris,  the  Royal  Society  of  London,,  a^d  we  _ 
ro^al  historiompher  to  George  HI.  D.  died  23d  May  1812. 
His  chief  worii,  Mechtrches  sur  VOrigine  dts  £>&ouvirtes  atlri- 

.  Iniies'  atix  Modemes  (1766),  appeared  in  1766.     Its  learnit^  is 

■  p-eat  and  curious^  but  it  had  bgcome  D.'s  craze  Ifcat  the  ancients 
knew  everything.  He  is  more  trustworthy  as-  a  iHimism^tist,  and 
published  valuable  disserta.lions  on  Greek  and  Phcenicfeo  medals 
and  on  precious  stones. — Joseph  Uichel  D.,  nephew  of  the 
above,  bom  at  Tours,  October  15,  1765,  was  an  engineer  and 
economist.  He  published,  in  1804,  an  analysis  of  the  funda- 
mental p^nciples  trfpohtical  economy,  and  in  1,819,  ^  tlie  re- 
sult of  a  governmMit  mission  to  Engknd,  his,  Mhiipires  sur  Iss 
Trtaiaux  Publics  de  fAn^eterre  {e^ecially  the  canab).  This 
was  followed  by  his,  elaborate  Hiilowt  de  la  Niaiigaiion  Inti- 
riawedela  France  {z,vols^  1829).  But  his  chief  book  is  ./"^f^ff- 
sopAie  lie  r^commu  Pditique  (1835).    He  died  6th  August  1848. 

DutrtJ'diet,  Beng-Toachim-Henri,  bom  r4th  November 
1776,  at  ids  father's  country-house  in  Poitou.  After  serving  in 
the  royahst  army  of  La  Vendee,  he  adopted  medicine  as  a  pro- 
fession, acted  for  a  short  time  as  military  medical  officer  to  Joseph 
Bonaparte,  King  of  Spain,  but  lattecly  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  physics  and  physiology.  He.  entered  the  Academic  des 
Sciences  in  1831,  and  died  at  Paris,  4th  February  1847.  His 
specialty  was  the  study  of  the  movements  of  fluids  in  plants  and 
aniffials,  as  connected  with  their  growth,  including,  of  cour" 
the  embiyonic  structure  of  plants,  &c.  He' first  used  the  tei 
endosmosis  and  exosmoiis.  His  eiperiraents  on  the  results  of 
aitificialty  impressing  mptkai  Upon  growing  seeds  and  plants  are 
very  curious.  All  his,  theories  and  discoveries  are  to  be  found 
in  his  MhnoirtS:  pour  servir  A  Flfistoire  Anatomiaae  el  Phydolo- 
gigue  des  Vi^taux  el  des  Animaux  (2  vols.  Par.  1837}. 


apital  of  a  protected  state  of  the 
e  agency  of  Bundelcund,  135 
a  rocky  district,  is  surrounded 
e  buildings.  Pop.  50,000.  The 
se  of  tribute,  yields  its  rajah  a 
n  army  6000  strong.     Area,  850 


Dutt'eeah,  or  Da'tia,  the  a 
same  name,  Central  India,  in  1 
miles  S.E.  of  Agra.  It  stands  in 
by  walls,  and)  has  several  ma 
native  state  of  D.,  which  is  in 
revenue  of.£loo,ooo,  and  has  a 
sq.  miles;  pop,  i2O,0tK). 

Dtr'ty.     See  Ei^Kicg. 

Duval',  Alexandre  Vincent  Pineu,  was  bom  at  Renncs, 
6th  April  1767.,  He  was  from  1792  to  1815  one  of  the  leading 
dramatic  authora  in  France  in  comedy,  legitimate  drama,  and 
opera-comique.  His  works  (ed.  1S23-33,  in  9  vols.)  show  skill 
in  plot,  effective  dialogue,  and  comic  situations.  His  most  snc- 
cessfal  piece  was  Adeuard  en  ^cosse,  ca  la  Nidt  d'un  Proscril. 
He  had  a  bitter  controversy  with  Victor  Hugo  and  the  Romantic 
School,  whom  he  accused  of  ruining  the  stage.  He  died  at 
Paris,  January  1842. 

Duvati'oel,  Alfted,  a  French  savan,  born  in  1793,  was 
the  son-in-law  of  Cuvier,  who  instructed  him  in  natural  his- 
tory. In  1817^  as  loyal  naturalist,  D.  undertook  an  expedi- 
tion to,  Chufidemagore,  Sumatra,  Malacca,  and  the  valleys  of 
the  Ganges  and  the  Brahraapootra.  He  made  lat^e  collections, 
which  weie  transmitted  to  Paris.  He  vras  a  constant  correspon- 
dent of  the.  Asiatic  Society  of  Paris.  He  describes  his  travels  in 
a  graphic  style,  without  losing  scientific  precision.  His  visit  to 
the  King  of  Cossya  and  the  '  Cavern  of  the  Devil '  is  of  especial 
interest.      He  died  at  Madras  in  August  1824. 

Duy^ae,  Prudens  Van,  a  Belgian  author,  bom  at  Dender- 
monde,  28th  September  1804,  became  Archivist  of  Ghent, 
and  Professor  of  National  Histoiy  at  the  Athenieum,  and  died 
13th  November  1659.  His  History  of  the  Poetry  of  the  Nether- 
lands from  the  \Slh  c,  and  Ms  own  lyrical  and  dramatic  pieces, 
contributed  to  the  revival  of  Flemish  literature. 


yUoogle 


DWA 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DTO 


Dwale.     See  BElLADONtJA, 
Dwarfs.     See  Gjants  and  Dwae 
Dwell'ing-Hoiwe,      The  legal  tl      y        E  glapd       d 
Scotland  is  thai  a  man's  D.-H.  ia  a  t      y  1  bl    by 

l^al  execution,  but  there  are  bo  many  pt  t  Ihe  I 
that  its  forcfiL  inlaw  is  not  great.     It  gi  p    t    U      t    oi 

chained  wiJi  a'crime,  nor  against  debt  t  tl  w  I  Eg 
land  the  sheriff;  in  virtue  of  a  writ  called  a  Capias  Utiagatura 
(see  Capias),  may  break  into  a,  D.,-H.,  and  seize  the  person 
against  whom'  the  writ  is  directed.  In  Scotland  the  same  end  is 
attained  by  letters  of  Caption  (q.  v.),  in  virtue  of  which  the 
debtor  is  by  legal  fiction  seized  as  a  rebel. 

By  24  and  25  Vict.  c.  96,  stealing  anything  from  a  B.-H., 
with  menace  to  an  inmate,  is  felony.  (See  Bueglahy.)  It  is 
sometimes  a  consideiable  aggravatiqn  of  the  offence  or  crime 
of  assault,  if  committed  within  a  D.-H.  See  Beatin&  and 
Wounding,  also,  for  Scotland,  Hamesucken, 

Dwigllt,  Timof^y,^  D.,!D>,  a|i  Americai;,  divHie,  was  bom 
at  Northampton,  Slasaachi^etta,  Jrlay  14,  1752.  His  father 
was  Colonel  Timothy  D.,  and  his  mother  was  Mary,  a  daughter 
of  Jonathan  Edwiffdi  (q.  v.).  D.  graduated  at  Yale  College,  1,769. 
After  serving  as  diaplain  in  the  rjevolulionary  array,,  he  was  or- 
dained over  tie  Congregational  Chup;h,  Gijeenfteld,  Connecticut, 
1783,  and  in  1795  was  elected  President  of  Yale  Co'lege  and 
Professor  of  Theology.  Here  he  powerfully  opposed  infidelity, 
and  gave  a,  fresh.  ^igiouS;  life,  to  the  college.  His  regalat 
sermons  foi^ned  the  basis  of  his  Theology  (S  vols.  Middletown, 
Conn.  i5i3),  a  work  which  has  made  Ins  name  a  household 
word  both  in  England  and  America.  D.  died  January  I  r,  1S17. 
Among  his  other  works  are  The  CoiiqaesC  of  Canaan,  an  Epic 
Foem  (1,785^;  ajid  Tnsvekin  New  England  aitd  New  York{i&a). 
Dwi'iia,  or Dzyina  ('the  double  river,,'  comp.  Sanslt.  Doab], 
a  river  of  Russia,  aijd  the  largest  iiavjgable  stream  ra  the  N.,  of 
Europe.  It  is'formed  by  the  S»filOBia  from  Vologda  iti  the  W.,  and 
the  Vitchegda  from,  near  the  sources  of  the  Petchora  in  the  E. , 
which  Tuiile  below  Ustiag- Veliki,  their  jomt  stream  then  receiv- 
ing the  namt  D.,  and  flowing  N.W.  to  the  White  Sea.  The 
Suchona,  which  is  regarded  as  the  head  stream,  rises  to  the  N.E. 
of  the  Bielp'  Lake,  and  receives  the  Jug  {250  miles}  and  the 
Luia  before  joining  the  Vitchegda,  whiiJi  has  a  previous  course 
of  600  miles.  It  is  thereafter  incieased  by  thp  waters  oi  the 
Vaga  (290  miles)  oft  tlie  left,  apd,  the  Finega  (320,  miles)  on  the 
right  side.  It  Ij^  a  total  length,  of  lOOO  miles,  t^|l  a  basin  of 
some  123,900  sq,  miles.  Near  its  mouth,at  Arching^  it  is  4 
miles  broad,  and  abput  50  mile^up  it  hBS,a'bceadth  of  one  mile, 
while  it  is  nayigable  ap  far  as,  the  Snchon^,  Expandmg  into 
the  B.  Bay,  it  enters  the  sea  trough  four  deeply- furrowed 
courses.  These  again  ate  enclosed  by  a  bar,  over  which  men- 
of-war  can  only  pass  at  flood-tide.  The  D.  is  frozen  from,  the 
middle  of  October  to, the  end  of  April.  The  Jekaterinen- Canal 
(1807)  and  the  Alexander  of  Wiirtemberg  Canal  connect  it  Wjth 
the  Volga. 

Dyak',  Dayak,  ovBjak,,  thename.of  the  aboriginal. inhabi- 
tants of  Borneo  (g,  v.),  a  people  of  Malaysian  origin  still  number- 
ing some  1,800,000.  They  are  divided  into  five  principal  groups 
— (i)  The  wild  nomad  Mankettas  of  the  interior  ;  (2)  the  Pari  or 
Kajan  in  the  E. ;  (3)  the  Bijadshn  in  the  S.  ;  (4)  the  tribes  of 
the  N.W.  in  Sambas,  Landak,  Sarawak,  &c. ;  and  (5}  those  of 
N.  and  Central  Borneo,  chiefly  iit  Bcunai  and  the  river  district 
of  Kapuas,  to  which  belong  the  pirate  tribes  Seribas  and  Batan- 
gulpar.  Ill  appearance  tlie  D.  is  robust  and  musci^lar,  of  a 
complexion  varying  from  the  lightest  to  the  deepest  brown, 
with  a  round  face  and  long  black  hair.  The  average  height  ot 
the  men  is  5  feet  2  inches.  Several  of  the  coast  tribes  have  em- 
braced Mohammedanism,  but  there  is  gross  superstition  eveiy- 
where,  while  polygamy,  and  even,  it  is  said,  cannibalism,  prevail. 
The  Dyaks,  who  are  yet  but  little  civilised,  are  cliiefly  engaged 
in  cultivating  rice,  and  in  bartering  gold-dust,  diamonds,  rattans, 
gutta-percha,  &c.,  with  the  Chinese.  They  are  slightly  clad, 
and  occupy  wooden  houses  which  are  often  large  enough  to 
accommodate  100  persons, 

Dsrce,  Alexander,  an  English  author  and  editor,  was  born 
at  Edinburgh,  June  30,  1798.      Educated  at  the  High  School  of 
that  city  and  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  B.  took  orders,  a-^ 
fora  lime  officiated  as  acurate;  but  in  1827  settled  down 
464 


1 1  ra  y  w    k  in  London,    This  work  cimsists  chiefly  of  editions, 

tl  t  and  biographies,  of  tlie  Eiiglidi  dramatists  who  were 
[  d  ces  ts  or  contemporaries  of  Shakespeare,  such  as  Peeie, 
L.  W  bster,  Middleton,  Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  Marlowe, 

d  SI  1  y ;.  editions  of  the  poems  of  Shakespeare,  Pope, 
B  ttiE  d  AJtenside„  for  Pickering's  Aldine  Foels,  with  bio- 
g  ph  f  he  poets  ;  his  discovery  and  pablication  of  two  old 
pi  y  ?■  J0(  and  Sir  Thomas  More;  RecoBeetions  ofthi  Table- 
Talk  of  Samuel  Ra^rs  (1856} ;  and  above  all,  his  Complete  Edi- 
tion of  the  Works  ^  Sha&espeare,  the.  Text  Revised,  with  Acesiint 
of  the  LUe,  Slays,  and  Editions  of  Shaiespeari,  Notes,  &v., 
(tS53~s8).  D.,  who  was  also  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Percy 
Society,  for  the  publication  of  dd,  English  ballads,  plays,  and 
poems,  died  May  15,  1869. 

Dyce,  WiUiam,  TLA.,  painter,  was  born  at  Aberdeen,  in 
1S06,  and  after  an  education  at  Aberdeen  University,  studied 
art  at  Rome,  His  first  work  was  exhibited  at  Edinbui^h  in 
1827,  and  three  or  four  years  later  he  exhibited  in  the  Royal 
Academy,  I^ndon.  His  'Kingjoash  Shooting  the  Arrow  of 
Beliverance'  made  him  an  Associate  of  the  Royal  Academy 
(1844),  and  hejWas  appointed  Professor  of  Painting  in  London 
Univereily..  D.,  was  very  sucy^essful.  as  a  fi-esco-painter,  and  was 
employed  to  decorate  Buckingham  Palace,  Osborne  House,  the 
Palace  of  Westminster,  and  the  House  of  Lords,  His  fresco  'The 
Baptism  of  Ethelbert,'  in  the  last-named  edifice,  is  much  ad- 
mired. Among  his  pictures  are  'ChriBtaber  (1S55),  'The  Good 
Shepherd'  (1856),  and  'The;  Man  of' Sorrows' (i860).  D.  was 
elected  R.A,  in  1848,  and  died  Februarj'  14,  1864, 

Dyok,  Sir  Anthony  Van,  who  divides  with  Titian  the 
foremost  rank  in  portrait-painting,  was  bom  at  Antwerp,  March 
22,  1599,  commenced  to.^udy  art  under  Van  Balen  at  the  age 
of  ten,  and  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  entered  the  studio  of  Rubens, 
The  genius  that  manifestedi  itself  thus  early  was  rapid  in  develop- 
ment;. and  on  the,  tith  February  1618,  when  still  a  youth  of  only 
nineteoi,  he  was  admitted  a  Master  by  tlie  Guild  of  Painters  at 
Antwerp.  Twoyears  afterwards  Rubens  engaged  him  as  his  as- 
sistant, and  in  1621,  his  fame  having  already  spread  t5  England, 
James  I,  took  him  into  his  service.  In  1623  we  find  him  in 
Venice,  paintmg  portraits  and  studying  Titian  by  making  copies 
of  his  works.  He  afterwards  visited  Rome,  where  he  won  the 
palronsige  of  Cardinal  BentivogHo,  and  afterwards  he  removed  to 
Genoa,  During  his  Italian  tour  he  laboured  with  great  assi- 
duity, and  as  he  painted  rapidly,  he  produced  an  immense  num- 
ber of  works,  chiefly  portraits.  On,  the  4th  July  1625  he  landed 
at  Marseille,  visited  Paris,  and  tbence-retumed  to  Antwerp,  There 
he  remained  from  1626  to  L632,  during  which  period  he  produced 
his  finest  histoucal  pictures  and  many  of  his  noblest  ponraits. 
In  the  latter  yeac  he  repaired  to  England,  aijd  entered  the  service 
of  Charles  L,  who  appointed  him  chief  court-painter,  with  a 
salary  of  £2<X>.  a  year,  and  soon,  after  confei^ed  on  him  the 
honour  o£  knighthood.  The  English  nobility  following  the  ex- 
ample of  the  king,  Van.  D.  soon  found  himself  practically  the 
portrait-painter  for  the  aristocracy  of  England.  But  even 
when  his  income  was  princely,  and  his  state  and  equipage  often 
surpassed  those  of  the  lords  who  sft  to  him,  he  was  haunted  by 
ambitioi».  and  desired  to  devote  himself  to  some  great  historical 
work.  With  this  view  h?  proposed  to  decorate  the  walls  of  the 
BaJiquetjiig  Sail,  Whitehall ;  but  the  king  would  not  accede  tc 
his  terms.  D.,  who  had  married  Maiy  Ruthven,  grand-daughtei 
of  the'  Earl  of  Cowrie,  died  at  Blaekfriars,  9th  December  1641, 
He  was  buried  with  great  pomp  in  St  Paul's.  Inferior  in  powei 
of  colour  and  in  dramatic  instinct  to  Rubens,  he  surpassed  him 
in,  the  intensity  ani  elevatioij  with,  which  he  expressed  emotion. 
Ease,  refinement,  and.  high  chivalric  sentiment  are  the  chief  cha- 
ijictewstics  of  his  portraits.  Of  his  historical  works  the  chief  is 
the  '  Cnipifixjon. '  ( 1 627)  in  the. cathedral  at  Mechlin,  '  This  pic- 
ture, '  says  Reynolds,  '  may  be  considered  as  one  of  the  first  pic- 
tures ill  the  world,'  His  '  Sampson  betrayed  by  Delilah,'  in  the 
Vienna  Gallery,  is  considered  by  Waagen,  as,  in  a  dramatic 
sense,  his  finest  work.  His.  'Virgin  arid  Child  Enthroned,'  i 
the  same  gallery,  is  unsurpassed  for  elevation  of  feeling  and 
Titianesque  glow  of  colour.  D.'s  portraits  are  to  he  found  in  all 
great  galleries,  and  many  splendid  specimens  adorn  the  collec- 
tions of  famous  English  families.  The  grandest  of  all  his  family 
pictures  is  that  of  Johann  Duke  of  Nassau,  with  his  duchess  and 
children,  now  at  Panshanger,  He  painted  a  number  of  portraits 
of  Charles  I.,  one  of  the  finest  of  which  is  in  the  Vienna  Galleiy. 


-4> 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


The  finest  equestrian  portrait  painted  by  Van  D.  is  that  of 
Francesco  de  Moiii;ada,  Marquis  of  Aytona,  in  the  Louvre. 
See  Carpenter's  admirable  PieUrrial  l^oticis,  &c  (Lond.  1848) ; 
Lectures  on  Painting  by  the  Royal  Academicians,  with  intro- 
ducloi^F  essay  and  notes  by  R.  Womum,  Esq.  {Bohn's  Scien- 
tific Library)  j  The  German,  Flemish,  and  Dutch  Schcoh,  based 
on  the  Handbook  of  Kugler,  remodelled  by  Dr  Waagen,  and  re- 
vised by  J.  A.  Crowe  (Lond.  Murray,  1874}. 

I^e'ing  (Old  Eng.  dtag,  'a  dye  or  colour")  ia  the  art  of  im- 
parling fixed  and  permanent  colours  to  textile  substances.  The 
art  of  D.  is  one  of  great  antiquity,  and  of  vast  extent  and  im- 
portance. The  substances  to  which  dyes  are  imparted  are  very 
numerous,  and  varied  in  Ihar  character  and  in  their  behaviour 
towards  D.  materials,  and  the  dyes  (see  Dye-Stuffs)  are  in 
their  turn  equally  numerous  and  difierent  in  their  composition, 
properties,  and  tinctorial  effect.  There  is  abundant  evidence 
that  the  art  of  D.  has  been  practised  from  the  most  remote  anti- 

Jiiity.  The  Jewish  patriarch  Jacob  gave  to  his  favourite  son 
oseph  a  coat  of  many  colours,  and  from  the  Mosaic  narrative  we 
find  that  the  art  of  D.  had  attained  great  perfection  in  Egypt 
during  the  period  of  the  Israelitish  sojourn  in  that  laud.  The 
fame  of  ancient  Phcenieia,  and  the  supreme  commercial  position 
of  its  capital.  Tyre,  were  largel;^  due  to  the  purple  dye  of 
that  city.  On  account  of  its  brillianey,  beauty,  and  costliness, 
cloth  dyed  in  this  colour  became  the  badge  of  royalty,  and  to  this 
day  the  phrase  '  imperial  purple '  is  still  employed.  The  purple 
of  Tyre  was  obtained  from  certain  molluscs  of  the  genus  Murex, 
two  different  shell-fish,  according  to  Pliny,  distinguished  as  the 
Bucdnum  and  the  Purpura,  being  its  source.  It  is  supposed 
that  the  brilliant  D,  material,  murexide,  obtained  from  guano 
and  other  sources  of  uric  acid,  is  identical  with  the  Tyrian  purple 
of  the  ancbnts.  From  very  andent  times  the  population  of  Hin- 
doslan  has  occupied  a  foremost  position  in  the  knowledge  of  the 
art  of  imparting  rich  and  perrnanent  colours  to  textiles,  and  been 
famous  for  the  skill  and  artistic  effect  with  which  they  combmed 
and  harmonised  their  rich  colours  in  woven  and  printed  patterns ; 
and  not  a  little  of  the  knowledge  of  D.  enjoyed  by  Western 
nations  at    the  present  time  has  ifs   source   among  Eastern 

Any  texture  can  only  be  said  to  be  dyed  when  the  colouring 
material  is  so  incorporated  with  or  attached  to  it  that  it  is  not 
affected  by  washing  m  hot  water,  and  when  ii  will  bear  a  reason- 
able amount  of  exposure  to  light  an4  moisture  without  sensibly 
bleachmg  or  fading.  The  affinities  of  the  various  animal  af\d  vege- 
table substances  for  the  colouring  principle  of  dyes  vary  greatly. 
As  a  general  njle  it  may  be  said  tliat  the  animal  fibres — silk  and 
wool — take  up  colours  much  more  readily,  and  assume  more 
briUiant  hues,  than  either  linen  or  cotton.  Silk  and  wool,  more- 
over, are  in  many  cases  dyed  permanent  colours  by  prepara- 
tions which,  without  the  aid  of  mordants  or  chemical  agents,  only 
give  a  fleeting  stain  or  discolourment  to  vegetable  fibres.  Most 
of  the  red  colours  derived  from  aniline,  for  example,  attach  them- 
selves permanently  to  woollen  Eextnres  on  a  simple  immersion  of 
the  substance  Iti  the  beck  of  prepared  dye,  no  mordant  being 
used..  But  in  order  to  dye  cotton  with  any  of  the  aniUne  reds, 
the  goods  must  first  be  prepared  in  a  mordant,  that  generally 
used  for  dyeing  magenta  being  thestannate  of  soda,  tannin  Uquor, 
and  alum-  Sucl|  mordants  are  intennediate  agents,  which  have 
at  once  an  affinity  for  the  fibre  to  be  dyed  and  the  D.  material 
to  be  employed,  and  by  the  usp  of  different'  mordants  a  variety 
of  shades  and  effects  are  produced  with  the  same  D.  material, 
Colouring  matters  become  tlftis  divisible  into  two  classes — (l) 
Dyes  which  are  fixed,  ^nd  become  permanent  vrithoul 
■      of  any  mordant,     These 

IS  adjective  colour 


colours.     (2)  Dyes  which  require  for  their  fisation  t 
.   3f  a  mordant,  which  class  is  known  as  adjecHve  colom 
A  laige  proportion  of  dyes  belong  to  the  second  class,  pnd 


many  cases  the  brilUancy  of  substances  of  the  first  class  (snbsta 
tive  colours)  is  greatly  increased  by  the  use  of  mordants. 

Dyes  are  communicated  to  textile  fabrics  either  by  a  proc 
of  mechanical  fixation,  or  by  a  chemical  combination  betwe 
the  fibre  and  the  dye.  Similarly  the  action  of  a  certain  class 
mordants,  which  comprises  salts  of  tin,  iron,  &c,  is  explain 
by  a  chemical  combination  between  the  mordant  and  the  fib 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  colour  and  mordant  on  the  other;  a 
a  second  class  of  mordants  act  by  mechanically  glueing  or  fix 
the  colour  to  the  fibre.      The  operations  of  D,  may  be  genera 


be  so  d  and  b 

g     d  h    th 

wth    h    fib  as 


They  are  fixed  n; 
which,  on  the  pp  ci 
so  that  the  dye  d  1 
(2)  Dyes  which 

such  dyes  achmca        rati  pbtw         h  a 

the  fibre  on  th     mm  rs  h  h  th  and 

colouring  matt     isdwn  dpm  fi  Ih 

ture.     It  is  o  fi         wl     h 

aniline  reds,  pic 

this  style.      (3)  D        fi     d  m    ns  m 

To  this  class  allusion  has  already  been  made,  and  it  erabrai. ._ 
the  most  important  and  extensively- employed  substances  in  the 
D.  series.  (4)  Dyes  fixed  by  oxidation,  in  which  the  dye  i; 
communicated  to  the  fibre  in  a  state  of  solution,  and  which,  or 
exposure  to  the  air,  or  by  other  means  of  oiddation,  develop  their 
colour  and  become  permanently  fixed  on  the  fibre.  Indigo  blue 
forms  the  best  example  of  this  class,  it  being  applied  to  the  sub- 
stance  to  be  dyed  as  a  colourless  solution  of  white  indigo  (or 
irtdigo  which  has  taken  up  a  proportion  of  hydrogen  into  its  com- 
position), and  which,  on  exposure  to  air,  rapidly  absorbs  oxygen 
and  again  assumes  its  blue  colour.  These  classes  include  the 
principal  means  by  which  dyes  are  united  to  fabrics,  but  there 
are  others  which  cannot  be  referred  to  any  of  them,  and  which 
are  due  to  a  variety  of  special  chemical  or  mechanical  agencies. 
The  operations  of  D.,  as  carried  on  in  manufacturing  eatabli^- 
ments,  are  so  varied  and  complex  that  no  genei-al  outline  of  the 
industry  can  be  given. 

In  practice,  certain  preliminary  operations  are  necessary  for 
the  preparation  of  textile  materials  for  D,  In  order  that  anj 
material  may  take  up  a  uniform  colour  it  must  be  in  a  state  0 
chemical  and  mechanical  uniformity.  Cotton  and  linen  fabrics  g< 
through  a  prolonged  and  tedious  series  of  operations  in  Bleaching 
(q.  v.),  and  similarl)^  silk  and  woollen  fabrics  are  '  scoured'  to 
extract  grease  and  incrusting  substances.  Wool  and  silk  a 
very  frequently  dyed  in  the  yarn  before  weaving,  cotton  is  mo 
generally  operated  on  in  the  web,  and  linen  is  not  very  often 
submitted  to  the  process  of  D.  at  all.  A  considerable  quantity 
of  cotton  is  dyed  Turkey-red  in  the  yam,  and  other  colours  used 
in  gingham-weaving  must  also  of  course  be  yarn-dyed.  After 
D.,  goods  are  prepared  for  the  market  by  washing,  starching, 
and  calendering  or  beetling  in  the  case  of  woven  cotton  fabrics, 
and  by  a  variety  of  processes  in  the  ease  of  silk:  and  woollen 
textures,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  cloth. 

D3r'er,  George,  an  Englisli  author,  was  bom  in  London,  rsth 
March  1755,  educated  at  Christ's  Hospital  and  Emmanuel 
College,  Cambridge,  and  after  1792  settled  in  London  as  a  « 
He  died  3d  March  1S41,  D.  was  a  good  scholar,  and  a 
industrious  and  useful  author.  He  look  a  large  share  i  .  . 
production  of  Valpy's  edition  of  the  classics  (141  vols.),  and 


other  works. 


D3rer,  John,  an  English  poet,  was  bom  in  Carinarthenshire 
in  1700.  He  was  educated  at  Westminster  School,  gave  up  la 
for  painting,  travelled  in  Italy,  finally  settled  in  England,  took 
orders,  and  became  rector  of  Coningsby  in  Lincolnshire,  where 
he  died,  July  24,  1758.  He  was  a  pleasing  and  natural  poet. 
His  works  consist  of  Gron^ca- HUl  \,\Ti,(i\,  an  excellent  descriptive 
poem  ■  Ruins  of  Rome  (1740)  a  more  ambitious  ind  lesssuccess- 
f  rgi 


vLaOogle 


DYE 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DTK 


f  are  drawn  from  the  mineral,  vegetabS,  and  animal  king- 
ns,  and  an  increasing  number  of  the  most  important  and 
valuable  D,-S.  are  obtained  by  chemical  reactions  from  various 
products  of  coal-tar.  The  chief  D.-S.  will  ha  noticed  under 
their  proper  headings,  and  here  they  are  only  briefly  named  and 
classified  according  to  their  various  sources. 

Animal  Substaacis.—Csxvam.^  and  other  lakes,  the  most  bril- 
liant and  valuable  of  all  red  dyes,  are  obldned  from  cochineal, 
the  female  insect  of  Coccus  auH.  Kermes  is  a  red  dye  produced 
from  a  closely  allied  insect.  Coccus  m/cciorius.  Lac  dye  is  an  E. 
Indian  product,  extracted  from  a  resinous  exudation  produced 
on  various  trees  by  another  spedes  of  Coccus.  Galls  also  are 
pi-oduced  by  the  puncture  of  insects,  chiefly  of  the  genas  C^Hj^a, 
on  various  spedes  of  oak  and  other  trees.  The  pniple  of  Tyre 
was  a  product  of  the  niolluscan  genas  Murcx;  and  the  murexide 
dyes  of  modem  times  are  prepared  chieflv  from  guano. 

Vegetaih  D.-S.—Ta.^  vegetable  kingdom  is  the  source  of  by 
far  the  largest  number  of  the  tinctorial  agents  used  in  in- 
dustrial processes.  The  most  important  and  extensively  used 
vegetable  D.-S.  is  madder,  the  roots  of  RiMa  tincioria,  widely 
cultivated  throughout  the  S.  of  Europe,  With  various  mor- 
dants, it  yields  many  shades  of  red,  purple,  brown,  and  black, 
and  it  is  the.  material  employed  for  dyeing  the  well-known 
Turkey-red.  It  contains  two  chief  colouring  prindplea, 
ali?arin  and  purpurin,  which  are  now  largely  prepared  from 
a  product  of  coal-tar,  this,  being  the  first  instance  of  the 
artificial  production  of  natural  organic  D.-S.  Munjeet  is 
the  roots  of  a  closely  allied  plant,  Rubia  mun^isla.,  grown  m 
the  E.  Indies,  and  possessed  of  properties  similar  to  madder. 
TTie  wood  of  several  trees  yields  red  colouring  matters,  the 
chief  of  which  are  logwood,  obtained  from  Hsinalcxyloa  Cam- 
pechiamim ;  Brazil  wood,  Jidded  by  Ccssalpinia  Brasiliensis; 
peach- wood,  from  Casaifinia  ecMnata ;  and  there  are  one  or 
two  other  species  of  Casalfiinia,  all  of  which,  witli  logwood. 

Sow  in  the  W.  Indies  and  tropical  America.  From  the  E. 
dies  two  red  dye-woods  are  obtained,  sapuan  wood  from 
Casalpmia  sappan,  and  red  aanders,  the  wood  of  Pterocarpus 
sant^iaus;  and  camwood  or  barwood,  the  produce  of  BapMa 
nitida,  is  imported  from  the  W.  coast  of  Africa.  Two  varieties 
of  wood  yield  yellow  dyes  of  commerce  ;  (i)  Fustic,  the  wood 
of  Madura  tinctoiia,  a  tree  growing  in  the  W.  Indies  and 
Central  America ;  and  (s)  Zante  or  young  fustic,  the  wood  of 
Rhus  coiinus,  found  in  Eastern  Europe  and  Asia  Minor  h 
leaves  of  wliich  form  the  sumach  used  m  dyeing  and  tan  n 
.  Among  othetvegetabIeD,-S,,none  isofgreaterimportance  han 
indigo,  the  wefi-known  blue  dye  prepared  from  Indig  fir 
tifictoria  and  /.  ami,  originally  natives  of  the  E.  Indies,  but  n  w 
also  cultivated  in  the  W.  Indies  and  tropical  America.  C  y 
allied  to  indigo  in  its  properties  is  woad,  a  preparation  fron  u 
native  plant  the  weld  or  woad,  hoHs  tincioria,  which  in  ren  e 
times  was  used  for  staining  the  skins  of  our  ancestors.  SafH  v.  , 
which  yields  a  fine  pmk  dye,  is  the  flower-heads  of  a  composite 
phuit,  Carthamus  tiiictoria,  cultivated  in  the  S.  of  Europe.  Alka- 
neti  a  red  dye-stuff,  not  now  much  used,  is  the  roots  tAAlhanna 
tincioria.  A  valuable  series  of  purple  dyes,  known  as  archil,  cud- 
hear,  and  litmus,  are  yielded  by  various  ^}ecies  of  lichen,  chiefly 
Roccdta  tincioria,  found  wide-^read  on  the  coasts  of  waim  seas. 
Among  materials  yielding  various  shades  of  orange  and  yellow 
are  querdtron,  the  bark  of  Quercus  tincioria,  a  N.  American 
oak  ;  yellow  or  Persian  berries,  the  fruit  of  Rhamniis  tincioria, 
which  grows  in  Asia  Minor ;  annatto,  a  substance  covering  the 
seeds  of  Bixa  orallana,  the  al  or  ak  root,  yielded  by  various 
species  of  MoHnda  in  E.  India,  and  saftron,  which  is  the  pistils 
of  a  variety  of  Crocus,  a  substance,  however,  more  used  in  phar- 
macy than  in  dyeing.  Catechu  and  various  other  substances 
containing  tannin  are  used  for  browns  and  blacks  in  dyeing. 

Mineral  Pigincnls. — The  most  important  of  these  for  the  use 
of  the  dyer  is  ultramarine,  a  rich  blue  colour  which  primarily 
was  obtained  from  lapis-lazdi,  but  now  is  artifidally  prepared. 
Artifidal  nltramarine  is  a  complex  substance,  varying  in  its  con- 
stitution, (See  Ultramabike.)  Prussian  blue  is  obtained  by 
mixing  a  solution  of  ferro-cyaaide  of  potassium  {ptussiate  of 
potash)  with  a  solution  of  a  salt  of  iron,  such  as  the  chloride. 
Other  mineral  bines  are  obtained  from  cobalt ;  greens  are  yielded 
by  arsenical  compounds  ;  and  preparations  of  chromium  give 
both  yellow  and  green  pigments.  Vermilion  is  to  some  extent 
used  as  a  red  pigment  colour  by  dyei-s. 

Artifidal  Orsanic  Dye-Slu/i.—The  whole  of  the  colouring- 
466 


include  in  this  group  are  derived  from  one  or  other  of 
usproductsobtainedfromthe  treatment  of  coal- tar,  but 
chiefly  from  aniline.  Although  the  industries  connected  with 
the  production  of  aniline  dyes  may  be  said  to  be  still  in  their 
infancy,  they  have  already  overshadowed  all  otliers  connected 
with  the  production  of  D.-S.  in  extent  and  importance.  All 
colours,  and  almost  every  shade  of  colour,  have  been  produced 
in  aniline  colours,  and  a  simple  enumeration  of  the  commercial 
varieties  which  have  been  brought  into  the  market  would  occupy 
columns,  while  to  detail  the  variety  of  processes  employed  would 


y  pages. 


s  the  first 


colour  introduced,  the  process  for  obtaining  which  having  been 
patented  by  Mr  Perltin  in  1856;  but  the  subsequently  disco- 
vered Hofmann  red  (magenta  or  rosaniline),  while  itself  a  much 
more  important  dye-stuff,  is  the  Etai;ting-poInt  for  obtaining 
nearly  all  the  endless  aniline  dyes  now  m  use.  Carbolic  acid  or 
phenol,  naphthalin,  and  anthradn,  all  derivatives  of  coal-tar,  are 
also  sources  of  several  important  D.-S.,  the  latter  being  the  source 
of  artificial  alizarin,  to  which  allusion  has  already  been  made. 

Dyke,  or  Dike  (Old  Eng.  die,  Dutch,  dyk;  lit.  'the  earth 
dug  out  and  thrown  up '),  in  engineering,  a  mound  or  embank- 
ment to  protect  low-lying  land  from  inundation  by  the  sea  or  a 
river.  In  the  Netherlands,  where  much  of  the  land  is  below  the 
sea-level,  the  art  of  D.-building  has  been  carried  to  great  per- 
fection. The  character  that  the  Dutch  bear  for  indefatigable 
industry  has  been  due  mainly  to  their  extraordinary  and  suc- 
cessful efforts  to  prevent  the  encroachment  of  the  sea,  and 
recldm  the  land  through  extensive  systems  of  drainage  by  means 
of  dykes  and  other  engineering  resources.  Dykes  may  be  seen 
along  the  coast  of  Holland  and  the  courses  of  the  prindpal 
rivers,  especially  at  the  mouths  of  the  Scheldt,  Maas,  and  Rhine. 
They  also  traverse  the  country  in  every  direction,  being  of  suffi- 
cient width  at  the  summit  to  carry  canals  and  roadways  along- 
side. These  mounds  are  formed  of  day,  earth,  and  sand,  and 
slope  gradually  from  the  base.  On  the  sea  or  river  side  the  gra- 
dients are  easy,  and  to  prevent  the  earth  being  washed  away  a 
protection  of  reed  or  willow  matting  is  laid  on  and  secured  by 
states.  On  the  land  side  they  are  strengthened  by  piles  and 
planking,  the  interstices  heu^  filled  in  with  stones,  and  the 
whole  covered  with  earth  and  turfed.  A  height  of  30  or  40  feet 
is  frequently  attained  by  such  dykes.  Those  of  the  Helder,  in 
N  Holland,  furnish  an  example  of  D.-building  on  a  stnpen- 
d  ca  In  Scotland,  the  term  D.  is  applied  to  any  stone 

w      wh  ch   erves  as  a  fence. 

Dyke  n  geology,  the  name  given  to  extensive  massesof 
an  igneous  rocks,  forming  wall-like  partitions,  which 

p  ra  h  edges  of  otherwise  continuous  strata  or  beds.  Dykes 
g  n  y  occur  in  volcanic  districts,  and  as  seen  in  the  neighbour- 
hood nt  or  active  volcanoes,  they  may  be  traced  abundantly, 
b  n  hmg  ut  in  every  direction.  Sometimes  they  may  be  traced 
continuously  for  long  distances  (as  in  a  D.  50  feet  thick  extend- 
ing across  the  Yorkshire  coast  N.W.  for  ro  miles),  and  they 
may  he  found  either  to  occupy  the  place  of  dislocations  or  fissures, 
or  to  have  cut  their  own  way  through  continuous  strata.  Dykes 
are  usually  vertical  or  wall-like  in  form,  and  are  hence  distin- 
guished from  7/dns,  which  may  be  at  any  angle,  and  even  run 
between  horizontal  strata.  They  vary  in  thickness  from  a  few 
inches  to  60  or  70  feet.  If  our  means  oPlracing  dykes  were  at 
all  perfect,  we  should  probably  find  that  they  could  be  in 
almost  every  case  traced  mto  the  parent  mass  of  igneous  rock 
from  whidi  they  had  originally  flowed.  In  the  case  of  '  trap- 
dykes,'  the  sides  present  a  remarkable  evenness  and  nniformity  ; 
and  this  regijarity  of  thickness  and  formation  often  tends  to  show 
that  the  dykes  have  merely  filled  up  previously  existent  fissures, 
and  have  not  themselves  been  the  original  cause  of  the  solution 
of  continuity  between  strata.  They  are  common  near  coal- 
fields, and  frequently  perplex  mining  operations  from  opposing 
a  battier,  often  of  great  and  indefinite  extent,  to  the  continuous 
nature  of  the  coal-seams.  Dykes  are  interesting  objects  to  the 
geologist  from  the  effects  they  have  had  in  altering  the  surrounding 
strata— coal,  limestone,  and  other  rocks  havuig  had  their  texture 
widely  altered  from  the  intrusion  of  these  igneous  formations. 

Djmaotinom'eter  (Gr. /fytiamis,  'power;'  aciis,  'a  sun- 
beam ;'  and  metron,  'a  roeastnre'),  an  instrument  for  measuring 
the  intensity  of  the  light-rays  of  the  sun  and  comparing  the 
powers  of  object-glasses.  See  Claudet's  paper  in  the  PhilO' 
sophical  Magazine  for  June  1851,  and  Hunt's  Pholograpky. 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DYS 


3>ynarn'i0a  (Gr.  dynaniis,  'force'  or  'power')  is  tlie  science 
which  investigates  the  action  of  force ;  or,  more  correctly,  the 
effects  produced  upon  a  given  material  system  by  a  given  trans- 
formation of  Energy  (q.  v.)  in  a  given  time.  In  its  more  re- 
stricted sense,  it  treats  of  the  motions  and  eqtMilHum  of  particles 
and  rigid  bodies  under  the  action  of  moving  forces,  thus  natu- 
rally splitting  up  into^>«fti:i  (q.  v.)  and  .Saj&r  (q.  T.),  When 
used  in  connection  with  other  departments  of  natural  philo- 
sophy, it  is  qualified  ly  a.  prefix,  as,  for  instance.  Aerodynamics, 
Electrodynamics,  Hydrodynamics,  Thermodynamics,  to  each  of 
which  the  reader  is  referred  for  further  information.     The  foun- 


dation of  all  dynaraicai  science  is  Newton's  Laws  of  Motion, 
containing  as  they  do  a  clear  philosophical  conception  of  the 
threefundamentaf  units  of  space,  time,  and  mass,  without  a  true 
knowledge  of  which  advance  is  impossible.  The  progress  or 
history  of  D.  is  inseparably  connected  with  the  names  of 
Archimedes,  Galileo,  Kepler,  Newton,  Bernoulli,  Huyghens, 
D'Alembert,  Euler,  Clairaut,  Lagrange,  Laplace,  Hamilton,  &c. 
The  wonderful  generalised  theorems  of  Lagrange,  whose  mathe- 
matical insight  has  perhaps  never  been  equalled,  deserve  especial 
notice  j  whUe  the  new  and  powerful  Hamiltonian  analysis.  Qua- 
ternions, has  in  tlie  hands  of  its  originator  and  others  yielded 
such  striking  i-estilfs  already,  that  it  seems  destined  to  exiend 
and  strengthen  the  science  to  a  degree  never  before  dreamt  of, 
especially  in  the  departments  of  electricity  and  Uglit. 

Dyna'mita,  a  name  applied  to  several  mechanical  mixtures 
of  the  explosive  liquid  nilro-glycertne  and  absorbent  matter,  as 
infusorial  earth,  silica,  Tripoli  powder,  mineral  ash,  &c.,  and 
the  name  is  also  given  to  other  compounds  which  contain,  in 
addition  to  the  nitro-glycerine  and  an  absorbent,  substances 
semt-explosive,  or  decomposable  on  explosion,  as  resin,  charcoal, 
sulphor,  nitrate  of  potash,  soda,  and  ammonia,  &c  The  disas- 
trous explosions,  often  without  assignable  cause,  which  accom- 
panied the  employment  and  transport  of  nitro-glycerine  after  its 
discovery,  and  the  great  danger  at  all  times  attending  its  use,  led 
'Mr  A.  Nobel,  a  chemist,  to  experiment  upon  its  behaviour 
and  explosive  force  when  absorbed  by  inert  aobstances.  In  1867 
he  announced  his  discoveiy  of  a  preparation,  to  which  he  gave 
the  name  D.,  which  robs  nLtro-glycerine  of  its  treaclierous  char- 
acter, while  it  relains  its  high  explosive  power,  thereby  ren- 
dering the  new  compound  one  of  the  safest,  most  useful,  and 
most  powerful  explosives  known.  In  the  following  year  Mr 
Nobel  read  a  paper  on  D,  befflre  the  British  Association  at  Nor- 
wich. D.  is  manufactured  in  large  quantities  in  Germany,  France, 
and  elsewhere  on  the  Continent  of  Europe,  in  America,  and  in 
.Scotland,  Its  manufacture  and  circulation  for  industrial  pur- 
poses in  Great  Britain  began  with  the  estalilishment  of  the 
British  D.  Company's  factory  at  the  Arde  Hills,  in  Ayrshire, 
towards  the  end  of  1872.  This  company  manufacture  on  a  large 
scale  two  kinds  of  D.,  respectively  called  No.  I  and  No.  2. 
The  operations  of  manufacture  are  briefly  as  follow : — For  D. 
No.  I,  Mcsdguhr,  a  porous  siliceous  earth,  obtained  in  Germany, 
capable  of  absorbing  three  times  its  own  weight  of  nitro-gly- 
cerine, is  resorted  to.  After  being  calcined  to  oxidise  the  iron 
in  it,  crushed  to  a  fine  powder,  and  sifted,  35  parts  by  weight 
of  kissdguhr  and  75  parts  by  weight  of  nitro-glycerine  are 
kneaded  into  a  paste  and  passed  through  a  sieve.  D.  No.  i, 
so  prepared,  is  a  loose  plastic  powder,  with  a  reddish-butf 
colour,  due  to  peroxide  of  iron.  In  D.  No.  2,  nitrate  of 
potash  and  carbon  take  the  place  of  siliceous  earth.  The 
proper  ingredients  and  proportions  are — 7 1  parts  by  weight  of 
nitrate  of  potash,  lo  parts  by  weight  of  powdered  charcoal,  1 
part  by  weight  of  paraffin,  and  18  parts  by  weight  of  nitro-gly- 
cerine. The  ingredients  being  thoroughly  incorporated,  form  a 
black  moist  powder,  drier  than  D.  No.  i.  Both  descriptions  of 
D.  are  put  up  into  paper-cased  cartridges,  weighing  from  i  to  4 
oz,,  for  storage  or  use.  During  storage  the  chief  danger  attending 
the  use  of  these  cartridges  arises,  for  if  the  D.  is  not  carefully 
prepared,  any  excess  of  nitro-glycerine  exades  through  the  paper 
wrappers,  and  accidental  explosion  might  result  from  slight  fric- 
tion or  concussion.  Parchment,  however,  is  said  to  be  imper- 
vious lo  nitro-glycerine,  and  if  such  be  the  case,  it  will  be  a 
manifest  advantage  to  use  it  for  caKridge  cases.  D.,  nnlike 
nitro-glycerine,  cannot  be  exploded  by  heat,  a  spark,  friction,  or 
concussion,  and  if  ignited  in  any  other  way  than  by  violent  per- 
cussion in  the  open  air,  and  in  moderate  quantity,  it  burns  quietly 
away.     A  special  committee,  appointed  by  the  British  Govern- 


ment, recently  carried  out  extensive  experiments  with  D.,  and 
it  was  shown  that  a  box  containing  50  lbs.  did  not  explode  when 
ignited  by  a  light,  but  that  a  violent  explosion  followed  in  similar 
circumstances  with  a  laige  quantity.  D,  explodes  with  a  force 
ten  times  greater  than  its  weight  of  gunpowder,  if  ignited  by  the 
detonation  of  a  fiilminating  capsule  or  fuse.  MM.  Eoux  and 
Sarran,  in  experimenting  with  Vouges  D.  No.  2,  contfuning  50 
per  cent,  of  nitro-glycenne,  found  that  ignition  otherwise  than 
by  fulminating  powder  was  followed,  when  the  material  was  con- 
fined, by  an  explosion  the  effect  of  which  was  only  equal  to 


tting  a  force  fi' 


pressure.  It  set 
can  be  excited  ir 
the  other. 

D.,  like  nitro-glycerine,  congeals  in  cold  weather,  in  which 
slate  it  is  less  explosive,  and  does  not  exert  the  same  power  as 
when  plastic ;  heat,  however,  restores  it  to  its  ordinaiy  condi- 
tion. In  Great  Britain  the  industrial  applications  of  this  valu- 
able explosive  agent  are  confined  chiefly  to  mining  and  blasting. 
Its  efficiency  in  detaching  latge  masses  of  rock,  in  removing 
substantial  obstructions  in  rivers,  and  in  breaking  up  large  masses 
of  cast-iron,  has  been  amply  proved.  As  compared  with  gun- 
powder and  gun-cotlon,  the  amount  of  work  performed  by  D.  is 
greater,  with  a  saving  of  time  and  cost  In  Germany,  France, 
and  elsewhere,  it  is  used  for  artillery  purposes.  A  penalty  of 
£100,  besides  2s.  per  lb.  of  material  landed,  is  attached  to  the 
importation  of  D.  into  Great  Britain  withoat  a  licence. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  kindred  explo^ves  licensed  for 
manufacture,  storage,  and  use  in  Great  Briton  : — 

Horsley's  Blasting  Powder,  A  and  B,  consisting  of  nitro-gly- 
cerine  (25  per  cent.)  and  an  absorbent  powder,  composed  of 
chlorate  of  potash,  nuEgalls,  and  charcoEtl. 

Brain's  Blasting  Powder,  consisting  of  nitro-glycerine  (40  per 
cent)  and  a  pulverised  preparation  of  fine  charcoal,  sawdust, 
and  mixed  chlorate  and  nitrate  of  potash. 

Lithofi'aciaa;  which  chiefly  differs  from  British  D.  No.  2  in 
containing  all  the  elements  of  gunpowder.  An  analysis  by  Pro- 
fessor Abel  gives  the  typical  composition  as  nitro-glycerine,  42 
parts  ;  sulphur,  4 ;  nitrate  of  soda,  25  ;  sand,  sawdust,  charcoal, 

Bynain'ometer,  an  instrument  for  measuring  the  effort  ex- 
erted or  the  work  done  by  a  machine.  There  are  three  classes  of 
dynamometers,  viz. — (l)  Those  which  merely  indicate  the  effort 
exerted,  leaving  the  distance  and  time  through  which  it  is  exerted 
to  be  separately  noted.  Some  machines  of  this  class  record  the 
effort  on  paper  by  self-acting  mechanism,  as  well  as  indicate  it. 
(2)  Those  which  record  both  effort  and  distance,  generally  in  the 
form  of  a  curve,  of  which  the  ordlnates  represent  the  magnitudes 
of  the  efforts  exerted  or  resistances  overcome,  and  the  absassse 
the  distances  moved  through, — the  area  consequently  giving  the 
product  of  these  two,  i.e.,  the  work  done.  (3)  Those  which,  by 
means  of  suitable  apparatus,  record  the  work  done  ;  the  product, 
that  is,  of  the  effort  (or  resistance),  and  the  disUnce  through 
which  it  is'exerted.  These  are  called  integrating  dynamometers. 
In  Class  I  the  ordinary  friction  brake  and  some  kinds  of  spring 
balances  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  measuring  effort  ;  to  Class 
2  most  dynamometers  used  lor  measuring  traction  belong,  and 
the  steam-engine  indicator ;  to  Class  3,  Ashton  and  Storey's 
power  meter,  &c. 

Dyoor  ('  men  of  the  woods '),  a  race  of  Central  Africa,  in  the 
region  of  the  Upper  Nile.  The  Dyoors  are  of  a  noble  negro  race, 
with  small  development  of  jaw  and  graceful  slimness  of  limb. 
They  occupy  a  small  territory,  and  are  not  over  20,000  in  num- 
ber. Occupying  a  ferruginous  district,  they  are  tamed  for  their 
skill  in  ironwork,  and  provide  the  coin  which  circulates  in  the 
whole  Upper  Nile  region — i.e.,  spades  and  spear-heada.  Like 
the  Shillooks  of  the  N.,  from  whom  they  are  derived,  and  whose 
dialect  they  use,  the  Dyoors  can  gain  a  livelihood  in  various  ways. 
Besides  working  in  iron,  they  fiirm,  hunt,  and  fish,. and  are  quick 
and  ingenious  in  constructing  wickerwork  and  pottery.  The 
Nubian  slave-dealer  has  greatly  injured  the  prosperity  of  the 
Dyoors.  The  river  D.  traverses  the  country  of  the  same  name, 
and  is  a  large  tributary  of  the  Ghazal,  which  it  joins  about  150 
miles  S.W,  of  the  confluence  of  the  latter  with  the  Nile. 

Dy'sart  (Lat.  d/ssrlum.  in  ecclesiastical  Latin,  '  a  religious 
solitude'),  a  seapoit  and  royal  burgh  in  Fifeshire,  Scotland,  on 

46? 


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DYS 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


the  Firtli  of  Forth,  12  miles  N.N.E,  of  Edinburgh,  haa  sonic 
shipbuilding,  flax-spinning,  damask-weaving,  coal  and  Ironstone 
mining,  fishing,  &c  It  is  quaintly  built,  on  a  rocliy  site,  and 
attracts  summer  viators.  Along  with  Ku-kcaldy,  Burntisland, 
and  Kinghom,  D.  sends  one  member  to  Parliament.  Pop.  (1871) 
8919.  D.  was  formerly  connected  with  the  monastery  of  Cul- 
ross  or  Kirkcaldy,  and  near  to  it  is  the  cave  of  St  Serf. 

Dys'entery  (Gr.  dys,  and  enteron, '  the  intestine ')  is  a  severe 
inflammation  of  the  lai^e  intestine,  accompanied  with  much  fever 
and  great  prostration.  It  is  characterised  by  great  pain  and 
frequent  stools,  the  discharges  being  mixed  with  blood  and 
mucus.  The  urine  is  generally  high  coloured  and  scanty,  and 
scalds  the  patient  during  micturition,  D.  is  rare  in  temperate 
climates,  but  common  m  the  tropics  and  is  one  of  the  most  falal 
diseases  to  armies  in  the  camp      Its  origin  is  often  ascribed  to 

lamp,   malarious  distnets      "" 
change  of  air  and  tlie  nse  of  astringents 
and  opium.     Ipecacuanha  in  scripk 


beneficial,  and  is  much  used  in  India 


n)  V 


iei  1 


DySTl'ria  (Gr.  dys  and  mtros  '  urine  )  means  a  difficulty  n 
voiding  urine.  It  may  depend  on  various  causes,  as  disease  ol 
the  bladder  or  urethra. 

BytiB'cus  (from  Gr,  dyUs,  'a  diver'),  a  genus  of  Coleojiiira 
(q.  V.)  01-  Beetles  included  in  the  section  Hydradephaga  or  Water- 
beetles,  in  which  the  legs  are  adapted  for  swimming,  the  two 
hinder  pairs  being  flat  and  fringed  with  hairs.  The  body  is  oval 
and  flattened,  and  the  mandibles  or  larger  jaws  of  strong  make. 
In  D.  the  front  legs  are  short,  and  the  atilennje  elongated.  The 
tar^  of  the  males  are  vride  and  flattened.  D.  marginalis  and 
D.  dimidiatas  ate  two  familiar  species,  common  in  our  brooks 
and  ponds.  The  spinacles  or  breathing  apertures  in  these  ani- 
mals are  set  high  on  the  body,  and  are  covered  by  the  elytra  or 
wing-cases,  beneath  which  a  supply  of  aii-  for  respiration  is 
.    1       T-i 1.,..!,.  —   -..™i. — 1,,=  in  habits,  as  also  are 


their  larvje.      D.  margmaiis—lhe  great  water-beetle— is  about 
li  inch,  in  length. 

DyVeke,  or  Duvek^  (Dutch,  'a  dove'),  the  mistress  of 
Christian  II.  of  Denmark,  was  the  daughter  of  Sigbrit  Wylms, 
an  innkeeper,  and  was  bom  at  Amsterdam,  14S8.  She  first  met 
her  royal  lover  at  Bergen  in  1507,  followed  him  to  Cofjenhagen 


interference  of  the  ambitious  Sigbrit  Wyhns  with 
pubUc  afi'aiia  seems  to  have  stirred  the  hatred  of  the  nobles,  and 
either  to  this  cause  or  to  the  baffled  passion  of  Torben  Oxe, 
governor  of  the  palace,  is  ascribed  a  plot  to  poison  D.,  which 
was  successfully  carried  out  in  1516,  Among  the  many  works 
of  fiction  founded  on  this  story  are  DyveM,  a  well-known  tragedy 
by  Samsoe,  a  Dane  (Ger.  transl.  Leips.  iSio) ;  Tdubcksn  ma 
AmUirdam,  a  tragedy  by  Marggraff  (Leips.  1839);  and  Sybrecht 
a  dims  a  romance  by  Ida  Frick  (Dresd.  1843). 

Dyvour  (from  the  Fr.  devoir,  '  to  owe'),  and  Dyvour's 
Haloit  aie  terms  of  Scotch  law.  According  to  Skene,  a  D.  is 
a  baikiupt '  who,  being  involved  and  drowned  in  debts,  and 
not  -ible  to  pay  or  satis^  the  same,  for  eschewing  of  prison  and 
other  pams  makes  cession  and  assignation  of  all  his  goods  and 
geai  in  favour  of  his  creditors,  and  does  his  devour  and  duty  to 
them  piochiming  himself  bairman  and  indigent,  and  becoming 
debt  bound  to  them  of  all  he  has."  During  the  17th  c.  dyvours 
weie  appointed  by  orders  of  the  Court  of  Session  to  sit  on  a  pil- 
lory at  stated  times  near  the  market-cross  of  Edinbui^h,  m  a 
coat  or  upper  garment,  half  yellow  half  brown,  with  a  parti- 
coloured cap  or  hood  on  the  head.  In  granting  the  Cessio  Bono- 
lum  (q.  V.)  it  was  the  practice,  until  the  passing  of  the  Act  6  and 
7  Will.  IV.  c.  56,  to  dispense  with  the  habit,  and  by  that  statute 
it  is  abolished. 

Bzigg'ethai,  or  Eoulan  (Asmus  Onager  or  fl  miomi'),  a 
spedes  of  Equids  or  Solidungula  forming  one  of  the  species  of 
wild  asses  inhabiting  Persia,  India,  Mesopotamia,  &c  This 
animal  is  somewhat  mule-like  in  appearance  Its  colour  is 
reddish  brown  in  summer,  the  tints  becoming  grejer  in  winter, 
while  a  black  stripe  runs  along  the  spine.  The  D  is  a  wonder- 
fully swift  and  agile  animal,  and  is  hunted  in  Peiiia  and  India. 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


B. 


t  second  vowel  and  tlie  fiflii  letter  of  the 
English  alphabet.     It  exactly  coiresponds 
■    to  Uie  Semitic  He,  except  that  all  tlie  de  ' 
vattve  alpliabets  have  followed  the  Gree   , 
■which  turned  it  to  &ce  the  right,  instead  of 
tlie  left,  E  instead  of  a.    In  its  origin  it  is 
properly  a  weakened  form  of  a  ;  and  many 
languages,  especially  those  of  India,  are  almost 
able  to  dispense  -with  its  use.     It  is  particularly 
liable  to  be  interchanged  with  the  stronger  vowel 
a,  in  passing  from  one  cognate  language  to  an- 
other, and  consequently  its  philological  value  is 
small.      The    Greek  alphabet  in  its   later  days 
possessed  two  forms  of  E — epsiloii,  or  short  E,  the 
original  letter  borrowed  from  the  Phcenician;  and 
ir  long  E,  the  form  of  which  as  a  capital  was  II,  the  Semi- 
tic Cheth,  or  hard  aspirate. 

The  pronunciation  of  E  is  very  irfegular,  especially  so  .in 
Englisll,  Its  normal  phonetic  value  is  that  of  an  open  or  long 
a  or  ay,  which  is  hardly  heard  at  all  in  English,  unless  in  such 
exceptional  words  as  'where,' 'grey,' vein,  but  may  be  i 
sally  found  in  Italian  and  French.  The  sound  may  be  either 
short,  as  in  French  it,  or  long,  as  in  i>b-e.  By  far  the  most 
common  sound  of  E  in  English  is  that  which  is  really  the  ap- 
propriate value  of  the  stronger  vowel  i,  which  is  often  exmtssed  in 
transliteration- from  foreign  languages  by  a  double  E.  This  may 
be  exemplified  by  '  me '  and  '  see. '  This  sound  is  also  main- 
tained for  most  of  the  diphthongs  formed  with  E,  as 'read,' 
'  siege,'  '  receive.'  But  the  English  usage  is  too  variable  to 
allow  of  any  universal  rules.  In  Modem  Greek,  both  the  short 
and  long  E,  the  vowels  i  and  «,  and  the  d^hthongs  «'  and  ei, 
are  all  pronounced  like  the  short  English  E.  It  must  also  be 
noticed  that  this  letter  has  a  strong  tendency  to  become  mute  at  the 
end  of  words,  i,ft,  to  lose  its  own  sound  altogether;  while  it  com- 
monly lengthens  the  vowel  of  the  preceding  syllable,  as  in  Eng- 
lish  'cane' 01    "        ■^ 


.r  French  mh-e.     At  the  same  time  it  softens 

g,  if  those  be  the  immediately  preceding  letters,  as  in  ' 
and  'cage.'    In  some  words  adopted  from  French  or  Lati 


e.g.,  for  exempli  graiid ; 


E  :  C  is  equal  to  |. 


najor  third  above  C.     The  vibration 


Ead'gar  (mod.  Edgar),  an  English  king,  the  second  sc 
King  Eadmund,  was  born  about  940,  and  in  956  was  chosen  king 
of  Mercia  and  Northumberland  in  place  of  his  brother  Eadwig, 
who  had  enraged  the  churchmen,  and  especially  Dunstan  (q.  v.), 
by  an  uncanonical  marriage.  In  960  Wessex  yielded  to  his  rule. 
Under  E.,  whose  policy  was  solely  moulded  by  Dunstan,  civil 
strife  and  the  Danish  descents  ceased,  and  the  English  kingdom 
was  consolidated.  Among  his  titles  was  Anglorfim  Basileus, 
and  it  is  said  that  once  eight  kings  rowed  his  Mt^e  00  the  Dee, 
He  is  reported  to  have  freed  Wales  from  wolves  by  imposing  an 
annual  tribute  of  300  wolves'  heads  on  the  Welsh.     See  DuN- 

Ba^ar  tlie  .ffitteling:,  a  grandson  of  feadmund  Ironside, 
chosen  king  by  the  English  in  1066,  after  the  battle  of  Hastings. 
His  chief  supporters,  Eadwine  and  Morkere,  Earls  of  Mercia  and 
Northumbria,  being  forced  to  retreat  before  the  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, E.  headed  the  deputation  which  offered  William  the 
crown,  but  afterwards  fled  to  Scotland,  where  his  sister  Mar- 
garet married  Malcolm  Canmore,    The  Northumbrians,  in  league 


with  Sweyn  of  Denmark,  proclaimed  E.  king  of  England,  but 
were  unable  to  cope  with  William,  and  K  again  sought  refuge 
with  Malcolm.  He  was  afterwards  a  dependant  at'  William's 
court,  and  became  a  friend  of  Robert  Duke  of  Normandy.  On 
Malcolm's  death,  in  1097,  he  drove  Donald  Bain  from  the  Scot- 
tish throne,  on  which  he  placed  his  nephew  Edward  as  an  Eng- 
lish feudatory.  ■  He  is  said  to  have  accompanied  Duke  Robert  to 
the  Holy  Land,  and  in  the  struggle  between  Robert  and  Henry 
I.  was  taken  prisoner,  but  shortly  freed  by  Henry.  William  of 
Malmesbury  says  he  lived  to  an  old  age,  but  the  date  and  manner 
of  his  death  are  unknown. 

Ead'mer  of  Oan'ter'bury,  a  figure  of  some  note  in  English 
history  and  literature,  flourished  in  the  early  part  of  the  rzlh  c. 
He  became  prominent  in  the  struggle  between  the  sees  of  Can- 
terbury and  York  for  supremacy  over  the  Scottisli  Church. 
When  King  Alexander  I.  desired  a  bishop  for  the  vacant  see  of 
St  Andrews,  E.  was  sent  by  Archbishop  Ralph  in  1 1 30,  He  was 
elected ;  but  the  king,  wishing  to  have  an  independent  Scotch 
bishop,  would  not  permit  his  return  io  Canterbury  for  consecra- 
tion. E.  accordingly  went  back  to  his  monastery ;  but  repenting 
afterwards  of  this  step,  wrote  to  the  king  expressing  his  willing- 
ness to  return.  Alexander,  however,  declined;  and  the  see  of 
St  Andrews  remained  vacant  till  E.'s  death,  which  took  place 
in  ll23orll24.  His  chief  literary  works  are  the  Viia  Anselmi 
(Life  of  St  Anselm),  and  Historia  Novorum  (history  of  his  own 
times).  In  the  Vita  we  see  the  dim  reviving  of  a  national  spitit 
in  our  literature.  The  Historia  is  in  the  main  rehable,  and 
contains  facts  of  interest  not  to  be  found  elsewhere.  A  selection 
of  E.'s  writings,  edited  by  the  monks  of  St  Maur,  is  published 
at  the  end  of  Father  Gerberon's  edition  of  Anselm's  works 
(Paris,  1675  and  1724).  E.  was  a  volmninous  ecclesiastical 
biographer.  Among  his  lives  of  saints  are  those  of  St  Dunstan, 
St  Wilfrid,  and  St  Oswald.  Tliese  are  published  by  Wharton 
in  the  AngUa  Sacra,  part  ii.  {Lond.  1691)-  An  account  of  E.'s 
relation  to  Scotch  church  histotji  is  contained  in  Grub's  Eeele- 
siasiical  History  of  Scotland,  vol.  1. 

Bad'inund  (mod.  Edmund)  Irons  de  f  «il   1    d  ll 

Unready,  was  born  in  989.     Whe     Cn  t  d  d  E  gla    1 

iEthelred's  death  in  1016,  E.  was    h         k  ng  by  th       t 
of  London,  and  opposed  the  Da       w  th  great  b       ry  and 
enerp-.     After  defeating  Cnut  at  G  11    gha      Sh  rst       O  f   d 
and  Brentford,  he  was  signally  beat  n    t  A  sandun   E     x  and 
agreed  to  resign  Mercia  and  North  mbna  t    Cn  t   himself 
tainbg  the  rest  of  the  country.     Sh  rtly    ft       E  was  p        n  1 
at  Oxford,  through  the  agency  of  C     t         f  E  dn      f  M 
in  1016,  and  Cnut  became  sole  k  ng    f  E  gl     d     Th    great 
granddaughterofE.j  Matilda,  wasm  rr    It    H     ryl 

Ead'ward  (mod.  Edward)  the  Confesso        n    f  ^tl   1    d 
the  Unready  and  Emma,  daughte       f  R    h    d  E    k       f  N 
mandy,  was  born  in    1004,   and  1      d    n        I       t  th    N  rm 
court  until  1042,  when  he  became  kmg    f  E  gl    d        Harth 
cnut'a  death.       His  accession  wa     I    g  ly   d        t      th       d      t 
Godwine,  Earl  of  Wessex,  whose  d     gh       t  dgyth  w      m         d 
to  E.,  and  who  became  for  a  time  virt     1  rul        f  th  try 

E.   greatly  favoured    the  Norman    f    q       tmg  1  t    p 

motog  them  to  high  posts  inthhh  dtt  O  f 
these  unpopular  strangers— ^Eustace,  (.01  tofB  I  m  — 1  da 
affray  with  the  men  of  Dover,  whom  K  ordered  Godwine  to 
punish.  He  refused,  levied  an  aimy,  and  demanded  the  dismissal 
of  the  Normans ;  but  being  unable  to  resist  the  king,  withdrew 
to  Flanders,  whence  he  was  recalled  in  1052  to  allay  the  indigna- 
tion of  the  people.  Godwine  died  shortly  afterwards,  and  his 
son  Harold  became  actual  ruler  of  England  until  E.'s  death  in 
469 


vGooQle 


EAD 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EAa 


lo66.  In  this  reign  the  Danegdt  was  repealed,  a  digest  of  the 
laws  formed,  and  a  certain  polish  communicaled  to  the  English 
through  intercourse  with  Normandy,  while  the  growing  influence 
of  a  Norman  parly  prepared  the  way  for  the  Norman  conquest 
Under  E.  the  country  was  prosperous ;  two  wars  were  carried 
on  against  the  Welsh,  and  a  successlul  expedition  was  sent  into 
Scotland  to  support  Malcolm  Ganmore  gainst  ihe  usurper 
Macbeth.  See  Freeman's  Hislcry  of  the  Nonnan  Coaqmst 
(Lond-  1S76),  and  Luard'a  Lifi  of  Eiimard  the  Confemr 
(Lond.,  Longman  &  Co.,  !8s8). 

Eadwi'ne  (mod.  Edadn),  an  English  king  whose  history  forma 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  romantic  tales  in  Bede.  He  was 
the  son  of  .Ella,  king  of  Deira,  and  was  bom  in  586.  On  .Ella's 
death  in  589,  E.'s  uncle,  .^fhelfrith,  seized  the  crown  of  Deira, 
and  E.  spent  his  youth  as  a  homeless  outlaw,  until  Rjedwald, 
king  of  E.  Anglia,  espoosed  his  cause,  defeated  jEtheifrilh,  and 
made  him  monarch  of  all  Norlhumbria.  According  to  Beds, 
whose  account  of  K  is  clearly  inwoven  with  fiction,  E.  was  at 
Riedwald's  court  visited  one  night  by  a  mysterious  man,  who 
foretold  his  greatness  if  he  should  espouse  a  new  faith,  and  bade 


a  remember  a 


1  the  n 


ful  king  in  England,  became  overlord  of  the  country  from  the 
English  Channel  to  the  Forth,  where  he  founded  Edinburgh 
('  Edwin's  buigh'),  and  for  eight  years  ruled  so  sternly  and  justly 
that  it  was  said  '  a  woman  with  her  babe  might  walk  scatheless 
from  sea  to  sea  in  E.'s  day.'  In  625  he  married  jEthelburh,  a 
Christian  princess,  sister  of  Eadred,  king  of  Kent.  She  brought 
with  her  to  Norfhumbria  various  churchmen,  the  chief  being  Pau- 
linns  (q,  v.),  the  great  missionary  of  the  N,  of  England.  After  a 
narrow  escape  from  an  assassin  sent  by  Ceawlin,  king  of  WesseK, 
whom  he  forthwith  defeated,  and,  according  to  Bede,  a  second 
appearance  of  the  mysterious  man,  E.  was  baptized  at  Eoforvric 
(York)  in  627,  and  strongly  forwarded  the  spread  of  Christianity 
in  England.  Penda  of  Mercia,  however,  a  fierce  pagan,  bent  on 
shaking  off  the  Northumbrian  overlordship,  defeated  and  slew 
E,  at  Hatfield  in  633,  a  battle  which  dekyed  the  conversion  of 
the  North  and  Midlands.  E.'s  reign,  from  its  connection  with 
the  Christianising  of  England,  is  one  of  the  most  important  in 
English  history,    SeeFceeman's  History  of  the  Norman  Conquest, 

lEagle  (Fr.  aig,le,  Lat.  aquila,  from  the  root  ac,  'sharp, 
Bwift'),  a  genus  of  Raptorial  birds,  forming  rtie  type  of  the 
sub-family  Aguilmte,  which  group  in  its  turn  is  included  in  the 
femily  Falconida.  As  a  sub.famtty  the  AquiUna  are  recognised 
by  the  bill  being  straight  at  the  base,  and  acutely  arched  to- 
wards the  tip  ;  the  edges  being  wavy,  and  the  nostrils  being 
situated  in  front  of  the  Cere  (q,  v.).  The  tail  and  tarsi  are  elon- 
gated, and  the  inner  toe  is  of  stronger  make  than  the  other  three 
■  les.     Tlie  genus  Aquila,  including  the  most  tjipical  eagles,  is 


ipeciaily  by  tl 
fourth       d  f 


recognised 


and  ly  the  tarsi  b    ig  f    th 
tail  is  broad  and  d  d.     TI 

'kmg  of  Ijirds,'  ha    b        1   Id  t 
and  powerful  --  -■-    ■-    ' 


blq 


e  t 


n.     It 


it  typ 
tnl  by  th 
d  f  q  1  length, 
fth  t  s.  -JTie 
m  p  p  larly  as  the 
11  th  t  graceful 
lly 


carrying  oif  for  p    y  m  ny  sm  11  anunal     and        n    tt  eking 
man  himselfwhei     t  us  d       mtat  d      Th   ne>t        eyrie, 

is  built  in  an  exposed  situation,  and  is  rudely  constructed  of 
sticks  and  other  materials  loosely  ^gregated  tc^ther.  The  eggs 
usually  number  two,  and  are  of  a  whitish  colour.  The  most  cefi- 
brated  and  typical  of  the  eaglesis  the  golden  E.  (Aquila  chyysailas), 
found  in  both  Old  and  New  Worlds.  This  bird  may  attain  a  size 
of  3  J  feet  in  length,  the  expanse  of  wings  measuring  9  feet.  The 
females  are  larger  than  the  males.  The  colour  is  a  general 
blackish  brown,  the  head  and  neck  feathers  being  tmted  of  a 
golden-red  hue.  The  legs  and  thighs  are  greyish  brown,  and  the 
tail  a  deep  grey  with  brown  bars  j  the  feet  and  cere  are  yellow. 
In  England  the  E.  is  extinct,  but  it  occurs  in  the  N.  of  Scotland 
and  N,  of  Ireland.  Other  species  of  true  eagles  are  the  imperial 
E.  of  Asia  and  S.  Europe  (A.  msgilnit) ;  the  bold  E.  {A.  aadax) 
of  Australia  ;  the  former  known  by  a  white  patch  on  the  scapu- 
lar  feathers,  and  the  latter  by  the  reddish  hue  on  ihe  back  of  the 
neck.  The  booted  E,  (A.  pennata)  is  found  in  Asia  and  Cen- 
tral Europe,  and  is  of  a  dark-brown  colour.  To  the  allied 
genus  SpisaStus  belongs  the  martial  K  (S.  ieUicosus)  of  S.  Africa  ; 
while  the  crested  or  harpy  K  (  ThrasaStus  Harpyia)  is  also  in- 
cluded in  a  different  group.  The  Sea-Eagles  and  Bald  Eagles 
470 


(q.  V.)  belong  to  the  genus  HaliaUus.  The  name  E.  is  also 
applied  to  birds  belonging  to  widely  different  genera  from  the 
above.  Of  the  latter,  examples  are  found  in  the  E.-Hawks 
(q.  v.);  the  New  Holland  White  E.  {Astur  JVova  HoUandis), 
and  other  forms. 

Eagle,  in  heraldry,  is  one  of  the  eariiest  charges,  and  holds 
the  same  position  among  birds  as  the  lion  among  beasts.  It  was 
the  emblem  of  St  John,  of  regal  power,  and  of  courage  and 
magnanimity,  and  was  generally  borne  Displayed  (g.  v.).  When 
represented  as  double-headed,  it  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the 
imperial;  when  single-headed,  as  the  royal 'E. 

Edgle,  as  a  military  standard,  is  first  mentioned  in  Xeno- 
phon,  who  states  that  it  was  customary  in  Persia  to  have  a  golden 
E.  with  outspread  wings  borne  on  a  spear  in  front  of  the 
army.  This  custom  of  the  Persians  was  adopted  in  Egypt  under 
Ptolemy  Soter.  The  emblem  of  the  Republic,  as  well  as  that  of 
the  Empire  of  Rome,  was  the  E.  armed  with  lightnings— the 
symbol  of  Jupiter.  This  device  was  adopted  as  the  Roman 
military  standard  in  the  second  consulship  of  Marius  (B.C.  104). 
The  E,  of  the  Roman  legions  was  fixedT^upon  a  long  shaft  or 
spear,  with  outspread  wings,  as  about  to  soar  into  the  sky, 
grasping  the  thunderbolts  in  its  talons,  and,  in  later  times,  sur- 
rounded with  laurels.  The  eagles  were  first  made  of  wood, 
afterwards  of  silver,  and  later  of  gold.  On  the  march  they  were 
always  carried  Im  the  cohorts  of  the  van;  in  camp  they  stood  in 
the  Pr^torium,  fixed  in  the  earth.  Desertion  or  loss  of  the  E. 
was  pmiished  with  death.  As  a  military  standard  during  the 
middle  ages  the  K  had  no  more  than  an  heraldic  importance. 
Napoleon  I.  (1804)  revived  its  use  ta  the  army  as  a  fitting  symbol 
of  imperial  France.  The  French  E.  is  the  golden  E,  of  Zeus 
plumed  for  flight,  and  bearing  the  lightnings  in  its  claws. 
Under  the  Bourbons  it  was  superseded  by  the  tricolor,  but  it 
was  restored  under  Napoleon  III.  by  decree  1st  Januaiy  1853. 
The  E.  has  also  been  adopted  as  their  national  militaiy  ensign 
by  Russia,  Germany,  Austria,  and  the  United  States  of  America. 
The  black  double-headed  E.  of  the  Latino-German  empire  is 
represented  with  a  head  and  neck  looking  to  the  right,  and  an- 
other head  and  neck  looking  to  the  left ;  holding  the  sceptre  in 
the  right  talon,  and  the  imperial  globe  in  the  left.  Tliis  E.  was 
originally  single-headed,  and  is  said  to  have  been  adopted  by 
Karl  the  Great,  at  his  coronation  in  Rome,  as  a  symbol  of  Ihe 
empire  he  had  founded.  To  indicate  the  E.  and  W.  Roman 
Empire,  or  the  union  of  the  imperial  and  kingly  office,  the 
double-headed  E.  first  occurs  on  an  imperial  coin  struck  in  1325 
by  Ludwig  of  Bavaria, 

Eag^le,  an  American  gold  coin  of  the  value  of  ten  dollars. 

Eagle  Hawk,  a  town  in  Victoria,  4i  miles  from  Sandhurst 
(q.  v.),  and  105  miles  N.  W.  of  Melbourne  (q.  v.).  It  is  in  the  heart 
of  a  very  important  gold-mining  district.      Pop,  {1875)  6590. 

I^le-Hawk,  a  name  given  to  certain  species  of  Raptorial 
birds  of  the  genus  Spizailus,  nearly  allied  to  the  Aquila  or  Eagles 
[q.  v.).  In  this  group  the  tarsi  are  long  and  slender,  and  the 
toes  are  long  and  powerful  These  birds  otherwise  resemble  the 
eagles,  and  inhabit  Asia,  S.  America,  and  Africa.  A  good 
example  of  the  group  is  the  crested  E.-H,  (S.  cristatus)  of 
Guiana. 

Eagle,  Order  of  tlie  Black,  the  highest  Prussian  order  of 
knighthood,  was  founded  in  1701  by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg, 
on  his  coronation  as  King  of  Prnssia.  Excluding  the  royal 
family,  the  number  of  knights  was  at  first  restricted  to  thirty, 
but  is  now  undetermined.  The  insignia  are  a  blue  cross  and  a 
B.  E.  between  each  of  the  eight  arms  of  the  cross.  Knights  of 
this  order  are  also  knights  of  the  Order  of  the  Red  Eagle, 
founded  by  the  Markgraf  of  Bayreuthin  1734,  incorporated  with 
the  order  of  the  B.  E.  in  1791,  and  re-organised  in  iSlo. 

Eagle-Owl,  or  Great  Owl  (Bubo  maximus),  a  species  of 
Raptorial  birds  tielonging  to  the  sub-family  Bi^mna  or  '  eared ' 
owls,  and  to  the  family  Strigidie.  The  genus  Bubo  is  distin- 
guished by  the  moderately-sized  bill ;  by  the  wings  having  their 
second,  third,  and  fourth  quills  longest ;  the  tail  being  of  mode- 
rate aze  and  rounded,  and  the  tarsi  thickly  feathered.  The 
E.  O.  is  found  in  N.  Europe,  and  also  occurs  in  Italy  and 
Turkey.  It  is  rare  in  Britain.  Its  average  length  is  2  feet, 
and  its  usual  colour  is  a  yellow  tinged  with  brown,  and  marked 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  EYC    CLOP  EI^ 


..1  the  upper  parts  with  blaclt  or  dark-brown  bars  and  spots 
The  beak  and  cla«s  are  black.     The  Vireinian  Eared  O 
{Buha  Vir^nianus)  is  the  E 
O.  of  America.    The  th: 
in  the  latter  is  pure  white 

Eagle-Wood,  or  Aloes 
Wood,  the  wood  of  Alo 
Agailocka  and  of  AguUa 
Bvata,  plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Agmiariacem, 
in  which  the  trees  have  ex- 
stipulate  leaves  and  exal- 
buininous  seeds.  They  are 
natiyes  of  tropical  Asia.  The 
wood  above  named  affords  a 
fragrant  resui,  which,  as  a 
ren  edy  for  gout,  has  some 
repute  in  India.  It  is  pro- 
bably the  Ahaliin  or  Ahaloth 
ai  Uie  Old  Testament,  and 
he  '  aloe '  of  the  New  Tes- 
ament,  translated  'aloes.' 


Lat   i 


t)      The 


iua  y  d  ded  by 
I  art  he  e  e  nal  ear  ( I  l  )  1  e  tym^  anum  or  middle  ear 
(3  and  the  n  emal  ear  or  labyr  h  (6)  The  first  two  are 
not  essential  to  hearing  be  mechanism  of  which  is  strictly 
speak  ng  ui  the  thi  d  por  on  or  labynnth  The  external  ear 
cons  sts  of  that  part  of  the  outer  ear  projecting  from  the  head 
called  the  /«  in  (l,  I,  l),  which  is  apparently  for  the  pnrpose  of 
collecting  and  rejecting  waves  of  sound  into  the  external  auditory 


:i  (2),  which, 
the  membrane  of  the  tympanum 
is  li  inches  in  length,  and  i 
partly  of  bone.   It  is  lined  by  a 


,  conducts  the  sound 
(a").  This  external  anditory  canal 
;  formed  partly  of  cartilage  and 
1  infolding  of  the  skin,  in  which 
are  numerousglands, 
which  secrete  the 
'wax  of  the  ear.' 
The  middle  ear,  or 


tympat 


drum],  is  a  small 
cavity  in  the  tem- 
poral bone,  shut  off 
from  the  external 
auditory  canal  by  the 
membrane  of  the 
drum,  but  commu- 
nicating with  the  air 
"n    the  pharynx. 


throat,  by  ni 


s  of 


channel  called 
the  Euslaehian  tube. 
In  this  little  cham- 
ber we  find  a  chain 


vibrations    of     the 
membrane    of    the 

i  sts  of  three  bones,  namely, 

mallet  (a,  Fig.  a),  which  is  attached  to  the  mem- 
brane of  the  drum;  the  incus,  or  anvil-bone 
(*) ;  and  the  stapes,  or  slhoip  (r),  the  base 
of  which  is  fixed  into  an  oval  opening 
in  the  lab^mth,  termed  ^e  fenestra  ovcUis, 
or  oval  window,  immediately  below  6  in 
Fig.  I.  Between  the  bones  Uiere  are  well- 
formed  joints,  and  this  arrangement  has 
been  proved  by  Helmholta  to  form  a  lever 
which  commumcates  to  the  internal  ear  the 
oscillations  of  the  memirana  tympani  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  diminish  their  extent  or 
Fig.  =.  amplitude,  while  it  increases  their  intensity. 

The  internal  ear  is  placed  in  the  petrous 
portion  of  the  temporal  bone,  and  on  account  of  its  comiSicated 
Blmctnre  it  is  usually  called  the  laiyrinlh.     It  consists  of  a 


»/  Fg         wi  ca  d  th 

cated  coiled  part  on  the  other  Sld&  named,  from  its  resemblance 
to  a  snail-sliell,  the  eiKhlea  (3).     In  the  ulterior  of  the  osseous 
labyrinth  (Fig.  3,  natural  size)  we  find  corre- 
fp\  sponding  portions  of  the  membranous  kby- 

.ff\>-*W^-^,  rintb,   which   supports  ramifications   ef   the 
/^^jCyjyJJ  )    auditory  nerve.   The  ultimate  structure  consists 
X^^iJ::^,.,^    of  minute  hahs  immersed  in  the  eudolymph, 
p.    ^  and  connected  by  the  medium  of  cells  with  the 

'^'  ''  terminations  of  the  auditory  nerves.     These 

hairs  sxe  believed  to  fake  np  the  vibrations  communicated  to 
the  endolymph  by  the  chain  of  bones  or  through  the  bones  of  the 
head,  and  to  vibrate  so  as  to  affect  the  terminations  of  the  nerves. 
The  nerve  filaments  convey  the  impression  to  the  brain,  and  the 
effect  is  a  consciousness  of  sound.  By  most  authorities  the  vesti- 
bule is  believed  to  be  the  part  of  the  ear  by  which  we  appreciate 
sound  merely  as  sound,  without  reference  to  pitch  or  direction. 
In  this  part  of  the  ear  we  find  small  masses  of  crystals  of  carbon- 
ate of  hme  called  oloUihs,  which,  lying  in  the  endolymph,  may 
be  supposed  to  touch  the  hair-like  bodies  already  referred  to, 
and  thus  through  them  excite  the  nerves.  The  vestibule  is  the  first 
part  of  the  internal  ear  met  with  in  the  animal  kingdom.  The 
fiinctions  of  the  semicircular  canals  are  not  understood.  Some 
have  supposed  that  as  they  are  placed  m  the  three  directions  of 
space,  they  may  assist  in  the  comprehension  of  the  directioa  of 
sound  i  others  that  they  have  to  do  with  the  sense  of  rotation ; 
while  a  third  class  of  physiologists  suppose  they  assist  us  in  the 
sense  of  equilibrium  in  different  positions.  It  may  be  safely  as- 
serted that  no  good  and  sufficient  proof  has  been  offered  for  any 
of  these  views,  but  the  balance  of  evidence  shows  that  they  are 
really  connected  with  hearing,  and  not  with  a  mere  sense  of  equi- 
librium or  of  rotation.  The  cochlea  is  by  fiir  the  most  compli- 
cated part  of  llie  internal  ear.  The  membranous  portion  con- 
sists of  a  tube  called  the  i/ue/ajfofAfei™-,  so  placed  in  the  osseous 
cochlea  as  to  have  a  space  on  each  side  of  it,  the  one  commenc- 
ing at  the  vestibule  being  called  the  seala  ■vesliiuli,  or  vestibular 
staircase,  and  the  other  termed  the  seala  tjuapani,  as  it  termi- 
nates at  a  round  opening  closed  by  a  membrane  known  as  the 
fmistra  rotunda,  or  round  window,  on  the  other  side  of  which  is 
the  cavity  of  the  tympanum.  In  the  duetus  coeklearis  we  find  a 
remarkable  structure  known  as  the  organ  of  Corti,  far  too  com- 
plicated and  minute  to  be  fully  described  here.  It  was  first  dis- 
covered by  the  Marquise  di  Corti,  an  Italian  nobleman,  who  de- 
voted much  of  his  time  to  microscopical  research.  Its  intimate 
structure  is  not  fully  understood,  but  suffice  it  to  say  that  in  it  we 
have  an  apparatus  spedally  fitted  for  the  appreciation  of  sounds 
of  different  pitch,  and  of  differei\t  gaality  or  timbre.  The  modern 
theory,  propounded  by  Helmholt^,  is  that  in  the  cochlea  there  are 
numerous  delicate  structures  tuned  to  vibrate  to  notes  of  a  par- 
ticular pitch.  For  further  details  regarding  the  anatomy  of  the 
E.,  see  Quoin's  Anatomy,  vol  ii.,  and  Sensations  ^  Tone,  by 
Pi-ofessorHelmholtz,  translated  by  Mr  Alexander  J.  Ellis  (Lond'^. 
1875)- 

£ar,  Camfarathie  Ana/oiiiy  o^— In  the  loiver  animals  oigans 
of  hearing  are  piobably  represented  for  the  first  time,  as  we  pro- 
ceed from  lower  to  higher  forms,  in  the  cceleiiterate  Medtaida, 
or  jellyfishes,  and  allied  forms.  In  these  animals  we  meet  with 
sacs  containing  fluid,  with  calcareous  or  living  particles,  named 
otoliths,  therein  suspended.  This  ample  apparatus  is  evidently 
intended,  when  placed  in  communication  with  a  netve  filament 
or  its  equivalent,  to  intensify  the  vibrations  of  sound,  and  to 
convey  an  auditory  impression  to  the  animaL  These  auditory 
vesicles,  as  they  ate  called,  exist,  for  example,  around  the  margin 
of  the  bell-shaped  disc  in  the  jellyfishes.  This  simple  form  of 
sensory  apparatus  persists  with  little  modification  through  inver- 
tebrate forms.  Thus,  in  many  Rotifera  (q.  v.}  or  'wheel- 
animalcules,'  a  similar  sac  exists  near  the  nervous  ganglion.  In 
Annelida  or  worms  similar  vesicles  occur,  as  seen  in  the  otocysts 
at  hearing-sacs  o!  Arenisolcs  or  lob-worms,  which  are  placed  on 
the  nerve-cords  wMch  surround  tlie  lesophagus  or  gullet.  In 
471 


vLiOOQle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Arlhropoda,  such  as  crustaceans,  ears  may  be  represented  (as  in 
the  lobster)  by  sacs  containing  otoliths,  and  zS.%0  stiff  hairs  or 
bristles  (aaiusHc  brislles),  which  latter  may  be  attached  to  the 
otoHtbs.  The  auditory  organ  in  the  lobster  exists  as  an  open  sac 
at  the  base  of  the  lesser  antenna  or  'feelers,'  and  is  supplied  by 
a  branch  of  the  internal  antennary  nerve.  Some  nearly  allied 
forms  ((^.,  shrimp,  Crangcn)  want  organs  of  hearing,  and  in 
others  (Mysis  or  opossum  shrimps)  the  ear-sac  is  dosed.  In 
spiders  and  their  allies  {Arachnids)  no  specialised  organs  of 
hearing  have  been  discovered,  but  in  some  few  insects  (crickets, 
locusts,  &c)  they  have  been  demonstrated.  In  the  former  of 
these  insects  auditoiy  vesicles,  with  acoustic  hairs,  esist  under 
the  'knee' joints  of  the  front  pair  of  legs,  and  in  locusts  on  the 
le  pair  of  legs.  Some  flies  possess  allied  organs,  whilst  in 
many  other  insects  the  function  of  hearing  has  been  ascribed  to 
rod-like  bodies  borne  on  the  antennae  or  feelers.  In  Myriapoda 
(q.  V,)  (centipedes,  &c),  no  ear-vesicles  apparently  exisL  In 
mollusca,  oi^ns  of  hearing  are  generally  developed.  In  Lamelli- 
branchiates  (q.  v.)  they  exist  on  the  pedal  nerve-ganglia,  and 
iacs  or  vesicles  filled  with  fluid,  lined  with  epithelium, 
ning  otoliths  which  rotate  tapidly  during  life.  In 
Gasteropods  (q.  v.)  paired  ear-vesicles  exist  behind  me  eye,  and 
close  to  the  pedal  ganglia.  As  many  as  a  hundred  otoliths  are 
found  in  Meurobrachia,  and  fbrty  in  Doridm  or  sea-lemons.  In 
the  river-snails  {Paluditus)  the  ear-sac  can  be  moved  by  special 
muscles,  and  an  outer  ear-passage  is  imitated  in  some  snails.  In 
cephalopods  or  cuttlefishes  ear-sacs  exist  as  rounded  vesicles, 
usually  placed  near  the  head-cartilage.  It  contains  one  or  more 
otolith.  The  oigan  of  hearing  in  the  various  groups  of  verte- 
brates will  be  found  to  be  noticed  under  such  heads  as  Okni- 
TMOLOGY,  Ichthyology,  Reptilia,  &c 

r,  Disiases  of. — The  external  E.  is  occasionally  the  seat  of 
il  affections,  iJuch  as  fibrous  tumours,  gouty  concretions  in 
gouty  subjects,  hypertrophy  in  the  case  of  idiots,  and  san- 
guineous tumours  following  or  accompanymg  attacks  of  acute 
mania.  Inflammation  of  the  external  E.,  oUth  or  eanu^he,  is 
usually  a  rheumatic  aflection,  characterised  by  intense  pain,  and 
generally  associated  with  hemicrania.  In  eton-haa  there  is  a 
ietid  mucopurulent  discharge,  owing  to  infJammation  of  the 
nrlaces  or  necrosis  of  the  petrous  portion  of  the  tem- 
poral bone.  The  E,  is  also  occasionally  the  seat  of  polypL  For 
diseases  of  the  internal  E.,  see  Deafwess. 

Ear-Oookles,  also  designated  Purples  or  Pepperoom,  a 
disease  in  wheat,  produced  by  the  Vibiio  tritici,  a  species  of 
Infusoria,  in  form  like  a  worm,  only  more  attenuated  at  both 
extremities,  and  of  light-yellow  colour.  Its  e^s  deposited 
in  the  kerne!  turn  at  first  into  an  unhealthy  dark-green,  which 

'     /■',■■■  '    EC 

in  water  sets  the  OTi(™»«(  free  in  thousands.  As  many  as  50,000, 
Henslow  estimates,  may  exist  in  one  grain,  but  this  calculation 
is  made  at  random.  Farmers  are  much  troubled  with  these 
vihriones,  as  their  vitality,  in  dry  wheat,  lasts  seven  years,  and  in 
sowing  there  is  nothing  to  indicate  the  presence  of  the  animalcula, 
which,  developed  by  the  geimination  of  tlie  grain,  blackens  the 
lields  in  harvest. 

Earl.  According  to  Cruise  {On  DigaitUs,  p.  53)  there  were 
three  kinds  of  E, — (i)  Where  the  dignity  was  annexed  to  the 
seisin  of  an  entire  county  with^m  regalia,  including  jurisdiction 
and  the  rigiit  to  all  royal  services  and  estreats ;  this  was  a  Pala- 
'■);  (2)  where  only  the  title  was  taken  from  a  county, 


but 


I  held,  the  n 


.  h  p  a 


d     nd       be  h   d  / 


/J/     Ih     p        pal 


rally  consisted  of  arrr 
were  often  called  kon 
mond,   Arandel,  &c 
grand-serjeantry,  or  attendance 
In  dignity  the  E. 


Tl 


wh   1 


asgov- 


thevj 


He  is  addressed  a 


and  horses.    The  ^ 

\rs;  hence  the  honour  or  estate  of  Rich. 

Earldoms  were  held  by  the  tenure  ol 

iria  regis  and  magnum 

the  marquis,  and  bi 


472 


'  Right  Honourable, '  and  by 


coronet  contains  a  circle  ol  _  , 
are  eight  small  golden  pyramids,  each  with  a  large  silver  ball, 
and  a  gold  strawberry-leaf  on  the  rim  between  each  pair  of  pyra- 
mids ;  the  cap  is  crimson  velvet,  turned  up  with  ermine,  with  a 


hereditary,  though  down  to  the  Conquest  the  consent  of  king 
and  Witenagemot  seems  to  have  been  required.  During  the 
annexations  the  families  of  the  sub-kings  continued  to  act  as 
ealdormen.  Thus  the  ealdordom  was  not  necessarily  co-extensive 
with  the  later  shire,  and  the  ealdor  was  sometimes  superseded 
by  a  high  reeve.  Glenerally,  however;  each  shire  had  its  ealdor- 
man,  who  sat  with  sheriff' and  bishop  in  the  folc-gemot,  receiving 
one-third  of  the  court-fees  (the  same  as  the  Karoling  comes  took 
under  capitulary,  A.D.  783).  As  military  commander  he  was  called 
hersloga.  Where  the  relation  of  ealdorman  and  king  has  arisen 
out  of  commendation,  not  conquest,  the  hereditary  descent  would  , 
be  sooner  recognised.  Cnut  divided  England  ii^o  four  earldoms, 
and  in  the  time  of  jl^thelred  the  term  £.  began  to  be  used  instead 
of  ealdorman,  a  use  su^ested  by  the  Danish^r/.  Before  this,  the 
Enghsh  eorl  and  athd\!a.A  a  wider  meaning,  equivalent  to  the 
Latin  nobilis,  the  primitive  class  of  noble  blood,  ^thding  was 
gradually  restricted  to  the  king's  kin.  Tlie  North  Peoples  Law 
of  the  8th  c.  pnts  the  wer-gild  of  the  eorl  2000  thrymsas  higher 
than  tliat  of  the  ealdorman,  but  this  is  attributed  to  Danish 
ideas.  Historically,  the  comes,  or  companion  of  the  king's 
household,  is  more  truly  represented  by  the  Enghsh  notion 
oSgesith,  who  afterwards  became  king's  thegn,  than  by  the  gene- 
ral name  of  eorl,  or  the  official  title  of  ealdorman.  The  special 
investiture  of  an  E.,  by  girding  on  the  sword,  and  placing  the 
cap  and  cloak  on  the  person,  is  now  abolished.  See  Cou&s  and 
Count. 

Earl  Uorshal,  originally  Marshal  of  England,  the  title  of  a 
British  ofiicer  of  state,  whose  chief  functions  are  to  preside  over 
the  College  of  Arms,  to  take  ci^nisance  of  matters  relating  to 
pedigrees  and  descents,  to  make  proclamations  of  war  and  peace, 
and  to  grant  armorial  bearings.  The  office  is  believed  to  have 
been  established  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II.,  who  conferred  it 
upon  Thomas  Mowbray,  Earl  of  Nottingham,  and  it  is  now  h« 
ditary  in  the  family  of  Howard,  the  head  of  which,  and  cor 
quently  E.  M.  at  present.  Is  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  The  last 
grant  for  the  office  was  made  19th  October  1672  by  Charles  II. 

Earl'om,  Bichafd,  a  distinguished  engraver  in  mezzotint, 
was  bom  in  London,  1742.  Among  the  most  celebrated  of  his 
works  are  his  Lii^  Verifatis,  or  Zoo  Frinis  aftsr  the  Original 
Designs  of  Claude  di  Lorrmne  { 1 777) ;  his  works  after  Reynolds ; 
sxA\us  Portraits  cf  Characters  Illustrious  in  British  History  from 
Henry  VIII.  to  James  II.  (i8io),  in  conjunction  vriih  C.  Tunier. 
E.  died  in  1822.  The  practice  of  etching  has  prevented  tlie  long 
existence  of  E.'b  style. 

Eftrraton,  or  Er'oildonne,  a  village  on  the  Leader,  Berwick- 
shire, 30milesS.E,  of  Edinburgh,  has  manufactures  of  ginghams, 
shawls,  blankets,  tweeds,  and  flannels.  Pop.  (1S71)  1168.  Near 
K  are  the  ruins  of  the  Rhymer's  Tower,  so  called  as  having 
been  the  residence  of  the  famous  Thomas  Leannont,  or  Thomas 
the  Rhymer  (q.  v.),  to  commemorate  whom  a  stone  with  an 
inscription  has  been  built  into  the  church  wall.  Its  name  was 
changed  from  Ercildoune  to  Earlston  from  its  being  a  seat  of  the 
Earls  of  March. 

Early  Eng^liell,  a  style  of  Gothic  Architecture  (q.  v.),  the 
special  feature  of  which  was  the  introduction  of  the  pointed  arch, 
which  hardly  appeared  in  England  till  the  rebuilding  of  Canter- 
bury Cathedral  m  1175,  Down  to  the  year  1200  the  round 
Norman  arch  was  still  usually  employed  in  conjunction  with  the 
pointed  arch,  to  which  it  gave  place  at  last,  thereafter  remainmg 
practically  banished  as  a  feature  of  English  architecture  for  three 
The  E.  E.  architects,  though  deeply  influenced  by 


long  pointed  window,  but  they  were  the  inventors  of  the 
lancet  style  of  fenestration,  or  the  grouping  of  such  whidows 
together  in  tvros,  threes,  fives,  and  sevens.    The  great  window 


y  Google 


EAR 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


group  consisting  of  five  lancets  combined,  and  called  the  Five 
Sisters,  of  York  Cathedral,  is  a  good  exiunple  of  such  fenestra- 
tion. Anotlier  distinguishing  feature  of  the  style  is  the  use  of  the 
tooth  ornament,  a  square  four-leaved  flo«'er,  generally  nsed  to 
enrich  the  deep  hollow  moulding  of  an  arch.  When  thus  used, 
the  flowers  are  placed  close  enough  to  touch  at  the  extremities. 

Earn  (Gael.  Erinn,  '  west '),  a  river  and  loch  in  Stralheatn, 
S.  Perthshire,  26  miles  W.  of  Perth,  The  loch  stretches  7  miles 
ftom  E.  to  W.,  and  is  from  r  to  ij  miles  broad,  wifli  a  depth 
of  roo  fathoms.  The  river  flows  out  of  the  locli,  ajid  has  an 
easterly  course  of  40  miles,  falling  into  the  Firth  of  Ta,y  a  mile 
below  Abemethy.— ra^  Briii^  of  E.  is  a  viHage  6  miles  S.  of 
Perth,  and  lies  near  the  mineral  springs  of  PitcalthlSy.  Pop. 
(1871)  326. 

Eam'eat  (Lat,  arr^\  or  Arlea,  as  it  is  called  in  Scotland,  is 
a  small  sum  of  money  given  as  a  symbol  of  the  completion  of  a 
bai^in.  The  E,  is  not  in  any  case  essential  to  complete  a  bar- 
gain (see  Consent,  Contract),  it  is  merely  a  legal  item  of 
proof  of  agreement  In  salsj  howevo-,  K  causes  the  property  to 
vest  in  the  purchaser,  but  it  does  not  affett  the  seller's  tight  to 
demand  the  full  price  before  deliveiy,  if  credit  has  not  been  given, 
■  or  to  stop  the  goods  in  Iransittt  in  case  of  insolvency.  Nor  does 
it  affect  any  of  the  other  rights  vested  in  the  seller  prior  to  de- 
livery. The  question  s<anetime8  aiisas  wheth^  or  not  E.  is  to 
count  as  part  of  a  slSpniated  price  or  wage.  This  will  depend 
on  the  intentioD  Of  parties.  If  proof  of  intMition  be  otherwise 
insufficient,  the  proportion  which  the  E.  bears  to  the  value  of  the 
subject  of  contract  will  be  held  to  decide  the  question,  '  If  a 
shilling  be  given,'  says  ErSkine,  '  in  the  purchase  of  a  ship  or  of 
a  bOK  of  diamonds,  it  is  presumed  to  be  given  merely  in  evidence 
of  the  bargain,  or,  in  the  common  way  of  speaking,  it  isofcorfE, 
'■'"''  '  "    ibfe,  it  13  reckonei" 


but  if  the  SI 


■e  considerable, 


3  reckoned  up  in  the 


EatTing  (Lat.  inauris,  Gr.  tnoHoti),  an  omamoit  pend^it 
from,  or  inserted  into,  the  lobe  of  the  ear.  Modern  civilised 
nations  regard  the  E.  almost  ra:clusively  as  afemale  adornment, 
but  among  less  advanced  and  uncivilised  people,  it  is  worn  by 
both  sexes,  a  custom  which  sailors  of  different  nationalities  fre- 
quently affect.  Among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  the 
E.  was  considwed  effeminate,  while  in  Eastern  countries,  on  the 
authority  of  Pliny,  It  mas  osei  by  men  and  women  alike.  Ear- 
rings were  worn  \iy  the  English  down  to  the  loth  c.  In  the  l5th 
c.  the  fiishion  was  revived  in  En^and,  and  eittended  even  to  gen- 
tlemen, who  followed  the  example  of  the  courtiws  of  Henri  ill. 
of  France.  Satiricid  allusions  to  this  custom  are  frequent  in  the 
writings  of  contemp(»ary  dramatists  ;  it  appears  to  have  died  out 
about  the  period  of  the  Restoration,  Earrings  assume  a  great 
variety  of  form,  and  are  often  of  the  most  costly  description,  as  of 
gold  enriched  with  precious  stones.  Pearls  were  valued  for  their 
spherical  shape,  their  size,  and  their  whiteness ;  but  the  elongated 
ones  called  elencM  were  also  in  great  esteem  as  forming  a  grace- 
ful pendant  to  the  ring.  Seneca  speaks  of  one  which  had  a 
couple  of  pewls  above  and  below  the  precions  stone  as  worth  a 
patrimony.  For  elegance  of  design  and  beauty  of  execution, 
those  of  the  Etruscans  and  Greeks  have  never  been  surpassed, 

Ear-Shell  {Haliotis),  a  genus  of  Gasteropodous  molluscs,  be- 
longing to  the  family  HaUotidm,  in  whldi  the  shell  is  ear-shaped, 
with  small  whorls,  and  a  large  apertura  The  outer  lip  is  per- 
forated for  a  siphon,  and  in  ear-shells  new  holes  are  succes- 
sively formed  with  the  growth  of  the  shell.  No  operculum 
exists.  These  shells  are  mlich  used  in  inlaying  work,  on  account 
of  the  beautiful  tints  of  their  nacreous  or  mother-of-pearl  linin& 
They  abound  at  the  Channel  Islands,  and  familiar  species  are  the 
Haiiotis  tuherculatus,  the  Ormer  or  Guernsey  E.-S.,  and  the  H. 
asmmus  or  Ass's  E.^S. 

Earth,  The.  It  was  generally  believed  by  the  Micients,  and 
the  belief  still  lingers  among  the  uncivilised  and  uneducated  races 
of  mankind,  that  the  E.  was  an  immovably  fixed,  flat,  circular 
disc,  roimd  which  the  sphere  of  the  heavens  moved  in  its  daily 
revolution.  Thales  of  Miletus  (640  B.C.),  and  Pythi^ras  (506 
B.C.),  taught  that  the  E,  was  globular  in  shape  ;  bnt  Arislarchus 
(280  E.  c.)  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  maintain  its  annual  and 
diurnal  motions.  This  hypothesis  was  developed  and  systema- 
tised  by  Copernicus,  modified  by  Kepler,  and  finally  established 
by  Newton,  as  a  consequence  of  the  probably  universal  law  of 
gravilation.     To  the  mathematical  astronomer,  the  close  agree- 


ment between  the  Ime  position  of  a  planet  or  satellite  and  that 
obtained  by  calculation,  is  sufKcient  proof  of  tlie  truth  of  (he 
Newtopian  system  of  the  tiniverse  ;  but  absolutely  indisputable 
evidence  is  not  wanting.  The  projected  circular  annual  motion 
of  every  fixed  star,  in  consequence  of  the  Aberration  (q.  v.)  trfUght, 
is  an  incontestable  proof  of  tlie  annual  elliptic  revolution  of  the 
E. ;  and  the  slight  eastward  displacement  from  the  vertical  of  a 
mass  dropped  from  a  considerable  hei^t  cannot  but  be  due  to 
a  rotating  motion  of  the  E.  The  diurnal  rotation  of  the  E,  is. 
however,  mode  'oiriiU  to  th^  bodily  «fe  by  mcMis  of  Foucault' 


pendulum  oscilkting  at  rithe*'  pole  will  appear  to  an 
uuac.  vtv  on  the  E.  to  be  continually  changing  its  direction  of 
oscillation,  the  change  being  one  of  rotation  in  a  direction  con- 
trary to  that  of  the  E,'s  motion.  A  Jiendulum  at  the  equator 
will  obviously  not  be  aflected ;  while  one  at  any  intermediate 
latitude  wiJl  be  influenced  by  the  resolved  portion  of  the  E.'s 
rotation,  which  h^  for  axis  the  diameter  through  the  locality 
where  the  pendulum  is.  By  msdiing  use  of  a  long,  slowly-oscil- 
lating pendulum,  this  effect  is  easily  apparait  in  our  latitudes 
within  the  space  of  an  hour.  The  rotundity  of  the  E.,  again,  is 
piroved  by  a  variety  of  phenomena,  such  as  the  gradual  apparent 
sinking  of  a  vessel  at  sea,  as  it  recedes  from  the  observer,  Uie 
invariab^  circular  form  of  the  E,'s  shadow  during  a  lunar 
eclipse,  the- possibility  of  circumnavigation,  &c.  By  treating 
the  E,  Bs  having  been  fonnerly  a  rotating  fluid,  Newton  deduced 
that  its  form  should  be  that  of  an  oblate  Spheroid — the  polar 
diameter  being  less  than  the  equatorial,  in  the  ratio  of  2Z9  :  230, 
This  difference  is  too  great,  the  true  ratio  being  very  nearly  as 
899 :  30a  Sir  G.  Airy  gives  the  exact  dimensions  as  7899'i7 
miles  for  the  poku-  diameter,  and  7925"I7  miles  for  the  equa- 
torial. These  results  agree  to  the  first  decimal  point  with  those 
of  Eessel  and  Cku-ke,  except  that  the  latter  gives  two  different 
equatorial  diameters,  viz.,  79a6'70  miles  in  14°  E.  long.,  and 
7924  "69  miles  in  104°  E,  long. 

As  important  as  the  determination  of  the  dimensions  of  the 
E.  is  the  detwmiiMtion  of  its  meaa  dendly—Le.,  the  density  of 
an  equal  homogeneous  globe  as  compared  with  that  of  water. 
Newton,  with  diaracleristic  sagacity,  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that 
this  mean  density  would  be  found  by  experiment  to  be  between 
fire  and  six  times  that  of  water.  His  prediction  Iras  been  fulfilled. 
Huttonand  Playfair,  from  the  observations  of  Maskelyne  in  1774 
on  the  perturbing  efTect  produced  by  the  mass  of  Schiehallion  upon 
an  otherwise  vertical  plumb-line,  deduced47i ;  and  more  recently 
Colonel  James,  from  similar  experiments  at  Arthur's  Seat, 
obtained  5'3l6,  Carlini  and  Plana,  from  the  diminution  of 
gravity  due  to  ascending  Mount  Cenis,  gave  4'39.  The  great 
uncertainty  in  these  experiments,  however,  exists  in  the  deter- 
mination of  the  magnitude  and  density  of  the  mountain  with 
which  those  of  the  K  are  compared.  A  more  delicate  and 
exact  method  is  that  su^ested  by  Michel,  Mid  performed  fiist 
by  Cavendish  (hence  the  name  Cave}itUsk  txperiminl),  but  more 
recently  by  Reich  of  Freybei^,  and  Francis  Baily.  The  principle 
involved  is  the  same  as  in  the  Schiehallion  experiment,  viz.,  the 
comparison  of  the  E.'s  attraction  with  that  of  a  known  mass, 
which  is  in  this  case,  however,  not  an  irregular  mountain,  but  a 
globe  of  lead.  Two  laree  bails  are  fixed  at  the  extremities  of 
a  horizontally-rotatory  boa«l ;  and  two  of  smaller  size  are 
attached  to  the  ends  of  a  horizontal  bar,  which  is  suspended  by 
a  cord  over  the  centre  of  the  board  By  careful  micrometer 
measurement  with  the  tdescope  at  some  distance,  the  unrestrained 

Eosition  of  rest  of  the  bar  is  determined.  Then  by  rotating  the 
oard  until  the  lai^er  balls  are  brought,  on  the  opposite  sides 
of  the  bar,  each  into  close  proximity  to  one  of  the  smaller  ones, 
an  appreciable  couple  will  be  exerted  upon  the  torsion  bal- 
ance in  virtue  of  the  muttral  attraction  of  the  masses.  This 
position  having  been  carefully  measured,  the  Ixiaid  is  again 
rotated,  until  the  balls  are  in  such  a  position  as  to  produce  upon 
the  bar  a  couple  equal  but  opposite  to  the  former.  From  these 
experiments  the  observed  attraction  of  a  mass  of  lead  of  known 
volume  and  density  can  be  compared  with  the  known  attraction 
of  the  E.,  of  known  volume  but  unknown  density,  and  the  un- 
known quantity  is  easily  deducible.  The  difficulty  here  exists 
in  the  extreme  delicacy  of  the  measurements;  but  this  very 
delicacy,  necessitatii^  as  it  does  great  care  and  precaution,  renders 
the  method  the  one  upon  which  we  can  most  depend  for  accuracy. 
Cavendish  deduced  5-48,  Reich  5'438,  and  Baily  5-66,  as  tha 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


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mean  density.  SfiU  another  method  was  successfully  applied  m 
1 854,  as  far  as  r^alds  the  experimental  part,  by  Sir  G.  B.  Airy, 
the  astronomer-royal.  From  a  numberof  pendulum  experiments 
at  Harton  ColUery  near  S.  Shields,  he  found  that  the  accelerating 
force  of  gravity  was  increased  by  tbttt'Ii  P^-Tt  fCr  a  descent  of 
1260  feet.  This  gave  6-565  as  the  value  of  the  mean  density— a 
result,  however,  which  cannot  be  expected  to  be  so  accurate  as 
tbM  deduced  frftm  the  Cavendish  experiment,  considering  the  un- 
certainty tliat  exists  in  the  determination  of  the  density  of  the  neigh- 
bouring  rocks,  and  Ihe  geolc^cal  configuratiim  of  the  mine  and 
vicinity.  We  may  take,  however,  5I  as  teing  very.nearly  the  mean 
density  of  the  E,  ;  andsince  the  crust  oftheE.  has  only  a  specific 
gravMy  of  from  2  to  3,  it  follows  that  the  E.  must  be  considerably 
denser  in  the  interior  than  at  the  surface.  But  it  is  demonstrable 
that  a  globe  of  the  same  fjzeand  the  same  surface  density  as  the 
E.  would  have,  in  virtue  of  the  ever-increasing  pressure  as  ■one 
approaches  the  centre,  a  mean  density  of  considerably  more  than 
5J,  if  tlie  m^nitude  and  form  were  due  merely  to  the  mutual 
gravitation  of  the  whole.  There  must  be  some  cause,  then,  act- 
ing upon  the  interior  laveis,  so  as  to  counterbalance  the  effect 
of  pressure  and  tender  the  density  less  than  it  otherwise  would 
be.  T^is  cause  is  probably  he*t ;  a  supposition  borne  out  by 
the  fact  that,  when  digging  a  mine,  anking  a  well,  or  making 
a  bore,  the  temperature  is  always  found  to  increase  with  tlie 
depth  about  1°  F.  for  every  60  feet.  This  rate  of  increase 
must,  however,  according  to  Sir  W.  Thomson,  decrease  as 
one  descends,  if  the  earth  be  a  cooling  body ;  but  the  decrease 
cannot  be  appreciable  for  the  comparatively  small  depth  to 
which  we  can  penetrate.  At  a  depth  of  50  miles  (a  mere  frac- 
tion compared  to  tlie  whole  diameter)  the  temperature  would 
consequently  be  over  4000°  F.,  a  temperature  at  which  no 
known  substance  can  remain  solid.  We  are  not  at  liberty  to 
infer  from  this  that  the  interior  of  the  E.  is  fluid,  because  the 
circumstances  under  which  the  material  is  exposed  to  this  great 
heat  are  quite  altSred — tlie  pressure,  in  fact,  is  considerably 
mcreased.  Now,  matter  which  expands  when  fused,  as  almost 
ali  known  substances  do,  has  its  fusing  point  na:sed  by  increased 
pressure;  and  theTefote,  recognising  Sie  Hopkins-Thomson  ob- 
jection, that  the  knovm  phenoniena  of  nutation  and  precession 
are  inconsistent  with  the  internal  fluidity  of  the  E.,  we  are 
forced  to  the  conclusion  that  the  globe  is  solid  tlrcoughout. 
Thomson  lias  further  shown  that  the  rigidity  of  the  E.  must  be, 
on  the  whole,  greater  than  that  of  an  equal  sized  globe  of  glass, 
otherwise  the  iOYafirma  would  present  the  phenomena  of  tides. 
For  the  E.'s  relations  to  the  other  members  of  the  solar  system, 
see  MooH,  Planets,  Sun  ;  and  in  Aerolites,  Atmosphere, 
CuREENTs,  Earthquakes,  Geology,  Glaciers,  Eiveks, 
Seas,  Seasons,  Volcanoes,  Winds,  &c.,  the  reader  will  find 
details  of  the  more  important  phenomena  daily  occurrmg  on 


years,  and  was  originally  proposed  as  a  substitute  for  the  pesti- 
ferous cesspool  and  the  wasteful  and  defective  system  of  water- 
drainage,  and  as  a  simple  method  of  enriching  the  land  with 
valuable  manurial  matte*,  commonly  carrledto  the  sea  or  diverted 
into  our  rivers  to  their  polhition.  The  principle  of  ihe  E,  -C,  S. 
,  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  dry  eaiik  is  one  of  the  best  known 
disinfectants  and  deodorisers,  and  that  when  it  is  applied  in 
detail  to  fresh  excrement  it  renders  the  fsJcal  matter  at  once 
inodorous  and  innoxious.  Moreover,  a  compound  is  formed  that 
is  valuable  as  manure,  and  capable  of  easy  application  to  the 
soil.  The  introduction  of  the  system,  which  is  in  successful 
operation  in  many  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom,  as  well  as  in 
India  aod  America,  is  chiefly  due  to  the  zeal,  enei^y,  and  me- 
chanical talent  of  the  Rev.  Henry  Moule,  vicat  of  Fordington, 
Dorsetshire.  Mr  Moule's  patent  earth-closet  resembles  in  out- 
ward appearance  an  ordinary  water-closet.  Under  the  seat  is  a 
watertight  vault  bedded  in  cement,  or  a  movaHe  pail  or  tank, 
and  at  me  back  is  placed  a  hopper  or  chamber  for  holding  dry 
sifted  earth,  On  using  the  closet  for  the  first  time  a  charge^ 
ij  lbs.  by  weight,  or  ij  pints  by  measure— of  eatth  is  thrown 
into  the  receptacle,  and  after  use  a  second  chaige  is  cast  down 
either  automatically,  on  the  sitter  removing  his  weight  from  the 
seat,  or  by  his  palling  a  plug-handle.  The  simpte  mechanical 
ariangemenls  ol^  Moule's  eatth-doset  admit  of  easy  modification 
to  meet  special  wants,  and  the  vault  may  be  emptied  or  the  pan 


removed  either  from  the  outside  or  inside  as  desired.  The  night- 
soil  need  not  he  removed  till  the  vault  or  other  receptacle  is  filled, 
as  it  remains  altogether  inoffensive.  If  dcaii-ed,  the  earth-manure 
may  be  redried,  and  used  over  again  two  or  three  times,  the 
manorial  vakie  of  the  product  increasing  with  each  lime  it  is 
passed  through  the  -doset.  The  organic  matter  is  disintegrated 
and  absorbed  by  the  earth,  and  it  is  only  when  the  earth  is 
saturated  with  liauid.and  vapour  that  it  fails  as  a  deodoriser.  It 
is  essential  that  the  earth  be  dry  and  sifted,  and  that  no  slops  be 
thrown  into  the  receptacle.  The  value  of  the  earth-manure  ha^been 
estimated  at  from  ^l,  los.  to  £2  per  ton.  Of  the  advantages 
of  the  E.-C.  S.  in  agricultural  districts  and  small  communities 
there  can  be  but  one  opinion.  Wherever  dry  earth  is  obtainable, 
and  facilities  exist  for  the  ready  disposal  of  die  manure,  there  the 
system  is  eminently  practicable.  In  large  centres  of  population 
its  adoption  caft  scarcely  be  (Sqwcied,  espedally  where  the  water- 
drainage  system,  with  all  its  defects,  is  in  operation.  The  labour 
and  ftoense  of  preparing  "and  storing  laige  quantities  of  earth, 
and  of  its  subsequent  removal,  even  if  facilities  existed  for  the 
disposal  of  the  manure,  render  the  system  impracticable  for  large 
cities.  The  most  zealons  advocates  of  the  E.  -C.  S.  do  not  even 
recommend  it  as  practicable  in  towns  of  over  10,000  persons. 
The  system,  however,  has  been  found  to  work  well  in  jails,  bar- 
racks, factories,  hospitals,  and  schools  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  in  prisons  and  military  stations  In  India. 

Modifications  of  the  dry-earth  system  have  also  been  practically 
tested  in  some  English  towns  "with  successful  results.  For 
example,  in  the  Pendleton  district,  under  the  Salford  Corpora- 
tion, Mr  Morrell's  patent  cinder- sifting  ash-closets,  to  the  number 
of  1000  (representing  a  population  of  50QO  persons),  are  in  daily 
use,  and  from  the  sale  of  the  ash  soil  (at  12s.  6d.  the  ton)  an 
annual  profit  has  accrued.  Morrell's  method  has  the  economic 
advantage  over  tlie  dry-earlh  plan  of  utilising  the  coai-ashes 
which  are  daily  produced,  and  as  a  rule  the  fuel  refuse  of  a  house 
is  iowa&  to  be  suifioient  to  deodorise  the  whole  dejecta  of  the 
family. 

The  Sanitary  Amendment  Act  (3lEt  July  1868)  legalises  the 
construction  of  earth-closets  in  place  of  water-dosets  in  bouses 
and  elsewhere,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  local  authority. 
See  Rev.  H.  'iS.a\iit's  Dry-Earth  System  (Lond.  1871),  and  a 
pamphlet  on  the  Health  and  Sewagi  of  TmuKS,  issued  by  the 
Society  of  Arts  (Lond.  May  1S76). 

Eftrtll'amsrare,  a  name  applied  indefinitely  to  pottery  in 
which  the  body  or  paste  is  made  of  the  coarser  and  more  com- 
mon materials.     See  Pottery. 

Earth-Honaea,  populaiiy  Itnown  as  •elrdi  or  yird  housts, 
and  occasionally  referred  to  by  archieidogists  as  vieems  (Gael. 
uaivik.,  'a  ca.ve'),  are  adass  of  structures  peculiar  to  the  eastern 
parts  of  'Scotlani  "Hiey  are  specially  abundant  in  Aberdeen- 
shire (where  they  are  sometimes  called  '  Picts'  houses'),  but  they 
range  from  Shetland  to  Berwickshire,  and  are  confined,  with 
few  exceptions,  to  the  counties  bordering  on  the  K  coast.  The 
typical  earth-house  may  be  described  as  an  dongated  chamber, 
solidly  built  of  unhewn  and  uncemented  stones,  curved  and  pear- 
shaped  on  the  ground  plan,  the  walls  converging,  and  the  roof 
fonned  of  massive  flat  slabs.  The  whole  structure  is  subterranean, 
the  roof  reaching  to  within  a  foot  or  a  foot  and  a  half  of  the  sur- 
face leveL  The  entrance  is  low  and  narrow,  often  a  mere  hole 
lilte  a  fox-esj-th,  sloping  downwards,  and  widening  as  it  proceeds 
to  the  level  floor  about  ten  or  a  dozen  feet  inwards.  The  interior 
is  thus  a  long,  narrow,  curved  chamber,  extending  from  20  to  40 
feet  in  length,  and  widening  from  3  or  4  feet  near  the  entrance  to 
8  or  9  at  &.E  further  end,  with  an  average  hdght  of  from  5  to  6 
feet.  Sometimes  the  narrow  part  of  the  chamber  is  curved  first 
in  one  direction  and  then  in  another,  and  occasionally  a  smaller 
chamber  branches  off  fi-om  the  larger.  There  is  usually  no  pro- 
vision for  the  admission  of  light  and  air,  but  several  have  been 
found  provided  with  a  smolte-hole  in  the  roof  near  the  further  end. 
These  singular  structures  are  usually  situated  in  dry  knolls.  One 
in  Straflidon  had  a  paved  floor,  and  a  well-built  drain  underneath 
it  The  exbreme  length  of  chamber  and  passage  was  58  feet.  It 
was  3i  feet  vride  immediately  within  the.  entrance,  and  9  feet 
wide  at  the  further  end,  while  the  height  averaged  about  6  feet. 
On  the  other  hand,  one  at  Eribol!  m  Sutheriandshire,  which 
was  33  feet  long,  was  not  more  than  -^^  feet  in  greatest  width, 
and  4j  feet  high  In  minj  cases  they  ate  accompanied  by  the 
remains  of  habititiins  ibove  giound,  probably  huts  of  turf  or 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


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■wattled  work.  At  Kildrummy,  where  some  forty  or  fifly  of 
them  occurred  within  a  radius  of  z  miles,  the  underground  ycuc- 
ture  was  usually  discovered  by  the  remains  of  ovei^round  en- 
closures, the  earth  of  which  had  been  aicavated  to  the  depth 
of  a  foot  or  18  inches,  and  placed  as  a  low  bowiding  fence  round 
the  sunken  area  of  to  or  12  paces  square.  At  Kildonan,  in 
Sutherlandshii-e,  two  of  these  undfiigronDd  structures  had  their 
entrances  within  the  area  of  hut  circles.  They  were,  thus  evi- 
dently undeiground  adjuncts  to  the  oyei^round  residences  of  the 
early  tribes,  probably  the  winter  dweDings  of  people  who  Hveij 
in  huts  in  the  summer  season.  Many  conjectures  as  to  the 
age  and  uses  of  these  underground  structures  have  been  hazarded 
without  the  least  reference  to  the  evidence,  which  seems  distinct' 
enough  on  both  points.  No  slone  or  bronze  weapons  have  beep 
'  found  in  any  of  them.  The  objects  that  have  occurred  in  theiii 
are  querns  or  hand-mills,  stone  mortars  and  cups,  spindl^whbrjs, 
bronze  pins  and  rings,  corroded  icon  implements,  rude  pottery, 
and  fragments  of  the  lustrous  red  ware  of  the  Romano-British 
period.  This  lustrous  red  ware,  with  embossed  figures  (com- 
monly called  '  Samian  ware  *  ii  this  (jountiy,  though  it  is.  of 
GaUo-Roman  manufacture),  has  been  found  in  three  E.-H.  in 
Forfarshire,  viz.,  at  Tealing,  Fithie,  and  Pitcur.  In  two  other 
instances,  viz.,  at  Newstead,  in  Roxbut^hshire,  and  Crichlon 
Mains,  in  Midlothian,  bevelled  stones,  with  Roman  mouldings, 
and  squared  and  chiselled  stones,  with  diagonal  and  diamond 
work  of  Roman  character,  were  found  built  into  the  walls  of 
E.-H.  As  a  class,  Ihey  seem  thus  to  belong  rather  to  the  earty 
historic  than  to  the  strictly  pre-historie  period,  and  they  were 
undoubtedly  in  use  subsequent  to.the  tane  mthe  Roman  dominion 
in  Britam.  That  they  were  occupied  as  dwellings  is  evident 
from  the  pavement,  the  smoke-holes,  the  querns,  and  other 
domestic  ntensils,  and  the  accumulation  on  their  floors  of  char- 
coal and  bones  of  animals,  which  formed  the  refuse  of  the  food  of 
theif  occnpants.  They  are  not  more  uncomfortable,  or  much  more 
incommodious,  than  many  of  the  caves  of  the  N.  of  England, 
which,  as  Mr  Boyd  Dawkins  has  shown,  Imve  been  occupied  as 
habitations  after  the  departure  of  the  Romans  from  Britain,  The 
best  of  the  K-H.  give  on  an  average  a  room  40  feet  by  7,  and 
5  to  6  feet  high.  No  structurea  precisfely  similar  are  known  else- 
where. Several  examples  of  a  type  cl<ffiely  analogous,  however, 
are  found  in  Cornwall  and  in  BriHany.  In  many  of  the  riOhs 
and  early  eaithwotks  rf  Ireland  there  are  -undei^ound  structures, 
but  they  differ  in  form  from  those  described  above,  and  more  nearly 
resemble  the  chambers  in  the  larger  sepulchral  cairns.  A  double 
chamber  of  this  type  occuta  undSr  tie  area  of  the  fortified  hill  of 
Dunsinnane  in  Perthshue. 

Eaath-Kut,  or  Earth- Clieatiiat,  a  name,  giyen  to  the 
tubers  of  certain  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Umbelli- 
ferit  (q.  v.),  such  as  the  Bunium  flexuosutn  and  Carum  at B.  *«/■ 
bocsistanaim.  The  name  pig-nut  is  given  to  the  tubers  of  the 
latter  species,  on  account  of  the  fondness  of  pigs  for  these  struc- 
tures. These  Uinbillifirss  are  harmless,  and  are  used  as  escu- 
lents, like  their  neat  neighbours  the  parsley,  celery,  &c.  Earth- 
nuts  are  highly  esteemed  in  Sweden,  and  those  of  B.  fetulaceum 
in  Greece.  The  first-named  species  of  Bunium.  is  common  in 
Britain,  especially  in  marshy  places, 

Bartli'qiiakee  are  sudden  and  more  or  less  violent  move- 
ments of  the  earth's  surface.  T^ey  are  of  various  intensities, 
from  a  vague  subterranean  rumbling  to  a  sho.ck  sufficient  to  set 
the  earth  into  a  violent  undulatory  motion,  shattering  rocks, 
opening  chasms,  destroying  old  lakes,  or  calling  into  existence 
new  ones,  altering,  or,  it  may  be,  completely  obliterating,  the 
course  of  streams,  submciging  dry  land  below  the  sea,  forming 
new  islands,  or  extending  the  area  of  old  territories,  and  all  that 
with  a  suddenness  and  force  which  CMinot  but  be  attended  with 
the  overthrow  of  works  of  human  construction,  and  the  loja  of 
much  life  and  property. 

Regarding  the  nature  and  origin  of  E^  there  has  been  much 
specuiadon  from  the  earliest  ages.  Anaxagtiras  ascribed  them 
to  subterranean  clouds  bursting  into  lightnuig,  and  s"haking  the 
vaults  in  which  they  were  cMifined ;  Descartes  to.  the  explosion 
of  inflammable  products  in  vast  undet|;round  cavities ;  Stukeley 
and  Priestley  to  electrical  causes ;  Humboldt,  Von  Buch,  and 
others  to  the  action  upon  the  earth's  crust  of  waves  induced  in 
''le  great  internal  ocean  of  molten  rock,  once  so  generally  be- 
eved  in,  (See  EARTH.)  The  latest  and  most  sdentifio  theory, 
lasmnch  as  it  explains  all  known  phenomena,  and  postulates 


nothing  but  what  experience  sliows  is  highly  probable,  is  that 
advanced  by  Mr  Mallet  in  185S,  during  the  meeting  of  the 
British  Asgocifition  at  Dublin,  He  defines  an  earthquake  as 
waye  or  waves  of  elastic  compression,  in  any  direction,  from  vi 
tieality  upwards  to  horizontality,  in  any  azimuth,  through  the 
crust  and  surface  of  the  earth,  from  any  centre  of  impulse,  c 
more  than  one,  and  which  may  be  attended  with  sound-wave 
and  sea- waves,  depending  upon  the  impulse,  and  upon  circum 
stanees  of  position  as  to  sea  and  land.'  TTie  earth-shock  ori 
ginates  as  a  ruptive  force  or  explosion,  due  possibly  to  a  sudden 
'  generation  or  condensation  of  steaqi  in  the  vesicular  ci 
which  tbeslowiy-coolingearthmostprobablyabounds,  Thisshock 
gives  rise  to  a  wave  or  a  series  of  waves,  each  of  which  travels 
in  a  continually-increasing  spheroidal  sheH,, and  therefore  spreads 
over  the  surface  in  a  coirespondingly-growiHg  circle.  This  circle, 
however,  will  vary  considerably  from  the  true  mathematical 
form,  inasmuch  as  the  veloeity  of  transmission  depends  upon  the 
nature  of  the  rock  through  which  the  shock  travels,  as  also  upon 
its  jointed  and  taulted  character.  Experiment  shows  that  such 
waves  of  compi^ssion  travel  more  rapidly  the  more  soUd  the 
rock  is,  and  the  actual  rate  in  f  " 
as  calculated  by  Mr  Mallet,  i 
second. 

The  angle  of  emergeme  of  the  wave  ia  evidently  greater  the 
nearer  the  locality  under  consideration  is  to  the  origin  of  the 
shock — being  a  right  angle  at  any  place  in  the  so-called  sdsmic 
vertical,  or  line  drawn  vertically  upwards  from  the  position  of 
central  impulse.    Here,  of  course,  the  intensity  will  be  greatest. 


eveiy  point  of  which  the  angle  of  emeigence.will  be  sufficiently 
smaU,  and  the  intensity  of  the  shock  sufficiently  great,  so  as  to 
tender  that  portion  of  the  shock  resolved  parallel  to  the  surface 
a  maximum.  If  the  origin  of  the  eai;thquake  should  be  below 
the  bed  of  the  ocean,  the  water  directly  OKer,  the.  seismic  vertical 
will  receive,  a  violent  blow,  giving  riae  to  an.  osciEatory  wave, 
which  will  travel  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  true  earth-shock, 
but  at  a  considerably  less  velocity.  These  statements  are  deduced 
from  the  theory  upon  dynamical  principles,  and  are  fully  borne 
out  by  experience.  In  coast  districts  subject  to  E.,  the  ocean- 
wave  is  more  dreadful  in  its  effects  than  the  earthquake  proper. 
Accompanied  by  a  turbulent  sea,  traceable  to  no  common  cause, 
and  immediately  preceded  by  an  extraordinary  outdraught  of 
water,  laying  bare  the  ocean-bed  to  a  distance  somedmes  far 
below  the  low-vuater  mark,  it  dashes  with  terrific  fury  upon  the 
shore,  teaj:ing  up.  trees  and  shrubs  by  the  coots,  levelling  houses, 
and  other  works  of  human,  construction,  and  carrying  high  and 
dry  upoaits  giant  crest  Seaweed,  shells,  fragments,  of  wood,  boats, 
and  even  lajge  vessels.  The  origin  of  the  rumblings  heard  before 
and  after  the  passage  of  the  sliock  is  at  once  evident,  being  due 
to  the  more  rapid  transmissibn  of  the  atmospheric  waves  pro- 
duced at  the  smface  of  contact  of  the  earth  and  air. 

The  most  celebrated  historic  eaithquajtq  is.  nndoubtedly  that 
of  Lisbon,  November  I,  17.55.  I"  tl'*  brief  space  of  eight 
minutes,  the  whole  city  was  reduced  to  ruins,  and  50,000  inhabi- 
tants swallowed  up.  Perhaps  the  most  awe-inspiring  event  was 
tl]e  disappearance,  without  leaving  a  trac;  behmd,  of  the  pier, 
with  its  crowds  of  ter^'or-struck  fugitives.  This  earthquake  also 
did  incalculable  damage  ai  Coimbra,  Oporto,  Malaga,  Fez 
in  Morocco,  where,  thousahds  of  persons  perished,  and  at  the 
Madeira^  Islands.  According  to  Humboldt,  it  extended  over  an 
area  equal  to  about  one-eleventh  of  the  earth's  surface,  but  its 
only  effect  in  Scotland  was  the  temporary  alteration  in  level  of 
some  of  our  lakes.  At  Calabria,  In  Italy,  there  have  been  seve- 
ral destructive  E.  at  various  times,  the  last  great  one,  by  which 
aboiit  10,000  lives  were  lost,  occurring  on  December  16,  1S57. 
The  W,  Indies  and  the  volcanic  regions  of  S,  America  also  suffer 
much  from  time  to.time.  In  August  l858,  about  ZJ.ooo  perished, 
and  30,000  were  rendered  homeless  in  the  various  towns  and 
villages  pf  Peru  and  Ecuador,  Britain  is  fortunately  rarely 
visited,  and  then  but  slightly.  The  place  of  most  frequent  occiur- 
rence  is  Comrie  in  Perthshire,  and  this  would  seem  to  be  con- 
nected in  some  way  with  its  geolc^cal  position,  which  recent 
survey  has  shown  to  be  on  the  great  line  of  fault  separating  the 
Lowlands  and  the  Highlands.  As  a  rule,  districts  Subject  to  E. 
are  also  volcanic,  a  fact  which  is  evident  at  a  ghince  over  a  good 
map  of  the  distribution  of  E,  and  volcanoes,  Snch,  for  instance, 
as  that  in  Keith  Johnstone's  Physical  Alias,  Plate  X,  For  cala- 
475 


vLiOOQle 


BAR 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EAE 


l<^ues  and  descriptions  of  E.,  and  for  more  detailed  information 
oiicerning  the  accompanying  phenomena,  the  reader  is  referred 
D  Mallet's  works,  to  Von  Hoff'a  Veranderungm  der  Erdober- 
^■rfi  (parts  ij.,  iv.,and  v.),  to  Lyell's /V»k/^£i  o/^ffiw/ijg)' (vol. 
ii.),  to  Somerviile's  Fhysici^  Gsografky,  to  Daul>eney's  treatise 
On  Vekanoes,  and  tn  Ponton's  E.  aiid  tolcaHoa  (1S72), 

Earth'-Woyi  or  Aa^- Va^k  (Oiycteropzis  CapmsU),  a  pecu-. 
liar  genus  of  Edentata  (q,  v. ),  forming  the  type  of  a  special  famiiy 
(Oryclerofidis),  and  inlmbiting  Southern  Alnca,  The  molar  teeth 
nnniber  foufleen  above,  and  twelve  in  the  lower  jaw ;  the  incisor 
and  canine  $ire  wantitig ;  the  fro^t  feet  possess  four,  ;ijid  (lie  bind 
feet  five,  fees  ;  the  claws  are  powerful,  and  adapted  for  dicing ; 
the  body  is  cove^d  with  hair,  and  averages  about  5  feet  in 
length ;  and  the  tail  is  of  moderate  size,  attaining  a  length  of  zo 

'les.     The  ears  are  very  long  and  prominent.     The  E.  lives 

mrrowE,  anct  is  nocturnal  ^  habits.  It  feeds  chiefly  upon  ants, 
which  it  takes  up  by  ni,eans  of  its  long;  tongue  and  viscid  saliYa. 

Bartli'worll,  in  engineering  construction,  consists  chiefly  of 
cuttings  and  embankments  for  railways,  roads,  reservoirs,  &C. 
The  engineer  who  projects  and  tays  out  a  railway  has  the  '  quan- 
tities '  of  E.  in  cubic  y»rds,  both  of  excavation  aiid  embankment, 
calculated  in  detail  in  h^s  offtee ;  and  finds,  by  boring  o(  other- 
wise, the  nature  of  the  ground  in  which  the  cnttjngs  have  to  be 
made,  and  upon  which  the  embajiltments  ar^tarest  The  work 
is  executed  by  a  contractor,  whose  price  is  based  upon  the  quan-. 
titles  and  infovniation  sumlied,  by  the  engineer.  Before  the 
E.  of  a  railway  is  commenced,  its  centreline  is  staged  and  nicked 
opt  (or  markei  by  a  little  trench  on  the  surface  of  the  ground^ 
its  levels  having  been  previously  fixed,  so  that  the  quantity  of 
land  excavated,  in  the  cuttings  may  be,  in  general,  equal  ti^ 
the  amount  reijtrired  for  making  th;e  embmltments,  in  order 
that  no  soil  may  have  to  be  excavated  specially  far  this  purpose. 
This  is  called  '  eqoalisi^  E.' 

The  slope  of  nature  of  the  s^il,  the  nearness  o{  water,  and 
other  caus^  occasion  (he  special  difBcitlties  whiQh  occur 
in  the  construction  of  E^  On  ground  n  hich  has  a  '  sidelong ' 
slope  it  is  often  necessary  to  form  the  sur^ce  into  steps  before 
tipping  upon  it,  that  there  may  be  no  tendeiioy  for  the  whole 
embankment  to  sli^de  dawn  after  it  13  finished  Cuttmgs  through 
rock  may  require  to  be  blasted  Embankments  exposed  to  the 
action  of  water  may  require  t(>  be  pitched  with  diy  stone,  or 
even  protected  by  a  masonry  face  Probably  the  greatest  difti, 
culty  of  all  to  be  overcome  m  connection  with  E  is  the  con 
Etruction  of  embankmients  upiBi  sufl  a  id  yielding  soil  Vaiioijs 
methods  have  been  emplojed  accordmg  to  the  special  nature 
of  the  variotis  situatioi^  such  as  by  e^cient  sideidranwng  or 
giving  an  extra,  width  to  the  base  of  the  em^iankmeiiti  by  th,e 
solidifying  of  the  soil  by  throwing  in  ballast,  by  laismg  a  struc- 
ture of  piles,  or  (ap  ai^ss  the  celebrated  ChaJ  Moss)  by  sijp-. 
porting  the  embankrnent  upon  a  raft  nj^de  of  hu^les  or  fascines 
or  on  an  intermediate  layer  of  diy  peat.  In  th^  ordinary  cases, 
where  a  stone  fadng  is  i:ipt  necessary,  thiB  slopes  of  eai;Ulwoi;ks 
are  dressed  to  a  good  surfai^^  covered  with  about  6  inches  of 
so  1  and  sown  w  th  grass,  wjiich  is  not  only  sightly  in  itself, 
but  prevents  the  desliuct  on  of  the  faces  by  weathering. 


most  ordmary  form  is  the  parapet,  excavated  from  a  ditch  i 
front  or  a  trench  beUmd  The  extenor  slope  must  have  tb 
inchnabon   which    the   material   would  assume   when    poure 


to  the  plane  of  site.  As  this,  howeve^,  would  interfere  with  the 
firing,  it  slopes  gently  outward  from  the  cfest  (i  in  6).  The 
inner  wall,  or  revetment,  termina,tes  in  a  sloping  step,  or  ban- 
quette, on  which  the  defenders  stand  in  firing.  To  resist  mjis- 
ketry  a  parapet  ought  to  be  five  feet  tbicit ;  to  resist  24-pounder 
guns,  24  feet.  On  level  ground,  the  ordinary  height  is  7J  feet. 
The  parapet  is  often  erected  on  a  wide  bank  of  earth  or  rampart ; 
this  where  guns  are  to  be  used.  The  escarp,  or  slope  of  the 
ditch  ought  to  be  continuous  with  the  exterior  dope  of  the  para- 
pet. Excavation  is  found  to  add  9  per  cent,  to  the  calculated 
bulk  of  most  soils.  The  more  complex  forms  of  fieldworks  (where 
the  use  of  masonry  is  of  course  impossible)  are  of  three  classes — 
(l)  Those  open  at  the  eoige,  including  the  redan,  a  work  of 
two  feces  forming  a  salient  angle ;  '''"  ■'^"i>'''>  -=•'' 
queue  d'kyronde,  which  has,  of  cou 
475 


triple  redan,  with  long  flanks  ;  the  tenaille  head,  a  low,  two-faced 
work  in  the  main  ditch,  and  before  the  curtain ;  the  lunette,  an 
advance  work,  latter  than  the  redan,  with  two  ftices  and  two  flanlis 
parallel  to  the  capitals;  bastion  bead,  composed  of  several  bastion 
fi-onts  forming  obtuse  angles  with  each  other.  (2)  Those  en- 
closed all  round,  including  the  redoubt,  which  has  no  flanking 
defence  from  its  own  parapets,  and  which  sometimes  appears  in 
the  ravelin  or  outwork  beyond  the  main  ditch ;  and  the  bastion 
fort,  the  most  complete  enclosure,  a*  each  side  or  front  consists 
of  two  faces,  two.  flanks,  and,  a  cutlafeg.  (3)  Those  which  consist 
of  lines  both  continuous  and  at  intervals,  the  separate  works 
being  always  arranged  so  as  to  flank  and  defend  one  another,  in- 
cluding lines  of  redans,  lines  of  tenailles,  m  parapets  forming  a 
series  of  salient  and  re-entering  angles,  lines  of  bastion,  or  a 
succession  of  bastion-shaped  parapets,  each  having  two  faces, 
two  flanks,  and  a  curtain;  and  indented  lines  h  la  crimaillire, 
cornposed  of  alternate  short  and  long  faces  at  right  angles  to  each 
othei;.  IiJ  ro^ky  positions  works  are  often  entirely  constructed 
of  sandbags— tatted  canvas  bsgs  holding  aboijt  a  bushel  of  earth. 
They  are  also  placed  on  parapets  (o.  afibtd  loopholes  for  rifle- 

Partll'wotia  {Lum&rieus),  a  species  of  Annelida  (q.  v.),  be- 
longing to  the  order  Oligoehata — a  group  distinguished  by  the 
rudimentary  nature  of  the  bristles  or  sel/e  on  the  sides  of  the 
body,  so  characteristic  of  most  other  worms.  The  E.  breathes 
by  means  oi  the  general  sarfaw  of  the  body,  assisted  by  little 
saccttli,  or  pouches  of  the  integument.  Its  body  is  of  cylin- 
drical shape,  blunt  in  front,  and  pointed  behind,  The  E.  is  a 
hermaphrodite,  the  sexual  oi^ans  being  contained  within  3 
limited  number  (8^15)  of  segments  of  the  body.  The  positior 
of  these  organs  is  denoted  by  a  swelling  of  the  corresponding 
joints,  so.  as  to  form  a  prominent  ^eminence,  which,  from  its 
saddle-like  appearance,  has  been  named  the  cHtellum.  The  e^s 
are  contained  in  cocoons,  and  are  deposited  in  clusters,  and  tlie 
yonng  are  develc^ed  directly  &Qm  the  eggs.  The  mouth  is  not 
provided  with  teeth  or  jaws,  and  a  '  crop'  and  'gizzard'  exist. 
Certain  sacs,  termed  segmental  OKga^s,  found  in  most  Annelides, 
communicate  in  Hie  E,  with  the  internal  cavity  of  the  body, 
and  probably  possess  some  eicretoiy  function.  The  bristles 
fnnging  the  body  exist  in  two,  rows,  and  are  hooked.  Earth- 
works effcct  much  good  io-  soils  by  opening  them  up  and 
separating  the  solidified  masses  of  earth,  Ihi^  permitting  the  r 
to  gain  access  to  the  subsoils..  Their  food  is  entirely  of  a  ve_ 
table  iBiture,  while  they  in  t^tn  form  food  for  moles,  shrews,  and 
allied  mammalSj.  as  well  as  for  very  many  birds.  They  appear 
to  1^  nocturnal  in  habits.      Several  tropi^  genera  and  species 


Har"- Trumpet,  an  instrument  adapted  to  relieve  defective 
hearing,  hy  collecting  and  concentEating  sound,  and  conveying 
it  into  the  ear.  The  ordinary  E.-T.  takes  the  form,pf  a  trumpet 
vrith  a  wide,  bell-^ped  mouth,  which  is  turoed  in  the  direction 
of  the  sound,  tapered  to  a  bent  ear-piece  that  is  placed  at  th( 
enti^aace  to  the  audilpry  passage.  It  is  generally  made  of  tin  01 
ebonite,  and  arranged  in  teiescopio  sections  for  convenience  ol 
bebg  carried  about.  In  another  form,  a  bell-shaped  vessel  has 
two  curved  pipes  connected  by  flexible  tubes  to  end-pieces  that 
either  en^er  or  coser  the  ears,  TTie  aimde  is  a  contrivance 
designed  for  the  same  object,  and  consists  of  a  small  volute, 
which  is  inserted  into  the  ear^  wilb  an  expanded  mouth.  In 
some  churches  and  odier  buildings  there  is  placed  a  large  funnel- 
shaped  receiver,  terminating  in  a  circular  throat  and  conducting 
pipe,  from  which  branch  og  as  many  fexible  tubes  with  ear- 
pieces as  may  be  required. 

^ar'-Wax.    See  Ceb,uii.en, 

Bp^wig  (Forficulfl),  a  genus  of  insects  belonging  to  the  Cur- 
sorial section  of  the  order  Orlhaptera  (q.  v.),  and  forming  the  sub- 
family Fcrfieulhta  or  Eaplex- 
Bptera,  the  latter  name  being 
given  them  from  the  beautiful 
structure  of  the  hinder  wings, 
which  are  thin,  and  have  their 
nervures  or  supporting  ribs  so 
disposed  that  they  can  be  folded 
like  fiins,  The  name  suggests 
that  these  insects  select  the  huma 
tion.       Tills,  however,  is  not  ihi 


yLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA, 


les  S.-W, 


le  name  ia  'ear-wing,'  ftom  the  resemblance  of  the  wings 
>  the  shape  of  the  ear.  The  head  is  exserted,  and  has  no 
ocelli;  the  front  wings  are  small  and  leathery ;  the  antennEe  have 
fourteen  joints ;  and  the  tail  ends  in  a  pait  of  'forceps,'  which 
'  '  ■■  ■  --'5  in  (oiling  their  wings.  The  pupa  is 
^  lut  is  not  winged.  The  e^?i  are  depo, 
sited  in  the  earth,  and  are  carefully  watched  ^y  the  motlier 
These  insects  live  on  vegetable  matters.  Familiar  species  are 
the  F.  auricularia  and  the  F.  giga»tea,  the  lattei;  bemg  the  laigest 
of  the  six  or  sevCT  spegies  indigenous  to  Briiain. 

Baa'dale,  an  island  off  the  W.  coast  of  Argyleshire,  about 
lo  miles  S.S.W,  of  Ob?n.  It  is  only  three  quartets  of  a  n«le 
long,  but  is  widely  known  for  its  slate-quarries,  which  have  been 
work»l  more  than  a  century  and  a  half.  From  this  causp  much 
of  E.  is  now  below  the  sea-leyel.    Pop.  ((871)  ^}^ 

Bas'el  (Ger.  <«4  'ags,  donkey'),  tlie  wooden  frame  upon 
which  artists  place  their  pictures  while  in  process  of  being 
painted,  at  a  convenient  height  for  working  on  the  different  parts. 
E.-pkces,  or  E.-Jnctyrts,  are  the  smaller  pictares  of  an  s,rtist 
accustomed  to  execute  works  on  ijeiiings  or  walls, 

Eaao'ment,  a  term  of  English  law  denoliiig  a  privilege 
without  profit  which  one  person  m^y  have  in  the  property  of 
another  by  charter  or  prescription.  Righl;s  of  E.  include  rights 
of  way,  of  hght  and  air,  and  of  carrymg  on  an  offensive  business. 
The  anaic^ous  term  in  S«otdi  law  is  Servitude  (q.  v.^ 

st  (Ger.  ost,  Old  Norse,  au^t,  probably  from  the  same  root 
■e,'  and  if  so,  pointing  out  the  N,  of  Europe  for  the  origin 
of  the  term)  is  that  point  oj  the  horizon  at  which  Ibe  sun  rises 
at  the  time  of  the  equinoxes,  being  on  the  right  of  a  person 
facing  N.  E.  is  also  one  of  the  cardinal  points  of  the  compass, 
correspondii^  to  the  ipK  ?,  at  th,ose  places  wher?.  tlie  needle 
points  due  N. 

EastTjOTirne,  a  town  Vi  the  county  of  Susse^^  18^  t 
of  Hastings,  It  is  a  favourite  seabathing  place,  ; 
handsome  parish  church.  Roman  and  Danish  leir 
been  found  here.      Pop.  of  parish  U871)  ^0,^61 

!East  Cape,  the  most  eastern  point  of  the  Asiatic 
projects  with  a  bold  and  lofty  headland  1^0  Behnng  Strait, 
opposite  Cape  Prince  of  Wales  on  the  continent  of  Aaienca. 
1  ts  summit,  bristling  with  rocky  pinnacles,  is  the  site  of  a  lai^e 
and  populous  TschutsW  villa|,e  (Hoopers  Tents  of  the  Tuski, 
Lond.  1853).  The  same  name  is  applied  tt*  the  easternmost 
promontories  of  various  countries  and  elands,  is  Ihose  of  Mada 
gascar.  New  Zealand,  &c, 

'  understood  and  observe:!,  is  a  Church  festival 
m  of  the  resurrection  of  J^us  Christ  A  famous 
controversy  in  the  early  Church  turned  upon  the  tune  of  the 
observance  of  E.,  ^bearings  of  which  will  b^  best  understood 
from  a  reference  to  ^ts  Gospel  ftaij^itives.  According  to  the  fi^ 
three  Gospels,  Jesus  partook  of  the  Jewish  Passover  with  his 
disciples  in  the  usu^  manner  on  the  evening  of  the  14th  Nisan, 
..  institutmg  on  that  occasion  a  memorial  of  hunself  (Matt  sxvl 
17-29 ;  Mark  *iv.  12-2$ ;  Luke  x:i;il  7-?p) ;  so  that  he  must 
have  been  crucified  on  t^e  1 5th.  In  the  fourth  Gospel,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  Last  Supper  took  place  on  Clip  Ijth,  and  Jesns  was 
crucified  on  the  14th  (s^iiL  1,  39 ;  xviii.  2,8 ;  lix,  14).  Now 
the  Church  at  fi^  ohsenfe^  the  Paschat  fesdval  (Heb.  Fesach, 
'the  PaschaJ  lamb;'  whence  tlj?  Gr.  and  Lat.  fascha,  the  F^. 
pdqas,  Mid  lihe  Scotch  pasch)  on  the  14th  Nisan,  following  the 
-first  Uiree  Gospels ;  but  soon  tliere  arose  9,  difference  between 
the  Eaatew  aii4  Westeip  Churches  on  this  point,  which  got  the 
name  of  the  Quartodeciman  controversy.  In  the  W.  thefe  was 
a  tendency  ^O  qittach  mo^t  'importance  to  t[he  resurrection,  and 
a  feeling  that  it  was  ^coi^ruous  to  stop  the  preceding  fast  on 
'  the  14th,  and  inaliie  ?.  feast  of  that  whjch  oijght  to  be  a  ^y  of 
moumii^  fo«  his  de?th  (the  Jews  of  coijrse  connected  the  idea  of 
rejoicing  W'!^  th^r  Passoye?  for  other  reasons).  The  authority 
of  the  fourth  Gospel  was  now  called  in  by  the  Western  Church 
(curiously  enough  that  of  St  John  being  adduced  by  the  Eastern 
in  support  of  their  opposite  view),  to  show  that  the  Jewish 
Passover  was  completely  abolished  by  the  crucifixion  of  Christ 
on  the  day  (14th)  on  which  the  lamb  was  killed,  in  other  words, 
by  Jesus  taking  the  place  of  the  lamb  (cf.  I  Cor.  xi.  23-26; 
V.  7),  and  that  the  fast  ought  properly  to  cease  always  on  the 


first  day  of  the  week,  to  commemorate  his  resurrection.  ITiis 
feeling  was  further  strengthened  by  tlie  difficulty  of  adjusting  the 
solar  year  to  the  lunar  mode ;  and  when,  by  the  edict  of  Con- 
stantine  (321),  the  Sun-day  was  consecrated  as  a  day  of  rest  and 
religious  observance  the  rascha  was  finally  transferred  from  the 
t4th  Ntsan  to  the  Sunday  following  the  full  moon  on  01  next 
9ftec  the  venjal  equmox  The  vernal  equmot  is  now  fixed  as 
the  2tst  March  and  the  rule  1?  that  if  the  full  moon  fall  on  a 
Sunday  E  is  the  Sunday  after 

But  neither  trac  ng  the  festival  to  the  resurrection  of  Christ 
no(  to  the  Jewish  Pissover  is  in  -i  sense  eon  g  to  the  root  of 
the  matter  E  was  propeily  and  o(iginalfy  a  heathen  festival 
which  was  apptopnated  by  the  Church  and  apt  lied  lo  lie 
resurrection  The  spring  equino*.  was  observed  among  the 
ancient  nations  of  the  East  as  the  beg  ining  of  the  1  ew 
year  and  among  almost  all  nations  as  a  season  of  gieat  le 
joicmg  m  honour  of  the  'Jun  god  and  of  bis  return  to  clothe 
the  e^h  with  verdure,  and  fill  mens  hearts  with  food  and 
gladness.'  He  appeared  then  to  rise  trtumphant  over  darkness 
and  death,  to  bring  back  life  and  light  to  the  world.  It  is  impos- 
sible nowadays  to  realise,  how  close  was  the  resemblance  which 
the  rttes  adopted  by  the  Church  in  honour  of  Christ's  resurrec- 
lection  bore  to  those  practised  by  the  Greeks,  Plirenicians, 
Syrians,  Egyptians,  and  ijiany  other  nations,  in  honour  of  the 
solar  deity,  under  the  name  of  Adonis,  Dionysus,  Thammui, 
Krishna,  &c.  The  Church  continued  Ihe  woi:sliip  of  the  Queen 
of  Heayen,  condemned  by  the  prophet  Jeremiah  (xiiv.  17I,  by 
applying  it  to  the  Virgin  Mary  under  the  very  same  title.  The 
rites  connected  with  the  de^th  and  resurrection  of  Adonis— in 
which  an'  image  was  laid  out  by  women  with  all  the  ceremony 
and  signs  of  grief  practised  at  funerals,  but  the  next  day  the 
image  was  tEdten  ou.t  of  its  sepulchre,  as  it  were,  W^  their  sorrow 
was  turned  into  joy — were  also  imitate  in  the  dramatic  repre- 
sentations made  by  the  Church  at  E.  in  honour  of  Christ. 

Tlie  name  E.  (Old  Eng.  Boster  and  Easire\  according  to 
Bede,  ip  derived  f^ran  the  goddess  Ostara  (Old  Swed.  Aslar- 
gydia,  '  the  goddess  of  love ; '  Old  Norse,  ast,  '  love '),  whose 
lesli^  was  held  in  the  month  of  April,  sad  the  popular  rites 
connected  vrith  the  season,  though  now  baptized  into  Christianity, 
had  no  doubt  in  many  cases  a  heafheij  origin.  For  further  illus- 
tration of  this  peculiar  process  of  transformatioa  consult  art. 
CHRls-tMAS-  See  Bingham's  F^dss.  Anls.,  and  J.  J.  Tayler's 
TAf  Four&i.  Gospel  (1870), 

Eaatei^  Island,  Teapy  Island,  oi;  Qa'Tis's  Iiand,  a  vol- 
canic island  in  the  Polynesian  Archipelago,  12,  miles  long,  4 
wide,  and  l?po  feet  above  the  sea,  in  fcit  27°  6'  S.,  long.  109° 
30'  W.  There  are  many  colossal  stone  statues  of  unknown  origin. 
The  inhabitants  (about  2000)  are  supposed  to  be  cannibals. 

]@aster  Ofteringa,  in  England,  are  payable  by  every  person 
in  the  parish  sixteen  years  old  or  upwards,  through  the  ma  ' 
mistress  of  the  family,  at  the  rate  of  twopence  per  head. 

Easter-  Iaw  Term  beuig-  formerly  dependent  on  Easter 
Sunday,  which  might  happen  to  fall  on  any  day  of  the  month  be- 
tween 22d  March  and  25th  April,  both  days  inclusive,  the  Act 
I  'Will.  IV.  c.  70  was  passed  to  remedy  the  uncertainty.  Tlie 
term  now  begins  on  13th  April  and  ends  on  the  8tli  May.  See 
Term,  Legal. 

East  India  Ai^y.  This  name  had  a  very  different  mean- 
ing ill  the  days  of  the  East  India  Company  (q.  v,)  from  what  it 
hoiS  now.  llie  Company  employed  whatever  soldiers  offered 
themselves  from  any  quarler— adventurers,  desertei-s,  and  con- 
victs, chiefly  natives.  But  English  officers  were  always  em- 
ployed with  liberal  remuneration,  and  ultimately  regiments  were 
raised  in  England.  Owing  to  the  good  pay,  the  terms  of  ab- 
sence,  and  the  liberal  pensions  given,  the  East  India  Company's 
service  was  highly  popular.  In  1857,  the  array  of  the  Company 
consisted  of  45,522  Europeans,  and  232,224  natives  ;  and  these 
were  divided  into  three  armies,  connected  with  and  named  after 
the  Presidencies  of  Bengal,  Madras,  and  Bombay.  It  1 
chiefly  the  natives  in  the  first  of  these  armies  that  took  part 
the  Mutiny  (1858).  The  Act  of  Parliament  which  in  1858  Ira 
ferred  llie  government  of^India  to  the  crown  directed  that  these 
armies  should  be  deemed  Indian  military  forces  of  her  Majesty, 
and  should  be  '  entitled  to  the  like  pay,  pensions,  allowances,  and 

privileges,  and  the  like  advantages  as  r^avds  promotioi '" 

otherwise,  as  if  they  had  continued  in  the  sr   '"  -'  ■'" 


e  oF  the  said 
477 


vLiOOQle 


HAS 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Company.'  The  transfer  was  the  cause  of  considerable  dis- 
satislaclion  among  the  British  troops,  who  maintained  that  they 
should  have  been  consulted,  or  at  least  have  obtained  a  bonus 
on  re-enlisting ;  and  ultimately  those  of  them  who  chose  were 
permitted  to  retire.  By  the  legislation  of  1861  and  subseciuent 
years,  the  Indian  army,  has  been  reorganised.  Its  dnty  is  now 
to  take  service  either  at  home  or  m  the  colonies,  although  its 
expenses  are  defrayed  out  of  the  Indian  revenue.     The.  native 

Eortion  of  it  had  been  reduced  in  1874  to  123,678  men. 
a  the  army  esamaks  for  1875-76  the  strength  of  the  British 
forces  in  Inife  is  placed  at  62,850  men.  The  Stilish  and  Inian 
troops  in  the  Queen's  pay  ate  distinct  fiom  those  m  the,  pay  of 
the  native  chiefs,  which  in  1S74  nunibeisd  315,000. 

Eaat  iQdi^  CJompany,  the  greatest  corporation  the  world 
has  ever  known,  and  the  association  of  merchants  which  founded 
the  British  Empire  in  India.  The  Poitugujese  anticipated  Eng- 
land in  opening  direct  commerciaJ  relations  witli  the  East. 
Vasco  de  Gama  discovered  the  sea-road  to  India  in  1497,  and  It 
was  more  than  a  century  before  his  countrymen  were  deprived  of 
their  monopoly.  The  first  charter  of  the  English  Company  is  dated 
31st  December  l6oa  Akbarwastlie  Great  Mogul  with  whom 
the  English  merchants  opened  relations.  The  original  English 
Company  had  only  12?  shareholders,  and  a,  capital  of  ^70,000, 
^"t  in  i6i2  the  capital  was  raised  tOi£400,ooo;  and  about  the 
me  time  permission  was  obtained  from  the  Emperor  Shah  jehan 
erect  factories  at  Sural,  Abmed^bad,  Camtiay,  and  Gogo. 
The  first  voyages  were  to  Sarat  and  to  other  places  on  Uie 
Malabar  coast,  but  the  richest  cargoes  were  brought  from  the 
Spice  .Islands  of  Java,  Sumatra,  &c.  From  this  quarter  the 
English  were  soon  driven  by  the  perseverance  of  the  Dutch, 
who  secured  their  monopoly  by  the  massacre  of  Amboyna  in 
1622.  But  the  Company  steadily  progressed  during  tlie  I7lh,e. 
The  profits,  were  not  excessive,  hut  the  honour  of  the  English 
name  was  uniformly  maintained.  In  1626,  a  fictoqr  was  estab- 
lished on  the  Coromandel  coast,  at  Masulipatam;  and  in  1639, 
Fort  St  George,  now  the  citadel  of  Madras,  was  built  on  a 
narrow  strip  of  land,  ceded  by  a  local  prince.  This  was  the 
first  territorial  acquisition  on  the  mainland  of  India.  In  1634, 
the  wealth  of  Bengal  was  opened  to  the  Company  by  permission 
to  trade  at  Pippli,  now  a  silted-up  port  of  Orissa;  m  1645, 
the  English  were  established  at  Balasore  and  Hooghly,  where 
their  European  rivals  had  long  preceded  them ;  but  it  was  not 
till  1700  that  the  ground  on  which  Calcutta  stands  was  granted 
by  the  Nabob  of  Bengal.  In  1661,  the  island  of  Bombay 
formed  part  of  thp  doairy  which  Catherine  of  Portugal  brought 
■a  her  husband,  Charles  II.  '  In  1668  the  King  made  it  over 
3  the  Company,  and  iij  1687  Bombay  was  recognised  as  the 
chief  English  settlement' in  India.  Such  was  the  origin  of  die 
three  great  presidencies. 

The  i8th  c.  forms  a  second  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  E.  I.  C. 
In  1702,  a  new  Company  for  trade  with  the  East,  with  a  capital 
of  ;f2,ooo,ooo,  was  amalgamated  with  the  E.  I.  C.,  under,  the 
title  of  '  The  United  Company  of  Merchants  trading  to  the  E. 
Indies,'  with  the  privileg;e  to  t^ade  to  all  places  E.  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  lo  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  on  condition  of  a  loan 
to  the  state  of /3,i90,ooo  at  3  per  cent  interest.  This  sum  was 
independent  of  flie  trading  slock  of  the  Company,  which  about 
this  time  paid  an  average  of  8  per  cent.  Hostihties  with  the 
French  led,  almost  msensibly,  to  the  growth  of  the  Company  as 
a  great  territorial  power.  In  1765  the  financial  administration  of 
Bengal,  Behar,  and  Orissa  was  ceded  to  tlie  Company  by  the 
Mogiil  Emperor,  Shah  Alum,  but  British  power  in  Madras  was 
>t  firmly  secured  till  the  fall  of  Tippoo  Sultan  in  1799,  and  the 


P  ,  ....   ,  e  occasionally 

laid  upon  the  amount  of  the  Company's  dividends  by  the  legis- 
lature; committees  of  the  House  of  Commons  made  searchmg 
invesl^ations  into  its  affairs;  and  in  1773  an  Act  was  passed 
.  reoi^anising  the  corporation  in  Leadenhall  Street,  and  estab- 
lishing a  new  government  for  India.  The  Court  of  Directors 
was  to  be  composed  of  twenty-four  persons,  and  the  amount 
of  stock  qualifying  a  proprietor  for  a  vote  was  raised  from  ^500 
to'^looo.  The  Presidency  of  Bengal  vras  made  supreme  over 
Ihe  other  tivo,  and  the  nomination  of  the  governor  was  subjected 
to  the  approval  of  the  crown.  A  supreme  Court  of  Justice  was 
established  at  Calcutta,  of  which  the  judges  were  also  to  be 
-nated  by  the  crown.     In  1784,  the  Coalition  Ministry  of 


Fox  was  ejected  from,  power,  owing  60  the  defeat  in  the  Lords  of 
his  IndiaBill,  which  was  mtended  to  vest  the  whole  management 
of  Indian  affairs  in  the  hands  of  seven  govermnent  nominee  ' 
the  parliamentary  majority.  In  1784,  however,  a.  new  bill  .  _ 
passed  which  first  established  'The  Board  of  Control,' consisting 
of  six  persons  appomted  by  the  crown,  before  whom  the  Court 
of  Directors  were  bonnd  to  lay  all  important  documents  for  ap- 
proval or  alteration.  Mr  Dundas,  afterwarde  Viscount  Melville, 
wa?  the  fir^t  President  of  this  Board.     In  this  capacity  he  carried 


traders.    At  this  tune,  the  yearly  siites  of  the  Company's  goods 
in  England  amounted  to  aboyt^  10,060,000  sterling. 

The  19th  e.  has  witnessed  the  entensfon  of  British  rule  or 
Bptish  influence  over  the  whole  of  India,  and  also  the  final 
downfall  of  the  E.  I.  C.  In  1833,  the  trading  monopoly  was 
withdrawn,  and  with  it  fell  all  the  manufactures  of  India  which 
had  been  artificially  maintained  by  the  Company.  The  dividends 
to  ihe  proprietors  of  E.  India  stock  were  now  paid  out  of  the 
taxes  on  the  native  subjects  of  the  Company ;  but  it  was  expli- 
citly declared  that  the  E;I.  C.  exercised  its  pohtical  powers  as 
trustee  for  the  crown,  subordinate  to  the  Board  of  ContioL  In 
1853  the  charter  was  renewed-  for  twenty  years,  but  the  Mutmy 
in  j8S7  produced  an  irresistible  cunent  of  public  opinion  in 
Englaid  m  favour  of  abolishing  the  shadow  of  power  and  the 
Sftbstaifce  of  patronage  which  tha  Company  still  retained.  De- 
spite, the  strenuous  opposition  of  the  Company,  the  Act  received 
the  royaj  assent  on,  2d  August  1858,  which  vested  directly  m  the 
Queen  all  the  powers  exercised  by  the  E.  I.  C.  The  political 
affairs  of  British  India  are  now  managed  by  a  minister  and 
council  of  fifteen  membe^.  Indian  stock  to  the  amount  of 
^£■6,000,000,  vrith  interest  at  loj  per  cent,  guaranteed  by  Eng- 
land, represented  the  capital  of  the  Company  until  1873,  when 
an  Act  of  Parliament  was  passed  for  its  final  absorption.  See 
India,  British. 

The  Scottish  E.  I.  C.  was.  formed  in  1695,  but  was  almost 
still-born  in  the  rapidity  of  its  failure.  That  of  Denmark,  founded 
in  1618,  was  repeatedly  reoi^anised  (finally  in  1792),  but  has 
long  ceased  to  exist.  The  Frencli  Company,  esiabhshed  in  1664, 
was  dissolved  in  1790,  while  the  Ostend  India  Company  only 
lasted  from  1718  to  1731.  The  original  Dutch  Company  dates 
from  1595,  but  several  similar  bodies  were  united  mto  ont  " 
1602.  A  company  of  Swedes  was  created  in  1741,  and  n 
ganised  in  1806. 
,st  Indies. 

.     .     cf  country,  with  all  it . ... 

between  the  coast  of  Persia  aiid  the  coast  of  Chini 
into  use  to  mark  the  imaginary  correlation  with  the  West  Indian 
Islands,  which,  as  is  well  Itnown,  were  thought  by  their  firs! 
discoverers  to  be  connected  with  India;  but  the  name  now 
survives  only  in  snch  phrases  as  '  E^st  Indiaman,'  for  a  ship 
trading  to  those  parts,  and  the  'Honourable  East  IndiaCompany' 
(H.  K  I.  C). 

Eastlake,  Sir  Charles  Lock,  an  English  historical  painter, 
was  bom  at  Plymouth,  November  17,  1793.  He  was  educated 
at  Charterhouse,  London,  and  at  an  early  age  became  a  pupil 
of  the  Royal  Academy.  When  Napoleon  arrived  at  Plymouth 
in  the  BeUerophan,  E.  made  a  study  of  him  standing  at  the 
gangway,  and  produced  the  last  portrait  of  him  painted  in 
Europe.  He  visited  Italy,  in  1817,  and  Greece  in  1819,  and 
spent  nine  years  (1S20-29)  in  Rome,  revelling  in  the  picturesque 
aspects  of  Italian  life.  His  first  great  picture  is  entitled  '  Pilgrims 
Arriving  m.  Sight  of  Rome'  (1828)7  "nd  it  was  followed  by 
'Christ  Weepmg  ovei  Jernsalem'  (1841),  'Helena'  (1849), 
■Violante '_  (1853),  ■  Beatrice '  (iSss),  &c.    He  was  made  a  Royal 


at  Florence.  He  wrote  Materials  fir  Ihe  Hislory  of  Oil-Fainling, 
Contributions  to  the  Literature  of  the  J'irte  Arts,  and  transla- 
tions of  Goethe's  Partenlehre  and  Kugler's  History  of  Painting. 
His  work  is  chiefly  distinguished  by  devation  of  sentiment  and 
delicacy  of  execution. — I^Mly  E.  (Elizabeth  Righy),  also  an 
artist  and  author,  has  written  a  biography  of  her  husband  in 
the  second  series  of  his  ContAbutiims  to  the  Literature  if  tht  Fine  ' 
Arts  (1870).  I 


yUoogle 


^- 


7-HE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


BBI 


Sast'on,  a  town  of  Pennsylvania,  U.S.,  at  the  corfliieBce  of 
the  Delaware  with  the  Lehigh,  6o  miles  N.W.  of  Pliiladelphia, 
and  75  W.  of  NewYoikbyiailway.  It  is  lie  seat  of  Lafayette 
College,  has  many  churches,  a  public  litirMy,  an  opera-house, 
several  newspapers,  and  three  street  railways.  In  the  vicinity 
are  toUing-millE,  furnaces,  and  -various  factories,  and  there  is  also 
a  trade  in  cotton,  oU,  rifles,  and  flour.     Pop,  (1870)  10,987, 

EcMlt'port,  a  port  of  entry  in  Maine,  U.S.,  on  Moose  Island, 
Passamaquoddy  Bay,  is  the  frontier  town  of  the  United  States 
on  the  N.E.  It  has  a  harbour  deep  enough  for  the  lai^est  vessels, 
and  "defended  by  Fort  SulUvan,  and  a  trade  in  fish  and  timber. 
Steamers  ply  hence  to  Boston,  Portland,  and  St  Jolm,  Pop. 
(1870J  yiib. 

East  River,  the  strait  between  Long  Island  Sound  and  New 
York  Bay,  and  separating  the  city  of  New  York  from  Brooklyn 
and  Williamsburg.  It  is  ZO  railes  long,  and  7  miles  from  New 
York  is  the  strait  Isnown  as  Hellgate.  This  pass  was  formerly 
dangerous,  but  its  obstructions  have  been  removed  within  the  last 
'"  .V  years.  A  bridge  is  now  in  coarse  of  construction  across  the 
R.  to  connect  New  York  with  Brcmklyn.  For  miles  the 
banks  of  the  river  are  lined  with  quays,  piers,  and  building-slips. 

Jau  de  Cologne,  a  very  celebrated  perfume,  invented  by 
Johann  Maria  Faiiiia  of  Col^ne,  the  characteristic  ingredients 
of  which  are  essential  oils  obtained  from  trees  of  the  orange 
tribe,  snch  as  citron,  orange,  bergamot,  neroli,  and  petitgrain 
oils.  In  addition  to  these  the  'original  E.  de  C  contams  a 
proportion  of  lavender,  rosemary,  and  benzoin,  the  whcJe  being 
mixed  with  spirit  of  wine,  to  which  an  alcoholic  extract  of  gera- 
nium flowers  is  added.  The  ingredients  are  very  inlunately 
mised  by  frequdit  agitation,  and  allowed  to  settle  in  bulk  for 
sixty-four  days,  when  the  perfume  is  feadj'  to  put  up  in  flasks 
for  sale.    ITie  be^  brands  are  those  of  the  mventor. 

Eim  di  Crhle,  a  W.  Indian  aromatic  liqueur,  prepared  by 
distilling  the  flowers  of  the  Mammee  «pple  or  S.  American 
apricot  (Mammea  Atnericana),  ■ 

Eau  de  JimdU,  a  solution  of  potassinm  hypochlOTite  which, 
towards  the  end  of  last  century,  was  introdnced  ft*  bleaching  pur- 
poses at  Javelle  in  France.  It  was  soon  snpfrfanted  by  die  so- 
called  chloride  of  lime,  or  ordinary  bleaching- powder, 

Eaa  de  Luct,  a  milky-white  perfume  of  ammonia,  benzom,  otto 
of  lavender,  and  oil  of  amber.  The  Aqua  Ltuue  of  dru^ists, 
so  called  from  its  inventor,  had  formerly  a  fictitious  reputation 
as  an  antidote  to  snake-poison,  but  is  now  employed  as  a  stimu- 
lant. 

Eau  de  Millefieurs,  a  very  cornplex  bouquet  or  prepared  per- 
fume, in  which  the  principal  materials  are  oHo  of  rose,  berga- 
mot oil,  vanilla,  violet,  and  jasmine  essences,  tincture  of  muslt, 
lavender,  neroH,  and  clove  oils. 

Eau  de  Vie,     See  Brandy. 

Eaux  Bonnes  ('good  waters'),  a  favomlte  watering-place 
in  the  department  of  Basses-Pyren^,  France,  22  miles  S.of^Pau. 
Its  warm  sulphur-springs  are  beneficial  in  the  early  stages  of 
consumption,  and  have  led  to  the  creation  of  a  thermal  establish- 
ment, frequented  yearly  by  6000  bathers.  Resident  pop,  674.  la 
tlie  vicinity  are  beautiful  promenades  and  picturesque  cascades. 

Eaux  Chaudes,  a  village  of  France,  3  miles  S.W,  of  Eaux 
Bonnes,  in  the  gorge  of  tlie  valley  of  Oasau,  has  warm  medi- 
cinal springs,  whence  its  name. 

,  Eaux  Vwes  ('living  waters'),  a  Swiss  town  in  the  canton  of 
Geneva,  a  miles  N.E.  of  Geneva,  and  on  the  margin  of  tlie  lake- 
Pop.  (1870)  5875- 

EaTes'drop.  The  Roman  law  required  a  proprietor  who 
had  no  slillkiM  semitas,  to  place  his  building  2J  feet  within 
his  boundary.  The  principle  was  recognised  by  the  English 
before  the  Norman  conquest  under  the  term  efssdrype.  In  Scot- 
land there  is  no  statute  on  the  subject,  but  by  custom  9  inches 
are  required  for  the  E. ;  but  a  proprietor  may  build  to  the  con- 
fines of  his  property  provided  no  drop  from  the  building  can  fall 
on  the  adjoining  property. 

BavM'dioppera  are,  according  Ifo   Biackstone,    'such  as 
listen  under  walls  or  windows  or  the  eaves  of  houses  to  heaik  n 
after  discourse,  and  thereupon  to  frame  slanderous  or  mlschiev 
tales.'    The  offence  is  in  England  punishable  by  fine,  un 
statutes  whose  provisions  seem  to  be  extended  to  Scotland  b   6 


■  c.  6;  but  the  offence  could  be  reached  directly  and  in- 

directly  by  the  common  law  of  Scotland. 

Ebena'cese,   a   natdral  order  of  Exc^enous  {Efipelaloiis) 

ants,  comprising  trees  or  shrubs  with  exstipulate  leaves,  poly- 

iinous  flowers,  persistent  calices,  a  baccate  or  berry  fruit,  and 

targe  albuminous  seeds.   Th^  chiefly  belong  to  tropical  climates. 

There  are  'five  genera,  and  the  heart-wood  of  several  species  of 

Diospyros  yields  the  ebony-wood  of  commerce,  e.g. ,  Mauritius 

ebony  {D.  reliculata),  E.  Indian  ebony  \D.  melanoxyloti),  and 

Ceylon  ebony  {D.  Ebmum). 

E'berhard  is  the  name  of  several  members  of  the  Wurtemberg 
dynasty,  of  whom  the  first,  Eberliard  tlie  Noble  {erlauchls), 
ruled  from  1279  to  1335,  and  greatly  extended  the  territorial 
possessions. — Eberhard  IV.,  tne  QuarrelBome  (ifo-  Oreixey), 
raaidson  of  the  former,  became  Count  of  Wiirtemburg  in  1343, 
istinguished  himself  in  the  wai-s  of  S,  Germany  towards  the 
]d  of  the  14th  c,  and  died  March  15,  1392,— Uberbard  im 
_Jart,  first  Duke  of  WiirtemlHiig,  was  bom  in  1445,  eight  years 
after  the  division  of  the  territory  between  his  father,  Ludwig  the 
Elder,  and  his  imcle,  Ulrich,  the  founder  of  the  Stuttgart  line. 
He  sacceededj  with  lire  help  of  the  Elector  Friedrich,  in  con- 
solidating the  family  inheritance,  which  he  rendered  indivisible 
by  the  Compact  of  Munsingen  in  1483,  The  established  constitu- 
tion of  Wiirtembuig  is  his  work,  and  he  also  fonnded  the  Uni- 
versity of  Tiibingen  (1477).  E.  was  the  head  of  the  Swabian 
Bund,  and  was  raised  to  tiie  ducal  rank  by  the  Emperor  Maxi- 
milian I.  at  Worms,  1495.  He  died  childless  in  Febraary  1496. 
See  Pfister,  Ebirhard  im  Bart,  enter  llei-zog  in  Wurlembiirs 
(TUb.  1822). 

Eberhard,  Chri&tiaxL  August  Oottlob,  a  German  writer, 
bom  at  BeMg,  Prussia,  October  11,  1769,  studied  at  Halle, 
wrote  tales  and  poems  which  won  considerable  popularity,  and 
died  at  Dresden,  May  13,1845.  Amonghis  works  are  ^e*-^iMi!Hrf 
Werner,  der  arme  Fiokmpieler  (1S02) ;  Dtr  ersle  Memch  und 
die  Erde  (l?,2?i),  a  poem  ;  and  Hannchenund  dieKiichlein  (1822; 
20th  ed.  1864),  a  graceful  narrative  poem,  ■which  has  been 
translated  into  Ei^lish  by  Cochran^  under  the  title  of  yenny 
and  har  Chickens  <Edinb.  1854).  K  published  his  Collected 
Woris  in  20  vols.  (Halle,  1830-31).— Jtaiann  August  E,,  a 
piiilosc^hieal  writer,  bom  at  Halberstadt,  Saxony,  August  31, 
ITSS-  After  studying  at  Halle  and  acting  as  a  family  tutor,  he 
engaged  in  Ihetdogical  -controversy,  and  published  at  Berlin  his 
Neue Afslegie  des Soh-ates  (l^^2-1y,  jded.  178S),  abookon  the 
salvation  of  the  heathen,  which  prevented  him  from  rising  in  the 
CliuriJi.  He  remamed  ^  poot  preacher  at  Charlottenbuig  until 
appointed  in  1 7SS  Professor  of  Theology  at  Halle.  He  was  made 
Doctor  of  Theoli^y  and  Member  of  the  Berlin  Academy  of 
.Sciences  in  1S08,  and  died  6th  January  1809.  In  philosophy  he 
followed  Leibnita  and  opposed  Kant ;  in  theology  he  was  one  of 
the  earlier  German  rationalists.  Among  his  many  works  are 
Geist  des  Urchristenthums  (1808) ;  Tlaorie  da  Denkens  tind 
Em/^findem  lljSd)  ;  Sitietilehre  der  Virrmn/I  {["jSi) ;  AUiemiins 
Geschkhte  dir  PMhsophie  (1 788) ;  Handhieh  der  Aesthetik  (1803- 
1S05) ;  and  Synonymisches  Hatuknorteriuck  der  Deatxhen  Sprache 
(HaUe,  1802 ;  I2th  ed.  Beri.  1861). 

Eliemborg,  a  village  in  the  Palattoate  of  Bavaria,  about  ao 
miles  S.W.  of  Mains,  on  the  Nahe.  It  is  notable  for  the  ruins 
of  the  oastle  of  Fianz  von  Sickingen.  Within  its  walls  many  of 
the  early  Reformers  found  shelter,  and  here  Ulrich  von  Hutten 
composed  and  printed  several  of  his  works.     Pop.  550, 

Eljert,  Earl  Egon,  a  Bohemian  dramatic  and  lyrical  poet 

of  considerable  eminence  and  popularity,  was  born  at  Prague, 

June  5,  1801 ;  educated  at  Vienna  and  the  Unlveraty  of  Prague, 

and  finally,  siter  holding  posts,  chiefly  as  a  librarian,  settled  in 

his  native  town  as  a  poeL     His  poetiy,  mainly  lyrical,  is  very 

popular  among  his  countrymen.     Among  his  worits  are  Dkhtun- 

jm(l824iaded.l84;);  Wlasta,  ein BSktmsch-tiatinnaleS  ffelden- 

gedickt  <i829)  s  and  Dai  Klester,  idylHsehe  Er&klung  (1833). 

He  has  also  published  dramas  of  some  merit,  including  Brelislau 

uMd  yiitla  USSS)  and  Das  Gem^  {tS64). 

Eb  onitea  H         hp  sonndacodin       theirown 

Ep  US  b  ca  h  d       d   ■ 

h        mm      E  m  h    ap 

Chhwh        p       nedhjd 


vLaOOgle 


4- 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ECO 


the  realisation  of  tlie  Messianic  idea  and  the  addition  of  a  few 
isolated  precepts.  The  E.  r^ardcd  Jesus  only  as  a  man,  distin- 
guished aboTe  others  for  his  legal  piety,  on  which  account  he 
had  been  deemed  worthy  to  be  chosen  the  Messiah  ;  his  election 
to  tliat  office  having  been  miraculously  revealed  at  his  baptism 
by  John  the  Baptist.  Jerusalem  was  still  to  be  the  seat  of  the 
theocracy,  where  Jesua,  on  his  speedy  return,  was  to  restore  it 
in  surpassing  splendour.  In  accordance  with  these  views,  the 
Gospd  they  used  (the  Gospd  of  the  Hebrews)  did  not  contain  any 
account  of  the  miraculous  birth  of  Christ,  In  the  Apostle  Pau^ 
as  a  matter  of  course,  they  saw  only  an  apostate  from  the  law 
and  a  false  teacher,  and  therefore  they  rejected  his  epistles. 
The  famous  Clemenime  Homlies  (q.  v.)  is  an  Ebionilish  work. 

There  were,  however,  two  different  sectionsofE.,  one  of  which 
:ame  nearer  than  the  other  to  the  orthodoi  doctrine  of  the  Church. 
This  was  the  Nazarites,  a  name  originally  applied  to  all  Chris- 
tians, who  admitted  the  supematurul  bitth  of  Christ  \  Ihey  were 
distinguished  for  their  opposition  to  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees, 
acknowledged  the  call  of  Paul  to  be  an  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles, 
and  consequently  did  not  consider  the  Mosaic  law  binding  on  the 
latter.  See  Neander's  Kirchmgeschklite,  F.  C.  Baur's  Pmdus  da- 
ApasUl  (2d  ed,  Zeller,  Leips.  1867  5  Eng,  transL  Lond.  1873). 

Eb'oli  (the  Eburi  df  Pliny),  a  town  in  the  province  of  Salerno, 
44  miles  S.E.  of  Naples,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway. 
It  has  several  churches  and  convents,  and  an  annual  fair,  held 
for  twelve  days.  Pop.  7300.  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  EiwH 
stand  on  the  M&nte  iOro,  near  the  Sele,  which  is  spanned  by 
llie  remains  of  a  iine  Roman  bridge. 

Eb'ony  (Heb.  hehiim,  from  ^ea,  'a  stone,'  Gr.  ibenos,  Lat. 
eienui),  a  wood  of  great  hai-dness  and  of  deep-black  hue, 
obtained  fiom  various  kinds  of  trees  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Eimacuc  (q.  v. ).  The  E.  -wood  is  the  heai-t-woed  of  these 
trees,  which  belong  to  the  genus  Dinspyros.  D.  Ebenum  of 
Mauritius  and  Ceylon  affords  the  best  E.  This  tree  may  attain 
a  latge  size,  andcheheart-woodof  the  stem  may  of  itself  form  logs 
over  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  often  above  ten  feet  in  length.  E,  - 
wood,  when  felled,  is  usimlly  immersed  in  water  for  periods  vary- 
ing from  six  to  eighteen  months,  to  further  harden  it.  It  is  then 
ti^en  out,  the  ends  of  the  logs  being  prevented  frOTS  splitting  by 
being  girt  with  iron  rings,  llie  wood  is  mostly  used  for  inlaying 
and  m  turning,  and  w^  employed  by  the  ancients.  Other  kinds 
of  commercial  E.  may  be  obtained  from  Leguminous  plants, 
f  :ich  as  Brya  Eieuus  of  Amoica, 

Ebrios'itas.    See  Dburium  Tremens. 

S'bro  (Lat  Iberas),  a  river  of  Spain,  which  has  its  souri:e  in 
the  Cantabrian  mountains,  in  the  province  of  Santander,  and 
flows  S.E.  through  Navarre  and  Aragon,  passing  LogtoKo,  Tudela, 
and  Satagossa,  and  falls  into  the  Mediterraneai  beiow  Tortosa, 
after  a  course  of  upwards  of  400  miles,  much  of  which  is  impeded 
by  shoals  and  rapids.     As  its  mouth  is  sanded  up,  a  canal,  the 

"      "    ■ ' :othe 

[Car- 
los and  reaching  as  far  inland  as  Saragossa,  is  nearly  completed. 
Besides  these  there  is  the  famous  Impaial  dotal,  or  eanai  of 
Aragon,  commenced  by  Karl  V.,  which  begins  3  miles  below 
Tudela,  and  ends  at  the  monastery  of  Monte  Terero,  near  Sara- 
gossa. The  K  drains  a  basin  of  upwards  of  25,000  sq.  miles. 
Principal  affluents  on  the  left — the  Ai'agon,  Gallego,  Segre ;  on 
the  right,  X^on  and  Guadalope^ 

Ecbal'ivim  OfB.cinar'imi  (E,  agreste;  Momordica  elaUHupt ; 
Fr.  CQncombre  saiciiage),  commonly  called  the  squirting  cucum- 
ber, an  annual  plant  of  the  natural  order  CmwUtacse,  is  a 
native  of  the  hotter  parts  of  Europe,  where  it  grows  wUd  on 
rubbish-heaps.  It  is  cultivated  as  a  medicinal  plant  in  some 
parts  of  Northern  Europe,  and  a  few  acres  are  grown  at  Mitcham, 
in  Surrey.  It  is  a  trading  plant,  without  tendrils,  rough,  and 
covered  with  stiff  hcdrs.  The  fruit,  like  a  small  oblong  melon, 
is  covered  with  soft  prickles,  and  is  filled  with  a  succulent  tissue 
containing  numerous  black  seeds,  which,  when  the  fruit  is  ripe, 
are  forcifly  expelled  through  the  aperture  where  the  stalk  is 
attached  to  the  fruit.  This  remarkable  phenomenon  is  ascribed 
by  Dutrochet  to  osmodc  action  within  the  fruit.  The  active 
principle  of  the  plant,  is  contained  ui  the  tliick  green  jnucns  sur- 
rounding the  seeds,  fiom  which  is  prepared  the  drug  Elatenwin 
(q.v.). 


Ecbat'ana  (Old  Per.  Hagmalana,  and  Old  Testament  Achi- 
mctha,  probably  '  b'easure  city, '  Gr.  Engiaiana  and  Ecbatana), 
an  ancient  city  of  Media,  which  has  been  identified  with  the 
modem  Hamadan  (q.  v.).  E.  was  the  summer  residence  of  the 
Median,  Persian,  ajid  Parthian  kings,  was  built  on  a  conical  hill, 
and  surrounded  by  seven  separate  walls,  painted  different  colours, 
the  outmost  of  which  had  a  circumference  of  fully  28  miles.  A 
recent  theory  is  that  there  were  two  Ecbataiias,  one  at  the  modern 
Hamadan,  &e  otlier  at  Takht-i- Suleiman,  in  the  province  of 
AaerlHJan. 

Ee'oe  Hotn'o(LaL  'beWd  the  man'),  the  exclamation 
Pilate  wiien  he  brought  Christ  forth  bound  and  'wearing 
erown  of  thorns  and  the  purple  robe'  (John  lix.  5).  The 
pression  was  adopted  by  the  old  masters  as  the  title  of  pictu 
representing  the  Saviour  thus  presented  to  the  Jews  by  Pilate. 
The  greatest  E.  H.  is  that  of  Correggio,  ia  the  National  Gallery. 
Guido,  Morales,  and  other  famous  painters,  have  also  treated  the 

!EeG6lk'tliG,  in  machinery,  a  disc  fixed  eccentrically  upon  a 
revolving  shaft,  and  used  to  transform  its  rotary  motion  into  a 
reciprocating  (approximately  harmonic)  one,  in  cases  where  tlie 
continuity  of  the  shaft  camot  be  broken  by  a  crank, 

Eccentri'city,  the  name  of  an  important  element  in  central 
curves  and  sur&ces  of  revolution  of  the  second  degree,  being  the 
ratio  of  the  distance  between  the  fod  to  the  major  axis.  It  is, 
therefore,  less  than  unity  for  the  Ellipse  (q.  v. ),  and  greater  Ihan 


■e  the  major  and  m 


i  respectively. 


Eoohyino'siB  (from  Gr.  eh,  'oat  of,'  and  chymes,  'juice'), 
a  discoloration  of  the  skin  caused  by  the  extravasation  of  blood 
in  the  skin  or  the  tissues  beneath  it.  E.  is  usually  attended  with 
swelling,  and  may  be  caused  by  disease,  accidents,  or  injuries. 
E.  can  only  take  place  during  life,  or  before  the  vital  functions 
have  entirely  ceased,  so  that  its  presence  is  an  important  con- 
dition in  many  cases  of  medio^  jurisprudence.  E.  may  be 
diminished  by  the  application  of  cold,  in  the  case  of  recently- 
inflicted  injuries. 

Ec'clea  {a  corruption  of  the  Lat;  ecchsia),  a  word  that  enters 
into  the  composition  of  a  great  number  of  names  of  places,  as 
EcdeshaD,  Eccleshill,  Eccleston,  Ecdescraig,  Ecclefechan  ('the 
church  of  St  Fechan'),  Ecclesmachan  {'  the  church  of  St  Ma- 
chan'),  &c.  The  most  important,  however,  \s Ecileifteld,  a  town 
in  the  W.  Riding  of  York,  with  manufactures  of  flax,  linen,  and 
cutiery.     Pop.  of  township  (1S71:)  15,171. 

Eoole^ae'tea  (Gr.  in  the  LXX.  for  Heb.  kohdah,  'the 
preacher')  is  the  title  of  one  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, which  professes  to  be  the  utterances  of  the  '  Preacher,  the 
son  of  David,  king  of  Jerusalem,'  i.e.,  Solomon  (ch.  i.  I,  cf.  »2). 
That  it  was  the  composition  of  Solomon  was  in  ancient  times 
the  miiversal  opinion,  but  there  is  now  a  very  general  opinion 
that  the  author's  assumption  of  Solomon's  name  is  nothing  but  a 
literary  embellishment,  the  jaropriety  of  which  would  lie  in 
Solomon's  reput^ion  for  wisdom,  and  his  ability  to  testify  from 
experience  of  the  vanity  of  aU  earthly  things.  Incidental  indi- 
cations that  it  was  not  written  by  Solomon  are  found  in  ch.  i. 
12,  16 ;  ch,  ii.  0  (unsuitable  to  the  son  of  David,  the  only  king 
before  Urn  in  Jerusalem) ;  cli.  jii.  16  j  ch.  iv.  1  (it  is  unlikely 
that  Solomon  would  have  described  the  misery  and  wrong  caused 
by  his  own  misgovemment) ;  and  ch.  xil  9-14. 

As  to  the  actual  date  of  ils  composition,  there  are  thought  to 
be  a  number  of  indications  that  it  was  written  after  the  Capti- 
vity ^^I)  The  whole  natnre  of  the  language,  and  the  prosaic 
character  of  the  composition  ;  (2)  the  profusion  of  Chaldiusms, 
scarcdy  found  in  ^y  of  the  other  books  of  the  Old  Testament  j 
(3)  the  complaint  about  much  book-making  (ch,  xii.  12) ;  {4) 
sundry  allusions  to  oppressive  fordgn  kings  then  ruling  (iv. 
13-16  i  X,  16,  17,  20). 

Regarding  the  plim  of  the  book  there  has  been  the  greatest 
diversity  of  opinion.  Perhaps  the  most  matured  view  is  that 
while  the  book  contains  the  germs  of  both  the  Pharisaic  and 
Sadducaic  systems,  (he  object  of  the  writer  was  to  point  out  that 
the  secret  of  true  happiness,  amid  all  the  troubles  of  the  w— '•' 
consists  in  a  true  enjoyment  of  the  good  that  ci 


nGod. 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


ECO 


SeeBiee\i's£mkitiing-ini/asAli.  Tssi.{zd  ed,  Bevl.  1865;  Eng. 
trans.  1869! ;  Ginsbuig's  Ecclestastes  (1S61) ;  and  Tyler's  Eiclf- 

Ecclesias'tioal  Oonuniss'ionera  for  England  were  estab- 
lished by  the  Acts  6  and  7  Will.  IV.  c.  77  and  3  and  4  Vict, 
c.  113,  in  order  to  carry  out  the  recommendations  of  two  cgm- 
inissions  appointed  in  183;  to  consider  the  state  of  the  several 
dioceses  in  England  and  Wales,  with  reference  to  the  amoant 
of  their  revenues,  and  the  more  equal  distribution  of  episcopal 
duties,  the  prevention  of  the  necessity  of  attaching  by  com- 
mendam  to  bishoprics  benefices  with  cure  of  souls  ;  to  consider 
also  the  cathedral  and  collegiate  churches  and  the  residence  of 
clergy  on  their  benefices.  The  Commission  recommended  such 
exchange  of  episcopal  duties  as  would  prevent  translations  and 
Comraendams,  and  the  appropriation  of  part  of  tlie  corporate 
revenues  of  the  cathedral  and  collegiate  churches,  and  of  the 
wh6Ie  endowments  of  the  non-residentiary  prebends,  dignities, 
and  offices,  to  establish  a  fund  for  the  better  provision  of  the 
cure  for  souls.  Under  the  second  Act,  the  composition  of  the 
body  was  materially  changed  :  it  now  includes  all  bishops,  the 
three  chief  deans,  and  six  judges  ex  officHs,  the  crown  and  the 
priioate  getting  power  to  appoint  four  aud  two  lay  commis- 
sioners respectively,  in  addition  to  three  originally  appointed. 
By  13  and  14  Vict.  c.  94,  three  salaried  Church  Estates  Commis- 
sioners were  appointed  to  control  the  purchase,  exchange,  jetting, 
or  management  of  lands  and  tithes.  The  method  of  procedure 
is  for  the  Commissioners  to  lay  a  scheme  before  the  Queen  ia 
CouncQ,  the  Order  in  Council  being  afterwards  registered  in  the 
diocese  afiected  by  it.  But  under  the  Ecclesiastical  Leasing 
Acts,  and  in  the  later  Acts  relating  to  clerical  residences  and  the 
spiritual  provision  for  populous  places,  the  Commissioners  act  in- 
dependently. The  Act  first  mentioned  made  yety  ,ej;lensive 
changes  in  the  limits  of  the  episcopal  sees,  and  introduced  two 
new  sees,  Manchester  and  Ripon ;  it  laid  down  the  principle 
that  all  parishes  should  be  subject  to  the  episcopal  jurisdiction 
in  which  they  are  locally  situate,  and  re-arranged  salaries,  first- 
fruits,  and  tenths.  Under  tlie  Act  33  and  24  Vict,  g,  14a,  the 
landS'and  emoluments  (except  rights  of  patronage,  residences, 
and  lands  connected  Iherewith)  of  the  vanoussees  are  vested  in 
the  Commissionets,  subject  to  an  obligation  to  provide  what 
is  an  adequate  endowment  from  time  to  time.  The  second- 
mentioned  Act,  3and4Vict.c.  113,  has  been  largely  extended  by 
4  and  S  Vict  c  39  and  3 1  and  32  Vict.  c.  1 14.  These  Acts  dealt 
with  the  abolition  of  sinecures,  plui'alities  of  deaiis,  and  non-resi- 
dentiary cathedral  preferments,  chiefly  canonries,  and  the  raising 
money  for  the  cure  of  souls  by  the  annexation  of  parishes  to 
canonries,  and  of  canonries  to  archdeaconries.  The  separate 
estates  of  deaneries  and  canoiiries,  not  suspended  or  annexed,  and 
of  non-residenliaiy  prebends,  are  also  vested  in  the  Commis- 
sioners J  and  by  37  and  aS  Vict.  c.  JO  any  corporation  of  vicars 
choral,  priest  or  senior  vicars,  custos  and  vicars,  warden  and  minor 
canons,  &c.,  may  transfer  theii:  lands  to  the  Commissioners. 
The  polity  of  the  Commis^ouers  is  expressed  in  certain  resolutions 
submitted  to  the  Queen.  Unconditional  grants  to  augment  in- 
come and  provide  residences  are  given  where  population  is  2000 
and  income  below  £\  50,  but  only  where  the  pati-onage  is  public. 
They  are  now  advancing  to  districts  having  populations  of  4000 
and  incomes  ander;£3C«.  The  Commissioners  plso  superintend 
the  exchange  of  advowsons,  the  sale  of  livings  in  the  gift  of  muni- 
cipal bodies  and  of  the  Lord  Chancellor,  the  erection  of  new 
parishes  and  the  selection  of  sites  for  building.  In  fact,  under 
19  and  20  Vict.  c.  55,  the  Commissioners  uavf  become  the 
Church  Building  Commissioners,  originally  appointed  in  1818  to 
distribute  j£  1,000,000  in  the  erection  of  new  churches.  From 
tlie  Commissioners'  Report,  25th  February  1875,  we  find  that 

bishops  in  respect  of  estates  vested 
missioners,  ji'r46,792  to  chapters  and  vicars  cSorai,  ,£90,948  in 
capital  sums  for  parsonage  houses,  £Vi,(iZ%  for  farm  buildings 
and  other  improvements,  and  for  le^,  Eurveyiiw,  and  actuarial 
expenses  the  large  sum  of  ;$33,ooC),  The  renltd  of  lands  amounts 
to  ^£706,668,  The  balance  sheet  shows  jf3,89i,S96  m  Govern- 
ment securities,  and  ji;z,723,26o  m  cash. 

Eiooleaiastical  Corpora'ti<m  in  England  may  be  aggregate 
or  sole.  The  former  consists  of  several  members,  and  is  main- 
tained by  succession.     The  latter  consists  of  one  person  ;  every 


holder  of  a  benefice  being  regarded  as  a  corporation  sole,  so  that 
the  temporalities  vested  m  him  do  not  descend  to  his  heirs,  as 
they  otherwise  would  do  by  common  law.  The  legal  powers  of 
an  incnnibent  are  nearly  llie  same  as  those  of  a  Tenant  for  Life 


Ecclesiastical  Cotirta  are  courts  having  jurisdiction  inspiri- 
tual  affairs.  The  principal  ecclesiastical  court  of  the  province  of 
Canterbury  is  the  Court  of  Arches.  The  thirteen  parishes  which 
sxe  peculiars  of  the  archbishop  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
judge  of  this  court.     The  Court  of  Peculiars  is  a  branch  of  the 


those  with  tie  diocesan  courts  and  the  courts 
of  the  province  of  York  form  the  ecclesiastical  administration  of 
England.  Formerly  these  courts  bad  jurisdiction  in  testamentary 
and  matrimonial  affairs,  but  in  1S57  this  jurisdiction,  was  trans- 
ferred in  the  former  matters  to  tlie  Probate  Court  (q.  v.),  and  in 
the  latter  to  tiio  Divorce  and  Matrimonial  Court  (q.  v.). 

EccleBiastioal  Law.    See  Canon  Law. 

Ecclesiastical  Titles  Act.  After  the  Reformation  in  Eng- 
land successive  Tudpr  monarclis  were  excommunicated  by  the 
Fope,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  severe  statutes  were  passed  by 
Elizabeth,  according  to  which  the  attributing  by  act  or  speech 
any  such  authority  or  jurisdiction  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome  as  he 
had  heretofore  claimed  shonld  be  punisliable  with  prsemunire. 
From  that  tune  to  1848  there  was  no  legal  method  of  communi- 
cation on  public  matters  between  England  and  Rome,  although 
many  millions  of  British  subjects  were  Cathohc.  In  1 827,  Mr 
Canning,  as  Fore^n  Secretary,  was  forbidden  even  to  reply  to  a 
civil  letter  sent  by  the  Pope  announcing  his  succession.  In  1S48 
the  Act  II  and  12  Vict.  c.  loS  at  last  enabled  her  Majesty  to 
hold  diplomatic  intercourse  with  the  Pope.  But  it  was  for- 
bidden to  receive  as  diplomatic  representative  any  person  in  holy 
orders  in  the  Cathohc  Church,  or  a  member  of  any  community 
bound  by  monastic  or  religions  vows.  The  Act  was  not  made 
use  of.  After  the  death  of  Watson  (the  last  of  the  old  Catholic 
bishops)  iti  1584,  the  Pope  maintained  his  spiritual  authority  in 
England  through  archipresbyters  (Black well,  Birjthead,  and  Har- 
rison) until  1623,  when  a  Bishop  of  Chalcedon,  in  PsTtHiis,  was 
sent  by  special  bull,  Sut>sequently  vicars  apostolic  were  sent. 
The  number  fixed  by  Innocent  XL  in  16S8  was  four,  increased  in 
1840  to  eight  by  Pope  Gregory  XVI, ,  there  being  bishops  inparii- 
but  as  coadjutors.  In  Ireland  the  Catholic  Church  was  alu'ays 
governed  by  prdinary  bishops.  In  1850  Pius  IX.  resolved  that 
there  should  be  a  new  division  of  dioceses  in  England,  that  there 
should  be  an  archbishop  of  Westminster,  and  that  the  ordinary 
bishops  should  take  their  names  from  English  towns.  Wiseman, 
previously  Bishop  of  Melipotamus,  was  made  cardinal,  and  be- 
came first  archbishop.  This  was  done  by  the  Bull  '  Quibus 
Hierarchia  Episcopalis  in  Anglja  restituitnr,'  which  was  promul- 
gated without  anthority  from  the  English  Government.  This, 
and  the  Pastoral  Letter  of  the  new  archbishop,  produced  a  mani- 
festo fron»  the  English  clergy  (see  Guardian,  April  2,  1851),  in 
which,  they  set  forth  the  substantial  identity  and  Catholicity  of 
their  Church  before  and  after  the  Reformation.  One  Hlle  in 
the  bull  (St  David's)  was  already  appropriated  to  an  English 
bishop.  Earl  Russell  then  (November  4,  1850)  wrote  his 
famous  Durham  Letter ;  he  was  excited  by  the  spread  of  Trac- 
tarianism,  or  Newmania,  and  called  the  bull  'insolent  and  in- 
sidious.' This  i^aised  a  storm  in  the  countiy.  The  result  was 
the  Act  14  and  15  Vict,  c,  60,  which  declared  the  bull  void,  and 
imposed  a  penalty  of  ,£100  on  all  persons  prociuiiig,  publish- 
ing, or  using  sudi  bulls,  or  assuming  the  objectionable  title. 
This  Act  no  one  has  ever  attempted  to  enforce.  On  the  dis- 
establishment of  the  Irish  Church  it  wfls  found  to  apply  to  the 
Anglican  Irish  bishops,  and  was  repealed  in  1871.  Scotland  was 
for  some  time  after  the  Reformation  nnder  the  authority  of  the 
English  archpriests  and  vicars  apostolic,  but  in  1629  Urban 
VIII.  granted  faculties  to  F,  W,  Ogilvie  as  prefect  of  the  mission. 
In  l6j3  the  secular  clei^y  were,  by  decree  of  propaganda, 
erected  into  a  missionary  body-  I"  1731  Scotland  (which  had 
now  its  own  vicars  apostolic)  was  divided  into  a  Lowland  and 
Highland  vicariate.     The  present  tripartite  arrangement  dates 


1827. 
Ecclesiastical  Year.    See  Year. 


y  Google 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOFMDJA. 


ECC 


Boolesias'tious  [so  called  because  the  most  important  and 
popular  of  tke  libri  eccUHasUci  (as  opposed  to  lanonid),  or  books 
appointed  to  be  read  in  church,  thoiigh  not  canonical]  is 
the  Latin  title  of  the  Apocryphal  book  called  in  the  LXX. 
'The  Wisdom  of  Jesus  the  Son  of  Sirach.'  The  book  seems  to 
have  been  originally  written  in  Hebrew,  with  the  title  'The 
Proverbs  of  Jesus,  Son  of  Sira;'  of  the  original,  however, 
nothing  now  remains  but  sundry  quotations  in  the  Talmud  and 
Midiashim.  The  Greek  version  in  the  LXX.  was  made,  accord- 
ing to  the  pi-ologue,  by  the  grandson  (name  unknown)  of  the 
author,  in  E^pt,  in  the  reign  of  Euergetes.  But  this  may 
have  been  either  Ptolemy  III.  (B.C.  247-222)  or  Ptolemy  VII. 
B.C.  145-116),  both  of  whom  received  the  name  Euei^etes. 
Unfortunately  the  same  ambiguity  attaches  to  the  high  priest 
Simon  described  in  chap.  L  as  if  he  had  but  recently  died,  as 
there  were  two  high  priests  of  that  name,  one  who  held  office 
about  B.C.  370-300,  the  other  about  217-195.  But  the  lauda- 
tory description  is  infinitely  more  applicable  to  the  former, 
who  was  surnamed  '  the  Pious,"  than  to  the  latter,  about  whom 
Josephus  has  not  a  single  good  thing  to  telL  Now  as  the 
Simon  referred  to  was  dead,  E,  was  probably  written  about 
290-280,  and  the  Greek  translation  made  about  247-222.  The 
aim  of  the  iiook  is  to  set  forth  the  tme  nature  of  vrisdom,  and 
the  religious  and  moml  duties  she  teaches  us  to  follow.  See 
Ginsburg  in  Kitto's  CycU.  of  Bib.  Lit.  (Edinb.  1863), 

Eoclesiol'ogjr  is  a  term  which  was  invented  at  Cambridge  at 
the  time  of  the  Tractarian  revival  of  theology  at  Osford.  The 
Camden  Society,  which  was  instituted  in  1838  for  the  Study  and 
preserration  of  eccJeaiastical  andquities,  received  latterly  the  name 
of  tlie  Ecclesiological  Soraely.  The  science,  whicli  may  be  re- 
garded as  synonymous  with  Sacred  Archeology,  treats  of — I.  The 
arts,  including  architecture,  sculpture,  painting,  engraving,  and 
muMC  i  also  furniture,  plate,  vestments,  S;e.  II.  Practices,  ritual, 
symboiism,  tradition, customs — i.  Theordersoftheolergy.  2.  Dig- 
nities, otEces,  and  ministries  of  the  Church.  3.  Religious  buildings, 
communities,  and  rales.  4.  Dlstinctionsamong  Christians,  as  cate- 
chumens, &c.  5.  Divine  service,  rites,  and  ceremonies.  6.  Disci- 
pline and  ordinances.  7.  Sundays,  fasts,  and  festivals.  8.  Usages 
and  institutions.    See  '^B^aVCsSacnd  Arch(eoli>gy  (Lood,  iS58). 

EogTierllt  (mod.  Sgberl),  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  early 
English  kings,  was  the  son  of  Alckmund,  ruler  of  Kent.  Claim- 
ing the  throne  of  Wessei  in  787,  he  was  compelled  to  flee 
before  Brihtric,  a  stronger  competitor,  to  the  court  of  Kail  the 
Great,  with  whom  be  remained  studyuig  the  arts  of  war  and 
of  government  until  800,  when  the  witenagemot  of  Wessex 
chose  him  as  king..  At  this  time  the  '  Heptarchy '  had  become 
method  into  the  kmgdoms  of  Meicia,  Northumbna,  and  Wessex ; 
andMercia,  under  the  enei^etic  Offa,  had  reduced  to  dependence, 
and  threatened  to  absorb,  the  two  remaining  divisions.  But 
after  consolidatii^  his  authority  during  nine  years  of  peace,  and 
subdtiing  the  Britons  of  Devon  and  Cornwall,  E.  jomed  the  E. 
Anglians,  who  had  revolted  against  Beomwulf  of  Metcia,  and 
shattered  the  Mercian  power  in  the  Ijattle  of  Ellandun,  in  823. 
In  827-828  he  inarched  into  Mercia  and  Norlhurabria,  compelled 
them  to  acknowledge  the  overlordsbip  of  Wessex,  and  received 
the  submission  of  the  Welsh.  Thenceforth  he  reigned  over  the 
country  from  the  Forth  to  the  EngUsh  Channel,  with  the  title 
'King  of  the  English.'  The  Danes  began  to  invade  Ei^land 
towards  the  close  of  his  reign.  In  833  he  suffered  defeat  from 
them  at  Charmouth,  but  won  a  victory  over  them  and  their  allies, 
the  southern  Britons,  at  Hengestendnn  (Hengstone  Hill)  in  835. 
E.  died  in  836.  He  was  an  able,  courageous,  and  aspiring 
ruler,  and  may,  to  a  large  extent,  be  considered  the  founder  of 
the  English  monarchy.  See  Freeman's  History  of  the  Norman 
Conquest,  vol.  1.  (  Palgrave's  Angle-Saxons;  Green's  History 
ofths  English  Pioph  (187s); 

Eoh'ard,  Iiaiorenoe,  an  English  historian,  was  bom  at 
Cassam,  Suffolk,  about  1671 ;  held  two  livings  in  Lincolnshire  ; 
became  archdeacon  of  Stowe  in  1712 ;  was  presented  to  several 
benefices  in  Suffolk;  and  died  August  16, 1730.  His  chief  works 
are  General  Ecdesiastical  Historv  (1702) ;  History  of  En^amd 
(1707-18);  A  Gazetteer;  A  Bescrsption  of  Ireland,  ki:^ 

ilch'elon  (Fr.  &helle.  Old  Fr.  esckde,  Prov.  acala,  Lat.  scaSa, 
•ladder'),  a  formation  of  troops  in  successive  parallel  divisions, 
each  stationed  so  far  to  the  right  or  left  of  the  preceiling  division, 
as  that,  on  advancing,  it  sliall  be  in  tlie  same  line  with  it.     In  this 


formation  the  different  divisions  have  the  same  local  relation  to 
each  other  as  the  steps  of  an  obliquely -placed  ladder  or  a  stair- 
case. This  formation  was  of  considerable  tactical  value  in 
former  times  for  the  different  evolutions  required  in  attack  direct 
or  oblique  or  in  retreat.  In  modem  tactics,  in  which  the  group- 
ing of  men  in  close  formation  for  attack  would,  under  all  bat  the 
most  exceptional  circumstances,  prove  a  fatal  mistake,  the  E.,  as 
a  formation  in  actual  warfare,  is  no  longer  in  use.     See  Drill, 

Echld'na,  in  natural  history,  a  genus  of  qnadrapeds  belonging 
to  the  order  Monotremata,  and  found  only  in  extra- tropical  Aus- 
tralia, Two  species  {E.  Aystrix  and  E.  setosa)  have  been  de- 
scribed, but  they  are  believed  to  be  the  same,  the  differences 
between  them  being  due  to  age  and  climate.  The  E.  is  about 
the  size  of  the  hedgehog,  like  which  animal  its  back  is  covered 
with  strong  and  very  sliarp  spines.  These  are  of  a  dirty  white 
tipped  with  black,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  the  hedgehog,  are 
erected  as  a  means  of  defence.  The  snout  is  long  and  tubukr, 
the  tongue  extensile  and  covered  with  a  viscous  secielion,  ena- 
bling the  E.  to  capture  its  food,  which  consists  of  ants.  The 
mouth  is  unprovided  with  teetb,  but  on  the  palate  there  are 
several  rows  of  spines,  directed  backwards.  Each  foot  is  armed 
witli  five  powerful  claws,  by  means  of  which  the  animal  can 
burrow  with  great  facility.  It  favours  sandy  localities,  and  is 
nocturnal  in  its  habits. 

Ecll'imyd  {EiMmys),  a  peculiar  genus  of  Rodent  mammalia, 
allied  somewhat  to  the  Myoxids  or  dormice,  and  inhabiting  S. 
America.  The  fur  is  mingled  in  some  species  with  spines,  and 
iias  procured  for  the  animals  the  name  of  '  spiny  rats, 

BoMn'idse.    See  Echinus. 

Echinooao'tias.     See  Cactace^e. 

Eobiflodertnata,  a  well-marked  group  of  the  animal  world, 
regarded  by  some  naturalists  as  entitled  to  rank  of  itself  as 
a  sub-kingdom  of  Bjiimals,  but  more  usually  considered  to  form 
the  typical  class  of  the  sub-kingdom  ^«««/oifl'o  (q.  v. )  oiEcMnosoa. 
It  is  represented  by  the  EcMnoidia  (sea-nrchins),  Aslii-oidia 
(starfishes),  Hohthuroidea  (sea^  cucumbers),  Crineidsa  (sea-lilies), 
and  by  the  extinct  orders  Cystoidea  (q,  v.)  and  Blastddea 
(q.  v.).  The  characters  of  the  E.  are  found  in  the  general 
presence  of  a  limy  secretion  in  the  ^vanx  ferisome ;  in  the  posses- 
sion of  3  distinct  digestive  canal,  a  nervous  system,  and  heart ; 
in  the  presence  of  a  water,  vascular  system,  snbserving  locomo- 
tion ;  and  in  the  absence  of  paired  or  lateral  appendages.  The 
symmetry  of  the  body  is  readily  seen  to  be  radial, 

Echinorhyn'cllas,  a  g;enus  of  intestinal  worms  found  in  the 
digestive  organs,  and  sometimes  in  the  abdominal  cavity  of  vei- 
tebrated  animals.  The  body  is  round,  sometimes  elongated,  and 
often  shortened  to  a  kind  of  sac.  The  proboscis  is  armed  with 
hoolts,  by  which  they  attach  themselves  to  the  coats  of  the  intes- 
tines. E.  gigas  is  ine  laziest  known  species  j  it  is  found  in  the 
hog  and  the  wild  boar,  and  the  females  are  sometimes  fifteen 
inches  long.  E.  ireriiia  is  a  smaller  species,  and  has  been  found 
in  the  liver  of  the  cat. 

EcMnozo'a.     See  Annui.oi 

EcM'nua,  or  Sea-Uroliiii,  a  typical  genus  of  EcMnodermala 
and  of  the  order  Eckinoidea^  havmg  the  body  enclosed  ir  " 
test    or    globular    shell    formed    of 
layers  of  hexagonal  limy  plates,  and 
which   (save  in   a  few    instances —  j 
Eckinothurids)  is   of   rigid  nat 
The  plates  in  all  living  Echini 
disposed  in  ten  double  rows,  which  S 
divide  the    shell    meridionally   int 
zones.    Five  of  these  double  rows  ai 
perforated  with  holes  for  the  protn 

Sou  of  lie  mmmu,  tub.-fct  or  -.■~~'™".- 
ambulacra,  and  are  hence  named  amhulacral  areas.  The  inti 
veningand  alternating  five  rows  are  not  perforated,  and  are  named 
interambulacral  anas.  In  some  cases  the  ambulacral  areas  di 
not  extend  from  pole  to  pole  of  the  shell,  but  are  limited  ii 
the  form  of  a  rosette-like  arrangement  to  the  upper  pole.  This 
arrangement  is  named  Ambulacra  arcumscrifita,  and  is  seen  in 
the  heart-urchins ;  and  the  name  A.  ^fecta  is  applied  where  the 
ambulacral  areasextend  completely  (asinthecommonE.)from  pole 
to  pole.  The  mouth  opens  at  the  lower  pole,  and  the  anus  at 
the  upper  pole  of  the  shell.    Around  themouth  anovalmembrana 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOP-^DTA. 


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of  leathery  naltire  exists,  and  at  the  anal  pole  a  series  of  five 
(gmitat)  plates  are  perforated,  each  for  the  duct  of  the  reproductive 
organs ;   whilst  other  five  plates,  alternating  with  the  geuital 

[ilates,  are  named  ocular  plates,  from  the  fact  of  each  bearing  a 
ittle  ocellus,  or  eyr.  One  of  the  genital  plates  is  perforated  like 
tlie  'rose'  of  a  watering-pot,  and  is  named  the  tiiadnporiform 
plate,  being  used  for  the  admission  of  water  to  the  water^iascular 
otamiulacralsysieia.  Theexteriorof  theE.  shell  bears  numerous 
spines,  each  movable  and  articulated  by  a  bali-and-socket  joint 


the 


tuliercle  on  the  shell,    "fiie  spines  have  gained  for  the  Echini 

'  '        hwlgehogs  i '   whilst   the   shell  without  the 

-eggs,'  often  applied  to 

Patjtellayiz 


Iheseanim^  Peculiarpi 

(q,  v.),occur  on  the  exterioroflheE.shell.  The  digestive  system 
inclndes  a  set  of  five  jaws — named  the  'lantern  of  Aristotle,'  a 
guUet,  stomach,  and  intestine.  A  tubular  heart  exists,  and  is 
connected  with  the  alimentary  canal  bycircular  blood-vessels;  and 
the  nervous  system  consists  of  a  ring  surrounding  the  gullet  and 
giving  off  five  chief  nerve-trunks.  Breathing  is  subserved  by  a 
peculiar  vascular  and  dilated  membrane,  the  mesentery,  which 
supports  and  altaches  the  internal  organs  to  the  walls  of  the 
slieU.  The  ambuUicifll  system  consists  of  a  set  of  vessels,  by 
which  water  is  introduced  into  the  shell,  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
flating the  numerous  little  tubular  feet,  each  provided  with  a 
terminal  sucker,  and  by  means  of  which  these  animals  move 
slowly  about.  The  sexes  are  distinct  in  all  these  forms  ;  and  in 
their  development  the  Echhii  pass  through  a  metamorphosis.  The 
Echini  are  classified  into  the  Echinida  (with  no  more  than  twenty 
rows  of  plates  in  the  shell),  and  the  Tesselata  (with  mote  than 
twenty  rows).  The  former  group  includes  all  living  Echini,  ex- 
emphfied  by  the  genus  £i:4fc«aj  itself,  by  the  'heart  'and  'cake' 
or  fiat  urchins  (Spataitgida),  by  Cidaris,  and  numerous  other 
forms. 

BcTlO  (Gr.  'sound,'  especially  a  'returned  sound').  If  a 
series  of  sound-waves  travellmg  through  the  air  meet  an  oppos- 
ing obstacle,  a  portion  of  the  energy  will  be  transmitted  to  the 
obstacle  in  the  form  of  vibrations,  which  may  be  ultimately 
communicated  to  another   region  of  the  air  as  sound,  while 


...n  when"heard  conslitutes"an  E.  When  the  sound-waves  strike 
the  surfaceat  right  angles,  the  K  win  be  heard  at  the  spot  whence 
the  sound  proceeded  ;  or  they  may  be  so  directed  after  impinging 
obliquely  upon  several  surfaces  in  succession.  If  the  reflecting 
surface  be  close  at  hand,  sufficient  time  niay  not  have  elapsed 
to  distinguish  the  E.  from  the  original  sound,  as  in  the  case  of 
large  rooms  or  vaulted  caves,  when  there  is  simply  a  confused 
resonance.  Assuming  ^th  of  a  second  as  tlie  shortest  interval 
between  two  successive  sounds  which  can  permit  of  them  being 
completely  distinguidiable  by  the  ear,  it  follows  that  for  the 
jjerception  of  a  distinct  E.,  the  reflecting  surface  must  be  aimut  60 
feet  distant,  since  sound  travels  at  the  rate  of  from  1050  to  1150 
feet  pec  second.  A  reflecting  surface  may  be  of  such  a  form 
that  a  sound  radiating  from  a  certam  spot  may  be  so  reflected 
as  to  convei^e  at  another  definite  spot ;  and  thus  the  slightest 
whisper  uttered  at  the  former  place  may  be  distinctly  heard  at  the 
latter,  though  inaudible  elsewhere.  An  Ellipse  (q.  v.),  vrith  its  foci, 
fulfils  such  a  condition.  The  elliptical  form  of  the  Albert  Hall 
quite  marred  the  music  with  which  its  opening  was  mauguraled 
— tl5e  orchestra  having  been  heedlessly  placed  at  one  of  the  foci. 
The  Whispering  Gallery  of  St  Paul's  is  also  of  this  nature.  Some 
echoes,  again,  are  capable  of  repetition  for  a  considerable  number 
of  times,  the  reflecting  surfaces  actmg  m  the  same  manner  as  the 
mutually-inclined  mirrors  of  a  kaleidoscope.  Such  are  the 
echoes  of  Killamey,  and  that  of  Sunonetta  near  Milan,  described 
by  Southwell  as  repeating  the  report  of  a  pistol  sixty  times. 
The  prolonged  rolls  of  thunder  are  simply  a  succession  of  echoes 
produced  by  reflection   from   the  hug      1dm  tt     d 

Koija,  a  town  in  the  province  of  S     11     Sp  th   X      I 

45   miles  N.E.  of   the  city  of  Sevill         It    t    d  f  rt  1 

plain,  is  embosomed  in  trees,  has  a  fin      /       0^        p  bl  Ik 

several  cbarclies,  monasteries,  and  hosp  t  1        d  S  ra         g  t 
and  towers.     It  has  manufactures  of  lin  11  d  1     h 

Pop-  33.7°o-      E.,  the  ancient  Aitigis  (      B  sq  lb 

'rock-dwelling'),  became  the  Colmiia  A  gust    F  f    h 

Romans,  and  Roman  remains  have  be      f       d 


Eck,  Johann  Mayr  von,  a  celebrated  theological  disputant, 
was  bora  at  Eck,  Swabia,  in  i486,  studied  at  Heidelbeig  and 
Tubingen,  and  was  appointed  for  his  argumentative  skill  to  the 
chair  of  theology  in  Ingolstadt  University  in  Ijia  His  attack 
on  Luther's  T'AstiM,  in  his  OWijn  (1518),  drew  him  into  a  public 
discussion  with  Luther  and  Karlstadt  at  Leipsic  in  1519.  His 
hatred  towards  the  Reformers,  to  whom  he  affixed  the  name 
Lutherans,  was  implacable.  Through  his  mfluence  the  papal 
bull  of  1520  was  issued,  which  condemned  Luther's  writings  as 
heretical  and  erroneous.  He  was  prominent  in  the  Augsburg 
Diet,  1530,  in  the  Conference  of  Worms,  1540,  where  he  armted 
for  three  days  with  Melancthon  and  others,  and  in  the  Con- 
ference of  Rlatlsbon,  1541.  He  died  at  Ingolstadt  in  1543. 
He  was  aelf-confident,  greedy,  ambitious,  and  possessed  slender 
talents  and  learning.  He  produced  numerous  polemical,  ethical, 
and  theological  works,  of  very  little  value.  His  translations  of 
the  Bible  had  no  success.  See  Wiedemann's  Dr  Jshanu  Eck 
(Regensb.  1865). 

Bck'ermaim,  Johann  Peter,  the  friend  of  Goethe,  was  bora 
in  1793  at  Wlnsen  on  the  Liilie,  a  little  town  between  Liinebui^ 
and  Hamburg.  He  studied  at  Giittingen  In  1823,  where  he 
became  private  secretary  to  Goethe,  with  whom  he  lived  on 
terms  of  the  closest  intimacy,  and  died  at  Weimar,  3d  De- 
cember 1854.  His  chief  work  is  bis  GesprSche  mil  Goethe.  The 
first  part  of  these  was  published  at  Leipsic  m  1836,  the  second 
at  Magdeburg  in  1848.  They  have  been  translated  into  all 
European  languages.  There  is  an  American  translation  by 
Fuller  (Boston,  1839),  and  an  English  by  Oxenford  (Lond. 
1850).  E.'swork  isof  the  highest  vdue,  being  a  faithful  picture 
of  Goethe's  domestic  and  literary  life,  and  tbrowhig  a  clear 
and  full  light  on  the  varied  genius  of  that  great  man.  The 
Gispi^ke  also  contain,  as  their  author  himself  says,  'many 
vallw.ble  explanations  and  instructions  as  to  science,  art,  and  the 
practical  affairs  of  life.'  E.  also  edited  (1839-40)  the  Sammt- 
luhen  Werke  of  Goethe,  In  40  vols.  A  slight  autobiography  of 
E.  is  prefixed  to  the  Gesfrdcht. 

Eckll'a,  the  name  for  the  most  common  wheeled  con- 
veyance in  India.  It  is  a  light  two-wheeled  cart,  without 
springs,  drawn  by  a  pony,  and  covered  with  a  cloth  awning  on 
a  wooden  framework.  The  E.  is  rarely  used  by  Europeans, 
but  natives  will  take  long  journeys  in  it.  A  good  pony  has  been 
knovm  to  take  a  loaded  E.  60  miles  in  twelve  hours. 

Eok'muM,  or  Egg'm.iiJll,  a  village  in  Lower  Bavaria,  on 
the  Laber,  !i  miles  S.  of  Ratisbon,  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of 
the  Archduke  Karl  of  Austria  by  Napoleon  I.,  22d  April  1809. 
Karl's  attempt  to  seize  the  highway  to  Donauworth,  which  would 
have  secured  the  possession  of  Bavaria,  was  frustrated  on  the  21st 
byDavout;  and  next  day  Napoleon,  with  65,000  men,  suddenly 
attacking  the  Archduke,  whose  force  amounted  to  only  28,000 
men,  compelled  him  to  retreat  on  Ratisbon,  with  the  loss  of 
6000  men  and  16  guns.  For  Ills  share  iu  this  engagen 
Napoleon  created  Davout,  then  Due  d'A       ■    ■     -^  ■ 

Eclamp'sia  (Gr.  ek  and  lamband,  ' 
to  designate  two  convulsive  affections,  t 
to  childhood,  and  the  other  to  the  pnerperal  state.  These 
affections  are  more  frequently  called  infantile,  and  puerperal 
conifulsions.  The  latter  most  frequently  occur  during  or  im- 
mediately after  childbirth.  E.  depends  upon  a  source  oi 
irritation  of  the  periphery  of  the  nerves,  generally  of  a  trail- 
sient  nature,  and  it  disappears  when  the  exciting  cause  is 
removed.  It  is  distinct  from  the  convulsions  of  hysteria,  epilepsy 
catalepsy,  muscular  convulsions,  apoplexy,  &c.  It  is  ar 
exceedingly  alanning  disease,  and  sometimes  ends  fatally.  E., 
connected  with  the  puerperal  state,  is  much  more  dangerous  than 
in  the  case  of  infants,  and  when  it  occurs,  p  '  '  ' 
1      t  d       rap  dly  as  p       bl 

Eclect    a  (f    m  G      kl g 

pi  1  soph  h 


leistadt.  Prince  d'K 


n  should  be 


choo      )  tl 


h    Is 
Th 


II  I 


1  tl 


h 


__   f  eel    t        h    1     f  an 
di  1    t      w  th  On     t  1    my  t 
B  and   D  scrt  d 

f  md  rs    f       d  ra  eclect 


I      f   Al    End 
tim      blend    g  btl    G 

1  l_hr  t  m  t  physi 
H  g  !,  ha  bee  tyled  t 
""       h   f  eclect       f    ec 


th 


ysti. 


483 


vLiOOQle 


EOL 


TBE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EOL 


ed  on  a  passage  in .  Hegel's  Gesckkkle  lUr  PkiiosopMe. 
Colisin  sought  to  combine  the  principles  of  Eeid  and  Stewart 
with  tliose  of  Proclus,  Kant,  Hegel,  and  others,  and  through 
hia  brilliant  rhetoric  won  for  hia  system  a  wide  bat  fleeting 
popniarity.  At  one  time  the  chairs  of  philosopliy  in  France 
were  almost  all  held  by  his  followers,  but  his  eclecticisna  has  now 
fallen  into  diarepute.     See  COPSiM. 

Bcslip'ses  (Gr.  ekldpsis,  tit.  'a  leaving  out,' hence  'a  (ailing 
to  appear')  afe  those  astronomical  phenomena  m  which  a 
greater  or  smaller  portion  of  a  luminary  is  t;lit  off  &om  view. 
Thia  may  occur  in  two  distinct  waya— either  by  the  mtei-venlion 
of  an  opaque  body  between  the  luminary  and  the  observer ;  or,  if 
tiie  echpaed  body  be  of  itself  non-lummous,  by  the  interception 
of  the  light  which,  by  its  reflection,  rendera  the  body  visible. 
To  the  fonner  class  belong  solar  E, ,  tliose  of  Jupiter's  or  Saturn's 
satellites,  as  sometimes  viewed  from  the  earth,  transits  of  Venus 
aud  Mercury,  and  occultations  of  stars  ;  while  lunar  E.,  and  the 
transit  of  a  satellite's  shadow  over  the  disc  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn, 
may  be  mentioned  as  cases  of  the  latter  class.  The  word  idipie, 
however,  when  used  without  any  qualification  is  understood  as 
referring  to  either  the  snn  or  the  moon  ;  and  it  is  in  this  restricted 
signification  only  that  these  phenomena  are  briefly  discussed 

A  Lunar  EcHfise  ia  occasioned  by  the  passage  of  the  moon 
through  the  eaim's  shadow,  necessarily  accompanied  by  the  in- 
terception of  a  portion  of  the  sun's  light,  which  would  otherwise 
fall  upon  the  moon's  disc.  This  can  only  happen  when  the  earth 
is  between  and  in  the  same  atiaight  line  with  the  sun  and  moon, 
i.e.,  a.  the  time  of  full  moon,  A  consideration  of  the  annexed 
figure  will  make  the  whole  quite  intelligible.  A  B  represents  a 
plane  section  through  a  great  circle  on  the  aun's  aurface,  and  C  D 
a  similar  section  of  the  earth's— both  sections  being  in  the  same 


plane.  Draw  to  these  circles  the  four  common  tangents  A  X, 
A  M,  B  y,  E  N.  In  consequence  of  the  much  greater  distajice 
separating  the  earth  and  sun,  as  compared  with  their  diameters, 
we  may  suppose  these  tangents  to  intersect  at  A  B  and  C  D — 
the  extremities  of  two  parallel  dianleters.  Now  the  space  C  D  Z 
is  the  section  of  a  cone  within  which  there  is  total  shadow. 
This  cone  is  called  the  umbra;  and  it  is  the  entrance  of  the 
moon  into  this  region  which  constitutes  an  eclipse — total  or  par- 
tial, according  as  the  moon  is  wholly  or  parlially  immersed. 
Around  this  cone  ia  another  r^on,  represented  in  section  by 
V  C  Z  and  Z  D  X,  from  which  sunlight  is  partially  excluded, 
and  which  is  known  as  the  penumbra.  To  an  observer  on  the 
moon  during  Its  pass^e  through  tliis  region,  the  sun  would  pre- 
sent the  same  appearance  that  it  doea  to  us  during  a  partial 
solar  eclipse.  There  is  not,  however,  an  eclipae  at  every  full 
moon,  since  the  moon's  orbit  does  not  lie  in  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic,  but  makes  with  it  an  inclination  of  rather  more  than  5°. 
The  phenomenon  is  only  poasible  when  the  moon  at  its  fall  is 
auf&ciently  neai  its  node;  and  it  is  found  from  calculation  that 
no  eclipse  can  take  place  if  the  node  be  distant  from  the  point  of 
the  ecliptic  opposite  Ihe  sun  by  more  than  11°  25'  40",  and  that 
an  edifKe  must  take  place  if  this  distance  be  less  than  9°  30'  29". 
The  possibility  of  their  being  an  eclipse  within  these  limits  de- 
pends on  the  relative  distances  of  the  sun  and  moon  from  the  earth 
at  the  time.  Even  in  the  umbra,  however,  the  moon  receives 
solar  light  which  has  been  refracted  through  the  earth'a  atmos- 
phere and  it  is  therefore  usually  diatinguishable  as  a  dark,  copper- 
coloured  disc. 

A  Solar  Edipe  is  caused  by  the  interception  to  a  terrestrial 
observer  of  the  whole  or    a  poition  of   the  snn's  light  by  the 
opaque  body  of  the  moon.     Accordingly,  it  cannot  take  place 
■484 


but  at  new  moon,  and  then,  as  in  the  case  of  lunar  E.,  only  when 
the  moon,  while  in  this  position,  is  sufficiently  near  its  code. 
The  limits,  corresponding  to  those  given  above  for  a  lunar  eclipse, 
are  15°  35'  56"  and  17°  50'  42" — the  possibility  of  an  eclipse  hap- 
pening within  tlirae  again  depending  on  the  relative  distances  of 
the  sun  and  moon  from  the  earth.  The  only  true  ditference  be- 
tween a  lunar  and  solar  eclipse  is  that  in  the  former  the  moon 
passes  through  the  earth's  shadow,  while  m  the  latter  the  earlh 
passes  through  the  moon's  ;  but  to  a  terrestrial  observer  the  ap- 
parent differences  are  very  striking.  An  eclipse  of  the  moon  is 
visible  to  all  observers  on  the  hemisphere  of  the  earth  turned 
away  from  the  sun,  and  undei^oes  all  its  phases  at  precisely  the 
same  time  for  all  observers ;  an  ecUpse  of  Uie  sun  is  visible  over  a 
limited  area,  and  differs  in  its  extent  and  the  time  of  its  occurrence 
for  every  observer.  The  breadth  of  the  earth's  shadow  at  tlie 
moon's  distance  ia  considerably  greater  than  the  moon's  diameter; 
that  of  the  moon'a  shadow  on  the  eaith  is  at  most  a  few  miles, 
while  sometimes  the  umbra  falls  short  of  the  earth  altogether — 
a  phenomenon  which  caimot  happen  unless  the  moon'a  apparent 
diameter  be  less  tlian  the  aun's.  During  a  lunar  ecUpse  the 
moon  is  always  wholly  immersed  in  the  penambra  ;  dining  a 
solar  eclipse  the  earth  is  never  so,  and  hence  the  explanation  of 
the  fact  that  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  is  invisible  at  locahties  outside 
a  certain  doaed  area  of  the  earth's  em'face.  An  eclipse  of  the 
moon  is.totaily  independent  of  the  earth's  diurnal  rotation  ;  but 
a  solar  eclipse  is  not.  It  is  this  consideration  that  renders  the 
calculation  of  the  latter  so  complicated  and  difficult  compared 
with  that  of  the  former.  In  both,  K  may  Iw  total  or  partial, 
but  only  in  the  case  of  the  sun  can  there  be  what  is  termed  an 
annular  eclipse.     This  happens  when  the  moon  passes  centrally 


e  falling 


of 


disc,  the  umbra 
the  earth. 

Tlie  earliest  recorded  solar  eclipse  is  that  mentioned  in  Chinese 
history  as  having  taken  place  in  the  reign  of  Shing-kan^  about 
2169  B.C.  It  is  mentioned  incidentally  in  connection  with  the 
names  Ho  and  HI,  two  astronomers  who  were  put  to  death  for 
neglecting  to  predict  the  phenomenon.  The  famous  total  eclipse, 
predicted  by  Thales  of  Miletus,  and  which  according  to  Hero- 
dotus interrupted  the  battle  between  the  Lydians  and  Medes, 
occurred,  if  we  accept  the  calculations  of  Sir  G.  B.  Airy,  on  May 
28,  585  B.C.  The  total  E.  of  Xerxes  (47S  B,a  ?)and  of  Agatho- 
cles  (August  15;  310  B.C.,  according  to  Airy)  may  also  be  noted. 
In  later  times,  we  have  the  celebrated  K  of  1433  and  1598,  both 
total  in  Scotland;  and  that  of  May  3, 1715,  the  last  total  eclipse 
otserved  in  England.  The  yeais  1E68-71  will  always  be  memo- 
rable for  their  total  E.,  and  for  the  great  service  done  to  astrono- 
mical science  during  their  observation.  That  of  August  17, 
186S,  observed  in  India,  is  celebrated  for  the  long  duration  of 
totality — as  much  as  6  minutes  50  seconds ;  that  of  August  7, 

1869  was  well  observed  in  N.  America  ;  that  of  December  22, 

1870  was  not  successfully  observed;  while  that  of  December 
12,  1871  was  visible  in  Ceylon  and  Southern  India.  The  same 
interesting  series  of  E.  will  recur  in  precisely  the  same  order  after 
the  lapse  of  between  eighteen  and  nineteen  yeal^  (See  Metonic 
Cycle.)  Tlie  most  striking  phenomena  to  a  scientific  observer 
during  a  total  eclipse  of  the  sun  are  the  corona  or  ring  of  light,  and 
the  irregular  red-coloured  protuberances  round  the  dark  body  of 
the  moon.  The  corona  depends  greatly  for  ita  size  and  appear- 
ance upon  the  condition  of  the  earth's  atmosphere  ;  but  the  pro- 
tuberances are  truly  aolar,  being  the  huge  flames  of  the  ignited 
gases  wliich  form  the  sun's  chromosphere.  Tliese  flames,  which 
can  now  be  observed  by  means  of  a  spectroscope  without  the  aid 
of  a  total  eclipse,  are  best  conadered  under  Sun.  It  is  enough 
to  mention  that  at  the  moment  of  totality  the  solar  spectrum  is 
reversed,  the  continuous  spectrum  disappearing,  and  the  absorp- 
tion lines  becoming  bright.  (See  Spectrum  Analysis:)  For 
more  detailed  information  regarding  E.,  both  mathematical  and 
descriptive,  see  Supplement  to  'AieNauHccd Almaiuici<ixl%'^&,  by 
Mr  Woolhouse,  Herschei's  Oullinis  of  Aslronamy,  Snd  Proctor's 

Eclip'tio,  the  course  among  the  stars  which  the  sun,  in  vir- 
tue of  the  earth's  annual  revolution,  seems  to  pursue — so  named 
from  the  Edipses  (q.  v.),  which  only  happen  when  the  moon  is 
in  or  near  thia  great  circle.  The  E.  does  not  coincide  with  the 
celestial  equator,  and  accordingly  the  sun  has  an  apparent  annual 
motion  in  Declination  (q.  v.)  as  well  as  in  right  ascension.  (See 
Ascension,  Right.)  On  the2ist  of  June  and  the  2Jst  of  Decern- 


__ — i- 

y  Google 


ECL 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOfJIDIA. 


-■*• 


ber,  or  thereabouts,  the  sun  reaches  its  greatest  distances  N.  and 
S.  of  tlie  equator,  being  then  at  its  summer  and  winter  solstices 
respectively.  The  cbiiquily  or  angle  of  incHnal!0}i  of  liie  E.  to  the 
quatoc  is  continiiaUy  changing,  Deing:  afTected  by  the  positions 
1  the  other  planets,  and  by  the  earth's  own  Nutation  (q.  v.) ; 
but  the  difference  between  its  extreme  variations  can  never  ex- 
ceed 2°  42'.  Its  mean  value  is  23°  2/  I'^'-g^.  The  nodes,  or 
the  points  at  which  the  E,  intewecls  the  equator,  are  called  the 
equinoxes,  the  vernal  equinox  occurring  about  the  2tat  of  March, 
and  the  autumnal  about  tlie  32d  of  S«itember.  ITiey  are  sub- 
ject to  a  slow  but  continuous  westward  motion,  each  having  an 
angular  annual  motion  of  $l"'l,  and  therefore  talcing  25,362 
years  to  malte  one  complete  revolution.  This  continuous  varia- 
tion is  known  as  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes.  (See  Aries, 
Precession.)  The  E,  is  divided  into  twelve  equal  portions, 
each  containmg  30°,  and  receiving  its  name  arigmally  from  the 
constellation  whicli  occupied  the  same  apace  in  the  heavens.  In 
consequence  of  precession,  however,  the  signs,  as  they  are  called 
(see  Zodiac),  no  longer  coincide  with  the  constellation  of  the 

Eclogue  (Gr.  eklogc,  'a  selection'),  was  at  first  the  name  of 
a  poem,  or  series  of  poems,  chosen  on  accoimt  of  their  beauty 
from  an  author's  work ;  afterwards  the  term  was  applied  to  Vir- 
gil's Bucolics,  or  pastoral  poems,  and  hence  has  become  synony- 
mous with  a  pastoral  idyll.     See  Pastoral  Poetry. 

Eeole  Polytedmiqae'.  In  1794  the  National  Convention 
of  France,  to  prepare  young  men  for  the  public  services,  and 
especially  for  engineering,  civil  and  military,  created  an  educa- 
tional institution,  named  at  first  L'&oltdes  TTUvrtux  Publics,  but 
after  September  l,  1795,  the  E.  P.  Pounded  on  the  plan  of 
Monge,  the  school  was  reorganised  in  1S16,  and  its  constitution 
has  been  subsequently  modified.  It  supplies  cadets  for  the  artil- 
lery service  of  the  army  and  the  fleet,  for  military  and  naval 
engineering,  for  the  corps  of  engineers  of  roads,  bridges,  mines,  &c 
It  is  under  the  control  of  the  Minister  of  War,  and  is  subject  to 
militaiy  discipline.  The  governing  staff  is  military,  but  the 
teaching  staff  may  dther  be  military  men  or  dvibans.  Admis- 
sion is  by  competitive  enamination,  and  the  competitor  must  be 
a  Frenchman  or  naturalised,  a  bachelor  of  sdence,  and  between 
sixteen  and  twenty  years  of  age,  except  in  the  case  of  officers 
alreai^  serving  under  the  French  flag,  who  are  admissible  to  the 
age  of  twenty-five  years.  The  outfit  required  costs  from  500  to 
600  francs,  and  board  costs  1000  francs  per  annum,  but  assist- 
ance is  given  to  poor  students  under  certain  condidons.  The 
course  extends  to  two  years,  in  each  of  which  special  subjects 
require  to  be  mastered.  There  is  an  examination  at  the  close 
of  the  first,  and  the  great  examination  at  the  end  of  the  second 
year.  The  measure  of  success  at  the  latter  regulates  the  posi- 
tion to  which  cadets  may  at  once  attain. 

Econ'omj',  a  Socialist  community  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Ohio,  in  Pennsylvania,  17  miles  N.W.  of  Pittsburg,  formed  by 
Germans  in  1825.  It  has  3500  acres  of  land,  and  carries  on 
manufactures  of  silk,  cotton,  and  wool.    Pop.  (1870)  1600. 

'Ecoii<ani>',  Folitical.    See  Poutical  Economy. 

ificoates'  (Fr.  'listening  places,'  from  kouter,  'to  listen'), 
galleries  made  beneath  or  before  a  glacis  to  shelter  troops  placed 
Uiere  to  disturb  the  miners  of  the  besiegei's. 

^oraaeur  (Fr.  kras/r,  '  to  crush '),  an  instrument  invented 
by  M.  Chassaignac,  of  Paris,  for  removing  diseased  pans  from 
the  living  body  by  a  rapid  process  of  strangulation.  The  E. 
consists  of  a  loop  of  fine  sleel  chain,  wire,  or  other  material, 
which,  having  been  passed  over  the  tumour  or  through  the  tissues 
to  be  removed,  is  gradually  tightened  by  a  mechanism  in  the 
stem,  to  which  it  is  attached,  until  tlie  tumour  is  completely 
separated.  By  tills  means  the  operation  is  completed  with  little 
or  no  hiemorrhage,  and  in  many  cases  parts  can  be  operated  upon 
more  conveniently  than  by  the  scalpel,  such  as  in  vaginal  tumours, 
cancroid  ulceration  of  the  tongue,  and  the  like. 

Ee'stasy  (Gr.  sislasis,  '  a  cliange  of  anything  from  its  ordi- 
nary place')  is  the  term  applied  by  Plotinus  and  the  other  Alex- 
andrian philosophers  to  that  faculty  by  which  they  fancied  they 
obtained  a  knowledge  of  God  and  the  world  of  universal  ideas  not 
liable  to  the  imperfections  of  knowledge  obtained  through  organic 
conditions,  and  manipulated  by  a  finite  mind.     In  some  cases. 


it  produced  immediate  vision  of  beauty  or  moral  perfection;  to" 
philosojihers,  by  the  gradual  process  of  dialectics,  it  revealed  the 
ideas  of  unity  and  proportion.  Music,  dialectics,  and  love  or 
prayer,  are  Its  three  sources.  This  faculty,  called  by  Proclus 
illumination,'  dealt  with  such  subjects  as  the  Alexandrian 
unity;  the  three  hypostases  of  absolute  unity,  the  fii'st  intelli- 

f:nce,  and  universal  soul ;  and  the  doctrine  of  Emanation  (q.  v. ). 
.  may  in  the  same  sense  be  applied  to  the  vision  of  sucii  mys- 
tics as  Behmen,  Tauler,  Sec  More  geneiully,  K  is  applied  to  a  . 
mental  state,  in  which  an  emotion  seems  to  absorb  the  whole 
mental  force,  and  leave  none  for  will  or  intellect.  E.  is  also  a 
medical  teim  for  the  morbid  state  in  which  consciousness  of 
external  objects  and  also  voluntary  motion  are  suspended,  the 
mind  being  fixed  in  abstract  contemplation,  and  the  muscles 
generally  rigid,  or  only  partly  relaxed.  It  is  distinguished  from 
catalepsy  and  trance  ^o/wby  the  presence  of  intelligence.  The 
predisposing  causes  are  all  those  which  lower  the  nervous  system. 
E.  may  be  induced  by  religious  excitement  or  mesmerism.  It  is 
probably  accompanied  by  cerebral  congestion,  and  often  passes 
into  epilepsy  and  mania. 

Ee'taais  (from  tlie  Gr.  eMcino, '  I  stretch  out '),  a  term_  used  to 
indicate  aneurismal  distension  of  the  walls  of  the  pulmonary 
artery  or  capillaries,  as  seen  in  the  air-cells. 

Ecthj/ma  JGr.  ehthuma,  '  a  pustule ')  is  an  acute  inflamma- 
tion of  the  skin,  characterised  by  an  eruplion  of  lai^e  rounii 
pusttdes,  upon  a  hard  mflamed  base.  The  pustules  are  discrete 
and  scattered.  With  dark-coloured  crusts,'  which  on  separation 
often  leave  a  brown  stain  or  a  superficial  ulcer,  followed  by 
a  cicatrix.  The  eruption  seldom  occurs  on  the  face  or  scalp, 
and  is  most  frequent  during  spring  and  summer  in  young 
adults.  £.  chrimicum  has  three  varieties — B.  infantile,  which 
appears  in  ill-fed  and  delicate  children  or  in  those  debili- 
tated from  previous  disease  ;  E.  luridum,  in  old  persons  wh6se 
constitution  has  been  injured  by  excesses ;  and  E.  caekttticifm 
in  persons  of  unsound  and  cachectic  constitutions  of  all  ages. 
The  pustules  resemble  those  following  the  irritation  produced 
by  tartarised  antimony.  Treatment — gentle  laxative  and  altera. 
five  medicine,  with  diluents  and  abstemious  regimen,  and  for 
local  application  solution  of  superacetate  of  lead.  In  the  chronic 
form,  tonics  and  alteratives,  as  nitro-muriatic  acid  with  gentiap. 

Ec'todeTm  (Gr.  ektes,  '  witliout,' and  ,^/«a,  'the  skin'),  tl.a 
name  applied  to  the  outer  of  the  two  layers  into, which  the 
tissues  of^Ccelenterate  animals  are  divided.  The  E.'  corresponds 
roughly  with  the  outer  '  sljin '  of  higher  animals.  In  sponges 
and  higher  forms,  the  name  'E.'  is  also  given  to  the  external 
layer  of  the  tissues,  and  is  used  in  contrast  to  the  endodirm  or 

Ectozo'a(Gr.  cktos,  'without,'  and  ssoos,  'living'),  a  name 
used  only  in  a  general  sense  in  zoology  for  such  parasites  as  lice, 
ticks,  and  many  lower  Crustacea,  whicli  live  upon  the  skm  or 
external  surfaces  of  other  animals. 

Ectro'pium,  or  eversion  of  the  eyelids,  is  caused  by  swelling 
and  protrusion  of  the  conjunctiva,  and  also  by  morbid  contrac- 
tions and  adhesions,  or  partial  or  total  destruction,  of  the  skin 
of  the  eyelids.    K  may  be  cured  by  a  simple  plastic  operation. 

Eotrot'iC  (from  Gr.  ihtrcma,  'abortion'),  a  term  used  to  in- 
dicate modes  of  treatment  which  aim  at  preventing  the  develop- 
ment of  disease,  as  cauterisation  to  destroy  the  pustules  of  small- 
pox or  limit  the  spread  of  erysipelas. 

Ecuador'  (the  Spanish  form  of  '  equator'),  a  republic  of  S. 
America,  so  called  from  lying  on  both  sides  of  the  equator  ; 
bounded  N.  by  the  United  Slates  of  Colombia,  E.  by  Brazil, 
S.  by  Peru,  and  W.  by  the  Pacific.  Its  area  is  estimated  at 
218,984  sq.  miles,  and  its  pop.  at  1,300,000,  of  whom  200,000 
are  Indians.  The  Guayaquil  is  the  only  considerable  stream  in  the 
W. ;  thejapura,  Napo,  and  Putumayo,  afflueilts  of  the  Amazon, 
drain  the  E.  The  country  is  traversed  by  a  double  range  of  the 
Andes,  which  encloses  plateaus  of  from  8coo  to  nearly  10,000  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  highest  summits  are  Chimborazo,  21,424 
feet;  Cayambe,  19,535;  Antisana,  19,137!  and  Cotopaxi,  a 
volcanic  cone  18,875.  '^^^  climate  varies  much — fram  Uie  (ro- 
pical  heat  of  the  low  tracts  to  die  perpetual  spring  of  the  valleys 
and  the  cold  of  the  region  of  perpetual  snow.  Tlie  capital 
is  Quito  (q.  v.),  and  the  chief  port  Guayaquil.  The  chief  exporls 
48s 


vLiOOQle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EDB 


;  cocoa,  caoutchouc,  and  Peruvian  bark  ;  the  chief  imports  are 
tton  and  woollen  goods,  wines,  groceries,  flour,  and  hardwai'e. 
iS;3  the  value  of  the  former  was  ^405,000,  and  of  the  latter 
^^190,200,  The  largest  trade  is  carried  on  with  Great  Britain. 
In  1873  the  revenue  amounted  to  £^lo,l02,  and  the  enpenditure 
10^787,112.  The  constitution,  dating  from  31st  March  1843, 
vests  the  executive  in  a  President,  elected  for  four  years,  and 
the  legislative  power  in  a  congress  of  two  houses.  E.  relielled 
against  Spain  in  1S20,  joined  Colombia  in  1S22,  and  became  an 
independent  republic  in  1831.  Since  1863  there  has  been 
almost  incessant  civil  war.  See  Villavicencio's  Giografia  de 
la  RepuUica  del  E.  (New  York,  1858),  and  Wagner's  Rtisea  in 
E.i'oZdlschrifiJiiraUgemdHeErdkunde.vaX.xvt.  (Beriin,  1864). 
Ecumen'ioal  [lit.  'of  the  whole  world,'  Gr.  sikaumenikos, 
from  oikoumenS (Le.,  gc),  'the  inhabited  (world)',  genera],  uni- 
versal], a  term  apphed  to  ecclesiasticai  councils  when  of  the 
whole  Church,  to  distinguish  them  from  provincial  or  diocesan 

Ec'zema  (Or.  '  anything  thrown  out  by  heat '),  is  one  of  the 
most  common  of  si;  in -diseases.  It  is  non-contagious,  and  is  cl:a- 
racterised  by  an  eruption  of  numerous  minute  vesicles,  frequently 
confluent,  extending  over  a  surface  of  irregular  form,  and  usually 
of  considerable  extent  In  the  fully-developed  disease  the  skin 
is  often  red,  smooth,  and  shining,  the  tissues  being  loaded  with 
infiltrations.  The  varieties  of  E.  are  classified  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  eruption  and  the  parts  of  the  body  affected,  the 
more  important  tieing-",S.  vgncaloruiu ;  E.  pusbdoaaa,  or 
imfiti^;  E.  papitiosum,  pmriga,  or  Ikhat;  E.  rimasum;  E. 
chrOTiiatm,  at  psoriisis.  E.  may  occur  symptomatically,  aa  a 
consequence  of  some  constitutional  disturbance,  or  as  an  effect 
of  local  irritation  of  the  skin.  See  £.,  by  Dr  T.  M'Call  Ander- 
son (Lond.  1874). 

E'dam  ('the  dam  or  dyke  on  Uie  Ey '),  a  town  in  N,  Holland, 
on  the  Ey,  12  miles  N,N,E.  of  Amsterdam.  It  has  a  small  har- 
bour, manufactures  of  rope,  salt,  and  leather,  some  shipbuilding, 
and  trade  in  cheese  and  wood.     Pop.  (1870)  5185. 

Edd'a  (Old  Norse,  'grandmother'),  the  name  of  two  collec- 
tions of  Norse  poems  and  legends,  I.  The  Poetic  or  Elder  E., 
containing  the  Voluspd,  3.  lay  on  the  origin  and  destruction  of 
the  world,  and  poems  on  the  exploits  of  ^jds  and  heroes,  which 
partly  reappear  in  the  German  Nibelungmlied  (q.  v,).  This  E. 
was  collected  by  Ssemund  Sigiiisson,  an  Icelandic  priest  (bom 
about  1050,  died  1 133).  Portions  of  it  were  translated  into  Ger- 
ii  by  the  brothers  Grimm,  and  a  complete  translation  was 
eKecutedbj'Simrock{3ded.  1864),  2.  Ths Fmse m  Younger E.,  3. 
synopsis  of  Scandinavian  mytholtgy,  ascribed  to  Snorri  Sturleson 
(bom  in  Iceland  1178,  died  1241),  who  probably  wrote  the 
Prologue  and  Epilogue,  the  other  parts.  The  Deluding  of  Gylji, 
and  Conva-satiBns  of  Bragi,  being  derived  from  the  Elder  E. 
The  Elder  E.  was  pubhshed  at  Copenhagen,  1828 ;  later  edi- 
ire  those  of  Miuich  {1847),  and  Mobius  (i860).  The  Prose 
s  published  by  Resenius  {1665),  and  by  Rask  (Stockholm, 
181S).  The  latest  edition  is  that  of  SweinbjBm  %ilsson  (184S- 
49).  The  Elder  E.  was  discovered  in  1643  by  the  Icdandic 
bishop  Btynjolf ;  the  Younger  E.  in  1623  by  Arngrim  Johnson. 
See  Mallet's  Northern  Antlquitie!,  Thorpe's  E.  of  Samimd 
(Lond.  1866),  and  Magnusson  and  Morris's  translation  of  soi^s 
from  the  Elder  E.  (Lond.  1870). 

Ed'doeB.     See  Cocco. 

Edd'ystone  Lighthouse,  stands  on  a  very  diingerous 
reef,  submei^ed  at  high  water,  about  fourteen  miles  from  Ply- 
mouth. The  character  of  this  reef,  and  its  proximity  to  an  im- 
portant port,  caused  measures  to  be  taken  very  early  for  the 
protection  of  shipping.  In  1696  a  gentleman  named  Winstanley 
obtained  authority  to  erect  a  lighthouse  there,  and  in  1700  his 
buildine,  a  wooden  one,  was  finished.  It  was  destroyed  durmg 
a  terrible  storm  in  1703,  the  workmen,  lighthouse-keepers,  and 
Winstanley  himself  all  being  drowned.  Six  years  later  another 
wooden  lighthouse  was  built  on  the  same  site  by  a  Mr  Rudyerd, 
and  this  remained  until  1755,  when  it  was  burnt  down.  Smeaton 
(q.  V. ),  the  celebrated  engineer,  was  then  called  in,  and  to  him  we 
■  ■■'e  the  present  graceful  column  which  has  defied  storm  and  wind 

■more  than  a  cenhiry.    The  work  began  on  the  2d  April  1757, 

d  was  finished  on  the  4th  August  1759.  The  sloping  top  of  the 
rock,  which  is  uncovered  at  low  water,  was  cut  into  steps  to  form 
486 


a  foundation  ;  from  these  for  35  feet  upwards  the  tower  cons 
of  solid  masonry  (excepting  a  passage  way  and  small  central 
staircase)— blocks  of  Portland  stone  (oolite)  and  granite  dove- 
tailed together  and  set  in  cement,  and  furflier  secured  with 
marble  j(^gles.  Above  this  the. building  contains  four  rooms, 
one  over  the  other,  the  whole  being  surmounted  by  a  gallery 
and  the  lantern.  The  tower  itself  is  68  feet  high,'and  its  d" 
meter  at  the  lowest  complete  course  is  26  feet,  this  being  reduc 
to  15  feet  at  the  top.  In  Smeaton's  time  the  only  light  exhibited 
came  &om  a  frame  supporting  twenty-four  candles.  The  fixed 
light  now  used  can  be  seen  at  a  distance  of  about  13  miles. 

ITdelittok,  GeraoNi,  an  eminent  Flemish  engraver,  was  bo 
at  Antwerp  in  1649.  He  went  to  Paris  in  1666,  where  he  w 
patronised  by  Colbert,  became  professor  at  the  Gobelins,  and 
died  2d  April  1707.  He  engraved  many  of  Le  Brun's  pictures, 
and  some  of  Raphael's  and  Leonardo  da  Vinci's.  His  style 
was  clear,  brilliant,  and  accurate,  and  his  works  rank  among  the 
foremost  of  their  kind, 

E'd.6il(Heb.  'delight'  or  'loveliness'),  according  to  the  Book 
of  Genesis,  was  the  site  of  a  garden  in  which  the  first  man  and 
woman  were  placed  by  their  Maker,  The  only  guide  we  have 
to  tlie  locality  indicated  is  that  the  garden  was  watered  by  a 
river  which  was  '  parted  into  four  heads ' — Piaon,  Gikhon,  Hid- 
dekel,  and  Fhrath.  Hiddekel  and  Fhrath  are  easily  identified  as 
the  Tigris  (Dan.  x,  4)  and  Euphrates  ;  but  the  conjectures  offered 
in  the  attempt  to  identify  the  other  two  have  been  almost  innu- 
merable. The  problem  is  to  find  a  locality  on  the  Euphrates  and 
Tigris,  with  two  other  rivers  thai  would  correspond  to  the  Pison 
and  Gikhon,  and  with  the  adjunct  at  the  same  time  of  regions 
answering  to  Khavilah  and  Cush,  which  were  '  compassed '  by 
these  rivers  respectively.  (l)  A  number  of  eminent  scholars 
(Calvin,  Bochart,  Huet,  &c)  have  fixed  the  locality  of  E.  in 
the  lower  part  of  Babylonia,  making  the  Pison  and  Gikhon  the 
two  channels  by  which  the  united  stream  of  the  Euphrates  and 
Tigris  enters  the  Persian  Gulf.  (2)  Others  [Reland,  Calmet, 
Rosenniiiller,  &c)  have  found  it  at  the  source  of  these  two 
rivets,  making  the  'river'  from  which  the  four  streams  diverged 
to  be  a  '  well-watered  region  ;'  the  Pison  and  Giklion  being  two 
small  streams  (Araxes,  Phasls,  &c.)  ri^g,  like  the  two  lai^e 
ones,  in  the  mountcuns  ot  Armenia,  (3)  One  of  the  oldest  and 
most  widely-received  theories,  and  one  which  has  been  supported 
by  eminent  scholars  in  modern  times  (Bertheau,  Ewald,  Kalisch, 
&c.),  is  that  by  the  Pison  was  meant  the  Ganges  (others,  the  In- 
dus), and  by  the  Gikhon,  the  Nile, 

The  subject  has  now  entered  on  a  new  phase  owing  to  the, 
recent  discovery,  in  the  terra-cotta  library  of  Assur-bani-pal  at 
Nineveh,  of  copies  of  Babylonian  legends  regarding  the  creation 
and  primitive  history  of  mankind.  From  these  Assyrian  inscrip- 
tions, then,  the  following  details  may  be  gathered.  The  name 
of  Babylonia  under  the  Cassile  dynasty  was  Gan-Duni,  which 
probably  gave  rise  to  the  Hebrew  Gan-Eden  (Garden  of  E.). 
Gikhon  is,  letter  for  letter,  the  same  as  Gukhan-de,  the  Akkadian 
name  (Akkad,  with  a  capital  of  the  same  name,  was  Upper  Baby- 
lonia, the  original  state)  of  the  Arakhtu  or  Ara^es,  '  the  river  of 
Babylonia,'  which  joined  the  Euphrates  at  Babylon,  after  flowing 
throt^h  a  deep  valley  which  runs  into  the  heart  of  Northern 
Arabia ;  so  that  it  would  literally  'compass  the  whole  land  of 
Cush,'  i.e.,  S.  Arabia.  Hiddekel  was  the  Akkadian  name  of 
the  Tigris,  and  Pison  the  Pasi-Tigris  ;  Kliaviiah  being  protiably 
Khuliya,  which  was  atuated  On  the  last-named  stream. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  mountainous  r^ion  of  Armenia  is  some- 
times called  in  the  inscriptions  'the  land  of  the  four  rivers,' 
because  in  it  four  streams  take  their  rise,  of  which  three  are  the 
Araxes,  Euphrates,  and  Tigris.  It  was  from  this  region  (the 
cradle  of  the  Turanian  race),  moreover,  that  the  Akkadians 
(Highlanders)  originally  came  ;  and  if  the  site  of  E.  had  been 
transferred  from  Armenia,  m  which  four  rivers  took  their  rise  as 
if  from  one  source,  to  Chaldtea,  the  four  rivers  of  which  run  into 
one  stream,  this  combination  of  two  geographies  would  explain 
the  ambiguity  in  Gen.  il  ic^l4,  in  which  the  four  are  described 
as  branching  olf  from  a  single  parent  stream,  and  at  the  same 
time  as  flowing  from  four  distinct  'heads,'  which  commentattrs 
have  laboured  to  show  do  not  mean  sources,  but  streams.  See 
Smith'sC-Sfl/rfeoB  Accotmt  ^f  Genesis  (iS;6), 


■%- 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE.  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EDI 


-A 


boimtlary  of  Yorkshire,  It  traverses  WeBtmoreland  and  Cum- 
berland in  a  N.N.W.  direction,  and  falls  into  the  Solway  Firth 
"ler  a  course  of  65  miles.—E.,  a  river  in  Scotland,  rises  in  the 
St  of  Kinross-shire,  traverses  Fifeshire,  and  falls  into  St  Andrews 
Kay,  after  a  course  of  30  miles.  There  are  also  lesser  streams  of 
the  same  name  in  Kent  and  Roxburgh. 

Edenta*ta  (Lat.  e,  'without,'  and  dens,  'a.  tooth'),  an 
order  of  Placental  or  higher  mammalia  represented  by  the 
anteaters,  sloths,  armadillos,  pangolins,  and  by  the  aatd-vark  or 
Earth-Wolf  (q.  v.)  of  S.  Africa.  Tliey  are  so  named  from  the 
rudimentary  structure  of  their  teefh,  only  one  set  of  which  is 
developed.  They  are  tlierefore  Monophyodont  mammalia.  More- 
crer,  flie  teeth  have  no  enamel  covering  or  tjue  roots.  In- 
dsocs  are  wanting  save  in  one  of  the  armadillos,  and  canines 
are  generally  absent.  Clavicles  are  usnally  developed.  Tlie 
skin  may  develop  bony  plates  (armadillos)  or  horny  scales  (pan- 
golins). The  testes  are  abdomind,  and  the  mammary  glands 
pectoral  or  abdominal.  The  toes  have  powerful  nails.  The  E. 
chiefly  occur  in  S.  America,  where  remains  of  extinct  E.,  often 
oflatge  size  {Glyptodon,  Megatherium,  &cj,  are  also  found. 


Diarbekr.     It  is  still  a  place  of  impor 

ial  highway  between  Aleppo  and  Kurdistan,  and 
o-leather  manufactures.     Pop.  30,000,  of  whom 

in  Christians.     Its  origin  is  unknown.    It  was 

enlaiged  by  Seleucus,  and  in  his  time  was  named  E.  from  a 
Macedonian  town  of  the  same  name.  After  the  spread  of 
Christianity  E.  was  celebrated  for  its  schools  of  theology,  the 
chief  of  which,  the  Schola  Perska,  vigorously  engaged  in  the 
Neatorian  controversy  against  St  Cyril  in  the  5th  c.  E.  was 
taken  by  Baldwin  in  the  first  crusade  (1097),  and  made  tlie 
capital  of  a  county  of  the  same  name,  which  was  the  bulwark 
of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  for  fifty  years. 

Bct'fou  (Coptic  Atbo, 
Upper  Egypt,  on  the  left 

the  Lesser  Cataract.  The  ruins  of  its  two  templt 
tlie  most  interesting  in  Egypt.  The  sculptures  of  the  chief 
temple  represent  the  progress  of  the  Sun  through  the  circle  of  the 
Hours.  The  entrance  is  a  gateway  50  feet  high,  flanked  by  two 
pvramids  114  feet  high.  The  temple,  founded  by  Ptolemy 
Philometer,  181  B.C.,  is  14S  feet  wide  and  424  feet  long,  was 
girt   by   a  wail   20   feet  high,   and   could   serve    as   a  fortress. 


cottons  and  pottery.  Pop.  20O0.  See  Wilkinson's  Modem 
Egypt,  Russeger's  Rcise  in  ^gypieit,  and  Btugscli's  Seisebefichte. 

Ed'gar.     See  Eadgab. 

Edee'cumbe  Bay,  or  Port  Denison,  is  situated  on  the 
coast  of  Queensland,  its  entrance  being  in  30°  S.  Ia.t„  148°  lo'  E. 
long.  The  town  of  Bowen  is  bulk  on  its  western  shoie,  about 
halfway  from  the  entrance. 

Edgecumbe,  Mount,  a  conical  mountain  at  the  moiilh  of 
Norfolk  Sound,  on  the  island  of  Sitka,  on  which  the  Rus- 
iians  established  the  colony  of  New  Archangel,  now  belong- 
ing to  the  United  States.  It  has  quite  recently  been  an  active 
volcano,  and  traces  of  its  action  are  manifest. 

Bdg«Iiiir,  Battle  of,  was  fought  at  Edgehill  in  Warwick- 
shire, on  Sunday,  23d  October  1642,  between  the  Royalists,  led 
by  Charles  I.  in  person,  and  the  Roundheads  under  Robert  Earl 
of  Essex,  son  of  Elizabeth's  favourite.  It  was  the  first  unportant 
action  of  the  civil  war.  Prince  Rupert,  who  commanded  the 
royal  cavalry,  broke  the  left  wing  of  the  Parliamentarians,  and 
pursued  it  to  Keinton,  where  his  troopers  took  to  plunder,  while 
Essex  with  his  light  wing  compelled  the  Royalists  to  retreat. 
Of  4000  that  fell  in  the  battle,  the  larger  proportion  belonged  to 
the  army  of  Charles. 

Edge'worth,  Bichaid  Lovell,  an  English  mechanician, 
was  bom  at  Bath  in  1744,  educated  at  Oxford,  and  settled  in 
Ireland  in  1782.  He  was  returned  to  the  Irish  Parliament,  in 
which  he  spoke  against  the  Union.  E.  made  experiments  re- 
lating to  carriages,  railways,  Slc,  and  in  1S04  was  employed 


by  the  British  Government  to  establish  telcgiaphic  communication 
between  Dublin  and  Galway.  He  died  June  13,  1817.  Among 
his  works  are  Practical  Rdtuation  (1798),  written  in  concert  with 
his  daughter  Maria ;  Professional  Education  (1S08) ;  Essay  on  the 
Construction  of  Roads  and  Cca-riages  (1813) ;  and  various  treatises 
on  subjects  connected  with  mechanics.  See  Memoirs  of  R.  L. 
E.,  begun  by  Hiinsdf  and  concluded  by  his  DnushSer  (Lond. 
1820). — maxia  II,  daughter  of  the  preceding,  was  bom  at 
Hare  Hatch,  Berkshire,  January  I,  1767.  In  1782  she  accom- 
panied her  ftither,  Richard  Lovell  E.,  to  Ireland,  and  remained 
ith  him  tmtil  his  death  in  1817.  He  was  a  part  author  of  her 
st  work.  Essays  on  Practical  Educalion  (1798),  and  of  her 
ssay  OK  Irish  Bidls  (1801).  Her  knowledge  of  the  habits  and 
lalities  of  the  Irish  peasantry  was  embodied  in  numerous  enter- 
...ining  fictions.  She  was  the  friend  of  Scott,  Moore,  Herschel, 
&c.  She  died  at  Edgewottlistown,  Longford,  Ireland,  May  21, 
1849.  Her  writings  comprise  Castli  Rackrent  (1801] ;  Belinda 
(1803)}  Lessons  for  Literary  Ladies,  Early  Lessons,  Popular 
Tales  (1804);  Leonora  (1806);  Memoirs  of  R.  L.  E.,  Tales  of. 
Fashionable  Life  (1809). ,  A  collection  of  these  appeared  in 
London  m  1825,  in  14  vols,  (new  ed.  10  vols.  1857), 

Edging  Iron  an  unplenient  of  crescent  form,  with  a  spade 
handle,  used  for  cutting  the  sides  of  drains. 

Edg'inga,  in  horticulture,  rows  of  low-growing  plants  to 
mark  off  a  flower-bed  from  gravel  walks  or  from  a  lawn.  Stone, 
wood,  wicker  or  wire  work,  or  turf  are  sometimes  used  for  E., 
but  the  dw^-box  is  most  commonly  employed.     See  Horti- 


Ed'ilile  Fungi.    See  Fungi. 

Edible  Birds-Nests.     See  Nests,  Edible. 

B'diot.  All  the  higher  magistrates  of  Rome  issued  edicts. 
The  consuls  convoked  the  comitia,  army,  and  senate  by  E.  ;  the 
irs  proclaimed  the  census  by  E. ;  the  iediles  published  market 
by  E.  ;  the  magistrates  with  jurisdiction  laid  down  every 
year  their  rules  of  justice  by  E. — the  Pnetor  Urbanus,  the  Prie- 
tor  Peregrinus,  and  the  .aidilis  Curulis  in  the  edicta  urbana;  the 
provincial  governors  in  the  edicla  provineialia.  The  E.  was 
orally  prockimed,  and  also  written  on  a  white  tablet  suspended 
In  the  forum,  so  that  persons  standmg  on  the  ground  might  read 
it.  The  general  E.  put  out  by  the  magistrate  on  entering  office 
was  called  perpeluum,  as  lasting  throu^  his  terra  of  oiKce ;  an 
occasional  E.  was  called  repattinum ;  a  part  taken  from  the  E, 
of  a  predecessor  in  office  was  called  tralalilium.  One  E.  did 
not  differ  mudi  from  another,  and  after  tht^  consolidation  of 
prsetorian  law  Uus  honorarium)  by  the  lawyer  Julian  in  the  reign 
of  Hadrian,  this  part  was  stereotyped.  E.  was  also  applied  to 
the  legislative  ordinances  of  the  emperor,  as  supreme  magistrate ; 
these  were  distinguished  from  decrela,  or  judicial  decisions  on 
appeal  or  in  certain  cUsses  of  actions  involving  a  delicate  dis- 

the  kiw  by  the  emperor  in  answer  to  a  queij.     All  these  im- 
perial constitutions  had  under  the  Lex  Regia  the  force  of  laws. 

E.  in  Scotland  meant  merely  a  formal  public  notice,  at  a  church 
door  or  market-cross,  that  parties  might  come  into  a  suit 

In  France  the  ordinances  of  the  Merwing  kings,  chiefly  to 
notify  prohibitions  or  to  organise  some  new  state  department, 
were  called  edicts.  The  name  was  replaced  by  cafitularia  under 
Karl  the  Great,  but  was  revived  by  the  Capetian  kings.  They 
were  signed  by  the  king,  visfyd  by  the  clmncellor,  and  sealed 
with  green  wax  to  show  their  permanent  character.  Some  edicts 
were  named  after  the  place  of  execution — E.  di  Crhnieu,  d'Am- 
baise,  &c.  ;  others  from  their  subioct-matter — E.  des  duels,  des 
secottdes  nSces,  &c.  The  word  has  now  been  supeiseded  by 
loi. 

Edict  of  Nantes,  granted  30th  April  1598  by  Henri 
of  France,  was  for  long  the  only  charter  of  Protestant  libertie 
that  country.  The  Huguenots  were  declared  eligible  to 
public  posts.  In  certain  districts,  and  iii  the  houses  of  noblemen 
with  full  rights  of  ju^iction,  the  exercise  of  the  religion 
declared  free.  Elsewhere,  only  thirty  persons  might  be  assembled 
at  a  nobleman's  hoDse  for  worship.  Their  petitions  and  suits 
were  judged  of  by  a  spedally-conslituted  '  Chambre  de  I'Edit ; ' 
and  in  sevet^  of  the  municipal  constitutions  and  local  parhamenls 
of  the  S.,  provision  was  made  for  chambers  half  Catholic, 
half  Hugtienot.  The  speech  of  Henri  in  the  'Parlement'  is 
4S7 


vLiOOQle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EDI 


given  by  Voltaire  (toL  xxx.  p.  233).  '11  faut  que  tous  soient  bons 
Fiani^is,'  he  says.  The  Edict  was  carried  t^ainst  vehement  oppo- 
Eition  by  a  speech  of  De  Thou,  in  which  he  spoke  of  Pope  John 

E>ing  to  Constantinople  to  prevent  Justm  petseouting  the  Arians. 
ike  the  previoos  Edicts  of  Pacification  of  Chancellor  L'HSpital, 
and  the  subsequent  Edict  of  Grace  (Ntmes,  1629),  the  E.  of  N. 
was  a  mere  compromise.  It  was  systematically  evaded,  and 
finally  revoked  by  Lonis  XIV. ,  guided  by  Louvois  and  Le  Telliec, 
in  1685,  when  the  persecutions  of  Languedoc  began.  Complete 
toleration  was  not  established  till  1787. 

Bdict'al  Oita'tion,  m  Scotch  l^ai  procedure,  is  the  form  by 
which  a  party  out  of  Scotland,  but  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a 
Scotch  court,  is  cited  to  appear  before  it.  In  former  times  this 
was  done  \>y  proclamation  at  the  market-cross  of  Edinburgh 
and  at  the  pier  and  shore  of  Leith  ;  it  is  now  done  by  delivery  of 
copies  of  the  citation  at  the  record  ofBce  of  the  keeper  of  the 


records  of  the  Court  of  Session.     These  r 


ords  a 


safety 


public  inspection.  In  criminal  prosecutions,  if  the  accused 
cannot  be  found,  he  must  be  edictally  cited  at  the  market-orose 
of  the  county  town  of  the  county  in  which  he  lives,  and  a  copy 
of  the  citation  must  be  left  there,  and  at  his  dwelling-house. 

Eil'inbargli,  the  capital  of  Scotland,  and  connty  town  of 
Midlothian,  is  situated  on  the  S-  shore  of  the  Firth  of  Forth, 
and  about  ij  miles  from  it.  The  city,  which  covers  an  area  of 
over  2  sq.  miles,  is  built  on  ridges  of  varying  height,  and  is 
environed  by  hills.  On  the  S.E.  rises  Arthur^  Seat  (820  feet 
in  height) ;  to  the  S.W.  he  the  Braid  Hills  and  the  Pentlands  j 
and  to  the  N.W.,  Corstorphme  HilL  Pop,  (1871)  196,979.  E. 
is  famous  for  the  beauty  of  its  situiitian,  the  picturesque  time- 
worn  appearance  Of  its  old  streets,  and  the  grace  and  atateliness 
of  its  modern  buildings.  The  oldest  part  of  the  city,  ru^ed  and 
sombre,  with  Gothic  spires  and  pinnacles  crowning  the  long  slope 
from  the  Castle  Rock  to  Holyrood,  contrasts  strangely  with  the 
chaste  Greek  struclures  and  the  bright  el^ant  aspect  of  the  New 
Town.  One  of  the  most  deUghtful  featBtes  of  E.  is  the  exquisite 
glimpses  of  the  sea,  of  hilly  and  sylvan  scenery  unexpectedly 
disclosed  in  the  heart  of  its  busiest  thoroughfares. 

The  city  receives  its  name  E.  (Eadwinesburh)  from  the  North- 
umbrian king  Eadwine,  who  built  the  castle  m  the  7th  c.  It 
became  a  possession  of  the  Scottish  kings  in  the  reign  of  Indulf 
(945-^^0.  ^"d  was  then  called  in  Gadic  Dun-Eiiinj  but  the 
earlier  name  has  prevailed.     E.  did  not  become  the  Scott^ 

pital  till  a  later  date,  being  too  near  the  English  border  for 

tety  ;  but  about  the  middle  of  the  15th  c  it  was  reci^iised  as 
tne  metropolis.  David  I.  made  it  a  buigh  in  l  iz8,  and  it  was 
walled  and  fortified  by  James  II. 

The  feet  that  E.  was  originally  a  walled  dly  gives  to  what  is 
called  the  OM  Team  its  peculiar  characteristics  of  lofty  houses, 
narrow  streets,  and  'or^niis  or  c!os/s.  The  city  was  originally 
limited  to  the  ridge  which  extends  from  the  Castle  10  Holyrood 
House.  In  1769  the  North  Bridge  (renovated  and  widened  in 
1875)  was^erected,  spanning  the  valley  which  contained  the 
North  Loch.  The  constmclion  of  the  /ftw  Tgmn,  beginning 
with  St  Andrew  Square,  quickly  followed ;  sti-etching  in  paralld 
terraces  between  the  Old  Town  and  the  Firth.  Other  improve- 
ments were  the  opening  of  the  South  Bridge  in  178^  ofWalerloo 
Place  and  the  Regent's  Bridge  in  1819,  andof  GeoreelV.'sBridge 
in  1836,  The  latest  improvement  of  magnitude  is  the  spacious 
and  handsome  thoroughfare  (Chambers  Street)  connecting 
George  IV. 's  Bridge  and  South  Bridge.  The  city  is  at  present 
extending  rapidly  westward,  and  its  suburbs  also  are  increasing 
to  the  S.  The  buildings  in  the  New  Town  are  Constructed  almost 
entirely  of  a  fine  sandstone  brought  from  the  neighbouring 
quarries  of  Craigleith.  Among  the  finest  streets  are  George 
Street,  the  centre  of  the  New  Town,  and  Princes  Street,  which 
runs  parallel  to  it  on  the  S.,  From  the  latter,  which  is  the  chief 
thoroughfare,  is  obtained  a  view  unsurpassed  in  any  European 
capital,  of  the  Castle  Rock,  a  steep  mass  of  gloomy  basalt, 
sprinkled  with  verdure,  crested  with  old  grey  battlements,  and 
towering  above  the  green  sliaded  slopes  of  the  gardens  that 
occupy  the  former  tied  of  the  Nor'  Loch.  In  the  W.  are  many 
handsome  streets  and  squares,  one  of  which,  Moray  Pkce,  is 
a  magnificent  specimen  of  the  Doric  style  applied  to  domestic 
architecture. 

The  Castle,  crowning  the  Castle  Rock  (380  feet  in  height),  is 
the  most  prominent  object  of  the  Old  Town.  The  Scottish 
r^alia,  consistmg  of  oroivn,  sceptre,  sword  of  state,  and  silver 


lod,  have  been  shown  there  since  181S.  Queen  Mary's  Room 
and  Queen  Margaret's  Chapel  are  also  objects  of  interest. 
Midway  between  the  Castle  and  Holyrood  stands  St  Giles' 
Cathedral,  a  cruciform  structure,  with  an  ancient  coronal  spire. 
Beside  St  Giles'  are  situated  the  law-courts  and  the  old  hall  of  the 
Scottish  Parliament,  122  feet  long,  with  a  magnificent  oak  roof, 
painted  window,  and  numerous  portraits  and  statues.  Holyrood 
Palace  occupies  the  site  of  an  ancient  abbey,  founded  by  David 
I.  in  liaS,  and  contains  a  picture  gallery  and  the  apartments 
of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  Among  other  fine  buildings  are  the 
University,  the  Industrial  Museum,  Surgeons'  Hall,  Heriot's 
Hospitid,  the  new  Infirmary,  the  Royal  institution.  National 
Gallery,  High  School,  General  Post-OBice,  Register  House, 
Assembly  Hnll,  St  George's  Church,  Bank  of  Scotland,  Fettes 
College,  &c.    The  prison  is  an  imposing  castellated  pile. 

E.  possesses  numerous  monuments,  the  most  atti-aclive  of  which 
is  the  Scott  Monument  in  Princes  Street,  a  splendid  but  some- 
what showy  Gothic  spire,  erected  1840-45.  In  the  same  street  are 
statues  of  John  Wilson,  Allan  Ramsay,  David  Livingstone,  the 
Duke  of  Wellington ;  in  George  Street,  of  George  IV.  and  Wil- 
liam Pitt ;  in  St  Andrew  Square,  a  column  in  memory  of  Lord 
Melville  i  and  in  Charlotte  Square,  the  Prince  Consort  Memorial 


of  the  unfinished  National  Monument,  the  Nelson  Monnment, 
and  those  of  Professors  Playfau'  and  Dugald  Stewart.  In  the 
graveyards  of  E.  are  the  tombs  of  many  distinguished  men.  In 
Greyfriars  rest  Geoige  Buchanan,  Robertson,  Blair,  Henry  Mac- 
kenzie, Allan  Ramsay ;  in  the  Calton,  David  Hume ;  in  the 
Canongate,  Adam  Smith,  Dugald  Stewart,  Adam  Ferguson;  in 
the  Dean  Cemetery,  Lord  Jeffrey,  Lord  Cockbum,  and  Professor 
Wilson;  in  tlie  Grange  Cemetery,  Hugh  Miller  and  Dr  Chalmers. 
E.  contains  numerous  charitable  mstitutions,  as  Heriot's 
Hospital,  Donaldson's  Hospital,  Chalmers"  Hospital,  Fettes 
College,  &C,  The  funds  of  George  Watson's  Hospital,  Daniel 
Stewart's  Hospital,  Gillespie's  Hospital,  and  Merchant  Maiden 


Act.  The  city  is  largely  resorted  to  for  the  sake  of  education. 
Besides  the  University,  High  School,  Academy,  Fettes  College, 
Edinburgh  Institution,  andMerchant  Company's  Schools,  there 
aire  numerous  private  adventure  schools  of  a  superior  kind. 

E.  has  no  manufactures  of  importance.  The  printing,  pub- 
lishing, and  book  trade  may  be  called  its  staple  industry;  but 
brewing,  iron-founding,  and  coach-building  are  largely  carried 
on.  There  are  also  a  considerable  number  of  tanneries,  and  an 
increasing  trade  in  jewellery.  The  city  is  the  centre  of  the  rail- 
way  and  banlting  sytems  of  Scotland,  and  its  beauties  and  asso- 


mbers 


conslan 


n  of  V 


It  r. 


The  society  of  E.  is  composed  more  laigely  of  the  learned 
professions  than  that  of  almost  any  other  city.  The  deigy, 
lawyers,  physicians,  teachers,  artists,  and  autliors  form  a  very 
considerable  section  of  its  population  ;  and  though  not  the  com- 
mercial, it  is  undoubtedly  the  ecclesiastical,  l^al,  and  literary 
centre  of  Scotland.  See  Amot's  Hhtm-y  of  S.  (l  vol.  1779) ; 
Chambers'  Ti-aditiom  of  E.  (1824) ;  and  Wilson's  Memorials  a/ 
E.  in  thi  Olden  Time  (Edinb.  Thos.  C.  Jack,  1874). 

Sdinborgb,  University  of,  was  founded  by  royal  charter 
of  James  VI.  in  1582,  and  obtained  tlie  rights  and  privileges  of 
the  other  universities  in  the  kingdom  by  an  Act  of  the  Scottish 
ParUament  passed  in  1620.  At  first  there  was  only  one  teacher, 
named  a  regent,  who  instructed  the  students  in  Greek,  logic, 
metaphysics,  moral  philosophy,  and  natural  philosophy ;  but  the 
number  of  chairs  gradually  increased,  a  Professor  of  Divinity 
beii^  appointed  in  1620,  and  a  Professor  of  Medicine  in  1685, 
until  now  there  are  above  thirty  different  Professors.  By  the 
Universities  Act  of  1858,  theprivilegesof  the  University  were  m- 
cteased,  its  government  was  transferred  from  the  Town  Coimcil 
to  the  Senatus  Academicus,  and  arrangements  were  made  for  an 
improved  course  of  study.  The  University  is  a  corporation,  in- 
cluding a  Chancellor,  elected  for  life  by  the  General  Council, 
who  is  head  of  the  University  ;  a  Rector,  elected  for  three  years 
by  the  votes  of  the  students;  the  Principal,  appointed  for  life  by 
the  curators ;  the  Professors,  registered  graduates,  alumni,  and 
matriculated  students.  Gladstone,  Carlyle,  Lord  Moncrieff,  Sil 
William  Sthling-Maxwell,  have,  in  succession,  held  the  rector- 


yUoogle 


EDI 


TBE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. _ 


ship,  to  -which  Lord.  Derby  was  appointed  in  1874.  The  super- 
intendence and  control  of  the  teaching  and  discipline,  the  reve- 
nues and  property  of  the  Universitj',  are  intrasted  to  the  Senatus 
Academicus,  formed  by  the  Principal,  who  is  President,  and  ail 
the  Professors.  The  University  consists  of  four  Facultiefl  ;— -(r) 
The  Faculty  of  Arts,  the  earliest  founded,  in  1 582,  embracmg  the 
chairs  of  humanity,  Greek,  mathematics,  logic  and  metaphysics, 
moral  philosophy,  natural  philosophy,  rhetoric  and  English  lite- 
rature— attendance  on  which  is  indispensable  for  the  degree  of 
M.A.,  and  the  chairs  of  history,  astronomy,  agriculture,  music, 
Sanskrit,  civil  engineering,  geoloey,  and  political  economy.  (2) 
The  Faculty  of  Medicine,  founded  in  the  earlypartof  the  l8th  c, 
althoogh  several  medicsd  chaira  were  instituted  in  the  17th  c, 
comprising  the  chairs  of  botany,  insUtates  of  medicine,  practice 
of  physic,  anatomy,  chemistry,  midwifery,  natural  history,  mate- 
ria medica,  cUnical  suigery,  medical  jurisprudence,  sut^eiy,  aod 
general  pathology.  (3)  The.  Faculty  of  Law,  foimded  in  1707, 
comprehaiding  the  chairs  of  pablic  iaw,  civil  law,  constitutional 
lawandhistory,iawof  Scotland,  medical  jurisprudence,  and  con- 
veyancing, attendance  on  which  is  required  for  thedegree  of  LL.B. 
(4)  The  Faculty  of  Theolc^,  founded  in  1720,  centring  the 
chairs  of  divinity,  Hebrew,  ecclesiastical  history.  Biblical  criti- 
cism. TheE.  U.  grants  thedegreesof  Masterof  Arts — Bachelor 
of  Arts  being  now  abolished— Bachelor  of  Medicine,  Master  in 
Surgery,  Doctor  of  Medicine,  Bachelor  of  Divinity,  Doctor  of 
Divinity,  Baclielor  of  Laws,  Doctor  of  Laws,  Badielor  of 
Science,  and  Doctor  of  Science.  In  the  session  1875-76  there 
were  765  students  in  the  Faculty  of  Arts,  765  in  the  Faculty  of 
Medicine,  328  in  the  Facidty  of  Law,  and  58  in  the  Faculty  of 
Theoltgy,  the  total  nnmbei;  being  2084.  During  the  fifty  years 
before  1826  there  were  only  168  graduates  in  Arts ;  up  to  1850  the 
average  number  of  such  graduates  was  only  ten  yearly.  Now 
the  annual  number  of  graduates  has  very  largely  increased,  74 
having  passed  all  the  ordinary  examinations  for  the  degree  of 
Master  of  Arts  in  1875-76.  The  University  Library,  which 
originated  in  a  bequest  of  about  300volumes  trj  Clement  Little, 
an  Edinbuigh  citiien,  in  1580,  now  contains  about  138,000 
printed  volumes,  and  about  700  volumes  of  MSS.  The  museums 
in  connection  with  the  University  aie  the  Natural  History 
Museum,  the  Anatomical  Museum,  the  Botanical  Museum — at 
the  Botanic  Gardens,  Inverleith  Row — and  the  small  museums 
attached  to  several  of  the  scientific  classes.  The  students'  de- 
bating societies  comprise  the  Dialectic,  Diagnostic,  Scots  Law, 
Philosophical,  and  Fhilomathio  Societies.  There  are  above 
100  bursaries  and  scholarships,  belonging  principally  to  the 
Faculty  of  Arts,  ranging  in  annual  value  from^^S  to  £l(iO,  opftn 
to  competition  among  the  students.  To  provide  for  the  increase 
of  attendance  at  the  University,  steps  are  being  taken  to  erect 
near  the  New  Infirmary  complete  class-rooms,  &c,  for  the  use  of 
the  Medical  Faculty,  to  improve  the  existing  accommodation, 
and  to  build  a  University  Hall  for  public  ceremonials.  Among 
the  distinguished  men  who  have  been  Professora  in  E,  U.  are 
Dugald  Stewart,  Adam  Ferguson,  Thomas  Brown,  Sir  William 
Hamilton,  David  Hume,  John  Eiskine,  William  Cullen,  Joseph 
Black,  James  Syme,  and  William  Aytoui  Th  E  U 
been  famous  for  its  medical  school,  wh   h  h  g      ta 

sludenlsirom  other  countries  by  the  fam  ts  P  rs 

the  exeeltence  of  its  teaching.     It  is  at  p  m      pass  d 

any  medical  school  in  Britain  or  the  Cp    m 

Edinburgh  Beview,  a  celebrate  ca    an     p       ca 


lished  on  the  lolh  of  October  1802.  The  idea  of  the  Review 
originated  with  Sydney  Smith  ;  but  Francis  (afterwards  Lord) 
Jeffrey  became  editor!  and  with  them  were  associated  Horner, 
Brougham,  John  (afterwards  Lord)  Murray,  and  Dr  Thomas 
Brown.  Among  the  names  of  later  contributors  are  those  of 
James  Mill,  HoUam,  Sir  William  Hamilton,  Hailitt,  Macaulajr, 
and  Carlyle.  The  projectors  of  the  Review  found  a  pubHsher  m 
Constable— '  to  whom,  says  Lord  Cockburnm  his  Meiaarials, 
'  the  litemture  of  Scotland  has  been  more  indebted  than  to  any 
other  bookseller.'  The  largest  chculation  attained  by  the  E.  R. 
was  13,000  copies  in  1813;  and  Jeffrey,  as  editor,  received  at 
.first  ^50,  and  afterwards  ,^200,  for  each  number.  The  literary 
criticisms  of  the  Review  were  often  prejudiced,  hut  always  able. 
Its  fame,  however,  stands  highest  as  a  political  oi^an.  The 
Whig  party  certamly  owed  in  great  measure  its  subsequent  bpl- 


'137 


EdinburgliBliire,  or  SUdlothiaa,  a  county  in  the  E.  of 
Scotland,  bounded  N.  by  the  Firth  of  Forth,  N.E,  and  E.  by 
Haddingtonshire,  S.  by  Peebleshire  and  Lanarkshire,  and  W, 
and  N.W.  by  Linlithgowshire.  It  stretches  from  K  to  W.  36 
miles,  and  from  N.  to  S.  18  miles,  and  covers  an  area  of  367  sq. 
miles,  or  1,254,926  acres.  The  surface  is  undulating  and  hilly, 
the  diief  ranees  bemg  the  Moorfoots  (highest  point  2136  feet) 
in  the  S.K,  me  Pentlands  (highest  point  1839  feet)  m  the  centre. 
There  are  also  several  isolated  hills  m  Ihe  W.,  and  Coistorphine 
Hill  and  Arthur's  Seat  near  Edinburgh.  The  principal  rivers  are 
the  Gala,  which  flows  into  the  Tweed,  the  N.  and  S.  Esk,  which 
unite  and  enter  the  Firth  of  Forth  at  Musselburgh,  the  Water  of 
Leith,  which  falls  into  the  sea  at  Leith,  and  the  Almond,  which 
separates  E.  and  Linlithgowshire,  E,  consists  mostly  of  coal- 
measutes,  with  trap  in  the  Pentlands  and  Lower  Silurian  in  the 
S.E.  A  great  coal-bed,  15  miles  long  by  8  broad,  tuns  between 
Carlops  and  Musselburgh.  Tliere  is  much  moorland  in  tlie 
south,  but  E,  is  in  general  fertile,  well  wooded  and  watered, 
and  mider  pecBliarly  skilful  and  carefiil  cultivation.  The  chief 
manufacture  is  paper ;  limestone  and  sandstone  are  largely 
quarried ;  coal  and  ironstone  are  extensively  worked,  and  there 
are  valuable  herring- fisheries  on  the  Firth  of  Forth.  E.  is  tra- 
versed by  the  North  British  and  Caledonian  railways,  and  con- 
nected with  Glasgow  by  the  Union  Canal.  The  chief  towns  are 
Edinburgh,  the  capital ;  Leith,  the  only  large  port  m  the  county ; 
Dalkeith,  Roslin,  and  Pennycuik,  inland;  and  Musselbuigh, 
Portobello,  Granton,  and  Newhaven  on  the  Firth  of  Forth,  Pop. 
(1871)  328,379.  E.  returns  one  member  to  Parliament.  E. 
formed  part  of,  the  old  English  kmgdom  of  Northumbria,  and  of 
the  old  earldom  of  Lothian. 

Ed'monBtone,  formerly  an  island  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Hooghly,  Bay  of  BengaL  Formed  by  alluvium,  it  was  made  a 
marine  station  in  1820,  but  has  since  been  swept  away  by  the  sea. 

Ed'monton,  a  village  in  Middlesex,  7 J  Kiiles  N.N.E.  of 
London,  with  a  trade  in  timber,  carried  on  1^  means  of  tlie  river 
Lea.  E.  is  the  burial-place  of  Charles  Lamb,  and  the  '  Bell  at 
E.'  acquired  celebrity  from  its  having  been  mentioned  by  Cowper 
vajohn  GUpin.     Pop,  of  parish  (1871)  13,860. 

Edmund  Ironaide.    See  Eadmund. 

Edmnnd'a,  St,  Hcill,  Oxford,  named  after  St  Edmund, 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  the  lime  of  Henry  III.  In  1557  it 
came  into  the  possession  of  Queen's  College,  and  this  society 
procured  an  Act  of  Congi'^tion  vesting  in  itself  the  perpetual 
right  of  nominating  the  principal,  who  appoints  to  exhibitions, 
of  which  there  are  now  ten,  of  the  yearly  value  of  ^£30  each,  re- 
stricted to  students  designed  for  the  Church.  In  1763,  Geoige 
Hohne,  D.D.,  some  trnie  Fellow  of  Queen's,  bequeathed  ;Slooo 
to  the  University  in  trust,  to  app^  it,  with  accumulated  interest, 
to  the  purchase  of  the  advowson  of^a  living,  to  which  the  principal 

S   E  should  be  presented.    The  advowson  of  Gatcombe 

IS  p  rch  d  in  l82l,towhich  the  University  first  presented  in 
S44.  875  there  were  thirty-three  undergraduates,  forty 

m  mbe  onvocation,  and  136  members  on  the  books, 

Edom   Heb.  'i-ed')  was  the  territory  of  the  descendants  of 

Esa         D  wn   to  the   time  of  the  Captivity,   E,  is  synony- 

h  Mount  Seir,  i.e.,  the  narrow  mountainous  tract  ex- 

1  the  Dead  Sea  to  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Akaba, 


the  power  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  declined,  the  Edomites 
extended  their  power  to  the  N.W.,  and  at  last  encroached  on 
the  territory  of  Judah  as  far  as  Hebron ;  while  their  original 
territory  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Nabathsean  Arabs.  In 
the  later  Jewish  and  Roman  history,  E.,  now  called  Idumfea, 


side  of  Mount  Seir,  Roman  writers  after  the  Augustan  age  use 
'  Idumsea '  and  '  Judsa '  as  synonymous,  and  soon  after  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  the  name  disappears  from  history,  and  is 
merged  in  that  of  Arabia. 

^dtioplltlial'mata  (Gr.  'sessile-eyed'),  the  name  given  to  a 
group  of  Cruslacett  (q.  v.),  in  which  the  eyes  ave  not  supported 
48g 


vLiOOQle 


BDB 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


EDU 


on  stalks  {Padojihihalmata).  To  the  E.  belong  the  three  orders 
LxmBdipoda  (whale-lice),  Isopoda  (wood-lice),  and  AmpMpoda 
(safldhoppers).  In  &  a  Carapace  (q- v. )  is  rarely  developed,  and 
the  head  is  usually  separate  and  distinct  from  the  body.  The 
ndult  E.  possess  seven  pairs  of  feet.  Another  character  of  E.  is 
fonnd  in  the  fact  that  the  mandibles  or  principal  pair  of  jaws 
often  possess  palfi,  or  feelers.  The  eyes  may  be  either  simple 
or  compound,  and  are  situated  in  the  sides  of  the  head. 

Elri'ei,  13,  Aba-Abd'allcih-Uioliammed,  a  femous  Ara- 
bian geographer,  was  bom  at  Septa  (mod.  Ceuta)  in  1099, 
studied  at  Cordova,  lived  at  the  court  of  Roger  II.,  King  of 
Sicily,  and  died  between  the  years  1175  and  1186,  He  had 
deepened  a  strong  predilection  for  geography  by  wide  travels, 
and  had  thus  amply  fitted  himself  for  the  task  to  which  he 
was  subsequently  appointed  by  the  Sidlian  monarch.  This 
was  to  prepare  a  globe  that  would  embody  recent  observation 
and  discovery.  To  collect  material  from  various  travellers  and 
from  remote  corners  of  the  world  was  the  labour  of  fifteen  years. 
But  at  last  the  globe,  of  pure  silver,  was  completed,  and  his  de- 
sctiplion  of  it  forms  the  still  more  valuable  and  enduring  worit 
Njishal-ul-Muihtdi!  (iiS3),  which  was  first  and  badly  translated 
intol^lin  by  Sionita  and  Hesronita  (Par.  1619).  Many  editions 
have  appeared  of  isolated  parts,  as  Spain,  by  Conde  (Madr. 
1799};  Afi-iai,  by  Hartmann  (Giitt,  1796);  Syria,  by  Rosen- 
miiller  (Leips.  l8z8),  &c.  A  copy  of  the  complete  work  was 
issued  in  French  (2  vols.  Par.  1837-40), 


Id 


t) 


f  r 


Th 


f  th 


0  th  d 


s  by 


th      f  Id 


d  th 


f  th    p 
and  w  th  b      fi   al         It 
;    d  p    t      ly   th      b  dy 

.    d    with  wl    1    1      tl     If 
f     h   h  h     1  Ply   cal 

E;    t      t        f   th     1  th  t       gul  t     and   th  tl    t 

d       1  p  tl      g    wth     f    h      bod  ly   fra  d    fit     t    f      th 

h    Ithy  d    1     g       f    t    d  ff       t  f      t  d        Id 

knowledge  of  human  phjsiology  and  the  laws  of  health.  In 
teileetual  E.  must  be  carefully  adapted  to  the  strength  of  tlie 
mind,  and  to  the  stage  of  growth  which  it  has  reached;  and  as  the 
chief  agent  in  this  department  is  the  communication  of  know- 
ledge, the  educator  must  ever  be  on  the  alert  to  determine  the 
most  suitable  subjects  of  study,  and  the  best  means  of  obtaining 
through  them  the  desired  educational  results,  and  especially  to 
guard  against  instruction  degenerating  into  the  mischievous  pro- 
cess familiarly  known  as  '  cramming.  Intellectual  E.  may  also 
be  viewed  in  the  lightof  the  various  courses  of  study  that  are  pro- 
vided for  pupils,  according  to  the  period  of  time  during  which 
they  will  be  under  instruction,  and  that  are  represented  by 
primary  schools,  secondary  schools,  and  nniversifles.  Recent 
political  and  economic  movements  have  given  a  strong  impetus 
to  primary  E.  throughout  the  civilised  world,  le^slators  hiving 
come  to  see  that  through  national  E.  alone  will  the  masses 
be  enabled  to  govern  themselves  wisely,  and  adequately  to 
hold  their  own  in  the  great  industrial  struggle  for  pre-eminence 
among  the  nations.  This  new  interest  in  E.  has  manifested 
itself  in  measures  diat  seek  to  ensure,  by  compulsion  if  requisite, 
the  school  attendance  of  every  child,  and  to  improve  at  once  the 
status  and  the  professional  equipment  of  the  teacher.  Ths  main 
educational  work  of  the  primary  schools  must  always  consist  of 
reading,  writing,  and  ciphering,  although  in  some  countries-r^.^,, 
in  ScoUand — these  schools  have  been  honourably  conspicuous  for 
iheir  maintenance  of  higher  subjects  of  study.  The  secondaiy 
schools  have  long  been  the  battle-ground  of  many  important 
educational  controversies.  At  one  time  the  chief  subject  of  dis- 
pute was  the  relative  educational  value  of  classical  and  mathe- 
matical instruction,  but  this  question  has  now  been  so  widened 
as  to  include  a  consideration  of  the  d^ms  of  science  and  of 
modem  languages,  particularly  of  our  own.  Signs  are  not  want- 
ing that  the  indiscriminately  polemical  spirit  is  dying  out,  and 
that  che  prc^ramme  of  higher  scholastic  study  will  be  rearrai^ed 
in  accordance  with  the  changed  necessities  and  demands  of 
modem  limes.  The  universities  have  also  of  late  l>een  the  sub- 
ject of  much  controversy  and  the  scene  of  many  changes;  and 
one  of  the  most  difficult  educational  problems  is  how  to  bring 
the  secondary  schools  and  the  universities  into  Such  relations 
490 


that  both  may  discharge  their  proper  functions  most  effectively. 
In  the  E.  of  the  emotions  aud  the  will,  scholastic  training  holds 
mpaiatively  subordinate  place;  for  although  the  teacher  may 
•X  much  good,  both  by  the  example  he  sets  and  by  the  spirit 
Lwakens,  each  indmdual  must  necessarily  be  exposed  from 
youth  upwards  to  the  multifarious  influences  that  make  or  mar 
the  character  of  man.  See  A  System  of  Physical  Education,  by 
A.  Maclaren  (the  Gymnasium,  Oxford,  printed  at  the  Clarendon 
Press) ;  Huxley's  Lessens  in  Elenuntary  Physialogy  (Macmillan) ; 
Beneke's  Elements  of  Psychology  (Parker)  ;  Herbert  Spencer's 
Essays  on  Education  (Williams  &  Noi^te)  j  Modem  Cultiire, 
edited  by  Dr  Voumans  (Macmillan) ;  Essays  on  a  Liberal  Eda- 
cation  (Macmillan);  Quick's  Essies  on  Educational  Peformers 
(Longmans) ;  Donaldson's  Lecturer  (Black)  ;  The  Education  of 
Girls,  by  Professor  Hodgson ;  The  Frei-Schsol  System  of  the 
Uniied  States,  by  Adams  (Chapman  &  Hall) ;  Von  Rauiner's 
Geschichte  der  Pddagogi&  (4  vols.  Stutt.). 

Education  Societies,  Laws  Affecting. — The  6  and  7  Vict, 
c.  36  exempts  from  alt  local  rates  land  and  buildings  belonging 
to  any  society  for  the  purposes  of  science,  literature,  or  promo- 
tion of  the  fine  arts,  if  supported  wholly  or  partly  by  annual 
voluntary  contributions,  and  which  does  not  pay  any  dividend  or 
bonus  to  the  contributors.  17  and  18  Vict.  c.  liz  gives  l^al 
facilities  to  these  societies  and  to  educational  societies  for  pro- 
curing sites  and  buildings,  and  for  setthng  them  in  tmst. 

Grammar- Schools.— fn  1840  an  Act  was  passed  for  improving 
the  condition  and  extending  the  benefit  of  grammar-schools, 
d  fin  d  11  endowedschools.whetherof  royal  orotherfoiinda- 
t        f  und  d  or  maintained  for  teaching  Latin  or  Greek.     The 

t  t  f  he  founders  is  to  be  considered,  and  Latin  and  Greek 
m  y  l>e  d  pensed  with  when  the  revenues  are  insufficient. 

^it  f  Schools.— By  4  and  5  Vict.  c.  38  it  is  enacted  that 
1  dl  t  who  have  an  estate  in  Fee  (q.  v.).  Or  in  tail,  or 
t  f  life— but  in  the  two  latter  cases  only  vrith  the  consent 
f  th  p  son  next  In  the  remainder,  if  he  be  legally  competent 
— b  g  po  sessed  of  the  beneficial  interest,  may  give,  sell,  01 
1  ang  1  id,  not  exceeding  an  acre,  as  a  site  for  a  school  tc 
d       t     p     r  persons;  and  tiie  rights  of  all  persons  in  waste  01 

mm      1    d  conveyed  for  this  purpose  by  the  lord  of  the  manoi 

Education  under  tjie  Poor  Law.— By  7  and  S  Vict.  c.  lor,  and 
subsequent  amending  Acts,  the  Poor  Law  Commissioners  may 
combine  unions  or  parishes  mto  school  districts  for  any  class  of 
iniant  poor  not  above  the  age  of  sixteen,  being  orphans  or  de- 
serted by  their  parents,  or  whose  parents  consent  to  the  placing 
of  the  children  in  the  district  schools. 

Reformatory  and  Industrial  Schools.— Tia  laws  relating  to 
these  schools  were  consolidated  and  amended  in  i856      i 
offender  under  sixteen  years  old  who  is  convicted  suramani; 
an  offence  punishable  with  penal  servitude  or  impns  m 
who  is  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  not  less  than 
may  be  sent  by  the  justices  before  whom  he  10  cha 
certified  reformatory  school,  to  be  there  detamed  fo 
than  two  or  more  than  five  years ;  and  tlie  justices  a 
to  select  a  school  conducted  as  nearly  as  possible  ace         g 
the  religious  persuasion  to  which  the  offender  appears 

Elementary  Education. — In  1S70  an  Act  was  passed 
for  public  elementary  E.  in  England  and  Wales,    A  p 
mentary  sdioo!  is  defined  by  the  Act  to  be  one  at  w         f 
principally  elementary,  and  at  which  the  cliai^e  for        m 
mstrnCtion  does  not  exceed  ninepence  per  week  for  eac 
The  object  of  the  Act  seems  to  be  to  provide  and  maintai 
cient  schools,  and  to  compel  children  who  would  not  1 

receive  efficient  education  to  attend  them.    Fees  of  sd      rs 
parliamentary  grants,  and  moneys  raised  by  loan,  form 
ftind.     Any  deficiency  is  to  be  suppKed  by  rating.     N    p 
mentary  grant  is  to  M  made  to  any  school  board  on  a 
instruction  in  religious  subjects.     Every  child  in  go         e 
who  is  not  receiving  sufficient  instruction  in  some  othe 
and  who  is  between  tlie  ages  of  five  and  thirteen,  can 
pelled  to  attend  a  public  elementary  school,   if  the 
within  three  miles  of  its  residence,  and  the  school 

Eower  to  impose  a  fine,  recoverable  summarily,  not      ce 
ve  shillings,  with  costs,  for  breach  of  this  mle.     In 
under  the  E,  Act  of  1872,  parents  are  now  obliged  to  se 
children  to  school,  when  there  is  one  within  three  milei 
their  residence,  under  penalty  of  fine  or  imprisonment  in  1 
of  failure.      Every  public  school  subject  to  inspection  am 


yLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


i  presbyteries  and  of  Church  courts 
in  Scotcli  schools  is  abolished,  and  transferred  to  the  parochial 
school  hoards,  these  being  amenable  to  the  chief  board,  resident 
in  Edinburgh. 

Ediir',  a  Rajpoot  state  of  India,  the  foremost  of  the  Myhee 
Caunta  group,  in  political  relation  with  the  Bombay  Govern- 
ment, is  situated  to  the  N.E.  of  Earoda,  Area  unascertained, 
but  about  323  square  miles  are  under  cultivation;  pop.  (1872) 
217,382.  The  net  revenue  is  ;^25|O0O,  but  as  much  more  is 
absorbed  by  eight  great  feudatories  and  eighteen  lesser  nobles. 
E.  is  tributary  to  the  Gaikwat,  paying  annually  £,y>sp.  An 
agreement  witli  the  British  was  signed  in  1820.  The  present 
prince,  who  succeeded  in  1869,  is  now  (1876)  a  minor  of  fifteen 
years  of  age.  He  is  being  educated  by  an  English  tutor,  and  the 
government  is  conducted  by  the  political  agent.  The  town  of  E. 
(pop.  10,000)  is  the  residence  of  the  Raja,  but  otlierwise  a  place 
of  no  imporlance. 

Edward  tlia  Confessor.     See  Eadwakd. 

Ed'ward  L,  King  of  England,  the  eldest  son  of  Henry  III. 
and  Eleanor  of  Provence,  was  born  at  Westminster,  l5th  June 
1339.  After  some  suspicious  inlrigues,  E.  finally  sided  with  his 
father  against  the  nobles"  in  that  struggle  called  the  Barons' 
War.  He  shared  in  the  defeat  at  Lewes  (1264),  but  afterwards 
overthrew  the  Earl  of  Leicester  and  his  party  at  Evesham  (1265). 
In  1270  he  left  England  to  join  in  the  last  Crusade ;  and  in  1272, 
while  returning  from  tlie  Holy  Land,  heard  of  his  father's  death. 
E.  reached  England  in  1274,  and  was  crowned  in  that  year,  to- 
gether with  his  consort  Eleanor,  the  daughter  of  Simon  of  Mont- 
fort.  E.'s  first  worlt  as  sovereign  was  the  subjugation  of  Wales. 
The  Welsh  princes  had  been  deeply  involved  with  the  barons' 
party  against  Henry  III.,  and  soon  after  Edward's  succession 
Prince  Llewelyn's  refusal  to  do  homage  forced  on  a  war,  which 
was  ended  by  the  defeat  and  death  of  that  prince  in  1282  The 
King  then  fliotou  1  ly       d  ced    tl  try        1  od       d    Eng- 

lish customs,  and      tl  I  d  tl  fi  cat  d  la  d  his    obles. 

E  gl    d      d  W  1       E   b  nt  his 
'      d  S    tlatd     I     th    p    vious 
h  d  be  th     tl      istances 

m  n     1     t    th    E  gh  h     This 
13        dtl     d    th    fth    Maidof 
.    .     ,   ,  =  p  rt      tyf      tl  rti     .     In 

1291  he  was  chosen  aibitrator  by  the  thirteen  competitors  for  the 
Scottish  crown.  The  cltums  of  these  were  finally  narrowed  down 
to  a  choice  between  two — John  Ealiol,  Lord  of  Galloway,  and 
Robert  Bruce,  Lord  of  Annandale.  E.,  who  was  formally 
acknowledged  feudal  superior  of  Scotland,  decided  in  favour  of 
the  former.  The  decision  was  given  at  Berwick,  November 
17,  1292  ;  and  next  day  Baliol  swore  fealty  to  the  King.  The 
indignities  heaped  upon  him,  and  the  outcry  of  his  people,  soon 
compelled  the  Scottish  sovereign  to  declare  war  on  England. 
E.  marched  into  Scotland  in  1296,  sacked  the  town  of  Ber- 
wick, made  Baliol  prisoner,  proclaimed  Scotland  his  fief,  for- 
feited to  him  in  consequence  of  her  king's  treason,  placed  gairi- 
sons  m  the  principal  towns,  and  appointed  English  governors  over 
the  country.  William  Wallace  (q.  v.)  headed  a  revolt  of  the 
Scottish  party  in  the  spting  of  129?;  defeated  Warrenne,  Edward's 
regent,  at  Stirling  in  the  summer  of  the  same  year  ;  ruled  Scot- 
land for  a  briei  space ;  andthenat  Falkirk,  in  129S,  was  conquered 
by  an  army  which  E.  led  in  person.  The  counljy  was  not  yet, 
however,  wholly  subdued ;  the  nobles,  aided  by  France  and  led  by 
Bruce  and  Comyn,  still  resisted.  In  1305  E.  again  invaded  Scot- 
land, the  castle  of  Stirling  surrendereii,  and  he  was  master  of  the 
land,  Wallace  Was  captured,  and  executed  at  London.  In  the 
next  year  Robert  Bruce  appeared  as  leader  of  the  national 
party.  He  was  crowned  at  Scone  on  March  27,  1306,  and  the 
rising  of  Scotland  followed.  The  news  roused  E.,  now  an  old 
man,  to  terrible  fury,  and  he  resolved  on  immediate  invasion. 
Having  gathered  a  gteat  army,  he  marched  north,  bat  died  July  6, 
1307,  at  Buigh-on-Sands,  near  Carlisle,  when  his  foot  was  almost 
on  the  Scottish  frontier. 

The  name  of  E.  is  an  outstanding  one  among  English  Sove- 
reigns. His  character  was  marked  oy  iron  strength  and  most 
politic  sagacity.  An  imperious  temper  was  relieved  by  generous 
impulses  j  he  was  cruel,  and  yet  forgiving  ;  vindictive,  and  yet 
merciful.     As  a  soldier  E.  had  no  rival,  and  lie  possesied  the  art, 


Having  thus  weld  d  t  g  tl 
mind  to  the  union  f  E  ' 
history  of  the  two  t 

of  homage  done  by  th  ' 
furnished  a  ground  f  E 
Norway  (1290)  ga 


so  valuable  to  a  general,  of  attaching  to  himself  the  personal  de- 
votion of  bis  men.  Of  English  kings,  E.  first  recognised  and 
respected  the  existence  of  an  English  national  spirit.     By  his 

J'  idicial  reforms  he  gained  for  himself  the  title  of  the  '  English 
ustinian  ; '  in  his  reign  the  Court  of  Chanceiy  and  justices  of 
the  peace  took  their  origin.  Under  his  rule,  if  not  fostered  by 
him,  can  be  first  seen  the  English  Parliament  in  something  like  its 

S resent  shape.  A  greater  respect  for  law  can  also  be  dated 
om  E.'s  reign  ;  and  this  was  largely  due  to  the  example  of  the 
King.  His  imperial  policy  has  often  been  called  by  harsh 
names,  and  viewed  in  a  wrong  light.  It  was  not  one  of  vulgar 
aggrandisement,  dictated  by  mere  ambition ;  but  one  of  annexa- 
tion, to  end  in  union.  E.  saw  further  and  clearer  than  any  poli- 
tician of  his  time  that  the  French  dominions  of  England  were 
lost,  and  his  aim  was  to  consolidate  the  whole  island  of  Britain 
into  one  kingdom.  Wales  he  united  to  England.  Hence  his 
strenuous  attempt  to  annex  Scotland — an  attempt  which,  if  suc- 
cessful, might  have  anticipated  by  four  centuries  the  ultimate 
benefits  of  the  Union.  See  Freeman's  Essay  on  the  Rdatiom 
betwetn  the  Crowns  of  England  and  Scotland  {Essays,  ist  series, 
1872).  Palgrave's  Dociimenls  and  Records  iituslntting  the  His- 
tory of  Scotland  takes  a  similar  view.     See  also  Green's  History 

"  ■''     '-■■■"■■■">  -'       thp   Si-nttiab  «i^nr  nf  F 'a 


Xidward  H.,  son  of  the  preceding,   was  bom  25th  April 
1384,  and  vras  called  E.  of  Caernarvon  from  his  birthplace.    He 
was  the  first  of  English  royal  heirs-apparent  to  bear  a  title  taken 
from  the  PrincipaSty,  bemg  created  Prince  of  Wales  in  1301. 
E.  succeeded  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of  twenty-three,  but  even 
then  seems  to  have  selected  a  line  of  policy — to  loose  himself  from 
the  dominance  of  the  barons.     To  this  end  he  filled  the  great 
offices  of  state,  not  with  English  nobles,  but  with  men  of  lower 
r^  and  alien  birth.     A  passion  for  favourites  also  inclined  him 
to  this  conduct.     Piers  Gaveston,  a  Gascon,  was  created  Earl  of 
Cornwall,  and  placed  at  the  head  of  affairs.     The  barons  de- 
manded and  obtained  his  banishment ;  and  when  he 
the  Earl  of  Lancaster  had  him  executed  in  1312  on  B  ac 
Hill,  near  Warwick.    While  these  'troubles  weakened  E     p 
at  home,  his  arms  were  unsuccessful  in  Scotland.     Lru 
his  party  rapidly  made  head,  and  after  a  seven  years  g 

reconquered  from  the  English  all  but  the  castle  of  S       ig 
E.  resolved  to  march  to  its  relief;  and  raised  an  immense      ni 
composed  of  30,000  disciplined  horse,  and  vast  numbe 
Welsh  and  Irish.     At  Bannockburn  (June  24,  1314)         gr 
force  was  utterly  routed  ;  and  henceforui  Scotland  was  m 

English  supremacy.  Just  after  this  disgrace,  K  becam  nf  Hi 
ated  with  another  favourite,  Hugh  le  Despenser,  who  was  m 
Earl  of  Glamorgan.  Lancaster  and  the  barons,  at  once  bee  m  g 
jealous,  entered  London  with  their  troops  in  1321,  and  had  Des- 
penser and  his  fether  driven  into  exile.  But  E.  in  the  next  year 
took  vigorous  measures,  defeated  Lancaster  in  Wales,  executed 
him  at  Pontefract,  and  recalled  his  iavourite.  He  then  con- 
cluded a  truce  for  foarteen  years  with  King  Robert  of  Scotland  j 
but  this  act  destroyed  the  popularity  which  his  mastery  of  the 
barons  had  won  him.  His  queen,  Isabel,  went  to  France  with 
her  son  in  1325,  ostensibly  lo  conclude  a  treaty  ;  she  refused  to 
return,  and  intrigued  there  with  the  exiled  barons,  the  chief  of 
whom  was  Roger  Mortimer,  She  landed  with  a  hostile  force  in 
1 326  at  Orwell,  in  Sufiblk,  having  the  young  Prince  with  her, 
and  the  King  was  abandoned  by  every  one.  Being  taken  along 
with  his  favourite,  Despenser  was  hung,  and  E.  himself  deposed 
at  Kenilworth,  and  murdered  at  Berkeley  Castle,  20th  September 
1327.     See  Green's  Hislo/y  of  the  English  People  (1875). 

Edward  in.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom  at  Windsor, 
13th  November  I3i2,and  began  to  reign  in  1327.  '  The  govern, 
ment  was  at  first  administered  by  a  regency,  but  in  1330  E.  caused 
Mortimer,  the  real  head  of  affairs,  toie  executed  at  Tyburn,  and 
assumed  ftill  kingly  authority.  In  1328  he  married  Philippa  of 
Hainault.  In  1332,  Edward  Baliol  having  dethroned  David 
Bruce  of  Scotland,  and  being  unable  to  preserve  his  usurped 
crown,  obtained  assistance  from  E.  The  Scotch  were  defeated 
at  Haiidon  Hill,  19th  July  1333;  Baliol  was  restored,  and  Berwick 
annexed  to  England.  E.  was  now  diverted  from  the  Scottish  to 
the  Frendi  war,  in  regard  to  which  he  has  been  greatly  misre- 
presented. The  contest  was  forced  onhimby  Philippe  of  Valois, 
who  desired  to  seize  E.'s  duchy  of  Aqnitaine,  whidi  had  never 
belonged  to  the  kings  of  Paris.  E.,  anxious  to  avoid  a  struggle, 
491 


vLiOOQle 


EDW 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOFJiDIA. 


BD.W 


placed  Guieiine  in  Pliilippe's  hands  for  forty  days;  and  when 
Philippe  refused  to  restore  il,  war  was  inevitable.  E.'s  claim  to 
the  French  throne  through  his  mother  Isabel  was  palpably  un- 
tenable, French  law  excluding  female  succession  to  the  crown  ; 
and  was  probably  advanced  to  win  oier  the  Flemish  allegiance. 
After  several  years  of  undecisive  campaigning,  E.  invaded  France 
witli  30,000  men,  and  on  August  26,  1346,  overthrew  a  vastly 
superior  French  army  at  Cressy,  where  hia  son,  the  Black  Prince, 
displayed  brilliant  valour  and  slew  the  King  of  Bohemia,  and 
where  the  English  archery  told  with  fearial  effect  upon  the 
French,  who  left  above  30,000  dead  on  the  field.  The  battle  was 
as  severe  a  blow  to  feudalism  as  to  France,  because  it  proved  the 
superiority  of  yeomen  on  fool  to  the  most  splendid  chivalry. 
Other  successes  folh>wed.  In  October  1346  David  of  Scotland 
vras  defeated  and  captured  at  Neville's  Cross  ;  Calais  surrendered 
in  1347.  At  an  earlier  date  (June  24,  1340)  the  naval  victory 
off  Sluys  made  the  English  masters  of  the  sea.  While  E.  re- 
turned home  and  repelled  a  Scottish  invasion,  the  Black  Prince 
ravaged  cen  ral  F  ance  and  on  the  19th  September  1356  won 
a  glorious  V  ctory  at  Po  t  er  wi  h  8000  against  6o,ooo  men,  and 
carried  Jean  Ph  hppe  s  successor  captive  to  London.  France, 
torn  by  fore  gn  and  ntest  e  str  fe  seemed  hopelessly  crushed, 
but  E.  was  weary  of  wa  The  constant  need  of  supplies 
caused  1  m  to  summon  frequent  Pa  liaments,  the  injluence  of 
which  s  ead  ly  nc  eased  Peace  vas  made  by  the  treaty  of 
Bretigny  n  1360  E  es  gnmg  his  olum  to  the  French  crown 
and  reta  nmg  G  enne  Po  to  Calais,  and  Guisnes.  E.  reaped 
no  lasting  good  f  om  his  vie  ones  England,'  says  Mr  Free- 
man, '  was  s  ccessf  1  n  ba  ties  but  she  was  thoroughly  beaten 
in  war.'  In  i  J69  Cha  les  K  ng  of  Fra  ice,  renewed  the  straggle ; 
the  Engl  sh  e  e  dnve  s  ep  by  s  ep  from  their  Continental 
possessions,  and  E.'s  reign  closed  in  gloom.  His  last  years 
were  embittered  by  the  caprices  of  his  mistress,  Alice  Pec- 
rers,  and  by  the  unpopularity  of  hia  administration.  But  the 
'Good  Parliament'  of  1376,  supported  by  the  Black  Prince — 
conduct  which  redoimda  more  to  his  honour  than  Poitiers — 
attaclted  the  abuses  of  the  royal  government,  and  carried  several 
admirable  reforms  before  E.'s  death  in  1377.  E.'s  reign  is  moie 
important  for  its  social  and  religious  changes  than  for  the  victories 
with  which  it  is  ringmg.  It  was  a  lime  in  which,  while  Norman 
and  Saxon  were  rapidly  blending,  while  Chaucer  was  fomidjng  a 
new  literature  and  Wycliffe  heralding  a  religious  revolution, 
English  law  was  tailing  definite  and  potent  form,  the  spu-it  of 
resistance  to  arbitrary  power  was  gaining  strength  and  courage, 
and  scholasticism,  chivalry,  feudalism,  and  the  temporal  authority 
of  the  Church  were  fast  passing  away.  See  Freeman's  Essay  on 
Edward  III.  [Essays,  1st  Series,  1872),  Kitchen's  Hi'tery  gf 
France  (1873),  and  Green's  History  of  the  English  People  (1875). 


„     ,,  ,  -„  -  of  his 

father  bore  the  title  of  Earl  of  March.  On  the  defeat  of  York 
at  the  battle  of  Wakefield  Green,  21st  December  1460,  and  his 
subsequent  execution  by  the  successful  Lancastrians,  E.  assumed 
the  claims  of  his  father,  and  marched  on  London,  routing  on  his 
way  the  Lancastrians  at  Mortimer's  Cross.  He  was  declared 
king  March  3, 1461.  On  the  2gth  of  the  same  month  his  claims 
received  a  bloody  sanction  by  a  great  victory  over  the  forces  of 
Queen  Mai^aret  at  Towton,  in  Yorkshire.  A  year  after  the 
battle  of  Hexham,  in  1464,  Henry  VI.,  who  had  been  in  hiding, 
vras  betrayed  and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  E.,  who  was  popular 
in  London  on  account  of  his  courage,  beauty,  and  winning  man- 
ners, reigTied  secure  until  his  marriage,  first  private  and  then 
avowed,  with  Elizabeth  Wydevile,  the  widow  of  Sic  John  Grey, 
and  his  conferring  honours  upon  her  relatives,  offended  his  chief 
partisan,  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  the  'King-maker.'  The  latter, 
for  the  time  aided  by  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  entered  into  a  con- 
spiracy against  E.,andbyaanrprise  forced  him  to  flee  to  France 
in  1469.  Henry  was  replaced  on  the  throne,  but  E.,  having 
obtajnedhelpfrom  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy,  landed  ui  Eng- 
land at  Ravenspurne,  14th  March  1471,  and  on  the  14th  of  Apnl 
routed  the  forces  of  Warwick  at  Barnet,  the  King-maker  himself 
being  among  the  slain.  The  next  month  (4th  May)  he  almost 
destroyed  the  foreesof  Mai^aret  at  Tewkesbury.  Mat|;aret  and 
hecson  Edward  were  captured.  The  Queen  vras  imprisoned,  her 
son  was  murdered,  and  Henry  liimself  was  in  a  day  or  two  found 
dead  in  his  bed  in  the  Tower,  the  suspicion  being  that  he  was 
assassinated  by  Richard  Duke  of  Gloucester,  the  third  brother 
492 


of  E.  E,  reigned  undisturbed  till  his  death,  April  9,  14S3. 
Although  he  has  an  evil  reputation  for  his  debaucheries,  he  was 
an  able  and  powerful  ruler.  He  founded  the  Absolute,  or,  as 
now  styled.  New  Monarchy,  whieh  lasted  till  the  end  of  the 
Tudor  line.  During  his  reign  the  silk  manufacture  is  ad  to 
have  been  introduced  into  England,  and  in  1476  William  Ca.  t  n 
set  up  his  printing-press  in  England,  See  Green's  History  fth 
English  People  (1875). 

Edward  v.,  eldest  son  of  Edward  IV.,  was  in  his  tl  te  th 
year  when  his  father  died.  What  is  called  his  reign  last  d  f 
9th  April  to  22d  June  1483.  His  uncle,  Richard  Duke  of  Gl  u 
cester,  contrived  to  obtain  possession  of  his  person,  as  als  tl 
of  his  younger  brother,  the  Duke  of  York ;  got  himself  ade 
protector  and  afterwards  king.  The  young  princes  we  e  the 
throvm  into  the  Tower,  and  they  disappeared,  the  bel  f  be  g 
that  they  were  murdered  by  Richard  s  orders.  See  (j  n 
History  of  the  English  People  (1875),  and  Sir  Thoma  Mo  s 
Life  of  Edward  V. 

Edward  VI.,  the  only  son  of  Henry  VIIL,  by  Jane  Sey- 
mour, was  bom  at  Hampton  Court,  I21h  October  1537.  He  was 
only  ten  years  of  age  when  he  succeeded  to  the  throne,  and  he 
died  before  attaining  his  majority,  E.  was  well  educated;  he 
gave  promise  of  high  and  pure  characlec,  and  iu  religion  had  a 
strong  Protestant  bias. '  During  the  early  part  of  his  reign  the 
kingdom  was  administered  by  his  uncle.  Lord  Hertford,  who  had 


guardian  of  the  kingdom.  During  Somerset's  regency,  the  Scotch, 
who  refused  to  marry  their  young  queen  Mary  with  E.,  were 
defeated  at  Pinkie  (September  I5,  1549),  and  vigorous  efforts 
were  made  to  establish  Protestantism.  The  Six  Articles  were 
repealed ;  priests  were  allowed  to  marry ;  a  new  service-book, 
now  known  as  The  First  Prayer-Book  of  Edward  VL,  was  drawn 
up ;  and  Roman  Catholic  clei^  who  refused  to  submit  to  the 
changes  were  persecuted.  The  result  was  insurrection,  which 
Somerset  put  down,  but  through  the  influence  of  Dudley,  Earl 
of  Warwick,  he  was  himself  deposed  and  raiecuted,  22d  January 
1 552.  DudW  was  made  Duke  of  Northumberland,  and  favoured 
the  party  of  Cranmer,  which,  among  other  measures,  introduced 
the  Forty-Two  Articles  of  Religion,  now  reduced  to  the  Thirty- 
Nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of  England.  Under  Northumber- 
land's influence  E.  made  a  will,  which  he  had  no  right  to  do 
without  the  consent  of  Parliament,  excluding  Mary  and  Ehzabeth, 
daughters  of  Henry  VIIL,  as  being  iilegitimi 


son.  Lord  Guildford  Dudley.  E.  shortly  after  this  a: 
rangement  died  at  Greenwich,  July  6,  1553.  See  Froude's 
History  of  England,  vols.  iv.  and  v.;  Raymond's  Life  of  E. 
VI.  ;  E.'s  own  Journal  in  Holinshed's  Chromclei  and  Green's 
History  of  the  Engiish  People  (1875). 

Edwardes,  Sir  Herbert,  a  distinguished  lieutenant  of  the 
Lawrences  in  their  administration  of  the  Puiijaub,  and  a  hero  of 
the  Indian  Mutiny,  was  bom  12th  November  1819.  In  r8S7  he 
was  Conimissioner  of  Peshawur,  perhaps  the  most  important 
military  post  in  India,  where  he  not  only  maintained  order 
throughout  the  Sepoy  war,  but  was  able  to  send  down  reinforce- 
ments, both  of  Europeans  and  staunch  native  troops,  to  the  camp 
before"Delhi.  To  him,  as  much  as  to  any  single  man,  was  due 
the  tranquillity  of  the  Punjaub  in  this  crisis,  and  thus  directly 
the  safety  of  India.     He  died  in  England,  23d  December  1S68. 


Edwards,  Jonathan,  a  celebrated  American  divine  and 
metaphysician,  was  born  at  Windsor,  Connecticut,  October  5, 
1703,  He  was  the  son  of  the  Rev.  Timothy  E„  for  sixty-three 
years  pastor  of  Windsor.  E.  entered  Yale  College  in  1716, 
and  took  his  degree  of  B.A.  September  1720,  standing  highest 
in  his  class.     He  studied  there  two  yeais  more,  was  licensed, 

E reached  3.  few  months  in  New  York,  and  in  September  1723 
ecame  tutor  in  Yale  College.  On  February  15,  1727,  he  was 
ordained  colleague  to  his  grandfather,  in  Nortliampton,  Massa- 
chusetts. Here  he  laboured  for  twenty-three  years,  his  cliurch 
being  stirred  with  memorable  revivals  in  1735  and  1740.  In 
the  full  tide  of  bis  success  a  difference  sprang  up  between  him 
and  his  church.  He  held  that  conversion  should  be  the  term  of 
But  the  alienation  began  in  1744,  when,  on  learning 
young  members  had  been  reading  obscene  books,  he 


yLaOOgle 


THE  G       BE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


influence  in  its  su  g  m 

Government  a  grant  of  4000  acres,  as  compensation,  near 
Stockbridge,  Here  E,  began  topreackin  January  1751.  In  this 
Arcadian  retreat  he  found  time  to  pnreue  his  favourite  studies. 
The  room  is  still  painted  out  where,  in  about  four  months, 
he  wrote  Tlis  Frtidem  of  the  Will  (Boston,  1754),  the  most 
famotis  of  all  his  works,  and  the  ablest  defence  ever  made  of 
the  Necessarian  doctrine.  E.  was  elected  President  of  Prince- 
ton College,  and  installed  February  16,  1758-  Smallpox 
being  prevalent,  he  was  inoculated,  but  died  from  the  effects, 
March  32,  175S.  E,  has  stamped  his  theology  indelibly  upon 
New  England  character.  A  close  student,  a  clear  logician,  a,nd 
a  profound  thinker,  he  must  ever  rank  among  the  great  fathers 
of^the  Church.  In  spite  of  his  rigorous,  one  may  say  pitdess, 
Calvinism,  he  was  benevolent,  gentle,  and  devout  to  a  degree 
rarely  seen  on  earth.  Among  his  other  works  are  Sevival  of 
Jteligum  (Bost.  1742);  RtUgiom  Affections  (Bost.  1746)  ;/'> 
of  Sraimrd  {Bost  1749)5  Original  Sitt  {Bost  1758);  ffatory 
of  RtdempHon  (Edinb.  1777)  J  Nature  of  Virtui  (Bost,  1788). 
An  edition  of  E.'s  works  was  published  at  Worcester,  Mass., 
in  8  vols.,  in  1809,  and  another  in  10  vols.,  in  1829.  See  S.  E. 
Dwight's  Memoir  of  E.,  prefixed  to  his  works  (lO  vols,  1830, 
Loud.  ed.  2  vols,  1 83 4), —Jonathan  E,,  D,D.,  son  of  above, 
was  born  1745-  He  was  likewise  a  distinguished  theologian, 
became  President  of  Union  College,  Schenectady  (1799),  and 
died  August  i,  iSot. 
Ed'win.     See  Eadwine. 

Eeeloo',  a  town  of  E.  Fknder.i,  Belgium,  10  miles  N,W.  of 
Ghent,  and  IS  miles  S.S,E.  of  Bruges,  on  the  railway  between 
tliese  places.  It  has  lai^e  manufactures  of  cotton,  wool,  tobacco, 
soap,  leather,  salt,  and  oiL      Pop,  (1873)  9564. 

EekBiree'  (Akhari),  a  semi-ruined  city  in  the  province  of 
Mysore,  British  India,  162  miles  N.W.  of  Seringapatam.  It 
was  the  capital  of  a  powerful  state  in  the  1 7th  c. 

given  indiscriminately  to  fishes  with  elongated 
icttd  to  certain  genera  of  Teleostean  fishes  be- 
longing to  the  section  Afi^da 
of  the  sub-order  MalacopteH 
('soft -finned').  The  term 
Apeda  indicates  the  absence 
of  the  vmtral  fins.  The  E 
has  soft  fin-rays,  and  a  swim- 
ming bladder  communicating 
with  the  throat  by  apuumatic 
diiit  The  body  is  covered  by 
minute  detached  scales,  which 
are  frequently  concealed  by  the 
skm.  The  lateral  line  of  mu- 
cous canals  exudes  a  lai^e  qtianhty  of  mucus,  which  protects 
the  body  in  the  absence  of  scales.  The  best-known  ftimilies  of 
eels  are  the  Anguillidts,  Muranida,  Congervla,  and  Gymnotids. 
The  first  family  has  comb-like  teeth,  the  gill-openings  being 
lateral  To  this  family  belongs  the  sharp-nosed  E  (AnguM- 
lata  acutiroslris),  and  the  broad-nosed  E.  {A.  ialiriistris)r  The 
Murana  Hdma,  or  '  mottled  mariena,'  exemplifies  the  second 
family,  in  which,  there  are  no  pectoral  fins,  and  the  gill- 
openings  are  represented  W  mere  slits.  A  single  row  of  teeth 
exists  on  the  nasal  bone.  The  murienEe  formed  the  &mous  '  eels " 
of  the  Romans.  The  Congeridiz  ate  represented  by  the  Congei 
(q.  V.)  [C.  vulgaris),  and  are  distmguLshed  by  the  dorsal  fin 
commencing  close  to  the  head,  and  by  the  absence  of  scalf 
The  nostrils  are  in  front  of  the  snout,  and  teeth  exist  on  i 
palate  and  vomer.  The  Gynmatida  are  represented  by  the 
Gymnofut  ilectricus,  or  electric  E.  of  S.  American  rivers.     This 

ros  has  no  dorsal  fin  or  scales,  but  possesses  a  long  anal 
Other  eels  are  the  '  glass-E.,'  or  Leptocephalida,  so  named 
from" their  translncdnt  bodies.  The  hair-tailed  glass-E.  (Ti/nrus 
trichurus)  inhabits  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  as  does  the  pig- 
nosed  species  (^fl/fw-aj  MessinenHs).  The  name  sand-E.  is 
applied  to  the  Ammodytcs  ToKamts,  or  homels,  and  also  to  the 
sand-lance  (A.  Iwnced). 
The  true  eels  are  well-known  fishes,  celebrated  for  their  vora- 


us  nature,  and  fijr  their  tenacity  of  life.     They  occur  in  both 

and  fresh  water,  and  are  esteemed  by  many  as  articles  of 

d,  although  the  flesh  is  rather  fatty  and  insipid.     Eels  are 

gely  captured  in  Holland,  and  are  brought  alive  to  England 

'  welled  '  boats.     They  are  captured  in  Britain  and  abroad 

by  means  of  '  E-pots '  or  '  bucks,'  wicker  cages  fixed  usually  near 

weirs  in  rivers,  and  also  bylines  Imted  with  worms,     ' 

or  other  bait.     SpeWng  eeU  is  chiefly  practised  in  win 

■  e  eels  lie  in  the  mud. 

Eel-POTit,  a  term  applied  to  the  Burbot  (q,  v,),  £ 

.e  viviparous  Blenny  (q,  v.). 

Eels  (in  paste  ajid  vinegar).  These  nunute  organisms  ar 
oid  worms  belonging  to  the  Neniatelmia  (Scolecitla,  q.  v. ),  and 
,j  the  Anguillulids.  The  vinegar  eel  (Anguillula  aceti)  is  a 
femiliar  species,  and  is  nearly  allied  to  the  Tyimchus  trUu!, 
which  produces  Ear-Cockles  (q.  v.)  in  wheat.  These  OMjanisms 
■e  free  nematoids.  They  possess  rudimentary  eyes,  and,  gene- 
illy,  a  posterior  sucker.  They  produce  few  ova  at  a  time. 
These  oiganisms  appear  in  vinegar  and  other  fluids,  probably 
from  the  ova  being  readily  conveyed  to  and  contained  in  sv-'- 
fluids. 

Efen'di,  or  Effen'di,  a  title  of  honour  amon^  the  Turks  ci 
ferred  upon  persons  occupying  recognised  positions  in  the  civil 
service  or  in  social  life.  The  title  is  frequently  affixed  to  the 
name  of  the  office  which  the  person  holife,  a.s  Hakim-E.,  the 
Sultan's  first  physician.  The  correspondmg  military  title  is  Ago, 
Effi];6,  or  Effi™,yd(Fr,  ^jfar^r  or ^'■fltw, 'to  frighten,]  the 
former  being  derived  from  the  Lat.  tfferare,  'to  look  wild  ;  the 
latter  from  exfngidare,  '  to  freeze  with  terror '),  an  heraldic  tenn, 
applied  to  an  animal  rearing  as  if  scared  or  enraged. 

Effeirs',  or  Effeir'ing,  is  a  Scotch  law-term  signifying  coire- 
sponding  to  or  relating  to.    Inform  as  E.  means '  in  legal  foiTn,' 
Efferent  Nerves.     See  Nerve  and  Reflex  Action. 
Efferves'cing  Draughts.    See  Aerated  Wateks. 
BfE'igy  (Fr,  effigie,  Lat,  effigies, '  an  image '),  an  image  or  Hke- 
ness  m.  painting,  sculpture,  or  drawing.      It  is  not,  however,  a 
word  recognised  m  art;  and  in  common  use  it  signifies  such  a 
caricature  semblance  as  at  once   manifests  and  stimulates  con- 
tempt for  the  person  who  is  the  subject  of  it.     To  hang  or  burn 
a  person  in  £.,  is  to  hang  or  bum  the  E.  of  the  person  as  a  sign 
of   contempt  for  and  dislike  felt  towards   him.      The  practice 
was  much  more  common  in  the  earlier  half  of  the  present  centurj 

Eft  (Old  Eng.  efele),  a  name  popularly  used  as  synonymous 
with  Newt  (q.  v,).  The  Scotch  term  'esk'  or  'ask  (probably 
connected  with  '  asp ')  is  also  used  as  an  equivalent  to  E, 

Bg'ede,  Hans,  the  apostle  of  the  Greenlanders,  was  bom 
January  31,  1681,  at  Ilarstad,  a  village  in  Nordlandene,  Norway. 
After  studying  at  Copenhagen,  he  was  ordained  priest  '•"  ■■'"■' 
and  became  pastor  of  Vaagen,  His  ambition  was  to  g< 
sionary  to  Greenland,  and,  after  many  hindrances,  domi 
otherwise,  he  sailed  for  that  inhospitable  iand  with  his  wife  and 
family  in  1721,  and  laboured  there  for  fifteen  years  with  great 
industry  and  success.  Frederik  IV.,  King  of  Denmark,  aid.  ' 
the  mission ;  and  in  1740,  after  his  return  to  Copenhagen,  . 
was  made  a  bishop.  He  died  in  1758.  K  wrole  two  wor 
on  the  subject  of  his  mission,  one  of  which  was  translated  in  1745, 
under  the  title  DescriftUm  of  Greoilaud.—^BawA  K,  son  of 
Hans,  bom  in  Norway  in  170S,  afterwards  Bishop  E,,  translated 
the  Bible  into  the  Greenland  tongue,  and  compiled  a  dictionary 
of  the  same,  which  appeared  in  1750  under  the  title  Dictisr---— 
Gri/Klandico-Damco  Latinum,  and  a  Greenland  Grammar  I 
He  died  in  1789, 

E'ger,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  rt' 
go  miles  W.  of  Prague.  It  has  manufactures  of  cloths,  hats  and 
shoes,  and  its  trade  has  greatly  increased  since  it  became  a  pomt 
<rf  junction  for  three  railways,  E,  has  Several  churches  ahd  educi 
tional  estabhshments.  The  Gymnasium  ii  ~. 
into  an  Obei^ymnasium,  with  eight  classes.  The  t< 
contains  a  painting  of  the  death  of  Wallenstein,  whow 
nated  here,  25th  February  1634.  Pop.  (1869)  13,441- 
E,  rises  in  the  FLchtelberg,  on  the  borders  of  Bavaiia,  2240  feet 
493 


s  elevated 


^4- 


yUoogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EGM 


above  the  sea-level,  flows  N.E,  and  E.,    and  passing  Elbogen, 
Saaz,   Birdin,  and  Theiesienstadt,    falls  into  the  Elbe,  after 
course  of  195  miles. 

Bge'ria,  or  JEgeria,  from  whom  Numa  feigned  that  he  had 
received  instructions  for  the  institution  of  the  rites  that  would  be 
most  acceptable  to  the  gods,  was  tlie  most  celebrated  of  the  foui 
Camense,  or  prophetic  nymphs,  in  Roman  mythology. 

Egg,  the  name  given  to  the  element  famished  by  the  female 
oigans  of  generation  of  animals,  which  represents  the  female 
contrihutioii  to  reproduction,  and  which,  when  duly  fertilised  01 
impregnated  bj"  contact  with  the  male  or  seminal  fluid,  is  capable 
of  develOfiing  into  a  new  oi^anism.  The  E.  is  generally  named 
the  ovwa  in  physiology  and  zoology,  and  may  be  assumed  to  be 
represented  m  every  group— even  in  the  lowest— of  the  animal 
world.  Thus  the  nucleus  found  in  many  Protozoa  (q.  v.)  either 
represents  the  E.  or  the  female  organ  which  gives  origin  to  the 
equivalent  of  an  ovum.  To  develfroment  (see  Development  OF 
Em  bkyo)  belongs  the  description  of^he  changes  which  eg^  under- 
go in  their  various  stages  towards  the  perfection  of  the  contained 
embryo.  E^  vary  very  ranch  in  different  animals  in  the  relative 
development  of  their  parts.  Every  perfect  K  consists  of  a  vitel- 
lins,  or  outer  membrane,  of  a  yolk  or  vitellus,  of  a  germ  vesicle, 
and  ai  a  germinal  spot.  The  E.  of  a  hen,  for  example,  consists 
of  these  parts  or  their  equivalents,  after  irapregnation,  and  of 
superadded  matters  (white  or  albumen,  shell,  &c.)  to  protect  the 
essential  part  of  the  ovum  during  its  development,  bometimes 
numerous  ^gs  are  deposited  at  once,  or  the  number  may  be 
limited  to  one  or  two.  The  e^s  most  sought  after  in  commerce 
are  those  of  Rasorlal  birds,  such  as  our  fowls,  turkeys,  and  their 
allies  ;  whilst  those  of  turtles  are  also  eaten  as  a  delicacy.  The 
true  idea  of  an  E.  or  ovum  is  necessaiy  to  the  comprehension  of 
what  is  involved  in  the  term  individual,  as  used  in  zoology — an 
indimdual  animal  being  the  lolal  result  of  the  full  development 
of  a  sinsU  E.     See  Reproduction  and  Ovum, 

Egg,  Chemistry  m^— Chemically  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
the  parts  of  an  oc<finary  hen's  E.  have  been  determined  as  fol- 
lows :— The  entire  weight  is  1000  grains,  of  which  the  white, 
consisting,  in  100  parts,  of  80  parts  water,  is§  parts  dry  albumen, 
and  4i  parts  salts,  &c.,  weighs  600  grains  ;  theyolk,  consisting, 
in  100  parts,  of  S3|  parts  water,  I7§  parts  dry  albumen^  and  aSJ 
parts  oils  suspended  in  the  yolk  in  minute  globules,  weighs  300 
grains ;  while  the  shell,  consisting  of  lime,  weighs  too  grains. 

Egg  Trade. — Great  attention  is  now  being  paid  to  the  rearing 
of  poultry  in  the  United  Kingdom,  Stunulus  was  given  by  the 
Birmmgham  show,  and  the  directors  of  the  Crystal  Palace  have 
since  done  much  to  promote  a  love  of  barn-door  fowls.  But  yet 
home-laid  e^s  cannot  be  obtained  in  sufficient  numbers.  Imports 
of  eggs,  principally  from  France,  are  gradually  and  rapidfy  in- 
creasing. In  1845  only  about  70,000,000  were  received,  in  1 860 
160,000,000  j  in  the  first  ten  months  of  1875,  667,287,360.  The 
value  of  imported  eggs  lni86owas  ;f336,coo;  in  the  ten  months 
r^75.  £2,2^0,1%!.  French  and  Belgian  eggs  taste  of  the  straw 
in  which  they  are  hampered. 

Egg's,  a  town  of  W.  Africa,  in  the  Yoniba  country,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Niger,  a  little  below  the  point  where  it  receives 
the  Kudunia.  Its  length  is  variously  stated  at  from  2  to  4  miles  j 
the  streets  are  narrow,  the  houses  conical,  built  of  clay,  and 
sometimes  stained  with  indigo.  The  chief  manufacture  Is  a  kind 
of  blue  cloth,  and  the  chief  articles  of  commerce  are  calabashes, 
silk,  yams,  potatoes,  corn,  and  fish.     Pop.  uncertain. 

Egg-Apple,  or  Egg-Plant,  the  name  given  to  the  edible 
fmils  produced  by  species  of  Solanaceous  plants  allied  to  the 
potato.  Of  these  species,  Solanum  iraigeruta  and  S.  melctigeiia 
of  the  E.  Indies  are  weli-known  examples.  In  the  latter,  the 
pkint  has  a  woody  stem  and  attains  a  height  of  two  feet.  The 
fruit  is  in  shape  and  siie  like  a  hen's  egg,  and  is  of  white  or 
yellowish  colour.  These  fruits  are  eaten  in  the  E.  Indies. 
_  Egg'ar  moth  {Lasiocampa_  lnfola\,  a  species  of  Lepldopterous 
insects,  the  caterpillars  of  which  ai-e  found  on  clover  and  broom. 
The  adult  moth  is  of  a  yellowish-brown  colour. 
Egg.Bird,  or  Sooty 

Sltmidts  or  Terns  (q.  v.), ... , .^^.v^. 

dull  black  above  and  white  below.  The  bill  is  long  and  straight. 
The  popular  name  of  the  bird  is  derived  from  the  favour  in 
which  its  eggs  (numbering  three,  averaging  2  inches  in  length. 


i  of  a 


n-colourl  ate  Iield.      Sever.tl  other  species  of 
icui  aic  aiau  iinuwii  Under  the  nameof  E,-B. 
Egg,  Sea.     See  Echinus. 

EgTiam  ('church-town'),  a  village  in  the  county  of  Surrey, 
18  miles  W.  from  London,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Thames, 
and  connected  with  the  market-town  of  Staines,  on  the  oppo- 
site bank,  by  a  handsome  bridge.  The  meadow  of  Runnymede, 
where  King  John  signed  Magna  Charta,  15th  June  1215,  is  in  the 
neighbourhood.     Pop.  (1871)  5895. 

Eginliard,  or  Milliard,  a  Prankish  historian,  was  bom 
about  770  in  Austrasia,  and  studied  at  Aix-la-Chape!le  under  the 
ftimousAlcuin(q.  v.).  He  became  a  favourite  of  Karl  the  Great, 
who  made  him  his  private  secretary  and  superintendent  of  build- 
ings. On  Karl's  death,  Hludwig  the  Pious  appointed  E,  tutor  to 
his  son  Lothar.  It  was  once  supposed  that  in  815  he  resigned 
his  offices  and  entered  a  monastray,  while  his  wife  at  the  sai 
time  took  the  veil;  but  his  title.  Abbot  of  Fontenelle,  ofB... 
digny,  &c,  seems  to  have  been  merely  a  lay  dignity,  especlajiy 
as  his  wife  bore  him  a  son  after  815.  Having  received  the  relics 
of  the  martyrs  Petrus  and  Marcelinus  from  Rome  in  S27,  he 
placed  them  in  his  abode  at  Miihlheim,  which  he  renamed  Seli- 
geustadt  ('town  of  the  blessed'),  and  where  he  founded  a  Bene- 
dictine abbey.  He  died  probably  m  844,  The  romantic  tale  of 
his  loves  with  Enima,  Karl's  daughter,  and  of  her  carrying  hii 
across  the  palace  courtyard,  that  the  snow  might  not  betray  h 
nocturnal  visit,  is  purely  fictitious,  as  K  does  not  mention  a 
Emma  among  the  Emperor's  daughters.  A  similar  tale  is  rt 
counted  of  a  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Heinrich  III,  in  William 
of  Malmesbury.  E.'3  works  include  Vila  Caroli  Magni,  a  pre- 
cious source  of  information  in  regard  to  the  great  emperor,  rich 
in  interesting  details,  and  written  m  singularly  excellent  L^tin ; 
Annales  Xegtim  Frmuorum,  Ptfim,  Caroli  Magiii,  et  Ltidovici 
Fii;  and  Episiola,  sixty-two  in  number,  which  shed  considerable 
light  on  the  history  of  his  times.  The  best  edition  of  E,  is  that 
by  M,  Teulet,  with  a  Freuch  translation  (Par.  2  vols,  1S40). 

Eglantine.     See  Sweet  Brier. 

Eglinton,  Earls  of.     See  Montgomery, 

Eg'mout,  I-amoral,  Ooiiiit,  Prince  of  Qavre,  one  of 

the  most  striking  historical  figures  of  the  l6tli  c,  the  descen- 
dant of  an  ancient  and  noble  Batavian  family,  was  bom  at  the 
castleof  Hamaide,Hamault,ini523.  In  early  youth  he  acted  as 
page  to  the  Emperor  Karl  V.  In  his  nineteenth  year  he  com- 
manded a  troop  of  light  horse  in  an  expedition  to  Barbary.  In 
1545  he  married  Sabina  Countess-Palatine  of  Bavaria,  the  Em- 
peror Karl,  Ferdinand  King  of  the  Romans,  and  the  Archduke 
Maximilian  being  present  at  the  we^dmg.  E.  was  the  head  of 
a  splendid  embassy  to  England  in  1553,  to  solicit  the  hand  of 
Queen  Mary  for  Philip  IL  rf  Spain  ;  m  the  spruig  of  1554  he 
was  sent  on  a  second  mission  to  exchange  the  ratifications  of  the 
marriage  treaty.  To  him  were  due  the  victories  of  St  Quentin 
(1557}  and  Gravelines  (1558),  which  the  Spaniards  won  against 
the  French  forces.  From  his  position  and  influence  he  became 
naturally  involved  in  the  struggles  of  the  Protestants,  in  the 
Netherlands.  In  this  connection,  the  vacillation  and  weakness 
of  his  character  proved  his  rum.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  troubles 
he  took  his  place  side  by  side  with  his  ally  the  Prince  of  Orange 
"-  the  van  of  the  malcontents  ;  but  when  the  Protestants  arose 
open  insurrection,  E.  wavered,  and  finally  deserted  the  Prince 
of  Orange  and  the  Protestants.  The  promulgation  of  the  decrees 
of  the  Council  of  Trent  in  the  Netherlands  m  1564  occasioned 
the  greatest  discontent,  and  E.  was  selected  to  proceed  (1565)  on 
a  mission  to  Madrid  to  lay  before  Philip  the  complaints  of  his 
Flemish  subjects.  Margaret,  Duchess  of  Parma,  whose  adminis- 
'  ition  as  Regent  of  the  Netherlands  had  been  so  far  successful 
establishing  a  spirit  of  toleration  and  conciliation  between  Ca- 
tholics and  Protestants,  was  superseded  in  1567  by  the  cruel  and 
bigoted  Duke  of  Alva.  The  new  governor  called  a  meeting  of 
the  council  of  state  at  Culemborg  House  on  the  gth  September 
1567,  and  here  E.  and  his  friend  Count  Hoom,  who  luid  been 
invited  to  the  meeting  in  the  interests  of  the  country,  were  ar- 
rested and  sent  under  military  escort  to  the  fortress  of  Ghent. 
For  the  purpose  of  wreaking  swift  vengeance  on  those  who  had 
allied  themselves  with  the  cause  of  the  people  and  of  Protestan- 
tism, Alva  instituted  a  tribunal  which  became  .popularly  known 
as  the  Council  of  Blood.  Arraigned  before  this  court  on  a  charge 
of  treason,  resting  on  ninety  different  counts,  E.  and  Hoorn  were 


yLaOOgle 


EGM 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EGY 


found  guilty,  were  condemned  to  death,  and  were  beheaded  m 
the  market-place  of  Brussels,  S*  June  1568.  See  Juste  s  Le 
CoMe  iCE.  it  Le  ComU  ds  Homts  (Brass.  1863) ;  Prescott  s 
PhUip  IL,  King  of  Spam  (Routledge,  Lond.  1862);  Motley's 
Rise  of  Ihe  Dutch  Republic  iyiiiLUi,  Lond.  1856). 

Bginoilt,  JUOTont,  a  Temarlia.ble  extinct  volcano,  of  conical 
form  and  isolated  position,  in  the  province  of  Taranaki,  in  the 
N.  Island  of  New  Zealand,  8270  ftet  above  the  sea, 

Egret  a  termfiequenllyappled  to  a  species  of  heron  (^^jtAw 
eeretla)  inhabiting  the  southern  parts  of  America,  and  pass- 
ing northwai-ds  in  the  spring 
of  each  year.  Its  colour,  and 
also  that  of  allied  species,  is 
snowy  white,  the  tail  being  of 
a  yellowish  tint.  The  Mil  is 
long  and  sharp,  and  of  bright 
yellow  colour.  The  average 
total  length  of  the  full  grown 
b  rd  IS  4  feet     The  food 


>   of  > 


,   fishes,   and 


small   mammals      The  tail 

feathers  are  in  great  request 

for  the  puipose   of  maimg 

brushes   for   switching    awav 

-^.^^      _-  flies  and  other  insects.     The 

„    "   "  name  E.  is  often  very  loosely 

^°''  employed  in  ornithology,  and 

probably  the  separation  of  the  egrets  from  the  herons,  advocated 

by  some  writers,  is  hardly  warrantable. 

Egripo,  or  Erripo,  an  Italian  corruption  of  the  Gr.  Euripos, 
'  the  strait  with  the  violent  channel,' a  name  given  first  to  the 
channel  between  Negropont  and  the  mainland,  and  then  to  the 
town  E.,  on  the  site  of  the  andent  Chalcis  (q.  v.).  Pop.  (1870) 
6447- 

EgTPt  (J^t'  ^iypt^i  Ital.  Bgillo,  Fr.  Agyple),  according 
lo  its  present  geographical  limits,  is  the  largest  country  in  Africa, 
extending  along  the  basin  of  the  Nile  from  the  Mediteiranean  to 
the  equator,  and  including  besides  E.  Proper,  Nubia,  Dar- 
fur,  Kordofan,  &c.  It  is  bounded  E.  by  Arabia  Petriea, 
the  Red  Sea,  Abyssinia,  and  the  country  of  the  Gallas  ;  W. 
by  the  IJbyan  Desert,  or  eastern  part  of  the  Sahara ;  and  S. 
of  Waday  hy  numerous  native  states  and  by  the  Albert  N'yanza 
Lalte.  But  the  limits  of  its  southern  frontier  are  still  very  in- 
definite, nor  can  we  feel  quite  sure  of  the  permanence  of  the 
recent  annexations.  E.  Proper  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
countries  in  the  world,  on  account  of  its  early  civilisation,  its 
intimate  coiicectiDn  witli  sacred  history,  its  imperishable  monu- 
ments of  art,  and  the  magnificence  of  its  ruined  cities  and 
temples.  The  following  table  gives  the  areas  and  populations 
of  the  various  divisions  of  the  kingdom,  according  to  the  BerSl- 
kerung  der  Erdi  of  Behm  and  Wagner,  Golha,  1875  :— 


D;.i.i„.. 

Aieainw,, 

Populatitin, 

'Kr.,!i;.X»»"— ''""'"  •''1 

i-ii.ioa 

,S:°f 

369,400 

i  6,9  J  J,  000 

E.  Proper  extends  from  the  mouth  of  the  Nile  to  the  first 
cataract  (Assouan),  between  lat.  24'  lo' to  31°  3S'N.,  and  long. 
25°  to  35°  E.  The  Arabian  division  of  the  country  is  stiil  main- 
tained,  by  which  it  is  portioned  into  the  three  great  districts, 
Masr-el-Bahri,  or  the  Delia;  El-Vustani,  or  Middle  E, ;  and 
El-Said,  or  Upper  E. — designations  dravm  from  the  broadly- 
marked  changes  pbservable  in  the  course  of  the  Nile.  These 
three  districts  are  subdivided  into  eleven  administrative  pro- 
vinces. Caho  is  the  capital,  and  the  other  important  towns  are 
Alexandria,  Damietta,  Tanla,  Rosetta,  Bulak,  Port-Said  I 
mailia,  and  Suez. 

General  Aspect. — The  great  natural  feature  of  E.  is  the  n 
Nile,  which  fiovrs  through  its  entire  length,  and  which  i    th 
means  of  its  internal  commerce,  and  the  main  support  and      gu 
lator  of  its  whole  system  of  agriculture.    Ii»  its  windings  thr     Q. 


Nubia,  and  during  its  straighter  course  in  E.  Proper,  the  Nile 
(q.  v.)  is  enclosed  by  a  double  range  of  low  hills,  som'' 
10  or  12  miles  apart,  but  in  many  places  approaching  the 
banks  precipitously.  -About  roo  miles  from  the  Mediteri 
the  stream  separates  into  two  main  and  several  minor  branches, 
enclosing  the  fertile  region  of  the  Delta.  The  western  half  of  E. 
forms  part  of  the  Lybian  Desert,  and  the  hills  which  separate  it 
from  the  Nile  valley  are  called  the  Lybian  Mountains.  Those 
flanking  the  right  bank  of  the  river  are  the  Arabian  Mountains, 
which  reach  a  height  of  9000  feet.  Between  the  Nile  and 
the  Red  Sea  the  surface  is  for  the  most  part  hilly  and  barren, 
but  there  are  numerous  wadis  or  fertile  ravines  where  a  rich 
vegetation  is  kept  alive  hy  perennial  springs.  The  cultivable  parls 
of  E.  are  the  Delta,  the  Nile  valley  to  the  limits  of  the  inundation, 
the  oases  in  the  Lybian  Desert,  and  the  fertile  plains  of  Upper 
Nubia,  There  are  also  many  productive  tracts  in  the  subject 
states  and  in  the  annexed  territories,  particularly  in  Daifur 
(q.  v.),  but  these  are  only  partially  and  rudely  cultivated. 

Hydrography  and  Climate.— T\is  length  of  the  Nile,  from  the 
Albert  N'yanza  to  the  sea,  is  about  3300  miles.  It  receives  in 
its  upper  course  tlie  Asua,  tlie  Bahr-el-Ghazel,  the  Sobat,  the 
Blue  Nile,  and  the  Atbara ;  but  below  the  point  of  confluence 
with  the  last  of  these,  and  for  the  final  1500  miles  of  its  course, 
its  waters  are  not  further  augmented  by  a  single  tributary.  The 
Atbara,  or  Bahr-el-Aswad  ('  hkck  river '),  is  the  great  source  of 
the  black  mud  or  slime  that  gives  to  E.  bet  fertility.  This  alln- 
vium  is  regularly  distributed  over  the  flat  lands  by  the  great  annual 
inundation  of  the  Nile,  the  most  singular  of  all  hydragraphlc 
phenomena,  whether  as  regards  its  results  or  its  r^ularity.  The 
river  begins  to  rise  at  Khartum,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Blue 
Nile,  early  in  April,  and  in  Lower  E.  the  first  day  of  the  inun- 
dation is  usually  the  25th  of  June.  The  flood  reaches  its  height 
in  three  roontlis,  remains  stationary  some  twelve  days,  and  then 
gradually  subsides,  leaving  a  deposit  of  mud  which  has  been 
estimated  as  amounting  to  6  inches  in  a  century.  Any  irregularity 
of  excess  or  deficiency  in  the  umndation  seriously  affects  the 
productiveness  of  the  laud,  but  this  seldom  happens.  Much 
waste  countn"  is  being  reclaimed  by  improved  irrigation  and  an 
extension  ai  the  system  of  canals.  The  climate  is  extremely 
dry,  as  the  whole  of  K  Proper  lies  within  the  '  rainless  zone.' 
The  year  is  practically  divided  into  the  two  seasons  spring 
and  summer,  the  sununer  heat  being  tempered  by  the  fresh 
northeriy  or  Etesian  breeze.  Of  all  the  prevailing  winds, 
the  most  OOT>ressive  and  imhealthy  is  the  Khamsin,  or  hot 
wind  of  the  S.,  which  blows  during  April  and  May.  After  tlie 
inundation,  !>.,  in  November  or  later,  the  soil  gives  forth  ex- 
halations which  favour  ophthalmia,  dysentery,  and  other  diseases. 
The  temperature  in  Lower  E.  varies  from  50°  to  100°  F.,  while 
it  is  some  10°  higher  in  tlie  southern  parts  of  Upper  E.,  where 
also  the  clunate  is  healthier.  The  plague,  which  is  rarely  severe 
in  its  visitations,  does  not  usually  ascend  far  above  Cairo. 

Geology  and  Mineralogy.— Th&  Lybian  and  Arabian  hii!  ranges 
are  cretaceous,  consisting  chiefly  of  durable  sandstone,  and  being 
covered  in  part  by  nummulitlc  limestone.  Of  this  limestone  are 
built  the  three  pyramids  of  Gizeh.  A  belt  of  granitic  rodis, 
about  50  miles  broad,  stretches  along  the  S.  of  Upper  E.,  begin- 
ning at  the  cataract  of  Assouan,  and  extending  into  Nubia.  IE 
is  a  wild  region,  presenting  bold  cliffs  towards  the  Nile,  which  is 
occasionally  forced  into  splendid  cataracts.  Besides  those  already 
mentioned,  the  chief  rocks  are  syenite,  basalt,  breccia,  alabaster 
(at  Tel-el-Amama),  and  porphyry. '  To  a  great  extent  the  sur- 
face is  covered  with  the  shifting  desert  sands.  The  alluvium 
brought  down  by  the  Nile  consists  partly  of  quartose  sand,  and 
partly  of  argillaceous  earth.  At  Gebel  Zabara  there  are  emerald- 
mines.  Among  the  other  minerals  are  marble,  salt,  nitre,  natron, 
and  sulphur. 

Botany,  Agri^tiirf,  and  Zoology.— -The  botany  of  E.  Proper, 
which  is  confined  within  the  Nile  valley,  is  singularly  rich,  and 
includes  many  European  trees  and  plants.  The  most  notable 
trees  are  the  date-palm,  the  doom-palm,  the  acacia,  the  tamarisk, 
and  tlie  sycamore.  There  is  an  extensive  cultivation  of  sugar- 
cane cotton  indigo  opium  hemp,  tobacco,  &c  ;  while  among 
th    f     t  th  g       P       t  pomegranate,  lemon,  and  fig, 

bes  d        pTiles    p    rs    p    cl  es    plums,   grapes,   melons,   and 
b  n     1  tus        w  t    -ffly  of  the  NEe,  is  still  found, 

h  t  th  f  m  p  pjn  has  tired  far  up  the  river.  Agricul- 
ti      1  as  1    g  b  f      ir  t    occupation,  the  system  of  irri- 

t         Ji  b  ed   t      great    peifection.       The   chief 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOFyEDIA. 


EGY 


♦- 


cereals  are  wheat,  barley,  rice,  millet,  maize,  and  duna.  In 
1873  the  area  under  cultivation  amounted  to  540,000  acres. 
The  fauna  of  E.  proper  is  extensive,  including,  besides  all  the 
usual  domestic  animals,  Ihe  jackal,  hyfena,  ic&ieumon,  jerboa, 
the  camel,  the  crocodile,  the  soft  tortoise  {frionyx),  the  ostrich, 
Slc  Among  the  animals  fonnedy  common  were  the  hippopo- 
tamus, rhinoceros,  and  giraffe.  There  are  n\any  aquatic  bii^, 
and  several  kinds  of  serpents,  of  which  the  most  dHidly  are  the 
asp  and  the  cerastes.  The  most  notable  insect  is  perhaps  the 
sacred  beetle  (.SfaraiiEajjotir).  Offish  the  Nile  affords  a  plenti- 
ful supply,  while  locusts  and  mosquitoes  are  the  scourge  of  the 
country. 

Manufactures  and  Commerce. — The  modern  Egyptians  are  in 
great  part  an  agncultural  people,  but  the  various  manufacturing 
industries  have  been  greatly  developed  of  late  years.  Much 
attention  has  been  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  sugar-cane  in 
Upper  E.,  and  the  banks  of  the  Nile  are  &3t  becoming  dotted 
with  Government  sagar-fiictories,  of  which  there  are  already 
(1875)  o'S''  twenty,  producing  278,000,000  lbs.  in  a  season. 
There  are  also  large  cotton-factories,  several  dyeing  and  cotton- 

Erinting  establishments,  extensive  iron-foundries,  and  some  ship- 
uilding.  The  other  manufactures  are  pottery,  firearms,  woollen 
cloths,  carpets,  glass,  and  red  caps.  As  in  ancient  times,  K  has 
once  moie  become  liie  highroad  of  Eastern  commerce,  nearly  all 
the  trade  to  and  from  India  passing  now  through  the  Suez  Canal 
(q.  v.).  The  vast  traffic  between  E.  and  England  is  for  the  most 
part  in  goods  in  transit,  chiefly  from  India.  It  consists  of  ex- 
ports to  England  amountii^  (1874)  to  .^10,514,798 ;  imports 
from  England,  .^5,585, 106.  There  is,  however,  an  important  en- 
port  trade  in  native  produce,  the  principal  articles  of  which  are 
gum,  ivory,  llides,  ostrich  feathers,  &c.,  from  the  Sudan;  senna 
and  wax  fi:om  Abyssinia ;  tamarinds  from  Dar-fur ;  cotton  and 
sugar  from  Upper  E.,  besides  mother-of-pearl,  shells,  drugs,  &c. 
The  chief  imports  are  indigo,  shawls,  &c,  from  the  East ; 
sheep  and  tobacco  from  Turkey  and  Syria;  cottons,  woollens, 
and  hardware  from  England  and  Germany ;  and  cloth,  furni- 
ture, and  miUinery  (rom  France  and  Austria. 

Raihaays  and  Mnance, — The  railways  of  E.  belong  to  the 
state,  and  have  a  total  length  (1875)  of  955  miles.  The  two 
main  lines  are  those  from  Alexandria  to  Suez,  and  from  Cairo  to 
Minieh,  up  the  Nile  valley.  It  is  mtended  to  carry  the  latter  as 
far  as  Khartum.  There  are  also  86go  miles  of  telegraph  wires. 
The  state  expendilure  in  1873-74  "'as  estimated  at  ;^8,8l6,ooo, 
and  the  revenue  at  ;f9,9ii, 300,  while  in  the  same  year  Ihe  aggre- 
gate state  debt  amounted  to  ^70,044,740,  of  whidi  ^13, 174,360 
was  the  personal  or  private  debt  of  the  Khedive.  Until  recent 
years  no  financial  accounts  were  published,  but  in  1874  appeared 
a  condensed  statement  of  the  revenue  and  expenditure  for  the 
ten  years  ending  September  30,  1873,  At  the  request  of  the 
Khedive,  a  commLssion,  presided  over  by  the  Hon.  Stephen 
Cave,  went  from  Endand  to  investigate  the  state  of  Egyptian 
finances  and  debt  in  December  1875,  The  modern  coins  are 
the  piastre  (of  40  paras)  =  2jd.,  and  the  kees  or  purse  (of  500 
piastres)  =^5,  as.  6d.- 

Governmsni  and  4rmy — The  ruler  of  E  pays  to  the  'iultan 
s.n  annual  tribute  of  about  £700  ooo  In  i860  the  suctession 
was  made  direct  from  father  to  son,  mstead  of,  according  to 
the  Turkish  law,  to  the  eldest  heir,  and  in  1867  Ismail,  the 
mbng  pnnce,  received  m  a  firman  from  the  Sultan  the  title 
of  Khsdrue  OE  sovereign  The  administration  is  in  the  hands 
of  a  Cotmcil  of  State  of  four  military  and  four  civil  digni 
tanes,  appointed  by  the  Khedive.  The  army,  which  is  raised 
by  conscription,  consisted  (1875)  of  four  regiments  of  infantry, 
each  of  3000  men,  a  battalion  of  chasseurs  1000  strong,  3500 
cavalry,  1500  artillery  and  two  battalions  of  engineers  each 
of  1500  There  are  besides  two  regiments  of  black  troops  num 
bermg  2000  The  navy  comprises  7  ships  of  the  line,  6  fi  gates, 
9  corvettes,  7  bnga,  18  gunboats,  and  27  transports. 

Educatiiin  and  lieligbm. — Much  is  being  done  for  the  spread 
of  education  in  E.,  the  special  superintendence  of  the  schools 
being  the  doty  of  the  second  son  of  the  Khedive.  The  theo- 
logiad  university  of  Cairo  was  attended  (1873)  by  6774  students, 
while  as  many  as  62,201  were  receiving  education  at  schools  of 
all  kinds.  Promotion  in  (he  army  has  been  made  subject  to 
educational  tests  since  1S70.  The  great  majority  of  the  people 
ire  Mohammedans. 

History. — Uppei"  E.  was  once  called  Meroe,  and  at  another 
lime  Cush  or  ElJiiopla,  both  which  names  were  afterwards  cat- 
496 


ried  to  Abyssinia,  The  local  name  of  E.  itself  is  Chemi  (I 
or  Sham,  also  said  to  mean  '  the  black ') ;  the  Hebrew  name 
Mizraim,  one  of  the  tribes  of  t!ie  children  of  Ham.  The  Greek 
names,  ji^gyptus  and  the  Land  of  Copts,  were  at  first  applied 
to  the  Delta  aione.  E.  probably  contained  two  races,  ('-■ 
seen  m  the  kings  who  ruled  at  Sais,  and  that  seen  in 
kings  and  gods  of  Tiiebes.  The  first  is  marked  by  a  retreating 
forehead,  a  forward  mouth,  and  an  excessive  length  from  chin 
to  the  back  of  the  head  ;  it  is  still  seen  in  the  modern  Fellah 
and  the  Galla  tribe  S.  of  Abyssinii  The  second  has  an  intel- 
lectual head,  with  upright  forehead  and  aquiline  nose.  Accord- 
ing to  one  view  the  latter  was  a  coni^uering  race,  owning  the 
land,  to  which  it  gave  its  warriors,  religion,  and  language  ;  the 
former  tilled  the  laud  and  paid  the  taxes  (Morton's  Crania 
j^Syptiatd).  The  first  king  of  the  old  empire  is  Mena  0 
Menes  ('the  eternal,' Minos  and  Menu?),  the  founder  of  Men- 
nefer  or  Memphis  ('good  port')  and  of  the  earliest  religious 
rites.  His  date  varies  from  3000  to  2000  B.C.,  the  Greek  lists 
of  Eratosthenes,  Manetho,  and  the  tablets  of  Abydos  being  in 
almost  constant  contradiction.  He  is  the  first  of  sin  dynasties, 
some  of  which  lived  at  This  (Gr.  Abydos),  ruling  over  the  land 
between  Lycopolis  and  Tentyra.  Another  Thinite  king,  called 
Kakan,  introduced  the  worship  of  the  bulls  Apis  and  Mnev' 
and  the  goat  Baentattu.  In  a  later  Memphite  dynasty  is  t 
name  of  Ser  or  Serbes,  afterwards  made  the  god  Aieraapt  1 
account  of  the  encouragement  he  gave  to  medicine  and  building 
with  polished  stones.  The  history  of  the  fourth  (Mempliite) 
dynasty  is  contained  not  merely  in  Greek  glosses,  but  in  local 
inscriptions.  Seiiefhi  conquered  the  'Shepherds  of  the  East' 
near  the  majka  mme  in  Smai ;  Khufu  (Cheops)  built  the  great 

Eyramid  {mer  or  abwur)  at  Ghizeh,  near  which  Caviglia  and 
[ariette  discovered  the  Temple  of  the  Sphinx.  Cheops  also 
conquered  Thebes  (which  had  by  this  time  absorbed  This, 
Elephantine,  Heracleopolis,  and  Heliopolis)  and  Tih,  or  the 
hill  country  m  Sinai,  where  inscriptions  may  be  seen  at  Wady 
Magarah.  Besides  the  prim'Uivi  deities,  such  as  Ra,  the  Sun 
(who  formed  a  trinity  with  Maut,  the  mother,  and  the  hawk- 
headed  Chonso,  a  moon-god),  the  secondary  deities,  Kneph,  the 
ram-headed  spirit,  Pthah,  tlie  fire-god,  Tlioth,  the  ibis-headed 
god  of  letters  or  pillar-god,  Athor  or  Venus,  and  Pasht,  goddess 
of  chastity,  were  now  worshipped.  Isis  and  Osiris  were  at  first 
demigods,  and  their  popularity  changed  from  time  to  time. 
Their  sons  were  Horns,  the  hawk-headed,  and  Anubis,  the 
jackal-headed.  Osiris  had  been  killed  by  Typhon,  the  hippo- 
potamus. Nephihys  was  the  sister  of  Isis.  Tliis  period  is 
marked  by  the  first  cano  rilieno  and  painfing  in  monochromes  ; 
it  has  an  extensive  hieroglyphic  language.  The  fifth  dynasty  is 
called  Elephantine,  the  name  of  a  city  on  an  island  in  the  Nile, 
just  below  the  cataract  at  Syene.  The  kingdom  of  Elephantine 
may  have  reached  N.  to  Silsilis,  and  S.  to  the  cataract  at  Abou- 
sambul  in  Nubia.  The  kings  are  now  distinguished  by  the 
termination  Ra.  One  of  them,  Plahhetp,  is  the  author  of  the 
moral  precepts  on  the  Prisse  Papyrus.  The  sixth  dynasty  (Mem- 
phite) includes  Nitocria,  the  'rosy-cheeked  queen,'  and  there 
is  a  trace  of  an  expedition  af^in  h  H  rusha,  inhabitants 
of  the  Waste  on  the  N.E.     Thei  p    b  bly     ntempoiary 

dynasties  at  This,  Thebes,  Mempl  nd  Ef  ph  ne.  There 
was  also  a  race  of  kings  at  Hera  1  p  1  nil  f  m  Memphis 
up  tiie  river  to  Lycopolis.  A  km  f  H  ra  1  p  hs  (perhaps 
Amenemha  III.)  constructed  the  Lalt     Mte  d  ain  off  ex- 

cessive inundation  and  to  store    g  d  fi     n     nundations. 

Another  king  of  Heracleopolis  bu  I  h  Labyrmth  hl5oocells 
— theTombof  the  Sacred  Crocodil  des  bedbyH  odotus.  In 
the  city  of  Chois,  in  the  Delta,  there  was  an  independent  dynasty 
of  priests,  who  saw  the  invasion  of  the  Hykslios,  or  shepherd 
kings,  called  '  lepers '  in  the  British  Museum  Papyrus,  probably 
an  Arabian  or  Pbcenician  race,  who  fixed  themselves  at  Memphis 
and  confined  the  native  rulers  to  Thebes.  '  But  these  names  lead 
into  what  Dr  Birch — occupying  a  middle  place  between  the  extra- 
vagant chronology  of  Bunsen  and  the  sober  estimates  of  Sharpe — 
calls  the  Middle  Empire,  consisting  of  twelve  dynasties  from  B.C. 
2000  to  B.C.  1600.  This  period  ends  just  before  the  reign  of 
Rameses  I.,  whose  date  in  Sharpe's  chronology  is  drca  B.C. 
1200.  A  more  interesting  era  is  that  of  Thothmosis  HI., 
cirea  B.C.  1322,  when  it  seems  almost  certain  that  the  sovereign 
power  of  E.  was  concentrated  at  Thebes  (Tape,  or  'i^^city  ). 
Before  going  to  that  era,  a  few  names  must  be  mentioned. 
Osirtesen  I.,  King  of  Thebes,  perhaps  before  the  conquest  by 


yLaOOgle 


BOY 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA.- 


EOT 


Cheops  of  Memphis,  built  the  tombs  of  Beni  Hassan  ;  adapted 
hiert^lyphics  to  represent  not  objects  or  even  words  merely,  but 
syllables  and  letters  ;  divided  the  year  into  the  seasons  of  vegeta- 
tion,, harvest,  and  inundation,  containing  twelve  months  of  thirty 
days,  to  which  the  five  additional  days,  called  by  the  Greeks 
efagsmenai,  were  added  ;  and  encouraged  the  application  of  steel 
to  the  arts  of  peace  and  war.  Thebes  and  Memphis  com- 
bined against  fhe  Hykshos,  or  CaphtoriCes,  whom  they  drove 
into  the  N.E.,  and  who  left  behind  in  the  name  Pelusium  their 
Canaanilish  name  of  Philistines.  Amunothph  I.  (1450?)  first 
mairied  a  black-skinned  wife,  thus  obtaining  Ethiopia  as  far 
as  Tombos  or  Napata.  Negroes  novf  appear  in  the  sculptures 
as  domestic  and  agricultur^  servants.  It  was  in  the  14th  c. 
B.C.  that  Zeph-net-Phtenich,  the  biblical  Joseph,  introduced 
tlie  ryot  tenure  to  Lower  K ,  the  land-tenants  paying  a  fixed 
rent  of  one-fifth.  It  Js  not  clear  whether  the  biblical  Pharaoh 
was  king  of  Memphis  or  of  Bubastis.  The  Hebrew  immigrants, 
called  Shemmo,  or  'strangers,*  were  placed  in  Goshen  ('upper 
lands ')  and  the  town  of  Succoth  ('  the  tenis ').  Memphis  and 
Thebes  are  agdn  brought  together  by  the  marriage  of  Thothmosis 
II.  to  Nitocris,  but  a  striking  difference  is  still  to  be  observed 
between  the  architectures  of  Upper  and  Lower  E.,  between  ex- 
cavated tomb  and  pyramid,  between  the  work  of  free  men  and 
that  of  slaves.  The  Egyptians  knew  at  this  time  the  wedge,  the 
lever,  the  inclined  plane,  but  not  the  screw,  the  pulley,  or  the 
wheel  and  Bile.  They  had,  however,  two-wheeled  carriages  m 
place  of  the  primitive  boards  strapped  on  the  backs,  of  two  tisses. 
From  B.C.  1322  to  990  we  have  the  Tlieban  kings  supreme  in  E. 
The  horizon  of  history  widens  m  the  reign  of  Thothmosis  HI., 
whose  warlike  and  commercial  expeditions  to  Nubia  and  Syria 
are  chronicled  on  the  sandstone  wall  at  Karnalc.  King  Amu- 
nothph  II.  is  probably  the  Pharaoh  under  whom  Moses  led 
out  the  Israelites,  who,  identified  with  the  old  Phcenician  in- 
vaders, had  latterly  been  treated  with  severity.  Thothmosis  IV. 
(builder  of  (he  Great  Sphinx)  was  succeeded  i^  Amnnothph  III. 
(lord  of  Mendes,  and  called  by  the  Greek  epitomists  Memnon), 
whose  name  is  found  very  often  in  the  granite  district  of  the 
Second  Cataract.  He  built  the  musical  Colossus  at  Luxor, 
and  married  Tii,  a  foreign  woman  painted  pink.  He  cultivated 
the  cat-headed  goddess  Pasht,  and  tried  to  introduce  from  Ethio- 
pia  the  worship  of  Atennefru,  '  the  most  lovely  disc '  of  the  sun. 
The  next  king  persecuted  all  religion  except  the  solar,  and 
drove  out  the  Greek  settlement  at  Sais,  which  had  flourished 
there  for  centuries,  and  whose  movement  gave  rise  to  the  legends 
of  Erechthetis,  Cadmus,  and  Danaiis  in  Greece.  Rameses  I.  (first 
king  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty)  is  succeeded  by  Sell  or  Oimeneph- 
thah  L ,  whose  alabaster  sarcophagus,  discovered  by  Belzoni,  and 
now  in  the  Sloane  Museum,  is  the  most  beautiful  of  Egyptian 
monuments.  Rameses  II.  warred  against  the  Khtta  (Gr.  Bac- 
ttians),  supposed  by  Gladstone  to  be  the  Ket^  of  the  Odyssey. 
See  the  Saltier  Papyrus  (British  .Museum),  called  the  '  Iliad  of 
Egypt '  Besides  the  Memnonium  and  the  Hall  of  Columns,  be 
built  the  well  at  Contra  Pselcis  for  the  gold-miners  who  crossed 
the  desert  with  their  asses  to  Gebel-OUaki.  He  sent  his  negro 
prisoners  to  the  N.,  and  his  Asiatic  prisoners  to  the  S,  The 
names  on  the  monuments  of  Oimenephtah  II.  suggest  aradng  his 
enemies  the  Shatutana  or  Sardinians,  the  Turska  or  Etruscans, 
the  Shakalusha  or  Sicilians,  the  Luka  or  Lycians,  and  the 
Akaiwsha  or  Greeks  (fonnerly  called  Hanebu  or  lonians).  This 
king  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Eiodus.  A 
new  route  lias  been  su^ested  for  the  Israelites,  viz,,  bv  the  isthmus 
between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Lake  Serbonis,  fiill  of  sea- 
weed and  reeds.  See  Brugsch  Bey's  lecture  before  the  Inter- 
national Congress  of  Orientalists,  r7th  September  1874  {Aca- 
demy, 26th  September  1875),  After  a  period  in  which  the  Harris 
Papyrus  indicates  the  presence  of  a  Syrian  usurper,  Rameses 
III.,  the  Solomon  of  E.,  called  by  Herodotas  Eampsindus,  with 
the  help  of  his  Council  of  Thirty,  reoiganised  the  social  classes. 
His  lists  of  victories  refer  to  (he  Piilusata  (Pelas^),  Tsekkarin 
(Teucrians),  Uashasha  (Oscl).  Rameses  XII.  is  connected 
with  the  worship  of  Khons  (the  Moon),  whose  temple  con- 
tained the  Cynoaphali,  or  living  apes.  The  Cofi^e  of 
Sacred  Tribes  {rskhkhet),  and  fhe  doctors  of  magic  {rekhget- 
amon,  '  those  acquainted  with  hidden  words,'  the  charl%tmmms  ai 
Exodus),  sent  the  ark  of  Khons  to  cure  a  princess  in  Bakhtan 
(thought  to  be  Ecbatana).  By  this  time  additional  gods  had  ap- 
peared— in  Niibia,  Chem,  the  god  of  generation,  who  carries  a 
whip ;  Sebek  or  Seb,  the  crocodile  :  in  the  Delta  the  sun  was 
138 


called,  not  Amun-Ra,  but  Athom  and  Mando ;  Neith  was  (he 
queen  of  heaven,  who  gave  kings  and  sages  inspiration  through 
the  sacred  acacia-tree.  The  period  (B.C.  945-^97)  is  marked  by 
the  rise  of  Tanis  and  Bubastis  and  the  E.  of  the  Delta,  the  decay 
of  Thebes,  civil  wars,  and  the  Ethiopian  invasion.  At  Thebes 
the  Ramessid  dynasty  is  succeeded  by  the  high-priests  of  Amun, 
who  were  conquered  by  Shishank  (Gt.  Simonchosii)  of  Bubastis, 
an  ally  of  the  Jews.  Amid  many  striking  differences  of  custom 
(e.g.,  the  Egyptians  worshipped  animak,  the  priests  shaved 
(he  head,  the  people  marked  (heir  bodies,  food  was  placed  ii 
tombs,  trees  were  planted  in  temple-yards),  both  Egyptians  am 
Jews  practised  circumcision,  abhorred  swine-flesh,  and  reckoned 
sunset  as  the  beginning  of  the  day,  and  much  religious  cere- 
mony is  common  to  the  two  nations.  Shishank  gave  the  military 
class  freedom  from  taxation.  For  two  centuries  there  seems  now 
to  have  been  great  confusion.  Tanis,  the  seat  of  the  export  trade 
in  com,  linen,  and  drags  Irom  E.,  rose  into  importance,,  to  be 
succeeded  by  Sais,  on  the  Canopio  branch  of  the  Nile,  where 
Bocchoris  the  Wise  enacted  the  laws  that  no  debtor  should  be  put 
in  prison,  and  that  there  should  be  a  written  acknowledgment  of 
every  debt.  Sais  itself  as  well  as  Thebes  and  Memphis  succumbed 
to  the  Ethiopian  king  Piankhi,  There  is  some  confusion  between 
this  expedition  and  that  of  Sabaco  or  So,  whom  Manetho  makes 
the  first  of  the  twenty-fiflh  or  Ethiopian  dynasty.  The  Assyrian 
cuneiforms  now  throw  light  on  Egyptian  history,  and  Tirh^ah, 
the  third  Ethiopian  king,  is  the  contemporary  of  Hezekiah,  and 
the  opponent  of  Sennacherib  and  Esarhaddon,  The  latter 
organised  a  portion  of  E,  into  a  subject  state  governed  by 
twenty  small  Icings.  Tirhakah  or  Rutamen  renewed  the  con- 
test with  Assur-bani-pal,  and  after  this  we  find  a  line  of  native 
kings  (distinguished  by  basalt  monuments)  consolidating  power 
at  Sais  in  the  W.  Delta  (B.C.  697-523).  Among  them  Psam- 
metichus  I.  is  prominent.  Necho  developed  the  Egyptian  navy, 
and  after  his  conquest  of  Syria  had  been  nullified  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar of  Babylon,  he  constructed  the  gteat  trench  from  the 
Bitter  Lakes  to  (he  marshes  at  Pelnsium,  and  by  one  account 
anticipated  the  Periplus  of  Hanno  by  sending  his  ships  round 
the  Cape.  Another  Psammelichus  (B.C.  588)  was  the  friend 
of  Zedekiah,  and  probably  in  his  reign  Jeremiah  wrote  his 
Lamentations  at  Hieropolis.  Hophra  (Gr.  Apries)  and  Aahnies 
continued  to  encourage  Greek  influences  in  both  trade  and  the 
army.  Amasis,  who  owed  his  elevation  to  a  revolt  of  the  old 
army  (the  Calasiries  aad  Heimotybies,  all  tenants  of  six  acres 
of  crown-lands,  serving  compulsorily  for  three  years)  against 
the  mercenaries,  made  Naucratis  the  chief  port  of  E.  Amasis 
also  established  the  power  of  E,  in  Cyprus.  After  his  death 
Cambyses  reduced  the  whole  countiy,  and  from  B.C.  523-333 
the  Persian  rule  is  broken  by  successive  rebellions.  By  the 
laws  of  the  Sais  supremacy,  death  was  inflicted  for  murder 
and  penury  and  even  for  killing  a  slave ;  killing  a  child  was 
punished  by  three  days'  imprisonment  with  the  dead  body. 
Wherever  possible,  the  punishment  fell  on  the  guilty  limb.  The 
accumulation  of  interest  was  limited  to  double  the  sum  originally 
lent.  Parricide  was  punished  by  burning.  There  was  no  limit 
to  the  number  of  wives  permitted  by  law ;  only  the  priests  were 
monogamists.  The  priests  were  m  four  classes — the  Soteno, 
wearing  the  tall  ball-topped  linen  cap  ;  the  Nowto,  wearing  the 
flatrlngor  plate  of  gold;  the  Othphto  ('dedicated,'  Gr.  kalochoi), 
under  monastic  vows  of  seclusion;  the  Bachano,  or  hired  servants 
of  the  rest.  The  number  of  local  names  given  to  products  shows 
(he  vigour  of  industty,  viz.,  ammonia,  from  the  oasis  of  Ammon  ; 
syenite,  from  Syene ;  natron  and  nitre,  from  Mount  Nitria ;  ala- 
baster, from  Alabastron;  topaz  and  sapphire,  from  the  islands 
of  Topazion  and  Sapirene  in  tlie  Red  Sea ;  emerald,  from 
Mount  Smaragdus,  &c  In  sculpture,  critics  already  distinguish 
the  Ethiopic,  Assyrian,  Greek,  and  later  Egyptian  or  Saitic 
schools.  The  first  is  marked  by  unnatural  stoutness,  the  second 
by  clumsy  action,  the  third  by  tasteless  shows  of  anatomical  know- 
ledge, the  fourth  by  grace  and  stretch,  without  the  awful  majesty 
of  the  early  monuments.  No  clay  models  were  used,  and  respect 
for  the  dead  prohibited  an  intimate  knowledge  of  (he  human 
muscles.  E.  under  Darius  formed  part  of  the  African  satrapy, 
paying  us  tribute  700  silver  talents,  the  revenues  of  Lake  Mceris, 
and  120,000  measures  of  corn.  After  three  native  mdeks  or 
satraps,  Mandophth  took  advantage  of  the  Persian  disasters  in 
Greece  to  assert  his  country's  independence  (n,c  487),  but  the 
tyranny  of  Xerxes  or  Kshairsha  (who  absorbed  the  army  of  E 
into  his  own)  succeeded,  and  after  the  more  successful  revolt  of 

49?  I 


vLiOOQle 


BGT 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDJA. 


Manis,  Tvho  hired  Athenian  troops,  and  Amyrtseus  in  Lower 
and  Upper  E.,  Artaxerxes  Longimanus' reconquei'ed  E,  in  440 
B.C,  About 400 B.c.Nepherites of  Mendes  (first  of  thirtietli or Se- 
bennytedynasty),  allying  himselfwithSpartaunderAgesilaos,  again 
broke  the  Persian  rule,  which,  in  spite  of  the  attacks  of  Artaxeries 
Mnemon,  was  not  re-established  till  349  B.C.,  when  Arianerxes 
Ochns  destroyed  the  kmgdom  of  the  Copts.  At  this  time 
Anaxagoras  visited  E.,  and  Herodotus ;  and  later  came  Eudoxus 
the  astronomer,  who  formed  the  odaMerid  (period  of  eight  years 
or  ninety-nine  months) ;  Chrysippus  the  physician,  and  Plato. 
In  333  B.C.  Alexander  the  Great  entered  E.,  meeting  with  little 
resistance.  He  respected  the  native  religion,  and  divided  the 
country  into  two  monarchies  or  judgeships,  both  of  which  were 
filled  by  Egyptians.  ■■•  The  reign  of  Ptolemy  Soter  extends  from 
B.C.  322-284,  the  early  part  of  it  under  the  uommal  aovere^ty  of 
Philip  ArrioEeuB  and  ^exander  M^as.  The  defeat  of  Perdiccas 
was  followed  by  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem,  Phcenicia,  Coele- 
Syria,  and  Cyprus,  and  by  the  defeat  of  Antigonus,  Ptolemy's 
rule  was  beneficent,  but  he  kept  the  two  races  asunder  by  de- 
claring that  the  children  of  mixed  marriages  were  barbarian.  In 
return  for  the  knowledge  which  the  Greeks  brot^lit  to  the 
Museum  or  College  of  Philosophy  at  Alexandria,  tliey  got 
the  use  of  papyrus,  a  great  multiplier  of  books,  for  which 
only  linen,  wax,  bark,  or  tree  leaves  had  been  used  before. 
Ptolemy  introduced  a  proper  coinage  in  gold,  silver,  and 
bronze  to  E.  His  drachma  weighed  about  55  grs.,  so  that 
the  silver  talent  was  about  jC'50  ia  value.  The  cMef  coins 
were  the  gold  tetra-stater  (8  drachmas)  and  the  silver  tetra- 
drachma.  Under  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  (B.C.  284-346),  the 
son  of  Soter  aad  Berenice,  a  connection  spriiws  up  between 
Rome  and  E,  Philadelphus  built  the  Pharos  hghthouse  and 
the  troglodytic  Berenice  on  the  Red  Sea,  which  was  joined  to 
Coptos  by  a  road  tlrat  passed  Smar^us  (rich  not  only  in  eme- 
ralds but  in  porphyry  and  breccia  verde),  and  was  fiimished  with 
four  great  inns  or  watering-houses.  Arsinoe  {near  the  modern 
Suez)  and  the  Temple  of  Isis  on  the  island  of  Phil^  {properly 
Abou-lakh,  'city  of  tlie  frontier')  were  also  built.  The  population 
of  E,  was  estimated  at  7,000,000,  the  army  at  320,000,  main- 
tained on  a  revenue  of  14,800  talents  (^2,250,000)  and  1,500,000 
artabas  of  com  (5,000,000  bushels).  The  Museum  Library 
contained  200,000  Greek  papyrL  Its  i3irectors  were  the  accom- 
plished Demetrius  Phalereus  and  Zenodotus,  one  of  the  earliest 
editors  of  Homer.  There,  too,  was  Ctesibins,  the  inventor  of 
the  water-clock;  TheocriLus,  the  Sidlian  idyllist;  Calhmachns, 
writer  of  elegiacs  and  professor  of  poetry  at  the  Museum ;  Strato, 
the  physicist,  a  pupil  of  Theophiastua ;  Timocharis,  the  astro- 
nomer, who  by  obsecvation  of  the  fixed  stars  prepared  the  dis- 
covery of  Hipparchus  that  the  equinoctial  point  had  moved ; 
Aristarchns,  who  anticipated  the  Copernican  theory.  The  king 
caused  Manetho,  a  pnest  of  Heliopolis,  to  [write  his  list  of 
kings  from  the  hieroglyphs.  The  empire  of  E.  included 
parts  of  Pamphylia,  Cilicia,  Lycia,  and  Caria,  The  reigns 
of  Ptolemy  Euergetes,  Philopator,  and  Epiphanes  occupy  the 
period  B.C.  246-180.  Some  of  the  exploits  of  the  '  Benefactor' 
in  Syria  and  Ethiopia  are  chronicled  in  the  famous  bilingual 
inscription  at  Cauopus.  The  Museum  flourished.  Aristo- 
phanes, the  grammarian,  the  inventor  of  the  long  and  short  marks, 
the  aspirate,  and  the  accent,  put  new  life  in  the  public  readings, 
and  Eratosthenes,  'the  surveyor  of  the  world,'  by  his  theory  of 
shadows  laid  the  foundation  of  astronomical  geography.  He 
also  wrote  a  history  of  E.  in  correction  of  Manetho.  ApoUonius 
of  Perga  first  taught  conic  sections,  and  Archimedes,  the  friend 
of  Conon,  invented  his  cocklta,  or  screw  pump,  so  useful  in 
Egyptian  inigation.  By  the  battle  of  Raphia,  Philopator  re- 
covered the  Syrian  provinces  wluch  Antiochtis  the  Great  had 
seised,  but  during  the  minority  of  Epiphanes  (the  Illustrious), 
notwithstanding  the  tutorship  underlaken  by  Roine,  they  were 
again  lost  to  E.  The  love  of  letters  still  lived  in  the  Ptolemies, 
but  along  with  it  a  fatal  moral  cormptlon.  Ptolemy  Philo- 
metor  Eupator  and  Eueigetes  II.  fill  up  the  space  from  B.  C. 
1S0-116.  Roman  intervention  saved  the  whole  empire  from 
being  seized  by  Autiochns  Epiphanes,  and  assisted  at  the  divi- 
sions between  the  two  brothers.  Philometor,  who  gave  some 
of  the  highest  state  offices  to  Jews,  offended  his  own  Coptic 
subjects  by  putting  Greek  inscriptions  on  the  new  temples.  A 
chaise  is  noticeaMe  in  the  architecture  of  the  time.  The  screen 
in  front  of  tlie  great  portico  is  almost  removed  by  having  a  door- 
way made  in  it  between  every  pair  of  coUunns.    Corporations  of 


monks  begin  to  appear  and  from  the  contemporary  documents 
we  find  that  d  g  Church  for  the  benefit 

of  the  dead  *  mm  n.    E  recognised  the  inde- 

pendence of   h    1      cab  es   and  d  in  Syria  against  his 

sister  Cleopa       n  ty  and  sensuality.     As 

regards  liters  h    h  d  ntics  (such  as  Aristar- 

chus)  is  symb        J  e         p         ca     d  the  '  Apotheosis  of 

Homer.'    T         ad    g  hgu  h      m    is,  however,  Hippar- 

chus, who,  w  h  ns  urn  n  h  ug  plane  parallel  to  the 
equator  and  a  gnomon  parallel  to  the  earth's  pole,  observed  the 
equinox  and  its  precession,  which  he  said  was  along  the  ecliptic, 
and  not  the  equator.  With  him  we  may  put  Hero,  the  ingenious 
mechanic,  whose  pneumatic  toys  are  still  admired.  Agatharcides 
has  lefi  an  intelligent  account  of  his  survey  of  the  Red  Sea,  and 
npts  were  made  at  a  passage  to  India.  Dioscorides  was 
reached,  From  B.C.  iiS-SiwehavethereignsofCleopatraCocce 
with  Ptolemy  Sof er  II. ,  and  then,  with  Ptolemy  Alexander  L , 
Cleopatra  Berenice,  Ptolemy  Alexander  IL ,  and  Ptolemy  Nens 
Dionysus.  The  period  is  one  of  intrigue,  civil  violence,  and  vice 
in  high  places.  The  Alexandrian  Jevrs  begin  to  count  for  some- 
thing in  the  political  world,  Lncullns,  the  Roman  ambassador, 
finds  the  Old  and  the  New  Academy  in  debate  at  Alexandria. 
Diodorus  Siculus  is  astonished  by  the  fervour  with  which,  outside 
Alexandria,  snakes,  crocodiles,  cats,  ibises,  and  bulls  are  still 
worshipped.  The  Egyptians  still  believed  in  a  creation  by  Ra, 
the  Sun,  acting  on  the  river  Nile,  and  in  a  bodily  resurrection, 
which  explains  the  importance  of  embalmment.  They  still  buried 
with  the  mummy  7",*^  i'l'ii^S  p/Z.f^Z'flni',  explaining  the  method  of 
judgment  passed  upon  souls.  King,  priest,  and  soldier  were  still 
the  only  landholders,  and  the  thirty  judges  of  the  three  great 
cities  still  administered  the  eight  books  of  the  law.  Caricature 
begins  to  appear  on  the  monuments.  According  to  Strabo  bad 
government  had  reduced  the  revenue  to  12,500  talents,  and  the 
population  to  3,000,000.  Gyrene  and  Cyprus  successively  fall  into 
the  hands  of  Rome,  and  along  with  commerce  literature  also  de- 
clined. The  reign  of  Cleopatra  and  her  brothers,  with  the  episodes 
of  Jnlius  Ciesar  and  Mark  Antony,  occupies  the  period  B.C.  51-30. 
The  Museum  was  burned,  but  the  equally  lai^  library  of  Per- 
gamos  was  placed  in  the  Temple  of  Serapis.  During  the  three 
centuries  of  the  rule  of  the  Lagidis,  changes  had  occurred  in 
the  religion.  Pthah  and  Serapis  had  become  the  chief  gods  ; 
and  the  moon,  which  had  formerly  appeared  on  the  heads  of 
gods,  now  takes  a  separate  individuality  under  the  name  of  Soh, 
The  new  hieroglyphic  characters  were  the  camelopard,  mummy 
on  a  conch,  ship  with  sails,  and  chariot  with  horses ;  more  words 
are  spelled  with  letters  ■  and  with  the  papyrus  the  enchorial  or 
demotic  wnt  g  w  th  f  w  ^mb  1  was  g  -ad  ally  d  pi  g 
the  hieratic.     FmthtmtA.      64     E.  Geekp 

vince  of  the  R  man  Empur       Th      q 
,ble  to  th  t        A     g 


1  foot.     Th      h   f 


]  d      1    ; 


magi  t 


th    k 


f  tl 


records,  the  pol         ]  d        th  "p    f    t     f  th        gh  d    th 

excgetes  or  int  rp    t  E         th  fii  h  w  W  t 

Roman   eiti    ns      th  y  w        m      ly    mp      1  f     dm         N 
municipal  g      mm  as    II  w  1     Th    J  1  vil  y         f 

365J  days,  b  g  im   g  gth  A  gi  t   was     t  od    ed   so  th  t 

E,  had  three  ca]  d  — th  J  1  th  p  pul  jear  beg  rang 
on  i8th  July  thdyftlhlal  gt^thDgt 
and  the  astronomical  year  of  365  days  wth  m  blfitdy 
Augustus  was  anxious  to  prevent  oppression  by  the  tax-gatherers, 
and  by  his  orders  the  canals  were  cleared,  and  the  Milometer  at 
Elephantine  built,  which  shows  a  maximum  rise  of  twenty-five 
royal  cubits  and  four  handbreadths.  Strabo  {who  fraveEed 
to  E.  under  the  prefecture  of  Gallus)  describes  rtie  wcaltli  and 
business  of  Alexandria.  "The  Roman  Empire  did  not  extend  be- 
yond the  dedattsch<enos  (70  miles}  beyond  Syene,  and  this  frontier 
was  often  troubled  by  the  Ethiopian  Ambs  of  Queen  Candace, 
The  woi-ship  of  Isis  and  Serapis  penetrated  to  the  court  of 
Rome,  and  Vii^l  distinctly  teaches  the  Egyptian  millennium. 
Afterwards  there  was  a  law  against  the  E^tian  and  Jewish 
superstitions.  The  pretensions  of  Caligula  to  divme  honours 
formed  the  pretext  of  an  attack  by  the  Greelts  on  the  Alexan- 
drian Jews,  whom  they  wished  to  deprive  of  civil  rights;  the 
embassy  of  Philo  proved  less  powerful  than  that  of  Apion 
the  grammarian,  and  not  till  the  time  of  Claudius  did  the  Jews 
regain  their  privileges.  Ckudiua  also  stopped  the  oppressive 
practice  of  Roman  citizens  travelling  through  E.  free  of  expense  ; 
he  restored  an  independent  coinage.     The  trade  with  India  in 


-4- 


yLaOogle 


EGY 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EGY 


silk,  precious  stones,  ginger,  spices,  and  that  witli  Africa  in 
ivoiy,  rhinoceros  teetli,  hippopotamus  skin,  tortoiseslieli,  apes, 
and  slaves,  converging  on  the  Coptoa- Berenice  route,  grew  rapidly. 
The  linen  trade  of  Upper  and  the  cotton  tradeof  Lower  E.  were 
large,  and  Alexandria  was  the  largest  granary  in  the  world.  The 
excellence  of  Egyptian  chemistry  is  diown  in  the  Arabic  name 
al-chemi,  the  Egyptian  art.  Their  colours  were  prepared  by  the 
use  of  a  mordant  liquid,  and  thdr  ink  (used  chiefly  on  the  mummy 
cloths)  was  made  of  nitrate  of  silver,  Naphtha,  or  rock-oil,  bears 
an  Egyptian  name.  The  trade  in  papyrus  in  all  its  varieties,  from 
Hieratic  and  Fanniau  down  to  emporelic  {used  for  wrapping 
parcels),  increased  its  area.  In  the  reigp  of  Nero  (A.D.  55-68) 
Christianity  makes  many  converts  in  Alexandria-— Jews,  Egyp- 
tians, and  Greeks.  Wild  Arab  tribes  from  Lower  Ethiopia, 
espedally  the  '  headless '  Blemmyes,  infested  the  frontier.  The 
prefect's  decree  issued  on  the  acce^ou  of  Galba  illustrates  the 
revenue-tyranny  which  it  was  intended  to  stop.  Vespasian, 
whomthe  Alexandrian  Greejcs  called  Cybiosacles  ('the  scullion'), 
owed  his  reception  in  Alexandria  very  much  to  Dion  Chrysos- 
tom,  the  rhetor,  and  Apollonias  of  Tyana,  the  impostor ;  for 
the  philosophers  now  constituted  an  important  class.  In 
Domitian's  time  we  have  from  Javenal  a  satirical  account  of 
E,  He  testifies  to  the  military  oppression,  and  says  the  people 
left  nothing  unworshipped  except  the  goddess  of  chastity.  Plu- 
tarch's narrative  of  the  same  aea  describes  the  habits  of  the 
priests  in  shaving  the  whole  bo^,  wearing  only  linen,  and  re- 
fusing some  meats  as  impure.  The  intellectual  creed  was  then 
becoming  Manicheeism,  and  less  regard  was  paid  to  external 
observances.  Serapis  was  the  supreme  ruler,  and  the  other 
members  of  the  triangular  trinity,  Isis  and  Horus,  were  invested 
with  more  pleasing  human  attributes.  Trajan  (98-108  A.D.) 
rebuilt  the  Bitter  Lakes  Canal  on  a  new  route.from  Memplns. 
In  consequence  of  civil  war  between  the  Gyrene  Jews  and 
Alexandria  he  also  deprived  the  former  of  citizenship.  The 
philosophical  reputation  of  the  capital  was  sustained  by  Justin 
Martyr  and  Athenagoras,  both  converts.  The  beginmng  of 
the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius  (A.D.  138)  is  remarkable  as  the 
end  of  the  Gothic  period  of  1460  years,  which  was  called 
the  '  Return  of  the  rhcenix.'  This  happened  when  Claudius 
Ptolemy,  the  author  of  the  Syutaxis  or  Almagest,  containing 
tiie  record  of  eclipses  for  eight  centuries,  and  the  name-father 
of  the  old  solar  system  of  <Tcles  and  epicycles,  was  the  lead- 
ing savant  of  Alexandria.     The  Itinerary  of  Antoninus  gives 


glass  and  sugar  in  [he  Red  Sea  trade.  The  reign  of  Aurelius 
(a.d.  162-181)  is  without  political  events  except  the  rebellion  of 
Cassius,  but  the  Library  was  then  in  its  glory,  and  was  attended 
by  many  grammarians,  with  Athenseus  the  Deipnosophist  at 
their  head-  They  give  employment  to  the  two  trades  of  '  quick 
■writers '  and  '  book  writers.  ,  Lucian,  then  secretary  to  the  pre- 
fect, darts  his  humour  at  the  immovable  superstitions  of  the  coun- 
try. At  this  time  tHe  orthodoxy  of  the  old  religion  seems  to 
have  centred  at  Canopns  (a  town  which  gave  its  name  to  the 
jars  for  holding  the  soft  parts  taken  from  Uie  mummy).  There, 
in  the  sacred  processions,  the  singer  repeated  the  Book  0/ Hymns 
and  the  rules  for  the  king's  life  ;  the  soothsayer,  with  his  hour- 
glass and  palm-branch,  repeated  the  books  on  the  moon's  phases 
and  the  fixed  stars  and  their  risings;  the  scribe,  with  Ms  flat 
rule,  knew  the  geography  of  the  world  and  the  books  concern- 
ing the  planets  and  the  fumilure  of  the  temple  ;  the  robe-master, 
■with  the  sacrificial  vase  and  rod  of  justice,  knew  the  books  con- 
cerning the  sacred  heifers,  education,  first-fruits,  and  the  order 
of  worship  and  of  festivals ;  the  prophet  or  ventriloquist,  with 
the  great  water-pot  or  spealdng-bottle,  knew  the  hieratic  books 
concerning  the  laws,  the  gods,  the  temples,  the  revenue.  These 
were  thirty-six  of  the  Books  of  Thoth  ;  the  othes:  six,  on  diseases 
and  medicines,  were  learned  by  tlie  Paslophoroi,  who  carried 
an  image  of  the  god  .in  a  small  shrine.  At  Alexandria,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  Eleusiniau.  mystery  (of  a  serpent  carried  in  a 
basket)  was  well  known  ;  and  it  is  thought  the  priesthood  had 
generally  an  esoteric  faith  which,  by  such  names  as  the  '  Secret 
of  Abydos, '  they  endeavoured  to  conceal,  In  spite  of  per- 
secution the  catechetical  school  of  Clemens  was  continued  by 
Origen,  and  shortly  after  Caracalla  built  a  temple  to  Isis  at 
Rome,  and  Egyptians  entered  the  Roman  senate.  The  great 
names  of  Saccas,  Plotinus,  Longinus,  and  Porphyry,  which 
adorned  Alexandria  during  thebeginning  of  the  3d  Christian,  c. 


are  elsewhere  described  ;  and  the  numerous  changes  and  struggles 
of  Christian  doctrine  of  which  E.  was  the  scene  belong  to  the 
history  of  the  Church.  In  the  feeble  reign  of  Gallus  (a.i>.  251) 
famine  induced  a  plague,  ulcer  of  the  tonsils,  which  greatly  re- 
duced the  population.  For  a  short  time  (a.d.  260)  E.  was  mde- 
pendent  of  Rome  under  the  soldier  Alexander  ^millanus.  In 
A.D.  270  Zenobiaof  Palmyra  made  an  attempt  to  gain  E,,  which, 
after  a  few  months'  success,  was  defeated  by  Aurelian,  but  botli 
Saracens  and  Falmyrans  continued  to  assail  the  province,  and 
Firmus,  a  wealthy  paper-merchant,  with  the  help  of  Arabs  and 
the  Coptic  population,  made  himself  independent  for  a  time  in 
Upper  E,  Frequent  rebellions  of  lesser  size  were  followed  by 
the  great  one  of  Achilleus  against  Diocletian,  who  had  just  re- 
signed Nubia  to  the  native  tribes.  With  the  rise  of  Byzantium  the 
Greek  element  begins  to  yield  to  the  native  Egyptian  ;  theology 
displaces  philosophy ;  lamblichus  seems  insignificant  by  the  side 
of  Arius  and  Athanasius.  Indeed,  after  the  division  of  the 
Empire  the  Patriarch  or  Bishop  of  Alexandria  seemed  at  times 
almost  independent  of  Constantinople.  The  paralysis  of  poli- 
tical power  IS  shown  in  the  system  of  patronage  by  which  towns 
without  charters  ^d  a  government  official  for  his  unautho- 
rised protection.  When  Jovian  restored  Christianity  (a.d.  363), 
the  monastic  system  was  already  in  full  vigour  among  the 
Ccenobites,  the  Anchorites,  and  the  Remoboth.  About  A.D. 
379  the  Saracens  approach  the  N,R  frontier,  and  being  many 
of  them  Christians,  side  with  the  Egyptian  Homo-ousians  against 
the  Arian  Greeks.  The  radical  policy  of  Theodosias  did  not 
entirely  destroy  the  Pagan  worship,  still  practised  in  secret  at 
Canopus,  but  it  did  destroy  the  great  Serapis  Library  of  700,000 
volumes.  The  lamp  of  philosophy  was  siill  held  up  by  Prochis 
and  his  followers.  The  go'e^nnient  divided  E.  into  Up^er 
Libya  or  Cyrene,  Lower  Libya  or  the  Oasis,  the  Thebaid, 
.EOT'tiaca  or  W.  Delta,  Aagustanica  or  E.  Delta,  and  Hep- 
tanomis  or  Arcadia.  The  tax-gatherers  were  called  '  counts  of 
the  sacred  largesses,'  and  had  a  great  crowd  of  numerarii  (clerks). 
About  A.D.  450  a  Nubian  invasion  almost  extinguished  Chris- 
tianity in  Upper  E.  On  the  other  hand  a  series  of  eccleaastical 
quarrels,  in  which  the  national  mind  was  interested,  was  settled 
by  the  edict  called  '  Henoticon,'  issued  by  the  Emperor  Zeno  in 
A.».  477,  which  passes  by  the  decrees  of  Chalcedon,  calls  Mary 
the  'Mijther  of  God,'  and  admits  that  the  decrees  of  Nicsea  and 
Constantinople  contain  everything  necessary.  In  the  reign  of 
Anastasius  (A.D.  501)  the  Persians  under  Kobades  overran  Syria, 
and  Idd  waste  the  greater  part  of  the  Delta  up  to  the  very  walls  of 
Alexandria.  Under  Justinian  a  singular  strife  went  on  between 
the  Coptic  patriarchs,  who  were  Jacobites,  and  the  Melchite 
or  Royalist  patriarchs,  who  were  armed  with  the  authority 
of  civil  prefects.  This  lasted  tiU  the  Persians  took  Antioch, 
and  the  defence  of  the  Egyptian  frontier  was  practically  left 
to  the  monasteries  on  the  Elanitic  Gulf.  A  change  in  the 
government  was  made  by  the  thirteenth  edict  of  Justinian,  from 
which  it  appears  that  the  Augustaiian  Cohort  of  600  men  was 
charged  not  only  with  the  defence  of  the  province,  but  with  super- 
vising the  collection  of  the  800,000  artabs  (4,000,000  bushels) 
of  com.  In  the  reign  of  Heraclius  (a.d,  618)  the  Persian 
Chosroes  became  master  f  th  wl  1  f  E  f 
even  built  a  palace  in  Al        d  HI 

Persians,  but  for  several  y         h    paid      t  b  t    t     th    C  1  f 
Omar,  and  in  A.D.  638-64      Am    w    th  f  A       p    lly 

through  the  treachery  of      m        t       Egypt  an  am    tl 

brave  resistance   of  the  G      k  g  Th     t  rm       f  th 

Moslem  conqueror  were  —  F  y  t   b  te,    mb  th    1     ra 

die.'    At  first  E.  paid  tw    g  Id  t      es  f  y  mal      f  m  1     ry 

age.     By  Omar's  famous      d      thLbryw  dfh      m^ 

the  baths.    The  history    fE       wb      mitfthlty 
of  Arabia  and  the  Arab        It  wis  g  If  w     ty 

Musr  or  Cairo,  between  M  mplu  and  H  1  p  hs  and  th 
cities  were  pulled  dovm  t  b  ild  m  q  ai  d  tl  p  bh 
buildings.  In  a.d.  868  th  1  cal  g  m  f  th  Abbas  d 
califs  usurped  the  sove  gnty  d  f  und  d  th  T  1  md 
dynasty,  which  lasted  till  A  9  6  Th  j  w  f  th  lif 
was  again  interrupted  by  M  hdee   th    g  f  E    Af 


th     A 


913-934),  and  Moh     m  d      T    k  h    fli 
bian  service  (a  d    936-97  )      Th    desc    d    t      f  th    f  m 
founded  the  Fatimite  Im      f  calif    wh    1 11     D       7    rul  d    t 
Cairo  independently  of  Bagd  d  t  k  ng     larg     h  th   w 

of  the  Crusades      The  Ey  b  t   dy      ty  ee  1  1  by     ra 

of  Baharite  sullans,  or  Meleks,  consisting  of  Turkoman  Mam- 


vLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


lukes,  who  joined  Syria  to  E.,  and  lield  the  Abbasides  in  subjei 
lion.  The  Circassian  Manilukes  (a,d.  13S2-1517)  were  cmshe 
by  Sultan  Selim  I.  at  Heliopolis.     Tlie  conqueror  organised  a 


subject  to  ceitain  conditions,  were  left  with  the  Mamluke  aris- 
tocracy. Under  this  arrangement  thetewas  frequent  revolt.  When 
Napoleon  went  in  1798  fofree  E.,  Britain  intervened  on  behalf  of 
the  sovereign  rights  of  the  Sultan,  but  its  success  was  neutralised  by 
the  coup-aetatm  181 1  of  Mehemet  Ali,  who  murdered  nearly  all 
the  Mamluke  Beys  (some  escaping  into  Dongola)  and  reigned 
till  1848,  the  Hatti  Sheriff  of  1S41,  guarajiteed  by  the  Great 
Powers,  confirming  the  succession  to  his  heirs.  All's  govern- 
ment was  a  contrast  to  the  savage  oppression  of  the  Beys.  He 
established  leguhu  courts  of  justice,  and  introduced  European 
manijfactares  and  machinery.  But  there  was  only  the  form  of 
representative  government,  and  the  wa,rs  in  which  the  Vali  (or 
Viceroy)  and  his  son  Ibrahim  took  part  made  necessary 


war  of  independence,  and  after  the  conquest  of  Syria  in  1835 
have  got  rid  of  his  nominal  superior,  the  Sultan  Mahmoud  ll. 
But  in  1840  the  Quadruple  Alliance  intervened  in  fevour  of  Abdul 
Medjid.  The  successors  of  Ali— Abbas,  Said,  and  Ism^  I.— have 
done  little  for  their  country.  The  last  named  assumed  the  title 
of  Khidiv-el-Mlsr  (King  of  E.)  in  1866,  and  by  increasing  the 
arapuijt  of  his  annual  tribute  to  the  Sultan,  secured,  in  1873,  the 
right  of  n^otiating  independent  treaties.  In  the  same  year  he 
annexed  by  a  short  war  a  considerable  (etritory  in  Darfur,  and 


several  years  tliere  has  been  occasional  exdiange  of  hostilities 
between  John,  the  Christian  King  of  Abyssinia,  and  Ismail.  By 
a  series  of  bad  bargains  with  the  French  concessienmra  the 
Khedive  has  embarrassed  his  revenue  to  an  alipost  incredible 
extent.     His  solvency  is  matter  of  doubt 


Trial  of  the  Dead. 


mmmM'ixmsmm 


SMfiS-CHffmrl-P^ 


^yp'tian  or  Al'pine  Vul'tnro  (Neophron  percnofiterus),  a 
ies  of  Vullurina,  distinguished  (as  are  other  members  of  the 
s  Neofkren)  by  the  long  biK  with  the  nostrils  situated  a 
middle,  by  the  third  quill  being  the  longest  of  the  wings,  by 


Pharaoh's  chicken,'  is  coloured  of  a  general  white,  the  quills 
of  the  wings  being  dark  brown.  The  sexes  are  coloured  alike, 
the  plumage  of  the  young  being  brown.  This  bird  is  carefully 
protected  from  injury  in  Egypt  by  laws,  and  subsists  on  carrion 
of  all  kinds.  The  nest  is  made  upon  a  rock,  and  the  eggs  are 
three  or  four  in  number,  and  of  grey  colour.  It  inhabits  S. 
Europe,  N.  Africa,  and  Asia. 

Shx'eiiberg,  Olmetiau  Gottfried,  an  emment  German 
naturalist,  was  born  at  Delitsch,  in  Prussian  Saxony,  April  rg, 
1795,  and  studied  at  the  universities  of  Leipsic  and  Berlin.  .He 
graduated  in  medicine  in  181S.  His  devotion  to  botany  soon 
gained  him  a  high  reputation,  and  caused  liim  to  be  sent  along 
with  Hemprich  in  an  expedition  despatched  to  the  East  in  1820 
by  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  In  spite  of  fatigues  to  which 
Hemprich  succumbed,  E.  travelled  through  Syria,  Egypt,  Aijys- 
sinia,  and  other  parts  of  Africa,  and  returned  to  Benin  in  1826 
with  a  great  collection  of  hitherto  unknown  plants  and  animals. 
The  results  of  bis  labours  were  seen  in  several  valuable  works, 
including  the  well-known  Akalephen  des  Roihsn  Metres  (1836). 
Although  appointed  Assistant  Professor  in  Che  Faculty  of  Medi- 
cine in  Berlin,  E.  set  out  with  Humboldt  in  1829  on  his  Ural 
and  Altai  expedition,  and  here  he  laid  the  foundation  of  his 
great  work,  Orgamsation,  Syslanatik,  tmd  Geop^hischa  Vir- 
hiillmsf  der  InfimotisiMercheii.  (completed  in  1838  at  Leipsic). 
Some  of  E.'s  conclusions  regarding  Infiisoria  are  now  disputed. 


but  hpw 


the  first  to  study  Iheir  or^nisms  in  a  purely  scientific 
.  In  1847  hewas  appointed  Ordinary  Professor.  Among 
the  sntiseqaent  worlts  of  E,  are  his  Miiregeslogie  (1854),  a-^ 
Ueberden  Griinsa?td  (fiesi.  1855). 

EhrenJjreit'stein  ('  Broad  stone  of  honour'),  a  town  a 
fortress  of  Prussia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  connected 
with  Cobienz,  on  the  opposite  bank,  by  a  bridge  of  boa 
beautiful  railway  bridge.  The  town  has  two  Roman  CaUioiic 
churches,  a  synagogue,  and  a  mineral  spring,  celebrated  as  early 
as  the  14th  c.  Pop.  (1871)  2488,  exclusive  of  the  garrison 
{2169).  There  is  a  trade  in  wine,  com_,  tobacco,  &c.  The 
fortress,  the  '  Gibraltar  of  the  Rhine,'  is  accessible  only  on 
the  N.W.  side,  which  is  protected  by  a  triple  line  of  formid- 
able defences  mounted  with  400  guns.  On  the  top  of  the 
rock  is  a  platform  used  as  a  [Mrade  ground,  under  which  are 
arched  cisterns  capable  of  holding  a  water-supply  for  the  gairi- 
son  for  three  years.  E.  was  originally  a  Roman  fort,  The 
French  reduced  it  in  1799  by  famine,  aud  dismantled  and  blew 
it  up  at  the  peace  of  Luneville  in  iBoi,  Prussia  was 
possession  of  it  ty  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1814,  and  it 
one  of  the  most  formidable  fortresses  in  the  world. 

Eib'enstook  ('  Place  of  yews '),  a  town  in  Saiony,  16  miles 
S.S.E.  of  Zwickau,  with  manu&ctures  of  tin,  tobacco,  chemicals, 
lace,  and  muslin.     Pop.  (1871)6205. 

Eichliom,  Jobann  Gottfried,  the  most  eminent  of  the 
Rationalistic  theologians  of  Germany  in  his  time,  was  born  at 
Dorenzimmem,  in  the  principality  of  Hohenlohe-Oehtingen,  16th 
October  1775.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  was  Professor  of 
Oriental  Languages  at  Jena  (1775-88),  and  at  Goltingen  from  i; 
till  his  death,  June  25,  1827.  He  was  the  first  among  ptofessio 
theologians  to  deal  with  Scripture  freely  on  the'footing  of  a  m 
literary  work ;  the  principle  on  which  he  studied  the  Bible  being 
expressed  in  his  apostrojSie  to  the  writers  ; — '  However  great  my 
respect  for  you,  ye  holy  men,  never  let  me  fall  into  the  superstitious 
idolatry  already  deprecated  by  yourselves,  or  deem  it  irreverent 
to  submit  ^our  productions  to  the  strictest  rules  of  human  criti- 
cism.' His  EinkUmtg  in  das  Alte  Testament  (3  vols.  Leips. 
17S0-83),  which  was  the  first  work  entirely  devoted  to  the  sub- 
ject, and  which  was  received  wilh  extraordinary  fevour,  pro- 
duced a  great  effect  both  on  the  manner  of  treating  the  subject 
generally,  and  on  the  prevalent  views  in  regard  to  the  particular 
subjects  on  which  he  touched.  Of  his  Einteitung  in  das  Ncue 
Testameni  (2  vols.  Gott.  1804-10),  the  most  prominent  part  was 
his  theory  of  an  '  urevangelium,'  or  original  gospel,  in  which  the 
same  process  of  grouping  and  comparison  which  had  been  applied 


yLaOOgle 


EIG 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCZOPjEDIA. 


EIS 


a  purify  tlie  text  is  used  in  re- 
vives for  the  purpose  of  arriving 
le  original  gospeL     Besides  the  above,  ins  works  in  the 

_ _  .   ss  are  Commmt.  tit  Apcc.  Joh.  (2  Tols,  Gbtt.  1791); 

Urgachickis  (z  vols.  Niimb.  1 790-93) ;  Sitilat.  in  die  Apociyph. 
Sckriftsa  da  Ait.  Test.  (Golt  1795);  AUgim.  Biiliothik  der 
BibLLU.  (10  vols,  Leips.  ij?i7--i^i) ;  IHi Bebr.  Proph.  (^  wis. 
Gott.  1816-20) ;  Repert&rium  Jiir  Bibl.  und  Morgenl.  Lit.  (18 
vols.  Leips.  1777-86),  E.  also  wrote  voluminoosly  in  political 
as  well  as  literary  history.  His  last  important  work  was  Urgi- 
scMchte  dei erlauchtea  Houses  da-  fVclfen  (iSlJ). 

Eicll'etadt,  formerly  AichstSdt  (i.f.  'oak-town'),  a  town 
of  Bavaria,  wj  miles  S.  of  Numbeig,  in  a  deep  valley  on  the 
AltmiihL  It  is  a  bishop's  see,  is  well  built,  and  has  an  ancient 
appearance.  The  principal  buildings  are  the  palace  of  the 
ducal  family  of  LBnchtenbere;,  with  its  beautiful  park,  the  cathe- 
dral, founded  in  1259,  with  the  grave  of  St  Wilibald,  the  town- 
house  built  in  1444,  and  the  old  castle  of  St  Wilibald,  which  has 
been  converted  into  a  barrack.    There  are  manufactures  of  cloth, 

Eottery,  and  ironmongery.  There  are  besides  several  breweries. 
;.  has  had  municipal  rights  since  90S.  Pop.  (iS?!)  S051. 
EichVald,  Eduard,  Kussian  naturalist,  was  born  at  Mitau, 
Conrland,  4th  July  1795,  studied  at  Beriin  from  1814  to  1817, 
and  after  having  travelled  in  Franceand  England,  was  appointed 
Professor  of  Zoology  and  Midwifery  at  Kasan  in  1823,  travelled 
during  1S25-27  through  the  countries  around  the  Caspian  Sea 
and  the  Caucasus,  and  in  1829  explored  the  W.  of  Russia.  In 
jned  Professor  of^  Zoology  and  Mineralogy  at 
the  Medico- Chirurgical  Academy  of  St  Petersburg,  He  after- 
wards studied  geology  and  paleontology,  and  undertook  scientific 
expeditions  to  Esthonia,  Finland,  the  Tyro],  Italy,  Sidly,  and 
Algeria.  E.  has  been  a  voluminous  author.  Among  his  works 
txeSaseaufdanKasfixhe»Meenundittdem  Caucasus  (5m.iXg. 
1834-37) ;  MAiioireswUsRichisses  Mitihvdes  des  Provinces  Occi- 
dmiales  de  ia  Siissie  (W\lmi,  1835);  Beitrag  sar  Vtrbreitung  der 
JbssSeii  Thiers  Susslands  (Moscow,  1857). 

Ei'der,  a  river  of  N.  Geimany,  which  rises  about  12  miles 
S.  of  Kiel  in  Holstein,  and  after  a  course  of  100  miles  enters  the 
North  Sea  at  Tonning,  the  capital  of  the  district  of  Eiderstedt 
Throughout  the  greater  part  <tt  its  course  it  divides  Slesvig  from 
Holstem.  It  is  navigable  to  Rendsburg,  whence  ships  can  pass 
to  Kiel  Bay  on  the  Baltic,  by  means  of  the  Slesvig- Holstem  or 
E.  Canal,  Much  of  its  course  is  bordered  with  Costly  dykes  to 
protect  the  adjacent  land  from  inimdation. 

Eider-Duck  (Samateria),  a  well-known  genus  of  Anatuia  or 
ducks,  but  uicluded  in  tlie  sub-family  of  the  FuHgulin^  or  Po 
chards  (q.  v.).    The  genus  Somatena 
has  the  bill  divided  at  its  base  by 
feath        and  the  front  of  the  bill  is 
wh  1st  its  laminm  or  '  fringes ' 
ry  wide,    The  wings  have  their 
*  first  and   econd  quills  longest.    As  in 
h  rds,  the  hinder  toe  is  short, 
,--j.^    ^^jj~.  ti      b  oad  membranous  web.  The 

=-^^-^^^>^  mt"  ^  E.-D.  (S.  mollissima)  is 
„  ,  T,  T^  f  u  d  n  the  N.  parts  of  Briton,  but 
^''    °    '■  m     f  rther  S.  in  winter.     It  ave- 

rag  rath  n  th  n  2  f  t  n  1  ngth.  The  male  is  white 
on  th  n  k  and  b  k  th  pnm  ry  and  secondary  feathers 
bemg  dull  bla  k  d  th  t  t  7  feathers  white,  iriiiist  they 
dr    p  th    dark         ngs     Th   breast  and  belly  are  black, 

vith  wh  t  p  t  hes  In  th  flanks  The  top  of  flie  head  is 
deep  bl  k  th  sid  f  th  bead  being  wliite.  The  bill 
and:  legs  are  gr  n.  Th  I  ur  of  the  female  is  a  ruddy 
b  wn,  m  ked  w  tl  d  ker  ti  t  The  nest  is  placed  in  de- 
tached rocks  and  islands.  The  eggs  are  five  or  six,  and  are  pale- 
green  in  colour,  and  the  E.-D.  produces  two  broods  annually, 
llie  kmg  E..D.  {S.  spectabais)  is  rare  in  Britain,  but  common  in 
Greenland.  It  has  a  black  and  white  body,  and  red  beak  and 
legs  ;  and  the  male  possesses  a  warty  protuberance  on  the  liase  of 
the  upper  bllL  These  ducks  afford  the 'down' used  in  making 
quilts  and  other  articles  of  dress,  which  is  obtjuned  from  the  r"^" 
and  is  plucked  by  the  parent  birds  from  their  own  breasts  to  i 
and  warm  the  e^s  during  incubation.  The  eg^s  and  down 
are  successively  removed  from  the  nest,  ^e  bird  laying  fresh 
e^;5  and    supplying   new  down ;   whilst  ultimately  the  male 


bird  is  called  upon  to  supply  down  from  his  breast,  and  on  his 
darker  down  being  seen  in  the  nest,  the  fowlers  cease  their 
operations.  The  eggs  are  very  palatable,  and  the  flesh  is  not 
unpleasant  to  taste.  Abouthalf  apoundof  down  is  stated  as  the 
quantity  obtainable  annually  from  a  single  nest.  The  down  is 
imported  in  the  form  of  balls,  weighing  each  3  to  4  lbs.  These 
ducks  can  be  domesticated,  especially  in  marine  localities.  The 
islands  of  Britain,  Fern  Island,  Norway,  and  Sweden,  are  the 
chief  haunts  of  the  E,  -D.  in  Europe,  whilst  it  is  also  plentiful 
on  the  North  American  coasts. 

Eigg  or  Egg  Island,  a  small  hilly  island,  6  miles  long  and  3 
broad,  belonmng  to  Inverness  county,  and  12  miles  W.  of  Ari- 
saig.  The  highest  point,  the  'Scuir  of  E.,'  is  1339  feet  above 
the  sea.  E.  has  a  manse  and  schoolhouse,  an  old  chapel,  some 
Danish  remains,  and  two  iiamlets,  Laig  and  Kildonan, 


faalli 

Eilum  BaBil'ike  (Gr.  '  the  royal  image '),  a  book  issued  in 
1649,  professedly  written  by  Charles  I.,  whose  policy  it  ex- 
plained. It  was  divided  into  twenty-eight  sections,  each  ending 
with  prayer,  and  was  the  work  of  John  Gauden,  Bishop  of  Exeter, 

Eil'ettburg  ('  the  town  on  the  island, '  Celt,  eilean,  'an  island'), 
a  strong  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  on  an  island  of  the  Mulde, 
here  spanned  by  two  bridges.  It  has  manufactures  of  woollens, 
cotton,  tobacco,  and  wax,  a  tilework,  and  a  trade  in  cattle. 
Pop.  (1871)  10,286. 

Efm'beok,  properly  MnTieck,  an  ancient  town  of  Prussia, 
38  miles  S.S.E.  <rf  the  town  of  Hanover,  on  the  lime,  near  its 
confluence  with  the  Leine.  Its  chief  mdustiies  are  stocking- 
weaving,  tanning,  spinning,  and  manufactures  of  tapestry  and 
doth.  It  was  formerly  one  of  the  Hanse  towns,  and  in  the  middle 
ages  was  famous  for  its  beer.     Pop.  {1872)  6382. 

Emsied'eln,  a  town  in  the  cimton  of  Schwyz,  Switzerland, 
3000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  is  noted  for  its  Benedictine  Abbey, 
containing  a  black  image  of  the  Vii^in,  to  which  miraculous 
poweis  are  ascribed,  and  which  annually  attracts  150,000  pil- 
grims Zmngli  was  parish  priest  of  E.  in  1516.  The  exist- 
ing abbey  dates  from  about  1720.  It  lias  a  library  of  26,000 
volumes  and  840  MSS.    Pop.  (1870)  7633. 

Eire,  or  Eyre,  Jiistioes  in.     These  w  j,      1      f  th 

present  justices  of  assize.     They  were  first    pt      t  d  76 

A.D ,  with  a  delegated  power  from  the  king  t         k      u- 
once  in  seven  years.     Under  Magna- Chaita  tie  t  w 

made  annual     The  office  having  become  an  wa    abo 

lished  by  57  Geo.  III.  c.  6(. 

Eie'enacli  (Lat.  Isenacum,  Ger.  sisen,  'iron      th  pi  th 

water  impregnated  with  iron  '),  a  walled  town  th  cap  tal  and 
residence  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Sachsen-We  ma  E  n  h  45 
miles  W.  of  Weimar,  is  romantically  situated  n  th  Th  n  g  n 
forest.  It  is  a  station  on  the  Sachsisch-Thimngisch  Railway, 
and  is  easily  reached  from  any  part  o(  Germany.  Ptp  ('S71) 
13,967.  Among  its  principal  buildings  aie  the  Grand  Ducal 
residence,  the  gymnasium,  onginally  a  Dominican  cloister  where 
Luther  received  part  of  his  education,  and  the  churches  of  St  Georg 
and  St  Nikolaus,  the  latter  built  in  the  12th  c.  It  has  manufac 
tyres  of  woollens,  fiislian,  worsted,  linen  thread,  pottery,  and 
sealing-wax,  dye-works,  and  many  flourishing  mUls.  E  is  thr 
birthidace  of  Sebastian  Bach.  Thecastle  of  the  Wartbti«(q  v) 
where  Luther  remained  m  hiding  for  ten  months  after  the  Die 
of  Worms,  and  translated  a  considerable  portion  of  the  Scripture 
into  German,  occupies  a  wooded  height  in  the  vicinity. 

Eis'enherg  ('  iron  hill-fort '),  an  old  town  in  the  Duchy  of 
Saehsen-Altenbuis,  on  an  affluent  of  the  Elster,  2i  miles  from 
Krossen,  on  the  Weissenfels-Zeitz-Geraer  Railwa)^,  with  manu- 
factures of  leather,  woollens,  linens,  shoes,  porcelain,  and  stone- 
ware, and  a  trade  in  com  and  wood.  Pop.  (1871)5261.  Among 
the  most  noteworthy  building  are  the  castle  of  the  Grand  Duke 
and  a  beautiful  church  in  the  New  Italian  style,  erected  between 
1676  and  1692.    See  Back's  Chronik  da- Stadt  E.  (Eisen.  1843). 

Eis'enerz  {'  iron  ore'),  a  town  in  a  deep  valley  of  Upper  Styrla, 
separated  from  the  market-town  of  Nordenberg  by  the  lofty 
Eriberg,  5010  feet  high.     Thismountain  formsthece 


■e  of  the 


501 


vLiOOQle 


EIS 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ELA 


n  and  smelting  trade  of  Styi'ia.  The  mines  have  been  worked 
lopo  years.  The  ore  is  now  quarried  rather  than  mined— the 
sides  of  the  mountain  being  cut  away  in  some  places  to  a  depth 
of  30  fathoms,  in  others  even  to  tliat  of  90  fathoms.  The  ore  is 
rich,  and  from  it  is  manufactured  a  steel  unsurpassed  in  Europe. 
Pop.  (1869)  3850. 

Eia'enetadt  ('iron  town,'  Hung.  Kis  Marton),  a  free  town 
of  Hungary  in  the  county  of  Oedenburg,  7mile3N,N.W.  of  the 
town  of  that  name.  Pop.  (1869)2476.  It  possesses  a  Franciscan 
monastery,  contaiuhig  the  burying-place  of  the  Esterhasy  iamily, 
who  have  also  a  magnificent  palace  in  the  vicinity,  built  in  16S3, 
and  enlarged  in  1805.  In  its  noble  park,  on  the  slope  of  the 
Leitha  Hills,  are  splendid  greenhouses  and  orangeries, 

EisTeben  (Lat.  Iildia),  a  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  rS  miles 
W.  of  Halle,  and  a  station  on  the  Halle-Nordhausen-Kassel 
Railway.  Luther  was  bom  and  died  here.  Two  dsys  before  his 
death  he  founded  the  existing  Royal  (iymnasium.  The  house  in 
which  he  was  bom  has  been  turned  into  a  school,  where  orphans 
receive  ftae  education.     Pop.  (1871)  13,436. 

Eistedafoda  (pron.  eisieff'ods),  the  name  applied  to  the  per- 
iodical assemblies  of  Welsh  bards  for  competition  in  native  music 
and  song.  They  are  of  great  antiquity,  reaching  bade  as  far  as 
the  time  of  Howel  Dha.  At  present  they  keep  alive  a  certain 
kind  of  national  feeling,  but  aie  powerless  to  reanimate  a  dead 
literature. 

lyec'tion  and  Intra'aioa  is  a  term  of  Scotch  law,  E.  de- 
noting the  violent  taking  possession  of  land  or  a  house,  and  I. 
denotmg  entry  into  and  violent  detention  of  the  subject.  A  tenant 
illegally  remaining  in  possession  is  liable  to  an  action  of  E.  and 
I.,'and  unless  his  defence  be  instantly  verified,  he  will  be  required 
to  find  security  for  the  violent  profits. 

igeot'ment.  By  the  Common  Law  Procedure  Act,  former 
procedure  in  E.  is  abolished  m  England.  The  process  is  now  by 
writ  dhected  to  the  person  to  be  ejected  and  to  all  entitled  to 
defend  possession  of  the  property  claimed.  When  half  a  year's 
— ■  's  m  arrear,  and  the  landlord  or  lessor  has  a  right  to  re-enter 
an.payment,  he  may  bring  writ  of  E.,  and  on  proof  that 
there  were  not  sufficient  goods  to  satisfy  Distress  (q.  v. ),  he  shall 
3r  judgment  and  execution.  But  on  the  tenant  paying  rent 
osts  before  trial,  proceedings  are  to  cease.  The  landlord's 
former  remedies  are,  however,  preserved.  In  an  E.  under  mort- 
gage, the  mortgagor's  rendering  the  principal  and  interest  in  court 
shall  be  deemed  a  full  satisfaction,  and  the  court  may  compel  the 
mortgagee  to  recover.  The  landJord  may  proceed  by  Plaint 
(q.  V.)  m  the  county  courts  to  recover  rent  not  exceeding  ^50 
per  annum.  If  the  rent  be  six  months  in  arrear,  the  landlord 
may,  if  he  has  a  right  to  re-enter  under  the  lease,  enter  a  plaint 
in.  the  county  courts  to  recover  possession  of  his  premises.  See 
Defokcement. 

Ekftterinbarg',  or  JTekaterinbnrg,  a  town  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Perm,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Ural  Mountains, 
on  both  banks  of  the  Isset,  and  160  miles  S.E.  of  the  town  of 
Perm.  It  occupies  a  hilly  plain  on  the  highroad  to  Siberia,  is  the 
centre  of  the  mming  industry  of  the  Ural  Mountains,  the  largest 
town  in  the  government  and  in  the  Ural  region,  and  has  broad 
straight  streets,  splendid  building,  including  two  cathedrals  and 
ten  churches,  gardens,  parlts,  &c.  There  are  also  (1853)  a 
museum  of  mberalogy  and  an  imperial  mint.  The  cutting  and 
polishing  of  precious  stones  is  a  pnncipal  branch  of  industry,  but 
the  firoEperity  of  the  town  is  due  mainly  to  the  rich  mines  in  its 
vicinity.  At  a  short  distance  are  the  iron-foundries  of  Issetsk ; 
7  miles  off  are  the  gold-mines  of  Beresovsk;  and  16  miles  distant 
is  Pyschinsk,  where  the  gold  is  separated  from  the  earth  by  amal- 
gamation. Pop.  25,133.  The  town  was  founded  in  1722,  an4 
named  after  the  wife  of  the  C^ar  Peter  the  Great, 

Ekaterinodar',  or  Jekateiinodar'  ('Catherine's  gift"),  a 
town  of  Russia,  the  capital  of  the  Kuban  or  Black  Sea  Cossacks, 
m  a  swampy  district  on  the  Kutian,  loo  miles  above  its  mquth. 
Most  of  the  houses  are  of  clay,  though  some  are  of  wood,  and 
thatched  with  straw.  E.,  built  in  IJ92,  is  the  seat  of  the  Cos- 
sack  HEtman.  It  has  a  wooden  fort  or  kriport,  in  the  enclosure 
of  which  stand  the  Hetman's  residence,  the  military  hospital, 


d  the  cathedral.     Pop.  9504. 


Ekaterinoslav',  or  Jebaterinoslav,  a  government  m  S. 
or  New  Russia,  between  Kharkov  and  Piiltava  on  the  N., 
Kherson  on  the  W.,  Taurida  on  the  S.,  and  the  Sea  of  Azof  and 
the  country  of  the  Don  Cossadcs  on  the  E.  j  area  26,037  sq. 
miles  ;  pop.  (1S70)  i,35a,3oa  From  the  southem  exposure  of 
the  land,  apricots,  peaches,  cherries,  mulberries,  almonds,  figs, 
vines,  melons,  and  water-melons  thrive  in  the  open  air.  Agi'i- 
culture  and  the  breeding  of  silitworms,  of  Merino  sheep,  and  of 
cattle  are  successfully  pursued.  There  are  magnificent  coal-beds, 
occupying  an  area  of  upwards  of  1300  sq.  miles. 

Jekaterinosliw,  the  capital  of  the  government,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Dnieper,  250  miles  N.E.  of  Odessa,  founded  in  1784 
by  Potemkin,  as  a  summer  residence  for  Catherine  II,  It  has 
broad  streets,  but  is  filtliy,  and  has  an  unfinished  appearance.  It 
is  a  bishop's  see,  has  extensive  cloth  manuiactures,  and  is  the 
emporium  of  the  trade  to  Odessa,    Pop.  24,267. 

Eklo^te,  a  kind  of  garnet  rode,  composed  of  light-green 
smaragdite  enclosing  crystals  of  pale  garnet.  It  occurs  in  ihe 
San-Alp  in  Styria,  in  the  island  of  Syra,  and  at  Munchberg  in 
Bavaria.  It  is  a  tough  firm  rock,  and  when  polished  is  employed 
for  ornamental  purposes. 

Ekotik  Tank,  an  irrigation  work  on  the  borders  of  the 
province  of  Bombay  and  the  Nizam's  dominions  in  India,  4  miles 
N.  from  Sholapore  and  205  S.E,  from  Bombay.  A  dam  of 
earthwork,  with  masonry  flanks,  7200  feet  long  and  72  feet  high, 
is  throvra  across  the  Adela  river,  a  tributary  of  the  Kistna.  The 
lake  thus  formed  has  an  area  of  6^  sq.  miles,  and  five  villages 
have  been  submerged ;  but  35,840  acres  have  been  brought 
under  irrigation.  There  are  three  distributaries— two  on  a  high 
level,  4  and  iS  miles  long  respectively,  for  monsoon  crops ;  and 
one,  28  miles  long,  for  perennial  irrigation.  The  water  was  first 
distributed  in  1871. 

Elseag'iuis,  a  genus  of  Exogenous  plants  belonging  to  and 
forming  the  type  of  the  natural  oxAet  Blaagnacea.  In  this  latter 
group  tlie  plants  are  trees  or  shrubs,  with  exstipulate  leaves  and 
unisexual  flowers.  The  fruit  is  a  shelled  aekene.  The  genus 
E,  itself  is  represented  by  the  E.  anguslifolia,  the  '  oleaster ' 
of  S.  Europe  and  the  Levant,  and  by  E.  parvifoUa,  the  small- 
leaved  oleaster,  which  bears  dusters  of  red  edible  berries,  mottled 
with  scaly  leaves.  The  former  spedes  is  often  cultivated  in 
Britain  for  its  silvery  foliage.  It  is  sometimes  named  the  '  wild 
olive."  Shepherdia  argentea  o!  N.  America  is  also  included  in  this 
group,  and  yields  an  edible  fruit. 

Eleeooarpa'aese,  a  group  of  Exogenous  plants,  elevated  by 
some  botanists  to  the  rank  of  a  natural  order,  but  by  others 
induded  in  the  natural  order  Ti/iacea,  or  the  Linden  (q.  y.) 
order.  The  typical  genus,  Elaocarpus,  is  represented  by  E. 
cjiamui  and  E.  s^rraiui.  These  trees  are  chiefly  East  Indian 
species.  The  fruit  of  £,  serralus  is  eaten  in  Ceylon.  E.  cya- 
Heus  inhabits  Australia.  In  E.  plants  the  petals  are  deeply  cut, 
and  the  anthers  dehisce  or  open  at  their  apices. 

ant  genus  belonging  to  the  Euphorbiaa^ 

'spurgewort'  order.      The  seeds  afford  oils  (hence 

i),  the  oil  obtained  from  E.  ven'ucosa  being  used  for  food 


(q.  ■ 

thei 

in  Japan, 


.'dron.  (Gr,  'oil-tree'),  a  genus  of  Exogenous 
(Polypetalous)  plants  belonging  to  the  order  Celastratea  or  the 
spindle-tree '  order.  The  fruit  of  E.  is  a  stone-fruit  or  drufe, 
and  that  of  some  species  (such  as  E.  Kabu  of  S.  Africa)  is  eaten. 
The  fruit  of  B.  Argan  of  N.  Afi'ioa  affords  oil,  E.  crocmm  of 
S.  Africa  affords  a  timber  known  as  '  saffron- wood,'  much  used  in 
building  and  for  makii^  furniture. 

Magab'alus,  or  Helio^b'alus,  the  first  Roman  emperor  of 
Asiatic  extraction,  was  bom  at  £mesa  about  A.  c  205.  His  original 
name  wasVarius  Avitus  Bassianus ;  he  adopted  that  of  E.  as  pontiff 
andfavourite  of  the  Syro-Phcenician  Sun-god  so  named  (Syr.  ila,  'a 


Julia  Mjesa,  he  succeeded  M^jCiinus,  the  destroyer  of  Caracalla, 
after  his  riral  had  been  defeated  at  Antioeh  (21S  A.D.)  and  sub- 
sequently slain.  The  reign  of  E.,  who  assumed  the  name  Marcus 
Aurelius  Antoninns,  lasted  for  three  years  nine  months  and  four 
days,  and  was  deeply  stained  by  heartless  cruelty  and  by  sensual 
vices  of  the  most  loathsome  nature.  E.  was  murdered,  and  his 
body  cast  into  the  Tiber,  A.D.  232. 


yLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ELA 


Elambazar',  a  trading  lown  in  t5ie  district  of  Bii-bhum,  pro- 
vince  of  Bengal,  on  the  navigable  Ajai,  and  is  noted  for  its 
manufacture  of  lac  oraamenls,  and  has  an  extensive  ttade  in  rice. 
Pop.  3000. 

Slaad  (Oreor  canna),  a  genus  of  AntUopids  or  Antelopes 

iq.  v.),  distinguished  \>y  having  the  horns — each  about  18  inches 
ong — spirally  keeled,  but  of  nearlj'  straight  conformation ;  by 
the  equal-sizfid  limbs,  and  the  presence  of  a  short  mane  on  the 
neck.  Its  colour  is  a  light  or  greyish  brown.  The  tail  is  tufted 
and  the  muzile  broad.  The  E,  is  the  lai^est  of  the  antelopes 
of  S.  Africa,  and  may  attain  the  size  of  a  large  ox  or  cow.  Its 
food  consists  of  grasses  and  herbage,'  and  it  is  noted  for  its  powers 
of  long  abstinence  from  water.  The  flesh  is  accounted  very 
palatable.     The  E.  is  gregarious  in  habits. 

El'anet,  certain  species  of  Raptorial  birds  belonging  to  the 
the  genus  Elaniis,  and  nearly  allied  to  the  kites  or  Milvinm, 
Examples  are  found  in  the  blaclc-winged  falcon  {E.  melanopterus), 
and  in  the  E.  dispar  or  black- shouldered  hawk.  The  former 
occurs  in  Africa  and  Asia,  and  in  New  Zealand,  the  latter  in 
America.  These  birds  have  the  bill  broad  at  its  base.  The 
wings  are  long,  and  the  second  quills  are  the  longest.  The  tail  is 
long  and  forked,  and  the  outer  toe  is  much  shorter  than  the 
inner.  The  genus  Elanoides  is  ueacly  related  to  Elamts,  and 
is  exemplified  by  the  swallow-tailed  &lcon  {E.  Jurcattis)  of 
America.  The  wings  have  the  second  and  third  quiils  longest, 
and  the  hinder  toe  is  elongated, 

Elapll'titlin,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Connsracea  (q.  v.),  which  is  sometimes  mcluded  in  the  nearly- 
allied  order  Amyiideues  or  '  myrrh '  order.  The  genus  is  repre- 
sented by  the  E.  tcmtrifosura,  which  yields  a  resin  named 
Tacamahac,  whilst  Mexican  Elemi  (q,  v.)  is  obtained  from  ^. 

Slapa,  a  genus  of  poisonous  Colubrfne  (q.  v.)  snates,  form- 
ing the  type  of  the  lamily  Elafiidie,  in  which  group  the  head  is 
square,  the  snout  short,  and  the  front  teeth  of  the  jaws  longest 
In  the  genus  E.  (represented  by  the  E.  fulvius  or  bead-snake  of 
N.  America)  no  smooth  teeth  exist  behind  the  fangs.  The  Cobra 
di  Capello  (q.  v,)  belongs  to  the  Elafida. 

ElaBmobran'ohii,  an  order  of  Pisces  or  fishes,  represented 
by  the  Shark  (q.  v.).  Dog-fish  (q.  v.),  Ray  (q.  v.).  Skate  (□.  v.), 
and  their  alKes,  The  order  is  distinguished  by  the  skull  and 
lower  jaw  being  well  developed.  No  distinct  cranial  or  skull 
bones  can  be  distinguished,  and  the  skull  is  cartilaginous  in  its 
nature.  .  The  spine  may  be  osseous,  cartilaginous,  or  represented 
by  a  soft  Nolochord  (q.  v. ).  The  scales  consist  of  bony  plates, 
granules,  or  tubercles,  oflen  fiirnished  with  spines.  Tiie  pectoral 
and  ventral  fins  are  developed,  the  latter  being  abdominal  in 
position.  No  clavicles  exist.  The  heart  has  a  bulbus  arteriosus, 
which  is  rhythmically  contractile,  provided  with  striped  mus- 
cular fibres,  and  possessing  several  rows  of  valves.  The  gills 
exist  in  the  form  of  pouches,  whicii  open  externally  by  slits  (as 
m  sharks),  or  bj"  a  single  gill-aperture  (as  in  Chimsra).  The 
order  is  divided  mto  (he  HdeafihiUi,  represented  by  the  Chimara 
or  '  king  of  the  herrings ;'  and  the  Ftapostomi,  represented  by 
the  shaAs,  rays,  &c.  The  former  group  has  a  single  gill-aper- 
ture, or  persistent  notochord ;  the  first  ray  of  the  dorsal  fin 
forms  a  spine,  and  the  mouth  is  placed  at  the  extremity  of  the 
head.  Tlie  latter  subdivision  has  the  transverse  mouth  placed 
on  the  under  surface  of  the  body,  and  the  gills  open  by  numerous 
gill-slits. 

Elasti'city,  in  physical  science,  is  the  property  possessed  by 
probably  all  kinds  of  matter,  in  virtue  of  which  they  tend  to  re- 
cover their  original  form  or  dimensions  after  disfigurement  by  some 
external  force.  No  substances,  however,  are  perfectly  elastic,  te. 
Can  of  themselves  perfectly  regain  their  original  condition  after 
having  been  subjected  to  an  appreciable  strain.  Those  which  most 
nearly  approach  this  ideal  perfection  are  the  gases,  whose  E.  is  de- 
fined as  the  ratio  of  the  increment  of  pressure  to  the  compression 
prodnced  by  it.  The  same  definition  holds  for  liquids,  but  their 
E.  is  of  little  practical  importance  on  account  of  their  generally 
small  compressibility.  In  both  liquids  and  gases  the  E.  is 
wholly  one  of  volume,  form  and  figure  being  not  of  the  least 
consequence.  Not  so,  however,  with  solids.  Here  change  of 
form  constitutes  distortion,   and  distortion  is  not  necessarily 


accompanied  by  change  of  hulk.  It  is  found  that  within  certain 
limits  the  law  is  practically  accurate  that  the  distortion  is  pro- 
portional to  the  force,  or,  as  Hooke  first  enunciated  it,  uttendo 
He  vis;  but  for  every  solid  substance  there  is  a  certain  limiting 
strain,  beyond  which  E.  ceases  to  act,  the  rigidity  or  resistance 
to  change  of  form  is  overcome,  and  fracture  ensues.  (See 
Strain.)  Plastic  solids  are  those  whose  E.  of  figure  is  very 
imperfect;  and  Ihey  pass  by  insensible  gradations  into  ■aiscous 
flmda,  wliich  have  only  E.  of  volume.  Continuous  rise  of  tem- 
perature, as  a  rule,  renders  solids  more  and  more  plastic,  till 
they  become  liquid  and  ultimately  gaseous  j  and  therefore  rise  of 
temperature  diminishes  E.  of  figure  and  increases  E.  of  volume. 
All  these  phenomena  follow  as  a  direct  consequence  of  the 
molecular  theory  of  the  constitution  of  matter,  when  it  is  con- 
sidered that  the  difficulty  of  permanently  altering  the  relative 
positions  of  contiguous  particles  is  greater  the  closer  they  are, 
and  especially  so  if,  when  condensed,  the  particles  are  subject  to 
mutually  attractive  forces,  which  are  of  little  moment,  on  account 
of  the  introduction  of  new  dynamical  conditions,  when  the 
particles  are  sufficiently  separated, 

of  the  structures  of  the 


Elasticity,  in  physiology. 


there  is  a  strong  elastic  band  termed  the  ligam^itum  nucha 
in  the  back  of  the  neck  of  the  large  mminants  and  pachyderms, 
stretching  from  the  spinous  processes  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae  to 
the  occiput,  by  which  the  heavy  head  is  sustained  without  mus- 
cular fatigue.  The  liuger  arteries  of  the  body  possess  a  highly 
elastic  coat,  by  the  agency  of  which  the  jei-iike  pulsation  com- 
municated by  the  heart  to  the  blood  is  converted  into  a  con- 
tinuous uniform  motion.  Tlie  lungs  and  walls  of  the  chest,  by 
their  K,  assist  in  ordinary  expiration  without  any  muscular 
action.  Muscles  are  highly  elastic,  so  that  after  contraction  they 
return  to  their  former  length.  Finally,  elastic  structures  are 
found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  all  joints,  so  ss  to  break  the  shock 
in  such  movenients  of  the  body  as  widking,  running,  leaping, 

El'ater,  the  name  given  in  botany  to  the  spiral  elastic  ^res 
contained  within  certain  vegetable  cells,  and  which  by  their 
elasticity  aid  in  Scattering  the  spores  or  germs  of  such  lower 
plants  as  horse-tails  or  Equtsdacem,  &c.  In  many  cases  these  E. 
are  hj^rometric,  that  is,  are  affected  by  the  varying  effects  of 

Elater,  a  genus  of  CoUaptera  (q.  v.)  or  Beetles,  forming  tiie 
type  of  a  distinct  family  {Eialcrida),  in  which  the  body  is  hard, 
the  antennse  short  and  serrated,  and  the  head  sunk  in  the  thorax 
as  for  as  the  eyes.  The  limbs  are  also  short.  They  are  some- 
times named  '  spring-beetles,'  from  the  fact  that  when  laid  oa 
their  backs  they  can  spring  into  their  normal  position.  Many  are 
luminous  in  the  dark.     See  Cligk-Beetles,  WiReworm,  &c 

Elat'erite,  or  Elas'tio  Bitu'men,  is  a  flexible  or  elastic 
mineral  substance  allied  to  bitumen,  possessed  of  a  blackish- 
brown  colour  and  a 
yellow  flame,  giving 


lustre.  It  bums  readily  with  s 
lit  a  bituminous  odour,  and  as  it  efface) 
been  called  mineral  caoutchouc.  It  wa! 
old  lead-mine  in  Derbyshire,  but  it  ii 


:ncil-markings, 
found  originafly  ir 
nowhere  abundant. 

Elate'riuiD,  a  drug  used  in  pharmacy,  and  obtained  fr 
"  green  mucous  or  glutinous  matter  sntrounding  the 


ripe  fruit  to  stand 
collected.  It  is  of  a  pale-greenish  colour,  and  is  a  powerlul 
hydragogue  cathartic  or  purgative,  and  is  used  in  dropsy,  &c 
Its  properties  depend  on  a  crystalline  substance  called  elatenii 
As  a  drug  it  Was  employed  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  It 
varies  much  in  strength,  and  should  be  administered  at  fiist 
in  jij-grain  doses  until  its  proper  effect  is  ascertained 
Blatina'eeEB,  or 'water-pepper'  order,  a  group  of  Exogenous 

Elants,  occurring  in  all  quarters  of  the  globe,  lud  distmg  ished 
y  their  being  small  annuals  growing  in  marshes.  The  lea^  e 
are  stipulate  and  opposite,  and  the  flowers  are  small  and  aiil 
lary,  The  sepals  and  petals  vary  in  number  from  three  to  fi\e 
The  seeds  are  exalbnminous,  and  attached  to  a  central  placenta 
The  natural  order  E.  is  allied  to  the  Eulacets.  The  type-genera 
are  Elatine,  Bergia,  and  Anatropa. 


503 


-4- 


vLiOOQle 


ELB 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ELD 


Ellia  (Fr.  Elbe),  an  island  of  Italy  in  the  Mediferranean,  is 
included  in  the  piovince  of  Livorno,  and  lies  between  Corsica  and 
Tuscany, being  separated  from  the  mainland  by  a  strait  (Piombino) 
about  5  miles  wide.  It  is  the  Ilva  of  the  Romans  and  the  jElhalia 
of  the  Greeks,  the  latter  of  which  names  is  supposed  to  have  been 
su^ested  by  the  smolte  of  its  many  iron-snielting  furnaces.  Area, 
90  sq.  miles  ;  pop.  (1862)  20,24a  About  18  miles  in  length,  it 
varies  in  breadth  from  2j  to  10  miles,  while  the  coasts  are  bold 
and  deeply  indented  with  good  harbours.  It  is  mountainous, 
and  rises  to  a  height  of  3500  feet  in  Monte  della  Capanna. 
Among  the  pi-oductions  are  iron,  loadstone,  marble,  wine, 
wheat,  olives,  and  Southern  frails.  The  capital  is  Porto -Ferraro. 
The  Treaty  of  Paris  designated  E.  as  the  residence  of  Napoleon 
I.,  who,  however,  only  remained  here  from  I4tli  May  1814  till 
his  escape  On  the  z6lh  Febraary  1815. 

Kibe'  (Lat.  Albis,  Bohem.  Lahe),  the  laigest  river  of  N.  Ger- 
many, has  its  source  in  numerous  springs  on  the  Bohemian  side 
and  in  the  highest  part  of  the  Riesengebirgs,  4538  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  It  flows  m  a  sweeping  curve  through  the  N.  of 
Bohemia,  past  Koniggiatz,  Melnik,  Theresienstadt,  and  Leit- 
meriti ;  then,  after  making  its  way  through  the  Mittelgebirgs 
of  Bohemia,  it  enters  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  passing  Pirna, 
Dresden,  and  Meissen.  It  then  flows  past  Torgau,  Wittenberg, 
and  Magdeburg  in  Prussian  Saxony,  and  further  on  it  forms  the 
boundary  of  Hanover  and  Mecklenburg,  Lauenburg  and  Hol- 
Etein,  passing  Hamburg,  Altona,  and  Gliickstadt,  and  felling 
into  the  German  Oceanat  Cuxhaven,  after  a  cotii-se  of  720  miles. 
Close  on  its  embouchure  its  breadth  varies  from  9  to  13  miles. 
It  drains  an  area  of  55,590  sq.  miles,  and  receives  in  its  coarse 
more  than  fifty  affluents,  of  which  the  most  important  on  the 
right  are  the  Iser,  the  Elster,  and  the  Havel ;  on  the  left,  the 
Moldaa,  E^er,  Mulde,  and  Saale.  It  becomes  navigable  at 
Melnilt  for  the  lai^e  E.  wherries  at  Pirna,  and  at  Hamburg,  by 
the  help  of  the  tide,  for  the  largest  mercliant  vessels.     Its  navi- 

rible  course  is  520  miles  long,  340  of  which  belong  to  Prussia, 
teamboals  carryin    f   'ght     '1    glib  twee    H  mb  d 

Magdebuig ;  passeng  ts  as  m  D 

through  Saxony  an     B      m        Th  ra 

of  the  E.  was  long  d   m 

The  Elbe  Naviga  T  g      tl         ax 

these.    Other  amel  g       J  8 

all  existing  tolls  w         bo        d. 
ElTjerfeld,  a  D  R 

Prussia,  on  the  W  pp  S  W  B  m    n,       d 

30  miles  S.S,W.     f  k  ra 

cipal  mannfacturing  E      pe,       d   h 

town-hall,  an  acad  m  esgn,         RmCth  d 

lai^e   Protestant   ch  S.  ra 

European  and  Asiatic  silks,  half-silk  fabrics,  ribbons,  cottons, 
linens,  carpets,  india-rubber,  cloths,  paperhangings,  patent 
leather,  buttons,  chemicals,  machinery,  pianofortes,  and  organs. 
It  is  celebrated  for  the  tint  and  permanence  of  its  Turkey-ted 
dye.  There  are  229  weaving  and  spinning  factories,  with  50 
steam-engines,  i  lao  mechanical  looms,  and  3746  hand  and  power 
looms,  employing  8389  men  and  2917  women,  and  producing 
goods  to  the  value  of  some  ^2,000,000  yearly.  In  addition, 
there  are  29  dye-works,  3  lai^e  cotton-printing  establishments, 
extensive  bleaching-fields,  z  machine  factories,  100  other  metal 
works,  32  breweries,  11  brandy  distilleries,  &c  Many  French 
artists  are  here  employed  as  pattern -designers.  E.  is  the  seat  of 
several  large  commercial  companies.     Pop.  {\%^\')  71,384. 

Elbeiif ,  or  Elboeuf  (' new  town,' from  Fr. h^,  'a  dwelling,' 
from  the  Norse  by  or  ikgat),  a  town  in  the  department  of  Seine- 
Inferieure,  France,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine,  75  miles  N.W. 
of  Paris  by  railway.  It  has  been  noted  since  the  i6th  c  for  its 
manufactures,  which  are  now  in  a  more  flourishing  stale  thaji 
ever,  embracing  the  production  of  double-milled  cloths,  woollens, 
waterproofs,  flannels,  biliiard-aible  covers,  &c.  Its  chief  build- 
ings are  the  chnrches  of  St  Etienne  and  St  Jean  Baptiste,  both 
of  which  have  beautiful  stained^lass  windows.  E.  has  an  active 
river  trade  with  Paris,  Rouen,  and  Havre.    Pop.  (1872)  22,311. 

Elding,  a  town  in  W.  Prussia,  on  a  navigable  river  of  the 
same  name,  3  miles  S.  of  its  entrance  into  the  Haflj  and  35 
E.  S.E.  of  Danzig  by  railway.  It  is  modern  in  appearance,  and 
has  eight  Protestant  churches,  a  Roman  Catholic  church,  a  syna- 
gogue, a  gymnasium  (since  1536),  a  public  library  of  22,000  vols., 
504 


and  an  institution  {CowUsche SliJiuKg),  founded  by  Cowle,  an 
Englishman,  for  the  upbringing  of  400  poor  children.  Its  manu- 
factures are  cottons,  linens,  hosieiy,  colours,  leather,  tobacco, 
beer,  chemicals,  gold  and  silver  wares,  and  there  are  also  several 
large  works  for  the  production  of  machinery  and  locomotive 
engines.  In  1871,  132  vessels  cleared  tlie  port,  chiefly  with 
wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  timber.  Kahlberg,  a  beautiful  bathing- 
place,  on  the  Neerung,  is  the  great  summer  resort  of  the  Eibin- 
gers.  Pop.  (1871)  31,164.  E.  was  founded  by  Hermann  Balk, 
a  German  knight,  together  with  colonists  from  Lvibeck,  in  1237. 
It  was  an  important  member  of  the  Hanse  League,  and  became 
Prussian  in  1772. 


Elburz',  a  lofty  mounttun  range,  extending  along  the  whole 
southern  sbore  of  the  Caspian  Sea  in  the  Persian  provinces  of 
Ghilan,  Mazandaian,  and  Dahistan.  The  higliest  summit  is 
believed  to  be  Demavend  [q.  v.).  Elburz  or  Elbraz  is  also  the 
name  of  the  highest  summit  of  the  Caucasus  (q.  v.)  range. 

Bl'elie  (anc  Illici  or  Elke,  Basque  iliia,  'a  town,'  'the  town 
on  the  hill'),  an  Interesting:  oW  town  of  Sp^,  in  Valencia, 
16  miles  S.S.W.  of  Alicante,  in  a  sterile,  hilly  district,  surrounded 
by  a  plantation  of  about  70,000  palm-trees,  which  lends  to  the 
place  the  appearance  of  an  African  oaas,  and  which  is  itself 
EuiTonnded  by  maize-fields,  and  by  plantations  of  olive  and  carob 
trees.  Pop.  15,700,  who  manufacture  leather,  and  carry  on  a 
good  trade  in  dates  and  blanched  palm-leaves  for  processions. 
To  the  west  of  E.  is  the  town  of  Crevillente  (pop.  7787),  with 
many  tanks  and  subterranean  aqueducts  of  Moorish  construct] 

Elcll'ingen,  a  village  of  Germany,  Bavaria,  on  the  left  bank 

of  the  Danube,  8  miles  below  Ulm,  and  the  seat  of  a  once 

famous  Benedictine  abbey.      Pop.   499.      Here  on  the  13th 

October  1805  the  Austrians  were  defeated  by  the  French  under 

Ney,  upon  whom  the  title  Duke  of  E.  was  afterwards  conferred. 

El'obo,   Lord,  the  Eig^lit  Hon.  Francis  Wemyss- 

Charteris-Douglas,  eldest  son  of  the- eighth  Earl  of  Wemyss, 

s  born  August  4,  1818,  and  was  educated  it  Eton  and  Christ 

urch,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  in  1841.    In  the  same  year 

entered  Parliament  as  representative  of  East  Gloucestershire, 

aching  himself  to  the  party  of  Sir  Robert   Peel.     Having 

become  a  convert  to  free-trade  principles,  he  resigned  East  GIou- 

tershire  in  1846,  but  in  the  following  year  was  returned  as  a 

beral  Conservative'  for  Haddingtondiire,  where  his  family 

h    e  great  local  influence.    He  still  represents  the  same  con- 

uency.    He  enjoyed  a  brief  tenure  of  office  (Janaaiy  1853 

February  1855)  m  the  Peel-Aberdeen  coalition  government, 

but  he  has  not  at  any  period  of  his  career  taken  a  foremost  place 

in  the  great  political  movements  of  his  tune.     He  has,  hojvever, 

identified  himself  with,  and  laboured  with  praiseworthy  devotion 

in  the  furtherance  of,  some  of  the  most  urgent  social  question;    * 

the  age.     He  may  be  said  to  have  created  the  volunteer  mo  . 

ment  in  1859,  and  he  has  most  faithfully  and  assiduously  laboured 

for  the  increased  efHciency  of  this  arm  of  the  national  servi 

He  has  also  devoted  much  care  to  the  consideration  of  the  game 

laws,  and  to  the  subject  of  local  government  for  the  metropolis. 

El'der,  literally  one  of  the  older  men,  who  in  ancient  times 

were  naturally  appointed  to  public  offices  requiring  wisdom  and 

experience,  was  afterwards  a  person,  of  whatever  age,  who  held 

such  an  oflice  (Gen.  L  •].).     It  was  to  the  elders  rf  Israel  that 

Moses  declared  his  commission  (Exod.  xii.  21).     Seventy  were 

chosen,  along  with  Aaron,  Nadab,  and  Abihu,  to  attend  Moses 

on  Mount  Sinai  (Exod.  ixiv.) ;  and  ofherseventy  were  appointed 

to  help  hira  as  judges  (Num.  xi. }.     When  the  nation  was  settled 

in  Canaan,  the  elders  administered  the  law  in  the  cities  {Dent. 

xix.  la) ;  and  the  office  continued  under  the  judges  (Judges  ii. 

7),  the  kings  (1  Sam.  kxx.  26,  I  Chron.  xxi,  16),  the  captivity 

(Ezra  X,  14),  and  after  the  restoration  (Ezra  v.  5,  vi.  14),    Under 

the  Maccabees,  at  which  time,  probably,  the  Sanhedrim  (q.  v.) 

was  instituted,  they  are  still  mentioned  as  a  separated  class  (l 

Mace  vii.  33).     In  the  time  of  Christ  they  are  mentioned  along 

with  the  scribes,  chief  priests,  and  coraicil  as  one  of  the  classes 

from  which  the  Sanhedrhn  was  chosen  ;  see  Luke  xxii.  66,  in 

which  passage  they  are  spoken  of  as  a  body— ^esiyfeiion.    An 

E.  in  the  Christian  Church,  into  which  the  title  and  olfice  were 

adopted,  was  a  kind  of  overseer,  whose  duties  were  to  preach 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYQLOPMDIA. 


(Titus  I.  9)  find  visit  the  sick  (James  v.  14).  The  order  even 
included  the  apostles  (I  Tim,  iv.  14,  2  Tim.  i.  6,  2  John  i,  3 
John  1),  although  elsewhere  the  apostles  are  distinguished  frorfi 
them  (Acts  XV,  6).  (See  Bishop.)  Elders  are  also  lay  officials  in 
Presbyterian  charohes  who  act  with  the  presbyters  or  ministers 
in  the  administration  of  Church  discipline  and  government, 
having  nn  equal  vote  with  the  latter  in  all  Church  courts.  They 
are  sometimes  qaljed  rAl^g  elders,  as  distinguished  from  the 
teaching  elders  or  pastors,  as  the  name,  which  is  a  Ivanslation  of 
the  Gr.  frahyteros,  belongs  more  properly  to  the  latter  than  to 
the  former,  In  the  Church  of  Scotland,  Ihe  duties  of  an  E„  as 
specified  in  the  Bidkofthi  PoUdc  of  the  Kirk,  ratified  at  the 
Assembly  of  Gla^ow,  15S1,  are  as  follows  :—(l)  To  watch 
diligently  upon  the  flodt  committed  to  their  care-,  both  publicly 
and  privately,  that  no  corruption  of  religion  or  manners  enter 
therein.  (2)  To  bfl  careiiil  in  seeking  the  fruit  of  the  seed  (of 
the  Word}  sown  among  the  people  by  the  pastors  and  doctors. 
(3)  To  assist  the  pastors  in  eiiaminafion  of  them  that  come  to 
the  Lord's  table,  and  in  visiting  the  sick.  (4)  To  cause  the  Atits 
of  the  Assembly  to  be  put  in  execution.  (5)  To  be  diligent  m 
admonishing  all  men  of  their  duty,  according  to  the  rule  of  the 
gospeL  (6)  To  bring  things  that  cannot  be  corrected  by  private 
admonition  before  the  eldership  (?  kiirk- session).  (7)  Their 
principal  office  is  to  hold  ftssembfles  with  the  pastors  and  doctors, 
for  establishment  of  gdod  ordei-  and  exeoution  of  discipline.  See' 
Aalobiografhy  and  Diary  of  James  MdTiUl, 

Elder  {Sambums),  a  genus  of  Exogenous  plSnts,  belonging:  to 
the  natural  order  CafrifoHaci^,  of  'honeysuckles.'    The  species 
'  of  E.  are  small  trees  Or  shrubs,  with 

,  ;  leaves,   and  small  flowery 

iC"  an-anged  in  umbelMte  and  racemose 
cymes,  the  corolla  being  wheel- 
Shaped  and  live -cleft,  whilst  the 
pistil  has  the  ovary  partly  adherent 
to  the  calyx,  and  possesses  three  stig- 
mata on  the  ovary.  The  fruit  is  a 
berry.  The  common  E.  (S.  nigra) 
is  a  well-known  shrub,  the  young 
.  Wood  of  which  contains  a  l&rge 
amount  of  soft  or  cellular  pith.  It 
occurs  in  Europe,  N.  Asia,  and  N. 
Africa,  and  is  fouitd  equally  at  home 
iinder  a  tropic  sun  and  an  arctic 
t;old.  The  flowers  yield  a  volatile 
oil,  and  the  berries  are  used  in  mak- 
ing '  E.-flower  wine.  Both  leaves 
I.  and  inner  bark  hai%  a  purgative 
action.  The  fldweis  also  yield  a  dis- 
le-making  and  also  in  confectionery, 
'  '  E.  -flower  wine  is  made  in 
:,  the  berries  being  gathered 
mostly  in  Kent,  where  thefe  are  lai^e  plantations  of  E.  -trees. 
The  old  wood  ofE,  is  hard,  and  used  for  making  parts  of  fishing- 
rods  and  other  instruments.  The  younger  wood  is  easily  wrought, 
.  and  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  toys.  Other  species  of  E. 
are  the  S.  raceaiosa,  or  scarlet-berried  K  of  S.  Enrope  and 
Silieria,  the  juice  of  whose  berries  possesses  narcotic  properties. 
S,  Ebidm,  or  the  dwatf  E.,  furnishes  a  purgative  from  its  inner 
bark,  and  its  flowers  are  employed  in  making  E, -flower  water. 
The  latter  is  made  by  adding  2  gallons  of  walet  and  3  oi.  recti- 
fied spirit  to  10  lbs.  of  E.  flowers.  About  i  gallon  of  E.-flower 
water  is  distilled  from  these  ingredients. 

El'don,  Baroa,  Jolm  Scott)  an  eminent  English  lawyer, 
was  bom  July  4,  1751,  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne.  His  father, 
William  Scott,  was  a  humble  man,  who  at  various  times  was  a 
coal-dealer  and  a  public-house  keeper,  and  made  So  much  money 
by  speculation,  that  he  was  able  to  give  his  sons,  William  (after- 
wards Baron  Stowell)  and  John,  a  good  university  educations 
John  was  trained  at  Newcastle  and  University  College,  where  he 
gained  a  fellowship.  The  most  remarkable  event  in  his  college 
career,  however,  was  his  elopement  with  Miss  Elizabeth  Surtees, 
a  Newcastle  lady,  and  their  marriage  at  Blackshiels  in  Scotland, 
November  19, 1772.  '  Bessy,' as  Scott  always  called  her,  proved  lo 
him  an  excellent  wife,  and  nothing  could  equal  his  affection  for  her. 
At  first,  owing  to  the  dislike  shown  to  the  marriage  by  '  Bessy's ' 
relatives,  the  pair  were  in  straitened  circumstances,  and  Scott 
abandoned  his  study  for  the  Church  (for  which  he  was  originally 
139 


tilled  w 

England  chiefly  at  Chris 


educated)  for  the  study  of  law,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1776. 
By  his  extraordinary  perseverance  and  industry,  and  aided  by  help 
from  his  own  and  his  wife's  relatives,  with  the  latter  of  whom 
he  had  become  reconciled,  he  acquired  in  1787  a  great  practice 
at  the  equity  bar.  He  entered  Pariiament,  and  his  promotion 
under  the  auspices  of  Pitt  was  very  rapid.  He  filled  in  succes- 
sion the  posts  of  Solicitor- Gen  era!  and  Attorney-General,  and 
Chief  Justice  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas.  Finally,  in  1801,  as 
Baron  E.,  he  became  Lord  Chancellor,  an  office  which  he  held 
till  1827  in  the  Addington,  Pitt,  and  Liverpool  administrations. 
In  1S21  E.  was  made  an  earl,  and  did  not  retire  from  public  life 
till  1S35.  His  wife  died  in  1831,  and  he  himself  followed  her 
in  January  3,  1838,  leaving  a  large  fortune.  E.  vras  a  man 
of  sagacious,  astute,  and  vigorous  intellect.  He  was  not  a  wise 
or  deep  thinker.  He  had  no  living  grasp  of  moral  principle, 
but  he  knew  thoroughly  what  would  work  for  the  time ;  and 
therefore,  in  spite  of  an  absence  of  any  strong  convictions, 
theological  or  political,  he  was  a  determined  opponent  of  parUa- 
mentary  reform  and  Catholic  emanciparion.  With  the  pubUc 
and  in  society  he  was  extremely  popular  through  a  certain  charm 
of  manner ;  and  although  he  could  not  write  grammatically,  his 
judgments  are  still  greatly  valued.  See  Lord  Campbell's  IM!es 
of  the  ChaneeilarS,  and  Twiss's  Li/i  vf  Lord  E.  (1846). 

El  I>ora'do  (Sp.  '  the  golden  or  gilded  land,'  from  the  Lat. 
aurum,  'gold'),  an  imaginary  region  in  America,  supposed  to  lie 
between  the  Orinoco  and  the  Amazon,  whose  riches  were  believed 
to  eclipse  the  treasures  of  Mexico  and  Peru.  Its  capital,  Manoa, 
was  said  to  be  partly  built  of  gold,  and  to  sland  on  a  great  lake  with 
golden  sands,  called  Parima.  The  whole  country  was  believed 
to  glitter  with  veins  of  gold,  Humboldt  found  a  belief  in  E.  D. 
among  the  tribes  of  the  Upper  Orinoco,  and  describes  a  Lake 
Parima  whose  roclu  of  sparkling  mica-slate  may  have  given  rise 
to  the  storyi  Francisco  Orellana,  one  of  Pjiarro's  companions, 
descended  the  Amazon  to'  the  sea  in  search  of  E.  D.,  and  spread 
a  belief  in  it  through  Spain,  where  men  became  seized  with  a 
mania  to  find  the  fabulous  city.  Numerous  expeditions  sought 
it,  one  party  setting  oOtaslate  as  the  year  r77a  Walter  Raleigh 
made  his  ill-starred  expedition  to  Guiana  in  hopes  of  reaching 
this  Utopia,  which  was  as  imaginary  as  the  Greek  Hesperides. 
The  name  is  now  applied  to  an  auriferauE  district  in  N.  E,  Cali- 
foiTiia, 

Eleat'ic  Sehool,  deriwd  its  name  from  Elea  on  the  W.  coast 
of  Lower  Italy,  where  its  founde^,  Xenophanes  of  Colophon, 
settled  about  B.C.  560,  It  included  Pai-menides,  Zeno,  Melissus, 
and  to  some  extent,  Empedocles.  Before  them  the  two  great 
Greek  schools  had  been  (1)  the  Ionian,  or  physiolo^cal,  which 
ekplained  the  production  of  the  World  from  a  primitive  sub- 
stance, such  as  air  or  water ;  and  (S)  the  Pythagorean,  or  mathe- 
matical, which  asserted  tliat  number,  with  its  two  elements,  odd 
and  even,  combining  in  unity,  was  the  true  cause  or  principle  of 
all  particular  existences.  The  Eleatic  oiitieism  on  this  was  that 
'  out  of  non-beme  being  cannot  come>'  and  tliat  'non-being  can- 
not  exist.'  If,  men,  being  existed,  it  must  embrace  all  exist- 
ence. Tie  dependence  of  reat  things  was  assumed  to  be  not 
only  rational  (in  the  sense  of  corresponding  to  the  general  notions 
fornffid  by  the  human  mind),  but  even  verbal,  for  the  Greeks  ' 
were  then  unacquainted  with  foreign  languages,  and  confounded 
Greek  thought  with  human.  The  Eleatics,  therefore,  resorted  to 
the  most  attract  and  elementary  concept— God  or  The  All,  the 
one  self- existent,  eternal,  intelligent, immovable  being.not  aperson 
distinct  from  thecreatedworid, but  uuderi^ingandinleipenetrating 
the  world  and  all  possible  worlds  as  their  true  sulistance  and  life. 
The  dogma  of  the  system  was  elaborated  by  Parmenides.  He 
distinguished  between  truth,  or  ideas  obtained  by  the  intelligence, 
and  opinion,  or  ideas  obtained  by  the  senses,  and  therefore 
modified  by  organisation.  The  Eleatic  is  the  great  type  of 
consistent  Pantheism.  See  Ritter  and  Preller,  Hkl.  Fkii.,  1S64  ; 
Sehwegler*  Bill.  Phil.  ;  Lewes,  &c 

El'ecampane  {Inula  Helenium),  a  genus  and  species  of  Com- 
posite plants,  of  an  aromatic  kind,  and  which,  possesses  tonic  and 
diuretic  properties.  It  is  not  common  in  Britain,  but  occurs  in 
marshy  spots  in  S.  Europe.  The  root  is  the  valued  part  of  the 
plant,  and  seems  to  depend  for  its  properties  on  the  possesion 
of  a  starchy  principle  named  Imilme.  The  E.  belongs  to  the 
CoryniUfer<e  or  chamomile  section  of  the  Conipositis,  in  which 
the  florets  of  each  flower-head  are  similar  and  usually  tubulan 


vLiOOQle 


ELB 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Eleo'tion,  tile  Doetrma  of,  was  developed  from  the 
apcslle  Paul's  view  of  the  relation  to  each  other  of  the  two 
great  divisions  of  mankind,  tlie  Jews  and  the  Gentiles,  In 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  he  seeks  to  explain  a  mnlerial  and 
historical  fact,  to  wit,  the  repugnance  of  the  majority  of  the 
Jews  to  the  gospel,  a  repugaance  which  would  deprive  them 
of  tlie  advantages  anciently  promised  io  them,  and  in  a  manner 
give  the  iie  to  God,  who  had  promised  tliem  salvation.  But 
this  partial  hardening  of  Israel  which,  as  nevealed  by  the 
fact,  entered  into  the  secret  counsels  of  God,  was  destined  to 
become  the  occasion  of  .the  converson  of  the  Gentiles.  When 
these  should  be  brought  in,  then  ail  Israel  would  also  be  saved. 
Meantime  individual  Jews  were  sacrificed  to  the  great  designs  of 
God,  but  what  were  these  in  comparison?  (Rem.  ijt.  20-24). 
Judaism  in  the  time  of  the  apostle  proclaimed  the  E.  of  the  Jews 
and  the  reproba^n  of  the  Gentiles.  To  oppose  this  notion,  St 
Paul,  in  his  illustration  of  Jacob  and  Esau  (Rom.  ix.),  insisted  on 
tills,  that  Jacob  was  elected  without  Ihs  merit  in  order  to  make 
the  Jews  feel  that  their  national  privileges  would  not  neces- 
saiily  make  them  partaiers  of  the  true  grace  of  God,  far  less  give 
them  a  monopoly  of  it.  And  in  following  out  this  idea  to  its 
last  consequences,  he  had  <o  set  forth  that  reprobation  arose,  not 
from  demerit,  tut  from  the  free  will  of  God.  Augustine  ap- 
plied this  conception  purely  to  individuals,  and  made  the  decree 
of  God  unconditional,  or  entirely  independent  of  the  Tiuman 
will.  His  theory  differed  from  all  previous  views  in  respect 
of  the  imputation  of  Original  Sin  (q.  v. ),  concerning  \yhich  he 
held  that  the  will  of  the  natural  man  is  only ^«  to  do  evil,  his 
opponent  Pelagius  holding  that  man,  thottgh  needing  the  aid  of 
the  grace  of  God,  has  tlie  power  of  choosing  Ijetween  good  and 
evil.  In  the  Scholastic  period  the  Pelagian  controversy  was 
revived  betweea  the  Thoraists  (q.  v.)  and  the  Scotlsts  (q,  v.). 
After  the  Refoimation,  Roman  Qitholics,  Arminians,  and  espe- 
cially Socinians,  endeavoured  to  reconcQe  the  divine  decrees  with 
human  liberty.    Calvinists  and  Lutherans  denied  all  co-operation 


will.     See  HT>dge's  SyslanatkT/uoiagy  (1873), 

Bleetion,  in  law.  In  England,  one  is  said  to  hasi-e  an  E. 
when  he  has  two  or  more  alternatives,  but  having  made  his 
choice,  he  is  bound  by  it,  and  may  not  act  inconsistently.  For 
Scotch  law  see  Approbate  and  Repkobate, 

Blstw-a  Lavis,  Parliamentary. — Procedure  at  an  E.  Is  regu- 
lated by  several  statutes.  One  of  the  most  important  of  these 
is  the  Ballot  Act  (1872),  bj-  which  secret  voting  Tias  been 
for  the  first  time  introduced  mto  municipal  and  parliamentary 
elections  in  Che  United  Kingdom.  The  Act  expires  on  31st 
December  1880,  unless  Parliament  shall  otherwise  direct,  llie 
Act  makes  provisions  for  the  time  and  place  of  elections,  for  the 
nomination  of  candidates,  for  the  form  and  official  marking  of 
the  ballot  paper,  for  the  sealing  of  the  ballot  boxes  at  the  dose 
of  the  E.,  and  for  opening  and  counting  the  votes,  in  pre- 
sence, if  desired,  of  the  agents  of  the  candidates.  This  Act  also 
defines  Irialing  to  be  Ihe  candidate  or  his  agent  paying  or  being 
accessory  to  paying  for  any  meat,  drink,  or  entertainment  to  any 
one,  to  inHuence  Ills  vote.  Undtie  biflaence  is  defined  to  be 
threats  of  any  force,  violence,  or  restraint,  or  any  abduction  or 
fraudulent  device  by  which  the  exercise  of  the  dectoral  franchise 
is  impeded  or  prevented.  These  olFences  are  punishable  by 
fine  or  imprisonment,  and  votes  so  influenced  are  void.  See 
Bribery. 

ElecHon  of  Stollisk  Petrs—Tiii:  sixteen  representative  peers 
must  be  elected  from  the  Scottish  peerage.  No  British  peer 
created  since  the  Union  has  a  title  to  vote  oc  to  be  elected  ;  and 
in  the  case  of  the  Duke  of  Queensberry,  which  occurred  imme- 
diately after  the  Union,  it  was  resolved  in  the  House  of  Lords 
(hat  a  Scotch  nobleman  created  a  British  peer  subsequently  to 
the  Union  was  not  entitled  to  vote  in  ihe  election  of  representa- 
tive peers  ;  and  in  the  case  of  the  Duke  of  Hamilton,  in  1711,  it 
was  determined  that  a  Scottish  nobleman  created  a  British  peer 
after  the  Union  was  not  entitled  to  sit  in  the  British  House  of 
Lords.  These  resolutions  were,  however,  subsequently  reversed. 
When  a  new  Parliament  is  summoned,  the  peers  of  Scotland  are 
called  by  proclamation  to  meet  and  elect  their  representatives. 
The  E.  takes  place  at  the  palace  of  Holyrood.  The  court  of 
review  in  all  questions  connected  with  the  representation  of  the 
peerage  of  Scotland  is  the  House  of  Lords. 
S06 


Elections,  Parish. — At  the  E.  of  guardians  and  all  othei' 
elections,  the  voles  are  to  be  taken  in  luriting,  and  the  rights  of 
voting  in  owners  and  ratepayers  are  assimilated  by  7  and  8  Vict, 
c.  loi.  A  plurality  of  votes  is  allowed;  thus,  if  rated  at  leas 
than  ^50,  one  vote;  between  ;£50  and  ^100,  two  votes  ;  between 
,^100  and  ^150,  three  votes;  between  ;^l  50  and^^aco,  font  votes; 
between  ;^200  and  ^^250,  five  votes  j  and  if  it  amount  to  or  exceed 
;£250,  six  votes.  When  a  person  is  .owner  .and  occupier,  he  may 
vote  in  both  capacities. 

Elec'tors  {Gei. kurJjirsten,b(X!a  &ur  ipiisrAtXe),  'an  elector,' 
and  Jiirsl,  '  a  prince '),  were  at  first  in  Germany  seven  great 
feudatories — the  King  of  Bohemia,  tlie  Duke  of  Saxony,  the 
Markgraf  of  Brandenbui^,  (he  Count- Palatine  of  the  Rhine,  and 
the  Archbishops  of  Trier,  Mainz  and  K6ln — who  were  intrusted 
to  choose  the  mediieva!  Roman  emperors.  The  office  of 
Ccesar  was  in  theory  open  to  every  baptized  man  above 
the  tank  of  a  serf,  but  became  bound  up  with  the  German 
kingdom,  which  was  thus  Ukewise  rendered  elective,  after 
the  accession  of  Konrad  I.,  in  9II.  The  place  of  election  was 
Frankftirt-oh-the-Main,  and  vote  could  be  given  by  deputy. 
The  K  were  entitled  to  hold  the  ihief  offices  under  the  emperor, 
to  possess  the  royal  dignities  except  the  title  of  majesty,  to  retain 
several  electorates  at  once,  to  obltdn  new  allodial  estates  and 
imperial  fiefs  wlthonC  special  permission,  and  to  form  a  distinct 
college  ill  the  diets,  llieir  choice  was  commonly  the  heir  or  a 
relative  of  the  lale  emperor,  and  was  generally  bought  ty  laige 
concessions,  especially  if  they  made  an  emperor's  son  King  of 
the  Romans  in  Ms  father's  lifetime.  In  i£>48  an  eighth  elector 
was  added;  in  1692  the  Duke  of  Braunschweig-Liineburg  re- 
oeived  the  dignity ;  and  in  1803  the  electorates  of  Wiirtem- 
berg,  Baden,  Hesse-Cassei,  and  Sakbui^  were  added,  and 
those  of  Mauii  and  Trior  set  aside.  The  office  was  abolished 
in  1806,  but  the  title  elector  was  held  by  the  Elector  of  Hesse- 
Cassel  till  1S66. 

Electors,  Qualifiaatione  of.  In  counties,  the  lands  or 
tenements  giving  right  to  vote  may  now  be  of  any  tenure,  and 
may  be  held  in  fee,  or  for  life,  or  for  a  term  of  years,  or  by  mere 
occupation.  No  trustee  or  mortgagee  can  vote  unless  m  posses- 
sion of  the  rents  and  profits  of  the  estate  ;  but  the  mortgager, 
or  Cestui  que  Trust  (q.  v, )  in  possession,  may  vole.  No  one  is 
qualified  to  vote  for  the  county  in  respect  of  any  freehold  house 
occupied  by  himself,  nor  in  respect  of  a  copyhold  or  leasehold 
tenancy  occnpied  by  himself  or  by  another,  if  ihe  occupancy 
confer  the  right  of  voting  for  any  city  or  borough,  whether  the 
right  has  been  actually  acquired  or  not.  All  freeholders  of  in- 
heritance and  for  life  (provided  these  last  shall  be  in  actual 
occupation,  or  shall  have  acquired  theil  freeholds  by  devise,  or 
marriage,  or  marriage  settlement,  or  promotion  to  any  benefice 
or  office)  are  qualified  to  vote,  if  their  freehold  be  of  the  clear 
yearly  i-alue  of  409.  above  all  charges.  Freeholders  for  life,  who 
are  not  inoccupation  themselves,  or  who  have  not  acquired  their 
estates  in  any  of  the  ways  just  mentioned,  and  persons  seised  at 
law  or  in  equity  for  life  or  lives,  or  for  any  larger  estate  of  copy- 
hold or  other  tenure,  not  being  freehold,  are  qualified  to  vote  if 
their  property  be  of  the  clear  annual  value  of  ^5  over  al!  rents 
and  chaises  payable  Out  of  or  in  respect  of  the  same.  Lessees 
or  assignees  of  tenements  of  whatever  tenure  for  the  unexpired 
residue  of  any  term  originally  created  fot  not  fewer  than  sixty 
years  (whether  determinable  on  a  life  or  lives  or  not)  of  the  clear 
yearly  viAue  of  ^5  above  rents  and  charges,  or  for  the  unexpired 
residue  of  any  term  originally  created  for  not  less  tlian  twenty 
years  of  the  dear  yearly  value  oi£%o,  provided  that  no  sub-lessee 
or  assignee  of  any  under-lease  shall  have  aright  to  vote  in  respect 
of  such  term  of  sixty  or  twenty  years,  unless  he  is  in  the  actual 
occupation  of  the  premises,  are  qualified  to  vote.  Occupiers 
.as  tenants  of,any  lands  or  tenements  at  a  yearly  rent  of  not 
less  than  £$0  are  qualified  to  vole  by  the  Reform  Act  of 
1S32 ;  and  all  occupiers  as  owners  or  tenants  of  any  lands  or 
tenements  within  the  county  of  the  rateable  value  of  ^12  a 
year  or  upwards  are  qualified  by  the  Representation  of  the 
People  Act,  1867. 

Until  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Act  of  1832,  the  right  of 
election  of  members  for  cities  and  boroughs  depended  on  local 
usage.  Some  of  these  rights  were  retained  in  1832,  when  the 
franchise  was  bestowed  on  every  occupier  of  a  house  oi£lo  yearly 
value.  The  Act  of  1S67  extends  the  borough  franchise  to  all 
occupiers  of  houses  who  have  resided  in  ihem  for  twelve  months 


y  Google 


ELE 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ELE 


on  Ihe  3151  July  of  any  year,  and  have  been  rated  for  poor 
rates  and  paid  their  rates  up  to  the  previotts  5th  January. 
The  qualification  of  a  lodger  is  absolute  occupation  of  lodg- 
ings of  £10  yearly  value  if  let  unfurnished,  with  tsvelve  montl^' 
residence. 

In  Scotland,  by  the  Act  of  1868,  every  man  is  entitled  fo  be 
registered  as  a  voter  for  a  county  member  who  for  six  calendar 
months  preceding  31st  July  has  been  the  proprietor  of  lands  and 
heritages,  as  appearing  from  the  valuation-roll  of  the  county,  of 
£,^  yearly  value  after  deduction>  of  burdens,  or  who  has  been  in 
(he  actual  personal  occupancy  aa  tenant  of  lands  and  heritages 
within  Che  county  of  the  annual  value  of  ;£l4  or  upwards,  as 
appearing  on  the  same  valuation-roll.  By  the  same  Act,  the 
borough  franchise  is  conferred  on  all  occupiers  of  houses  paying 
rales.  In  both  cases  the  fianchise  is  subject  to  conditions  relative 
to  payment  of  tases. 

In  Ireland,  in  boroughs,  the  Act  of  1868  reduces  the  qualifica- 
tion tojf  4  yearly  value,  with  conditionsof  registration,  six  months- 
previous  occupancy,  and  the  paymeut  of  all  rates  due  for  more 
than  one  half  year.  No  alteration  has  been  made  ini  the  county 
franchise  by  ihe  Representation  o£  the  People  (Ireland)  Act, 
1868. 

In  the  universities,  the  electoral  suffrage  is  hidependent  of 
residence,  property,  or  occupancy ;  being  vested  in  the  case  of 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  in  the  doctors  and  masters  of  arts,  so  long 
as  they  keep  their  names  on  the  books  of  theii' respective  colleges. 
For  the  University  of  Dublin,  the  suffrage  is  vested  in  the  fellows, 
scholars,  and  graduates  ;  for  the  Univers  y  o  L    d  n  ested 

in  the  graduates,  constituting  the  Con  oca  bo  he  Univer- 
sity, whose  names  are  for  the  time  bei  g  n  h  etjis  ry  and 
for  the  Scotch  universities,  it  is  vested  n  th  m  mb  rs  f  the 
general  council,  vfhose  names  are  likew         gi        d, 

Eleo'trio  Clock isa  timepiece  whos  dur  m  p  wer.is 
electricity.  The  name  is,  however,  eg  ently  app  ^  o  an 
ordinary  clock  which  is  regulated  by  ele  n  ur  transmitted 
at  intervals  from  a  standara  dock.  As  sxamples.of  purely  electric 
clocks,  we  may  mention  those  of  Mr  Alexander  Bain  of  Edinbuigh 
and  Mr  C.  Shepherd  of  Londen.  About  1S43  Bain,  avaihng 
himself  of  Oersted's  discovery  of  the  OElion  upon  a  magnet  of  a 
continnous  electric  current,  invented  an  dectio-magnetic  pendu- 
lum, and  employed  it  to  drive  a  clock-train.  The  bob  of  this 
pendulum  consists  of  a  hollow  coil  <rf  insulated  wire,  whose 
terminals  are  connected  with  two  msulated  springs  fixed  at 
the  point  of  suspension  of  the  pendulum.  The  N.  poles  of 
the  two  permanent  bar-magnets  project,  one  at  each  side,  into 
the  horizontal  bore  of  the  coil,  and  over  them  the  penduhim 
oscillates  freely.    When  the  coil  is  trawersed  by  a.  current,  it  be- 

s  magnetised,  and  is  repelled  by  the 

;ted  by  the  other,   the  pendulum  thi 

ation.  By  this  motion  the  current  is 
bar  mo?ed  by  the  pendulum,  and  the  bob  returns  through  the 
action  of  gravity.  lis  momentum  carries  it  and  the  slider  sufS- 
ciently  far  so  as  to  complete  the  circuit  and  remagnetise  the  coil, 
and  thus  the  oscillation  is  maintained  ajid  the  clock-trtun  driven 
in  the  usual  manner  In  Shepherd's  E.  C.  an  ordinary  pendulum 
is  maintdned  in  vibration  by  the  constant  impact  of  a  small 
weight.  An  armature  of  soft  iron,  movaWe  on  a  pivot,  is  rmsed 
at  every  right-hand  oscillation  of  the  pendulum  by  an  electro- 
magnet, and  the  armature  transmits  its  motion  by  levers  to  the 
weighted  arm,  which  on  the  breaking  of  the  cireuit  is  retained 
by  a  detent.  The  left-hand  oscillation  of  the  penduljinj  rdeases 
the  weight,  and  in  falling  it  gives  a  steady  impulse  to  the  [>en- 
dulum.  TTie  wheelwork  and  hands  are  propelled  by  distinct 
electric  currents,  whose  circuits  are  completed  \i^  the  pendulum 
touching  contact  springs.  Powerful  batteries  are  required  for 
Shepherd's,  B,  C,  and  these  call  (or  much  -"—*-—      '  -  -  --— - 

1 J.  jj  surpasses  Bain's,  but  experienc 

3cks  propelled  directly  by  electricity, 
<n  of  a  regulatii^  clock,  there  abides  an  element  of 
t^nty  of  action  that  is  unsatisfactory,  and  that  has  influenced 
their  rare  adoption.    Much  greater  success   has  attended  the 


plished  by  the  transmission  at  regular  intervals  of  an  electric 
current  from  the  standard  clock  to  the  pendulum  of  the  sub- 
sidiary clock,  wliich  is  thereby  retarded  or  accelerated  as  the 
case    may  be,    and    made  to  beat  second  for  second  with  the 


standard  clock.  Any  number  of  secondary  clocks  may  thus  be 
controlled  by  a  standard  clock.  The  cmitroiling  system  of  Mr 
Jones  of  Chester,  in  which  a  modification  of  Bain's  pendulum  is 
employed,  has  been  in  successful  operation  in  many  towns  of  the 
United  Kingdom  since  1857.  It  is  on  this  principle  that  the 
.._.._,  ..._.,.^ ..^.■. .,__:,_    Tliestanda  "    "    " 


tion,  is  connected  with  0: 


e  clocks  in  all  the  larger  and 


lie  of  EdinI 

gceat  attention  to  this  subject,  and  has  distributed  throughout 
that  city  his. ' electco -sympathetic  clocks,'  which  work  in  such 
perfect  unity,,  that  if  tme  goes  wrong  it  at  once  affects  all  the 
others,  in  a  way,  however,  which  does  not  influence  the  time- 
indications  of  these.  See  Mr  Kitchie's  paper  before  the  Royal 
Scottish  Society  of  Arts., 
Electric  Fishea.    See  Elegikicity,  Animal. 

Blectri'city.  Among  the  ancients^  the  properi 
by  certain  bodies,  when  rubbed,  of  attracting  small  piet 
light  materia!  vras  generally  known..  The  phenomenon  obtamea 
its  name'  from  the  substance  by  which  it  was  first  observed,  sUk' 
trim,,  or  amber ;  but  it  is  novi'  recognised  that  every  kind  of 
matter  is  similarly  affected,  that  friction  is  always  attended  with 
the  production  of  E.,  but  that,  in  many  instances,  the  pecuUar 
molecular  condition  which  constitutes  the  electrified  state  is  so 
speedily  lost  that  all  trace  of  electrification  is  gone  before  tliere 
is  time  to  make  the  necessary  search..  Viewed  as  an  exact 
sciense,  E.  is  appropriately  levmed  dsitmdynamics,  which  natu- 
rally divides  into  electroilatiii  and  eUctroldnttics.  The  former 
treats  of  E.,in  eauilibrium,  and  discusses  all  phenomena  which 
are  usually  incladed  under  the  name ^«-fto»o/,£.;  and  the  latter 
treats  of  E.  in  motion,  and.  is  synonymous  with  the  term  gal- 

EUclTostalics. — Tlie  first  thing  to  be  considered  is  decirifica- 
tian,  and  this  may  be  effected  in  several  ways,,  as  shown  by  the 
following  experiments  (see  Thomson's  EUctivstatics  and  Mag- 
nitiim,  and  Manwelt's  Eleetridtji  and  MagneHsm)  ; — Expert- 
mtnt  I. — Take  a  piece  of  glass  and  a  piece  of  resin,  neither  of 
which  exhibit  any  electrical  phenomena  j  rub.  them  together,  and 
then  separate  them.  They  wili  be  found  to  attract  each  other. 
Take  another  pair,  treat  them  similarly,  and  suspend  tliem  so 
as  to  have  as  free  motion  as  possible  in  azimttth.  It  may  tliea 
be  observed — 

1.  That  the  two  pieces  of  glass  repel  each  other. 

2.  That  each  piece  of  glass  attracts  each  piece  of  resin. 

3.  That  the  two  pieces  of  resin  repel  each  other. 

Bodies  wJiich  CKhibit  these  phenomena  are  s^ad  to  be  eliclrifiid; 
and  those  which,  like  the  glass,  repel  the  glass  and  attract  the 
resin  are  vitreously  or  fusUivdy  electrified,  while  those  which 
atti-act  the  glass  and  repel  the  resin:  are  resinously  or  nigalrstly 
electrified.  The  indication  of  these  two  lands  of  E.  by  opposite 
signs,  is  very  appropriate,  but  the  application  of  tlie  positive  sign 
to  one  rather  than  to  the  other  is  purely  arbitrary.  Electrified 
bodies.always-act  upon  each  other  in  accordance  with  the  law 
indicated  above,  that  like  kinds  repel  each  other,  unlike  kinds 
attract.  If  a  small  light  pith  ball  be  suspended  by  means  of  a 
silk  thread,  it  may  be  electrified  by  contact  with  either  the  glass 
or  the  resin,  and  may  then  be  employed  as  an  electroscope,  or 
instrument  foe  showing  the  kind  of  E.  with  wliich  a  given 
body  is  charged.  Exftrinimt  II. — Suspend  by  a  silk  thread 
from  the  lid  of  an  unelectrified  metallic  vessel,  also  suspended 
by  means  of  silk  threads,  an  electrified  ciece  of  glass,  SO  as  to 
hang  freely  in  the  inside  of  the  vessel  without  touchin; 
then  it  may  be  shown  that  the  outside  of  the  metallic  v 
is  vitreously  electrified,  and  that  the  electrification  at  any  point 
is  quite  independent  of  the  position  of  the  glass  in  the  in- 
terior, and  disappears  if  the  glass  be  removed  without  touching. 
The  outside  vessel  in  this  case  is  electrified  by  induction.  No 
force,  either  of  attraction  or  repulsion,  can  exist  between  an 
electrified  body  and  a  body  not  electrified;  and  hence  when 
bodies  not  previously  electrified  are  acted  upon  by  an  electrified 
body,  it  is  because  they  have  become  electrified  by  induction. 
If  the  glass  had  been  suspended  outside  the  vessel  instead  of  in- 
side, inductive  effects  would  have  been  apparent;  but  in  this 
case    the    outside   surface   nearer  the   glass   would   have   been 


vLiOOQle 


•*- 


ELB 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


BLB 


MMnously  electrified,  md  the  t'urther  portion  of  the  surface 
vitreously  electrified ;  .whereas  in  the  original  case  the  whole 
exterior  wss  chained  with  vitreous,  EOid  the  whole  interior  with 
resinous  E.  Expirimmt  JIl.~-\.A  things  be  as.  in  Experi- 
ment II.,  but  let  further  a  second  metallic  body  be  suspraded 
by  silk  threads  near  the  lirst.  Bring  now  a  metal  wire  similarly 
suspended,  so  as  to  toudh  simultaneously  the  exterior  surfaces  of 
the  two  bodies.  The  first  will  then  be  found  to  have  lost  some 
of  its  electrification,  while  the  second  has  become  positively  elec- 
trified— electrified  by  conduction.  If  a  silk  thread  or  a  rod  of 
glass  or  resin  had  been  used  instead  of  the  metal  wire,  no  trans- 
fer of  E.  would  have  occurred.  Hence  we  have  two  groups  into, 
which  matter  may  be  divided,  eonduclors  and  non-condacprs  of 
insulators — or,  more  correctly,  good  conductors  and  bad  con- 
ductors, for  all  substances  resist  the  passage  of  E.,  and  all  con- 
duct E.,  though  in  very  different  degrees.  The  metals  are  good 
conductors  ;  air,  gases  generally,  resins,  glass,  rubber,  paraffin, 
silk,  Sc,  are  good  insulators.  If  in  the  above  experiment  the  wire 
connecting  the  metallic  bodies  be  removed,  and  the  glass  taken 
out  of  the  vessel  without  touching  it,  this  vessel  will  be  found  to 
be  negatively,  while  the  second  body  is  positively,  electrified.  If 
the  connection  between  the  bodies  be  renewed,  all  electrification 
will  disappear,  thus  showing  that  (hf^  electrifications  are  equal 
and  opposite.  Expenment  IV.-~IjA  there  be  two  insulated 
hollow  metallic  vessels,  A  and  B,  the  fi^st  as  in  Experiment  IL, 
and  the  second  having  the  resin,  froni  friction  with  which  the 
glass  was  electrified,  freely  suspended  in  its  interior.  The 
exterior  surfaces  of  A  and  B  will  be  respectively  vitreously 
arid  resinously  electrified.  Connect  A  and  B  by  means  of  a 
metal  wire,  and  all  electrification  wilt  disappear,  thus  show- 
ing that  the  chaiges  are  equal  and  opposite.  Remove  the 
wire,  and  take  the  gloss  and  resin  out  of  their  respective  ves- 
sels ;  then  A  will  be  found  to  be  resinously,  and  B  vitreously, 
electrified.  These  chaises  also  are  equal  and  opposite,  as  may 
be  shown  either  by  reconnecting  the  bodies  with  the  wire,  when 
all  electrification  will  disappear,  or  by  introducing  them  both 
without  touching  into  a  large  hollow  conducting  vessel,  when  no 
electrification  will  be  apparent  in  its  exterior  surface.  We  nuay 
thus  charge  a  vessel  with  a  quantity  of  E.  exactly  equal  and 
opposite  to  that  of  a  given  dectrified  body  without  diminish- 
ing the  chaise  on  the  latter.  Expeiinient  V. — Cha^e  the  vessel 
.  B,  as  above,  with  a  certain  quantity  of  positive  E. ,  which  we 
may  call  for  convenience  a  unit,  and  introduce  it  into  the  interior 
of  a  larger  insulated  conducting  vessel,  C.  If  B  benjade  to  touch 
the  inside  of  C,  it  will  be  found  upon  removal  to  be  completely 
dischaiged,  while  C  will  he  chafed  with  a  unit  of  positive  E, 
Eecharae  B,  and  repeat  the  same  operation  (C  being  still 
chargei^,  and  the  charge  on  C  will  be  doubled.  By  repetition 
of  this  process,  C  may  be  charged  lyith  any  number  of  units 
below  a  certain  limit.  From  this  experiment  we  observe  further 
tliat  electrification  exists  only  at  the  surface  of  the  conductor; 
that  an  uncharged  body  introduced  into  the  interior  of  a  con- 
ductor remains  uncharged,  and  therefore  cannot  be  attracted  or 
repelled  by  the  electrical  forces,  and  that  therefore  these  elec- 
trical forces  mnst  be  in  equiiibriuni  at  every  point  in  the  ulterior 
of  a  conductor. 

Since  forces  of  repulsion  or  attraction  exist  between  electrified 
bodies  according  as  they  are  similarly  or  oppositely  charged,  the 
question  naturmy  arises,  upon  what  does  the  intensity  of  the 
force  depend?  To  solve  this  problem  Coulomb  invented  his 
Torsion  Balance  (q.  v. ),  by  means  of  which,  from  numerous  ex- 
periments, he  established  that  the  force  between  two  electrified 
bodies  was  directly  proportional  to  the  chaiges,  and  inversely 
proportional  to  the  squai'e  of  the  distance  separating  them.  To 
express  this  as  a  mathematical  quantity,  an  exact  definition  of 
what  is  meant  by  unit  charge  mast  first  be  given.  Unit  of  E.  is 
defined  as  that  ijuantily  mhicA,  whin  placed  at  taut  chance  f^oiii 
(TM  tqtial  quaititty,  will  it  repdkd  with  unit  /j«ir— where  unit 
force  is  that  force  which,  acting  on  unit  mass  for  unit  time,  will 
make  it  describe  unit  space.  Hence  the  repulsive  force  between 
two  bodies  chaiged  with  -H  e  and  -H  ^  units  of  E.  respectively, 
and  separated  by  a  distance  r,  \s  F=  —-^  If  one  he  charged 
with  negative  E.,  that  is,  if  c  or  /  change  sign,  this  expression 
will  also  change  sign,  and  the  force  will  be  attractive.  To  estab- 
lish this  law  by  direct  experiment  is  not  possible  beyond  a 
certain  approximation ;  for  there  are  several  disturbing  causes, 
which  are  unavoidable,  and  for  which  allowance  must  be  made. 


The  chief  cause  is  the  mutual  inductive  action  of  the  bodies  upon 
themselves,  altering  the  original  superficial  distribution  of  E. 
Another  is  the  inductive  action  upon  bodies  in  the  vicinity,  and 
a  third  is  the  imperfection  of  insulation,  on  which  account  the 
chaiges  are  constantly  being  dissipated.  A  strictly  rigid  proof 
of  this  kw  is  not,  however,  awantmg.  It  is  an  exact  mathe- 
matical deduction  from  the  results  of  Experiment  V. ;  for  it  may 
be  shown  that  the  law  of  (lie  inverse  square  isthe  only  law  which 
satisfies  the  condition  that  at  every  point  within  an  electrified 
condtictor  the  electrical  forces  are  in  equilibrium.  Now  this  is 
the  law  which  holds  in  the  case  of  gravitation,  and  accordingly 
all  the  theorenis  giyen  by  Newton  regarding  the  attraction  of  a 
uniform  spherical  shell  will  be  true  for  a  charged  conducting 
sphere.  The  electrical  distribution  will  be  uniform  over  the  sur- 
face, or  in  other  words,  the  electrical  density  will  be  the  same  at 
every  point.  The  electrical  density  at  a  point  on  the  electrified 
surface  is  the  limit  of  the  ratio  between  the  charge  upon  a  small 
circular  space  whose  centre  is  the  point,  and  the  area  of  that 
space,  as  the  radius  o.f  the  circle  is  diminished  indefinitely. 
Now  the  resultant  force  at  any  point  o"  'he  conductor  is  pro- 
portional to.  tl^is  densiW,  and  acts  outwards  in  a  direction  at 
right  angles  to  the  suriace ;  for  if  it  did  not,  there  would  be  a 
transfer  of  E.  along  the  sur&ce  of  the  conductor;  i.e.,  there  would 
not  be  that  electrical  equilibrium  which  experiment  shows  always 
exists.  On  a  conductor  of  other  shape  than  a  ^here,  the  density 
wiU  vary  for  each  point.  Thus  on  a  narrow  elongated  body  the 
E.  will  be  more  coiidensed  at  the  ends  than  at  the  middlsj  and 
a  greater  condensatic^n  always  takes  place         harp  mg 

points  of  a  conductor  tlian  on  the  rest  of  th 
ingly,  at  such  points  of  great  condensation,  tl  es     an 

force  may  be  of  such  intensity  as  to  eipe  E  as 

there  into  the  surrounding  medimn    thus  ss  g 

the  chaige   on  the  conductor.     When  an  g 

tor  is  brought  near  a  posjtively-c  arged    o  ga 

charge  is  induced  on  the  nearer  su   ace  o  rm  A 

they  are  brought  closer  and  closer,      e      d  mes 

stronger  and  stronger,  and  the  ele         den     es  es 

greater  and  greater,  till  at  last  the  esu  tan 
so  intense  as  to  overcome  the  insu  a  ng  po 
give  rise  (o  a  disruptive  dischai^e   h    ugh  be 

surfaces.     This  discharge  usually  takes  the     rm 
which  almost  the  whole  electrification  is  disc    rg 
in  certain  circumstanceli  other  forms,  such  as  th    e!ec        g   w 
and  the  electric  brush,  are  produced.     The  ak 

place  jn  the  air  surrounding  a  sharp^  poin  an         tn 

conductor,  when  by  the  inductive  reaction  o  h 

the  electric  densityis  increased  till  it  over    m  la     g 

power  of  the  air.    The  air  m  the  immediate  ty 

becomes  really  a  conductor ;  but  at  a  certain  nl 

predominates,  and  here  the  glow  terminates.  If  the  particles  of 
air  were  stationary,  the  charge  would  be  retained ;  but  the  par- 
ticles beii^  free  to  n^oye,  are  electrified  and  driven  off,  and  are 
then  replaced  by  new  qiielectrified  particles.  These  are,  in  their 
turn,  electrified  and  repulsed,  chiefly  along  the  line  of  intensest 
force,  which  extends  in  a  direction  straight  out  from  the  point, 
and  is  made  evident  by  the  appreciable  current  of  an-  which 
exists.  This  glow  may  be  seen  sometimes  during  a  thunder- 
storm round  the  extremities  of  lightning-conductors,  whose  virtue 
lies  in  their  pointed  character ;  for  the  induced  E.  is  so  condensed 
llMit  it  draws,  as  it  were,  the  E.  from  the  clouds  by  a  gradual 
process,  and  not  by  a  series  of  sudden  dischaiges,  as  would  other- 
wise be  the  casp.  The  electric  brush  is  produced  round  a  blunt 
point  or  small  ball,  and  consists  of  a  succession  of  discharges, 
ramifying  into  the  £ur,  and  producing  a  sound  whose  pitch  de- 
pen'^  upon  the  rapidity  with  which  the  discharges  take  place. 
No  current  of  air,  however,  accompanies  this  dischaige.  When 
a  series  of  successive  discharges  has  taken  place  through  the 
air,  a  peculiar  odour  may  be  made  sensible.  This  odour  is  now 
known  to  be  due  to  the  formation  of  ozone,  an  interesting  and 
in  many  ways  peculiar  allolroplc  form  of  oxygen. 

When  two  oppositely-chained  conductors  axe  separated,  a 
attractive  for      has  t    be  me,  and  work,  therefore,  mu; 

be  done.  Ac  d  ng  y  ry  ha  ged  conductor  possesses  Energy 
(q.  V.)  or  po  d   ng  w    k  in  virtue  of  its  electrification 

and  this  ene  gy  p  po  na  to  the  chat^  multiplied  by  ai 
other  quantity  w     h  is  ca  le  potential.     Now  the  energy 

evidenUy  fall  If  h  dis  nee  from  the  conductor  is  in- 
creased,  and    h  h     p    ential  also  must  diminish,   be- 


yLaOogle 


ELE 


7HE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


coming  zero  at  infinity.  The  potential  of  a  chained  conductor 
at  a  given  point  maj  be  defined  as  the  work  which  must  be 
done  to  remove  unit  of  negative  E.  from  that  point  to  an  infinite 
distance,  supposing  the  distribution  not  to  be  influenced  during 
the  operation.  Accordingly  the  work  done  in  removing  this 
imit  from  one  given  point  to  another  may  be  represented  by  the 
diiference  of  the  potentials  at  these  points.  Suppose,  then,  a 
spherical  conductor,  of  radius  R,  and  chatted  with  e  imits  of  E, 
Let  Fi  A  be  any  two  contiguous  points,  dbtant  r,  r^  f(om  the 
centre  of  the  sphere  respectively  ;  and  let  F,  fj  be  the  potentials 
at  these  points  leapectively.  If  F  be  the  resolved  force  along 
P,  /"e,  the  work  done  in  removing  unit  of  negative  from  P^  to  P^ 
is  P.  Pi  Pi=  Vi-  y&  in  accordance  with  the  definition,  If 
fi  and  ro  are  nearly  equal,  ^may  be  taken  as  being  — ior— -5 


satisfied  if  f,  =  C  -  -,  Fj  =  C  -  -.  Hence  the  potential  at 
the  surface  is  V^  C  -  j^;  and,  therefore,  the  increaseof  poten- 
tial in  passing  from  the  surface  to  a  c^istar^ce  t  tsj^"^!  'St* 
that  the  potential  of  tlie  conductor  ia  ^  being  the  vork  required 
to  remove  unit  of  negative  E,  from  the  surface  to  an  mfinite  dis- 
tance. For  points  at  the  same  dfetance  frorr^  the  centre  the 
potential  is  the  same— so  that  no  work  is  done  in  passing  from 
any  one  snch  point  to  another— ;'.^.,  there  are  no  electrical  forces 
to  be  overcome.  All  such  equi-potential  points  must  be  00  the 
sDrface  of  a  sphere  concentric  yfith  t^ie  conductor,  which  sphere 
is,  therefore,  an  equi-potential  smf»ce  ;  and  the  resultant  electric 
force,  at  every  point,  must  act  in  a  direction  perpendicuku-  to  the 
equi-polenlial  surface  which  passes  through  that  point,  sm^,  as 
has  been  seen  above,  there  can  be  no  force  along  the  surface. 
Further,  every  point  inside  the  conductor  is  in  electrical  equih- 
brium,  so  tliat  no  work  is  done  agtun^t  the  electrical  forces  in 
passing  from  one  Such  point  to  another.  Therefore  the  poten- 
tial is  the  same  for  every  point  inside  the  conductor,  and  this 
value  is  called  the  potential  of  the  conductor,  and  is  equal  ip  the 
ease  of  the  sphere  to  the  chaise  divided  by  the  raifius.  The 
ratio  of  the  charge  on  any  conductor  to  its  potential  is  teemed 
the  capacity  of  the  conductor.  This  quantity,  potential,  in  elec- 
trical science,  has  exactly  the  same  relation  to  E.  which  tem- 
perature has  to  heat,  which  pressure  has  to  fluid,  ^  is  as  im- 
portant in  electro -dynamics  as  these  are  in  their  re^wtive 
sciences  of  thermo-dynamicB  and  hydro-dynamics.  Fluid,  heat, 
and  E. ,  all  tend  to  pass  from  one  place  to.  another,  if  the  pcessnre, 
temperature,  and  potential  respectively  be  greater  in  the  first 
place  than  in  the  second ;  and  no  such  transfer  occurs,  unless 
such  difference  exist.  The  chaise  on  a  conductor,  being  wholly 
superficial,  is  of  two  dupensions  ;  the  potential,  being  a  charge 
divided  by  a  dis- 

dimension  or  lin- 
ear ;  and  the  capa- 
city,  beinga  fhai^e 
divided  by  the  po- 
lential,  is  also  lin- 
ear. Accordingly 
the  potential  at 
any  point  due  to  a 
system  of  conduc- 


at  any  point  in  the  interior  of  the  outer  shell  as  far  as  it  depends 
upon  -  ^  is  — ;  and  therefore  the  total  potential  at  any  point 
in  the  inner  shell  is  ^  -  ^-  If  the  inner  shell  be  its  connection 
with  a  machine  whose  potential  is  V,  we  have  the  equation 
f^  =  -^-  —  =  -^  =B--p-j  nearly,  if  t  be  the  thickness  of  the  sepa- 
ratinir  layer  of  air,  and  be  small  in  comparison  to  the  radius  of 
either  shell.  Hence  the  capacity  is  C  = -jr=  y,  that  is,  is 
directly  proportional  to  the  sur&ce,  and  inversely  proportional 
to  the  thickness  of  the  insulating  layer.  Insulating  media, 
when  considered  with  reference  to  inductiou,  are  called  dultc- 
tries  after  Faraday  i  and  a  system  of  two  conductors  whoseop- 
posed  surfaces  are  separated  by  a  thin  stratum  of  a  dielectric  is 
an  electric  accumulator,  and  its  capacity  is  measured  in  the  same 
way  as  that  of  the  spherical  jar,  being  directly  proportional  to 
the  area  of  the  opposed  surfaces,  and  inversely  proportional  to 
the  thickness  of  the  dielectric  Faraday  discovered  that  the 
capacity  of  such  an  accumulator  depends  on  the  nature  of  the 
dielectric  as  well  as  on  the  dimensions  and  relative  positions  of  the 
conductOfS ;  and  that  wh?n  glass,  shell-lac,  or  other  insulating 
medium  Is  substituted  for  air,  the  capacity  is  increased  in  a  ratio 
different  for  each  dielectric  This  ratio  was  named  by  Faraday 
the  specific  induetm  capacity  of  the  dielectric  It  is  unity  for  air 
and  other  gases,  and  is  greater  than  unity  for  all  other  known 
substances.    I^etuming  to  oyr  spherical  jar,  we  may  write  its 

potential  as  V=  ^,  wliere  (  is  now  a  quantity  directly  pro- 
portional to  the  thickness  and  inversely  jjroporlionai  to  the 
specific  inductive  capacity  of  the  dleleelric.  The  potential 
energy  of  any  electrified  system  or  the  amount  of  work  which  it 
coijld  perform  is,  as  proved  by  Helmholtz,  j?  =  -  (K  Hence 
the  potential  energy  of  the  coticentrlc  sliell  arrangement  is 
B=.-  —. —  I  while  that  of  a  simple  spherical  condi 


s  the  SI 


the  potentials  due 

to  each  conductor. 

Let  there  be  now 

conducting  shells, 

separated  by  ^r, 

j^^ti], ,(/  ^  Q\  f;_  I.  the  inner  charged 

with  a  quantity  + 
of  E.,  and  the  outer  in  connection  with  the  earth,  and  therefoi 
at  zero  potential.  Experiment  shows  that  no  electrical  forcf 
exist  in  the  substance  of  the  outer  shell,  and  accordingly  thei 
must  be  a  quantity  ^  e  induced  in  its  inner  surface.  Let  Rr\ 
the  radii  of  the  Inner  and  outer  shells  respectively.    The  potential 


or  at  the 

same  potential  is  £  =  ^RV^.  This  will  give  an  idea  of  the 
much  greater  energy  possessed  by  a  Leyden  jar  (see  Electro- 
static It^si'KUljEN'j^,  than  by  a  simple  conductor  of  the  same 
dimensions  and  potential.  When  an  accumulator,  a  Leyden 
'ir  for  instance,  has  been  electrified  for  some  time  and  then 
.;ischarged,  it  is  found,  for  certain  dieiect  ' 
charged,  and  may  again  be  discharged.  Tl 
always  much  less  than  the  actual  charge, 
ehargi,  and  upon  Faraday's  widely-accepl 
through  ?,  medium  is  to  be  referred  to  thi 
dielectric,  which  constitutes  induction,  and 
tial  function  both  in  the  first  development  ar 
mena  of  electriclly.' 

Electrokinetics,.— yh.^  friction  of  two  dl 
always  attended  with  the  production  of  E, 
stances,  probably  in  all,  simple  contact 
sufficient  to  give  rise  to  a  difference  of  pote 
if  a  disc  of  copper  and  a  disc  of  line  b 
and  then  separated,  the  sine  is  foimd  to 
fied,  and  the  copper  negatively.  While  thi 
electro-jnotlve  force,  due  in  some  hidden 
affinity  of  the  substances,  seems  to  act  fronr 
so  as  to  produce  a  difference  of  potential, 
of  potential  is  produced  if  the  contact  be  made  not  directly  hut 
by  means  of  any  metallic  connection,  provided  the  system  be  at 
a  uniform  temperature.  Thus  if  a  disc  of  iron  be  introduced 
between  the  linc  and  the  copper  the  difference  of  potential  be- 
tween the  terminal  pieces  will  be  exactly  the  same  as  if  simple 
contact  were  made  without  the  presence  of  the  iron  ;  and  further, 
this  difference  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  difference  of  potential 
between  the  line  and  iron  and  the  u-on  and  copper.  Accord- 
ingly a  circuit  formed  of  a  number  of  different  metals  at  the  same 
temperature  will  be  in  electrical  equilibrium  as  soon  as  eadi  has 
acquired  its  proper  potential.  From  such  an  arrangement  s 
current  cannot  be  obtained^  If  the  junctions,  however,  be  at 
different  temperatures,  the  contact  forces  will  not  generally 
balance,  and,  as  first  discovered  by  Seebeck,  there  will  result  a 
current  whose  energy  finds  its  equivalent  in  the  thermal  energy 
509 


vLiOOQle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ELE 


expended  in  rendering  the  temperalure  of  ihe  ci 


, --  --  unequable. 

(See  Thermo- Electricity.)  If  the  discs  of  copper  and  zinc, 
after  having  been  placed  in  contact  and  separated,  are  immersed 
in  a.  compound  liquid,  tliej  are  at  once  reduc^  to  the  same 
potential.  Tliis  loss  of  electrical  energy  has  its  equivalent  in  the 
work  done  in  decomposing  a  ceitain  quantity  of  the  liquid. 
Bring  the  melals  into  contact  agaui,  and  the  same  set  of  opera- 
tions  may  be  repeated  This  successive  differentiation  and 
equalising  of  potentials  may  be  made  to  take  place  simultane- 
ously by  connecting  the  immersed  discs  by  a  mettd.  wire.  Let 
Z  be  the  line  and  C  tlie  copper,  connected 
above  by  a  «ire,  and  immersed  below 
in  a  compound  liquid.  In  virtne  of  the 
raetalhc  contact,  Z  becomes  positrvely  and 
C  negatively  electrified.  In  the  liquid, 
honever,  they  are  reduced  to  the  same 
potential,  and  therefore  there^  must  be  a 
FiK  J  passage  of  E    through  the  liquid  in   tine 

d  lection  of  the  arrow  from  the  place  of 
higher  to  the  place  of  lower  potential,  aceompanted  by  a 
simullaneous  flow  of  E  through  the  wire  from  C  to  Z;  in  order  to 
restorelhe  difference  of  poteniml  at  the  point  of  contact.  This 
IS  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  Voltaic  Battery,  under  which 
heading  a  descnption  of  the  various  kiliife  now  in  use,  and  a 
consideration  of  the  electrolytic  processes  (see  Electrolysis) 
which  attend  theif  action,  will  be  found.  Since  the  current 
must  set,  upon  this  theory,  from  the  copper  to  the  zinc  thfoogh 
the  cufcuit,  the  copper  is  termed  'CaeposUivi  pole,  and  the  zinc 
tiie  negative—^  nomenclature  whieh  must  not  be  confoMided 
with  that  of  contact  E. 

Ifaconductorbeconnectedvrilh  the  poles  of  a  battery,  a  current 
is  set  np,  whose  strength  is  measured  by  the  number  of  units  of  E. 
whichpass  through  everj-  section  in  the  direction  between  the  elec- 
trodes in  unit  time.  This  current  is  due  to  the  difierenee  of  poten- 
tials of  Uie  poles,  or  the  electro.  n)otive  force  of  the  battery.  Now 
every  conductor  offers  resistance  to  the  passage  of  a  current ;  and 
according  to  the  law  given  by  (i  S.,  Ohm  in  1827,  and  known  as 
Ohm  sLais,  this  resistance  (J?)  is  connected  with  the  electro-iaotire 
force  (£)  and  the  intensity  of  the  curMnt  (/).by  the  formula  E= 
MI,  or,  the  electro-motive  force,  acting  between  the  extremities 
of  any  part  of  a  eircnit  is  the  product  of  the  mten»ty  of 
the  current  ami  the  resistance  of  that  part  of  the  circuit  The 
xperiments  whicli  modem  science  is  capable  of 
"  rs  a  method  for  comparing  the 
...  by  observing  the  different  in- 
tensities produced  for  the  same  ^le^rormolLve  force.  If  a  number 
of  wires  of  the  same  subslamce,  but  of  diferent  lengths  and  cross- 
seclions,  be  taken  and  compared  as  to  their  resistances,  it  is' 
found  that  the  resistance  is  directly  proportional  to  the  length, 
and  inversely  proportional  to  the  ci'oss-section,  a  relation  which 
has  a  close  analogy  in  the  flow  of  water  through  tabes.  The 
rooming  this  resistance  i^ust,  in  accordance  wiA 


of  enei^y,  do  internal  work,  and  the  equivalence 
of  this  internal  work  we  find  in  the  heat  generated  thronghout 
the  circuit.  Joule,  Lens  and  Jacobj,  and  Riess,  working  inde- 
pendently, established  by  experiment  that  the  heat  developed  is 
proportional  to  the  square  of  the  carreni;  and  joule  further,  by 
careful  measurement  of  all  the  quantities  inyolyed,  verified  the 
emmtion,  which  maybe  obtained  from  theoretica]  considerations, 
JH=l*Rt,  where  7 is  Joule's  equivalent,  H  the  heal  developed, 
/  the  intensity,  R  the  itsistance,  and  ;  the  lime  during  which  Uie 

When  a  number  of  conductors  are  aiTanged  serially,  i.e„ 
end  to  end,  the  resistance  of  the  whole  series  is  equal  to  the  sum 
of  the  resistances  of  the  conductors  taken  separately.  If  the 
conductors  be  arranged  in  laulHple  arc,  thai  is,  if  Ihey  are  placed 
side  by  side  and  iheir  eKtremities  put  in  contact  with  the  same 
two  points,  the  reciprocal  of  Hie  resistance  of  the  multiple  con- 
ductor is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  reciprocals  of  the  component 
resistances.  The  reciprocal  of  a  resistance  is  called  the  conduc- 
tivity ;  hence  this  last  statement  may  be  put  thus  !— The  conduc 
tivity  of  a  multiple  conductor  is  the  sum  of  the  conductivities  of 
the  component  conductors.  Let  R^,  S3,  R,,  &c,  be  the  resist- 
ances of  a  set  of  conductors,  and  let  I{  be  the  total  resistance  of 
tlie  system.  Then  for  serial  arrangement  .S=.^,  +  j?2  +  7i'a-H 
.  .  ,  ,\  and  for  multiple  arrangement 


Now,  in  the  multiple  arrangement,  Ihe  electro-moti 
same  for  every  several  conductor,  because  each  is 
with  the  same  electrodes,  or  metallic  terminals  of  the  battery 

circuit.      Hence  S  ^   I,R,  = /^R,  = =  /R,    where  / 

IS  the  total  intensity  of  the  currentr  and  ff  the  total  resistance, 
as  above.  Therefore  the  intensity  of  the  current  which  flows 
through  any  one  bnuich  is  /,,.  =  -^j  -p-  i  from,  which 
elude  that  when  a  current  flows  through  a  circuit,  which  divides 
into  two  or  more  arcs,  the  current  splits  up  in  such  a 
that  the  ijart  along  any  single  arc  is  inversely  proportional 
to  the  resistance  of  that  arc,  or  dhectly  proportional  to  its 
conductivity.  In  making  measurements  of  resistance,  it  is 
necessary  to.  have  a  definite  ^ivd  eonyenient  umf.  The  unit 
now  almost  universally  employed  is  that  fixed  by  the  British 
Association  in  1863,  sometimes  called  the  B.  A.  Unit,  but  more 
commonly  an  OAni.    ITiis  unitj  is  professedly  a  resistance  which. 


doTa 


formed  of  an  alloy  of 


silver  and  platinum  of  a  definite  length  and  ci 
a  certain,  tempecature.  From  a  comparison  with  this,  permanent 
coils  of  any  number  of  units  of  resistance  may  be  formed,  and 
these  may  then  be  enmloyed  for  llie  determination  of  any  un- 
known resistance.  The  determination  of  resistances  can  be 
made  by  either  of  two  ways,  in.  which  the  result  is  bdependent 
of  the  variations  of  the  electro-motive  force  and  inteitial  resistance 
of  the  battery.  The  one  method,  is  by  means  of  the  differential 
galvanometer,  an  instrument  which  wilt  be  described  when  we 
come  to  treat  of  electro-magnetism ;  but  the  most  convenient 
method,  for  which  an  ordinary  mkror  galvanometer  is  all  that  is 
necessai-y,  is  by  means  of  an  arrangement  of  conductors  known 
as  Wheatstone's  Bridge,  atter  the  name  ef  the  contriver.      It 

one  IBC)  a  voltaic  battery  is 
introduced,  giving  vise  to  an 
electro-motive  force  (£),  acting 
from  SU>  C.  The  current  he., 
tween  the  points  O  and  A  is- 
measaied  by  a  galvanometer. 
The  problem  to  be  solved  is, 
under  what  circumstances  is  the 
current  from  O  to  .^  zero.  Let 
the  potentials  at  the  different 
points  be  represented  by  the 
letters  A,  B,  C,  0,  and  let  S, 
Rj,  r,  (-1,.  be  ihe  resistances  in 
BO,  OC,  BA,  and  ^C  respec- 
tively. There  is  no  current 
through  OA;  therefore  the  cur- 
rent from  C  to  O  must  be  equal 
the  current  from  C  to  ^ 
from  Ohm's  law,  we  have- 


I.  =  - 


/'  = 


-  O      0  -. 


But  0  =  A,  because'  there  is  no  current  in  OA,  and  therefore 
Rr^  =  R^r  or  r:  n  =  R:  R^.  Hence,  ii R  and  Ri  be  coils  of 
known  fixed  resistance,  and  r  an  unknown  resistance,  the  intro- 
duction into  the  arc  CA  of  a  box  of  resistance  coils,  by  which 
any  resistance  between  certain  limitsmay  be  thrown  in,  gives  an 
easy  method  of  finding  r  by  merely  adjusting  r^  until  no  effect  is 
observed  upon  the  galvanooteter.  The  resistances  of  metallic 
conductors  vary  considerably,  and  it. is  interesting  lo  observe 
that  if  the  metals  be  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  electric  con- 
ductivities, the  table  agrees  exactly  with  a  table  drawn  up  in  a 
similar  manner  for  heat  conductivities.  E^inning  with  the  best 
conductor,  the  following  list  according  to  R^^nauTt  indicates  the 
relative  positions  of  the  commoner  metals — silver,  copper,  gold, 
cadmium,  zinc,  tin,  palladium,  iron,  lead,  platinum,  mercury. 
The  resistance  is  also  considerably  i^ected  by  temperature.  In 
the  case  of  copper,  palladium,  and  platinum,  and  probably  all 
pure  metals  except  Ihe  magnetic  ones,  the  resistance  would  appear 
to  vary  directly  as  the  absolute  temperature.  From  experiments 
made  by  Professor  Tait  and  his  Students  it  would  appear  that 
the  rate  of  increase  of  resistance  of  iron  with  temperature  under- 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPySDIA. 


ELE 


goes  a  peculiar  and  sudden  change  at  about  a  dull  ted-heat— the 
same  temperature  at  which  iron  loses  its  magnetic  properties,  and 
at  which  also  the  regle%o  during  cooling  occuis,  first  observed  and 
described  1^  MrCore.  Nickel  pcesents  the  same  peculiarities, 
but  at  a  much  low         mpe  Th      1       '  I  f 

insulators  being  s  t,         nyd  bppxi         y 

and  a  rise  of  cempe  m        dmdihe         eel 

,  experimenting,  cao        beknhhffets  rf 

conduction,  which  n  m    h  g  han     «    oo  d 

are  thoroughly  eiim        do  b        h  an 

liquids,  ^eat  difiicu  y         pend  rcrnng         tr 

action.     See  Electr       m 

In  1820,  wbile  lecg                    d  ddataC 
hagen,  IL  C.  OirEted  observed  that  a  wire  oonnecling  the  poles 
of  a  voltaic  cell 
'- < ~    affected  1  mag 

expe 


quel 


showed 

M  that  the  magnet 

Fig  ^.  always  tends  to 

pendicuiar  to  the  direction  of  the  cuireat.  To  get  the  direction 
in  which  the  magnet  will  turn  under  the  action  of  the  rectilinear 
current  +  — ,  suppose  a  person  to  place  himself  facing  the  magnet 
in  the  line  of  direction  of  current  so  that  the  current  passes  from 
his  feet  to  his  head.  The  magnet  will  itum  so  tha,t  the  pole  that 
points  north  will  move  to  the  left.  A  current  in  the  same 
direction  below  will  turn  the  magnet  round  the  opposite  way ; 
and  a  current  in  the  opposite  direction  the  same  way.  Accord- 
ingly, if  we  bring  (he  circuit  tight  round  the  magnet,  as 
.  shown  in  fig.  J,  the  effect  will  be  increased  The  tangent  of  tl  e 
angle  Ihrongh  which  the  mt^et  turns  is  directly  proportional 
to  the  strength  of  the  ciua:ect;  a  simple  lelation  which  at  once 
,  ^uegests  an 
^  -"■"     easymethodfor 

:  of  current 


round    several 


from  its  fellow,  the  action  is  rends 

constructed  on  this  principle  are  called  g  «■  11  e  tan 
gent  galvanometer  is  simply  a  magnet  usji  d  d  y  n  Ihe 
centre  of  a  multiple  coil,  over  a  grad  d  h  num- 
bers on  which  mve  at  once  the  tgngen           h  p  nding 

ment,  but  the  magnet  Is  veiy  small,  and  fi  ad  th  b  ck  of 
a  circular  mirror  of  small  mass,  which  is  suspended  by  a  silk 
fibre  in  the  heart  of  a  compact  nuiltiple  coil,  A  beam  of  light 
thrown  through  a  small  aperture  upon  the  mirror  is  reflected 
upon  a  screen,  thus  indicating  ty  its  position  the  deflections  of 
the  mirror  and  magnet  due  to  the  electric  currents  through  the 
coil.  The  distance  of  the  light  spot  on  the  screen  from  the 
centre  or  point  directly  in  front  of  the  instrument  is  really  the 
tangent  of  twice  the  angle  of  rotation,  for  the  hears  of  light  is 
necessarily  turned  through  double  the  angle  which  the  mirror 
describes.  The  differentia!  galvanometer  has  two  independent 
roils,  such  that  when  currents  are  made  to  flow  in  opposite  direc- 
tions they  act  in  opposite  directions  on  the  needle,  the  resultant 
effect  on  which  may  he  thus  reduced  to  zero  when  the  currents 
bear  a  certain  ratio  to  each  other  depending  upon  the  resistances 
in  the  two  circuits.  By  this  means,  as  mentioned  above,  resist- 
ances of  conductors  may  be  compared. 

Closely  connected  with  the  action  of  a  current  upon  a  magnet 
are  the  striking  discoveries  of  Ampere  regarding  the  mutual 
actions  of  currents.  Let  there  be  a  given  rectilinear  aitrent 
flowing  in  a  given  direction,  and  let  a  second  current  be  brought 


near.     If  the  second  current  be  moving  in  the  same  direction  as 

If  it  flows  at  right  angles  to  the  first  and  away  from  it,  it  is  urged 
in  the  direction  of  the  first  current ;  and  if  it  flows  towards  the 
first  current,  it  is  urged  in  the  opposite  direction.    From  his  in- 
stigations on  closed  circuits.  Ampere  established  four  experi- 
m  ntal  ^ts,  with  the  aid  of  which  and  one  assumption  he  de- 
oped  his  theory  of  the  mutual  action  of  currents.     These  data 
e — fl)  The  reversal  of  either  current  reverses  the  mutual  effect. 
A  sinuous  current  has  the  same  effect  as  a  straight  or  con- 
uouSly  curved  one  from  which  it  nowhere  deviates  mucli. 
A  eonductor  traversed  by  a  current,  and  movable  only  in  the 
ectioii  of  its  length,  is  not  set  in  motion  by  a  contiguous  closed 
circuit.   {4)  Equal  currents  in  similar  circuits  produce  equal  forces. 
The  one  assumption  which  Ampire  made  was  that  the  force 
between  two  small  elemeats  was  in  the  straight  line  joining  their 
middle  points.     This  assumption  cannot  be  tested  cKperimentaily, 
for  it  is  not  possible  to  form  a  small  current  element  without  at 
the  same  time  forming  a  whole  circuit.     The  atti'active  and  re- 
pulsive phenomena  of  currents  are  very  beautifully  shown  by 
means  of  Ampere's  soltnoids  of  conducting  wire,  which  act  in  a 
manner  precisely  similar  to  magnets.     A  solenoid  is  virtually 
a  lielixi,  but  so  arranged  that  .the  curjant  passed  through  it  has 


"^w^ememM" 


resolved  portion  of  the  current  in  the  helix.  Such 
tends,  when  suspended  so  as  to  have  freedom  of  rotatory  motion 
in  a  horizontal  plane,  to  set  itself  in  the  magnetic  meridian ;  and 
two  solenoids  snow  polar  attractions  and  repulsions  exactly  simi- 
lai  to  magnetic  phenomena.  If  a  person  set  himself  so  as  to 
look  direcdy  at  one  end  of  a  solenoid,  the  current  will  appear 
to  be  flowmg  round,  say  in  the  positive  direction  (i.e.,  oppo- 
site to  the  hands  of  a  watch)^  if^he  then  similarly  regard  the 
other  end,  the  direction  «f  the  current  will  be  negative.  The 
former  end  it  is  which  corresponds  to  the  north  pole  of  a 
magnet,  while  the  othw  end  acts  as  a  south  pole.  For  con- 
venience we  shall  call  these  ends  the  north  and  south  poles  respec- 
tively of  tlie  solenoid.  Lettwo  solenoids  {A,  B,  fig.  7)  be  placed 
so  that  the  north  pole  of  A  faces 
the  south  pule  of  B.  That  is, 
when  A  is  looked  at  from  B,  the 
direction  of  the  current  through 
A  is  positive  |  and  when  B  is 
looked  at  from  A,  the  direction 
of  the  cuirent  through  B  is  nega-  p;„  ,. 

tive.     A  mere  inspection  of  the 

figure  sliows  that  at  every  point  on  the  terminal  circuit  of  A,  the 
current  flows  in  the  same  direction  as  for  the  corresponding 
point  of  B ;  and  consequently,  in  accordance  with  the  funda- 
mental law  irf  the  mutual  actions  of  currents,  the  solenoids 
attract  each  other.  If  two  north  poles  or  two  south  poles  had 
been  similariy  placed,  the  solenoids  would  have  been  re]ielled. 
The  spedal  application  of  these  results  to  the  production  of 
electro-magnets,  and  Ampere's  ingenious  theory  of  magnetism 
suggested  by  these  phenomena,  are  discussed  under  the  article 
Maonetism. 

CErsted's  discovery  of  the  motive  influence  of  a  current  upon 
a  magnet,  when  taken  in  connection  with  the  principle  of  the 
conservation  of  energy,  has  been  shown  by  both  Thomson  and 
Helmholtz  to  lead  to  Faraday's  striking  discovery  of  ihe  inducHgn 
of  electric  currents  in  a  conductor  moving  relatively  to  a  magnet. 
(See  MagnetO-E.)  The  mathematical  analysis  indicates  the 
"  new  electro-motive  force,  that  of  the  induced  cur- 
which  always  acts  opposite  to  that  which  has  set  the  magnet 
)tion,  and  which,  being  quite  independent  of  the  intensity 


vLaOogle 


ELE 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ELE 


of  the  original  current,  nmat  be  produced  by  the  relative  motion, 
even  if  no  snch  current  existed.  To  the  same  class  of  pheno- 
mena, belongs  Arago's  discovery  of  the  damping  effect  of  a 
copper  plate  upon  a  magnet  oscillating  over  it,  in  virtue  of  which 
the  magnet  is  brought  to  rest  much  more  rapidly  than  it  would 
be  if  no  plate  were  there,  The  enei^  of  the  currents  induced 
on  the  plate  is  obtained  from  the  magnet's  kinetic  energy,  which 
accordingly  suffers  loss,  while  the  induced  currents,  in  accor- 
dance with  CErsted'fl  discovery,  react  upon  the  magnet,  forcing 
it  round  in  the  direction  opposite  to  that  in  whicli  it  is  moving 
until  it  come  to  rest.  These  isolated  cases  remained  ineipli- 
cable,  until  the  genius  of  Faraday  unravelled  the  mystery,  and 
established  a  new  and  most  important  branch  of  electro-kinetics. 
Let  there  be  two  conducting  circuits,  known  tespectively  as 
the  primary  and  saandary.  Let  the  primary  be  connected  with 
the  poles  of  a  voltaic  battery,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  current 
may  be  produced,  maintained,  stopped,  or  reverb  at  pleasure. 
In  the  secondary  closed  circuit  let  a  galvanometer  (sufficiently 
distant  from  the  primary  as  to  be  unaffected  by  it)  be  introduced, 
and  then  set  two  rectilinear  portions  of  the  circuits  beside  each 
other.  At  the  instant  of  mating  the  primary  cmfent,  the  gal- 
vanometer needle  will  be  deflected^ndi  eating  by  its  direction 
that  there  has  been  produced  in  the  secondary  circuit  a  current 
flowing  in  a  direction  ofpaiti  to  that  of  the  pWmary  cUrrent. 
Maintain  the  primary  current  constant,  and  the  needle  returns 
to  its  normal  positbn — the  secondary  current  has  ceased.  Briak 
the  primary  circuit,  and  at  that  instant  the  needle  is  again  de- 
flected, but  to  the  other  side — indicating  a  secondary  current  in 
the  Jom«  direction  as  the  primary.  Every  variation  in  the  primary 
produces  electro- mo  live  force  in  the  secondary,  generating  a  cur- 
rent in  the  same  or  opposite  direction  as  the  primary,  according 
as  the  intensity  of  the  primary  suffers  decrease  or  incrBose.  VVhen 
there  is  no  variation^  there  is  no  el^clro-motive  force.  While  the 
primary  current  is  bemg  maintained  constant,  let  it  be  approached 
to  the  secondary  circuit  During  the  approach  a  secondary 
carcent  will  flow  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  pritnaty;  If 
the  primary  be  moved  away,  there  will  be  i,  secondaiy  current 
in  the  same  direction  as  the  primary.  The  same  phenomena  aiB 
observed  if  the  approach  and  separation  be  accomplished  by 
the  motion  of  the  secondary  current.  Thesis  inductive  effects 
are  very  closely  connected  with  Ampere's  disctovery  of  the 
mechanical  action  of  current^  as  shown  by  the  following  law, 
enunciated  by  Leni  in  ,i8w  \—If  a  constant  cOrrint  fines  in  tki 
primary  circuit  A,  and  tf,  6y  the  motion  of  A,  or  of  the  secon- 
dary circuit  B,  a  current  is  induced  in  B,  the  iHrectiott  if  this 
induced  current  will  be  such  thai,  by  its  elfctro-magnetic  action 
on  A,  it  tends  to  oppose  the  relalive  motioA  of  the  circuits. 
This  law,  established  before  the  modem  theory  of  energy  was 
dreamed  of,  affords  one  of  the  most  temarkable  confirmations  of 
the  conservation  principle.  The  effects  of  induction  by  variation 
of  the  primary  current  are  increased  when  the  circuits  are  placed 
nearer,  and  the  most  effective  method  of  arranging  the  circuits 
is  by  forming  them  into  circular  or  spiral  coils,  and  packing 
them  as  close  together  as  possible.  The  introduction  of  an  iron 
cod  or  bundle  of  wire  into  the  interior  of  the  coils  has  a  power- 
ful  intensifying  effect  upon  the  secondary  ciirrent,  The  turrent 
induced  at  the  making  of  the  primary  current  is  found  from 
experiment  to  be  ejLactly  equal  and  opposite  to  that  induced 
at  the  breaking  of  the  primary.  If  the  primary,  theii,  be  made 
and  broken  in  rapid  alternation,  as  rapid  a  succession  of  direct 
and  inverse  secondary  currents  wiE  be  produced.  The  seoon, 
dary  current  further  is  always  more  intense  than  the  prhnatyj  and 
sparks  of  considerable  brilliancy  can  be  obtained  by  breaking 
at  any  one  point  the  metaUic  connection  in  the  secondary  circuit. 
Ruhmkorff  s  induction  coil  affords,  m  this  way,  beautiful  illustra- 
tions of  transformation  of  energy.  It  consists  essentially  of  two 
coils,  the  thicker  internal  one  being  the  primary,  and  the  thinner 
but  longer  external  one  the  secondary.  Inside  the  interior  of 
the  inner  or  primary  is  a  bundle  of  iron  wires,  terminated  at  its 
ra:tremities  by  discs  of  soft  iron.  When  a  current  is  pissed 
through  the  circuit,  the  iron  core  becomes  an  electro-magnet, 
attracts  a  small  iron  disc  which  forms  the  extremity  of  one  arm 
of  a  lever,  whose  other  entremity  is  consequently  displaced,  and 
by  its  displacement  breaks  the  primary  circuit.  The  current 
accordmgly  ceases  to  flow,  the  soft  iron  core  loses  its  magnetism, 
and  the  lever  returns  to  its  original  position,  thus  completing 
the  circuit,  and  permitting  the  current  anew  to  Aovi.  The  same 
cycle  of  operations  lakes  place,  and  thus  an  automatic  or  self- 
512 


governing  arrangement  is  produced,  by  which  the  current  can  be 
made  and  broken  in  rapid  succession.  But  at  each  make  and  ireak 
of  the  primary,  the  secondary  current,  rendered  the  more  intense 
by  the  presence  of  the  iron  core,  is  induced,  and  a  rapid  series  of 
sparks  may  be  obtained  between  the  terminals.  The  spark  may  be 
varied  considerably,  as  regards  its  luminous  and  heating  powers, 
by  altering  the  distance  between  the  terminals,  or  it  may  be  made 
to  traverse  the  taiifiei  ^as  of  a  Geissler  tnbe,  and  produce  beauti- 
ful and  striking  combinations  of  stratified  and  coloured  lights. 
When  the  current  in  Ihe  coil  of  an  electro-magnet  is  stopped  by 
breaking  the  contact  between  the  extremities  of  two  wires  held 
one  in  each  hand,  a  smart  shock  will  be  felt.  This  Faraday 
showed  to  be  due  to  the  induction  of  the  current  oii  itself.  Here 
the  inductive  action,  due  to  the  cfssation  of  the  primary  current, 
is  exerted  on  the  same  conductor  which  carries  the  current,  and 
is  more  powerful  than  on  a  neighbouring  conductor  because  the 
wire  is  nearer  to  itself  than  any  other  wire  can  possibly  be.  The 
phenomenon  is  best  observed  with  the  coil  of  an  electro-magnet 
because  of  the  intensifying  effect  of  the  iron  core ;  but  it  taltes 
place  On  all  occasions  when  a  circuit  is  broken,  for  the  spark 
Which  is  seen  when  a  break  is  made  in  the  circuit  is  due  to  the 
more  intense  secondary  current  set  in  operation  at  tlie  moment 
the  primary  is  broken. 

It  is  impossible  for  one  to  study  these  varied  electric  pheno- 
mena, static  and  kinetic,  without  in  some  way  striving  to  get  a 
glimpse  of  their  trtle  nature.  What  is  E.  ?  is  a  questioti  which 
has  existed  from  eariiest  historic  times,  which  has  occupied  the 
attention  of  every  electrician,  and  which  yet  remains  unanswered. 
The  consideration  of  the  various  theories  that  have  been  mooted 
will  naturaUy  come  under  notice  in  a  brief  historical  sketch  of 
the  progress  df  the  science.  In  a  most  valuable  and  original 
treatise  on  the  magnet,  published  by  Dr  Gilbert  in  1600,  we  have 
the  first  step  towards  a  philosophical  combination  and  generali- 
sation of  the  phenomena  as  tnen  known.  He  showed  that 
electrification  can  be  produced  in  many  other  bodies  than 
amber,  and  is  accompanied  by  the  same  attractive  manifestations 
in  all  cases.  Boyle,  Olto  de  Gnericke,  Newton,  and  otlier 
philosophers  6f  that  century,  contributed  several  new  facts,  and 
the  formation  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  roused  a  somewhat 
^neral  spirit  of  inquiry  in  this  direction ;  but  it  was  not  till  the 
present  century  that  the  Uiijty  which  characterises  a  true  science 
came  to  be  recognised  in  what  had  previously  been  regarded  as 
merely  isolated  phenomena.  As  early  as  1733,  however,  the 
elementary  fafits  of  frictional  E.  were  known;  for  in  that  year 
Dufay  published  his  theory  of  two  electric  fluids,  vitreous  and 
resinous,  which  permeate  matter,  and  give  rise  to  all  the  known 
phenomena  of  attftlction,  repulsion,  and  induction.  Matter 
which  showed  no  electrification  was  neutral,  because  the  two 
fluids  were  present  and  mixed  in  equal  qiiantilies.  Friction  was 
supposed  to  produce  a  separation  of  the  electricities  in  the  rubbed 
bodies;  and  when  any  substance  in  which  the  one  kind  pre- 
dominated was  brought  near  the  unelectrified  body,  it  separated' 
the  electricities  in  it  by  repelling  to  the  further  side  its  own 
kind,  and  attracting  to  the  nearer  side  the  opposite  kind.  The 
assumptions  neces^iy  for  this  hypothesis  were  the  existence  of 
tvro  imponderable  fluids,  each  of  which  should  attract  the  other 
and  repel  itself.  In  1752  Benjamin  Franklin  filled  a  Leyden 
jar  from  the  clouds,  thus  proving  the  identity  of  lightning  and 
E.,  originateii  the  names  ^JJ(fcB  and  negative,  anil  enunciated 
his  single-fluid  theory.  This  fluid  'is  imponderable,  attracts 
matter,  but  is  self-repellent.  Unelectrilieci  matter  contains  a 
certain  quantity  of  this  fluid  ;  and  friction  of  two  sulistances  has 
the  efllect  of  transferring  some  of  the  fluid  from  the  one  to  the 
other— thus  rendering  the  one  positively  and  the  other  negatively 
electrified.  A  further  assumption,  however,  has  to  be  made,  to 
the  effect  that  particles  of  matter  which  do  not  contain  this 
fluid  in  sufficient  quantity  re])el  one  another.  At  first  sight  this 
woald  seem  a  serious  objection,  Ibr  what  would  become  of  the 
law  of  gravitation?  Biit  it  must  be  remembered  that  gravi- 
tation exists  between  non-electrified  bodies,  i.e.,  bodies  which 
contain  upon  this  hypothesis  just  sufficient  fluid  to  counterbalance 
by  its  attraction  upon  the  material  particles  the  repulsion  existing 
between  them.  Every  known  phenomenon  in  frictional  E.  is 
explained  as  simply  by  the  one  hypo^esis  as  by  the  other ;  and 
the  only  scientilio  objection  which  can  be  brought  against  either 
is  that  relating  to  the  necessaiy  assumption  of  an  imponderable, 
incompressible  fluid,  exhibiting  attractive  and  repulsive  pro- 
perties.   The  nomenclature  suggested  by  these  theories  still  in 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


great  part  remains,  and  will  always,  no  doubt,  berefained  on 
account  of  its  great  convenien(;e.  Tlie  phrases,  transference  or 
passage  of  E.,  separation  and  recombination  of  the  electricities, 
are  continually  met  with  in  our  modern  treatises ;  but  tliey  mu3t 
not  be  taken  as  in  anyway  upholding  eitlier  of  the  fluid  hypotheses. 
The  great  advance  made  in  recent  times  in  electrostatics  is  the 
development  of  the  theory  of  the /o^mfto/.  As  a  mathematical 
quantity  in  the  theory  of  attractions  it  was  recognised  tiy  Laplace  ; 
but  its  vast  importance  was  only  first  fn'ly  appreciated  by  George 
Green  in  1828,  in  his  espay  On  the  Application  0/  Mathematical 
Analysis  to  E.  and  Magrutism,  in  which  it  is  called  the  Poten- 
tial Function.  This  essay,  long  unknown,  was  only  brought  tc 
light  by  Sir  W.  Thomson,  after  the  more  important  theorems  which 
it  contains  had  been  rediscovered  independently  by  Tho 
himself,   by  Chasles,  Sturm,  and   Gauss,     The  first-observed 

tongue,  noticed  by  Sulzer  in  1762,  when  sliver  and  lead 

bronght  into  contact  with  it  and  each  other.    In  1791,  after 

ful  investigation  of  the  phenomena  attendmg  the  convulsions  of 
tlie  muscles  of  a  frog  when  placed  in  contact  with  two  metals, 
Galvani  laid  the  foundation  ot galvanism  or  electrokinetics;  and 
in  1800  Volta  published  the  account  of  the  voltaic  pile— a  series 
of  discs  of  zinc  and  silver,  with  moistened  cardboard  between 
every  other  pair.  Succeeding  years  were  chiefly  employed  in 
improving  the  galvanic  battery,  till  ui  1820  CErsted,  by  his  dis- 
covery  of  the  action  of  a  current  upon  a  magnet,  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  electro-magnetism.  Then  followed  the  brilliant  re- 
searches, experimental  and  theoretical,  of  Ampire,  which  entitle 
him  to  the  name  of  the  'Newton  of  E.'  In  1827,  Ohm  enun- 
ciated his  law  of  resistance  ;  and  about  the  same  lime  Faraday 
began  his  investigations,  establishing  the  induction  of  electric 
currents  in  a  conductor  moving  relatively  to  a  magnet,  in  1831, 
the  laws  of  electrolytic  action,  in  1834,  and  the  inductive 
effects  of  electric  currents,  in  1835.  These  brilliant  discoveries 
have  resulted  in  the  invention  of  magneto-eleclric  raachmes  of 
every  description,  and  have  done  more  to  unite  electric  phe- 
nomena into  one-grand  whole,  and  to  demonstrate  the  high 
probability  of  the  greatest  of  modern  generalisations,  the  con- 
servation  of  eneigy,  than  the  life-work  of  any  other  investi- 
gator ;  while  they  more  than  ever  tend  to  raise  the  question  as  to 
the  real  nature  of  E,  W.  Weber,  by  a  very  beautiful  but  in  some 
points  objectionable  hypothesis,  has  deduced  all  the  known  laws 
of  electric  action,  even  to  the  induction  of  currents.  He  sup- 
poses that  the  forces  exerted  on  each  other  by  moving  dectric 
particles  differ  from  those  exerted  when  they  are  at  rest— that 
is,  their  mutual  potential  enei^y  is  a  function  of  their  relative 
velocity.  At  first  sight  this  would  seem  to  be  contrary  to  the 
conservation  principle  ;  bat  the  formula  given  by  Weber  satis- 
fies the  necessaiy  mathematical  criterion  for  the ,  existence  of  a 
potential,  and  this  is  all  that  is  required  so  as  to  be  consistent 
with  the  doctrine  of  energy.  When  the  particles  are  at  rest  their 
relative  velocity  is  zero  ;  and  in  this  case  Weber's  formula  is  re- 
duced to  the  mutual  potential  energy /!!^)  of  two  quantities 
of  E.  By  simple  differentiation  and  change  of  sign,  a 
formula,  differing  m  form  but  identical  in  value  with  Ampire's 
formula  for  the  force  between  two  current  elements,  is  at  once 
deduced ;  and  the  laws  of  induction  are  obtained  from  the  same 
formala  by  a  series  of  ingenious  mathematicd  transformations. 
One  of  the  weiik  points  of  this,  theory  is  the  absence  of  any 
attempt  to  explain  the  propagation  of  electrical  action,  or  the 
physical  existence  of  that  quantity  known  as  the  potenfia!.  It 
assumes  action  at  a  distance,  without  any  regard  to  the  medium 
through  which  the  action  takes  place.  Faraday,  in  his  re- 
searches, had  always  regard  to  what  he  called  lines  of  force 
emanating  from  _  the  conductor  in  every  direction  ttirough 
space.  The  direction  of  the  line  of  force  passing  through  a  given 
point  represented  the  direction  of  the  resultant  action  at  that 
point,  so  that  lines  of  force  are  evetywhere  perpendicular  to 
eqnipotential  sorfaces.  Thus  Faraday  looks  for  the  seat  of  elec- 
tncal  action,  not  merely  in  (he  conductor  itself,  but  also  in  the 
surrounding  medium.  On  the  same  principle,  Su  W.  Thomson 
explains  the  kinetic  energy  of  a  current  as  being  not  in  the  mat- 
ter of  the  wire  itself  but  ia  surrounding  space,  giving  rise  to  a 
rotatory  motion  round  the  lines  of  force  as  axes,  Professor  J.  j 
Clerk  Maxwell  has  worked  up  the  conception  into  a  complete 
■ry  of  electrical  action.  The  medium  which  transmits  light 
heat  is  thrown  into  a  state  of  motion  in  the  neighbourhood  | 


of  a  magnet,  as  indicated  by  the  effect  of  magnetism  on  polar- 
ised  light.  Now  every  current  is  surrounded  by  lines  of  magnetic 
force,  so  thai  a  certain  inertia  has  to  be  overcome  in  starting  the 
current,  and  a  certain  momentum  must  exist  in  the  current  when 
started  m  virtue  of  the  kinetic  energy  of  the  medium.  In  this 
inertia  and  momentum,  by  the  application  of  Lagrange's  dyna- 
mical equation  to  the  moving  system.  Maxwell  discovers  the 
known  laws  of  induction  and  the  mechanical  action  of  currents. 

The  best  elementary  treatises  of  K  in  the  English  language 
are  Fleming  Jenkins'  E.  and  Magnetism  (Longmans,  Green,  & 
Co.,  3d  ed.  1876),  and  Guthrie's  Magnitism  and  E.  (CoUins, 
1876).  Faraday's  Experimmtal  Researches  (1855)  forms  a  beau- 
tiful example  of  the  growth  of  the  science  under  the  hands  of  3 
true  expenmental  philosopher;  and  the  resulls  there  given  in 
simple  concise  language  are  made  the  basis  of  Clerk  Maxwell's 
E.  and  Magnetism  (Clarendon  Press,  2  vols.  1873),  a  work  of 
the  highest  originahty  in  plan  and  execution  and  in  the  analyti- 
cal methods  employed.  Thomson's  Papers  on  Electrostatics  and 
Magnetism  (1872),  Thomson  and  Tait's  Natural  Philosophy 
(1867),  and  Tail's  Thermodynamics  (1S73),  treat  of  various  parts 
of  the  science,  the  last  chiefly  of  its  relation  to  the  theory  of 
energy.  In  French,  may  be  mentioned  De  La  Rive's  Trailt 
d'ElectticiU  (3  vols.  1854-58),  and  Deschanel's  Traits  tli- 
mtnlaire  de  Physique,  tmnslated  into  English  by  Professor 
Everett  J  in  German,  Eiess'  JteiiungseUctruitalllSsi)  and  Ai- 
iandlungen  (1867),  Beer's  Einleitung  in  die  ElectrotlatU,  Wiede- 
mann's Galnanismus  and  EleOromagnetisimis  (1872-74),  and 
Wiillner's  Magniiismus  and  Electridtal  (1875).  Weber's  Elec- 
tro-dynamiscke  Massbestimmttngen  (1846-52),  in  which  he  deve- 
lops his  theory,  is  full, of  interest  to  the  mathematician  ;  and  the 
speculative  mathematical  papers  in  reference  to  the  transmission 
of  electric  action  by  Riemann,  Neumann,  and  Eelti,  in  Pi^gen- 


XSeotricity,  Animal.  Organised  beings,  as  masses  of  mere 
matter,  are  subject  to  the  laws  which  determine  electrical  equili- 
brimn  and  electrical  disturbance.  But  the  physiologicaJ  changes 
which  occur  in  the  tissues  of  an  animal  cause  electricd  varia- 
tions. The  mvestigations  of  these  phenomena  constitute  A.  E. 
Cert^  fishes  have  special  oi^ans  for  the  development  of  elec- 
tricity, bjr  means  of  which  they  can  communicate  a  shock  to 
other  ammals,  thus  paralysing  their  prey,  or  acting  in  self- 
defence.  These  electric  fishes  are — (i)  Thetoipedo  {To!-peda 
Galvani),  a  species  of  ray  found  abundantly  in  the  Mediterranean, 
occasionally  m  the  Atlantic,  and  rarely  in  the  North  Sea ;  (2) 
the  Gymnolus  electrics,  an  eel-like  fish,  common  in  the  lakes  and 
rivers  of  S.  America,  especially  in  Guiana ;  (3)  the  Malafiterurus 
electriciis,  the  raasch  or  thunder-fish  of  the  Arabs,  a  native  of 
the  Nile  and  other  African  rivers  ;  (4)  the  Mormyrus  longipinnis, 
akindof  pike  found  in  the  Nile;  (5)  t\\e  Shinoiatiss dectricus, 
a  ray  from  Brazil ;  (6)  the  Tetraodon  electricus,  a  species  of  globe- 
fish  found  in  the  Nile ;  (7)  the  Gyamarchus  electricus,  an  eel  also 
found  in  the  Nile ;  and  (8)  the  IMchturui  electricm,  a  ribbon-like 
fish  found  in  (he  Red  Sea  and  Indian  Ocean.  Some  have  also 
aMierted  that  the  common  skate  of  the  British  coasts,  Raia.  balls, 
possesses  an  electric  organ.  The  electricity  generated  by  these 
fishes  has  considerable  tension,  is  capable  of  developing  a  spark, 
of  magnetising  steel,  and  of  affecting  a  galvanometer.  It  would 
appear  that  in  the  structure  of  these  fishes  the  nerves  are  always 
distributed  to  the  positive  side  of  the  electrical  plate.  But  in 
these  animals  there  is  always  a  special  apparatus  for  the  evolu- 
lon  of  electricity  alone.  %aci\  an-angCTnents  in  the  animal  king- 
lom  ai'e  rare,  and  the  electricity  produced  far  exceeds  in  amount 
,nd  tension  that  which  may  be  obtained  from  any  living  tissue, 
uch  as  muscle,  by  means  of  a  delicate  galvanometer.  The 
present  state  of  our  knowledge  of  A.  E.  will  be  best  under- 
stood by  a  slight  sketch  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  this  depart- 
ment of  science.  The  discovery  of  A.  E.  dates  from  1786,  when 
Galvani,  who  was  then  Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology 
in  Bologna,  had  his  attention  directed  to  the  convulsions  pro- 
duced in  frogs'  legs  by  the  working  of  an  electrical  machine  in 
"-  -;ir  vicinity.    Recognising  tlie  fact  that  the  skmned  hind-lunbs 

a  frog  may  be  used  as  a  delicate  electroscope,  he  attempted, 
OH  20th  September  1786,  to  employ  them  in  experiments  on  at- 
mospheiic  electricity.  He  suspended  a  number  of  frog's  legs  to  the 
iron  trellis-work  surrounding  the  balcony  of  his  house,  by  means 
of  copper  hooks,  and  saw,  when  the  legs  were  blown  about  by 
5'3 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


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wind  so  as  to  caiise  then)  no"  and  again  to  touch  tlie  iron, 
t  they  were  convulsed.  After  many  experiments  he  con- 
cluded that  the  convulsions  were  not  due  to  electricity  from 
the  atmosphere,  but  to  an  inherent  A.  E.  This  discovery, 
announced  by  Gdvani  as  that  of  a  neryous  fluid  which,  if  not 
life  itself,  was  something  akin  to  it,  soon  attracted  great  atten- 
tion, and  wild  speculations  were  put  forth,  in  which  it  was  as- 
serted tliat  the  entire  source  of  life  was  attributable  to  this  new 
Erinciple,  which,  in  honour  of  its  discoverer,  was  called  ^sA'okwbi. 
a  1791  Alexander  Volta,  Professor  of  Natural  History  in  the 
University  of  Pavia,  repeated  Galvani's  experiments,  and  de- 
vised numerous  others,  the  result  of  which  was  that  he  asserted 
that  the  contractions  in  the  frogs'  legs  were  not  due  to  an  inhe- 
rent A,  E,,  as  Galvani  had  supposed,  but  to  the  action  of  the 
juices  of  the  frog's  limb  on  the  metals  with  which  it  was  con- 
nected. These  investigations  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  produc- 
tion of  electricity  by  the  contact  of  dissimilar  metals,  to  the 
invention  of  tlie  well-ltnown  voltain  fiU,  and  to  voltaic  (often 
termed  gah/attu]  tliclrkUy,  to  which  the  world  is  so  much  in- 
debted. Volta's  experimental  criticism  and  denial  of  Galvani's 
hindamenta!  position  led  to  a  bitfw  controversy,  in  which  most 
of  the  scientific  men  of  the  time  eo<>fc  part  Galvani,  aided  by 
his  nephew  Aidini,  showed  that  undej-  special  circumstances 
muscufcr  contractions  might  be  obtained  without  the  aid  of  any 
metal  at  all,  by  simply  allowing  the  scUtic  nerve  of  an  insulated 
frog's  leg  to  drop  on  the  muscles  aijd  come  into  contact  with 
them  externally.  This  experiment  Volta  and  his  followers  ob- 
jected to  on  the  ground  that  the  contact  of  such  dissimilar  sub- 
stances as  muscle  and  nerve,  aided  hy  a  little  blood  or  serum, 
was  quite  sufiicient  to  produce  the  electrical  current  which 
caused  the  muscles  of  the  leg  to  contract.  The  discovery  of  the 
voltaic  pile,  and  the  great  practical  consequences  flowing  from 
it,  caused  the  world  to  forget  for  a  time  the  subject  of  A.  E, 
For  twen^-eight  years  after  the  death  of  GalvMii,  which  hap- 
pened in  l7gS,  little  was  heard  of  the  matter,  and  animal  mag- 
niijsin,  as  it  was  called,  vas  hehl  in  contempt.  But  in  1S26 
Nobili,  by  means  of  a  delicate  galvanometer,  demonstrated  the 
existence  of  an  electrical  oirrent  in  the  frog,  which  he  stated 
passed  from  the  feet  to  the  head  of  the  aniiml.  Nobili  attri- 
buted the  current  thus  obtained  to  Thenno.-Electridty  (q.  v.),  an 
opinion  which  has  since  bepn  proved  to  be  erroneous.  In  1S37 
Matteucci,  then  Professor  of  PJiysioIogy  in  Pisa,  obtained  a 
current  in  a  similar  way,  and  made  the  imporlspt  announcement 
that  'the  interior  of  a  muscle,  placed  in  connection  with  any 
part  whatever  of  the  same  animal,  such  as  nerve,  surface  of  skin, 
or  surface  of  muscle,  produces  a  current  which  goes  in  the  ani- 
mal from  the  muscular  part  to  that  which  is  not  so.'  He  further 
worked  out  many  of  the  details  of  the  subject,  and  must  be  re- 
garded as  the  founder  of  all  our  modem  views.  In  1841  Emil 
du-Bois-Reymond,  the  present  distinguished  professor  of  physio- 
It^y  in  the  University  of  Berlin,  repeated  Matteucci's  experi- 
ments and  further  investigated  the  subject  with  the  aid  of  most 
delicate  galvanometers,  and  other  ingenious  apparatus  specialty 
contrived  for  the  kind  of  work.  He  was  at  length  able  to  an- 
nounce the  law  of  the  muscular  current,  as  at  present  under- 
stood, \'n.,  '  Any  point  of  the  natural  or  artificial  longitudinal 
section  of  a  muscle  is  ppsitiye  in  relation  to  any  point  of  the 
natnral  or  artificial  transpefse  section.'  Thus  it  may  be  stated 
in  general  terms  that  the  surface  of  a  muscle  is  always  positive 
to  its  transverse  section,  so  that  when  one  terminal  {A)  of  a  gal- 
vanometer is  connected  with  the  longitudinal  section  or  with  the 
surface,  and  the  other  terminal  is  connected  with  the  transverse 
seclion  [B),  a  current  flows  tlirough  tlie  coils  of  the  galvanometer 
from  A  to  B.  The  same  is  trae  of  nerve.  Dn-Bois-Reymond 
also  showed  that  there  is  no  current  peculiar  to  the  frog,  as 
Matteucci  supposed.  Currents  may  also  be  obl^ned  from  the 
human  being  by  placing  both  bands  or  other  parts  of  the  body, 
with  special  contrivances,  in  connection  with  the  terminals  of  a 
galvanometer.  It  may  be  stated  generally  that  all  living  tex- 
tures, when  connected  with  a  galvanometer  sufiiciently  dehcate, 
indicate  the  exisljince  (jf  electric?)  currents,  and  that  wese  elec- 
trical currents  are  dimiijished  in  amount  when  the  tissue,  such  as 
muscle  or  nerve,  is  in  a  state  of  action.  When  a  muscle  con. 
tracts,  for  example,  the  electrical  current  is  diminished.  TJiis 
diminution  of  the  natural  current  during  action  is  called  the 
negative  variation  of  the  tmade  current.  The  same  is  true  as  re- 
g^s  nerve.  It  is  fair  to  mention  that  Professor  Hermann  of 
Zurich,  almost  alone  among  physiologists,  denies  the  existence 
SI4 


of  any  inherent  current  in  animal  tissues,  and  he  attributes  all 
the  phenomena  observed  to  death  of  part  of  the  muscular  or 
nervous  stnicture  exposed,  leading  by  chemical  changes  to  difier- 
ences  of  potential,  and  consequently  to  a  current.  For  details 
regarding  A.  E.,  see  Morgan's  Electro-Physiology. 

Eleotricity,  Medical.  Electricity  has  been  employed  as  a 
curative  agent  from  very  remote  times.  Paracelsus  ascribed  cura- 
tive power  to  the  loadstone.;  but  it  was  not  till  1 748  that  Jallabert 
apphed  the  electrical  machine  to  the  cure  of  paralysis.  Franklin 
used  it  for  the  same  purpose.  Cavallo  in  1780,  Poma  and 
Amaud  in  17S7,  employed  it  in  paralysis,  chronic  rheumatism, 
chorea,  epijepsy,  &c  In  1789  Galvani  made  the  discovery  which 
immortalised  his  name,  and  the  new  voltaic  and  galvanic  instru- 
ments superseded  the  electrical  machines.  The  discoveiy  of 
induced  galvanic  electricity  by  Faraday,  and  the  invention  of  the 
rotary  magneto-electric  apparatus  of  Pixii  in  183a,  formed  the 
next  great  advance  in  electro-therapeutics.  The  varieljes  of  elec- 
tricity depend  upon  its  mode  of  development,  which  may  be  by 
friction  or  mechanical  action,  by  contact  or  chemical  action,  or  by 
induction  from  these  sources  or  from  magnetism.  Frictional 
electricity,  generated  by  the  machine,  fe  of  a  low  degree  of  inten- 
sity, but  is  produced  in  lafge  quantity  and  of  great  decomposing 
enei^y.  It  is  still  employed  as  a  stimulant  to  sensory  nerves,  as  a 
counter-irritant,  a  sudorific,  and  in  the  frealment  of  amenotrhcea, 
paralysis,  &c.,  and  for  such  pui-poses  it  is  applied  as  the  hath, 
the  aura,  the  spark,  and  the  shock.  Galvanic  or  voltaic  electri- 
city is  developed  by  the  contact  and  chemical  action  of  dissimilar 
substances.  Galvanism  applied  to  the  skin  excites  more  or  less 
inflammatory  action,  accompanied  with  a  sense  of  burning,  the 
sensation  varying  from  a  slight  tingling  to  an  almost  intolerable 
pain,  and,  if  maintained  for  a  sufiicient  length  of  time,  it  may 
produce  ulceration  and  destruction  of  the  skin  and  subjacent 
structures.  It  increases  and  diminishes  sensibility  and  muscular 
irritability,  is  a  tonic,  and  increases  nutrition;  it  stimulates  the 
secretions  and  the  drculatjon,  coagulates  blood,  increases  the 
activity  of  the  lymphatics  and  glands,  promotes  the  absorption 
of  exudations,  and  dispersion  of  tumours.  These  effects  are  best 
marked  when  the  con^ant  current  is  used  ;  but  when  the  current 
is  intermittent  the  contractile  efiects  on  the  muscles  are  very 
much  increased.  The  continuous  gentle  action  of  small,  single, 
and  compound  voltaic  apparatus  has  been  employed  successfully 
in  paralysis,  amaurosis,  neuralgia,  &c.,  by  application  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  body  over  the  parts  affected,  or  by  needles  thmst  into 
them  (galvano-puncture).  By  galvano-puncture  aneurism  has 
been  cured  bythe  coagulation  ofthe  contents  of  the  sac;  attempts 
have  been  made  to  dissolve  calcuh  in  the  bladder ;  and  surgical 
cauterisation  of  otherwise  inaccessible  parts  has  been  success- 
fully performed.  The  apparatus  employed  for  the  production  of 
interrupted  or  induced  currents  are  the  magneto-electric  and  tlie 
electro-magnetic  coil  machines.  The  former  consists  of  a  bar 
of  iron  (round  which  thin  iron  wire  is  coiled),  and  a  horse-shoe 
magnet.  Electricity  is  evolved  by  the  iron  bar  being  maintained 
in  a  constant  whirling  motion  before  the  poles  of  the  magnet.  The 
machine  is  not  selfractmg,  and  its  currents  pass  in  opposite  direc- 
tions.  The  electro-magnetic  machine  has  me  advantage  of  being 
self-acting  ;  but  tlie  objection  to  it  is  that  it  requires  a  battery  to 
keep  it  in  action,  and,  of  coarse,  the  use  of  acids.  By  recent 
improvements,  however,  since  the  introduction  of  the  carbon 
electro-negative,  and  the  solution  of  (he  bisulphate  of  mercury, 
it  can  be  made  portable,  and  also  effective.  Tlie  electro-mag- 
netic machine  has  now  almost  entirely  superseded  other  electric 
machines  in  therapeutics,  more  especially  since  the  publication 
of  the  work  of  M.  Duchenne  (of  Boulogne),  with  whom  it  was  a 
favourite  instrument.  Our  limits  do  not  permit  of  a  detailed  de- 
scription of  the  apparatus.  Electricity  is  administered  by  inclnd- 
ing  a  portion  of  Uie  body  between  the  two  excitors  or  electrodes, 
thus  causing  it  to  form  a  part  of  the  established  circuit.  Much 
of  the  results  of  electriciq'  is  due  to  the  kind  and  quality  of  the 
curient  used,  the  method  of  application,  and  the  direction  of  the 
current  When  it  traverses  from  the  centre  to  the  periphery,  it 
is  termed  the  direct  or  descending  current,  and  when  from  the 
periphery  to  the  centre,  the  inveise  or  ascending  current  A  de- 
scending current  n^ay  be  made  to  pass  to  or  from  a  painful  spot ; 
in  the  former  case,  if  the  negative  pole  be  placed  over  it,  and  in 
the  hitter,  if  covered  by  the  positive.  In  the  first  case  there  is 
increased  action  at  the  point  of  treatment  and  in  the  latter  dimin- 
ished action.     Different  opinions  prevail  regarding  the  directions 


yLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


in  which  the  currents  should  run  in  their  Iherapeulica!  employ- 
ment. The  beneficial  effects  of  electricity  in  the  treatment  of 
many  diseases  are  firmly  established.  The  best  worlts  on  the 
subject  are  by  M.  Duchenne,  and  Dr  Althaus'a  Treatise  on  M.  E., 
(Lend.  Longmans,  1876). 

Eeotric  Ligflit,  When  the  terminals  of  a  very  powerM 
battery  are  connected  and  then  slightly  separated,  the  electric 
current  may  be  made  to  pass  through  the  air,  producing  a  very 
intense  heat  and  brilliant  light.  This  light  is  best  shown  between 
two  carbon  points,  each  connected  with  one  pole  of  the  battery, 
BJid  capable  of  adjustment  by  means  of  mechanical  apparatus. 
Instead  of  the  battery,  a  magneto- electric  machine  might  be 
advantageously  employed,  if  the  expense  of  the  driving  of  such . 
could  be  reduced  to  a  reasonable  limit.  The  apparatus  contrived 
by  Duboscq  is  specially  designed  to  obviate  the  mconvenience 
arising  from  the  rapid  wasting  away  of  the  carbon  points.  The 
points  are  kept  at  the  necessary  distance  by  clockwork,  which  is 
Itself  so  regulated  by  the  distance  separating  the  points  that  when 
they  are  too  dose,  its  action  is  retarded  and  when  too  fax  distant, 
its  action  is  accelerated.  The  E.  L.  gives  a  continuous  spectrum, 
and  accordingly  it  is  extremely  useful  in  investigating  the  spec- 
troscopic properties  of  any  given  sutstance.  {See  SPECTRUM 
Analysis.)  The  E.  L,  has  been  successfully  employed  in  the 
lighting  of  lighthouses,  and  by  the  French  in  the  illumination 
of  railway  stations.  Iri  the  new  opera-house  at  Paris  electricity 
is  employed  on  a  very  large  scale,  both  for  ordinary  iliuminating 
purposes  and  for  scenic  effects. 

Electric  Telegraph.     See  Telegraph. 

Eleotro-Chemical  Order  of  the  Elements.  When  two 
metals  properly  insulated  are  brought  in  contact  and  then  sepa- 
rated, it  is  found  that  the  one  is  cl^rged  with  negative,  the  other 
with  positive  electricity.  Thus  if  zmc  and  kon  be  taken,  the 
zinc  is  found  to  be  positively  electrified,  the  iron  n^atively. 
With  iron  and  platinum,  however,  the  iron  receives  a  charge  of 
positive  electricity,  the  platinum  of  negative.  Thus  iron  is  said 
to  be  negative  to  zinc,  positive  to  platinum.  The  metals  may 
be  BO  arranged  that  each  is  electro-positive  to  the  one  succeeding 
and  electro-negative  to  the  one  preceding  it :  thus,  zinc,  tin,  iron, 
lead,  copper,  silver,  gold,  platinum.  These  metals  replace  one 
another  in  their  solutions  in  the  above  order.  Thus  if  line  be 
placed  in  a  solution  of  chloride  of  tin,  tin  is  deposited,  linc  dis- 
solved. If  copper  be  placed  in  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver, 
silver  is  deposited,  copper  dissolved,  &c.  The  order  of  the  above 
metals  is  also  that  of  their  affinity  for  oxygen,  zinc  having  the 
strongest  affinity  for  o^gen,  platinum  the  least.  Oxygen  there- 
fore may  be  said  to  be  the  most  electro-n^aiive  element,  and 
les  as  the  first  of  the  list.  The  affinity  of  oxygen  for  the  other 
nentsmaybeused  for  ascertaining  their  position  in  the  electro- 
chemical series,  and  a  complete  list  may  thus  be  drawn  up. 

Eleetrol'yais  is  the  decomposition  of  a  chemically  compound 
substance  by  means  of  an  electric  cunenL  If  two  pieces  of 
platmum,  connected  with  the  poles  of  a  voltaic  battery,  are  im- 
mersed in  a  quantity  of  slightly-acidulated  water,  and  if,  at  the 
le  time,  the  electromotive  force  of  the  battery  be  sufficiently 
ing,  an  electric  current  will  pass  and  decompose  the  water 
I  its  constituent  parts,  hydrogen  being  given  off  from  the 
platinum  connected  with  the  negative  pole,  and  oJiygen  from  the 
platinum  connected  with  the  positive  pole.  The  liquid  so 
decomposed  is  termed  the  electrolyte ;  and  the  platinum  or 
other  metal  surfiices  by  which  the  current  enters  and  leaves,  the 
electrodes.  The  electrode  by  which  the  current  enters  is  called 
the  anode,  and  the  electrode  by  which  the  current  leaves  the 
kathode.  The  products  of  the  decomposition  are  known  as  the 
Ions — the  Anion  appearing  at  the  anode,  the  kation  at  the 
kathode.  These  names  were  invented  by  Faraday  with  the  aid 
of  Whewell,  and  are  now  in  general  use.  The  fundamental  law 
of  E.,  as  established  by  Faraday  and  confirmed  by  Beetz,  Hit- 
torf,  and  others,  is  that  (he  quantity  of  electrolyte  decomposed 
in  a  given  time  is  proportional  to  the  strength  of  the  current ; 
and  the  same  current  decomposes  chemically  equivalent  quanti- 
ties of  different  electrolytes  in  the  same  time.  In  many  cases  of 
electrolytic  action,  the  actual  ions  are  not  given  off,  but  instead 
substances  formed  by  the  chemical  action  of  the  ions  upon 
the  electrolyte.  For  instance,  the  products  of  the  decom- 
position of  a  solution  of  sodic  sulphate  are  oxygen  and  hydrogen 


th  t    t  Ih  d    U 

and    t  th    k  th  d 
of  the  a 


ELK 

esp    t     ly— e      lly  th   decomposi- 
d       t  d  1  t        Iphuric  acid, 

f  th  pi  m  non  shows 
Ipl  n  d  as  w  II  as  oxygen, 
d  as  11  hyd  gen.  The 
....  5  to  be  that  NajS04  splits  up  into 
sodium  (Naj)  and  the  acid  radical  (SO^).  These  act  chemically 
upon  the  water  of  the  solution,  the  reactions  being  Na.-F2HaO 
=zNaHO  +  H,  and  SOi-H  HsO  =  HeS04-I-0.  That  this  is 
the  true  action  is  indicated  by  the  E.  of  similar  electrolytes,  such 
as  sulphate  of  copper,  in  which  the  copper  appears  as  a  metallic 
deposit  at  the  anode.  (See  Electro-Metallurgy.)  It  is  ques- 
tionable whether  pure  water  is  really  an  electrolyte ;  for  the 
purer  it  is  the  greater  resistance  does  it  present  to  the  passage  of 
a  current.  The  action  may  be  the  decomposition  of  the  sulphuric 
acid,  which  is  requited  to  t)e  present  in  small  quantity  to  render 
the  E.  possible.  If  the  electrodes,  after  E.  has  been  going  on 
for  some  time,  be  disconnected  from  the  battery  poles, 'and 
jomed  to  the  terminals  of  the  coil  of  a  delicate  galvanometer,  a 
current  will  be  evident — flowing  in  the  direction  opposite  to  that 
which  produced  the  E.,  but  soon  disappearing.  This  is  due  to 
wliat  is  known  as  the  ^larisatioa  of  the  electrodes,  in  virtue  of 
which  their  potentials  are  rendered  different,  and  the  existence 
of  an  electro-motive  force  made  possible.  No  polarisation  takes 
place  when  the  electrodes  are  formed  of  the  metal  which  enters 
as  one  of  the  chemical  constituents  of  the  electrolyte.  Thus  zinc 
electrodes  in  sulphate  of  zinc  do  not  become  polarised.  It  is  this 
polarisation  (hat  renders  the  measurement  of  the  electric  resist- 
ance of  electrolytes  so  difficult.  It  seems,  however,  that  Ohm's 
law  of  the  relation  between  resistance  and  length  of  current 
holds  for  electrolytes  as  well  as  for  metallic  conductors ;  but  that, 
unlike  metallic  conductors,  electrolytes  have  their  resistance  dimi- 
nished with  increase  of  temperature.  Experiments  have  also  been 
made  by  various  physicists  to  investigate  the  change  of  resistance 
due  to  change  of  density  of  the  solution  of  a  given  electrolyte. 
Beetz,  Kohlrausch  and  Nippoldt,  and  Paalzow  investigated  this 
subject  in  different  ways,  endeavouring  by  more  or  less  ingenious 
devices  to  eliminate  the  error  due  to  polarisation.  The  most  recent 
experiments  are  those  of  Messrs  Ewing  and  MacGregor,  pub- 
lished in  the  Transactions  of  the  RoyiU  Society  0/ Edinburgh  ( I E73), 
in  wMch  much  interesting  information,  historical  and  otherwise, 
will  be  found.      See  also  Jenkins'  Electricity  and  Magnetism. 

The  phenomena  of  E.  are  not  yet  fiilly  explained,  and  cannot 
be  till  a  more  exact  knowledge  of  the  molecular  constitution  of 
bodies  is  obtained.  Accoiding  to  Clausius,  dissociation  is  con- 
stantly going  on  in  a  compound  liquid — that  is,  the  compound 
molecules,  which  are  constantly  changing  their  relative  positions, 
become  broken  up  into  their  component  molecules  on  account  of 
the  continually  occurring  collisions,  so  that  each  individual  atom 
may  be  supposed  to  be  continually  changing  its  partner  from 
time  to  time.  This  process  Clausius  supposes  to  go  on  always, 
and  indifferently  in  all  directions  ;  but  when  a  cui-rent  is  passed 
through  the  liquid  the  molecules  become  influenced  by  the  elec- 
tro-motive force,  so  that  each  molecule  of  the  kation  stru^Ies  to- 
wards (he  kathode,  pairing  for  a  time  with  each  molecule  of  the 
anion  which  it  meets  stru^ling  in  the  opposite  direction  to- 
wards the  anoda  Accordingly  at  the  electrodes  free  ions  collect, 
and  these  are  charged,  each  kation  positively  and  each  anion 
negatively.  Upon  this  theory  polarisation  is  dtie  to  the  collec- 
tion of  positively-charged  ions  at  the  negative  electrode,  whose 
potential  is  thus  raised,  and  an  electro-motive  force  contrary  to 
the  electtolysmg  current  generated.'  Now  the  ions  deposited  on 
the  electrodes  tend  to  become  fi'ee,  escaping  as  gas,  diffusing 
throi^h  the  liquid,  or  precipitating  as  a  solid,  so  that  here  we 
have  the  explanation  of  the  dissipation  of  polarisation.  This 
theory  further  shows  how  only  liqtiids  can  act  as  electrolytes,  the 
molecular  conditions  necessary  for  the  process  not  existing  in 
solids  and  gases ;  but  it  cannot  fully  explain  why  compound  liquids 
are  not  a/Zelectrolytes.  For  minuter  details  of  this  theory,  see 
Clausius'  article  in  Poreendorf's  Annalm  for  1857,  Maswell's 
Electricity  and  Magnetism  {vcA.  V-  "  " '"-  '^■-' 


-■*■ 


)r  Maxwell's  Heat. 


^- 


■  Eleotro-Metallurgyi  is  tlie  art  of  depositmg  or  precipilat- 
ing  in  a  metalhc  state  various  metals  or  alloys  horn  their  solu- 
tions by  means  of  electrical  currents.  It  is  one  of  the  most  use- 
ful of  all  the  applications  of  electricity,  and  since  its  discovery, 
within  comparatively  recent  years,  it  has  been  applied  to  innu- 
merable useful  and  important  metallurgical  operations,  and  has 
515 


vLiOOQle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ELE 


-* 


indeed  revolutionised  many  proi 


The  history  of  the  dia 


knowledge  and  experience  in  electricity,  so  that  it  is  difficult 
apportion  the  honour  of  first  discoverers  among  the  numerous 
clMmants  to  that  distinction.  Professor  Jacob!  of  St  Peteisbul^ 
announced  in  1839  that  he  had  discovered  a  means  of  '  convert- 
ing any  line,  however  fine,  engraved  on  cwper,  into  a  relief  by 
galvanic  process.'  In  the  same  year  Mr  Spencer  of  Liverpool 
communicated  an  elaborate  paper  to  the  British  Association  on 
working  in  metals  by  voltaic  electricity,  in  which  he  gave  details  of 
numerous  experiments  performed  by  him,  commencing  m  Septem- 
ber 1837.  Mr  Spencer  successfully  obtained  by  electro-deposit  of 
copper,  impressions  from  engraved  plates,  facsimiles  of  medals, 
and  stereotype  plates.  Mr  C.  T.  Jordan  also  claimed  that  he 
had  successfully  conducted  similar  experiments  previous  to  the 
It  of  Jacobl's  investigations.    From  1839  dates  the 


each  claiming  some  new  process  or  application,  the  depo^- 
tion  of  particalar  metals,  special  forms  of  batteries,  or  new 
solvents  tor  the  metals  to  be  deposited.  The  most  successful  of 
the  patentees  from  a  commercial  point  were  Messrs  George  R. 
and  Henry  Elkington,  who,  in  March  184O,  secured  a  patent  for 
'  coating,  covering,  or  plating  metals '  with  gold  and  silver.  The 
patent  of  Messrs  Elkington  was  the  foundation  of  the  now  enor- 
mous industiy  in  electro-plate  carried  on  in  Birmingham  and 
Sheffield,  as  well  as  at  many  foreign  centres.  The  firm  of 
Elkin[jton  &  Co.  to  the  present  day  continues  to  occupy  the 
foremost  place  in  the  development  and  extension  of  the  art 
which  its  founders  created. 

The  practical  operations  of  E.-M.  as  conducted  at  the  present 
day  may  be  divided  into  (l)  electro-depositing,  in  which  any 
metal — as,  for  example,  copper — is  precipitated  on  a  mould  and  so 
formed  into  the  snbstanlial  ground  of  any  article  useful  or  orna- 
mental ;  and  (2)  electroplating,  or  the  coating  of  any  metal  with 


a  different  metal  or  alloy.  The  processes  by  which  the  metals  m 
both  cases  ate  deposited  are  quite  the  same,  but  in  the  one  case  a 
mould  is  placed  in  the  platmg-vat,  while  in  the  other  it  is  the 
article  to  be  plated  or  covered  which  is  so  treated.  In  the  pre- 
paration of  electrotype  copies  of  art  metal-work,  which  consti- 
tutes one  important  branch  of  E.-M.,  both  processes  are  usually 
employed ;  the  body  of  the  article,  a  jug  or  vase  for  example, 
being  deposited  in  copper  on  a  mould,  and  subsequently  elec- 
troplated with  silver  or  gold.  ITie  deposition  of  melals  from 
solutions  of  their  sails  is  due  to  the  electrolytic  action  of  the 
current  (see  ELECTROLYSIS),  in  virtue  of  which  the  electrolyte 
is  decomposed,  and  the  nietalUc  component  appears  at  the 
negative  electrode.  The  moulds  having  been  prepared  they  are 
placed  in  a  trough  or  vat  (A)  filled  with  an  acid  solution  of  blue 
vitnol  (sulphate  of  copper),  and  opposite  the  moulds  are  sus- 
pended plates  of  metallic  copper.  A  wire  (a)  passes  from  the  metal 
rod  on  which  the  mould  is  himg  to  the  zinc  pole  of  a  Daniell's  cell 
(B),  that  being  the  battery  originally  employed,  though  now 
generally  superseded  j  and  Uie  circuit  is  completed  by  connecting 
the  rod  from  which  the  plates  of  metal  depend  with  the  copper  of 
the  battery  eeU  by  another  wire  lb).    As  the  action  proceeds. 


replaced  by  a  similar  quantity  dissolved  from  the  plates  of 
copper.  The  process  of  deposition  may  go  on  till  any  desired 
thickness  of  copper  is  attained,  and  neither  is  there  any  limit  to 
tile  size  of  the  object  deposited.  The  objects  when  taken  from 
the  bath  are  treated  like  ordinary  castings ;  and  to  many  of  them, 
in  common  with  nickel-silver  and  Britannia-metal  articles,  the  pro- 
cess of  electroplating,  or  coating  with  silver  (and  sometimes 
gold),  is  next  applied.  In  the  early  years  of  plating  the  expense 
of  the  process  prevented  works  of  great  size  from  being  under- 
tak      by  KM  hp      dfppd  deq       d 

exp    d  f     lb     f  d    ilb      f      ph  'd     N 

in    in         w    I    tl     D       U  b        j  p       d  d  by  W  Id 

"  '  g  h   h  d  p 


fg 


ftU 


k    and      p    d 


f 
p  od      d  by 


d  f 


copyi  g  wood   ngr       gs  and  f    p    paring  I 

ing,  as  well  as  in  cheap  jewellery  and  button-making,  and  a  great 

variety  of  minor  metallurgical  operations, 

EUciroplaHng. — This  operation  is  most  hugely  employed  for 
preparing  imitations  of  silver  plate  for  table  use,  the  i^sis  of 
the  best  quality  of  which  is  nickel  or  German  silver,  while  for 
an  interior  class  of  wares  the  Britannia  metal  is  used.  When 
Britannia  metal  is  to  be  plated,  it  has  first  to  receive  a  thm  coat- 
ing of  copper,  as  silver  or  gold  will  not  adhere  to  that  particular 
alloy.  The  articles  to  be  plated  are  first  'buffed,'  or  smoothed 
on  leather  to  give  them  a  proper  surface  to  receive  the  coating 
of  preoiotis  metaL  They  ate  then  successively  dipped  in  an  al- 
kaline solution,  a  weak  acid,  and  in  pure  water,  after  which 
clCEming  they  are  plunged  in  a  solution  of  cyanide  of  mercury 
to  prevent  any  oxidation  taking  place.  The  articles  are  now 
ready  to  be  placed  in  the  silvering  vat  (if  silver  Is  to  be  de- 
posited), whidi  contains  a  solution  of  cyanide  of  silver,  and  in 
which  plates  of  silver  also  ate  hung.  When  the  silvering  is 
complete  the  plated  goods  are  washed  and  brushed  with  a 
metallic  wire  brush.  Electro-gilding  is  conducted  on  an  analo- 
gous principle,  the  bath  being  prepared  with  chloride  of  gold, 

anide  of  potassium,  and  carbonate  of  potash. 

A  great  number  of  metals  in  addition  to  those  mentioned  can 
be  deposited  by  electricity,  and  even  an  electro-deposit    f  b  as 

obtained  in  practice.    The  deposit  of  nickel  has  also  be 
uctedonacommercialscale;  andespecialiyinAmeticath  tn   tat 

now  very  extensively  employed  for  plating  iron  object    fitt    gs 

harness,  door  and  oiher  Itnobs,  hat-pegs,  and  ma  y    ml 

hjects,     Tm  has  also  recently  been  deposited  by  el    t      ty 

nd  the  separation  of  tin  and  iron  m  old  tin  plate      la  g  Ij 

complished  by  similar  means, 

Electroatftt'ic  In'st  nimenta         fih      k'  d  — (  )  th 
which  produce,  (2)  thos  wl    I  m  1  t         d  (3)  th         hi 

measure  given  charges    fit      ty     Tthfi       kdblg 
■^ firictionalm     h  wh    h      gl       wh    1         yl 


«th  a 


is  made  to  revolve  a 


th 


f 


f  tl 


glass  surface  as  it  mo  w  y  b       m      p      t    *ly    I    tnfied 

and  upon  coming  oppos  t  t    f    h    p       t  1  p      I 

nection  with  an  insulat  d        d    t       k     w  h   / 

ductor  of  the  machine,     d         m  tl   m         g  t         1     ^       If 
the  machine  is  in  work    g     d       d     h   g  t  k     pi       th      gl 
the  air  between  the  glas    and  th    p      t        d  th    gl       1 
portion  of  its  electncity      hh  anf       dtthpm 

ductor.     To  make  a  co  t  p    d    ti      p      bl    th       t 

tlve  electricity  on  the  c    t  d  1    th  f       m    t    I      be 

moved,  and  this  is  effected  by     nn    tmg   t  d  te  tly      th      gh 
the  agency  of  its  prim         d    t       w  th  tl     ea   h      Tl     fi 
machine  of  Shis  kind  was  Ott    d    G    n  k  t  b  g  gl  b      f 

sulphur,  which  was  ele  t  fi  d  by  fn  t        vith  th     I      d      I 
Sir  W.    Armstrong's  kyd      I  Irt     to.     'ii  th       I     t       ty 

produced  by  the  friction    f  th    m      t    d    p     f  w  t        \        h 
walls  of  the  apertures  th      gh  wh   h   tea  h  rply  dti  t 

considerable  pressure.  Voltas  dcctropkiHus  consists  f  tw 
equal-sized  plates,  tlie  one  of  ebonite  or  resin  backed  w  th  m  t  1 
the  other  of  metal.  The  former  has  a  metallic  pin  whi  h  wh 
the  plates  are  in  contact,  connects  the  metal  plate  wi  1  th 
metallic  back  of  the  ebonite  plate.  The  ebonite  plat  fi  t 
negatively  electrified  by  rubbing  it  with  cat-skin,  a  d  h 
brought  neat  the  meta!  plate,  whose  potential  is  thus        d     d 


-<f- 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  EjyCYCLOF^niA. 


ELB 


negative  by  induction.  When  they  are  siifScienlly  near,  a  spark 
passes  between  the  melal  piate  and  metallic  pin,  and  upon  the 
separation  of  the  discs  the  metal  is  found  to  be  positively  elec- 
trified. Since  the  ebonite  long  retains  its  electrification,  espe- 
cially if  the  air  is  dry,  this  process  may  be  repeated  again  and 
again,  and  a  conductor  fully  chained  by  successive  additions, 
Tlje  energy  of  the  electrification  has  its  equivalent  in  the  eKcess 
of  work  spent  during  the  separation  over  the  work  done  by  the 
electrical  forces  during  the  approach  of  the  plates.  The  induc- 
tion machine  of  Holtz  is  on  the  same  principle.  It  consists  of 
two  parallel  concentric  glass  wheels,  one  fixed,  the  other  capable 
of  rapid  rotation.  Near  the  exterior  surface,  and  at  opposite 
sides  of  the  rotating  wheel,  are  placed  two  metallic  combs,  each 
connected  with  an  insulated  conductor.  On  the  fixed  wheel  two 
pieces  of  pasteboard  are&stenedfaomg  the  combs.  One  of  these 
is  electrified  ne^tively  by  contact  with  a  rubbed  piece  of  vul- 
canite, and  acts  inductively  through  the  discs  on  the  comb  op- 
posite, which  discharges  electricity  on  the  surface  of  the  revolving 
disc,  becoming  itself  negatively  chained,  as  does  the  second 
comb,  with  which  it  is  connecled  meanwhile.  When  the  posi- 
tively charged  portion  of  the  disc  comes  opposite  the  second 
comb,  discharge  takes  place  between  them ;  and  after  a  few 
turns  the  positive  electricity  on  the  glass  disc  exceeds  the  negative 
on  the  comb,  so  that  the  dlschai^e  is  followed  by  the  positive 
electrification  of  the  conductor  of  this  comb.  Brii^ant  and 
long-continued  sparks  are  produced  on  breaking  the  connection 
of  the  conductors. 

Of  electric  accumulators  the  most  important  is  the  Leyden  jar, 
so  named  from  Leyden,  where  its  accumulating  power  was  first 
observed  and  investigated  by  Kleist,  Cuneus,  and  Muschen- 
broeck  about  the  year  1 746.  It  consists  usually  of  a  cylindrical 
glass  jar,  coated  internally  and  externally  with  tinfoil,  and  hav- 
ing a  metallic  rod  in  connection  with  the  interior  coating,  rising. 
3  few  inches  above  the  top  of  the  jar  and  terminated  by  a  brass 


of  a  number  of  charged  Leydi 
connected,  as  also  tlieir  inter 
rodsjoiningthe knobs.  Itisn 
and  is  only  employed  in  exper 
The  first  inslrament  which 
charges,  and  therefore  chai^i 


,  *ith  their  external  surfaces 
1  surfaces,  by  means  of  metallic 
Msarily  very  dangerous  to  handle, 
'   which  require  lar^e  charges. 


^    .  of  electricity,  and  the  first  

mem  accordingly  which  deserved  the  name  of  dccti-omiter,  was 
Coulomb's  torsion  balance.  Formerly,  however,  before  elec- 
trometers had  reached  their  present  developinent  and  import- 
ance, the  name  was  given  to  what  were  nothing  more  than 
ttedTOScopes,  or  instruments  for  shewing  the  presence  and  nature 
of  electrification.  The  best-known  of  these  is  the  so-called 
£old4eaf  electroscope,  which  consists  of  an  insulated  vertical 
metallic  rod,  Mfith  a  knob  or  disc  at  its  upper  and  two  gold 
leaves  suspended  from  its  lower  extremity.  The  gold  Iraves 
are  free  to  move,  and  of  course  show  repulsion  when  the  tod 
becomes  electrified  either  by  induction  from,  or  contact  with, 
a  charged  conductor.  Eleclrometers  for  the  direct  measure- 
ment of  differences  of  potential,  between  two  conductors,  have 
been  of  recent  years  carried  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection, 
both  m  theory  and  construction,  especially  by  Sir  William 
Thomson  of  Glasgow.  His  absolute  electrometer  is  an  im- 
proved form  of  the  attracted-disc  electrometer  of  Sir  W.  Snow 
Harris.  The  principle  is  that  when  two  small  discs  at  different 
potentials  are  placed  face  to  face,  with  a  small  space  between 
them,  the  electrification  will  be  nearly  uniform  on  the  op- 
posed faces,  if  no  other  conductor  be  near.  One  of  Thomson's 
chief  improvements  is  the  addition  of  the  ^onf-MBj;  which  does 
away  with  much  of  the  disturbing  effect  of  the  case  containing 
the  disc.  The  instrument,  thus  improved,  consists  essentially  of 
two  parallel  plates  at  different  potentials,  one  of  which  is  divided 
into  two  portions,  a  central  circular  and  movable  portion,  and 
an  outer  immovable  ring,  which  is  the  so-called  guard-ring.  No 
part  of  this  movable  portion  is  accordingly  near  the  edge,  and 
Its  electrification  is  practically  uniform.  The  lower  surface  of 
the  guard-ring  is  plane  and  parallel  to  the  upper  opposed  surface 
of  the  other  disc  The  movable  disc,  which  just  fills  the  aper- 
ture of  the  guard-ring,  is  suspended  (rom  an  aim  of  a  delicate 
balance,  and  is  adjusted  by  means  of  a  weight  on  its  upper  sur- 
face so  as  to  have  its  lower  surface  in  the  same  plane  as  the  lower 


surface  of  the  guard-ring.  If  the  potentials  of  two  conductors 
are  to  be  compared,  they  are  placed  in  connection  each  with  one 
of  the  discs.  The  weight  on  the  suspended  disc  is  dien  re- 
moved, and  the  lower  disc  screwed  up  until  its  attraclion  brings 
the  suspended  disc  down  to  exactly  its  original  position.  The 
atti-active  force  between  the  discs  must  then  be  equal  to  the 
weight  removed,  and  is  therefore  known  as  well  as  the  dis- 
tance between  the  discs,  so  that  the  difference  of  potential  is  at 
once  determinable.  The  necessity  of  adjusting  the  lower  disc 
for  each  observation  is  an  inconvenience,  which,  however,  does 
not  exist  in  electrometers  of  the  n'tmni(rf-n>i^  construction.  The 
extremely  delicate  and  refined  quadrant  electrometer  of  Sir  W. 
Thomson  is  constructed  after  this  method,  the  principle  of  which 
will  be  evident  from  the  following  short  description.  A  cylin- 
drical conducting  box  is  divided  into  four  quadrants,  separately 
insulated.  The  opposite  quadrants  are  miited,  thus  forming  two 
pairs,  each  pair  being  kept  at  the  same  potential  throughout.  The 
one  pair  {A)  is  usually  connected  with  the  earth,  and  the  other 
{B)  with  the  body  whose  potential  is  to  be  measured.  There  is 
another  conductor  (C)  suspended  close  below  the  quadrants  so 
as  to  have  free  azimuthal  motion  round  a  vertical  line,  which 
coincides  with  the  axis  of  the  cylindrically-arranged  quadrants. 
This  conductor  is  kept  at  a  high  potential  by  being  connected 
with  the  inner  coating  of  a  Leyden  jar  which  forms  the  lower 
portion  of  the  instrument.  If  the  potential  of  B  be  of  the  same 
sign  as  that  of  C,  Cwill  tend  to  move  from  .5  to  ^  with  a  nearly 
uniform  force,  which  will  be  ultimateh"  equilibrated  by  the  tor- 
sion of  the  suspension  apparatus.  Within  certain  limits  the 
deflexions  are  connected  with  the  potentials  by  a  simple  for- 
mula. See'Thomson's  Paptrs  on  Electrostatics  and  MagtuHsm, 
and  Maxwell's  and  Jenkin's  treatises  on  Electridty  and  Mag- 
netism, 

Electroto'iliis,  in  Physiology,  is  the  condition  into  which  a 
living  nei-ve  passes  while  it  is  traversed  by  a  continuous  electri- 
cal current.  While  In  this  condition  its  properties  are  changed, 
so  that  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  positive  pole  its  irritability 
and  rate  of  conductivity  are  diminished,  and  its  power  of  producing 
a  current  of  electricity  is  increased,  while  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  negative  pole  the  reverse  is  the  case.  The  part  near  the 
positive  pole  is  said  to  be  in  an  anelectrotonic,  and  that  near  the 
negative  pole  in  a  calhilectratonic  state.     See  Nerve. 

Elec'tuaiy,  a  medicinal  preparation,  in  which  the  active 
ingredients  are  incorporated  with  some  conserve,  such  as  honey, 
molasses,  or  syrup.  Such  medicines  are  usually  insoluble  and 
of  large  bulk,  as  sulphur.  They  are  frequently  called  consenies. 
E.  llmiif\%  almost  idendcal  with  E.  sentuE  camp. 

Ele'git  is  an  English  law-term  denoting  a  writ  of  execution 
directed  to  the  sheriff,  commanding  him  to  take  in  execution 
but  not  to  sell  the  lands  and  goods  of  a  debtor.  These  the 
creditor  holds  until  he  gets  satisfaction  for  his  debt,  during 
which  time  he  is  ttnant  by  E.     See  Adjudication. 

H'egy  (Gr.  eligBS,  from  e  e  and  Ugeai,  'to  cry  woe')  radi- 
cally signifies  a  lament  without  reference  to  metrical  form. 
Among  the  Gi^ks  the  word  was  early  applied  to  a  poem  written 
in  distichs  of  alternate  hexameters  and  pentameters,  and  de- 
voted either  to  the  praise  of  valour,  as  in  Callinus  and  Tyrt^us, 
or  to  the  inculcation  of  moral  precepts,  as  in  Solon  and  Theog- 
nis.  This  measure  soon  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  fittest 
vehicle  for  sustained  emotions  and  tender  sentiments,  and  with 
Simonidesand  Mimnermus  the  sad  E.  attained  the  highest  excel- 
lence. Catullus  and  Gallus  were  the  first  successful  writers  of 
Roman  E.,  which  reached  Its  highest  perfeclion  in  the  tender 
Tibullus,  the  brilliant  Propertius,  and  the  sensuous  Ovid.  The 
term  E.  may  now  be  applied  to  any  serious  piece  pervaded  by 
a  melancholy  tinge,  without  regard  to  the  measure,  The  qua- 
train of  Gray's  Elegy,  however,  has  come  to  be  regarded  as  the 
representative  form  in  English,  and  as,  on  the  whole,  the  best 
fitted  for  mournful  themes. 

Elegy,  in  music,  a  name  occasionally  given  to  a  composition 
expressing  the  same  ideas  as  the  poetic  E. 

Elemental  Spicita  were,  in  mediaeval  superstition,  tlie 
spirits  of  the  elements  fire,  air,  earth,  and  water,  and  were  named 
respectively  salamanders,  sylphs,  gnomes,  and  nymphs  or  undines. 
The  gnomes,  spirits  of  the  earth  and  the  underworld,  were  mis- 
chievous and  malevolent  in  their  relations  to  human  beings ; 


517 


-'^■ 


vLaOogle 


SLB 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


while  the  sylphs,  the  spirits  of  tlie  air,  were  a  species  of  bene- 
volent fairies.  The  literaiy  'machinery'  supplied  by  these  fan- 
ciful creatures,  personified  types  of  tlie  powers  of  the  elements 
in  which  they  have  birtli  and  life,  has  been  employed  with  excel- 
lent effect  by  modern  writers.  The  conduct  of  the  story  of 
Pope's  Sape  of  the  Lock  is  managed  chiefly  by  sylphs — 

•The  li^t  milllia  of  the  lower  jty." 

Baton  Fouque  is  indebted  to  the  E.  S.  of  water  for  liis  beauti- 
ful Undine;  while  in  the  graceful  tales  of  Leasing  and  Tieck 
the  creatures  of  the  elements  are  invested  with  the  rarest  beauty, 
and  are  described  with  much  suggestive  meaning. 

XU'emeate,  in  astronomy,  are  the  numerical  quantities  neces- 
sary for  computing  the  place  of  a  planet  or  satellite  in  the 
heavens.  The  major-axis  and  eccentricity  fii  the  siie  of  the 
elliptic  orbit ;  but  besides  these. we  must  also  know  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  orbit  to  the  ecliptic,  the  longitude  of  the  ascending 
node,  the  longitude  of  the  perihelion,  and  the  time  of  its  perihe- 
lion passage.  The  longitudes  are  measured  from  the  line  of 
equinoxes.  The  dimensions  and  masses  of  the  bodies  themselves 
are  also  tabulated  as  E.     See  Herschel's  Outlines. 

Elements,  ChemicaL  All  researches  Into  the  composition 
of  matter  have  shown  that  it  consists  essentially  of  two  kinds— 
that  which  is  capable  of  decomposition  or  resolution  into  two 
or  more  distinct  substances,  and  that  which  is  capable  of  no 
such  change.  To  the  first  of  these  kinds  the  name  of  com- 
pounds has  been  given,  to  the  second  that  of  elements.  Ail 
compounds  are  formed  of  the  elements,  the  nature  of  the  com- 
pound depending  not  alone  upon  the  elements  which  it  contains, 
but  also  upon  the  proportions  in  which  these  are  present.  Nume- 
rous as  the  compounds  are,  they  yet  contain  comparatively  few  ela- 
ments,  science  up  to  the  present  time  having  revealed  the  exist- 
ence of  but  sixty-four  of  the  latter,  if  the  new  metal  gallium  be 
included  in  the  list.  The  elements  vary  In  their  appearance, 
physical  state  (under  ordinaiy  conditions),  and  in  their  properties. 
They  are  divided  into  two  groups, — the  metals  and  the  non- 
metals.  Of  the  former  all  are  solid  at  ordinary  temperatures, 
with  the  exception  of  mercury  or  quicksilver,  which  is  liquid. 
They  are  all  opaque,  and  for  the  most  part  exhibit  the  peculiar 
appearance  termed  metallic  lustre.  Tney  are,  as  a  rule,  good 
conductors  both  of  heat  and  electricity.  Many  are  soft,  sudi  as 
lead,  copper,  silver,  iron,  Stc,  either  at  ordinary  temperatures  or 
when  heated,  and  these  can  be  rolled  and  hammered  into  vari- 
ous shapes,  and  drawn  into  wire.  Others,  however,  are  brittle 
under  all  conditions,  such  as  cobalt,  tilanitun,  &c,,  and  as  a  con- 
sequence are  neither  malleable  nor  ductile.  The  distinguishing 
chemical  character  of  a  metal  is  that  it  forms  at  least  one  com- 
pound with  oxygen  which  is  a  base,  i.t. ,  a  substance  capable  of 
combining  with  an  acid  to  foim  a  salt.  Of  the  non-metals  three 
are  gaseous  under  all  conditions,  viz.,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and 
nitrogen,  one  gaseous  under  ordinary  conditions,  but  capable 
of  condensation  to  a  liquid  when  submitted  to  extreme  pres- 
sure and  intense  cold,  viz.,  chlorine.  Bromine  is  Che  only  liquid 
non-metal  at  ordinary  t^peratures;  the  remainder  are  solid. 
Many  of  the  non-metals  are  transparent,  others  opaque ;  some 
are  opaque  in  one  condition,  transparent  in  another.  Carbon, 
for  instance,  is  opaque  in  graphite  and  charcoal,  transparent  in 
the  diamond.  MetoUic  iustre  is  not  a  special  character  of  the 
metals;  it  is  possessed  by  several  of  the  non-metals.  Thus 
graphite,  tellurium,  and  selenium,  as  far  as  their  appearance 
goes,  might  readily  be  mistaken  for  metals.  The  non-metals 
are  generally  bad  conductors  of  heat  and  electricity.  None 
can  be  said  to  be  ductile  or  malleable.  All  combine  with 
oxygen  (with  the  exception  of  fluorine)  to  form  at  lenst  one  acid 

El'emi,  a  fragrant  and  resinous  substance,  obt^ned  from 
plants  (Asiyris  hexandra  and  Amyris  Plumteri)  belonging  to 
the  natural  order  Amyridacta,  or  'Myrrh  order.'  E.  was  for- 
merly obtained  from  Eteypt,  but  is  now  chiefly  brought  from 
Manilla  and  America.  It  is  obtained  from  the  Idea  Icicariba  of 
Brazil.  E.  consists  of  the  juice  of  the  trees,  which  exudes  from 
punctures  made  in  the  bark.  It  is  used  in  making  ointments 
and  plasters.     It  contains  a  volatile  oil,  and  is  soluble  in  al- 


■et!iined 


or  trunk ;  secondly, 
growth  of  the  inci- 
sors to  form  tusks, 
the  molar  teeth 
being  few  in  num- 
ber ;  thirdly,  in 
the  feet  being  pro- 
vided each  with 
five  toes,  which 
are  not  fully  in- 

pletely  divided 
from  the  fool 
externally,  whilst 
the  feet  are  pad- 
ded with  a  thick  tndan  Ele  h 
skin  J  fourtlily,  in  i  p  an 
the  absence  of  clavicles;  and  fifthly,  in  the  test< 
throughout  life  within  the  abdomen,  and  never  descending  ii 
a  scrotum,  whilst  there  are  only  two  teats  on  the  chest,  and  the 
Placenta  (q.  v.)  is  deciduate,  and  is  of  zonary  form.  Included 
in  this  order,  besides  the  two  species  of  iiving  forms,  are 
various  extinct  forms  (mammoth,  mastodon,  &c.),  which  re- 
ceive special  articles,  and  are  also  referred  to  in  treating  of 
the  palieontology  of  the  present  group.  With  the  general 
form  of  the  E.  all  are  familiar.  The  skin  is  almost  destitute  of 
liaits,  and  presents  a  hard  laimed-Iooking  surface.  Notwith- 
standing the  apparent  impenetrability  of  the  skin,  these  largest  of 
land  mammalia  are  singularly  liable  Co  be  tormented  by  insects, 
and  to  protect  themselves  against  the  latter,  are  accustomed  to 
take  mud-baths,  wallowing  in  the  mud  of  rivers,  and  thus  corering 
tlieir  skin  with  a  layer  of  clay,  which  renders  them  less  exposed 
to  the  attack  of  their  enemies.  Mohr,  the  German  explorer,  lately 
that  he  has  seen  the  African  E,  dig  a  kind  of  pit  or 
river  which  has  a  steep  wall  in  front, 
ame  height  and  breadth  as  himself, 
take  his  bath,  sprinkles  water  on  the 
sides  of  his  bath  so  as  to  moisten  the  clay,  and  then  rubbing  his 
sides  against  the  pit,  coats  his  akm  with  the  clay.  These  '  E, 
tubs '  are  especially  numerous  on  the  ZambesL  The  pinna  or 
outer  ear  is  large  and  flat.  The  dorso-lumbar  vertebra  or  those 
of  the  back  and  loins  taken  collectively,  number  twenty-three, 
not  more  than  tliree  being  lumbar  bones.  There  are  four  sacral 
vertebra,  and  the  tail  is  short.  The  bodies  of  the  vertebra  are 
much  more  flattened  than  in  any  other  terrestrial  m^mma! ;  and 
the  vertebrre  of  the  neck  being  especially  flattened,  this  organ 
is  in  consequence  very  short.  The  object  of  this  arrangement  is 
to  afford  strength  and  solidity  Co  the  spine.  The  skull  is  very 
large  in  proportion  to  the  body  ;  its  great  size  being  due  chiefly 
to  the  development  of  air-cavities  in  the  diploe  or  middle  layer  of 
the  cranium.  Thus  in  old  elephants  the  space  between  the 
inner  and  outer  layers  of  the  skall,  especially  in  the  liontal  or 
forehead  region,  may  be  actually  greater  than  the  breadth  of  the 
cylindrical  and  elongated  cavity  containing  the  brain  itself.  The 
nasal  bones  are  shortened,  and  the  pre-raaKillse,  or  front  portions 
of  the  upper  jaw,  are  elongated.  The  radius  of  the  fore-arm  is 
fixed  in  a  prone  position,  and  crosses  the  ulna,  its  neighbour  bone, 
in  an  oblique  manner ;  this  position  preventing  any  movement  of 
rotation  such  as  is  possessed  by  man.  The  fingers,  wrist,  and 
metacarpus  or  palm,  are  all  shortened  and  thickened.  The  ilia  or 
haunch-bones  are  expanded  from  side  to  side.  The  thighbones 
are  long  and  slender,  and  when  the  animal  is  at  rest,  are  directed 
perpendicularly  to  the  axis  of  the  trunk,  and  do  not  form  an 
acute  aiigle  aa  in  quadrupeds  generally.  The  ham-muscles  con- 
sequently extend  to  the  middle  of  the  hind-limbs,  and  this  arrange- 
ment causes  the  peculiar  and  somewhat  awkward  gait  of  these 
animals,  the  whole  leg  being  apparently  lifted  from  its  middle 
joint.  The  tibiae  shin-bones  are  short,  and  the  foot  and  ankle 
bones  are  compressed.  The  thumb  may  consist  of  a  single 
bone  only  in  some  cases.  Two  kinds  of  teeth  only  are  de- 
veloped—incisors and  molars.  The  former  have  no  enamel, 
and  are  entirely  composed  of  dentine  (or  ivory)  and  cement.  All 
living  elephants  possess  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw  alone,  but  the 
Dinotherium  (q.  v.)  possessed  lower  incisors  as  welL  The  in- 
cisors   further    eshiUl    a    peculiarity,   in  that,  as  they  spring 


bathing-tub  near  a  pond  or 
the  pit  being  about  the  s. 
The  animal,  when  about  tc 


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ELE 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


b  pulps,  they  a 


I  grow  Ihrougb  the  life- 
usks.  The  molar  teeth 
exhibit  a  peculiar  pattern,  being  essentially  composed  of  alterna- 
ting plates  of  enamel  and  cement,  variously  arranged  in  different 
patterns.  In  living  elephants,  only  the  incisors  are  preceded  by 
milk  teeth.  The  moUrs  number  six  on  each  side  in  upper  and 
lower  jaws,  and  as  the  foremost  molars  are  worn  away,  those 
behind  are  pushed  forward  to  supply  their  place.  The  stomach 
is  simple.  No  gall-bladder  exists.  The  cerebellum  or  lesser 
brain  is  uncovered  by  the  cerebrum  or  true  brain,  the  cerebral 
hemispheres  being  largely  and  deeply  convoluted.  The  males 
possess  two  large  vaieulis  seminala,  and  four  prostate  glands  ; 
and  the  uterus  of  the  females  is  divided  above  into  two  comiia 
or  processes      The  E  goes  with  young  about  two  yeirs,  and  a 

glyg  pddtbh 

Th     t         pe  f   I      g     I  ph    1  tl      I  d        E 

(Elphas        Enlfihas  I  die    )     nd  th    Af    an  E    (Z(     nt 
E     4/      HIS)       X  ty     f   tl      f  -m      1       b        d 

bed  imd      th     n  m       f   C  yl  n   E     wh  1  t   tl      f  m 
whit      Ipht  Ibnon  fthldiap 

Th    Ii  da      1  phiJit    posse      t    k         th    m  I  ly      N 

Iwmrs  p  t,dthml  b 

t  neahd       feahj  d       hbtonth  vn 

t  se  ang  m         f  the  I  pi  t         Th 

f     h    d  oa      th    ea  II   th     It  11  p>        d  I     wh  I  t 

Ih    f      feet  p       ss  fi       and  tl     h    d  f    t  f       h    f       Th 

1  p  1   b    wn,       1  n    g  t    g   y     Tl    Af         E.  1 

a  convex  forehead,  very  large  ears,  four  hoois  on  the  front-feet, 
and  only  three  on  the  hind-feet.  Both  males  and  females  have 
tusks,  those  of  the  males  being  the  lai^er,  and  weighing  in  large 
specimens  50  to  70  lbs.  each.  The  length  of  full-grown  tusks  is 
about  6  or  7  feet.  The  Indian  E.  attains  to  10,  and  the  African 
to  13  feet  in  height.  Both  species  are  plant-eaters,  and  feed  on 
grasses  and  on  the  leaves  and  bark  of  trees.  Water  is  sucked 
up  in  drinking  into  the  trunk,  and  is  then  squirted  into  the 
mouth  from  the  proboscis.  The  E.  without  the  tip  of  its  pro 
boscis  is  a  very  helpless  animal,  as  exemplified  by  a.  fem'ile 
African  E.  now  (1876)  living  in  tile  gardens  of  the  Zoological 
Society  of  London.     The  trunk,  composed  of  several  hundreds 


process  aids  the  animal  in  picking  up  the  smallest  substances, 
and  from  its  extreme  sensibility  also  serves  as  an  oigan  of  touch. 
Of  the  two  species,  the  Indian  E.  far  exceeds  its  African  neigh- 
bour in  docility,  intelligence,  and  tcactabiUty.  The  latter  never 
attains  a  high  degree  of  familiarity  with  man,  and  can  never  be 
so  thoroughly  domesticated  as  the  Indian  E,  The  African  E.  is 
hunted  for  its  ivory  and  hide.  The  tusks  are  chiefly  obtained 
from  Senegambia,  Guinea,  Sofala,  and  Mozambique,  The 
Indian  ivory,  and  especially  that  obtained  from  Ceylon,  is  very 
highly  esteemed.  .Over  50,000  tudcs  are  annually  imported,  these 
weighing  about  10,000  cwt  The  Indian  E.  is  employed  exten- 
sively in  Asia  as  a  beast  of  burden.  Of  its  intelligence  and  re- 
markable instinct  many  curious  tales  may  be  related.  In  no 
part  of  their  history,  perhap^  do  elephants  exhibit  greater  intel- 
ligence, than  in  their  participation  m  the  stratagems  whereby 
wild  members  of  their  species  are  captured.  These  latter  live 
in  herds  in  the  depths  of  forests,  and  apparently  resort  continu- 
ally to  one  place  to  drink  and  bathe.  Wild  males  are  captured 
by  decoy-females,  who  exhibit  a  pretence  of  fondness  for  them, 
wliile,  in  the  meantime,  the  males  are  being  stealthily  secijred 
by  ropes  or  cables  attached  to  adjoinmg  trees.     Left  tied,  the 


traps  enclosed  by  firm  stakes.  Elephants  rarely  breed  in  a 
domesticated  state ;  the  African,  however,  breeding  oftener  in 
captivity  than  the  Indian  species. 

Fossil  and  {xHfUt  elephants  are  known  to  geologists  from  numer- 
tus  fossil  remains.  The  more  important  of  these  extinct  species 
are  described  under  Dinotherium,  Mammoth,  &c  '  The 
general  distiibution  in  tune  of  the  Probasddea  may  m  the  present 
instance  be  briefly  referred  to.  In  the  Miocene  rocks  of  India 
six  fossil  species  have  been  discovered,  and  a  true  E  {S.  an- 
Uquus)  occurs  in  the  Pliocene  rocks  of  Europe.  The  latter  is 
-fonnd  in  Italian  and  French  deposits  of  this  age,  and  appears  to 
have  survived  .the  glacial  epoch.  The  Mammoth  (q.  v.)  (E. 
pimigenius')  is  the  best-known  Post-Pliocene  E.,  and  other 
forms  of  this  age  are  the  donkey  E.  (£.   Meliteiuis)  of  Malta, 


so  named  from  its  small  "  a  d  tl  p'gi  3  E.  {B.  Falconert), 
which  did  not  exceed  aj  f  t  n  1  ght  The  Mastodon  (q,  v.) 
is  of  Miocene,  Pliocene,  and  PI  t  e  age,  whilst  the  Dino- 
therium occurs  in  Miocen     trat 

Elephan'ta  (Hind.  Gb    h    )  1  b    ted  island  of  India, 

in  Bombay  harbour,  6ml  F  f  th  ty  f  Bombay.  It  is  5 
miles  in  circumference,  is  t  rs  d  by  tw  long  hills  separated 
by  a  narrow  valiey,  and  h  p  ngs  f  g  d  water.  The  few 
inhabitants  cultivate  ric         d  h    p  and  poultry  for  the 

market  of  Bombay.  E.  h  fly  f  m  u  h  wever,  for  its  cave 
temples.  Near  the  landing  pi  t  nd  a  1  msy  stone  elephant, 
now  greatly  decayed,  fron  h  h  th  land  derived  its  European 
name,  A  little  further  0  th  „  at  t  mpl  ,  an  artificial  cavern, 
3  feet  long,  133  feet  broad,  and  of  an  average  height  of  17 
f  t  The  rock  is  a  kind  of  basalt  or  porphyry ;  and  the  roof 
w  s   its   support   to   peculiar   massive   columns.      Within   the 

t  ance  there  is  a  gigantic  figure,  consisting  merely  of  a  bust  and 
th  e  heads,  which  itself  serves  as  a  pillar.  This  figure  is  23  feet 
ircurofereiice,  and  is  supposed  to  represent  the  Hindu  triad ; 
b  t  from  the  rest  of  the  figures  and  the  emblems  on  the  walls,  it 
ms  probable  that  the  temple  was  dedicated  to  the  god  Siva. 
Th  re  are  also  two  similar  temples  on  a  small  scale.  Nothing 
h  tever  is  known  of  the  oi-igin  of  these  caves.  From  the 
m  uldering  nature  of  tlie  stone,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the 
t  pies  are  of  no  great  antiquity.  No  religious  worship  is  now 
ducted  here ;  but  It  is  a  favourite  resort  of  Bombay  pleasure- 
seekers.  A  banquet  was  given  here  in  honour  of  the  Prince  of 
Wales  in  1875. 

Elepliant  risll,  a  name  given  to  the  Callcrhynchtis  ant- 
arctica,  an  Elasmobranchiate  fish,  nearly  allied  to  the  Chimisra 
(q  V.)  or  '  king  of  the  herrings,'  and  included  In  the  division 
Hotocepkali  of  the  above  order  of  fishes.  It  derives  its  name  from 
Its  long  snout,  the  tip  of  which  is  bent  backwards  like  a  hoe. 

Elepbaat-Qrass  (Typha.  eUfiantina),  a  species  of  bul- 
rutnes  belonpng  to  the  Typkaceic  or  Bulrush  order.  This  plant 
atfords  a  large  quantity  of  pollen  which  in  Scinde  is  used  for 
making  a  kind  of  bread,  to  which  the  name  of  boir  or  boorec  is 
given.  The  familiar  name  of  the  grass  is  derived  from  the  fact 
of  elephants  feeding  largely  upon  it. 

Elephant  Hawk-Moth  {DeUepMla  elpei 

Lepidopterous  insects  belonging 
to  the  Spkitigina  or  hawk-moths, 
wluch  are  distinguished  by  the 
antennfe  being  tliickened  in  the 
middle  or  at  their  tips.  The 
wings  are  long  and  narrow,  and 
the  trunk  or  proboscis  is  well 
developed.  This  moth  has  the 
body  tinted  rosy  red,  varied  with 
light-green.  The  light  green  of 
the  wings  is  prettily  contrasted 
with  rose-coloured  bands ;  and 
the  hinder  wings  have  a  black 
base  fringed  with  white.  The 
E.  H,-M.  is  known  in  France  as 
the  '  vine  sphinx. '  It  produces 
two  broods  annually,  the  larvK 
making  a  cocoon  on  the  ground  by  bmdmg 

Mephanti'aaiH  (from  the  Gr.  ekphas,  'elephant'),  is  some- 
times called  E.  Araium,  Bucnomia  tropica,  and  Barhadoes  leg. 
The  name  is  derived  from  a  resemblance  of  the  limbs  of  those 
affected  with  the  disease  to  the  huge  rough  limbs  of  the  elephant. 
E.  is  a  tropical  disease  common  m  India,  Arabia,  and  Africa. 
The  legs  are  the  parts  most  frequently  aftected,  but  the  disease 
attacks  also  the  arms  and  the  scrotum.  In  some  cases  the  hyper- 
trophy is  so  enormous  that  those  affected  are  unable  to  walk  ; 
but  although  the  limbs  may  be  thus  enla^;ed,  the  hands  and 
feet  are  usually  of  normal  size.  There  are  at  least  two  vaiieties 
of  the  disease.  In  the  siioplest  form  there  is  hypei'trophy  only, 
and  no  incoiivenience  is  felt  except  irom  size  and  weight.  In  the 
more  complex  form  there  is,  in  addition,  the  product  of  morbid 
action,  the  parts  being  hard  like  stone,  and  the  skin  rough  li' 
the  bark  of  a  tree.  The  cause  of  the  disease  is  not  definitely 
known,  but  it  is  probably  hereditaty,  and  depends  on  some  ' 
519 


vLiOOQle 


ELB 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


ELB 


ill  dietetics.  The  simple  form  is  gradual  in  its  development,  and 
without  constitutional  disturbance  j  but  the  complex,  or  tuber- 
cular, is  accompanied  with  febrile  action,  and  appears  to  be  a 
product  of  inflammation.  No  cure  for  E.  has  been  discovered. 
In  scrotal  E.  the  morbid  growth  is  frequently  removed  by  ex- 

Elephanti'ne,  called  JiwVv;  ^ISag,  the  'blooming,'  oi^siWt- 
Assouan,  a  small  island  in  the  Nile  onposite  Assouan  (q.  v, ),  at 
the  foot  of  the  first  cataract.  Its  old  Egyptian  name  was  Eia, 
'the  town  of  elephants,'  ti  being  the  hieroglyphic  symbol  for 
elephant  and  tBary.  In  former  times  it  was  of  strategic  import- 
ance from  its  position  on  the  southern  frontier  of  Egypt  Proper. 
It  was  remarkable  for  its  fertility,  and  was  the  seat  of  a  monarchy, 
the  only  existing  relic  of  which  is  a  list  of  the  names  of  nine 
limgs.  It  formed  the  sonthern  limit  of  the  Roman  empire 
under  the  later  Ciesars.  Tliere  are  remains  of  temples  to  Kneph 
and  Ammon,  a  tower  vrith  sculptures  of  the  time  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  and  a  Nilometer,  consisting  of  a  staircase  descending 
into  the  river  and  bearing  graduated  scales  and  inscriptions 
showing  the  heights  to  which  the  Nile  rose  at  certain  periods 
under  3ie  Czesars.  See  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson's  Manners  anii 
Custums  of  the  Egyptians. 

mephaat-Beal,  or  Bca-EIepliaiit,  names  given  to  several 
large  species  of  Seals  (q.  v.),  of  wliich  the  best  known  is  the 
Morin^a  (or  MacrorMniis)  frobosddea.  The  nose  of  the  males 
is  elongated  to  form  a  short  proboscis.  The  teeth  number  four 
upper  and  two  lower  incisors,  two  canines,  six  pnemoiars,  and 
four  molars  in  each  jaw.  The  incisors  are  of  conical  shape,  and 
the  canines  are  very  stout  and  pointed.  The  colour  of  the  fur  is 
a  bluish-grey  in  the  males,  deepening  into  dark  brown  ;  the  fm- 
of  the  females  being  darker.  The  length  of  a  full-grown  male 
nearly  equals  30  feet,  and  they  are  from  1$  to  18  feet  in  circum- 
ference at  their  greatest  girth.  Tlie  skin  is  prized  as  a  'seal- 
skin,' whilst  the  oil  is  also  valued,  the  male  afibrding  about  seventy 
gallons.  These  animals  are  polygamous,  and  the  males  fight 
desperately  for  the  possession  of  the  females.  They  feed  chiefly 
on  seaweeds.  They  are  found  on  the  Falkland  Islands,  Ker^ 
guelen  Island,  S.  Shetland,  and  neighbouring  S.  Paci£c  islands. 

Elephant's  Ear,  a  name  popularly  applied  to  the  species  of 
Btgonias — plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Begomacea — from 
the  appearance  of  their  oblique  stipulate  leaves.  These  plants 
occur  in  the  E.  and  W;  Indies  and  in  S.  America.     See  Be- 


Mephant's  Foot,  or  Hottentote'  Bread  [Tesiudinaria 
slepkantipts),  a  genus  of  Monocotyledonous  plants  belonging  to 
the  order  Dioscoreaciix,  or  that  of  the  'Yams'  (q,  v.),  and  so 
named  from  the  form  of  the  shortened  tuberous  stem  or  root- 
stock,  which  is  rough  and  tuberculate,  and  gives  origin  to  a  weak 
climbing  stem.  The  name  '  tortoise-plant '  has  also  been  given 
to  this  plant,  from  the  shape  of  the  stem  suggesting  that  of  a 
tortoise.  The  central  cellular  part  of  the  stem  is  eaten  by  the 
Hottentots.  The  name  E.  F.  is  also  applied  to  the  species  of 
Elepkanlopus,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  order  Compositis, 
the  radical  leaves  of  which  are  of  large  size. 

BIepliaiit-TuskSliell{£>(WioA««),agenusofGasteropodous 
mollusca  belonging  to  the  family  DsnialMs,  in  which  the  shell 
is  tubular  and  curved,  shaped  like  an  elephant's  tusit,  open  at 
both  ends,  and  possessing  a  circular  aperture.  The  foot  is 
pointed,  and  has  symmetrical  side  lobes,  from  the  presence  of 
which  Huxley  inclines  to  place  the  DtntaHwm  among  the  Plero- 

Eodous  molluscs.  The  head  is  rudimentary,  and  the  intestine 
as  a  neural  flexure.  Denlalium  arcualum  is  a  familiar  species. 
Elephant,  White,  an  ancient  and  exclusive  Danish  order  of 
knighthood,  in  which  the  number  of  knights,  other  than  those 
of  the  Danish  royal  family,  was  only  thirty. 
Eletta'ria.    See  Cardamom. 

Ele-usin'lan  MTStenee.  These  venerable  solemnides  were 
begun  at  Eleusis  by  the  special  command  of  the  goddess  Deme- 
ter,  and  in  connection  with  the  suffering  she  endured  by  the  rape 
of  her  daughter  Persephone,  and  with  her  joy  on  Persephone's 
return  from  Hades.  When  Eleusis  was  absorbed  into  Athens, 
tliere  was  an  increase  of  dignity  in  its  great  festival ;  but  the 
oversight  of  it  remained  with  the  descendants  of  Eumoipus,  and 


the  most  important  rites  continued  to  be  performed  at  Eleusis. 
The  lesser  mysteries,  celebrated  in  February,  were  in  honour  of 
Persephone,  The  Daughter ;  the  greater,  in  August,  in  honour 
of  Demeter,  The  Mother.  The  former  took  place  at  Agree  on 
the  IlisBus,  and  were  a  preparation  for  the  great  mysteries.  The 
chief  rites  were  the  sacrifice  of  a  sow,  and  initiatory  purification 
by  a  priesL  The  great  mysteries  lasted  for  nine  days,  and  were 
held  both  at  Athens  and  Eleusis.  On  the  first  day,  the  initiated 
assembled  at  Athens ;  on  the  second,  they  went  in  procession  to 
the  seaside  to  be  purified  ;  the  third  was  a  day  of  fasting  and 
sacrifice  (  on  the  fourth  day  a  procession  took  place  with  a 
basket  containing  pomegranates  and  poppy-seeds,  carried  on  a 
waggon  drawn  by  oxen,  and  followed  by  women  ;  the  fifth  was 
the  torch  day,  when  tlie  initiated  (or  mysts),  led  by  the  torch- 
bearer,  went  in  the  evening  with  torches  to  the  temple  of  Deme- 
ter at  Eleusis ;  the  sixth  was  the  most  important  day  of  the  fes- 
tival, when  the  statue  of  lacchus,  son  of  Demeter,  was  carried 
along  the  sacred  way  to  Eleusis,  accompanied  by  vast  crowds 
shouting  and  singing ;  on  the  following  day  the  initiated  re- 
turned to  Athens ;  the  eighth  day  was  supplementary,  and  was 
added  in  honour  of  .i^sculaplus ;  and  on  the  last  day  a  libation 
of  wine  was  offered  in  the  ceremony  '  Plemochofe.*  These  were 
the  external  rites  of  this  festival,  but  we  possess  no  certain  know- 
ledge of  the  doctrines  revealed  to  the  initiated  in  the  celebration 
of  the  mysteries. 

Eleu'aia,  a  town  of  Attica,  was  situated  in  the  Thriasian 
plain,  opposite  to  the  island  of  Salamis,  and  near  the  borders  of 
Megaris.  It  was  on  the  road  from  Athens  to  the  Isthmus.  It 
was  the  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of  Demeter  and  Persephone. 
See  Eleusinian  Mysteries. 

Bleu'thera,  the  most  productive,  and,  after  New  Providence, 
the  most  populous  of  the  Baliama  Islands,  is  separated  from 
Abaco  by  N.  E.  Providence  Channel,  about  aS  miles  in  width, 
it  is  long  and  narrow,  has  an  area  of  about  100  sq.  miles,  and 
a  pop.  of  between  5000  and  6000,  engaged  for  the  most  part 
in  the  culture  of  the  pine-apple,  orange,  and  lemon.  In  1870 
siity-two  vessels  of  5102  tons  entered  and  cleared. 

Elevithe'ria  Barfa,  a  name  occasionally  given  to  the  bark  ol 
the  Croton  E.  and  Cascarilla  Bark  (q.  v.).  It  derives  its  name 
from  the  island  of  Eleuthera,  from  which  it  is  imported. 

El'evftted,  the  term  applied  to  wings  turned  upwards  in  an 
armorial  bearing  or  Other  heraldic  device. 

JJIeva'tion,  in  architecture,  a  vertical  plan  of  the  front  or  of 
any  external  lace  of  a  building  in  which  the  proportions  are  set 
out  geometrically,  ejtaclly  as  they  are  to  exist  m  the  actual  build- 
ing, and  not  as  tjiey  wowld  appear  subject  to  the  laws  of  per- 
spective. 

Elevation,  in  astronomy,  is  the  height  of  a  body  above  the 
horizon  in  angular  measure.  Obviously,  then,  the  E.  of  the 
equator  is  the  complement  of  that  of  the  pole,  which  latter  is 
equal  to  the  latitude  of  the  place,  A  star  is  at  its  maximum 
E.   when  it  is  situated  on  the  meridian  of  the  place  of  obser- 


Bleventh,  i 


n  interval  of  ai 


'e  and  a  fourth. 


Elf  and  Elves.    See  Fairies. 

Elf  Arrow-Heode.   See  Flint  Arkow- Heads  and  Flint 


Ei'gin,  the  chief  town  of  Elgin  or  Moray  shire,  is  beautifully 
situated  in  the  vale  of  the  Lossie,  5  miles  from  the  mouth  of  that 
stream  and  177  milesN.  of  Edinbui^h.  E.,  formerly  interesting 
chie£y  &om  tlie  beauty  of  its  situation  and  the  number  of  its 
fine  antiquities,  has  considerably  altered  within  recent  years. 
Surrounded  by  new  and  elegant  villas,  the  residences  of  the 
gentry  that  have  been  attracted  to  a  town  which  as  a  place  of 
residence  ofiers  so  many  advantages,  it  has  emei|;ed  from  the 
quiet  that  was  until  lately  its  chief  characteristic,  and  is  now  a 
county  town  of  some  gaiety,  much  exclusiveness,  and  no  trade. 
It  is  a  station  on  the  Aberdeen  and  Inverness  Railway,  and  is 
accessible  also  by  the  Highland  Railway.  With  the  other  '  E. 
burghs' — Banff,  Peterhead,  Inverury,  Cullen,  and  Kintore— it 
returns  a  member  to  Parliament.  E.,  the  ancient  Hdgin  (named 
alter  Hdgyn,  a  Norse  chief),  was  the  seat  of  a  royal  castle  prior  to 


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the  reign  of  Wi 
the  finest  and  n 
indent  ( 


n  the  Lion,     O  fits  beautiful 


ihedi'al,  one  of 
itry,  the 

.      _      ,.  jSishopMoray 

in  1224,  when  the  see  of  Moray  was  Iransferred  hither  from  Spynie. 
The  vicissiludes  of  ages  have  reduced  it  to  ruin.  Other  fine 
buildings  were  the  charch  of  St  Giles  and  the  monastery  of  the 
Black  Friars,  both  of  which  have  been  demolished.  The  walls  of 
the  church  of  the  convent  of  Grey  Friars  still  remain.  The  ruins 
of  the  ancient  cfistle  crown  the  elevation  known  as  the  Lady 
Hill.  Among  the  more  modem  buildings  and  institur'--  - 
Gray's  Hospital,  a  useful  institution  built  and  endowed 
of  a  bequest  of  jfao.ooo  left  by  Dr  Alexander  Gmy  of 
the  E.  or  Anderson  Institution,  which  has  had  its  origin  simi&rly 
111  a  bequest  of  £^Ofxa  by  Major-General  Andcrr—  "-  - 
Court-house  and  Union  Bank,     Pop.  (1871)  7340, 

Elgin  and  Kittoardine,  Thomas  Bruce,  Seveath  Earl 

of,  was  bora  July  20,  1766.  Educated  at  St  Andrew's,  Paris, 
and  in  Germany,  he  entered  the  army,  and  rose  to  the  position  of 
geiieraL  He  was  occupied  mainly,  however,  as  a  diplomatist, 
andit  was  while  (1799)  British  envoy  at  Constantinople  that  he 
rescued  the  Elgin  Marbles  (q.  v.)  from  the  Turks,  and  brought 
them  to  this  country.  In  answer  to  his  critics  and  assailants  m 
connection  with  this  matt»,  E.  published  in  1810  a  volume  en 
titled  MemoraHdum  on  the  Subject  ofthi  Earl  efElgii^s  Pursuits 
in  Greece.  For  half  a  century  he  was  a  Scotch  representative 
peer.  He  died  at  Paris,  November  14,  iS4r.-~Tainea  Bruoe, 
Earl  of  E.  and  Kincardine,  a  distinguished  statesman  and 
diplomatist,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom  in  Park  Lane, 
London,  July  20,  1811,  waa  educated  at  Oxford,  and  succeeded 
to  the  peerage  in  1841  on  the  death  of  his  father.  In  1842 
he  was  appoinled  governor  of  Jamaica,  and  in  this  post,  which 
.he  held  for  four  years,  he  showed  so  much  ability,  that  in  1846 
he  was  madegovernor-generalof  Canada,  when  that  dependency 
was  in  a.  state  of  great  discontent.  E.  restored  order,  while  he 
settled  the  'Fisheries'  question,  established  free  trade  between 
the  United  States  and  British  North  America,  and  introduced 
the  wise  policy  of  self-government  into  the  colony.  Although  at 
one  time  so  unpopular  that  in  1849  he  was  assaulted  by  a  mob 
in  Montreal  for  assenting  toa  bill  indemnifying  those  mhabitants 
of  Lower  Canada  whose  property  had  been  injured  or  destroyed 
by  the  rebellion  of  1837-38,  he  was  a  imiversal  favourite  before 
he  left  Canada  in  1855.  In  1S49  he  waa  made  a  peer  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  In  1857  in  cmseq  n  f  difS  It'es  tli 
Cbmi,  E  asset  tasPl  pt  t  yaidf  dly  caused 
bysedgthtp  dhd  t  tidtasstm 
ppssgtl  MlyharratedalgwlthF  h 
PI  pot  t  ry  B  G  th  Treaty  f  T  nt  (  858) 
m  k    g  Ch    a   f        tl         t   h  d   h  th    ■     '         .     -     '     5  f 


1  d  \ 


\   I 


tiy       till 

t      G       ral    h    w  lied  t    CI         by      t        h 

onslaught  of  the  Chinese  upon  a  Bntisli  squadron,  but  with  the 
help  of  French  ahies  he  penetrated  {i860)  to  Pekm,  and 
dictated  peace  there.  In  1861  E.  succeeded  Loni  Canning  as 
Viceroy  of  India,  but  died  of  fever,  November  20,  1863,  at 
Dhurumsala  in  the  valley  of  Cashmere.  E.  has  been  succeeded 
in  the  earldom  by  his  son,  Victor  Alexander  Bnice,  bom  at 
Montreal,  1 849,  and  the  son  of  his  second  wife,  who  was  the 
daughter  of  the  first  Eail  of  Durham. 

Elgin  Dlarblea,  a  collection  of  statues  and  alii  and  bassi 
reliem,  brought  chiefly  from  the  Parthenon  of  Athens  by  the 
Earl  of  Elgin,  and  purchased  from  him  by  Government  hi  1816 
for  £,Z^,<iao.  They  are  now  m  the  British  Museum.  Lord 
Byron,  in  the  Curse o/M'ierva  and  in  CMife  HarolJ,  assailed  Lord 
Elgin  for  despoiling  'Athena's  poor  remains,'  and  Payne  Knight 
declared  (hat  the  marbles  were  the  works  of  journeymen  un- 
worthy the  name  of  artists,  a  stricture  which  elicited  an  eloquent 
reply  from  Benjamin  Haydon.  It  is  now  evident  that  the  re- 
moval of  these  sculptures  from  Athens  preserved  them  from 
mutilation  or  destmction,  and  has  been  most  beneficial  to  Eng- 
lish art.  They  are  probably  the  work  of  Phidias  (49O-432 
B.C.),  and  consist  of;— (i)  The  Metopes,  which  represent 
the  battle  of  the  Centaurs  and  Lapith^,  a  fevourite  Subject  of 
Greek  art.  According  to  Visconti,  the  footmen  who  are  here 
represented  grappling  with  the  Centauis  are  intended  for  the 
Athenian  followers  of  Theseus.  These  metopes  are  considered 
tlie  finest  extant  specimens  of  alto  relievo,  (i)  The  Frieze,  which 
141 


consisted  originally  of  slabs  3  feet  4  inches  in  height,  extending 
over  524  feet.  Of  this,  249  feet  are  preserved  in  the  British 
Museum  along  with  76  feet  in  plaster  casts  of  portions  which 
were  not  convmred  to  London.  This  frieze,  the  laigest  con- 
tinuous piece  of^  sculpture  produced  in  Greece,  is  the  perfection 
of  bas-relief.  It  represents  the  procession  of  the  Panathenaa, 
or  great  festival  in  honour  of  Minerva  held  every  fifth  year,  and 
is  unsurpassed  for  grace,  majesty,  and  animation.  It  consists 
mainly  of  a  Ime  of  horsemen  advancmg  two  abreast ;  but  ^ere 
are  also  bearers  of  vessels,  flute-players,  victims,  and  citizens 
Dn  foot.  The  attitude  of  the  figures,  (he  distribution  of  the 
drapery  is  exqubitely  varied;  the  champing  horses  and  grace- 
ful riders  uniting  boldness  of  form  with  perfect  truth  to  nature 
and  faultless  simplicity  of  design.  'The  horses  in  the  frieze,' 
said  Flaxman,  '  appear  to  live  and  move.  We  can  scarcely 
suffer  reason  to  persuade  us  they  are  not  alive.'  (3)  Statues 
and  fragments  from  tlie  east  and  west  pediments.  Among  these 
are  part  of  a  figure  of  Hyperion  rising  from  the  sea,  the  heads 
of  the  horses  of  Hyperion,  Winged  Victory,  the  Fates,  head 
of  one  of  the  horses  of  Night,  torsos  of  Cecrops,  Ceres,  frag- 
ments of  Neptune  and  Minerva,  the  Ilissus,  a  hfeliUe  figure,  hdd 
by  Canova  to  nval  m  merit  the  Theseus  or  Hercules,  which  last 
is  3  masterpiece  of  symmetry  and  truth,  and  the  best-preserved 
of  the  marbles  Several  of  these  sculptures  seem  to  have 
been  coloured,  and  adorned  with  precious  stones  and  metal 
trappmgs. 

The  E  M  are  unsurpassed  for  harmony  and  chastity  of 
deaign,  for  grandeur  of  conception  along  with  constant  fidelity 
■■  nature.  'It  is,"  says  Benjamin  Haydon,  'the  union  of 
ure  with  ideal  beauty— the  probabilities  and  accidents  of 
bone,  flesh,  and  tendon  from  extension,  action,  or  repose,  that 
rank  the  E  M  above  ^  other  works  of  art  m  the  worid.  Were 
the  E  M  lost  there  nould  be  as  great  a  gap  in  art,  as  then 
would  be  in  philosophy  if  Newton  bad  never  existed. '  See  The 
E.  M.,  by  Sir  Henry  Ellis  (2  vols.  Lond.  1846}  ;  Visconii  on  the 
Siotftures  in  the  Collection  ofthsEarl  of  Elgin  (Murray,  Lond. 
"  6)i  Life  of  Benjamin  Haydon  (Longmans,  Lond.  1853). 

3I'2inehire,  Mor'ar  or  Murr'ay  Shire,  a  county  in  the 
N.  of  Scotland,  consisting  of  two  portions,  a  smaller  (inland)  en- 
closed within  the  counties  of  Inverness,  Nairn,  and  Baiiff,  and  a 
larger  (maritime)  bounded  by  these  counties  on  the  E.,  S.,  and 
W.,  but  washed  by  the  Moray  Firth  on  the  N.  Area,  S31  so. 
mil         p  p     (  87  )  436  Th      r    dh    n  w  t  rs    ts  N.W. 

m        th    L  fl  w    thr    gh  th    m  ddl      f  th     naritime 

p  rt  past  Elgi  to  M  ray  F  th  t  L  ss  m  thj  and 
h     Sp  y    fl  p    tly  th       gh    th  ty     p    tly  along  its 

^t        b      d  ry      C  C  th    Igh  h  use  of  the 

m        m  1      e,     t      t         t  ral  w    dmg         the  rocks, 

m    ly  th         so  t      f     m  ggl  s.      Th         T  mostly 

1  t,  and  tl      H  f  M  ray         b        g  th   g  eat     p  rt  of  the 

re  ,  IS  p  ed  by  ulUV  t  d  fi  Id  ,  of  which  wheat  is  the  ir 
common  crop,  and  by  fir  attd  larch  plantations.  Sandstone,  hard 
n  texture  and  fine  in  colour,  abounds.  The  soil  is  for  the  most 
lart  open  and  gravelly,  with  loams  and  clays  in  the  N,,  whidi  is 
;ery  fertile.  The  clhnale  is  mild  and  dry.  Wheat,  oals,  bariey, 
md  turnips  are  the  principal  crops.  E.  is  the  east  part  of  the 
incient  province  of  Moray.  ^  It  was  eariy  occupied  by  Scandi- 
lavian  tribes,  and  here,  as  in  the  other  north-eastern  counties, 
the  language,  features,  names,  &c.,  of  the  inhabitants  still  retam 
distinctive  traces  of  a  Scandmavian  origin,  Elgin  Cathedral,  Plus- 
:arden  Priory,  Kinloss  Abbey,  the  '  Norman '  church  of  Bimie, 
and  Spynie  Palace,  are  among  the  chief  architectural  antiquities, 
and  there  are  many  old  and  historically  interesting  castles,  E. 
and  the  county  of  Nairn  send  a  member  to  Parliament.  The 
chief  towns  are  Elgin  and  Forres. 

Eli'as,  St,  a  mountain  belonging  to  the  range  of  the  Sea 
Alps,  on  the  N.W.  coast  of  N.  America,  on  the  American 
side  of  the  boundary-line  between  Britbh  N,  America  and  the 
United  States  territory  of  Alaska.  It  is  17,800  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  the  cliain  of  which  it  is  the  culminating  point 
extends  to  the  S.E.  for  nearly  100  miles  along  the  coast. 

Eli'jall  (Heb.  'God-Jehovah'),  '  the  grandest  and  the  most 
romantic  character  that  Isiael  ever  produced,'  is  called  'the 
Tishbile  of  the  inhabitants  of  Gilead,'  which  is  literally  all  that 
is  known  of  liis  parentage  and  birthplace.  The  facts  of  his  life, 
gathered  in  the  Bible  narrative,  are  briefly  as  follows  :— Ahab, 


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the  king  of  Israel,  had  introduced  the  religion  of  his  wife's 
countrymen,  the  worship  of  the  Phcenieian  Baal,  and  it  is  cliiefly 
as  a  witness  against  tliis  dishonour  done  to  Jehovah  that  E.  acts. 
He  first  appears  on  the  scene  {about  910  B.C.)  announcing  the 
vengeance  of  heaven  in  the  shape  of  a  severe  drought  and  con- 
sequent famine.  For  this  he  had  to  flee  from  the  vengeance  of 
Ahab,  and  especially  of  Jezebel  hia  wife.  He  hid  himself  at 
the  brook  Cherith,  where  his  food  was  brought  to  him  by  ra-vens. 
From  this  he  removed  to  2arephath,  between  Tyre  and  Sidon, 
where  he  stayed  with  a  widow,  whose  meal  and  -oil  he  increased, 
and  whose  son  he  restored  to  life  (i  Kings  xvii-J.  After  two 
years  he  reappeared  before  Ahab,  and  had  his  famous  encounter 
with  llie  prophets  of  Baal  on  Mount  Carmel  (i  Kings  xviii.)- 
Beuig  in  consequence  again  in  danger  of  his  life  from  the  rage  of 

{eiebel,  he  fled  to  the  desert  to  the  S.  of  Canaan,  Arrived  a,t 
loreb,  he  had  am  interview  with  Jehovah,  who  comforted  him 
and  instructed  him  to  appoint  Elisha  his  successor.  He  again 
confronted  Ahab,  after  his  robliery  of  Nabath  (l  Kings  xxi.). 
After  Ahab's  death  E.  had  occasion  to  denounce  the  conduct  of 
his  son  Ahaziah,  who  had  sent  to  consult  the  oracle  of  Baal- 
zebub  at  Ekron  (2  Kings  L).  Finely  he  was  ■taken  up  to  heaven 
in  a  chariot  «f  fire  (2  Jflngs  ii.  >.  ,       ,    ,  , 

There  are  seriwis  difficulties  in  connection  with  E.'s  biography, 
but  the  method  of  encoimtering  them  has  not  always  been  happy. 
To  transform  the  'ravens,'  e.g.,  into  Arabs,  merchants,  &c.,  is  a 
piece  of  trivial  rationalism,  whether  done  in  the  interests  of  re- 
veUtion  or  gainst  them.  The  whole  career  of  the  great  prophet 
is  enveloped  in  mirax;le,  and  cannot  possibly  be  explained  by 
hypotheses  which  reduce  it  to  a  commonplace  level.  Take  away 
the  startling,  extraordinary,  and  marvellous  dement  ia  his  his- 
tory, and  his  majestic  character  disappears  along  with  it.  There 
is  nothii^  left  that  requires  or  deserves  explanation ;  we  need 
not  suppose  any  verilaMe  fact  m  the  narrative  at  all.  But  great 
historical  fignres  are  not  easily  mamifaclvn-ed.  It  is  more  natural 
to  suppose  -that  the  glowing  and  fearless  genius  of  E.  left  a  mark 
as  true  'as  it  was  indelible  on  the  national  memory ;  that  his 
patriotic  audacity  involved  hira  at  times  in  deepest  peril,  and 
again  secured  him  moments  of  supreme  triumph.  The  mysteri- 
ous Providence  that  mdulds  evei-y  life  might  ^ne  out  more 
vividly  in  this  passionately-inspired  man,  and  the  circumstances 
and  incidents  of  his  heroic  destiny  might  easily  take  a  colouring 
of  romahce  from  flie  devotion  of  a  gritetul  posterity,  not  because 
it  had  forgotten,  but  ^because  it  had  remembered,  his  services  to 
the  Jehol^stic  fatth  of  his  fatherland.  It  may  be  difficult  to  re- 
concile E.'s  letter  to  Jehoram  King  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xxL 
12-15)  with  the  apparent  date  of  his  'translation'  (2  Kings  ii.) 
five  years  eailSer,  but  such  a  difficult);  rather  concerns  a  certain 
theory  of  inspiration  than  the  realiy  historic  character  of  the  re- 
cord. No  grander  form  stands  out  in  the  whole  hue  of  Hebrew 
prophets,  nor  did  the  reverence  of  liter  ages  err  when  it  exclu 
s  1  ely  associated  h  s  name  w  ith  that  of  the  great  legislator  him 
self 

ELiminfttloa,  in  algebra  is  the  process  by  which  from  a 
given  set  of  eqnations  another  is  deduced,  in  which  some  of 
the  ongmal  unknown  quantities  no  longer  appear  A  system 
of  « hoBwgeneous  equations  in  «  vanabies  cannot  be  satisfied 
by  a  common  set -of  values  unless  there  exists  1  certain  defin  te 
relation  between  the  coefficieHts ;  and  the  algebraic  expression 
which,  equated  to  aero,  represents  this  relation  is  termed  the 
//MMi«OB(orr««to«i  of  the  system  of  equations.  This  eliminant 
is  a  iterminant  of  the  nth  ordw  when  the  equations  are  linear. 
The  only  two  works  which  can  be  said  to  give  anytiiing  like  a 
complete  treatment  of  the  subject  are  Faa  de  Bruno's  Tkhrie 
.  Gh&-ah  £&lwiwatlon,  and  Salmon's  Highir  Algebra.  T 
development  of  its  theory  and  methods  is  chiefly  doe  t-o  Euler, 
Bezout,  Sylvester,  and  Cajley. 

Ba'iot,  Sir  John,  an  eminent  English  statesman  and  orator, 
ill  whom  it  lias  been  well  said  '  centres  the  earlier  struggle  for 
parliamenlaiT  liberty,'  was  born  of  an  old  Devonshire  family 
(since  ennobled  by  the  title  of  Earl  of  St  Germains)  in  CoMiwall, 
20th  April  1592.  From  an  early  age  he  showed  a  higt  and 
fearless  spirit,  and  a  vehement  temper.  After  a  careful  education 
at  Oxford  he  travelled  for  some  time,  and  in  1*14  entered  puWic 
life,  as  member  for  St  Germains.  E.  obtained  the  favour  of 
Buckingham,  and  from  1619  to  lhz%  held  the  office  of  Vice- 
Admiral  of  Devonshire,  receiving  the  honour  of  knighthood. 
5:2 


E.'s  activity,  however,  in  the  suppression  of  piracy,  out  of  which 
Buckingham  wished  to  make  profit,  caused  him  to  lose  ground 
with  his  patron,  and  he  was  even  thrown  into  prison.  Early 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  E.,  now  member  for  Newport,  be- 
came prominent  as  the  leader  of  the  Parliamentary  or  Country 
party,  and  the  uncompromising  opponent  of  Buckingham. 
FixingTipon  the  responsiUlity  of  the  kmg's  ministers  to  Parliament 
as  the  leading  principle  of  constitnlional  government,  he  led  the. 
House  of  Commons  by  a  series  of  remarkable  speeches  to  im- 
peach the  minister,  and  in  this  course  he  persisted,  although  he 
was  thrown  into  prison  for  ten  days.  He  was  the  prime  mover 
of  the  first  Grand  Remonstrance  on  the '  state  of  the  realm,'  which 
preceded  the  assassination  of  Buckingham,  and  in  the  third  Par- 
liament of  Charles  denounced  the  dissoiutloo  which  the  infatuated 
monarch  hod  determined  on,  saying,  '  Some  have  gone  s " 
break  Parliaments,  but  in  the  end  Parliaments  have  broken  them,' 
In  1629  he  was,  along  -Willi  two  other  leaders  of  his  party, 
thrown  into  tlie  Tower  on  the  charge  of  disobedience  to  the  royal 
commands,  and  ordered  before  liberation  to  pay  fines  of  ^2000, 
;fiooo,  and  ;£5oo.  He  refused,  and.  his  confinement  was  so 
rigorous  that  his  health  broke  down,  and  he  died  27th  Novem- 
ber 1632.  He  had  spent  his  time  in  prison  in  corresponding 
with  his  family  and  political  friends,  and  in  writing — among  his 
works  being  a  fragmentary  Memoir,  and  an  Apology  fir  Socratts. 
The  only  complete  biography  of  K  is  that  by  the  late  Mr  John 
Forater  (2d  ed.  1872). 

Hiot,  t3eoig«  (the  literary  pseudonym  of  Mrs  George  H. 
Lewes,  whose  maiden  name  is  Marian  Evans),  one  of  the 
greatest  of  modem  English  novelists,  was  bom  near  Dudley,  i 
Warwictshire,  about  182a  The  daughter  of  a  dissenting  mim! 
ter,  she  was  adopted  tiy  a  rich  cler™nan  and  received  an  exce 
lent  school  education,  followed  by  the  tuition  of  Herbert 
Spencer.  She  thus  learned  German,  French,  and  Italian,  be- 
came an  accomplished  musician  and  student  of  the  fine  arts,  and 
acquired  a  taste  for  Ic^c  and  metaphysics.  Among  her  first 
literary  efforts  were  translations  of  Straosa's  Leben  "fisu  (1S46), 
and  of  Feuerbach's  Wisen  da  ChristaUhupii  (1853).  A  follower 
of  Bentham  and  J.  S.  Mill,  she  was  early  appointed  joinl-editor 
of  the  Weslimnster  Review.  In  1857,  howev^a,  she  enterei 
her  true  career  as  a  novdist  by  the  publicalion  of  Seines  of  Cls- 
rkal  Life.  This  was  followed  in  briUiant  succession  by  Adam 
BedeiAsS),  The Mi^ on  the Flass  (\Zs^),  Siltis  Marner(iZ6\), 
Romola  (1863),  Fllix  Moll  (l866),  Middlemarch  (1872),  and 
Daniel  Derotida  (1876).  "Hiese  worlo  aie  nil  mamly  distin- 
guished by  philosophic  thought,  intensity  of  unsectarian  religious 
emotion,  femiharity  with  the  subtler  processes  of  the  mind,  and 
with  both  the  outer  and  inner  life  of  EngBsh  sodetj^,  and  a  pure 
and  strong  s)mipathy  with  human  nature.  Rotiiola,  in  every  way 
an  exceptional  work,  is  a  picture  of  Florentine  life  in  the  period 
of  Savanarola,  showing  high  imaginative  power  and  great  special 
know  ledge.  E.  has  a  fine  descriptive  power,  and  a  style  at  once 
eloquent  and  epigrammatic  A  volume  of  racy  analecta  from 
her  works  was  issued  by  Alexander  Main  (Lond.  1872).  E. 
has  written  some  fine  poems,  the  longest.  The  Spanish  Gipsy 
(1868),  the  most  powerful,  The  Legend  of  Juiml  {i%-jtij ;  but  it 
IS  her  novels  that  will  give  her  a  claim  to  be  remembered  as  the 
most  commanding  genius  that  has  appeared  among  women  in  the 
whole  history  of  English  literature. 

Eliot,  Jolm,  the  'Apostleof  the  Indians,' was  born  in  Eng- 
land, in  1604,  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  emigrated  to  Boston, 
Massachusetts,  in  1631.  He  became  pastor  of  the  church  in 
Roxbury  near  Boston,  and  applied  himself  to  the  Indian  Ian- 
guages.  In  1646,  with  a  few  friends,  he  went  to  a  company  of 
Indians  and  explained  to  tliem  the  Christian  rehgion.  Eu- 
cour^^d  by  the  interest  they  evinced,  he  ■obtained  a  grant  of 
land  from  the  colonial  government  on  which  the  Indians  might 
settle  and  become  civilised.  By  1674  there  were  fourteen  such 
settlements,  to  all  of  which  E,  preached.  Though  still  pastor  of 
Roibury,he  regularly  traveled  through  forests  and  swampsto  visit 
his  dusky  converts.  In  1660  the  important  Indian  church  of 
Natick  was  formed.  About  this  time  E.  pubiislicd  the  New 
Testament  in  the  Indian  language,  and  three  years  after  the  Old 
Testament,  the  first  Bible  printed  m  America— a  work  of  great 
philological  interest     K  also  instituted  schools  and  wrote  school 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Elis,  an  ancient  division  of  the  Peloponnesus,  extended  from 
Achaia  on  the  N.  to  Messenia  on  the  S.,  and  from  Arcadia  in 
the.K  to  the  Ionian  Sea  on  the  W.  It  was  divided  into  three 
ts— E,  Proper,  or  Hollow  E.,  in  the  N„  which  consists  of  a 
ile  plain  watered  by  the  river  Peneus  ;  Pisatis,  in  the  middle, 
which  IS  the  lower  valley  of  the  Alpheus  ;  and  Triphylia  ('Ihe 
ntry  of  the  three  tribes ')  in  the  S.  E.  contains  more  fertile 
land  Chan  any  other  division  of  the  Peloponneeus,  and  produced 
n  abundance  wheat,  flax,  cotton,  and  grapes.  Its  rich  pastures 
reared  nmnerous  horses  and  cattle,  and  it  still  contains  much 
excellent  timber.  It  possessed  the  temple  of  Olympian  Zens, 
whose,  festival,  celebrated  once  in  four  years  at  Olympia,  4rew 
thither  strangers  in  vast  numbers  ;  and  in  consequence  cif  the 
sacred  character  which  it  thus  acquired,  its  soil  was  regarded  by 
the  Greelts  as  inviolable.  These  games  were  abolished  by 
Theodosius  A, D.  394.  .  Of  the  ancient  city  of  E,,  now  Kaloskopi, 
the  existing  remains  are  scanty.  Its  gymnasium  was  by  far  the 
largest  in  Greece,  and  in  it  the  eompelitots  at  the  Oiympie  games 
were  compelled  to  undei^o  a  month's  training  before  the  com- 
petilion. 

Eli'sha  [Heb.  '  God  the  deliverer '},  the  discipleand  successor 
of  Elijah,  held  the  office  of  prophet  in  Israel  for  a  period  of  not 
less  than  sixty-five  years  [c^Led  at  least  four  years  before  the 
death  of  Ahab  (i  Kings  xix.-xiii.)  and  died  in  the  reign  of 
joash].  This  prophet  presents  a  striking  contrast  in  appearance, 
manners,  and  character  to  his  predecessor.  Elijah,  with  his  dis- 
ordered locks  and  rough  dress,  was  a  true  son  of  the  desert,  and 
made  the  desert  his  hoiae ;  E,  was  a  civilised  man,  dressed  in 
the  ordinary  style,  and  frequenting  the  haunts  of  men.  In  cha- 
racter the  former  was  distinguished  by  fiery  leal  against  all  that 
opposed  Jehovah ;  the  latter,  by  tolerstioa  towards  the  false 
religions  and  general  beneficence.  The  most  remarkable  featui;e 
of  the  history  of  K  is  the  great  number  of  miracles  he  performpd, 
and  the  astonishing  nature  of  some  of  them — e.g.,  the  horses  and 
ehaiiots  of  fire  that  encompassed  him  at  §amai;ia  ;,  the  smiting 
of  the  Syrian  host  with  blindness,  and  their  suliequent  cap- 
ture ;  the  swimming  of  the  iron  in  the  H^ter  \  the  raising  to  life 
of  a  dead  man  by  tovicliing  the  bones  of  the  buried  prophet— in 
all  of  which  E.  appears  not  like  one  on  whom  a  double  portion 
of  Elijali's  spirit  had  fallen,  but  leather  as  an  Oriental  thaumatur- 
gist.  The  moral  and  spiritual  elements  are  awanting  in  the 
circumstances  of  his  career.  We  cannot  discover  in  him  an 
instructor  and  guide  of  tlie  people,  and,  except  in  a  certain  mild- 
ness and  gentleness  of  character,  to  which  the  maniacal  outblirst 
of  temper  at  Bethel,  when  he  cursed  the  children  in  the  name 
of  the  Lord,  and  procured  their  destruction,  forms  a  startling 
exception,  there  is  iittle  to  justify  the  parallel  drawn  between 
him  and  Christ. 

misoTS.  If  the  sheriff,  or  coroner,  who  ought  to  return  the 
jury  be  a  party  to.  a  suit,  or  interested  in  it,  the  venirt  (see 
VENIRE  Facias)  is  directed  to  two  clerks  of  the  court,  or  to 
two  persons  of  the  county  named  by  the  court  and  sworn ;  and 
these  two,  who  are  called  E.,  or  electors,  shall  name  the  jury. 

Elix'ir  (Aiab.  al-iisir,  'quinte35ence'),,aterm  in  chemistry  and 
modern  pharmacy  used  to.  denote  a  tincture  with  n»re  than  one 
base,  or  a  compound  tinctnte.  Among  the  alchemists  an  E.  denoted 
a  liquor  for  transmuting  metals  into  gold,  and  in  later  times  a 
quintessence,  a  cordial,  or  a  substance  which  iiiv^orates.  The 
term  tincture  is  now  more  commoa.  A  great  variety  oi  medicines 
have  appeared  under  the  term  £.  vits,  o[  E.  of  life,  which  are 
merely  compound  tinctures  of  aromatic  and  slimijafing  sub- 
stances. The  elixirs  best  known  in  pharmacy  are  the  follow- 
ing ; — E.  paregoric,  or  Tirulufa  campkora  compasHa,  ai  prepa- 
ration of  opium,  benzoic  acid,  camphor,  oil  of  anise,  and  procrf 
spirit,  an  excellent  remedy  for  allaying  spasmodic  cough  in  bron- 
chitis and  phthisis  ;  dose,  from  15  to  60  minims  ;  I  dratJim  con- 
tains J-grain  powder  of  opium  =  \  grain  of  extraet.  E.  of 
vitriol,  or  Addum  stdphuruum  arornaiisam,  is  prepared  from 
sulphuric  acid,  rectified  spirit,  cinnamon,  and  ginger.  It  is  ased 
for  making  an  acid  drink,  and  for  cheekily  profiise  perspirati«i. 
Tincture  of  aloes  and  myrrh  is  sometimes  called  E.  pvprietatisi 
This  preparation  is  adapted  to  torpid  conditions  trf  the  bowels 
and  of  the  uterine  system. 

Miz'abetgrad.,  atownin  the  government  of  Kherson,  Russia, 
on  the  Ingul,  130  miles  N.  by  W,  of  Kherson.  It  has  an 
arsenal  with   six  bastions,  and  there  are  four  suburbs.     The 


streets,  spacious  and  well  built,  are  in  seme  instances  lined  with 
trees.  E.  has  a  good  gener^  trade  and  an  important  annual 
fab'.    Pop.  (1S6;)  31,968. 

Eliz'abetli,  Queen  of  England,  the  daughter  of  Henry 
VIII.  and  Anne  Boleyn,  was  born  7th  Seplember  1533.  She 
shared  her  mother's  disgrace,  and  was  for  a  time  in  seclusion. 
From  this  she  was  allowed  for  a  short  period  to  emerge,  but 
was  again  disgraced  and  declared  illegitimate  along  with  her 


the  royal  displeasute.  Accused  of  being  concerned  in  the  plot  of 
Sir  Thomas  Wyatt,.  she  was  sent  to  tlie  Tower  in  1554,  and 
would  h^ve  probably  been  beheaded  but  for  the  fear  of  a  Pro- 
testant rising.  On  her  release  she  was  transferred  to  Wood- 
stock, and  then  allowed  to  remain  at  her  rraidence,  Hatfield 
House,  in  Hertfordshire,  till  the. death  of  Mary,  V}\h.  November 

■518- 

These  hardships  made  E  the  singular  and  successful  sove- 
reign she  is  universaUy  recogn;ised  to  hate  been.  From  her 
father  she  inherited  courage,  pnde,  frankness,  bloff  and  sometimes 
brutal  manners,  cordiality  in  her  dealings  with,  and  a  genuine 
love  for,  her  subjects ;  from  her  mother  a  sensuous  nature,  a 
commanding  figure,  Mid  love  of  flattery  But  her  early  educa- 
tion in  the  school  of  solitude  and  misfortune  rendered  her  capable 
of  sulx^dinaling  the  gratification  of  her  passions  to  that  of  her 
intellect,,  taught  her  what  was  then  the  politician's  chief  art,  dis- 
simulation,, and  made  her  the  most  accompfished  and  eccentric 
woman  of  her  time.  Whije  her  brother  Edward  Vl.  thought  her 
the  essenpe  of  propriety,  and.  called  her  his  'sweet  sister  Tenjr 
perance,'  she,  was  coquetting  outrageously  wilb  Lord  Seymour, 
and  yet  she  jested  at  his  death.  Her  varied  culture  at  Court 
and  in  retirement  made  her  at  once  a  graceful  dancer  and  musi- 
cian, a  skilful  horsewoman,  a  devotee  to  classics  and  to  the 
'  new  literature,'  as  familiar  with  Tasso  and  Ariosto  as  with 
Demosthenes  ;  '  she  could  talk  poetry  with  Spenser  and  philo- 
sophy with  Bruno ;  she  could  discuss  euphuism  with  Lyiy,  and 
enjoy  the  chivalry  of  Essex ;  she  could  turn  from  talk  of  the 
court  ^shions  to  pore  with  Cedl  over  despatches,  and  treasBry 
books.;  she  could  pass  from  Calking  business  with  Walsingham 
to  settle  paints  of  doctrine  with  Parker,  or  te-.  calculate  with 
Erobisher  the  chances  of  a  N.W..  passage  to  the  Indies.'  Extra- 
vagantly fond  of  ri«h  dresses,  jewels,  and  gorgeous  processions, 
she  was  also  ei^tremely  economic^k  She  detested  wac  on  account 
of  its  expense,  and  grunjbled  at  the  bill  she  had  to  pay  for  the 
defeat  01  the  Armada.  Although  her  passions  frequently  led  her 
astray,  she  never  let  ^era.  seriously  affect  her  public  policy ; 
throughout  her  reign  she  was  guided  by  the  counsels  of  the> 
Cecils,  and  not  by  thoGe  of  Leicester  and  Essex. 

When.  E.  ascended  the  throne  in  her  twenty-fifth  year,  she  was 
welcconed  by  all  classes,  Catholics  as  well  as  Protestants,  for  her 
religious  opinions  were  knownto.be  moderate,  and  domestic  mis- 
government,  national  disorders,  and  religious  fanaticism  had 
made  the  name  of  Mary  in  the  last  degree  odious.  Circum- 
stances, more  than  religious  sentiment,  made  E.  a  Protestant 
sovereign  She  fell  back  upon  what  her  father  did.  The 
majority  m  her  first  Parliament  was  Protestant,  and  it  repealed 
the  Stalutes  of  Heresy,  dissolved  the  monasteries  which  had 
been  founded,  deprived  Mary's  bishops  of  that  office,  restored 
the  royal  supremaCT,  and  established  the  Gliurch  on  the  Prayer- 
Book  of  Edward  VI.  and  the  Thirty-Nine  Articles.  In  her 
ecclesiastical  policy  she  was  aided  by  Parker,  a  moderaJe  but 
resolute  divine,  whOi  was  made  A'chbishop  of  Canterbury  in 
1559,  and  in  her  foreign  policy  by  William  Cecil,  Lord  Burleigh. 
Although  the  former  was  noli-tevoiutionary  and  the  latter  peace- 
ful, yet  til*  Act  of  Uniformity  by  Vfhich  her  Church  policy  was 
carried  out  led  to  bloody  persecutions  both  of  Romanists  and  of 
Puritans^  or  the  Protestants  who  took  their  doctrines  from  Ge, 
neva,  while  the  policy  of  Cecil  ended  in  war.  E.  supported  by 
money  the  Protestants  stniggHng  in  France,  in  the  Netlierlands, 
and  in  Scotland.  Her  rival  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  (q.  v.),  brought 
into  collision  with  the  Scottish  nation,  fled  into  England  and  was 
imprisoned  by  E.  Being  looked  upon  as  the  next  heir  to  the 
throne,  Mary  became  the  hope  of  the  Roman  Cathohc  faction  in 
England.  Conspiracies  were  fonnedin  her' favour.  The  Dukes 
of  Northumberland  and  Westmoreland  .hfeaded  a  rebellion  in  the 


vLaOogle 


ELI 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOF^DIA. 


ELI 


north  wliicli  was  put  down  with  great  severity.  Pope  Pius  V,  pub- 
lished a  biill  absolving  E.'s  subjects  from  their  allegiance  to  her. 
At  length  the  discovery  by  tlie  spies  of  Walsinghara  (q.  v.)  of  a 
plot  against  her  life  by  a  Roman  Catholic  gentleman  named  Bab- 
ington  led  to  an  outcry  by  Parliament  for  vengeance  on  Mary. 
She  was  charged  with  being  accessory  to  Babington's  plot,  tried 
before  a  commission,  and  beheaded  February  8,  1587,  in  the  hall 
of  Fotheringay  Castle.  Mary  had  bequeathed  to  Philip  of  Spain 
her  rights  upon  England,  and"  he,  resentlno  the  aid  given  to 
the  Neiherlanders,  and  the  m  B  earn 

on  Spanish  commerce,  reso  stn 

tion  of  the  'Armada'  (q.  gr 

reign  of  E.     Dudley,  Earl  mm      ed 

one  of  the  armies  that  was       p  m       th 

Duke  of  Parma,  died  sud      1    m         m 
rejoicings,  and  E.  was  neve         self  ag  h  eara 

her  reign  were  occupied  chiefl   wi  ft   rs.     H  g    O  N 

Earl  of  Tyrone,  raised  (in  1595)  the  flag  of  rebellion  against  the 
authority  of  England,  which  had  been  established  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.,  and  for  a  time  ovetran  Ireland.  E.  sent  against 
him  Essex,  who  had  succeeded  Leicester  as  her  favourite,  but 
Essex  was  not  successful  and  niade  a  delusive  truce  with 
Tyrone.  He  was  in  consequence  recalled,  and  attempting 
an  insurrection  in  London,  was  apprehended,  tried,  and  bo. 
headed  25th  February  1601.  Although  Ireland  was  subse- 
quently reduced  to  submission  by  Blount,  Lord  MountJOT,  E. 
(ell  into  a  stale  of  uttcf  (Jespondenoy  after  the  death  of  Essex, 
and,  indeed,  may  be  sajd  to  have  outlived  her  time.  She  lived 
into  a  period  of  earnest  Puritanism  which  failed  to  understand,  still 
less  to  approve  of,  her  vanity  and  irreliglon ;  and  although  by 
skilful  concessions,  especially  on  the  matter  of  monopolies,  she 
avoided  a  collision  with  Parliament,  she  would,  had  she  lived, 
probably  been  found  in  opposition  to  the  wishes  of  the  second 
generation  ef  her  subjects,  In  the  end  her  temper  became  in- 
tolerable. She  chid  her  attendants  and  even  her  chief  adviser, 
the  second  Cecil     She  bdieved  that  she  was  J>eset  with  mur- 


Her  last  act  was  to  indicate  by  a  motion  frf  her  head  that  she 
wished  her  snccesser  to  be  James  VI,  of  Scotland.  She  died  in 
her  seventieth  year,  March  24,  1603. 

The  life  of  E.  was  essentially  lonely  and  far  from  happy, 
She  refused  to  be  married,  even  when  Parliament  petitioned  her, 
and  declined  the  offers  made  by  numerous  and  powerful  suitors,  in- 
cluding Henri  of  Anjou,  the  Due  d'Alen^on,  Prince  Erik  of 
Sweden,  the  Archduke  Karl  of  Austria,  and  even,  it  is  said, 
Philip  of  Spain  ;  and  yet  that  she  felt  her  loneliness  is  plain  from 
such  ejaculations  as  that  on  hearmg  of  the  birth  of  a  son  to  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots^'  The  Queen  of  Scots  has  a  fair  son,  and  I  am 
but  a  barren  stock.'  It  seems  now  to  be  proved  beyond  dispute 
that  she  would  have  gladly  married  the  wcathless  Leicester,  and 
it  is  far  from  certain  that  she  did  not  stoop  to  be  an  accessory  to 
the  murder  of  Amy  Robsart,  Leieesters  wife.  Burleigh  was 
able  to  prevent  this  marriage,  bat  he  ijas  not  able  to  persuade 
her  to  another. 

From  the  reign  of  E.  may  be  said  to  date  tl(e  material  pros- 
perity, the  naval  power,  the  commercial  activity,  and  the  literary 
glory  of  Great  Btitaia  The  great  seamen  and  adventurers  of  the 
time,  Hawkins,  Drake,  Frobisher,  and  Raleigh.mjidetheircountry 
the  mistress  of  the  seas,  and  foimd  an  outlet  for  its  commercial  and 
colonism^  enei^.  What  grew  into  the  East  India  Company 
obtained  its  charter,  and  Birmingham,  Manchester,  and  Sheffield 
became  seats  of  manufactures.  The  general  increase  of  wealth 
showed  itself  in  an  increase  of  luxuty,  jn  rldier  dresses  and  better 
houses  than  had  hitherto  been  known.  The  first  attempt  was 
made  by  the  suppression  of  mendicity  to  grapple  with  the  problem 
of  pauperism.  The  reign  of  E.  saw  the  fulness  of  the  literary 
glory  of  Sidney  and  Spenser,  the  death  of  Marlowe,  and  the  rise 
of  Shakespeare.  See  Camden's  AnmUes  Serum  Anglkarum  el 
Hibemicarant  regnattte  Elisahtha  (Lond,  161 5) ;  Fronde's  His- 
tory of  England  (vols,  vii.  to  xii.),  which  is  especially  valuable 
for  the  extracts  from  the  stale-papers  of  Cecil,  and  the  doca- 
ments  preserved  in  the  archives  at  Simancas ;  also  the  authorities 
quoted  in  Green's  Short  Histmy  of  tie  English  People  (l8;5), ' 

Elizabetli  Stuart,  aoeen  of  Boltemia,  bom  in  1596, 
was  thedaughter  of  James  I.  of  England  and  Anne  of  Denmark. 
In  1613  she  married  the  Elector  Palatine,  Friedrlcli  V.,  who. 


on  the  forced  abdication  of  Ferdinand  II,  in  1619,  was  callet 
the  throne  of  Bohemia.  This  he  lost  by  llie  battle  of  Prague  (8ih 
November  1620),  which  drove  the  royal  spouses  to  Holland.  It 
was  not  till  after  fh'e  Peace  ofWestphalia  that  E.'s  son  Karl 
recovered  his  father's  hereditary  estates  in  the  Palatinate.  E.  's 
eldest  son  was  christened  Montz  by  the  Prince  of  Orange.  E. 
died  at  London,  13th  February  1662,  She  left  a  daughter, 
E.,  who,  during  her  parents'  retreat  at  Leyden,  studied  geome- 
try  and  metaphysics  with  Descartes,  who  dedicated  to  her  his 
Frineifiia.  This  lady  afterwards  withdrew  to  the  Abbey  of 
Heroorden,  which  yielded  her  20,000  dollars  of  income,  and 
here  she  kept  an  open  house  for  literary  persons  of  all  churches 

nd  creeds.   Catholics  as  well  as  Free-thinkers,  and  Unitarians 
well  as  Lutherans.     She  died  in  l6Sa     See  Miss  Benger's 

lenioirs  of  E.  S.,  Quien  of  Bosnia. 

Elizabeth  of  Valoia,  Qtieen  of  ^laui,  bom  at  Fontaine- 
eau  13th  April  1545,  was  the  daughter  of  Henri  IL  and 
Catherine  de  Medlcis.  '  The  Princess  of  Peace '  was  promised 
in  marriage  first  to  Edward  VI,  of  England,  then  to  Don  Carlos, 
but  was  ultimately  married  to  Philip  IL  in  1559,  tlie  Duke  of 
Alva  appearing  as  proxy  at  Notre  Dame.  She  met  her  husband 
at  Guadalavara,  and  Brant&me  says  stared  at  him  so  much  that 
Philip  said,  'What  are  you  looking  at?  Is  my  hair  white?' 
After  a  short  and  onhappy  life  E.  died  at  Madrid,  3d  October 
r568.     See  Brantflme's  F«  As  Daines  IHustres. 

Elizatetli,  Queen  of  Spain,  bornaad  November  1602,  was 
the  daughter  of  Henri  IV.  and  Marie  de  Medicis.  She  married 
Philip  IV.  of  Spain  in  1615,  the  Infanta  Anna  Maria  of  Austria 
being  at  the  same  time  given  to  Louis  XIII,,  a  proceeding, 
most  distasteful  to  the  Huguenots,  E,  had  an  enemy  in  the  Mini- 
ster Olivarei,  She  displayed  political  energy,  and  a  strong  love 
of  her  adopted  country.     She  died  6th  October  1644. 

Elizabeth  Fameee,  Queen  of  Spain,  bom  25th  October 
1692,  was  the  daughter  of  Odoardo  II.  of  Parma.  She  was  ill- 
treated  by  her  parents,  and  was.  a  singularly  ugly  and  obstinate 
child.  In  1714,  on  the  suggestion  of  Alberoni  and  the  Princess  des 
Ursins,  eaniarera  Biayoy  or  first  maid  of  honour  at  the  Spanish 
court,  she  married  Philip  V.,  then  a  widower.  Her  first  act 
was  to  drive  Des  Ursins  from  Spain.  Her  active  mind  at 
once  assumed  the  mastery  over  Philip,  whom  she  reconciled 
with  the  Due  d'Orieans.  She  supported  the  Inquisition,  and 
substituted  D'Anbenton  for  Robinet  as  the  King's  confessor. 
The  Spaniards  resented  the  increase  of  Italian  influence  at  the 
court  The  temporary  abdication  of  the  jealous  and  hypochon- 
driac Philip  and  the  regn  of  her  stepson  Louis  interrupted  her 
scheme^  pursued  in  the  European  alliances,  the  Congress  of 
Cambrai,  the  Congress  of  Soissons,  &c,  for  securing  the  Two 
Sicilies  and  the  Duchies  of  Parma  and  Placenza  to  her  son 
Carlos,  who  became  King  of  Naples  in  1734  and  Charles  II.  of 
Spain  in  1759.  K  survived  her  husband  until  1766.  Tiie 
'  tenacious  termagant,'  as  Carlyle  calls  her,  had  great  political 
ability  j  she  spoke  fluently  in  Spanish,  Latin,  German,  and 
French.  Among  her  younger  chndren  were  Maria  Anna,  mar- 
ried to  Joseph,  King  of  Portugal,  and  Marie- Antoinette,  married 
to  Victor  Ain^deus,  King  of  Sardinia,  E,  's  Memoirs  were  pub- 
lished in  4  vols,  at  London,  1746.  See  alsoPeralla,  Historia 
Civil,  and  the  innumerable  pfivale  memoirs  of  the  lime  (Noailles, 
Saint  Simon,  Duclos,  &c,). 

lUizabetli  Christine   of  Bninawicfa-Wolfenbtittel, 

born  28ih  April  1691,  was  the  daughter  of  Ludwig- Rudolf  of 
Brunswick-Blankenburg.  Her  grandfather,  Anton  Ulrich,  who 
wrote  novels — 'six  vols,  in  4to'— brought  about  her  marriage 
with  the  Archduke  Karl,  who  had  been  previously  refused  by 
Caroline  of  Anspacli.  This  event  ini  707  caused  the  elder  Brims- 
wick  family  to  become  Catholic,  E.  was  proclaimed  Queen  of 
Spain  at  ikircelona,  and  after  her  husband's  election  as  Emperor 
acted  as  regent  there  till  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  {1713),  She  was 
then  crowned  at  Presbu^  Queen  of  Hungary.  Oa  her  husband's 
death  in  1 740,  E.  devoted  herself  to  the  cause  of  her  daughter, 
the  famous  Maria  Theresa.  She  founded  the  order  of  the  Red 
and  White  Star,  to  be  conferred  by  the  Aulic  Council  of  War 
on  twenty-one  superior  officers  who  should  have  served  Austria 
foe  thirty  years.  E.'s  sister  Charlotte  married  Alexius,  the 
Czarovitch,  and  had  a  '  fabulons  end.'  Her  sister  Antoinette 
married  Ferdinand  Albrecht  of  Bmnswick-Bevern,  and  became 
the  mother  of  Friedrich  the  Great's  wife.  E.  died  2Ist  Decern, 
ber  1750. 


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Elizalieth,  aueea  of  Hungary  and  Poland,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Stephen,  Ban  of  Bosnia,  married  in  1363  lo  Louis  the 
Great,  King  of  Hungary  and  Poland.  After  her  husband's  death 
E.,  as  regent,  assisted  by  the  Palatine  Nicolas  of  Gava,  oppressed 
her  subjects  until  the  arrival  of  a  Neapolitan  prince,  Charles  of 
Ducazzo,  who  was  crowned  in  1385,  and  soon  after  was  murdered. 
E.  was  hei-self  murdered  in  1387  by  the  Ban  of  Croatia. 

Elizabeth  of  Poland,  Q^en  of  Huugaiy  an^  Traa- 
sylvania,  bom  in  1518,  daughier  of  Sigiamnnd  I.  of  Poland, 
married  to  John  Zapolski,  whose  death  in  1540  left  her  in  a  diffi- 
cult position  between  Ferdinand  1.  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
Sultan  Solynian,  who  tot>H  possession  of  Hung((ry,  iw  the  other. 
E.  offered  to  cede  IVansyiTania  to  Ferdinand  for  Ratibor  and 
Oppeln  in  Silesia,  but  the  baisaiA  was  not  canied  out,  and  the 
Turks  helped  her  to  drive  the  Austrians  from  Transylvania.  She 
died  20th  September  1558,  leaving  a  son  Stephen,  or  John  Sigis- 

EHzabeth  Petiwrtia,  Empress  of  Eussia,  was  the 
daughter  of  Peter  tlie  Great  and  Catharine  I.,  and  was  bom 
rSih  December  f7og.  ContVary  to  tie  order  of  succession  pre- 
scribed by  the  will  of  Catharine,  on  the  death  in  1730  of  Peter 
II.,  the  Dolgorouki  family  placed  on  the  throne  Anna,  Duchess 
of  Coitrland,  aniece  of  Peter  the  Great  (See  Anna  and  BlROM.) 
But  a  palace  insurrection  made  E.  empress.  6th  December  .1741. 
In  her  reign  capital  punishment  was  abolished,  tut  the  activity  of 
the  'Secret  Chancery' caused  the  greatest  misery,  and  the  ancient 
authority  of  the  Senate  was  restored.  A  successful  war  against 
Sweden  was  terminated  by  the  Peace  of  Abo  (1743),  and  E.  selected 
the  new  King  of  Sweden,  Adolf  of  Holstein-Gottorp.  E.  made 
her  nephew,  the  Duke  of  Holstein  (afterwards  Peter  IIIOi 
her  presumptive  heir,  and  gave  him  as  wife  Sophie  of  Anhalt- 
Zerbat  (afterwards  Catharine  the  Great).  She  encouraged  educa- 
tion by  founding  a  university  at  Moscow  and  an  academy  of  fine 
arts  at  St  Petersburg,  and  she  gave  to  Voltaire  the  materials 
for  his  work  on  Russia  under  Peter  the  Great.  There  were 
many  reasons  for  the  war  with  Prussia — the  influence  of  Ees, 
tuchef,  '  corruptiblest  bmte  of  a  chaucellor  ever  Imown ; '  the 
war-poiicy  of  Schuwalof ;  the  indignation  of  the  Czarovitch,  whose 
wife  E.  had  insalted;  and,  lastly,  a  personal  piqne  against 
Friedrich  on  the  part  of  E-  In  the  Seyen  Yeats^  War  her 
troops  were  repeatedly  successful,  and  her  death,  5th  January 
1762,  was  a  fortunate  tiling  for  Friedrich,  as  her  successor  Peter 
was  friendly  to  Pmssia.  E.  earned  for  herself  in  Europe  the 
shameful  title  of  '  Catin  du  Nord.'  She  was  grossly  superstitious, 
being  unable  to  face  the  dark;  and  extravagantly  lusurious, 
leavmg  15,000  unused  dresses  in  her  wardrofe.  See  Weyd&i 
rax^ix^  Zarstwffwame  EUimody  Petxovmy  (Petersb.  1834). 

Elizabeth  of  Thuria^K  St,  daughter  of  King  Andi'eas  II. 
of  Hungary,  was  bornr  at  Presbuig  in  1207,  She  was  married 
at  tlve  a^  cj  fourteen  to  Ludwig,  son  of  Hermaim,  Landgraf  of 
Thuringia.  When  a  girl,  she  astonished  the  court  of  Wartburg, 
the  brilliant  resort  of  the  minnisingt^s,  by  her  gentleness,  bene- 
volence, and  piety.  After  her  husband  s  death  in  the  Fifth 
Cmsade,  his  brother,  Heinrich  E^spej  stripped  her  of  authority, 
which  she  afterwards  declined  to  resume,  contenting  herself  with 
her  revenues  as  Landgrafinn.  She  spent  her  life  in  constant 
penances  and  benefactions,  wandering  about  to  relieve  the  stck 
and  the  poor,  and  was  bmtally  maltreated  by  her  fanatical  con- 
fessor, Konrad  of  Marburg.  Worn  out  by  sufferings,  she  died,  at 
the  age  of  twenty-four,  m  1231,  in  one  of  the  many  hospitals 
which  she  had  erected  in  Germany.  She  was  canonised  in  1335. 
The  victim  of  monkish  cruelty  and  of  her  own  false  ideal  of  duty, 
she  led  a  amgularly  mournful,  stainless,  and  noble  though  mis- 
taken life.  In  piety  and  self-sacrificmg  zeal  siie  resembles  the 
celebrated  St  Theresa.     The  story  forms  the  subject  of  Kings- 


le'tham  Ar'chitectnre,  a  transition  style  of  EngUsh 
architecture,  unique  in  its  origin,  application,  and  duration.  It 
arose  with  and  reached  its  prime  during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
and  its  chief  characteristic  as  an  architectnral  style  is  a  revived 
classicism  engrafted  upon  the  domestic  Gothic  of  the  Tudor 
period.  The  necessity  for  building  great  cathedrals  passed  away 
at  the  completion  of  the  Reformation,  and  the  hatred  of  symbols 
which  now  took  possession  of  the  nation's  mind,  and  of  the  pride 


and  pomp  of  the  ceremonial  of  the  old  religion,  as  savouring  of 
idolatry,  was  extended  in  part  lo  the  old  religions  houses.  While 
many  of  these  were  destroyed  or  injured,  no  rich  and  splendid 
churches  were  being  built  for  the  Protestants,  and  architecture, 
no  longer  employed  in  building  temples  for  God,  was  almost 
wholly  occupied  during  Elizabeth's  reign  in  building  mansions 
for  the  nobility  and  gentry.  It  was  evident  that  a  Reformed 
people  could  not  dwell  in  mansions  the  style  and  feeling  of  which 
were  Gothic  and  Catholic;  andasatthia  time — the  earlier  hsJf  of 
the  16th  c. — a  classic  renaissance  in  litemtare  and  art  was  be- 
ginning to  shed  abroad  its  borrowed  light,  the  architects  of  the 
period  e^erly  appropriated  classical  outline  and  detail,  and 
modifying  these  by  rules  best  known  lo  themselves,  and  combin- 
ing  tliem  with  the  chief  structural  features  of  the  late  d&mestio 
Perpendicular,  they  created  E.  A.  This  style  prevailed  for  about 
a  century.  Though  true  neither  to  Gothic  nor  Classical  architei 
ture,  E.  A,  is  stately  and  pianresque.  It  embodied  alltheidea 
of  sjflendour  and  luxuriousness  that  prevailed  during  the  i6th  c, 
and  its  chief  characteristics  were  great  bay  windows,  long  and  wide 
galleries,  vast  elaborately-farved  chimneypieces,  panelled  and 
wainscoted  walls,  spftcipus  staircases  with  carved  balustrades, 
heraldic  figures,  &c.  Noble  specimens  of  this  architectural  style 
are  Canipden  House,  Longheat,  Holknd  House,  Kensington, 
Hardwick,  Burleigh,  and  Knowle.  See  Fergusson's  History  ef 
^rf^/Vrt-Wra  (Murray.  i8j+). 

Elizabeto'pol,  a  town  of  Russian  Transcaucasia,  on  the  ■ 
Jansha,  and  capital  of  a  government  of  the  same  name  It 
is  divided  into  four  quarters,  two  of  which  are  inhabited  by 
Arjnenians  and  two  by  Tartars,  Pop.  15,439.  The  principal 
industries  are  horticulture  and  the  rearing  of  bees,  silkwoim^, 
and  cattle.  The  gov^tmi,e^t  of  E.  had  in  1871  a  pop.  of 
529,412,      I(s  chief  products  are  madder,  tobacco,  lint,  and 

Elk  or  Moose  Beer  {Akes palmatus  or  MakMs),  the  largest 
species  of  Cervida  or  Deer  (q  v )  uihab  ng  N  Eu  pe  and 
'^"lerica,    lieing    know 


the 


the  latter  con 
tinent.  In  the  E.  genus 
the  neck  is  sliort  ai  ^ 
thiclt,  and  Ihe  hair  bushy 
and  -coarse.  A  '  mane 
exists  on  the  throat,  ai  d  , 
the  hind  legs  have  tuRs  of 
hair  above  the  metatar 
s^s.  The  muzileis  broatl 
and  liairy,  and  the  hor  a 
are  lai^e  and  'palmed 
but  have  no  basal  'snags 
or  short  branches  nea 
the  crown.    The  tail    s  ^^ 

veryshort.  TheE.maya  ainahe  0  7  fee  a  es  1  e 
Its  colour  is  a  dark  brown,  the  legs  possessing  lighter  tints. 
The  E.  is  hunted  for  the  salce  of  its  horns,  akin,  and  flesh.  It 
is  wonderfnlly  agile  and  swift,  but  is  speedily  overtaken  in  snow. 
When  brought  to  ijay,  it  will  fight  with  great  courage  and 
ferocity.  It  may  be  domesticated  and  tramed  to  carry  burdens 
if  captured  young.  The  homs  in  a  large  specimen  may  weigh 
about  60  lbs.  In  Sweden  tlie  E,  is  not  allowed  to  be  hunted, 
and  the  chase  is  greatly  restricted  in  Norway. 

Elfc,  Irish  {Afegaeeras  Hibemiais),  a  famous  fossil  and 
extinct  genus  of  deer,  supposed  to  be  inteimediate  in  structural 
position  between  the  Reindeer  (q.  v. )  and  Fallow  Deer  (q.  v.).  Its 
remains  occur  in  the  Pleistocene  or  Post-tertiary  deposits  of 
Ireland,  and  also  in  deposits  of  similar  age  in  England,  Scotland, 
and  on  the  Continent.  This  animal  was  of  very  large  size,  and 
the  antlers  were  enormous,  attaining  an  expanse  of  10  feet  from 
tip  to  tip,  and  a  weight  of  between  70  and  100  lbs.  The  I,  E. 
does  not  appear  to  iiave  survived  into  the  Prehistoric  period. 

El  Khar'geli,  the  chief  town  of  tlie  Great  Oasis,  in  the  Libj-an 
Desert,  115  miles  W.  of  Esneh,  on  the  Nile.  The  Khai^h  and 
Dachel  oases,  taken  together,  form  the  Great  Oasis.  E.  K.  is 
the  centre  of  numerous  converging  routes  between  the  Nile  on 
the  E,  and  the  oases  on  the  W.  and  N.  In  the  vicinity  are  exlen- 
sive  paJm-groves,  and  there  are  numerous  Egyptian,  Roman,  and 
Arabic  remains.     The  oasis  and  town  were  visited  by  Schwcin- 


5^5 


vLiOOQle 


ELL 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ELL 


forth  in  the  winter  of  1873-74,  by  Rolilfs  in  1874,  and  by  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Oldenburg  in  1875.     Pop.  (1874)  3500. 

Ell  (Dutch  dit,  Fr.  autu,  Lat.  ulna\  a  linear  measure  talcen 
oiiginallj'  from  the  length  of  tlie  forearm.  The  Flemish  E.  is 
27  inches  long;  the  French  E.  (see  AuNE),  ^^\  inches;  and 
the  English  E.,  45  inches. 

EU'enborougli,  Earl  of,  Edward  Law,  an  English 
orator  and  statesman,  was  born  September  8,  1790,  educated  at 
Eton  and  Cambridge,  and  became  Lord  Privy  Seal  under  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  (182S],  and  President  of  tfee  Board  of 
Control  in  the  two  adminisfratioos  of  Sir  Robert  Parf,  In  1§4I 
he  was  made  Governor-General  of  India.  Ii^thijs  capacity  Ws 
policy  was  vigorous,  and  he  aided  ir)  yio4icatii^  the  British 
honour  in  Afghanistan,  Isit  gav^  great  offenpe  to  the  civil 
servants  of  the  Company,  whSe  somp  of  his  proplamations-^ 
particularly  that  m  r^ord  to  Ihe  sandaliiJ!ood  gates  of  the  temple 
of  Somiiauth— provoked  much  censure  and  ridicule.  Ultimately 
E.  was  recalled  {1844}.  He  was,  however,  supported  by  the 
Government,  appointed  to  the  office  of  First  Lord  of  the  Ad- 
miralty,, and  raised  to  the  dignity  of  earl  ajjd  vispoupt.  In  Lord 
Derby's  adminis [ration  of  1M58  E."  became  Iijjlian  Minister,  but 
was  ap;ain  unfortunate  ;  a  despatcli  he  sgrit  to  Viscount  Canning 
rebuking  him  for  what  is  knpwij  as  his  Oude  Proclamation 
caused  a  great  outcry,  and  compelledhim  to  resign  (iSjS).  After 
this  E.  was  one  of  the  keenest  and  most  eloquent  of  the  critics 
of  Liberal  administrations.  He  died  December  22,  1871.  See 
Lord  Colchester's  Defente  of  Lord  B-^s  Indian  Administration 
(Lond.  1S7S). 

Ell'enrieder,  ICarie,  a  G.aman  pakter,  was  born  at  Con- 
stance in  1791,  studied  art  in  her  native  place,  but  afterw^ifc  at 
Munich  and  Rome,  At  Karlsruhe,  where  she  liyed  for  some 
time,  she  painted  a  '  Martyrdom  of  St  Stepfien,'  after  width  she 
was  nominated  court  painter  at  Munich.  After  a  second  visit  to 
Rome  in  1S39,  she  returned  to  Constance,  where  she  settled!  till 
her  death  in  June  1 863,  Such  were  the  grace  and  sweetness  of 
her  heads  of  women  and  children  tliat  it  has  been  said  of  her 
'  she  painted  with  angels  about  her,'  Her  subjects  were  for  the 
most  part  sacred.  '  A  Chjld  Overtaken  by  a  Tliunderstorm '  is 
her  best-known  g>rtn  work, 

ElleB'mere,  Fianoia  Egerton,  Earl  of,  an  English  noble- 
man and  man  of  letters,  was  the  second  son  of  the  first  Dujce  of 
Sutherland,  and  was  born  in  London,  Janiiacy  i,  i8qo.  He 
entered  Parliament  in  1822  as  Lord  Francis  Leveson-Gower,  and 
supported  the  cause  ei  £ree;-trade,  and  helped  to  establish  the 
University  of  London.  In  1846  he  was  elevated  to  the  peerage 
as  Earl  of  EUesmere.  He  died  i8th  February  1857.  E.  was  an 
ardent  student  and  a  respectable  UUirateur.  In  1824  he  pub- 
lished a  translation  aiFaiat  with  versions  of  lyrics  from  Goethe, 
Schiller,  and  others;  Midiltrranean  S^cka  {1843) ;  The  Titu 
Siegts  of  Vienna  by  tht  Thnks  (1847) ;  aad-  Guide  to.  Norlherit 
Atch/!oksj>  (iZ^%). 

Eilesinere,  a  town  on  the  N,  border  of  Shropshire,  lomHes 
S.W.  of  Whitchurch  by  railway.  It  has  a  church,  part  of  which 
dates  from  the  14th  c,  and  it  is-  situated  ne^  a  fine  lak^.  Pop. 
{1871)  2013,  mostly  engaged  in  malting. 

EUeamere,  Lake,  in  the  province  of  Cajiterbury,  New 
Zealand,  20  miles  S.  of  Chiistdiurch,  has  aa  area  of  125  sq. 
miles.  It  receives  the  Selwyn,  but  has  no  outlet,  except  in  wet 
seasons,  when  it  overflows  into  ihe  sea. 

EU'iohpoor,  the  diief  town  of  the  Bcrars,  w  assigned  dis- 
tricts of  the  Nizam,  275  miles  N.  of  Hyderabad,  and  loo  E.  of 
Nagpur.  It  is  a  walled  cantonment,  and  has  a  beautiful  well 
.ind  many  fine  tombs,  surrounded  by  gardens.  The  trade  is 
in  local  products.  There  are  manufactures  of  cotton  and  silk 
fabrics,  carved  articles,  lac  ornaments,  &c.  Pop.  (1867)  27,782. 
— The  district  ^Hm  most  mountainous  in  the  Bemrs.  Area,  3i£o 
sq.  miles  ;  pop.  (1867)  344j35S-  In  1872  the  gross  revenue  was 
jf  126,01a  Tnirty-nine  per  cent,  of  E.  is  cultivated,  yielding 
chiefly  jowari  (a  kind  of  millet),  cotton,  wheat,  gram,  tilseed,  and 
sugar-cane.  See  O0dal  Gasstlftr  of  tlic  Berars,  by  A.  C.  LyaD, 
C.S.  (1869). 

Ell'iot,  an  ancient  Scottish  border  family,  which  has  produced 
severaldistlnguished  men.  Thefirstreallynolable  E.wasGilbert, 
'the  laird  of  Slobbs,'  in  Roxburghshire,  who  married  a  daughter 


of  Scott  of  Harden,  and  was  the  grandfather  of  the  Gilbert  E.  who 
was  made  a  baronet  in  1666.  From  the  latter's  younger  son  are 
descended  the  Earls  of  Minto  ;  while  his  elder  son  was  father  of 
(Jeorge  Augustus  E.,tliedefendei  of  Gibraltar,  who  H-as  bom 
in  1718,  entered  the  atmy  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battle,  of  Dettingen  and  in  the  Seven  Years'  War. 
After  the  peace,  he  was  made  lieotenant-geuetal,  and  having 
being  appointed  Governor  of  Gibraltar  in  1775,  he,  in  17S2, 
repelled  the  prolonged  attacks  of  a  Franco- Spanish  force  of 
30,000  men,  supported  by  ten  floating  batteries,  and  compelled 
the  enemy  to  change  the  siege  into  a  blpdta^,  which  ended  in 
the  Peace  of  Versailles,  2crtli  Januarj  1783.,  E.  received  the 
Order  of  the  Bath,  and  afterwards  the  title  of  Lord  Healhfield. 
He  died  6th  July  i79o."Sir  Oeorge  E.,  brother  of  the  first 
Earl  of  Mmto,  was  born  12th  August  l^^,  entered  the  navy, 
rose  rapidly  in  the  service,  and  in  1837  was  appointed  one 
of  the  totds  of  the  Admiralty,  and  Commander  of  the  Fleet  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  In  1840  he  was  appointed  to  the  chief 
n^val  command  in  Cainese  waters,  and  on  the  5th  of  July  he 
captured  the  island  of  Chusan.  He  was  promoted  vice-admiral 
in  1847,  admiral  in  1853,  and  died  at'  Kensington,  24th  June 
tS63.— Sir  OharleBE.,K,G.B.,  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was 
horn  in  iSoij  entered  the  navy  in  1816,  served  in,  India,  on  the 
African  coast,  and  in  tjie  W,  Indies.  In  1835  he  was  appointed 
Chief  Commissioner  and  Plenipotentiary  in  China.  He  vras 
in  the  centre  of  the  diplomatic  operations  leading  up  to  tiie 
ransom  of  Canton  in  August  1841.  §ince  that  date  he  has 
been  successively  Charge  d'Affaires  in  Texas  (1842^),  Governor 
of  Bermuda  (1847-52),  of  Trinidad  (;853-S6),  of  St  Helena 
(1863-69).  He  was  created  a  K.C.B.  in,  1856.— Sir  Heniy 
ICei^rB  J^,  son  of  John  E.  of  Pijnlico,  was  born  in  iSoS, 
educated  at  Wiufihesier,  and  entered  the  Indian  civil  service, 
the  Apt,  of  the  Qompetition  set,  in  1S27.  He  became  Secre- 
tary to  the  Government  of  India  in  the  Foreign  Department, 
and.  died  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  iii  1S53,  His  chief  work 
was  Ilia  posthumous  History  of  InSa  as  told  hy  its  own  His- 
torians (6  vols.  Lond.  1867).  He  also  wrote  a  Supplement  to 
the  Glossary  of  the  Indian  Terms,  from  which  was  compiled 
Memoirs  on  the  Races  of  the  North- Western  Frovinces  of  India 
(Loiid.  1859). 

Elliot,  Ebenezep.  the  '  Com-law  Rhymer,'  was  born  near 
Rotberbam,  in  Yorkshire,  March  17,  17S1.  He  began  life  in 
an  iron-foundry,  where  his  father  was.  clerk.  In  1821  lie  started 
an  iron-WOTjc  at  Sheffield,  and  was  so  saccessful  that  he  retired 
fiom  business  in  1841.  He  died  near  Bamsley,  December  I, 
1S49.  E.'s  poems  comprise— (i)  Pieces  descriptive  of  scenery 
and  riiral  life,  chiefly  in  Yorksliice,  as,  The  Vernal  Walk,  Night, 
Whamdiffe,  The  Village  Patriarch ;  (2)  the  political  pieces,  or 
Corn-Lam  Rhymes,  to  which  he  more  especially  owes  his  fame. 
These  appeared  between  1831  and  1S36,  and  are  marked  by 
great  fire  of  diction  and  a  certain  rude  straightforward  earnest- 
ness. In  1834,  appeared  a  collected  edition  of  E.'s  works  in  3 
vols.;  in  1840,  a  one  vol.  edition.  See  Cariyle's  essay  on  the 
Com-Litfo  Rhymes,  and  an  autobio^aphic  sketch  in  the  Alhi- 
nmusn  of  January  13,  1850., 

EUipae',  a  central  curve  of  the  second  order,  distinguished 
frora.  the  Hyperbola  (q.  v.)  in  having  no  iniinke  branches.  It  is 
one  of  the  sOrCalied  coniC;  sections,  being  the  curve  in  which  a 
right  cone  is  intersected  by  a  plane  cutting  its  opposite  sides 
obliquely,  Every  point  on  the  circumference  is  such  tliat  the 
sum  of  the  lines  drawn  from  it  to  two  Certain  fixed  points  inside 
the  figure  is  equal  to  a  constant  quantity.  These  two  points  are 
called  the  yS^f  (sing. /fljaj).  It  is  symmetrical  with  respect  to 
two  axes,  the  major  and  motor,  in  tlie  former  of  which  the  foci 
lie.  The  double  ordinate  through  either  focus  is  called  the 
parameter,  and  is  a  third  proportional  to  the  axes.  Also,  the 
square  of  any  ordinate  is  less  than,  or  ditfers  in  defect  from,  the 
rectangle  contained  by  the  abscissa  and  parameter— whence  the 
name  E.  Its  rectangular  equation  referred  to  the  centre  is 
J-  +  i.  =  I,  where  a  and  b  are  the  aiei 


tion  referred  to  the  focus  is 
e  is  the  Eccentricity  (q.  v.), 
the  planetary  theory. 

Ellip'sie  (Gr.  elleipsis,  '  omission  '),  a  figuri 
rhetoric,  by  whicii  one  or  more  words  are  om 


e  the  axes ;  and  its  polar  equa- 
I  +  e  cos,  •!>)  =  a  (j  —  e'),  where 
equation  of  great  importance  in 


yLaOOgle 


ELL 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ELM 


in  by  the  imagination.  It  expresses  strong  feeling,  and  conduces 
to  brevity  and  energy,  as  in  many  fam  Tar  pi  rases  Tl  e  omis- 
iion  of  connectives,  as  in  'The  wind  passeth,  over  t — it  is 
gone,'  is  called  asyiiddon,  a  figure  of  great  i  nporlance  w  th  the 
Greek  rhetoricians. 

EUip'soid,  a  surface  of  tlie  second  degree  whose  ii  r)  plane 
section  is  an  ellipse.     It  is  completely  detennuied  by    s  three 

rectangular  axes,  a,  h,  and  c,  its  equal  o  leng-+^+7='- 
If  any  two  of  tliese  axes  be  equal,  the  surface  beconies  an  E.  of 
revolution  or  Spheroid  (q.  v.). 

Eli'is,  George,  F.B.S.,  F.S,  A.,  one  of  the  earlier,  soundest, 
and  most  tasteful  of  the  scholars  who  have -devoted  themselves  lo 
^ly  English  lileralin-e,  was  bom  in  I-ondon  in  1745.  He  was 
educated  at  Westminster  school  and  at  Cambridge,  was  one  of 
the  authca-s  of  the  Eollmd,  a  satire  on  Pitt,  with  whom  he  after- 
wards became  reconciled ;  a;ccompanied  Lord  Malmesbury  as 
secretary  to  Lisle  in  1797 ;  became  a  contributor  to  the  Anti- 
Jacobin,  and  died  April  15, 1815.  Walter  Scott  said  E.  was  the 
best  converser  he  had  known.  E.'e  worits  arc  Spcdmens  of  the 
Early  English  I^lts  (3  vols.  1 790) ;  Spaimms  0/ English  Metn^al 
Romances  ;  Essay  on  the  Formation  and  Progress  sf  the  English 
Language;  and  a  preface,  notes,  and  appendix  to  Le  Grand's 
Fabliaux.  K  renders  the  quaint  language  of  mediasval  poets 
into  modern  English  with  a  graceful  ease  which  is  made  doubly 
chajming  by  a  curious  -combmation  of  genuine  sympathy  with 
mockiiig  humour.  He  was  a  worthy  foreninn^'  of  tli  new 
school  of  critics  and  historians  who  have  revived  an  interest 
in  our  early  literature.  — William  £.,  bom  at  the  end  of 
the  l8th  c,  worked  as  a  missionary  in  the  South  Sea  Islands 
from  1816  to  1824,  when  he  returned  to  London.  He  was 
Foreign  Secretary  of  the  London  Missionary  Society  from  1838 
to  1S40.  In  1853  he  visited  Madagascar  toexamine  the  stafeof 
Christianity  there.  The  results  of  this  journey  were  embodied 
in  hia  Thru  Visits  to  Madagascar,  1853-5*.  !"**  I^oUcts  of  the 
Pceple,  Natural  History,  &'c  (1859),  an  encellent  work,  from 
which  our  knowledge  of  Madagascar  has  been  mainly  derived. 
His  other  works  are — Narrative  of  a  Tom-  through  Owhyhee 
(l8l6) ;  Polynesian  Researches  (l8l!9) ;  J/islory  of  Madagascar 
<l839);  VaidtcaUonof  the  South  Sea  Missions  {i%li);  a^A  Mada- 
gascar Rmsited  (1867).  E.  died  June  9,  1872.— Sarah  Stick- 
ney  B.,  bom  about  1800,  married  William  E.  in  1837.  She  is 
theanthoresa  of  many  well-known  works,  among  which  £u«  Women 
of  England  (1838);  Daughters  of  England  (1842);  Wives  of 
England  (1843);  Hearts  and  Homes  ilS^S)  ;  Mothers  of  Great 
Men  (1859);  and  several  tales,  TXi  Sons  of  the  Soil,. Family 
Secrets,  &c— Alexander  Jolm  B.,  whose  original  name  of 
Sharpe  was  changed  by  royal  licence  in  1825,  was  born  at  Hox- 
ton,  June  14,  1814.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  entered 
the  Middle  Temple,  but  rterer  practised  as  a  lawyer.  He  was  made 
an  F.R,  S.  in  18S4,  and  was  pre^dent  of  the  Pliilologlcal  Society 
in  1872-74.  Amoiighisworksare— ^//:4a&^o/jVoi^re(l845); 
Essmtials  of  Phonetics  (1848)  i  Universal  Writing  and  Printing 
(1856)  ;  Early  English  Fr^uncialion,  with  Especial  Reference  to 
Chaucer  and  Shakespeare  (1869-75);  Algebra  identified  wilh 
Geometry  (1874),  &c.     See  Phonology. 

Ello'ta,  a  decayed  city  of  India,  in  Hyderabad,  13  miles  N.W. 
from  Aurangabad,  and  Ijo  E.  of  Bombay.  It  Js  encircled  by  a 
ruined  waJl,  but  js  now  a  mere  village,  famous  only  for  its  rock- 
cut  caves  and  temples.  These  are  excavated  in  the  ade  of  a  hill 
of  red  granite,  and  are  of  two  distinct  kinds — caves  proper,  and 
temples  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock.  The  former  are  of  Buddhist 
origin ;  the  latter  were  made,  in  a  later  age,  by  the  followers  of 
the  Jain  and  Bralimanical  religions,  and  are  among  the  most 
stupendous  productions  of  man.  Of  the  caves,  the  most  cele- 
brated is  the  Viswaltarma  Chaitya,  or  assembly  hall,  which  is  85 
feet  long  by  43  feet  wide.  The  fajade  is  less  elaboratel)'  oma- 
mented  than  in  other  cases  ;  the  roof  is  curved,  and  supported 
M  the  end  is  a  colossal  sitting 
nerous  viharas,  or  Buddhist 
:es,  of  which  by  far  the  lai^est  is  110  feet  by  7a 
These  are  all  caves  proper,  and  their  encafalion  is  placed  by 
Fei^sson  at  about  600  a.d.  One  of  them  has  Brahmamcal sculp- 
tures. The  rock-cut  temples  are  monolithic,  and  hewn  entirely 
out  of  the  hill,  '  the  rock  having  been  cut  away  externally  as 
well  as  intemaDy  ; '  each  temple  looking  as  if  it  had  been  placed 


In  the  case  of  the  Hylas,  the  most  magnificent  of  these 

;,  the  pit  was  dug  in  the  slopii^  side  of  the  hill,  100 

feet  deep,  150  wide,  and  270  long.  In  the  centre  was  left  stand- 
ing a  block  forming  the  temple,  from  80  to  90  feet  high.  All 
round  is  a  peristylar  cloister,  covered  with  carved  objects  from 
the  Hindu  pantheon.  The  temple  itself  is  covered  with  carved 
and  sculptured  figures,  There  is  no  inscription  or  other  date. 
It  has  been  assigned  to  about  800  a.d.,  allowing  for  the  excava- 
tion from  thirty  to  fifty  years.  It  was  the  work  of  a  Dravidian 
Eeople,  and  was  dedicated  to  Siva.  A  second  temple,  the 
ihumnar  Lena,  at  the  comer  of  the  hill,  150  feet  square,  is  so 
excavated  that  light  is  admitted  from  three  sides,  while  the  fourth 
side  is  part  of  the  solid  rock.  The  Jain  rock-chambers  have  gate- 
ways and  detadied  shrines.  Of  these  the  two  finest  are  the  India 
Subha  and  Jaganath  Subha,  which  probably  date  from  750  A.D. 
See  Fei^usBon's  History  of  Indian  Arthitectiire  (Lond.  1876). 

Ellore',  a  town  of  British  India,  province  of  Madras,  on  the 
Jummulair,  38  miles  N.  of  Masulipatam.  It  has  manufactures 
of  carpets  and  leather,  was  formeriy  an  Important  military  station, 
and  is  connected  by  an  aqueduct  with  the  Kistna  Canal,  but  has 
a  bad  cKmate.     Pop.  (1871)  ^,487- 

EUs'TTOrtll,  a  port  in  Mdne,  on  the  Union  river,  a  miles 
from  iU  mouth,  and  30  miles  S.E.  of  Bangor.  It  has  consider- 
able shipbuilding,  and  an  active  wood-trade.  Pop.  (1870)  5257. 
I!ll'woOil,TllOinaB,  a  Quaker  writer,  bom  atCrowell,  Oxford- 
shire, in  1 639,  now  remembered  fw  his  relations  with  Milton,  to 
whom  he  became  reader  in  1661.  In  1665  he  visited  Milton  at 
Chalfont,  St  Giles,  Buckinghamshire,  and  the  poet  gave  him  the 
MS,  ofPraraoiVZw/,  asking  him  tocriticise  and  return  it,  E.  tells 
us  he  read  the  poem,  and  took  it  back  to  Milton  : — '  He  asked 
how  I  liked  it  and  what  I  thou^t  of  it.  Which  I  modestly  but 
freely  told  him;  and  after  some  further  discourse  about  it,  I 
pleasantly  said  to  him,  '  Thou  hast  said  much  here  of  paradise 
lost ;  but  what  hast  thou  to  say  of  paradise  found  ? ' '  Milton, 
says  E,,  sat  some  time  musing,  then  changed  the  subject,  but  on 
E.  visiting  him  after  the  Great  Plague,  he  showed  him  Paradise 
Regained,  and  said,  '  This  is  ovring  lo  you  ;  for  you  put  it  into 
my  head  by  the  question  you  put  to  me  at  Chalfont,  which  before 
I  had  not  thought  of,'  E.  died  in  1713.  See  his  Autobiography 
(aded,  17I4). 

Elm  (Old  Eng.  eUm,  Dut.  olm,  Swed,  and  Dan.  aim,  Comp. 
Lat,  ultniis),  a  genus  of  Exogenous  plants  typical  of  the  natural 
order  Ulmacia,  in  which  the  leaves  are  alternate  stipulate, 
with  unisexual  flowers  bome  in  loose  clusters.  The  perianth 
is  inferior,  irregular,  and  bell-shaped.  The  stamens  are  de- 
finite, and  are  attached  to  the  base  of  the  perianth.  The 
ovary  is  one  or  two  celled,  and  the  fruit  is  diy  or  drupa- 
ceous. The  seed  is  solitary,  with  little  or  no  albumen.  The 
genus  Ulmus  has  a  two-celled  ovary  and  analropal  ovules, 
whilst  the  fmit  is  a  samara  and  possesses  winged  appen- 
dages.    The  English   K    <K  ca^festrls)    has   small  elljpti 


leaves.  The  flowers  are  subsessile.  This  tree  grows 
parts  of  Europe,  and  affords  a  hard  durable  wood,  much  used 
by  wheelwrights  and  diipbuilders ,  Its  bark  yields  a  dye,  and 
is  used  m  sugar-refining.  Of  the  galls  found  in  E.-leaves  in  S. 
Europe  is  made  E,  bafaam,  a  substance  formerly  much  used  in 
eye-diseases.  The  U.  montana  (wych  or  Scotch  E.)  has  large 
leaves,  and  grows  quickly,  Tlie  cork-barked  E,  (U.  suhei-osa) 
is  doubtfully  regarded  as  a  distinct  species  from  the  U.  cam- 
pestris.  It  is  common  m  English  plantations.  Other  species 
are  the  U.  major,  or  Dutch  cork-barked  E,  the  smooth-leaved 
E.  {U.  glabra),  the  Comish  K  (U.  stricta),  the  American  white 
E.  {(/.  Americana),  and  the  slippery  E.  {U.  fuhia)  of  Ameiica. 
Tlie  winged  E.  \.U.  alata)  of  N,  America  has  its  branches  pro- 
vided on  each  side  with  corky  appendages.  U.  CMnensis 
affords  galls  from  its  leaves,  which  are  much  used  by  the 
Chinese  for  dyeing  and  tanning  leather. 

Blmi'na  {'  the  mine '),  a  fortified  seaport  on  the  Gold  Coast, 
W.  Africa,  formerly  the  capital  of  the  Dutch  possessions,  lo  miles 
W.  of  Cape  Coast  Castle,  It  is  defended  by  Fort  St  George, 
one  of  the  oldest  as  well  as  strongest  of  the  coast  forts.  Pop. 
8000.  E.  was  founded  by  the  Portuguese  under  the  name  Sao 
Jorge  da  Mina  in  1481,  and  was  taken  by  the  Dutch 
It  was  ceded  with  the  rest  of  the  Dutch  possessions  in  \j 
to  the  British,  April  6,  1872.  During  the  Ashanti  war  i 
destroyed  by  the  English  (1873). 

5*7 


1  1637. 


vLiOOQle 


ELM 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ELS 


Elmi'ra,  a  city  of  New  York  state,  on  the  ChemuTig  rivs 
Z74  miles  N.W.  by  W.  of  New  York.  It  stands  in  a  fert 
district,  and  possesses  a  tine  court-liouse,  a  well-endowed  female 
college,  a  state  reformatory,  and  nineteen  cliurclies.  There  are 
large  iron-foundries,  mann factories  of  machinery,  wool,  boots 
and  shoes,  &c  The  trade  is  large,  and  the  town  risine  eteativ. 
Pop.  (1870)  15,873. 

iH'mo's  Fire,  St,  a  popular  name  of  the  electric  binsh  some- 
es  seen  round  the  top  of  masts  or  other  pointed  objecls  during 
a  thunder-storm.  The  phenomenon,  which  is  accompanied  by  a 
hissmg  noise,  is  supposed  to  indicate  that  the  storm  is  nearly 
r.  By  the  ancients  it  was  called  Castor  and  Pollu;(  if  the  ap- 
pearance were  double,  or  Helena  if  single.  In  the  lalter  case 
It  was  generally  regarded  as  an  evil  omen. 

Elmaliom,  a  town  of  Prussia,  province  of  Slesvig-Hol- 
Etein,  on  both  banks  of  the  Kriickau,  18J  miles  N.W.  of 
Hamburg  by  railway.  The  principal  industries  are  shipping, 
tanning,  and  shoemaking.  There  are  also  brandy-distiUeries, 
breweries,  and  manufactures  of  tobacco,  paper,  chocolate,  straw 
hats,  cement,  &c.  Pop.  (1871)  4829.  The  Swedes  under 
Wrangel  gained  a  victory  here  over  the  Danes,  t5th  February 
1645. 

M  0»eid',  or  Lobeid',  the  capital  of  Kordnfan,  lies  in  the 
heart  of  the  country,  at  the  N.W.  base  of  the  Djebel-Kordofan, 
220  miles  S.W.  of  Khartum.  It  isbuiltchiefly  of  clay  and  straw, 
and  the  houses  are  scattered  over  a  wide  area.  There  is  a  large 
trade  in  gums,  gold,  ostrich-feathers,  &c.     Pop.  about  12,000, 

Eloou'tion  (Lai.  elotutio,  'spetJting  out'),  expression  in  words 
rendered  vivid  and  impressive  by  suitable  look,  accent,  modula- 
1,  and  gesture  or  action.  In  ancient  times  E.  was  carefully 
studied  as  one  of  the  most  imponant  elements  of  Oratory  (q.  v.). 
In  onr  own  time  a  simpler  taste  allows  only  a  minor  place  to  E. 
in  public  speaking ;  and  while  the  art  still  flourishes  on  the  stage, 
and  in  some  degree  in  the  leclute-room,  it  is  paid  but  little  atten- 
lion  to  in  Parliament  or  in  oar  pulpits  or  law-courts. 

Eloge'  (Gr.  eulogia,  Lat.  elogium,  '  praise '),  a  term  denoting 
eul(fiy,  applied  m  France  to  a  panegyric  or  funeral  oration 

:tilatly  pronounced  in  honour  of  memben  of  the  Academy, 
e  E.  rciiched  its  greatest  perfection  in  the  days  of  Fontenelle, 
whose  elegant  E/agss  des  Acadlmidem  fill  two  volumes  (Par 
1731).  It  is  now  a  common  tribute  at  the  grave  of  any  person 
of  eminence,  and  sometimes  furnishes  an  opportunity  for  the 
expression  of  political  sentiments.  Occasionally  the  E.  is  in 
Latin,  as  in  Ruhnken's  famous  Ekgiitm  Heiiista-kusii.  See 
Thomas,  Esmi  sur  ies  £legts. 

EI'ohim(sing.  Eloah,  Arab.  Ildh.  Syr.Am,  'power,'  'might'), 
the  Hebrew  word  meaning  gods  (Micah  iii.  7),  ig  also  a[>plied  to 
le  one  God  of  Israel  (Amos  iv.  2).  The  history  of  the  Hebrew 
limn  clearly  indicates  that  their  purer  conception  of  God  arose 
from  an  early  polytheiatio  worship.  Joshua  (xxiv.  2)  accuses 
the  forefathers  of  the  Hebrews  of  serving  other  gods  beyond 
the  Euphrates.    In  the  lime  of  Moses,  Jehovah  (properly  Yahvehl 

IS  acknowledged  as  the  national  deity.     By  the  prophets  the 

me  E.  was  certainly  applied  to  the  one  God  Jehovah,  aa  if  he 

ire  to  them  all  that  the  plural  could  be,  bat  the  older  name 
belonging  to  the  polytheistic  period  vras  also  retained,  and  in 
the  opinion  of  many  scholars  the  occurrence  of  E.  in  one  of  the 
accounts  of  creation  in  Genesis,  and  of  Jehovah  in  the  other, 
marks  a  difference  in  the  antiquity  and  even  in  the  origin  of  the 
tradition.  This  point,  however,  is  still  keenly  disputed  by  rival 
schools  of  theology  and  biblical  criticism. 

Monga'tion,  Angle  of,  an  astronomical  term  originally 
applied  to  the  angular  distance  between  two  heavenly  bodies, 
but  now  generally  restricted  to  that  distance  between  a  planet 
ind  the  sun,  or  a  satellite  and  its  planet. 

Elope'ment.    See  Abduction. 

El  Pa'ao  del  KortS  ('  the  north  pass '),  a  fertile  valley  of 
Mexico,  in  the  state  of  Chihuahua,  extends  a  distance  of  to 
miles  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and  is  the  thorough- 
f!ue  leading  northward  out  of  the  repoblic  into  the  stale  of  New 
Mexico.  Pop.  about  5000,  much  engaged  in  the  vine  culture, 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  a  celebrated  wine  and  brandy. 

El'pliinatone,  Mountstu'art,  an  East  Indian  statesman 

and  administrator,  the  fourth  son  of  the  eleventh  Earl  of  E  , 

528  'I 


was  born  at  Ediiibui^h  in  1778.  He  entered  the  East  India 
Company  as  a  cadet  (1796),  and  after  some  diplomatic  service 
under  the  Duke  of  Wellington  was  nominated  first  envoy  to 
Cabul  in  1808.  On  the  apprehension  of  a  Franco- Russian  in- 
vasion of  British  India  he  concluded  a  treaty  of  alliance  with 
Shah  Sujah,  which  was  the  first  step  in  our  eventful  rdation  to 
Afghan  affairs.  He  published  an  Account  of  Ike  Kingdom  of 
Cabul  (Lond.  1815,  3d  ed.  1842).  In  l8r6  he  took  up  resi- 
dence at  the  court  of  the  Peifiiwa,  and  in  1817  was  actively 
engaged  in  the  battle  of  Kirkee— the  deathblow  of  the  Mahratta 
power.  He  was  governor  of  Bombay  from  1S20  to  1827,  and 
his  rule  was  marked  bj*  great  pubhc  works  and  vast  reforms,  and 
was  crowned  by  the  enactment  of  'the  E.  Code,'  which,  ibr 
comprehensive  clearness  and  brevity,  is  comparable  to  the  Code 
Napoleon.  The  E.  College  hi  Bombay  was  founded  in  his  honour 
(1827).  On  his  return  to  Europe  he  devoted  his  leisure  to  his 
History  ^  India,  the  Hindu  and  Mohammedan  Periods  (2  vols. 
Loud.  1841,  4th  ed.  1864),  a  work  which  has  gained  him  the 
title  of  the  Tacitus  of  Indian  history.  He  died  at  his  estate  of 
Hookward,  in  Surrey,  20th  November  1859.  See  Colebrooke's 
Memoir  of E.  (Loud.  1861),  and  Sir  J.  W.  Kaye's  Lives  of  Indian 
Officers  (Laid.  1867). 

Elphiaetone,  William,  one  of  the  most  enlightened  of 
Scotch  ecclesiastics  and  statesmen  of  the  islh  and  l6th  centuries, 
was  born  about  1430.  He  was  the  illegitunate  son  of  William 
E.,  Archdeacon  of  Teviotdale,  Trained  at  Glasgow  for  the 
Church,  he  showed  a  strong  liking  for  law,  wbicii  he  studied  on 
the  Continent  to  such  purpose  that  he  oblamed  a  professorship 
in  the  University  of  Paris,  and  afterwards  in  that  of  Orleans. 
Retiuning  to  Scotland  about  his  Ihu-ty-ninlh  year,  he  threw  him- 
self  into  ecclesiastical  and  diplomatic  life,  held  in  succession  the 
offices  of  official-general  of  Glasgow  diocese.  Rector  of  the  Uni- 
ity  and  officiS  of  Lothian,  and,  under  Tames  III.  and  la 

i"  I. ..-.«..  11 «_    „f  4.1 !,:_...  J ..._     _C    £■__.,...  .t  <    Tr  ^  f 


October  25,  1514.  His  chief  ecclesiastical  offices  were  those  of 
Bishop  of  Ross  (1481),  and  of  Aberdeen  (14S3),  and  no  prelate 
of  his  conn  tiy  or  lime  had  so  high  a  reputation  for  devotion  to  his 
church,  erudition,  or  sagacity.  Employed  on  various  embassies, 
he  was  a  strenuous  advocate  of  an  alliance  between  Scotland 
and  France.  Such  was  his  patriotism  that  the  defeat  of  Floddeii 
is  believed  to  have  hastened  his  death.  He  aided  in  establishing 
the  first  Scotch  printing-press  (that  of  Millar  and  Chepman)  in 
Scotland  (150^10),  and  in  causing  to  be  prmted  the  Breviarium 
Aberdoneme  (reprinted  m  1853),  in  which  he  wrote  the  lives  of 
Scottish  fathers.  E.  will  be  remembered  chiefly  for  having 
obt^ed  from  Pope  Alexander  VI.  a  bull  for  the  establishment 
of  a  college  in  Aberdeen,  otherwise  lai^ely  benefited  by  him, 
which  was  founded  in  1500.  Oi^inaily  St  Mary's  College,  it 
has  since  become  known  as  King's  College,  and  is  now  merged 
with  Marischal  College  in  the  University  of  Aberdeen.  See 
Cosmo  Imies's  SkeUhes  of  Early  Scottish  History  (Edinb.  1861). 
El  BiOearlo,  a  town  of  Mexico,  state  of  Cinaloa,  55  miles 
E.  of  Mazatkn,  has  some  trade  with  the  interior,  and  H-as  for- 
merly noted  for  its  now  abandoned  gold-mines.     Pop.  Sooa 

El'sasa-I.oth'rii^en,  the  German  form  of  Alsace-Lorraine 

(q.  v.). 


shore  of  the  Sound,  24  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Copenhagen  by  1 
way.  It  has  a  cathedral,  a  beautiful  royal  palace  Qfarienlyst), 
alai^ecustom-house,&c,  and  is  defended  by  the  castle  of  Kroii- 
l>°''g  ('574-84).  which  commands  the  Sound  from  a  promontory. 
The  Sound  is  here  only  2}  miles  broad,  and  is  frozen  over  in 
exceptionally  severe  winters.  E.  has  a  good  harbour  and  active 
manufactures  of  hosiery,  arms,  and  brandy.  In  1873  there 
passed  through  the  Sound  5946  vessels,  most  of  which  anchored 
at  E.  for  provisions.  Here  were  formerly  colle,cted  the  Sound 
dues.  Pop.  (1870)  8891.  E.  is  the  birthplace  of  Saxo  Gram- 
maticus  a,nd  the  scene  of  Shakespeare's  Hamlet. 

Els'tor  ('the  alder-tree  stream'),  tlie  Black,  a  river  in 
Saxony,  rises  near  Hemhut,  flows  N.W.,  and  joins  the  Elbe 
8  miles  E,  of  Wittenbei-g,  after  a  course  of  m  miles.— The 
WMteE.  rises  on  the  N.W,  frontier  of  Bohemia,  flows  N.,  and 
the  Saale  3  miles  S.  of  Halle,  after  a  course  of  120  miles. 


y  Google 


ELS 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EJs'traoke,  Regrinald,  an  accomplished  English  engraver 
of  ihe  early  part  of  the  I7tli  c.,  whose  works,  cliiefiy  portraits, 
liave  a  high  character  for  firmness  and  vigour.  They  are  ex- 
tremely rare,  and  are  much  sought  after,  not  only  for  their  artistic 
merit,  but  also  for  iheir  historical  value, 

El'ton,  Lake,  a  salt  lake  of  Russia,  on  the  border  of  the 
Khirghii  Steppes,  in  the  government  of  Samara,  and  90  miles 
E.N.E.  of  the  point  at  which  the  Volga  bends  S.E.  to  the  Cas- 
pian Sea.  It  is  14  miles  long,  lias  an  area  of  78  sq.  miles,  but  is 
exceedingly  shallow.  It  yields  some  6,000,0Do  cwi.  of  salt 
yearly.  The  industry  employs  10,000  people.  All  the  salt  is 
conveyed  for  shipment  to  Karnyschin,  on  the  Volga. 

Mutria'tion  (LaL  eluiriatus,  'washed  out'),  a  process  of 
washing  with  water  employed  in  the  laboratory  and  in  several 
arts  for  separating  the  lighter  from  the  heavier  particles  of  disin- 
tegrated mineral  matter.  After  the  lai^e  heavy  particles  sub- 
side, and  while  the  Ughter  particles  are  held  in  suspension,  the 
water  is  drawn  off.  E.  is  usually  performed  in  a  vat  provided 
with  grmding  wheels,  as  in  the  case  of  ores,  potter's-daj,  and 
pigments.  ^ 

ElVas  (anc.  Alia,  from  the  Basque  Alioa,  '  the  place  on  the 
rugged  hill '),  a  fortified  town  and  bishop's  see  in  the  fortress  of 
Alemtejo,  Portugal,  on  a  steep  hill  overlooking  a  tributary  of  the 
Cayo,  near  the  S[«nish  frontier,  and  12  miles  W.  of  Badajoz, 
The  streets  are  crooked  and  filthy,  but  many  Moorish  houses, 
with  their  latticed  windows  and.  verandahs,  give  the  town  a 
■  :ture5que  appearance.     The  fortress,  the  strongest  in  Portugal, 

IS  built  by  the  Moors,  and  was  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1658  and  1711.  The  cathedral  is  of  mixed  Ara- 
besque and  Gothic.  E.  has  also  a  college,  an  arsenal,  a  hospital, 
a  theatre,  &c.  A  supply  of  water  is  provided  by  a  Moorish 
aqueduct  (Os  Areas  de  Aiiiorarc),  which  rises  in  sevei^  tiers  of 
arches  to  a  height  of  250  feet,  and  has  a  length  of  3i  miles. 
The  inhabitants  carry  on  a  profitable  smuggling  trade  with  Spain, 
especially  in  British  fabrics.  Pop.  12,400.  The  neighbourhood 
is  rich  in  wine,  oil,  and  fruits. 

Ely  (Old  Eng.  'EHg,  '  Eel  town  '),  a  cathedral  city  in  Cam- 
bridgeshire, 724  miles  N.N.E.  of  Loudon  and  15  N.E.  of  Cam- 
bridge by  railway.  It  stands  on  slightly  elevated  ground  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Ouse,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  country  exceedingly 
fertile,  producing  iai^e  quantities  of  fruit  and  vegetables  (chiefly 
asparagus)  for  the  London  market  Pop.  of  the  '  city,'  embrac- 
ing the  three  parishes  of  Holy  Trinity,  St  Mary,  and  E.  College 
(1871),  8166,  Of  the  parish  churches,  St  Mary's  is  partly  Norman 
partly  Early  English.  There  are  two  railway  stations — those 
of  the  Eastern  Counties  and  Great  Northern  Railways.  But  the 
importance  and  the  renown  of  E,  lies  in  its  famous  cathedral, 
founded  by  Simeon,  the  first  Norman  abbot  (1082-94)  of 
the  monastery  established  (970)  on  the  site  of  the  former 
vent  of  St  .^theldrida,  daughter  of  Anna,  king  of  the  East 
glians.  The  building  was  completed  to  its  western  end, 
and  the  first  tower  nearly  to  the  summit,  in  the  time  of 
—  hop  Riddell  (1174-S9).  The  Galilee  or  western  porch 
;  built  .1198-1215.  In  the  time  of  Wilham  of  Wyke- 
ham  it  had  a  choir  and  a  presbytery  added  to  it,  which  raised  it 
to  the  very  first  rank  among  English  churches ;  and  when  its  old 
Norman  tower  fell  in  1323,  the  famous  octagon,  at  the  mtersec- 
tion  of  the  nave  and  transepts,  was  built  by  Alan  of  Walsing- 
ham.  This  octagon,  70  feet  by  65,  is,  according  to  Fergnsson, 
the  only  true  Gothic  dome  in  existence.  It  is  unsurpa^ed  in 
beauty  by  any  similar  structure  in  Gothic  architecture.  All  the 
styles  of  architecture  from  Early  Norman  to  Late  Perpendicular 
may  here  be  studied.  The  nave  is  Norman,  the  presbytery 
belongs  to  the  13th,  and  the  octagon  and  choir  to  the  I4lh  c. 
The  cathedral  measures  565  feet  from  western  to  eastern  ex- 
;rior,  and  is  the  largest  church  in  Europe,  having  an  area  of 
61,700  feet.  The  height  of  the  central  tower  is  215  feet,  while 
■'-  -  nave  is  72  feet  high  and  7S  wide.  It  is  built  throughout  of 
:e  from  Bariiack  in  Nortliamptonshire,  but  many  of  the  in- 
or  shafts  and  pinnacles  are  worked  in Purbeck  marble.  Among 
the  famous  eccle^astics  that  ruled  in  E.  cathedral  were  Abbot 
Theorstan,  who  espoused  the  cause  of  Eadgar  the  ^theling,  and 
successfully  held  me  Isle  of  E.  against  the  Normans  for  several 
years ;  Simeon,  the  brother  of  Walkeiin,  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
and  a  relative  of  the  Conqueror;  Longchamp,  tlie  Grand  Justiciary 
of  Richard  I.  j  Louis  de  Lnxembm^,  who  had  been  Cliancellor 
142 


of  France  and  Normandy  for  Henry  VI. ;  and  Stanley,  third 
son  of  the  first  Earl  of  Derby.  Quite  recently  the  cathedral  has 
been  restored  under  the  superintendence  of  Sir  G.  G.  Scotl, 
atthecostof/45,000. 

Ely,  Jsh  a/ {Old  Eng.  £/;jro,  'Island  of  eels'),  the  Cam- 
bridgeshire Fens,  or  the  N.  portion  of  Cambridgeshire,  from  the 
rest  of  which  it  IS  cut  off  by  the  Ouse.  Area,  227,326  acres  ; 
pop.  (1871)  66,333.  The  fen  lands,  formerly  sour  from  excess 
of  moisture,  and  producing  nothing  but  reeds  and  sedge,  are  now 
rich  and  productive  in  cereals  and  vegetables.  They  are  pio- 
tected  from  inundation  by  artificial  banks  alojig  the  rivers. 
Formerly  windmills  were  used  to  work  the  machinery  by  which 
water  was  removed  from  the  flats  into  the  streams,  but  recently 
these  have  partly  given  place  to  steam-engines. 

£fy,  County  of,  is  only  a  royal  franchise,  and  not  a  county- 
palatine,  though  sometimes  improperly  so  considered.  See 
County. 

El'ymns,  a  genus  of  Graminese  (q.  v.  ]  or  Grasses. 

Elys'itiin  (Gr.  elusion),  in  Greek  mythology  the  abode  of  the 
blessed  after  death.  Homer  (Od.  iv.  563  seq.)  places  it  on  the 
W.  border  of  the  earth  near  to  Ocean,  and  represents  its  hero- 
tenants  as  living  in  ease  and  plenty  under  the  mild  rule  of  the 
golden-haired  Rhadamanthus.  Elsewhere  (Od.  xL  490  seq.')  he 
gives  a  gloomier  description  of  the  spirit-land,  and  makes  Achilles 
say  that  he  would  rather  be  the  veriest  diud^  on  earth  tlian 
king  of  the  shades.  Hesiod  and  Pindar  place  E.  in  the  Islands 
of  the  Blest.  The  Latin  poets  regard  it  as  a  part  of  the  nether 
world,  and  pahit  it  as  a  delicious  region  of  verdant  fields,  amar- 
anthine meadows,  perennial  streams,  and  shady  groves. 

Elzevier',  or  Elzevir,  the  name  of  a  Dutch  family  who  for 
130  years  were  engaged  in  the  business  of  bookselling  and  print- 
mg,  and  whose  nam,e  is  identified  with  accurate  and  beautiful 
typography.  The  first  was  Lodewijk  E.,  bom  at  Louvain,  who 
started  business  at  Leyden  in  1580.  His  Etdropius  appeared 
in  1592,  and  before  1617  he  had  published  150  works.  His 
five  sons  all  followed  the  same  trade  ;  Mattheus  at  Leyden, 
lEgidius  at  the  Hague,  Bonaventuta,  who  in  partnership  with 
his  nephew  Abraham  (specially  a  printer)  at  Leyden  for  twenty- 
six  years  produced  small  but  beautiful  editions  of  the  classics, 
and  the  famous  Les  Petites  KipuUiquis.  The  Amsterdam 
printing  house  was  started  in  1638  by  Lodewijk  of  the  third 
generation;  he  before  1654  had  produced  189  works,  chiefly 
avo  classics,  Cicero  in  410,  Corpus  ^ris,  folio,  and  the  Efypis- 
logicon  Lingute  Latinis.  Lodewijk  was  afterwards  joined  by 
Daniel,  the  son  of  Bonaventtira,  who  had  previously,  in  pat' 
nership  with  his  cousm  Jan  at  Leyden,  produced  about  30 
works,  and  afterwards,  when  alone,  iiS  works,  including  the 
4to  Hoina;  Heinsius'  edition  of  Ovid,  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment. At  Amsterdam  Daniel,  who  lived  till  1680,  had  pro- 
duced about  152  additional  works.  Pieter,  a  bookseller  at 
Utrecht,  and  Abraham  II.,  who  did  University  printing  at  Leyden 
down  to  1712,  were  the  last  of  the  family.  In  1820  a  descendant 
was  governor  of  Curacoa.  Of  the  total  1213  Elzevirs, '  968  are 
Latin,  44  Greek,  126  French,  32  Flemish,  li  German,  10  Italian, 
22  in  Eastern  languages.  Only  one,  Heinsius'  De  Conttmpiu 
Mortis,  is  on  vellnm.  Among  the  Svos,  the  most  prized  are 
Eliiiy  {l6ji),  Virpl  (1636);  The  ImUeOion  of  Christ,  Livy,  Casar, 
afid  Tacitus  were  also  masterpieces.  Among  Frendi  works 
Comines  and  the  Sagessi  of  ChaiTon  may  be  mentioned.  The 
Seneca  is  valued  as  being  unbound  and  showing  the  original 
margin.  The  best  lists  of  Elzevirs  are  to  be  found  in  Brunet's 
Maaiiel  du  Liliraire.  Dldot,  Nodier,  Mottely,  Pieters,  B^tard, 
Walther,  and  De  Beaumc  have  written  special  works  on  the 
subject.  Elzevirs  are  with  dif&culty  distinguished,  the  E.  name 
having  been  stolen  by  other  printers,  and  the  Elzevirs  having 
issued  many  anonymous  works  to  escape  political  or  religious  cen- 
There  are  also  close  copies  by  eminent  printers  like  Fop- 
"  :en.  At  one  time  every  book 
marked  with  a  sphere  was 
cherished  as  an  E.  The  reliable  marks  are  these  ;— (l)  An  eagle 
bearing  seven  arrows  with  the  motto  Concordia  resparvs  crescunt; 
(2)  a  column  surrounded  by  a  vine  branch,  with  a  philosopher 
below  and  the  motto  Non  solus  ;  (3)  Minerva  and  an  olive-tree, 
Ne  extra  oleas ;  (4)  a  burning  pile  of  wood,  Aftid  Ekevirics 
(in  allusion  to  the  name  E.,  which  means  elm-or  fire-wood),  or 
ExofficiiiaE.  also  appears.  The  paper  came  chiefly  from  Angou- 
529 


pens  of  Brussels  and  Wolfgai^  of  Leyden 
printed  in  Holland  in  the  I7lh  c  and  m; 


vLaOOgle 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


EMB 


-* 


3  time  through  Ecstasy  (q.  v.).     God  is  also 


lime ;  the  types  were,  many  of  them,  cut  and  cast  by  Garamond 
and  SMilecque.  The  Elzevirs  were  more  successful  men  of  busi- 
ness than  tlie  older  printers,  such  as  the  Aldi,  Morel,  Amerbach, 
&c.,  but  probably  had  not  the  same  literary  enthusiasm. 

Emauft'tioii,  Doctrine  of,  was  the  hypothesis  by  which 
Plolinus  surmounted  the  dilemma  that  if  God  produced  a  world, 
as  it  could  not  be  produced  from  nothing,  it  must  be  produced 
from  God's  substance,  and  was  therefore  identical  with.  God ;  or 
from  some  other  substance,  which  was  therefore  eoiiteropora- 
neoos  with  God,  The  Christian  said  creation  took  place  by  an 
onmipotent  volition,  but  Plotinus  said  the  world  was  the  mere 
emanation  of  die  absolute  imity  into  intelligence,  and  of  intelli- 
gence into  the  universal  soul.  Emanation  thus  excludes  dualism 
and  even  pantheism,  for  though  the  world  is  God,  God  is  not  the 
world.     There  was  also  a  process  of  reabsorplion  of  the  finite 

into  the  infini         *'  ''  ''     '' r^--—-i 

ceived  from  tii 

described  as  Buthos,  or  Abyss  of         „   _ 

ations  of  the  divine  substance,  arans  or  ideas,  are  described  as 

expantUng  rays  of  light.   The  sum  of  these  zeona  is  fSrdtna,  and 

the  kst  :e(m,  sofhia,  passing  into  the  void  {kendma),  produces 

the  world. 

Emancipa'tion  (Lat.  imancipo, '  I  liberate  or  declare  to  be 
free,  not  a  cliattel  or  piece  of  property ')  is  the  act  of  freeing 
from  any  subjection  or  disability.  See  Catholic  Emancipa- 
tion and  Slavery. 

Emandpatiatt  is  a  term  borrowed  from  the  Roman  law,  denot- 
ing m  Scotch  law  the  liberation  of  a  child  from  paternal  autho- 
rity.    See  FoRiSFAMiLiATiON,  Parent  and  Child. 

Eiaan'uell.,  King;  of  Portugal,  was  bom  3d  May  1469, 
and  succeeded  JoSo  II.  in  1495.  His  reign  is  the  most  glorious 
in  the  JPortuguese  annals.  He  reformed  education,  patronised 
art  and  literature,  and  codified  the  Portuguese  laws;  but  he  is 
especially  memorable  as  the  enei^etic  promoter  of  his  country's 
commerce  and  naval  power.  In  his  reign  Vasco  de  Gama  sailed 
round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  India,  Cabral  took  possession 
of  Brazil,  Lope  de  Scares  opened  up  the  China  trade,  and  Al- 
meida and  Albuquerque  extended  the  Portuguese  power  in  India 
and  on  the  E.  coast  of  Africa.  His  reign  is  the  beginning  of 
what  is  called  the  Goldin  Period  of  Forlugiust  History,  which 
extends  from  1495  to  1580.  E.  made  Lisbon  the  chief  seat  of 
commerce  in  Europe.  The  only  severe  reverse  which  he  sus- 
tained was  in  Northern  Africa.  He  was  variously  styled  the 
Good,  the  Great,  and  the  Fortunate.  Tlirice  mamed,  his  last 
wife  was  sister  of  Karl  V-  of  Austria,  He  died  13th  Decem- 
ber 1521. 

Embalm'iUS  (Fr-  tmiaumemenl,  from  baumi ;  Old  Fr. 
bausme,  Lat,  ialsanium),  the  art  of  preserving  dead  bodies  by 
employing  antiseptic  drugs,  aromatic,  saline,  tanning,  or  other 
chemical  reagents.  In  Ancient  Egypt  the  art  attained  a  high  state 
of  perfection,  and  bodies,  called  'mummies'  (from  the  Arabic 
piumia,  '  bitumen,'  or  muM,  '  wa? '),  embalmed  in  that  country 


King  Mycerinus,  builder  of  the  thir4  pyramid, 
British  Museum,  E.  was  universal  among  the  i^yptians,  and 
the  custom  has  been  ascribed  to  their  belief  that  an  undecajred 
body  would  be  reanimated  after  3  lapse  of  3000  years.  Wilkui- 
EOn,  however,  thinks  'the  custom  arose  rather  from  a  sanitary 
regulation  for  the  benefit  of  the  Uving,  and  from  that  feeling  of 
respect  for  die  dead  which  is  common  to  all  men,'  Herodotus 
describes  three  methods  that  were  pursued  in  Egypt,  each  dif- 
fering in  details  and  costliness.  The  corpses  of  the  rich  were 
embdmedina  most  elaborateand  magnificent  style.  The  brains 
were  extracted  through  (he  nostrils  with  curved  instruments, 
and  the  viscera  through  an  incision  in  the  left  side,  and  drugs 
and  powdered  aromatics  inserted  into  the  cavities.  The  wound 
in  the  side  was  then  closed,  and  the  body  kept  in  natron  for 
seventy  days,  and  after  that  time  it  was  swathed  in  fine 
linen  bands  smeared  with  gum.  In  some  instances  the  face  and 
other  parts  of  the  body  were  gilded.  The  other  two  processes 
were  similar  but  less  expensive.  It  would  appear  tliat  there 
were  other  modes  of  E,  than  those  mentioned  by  the  Greek 
historian,  for  mummies  have  been  found  in  which  bitumen  has 
been  the  chief  preservative.  A  modem  classification  of  Egyptian 
modes  of  E,  is  given  in  Pettigrew's  History  of  Egyptian  Mum- 


53° 


(Lend.  1834).  The  embalmed  bodies  of  the  rich  were 
enclosed  in  two  coffins  of  sycamore  or  cedar  wood,  painted 
with  hieroglyphic  legends.  Those  of  the  poor  were  wrapped 
■  sheets  and  laid  in  mummy  pits.  The  bodies  of  sacred  animals 
ere  also  embalmed  by  the  Egyptians,  Other  nations,  mcluding 
the  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  practised  the  art  of  E.,  but  less 
effectiveiy  than  the  Egyptians.  Large  numbers  of  mummies, 
chiefly  preserved  by  desiccation,  have  been  discovered  in  Peru, 
The  AitecB,  and  others  of  the  extinct  tribes  of  Central  America, 
also  occasionally  preserved  their  dead  (Bancroft's  Native  Races 
of  the  Pacific  Slates  of  N.  America,  Lond.  1875),  Many  caverns, 
containing  Guanche  mummies,  geneially  in  a  good  state  of  pre- 
servation, have  been  opened  in  Teneriffe.  The  Guanches,  the 
aboriginal  inliabitants  of  the  Canary  Islands,  disembowelled  the 
corpse,  washed  it  with  a  saline  solution,  anointed  it  with  a  com- 
position of  bleep's  butter,  powdered  pumice-stone  and  pinetree 
dust,  and  dried  it  in  the  sun  for  fifteen  days  (Ethnological  Society 
Transactions,  new  series,  vol.  vii.).  E  has  been  studied  scien- 
tifically in  modern  times.  During  last  century  Lewis  de  Bil, 
Clauderus,  and  Benjamin  Gooch  operated  vrith  varymg  success, 
and  two  bodies  preserved  in  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons 
show  the  efficacy  of  Dr  John  Hunter's  injection  method.  In 
one  of  these  camphorated  spirits  of  wine  was  thrown  into 
the  arteries  and  veins.  An  arsenical  solution  was  used  by  Dr 
Tranchina  of  Naples  and  by  M.  Gaunal  of  Paris.  The  latter 
subsequently  adopted  a  solution  of  sulphate  and  chloride  of 
aluminium,  and  a  chloride  of  zinc  solution  was  employed  by  Dr 
Souquet,  The  Parisian  Academy  of  Medicine  tested,  in  1847, 
the  processes  of  Gaunal  and  Souquet,  with  the  result  that  the 
mode  of  the  latter  was  alone  successful  M.  Audigier's  method 
of  E.  is  at  present  adopted  in  Paris,  It  consists  in  pouring  a 
preserving  liquid  into  the  larynx  through  the  mouth,  and  in  sur- 
rounding the  corpse  with  a  vegetable  powder  saturated  with  die 
same  liquid.  The  body,  it  is  sjud,  acquires  a  wooden  hardness, 
Irl  America  Dr  Seely  resorts  to  carbolic  acid,  and  in  England  Dr 
W.  B.  Richardson  uses  conjnnctly  three  solutions,  A  saturated 
solution  of  zindc  chloride  is  injected  slowly  into  the  tracheal  or 
femoral  artery,  which  is  afterwards  plumed  with  silicate  of  soda, 
^nc  colloid  is  then  introduced  into  the  brain  and  abdomen,  the 
nose  is  stuffed  with  cotton  and  wool,  and  tlie  eyelids  and  lips 
drawn  together.  While  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  these 
processes  of  E.  will  stand  the  test  of  time,  it  would  be  unreason- 
able to  assert  that  chemical  research  is  unable  to  furnish  a  preser- 
vative as  efficient  as  the  preparadons  of  the  Egyptians.  Modern 
E.,  however,  should  be  regarded  as  a  scientific  curiosity,  for  it  is 
unlikely  that  the  art  will  ever  be  revived  widely. 
Embank'nient.  See  Earthwork. 
Embar'ffO  (Span.  '  arrest  or  impediment ')  is  a  detention  1 
arrest  of  ships  or  merchandise  by  public  authority.  On  breakin_ 
out  of  war,  an  E.  may  be  imposed  on  Ihe  shipping  of  the  enemy 
by  proclamation.  An  E.  has  not  the  effect  of  putting  an  end  to 
the  contract  of  affreightment,  the  freight  being  due  as  if  the  ship 
were  detained  by  contrary  winds.  The  master  and  the  crew  arr 
consequently  entitled  to  wages  during  detention. 

(Med.    Lat.   antbaciia  or  ambasHa,    '  service  o 

^^,  froni  a  Celtic  word  Latinised  mXa  dmiactus,  'retainer, 

or  the  Gothic  anddakti),  a  diplomatic  mission,  the  hinction  of  ai 
ambassador.  The  Romans  had  their /(.jjWkj,  'adel^ate,' whence 
this  branch  of  international  law  is  known  as  j'ui  legaiorum,  and 
therightsofE,  are  called /MjtoaftiHiiJ,  Asovereign,  the  head  of 
a  department,  or  a  military  officer  may  act  on  E,  without  havuig 
the  title  of  an  ambassador.  Lord  Coke  says  of  Henry  VII.  that 
he  would  not  suffer  any  foreign  ambassador  within  his  realm ; 
and  in  Poland,  in  the  17th  c,  one  who  did  not  depart  after  his 
business  was  over  vras  thought  to  be  a  spy.  Whetlier  any  state 
of  a  confederation  can  send  ambassadors  depends  on  the  federal 
compact :  neither  the  American  nor  the  Swiss  states  can  do  so. 
Generally,  no  objection  to  religion,  rank,  or  sex  of  an  ambassa- 
dor can  be  taken.  Madame  Guelriant  was  French  aml>assador 
at  the  Polish  court  in  1646.  The  rank  of  ambassador  was  fixed 
at  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  March  ig,  1815.  Diplomatic  em- 
•playis  are  divided  into  ( I )  ambassadors,  legates  or  nuncios ; 
{2)  envoys,  ministers,  or  others  accredited  to  sovereigns ; 
(3)  charges  d'affaires  accredited  to  foreign  ministers.  The  office 
of  ambassador  is  terminated  by  the  death  of  either  sovereign. 
See  Ambassador. 


y  Google 


EMB 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Embattled,  or  Battled,  in  heraldry,  the  partition  line  a 
the  shield  in  representation  of  battlements.  This  'differ 
was  often  conrerred  for  distinction  in  battle. 

Embatt'lement.     See  Battlement. 

Emberi'za  and  Emberizida.     See  Bunting. 

Ein.be7Z'leinen,t  is  the  fraudulent  appropriation  of  the 
perty  of  another  by  the  person  to  whom  it  is  intrtisted 
common  law  this  offence  does  not  amount   to  theft,  b 

Sunishable  arbitrarily  as  malTersation  or  Breach  of  Trust  (q 
t  has,  however,  been  found  necessary  to  enact  statutes  fo 
punishment  of  E.  in  certain  cases.  E.  is  not  cheating,  beca 
there  is  no  fraudulent  contrivance,  nor  is  any  false  pretence 
Neither  is  it  theft,  because  no  property  is  taken,  the  offender 
being  previously  in  lawful  possession  j  but  the  Ime  between  thefl 
and  E.  is  often  very  diflicnlt  to  draw.  Thus  the  appropriation 
by  a  watchmaker  of  a  watch  left  with  him  to  be  cleaned  and 
repaired  was  held  to  be  ihift,  beause,  as  the  judge  said,  '  when 
a  party  pats  hia  watch  into  the  hands  of  a  walchmalter  to  be 
cleaned  or  repiuced,  he  only  parts  with  the  custody;  y^s  fossession 
of  the  watch  is"  tlie  possession  of  the  owner.'  The  range  of 
punishment  extends  from  fine  or  imprisonment  to  transportation 
ibr  life.  By  statute,  any  one  employed  in  the  Post  Office  who 
steals  a  letter  is  liable  to  transportation  for  seven  years,  and  if 
the  letter  contain  money  or  valuables,  to  transportation  for  life. 
A  clerk  or  servant  gtiilty  of  E.  may  be  transported  for  fourteen 
yeais.  Any  agent  receiving  money  with  written  instruction  as 
to  its  application  convertii^  the  same  to  his  own  use  is  liable 
to  penal  servitude  for  seven  years.  A  member  of  a  copartner- 
ship who  converts  the  common  property  to  his  own  use  is  liable 
to  be  tried  and  punished  as  if  he  had  not  been  a  member  of  the 
copartnership.  E.  of  Government  stores  is  punishable  by  penal 
servitude  for  fourteen  years.      See  Broad  Areow. 

Embla'zon.    See  Blazon. 

Em'bleni(Gr. «n3/«n3,  'something inserted j'^w,  'in,'andiB/- 
lein,  'to  throw'),  a  concrete  or  pictorial  expression  ot  a  sym- 
bolical idea.  Thus  the  lion  is  the  E.  of  courage.  Among  the 
sacred  emblems  m.  heraldry  are  the  winged  lion  of  St  Mark,  the 
angel  of  St  Matthew,  the  winged  oi  of  St  Luke,  and  the  eagle 
of  St  John,  The  red  rose,  the  white  rose,  and  tl  vi  1  t  h 
served  respectively  as  the  emblems  of  the  house       t  L  t 

Stuart,  and  Bonaparte. 

EmTjlementa,  a  term  of  English  law  denoti  g  th  p  fit  f 
land  sold,  but  the  word  is  sometimes  used  to  de  t  y  t  ral 
fruits  of  the  ground.    A  tenant,  or  another  in  h    nght  11 

cases  entitled  to  reap  the  crop  which  he  has      w       O    tl 
death  of  a  tenant,  the  executor,  and  not  the  he  t  tl  d  t 

tlie  E.    See  Apportionment,  Liferent. 

EmTjlica,  a  genus  of  E-uphorhiacsi,  of  which  th       ly  p     es 
is  the  E.  offidnalis  or  Pkyllanthus  .£■.     It  is  a      t         f  I  dia 
and  the  Malay  Archipelago.     Its  acrid  fruit  is  us  d      Id 
piclde.    The  dry  ripe  fruit  is  a  medicine  for  diarrl  ce      dy       t    y 
and  cholera,  and  is  known  as  Myrobalaai  imUi         Th    b    k 
used  for  tanning  and  as  a  black  dye. 

Bm'bolism  (from  the  Gr.  anballS,  'I  throw  )  m  1 
cine  denotes  the  presence  of  obstructmg  clots  f  bl  d  th 
vessels.  E.  often  causes  obscure  disease  and  dd  d  h 
especially  if  it  occurs  in  the  large  arteries  near  the  h  irL  W 
in  childbed  are  liable  to  E.,  and  several  cases  f  h  1  md 
given  in  Simpson's  Obstetric  Msmoirs.  See  Coh  C  Ivr  E 
tolischcit  Kraiikhdtia, 

Embossing  (Fr.  hossi,  a  swell  ng  or  hump  )  th  art  f 
producing  raised  patterns  o    o  naments     n  anj  pi  rf  f 

paper,  cardboard,  cloth,  leatl  e     wood    S.        Si  t  1  p  tt  ar 

produced  by  E,  or  '  stampi  g  In  the  E  of  p  p  d  th 
the  pattern  is  first  prepared  a  d  a  countc  d  e  ther  m  t  I 
or  cardboard  is  made.     The  d  e    are  fiied   n     p  d  th 

paper  or  cardboard  is  well  damped  before  E.  For  the  E.  of 
names,  monograms,  and  crests,  steel  dies  and  counter-dies  are 
engraved,  and  E.  and  colour- printing  are  required  for  the 
printing  of  such  in  colours.  The  E.  of  cloth,  such  as  velvet,  felted 
table-covers,  &e.,  is  done  by  a  cylinder  machine,  which  is 
a  jnodified  form  of  calender.  A  colour-printing  apparatus  Is 
also  used,  as  in  calico-printing.     The  pattern  for  E.  is  engraved 


which  may  be  adopted  with  hard  mood,  is  to  apply  a  mould 
containing  the  pattern  red  hot  to  the  wet  surface,  A  super- 
ficial charring  takes  place,  and  repeated  wettings  and  burnings 
are  all  that  is  necessary  to  procure  patterns. 

Em'bouchure  (Fr.),  a  mouth  or  opening,  as  the  mouth  of  a 
river.  In  music  it  means  the  part  of  a  wind  instrument  to 
which  the  mouth  is  applied  in  blowing, 

Embowed',  in  heraldry,  means  curved  or  bent.     The  left 

arm  bent  at  the  elbow  is  blazoned  '  embowed,'  the  right  arm 

■embowed.'    The  word  was  formerly  in  general  i 


Embra'oery,  in  English  law,  signifies  an  attempt  to  influence 
a  jury  in  their  verdict  by  persuasion  or  bribery.  The  embraceor 
and  guilty  juror  are  liable  to  imprisonment  and  fine. 

Embra'zTireB  ate  openings  for  cannon  in  fortified  works  or 
in  siege  batteries.  E.,  which  have  an  outward  slope  to  allow 
of  free  firing,  secure  the  safety  of  those  within  the  walls. 

Embroca'tion  (through  L6w  Latin  from  the  Gr.  embncks, 
'  I  soak  in ')  denotes  the  incessant  moistening  with  certain  appli- 
cations, and  rubbing  of  a  diseased  part,  as  a  means  of  cure, 

Embroi'dery  (Fr.  broderie,  a  doublet  of '  bordering '),  deco- 

t'  k  w      ght  with  the  needle  upon  any  textile  fabric. 

Th   art        h     b  ck  nto  prehistoric  times.     Embroidered  pat- 

t  p       the  garments  of  persons  represented  on 

Eoypt  t     and  from  the  Book  of  Exodus  we  gather 

th  t  th    I  ra  1  quired   the  art  while  dwelling  in  ^ypt. 

B  bjl      h  d     wid     pread  reputation  for  the  beauty  of  her  E,  j 

d  m  PI  ygia,  G       e,  and  Rome  the  art  was  also  carried  to 

p  -f    t  D       g  the  middle  ages  nuns,  and  even  monks,  and 

w  m        f      J  1  and  noble  rank,  engaged  in  it.     Some  eccle- 

ti    1       tm    t      f  that  time  display  gorgeous  E.  in  gold, 

1  anJ        1        d   silk,    frequently    enriched  with    precious 

to  E  gl    d  was  for  several  centuries  celebrated  for  vari- 

tyl        f  E      and  during  the  13th  c.   a  new  jnethod  was 

t    d      d  wh   h  the  admiradon  of  Christendom,  and  was 

des  g    ted    fits  A  giicutn.      In  it  the  old  feather-stitch  {ofui 

pi       m    )     as         bined  with  a  chain-stitch,  which  was  laid 

d  wn  If     parts  of  the  human  face,  and  in  straight 

!         f     th         t    f  the  figure,  and  an  appearance  of  relief  was 

g         t    th    f       by  pressing  som   p  rts  d  w       'th  a  heated 

tm       t      Th    fi  est  existing        mpl      f    E  igl   h  work '  is 

th    Sy      C  pe,     mboidered  in  g  Id      1        and    illcs  in  the 

3th  c        d       w  t    asured  in  th    S     th  K        ngt  n  Museum. 

Ab    t  th        m    p     od  was  prod      d  tl      m     amed  Bayeux 

T  pestry  (q       ) 

M  ImEmyb  livided  into  tw  1  —  ht  E.,  worked 
p  m  Im  camb  c,  &c. ;  and  1  d  E  as  Ik,  worsted, 
g  Id  4.      w    ked        silk  and  oth       Cuff       Fra  tandsmthe 

h  t  ank  f  th  p  oduction  of  white  E,,  and  then  follow 
Sax  y  S  tzerl  d  and  Italy.  Glasgow  was  a  great  centre 
f  thi  dustry  till  th  crisis  of  1857.  E,  is  applied  to  curtains, 
p  L  rs  0.C  I  olouied  E,  China,  Japan,  and  India  espe- 
cially excel,  and  rich  work  of  the  same  kmd  is  found  on  the 
dresses  and  common  domestic  articles  of  the  Turks,  Geoi^ians, 
and  Circassians.  The  vestments  of  the  Russian  hierarchy  and 
Albanian  costumes  resemble  tissues  of  gold  and  silver,  so  pro- 
fusely are  threads  of  these  metals  employed  in  their  adornment. 
Artistically  coloured  E.  has  greatly  declined  in  England,  but 
there  are  signs  of  its  revival,  Afifliqiti  viaxk  signifies  that  the 
531 


vLiOOQle 


THE  GLOBE  EXC^CLOPJiDIA. 


EME 


needlework  has  first  been  wrought  npon  some  tissue,  ani  after 
wards  sewn  or  applied  to  the  embroidered  stuff  It  is  common 
n  medieval  vdvets.  Machines,  chiefly  modifications  of  Heil 
lann's  invention,  have  recently  come  into  use  m  England  and 
n  the  Continent,  by  which  elaborate  patterns  can  be  executed 
by  one  person,  who  may  keep  130  needles  m  simultaneous 
motion.  The  work  of  fifteen  hand-embroiderers  is  performed 
by  one  of  these  machines.  Several  sewing  machines  have  also 
been  adapted  to  embroidering.  Sse'SirMitsIhitiofuiiyo/Ait', 
Manufactures,  and  Mnes  (7th  ed.  Loud,  1875), 

amtorun',  an  ancient  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Haates- Aloes,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Durance,  and  on  the  side 
of  Mont  St  Guillaume,  about  100  miles  N.N.E.  of  Marseille 
Its  catheiJral,  the  construction  of  which  is  referred  to  the  era  of 
Karl  the  Great,  is  one  of  the  finest  historic  buildings  of  France 
~  nianufiictures  cloth,  silk,  and  velvet.  Pop.  (1872)  2161.  E , 
ancient  Ebrodununt,  is  of  Celtic  origin,  and  is  mentioned  by 
Sti-abo.  It  was  made  the  see  of  a  bishop  during  the  4th  c ,  and 
afterwards  of  an  archbishop.  It  was  ravaged  successively  by 
Vandals,  Huns,  Lombards,  and  Spanish  Arabs,  K  suffeied 
greatly  in  the  religious  wars  of  the  l6th  c,  and  was  partly  de 
Etroyed  by  the  Duke  of  Savoy  under  Louis  XIV.  (1692). 

EmllryO  (Gr,  emBman,  'budding  inwardly,'  from  en,  'wilhm,' 
and  bntein,  '  to  swell  like  a  bud '),  the  name  given  to  the  deve 
loping  young  of  animals  and  plants  in  its  earlier  stages  of  grow  th 
In  botany  the  E.  is  the  young  plant  contained  in  the  seed  It 
is  contained  or^inally  in  the  E.-sac,  and  appears  fo  develop 
from  a  single  nucleated  cell.  In  the  plant-E.  the  root  and  stem 
portions  can  usually  be  discerned,  the  former  pointing  to  Che 
micropyle  or  small  aperture  in  the  seed.  Embryology  or  embry 
ogeny  is  the  science  which  deals  with  the  Development  of  the  £ 
(q.  V,)  in  animals  and  plants.  The  name  fatus  is  frequently  given 
■  to  the  E.  of  higher  animals.  The  true  E.  results  from  fertilisa- 
tion of  the  seed  or  egg  respectively.     See  Generation,  &c, 

Embryol'ogy.    See  Development  of  the  Embryo. 

Embrjrot'omy,  in  obstetrics,  is  the  dividing  of  the  fffitns  in 
iitero,  m  order  to  procure  delivery.  The  operation  is  justifiable 
only  when  the  size  of  the  pelvis  cavity  renders  delivery  by  other 
means  impossible. 

Em'den  ("the  foct  on  the  Ems '),  formerly  Bmbden,  a  sea- 
port of  Prussia,  in  E.  Friesland,  on  the  N.  shore  of  Dollarl  Bay, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Ems,  70  miles  W.N.W.  of  Bremen  by  rail- 
way. It  has  a  good  harbour,  and  is  intersected  by  several  canals, 
which  are  crossed  by  some  thirty  bridges.  ITie  chief  buildings 
are  the  townhouse  (1574-76),  an  exchange,  a  custom-house,  a 
school  of  navigation,  a  deaf  and  dumb  asylum,  and  a  maseum  of 
antiquities.  E.  has  manufactures  of  linens,  hosiery,  sailcloth, 
starch,  soap,  tobacco,  &c. ,  and  also  extensive  shipbuilding  yards 
and  breweries.  The  town,  which  lies  low,  is  protected  from 
inundation  by  dykes.  Pop.  (18721  12,588.  The  free  port  of  E. 
became  Prussian  in  1744,  passed  to  Holland  in  1S06,  to  France  in 
1S09,  again  to  Prussia  in  1814,  and  finally  to  Hanover  in  1S15. 

Em'erald  (Er.  hneravde.  Old  Fr.  esmeralde,  Sp.  amerelda, 
Ger.  itnaragd,  from  tlie  Gr,  smaragdus).  This  highly  valued 
precious  slone  differe  from  the  beryl  and  aquamarine  only  by  the 
bi^lliant  green  colour  which  is  its  charactenstic,  and  which  some 
allege  to  be  due  to  the  presence  of  oiganic  matter  similar  to  the 


hexagonal  system ;  it  is  transparent,  with  a  deep-green  colour, 
without  any  admixture  of  blue  or  yellow ;  in  hardness  it  ex- 
ceeds quartz,  and  its  specific  gravity  is  2'732.  In  percentage 
composition  it  consists  of  silica  68'50,  alumina  1575,  glucina 
12-50,  with  generally  small  proportions  of  iron,  chromium,  and 
lime.  The  largest  emeralds  are  found  in  Siberia,  on  the 
Tokowoia,  while  the  finest  occur  in  S.  America,  especially  at 
Muzo  in  Colombia.  Other  mines  are  at  Canjaigum  in  India, 
Limoges  in  France,  Mount  Zabarab  in  Upper  Egypt,  and  the 
Henbach  Valley  in  Sabbai^.  When  first  taken  from  the  mine, 
the  E.  is  so  soft  and  friable  that  it  can  be  reduced  to  powder  by 
rubbing  between  the  fingers,  hut  it  liardens  by  exposure  to  the 
air  for  a  few  days.  The  E.  is  esteemed  in  value  next  to  the 
ruby,  and  from  its  supposed  great  virtues  is  especially  treasured 
in  the  East.  The  Duke  of  Devonshire  owns  a  fine  American  E. 
'eighing  8  oz,  18  dwt.,  and  in  Mr  Hope's  collection  there  is 


532 


another  weighing  6  01.,  for  which  its  owner  paid  £t,oo.  The 
E.  IS  often  referred  to  in  Scripture  and  by  classical  authors. 
Ouental  E  is  the  name  of  a  rare  green  variety  of  sapphire.  E. 
coppei,  or  dioptase,  a  green  ciystallised  mineral  fouud  only  in 
Central  Asia,  consists  of  50  parts  of  protoxide  of  copper,  39  of 
silica,  and  1 1  of  water,  E.  nickel  is  a  compound  of  carbonate 
and  hydrate  of  nickel,  found  at  the  chrome-mines  of  Texas. 

EmeT^d  Hill,  a  town  in  Victoria  forming  one  of  the 
■Juburbs  of  Melbourne,  but  under  distinct  municipal  government. 
It  occupies  ver)  nearly  the  site  of  the  'Canvas  Town'  of  the 
early  days  of  Victorian  gold  discovery      Pop.  19,500, 

Kmer'sioil. (Lat  emergen,  'to  come  forth'),  in  astronomy,  is 
the  reappearance  of  one  heavenly  body  from  behind  another. 
Jmniersion  is  its  disappearance  at  the  commencement  of  the 
occnltation  or  eclipse  Both  phenomena  are  of  great  use  in  de- 
termining the  Longitude  (q  v  )  of  any  locahty. 

Em'ersoji,  Eev  'Williani,  a  descendant  of  a  chaplain 
in  the  Army  of  Independence,  was  bom  at  Concord,  Massa- 
chusetts, May  6,  1769,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in 
I7b9,  bi-came  minister  of  a  Unitarian  Church  in  Boston, 
published  several  discourses,  a  Seleclipa  of  Psalm!  and  Hymns 
(i&oS),  and  a  Hislor}  of  the  First  Church  of  Boston  (1812), 
and  died  May  12,  1811  —Ralph  Waldo  E.,  LL.D., 
essayist  and  poet,  son  of  the  above,  wis  born  at  Boston, 
May  25,  1S03,  giaduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1821,  be- 
came a  Unitarian  minister  m  Boston,  but  in  1823  aban- 
doned preaching,  and  has  since  lived,  chiefly  at  Concord,  in 
seclusion  and  study  An  oration,  Mait  Thi?ikin£,  before  the 
Phi  Beta  Kappa  Society,  Cambridge,  m  1837,  aud  an  address 
to  the  senior  divmity  class,  Cambridge,  won  him  wide  notice  for 
their  daiing  and  poetic  transcendentalism.  He  produced  Literary 
klMcs,  an  oration,  in  1838;  Nature,  an  essay,  in  1839;  in 
1840  started  the  Diai,  a  transcendentalist  organ,  and  in  1841 
published  The  Method  of  Naluri,  Man  the  Kefimur,  L&'ircs 
on  thi  Times,  and  the  first  series  of  his  Essays.  A  second  bc.ies 
of  Essays  appeared  in  1844,  and  his  first  I^ems  in  1846.  In 
184S  he  visited  England,  where  he  leclai'ed  on  The  Mind  end 
Manner!  of  the  \^th  c.  In  1850  he  issued  Sfpresentative  Men, 
and  publi^ed,  along  with  W.  H.  Channing,  the  Memcirs  of 
Margaret  Fuller  (1S52).  Since  then  he  has  ^xoA>iixA  English 
Trmls  {1856),  Conduct  of  Idfi  {lido).  Oration  on  the  Death  of 
President  lincoln  (1865),  Mayday  and  other  Pieces  {1867), 
Society  and  Solitude  (1S70),  Parnassus,  a  collection  of  poems 
(1871),  and  Letters  and  Social  Ainu  ilSj6).  He  was  made 
LL.D.  ofHarvatd College  m  1866.  Throughouthiswrilings  E. 
has  sought  to  render  lile  more  spiritual  and  of  a  nobler  moral 
tone,  to  lend  it  an  ideal  colouring  without  neglecting  its  prac- 
tical needs.  His  works  mingle  a  beautiful  idealism  with 
shrewd  ethical  teachings.  In  the  nature  of  his  admonitions, 
in  the  union  of  mystical  spp^laiion  with  fiery  homely  reproof  of 
the  age,  he  resembles  Carlyle,  but  not  at  the  expense  of  oiiginal- 
ity.  His  prose  style  is  crisp,  simple,  and  limpid,  rich  in  words 
and  phrases  of  singular  suggestiveness  and  pregnancy.  His 
poems  lack  melody  and  freelyrical  impulse,  and  are  sometimes 
rough  in  diction  and  cloudy  in  meaning,  but  embody  much  of  the 
freshest  and  subtlest  thought  to  be  found  in  recent  verse. 

Em'ery  (Fr.  Smrri,  Old  Fr.  esmeril,  Gr.  smuris,  from  smu- 
m5, '  I  polish'),  is  the  massive  variety  of  the  mineral  species 
Conindum  (q.  v.),  which  includes  also  the  sapphire,  the  Oriental 
ruby,  the  Oriental  topaz,  &c.  E.  has  a  dull-brown  colour,  and 
varies  in  hardness  and  specific  gravity  according  to  its  degree  of 
purity.  Thus  sapphire,  which  is  practically  pure  crystallised  alu- 
mina, is  only  exceeded  in  hardness  by  tlie  diamond,  and  is  the 
purest  form  of  the  mineral  of  which  E.  is  a  variety.  The  supply 
of  E.  for  industrial  purposes  comes  chiefly  from  Naxos,  Nicaria, 
and  Samos,  where  it  is  obtained  in  large  boulders.  It  is  also 
obtained  near  Gumach-Dagh,  about  12  miles  E.  of  Ephesus, 
and  ill  Massachusetts,  U.S.  E,,  on  account  of  its  hardness,  is  a 
substance  very  extensively  employed  in  the  arts.  It  is  used  in 
the  grinding,  cutting,  or  polishing  of  plate  glass,  flint  glass, 
gems,  jewels,  edge-tools,  brass,  &c.  It  is  prepared  for  use  by 
pounding  it  under  heavy  steel  stamping  tools  ;  and  when  suffi- 
ciently comminuted,  it  is  arranged  into  sizes  by  sifting  through 
sieves.  Grinding  wheels  of  a  composition  the  essential  ingredient 
of  wliich  is  E.  are  in  use.  E,  cloth  is  made  by  sifting  the 
particles  over  a  surface  of  calico  piepared  with  dissolved  glue. 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAIDIA. 


EMM 


-4- 


Emet'iCS  (Gr.  emetikos,  from  tnteS),  are  substances  which 
produce  vomiting  by  a  specific  action  on  liie  stomach,  indepen- 
dently of  their  odour,  taste,  orbullc  They  should  be  administered 
in  every  case  in  which  a  poisonous  ot  injurious  substance  has 
been  swallowed.  If  medicinal  E.  are  not  at  hand,  vomiting  may 
be  induced  by  tickling  the  lauces  with  the  finger  or  with  a 
feather,  or  by  conious  draughts  of  tepid  water.  In  slight  disorders 
of  the  stomach  E,  afford  relief,  and  in  many  acute  internal  diseases 
isea  is  only  removed  by  emesis,  occurring  naturally  or  by 
administration  of  E.  The  occasional  use  of  E,  in  the 
pulmonary  diseases  of  infancy  is  of  great  value,  as  infants  swallow 
the  dischaiges  from  the  lungs.  E.  are  partly  vegetable  and  partly 
mineral,  the  more  important  of  the  former  being  mustard,  ipeca- 
,cuanha, .  sanguinaria,  &c. ;  and  of  the  latter,  sulphate  of  zinc, 
sulphate  of  copper,  and  tartrate  of  antimony.  E.  that  may  be 
taken  safely  without  medical  prescription  are,  for  an  adull,'a  lea- 
spoonful  of  mustard,  or  20  gridns  of  ipecacuanha,  in  tepid  water, 

Bm'etine.    See  Ipecacuanha. 

Emigra'tion,  the  removal  of  persons  from  one  country  to 
another  for  the  purpose  of  permanent  residence.  Among  nations 
historically  identified  with  E.  are  the  Greeks,  Spaniards,  Dutch, 
and  Portuguese.  In  late  years  the  great  body  of  emigrants  are 
English,  Irish,  and  German.  The  following  figures  will  show 
the  growth  of  the  practice.  In  1815,  20S1  persons  left,  but  by 
1E19  this  had  increased  to  34,787.  The  numbers  fluctuated  until 
1830,  when  they  began  to  rise,  reaching  103,140  in  1833.    From 

1846  to  1854  there  was  a  steady  rise  up  to  368,764,  but  lliis 
point  reached,  they  fell  to  91,770  in  l85l.  Since  then  there  has 
been  a  steady  rise  from  England  and  Scotland,  but  a  decrease  iu 
Irish  K  It  must  be  recollected,  however,  that  nearly  all  the 
Germans  go  through  from  Hull  to  Liverpool.  In  1872  the 
number  of  foreigners  emigrating  through  Britain  was  79,OJ3,  out 
of  a  total  of  S95,2I2  in  the  United  Kingdom.  The  percentages 
of  K  are— English,  5615  ;  Scotch,  9-28 ;  Irish,  36-57.     Since 

1847  the  Government  has  Sent  out  340,299,  chiefly  to  Austra- 
lasia and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  Government  also  com- 
mutes day-pensions  into  the  expense  of  a  passage.     The  returns 


the  thirty  years  prior  to  1872,  Jamaica  received  25,000  persons,  of 
whom  16,000  came  from  the  £.  Indies  ;  British  Guiana  received 
160,000,  of  whom  80,000  came  from  the  E.  Indies,  28,000  from 
Madeira,  23,o0ofrom  the  W.  India  Islands,  13,000  from  Africa, 
and  l2,ooo  from  China.  Trinidad  has  received  60,000—44,000 
from  the  E.  Indies,  only  2665  from  China.  Mauritius  has  re- 
ceived 358,000,  of  whom  352,000  were  from  the  E.  Indies  and 
2500  direct  from  captured  slavers.  During  the  last  thirty  years 
about  125,000  immigrants,  liberated  Africans  and  Kroomen, 
returned  home  from  these  colonies.  The  practice  of  the 
colonies  as  regards  E.  assistance  is  varions.  Thus  the  Canadian 
Dominion  agent  gives  $10  per  statute  adult  No  free  pas- 
sages are  granted  to  South  Australia,  but  land  orders  of  £20 
per  statute  adult  are  given  on  landing.  The  Queensland  Agent- 
General  gives  free  passages  to  female  domestics  and  emigrants 
of  the  farming  class.  One  of  the  most  unpromising  fields  of 
E.  recently  opened  to  Great  Britain  is  S.  America,  During 
the  twenty  years  that  the  Emigration  Commissioners  have 
administered  the  Passenger  Acta  (q.  v.)  only  4  out  of  853 
chartered  ships  (carrying  312,526  souls)  have  been  lost,  and 
only  one  {TA^  Guiding  Star,  1835)  with  loss  of  life.  In 
British  Guiana  coolies  can  make  as  much  as  3s.  lod.  per  day. 
In  New  S.  Wales  the  land  is  disposed  of  at  an  average  rate  of 
^I,  IIS.  3id.  per  acre  in  the  settled,  and/i,  is.  3d,  in  the 
pastoral-  disfrlcts.  The  colony  derives  an  annual  income  of 
half  a  million  steeling  frora  her  Alienation,  Occupation,  and 
Gold  Field  Acts.  The  Queensland  Immigration  Act  of  1869 
provides  for  part  payment  of  passage-money  before  embarka- 
tion, the  rest  to  be  paid  two  years  after  arrival  in  the  colony. 
In  Victoria  ploughmen  make  tSs.  9d.  per  week  with  rations ; 
shepherds  about  ^^31,  12s.  per  annum.  A  variety  of  recent 
Acts  in  S.  Australia  authorise  the  sale  of  rnral  land  on  credit 
at  very  cheap  rates.  In  Canada  there  is  almost  always  a  brisk 
demand  for  immigrants.  Ordinary  labourers  make  from  4!.  id. 
to  6s.  per  day ;  masons  and  bricklayers,   from  6s.  to  los.  2d.  ; 


female  domestics,  from  i2e.  4d.  to  ^2,  gs.  3d.  per  month.  The 
Dominion  agent  arranges  assisted  passages  on  the  Allan, 
Dominion,  and  Temperley  lines  of  steamers.  The  land  in  Mani- 
toba is  one  dollar  an  acre,  payable  in  cash  or  military  bounty 
warrants,  heads  of  families  receiving  a  free  homestead  grant  of 
There  is  a  valuable  system  of  emigrant  aid  so 


the  townships.     The  public  bi 


is  of  E.  ought  ci 


fieving  the  pressure  of  population  at  home,  and  the  prudence  of 
retaining  a  certain  control  over  colonial  development,  it  has  been 
argued  that  mother  couiitiies   ought  to  assist  colonies  in  the 

Etnigraiion,  Law  Regarding. — By  7  Vict.  c.  loi,  owners  and 
ratepayers  may  raise  or  borrow  money,  not  exceeding  half  the 
average  yearly  mte  for  the  three  preceding  years,  to  enable 
the  poor  to  emigrate  ;  but  the  money  must  not  be  raised  on  the 
security  of  the  rate  without  the  consent  of  the  Commissioners, 
and  the  period  of  repayment  mnst  not  exceed  five  years.  Guar- 
dians apply  the  money  to  the  expense  of  E.  The  Act  13  and 
14  Vict.  c.  loi  contains  provisions  for  facilitating  the  £.  of 
poor  orphans  and  deserted  children.  These  Acts  do  not  apply 
to  Scotland;  but  by  14  and  15  Vict.  c.  91  advances  may  !>e 
made  out  of  money  authorised  by  the  Act  io  be  advanced  for 
the  improvement  of  the  land  10  help  the  E.  of  the  poor  in  the 
Highlands  and  islands  of  Scotland.      See  Ships'  Passbngehs 

Em'igrfs  ('  emigrants '),  the  name  given  to  the  French  nobles 
and  clei^  who  fled  from  France  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolu- 
tion in  1789.  Many  of  tliem  were  inilemnified  on  the  Bourbon 
restoration.  See  Saint-Gervais,  Hisioiri  des  £,  Fronfaii  iPs.i:, 
3  vols.  1823). 

Emil'ifl  (named  after  the  Mviilia  Praviiuia  of  the  Romans, 
on  the  famous  Via  jEmilia),  a  former  division  of  N.  Italy, 
consisting  of  parts  of  the  Romagna  and  of  the  duchies  Modena 
and  Parma,  now  portioned  into  nine  modem  provinces.  In  the 
N.E.  it  is  flat  and  marshy,  in  the  S.W.  mountainous  and  inter- 
spersed with  fertile  valleys.     Bolc^na  forms  its  centre. 

Em'inence  (Lat.  eminentia),  an  ecclesiastical  title,  the  em- 
ployment of  which  was  restricted  by  special  enactment  of  Pope 
Urban  VIII.,  1630,  to  cardinals,  ecclesiastical  electors,  and  the 
Grand  Master  of  the  Order  of  the  Knights  of  St  John. 

.Emir'  (Arab,  'ruler'),  the  title  given  to  all  the  descendants 
of  Mohammed's  daughter  Fatima,  who  are  distinguished  by 
the  green  turban.  It  is  assumed  by  many  tribal  chiefs  i 
the  East  and  in  N.  Africa.  The  E.-al-Mumenin,  '  Prince  of  th 
Faithful,'  is  a  title  of  the  califs ;  K-al-Omra,  '  Prince  of  Princes,' 
is  at  present  in  Turkey  the  title  of  provincial  governors;  E.- 
Hadji, leader  of  the  pilgrims ;'  E.- Bazaar,  market  inspector, 

Ennnftn'uel  College,  Cambridge,  was  founded  by  Sir 
Walter  Mildmay,  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  to  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, in  1584.  It  has  thirteen  foundation  fellowships  open  to  all 
her  Majesty's  subjects ;  two  fellowships  and  four  scholarships 
on  Sir  W,  Dixie's  foundation  ;  thirteen  open  scholarships  of  jfj'o 
a  year  and  five,  of  ^f 30,  paid  ftom  the  college  revenues ;  five 
scholarships  of  £y>,  founded  by  Dr  Thorpe  ;  and  seven  scholar- 
ships varying  from  £16  tO;^35  per  annum,  for  which  candidates 
from  certain  schools  have  the  preference.  The  number  of  under- 
graduates in  1875  was  70. 

Emmen'agOgues,  medicines  which  maintain  or  restore  a 
healthy  condition  of  the  menstrual  discharge,  and  produce  con- 
traction of  the  uterus  during  and  after  childbirth.     The  chief  E. 


Emmetro'pia,,  the  condition  of  the  normal  eye  as  regards 
power  of  sight  for  different  distances.  Near-sightedness  is  called 
Myopia,  and  far-sightedness  Presbyopia  (q.  v.). 


vLaOogle 


4- 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EMO 


doned  to  become  a  leader  of  the  '  United  Icishinen.'  On  tlie 
Irish  insurrection  of  1796-98  being  suppressed,  he  was  arrested; 
but  his  sentence  of  imprisonment  was  commuted  to  exile,  and 
removing  to  New  York,  he  became  a  distinguished  lawyer. 
He  died  November  14,  1S27. — Sobert  E.,  younger  brother  of 
tile  aliove,  was  bom  in  Cork,  1780 ;  was  intended  for  the  bar, 
but  joined  the  Irish  insurgents ;  was  captured,  and  executed 
September  20,  1S03.  His  death  and  his  love  for  Miss  Curraii 
are  the  subjects  of  two  of  Moore's  Irish  Mdodies, 

BmO'dio  Pltfra,  a  name  given  to  plants,  as  species  of  Cedrus, 
Finus,  PUia,  &c.,  found  in  the  '  Emodic  region,'  or  that  part  of 
India  to  the  S.  of  the  Himalayan  ridge,  and  from  4500  to  10,700 
feet  above  the  sea.  The  average  temperature  of  the  region  is 
from  37°  to  66°  F. 

Emollleiita  (from  Lat.  mollis,  '  sod'),  substances  nsed  to 
soften  the  tissues.  Externally  they  are  applied  as  poultices  and 
fonientations,  and  internally  as  demulcents.  The  principal  E. 
are  gums  acacia  and  tragacanth,  fats,  wax,  cetaceum,  glycerine, 
collodion,  cydonlum,  linseed,  flour,  starch,  decoctions  of  barley 
and  linseed. 

Emo'tion   (from  Lat.  1;,    'out,'- and  mmiea,    '1  move')  is 

one  of  three  fundamental  properties  of  the  human  mind,  the 

other  two  being  volition  and  intelligence.      Though  separated 

for  the  purpose  of  scientific  analysis   of  their  separate   laws, 

the  three  functions  are  generally  present  in  varying  proportions 

ry  m         stale.     E.  includes  all  the  pleasures  and  pains, 

h     par       ar   sensations,    including  muscular   feelings,    and 

g      ra  ments  of  the   neivous   system.      It  is  singular 

w  's  division  into  intellectual  and  active  powers 

ma  es  no  room  for  E.,  Brown's  division  of  internal 

Ucctual    slates   and   E.    leaves    no   room   for 

phenomena  of  E.  are,  however,  described  by 

rs      One  general  condition  of  E.  seems  to  he  a  change 

in  mod  intensity  of  the  cerebral  and  Other  processes, 

O        ar        d,      tends  to  difivise  itself  over  the  brain,  and  unless 

p    ess  d  xhausted,  passes  into  the  moving  organs  and 

th    VI  One  lai^e  dass  of  characteristic  elTects  of  E.  is 

definite  excitement  of  the  muscles  of  face  and 

es  m      1       fth     hest  and  1    y      are  In  many  cases 

m  dcla  ud  med.     The  whole 

b         m  gi      ed    bu      h     f  11  wmg  pai  3  chiefly  express 

d  ira      L  —  h     lachrym  1  gl  nd       d  sac,  the  sexual 

g        th      ig  g  n      h      km    h    heart,  and  the  lacteal 

g  an    m  w  m  Ch    ac  mp  f  this  are  the  sup- 

P    ss  fl  w    f   h   sah      b    fea      h    spasmodic  con- 

sion  of  each  class  of  feelings,  it  is  a  general  law  that , 
ings  tend  to  increase  the  activity  of  the  vital  functions,  while  the 
tendency  of  painful  feelings  is  to  depress  these  fimctions.  This 
is  very  obvious  in  the  case  of  pleasurable  muscular  exercise,  and 
is  not  contradicted  by  the  pleasure  of  repose,  which  may  be  at- 
tended by  a  reflux  of  blood  to  the  brain  and  stomach.  The 
pleasures  experienced  from  respiration  and  digestion,  indeed  all 
the  organic  pleasures,  come  under  the  rule.  The  ptdn  of  cold  is 
only  an  apparent  exception,  for  it  checks  perspiration,  the  fonc- 
tion  of  the  skin,  although  it  may  at  a  certain  point  stimulate 
the  nerves  and  muscles.  On  the  other  hand,  indigestion,  skin- 
disease,  and,  in  fact,  most  diseases,  are  accompanied  by  painful 
feeling.  Pleasure,  again,  has  generally  a  fuller,  more  intense 
expression  than  pain.  Pmn  more  often  depresses  the  system 
and  relaxes  the  muscles;.  Sometimes,  however,  this  is  done  by 
very  intense  concentration  of  energy  on  particular  muscles.  The 
frenzied  excitement  of  great  pain  is  really  a  case  of  shock.  The 
contrast  between  the  two  tendencies  is  best  seen  in  laughter, 
which  sets  in  violent  vibration  whole  systems  of  muscles ;  and 
grief,  which,  when  severe,  'beats  a  man  down,'  The  pleasures 
of  sensation  seem  at  first  an  exception.  Even  here,  however, 
the  pains  of  touch,  hearing,  and  vision  are  chiefly  due  to  excess 
of  stimulus.  This  fact  sqggested  the  theory  that  in  all  cases  plea- 
sure and  pain  depend  on  the  degree  of  violence  with  which  the 
nerve  or  the  sensoriura  is  affected.  It  must  be  remembered  in 
dealing  with  sacli  theories  that  even  where,  as  in  light  and  sound, 
it  might  be  possible  Co  connect  the  painful  effect  with  an  increase 
in  the  number  or  character  of  the  exlemal  vibrations,  we  know 
nothing  whatever  of  the  specific  mode  in  which  either  a  setise. 
S34 


pleasure  or  a  sense-pain  affects  the  nerve.  But  as  regards  taste 
and  smell,  although  theory  has  also  attempted  to  resolve  them 
into  vibrations  on  the  external  side,  it  is  dear  that  some  sub- 
stances produce  nothing  bat  pleasure,  and  others  nothing  but 
pain.  These  then  must  be  regarded  as  specific  stimuli,  pro- 
Sucing  nervous  muscular  activity  independently  of  their  character 
as  pleasant  or  painful.  The  higheremotions,  as  wonder  and  love, 
illustrate  the  general  rale;  those  which  are  pleasant  strengthen 
and  give  tone  to  life,  whilst  shame,  haired,  and  the  like  are  de- 
pressing. The  stimulating  drugs,  on  the  other  hand,  alcohol, 
tea,  &c.,  do  not  enliance  vital  action,  except  indirectly,  and  then 
generally  at  the  cost  of  reaction.  The  Platonic  theory,  expounded 
in  the  Gorgias,  that  pleasure  consists  in  the  supply  of  a  want  or 
the  negation  of  pain,  and  that  pain  consists  in  want,  is  now  gene- 
rally abandonei^as  inconsistent  with  the  facts  of  experience,  for 
men  are  conscious  of  bdtfierence,  also  of  pleasure  tmmixed  with 
pain.  The  Hamfllouian  theory  is  that  pleasure  may  arise  from 
faculties,  capacities,  dispositions,  and  habits,  known  as  various 
forms,  potential  and  actual,  of 'enei^y.'  Pleasure  is  the  reflex 
of  a  spontaneous  and  unimpeded  enei^.  A  spontaneous  energy 
is  that  which  is  neither  strained  above  nor  depressed  below 
a  certain  pitch,  and  unimpeded  energy  is  that  which  reaches  its 
object  This  theory  is  purely  verbal  the  word  'energy'  being 
defined  so  as  to  meet  all  the  known  cases  of  pleasure.  The 
most  important  distinction  in  feeling,  after  pleasure  and  pain,  is 
that  of  d^ree  ;  E.  may  be  either  acute  or  massive.  This  dis- 
tinction enters  into  the  volitional  strength  of  feeling,  and  also 
into  its  ideal  persistence,  or  its  capacity  of  being  reproduced  by 
the  iutetlect,  E,  tends  to  occupy  the  mind,  and  a  pleasant  feeling 
in  idea  is  the  germ  of  desire.  In  the  same  way  E,  powerfully 
affects  belief,  excluding  from  the  mind  what  interferes  with  the  con- 
templation of  itself.  Besides  the  emotions  which  may  be  called 
primitive,  and  which  are  enumerated  below,  there  are  emotions 
formed  by  the  harmony  or  discord  of  simple  sensations  experi- 
enced together,  by  the  transfer  of  feeling  from  its  original  causes 
to  contiguous  objects,  by  coalescence  of  separate  emotions.  Of 
this  last,  the  most  conspicuous  example  is  conscience.  There 
are  also  certain  general  emotions  depending  on  the  amount 
of  change  operated  on  the  system ,  and  these  are  novelty, 
surprise,  and  wonder;  liberty,  as  opposed  to  restraint,  and 
power,  as  opposed  to  impotence.  These  emotions  of  contrast 
are  the  real  foundation  of  the  Platonic  theory.  The  chief  forms 
of  special  E.  are  fear  or  terror;  tender  emotions  or  love,  branching 
out  into  those  of  admiration,  reverence,  and  esteem,  and  by 
further  associations  into  self-complacency  and  approbation  or 
glory ;  power ;  anger,  or  the  pleasurable  E,  ol^  malevolence. 
Coimected  with  the  volitional  side  of  the  mind  there  are  the 
higher  emotions  of  pursuit ;  the  exercise  of  the  intellect  yields  a 
characteristic  E,  in  the  perception  of  resemblances,  and  in  the 
jar  of  contradictions ;  and  there  are  also  aesthetic  emotions  inter- 
woven with  intellectual  association.  Last  of  all,  comes  the  E. 
of  the  moral  sense,  which  varies  from  the  rudest  instinct  up  to 


Among  others  may  be  mentioned  that  of  Brown  into  immediate, 
retrospective,  and  prospective ;  of  Hamilton  into  contemplative 
and  practical ;  of  Spencer  into  presentative  (sensation.'') ;  presen- 
talive-representative,  f.g.,  terror;  re-presentalive  {ideal  sympathy 
with  another) ;   re-representative    as    prop  rt       '    t*  S  e 

Stewart  on  Tkt  Active  Fowirs  (18  B        £  d 

IheWUKz^zA.  1875). 

Emotions,  Physiology  ef. — The  m        se 

tions  is  undoubtedly  some  part  h 

Disease  of  these  organs  produces   h  us      rms 

in  which  the  emotions  are  more  ss    ff      d      E  t 

related  to  the  rest  of  the  body  in  a 

logical  mechanism  of  which  at  p  m  e 

emotions  may  be  affected  (l)  by  various  states  of  the  body,  or 
(2)  by  outward  impressions,  and,  on  the  other  hand  (3],  they  can 
influence  the  actions  of  various  organs.  Thus  is  it  that  weak 
digestion,  torpidity  of  the  bowels,  or  uterine  disorder,  may  pro- 
duce meUncholia,  or  a  depressed  state  of  certain  of  the  emotions. 
Again,  laughter,  crying,  and  dancing  excite  corresponding  emo- 
tions. It  is  well  known  that  emotions  depress  or  exhilarate  the 
action  of  the  heart  and  other  functions,  even  to  the  minute 
blood-vessels,  as  in  the  blush  of  shame  or  the  pallor  of  fear.  See 
Miiller's  Physiology,  Bell's  Anatomy  of  Expression,  and  Darwin's 
Expression  of  the  Emotions  in  Man  and  Auimals. 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPyEDIA, 


Eoipann'el  in  English  law  denotes  the  enrolling  by  th 
ehcrifr  of  tlie  names  of  jurors.     The  schedule  of  names  is  c  li  d 
a  panel,  and  those  named  in  it  are  bound  to  attend  to  serve   j 
the  grand  and  petty  juries. 

llmpeoina'do,  Bon  Juan  Ma  t  n.  D  az  e    w     bom   t 

Castrillo   in   1775,    enrolled                                        8  8  as 

guerilla  chief  inflicted  signal                             F        h  [.   nt      f 

Spain.     He  was  made  a  gen                       ^  5  p  d  F     1 

nand  VII.  to  establish  a  con      u     na    g       mm  n  wh    h 

he  was  imprisoned.     In  1820  h    pron  un    d  u    of  fh 

CoTles,  and  in  1SZ3  held  a    ommand    n    h        rp  Ge       I 

Palencia.      On  the  suppres     n         h  S  5    h 
patriotic  soldier  was  captured  and  executed  as  a  tra  tor. 

Emped'ocles,  a  Greek  philosopher,  who  flourished  about 
B.C.  444,  was  born  at  Agrigenlum  in  Sicily.  lie  belonged  to  a 
'  wealthy  class,  but  supported  the  democratic  party,  and  was  be- 
nevolent as  well  as  magnificent  in  his  mode  of  life.  A  passage 
in  Aristotle's  Metaphysics,  i.  3,  has  thrown  much  doubt  on  E.  's 
philoaophica!  position.  He  derives  much  from  Pythagoreans  and 
Eleatica,  and  the  tradition  is  that  Anax^oras  was  his  teacher. 
In  the  fragments  of  his  writings  preserved  he  laments  tlie  imcer- 
tainfy  of  ordinaiy  knowledge,  and  states  that  a  dmmen  (a  soul) 
polluted  with  guilt  must  wander  apart  from  the  blessed  30,000 
years.  He  deduced  abstinence  from  animal  food  from  the  doc- 
trine of  metempsychosis.  As  like  can  be  known  only  by  lilte, 
and  as  the  idea  of  God,  the  perfect  mind  pervading  the  world,  is 
recf^nised  by  man,  God  must  exist  Creation  is  not  an  absolute 
beginning  or  ceasing  to  be,  but  a  'mingling  and  then  a  sepfflra- 
tion  of  the  mingled,  there  being  four  primary  elements — earth, 
air,  fire,  water.  This  seems  a  combination  0!"^  the  fire  of  Hera- 
clitus  and  the  homoiomais  of  Anaxagoras.  But  in  place  of  the 
disire  of  the  former,  and  the  nous  of  the  latter,  E.  selected  l<rve 
as  his  formative  power.  It  was  hate  or  separation  which  pro- 
duced the  misery  of  the  sensible  world.  We  must  add  his  beau- 
tiful conception  of  God — '  the  sphere  in  the  bosom  of  barroony, 
fixed  in  calm  rest,  gladly  rejoicing. '  His  system  seems  to  have 
been  emotional  and  fanciful  rather  than  logicaL  E.  is  eulogised 
by  Lucretius  in  his  Oe  Rirum  Naturd.  The  fragmentary  writ- 
ings of  E.  extant  have  been  edited  by  Sturz  (2  vols.  Leips.  1S05), 
>  Karsten  (Amsterd,  1838),  and  Steinn  (Bonn,  1852).  See  Lom- 
matzsch,  Dit  Wdsheit  dis  E.  (BerL  1830},  and  Gladisch,  E.  und 
disMgypter  (Leips.  1858). 

Em'peror  (Fr.  empereur,  LaL  impirator,  impero,  'I  com- 
mand ').  The  primary  meaning  of  E.  was  a  commander-in- 
clnef ;  and  next,  one  sent  on  any  important  expedition.  Ciesar 
assumed  the  name  as  a  prxnomen.  This  continued  under  the 
Empire,  imperator  only  becoming  part  of  the  formal  title  after 
the  Antonines,  the  proper  term  being  princips,  or  first  man  in 
the  senate.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  Roman  Empire  the  ab- 
solute power  of  the  E,  was  disgui.sed  by  the  form  of  a  senate, 
but  in  the  zd  c.  Septimiiis  Severns  was  the  apparent  autocrat  of  the 
Roman  world.  Temples  were  raised  to  him  when  living,  and 
when  dead  he  was  called  divus.  As  the  successor  of  the  Ponti- 
fex  Maiimns,  but  stilt  more  from  there  being  no  chief  patriarch 
of  recognised  aulhoritj',  the  E.  became  the  head  of  the  Church. 
He  presided  in  councils,  issued  edicts  against  heresies,  and  was 
'orbis  Christiani  custos.'  Even  after  the  division  of  Karl  the 
Great's  empire  the  E.  was  revered  by  the  nations  of  Europe. 
Though  he  had  no  definite  political  supremacy  over  all,  the 
mediseval  E.  ('Imperaloc  tertenus')  was  the  advocate  of  the 
Church — a  '  secular  pope,'  deriving  authority  not  through  the 
spiritual  pope,  but  direct  from  heaven.  The  position  of  the  E. 
was  greatly  strengthened  by  tlie  fusion  of  the  title  with  that  of 
the  feudally  powerful  'King'  of  the  Eastern  Fi'anks.  The  'Rex 
Francotum'  was  first  discontinued  by  Otto  the  Great  (A.d.  962), 
'Imperalor  Augustus'  being  alone  retained.  In  the  feudal  con- 
ception the  E.  was  the  suzerain  of  all  kings  and  potentates. 
Various  countries  at  times  owed  allegiance  to  the  E.  Thus  Hun- 
gary, Denmark,  Poland,  and  France  acknov^ledged  Otto  the 
Great.  The  great  interregnum  beginning  in  1 254  loosened  many 
of  these  relations.  Spain,  England,  and  Venice  never  admitted 
the  supremacy  of  the  E,  and  the  Byzantine  princes  constantly 
protested  against  his  title.  The  E,  n-as  crowned  at  Aachen, 
the  original  capital  of  the  (Eastern)  Franks,  but  after  Heinrich 
Il.'stime,  'King  of  the  Romans,'  at  Pavia,  or  latterly  at  Milan  or 
Monza,  where  he  became  King  of  Italy  or  of  the  Lombards,  and 


gn  f. 


d  tl 


n  d     t  R  n 


^    : 


dth    dat 
se  d  t   gm  hed 

5"-  s'    . 


ppo  t  d  by  th     I 
f  m  ly  t  I        tl      K      i    g      I 

F  an        H  prang   tl      lat       tl       y  th  t   th     p  p 

as  1    d  p      m        I        d  th     E  asaal  fi  f 

dtnsnbl  h  tt  lhwd//iw 

ppl  ed      tl     Germ  t,  as    t  tl     R  m       1    th   c  f 

tl     E      Th    K     1 1  ast      th     4  h      d     5  h        t  n  gl  t 

to  represent  a  spirLlual  nuLty  by  deciding  the  disputes  of  inferior 
sovereigns,  a  right  based  on  his  divine  commission.  Among 
other  secular  priviJ^es  of  the  E,  was  that  of  creating  kings, 
and  he  was  the  head  and  centre  of  the  institutions  of  chivalry. 
In  theory  the  Empire  could  be  held  by  any  man  free-bom  and 
orthodox.  By  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia  large  changes  were 
made  in  the  position  of  the  E.  TTie  rights  of  making  war  and 
peace,  levying  contributions,  passing  or  interpreting  laws,  were 
given  to  the  Diet.  The  Reformation  destroyed  the  Catholic 
theory  of  Empire.  The  sulisequent  changes  in  the  attitude  of 
the  E.  belong  to  the  history  of  Austria  and  Germany.  The  title 
was  dropped  in  1806.  In  1870  Germany  again  became  an  em- 
pire, which,  however,  does  not  claim  to  represent  the  Roman 
Empire.  The  German  E.,  or  E.  i«  Germany,  is  the  E.  of  a 
federation,  not  of  all  Christians.  In  the  imagination  of  Napo- 
leon I.  the  French  Empire  was  a  revival  of  the  Karoling  idea  j 
he  claimed  authority  over  the  pope,  and  called  his  son  'King 
of  Rome,'  The  modem  notion  of  E.  is  the  somewhat  inconsis- 
tent one  of  an  elective  despot.  The  title  has  been  adopted 
by  several  new  dynasties,  as  Brazil,  Hayti,  and  Mexico,  Bar- 
;,  like  those  of  China  and  AbysMnia,  also  prefer 
.,t  «f  ifiv.™  Tt  ,.„,  assumed  by  the  sovereign  of 
which  she  stands  towards  the 


the  title  to  that  of  king.  It 
Britain,  to  express  the  relation 
rajahs  of  India,  in  r876. 


Emperor  Uoth  {Alttta 


ir  Saiurnia,  pm 


the  larva  of  w 

heather  in  summer,  is  green,  ' 
and  has  seven  hairy  pink  tuber- 
cles set  on  black  rings.  It  is 
the  largest  British  moth.  Each 
wing  has  a  large  transparent 
spot,  The  Attacus  major,  the 
night    or    peacock    moth    of 

France,  may  att^n  an  expanse       ^  Emptror  Moth. 

of  wing  of  5  inches.     The  E.  M.  is  neatly  related  to  Ihe  silk- 
moth. 

Etnpetra'oese.     See  Crowbeeey, 

Em'phasia,     See  Accent. 

Emphyse'ina  ( Or.  emphmao,  '  I  inflate '),  a  distension  of 
the  body  with  air.  E.  of  the  lungs  may  be  vesicular  or  htlir- 
lobular.  Traumata:  E.  is  most  commonly  caused  by  a  wound 
of  the  pleura  eoslalis  and  the  limg  from  an  external  puncture  or  a 
fraciured  rib.    E.  is  sometimes  caused  by  foul  gases  escaping 


>h.3rteti'3is  (Gr. '  an  implanting '),  in  Ron 


called 


right 


___  ithont  malting  the  first  offer  to  the  dominus,  but  he  was 
entitled  to  the  full  profits  of  the  subject.  The  word  E,  has  been 
applied  to  Scottish  feu-holding. 

Empir'io  (Gr.  empdrikus,  '  a  searcher  after  facts  in  nature, ' 
from  peiraS,  'I  tiy ')  originally  meant  a  man  who  gained  his 
knowledge  from  experiment,  and  was  applied  to  a  medical  school 
founded  by  Philinus  of  Cos  and  Serapion  of  Alexandria,  which 
made  the  science  of  medicine  depend  upon  experience,  but  which 
afterwards  neglected  science  and  fell  into  disrepute.  Conse- 
quently a  quack  or  pretender  in  any  field,  but  chiefly  in  medicine, 
is  called  an  E.  Empiricism,  in  philosophy,  is  applied  to  the 
system  which  is  based  on  observation  and  induction. 


HosteabyVjOOQlC 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ENA 


of  pus  ill  the  chesE,  caused  by 
t  by  the  bursting  of  an  abscess 
it  is  the  result  of  pieurllis,  and 
or  injury  of  tlie  lungs.  K 
:tim53  cuted  by  drawing  offtlie 


t  the  arrangement 

Empirical  lAwa  are  laws  which  seem  to  hold  during  the 
occurrence  of  certain  phenomena,  but  which  do  not  gire  the 
explanation  or  cause  of  these  phenomena  as  in  Bode's  Law 
(q.  v.).  Kepler's  were  E.  L.  until  Newton  established  his 
theory  of  gravitation.  In  time,  probably,  they  will  be  shown  to 
be  all  dependent  upon  a  few  great  underlying  principles. 

Emplas'tia  (Gr.  emplass!,  '  I  spread  on  0  are  external  appli- 
cations, of  a  firmer  consistence  than  ointments,  spread  on  linen  or 
leather.  They  are  mostly  made  from  powders,  extracts,  or  gums, 
and  owe  their  consistence  to  metallic  oxides,  or  to  wax,  resin, 
&c  Almost  every  solid  medicine  may  be  applied  in  this  form, 
so  that  the  non-ofScial  preparations  are  numerous. 

Em'poli  (a  coiTuption  of  the  Lat.  tnifariiitn,  '  the  market- 
place'), a  town  of  Italy,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Amo,  in  the 
province,  and  l6  miles  below  the  city,  of  Florence,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  railway.  It  has  a  fine  church  of  the  nth  c, 
adorned  with  paintings  by  Giotto.  Pop.  6500,  who  manufacture 
cotton  and  leather,  and  trade  in  fruits  and  grain. 

Empo'ritun  (Gr.  emporion,  from  eniporos,  '  a  wholesale 
trader ; '  Lat.  tmparium),  the  centre  of  a  special  commercial  or 
manufacturing  industry,  or  a  warehouse  for  the  storage  and  dis- 
posal of  goods. 

Bmp'tion.    See  Sai.e  of  Goops. 

Empye'ma,  an  accumulation 
secretion  in  the  pleural  cavity,  < 
of  the  lung.  In  the  former  case 
in  the  latter  of  oi^nic  diseas 
generally  proves  fatid,  but  is  soin 
fluid  with  a  trochar  and  canula. 

Ems  or  Bad-Eme,  a  market-town  in  a  narrow  valley  on  the 
Lahn,  in  the  Duchy  of  Nassau,  6  miles  S.E.  of  CoMeni  by  rail- 
way. It  was  celebrated  for  Its  baths  asearlyas  the  14th  c.  The 
springs,  which  are  alkaline,  vary  in  temperature  from  93°  to  135° 
F.,  and  are  beneficial  in  nervous  and  stomachic  compljdnts. 
Near  E.  are  silver  and  lead  works.  Pop.  (1S71)  5^58,  See 
Doting,  Dii  Tha-nun  von  E.  (1869). 

Eois  (probably  the  Amtaa  of  Tacitos),  a  river  in  N.W.  Ger- 
many, rises  in  the  S.W.  slope  of  the  Teutobui^er  Wald  near 
Paderborn,  flows  N.W.,  receives  the  Leda  and  Hasse,  and  enters 
Dollart  Bay,  near  Emden,  after  a  course  of  215  miles.  It  drains 
an  area  of  5200  sq.  miles,  and  is  two-thirds  navigable. 

E'mn  or  Emea  {Dromaius  Noz^-ffallanduc),  a  bird  belong- 
ing to  the  family  Struthionids,  oi-der  Ctirsores,  and  is  a  native 
of  Australia.     It  atlidns  a  height  of 
from  S  to  7  feet,  and  its  plumage 
is  light  brown  mottled  with  dirtv 
=y.    The  throat  is  nearly  naked, 
t  the  head  is  feathered,  unlike 
that  of  the  cassowary,  from  which 
theE.  also  diifers  ill  liavingnohomy 
crestorpendantwattles.    The  three 

-  toes  are  directed  outwards.     The 

-  E.  is  monogamous,  and  lays  from 
nine  to  thirteen  dark-green    e^s. 

j.|^y  They  are  placed  m  a  hollow  on  the 

ground  and  hatched  by  the  male, 
which  is  smaller  than  the  female.  The  E.  is  Swift,  but  can  be 
hunted  down  with  dogs.  It  inhabits  the  plains,  living  upon 
grass  and  wild  fruits.  An  amber- coloured  oil,  esteemed  for  its 
anti- rheumatic  properties,  is  made  from  its  skin,  a  fuil-grown 
bird  yielding  from  six  to  seven  quarts.  The  E.  can  be  easily 
domesticated ;  but  no  pains  having  been  taken  to  rear  it,  it  is 
dying  out  rapidly. 

Emula'tio  Vici'ni,  in  Scotch  law,  denotes  a  limit  to  the 
exercise  of  the  right  of  property.  A  proprietor  is  not  restricted 
in  the  use  of  his  property  because  the  use  is  hurtful  to  his  neigh- 
bour,  but  he  must  not  exercise  his  right  purposely  to  injure  his 
ueighbour. 


ferment,  and  when  added  to  solution  of  amygdaline,  causes  the 
latter  to  fake  up  water  and  to  split  into  hydro-cyanic  acid,  oil  of 
bitter  almonds,  and  grape-sugar. 

Emul'sions  (Lat.  emulgto,  '  I  milk '),  are  white  liquid  pre- 
parations obtained  by  mixing  oil  and  water  by  the  addition  of 
some  mucilaginous  or  saccharine  substance,  as  camphor,  balsams, 
&c     Emulsion  of  bitter  almoijds  is  used  in  cough-medicines. 

Em'ydill,  a  substance  found  in  the  volk  of  turtles'  eggs.  It 
is  probably  derived  from  the  decomposition  of  some  more  com- 
plex albuminous  substance.  A  somewhat  similar  substance 
called  icklMn  has  been  found  in  the  eggs  of  fishes. 

Em'yB,  a  genus  of  Chelonians,  represented  by  the  terrapins 
or  water-tortoise^  belonging  to  ttie  family  Emydidie.  In  this 
family  the  head  is  flat  and  covered  with  skin,  the  neck  is  re- 
tractile, the  feet  are  broad,  the  nails  sharp,  the  toes  webbed, 
and  the  tail  is  conical  and  furnished  with  phites.  In  E.  there 
are  four  hinder  and  five  front  toes.  The  most  familiar  species 
are  the  chicken  tortoises  {E.  reiiciilaria)  and  the  lettered  tor- 
toises {B.  scripla),  both  common  in  N.  American  lakes.  The 
former  is  from  6  to  9  inches  long,  and  is  brown  in  colour.  The 
lettered  tortoise  is  so  named  from  the  markings  on  the  edge  of 
tlie  body.  The  Quaker  tortoise  {E.  oUvacea)  lias  long  fore- 
claws.     Allied  to  the  E.  are  Malaslimys,  Cistuda,  Chelydra,  &c. 

Enam'el  (Fr.  Aiia!/,  Old  Fr.  tsmail,  Ital.  smaifo,  of  Ger. 
origin,  inia/ii  in  Old  High  Ger.  meaning  'what  has  been 
fused  or  melted  ; '  comp.  mod.  Ger.  schmelsm,  and  Eng.  smell), 
a  vitreous  compound,  consisting  of  a  basis  of  transparent 
glass  combined  with  colouring  metallic  oxides,  applied  prin- 
cipally to  the  surface  of  metal  and  fused  by  the  action  of 
fire.  E.  is  either  opaque  or  transparent  accordmg  to  the  oxide. 
The  oxide  of  tin  produces  an  opaque  white  K,  such  as  is  seen 
on  watch-dials,  and  a  little  peroxide  of  manganese  communicates 
a  violet  tinge  to  it.  Oxide  of  cobalt  produces  blue  ;  oxide  of  lead 
yellow  ;  the  oxide  of  copper  green  ;  cuprous  oxide  ruby-red,  &c 
Any  work  of  art  in  metal  encrusted  or  painted  with  E.  colours 
is  commonly  called  an  E.  The  art  of  decorative  enamelling  is 
of  great  antiquity,  and  had  its  origin  in  the  East  There  are 
different  styles  of  metal  enamelling,  distinguished  as  doisonni, 
champ-lev/,  and  painted  enamels.  In  the  last,  opaque  or  semi- 
fluid colours  are  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  metal  with  a 
brush.  In  cloisonni  enamels,  partitions  (French  dohom)  formed 
of  slender  strips  of  copper  are  soldered  on  the  metal  surface,  and 
in  champ-leve  enamels  spaces  are  dug  out  of  the  metal,  and  in 
both  cases  the  cells  are  filled  in  with  E.  paste,  which  is  per- 
manently fixed  to  the  metal  by  fusion.  Old  enamels  from  China 
and  Japan  are  masterpieces  of  the  art,  and  are  highly  valued. 
Chinese  enamels  are  distinguished  for  brilliancy  of  colours,  while 
Japanese  enamels  are  unsurpassed  for  beauty  and  intricacy  of 
design.  The  most  interesting  mediseval  Greek  E.  extant  is  the 
celebrated  Fala  d'Oro,  an  altar  front  in  St  Mark's  at  Venice. 
In  France  and  England  cloisonne  enamelling  is  now  carried  on 
extensively.  A  celebrated  firm  is  tliat  of  Messrs  Elkinglon  & 
Co.,  Birmingham. 

In  champ-lev^  work  metal  plates  with  prepared  troughs  are 
now  obtained  by  casting  and  byelectro-deposilion.  Champ-lev^ 
was  practised  extensivfly  in  Constantinople,  and  early  in  tlie 
13th  c.  Kjjln  and  Limi^es  were  the  great  seats  of  its  manu- 
facture.  The  largest  enamels  were  executed  in  this  method, 
because  there  was  little  difficulty  in  procuring  large  plates  of 
copper.  Two  varieties  of  champ-lev^ are  recognised;  one,  be- 
longing to  the  nth  and  12th  centuries,  has  the  flesh-tints  and 
draperies  as  well  as  the  ground  represented  by  E. ;  and  the 
second,  practised  in  the  two  following  centuries,  has  the  figure 
chased  in  low  relief  on  a  gilded  ground,  the  E  being  restricted 
to  the  space  around  the  figure.  Early  in  the  14th  c.  Italian 
artists  stiTick  out  a  new  path,  and  produced  the  iranslucid 
enamels  upon  relief,  the  design  being  chased  upon  a  gold 
or  silver  plate  and  covered  with  brilhant  E.  tints.  Painted 
enamels  originated  with  the  Limoges  artists  of  the  r5th  c 
The  desigii  was  no  longer  expressed  by  engraved  lines,  but  by 
colours  mixed  with  fusible  fluxes,  applied  to  a  copper  plate. 
The  plate  was  covered  with  a  translucent  flux,  and  upon  this  the 
design  was  outlined  with  a  black  E,  around  which  the  other 
colours  were  filled  in.  Flesh-tints  were  rendered  upon  a  violet 
ground  witli  white  E.  applied  in  varying  thicknesses  to  secure 
effect  of  Ught  and  shade,  and  the  background  and  draperies  were 


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heighttned  with  Eo'<Sen  touches.  In  the  i6th  c.  giisailU  (grey) 
enamels  were  produced  at  Limoges  by  working  upon  a  thick 
dark-coloured  Jayer  with  white  opaque  E.,  shaded  flesh-tinta 
being  ret^nedfor  the  face.  Transhicent  colours  were  sometimes 
spread  over  the  grisaille.  The  chief  artists  of  the  late  Limi^es 
school  were  the  Penieauds,  L.  Limousin,  the  Coortois  or  Cour- 
teys  family,  Jean  Court,  also  called  Vigier,  Martm  Dldier  Pape, 
and  Pierre  Raymond  or  Rexmon,  The  main  difficulty  of  E, 
painting  consists  in  the  artist  not  having  actual  colours  to  work 
with,  but  substances  which  are  to  talce  these  colours  after  firing. 
See  Encaustic  Paikting. 

The  coating  of  the  inside  of  cast-iron  pots  and  saucepans  with 
E.  glaze,  to  protect  them  from  the  action  of  acids,  is  compara- 
tively new.  Still  more  recent  is  the  application  of  coloured  E. 
to  plates  of  iron  for  use  as  railway  and  other  signs,  dials,  &c. 
Articles  of  cast-iron  are  prepared  for  enamelling  by  being  heated 
to  a  low  red  heat  and  slowly  cooled,  scom-ed  with  sand  in  warm 
dilute  sidphuric  add,  then  washed  and  dried.  Several  coats 
of  E.  mixtures  of  variable  composition  are  then  applied,  one 
coat  being  vitrified  before  the  next  is  laid  on.  Letters  and  orna- 
mental designs  in  E.  colours  are  stencilled  and  fused  upon  tlie 


g  of  the 


t  coat. 

Enamel  is  the  name  given  to  the  hard  external 
leeth,  which  contains  a  large  quantity  of  oside  of 
-  Ena'ra,  or  Inaie,  a  lake  of  Russia,  in  X.ap1and,  60  miles 
long  and  20  broad,  in  about  lat.  69°  N.  and  long.  28°  E.,  has 
an  area  of  io;o  sq.  miles.  It  is  studded  with  islands,  and 
connected  with  the  Varanger  Fiord  by  the  Pasvig  River, 

Enar'ea,  a  country  of  the  Gallas,  in  Africa,  to  the  S.  of 
Abyssinia,  in  lat.  7'  to  9°  N,  and  long.  36°  to  38°  E.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Blue  Nile,  is  watered  by  the  Borora, 
Dedhesa,  Baro,  &c.,  and  is  intersected  by  offspts  of  the  Abyssi- 
nian highlands.  Coffee  is  eitensiveiy  cultivated,  and  there  is  an 
active  trade,  chiefly  in  gold,  ivory,  civet,  skina,  and  ornamented 
arms.  TheMohammMan  religion  prevails.  Sakais  the  capital, 
and  among  other  towns  are  Gombola,  Jadara,  and  Fadassi. 

Bnarthro'aia  (Gr.  arthrosis,  'a  joining')  is  the  ball-and- 
socket  form  of  joint,  like  the  shoulder  and  hip,  allowing  motion 
in  every  direction. 

Enoamp'ment  (Lat.  campus,  '  a  plain ')  is  the  temporary 
station  occupied  by  an  array  or  division,  with  its  artillery,  bag- 
gage, or  stores.  In  early  times  an  established  arrangement  of  the 
troops,  &c.,  in  camp,  was  rigidly  adhered  to.  (See  Camp.)  In 
modem  times,  the  leading  idea  in  arranging  an  E.  is  to  dispose 
the  lines  so  that  at  a  few  minutes'  notice  every  battalion  shall  be 
able  to  assume  its  position  in  order  of  battle.  The  extent  of 
the  front  is  determined  by  the  number  of  troops  in  camp,  and  Ls 
generally  calculated  at  the  rate  of  two  paces  for  every  file  of 
infantry,  and  three  for  each  file  of  cavalry.  The  tents  for  in- 
fantry now  generally  in  use  accommodate  fifteen,  those  for 
cavalry  twelve  men  each,  and  they  are  usually  tanged  in  rows 
or  'streets.'  In  the  single  rows  of  cavalry,  a  total  frontage  of 
19  yards  must  be  given  for  each  troop.  The  extent  of  front 
covered  by  the  tents  of  each  battalion  is  no  greater  than  that 
battalion  will  occupy  in  order  of  battle.  In  selecting  a  site  for 
E.  it  is  desirable  to  choose  a  spot  where  wood  and  water  can 
be  readily  obtained ;  the  front  should  be  covered  by  forest  or 
stream,  and  the  tear  be  perfectly  open.  Formerly  the  natural 
strength  of  the  site  of  a  camp  was  a  matter  of  first  importance ; 
and  even  in  our  own  time,  when  a  complete  watching  system 
has  been  elaborated,  the  natural  defences  of  a  site — the  marshes 
and  rivers  which  bound  it,  &c. — and  the  character  of  the  roads 
converging  upon  it,  are  carefully  considered  in  encamping.  For 
camps  of  instruction,  see  ALDER3H0T,  KiLDAEE,  &e. 

Enoaus'tio  Painting  (Gr.  m, '  in,'  and  hausUkos,  '  caustic,' 
from  iaip,  '  I  bum '),  a  process  of  using  colours  mijted  with  wax 
and  subsequently  heated,  somewhat  akin  to  enamel  painting. 
Ancient  descriptions  of  the  art,  as  practised  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  are  not  quite  clear  as  to  thp  modes  of  operating.  In 
one  process  it  would  appear  that  the  wall  was  first  coated  with 
wax,  and  upon  it  a  design  was  outlined  with  a  style,  and  filled 
in  with  colours  in  a  wax  medium  with  a  hot  5patula,the  whole 
being  subsequently  polished.  The  art,  lost  for  centuries,  but 
revived  in  the  rSth  c  by  Bachelier,  Comfe  Caylds,  and  Miss 
Greenland,  is  seldom  practised  now. 
143 


Encanstic  Tile,  a  tile  with  an  ornamental  design  produced 
by  inserting  and  '  burning  in'  coloured  clays.  Encaustic  tiles  were 
much  in  vogue  for  pavements  in  cathedrals  during  the  middle 
ages,  but  for  some  centuries  later  the  art  of  malting  them  was 
neglected  till  it  was  revived  and  brought  to  great  perfection  by 
the  late  Herbert  Minton.  The  modern  process  is  as  follows  i  — 
From  red  clay  consolidated  into  a  6-inch  cube  a  sufficient  thick- 
ness to  form  the  body  of  one  E.  T.  is  cut  off  with  a  wire.  The 
upper  side  of  the  tile  is  then  faced  with  fine  clay  to  fomi  the 
ground  of  the  pattern,  and  a  coating  of  the  same  material  is 
applied  to  the  lower  side,  and  pierced  with  holes  to  prevent  the 
tile  warping.  A  plaster- of- Paris  mould,  bearing  the  intended 
pattern  in  relief,  is  then  pressed  upon  the  tile,  and  the  mdentations 
so  formed  are  filled  with  various-coloured  'slips,'  or  fine  clays, 
in  a  semifluid  state.  After  partially  drying,  the  superfluous  slip 
is  scraped  off,  and  the  coloured  pattern  left  &asb  with  the  surface 
is  then  slowly  dried  and  baked.  Hard  non-porous  encaustic  tiles 
are  extensively  manufactured  in  the  Stafford  potteries,  and  en- 
caustic floors,  even  in  dwelling-houses,  are  now  common. 

Unqeinte'  (Fr.  'an  enclosure,'  from  Lat,  indncta)  is  a  term 
in  fortification  used  to  designate  the  wail  or  rampart  enclosing  a 
fortified  place,  and  secondarily  the  whole  of  the  fortified  area. 

Unceph'ala  (from  Gr.  kephale,  '  the  head '),  a  name  given  to 
the  three  higher  classes  of  MoUusca,  the  Gastiropoda,  Fteropoda, 
and  Cephaiopoda,  from  the  fact  that  theypossess  a  well-developed 
head.  These  groups  are  so  named  in  contradistinction  to  the 
Larnellibranchiate  molluscs,  or  Acepkala,  which  possess  no  dis- 

Enceplialar'toa,  a  genus  of  Exogenous  plants  belonging  to 
the  CycadaciiE.  The  species  of  E.  produce  starch.  E.  or  Zamia 
pungeta  ripened  and  produced  itsrfruit  at  Chatsworth  in  England. 
Many  species  afford  'Caffre  bread.' 

EnqephtJi'tis,  or  Cerebri'tis,  inflammation  of  the  brain 
substance,  or  of  the  structures  generally  within  the  cranium, 
often  associated  with  maiingitis,  and  followed  by  softening 
or  induration.  There  are  two  varieties  of  softening  of  the  brain 
— (i)  Inflammatory  red  safiening,  or  acute  ramollissement ;  and 
(2)  wMti  scftming,  the  result  of  an  atrophic  process.  Red 
softening  is  frequently  followed  by  abscess,  and  is  essentially  a 
fatal  disease.  In  induration,  the  texture  of  the  brain  resembles 
the  white  of  e^  boiled  hard,  the  convolutions  being  flattened, 
and  there  is  an  absence  of  blood  and  serum  in  (he  encephalon. 
Causes  : — Morbid  poisons,  associated  with  zymotic  or  constitu- 
tional diseases  ;  intemperance;  coup  de  solcU ;  great  mental  ex- 
citement, and  uncontrolled  moral  feelings,  &c.  £.  may  be  irau- 
malic,  resulting  from  injury ;  or  idiopathic,  aculi  or  chronic.  In 
acute  E.  there  is  usually  delirium,  followed  by  a  loss  of  mental 
power  terminating  in  dementia.  In  chronic  E.  the  mental  symp- 
toms may  be  slight;  but  there  is  always  loss  of  intellectaal 
vigour,  failure  of  memo™,  confusion  of  ideas,  ^nd  irritability  of 
temper.  The  disease  often  ends  in  general  paralysis,  or  death 
from  apoplexy.  Treatment  ;— General  measures  must  be  adopted 
to  remove  the  exciting  cause,  and  the  brain  must  have  perfect 
rest.  Hygienic  measuies  and  a  change  of  scene  a^e  of  primary 
importance. 

Bnoeph'alon,  a  term  sometunes  applied  to  that  pait  of  the 
nervous  system  within  the  skulL     See  Cerebrum. 

En'oheaono,  in  Scotch  law,  denotes  the  reason  for  doing 
anything— f.^. ,  The  vassal  is  in  the  keeping  of  his  superior  by  A. 
of  ward,  that  is,  by  reason  of  the  nature  of  his  holding. 

Encliondro'ma,  or  Oartilag'inong  Tu'niour,  may  be  lu- 
cent or  semi-malignant.  In  the  first  case  it  is  smooth,  elastic, 
round  or  flattened,  seldom  exceeding  the  size  of  an  orange,  and 
growing  slowly  without  pain.  In  the  second  it  is  rapid  in 
growth,  att^s  an  enoi-mous  size  in  a  few  months,  and  deposits 
secondary  growths  in  internal  organs,  which  are  frequently  asso- 
ciated with  encephaloid  cancer.  The  treatment  consists  in 
excision  of  the  tumour,  or  imputation  of  the  affected  part,  when 

Enoho'riEd  ■Writing,    See  Hieroglyphics. 

Enck'e,  Johann  JVanz,  was  bom  at  Hamburg,  September 
23,  1791,  studied  at  Goltlngen,  served  from  1813-14  in  the  Han- 
seatic  Legion,  and  in  1815  was  appointed  a  lieutenant  of  artil- 


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lery  in  the  Prussian  army.  He  left  the  service  and  became 
astronomer  at  the  Seebei^  Observalovy  near  Golha,  whence  he 
went  to  Berlin  in  1825.  He  was  made  editor  of  the  Ba-linet 
AstroKomsche  Jahrbmh  in  1830,  mid  died  September  2,  i86<. 
K's  chief  worlM  ixs  Die  Enf/enmng  dtr  Sannt  (zvoh.  1822-2^, 
and  Ueirr  die  Hansmsche  Form  der  StSrungm  (1856).  His 
greatest  labours  are  the  determination  of  the  orbit  of  the  1680 
comet  J  the  ledliotion  of  the  transit  observations  of  1761  and 
1769,  and  calcula.tion  of  the  sun'a  parallax  ;  and  the  discoveiy 
of  the  short-period  comet  which  goes  by  his  name.  See  Bruhn's 
LiflofE.^^^). 

Enckt's  Comet  has  the  shortest  period  and  the  least  aphe- 
lion distance  of  all  the  known  comets.  It  revolves  in  a  veiy 
eccentric  ellipse,  which  does  not,  however,  extend  to  the  orbit 
of  Jupiter,  and  moves  in  a  plane  inclined  at  an  angle  of  about 
13°  20'  to  the  ecliptic.  The  period  is  3'29  years,  but  it  seems  to 
be  lessening  by  about  two  hours  and  a  half  every  revolution,  a  fact 
accounted  for  by  Encke  by  the  presence  of  a  resisting  mediam 
pervading  space.  It  was  first  recognised  by  Encke  as  a  comet 
of  short  period  in  1819,  and  its  subsequent  appearances  have  been 
so  accurately  observed,  that  its  orbit  and  motions  are  as  well 
determined  as  those  of  any  planet.  Its  next  appearance  will  be 
in  1878.     - 

EnGore'  (Fr.  '  again,'  Old  Fr.  cmcori,  Ital.  ancora,  a  corrup- 
tion of  the  Lat.  kanc  horam),  a  call  made  by  an  English  audi- 
ence for  the  repetition  of  a  part  of  a  performance.  The  French 
similarly  cry  bis  (twice). 

Enoiini'tal  lime'stone,  a  name  given  to  certain  limesli 
intermingled  with  rocks  of  Carboniferous  age,  from  their  cont 
ing  vast  quantities  of  fossil  Encrinites  or  Crinoids. 

En'crinite,  or  Lily  Star,  the  name  given  to  certain  fc 
EchifK/dsrniata  (q.  v, )  belonging  to  the  order  Crinoidia  (q. 
There  are  few  living  species  of  crinoids,  whilst  a  vast  number 
of  fossil  species  popularly  named  E.  are  known.  Tht 
appear  to  be  first  represented  in  the  Lower  Silurian  rocks. 
The  Carboniferous  or  Coal  period  is,  however,  the  great 
gion  of  crinoids.  Many  strata  of  Carboniferous  limestone 
whoDy  composed  of  crinoid  remains ;  and  the  crinoids  of  this 
period,  as  well  as  those  of  all  other  Paleozoic  rocks,  are  distin- 
guished chieHy  by  havii^  the  grooves  of  the  arms  running  to  the 
mouth  in  closed  channels,  and  by  their  rounded  stalks.  The 
mesozoic  crinoids  include  the  genus  Encrintis.  E.  UHfyrmis 
is  a  well-known  Triassic  species,  these  typical  enc^inites  having 
the  joints  of  their  stalks  performed  by  a  small  canal,  and  having 
the  arms  composed  of  two  series  of  alternating  pieces.  The 
genera  Pettlacrmus  (lias)  and  Eiflracrinus,  and  the  Apiocrinidi^ 
or  pear  E.  of  the  Oolitic  rocks  are  well  known.  The  latter 
are  so  named  from  their  pear-shaped  calyx, 

EllcyolopEB'dia  (Gr.  enkukUni  and  paideia,  lit  'a  circular 
course  of  education '),  a  work  meant  to  treat,  generally  in  alpha- 
belic  order,  of  the  whole  circle  of  knowledge.  Aristotle  was  the 
first  who  saw  the  connection  between  all  branches  of  knowledge, 
but  his  idea  was  not  embodied  in  the  form  of  an  E.  for  ages,  as 
the  works  of  Pliny,  Varro,  and  Snidas  are  unsystematic  com- 
pilations. Albertus  Magnus  (1193-1280)  made  a  collection  of 
remarks  on  scientific  facts  which  bears  closer  resemblance  to  an 
E.,  but  a  more  cleaily  encyclopedic  work  was  the  Speculum 
Naturale  Morale  Doclrinale  et  Histaials  of  Vincent  de  Beauvais, 
(1264)  compiled  from  Aristotle  and  Aquinas.  In  the  13th  c  the 
ideaof  throwing  knowledge  into  encyclopedic  shape  seems  to  have 
been  common,  from  the  number  of  works  then  written  with  the 
title  Surnma  or  Universitas.  The  chief  of  such  hooks  was  Roger 
Bacon's  Opitt  Majui,  a  summary  of  the  knowledge  of  his  times, 
and  the  introduction  to  an  E.  on  a  larger-  scale,  the  Compendiam 
PhScsophia,  which  was  never  finished.  Whewell  calls  the 
Opiis  Majus  the  E.  and  the  Nintum  Organum  of  the  13th  ■ 
In  the  16th  c  the  ency(Jop;edic  idea  again  became  aciiv 
Ringelbeiy  published  at  Basel  the  earliest  work  entitled  a  Cycli 
pasdia,  which  was  followed  by  similar  compilations,  the  best 
being  Alsted's  E.  ScUnHarum  Omnium  (1620),  a  collection  of 
treatises  giving  special  attention  to  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  logic. 
Two  rematitable  French  works  belong  to  this  period,  the  Grand 
Dicliormaire  Historique  et  Critique  by  Louis  Moreri  {10  vols. 
Lyon,  1674),  and  the  still  better  known  Dictumnaire  by  Bayle 
(a  vols.  Rotterdam,  1696).  The  very  earliest  attempt  to  gather 
the  body  of  science  and  art  into  lexicographic  form  was  probably 

538 


made  by  Hoffmann  in  his  Lexicon  Univirsale  (2  vols.  Basel,  1677)- 
This  was  followed  by  Thomas  Comeille's  Dicltonnaire  des  Arts  si 
de!  Sciences  (2  vols.  Par.  1694),  and  Coroneili's  Italian  Biblioteca 
UmvcTsale(i^<tyiA%.  Venice,  1701).  In  1706  appeared  'Cos  Lexicon 
Teckmcum  of  Dr  J.  Harris  (Lond.  1706),  and  in  1727  Ephrain 
Chambers's  Cyclofadia  (Lond.  2  vols,),  which  suggested  the 
great  French  E.  (See  Ekcycloe£dist3.)  Of  encyclopedias 
issued  since  Chambers's,  the  most  noteworthy  are  Barrow's 
Unieersal  Diclionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences  (l']<tt),  E.  Briteamica 
(Edinb.  ist  ed.  3  vols.  1771,  9th  ed.  1876),  Brewster's  £<^'«- 
burgh  E.  {18  vols.  1810-30),  the  Encyclopcedia  MetropolUana 
(30  vols.  1818-45),  'he  London  E.  (24  vols.  1826),  Fenny 
Cyclopedia  (27  vols.  1833-43),  Knight's  English  E.,  based  on 
the  Fenny  (22  vols.  1853-61),  Chambers's  E.  (ist  ed.  i860, 
10  vols.,  new  ed.  1874).  Of  French  encyclopasdias,  besides 
Diderot's  famous  EmyclofiMie  (28  vols.  Par.  1751-72),  the  chief 
are  the  EncyclopMie  M&Aodigue  (1782-1852,  201  vols.).  Encyclo- 
pedic des  Gens  du  Monde  (22  vols.  8vo,  1833-44),  En^elopMie 
jj/uai™/ (1846-62, 42  vols.),  ZHctionnairc de  la  Conversaliiin  it  de 
la  Lecture  (52  vols,  1834-39),  BiograpMe  UniversdU  (ist  ed. 
i8ii,  new  ed,  1854),  Nouvelle  B-iograpMi  GhtlraU  (46  vols. 
1862-70),  The  chief  German  encyclopsedias  are  the  (Eceno- 
mische  Emyclopedie  (242  vols,  1773-1858),  the  Conversaiions 
iMoeoit  (ist  ed.  8  vols,  1796-1809,  new  ed,  17  vols.  1865), 
Meyer's  Grosseni  Co?iversations  Lexicon  (44  vols.  1840-55)1  and, 
above  all,  Ersch  and  Gruber's  colossal  undertaking,  the  Altge- 
mtitte  Emycloiadie  der  Wissenschaft  nnd  Kunste  (1818-76,  still 
unfinished).  Those  of  America.are  the  E.  Aaiericana  (14  vols. 
Phiiad.  1829-46),  the  New  American  Cyclopadia  (16  vols.  New 
York,  185S-64),  Schemnis'  German-American  E.  (11  vols, 
1869),  and  Johnston's  Utasersat  Cyclopedia  (2  vols.  1876). 
Similar  works  have  appeared  in  almost  evety  European  country, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  Mellado's  Spanish  Enciclopedia 
Modenia  {34  vols,  Madr.  1848-51),  the  Nordisk  Cormersations 
Lexikon  (5  vols,  Copenh.  1858-64),  Sve?iskt  Conversations  Lexi- 
kon  (Stockh.  1845),  and  Rieger's  Slo^nik  Naiitn^  (vols,  i.-v., 
Prague,  1860-65).     See  Dictionary. 

Xlnoyclop^'dists,  the  name  given  to  a  French  school  of 
writers,  from  their  contributing  to  the  great  encyclopjedia 
the  iSth  c.  edited  by  Diderot,  A  project  of  translating  Eph- 
raim  Chambers's  English  encycloptedla  having  failed,  Diderot 
resolved  to  form  a  new  and  &r  ampler  work,  me  plan  of  which 
was  matured  between  1745  and  1748,  the  first  volume  ap- 
peirii^  in  1751,  and  the  last  in  1765,  The  foremost  authors 
of  the  time  contributed  to  the  iiook ;  among  others,  Diderot, 
D'Alembert,  Voltaire,  Montesquieu,  Turgot,  Grimm,  Rousseau, 
Marmontel,  Daubenton,  Jaucourt,  Haller,  Du  Fresnoy,  and 
Condorcet,  There  was  great  variety  of  belief  among  these, 
some  being  deists,  others  materialists,  others  pantheists;  and  no 
consistent  attack  was  made  on  Christianity  throughout,  though 
the  Catholic  priesthood  was  boldly  assailed.  This  encydopEedia 
was  the  first  great  embodiment  of  the  sceptical  and  revolutionary 
spirit,  of  which  it  became  a  most  potent  organ.  Though  not 
pledged  to  any  social  theory,  and  the  vehicle  of  no  new  social 
facts,  the  book,  by  its  clear  statement  of  existing  evils,  prepared 
the  way  foe  their  abolition.  It  presented  the  latest  scientific 
results,  gave  great  space  to  practical  arts  and  industries,  but  con- 
tained no  articles  on  biography  or  history.  See  La  Porte's 
Esprit  d!l'Encyelopidie{'Eax.l^el%Woltai.I€%Questionsurl'En^ 
cyclopidie  (1770),  and  Taine's  Ancien  Regime  (1S76), 


I   from  lo    1 

customs  of  a  people,  or  in  their  local  surroundings,  th  g  n  1 
health  of  a  community  deteriorates,  an  E.  disease  is  th  re 
Diseases  peculiar  to  certain  localities  are,  in  some  way  th 
connected  with  terrestrial  and  climatic  influences,  th  m  t 
marked  type  of  diseases  of  this  class  being  ague  or  int  rm  tt  I 
fever,  E,  disease  may  be  caused  by  unavoidable  influe  es  h 
as  solar  heat,  the  density  and  electricity  of  the  air,  lo  ly 
elevated  situations ;  or  by  remediable  causes,  as  swampy  d  t  t 
luxuriant  and  decaying  vegetation,  and  by  the  hab  ts  f  tl 
people,  giving  rise  to  miasmatic  and  filth  diseases.  E.  di  ase 
are  caused  also  by  errors  in  diet,  and  principally  by  th  use  1 
contaminated  drinking  water.      Many  K  diseases  ar    p  t 

able.     Even  those  of  miasmatic  origin  may  be  cliecked  bj  Ir   n 


yLaOogle 


■^- 


TBE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ENE 


iag  and  cultivating  the  soil,  as  lias  been  done  in  tlie  Tuscan 
Maremma.  E.  diseases,  as  a  class,  are  not  communicable  from 
man  to  man  like  epidemic  diseases,  although  Che  latter  class 
of  diseases  are  said  to  be  E.  in  certain  countries.  In  the 
f  ropicE,  the  principal  E.  diseases  are  malarious  fevers,  dysentery, 
diarrhcea,  cholera  Asiatica,  specific  yellow  fever,  and  hepatic 
affections.  In  the  temperate  disease  realm,  zymotic  and  con- 
stitutional diseases  cause  the  greatest  mortality;  Itprosy  and  eU- 
pharUiasi!  prevail  in  Scandinavia ;  pellagra  in  Italy,  France, 
and  Spain ;  plica  fdcmica  in  Poland  and  Tajtary ;  goitrt  and 
crctmism  in  Switzerland.  Sanitary  improvements  in  civilised 
countries  are  renderinij  E.  diseases  less  frequent,  and  even 
phthisis  has  been  shown  to  be,  in  great  measure,  preventable. 

End'erby  Land,  an  extensive  tract  of  land  in  the  Antarctic 
Ocean,  lat,  67°  y:!  S.,  long.  50°  E,,  discovered  by  Biscoe  in  1831, 
and  now  understood  to  be  an  island.  Morreli,  in  1827,  found 
drift-ice  close  to  the  S.  of  E.  L. 

Endei'mic  Medica'tion,  a.  mode  of  administering  medicines 
through  tlie  skin,  as  in  neuralgia,  skin-diseases,  the  reduction  of 
tumours,  &c  Constitutional  effects  often  result  from  E.  M.,  as 
salivation  from  mercuiy  applied  in  this  way. 

Bn'dive  {Ckherium  mdivia),  a  species  of  Composite  plants 
belonging  to  the  Ctchoratia  or  Lettuce  section  of  the  order, 
also  known  as  the  'garden  succory.'  It  is  a  native  of  China, 
but  grows  well  in  our  gardens,  where  it  is  sown  in  May,  and 
survives  through  the  winter.     A  salad  is  made  of  the  leaves. 

Eudlicher,  Stephen  Ladislans,  was  bom  at  Preshurg, 
24th  June  1804,  studied  at  the  universities  of  Pestii  and  Vienna, 
and  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  botany  and  of  Eastern  lan- 
guages. In  \%2%  he  held  a  post  in  the  imperial  library  at 
Vienna,  in  1S36  became  keeper  of  the  museum  of  natural  his- 
tory, in  1840  Professor  of  Botany  in  the  High  School  of  Vienna, 
and  director  of  the  Botanic  Garden.  He  contributed  gieatly 
to  the  establishment  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  (1S46).  The 
political  movements  of  1848  affected  him  so  strongly  that  he 
committed  stdcide,  28th  March  1849.  Among  his  works  are 
Centra  Flantarum,  in  Latin  (Vien.  1831-41);.  Grundaigi  der 
Solanik,  written  conjointlj'  with  Unger  (Vien.  1843) ;  Synopsis 
Conifirarum  (Zflr.  1847) ;  jfiiJangsgrUnde  der  Chities.   Gram- 


Bndoeardi'tiS,  an  inflammation  of  the  serous  membrane,  or 
endocardium,  covering  the  valves  and  internal  surface  of  the 
heart.     See  Heart,  Diseases  of. 


Ea'dogene,  or  Endog'enoua  Plants  (Gr.  mdon,  'within,' 
and  root  ^i^,  from  ^^pwifli^  'to  be  bom  '),  a  great  natural  division 
of  the  vegetable  world,  characterised  by  the  inward  grmuth  of 
the  stem.  The  term  is  used  chiefly  in  opposition  to  Exogen 
(q.  V. ).  Endogenous  plants  possess  only  one  seed-leaf,  and  the 
name  Monocotyledotutm  is  therefore  used  synonymously  with  E. , 
whilst  the  leaves  of  E.  show  3  parallel  venation  or  arrangement 
of  their  veins.  In  their  growth  also  E.  differ  from  the  higher 
eii^ens.  The  radicle  or  young  root  of  the  E.  divides  mto 
numerous  fibres,  which,  as  they  pass  outwards,  are  covered  by  a 
thin  sheath  at  coleorhiza.  The  roots  are  hence  called  endorhisal. 
The  stem  of  any  endi^en  (well  exemplified  by  palms,  bamboos, 
grasses,  lilies,  Sc)  shows  no  division  into  layers  of  pith,  wood, 
and  bark,  as  in  the  stem  of  an  exiwen.  No  concentric  woody 
circles,  nor  medullary  rays  nmning  between  the  pith  and  circum- 
ference, are  to  be  seen.  The  bark  of  an  endcgen  cannot  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  wood,  and  exhibits  no  annual  increase  as  in  exo- 
gens.  The  bundles  of  vessels  are  also  difiiised  through  the  tissues  of 
the  endogenous  stem  without  any  definite  arrangement.  The  stem 
is  composed  of  cells  in  its  young  state,  but  afterwards  of  bundles 
of  woody,  spiral,  and  other  vessels.  TTie  endc^nous  stem  grows 
therefore  by  additions  to  its  central  portion,  the  older  vessels 
being  pushed  outwards;  and  there  seems  to  be  a  definite  limit 
to  the  outward  growth  of  these  plants,  since,  after  a  certain 
thickness  has  been  attained,  the  stem  may  increase  in  height  but 
not  in  thickness.  E  possess  flowers  with  stamens  and  pistils, 
and  the  seeds  are  held  in  an  ovary  or  seed-vessel.  They  may  be 
subdivided  into  the  (i)  Dietyogam  (in  which  the  leaves  have 


reticulated  venation),  exemplified  by  the  natural  orders  Smi/ace^, 
Trilliacea,  and  IMoscoreacecs ;  and  (2)  the  Fetaloidea  (with  parallel- 
veined  leaves  and  a  coloured  perianth),  represented  by  the  great 
bulk  of  E,,  such  as  otchids,  palms,  lilies,  grasses,  and  many  other 
less  familiar  groups. 

Endorse' (Lat  in,  'an,'  dorsum,  'the  back'),  in  heraldry,  is 
an  ordinary  containing  one-fonrth  of  the  pale.  It  is  generally 
borne  on  the  field  in  pairs. 

Endorse.     See  Bill  of  Exchange. 

Endow'ment,  m  English  law,  is  the  settling  of  Dower  (q.  v.) 
upon  a  woman.  The  terra  is  also  applied  to  a  provision  for  the 
support  of  a  church,  school,  charity,  &c. 


a  trade  in  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  grain,  &e.     Pop.  (18 

Bndym'ion,  a  youth  (variously  described  as  king  of  EUs, 
shepherd,  or  hunter)  renowned  for  his  beauty  and  for  the  per- 
petual sleep  in  which  he  spent  his  days.  He  was  greatly  beloved 
by  Selene  (the  Moon),  who,  according  to  a  Carian  tradition,  lay 
beside  the  sleeping  E.  in  a  cave  of  Mocnt  Latmos.  The  sleep 
ofE.  is  differently  accounted  for.  Some  say  it  was  the  gift  of 
Zeus,  some  a  punishment  for  falling  in  love  with  Here,  others 
that  Selene,  fascinated  by  his  charms,  conveyed  him  to  Latmos, 
and  lulled  him  to  slumber  that  she  might  nightly  kiss  him  without 
reserve.  The  myth  itself  has  received  various  explanations.  E. 
is  r^arded  by  some  as  an  astronomer,  by  others  as  a  personi- 
fication of  Sleep.  The  Eleans  showed  his  tomb  at  Olympia. 
MaiMuller  [Oxford  Essays,  1856)  takes  E.  as  a  name  of  the 
setting  Sim  (from  enduo,  probably  a  dialectical  variety  of  d«S,  '  E 
sink  or  set '),  who  goes  to  sleep  in  the  caves  of  Latmos  (Night), 
to  be  followed  there  by  Selene,  the  daughter  of  Latona  (Night). 
E.  is  the  subject  of  Keats'  longest  poem. 

En  Echelon.     See  ficiiELon. 

En'ema.     See  Clyster. 

En'emy.  Originally  every  subject  of  a  belligerent  state  was 
said  to  be  the  K  of  every  subje        f    h  d 

everybody's  property  was  liable  fi 

tinction  is  made  between  combatants  A 

E.'s  subjects,  resident  in  the  COu    ry  d  g  w        g 

get  notice  to  depart.     An   E.'s   p    p    ty  w  hm 
debts  due  by  an  E.'s  subjects,  and  oc 

the  government,  are  now  seldom        fi         d     N 
enemies,  if  they  resist,  are  liable  m  m 

home  government,  and  whatever  p      d  d 

to  the  public.  On  the  other  hand,  their  property  within  their 
own  teuitory  is  partially  protected,  though  on  sea  it  is  subject 
to  capture.  Accordingly  there  has  always  been  more  freedom 
for  pnvate  exertion  at  sea.  There  was  a  system  of  issuing  letters 
ol  marque  [f.e.,  licenses  to  cross  the  boundary)  from  the  belli- 
gerent government  which  gave  a  right  to  the  thii^  captured,  and 
were  recognised  by  the  E  as  authorising  war.  Privateering  has 
been  stipidated  against  in  certain  treaties,  and  the  DeclaraUon  of 
Paris  (30th  March  lSj6)  declares  privateering  abolished.  War 
on  land  is  growing  more  humane.  Formerly,  an  army  p'Uig  d 
in  order  to  live.  Now  no  commander  severs  his  c  nn  t  n 
with  his  base  whence  his  supplies  come.  The  separat  n  of  th 
army  from  civilians  has  had  a  good  effect,  liaving  sti  ngth  n  d 
discipline,  and  reduced  war  to  a  science.  But  th  de  pe 
changes,  such  as  the  abandonment  of  killing  or  ensla  ng  pn 
soners,  have  arisen  from  the  growth  of  intelligence  and  sv  pathy 
Though  the  modern  tendency  is  to  excuse  anything  th  t  d 
wholesale  execution,  infernal  machines,  constmcted  to  p  odu  a 
frightful  moral  effect  by  severe  wounding  or  mutilation,  are  now 
little  resorted  to.  The  use  of  savage  allies  has  always  been  criti- 
cised ;  but  in  1848  the  Russians  brought  Circassians  into  Hungary, 
and  the  Turks  employed  them  in  the  insurrectionary  wars  of  1876. 
Systematic  pillage  was  practised  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  by 
Turenne  and  Catinat  under  Louis  XIV.  The  substitution  of  fixed 
contributions  in  certain  districts  dates  from  the  campaigns  of  V  ill  ats 
and  Marlborough.  Contributions  were  discountenanced  by  Wel- 
lington, were  unknown  in  the  Crimean  War,  and  were  paid  for  by 
the  Germans  in  187a  Military  stores  and  buildmgs  are  held 
lawful  plunder,  and  may  be  destroyed.  In  sieges  a  distinction 
is  now  made  between  forts  and  fortified  towns  ;  some  generals 
S39 


vGooqIc 


ENE 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPJiDTA. 


do  not  bombard  the  latter,  except  after  notice  to  the  inhabitants. 
It  is  often  difficult  to  fix  the  line  where  rebels  become  entitled 
to  Ihe  privileges  of  combatants.  Peace  is  generally  adjusted  by 
definilive  treaties,  very  often  qualified  by  secret  articles.  Sucli 
ities  are  often  acceded  to  or  protested  against  by  neutral 
vers.  These  documents  were  in  Latin  till,  in  the  iSth  c, 
French  became  the  lingua  Jj-anca  of  diplomacy. 
Uner'gicO  fltal.  '  with  eneigy '),   a  mark  of  espression  in 

Bn'ergy  (Gr.  mergsia,  from  in,  '  in,'  and  ergen,  '  work  ')  is 
the  capacity  which  a  material  system  possesses  for  doing  work, 
i.e.,  for  overcoming  resistance.  A  stone  ascending  mto  the  air 
against  the  gravitatm^  attiaclion  of  the  earth,  a.  bowl  tolling  with 
ever-decreasing  velocity  along  the  ground,  the  slow  onwacd  and, 
downward  grinding  of  a  glacier,  all  indicate  the  existence  of  E.  ; 
for  all  moving  bodies  possess  power  of  doing  work  in  virtue  of 
their  motion.  But  a  raised  weight,  a  drawn  bow,  a  stretched 
piece  of  india-rubber,  a  quantity  of  compressed  au-,  a  heated  body 
a  chai^d  electric  conductor,  &c.,  also  have  each  a  certain  cap  ty 
of  doing  work,  though  there  is  no  evident  motion.  We  th 
recognise  two  apparently  distinct  forms  in  which  E.  is  m  d 
evident,  viz.,  that  of  motion,  or  Miieiic  E.,  and  that  of  config 

on,  or  potential  E.  Now,  the  working  power  of  a  mo 
body  must  mcrease  with  both  the  mass  and  velocity,  but  m  t 
further  be  quite  independent  of  the  Section  of  motion.  These 
conjoined  with  other  considerj^ons  more  mathematical,  lead  t 
the  definition  of  kinetic  £.  as  half  the  product  of  the  mass  t 
the  square  of  the  velocity  (K=  J  m  v'%  For  a  clearer  comp 
hensiou  of  potential  E.,  take  the  case  of  a  raised  weight—  y 
weight  of  10  lbs.,  at  a  height  of  50  feet  The  work  which  is 
stored  up  in  it,  and  which  it  could  perform  if  allowed  to  fall  to 
earth,  is  estimated  at  ro  x  50  =  500  foot-pounds— where  a  foot- 
pound is  the  amount  of  work  which  must  be  expended  upon  a 
weight  of  one  pound  so  as  to  raise  it  through  a  distance  of  one  foot 
at  the  surfaceof  the  earth.  This  stored-up  work,  valued  at  500  foot- 
pounds, is  a  measure  of  the  potential  E.  We  may  then  define 
the  potential  E.  of  a  given  material  system,  at  any  instant, 
as  the  amount  of  work  stored  up  in  that  system  during  its  passage 
from  a  certain  configuration  to  the  configuration  it  has  at  the 
instant  in  question.  We  find,  on  a  close  investigation  of  any 
physical  phenomenon,  that  kinetic  and  potential  energies  are 
mutually  transformable.  Thus  an  ascendii^  stone  is  continu- 
ally losing  in  kinetic  and  gaming  in  potential  E.  j  a  descending 
stone  the  converse.  The  potential  E,  of  a  bent  bow  is  made 
evident  in  the  rarad  fi^ht  of  the  arrow ;  the  bowl  derives  its 
motion  from  the  E.  stored  up  in  the  muscle  of  the  bowler ;  the 
heated  body  generates  aerial  carrents,  and  raises  the  temperature 
of  surrounding  bodies  ;  the  chaj^d  conductor  may  give  rise  to  a 
variety  of  motions — light,  heat,  sound,  &:c. — or  may  make  a  part 
of  its  E.  sensible  as  an  electric  shock.  From  these  few  examples 
it  will  be  seen  what  a  wide  significance  in  science  the  term  E. 
has.  Under  it  we  study  the  nature,  Ihe  effects,  and  the  relations 
of  the  formerly  so-called  impondtrahUs — light,  heat,  electricity, 
&c.  ;  we  investigate  all  phenomena  of  attraction  and  repulsion 
existing  in  the  physical  universe ;  we  trace  results  throu^  their 
varied  transformations  back  to  some  known  principle,  thus  ren- 
dering the  whole  science  of  natural  philosophy  more  and  more 
the  vast  and  coherent  structure  whitji  it  should  be,  and  which 
has  for  its  foundation  the  grandest  of  modem  generalisations— 
the  coaserTiatiea  of  E.  This  principle  may  be  thus  enunciated  :— 
The  total  E.  of  the  universe,  or  of  any  portion  of  it,  uninfluenced 
save  by  its  mutual  actions,  is  comicmt  uiroughout  all  transforma- 
tions. It  is  this  indestructible  and  non-creatable  character  which 
most  warrants  us  in  conceiving  E,  as  something  which  has  an 
existence  as  real  and  objective  as  matter  ;  and  tt  is  utterly  op- 
posed to  the  possibility  of  perpetual  motion,  taken  in  its  purely 
scientific  sense  of  doii^  work  without  an  expenditure  of  an  equi- 
valent quantity  of  K  The  experimentel  basis  for  this  generali- 
sation IS  that  any  one  form  of  E.  may,  by  suitable  means,  be 
transformed  wholly  or  in  part  into  an  iquwalmt  amount  in  any 
other  form.  This  constitutes  the  transformation  of  E.  These 
principles  were  fully  reci^nised,  in  their  purely  -mechanical  con- 
nections, by  Newton ;  but  they  have  only  been  developed  during 
the  last  thirty  years.  The  following  are  a  few  of  the  innurnerable 
experiments  given  in  illustration  of  the  mutual  relations  and 
interactions  of  the  vailous  forms  of  K 

An  oscillating  pendulum,  when  at  either  extremity  of  its  range, 
540 


has  no  kinetic  E. ,  but  its  potential  is  evidently  at  its  greatest.  As 
it  approaches  the  vertical  position,  it  loses  m  potential  E.,  but 
simultaneously  there  appears  an  equivalent  amount  of  kinetic  E., 
which  again  diminishes  as  the  bob  rises.  There  is  a  constant 
transformation  of  active  and  dormant  energies ;  and  the  most 
dehcate  measurements  bring  out  the  conservation  principle,  that . 
the  sum  of  the  two  is  constant,  or  rather  would  be  if  the 
pendulum  could  possibly  be  suspended  absolutely  fricfionless  in 
a  non-resisting  medium.  The  length  of  the  arc  of  oscillation, 
and  the  time  of  description,  would  m  such  a  possibility  be  invari- 
able ;  and  any  alteration  in  either  discovers  to  the  inquirer  the 
action  of  some  extraneous  force.  There  is  no  pendulum  but  is  con- 
stantly losing  some  of  its  E.  in  the  resistances  offered  to  its  motion, 
and  this  loss  has  its  equivalent  in  the  heat  ultimately  generated  by 
the  friction.  A  vibrating  tuning-fork  presents  another  interesting 
and  somewhat  analogous  case.  Its  E.,  dependingupon  the  original 
displacement  and  the  elasticity  of  the  metal,  is  rapidly  transformed 
into  the  aerial  waves  of  compression  and  dilatation  which  consti 
tut  d    and  these  as  with  all  similar  phenomena,  ultimate! 

fi  d  th        q       It       the  heat  generated  by  the  motion.     L 

11        ta  tl        q     tion  K-V  F=  const,  is  the  great  govern 

g  prm   pi  —   h       K  x&  the  kinetic,  and  V  the  potential  E 
T!    p  t    t   I  E     f  th    bent  bow,  stored  up  in  it  by  the  mus 
lar         t         f  th    archer,  is   transformed  into  the  kinetic 
E       f  th     p    ject  d     rrow,  which  is  gradually  spent  in  01 
m  ng  th      es  t  of  the  air,  and  at  length  lost  when  the 

rr  w     tnk      any     bject,   being  ultimately  transformed  into 
"     '     '  t  d  by  the  friction  and  concussion.     Many  fine 

t        d  from  electric  and  magnetic  phenomena. 
1    t  c  machine,  the  electricity  generated  finds 

iart  of  the  muscular  E.  expended  in  rotating 
the  E.  of  the  charge  may  be  used  to  produce 
light,  sound,  and  heat,  or  a  shock.  In  a  voltaic  battery  we 
have  a  store  of  E.  due  to  the  difference  of  potential  of  the  elec- 
trodes and  the  chemical  properties  of  the  electrolyte ;  and  part 
of  this  E,,  when  the  electrodes  are  connected  externally  by 
'  ■  oral   of  an   electric 


examples 
I    th    CO    n: 
an  equivalen 
the  cylinder ; 


transformed 
current,  which,  on  account  of  the  resistance  to 
seuted  by  the  circuit  and  battery,  generates  hi 
amount  of  heat  generated  having  an  equivalf 
which  the  E.  of  the  current  suffers. 


1  the  ci 


t,  the 


itheci 


generate  an  amount  of  heat  sufficient  to  make  the  wire  gli  , 
or  even  melt  Dr  Joule  of  Manchester  found  by  experiment 
that,  alerii psriius,  flie  total  quantity  of  heat  ultimately  generated 
in  a  circuit  was  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  intensity  of 
the  current,  and  that,  if  the  current  were  used  to  drive  a  magnf 
electric  engine,  and  do  work,  say  by  raising  a  weight,  the  h 
produced  would  be  less  than  when  no  such  external  work  1 
done,  by  an  amount  which  has  its  mechanical  equivalent  in  the 
work  performed,  and  therefore  in  the  potential  E,  stored  up 
in  the  weight  and  the  loss  occasioned  by  friction,  molecular 
forces,  &c.  If  this  Kused  weight  be  permitted  to  fall,  the 
potential  E.  is  transformed  first  Into  kinetic,  and  this  ulti- 
mately finds  its  equivalence  in  the  heat  generated  by  the  con- 
cussion. Dr  Joule  showed  that  a  weight  of  r  lb.  falling  through 
a  distance  of  772  feet  was  sufficient  to  generate  a  quantity  of  heat 
capable  of  raising  the  temperature  of  r  lb.  of  water,  at  ordinary 
temperature  and  pressure,  by  1°  F. ;  and  this  amount  of  work, 
772  foot-poimds,  IS  the  so-called  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat 
This  experimental  law,  disproving  conclusively  the  material  nature 
of  heat,  forms  the  foundation  of  the  true  science  of  Thermodyna- 
mics (q.  V. ),  with  the  development  of  whitJi  that  of  E.  is  con- 
nected indissolubly.  Arago's  discovery  of  the  retarding  effect  of  a 
copper  plate  upon  a  magnetic  needle  set  in  vibration  over  it  is 
completely  explained  in  accordance  with  conservation  principles, 
as  a  consequence  of  Faraday's  later  discovery  of  the  induction  of 
electric  currents  in  a  conductor  moving  relatively  to  a  magnet.  The 
currents  generated  react  upon  the  magnet,  the  loss  of  whose  E. 
has  its  equivalent  first  in  the  E.  of  the  induced  currents,  and 
ultimately  in  the  heat  produced  by  resistance  to  conduction. 
Oersted's  discovery  of  electro-magnetism,  followed  up  by  Fara- 
day's brilliant  researches,  affords  many  interesting  cases  of  trans- 
formations, indicating  the  close  coimection  existing  between 
electricity  and  magnetism.  Later,  Ampire  produced  all  the 
phenomena  of  magnetic  repulsion  and  attraction  by  means  of 
solenoids  or  helices  of  conducting  wires,  establishing  the  law  that 
tvio  currents  flo-aiing  hi  the  same  direction  attract  each  other  ;  t 


yLaOogle 


ENE 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


BNF 


ciirrettts  flowing  in  opposite  diredions  repel.  The  induction  of  a 
secondary  current  in  a  coil  moving  relatively  to  tlie  primary  coil, 
viewed  in  the  light  of  this  law,  affords  a  beautiful  example  of 
conservation  of  E.,  inasmuch  as  the  secondary  current  .flows  in 
the  same  or  in  the  opposite  direction  as  the  primary,  according 
as  the  coils  are  receding  from  or  approaching  each  other.  For 
were  the  secondary  current  to  flow  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that 
of  the  primary  while  the  coils  were  being  separated,  there  would 
be  repuMon,  and  the  coils  would  of  thsmsdues  tend  to  separate 
more  and  more  rapidly  with  the  generation  of  a  constantly  in- 
creasing secondary  current — a  case  of  perpetual  motion,  or  work 
done  without  expenditure  of  E.  Similar  reasoning  has  of  late 
years  led  to  the  discovery  of  new  and  sometimes  startling  facts. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  is  the  calculation  upon  theory  by  Pro- 
fessor James  Thomson  of  the  lowering  of  the  freedng-point  of  water 
by  pressure,  and  the  subsequent  experimental  verification,  even  to 
its  numerical  detaUs,  by  Sir  W.  Thomson,  The  latter  extended 
(he  theory  further  in  this  direction,  and  deduced  the  interesting 
law  of  which  the  above  is  a  special  case,  that  solids  which 
expand  when  melted  have  their  melting-point  raised  by  pres- 
sure, and  solids  which  contract  when  melted  have  their  melting- 
point  Urwered  by  pressure.  For  the  application  of  this  law 
to  the  explanation  of  physical  phenomena,  see  Earth  and  Gla- 
ciers.* Another  discoveir  by  Sir  W.  Thomson  is  the  so- 
called  electric  connection  of  halt,  or  the  effect  produced  by  a 
current  directed  through  an  unequally-heated  metallic  wire  or 
bar — lending  to  equalise  Uie  temperature  in  some  metals,  as  in 
the  case  of  iron,  and  to  render  it  still  more  unequal  in  others, 
as  in  copper.  In  electrolysis  we  have  the  E.  of  the  electric 
current  expended  in  dissociating  the  molecules  whose  combi- 
nation forms  the  electrolyte  ;  and  the  researches  of  Faraday  show 
that  the  more  hidden  actions  of  chemical  combination  and  de- 
composition are  as  truly  governed  by  this  law  of  coiisei-vation 
as  the  more  evident  motions  of  the  solar  system.  Experiment 
shows  that  there  is  always  a  definite  amount  of  heat  taken  in  or 
given  out  during  the  formation  of  a  given  quantity  of  a  chemical 
compound ;  and  further,  that  a  compound,  if  capable  of  being 
decomposed  by  heat,  requires  to  give  out  or  take  in  precisely 
the  same  amount  to  effect  its  decomposition. 

Throughout  all  these  illustrations,  however,  it  is  noticeable  that 
the  form  of  E.  which  is  most  frequently,  indeed  alwa^  produced  is 
heat.  Nowoneofthemostevident  properties  ofheat  is  Its  tendency 
to  difiiise  itself  in  all  directions,  and  thus  ultimately  render  all 
bodies  of  one  and  the  same  temperature,  But  mechanical  work 
can  be  obtained  from  heat  only  when  it  is  capable  of  being  trans- 
mitted  from  one  body  to  another,  i.i.,  when  we  have  two  bodies 
at  different  temperatures.  Evidently,  then,  heat  tends,  when  left 
to  itself,  to  destroy  its  power  of  doing  useliil  woclt.  In  other 
words,  though  the  amount  of  E.  is  constant,  its  anctilability  for 
work  is  diminishing ;  and  thus  are  we  led  to  Thomson's  most 
recent  development  of  the  science,  viz.,  the  dissipation  ^ E.  It 
i^imply  asserts  that  no  natural  process  is  reversible,  and_  that  all 
transformations  are  accompanied  by  a  constant  degradation  of  E. 
to  the  final  unavailable  form  of  uniformly-diffused  heat.  Hence 
if,  as  suggested  by  Professor  Tait  of  Edinburgh,  we  taie  the 
word  entropy  to  mean  availability  for  wort  of  a  given  quantity  of 
E.,  we  are  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  'entropy  of  the  universe 
tends  to  aero.'  Heat  can  only  do  work  when  it  is  let  down,  so 
■  to  speak,  from  a  hotter  to  a  colder  body— just  as  a  mass  of  water, 
however  great,  is  useless  unless  it  can  be  let  down  from  a  higher 
level  to  a  lower.  Further,  the  greater  the  difference  of  tem- 
perature  between  the  boiler  and  condenser  of  a  heat  engine, 
the  greater  is  the  amount  of  work  the  engine  is  capable  of 
performing  as  the  boiler  is  cooled  to  the  temperature  of  the 
condenser.  For  instance,  suppose  a  body  to  contain  q  units 
of  heat  at  temperature  t,  measured  from  absolute  zero,  then 
the  total  amount  or  E.  which  it  contains  is  in  dynamical 
units  jg,  where  /is  Joule's  equivalent.  If  T  be  the  lowest 
temperature  to  which  the  body  can  be  cooled,  the  greatest 
possible  amount  of  work  which  can  be  performed  during  the 

cooling  is  7" 7—  1  =  7?  "  7  7  ?!  ^""^  ■"'l>i='i  ™e  see  that  the 
whole  heat  in  a  given  body  cannot  be  fiiUy  utilised  except  the 
body  be  cooled  to  absolute  zero,  a  practical  impossibility.  A 
very  good  example  of  this  dissipation  is  afforded  by  an  experi- 
ment made  by  Joule.  He  compressed  a  quantity  of  air  to 
i-zoth  of  its  original  volume,  in  a  vessel  which  was  connected 
with  anothervessel  of  equal  size,  but  separated  from  it  by  a  very 


ticaily  the  same 
But  though  the 
nished,  because 
original  volume, 
natural  phf    " 


perfect  stopcock.  When  the  stopcock  was  turned,  the  air  of 
"ourse  rushed  from  the  one  vessel  into  the  other,  which  had  pre- 
viously been  made  as  perfect  a  vacuum  as  possible.  This  air 
lid  no  external  work,  because  experiment  showed  that  by  what- 
■  "■  "  nperature  of  the  one  vessel  fell  off,  by  prac- 
■iount  did  the  temperature  of  the  other  rise. 
,  remained  the  same,  the  entropy  was  dimi- 
<n  the  same  mass  of  air  was  at  only  half  its 
If  there  were  no  dissipation  of  E.,  every 
would  be  reversible,  i.i.,  would  be  capable 
rarious  stages  in  the  reverse  order,  fulfilling  at 
eacTi  in"stant  exactly  the  same  conditions  as  in  its  original  pro- 
gress. But  on  account  of  the  tendency  which  heat  has  to  diffuse, 
very  few  instances  in  nature  can  be  adduced  which  are  even  ap- 
proximately reversible  ;  and  so  unless  it  be  possible  to  localise  or 
prevent  the  diffusion  of  a  given  quantity  of  heat,  we  are  compelled 
to  accept  the  dissipation  principle  as  an  important  kw  in  nature. 
Professor  Clerk  Maxwell  of  Cambridge  has  shown,  upon  the 
molecular  theory  of  gases,  that  the  localisation  could  be  effected 
if  the  molecules  of  matter  were  of  sufiicient  size  to  be  individually 
directed  by  physical  means.  The  excessive  smailness  and  great 
number  of  tlie  molecules,  however,  render  this  impossible,  and 
thus  shut  the  only  door  of  escape  from  this  principle,  overthrow- 
ing the  whole  of  that  materialism  which  has  of  late  ; 
advocated  by  quasi-scientific  sceptics. 

E.,  then,  including  as  it  does  Electricity,  Magnetii 
tation,  Heat,  Light,  Sound,  &c.  (q.  v.),  must  be  reci  ^ 
the  agent  in  the  physical  universe — matter  being  in  itself  pas- 
sive and  merely  the  vehicle  by  which  E.  is  made  evident. 
The  most  plausible  speculation  regarding  the  ultimate  nature 
of  matter  is  that  which  supposes  tlie  atoms  to  be  vortex  rings 
in  a  perfect  homogeneous  fluid.  (See  Vortex.)  If  we  sup- 
pose this  fluid  to  be  almost  but  not  quite  frictionlesa,  we  see 
that  the  atoms  may  be  but  forms  of  E.,  and  that  ultimately 
matter  may  cease  to  exist,  an  equivalent  portion  of  hidden  E. 
reappearing  as  each  vortex  disappears.  Regardmg  the  more 
hidden  properties  of  E.,  experiment  suggests  the  following  hypo- 
theses as  highly  probable  : — That  transformations  of  E.  take 
place  through  a  medium,  which,  according  to  Sir  W,  Thomson, 
must  have  an  appreciable  density  to  fulfil  the  requisite  conditions 
for  the  propagation  of  light,  radiant  heat,  and  magnetic  action  ; 
and  that  potential  E,  is  really  kinetic,  being  due  to  motions  of 
displacement  of  some  nature  through  the  ether,  as  the  medium 
has  been  called. 

In  conclusion,  be  it  remembered  that  the  theory  of  E.  is  still 
in  its  infancy.  Grove's  Correlation  of  the  Physical  Forces  (1842) 
was  the  first  step  in  this  direction  ;  bnt  under  the  care  of  such 
men  as  Thomson,  Rankine,  Helmholtz,  Joule,  Clausiits,  Maxwell, 
&c.,  the  science  has  grown  so  rapidly,  and  has  opened  up  such 
important  lines  of  research,  that  it  has  established  the  whole  of 
natural  philosophy  upon  a  new  and  firmer  basis.  The  researches 
of  Faradiy  have  done  more  towards  this  than  all  other  previous 
discoveries  put  together ;  yet  it  is  a  curious  fact  that  this  distin- 
guished experimentalist  never  fully  appreciated  or  recc^ised  the 
potency  of^  the  principle  of  the  conservation  of  E,  The  most 
popular  work  on  the  subject  is  Balfour  Stewart's  Cottsirvation 
of  E.  (1874);  but  for  a  more  scientific  treatment,  see  Helm- 
holtz's  Ueier  die  Erhaltung  der  Kraft  {1847),  Tait's  Thermo- 
Dynamics  (1868),  and  the  numerous  scattered  papers  of  Thomson, 
Rankine,  and  Clausins  in  the  Transactions  and  Proceedings  of  the 
Royal  Societies  of  London  and  Edinburgh,  in  the  Cambridge 
Philosophical  Trattsactiont,  PAUosephical  Magazine,  &c.     Tlie 


orks  as  Thom- 


principles  are  applied  on  every  oc 

son's  and  Tait's  Natural  Philosophy  {i^S']),  T^toaiion's  Electro- 
statics and  Magnetism  (1873),  Clerk  Maxwell's  Theory  of  Beat 
(1871),  and  Eleclricify  and  Magnetism  (1873)  Rankine's  Steam- 
engine  (1859),  and  T^t's  SecenI  Advances  in  Physical  Scietue 
(.876). 

En'fantin,  Barthaemy  Prosper,  'Pfero,'  iras  bom  at 
Paris,  February  S,  1796.  He  was  expelled  from  the  Ecole  Poly- 
technique  for  having  taken  part  in  the  'national  defence'  at 
Montmartre  In  1814.  For  some  years  be  was  a  bank  clerk,  and 
in  1825  was  introduced  by  Rodriguez  to  the  dying  St  Simon. 
Later,  E.,  along  with  Rodrignei  and  Bazard,  the  head  of  the 
Frendi  Carbonari,  started  a  journal,  the  Prodncteter,  in  which 
they  explained  St  Simon's  views,  calling  themselves  the  'Su- 
preme Fathers.'  E.  divided  all  human  characters  into  the  con- 
54-1 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


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it  and  the  viirkble,  the  profound  and  the  superficial.  He 
advocated  'free  love,'  subject  to  the  discretion  of  the  priest  ot 
spiritual  authority.  Personal  beauty  was  essentisil  to  the  priest, 
IS  the  Messiah  to  proclaim  this  new  theory.  After  a 
split  in  the  sect,  E.  was  called  by  his  preachers — Barrant,  Triin- 
Eon,  Liurent,  &c. — '  the  livii^  liw,'  while  the  Globe  newspaper 
ai^ed  that  lie  salvation  of  society  depended  on  the  recognition 
of  E.  as  Pope.  In  1832  the  society  was  put  down  by  Govern- 
ment, and  E.  was  imprisoned  for  conspiring  against  public 
morality.  He  afterwards  lived  in  seclusion  for  some  years,  but 
was  a  member  of  the  Algerian  Scientific  Commission  of  1841, 
and  edited  the  journal  Le  CrMit  Public,  1848-50.  He  died  31st 
May  1864.  E.  wrote  many  socialistic  works  ;  among  tlie  latest, 
La  Vie  Etemelle,  Passi,  Prhentt,  Future  (1861).  E.'s  works, 
along  with  those  of  St  Simon,  were  published  in  20  volumes 
(1S65-69)  by  a  council  of  followers. 

En'fleld,  a  town  in  Middlesex,  10  miles  N.  E.  of  London  by 
railway,  celebrated  as  the  seat  of  the  Government  small-arms 
factory.  It  belonged  to  the  crown  till  the  time  of  James  I.,  and 
there  was  here  an  extensive  royal  chase,  disforested  in  1729- 
Pop.  (1871)  16,054. 

Enfilade'  (Fr.  enfiler,  lit.  'to  thread,'  hence  'to  lake  in 
line ')  is  to  sweep  any  line  of  works  or  of  troops  with  shot  from 
a  battery  placed  on  the  prolongation  of  snch  line.  An  E.  is 
evaded  by  eonstmcting  works  so  as  to  present  angles  to  the 
enemy's  fire,  and  on  the  side  of  the  attack  by  advancing  to  these 
works  in  zigzag  trenches. 

En&an'ohise  (Fr.  franc,  G^.  frank,  'free 'J,  to  liberate,  to 
confer  on  a  person  free  privileges,  as  of  voting  in  a  constitutional 
government,  &c.     It  also  means  to  naturalise. 

Engadine'  {Ench  d'  Oen),  a  valley  in  the  E.  of  the  canton  of 
Grisons,  Switzerland,  is  watered  by  the  Inn,  and  has  a  length 
of  43  miles.  It  extends  in  a  north-easterly  direction  between 
the  Lepontian  and  Rhsetian  Alps,  and  is  divided  into  the  Lower 
E.  in  the  N.,  an  inclement  ravine,  clad  with  cembra  pines,  and 
the  Upper  E.  in  the  S.,  a  smiling  meadow-land  4000  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  cliief  places  in  the  former-are  Zemez  and  Tarasp ; 
in  the  latter,  Silvaplana,  St  Morltz  (a  sanatorium),  Samaden, 
&a.  The  Engadines  are  of  Latin  origin,  and  speak  a  Romanic 
tongue  {Ladin).  They  usually  pass  a  portion  of  their  lives  in 
the  laige  European  towns,  chiefly  as  hawkers  and  confectioners, 
invariably  retnmii^  to  their  native  valley.  Pop.  about  8000, 
almost  all  Protestants.  See  Papon,  Bas  E.  (1857),  and  Von 
M.  Caviezel,  Das  Oherengadin  (Samaden,  1S76). 

Eng^age'ments,  Military  and  Naval,  are  hostile  en- 
counters between  aniiies  and  fleets  or  divisions  of  these.  The 
nature  of  these  conflicts  has  been  continually  changing.  The 
primitive  manteuvres  were  upset  by  the  invention  of  gunpowder, 
and  warfare  has  in  recent  years  been  again  revolutionised  by  the 
stricter  study  of  tactics  and  by  the  vast  improvements  in  cannon 
and  small  arms.    See  Drill  f  Military),  ficHELOK,  Camp,  &c. 

ED.g'ag'emeiits,  Unlaivfal,  By  37  Geo.  III.  c  123,  the 
Idministering  an  oath,  or  otherwise  attempting  to  bind  any  one 
to  any  illegal  purpose,  is  made  felony.  Compulsion  (q.  v.)  will 
lot  excuse  any  one  taking  the  oath  unless  he  disclose  the  circnm- 
itance  to  a  Justice  of  the  Peace  or  Secretary  of  State  within 
fourteen  days.  An  oath  not  to  reveal  an  unlawful  combination 
has  been  held  to  come  within  the  statute.    See  Combination, 

Enghien',  Louis  Antoine  Henri  de  Bourbon,  Duo  d', 
son  of  Pnnce  Henri  Louis  Joseph,  Due  de  Bouibon,  was  bom 
at  Chantilly,  August  2,  1772.  He  fought  with  the  French  Royal, 
ists  against  the  Republicans,  1796-99,  and  after  the  peace  of 
Luneville,  having  a  pension  from  England,  retired  to  the  chSceau 
of  Ettenheim,  in  Baden,  and  was  privately  married  to  the  Princess 
Ciiarlotte  de  Rohan.  On  the  17th  of  March  1S04  a  French  force 
entered  the  Baden  territory,  seized  E.  in  bed,  and  took  him  to  the 
Castle  of  Vincennes  near  Paris,  where  he  was  tried  by  a  railitaiy 
court  on  the  charge  of  being  piivy  to  the  plot  of  Pichegru 
gainst  the  Irfe  of  Napoleon,  and  having  been  convicted  without 
evidence,  was  by  order  of  Napoleon  shot  in  the  castle  ditch  on 
;t  of  March.  Fouche,  Napoleon's  chief  adviser,  said  of 
icution  of  E.  that  '  it  was  worse  than  a  crime,  it  was  a 
blunder;'  Napoleon  defended  it  on  the  ground  that  it  was  neces- 
saiy  to  frighten  the  Bourbons.  See  Dupin's  records  of  the  trial, 
and  Savary's  memoir  Sur  la  Cataslroihe  de  M.  le  Dm  d'E. 
(Par.  1823). 


^- 


542 


En 'gin  q  (Lat.  ingeniiim,  '  natural  capacity,'  ' 
itigeffno ;  Yr.engin;  'craft,'  'contrivance'),  aterm  inmechanics, 
applied  in  a  general  sense  to  any  powerful  machine,  but  strictly 
denoting  prime  movers.  Engines  are  usually  more  fully  desig- 
nated in  accordance  with  their  special  functions,  as  in  the  case  of 
a  Steam-E.  (q.  v.).  The  forces  applied  and  utihsed  by  the 
various  engines  are  heat,  gravity,  and  electricity.  The  relation 
of  these  forces  to  useful  work  ia  described  under  Thermo- 
dynamics, Hydko-Dynamics,  Ener&y,  &c 

Engineer'  and  EngineerLng'.  The  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers,  defines  E.  as  '  the  art  of  directing  the  great  sources  of 
power  in  nature  for  the  use  and  convenience  of  man,'  and  as  deal- 
ing with  '  the  construction  of  roads^  bridges,  aqneducts,  canals, 
river  navigation,  and  docks  for  internal  intercourse  and  1  g 
&C.  In  Uie  widest  sense,  the  K,  to  use  the  words  of  th  It 
Professor  Macquom  Rankine,  '  is  he  who  makes  the  mecl  1 

properties  of  matter  serve  the  ends  of  man.' 

The  business  of  the  miiilaTy  E.  (in  distinction  fro  wh  m 
others  received  the  title  'ciml)  is  to  construct  fortifica  d 

military  roads  and  works  generally.      In  India,  howe  h 

purely  civil  work —the  construction  of  railways,  canal  brjdg 
&e. — is  still  done  by  military  engineers,  and  througl  t  ll 
Empire  the  work  of  the  Ordnance  Survey  is  carried  on  by  tl 

The  profession  of  the  Civil  E.  (q.  v.)  is  further  subd  d  d 
into  railway  engineers,  hydraulic  engineeis,  telegraphic  ng  rs, 
mining  engineers,  &c  The  civil  E.  generally  only  des  gns  d 
superintends  work ;  the  actual  making  of  the  railways  b  d  es 
docks,  &c ,  under  his  care  is  done  by  a  contractor.  The  m  ban 
cal  E.,  on  the  other  hand,  usually  constructs  as  well  d  igns 
his  work.  He  employs  his  own  workmen — patter  m  k 
moulders,  smiths,  fitters,  turners,  &c. 

rThe  English  still  hold  the  foremost  position  as  engineers,  in 
spite  of  the  greatly  superior  education  received  by  those  of  Ger- 
many and  France.  England,  however,  is  now  rapidly  extend- 
ing the  provision  for  efficient  training.  Although  she  has  no- 
thing exactly  corresponding  to  the  German  Polytechnic  Schools, 
most  of  the  universities  and  colleges  (excepting  those  of  Oxford 
and  Cambridge)  have  established  chairs  of  engineering.  The 
E.  requires  a  knowledge  of  pure  mathematics,  mechanics,  hydro- 
statics, hydraulics,  dynamics,  optics,  and  drawing.  The  various 
operations  of  the  art  are  treated  of  in  separate  articles. 

Ei^ineers  in  the  royal  navy  rank  as  commissioned  ofiiceis. 
They  are  admitted  by  examination,  and  have  charge  of  and 
control  over  the  engines,  boilers,  and  machinery  in  general  of 
vessels  of  war.  The  principal  classes  into  which  they  are  divided 
are  inspectors  of  machinery,  chief  E,  and  assistant  E.,  the  latter 
being  subdivided  into  fiist,  second,  and  third  class.  The  pay 
ranges  from  :£6o  to  j,f  500. 

BngineerSj  Eoyal,  a  regiment  or  corps  of  the  British  army, 
the  special  duties  of  which  are  the  defence  and  attack  of  fortified 
places,  and  the  alteration  of  existing  batteries.  The  regiment 
was  first  incorporated  in  1763,  the  department  of  military 
engineering  having  previously  to  that  date  been  superintended 
by  officers  selected  from  the  army.  The  distinction  of  being 
made  a  royal  corps,  with  a  distinctive  uniform,  was  conferred  in 
1783.  Inthearmyestimatesfori876-77thecorpsofR.E.  con- 
sisted of  392  officers,  721  non-commissioned  ofiicers,  and  416a 
men.  Officers  of  the  R.  E.  require  to  possess  a  liberal  know- 
ledge of  mathematics,  mechanics,  Che  theory  and  practice  of 
construction,  and  drawing.  They  enter  as  cadets,  by  competi- 
tion, into  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  where  a  course  in  these 
branches  is  pursued,  and  whence  they  pass  out  with  eormnis- 
sions.  The  non-commissioned  officers  and  privates  are  all  skilled 
workmen  in  some  mechanical  calling.  The  pay  of  officers  and 
men  is  considerably  higher  than  in  line  regiments ;  and  as  the 
Ordnance  Survey  has  been  entrusted  to  the  corps,  as  well  as 
various  special  Government  works,  unusual  facilities  are  afforded 
for  advancement. 

England  and  Wales,  the  southern  and  larger  portion  of 
the  island  of  Great  Britain,  is  bounded  N.  by  Scotland,  E,  by 
the  North  Sea,  S.  by  the  English  Channel,  and  W,  by  the 
Athintic  and  the  Irish  Sea,  and  lies  ui  lat.  49°  Sl'-5S°  45'  N. 
and  long,  i"  45'-5°  44'  W,  The  country  is  somewhat  in  the 
■form  of  a  scalene  triangle,  having  its  base  in  the  S.,  while  its 
extreme  points  are  in  the  N.  Berwick,  S.  the  Lizard  Point,  K 
Lowestoft  Ness  in  Suffolk,  and  W.  Land's  End.    Iti  extreme 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ENG 


length,  from  Tweedmouth  in  Ihe  N.  to  St  Alban's  Head  in 
Dorset,  is  365  miles ;  and  its  breadth,  from  Hartlsind  Point  in 
Devon  to  the  S.  Foreland  in  Kent,  is  zgo,  while  the  extent  of 
the  coast-line  amounts  to  2000  miles,  giving  I  mile  of  sea-margin 
to  every  29  sq.  miles  of  surface. 

The  chief  mdentations  on  the  W.  side  are  the  Solway,  More- 
cambeBay,  Cardigan  Bay,  St  Bride's  Bay,  Milford  Haven,  and 
Bristol  Channel ;  on  the  S.  Mount's  Bay,  Plymouth  Sound, 
Portsmouth  Harbour,  and  Southampton  Water;  and  on  the 
E.  the  estuary  of  the  Thames,  the  Wash,  and  the  Humber. 
Of  the  capes  may  be  mentioned,  on  the  E,  coast,  Flamboroogh 
Head  and  Spurn  Head  in  Yorkshire,  the  Naie  in  Essex,  the  N. 
and  S.  Foreland  and  Dungeness  in  Kent;  on  the  S.  coast, 
Eeachy  Head  in  Sussex,  the  Needles  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  Port- 
land Point  in  Dorset,  Start  Point  m  Devon,  the  Lizard  and 
Land's  End  in  Cornwall;  on  the  W.  coast,  Hartland  Point  in 
Devon,  Worms  Head  in  Glamoi^an,  St  David's  Head  in  Pem- 
broke, Bralch.y-PwU  and  Great  Orme  Head  In  Carnarvon,  and 
St  Bees'  Head  inCumberlaud.  E.  and  W.  are  divided  into  fifty- 
two  counties,  with  areas  and  populations  as  follows,  according  to 
■     "  ofApril3,  iSyr 


Areas  in 

Counties. 

Pop.  <i37')- 

C« 

England. 

Berks  .    : 

4S^'32 

196,475 

Ci^bridEC  '. 

t^c^^ 

sa 

sij.- 

Cheshire      , 

56.,™i 

s^;8?s 

36^,343 

Cat 

Derty 

379,394 

Devon 

601,374 

627! =65 

D    di 

D^hatn      '. 

6*7.59' 

685^069 

Ss^.       . 

466.436 

Glc.ne«Kr  . 

'■ioiqn 

534.640 

S3=,M 

Herl9  :        '.     - 

Kent  .  _     . 

.,^tl34 

S| 

SI" 

Lanca 

Leioe 

Lincoln       '. 

1,787.963 

MiddL=s«  . 

\    ^       ,. 

Monmouth  , 

.Si 

4^'^ 

^      m      h 

NotthumE^hind 

619.9'' 

■sis 

N  ilh  mp 

Nottingham 

''|?5;?j5 

319,75a 

N        g    m 

Oiforf          . 

x^ 

8k  am 

Salop   .     '  '. 

841,167 

mS^H! 

4S3.4S3 

T 

Stafford        . 

'ja'.VM 

,      1^8,3=6 

Staff 

Suffolk         . 

348,869 

4331-73 

G     df   d 

n^ck  : 

llsiwa 

'i'S 

W*    dt 

B«>,9o6 

6S,oio 

A       b 

859,303 

47',43J 

338^837 

York    .        . 

3.88^,351 

Y   k 

3'W398 

",49S..3. 

Anglesey 

,„ 

51,040 

Bea  u, 

46=.sS 

Cardigan 

C        B 

1     CamSeu 

6^6  17^ 

Can.  rt 

Caroarroa 

Kf„ 

S5 

■  'a;s 

M    ""^ 

'.'S3 

Urdlff 

Menoufth 

,Ss  Mr 

67,633 

M      gmry 

Pembroke                                    1     501  OSi 

91,598 

P  mb    k 

Radnor 

37653= 

25.430 

N      E 

4  7!i.  Si 

■,"7,'3S 

Total, 

37.3'9."2 

=2,7i=,=66 

Sheppey  in  the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  and,  near  Berwick,  Holy 
Island,  the  Fame  Islands,  and  Coquet  Islb.  They  are  described 
at  length  under  their  respective  names. 

PhyHcal  Aspect.— Tae  surface  of  E.  proper  is  agreeably  diver- 
sified by  hills  and  plains.  The  hills  are  generally  steep  towards 
the  W.,  but  have  a  gentle  eastern  slope,  A  line  di-awn  N.  E.  and 
S.W.  from  Scaxhorough  in  Yorksliire  to  the  mouth  of  the  Severn 
would  divide  E.  into  two  portions  distinct  ahke  in  geology  and 
physical  outline.  To  the  N.  the  surface  is  broken  and  hilly, 
rismg  occasionally  into  hold  heights  ;  to  the  S.  it  is  chiefly  char- 
acterised by  gentle  unduhition,  and  level,  fertile  expanse.  Ex- 
tending from  tlie  western  declivity  of  the  Cheviots  in  a  direction 
mainly  E.S.E.,  the  Pennine  eham  forms  the  great  watershed  of 
the  N.  If  runs  as  far  S,  as  (he  Peak  in  Derbyshire,  and  reaches  its 
matest  height  of  2927  feet  in  Cross  Fell,  Cumberland.  The 
Cumbrian  mounlams,  a  cluster  of  ru^ed  peaks,  are  a  western 
offeet  of  the  Pennine,  and  includes  Scawfell,  the  highest  eleva- 
tion in  E.,  having  3208  feet  of  an  altitude.  The  basin  of  the 
Severn  is  partly  bounded  on  the  W,  by  the  Cotswold,  and  on 
the  E.  by  the  Malvern  Hills,  while  the  Cambrian  mountains  pro- 
ject  many  spurs  over  the  Welsh  frontier.  Snowdon,  in  Carnar- 
von, 2571  feet,  is  the  highest  mountain  in  E.  and  W.  The  Cam- 
brians also  contain  Cader  Idris,  Arran  Fowddy,  the  Beacons, 
&  Cornwall,  Devon,  and  Somerset  are  traversed  by  the 
a  lost  continuous  Devonian  ranges,  which  in  Yes  Tor  have  a 
h  ght  of  2050  feet.  The  other  southern  ranges  are  the  Dorset 
H  Is,  and  the  N,  and  S.  Downs.  To  the  N.  of  the  Thames,  in 
B  cks  and  Cambridge,  are  the  Chiltem  Hills,  which  form  part 
a  low,  brolten  chain  continuing  in  a  north-easterly  direction 
o  Norfolk.  The  wolds  in  Lincoln  and  York  are  slight  ele- 
ions  parallel  with  the  coast.  The  E.  coast  is  low,  and 
b  oken  mamly  by  sweeping  bays  ;  on  the  W.  the  irregular  shores 
a     lined  with  cliffs,  and  frei^uently  project  in  bold  and  prec' 


The  principal  islands  along  the  English  coast  are  the  Isle  of 
Man  in  the  Irish  Sea,  Walney  off  Lancashire,  Anglesea  and 
Holyhead,  Lundy  Island  in  the  Bristol  Channel,  the  Sdlly  Isles 
off  Land's  End,  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  the  Channel  Islands, 


The  plains  are  numerous  and  extensive.      The  heart  of  the 

untry  is  a  great  fertile  flat,  varying  in  height  from  200  to  40O 

t,  and  extending  from  the  Cotswold  Hills  to  the  confines  of 

h    Wash,  from  the  Pennines  to  the  basin  of  the  Thames.     To 

e  N.,  hemmed  in  by  the  Pennines  and  the  Wolds,  the  Plain  of 
Y  rk  stretches  along  the  E.  coast  to  the  Tweed,  and  includes 
n  any  lai^e  coal-fields.  The  Cheshire  Plain,  in  the  basms  of  the 
Dee  and  Weaver,  lies  between  the  Pennine  and  Welsh  hiUs. 
The  lowest  land  m  E.,  the  Eastern  Pt^,  is  partly  separated  from 
he  great  central  one  by  the  Chiltems,  and  includes  the  coast 

untry  from  the  Thames  to  the  Wash.  It  comprises  the  Fens, 
he  richly  productive  flats  of  Lincoln,  Hunlingdon,   Norfolk, 

d  Cambridge,     The  broad  valley  of  the  Severn  is  celebrated 

r  its  rich  beauty  and  fertility.  Salisbury  Plain  in  Wilts,  and 
Dartmoor  in  Devon,  are  tablelands.  The  Weald,  enclosed  by 
he  N.  and  S.  Downs,  is  a  wide  pastoral  expanse. 

Hydrogrsp/ty.—Tiie  rivers  of  E.,  which  are  well  supplied  with 
vrater,  are  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  various  industries,  as 

ell  as  for  purposes  of  irrigation  and  commerce.  By  fer  the 
g  eater  volume  of  water  flows  into  the  North  Sea,  the  line  of 
water-parting  traced  from  N.  to  S.  falling  considerably  to  the 
■^  ,  of  the  centre  of  the  country.  The  drainage  area  to  the  E  s 
29,759  sq.  miles ;  that  to  the  S.  into  the  English  Channel, 
7  06 ;  and  to  the  W.  mto  St  George's  Channel  and  the  Irish 
S  a,  21,355.     To  the  S.,  and  also  generally  to  the  W     the 

reams  are  short,  and  their  basins  narrow.  The  loi  gest  and 
blest  river  iu  E.  is  the  Thames,  the  valley  of  which  is  fa  no  s 

r  its  wealth  of  richly-wooded  scenery.    Among  others  tonsp 

ous  for  length  are  the  Severn,  Trent,  Ouse,  and  Great  Ouse 

Tie  Mersey  and  Tyne  are  great  commercial  and  shipbuilding 

vers.  Among  the  chief  rivers  of  Wales  are  the  Dee,  Teify, 
Towey,  Tawy,  Ush,  and  Wye.  As  compared  with  Scotland  or 
I  eland,   E.  is  singularly  deficient  in  lakes.      Indeed,  the  only 

heels  of  water  of  any  size  are  confined  to  a  portion  of  Cuniber- 

nd  and  Westmoreland  known  as  the  '  Lake  District.'    Win- 

ermere,  the  lai^st  of  the  English  laliea,  is  not  more  than  ro 
n  lies  long  and  I  broad,  with  an  area  of  3  sq.  miles.  Another 
imall  lake  is  Bala,  in  Merioneth,  N.  Wales. 


CA'iBflte— Its  ii 


nild,    I 


and  an  unusually  equable  temperature.  The  parallel  of 
latitude  tliat  passes  through  the  heart  of  E.  also  traverses  Labrador 
on  the  W.,  and  Central  Russia«n  the  E.,  where  the  winters  are 
colder  by  some  30"  F.  Free  from  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold 
to  which  continental  countries  are  exposed,  the  mean  tempera- 
S43 


vLiOOQle 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ENG 


■e  of  E,  in  January  is  about  39°  F.,  in  July  63°.  The  W.  side 
is  particularly  mild,  being  visited  in  summer  and  autumn  by  the 
prevailing  W.  and  S.W.  winds  which  beaj  across  the  Atlantic 
the  warm  air  generated  by  the  '  Gulf  Stream '  of  Florida.  Cold 
N.  and  easterly  winds  alternate  during  winter  and  spring,  and 
tend  to  reduce  the  temperature  of  the  E.  side.  Rain  falls  in 
greatest  quantity  with  W.  and  S.W.  winds ;  tbose  from  the 
E.  or  N.  are  generally  either  dry  or  foggy.  The  distribu- 
tion of  rain  is  very  unequal^  being  most  abundant  in  the  W., 
and  gradually  decreasing  towards  the  E.  At  Seathwaite  in 
Borrowdale,  Cumberland,  the  annual  fall  amounts  to  134 
inches,  whSe  the  average  along  the  W.  coast  ranges  from 
40  to  80  inches ;  whereas  on  the  E,  coast  the  average  is  from 
23  to  30  inches— at  London  24,  at  Cambridge  20,  at  York  23, 
at  Newcastle  25.  The  mean  number  of  rainy  days  on  the  E. 
coast  is  165,  on  the  W.  208.  This  difference  is  partly  owing  to 
the  configuration  of  the  land,  partly  to  the  prevalence  of  westerly 
winds  charged  with  vapour  frojn  the  Atlantic. 

Geology  and  Mineralogy. — By  far  the  greater  portion  of  the 
surface  of  E.  is  of  sedimentary,  fossiliferous  strata,  reaching 
back  to  the  Cambrian.  Only  the  north-western  and  south- 
western counties  are  covered  by  the  older  Pafcosoic  forma- 
tions. The  north-eastern  portion  has  a  basis  of  carboniferous 
limestone,  which  extends  intermit tingly  S.  and  W.  into  Devon- 
shire, and.  contains  (he  Cornish  lead-ores.  Above  the  limestone 
lie  the  coal  formations,  berinning  in  Northumberland,  and  con- 
tinuing through  Dnrham,  Yorlt,  Lancashire,  and  Stafford,  into 
S.  Wales.  The  coal  deposits  support  the  new  led  sandstone  and 
magnesian  hmestone,  which  stretch  in  a  narrow  belt  from  Shields 
to  Warwick,  abounding  in  salt  and  gypsum  in  some  localities. 
To  the  E.  agam  of  the  coat  and  sandstone  districts,  the  Oolite 
and  Lias  formations  occupy  the  country,  extending  in  a  wavy 
line  from  the  E.  coast  of  Dorset  to  Whitby,  Further  E.  these 
are  succeeded  by  greensand  and  chalk,  and  the  Wealden  beds 
of  Sussex.  The  Tertiary  series  and  Diluvial  days  are  mamly 
confined  to  the  basins  of  the  Onse  and  Thames.  Wales  con- 
sists for  the  most  part  of  Cambrian  and  Silurian  strata ;  the 
coal  measures  in  the  S,  are  very  extensive.  Proceeding  from  N. 
to  S.,  the  various  formations  in  E.  and  W.  appear  In  the  exact 
order  of  geological  arrangement,  thus  as  it  were  presenting  to 
view  a  complete  geological  section  of  the  earth's  crust. 

The  minerals  of  E.  constitute  a  main  element  in  her  industrial 
prosperity,  and  in  proportion  to  the  area  greatly  surpass  those 
of  any  other  country.  The  vast  supply  of  (uel  in  the  coal  basins 
of  Northumberland,  Lancashire,  Durham,  Warwick,  Stafford, 
and  S.Wales,  has  led  to  the  growth  in  these  localilies  of  immense 
and  flourishing  manufactures.  Wales,  Staflbrd,  and  Yorkshire 
are  the  chief  sources  of  iron  ore.  As  in  remote  times,  tin  is 
supplied  by  the  Devonian  and  Cornish  mines.  Cornwall  is  also 
most  plentiful  in  copper,  which  occurs  besides  in  Stafford,  &c. 
In  Derby,  Somerset,  and  Cumberland,  lead  is  found,  and  some 
quantity  of  silver  is  extracted  from  the  ore.  Plumbago  is  pro- 
cured in  a  puie  state  in  Cumberland,  Borrowdale.  Solid  salt  is 
mined  in  Cheshire  to  the  extent  of  over  r,ooo,ooo  Ions  in  a  year. 
Among  the  other  more  valnable  natural  products  are  zmc  and 
nickel,  arsenic  and  manganese,  potter's  cla^  granite  and  freestone. 

Bulimy  and  Agriculture. — The  flora  of  E.  generally  belongs  to 
Scbouw'a  N.  European  region,  and  closely  resembles  that  of 
Germany,  comprisii^  but  few  peculiar  species.  E.  is  not 
regarded  by  botanists  as  '  a  centre  of  vegetation,'  but  as  having 
been  overrun  by  a  series  of  vegetable  migrations,  reaching  back, 
according  to  Edward  Forbes  and  others,  to  the  Middle  Tertiary 
epoch,  when  Britain  formed  part  of  the  continent  of  Europe. 
The  oak,  the  king  of  native  British  trees,  is  grown  extensively 
for  the  building  of  men-of-war  in  the  '  wealds  °of  Sussex,  Kent, 
and  Surrey.  Among  the  other  useful  indigenous  forest  trees 
are  the  fir,  birch,  beech,  ash,  alder,  elm,  hazel,  willow,  yew, 
maple,  aspen,  and  holly.  Of  those  introduced  by  man  are  the 
chestnut,  lime,  walnut,  Norwegian  spmce,  larch,  Lonibardy 
j>oplar,  mulberry,  cedar,  and  weeping  willow.  The  surface  is 
now  well  wooded,  and  royal  forest-lands  are  reserved  for  the 
growth  of  timber.  Of  these,  the  largest  are  the  New  Forest  in 
Hampshire,  Sherwood  m  Notts,  and  the  Dean  Forest  in  Glou- 
cestershire. There  is  a  great  variety  of  fruit-trees,  of  wliich 
the  chief  are  the  apple,  pear,  cherry,  plum,  peach,  walnut, 
currant,  and  gooseberry.  A  rich  appearance  is  given  to  the 
rural  scenery  of  E.  by  the  hawthorn  hedgerows,  with  their  wealth 
of  wildflowers,  at  times  overtopping  the  bosky  lanes 
544 


The  soil  is  not  on  the  whole  naturally  fertile.  A  considerable 
portion  of  the  surface  is  covered  with  marshy  plains,  Sand  downs, 
and  rugged  hills.  Indusf  y  and  science,  however,  are  rapidly  van- 
quishing every  obstacle,  and  even  at  the  present  time  E.  holds  the 
first  place  among  the  countries  of  the  world  in  r^ard  to  productive- 
ness and  the  development  of  agriculture.  In  part  this  is  due  to 
the  study  of  agricultural  ctemistry,  and  thorough  systems  of  drain- 
age, but  partly  also  to  the  facilities  for  intercommunication,  which 
so  essentially  second  the  efforts  of  the  farmer.  Of  the  37,319,221 
acres  constituting  the  area  of  E.,  there  were  26,837,125  under 
cultivation  in  1875 — 8,040,721  under  com  crops,  2,979,558  in 
green  crops,  2,968,702  clover,  sanfoin,  and  grasses  in  rota- 
tion,  and  12,202,596  of  permanent  pasture.  In  the  same  year 
the  cereal  crops  were  in  the  following  proportion  ;— Wheat 
3,240,344,  barley  2,244,867,  oats  1,659,121,  potatoes  364,982, 
and  turnips  1,639,375.  Other  cultivated  plants  ate  hops,  flax, 
beans,  pease,  beet,  hemp,  &c.  Wheat,  which  thrives  at  an 
elevation  of  1000  feet,  is  chiefly  grown  in  the  S.  and  E.  ;  barley 
mainly  in  the  central  districts.  Oats  form  the  principal  crof 
the  N.,  where  they  are  cultivated  to  a  height  of  2000  feet  abi 
the  sea.  •  Middlesex  and  the  neighbouring  counties  produce  1 
of  a  celebrated  quality.  The  rearing  of  hops  is  mainly  confii 
to  Kent  and  Sossei,  while  the  south-western  connties  are  no 
for  their  extensive  orchards. 

ZooloMi  and  I^Be  Stock. — The  existing  orders  in  E.  repres 
a  mere  fragment  of  her  former  mammalian  &una,  as  indicated  in 
the  epoch  of  the  Bonlder  Clay.  They  are  limited  to  some  sixty 
species,  and  comprise  the  fox,  dog,  weasel,  ermine,  badger, 
otter,  polecat,  marten,  hedgehog,  mole,  shrew,  nine  species  of 
bat,  the  squirrel,  hare,  rabbit,  three  species  of  mouse,  two  of  rat, 
and  four  of  arvicola.  Several  species,  as  the  beaver,  bear,  wolf, 
wild  ox,  and  wild  boar,  have  been  extirpated  during  the  histori- 
cal era.  In  the  Miocene  period  we  have  animals  of  vast  siie,  as 
the  great  elk,  the  rhmoceros,  elephant,  hippopotamus,  and  also 
tigers,  hyeenas,  crocodiles,  &c.  Birds  are  comparatively  nume- 
rous, the  total  number  of  species  amounting  to  274.  Among 
these  the  most  remarkable  are  the  eagle,  hawk,  falcon,  cuckoo, 
woodpecker,  goatsucker,  kingfisher,  and  nightmgale.  The  pea- 
cock, common  fowl,  turkey,  and  pheasant  are  immigrants. 
Some  260  kinds  of  fish  are  found  in  English  seas,  rivers,  and 
lakes.  Conspicuous  among  these  are  the  sturgeon,  ray,  salmon, 
trout,  herring,  pilchard,  pike,  cod,  mackerd,  turtiot,  eel,  and 
whiting. 

The  rearing  of  live  stock  is  an  important  branch  of  English  in- 
dustry.    In  1875  there  were  4,869,744  cattle  in  E.  and  W.,  and 
of  that  number  about  one-fourth  is  slaughtered  annually     D 
Durham,    Hereford,   Suffolk,   and   Sussex  produced  th  t 

esteemed   breeds.      In   Cambridge,   Dorse^   and  Es        laig 
quantities  of  butter  are  made,  while  Cheshire,  Devon,  Gl     ces 
and  Wilts  are  celebrated  for  their  cheese.      The  numbe      f  h    p 
in  1875  was  22,066,444,  divided  into  two  main  breed      th 
yielding  wool  of  short  and  of  long  staple.     The  latter  a       h    fly 
reared  along  the  E.  coast  as  far  N.   as  Tees  Water,  th     f    m 
in  the  southern  counties.      English  horses  are  noted   both  f 
draught  and  pace.   The  estimated  numberis  2,000,000    f    h   h 
(l875J  1,156,487  were  employed  solely  in  agricultui        H  g 
are  numerous  in  the  forest  lands  of  Berks,  Gloucester,  H      f   d 
and  Hampshire,   the  bacon  from  the  last-named  pi        b     g 
famous.     In  the  Lincoln  fens  geese  are  reared  extensiv  ly 

Indusli-ies.—hiaong  the  nations  E.   stands  unrivali  d        th 
extent  of  her  commerce  and  the  variety  and  importance     f  h 
manufactures.       The  great    cause  of  her  pre-eminence 
doubledly  her  singular  combination  of  mineral  and  agr   ultu    1 
resources.     Of  all  English  industries  cotton  spinning  and  w         g 
is  the  most  important,  whether  viewed  from  the  standp      t    f 
capital  or  of  labour.     There  are  upwards  of  2000  mills  m    liy 
in  Lancashire,  which  use  over  one-half  of  all  the  raw     tt 
the  world,  and  employ,  when  on  full  work,  some  600,000  ha  ds. 
The  aidoption  of  powerful  and  ingenious  machinery  has 
mously  increased   the  production  of  all  textile  fabrics.       TI 
woollen   manufacture,   the  oldest  in  the  kingdom,  and    till     f 
national  importance,  has  its  chief  seat  in  Yorkshire,  and        t 
in  IjCeds,  Bradford,  and  Halifax.      In  London,  Coventiy   N  t 
tingham,  and  Macdesfield,  there  are  extensive  silk  man  i    I 
Bristol  and  Liverpool  have  great  sugar-refineries  and  s    p  b   1 
ing  works,  while  equally  notable  are  the  distilleries  and  b    w 
of  London,  Burton -on-Trent,  &c.,  the  tanneries  of  Oxt    d      d 
Worcester,  and  the  perfume  factories  of  Windsor.     Fap     is 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


BNG- 


made  in  all  parts  of  the  country  where  good  water  can  be  ob- 
tained, and  London  is  ttie  great  centre  of  the  booi  trade, 

E.  supplies  a  great  pai-t  of  the  world  with  metal  goods,  and  has 
not  fewer  than  goo  blast-furnaces,  producing  5,000,000  tons  of 
iron  annually.  The  great  coal-mines  produce  annually  some 
120,000,000  tons,  valued  at  ;^42,ooo,opo.  The  great  iron  and 
Steel  works  ace  at  Shef&eld,  Bamsley,  Dowlais,  Middlesbrough, 
and  Banow-in-Furness ;  Birmingham  is  the  centre  of  the  manu- 
facture of  iron  and  steel  goods,  chiefly  pens,  tools,  and  lirearms  j 
and  Sheffield  is  the  foremost  plage  in  the  world  for  the  produc- 
tion of  cutlery.  For  copper  and  bronze  working  the  fonndries 
of  Liverpool  and  Swansea  are  celebrated,  as  are  those  of  London 
and  Birmingham  for  bronze-casting.  The  specialties  of  14'ew- 
castie  are  steam-engines,  iron  ships,  chains,  iron  bridges,  glass, 
chemicals,  &c  The  Staffordshire  '  Potteries,'  including  Sloke- 
«p  n  T  t  B  rsl  m  Etrnria,  Hanley,  &c,  are  noted  for  aE 
k  nd  h  n      nd        h  nware.'    The  great  national  industry 

pb     di  g        a  n  d  on  chiefly  at  Portsmouth,  Plymouth, 
Shee  n  w       Tyne,  but  mercantile  and  coasting 

ess  ed       enaively  at  all  the  larger  seaports, 

xportsd  from  Newcastle  and  Cardifil 


C  d  g  in  the  estuary  of  the'  Thai 

F      m      m  reg    d  ig  the  commerce,  railways,  form  of 

g      m  &      and         general  statistical  details,  see  article 

O  B  N 

H     ry  C  Tl  e  history  of  E,  up  to  the  transient 

imion  of  the  country  under  the  Wessei  dynasty  is  treated  under 
Anglo-Saxons  and  Britannia.  During  the  second  half  of 
the  loth  c.  the  old  Teutonic  constitution  underwent  considerable 
change :  the  long  grew  in  dignity  and  power ;  the  nobility  of 
ealdorniei!,  or  nobility  of  birth,  gav?  place  to  a  nobility  of  Ihegns, 
officers  at  the  royal  court,  whose  rank  sprang  from  their  personal 
'  0  the  kong ;  the  folkland  was  gradually  b^conjing  the 


s  a'nd  form  of  government. 


king's  private  property  ;  and  feudalism  was  stealing 
colouring  the  eariy  Teutonic  customs  a'nd  form  of  _ 
In  the  reign  of  jEthelred  (979-1014)  the  great  English  monarchy 
which  Dunstan  had  striven  to  build  up  fell  to  pieces.  The  old 
strife  between  Wessex  and  Mercia  revived ;  the  Danes  renewed 
their  invasions,  and  finally,  aided  by  the  English  N.  of  the 
.  Thames,  overthrew  the  'Wessex  dynasty,  and  founded  a  short- 
lived Danish  monarchy  in  E.  Cnut,  by  far  the  ablest  of  the 
Danish  kings,  sought  to  make  E.  part  of  a  great  Scandinavian 
empire,  and  did  much  to  introduce  a  system  of  imperial  feudal- 
ism, granting  lands  to  vassal  princes  and  earls,  and  strengthen- 
ing the  royal  authority.  Cnut's  successors  were  coarse,  savage 
sensualists,  and  E.,  wearied  of  their  violence  and  incapacity,  in 
1042  recalled  Eadward,  son-  of  ^thelred,  froiti  exile  at  the 
Norman  court  to  his  father's  throne.     Eadward  was  a  foreigner 


national  policy  was  upheld  by  the  gr?at  Earl  Godwm  d  h 
Hamld.  The  latter,  on  Eadward's  death,  was  nad  k  g 
1066,  but  in  the  same  year  William  of  Normandj  i  f  t  d  h  m 
at  Senlae,  and  ascended  the  throne,  nominally  th  n  htf  I 
successor  of  Eadward,  and  the  choice  of  the  E  gl  h  p  pie. 
The  Norman  conquest  has  been  one  of  the  most  mis  d  t  d 
events  in  English  history.  The  invaders  were  mply  Dan 
who  had  received  a  French  varnish,  men  of  the  sam  bl  d 
the  inhabitants  of  Northumbria  and  the  E.  of  Mercia,  and  no 
formal  chaise  was  made  in  the  old  English  constitution,  William 
veiling  his  usurpation  by  advancing  l^al  claims,  which,  though 
figments,  made  him  scrupuloosty  preserve  the  laws  of  King 
Eadward.  The  great  results  ot  the  Conquest  were— (1)  ThatE. 
was  welded  into  a  compact  nation,  the  separate  kingdoms,  which 
had  flown  asunder  after  every  earlier  attempt  at  union,  being  at 
last  firmly  cemented  into  a  single  stale  ;  (a)  that  the  Engli^  were 
brought  into  closer  contact  with  the  Romance  peoples,  and  won  new 
culture  and  wider  political  relatioiis ;  (3)  that  the  growth  of  feudal- 
ism  was  in  one  respect  checked — William  developing  the  system 
of  feudal  tenure,  but  crushing  the  feudal  principles  which  tended 
to  curb  the  kmgly  power,  and  break  up  the  nation ;  (4)  that  the 
old  fi:ee  institutions  were,  in  name,  strictly  preserved,  and  rights, 
which  might  have  gradually  passed  away  under  native  English 
kings  were  thus  enabled  to  revive  in  practice,  having  always 
existed  in  theory,  a  fact  to  which  we  owe  the  peculiar  feature  of 
our  constitutional  history — secure  progress  by  giving  new  force 
144 


to  old  privileges.  The  period  1087^1127  is  marked  by  a  ■ 
tinct  English  revival.  The  people  side  vidth  Rufus  and  Henry 
against  the  barons.  The  charter  of  the  latter  renounces  the 
'  evil  customs '  which  had  been  exacted  from  Church  and  noble, 
and  his  marriage  with  Matildpi  completed  the  conciliation  of  the 
English.  The  town  communitifs  were  composed  to  a  large  e:(- 
tent  of  Norman  traders  ^nd  artisans,  and  English  bishops  began 
to  appear  in  the  Church.  The  government  was  carried  on  by 
the  clerks  of  the  royal  chapel  under  the  Chancellor  and  the  Jus- 
ticiar of  the  king's  court,  which,  in  place  of  the  old  council,  regis- 
tered kws,  sat  as  highest  court  of  appeal,  and  as  court  of  ex- 
cheqjier  assessed  and  collected  from  the  sheriffs  the  royal 
revenue,  consisting  of  rent  from  the  roj^l  domains,  feudal  aids, 
Danegeld  or  tax,  and  the  fines  of  local  courts,  In  the  weak 
and  stormy  reign  of  Stephen  of  Blots,  elected  king  by  the  folk- 
mole  of  London,  E.  first  tasted  the  oppression  of  the  Norman 
feudalism,  Henry  II.,  the  first  of  the  Angevins  (1154-89), 
came  in  under  the  influence  of  the  priests  Theobald  and  Becket. 
He  had  inherited  Anjou  and  Tourame  from  hts  father,  Maine 
and  Normandy  from  his  mother,  and  Poitou,  Salntonge,  Au- 
veigne,  Perigord,  the  Limousin,  the  Angoumois,  and  Guienne 
as  his  wife's  dowry.  The  great  quarrel  as  to  royal  rights  ol 
election  and  jurisdiction,  &c,  over  the  Church  produced  tlie 
murder  of  Becket.  But  the  civil  administrative  policy  of  Henry 
was  more  successfiil.  He  commuted  tniUtao'  service  for  scut- 
age,  revived  Frankpledge  (q.  v.),  and  instituted  trial  by  jury  by  the 
assize  of  Clarendon  (under  which  trial  by  ordeal,  till  abolished 
by  the  Council  of  Lateran,  took  the  place  of  compuigation,  the 
English  rival  of  the  Norman  (rial  by  battle),  made  permanent  the 
Eyre  courts  by  the  assize  of  Northampton,  and  by  the  inquest  of 
sheriife  withdrew  that  important  office  from  the  great  nobles  of 
the  shire.  Great  part  of  Ireland  was  added  to  the  dominion  of 
the  Angevins.  Under  the  Angevin  kings  the  land  was  overrun 
by  foreign  adventurers  and  mercenaries,  whom  the  crown  main- 
tained; the  country  was  tyrannically  misgoverned;  and  the  people, 
formerly  the  allies  of  the  early  Normal}  kings  against  the  barons, 
now  banded  with  the  nobles  against  {he  monarch.  John  lost 
Normandy,  and  engaged  in  a  contest  with  the  pope,  by  whom 
he  was  placed  under  interdict,  The  great  event  of  his  reign 
was  the  granting  of  Magna  Charta  (q.  v.).  In  Henry  IH.'s 
time  we  find  the  pope  and  the  king  united  against  the  Eng- 
lish people  and  Church.  The  Great  Charter  and  that  of  the 
Forest  were  systematically  violated.  To  the  patriotic  genius  of 
Simon  Montfort,  Eail  of  Leicester,  E.  owes  the  conception  and 
realisation  of  a  form  of  representative  government  for  the  pur- 
pose of  administering  the  principles  laid  down  in  the  cliarters. 
Supported  by  th?  CemtiiUfKf,  he  secured  their  separate  repre- 
sentation by  the  Prpvisions  of  0»ford,  annulled  by  the  Mise  of 
Amiens  (January  I!64)  ;  and  although  this  plan  was  discontinued 
for  a  time,  the  principle  was  won,  and  thirty  years  later  it  becam 
part  of  the  settled  practice  of  Parliament.     The  period  1265-8 

mkdbythfial  qtf  Wal  s.  This  territory  of 
th  B  t  ns  h  d  k  wl  dg  d  th  p  macy  of  Mercia  and 
th        f  th     West   Sa.        k  ijg      b  t       spite  of  the  victories 

f  H      Id    tl      fro  t       ha       es  f  und  d   by  the  Conqueroi 

ivthi  t  q  dthhlfm  litary  settlements  oi 

Fl  m   g        d  E  gl  h        1      H  my  I     the  Welsh  spirit  of 

d  p    d  m^    d      b    k  d         strengthened  by  the 

I      f       t      al   poetry  m  th         th       and  the  long  reigns 

ftht  Llwlynth  nfG  %d  ap  Conan.  During 
the  Barons'  war,  Llewelyn  ap  Grufi'yd,  who  had  reconquered 
Glamorgan,  was  called  '  Prince  of  Wales,'  not  merely  '  Lord  of 
Snowdop.'  All  this  caipe  to  a  sudden  end  in  1282.  English 
barons  were  placed  on  the  soil,  which  was  divided  into  shirea 
and  hundreds,  the  castles  of  Coiiway  and  Caernarvon  were  built, 
trade-guilds  were  introduced  to  the  towns,  and  the  Statute  of 
Wales  abolished  the  mqre  barbarous  Welsh  customs.  In  the 
years  1283-95,  t^*  growth  or  settlement  of  constitutional  forms 
IS  rapid.  It  was  me  first  Edward  who  restricted  the  courts 
Christian  to  spiritual,  testamentary,  and  matrimonial  causes,  and 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  justices  bench  in  the  Conservators  of 
the  Peace.  The  Court  of  Chancery  and  the  appeal  to  the  king 
in  council  also  practically  date  from  his  reign..  The  Statute  of 
Winchester  based  a  system  of  local  police  and  criminal  justice 
on  the  frankpledge ;  the  Statute  of  Merchants  provided  for  ^e 
recovery  of  commercial  debts  ;  and  the  statute  Quia  Emptores, 
while  prohibiting  subinfeudation,  really  tended  to  promote  the 
transfer  of  land,  and  to  free  it  from  the  rigour  of  feudalism, 
S4S 


vLiOOQle 


ENG 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ENG- 


Undoubtedly,  however,  the  most  important  change  related  to  the 
introduction  into  the  Great  Council  or  Parliament  of  (l)  the 
knights  of  the  shire,  elected  by  the  freeholders  in  the  shire- mote 
or  county  court  j  and  (2)  the  representative  burgesses  from  the 
towns.  Previous  to  this,  the  officers  of  exchequer  had  to  mate 
a  separate  negotiation  with  the  town-reeves,  the  sheriff  and  shire- 
mote  of  each  county,  and  the  arclideacon  of  each  diocese.  The 
cleigy  were  also  summoned  to  Parliament,  but  they  would  vote 
nothing  except  in  Convocation,  and  before  Henry  VIL's  time 
it  i^d  ceased  to  be  the  practice  for  them  to  attend.  I'he  Parlia- 
ment itself,  instead  of  meeting  at  Winchester,  Acton,  Bumell, 
Northampton,  or  Osford,  always  met  at  Westminster.  The  old 
right  of  direct  appeal  to  Parliament  against  injustice  or  oppres- 
sion still  lives  m  the  election  of  Triers  of  Petitions  \n  the  House 
of  Lords.  The  attempts  made  to  govern  Scotland,  mediately 
according  to  the  marriage  treaty  of  Brigham,  and  unmediately  by 
an  English  council  of  regency,  did  not  succeed,  nor  did  the 
scheme  adopted  on  the  death  of  Wallace  of  giving  Scotland  ten 
representatives  in  the  common  Parliament.  Above  all,  this  is 
the  period  when  the  English  boroughs  completed  their  emanci- 
pation by  obtaining  the  right  of  Justice  in  the  borough  court,  the 
right  of  self-government  and  self- taxation.  Inside  these  boroughs 
the  merchant-guild  of  land-owning  traders  had  m  many  cases 
absorbed  the  earlier  and  minor  fflth-guilds,  and  had  now  the 
control  of  municipal  alfairs,  of  markets,  fairs,  tolls,  coinage, 
recovery  of  debts.  The  differentiation  of  trades  began  :  the 
cloth  merchant  was. separated  from  the  tailor,  and  the  leathei- 
merchant  from  the  butcher.  Now  also  arose  among  the  poorer 
inhabitants  the  craft-guilds,  with  their  wardens  and  craft-boxes, 
enforcing  uoiformity  of  apprenticeship  and  woth,  first  by  volun- 
tary custom,  and  then  by  royal  charter.  Especially  in  London 
there  was  a  long  and  furious  war  between  the  aldermen,  '  mag- 
nates,' or  even  '  barons'  as  they  were  called,  the  '  greater  folk  ' 
or  prudhommcs  of  the  merchant-guilds,  and  the  unenfranchised 
cr^tsmen,  who,  first  under  William  of  the  Longbeard  and  then 
under  Thomas  Fitz-Thomas,  attempted  to  take  the  town-niote 
into  their  own  hands,  Under  the  livery  companies  of  Edward 
HI.  there  was  a  true  popular  sommune.  E,  now  did  a  trade 
with  Norway  and  the  Hanse  towns,  a  wool  trade  with  Flanders, 
a  wine  trade  with  Gascony.  Italian  vessels  frequented  the  port 
of  London,  and  Italian  bankers  settled  in  London.  .The  com- 
pletion of  Salisbury  Cathedral  and  Westminster  Abbey  indicates 
wealth.  But  neither  the  traders  nor  the  tenant  farmers,  whom 
the  enclosure  of  commons  and  system  of  leases  were  creating, 
took  any  part  in  government.  The  resistance  to  the  king's  power 
was  left  fo  the  barons.  It  was,  indeed,  from  their  standing 
committee  or  oonlinual  council  that  the  first  Edward  received 
his  crown.  Private  wars  among  the  barons,  the  excesses  of  the 
'  trail-bastons '  or  club-men,  corruption  of  the  judges,  and  legal 
and  popular  peraeeulion  and  final  expulsion  of  the  tews,  mark 
this  period.  The  important  constitutional  check  on  the  nomina 
tion  of  the  great  officers  of  state,  formerly  called  '  clerks  of  the 
king's  chapel,' was  asserted  by  the  Lord  Ordainersin  their  articles 
of  reform  (1310} ;  and  in  1321  the  York  Parhament  made  the 
ftimous  declaration  with  regard  to  the  consent  of  the  prelates, 
earls,  barons,  and  universality  of  the  reahn.  In  1328,  by  the 
treaty  of  Northampton,  the  independence  of  Scotland  was  recog- 
nised. From  1337  to  1453  has  been  called  the  Hundred  Years' 
War.  While  the  woollen  manutactures  in  the  Flemish  settle- 
ments on  the  E.  coast  and  other  trades  flourished,  the  political 
and  intellectual  spirit  of  the  nation  was  starved  by  the  miserable 
war  with  France,  which  had  no  result  but  to  fill  that  beautiful 
counti7with^^«Jii?ii«Ai/«mM,orinsuigent  peasantry,  and 'free 
companies '  of  disbanded  soldiers.  No  doubt  the  Commons  are 
now  consolidated'by  the  union  of  knights  and  burgesses,  and  the 
mod^n  statnte  takes  the  place  of  the  royal  ordinance.  But  though 
the  Good  Parliament,  headed  by  Peter  de  la  Mare,  asserted  the 
right  of  free  election  (the  writs  havmg  been  tampered  with  by 
the  king),  and  protested  against  arbitrary  taxation,  they  could  do 
little  n§£unst  the  Church,  which  numbered  30,000  priests  in  a 
population  of  two  millions,  and  owned  a  third  of  the  soil,  while 
their  spirititafities  amounted  to  twice  the  royal  revenue.  The 
Statutes  of  PReraunire  and  Provisors  asserted  the  control  of  the 
civil  power  over  the  publication  of  papal  bulls  and  the  dispo- 
sition of  vacant  benefices.  But  this  did  not  stop  the  influx  of 
Italian  priests  to  E.  The  religious  orders  had  become  mere 
landowners,  and  the  seculars,  by  selfish  use  of  their  wealth,  had 
lost  all  spuitual  influence.    Wyclifie  argued  against  the  temporal 


power  and  privileges  of  his  order,  affirmed  the  right  of  free  m 
terpretation  of  the  Bible,  and  denied  the  cardinal  doctrines  of 
Rome.  The  influence  on  the  English  mind  of  the  short  ti 
which  the  Simple  Priests  or  Lollards  diffused  among  the  people 
can  hardly  be  exaggerated.  They  sowed  the  seeds  of  political 
principles  which  are  still  bearing  fruit.  In  1381  occurred  the 
peasant  revolt  under  John  Ball  and  Wat  Tyler.  This  event 
had  been  prepared  by  the  clianges  in  the  condition  of  the  st 
and  bondsmen.  Many  of  the  villeins  and  cottars  rose  to 
farmers,  i.t.,  they  paid  a  fixed  rent  instead  of  the  indefinite 
agricultural  services  previously  exacted.  Underneath  tliis  class 
of  copyholders  the  bordars  or  labourers  also  lost  their  servile 
staias  and  became  free  contractors  for  hire.  The  harsh  statutes 
which  were  passed  after  the  ravages  of  the  Black  Death  to 
secure  labour  at  customary  wages,  and  especially  the  '  Fugitive ' 
law,  which  confined  men  to  a  parish  and  made  the  harbour- 
ing of  labourers  in  towns  a  crime,  led  to  the  great  socialist  out- 
break, of  which  the  immediate  occasion  vras  Richard's  attempt 
to  impose  a  poll-tax.  The  gospel  of  equality  was  pre:  '  ' 
by  William  Langland.  The  landowners,  unable  by '  t 
statutes  to  contrd,  the  labour  market,  turned  their  atte 
more  to  sheep-farming,  and  by  evicting  the  tenants  of  the  small 
allotments,  greatly  reduced  the  number  of  the  villein  class  and 
augmented  that  of  the  free  labourers.  The  attempt  of  Richard 
II.  to  govern  by  a  committee  of  twelve  peers  and  six  commoners 
was  followed  by  the  Lancastrian  revolution,  which  brought  on 
at  home  the  Statute  of  Heretics,  directed  against  Lollard 
preachers,  schoolmasters,  and  believers  generally,  and  abroad 
the  conquest  of  France,  Henry  V.  being  recognised  as  the  future 
king,     The  Enghsh  national  debt  was  now  about  ^4,ooo,c 

During   the    15th   c    charters  of  incorporation    confined   c 

power,  and  especially  the  parliamentary  franchise,  to  the  select 
men  of  the  common  council,  and  the  forty-diilling  freeholder  was 
introduced  in  the  counties.  The  Club  Parliament  shows  that 
supreme  power  rested  with  the  great  barons.  By  1453  all  the 
English  possessions  in  France,  except  Calais,  were  lost  The 
rising  of  Jack  Cade,  whose  Complaint  of  the  Commons  referred 
chiefly  to  free  election  and  free  labour,  introduced  the  Wars  of 
the  Roses  (1455-85),  m  which  the  House  of  York  claimed  the 
throne  by  descent  from  the  fifth  son  of  Edward  III.  The  King- 
maker, the  '  last  of  the  barons,'  Warwick,  is  the  prindpal  figure 
in  the  contest  These  wars  were  practically  decided  by  artillery, 
the  great  enemy  of  feudal  war.  Fortunately  the  towns  took  little 
part  in  the  stru^le,  and  trade  did  not  suffer.  But  in  ' 
of  the  new  monarchy  (14S5-1509)  Parhament  is  sup 
royal  council ;  arbitrary  taxation,  imprisonment,  and  espionage 
become  common.  The  baronage  had  been  greatly  thinned  in 
number  by  the  civil  war;  the  Statute  of  Liveries  broke  up  the 
imlitary  households,  and  it  is  supposed  that  nearly  one-fifth  of 
the  land  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  'king  by  forfeiture. 
A  leligious  movement,  represented  by  More,  Latimer,  and 
Erasmus,  protested  against  war,  interested  itself  in  the  teach- 
ing at  grammar-school  and  college,  and  recalled  the  Church 
to  the  simple  faith  in  Christ,  and  the  study  of  the  newly- 
edited  Bible  at  first  hand.  The  rule  of  Wolsey  (1515-31), 
as  Chancellor  and  Papal  Legate,  based  the  Tudor  despotism  on 
the  pohcy  of  peace,  but  at  home  the  wholesale  euclosurea  and 
evictions  produced  a  great  agrarian  discontent,  and  Wolsey,  who 
fell  with  Catherine  of  Aragon,  was  succeeded  by  Cromwell, 
who  suggested  to  Henry  the  plan  of  declaring  his  supremacy  in 
Church  as  well  as  State.  Then  followed  what  may  be  called  the 
English  Reformarion.  By  the  articles  of  religion  the  sacraments 
were  reduced  from  seven  to  three — penance,  baptism,  and  the 
Lord's  supper.  Justification  by  faith  was  strongly  asserted,  while 
puiipitory,  prayers  for  the  dead,  pilgrimages,  pai-dons,  and  the 
mass  were  condemned.  Transubstantiation  and  confession  were 
retained.  The  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  was  the  prelude  to 
the  reign  of  terror,  and  the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace  was  quenched  in 
the  blood  of  the  Catholic  nobles.  The  intimidation  of  Parlia- 
ment and  corruption  of  the  courts  of  justice  made  possible  the 
disgraceful  excesses  of  the  early  Protestants  against  die  Church  ; 
and  these  again  caused  the  Catholic  reaction  expressed  in  the 
Six  Articles,  and  the  fall  of  Cromwell,  whose  favourite  policy  of  a 
Christian  league  with  the  German  princes  against  the  Empire  was 
never  carried  out  In  Edward's  reign  (1547-53)  the  wheel  turned 
again;  the  mass  was  denounced,  the  ornaments  were  snatched 
from  the  churches,  priests  were  allowed  to  marry,  and  the  liturgy 
and  catechism  superseded  the  missal  and  breviary,  and  wooden 


I  the  period 
lerseded  by 


y  Google 


ENG 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


tables  the  stone  altars.  Cranmer's  forty-two  articles  of  religion 
were  rigorously  enforced  by  a  new  set  of  Churcli  laws.  Amid 
the  greatest  confusion  in  the  Church,  and  while  the  nobles  were 
plundering  the  old  guilds  and  diantries,  the  king  founded  eighteen 
grammar-schools.  The  evil  times  marked  by  the  Spanish 
niajTiage  of  Mary  (1554),  the  submisaion  to  Rome,  and  the 
martyi-dom  of  Latimer,  Ridley,  Hooper,  Cranmer,  and  the  rest, 
were  followed  by  the  comparative  quiet,  peace,  and  concilia- 
tion of  Elizabeth's  reign  (1559-1603).  She  founded  in  r 60 1  the 
English  poor-law,  which  tirst  distinguished  between  the  im- 
potent a.nd  destitute,  and  those  broken  men  and  sturdy  beggars 
who  wei'e  compelled  to  settle  in  a  parish  and  work.  The  style 
of  farming  was  greatly  improved,  and  the  spinning  of  yam, 
and  weaving,  fulling,  and  dyeing  of  cloth  became  important.  On 
the  ruin  of  Antwerp  (1585),  London  became  the  mart  of  the 
world,  and  Gresham  foimded  the  Royal  Exchange  ;  Chancellor 
,  opened  the  trade  with  Archangel,  and  Hawkins  the  slave-trade 
on  the  Guinea  Coast.  In  domestic  arrangements  there  was  a 
great  advance  in  comfort  and  cleanliness,  even  in  luxury,  The 
Elizabethan  hall  took  the  place  of  the  baronial  fortress. 
Members  were  summoned  to  the  Commons  from  sixty-two 
new  boroughs,  and  the  exemption  of  members  from  arrest 
was  obtained.  Custom-duties  were  arbitrarily  imposed,  and 
money  raised  bj  piivy  seals,  the  forerunner  of  the  Exchequer 
bills,  but  no  benevolences  were  raised,  and  in  l6oi  the  Act  for 
the  abolition  of  trade  monopolies  was  passed.  The  persecution 
of  the  seminary  priests  was  forgotten  in  the  glow  of  patriot- 
ism called  forth  by  the  Spanish  Armada  (q.  v,).  As  a  whole, 
EUzabeth'a  reign  was  distinguished  for  bold  naval  enterprise 
and  a  marvellous  burst  of  original  literary  power.  The  rise  of  the 
Pniitans  at  the  beginning  of  the  17th  c.  shows  the  hold  which 
the  English  Bible  was  taking  on  all  classes.  The  ontrageous 
Calvinism  of  the  Presbyterian  Cartwright  was  opposed  by  the 
vague  and  optimislic  philosophy  of  Hooker,  and  a  succession 
of  primates  exerdsed  spiritual  despotism  through  the  Ecdesias- 
ticM  Commission.  The  pamphleteering  vigour  of  the  Separat- 
ists suggested  that  the  license  of  printing  should  be  strictly  hmited 
by  law  ;  and  the  '  Marprelate  controversy,'  and  attempt  of  Cart- 
wright  to  establish  synods  and  classes  in  Northamptonshire,  were 
suppressed.  The  absurd  blunder  of  King  James  about  abso- 
lute or  divine  light  of  kings  was  made  matter  of  doctrine  in  the 
canons  of  the  Church,  and  was  extended  to  the  bishops.  The 
failure  of  the  Hampton  Court  Conference  lent  greater  spirit  to 
the  opposition  in  Parliament,  which  was  mainly  Pmitiui,  and 
which,  roused  by  the  illegal  imposition  of  subsidies,  culminated  in 
the  Petition  of  Right.  Eliot,  Pym,  and  Hampden  are  the  heroes 
of  the  parliamentary  straggle,  and  the  story  of  the  Pilgrim 
Fatliers  is  the  best  commentary  on  tlie  High  Church  policy  of 
Laud.  ITie  period  t629-40  witnessed  the  tragedy  of  the  ship- 
money,  to  be  followed  by  the  civil  war,  in  which  Cromwell's 
Ironades  undoubtedly  saved  the  liberties  of  E,,  not  merely  in 
battle,  but  afterwards  by  the  position  they  occupied  towards  the 
Parliament.  'The  succeeding  years  after  the  king's  death  really 
belong  to  the  life, of  Cromwell,  for  he  is  at  the  head  of  every- 
thing. The  Restoration  of  1660  has  been  described  as  the  t«- 
ginning  of  modern  E.,  in  which  industry,!  science,  ^i^d  '"''^  "^ 
popular  freedom  are  the  moving  forces.  The  theology  of  the 
Reformation  and  the  dread  of  Tudor  and  Stuart  despotism  had 
both  lost  their  influence.  The  narrow  and  intolerable  rules  of 
Puritanism  were  broken,  and  while  the  wilder  reaction  towards 
immorality  and  irreligion  may  have  been  confined  to  London 
and  the  court,  the  great  mass  of  the  people  '  gladly  returned  to 
Maypoles  and  mince-pies.'  Perhaps,  however,  the  most  power- 
ful influence  of  the  time  was  the  teaching  of  Bacon.  The  Oxford 
Society  of  Wallis,  Wilkins,  Petty,  and  Ward  developed  into  the 
Royal  Society  (1662),  and  Harvey  was  succeeded  by  Halley, 
Hooke,  Boyle,  Sydenham,  Woodward,  Ray,  Newton.  Along 
with  them  appeared  the  Latitudinarian  school  of  reUgioas 
thought,  which  was  founded  by  Lord  Falkland,  and  contained 
ChiUingworth,  Taylor,  Hales.  The  spirit  of  these  men  was 
first  for  toleration  and  then  for  reason,  as  against  the  infallibility 


were  succeeded  by  Burnet,  Tillotson,  and  Butler.  The  theory 
of  government  was  also  profoundly  affected  by  the  daring  scep- 
tidsm  of  Hobbes,  and  by  the  moderation  and  sense  of  his  dis- 
ciple, Locke.  In  the  Convention  which  Charles  found  sitting, 
there  was  in  fact  no  dispute  on  any  of  the  great  constitutional 


C^,'^ 


:s  of  the  past.  The  royal  revenue  was  now  fixed  at 
,000,  and  many  oppressive  feudal  claims  of  the  crown 
itingnished  by  the  conversion  of  land  tenures  from  knight- 
service  to  socage.  While  Royalists  were  allowed  to  regain  their 
confiscated  private  estates,  the  Convention  protected  those  who 
had  purdiased  Church  lands.  The  first  new  Parliament  was, 
however,  entirely  Royalist,  and  failed  to  carry  out  the  pro- 
mises of  religious  freedom  made  in  the  Declaration  of  Breda. 
The  Test  and  Corporation  Acts  were  passed  against  Puritan  in- 
fluence in  the  boroughs,  and  the  Act  of  Uniformity  drove  2000 
rectors  and  vicars  from  the  Church,  with  Howe  and  Baxter  at 
their  head,  and  thus  created  dissent,  one  of  the  great  political 
as  well  as  religious  forces  of  modem  E.  This  was  followed  by 
the  Conventicle  and  the  Five-Mile  Acts.  Episcopacy  was 
restored  in  Scotland  by  the  Drunken  Parliament,  and  Crom- 
well's temporary  union  of  'the  three  kingdoms  was  brokSi  up. 
The  Declaration  of  Indulgence  was  only  part  of  a  scheme  which 
Charles  formed  for  establishing  the  Catholic  religion.  It  was 
at  once  recalled,  and  Shaftesbury  carefully  fanned  the  rage 
of  the  'Petitioners'  for  war  against  Catholic  France,  a  feel- 
ing exdted  by  the  Popish  ploL  The  '  Petitioners '  and  the 
'  Abhorrers,'  who  answered  them,  are  the  germs  of  the  early 
Whigs  and  Tories,  the  great  issue  then  being  whether  heredi- 
tary succession  was  to  admit  a  Catholic  to  the  throne.  The 
Parliament  of  r68l  was  called  to  Oxford,  and  Charles  went 
there  with  troops ;  but  the  danger  of  civil  war  was  averted  by ' 
the  flight  of  Monmouth  and  the  death  of  Shaftesbury.  And  yet 
it  was  in  this  disgraceful  reign,  while  the  Triennial  Parliament 
Act  was  constantly  broken,  that  in  1679  censorship  of  the  press 
was  put  an  end  to,  and  the  grand  prindple  of  Habeas  Corpus 
was  reafiirmed.  The  period  r68a-88  has  been  called  the  Second 
Stuart  Tyranny,  This  was  rendered  possible  by  the  forfeiture 
of  a  great  many  borough  charters  on  the  pretended  ground  that 
they  had  abused  their  privileges  ;  and  it  was  supported  by  such 
means  as  Jeffrey's  Bloody  Assize  and  a  standing  army  of  30,000 
men.  The  Church  and  the  Universities  were  bullied,  and  the 
Nonconformists  were  bribed  by  a  second  Declaration  of  Indul- 
gence, annulling  all  penal  laws  against  both  them  and  Catholics. 
The  trial  of  the  seven  bishops  and  the  organisatiiin  of  Catholic 
power  in  Ireland  by  Tyrconndl  brought  matters  to  a  crisis,  and 
Danby,  Compton,  and  Cavendish  invited  William  of  Orange  to 
come  to  the  rescue  of  the  constitution.  He  landed  in  16SS, 
and  James  II,  fled  to  France — this  dethroning  of  the  last  Stuart 
kii^  being  known  as  the  English  Revolution.  In  the  Convention 
which  William  summoned,  a  great  deal  of  wrangling  as  to  whether 
the  crown  had  been  forfeited,  whether  there  should  be  a  regency, 
whether  Mary  had  succeeded,  or  whether  the  throne  was  vacant, 
ended  in  the  recognition  of  William  and  Mary  as  joint  sove- 
reigns on  the  basis  of  the  Declaration  of  Rights,  which  denied 
the  right  of  the  sovereign  to  exerdse  a  dispensing  power, 
or  to  exact  money  or  mjuntain  an  army  save  by  the  assent  of 
Parliament.  Henceforth  the  right  of  the  British  sovereign  to 
the  throne  becomes  purely  statutory  (the  Bill  of  Rights  and  the 
Act  of  Settlement).  The  rights  of  petition,  free  election,  free 
debate,  and  pure  justice  in  the  courts  were  also  asserted  S  t  h 
affairs  were  settled  by  the  Claim  of  Right,  which  resto  ed  P 
byterianism  and  the  Confession  of  Faith,  with  the  u  w  1  m 
addition  of  an  Act  of  Toleration.  Instead  of  life-grants  th  t 
of  supplies  was  made  annual.  The  Mutiny  Act  for  Ih  t  d 
army,  now  become  essential,  was  also  made  annual  H 
annual  Parliaments  are  now  a  vital  function  of  the  st  t  Th 
Act  of  Grace  was  a  wise  concession  to  the  Nonjurors  w  h 
the  Church  and  the  Jacobites  outside.  All  this  lime  tl  G  d 
Alliance  had  f^led  to  curb  the  ambition  of  France  d  n 
the  advice  of  Sunderland  the  first  homogeneous  MJn  try  was 
formed  byi  William  out  of  the  junto  of  Whigs  ■v  1 
favourable  to  war.  Montague,  Chancellor  of  the  Ex  h  qu 
adopted  Paterson's  plan  of  a  Bank  of  England,  and  con  ag  u  ly 
reformed  the  coinage.    In  the  meantime  the  desper  t  t 

ance  of  Ireland  had  been  overcome.  When  France  th  w 
board  the  Partition  Treaties,  E,  necessarily  entered  on  th  W  f 
the  Spanish  Succession  (1702-13),  in  which  the  victorie  f  M  1 
borough  revived  the  memories  of  Cre5yand  Agincourt.  In  1707 
occurred  the  Union  of  E,  and  Scotland,  delayed  by  the  Scotch 
objections  to  the  National  Debt  and  Episcopacy,  and  the  English 
love  of  colonial  monopoly.  The  Scotch  Parliament  had  indeed 
struck  the  name  of  Princess  Sophia  from  the  Act  of  Parliament. 
It  is  to  tlie  patriotism  of  Lord  Somers  that  the  chief  credit  must 
547 


vLiOOQle 


TITB  GLOBE  ENCYCL0P^.D1A. 


ENG- 


be  given  for  the  defeat  of  the  Nationalists  and  Federalists,  and 
the  securities  giyen  for  Scotch  law  and  the  Scotch  Churcli,  along 
with  a  fait  representation  in  Parliament  and  complete  freedom 
of  trade.  In  this,  however,  he  only  followed  the  more  enlight- 
ened policy  of  C  mw  11.  From  this  point  the  history  of  E., 
g  w  th  ha  S  tland,  becomes  tlie  history  of  Great 
Br        N  q 

E    es  Christianity,  which  entered  Britain  in  the 

R  m      pe     d  b     w     for  a  lime  swept  away  by  the  Teutonic 
ll       w  od      d  in  S97,  when  Augustine,  despatched 

m  h     English  by  Pope  Gregory,  landed     ■ 

Th         and  d  ^thelberht,  Xing  of  Kent.    The  n. 

h   p      d  d,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  7th  c.v 

d  tf  sed  b    P  ough  Northuinbria,  which  was  also  — 

fi         d        Chn    an  missionaries  from  the  Culdee  monasteries 
m  S  d     ff  h    ts     om  the  Iiish  Church,  then  pursuing  ai 

ed  d  p  n  ent  of  Rome.     After  a  bitter  strngglt 

h  heathenism  in  the  Midlands,  and  with  the  Irish  Church,  which 
^  one  time  seemed  about  to  annex  the  North  country,  the 'Eng- 
lish Church  eslablished  its  supremacy,  and  was  organised  by  a 
Greek  monk,  Theodore  of  Tarsus,  As  in  E,  the  early  Christian 
Church  of  the  Roman  period  had  been  quite  eradicated,  Theo- 
dore's organisation  was  detemiined  by  the  existing  political 
divisions  of  the  country.  He  appointed  bishops,  whose  sees 
responded  with  the  kingdoms  to  whose  rulers  the  first  mis- 
lanes  had  attached  themselves,  settled  the  clergy  in  parishes, 
which  were  at  first  conterminous  with  tlie  estates  of  the  great 
nobles,  made  Canterbury  the  central  see,  and  severed  all  alliance 
between  the  English  and  the  Irish  Church,  K  was  thus  brought 
into  contact  with  the  civihsing  inflnence  of  Rome  ;  learning  and 
art  entered  the  land  ;  and  the  English  clergy  were  freed  from  the 
lax  discipline,  confusion,  and  narrowing  isolation  of  the  Irish 
Chnrch.  The  new  Church  grew  rapidly  in  wealth  and  power, 
fostering  literature  and  taking  an  active  part  in  political  events, 
Dunstan  in  parlicular  being  at  one  time  both  eccleaastical  and 
secular  head  of  the  kingdom,  and  doing  much  to  increase  the 
Church's  influence  in  civil  affairs.  The  Conqnest  broke 
this  intimate  association  of  the  clerical  with  the  secular  power. 
William  of  Normandy  snppknted  English  by  foreign  church- 
.  men,  who  were  cut  off  from  their  flocks  and  very  laraely  depen- 
dent on  the  king.  From  William  Rufus  to  Henry  II.  there  were 
frequent  disputes  between  the  crown  and  the  Church,  in  which 
the  people  always  took  the  ecclesiastical  side.  In  one  respect  the 
English  Church  difiered  Irom  the  Churches  of  continental  Europe. 
In  other  countries  the  clergy  were  a  separate  estate  in  the 
government ;  in  E.  the  greatest  churchmen  mingled  with  the 
nobles  in  the  House  of  Lords,  They  were  more  bound  up 
with  the  naOonal  interests,  and  were  less  of  a  class  depending  on 
the  pope  in  E.  than  in  the  rest  of  Christendom.  The  contest 
between  the  kingand  the  cleigy  soon  shifted  its  aspects.  In  the 
dispute  between  Anselm  and  Rufus  and  Henry  I.,  the  church- 
man represented  the  claims  of  Rome ;  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
in.,  the  king  and  the  pope  stru^led  together  against  the  English 
Church  and  the  English  people.  In  the  14th  c  the  Church, 
which  had  sheltered  freedom  and  learning,  and  done  much  to 
soften  the  evils  of  feudalism,  sank  into  apathy  and  worldliness, 
and  called  forth  the  bold  censure  of  John  Wycfifle, '  the  first  Pro- 
testant.' He  declared  that  the  gospel  is  a  perfect  rule  of  life 
without  derical  mtervention,  and  combated  the  doctrines  of 
papal  supremacy,  indulgences,  pardons,  absolutions,  and  worship 
of  saints  and  images.  He  gained  many  disciples,  nicknamed 
Lollards  (q.  v.),  who,  though  cruelly  persecuted,  increased  in 
numbers  after  Wychff'e's  death.  In  ihe-reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
the  ties  between  Rome  and  the  Ei^Iish  Church  were  broken. 
Thomas  Cromwell's  aim  to  reduce  the  Church  to  a  department 
of  the  slate  was  achieved  for  a  time  through  Cranmer's  sugges- 
tion that  Henry  should  appeal  to  the  Universities  for  the  divorce 
from  his  queen,  which  the  pope  refused  to  granti  This  expedient 
proving  successful,  a  series  of  measnres  were  passed  which  totally 
changed  the  character  of  the  English  Church.  Henry  was  made 
Protector  and  Head  of  the  Church,  which  became  during  the 
rest  of  his  reign  the  tool  of  hb  despotism ;  the  bishops  were  mere 
royal  nominees,  all  connection  with  Rome  was  severed,  first- 
fruits  of.the  Church  livings,  formerly  enjoyed  by  the  pope,  were 
confiscated  to  the  throne,  and  the  monasteries  suppressed  (15-16) 
purine  Edward  VL's  reign  the  Reformation,  now  become  a 
■pt.]filM-"^c*enient,  advanced  swiftly;  the  Common  Praver- 
%Mc'ttcefv\aii(s=il/d*ttBi«Tl35=),  and  men  were  commanded 
5^ 


to  subscribe  to  the  forty-two,  articles  of  faith  drawn  up  by 
Cranmer  and  Ridley,  and  afterwai-ds  under  Elizabeth  reduced  to 
thirty-nine.  At  this  time  the  English  Church  seemed  tending  to 
become  Genevan,  but  on  Edward's  death  Mary  restored  Catholi- 
cism, and  subjected  the  Reformers  to  a  terrible  persecution. 
Her  successor,  Elizabeth,  had  to  decide  between  the  Church  of 
Rome,  the  extreme  Protestants,  many  of  whom  had  been  exiled 
to  Geneva,  and  the  moderate  Protestants,  led  by  Parker. 
Elizabeth  enlisted  with  the  last  patty,  which  wished  to  exclude 
papal  authority  from  England,  and  to  preserve  as  much  of  the 
old  Church  discipline  and  belief  as  was  compatible  with  the 
removal  of  error  and  corruption.  Thus  was  formed  the  present 
English  Church;  which  still  bears  traces  of  the  conflicting  beliefs 
amid  which  it  arose ;  its  creed  showing  the  influence  of  the 
Genevan  party,  and  its  liturgy  and  ritual  recalling  tlie  older 
Church  from  which  it  sprung. 

The  English  Church  does  not  rec^nise  the  validity  of  orders 
unless  conferred  by  a  bishop,  and  she  reci^nises  the  ordination 
of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Catholic  CJiurches.  The  English 
bishop,  moreover,  is  entitled  to  refuse  ordination.  The  pre- 
sent division  of  England  into  bishoprics  {though  many  of  the  sees 
are  old,  and  the  two  provinces  also)  rests  on  the  Act  6  and 
7  Will.  IV.  c  77,  which  gave  effect  to  the  report  of  the  Eccle- 
siastical Commission.  (See  BjSHOP.)  Every  diocese  is  divided 
into  archdeaconries,  whereof  there  used  to  be  sixty ;  every  arch- 
deaconry into  deaneries,  and  deaneries  into  parishes.  The  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  formerly  legate  of  the  pope,  is  primate. 
London,  Durham,  and  Winchester  follow  in  precedence  after 
the  archbishops.  For  the  inferior  dignitaries  of^the  Church,  see 
Priests,  Parsobs,  Deans,  and  Ordination.  Curates  are 
either  stipendiary,  the  temporary  assistant  of  the  rector  or  vicar, 
r  peipetual,  officiating  in  a  parish  or  district  to  which  the  iin- 
ropriator  has  nominated  them.  The  latter  institution  arose 
om  the  transfer  of  i>enefices  (in  whici  there  must  always  be  a 
icar)  from  spiritual  societies  to  a  single  lay  person,  who  of 
jurse  could  not  serve  the  cure.  There  are  a  few  pecoliar  pre- 
ferments called  donatives,  because  the  patron  can  instal  the 
donee  without  presentation  to,  or  institution  Iw,  the  bishop ; 
the  church  in  the  Tower  of  London  is  the  king's  donative, 
stipendiary  has  to  make  a  solemn  declaration  that  a  certain 
stipend  has  been  agreed  upon,  and  that  no  abatement  is  to  be 
made  for  rent  of  the  glebe,  &c.  The  bishop  may  appoint  curates 
where  the  incumbent  is  absent  so  many  months  in  the  year,  or 
where  theduties  are  ill  performed  ;  and  he  also  fixes  their  sala- 
ries in  cases  of  non-residence.  'The  salaiy  is  never  less  than 
^80,  unless  the  value  of  the  benefice  be  less.  The  bishop  has 
■lete  power  over  him  by  direct  removal,  and  indirectly  by 
:ing  licence.  The  '  departing  bell '  and  the  alms  given  at 
funerals  are  probably  founded  on  the  old  practice  of  'masses 
satisfactot;^,'  or  prayers  for  the  dead.  Burial  is  still  sometimes 
permitted  in  the  church,  but  discouraged  for  sanitary  and  econo- 
mical reasons.  Every  parishioner,  even  a  suicide,  is  entitled  to 
burial  in  the  churchyard.  The  Cemetery  Acts,  and  those  con- 
stituting Burial  Boards  for  parishes  or  several  parishes,  provide 
for  a  portion  of  the  ground  being  unconsecrated  for  the  use  of 
Nonconformists.  While  the  parson  may  not  refuse  burial,  it 
must  be  accompanied  by  the,  Church  service,  and  he  is  entitled 
to  a  fee,  the  origin  of  which  was  the  oblation  for  prayers  at  re- 
ligious houses.  Of  a  similar  kind  ate  mortuaries,  or  corse  pre- 
sents, depending  on  custom.  The  Catholic  form,  '  Pray  for  the 
soul,  &c,  is  permitted.  The  liturgy  and  ritual  of  Uie  Church 
strongly  suggest  her  continuity  with  that  before  the  Reformation. 
The  Prayer-book  contains  the  Breviary,  the  Missal,  and  the  Or 
dinal.  It  is  a  translation  of  ancient  Catholic  llturg  es  The 
rites,  or  services  expressed  in  words,  and  ceremonies  (gest  es 
and  acts  which  go  along  with  words,  including  the  use  of  I  ghts 
incense,  and  vestments)  are  not  new. 

An  enormous  revenue,  under  the  name  of  'tithes,'  was  drawn 
by  the  Church  from  eveiy  desciiption  of  annual  produce  down 
to  1837,  when  the  series  of  Tithe  Commutation  Acts  bro  ight  n 
a  corn-rent  fixed  in  quantity  though  fluctuating  in  monCT  value 
and  subsequently  a  rent-chaige  which  ultimately  frees  the  land 
(See  Tithes.)  The  name  of  offerings,  oblations,  obven  o  s 
applies  chiefly  to  Easter  dues  (2d.  perhead,  and  in  London  4d 
a  house),  Pentecostal  or  Whitsun  farthings,  and  the  smill  su  ns 
paid  at  the  other  two  great  feasts  (Christmas  and  Dedication). 
Fees  proper  are  taken  when  the  surplice  is  put  on,  or  other  act 
done  by  the  priest  for  behoof  of  individuals.    They  arise  on  mar- 


yUoogle 


ENG 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ENa 


;  the  old  nan 


riage,  burial,  Sc,  but 

Large  landed  estates  beiong  lo  ^ne  various  sees  aim  lu  mc 
and  chapters,  and  single  prebendaries  andminor  cathedral  eo  p 
ations  have  also  estates.    Much  of  the  property  and  of  th     d 
ministrations  belongs  to  the  Ecdesiaslical  Commissioners  (q 
It  is  subject  to  Annates  (q.  v.).,  tenths,  land-tax,  and  s 

Eublicrates.  In  iS68all  compulsorychurch-mteswereabolish  d 
ut  voluntary  rates  may  still  be  agreed  upon. 

For  an  account  of  the  great  assembly  of  the  Church,  see  C  N 
VOCATION.  Besides  her  recent  exclusive  connection  with  the 
universities,  the  Church  had  a  power  of  visiting  the  grammar- 
schools  and  licensing  teachers.  It  was  long  debated  whether 
a  conscience  clause  could  be  permitted  in  these  schools,  and 
whether  Dissenters  might  be  appointed  trustees.  An  Act  in  i860 
gave  relief  in  the  first  of  these  matters,  which  was  extended 
in  r86S  to  the  seven  public  schools.  The  latter  point  was 
gained  in  the  Endowed  Schools  Act  of  1869,  which  also 
destroyed  the  episcopal  power  to  license,  and  removed  the 
necessity  of  masters  being  in  holy  orders.  The  Education  Act 
of  1870  excludes  the  Church  catechism  from  public  schools. 
For  an  account  of  Church  extension,  see  Ecclesiastical  Com- 
MissiotflKKS  and  Queen  Anne's  Bounty. 

To  enforce  its  law  the  Church  has  a  system  of  courts  of  arch- 
deacons, diocesan  consistorial  courts,  and  the  courts  of  the 
prlroafes  or  provincial  courts. 

See  the  Histories  of  Freeman,  Stubbs,  Froude,  Macaulay, 
Green,  te. 

Englan't^,  or  rrutfted,  ia  heraldry,  means  fruited  or  frolt- 
bearing,  and  the  expression  is  used  of  trees  when  tree  and  fruit 
are  of  different  colours. 

English  Bazar'  (Angrazabad),  the  chief  town  of  Maldah 
district,  province  of  Ben^,  British  India,  on  the  Mahanunda 
river,  close  to  the  ruins  of  Gaur,  and  1S8  miles  N.  of  CaJcutla. 
E.  consists  of  a  series  of  trading  villages  lining  the  river  bank. 
It  has  some  silk-weaving  industry,  and  the  vicinity  is  very  pro- 
ductive in  the  silkworm  mulberry.     Pop.  (1872}  12,859. 

English,  Chann'el  (the  Qceatais  Britannicus  of  the  Romans ; 
Fr.  La  Manck!.,  'the  sleeve'),  the  narrow  sea  separating  the 
southern  shores  of  England  from  the  northern  coast  of  France. 
It      t    d   f    m  tl     Atlant     t     h   N    th  Sea  g       ar 

f  3  900  g  («raph  1  sq  miles  and  00  m  I  Vid  t  th 
Chpbet  LadEddUhatll       Rig  Ids 


fWght   &       St      gw 


f  th    N  rth  S  a.      Tl      d  plh 

f  th     Chan     1       n      f    m  S 

th  ms     h       th                   dba  k    t    60,  wh        th    bott  n 

oars      gi       I      Tl      St      t 

-     p      d      th       h  Ik      1g    1 

k    g  th    tw            t 

1       eh  th         IS  p    p      d  t 

t  df      t  pi h    d  m    k      1 

d    yst      ii  1   nes  — E    Hail)our  is  th        m      f  t       ii 

B   t  h     1     1    f  A  ttgua,  th 

th           th    P     h      h         fC 

R  ca  m  C    tral  Am 

On  the  A  t  g     h         tl  t    d   „  t   vn    f  th  sam       m 

— E.  Kiver,  the  estuary  of  the  Manhissa,  enters  Delagoa  Bay 
to  the  N.  of  Zulu  Land,  on  the  E.  coast  of  S.  Africa, 

English  Debt.  The  foreign  creditor  should  send  written 
authority  to  his  solicitor  to  sue.  He  should  state  the  particulars 
of  the  debt,  and  whether  he  sues  in  his  own  right  or  as  executor 
or  trustee.  He  should  transmit  the  ground  of  debt  with  relative 
affidavit,  which  in  Scotland  should  be  sworn  before  an  authorised 


English  Drama.  See  Drama  and  English  Literature, 
English  Language.  The  English  speech  was  originally  a 
pure  Low  German  dialect  of  the  Teutonic  group  of  the  Aryan 
or  Indo-European  family,  its  nearest  cognates  being  the  Old 
Frisian,  Old  Saxon,  Dutch,  and  Flemish.  It  was  brought  from 
the  Continent  to  Britain  by  various  Teutonic  tribes,  who,  begin- 
ning their  settlements  about  the  middle  of  the  5th  c,*  gradually 


•  Skoni 


etdal^lhel.-"--' 


crhalf 


t    m*     t  d        d  westward  the  native  Celts,  and  called  the 

ry  ^  g     L  nd  ('  land  of  the  Angles  or  English ').     The 

h    E    L  may  be  thus  divided :— (i)  Old  or  Eariy 

E  g    h        0-20      D.  ;  (2)  Middle  English,  1120-1300;  (3) 

N  w  E  g     h  present  time. 

E        Eg       —The  language  of  the  Teutonic  settlers  in 
B  h  th    misleading  name  Anglo-Saxon  has  long 

be       pp  Anglo-Saxons),  was,  on  its  introduction  into 

and  ill  mfl  cted  and  almost  free  from  foreign  alloy. 
It  was  only  slightly  modified  by  the  speedi  of  the  conquered 
Celts,  few  Celtic  words-appearing  in  English  writers  ap  to  1 100 
A.E.  Such  as  were  absorbed  by  it  were  mostly  what  the  English 
would  learn  from  Celtic  slaves,  i.g.,  basktt,  barrsmi,  killan,  coat, 
funnel,  gown,  maitock,  &c.  After  the  Chiistianisation  of  tlie 
English  in  the  7th  c,  various  Latin  words,  chiefly  eccleskistieal, 
were  introduced  by  churchmen  and  English  translators  of  Latin 
writers,  e.g.,  saint,  prUst,  catidU,  altar,  church,  &C.  This  ele- 
ment is  called  Latin  of  the  Second  Period ;  while  the  earlier 
Latin  infnsi  1  ft  by  th  R  man  I  '  t  h'  fly 
names  of  pi  1    as    ast  tyl  d  Lat        t  th    F  rst 

Period.    ThNthm  D  hb^t  dEg 

land  in  the  fi   t  h  if    f  th   9th  d  m  d       p  t  se 

tlement  in  th   N  E     f  th  t  y        878    h  Iped  1    g  ly  t 

strip  English    f  t    mfl    t       —       mpl  fit  d    t       th 

mingling  of  p    pi     apakgdff       tt    gu    — and     trod      d 
numerous   Scandm  vi  ds,   su  h  til  fr       I! 

'  bark,  bask,  bra!'    d   k  fly  k        l&       IthS       hre 

the  Danish  el  m    tw       Im  st     t     ly    bse  t  th     Id  nfl    t 
hngered  mu  h  1  t      th       m  th    N     wl         th     N         mfl 
cnce  is  still  vi   bl         th  es    f  pi  d       Ih    p 

cial  speech.     B  f       tl     N        an        q  est  tl  tw    gr    t 

dialects  of  E  gl  h— tl     N    th    n,  wh   h     ft      t  1.    g  tl     Id 
as  a  literary       dmg        wyf  tyfpltl 

causes,  to  tl      S     th  I    guag      f  W  Th       d 

lects  arose  f    m  th       nm     1  d  ff  th       p       h      f    h 

Teutonic  settl        th    N    b     g      I         d  by  A     I  d  th 

S.  msunly  by  Sa.  Old  E  gl   h  was  1       ly  m        yll  b 

pithy,    pictu      q         and       p  Ith     gh       m      h  t   n  gg  d 

and  wanting        m  I  dy      d  pi      cy    qual  ti      g    d     Uy  g 
after  the  TT  rm  q      t    f    066  wh   h    t  fi   t  th      1    ec 

destroy  English  It      ry  I  ngu  It  m     t        t  b 

posed,  how  tl   t  th    N  m         d  I  b  rat  ly    t         t 

out  the  Engl  h    p      h    th  ugh        h         t  till      gu  ly 

ntertained  by  myTh  t       hdwfdcet 

how  that  th  y   h      hed  any  d  1  k    t      t    h  t  Th      gh 

the  force  of  political  circumstances  it  was  lowered  for  a  time  from 
a  literary,  courtly,  and  official  language  to  a  popular  dialect.  At 
first  English  and  Norman- French  slood  quite  asunder.  French 
was  taught  at  school,  and  used  in  literature  and  law ;  no  man  who 
knew  English  only  could  advance  in  public  life ;  and  even  rustics 
ought  to  speak  in  French,  the  language  of  the  court,  clergy, 
nobihiy,  and  authors.  But  the  mass  of  the  people  clung  to  their 
old  idiom,  which,  as  is  seen  in  the  English  CkronicU,  underwent 
almost  no  change  for  about  fifty  years  after  the  battle  of  Hastings. 
II.  Middle  English,  II20-1300. — The  influence  of  the  Nor- 
man conquest,  though  great,  is  apt  to  be  overrated.  The  dis- 
use of  English  as  the  fashionable  and  literary  tongue  hastened 
the  omission  of  inflections,  the  brealiing  up  of  the  grammar,  and 
the  rise  of  great  dialectic  differences  m  the  absence  of  an  acknow- 
ledged literary  standard.  The  loss  of  inflections  and  the  simpler 
grammar  wliich  distinguish  Chaucer's  language  from  iElfiic's 
are  not,  however,  solely  due  to  the  Conquest,  for  like  changes 
have  occurred  m  Low  German  tongues  unaffected  by  events 
similar  to  the  Norman  invasion.  The  popular  belief  that 
modern  English  is  the  result  of  a  mixture  of  Old  Endish  and 
Norman-French  is  utterly  false.  English  is  radically  a  Teutonic 
tongue,  and  the  large  French  infusion  in  our  present  speech  was 
mainly  introduced  since  the  end  of  the  13th  c,  after  English 
had  revived  as  a  literary  language.  WhUe  Englishmen  and 
Normans  were  two  hostile  classes,  few  French  words  crept  into 
the  E.  L.,  nor  was  French  chiefly  used  even  for  government  docu- 
ments until  the  13th  c,  when  it  was  the  official  tongue  of  half  of 
Europe.  In  the  12th  c.  grammatical  disruption  went  on  more 
actively  than  the  adoption  of  new  words,  but  English,  as  it  re- 
arose,  absorbed  much  of  its  Romance  rival,  and  in  the  13th  c. 
many  old  Teutonic  words  were  displaced  by  French  equivalents. 
Middle  English  is  mainly  distinguished  from  Eariy  English 
by  the  substitution  of  auxiliaries  and  prepositions  for  the  old 
549 


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inflections,  the  general  contraction  in.  spelling,  tlie  soften- 
ing of  certain  consonants,  the  use  of  to  before  the  infinitive, 
and  the  adoption  of  s  as  the  plural  ending,  after  a  struggle 
with  the  n  tennination  still  seen  in  vim,  oxen,  children,  &c. 
The  genitive  is  still  in  es,  and  there  is  stiJl  an  accusative  in 
M  ;  but  the  infieclional  ending  tend  to  change  into  a  silent  c, 
which  has  been  since  shaken  off  frora  most  woMs.  The  graniniar 
is  very  confused  and  clearlj'  IransitionaL  The  chief  literary 
remains  in  Middle  English  are  the  last  part  of  the  English 
ChrvnicU,  I^yamon's  Bml,  the  Ancren  Riaik,  and  the  Ormulitm. 
In  the  two  texts  of  the  Brut  (about  1200),  which  comprise 
56,800  lines,  there  are  not  above  go  words  bofrowed  from  the 
KOTman-French.     In  the  Ancren  Xcwle  (about  1220)  there  is  the 

Intf^ 


III.  Neui  £ngiisi,  1300  to  ths  Present  Time.— la  the  14th  c 
English  had  become  the  natural  speech  of  the  Normans,  while 
French  was  acquired  at  school,  almost  as  a  foreign  tongue,  to 
equip  men  for  literature  and  polite  society.  The  wars  with 
France  helped  to  kindle  a  revolt  against  this  undue  preference 
of  French  as  the  speech  of  fashion  and  culture.  In  1363  it  was 
enacted  that  henceforth  law  pleadings  should  be  carried  on  in 
English,  as  French  was  becoming  unknown  in  the  kingdom) 
and  before  the  end  of  the  century  English  was  securely  rdnstailed 
as  the  language  of  the  court  and  of  such  writers  as  did  not  ex- 
press themselves  in  Latin.  The  English  speech,  which  was  thus 
restored  to  its  old  position,  had,  in  the  times  following  the  Con- 
quest, been  broken  up  into  many  local  varieties,  but  had  only  three 
strongly-marked  dialects — the  Northern,  spoken  in  most  of  York, 
in  Durham,  Northumberland,  and  the  Scottish  Lowlands  ;  the 
Midland,  spoken  in  the  centre  and  E.  of  England,  from  the 
Humber  to  the  Thames  ;  and  the  Soutliem,  spoken  in  England 
S.  of  the  Tiiames,  and  in  Gloucester,  Somerset,  and  part  of 
Worcester  and  Hereford.  These  dialects  are  most  easily  dis- 
tinguished  bj;  their  various  manners  of  inflecting  the  present 
plural  indicative,  in  all  tonus  of  which  the  Southern  employs  elA, 
the  Midland  en,  and  the  Northern  es.  The  Midlapd  was, 
moreover,  divided  into  W.  Midland,  spoken  in  Cumberland, 
Westmoreknd,  Lancashire,  Cheshire,  Shropshire,  &c. ;  and  E 
Midland,  spoken  in  Lincolnshire,  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  C 
bridge,  Northampton,  &c.  The  latter  variety,  aided  by  its 
graphical  position  between  the  N.  and  S.,  became  thedomin  t 
form.  First  made  widely  current  by  Robert  of  Erunne,  wh 
about  1303  composed  the  Handlyng  Sinne,  it  was  used  by 
Wycliffe  and  Gower,  and  was  fixed  as  the  classic  dialect  by  th 
genius  of  Chaucer,  since  whose  time  the  E.  L.  has  changed  c  m 

Siratively  little.  In  the  l6th  c.  there  were  three  dialects— tb, 
orthern,  the  Midland,  which  had  spread  over  the  S.E.  count  s, 
and  the  Western  or  old  Southern.  The  once  ruling  speech  f 
Wessex  sank  into  a  mere  provincial  variety,  but  the  Northern  d 
lect  survived  in  Scotland,  was  there  adorned  by  a  series  of  great 
poets,  and  is  now  the  purest  relic  of  Early  English,  embalm  g 
many  fine  Teutonic  words  lost  to  the  classic  dialect  of  the  so  th 
The  E,  L.  on  its  revival  in  the  14th  c,  while  it  had  become  by 
French  influences  more  rich,  flexible,  and  polished,  was  radic  Oy 
the  speech  of  iElfiric.  Chaucer's  language  is  essentially  Ea  ly 
English,  with  a  new  element  of  lightness,  flowery  delicacy,  and 
dainty  brilliance  gdned  from  the  French,  with  Gallic  flue  y 
and  grace  wedded  to  Gothic  vigour.  But  the  effects  of  th 
Nonnan  conquest  on  the  E.  L.  were  not  Solely  beneficial,  O 
evil  result  was  the  loss  of  many  Teutonic  words  which  were 
driven  out  b)^  weaker  French  synonyms.  The  old  English  poetic 
diction  especially  suffered,  about  a  third  ot  it  being  held  to  have 
vanished  before  izoo.  The  Romance  infusion  also  checked  the 
free  expansion  of  the  Teutonic  element,  the  language  losing  its 
power  of  making  Iresh  compounds  from  Teutonic  roots,  as 
writers  preferred  to  borrow  new  words  from  the  Latin  and 
French.  Besides  swelling  the  vocabulary,  the  French  exerted  a 
certain  formative  influence  over  our  speech,  as,  for  example,  by 
adding  the  Romance  ending  age  to  the  English  bond  in  bondage, 
by  changing  the  English  u  mto  ™,  by  substituting  qu  for  the  early 
cu  m  such  words  as  qukh,  qualm,  queen,  quoth,  &c  On  the 
other  hand,  many  French  words  received  an  English  form  in 
which  their  Romance  origin  can  scarcely  be  detected,  while 
another  effect  of  the  long  predominance  and  large  influx  of 
French  was  to  give  a  modulation  to  the  speech  quite  distinct  from 
S)0 


the  old  English  accent  and  rhythm.     From  the  subtle 

of  English  and  French  during  the  rise  of  the  present  form  of  1 
language,  it  is  often  difficult  to  say  whether  a  word  is  of  Teutonic 
or  Romance  origin ;  and,  moreover,  several  apparently  latin  de- 
rivatives brought  m  by  the  Normans  were  Celtic  or  more  often 
Teutonic  roots,  while  Norman- French,  though  essentially  a 
Romance  tongue,  was  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest  thickly 
sprinkled  with  Scandinavian  words. 

In  the  rsth  c.  the  East  Midland  continued  to  spread ;  inflec- 
tions still  further  fell  away  ;  Romance  prefixes  and  affixes  were 
welded  to  Teutonic  words,  and  vice  versa;  the  language  became 
more  uniform  as  the  Romance  element  was  slowly  fused  with  the 
Germanic.  The  introduction  of  printing  byCaxton  (about  1470) 
aided  greatly  to  fix  the  grammatical  structure  of  English.  Dur- 
ing the  l6th  c,  when  the  Renaissance  spread  into  England,  and 
enthusiasm  for  the  classics  was  at  its  height,  Greek  and  especially 
I^tin  words,  many  of  which  have  ance  been  forgotten,  poured 
into  our  vocabulary.  Even  in  the  Elizabethan  period  the  E.  L. 
was  in  a  partly  transitional  state.  The  national  speech  had  then 
to  express  a  vast  wealth  of  new  thoughts,  feelings,  and  discoveries, 
and  fresh  words  were  needed,  especially  to  convey  abstract  ideas. 
Many  words  were  culled  from  the  Latin  which  are  now  obsolete, 
ai  itelled,  'starred,'  aictatit,  disiwble,  rubimt,  renege,  'to  deny,' 
ruinate,  contitsuate,  rondure, '  a  circle,'  accite,  'to  summon,'  charac- 
toy,  '  what  is  written,' onAifi,  I'fl^wi,  'ingenious,' cu//,  'plenty,' 
&c.  Latin  and  Greek  words  which  have  since  been  hmited  in 
meaning  are  used  in  a  general  sense,  as  a^rat/ale,  '  to  add  to,' 
Joumalt,  'daily,'  exorbitant,  'uncommon,'  travail,  'work,'  ex- 
travagant,  'wandering,'  conceited,  'fandfiil,'  &c.  Other  Latin 
and  Greek  words  occur  in  a  narrower  sense  than  now,  as  airidg- 
nient,  'a  dramatic  performance,' !»;?»«!«■,  'the  influence  of  the 
stars,'  ovation,  triumph,  decimate,  &o.  Also  numerous  English 
verbs  are  employed  in  many  various  senses,  as  take  for  to  con- 
sider, to  understand,  to  bewitch,  to  interrupt,  to  resort  to,  &c., 
pass  for  to  surpass,  to  pass  sentence,  to  assure,  to  care 
for,  &c.  There  is  a  strong  and  sometimes  excessive  fondness 
for  compound  words  and  phrases,  as  marble-constant,  furnacs- 
iuming,  back-return,  wind-chan^ng,  hon^-ksany-deui,  «c  This 
tendency  to  strike  out  new  words  is  often  at  variance  with  the 
nature  of  the  langn^e,  as  when  a  LaHn  ending  is  fastened  to 

Ttmoot  ce    er        g   b  le   ent     a  ea  I  d     ll 

R  1  d  th    El  zab  11       p  nt  rs  t     mil       L 

th  rs  t    f   m    !  und  d  p  nods      m  what  (    gled       d 

cu   b    us  b  t   h  wm       gra  d         f  ph    se  and    hyth  1 

ht  ntur  hil      fh      Elizabethan   po  1     1    t    th 

tyl     th      h  rm    f      cy  f     1       g        by  fr  t     tl 

p  p  1       dm,  and  play  dwldf     k    wthgrm'irb    dg 

yttthtthm       mgdb  b  b 

d  as     d]     t       —     d        g   1  xity  partly  d        t     tt 

wywdf       flesptlyttht  allt        fth 

1     on  ge.      Th  t  ■mg  t      t  ft  p     m     t 

pmpedbyhl  ftl         Idfl         n.  cad 

by    th  ret    sua  f    tl         Id      y  tai        C  mr       d     t 

p         tEglhthEhbtl  p  fdm 

dtr=tothbtf  Itn  d  tnes 

G    d    lly    y  tax  beca       mretrtlybrvd        dasl 
R       ssa  thus     m       ld,Lat         dG     kwdw      Iss 

t     ly  p        d  ml    sem  e.    Th        th  n    d      rs         f  tl 
E  bl    (  fi    )  has  d  h  t     p       rv  y      q      t      Id 

Egihwds,      dh      be  bdngmfl  fgd 

E  gl  1    tyl       I    tb      8th  c  th    T    t  1  m    t     as  sa  n 

iiced  t    th    Lat      th  it  b     g       tyl    g      rally  h      y      d 

pompous,  but  sometimes,  as  m  Gibbon,  full  of  a  splendour  that 
would  be  august  if  it  were  not  artificial.  In  the  present  century, 
ahealthy  reaction  has  set  in  for  Teuionism,  which  may,  however, 
be  likewise  carried  to  excess.  See  Oliphant's  Standard  English 
(Macmillan,  1S73)  ;  Morris's  English  Accidence  (Macmillan, 
1873) ;  Earle's  FhSolsgy  of  the  English  Tongue  (Clarendon 
Press,  1871);  Morris  and  Skeat's .ftfeKi'mwu  qf  Early  English 
(Clarendon  Press,  1872)  ;  Skeat's  Specimens  of  English  IMera- 
ft(r£  (Clarendon  Press,  1871);  Ahhotl's Shakespearian  Grammar 
(Macmillan,  1S72);  and  the  works  of  Marsh,  Latham,  &c. 

English.  liiterature.  4So-io56, — The  earliest  E,  L,  in  the 
vernacular  consisted  of  songs  of  war  and  adventure,  such  as 
Beoamlf{<\.  v.),  paraphrases  of  Scripture,  &c,,  which  are  treated 
of  under  Anglo-Saxon  Literature.  Alongside  of  these 
war-songs,  hymns,  and  trauslalions,  there  grew  up  a  liierature 


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ten  in  Latin  by  Englishmen  and  Welshmen,  of  which  the 
chief  specimeES  before  the  Morman  conquest  are  the  Historia 
,  Britonum,  ascribed  to  Nennius  (q.  v.),  the  Epistola  de  Excidio 
Britanmi^  of  Gildaa  (q.  v.),  the  Annales  Rirum  Geslarum 
Mlfredi  Magni,  commonly  ascribed  to  Asser  {q.  v.)  (but  both  the 
authenticity  and  genuineness  of  this  work  are  now  strongly 
challenged),  the  HUtoria  Ecclesiastics  Geatis  Anglorum  of  Bede 
'q.  v.),  and  the  CoUoguyseA  Glossary  of  jElfric  (q,  v.).  This 
earned  literature  was  bom  in  Northumbria  and  Strathclyde ; 
lat,  on  Wessex  winning  supremacy,  flourished  most  abundantly 
n  die  S.,  where  scholarship  was  especially  fostered  by  jEIfred. 
Al  the  Norman  conquest  literature  in  English  was  for  a  time 
crushed ;  whfle  works  in  Latin  continued  to  be  written,  and  a 
foreign  literature  in  French,  produced  mainly  by  Norman  tro^t- 
'  s,  arose.  The  llth  c.  has  few  names  of  note.  Among  its 
ling  authors  are  Osbern  of  Canterbury,  who  wrote  a  history 
1  the  creation  to  1083,  and  Turgo^  who  composed  a 
chronicle  of  Durham  monasteiy.  The  lath  c.  is  prolific-  in 
les,  but  none  are  of  high  rank.  The  Conquest,  besides  for  a 
;  stifling  English  verse  and  prose,  and  introducing  a  French 
.  . .  .-ature  quite  alien  in  style  and  theme  from  the  first  writings  in 
EngUsh,  permanently  affected  E.  L.  Khyme,  which  certainly 
occurs  in  the  old  English  hymns  and  sagas,  and  which  may  have 
stolen  into  English  verse  from  Wales,  was  first  popularised  by  the 
Normans,  and  drove  out  the  ancient  system  of  alliteration  ;  whUe, 
instead  of  the  old  heroic  poetry  which  sang  of  the  deeds  of  Eng- 
lishmen on  the  Continent  and  in  England,  long  romances  were 
ren  celebrating  the  exploits  of  mythical  and  semi-mythical 
heroes.  When  the  vernacular  literature  revived,  the  old  national 
themes  were  forgotten,  and  Englishmen  adopted  subjects  which 
b  Normans  Imd  rendered  familiar.  The  early  heroic  lays 
;re  thus  hushed  for  ever,  but  the  early  devotionid  poetry  was 
prolonged,  though  in  humble  form,  until  in  the  13th  c.  we  see  in 
Ormin  (q.  T.)  a  genuine  successor  to  Csedmon,  The  Fretich 
literature,  thus  for  a  tune  dominant  in  England,  was  narrative 
rather  than  lyrical,  being  transplanted  from  the  N.  of  France,  the 
region  of  the  Chansons  de  Geste.  Compared  to  the  English  litera- 
'  re  which  it  displaced,  it  was  wanting  in  earnestness,  fire,  and 
energy,  was  more  ffiiy  and  shallow,  with  a  novel  finesse  and 
quaint  fioweriness  M  style.  This  French  nicety  of  diction  ulti- 
mately biended  with  and  toned  down  the  rude  strength  of  the 
early  Teutonic  verse,  and  imbued  English  poetry  with  a  light- 
ness and  grace  which  it  could  not  have  developed  from  its 
original  resources  alone.  Prose  annals  were  plentiful  during  the 
iz3ic.,  the  chief  chroniclers  being  Florence  of  Worcester  (q.  v.), 
Eadmer  (q.  v. ),  Orderic  (q.  v. ),  Henry  of  Huntingdon  (q.  v.), 
and  William  of  Malmesbuiy  (q.  v.).  In  the  last  a  new  historic 
spirit  begins  to  dawn,  shown  by  a  tendency  to  weigh  facts  and 
loot  into  the  state  of  the  rest  of  Europe ;  and  healthy  patriotism 
and  independence  glance  out  from  Eadmer,  Henry  of  Hunting- 
don, and  the  Legend  of  Hersward.  In  this  century  the  English 
ChronicU  ends  with  a  dark  graphic  picture  of  the  woes  of  King 
Stephen's  reign,  and  the  cycle  of  Arthurian  romance  is  firmly 
ingrafted  on  our  literature  by  the  fabulous  Latin  history  of 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  (q.  v. ),  which  first  popularised  the  stories 
of  Arthur  and  the  Round  Table,  so  often  retold  by  our  poets. 
Through  the  influence  of  Geoffrey's  work,  E.  L   adopted  a 


body  of  Arthurian  and  pre-Roman  legends,  which,  despite 
roediEeval  and  fanciful  colour,   perhaps  keeps  some  strangely- 
altered  fragments  of  the  history  of  W.  Wales,  mingled  with 


created  by  Welsh  and  Armorican  bards,  and  which 
nnfortunately  came  to  be  viewed  as  sober  truth,  and  blinded 
men  to  the  real  acts  of  the  Teutonic  settlers  in  Britain. 
In  the  I2th  c.  Alfred  of  Beverley  recounted  the  Arthurian 
tales  in  the  form  of  a  genuine  dironicle,  and  the  iroieoh-es 
Gaimar  (q.  v.)  and  Wace  (q.  v.)  recast  them  in  French  verse. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  century  literature  becomes  secularised, 
a  keen  inquisitive  fiiculty  appears,  and  a  political  rather  than 
a  monMsh  spirit  breathes  through  history.  Satire  and  criticism 
sprii^iipintliegifledWalterMap(q.v.),  in  Nigel  Wireker,  whose 
Smnelms  assails  the  monkish  orders,  and  in  Gerald  de  Barri, 
or  Giraldus  Cambrensis  (q,  v.),  the  earliest  English  politick 
pamphleteer.  Ranulf  de  Glanvil  (qi  v.}  writes  the  first  work  on 
English  law,  John  of  Salisbury  gathers  up  the  learning  of  the  time 
in  his  Polycraticus,  literary  criticism  isbegun  by  Geoffrey  de  Vin- 
sauf,  and  history  is  compiled  by  William  of  Newbury  and  Rc^er 
of  Hoveden  {q.  v.),  who  carry  ns  into  the  13th  c.  Meanwhile 
the  vernacular  literature  maintained  a  lowly 


shape  of  homilies,  transialions,  and  other  religious  works,  and 
in  treatises  on  the  knowledge  of  the  times.  The  13th  c  is  an 
age  of  fresh  intellectual  activity,  of  ardent  zeal  for  learning: — a 
fleeting  and  premature  foreshadowing  of  the  Renaissance.  New 
ideas  and  a  more  liberal  culture  were  diflused  by  the  Moors  of 
Spain  and  by  the  influence  of  the  Crusades ;  the  splendours  of 
Oriental  fiction  were  wafted  from  the  far  East,  and  tlie  rudiments 
of  science  stole  in  from  the  schools  of  Cordova  and  Granada. 
The  English  universities  began  to  affect  literature,  and  Latin 
zealously  studied.  Adelard  of  Bath  introduced  the  elements 
ience  from  Spain;  Roger  Bacon  reflected  tlie  rebellious 
.  of  inquiry  which  was  abroad,  and  sought  to  embody  the 
encyclopedic  idea  of  knowledge  which  was  then  arising;  Robert 
Grossetete  (q.  v. )  was  the  foe  of  the  Pope,  and  forerunner  of 
Wycliffe;  and  William  Occam  (q.  v.)  was  the  trencliant  assailant 
of  scholastic  Realism.  History  became  filled  with  a  pabiotic 
spirit  in  Roger  of  Wendover  (q.  v.)  and  Matthew  Paris  (q.  v.), 
who  is  the  best  of  the  monkish  chroniclers.  Long  French 
romances  of  Arthur  and  Charlemagne,  of  Havelok  and  King 
Horn  were  abundantly  produced,  often  based  on  Scaldic  or 
Saracenic  tales,  and  tedious  from  their  fluent  minuteness.  But 
the  great  feature  of  the  century  was  the  revival  of  Endish  as 
a  literary  tongue  in  the  Bntt  of  Layamon  (q.  v.) ;  the  English 
history  of  Robert  of  Gloucester  (^.  v.),  where  the  patriotic  ■ 
English  spirit  siiines  out  brightly;  m  the  Ormulum  of  Ormin 
or  Orm  (q.  v.) ;  and  in  the  Handtyng  Sinne  ai  Robert  ot 
Brunne,  written  about  1300.  These  works  are  mostly  of  lin- 
guistic rather  than  of  purely  literary  value,  the  finest  poetry  of 
the  time  blossoming  forth  in  the  short  Enghsh  lyrics  and  ballads, 
sweet  and  simple  verses,  lit  with  a  quaint,  tender  passion, 
tinged  with  a  charming  love  of  nature,  and  blending  the  old 
Teutonic  strength  with  French  grace  and  refinement.  Such 
a  union  of  qualities  is  seen  in  the  Owl  and  the  JVighlingale,  a 
true  English  fabliau  written  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  New 
rhythmical  forms  are  introduced,  and  octosyllabic  vetse  tecomes 
a  favourite  medium  for  narrative.  Many  of  the  ballads  cluster 
round  the  favourite  hero  Robin  Hood,  and  similar  outlaws. 
The  14th  c.  is  a  time  of  great  political  and  religious  movement, 
the  age  of  Lollardism  and  the  peasant  ^ars  The  inquiring  spirit 
which  awoke  in  Walter  Map  becomes  bolder  and  more  demo- 
cratic, and  English  completely  overthrows  French  as  the  literary 
speech  of  the  land.  Lyrical  poetry  still  blooms,  pleasantries 
like  the  French  fabUaux  are  numerous,  and  the  broodmg  earnest- 
ness of  the  pre-Norman  literature  reappears  in  severe  homilies, 
such  as  Richard  Rolle's  Pricke  of  Conscience  (about  1340),  and 
Dan  Michael  of  Northgate's  Ayenbits  of  Iwwyl  (about  1350). 
Laurence  Minot's  war-songs  (about  13S0)  edio  the  national 
pride  m  the  victories  of  Edward  III.  The  chief  writers  of  the 
century  are  William  Langland  (q.  v.),  John  Wyclifie  (q.  v.), 
John  Gower  (q.  v.),  Sir  John  Mandeville  (q.  v.),  and  Geoffrey 
Chaucer  (q.  v^.  Langland,  in  the  satire  Piers  the  Plowman, 
gives  voice  to  the  misery  of  the  people,  and  mirrors  the  dark 
side  of  the  age,  while  its  brilliant  aspect  is  reflected  in  Chaucer. 
Two  streams  of  poetry  unite  in  Langland's  work— the  satiric, 
which  began  in  the  12th  c,  and  the  religious,  which  began  with 
C:edmon.  Wycliffe  translates  Scripture  into  racy,  homely  Eng- 
lish, and  spreads  the  Lollard  reform.  Gower  writes  huge  alle- 
gorical poems  full  of  learning.  Mandeville  is,  next  to  Ssewalf, 
our  earliest  great  traveller,  and,  along  with  Wycliffe  and  Chaucer, 
may  be  called  the  father  of  modem  English  prose.  Chaucer  is 
our  first  great  poet,  and  his  works  are  the  crowning  flower  of  the 
playful,  satiric,  and  amorous  mediteval  poetry  which  takes  a 
frank  interest  in  human  character  and  daily  Ufe,  as  distinguished 
from  the  mystic  medijeval  poetry,  of  which  the  loftiest  tepresen- 
tadve  is  Dante. 

140^1580. — After  the  death  of  Chaucer,  the  struggle  with 
France,  the  Lollard  controversy,  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  (1430- 
1485),  and  the  Anglican  Reformation,  caused  a  literary  decadence 
during  the  Ijth  and  the  esi'lier  years  of  the  l6th  c  Men  were 
alienated  from  verse  to  polemics,  and  the  best  poetry  of  the  ijlh 
c.  is  found  in  the  siniple,  forcible  ballads  of  the  North  and  Mid- 
lands. Most  of  the  Robin  Hood  ballads,  the  Nut-Brown  Maid, 
and  a  version  of  Chez/y  Chase,  belong  to  this  period.  The  chief 
writers  in  verse  of  the  Ijlh  c.  whose  names  we  knoware  Occleve, 
Lydgate,  and  Hawes,  who  produced  long,  cold,  and  gaudy  alle- 
gories. In  the  beginning  of  the  i6th  c.  popular  poetry  revived 
in  the  boisterous  Skelton  (q.  v.),  and  the  dawn  of  the  English 
Renaissance  is  visible  in  the  works  of  Surrey  (q.  v.)  and  Wyatt 


vLiOOQle 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ENG 


(q.  v.).  They  were  imitative  rather  than  original,  but  througli 
their  adoption  o£  classic  and  Italian  metres,  sucli  as  the  sonnet 
and  the  blanlt  verse  introduced  by  Trissino,  and  the  sparlfling, 
limpid  fluency  of  tlieir  style,  they  helped  largely  to  adorn  and 
chasten  the  language,  and  bring  in  a  more  refined  and  ornate 
school  of  poetry.  They  are  sometimes  regarded  as  the  fathers 
of  '  subjective '  poetry  in  England.  As  the  century  advances, 
the  growing  influence  of  the  Renaissance  and  the  rise  of  a  new 
poetry  are  seen  in  such  works  as  Tottell's  ^iiEf/iHy  (iJS?)  and 
Edwards'  PataMsi  of  Dainty  Divkes,  collections  of  moral  jaeces 
and  lovcsongs  m  the  Mtrrourfyr  Magistrate  (see  SACKVILLeJ, 
and  in  the  varied  wiitings  of  Gascoigne.  Comedy  dawns  m 
Udall's  Ralph  Raysttr  Doysitr,  tragedy  in  Sackville's  Gorboduc, 
and  the  historical  play  or  history  in  'BaS.^%  King  yoku.  (For  the 
rise  of  the  English  drama,  see  Miracle  Plays  and  Drama.) 
The  increasing  love  of  literature  and  interest  in  foreign  works 
are  shown  by  the  number  of  tranflations,  especially  from  the 
Italian,  such  as  Painter's  Palace  of  Pleamri  (1563) ;  and  popular 
fiction  underwent  a  change,  the  place  of  Ae  Arthunan  and 
other  long  chivalrous  romances  bemg  taken,  to  a  great  extent, 
by  tales  from  the  Italian  and  new  stories  of  En^sh  life. 
Among  the  EngUsh  prose  romances,  '  the  Wavertey  Novels  of  the 
i6th  c^  are  The  Six  Worthy  Yiomm  of  the  Wtst,  Tom-a-Uncoln, 
.  George-a-Grien,  Robin  Hood,  The  Seven  Champions  of  Christen- 
dom,  &C.  The  chief  prose  writers  of  the  period  are,  in  histoiy, 
Caxton  (q.  v.),  Fabyan  (q.  v.).  Lord  Bemers,  Cavendish,  Bale 
(q.  v.),  Hall  (q.  v.),  Leland  (q.  v:),  Foie  (q.  v.),  HoUinshed 
(q.  V,),  Linacre  (q.  v.);  in  polemics,  Pecoclt,  Fisher,  Tyndale 
(q.  v.),  Elyot,  Coverdale{q.  v.),  Cranmer  (q.  v. ),  Latimer  (q.  v. ), 
Ridley  (q^v.),  Gardiner  (q.  v.),  Pole  (q.  v.),  Foxe,  and  Jewell 
(q.  v.).  The  Fas/on  Letters,  the  correspondence  of  the  Paston 
family  from  1420  to  1505,  give  valuable  social  details.  Perhaps 
the  finest  prose  of  this  period  is  Sir  Thomas  Malloiy's  (see  Mal- 
lory)  Mr/rte  d' Arthur  (1485),  but  in  the  l6th  c.  we  see  clearly,  in 
More  and  Ascham,  the  dawn  of  a  new  prose  style.  In  1470 
Carion  introduced  printing,  but  the  art  did  not  give  a  powerful  im- 
pulse to  literature  until  the  Elizabethan  era.  This  period  was  rife 
with  cliange,  the  systems  of  chivalry  and  feudahsm  vanished,  the 
Church  was  revolutionised,  thought  was  freed  from  scholasti- 
cism, and  the  new  learning  flowed  into  the  country,  where  it  was 
diffused  by  writers  and  scholars  such  as  Cheke  {q.  v.),  Colet 
(q.  v.),  Grocyn  (q.  v.),  Linacre,  Warren,  Ascham  (q,  v.),  and  More 
(q.  v.).  (For  the  English  translations  of  the  Bible  belonging  to 
the  period  see  Bible.) 

1580-1625. — This  period,  known  as  the  Elizabethan,  is  the 
golden  age  of  E.  L.,  rich  in  poetry  and  prose,  in  imaginative  and 
speculative  writings.  It  is  peculiarly  the  palmy  epoch  of  the 
English  drama.  Its  greatness  was  especially  due  to  the  Renais- 
sance powerfully  stirring  the  English  mind  at  a  time  of  splendid 
national  prioress,  of  victory  and  discovery,  of  patriotic  and  religious 
awakening.  Instead  of  meetiug  with  an  emasculate  sodety,  and 
flowering  into  sculpture  and  painting  as  in  Italy,  the  Renaissance 
in  England  found  a  people  in  unprecedented  national  vigour, 
and  was  centred  wholly  upon  literature.  The  invention  of 
printing  was  now  bearing  fniit,  maritime  discovery  kindled  the 
poetic  imagination,  and  England's  altitude  as  the  defender  of 
Protestantism  heightened  patriotic  enthusiasm.  The  new  litera- 
ture is  broadly  distinguished  by  its  keen  interest  in  human 
action  and  passion  and  by  the  extent  to  which  it  is  afiected  by 
Italian  writer?.  This  Italian  influence  takes  two  forms— on  the 
one  hand  flushing  the  Ehzabethan  narrative  and  love-poetry 
with  a  Southern  affluence  of  lovely  colour,  and  instilling  a  fond- 
ness for  soft  melodious  verse,  while  on  the  other  if  leads  the 
dramatists  to  choose  their  themes  from  the  blackest  episodes  in 
Italian  tales  and  annals.  The  principal  dramatists  were  Peele 
(q.  v.),  Greene  (q.  v.),  Marlowe  (q,  v.).  Lodge,  Kyd,  Munday, 
Chettle,  Nash,  and,  immediately  succeeding  these,  Shakespeare 
(q.  v.),  Jonson  (q.  v.),  Beaumont  (q.  v.),  Fletcher  (q.  v.},  Dekker 
(q.  v.),  Webster  (q.  v.).  Ford  (q.  v.).  Chapman  (q.  v.),  and 
Massinger  {q.  v.).  The  Elizabethan  drama  is  unrivalled  for 
grandeur,  comprehensiveness,  and  variety,  revealing  the  keenest 
insight  and  the  most  lavish  fandfulness,  the  most  aerial  sub- 
limities and  the  most  grotesque  incidents,  grappling  with  the 
deepest  problems  of  life,  and  revelling  in  the  wildest  sallies  of 
wit.  (See  Drama.)  Of  non-dramatic  poets  the  greatest  is 
Spenser  (q.  v.),  whose  glowltig  colour,  sweetness  of  verse,  and 
taste  for  aliegory  were  imitated  by  Sidney  (q.  v.),  Harrington 
(q.  v.),  Daniel  (q.  v.),  Drayton  (q.  v.),  Sylvester  (q.  v.),  Cbap- 
SS2 


man,  Giles  and  Phineas  Fletcher  (q.  v."),  and  William  Browne 
(q.  V.}.  Long  narrative  poems,  dealing  with  English  legend, 
history,  and  scenery,  were  written  by  Daniel,  Drayton,  and 
Warner  ;  metrical  satire  by  Donne  (q,  v.)  and  Hall  (q,  v.)  ;  and 
lyric  poetry  was  enquisitely  developed  by  the  dramatists.  Pas- 
torals, imitative  of  Italian  poetry,  were  wiitten  by  Spenser, 
Fletcher,  Drayton,  Jonson,  Browne,  &c. ;  sonnets  and  love-songs 
abounded.  Throughout  this  poetry  there  runs  a  love  for  fan- 
tastic conceits  and  strained  relinements,' which,  arising  from 
Euphuism  (q,  v.),  a  natural  growth  of  tlie  Renaissance  popula- 
rised by  Lyly  (q.  v.),  and  chiming  with  the  courtly  taste,  dis- 
figures the  writings  even  of  the  greatest  dramatists,  and  becomes 
the  chief  feature  of  English  poetry  in  the  first  half  of  the  17th  c 

The  chief  Elizabethan  prose-writers  are,  in  history  and  schokr- 
ship,  Foxe,  Stowe  (q.  v.).  Speed  (q.  v.),  Camden  (q.  v.),  Raleigh 
(q.  v.),  Spenser,  Hooker  (q.  v.).  Bacon  (q.  v.).  Burton  {q.  v.). 
Usher  (q.  v,),  and  Selden  (q.  v.);  in  science.  Bacon,  Napier 
(q.  v.),  Harvey  (q.  v.},  and  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury  (q.  v.) ; 
m  controversy,  Whilgift,  Cartwright,  Robert  Brown,  Nash, 
Donne,  and  Hall ;  in  fiction,  Greene,  Lyly,  Sidney,  and  Bacon. 
The  prose  ia  for  the  most  part  stately  and  periodic,  as  in  Hooker, 
but  is  also,  in  the  euphuistic  writings  of  Lyly,  Greene,  and 
others,  antithetic  and  full  of  conceits. 

1625-1688.— From  1625  to  1640  E.  L.  held  its  Elizabethan 
characteristics;  Jonson,  Marston,  Massinger,  Ford,  Shirley 
(q.  V.)  were  active  as  dramatists;  and,  though  the  Pniitanic 
hatred  of  the  theatre  was  strengthening,  as  shown  by  Prynue's 
Satiromastix  (1632),  plays,  and  especially  fantastic  pieces  called 
masks,  were  highly  popular.  The  pastortd  and  allegorical 
poetiT,  founded  by  Spenser,  vras  continued  by  William  Browne, 
and  Giles  and  Phineas  Fletcher;  and  the  early  poems  of  Milton, 
which  belong  to  this  time,  breathe  the  Spenserian  spirit.  The 
taste  for  intellectual  subtleties  and  far-fetched  analogies,  which 
the  Elizabethans  borrowed  from  Italy,  became  more  conspicuous 
in  the  verse  of  Habington,  Henry  More  (q.  v.),  Crashaw  (q,  v,), 
and  Cowley  (q.  v.),  who  was  now  beginning  his  poetic  career ; 
vigorous  metrical  satires  were  composed  by  Jonson,  Hall,  Dave- 
nant  (q.  v.).  Wither  (q.  v.),  and  Cleveland ;  charming  love-songs, 
anacreontics,  and  epigrams,  full  of  sportive  grace  and  tripping 
music,  were  written  by  Jonson,  Wither,  Carew  (q.  v. ),  and  Her- 
rick  (q.  v.) ;  and  prose,  for  the  most  part  retaining  the  Elizabe- 
than intricacy  of  style  and  wealth  of  classic  allusions,  was 
represented  by  Donne,  Usher,  Jonson,  Selden,  Burton,  Herliert 
of  Cherbury,  Wither,  and  Chilllngworth  (q.  v.).  From  1640 
to  1660  literature,  excepting  polemics,  was  almost  silenced  by 
the  civil  wars  and  subsequent  Puritan  rule.  The  closing  of  the 
theatres  by  the  Pujitans  in  1643  put  an  end,  for  a  time,  to  play- 
writing,  and  the  higher  prose  was  almost  stifled  by  a  vast  out- 
come of  pamphlets  for  and  against  the  king — Presbyterian  and 
Independent,  Cromwellian  and  anti  -  Cromwellian  —  Milton 
plunging  into  the  controversy,  and  vindicating  the  Roundheads 
in  gorgeous  polemical  treatises.  The  chief  prose  writers  were 
—in  philosophy,  Hobbes  (q.  v.)  and  Sir  T.  Browne  (q.  v.) ;  in 
theology,  Jeremy  Taylor  (q.  v.)  ;  in  history.  Clarendon  (q,  v.) 
and  Fuller  (q.  v.)  ;  m  polemics,  Milton  (q.  v.).  Laud  (q.  v.). 
Hall,  Prynne  (q.  v.).  Fuller,  and  Whiilocke.  Exceptii^  parts  of 
the  worlis  of  Davis,  Marvell  (q.  v.),  Denham  (q.  v.),  Davenant, 
and  Wither,  verse  was  confined  to  Cavalier  songs  and  lampoons 
on  Royalists  and  Roundheads,  the  ablest  of  such  song-writers 
and  satiiisfs  being  the  Royalist  Cleveland.  The  Restoration,  in 
t56o,  suppressed  controversial  writings,  restored  the  drama,  and 
introduced  a  new  literature,  deeply  marked  "bv  French  influences, 
by  profligacy,  scoffing  wit,  and  a  strong  anti-Puritan  bias,  Only 
a  few  writers  held  aloof  from  the  general  tendencies,  notably 
Milton,  who  now  returned  to  poetry  and  wrote  his  great  epics  ; 
Butler  (q.  v.),  who  flouted  Puritanism  in  the  style  of  the  conceit- 
writers ;  and  Cowley,  who  continued  to  weave  subtle  frigidities 
into  serious  verse.  Mainly  through  the  influence  of  Dryden  (q.  v.), 
a  new  poetry  arose,  modelled  on  the  French  critical  school,  which, 
under  Boileau's  guidance,  had  cruslied  euphuism  in  France ; 
English  verse,  stripped  of  conceits,  became  more  direct,  simple, 
and  mechanical ;  and  brilliant  didactic  energy  took  the  place  of 
idealism  and  imaginative  fervour.  Rhyming  tragedy  was  im- 
ported from  France,  and  Dtyden  sought  vainly  to  found  a  new 
drama  uniting  Elizabethan  fire  with  French  symmetry  of  form. 
The  chief  writers  of  tragedy  were  Dryden,  Lee  (q.  v.),  Crowne, 
and  Otway  (q.  v.).  Romantic  plays  had  vanished ;  but  come- 
dies of  city  life,  foully  indecent,  but  glittering  with  wit,  were 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPALDIA. 


wrilten  by  Congreve  (q.  v.),  Wycherley  (q.  v.),  and  Vanbrugh 
(q,  v.),  a  purer  drama  at  last  arising  with  Farquhar  (q.  v.). 
Verses  of  society,  sometimes  witt  a  pleasant  juthtgU  in  their 
florid  badinage,  were  composed  by  such  nohlemeu  as  Dorset 
(q.  v.).  Sedley  (q,  v.),  and  Rochester  (q.  v.)- 

The  inHuence  of  French  literature  on  the  prose  of  the  period 
produced  a  more  correct  and  elegant  syntax,  the  chief  prose 
writers  being,  in  philosophy,  theology,  and  polemics,  Hobbes 
{q.  v.),  Browne  (q.  v.},  Taylor  (q.  v.),  Cudworlh  (q.  v.),  Barrow 
(q.  v.),  Tillotson  (q.  v.),  Sherlock  (q.  v.),  South  (q.  V,),  Leigliton 
(q.  "J.),  Pearson  (q,  v.)  ;  in  scholarsliip  and  history.  Clarendon 
(q.  v.),  Aubrey,  Evelyn  (q.  v,),  Pe|)ys  (q.  v.),  Dugdaie  (q.  v.), 
Rushworth  ;  in  fiction,  esssays,  ciiticism,  &c.,  Drydeii,  Cowley, 
Walton  {q.  v.),  and  John  Eunyan  (q.  v.). 

1688-1788.— This  period,  from  the  English  Revolution  to  the 
French  Revolution,  may  be  called  the  period  of  the  i8th  c.  It 
is  markedly  an  age  of  great  prose  authors,  none  of  our  very  best 
poets,  but  many  of  out  forenjost  prose  writei-s,  belonging  to  it. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  century  satires  and  pamphlets  were 
abundant,  and  during  (Jneen  Anne's  reign  literature  became 
mjunly  a  party  tool,  Uie  chief  writers  enUsting  with  Whiga  or 
.  Tories,  and  receiving  preferment  for  their  services.  The  piin- 
cipal  poets  of  the  first  half  of  the  century  were  Arbnthnot 
(q.  v.).  Gay  (q.  v.).  Swift  (q.  v.).  Pope  (q.  v.),  PhiUipps,  Prior 
{q.  v.).  Young  (q.  v.),  Warton  (q.  v.),  and  Thomson  (q.  v.). 
The  poetry  of  this  era,  known  as  the  English  '  Augustan  age, 
is  distinguished  by  fastidious  metrical  art,  displays  tlie  perfection 
of  polished  verse,  but  lyearies  by  the  sameness  of  its  cadences, 
and  the  absence  of  true  passion  and  spontaneous  grace.  It  was 
lai^ely  didactic,  mas  mainly  devoted  to  satire  and  pictures  of 
town  life,  having  lost  the  atoma  of  the  country,  and  was  cast 
tihnost  wholly  in  the  heroic  couplet,  which  in  the  hands  of  Pope, 
tlie  master-poet  of  the  time,  constantly  sparjdes  into  jewels  of 
epigram.  The  chief  prose  writers  in  the  beginning  of  the  period 
were  BoHngbroke  (q.  v.),  I,ocke  (q.  i.).  Swift,  Berkeley  (q.  v.), 
Butler  (cj.  v.),  Addison  {q.  v.),  Stede  ((q.  v.),  and  Defoe  (q.  v.], 
the  writings  of  the  last  three  clearly  marking  the  decline  of 
patronage  and  the  revival  of  popnlar  influence.  In  place  of  the 
many-linked,  sonorous  prose  of  the  17th  c,  ^  lighter,  siinpler 
style  was  adopted ;  Defoe  and  Swift  writing  with  racy  vigour, 
Addison  and  Steele  with  careless,  idiomatic  grace.  Comedy 
died  out  before  realistic  prose  fiction,  which  was  admirably  de- 
veloped by  Defoe,  Swift,  Richardson  (q.  v.).  Fielding  (q.  v.), 
and  Smollett  (q.  v.) ;  and  afterwards  received  a  more  graceful 
and  idyllic,  though  less  robust,  treatment  from  Sterne  (q.  v.) 
and  Goldsmith  (q.  v.).  To  the  second  half  of  the  century  belong 
several  of  our  noblest  monuments  of  history.  Prose  became 
heavily  Latinised,  more  precise  and  ornate,  and  more  stately  in 
rhythm  than  Addison's  or  Steeie's  hi  the  works  of  Johnson 
(q.  V.)  and  Burke  (q.  v.),  and  of  the  historians  Gibbon  (q.  v.), 
Robertson  (q.  v.),  and  Hume  {q.  y.) ;  while  Goldsmith  anited 
thepolishandaccuracy-oftheJohnsonesF  with  the  graceful  aban- 
donment and  lighter  structure  of  the  Addisonian  style.  The 
chief  writers  in  philosophy  were  Hume,  Paley  (q.  v,),  and 
Adam  Smith  (q,  v.).  The  foremost  poets  were  Gray  (q.  v.). 
Goldsmith,  Shenstone  (q,  y.),  and  Collins  (q.  v. ),  who  partly 
clung  to  the  '  Augustan '  manner,  partly  broke  away  from  if  in 
lyrics  and  idylls,  which,  despite  their  artifidality,  show  true  fer- 
vour and  deUeate  pensiveness  ;  Blake  (q,  v. ),  a  strange  mystical 
genius ;  and,  above  all,  Cowper  (q.  v. )  and  Bums  (q.  v. ),  in 
whom  natural  and  impassioned  poetry  revived.  During  the 
latter  part  of  the  century  authors  lean  again  npoii  the  public, 
patronage  decays,  periodical  criticism  arises,  arid  the  newspajiers 
gain  vastly  m  power  and  usurp  the  funclioiia  of  the  political 
pamphlets. 

1788-1876. — This  period  is  second  only  to  the  Elizabethan 
for  the  number  and  s^endour  of  its  names.  The  chief  poets  of 
its  earlier  years  were  Byron  (q.  v.),  Shelley  (q.  v.),  Keats  {q.  v.), 
Coleridge  (q.  v,),  Landor  (q.  v.),  Wordsworth  (q.  v.),  Scott  (q.  v.), 
Moore  jq.  v.),  Crabbc  (q.  v.),  Campbell  (q.  v.),  Ethers  (g.  v.), 
Southey  (q.  v.).  Wells  (q.  v.),  and  Leigh  Hunt  (q.  v.).  Many 
of  these  writers,  deeply  moved  by  the  French  Revoluticin,  filled 
their  verse  with  stormy  passion,  fiery  rebellious  protests,  and  a 
kmd  of  nature-worship  partly  borrowed  from  Rousseau ;  while 
others  led  a  strong  reaction  agdnst  the  poetic  style  of  the  Queen 
Anne  writers.  Romantio  poetry  revived,  new  metres  were 
adopted,  Gothic  and  Eastern  tales  displaced  the  old  '  classical ' 
themes,  lofty  philosophic  musuigs  were  cast  into  verse,  and 
145 


nature  was  described  with  novel  subtlety  of  insight  and  fresh- 
ness, novel  energy,  and  felicity  of  language.  The  chief  prose 
writers  in  fiction,  philosophy,  and  criticism  were  Scott,  Cole- 
ridge, Southey,  Bentham  (q.  v.).  Mill  (q.  v.),  Godwm  (q,  v.), 
Stewart  (q.  v.).  Gait  (q.  v.).  Miss  AHSten(q.  v,),  Jeffrey  (q.  v.), 
Wilson  (q.  v.),  Hailitt  (q.  v.), Lamb  (q.  v.),  Leigh  Hunt,  Lan- 
dor, De  Quincey  (q.  v. ),  &c.  Gradually  the  revolutionary  glow 
faded  from  poetry,  and  at  length  a  new  school  was  fouiided  by 
Tennyson  (q.  v.).  The  greatestVictorian  poets  are  Tennyson, 
R.  Browning  (q.  v.),  Mrs  Browning  (q.v.).  Hood  (q.  v.),  Arnold 
(q.  V. ),  Taylor  (q.  v.),  DobeU  (q.  v.),  '  G.  Eliot '  (q.  v.),  W.  B. 
Scott,  D.  Rossetti  (q.v.),  C.  Rossetti  (q.  v.),  Morris  (q.v.), 
and  Swinburne  (q.  v.).  There  seem  at  present  to  be  signs 
of  the  dawn  of  a  new  lyric  and  dramatic  school.  Of  prose 
writers,  recent  or  living,  the  chief  are,  in  history,  Hallam  (q.  v.), 
Alison  (q.  v.),,  Macaulay  (q.  v.),  Carlyle  (q.  v.),  Grote  (q;  v.l, 
Thiriwall{q.  v.),  Merivale  (q.  v.),  Milman(q.  v.).  Buckle  (q.  v.), 
Finlay  (q.  v.J,  Stanley  (q.  v^.  Helps  (q.  v.),  Kinglake  (q.  v.), 
Burton(q.  v.),  Fronde  (q.Y.),  Stubbs(q,  v.),  andFreeman(q.  v.); 
in  biography,  Forster  fq.  v.),  I.ewes  (q.v.),  Masson  (q,  v.^;  in 
philosophy,  Hamilton  {q.  v.),  Carlyle,  J.  S.  Mill  (q.  v.),  New- 
man (q.  v.),  Maurice  (q.  v.).  Bain  (q.  v.),  and  Herbert  Spencer 
(q.  v.) ;  in  criticism,  De  Quincey,  Ruskm  (q.  v.),  Arnold,  Car- 
lyle, J.  Morley,  Swmbume;  in  fiction,  Lytton  (q.v.),  C.  Bronte 
(q.  v.),  Disraeli  (q.  v.),  Dickens  {q.  v.),  Thackeray  (q.  v.),  'G. 
Eliot,' Kingsley  (q.  v.),  Trollope  (q.v.),  Reade(q.v.),  W.  Col- 
lins (q.  v.).  Black  (q.  v.),  Blackmore,  &c.  See  Craik's  HUt.  of 
E.  L.  (2  vols.) ;  Tame'a  Hist,  of  E.  L. ;  Minto's  English  Poets 
and  English  Prose  Wriiers;  Warton's  I/tsi.  of  English  Poetry; 
¥,s2X\Vif,  English  Poets  ^A  A^  of  Elnaieth  }  Skeat's  ijfecw««)J 
ofE.  L.;  Moriey's  English  Writers,  &a.  For  Scottisll  vnat-- 
before  the  i8lh  c,  see  art.  SCOTTISH  Literature. 


.._  distinct  from  lithc^raphy,  belongs  to  the  fi^rst  class,  and 
known  as  sculpture  qr  stone-carving,  and  ornamental  E.  on  wood 
is  termed  wood-carving.  The  production  of  engravings  on  wood 
(woodcuts)  for  the  transfer  of  impressions  to  paper  is  designated 
wood-E.  Ornamental  E.  of  metallic  surfaces  is  called  chasing. 
The  term  E.  is  principally  applied  to  the  art  of  engraving  pic- 
tures on  copper  or  steel  plates.  In  the  higher  ranges  of  the  art 
fine  instinctive  touch  and  pure  artistic  feeling  are  as  necessary 
as  technical  or  manipulative  skill  Hera,  however,  we  have  only 
to  do  with  the  technical  aspect  of  E. 

In  prmting  from  ^es,  stereotype  plates,  or  woodcuts,  it  is 
the  elevated  portions  which  receive  the  ink  and  transfer  their 
impressions  to  paper  ;  but  with  engraved  copper  or  steel  plates 
the  case  is  exactly  reversed,  and  it  is  into  the  incised  lines  or 
dots  that  the  printing  ink  is  placed,  to  be  brought  in  contact 
with  the  paper  by  pressure.  The  breadth  and  depth  of  the  in- 
cisedi^s,  therefore,  determine  the  boldness  of  the  impression, 
and  it  is  this  circumstance  that  gives  to  copper  or  steel  engrav- 
ings their  singularly  fine  delicacy  of  line  and  rare  gradations 

The  tools  and  materials  used  by  the  engiaver  are  few.  The 
chief  are  the  set  of  gravers,  short  prisms  of  ^teei  fitted  into 
handles,  and  yatjing  in  the  size  of  the  pom  t  and  in  the  form 
of  the  6ce  from  a  square  to  a  lozenge.  The  etching-foiMi 
or  needle  is  like  a  large  sewing-needle  fixed  into  a  handle.' 
Several  of  these  a(e  required,  varying  in  thickness,  some  being 
oval-shaped  to  produce  the  broader  lines.  'Va.^dty-foint,  sim"" 
in  shape  to  the  etching-point,  is  used  for  mpre  delicate  lii  . 
and  difiers  in  its  effect  from  the  graver  by  not  taking  the 
metal  clean  out,  but  throwmg  it  up  on  each  side.  The  scraper 
has  three  fluted  sides,  and  is  used  to  remove  the  barb  left  by 
the  action  of  the  graver,  needles,  or  dry-point.  Tiie  rubier, 
a  roll  of  cloth  dipped  in  pil,  smooths  the  siirlace.  The  bwnisker 
is  employed  to  erase  any  scratches,  to  polish  and  soften  any 
parts  engraved  or  bitten  in  too  dark.  The  engraver  also  uses 
a  hrid^,  or  thin  board  for  raising  his  hand  above  the  level  of  the 
plate,  and  a  blind  of  tissue  paper  to  direct  light  on  the  plate. 
The  different  styles  of  E.  on  metal  plates  are  known  as  etching, 
line  E.,  mezzotint,  and  aquatint. 

In  etching,  the  plate  of  copper  is  first  covered  with  a  com- 
position known  as  eUhing-groimd,  capable  of  resisting  the  action 
553 


vLiOOQle 


EING 


THE  GLOBE  EN'CYCLOP^DIA. 


ENN 


of  aquafortis  It  consists  of  black  pitch,  wliite  wax,  bui^iinily 
pitcli,  asphaltum,  and  gum  mastic,  miied  by  firitig.  A  pencil 
drawing  of  tlie  subject  og  paper  is  then  placed  face  down  on 
the  plate,  and  trsnsfaried  by  being  passed  through  a  press. 
The  workman  witb  his  points  ijr  needles  follows  the  hnas  of  the 
drawing,  removes  the  ground,  and  thus  exposes  the  part  of  the 
plate  covered  by  the  (ira-s^ng.  A  wall  of  wax  is  put  round  the 
plate,  the  acid  ^  poured  Qn  and  left  till  it  has  bittin  deep 
enough,  when  it  is  washed  off.  Those  parts  which  are  cor- 
loded  enough  aie  CQvered  with  a  ^topping  ground  of  lamp 
black  and  Venice  furpentinp,  and  tlie  acid  is  again  applied, 
this  being  repeated  till  the  reqaited  depths  are  obtained. 
Steel  plates,  owing  to  their  hardness,  require  a  different  biting 
agent,  consisting  gf  a  njixture  of  pyroligneous  and  iiitric  acids 
andnater,  after  the  application  pf  which  the  plate  is  carefully 
dned  to  prevent  ni^t.  In  tins  E.,  so  called  fpm  the  effect 
being  produced  by  lines  of  different  thiclcnesses  rijnning  more  or 
leas  parallel,  the  plate  js  first  etched  aijd  aftepwards  finished  with 
the  graver,  or  it  may  be  solely  cut  by  the  grayer  or  dryrpoint. 
The  former  is  the  method  usually  employed  now.  Line  E,  pro- 
duces the  best  work,  and  oeeupies  the  foremost  place  in  the  art 
of  E  A  ruling  machine,  which  produces  parallel  Hues  vnth 
great  rapidity,  is  fi-equently  used,  but  its  effects  are  inferior  to 
those  produced  by  hand^york,  A?i?&)ftW  differs  considerably  in 
appearance  from  any  other  style,  and  is  not  so  difScult  worfc  as 
lineE  The  ground  is  carefully  imjcnted  all  oyer  by  an  instrument 
called  a  rradli,  having  a  serrated  edge,  the  parts  requiring  light- 
ness of  shade  being  smoothed  with  tiie  scraper  and  burnisher, 
those  parts  left  untouched  giving  the  deepest  shades.  Spme? 
times  the  design  is  gfst  etched  on  the  plate.  In  slifpls  E.  the 
plate  IS  first  covered  with  the  etching  ground,  and  the  design 
trinsferred  m  tha  psual  W!(^.  The  outline,  instead  of  being 
drawn  m  lines,  is  put  in  by  dots,  wide  or  near,  as  light  or  daflf 
shades  are  required)  it  is  then  bitten  with  the  acid,  and  finished 
off  with  the  gravef,  Aquatmt  E.  is  the  most  difficult  of  any  of 
the  styles,  and  is  now  superseded  by  lithography,  The  plate  is 
covered  with  a  ground  of  rosin  held  in  solution  by  spirits  of 
wine,  which  on  drying  leayes  a  granulated  sm-fece.  The  draw- 
mg  being  transferred,  those  parts  reqijiring  the  highest  lights 
ate  '  slopped  out '  before  eifposiug  the  plate  to  thj  action  of  the 
acid,  which  eats  throagh  the  granulated  ground.  This  process 
13  epeated  as  each  port  on  become^  of  the  desired  shade,  as  many 
as  ten  o  mo  e  sepa  a  e  b  tes  being  sometimes  required.  On 
pape    the  aquat  nt,  consist    g  of  fl  t  washes,  is  like  a  drawii^ 

u  Ind  a  nk 

Plate  p  nt  ng  s  very  s  mple.  The  plate  is  first  slightly 
heated  and  the  ink  rubbed  m  w  th  a  Imen  cag;  the  ince  is 
t1  en  cleaned  and  the  workipan  n  bs  off  the  surplus  ink  with 
1  s  hands  which  he  first  covers  vith  vhiting,  This  requires  to 
le  lone  w  th  great  cape.  Damped  paper  is  placed  on  the  plate 
and  cove  ed  i  h  bl  nket  ng  t  s  llien  passed  between  the  cylin- 
de  s  of  the  p  ess— be  ng  raised  or  lowered  by  means  of  a  lever— 

vh  ch  are  turned  by  a  la  "b  sta  handle.  The  first  Copies, 
termed/  oof  a  e  the  finest  np  e  ons,  as  the  rubbing  of  the 
plate  tends  to  erase  or  smooth  the  lines.  Afteracertain  number 
are  taken  the  plate  requires  {o  bs  recuL  By  a  valuable  process, 
termed  adtragt,  an  engraved  copperplate  may  now  be  pro- 
tected with  steeL  It  was  invented  by  M.  Gamier,  and  introduced 
from  France  by  M.  Joubert.  By  means  of  electricity  an  infini- 
tesimally  thin  skin  of  iron  is  deposited  upon'  the  copperplate, 
which  may  be  removed  and  replaced  by  a  new  deposit.  See  the 
works  of  Georges  (Par.  i86a) ;  Ottley  (Lond,  lSl6)j  Passavant 
(Leips.  i86o-65) ;  Bartsch  (at  vols.  Vienna,  1S03--21)  j  Bryan 
(Lond.  1S58) ;  Hameiton  (1866), 

Engravings,  Copyright  in.  —The  right  of  property  in  engrav- 
ings is  for  twenty-eight  years  from  the  date  of  publication ;  which 
date,  with  the  name  of  the  artist,  mnst  be  inscribed  on  the  plate. 
A  purchaser  of  an  cri^nal  plate  may  lawfully  print  from  it.  To 
photi^raph  an  engraving  is  an  infringement  of  copyright.  To 
possess  an  engraved  plate  for  imitating  the  notes  of  any  bsnlf, 
or  to  print  from  it,  is  felony. 

Et^roBs'ing  (Fr.  engrosslr  'to  increase "),  in  law,  is  the 
purchasing  of  victual  at  a  fair  or  marlcet,  or  of  com  in  the  field, 
with  the  view  of  reselling  at  an  advanced  price.  E.  was  at  one 
lime  criminal  in  Engknd,  under  statutes  repealed  by  12  Geo. 
III.  c  71.  It  was  then  found  that  E.  was  an  offence  at  common 
law.  E.  was  declared  legal  by  Act  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  24. 
554 


Eriharmon'io  In'terval,  in  music,  a  small  interval  between 
a  pair  of  notes  which  go  by  one  name  but  which  differ  slightly 
with  the  key  of  the  music  Thus  suppose  a  note  to  vibrate  768 
times  per  second,  and  to  be  fhe  tonic  of  a  piece  of  music,  the 
Eupertonic,  3  whole  tone  above  it,  will  vibrate  f  times  as  fast,  or 
864  times  per  second.  If,  however,  the  given  note  be  the  Domi- 
nant (q,  v.),  the  next  note  atiove  it  in  the  same  scale,  the  super-  . 
dominant,  wijl  vibrate  only  y  times  as  fast,  or  853'3  times  per 
seeond.  Upon  sucj}  instnimenls  as  the  piano  these  two  notes 
are  represented  by  one  only,  but  with  the  human  voice,  the 
violin,  &c,,  they  can  easily  be  distinguished.  The  interval  be- 
tween them — liaving  in  this  case  the  vibration  ratio  S64  :  853'j, 
=  81  ;  80,  and  being  therefore  equal  to  a  Comma  (q.  v.) — is  one 
of  the  most  common  eiamples  of  enharmonic  intervals. 

Enkhuiz'ea  ('  Narrow  houses ; '  in  Lat.  Enckusci),  a  decayed 
town  of  N.  Holland,  on  the  E.  shore  of  the  Zuider  Zee,  Zo  miles 
E.N.E.  of  Alkmaar,  It  has  a  fine  townhouse,  a  cannon  foundry, 
and  some  shipbuilding,  &c,  ^,  was  formerly  a  place  of  40,000 
inhabitants,  with  a  large  herring-fleet,  but  the  silting  up  of  the 
harbour  led  to  its  decline.  Paul  Potter  was  bom  here  in  1625. 
Pop.  (1873)  4gjs.   E.vras  founded  in  the  beginning  of  the  13th  c 

^ttliet'ineiit  in  thg  Ariny,  Law  Iteg:tirding.  By  the 
Army  Enlistment  Act  (1S70)  no  one  can  be  enlisted  as  a  soldier, 
for  longer.than  twelve  years.  The  Act  provides  that  enlistment 
shall  be  either  for  the  whole  of  tiie  said  period  in  any  service, 
Of  for  a  portion  thereof,  to  be  fixed  from  time  to  time  by  the 
Secretary  of  Stftte,  and  specified  in  the  attestation  paper,  in  army 
service,  and  for  the  residue  of  the  period  in  the  first-class  reserve 
force  established  in  1867.  But  it  is  provided  that  the  Act  of 
1870  sh?Jl  not  interfere  with  her  Majesty's  power  to  enlist  men 
for  a  shorter  period  than  twelve  years.  The  Secretary  of  State 
is  empowered  from  time  to  time  to  make  general  or  spei '  ' 
regnlations,  varying  fhe  conditions  of  service,  so  as  to  permi 
soldjpr  who  has  served  for  not  less  than  three  years  to  en 
the  reserve  force  for  the  Tpsidue  of  his  term  of  twelve  years. 
The  Act  makes  provision  in  case  of  imminent  national  danger 
or  of  great  emei^ency.  Tf  an  apprentice  enlist,  his  master  may 
recover  him  under  the  Mutiny  Act.  Every  recruit  must  appear 
before  a  magisti^te  and  declare  that  he  enlists  willingly.  If  he 
repent  of  his  engagement  with  the  repmiiing  officer,  he  may  buy 
himself  off  by  payingj^i.  Servants  enlisting  before  the  expira- 
tion °^  their  engagement  may  be  helcl  to  be  validly  enlisted 
unfjer  the  Annual  Mutiny  Act. 

Eidislmmt,  Ifazial,  Law  Regarding.-^^y  i6  and  17  Vict.  c. 
69  the  compulsory  service  of  seamen  may  extend  to  ten  years. 
The  bounty  given  varies  according  to  the  requirements  of  the 
service.  The  Act  3,2  and  23  Vict.  c.  40  provides  for  a  reserve 
volunteer  service  of  five  years  in  time  of  emergency.  This  force 
may  be  trained  for  twenty-eight  days  each  year,  and  may  be  re- 
quired to  join  any  ship  the  Adipiralty  think  fit.  The  corps  may 
be  called  to  service  vn  proclamation.  By  26  and  27  Vict.  c.  69 
the  Queen  may  accept  offers  of  merchant  sailors  to  serve  in  the 
Royal  Navy,  subject  to  rules  framed  by  the  Admiralty.  Men  called 
out  for  training  receive  pay  ( if  disabled  in  service,  they  are  entitled 
to  allowances  ;  and  if  kiljed,  their  widows  receive  pensions. 

Enn'is  (Gael,  inis  or  innis,  'an  island,'  also  'a  meadow 
girdled  by  a  river'),  the  capital  of  Couniy  Clare,  on  the  Fei^s, 
25  miles  N.W.  of  Limerick  by  railway.  The  chief  buildings  are 
the  conrthouse,  the  endowed  apd  national  schools,  an  inlinnary, 
and  a  public  library.  A  colossal  white  limestone  statue  o' 
O'Connell,  by  Cahill,  was  erected  in  1863'.  The  Fergus  i 
crossed  by  four  bridges.  E.  has  flour-mills,  breweries,  distilleries, 
and  an  active  trade  in  grain,  catlle,  and  limestones.  It  sends  01 
member  to  Parliament.     Pop,  (1871)  6101. 

EmiisoOrth'y.  a  town  of  Wexford  county,  on  the  Slaney,  27 
miles  S.  S,  W.  of  Arklow  by  railway.  It  has  a  splendid  church, 
a  factory  for  frieze,  fianpels,  and  blankets,  a  large  distillery,  and 
a  river-trade  in  coal,  cora,  timber,  &c.  The  two  parts  of  the 
town  are  linked  ti^ether  by  a  stone  bridge.  Pop.  (1871)  5804. 
E.  grew  up  around  the  castle  of  the  Anglo-Norman  invader, 
Raymond  le  Gros,  which  is  still  almost  entire. 

BnniakUl'en  (Gael.  Inis-Cethlmn,  '  Cethlenn's  island '),  the 
capital  of  County  Fermanagh,  on  fhe  Erne,  75  miles  W.S.W.  of 
Belfast,  and  on  the  North- Western  Railway.  It  stands  near  the 
S.  end  of  Lower  Lough  Erne,  and  has  manufactures  of  linen. 


yLaOOgle 


ENN 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ENT 


a  trade  m  coal, 


itrawplait,  cutlery,  whisky,  leather,  &c., 
jrovisions,  and  timber.  Pop.  (1871)  5906.  ^.  =>:.iua  „.i=  n.^...- 
:jer  to  Parliament.  It  was  founded  by  Protestant  settlers,  and 
received  a  mimicipal  charter  in  1612,  It  supported  the  Protestant 
::aHse  in  1689,  Here  the  troops  of  William  III.,  1500  strong, 
signal  victoiy  over  the  forces  of  Ji 


gaji 


Enn'ius,  ftuin'tuB,  the  father  of  Roman  epic  poetry,  fondly 
styled  by  his  countrymen  nosier  Ennms,  was  born  at  RudJK,  in 
Calabria,  239  B.C.  He  claimed  descent  from  the  ancient  lords 
of  Messapia,  and  is  s^d  to  have  served  with  dislinclion  as  a 
soldier,  andrisen  to  the  rank  of  centurion.  Cato  the  Eider  on 
his  way  home  from  the  African  war  met  E.  at-Sardinia  and 
brought  him  to  Rome.  During  the  jEtolian  campaign  he  accom- 
panied M.  Fulviiis  Nobilior,  by  whose  son's  influence  he  after- 
wards obtained  the  rights  of  a  Roman  citizen.  E.  m^ntained 
himself  by  teaching  the  Greek  language  to  patrician  families. 
He  died  of  gout,  B.C.  169.  By  the  desire  of  Africanus  he  was 
buried  in  the  tomb  of  the  Sciplos.  E.  wrote,  in  eighteen  boolis, 
i^n  AnnaUs  oi  Rome  in  hexameter  verse,  besides  dramatic  and 
satirical  compositions.  His  style  is  necessarily  rough,  but  the 
vigour  of  his  verse  won  the  admiration  of  Cicero,  Horace,  and 
Viigil.  The  works  of  E.  are  said  to  have  existed  as  late  as  the 
I3tfi  c,  but  only  fragments  now  rernain.  Of  the  collections,  tlie 
first  is  that  by  Robert  and  Henry  Stephens  (Par.  8vo,  1564) ; 
the  best  are  those  of  Hessel  (Amst.  1707)  and  Vahlen  (Leips. 
1854).  See  Ribbeck's  Scmica  Romtmorum  Poisis  Fragnunta 
(2  vols.  Leips,  1853-55) ;  Sellar's  Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic 
(Edinb.  1863),  andTeuffel's  Geschichte  da- Rimischen  Liieratur 
(Leips.  2d  ed.  IS?!). 

StlTlB,  a  picturesque  river  of  Anstria,  rises  in  the  S.W.  of 
Salzbu:^,  in  the  Norio  Alps,  and  flows  S.E.  by  E.,  then  N., 
entering  Upper  Austria  {Oier  der  Enns),  which  for  IJ  miles  it 
separates  from  Lower  Austria  {Unler  der  Enns),  and  eventually 
joins  the  Danube,  11  miles  S.E.  of  Linz,  after  a  course  of  160 
miles,  in  part  navigable. 

ITnOoll.  I.  The  eldest  son  of  Cain.— 2.  The  son  of  Jared, 
who  'walked  with  God  :  and  he  was  not ;  for  God  took  him,'  al 
the  age  of  365  years  (Gen.  v.  18-34).  This  was  understood  by 
later  Jews  to  mean  that  he  was  taken  up  to  heaven  without  dying 
(Heb.  xi.  5).  Comparative  mythology,  however,  professes  to 
see  in  the  history  of  E.  an  old  myth  about  the  year,  which  after 
365  days  is  not.  The  name  may  be  translated  '  Renewal,'  and  his 
age,  which  is  shorter  than  that  of  any  of  the  other  patriarchs,  _ 
actly  as  many  years  as  there  are  days  in  a  solar  year.  This  inter- 
pretation is  curious,  but  not  convincing.  See  Ewald's  GeschicAte 
des  Volkis  Israel  (Eng.  transL,  new  ed.  Edinb.  1875). 

Enoch,  Book  of,  one  of  the  principal  of  the  Old  Testament 
Apocryphal  books,  written,  according  to  the  best  authorities,  in 
llebrew,  wholly  or  in  part,  about  a  century  before  Christ,  was 
widely  circulated,  and  exercised  a  great  influence  during  the  first 
Christian  centuries.  From  the  time  of  Augustme  (354-430), 
however,  it  was  only  known  in  fragments  till  1 773,  when  an 
Ethiopic  version  (probably  made  from  the  Greek  veision  known 
to  the  early  Fathers),  in  three  MSS. ,  was  brought  from  Abyssinia 
by  Briice  the  traveller.  The  author  gives  elaborate  descnptiona 
of  the  world  of  spirits,  of  the  future  life,  of  the  Sheol,  with  its 
different  divisions,  the  place  of  the  wicked  and  of  the  fallen 
angels,  of  the  person  and  tunes  of  the  Messiah.  A  great  deal  of 
the  language  of  the  New  Testament — in  Clu-ist's  discourses,  the 
Epistles,  and  the  Apocalypse,  especially  that  describing  the  judg- 
ment of  the  last  day— seems  to  have  been  derived  from  the  S. 
of  E.  A  translation  was  published  by  Archbishop  Lawrence  in 
1821,  as  well  as  an  edition  of  the  Ethiopic  text  in  1838.  The 
best  edition  is  Dillmann's  (1851).  Among  special  works  on  the 
subject  ate  those  of  Ewald  (1854,)  and  Phiiippi  (1S68). 

Knos  {Ipuiz),  an  ancient  town  in  the  vilayet  of  Adrianople, 
Turkey,  on  a  promontory  at  the  S.E.  side  of  a  small  gulf  of  the 
same  name,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Maritza,  75  miles  S.  by  W.  of 
Adrianople.  It  has  a  shallow  harbour,  and  may  be  expected  to 
dedine  now  thrt  Did^-Agatcb,  a  port  in  the  vicinity,  has  been 
connected  with  Adrianople  by  rail.  Its  trade  amounts  to  some 
/33,ooo  yearly,  and  the  exports  are  com,  hides,  &c.  Pop.  7000, 
principally  Greeks.  E.  is  the  Ainos  of  Homer,  and  according 
to  Virgil  was  founded  by  ^iieas  on  his  way  from  Troy. 


urol'tnent,  a  term  of  English  law.  By  two  statutes  of 
try  VIII.,  to  pass  an  estate  of  inheritance  the  deed  of  bargain 
and  sale  must  lie  enrolled  in  one  of  the  courts  at  Westminster, 
or  with  the  Custos  Rotuloram  in  the  county  where  the  land  lies, 
within  six  months  after  date.  The  statute  5  Eliz.  c  26  authorises 
the  courts  in  Ihe  counties-palatine  to  enrol  bargains  and  sales  in 
like  manner.  Deeds  to  bar  the  entail  of  an  estate,  and  for  some 
other  purposes,  must  also  be  enrolled  in  Chancery.  Any  one 
wishing  to  prevent  E.  must  present  a  petition  for  reheaiing,  or 
lodge  a  Caveat  (q.  v. ). 

.  EnBClie'de,  the  most  important  cotton-manufacturing  town  in 
the  Netherlands,  province  of  Overyssel,  55  miles  N.E.  of  Am- 
hem  by  railway.  It  has  a  large  number  of  steam-power  looms, 
and  produces  cottons  for  foreign  export,  fustians,  dimities,  &c. 
There  are  also  estensive  dye-works  and  bleaching-fields.  A  part 
of  E.  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1863.    Pop,  (1873)  5072. 

En'sign  (Fr.  ensiigne,  Lat.  insigne,  'a  mark,  orfla^,'  from 
in  and  sigtiam),  the  generic  name  for  a  flag  used  as  a  signal,  is 
specifically  employed  to  designate  the  large  fli^  that  floats  at 
the  gaff  of  a  ship  when  under  sail,  andiabove  the  poop  when  at 
anchor.  Smce  1864  all  British  ships  of  war  carry  the  St  George's 
E.,  (.white  flag  with  a  large  red  cross  and  a  small  union-jack 
in  the  left-hand  upper  quarter.  The  red  E.  with  imion-jack  is 
used  by  transports,  &c. ;  the  bine  in  the  merchant  service. 

Ensign,  properly  E.-bearer,  was  formerly  a  commissioned  ofKcer 
of  the  British  army,  called  into  existence  for  the  discharge  of  a 
special  office.  The  E.  was  the  bearer  and  defender  of  the  regi- 
menKil  colours ;  and  when  battles  were  decided  by  a  series  of 
hand-to-hand  encounters,  his  office  was  one  of  honour  and 
responsibility.  The  colours  are  now  kept  by  the  colour-sergeants. 
Tiie  junior  subaltern  rank  has  been  that  of  sub-lieutenant  instead 
ofE.  since  1871. 

Entablature,  in  classical  architecture,  is  the  superstructure 
which  lies  horizontally  (like  a  '  table ' — from  Fr.  table)  upon  the 
columns,  and  wluch  is  divided  into  three  sections— the  architm-ae, 
which  rests  immediately  upon  the  columns ;  the  fiieie,  the  inter- 
mediate space ;  and  Ihe  cornice,  the  upper  section.  To  each  of 
the  orders  belongs  a  special  E.  of  its  own,  the  height  and  relative 
proportions  of  i^ch  are  regulated  according  to  a  scale,  the  dia- 
meter of  the  column  being  the  unit  of  measurement.  Each  of 
the  divisions  of  the  E.  is  in  the  different  orders  enriched  with 
appropriate  mouldings,  facial,  foliage,  scroll-work,  &c 

Unta'dft,  a  genus  of  Leguminous  plants,  belonging  to  the 
MimQsea,  or  'gum-arabic'  group,  and  represented  by  the  E. 
scandens,  a  climbing-plant  of  the  W.  Indies.  These  plants  have 
pinnate  leaves  and  krge  pods  containing  the  seeds  embedded  in 
a  glutinous  substance.  E.  fmrsstha  grows  in  the  E.  Indies,  and 
its  pods  attain,  a  length  of  from  4  to  5  feet  long,  containing 
beans  or  seeds  of  proportional  size. 

Entail'   (Fr,   taUU),   a  term  in  English 
In  the  latter  it  is  frequently  called  tatlzie. 
the   legal   course   of   succession  to   land   is 
arbitrary  one  substituted,   the  object  being   to  press 
in  one  family.     (See  DoNis,  Statute  de.)    "rher 
kinds  of  enttuls— ^»mj-<j/  and  special.     When  lands  ai  _  „    . 
a  man  and  the  heirs  of  his  body  without  restriction,  this  is  called 
an  estate  tail  general ;  but  where  there  is  a  limitation  to  certain 
heirs,  it  is  an  estate  fail  apeciaL     There  are  also  estates  tail  mate 
and  estates  tail  female.     In  the  former  the  succession  is  limited 
to  males,  m  the  latter  it  is  limited  to  females.     Formerly  tena 
in  tail  in  England  used  to  evade  the  limitation  by  a  proc 
called  a  recovery  (see  Recovekies  and  FiNES),  but  by  the  I 
3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  74  they  can  now  make  an  effectual  aliei 
tion  by  a  deed  enrolled  in  Chancery ;  and  by  •  —' '    "  ^'■ 
C.   no   an  estate  tail  is  rendered  liable  for  I 
tenant.     In   Scotland  various     m    dm 
were  introduced  by  the  Act  of  1848     B 
in  possession  is  empowered  to  d  ta 

without,  and  in  some  cases  wit 
the  substitute  heirs.    In  entail  d 

1S48,  an  heir  bom  after  the  E         mg 
to  execute  a  disentail  under  th 
any  consents.     Bom  before  th     E  m 

consent  of  the  heir-apparent,  wh 
Act  to  mean  'the  heir  who  is  n  ss 

possession,  and  whose  right  of  n, 


and  Scotch  law. 
By  a  deed  of  E. 
i   barred,    and   an 


e  debts  of    the 


vLaOogle 


Tim  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPALDIA. 


take  effect.'  The  heir-ap parent,  however,  must  have  been  born 
after  the  date  of  the  E.,  atid  at  the  time  of  giving  his  coiisent 
must  be  twenty-five  years  of  age,  and  of  legat  capacity. 

Entell'uB  MoBi'ey  {Presbyter  Entdlus),  a  species  of  Cata- 
rhine  or  Old  World  monkeys,  distinguished  by  the  last  molar  of 
the  lower  jaw  possessing  five  tubercles.    The  muzzle  is  not  over- 

ijrominenti  TTie  thumbs  are  very  short,  and  th.e  tail  is  of  great 
ength.  This  monkey  inhabits  China,  and  India.  It  attains  a 
length  of  3  or  4  feel,  and  is  greyish  btown,  a  dark-brown  line 
passing  along  the  back  and  loins.  The  face  and  feet  are  black. 
The  E.  M.  is  the  'ssicred  monltey'  of  the  Hindus,  and  is  pro- 
tected by  law.  • 
Enter'ie  Fever,  commonly  called  Ty'plioid  Fever,  is  one 
of  the  most  fatal  scourges  of  this  country.  It  is  a  continued  fever, 
associated  with  an  eruption  on  the  sltin,  occurring  in  crops,  each 
spot  continuing  visible  for  about  three  days.  The  eruption  occurs 
on  the  eighth  or  twelfth  day,  and  varies  much  in  degree.  It  is 
sometimes  preeedSd  by  a  very  delicate  Scarlet  tint  of  the  whole 
skin,  resembling  the  rash  of  scarlet  fever,  and  consistii^  of  slightly 
elevated  papulae,  which  may  escape  detection  owing  to  the  feint- 


lens-shaped  or  rounded ;  they  are  circular  and  rose-coloured, 
and  ik^  disappkta-  cBmplOsly  on  pressure,  and  resume  their 
characteristic  appearance  whenever  Che  pressure  is  removed. 
The  eruption  is  most  common  on  the  abdomen,  thorax,  ajid 
back.  Each  spot  continues  visible  only  for  three  or  four  days. 
This  eruption,  however  slight,  is  absolutely  diaghostic  of  E. 
F.  Abdominal  pains  and  diarrhcea  are  amongst  the  earliest 
symptoms,  the  dischai^es  being  copious,  of  a  bright  yellow 
colour,  devoid  of  mucus,  alk&lirie,  conliining  soluble  salts  and 
albumen,  and  of  a  peculiarly  offensive  odour ;  the  belly  is 
swollen  and  tympanitic,  painful  on  pressure,  and  gui^ling  can  be 
detected  in  the  nght  iliac  fossa  ;  the  pulse  is  generally  soft  and 
variable;  the  tongue  is  swollen,  red,  glazed,  and  fissured,  and 
as  the  disease  advances,  it  becomes  dry  and  is  covered  with  a 
pale  brown  fur.  -The  disease  may  be  always  recognised  when 
there  is  l«  tJie  evming  a  persistent  elevation  of  temperature,  and 
a  remission  i«  the  morning.  In  mild  cases  the  disease  continues 
at  its  height  for  a  week  or  a  week  and  a  half ;  in  severe  cases 
it  lasts  froni  two  weeks  and  a  half  to  three  Weeks  and  a  half. 
The  period  of  abatement  is  irregular.  The  mean  duration  of 
E.  F.  is  twenty-four  days.  The  disease  varies  much  in  intensity, 
and  is  often  accompanied  by  delirium  from  the  first.  E.  F. 
ranks  among  irlfective  diseases  of  a  oontagio-miasmatic  character, 
the  poison  being  a  living  organism,  which,  when  transmitted  from 
a  diseased  to  a  healthy  individual,  produces  the  same  disease 
,ter.  The  chief,  and  perhaps  the  only,  vehides  of  the 
e  the  dejecta  of  the  bowels  of  the  infected  person,  either 
in  a  solid  or  gaseous  condition.  It  is  generally  sttpposed  that 
the  poison  of  E.  F.  is  inactive  immediately  after  it  is  dischai^ed 
from  the  diseased  bowels,  and  that  it  goes  through  some  kind  of 
development  before  it  again  assumes  its  active  condition.  When 
the  germs,  even  in  their  active  condition,  enter  a  healthy  organ- 
ism, they  remain  for  some  time  innocuous.  This  disease  has 
been  more  thoroughly  itlvestirated  than  any  others  and  it  has  been 
clearly  demonstrated  that  E,  F.  is  essentially  a  filth  disease.  The 
most  severe  epidemics  of  E.  F.  have  been  traced  to  water  con- 
taminated with  the  dejecta  of  E.  F.  patients,  to  polluted  atr,  and 
also  to  the  use  of  milk  coming  from  dairies  where  there  was 

E.  F.  By  sanitary  precautions,  scrupulous  cleanliness,  the  use 
of  disinfectants,  and  the  isolation  of  patients,  the  disease  may 
be  eradicated.  See  Dc  Murchison,  Treatise  on  Contintud  Fevers 
(Lond.  1873)!  Dr  Budd^  Typhoid  Fiver,  its  Nature,  Mode  of 
iSpreadins,  and  Prez/eniion  {Land.  1873);  Liebermeister,  art,  S. 

F.  in  Z{emss^s  Encyehpadia  a/ Medicine;  DrKXeia'sSeport  on 
the  Intimate  Anatomieai  Chimgss  in  Enteric  or  Typhoid  Eever, 
in  the  Reports  of  the  Medical  Officer  of  the  Privy  Council  and 
Local  Government  Board,  new  series,  No.  vi.,  1875 

Ettteri'tifl,  or  Inflamma'tion  of  the  Bowels  may 
attack  the  muscular  or  seroUs  coats,  and  most  frequently  has 
its  seat  in  the  ileum.  The  chief  seat  of  pain  is  the  region  of 
the  umbilicus,  or  the  right  iliac  fossa.      It  is  usually  accom 

{anied  with  diarrhtea,  and  the  discharges  relieve,  for  the  time 
eing,  the  griping  pains.  Serous  inflammation  of  the  small  m 
testines  may  be  inferred  when  there  is  inflammatory  fever  abd  d 
minal  pain  and  tenderness,  and  a  diachaige  of  large  quantities  of 


in  the  la 


serous  fluid*  In  severe  cases, 
surface  of  the  mucous  membra 
solitary  glands,  and  of  the  muscular  tissue,  frequently  lakes  place 
and  causes  peritonitis,  ending  in-death,  E.  is  frequently  con 
founded  with  cholera,  a  disease  with  which  it  has  nothing  i: 
common,  except  abdominal  pain  and  serous  diarrhcea,  E.  may 
be  caused  by  external  injury,  hy  poison,  byirritating  indigestible 
substances  in  the  bowels,  by  cold,  or  by  the  action  of  other 
diseases,  as  enteric  fever,  cholera,  dysentery,  &e.  When  the 
causes  are  so  diversified,  no  single  mode  of  treatment  can  be  in 
dicated  ;  but  it  is  usually  advantageous  to  administer  a  purgativ< 
of  castor-oil,  with  an  opiate  for  an  adult,  and  to  apply  fomenta- 
tions or  turpentine  stupes  Over  the  abdomen.  Enemata  are  also 
of  great  use  (see  Clyster),  as  also  the  warm  bath,  and  a  flannel 
ISiller  firmly  applied  round  the  abdomen.  The  diet  should  con- 
sist entirely  of  arrowroot,  sago,  tapioca,  gruel,  barley-water, 
milk,  and  occasionally  beef-tea,  E.  is  a  common  disease  amongst 
cattle,  and  should  be  treated  oti  the  same  general  prmciples. 
Aloes,  or  any  puigative  of  an  irritating  nature,  should  never  be 
given,  but  only  oil  and  large  clysters. 

Entomorogy  (Gr.  entomon,  '  an  insect,' /tgui,  '  a  discourse "), 
the  department  of  zoology  devoted  to  the  investigation  of  the 
habits,  structure,  and  classification  of  Insects  (q.  v,).  The  special 
cultivation  of  E.  was  charadteristic  of  a  past  era  in  zooli^y.  Tlie 
labours  of  naturalists  are  now  limited  not  to  the  mere  collecting 
and  naming  of  species,  but  extend  to  the  study  of  structure  and 
development  and  of  the  relations  of  one  spedes  to  another. 
The  entomologist  of  the  past  was  a  mere  collector  of  inseet 
species.  The  entomologist  of  the  present  is  a  thorough  general 
zoologist  vriCh  a  specif  aptitude  for  the  investigation  of  the 
oi^nisation  of  the  insect  dass.  The  study  of  the  insect  world 
necessarily  becomes  most  attractive  in  view  of  the  many  uses  which 
insects  serve  in  the  economy  of  nature,  such  as  the  fertilisation  of 
flowers  and  the  removal  of  decaying  matter.  But  no  less  do  the 
phenomena  of  Metamorphosis  (q.  v.),  and  of  insect  structure 
generally,  t)£Fer  subjects  of  the  highest  interest  to  the  zoologist. 
The  special  study  of  E.  dates  from  about  the  17th  c.  Ray, 
Leeuwenhoek,  and  Swammerdam  are  the  chief  representative 
writers  of,  this  date  on  insects,  and  Linnseus  also  did  much  to 
promote  the  study.  Latteille  was  an  earnest  investigator  in  E., 
whilst  the  famous  writings  of  Kirby  and  ^ence  and  of  Mr 
Newport  bring  us  to  more  modern  timesi  The  Entomological 
Sodety  of  London  devotes  itself  exclusively  to  the  study  of  insects. 

IBiitoinoB'trMa  (Gr.  entomon,  '  an  insect,'  and  ostrakon,  '  a 
shell '),  a  division  of  Crustacea  represented  by  such  forms  as  water- 
fleas  {CydopSi  Daphnia,  &c.)  and  other  related  oiganisms.  The 
E.,  in  modem  acceptation,  are  aquatic  animals,  and  possess  a 
horny  shell  or  carapace  of  one  or  more  pieces.  The  gills  are 
attached  to  the  feet  or  jaws,  and  the  limbs  are  jointed  and  pro- 
vided with  setis  or  bristles.  E.  exhibit  ecdysis,  or  moulting  of 
their  shells.  The  typical  E.  beltmg  to  the  orders  Cladocei-a, 
Copspoda,  and  Osiracoda.  The  latter  group  indudes  the  common 
water-flea  of  fresh  waters  (Cypiis),  which  possesses  a  bivalve 
shell.  The  orders  of  E.  which  appear  to  possess  a  less  evident 
relationship  with  the  commoner  forms  are  the  Phyllopoda  or 
brine-shrimps,  TrUoMia  or  trilobites,  and  the  Merostomala  (sol- 
dier or  king  crabs),  &c.  The  fossil  species  of  E.,  chiefly  forms 
belonging  to  the  Ostracoda,  &.Q.,  appear  first  in  Silurian  rocks, 
Tiie  Carboniferous  rocks  contain  plenty  of  E. ;  and  species  still 
living  are  found  in  Mesozoio  and  Kainozoic  strata,  as  Cypris, 
Cythere,  and  Bairdia. 

iln.toTil^ea(Gr,  mfo^,^^,  from«tte,  'withins'and/^j/^pw, 
'a^  plant  ),  a  name  given  to  plants  growing  parasitically  on 
animals — chiefly  lower  Fungi  (qi  Vi)  and  Algse  (q.  v.).  Diseases 
of  various  kinds  may  be  produced  by  the  growth  of  vegetable 
parasites.  Many  caterpillars  are  infested  by  fungoid  growths 
which  kUl  these  larv^;  and  in  man  fungi  appear  to  be  the 
chief,  if  not  the  sole,  causes  of  such  skin  and  scalp  affections  as 
ringworm,  &c.  The  term  E,  is  also  applied  to  plants  which  are 
parasitic  on  other  plants,  but  it  is  used  Vaguely  in  botany. 
Many  of  the  so-called  E.  ai-e  capable  of  prodncing  serious 
disease  in  thdr  plant-neighbours.  Thus  wheat  is  attacked  by 
a  low  form  of  plant  hfe  named  the  Uredo  caries  which  attacks 
and  wastes  the  wheat  grains.  Smut  or  dust-brand  in  corn  is 
produced  by  the  Ursdo  segetum,  which  destroys  the  inner  parts 
of  the  flower.  Another  fungus  (U.  rubigo)  produces  disease  in 
corn  and  grasses.     The  well-known  Ei^ot  (q,  v,)  of  rye,  wheat. 


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EOL 


and  barley  is  supposed  to  result  from  the  attack  of  a  special 
fungus.  The  potato  disease,  through  the  ret-eut  researches  of 
Mr  Worthington  Smith,  appears!  to  be  caused  by  a  fungus  (Perimo- 
spera  infisfani),  the  filaments  of  which  emei^e  from  the  slomata 
or  breathing-pores  of  the  leaves,  and  produce  seeds,  which  in 
their  turn  burftiB'  into  the  leaves  and  perpetuate  the  disease. 

Entozo'a  (Gr,  snlss,  'within,'  and  soon,  'an  animal),  a  term 
given  to  such  animals  as  live  patasitically  in  the  interior  of  other 
animals.  It  was  formerly  nsed  in  a  zoological  sense,  but  is  now 
discarded  because  of  the  beterr^eneous  assemblage  of  forms 
which  this  name  brought  together^  As  used ,  m  a  general  sense 
— the  only  way  indeed  in  which  the  term  E,  can  be  used— 
this  name  indicates  such  anunals  as  the  tapeworms,  flulses, 
roundworms,  threadworms,  and  other  animal  organisms  which 
reside  permanently  or  temporarily  within  the  body  of  man  or  of 
other  animals.  The  most  common  habitat  of  K  is  the  digestive 
system.  The  tapeworms  infest  this  system  in  their  mature  state, 
as  also  do  the  round  and  thread  wormsi  They  are  also  frequently 
found  in  the  muscular  system.  While  immature,  many  of  the 
tapeworms  in  the  form  of  cystic  worms  or  Scolica  select  the 
muscular  system  as  a  resting-place.  Some  of  these  cystic  forms 
inhabit  the  bram,  liver,  and  other  oi^ns.  The  presence  of  an 
immature  T/cnia  in  the  brain  of  the  sheep  produces  '  Staggers ' 
(q.  v.),  while  the  larval  forms  of  T.  tckmococcas,  another  tape- 
worm, in  the  liver  of  man  produces  the  serious  lesion  known 
as  hydatids.  The  common  fluke  (Faidola  lupaiica)  has  its  seat 
in  the  liver  of  sheep,  and  causes  the  'rot  of  veterinarians. 
Certain  peculiar  forms  of  E.  named  Hsmattsoa  occur  in  the 
blood  of  man  and  other  animals ;  and,  although  still  a  matter 
of  doubt.  Bacteria  and  Vibrients  may  also  be  included  as  E., 
since  they  appear  plentifully  in  morbid  as  well  as  healtliy 
tissues.  The  great  majority  of  E.  belong  to  the  class  Scolecida, 
one  of  the  mvisions  of  the  EchimiSda  or  AnrmMda.  Some 
insects,  such  as  the  larv»  of  the  bot-flies  ((Estrus),  are  para- 
sitic in  horses  and  other  Animals  during  the  earlier  stages  of 
their  existence,  and  afterwards  escape  from  the  digestive  systems, 
lo  pass  in  the  ground  their  pupa  <M  chrysalis  stage.  Some 
remarkable  instances  of  psiudB-parasitism,  named  comntensalistit, 
have  been  related — fishes  living  in  the  stomachs  of  sea-ane- 
niones  and  of  sea-cucumbers,  and  passing  fireely  in  alid  out  of 
the  Ijodies  of  their  hosts.  CertEdn  pea-crabs  are  only  known  as 
parasites  within  molluscs,  such  as  mussels,  and  sea-squirts  or 
Asddians.  The  writer  has  taken  a  pea-crab  an  inch  long  from 
the  interior  of  a  mussel-sliell,  and  he  has  frequently  seen  the 
same  crabs  emerge  from  the  bodies  of  sea-squirts  in  aquaria  to 
seek  for  food,  and  again  re-enter.  Such  animals  are  truly  E. 
The  histoiT  and  development  of  E.  bear  an  imporlaht  relation 

to  public  hralth,  since  these  parasites  are  capable  of  ' — 

serious  disease.    (See  Trichiniasis.)    Prevent!' - 

examination  of  food  and  attention  to  cooking. 
Entr'act,  a  short  piece  of  music  between  the  acts  of  a  play. 
En'tre  Dou'ro  e  Minlio  or  Minlio,  amariiime  province  in 
the  N.E.  of  Portugal,  lies  between  the  rivers  Minho  and  Douro, 
as  its  name  implies,  and  is  bovmded  W.  by  the  Atlantic,  and  E. 
by  Traz  oz  Montes  and  by  the  Spanish  province  of  Orense. 
Area,  3094  sq.  mUes ;  pop.  (1872)  965.040-  It  is  famed  alike 
for  the  rich  beauty  of  its  scenery,  and  for  its  rare  fertility.  In 
the  E,  it  is  entered  by  three  hill  ranges,  which  reach  their 
greatest  height  in  Monte  Cavarra  (7880  feet).  Along  the 
coast  there  is  a  fine  stretch  of  undulating  cultivated  country. 
The  chief  rivers,  besides  those  (hat  form  the  N.  and  S.  boun- 
daries, are  the  Limia,  Cavado,  Ave,  Neiva,  and  the  Tamega,  an 
affluent  of  the  Douro.  Among  the  productions  are  wine,  oil,  flax, 
maize,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  Southern  fruits.  The  provini 
noted  for  the  excellence  and  quantity  of  its  port-wines.  Braf, 
the  capital,  and  the  chief  towns  are  Guimaraes,  Caminha,  Vianna 

do  Castello,  and  Pavoa  de  Vanim.     Q\ "  ' 

is  the  principal  harbour  and  place  of  trat 

Ea'trS  Ki'os  (Sp,  '  between  rivers '),  a  state  in  the  S.  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  bounded  W.  and  S.  by  the  Parana,  E.  by 
tlie  Uruguay,  and  N.  by  the  state  Corrientes.  Area,  29.955  sq. 
miles;  pop.  (1869)  134,271.  It'is  intersected  from  N.  io  S. 
by  a  range  of  hills,  but  the  plains  are  swampy,  and  are  exposed 
to  yearly  floods.  The  chief  occupations  ate  cattle-rearing  and 
hunting,  and  the  exports  comprise  hides,  horns,  lallow,  &c.  The 
largest  town  is  Paraiia. 


),  included  in  Beira, 


Entro'pium  (Gr.  en,  '  in,'  and  trepo,  '  I  turn '),  a  turning  in 
of  the  eyelashes  or  eyelids  against  the  eyeball,  causing  much 
irritation,  and  often  inflammation  of  the  cornea.  Relief  may  be 
obtained  by  plucking  out  the  cilia  with  the  forceps,  but  a  surgical 
operation  is  generally  necessary. 

Eu'try,  Bight  of,  a  term  of  English  law  signifying  tlie  right 
of  one  who  has  been  wrongfully  ousted  from  land  or  from  a 

nement.      By  3  and  4  Will.  TV.  c,  37,  the  right  is  in  certain 

ises  lost  by  not  vindicating  it  for  twenty  years. 

Entry  of  an  Heir.  In  Scotch  feudal  law  this  term  is 
applied  to  the  recognition  of  the  heir  of  a  Vassal  (q.  v.)  by  the 
Superior(q.  v.).  On  the  death  of  the  vassal  the  Dotninium  UiUc 
(q.  V.)  returns  to  the  superior,  to  be  again  given  to  the  heir. 
The  superior,  however,  is  bound  to  grant  a  warrant  for  infefting 
t)  the  heir  pointed  out  by  the  charter  m  virtue 
of  which  the  dominium  utile  is  held  by  the  superior. 

Enurd',  a  term  of  English  law  signifying  to  take  place  or 


to  be  a' 


table. 


vtloj;  whos 

which  has  only  ei — 

of  the  imiform  charge  for  postage  (1S40).  The  co  sumption 
of  envelopes  is  now  prodigious.  In  187  no  fewer  h  n 
5, I59,ooo,coopassed  through  thepost-ofScesof  heiia  ous  oun 
tries  of  the  globe.  Many  ingenious  machines  ha  e  been  devi  ed 
for  automatically  performing  the  operations  of  cutt  ng  fold  ng 
and  gumming  envelopes.  In  cutting  out  the  blank  shapes  wastu 
is  avoided  by  using  angular  cutters  or  a  cuttmg  die  on  a  pile  of 
paper.  The  folding,  embossing,  and  gumming  are  done  by  girls 
or  riKichines,  The  most  perfect  E.-makmg  machines  are  those 
of  De  la  Rue,  Poirier  &  Antoine  of  Paris,  and  G.  W.  Reay  of 
New  York,  the  last  performing  all  the  operations  of  picking  up 
"     '    blanks,  creasing,  gummmg,  folding,  and  deliverii^,  and 


requiring  bi 


le  attendant. 


En'voy  (Fr.  aivoyer,  '  to  send,'  from  Lat.  ia  and  iiia, '  a  way'),  a 
person  despatchedon  a  mission,  a  diplomatic  minister  of  the  second 
order.  E.  extraordinary  and  minister  plenipotentiary  Js  the  chief 
foreign  representative  of  the  United  States.    See  Embassy. 

E'ooene  (Gr.  e3s,  'dawn,'  and  iairms,  'recent'),  the  name 
given  by  Lyell  to  the  series  of  strata  at  the  base  of  the  Tertiary 
formations,  which  contains  among  its  fossils  not  more  than  5  per 
cent,  of  existing  species.  It  is  su'bdivided  into  three  great  groups. 
I.  The  Lower  E.,  forming  the  London  basin,  rests  in  apparent 
confoimability  upon  the  chalk,  and  comprises  {a)  the  Thanet  Beds, 
light-coloured  quartzose  sands ;  (i)  the  IVoolwiih  and  Reading 
Beds,  a  mixture  of  sands  and  clay ;  (c)  London  Clay,  chiefly  a 
dark-coloured  clay  containing  nodules  of  ironstone.  2.  The 
Middle  B.  consists  of  (o)  the  Bagshel  Beds,  light- coloured  sands 
and  marly  clay;  {b)  the  Headon  Series,  two  groups  of  calcareous 
fresh-water  deposits,  separated  by  sandy  strata  of  marine  origin  ; 
(f)  the  Osiorne  Series,  shelly  sandstone  and  yellow  limestone 
below,  and  light-coloured  sands,  days,  and  marfe  above.  3,  The 
Upper  E.  is  divided  into  (a)  the  Bembridge  Beds,  pale-yellow 
limestone,  capped  by  an  oyster-bed  and  several  beds  of  clays  and 
marls  ;  and  {b)  the  Hempstead  Series,  dark,  white,  and  coloured 
marls  and  clays.  In  the  Brussels  and  Paris  basins  a  very  similar 
series  of  beds  is  found,  and  large  masses  of  rocks  belonging  to 
the  Middle  E.  are  met  with  ftom  the  Alps  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean shores,  through  Egypt  to  the  Himalayas.  In  America 
there  are  two  contemporaneous  series,  the  Lignitic  and  the  Ala- 
bama— the  former  furnishing  a  passage  from  the  chalk  to  the  true 
E.  The  traces  of  life  in  E.  are  of  a  tropical  nature.  The  flora 
is  especially  rich  in  America,  comprising  cinnamon,  fig,  and  melon 
trees,  gourds,  palms,  conifers,  &c.  Among  the  fauna  there  is  a 
large  development  of  Gasteropods,  Reptiles,  such  a-  t-.^l-., 
crocodiles,  snakes,  are  plentiful,  and  among  man: 
Packydermsta  are  typical  fossils.  The  more  importani 
of  the  E.  are  treated  under  separate  articles. 
EolianHarp.    See  ^ouan  Harp. 

Eolis,  or  (E'olis,  a  genus  of  Gasteropodous  moUuaca,  of  the 
family  CEoiids,  section  Nudibranchiata.  They  have  no  shell, 
the  gills  being  on  the  sides  of  the  body.  They  are  found  on  our 
coasts,  crawling  over  the  stones  at  low-water  mark  like  slugs, 
are  usually  of  bright  colour,  and  have  the  sides  provided  with 
flexible  processes. 

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Eon  de  Beaumont.     See  D'Eon,  Chevaliek. 
Eotvoa,  Jozef,  an  illustrious  Hungarian  author,  bom  in 
Buda,   September  3,  1813,  studied  for  tlie  bar  at  Pestli  after 


Jews,  were  the  fruit  of  a  tour  through  Europe.  But  the 
works  of  imagination  by  whicll  E.  is  most  endeared  to  his 
country  and  beat  known  abroad  are  ^'  Fain' jegyidge  ('The  Village 
Notary,'  Eng.  trans,  by  Wenchstem,  1850),  in  wHeh  he  ridicules 
the  county  institutions  of  Hungary ;  and  Magyarersidg  ij  \i^-be?i 
('  Hungary  in  1 5 14'),  a  story  of  the  great  peasant  insurrection,  the 
moral  of  which  was  that  the  nobles  should  surrender  their  feudal 
privileges  in  peace.  E.  ranged  himself  with  the  Centralist  party 
of  Deak  and  Batthyanyi,  Von  Pulsky  and  Kossuth.  He  wrote 
in  the  PesH  Hirlaf  in  favour  of  equal  taxation,  &c.  In  1848 
he  became  Minister  of  Education  under  Batthyanyi ;  but  conscious 
of  practical  incapaaty,  and  perhaps  afraid  of  the  revolution,  he 
retired  to  literary  life  in  Munich,  where  he  published  a  work  on. 
modem  political  ideas,  a  subtile  pamphlet  on  the  rights  of  nation- 
alities. On  the  publication  of  the  Diploma  of  r86o  and  the 
Patent  of  1861,  E.  once  more  co-operated  with  Deak  in  securing 
the  Dual  Constitution,  which  has  given  self-government  and 
political  strength  to  Hungary.  In  1867  he  became  Minister  of 
Education  and  Public  Worship,  and  had  to  encounter  very 
delicate  problems  of  religion  and  language.  He  died  3d  Febniary 
1871. 

E'tJZoSn  Canaden'ee,  or  '  Dawu-of-Life  Animalcule,'  a 
most  interesting  organism,  supposed  to  have  been  a  large  reef- 
building  species  of  Foraminifira,  the  fossil  remains  of  which 
occur  in  the  Laurentian  rocks  of  Canada  and  in  contemporaneous 
strata  in  Bavaria  and  Europe.  The  E.  derives  its  interest  from 
its  being  the  oldest  known  fossil  of  any  kind,  and,  secondly,  from 
the  doubt  which  has  been  cast  upon  its  fossil  nature.  The  organic 
character  of  E.  is  denied  by  many.palseontologists.  Dr  Car- 
penter of  London  aud  Principal  Dawson  of  Montreal — the  dis- 
coverer of  the  E. — have,  however,  accumulated  such  a  mass  of 
evidence  in  favour  of  the  truly  fossil  nature  of  the  E.,  derived 
from  a  study  of  existing  Foramimfira,  that  the  balance  of  proba- 
bility is  very  greatly  in  favour  of  the  E,  being  a  true  fossil 
organism.  The  E.  consists  of  a  series  of  chambers  lying  in  tiers 
one  above  .  another.  These  chambers  were  occupied  by  the 
sarcode,  a  living  matter  seen  m  esisting  Foramimfera.  Certain 
living  members  of  the  latter  group  {Polytrenia,  and  Carpenterid) 
grow  in  reef-like  masses,  and  hence  the  reef-like  nature  and 
growth  of  the  E.  is  further  established.  See  Principal  Dawson's 
Daimn  of  Life  (1875). 


u  Archipelago,  and  the  S. 

---,   --  ,-iall  trees,  and  are  chiefly 

notable  tor  their  fine  heath-like  flowers,  on  account  of  which 
theyi  are  frequently  cultivated  in  greenhouses.  There  are  31 
genera  and  about  320  species,  the  principal  one  being  the  Epacris. 
The  corolla  is  generally  tubular ;  tiie  fruit  an  edible  berry  or  a 
capsule.  The  fmit  of  lAsscmthe  sapida  is  known  as  the  Auitra- 
Han  cranberry, 

It^Ulots  (Gr.  epa&tos,  'additional')  were  a  set  of  numbers  sub- 
stituted for  tlie  golden  numbers  of  the  ecclesiastical  calendar 
when  Lilius  carried  out  the  reforms  of  Gregory  XIII.  in  1582. 
The  giolden  numbers  (marked  with  red  letters)  indicated  the  posi- 
tion of  any  particular  year  in  the  cycle  of  nineteen  solar  years, 
in  which  the  difference  of  the  solar  aud  the  lunar  year  is  can- 
celled  by  the  insertion  of  six  intercalary  months  of  thirty  days, 
and  the  addition  of  one  month  of  twenty-nine  days.  This  cycle 
is  supposed  to  begin  with  the  ist  of  January  when  the  moon  is 
new ;  and  as  this  occurred  in  the  year  before  the  Christian  era, 
the  rule  for  ascertaining  tlie  golden  number  is :— Add  i  to  the 
date,  divide  the  sum  by  19 ;  the  quotient  is  the  number  of  cycles 
elaj^ed,  and  the  remainder  is  the  golden  number.  As,  how- 
ever, the  lanar  cycle  was  I  hr,  29  min,  longer  than  the  actual 
length  of  235  lunations,  the  new  moons  gradually  began  to  antici- 
pate the  golden  numbers  at  the  rate  of  one  day  in  308  years. 

5sa 


After  Gregory  corrected  the  excess  of  the  Julian  year,  the  system 
of  golden  numbers  became  unsuitable  to  the  refomied  calendar, 
and  the  epact  was  introduced  to  denote  the  age  of  the  1 
of  each  year  of  the  cycle  of  nineteen, 
each  year  by  the  difference  of  the  solar  and  lunar 
years,  viz.,  eleven  days;  but  every  three  years  the  epact  is  : 
duced  by  the  thirty  days  of  the  intercalary  mouth,  except  in  the 
first  year  of  the  next  cycle,  when  the  twenty-nine  days  of  the 
seventh  additional  month  must  be  deducted.  The  E.  are  there- 
fore n,  22,  3,  14,  25,  6,  17,  28,  9,  20,  I,  12,  23,  4,  15,  26,  7, 
18,  29.  The  solar  equation,  however,  requites  lire,  diminution 
of  the  E.  by  one  day  three  times  In  400  years';  while  the 
Innar  equation  requires  their  Increase  by  one  day  every  308 
years.  To  avoid  confusion,  this  latter  correction  is  efiected  in  a 
period  of  Z500  years,  i.i.,  once  in  300  years  for  seven  periods, 
and  then  at  the  end  of  400  years.  The  two  equations  cancelled 
each  other  in  the  year  1800.  A  perpetual  calendar  requires 
thirty  sets  of  E.  In  the  Church  calendar  the  epact  30  is  repre- 
sented by  an  asterisk,  and  epact  25  by  an  Arabic  character,  the 
others  being  in  Roman  numerals.  If  the  g;olden  number  of  a 
year  be  above  n,  the  epact  25  for  six  months  of  the  year  answers 
to  the  same  day  in  the  calendar  as  26 ;  otherwise,  to  24.  See 
Calendar, 

Epaminon'dos,  the  illustrious  Tlieban  sc 
was  born  towards  the  close  of  the  5th  c  B.C.,  of  a  poor  but  noble 
family.  In  youth  he  displayed  high  intellectual  aspirations, 
which  were  strengthened  by  his  intercourse  with  several  philo- 
sophers, especially  Lysis  Sie  Pytiiagorean.  K  remained  in 
private  life  till  379,  when  he  took  part  with  his  friend  Pelopidas 
in  the  revolution  by  which  Thebes  was  freed  from  the  Spartan 
yoke.  In  371  he  represented  Thebes  in  the  general  peace  con- 
gress at  Sparta,  and  opposed  the  ascendancy  of  the  latter  with 
such  spirit  that  Thebes  was  excluded  from  the  treaty  Cleom- 
brotus  was  dispatched  against  the  Tliebans,  whom  he  en- 
countered at  Leuctra,  371,  but  his  army  was  completely  beaten 
by  the  skill  of  E.,  and  the  prestige  of  Sparta  destroyed.  In  369 
E,  and  Pelopidas  Invaded  the  Peloponnesus,  ravaged  the  country, 
threatened  Sparta,  founded  Messene  and  Megalopolis,  and  re- 
stored the  power  of  the  Measenians,  who  had  been  most  active 
enemies  of  Sparta.  The  victorious  generals  returned  to  Thebes 
to  be  impeached  for  retaining  the  command  four  months  longer 
than  the  legal  term,  but  Were  acquitted.  In  368  E.  made  a 
brief  inroad  into  the  Peloponnesus,  in  which  he  took  Sicyon  and 
Peilene.  In  366,  after  the  '  tearless  battle '  in  which  the  Spartans 
defeated  the  Arcadians,  he  returned  thither,  and  without  chang- 
ing the  existing  oligarchies,  accepted  the  Achaian  cities  as  allies 
of  Thebes  ;  but  the  Thebans  reversed  his  policy.  In  the  same 
year  E.,  serving  as  a  private  soldier,  saved  the  Theban  army  sent 
into  Thessaly  to  rescue  Pel<n)idas,  and  afterwards,  at  the  head  of 
a  second  army,  secured  his  Iriend's  release.  In  363  E.  sailed  to 
the  coast  of  Asia  with  the  fleet  which  the  Thebans  had  equipped 
against  Athens ;  and  on  his  return  from  this  fmitless  expedition, 
he  learned  that  Orchomenus  had  been  destroyed,  and  that  Pelo- 
pidas had  been  slain  in  Thessaly,  The  political  complications  jjf 
the  Peloponnesus  rendered  Theban  intervention  again  necessary, 
and  in  362  E.  invaded  it  for  the  fourth  time.  He  attacked  the 
enemy  near  Mantineia,  and  by  renewing  the  tactics  of  Leuctra 
gained  a  complete  victory,  though  he  himself  was  mortally 
wonnded.  The  sui^eons  declared  that  he  must  die  as  soon  as 
the  spear-head  was  vrithdrawn  from  his  breast.  They  assured 
him  that  his  shield  was  safe,  and  tiiat  Thebes  was  victorious ; 
but  when  he  learned  that  the  commanders  who  should  have 
succeeded  him  weie  slain,  he  said, '  Vou  must  make  peace,'  The 
spear-head  was  then  withdrawn. 

Epaale'inent  (Fr.  $pauU,  'shoulder;'  Old  Fr.  espaule nxA 
espalU,  from  the  LaL  spaiiila,  used  by  Apicius)  is  the  shoulder- 
like '  flanking  return '  or  terminal  portion  of  a  battery  or  earth- 
work.    Its  object  is  to  secure  men  and  guns  against  a  flank  fire 

^do 

is  called  an  ifaule, 
Ep'aulette,  a  distinctive  ornament  worn  upon  the  shoulder 
by  naval  and  military  ofiicers.  It  is  a  relic  of  the  plates  that 
were  introduced  in  the  14th  c.  as  a  defence  for  the  shoulder 
from  sword-cuts.  Tlie  E.  has  not  been  worn  in  the  British  army 
.i,ic=  ISSS. 


y  Google 


EPS 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Epee,  Charles  Michel  de  1',  bom  at  Versailles,  25th.  No- 
vember 1712,  became  an  abb^,  but  had  to  leave  the  Churcli  on 
account  of  Jansenist  opinions,  He  devoted  himself  to  the  edu- 
cation of  deaf-mutes,  and  erected  an  institution  for  tliat  purpose 
at  his  own  expense.  He  died  23d  December  1789.  The  Con- 
stituent Assembly  gave  effect  to  E-'s  request  for  a  public  insti- 
tution in  1791.  E.  s  vmtings  all  relate  to  his  method,  embodied 
in  La  VMlable  Maniire  ^Inslruire  lei  Simrds  et  Mutts  (Par, 
1784).  His  Dictionary  of  Signs  was  continued  by  his  successor, 
Abbe  Sicacd.  Sicard  also  extended  to  syntax  the  system  of 
signs  which  E.  had  applied  only  to  nomenclature- 

Epei'ra,  a  genus  of  spiders  {Arachnidd)  forming  tlie  type  of  a 
family,  Efiarida,  in  which  the  jaws  are  widened  from  the  base. 
The  eight  ocelli  or  eyes  are  ananged  in  a  quadraneular  fashion, 
and  the  skin  is  soft.  The  common  garden  spider  (£.  diadsma), 
or  cross  spider,  is  a  good  example  of  this  genus,  as  also  is  the 
E.  bicomis.  The  former  mates  the  well-known  geometrical  web, 
and  is  distinguished  by  the  triple  cross-mavking  on  its  abdomen. 
The  females  greatly  exceed  the  males  in  size. 

Epe/iee  (Lat.  Bperainum,  Hung.  Pi-esckov),  the  chief  town 
of  Saros,  Hungary,  is  picturesquely  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Tarcza,  I^  miles  N.E.  of  Pesth,  It  is  wailed,  is  the  seat 
of  a  bishop,  has  six  churches,  a  Lutheran  college,  manufac- 
tures of  stoneware,  linen,  and  doth,  and  a  trade  with  Poland  in 
cattle,  linen,  and  Tokay  wine.  Near  E.  is  a  royal  salt-mine. 
Pop.  (1869)  10,773.  E.  was  founded  by  King  Geysa  II.  m  the 
middle  of  the  t2th  c 

^per'nay  (Lat  Aqrta  Fereiittes),  the  chief  towu  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Mame,  Fiance,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mame,  here 
crossed  by  a  bridge  of  seven  arches,  20i  miles  W.N.W.  of 
Chalons,  and  on  the  railway  from  Paris  to  Strasbui^.  It  is  the 
centre  of  the  Champagne  wine  trade,  and  has  vaults  cut  in  the 
soft  tufacapabie  of  containing  5,000,000  bottles.  There  arf 
potteries,  wool-spinning  mills,  tanneries,  brandy  distilleries,  i 
trade  in  wine-flaslts,  stoppers,  &c.     Pop.  (1872)  12,628. 

Ephah,  a  Hebrew  measure  of  capacity,  =  27'83  pints,  or  3 
English  pecks  and  3  pints, 

Ephelis  (Gr.  'a  su n- freckle '),  is  the  scientific  nam 
sun-burn.  E.  can  be  removed  when  recent  by  an  emulsion  of 
bitter  almonds  with  spirits  of  wine,  or  the  benzoated  oxide  of 
zinc,  beaten  into  a  cream  with  orange  or  elder-flower  water,  and 
when  chronic  by  a  loljon  of  Ijichioride  of  mercmy,   or  nitro- 

Ephein'era  (Gr.  '  for  a  day '),  a  g;enus  of  Neuropterous  insects, 
including  those  forms  popularly  known  as  '  day-flies '  and  '  May- 
flies.' Many  are  really  born  in  the  morning,  oiJy  to  be  scorched 
by  the  heat  of  the  noonday  sun,  the  evening  finding  them  dead  in 
countless  numbers.  The  family  Ephenteridii  is  distinguished  by 
the  five-jomted  tara  and  by  the  laree  front  wjngs,  The  abdo- 
men has  three  appendages,  and  the  head  of  the  larva  possesses  a 
'horn.'  These  insects  undergo  an  incomplete  metamorphosis, 
the  larva:  inhabiting  water.  The  E.  -rndgata,  or  'May-fiy,'  is 
familkr  in  our  ponds  and  streams.  The  metamorphosis  may 
take  mote  than  a  year.  The  body  is  slender  and  the  wings  long. 
The  pupa  casta  off  its  skin,  leaving  it  attached  to  water-weeds, 
and  flies  into  the  air  as  the  perfect  form  or  imago.  Vast  num- 
bers of  these  insects  appear  suddenly  in  some  localities.  They 
are  much  used  as  bait  by  anglers. 

Ephemera,  or  FeVria  Dia'p^  is  a  slight  febrile  attack 
having  a  slight  local  cause,  and  lasting  no  longer  than  a  siiiglp 

Epliein'erls  (Gr.  'a  diary'),  an  astronomical  table  giving 
beforehand  the  positions  of  a  heavenly  body,  Ephemerides  of 
the  sun,  moon,  planets,  and  stars  are  calculated  and  published 
annually  ;  those  of  periodic  comets  ate  usually  gi  n  wh  n  h  y 
are  approaching  their  perihelia.  The  NciKtica!  A  oc  he 
French  Connahsance  des  Temps,  and  the  German  yah  b  h  ?. 
publicadons  of  this  nature,  and  are  invaluable  o  W  mann 
and  traveller  as  a  means  of  fixing  longitude, 

Ephe'siana,  Epistle  to  tte,  according  to  he  unan  mou 
tradition  of  the  Church,  was  written  by  the  Apos  1  Paul  o  \  e 
Church  he  had  founded  at  Ephesus.      External  e    d  n  e  ry 

strong  that  it  was  addressed,  as  stated  in  chap,  1.  1,  to  the 
saints  at  Ephesus;'  a  number  of  particulars  in  the  epistle,  on 


hand,  have  forced  some  critics  to  tlie  conclusion  that 
t  written  by  Paul  The  difficulty  of  Paul  having 
to  the  Ephesians  may  have  given  rise  to  the  omission 
MSS.  of  '  which  are  at  Ephesus,'  and  to  the  substitu- 
tion in  some  of '  to  the  Laodiceans.'  Those  who  hold  the  Pauline 
authorship  suppose  it  to  have  been  written  from  Rome  during 
the  apostle's  captivity  (Acts  xxviii.),  about  the  same  time  as 
those  to  the  Colossians,  Philippians,  and  Philemon  were  written 
(or  about  62  A.D.)-  According  to  some,  it  was  written  from 
Ciesarea  (Acts  xxiv.-xxvi.).  See  Davidson's  Introdmtien  to  the 
Nan  Testament  (Edinb.  1868). 

Epli'eaiis,  the  chief  ot  the  twelve  Ionian  cities  on  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor,  said  to  have  been  fouiuled  by  Androclus,  son  of 
Codrus,  at  the  Ionian  migration,  stood  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Cayster,  in  a  marshy  plain,  bounded  on  the  E.  and  S.  by  the 
two  hills  Prion  or  Lepre  and  Cotessus.  The  building  of  the 
city  were  pattly  on  these  two  hills  and  partly  on  the  plain  about 
the  harbour— a  lake  communicating  with  the  Cayster,  the  mouth 
of  which  formed  the  outer  harbour  (Panormns).  To  the  N.E. 
of  the  city  was  the  celebrated  Temple  of  Diana.  This  magnifi- 
cent building,  reared  in  the  6th  c.  B.C.  by  the  contributions  of 
all  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  in  place  of  the  original  temple, 
was  destroyed  by  fire  on  the  night  Alexander  the  Great  was  bom 
(October  13-14,  356  B.C.).  It  was  restored  by  the  joint  efforts 
of  all  the  Ionian  slates,  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  wonders  of 
the  world,  had  the  privileges  of  a  sanctuaiy,  and  was  again 
destroyed  V  the  Goths.  Nothing  now  remams  but  some  traces 
of  its  foundations.  The  ruins  of  several  other  lai^e  buildings 
are  to  be  seen,  besides  the  foundations  of  the  walls  of  the 
city.  E.  fell  successively  under  the  sway  of  Crcesus,  the  Per- 
sians, Macedonians,  and  Romans,  tlie  last  of  whom  mads  It  the 
capiliil  of  the  province  of  Asia  ;  and  from  its  easy  access  to  the 
interior  and  its  excellent  harbours,  it  became  the  chief  emporium 
for  trade  and  the  greatest  city  in  Asia  Mmor.  E.  was  emphati- 
cally a  sacred  city,  both  from  its  heathen  temple,  the  rebuilding 
of  which  was  an  epodi  in  architecture,  as  then  the  Ionic  order 
was  perfected,  and  also  from  its  connection  with  Chi-istianity. 
Several  episodes  in  St  Paul's  life  are  associated  with  it  (Acts  of 
Apostles).  According  to  Eusebliis,  St  John  also  spent  the  last 
years  of  his  life  here. 

Eph'od  (Heb.  from  afhad,  '  to  gird  on ')  was  a  vestment  worn 
by  the  priests  among  the  Israelites  when  they  consulted  the 
Deity  or  practised  divination.  It  consisted  of  two  parts — one 
covering  the  breast  and  the  other  the  back — fastened  to  each 
other  on  the  shoulders  by  two  jewels,  on  which  were  engraven 
the  names  of  the  twelve  tribes— six  on  each  ;  and  further  con- 
fined by  a  girdle  passli^  round  the  middle.  According  to 
Rationalistic  critics,  the  right  of  wearing  the  E.  and  using  the 
Urim  and  Thummim  (q.  T.),  i.e.,  of  giving  oracles,  belonged,  in 
the  earlier  stage  of  the  israelitisb  religion,  to  the  priests  in  gene- 
ral (I  Sam.  ii.  18,  28,  Sc).  Hence  Israelites  who  instituted  foe 
their  families  a  religious  service  of  their  own,  with  a  priest 
attached,  were  said  '  to  make  an  K  '  (Judges  viii.  27 ;  xvii.  5). 
It  was  the  later  priestly  legislation  (they  affirm),  reduced  to  its 
present  form  after  the  Captivity,  which  assigned  the  E.  and  the 
oracular  power  to  the  high  priest  alone,  and  by  introducing  such 
passages  as  Exod.  xxv.  7 ;  xxviii.  4,  seq. ;  ixix,  S ;  Kxxv.  9,  27 ; 
xxxijt.  2,  sej. ;  Lev,  viii.  7,  produced  a  manifest  anachronism, 
since  they  are  irreconcilable  with  such  passages  as  I  Sam,  ii. 
18,  a8;  xxii.  18;  z  Sam.  vi.  14;  i  Chron.  xv.  27;  Dent, 
xxxiii.  8.  But  the  orthodox  school  of  critics  meet  the  difficulty 
by  supposing  that  there  were  two  kiiids  of  E.  in  use  at  the  sar 
lime,  one  for  the  ordinary  priest  and  one  for  the  high  priest. 

Bph'ori  {sphnraS,  '  I  oversee '),  a  directory  of  five  men  in  t 
Spartan  government,  at  first  intended  to  be  a  check  on  the 
kings,  but  who  gradually  won  the  entire  control  of  the  Stale. 
The  K  were  said  to  have  been  instituted  by  Lycurgns,  but  were 
more  probably  appointed  in  a  later  period.  They  were  chosen 
f  om  the  people,  and  held  office  for  a  year. 

Epii'raem  Sy'rue  ('  Ephraim  the  Syrian'),  an  ecclesiastical 
writer,  was  bom  probably  at  Nisibis,  and  was  educated  by  the 
shop  of  that  place,  whom  he  accompanied  to  the  Council  of 
N  ce  (325).  After  Nisibis  was  ceded  to  the  Persians  (363)  te 
se  tied  at  Edessa,  where  he  became  a  deacon  in  (some  say  abbot 
of)  a  monastery,  and  remained  till  his  death  in  378.  ^  He  was  a 
most  ardent  devotee  of  monachism,  and  a  prolific  w  ' 


559 


vLiOOQle 


EPH 


TBE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOFJiDIA. 


idolaters,  Jews,  and  heretics  of  all  kinds — Ations,  Sabellians, 
Novatians,  Manichieans,  Gnostics,  Mardonites,  &c. ;  he  wrote 
also  commentaries  on  most  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
(except  the  Psalms  and  Book  of  Proverbs),  sermons,  hymns,  &c. 
All  his  writings — which  were  so  popular  that  they  were  read  in 
church  along  with  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  got  their  author  the 
name  of  the  '  Prophet  of  the  Syrians,'  'Column  of  the  Church,' 
'.Harp  of  the  Holy  City,'  &c— were  in  Syriac.  Those  said  to 
have  been  originally  written  by  him  in  Greek  are  partly  versions 
of  the  original  Syriac  and  partly  spurious.  They  were  translated 
into  Gre3t,  Latin,  Slavonic,  and  Armenian.  The  best  edition 
appeared  at  Rome  (voL  i.-iii.  Gr.  and  Lat.,  vol.  iv.-vi.  Syr. 
and  Lat.  173Z-46),  edited  by  the  Maronite  Petrus  Benedict  and 
Stephan  Evodius  Assemani.  As  an  interpreter  of  Scripture  K 
adopted  a  highlj;  ijlfg'jcical  style,  often  artificial  and  extrava- 
gant. This  spiritualising  exposition  'ras  probably  adopted  in 
opposition  to  the  Mardonites,  who  endeavoured  to  bring  the 
Old  Testament  into  antagonism  with  the  New  by  adherence  to 
a  grossly  literal,  unfigurative  interpretation.  See  Lengerke,  De 
Epk.  S.  Alii  Hatneneutka. 

The  name  of  E.  S.  is  associated  with  one  of  the  most  ancient 
and  valuable  extapt  MSS.  of  the  Bible— Codex  C,  No,  9,  in  the 
Imperial  Library  at  Paris — which  contains  portions  of  the  LXJC 
and  fragments  of  every  part  of  the  New  Testament  The  original 
writing  was  almost  entirely  removed  about  the  12th  c.  tp  make 
room  for  some  of  the  writings  of  E.  S,  in  Greek,  but  has  been 
to  a  certain  eitent  restored  by  means  of  chemicals.  Efought 
from  the  East  to  Florence  in  the  i6th  5.,  it  came  to  Paris  vith 
Catherine  de  MWicis,  and  was  pnblished  by  Tischendo  f 
1843-45.  See  Assemani  in  BibUoth,  Orient.  Vatic,  and  M 
heun's  Church  Hfyt, 

Bph'raim  was  the  younger  of  the  two  sons  of  Joseph  nd 
was  counted,  like  his  brother  Manasseh,  along  with  his  u  les 
the  sons  of  Jacob,  as  one  of  the  twelve  patriiiAs.  The  ti  b 
numbered  40,500  at  the  first  census  (Num.  i.J,  at  the  sec  d 
(Num.  xxvi.),  32,500.  Its  territory  lay  in  the  centre  of  the  I  d 
of  Canaan,  and  after  the  separation  under  Jeroboam,  E.  was  tl 
leading  tribe  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel ;  indeed  it  might  be  sa  d 
that  tlie  history  of  the  latter  is  neither  njore  nor  less  tha  1 
history  of  E, 

Hpichai'imia,  a  Dorian  of  Cos,  according  to  Plato  'the 
prince  of  comedians,'  was  bom  about  540  B.C.  E,  is  said  to  have 
studied  philosophy  under  Pythagoras.  He  resided  for  a  time  at 
Megara  in  Sicily,  and  subsequently  at  the  court  of  Hiero.  He 
gave  a  new  form  to  the  early  comedy  by  freeing  it  from  some, 
at  least,  of  its  buffoonery,  and  by  introducing  a  regular  plot  The 
titles  of  thirty-five  of  his  comedies  are  known.  They  are  generally 
on  mythological  subjects.  The  Menschmi  of  Plautus  is  said  to 
have  been  founded  on  a  comedy  of  E.  Krurniann  has  edited 
the  extant  fragments  of  E.'s  writings  {Haarl.  1834]. 

Upiooroll'iB,  or  Bpipetal'sB,  a  division  of  Exogenous  plants 
forming  one  of  the  subdivisions  of  Cor^lliflorm,  and  cliaracterised 
by  the  stamens  being  inserted  on  the  corolla.  To  this  group 
the  natural  orders  Gmiiaaacne,  Conwlvtflacia,  Solanacm,  Labt- 
atm,  Priirailac&t,  &c.,  belong. 

Epio  Poetry  (Gr,  epos,  'a  discourse').  An  epic  is  a  long 
narrative  poem  dealing  generally  with  heroic  or  superhuman 
persons  and  events,  with  romantic  or  supernatural  exploits  and 
adventures.  It  is  dislinguished  from  the  narrative  poem  by 
greater  dignity  of  style,  cohesion  of  plot,  and  symmetry  of  struc- 
ture J  from  the  drama,  in  which  the  author  never  speaks  in  his 
own  person ;  from  the  Ijtic,  by  its  great  length,  and  by  making 
the  narration  of  action  rather  than  the  expression  of  emotion  its 
predominant  feature. 

The  three  great  classical  epics  are  Homer's  lUad  and  Odyssiy, 
the  former  relatmg  the  si^e  of  Troy,  the  latter  recountiiig  the 
wanderings  of  Odysseus,  and  Viigil's  jSndd,  oij  the  voyages  of 
the  Trojan  .^neas  and  his  conquest  of  Italy,  an  elaborate  glorifi- 
cation of  the  Augustan  age  of  Rome,  The  Niebdungcrt  Lied  is 
the  great  Teutonic  epic,  in  which  we  dunly  tiace  historic  per- 
sons and  events  of  the  5th  c  Its  author  is  unknown  j  it  seems  to 
have  been  composed  between  the  7th  and  Ilth  centuries.  A  still 
older  product  of  the  Teutonic  muse  is  the  Tale  of  Beowulf  {q.  v.), 
which  may  be  regarded  as  the  epic  of  the  Old  English  peoples. 
The  Shah  Naptih  of  the  Persian  poet  Firdusi  (937-1020} ;  the 
Lusiad  of  the  Portuguese  Camoens  (1524-79),  on  the  voyage  of 


Vasco  de  Gama  to  India ;  the  Gemsalemme  Liherata  of  Tasso 
(1544-95),  on  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  in  the  First  Crusade,  are  also 
famous  specimens  of  the  epic  ;  but  the  Divitia  Comedta  of  Dante 
(1265-1321)  and  the  Faradki  Lost  ai  Milton  (1608-1674)  are 
the  only  two  which  challenge  comparison  with  the  Grecian 
masterpieces.  Besides  the  great  regular  epics,  there  are  collec- 
tions of  epic  legends,  such  as  Hesiod's  Theogony,  the  Norse  Edda 
and  Hddenbuch,  the  Indian  Nahabkdrala,  and  the  Spanish 
Ronvmcero.  The  historical  epic  adheres  closer  to  feet  than  the 
heroic  J  of  this  class  the  Fanua  of  Silius  Italicus  is  an  unfavour- 
able, and  the  Brus  of  Barbour  an  admirable,  example.  The 
Orlando  Furioso  of  Ariosto  (1474-1533)  holds  an  intermediate 

Elace  between  the  stately  serious  epic  and  the  mock-heroic  or 
umorous  epic,  wliich  is  represented  by  the  Battle  of  the  Frogs 
and  Mice,  ascribed  to  Homer,  Pulci's  Morganie  Maggiore,  the 
old  Q&xttia.-a-^atai  Reynard  the  Fox,  Butler's  Hudibras,  Boileau's 
Luti-in,  Pope's  Sa^  of  the  Lock. 

Among  the  innumerable  nnsuccessliil  epics  of  ancient  and 
modern  times  may  be  mentioned  the  Argonautica  of  ApoUonius 
Rhodms,  Lucan's  Fharsalia,  the  Thebaid  of  Statius,  Lope  de 
Vega's  Circe,  Erciila's  Arcmcana,  Ronsard's  Franciad,  Dave- 
iiant's  Gondibert,  Voltaire's  Henriade,  Klopstock's  Messiah,  Wie- 
laiid's  Oberon,  and  Southey's  Madoc.  I^dor's  Gebir,  though 
wanting  in  epical  length,  is  epical  in  structure  and  style. 

Epicte'tus,  a  phi!<«opher  of  the  Stoic  school,  was  bom  at 
Hierapolis,  in  Phrygia,  and  flourished  tovrards  the  close  of  the 
1st  c.  E.  taught  first  at  Rome,  but  when  Domilian  banished 
h  ph  I  phers,  he  retired  to  Nicopolis  in  Epirus.  The  teach- 
ig  f  E  s  preserved  in  the  four  that  remain  of  the  eight 
I  k  of  Commentaries  by  his  pupil  Arrian,  the  historian, 
nd  in  h  £«ci«'j^iffB  {'handbook  ),  compiled  from  his  dis- 
by  the  same  writer.  E.  tan^t '  that  the  beginning  of 
phil  phy  15  the  perception  of  one's  own  inability  to  do  what  is 
n  edf  1  hat  oiJy  what  is  within  oar  chok;e  is  good  or  evil ;  that 
n  tl  ng   X  emal  can  control  our  choice ;  that  our  choice  is  de- 

ITQ  n  d  by  our  reason ;  that  our  resemblance  to  God  consists  in 
on  g  according  to  reason ;  and  that  we  ought  to  invoke 

G  d  ass  tance.'  It  is  not  wonderful  that  E.  has  been  con- 
sia  da  Christian,  and,  though  this  cannot  be  established,  there 
b  n  doubt  that  in  unportant  respects  '  he  approaches  the 
Christian  doctrine  more  closely  than  a ---'*'----  ■■-  '■■-!--> 
The  best  edition  of  E.  is  that  Of  Schwei 

Epigu'rus,  a  &mous  philosopher  of  antiquity,  was  born  at 
Samos  or  Gargettus,  near  Athens,  about  B.C.  342.  His  father 
was  a  teacher  of  grammar.  When  only  eighteen,  E.  visited  Athens ; 
subsequently  he  went  to  Athens,  Colophon,  Lampsacus,  and 
Mitylene,  In  302  he  opened  a  scliool  at  Athens,  where  he  re- 
mained till  his  death  in  272,  The  famous  '  Garden'  soon  becamea 
dangerous  rival  of  the  Porch,  the  Grove,  the  Lyceum,  and  the 
Cynosarges.  Though  severely  libelled  by  the  Stoics  and  their  ad- 
mirers, E.  seems  to  nave  been  a  virtuous  and  amiable  man.  He 
gave  his  guests  at  the  Garden  barley  cakes  and  fresh  water.  Philo- 
sophy he  regarded,  not  as  the  instrument  of  absolute  truth,  but  as 
the  art  of  reaching  happiness.  Like  Aristippus,  he  said  happiness 
consisted  in  pleasure ;  hut  the  most  permanent,  the  least  hurtful, 
are  the  pleasures  of  the  mind  ;  virtuous  habit  and  the  supremacy 
of  reason  are  necessary  to  happiness.  As  regards  the  body,  the 
chief  thing  is  to  be  contented  with  a  little  of  the  simplest ;  the 
felt  want  of  luxuries  is  a  great  torment.  Ignorance,  the  great 
obstacle  to  happiness,  is  either  of  Che  external  world  or  of  human 
nature.  To  these  two  kinds  pf  ignorance  the  Fhydca  and  the 
Canonica,  or  Logic,  are  respectively  applied.  The  former 
— described  in  Diogenes  Laertius  and  discussed  by  Seneca  and 
Cicero  (Df  Fin.) — was  based  on  the  atoms  of  Demncritus,  whose 
emanations  produced  sensations.  The  atoms  were  subject  to 
physical  laws  and  not  to  the  caprice  of  the  gods.  E.  added  to 
the  theory  of  Democritus  the  hypothesis  that  each  atom  in  its 
downward  course  slightly  deflected  from  a  right  line,  and  thus 
became  capable  of  collision  and  combination.  In  sensation  itself 
E.  admitted  there  was  neither  truth  nor  falsehood ;  but  prolepsis, 
or  conception  formed  by  repeated  sensation,  made  possible 
knowledge,  or  the  classification  of  the  sources  of  pain  and 
pleasure.  Of  E.'s  300  works,  only  three  letters  are  preserved, 
and  some  passages  of  a  worit  on  nature,  found  at  Herculaneum. 
His  school  was  continued  by  Hermachus,  Polystratus,  Dionysius, 
Basilides,  till  the  age  of  Augustus,  .  Among  Romans,  Lucretius, 
Horace,  and  I.ucian  are  his  chief  followers.     In  modern  Europe 


(Leips.  1 


y  Google 


4- 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


the  system  was  revived  liy  Gasseiidi  (1590-1655),  who  wrote  a 
life  of  E.  and  a  tiealise  on  the  philosophy,  and  adopted  by 
Rochefoucault,  Fontenelle,  Volf  ture,  and  others.  All  his  disciples, 
however,  fio  not  adopt  his  views  with  fegard  to  the  fear  of  death 
and  the  fear  of  the  gods,  both  of  which  he  said  were  groundless, 
the  soul  being  simply  ^  compound  of  air,  vapour,  and  heat,  and 
the  gods  not  being  actively  interested  in  human  fate.  E.  also 
dwelt  on  the  reciprocal  advantages  unplied  in  justice  and  friend- 
ship. Community  of  goods,  he  said,  implied  mistrust.  See 
Rilier  and  Preller,  Hist.  Phil.;  Bain,  Mental  and  Moral  Science; 
and  Zeller  on  Stoics  and  Epicureans. 

Ep'ioyole  (Gr,  epi,  '■a.-paa,' kykles,  'a  circle),  When  theearly 
astronomers,  having  fiied  the  earth  in  the  centre  of  the  universe, 
and  given  to  all  celestial  bodies  what  they  deemed  the  most  tier- 
fect  of  motions,  viz.,  dcmlar  motion,  came  to  compare  their" 
system  with  the  tine  facts  of  observation,  they  were  necessarily 
astonished  at  the  great  discrepancies  which  existed.  Ptolemy 
(q.  V.)  was  especially  perplexed  at  the  retrc^essions  and  other 
irregularities  of  the  planets,  and  to  meet  this  difKcuIty  devised 
wlKit  he  termed  epicycles.  The  planets  were  supposed  to  move 
in  circles,  whose  centres  moved  uniformly  in  a  larger  circle  round 
tiie.earth;  Each  planet  he  found  required  a  different-siied  E.; 
and  though  his  system  was  extremely  cumbrous, -especially  wlien 
viewed  in  the  light  of  the  Newtonian  system,  it  was  undoubtedly 
ingenious,      See  PTOLEMAIC  SVSTEM, 

Epioy'cloid  Is  the  curve  described  by  a  pobit  in  the  circum- 
ference of  a  circle  which  is  rolling  on  the  outer  circumference  of 
a  fixed  circle.  If  the  rolling  take  place  inside  Qk  fixed  circle, 
the  curve  described  is  called  a  hypocycloid.     When  the  tracing 

Joint  is  not  in  the  circumference,  the  corresponding  curves  are 
nown  as  epitrochoids  and  kypUrochoids.  If  the  rolling  circle  be 
equal  to  the  fixed  circle,  the  E.  becomes  the  cardioid.  A  hj-po- 
trochoid  of  two  circles  whose  radii  are  as  i  [  3  is  an  ellipse, 
whose  eccentricity  increases  as  tlie  tracing  point  is  moved  nearer 
the  circumference  of  the  rolling  drcle,  the  hypocycloid  ultimately 
produced  being  a  strdght  line— a  diameter  of  the  fixed  circle. 
The  E.  is  of  practical  importance  as  being  that  form  for  the  teelh 
of  a  toothed  wheel  which  reduces  friction  ' ■-' 


Epidam'naa.     See  DuRAzzo, 

Epidaur'us  (originally  called  Epicaras,  from  its  supposed 


I'uB  (originally  called  Epica. 
a  at  first  by  Carians),  a   to^ 


__.  of  the  Peloponnesus.     During  the  historical  period 

it  was  in  the  possession  of  the  Dorians,  Afler  passing  through 
the  phases  of  a  monarchy,  an  oligarchy,  and  a  tyranny,  B.  finally 
reverted  to  an  oligarchy,  It  was  at  an  early  period  an  important 
commercial  city,  and  its  famous  temple  of  <Escttlapius  drew  in- 
valids from  all  quarters.  The  sacred  enclosure  in  which  the 
temple  stood  is  to  this  day  called  I/ierun  ('  the  sanctuary ').  E. 
had  also  (emples  to  Athena,  Artemis,  Dionysus,  Aphrodite,  and 
Hera  ;  and  a  magnificent  theatre  370  feet  in  diameter,  capable 
of  containing  12,000  spectators.  E,  colonised  the  islands  of  Cos, 
Calydnus,  and  Nisynis.  jEgina,  another  of  its  colonies,  in  tinr" 
almost  drained  the  commerce  of  the  parent  city.  Its  &raoi 
temple,  however,  was  still  rich  in  gifts  when  L.  ,S:milius  Paulus 
visited  it  in  B.C.  167,  after  the  conqaest  of  Macedonia ;  but  by 
fheravagesof  Sulla  it  was  swept  of  all  its  votive  offerings  in 
mon  with  many  other  shrines.  E.  was  celebrated  for  its 
and  its  breed  of  horses.  The  ancient  name  still  survives  ii 
modem  Hdavro. 

Epidem'ic  DieeaseB  (Gr.  epi,  '  upon,'  and  dcnios, 
people')  are  chiefly  distinguished  by  the  circumstance  that  they 
attack  a  number  of  people  in  one  place  simultaneously.  They 
travel  from  place  to  place,  and  break  out  with  great  violence, 
mote  especially  in  populous  centres,  and  they  may  become  extinct 
in  a  locality  to  reappear  after  many  years.  The  best-known  E. 
D.  are  cholera,  smallpox,  measles,  scarlet  fever,  dengue,  typhoid 
and  typhus  fevers,  yellow  fever,  and  diphtheria.  Various  theories 
have  been  propounded  regarding  the  mode  of  propagation  ;  but 
it  is  now  generally  admitted  that  all  E.  D.  are  communicable, 
pjid  that  eachhas  its  own  mode  of  propagation.  Thejf  are  con- 
sequently preventable  diseases.  See  Reports  of  tht  Medical  Officer 
of  the  Privy  Council,  Transactions  of  the  London  Efi^einielogical 
Society,  and  separate  articles  on  the  various  diseases. 

Epidemic  Mental  DiseaseB.   Popnlar  excitements,  so  de- 
nominated, have  nothing  in  common  with  epidemic   diseases, 
146 


iorcalled  E. 


except  in  so  far  as  numbers  of  people  are  similarly  affected  at 
about  the  same  time.  Public  enthusiasm  is  never  allowed  to  lie 
long  dormant,  and  one  excitement  follows  another  in  rapid  suc- 
cession ;  but  although  the  weaker  class  of  mind  is  more  liable  to 
be  affected,  and  may  be  completely  upset,  this  does  not  constitute 

disease.     In  epidemic  diseases  thespeciSc  poison  results  ii  '' 
.inie  specific  disease,  and  in  no  other ;  whereas  in  si 
M,  D.  the  result  lacks  this  uniformitvj     Particular  c 
modes  of  crime,  frequently  preyail ;  but  disease  is  not  necessary 

explain  the  phenomena.  There  is,  however,  some  influence, 
apart  altogether  from  human  comrnunicalion,  by  which  numbers 
of  people  may  be  affected  simultaneously,  and  which,  m^  be 
called  E.  M.  D.  This  is  best  seen  in  large  communities  of  the 
insane,  where  similar  delusions  and  propensities  simultaneously 
affect  numbers  of  the  patients  who  have  had  no  communication 
with  each  other.  The  best-known  E.  M.  p.  are  St  Vitus's 
dance,  wolf-madness,  demonomania,  incendiarism,  suicide,  and 
panic.  See  the  I'sycholQgicai  yburttal,  and  the  works  of  Calmiel 
and  Hecker. 

Bpider'niis  (Gr,  epi,  '  upon,'  derma,  '  the  skin '],  or  Ee'te- 
rpn  (the  '  outer,'  i.e.,  skin),  the  name  given  to  the  outer  and 
upper  layer  of  the  skin  in  higher  animals.  The  E.  in  man  is 
composed  of  layers  of  flat  or  squamous  epithelial  cells,  the  deeper 
cells  being  elongated,  and  having  their  long  axes  arranged  ver- 
tically to  the  skin-surface,  whilst  the  more  superficial  cells  are 
of  flattened  shape  and  lie  lengthwise.  The  deepest  layer  of  the 
E.  is  named  the  rele  mucosum,  and  it  is  in  this  latter  layer  that 

E'gment  or  colouring  matter  is  deposited,  The  growth  of  the 
,  is  effected  from  below,  new  layers  of  cells  being  produced  io 
take  the  place  of  those  that  are  gradually  lost  or  worn  away  by 
friction,  ablution,  &c  The  deeper  cells  become  more  or  less 
scaly  and  horny  as  they  approach  the  surface,  and  lose  the  more 
typical  character  of  the  deeper  cells.  The  thickness  of  the  E. 
varies  greatly  in  different  regions  of  the  body.  Thus  on  the 
soles  of  the  feet  and  palms  of  the  hands  the  E.  is  very  thick  and 
homy.  In  .'iuch  situations,  the  thickness  of  the  E.  prevents 
evaporation  ikim  the  true  skin  or  dermis  beneath ;  a  proof  of 
this  being  afforded  by  exposing  two  dead  hands  or  feet  to  the 
atmosphere,  the  E.  being  denuded  from  one  of  the  members. 
In  the  latter  case  the  skin  becomes  dry  and  hard,  whilst  in  the 
foot  or  hand  which  has  its  E.  still  perfect  the  natnral  moisture 
is  retained.  The  E.  is  frequently  named  the  aUicle,  It  is  not 
sensitive,  possessing  no  blood-vessels  or  nerves.  In  lower 
vertebrates,  such  as  serpents,  &c.,  the  E.  is  periodically  e; 
ated  or  cast  off.  laplants,  the  name  E.  is  given  to  the  delicate 
cellular  tissue  or  parenchyma  which  forms  (he  outer  covering  of 
leaves  and  of  other  parts  of  plants.  The  E.  of  plants  is  made 
up  of  flattened  cells,  often  provided  with  hairs.  The  lower  E. 
of  leaves  is  perforated  by  numerous  openings  or  stomata,  the 
respiratory  or  breathing  apertures  of  the  leaves.  Occasionally 
the  E.  of  plants  becomes  hardened  by  the  deposit  of  woody 
matter  in  the  walls  of  the  cells  of  which  this  membrane  is  com- 

Ep'idote,  a  mineral  forming  raonoclinic  crystals,  wilh  a  vary- 
ing green,  brown,  or  grey  colour,  hardness  between  felspar  and 
quartz,  and  specific  gravity  about  3-5.  E.  proper  ponsists  of  a 
combination  of  silica,  alumina,  iron  onide,  and  limej  but  by 
substitution  of  magnesia,  lime,  &c.,  for  proportions  of  llie  ir 

The  name  was  derived  by  Haiiy  from  the  Gr,  epididomi,  '  I 
increase,'  in  allusion  to  the  fact  that  the  base  of  the  primary  is 
often  much  enlaiged  in  the  crystals. 

Epigeu'esia  (Gr.  epi,  '  apon,' narl  g-enesis,  'a  beginning 'or 
'  new  formation '),  a  name  given  in  physiology  to  a  theory  which 
held  that  all  new  substances  in  living  beii^gs,  and  even  living 
organisms  themselves,  were  formed  of  or  upon  previously  exis- 
tent  parts  or  substances,  new  organisms  being  formed  by  a 
modification  of  the  oli 

Epiglottis  (Gr.  epi,  '  upon,'  siA glottis,  '  the  month  of  the 
windpipe'),  a  cartilage  of  an  ovate  shape,  covered  by  mucous 
membrane,  placed  m  front  of  the  superior  opening  of  the  laryns, 
arui  immediately  behind  the  base  of  the  tongue.     See  LAavt^x. 

Epig'oni  (Gr.  Epigotioi,  'the  afterborn'),  the  term  used  in 
mythic  story  to  denote  the  sons  of  the  seven  heroes— Adrastus, 
Polyniees,  Tydeus,  Capaneus,  Parthenopseus,  Amphiaraus,  and 
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BPI 


Hippomeiion — -who,  with,  the  exception  of  the  first  named, 
j,erislied  in  the  war  against  Thebes.  To  avenge  the  death  of 
their  fathers,  the  E.,  ten  years  thereafter,  under  the  leadership 
of  Alcmseon,  who  had  collected  a  band  of  Arrives,  marched 
against  Thebes.  The  Thebans,  under  Laodamas,  were  routed 
near  Glissas  in  Bceotia,  while  jEgialeus,  on  the  side  of  tlie  E, , 
was  slain.  Thebes  was  at  last  taken  by  the  E. ,  and  levelled 
with  the  ground.  The  common  list  of  the  E.  contains  i^aleus, 
AlcmKon,  Momedes,  Euiyalus,  Promachus,  Sthenelus,  and  Ther- 
sander.  The  war  of  the  E,  was  the  subject  of  many  epic  and 
tragic  poems,  not  one  of  which  has  survived. 

Epigram  (Gr. 5Sj',  'upon,'  sridgrammee,  'a writing'),  literally 
an  inscription.  The  Greek  E.  was  a  short  poem,  mostly  in 
elegiac  verse,  containing  a  statement  of  a  single  event  or  thought. 
Simplicity,  rarely  point,  is  its  characteristic.  Th?  preek  an- 
thology contains  about  4500  epigrams  by  about  300  pulhois, 
Among  the  Romaps  the  E.  often  took  a  satirical  character.  Of 
the  many  Latin  epigrammatists  whose  names  have  been  pre- 
served, Catullus  and  Martial  are  incomparably  the  best.  The 
latter  wrote  about  1500  epigrams,  and  might  be  styled  an  epi- 
grammatist by  profession.  The  modeni  E.  generally  ranges 
from  two  to  eight  lines  in  length,  and  contains  a  witty  or  inge- 
nious turn  of  thought  pointedly  expressed.  Pope,  Swiit,  Bums, 
Byron,  Moore,  and  many  other  English  writers,  have  evinced 
great  epigrammatic  talent,  but  among  the  modems  the  French 

Ep'i^aph,  (Gr,  ef/,  'upon,'  and  grapho,  'I  write')  is  the 
name  given  to  an  inscription  on  a  public  building  or  other  archi- 
tectural structure,  telling  its  object,  use,  or  period  of  construc- 
tion. In  literature  it  is  applied  to  a  quotation  or  sentence  placed 
as  a  motto  at  the  beginning  of  a  book,  part,  or  chapter, 

,'  future /^ju»/fli), 

^-^ -,-—,-    ^ _,  comDK 

characterised  [ly  a  sudden  and  conjpl^^te 
sociated  wiUi  convulsions,  which  impede  tJfe  respiratory  process. 
The  epileptic  state  inay  vary  frooi  simple  vertigo,  monlentsty  loss 
of  conscioaaipss,  anda  tbtfer  of  step,  to  tlie  most  severe  convulsive 
paroirysms.  %.  yas  ki^owii  by  thp  ancients,  an&  was  made  the 
fonndation  of  the  dijctrfne  of  demoniacal  possession  in  the  Jewish, 
Grecian,  and  Roman  philosophy.  The  attack  is  sometimes  ]we- 
ceded  by  a  premonitory  symptom  called  aura  tptiefttca,  in  which 
the  patient  has  the  sensation  of  a  fluid  creeping  from  the  fingers  or 
toes  upwards  towards  the  trunk,  or  as  though  a  spider  or  insect 
were  crawling  over  the  skin.  Some  have  slight  vertigo  or  head- 
ache, swelling  of  the  veins,  or  throbbing  of  the  arteries  of  the 
head,  and  others  have  illusions  of  one  or  other  of  the  special 
senses.     In  general  there  is  immediate  loss  of  consciousness ;  the 

Ktient  utters  a  loud  cry,  falls  down  in  convulsions,  which  niay 
trifling  and  transient,  or  terrific  and  long- continued  strujigles. 
Each  patient  generally  falls  in  a  definite  position,  and  injures  by 
the  fall  one  part  of  the  body,  as  the  nose,  or  side  of  the  Jiead  ; 
and  some  invariably  protrude  the  tongue,  which  ma^  be  bitten 
through,  or  much  injured  hy  tjie  spasmodic  clenching  of  the 
teeth.  Death  may  take  place  durmg  the  fit ;  but  the  great 
daaiger  is  from  the  position  occcupied  when  the  fit  comes  on  ; 
thus  the  patient  may  fall  from  a  height,  or  Into  the  fire,  or  water, 
or  on  some  sharp.cutting  instrument,  or  the  iit  may  come  on 
during  the  act  of  swallowing  and  cause  suffocation.  Attacks  of 
E.  vary  in  frequency  of  occurrence,  and  there  is  often  a  very  de- 
finite periodicity.  In  severe  cases  the  attacks  may  be  daily,  or 
several  tiines  daily ;  but,  in  other  instances,  considerable  intervals 
may  elapse,  In  asylum  practice  the  eypeiienced  physician  can 
frequently  prognosticate,  from  slight  appearances,  that  an  attack 
is  impendmg.  E.  is  cominon  among  congenital  idiots,  and  is  of 
frequent  occurrence  among  the  insane,  as  a  cause  or  a  coincident, 
and  the  two  diseases  are  intimately  associated.  E.  is  a  hereditary 
disease.  It  may  pass'  from  parent  to  child,  or  it  may  skip  over 
a  generation  or  two.  The  originating  causes  of  E.  are  but  im- 
perfectly known,  a.ithough  physiologists  have  of  late  years  made 
great  advances  in  the  study  of  its  etiology.  Post-mortem  exa- 
minations throw  but  little  light  on  the  disease.  'The  seat  of  E. 
is  most  probably  in  the  bnun,  the  medull?  oblongata,  pr  upper 
portion  of  the  spinal  cord.  In  most  epileptics  there  is  probably 
a  hereditary  or  a  latent  tendency,  and  in  some  the  disease  may 
originate  dtnovo  from  causes  which  are  usually  called  exciting. 
In  the  former  class  of  cases,  apparently  slight  causes,  such  as 


functional  derangements,  interruptions  in  the  circulation  which 
may  cause  congestion  of  the  brain,  may  give  rise  to  an  attack. 
In  females  menstrual  derangement  is  frequently  associated  with 
a  seizure.  The  proper  treatment  during  the  fit  is  to  place  the 
patient  flat  on  his  back,  with  the  head  and  shoulders  a  little 
elevated.  The  neck-tie  and  tight-fitting  clothes  should  be 
loosened,  and  he  should  be  exposed  to  a  free  current  of  air. 
Beyond  preventing  self- injury,  no  effort  should  be  made  to  restrain 
Che  convulsive  movements,  nor  to  rouse  by  cold  water  and  stimuli. 
Epileptics  should  make  their  health  a  constant  study,  as  the 
slightest  derangement  or  excess  of  any  kind  may  bring  on  a 
seiiure.  They  should  never  expose  themselyes  in  any  dangerous 
position.  Hygienic  treatment  is  of  more  avail  than  any  of  the 
specifics  that  have  been  recommended,  such  as  nitrate  of  silver, 
iodide  gnd  bromide  of  potassium,  valerian,  zinc,  &c.  The 
diseass  ig  not  pnr^ble  by  any  known  speci^cs,  nor  is  it  often 
cured  spontaneously.  When  associated  with  oi^nic  diseast 
the  brain  it  is  incurable  ;  but  in  very  many  eases  the  frequency 
of  the  attacks  and  their  severity  may  be  lessened,  or  Ihey  may 
altogether  disappear,  by  very  careful  attention  to  the  laws  of 
health,  and  the  avoidance  of  excesses  of  every  kind.  E.  must 
not  be  confounded  with  Fainting,  Apoplexy,  Hysteria,  Catalepsy, 
Eclampsia,  or  Infantile  and  Fuetperal  Convulsions  (q.  v,).  See 
Latufes  on  t^  PH^siplogy  and  Pathology  of  the  Cealral  Neniaus 
Syslan,  by  Dr  Brown-Siquard  (Lond. },  and  Epilepsy  and  EpiUp- 
Hfirm  Seixnrcs,  by  Dc  Sievekiiig  (Lond. ). 

Epiloliirmi,  or  'Willow  Herb,'  a  genus  of  Exogenous 
plants  belon^g  to  the  order  Onagracia.  These  plants  have  four 
sepals  and  four  petals,  a  four-sided  seed-capsule,  and  seeds  pro- 
vided with  hairs  at  One  extremity.  The  long  pod-Like  ovary  is 
adherent  to  the  tube  of  the  calyx,  the  petals  and  stamens  being 
epigynous.  Species  of  E.  are  found  both  in  temperate  and  cold 
climates.  The  British  species  occur  in  damp  situations.  E. 
angustifolium  (known  as  '  French  willow ')  has  dissimilar  petals 
and  rose-coloured  flowers.  It  is  common  in  shrubberies.  The 
pith  of  E.  is  used  in  Kamchatka  for  making  a  kind  of  ale  and 
vinegar. 

Epilogue  (Gr,  epi  'after,'  &wd,  logos  'a  speech'),  in  oratory, 
means  the  peroration  or  summing  up  of  a  discourse.  In  thea- 
trical language,  if  is  a  shoft  speech  in  prose  or  verse  at  the  end 
of  a  piay.  The  E,  was  much  in  vogjie  in  former  times,  espe- 
cially in  the  case  of  eomedUs  j  and  was  apologetic,  conciliatory, 
or  even  rollicking  in  tone,  its  object  being  to  acknowledge  the 
indulgence,  win  the  sympathies,  and  excite  the  good  humour  of 
the  audience. 

Epimenldes,  a  poet  and  prophet  born  at  Ph;estus  in  Crete. 
While  yet  a  boy,  being  sent  for  a  sheep  by  his  father,  he 
entered  a  cave,  and  fell  into  a  sleep  which  lasted  fifty-seven 
years.  On  awaking  he  was  astonished  to  find  all  around  him 
changed.  The  Greeks  looked  on  him  as  a  favourite  of  the  gods ; 
and  the  Athenians,  whom  he  delivered  in  596  B.C.  from  the 
plagne  that  followed  Cylon's  sacrilege,  greatly  honoured  him. 
He  is  said  to  have  attained  a  very  old  age,  one  legend  assigning 
him  a  lifetime  of  299  years.  When  or  where  he  died  is  uncer- 
tain. By  some  E.  was  reckoned — instead  of  Periander — one  of 
the  seven  sages  of  Greece,  but  he  seems  rather  to  have  belonged 
to  the  class  of  Orphic  bards.  Besides  otter  works,  two  epics — 
one  on  Jason  and  the  A^onauts,  the  other  on  Minos  and  Rhada- 
manthus — are  said  to  have  been  written  by  him.  E.  is  supposed 
to  be  the  prophet  Slluded  to  by  St  Paul  in  his  Epistle  to  Titus 
(i,  12).     See  Hemrich's  E.  aus  Creta  {8vo,  Leips.  igoi). 

spinal  (Eng.  '  Thornton  ; '  Fr.  ^ine,  Lat,  spina,  '  a  thorn '), 
the  capital  of  the  department  of  the  Vosges,  France,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Moselle,  beautifully  situated  at  the  foot  of  the 
Vo^s,  35  miles  S.S.E.  of  Nancy  by  railway.  It  lies  in  a 
valley,  1 1^  feet  above  the  sea,  and  has  fine  promenades,  quays, 
fountains,  public  baths,  the  ruins  of  an  old  castle,  a  church  (St 
Maurice)  of  tjie  loth  c,  ^  small  univer^ty,  a  public  library  of 
19,009  vols,,  a  hospital,  an  aft  gallery,  schools  for  music  and 
drawing,  and  a  theatre.  The  Moselle  is  here  crossed  by  an  iron 
suspeiisign-bridge  and  by  several  stone  bridges.  There  are 
manufactures  gf  edge:tool3,  chemicals,  machinery,  paper,  lace, 
&c.,  and  a  trade  in  wine,  ironwares,  linen,  and  cattle.  Ahont 
6  miles  S.E.,  on  the  Moselle,  are  the  famous  paper-mills  of 
Archettes.     Pop.  (1872)  10,738. 


yLaOOgle 


EPI 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


^pinay,  Louis  e-Florenoe-PStrooille  de  la  Live  d', 

a  1' tench  authoress,  born  about  J725,  She  was  the  daughter  of 
an  officer,  Tardieu  d'Esciavelles,  and  in  1735  married  her  pro- 
fligate  cousin  D'Epinay.  The  union  was  unhappy,  D'Epinay 
n^lecting  his  wife,  of  whom  Grimm  professed  himself  the  lover. 
Afterwards  Madame  d'E.  formed  a  warm  attachment  for  J,  J, 
Rousseau,  for  whom  she  caused  the  famous  hermitage  to  be 
built  in  the  valley  of  Montmorency,  near  her  country-seat  of  La 
Chevrette.  RouBseau,  however,  becoming  jealous  of  Grimm, 
quarrelled  with  Madame  d'E.,  and  in  his  Confessions  assailed 
her  and  the  EncydofidisUs,  with  whom  she  was  fcimiiiar.  During 
her  last  years  Madame  d'E,  lived  in  retirement,  consorting 
chiefly  with  men  of  letters,  and  composing  memoirs,  8:0.  She 
died  April  17, 1783.  Her  chief  work,  J/AroiVifi  e/  Correspendence 
de  Mme.  d'E.  (Par.  1818),  is  a  fiill,  accurate,  and  vivid  picture 
of  l8th  c.  manners.     See  Sainte  Beuve's  Cattsiries  du  Litmii. 

Epiplia'niiia  was  bom  in  Palestine  about  320  a,d.,  of  Jewish 
parents.  Converted  to  Christianity  at  an  early  age,  he  went  to 
Egypt,  and  joined  the  monks  there.  He  afterwards  returned  to 
Palestine,  and  founded  a  monastery  near  his  native  place  (Eleu- 
theropolis).  In  367  he  was  made  Archbishop  of  Constantia 
(Salarais)  in  Cyprus,  and  died  in  402.  E.  was  learned  in  one 
sense,  being  acquainted  with  Hebrew,  Syiiac,  Greek,  Latin,  and 
*"  cptian,  but  at  the  same  time  extremely  ignorant  and  credu- 
s,  not  to  say  di^onest ;  but  was  neverthdess  pious  after  his 
fashion,  though  extremely  bigoted  and  dogmatic.  His  chief 
work  is  entitled  Fanarian,  a  discourse  ag^st  (eighty)  heresies. 
See  his  Life  by  Gervasins,  1738 ;  his  works  were  edited  by 
Petavius  (S  vols.  Par.  i6m),  and  by  W,  Dindorf  (5  vols.  Leips. 
1S59-63).  See  UpiiiiSiZurQuelietiiritiidisHfipianuaiV itrma, 
186s). 

Epiph'any  {Gr,  t/l/iatma,  '  the  appearance  of  a  deity  to  aid 
a  worshipper  }  means  in  ecdesiastical  usage  the  manifestation  of 
Christ  to  the  Gentiles.  It  is  observed  on  the  6th  January,  twelve 
days  after  Christmas  (hence  called  Twelfth  Night),  and  now  com- 
memorates specially  the  guiding  of  the  three  magi  to  Bethlehem 
by  the  star  (hence  called  also  the  Festival  of  the  Three  Kings), 
but  originally  also  his  nativity  or  incarnation,  and  the  mani- 
festation of  his  divinity  at  his  baptism  (Theophany),  in  his 
first  miracle  at  Cana  (Bethphany),  and  in  that  of  feeding  the 
5000  men  (Phagiphany).  Formerly  many  lights  were  used  at 
the  festival,  ostensibly  in  reference  to  Christ  as  the  light  of  the 
world  (John  L  9  ;  Luke  i.  78,  79),  but  in  reality  adapted  by  the 
Church  from  pagan  ceremonies  like  those  of  Christmas  and  St 
John's  Day.  See  Bingham's  &d.  Ants.,  and  Walcott's  Sacrtd 
Archaolegy  (Lond.  1868). 

Epiplie'gi:is,  a  genus  of  Orohancharsa,  the  'broom rape' 
order  of  Exogenous  plants,  cf  which  £.  Virgmiana,  '  the  beech- 
drops'  of  N.  America,  is  a  familiar  species.  The  root  of  this 
species  is  used  as  an  application  to  cancerous  affections,  and 
has  hence  received  the  name  of  '  cancer-rooL' 

Bpipll'ora  is  a  disease  of  the  secreting  lachrymal  organs, 
commonly  called  '  watery  eye.'  E.  roust  be  distinguished  from 
watery  eye  caused  by  obstruction  in  the  lachrymal  duct,  and  may 
be  cured  by  vapour  of  laudanum  or  belladonna,  or  a  solution  of 
nitrate  of  silver,  from  two  to  four  grains  to  the  oui 

Bpipliy'teB  (Gr.  ^(,  'upon,' and /iy/mi,  '  a  plant '),  plants 
which  grow  in  the  ait  attached  to  the  stems  and  parts  of  other 
plants.  Tropical  orchids  are  examples,  the  roots  not  reaching 
ihe  soil.  They  are  of  green  colour,  and  possess  sloniata.  T' 
tools  often  possess  hairs.  Species  of  Pothos  and  TillandHa 
typical  E.  Many  common  plants,  such  as  mosses  and  lichens, 
might,  strictly  speaking,  be  named  E.,  but  the  name  is  rather 
given  to  higher  or  Phanerogamous  plants  wliich  appear  to  select 
abnoimal  habitats,  and  to  become  somewhat  parasitic  in  their 
habits.     E.  generally  tend  to  mjure  the  plants  upon  which  they 

Epi'ma  {Gr.  eptiros,  '  the  mainland '),  so  called  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  islands  on  the  coast,  vras  the  name  given  to  the 
north-western  division  of  ancient  Greece.  It  was  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  Illyrlcnm,  on  the  E.  by  Macedonia  and  Thessaly,  on 
the  S.  by  the  Ambracian  Gulf,  and  an  the  W.  by  the  Ionian  Sea. 
it  now  forms  the  southern  part  of  Albania.  In  ancient  times  it 
was  sparsely  peopled,  but  contained  a  great  number  of  tribes,  chief 
of  which  were  the  Chaones,  Thesproti,  Molos£i,aLid  '  ■*■ 


The  inhabitants  were  a  mixture  of  Pelasgians,  Macedonians,  and 
ans.  The  country  was  mountainous,  and  produced  excel- 
lent cattle  and  horses,  and  the  renowned  breed  of  Molossian 
dogs.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Achelous,  Arachthus,  Celydnus, 
Thyamis,  Acheron,  Cocytus,  and  Charadrus.  Its  most  angient 
was  Dodona,  famous  tor  its  oracle  of  Zeus  ;  others  of  note 
Ambracia,  the  capital  of  Pyrrhus,  and  Nicopolis,  founded 
by  Augustus  to  commemorate  the  victory  of  Actium.  One 
of  the  earliest  kings  of  E.  was  Pyrrhus  or  Neoptolemus,  son  of 
Achilles,  the  reputed  founder  of  the  Molossian  line.  In  his- 
torical times  its  most  famous  ruler  was  Pyrrhus  (295-273  B.C.), 
who  harassed  Rome  for  a  long  period.  On  the  death  of  Ptolemy, 
grani^n  of  Pyrrhus,  E.  became  a  republic,  and  remained  so 
till  the  conquest  of  Macedonia  by  the  Romans,  t68  B.C.  The 
Epiroles  being  accused  of  assisting  Perseus,  King  of  Mace- 
donia, L.  .^milius  Paulus,  by  order  of  the  Roman  Senate,  raaed 
seventy  of  their  towns  to  the  ground  and  sold  150,000  of  the 
inhabitants  as  slaves.  From  this  blow  E.  never  recovered.  It 
foHowed  the  fortunes  of  the  Roman  and  Byzantine  empires  till 
1204,  when  a  new  dynasty,  known  as  the  Despots  of  Albania, 
was  founded  by  a  member  of  the  Byzantine  family  of  Comnenus. 
E.  remained  under  this  rule  tiR  1466,  when,  after  twenty  years 
determined  resistance  under  its  last  despot,  George  Castriot 
(Skanderbeg),  it  yielded  to  the  Turks,  and  was  annexed  to  the 
Ottoinan  Empire.   See  FinI  ay's  History  of  the  Byzantine  Empire. 


the  presbyte  .,  ,  ^        , 

tially  '  the  dignity  of  &  bishop,'  frhich  is  the  fulness  of  the  priest- 
hood and  is  comprehended  in  the  apostolic  office,  and  to  be  an 
apostolic  and  therefore  divine  mstitution,  existing  from  the  very 
first  organisation  of  the  Chufch.  From  the  same  pomt  of  view 
E  has  an  mdelible  character,  and  possesses  a  threefold  power — of 
order  in  the  ministration  of  tiie  sacraments,  of  interior  jurisdic- 
tion in  the  conscience,  and  of  exterior  jurisdiction  in  the  Church. 
Presbyterians,  on  the'  other  hand,  maintaining  that  E.  came  into 
existence  as  a  later  hierarchical  development,  hold  the  com- 
plete parity  in  respect  of  office  and  authority  of  all  the  cler^. 
The  Roman  Catholic,  Greek,  Lutheran,  and  Anglican  (includ- 
ing the  American  and  Scotch)  are  all  Episcopal  Churches.  See 
Bishop,  and  Blunt's  Diet,  of  Doctr.  and  Hist.  Theology  (Lond. 
1872). 

BpiBCo''piTas,  in  Dutch  Bisschop,  Simon,  a  celebrated 
Arminian  divine  of  the  17th  c,  was  bom  at  Amsterdam,  1st 
January  1583,  studied  at  Leyden,  where  he  heard  both  Gomar 
and  Arminius  lecture,  and  at  Franeker,  where  he  heard  Druslus. 
Joining  the  anli-Calvinist  patty  (which  was  then  in  a  minority), 
he  oblained  a  ehurdh  nftar  Rotterdam,  and  in  1611  was  chosen 
one  of  the  committee  of  six  Arminians  sent  to  meet  the  Coun- 
ter-remonstrants before  the  States- General  In  1612  he  was 
appointed  successor  to  Gomar  at  Leyden,  though  the  Remon- 
strant feeling  against  him  was  so  strong  that  his  brother's  house 
at  Amsterdam  was  sacked.  E,  not  only  repudiated  '  election,' 
and  taught  the  universal  offer  of  salvation,  but  generally  depre- 
ciated the  value  of  pure  dc^raa,  bringing  into  prominence  the 
ethical  and  emotional  aspects  of  religion.  Even  to  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  he  endeavoured  to  assign  a  practical  import- 
ance.  Toleration,  which  is  involved  in  the  idea  of  human 
brotherhood,  seemed  to  hun  a  leading  duty,  and  in  this  he  was 
supported  by  Grotius  and  Bameveld,  and  the  Republican  party 
in  (nvll  matters  generally.  When  Maurice  of  Orange,  wishing 
to  strengthen  Calvinism  for  political  purposes,  called  the  Synod 
of  Dordrecht  (1618),  E.  made  a  noble  but  unavailing  stand  for 
free  speech.  He  then  withdrew  to  Antwerp  and  Rouen,  but  on 
Maurice's  death  resumed  preaching  at  Rotterdam,  and  finally, 
in  1634,  became  Rector  of  the  Arminian  College  at  Amsterdam, 
where  he  died,  4th  April  1643-  E.  is  the  great  expositor  of 
Arminlanism.  Among  English  divines  Hammond  and  Tlllotsoii 
owe  much  to  him.  His  most  important  works  are  the  Confessia 
SemoKslrantiitm  (1621),  Apologia  pro  Confessions  (1629),  and 
the  uniinished  Jnsiiiationis  T&eolo^ia.  A  complete  edition  of 
his  wotks  was  published  at  Amsteidam  in  1650-65. 

Hp'isode  (Gr.  ^',  'be^des,'  and  eisodos,  '  a  coming  in '),  an 
incidental  narrative  introduced  by  writers  to  give  variety  to  their 
subject.      In  epic  and  didactic  poetry  the  E.,  if  fitly  chosen  and 


vLiOOQle 


EPi 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EPE 


sltllfully  introduced,  affords  a  pleasant  relief  to  the  reader.  '  Tlie 
parting  of  Hector  and  Andromache  in  the  Iliad,  of  AristEeu^ 
and  his  bees  in  the  Georgics,  of  Dido  in  the  jEneid,  of  Ariadne 
n  the  Peleus  and  TkeUs  of  Catullus,  of  Francesco  da  Rimini  in 
Dante's  Inferno,  of  Pastorella  in  Spenser's  Fairy  Qitant,  of 
Damon  and  Musidora  in  Thomson's  Stasom,  of  Margaret  in 
Wordsworth's  Excttrdon,  and  Glaucus  in  Keafs  Endymion,  are 
feiniliar  examples  of  the  E.  in  ancient  and  modem  poetry. 

Epiepas'tios.    See  Counter-irritants. 

Epistaxla,  or  bleeding  from  the  nose,  is  very  common  in 
children  and  young  people,  and  usually  depends  on  congestion 
he  mucous  membrane.  Cold  applications  to  the  forehead  and 
bridge  of  the  nose,  with  a  brisk  purgative,  generally  arrest  E. 
In  severe  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  plug  the  nose  with  a 
pledget  of  lint,  or  a  sponge  soaked  in  some  astringent,  as  muriate 
of  iron.  When  E.  is  copious,  caused  by  the  rupture  of  a  vessel 
from  violence,  it  may  be  necessary  to  plug  both  the  posterior 
and  anterior  nares,  but  this  can  only  be  done  by  a  surgeon. 

Bpis'tle,  in  the  New  Testament,  means  a  letter  written  by 
an  apostle  to  an  individual  or  a  Church ;  in  the  Litui^,  the  first 
lesson  in  the  Communion  Service,  so  called  because  generally 
taken  from  the  apostolic  epistles  (hence  the  term  'apostle,'  also 
used),  though  sometimes  also  from  the  Acts,  and  even  from  the 
Old  Testament  prophets.     See  LESSONS. 

Epistle  Side  of  the  Altar  is  the  left  or  S.  side,  on  which 
the  Reader  (q.  v.)  stands  to  read  the  Epistle  (q.  v. )  in  the  Com- 
mimion  Service  of  the  Church. 

Epitaph  (Lat.  epitapMum,  Gr.  ipi,  'upon,' and  taphos,  'a 
tomb '),  al  first  the  name  of  a  monument  above  a  grave,  now 
Signifies  an  inscription  on  a  tomb.  The  Greeks  placed  an  in- 
scription only  on  the  tomb  of  a  hero,  but  the  Romans  wrote 
epitaphs  (generally  beginning  ^a  Vuitor\  on  the  tombs  of  their 
lelatiTes,  In  England  epitaphs  in  Latin  are  found  written  by 
the  Romanised  Britons,  but  the  first  Latin  epitaphs  written  by 
Englishmen  appear  in  the  nth  c.  From  the  end  of  the  I2fh  to 
the  middle  of  the  14tli  c.  epitaphs  are  mostly  in  French,  after 
which  English  is  frequently  used.  Early  Christian  epitaphs  are 
visible  in  the  catacombs  at  Rome.  Epitaphs  form  part  of  the 
literature  of  most  countries,  and  large  collections  of  them  have 
been  made,  containing  many  fine  examples  of  pathos,  wit,  and 
solemn  brevity  of  expression.  See  Labbe's  Thesaurus  Efita- 
phiomm  (Par.  1666),  the  Anthologia  Graca,  and  Pettigrew's 
ChronicUs  of  the  Tovibs,  in  Bohn's  Antiquarian  Library, 

Epithala'mium  (Gr.  ipilkalamwn),  properly  a  song  sung  in 
chorus  before  the  bridal  chamber  {Ihalairmi),  but  now  coinmonly 
applied  to  any  nuptial  song.  Among  the  Greeks,  Alcman, 
Stesichorus,  Sappho,  Anacreon,  Pindar,  and  others  wrote  epi- 
thalamia,  of  which  only  scattered  lines  remjun.  The  eighteenth 
idyl  of  Theocritus,  in  which  twelve  Spartan  maidens  sing  the 
praises  of  Menelaus  and  Helen,  is  the  most  perfect  specimen  of 
the  E.  proper  which  we  possess.  The  two  nuptial  songs  of 
Catullus,  and  the  E.  of  Peleus  and  Thetis  by  the  same  poet,  are 
exquisite  examples,  and  stand  alone  in  Latin  literature.  In  the 
Media  of  Seneca  we  have  the  E.  of  Jason  and  Creusa,  in  Slatius 
that  of  Stella  and  Violantella,  in  Claudian  that  of  Honorius  and 
Maria,  but  these  cannot  be  compared  with  the  hymeneals  of 
Catullus.  The  E.  was  a  favourite  subject  with  the  modem  Latin 
poets.  One  by  George  Buchanan  en  Francis  II.  and  Mary 
Stuart  is  remarkable  for  grandeur  of  thought  and  pomp  of  style. 
The  E.  of  Spenser  is  one  of  the  glories  of  English  literature, 
and  may  safely  be  pronounced  the  paragon  of  all  poems  of  its 
kind.  Ben  Jonson  and  Herrick,  in  their  epithalamia,  are  largely 
indebted  to  Catullus. 

Epitlleliuio.,  a  primary  tissue  of  higher  animals,  composed 
of  cells  termed  epitlidial  cells.  This  membrane  is  formed  in  the 
embryo  from  the  hypoblast.  Or  innermost  of  the  three  layers  into 
which  the  biastadsrm  <x  germinal  mtmbram  divides.  It  is  seen 
^pically  ss  the'lining  membrane  to  Che  digestive  system,  and  as 
forming  the  lining  of  Glands  {q.  v. )  and  their  ducts.  The  cells 
of  which  K  is  composed  form  a  continuous  layer.  They  are 
nucleated,  that  is,  possess  central  particles  or  nuaiL  The  outer 
skin  is  also  formed  of  epithelial  cells  (see  Epidermis),  so 
that  this  layer  m  reality  forms  both  the  outer  and  inner  lining 
of  the  body.  Four  chief  varieties  of  E.  are  found.  The 
commonest,  called  squamous,  pavtmeni,  or  tesselated  E.,  is  seen 
564 


cells,  arranged  ii 


,     ,   „  ,         va  of  the  eye, 

formed  of  flat,  oval,  or  polygonal  nucleated 
me  or  more  layers.  Such  cells  are  also  found 
of  the  body,  such  as  the  pleura,  &c, ,  and  in 
the  blood-vessels.  "Yiit  spheroidid  epithelial  cells  have  a  rounded 
outline,  andE.  formed  of  the  latter  is  found  as  alining  membrane 
of  glands.  Hence  it  is  also  known  as  glandular  E,  The 
cylindrUal  E.  is  formed  of  cylindrical  or  calumnar  cells.  This 
variety  lines  the  stomach  and  intestine  and  the  ducts  of  most 

t lands.      It  also   occurs  in  (he  gall-bladder  and  (es  Si 

!ach  cylindrical  epithelial  cell  is  packed  closely  am     g 
neighbours,  and  has  a  Hat  nucleus  with  contained  nude 
last  variety  of  epitheHal  cells  is  known  as  dlialed  E.,  t 
being  provided  on  their  free  extremities  with  delicate 
named  Cilia  (q.  v.),  which  keep  up  a  constant  vibriatile  m 
and  thus  aid  in  the  diffusion  and  circulation  of  fluids,  & 
ciliated  epithelial  cells  are  found  in  the  windpipe,  laryn     F  11 
plan  tubes,   spina!  cord,  &c.     The  functions  of  E. 


and  lymphatic  vessels.    Its  cells  grow  by  absorption  of  n 
matters  from  the  blood,  and  new  growths  are  continua  g 

place  &om  beneath,  to  replace  those  cells  Ih 

Epizo'a  (Or.  epi,    'upon,'   and  eSon,  '     1       g 
a  term  apphed  generally  to  those  animals     1    h 
siticaUy  on  the  outer  surfaces  of  others.    This     lass  fica 
like   the  use  of  the  term   Entozoa   (q.  v.)    is  f      d  d    p  n 
no  natural  grounds,  and  is  not  used  with  a  y    p      fi    mea       g 
in  modem  zoology.    The  chief  E.  are  lice,  fl        b  £    b  d  1 
&c.,  and  certain  Acarina  or  mites,  such  as  the  Dimodix  folh- 
eulonim,  inhabiting  the  skin  follicles  of  the  human  nose,  may  also 
be  included  under  this  name.     The  ticks  and  the  itch-mite 
{Sarcaples  scabiei),  cansing  the  disease  of  that  name  in  man,  also 
belong  to  this  group  of  parasites.     The  itch-mite,  demodex,  and 
their  allies  actually  live  within  the  skin  substance;  the  lice,  fleas, 
E.  living  upon  the  skin  surface  only. 


,'iCB  (from  the  same  root  a 
lals,  analogous  to  epidemics  in  the  human  species, 
extend  over  vast  tracts  of  country,  and  seem  to  be  propagated 
from  animal  to  animal,  each  disease  having  its  own  mode  of 
propagation.  Pleuro-pneumonia,  foot'and-mouth  disease,  and 
vesicular  epizootic  may  be  cited  as  examples.  E,  arc  now 
stamped  out  by  means  of  the  pole-axe, 
E'poch,  in  chronology.  See  Chronology. 
EpOoh,  in  astronomy,  is  the  time  at  which  a  celestial  body 

fixed.  In  a  planet  this  point  is  usually  the  perihelion,  and 
this  determination  of  the  lime  of  perihelion  passage  constitutes 
one  of  the  seven  elements  of  a  planet's  orbit.  For  another 
signification  of  the  same  word  see  Harmonic  Motion. 

Ep'ode  ipr.epMas,  'singing  to')  was  part  of  a  lyric  ode  sung 
after  the  strophe  and  antistrophc.  E.  was  also  a  name  applied 
to  poems  in  which  each  second  verse  was  shorter  than  the  first, 
or  in  which  one  of  the  verses  was  made  up  of  two  metres  of  dis- 
tinct character,  as  in  the  Epodes  of  Horace. 

Epp'ing,  a  market-town  in  the  county  of  Essex,  on  the 
northern  skirt  of  Epping  Forest,  16  miles  N.  E.  of  London,  and 
4  N.  of  Loughton  station  on  the  Great  Eastern  Railway.  It 
chiefly  consists  of  a  main  street,  running  N.  and  S.,  on  a  slight 
elevation,  and  its  principal  industry  is  the  production  for  the 
London  market  of  butter,  cream,  cheese,  &c.  Cattle-fairs  are 
held  here.  Pop.  (1S71)  Z275.  —  The  famous  Epping  Royal 
Forest,  formerly  known  as  Essex  or  Waltham  Forest,  has  now 
dwindled  to  60,000  acres,  occupying  the  S.W.  portion  of  the 
county,  between  the  rivers  Lea  and  Koding.  Of  its  area,  how- 
ever, about  50,000  acres  are  estimated  to  be  enclosed  and  private 
property.  The  forest  lands  are  under  the  care  of  a  lord-warden 
and  four  verderers.  During  the  summer  months  the  forest  is  a 
great  resort  of  pleasure-seekers,  especially  from  the  eastern  part 
of  the  metropolis. 

^rOTivette'  (Fr.  from  Sprotmsr,  '  to  try '),  an  instrument  for 
determining  the  projectile  force  of  gunpowder.  The  ordinary  E. 
takes  the  form  of  a  pistol  with  a  small  strong  barrel,  and  the 


-♦ 


yLaOogle 


EPS 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


EQU 


propulsive  force  of  the  powder  is  estimated  by  the  action  that  a 
given  quantity  of  it  on  being  fired  exerts  upon  a  spring  or  heavy 
weiglit.  In  British  Government  factories,  lai^e  and  fine  grain 
gunpowder  is  tested  witli  the  8-incli  mortar  elevated  to  an  angle 
of  45°,  in  which,  are  placed  a  oz.  of  powder  and  a  cast-iron  shot 
weighing  68  lbs.  Three  firings  take  place,  and  the  mean  dis- 
tance of  the  three  ranges  of  the  shot  determines  the  strength  of 
the  powder.  The  test  is  found  in  practice  to  be  fallacious,  and 
the  adoption  of  a  more  reliable  system  of  proving  powder  is 
under  consideration. . 

3Sp'B0ni  (anc.  Thirms  Eihiskam, '  the  warm  springs  of  Ebba,' 
an  eariy  English  queen  and  saint),  an  old  market-town  of  Surrey, 
on  the  edge  of  Banstead  Downs,  14  miles  S.S.W.  of  London  by 
the  South- Western  Railway.  It  has  an  elegant  church,  the  tower 
of  which  contains  a  peal  of  eight  bells,  eitensive  nursery  grounds, 
and  some  malting,  brewing,  brickniaking,  &e.,  but  is  chiefly 
celebrated  on  account  of  the  great  racecourse  in  the  vicinity, 
where  races  take  place  in  April,  September,  and  the  week  before 
Whitsuntide.  (See  Derby -Day.)  E.  Salts  (q.  v.)  were  orlgi- 
nally  made  here  at  the  sulphate  of  magnesia  springs.  Near  E. 
is  the  Royal  Medical  Benevolent  College  (founded  1851),  for 
the  maintenance  of  decayed  members  of  the  profession  and 
widows,  and  for  the  education  of  170  of  their  boys.   Pop.  (1871) 


Epeom  Salts  is  the  common  name  of  sulphate  of 
and  IS  so  called'  on  account  of  its  occurring  in  the  s 
spring  at  Epsom.   It  is  found  also  in  many  other  mineral  springs 
and  in  sea-water,  and  is  sometimes  separated  from  the  latter  by 
fractional  crystallisation.     It  may  also  be  prepared  either  &om 
mi^esite   (native  carbonate  of  magnesia),  or  from  dolomite 
(cariionate  of  magnesia  and  lime).     From  the  former  of  these 
two  it  is  obtained  by  the  direct  action  of  sulphuric  add  ;  from 
the  latter  by  first  calcining  the  mineral  and  then  acting  upon 
with  sulphuric  acid.     The  solution  of  sulphate  of  magnesia  i 
suiting  in  either  case  is  crystallised  by  evaporation.     E.  S.  is 
colourless  cijstalUne  substance,  having  a  bitter  and  nauseo 
taste.     Its  chemical  formula  is  MgSOj,7HjO.      When  heated 
to  100°  C.,  it  loses  sin  of  its  seven  molecules  of  water.    The 
remaining  molecule  can  only  be  expelled  at  a  much  higher  tem- 
perature,     E.  S.  is  used  in  medlcme  as  a  purgative  in  doses  of 

EpVorth,  a  market-town  and  parish  in  Lincolnshire,  23 
miles  N.N.W.  of  Lincoln.  The  principal  mdustries  are  fiax  and 
hemp  dressing,  and  cattle,  flax,  and  hemp  are  sold  at  the  two 
annual  &irs.  John  Wesley  was  born  at  E.,  17th  June  1703. 
Pop.  of  parish  (1871)  2295. 

Eq'uable  Mo'tion,  known  more  commonly  as  uniform  velo' 
city.    See  Velocity. 

Eijual'jty.     See  Liberty,  Equality,  and  Fraternity. 

E'q.ual  Tein'perameiit,"in  music,  the  system  of  tuning  by 
which  the  octave  is  divided  into  twelve  equal  semitones,  as 
in  the  pianoforte,  &c.    See  JuST  INTONATION  and  TempekA- 

Equa'tion,  in  pure  mathematics,  is  an  assertion  of  equality 
between  two  expressions,  and  is  represented  to  the  eye  by  the 
symbol  =.  Thus  A  =  B  is  an  assertion  of  equality,  and  '- 
therefore  an  E,  Now  such  an  assertion  may  be  alvrays  tn  , 
whatever  the  values  of  the  quantities  involved  may  be  ;  as,  for 
instance,  a  =  a,  (a  -i-  i)=  =  a'  +  a  n*  -1-  b*,  &e.  These  are  called 
equadons  of  identity,  or  simply  Identities  (q.  v.).  But  if  we 
assert  that  a  +  s  =  S,  then  we  have  an  E.  of  condition,  which  is 
satisfied  by  only  one  value  of  a,  2  namely.  It  is  this  latter 
class  which  is  more  particularly  studied  here.  Into  all  such 
equations  quantities  of  two  distinct  kinds  enter — 
die  unknowm.  In  the  E.  above,  3  and  5  are  of 
while  a  is  unknown,  but  may  be  at  once  given  in  terms  of  the 
oliers.  This  determination  of  the  unknown  is  the  solving  of 
the  E.,  and  any  definite  value,  expressed  in  terms  of  the  known 
quantities,  which  when  substituted  for  the  unknown  quantity 
satisfies  the  E.  {i.e.,  reduces  it  to  an  identity),  is  called  a  mat  of 
the  E.  TTius  the  E.  a:^  =  Sj;  -  6  has  two  roots,  namely,  2  and 
3.  To  obtain  a  clearer  notion  of  what  a  root  is,  consider  the 
general  E,  of  the  «th  order,  a:"  +  A,  a:"  -  ^  -I-  A5 1"  - ' 
+  h^-'  -H  .  .   -1-  A„-ix  +  A."  =  a,  where  Ai,   A; 


4- 


a  quantities,  and  x  the  unknown.     It  is  easily  shown  that 

ixpression  may  be  thrown  into  the  form  {x  -  Oi)  (x  -  a^) 

,..       Ba)  ......  fi;  -  fln)  =  o,  where  %,  Oa,  03,  &c.,  are  definite 

functions  of  Uie  coefficients  Ai,  A,,  A3,  &c.,  and  maybe  rational 

oftheimpossibIeformo-l-|S  V-  I. '(See  Imaginary  QuAN- 

TIES.)  Now  if  for  X  any  one  of  these  o's  be  substituted,  the 
fl  hand  is  reduced  to  zero,  and  the  E.  rendered  an  identity. 
Therrfore  each  a  is  a  root,  and  hence  there  are  it  roots.  Accord- 
ingly the  number  of  roots  of  an  E.  of  one  unknown  corresponds 
to  its  order,  i.t.,  to  the  highest  power  of  the  unknown  quantity 
which  enters.  The  investigation  of  general  expressions  like  the 
above  constitutes  the  thisiy  of  (Rations,  an  extremely  important 
branch  of  tdgebra.  An  E.  containing  more  than  one  unknown 
lity,  such  as  ai  a:  +  ^ly  +  c^n  =Pi,  where  x,  y,  and  s  are 
the  miknowns,  cannot  be  solved  in  a  determinate  man  T 

render  a  solution  possible,  there  must  be  as  many  equ  ti  as 
there  are  unknown  quantities,  so  that  in  this  case  wo  m  t  h 
for  the  complete  determination  of  x,  y,  a,  two  other  eq  t  s, 
Ha  ar-f  iajt-  +  C5E  =  A'  "aJJ-f-  *B  J'  +  ^3  *=/s-  Fr  m  tl  es 
any  two  of  the  unknowns  may  be  eliminated,  and  the  r  m  n  g 
one  expressed  in  terms  of  the  coefficients.  When  alg  b  w 
first  brought  into  Europe  by  the  Arabs,  who  obtained  it  f  m  tl 
Hindus,  equations  of  the  second  degree  had  been  solved.  The 
Italians  added,  imperfectly,  the  solutions  of  the  third  and  fourth, 
and  these  have  in  more  recent  times  been  completely  solved. 
The  g;eneral  E.  of  tlie  fifth  was  then  tried,  but  unsuccess- 
fiiUy,  and  Abel  has  proved  that  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  an 
expression  depending  on  the  coefficients  which  may  have  five 
values,  and  which  satisfies  the  E.  Here  we  cannot  enter  into 
the  methods  devised  by  Newton,  Fourier,  Sturm,  Homer,  &c., 
for  approximating  to  numerical  roots  of  equations,  but  must  refer 
to  the  many  treatises  on  the  subject  by  Lagrange,  De  Fourcy, 
Murphy,  Young,  Hymers,  Peacock,  Todhunter,  S:c. 

Equation,  Amiual.—^tt  LuNAR  TreOhY. 

Equation,  IXfftrential.—Ste  Differential  Equations. 

Equation,  Functional.— Ses  FUNCTIONS. 

Equation,  Lunar. — The  numerical  expression  for  a  perturba- 
tion of  the  moon.     See  Lunar  Theory. 

Equation  of  Equinoxea  is  the  difference  between  the 
true  position  of  the  Equinoxes  (q.  v.)  and  the  position  calculated 
upon  the  supposition  that  their  Precession  (q.  v,)  is  uniform. 

Equation  of  Idght,  in  astronomy,  is  the  allowance  which 
must  be  made  for  the  time  which  the  light  emitted  by  a  celestial 
body  lakes  to  traverse  the  space  separating  that  body  from  the 
earth,  and  is  one  of  the  corrections  which  must  be  applied  to 
the  observed  position  in  order  to  obtain  the  tine  position  of  a 

Equation  of  Payments,  a  rule  in  arithmetic  for  ascertain- 
ing the  time  at  which  a  whole  debt,  due  in  different  parts  pay- 
able at  different  times,  should  be  paid  so  as  to  be  attended  with 
loss  to  neither  party.  The  rule  is  now  of  little  practical  use, 
sums  of  money  due  at  a  future  time  being  generally  secured  by 
bills  of  exchange  or  promissory  notes.  If  the  time  of  payment 
is  altered,  it  is  usually  with  a  view  to  immediate  payment.  See 
Discount. 

Equation  of  the  Centre  is  the  difference  between  the  true 
observed  longitude  of  the  earth  and  its  mean  longilude  as  cal- 
culated upon  the  supposition  that  the  earth  moves  uniformly  in 
a  circle  round  the  .sun.  This  difference,  owing  to  the  small 
eccentricity  of  the  orbit,  never  exceeds  1°  55'  33"'3. 

Equation  of  lime  is  the  difference,  measured  in  mean  solar 
time,  between  the  tnie  time  as  given  by  a  sun-dial  and  the  mean 
time  as  indicated  by  a  well-regulated  clock.  It  arises  mainly 
from  the  varying  velocity  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit,  and  the  eccen- 
tricity of  that  orbit,  from  whicli  causes  the  true  or  observed 
right  ascension  of  the  sun  must  obviously  differ  from  its  mean 
right  ascension,  or  the  right  ascension  which  it  would  have  if 
the  earth  moved  uniformly  in  a  circular  orbit  round  it  during  the 
course  of  a  year.  The  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  also  influences 
this  equation  to  an  appreciable  extent,  and  the  moon  and  planets 
must  fikewise  liave  a  perturbing  effect.     See  Dial. 

Equations,   Chemical.      These   represent   by   means   of 
symbols  and  formulae  chemical  reactions.     Thus  aHs  +  Oj  = 
2H2O  represents  the  reaction  which  takes  place  when  hydrogen 
and  oxygen  combine  to  form  water.     See  Chemistry, 
56s 


EQU 


THE  GLOBE  ENC    CLOP  £P 


4-- 


n  Bc[uiiLOctial,  is  the  great  circle  of 
whose  plane  is  perpendicular  to  the  earth's 
1  the  Terrestrial  E.  is  the  corresponding 
great  circle  on  the  earth's  drcumference.  dividing  it  into  two 
equal  hemispheres,  the  northern  and  southern. 

Bquato'rial  is  the  technical  name  of  a  telescope  so  mounted 
as  to  be  capable  of  rotatory  motion  round  two  axes  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  the  one  axis  always  pointing  in  a  direc- 
tion parallel  to  the  earth's  polar  axis.  Accordingly,  if  a  star 
is  in  the  field  of  vietr,  it  can  be  kept  so  by  subjecting  the 
telescope  to  one  motion,  viz.,  that  round  the  J!«>/ar  axis,  ivhicli 
motion,  to  ensure  uniformity,  is  usually  imparted  to  it  by  cloclt- 
work.     The  E.  is  of  great  importance  in  all  observatories. 

Bques'trianism.     See  Hoksemanshif. 

Ecfues'trian  Order  (Lat.  orrfu  equrstris),  or  Ect'uites.  The 
term  equitss  was  originally  used  to  denote,  not  an  order  in  the 
Roman  state,  but  the  cavalry  of  the  army.  According  to  the 
Roman  legend,  the  number  levied  by  Romulus  Was  300.  Each 
century  bore  the  name  of  one  of  the  three  tribes — Ramnes, 
Titiis,  £.zii:tres.  Servius  Tullius  increased  the  E.  to  3600,  divided 
into  eighteen  centuries,  the  twelve  new  ones  being  formed  alilte 
of  patricians  and  plebeians  who  had  the  necessary  property 
qualification.  Eache^ir  received  to,ooO<i.cffi  (pounds  of  cdpper) 
a  horse,  and  2ooo  asses  annually  to  maintain  it,  and  had 
;  ten  years.  In  B.  c.  403,  in  consequence  of  tlie  reverses 
before  Veil,  a  number  of  people  possessed  of  the  requisite  fortune 
volnntarily  served  without  receiving  a  horse  or  a  horse's  allow- 
ance. These  were  styled  E.  equis  prkialis,  and  were  not 
admitted  into  the  eighteen  Centuria  Eqmtum,  whose  dignity 
was  hereditary.  As  Rome  increased  in  prosperity,  a  wealthy 
middle  class  arose,  and  in.  IZ2  B.C.  the  right  of  acting  as  jurors 
on  cruninal  trials  was  transferred  from  the  senators  to  those 
possessed  of  the  c&isUs  equesler,  i.i.,  46o,ooo  sesterces.  This  new 
body  was  called  the  E,  O.,  and  all  necessary  connection  between 
theE,  and  military  service  now  ceased.  For  a  time  the  senatorial 
order  wrangled  with  the  E,  O.,  and  in  70  B.C.  Sulla  deprived  the 
latter  of  <&!&  judicia.  The  two  orders  were  reconciled  by  Cicero 
during  Catilme's  conspiracy,  but  at  last  the  E.  O.  joined  Oesar 
and  the  popular  party.  Under  the  Empire  the  indiscriminate 
admission  of  all  who  possessed  the  required  fortune  brought  the 
order  into  contempt,  and  the  £.  eguis  pubHcis,  having  long 
ceased  to  be  the  regular  cavalry,  did  litue  more  than  ntmish 
cadets  for  military  posts.  The  insignia  of  the  E.  and  E.  O.  were 
the  gold  ring  {annuhis  aursun)  and  the  tunic  with  the  narrow 
vertical  stripe  of  purple  {tunica  angusticlavia).  By  the  Lex 
Koscia  (B.C.  67)  the  fourteen  rows  of  seats  in  the  theatre  imme- 
diately behind  those  occupied  by  the  senators  were  assigned  to 
the  E.  O. 

Eqiiiaii'gular  (Lat.  'having  equal  angles'),  the  name  given 
to  geometric  rectilinear  figures  all  of  whose  angles  are  equal  one 
to  another.  Figures  are  also  said  to  be  E.  to  each  otlier  when 
their  corresponding  angles  are  equal. 

Bq'oidse,  a  family  of  Ungulate  or  '  hoofed '  quadrupeds, 
sometimes  also  named  Solulungula,  and  represented  by  the 
horses,  asses,  zebras,  &c.  Tliis  group  of  mammals  belongs  to 
the  Perissodactyle  ('  odd-toed ')  group  of  Ungulala,  as  only  one 
toe— the  third — in  each  foot  is  fully  developed.  Thus  the  horse 
vralks  upon  this  single  developed  toe,  which  is  provided  with 
abroad  nail  termed  a  'hoof.'  The  teeth  form  an  interrupted 
series  in  each  jaw.  There  are  six  incisors,  two  canines,  six 
premolars,  and  six  molars  in  each  jaw.  The  males  alone  possess 
canines,  which  are  small.  The  skin  is  hairy,  and  a  '  mane ' 
exists.  The  E.  are  confined  in  present  distribution  to  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa,  although  they  have  been  imported  into  America. 
Fossil  E.  abound  in  later  Tertiary  deposits  in  Europe,  Asia,  and 

Equilat'eral  (Lat.  'having  equal  sides'),  in  geometry,  is 
the  name  given  to  polygons  whose  sides  are  all  equal  one  to 
another.  The  E.  hyperbola  has  its  conjugate  diameters  equal, 
bearing  the  same  relation  to  the  common  Hyperbola  (q,  v.) 
which  the  circle  does  to  the  Ellipse  (q.  v.). 

Equilib'rinm  (Lat.  '  equal  balance '),  a  state  of  rest 
produced  by  forces  mutually  balancing.  When  a  material 
system,  unrestrained  by  friction,  is  'in  E.,  the  rate  at  which 
566 


tsE      th 
th 


be  displaced  m  any  way  so  that  its  vibrations  will 
liot  Uke  place  within  definite  limits  as  before,  but  will  have  tlie 
effect  of  making  the  system  move  farther  and  farther  away  from 
its  original  position,  Xht  E.  is  unstable,  as,  for  example,  an  egg 
set  upon  one  end,  or  a  sphere  set  on  the  highest  point  of  a  con- 
vex sur&ce.  The  mathematical  conditions  for  these  three  kinds 
of  E. ,  in  which  a  system  may  be,  are  as  follows : — The  E.  is 
neutral  when  the  potential  energy  is  constant  for  all  positions ; 
stable  when  it  is  a  minimum  for  that  position  with  r^jard  to 
every  displacement ;  and  unslable  when  it  is  a  maximum  for 
one,  mote,  or  all  displacements.  See  Energy  and  Statics. 
Eqnin'ia.    See  Glanders. 

Eqiiinoo'tial  See  Ecliptic,  Equator,  Equikoxes, 
Eq'tlinoaces  (Lat.  'the  equality  of  night,'  i,e.,  with  day),  in 
astronomy,  are  the  times  atwhich  the  sun  in  its  apparently  annual 
motion  round  the  ecliptic  passes  through  the  equator  at  the  so- 
called  equinoctial  points,  which  are  sometimes  also  called  the  E. 
At  these  times  day  and  night  are  equal  for  all  parts  of  the  glibe. 
The  vertia!  equinox  occurs  about  March  21,  and  the  auhimnal 
about  September  22.  ITie  interval  of  tirne  between  the  vernal 
and  autumnal  E.  is  longer  by  nearly  eight  days  than  that  between 
the  autumnal  and  vernal,  on  account  of  the  slower  motion  of  the 
earth  during  the  former  period,  when  the  sun  appears  in  the 
northern  hemisphere.     See  EcLimc. 

Equlp'ment,  Eq'uipage  (Fr,  from  Squifir,  '  to  furnish ; ' 
Old  Fr.  esquiftr,  '  to  equip  a  ship ; '  Span,  and  Port,  ispafe, 
'  boat ; '  Old  Ger.  skif;  Icel.  skip,  sdp,  '  a  ship '),  the  furnishing 
of  a  ship  with  all  technical  appliances.  Camp  E.  embraces  afi 
the  technical  appliances  of  a  camp — as  tents,  kitchen  furniture, 
saddle-horses,  ba^age  wagons,  &c.  The  E.  of  a  soldier  in- 
cludes his  dress,  arms,  accoutrements,  ammunition,  and  provisions 
for  a  day  cc  other  fixed  term. 

EquipoU'ent  is  a  term  sometimes  used  in  Scotch  law  to  sig- 
nify egaivalent,  or  similarity  of  effect.  Where  a  particular  form 
is  prescribed  by  a  statute  or  by  agreement,  an  E.,  that  is,  an  act 
tantamount  in  effect,  will  not  be  held  legal  compliance  with  the 
prescribed  form. 

EctuiBa'tum,  a  well-ltnovm  genus  of  Cryptogams,  Or  lower 
and  flowerless  plants,  belonging  to  and  forming  the  type  of  a 
natural  order,  Equisetaces.  They  are  familiarly  named  '  horse- 
tails,' and  a  comnion  example  of  the  group  is  the  E.  arvenst., 
or  field  horse-tail,  which  grows  from  a  creeping  root-stock  with 
erect  stems  of  both  fertile  and  barren  nature,  fhe  fertile  stems 
are  not  branched,  and  attain  a  height  of  from  6  to  10  inches. 
They  wither  in  spring,  before  the  growth  of  the  barren  stems. 
Each  fertile  stem  is  topped  by  a  little  cone  consisting  of  scales, 
bearing  the  spore-cases  or  sporangia  on  their  under  surfaces. 
The  spores  of  E,  exhibit  hygrometric  movements.  They  are 
provided  with  long  processes,  which  coil  up  when  moistened,  but 
expand  when  dry.  The  barren  stems  in  summer  give  off  slender- 
jointed  branches  in  verticils  or  whorls.  A  familiar  species  of  E. 
is  the  R,  kyemah  or  Dutch  rush,  the  outer  skin  or  Epidermis 
(q,  V.)  of  which  contains  so  much  silica  or  flint,  that  it  is  used 
for  polishing  pewter  pots  and  metallic  substances.  The  species 
of  E.  grow  very  rapidly,  and  sometimes  annoy  the  agriculturist. 
Cattle  appear  to  be  injured  by  them,  and  they  possess  astringent 
and  diuretic  properties. 

Eq'nity  and  La-nr.  It  is  a  common  error  to  suppose  that 
equity  is  administered  at  the  discretion  of  the  judge,  according 
to  the  circumstances  of  each  case,  vrilhout  regard  to  rule  or  pre- 
cedents. What  equity  does  is  to  do  justice  between  parties 
where  there  is  no  legal  obstacle.  If  the  doing  of  justice  will 
controvert  a  statute  or  established  rule  of  common  law,  then 
equity  has  no  power.  Thus  the  law  being  that  marriage  revokes 
a  will  previously  made,  equity  could  not  set  aside  this  rule,  however 
unjust  might  be  the  opemlion  of  it  in  an  individual  case.     Here 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


the  law — presumflblj'  just  in  its  general  operation— must  for  tlie 
sake  of  tne  general  good  inflict  an  occasional  hardsliip.  It  is 
considered  expedient  for  public  good  in  England  that  a  man 
should  be  able  to  dispose  of  his  estate  as  he  chooses.  This  being 
so,  suppose  he  makes  a  very  unjust  distribution  of  his  property, 
equity  cannot  interfere,  because  were  equity  to  interfere,  the 
general  harm  done  would  outweigh  the  individual  good.  Plainly, 
every  one  who  thought  he  had  reasonable  ground  for  discontent 
with  a  will  would  ask  for  the  interference  of  the  court,  and  the 
court  would  come  virtually  to  be  the  general  will.makec.  But 
where  (here  is  no  legal  bar  to  equity,  then  equity  will  prevail.  In 
Scotland,  the  Court  of  Session,  as  Che  supreme  civil  court  of 
the  country,  corabines  in  itself  the  fiinctions  of  law  and  equity. 
The  equitable  power  is  called  the  vobiU  officvum  of  the  court,  a 
term  of  Roman  law.  The  noiUe  opsmia,  ot  judicium  nobUe,  of 
the  Roman  law  was  a  limited  power  given  to  the  prietor  of 
legislative  control  over  the  law.  While  this  power  is  not  given 
to  any  couii  in  England  or  in  Scotland,  many  of  the  decisions  of 
the  supreme  tribunals  are  necessarily  legislation,  from  the  &ct 
that  cases  arise  which  there  is  no  statute  or  ascertained  rule  of 
common  law  to  meet.  In  deciding  such  eases,  the  claims  of 
pure  law  and  equity  are  adjusted  on  the  considerations  staled 
above ;  justice  can  be  done  in  the  individual  case  only  so  far 
as  is  consistent  with  laying  down  a  rule  of  law  which  is  the 
best  rule  for  the  public.  Hence  it  frequently  happens  that  the 
party  in  an  appeal  ease  who  is  found  liable  in.  costs  is  really  pay- 
ing for  public  legislation. 

Equity,  Courts  of,  in  Eng'land.  These  are  the  Lord 
Chancellor's  court,  the  Ma.ster  of  the  Rolls'  court,  and  the  courts 
of  the  three  Vice- Chancellors.  Each  of  tljese  judges  presides 
over  a  separate  tribunal,  and  any  causes  or  motiops  may  be 
brought  before  them,  except  those  relating  to  lunatics,  which  are 
always  heard  by  tiie  Chancellor.  A  Vice-Chancellor  is  bound 
to  hear  all  those  matters  which  the  Chancellor  may  duect,  in 
addition  to  those  originally  set  down  for  hearing  in  his  own 
conrt.  The  Master  of  the  Rolls  is  not  so  bound.  \"ilhile  this 
volume  has  been  in  press,  an  important  change  has  been  effected 
in  the  constitution  of  the  supreme  lawrcou'rts  of  England  by  the 
passing  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature  Act  (1875).  The 
Court  of  Chancery,  of  which  [he  above  constitute  the  divisions, 
is  transmuted  into  a  division  of  '  Her  Majesty's  High  Courl  of 
Justice.'  It  may  for  some  time  hold  by  the  tradition  of  a  dis- 
tinct form  of  procedure,  but  uldmately  the  result  will  probably 
be  uniformity  of  action.  The  essential  difference  between  the 
courts  of  law  and  the  courts  of  equity,  Bs  these  have  hitherto 
existed  in  England,  consisted  principally  in  the  subjects  of  their 
jurisdiction,  in  the  nature  of  the  remedy  provided,  and  in  their 
methods  of  procedure.  The  most  important  form  of  relief  given 
by  the  courts  of  equity  is  that  of  Injunction  (q.  v. ),  which  may  be 
to  restrain  the  adverse  party  in  a  suit  from  any  act  in  violation  of 
the  plaintiff's  right,  or  to  restrain  a  person  from  proceeding  with 
an  action  where  it  is  strictly  of  a  civil  nature,  or  from  enforcing 
judgmenL  Equity  courts  will  interfere  to  prevent  waste,  in- 
fringement of  copyright,  negotiation  of  bills,  and  imitation  of 
trade  marks.     See  Cowet  of  Judicature,  Supreme,  Acts. 

Equity  of  Bedemptioii,  Although  by  the  law  of  England 
a  mortgage  is  forfeited  on  noij-paymeiit  of  the  sum  borrowed 
at  the  time  agreed  on,  equity  will  interfere  to  prevent  the  sale  ; 
and  if  the  value  of  the  mortgage  is  greater  than  the  sum  advanced, 
equity  wUl  allow  the  mortgagor  within  a  reasonable  time  to 
redeem  his  estate,  paying  to  the  mortgagee  his  principal,  interest, 
and  expenses.  Thp  advantage  t^us  allowed  to  the  mortgagor 
is  called  the  E.  ofR,  But  the  mortgagee  ipay  call  on  the  i 
gagor  to  redeem  his  estate,  and  if  he  fail  to  do  so,  the  mortgagee 
may  foreclose,  by  wljich  the  E.  of  R.  is  lost.  See  Mortgage, 
Ejectment. 

Equiv'alent,  Joule's,  is  the  quantity  of  mechanical  work 
required  to  be  expended  so  as  to  raise  unit  mass  of  water  at  a 
given  temperature  by  pne  degree.  It  will  be  sufEcient  here  to 
give  the  final  conclusions  published  by  Joule,  reserving  to  the 
article  Therm o-Dynamics  the  history  of  the  subject  In  1S49, 
after  six  years'  experiment,  he  thus  gives  his  results  -i-r-'  1st,  Tl'^ 
quantit;^  of  heat  produced  by  the  friction  of  bodies,  whether  solid 


the  tempeial 


taken  at  between  55'  and  60°)  by  1°  F.  requires  for  ils  evolu- 
tion the  expenditure  of  a  mechanical  force  represented  by 
the  fall  of  772  lbs.  through  the  space  of  one  foot.'  The  value 
of  gravity  is  that  of  Manchester,  where  the  experiments  were 

Equivalents,  Chemical.  By  the  equivalents  of  substances 
are  understood  the  pfoporllons  in  which  they  combine  or  replace 
one  another,  these  proportions  being  referred  to  a  common 
standard,  viz.,  1  part  by  weight  of  hydrogen.  Thus  56  is  the 
equivalent  of  caustic  potash,  and  49  that  of  sulphuric  acid,  and 
.therefore  these  quantities  of  the  two  substances  unite,  neither 
being  in  excess.  32'5  is  the  equivalent  of  zinc,  and  this  quantity 
of  zinc  CBJi  replace  i  pp.rt  by  weight  of  hydrogen  in  49  parts  by 
weight  gf  sulphuric  acid,  giving  80 '5  parts  by  weight  of  sulphate 
of  line  The  tenn  equivalent  is  now  not  often  employed,  the 
facts  of  equivalence  beipg  inore  readily  explained  by  the  Atomic 
Theory  (q.  v.), 

E'ra.    See  Chronology. 

Erasis'tratua,  a  Greek  physician  and  anatomist,  was  a 
native  of  the  island  of  Ceos,  and  lived  in  the  3d  c  B.C.  After 
residing  for  some  time  at  the  court  of  Seleucus  Nicator  in  Syria, 
he  established.himself  as  a  teacher  and  practitioner  in  Alexandria, 
where  he  founded  a  school  of  medicine.  The  date  and  even  the 
place  of  his  death  are  uncertain,  and  only  a  few  fragments  of 
his  numerous  writings  survive.  The  interest  attaching  to  his 
name  is  that  he  narrowly  escaped  anticipating  Harvey's  dis- 
covery of  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  See  HLeronymus,  Dis- 
serfsfif  Inauiui-alis  exhihots  EradstTotiErasistratkorumque  His- 
toria^/a^na,  .790). 

Erasmiui,  Seeideriuii,  the  Greek  end  Latin  equivalents 
of  the  Dutch  Q-herserd  ('  The  Beloved  '),  bom  at  Rotterdam, 
27th  October  1467,  was  the  son  of  Gherzetd  of  Tergouw  and 
Margaret  of  Zevenbergen,  the  sweet  though  painful  story  of 
whose  lives  has  been  told .  in  Charles  Reade's  Cloister  and 
Hearth.  He  was  educated  at  Groot's  school,  kept  by  the  Brothers 
of  the  Common  Life  at  Deventer,  and  at  Bolduc  in  Brabant,  and 
then  entered  the  Augustjne  monastery  at  Sleyn.  Before  this  both 
his  parents  had  died.  At  Sleyn  he  diligently  read  Latin  authors 
with  Wilhelm  Hermann,  and  wrote  his  classical  essay  De  Con- 
ttntttt  Mctlis.  But  poetry  was  nest  to  heresy  in  the  eyes  of  the 
monks,  whose  drunken  habits  disgusted  E.  He  was  therefore 
glad  in  1491  to  be  employed  as  the  secretary  of  Henri  i  Bergis, 
Bishop  of  Cambray.  From  Cambray  he  went  to  the  wretched 
Scotisl  College  of  Monlaigu,  of  which  tlie  rector  was  the  ascetic 
John  Sandouck,  and  soon  obtained  a  good  deal  ot  tutorial  work 
at  Paris  University  (Englishmen,  such  as  Blunt  and  Grey,  being 
among  his  pupils),  where  he  remained  fill  149S,  when  he  came 
to  England  for  eighteen  months.  At  Oxford,  where  Chamoch, 
Prior  of  Augiistinian  Canons  Regular,  was  head  of  St  Mary's 
College,  he  met  Thomas  Linacre,  the  grammarian,  afterwards 
physician  to  Henry  VIIL,  William  Grocyn,  the  patriarch  of 
Greek  learning  in  England,  Thomas  Latimer,  and  Thomaaf 
More;  but  E.'s  cliief  fnend  was  John  Colet,  the  liberal  theolo- 
gian, with  whom  he  had  many  a  friendly  disputatvutKula.  The 
next  six  years  he  spent  in  Paris,  Orleans,  and  the  Netherlands. 
To  this  period  belongs  the  EncMiidion,  or  '  Christian  Soldier's 
Da^er,  a  Platonic  summary  of  human  nature  and  its  religious 
duties,  with  very  little  reference  to  Catholic  dogma,  which  was, 
however,  approved  by  Pope  Adrian  VL,  then  Principal  of 
Louvain,  though  subsequently  condemned  as  heretical  by  the 
Sorbonne.  It  was  translated  into  all  the  Western  languages  :  into 
English  by  Tyndale.  About  this  time  (1503)  began  E.'s  acquaint- 
ance with  the  splritnal-minded  Franciscan,  John  Vitrarius  of  St 
Omer.  In  1500  we  find  him  again  in  Eugland,  where  he  saw 
his  old  friends  at  Oxford,  and  became  Bachelor  of  Divinity  at 
Cambridge.     The  same  year  he  went  to  Italy,  and  got  his 


bout  editions  of 
Terence  and  Plautus,  and  some  translations  from  Euripides. 
At  Padua  he  met  Musurus,  and  in  1509,  after  spending  some 
time  in  Rome,  he  returned  by  Como,  Chur,  Strasburg,  and 
Antwerp  to  England.  Here  he  composed  his  famous  Encomium 
Motits  ('Praise  of  Folly'),  which  rivals  Lucian  in  satire,  and 
excels  him  in  good  humour.  It  was  afterwards  illustrated  by 
Holbein.  E.  now  lectured  at  Cambridge  on  Greek,  and  became 
S'7 


vLaOogle 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Lady  Margaret's  Professor  of  Divinity,  In  1514  he  went  to  see 
the  printer  Froben  (successor  of  Amerbach)  "at  Basel,  and  on 
his  way  thitlier  met  Sebastian  Brandt  (author  of  the  Narren- 
scAiff),  Bilibald  Pircltheimer,  the  leanied  senator  of  Numberg, 
antTjolin  Renchlin,  the  bold  student  of  the  Cabbala,  then  en- 
gaged in  his  strife  with  the  inquisitor  Hochstraten,  who  desired 
to  bum  all  the  Jewish  literaUire,  E.  was  appointed  coun- 
cillor 10  the  young  Archduke  Charles  of  Burgundy,  who  after- 
wards wished  to  make  him  a  bishop  in  Sicily,  In  1516  Froben 
published  the  first  editioa  of  E.'a  Greek  Testament,  dedicated 
10  Leo  X,  A  good  deal  of  sarcasm  appears  in  the  annotations, 
and  also  several  odd  blunders,  such  as  putting  Niap>Us  in  Caria. 
Among^other  savage  criticisms  was  that  of  Edward  Lee,  after- 
wards English  Primate,  who  maintained  the  text  of  the  three 
witnesses,  which  E.,  anticipating  the  labours  of  the  Revision 
Committee  (1876),  had  omitted.  In  this  field  E.  was  first, 
Laurentius  Valla  had  only  collated  the  MSS.,  and  the  Cojnfla- 
icKsian  PolygloU  of  Cardinal  Ximenes  did  not  appear  for  some 
years  after.  The  Testament  was  followed  by  the  edition  of  St 
Jerome,  for  whom  E.  had  a  deep  admiration.  After  a  stay  at 
Brussels,  where  he  had  an  angry  correspondence  with  the  Ger- 
man BiviEeus,  he  went  to  Louvain,  superintending  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  Busleiden  bequest.  Here  he  m^t  Von  Hutten, 
who  had  just  published  one  of  the  best  of  the  n^Utola  Obscuro- 
mm  Vircrum,  and  received  his  first  letter  from  fLuther.  He  left 
Louvain  in  1521  and  proceeded  to  Basel,  whence  he  wrote  his 
letter  of  advice  to  the  new  Pope  (Adrian  III.),  and  where  he 
quarrelled  rather  shabbily  with  Von  Hutten,  who  wrote  there- 
upon his  Expostulation.  This  elicited  E.'s  Sponge,  in  which  he 
tries  to  eitcuse  himself  from  not  actively  taldng  part  in  the  Re- 
formation. E.  also  retaliates  on  Von  Hutten  in  one  of  the  Col- 
loqtiia,  a  lively  and  interesting  book  which  must  be  read,  and 
cannot  be  descriljed.  The  next  pope,  Clement  VII.  (1524).  gave 
E.  a  pension  of  aoo  florins,  but  the  Collogiiies  were  soon  after' 
condemned  by  the  Sorlronne ;  and  E.  had  to  write  his  defiance 
to  'certEun  most  impudent  jackdaws.'  He  died  at  Basel,  12th 
July  I S36.  E.  was  not  a  hero.  Although  amiable,  indnstrious, 
and  truthful,  as  well  as  learned  aiui  ingenious,  he  had  some 
mean  qualities.  His  supremacy  was  purely  intellectual,  and  he 
believed  that  criticism  would  gradually  remove  the  corruptions 
of  Rome.  He  is,  in  some  sense,  the  forerunner  of  the  modem 
Broad  Church  party.  It  is  a  great  tribute  to  his  literary  eminence 
that  his  works,  and  espedally  his  Letters  and  lighter  works,  are 
still  read  and  admired.  See  Dean  Milman's  essay  ;  Seebohm's 
Oxford  Reformers;  and  Life  by  R.  B,  Drummord  (a  vols.  1873), 
Eras'tus,  TbomtW!,  notable  in  medicine  and  famous  in  eccle- 
siastical polemics,  vras  bom  at  Baden  in  Switierland,  September 
7,  1524.  The  name  E.  is  a  translation  of  his  German  patronymic 
Lieber.  After  an  education  in  his  na(iv«  town,  he  studied  divinity 
at  Basel,  and  then  medicine  at  Bologna.  E.  remained  nine  years 
in  Italy,  and  on  his  return  was  made  Professor  of  Physic  in  the 
University  of  Heidelbeig.  In  1581  he  accepted  the  same  chair 
at  Basel,  and  died  there  31st  December  1583.  E,  left  bj-  vrill  a 
large  sum  for  the  education  of  poor  students  of  medicme,  and 
this  bequest,  called  the  Erastian  Foundation,  long  perpetuated  bis. 
name.  His  chief  work  is  his  Exptieatto  Qinrsttonis  (Pravitsiina 
de  Excommuiticatiom.  During  his  whole  life  E.  was  the  vigorous 
opponent  of  those  who  argued  that  the  ecclesiastical  authori'" 
should  punish  crimes  and  offences.  The  right  of  excommunicati( 
was  that  which  E,  chiefly  attacked,  but  alisolution,  interdi 
tion,  the  imposition  of  penance,  &c.,  are  also  discussed.  From 
the  opinions  in  this  book  the  term  Eraslianism  has  arisen, 
which  has  been  much  used  in  Scotland,  and  generally  misused. 
E.  merely  asserts  that  misdemeanours  should  be  punished  not 
by  ecclesiastical  but  by  civil  authority,  but  in  Scotland  many 
people  who  never  heard  of  E.  are  accustomed  to  describe 
as  Emslian  the  policy  which  repudiates  the  doctrine  of  the 
spiritual  independence  of  the  Church.  R's  work,  translated 
into  English  in  1669,  was  re-ediied  by  Dr  Lee  of  Edinburgh  in 
1S4S.  Among  E.'s  scientific  and  medical  works  are  his  I>e 
Disirimine  Logica,et  Sciea&e'Demomtrateua  (1565),  Theses  de 
Contagio  (HeideSb.  1574),  and  Di  Occult.  Fharniaco-Potestati- 
^MJHeidelb.  1574). 

.  Era'sure,  or  Ha'zuie,  as  it  is  sometimes  called  in  England, 
is  in  law  the  obliteration  of  any  letter  or  word  in  a  legal  writ- 
ing. In  England  the  presumption  of  law,  except  as  regards  s 
will,  appears  to  be,  when  there  is  an  E  in  a  deed,  that  it  has 


been  made  previous  to  execution.  Should  this  presumption  be 
overcome  by  evidence  to  the  contrary,  the  deed  is  not  necessarily 
void.  If  sufhcient  evidence  can  ba  adduced  to  prove  the  inten- 
tion of  the  granter,  this  will  be  given  effect  to.  If  this,  how- 
ever, cannot  be  done,  E.  proved  to  be  subsequent  to  execution 
renders  the  writing  void.  In  making  a  will,  if  there  are  any  era- 
sures or  Interlineations  (q.  v.),  the  testator  should  put  his  initials 
on  the  mai^in  opposite  them,  and  '  notice  them  in  the  atliS' 
latum.'  (See  Lord  St  Leonard's  Hattdybook;  also  Will, 
Cancelling.)  In  Scotch  law,  deeds  or  other  formal  instru- 
ments erased  in  substaittialihus — that  is,  in  those  parts  essential 
to  their  validity — are  not  held  probative,  and  the  defect  cannot 
be  supplied  by  parole  evidence.  An  E  in  a  non-vital  part  of 
a  deed  should  be  declared  in  the  body  of  the  writing,  by  stating 
that  the  superscribed  words  are  written  on  an  E.  But  when 
correction  is  required  from  .clerical  eiTOr  or  other  cause,  the 
proper  way  is  to  draw  the  pen  through  the  erroneous  words  so 
as  to  leave  them  still  legible,  and  to  add  with  a  mark  of  refer- 
ence the  correct  words  on  the  margin,  the  addition  being 
signed  by  the  party  to  the  deed  writing  his  Christian  name  on 
one  side  and  his  surname  on  the  other.  (See  Menzies'  Lectures 
on  Conveyancing,  pi  124)  In  bookkeeping  an  E.  should 
never  be  made,  as  if  the  book  were  judicially  mspected  the  E. 
might  cause  suspicion  of  fraud.  An  error  should  be  deleted  with 
the  pen  so  as  to  leave  the  words  or  figures  l^ble.  The  statute 
6  and  7  Will.  IV.  c  33,  to  increase  Ae  security  afforded  by  the 
public  records  of  deeds  and  instruments  affecting  land  in  Scot- 
knd,  enacts  that  an  instrument  of  sasine  shall  not  be  rendered 
voidbyanypait  of  it  being  written  on  an  E.,  unless  it  be  averred 
and  proved  that  the  E.  was  fraudulently  made,  or  unless  the 
record  does  not  correspond  vrith  the  instrument.  There  are, 
however,  some  exceptions  to  the  operation  of  this  statute. 

Krato  {'the  lovely'),  in  Greek  mythology, 
Muses.     She  presided  over  erotic  poetry  and 

''  —  represented  as  the  Muse  of  the  lyre, 

famous  Greek  writer,  son  of  Aglaus,  was 
bom  at  Cyrene,  276  B.C.  His  preceptors  were  Aristo  the  Chian, 
Lysanius,  and  Calliroachas.  He  devoted  himself  to  grammatical 
criticism,  philosophy,  astronomy,  and  poetry.  Ptolemy  Eue^^etes 
appointed  him  librarian  at  Alenandria,  a  position  which  he  filled 
till  his  death.  K  was  a  man  of  most  extensive  and  varied  learn- 
ing. He  wrote  on  the  Old  Attic  Comedy  and  on  the  Homeric 
Poems,  composed  several  philosophical  and  historical  works, 
raised  get^raphy  to  the  rank  of  a  science,  founded  geodesy,  and 
made  important  discoveries  in  astronomy  and  geometry.  His 
chief  work  was  a  treatise  on  geography,  which  Slrabo  made  large 
use  of.  He  measured  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  and  was  the 
originator  of  the  process  by  which  the  magnitude  of  the  earth 
is  found.  He  voluntarily  starved  himself  to  death  at  the  age  of 
eighty,  196  B.C.  For  a  complete  list  of  his  works,  see  the  Eni- 
toCimia  of  Bernhardy  (Berlin,  1822). 

ErcLU'a,  T  Zufiiga  Aloneo,  a  Spanish  epic  poet,  was  born 
at  Madrid,  or,  according  to  others,  in  Biscay,  Tlh  August  1533. 
At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  became  page  to  the  Prmce  of  the 
Asturias,  afterwards  Philip  II.  In  1554  he  came  to  London  in 
the  tram  of  Philip,  on  the  occasion  of  his  marriage  with  Queen 
Mary.  While  there,  E.  learned  that  the  Indians  of  Arauca,  a 
district  of  Chili,  had  revolted  against  the  Spaniards.  He  joined 
the  expedition  dispatched  to  quell  the  rebellion,  and  made  this 
war  the  theme  of  an  epic.  The  poem,  begun  in  1558,  was  com- 
posed during  the  campaign,  being  written  on  scraps  of  paper, 
and,  even  of  leather,  when  no  better  material  could  be  had. 
Philip,  whom  he  had  addressed  as  his  Augustus  in  the  Arau- 
(1569-90),  treated  him  with  neglect  on  his  return'-  ="»!"■ 


le  of  the  Nin. 


and  the  soldier-poet  died 
time  after  the  year  1596. 
six  cantos  of  octosyllabic 
treatment  also  to  a  great 
been  piaised  by  Cervantes 
'   that  published    ' 


;  Madrid  in  want  and  obscurity  some 
E.'s  epic,  the  Aravcana,^  is  in  thirty- 
erse.  Not  only  the  subject,  but  the 
extent,  is  historical.  The  work  has 
ind  Lope  de  Vega.  The  best  Spanish 
Madrid  in  1828.   A  German  transla- 


tion by  Winterling  was  published  at  Nuremberg  in 

Ecokmann  (Emile),  and  Ohatrian  (Alexandre),  two  mo- 
dem French  novelists,  the  former  born  at  Phalsbnrg,  Meurthe, 
20th  May  1822,  the  latter  at  Soldatenthal,  also  in  Meurthe,  18th 
December  1826.  Both  belonging  to  the  middle  class,  they  met 
at  the  college  of  Phalsbui^,  and  later  went  to  Paris,  where  they 


yLaOOgle 


4- 


THE  GIOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


set  up  a  literary  partiiersliip,  producing  united!]'  a  series  of  plays 
and  tales.  After  two  years  of  hard  struggling,  their  Illusire 
Doctor  Mathka  (iSjgJ  at  last  stirred  the  putilic  interest,  which 
has  since  been  kept  fiom  flawing  by  Conlei  Fanlmtiguei  (i860), 
Ls  Pm  yksf{\ma),  le  Jsumr  de  Claiinells  (1863),  Ls  Consent 
de  1813  (1S54),  Walaioo  (1865),  LHemmldu  Pmph  (1865),  La 
Maism  ForaHireij.i^),  Le  Blocus  {lifj),  Hisloin  d'un  Fay  sail 
{l868),  SUry  of  the  PUHscUi  (Englisli,  1872),  and  Brigadier  Fre- 
deric {1875).  These  are  written  in  a  simple  unaffected  style,  in 
harmony  with  the  pathetic,  picturesque  studies  of  peasant  life 
which  form  the  imcliground  on  which  are  dashed  in  vivid 
colours,  and  with  realistic  touch,  the  military  glories  ajid  horrors 
of  (he  Revolution  and  Empire.  The  most  successful  play  of  E., 
C.  is  Lejuif  Folonais  (1869),  produced  in  England  as  Tk(  Bells 
(1871),  rendered  popular  by  the  acting  of  J.  H.  Irving. 

Er'ebus,  the  son  of  Chaos,  The  name  signilies  darkuess 
generally,  and  is  specially  applied  to  the  gloomy  region  of  tlie 
under- world  through  which  the  shades  pass  to  Hades, 

Eiech'tlieusorEriqlitho'&iaSgandXtreotatlie'uin.  Ereeh, 
theus  or  Erichthonins  is  reputed  to  have  sprung  from  Attic  soil 
in  marriage  with  Hephzestus.  He  was  reared  by  Athena.  When 
grown  up,  he  usurped  the  government  of  Athens,  itistituted 
die  worship  of  Athena,  and  built  her  a  temple  on  the  Acropolis. 
This  temple,  called  after  him  the  Erec-htheum,  was  the  most 
revered  of  all  the  Athenian  ssnctuaties,  It  contained  the  olive- 
wood  statue  of  Athena  Polias  that  was  said  to  have  fallen  from 
heaven,  the  sacred  olive-tree  which  the  goddess  called  forth  in 
her  contest  with  Poseidon,  the  tombs  of  Cecrops  anij  of  E.  him- 
self. It  was  burnt  by  the  Persians,  but  was  (replaced  in  the 
beginning  of  the  4th  c  B.C  by  an  Ionic  structure,  one  of  the 
triumphs  of  Athenian  architecture.  By  his  wife  Praxithea  E,  had 
four  sons  and  four  daughters.  The  daughters,  Procris,  Creusa, 
Chthonia,  and  Orithyia,  agreed  that  if  one  of  them  were  to  die 
the  ottiers  should  not  survive  her.  When  Chthonia  was  sacrificed 
for  the  welfare  of  Athens,  two  of  her  sisters  kept  their  vow.  The 
legend  of  Chthonia  is  beaiitifuUy  told  in  Swinburne's  tragedy  of 
Erechtheus  (Lond.  1876). 

Eroc'tile  Xise'ae,  a  kind  of  tissue  found  in  certain  organs 
which  are  soUietimes  rendered  turgid  by  distension  with  blood. 
It  consists  of  a  network  formed  of  fibrous,  elastic,  and  perhaps 
contractile  bands,  called  trabeeuli^,  in  the  meshes  of  which  there 
are  numerous  blood-vessels,  chiefly  veins.  These  veins  com- 
municate with  small  arteries,  and  under  certaiii  nervous  condi- 
tions, become  distended  witl;  bjood,  causing  the  organ  to  swell 
and  to  be  erected. 

Eretftioii,  Lords  of.    Those  to  whom  the  king,  in  Scotl    d 
after  the  Reformation  made  grants,  jure  corona,  of  the  land 
tithes  which  Iiad  formerly  belonged  lo  the  Popish  ecclesi    t     I 
establishment,  were  so  entitled,  because  under  their  grants  th  y 
had  the  same  rights  to  the  erected  benefices  which  were  fo        ly 
vested  in  the  Church.     Sometimes  those  so  gifted  were      11  d 
titulars  of  the  tithes.    Those  grants  were  rriade  under  the  b     1 
of  providing  competent  stipends  to  the  Refomied  dergy,     S 
Teinds. 

Xkect  Vision.    See  Eye, 

Er'eiaites  (Gr.  eremilss,  from  eremos,  '  lonely,'  *  desert  ) 
Her'mits,  thenameoftheearly  Christian  solitaries,  whom  th 
East,  and  especially  in  E^pt,  withdrew  to  the  deseft,  and  p  t 
their  lives  in  lonely  pmyer,  rigorous  abstinence,  and  often  1  If 
mortification.  (See  Anchoeites  ^d  Asceticism-)  Thi  pra 
tice  of  retirement  began  in  the  zd  c,  and  became  common  th 
.  fii'sthalf  of  the4th  c  It  may  have  been  suggested  by  the  Thtra 
peats  (q.  v.).  The  severe  watchings  and  fastings  of  these  recluses 
often  gave  rise  to  insanity,  and  an  asylum  for  such  as  were  incur- 
ably deranged  was  established  at  Jerusalem.  From  the  strange 
hallucinations  to  which  they  were  subject  much  of  medjjeval 
demonology  originated.  The  E.  were  strict  observers  of  celibacy, 
and  gradually  gatliered  into  monastic  communities,  the  first  of 
which  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  HilatLon.  (See  Monas- 
TiciSM.)  A  famous  eremite  was  soon  surrounded  by  imitators, 
who  were  formed  into  a  ccenobite  community,  while  many  E. 
who  did  not  join  the  monastery  girt  it  with  a  la-ura  or  circle  of 
separate  cells,  E.  were  common  during  the  middle  ages,  whei) 
they  gathered  into  brotherhoods,  of  whiSi  the  most  famous  were 
the  Hermits  of  St  Augustine.  See  Helyot's  Hutoire  des  Orares 
ReUgieux,  and  Lecky's  History  ef  Nationalism, 
147 


Er'fart  (anc.  Erpisford,  '  the  ford  of  Erpe '),  the  old  capital 
of  Thuringia,  now  a  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  on  the  Gera,  in 
a  fertile  plain,  14  miles  W.  of  Weimar  by  rail.  E.  was  formerly 
a  fortress  of  the  second  rank.  Its  original  forCiRcations  have 
been  strengthened  by  two  citadels  and  other  outworks.  Among 
the  most  noteworthy  buildings  are  the  Gothic  cathedral,  with  a 
portal  of  the  I3th  c.,  and  the  great  Susanna,  one  of  its  ten  bells, 
weighing  375  cwt. ;  tlie  Severikirche,  of  the  14th  c,,  with  three 
copper- covered  towers;  and  the  Angnstinian  monastery  (now  an 
orphanage)  in  which  Luther  was  a  monk.  Of  the  unjversily, 
suppressed  in  1816,  there  still  remain  the  observatory,  the  aoato- 
niical  theatre,  and  the  botanic  garden.  In  the  fish-market  is  a 
monument  to  Roland.  E.  has  important  manufactures  of  wool- 
lens, cottons,  silks,  ribbons,  hosiery,  carpets,  tapesfry,  leather, 
tobacco,  chemicals,  ironmongery,  and  machinery.  In  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  E,  is  tt  rock-salt  mine,  which  in  1872  yielded 
500,000  cwt.  of  salt.  Pop.  (1871)  43,616,  of  whom  3167  were 
soldiers.  Only  an  insignificant  place  in  the  8th  c-,  at  the  end 
of  the  l6lh  c,  it  was  a  Hanse  town,  and  twice  as  large  as  it  is 
now.     In  1803  it  came  into  the  possession  of  Prassia. 

Er'got,  a  powerful  and  important  therapeutic  agent,  obtained 
chiefly  from  Secalt  cereale  or  common  rye,  by  the  action  of  a 
fungus  which  changes  the  appearance  and  constitution  of  the 
grain,  and  thus  forms  Secali  eomttisim  ox  '  sparred  rye. '  The 
ii)ngU3  which  pro<li'*a  E.  is  found  in  other  grasses  {Lolinm 
arvmst  and  L.  piratne,  &c.),  but  does  not  produce  so  character- 
istic effects  as  on  rye,  The  E.  fungus  consists  of  a  mass  of  poly- 
gonal cells  containing  an  oily  fluid.  It  appear^  within  the  seed 
or  ovule  of  rye,  and  propagates  itself  S-t  the  expense  of  the  seeds. 
Whatever  doubts  may  exist  as  to  the  natnre  of  the  E. -producing 
fiingus,  none  esist  regarding  the  powerful  action  of  the  substance 
itself.  The  actiye  principle  of  the  E.  appears  to  exist  in  a  fixed 
oil,  ttf  which  it  contains  about  35  per  cent.  The  active  substance 
is  ergstine,  a  red4isl|-brown  substiince,  of  which  E,  contains 
about  IS  per  cent  The  therapeutic  properties  are  extracted  by 
alcohol  and  water.  E-  is  first  mentioned  as  a  therapeutic  agent 
by  Camerarius  in  l568,  and  in  1669  by  Dr  Bantzmamii,  both 
writers  describing  the  substance  as  one  calcuhi,te4  'o  hasten  labour 
in  woman.  In  !774  its  use  was  prohibited  by  law  in  France, 
on  account  of  its  reputed  virulence,  but  in  1777  Desgranges  of 
Lyon  again  used  E,,  and  extolled  it  as  an  obstetric  aid.  In 
1873  Dr  Prescott  of  New  York  directed  attention  anew  to  tlie 
value  of  E.  Now  it  is  largely  employed  in  midwifery,  as  well 
as  in  amenorrhtea  or  defective  menstruation,  in  various  uterine 
affections,  in  gonorrhcea,  paralysis,  and  other  lesions.  The  Ihera- 
p    ti  f  E.  hi  fiy  t    "  d  t    '  tion  in  the 

pul  f  th     h  Id      Aft      w  11  w  ng     m  d      al  dose  (xx. 

It)     m  )    f  E    tl  tract  f  th      t  1  bour  become 

m        fq       tdtrng  TIet  fEg       rally  sets  in 

t  p        ds        rying  f    m  li       m      tes  t     half  an  hour, 

nd  ppdtbdt  pal  ffect  n  tl)e  muscular 
lib        f  th      I  b  t  tl  1  ttl    d    bt  th  t  it  also  acts 

h      p      1        d       d       rv  es   g         lly      Dr  Tyler 

&m  h  )  h  t  th  blood  th  m  d  m  th  gh  which  E. 
p       lly     t       Wh      t  k  p   so    us  d  se   E  appears  to 

i   1        tl       t  t    t    med     got  h  nsed  by  depression, 

11  d  gangr  m    tiii    t         f  th        tremities,  or 

by       yuls  Tl    1  tt     f  rm   f    g  t   m     as  seen  at  Silesia 

7  and  tBlm  i7i,bngd  dby  eating  bread 
radfoigtdy  P  thg  dt  gling  in  the 
f    t  w         hrst     b    rv  d         n     1  f  11  w  d        d  mania  or 

t  d  d 

Jlnaoh.  By  the  Irish  Brehon  Law,  in  a  case  of  murder,  the 
brehon  or  judge  caused  the  murderer  tp  give  tlie  wife  or  child  of 
tlie  murdered  man  a  recompense,  called  an  E.  The  term  corre- 
sponds to  the  ancient  were  m  England. 

-Erica'cese,  orEri'cese,  a  natural  order  of  Exogens,  including 
the  heaths  and  allied  species  of  plants.  These  plants  are  widely 
distributed  in  arctic  and  temperate  zones  in  both  hemispheres, 
save  in  Australia.  They  are  foimd  on  the  mountain  ranges  of 
the  tropics.  The  genus  Eriea  itself  is  very  common  in  S.  Africa. 
The  Bntish  genera  number  seven,  with  twenty-three  species.  The 
E  are  'iiny  shrubs,  with  eight  or  ten  stamens,  the  latter  being 
epigynoos  or  hypogynous.  B.  einsrea,  a  Scotch  heath,  and  a 
familiar  example  of  the  order,  is  a  low  bushy  shrub,  with  linear 
ieavLS  and  ncemose  clusters  of  purple  flowers.  The  corolla 
569 


vGooqIc 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


^lersislent  in  many  heaths,  the  anthers  dehi'Jcing,  or  opening 
by' superior  pores.  The  fruit  in  the  heaths  is  a  capsule. 
Amongst  other  genera  of  tills  order  aj-e  the  Rhododendrons 
(g.  v.),  azaleas,  kalmlas,  ledum,  &c. 

Er'ieh.t,  or  Err'oolit,  IjOcIi,  in  a  dreary  waste  partly  in  Peitli- 
shire  and  partly  in  Inverness- shire,  at  the  foot  of  Ben  Aulder, 
one  of  the  Grampians,  and  about  1 500  feet  above  the  sea-level. 
It  is  about  15  miles  long  by  I  broad,  and  has  communication 
with  Lochs  Rannoch  and  Lydoch.     E.  is  said  never  to  freeze. 

Er'icsson,  Johan,  a  Swedish  engineer,  born  31st  July  1S03. 
He  came  to  England  after  serving  some  years  in  the  Swedish 
army,  and  tool;  an  active  part  in  the  introduction  of  the  serew- 
propellec  about  1837.  Two  yeais  later  he  went  to  America, 
where  he  perfected  his  caloric  engine  in  1852,  and  constructed 
the  famous  ironclad  Monitor  in  iSSa,— Nils  B.,  brother  of  the 
precediflg,  was  bom  in  1802,  and  vras  head  of  the  corps  of 
Swedish  naval  engineers  from  iSjo.  He  also  constructed  the 
Swedish  railways  (1858-63),  the  canal  between  the  Sfliman  and 
the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and  improved  the  Stockholm  docks,  &c 
In  i860  he  was  made  a  Imron,  and  died  8th  September  1870. 

B'rie,  a  town  of  Pennsylvania,  on  the  shores  of  Lake  E.  Its 
harbour,  one  of  the  best  on  the  lake,  is  formed  by  Presque  Isle, 
4  miles  long.  The  bay  is  3^  miles  long,  from  9  to  25  feet 
deep,  and  is  well  protected  by  a  breakwater.  E.  is  also  con- 
nected with  the  Ohio  by  a  canal,  and  is  the  terminus  of  the 
Philadelphia  and  Erie  Railway.     Pop.  (1870)  19,646, 

S!rie  Xiake,  one  of  the  five  great  lakes  of  N.  America  which 
give  rise  to  the  St  Lawrence,  and  with  it  form  an  unrivalled 
channel  of  inland  navigation.  It  is  fourth  in  siae  and  position, 
having  the  larger  lakes  Superior,  Michigan,  and  Huron  above, 
and  Ontario,  the  smaller,  below  it,  with  the  province  of  Ontario 
on  the  N.,  and  the  states  of  Ohio,  .Pennsylvania,  and  New  York 
on  the  S.  E.  has  a  length  of  240  niiles,  with  an  area  of  9600 
sq.  miles,  and  it  is  555  feet  above  the  oceaij.  It  has  a  mean 
depth  of  only  l2o  feet,  rendering  storms  frequent  and  navigation 
dangerous.  The  chief  United  States  harbours  are  Erie,  Cleve- 
land, Sandusky,  and  Toledo ;  the  Canadian,  Ports  Dover,  Bur- 
well,  and  Stanley.  The  current  of  Niagara,  runmng  northward, 
carries  the  waters  of  the  lake  into  the  Ontario.  Ice  interrupts 
navigation  from  December  till  March  or  April  The  Welknd 
Canal  connects  E.  and  Ontaiio,  and  numerous  railwajre  and 
canals  render  the  lake  a  busy  scene  of  traffic,  —E.  Canal,  a  work 
of  great  utility,  extends  from  the  Hudson  above  Alliany  to  Buf- 
falo on  Lake  E.— £■.  Railroad,  one  of  the  chief  routes  to  the  W., 
extends  from  Jersey  city  near  New  York  to  Dunkirk  on  Lake  E. 

Erig'ena,  Joannes  Seotii?,  a  mediaeval  philosopher,  and, 
according  to  Hallam,  '  the  greatest  man  of  the  dark  ages,'  was 
born  in  Ireland — hence  the  name  E, — -in  the  beginning  of  the 
glh  c.  He  spent  his  life,  which  is  veiled  in  obscurity,  chiefly 
at  the  court  of  Karl  the  Bald,  in  whose  palace-school  he 
seems  to  have  been  a  teacher,  and  died  about  875.  He  was 
the  founder  of  mediseval  philosophy,  but  differs  broadly  from 
the  later  scholastics,  who  were  rigid  followers  of  Aristotle  and 
devoted  to  casuistic  hair-splitting,  while  E.'s  works  are  im- 
bued with  Neo- Platonic  idealism.  He  held  that  nature  was  the 
manifestation  of  God  under  certain  forms ;  that  God  was  the 
vital  essence  pervading  all  things.  The  audacity  of  some  of  hia 
propositions  was  perhaps  only  partly  visible  to  himself.  He  de- 
clared reason  to  be  prior  in  time  to  authority,  and  all  authority 
which  was  not  based  on  reason  to  be  worthless.  His  chief  writings 
arc  Dc  Divisions  Natura,  a  pantheistic  treatise  (Oxf.  l5Sl,  and 
Munst.  1 838)  ;  Di  Divina  Pradestinatiime,  a  work  on  theoli^y 
{1650) ;  a  translation  and  commentary  on  the  works  ascribed  to 
Dionysius  the  AreopaglCe ;  a  homily,  several  pieces  in  verse, 
a  treatise  on  the  Eucharist,  and  a  small  work,  De  Vhtont  Dd. 
See  St  Ren^  Taillandier's  E.  rt  la  PMl.  Schdastique  (Strasb. 
1843} ;  Christlieb's  Lrbm  und  Lehrt  dss  Scot  E.  (Gotha  i860) ; 
Haureau's  £>t  la  PhUosophie  Scholaitique  (1850)  ;  and  Maurice's 
Malisval  FhilesopAy  (1859). 

Erig'eron,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Cemposita. 
E.  acris  is  a  common  British  species,  femiliarly  nanjed  '  flea- 
bane,'  from  its  odour  being  said  to  keep  away  fleas  and  other 
insect  pests.  This  species  is  about  16  or  17  inches  high,  and 
its  flower-heads  exhibit  pale-bJue  'ray'  florets,  those  of  the 
570 


le  of  Danish,  Swedish,  and  Norwegian 


Er-it,  acoi 

1st,  Danish.— 'E.  Barn  ('the  child'  or  'baitn'),  840-860,  be- 
gan the  Danish  system  of  foreign  invasions.— E.  Ejegod  (or  'good 
for  the  eyes'),  one  of  the  fourteen  sons  of  Svend  Estridsen,  whose 
line  followed  the  old  line  of  Gorm,  ascended  the  throne  of  Den- 
mark in  1095.  Driven  from  home  when  his  eldest  brother,  St 
Knud,  was  murdered  at  Odense,  E.  had  travelled  and  acquired 
many  languages.  He  cleared  part  of  the  Danish  coast  from 
the  Weudish  pirates,  and  encouraged  the  formation  of  the  early 
guilds.  Having  killed  a  servant,  he  undertook,  with  his  queen 
Botilda,  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  (although  his  loving  people 
offered  one-lhird  of  their  substance  as  a  blood-fine),  but  died  at 
Cyprus,  1103. — E.  Emau  (or  'the  Boa5ter'),*a  younger  son  of 
Ejegod,  appears  in  history  as  the  avenger  of  his  brother  Knud, 
whom  the  king  Nieis  arid  his  son  Magnus  had  treacherously 
killed  at  Ringsted  in  II34.  The  Boaster  appealed  to  Uie 
'Thing,' who  gave  him  help;  and  thus  he  won  the  battle  of 
Fodevig  in  Skaania.  Niels  fled,  and  E.  became  king.  Although 
successful  against  the  Wends,  he  tarnished  his  memory  by  the 
murder  of  his  brother,  Harald  Keiia ;  and  his  son,  E.  'the 
Lamb,'  was  a  monkish  coward,  who  died  in  1147,  leaving  Den- 
mark a  legacy  of  ten  years'  civil  war,  in  which  t\iK  Bondar  ox  free 
peasants  were  oppressed.  E,  introduced  the  use  of  cavalry  to  Den- 
mark.—E.  Plov-penning  (or 'plough-money,'  so  called  from 
an  unpopular  tax  imposed  on  ploughs)  was  the  eldest  surviving 
son  of  Valdemar  II.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  1241,  and  in 
1250  was  murdered  at  the  instigation  of  his  brother  Abel, 
Uuke  of  Slesvig,  who,  along  with  Christopher  of  Laaland  and 
Nikolaus  of  Halland,  had  kept  the  land  in  continual  dissension. 
— K  Glipping  (or  '  the  Blinker '),  the  son  of  Christopher  I. 
and  Maigaret  of  Pommern,  succeeded  his  father  on  the  throne  in 
1259.  He  conceded  certain  rights  of  jurisdiction  to  the  nobility 
and  clergy.  E.  was  a  weak  vicious  king,  and  was  murdered 
in  12S6.— B.  JHenved  (or  'with  a  but,'  so  called  because  lie 
could  not  resolve  on  anything),  the  son  of  the  preceding,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne,  which  was  for  some  time  practically  occu- 
pied by  Ids  mother,  Agnes  of  B):andenbuig.  The  chief  mur- 
derers of  the  late  king,  Stig  and  Raul  Jonsen,  were  punished. 
Expensive  vrars  with  Poland  and  Norway  led  to  the  gradual 
alienation  of  the  crown-lands,  till  most  of^  the  herring-fisheries 
were  sold  to  the  Hansg  traders,  E,  had  fourteen  children  by 
Ingeborg  of  Sweden,  but  they  all  predeceased  their  father,  who 
died  in  1319, 

2d,  S-we4ish. — E.  Bejersoel  ('the  Victorious'),  adescendan 
of  Ragnar  Lodbrog  and  Bjbrn  Jemside  ('Ironside'),  reigned 
in  Sweden  from  983  to  993.  He  defeated  the  pagan  Vikings  of 
Jomsboi^,  and,  according  to  Adam  of  Bremen,  even  conquered 
Svend  Estridsen,  the  King  of  Denmark.  The  heroic  song  of 
Hjalleson,  celebrating  E/s  victory  of  Fry  is  vail,  is  one  0' 
the  oldest  monuments  of  Swedish.— E  HL  ('the  Saint'),  i 
memlier  of  the  peasant  class,  succeeded  in  1155  to  the  throne 
of  Sverker  I.,  who  had  just  by  negotiation  with  Cardinal 
Albinensis,  brought  the  Swedish  Church  into  close  communion 
with  Rome.  E.  had  three  rules  of  policy — '  to  build  churdies, 
to  govern  according  to  law  and  right,  and  to  overpower  his 
enemies,'  He  was  also  called  Lag-^fitmre  ('lawgiver').  He 
warred  against  the  Finns,  and  compelled  them  to  accept  Chris- 
tianity. E.  was  killed  by  the  Dane,  Magnus  Henriksen,  in 
1160.. — E.  Ejiutssou  (or  Arki>nuH£,  'good-years'),  grandson 
of  the  preceding,  after  the  long  struggle  iietween  the  Sverkers 
and  the  Bondars,  received  tlie  Swedish  crown  by  the  help  of 
the  Church  (1210).  As  a  recompense,  he  surrendered  part  o' 
royal  right  (sakSrm)  to  the  clergy.  Plis  son,  E.  Leespe  (or  ' 
Halt'),  nominally  ruled  in  Sweden  from  1322  to  125a  — 
ZIZ, ,  the  son  of  King  Magnus  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  1 
constantly  disputing  ftie  sovereignty  with  his  father  till  his 
death  in  1359.— E.  of  Ppnunem  was  the  nephew  of  the  wise 
and  good  Margaret,  widow  of  Hakon  of  Norway,  and  mother 
of  Olaf  of  Denmark,  This  remarkable  woman,  after  the  Kalmar 
Act  pf  Union  in  1397,  conjoined  E.  with  herseif  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  the  triple  crown,  Margaret  died  in  1412,  just  after 
concluding  a  peace  with  Holstein,  which  E.  disregarded,  and 
commenced  a  cruel  war  that  lasted  twenty-five  years.  In  1423 
the   Emperor  Sigismund  decreed  that  the  territory  of  Slesvig. 


yUoogle 


EEI. 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Ehould  be  given  to  E.,  but  instead  of  lalting  advantage  of  this, 
he  went  off  on  a  crazy  expedition  to  Jerusalem,  A  dalesman 
called  Eiigelbrecht  now  stirred  up  a  cebellion  in  Dalekarlia  and 
Westmannland,  and  compelled  the  council  of  state  at  Stockholm 
lo  sign  a  deed  saying  that  E.  had  broken  his  coronation  oath. 
The  nobles  did  not  join  this  popular  movement,  but  in  1436 
agreed  to  a  new  Act  of  Union  of  the  three  kingdoms.  In  1439 
all  Sweden  revolted  under  the  viceroy  ICarl  KnudsBon  Bondar, 
and  Denmark  and  Norway  deposed  E.  in  favour  of  Christopher 
of  Oldenbuig. — E.  XIV.  was  the  son  of  the  hero  Guslaf  Vasa 
and  Katharine  of  Sachseu-Lauenberg.  When  he  succeeded  his 
father  in  1560,  he  was  on  the  point  of  starting  for  England  to 
ask  Elizabeth  to  marry  him,  a  match  in  which  Calvin  interested 
-  himself.  He  was  accomplished,  but  passionate,  much  under  the 
influence  of  French  acquaintances.  He  challenged  Leicester  to 
single  combat,  and  afterwards  sent  10,000  dollars  to  hia  envoy 
Gyllenstjerna  that  he  might  get  rid  of  his  rival.  K  plunged 
nto  a  seven  years'  war  about  a  question  0/  armorial  bearings 
ivith  Frederik  II.  of  Denmark,  and  under  the  evil  counsel  of 
Goran  Persson  committed  great  excesses,  and  finally  fell  into 
madness,  from  which  he  was  rescued  by  a  peasant  girl,  Karren 
Mannsdatter,  whom  he  married  in  1567.  By  a  combination  of 
his  brothers  E.  was,  in  1560,  brought  to  trial  before  the  assem- 
bled St  t  s,  d  d  1  d  1  forfeited  his  own  and  his 
childre       right    t      h     h  H    died  by  p< 


rsl  t 


g    diary  of  the  later  < 


Haarfag 
Shortly    ft 

Gunhild  wo  ^ 

Mx\e\.  ta  E  gi  d 
kingdom  f  N  th  mbn 
le  )  ars  I96    977) 


,    --E    Blod  fixe    the  eldest   son  of  Harald 
d  d  h    f  th  the  throue  of  Norway  in  936. 

t      f    1         cruelly,  he  and  his  queen 
d  w  y     Th      took  refuge  at  the  court  of 

5  pi  d  h  E  was  made  ruler  of  the  sub- 
B.  Gtraafell,  was  king  for 
s  half-cousin,  E.  Jarl,  ob- 
defeating  Olaf  Trygvassen 
1  the  gre  t  b  ttl  f  S  Id  on  the  coast  of  Pommern. 
:o  th  p  d  bel  g  d  E  R  d  (or  'the  Red'),  who,  with 
is  son  L  f  f  d  d  In  G  1  d  the  colonies  of  Oestrc  Sygd 
a^ndVt  B  i  ft  rw  d  d  t  y  d  by  the  black  death.  The 
Iceland       h         1  rt  tl   t  L   f,  or  his  successors,  passed 

over  to  Nova  Scotia  and  S-  Canada,  which  they  called  Vineland. 
The  last  Bishop  of  Greenland  was  sent  in  1448.— E.  Prseste- 
tader  (or  'priest-hater'),  the  eldest  son  of  Magnus  Laga-hxler 
(' hiw-betterer')  and  Ingeborf  of  Denmark,  succeeded  his  father 
in  1280.  He  did  little  but  quarrel  with  the  Danes  and  Scotch 
about  the  dowries  of  his  mother  and  daughter  (Mar^ete,  the 
Little  Maid  of  Norway),  with  the  Hanse,  and  with  the  clergy, 
whose  exemptions  from  taxation  he  discontinued. 
Erina'oeus.    See  Hedgehog. 

Erinn'a,  a  famous  Greek  poetess,  was  bom  at  Rhodes  or  the 
adjacent  island  of  Telos,  about  612  B.C.  Common  tradition 
makes  her  the  contemporary  and  friend  of  Sappho,  credits  her 
with  beauty  and  genius,  and  places  her  on  a  level  with  Homer. 
She  excelled  in  epic  poetry,  and  also  wrote  lyrics  and  epigrams. 
One  of  her  pieces,  The  Distaff,  written  in  a  dialect  that  is  a 
mixture  of  .^lolic  and  Doric,  consisted  of  300  lines.  E.  died  at 
the  age  of  nineteen.  She  had  a  place  in  the  Garland  of 
Meleager,  m  which  the  crocus,  on  accomit  of  lis  maiden  palt 
was  the  emblem  assigned  to  her.  See  Mallow's  De  Erinns 
Labia,  Vita  et  Eeiiquiis  [Petersb.  1836J. 

Erfocaulft'cese,  or  Eriocanlona'ceEe,  the  '  pipewott '  order 
of  Monocotyledonous  plants,  inhabit  marshes.  They  have  s 
unisexual  flowers  with  two-celled  anthers,  and  an  ovary_ 
rounded  by  a  toothed  and  membranous  tube,  S.  America  is  the 
chief  habitat  of  the  E.  The  only  British  species  is  E.  septan- 
gulart,  the  'jointed  pipewort,'  found  in  Galway  and  Skye. 
Some  of  the  Brazilian  species  of  Etiocaulon  are  branchmg  plants, 
which  sometunes  attain  a  height  of  over  six  feet.  Over  200 
species  of  E.  are  known. 

Erioden'dron.  a  genus  of  Esogenous  plants  belonging  to  the 
naturalorder  J/nrii/ioiKa,  the  'silk-cotton' order.  E.  Samanna 
is  a  typical  tree  of  the  American  selvas,  and  exceeds  all  other 
trees  of  the  Amazon  forests  in  height.  It  rarely  branches  till  it 
has  grown  above  the  other  trees.  The  genus  dosely  resembles 
the  species  of  Malvacea  (or  cotton  order)  in  general  characters, 
the  seeds  being  embedded  in  a  woolly  matter.    E.  Inditum  and 


Q  the  E.  Indies,  and  i 


Eriopti'orma,  or  Ootton  Grass,  a  genus  of  Endogenous 
ants  belonging  to  the  Cyperacae,  or  sedges.  These  plants 
derive  their  familiar  name  from  their  long  silky  or  cottony 
hairs  round  the  fruit.  The  leaves  have  astringent  properties. 
The  silky  filaments  are  used  for  msdiing  candle-wicks,  and  for 
ituffing  cushions.  E.  polystackyum  is  the  common  sedge,  and 
aisls  as  a  grass-like  herb,  the  flowers  of  which  are  arranged  in 

Er'ith,  a  small  town  of  Kent,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Thames,  14  miles  S.W.  of  London,  is  a  station  on  the  North 
Kent  Railway.  Belvedere  House,  a  hospital  for  merchant  sea- 
men, was  formerly  the  residence  of  Sir  Cullen  Eardley.  In  1875 
the  pop.  of  E.  was  about  3000,  of  whom  700  were  employed 
in  the  local  ironworks  of  Messrs  Eastons  &  Anderson.  On  the 
8th  December  1875,  the  workmen,  refusing  to  continue  on 
■piece- work,' as  required  by  their  employers,  came  out  on  strike. 
Tlie  strike,  which  was  regarded  as  a  test  case  as  to  the  right  of 
employers  to  put  theh-  men  on  '  piece-work,'  became  a  lock-out 
on  the  22d  January  1876.  The  stru^le  between  the  'masters' 
and  the  '  men '  arrested  the  attention  of  the  whole  country. 

Erivan',  the  capital  of  the  Russian  government  of  E.,  in  the 
lieutenancy  of  the  Caucasus,  on  the  Zenghi,  110  miles  S,W.  of 
Tiflis.  It  is  a  fortified  town,  on  a  bare  plateau  3530  feet  above 
the  Black  Sea.  The  houses  are  mean,  and  the  streets  narrow  and 
unpaved.  The  fort  stands  on  a  basalt  lock  not  fiir  from  the  town. 
The  inhabitants,  who  numbered  14,34a  in  1867,  are  eng^ed  in 
agriculture  and  gardening,  and  a  few  of  them  in  commerce.  Fruit 
and  vines  thrive  well,  and  there  is  a  considerable  trade  in  dried 
apricots.  E.  was  founded  in  the  lime  of  Timur  ;  -its  fortress  was 
built  in  the  beginning  of  the  l6th  c.  by  Khan  Rewan,  who 
named  it  after  himself.  E.  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
Persian  province  of  Aran,  and  played  a  prominent  part  in  the 
wars  between  the  Turks  and  the  Persians  from  the  16th  c. 
downwards.  The  Russian  general  Paskevitch  took  E.  by  storm 
m  1827  ;  and  in  1S28  it  was  ceded  to  Russia,  along  with  the 
province  of  the  same  name.  E,  suffered  greatly  by  the  earth- 
quake of  July  1840. — The  gcnientmenl  of  E.  has  an  area  of 
10,644  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1871)  of  452,001. 

Erlang'eil  ('  llie  dwelling  near  alder-trees '),  a  walled  town 
in  Middle  Franconia,  Bavaria,  on  the  Regnitz,  and  on  the 
Ludwig  Canal,  12  miles  N.  of  Niirnbei^  by  railway, 
consists  of  an  old  and  new  portion,  the  latter 
built  since  a  great  fire  in  1706.  The  famous  Prote 
sity  founded  here  m  1746  is  the  principal  building.  It  bears 
a  high  character  as  a  school  of  orthodox  theology,  is  attended 
by  some  Scx)  students,  and  has  a  library  of  140,000  volumes, 
besides  valuable  scientific  collections  and  botanical  gardens.  E. 
has  large  manufactures  of  cottons,  hosiery,  mirrors,  tobacco,  and 
is  particularly  famous  for  its  bear,  of  which  it  produc 
gallons  yearly.    Pop.  (1871)  12,511     " 

ErT.au  ('alder-tree  meadow'),  a  walled  city  and  the  capital 
of  die  comitat  of  Heves,  Hungary,  on  a  river  of  the  samt 
75  miles  E.N.  E.  of  Pesth  by  railway.     It'    th    set    fa 
bishop,  has  a  beautiful  cathedral  in  the  G       an    tyl 
with  a  laige  library,  several  monasteries,  a  richly      d        dl 
and  carries  on  an  active  trade  in  a  celebr  t  d     d  w 
(1869)  19,150,  mostly  Roman  Catholic  M  gy  A  hi 

foundedat  E.  in  the  llthc.  wasmadean       hbisl   pn   i 


having  been 


Ermononville,  a  village  of  France,        th    d  p    tm 
Oise,  17  miles  S.E.  of  Senlis.    It  was  ea  ly  gu  ur 

was  made  a  vlcomte  by  Henri   IV.,  who      m   t         G 
d'Estr^es,  lived  here.     The  Marquis  Reni  d    G  ra  d 
the  grounds  in  1763,  and  the  chSteau  w  b    q      t 

residence  of  Rousseau,  who  died  here,  3d  J  ly    77^       ^ 
tomb  on  the  Isle  des  Peupliers  is  resorted  t    by  many 
The  beautiful  park,  which  attracts  so  many  P       an 
has  of  late  fallen  into  disrepair. 

Er'mine,  or  Sto'at  {Mustela  trmitua)         p  f 

vorous  mammalia,  belonging  to  the  MuUd  diz  as  1 1 

It  attains  a  length  of  about  14  inches.     Tl        irun         1 
57 


f 


vLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  E:NCYCLOPjEDIA. 


EEB 


the  animal's  fur  is  not  unlil-e  that  nf  the  weasel,  tlie  prevail 
ing  tint  being  a  pale  btoftn  tnted  with  red  the  toes  and  e  Iges 
of  the  ears  being  white  In  winter  the  fur  undei^oes  i.  re 
markable  clange  then  becoming  of  a  uniform  white  hue  ot 
sometimesofa  vellowishKhite  colour  The  E  is  accordingly 
with  difficulty  detected  amid  the  snow  This  auimal  inhabits 
Britain,  especially  in  its  N  parts  but  also  occurs  n  Sibeni, 
N.  Europe,  and  N  Amenca  It  la  greatly  sought  after  m 
winter  on  account  of  its  fur,  which  is  greatly  valued.  The  pre- 
molar teeth  number  eight  in  each  jaw. 

Ermine,  in  heraldry,  is  a  field  argenl  with  a  small  sable 
pattern  formed  of  spots  and  small  tiiangles  spread  or  powdered 
over  it  Ermines,  also  called  conire-E.,  is  a  field  sable  with 
argiiit  pattern  powdered  over  it,  Ertainois  is  a  field  nr  powdered 
s^le  (Boutell  and  Aveling). 

Erne  (Gael,  Eirni,  so  called  from  a  tribe  of  the  Firbolgs), 
the  name  of  a  river  and  two  lakes  in  the  county  ol  Fermanagh, 
Ireland,  The  river  rises  in  Lough  Gowna,  and  after  a  N,W. 
course  of  ^2  miles,  during  which  it  traverses  Lough  Oughlet 
and  Upper  and  Lower  Loughs  E.,  falls  into  Donegta  Bay.  ^- 
is  navigable  as  high  up  as  Ballyshannon.  Upper  Lough  E., 
miles  long  by  4^  broad,  is  one  of  the  most  picturesque  lakes 
Ireland.  Lower  Lough  E.  is  20  miles  long  and  7i  broad.  Tnc 
former  has  90,  and  the  latter  109  islets.  Both  longhs  abound  in 
s^mon  and  trout,  and  are  the  haunts  of  numerous  wildfowl  in 
winter.    Beautiful  counliy-seals  enliven  the  banks. 

JEme,  the  name  given  to  certain  species  of  Raptorial  birds 
belonging  to  the  femily  FcUconids,  and  which  are  also  known 
under  the  name  of  'eagles.'  The  common  E.  is  the  Balialtus 
albicilla,  also  known  as  the  white-tailed  or  sea  eagle  ;  a  bird 
which  is  common  in  Britain,  and  is  a  good  example  of  the  lai^er 
species  of  Uie  family.  This  bird  attains  a  length  of  threefeet,  and 
may  measure  over  six  feet  in  expanse  of  wings.  The  colour  is 
^rk  brown,  the  rounded  tail  being  white,  the  primary  quills 
black,  and  the  legs,  toes,  and  'beak  yellow,  whilst  the  head  is 
furnished  with  elongated  feathers.  The  food  consists  of  fishes, 
but  the  E.  is  also  known  to  seize  the  smaller  animals.  Another 
species  of  E.  is  that  known  by  the  name  of  bald  or  white-headed 
eagle  {ff.  leucecephalus)  of  America,  known  by  the  white  head 
and  neck,  by  the  deep-brown  body,  and  by  the  white  tail  and 
tail- coverts. 

Emee'ti,  Johann  AugT.isfc,  a  German  philologist  and  theo- 
logian, bom  at  Tennstadt,  Thuriugia,  August  4,  1707,  lie 
Studied  at  Leipsic,  where  he  became  Professor  of  Ancient  Lite- 
rature in  1742,  of  Eloquence  in  1756,  and  of  Theology  in  1759, 
and  where  he  died,  September  11,  1781.  K  was  an  excellent 
linguist,  and  so  gracefifi  a  Latinist  as  to  be  styled  '  the  German 
Cicero.'  He  introduced  a  new  system  of  Biblical  criticism, 
examining  the  grammar  and  style  of  Scripture  in  the  manner 
applied  to  Greek  and  Latin  classics.  His  chief  works  are  an  edi- 
tion of  Cka-D  (Leifjs.  1737-39).  Clavis  Ckermia  (1739),  Inslilu- 
tio  Interpretis  Navi  Tatamenti  {l^di),  Frolusxs  fro  Grammatiia 
Interfntatiims  Lihrorum  imprimis  Sacrorum  ( 1 749).  See  A.  W, 
E-'s  Memoria  J.  A.  E.  (1781). 

limst,  ElectOT  of  Sazonjr,  and  founder  of  the  Ernestine  hue 
of  Saxon  princes,  was  born  at  Altenbui^,  25th  March  1441.  He 
ajid  his  younger  brother  Albrecht  were  the  victims  in  the  episode 
known  in  German  history  as  the  Primenraiib  ( '  the  stealing  of 
the  princes ').  K  succeeded  his  father  in  1464,  ruled  the  entire 
principality  conjointly  with  Albrecht  for  twenff-one  years,  and 
addedThuringiatohis  dominions  in  1482.  He  eventually  divided 
the  territory  with  Albrecht,  the  founder  of  the  Albertine  branch 
of  the  family,  and  died  at  Kolditz,  22d  March  i486.  Among  the 
later  descendants  of  the  stolen  E.  is  the  Prince  Consort,  Albert  of 
Sase-Cobui^.  See  Schreiter,  Geschichudis  Prinsenraubs  (Leips. 
1804) !  CErtel,  Genealogkche  Tafeln,  &c.  (Leips.  1846) ;  Carlyfe's 
essayon  the /y/njeHroaA.— Ernst  I.,  Dukeof  Sachsen-Gotha  and 
Altenburg,  and  founder  of  the  house  of  Gotha,  bom  24th  Decem- 
ber r6oi,  was  a  brother  of  the  famous  Bernhard  of  Weimar 
(q.  v.),  and  a  member  of  the  Ernestine  line  of  Saxony.  He 
served  with  distinction  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War  as  a  colonel  of 
horse  under  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and  shared  in  the  Protestant 
victory  of  Liitzen  (1632).  After  the  battle  of  Nordlingen  (1634) 
E.  was  long  engaged  in  improving  and  remodelling  his  posses- 
sions, which  had  suffered  terribly  from  the   ravages  of  war. 


Many  existing  institutions  are  traceable  to  his  wise  and  able  nile, 
while  his  severe  Lutheranism  gained  for  him  the  sumame  of  'the 
Iious.'  He  died  26th  March  1675.  His  line  terminated  in  the 
death  of  Friedrich  IV.  in  1S25.  See  Lives  of  E.  by  Gelbke  (3 
vols.  Gotha,  tSio),  and  Klaimig  and  Schneider  (Leips.  1858). 

Efnat,  Heinrioh  "Willielin,  a  German  composer  and  vio- 
hnist,  bom  at  BrUnn  in  1814.  He  first  appeared  before  the  public 
as  a  boy,  and  during  upwards  of  twenty-five  vears  played  in  the 

Hindpal  Continental  cities  and  in  London  with  very  great  success, 
is  health  compelled  him  about  1858  to  go  to  Nice,  where  he 
died,  8th  October  1865.     His  ptincipal  compositions  are  for  the 

Er'ode  (Yirudu),  a  town  in  the  district  of  Cwmbatore,  pro- 
vince of  Madras,  British  India,  243  miles  S.W.  of  Madras  by 
rail  and  55  N.E.  of  Coimbatore,  Pop.  (1871]  7817.  It  is  situ 
ated  on  a  canal  issuing  from  the  Bhawani,  not  far  from  the  con 
fluence  of  that  river  and  the  KavarL  It  has  some  place  i: 
early  history,  but  its  modem  importance  is  dne  to  its  being  the 
junction  of  the  South  Indian  Railway  with  the  main  Madras  line. 

Er'os,  the  Greek  name  of  Cupid  (q.  v.). 

Iko'aion  (Lat.  erosio,  'a  gnawing  or  ealbg  away')  !s  the 
ipplied  to  the  action  of  ice  or  ranning  water  upon  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  giving  rise  to  the  striated  surfaces  and 
'oches  mouloiinies  indicative  of  Glacier  (q.  v.)  action,  and  ci 


the 


e  of  s 


and  valleys  of  varied  appear 


:e  and  magnitude.    In 


th 


itself  that  E.  i    d 
solution  and  the  parti 
suspension.      If  the  w 
no  chemical,  and  little  if 

Erotic  (Gr.  erss, 
passion  of  love.     Thu    i 
&C.,  whose  chief  them 
love-laya   E.   poetry. 
however,  is  generally    m 
romancers  whose  tale 
modern  novel.     E.  ron 
the  Song  at  Solomon 


th 


J  _ 


hymeneal  with  the  colour,  fancy,  and  pictorial  profusion  of  the 
most  exquisite  romance — but  the  earliest  specimens  of  it  which 
appeared  in  the  Western  worid  were  the  famous  Milesian  Talis, 
a  collection  which  seems  to  have  been  as  popular  in  its  own  day 
as  was  the  Decameron  in  the  middle  ages.  The  E.  writers 
flourished  at  a  late  period  of  Greek  letters,  and  are  generally 
inferior  in  style  to  the  recognised  '  classics ; '  but  their  aim  was 
to  please  and  to  amuse,  and  doubtless  their  wca-ks  were  as  eagerly 
sought  after  in  Hie  libraries  of  the  '  Sosii  '  of  the  time  as  the  latest 
novel  now  is  at  Mudie's.  Of  the  E.  writers  may  be  mentio 
Parthenius,  lamblichus,  Alciphron,  Xeiiopbon  the  Ephesi  . 
Aristsenetus,  Heliodorus,  Longus,  and  Achilles  Tatius  in  Greek, 
and  the  Latin  writer  Appuleias,  whose  Galdm  Ass  contdns  many 
merry  tales  and  the  pre-eminently  beautiful  episode  of  Cu^ul 
and  Psyche. 

Erpe'mna,  or  Van  Erpen,  Thomas,  born  at  Gorkum,  71h 
September  1584,  on  the  suggestion  of  J.  J.  Scaliger  devoted 
himself  to  Oriental  languages.  For  this  purpose  be  travel- 
led to  the  great  seats  of  learning,  meeting  Casaubon  at  Paris, 
where  he  acquired  Arabic  from  an  Egyptian,  At  Venicf 
picked  up  Persian  and  the  Turkish  and  Ethiopiian  dialects  f 
some  resident  natives.  He  then  taught  Arabic  and  Hebrew  at 
Leyden,  and  received  the  important  post  of  Oriental  interpreter 
to  the  States-General.  He  reached  singular  purity  and  elegance 
in  Arabic  composition.  E.  died  November  13,  1624.  His  chief 
work  was  an  Arabic  Grammar,  a  classical  text-book  till  superseded 
at  the  beginning  of  this  century  by  that  of  De  Sacy.  His  Arabic 
printing-press  at  Leyden  produced  several  works,  such  as  '^- 
Cmiuries  of  Arabic  Provirbs,  Fables  ofLocman,  an  Arabic  Pe 
teuch,  the  Chronicle  of  Elmakin,  &c.  E,  also  wrote  on 
Hebrew  and  Syriac  grammars, 

Erraii'tia,anorderof.^n«i/in'a(q,  v,)orworms,  represe 
by  such  genera  as  Nereis,  Eunice,  Aphrodite,  &c.  This  group 
includes  those  forms  which  typically  represent  iX-ia  Antielida, 
and  which  comprise  the  greater  number  of  laige  active  marine 
worms.  The  sides  of  the  body  are  well  provided  in  E.  with  the 
lateral  appendages,  consisting  of  sela  or  bristles,  &c,  which  assist 


-♦ 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCtCLOPJiDIA. 


locomotion.  Each  joint  or  segment  of  the  body  be^s  two  pairs 
of  appendages,  known  respectively  as  notapodia  and  tieuropodia. 
The  gills  or  breathing  organs  are  borne  on  the  back  or  doisal 
aspect  of  the  segments.  These  animals  are  unisexual.  The  in- 
t^ument  is  soft. 

Errata  L 
in  the  prm     g 


end  of  h   t 


d      dfl 


hi  al 


h 


■t  the 


y    th 


s  accidentally  omitted  from 


V!  comparatively 
F  merly  fliey  were 
th     author    might 

._  _     ._..  h   h  he   dutst  not 

exhibit'  n  h   bod  w    k       S      Disr      's   CurUsilies  of 

Literai     ,  Lo  d       865)       S  udicrous   E.   ari 

known,     The  Vinegar  Bible,  printed  at  the  Clarendon  Presi 
in  1717,  is  so  called  because  in  it  the  '  Parable  of  the  Vineyard 
is  printed  the   'Parable   of  the  Vintgar.'  _  The    Stationers 
Company  incurred  a  heavy  penalty  for  issuing 
of  the  Bible  in  which  the  '       '  ^j— .-.- 

the  Seventh  ComniandmenI 

ErrhinGB  are  medicines  administered  to  prodi.. 
and  discharges  from  the  nostrils,  to  relieve  headaches  and  deafness 
depending  upon  obstructions  in  the  Eustachian  tube,  as  common 
snuff,  powder  of  Asarunt  Eurofimm,  and  Helemum  auluilinalt 
(sneeze-wort). 

Error  in  Essentials.  An  error  in  an  essential  pouit  vitiates 
a  contract,  on  the  ground  that  consent— on  which  the  validity  of 
all  contracts  depends,  without  which  there  can  be  no  contract- 
has  been  only  apparent.  But  the  l^al  difficulty  lies  in  deter- 
mining  what  is  an  essential.  For  instance,  if  one  man  sells  a 
piece  of  land  to  another,  stating  that  it  is  of  a  cert^n  extent,  and 
It  is  found  after  completion  of  flie  contract  to  be  larger  or  smaller 
than  sUted,  neither  fact  will  vitiate  the  contract,  the  law  hold- 
ing that  each  party  should  have  inspected  the  subject  of  sale  and 
satisfied  himself.  Error  calculi  (error  in  calculation)  may  always 
be  rectified.     See  Cleeical  Ekeor. 

Error,  Proeeedings  in,  is  the  form  in  England  by  which 
an  appeal  is  made  to  the  superior  court  against  the  judgment 
of  an  inferior  court.  See  Appeal;  Bill  of  Exceptions; 
Court  of  Judicature,  Supreme,  Acts  ;  Error,  Writ  of. 
Error,  Writ  o£  In  criminal  cases,  the  judgment  of  the 
lower  tribunals  may  be  reversed  by  W.  of  E.  The  procedure  ia 
now  only  competent  for  defect  in  substance  appearing  on  the 
record.  Formal  defect  must  be  objected  to  before  the  juiy  is 
sworn,  and  it  may  then  be  amended.  Appeal  on  the  merits  is 
not  competent  in  criminal  cases.  See  Error,  Proceedings  in. 
Errors  of  Obsei:vation  may  be  divided  into  avoidable  and 
unavoidable  errors.  The  former  can  be  easily  eliminated  by 
comparison  with  other  observations  ;  and  to  such  belong,  for  1 
stance,  readuig  the  number  of  degrees,  minutes,  &c.,  wrongl 
but  the  latter  class  comprehends  cases  of  a  much  more  diffici 
nature,  arising  from  the  imperfections  of  the  instruments  m  ui 
refraction,  temperature,  atmospheric  pressure,  the  observer's  01 
so-called  personal  error,  ind  such  like.  Thus  the  astronon 
has  a  number  of  oijserved  values  for  the  position  of  a  star  which 
most  probably  differ  perceptibly  from  each  other.  How,  then, 
is  he  best  to  combine  these  results  to  obtain  the  most  probable 
value  ?  The  simplest  method  is  of  course  to  take  the  mean,  and 
this  is  sufficiently  true  if  tlie  observations  are  all  equally  reliable, 
but  if  they  be  not  so,  they  must  first  be  reduced  to  the  same 
weight  by  the  employment  of  a  proper  factor.  In  comparing 
the  observed  position  of  a  planet  with  its  calculated  position,  the 
difierence  depends  not  only  on  the  E.  of  O.,  hut  also  on  the 
errors  of  the  elemertts  assumed  in  the  calculation.  Cases  of  this 
last  kind  are  much  more  difficult ;  but  for  further  information 
reference  is  made  to  the  article  Least  Squares,  Method  of. 
Sir  G.  Airy's  E.  of  0.    (r86l)  is  an  excellent  treatise  on  the 

Ersoli,  Jobann  Samuel,  known  as  the  founder  of  German 
bibliography,  was  born  at  Grossglogau,  in  Lower  Silesia,  June 
23,  1766.  He  studied  at  Halle  and  Jena,  and  became  Professor 
of  Geography  and  Statistics  at  the  former  university  in  1803. 
Among  his  worlss  are  a  Handbuch  dw  Beulschm  Lilemtur  sell 
der  mitedfsiZlen  yahrh.  bii  auf  ^c  -luueste  Zeil  {i^y<i\3.  Leips. 
1812-14),  the  Allgemdncs  Repirturium  dsr  IMeratur  (8  vols. 


Jena,  1:793-1809),  and  La  France  Liltlrairt  (3  vols,  Hamb. 
1707-08,  with  two  supplementary  vols.  iSoaand  1806).  Along 
with  Gruber  he  began  the  Allgimtiiie  Encyclotiulu  der  Wisseti- 
sckafim  and  Kii'isk  (Leips.  1818,  still  unfinished).  E.  died  at 
Halle,  l6th  January  1828. 

Erse,  a  cotruption  of  Irish,  formerly  used  by  the  Lowlanders 
of  Scotland  as  a  synonym  for  Gaelic,  in  allusion  to  the  T"=li 
origin  of  the  Western  Highlanders.     Thus  1 
to  the  DHl,  says — 


is  Address 


n'  CtlEt  day  Miclael  ■ 


.uplere 


Ersklne,  B.ev.  Ebenezer,  an  evangelical  divine  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  afterwards  founder  of  the  Secession  Church, 
was  a  son  of  the  Kev.  Henry  E.,  minister  of  Chirnslde,  a  descendant 
of  the  Sheilfield  branch  of  the  Mar  fainily.  E.  was  bom  June 
22,  1680,  and  entered  Edinburgh  University  in  1693,  taking  his 
degree  in  1697.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1703,  and  soon 
after  ordained  minister  of  Portmoak.  There  he  laboured  for 
twenty-eight  years  with  great  assiduity,  and  laid  the  foundations 
of  a  wide  popularity.  He  removed  to  the  West  Church  of  Stir- 
ling in  1731,  and  ra  the  following  year  signalised  himself  by 

T  Act  of  the  Assembly  which  be  deemed  favourable 

doctrine  and  disdpluie.     He  preached  against  the 

prevalent '  defections,'  in  a  sermon  before  the  Synod  of  Perth 

and  Stiriing,  and  incurred  the  censure  of  the  Cliuf  ch.   He  rraented 

id  while  still  '   ''"'       ' 

few  other  ni 

Fruitless  efforts  were  made  to  restori 

deposed-  When  the  Secession  was  rent  in  twain  m  1747,  ^. 
took  the  side  of  the  Burghers,  and  vras  duly  eicommunicated 
by  his  late  followers.  He  died  June  a,  1754-  E.  wasapreacher 
of  great  unction  and  a  man  of  genuine  piety.  See  Life  of  E.  by 
Rev.  Dr  Harper.— Itev.  Italpll  K,  brother  of  Ebenezer  E., 
was  bom  in  Northumberland,  March  18,  1685,  studied  at  Edin- 
burgh University,  and  was  ordained  minister  of  Dunfermline  in 
1711.  He  look  the  same  side  as  his  brother  in  the  Church  con- 
troversy, assisted  in  the  formation  of  the  Secession,  and  was 
deposed  in  174a  He  died  6th  November  1752.  E.  is  the 
author  of  Gospel  Somiels  and  Faith  no  Fancy.  The  names  of 
both  brothers  are  still  warmly  cherished  by  the  Scottish  nation. 
Br'skine,  Jobn,  Baron  of  Dun,  a  Scottish  theolf^an,  bom 
near  Montrose  in  1508  or  1509.  He  was  educated  at  Aberdeen 
University,  and  was  the  first  to  encourage  the  study  of  Greek  in 
Scotland,  Buchanan  called  him  '  a  man  of  great  learning. '  He 
early  embraced  Protestantism,  was  both  a  preacher  and  soldier, 
and  was  one  of  the  commission  appointed  in  1577  to  arrange  the 
scheme  of  Church  government  known  as  the  Second  Book  of  Dis- 
cipline.    E.  died  March  2f,  1591. 

Erskine,  John,  of  Camook,  afterwards  of  Cardross,  son 
of  a  gentleman  who  had  served  under  the  Prince  of  Orange,  was 
bom  in  1695,  entered  the  Faculty  of  Advocates  in  1719,  acted 
as  Professor  of  Scots  Law  at  Edinburgh  from  1737  to  1765,  pub- 
lished his  Principles  of  the  Law  of  &oila?id  in  1754,  and  com- 
posed, hut  did  not  publish,  Ms  IitsUlutesia  retirement  He  died 
1st  March  1 768,  and  the  Institutes  appeared  in  1773.  This  work  is 
a  very  accurate  and  comprehensive  digest  of  the  law  of  Scotland 
of  the  time.  The  leaming  in  both  the  civil  and  the  feudal  law 
is  adequate,  and  the  ariangement  of  the  whole  subject  is  lucid. 
It  has,  accordmgly,  remained  a  standard  institutional  work  for 
citation  in  the  law-courts,  although  on  some  important  subjects, 
particularly  on  mercantile  law,  the  book  is  very  meagre,  a  fact 
perlmps  eiplained  by  the  dulness  of  Scotch  trade  during  the  iSth 
c,  and  the  superior  attractions  which  the  Rebellion  and  its  conse- 

Siences  gave  to  the  subject  of  heritable  title.  On  the  other  hand, 
.  has  no  philosophical  insight  into  the  most  general  principles 
of  law.  He  too  blindly  follows  the  written  and  traditional 
authority  and  the  reason  which  authority  gives  for  itself.  Defi- 
cient in  analysis,  he  was  also  without  conception  of  the  historical 
method  in  the  treatment  of  legal  problems.-  These  shortcomings 
do  not  lessen  the  great  value  of  his  work  as  a  digest  of  positivf 
law.  The  Institutes  have  passed  through  eight  editions,  the  bes 
being  those  of  Lord  Ivory  (1824-2S)  and  Nicolson  (1871).  The 
Principles  have  been  re-edited  by  Guthrie  (Ediub.  1874). 
■573 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ERY 


ErBkine,  Harry,  son  of  the  tenth  Earl  of  Buchaii,  and 
elder  brother  of  Lord  Chancellor  E„  was  bom  at  Edinburgh 
1st  November  1 746,  and  called  to  the  Scotch  bar  in  1 768,  Tliough 
not  a  great  lawyer,  his  other  gifts  soon  put  him  in  the  front  rank 
of  his  profession,  and  made  him  one  of  the  most  popular  men 

in  Scotland.     He  was  honourably  distinguished  for  tht 

he  gave  to  the  cases  of  poorer  clients,  and  by  the  independ( 
and  consistency  of  his  political  principles.  He  acted  as  Lort 
Advocate  under  the  short-lived  Rockingham  administration 
and  again  under  the  GrenviUe  ministry  of  i8o6.  In  1S12  hi 
retired  from  public  life  to  Ammondell,  in  W,  Lotliian,  when 
he  died  on  3th  October  1817. 

Erstina,  Thomas,  Lord,  a  younger  brother  of  Harry  E ,  wai 
bora  roth  Januaiy  1750,  educated  at  the  High  School  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  at  the  grammar-school  and  University  of  St  Andrews, 
From  1764-68  he  cruised  about  the  W.  Indies  and  S.  America 
in  H.M.S.  Tarlar  under  Sir  David  Lyndsay.  He  wished  tc 
enter  the  army,  but  could  not  find  the  money  for  '    ' 

for  some  time.  On  his  father's  death  E.  beca 
in  the  Royals  or  1st  Regiment  of  Foot,  and  ma 
and  beautiful  wife,  a  daughter  of  Daniel  Moore,  Esq.,  Si. P. 
for  Marlow,  In  1770.  In  1772,  his  regiment  having  come  to 
London,  be  made  the  acquaintance  of  Johnson,  Buraey,  Rey- 
nolds, &c,  at  the  house  of  Mrs  Montagu,  and  published  Obser- 
miliom  on  the  Prevailing  Abuses  in  the  British  Army  arising 
from  thi  Corruption  of  Civil  Government.  On  the  Suggestion 
of  Lord  Mansfield,  he  abandoned  the  army  for  the  law  in  1775, 
and  after  the  usual  course  of  study,  was  called  at  Lincoln's  Inn, 
3d  July  1778.  His  first  appearance  was  in  defence  of  Captain 
Eailhe,  who  was  prosecuted  for  libel  for  having  exposed  the 
gross  abuses  in  Greenwich  Hospital  A  strilting  speech  led 
the  way  to  immediate  professional  success.  In  1779  lie  de- 
fended Admiral  Keppel,  who  was  tried  by  court-martial  on  a 
charge  of  incapacity  in  the  battle  off  Ushaut.  In  1781  he  ap- 
peared for  Lord  George  Gordon,  and  startled  the  propriety  of 
the  court  by  swearing  m  the  course  of  his  speech.  Returned  to 
Parliament  for  Porlsmoath  in  1783,  he  and  John  Scott  (after- 
wards Lord  Eidon)  both  made  their  maiden  speeches  on  Fox's 
India  Bill.  Next  year  occurred  the  famous  case  of  the  Dean  of 
St  Asaph,  who  was  tried  for  seditious  libel,  in  republishing  Sir 
W.  Jones'  little  political  tract,  A  Dialogui  behatm  a  Gentleman 
and  a  Fanner.  The  case,  as  treated  by  Justice  Buller,  who 
nearly  committed  E.  for  contempt  of  court,  rendered  necessary 
Fox's  libel  Bill,  which  made  the  jury  judges  of  the  law  as  well 
as  the  facts.  From  1784  to  1790  E.  was  not  in  Parliament,  but 
remained  the  private  friend  of  Fox  and  Sheridan,  and  constantly 
rose  in  reputation  at  the  bar.  Perhaps  the  finest  speech  he  ever 
delivered  was  in  defence  of  Stocltdale,  who  had  published  a 
Mmphlet  by  Mr  L<^an,  a  Scotch  minister,  upholding  Warren 
Hastmgs  a^inst  his  impeachers.  In  1790  Portsmouth  again  re- 
tamed  him  to  Parliament,  which  he  did  not  leave  till  he  was 
made  a  peer.  The  'Reign  of  Terror'  under  Lord  Lough- 
borough's Chancellorship  now  began,  and  E.  had  a  crowd  of 
pohtical  clients,  such  as  Paine,  Frost,  the  Marmiig  Chronicle, 
&c.  The  suspension  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  in  1794,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  growth  of  societies  formed  to  secure  parliamen- 
tary reform,  led  to  the  great  cases  of  Hardy  and  Tooke,  which 
placed  him  at  the  summit  of  his  popularity.  About  this  time 
he  pubUshed  A  View  of  the  Causes  and  Consequences  of  the  Pre- 
sent tVar  with  France,  which  ran  through  thirty-seven  editions 
Going  to  Paris  with  Foit  in  1802,  he  was  introduced  to  Napo- 
Uon  and  also  to  the  French  bar  at  the  Cour  de  Caisson.  On  Pitt's 
death  in  1806,  E.  was  created  Lord  E.,  and  appointed  Lord  Chan- 
cellor. He  quitted  public  life  at  the  close  of  his  Chancellorship 
n  1807,  after  which  he  wrote  a  preface  to  Fox's  speeches,  several 
pamphlets  on  Greek  questions,  and  a  political  romance  called 
Armata.  He  died  at  his  brother's  house  in  Scotland,  I7tli 
November  1823.  E.  was  probably  the  most  eloquent  speaker 
which  the  English  bar  ever  produced— a  man  of  incomparable 
dexterity,  firmness,  and  brilliant  imagination.  See  Brougham's 
biography,  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  speeches  in  1847. 

Erakine,  Thomas,  of  Luilathen,  bom  13th  October 
1788,  was  the  grandson  of  John  E.  of  Carnock,  and  nephew 
of  the  Evangelical  leader  the  Rev.  John  E.  He  was  called  to 
the  Scotch  bar,  but  did  not  practise.      His  life,  which  was  private 

■  not  retired,  was  spent  chiefly  at  Linlathen  and  Edlnbui^h, 
occasional   visits  to  Paris  and  Geneva.     He  died  in  March 

574 


1S70.    E.'sfirstlilerar7efrort  wasassistingi    th   S    ll    d  ti 
of  the  works  of  Richard  Baxter  and  John  G  mb  Id  (  8    )      I 
his  Remarks  on  the  Internal  Evidence  of  Ir    !  d  I    g       h 
represents  the  incarnation  as   something  co  I       d  t     p  od 
ft  certain  vivid  effect,  not  otherwise  produ   bl  Ih    h  m 

mind,  vi&,   a  perception  of  God's  infinite  1  F    m   th 

foUowi  salvation,  or  [he  conscious  habitual  surr    d      f  tl    h     an 
will  to  the  divine.      His  Unconditional  Freens     f  th    G  pi 
book  warmly  praised  by  Dr  Chalmers,  is  st  11  m    h       d.     II 
insists  on  the  universality  of  the  offer  of  pard      th      gh  Ch    t 
which  on  the  stricter  Calvinislio  view  is  incons  t    t  with  1    ti 
Hence  iaYasJDoelrineofSacri^ce,  he  represent   that  th    q     k 
ing  Spirit  of  God  has  passed  into  every  corrupt      ul    f  man  and 
that  there  isaeal&dm         pw       fch  tfllw 

to  resist  its  s  g      t  E      1  test  m  d  tat         ar  t       d 

in  a  posthum  us  1  m  Th  S'n  t  I  O  cr  d  Pn  pi 
Shairp  is  writ  h  If  "Wh  t  tt  a  1  d  men  t  d 
E.  was  his  SI      t       d  t      mpl     ty    f     1  g         f   tl       H 

formedaconn    t    gl    1,  b  tw       S    tl    d  and         y   fth   fi 
minds  in  the  E     I    h  CI        h 

Eryn'go,'      Eirii  gium      g  f  Ex  g  pi    t   be 

longing  toth  It        hralss  a     i  iX      U   b  llfera 

(i^T.).  E.c  pet  f  d  Egld  dlld  fm'^hes 
'E.  root,'  form   ly  us  d  as      t  Th  E        h  lly  (^ 

mariHmum)  is      mm  1 1  d   ts        I       b  1       d 

to  possess  ton  p  pert  11  d  d  t  by  Fal  t  ff  Thi  t 
as   a   sweeten  dppt  esteidas  p         td 

diuretic.     0th       p  E  aq    t  &  E  f  t  f 

the  New  World      Th       pi    t    ha        t  ff  p      is  1  p 

tate  sessile   fl  w  d       1    g     p     klj  1  th 

obovate  scaly  fru  t 

Erys'imnm       g  f  C       f  plants,  represented  by 

E.cheirantkoid     p  p  I    ly      11  d  m      ed, '  found  In  Europe 

and  N.  Amer  Th     p  p  I  m    is  d  rived  from  a  former 

use  of  the  seeds  as  a  remedy  for  internal  parasites.  This 
plant  has  afoui-sided  'pod'  or  fruit,  is  an  annual,  and  attaiiis  a 
height  of  l6  or  1 8  inches.  The  leaves  are  small  and  lance-shaped, 
and  the  flowers  yellow.  E.  perfolialum,  grown  in  Japan,  affords 
a  fixed  oil  from  its  seeds. 

Erysip'elaa,  a  febrile  and  inflammatory  disease,  associated 
with  an  Exanthematous  Eruption  [q.  v.),  which  has  a  tendency 
to  spread,  and  may  involve  the  areolar  tissue  beneath.  In 
England  E.  is  sometimes  called  St  Anthony's  Fire,  and  in  Scot- 
land Rose.  E.  is  not  a  disease  of  the  skin,  but  the  pathological 
phenomena  resulting  from  the  action  of  the  poison  on  the  skin 
are  that  the  skin  is  diffusely  inflamed,  being  either  of  a  bright 
scarlet  or  rose-coloured  lint,  disappearing  on  pressure,  but  reap- 
pearing when  the  pressure  is  removed.  The  areolar  tissue  is 
generally  involved.  The  face,  head,  and  neck  are  the  parts 
most  fi-equently  affected,  but  a  considerable  portion  of  the  tnink, 
or  one  or  both  lower  or  upper  extremities,  may  be  involved,  E. 
may  terminate  by  desquamation,  vesication,  suppuration,  or 
gangrene.  The  symptoms  of  E.  are  fever,  muscular  pams,  quick 
pulse,  white  tongue,  nausea,  vomiting,  deranged  bowels,  and 
sore  throat.  On  the  third  day  the  fever  is  continuous,  the  tongue 
brown  and  dry,  and  there  is  pain,  swellmg,  and  tenderness  of 
lymphatic  glands  of  the  neck,  and  the  .cutaneous  inflanlmafion 
appears.  From  the  fifth  to  the  eighth  day  the  bright  colour 
begins  to  disappear,  and  desquamation  takes  place.  E.  has  a 
tendency  to  spread,  and  sometimes  it  is  erratic.  The  head,  face, 
and  limbs  are  sometimes  enormously  swollen,  the  inflammation 
extendiug  deeply  into  the  subcutaneous  tissue,  followed  by  sup- 
puration {E.  phltgmenodes)  or  by  gangrene  (E.  gangrenosum). 
Cause — some  specific  poison.  Propagation— E.  is  a  communi- 
cable disease.  It  has  been  affirmed  and  denied  that  it  is  con- 
tagions and  infectious,  but  it  certainly  spreads  hyfomi/es.  An 
attack  of  E.  does  not  secure  immunity,  but  rather  predisposes, 
in  the  surgical  wards  of  an  hospital  is  a  most  dangerous 
lease.  Destructive  epidemics  of  E.  have  occurred  both  in 
iropc  and  America.  Treatment — in  mild  cases,  test,  saline 
latives,  cooling  drinks  and  low  diet,  diaphoretics,  and  opiates 
occasionally.  Tincture  of  the  perchloride  of  iron  in  bitter  infu- 
ivas  at  one  time  considered  a  specific  Sulphites  of  sodium 
tassium  have  been  recommended  for  both  internal  and  ex- 
teriial  use.  Dry  flour,  or  starch  flour,  dusted  over  the  inflamed 
S  a  soothing  application,  but  the  advantage  of  attempting 


yLaOogle 


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THS.  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


ESC 


to  limit  tlie  spread  of  E.  by  caustics  ot  tincture  of  iodine  is  very 
doubtful. 

Erythe'ma  (Gr.  cralhima,  'redness')  is  a  disease  entirely 
distinct  from  erysipelas,  the  only  symptom  in  common  being  that 
of  redness  of  the  skin.  E.  expresses  inflammatory  redness  of  the 
skin  occurring  in  one  or  several  patches  of  ineguhir  form  with- 
out pimples,  vesicles,  or  pustules,  and  is  produced  by  simple 
cotigestion  of  the  cutaneous  vessels.  There  is  but  slight  swell- 
ing, except  where  tliere  is  serous  effusion  info  the  tissues  of  the 
skin.  Acute  E-  terminates  by  subsidence  of  the  redness  and 
desquamation ;  chronic  E.  results  in  greater  changes,  and  may 
terminate  in  psoriasis.  E.  is  non-contagious,  is  occasionally  pro- 
duced by  local  irritation,  but  is  geQeralljFsymptomatic  of  constitu- 
tional or  visceral  disorder.  The  principles  of  treatment  are  to 
restore  the  functions  of  the  syslem  to  healthy  action,  and  to  allay 
the  local  irritation  by  evaporating  lotions,  water  dressings,  warm 
fomentations,  and  ointments  of  various  kinds, 

BrytH'na.     See  Cokal  Fiower. 
See  Centaury. 


■i  of  Brazil   film 


Erytha^j'niiiim,  a  genus  of  Liliaceous  (Endogenous)  plants, 
represented  by  E.  dens  canis,  the  '  dog-tooth  violet,'  so  named 
fiora  ^e  appearance  of  its  little  white-coloured  bulbs.  This 
plant  grows  in  our  gardens,  and  has  drooping  flowers.  It  is  a 
native  of  Central  Europe,  and  also  occurs  m  Siberia, 

Errthroplilse'uia,  a  genus  of  Exi^ens  belonging  to  the  Li^pi- 
minosa,  and  to  the  Mimosen,  a  gum-arabic  section  of  that  natural 
order.  Of  this  genus  E.  Guinemsi,  of  Guinea,  is  a  familiar  spe- 
cies. It  is  a  tree,  attaining  the  height  of  Ipo  feet  or  more. 
Its  red  juice  is  used  in  ordeal  by  the  native  priests  to  test  the 
innocence  of  an  accused  person. 

Brythroxyla'ceBB,  a  natural  order  of  Exogenous  plants,  dis- 
tii^ished  by  the  flowers  spriiigina;  from  overlapping  scales.  No 
calycine  glands  are  developed,  and  plaited  scales  eiistat  the  base 
of  the  petals.  The  ovules  are  anatropal,  and  possess  no  funi- 
culi, or  cords  of  attachment.  Erythroxylon  coca  of  Peru  has 
long  been  lamed  for  its  supposed  powers  of  sustaining  the 
strength.  It  is  the  ifiadu  of  the  Indians ;  and  Spruce  remarks 
that  with  soma  ipadu-leaves  in  his  mouth  an  Indian  will  walk 
for  two  or  three  days  without  food  and  without  any  desiri 
sleep.  The  leaves  act  by  stimulating  the  nervous  system, 
interesting  communication  corroborative  of  the  effects  of  '  G 
(q,  Y,)  was  made  by  Sir  R,  Christison  to  the  Botanical  Society 
of  Edinbui^li  in    1876.       E.  suieroi  '  "      "     "■      '  ' 

brown  dye  from  its  bark. 

Erzertun',  or  Eraiium  {Arsin-iy-Rutn,  '  the  land  of  the 
Romans,'  from  being  founded  under  the  Eastern  Roman  Empire 
Armen.  JCarin  or  Garia  K&alaih),  a  fortified  city  and  the  capi 
tal  of  Turkish  Armenia,  on  the  river  Kara-gu,  a  branch  of  thi 
Euphrates,  125  miles  S.E,  of  Trebizond,  and  6000  feet  above  thi 
level  of  the  sea.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  Armenian  archbishop,  and 
has  a  strong  citadel,  some  forty  mosques,  several  Armenian  and 
Greek  churehes,  and  many  bazaars  and  baths.  The  best  build- 
ings are  of  volcanic  stone  and  sun,dried  bricks,  and  the  streets  are 
narrow  and  filthy.  E.  is  the  entrepSt  of  a  great  caravan  tmde, 
chiefly  in  European  manufactures,  and  in  Eastern  silks,  shawls, 
cotton,  tobacco,  rice,  and  indigo.  Annually  some  jS2,ooo,ooa 
worth  of  British  goods  alone  are  conveyed  thus  into  Persia.  The 
principal  manufactures  of  E.  are  moi-occo  leather,  sheepskin 
pelisses,  andiron  and  copper  wares.  Pop.  60,000,  of  whomfivc- 
sinths  are  Turks.  A  fortress  vras  founded  here,  near  the  S' 
Armenian  town  of  Atsen,  and  named  Theodosiopolis,  after  Tt 
dosius  II.,  in  415  a.e.  On  the  destruction  of  Arsen  the  inliabi- 
tants  removed  hither,  and  transferred  the  present  name  to  their 
new  abode.  E,  was  pillaged  in  1201  by  the  Seljuks,  who 
destroyed,  it  is  said,  some  100  churches-  It  was  taken  by  the 
Mongols  in  1242,  by  the  Turks  in  1517,  and  by  the  Russians 
in  1829,  but  was  restored  to  the  Porte  on  the  ppace  of  Adria- 
nople.  A  great  part  of  it  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in 
1859. 

Erz'gebirge  (;,-(.,  'metal  mountains'),  a  mountain  chain  of 
Germany  forming  the  boundary  betvreen  Saxony  and  Bohemia 
and  stretching  from  the  Elbe  valley  in  the  N.E.  to  the  Thiirin- 

ferwald  in  the  S.W.,  a  distance  of  120  miles.  It  reaches  a 
eight  of  3804  feet  in  the  Keilberg,  an.d  has  an  abrupt  declivity 


IC: 


the  S.E.  side,  where  several  afHuents  of  the  Elbe  have  their 
;.  The  E.,  which  is  of  granite  formation,  is  rich  in  silver,  tin, 
n,  cobalt,  &c  To  the  S.  of  this  range,  at  an  altitude  of  3162 
feet,  is  Gottesgabe  ('  gift  of  God '),  the  highest  town  in  Germany. 
ail.  The  story  of  E.'s  life  is  given  in  Gen.  xxv.-xxxvi. 
Some  modern  critics,  however,  are  of  opinion  that  the  patri- 
irchal  history  has  come  down  to  us  in  a  legendary  form,  and 
luggest  that  the  name  K  [of  which  two  different  explanations 
ire  given  in  Genesis  (xxv.  25,  and  v.  30)]  refers  to  the  appear- 
mce  of  the  country  (Edom),  in  which  red  earth  and  rocks 
prevail,  and  of  Mount  Seir  ('rough,"briEtIy,'i.ir.,  wooded).  The 
_iigher  antiquity  of  the  Edomiles  (cf.  Gen.  xitivi,  31),  their  friend- 
^ip  with  the  Israelites  till  the  time  of  Saul,  their  conquest  by 
David,  the  greater  fruitfulnessofCanaaii  as  compared  vrilh  Mount 
Seir,  itself  not  unfruitful  in  parts,  are  thus  supposed  to  be  em- 
bodied in  the  legend,  in  which  E.,  the  elder  of  two  twin  brothers, 
is  supplanted  by  the  younger,  Jacob  (Israel),  who  gels  the  bless- 
ing of  the  fatness  of  the  earth,  and  himself  gets  an  inferior  bless- 
ing. See  Ewald's  Gesckkhtc  da  Volkis  Israel,  (3d  ed.  Gott. 
1869),  and  TheBibUfor  Young  People,  byDrs  Oort,  Hooykaas, 
and  Kuenen  (Eng,  trans,  vol.  L  1873). 

Escallldtf  (Ital.  scalala,  from  Lat.  seals,  '  a  ladder ')  is  scalmg 
a  fortification  by  means  of  ladders.  The  ladders  used  consist  of 
several  pieces  about  twelve  feet  long,  fitted  togelhet  by  sockets. 
The  advance  party  of  an  E.  is  called  the  'forlorn  hope,'  and 
though  in  their  approach  lliey  are  covered  by  the  heavy  firing  of 
their  comrades  in  the  tear,  the  dangers  to  which  they  expose 
themselves  are  vastly  greater  than  those  to  be  met  with  in  any 
other  part  of  the  field. 

Eaoall'op,  or  Escallop -Shell,  in  heraldry,  au  indented 
shell;  a  badge  belonging  to  noble  pilgrims;  the  emblem  of 
the  apostle  St  James  the  Greater. 

EECape'merit,  the  mechanical  arrangement  in  watches  and 
timepieces  by  which  the  circular  motion  of  the  wheels  is  con- 
verted into  the  oscillatory  motion  of  the  balance-wheel  or  pen- 
dulum.    See  HoROLOGv, 

Escarp'  (from  Ital.  Scarpa),  in  fortification,  is  the  side  of  the 
ditch  next  the  fort,  while  the  side  of  the  ditch  next  the  country 
is  the  counterscarp.  The  E.  is  usually  raidkd  (faced)  with 
masonry  or  wood, 

Escarp'ment,  the  geological  name  of  a  steep  or  abrupt  cliff 
formed  by  the  outcrop  of  inclined  beds. 
Escaut,  the  French  name  of  the  river  Scheldt  (q.  v.). 
Eseli'ftr  (Gr.  eschara),  a  slough  of  disorganised  tissue  occa- 
sioned by  burns  or  the  application  of  caustics. 

Esolieat'  is  a  term  of  feudal  law  denoting  the  incident  by 
which  lands  or  tenements  revert  to  the  sovereign  or  lord  of  the 
fee  as  the  original  grantor,  on  account  of  want  of  heir,  or  from 
forfeiture.  Escheats  are  of  two  kinds— (l)  Those  forfeitures 
whitJi  belong  to  tlie  sovereign  from  his  prert^ative  when  there 
is  no  heir  to  succeed  to  the  mherilance  ;  (l)  those  which  belong 
to  every  lord  of  the  manor,  in  virtue  of  his  seigniory,  under  a 
royal  grant.  The  law  of  E.  presumes,  upon  the  feudal  system, 
that  the  blood  of  the  person  last  seised  in  Fee  Simple  (q.  v.)  is 
extinct,  from  which  it  follows  that  what  the  feudal  writera  call 
feodum  apirlum.  must  revert  to  the  lord  of  the  fee. 

In  Scotch  law  smgle  E,  is  the  forfeiture  to  the  crown  of  one's 
movable  estate  on  conviction  of  certain  crimes.  Formerly  it 
followed  denunciation  for  non-payment  or  non-performance  of 
a  civil  debt  or  obligation.  Liferent  E.  is  the  forfeiture  to  the 
superior  of  the  annual  profits  of  the  vassal's  lands.  A  total  for- 
feiture to  the  crown  of  one's  property  is  in  Scotland  a  penalty  at- 
tached to  high  treason  only.  Smgle  E.  is  a  penalty  attached  to 
a  sentence  of  outlawry,  fugitatioQ,  and  other  crimes.  It  ensura 
on  sentence  for  a  capital  crime  in  Scotland. 

Eachellea',  Les,  correctly  ^cheUes  Les  (Fr  'the  lad 
ders'l,  a  village  in  the  S.E.  of  Fra  ..e  m  the  depa  tment  of 
Savoie,  about  11  miles  S.W.  of  Chimber^  Pop  (l'^72)  531 
In  the  road  between  Chambery  and  E  lies  a  huge  limesto  e 
cliff  Soo  feet  high,  which  travellers  were  formerly  obliged  to 
cross  by  means  of  ladders,  but  wh  ch  iias  pierced  by  a  tunnel 
1000  feet  long  and  25  in  height  ind  w  dth  a  wo  k  be^Tin  by 
Napoleon  and  completed  by  the  Iv  ng  of  Sardin  a  in  1817 
5  75 


vGooqIc 


-^ 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Esch'anbacli,  "Wolfram  von,  a  Gelebcated  Minnesinger,  was 
botn  at  Eschenbach,  near  Ansbaeh,  in  tlie  latter  part  of  the  I2ih 
c  He  belonged  to  a  nobie  family,  and  Spent  his  iife  in  knighlly 
pursuits.  He  was  conspicuous  among  the  minstrels  competing 
in  the  Wartburg  Krieg{'vix  of  the  Wartburg'),  held  at  the 
court  of  Hermann,  Landgraf  of  Thuringia,  in  1207.  After  Her- 
mann's death  he  retired  to  his  paternal  castle.  He  died  about 
1 220.  In  his  own  time,  says  Schegel,  E.  was  as  celebrated  as 
Dante.  His  poems,  which  are  on  diivalrons  and  allegorical 
themes,  dLsplay  great  imagination  and  elegance  of  diction,  and 
combine  the  tenderness  of  the  Minne-la&r  with  the  brilliant 
fancies  of  the  Provencal  lyrists.  His  best  worlts  are  Parzivai, 
Titurel,  Lohengrin,  and  Wilhkidm,  a  legeudary  Prince  of 
Orange,  who  ^ures  in  the  roniance  of  Qiarlemagiie.  The  best 
edition  ofE.'3work3  is  by  Lachmann  {Berl.  1833;  2d  ed.  1854). 
San'Maitre  translated  them  into  modem  German  in  1S36  (3d 
ed.  1858),  and  Simrock  translated  part  of  them  in  1842  (Stuttgart). 
A  concordance  to  E.'s  worka  was  also  published  by  San-Martre 
(QuedL  and  Leips.  1SS7). 

Eseh'er,  Heinricli,  merchant,  was  born  at  Zurich  in  1626, 
and  was  sent  to  Louis  XIV.  in  1663  to  renew  the  peace,  and  to 
ask  for  a  renewal  of  Swiss  trading  privileges  in  France,  He 
died  zist  April  1710. — Johaim  Ctaapard  £>.,  another  Zurich 
roan,  was  bom  15th  Febraary  1678,  educated  as  a  lawyer,  sup- 
ported in  the  Great  Council  the  cause  of  public  education  and 
religious  toleration,  and  was  also  successfiu  diplomatically  with 
Cardinal Fleury.  Hediedasd December  1763.— HansKonrad 
E.  was  born  at  Zurich,  a4tb  August  1767.  For  his  chief  work, 
the  embankment  of  the  Linth  and  Glalz,  he  got  the  singular 
rewaid  of  adding  Von  dcr  Linth  to  his  name.  Hans  died  gth 
March  1S23.  His  son,  Ai>iiold  E.,  Von  def  Linth  (born 
8th  June  1807),  has  won  a  high  reputation  as  a  geologist. — 
Johann  Heinrich  Alfred  E,  bom  at  Zurich  2oiii  February 
1819,  and  educated  for  the  law  at  Berlin,  Bonn,  and  Paris. 
After  lecturing  at  home  on  Swiss  federal  law,  he  was  in  1841 
elected  to  tlie  Great  Council,. of  which  he  rapidly  became  Secre- 
tary and  President.  He  joined  Furrer  in  expelling  the  Jesuits 
<lS45),  and  devoted  much  thought  to  the  reorganisation  of  Che 
cantonal  schools.  In  1848,  as  member  of.  the  Diet,  E.  intervened 
between  Austria  and  Ticino,  who  were  about  to  fight.  He  en. 
tirely  approved  of  the  new  federal  conslitulion  and  the  increased 
centralisation.  In  the  Bundesralh  or  Federal  Coundl,  which 
is  an  essential  part  of  the  new  Bundesfaat  Constitution  (adopted 
by  plebiscite  in  1S74),  E,  has  had  much  to  do  in  formii^  the 
liberal  and  efScient  system  of  education  which  Switzerland  ep- 
joys, 

Eischscliolt'zia,  a  genus  of  Exogenous  plants  belonging  to 
the  Papirveracis,  or  Poppy  order.  B.  Califomua,  an  annual 
common  in  our  gardens,  has  large  orange  flowers.  The  floral 
receptacle  grows  up  around  the  base  of  the  ovary,  and  carries  up 
along  with  it  the  stamens,  calyx,  and  corolla,  the  calyx  ulti- 
matdy  separating  from  the  other  parts,  and  resembling  a  candle- 
extinguisher  in  shape. 

Esoh'wege  {'Ash-lree  road'),  a  town  in  tlie  province  of 
Hessen-Nassau,  Prussia,  28  miles  S,  E.  of  Cassel,  on  the  Werra. 
Pop.  (1S71)  7371.  E.  has  an  old  castle,  two  churches,  a  rml- 
school,  and  a  p  to -gymnasium.  It  is  famous  for  its  industries — 
cloth,  oil,  soap,  and  glue-making — and  has  tobacco  manufactories 
and  breweries.     It  is  sometimes  called  ihe  '  Hessian  Elberfeld.' 

EsellVeiler  ('Ash-tree  dwelling'),  an  important  roanufac. 
hiring  town  In  Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the  Inde,  9  miles  E.N.K 
of  Aachen.  Pop.  (1871)  15,490.  The  principal  industries  are 
the  manu&ctnre  of  iron  and  tinned  ware,  machines,  needles, 
iron-wire,  silks,  ribbons,  leather,  and  waxcloth.  E.  has  besides 
breweries,  rolling-mills,  copper  forges,  and  lesid  and  coal  mines. 
Some  of  the  coal-mines  are  200  fathoms  deep.  In  1872  there 
were  forty-eight  pits  with  5700  workmen,  who  produced 
1,050,000  tons.      Tin  and  silver  are  also  found. 

Bsoo'rial  (Sp.  escoria,  'dross,'  in  reference  to  the  slag  of  ex- 
hausted mines  found  here)  is  a  small  town  in  the  province,  and 
26  miles  N.W.  of  the  city,  of  Madrid,  on  the  lower  slope  of  the 
Sierra  de  Guadarrama  ;  po|^  about  2OO0,  The  town  has  sprung 
up  beside  the  famous  building — monastery  and  royal  residence 
inone— of  El  E.,  which  owes  its  origin  to  a  vow  made  by  Philip 
H.  of  Spnin  to  commemorate  St  Lawrence  In  gratitude  for  the 


victory  he  had  won  at  St  Quentin  on  that  saint's  day  (loth 
August),  1557.  St  Lawrence  is  said  to  have  been  roasted  alive 
on  a  griditon,  and  Philip's  votive  memorial  was  built  in  the 
form  of  that  utensil.  It  cost  live  million  ducats,  is  built  of 
bluish  granite,  and  though  grotesque  and  iinari-e  in  style,  is 
lavishly  decorated,  and  contiuns  several  valuable  collections  of 
books  and  Arabic  MSS„  of  coins,  and  of  frescoes  and  pictures  by 
Giordano,  Carduchi,  Pellegrini,  and  other  Italian  masters.  The 
crucifix  in  the  oratory  is  enriched  vrilh  diamonds,  &c.  The 
mortuary  chapel  {called  the  Pantheon)  contains  the  remains  of 
the  Spanish  kings  from  Karl  I.  (V.)  to  Ferdinand  VIL,  with  the 
exception  of  Ferdinand  VI.,  who  was  buried  at  Madrid.  See 
Casiri's  catalogue  of  Arabic  MSS.  [Sii/inlhcca  Arabico-Hispanica, 
2  vols.  Madrid,  1760-70),  and  Eotundo's  Hisloria  Descriptiua, 
Arthika,  y  Pinloresca  dd  Msnasterio  de  San  Loremo  communa- 
menti  llamaio  Bl  B.  (Madrid,  1856^1). 

Es'oort,     See  Convoy. 

Ea'ouage  (Old  Fr.  eseut,  '  a  shield,'  from  Lat.  sculum),  in 
English  feudal  law,  meant  service  of  the  shield,  a  kind  of  service 
by  which  the  tenant  was  bound  to  follow  his  lord  to  war  at  his 
Own  charge.     It  also  denoted  compensation  for  militai-y  service. 

Es'Cnliu,  an  alkaloid  obtained  from  tlie  capsules  of  the  fruit 
of  ^«Hu/HJ  hippocastanum  (horse-chestnut).-  E.  is  slightly  bitter, 
almost  insoluble  in  cold  water,  soluble  in  12  parts  of  boiling 
water,  and  more  soluble  in  a,lcohol.  K  has  been  introduced  in 
Lyon  for  the  cure  of  ague  and  periodic  neuralgia,  in  place  of 
qninine.  Dose,  15  grains  twice  a  day.  The  bark  was  used  for 
.the  same  purpose  in  1720,  and  during  the  wars  of  the  French 
Republic,  when  the  importation  of  cinchona  was  interrupted. 

Eacoteli'eon  (Old  Fr.  escusson.  Span,  and  Port,  escudo,  Ital. 
soldo,  Lat.  senium,  '  shield ')  is  the  stileld  upon  which  arms  are 
depicted,  but  the  word  is  also  used  to  express  the  whole  coat  of 
arms.  B.  of  Prttence,  is  an  iimer  shield  bearing  the  arms  of 
wife  who  has  brought  lands  as  dowry. 

JJadraelon  is  the  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew  Jezreel.  occn 
ring  only  twice  in  the  Apocryphal  Book  of  Judith,  iii.  9  and  i' 
G.  In  Judith  i.  8  the  form  Is  Esdrelom,  and  in  chap.  vii.  ; 
Esdraelom.  The  Plain  of  E.  is  triangular  in  shape,  the  moui 
tains  of  Gilboa  on  the  E.  forming  the  base,  the  mountains  t . 
Galilee  on  the  N.  the  one  side,  and  Mount  Cacmel  on  the  S.W. 
the  other,  Owing  to  its  natural  features  it  has  been  from  time 
immemorial  the  battlefield  of  Syria,  and  from  its  position  between 
Asia  Minor  and  Egypt  almost  the  battlefield  of  the  East.  It 
was  the  scene  of  the  battle  between  Barak  and  Jabin  (Judges 
iv.),  Gideon  and  the  Midianites  and  Amalekites  (Judges  vl., 
vii.),  Saul  and  the  Philistines  (i  Sam.  xxix,  i),  Ahab  and 
Benhadad  (l  Kings  xx.),  and  between  Josiah  and  the  Egyptians 
(2  Kings  xxiiL,  where  it  is  called  Megiddo,  from  the  town  of 
that  name  which  stood  on  its  southern  border).  Here  the  Assy- 
rians and  Persians,  the  Crusaders  and  Saracens,  the  Egyptians 
and  Turks,  the  Arabs  and  Franks  have  fought,  and  here  Bona- 
parte gained  one  of  his  victories.  ■ 

Ee'draa  is  the  name  of  two  Apocryphal  books  originally 
written  in  Greek,  and  attributed  to  Ezra  (Gr.  Bidras).  In  the 
Vulgate  they  are  called  3d  and  4tli  E.,  rst  and  2d  E.  being  the 
canonical  books  of  Ezia  and  Nehemiah.  This  arrangement  was 
followed  in  aU  the  earlier  editions  of  the  English  Bible ;  that 
now  existing,  of  calling  the  Apocryphal  books  ist  and  2d  E., 
was  first  adopted  in  the  Geneva  Bible.  I.  E.  consists  of  (l)  the 
last  chapters  of  2  Chron.  ftearfy  verbatim  ;  (2)  an  original 
'   "    '    ■"      ■    '     imitation  of  Esther  and 


It  the  ■ 


Eortion,  written,  probably  in  Egypt,  in  imitation 
ianiel,  and  giving  the  history  of  three  young  mi 
of  Darius ;  (3)  the  Book  of  Ezra  differently  arranged ; 
(4)  a  portion  of  Nehemiah.  2.  E.,  or  the  Revelation  of  E,,  the 
date  of  whitji  has  been  fixed  variously  from  z8  b.c  to  69  a.  b., 
and  which  was  also  probably  written  in  Egypt,  consists,  as  in 
English,  of  (l)  two  passages  (cc.  i.,  ii.,  and  xv.,  xvi.)  not  found 
in  the  Ar.  and  Eth,  versions,  but  interpolated  in  the  Lat.  text ; 
(2)  a  passage  after  vii.  35,  found  in  the  Ar.  and  Eth.  and  omitted 
in  the  Lat  (probably  from  its  denying  the  efficacy  of  human  in- 
tercession after  death) ;  and  (3)  the  original  Apocalypse,  con- 
sisting of  a  series  of  three  revelations  and  three  visions  to  Ezra, 
followed  by  the  appearance  to  him  of  the  Lord,  from  whom  he 
receives  the  law. 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAIDIA. 


Eaen'beok'ia,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  Kidaais  or 
Rue  order,  and  represented  by  E.fihttfuga,  which  is  employed 
ui  Brazil  as  a  substitute  for  Peruvian  bark. 

Ssk  (Cymric,  wysk^  GaeL  uisk, '  water'),  the  name  of  several 
streams  in  Scotland,  of  which  five  are  worthy  of  note  :— l.  The 
Dumfriessliire  E.,  rising  on  the  borders  of  Selkirk,  near  Ettrlck 
Pen,  and  flowing  in  its  upper  course  through  the  wild  pastoral 
solitudes  of  Eskdalemuir,  and  in  its  lower  course  through  the  richer 
scenery  of  Cumberland,  falling  into  the  Solway  at  the  head  of  the 
estuary  after  a  southerly  course  of  45  miles.  This  is  the  river  of 
'  'onng  Lochinvar.  '  He  swam  the  E.  river  where  ford  there  was 
one."  z  and  3.  The  N.  and  S.E.  in  Midlothian,  which  rise  in 
'eeblesshire  and  flow  N.N.  E. ,  uniting  in  Dalkeith  Park,  and  en- 
ding the  Firth  of  Forth  at  Mnsselbuigh  after  a  course  of  23  miles. 
The  N.  branch  passes  through  the  romantic  ravines  of  Rosliu  and 
Hawthomden.  4  and  S-  The  Forfarshire  Esks,  both  of  which 
have  their  source  in  the  eastern  Grampians,  the  more  northerly  and 
lesser  of  the  two  reaching  the  sea  4  miles  N.  of  Montrose  after 
ourse  of  25  miles  ;  the  southerly  and  larger  stream  crossing 
valley  of  Strathmore,  passing  Brechin,  and  falling  into  the 
Bay  of  Montrose  after  an  easterly  course  of  40  mSes.  The 
sonthem  English  form  of  this  Celtic  word  is  Exi  or  Axe  (q.  v. ). 
BaTd-DJTimma'sa  ['  Old  commune '],  a  town  in  the  vilayet  of 
the  Danube,  or  Bulgaria,  European  Turkey,  18  miles  W.  by  S. 
of  Shumla,  near  the  Kamchik  springs,  has  a  culture  of  silk  and 
large  fairs.     Pop.  io,ocnd. 

Eskimo  Dog,  a  variety  of  Di^  [q.  v.),  so  named  from  its 
being  found  associated  with  the  Eskunos  and,  other  Northern 
tribes  in  Europe,  N.  America,  and  Asia.  It  is  extensively  used 
in  Arctic  travelling  for  drawing  sledges,  and  is  very  hardy  and 
sagacious.  The  general  colour  is  a  dark  grey,  and  the  average 
size  about  that  of  a  poinler.  The  outer  hair  is  coarse  and  stiff, 
but  a  warm  softer  inner  coat  exists.  The  ears  ate  short  and 
pointed,  and  the  bushy  tail  is  generally  curled  over  the  back. 

Es'kimOB  (native  name,  Inuii,  'the  people'),  called  by  the 
Abenaki — ^an  aboriginal  peoplt  who  at  one  time  inliabiled  the 
country  afterwards  known  as' New  England — Eskiinanlsic,  or 
'eaters  of  raw  flesh.'  The  Abenaki  applied  this  name  to  the 
tribes  on  the  coasts  of  Labrador ;  the  early  French  Canadians 
converted  it  into  Eskitaaux  or  Esquintaux.  D'c  Lathamand  other 
recent  etlmologists  vrrite  it  Esiinms,  after  the  Danish  orthography ; 
while  Dr  Henry  Rink,  following  the  same  orthography,  uses 
the  name  Eskimo  both  in  a  singular  and  in  a  jjlural  sense. 
The  E.  are  a  distinctive  and  singular  people  inhabitii^  Green 
land  and  Labrador,  the  N.  American  shores,  the  mhabited 
islands  of  the  N.  American  Archipelago,  and  part  of  the  coast 
regions  of  the  extreme  N.E.  of  Siberia.  They  are  spread 
over  an  insular  r^ion  and  a  coast-line  5000  miles  in  e\tent 
but  they  never  penetrate  inland.  They  are  essentially  a  htloral 
people,  able  to  obtain  sustenance  only  from  the  sea.  The  E 
closely  resemble  each  other  over  the  whole  area  occupied  by 
them  in  appearance,  language,  habits,  traditions,  &c. ,  and  there 
is  perhaps  no  other  nation  so  unmixed  in  blood.  Their  faces  are 
of  a  broad  oval  shape,  the  forehead  and  chin  recede,  the  nose  is 
usually  broad  and  depressed,  but  in  some  instances  promi 
like  that  of  Europeans.  The  eyes  are  small  and  oblique 
the  complexion  is  nearly  white  after  the  removal  of  the  perma  . 
coating  of  oil,  dirt,  and  smoke  which  covers  the  face.  The  usual 
height  is  from  5  feet  to  5  feet  10  inches,  and  in  rare  instances  to 
about  6  feet,  and  both  men  and  women  are  remarkably  muscular 
and  agile.  Dr  Latham  ranks  them  among  the  American  Mongo- 
lidfe,  under  which  designation  he  incl  d       11  th       t  1 

theNew  World.   Dr  Rink,  the  most  r  dp    b  blyth   m    t 

authoritative  writer  on  the  origin  and  htryfthEas  ts 
that  the  independent  existence  of  Ih  pe  pi  d  t  f  m  ry 
remote  period — many  of  their  traditi        b     g  m    h  th 

one  thousand  years  bid — and  inclines  th  b  1  ef  th  t  th  m 
mediate  cradle  of  the  race  was  tl      A  d       t  th 

Asiatic  continent.      His  theory  is  th  t    1      p    pi  g   ally 

located  on  the  great  rivers  of  pola    N    Am  w        d 

northward  to  the  coast  and  to  the      I     d    b  y     d  by  Ind 
from  the  south,  between  whom  and  Ih    E       t    d  I        1       m  tj 
subasts  to  the  present  day.    The  E.  d  p    d  f    th  t 

the  seals  and  cetaceous  animals  which  th  y  capta       t  b      th  Hg 
holes  in  the  ice  or  at  its  edge.    The  blubber  of  these  animals  i! 
their  usual  food,  and  enables  them  to  resist  the  extreme  cold  of 
148 


the  regions  they  inhabit,  while  the  skins  of  the  seal,  &c.,  are  made 
into  suitable  and  sufficient  clothing.  The  imperative  necessity 
of  capturing  these  animals  in  order  to  preserve  life  has  moulded 
the  character  of  the  social  life,  defined  the  nature  of  the  inven- 
tions, and  affected,  if  not  created,  the  religion,  the  superstitions, 
and  the  amusements  of  lliis  people.  Their  kayak  or  shuttle- 
shaped  1)oat,  in  which  they  hunt  the  walrus  and  whale,  is  a  frame- 
work of  wood  jomed  together  chiefly  by  strings,  covered  with 
'  ■  and  impenetrable  to  water.  Nothing  could  he  more 
.bly  adapted  for  its  purpose,  yet  it  would  be  difficult  to 
ly  sea-going  boat  anything  at  all  like  it  in  any  other  part 
of  the  globe.  Their  harpoons  are  fitted  with  an  inflated  bladder, 
which  serves  the  double  purpose  of  retaiiJing  the  retreat  of 
the  woimded  animal  and  floating  the  harpoon  should  it  escape. 
The  j>oints  of  the  harpoons  and  spears  are  so  fltted  into  the  . 
sliafts  that  after  the  blow  has  been  delivered  the  point  and  the 
shaft  come  apart.  The  shafts  of  these  weapons  m  most  cases 
pieces  of  bone  neatly  tied  t<^ether  with  tliongs, 
and  the  points  are  supplied  by  the  unicorn  of  the  narwhal, 
by  sliaqi-pointed  bones,  teeth,  and  occasionally  metal,  of  the 
value  of  which  the  E.  have  the  liveliest  appreciation.  The 
dog-sledges,  marvels  of  construction,  are  alio,  for  the  most 
part,  formed  of  pieces  of  bone  tied  together.  Grouped 
together  in  small  tribes  of  six  to  twelve  or  more  families,  the 
E.  regard  their  wintering  quarters  as  their  home ;  in  summer, 
however,  they  are  constantly  travelling,  and  choose  their  route 
usually  with  the  view  of  hunting  reindeer,  though  seal-hunting, 
fishing,  and  trade  are  objects  always  kept  in  mind.  When  the 
cold  weather  comes  round,  the  party  return  to  their  wintering- 
place,  and  recommence  sealing  and  whaling  for  the  season. 
They  often  eat  flesh  and  fish  raw,  but  the  usual  custom  is 
to  boil  it  in  a  stone  pot  suspended  over  a  lamp  fed  with 
blubber,  and  with  moss  for  wicks.  The  costume  is  nearly 
the  same  for  both  sexes,  consisting  of  fur  or  sealskin  jacket, 
with  hood,  trousers  of  the  same  material,  and  boots  reaching 
well  up  the  thigh.  In  summer  they  reside  in  tents  formed  of 
hides  sewn  together,  but  in  winter  they  retire  into  houses  variously 
constructed,  as  the  capabilities  of  the  locality  permit— of  stones 
and  turf,  stones  and  bones,  driftwood,  or  blocks  of  frozen  snow, 
so  cut  and  arranged  the  one  above  the  other  as  to  form  a  vault 
or  dome.  Owing  to  the  uncleanly  habits  of  tlie  people,  and  to 
the  circumstance  that  their  food  is  often  in  a  putrid  condition, 
the  stench  of  these  houses  is  unsupportable  to  white  men, 
though  some  of  our  early  explorers  passed  whole  nights  in  them. 
The  religion  of  the  E.  is  a  form  of  paganism,  the  system  em- 
b  acing  asipmbg      md?"         suk  '     of  guardian 

spirits  named  tor  I  d  las  f  h  man  b  g  (  ngakut)  en- 
dowed Yith  sup  rmtirlwdm  p  E  fence  the  E. 
accept  as  a  fact  w  th  t  p  I  t  g  th  gin  of  man. 
Their  nvisibi  w  Id  mb  es  th  pp  o?ld  the  unlucky 
souls  in  wh  h  ff  f  m  tant  Id  d  f  m  ne ;  and  tlie 
under  vimld  h  h  th  i  mp  t  w  rm  nd  the  food 
abu  dant  Tl  E  firm  b  b  rs  m  wit  h  f  of  a  most 
complicated  d  npt  Tb  tal  and  t  d  t  f  this  singu- 
lai  people  d  ded  t  t  1  th  nt  and  the 
modem  the  f  rm  f  wl  h —  t  g  tra  d  nary  adven- 
tures under  d  t  3,  h  p  ly  tl  me  as  those 
under  which  thE  fthp  tdyl  —  b  lieved  to  be 
much  more  than  a  thousand  years  old.  These  tales  form  a  body 
literature,  handed  down  orally,  but  with  scrupulous 
,  from  generation  to  generation.  Story- telluig^  is  culti- 
vated as  a  science,  and  the  art  of  the  raconteier  is  subjected  to 
such  a  severe  standard  in  the  matter  of  accuracy,  that  the  tales 
ar  pp  ed  to  have  been  preserved  in  an  unaltered  shape  for 
£  Th  y  concern  themselves  chiefly  with  deeds  of  violence 
t  mbly  nged,  and  the  usual  moral  enforced  is  to  be  kind  to 
phan  and  to  the  defenceless,  if  we  would  avoid  the  surely  coming 
d  y  f  re  koning.  Of  the  entire  race,  the  number  of  which  is 
t  as  rtained,  those  that  have  come  directly  under  European 
fl  re  chiefly  the  inhabitants  of  the  Danish  distncts  m 
G  ee  I  d.  During  the  last  centiiry  these  were  rapidly  de- 
as  g  but  after  the  Moravian  mission  established  here  by 
H  E  ede  in  17ZI  had  taken  firm  root,  the  decrease  was 
ar  est  d  nd  in  time  the  numbers  began  to  increase.  For  some 
t  b  quent  to  1855  the  numbers  of  E.  in  the  Danish  dis 
tn  t  m  ined  almost  stationary  between  9400  and  9700  The 
Danish  officials  have  never  introduced  intoxicating  liquors  into 
Greenland,  and  scarcely  another  instance  can  be  adduced  in 
577 


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THE  GLOBE  E\C\  CLOPEDIA. 


which  Europeanshave  shown  equal  consideration  for  an  aborig  na! 
race.  See  Richardson's  Polar  Regions^  and  Dr  Henry  Rink  s  ' 
Tales  and  Traditiom  of  the  Eskimo  (Edinb.  1875). 

EsTii-Zagbra,  a  town  in  the  vilayet  of  Adrianople,  European 
Turkey,  67  miies  N.W.  of  Adrianople,  with  manufactures  of 
carpets,  £9.,  has  thirteen  mosques,  four  Christian  churches,  and 
a  huge  bazaar.    Its  baths  are  much  frequented.     Pop.  13,250. 

i^la,  a  tributary  of  the  Douro,  rises  in  the  Cantabrian 
mountains,  province  of  I^on,  Spain,  and  after  a  S.W.  course 
of  130  miles,  falls  into  the  Douro,  15  miles  below  Zamora.  In 
the  angle  at  the  confluence  of  the  Douro  and  E.  is  found  the 
finest  clay  in  the  Peninsula  for  the  manufacture  of  earthenware. 

EBmerel'da(Span.  'emerald  '),  a  river  of  Ecuador,  S.America, 
rises  near  Quito,  passes  the  town  Esmerelda  (pop.  4000),  and 
enters  the  Pacific  after  a  course  of  IIQ  miles. — E.  is  also  the 
name  of  a  mountain  range  of  Brazil,  province  of  Minas  Geraes, 
about  170  miles  long,  and  of  a  county  in  Nevada  bordering  on 
California,  and  rich  in  minerals. 

E«'iieli,  or  Es'ne,  a  town  in  Upper  Egypt  on  the  left  banlf 
of  the  Nile,  ^bout  80  miles  N.  of  Assouan.  It  h^s  some  manufac- 
tures of  cotton  and  earthenware,  and  a  pop.  of  4000,  of  whom 
1500  are  Copts.  At  E.  are  the  ruins  of  a  sandstone  temple 
founded  by  Thothmes  III.,  and  dedicated  to  Chnumis  Satis  ^nd 
Har-Hek. 

Eso'cldee,  a  family  of  Teleostean  fishes,  represented  by  the 
Pikes.  It  belongs  to  the  Malacopteri  {'  soft- finned ')  section  of  the 
Teleostei,  and  to  the  Abdominalian  section  of  the  Malacopteri. 
The  dorsal  fin  is  placed  far  back  on  the  body,  and  the  intermaxil- 
lary bones  partly  contribute  to  the  formation  of  the  upper  jaw. 

EBote/ie  (Gr.  esoleriios,  'inner'),  in  the  ancient  mysteries 
and  schools  of  philosophy,  was  applied  to  the  doctrines  taught 
in  private,  and  designed  for  the  initiated  alone.  Those  taught  to 
the  public  were  termed  exoteric.  In  general  the  former  denotes 
the  secret  or  abstruse,  the  latter  the  public  or  popular. 

Espal'ier  (Fr.  from  Ital.  spalliere),  a  supporting  lattice- 
work of  wood  or  wire-fencing  on  which  fruit-trees,  &c.,  are 
trained,  and  the  objects  gained  by  the  use  of  which  are  economy 
of  space,  favourable  exposure  to  heat,  light,  and  air,  and  con- 
siderable protection  agsunst  the  effects  of  high  winds.  The 
Biitish  fruit-trees  most  suitable  for  training  by  means  of  the  E. 
are  the  apple  and  pear, 

Eapftrte'ro,  Don  J"o'aqimi  Baldome'ro,  a  Spanish  general 
and  politician,  the  son  of  a  cartwright,  was  bom  at  Granatula, 
La  Mancha,  in  f792.  He  was  intended  for  the  Church,  but  on 
the  Frendi.invading  Spain  in  1808,  joined  the  BataUon  Sagrado 
('  the  sacred  battalion  ),  formed  wholly  of  students,  and,  on  the 
expulsion  of  the  French,  fought  in  S.  America  against  the  insurgent 
colonies.  On  his  return  to  Spain  he  espoused  the  cause  of  Isabella 
II.,  drove  Don  Carlos  from  the  country  in  1839,  for  which  he  was 
made  a  grandee  and  duke,  and  from  1841  to  1843  governed  as 
regent  with  considerable  success,  though  often  foiled  By  inti^ues. 
Ill  1843  the  party  of  progress  and  the  party  of  Queen  Christina 
united  against  him.  General  Narvaez  entered  Madrid,  and  E,, 
deserted  by  his  tjoops,  betook  himself  to  England,  where  he 
remained  until  1848.  He  lived  in  retirement  in  Spain  from 
184S  to  1854,  when  Queen  Isabella  unwillingly  summoned  him 
to  form  a  mmistry  along  with  General  O'Donnell.  Soon  two 
parties  arose — the  Liberals,  followers  ot  E,,  and  the  opponents 
of  prioress,  headed  by  O'Donnell — the  antagonism  between 
which  became  so  bitter  as  to  completely  cramp  the  government. 
In  1856  E.  was  dismissed,  and  immediately  rebellions  in  his 
favour  broke  out  at  Madrid,  Barcelona,  and  Saragossa,  but 
from  these  he  held  aloof,  resigning  the  senatotial  rank  in  1857. 
In  1868  he  showed  warm  sympathy  for  the  provisional  govern- 
ment, and  in  1869  it  was  proposed  by  one  of  the  deputies  that 
he  should  be  made  king,  a  scheme  which  the  Cortes  did  not 
favour.  In  1875  he  avowed  his  adherence  to  Alfonso  XIL  K 
proved  himself  a  good  soldier,  and  one  of  the  most  honest, 
patriotic,  and  disinterested  of  Spanish  politicians,  but  has  also 
shown  a  lack  of  the  decision,  wariness,  and  dexterity  indis- 

?ensable  to  successful  Spanish  statesmen.     See  E.,  Histoymdesa 
'ida  Military  PoKHca,  by  Florez  (Madrid,  1843-^44.) 
Espar'to  (Macrockloa,  or  Stipa,  tenadssimd),  a  wejl-known 
genus  of   Grasses,   grown  in  lai^e  quantities   in   Spajij  ajid 
578 


exported  for  the  manufacture  of 


No    hem  Afi  ca,  whence  it 
1  a       ta  kets   ropes,  paper, 

Espinasse,  or  Lespinasse,  Olaire-Franpoiae,  famous 
for  her  powe  s  of  fascination,  intellectual  brilliance,  and  shifting 
fervo  rs  of  sentiment,  was  bom  at  Lyon  in  1731  or  1733.  She 
was  the  illegitimate  child  of  Madame  d'Albon,  and  after  acting 
as  governess  in  a  noble's  household,  went  to  Paris  as  a  com- 
panion to  Madame  du  Deffand,  to  whom  she  was  at  first  strongly 
attached,  but  whom  she  soon  eclipsed  by  her  youthful  beauty 
and  wit.  A  quarrel  ensued,  and  Mademoiselle  E.  separated 
from  Madame  du  Deffaud,  most  of  whose  admirers,  D'Alenibert 
among  others,  forsook  her  for  her  more  captivating  rival.  Her 
friends  then  obtained  Mademoiselle  E.  a  pension  from  the  king, 
and  she  continued  until  her  death,  at  Paris,  May  23,  1776,  to 
?harm  the  most  cultivated  circles  of  her  tune.  D'Alembert  was 
deeply  enamoured  of  her.  Her  letters  show  her  to  have  pos- 
sessed a  warm  heart,  as  well  as  dazzling  wit  and  exquisite  ac- 
complishments. See  her  Letlres  (Par.  iSq6),  Sainte  Beuve's 
Camcria  du  Lutidi,  torn,  ii.,  and  Jules  Janin's  Introduction  h 
une  $dition  des  Letlres  di  Lespi?iasse. 

Ea'pinel,  Vicente,  a  Spanish  poet,  bom  at  Ronda,  in 
GrenoSa,  38th  December  1551.  He  studied  at  Salamanca, 
entered  the  army,  fought  in  Flanders,  and  travelled  through 
Fiance,  jlaly,  and  Spain,  He  afterwards  took  holy  orders,  ob- 
tained some  preferment,  and  ended  bis  life  it)  a  monastery  at 
Madrid  in  1634.  E.  was  a  musician  of  considerable  fame,  and 
added  the  fifth  suing  to  the  guitar.  He  probably  invented  the 
stanza  of  ten  octosyllabic  verses  called  Espmelas.  His  works  are 
VMa  y  Aventuras  del  Eseudero  Marcos  de  Obregon,  which  some- 
what resembles  Gil  Bias;  Casa  de  las  Metnorias,  a  poem;  a 
Iranskaion  of  Horace's,  Ars  Poelica,  and  various  lyrics  and 
biographies.  See  Langston's  English  translation  {i8i6)  of 
Marcos  de  Otregon,  and  Tieck's  preface  to  his  German  translati 
ofE.  (1827), 

Eipinha'po,  Seira  d<),  a  mountain  chain  in  Braiil,  ninni  „ 
parallel  to  the  coast,  generally  about  150  miles  from  it,  though 
its  offsets  in  places  approach  within  zo  miles  of  it 
N.  of  Ouro  Preto,  and  extends  northward  to  the  banks  of  the 
San  Francisco.  Its  southern  portion  is  the  highest,  but  n 
summit  rises  above  6000  feet, 

Espir'ito  San'to  (Port.  'Holy  Spirit']— i.  Am; 
vince  of  Eraiil  to  the  N.  of  Rio  Janeiro,  has  an  are 
sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1872)  of  82,137,  of  whom 
slaves.  It  is  wafered  by  the  Rio  Doce,  and  is  in  „ 
covered  with  forests,  ii)  which  are  found  valuable  woods  and 
drugs.  ThiC  coast  flat?  yield  sugar,  cotton,  manioc,  a 
The  capital  is  Viltoria.  2.  A  (own  of  Cubfi,  near  the  c 
the  island,  240  miles  E.S.E.  of  Havana,  Pop.  10,000.  3.  The 
largest  island  of  the  New  Hebrides,  65  miles  by  20,  and  rising 
some  2000  feet  above  the  sea. 

Ea'planade  (  Fr.  from  Lat,  ex  'out,'  ^xAplanus,  'flat'),  : 
fortification,  is  an  open  space  of  ground  extending  in  front  of 
the  glacis  of  a  fortified  work,  such  as  intervenes  between  the 
citadel  and  the  houses  of  every  fortified  town,  and  the  objec 
which  is  to  make  certain  that  in  the  event  of  siege  no  cover  sliall 
be  afforded  to  the  enemy.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  open 
spaces  for  walks  and  drives,  into  wiiich  the  fortified  works  of 
former  days  are  now  so  frequently  converted. 

Es'py,  James  P. ,  an  American  meteorologist,  was  born  ii 
Pennsylvania  about  1785.  In  his  early  life  he  was  a  successful 
teacher  in  Philadelphia,  but  becoming  devoted  to  the  study  of 
meteorology,  he  left  the  profession  of  teaching  and  supported 
himself  by  lecturing,  for  which  the  United  States  presents  pecu- 
liar fadlities.  He  delivered  a  series  of  lectures  to  the  Franklin 
Institute  of  Pennsylvania,  and  rendered  himself  famous  by  his 
theory  of  storms.  He  received  the  Magellanic  premium  of  the 
j^erican  Pliilosophical  Society  of  PhUadelphia  in  1836  for  a 
treatise  on  storms.  His  numerous  lectures  on  this  subject  gwned 
him  the  name  of  the  Storm-king.  In  1841  he  published  his  book 
upon  the  Philosophy  of  Storms,  a  work  wliich  received  the 
highest  commendation.  In  the  Smithsonian  Institution  at 
Washington  he  made  his  important  experiments  upon  the  cool- 
ing of  gases,  and  the  .cooling  effects  of  expansion  on  dry  and 
moist  air.  E.  made  several  able  reports  on  meteorology  tc  ' 
United  States  Government,  tlie  last  being  printed  in  1857. 


1  of  17,030 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


tess 


ardour  and  enthusiasm  did  much  to  advance  this  science  to  tlie 
prominent  place  it  holds  in  America,  E.  died  in  Cincinnati, 
January  24,  1S60. 

Esq.uire',  or  £cuyer  (Old  Fr.  escuyer,  'a  shield -bearer,' 
from  (scut,  Lat.  icutiim,  '  a  shield '),  literally  ft  man  who  carries 
a  knight's  shield.  The  E.  in  chivalry  vfas  the  stage  into  which 
Che  page,  damaiseau  or  varlet,  passed  at  the  age  of  fourteen. 
The  next  seven  years  were  spent  in  athletics,  running  at  the  ring, 
tilting,  and  mock  combats,  and  in  attendance  on  a  particular 
knight.  On  entering  the  temple  of  honour,  the  E.  became  a 
knight  or  chevalier.  E.  was  the  first  degree  of  '  grand  chivalry,' 
to  which,  as  a  general  rule,  only  persons  of  noble  birth  were 
admitted;  but  sometimes  chevaliers  were  created  without  pass- 
ing through  the  stage  of  E.  The  squire  was  responsible  for  tlie 
state  of  the  knight's  armour,  a  most  important  matter  in  dose 
fighting  with  pointed  weapons.  The  dress  of  an  E.  was  pro- 
perly a  modest  brown ;  but  the  garment  of  Chaucer's  E,  was 
embroidered  like  a  meadow.  Many  gentlemen  of  good  birth  did 
not  become  knights  on  account  of  poverty.  (See  Chivalsy.) 
In  English  law  E.  is  apparently  a  title  not  of  dignity,  but 
merely  of  worship,  colonels,  serieants-at-law,  and  doctors  of  the 
learned  professions  being  placed  before  esquires.  There  are  five 
sorts  of  esquires-^l )  Eldest  sons  of  knights  and  their  eldest  sons 
in  perpetual  succession  ;  (2)  eldest  sons  of  younger  sons  of  peers, 
and  their  eldest  sons  in  perpetual  succesaon;  (3)  those  created 
by  letters  patent,  and  their  eldest  sons ;  this  investiture  was 
calcaribus  argmtatis  (silver  spurs),  in  distinction  from  the  eguila 
Burali,  who  had  gilt  spurs ;  (4)  esquires  by  office,  who  are 
named  so  in  commission  from  the  crown  ;  (S)  all  foreign  peers, 
and  the  E.  whom  it  is  in  the  power  of  a  Knight  of  the  Bath  to 
constitute  on  his  installation.  Even  eldest  sons  of  peers  (though 
often  titular  lords)  are  legally  described  simply  as  E. 

Esqiiirol,  Jean  fitienne  Dominiq.iie,  a  French  physi- 
cian, famous  for  his  treatment  of  the  insane,  was  born  at 
Toulouse,  January  4,  1 772.  He  studied  medicine  in  Paris, 
giving  special  attention  to  insanity,  and  in  1799  founded  an 
institution  for  the  mentally  derailged.  In  181 1  he  was  elected 
successor  to  Pinel  at  the  Salp^trifere,  where  he  introduced  an 
entirely  novel  treatment  of  maniacs,  snhstituting  kindness  for 
constraint.  He  was  made  inspector-general  of  the  university 
in  1823,  and  in  1826  chief  physician  to  the  Private  Lunatic 
Asylum  at  Charenton.  He  died  December  12,  1840.  Through 
his  philanthropic  labours  and  scientific  attainments  the  dd 
coerdve  and  cruel  treatment  of  the  insane  was  abolished,  and 
the  present  humane  system  introduced,  E.'s  chief  work,  Dis 
Maladies  Mentales  considfrefs  sous  Us  Saffarts  MUical,  Hy- 
gihtiqueet  Midko-li^  (Par.  1838),  is  of  great  value. 

Eequiroa,  Henri  Alplionse,  a  French  author,  was  born  at 
Paris  in  1814.  His  first  work,  Les  BirondcHes,  appeared  in  1834, 
and  won  the  praise  of  Victor  Hugo.  He  published  Lis  Magkiins, 
a  phantasy,  three  years  later,  and  the  romance  of  Charlotte  Corday 
in  1840.  In  tlmt  year  also  he  produced  three  works  of  great 
power— Zm  Vierges  Martyris,  Lis  Viirges  Folks,  and  Lis  Vitrges 
Sagts.  In  1841,  E.  was  imprisoned  in  the  Pilagie  for  support- 
ing the  views  of  Lammenais,  when  he  wrote  Lss  Chanls  d'un 
Frisimnier.  In  1847  he  published  L'Histowe  des  Moniagnards, 
and  Paris,  being  papers  on  19th  c  life,  reprinted  from  the 
Kevue  dis  Dlux  Mondes.  E,  became  member  of  the  Legislative 
Assembly  in  1848  ;  but  after  the  coup-d'itat,  was  exiled  for  his 
opposition  to  the  Empire.  In  1855  he  came  to  England,  and 
his  ^MS-Ziiifl^^^m^  was  published  at  London  in  l86z  and  1863. 
His  Dutch  at  Home  was  published  by  Chapman  &  Hal!  in  1861. 
In  1869,  E.  was  returned  to  the  Corps  Ligislatif,  and  became 
prefect  of  a  department.  In  1870,  however,  he  retired,  and 
assumed  the  editorship  of  the  £galiti  at  Marseilles.  He  died 
at  Paris,  13th  May  1876. 

EaBlsouquet,  an  abbreviation  of  essence  of  bouquet,  is  a 
compound  perfume  of  English  origin  and  well  established  re- 
putation. Like  most  bouquets,  it  is  of  complex  composition, 
containing  orange,  citron,  petit -grain,  lavender,  clove,  and  cassia 
oil,  tincture  of  musk,  and  a  mmute  quantity  of  otto  of  rose,  be- 
sides other  essences. 


Ess'i 


ient  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the  Borne,  ao 
N.E  of  Diisseldorf  by  railway,  in  a  district  rich  in  coal 
jn.     It  has  a  cathedral,  the  west  choir  of  which  dates  from 


the  9th  c,  and  which  was  renewed  in  IS^J,  In  1871  the  sixty- 
five  mines  in  the  circle  of  E.  produced  19,588,877  tons  of  coal, 
and  ten  mines  produced  512,268  tons  of  iron  ore.  E,  is  the 
seat  of  the  fafflous  cast-steel  works  of  Herr  Erupp,  which 
employ  some  21,000  hands^  and  covef  1800  English  acres,  of 
which  one-fifth  is  roofed  over.  In  1872,  the  production  of 
125,000  tons  of  cast  steel  in  these  works  consumed  500,000 
tons  of  coal,  125,000  tons  of  coke,  3,500,000  cubic  feet  of  water, 
and  176,585,000  cubic  feet  of  gas.  The  establishment  is  very 
complete,  having  23  miles  of  rails  for  locomotives,  and  9  miles 
for  horse-waggons,  a  telegraph  system,  with  eighty  stations,  a 
fire-brigade,  a  hotel,  beer-shops,  a  bakery,  printing-presses,  &c. 
Pop.  (1871)  51,513. 

Essenees  are  solutions  of  volatile  essential  oils  in  alcohol,  and 
are  prepared— (i)  by  adding  a  rectified  spirit  to  the  odoriferous 
parts  of  the  plant  and  distilling ;  (z)  by  adding  the  spirit  to  the 
previously-extracted  oil  and  distilling  j  or  (3)  by  adding  the  oil 
to  the  spirit  and  agitating  tilt  a  uniform  mixture  is  obtained. 
Innumerable  simple  and  compound  E.  may  thus  be  prepared. 
Alcoholic  solutions,  as  of  camphor,  are  sometimes  called  E. 
In  the  pharmacoposia  E.  and  spirits  are  identical  in  preparation, 
bnt  the  former  contain  1  part  of  the  oil  to  4  of  the  spirit,  and 
the  latter  I  to  49. 

Bssenes'.  Countless  derivations  of  the  name  have  been 
given,  making  Ihem  'the  healers,"  'the  holy,'  'the  faithful 
to  God,'  'the  mysteriously  silent,'  'the  watchers,'  'the  seers,' 
'the  agents,'  'the  baptists,'  'the  pious.'  The  greatest  Eng- 
lish authority,  Ginsbur^,  who  enumerates  nineteen,  prefers  the 
last  (Heb.  Chasaya,  'pious'),  which  connects  the  name  with 
Chassidioi.  The  E.  were  a  Jewish  sect,  or  rather  a  branch  of 
the  sect  of  the  Pharisees.  They  represented  the  direct  and  legi- 
timate development  of  Judaism  in  a  strict  application  of  the 
demands  of  the  law  as  understood  from  the  time  of  Ezra.  Being, 
like  the  Pharisees,  the  descendants  of  the  Chassidim  (q.  v.)  or 
Puritans,  the  E.  were  the  ultra-Puritans,  while  the  Pharisees 
were  the  moderate  party  ;  or  the  E.  were  to  the  Pharisees  what 
the  latter  were  to  the  general  community.  Thus  in  the  Mishna, 
Talmud,  and  Midrashim,  they  are  called  the  originaj  Assideans, 
i.e.,  Chassidim.  If  this  be  the  correct  theory  of  their  origin,  it 
is  impossible  to  say  at  what  date  they  couid  nave  been  regarded 
as  distinct  from  the  general  body  of  the  Jews.  They  are  first 
mentioned  as  a  distinct  sect  in  the  time  of  Jonathan  tlie  Macca- 
ba^an.  about  B.C.  i6o  (Josephus,  Antiquities,  xiii.  5,  9).  At  first 
they  lived  in  the  general  community,  especially  in  Jerusalem, 
which  had  a  gate  named  after  them.  From  Jerusalem  they  re- 
tired to  the  smaller  towns  and  villages,  and  from  these  to  the 
deserts,  m  order  to  avoid  the  habitual  wickedness  of  citizens,  but 
also  and  chiefly  because,  according  to  their  observance  of  the 
Levitical  laws  of  purity,  they  considered  themselves  defiled  by 
coming  in  contact  with  those  who  did  not  live  according  to  the 
same  rules.  The  majority  settled  on  the  N.W.  shore  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  and  the  rest  lived  in  scattered  commimtties  throughout 
Palestine  and  Syria.  According  to  Josephus  they  numbered 
4000.  After  A.D.  40  little  is  heard  of  them.  Probably  most  of 
them  became  Christians.  The  most  marked  points  of  differ- 
ence between  them  and  the  Pharisees  were  that  they  (1)  formed 
an  isolated  brotherhood  ;  [2)  held  celibacy  to  be  a  higher  life  ; 
(3)  did  not  go  to  the  temple,  nor  offer  sacrifices;  and  (4)  did 
not  believe  in  a  resurrection  of  the  body,  though  holding  the 
immortality  of  the  soul.  Many  of  the  precepts  and  practices  of 
Essenism  reappear  in  Christianity  ;  but  that  the  former  led  the 
way  to  the  latter  by  expecting  a  Messiah  and  proclaiming  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  is  incorrect,  because  the  E.  regarded  these 
as  enclosed  within  their  own  limits, 

The  principal  doctrines  and  practices  of  the  E.  which  have 
passed  into  the  Christian  system  are  the  following  :  --To  seek  first 
the  kingdom  of  God  and  his  righteousness  (cf  Matt.  vi.  33,  Luke 
liL  31) ;  to  seek  to  have  no  treasure  upon  earth,  the  supply  of  one's 
wantswithcontentmentbeingenough,andthe  greatest  riches,  Matt, 
vi.  ir,  19-ai,  25-34;  community  of  goods,  the  rich  selling  their 
property,  and  a  steward  keeping  a  common  bag  for  the  benefit 
of  all,  Matt.  xix.  21,  Luke  xti.  33,  John  xii,  6,  liii.  29,  Acts  ii. 
44,  45>  '"-  32-3S  ;  ^n  were  on  a  perfect  equality.  Matt.  xx. 
25-28,  xxiiL  8-12,  Mark  in.  35-37,  x.  42-45 ;  to  be  meek  and 
lowly  in  heart,  poor  in  spirit,  merciful,  pure  in  heart,  peace- 
makers, to  hunger  and  thirst  after  righteousness.  Matt.  v.  1-9, 
xi.  29  ;  the  heahng  of  the  body  to  be  combined  with  that  of  the 


579 


vLiOOQle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


soul,  as  by  Christ  the  power  to  exorcise  demons,  to  perfovm 
miiacuious  cures,  &c,,  was  given  to  the  faithful,  Matt,  x,  8, 
Mark  xvi.  17,  Luke  ix.  I,  2,  x.  9 ;  that  oaths  should  never  be 
used,  Matt  v.  33-37  ;  to  take  nothing  with  ihem  on  a  journey, 
Matt.  X.  9,  10,  Mark  vi.  8-10 ;  to  make  no  weapons  of  war, 
Matt.  xxvi.  52,  only  weapons  might  be  carried  on  a  journey  for 
defence  against  robbers,  Luke  xxii.  36 ;  that  celibacy  was  a 
higher  kind  of  life  than  matrimony,  although  some  among  them 
had  wives.  Matt.  xix.  10-12,  I  Cor.  vii.  32-35  ;  not  to  offer  ani- 
mal  sacrifices,  but  their  own  bodies,  Rom.  xii.  I ;  to  live  such  a 
life  of  purity  as  to  be  temples  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  be  able  to 
prophesy,  I  Cor.  vL  19,  xiv.  1,  39  ;  a  threefold  rule  for  the  con- 
duct of  their  life — love  of  God,  of  virtue,  of  mankind,  Matt.  xxii. 
36^0 ;  to  despise  philosophy  except  in  so  far  as  it  treated  of  the 
existence  of  God,  CoL  ii.  S  ;  a  supreme  love  for  the  members  of 
the  brotherhood,  Rom.  xiiL  8,  i  Tim.  iv.  9,  1  Peter  i.  22,  ii. 
17,  I  John  iii.  14,  iv.  7,  II,  v.  2. 

As  the  majority  lived  in  celibacy,  the  brotherhood  had  to 
be  kept  up  by  proselytes.  The  best  material  for  these  of  course 
was  children,  whom  they  preferred.  Grown-up  candidates  had 
to  pass  through  a  noviciate  of  two  stages  extending  over  three 
years,  attaining  in  succession  seven  different  degrees  of  purity 
or  holiness  :  (l)  outward  or  bodily  purily  by  baptisms  ;  (a)  celi- 
bacy ;  (3)  inward  or  spiritual  purity  j  (4)  the  possession  of  a 
meek  and  lowly  spirit ;  (5)  being  a  temple  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
and  able  to  prophesy ;  (6)  being  able  to  perform  miraculous 
cures  and  raise  the  dead ;  (7)  being  like  Elias,  the  forerunner  of 
the  Messiah.  Our  Saviour  described  John  Baptist  as  having 
attained  the  highest  degree  of  Essene  purity  (Malt.  id.  14) ;  and 
as  much  of'the  Sermon  on  the  Mount   is  expressed  in  E-ssene 

Chraseol<^,  and  still  more  is  in  accordance  with  its  spirit,  it 
as  been  thouglit  probable  that  Christ  himself  may  have  in  his 
youth  been  instmcted  by  members  of  the  sect.  The  original 
authorities  on  the  subject  are  Josephus,  Philo,  and  Pliny,  Tlie 
first  to  show  the  true  relations  of  the  K  to  allied  sects  was  Frankel 
(Ziihchriflfia-  die  rel.  Inisr.  da  Jud.,  1846,  and  Monatschrift 
jUr  Gisch.  und  Whstn.  dts  yad.).  See  also  Ewald's  Gachkhtt 
dt!  Valkes  Israel  {iAtA-Golt.  1869)  iTLam's  GescMchte^susvav 
JViMaro(Eiig.  trans.  1873);  and Ginsburg's£jioj'iW/;fc£.  (1864). 

Esaen'tialOila,  or  Slthe'real  Oils,  are  substances  which  in 
their  chemical  constitution  and  properties  differ  entirely  from 
common  or  fixed  oils  ;  but  they  are  closely  allied  to  resins,  into 
.  which,  through  oleo-resins,  they  insensibly  merged  At  ordinary 
temperatures  they  are  for  the  most  part  fluid,  and  such  as  are 
solid  melt  readily  without  decomposition,  and  they  also  undergo 
distillation  without  change.  They  possess  a  bummg  taste  and  a 
powerful  odour,  which  in  some  is  very  pleasant,  while  in  others 
it  is  equally  repulsive.  Their  smell  is  due  £0  the  fact  that  the 
gaseous  particles  they  evolve  are  very  energetically  acted  on  by 
oxygen.  Some  are  pure  hydro-carbons  {i.e.,  compounds  of  car- 
bon and  hydrogen),  others  contain  oxygen  in  addition,  and  in 
the  malodorous  series  sulphur  is  also  present.  Under  the  in- 
fluence of  cold  many  of  them  separate  into  two  distinct  bodies,  a 
solid  ciystalline  stearoptene  and  a  fluid  elaoptene.  £.  O.  are 
veiy  sparingly. soluble  m  water,  but  dissolve  freely  in  alcohol, 
edier,  bisulphide  of  carbon,  chloroform,  and  the  fixed  oils.  Such 
of  them  as  possess  a  pleasant  odour  are  extensively  employed 
in  perfiimery,  others  are  largely  used  forflavouringarticles  offood, 
others  are  valued  in  medicine,  and  a  few  are  employed  in  the  arts 
as  solvents,  &c.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  E.  O. ; — 
Orange,  neroli,  bergamot,  lemon,  lime,  petit-grain,  bitter  almond, 
lavender,  peppermint,  mint,  rosemary,  marjoram,  thyme,  carra- 
■way,  anise,  sweet  fennel,  cajuput,  sassafras,  cinnamon,  cassia, 
clove,  pimento,  nutmeg,  sandalwood,  rosewood  {Cemichiuius 
scBfiariiu),  geranium,  winter-green,  patchouli,  vetiver,  citronelle 
(species  of  andro^ogoit),  cedarwood  or  juniper,  and  Calamus 


EssequiTJO,  a  river  of  British  Guiana,  S.  America,  rises  in 
the  Sierra- Acaray,  flows  in  a  direction  almost  always  due  N. 
through  impenetrable  forests;  and  enters  the  Atlantic  after  a  coarse 
of  upwards  of  550  miles,  IJroken  by  numerous  cataracts.  Its 
mouth  forms  an  estuary  20  miles  wide.  Small  schooners  can 
proceed  nearly  50  miles  up  the  river. 

Esa'ex,  a  county  in  the  S.E.  of  England,  bounded  N".  by 
Suffolk  and  Cambridge,  W.  by  Hertford  and  Middlesex,  S.  by 
the  estuary  of  the  Thames,  and  E.  by  the  German  Ocean.    Area, 


164S  sq.  miles;  pop.  (1871)  466,436.  E.  is  well  watered  by 
tributaries  of  the  Thames,  as  weil  as  by  the  Crouch,  Cheloier, 
and  Coins.  The  surface,  which  in  the  N.  and  in  the  cei  ■ 
richly  wooded,  and  on  the  coast  partly  sandy  and  partly  m 


.  423,684  acres,  principally  wheat,  barley,  and  beans  ; 
under  green  crops  110,501  acres,  principally  mangold-wurzel, 
tu  mips,  and  potatoes;  clover,  grasses,  &e.,  in  rotation,  7a,  588  acres; 
and  permanent  pasture  179,374  acres,  la  the  neighbonrhood  of 
London,  chemicals,  tar,  &c.,  are  manufactured.  The  Thames  Iron- 
work and  Sliipbuilding  Company,  near  the  new  Victoria  Docks,  is 
in  E.  There  are  silk-mills  at  Colchester,  Braintree,  Halstead,  &c 
Straw-plaiting  employs  numerous  hands  in  the  villages,  and  there 
are  cement  and  whiting  manufactories,  iron-foundries,  and  brick- 
works. Gyater-fishing  was  long  a  profitable  industry.  Calves 
and  lambs  are  raised  in  lai^e  numbers  for  London,  and  the  county 
is  famous  for  its  breed  of  pigs.  The  Reform  Act  of  1867  gave 
E.  six  parliamentary  representatives.  In  the  time  of  the  Romans 
this  part  of  the  island  was  occupied  by  the  Trinobantes,  and  was 
included  in  the  Roman  province  Flavia  Casariensis.  It  was 
the  nucleus  of  one  of  the  kingdoms  founded  by  the  Low  Ger- 
man invaders  of  Britain,  from  whom  it  received  its  present  name 
of  an  E.  or  '  East-Saxon '  land. 

Eaaez,  Earl  of.    See  Cromvueli.,  Thomas. 

Eisex,  Boliert  Deveieux,  Second  Earl  of,    son  of 

Walter  Devereux,  first  Earl,  was  born  at  Netherwood  in  Here- 
fordshire, November  10,  1567,  studied  at  Cambridge,  was  intto- 
duced  at  court  by  Burleigh  in  1584,  and  gained  llie  favour  ol 
Elizabeth.  In  1584  he  accompanied  the  Earl  of  Leicester  in  his 
expedition  to  Holland,  and  showed  great  bravery  in  the  battle  of 
Zutphen.  On  the  death  of  Leicester,  E.  succeeded  to  his  plact 
in  the  Queen's  affections,  and  honours  were  showered  upon  him, 
He  commanded  two  expeditions  against  Spain,  in  the  latter  of 
which  Cadiz  was  captured,  and  was  made  Earl  Marshal  of  Eng- 
land and  Chancellor  of  Cambridge  University.  At  the  same 
time  he  acquired  a  high  reputation  beyond  the  limits  of  the  court 
by  his  generous  patronage  of  men  of  letters  and  science,  such 
as  Shakespeare  and  Bacon.  But  popularity  turned  his  head. 
He  offended  the  Queen  by  rudeness.  In  spite  of  this  he  was 
appointed  (1599)  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland  when  the  larger 
portion  of  that  island  was  in  rebellion.  He  fiiiled,  however,  to 
allay  the  disorders,  and  was  recalled.  Returning  to  London,  E. 
madly  put  himself  at  the  head  of  an  insurrection,  was  imprisoned, 
and  after  a  trial,  for  his  share  in  which  Bacon  (q.  v.)  has  in- 
curred deserved  obloquy,  was  condemned  to  death.  His  exe- 
cution took  place  February  25,  1601.— Biobert  Devereux, 
Third  Earl  of  E.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Essex 
House  m  1592,  studied  at  Eton  and  Oxford,  and  in  his  earlier 
years  took  service  under  the  Elector  Palatine  and  the  United 
Provinces.  He  was  not  a  favourite  with  King  James  or  with 
his  son  Charles,  and  soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
was  appointed  general  of  the  Parliamentary  forces.  He  com- 
manded at  Edgehill  (1642),  took  Reading  (1643),  compelled  the 
King  to  raise  the  siege  of  Gloucester  (1643),  but  was  unfortunate 
in  a  campaign  in  Cornwall,  and  escaped  with  difficulty  to 
London.  He  was  received  with  honour  by  the  Parliament,  but 
ill-health  and  the  growing  power  of  the  Independents  (E.  was  a 
moderate  Presbyterian)  induced  him  to  withdraw  from  public 
affairs.  He  died  14th  September  1646.  See  Green's  Short 
History  of  the  Snglish  PeopU  (1875). 

Easling,  a  village  of  Austria,  5  miles  E.  of  Vienna,  together 
with  Aspern  (q.  v.)  the  site  of  a  fierce  but  indecisive  battle  be- 
tween Napoleon  and  the  Austrians,  May  21-22,  1:809.  From  it 
Massena  got  his  title  of-'  Prince  of  E.' 

Esslingen,  a  walled  town  of  Wurtembei|;,  on  the  Neckar, 
9  miles  E.S.E.  of  Stuttgart  by  railway.  It  has  a  fine  Gothic 
Frauoikircke  (14th  c),  with  a  spire  230  feet  high,  an  old  castle, 
a  rare  old  townhouse  (1430),  a  well-endowed  hospital,  and  ex- 
tensive manufactures  of  machinery,  cottons,  woollens,  paper, 
' '    ■'  "   is  specially  celebrated  for  its  loco- 


ity  of  the  German  Empire  under  Otto  IV.  in  1209.  The  Swa- 
oian  Bund  was  formed  here  in  148S.  A  school  for  knights  ex- 
isted till  1733  at  E.,  which  was  the  scene  of  many  tournaments. 


—^ 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


',;  'labour'),  in 
other  suf&cieiit 

>urts  are  open, 

.  the  sum- 


The  town  suffered  severely  in  the  Thirty  Yesj 
to  Wiirtemberg  by  the  peace  of  Lun^ille  in  il 
Easoign'  (Fr.  msoigne,  issoin,  from  soin,  'i 
English  law,  an  excuse  on  ground  of  sickness 
cause  for  non-appearance  tiy  one  called  in  an  aciior 
ta^n  is  the  first  day  of  the  terra  on  which  the  cour 
cssoigns  or  eicuses  being  then,    according  to  one 
heard  for  those  who  have  not  appeared  according 
roons.    In  Scotch  law  the  form  is  Essoniam  or  Essonzis, 

Esa'ouan,  or  Ee'wan.    See  Assouan. 

Bstablislied  Oiniroh  is  a  Church'recognised  and  supported 
by  the  state.  The  relation  in  which  the  Church  may  be  said  to 
stand  to  the  state  depends  on  the  definition  of  the  nature  of 
the  Churdi.  The  form  of  the  Christian  Church  was — (l)  The 
little  community  at  Jerusalem.  (2)  As  soon,  however,  as  an- 
other such  community  was  formed  elsewhere,  and  one  member 
of  the  Church  was  dead,  a.  new  idea  was  formed  of  the  Church 
as  a  spiritual  body,  bounded  by  no  limits  of  space  or  lime,  but 
composed  of  those  {and  none  else)  of  whom  it  is  written,  'As 
many  as  are  led  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  they  are  the  sons  of  God.' 
In  process  of  time  the  theory  came  to  be  developed  (3)  that 
the  Church  is  essentially  an  externally  organised  society,  all  those 
bom  within  its  pale  being  its  members,  and  entitled  to  all  its 
privileges — its  sacraments  and  ordinances— in  virtue  not  of  theic 
character  but  of  their  birthright.  It  is  in  this  sense  only — in 
which  baptized  persons  are  everywhere  claimed  as  Christians — 
that  there  can  properly  be  a  national  E.  C,  Before  the  Re- 
formation  nations  were  held  by  the  Church  to  be  Christian  as 
nations,  and  with  the  development  of  the  Popedom  the  Chnrch 
became  not  only  national  hut  Catholic  After  the  Reformation 
Protestant  Churches  which  kept  the  doctrine  of  baptismal 
regeneration  could  properly  enough  maintain  their  national 
character,  the  headship  being  vested  in  the  sovereign  instead  of 
the  Pope.  It  thus  appears  fiiat  il  is  an  impropriety  to  speak  of 
an  alliance  between  a  national  Church  and  tlie  state,  because  they 
are  identical.  Owing,  however,  to  ihegrowth  of  dissent  in  modern 
times,  it  is  customary  to  speak  of  the  relation  existing  between 
the  Church  and  the  state  as  an  alliance ;  and  the  ai^i^ments 
for  and  against  such  a. relation  eiisting  may  be  here  brieHy 
stated.  The  controversy  is  carried  on  both  on  the  ground 
of  divine  authority  and  on  that  of  ulilify.  1.  Divini  autho- 
rity.— It  is  contended  that  the  teaching  of  Scripture  is  in  favour 
of  a  national  E.  C.  both  as  to  the  principle  and  as  to  its  ap- 
plication, (l)  As  lo  the  principle,  Scripture  teaches  that  Jesus 
Christ  is  the  supreme  king  over  all  kings  and  rulers,  and 
head  not  only  of  his  Church  but  of  all  nations :  Ps.  ii.  12 
(applied  to  Christ,  Acts  xiii,  33) ;  Ixxii. ;  ex. ;  Eph.  i.  21,  22  ; 
Rev.passini.  (2)  As  to  the  application— (o)  in  Melchizedec  the 
of&ces  of  priest  and  king  were  imited  {the  closest  conceivable 
union  of  Church  and  state),  in  respect  of  which  he  was  a  type 
of  Christ  (Heb,  yiL  I.  2);  and  further,  Abraham's  paying  tithes 
to  Milchiiedec  was  a  type  of  the  rights  of  the  priesthood  of 
Christ  (Heb.  vii.).  {i)  The  Mosaic  oi3inances  for  the  payment 
of  tithes  to  the  priests  amounted  to  a  national  establishment  and 
endowment  of  the  Church.  It  is  held  on  this  side  to  be  no 
valid  objection  that  the  Jewish  system  was  a  pure  theocracy, 
because  it  was  founded  on  principles  of  moral  obligation  which 
are  applicable  in  all  time.  (c|  In  reference  to  the  Gospel  dis- 
pensation, it  is  contended  that '  when  the  ordinance  of  God  in 
behalf  of  kings  and  other  rulers  (as  in  Rom.  xiii.  r,  2 ;  i  Tim. 
ii.  I,  2  i  I  Pet.  ii,  13-15)  was  so  eiplicitly  renewed,  if  it  had 
been  intended  to  impose  any  new  and  peculiar  restriction  upon 
their  authority,  it  is  impossible  to  suppose  that  it  would  not  have 
been  made  known.  The  objections  and  arguments  on  the  other 
side  under  this  head  are  in  brief  as  follows  ; — (i)  '  That  there  is 
no  precept  of  the  gospel  under  which  an  E.  C.  is  required  and 
enjoined,  and  that  there  was  no  such  institution  ditnng  the  first 
three  centuries.'  (2)  'That  Christ  himself  declared  that  his 
kingdom  is  not  of  this  world  ;  John  xviiL  36.'  (3)  '  That  a  civil 
government  is  not  competent  to  specify  what  ought  to  be  the 
nation's  Creed,  and  cannot  therefore  be  supposed  to  have  divine 
authority  to  do  so.'  (4)  'That  the  maintenance  of  any  parti- 
cular system  of  religion  at  the  public  expense,  and  consequently 
more  or  less  at  the  expense  of  dissenters,  is  anti-scriptural,  un- 
just, and  a  violation  of  the  rights  of  conscience.'  2,  On  the 
ground  of  u/i^ity  it  is  argued,  on  the  one  hand — (1)  That  an  E.  C. 


is  necessary  for  keeping  up  a  supply  of  ministers  and  religious 
ordinances  proportioned  to  the  spiritual  wants  of  the  people ; 
and  asserted  that  the  voluntary  system,  when  it  has  beoi  tried, 
has  signally  failed  in  giving  such  a  supply  in  poor  and  thinly- 
inhabited  parts.  (2)  That  there  are  great  advantages  in  the 
ministers  of  religion  being  independent  of  those  to  whom  they 
minister,  because  when  dependent  on  them  they  are  under  a 
temptation  to  accommodate  their  ministrations  to  the  wishes 
rather  than  to  the  wants  of  men.  {3)  That  an  E.  C.  not  only  pro- 
motes religion  generally,  and  thus  strikes  at  the  root  of  alt  crime, 
but  tends  to  consecrate  the  state  itself  and  the  rulers  of  the  state. 
On  the  other  hand  itisai^ed — (l)  That  ministers  being  indepen- 
dent of  their  fiocks  tends  lo  make  them  indolent  and  indifferent 
in  the  discharge,  of  their  duty,  and  that  tlie  organisation  of  an 
E,  C.  leaves  little  room  for  burning  zeal  and  intense  vitality. 

(2)  That  '  civil  legislation  ought  not  to  extend  beyond  the  out- 
ward secular  affairs  of  communities,'  and  that  the  best  thing  the 
state  can  do  for  religion  is  '  to  let  it  alone,'  because  all  the  good 
done  .by  an  E.  C.  can  i>e  done  better  on  the  voluntary  principle. 

(3)  That  although  it  was  impossible  for  the  state  to  let  religion 
alone  at  the  time  when  National  Churches  were  established  (be- 
cause it  was  then  the  universal  conviction  that  it  was  the  duly  of 
rulers  to  care  for  the  religious  condition  of  their  subjects,  because 
religion  was  then  too  formidable  a  power  to  be  let  alone,  and 
because  such  a  course  would  then  have  entailed  great  spiritual 
destitution).  Established  Churches  are  now  an  anachronism.  See 
Hooker's  iVt/.  J'oUiy,  Dr  lli-'Cne's  Stalaneut  of  Ihl  Biffereiics, 
kc  {1807),  Dr  Arnold's  Fragment  en  the  Church,  Dr  Inglis' 
Vindication  nf  Eccl  Establiskmmts  (1833),  Dean  Stanley's 
Essays  (1870),  H.  B.  Wilson  in  Essays  and  Revisms  (1860), 
Eccksia  (1870),  J.  Baldwin  Brown's  First  Principles  of  Eccl. 
Truth  (1871). 

Ustate',  in  English  and  Scotch  law,  has  the  same  significa- 
tion as  property.  In  England,  property  is  either  real  or  personal. 
Real  pro|>erty  consists  of  lands,  tenements,  and  things  immovable. 
Personal  property,  or  personality,  consists  of  money,  goods, 
leases,  and  other  movables  which  either  are  or  easily  may  become 
transferable.  Nearly  all  the  real  property  of  England  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  granted  by  a  superior,  from  whom  it  is  held 
in  consideration  of  certain  services  to  be  rendered  lo  him  by  the 
possessor.  By  the  12  Car.  II.  c.  24,  which  abolished  the  mili- 
tary tenures,  commuting  them  for  a  grant  of  excise  and  customs, 
only  the  honorary  services  of  grand  sergeantry  are  reserved,  such 
as  carrying  the  king's  sword  or  banner,  or  officiating  as  butler 
or  carver  at  the  coronation.  Real  property,  by  the  law  of  Eng- 
land, can  only  be  acquired  in  two  ways,  by  Descent  (q.  v.)  and 
by  purchase.  See  Purchase  of  Estates,  Entail  j  see  also 
Hekeditament,  Manor.  In  personality,  see  CHATTELS. 
Regarding  tenures  of  real  E.,  see  Borough  English,  Buhgagh, 
Copyhold,  Common  Tenancy,  Freehold  E.,  Gavelkind, 
Socage.  See  also,  applicable  to  real  and  personal  K,  Joint- 
Tenancy.  Respecting  transfer  of  land,  see  Registration  of 
Title  to  Land.  In  Scotch  law,  see  Heritable  and  Mov- 
able, Movables. 

Eatatea  of  tlie  Kingdom  are  three  in  number,  the  Lords 
Spiritual,  the  Lords  Temporal,  and  the  Commons.  In  the  an- 
cient Parliament  of  Scotland  the  three  estates  of  the  realm  were, 
according  to  Erskine,  ist,  the  archbishops,  bishops,  abbots,  and 
mitred  priors  ;  2d,  the  barons,  including  commissioners  of  shires 
and  stewartries ;  and  3d,  the  commissioners  from  royal  bti^bs, 

Ba'te  (anc.  Alssle),  a  town  in  the  province  of  Padua,  N,  Italy, 
at  the  foot  of  the  Euganean  Hills,  18  miles  S.W.  of  Padna. 
It  was  a  Roman  colony,  vras  a  place  of  importance  under  the 
Empire,  and  still  contains  numerous  andenl  inscriptions.  The 
Socca  or  Castle  of  E.  overshadows  the  town,  and  flie  church  of 
San  Martino  has  a  leaning  campanile.  There  are  manufactures 
of  silks,  hats,  and  pottery.  Pop.  8647.  The  town  gives  name  lo 
the  House  of  E. 

"Elste  Family,  one  of  the  most  princely  houses  of  Ilaly, 
famous  for  the  splendid  patronage  which  it  accorded  to  the  arts 
and  sciences,  traces  its  origin  to  some  of  the  Tuscan  feudatories 
of  the  Karolings.  Alberto  Azio  II,,  the  founder  of  the  house 
of  K,  vras  invested  by  the  Emperor  Heinrich  IIL  with  Rovigo, 
Casal-Maggiore,  and  other  Italian  states.  His  sons,  WeH  or 
Guelfo  IV.  and  Fuko  I.,  aie  the  heads  of  the  two  great 
branches  of  the  family— the  Welf-Este  or  German  briinch,  and 


HosteabyVjOOQlC 


EST 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EST 


the  Fulco-lLste  or  Italian  branch.  Welf  IV.  was  mvested  with 
the  dukedom  of  Bavaria  by  the  Emperor  Heinrich  IT.  From 
him  llie  houses  of  Brunswick  and  Hanover,  and  consequently 
the  later  sovereigns  of  England,  draw  descent,  Folco  L,  wlio 
died  in  1135,  is  the  progenitor  of  the  dukes  of  Modena  and 
Ferrara,  The  E.  F.  headed  the  Welfic  party— the  minor  prin- 
cipalities  and  free  cities  of  Northern  Italy — in  their  conflicts  with 
the  emperors.  It  first  acquired  Ferrara,  and  later  Modena  and 
Reggio  :  at  the  same  time  its  successive  representatives  began  to 
distinguish  themselves  as  lordly  patrons  of  literature  and  the  arts. 
The  Marchese  Obiizo  (who  dial  1190}  entered  into  the  Lom- 
bardic  league  against  Fciedrich  Barbacossa,  but  was  aflern'ards 
confirmed  in  aU  his  fiefs  by  the  emperor,  and  raised  to  the  ntar- 
chssato  (' marqnisate')  of  Milan  and  Genoa,  By  his  maiTiage 
with  Marehesello,  daughter  of  Torello,  the  head  of  the  Guibel- 
lini,  the  E.  F.  acquired  extensive  possessions  in  Romagna  and 
the  March  of  Ancona.  P^za  VII.  (died  1264),  after  a  long 
struggle,  inflicted  a  severe  defeat  on  the  Guihellini  in  1259,  and 
completely  re-established  the  tottering  fortunes  of  the  house  of  E. 
Obizzo  II.,  born  about  1240,  received  from  the  Emperor  Rudolf 
I.  the  investiture  of  all  the  Italian  states  under  imperial  suzerainty, 
and  was  freely  elected  to  the  seignories  of  Modena  and  Reggio. 
Nicolo  HI.  (born  13S4,  died  1441)  re-established  at  Ferrara  the 
university  founded  there  by  his  father.  Borso,  first  I>uke  of 
Ferrara  and  Modena,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  princes  of 
his  age,  encouraged  letters  and  established  printing  in  the  Italian 
states.  He  died  in  1471.  Alfonso  I.  (died  1534)  was  distin- 
guished as  a  general  and  a  statesman,  and  was  celebrated  in  the 
verses  of  Ariosto  and  all.  contemporary  Ilalian  poets.  His 
second  wife  was  the  notorious  Lucrezia  Borgia.  Ercole  II.  (died 
1559)  and  his  brother,  the  Cardinal  Hippolilo,  were  liberal 
patrons  of  the  arts.  The  latter  built  the  magnificent  Villa  d'Este 
at  Tivoli.  Alfonso  II.  (died  1597),  the  most  magnificent  of  co- 
temporary  Italian  princes,  is  chiefly  remembered  for  his  harsh 
treatment  of  Tasso,  whom  he  imprisoned  as  a  madman  for  seven 
years.  After  him  the  E.  F.  was  represented  by  a  long  series  of 
undistinguished  princes.  Rinaldo,  Duke  of  Modena  (died  1737), 
married  Charlotte  Felicitas  of  Brunswick,  daughter  of  the  Duke 
of  Hanover,  and  thus  united  the  two  great  branches  of  the  E.  F., 
which  had  remained  separate  since  1071.  Ercole  Rinaldo  III,, 
who  acquired  by  marriage  the  principalities  of  Massa  and  Car- 
rara, fled  to  Venice  on  the  approach  of  the  French  troops  in 
1797.  He  lost  Modena  and  Reggio  through  the  peace  of  Campo 
Formio,  and  died  in  1798 — Uie  last  male  representative  of  the 
E.  F.  His  daughter,  Maria- Beatrice- Ricarda,  was  married  to 
Ferdinand,  the  third  son  of  the  German  emperor,  Franz  I.,  who 
obtained  the  duchy  of  ^reisgau  as  indemnity  for  the  lost  pro- 
vinces, and  died  in  1806.  Of  their  two  sons,  Fiancisco  IV.  ac- 
quired the  possession  of  the  duchy  of  Modena.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded in  1S46  by  his  son  Francisco  V.,  who,  as  a  consequence  of 
the  revolution  of  1859,  lost  his  territories,  and  at  the  consum- 
mation of  Italian  unity  in  i860  disappeared  from  the  land  in 
which  his  ancestors  had  held  the  state  of  kings, 

Estell'a  (from  a  Basque  root,  asi,  'a  rock'),  a  city  of  Spain, 

frovince  of  Navarra,  on  the  Ega,  27  miles  S.W.  of  Pamplona, 
t  has  always  been  a  stronghold  of  the  Carlist  party,  and  on  the 
Z7th  May  1874  was  the  scene  of  a  fierce  and  bloody  stm^le  in 
which  the  Republicans  were  defeated.  Another  battle  took 
place  near  it,  13th  April  1875,  in  which  the  Carlists  in  turn 
were  beaten.  There  are  some  woollen  and  linen  manu&ctures, 
and  a  trade  in  grain  and  fruit.     Fop.  6000, 

Uste'pa  (Basque,  '  rocky  ground  \  a  town  of  Spain,  province 
of  Seville,  60  miles  E.S.E.  of  the  city  of  Seville,  with  manufac- 
tures of  oil  and  cloth  ;  a  trade  in  grain,  cattle,  wool,  and  fruits, 
and  a  pop.  of  about  7400.  The  church  of  Santa  Ma.ria  is  an 
imposing  and  well-preserved  Gothic  structure. 

Batepo'na  (Basque,  '  rocky  ground  '),  a  town  of  Spain,  pro- 
vince of  Malaga,  zj  miles  N.N,E,  of  Gibraltar,  supplies  the 
fortress  with  fruit  and  vegetables,  and  has  some  manufactures 
of  linen  and  leather.     Pop.  9000, 

Es'terhazy  (originally  Estoras.  then  until  1584  Zerliazy), 
of  Galantha,  the  name  of  an  Hungarian  family.  Of  the  Frakno 
branch,  Nikolaus  I.  in  the  latter  half  of  the  17th  c,  worked 
hard  to  spread  the  Lutheran  reformation  in  Hungary. — Paul 
IV.,  bom  8th  September  1635,  showed  great  military  skill 
against  the  Turks  at  Essek,  Kanisa,  &e..  In  1664  ;  took  several 
forts,  e.g.,   Segedin  and  Baifz;  and  became  during    the  peace 

58a 


governor  of  the  frontier.  In  the  Diet  he  supported  Austrian 
influence,  especially  in  the  declaration  of  male  succession  of  1687. 
He  raised  the  siege  of  Vienna  in  1683,  and  after  many  public 
services  became  a  Prince  of  the  Empire,  and  received  from 
Charles  Vl.  the  right  to  coin  money  and  to  grant  patents  of 
nobility.  He  had  refined  tastes,  and  introduced  to  Hungary  the 
Atlas  Marianiis,  or  collection  of  portraits  of  the  Virgin  with  a 
history.  He  died  20th  March  1713. — Bfikolaua  II,,  bom  17th 
December  1765,  was  at  the  head  of  the  Hungarian  army  of  de- 
fence r^sed  against  the  French  invasion  of  the  Austrian  ducliies. 
Napoleon  tried  to  bribe  him  by  an  offer  of  the  Hungarian 
crown.  He  was  the  patron  of  Haydn,  and  the  founder  of  a 
famous  picture  gallery  at  Vienna.  He  died  at  Como,  aSth 
November  1833,— Paul  An <■■"•",  bom  loth  Mardi  1786,  had 
a  long  diplomatic  career.  He  negotiated  the  marriage  of  Napo- 
leon and  Maria  Louise,  was  minister  at  London  from  1815-18, 
and  from  1830-38.  Returning  home,  he  joined  the  party  of 
Nationalists,  and  in  1848  was  for  a  time  in  the  Batthyanyi 
ministry.  He  died  at  Regensburg,  aist  May  l865. — Thepresent 
head  of  the  family  is  NikolauB  Paul  Karl,  Prince  £.,  born 
25th  June  1S17. 

Estlier,  Book  of,  one  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
which  gives  an  account  of  a  remarkable  deliverance  of  the  Jews 
in  Persia,  in  the  time  of  a  king  Ahasuerus(!,i.,  Xerxes  I,,  485-464 
B,c.),  accomplished  by  liis  queen,  Esther,  a  Jewess.  It  has  been 
debated  whether  the  book  contains  an  authentic  historical  nar- 
rative or  is  a  fiction.  As  opposed  to  the  authenticity,  it  is  held 
to  be  improbable  (i)  that  the  royal  edict  for  the  massacre  of  the 
Jews  should  have  been  issued  and  made  pubfio,  as  Is  necessarily 
implied,  twelve  montlis  before  the  time  appointed  for  its  execu- 
tion J  (2}  that  it  should  have  commanded  the  massacre  of  all  the 
Jews  in  Judiea,  which  it  must  have  done,  since  Judsea  was  at  the 
time  a  province  of  the  Persian  empire,  and  again  inhabited 
almost  entirely  by  Jews ;  (3)  that  the  Jews  should  be  able, 
although  permitted  by  the  second  edict,  in  every  case  to  over- 
come their  enemies,  and  kill  75,000  of  them  ;  (4)  that  the  king 
should  send  to  every  province  the  edict  of  ch.  i,  Z2  j  and  (5)  that 
Esther  should  be  able  so  long  to  conceal  her  Jewish  connection. 
The  strong  point  relied  on  as  a  proof  of  the  anthenticity  of  the 
book  is  the  existence  of  the  Feast  of  Purim  (q.  v.),  the  name  of 
which  is  interpreted  in  the  book  ss  the  Persian  word  for  lot  (iii.  7, 
ix,  24),  and  which  is  assumed  to  imply  the  events  of  the  book. 
But  tills  appears  to  others  the  strongest  proof  of  its  unhisto- 
rical  nature,  since  it  is  the  manifest  intention  of  the  writer, 
according  to  either  view,  to  give  the  raison  dUre  of  the  feast. 
The  repeated  explanation  oi  I^  (iii,  7,  ix.  26,  28,  31)  is  thought 
to  point  to  this,  whereas  no  Peraan  word  fiay,  '  lot,'  is  known. 
In  these  circumstanced  the  explanation  offered  is  that  Pur  was  a 
Persian  feast,  in  the  celebration  of  which  the  Jews  had  begun  to 
take  part  here  and  there  (ix.  ig),  and  that  the  anthor's  aim  in 
iting  the  work  was  to  bring  the  feast  into  general  popularity  with 


Estho'iiia,  or  KeVal  (native  Firoma,  'border-land,'  Ger. 
Esthland),  a  government  'of  Russia,  and  one  of  the  Baltic  pro- 
vinces, is  bounded  N.  by  the  Gulf  of  Finnland,  E.  by  St  Peters- 
burg, S,  by  Livonia,  and  W,  by  the  Baltic.  '  Area,  7610  sq. 
miles ;  pop.  (1S70)  323,961,  It  is  for  the  most  part  flat,  and 
one-fourth  of  the  surface  is  covered  with  birch  and  pine  forests. 
Tlie  soil  is  partly  sandy,  partly  marshy,  and  yields  much  grain, 
hemp,  flax,  and  tobacco.  Reval  is  the  capital,  and  the  govern- 
ment includes  the  island  of  DagSe,  In  1873  there  were 
in  the  province  528  schools,  attended  by  32,927  pupils.  The 
upper  classes  and  inhabitants  of  the  towns  are  chiefly  a  mixed 
German,  Swedish,  and  Russian  people  called  Esihlander,  while 
the  country  folks  are  mainly  the  aboriginal  Esths  of  Finnish  race. 
Ninety-six  per  cent,  of  the  inhabitants  are  Lutherans.  The 
language  of^the  Eslhs,  which  is  mild  and  melodious,  is  rich  in 
ballads  and  folklore.  The  chief  poem  in  the  language  is  the 
epic  Kakxa  Poig.  See  also  Neus,  Esthniscke  VblksTjedir  {^^a\, 
1850-51),  and  Wiedemann's  Ltbea  d.  Ehslm  (St  Petersb.  1876), 
Ahrens  published  an  Esthonian  grammar  m  1853.  In  the  lOthand 
lath  centuries  E.  belonged  to  Denmark,  but  it  was  sold  to  the 
Knights  of  Livonia  in  1347.  It  was  annexed  by  the  Swedish  Erik 
XIV,  in  1561,  and  was  finally  seized  by  Peter  the  Great  in  17" 


yLaOOgle 


EST 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


BTH 


Es'toile,  ill  lietaldry.     See  Stak, 

Estopp'el  (Old  Fr.  eslaupir,  '  to  stop  '),  in  English     w 

not  allowing  a  man  to  speak  against  his  own  deed.     Th 
principle  is  recognised  by  the  law  of  Scotland  under 
Personal  ObjecHon  or  Exceptien- 

EatoVel  (Fr.  estaff^,   'to  furnish'),  In  Englisli  law 
right  of  taking  necessary  wood  from  anolher's  estate  f     h 
hold  use,  to  make  implements  of  industry,  and  to  repair  hedges 

Estray'.  InEnglishkw  the  term  is  applied  to  any  beast  found 
within  a  inanor  or  lordship  and  not  owned.  If  intimation  be 
given  by  thg  crier  in  the  two  next  market-towns,  on  two  market- 
days,  and  the  £,  is  not  claimed  by  the  own^r  within  a  year  and 
a  day,  it  belongs  to  the  lord  of  the  manor.  If  duly  claimed,  the 
owner  is  entitled  to  restitution  on  payment  of  the  expense  of 
maintaining  the  animal,  If  kgaL  intimation  is  not  made,  the 
owner  is  entitled  to  (restitution  at  anytime.  If  any  one  not 
owning  the  manor  on  which  a  beast  is  E.,  find  and  take  care  of 
if,  the  owner  may  recover  it  without  paying  the  expenses  of 

Estreat'  (Fr.  from  Lat.  extractuni),  in  English  law.  Is  a  true 
copy  of  an  original  writing,  especially  applied  to  a  record  of  a 
fine  entered  in  the  tolls  of  court.  If  the  condition  of  a  recogni- 
broken,  the  recognisance  becomes  forfeited  ;  and  being 
estriatti  or  extracted  from  the  record  and  sent  to  the  Exchequer, 
the  fine  must  be  levied  by  Exchequer  process. 

Estremadu'ra  (Lat  Extrema  Durii,  'the  extreme  limits  of 
the  Douro'),  a  province  of  Portugal,  is  bounded  N.  by  Beira, 
E.  and  S.  by  Alemtejo,  and  W.  by  the  Atlantic,  and  has  an 
area  of  6S73  sq.  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1872)  of  849,829.  It  is 
watered  by  the  Tagus  and   its  tributaries,   and  is  intersected 


,  r  the  mouth  of  the  Tagus,  in  the  Cabo  de  Roca. 

To  the  S.  E.  the  surface  is  marshy  and  sterile,  but  the  hill  slopes 
and  ralleys  yield  abundance  of  grain,  wine,  oil,  cork,  and  fruits, 
while  everywhere  there  is  a  profusion  of  the  finest  flowers.  E, 
is  subject  to  frequent  earthquakes.  The  chief  minerals  are  coal, 
granite,  and  marble. — E.  is  also  the  name  of  a  former  province 
of  Spain,  now  divided  into  Badajos  and  Caceres.  Area,  16,554 
sq.  miles ;  pop.  (1863)  733,749.  It  lies  between  tlie  Portuguese 
frontier  and  New  Castile,  and  is  intersected  from  E.  to  W.  by 
the  Tagus  and  the  Guadiana,  the  basins  cf  which  are  separated 
by  a  sinuous  mountain  range.  The  N.  and  S.  portions  are  also 
mountainous.  The  rich  botanical  and  mineral  resources  of  E. 
are  almost  entirely  neglected,  and  the  only  extensive  occupation 
is  sheep-rearing.  An  old  right  of  pasture  {mesta)  has  long  since 
put  an  end  to  the  cultivation  of  the  soil. 

Eatremoz',  a  town  of  Portugal,  province  of  A'cmtejo,  25 
miles  N.  by  E.  of  Evoia,  It  is  defended  by  a  strong  pitadel. 
E.  is  famous  throughout  the  peninsula  for  its  eaithenware,  espe- 
cially of  vessels  for  cooling  liquids,  which  are  still  cast  iii  purely 
classical  forms.     Pop.  650a 

Eez'ok,  orEaa'ek  (Slav. 'high  place'),  a  free  town  and  capital 
of  Slavonia,  Austria,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Drave,  12  miles 
above  its  confluence  with  the  Danube.     It  is  fortified,  and  has 


,   _.,  .    ..  .^  e  steamers  have  been  placed  on  the  Dr 

Pop,  (1867)  17,247,  mostly  Catholics,  and  of  Servian  stock.  On 
February  14,  1849,  Count  Batthyanyi,  who  for  several  weeks 
had  held  E,  for  the  Hungarian  revolutionists,  capitulated  to 
Baron  Trebersbei^,  the  imperial  generaL 

i^ampes,  formerly  pstampes,  a  town  in  the  department 
of  Seine-et-Oise,  France,  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  31  miles 
S.S.W.  of  Paris  by  railway,  Jt  is  4  miles  long,  and  has  several 
famous  churches  which  raiik  among  the  historical  monuments  of 
France,  the  Nslri  Dame  (13th  c).  Slant  Basile,  built  by  King 
Robert,  and  a  specimen  of  pufe  Romanesqtje,  Sginl  Martin 
(12th  c),  &c.  There  are  also  remidns  of  an  old  castle  and  forti- 
fications. E.  has  forty  flour-mills,  besides  tanneries,  linen,  thread, 
and  soap  factories,  &c.  Pop.  (1872)  7503,  TJie  town  enisled 
under  the  Merwings.      It  was  dismantled  by  Hgnri  IV.  in  JSgg. 


Btang'  lie  Berre,  a  salt  lake  in  the  S.  of  the  departmeni 

B  -du-Rhone,  France;  greatest  length,  12J  miles,  breadth 

gular.      Rich  saltworks  have  been  erected  on  its  bank, 

d  n  merous .  coasters  from  the  Mediterranean  trade  to  the 
p  Berre  on  its  S.E.  shore. 

E  awah  (Itawa),  the  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  in 
N  W.  Province,  British  India,  a  mile  E,  of  the  left  bank 
J  imna,  and  on  the  East  Indian  Railway,  ^10  miles  N.W. 
of  Calcutta  and  1835  E.  of  Delhi.  It  is  an  ancient  town,  with 
numerous  ghals  or  GathingrSteps  leading  down  to  the  river.  Its 
modem  prosperity  is  due  to  its  position  on  the  Jumna  and  on 
the  road  from  Agra  to  Cawnpore.  One  of  the  main  brandies 
of  the  Ganges  Canal  here  Opens  into  the  Jumija.  Pop.  (1872) 
30,549, — The  district,  which  lies  in  the  Doab,  between  the 
Ganges  and  Jumna,  has  an  area  of  1691  sq,  miles,  and  a  pop. 
(1872)  of  668,641.  It  yields  wheat,  barley,  and  gram  in  spring, 
and  opium,  sugarrcane,  cotton,  indigo,  rice,  and  millet  in  autumn. 
E,  was  formerly  a  great  haunt  of  Thugs,  or  secret  and  systematic 
murderers.  In  a  single  year  (t8o8)  as  many  as  sixty-seven  dead 
bodies  were  taken  out  of  the  wells  in  the  district. 

Etghlng,     See  Engravino. 

Etcliing  on  Olass.    See  Glass, 

Ethel'bert,  properly  ajthelberht,  a  descendant  of  Hengest, 
and  son  of  Ermenric,  King  of  Kent,  began  to  reign  in  565.  He 
was  defeated  in  568  at  Wibbandun,  Surrey,  by  Ceawlin  of 
Wessex,  but  by  valour  and  pradence  increased  his  dominions, 
and  about  590  was  acknowledged  as  Britwcdda,  hU  supremacy 
extending  over  Middlesex,  Essex,  and  E.  Anglia,  His  wife, 
Bercta,  daughter  of  Chariberht,  King  of  Paris,  being  a  Chris- 
tian, Gregory  the  Great  resolved  to  attempt  to  convert  him  and 
his  subjects,  and  sent  Augustine  willi  a  twind  of  priests  to  Eng- 
land. They  landed  on  flie  Isle  of  Thaiiet  in  597,  and  were 
listened  to  in  the  open  air  by  E.,  who  in  the  next  year  embraced 
Christianity.  His  people  followed  his  example,  the  language  and 
arts  of  Rome  btgan  to  return  with  the  new  religion,  and  Ei^land 
was  arain  brought  into  contact  with  the  other  nations  of  Europe. 
In  this  reign  codes  of  law  were  published,  and  the  bishopric 
of  Rochester  established.  E.  died  in  616,  See  Bede's  Hist. 
Ecfl.  Gattis  Ari^.  (lib,  i.),  and  Freeman's  Hist,  of  the  Norm. 
Conq.  (vol.  l). 

Ethelre'da,  properly  -ffithelreda,  an  East  Anglian  princess 
of  the  7th  c,  who  was  canonised,  and  whose  name  was  shortened 
to  St  Audrey,  of  which  our  word  tawdry  is  perhaps  a  corruptioi  . 
from  the  gaudy  toys  and  laces  sold  at  a  lair  held  in  her  honour 
in  the  Isle  of  Ely. 

E'tlier,  also  called  Sulplm'rio  Etlier  and  Ox'ide  of  E'thyl, 
is  obtained  from  spirits  of  wine  by  the  action  of  dehydrating 
agents.  To  prepare  it  a  capacious  retort,  either  of  glass  or  sheet- 
iron  coated  with  lead,  is  connected  with  a  good  condensing 
apparatus.  Through  the  tubulure  of  the  retort  a  tube  passes 
which  is  connected  with  a  vessel  contaming  spirits  of  wine  of  0-83 
specific  gravity.  This  tube  is  provided  with  a  stopcock  to  regu- 
late the  flow  of  spirit  into  the  retort  The  retort  is  charged 
with  a  mixture  of  5  parts  of  spirit  and  9  parts  of  oil  of  vitriol, 
and  heat  is  applied  till  E,  begins  to  distil  over.  The  stopcock 
of  the  spirit  reservoir  is  then  opened,  and  the  spirit  allowed  t( 
flow  into  the  retort  at  the  same  rate  as  the  E  distils  over,  Thi 
level  of  liquid  in  the  retort  is  thus  kept  constant  The  process 
is  continuous,  and  only  ceases  when  the  oil  of  vitriol  becomes 
too  much  diluted  to  remove  more  water.  Formerly  it  was  1 
lieved  that  iu  this  process  the  sulphuric  acid  simply  acted  a^ 
dehydrating  agent,  removing  one  molecule  of  water  from  two 
alcohol  to  give  E.,  thus — 

KCgHsO)   -  HsO  =  (CjHsJsO 


The  experiments  of  Williamson  have,  however,  shown  that 
the  dehydiation  is  not  effected  directly,  but  in  two  sti^s.  In 
the  first  of  these,  sulphuric  acid  acts  upon  alcohol,  forming  sul- 
phovinii:  acid  and  water,  thus^— 

CjHaO  +  HjSO,  =  CiHeHSOj  +  HjO 


Alcohol. 


iulphuri 


WatPi. 


vLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOP.-EDIA. 


BTH 


The  sulphovinic  acid  then  acts  on  alcohol  to  form  E.  and  sul- 
phuric acid,  thus — 


The  crude  E.  which  distils  over  is  purified  by  washing  with 
milk  of  lime  and  water,  and  subsequent  rectification,  E.  is  a 
colourless  mobile  liquid,  having  a  pleasant  odout  and  bnrning 
taste.  It  is  very  volatile,  and  boils  at  345°  C.  It  is  much 
lighter  than  water  (sp.  gc,  0723),  and  therefore  when  agitated 
with  that  liquid  separates  after  a  short  time  in  a  layer  which  swims 
on  the  suriace.  It  is  employed  in  medicine  as  a  stimulant  and 
antispasmodic,  and  is  also  largely  used  as  an  ansesthatic,  being 
considered  by  many  surgeons  saler  than  chloroform,  It  ia  an 
excellent  solvent  of  fats,  resins,  alkaloids,  &c.,  and  is  used  for 
that  purpose  in  the  arts.  Owing  to  its  volatility  and  the  cold 
produced  by  its  evaporation,  it  is  employed  in  several  freeiing 
machines. 

lEtliere  are  compounds  of  hydrocarbons,  or  of  hySrocarbon 
radicals  with  elements  or  acids.  Compounds  of  hydrocarbons 
and  their  radicals  with  elements  are  called  dmilt  E.,  while  their 
compounds  with  adds  are  called  amitound  E.  Many  of  the 
latter  occur  in  nature,  and  of  these  the  Fats  (g.  v.)  and  many 
fruit  essences  are  important  examples.  Thus  oil  of  pears  is  the 
acetate  of  amyl,  CuHiiCjHaOa :  oil  of  pine-apple,  butyrate  of 
amyl,  CjH.jCjHjO    & 

Ether,  Luminif    ous  thmimwhh  pp      dt 

fill  all  space,  and        wh   h  th     pi  f  1  gh        d      t 

heat,  and  probably   1    tri   ty      d       g    t   m   t  k   pi  Tl 

necessity  of  such       mdmf      thtanm  fl  ght 

'    ■ "  ■  "  tl     p    t 


d    t      1 


admitted,  but  th 

of  some  to  extend       _     .  .      __    _    .       

magnetic  phenom  '  Th  gr  d  al  dm  t  f  b  t  tw 
hours  per  revolution  in  the  periodic  time  of  Encke's  comet, 
and  the  direct  experiments  of  Prolessors  Stewart  and  Tait  on 
the  rotation  of  a  disc  in  vacuo  {Frocaatngs  of  the  Royal  Soculy, 
1865-66),  hint  at  the  existence  of  a  resistuig  medium,  and  if 
such  exist,  it  is  to  it  that  we  naturaUy  look  as  the  vehicle  for 
the  transmission  of  enei^y.  This  E.,  then,  to  satisfy  all  the 
necessary  conditions,  must  act  both  as  a  mobile  fluid  to  permit 
the  easy  motion  of  matter  through  it,  and  as  an  elastic  solid  to 
admit  of  the  transmission  of  light  vibrations.  Sir  W-  Thomson 
has  fixed  a  superior  limit  to  the  density  of  the  medium  from- 
calculations  founded  upon  the  known  velocity  of  light ;  and  Pro- 
fessor Clerk  Maxwell,  by  making  fdHher  assumptions  regarding 
its  power  of  redlUnci,  has  shown  that  such  a  medium  can  accouut 
for  the  move  hidden  actions  of  m^netic  and  electric  induction, 
as  well  as  for  the  phenomena  of  light  and  heat. 

Eth'erege,  Sir  George,  one  of  the  Restoration  dramatists, 
was  bora  about  1636  in  Oxfordshire.  He  was  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge, travelled  on  the  Continent,  and  on  his  return  became  the 
associate  of  Sedley,  Rochester,  Villiers,  and  other  courtiers  of 
Charles  II.  He  was  knighted  about  1683,  and  sent  as  English 
minister  to  Hamburg  and  Katisijon,  where  he  died  about  1694, 
from  felling  downstairs  after  a  carouse,  E.  has  left  three  come- 
dies— Th!  Comkal  Swexge,  or  Lave  iit  a  Tub  ( 1664)  j  She  would 
.  if  ski  could  (1668)  ;  J&  Man  of  Mode,  or  Sir  Fopliiig  Flutter 
[1676).  Dryden  (Epistle  to  E.)  speaks  of  his  terse  comic  wit, 
but  his  characters  are  flimsy,  his  dialtwue  generally  trifling,  and 
his  plays  only  interesting  from  the  swift  succession  of  incidents. 
E.  was  imitated  by  Gibber.    See  Ward's  English  Dramatic  Lite- 

Eth'ica,  or  the  sdence  of  morals,  as  generally  taught,  deals 
with  several  distinct  matters.  First,  the  question  arises,  which 
has  perhaps  excited  as  much  metaphysical  discussion  as  any. 
What  is  the  ultimate  standard  of  right  and  wrong?  The  re- 
^  M?  ^/^^"^  numerous  as  the  grstems  of  E. :  (a)  The  arbitrary 
will  of  God,  expressed  in  the  Bible  as  interpreted  by  the  ruler 
or  teacher  who  desires  a  sanction  for  any  particular  command  ; 
{d)  the  arbitrary  will  of  human  government  regarded  as  absolutely 
irresponsible,  a  conception  of  Hobbes  plausible  enough  in  cer- 
tain early  stages  of  civilisation— tt^j-.,  caste,  but  not  applicable  to 
slates  having  representative  institutions,  or  a  dilTused  political 
intelligence  ;  (c)  a  certain  harmony  of  fitness,  or  intellect uallv 
584  ^' 


perceived  rightness  of  actions,  which,  as  Cud  worth  says,  is  eternal 
and  immutable,  and  which  Price  apparently  classifies  with 
mathematical  intuitions,  and  deliverances  of  the  intellect  upon 
questions  of  beauty  in  colour  or  form ;  (d)  the  moral  sense, 
which,  as  explained  by  Hutcheson,  its  author,  means  a  suscepti- 
bility to  certain  specific  and  unique  sensations  or  emotions,  the 
causes  of  which  being  actions  done  or  contemplated,  we  classify 
as  virtuous  and  vicious,  good  or  bad.  {e)  Self-interest,  which 
was  humorously  but  coarsely  expounded  by  Mandeville  in  his 
Fable  of  the  Bees  as  including  and  explaining  all  the  sublimest 
virtues — a  psychological  blunder  which  has  often  unjustly  been 
attributed  to  the  Utilitarians.  (/)  The  utility  or  probable  con- 
sequences of  conduct  upon  the  human  race  directly,  and  also 
indirectly  through  the  subsequent  conduct  of  all.  It  will  be 
seen  that  fundamentally  there  are  here  two  views — ist,  tiiat  the 
judgment  arrived  at  by  any  particular  mind  on  any  particular 
question  involving  moral  relations,  shall  be  held  to  be  sacred 
and  final,  whether  intellect  or  emotion  predominate  in  the  judg- 
ment, and  whether  the  judgment  be  a  simple  or  a  complex 
operation ;  (2d),  that,  admitting  the  existence  of  a  faculty  of 
conscience,  whether  original  or  derived,  its  judgments  are  liable 
to  error,  and  may  be  corrected  by  reference  to  the  true  standard, 
which  is  an  intelligible  objective  one,  deduced  from  family, 
social,  and  political  relations.  E,  is  concerned,  seeond,  with 
the  psychological  questions  of  the  Freedom  of  the  Will  (q.  v.), 
whether  there  are,  strictly  speaking,  any  benevolent  or  purely 
disinterested  emotions  in  the  human  mind  ;  and  lastly,  what  is  a 
onsclenee,  a  primitive  faculty  of  feeling  or  knowing,  or  a  de- 
vative  growth  and  combination  of  the  mind,  the  product,  there- 
fore, in  part,  at  least,  of  the  external  circumstances  under  which 
the  human  race  have  lived.  The  question  of  primitive  benevo- 
1  nee  is  very  interesting  and  laigely  misunderstood.  It  may  be 
aid,  as  by  Paley,  that  virtuous  people  obey  God  '  for  the  sake 
f  everlasting  happiness,'  (or  a  definite  consideration  or  reward, 
r  to  escape  some  obvious  inconvenience  or  threatened  punish- 
ment, llie  reward,  for  instance,  might  be  the  calculated  grati- 
tude of  the  person  benefited,  or  simply  a  love  of  admiration,  as 
frequently  in  the  case  of  pious  and  charitable  bequests.  Then 
if  we  are  painfully  affected  by  compassion,  it  is  said  we  '  do 
good,'  m  the  ecclesiastical  sense  of  giving  to  the  poor,  in  order  to 
get  rid  of  the  pain.  Again,  if  benevolence  be  pleasant  to  a  bene- 
volent peison,  that  may  be  an  ultimate  fact  of  the  mental  consti- 
tution, but  it  would  still  only  be  a  mode  of  self-regarding  action 
to  extend  our  own  pleasure,  others'  pleasure  being  inadental. 
Lastly,  the  ordinary  laws  of  association  must,  it  is  said,  make 
many  of  our  habits  disinterested,  even  if  they  originally  sprang 
from  selfish  motives.  A  large  and  powerful  school  of  ethical 
writers,  including  Butler,  Bain,  Hume,  and  Adam  Smith,  main- 
tain, though  in  veiy  different  senses,  that,  allowing  for  the  influ- 
ences above  mentioned,  there  is  a  residual  fact  of  piimitne 
sympathy  which  urges  men  to  relieve  distress  and  to  confer 
benefits.  Perhaps  the  controvei-sy  has  to  some  extent  lost  sight 
of  the  enormous  differences  which  exist  between  classes  and 
Individuals  even  of  the  same  nation.  In  some  cases  no  sym- 
pathy is  discoverable  ;  in  other  cases,  it  is  the  principle  of  hfe. 
Third,  an  important  ethical  question,  wholly  insoluble,  is  what 
is  the  summum  bontim.  Summa  bona  are  as  numerous  as  indi- 
vidual characters  ;  in  each  case  it  is  to  be  found  in  the  direction 
which  promises  the  greatest  amount  of  healthy  and  vigorous 
life.  The  ascetic  and  the  epicurean  schools  represent  duty  and 
happiness  as  summa.  bona  ;  the  first  is  certainly  too  contracted, 
the  second  is  misleading,  unless  happiness  be  defined  so  as  to 
include  all  the  activities  of  the  organism.  Modern  E,  does  not 
deal  much  with  the  formal  classification  of  duties.  It  is  a  science, 
not  an  art.  It  is  the  business  of  moralists  and  preachers,  and 
especiEdly  of  private  individuals,  to  elaborate  a -code  of  duty. 
The  relations  of  E.  to  law,  politics,  and  i-eligion,  have  of  course 
varied  much  from  time.  Many  ethical  duties  are  recognised  and 
enforced  by  law,  and  the  opposite  failures  in  duty,  crimes,  de- 
licts, and  quasi-delicts  are  prohibited.  Other  'natural  obliga- 
tions,' as  they  are  called  in  the  language  of  the  Roman  law,  are 
recognised,  not  as  separately  enforceable,  but  as  pleadable  in 
equity  by  the  creditor  in  them  agamst  the  performance  of  counter- 
duties  towards  the  debtor.  Of  course,  the' morality  of  ttiis  par- 
tial recognition  may  itself  be  questioned,  and  is  indeed  empha- 
tically  condemned  by  the  Christian  Scriptures.  The  polftical 
question,  how  far  the  state  should  instruct  the  intelligence  and 
control  the  will  of  the  subject,  is  a  fundamental  one,  and  cannot 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EtMo'pia.  Name  and  Geography. — The  Greek  aithiops, 
'rom,  whioli  the  name  is  derived,  is  probalily  a  corruption  of  the 
native  Egyptian  name,  Ethaush,  although  the  Greeks  regarded 
it  as  meaning  sunburnt,  from  githo,  'I  faum,'  and  dps,  'face,' 
They  applied  the  term— (l )  To  all  dark  races  of  men  ;  (2}  to  the 
inhabitants  of  all  southern  regions  with  which  they  were  not 
acquainted;  (3)  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  Africa  S.  of  Mauritania, 
the  Great  Desert,  and  Egypt ;  and  (4)  more  specifically  to  the 
inli^bilants  of  E.  That  country  lies  immediately  to  the  S.  of 
Egypt  in  the  Nile  valley,  extending  from  Syene  (Assouan),  or 
the  First  Cataract,  to  the  confluence  of  the  Blue  Nile  and  the 
White  Nile,  This  territory,  which  nearly  corresponds  to  Nubia, 
was  E.  proper,  or  the  kingdom  of  Meroe ;  and  it  is  to  this  that 
the  references  in  the  Bible  are  generally,  if  not  always,  made. 
But,  in  truth,  the  northern  was  the  only  boundary  that  was  defi- 
nitely fixed;  and  in  a  more  extended  sense  E.  included  Nubia, 
Sennaar,  Kordofan,  and  Abyssinia,  while  the  part  with  which  it 
is  identified  in  modem  times  is  Abyssmia.  The  principal  fea- 
ture in  the  pliysical  geography  of  the  country,  as  in  that  of 
Egypt,  is  the  river  Nile.  The  White  or  true  Nile,  from  the 
Nyanza  lakes  in  tropical  Africa,  and  flowing  through  great 
marshes,  is  joined  at  Khartoum  by  the  Blue  Nile  from  the  high- 
lands of  Abyssmia,  and  farther  down,  at  Berber,  by  the  Tacaize 
(formerly  Atbara,  and  anciently  Astaboras),  Between  Khartoum 
and  Berber  was  the  so-called  island  of  Meroe,  which  was  the 
favourite  capital  of  the  kings  in  the  later  period  ;  although,  like 
that  of  E,,  this  was  an  ill-defined  name,  for,  belonging  first  to 
Upper  Egypt,  it  was  gradually  shifted  southward.  The  other 
capital,  Napata,  was  situated  on  the  southern  reach  of  the  great 
bend  to  the  W,  made  by  the  Nile.  Near  it  is  the  sacred  rock 
of  Baikal.  Just  beyond  the  S.W.  angle  of  this  bend  is  the  island 
of  Argo,  which  was  the  limit  of  the  ancient  I^ptian  conquests 

Race  and  Language.— AY  the  present  day  E.  is  inhabited  by  a 
great  variety  of  tribes  of  a  race  intermediate  between  the  Negro 
and  the  Aryan  and  Semitic  races.  Nearest  to  Egypt. is  a  very 
dark  tribe,  the  Kunuz,  said  to  be  of  Arab  origin  ;  next,  the 
Nubeh,  much  fairer;  neit  come  tribes  of  Arab  blood,  but  fait; 
the  distinctly-marked  Semitic  Abyssinians  ;  and,  lastly,  tribes  as 
dark  as  negroes,  though  not  of  the  pure  negro  type.  When  the 
race  of  Klsh  (Cush)  is  represented  on  the  Egyptian  monuments  by 
a  angle  individual,  he  is  of  the  negro  type  5  and  in  one  passage 
at  least  of  the  BiUe  Qer.  xiii,  23)  Ethiopian  appears  to  be  equi- 
valent bj  negro.  There  are  strong  reasons  for  thmking  that  in 
primitive  times  there  was  a  stream  of  migration  from  K  through 
Arabia,  Babylonia,  Persia,  to  Western  India  ( Genesis  of  the  Earth 
and  of  Man  ;  Eawlinson's  fferodoius).  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
there  must  have  been  later  a  stream  of  Semitic  migration  in  the 
opposite  direction.  The  predominant  races  in  Abyssinia  at  the 
present  day  are  Semitic,  and  must  have  crossed  the  Red  Sea  from 
the  W.  of  Arabia.  The  settlements  of  the  descendants  of  Cush 
(Gen.  X.)  may  be  traced  from  Meroe  to  Babylonia ;  and  by  the 
E.  'compassed'  by  the  river  Gihon  (Gen.  ii.  10)  is  probably 
meant  the  S.  of  Arabia,  The  Ethiopic  or  Q/ii,  which  is  the 
ancient  and  only  written  language  of  Abyssinia,  and  in  which 
there  is  a  complete  translation  of  the  Bible  and  other  religious 
and  historical  works,  has  a  strong  affinity  both  in  the  forms  of  the 
alphabet  and  the  grammatical  structure  with  tlie  old  Arabic.  G!i 
ceased,  however,  to  be  the  vernacular  of  the  country  in  the  14th  c, 
and  was  superseded  by  the  Tigre  and  the  Amharic,  which  are 
regarded  by  the  best  authorities  as  dialects  of  the  former, 

The  ancient  history  of  E,  is  part  of  the  history  of  Egypt  (q.  v.). 
For  the  modern  history  of  K  see  Abyssinia,  See  Brugsch's 
Geographische  InsckrVten;  'Lapsius'  Deitimd/er;  R,  S,  Poole,  in 
Kitto's  CycloPtedia  BfSiilicai  ISetature  {new  ed.  1863);  Bivch's 
Egypt  from  the  Momamrasi^.  P.  C.  K.,  1875I. 

Bth'moid,  one  of  the  bones  of  the  cranium,  placed  between 
the  orbital  plates  of  the  frontal  bone,  immediately  behind  the 
coot  of  the  nose,  and  entering  also  into  the  formation  of  the 
orbits  and  of  the  nasal  fosssc.  It  is  so  termed  (from  sthmes,  '  a 
sieve,'  and  eiios,  '  form '),  as  it  is  perforated  by  numerous  minute 
openings  for  the  passage  of  the  olfactory  nerves  to  the  nose. 


and  differences  of  human  species  or  races.  The  procedure  is 
to  divide  the  human  family  into  classes,  sub-classes,  varieties, 
sub-varieties,  sections,  and  sub-sections,  according  to  some  well- 
marked  types  of  pliysical  oi|;anisation,  and  then  to  accumulate 
evidence  on  each  of  these  divisions  from  languages,  religions, 
folklore,  laws,  customs,  institutions,  works  of  art  and  in- 
dustry, &c  This  evidence,  which  is  being  always  collected 
by  able  specialists,  tends  in  the  fii^t  place  to  test  the  accuracy 
of  the  original  classification,  and  in  the  next  place  to  sug- 
gest the  permanent  conditions  under  which  the  great  modi- 
ncations  of  both  physical  and  spiritual  oi^anisation  have  taken 


that  part  of  the  science  which  deals  with  the  relations  of  m 
the  brutes — relations  whichare  seen  in  geographical  distribution  as 
well  as  in  general  biology,  This  conception  has  been  extended 
by  Agassis  to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Let  us  take  the  most 
recent,  and  perhaps  the  most  trustworthy,  classification,  that  of 
Huxley:— (i)  The Australioid type.  Themalesareoffairstature, 
with  well-developed  torso  and  arms,  but  relatively  and  absolutely 
slender  l^s.  The  colour  of  the  skin  is  some  shade  of  chocolate 
brown,  and  the  eyes  very  dark  brown  or  black.  Fine  silky  hair, 
usually  raven  black,  never  woolly,  but  wavy  and  tolerably  long. 
The  Australians  are  dolichocephalic  (long-skulled),  the  cranial 
index  often  not  amounting  to  more  than  seventy-one  or  seventy- 
two.  Nose  broad  rather  than  flat,  jaws  heavy,  lips  very  coarse 
aiud  flexible.  A'iw-mo  iicfiitiyo/irsharplypentagonal.  Brow-ridges  ^ 
strong  and  proniinent,  teeth  large,  and  fangs  strong.  Tliese  marks 
are  seen  in  the  Dasyu  hill-tribes  inhabiting  the  interior  of  the 
Dekhan,  The  ordinary  Coolie  in  an  East-Indiaman  is  nearly 
Australian.  The  E^ptian,  too,  though  changed  by  civilisation 
and  probably  admixture,  has  also  the  dark  skin,  black  silky 
wavy  hair,  long  skull,  fleshy  lips,  and  broad  alie  of  the  nose, 
(z)  The  Negroid  type  is  best  represented  by  the  negro  of  S.Africa 
(includiiig  Madagascar),  between  the  Sahara  and  the  region  of 
the  Cape.  He  is  of  fair  stature  ;  his  body  and  limbs  are  well 
made ;  his  skin  is  black,  with  shades  of  brown ;  his  eyes,  brown 
or  black ;  his  hair  is  blackt  short,  and  crisp ;  his  beard  and 
body-hair  scanty.  He  is  dolichocephalic,  the  cranial  index 
being  often  otily  seventy-three.  His  forehead  is  childlike  and 
feminine.     The  norma  ocdpitaRs  is  often  pentagonal.     Like  the 


Australioid,  there  is  generally  prognathism  (protruding  jaws).  , 
The  nasal  bones  are  depressed,  giving  a  characteristic  flat  nose- 
The  lips  are  coarse  and  projecting.    The  Bushmen  of  the  Cape 


special  type,  marked  Dv  low  stature,  the  males  not 
much  exceeding  4  feet  in  height ;  both  sexes,  however,  are  well 
made.  The  skin  is  yellowi^  brown,  the  eyes  and  hair  black, 
the  latter  woolly.  The  antero- posterior  diameter  of  female 
pelvis  is  of  great  relative  length.  The  accumulation  of  fat 
on  the  buttocks,  and  the  large  nymphse  of  females,  are  also 
characteristic,  Hottentots  are  said  to  be  a  cross  between 
Bushmen  and  Negroes.  Another  modification,  the  Negritos, 
occurs  in  the  Andamans,  Malacca,  Philippines,  Tasmania,  and 
the  islands  parallel  to  flie  Australian  coast,  from  Wallace's 
Line  to  New  Caledonia.  The  Andamans  have  a  cranial 
index  of  eighty  ;  all  the  rest  are  dolichocephalic,  though  soma  in 
the  S.  and  E.  approach  the  Australioid  in  large  brow-ridges  and 
otherwise  {,e.g.,  Tasmania,  New  Caledonia,  New  Guinea,  and 
Torres  Straits).  There  is  perhaps  a  cross  with  Malays  in  New 
Guinea  j  more  probably  a  cross  with  Polynesians  in  the  Feejees. 
(3)  Xanthochroic,  or  fair  whites,  found  in  the  greater  part  of 
the  population  of  Central  Europe.  They  are  of  tall  stature,  have 
a  colourless  skin  (through  which  the  blood  shows),  blue  eyes  or 
grey,  hair  ranging  from  straw-colour  to  red  or  chestnut,  and 
beard  and  body-hair  abtindant.  They  are  both  dolichocephalic 
and  brachycepnaljc  (short- skulled).  On  the  S.  and  W.  this  type 
meets  the  Melanochroi,  or  dark  whites  ;  on  the  N.  and  E.  it  meets 
the  Mongoloid.  (4)  The  great  area  E.  of  a  line  drawn  from 
Lapland  to  Siam  is  peopled  chiefly  by  the  Mongoloid,  who  are 
short,  squat,  with  yellow-brown  skin ;  eyes  and  hair  black,  the 
latter  coarse,  straight,  long  on  the  scalp,  but  scanty  on  the 
body  and  face.  They  are  sometimes  very  beach ycephalic,  with- 
out prominent  brow-ridges,  nose  flat  and  small,  eyes  oblique. 
The  Malays  proper  and  the  indigenes  of  the  Philippines,  who 
are  not  Negritos,  probably  belong  to  this  group.  The  Chinese 
and  Japanese,  on  the  other  hand,  are  distinguished  chiefly  by 


y  Google 


BTH 
b    g  d 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ETI 


1   h      pi   I        this    1        t  n  t  rs  also  in   the 

t  rt         (f      d   f  pi  Y       )  who  are  further 

mkllf      tl      d      Ip       t     Ch  face   and  body, 

d  th  d  U  d  thj-  Itm  Th  Dyal  of  Borneo,  the 
B  tt  It      f  S  m  tra    til    All  f  C  1  b         re  all  dolicho- 

pi   1      and  t     pa.     th      gh  tl     p    pie  of  the  Pelew 

lid        dfthCl  dLd  A  chlpelagos   into 

th     P  lyn  wi    m  th      t     ght  h         nd  oblique  eye 

ha  d  IP  ed,  tl  It  11  b  g  1  ng  d  ing  back  to  the 
A    tral     dtyp      Th    P  ly  typ    isb    t       n  in  the  Maoris 

f  N  w  Z  1  d  bra  hy  ph  ly  oc  rs  th  Sandwich  ajid 
S  m  lid  I,  oTiag  h  w-  th  t  P  ly  aia  was  peopled 
f    m  th  t       d   t      th       ht  th  t  th    P  1  an  type  may  be 

a  croEB  between  the  Dyak-Malay  and  the  Negrjlo  elements  in 
Indo-nesia,  In  N.E,  Asia  the  Tchnktchi  are  said  to  be  the 
same  as  the  Eskimos  and  Greenlanders  of  N.  America ;  with 
Mongoloid  hair  and  skin  they  have  very  long  skulls.  Dolicho- 
cephaly  also  distinguishes  the  aborigines  of  both  Americas  from 
the  Asiatip  Mongoloid ;  only  the  Patagonians  and  the  ancient 
mound-builders  are  brachycephalio.  There  is  the  saine  sort  of 
contrast  and  resemblance  between  a  Mongol  proper  and  an 
Iroquois  as  between  a  Malay  and  a  Maori.  The  Melanochcoi, 
mixed  occasionally  with  Xanthochroi  and  Mongoloids,  are  to  be 
found  in  W.  andS.  Europe,  cis-Saharal  Africa,  Asia  Minor,  Syria, 
Arabia,  Persia,  and  Hindustan.  The  type  is  seen  in  Irishmen, 
Welshmen,  Bretons,  Spaniards,  S,  Italians,  Greeks,  Armenians, 
Arabs,  and  high-caste  Brahmins.  In  physical  beauty  and  in- 
tellectual development  Ihey  often  excel  the  Xanthoditoi,  but 
the  skin,  though  transparent,  is  brown,  deepening  to  olive ;  the 
eyes  and  liair  are  black,  the  latter  fine  and  wavy.  This  type 
shades  off  into  the  Xanthochroic  and  the.pekhan  variety  of  Aus- 
traiioid.  The  contrast  between  Ihe  uniformity  of  race  through 
the  various  climatic  zones  of  America  and  the  variety  of  race  in  one 
zone  of  the  Asialic  Archipelago  indicates  that  modification  by 
phjrsical  conditions  can  play  only  one  part  in  the  present  distri- 
bution of  races,  It  will  be  observed  that  this  classification 
discards  the  old  division  into  Aryan  and  Semitic — the  Indo- 
Germanic  and  Syro-Arabian  of  Dr  Priehard — which  was  sug- 
gested chiefly  hy  language,  but  of  which  even  the  philological 
boundaries  are  becoming  indistinct.  In  criticism  of  Huidey's 
grouping  it  has  been  suj^ested  that  the  fundamental  division  of 
the  white  races  is  not  according  to  colour,  but  by  a  general  type 
of  physical  development,  which,  it  is  alleged,  would  put  the  tall, 
handsome,  hook-nosed  Persians,  the  A%hans  and  other  N.W. 
tribes  of  India,  the  Jews,  Syrians,  and  N.  Arabians  together  as 
the  primitive  and  perfect  white  stock,  degenerating  by  crossing 
into  the  Hindus,  the  short,  swarthy,  small-feafured  Arabs  of 
Central  and  S.  Arabia,  and  the  mii^  varieties  of  Europe. 
It  has  been  pointed  out  in  support  of  the  radical  difference  of 
Mongoloid  and  Negroid  that  the  former  is  distinguished  by 
grave  denieanour  and  concealment  of  the  feelings,  deliberate 
speech  without  violent  gesticulation,  rarity  of  laughter,  and 
plaintive  and  melancholy  songs.  This  is  specially  true  of 
American  Indians  and  Malays.  The  Negroid,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  strongly  marked  by  vivacity  and  eicitability,  stroi^ 
exhibitions  of  feelings,  loud  and  rapid  speech,  boisterous  laughter, 
violent  gesticulation,  rude  noisy  music.  These  are  certainly  very 
fundaJiiental  mental  differences,  and  they  are  seen  in  the  Papuan 
of  New  Guinea  as  well  as  the  AJfrican  negro.  With  regard  to  the 
brown  Polynesians  {e.g.,  in  Tahiti),  Mr  Wallace  thinks  that, 
putting  mentol  characteristics  and  general  physicd  features  (ex- 
cept  colour)  together,  they  must  be  held  to  be  fiindamentelly 
Negroid,  modified  towards  the  Mongoloid  type.  (See  map 
giving  effect  to  this  classification,  ymmal  Etimalogkal  Saciiiy, 
1870,  yoL  ii.  p.  368,)  Since  Linniens  divided  the  human  race 
into  Europsffs  albesctns,  Americanus  rabescens,  AsiaHcus  Juxus, 
Afnmnas  nigsr,  there  have  been  various  teslB  of  scientific  divi- 
sion proposed,  Buch  as  Csiapt^s  fadal  angle  (the  angle  formed 
by  a  line  between  the  centre  of  the  ear  and  the  base  of  the  nose, 
and  a  line  frem  the  most  prominent  part  of  the  forehead  to  the 
most  prominent  part  of  the  npper  jaw-bone),  which  was  said  to 
increase  nith  intellectual  development;  Blumenbach's  nifrma 
virlicaHi,  which  expressed  the  result  of  several  measurements  of 
skull,  frontal  bones,  cheekbones,  jaws,  and  nose,  and  which 
gave  the  classification  of  Mongolian,  Caucasian,  Ethiopian, 
Malay,  and  American.  Cuviec  indnded  Malay  and  American 
under  Mongolian.  Latham,  the  philologist,  gives  MongoUd^, 
Atlantids,  and  Japetidse,  and  maintains  the  European  origin  of 


the  Aryan  family.  The  Mtrngolida  include  several  Indian  nation- 
alities, as  the  Cingalese,  Kashmirian,  Taniul,  and  their  language 
is  stated  to  be  for  the  most  part  in  the  agglutinative  stage. 
The  Allaniidn  include — besides  the  African  Negroids — Syrians, 
Arabs,  Jews,  and  the  ancient  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.  Their 
language  is  s^d  to  be  agglutinative,  and  very  rarely  inflectional. 
The  y^petida  are  subdivided  into  Celts  and  Indo-Germanic, 
the  latter  into  European  and  Iranian  and  some  undassed 
varieties ;  the  language  is  described  as  mainly  with  amalga- 
mate inflections.  The  q^uestion  whether  there  was  a  one 
primitive  stock  of  mankind,  of  which  all  existing  nations  and 
tribes  are  the  modifications,  is  one  which  will  probably  never 
he  settled.  Priehard  and  Latham  support  the  unity  of  man, 
the  latter  aiguing  from  an  assumed  universal  identity  f  I 
guage.    But  language  might  be  borrowed  by  a  distil  k 

or  identities  of  language  might  be  produced  by  differen 
exposed  to  similar  conditions,     On  the  other  hand,       gi   g 
may  be  lost  or  thrown  aside,  and  differences  apparen  y       d 
mental  in  language  (and  there  seem  to  be  such)  would  n 

flict  with  the  supposed  unity  of  men,  were  it  estab     h  d 
appropriate  evidence.      But  such  questions  are  premat        wh  n 
existing  kinds  have  not  been  accurately  classified.     Th    Am 
can  school,  founded  by  the  diligent  craniometer  Mo      n    and 
supported  by  the  speculation  of  Agassis  (that  men  al     g  wi 
animals   may   be  arranged  in  certain  combinations  0        unas 
eight  in  number,  and  defined  by  geographical  limits),  m   n     n 
the  primitive  diversity  of  types  as  a  doctrine.     When  d  d 

observation  of  both  physical  and  mental  features  has  d 
the  facts  to  he  explained,  it  will  then  be  time  to  apply        hes 
facts  the  hypothesis  of  unity  Or  diversifj. 

E'th.yl,  a  hydrocarbon  radical  which  cannot  be  is        d 
such,  but  which  occurs  in  many  compounds,  of  which    h     mos 
important  are  alcohol  (hydrate  of  E.j,  CaHi(OH) ;  eth      { 
of  E.),   (CaH„),0;  nitric  other  (nitrate  of  E.),  C^H  (NO 
acetic  ether  (acetate  of  E.),  CsH{C,HsOs).     When  att     p 
made  to  isolate  K  (CjHs),  it  becomes  doubled,  forming  diethyl 
or  butane,  CiHig. 

Eth'ylene.     See  Olefiant  Oil, 

Stieiine,  St,  the  capital  of  the  department  of  Loire,  France, 
on  both  banks  of  the  Furens,  a  branch  of  the  Loire,  35  miles 
S.S.W.  of  Lyons  by  railway.  It  has  a  Gothic  churdi  of  St 
Etienne  of  the  I2lh  c,  and  an  HStel  de  Ville,  with  a  museum  of 
the  industrial  products  of  the  town.  E.  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant manufacturing  places  in  France.  The  production  of 
ribbons  alone  employs  40,000  workmen,  and  the  annual  value 
of  the  industry  amounts  to  about  ;£3,ooo,ooo.  Among  the 
other  large  manufactures  are  iron-wares  (to  the  annual  value  of 
4,000,000  francs),  arms,  steel,  machinery,  edge-tools,  hats,  and 
pottery.  There  are  also  fifteen  laree  coal-pits  in  the  vicinity, 
employing  5000  miners,  and  yielding  1,575,000  tons  yearly. 
Pop.  (1872)  80,526.  St  E.)  the  Furanum  of  the  Romans,  was 
the  residence  of  the  Counts  of  Forez  in  the.  lolh  c.  As  early 
as  the  iilh  c  it  becaine  a  centre  for  ironwork  and  ribbon- 

Etiol'ogy  (Gr.  aiHa,  'a  cause,'  and  logos,  'a  discourse'),  a 
term  used  to  indicate  that  branch  of  medical  science  which  has 
for  its  object  the  discovery  of  the  causes  of  disease. 

Etiquette'  (Fr.  'a  ticket ;'  origin  uncertain),  the  unwritten 
laws  of  polite  society  in  reference  to  social  intercouise  and  matters 
of  precedency  and  ceremony,  so  called  from  (he  drcnmstance  that 
formerly  tickets  were  distributed  among  persons  invited  to  pro- 
cessions, &c. ,  with  instructions  as  to  the  place  they  were  to  take, 
&C.  The  fallacy  that  E.  becomes  more  rigorous.in  each  ascend- 
ing stratum  of  society  is  probably  due  to  the  E.  of  the  courts  of 
Europe  having  till  recently  choked  all  free  and  natural  life.  In 
the  court  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France  E.  drove  out  sense  and  virtue, 
and  spread  ftom  Versailles  to  the  courts  of  Germany,  where  its 
influence  was  tyrannical  and  exacting  down  to  our  own  time. 

Et'ive,  Looh.,  an  arm  of  the  sea  extending  inland  from  the 
Firth  of  Lorn  intd  the  district  of  Lorn,  Argyleshire,  about  9 
n)iles  E.,  after  which  it  stretches  about  II  miles  N.E.,  with  a 
breadth  vatyii^  from  ^  of  a  mile  to  2  or  3  miles.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  vessels  of  roo  tons.  The  scenery,  e^cially  in  its 
upper  part,  is  wildly  picturesque.  The  ruins  of  Dunslaf&iage 
Castle,  originally  the  capital  of  the  Dalriad  kings  and  aflerwards 


yLaOogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOFMDIA. 


Et'na,  or  JBtna  (Gr.  Ailne,  Lat.  Mtna,  not  from  Gr,  edthS, 
'I  burn,'  but  from  the  Phtenician  attuna,  'a  furnace,'  now 
called  in  Sicily  Mimte  GibiUo,  a  term  compounded  of  the  Ita- 
lian  Mcnte  and  the  Arabic  5^*^,  both  signifying  '  mountain '), 
a  celebrated  volcano  in  the  K  of  Sicily,  It  is  an  isolated  cone, 
10,840  feet  above  the  sea-level,  with  a  base  of  90  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, and  cut  off  from  the  mountains  to  the  N.  by  the 
valley  of  the  Alcantara,  and  from  the  range  to  the  S.  and  W.  by 
the  basin  of  the  Semeto  or  Giarretta.  Eastward  its  base  readies 
to  the  ^ea.  Its  eruptions  ate  recorded  from  an  earl^  period. 
Thucydides  mentions  three  which  had  happened  since  the 
establishment  of  the  Greeks  in  the  island ;  the  second,  which 
seems  to  have  been  of  unusual  violence,  being  referred  10475  B.C. 
Shortly  before  the  Christian  era  successive  eruptions  had  made 
the  district  on  the  E.  side  of  E.  viuinhabitaMe  and  almost  impass- 
able from  want  of  water.  There  were  important  outbursts  in 
ii6g,  when  lava  destroyed  Catania  with  15,000  of  its  inhabitants, 
in  1329,  1408,  1444,  1447,  1536,  and  in  1669,  when  the  lava 
again  reached  Catania.  Among  the  last  violent  eruptions  were 
those  of  1852,  1865,  and  1868.  On  the  side  &cmg  the  sea  is  a 
capacious  amphitheatre,  named  the  Val  del  Bom.  It  is  5  miles 
in  diameter,  and  hemmed  in  by  '  dikes,'  of  from  500  to  3DOO  or 
4000  feet  high,  displaying  several  hundred  regular  strata  of  dark 
lava,  alternating  with  beds  of  tufa  of  an  average  thickness  of  6 
feet.  The  siliface  of  E,  is  divided  into  three  regions— (1)  The 
hesirt,  including  the  crater-bearing  cone,  the  highest  part  of 
which  is  covered  with  snow  during  eight  months  of 
(2)  the  Woody,  richly  clsid  with  beech,  pine,  oak  ;  an 
Cultivated,  around  the  base,  producing  in  abundance  m 
wine,  oil  and  fruits. 

irtoa  ( '  town  on  the  water, '  or  '  meadow-land '), 
Buckinghamshire,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Thame 
Windsor  on  the  right  bank,  *  and  connected  with  it 
bridge.     It  is  22  miles  W.S.W.  of  London,  and  is  near  Slough 
Station  on  the  Great  Western  Railway.    Pop.  of  local  board 
district  (1871),  2806 ;  of  parish,  3261.     The  town  owes  its  pros- 
perity ra^nly  to  the  College. 

Eton  Collegi,  one  of  the  first  public  schools  of  England,  was 
founded  by  Henry  VI.  in  J440,  for  a  provost,  lo  priests,  25 
poor  scholars,  &c.  The  foundation  (since  1868)  consists  of  a 
provost,  10  fellows,  2  chaplains  {'  conducts '),  and  70  scholars — 
the  provost, and  fellows  forming  the  'governing  body.'  The 
buildings  were  conunenced  in  1441^  and  were,  in  part,  finished 
and  thrown  open  in  1443.  The  whole  original  structure  was  not 
completed  till  1523.  The  chapel  has  been  lately  decorated,  and 
the  college  hall  was  almost  entirely  rebuilt  in  1858,  the  ne 
tures  being  chiefiy  the  open  timber  roof  with  Louvre  la 
the  Gothic  windows  filled  with  stained  glass,  and  the  fii 
eijcaustic  tiles.    A  large  block  of  school  buildings,  erected 


cost  of  ji!io,ooo,   and   harmonising   in    general  architectural 

nhflracter.  was  added  in  1S62.      The  principal  buildii 

quadrangles,  on  the  'S.  side  of  which 


Ligurians  and  the  Veneti.  Niebuhr  supposes,  from  an  examin- 
ation of  the  Groedan  dialect  in  the  Tyrol,  that  they  came  from 
beyond  the  Ehsetian  Alps,  Mantua  was  an  Etruscan  town ;  so 
were  Felsina  (Bologna)  and  Ravenna.  On  this  side  they  met  the 
Umbrians,  whobuilt  Hatria'Snd  Spina  (' black  town '  and '  tliom- 
iwn ').  Then'  chief  settlement  was,  however,  in  the  district 
ow  called  Tuscany,  The  names  Umbio,  Camars  (Clusium),  the 
nguage  and  religion  of  Falerji  in  Southern  E.,  suggest  that  the 
Etruscans  pushed  the  Umbrians  from  the  N.,  and  perhaps  the 
district  of  Falerii,  Veil  and  Crere,  Sutriura  and  Nepete,  between 
the  Cimini an  forest  and  the  Tiber,  was  not  entered  til!  the2d  c  after 
the  foundation  of  Rome.  The  boundaries  of  E.  proper  were  from 
the  Amus  on  the  N.,  by  Tarquinii  and  Piste,  to  the  Tiber ;  the 
Apennines  and  the  sea  forming  the  other  boundaries,  To  the  N. 
was  a  debateableland  called  E.  drcumfadana,  sometimes  held  by 
the  Ligurians.  The  northern  origin  of  the  Etruscsins  is  favoured 
liy  the  feet  that  only  one  town  (Populonia,  not  among  the  oldest) 
is  on  the  coast.  The  Lydian  origin  suggested  by  Herodotus 
arose  from  the  accidental  resemblance  of  thff  Lydian  name 
Torrhtboi  to  the  native  Tm-smns  (Gr.  Tursenm.,  Umb.  Tarsei, 
Roman  7\isd  or  Etrusd).  The  maritime  fame  of  E,  was  con- 
fused with  Ihe  phatical  habits  of  Lydia.  Besides,  the  short 
sturdy  figures,  large  heads,  and  thick  arms  on  the  vases  and  bas- 
leliefs  of  Volterra  and  Clusium  exclude  ihe  Greek  origin.  E^p- 
tian  inscriptions  of  Menephtah  and  Rameses  IIL  introduce  the 
Turska,  distinguished   by  their  pointed  helmets,   along  with 


another  ri 


3  vague  a  ground  e 


if."' 


boys'  library  and  apartments,  called  the  New  Buildings, 
pupils,  about  900  in  number,  consist  of  the   'collegers, 
scholars  on  the  foundation,  and  the   'oppidans,'   or  students. 


nected  with  the  college  are  several  valuable  scholarships  at 
King's  College,  Cambridge,  obtdnable  by  competitive  examma- 
tion.  There  are  also  the  Newcastle  and  Tomline  scholarships, 
besides  prizes  for  modem  languages,  &c.  The  history  of  this 
ancient  and  renowned  institution,  which  is  not  without  interest 
to  all  Englishmen,  though  it  is  especially  interesting  to  Eton- 
ians, has  been  admirably  treated  by  H.  C  M.  Lyte,  M.A., 
in  Ms  History  of  E.  C,  1440-1875  (Lond.  Macmjllan,  1875). 
See  also  Memoirs  of  Cekhrated  Einmans,  by  J.  Hene^e  Jesse 
(Lond  1875);  and  The  Elan  Portrait  Gallery,  oonHsiing  of  Short 
Me/iioirs  of  Ihe  more  Eraineiil  Eten  Men,  by  a  Barrister  of  the 
Inner  Temple  (Lond.  1875), 

Etru'na.  The  Etmscans,  Eas,  or  Rasenas,  were  among  tlie 
pnmitive  inhabitants  of  Italy  distinguished  from  tlie  lapygians 
in  the  S  of  the  Peninsula,  and  the  Itahans — Latins  and  Sabel- 
lians— who  occupied  the  middle.  It  is  conjectured  that  they 
originally  inhabited  a  laige  district  N.  of  the  Po,  between  the 


inscription  at  Chiusi,  however,  the  meaning  of  the  terminations 
al  [descent  from  the  mother)  and  ifl  (referring  to  marriage  into 
a  clan)  has  been  reached.  In  the  earliest  inscriptions 
(those  on  clay  at  Ca;re)  the  collision  of  two  consonants  is 
avoided;  later  (as  at  Perusia)  vowels  were  rejected,  terminals 
were  thrown  off,  and  the  language  became  harsh.  Tarquinius 
becomes  Tarohnaf,  Minerva  Menrva,  Hermes  Thurms,  and 
Bakchos  Fufiuns.  The  accent  was  thrown  on  the  first  syllable, 
and  the  distinctions  b  p,  c  g,  d  t  were  lost  sight  of.  Except  f, 
which  was  too  soft,  all  the  aspirate  consonants  were  used — 
Thethis  for  Tethis.  Some  of  the  names  of  divinities  resemble  the 
ItaliaJ! ;  e.g^.,  Usil  (Sol)  is  the  Sun.  The  gentile  termmations 
enas  and  ena  resemble  the  Sabellian  clan-names,  Miiller 
thought  the  language  was  Lydian,  Humboldt  su^ested  a 
connection  with  Ihe  Basque  popuktion.  No  trace  of  it  has 
been  found  in  the  architecture  of  the  sepulchre-buildeis  {Nur- 
aght)  of  the  Tuscan  Ishinds.  Mommsen  goes  no  further  than  to 
say  that  there  are  Sanskrit  elements  in  (he  language.  As  r^ards 
the  Etruscan  religion,  it  was  pervaded  by  a  gloomy  mysticism,  in 
which  soothsaying  and  the  manipulation  of  numbers  played  a  pro- 
minent part.  The  worship  was  cruel,  and  included  the  slaughter 
of  prisoners  or  slaves.  The  interpretation  of  entrails,  of  the  flight 
of  birds,  of  lightning,  and  other  prodigies  was  learned  from  the 
dwarfTages.  According  to  Muller,  Ihe  eagle  was  of  good  omen, 
Ihe  owl  evil ;  though  at  Athens  the  owl  was  of  good  omen.  The 
system  was  subtle  and  complex.  The  fitlmimi  were  divided 
into  puilica,  ptivata,  aadfamiliaria,  which  varied  in  the  extent 
and  period  of  their  application.'  According  to  Crcuaer  the;W- 
raina  -were  ohssifkdss  sicoa, Ju?mda,ciara,perem^lia,  i^eciata, 
&c  A  spot  struck  by  a  flash  (fUlgmita  or  obsliia)  was  sacred, 
and  enclosed  by  bidentaHa  ot  ptitmlia.  The  birds  which  lacer- 
ated themselves  were  called  -wUgas;  the  favourable  birds  ri- 
mores,  itihiia,  and  arcida,  Ihe  others  oscines  bxiA  pratstes.  It  is 
probable  that  the  art  of  the  Roman  aruspex  (which  with  the 
iituiis  divided  the  templuta  of  the  heavens  by  the  cardo  and  the 
decumamis  lines,  and  fixed  the  boundaries  of  fields  by  the  limitis 
intersecivi)  was  derived  from  E.  The  sacred  square  or  oblong 
was  imitated  in  the  shape  of  towns,  built  temples,  the  vorsui  or 
aeratian  measrae,  and  tombs.  The  world  was  finite,  its  'great 
587 


vGooqIc 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


year'  being  6000  years  ;  and  the  gods  were  subject  to  the  Dii 
Inimluti,  the  veiled  deities.  Among  the  foimer  are  Voltumna, 
goddess  of  change  or  fortune,  and  the  double  Janus,  opening  the 
gates  of  heaven  and  the  year,  turning  witli  the  sun,  passing  with 
time,  flowing  with  rivers.  His  wife  is  sometimes  Camasene,  a 
fish;  somedmes  Veiiilia,  the  wave  touchingthe  shore;  orSutunia, 
the  daughter  of  winds  and  waters.  An  old  man  with  wings  and 
a  hammer  conducted,  the  souls  of  the  dead  to  hell  to  be  tortured 
by  mallets  and  serpents.  There  was  a  mode  of  redemption  by 
sacrifice  to  the  gods.  The  position  of  the  Dii  Canseates  or 
Complices  (Tina,  Thuims,  Sethlans  or  Vulcan)  is  not  clearly 
defined.  Nor  do  we  know  much  of  the  patrician  Lucumones, 
the  Larths  and  Aruns,  the  eldest  and  second  sons  of  the  Cilnii, 
the  CEEcinas,  the  Musonii,  &c.  As  regards  the  early  relations 
of  E,  and  Rome,  there  is  a  tradition  th  t  Mez  f  C-e     * 

posed  a  wine-tax  on  Latium,  and  two  hai  d     f  T    can.   1  d  by 


Cselius  Vivemia  and  Maslar 
C^elianHill.   There  was  a  Tuscan  quart       t  th  foot   fth 
tine.     The  Veientes  seem  often  to  have  d   p  ted  th   p 
of  Fidens,    The  name  of  the  last  regal  f      ly  m  R  m 
quin,  is  Tuscan,  and  so  is  the  woman's      m    T      qnil 
cMl.  ■  Bu*  "---  -" -----> •-<-    :<     -     ^-1.      . 


th 


that  the  real  power  of  the  Tuscans  lay.     Th  y 
traded  as   far  as  Miletus    and    Sybaris    wh  t        sa  d   th  t 

silver  formed  the  medium  of  exchange  b  tw  th  a  nrf 
(copper)  of  E.  and  the  gold  of  Miletus  1  C  tl  g  Th  gh 
this    trade,    no  doubt,  came    many  id  h   h   h         b 

used    to   prove   an    Ionian   origin.       Wl  1      th        w  Id   Ty 
henian'  was  a  pirate,    peaceful  trade       It  t      1 

existed  between   Southern    E,,    or  at   1      t  th     t  f  Cze 

and  both  Greeks  and  Phtenicians.    Th    T    ca    k    g  A  m 
presented  gifts  to  the  Olympian   Zeus       d.  Ca:     h  d      sp 
cial  treasury  in  the  temple  of  the  Delph      Ap  U        B  t  th 
Etruscans  dislodged  the  Greeks  from  jEth  1        d  P  p  1     la      d 
held  sway  in  Antium  and  Sunactum,  m  kmg  th     1  ff   f  C  p 
centre  for  their  freebooting  expeditions.     It  d  th  y 

founded  a  league  of  twelve  towns  in  Ca   p  I    55 

find  gold  and  silver  coins  struck  by  the  Etru    ans     f  m  d  1 

and  standard  disdnctly  Attic  or  Ionian  Th  y  h  d  gr  t  m 
mercial  advantages ;  the  free  ports  on  th  Ad  lat  th  la  d 
route  from  Pisee  to  Spina,  and  the  productive  fields  of  Capua 
and  Nola.  They  had  the  iron  of  JJthalia,  the  copper  of  Volaterrte 
and  Campania,  the  silver  of  Populonia,  and  the  amber  trade  from 
the  Baltic,  which  came  overland  to  the  mouth  of  the  Po.  There 
are  many  Attic  earthenware  vases  in  the  Etruscan  tombs,  and 
many  Etruscan  gold  cups  and 
bronze  candlesticks  at  Athens. 
Th^  also  excelled  in  terra-cotta 
work,  which  was  generally  spoken 
of  at  Rome  as  '  Tuscanic '  Their 
]a,pidanes  adhered  to  the  form  of 
the  scarabaus  or  beetle.  Tomb- 
painting,  mirror  -  designing,  and 
graving  on  stone  were  their  chief 
forms  of  art.  Contour- di awing 
in  metal  and  monochromatic 
fresco -pain  ting  are  both  excellent. 
But  the  taste  is  bad  :  'the  severe 
"becomes  harsh,  the  graceful  effe- 
minate, the  awEiil  horrible,  and  the 
voluptuous  obscene.'  The  Tus- 
can temple  differs  from  the  Greek 
types  in  the  course  of  columns 
carried  round  the  ciUa,  or  en- 
closed quadrangular  space,  and  in 
placing  a  separate  pedestal  under 
each  column ;  the  outUne  is  nearer 
square  ;  the  gable  is  higher ;  the  intervals  between  the  columns, 
le  inclination  of  roof,  and  projection  of  corbels  are  all  greater, 
is,  in  fact,  more  like  the  wooden  pnvate  house.  Abont  the 
me  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarqnins,  the  power  of  the  Etrus- 
ins  (then  in  alUance  with  Carthage)  was  at  its  height.  They 
id  already  got  Corsica,  and  Larth  Porsena,  King  of  Clusium, 
/  a  Euccessiul  war  (B.C.  507)  would  have  obtained  Latium  but 
for  the  intervention  of  the  Cumieans.  Rome  undoubtedly  fell 
under  Etrurian  authority,  and  was  forced  '  to  cede 
all  her  possessions  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Titer  to  the  adja- 


her, 


thenceforth  onl} 
for  the  ploughshare.  It  seen  ed 
as  if  a  union  of  Italy  under  Tus 
can  supremacy  was  not  far  dii 
tant'  (Mommsen's  Romtsche 
Geschkhte,  book  "ii,  chip  vv ) 
The  fall  of  Xerxes  and  Ham  Icar 
was  followed  (B.C.  474)  by  H  era  s 
victory  over  the  Etruscans  which 
is  the  subject  of  the  first  Pyth  an 
Ode  of  Pindar.  The  Massiliots 
d    Sy  ans     then      becan  e 

p        f  1     mpetitors  in  the  Medi 
t  rr  Dionysius     attacked 

1    (h  H  t        nd  Pyrgi,  and  at  last  _ 

th     EtTi    ans,   abandon  ng  Car  .^^^^ds..      ^ 
tl  ag  t      ghteen  war  ships  to  GmdksUrk 

th     h  Ip     f  Agathocles,      While  i-anaie»ucK 

th     R  m         took  Fidente  the  bamn  tes  took  Capua    th  s  de 

t    ym      E  ruscan   influence   m    Campan  a        Then    came    the 
a^        t  Veil  (B.C.  396)  m  wh  Ji  Can  dliis  maugurated  the 

pi  dd  eer  of  victory  wh  ch  awaited  his  i  at  on  The 
ag  f  the  Cells  from  Gaul  st  U  fiirther  weakened  the 
T  an  d  onnecting  their  settlements  on  the  Adr  atic,  and 
S  th  m  E  began  to  enter  ilto  civttas  sine  siiffra^o  with  Rome 
Th  gn  f  the  Lucumonea  bad  now  pa.ssed  into  a  form  of 
p  t  g    emment  supported  by  pnestly  monopoly      The 

h  g  m     y    f  Volsinil  was  merely  nom  nal   ind  indeed  in  B  c 
30         d     60  Roman  help  was  got  to  suppress  popular  r  sm(,3 

il  g       f  luxury  and  sensual  ty  had  begun         The  Greek 

th  rs  f  this  age  are  full  of  descriptions  of  the  unbounded 
1  ly  f  E  roscan  life  ;  poets  of  Lower  Italy  m  tl  e  5tl  c  of  the 
ty  1  brat  the  Tyrrhen  an  w  ne  T  m-eus  and  1  heopompus 
1  Im  t  p  tures  of  Etiuscan  unchastjty  and  of  Etruscan  ban- 
q  t  h  as  fail  nothii^  short  of  the  worst  Byiantine  or  French 
dm  1  sat  n.  Unattested  as  may  be  the  details  in  these  ac- 
t  th  tatement  at  least  appears  to  be  well  founded  that 
th  d  t  t  bl  amusement  of  gladiatorial  combats — the  gangrene 
of  the  later  Rome  and  of  the  last  epoch  of  antiquity  generally — 
first  came  into  vogue  among  the  Etruscans.  At  any  rate  there 
is  no  room  on  the  whole  to  doubt  the  deep  degeneracy  of  the 
nation.  It  pervaded  even  its  political  condition '  (Mommsen's 
RSmiscke  Geschichle,  book  ii.).  Yet  in  spite  of  their  moral  de- 
cline, and  in  spite  of  the  disaster  at  the  Vadimonian  Lake  (b,c. 
310),  they  were  able  to  give  snccour  to  the  Samnites  in  then-  long 
stru^le  against  Rome,  and  they  joined  the  Lucanians  in  their  com- 
bination with  Pyrrhus,  fighting  however,  by  Senonian  Celtic 
mercenaries,  and  not  by  native  soldiery,  for  the  energies  of  the 
nation  had  been  virtually  broken  ;  and  one  may  safely  say  that 
they  had  lost  the  possibility  of  becoming  a  great  nation  from  the 
day  of  Veil  and  Melpum.  During  the  revolt  of  the  Italian  sub- 
jects the  Etruscans  supported  Rome,  as  they  had  before  sup- 
ported the  equites  against  Drusus,  whose  plans  of  reform 
threatened  the  domains  of  the  laige  proprietors.  They  also  made 
a  struggle  against  Sulla.  HegavemuiJi  of  the  district  to  his  suc- 
cessful legions,  and  this  example  was  followed  by  Julius  C^sar 
and  Augustus.  E.  is  then  lost  in  the  Roman  Empire.  The 
question  how  far  there  was  continuity  of  life  in  the  Italian  towns 
until  the  Motta  was  formed  and  the  stru^le  against  imperial  power 
began  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  in  history.  Besides  Mailer's 
work  Die  Elrasker,  published  in  1 828,  the  great  storehouse  of 
learning  on  the  origins  of  E.  and  of  the  Italian  language  is  Cors- 
sen,  Ueiir  Aassprachi,  Vcxaiismus,  und  Setonung  der  Latdrtis- 
chin  Soroche  (Leips.  1S68,  2  vols.).  A  text  of  the  Eugubian 
Brasses  (found  A.D.  1444)  and  of  the  Perugian  Inscription  will 
be  found  in  Sir  William  Betham'a  Etruria  Cellica  (2  vols,  1842). 

Etschmiad'sin,  a  fortified  monastery  in  the  Russian  govera- 
ment  of  Erivan,  on  a  tableland  20  miles  N.  of  the  town  of  E., 
ceded  to  Russia  by  Persia  in  1828.  Famous  as  the  seal  of  the 
Armenian  Katholikos  or  patriarch  since  1441,  and  the  meeting- 
place  of  the  synod  of  the  Armenian  Church,  it  has  been  called 
the  '  Rome  of  Armenia.'  It  has  splendid  buildings  and  gar- 
dens, several  churches,  a  libraiy  (once  much  richer  in  Armenian 
literature  than  it  is  now),  and  some  notable  relics ;  among 


yLaOOgle 


ETT 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EUG 


others,  a  bit  of  Noah's  aril,  the  point  of  the  p  wh  lip  d 
the  Saviour  on  the  cross,  the  hand  of  Jacob  f  NiS  bis  d  f 
St  Gregory  himself, 

Ett'muUer,  Emat  Moritz  Ludwig       Ge  m         h  la 
born  at  Gersdorf,  Saxony,  October  5, 1802,   Hid   d  m  d  t 

Leipaic,  and  afterwards  devoted  himself  to  1  ng     t  ea   h. 

He  has  edited  many  old  German  works,  su  h  St  Om  idss 
Lebca  (183s),  Fl-awea  MeUhen  Sum  (1846)  h  p  d  da 
-taXw^f:  Lexicon  Anglo'Saximkum  (1851),  translated  the  poelic 
Edda  and  £rt?iM(^(q.  y. ),  ami  written  a  number  of  original  poems, 
the  Deutsche  Slamm-Affitigc  (1844),  Kaiser  Karl  {1847),  &c 

Ett'rict,  a  district  and  river  in  the  S.  of  Scotland  famous  in 
Border  song  and  story.  The  river,  which  rises  in  the  extreme 
S.  of  Selku-kshire  and  flows  N.E.  to  its  junction  with  tlie 
Tweed,  is,  iike  its  affluent  the  Yarrow,  a  '  river  bare,  that  glides 
the  dark  hills  under,;'  yet  the  pastoral  solitudes  throi^h  which  it 
nms  are  inexpressibly  beautiful,  E.  Forest  formerly  embraced 
the  whole  of  Selkirkshire,  and  was  a  famous  hunting-ground  in 
the  days  of  the  Stuarts.  At  Tushlelaw,  midway  up  E.  Vale, 
Adam  Scot,  the  famous  freebooter,  was  hanged  by  James  V. 
Boston,  of  the  Fourfold  State,  was  minister  of  E.  parish;  and 
the  poet  Hogg  is  familiarly  known  as  '  the  E.  Shepherd,"  be- 
cause he  vras  bom  in  the  Forest, -and  spent  his  youth  there  as  a 
shepherd, 

Ett'y,  "William,  R.  A.,  a  femous  painter,  was  bom  at  York, 
March  10,  1787,  and  after  seven  years'  apprenticeship  with  a 
printer,  became  in  1805  a  student  at  the  Royal  Academy,  Lon- 
don, where  he  had  as  fellow-pupils  Haydon,  Wilkie,  and  East- 
lake.  The  Academy,  after  repeatedly  rejecting  bis  pictures,  in 
1 820  accepted  his  '  Coral  Finders,  which  received  mariced 
applause.  In  iBai  he  set  out  for  Italy, where  he  studied  Titian, 
Veronese,  and  the  other  great  Venetians.  He  was  elected  an 
Associate  of  the  Academy  in  1824,  and  an  Academician  in  1828, 
in  which  year  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy  purchased  his  three 
lai^e  pictures  on  the  history  of  Judith.  His  fame  was  now  wide, 
and  bis  worlts  commanded  high  prices.  Between  181 1  and  1849 
he  produced  above  zoo  pictures,  of  which  the  chief  were  '  Pan- 
dora Crowned  by  the  Seasons,' '  The  Combat, '  held  to  be  his  mas- 
terpiece, 'Beiiaiah,'  'Ulysses  and  the  Syrens,'  'Joan  of  Arc,' 
'Cleopatra,'  'The  Storm,'  'Lute-player,  'Youth  at  the  Prow 
and  Pleasure  at  the  Helm,'  'Amoret  Chained,'  He  died  at 
York,  November  30,  1849.  After  being  unduly  ignored,  E,  has 
been  grossly  overrated.  His  works  are  often  shallow  and  vulgar, 
and  his  glowing  nudities  the  result  of  a  false  ideal.  '  No  one,' 
Bays  Ru3iin,  '  told  E.  what  to  paint,  and  he  studied  antique,  and 
painted  dances  of  nymphs  in  yellow  shawls  to  the  end  of  his 
days.  His  is  gone  to  the  grave  a  lost  mmd,'  See  E.'s  Auto- 
biography, and  Gilchrist's  LifsofB.  (Lond,  1855), 

Btymorogy  (Gr.  etymon,  'the  true  literal  sense,'  s',<(.,  of  a 
word,  and  logos,  'adiscomse')  treats  of  the  stnicture  and  history 
of  words,  and  of  the  connections  between  various  languages.  In 
its  widest  sense  it  is  usually  termed  Philology  (q.  v. ).  In  a  nar- 
rower but  more  familiar  sense  it  denotes  that  branch  of  gram- 
mar which  deals  with  the  different  parts  of  speech  and  the 
various  modes  of  inflection. 

Eu  (Lat,  Au^  or  Agtdm\  a  town  of  France,  department  of 
Seine-Inf^ri^ure,  on  the  Bresle,  2J  miles  from  its  mouth  and  zo 
E,N,E.  of  Dieppe,  It  has  a  fine  Gothic  church  of  the  izth 
c,  an  old  church  of  the  Jesuits  containing  the  tombs  of  Cathe- 
rine of  Kleve  and,Henri  of  Guise,  and  a  famous  chSteau  which 
was  begun  by  Ftan5ois  of  Guise  in  the  14th  c,  and  which  be- 
longed to  the  Orleans  family  till  1S52.  The  chateau  iis  sur- 
rounded by  a  beautiful  park,  and  contains  perhaps  the  finest  col- 
lection of  historical  portraits  in  France.  Pop.  (I872)  3673.  E. 
was'  in  the  possession  of  the  Comtes  d'E.,  a  branch  of  the  Norman 
royal  family,  till  the  12th  c  The  title  Comte  d'E.  was  con- 
ferred  on  the  eldest  son  of  the  Due  de  Nemours  (born  1824)  by 
his  grandsire  Louis  Philippe.  The  town  has  some  manufactures 
of  lace,  waxcloth,  sailcloth,  fow,  hemp,  luiens,  ftc.  SeeVatout'; 
Le  Chdicau  d'E.,  NeUces  Historigues  (5  vols,  Paris  1S36), 

Eubce'a  (Egrifo,  Negroponte),  by  far  the  lai^est  island  of 
insular  Greece,  is  situated  in  the  .^Egean  Sea,  and  lies  parallel 
to  the  mainland.  The  channel  on  the  N,  ia  called  Trilceri,  and 
on  the  W.  Talanta  and  Egripo,  It  is  only  40  yards  wide  at 
Clialcis,  where  it  is  bridged  over.     E.  is  about  90  miles  long 


from  N.  to 


.  and  its  extreme  breadth  is  30  miles,  though  at 
not  more  than  4  miles  across.  Throughout  the 
ange  of  mountains,  of  which  Mount  Delphi  on  the 
is  7266  feet  high ;  and  the  south  is  particularly 
The  soil  in  the  plains  is  fertile,  and  there  are  excel- 
lent pastures  on  the  mountain  slopes.  Vmes,  com,  and  olives  are 
chiefly  cultivated.  Copper  and  iron  are  found  in  the  mountains. 
The  chief  towns  are  Chalcis  and  Carystos.  In  ancient  times  E. 
was  divided  among  six  or  seven  independent  cities,  of  which 
Chalcis  and  Eretria  were  the  most  important.  They  were  mostly 
inhabited  by  Ionic  Greeks,  For  a  long  period  the  island 
acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  Athens,  though  it  frequently 
asserted  its  independence.  It  passed  successively  under  the 
vay  of  the  Macedonians,  Romans,  Venetians,  and  Turks.  It 
now  part  of  the  modem  kingdom  of  Greece. 

Biicalyp'tUB,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
^Jer  Myrtacea,  and  indigenous  to  Australia,  Tasmania,  New 
Guinea,  and  some  of  the  neighbouring  islands.  Of  the  1 50  species 
known,  most  are  trees,  some  of  which  attain  an  immense 
aije.  They  are  eveigreen,  and  the  leaves,  which  are  thick  and 
leathery,  present  their  edges  instead  of  then-  surfaces  to  the  sun. 
A  gum  exudes  from  the  bark  after  rain,  whence  they  are  known 
as  gum-trees.  They  have  been  popularly  divided  into  two 
classes,  of  which  the  one  has  a  Smooth  hark,  periodically 
shed  in  long  strips ;  tlie  other,  a  rough  and  fixed  barb.  The 
principal  species  are  E.  globulus,  or  blue  gum ;  E.  gigantea, 
or  stnngy  bark ;  E.  rostrata  d  gu  d  £     m  d  V 

or  peppermint     Specimens   t  th   tw   li   t  f   m  300 14      ft 
high  are  not  uncommon,  wll        fU      ppprmth      b 
measured  which  was  480  feet  1     g  and     f  p    p     U       t     g    th 
Their  tunber  is  hard  and  ve  y  d  rabl    b  t  h      y      B    lb  I 
yields  products  which  are  b  ginn   g  t     be  est       ed  f     th 
medicinal  properties.     Aprp      t       mdfmtsl  1 

been  pronounced  by  French  d  I  ahan  phj  cian  aft  p  n 
ment,  to  be  an  excellent  subst     t   f     q      m       E  t  pi 

tatious  of  this  tree  exist  in  Algeria,  Southern  France,  the  Roman 
Campagna,  and  India,  and  it  is  also  being  cultivated  in  Brazil 
and  California,  its  great  rapidity  of  growth  and  the  beneficial 
influence  it  exerts  upon  malarious  places  being  its  chief  passports 
to  favour.  The  sap  from  the  tmnk  of  E.  Gunnii  is  brewed  into 
a  kind  of  beer  by  the  colonists.  Many  species  of  E,  yield  an 
essential  oil  which  will  doubtless  become  commercially  impo'r- 
tant.     That  of  E.  a-idfolia  resembles  Cajeput, 

Eu'cliariat  (Gr,  from  lucharistco,  '  I  give  thanks  ')  is  anotlier 
name  for  the  Lord's  Supper  (q,  v,).  The  Jewish  Passover,  on 
which  the  E.  is  founded,  was  originally  a  feast  of  thanksgiving  to 
the  almighty  creator  for  the  fruits  of  the  gi-ound,  but  afterwards 
came  to  be  specially  associated  with  the  deliverance  from  Egypt. 
Every  roaster  of  a  household  who  distributed  bread  and  wine  to 
his  guests  praised  God  who  had  given  these  fruits  of  the  earth  to 
man,  and  for  the  favour  he  had  shown  to  his  own  people.  For 
this  reason  the  cup  of  wine  over  which  he  pronounced  the 
thanksgiving  was  called  the  cup  of  blessing  or  thanksgiving.  It 
was  in  allusion  to  this  practice  that  St  Paul  (l  Cor.  x.  16)  called 
the  sacramental  cup  'the  cup  of  blessing'  {Gt.to  poleHon  les  eulo- 
gias).  As  the  Greek  words  eulogia  and  eueharislia  are  synony- 
mous, the  latter  came  to  be  used  by  metonymy  for  the  Lord's 
supper,  in  which  'the  cup  of  blessing'  plays  such  an  important 

Euclid  of  Alexandria,  the  world-famous  geometer,  lived, 
according  to  Proclus,  in  the  time  of  the  first  Ptolemy  (B.C. 
323-283),  and  seems  to  have  been  the  founder  of  the  Alexandrian 
school  of  mathematics,  His  best  known  work  is  his  Elements, 
a  book  which,  in  spits  "f  i's  andquity,  and  the  rapid  progress 
which  mathematic^  science  has  undergone  vrithin  the  last  few 
centuries,  still  retains  its  place,  at  least  in  Britain,  as  the  standard 
authority  haxa  which  the  student  first  obtains  the  principles  of 
geometry.  Tlie  first  Latin  edition  which  could  be  called  the 
Elements  of  E.  was  translated  from  the  Arabic  by  Adelard  of 
Bath  about  1 130.  Since  then  there  have  been  numerous  editions, 
the  best  being  those  of  Simpson  and  Playfiur.  E.'s  other  ex- 
tant works  are  his  Data,  his  Appearances  (of  the  heavens),  his 
Optics  and  Catoptrics.  The  treatises  on  Music  and  the  Division 
of  the  Scale  are  not  certainly  by  him.  Pappus,  Pcoclus,  Eutodus, 
and  others  aiso  ascribe  to  E,  works  on  CohiV  Sections,  Eoristns, 
Plane  Loci,  and  Fallacies,  of  wliich  there  is  now  no  trace. 
589 


vLjOOqIc 


EUO 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOP^niA. 


EXJG 


Euclid  of  Megara,  a  Greek  philosopher,  was  one  of  the 
chief  disciples  of  SoctaLes,  on  whose  death  (399  B.C.)  be  returned 
to  his  native  city,  where  he  became  the  founder  of  the  Megaric 
orDialectid  school,  which  derived  its  doctrines  from  theEleatics 
as  well  as  from  Socrates.  The  Megaric  philosophers  held  that 
'  the  good '  is  the  leading  nniversal  in  all  things.  Everything, 
they  said,  is  good  in  so  far  aS  it  m.  Evil  is  only  negation.  The 
good  is  the  element  of  agreement  in  all  existing  tilings.  The 
Megaric  school  was  also  famous  for  its  dialectieal  subtlety  and 
logical  puzales. 

Eu.diom'eter  (Gr.  stdios,  '  fine,'  and  tnilmn,  '  a  measure ')  is 
an  instrument  employed  in  the  analysis  of  gases.  Many  different 
forms  of  the  E.  are  employed,  but  the  simplest  consists  of  a 
syphon  tube  closed  at  one  end  and  gradtiaied  at  the  lower  limb. 
Wires  are  sealed  into  the  closed  end  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
nearly  touch,  and  aji  electric  spark  can  be  passed  through  tlie 
gases.  The  tube  is  partially  filled  with  water  to  keep  the  gases 
enclosed,  and  the  thumb  is  placed  on  the  open  limb  to  prevent 
their  escaping  when  exploded. 

Eudo'cia,  or  Atlienais,  bom  at  Athens  a.d.  394,  was  the 
daiwhler  of  Leontius,  a  sophist,  who  gave  hel'  a  good  education 
1  Ladn,  Greek,  rhetoric,  astronomy,  geometry,  and  arithmetic. 


reduced.  "Pulcheria,\the  ^terof  Theodosius  II.,  struck  by  K's 
grace  and  culture,  told  the  Emperor  to  marry  the  fair  stranger, 
which  be  did,  71h  June  421.  On  the  retitement  of  Palcheria 
from  public  affairs,  E,  from  443  to  450  practically  governed  the 
empire.  Before  this  she  had  suffered  from  her  husband's  un- 
founded jealousy  of  Paulinus,  the  inagister  officiorum.  She  was 
further  suspected  of  having  plotted  with  the  Grand  Chamberlain, 
-^1—— i-"-    '1-  deposition  of  tl 

5phesus  {'  Count  

become  attached  to  the  teaching  of  the  heretic  Eutyches,  she 
quarrelled  with  Pulcheria,  and  the  result  was  that  she  withdrew 
to  Jerusalem,  where  she  spent  her  life  in  restoring  the  sacred 
plaices,  and  where  she  was  finally  converted  by  Simeon  Stylites 
to  an  orthodoK  view  of  the  double  nature  in  Christ.  She  died 
in  46r.  E.  left  several  poems,  but  the  only  piece  extant  is  a 
poem  on  St  Cyprian,  found  in  the  Laurentiau  Library,  Flo- 
rence.    See  Gibbon's  Did.  and  Fall  of  the  Rom.  Empire. 

Endox'TiS  of  OniduB,  the  astronomer,  flourished  in  the  first 
half  of  the  4th  c.  B.C.  According  to  Laertius,  he  was  for  a  time 
a  pupil  of  Plato,  but  having  suffered  dismissal,  he  repaired  to 
^ypt,  where  he  remained  thirteen  years.  On  his  return  he  is 
said  to  have  introduced  the  sphere  into  Greece.  Notices  of  him 
are  numerous  in  the  poem  of  Aratus  and  the  works  of  Hippar- 
chns,  Strabo,  Seneca,  Aristotle,  Archimedes,  Vitruvius,  Proclus, 
Cicero,  Ptolemy,  &c,  but  all  his  reputed  writings  are  lost.  He 
is  said  to  have  corrected  the  lengUi  of  the  year,  to  have  intro- 
duced a  theory  of  planetary  motions,  and  to  have  determined  the 
sun's  diameter  as  nine  times  that  of  the  moon's.  Delambre  con- 
siders him  to  have  been  ignorant  of  geometry. 

EugaJie'an  Sills,  also  Monti  bolo'te  or  Padua'ni,  a 
volcanic  range  in  the  province  of  Padua,  N.  Italy,  which  rises 
abruptly  from  the  '  waveless  plain  of  Lorobardy '  to  a  height  in 
Monte- Venda  of  1884  feet,  and  which  extends  from  N.  to  S.  for 
a  distance  of  19  miles.  The  E.  give  a  title  to  one  of  the  most 
musical  of  Shelley's  poems. 

Eug^ene',  Prince  Francois,  de  Savoie-Oarignftn,  bom 
at  Paris  iSth  Oclober  1663,  entered  the  service  of  the  Em- 
peror Leopold  I.  in  1683.  He  fought  with  Victor  Amadeus  of 
Savoy  in  his  campaigns  in  Dauphine  and  elsewhere  against  the 
French.  In  1697  we  find  him  with  the  rank  of  a  field-marshal 
inflicting  the  decisive  defeat  of  Zenlha  (near  the  Theiss  liver  in 
Hungary)  on  the  Sultan  Mustapha  II.  This  was  followed  by 
the  peace  of  Karlowiti  {1699),  by  which  Turkey  ceded  Transyl- 
vania to  Austria,  and  Podolia  and  the  Ukraine  to  Poland.  E. 
was  the  hero  of  the  opening  scenes  of  the  Spanish  Succession 
War,  driving  back  the  Frendi  marshals  Catinat  and  Villeroy  in 
the  N.  of  Italy,  The  brilliant  assault  on  Cremona  was,  how- 
ever, soon  neutralised  by  VendSme's  victory  of  Luizara  (1702). 
E.  now  became  president  of  the  Auljc  Council,  and  formed  the 
league  with  Marlborough  and  lieinsius,  the  Grand  Pensionary 
590 


of  Holland.  The  first  fruit  of  this  league  was  Blenheim  {1704), 
where  the  army  of  Marsin  and  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  was  de- 
stroyed, E.  next  measured  strength  with  VendSme  at  Cassano 
(Piedmont)  without  definite  result.  By  the  relief  of  Turin,  how- 
ever {where  Marsin  was  again  outgeneralied),  he  became  master 
of  N.  Italy.  After  a  fnutless  invasion  of  Provence  in  1707,  he 
triumphed  over  Vend3me  at  Oudenarde  (1708).  Lille  now  fell. 
This  victory,  as  well  as  that  over  Villars  at  Malplaquet  (1709), 
was  due  to  the  perfect  understanding  between  E.  and  Marl- 
borough. When  the  latter  was  deprived  of  the  command  of  the 
English  army,  and  Anne  made  peace  with  France,  E.'s  glory 
seemed  to  leave  him.  The  clever  strategy  of  Villars  disarmed 
Van  Keppel  (Lord  Albemarle)  and  drove  E.  back  on  Brussels. 
Next  year  further  reverses  led  to  the  peace  of  Rastadt.  But 
fresh  laurels  were  gained  in  1716,  when  the  Grand  Vizier  All 
with  150,000  Turks  was  routed  at  Petervaradem,  and  in  1717, 
when  a  second  Turkish  army  was  driven  from  the  very  walls 
of  Belgrade.  Only  ^le  peace  of  Passarowici  prevented  E.  from 
going  to  Constantinople.  The  Polish  Succession  War  (1733) 
saw  the  veteran  general  once  more  on  the  Rhine,  but  he 
did  not  join  battle  with  the  unfortunate  Berwick,  whose  rapid 
advance  secured  the  peace  of  1735.  E.  died  at  Vienna,  21st 
April  1736.  He  was  an  able  diplomatist  and  administrator. 
Both  Napoleon  and  Friedrich  the  Great  placed  him  in  the  front 
rank  of  generals.  '  The  bright-eyed  snuffy  little  man '  had  also 
gentler  tastes  :  his  palace  became  a  museum  of  rare  books,  pic- 
tures, and  specimens  of  natural  history.  His  soldiers  loved  him, 
as  the  French  guard  did  Le  Petit  Caforal;  and  his  figure  as  the 
'  Saviour  of  Christendom  at  the  Siege  of  Belgrade '  has  become 
classical  in  song.  See  Dumont's  Batailies  gagrUespar  le  Prince  E. 
(1723);  Ferrari's  De  Rebus  GesHs  Eug.  (Rome,  1747);  and 
especially  A.  von  Arneth's  PrinzE.  i/ijh  .Sln'ov™  {3  vols.  Vienna, 
1S58-S9),  a  work  based  on  ilie  most  comprehensive  and  original 
research, 

Euge'uiar,  a  genus  of  Exogenous  plants  belonging  to  the 
Mp-taeea  or  myrtle  order.  Of  this  genus  E.  pimenta  is  the  most 
familiar  species.  Its  fruit  is  aromatic,  and  when  dried  is  known 
as  allspice,  pimento,  or  Jamaica  pepper.  The  flavour  resembles 
that  of  cinnamon,  cloves,  and  nutmeg.  Other  species  are  E.  acris 
— which  also  yields  pimento — E.  Malaccensis,  or  Malay  apple, 
waA  E.  yambos  ;  the  latter  affords  '  clove-applea.'  E.cauUJhra, 
the  E.  inscarpa,  and  the.£.  dysenierica  of  Brazil;  die  E.  cotom- 
foUa,  or  Cayenne  dierry,  and  the  E.  MichdU  of  the  W.  Indies, 
have  all  edible  fniit.  The  species  of  E.  possess  a  calyx  exhibit- 
ing a  fourfold  division,  four  petals,  and  a  baccate  or  berry  fruit 
consisting  of  one  or  two  cells,  "with  a  seed  in  each  cell.  These 
plants  grow  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  in  the  South  Sea  Islands, 
the  W.  Indies,  Brazil,  &c.  A  Chilian  species,  E.  Ugni,  has  been 
acclimatised  in  the  S.  of  Britain. 

Eu'gSuie-SEarie  de  O-uzman,  Goadesa  de  T6ba,  ex- 
Empreas  of  the  T^tench,  bom  at  Granada,  in  Spain,  5th 
May  1826,  is  the  second  daughter  of  the  Count  de  Montijos  and 
DonnaMariaManuelaKirkpatrick,  whose  father— connected  with 
the  old  Scotch  family  of  the  Kirkpatricks  of  Closebum— was  for 
a  time  British  consul  at  Malaga.  She  was  married  to  the  Emperor 
Napoleon  III.  30th  January  1853.  While  the  Second  Empire 
lasted,  E.  was  distinguished  as  the  dictatress  of  female  fashions 
of  dress,  as  the  graceful  head  of  the  most  brilliant  couvi  lu 
Europe,  and  as  the  chief  supporter  of  tjltramontanism  in  France. 
Ason,  bom  1 6th  March  1856,  is  the  sole  issue  of  this  union.  On 
the  outbreak  of  the  Franco-German  war  in  1870,  she  was,  in  the 
absence  of  Napoleon,  made  regeuL  After  the  revolution  in 
Paris  of  the  4tli  September,  consequent  on  the  news  of  the 
surrender  of  Sedan,  E.  left  France  for  England  hurriedly,  and  has 
since  resided  at  Camdeu  House,  Chislehurst,  with  her  son,  who 
is  known  as  the  Prince  Imperial, 

Euge'niiis,  the  name  of  aGallic  teacher  of  rhetoric  who  in  393 
conspired  with  Arbcgastes  to  murder  Valentmian  and  seize  the 
imperial  authority.  He  favoured  the  heathen  element  in  the  em- 
pire, and  was  destroyed  in  394  by  Theodosius,  ~St  E.,  Bishop  of 
Carthage,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  Sth  c.  bravely  defended  the 
orthodox  Nicffian  faith  against  Himneric,  Thrasimund,  and  other 
Arian  Vandals.  E.  is  also  the  name  of  four  popes,  of  whom 
the  last  only,  E.  IV.  (originally  Gabriele  Condolmieri),  is  of 
much  importance.  Bom  at  Venice .  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
14th  c,  he  rapidly  rose  to  be  Cardinal  of  Bologna,  and  on  the 


yLaOOgle 


EUG 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EUN 


death  of  Martin  V.  in  1431  was  chosen  pope.  With  the  Ijelp  of 
Florence  and  Venice  he  compelled  the  Colonnas  to  restore  the 
papal  treasures  they  had  abstracted,  and  then  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  the  refractory  fathers  of  the  council  sitting  at  Basel  (q,  v.  |. 
Pressed  hy  a  democratic  outbreak  at  Rome,  E.  yielded  to  the 
summons  of  the  council  to  appear  before  it  and  to  confirm  its 
d  b  t  '      438  h   d*     1    d  't     second  time  and  called  a 

w  1    t  F  h   fly  f     th    Greel.  f  th       wh   p 

p      d  t      mt        th  th    L  t      Chur  h      Aft      disc         is 
th  pi         d  d    bl     p  f  tl      H  ly  Gh    t    p 

g  t  ry    p  p  1   sup  y     th        rt    1        f  g  eed 

t         Ithm      limthfh         tl)      llddpdhn 
gultyfimyhesypjry       dschm.E      phd 
by  mm         t  ng  th  m     11        d  th      p        k  d  th     gr    t 

hmth  unilp  dgt  It  Am  d  f  b  y  as 
PpTlixV       ThpjtfOk  nw        eidly 

p  ht      1  m  as  f    ec  nty  a^        t  tl     T    k        W  tl  th    sam 

bj    t   E     pr  d  th    H   ^an       ml    tl  h   h      d  d      th 

tl  d  sa  t  f  V  m  (  444)  d  th  death  f  tl  bra  Huny  d 
E.  himself  after  a  troubled  career  died  at  Rome,  2jd  February 
1447.  He  had  distinguished  men  as  secretaries — riz.,  the  bro- 
thersAretim,Porao,andGeoiHeofTrebizond,  See  Gibbon' si?«/. 
and  Pall  of  the  RoM.  Brap.,  vd.  xii.,  and  authorities  there  cited. 

Eugltfna,  a  microscopic  oi^iiism  occurring  in  infusions  of 
decayS  organic  matter,  and  generally  believed  by  naturalists 
to  be  an  mfusorian  animalcule.  Some  authorities  consider 
it  to  be  a  lower  plant-form.  The  body  is  provided  with  a  single 
lash-like  filament  ax  fiagdlam  used  for  locomotion,  and  a  pig- 
ment spot  is  also  developed  in  the  body.  The  E.  may  be 
coloured  green  with  the  same  substance  {chlorophyll)  which  un- 
parts  the  green  colour  to  plants.  M.  mridis  iS  a  familiar  species. 
Bu'gubine  Tafelea  (Tabula  Sugubitus),  the  name  given  to 
the  famous  bronze  tablets  found  in  1444  in  a  subterranean  vault 
near  the  site  of  the  ancient  Eugublum  or  Iguvium  (G«iiia), 
They  were  originally  nine  in  number,  but  in  1540  two  were 
conveyed  to  Venice  and  never  recovered.  .The  remaining  seven 
are  preserved  in  Gubbio.  On  four  the  characlifs  are  Umbrlan 
(whKh  do  not  greatly  differ  from  the  Etruscan),  on  two  Latin, 
on  one  partly  Latin  partly  Umbrian.  The  language,  however, 
-  wliich  is  undoubtedly  the  ancient  Umbrian,  is  the  same  in  all, 
and  is  quite  distinct  from  both  "Etruscan  and  Latin,  though  ex- 
hibiting a  certain  affinity  to  the  Latin  in  its  older  forms,  and 
also  to  the  Oscan.  The  four  in  Umbrian  charaoters  are  earlier 
than  the  others,  and  are  supposed  to  belong  to  the  4th  c. 
All  of  them  contain  directions  for  sacrificial  and  other  r 
See  Lepsius  Be  TaMis  EaguUnis  (1833),  and  InscHpii 
Umbrics  el  Osca  (Leips,  1S41}  ;  Grotefend,  Rtidimenta  Lmgua: 
.  Umhricte  (Hanov.  1835-39) !  Aufrecht  and  Kirchhoff,  Die  Urn- 
brischea  Spraih-Denhnalir  (5erl.  1:849). 

Eulenspiegel  ('Owlglass')  Tyll,  the  hero  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  German  popular  stories,  who,  as  a  wandering  journeyman, 
travels  over  the  country,  indulging,  under  the  guise  of  a  simple- 
ton, in  knavish  tricks  and  wild  frolics.      E.  is  most  probably  ~ 


imagmary  cl 


i  that  h 


IS  bojTi  at  Kneit- 


tingen,  Brunswick,  that  he  roved  through  the  N.  of  Germany, 
visited  Rome  and  Poland,  finally  settled  at  Moiln,  near  Lubeck, 
and  died  there  in  1350.  A  tombstone  is  shown  at  Molln,  with 
a  looking-glass  (spkget)  and  an  owl  (eale)  on  it ;  but  Damme,  in 
Belgium,  also  claims  to  be  the  place  where  E.  was  buried.  It 
is  not  known  when  or  in  what  dialect  the  jocose  tales  in  which 
E.  figures  were  first  written.  Most  probably  they  were  composed 
in  Low  German,  and  from  this  were  translated  into  High 
German  by  the  Franciscan  Thomas  Mumer,  who  collected  and 
edited  them  jn  rjig.  There  is  a  new  edition  by  Lappenberg  in 
1859.  The  stories  are  very  indecent,  but  have  been  popular  not 
only  in  Germany  but  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  have  been  trans- 
lated into  French,  English,  Latin,  Dutch,  Danish,  and  Polish. 
See  Reichard's  BiHiothek  dir  Humane,  Flogel's  Geschichle  da- 
Hojnarrm,  snd  Gorre's  Ueber  die  Volksbuchtr. 

Buler,  Leonhaid,  fone  of  the  greatest  mathematicians  of 
last  century,  was  born  at  Basel,  April  IS,  1707.  In  1:727  he 
accompanied  the  BemouUis  to  6t  Petersburg,  where  on  the 
retirement  of  Daniel  Bernoulli  he  became  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  then  rapidly  rising  to  a  high 
position  under  the  rvtle  of  Peter  I,  Here  he  published  his 
Mechanica  AnalytUe  Exposlta  (1736),  his  Tenlamm  Nimm  Theo- 
riie  Muska  (1739),  besides  numerous  papers  In  the  Petcrshurg 


Memoirs;  among  others  those  on  isoperimetrical  problems,  which 
may  be  looked  upon  as  anticipating  the  calculus  of  variations 
developed  by  Lagrange  fifteen  years  later.  In  1741  he  went  to 
Berlin,  on  the  invitation  of  Friedrich  the  Great,  to  assist  in 
forming  an  academy  there.  Here  appeared  his  Theoria  Motuum. 
Plaitetamm  et  Comdarum  (1744),  his  astronomical  tables,  and 
his  InsUtutiBfm  CalaililHffermtialis  (1755).  In  1766  he  re- 
turned to  St  Petersbure;,  where  he  published  his  Instilutionis 
Calculi  IntigraHs  {\^f&-^o),  his  celebrated  LeUres  d  une  Prin- 
dAtkmagne  {l']6Z~^2),  and  his  ThhHe  Comflitedela  Con- 
:liattetdelaMdnalalred^syakseaax{l^^2)■  Latterly  he  lost 
his  eyesight,  but  his  labours  were  stili  continued  by  the  aXd.  of  an 
amanuensiB,  E,  died  September  7,  1783,  while  playing  with 
his  grandchild.  Of  his  numerotis  works  and  memoirs  many 
remain  unpublished.  See  Fuss,  Notice  tur  les  Travaux  de 
L.  Elder,  tatU  Imprimis  qi^InMits  {St  Petersb.  1843). 

Etimeii'ides  {Gr.  the  'well-disposed'  or  'gracious '  goddesses), 
a  euphemism  by  which  the  Gtedcs  designated  certain  dreadful 
powers  whose  real  name  they  feared  to  utter.  By  a  titular 
euphemism  the  Athenians  called  them  sminai  iheai,  the  '  vener- 
able goddesses.*  They  were  called  also  by  the  Greeks  Eriiaiyes 
{Gr.  erino  or  ereunav,  '  I  persecnte,'  or  erirmS,  '  I  am  angry '),  and 
by  the  Romans  Fiaiie  or  Diriz,  They  were  more  ancient  than 
the  Olympian  gods,  and  dwelt  in  the  thick  darkness  of  the  nether 
world.  Homer,  Hesiod,  and  the  tragedians  do  not  specify  their 
number,  but  later  writers  restrict  it  to  three.  Their  names  are 
Alecto,  MegEera,  and  Tisiphone.  Their  genealogy  is  variously 
given.  Hesiod  calls  them  the  daughters  of  Ge  by  the  blood  of 
Uranus,  .lEschylus  of  Night,  Sophocles  of  Darkness,  others  of 
Chaos  and  Terra,  Stern  and  inexorable,  they  executed  the 
vengeance  of  the  gods,  and  punished  the  guilty  here  and  here- 
after. They  are  described  by.^3chylu3  as  of  grim  and  frightful 
aspect,  with  dark  and  gory  garments,  serpent-twined  locks,  and 
blood-dripping  eyes.  Later  poets  represent  them  vrilh  wings, 
holding  in  one  hand  a  burning  torch,  jn  the  other  a  whip  of 
scorpions,  and  attended  by  Terror,  Rage,  Pallor,  and  Death, 
In  works  of  art  they  appear  as  grave  and  serious  maidens,  richly 
attired,  but  stiU  retaining  the  serpents  and  the  torchra.  They 
were  propitiated  by  offerings  of  black  victims  and  libations  com- 
posed of  water,  milk,  and  honey  {mphalia  meiiigtnata).  The 
white  turtle-dove  and  the  narcissus  were  sacred  to  them.  In  their 
festival  {E-umeiiidda)  only  freebom  citizens  of  virtuous  life  were 
allowed  to  take  part, 

Eumol'paa  (Gr.  '  sweetly  singing '),  a  mytliie  bard  and  [iriest 
of  Demeter,  concerning  whom  there  were  numerous  traditions. 
He  is  represented  as  the  son  of  Poseidon  and  Chione.  He  was 
educated  in  Ethiopia,  fled  to  Thracia,  and  subsequently  aided 
the  Heusinians  in  a  war  with  Athens,  when  he  was  slain  by 
Erechtheus.  E.  introduced  into  Attica  the  Eleusinian  mysteries 
and  the  cultivation  of  the  vine.  The  Eumolpid^,  a  sacerdotal 
family  at  Athens,  derived  their  name  from  him, 

Bii'mce,  a  lai^e  genus  of  Erranlia  (q.  v,}  or  marine  worms, 
the  species  of  which  live  in  the  sand  of  our  own  and  other  coasts. 
One  of  the  largest  is  B.  gigantea,  measurmg  4  feet  or  more. 
These  worms  possess  prominent  side  bristles  or  sels,  and  the 
mouth  is  provided  with  a  protrusible  proboscis,  armed  with 
several  p^rs  of  homy  jaws.     The  gills  or  branchiee  are  iajge, 

Euno'miilS,  tlie  son  of  a  peasant  of  Cappadocia,  was  orddned 
Bishop  of  Cyzicum  m  360.  On  account  of  his  intense  zeal  for 
Arianism  he  was  soon  after  deposed  and  banished.  After  many 
vicissitudes  he  was  allowed  to  return  to  his  birthplace,  where  he 
died  about  394.  In  the  great  doctrinal  controversy  in  the  4th  c 
the  brthodOK  Church  party  held  the  Son  to  be  of  the  same  sub- 
stance with  the  Father  (Gr.  home-oasios),  in  opposition  to  the 
Arians,  who  regarded  him  as  only  the  highest  of  the  creatures. 
The  great  majority  of  the  heterodox,  however,  belonged  to  a 
middle  or  semi-Arianparty,  who  adopted  the  phrase  hosioi'Oasios 
('of  asimilarsabstance')  to  express  their  idea  of  the  relation  ot 
llie  Son  to  the  Father.  E.  took  up  his  position  at  the  farthest 
extremity  of  Hie  heterodox  and  became  the  leader  of  the  ultra- 
Arians,  so  that  these  were  known  as  the  Eunomian  party.  The 
Son,  according  to  him,  was  the  first  of  created  beings,  and  (he 
Spirit  the  first  among  the  created  natures,  formed  according  to 
the  command  of  the  Father  by  the  agency  of  the  Son.  See 
Neander's  Geschichle  der  CArisll.  Pel.  und  Kirche  (4th  ed.  Gotlia, 
1866;  Eng.  trans.  1S58), 

591 


vGooqIc 


BUN 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Eu.'nuch  (Gr.  eutu,  'a  bedjVrfa,  'I  have')  was  the  name 
applied  to  '  those  unhappy  men  to  whom  axe  denied  the  plea- 
sures of  love  and  the  hope  of  posterity,'  and  who  have  therefore 
been  employed  aa  the  attendants  of  the  female  sex  in  polygamous 
counliies.  The  pcactice  of  castration  appears  to  have  originated 
in  Libya.  In  ^a  and  (though  in  a  more  limited  degree)  in 
Greece,  besides  taking  charge  of  the  women,  the  eunuchs  acted 
generally  as  chamberlains,  and  in  the  Asiatic  and  Byzantine 
courts  frequently  enjoyed  high  official  rank.  The  E.  was  Iband, 
with  other  tokens  of  Eastern  luxury,  at  the  courts  of  the  Roman 
emperors.  In  the  present  day,  the  revolting  practice  of  cas- 
tration exists  almost  exclusively  in  Mohammedan  colmtries. 

Euom'phAlos,  %  fossil  genus  of  Gasteropodous  mollusca, 
found  in  early  Palseozoio  strata,  and  dying  out  in  the  Trias.  The 
shell  is  of  disooidal  form,  the  whorls  being  angtJar,  the  aperture 
five-sided,  and  the  umbilicus  or  opening  of  the  central  spine  or 
columella  of  large  size.     A  large  number  of  spegiea  are  hnown, 

Euon'ymue.     See  Spindle-Treb. 

Eupato'ria  (formerly  Koslozi),  a  town  and  port  in  the  go- 
vernment of  Taurida,  Russia,  on  W.  coast  of  the  Crimea.  It  has 
a  fine  mosque,  several  manufactories,  and  important  fisheries.  It 
exports  about  ^45,000  worth  of  hidet  barley,  wheat,  &c,  yearly. 
During  the  Crimean  war  the  Allies  selected  E.  as  a  landing-place 
for  their  troops.  It  was  the  headquarters  of  the  Turks  in 
•8S4-55'  Here,  under  Omar  Pasha,  they  repulsed  an  attack  of 
the  Russians,  17th  February  1855.  Pop.  8294,  mostly  Tartars, 
About  12  miles  distant  is  tlie  large  salt  lake  of  Ssak. 

Hapato'riimt,  a  genus  of  Exogenous  plants  included  in  the 
order  Composita.  They  have  small  flowet-heads  or  capUula 
arranged  in  corymbs.  The  florets  or  separate  flowers  of  the 
heads  are  tubular,  each  containing  stamens  and  pistil..  The 
receptacle  is  naked,  and  the  stigmas  or  heads  of  the  carpels 
(pistil)  are  clnb-shaped.  These  plants  mostly  inhabit  the  New 
World.  The  British  Species  is  E.  cannahmum,  or  hemp  agri- 
mony, which  is  found  in  marshy  districts.  Its  root  used  to  be 
held  in  repute  as  a  pui^ative,  whilst  the  leaves  were  said  to  be 
diuretic.  A  common  American  spades  is  E.  pirfaliatuni,  or 
thorough-wort,  which  is  highly  valued  as  an  antiperiodio  in 
intermittent  fevers,  such  as  a^e,  &c.  It  has  a  diaphoretic  and 
pu^^ative  action.  £.  parpureum  of  N.  America  obtams  its  name 
of  gravd-root  from  being  used  as  a  diuretic  and  preventive  of 
'gravel.'  Another  species,  esteemed  as  a  remedy  for  snake- 
bite, is  E.  Ayapima  of  N.  Braail  and  the  E,  Indies. 

Eu'peil  (called  by  the  French  A^oa),  a  town  of  Rhenish 
Prussia,  on  the  railway  to  Aachen,  and  9  miles  S.  of  that  city. 
It  has  several  churches,  a  Franciscan  monastery,  and  an  orphan- 
age. E.  is  the  seat  of  the  most  important  cloth  manufactures 
in  Prussia,  TTiere  are  seventeen  works,  employing  3350  men. 
It  has  also  manufactures  of  waxdoths,  waxlights,  and  leather. 
There  are,  besides,  machine  and  dye  works.  At  the  peace  of  1814 
E.,  with  the  other  portions  of  the  duchy  of  Limburg,  was 
assigned  to  Prussia    Pop.  (1871)  14,670. 

Eu'phemisin  (Gr.  en,  'well,'  and  phtmi,  'I  speak')  is  the 
substitution  of  an  indirect  or  delicate  form  of  expression  in  order 
to  avoid  one  that  is  unpleasant  or  offensive.  Thus  for  '  he  died,' 
we  say  'he  fell  asleep,"  'he  paid  the  debt  of  nature,'  'he  was 
gathered  to  his  fathers.'  The  ancients  always  had  recourse  lo 
uie  E.  to  avoid  expressions  of  evil  omen — e.g.,  they  called  the 
Furies  Eamenides — a  name  of  blessing  for  one  of  cursing, 

Eu'phon,  a  musical  instrument,  similar  in  tone  to  a  glass 
harmonicon,  invented  by  Chladni. 

EupliO'liiuin,  a  bass  instrument  of  the  Bugle  (q.  v.)  dass, 
used  in  brass  bands. 

Euphorbia'oese,  a  natural  order  of  Exogenous  plants,  popu- 
larly named  the  'spurge  order,' from  its  including  the  EuphorUis 
or  spuiges  and  allied  plants.  It  is  a  very  large  natural  group, 
the  species  of  which  occur  in  both  hemispheres.  They  are  most 
numerous  in  tropical  and  snli-trapical  regions.  In  Britam  there 
are  three  genera  (including  fifteen  species)  of  this  order.  The 
E.  exist  as  trees,  shrubs,  and  herbs,  with  opposite  or  alternate 

ally  possess  one  floral  envelope  only.     The  stamens  are  some- 
limes  numerous,  and  united  into  one  or  more  bundles.      The 
ovary  has  one,  two,  three,  or  more  cells,  and  Ihe  seeds  are  albu-  , 
592 


milky  juice,  used  by  African 
The  lalex  or  juice  of  Siphoni 
BrasiliensK  of  Brazil  affords  a  superior  Caoutchouc  (q-v.),  which 
escapes  from  incisions  made  in  the  bark,  and  is  allowed  to  dry 
on  clay  moulds.  Over  145,000  cwL  were  imported  into  Britain 
in  1S68.  Cassava  is  obtained  from  a  species  of  the  genus  Mani- 
hot.  In  this  order  are  also  included  the  Ruittus  communis,  the 
castor-oil  plant,  and  Croton  liglium,  which  furnishes  croton  oil. 
The  boxwood  of  engravers  is  obtained  from  the  Biixas  stm- 
piirvirens,  another  genus  of  E. ;  and  OldJUldia  Africana  yields 
African  oeOc  or  teak. 


EuphorTjiiiiii,  the  type-genus  of  the  spurge  order  of  plai 
Eupherbiatea  (q.  v. ).  It  has  achlamydeous  ( '  single-enveloped ') 
mono»:ious  flowers,  and  the  various  species  yield  a  milky  juii 
often  of  poisonous  nature.  E.  Lathyrts,  or  caper-spurge,  affori 
an  oil  which  has  a  powerfully  puigative  or  cathartic  aclior 
E.  ojfficinarum,  E.  atUiqicin-utti,  and  E.  Canariinsis,  a  puigative 
resin  named  E.  ;  and  £.  ipecacuanha,  an  emetic  which  is  not  to 
be  confounded  with  the  true  Ipecacuanha  (q,  v.).  Many  of  the 
euphorbias  closely  resemble  the  cactuses  (see  CACTACE.B)  in 
appearance.  Some  have  scarlet  and  showy  involucres  surrounding 
their  flowers,  and  some  form  spiny  and  dense  hedges  in  Afric 

Enphra'sia.     See  Eye-Bright. 

Euphra'tea  (Arab.  Fral,  'the fruitful'),  the  lai^est  river 
Western  Asia,  rises  in  the  Armenian  highlajids  {Anii-Tam 
by  two  branches,  the  Murad  and  Kara  Su,  which  unite  10  m  . . 
N.  of  Keban'  Ma'den,  about  lal.  39°  N.  and  long.  39°  E.  The 
stream  thus  formed  flows  W.,  dividing  Armenia  from  Cappadocia, 
forces  its  way  through  the  Taurus,  and  on  reaching  the  plain 
country  winds  S.  and  S.E,,  passes  the  N.  of  Syria  and  N.E. 
of  Arabia  Deserta,  and  eventually,  after  many  deviations,  joms 
the  Tigris,  to  terminate  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  Its  total  length  is 
1750  miles,  of  which  1195  are  navigable,  while  the  area  of  its 
drainage  is  255,000  sq.  miles.  The  tributaries  are  few  and 
of  no  great  size,  the  kigest  being  the  Chabur.  Among  the 
towns  washed  by  the  E,  are  Bir,  Deir,  Anna,  Hit,  the  ruined 
Babylon,  Hillah,  Lemlun,  (ind  Koma.  The  last  of  these  is 
at  the  confluence  of  (he  E.  and  Tigris.  Below  tliis  point 
the  stream  is  called  the  Shat-el-Arab,  and  is  900  yards  wide, 
from  three  to  five  fathoms  deep,  and  gz  long.  Sassora  is  on 
the  Shat-el-Arab,  which  enters  the  se*  by  three  channels,  after 
receiving  the  Kerchu  snd  Kuren  from  Persia.  Above  Hit  the 
river  is  singularly  picturesque ;  along  the  banks  are  many  ancient 
aqueducts  for  irrigation.  From  Hit  to  Babylon  the  country  is 
flat,  and  is  partly  cultivated  by  Arabs,  whose  villages,  shaded  by 
the  date-tree,  are  dotted  along  the  banks.  Irrigating  canals  and 
cuts  are  frequent  above  the  Lemlun  maishes,  which  are  flooded 
yearly,  and  which  yield  rich  crops  of  grdn  and  rice.  Here  the 
mud  villages  are  aimually  swept  away.  The  riser  is  fringed 
with  a  continuous  belt  of  fine  date  trees  from  Lemlun  to  the  sea. 
The  water  of  the  K  is  turbid,  but  when  purified  is  sweet  and 
wholesome.  The  river  is  at  flood-ride  in  May,  and  at  full  ebb 
in  November.  In  its  latter  slate  it  is  tranquil  and  sluggish,  but 
when  swollen  it  flows  swiftly.  It  abounds  in  fish.  From  the 
earliest  times  it  was  used  for  navigation,  and  in  the  15th  c.  it 
was  the  highway  for  European  mercliants  to  India, 

was  one  of  the  three  Graces,  who 

Bu'phuisnii  the  name  of  a  literary  style  made  fashionable  in 
England  by  tlie  Euphuss  (1580)  of  John  Lyly,  ^  It  was  partly 
a  growlh  qf  the  Renaissance,  being  prevalent  in  France  and 
Italy,  and  was  marked  by  fer-fetched  illustrations,  an  abundance 
of  classic  allusions,  flowery  antithetic  language,  and  extravagant 
hyperboles.  It  wss  ridiculed  in  Shakespeare's  Zeve's  Labour's 
Last,  and  by  Bep  Jonson  in  Asotas  in  Cyntkia's  Revels.  See 
arttdes  LYJ.Y  and  English  and  French  Literature. 

Eaplectell'a,  the  name  given  to  an  elegant  and  beautiful  genus 
of  Siliceous  or  flinty  sponges  abundant  at  the  Philippine  Islajids. 
The  species  of  E.  are  known  as  '  Venus'  flower-baskets,'  the  out- 
ward appearance  of  these  organisms  su^esting  the  form  and 
sliape  of  an  elegant  vase  of  from  8  to  10  inches  in  length,  the 
sides  of  the  vase  being  formed  of  a  delicate  network  of  siliceous  or 
flinty  fibres,  whilst  the  lower  part  of  the  organism  is  provided  with 
longer  fibres  serving  to  attach  it  to  the  sea-bed,  and  which  resemble 
spun  glass  in  appearance.     E.  asperpllum  is  the  familiar  species. 


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HUP 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EUR 


whilst  a  new  species,  E.  suberea,  was  obtained  in  the  dredge  by 
the  Challenggr  expedition.     See  also  Sponge. 

Eu'poda,  a  family  of  Cokoptera  {i\,  v.)  or  Beetles,  belonging  to 
the  section  THramira,  including  ttiose  with  four  joints  in  the 
tarsus.  The  segment  of  the  limb  named  the  'thigh'  by  entomo- 
logists  is  usually  very  long  in  this  group,  which  is  represented 
by  a  few  British  and  many  esotic  species. 

Euie,  a  department  of  France,  and  part  of  the  old  province  of 
Normandy,  is  bounded  N.  by  Seine-InfiJrleure  and  the  estuaiy 
of  the  Seine,  E.  by  Oise  and  Seine-et-Olse,  S.  by  Elite- et-Loir, 
and  W.  by  Calvados  and  Ome.  Area,  230J  sq.  miles ;  pop. 
(1872)  377,874.  It  is  very  flat  and  woody,  and  is  watered  by 
the  Seine,  Eure,  Iton,  Risle,  and  Charentonne.  The  soil  is  a 
fertile  alluvium,  except  along  the  Seine,  where  it  is  in  part  sterile 
and  sandy.  Besides  gtdn,  hemp,  and  flax,  E.  yields  large  quan- 
tities of  apples  and  pears,  of  which  are  made  excellent  cider  and 
periy.  The  breeding  of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  is  largely 
carried  on,  and  there  are  important  manufactures  of  woollens, 
paper,  glass,  copper-ware,  &c.  E.  is  traversed  by  several  lines 
ol  railway.  Evteux  is  the  capital,  and  among  the  other  towns 
are  Pont-Audemer,  Lonviers,  Les  Andelys,  and  Bertiay. — The 
river  E.  rises  in  the  W.  of  Ome,  flows  S.E.  into  the  heart  of 
Eure-et-Loir,  winds  abruptly  N,  through  Eure,  and  enters  the 
Seine  near  Pont-de-l'Arche  after  a  course  of  100  miles. 

Eure-et-Loir,  a  department  in  the  N.W,  of  France,  bounded 
N.  by  Eure,  E.  by  Seine-et-Oise  and  Loiret,  S.  by  Loir-et- 
Cher,  and  W.  by  Sarthe  and  Ome.  Area,  2268  sq.  miles ;  pop. 
(1872)  282,622.  It  is  traversed  from  E.  to  W.  by  the  Plateau  de 
la  Beauce,  separating  the  basins  of  the  Seine  and  the  Loire,  and 
is  watered  ,by  the  Eure  in  the  N.,  and  the  Loir  and  its  affluent 
the  Huisne  in  the  S.  The  low  J:ountry  (La  Beauce)  is  level,  and 
produces  excellent  wheat,  hops,  &c,  while  the  elevated  region  du 
Pirche  is  intersected  by  rich  valleys  and  covered  with  oak  and 
birch  forests.  E.-et-L,  produces  good  cavalry  horses  {ehmiaux 
du  Ferehe).  The  value  of  the  annual  yield  of  grain,  fruit,  and 
vegetables  amounts  to  18,500,000  francs.  The  chief  railway 
n  E   et  L.  IS  the  P-ms  a  Biest      Capital,  Chartres. 

Bniip  ides,  the  latest  m  order  and  the  least  in  fame  of  the 
three  gieit  tragic  poets  of  Greece,  was  bom  at  Salamis,  B.C. 
4S1  His  parents  were  persons  of  rank  and  wealth.  In  early 
hfe  he  was  a  painter  and  received  a  complete  philosophical 
education,  Frodicus  having  been  his  instructor  in  rhetoric,  and 
Anaxagoras  in  physics ,  and  he  was  the  friend,  if  not  the  pupil, 
of  Socrates  At  an  early  age  he  devoted  himself  to  tragic  poetry, 
having  exhibited  the  Pihades  m  his  own  name  whra  twenty- 
five  years  old,  but  did  not  succeed  in  gaining  a  prize  till  B.C. 
441.  His  attachment  to  the  new  philosophy  and  to  the  sophis- 
tical education  of  the  time  drew  upon  him  the  splendid  slanders 
of  Aristophanes,  and  the  populace  of  Athens  oidy  granted  him 
the  prize  five  times  out  of  seventy-Jive.  In  B.C.  408,  E.  sought 
refuge  from  the  party  violence  of  the  Athenians  at  the  court  of 
Archelaus,  king  of  Macedonia.  It  is  said  that  he  was  there 
lom  in  pieces  by  hounds  let  loose  upon  him  by  two  poets, 
Archidseus  and  Cratinus,  whose  enmity  he  had  excited.  He 
died  at  the  age  of  seventy-five  (406),  and  was  buried  at  Pelia.  The 
dramas  of  E.  are  said  by  some  to  have  been  seventy-five,  and  by 
others  ninety-two,  in  number,  Of  these,  eighteen  have  come 
down  to  us,  of  which  the  following  is  a  list,  witli  the  dates  of 
their  represerUalions  ■.-^AlctsHs,  B.a  438 ;  Medea,  431 ;  Hip- 
paiyit/s,  428;  Hecuba,  424;  JieracladiB,  421 ;  Supplies,  Ion, 
Hercules  Furem,  Aiidrsmache,  Ifhigeneia  in  Taan  (dates  un- 
certain) ,  Traades,  415  ;  Electra  (about)  415  ;  Heiena,  fphigeneia 
ttt  Aubdi,  Baccha,  Phccnista,  Cj'i/o/i  (dates  ujicerlm) ;  Orestes, 
408  In  tragic  power  the  Medea  excels  all  the  other  dramas. 
The  Cyclop'  is  the  only  example  of  the  ancient  satiric  drama  now 
extant  In  regard  to  the  structute  of  his  plays,  E.  has  been 
severely  criticised  for  his  nse  of  (he  prologue,  so  thoroughly  un- 
drimatic  m  its  character ;  and  for  (he  frequency  with  which  the 
difficulties  of  his  plots  are  solved  by  the  intervention  of  a  deity. 
Mrs  Biowiiing  has  applied  to  E.  the  epithet  '  homan,'  in  recog- 
nition of  '  his  touches  of  things  common,  till  Ihey  rise  to  touch 
the  spheres.'  Sophocles,  it  was  said,  represented  men  as  they 
ought  to  be,  E.  as  they  really  are,  From  the  supeniatural  in 
^Bchjlus  and  the  heroic  in  Sophocles  the  Greek  drama  passes 
in  E  to  '  thp  romancs  of  everyday  life,  the  unesaggerated  pic- 
ture of  manners  in  wliich  the  human  heart,  and  the  affections 
which  influence  it  in  its  domestic  relations,  constitute  the  lead- 
150 


ing  subject.'  He  d  1  hts  n  tl  e  ce  distlnclions  of  a  sophis- 
tical philosophy,  b  11  ant  ant  the  es,  startling  paradoxes,  a 
dexterous  use  of  lonj,  age  a  d  an  affectation  of  pedantic  orna- 
ment.' The  ancient  ant]  0  les  ega  ding  E.  are  the  biographies 
in  Seidas;  in  Musg  a  es  edton,  by  Thomas  Magister  j  in 
Eimsley's  edition  of  the  Bacehie,  first  published  in  1821 ;  and 
Aulus  Gellius,  xv.  20.  The  chief  modern  editions  of  the  whole 
works  are  those  of  Barnes  (1694),  Musgrave  (1778),  Maflhiie 
(1813),  Paley  (1858),  Khchhoff(2  vols.  Beri.  1855),  and  Nauck 
(3  vols,  new  ed.  Leips.  1857-69),  There  is  an  English  trans- 
lation in  verse  by  Potter  (Oxford,  1814). 

Euro'pa  is  the  ancient  name  of  the  continent  of  Europe.  It 
is  commonly  supposed  to  have  been  derived  from  E.,  the 
daughter  of  Agenor,  kbg  of  Phoenicia,  but  Hermann  has 
plausibly  suggested  its  derivation  from  two  Greek  words,  mean- 
ing the   'btoad  land.'     The  E.  of  the  ancients 


equalled  in  extent  the  modem  continent.  Tlie  primitive  E.  of 
Homer  was  comprised  within  very  narrow  dimensions,  and  at  its 
greatest  size  the  E.  of  the  Greeks  was  bounded  b^  the  cham  of 
mountains  N.  of  Thrace,  Italy,  and  Iberia,  and  did  not  compre- 
hend more  than  a  third  of  modern  Europe.  The  geographical 
knowledge  of  Southern  E.  was  obtained  by  the  successive  vic- 
tories of  the  Roman  amis,  especially  by  the  Gallic  campaigns  of 
Csesar,  The  traders  who  followed  the  advandng  legions  of  the 
Empire  penetrated  beyond  the  Elbe,  the  Weser,  and  the  Vistula, 
but  the  conquerors  possessed  little,  if  any,  knowledge  of  the 
races  who  roamed  through  the  remoter  regions  of  the  N.  Sub- 
sequent additions  to  the  geography  of  E.  are  chiefly  due  to  the 
Scanduw-vian  pirates,  to  the  Christian  missionaries  who  explored 
Scythia  and  Sarmatia,  and  to  Karl  the  Great,  jElfred  the  Great, 
and  the  Teutonic  knights,  by  whom,  in  the  annexation  of  Prossia, 
the  long  series  of  geographical  discoveries  was  completed. 

Eu'ropO  is  the  smallest  of  the  three  great  divisions  of  the 
Old  World,  and  is  strictly  a  western  prolongation  of  the  continent 
of  Asia,  In  proportion  to  its  size  it  is  by  far  the  most  populous 
of  the  great  land  divisions,  while  it  is  also  the  centre  of  culture, 
industry,  and  commerce.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
W.  by  the  Atlantic,  S.  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  the  Sea  of 


length,  from  Cape  Roca  (Poitugal),  in  long.  9°  30*  W.,  to  tlie 
Ural  Mountains,  60°  20'  E,,  is  3400  miles ;  me  breadth,  from 
Cape  Tarifa  (Spain),  in  lat  36°  N.,  to  Cape  Nordkyn  (Norway), 
71*  5'  N.,  is  3760.  But  if  we  include  insular  E.,  the  area  is  con- 
siderably wider.  The  chief  projections  of  the  coast  are  Scan- 
dinavia, Jutland,  Brittany,  the  Iberian  peninsula  (Spain  and 
Portugal),  Italy,  the  Hellenic  peninsula,  and  the  Crimea  in  tite 
Black  Sea.  Owing  to  the  numerous  indentations,  of  which  the 
principal  are  the  White  Sea,  the  Baltic,  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and 
the  Adriatic,  the  coast-line  is  comparatively  longer  tlian  that  of 
globe,  having  an  r'' '' '- 


in  estimated  length 


any  other  great  division  of  the  g 


The  political  diviaons,  with  areas  and  po 
ows,  according  to  the  Almanack  ds  Gotha 

lulations, 
or  1876  : 

are  as  foL- 

s,.,... 

4m1ll 

Population. 

The  Gerpian  Empire,  1B71,        .... 

France,  187a, 

Austro-Hungary,  1869, 

Gruat  Britain  and  Ireland  (Malta,  &c),  1871,  . 
\^i%L 

II 

1i,i,&,,8,6 
3S,ioj,9Ji 

SioslSjj 

5,253,821 
197,528 

Turkey  (Rumania  and  Servia),  .... 
Sweden  and  Norway,  1B74 

Porlueal,  i37i, 

N«h«land^  i'!74,     ....... 

Grand  Duchy  of  Luxemburg,  1871,  .         , 
PrrncipX^'rfSonaio,  .S73.   '.'.'.'. 

''1 

\  3,764.™ 

3™. '07. 756 

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EUR 


THE  GLOB^  ENCYCLOPMDIA. 


Belgium  is  by  far  the  most  densely-peopled  country,  having 
462  inhabitants  to  the  sq.  mile ;  Russia  is  among  the  least 
populous,  with  an  average  of  some  34.  Great  Britain,  Germany, 
France,  Austria/Russia,  and  Italy  are  known  politically  as  'the  six 
great  powers.'  Nine  of  the  European  states  have  possessions  in 
other  divisions  of  the  world,  the  ablegate  area  of  which  amounts 
to  nearly  five  times  aa  mudi  as  that  of  all  E. 

Physical  Aspect.— T^e  surface  of  E.  consists  of  two  large 
unequal  portions  of  distinctly  marked  character.  Norli-easteBi 
E.  is  a  plain  2,500,000  sq.  miles  in  extent,  and  of  great  uni- 
formity, while  South-western  E,  is  a  tableland  traversed  by  high 
monntains,  and  intersected  by  considerable  plains  and  valleys. 
The  great  north-eastern  plain  extends  from  the  Black  Sea  and 
the  Caucasus  N.  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  from  the  Ural  Moun- 
Idns  W.  to  the  iow  shores  of  Holland  and  Hanover.  Of  pla- 
teaux the  chief  are  those  of  Bavaria  in  Qermany,  Bohemia  in 
Austria,  Castile  in  Spain,  and  Auvei^e  in  France.  The  moun- 
tains of  Southern  Europe,  forming  a  great  girdle,  may  he  said  to 
centre  in  the  system  of  the  Alps  (q.  v.),  which  reaches  a  height 
of  1 5, 783  feet  in  Mont  Blanc  Hence  radiate  the  German  Mittel. 
gehirge,  with  their  higliest  point  of  5QOO  feet  in  the  Riesen- 
gehirge  ;  to  the  E.  the  Carpathians,  endo^ng  in  a  vast  crescent 
die  entire  W.  plain  of  Hungary;  to  the  S.  and  S.E.  the  ranges 
of  Italy,  Turkey,  and  Greece.  The  roOfntains  of  Spain,  includ- 
ing the  Pyrenees,  are  also  linked  to  the  Alpine  system  hy  the 
Cevennes  and  other  chains  of  France.  The  Ural  Mountains,  the 
Caucasus,  the  table-topped  mountains  of  Norway,  and  those  of 
Britain,  are  isolated  masses.  Mount  Elbruz,  in  the  Caucasus 
(18,493  fet).  's  t^=  loftiest  peak  in  E.  The  higher  European 
ranges  are  covered  with  perennial  snow,  and  send  down  enor- 
mous glaciers.  Volcanoes  are  comparatively  numerous,  the 
most  notable  being  Vesuvius  in  Naples,  Etna  in  Sicily,  Hecla 
in  Iceland,  and  those  in  the  Lipari  Isles.  There  are  also  many 
extinct  volcanoes  in  Catalpnia,  the  mountains  of  Auvei^e,  and 
in  S.  Germany.  The  rivers  of  E.  are  smaller  than  those  of 
America  and  Asia,  hut  are  admirably  distributed  for  purposes  of 
fertilisation  and  commerce,  'they  may  be  grouped  jijto  two 
systems,  olie  flowing  iii  a  direction  generally  N.  pr  W.,  the  other 
S.  or  E.  The  latter  includes  the  Tareest  rivers,  as  the  Volga 
(2400  miles),  Danube,  Dnieper,  Dniester,  Don,  Po,  Rhone, 
Ehro,  &c. :  the  former  has  the  Tagus,  Garonne,  Lou^  Seine, 
Rhine,  Weser,  Elbe ;  the  Oder,  Vistula,  Diina,  Tomea,  &c, 
entering  the  Baltic ;  the  Onega,  Dwina,  Mezen,  and  Petchora 
flowing  into  the  Arctic  Sea.  Most  of  these  are  navigable,  and 
conduce  greatly  to  the  development  of  commerce  in  the  inland 
countries.  The  lakes  of  E.  are  only  inferior  in  extent  and 
number  to  those  of  N.  America,  They  are  chiefly  grouped 
round  the  E.  coast  of  the  Baltic  9.nd  among  the  Alps.  In  Finn- 
land  are  lakes  Ladoga  and  Onega,  by  far  the  largest  sheets  of 
fresh  water  in  E. ;  those  of  Switzerland  and  Italy  are  famous  for 
their  beauty. 

Islands. — The  aggregate  area  of  the  islands  is  about  191,000 
sq.  miles,  or  one-tweatietlj,  of  all  Europe.  Proceeding  from 
the  N.  the  principal  are  Novaia  Zemlia,  Spitzbergeii,  the  Lofo- 
dens,  Iceland,  the  Faroe  Isles,  the  British  Isles;  the  Danish 
Isles,  Bomholm  Riigen,  Gottland,  and  Aland  Islands  jn  the 
Baltic ;  the  Balearic  Islands,  Sardinia,  Corsica,  Sicily,  Malta, 
Crete,  the  Ionian  Isles,  and  the  Grecian  Archipelago  in  the 
Mediterranean.  E.  is  generally  regarded  as  including  the  Azores 
and  Madeira. 

Climate. — E.  is  the  only  great  division  of  the  globe  which 
nowhere  touches  the  torrid  zone,  and  is  almost  whJlly  within 
the  temperate.  The  climate  is  partly  continental  and  partly 
oceanic,  and  is  throughout  greatly  more  temperate  than  other 
countries  of  equal  latitude.  Britain  and  France  are  on  the 
parallel  of  Labrador,  and  the  line  of  41°  F.  annual  mean  tempera- 
ture, which  leaves  America  from  the  State  of  Maine  in  laL  45°, 
is  carried  N.  to  beyond  lat.  60°  on  the  coasts  of  Norway.  The 
extremes  of  mean  temperature  are  58"  and  106°  F.  In  the 
N.E.  the  air  is  dry,  and  the  sky  clear;  in  the  S.  and  S.W,, 
where  the  climate  is  milder  and  more  oceanic,  the  air  is  humid 
and  the  rains  heavier.  The  Scandinavian  njotmtains  shelter  the 
countries  of  the  Baltic  from  the  cold  winds  of  the  N.,  while  the 
Alps  and  Apennines  arrest  the  Sirocco  from  the  S.  The  heaviest 
rains  fall  on  the  western  shores,  where  the  S.W.  rain-clouds  of 
the  Atlantic  deposit  their  IcKids  of  moisture.  On  the  coa 
Portugal  the  yearly  rainfall,  the  heaviest  in  E.,  amounts  to  118 
inches;  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps  it  is  100;  on  the  W.  shon 
594 


Britain  35-IOO ;  and  On  those  of  Norway  32,  Ireland  has  no 
fewer  than  208  days  in  the  year  during  which  rain  falls.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  fall  in  the  Russian  plains  is  only  some  15 
inches,  and  there  are  not  more  than  half  the  average  of  rainy 
days  that  occur  in  the  W.  The  fall  of  snow  depends  on  tem- 
perature, and  increases  from  S.  to  N.  There  are  on  an  average 
ij  days  annually  at  Rome,  10  at  Milan,  la  at  Paris,  21  at 
Karlsruhe,  30  at  Copenhagen,  and  171  at  St  Petersburg. 

Geology  and  Mineralogy. — The  geological  formations  of  E. 
indicate  that  the  S.  and  central  part  of  the  continent  remained 
submerged  under  the  ocean  for  ages  after  the  northern  portion 
existed  as  dry  land,  and  that  th?  Caspian,  the  Black  Sea,  and  the 
Arctic  Ocean  were  united  in  comparatively  recent  times.  The 
great  mountain  ranges  and  Scandinavia,  Bohemia,  Auvergne, 
Normandy,  and  parts  of  Britain,  consist  of  gneiss,  granite, 
syenite,  &c,  and  the  highly  -  contorted  strata  of  the  older 
Palieozoic  formations.     The  Old  Red  Sandstone  or  Devonii 


occupies  v^st  ti 


1  Russ 


,  the  Rhine  basin,  and  Bril 


1  the 


and  crops  up  continually,  like  the  other  primary  groups, 
flanks  of  the  southern  monnttuns.  The  secondary  formations 
occur  in  England,  Denmark,  France,  W.  Germany,  Turkey, 
Greece,  the  S.E.  and  N.E.  of  Russia,  and  in  patches  in  Spdn  and 
Italy.  Tertiary  strata  stretch,  with  few  interruptions,  in  a  broad 
zone  from  the  S.  of  the  Baltic  to  the  Black  Sea,  extending  in 
breadth  from  the  Niemen  to  the  Carpathians.  To  the  W.  and 
S.  of  this  belt  they  cover  the  basins  of  all  the  great  rivers,  includ- 
ing those  of  the  Danube,  Seine,  and  Thames.  The  minerals  of 
E.  are  mainly  useful,  and  are  distributed  in  great  abundance. 
Gold  is  produced  in  greatest  quantity  in  the  Carpathians  and 
Urals ;  silver  in  the  Erzgebirge,  Harz,  Carpathians,  and  in 
Scandinavia,  The  richest  iron-mines  are  those  of  Britain,  France, 
the  Eastern  Alps,  the  Riesengebirge,  and  the  Scandinavian  Alps. 
Lead  is  plentifully  found  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  Cornwall,  Saxony, 
and  Bohemia ;  tui  in  Cornwall ;  wnc  in  the  Riesengebirge  ;  mer- 
cury at  Almaden  in  Spain,  and  at  Idria  in  Camiola;  copper  in 
the  Carpathians,  Urids,  Pyrenees,  and  in  Cornwall  and  Nor- 
way ;  cobalt,  bismuth,  and  antimony  in  various  parts  of  Ger- 
many. In  the  Russian  government  of  Perm  are  found  diamonds  ; 
the  opal  in  Hungary,  and  rubies  in  France,  Coal  is  generally 
most  abundant  where  iron  is  found,  but  especially  in  Britain, 
Belgium,  and  France.  SaltTmines  are  numerous  in  the  Car- 
pathians and  Alps,  and  sea-salt  is  obtained  extensively  on  the 
coasts  of  the  Black  Sea,  &c.  In  the  volcanic  regions,  as  the 
Solfataras  of  Naples,  Sicily,  and  Iceland,  (here  is  much  sulphur, 
and  petroleum  occurs  in  Wallachia,  Italy,  and  Wales.  Amber 
is  procured  on  the  Prussian  shores  of  the  Baltic.  Mineral  and 
brine  springs  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 

Botany. — The  flora  of  K  does  not  probably  contain  a  single 
indigenous  plant  unknown  in  Western  Asia  or  Northern  Africa. 
It  is  naturally  divided  into  four  great  zones  ^(1)  To  the  N.  of 
lat  64°,  including  Iceland  and  part  of  Russia  and  Scandinavia, 
is  the  region  of  mosses  and  saxifrages,  which  has  only  stunted 
birches  and  firs,  and  along  its  southern  limit  some  oats,  rye,  and 
barley.  (2)  The  N.  middle  zone,  extending  from  Scandinavia 
to  the  N.  of  France,  also  known  as  the  region  of  the  Umbelliferm, 
the  predominant  trees  of  which  belong  to  the  Conifers  and  Amen- 
tacea,  as  the  beech,  oak,  birch,  plane,  alder,  poplar,  willow,  and 
cypress.  The  paslnrps  are  singularly  fine,  and  the  forest  trees 
shed  their  foliage  in  vrinter.  Besides  the  species  of  grain  found  in 
the  northern  zone,  there  are  here  wheat,  hemp,  flax,  leguminous 
plants,  apples,  pears,  cherries,  and  other  northern  fruits.  (3) 
The  S.  middle  zone,  or  region  of  the  central  mountain  system, 
where  the  plains  are  clad  with  oaks, beeches,  and  chestnuts,  and  the 
elevations  with  pmes.  Here  are  produced  much  wheat  and  wine. 
(4)  The  southern  or  evergreen  zone,  the  region  of  the  Laliiata  and 
Caryophytta,  embracing  the  three  southern  peninsulas  and  the  S. 
coast  of  France,  The  vegetation  of  this  zone  is  famous— its  olives 
and  date-psima,  its  winter  flora  and  its  fiery  wines.  In  the  ex- 
treme S.  the  orange  flourishes,  and  rice  is  cultivated  in  E.  Spain 
and  N.  Italy.  Among  the  rare  fruits  are  the  fig,  almond,  lemon, 
pomegranate,  and  citron.  On  the  other  hand,  the  pastures, 
which  are  interspersed  v^th  copse  of  the  heath  tribe,  are  less 
luxuriant  than  those  to  the  N.  of  the  Alps. 

Zoology.  — The  fauna  is  on  the  whole  less  varied  than  that  of 
the  other  divisions  of  the  Old  World,  but  is  peculiarly  exempt 
from  noxious  specjes.    The  chief  rapacious  animals — most  abun- 


yUoogle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


there  are  but  few  reptiles.  Domestic  animals,  however,  ai 
plentiful  almost  everywhere.  The  buffalo  feeds  in  the  marshf 
of  Hungary,  Wallachia,  and  Italy;  the  reindeer  is  peculi-'-  *"''■ 


fsir  North,  and  the  camel  thrives  near  the  Black  Sea.  Many  of  the 
quadrupeds  yield  rich  fura.  The  Barbary  ape  occuis  at  GibrLdtar. 
In  the  Pyrenees  and  higher  Alps  are  found  the  chamois,  wild 
goat,  and  eagle.  Among  the  commoner  birds  of  prey  are  the 
vulture,  falcon,  and  kite.  The, birds  are  inferior  to  those  of 
other  divisions  in  size  and  brilliancy  of  plumage,  but  are  unex- 
celled for  their  sweetness  of  voice.  The  northern  seas,  lakes, 
and  rivers  surpass  those  of  the  S.  in  abundance  of  fish,  chief  of 
wMch  are  the  cod,  salmon,  mackerel,  and  herring.  Northern 
E.  has  a  greater  number  <rf  species  of  animals  i  the  S.  is  more 
abundant  in  individuals. 

Elhnology  and  Language.— Tns  vast  majority  of  European^ 
be    ng       ih       ry 


Th 


rm  isme 

1  ih    W     th    G 


E  n 


m   h    S 
th    E      Of 


Sea 


and  Eng 


h.    P 


EU 


Imillin 


ch 


W 


It     an         p  , 

Rb^  an    La  R    la      WaJ     hia      ,  um- 

bering some  2i  milhons.  The  Slavs  are  83  millions  in  aD,  and 
are  divided  into  E.  Slavs— Russians,  Cossacks;  S.  Slavs— Ser- 
vians, Bosnians,  Croatians,  Bulgarians,  Dalmatians,  and  Slovens  ; 
W.  Slavs — Poles,  Czechs,  Slovaks,  Wends,  Sorbens.  Celtic 
dialects  are  now  spoken  only  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland, 
Wales,  Ii-eland,  and  Bretagne,  The  principal  Turanian  in- 
habitants of  E.  are  the  Turks,  the  Finns  (including  the  Estho- 
nians,  Livonians,  Lapps,  and  Samoyedes),  the  Calmucks  of 
Russia,  the  Magyars  of  Hungary,  and  probably  the  Basques  of 
Spain.  Gipsies  are  scattered  in  large  number  over  E.,  while 
there  are  also  some  4ri  millions  of  Jews.  In  aU,  some  sixty 
separate  peoples,  speaking  fifty-three  different  languages,  have 
been  enumerated 

Rsligisiis.—Ai\  the  nations  of  E,  are  Christian  excepting 
Turkey,  which  isMohammedan,  Christianity  is  split  into  three 
main  divisions — the  Roman  Catholic,  the  Greek,  and  the  Pro- 
testant Churches.  The  Catholic  Church  has  the  greatest  pumber 
of  adherents  (138,100,000),  embracing  the  majority  of  the  Gi  " 
Romanic  nations,  about  one-half  of  the  Germanic,  as  well 
laige  proportion  of  the  Slavs  and  Celts,  Protestantism  pre- 
vails in  Britain,  the  Netherlands,  Prussia,  Denmark,  Swedei' 
and  Norway.  The  Greek  form  of  religion  is  professed  in  Russii , 
Greece,  and  parts  of  Turkey  and  Austria.  There  are  66,ooo,qoo 
Protestants  and  74,630,000  members  of  the  Greek  Church.  The 
Mohammedans  number  6,500,000,  while  there  are  also  in  the 
N.  idolatrous'  Lapps  and  Finns. 

For  the  history  of  the  continent  see  Greece,  Rome,  and 
the  various  modem  countries  of  E.  Authorities  —  Schows' 
Eutofa  (1833),  Hoffmann's  Europa  und  sdni  Bswohnsr  (8 
vols.  1835-40),  BracheUi's  Staatm  Sitmpa'i  (1S53),  Rittet's 
Earopdischi  VerUsimgen  (1863),  KlBden's  Handbuch  der  Erd- 
kunds  (1S76). 

Euro'tas,  the  classic' name  of  the  modern  Basilipotanu} 
famous  river  of  Greece,  which  flovre  through  the  ancient  Lacoi  , 
down  a  beautiful  vale  with  dark  goiges,  and  through  a  fertile 
plain  into  the  Gulf  of  Kolokythia,  the  ancient  Laamicus  Sinm. 
Sparta  stood  upon  the  right  bank  of  the  E.,  near  its  confluence 
with  its  only  important  tributary,  the  CEnus. 

Eury'ale,  a  genus  of  waterlilies  {Nymphacea),  of  which  E. 
ferox  of  China  and  India  is  a  familiar  example  ;  the  seeds  of  this 
species  being  eaten  by  the  Hindus.  The  flowers  are  red,  the 
leaves  about  12  inches  in  diameter,  the  fruit  orange-shaped, 
containing  numerous  carpels,  and  the  seeds  black.  The  root- 
slock,  or  rhizome,  contains  starch.  The  E.  is  known  to  have 
been  cultivated  by  the  Chinese  for  at  least  3000  years. 

Euryale,  a  genus  of  starfishes  {Bchinadirmala)  belonging  to 
the  order  OpMurttidea,  which  also  includes  the  sand-stars  and 
briltle-stars.     In  E.  the  body  exists  in  the  form  of  a  globose 


,  with  five  obtuse  angles,  from  which  the  prehensile  a 
given  oft  The  arms  are 
long  and  contorted,  but  are 
en  more  so  in  the  nearly-allied 
steropkyton,  or  '  Medusa-head ' 
irfish, 

Btiryd'icB.    See  Okpheus. 

Eaee'biiis  Fam'pMli  (i.e., 
E.,  the  friend  of  Pamphilus)  was 
bom  about  264  A.D.  at  C^sarea, 
where  he  spent  the  most  of  his 
Till  about  forty  years  of - 
le  lived  in  great  intimacy  "i 
with  Pamphilus,  Bishop  of  C;e-  J 
sarea,  who  had  an  escellent  ;, 
library,  in  which  E.  studied  dili- 
gently and  profitably.  On  the 
martyrdom  of  his  friend  he  fled 
first  to  Tyre  and  then  to  Egypt, 
where  he  remained  till  315,  when 
he  relumed  to  Csesarea,  and  was 
elected  bishop.  In  325  he  attended  the  Council  of  Nice,  in 
which  he  took  a  prominent  part,  especially  in  trying  to  raediale 
between  the  Arians  and  the  orthodox  Church  party.  The  first 
draft  of  the  Nicene  Creed  was  made  by  him,  the  term  homo-ousiiis 
(importing  that  the  Son  was  0/ the  same  substance  vtidi  the  Father, 
to  which  he  was  opposed  as  savouring '  of  Sabellianism)  and  the 
anathemas  being  added  by  the  Council  K,  whose  theology 
corresponds  entirely  with  Origen's,  '  was  of  the  opinion  that  the 
Son  could  not  be  ciilled  absolutely  eternal,  hke  the  Father;  that 
it  was  necessary  to  ascribe  to  him  an  origin  of  existence  from 
the  Father,  since  thus  only  was  it  possible  to  hold  fest  the  doc- 
trine of  ont  God  !  and  that  it  was  impossible  to  express  the  truth 
after  the  manner  of  mm  m  any  other  way  than  by  saying  the 
existence  of  the  Father  precedes  the  existence  and  the  origin  of  the 
Son.'  E.  was  ofiered  the  pabiarchate  of  Antioch  about  330, 
but  declined  it.  He  died  in  340,  Of  the  writings  of  E.,  his 
Chromcon,  a  history  of  the  world  down  to  A.D.  3s8,  is  chiefly 
valuable  for  the  extracts  it  contains  from  Berosus,  Sanchuniathon, 
and  other  writerSv  The  first  complete  edition  was  published  by 
Mai  and  Zohrab  (Milan,  1818).  His  most  important  work  is  his 
history  of  the  Church  from  the  death  of  Christ  to  324.  But  his 
want  of  ETOund  critical  judgment  is  so  manifest  throughout— the 
history  being  full  of  references  to  spurious  documents  and  names 
of  unknown  men,  with  improbable  and  ungrounded  statements, 
and  stories  about  miracles — that  even  his  good  faith  has  been 
called  in  question.  The  edilio  pinaps  of  the  Greek  text  appeared 
at  Paris  m  IS49.  The  latest  and  best  editions  are  those  of 
Schwf^ler  (Tub.  1852)  and  Lanmier  (Schaffh.  1859-^2).  See 
Neander's  Geschkhte  d.  Christ!.  Rel.  u.  Kirche  (4th  ed.  Gotha, 
1866;  Eng.  trans.  1858),  and  Baur's  Epcken  der  Kirchluhen 
Gesehichlschreibung  (Tiib.  1852).- E.  01  Nicome'dla,  Bishop 
first  of  Beryta  (Beyrout)  and  then  of  Nicomedia,  and  finally  (338' 
Paltiarch  of  Constantmople  (died  about  340),  was  the  personal 
friend  of  Alius  (q.  v.),  whom  he  attempted  to  defend  at  the  Council 
of  Nice.  Heconsented,  'for  the  sake  of  peace,'  to  subscribe  the 
creed  drawn  up  at  that  coundl,  but  not  the  anathemas  at  the  en 
in  which  he  was  joined  by  Theognis  of  Nicica.  For  this  the  ti 
were  condemned  along  with  Arius,  and  banished  to  Gaul,  tieing 
also  recalled  at  the  same  time  with  Arius,  32S.  E.  was  the  chief 
represeiltotive  of  the  Semi-Arian  (q.  v.)  party,  which  took  up  a 
middle  position  between  the  orthodox  and  the  Arians,  adoptmg 
the  phrase  homoi-ousios  ('of  a  similar  subslance')  to  express  the 
rektion  of  the  Son  to  the  Father,  from  whom  they  received  the 
name  of  Eusebians.— B.  of  Emiea  (Phcenida)  was  born  at 
Edessa,  and  studied  there,  and  at  Alexandria  and  Antioch,  one 
his  instructors  being  E,  of  Csesarea.  As  early  as  312  he  was 
distinguished  for  scholarship  and  modesty.  He  refiised  the 
bishopric  of  Alexandria  when  Athanasius  vras  deposed  in  341, 
bat  accepted  that  of  Eroisa  soon  after.  He  spent  the  close  of  his 
life  at  Antioch,  and  died  about  360.  In  reference  to  the  theo- 
logical controvert  of  the  day,  E,  probably  belonged  to  the  Semi- 
Arian  party,  of  which  his  friend  E.  of  Nicomedia "-"  -'"■-' 

SeeTliilo,  Ueber  dk  Schriflen  da  E.  vea  Alex,  u 
E.  (Halle,  1832). 

Euata'chian  Tube.     This  is  a  tube  leadii^  from  the  back 
of  the  threat  to  the  middle  car  or  tympanum,     Its  functi"  '- 
595 


s  the  chief. 


vLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EVA 


l>robabiy  to  equalise  atmospheric  pressure  on  bolh  sides  of  the 
drum  of  the  ear.  Closure  of  this  tube  from  infl animation  and 
enlargement  of  the  tonsils  is  one  of  the  most  common  causes  of 
deafneiis.     See  Eas, 

EustacMan  Valve.    See  Fcetus. 

Eusta'cMus,  BartoJoaimeo,  a  famous  Italian  anatomist, 
bom  early  in  tlie  i6th  c,  but  whose  place  and  date  of  birth  have 
not  been  ascertained,  studied  at  Rome,  practised  there  as  phy- 
sician, and  died  in  poor  ciicumstances  in  1574.  He  enriched 
almost  all  departments  of  anatomical  science  by  his  discOTeries, 
upon  a  number  of  which,  as  the  Eustachian  tube  and  ■naive,  his 
own  name  has  been  conferred.  Of  his  works,  the  Taiulis  Ana- 
iamica,  the  text  of  which  appears  to  have  been  {ost,  consists  of  a 
numbetof  excellent  anatomical  drawings,  and  was  first  published 
"  by  Lands!,  at  Rome,  in  1714.  Other  works  were  issued  under 
the  edilorship  of  Boerhaave  at  Leyden  in  1707,  and  at  Delft  in 

...  __arned  man  of  his  age,  was  bom  in 
Constantinople,  and  flouiished  in  the  latter  half  of  the  12th  c 
Successively  monk,  professor  of  rhetoric,  and  deacon,  he  died 
Archbishop  of  Thessalonica  in  119a  His  works  consist  of 
commentaries  on  Greek  poets,  theological  treatises,  &c.,  and 
establish  both  his  learning  and  his  oratorical  power.  The  chief 
■e  his  Commentaries  on  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  (Leips.  1825-39), 
1  Dionysius  Periegetes  (Bernhardy's  edition  of  that  author, 
I.^!ps.  1828),  and  on  Pindar.  These  commentaries  are  of  the 
greatest  value,  as  containing  extracts  from  important  works  that 

EuBta'tiua,  St,  a  Dutch  island  in  the  W.  Indies,  12  miles 
N.W.  of  St  Christopher,  Area,  190  sq,  miles  ;  pop.  2000.  Jt 
IS  a  mountainous  mass  of  volcanic  rock  covered  with  vegetation, 
but  has  only  one,  and  that  a  strongly- fortified,  landing-place. 
The  chief  productions  are  maize,  sugar,  cotton,  and  tobacco. 
The  island  is  often  visited  by  severe  earthquakes. 

Buter'pe  (Gr.  'the  charming  one')  was  the  Muse  of  lyric 
poetry  .  She  was  represented  in  ancient  works  of  art  with  a 
fiute. 

Euterpe,  a  genus  of  Palmm  or  palms.  Of  this  group  E. 
monlana,  the  mountain  cabbage-palm,  and  E.  eduHs,  are  familiar 
species.  These  plants  occur  in  S.  America  and  the  W.  Indies. 
The  male  and  female  flowers  occur  on  the  same  inflorescence. 
The  stems  are  faintly  aflnulated  or  ringed  ;  the  leaves  are  pin- 
nate i  and  the  bases  of  the  ieaf-stallts  are  very  large,  and  form 
sheaths  to  the  stem. 

Eatro'piue,  a  Roman  historian  belonging  to  the  4tli  c.  a.d., 
of  whose  life  almost  the  only  facts  known  are  that  he  was  an 
imperial  secretary  under  Constantine,  that  he  accompanied 
Julian  in  his  invasion  of  Persia,  and  died  probably  about  370. 
He  wrote  an  epitome  of  Roman  history,  'Breaiarium  Remm 
Homanarum,  from  the  early  kings  to  the  reign  of  Jovian,  which 
seems  to  have  been  carefiiUy  compiled,  and  which  is  composed 
in  a  succinct  and  singularly  pure  and  simple  style.  It  was  once 
very  popular,  and  was  much  used  as  a  school-book,  for  which  it 
was  seemingly  intended.  The  editw  princefs  appeared  at  Rome 
in  1471 ;  the  best  modern  editions  are  by  Grosse  (Halle,  iSri), 
■   Eamshotn  (1847),  and  Dietsch  (1849), 

Eu'tyohee,  abbot  of  a  monastery  at  Constantmople  in  the 
Sthc,  who  in  seeking  to  combat  Nestorianism  fell  into  heresy 
himself.  When  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  perfect  equality  of 
the  Son  with  the  Father  had  been  established  at  the  Council  of 
Nice  (325),  the  next  difficulty  was  the  union  of  this  perfect  God 
v.'ith  the  man  Jesus;  and  Apollmaris  (q.  v.),  holding  the  idea 
of  a  God-man  to  be  a  logical  monstrosity  comparable  to  a  mino- 
■,  affirmed  that  the  Logos  took  the  place  of  the  mind  in 
Jesus,  whose  soul  and  body  alone  were  human,  so  that  there  was 
m  reality  but  one  nature  in  Jesus.  In  opposition  to  this  the 
orthodox  doctrine  was  next  established  (Council  of  Constan- 
tinople, 3S1)  of  the  complete  and  real  manhood  of  Jesus,  But 
now  the  divine  and  the  human  nature,  in  being  distinguished  so 
carefully,  came  to  be  separated  ;  they  were  held  by  some  to  be 
conjoined  but  not  united.  Nestorius,  for  instance,  separated 
them  so  far  as  to  refitse  to  call  Maty  the  mother  of  God,  which 
vas  declared  to  be  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  431,  That 
:il  decided  that  in  Jesus  the  two  natures  were  not  merelv 
5^6    ■        . 


annexed  but  un  ed  It  was  n  pres  ng  this  do  rme  one  step 
too  far  that  E  a  d  11  par  sans  re  ved  he  Mon  pliysism  of 
Apollinarius  E  de  la  d  1  at  tho  gh  the  e  were  two  natures 
before  the  inca  -nat  0  1  ere  was  but  one  a  er  He  was  also 
wont  to  call  he  body  of  Chns  the  body  of  God,  an  1  though  he 
did  not  deny  to  him  a  human  body,  yet  from  a  feeling  of  rever- 
ence he  would  not  call  it  the  same  in  essence  as  other  human 
bodies.  The  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451)  condemned  E.,  and 
defined  the  orthodox  doctrine  to  be  tliat  in  Jesus  were  united 
the  two  natures  of  a  true  God  and  a  perfect  man, '  unconfounded, 
unchanged,  undivided,  inseparable.  After  this  E.  disappears 
from  history,  but  his  doctrines  are  still  held  by  the  Armenian 
and  Coptic  Churches.  See  Meander's  Geschkhted.  Chrisll.  Eel.  ti. 
A'ire.4f(4th  ed.  Gotha,  1866;  Eng.  trans.  1858),  and  RevUle's 
His!,  dv  Dogme  de  la  Deeiniti  de  y&m  Christ  (\%-]o). 

Bux'in©  (Gr,  euxeinns,  '  hospiiable ')  is  a  name  of  the  Black 
Sea.  The  earliest  Greek  navigators  called  it  Axeinos  (or  'inhos- 
pitable'), from  the  savage  tribes  that  surrounded  it;  but  when 
these  had  been  civilised  by  commerce,  they  changed  the  name 
to  Euxeinos, 

■  Evan'der,  of  Pallantium,  in  Arcadia,  wns  the  son  of  Hermes 
by  the  nymph  Themis,  or  according  to  Roman  legend  by  the 
prophetess  Carmenta  or  Tiburtis.  Sixty  years  before  the  Trojan 
war,  E,  sailed  for  Italy  with  a  Pelasgian  colony.  He  landed  on 
the  bank  of  the  Tiber  at  the  foot  of  the  Palatine,  and  there  built 
the  city  Pallantium,  from  which,  according  to  Varro,  the  names 
Palatium  and  Falatinus  are  derived.  He  taught  the  people  laws, 
music,  and  the  art  of  writing.  He  received  Hercules  after  the 
conquest  of  Geryon,  and  raised  altars  to  that  hero,  as  well  as  to 
the  Lycaan  Pan,  Demeler,  and  Poseidon,  and  assisted  .£neas  on 
his  arrival  in  Italy,  Divine  honours  were  paid  to  E.  at  Pallan- 
tium  in  Arcadia  and  on  Mount  Aventine. 
_  Evai^el^ical  AlMaiioe,  Tlie,  'for  the  union  and  co-opera- 
tion  of  Christians  throughout  the  world,'  was  organised  in 
London  in  1S46,  at  a  meetmg  of  some  Soo  professing  Christians — 
Episcopalians,  Methodists,  Presbyterians,  Independents,  Bap- 
tists, Moravians,  Lutherans,  and  others,  and  has  taken  root  in 
many  countries^  Branches  now  exist  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
Colonies,  France,  Belgium,  Switzerland,  Germany,  Sweden, 
Norvray,  Italy,  Greece,  Turkey,  Syria,  Australia,  India,  New 
Zealand,  and  the  United  Slates,  Tlie  chief  object  of  the  E,  A. 
is  'to  exhibit  the  unity  of  the  one  Church  of  God  in  doctrine, 
mutual  reci^nition,  and  Christian  co-operation  for  the  advance- 
ment of  evangelical  truth  throughout  the  world,'  its  motto  being 
'Unum  corpus  sumus  in  Christo."  The  basis  of  the  Alliance  is 
that  it  is  to  be  composed  of  such  only  as  hold  evangelical  views 
in  regard  to  the  following  points  of  doctrine  :^l)  The  divine 
inspiration,  authority,  and  sufliciency  of  the  Holy  Scriptures ; 
(2)  the  right  and  duty  of  private  judgment  in  the  interpretation 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures ;  (3)  the  unity  of  the  Godhead,  and  the 
Trinity  of  Persons  therein ;  (4)  the  utter  dtjxavity  of  human 
nature  in  consequence  of  the  Fall ;  (5)  (he  incarnation  of  the 
Son  of  God,  his  work  of  atonement  for  sinners  of  mankind,  and 
his  mediatorial  intercession  and  reign ;  (6)  the  justification  of 
the  sinner  by  faith  alone  ;  (7)  the  work  of  the  Hoiy  Spirit  in  the 
conversion  and  sanctification  of  the  anner;  (8)  the  immortality 
of  the  soul,  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  the  judgment  of  the 
world  by  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  with  the  eternal  blessedness  of 
the  righteous  and  the  eternal  punishment  of  the  wicked ;  (9) 
the  divine  institution  of  the  Christian  ministry,  and  the  obliga- 
ion  and  perpetuity  of  the  ordinances  of  Baptism  and  the  Lord's 
Supper. 

Since  the  formation  of  the  E.  A.  general  conferences,  lo  which 
Christians  of  all  nations  were  invited,  have  been  held  in  London, 
iSsti  Paris,  185s;  Berlin,  1857;  Geneva,  1861;  Amsterdam, 
1867  i  New  York,  1873.  See  an  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Origin, 
Si^c,  of  the  E.  A.,  and  a  Brief  Statement,  &c,  (1875),  by  Rev. 
James  Davis,  secretary ;  Proctedings,  &c,  of  the  E.  A.  Confer- 
"ce  held  at  Neai  York,  1873,  by  SehafF  and  Prime  (1874), 

Evangelical  Union,  The,  is  a  denomination  of  Christians 
which  may  be  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Rev,  James  Mori- 
son,  from  whom  it  sometimes  gets  the  improper  title  of  Mori- 
sonians.  Mr  Morison,  minister  of  a  congregation  of  the  United 
Secession  Church  at  Kilmarnock,  was  deposed  for  heresy  in 
1841,  chiefly  on  the  chMge  of  teaching  the  universality  of  the 
atonement,  and  the  ability  of  man  to  believe  the  gospel.   His 


y  Google 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


EVE 


father,  Mr  R  b    t  M 
gate,  was  a 
and  John 


d  d  I 


gates  from    h  Ch     h       m  Kilmam    k 

which  con  m  pnpeswsilptd 

the  basis  o         assoa  ti  h   h  w         ithwi  h  o  m  d      d 

the  desigat  h    E  h        rp  u  t     an      g 

counseBiiig  g  and     I       f 

the  purpose  of  training  up  spiritual  and  devoted  y     ng  m 
to  carry  on  the  worlc  and  pleasure  of  the  Lord.'     Th     E    U 
does  not  profess  to  be  based   on  any  peculiar  o    d  t     t 
Chureh  polity,  but  to  be  a  protest  agamst  certain  of  th    !    d 
dogmas  of  Calvinism;  in  diort,  those  belonging  to    t  t  k       p 
the  position  of  theological  Nonconformists  in  Scotl    d     Th  ir 
theology  affirms  ; — I.  As  regards  the  divine  purpos   m     d  mp 
tion — [\)  The  universal  fatherhood  of  God,  and  in  q 

his  desire  to  save  all  men  ;  in  opposition  to  the  Cal  t  1 
tion ;  (2)  the  univei'sal  atonement  of  Christ,  malting  the  salva- 
tion of  every  man  possible;  in  opposition  to  an  atonement  for 
the  elect  only ;  (3)  the  universal  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  or  its 
desire  to  reach  all  men,  and  its  sufficiency  in  eveij  case  to  secure 
conversion :  ui  opposition  to  tlie  limitation  of  its  work  to  the 
elect.  II.  As  regards  the  application— (1)  That  the  will  of  man 
must  be  in  the  matter  of  his  salvation  free  and  active  ;  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  Calvmislic  doctrine  that  man  by  the  Fall  'hath 
wholly  lost  all  ability  of  will  to  any  spiritual  good  accompany- 
g  sa  '         that  a  man  is  regenerated  ttirough  iaith,  not 

hat  a  man  is  elected  to  salvation  '  through 
san      ca  Spirit  and  belief  of  the  truth,'  and  not  pre- 

ed  unto  life  '  without  any  foresight  of  faith  or 

g  other  thing  in  the  creature,  as  conditions  or 

m       g     m  thereunto.' 
ar  876)  in  Scotland  between  eighty  and  ninety 

gr  ga  nging  to  the  E.  U.,  or  affiliated  therewith, 

th      g  with  it  in  doctrine,  and  co-operating  in 
thout  being  formally  connected.     In  Eng&nd 
ches  belonging  to  the  Union,  but  a  large 
m  rs,  its  ministeis  being  eligible  for  Congr^- 

al  there.      See  the  E.   U.  Annual,   a  Doctrinal 

D  ed  by  the  Conference  of  1S58;  The  Posiiior, 

iy  e  E.   U.,  a  sermon  by  Rev.  A.   M.  Fair 


E  amg      a   m  ans  (l) 'abringer  of  good  news;'  (2)in  the 

N  preacher  of  the  gospel,  i.e.,  not  a  settled 

as  erant  preacher  or  missionary  (2  Tim.  iv.  5), 

p  be    g    ailed  presbyter  or  elder.     Eusebius  speaks  of 

E  1  been  a  colpotteur  of  the  written  Gospels, 

have  been  at  the  time  he  speaks  of.    Tiiis 

idea  led  to  the  later  meaning  attached  to  the  name  of  the  E. 

par  sxcellenci,  as  (3)  the  writer  of  a  Gospel.      (4}  In  still  later 

liturgical  language  the  E.  was  the  reader  of  the  Gospel  for  the 

Hv'aoa,  Zjieutenant-Geiieral  Sir  De  Lac7,  O.G.B.,  e 

distinguished  British  soldier  and  Lil)eral  politician,  was  born  al 
Moig,  in  Ireland,  in  1787;  entered  the  army  in  1807;  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  Peninsular  war,  especially  at  Vittoria  and 
Toulouse;  in  l8l4--l5  served, in  N.  America,  and  was  severely 
wounded  at  New  Orleans;  in  1S15  was  at  Quatre-Eras  and 
Waterloo  as  aide-de-camp  to  General  Ponsonby.  In  1831  he 
was  elected  member  for  Rye,  and  in  1833  for  Westminster.  In 
183s  he  accepted  the  command  of  the  British  Legion,  of  10,000 
men,  raised  to  maintain  the  throne  of  Isabella  II.  of  S^ain 
against  the  CarUsts,  and  was  victorious  before  San  Seloslian, 
PasE^es,  and  on  the  heiglits  of  Amozagana,  and  closed  the  cam. 
laign  by  the  storm  and  capture  of  Irun.  He  was  defeated  foi 
"'estminstec  in  1841,  but  was  re-elected  in  1846,  and  retained 
ms  seat  (ill  1865,  when  be  retired  from  public  life.  In  Junf 
1854  he  vvas  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  thf 
British  army,  and  in  the  Crimean  war  of  1854-55  commanded 
the  second  division  of  the  British  forces,  fighling  with  signal 
intrepidity  at  Alma  and  Inkerman.  Filing  health  forced  liim 
lo  return  to  England  in  the  beginning  of  1855,  when  he  received 
the  thanks  of  Parliament  for  his  services  m  the  field.  He  re- 
ceived the  Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath,  the  Grand  Cordon  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour,  and  the  degree  of  D.CL.  from  Oxford.  E. 
died  Januaiy  9,  1S70. 


pai; 
Wt 


Ev'ansville,  an  important  city  of  Indiana,  U.S.,  on  the 
I  50  miles  above  the  confluence  of  the  Wabash,  It  has  a 
S  marine  hospital  and  several  public  halls.  As  the  southern 
m  nus  of  the  Wabash  and  Erie  Canal,  E.  has  great  facilities 
f  t  ade  and  navigation.  There  are  flour-mills,  iron-foundries, 
d  manufactures  of  wool,  leather,  &c  The  town  has  four  daily 
n      papers.     Pop.  (1870)  31,830. 

Evapoia'tion  is  the  conversion  of  a  liquid  at  its  surface  into 
th  aseous  form.  Dalton  showed  that  if  a  liquid  be  permitted 
t  aporatein  a-raeuum,  the  E.  goeson  tiilacertainquantity  of 
p  ur  is  formed,  whose  pressure  depends  upon  the  temperature. 
Wh  n  a  liquid  is  vaporised,,  heat  is  absorbed,  and  therefore  must 
be  bstraeted  from  surrounding  matter  or  from  the  liquid  itself. 
~  mstance,  if  a  thermometer  bulb  be  dipped  in  ether  and  then 
p  sed  to  the  air,  the  ether  is  rapidly  evaporated,  the  heat 
aaty  for  this  being  obtained  from  the  mercury,  whose  tem- 
rature  is  therefore  lowered.  Again,  if  a  tube  terminating  at 
each  end  by  a  bulb  be  talten,  vrith  a  Uttle  water  in  the  one 
bulb  and  water  vapour  in  the  rest  ot  the  tube,  by  simply  im- 
mersing the  other  bulb  in  a  cold  liquid  a  condensation  of  the 
vapour  there  takes  place,  and  this  necessitates  an  E.  and  there- 
fore cooling  of  the  water,  which  is  thus  made  to  frei%e  by 
its  own  B.  Liquids  which  vaporise  rapidly  at  ordinary  tem- 
peratures are  said  to  be  volatile,  and  every  liquid  increases 
m  volatility  as  its  temperature  approaches  that  of  its  boiling- 
point.  Pressure  also  has  a  very  great  effect  upon  E.,  so  much 
so  that  by  a  rapid  diminution  of  pressure  a  liquid  may  be 
made  to  boil  at  a  temperature  considerably  below  its  true  boil- 
ing-point. When  it  is  considered  how  great  a  proportion  of 
the  earth's  surface  is  liquid,  it  is  evident  that  E.  must  play  an 
important  part  in  the  economy  of  nature.  The  air  always  con-  ■ 
tains  water  vapour  in  varying  quantities,  depending  on  the  tem- 
perature and  iiressure.  When  air  saturated  with  water  vaponr 
is  cooled,  the  vapour  is  condensed  and  forms  clouds  of  rain, 
snow,  or  hail,  according  to  the  circumstances  in  which  it  has 
been  cooled.  This  physical  E,  is  so  intimately  involved  ii 
other  meteorological  operations  that  for  further  information  in 
this  connection  reference  isinade  to  such  articles  as  Climate, 
Clouds,  Dew,  Winds,  &a 

A  very  beautiful  explanation  of  E.  is  furnished  by  the  modem 
MolecularTheory(q,v,)  of  theconstitutiouof  matter.  According  to 
this  theory  the  average  velocity  of  the  molecules  of  a  liquid  is  less 
than  that  of  its  vapour ;  but  some  of  the  former  may  be  moving 
with  velocities  equal  to,  or  even  greater  than,  theaverage  velocity 
in  the  vapour.  K  such  a  molecule  should  be  at  the  surface  and 
be  moving^'oiw  the  liquid,  it  will  fly  off  into  space  as  a  vapour 
molecule.  Also,  a  vapour  molecule  striking  the  liquid  may  be- 
come part  of  the  liquid  if  entangled  among  the  hquid  molecules. 
Such  K  the  theory  of  E  and  condensation.  The  former  depends 
on  the  temperature  and  extent  of  surface  of  the  liquid,  the  latter 
upon  the  temperature  and  pressure  of  the  vapour.  If  the  liquid 
be  evaporated  in  a  closed  vessel,  things  will  go  on  until  the  pres- 
sure of  the  vapour  is  sufficient  to  render  the  number  of  molecules 
condensed  equal  to  the  number  evaporated.  At  this  siage  E  is 
usually  said  to  cease,  but  upon  tlie  theory  it  is  gomg  on  as  fast 
as  ever,  only  it  is  neutralised  by  an  equal  condensation 

Eve  is  the  name  given  in  the  Hebrew  scriptures  to  the  first 
woman,  who  was  so  called  by  Adam,  accordmg  to  the  narra 
tive, '  because  she  was  the  mother  of  all  living '  (Heb  kkat  ah,  'life ' 
or  'life-makerO-     See  Adam. 

Evetftion  (Lat.  tvecth,  'a  carrymg  out "),  the  name  applied 
by  BuUiaidus  to  an  inequality,  first  noticed  by  Hipparchus,  which 
consists  in  the  alteration  of  the  eccentricity  of  the  lunar  orbit, 
produced  by  the  difference  of  the  sun's  attractions  upon  the 
moon  at  its  apogee  and  perigee — a  difference  which  depends 
upim  the  relative  positions  of  the  lunar  line  of  apsides  and  the 
earth's  radius- vector. 


,w),  E 


n  for  Slav 


,n  of  s. 


EVelyn,  Jolm,  an  English  author  and  rt 
bom  at  Wotton,  Surrey,  October  31,  1620.  Educated  at  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  he  seems  to  have  been  intended  for  the  law, 
for  he  studied  at  the  Middle  Temple  (1640-41) ;  but  the  civil 
war,  m  whidi  he  took  the  side  of  the  Royalists,  compelled  him 
to  travel  for  a  time,  particularly  in  France  and  Italy.  Assistini 
597 


vLiOOQle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


in  the  Restoration  of  l65o,  hewas  leceired  with  favour  at  the 
court  of  Charles  II.,  became  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  l66a,  and  at  its  request,  when  the  English  Naval 
Commissioners  dreaded  &  scarcity  of  naval  timber  in  the  country, 
wrote  (1664)  Sylm,  or  a  Discoursi  on  Foiat  Trees,  and  Ike  Pro- 

fi^io?^  of  Timber  in  His  Majesiys  Dommiims,  which  induced 
idbolders  to  plant  a  great  number  of  youi^  oak-trees,  from 
whicli  were  obtained  the  war-ships  of  the  next  centuiy.  He  died 
20th  Februaiy  1706.  E.  wtote  popular  works  on  various  sub- 
jects, such  as  sculpture,  architecture,  &c.,  but  will  be  chiefly 
remembered  as  perhaps  the  first  in  England  to  treat  gardening 
and  planting  scientifically,  and  for  his  Diary,  which  is  probably 
unsurpassed  for  the  canons  and  minute  information  which  it 
gives  regarding  society  in  the  latter  half  of  the  17th  c  It  was 
pubhshed  under  the  editorship  of  W.  Bray  in  1818,  and  has 
gone  through  several  editions,  of  which  the  chief  are  one  In  4 
vols,  by  tlie  late  John  Forster  (1859),  and  a  reprint  of  the  second 
(1870). 

Eve'ning  Primroae,    See  CEnotiiera, 

ET'erett,  Alexander  Hill,  an  American  author  and  diplo- 
matist, wasboniat  Boston,  Massachusetts,  March  19,  179a  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  i8o5,  studied  law  in  the  office  of  John 
Quincy  Adams,  and  in  1809  accompanied  him  on  his  mission  to 
Russia.  He  was  appointed  minister  at  the  Hague  in  1818,  and 
at  the  court  of  Spain  in  1825.  Returning  to  the  United  States 
in  1829,  he  became  editor  and  proprietor  of  the  North  American 
Jieview.  In  1845  he  was  sent  as  minister  to  China,  and  died  in 
Canton,  June  z8,  1S47.  E,'s  works,  which  exhibit  much  learn- 
ing, varied  knowledge,  and  £ne  talent,  are  E-arope,  or  a  General 
Suni^  0/  the  Frinci^l  Powers  ['LoTiA.  and  Bost.  l8az)  ;  Ame- 
riea,  or  a  General  Survey,  &c.  (Phil.  1827) ;  A'ew  Ideas  on  Fepu- 
lotion  (Lond,  and  Bost.  iSaz) ;  Essays  (Bost.  1845  and  1847). — 
Ed'WBJ^  H.,  brother  of  the  foregoing,  was  born  at  Dorchester, 
near  Boston,  Massachusetts,  April  1 1, 1794.  He  studied  at  Har- 
vard College,  and  graduated  in  18I1.  At  twenty  years  of  age 
he  became  pastor  of  a  Unitarian  church  in  Cambridge,  and 
soon  gained  distinction  by  his  brilliant  pulpit  efforts.  He 
appeared  as  an  author  in  1814  with  a  Defence  of  Christiatiity, 
and  next  year  was  elected  Eliot  Professor  of  Greek  in  Harvard 
College.  To  prepare  himself  for  this  position  he  resided  four 
years  in  Europe,  associating  \vith  some  of  the  most  distinguished 
men — M.  Cousin  regardmg  him  as  '  one  of  the  best  Grecians  he 
ever  knew.'  E.  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1819,  became 
member  of  the  House  of  Representatives  in  1824,  and  Governor 
of  Massachusetts  in  1835.  He  was  made  minister  at  the  court 
of  St  James  in  1841,  became  President  of  Harvard  College  in 
1845,  was  appointed  Secretary  of  State  in  1853,  a  United  States 
senator  in  1853,  and  died  9th  January  1865.  E.'s  Orations  and 
Speeches  (4  vols.  1850-68)  are  a  brilliant  embodiment  of  his 
public  career.  Although  not  a  profound  statesman,  he  was  one 
of  the  most  eloquent  and  accomplished  of  American  oratom. 

Ev'ergreena,  a  name. popularly  applied  to  such  plants  as 
retain  their  foliage  and  veraure  throughout  the  year,  this  pro- 
perty being  chiefly  due  to  the  thickness  of  the  leaf-substance, 
and  to  the  retardation  or  absence  of  the  chemical  changes  in  virtue 
of  which  the  leaves  of  other  plants  fall  and  wither.  Of  E., 
firs,  heath,  rhododendrons,  laurels,  holly,  ivy,  box,  privet,  some 
oaks,  bays,  myrtles,  &c.,  are  well-known  examples,  E.  are 
much  in  request  for  the  decoration  of  garden  policies,  churches, 
&c 

Everlast'ing  Flowera,  the  name  given  to  certain  kuids  of 
flowers  belonging  to  Composite  plants,  from  their  dry,  firm 
structure,  wliich  enables  them  to  resist  the  process  of  decay  for 
a  long  period.  The  species  of  the  genus  CttaphaHam  \e^~, 
C.  orienlole)  are  much  in  request  as  B.  F.  ;  and  species  of 
miichtysum  are  also  termed  E.  F.  from  their  durability.  The 
flowers  of  G.  orientale  are  used  by  the  French  in  making  immor- 
idles  to  decorate  tombs.  The  species  of  Helichrysitm,  are  chiefly 
natives  of  Africa,  but  some  (H.  armarium)  grow  in  Southern 
Europe. 

Ev'eraley,  Tiaootmt,  CMrlM  Shaw  Lefevre,  an  Eng- 
lish politician,  was  bom  February  22,  1794,  educated  at  Win- 
chester School  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  entered  Parlia- 
ment in  1830,  and  from  1832  to  1857  represented  N.  Hants. 
In  May  1839  he  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons 
598 


after  the  elevation  of  Mr  Abercromby  to  the  peerage  as  Lord 
Dunfermline,  and  this  post  he  held  uninterrupledly  for  eighteen 
years,  the  Conservative  ministry  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  having 
offered  no  opposition  to  his  re-election.      A  fine  and  dignified 


presence,  affable  mam 
of  the   House  of  Con 
Mr  Lefevre  one  of  the 
When  he  retired  in  1875 
pension  of  /4000,  his  re 
is  a  D.C.L.,  and  has  held 


perfect  acquaintance  with  the  forms 
ns,  and  absolute  impartiality,  made 
t  popular  and  successful  of  Speakers, 
ith  a  peerage  as  Viscount  E.  and  a 
universally  regretted.  K 
posts,  including  those  oi 


Evealiaait  (Old  Eng.  Eofesham,  '  the  dwelling  by  the  river's 
brink'),  a  market-town  of  Worcestershire,  15  miles  S.E.  of  Wor- 
cester, and  a  station  on  the  West  Midland  Railway.  It  stands 
on  a  slope  above  the  Avon,  in  the  vale  of  E. ,  which  is  famous 
for  its  beauty  and  fertility.  The  chief  buildings  are  the  churches 
of  All  Saints  (13th  c.)  and  of  St  Lawrence.  Of  the  abbey,  only 
the  clock-tower,  110  feet  high,  remains.  There  are  manufac- 
tures of  agricultural  implements.  E.  arose  from  a  monastery 
founded  in  709.  Here  Prince  Edward,  afterwards  Edward  I., 
defeated  Simon  Moiitfort,  August  4,  1265.  Till  1867  E.  returned 
two  members  to  Parliament;  since  then,  only  one.    Pop.  {1S71) 


Eric'tion,  in  Scotch  law,  is  the  dispossessing  one  of  properly, 
heritable  or  movable,  in  virtue  of  a  preferable  title  in  the  per- 
son of  him  by  whom  the  E.  is  made.  Tlie  dispossessed  party  will 
be  entitled  to  institute  an  action  against  his  author,  the  value  of 
the  claim  being  regulated  by  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  War- 
randice (q.  v.).  In  England  the  possessory  action  by  which 
the  title  to  lands  and  tenements  may  be  tried  and  possession 
recovered  is  called  Ejectment. 

Ev'idenoe,  Le'gal,  may  be  defined  as  any  matter  of  fact 
tending  to  affirm  or  disaffinn  the  alleged  existence  of  some  other 
matter  of  feet.  It  may  be  in  writing"  or  by  testimony  of  wit- 
nesses. Written  proofs  consist  of  records,  ancient  deeds,  and 
wills  thirty  years  old,  which  prove  themselves;  but  modern  deeds 
and  other  writings  must  be  attested  and  verified  by  the  parole 
testimony  of  witnesses.     See  Parole  Pkoof. 

The  rule  in  all  trials  is  that  the  best  evidence  must  be  pro- 
duced which  the  case  admits  of,  for  if  it  be  shown  that  better 
evidence  exists  than  that  which  is  produced,  then  the  non- 
production  causes  a  presumption  that  it  would  have  disclosed 
some  hidden  Slsehood.  Thus  it  would  not  be  allowed  to  prove 
the  terms  of  a  lease  by  an  attested  copy  or  by  parole  evidence, 
the  lease  itself  being  proved  to  be  forthcoming ;  but  the  deed 
being  shown  to  be  lost,  then  secondary  evidence  is  available. 

Letters  are  evidence  against  the  writers  but  not  for  them. 
Entries  in  family  Bibles  and  other  books  by  parents  or  heads 
of  families  are  good  evidence  of  the  facts  recorded.  A  receipt 
in  full,  when  obtained  vfithout  fraud  or  coilusioli,  is  conclusive 
against  the  party  wlio  grants  it.  An  account  in  a  tradesman's 
books,  if  supported  by  coikteral  proof  of  fairness  and  regularity, 
would  probably  be  sufficient  evidence  of  debL  In  England  the 
law  limits  this  proof  to  transactions  within  one  year  before  the 
action  brought,  unless  between  merchants  in  the  usual  course  of 
trade.  In  Scotland  the  Act  1579,  c  83,  introduces  a  triennial 
prescription  in  merchants'  accounts.     See  Pkescription. 

The  Act  14  and  15  Vict.  c.  99,  known  as  Lord  Brougham's 
Act,  amended  by  16  and  17  Vict.  c.  83,  and  32  and  33  Vict.  c. 
68,  makes  some  important  changes  relative  to  compelling  in- 
terested persons  to  give  evidence,  and  as  to  the  admission  and 
verification  of  documents.  The  second  Act  above  named  renders 
the  husbands  and  wives  of  parlies  to  any  judicial  issue  or  in- 
quiry competent  and  compellable  witnesses  on  behalf  of  any 
party  to  the  suit.  But  a  husband  is  not  a  competent  witness 
against  his  wife,  nor  a  wife  against  her  husband,  in  criminal  pro- 
cedure or  in  case  of  adultery.  During  marriage,  neitlier  hus- 
band nor  wife  can  be  compelled  to  disclose  any  communication 
made  by  the  one  to  the  other. 

The  Act  32  and  33  VicU  c  48  allows  the  judge,  in  place  of 
the  former  oath,  to  ndminisler.to  a  witness  this  declaration  : — '  I 
solemnly  promise  and  declare  that  the  evidence  given  by  me  to 
this  court  shall  be  the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  but 
the  truth.*  Any  one  giving  &lse  evidence  after  making  this 
declaration  is  liable  to  the  penalties  of  perjury. 


yLiOogle 


EVI 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EVI 


No  counsel,  attorney,  or  other  person  pi-aftisianally  connected 
with  the  cause  can  be  compelled  to  disclose  matter  confidentially 
intrusted  to  him.  But  lawyers  not  engaged  in  the  cause,  phy- 
sicians, divines,  servanB,  and  friends  can  be  compelled  to  divulge 
all  matter  relevant  Co  the  issue,  though  it  has  been  imparted  to 
them  in  the  strictest  professional  conhdence,  and  however  deli- 
cate its  nature.  Act  l^  and  l8  Vict.  c.  34  empowers  the  courts 
of  law  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  to  compel  the  attend- 
ance of  witnesses  out  of  their  jurisdiction ;  witnesses  not  appear- 
ing to  be  punished  by  the  court  of  the  county  in  which  the  pro- 
cess has  been  served  in  the  same  manner  as  in  disobedience  to 
a  writ  of  Subprena  (q.  v.).  The  superior  courts  at  Westminster 
and  Dublin,  the  Court  of  Session  in  Scotland,  and  the  supreme 
court  in  any  colony  or  possession  of  her  Majesty,  are  authorised 
on  due  application  to  issue  an  order  to  examine  witnesses  in 
suits  pending  before  any  tribunal  in  her  Majesty's  dominions. 
See  Witness. 

Kril  (Old  Eng;.  y/el,  PI.  Deut.  orsil,  Dtit,  tujjtl,  Fris.  tvel, 
Ger.  iibel.  Old  High  Ger.  hJ/7,  Mceso-Goth.  uhels ;  the  root  is 
uncertain)  is  a  term  of  theological  oiigin,  partially  adopted  into 
the  language  of  common  life,  and  usually  undeistood  to  mean 
whatever  is  contrary  to  our  ideas  of  moral  rectitude  and  tends 
to  interfere  with  the  general  happiness  of  mankind  physically, 
morally,  and  socially.  Traces  of  something  wrong  in  all  the  de- 
partments of  human  life,  that  seems  irreconcilable  with  the  rule 
of  infinite  power,  wisdom,  and  goodness  in  the  universe,  are  not 
far  to  seek  nor  hard  to  find.  Besides  the  more  directly  physical 
evils,  such  as  the  havoc  caused  by  hurricanes  of  wind  on  sea  and 
land,  earthquakes,  explosions,  epidemics,  &c. ,  we  find,  e.g.,  tribes 
of  human  beings  living  for  centuries  in  brutish  ignorance,  and 
finally  left  to  perish  by  pestilence  and  internecine  war.  We  have 
the  sufferings  and  sorrows  oE  the  multitudes  who  are  bom  into  the 
world  with  constitutions  predisposing  them  to  physical  disease 
and  pain,  and  to  moral  obliquity,  and  who  get  in  their  upbring- 
ing a  special  tnuning  to  vice,  cruelty,  and  crime.  We  see  the 
t&lented,  the  useful,  and  the  benevolent  cut  down  in  the  prime 
of  life,  while  the  stupid  and  the  useless  are  spared.  We  see  on 
the  one  side  honesty  in  i^ags,  innocence  ruined  and  oppressed, 
martyrs  imprisoned,  tortured,  and  put  to  death ;  and  on  the 
other  knavery  and  tyranny  stalking  in  prosperity  and  honour. 
The  mystery  of  the  existence  and  causa  of  all  this  is  one 
which  men  have  been  trying  to  explain  ever  since  specula- 
tion began.  Two  great  modes  of  solution  have  been  attempted, 
the  Dualistic  and  the  Panthmlic.  I,  Under  the  former  may  be 
classed: — (i)  The  Eastern  speculators,  who  accounted  for  E. 
in  the  world  by  the  innate  opposition  of  matter  to  the  divine 
will.  By  the  one  absolute,  uncreated,  universal  Being-^accordr 
ing  to  the  Zend-Avesta,  the  sacred  books  of  the  ancient 
Paraees — were  created  two  dpitips,  the  gods  of  light  and  dark- 
ness, of  wisdom  and  ignorance,  of  good  and  E. ;  the  latter 
coming  first,  apij  the  former  being  produced  as  a  remedial 
principle  to  regulate  th?  work  of  the  latter.  The  Gnostic  sects 
of  the  early  Christian  Church  adopted  these  dualistic  notions 
from  the  East,  which  were  fully  developed  by  (2)  the  Mani- 
chjeans,  who  either  ascribed  the  origin  of  K  to  the  Demiui^s 
(the  creator  of  the  material  world,  himself  created  by  the 
Eternal),  or  maintained  that  it  was  inherent  in  rnatter.  The 
ascetic  practices,  so  common  among  Christians  at  the  time,  in- 
dicate the  prevalence  in  the  Churdi  of  the  view  akijj  to  this, 
that  the  body  is  the  seat  and  oi^an  of  sia  (3)  The  Christian 
fathers,  who,  generally  speaking,  traced  the  origin  of  E.  to  the 
rebellion  of  the  human  will  against  the  will  of  God,  although 
some  of  them  ascribed  it  to  sensuality,  and  Athanasius,  as  well 
as  Origen,  regarded  moral  E.  as  something  negative.  Augustine 
arrived  at  the  same  conclusion  by  a  different  road,  (4)  Another 
theory  accounts  for  E.  on  the  principle  of  necessary  opposition 
or  antagonism.  As  there  is  no  rest  without  fatigue,  no  pleasure 
without  pain,  &c.,  so  there  could  be  no  virtue  without  vice. 
Moral  goodness  is  the  masteiy  over  moral  evil.  2.  The  Pan- 
thekUc  theory  of  E,  depends  of  course  on  its  theory  of  onfolt^. 
This  system,  the  earliest  known  origin  of  which  was  in  India, 
teaches  that  the  eternal,  infinite  Being  creates  by  self- evolution, 
whereby  he  becomes  and  is  all  existence.  Accordmgly,  as  it  is 
expressed  (l)  by  the  modem  philosophers  of  this  school  {e.g., 
Spinoia),  E.  is  only  limitation  or  modified  good,  for  all  modes  of 
action  are  all  alike  modes  of  God's  activity.  Thus  the  less  of 
being  tlie  less  of  good,  and  E,  is  what  is  finiie,  for  the  fini 


simply  the  negation  or  limitation  of  infinite  being.  We  may 
also  note  another  theory  associated  with  the  name  of  Leibnitz, 
who  resolves  sin  into  privation,  and  refers  it  to  the  necessary 
limitation  of  a  creature.  God  could  not  create  a  world  without 
sin,  because  he  could  not  make  creatures  absolutely  perfect. 
(2)  The  theory  held  by  Bolingbroke  and  the  sceptics  of  his  time, 
who  account  for  the  origin  of  E,  on  the  festhetic  principle 
of  the  proportion  of  parts  in  the  scale  of  sentient  bemg.  As 
animal  life  is  graduated  from  the  highest  IntelUgence  down  to 
the  point  at  which  the  animal  seems  half  a  plant,  so  in  the  moral 
world  '  there  is  a  ladder  whose  top  reaches  the  loftiest  unselfish- 
ness, and  whose  rounds  gradually  descend  to  the  grossest  forms 
of  moral  life.'  (3)  The  fatalistic  theory  of  the  Deists  of  last 
century,  whidi  Butler  sought  to  refute.  As  the  universe  is  the 
necessary  outcome  of  the  necessary  existence  of  God,  all  the 
orders  of  existence  in  the  universe,  which  must  also  be  necessary, 
are  fated  to  form  links  in  one  chain  of  eternal  and  unalterable 
necessity,  and  to  be  as  they  are  at  any  given  stage  of  their  de- 

The  great  difficulty  in  the  way  of  accountmg  for  the  existence 
of  E.  lies  in  the  two  doctrines  of  the  existence  of  a  personal  God 
of  infinite  power,  wisdom,  and  goodness,  and  of  the  free,  self- 
determining  action  of  the  human  will.  Accordingly  most  of  the 
theories  enumerated  above  try  to  get  rid  more  or  less  of  one  or 
other  of  these  two  doctrines  ;  some  of  them  of  both.  '  Those  who 
give  up  the  personality  of  God  find  a  solution  of  the  problem 
to  their  own  satisfaction  in  maintaining  that  by  so  doing  they 
render  E.  and  sin  in  the  ordinary  sense  tiMamxgliss,  because 
these  tprms  point  back  to  a  period  in  the  childhood  of  mankind 
when  human  duty  was  held  to  consist  in  obeying  a  series  of 
positive  commands,  and  that  what  they  represent  are  merely  the 
results  of  imperfection  or  ignorance.  Of  all  the  solutions  of  the 
mysterious  problem  given  by  those  who  retain  the  two  conditions, 
not  one  amounts  to  a  real  explanation  of  the  difBculty.  Per- 
haps no  adequate  explanation  is  possible  to  finite  beings  in  their 
present  condition.  But  as  science  more  and  more  fully  reveals 
the  beautiful  evolution  by  which  from  the  lowest  forms  in  nature 
endless  varieties  have  been  produced,  as  history  gradually  recog- 
nises in  civilisation  the  outcome  of  a  perpetual  stru^le  against 
obstacles  to  its  advance,  a  hope  arises  in  the  human  mind  that 
there  is  in  the  dread  phenomena  of  E,  a  purpose  which  may  one 
day  be  seen  to  be  not  incompatible  with  the  wisdom  and  good- 
ness of  an  Almighty  Being.  Ste 'Rod.gf^s  Syit.T^eolBgyU^Ti); 
Naville's  Problem  of  E.;  Hunt's  £jjoj'  en  Pantheism  (1866); 
T.  Parker's  Ssrmons  on  Pnniidenee ;  Neauder's  Geschkkte  d. 
Christl,  Jill,  w,  lUrche  {Sfanichaism,  &c.), 

Evil  Eya  The  belief  that  the  human  eye  can  put  forth 
powers  of  positive  mischief,  can  blight  and  destroy  everything 
that  has  life,  appears  to  have  prevailed  universally  over  llie 
ancient  world — in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Afiica,  It  is  still  pre- 
valent in  heathen  countries,  and  maint^ns  its  ground  to  some 
extent  in  Christendom,  The  Greeks  used  the  word  hashainB, 
the  Latins/u««o,  to  describe  this  baleful  influence.  In  Italian 
we  have  the  tnal  occhio,  in  French  the  memvcds  mil;  and  most 
languages  bear  witness  to  the  existence  of  the  belief.  We  meet 
with  the  phrase  'eye-bitten  cattle,'  'eye-biting  witches,'  in 
treatises  on  the  subject,  and  it  was  an  old  belief  in  England  that 
those  persons  who  ^had  two  balls,  or  two  blcuks  in  the  apple  of 
the  eye '  (what  is  called  a  double  pupil),  possessed  much  of  this 
baneful  power.  Hence  probably  the  common  saying,  '  No  one 
can  say  that  black  is  the  white  of  my  eye  '—can  say  that  I  have 
an  E.  E.  The  number  of  amulets,  charms,  and  spells  '  defen- 
sative '  or  'cpunteractive,'  recommended  in  books,  ancient  and 
modeni,  against  the  E,  E,  is  very  great.  Bathing  the  eye 
with  Kdiva  is  thought  very  effective  in  neutralising  the  destruc- 
tive influence  for  a  time,  and  it  is  still  common  when  any  object 
of  great  value  or  beauty  is  to  be  viewed  to  hear  one  person 
say  to  another,  '  Bathe  your  eye  before  you  Jook  at  it ; '  and 
'  spitting  three  times  in  the  eye  is  sufficient  to  updp  the  strongest 
spell.  Jn  England  'turning  the  cog,!,'  as  it  is  caJled,  will  not 
merely  neutralise  the  evil,  but  actually  turn  the  tables  on  the 
witch,  and  make  her  feel  as  if  a  red-hot  coal  lay  on  her  heart 
until  she  withdraws  her  charms.  In  Scotland  the  'mountain 
ash,'  or  ro'yan-tree,  is  the  great  pressryativp  or  '  sainmg '  agent 
A  piece  of  this  wood  worn  on  the  breast  keeps  a  man  scatheless. 
A  branch  of  rowan  laid  above  the  byre-door  will  ordinariljr  pro- 
tect the  cattle,  and  in  special  drcumslances  a  twig  twisted  in  the 
599 


vLiOOQle 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPJiDIA. 


EWA 


hair  of  the  cow's  tail  will  giiatd  any  individual  cow ;  or,  laid 
under  the  churn,  will  ensure  its  yielding  ihe  due  proportion  of 
butter. 

The  belief  in  an  E.  E,,  though  it  has  assumed  a  multitude  of 
grossly  superstitious  forms,  has  doubtless  origmated,  like  many 
other  superstitions,  in  the  exaggeration  of  a  natural  fact  The 
power  of  the  eye  is  in  reality  almost  unlimited  ;  some  men  can 
read  unerringly  the  thoughts  of  others  by  a  single  glance.  Tliis 
mysterious  capability  in  times  of  wide-spread  ignorance  would 
naturally  engender  a  thousand  crude  fancies  in  the  breasts  of  the 
common  people,  which  astute  and  cunning  men  wo»ld  easily 
turn  to  their  advantage. 

EVolute  and  In'volute.  If  a  stretched  inextensible  cord 
be  supposed  wound  round  a  given  plane  curve,  each  point  of  the 
cord,  when  unwound  under  tension,  will  describe  a  curve,  of 
which  tlie  original  curve  is  tlie  E.  These  evolved  curves  again 
are  involutes  of  the  original  curve.  It  is  apparent,  then,  that  a 
given  plane  curve  has  an  infinite  number  of  similar  involutes,  but 
has  only  one  E.  A  kinematical  consideration  of  the  above  nje- 
thod  of  description  shows  that  tangents  of  a  curve  are  normals  to 
its  I.,  and  normals  to  a  curve  are  tangents  to  its  E. ;  and  that  an 
E.  may,  therefore,  be  defined  _as  the  locus  of  the  ultimate  inter- 
sections of  Ihe  normals,  or,  in  other  words,  the  locus  of  the 
centres  of  curvature.  The  circle  has  no  E.,  or  rather  its  E.  is 
reduced  to  a  single  point.  Its  I.  is  a  spiral,  and  is  of  some 
practical  importance  in  the  malting  of  toothed  wheels.  The  in- 
volutes of  the  cycloid  and  equiangular  spiral  are  geometrical 
curiosities,  as  being  similar  and  equal  cycloids  and  spirals.  The 
analytical  methods  of  investigation  of  these  derived  curves  will 
be  found  in  most  text-books  on  the  elements  of  tiie  differential 
and  integral  calculus. 

Evolu'tion  and  !&ivolu'tion  are  two  inverse  algebraic  ope- 
rations, the  latter  concerning  itself  with  the  raising  of  numbers 
or  expressions  to  powers,  the  latter  with  the  exli-action  of  roots  of 
similar  quantities.  Thus  a  x  ax  a  isn  raised  to  the  thurd  power, 
and  is  written  a' ;  and  in  the  same  way  a"  is  unity  multiplied  by 
a  ntimes.  This  is  a  case  of  I.,  and  is  the  case  which  occurs 
constantly  in  arithmetic  In  algebra,  however,  the  term  has  a 
fer  wider  significance,  being  the  expression  of  the  sum  of  «  quan- 
tities raised  to  the  mth  power  as  the  sum  of  a  series  of  deter- 
minable quantities,  or  in  other  words,  the  expansion  of 

The  binomial  theorem 


(o  -e  by  =  3"+  » 


-2*'  + 


is  a  spedal  case  of  I.,  and  one  of  very  frequent  occurrence,  and 
of  great  importance  in  both  pure  and  mixed  njathematics. 

E,  is  usually  called  in  arithmetic  the  extraetion  of  roots;  that  is 
tofciy,  givenany  number  or  expression,  it  is  required  to  find  that 
quantity  which  when  raised  to  a  given  power  will  be  the  given 
quantity.  It  thus  requires  in  the  first  place  a  knowledge  of  I. ; 
and  this  knowIed|;e  is  sufficient  to  obtam  the  method  of  solution. 
We  shall  here  indicate  the  general  method  by  the  consideration  of 
the  special  case  presented  by  the  cube  root.    From  I.,  we  know  that 

(a  ^-  bf  =  o'  -I-  ■iaH  -H  yib^  +  I?. 
The  cube  root,  then,  of  the  right-hand  expression  is  a  -I-  i,  the 
first  terra  of  which  is  a,  the  cube  root  of  o". 

|a'  +  3as*  +  3a*'  +  *'(n-i-i 


3^'  +  Zab  +  ^= 


Subtracting  a',  we  have  .three  terms  remaining  for  which  wi 
must  find  a  divisor  such  that  the  quotient  may  be  b.  The  first 
term  of  this  divisor  is  evidently  t&ee  times  the  square  of  the 
first  term  of  the  answet;  and  to  this  must  be  added  three  times 
the  product  of  the  first  and  second  (which  latter  is  obtained  from 
consideration  of  the  trial  divisor  3a')  and  the  square  of  the 
second.  If  there  be  a  third  term  m  the  answer,  the  first  two 
must  be  taken  as  one  term  and  treated  in  the  same  way.  The 
application  to  arithmetic  is  easy,  if  the  value  of  each  figure  in 
the  number,  as  to  wliether  it  represents  units,  tens,  hundreds,  or 
thousands,  be  always  kept  in  view.  The  full  trealment  both  of 
the  square  and  cube  roots,  which  are  alone  of  any  practical  im- 
portance, may  be  found  in  any  treatise  on  elementary  algebra. 

Evolution  Theory,  in  its  widest  signification,  is  an  hypo- 
thesis which  regards  all  nature,  physical  and  biological,  as  the 


result  of  a  development  from  the  general  to  the  spec! 
simple  to  the  complex ;  at  the  same  lime  viewing  ' 
gress,  the  growth  of  language,  literature,  moral  and  religious 
sentiments,  science,  and  art,  as  but  the  higher  and  ultimate  re- 
sults of  the  same  nafiu^  laws  acting  through  endless  variations. 
Tlie  idea  of  evolution  is  truly  philosophical,  but  no  full  explana- 
tion of  its  working  has  as  yet  been  given,  notwithstanding  nume- 
rous atlempts.  Darwin's  theory  01  natural  selection  (see  Dar- 
winian Thboky)  may  account  for  the  transmission  and  perpe- 
tuation of  useful  variations,  but  it  cannot  account  for  variation 
itself;  while  Herbert  Spencer's  bold  attempt  to  produce  from  a 
homogeneous  distribution  of  matter  a  heterogeneous  but  dyna- 
mically stable  universe,  with  the  subsequent  development  of  life, 
instinct,  reason,  and  social  aad  moral  qualities,  is  unsatisfactory, 
and  even  in  certain  instances  self- destructive  in  its  reasoning. 

Evolutioss,  MiKtary,  include  all  the  movements  of  troops 
under  command,  in  times  of  peace  and  war.  The  tendency  of 
the  development  of  lite  art  of  warfare  is  to  simplify  E. ;  a,  ' 
modem  Drill  (q,  y,)  the  soldier  is  in  many  cases  intrusted  t( 
form  some  of  them  in  the  manner  which,  in  ce 
seems  to  him  the  best     See  TacTics. 

Ev'ora  (anc,   Ebora  and  Liiiralilas  yii/ia),    the   capital  of 
Alemtejo,  Portugal,  situated  on  a  high  plain,  73  miles  E.  by  S. 
of  Lisbon  by  railway.      It  is  the  see  of  an  archbishop   (since 
1541),  was  often  in  former  times  the  residence  of  the  king  and 
the  seat  of  the  Cortes,  and  has  two  ruined  forts,  a  large  Gotliic 
cathedral  (11S6),  several  convents,  and  a  library  of  50,000  vols. 
Its  manufactures  are  chiefly  leather  and  ironwares.     Pop.  (1864) 
11,965.    E.  was  captured  by  Sertorjus  in  80  B.C.     Taken  t 
the  Arabs  in  71a,  it  was  recbvered  in  1166.    The  Roman  ant 
quities  of   E,   have  attracted  mucli  attention.      They  consi 
chiefly  of  a  temple  of  Diana,  with  Corinthian  columi^  now 
used  as  a  slaughter-house,  and  an  aqueduct,  part  of  which  w 
demolished  in  1875.     At  the  end  of  the  aqueduct  is  an  exquisite 
tower,  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  Ionic  architecture  in  the 
Peninsula. 

Ev'remond,  Charles  de  Marquetel  de  St  Denis, 
Seigneur  de  St,  a  famous  wit  and  epicurean  of  the  17th  c,  was 
born  at  St  Denis  du  Guast,  near  Coulances,  April  I,  1613.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  baron,  and  after  studying  in  a  Jesuit  college, 
entered  the  army,  where  his  wit  and  bravery  won  him  the  friend- 
ship of  Turenne,  Conde,  and  other  distinguished  men,  Condrf 
gave  him  a  lieutenancy,  which  he  lost,  along  with  the  prince's 
favour,  for  indulging  in  indiscreet  raillery.  At  the  time  of  the 
Fronde  he  satirised  the  king's  enemies,  but  shortly  afterwards 
was  imprisoned  during  three  months  for  a  rash  witticism  on 
Mazariii,  and  his  sprightly  sallies  agiunst  the  treaty  of  the 
Pyrenees  compelled  him  to  flee  to  England  in  1662.  There  he 
became  one  of  the  brightest  ornaments  of  the  giddy  Restoration 
society.  Charles  II,  gave  hinia  pension  of  ^300;  William  III. 
was  ^0  diarmed  with  E.,  who,  though  pardoned  by  Louis 
XIV,  in  17S9,  remained  in  England  till  his  death  at  London, 
September  ao,  1703.  His  letters  are  scarcely  surpassed,  even  in 
French  literature,  for  polished  and  easy  vivacity,  See  Des 
Maizeaux's  edition  of  his  works  (Lond,  1705). 

Evreiuc'  ('on  .the  waters,'  anc,  Mediolanum,  later  Ebui-o- 
vices),  the  capital  of  the  department  of  Eure,  France,  on  the 
Iton,  67  miles  W.N.W.  of  Paris  by  railway,  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishop,  and  has  a  fine  cathedral  of  the  I  Ith  c,  a  clodt-tower 
of  1417,  an  episcopal  palace  (1484),  a  (heatre,  a  botanic  garden, 
and  elegant  promenades.  Tlie  manufactures  are  cotton  and 
woollen  fabrics,  leather,  liqueurs,  &c.  Pop,  (1872)13,350.  E. 
was  pillaged  by  RoUo  and  his  Northmen  in  892,  and  was  burned 
by  Henry  I.  of  :5ngland  in  1 1 19,  In  the  reigns  of  Henry  V.  and 
Henry  VI.  it  was  repeatedlyin  the  hands  of  the  English. 

B'wald,  Georg  Heinriqli  Augqst  Ton,  one  of  the  most 
illustrious  biblical  scholars  of  die  igih  c,  was  born  at  Gottingen, 
l6th  November  1803,  studied  at  the  university  of  liis  native 
town,wlierehebecameini827extraordinary,andini83i(wdmary. 
Professor  of  Philosophy.  In  1835  be  was  appointed  Professor 
of  the  Oriental  Languages.  Travels  in  search  of  Oriental  MSS. 
took  him  m  1826,  1829,  and  1836  to  Berlin,  Paris,  and  Ilaly.  As 
one  of  the  seven  Gottingen  professors  who  protested  against  the 
abolition  of  constitutional  law  and  liberty  m  Hanover,  he  was 
dismissed  from  his  chair,  12th  December  1S37,  and  thereby 
obtained  leisure  for  a  visit  to  England.     In  1838  he  accepted  a 


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call  as  ordinary  Professor  of  Theology  to  Tiibingen,  was  ennobled 
by  the  King  of  Wiirtembei|f  in  1S41,  and  returneii  to  Gottiiigen 
m  1848  ;  and  in  the  North  German  Siichstag  ai  1867  was  con- 
spicuous by  his  Hanoverian  and  anti- Prussian  policy,  E.'s  works 
on  the  Hebrew  language,  his  exegesis  of  the  Old  Testament, 
and  his  treatment  of  Jewish  history  in  this  department  of  learned 
labour,  have  that  supreme  merit  which  the  Germans  call  '  epoch- 
making.'  They  have  moulded  the  critical  conceptions  of  ail 
subsequent  scholars,  and  have  left  a  lasting  impress  on  biblical 
Study.  E.  is  probably  tlie  greatest  genius  that  has  adorned 
modem  German  theolt^.  "nie  most  notable  of  his  numerous 
writings  are  his  Kritischi  Gramr/iatH  der  Hebr.  Sprache,  repeat- 
edly recast  under  the  title  of  Amfiihrlickes  Lehrhuch  der  Hebr. 
Sprachs  (7th  ed.  G5K.  1863),  Hebr.  Sprachlehre  fur  An/dnger 
(3d  ed.  Gott.  1862),  mhe  Lied  SalariiS's  (GiJtL  1826),  Z>u  Foet- 
ischtn  Bikher  des  Allen  Sundes  (4  vols.  Gott.  1835-37),  ■^'^ 
PropMen  des  Allen  Bundes  (2  vols.  Stutt.  1840),  the  Geschkhti 
des  Vdkes  Israd  (7  vols.  Gott  1843-59 ;  3d  ed.  1864-69),  Die 
drei  erstm  Eiiangelien  (GHtt.  1850  ;  new  ed.  1871-72),  Die  Stnd- 
schreiben  des  Apostels  Paulas  (Gott.  1857),  IMe  Johanndahm 
Schriften  (2  vols.  Gott.  1861-62).  E.  also  thoroughly  studied 
the  other  Oriental  kngaages,  especially  the  Arabic,  Aramaic, 
Ethiopic,  Phtenician,  Persian,  and  Sanskrit.  In  some  respects 
his  Grammatica-CrUtca  Lingua  Arabi^a  (a  vols.  Leips.  1831-33) 
is  still  unsurpassed.  He  has  made  nnmerous  contiibations  to 
Oriental  and  biblical  literature  in  the  Abhandlungen  %ur  Orient, 
und  Biblischen  Liieraiur  (voL  L  Gott.  1832),  In  the  Zsitichrifi 
far  Kande  des  Morgmlandes,  in  the  Abhandlangea  of  the  Gijt- 
tingen  Philosophical  Socieq',  and  in  the  G'ittinger  Gelehrten 
Anseigen,  but  especially  in  the  Jahriuch^  der  BiiHschts  Wis- 
semchaft,  established  by  him  (vols.  L-xli.  Gott,  1849-65).  E.'s 
latest  works  are  Das  Sendschreiben  an  die  Hebrder  (1871),  and 
Siebm  Sendschreibin  des  Netten  Bundes  (1871).  E.  died  at  Got- 
tingen,  5th  May  1875  . 

Ew^d,  Jotianaes,  the  greatest  lyric  poet  of  Denmark,  was 
bom  at  Copenhagen,  November  18,  1743.  He  lost  his  father 
at  the  age  of  eleven,  and  was  educated  at  Slesvig  school.  His 
romantic  adventurous  spirit  prompted  him,  when  only  sixteen, 
to  join  the  Prussian  army,  which  he  afterwards  quitted  for  the 
Austrian  service.  In  1760  he  returned  to  Copenhagen  and 
devoted  himself  to  theology,  buthis  studies  were  cut  short  by  a 
disappointment  m  love.  He  was  then  aged  twenty-two,  and  had 
given  no  proofs  of  a  poetic  gilt ;  hut  a  funeral  ode  which  he  wrote 
on  the  death  of  Frederic  V,  of  Denmark  in  1767,  gave  hini  a  high 
literary  standing.  He  became  rapidly  famous  as  a  lyric  and 
dramatic  poet,  but  sank  into  dissipation  and  poverty,  and  was 
deserted  by  his  molher  and  nearest  relatives,  finally  he  received 
a  government  pension,  and  died  at  Copenhagen,  March  17,  1781. 
In  E.'s  time  a  bitter  feud  was  going  on  between  the  French  and 
the  German  schools  in  Danish  literature,  and  E.,  who  was  an 
ardent  disciple  of  KJopstock,  did  much  to  introduce  cierman 
ideas  and  tastes.  E.'s  lyrics  are  the  finest  in  Danidi  poeliy.  His 
Kong  CArisHan  slad  ved  hiiien  Mast,  which  is  translated  by 
Longfellow,  has  become  the  Danish  national  anthefij,  and  many 
of  his  sea-songs  are  veiy  popular.  His  works  are  cwefiilly 
finished,  sometimes  bombastic,  and  sometimes  b|ight  wit))  heroip 
exultation  or  fantastic  humour.  His  dramas  include  Adam  eg 
Eva,  Lykkens  Timpel,  Balders  DM,  and  Fiskerne—'Cas  twp  ^t 
being  probably  his  masterpieces.  The  best  edition  of  E.'s  works 
isthatbyLiebentieig(Copenh.  1850-55).  Seethe  livesof  E.  by 
Molbech  (1831),  Hammerich  (1851),  and  Olsen  (1S61). 

Ewe,  a  female  sheep,  whose  wool  has  been  twice  cJippe4,  and 
which  has  proved  itself  fertile.  Ewi  hogg,  a  female  lamb.  The 
origin  of  hogg  is  thought  to  be  the  Celtic  og,  'young,'  whence 
o^n,  'a  young  man,'  and  o^,  'a  virgin.'  EUd  gimmer,  a  ewe 
hogg  twice  shorn,  which  has  never  been  put  to  the  ram.  See 
Stephen's  Book  of  the  Earm. 

Examina'tion  of  a  Bankrapt.    See  Bankruptcy. 


an  examination;  (2)  by  competition  open  to  all  candidates 
out  private  influence,  and  limited  only  by  certain  regulati 
to  age,  health,  character,  and  nationality, 

The  first,  or 'new  system,'  as  it  was  then  named,  was  adopted 
in  1855,  in  conformity  with  the  recommendation  of  a  Committee 
of  Inquiry  constitated  two  years  previously.  It  was  applied  to 
all  the  public  departments  till  June  1870,  on  the  4th  of  which 
month  forty-four  of  the  public  offices  and  one  department  of  the  Fost- 

r\cc  V, Older  in  Council  opened  to  persons  who  without 

rivate  mfluence  should  offer  themselves 

:  to  pass  the  appointed  examinations. 

on  is  in  handwriting,  orthc^raphy, 

n.     If  a  candidate  fails  in  this,  he  will 

exl  competitive  examination,  or  to  any 

within  three  months  after  his  rejection. 

the  first-class  can- 

of  the  subjects 


as  candidates,  and  be 

The  preliminary 
and  English  comp 
not  be  admitted  to 

preliminary  _     

Having  passed  the  preliminary 
j:j.. .  j^  prepared  for  - 


Examination  of  a  Witness.    See  Evidence. 

Examinations  for  the  Public  Service.     Formerly  the 

junior  appointments  in  the  Civil  Service  could  only  be  obtained 

through  patronage.     There  are  now  two  ways  of  admission— (i) 

by  private  influence  and  nominalion,  with  subsequent  success  iu 

151 


which  are  here  given,  with  theii  maximum  number  of  marks ; — 
English  composilion,  including /)»;ii  writing,  500;  history  of 
England,  including  that  of  the  laws  and  constitution,  500  ;  Eng- 
lish language  and  literature,  500 ;  language,  literature,  and  his- 
tory of  Greece,  750 ;  of  Rome,  750  ;  of  France,  375 ;  of  Ger- 
m^y,  375  ;  of  Italy,  375  ;  matfiemalics,  pure  and  mixed,  1250  j 
natural  science,  that  is,  chemistry,  including  heat,  electricity,  and 
magnetism,  geologv  and  mineralogy,  zoology,  and  botany,  1000 
[the  total  being  obtainable  by  adequate  proficiency  in  any  two 
or  more  of  the  five  branches) ;  moral  science,  that  is,  logic, 
mental  and  moral  philosophy,  500 ;  jurisprudence,  375 ;  politi- 
cal economy,  375.  The  fee  for  this  examination  is  ^5.  Th- 
second-class  examination  is  held  under  the  same  conditions  as 
the  first  class,  the  subjects  being  adapted  to  persons  of  mferior 
education,  and  the  appointments  consequent  on  passing  being  of 
course  of  smaller  value  and  importance.  The  subjects  and  pos- 
sible macks  are — Handwriting,  400;  orthography,  400 ;  arith- 
metic, 400;  copying  MS.  (to  test  accuracy),  200;  indexing  or 
docketing,  200  ;  digesting  returns  into  summaries,  200  ;  English 
composition,  zoo  ;  geography,  200 ;  English  history,  200 ;  book- 
keeping, 200,     The  fee  is  £1. 

The  most  important  and  lucrative  branch  of  the  Civil  Service 
open  to  competition  is  that  of  India-  The  candidate  must  salisf 
the  Civil  Service  Commissioners  before  1st  February  that  he 
a  born  subject  of  the  Queen,  that  his  age  on  the  following  v. 
March  will  be  above  seventeen  years  and  under  twenty-one,  the 
he  has  no  bodily  infirmity  unfittmg  him  for  the  Civil  Service  of 
India,  and  that  he  is  of  good  moral  character. 

The  subjects  of  tlie  first  examination,  and  the  maximum  of 
marks  attainable  are  the  same  as  in  the  first-dass  home  Civil 
Service,  given  above,  except  that  pr&is  writing  is  not  part  of 
the  English  composition  examination,  and  that  for  jurisprudence 
and  political  economy  are  substituted  the  Sanskrit  and  the  Arabic 
language  and  literature,  with  a  maximum  of  500  marks  each. 
The  number  of  successful  candidates  corresponds  with  the  ni 
ber  of  vacancies  to  fill  which  the  examination  is  held, 
believe  there  are  usually  about  thirty-five  vacancies,  and  usually 
about  ten  times  as  many  candidates.  Tlie  successful  candidat 
have  twoyears  of  probation  and  special  study.  There  are  dmii 
the  two  years  four  periodical  examinations,  and  after  each  of  the 
first  three  has  been  passed,  the  candidate  receives  an  allowance 
of  ;^5o,  and  after  the  last  half  year  /iSO.  The  following  are 
the  subjects  of  study  for  the  second  examination,  with  the  maxi- 
mum niimber  of  marks  attainable: — Sanskrit,  500;  vernacular 
languages  of  India,  each  50OJ  the  history  and  gec^raphy  of 
Imlia,  350;  law,  1250;  political  economy,  350.  Candidates 
are  told  by  the  commissioners  that  they  are  expected  to  devote 
their  whole  time  to  the  acquisition  of  these  special  branches  of 
knowledge.  The  final  examination,  which  is  a  most  searching 
one,  extending  over  three  weeks,  decides  the  fate  of  flie  proba- 
tioner.  If  he  succeeds,  he  will  find  himself  on  the  high  road  to 
fortune  and  position.  The  lowest  salary  that  any  writer  receives 
on  arrival  in  India  is  ^300  a  year.  Promotion  is  rapid,  the 
salaries  rising  by  hundreds  of  pounds  a  year.  The  highest  sala- 
ries are  those  of  the  judges  of  the  Sudder  Courts,  /5000  a  year. 
In  a  recent  final  examination  the  highest  number  of  marks  gained 
was  3090,  the  lowest  by  a  successful  candidate  was  1585.  The 
objection  has  been  made  to  the  competition  system,  as  regards 
the  Civil  Service  of  India,  that  the  men  thereby  obtained  for  it- 
generally  deficient  in  social  pbUsh  compared  with  those  ob- 
tained under  the  nomination  system.     To  obviate  this  objection 


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it  has  been  proposed  (1876)— -liut  the  plan  hag  not  so  far  been 
given  effect  to — that  the  candidates  cliosen  after  the  preliminary 
examination  should  continue  their  studies  at  one  or  other  of  the 
great  universities  of  England,  or  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin ; 
the  principle  on  wliich  it  is  proposed  so  to  favour  fliese  unirer- 
sities,  and  to  exclude  the  Scotch  and  others,  being  that  those 
favoured  take  a  moral  supervision  of  their  students,  which  the 
others  do  noC  It  has  also  been  proposed  to  make  some  change 
in  the  ages  of  candidates  for  the  Civil  Serviae  getjerally. 

The  Indian  Civil  Engineering  College  at  Cooper's  Hill,  Sur- 
rey, was  established  in  1870,  with  a  view  to  the  education  of  civil 
engineers  for  this  department.  Admission  is  obfiuned  'by  com- 
petitive examination,  to  which  all  British-born  subjects  between 
the  ages  of  seventeen  and  twenty^one,  on  the  {st  day  of  July, 
and  of  sound  constitution  and  good  character,  are  eligible. 
There  are  also  competitive  esaminations  in  connection  wiih  valu- 
able appointments  in  the  Forest  Service  of  Jndia  and  in  the 
colonies.  Examinationsof  candidates  for  the  civil  service  of  India 
will  be  made  in  1877  and  1878  under  the  present  regulations  as 
to  age  ;  but  in  1878  there  will  probably  he  a  second  exarauiation 
under  a  new  system  which  limits  the  age  to  nineteen  years ; 
hence  only  a  few  candidates  will  be  chosen  at  the  first  examina- 
tion in  18  78.  Sea  Guide  ti>  Employmtrit  in  (he  Civil  Senike,  wjth 
an  introduction  by  J.  D,  Moreli,  Lt.D, 

Exftm.'ined  Copy,  in  English  law,  js  a  copy  or  extract  of  a 
deed  or  entry  in  the  record  certified  by  the  proper  officer.  Tlie 
analogous  term  in  Scotch  law  is  Extract  (q.  v, ). 

!Blxantliem.'ata  (Gr.  lit.  'blossoms,'  '  what  burst  forth,'  then 
'eruptions,'  from  ixanthes,  '1  burst  forth  as  a  flower'),  a  class  of 
febrile  diseases,  attended  by  eruptions  on  the  skin,  which  appear 
at  a  definite  period  and  run  a  definite  course.  The  K,  or 
eruptive  fevers,  belong  Jo  the  miasmatic  order  of  ^motic  dis- 
eases, and  are  small-pos,  chicken-pos  or  varicella,  iniliary 
fever,  scarlet  fever,  hybrid  of  measles  and  scarlet  feyer,  rubeola, 
dengue,  erysipelas,  and  plague. 

Ex'arch.  (Gr.  txarches,  '  a  leader '),  a  title  which  was  M  first 
given  to  the  leader  of  the  chorus  in  a  Greek  play,  was  afterwards 
conferred  on  bishops  in  the  Greek  Church,  and  is  bow  applied 
to  a  deputy  of  the  patriarch  in  the  Russian  Greek  Church. 
Under  the  Byzantine  empire  the  governor  of 

"dan  E.     When  Narses,  the  genera] 

he  Ostrogolhic  kingdom  in  Iltdy,  he 
•■nhale  of  the  Byzantine  empire  until  his  death  in  567. 
The  Bishop  of  Rome  and  the  daca  or  rulers  of  the  various  Ita- 
lian provinces  soon  made  themselves  independent  of  the  exarch- 
ate, which  becai^e  confined  to  the  districts  round  Ravenna,  and  re- 
majned  subject  to  the  Eastern  empire  until  Aistulf.king  of  the  Lom- 
bards, took  Ravenna  in  752.  Another  exarchate  was  founded  in 
Africa  in  S34i  aw^  V^s  alKilished  by  the  Arabs  in  69S. 

Exoaml^ifm  is,  in  Scotch  law,  the  name  of  the  contract  by 
which  one  piece  of  land  is  ^changed  for  another.  The  implied 
Wairandic?  (q.  v. )  of  this  contract  is  real  warrandice,  in  virtue  of 
wliich  either  parW  in  the  event  of  eviction  &om  the  Jafl.d  which 
he  has  received  in  E.  ^ay  recover  the  laiul  which  he  gave  in 
exchai^iE.  The  porlicfls  exchanged  must  not  be  more  than  one- 
fourth  of  the  j^lue  of  the  estate,  and  they  must  not  include  the 
principal  maflsion,  house,  garden,  p3rk,or  hoine  farm.  In  Eng- 
ush  law,  see  Eschamge,  Deed  of. 

Bx'Qelleiioe,  or  Es'oellenoy,  a  title  first  borne  by  the 
Lorabardic,  then  by  the  Prankish  kiiKS,  and  by  the  German  em- 
perofs  till  the  14th  c.  The  Italian  princes  used  it  m  the  15th  c, 
but  Stoat  the  rjth  exchanged  it  for  Altaia  ('highness,'  Fr. 
Allesss).  It  has  since  become  in  most  countries  the  designation 
of  ambassadors  ;  but  in  Italy  thg  title  Ecuelensa,  though  properly 
belonging  only  to  noblenjen,  is  given  by  courtesy  to  ei'ery 
Stranger  to  whom  jt  is  sought  to  show  civility, 

ISxceptionB,  Bill  of.  In  England,  if  the  counsel  for  either 
party  at  the  hearing  or  defermining  of  a  cause  hold  that  the 
judge  mistakes  the  law,  he  roaj;  require  hin>  publicly  (o  seal  a  B. 
of  E.,  stating  the  point  in  which  he  is  supposed  to  err.  TJiSs 
the  judge  is  obli^d  to  seal,  or  if  he  refuse,  the  party  njay  hare 
a  compulsory  writ  against  liinj.  When  jury-triEd  in  civil  causes 
was  extended  to  Scotland,  it  having  been  deemed  proper  to  adopt 
sundry  English  law  terms  and  forms,  amongst  others  Bills  of  E. 
were  introduced,  the  form  being  prescribed  in  the  Appendix  to 
the  Acts  of  Sederunt,  gtli  December  and  3d  July  1823. 
60a 


!Bxch.ailg«',  the  name  given  in  the  great  commercial  cities  of 
Britain  to  the  institution  where  merchants,  bankers,  and  stock- 
brokers meet  for  the  transaction  of  business,  or  to  obtain  intelli- 
gence respecthig  the  v^lue  of  stock,  &c.  The  institution,  known 
as  the  Bourse  (Lat.  bursa,  '  purse ')  in  France  and  Belgium,  the 
Borst  in  Hambui^  aod  oljitr  German  cities,  the  Bi/rsa  in  Italy, 
is  of  foreign  origin.  Sir  Thomas  Gresham,  who  had  long  acted 
as  Britisli  agent  at  Antwerp,  resolved  to  reproduce  the  Bourse  of 
that  city  in  England.  Gresham' s  Burse,  as  the  new  building  was 
sailed,  was  commenced  in  1566,  finished  in  the  following  year, 
and  inaugurated  by  Queen  Elizabeth  (January  23,  1570-71), 
under  the  title  of  'TTie  Royal  E,"  This  building  was  destroyed 
by  the  great  fire  of  1666.  It  was  replaced  Ire  a  new  E.  in  1669, 
which  was  also  destroyed  by  fire  in  1838.  The  present  London 
E.  was  built  in  1842-45,  at  the  cost  of  ^150,000,  and  inaugu- 
rated by  Queen  Victoria  on  the  first  day  of  the  latter-  year  ss 
'  The  Royal  E.'  The  busmess  carried  on  '  on  'Change '  consists 
of  buying  and  Belling  merchandise,  and  paying,  receiving,  and 
exchangmg  money.  After  that  of  London  may  be'  mentioned, 
in  Great  Britain,  those  of  Birmiiigham  and  Glasgow.  The 
Bourse  of  Paris,  that  of  Berlin,  and  the  E.  of  New  York  are 
remarkable  for  their  el^ant  arehitecture. 

Exebange,  in  political  economy,  mea,n3  the  conversion  of  the 
money  of  one  fiouniry  into  the  money  of  another.  Jfaie  oj  £. 
means  the  price  at  which  the  conversion  can  be  effected.  This 
rate  fluctuates  according  to  the  Balance  of  Trade  (q.  v. ),  it  being 
in  favour  of  that  country  owing  least  to  the  other.  Thus,  if 
England  owes  twenty  millions  of  pounds  to  the  United  States, 
while  the  latter  country  owes  England  thirty  millions,  E.  will 
be  in  favour  of  England ;  that  is  to  say,  if  a  re^dent  in  the 
United  States  wishes  to  convert  a  certain  weight  of  gold  or  silver 
in  American  coin  into  British  coin,  he  will  receive  less  weight  in 
British  coin ;  while  the  resident  in  London  who  converts  British 
into  American  coin  witt  receive  more  weight  than  he  gives. 
When  E-  is  weight  for  weight,  then  it  is  Said  to  be  at  far. 
Between  England  and  France ^iw  is  a5'2  francs  per  £,1.  If  A 
of  London  owes  B  of  Paris  ;^joo,  and  B  owes  C  of  London  /too, 
the  whole  may  be  adjusted  without  transmission  of  bullion  by 
A  paying  C  ^4100.  But  if  Paris  owes  London  five  million!  " 
pounds,  while  I^ondon  awes  Paris  only  fonr  millions,  it  is  plain 
that  tiie  whole  relative  debt  cannot  be  extinguished  in  this  con- 
venient way,  and  there  mu^  be  the  trouble  and  expense  of 
transmitling  bullion.  The  fact  that  Paris  owes  more  to  Ijindon 
than  London  to  Paris  causes  a  greater  competition  among 
Parisians  for  orders  payable  in  Lonifon  than  there  is  in  London 
for  orders  payable  in  Paris  ;  E.  will  therefore  be  against  Paris. 

Exehange,  Bill  of.     See  Bill  of  Exchange. 

Excliange,  Deed  of,  in  English  law,  is  a  deed  by  which 
one  owner  of  land  exchanges  land  with  another.  The  portioi 
exchanged  must  be  of  equal  value,  and  the  legal  tenure  must  1 
equal.  Thus  estates  held  in  fee-simple  Cannot  be  exchanged  for 
estates  held  m  fee-tail.  (See  Fee-SiUPLb.)  By  4  and  S  Will. 
IV.  c  30,  the  proprietor  of  any  land  in  common fidd  may  exchange 
it  for  any  other  land,  whether  lying  in  the  same  or  in  another  cc 
mon  field,  or  for  any  enclosed  land  lying  in  the  same  or  in  an 
joining  parish.  For  the  exchange  of  land  held  in  right  of  the 
Church,  the  consent  of  the  patron  and  of  the  bishop  is  necessary. 

EgghaJtga,  Jlilitary,  By  the  Act  5  and  6  Edw.  VI.  c 
l6,  it  was  declared  that  all  sajes,  or  bargains  for  money  or  re- 
ward, of  or  about  offices  in  the  administration  of  justice  or  in 
the  civil  service,  Sc,  should  be  void,  and  the  intending  seller 
should  lose  all  right  to  the  of&ce,  and  the  intending  buyer  should 
be  disabled  for  ever  from  acquiring.  By  the  Act  49  Geo.  Ill, 
c.  126,  this  Act  was  extended  to  all  offices  in  the  gift  of  Che 
crown,  and  Was  also  ezte;nd<ed  to  Scotland  and  Ireland.  There 
were,  however,  excepted  from  this  Act  all  purchases  or  exchanges 
of  commissions  in  the  royal  forces  at  prices  fixed  by  his  Majesty's 
regulations.  Any  one  givjng  or  taking  more  than  the  regula- 
tion price  was  to  forfeit  his  commission  and  to  be  cashiered. 
Thfise  Acts  are  known  as  the  Army  Brokerage  Acts.  In  1683 
a  royal  warrant  ordered  the  payment  of  one  shilling  in  the 
pound  on  the  surrender  of  a  commission  to  the  person  surren- 
dering. WQliam  III.  forbade  all  payments,  and  exacted  an 
oath  from  all  officers  that  they  had  given  no  money.  This 
rule  was  omitted  from  the  Mutiny  Act  of  1701 ;  and  gradually 
purchase,  I'ecognised  by  the  Court  of  Chancery,  grew  up  into  a 


yLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPJIDIA. 


The  subject  was  often  dealt  with  ijy  committees,  but 
.impossible  to  make  overpayments  cease,  because  the 
permission  to  buy  led  to  the  practice  of  ba^ining.  Hence 
ill  1871,  when  Mr  Gladstone's  government  foiled  to  cany  their 
bill  abolishing  purchase,  they  abolished  it  1^  loysl 


changes  were  alone  lawful.  The  regulations  now  require, 
regards  first  appointments,  a  certain  standard  of  examination  ; 
IS  r^ards  promotion,  a  certain  term  of  satisfactory  service,  and 
n  most  cases  fuither  examination.  It  was  provided  tliat  officers 
of  equEJ  substantive  rank  on  fiill  pay  exchar^e  from  one  regiment 
or  corps  to  another  with,  the  sanction  of  the  commander-in-chief, 
d  on  a  certificate  from  their  superior  officer  that  the  E.  does 
it  originate  in  any  cause  affectmg  the  character  or  efficiency 
of  the  parties,  and  on  a  medical  certificate  of  fitness  to  serve, 
-10  officer  being  permitted  to  retire  within  six  months  of  his  E. 
_t  is  explained  that  the  warrant  does  not  intend  to  interpose  any 
obstacle  in  the  way  of  exchanges  between  officers  on  full  pay 
which  are  made  to  suit  (he  reasonable  convenience  of  officers. 
By  the  Act  3S  Vict.  c.  16(1875),  it  is  provided  that  her  Majesty 
may  authorise  exchanges  from  one  regiment  or  corps  to  another, 
on  such  conditions  as  may  seem  expedient  for  the  tifiu,  and  that 
notwithstanding  the  Aimy  Brokerage  Acts. 

Excliange,  Btook.  In  former  times  the  business  now 
carried  on  in  the  S.  E.  of  London  was  transacted  in  the  Bank 
of  England  ;  but  about  the  year  1700  the  dealers  in  public  secu- 
rities changed  their  place  of  meeting  to  what  is  now  called 
Change  Alley.  In  1773  some  of  the  brokers  hired  rooms  for 
business  purposes  in  Sweeting  Alley.  Tojhese  they  gave  the 
name  of  S.  E.  Subscriptions  were  subsequently  raised  to 
erect  a  building  for  the  special  purpose  of  dealing  in  stocks. 
The  site  chosen  was  Capel  Court,  so  called  after  William  Capel, 
Lord  Mayor  of  London,  who  had  resided  there.  Admission  to 
the  society  of  the  brokers,  which  had  formerly  been  free,  was 
now  appointed  to  be  by  ballot  and  subscription.  The  old  build- 
ing was  removed  and  the  present  one  opened  in  1854.  Members 
are  governed  by  a  committee,  who  have  power  to  suspend  or 
expel  any  member  'guilty  of  dishonourable  or  disgraceful  con- 
duct." A  member  is  not  allowed  to  transact  business  with  any 
one  who  is  not  a  member,  and  ail  transactions  must  be  according 
to  the  custom  of  'the  house,'  'Settling  days '  are,  for  consols, 
once  a  month,  on  a  day  between  the  6th  and  the  nth;  'for  other 
English  and  foreign  stocks  twice  a  month,  about  the  middle  and 
the  end.  Members  of  the  E.  are  either  'jobbers'  or  'brokers.' 
A  jobber  deals  on  his  own  account.  A  broker  acts  for  a 
client,  deals  with  the  jobber,  and  Is  paid  by  commission.  A 
'bull'  buys  for  settlement  at  a  future  date  on  the  speculation 
of  arise  in  price  in  the  interval.  A  'bear'  sells  for  future  settle- 
ment, on  the  speculation  of  a  fall  in  price  in  the  interval  Hence 
what  are  called  bull  transactions  and  bear  transactions  are  specu- 
lations for  the  'rise'  or  'fall'  of  stocks.  ' Contango '  is  a  pay- 
ment for  postponing  settlement  of  a  bull  transaction  from  the 
original  settling  day  to  the  next.  It  is  the  interest  on  the  pur- 
chase-money for  the  time  between  the  settling  days.  It  is  paid 
either  to  the  seller  of  the  stock,  who  agrees  to  wait  a  fortnigli' 
for  his  money,  or  it  is  paid  to  some  one  who  lends  the  money  t 
■  the  bull.  It  thus  often  happens  that  the  bear  gets  contango  o 
the  purchase- money  on  stock  which  he  has  not.  If  money  i 
dear  and  stock  plentiful,  the  contango  rate  is  high.  When  cor 
ditions  are  reversed,  as  they  often  are  from  bear  transaction; 
then  the  bear,  instead  of  receiving  contango  from  the  bull,  hs 
to  pay  for  not  being  required  to  deliver  the  stock  sold.  This 
payment  is  called  a  'backwardation.'  What  is  called  the 
'making-up'  price  of  stocks  is  their  average  prices  during  the 
day,  and  the  difference  between  this  and  the  prices  at  which 
business  is  actually  done  is  received  and  paid  by  the  bulls  and 
bears,  or  accounts  are  carried  over  on  this  principle.  Such  -- 
the  nature  of  what  are  called  time  bargains.  Time  bargdns 
bank  shares  were  rendered  illegal  by  a  recent  Act  of  Parhament, 
but  its  provisions  have'proved  inadequate  to  produce  the  desired 
effect.  The  PuUinger  frauds  led  to  a  rule  being  made  that  snbor- 
dlnates  should  not  be  dealt  with  without  due  notice  to  em- 
ployers, but  the  rule,  we  believe,  is  little  heeded. 
I  Scrip— an  abbreviation  of  subscription— is  the  document  which 
certifies  payment  of  deposits  and  calls  on  shares  previous  to  the 
issue  of  the  final  certificate.     It  is  negotiable. 


Bxoheq'uer  Bills  are  bills  of  credit  issued  (generally  by 

A       f  Parliament}  by  Exchequer,  and  pledging  the 

r  epay  the  sum  advanced  with  usual  interest, 

ra        I        ^  per  diem  per  ^100.     Those  issued  by  statu- . 

7h  charged  on  the  Consolidnled  Fund.     By  such 

h    bank    dvances  to  Government  are  made,     E.  B.  and 
;    h  q        B     ds  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  unfunded  debt. 

b  given  from  time  to  lime  for  repayment.    Bankers 

,  ef  secunty,  because  its  value  does  not  fluctuate.     The 

Court  of  Chancery  uses  them  for  permanent  investment,  bnt  pri- 
vate trustees  should  not  do  so  except  for  temporary  purposes. 
The  chief  modern  statute  is  ag  and  30  Vkt.  c.  25. 

Exchequer  Bottds  dilfer  in  being  issued  at  fixed  rates  of  interest 
r  considerable  terms  of  years. 

Exdiequer,  Oliancellor  of,  was  at  fiist  the  head  of  the 
clerks  of  the  royal  chapel,  after  they  were  formed,  in  the  reign  of 
Heniy  III.,  into  a  court  which  had  both  judicial  and  financial 
functions,  and  which  as  a  financial  body  was  called  the  Court  of 
ike  Exchequer.  \i  became  solefef  jadrcial,  but  the  C.  of  E.  re- 
mtuned  a  financial  minister,  and  is  now  the  first  minister  of 
finance  m  the  British  Government.  The  Prime  Minister,  if  he  be 
a  member  of  the  Commons,  can  hold  the  office. 

Exchequer,  Court  of.  See  Common  Law,  Courts  of; 
Court  of  Judicature,  Sitpkeme,  Acts. 

Exchequer,  Court  of,  in  Scotland.  The  Scotch  C.  of  E. 
prior  to  the  Union  was  the  King's  Revenue  Court,  and  consisted 
of  the  treasurer,  the  treasurer-depute,  and  as  many  lords  of 
Exchequer  as  the  kmg  chose  to  appoint.  By  the  Treaty  of 
Union  the  court  was  continued  until  Parliament  should  consti- 
tute a  new  one,  which  was  done  by  6  Anne,  c.  26,  The  consti- 
tution then  given  was  maintained  till  the  passing  of  the  19  and 
ao  Vict,  c.  56,  which  traiisferred  the  jurisdii  '  '  .-  -^  '- 
Scotland  to  the  Court  of  Session. 

Exoip'ients  (from  Lat.  exci^io,  '  I  take  otit '  01 
I.e.,  along  with  sometliing  else),  in  materia  medica,  a 
slightly  active  substances  u^d  as  a  medium  of  admini; 


n  of  the  E.  C  of 


ic-water,  mucilage,  and  ^rups. 


Excise'  Laws.  The  taxes  levied  upon  articles  of  consnmp- 
tion  produced  within  the  kingdom  are  called  Excise  Duties. 
They  were  first  resorted  to  as  a  temporary  espedient  by  the 
Long  Parliament.  They  have  ever  since  continued  to  be  an 
important  source  of  the  imperial  revenue  of  Great  Britain.  In 
1733  Sir  Robert  Walpole  introduced  a  bill  for  extending  the 
operation  of  the  excise,  while  at  the  same  time  it  diminished  its 
pressure  by  the  Bonding  or  Warehousing  System  (q.  v. ),  under 
which,  the  taxed  commodity  may  be  locked  in  a  Government 
warehouse  and  removed  in  instalments,  a  proportional  part  of 
the  duty  being  paid  at  each  lemovaL  The  scheme  was,  how- 
ever, then  defeated.  It  was  not  brought  forward  again  till  1802, 
when  it  became  law.  The  collection  and  management  of  the 
excise  are  under  the  Commissioners  of  Inland  Revenue,  who  ap. 
point  collectors,  accountants,  and  other  snbordinate  officers. 
The  levymg  of  the  revenue  is  fecilitated  in  England  and  Wales 
by  the  division  of  the  counties  into  fifty-six  districts  of  collection, 
with  a  subdivision  of  each  district,  each  subdivision  having  a 
supervisor  with  a  ganger  or  surveying  officer.  The  excise  duties 
are  increased  Inr  the  duties  on  licences.  Those  within  the  limits 
of  the  chief  office  in  London  are  granted  by  the  Commissioners 
of  Inland  Revenue,  or  by  persons  employed  by  them  for  the  pur- 
pose. Within  the  limits  of  the  cities  of  Edinburgh  and  Dublin 
licences  are  granted  by  the  commissioners  or  apsistant-commis- 
sioners  there,  elsewhere  by  the  collectors  and  supervisors  of  the 
respective  excise  eolIectioTis.  Upon  death  or  removal,  a  licence 
may  be  transferred  by  endorsement  for  the  residue  of  the  term, 
but  a  fresh  entry  must  be  made  of  the  premises.  The  penalties 
attached  to  the  sale  of  excisable  commodities  without  a  licence 
are  heavy,  in  some  cases  amounting  to  ^500.  The  total  revenue 
derived  from  excise  was  in  1872  /23,326,qoo. 

Ex'tatanta.    See  Stimulants. 

Exoommunioa'tioil.  is  the  banishment  of  a  member  from 
the  privileges  of  a  religious  eommunily  on  account  of  impiety  or 
other  conduct  inconsistent  with  the  rules  of  the  society.  The 
first  express  mention  of  it  among  the  Jews  is  in  Ezra  x,  7,  8,  and 
Neh,  xiii.  3.  In  later  Rabbinical  writings  three  degrees  of  E.  are 
603 


vLjOOqIc 


BXO 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EXE 


distinEuished ; — (i)  Nidai,  involving  certain  privations  in  civil 
and  religious  matters  for  thirty  days.  This  was  probably  the 
'  casting  out  of  the  synagogue '  mentioned  Luke  vi.  22,  John  ix. 
22  and  xvi.  z.  (2)  Cha-em,  a  more  severe  endusion,  prohibit- 
ing the  offender  from  buying  and  selling,  and  indnding  a  curse  or 
anathema  (in  the  LXX.  the  Greek  equivalent  for  Hebrew  cherim, 
'devoted,'  !.if,  to  destruction;  in  the  New  Testament  rendered 
'  aconrsed,"  e.g.,  Rom.  ix.  3,  I  Cor.  xii,  3,  Gal.  L  8,  9),  that  i^  a 
sentence  signifying  danger  of  death.  (3)  Shammatha,  by  which 
an  offender  was  given  over  totally  and  finally  to  the  divine 
judgment.  This  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  cnrse  as  that  pro- 
nounced by  St  Paul,  I  Cor.  xvi.  22,- — AnaHuma  Miiranalha. 
The  latter  word  is  the  Hebrew  form  of  the  Aramaic  for  '  the 
(or  'our')  Lord  will  come,'  and  was  part  of  a  cursing  for- 
mula from  the  Book  of  Enoch— f/:  Jude  14-16,  and  2  Thess.  i. 
7-10. 

E.  was  adopted  in  the  Christian  Church  as  a  part  of  her  dis- 
cipline for  preserving  the  unity  and  purity  of  her  members,  and 
consisted  in  excluding  from  the  common  benefits  and  privileges 
consequent  on  baptism  until  signs  of  repentance  were  shown. 
There  were  two  degrees  of  the  infliction,  according  to  the  hein- 
ousness  of  the  offence  committed  :— (i)  By  the  Lesser  E,  {called 
'  separation '  or  '  suspension '),  inflicted  for  such  offences  as  being 
absent  ii-om  church  on  three  successive  Sundays,  ante-nnplial  fomi- 
calion,  marrying  a  third  time,  &c.,  offenders  were  excludeii  from  the 
Eucharist,  the  prayers  of  the  faithful,  and  from  offering  oblations. 
(2)  Tlie  Greater  E.,  inflicted  for  the  greater  sins  of  fraud,  apostasy, 
blasphemy,  fornication,  adultery,  murder,  and  idolatry,  was  total 
expulsion  from  the  Church  with  an  anathema  or  curse,  and  de- 
prived the  offender  of  Christian  burial.  At  iirst  the  power 
claimed  by  the  Church  in  this  matter  was  entirely  spiritual. 
While  she  excluded  offenders  from  spiritual  privileges,  she  left 
all  their  civil  or  natural  rights  unaffected,  and  so  it  always  re- 
mained to  a  great  extent  except  in  Europe.  Mosheim  ascribes 
the  greater  severity  of  the  sentence  of  E.  which  came  into  Togue 
in  Europe  to  the  influence  of  paganism.  Those  excommuni- 
cated by  the  Dniidical  priests,  for  example,  were  counted  crimi- 
nals, were  shunned  as  if  infected  by  the  piague,  and  deprived 
even  ofthe  protection  of  the  laws  (Ciesar.iJ^^f//.  Ga//„  vi.  13). 
So  from  the  Sth  c  onward  in  Europe  a  person  excluded  from 
lie  Church  by  a  bishop,  and  especially  by  the  Pope,  was  no 
longer  regarded  as  a  king  or  a  lord,  nor  as  a  citiaen,  a  husband, 
a  father,  or  even  as  a  man,  but  was  considered  a  beast,  Three 
gradations  of  guilt,  in  those  liable  to  ecclesiastical  censure,  were 
established  by  the  Council  of  Pavia  (S50).  The  first  included 
those  who  willingly  confessed  their  sins  and  submilted  to  the 
penance  imposed  ;  the  second,  those  who  for  greater  sins  were  ex- 
communicated, but  who  submitted  to  the  penance  imposed,  and 
were  then  restored  to  communion  ;  the  third,  those  who  refused 
to  submit  to  the  penance  imposed,  and  were  in  consequence 
anathematised,  a  sentence  which  excluded  them  not  only  from 
the  Church,  but  from  the  sodety  of  Christians  ;  in  other  words, 
they  were  outlawed.  The  sentence  of  E,  was  inflicted  on  a 
king  for  ihe  first  time  by  Pope  Gregory  V.— on  Robert  of  France, 
889.  But  Pope  Gregory  VII.  was  the  first  to  carry  out  the  full 
severity  of  the  sentence  described  above— m  the  case  of  Heinrich 
IV.,  Emperor  of  Germany.  The  practice  of  laying  whole  nations 
under  sentence  of  E.  or  an  'interdict'  dates  from  the  time  of 
the  same  pope,  or,  according  to  others,  of  Alexander  III.,  about 
1160.  The  most  illustrious  princes  of  the  middle  ages  were 
obliged  to  succumb  to  the  effects  of  an  interdid,  but  some  time 
before  the  Reformation  the  terror  of  such  a  sentence  was  in  great 
measure  dissipated.  From  that  time  the  effed  of  E.  has  been 
again,  practically  at  least,  entirely  confined  to  spiritual  matters. 

Exoorift'tion  (Lat.  ex  and  cori-um,  'the  skin'),  a  part  of  the 


skin  from  which  the  cuticle  has  been  removed  by  ftii 
or  the  action  of  some  acrid  substance.  Excoriations  are  c 
among  infants,  and  may  be  cured  by  dusting  flour,  stiii-h,  ■ 
powder,  or  oxide  of  zinc  over  the  parts. 

Exore'tion  (from  Lat.  excemo,  '  I  separate ') 


1,  heal 


h'  h      f 


th 


Th 


us  oi^ns  and  channels,  The  channels  of  E.  are — {1)  Tie 
lungs,  which  separate  wateiy  vapour,  carbonic  acid,  and  a  small 
amount  of  refuse  organic  matters  which  give  frequently  a  taint 
to  the  breath,  (i)  The  liner,  which  separates  water,  holding  in 
solution,  in  the  form  of  bile,  various  hydrocarbons,  such  as 
taurocholtc  and  glycocholic  adds,  cholestenne,  colouring  matters, 
leudn,  tyrosin,  and  other  matters  obtained  liom  the  disinfegpa- 
tion  of  the  tissues,  and  various  salts,  such  as  sulphates,  phos- 
phates, and  chlorides  of  the  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths,  and  as  a 
separate  product,  glycogen  or  animal  starch.  (3)  The  kidn^, 
which  separates  nitrogenous  matters,  such  as  urea,  uric  add, 
creatine,  creatinine,  &o. ,  colouring  matters,  salts  of  various  kinds, 
namely,  the  sulphates  of  soda,  potash,  and  lime,  the  phosphates 
of  soda,  magnesia,  and  ammonia,  and  the  chlorides  of  sodium 
and  potassium.  (4)  The  iUn,  which  separates  oily  matter  from 
the  sebaceous  glands,  and  sweat  from  the  .sweat  glands,  consist- 
ing of  water  holding  in  solution  a  small  quantity  of  the  salts  of 
soda,  potash,  and  lime,  and  occasionally  urea,  uric  acid,  grape 
sugar,  albumin,  and  biliarycolouring  matters.  (5)  The  intesHnal 
canal,  which  dischaiges  the  f^ces  consisting  of  the  refuse  material 
of  food  along  with  a  small  amount  of  the  constituents  of  the  bile, 
mucus,  fatty  matter,  and  peculiar  animal  substances  which  give 
odour  to  the  evacuations, 

Exculpa'tion,  Letters  of,  are,  in  Scotch  law,  a  warrant 
granted  at  the  suit  of  the  panel  or'  defender  in  a  criminal  prose- 
cution, for  citing  and  compelling  the  attendance  of  witnesses  in 
proof  either  of  his  defence  against  the  libel  or  of  the  validity  of 
an  objection  against  any  juiyinan  or  witness.  These  letters  are 
issued  on  apphcation  at  the  Justiciary  Office,  or  in  the  case  of 
sheriff-court  libels,  on  application  to  the  derk  of  court. 

Eze  (Cymric,  wysk;  hence  Lat.  {sea;  comp.'  Gael,  msg),  an 
English  river,  rises  in  Exmoor,  Somersetshire,  and  19  miles  from 
its  source  reaches  Devonshire.  After  a  further  course  of  35  miles 
in  a  southerly  direction  through  Devonshire  it  falls  into  the 
English  Channel  at  Exmouth  Bar.  The  tideway  is  e,  miles  long 
and  I  mile  broad  at  high  water,  and  by  means  of  this  and  of  a 
canal,  formed  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  but  considerably 
lengthened  since,  vessels  can  get  up  tr  '^ =■--  '"■■  — ' 


3  Exeter,  ■  See  AxE  and 


ESK. 

Ex'ecuted.  and  Exee'utorr,  in  English,  law,  are  terms 
expressive  of  the  different  stages  of  a  contract.  Matter  is  cxecii- 
tory  regarding  which  there  is  a  contract  binding-  the  possessor  tt 
transfer  it  to  some  one  dse.  When  the  property  is  transferred, 
it  is  executed.  Thus  an  executory  estate  is  one  created  by  deed 
or  fine  (see  Fine  of  Lands),  but  which  must  afterwards  be 
executed  by  entry,  &c. 

Execu'tion,  Civil  (English  law).  If  the  judgment  is  not 
appealed  against,  suspended,  or  reversed,  E.— that  is,  the  enforc- 
ing of  the  sentence  of  the  law— follows.  E.  is  of  different  kinds. 
If  the  plaintiff  obtain  a  verdict  awarding  real  estate  to  him,  a 
writ  is  directed  to  the  sheriff  commanding  him  to  give  actual 
possession  to  the  plaintiff,  and  the  sheriff  may  break  open  doors 
if  possession  is  not  peaceably  yielded;  but  if  the  property  is 
quietly  given  up,  symbolical  delivery  is  sufficient.  Executions 
in  actions  where  money  only  Is  recovered  may  be  entered  against 
the  goods  and  chattels  of  the  defendant.  Every  writ  of  E.  must 
be  sued  out  within  a  year  and  a  day  after  the  judgment  is 
entered,  otherwise  the  court  concludes  that  the  judgment  is 
satisfied  and  extind. 

Executicn,   Civil  (Scotch  law),  is  an  attestation  by  a 
senger-at-Arms  (q.  v.),  or  other  officer  of  the  law,  that  he  has 
given  the  citation  or  executed  the  diligence  m  terms  of  his  w 
rant  for  so  doing.     It  corresponds  to  an  affidavit  of  service 
writ  or  summons  in  England,     Two  witnesses  were  formerly 
required  in  Scotland  to  executions,  but  one  is  now  sufficient, 
except  in  cases  of  poinding,  m  which  two  are  still  required. 

Execution,  CrimmaL     See  Capital  Punishment, 

Execution,  Military  and  NavaL     See  Capital  Pun- 


Exeeutioner,  the  person  who  carries  into  execution  the  last 
mand  of  the  law  by  arranging  and  controlling  the  machi- 
y  for  mflicting  Cipital  Pumshnient  (q.  v,).  Nominally  this 
y  in  the  United  Kingdom  falls  to  be  performed  by  the  sheriff 
by  the  youngest  member  of  a  burgh  magistracy,  but  a  deputy 


yLaOOgle 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


has  always  been  employed.  In  England  and  in  some  other 
states  the  office  was  at  one  time  heredilary,  and  it  was  oiilv  m 
1861  that  the  last  headsman  of  the  Tower  of  London  d.ed  But 
if  the  Uneage  of  the  E.  be  subject  to  vicissitude,  his  name  is 
generally  long-lived,  for  a  distingnislied  practitioner  has  in  many 
■  inces  handed  it  down  to  several  successors.  Frenchmen 
■  for  many  generations  spoken  of  the  functionary  who 
superintends  eitecutions  in  the  capital  as  '  Monsieur  de  Pans  , 
while  in  England,  Dfyden  (see  Epaogue  to  the  Duke  of  Gmsi) 
and  popular  habit  have  immortalised  the  name  of  Jack  Ketch. 
In  the  reign  of  James  I.  the  I-ondon  E.  was  named  Gregory 
Brandon,  and  long  afler  his  demise  the  name  Gregory  was  the 
household  word  for  the  hangman.  Brandon  was  an  esquire  m 
virtue  of  his  office,  having  had  the  influence  to  obtain  armonal 
bearings  from  the  College  of  Heralds.  With  '  Squire  Dun, 
tioned  by  the  poet  Butler,  the  gentry  of  the  gallows  became 
let'  for  we  find  that  Jack  Ketch,  whose  name  has  ever  since 
been  synonymous  with  hangman,  was  the  next  E.  The  very 
obvious  moi-al  to  be  derived  from  practising  hanging  as  a  pro- 
fession does  not  always  appear  to  have  been  perceived  by  its 
professors,  for  we  lind  that  on  the  sist  May  1718,  John  Price, 
the  London  E.,  was  himself  executed  for  murder.  Again,  on 
May  24,  1736,  returning  from  Tyburn,  where  he  had  suspended 
five  thieves,  the  London  E.,  stubbornly  smning  against  the  light, 
'picked  a  woman's  pocket  of  3s.  fid. ;  and  as  that  was  about  the 
amount  for  the  theft  of  which,  in  those  days,  persons  were  eon- 
demned  to  death,  there  is  ground  for  the  hope  that  this  E.  in  his 
own  person  illustrated  the  law  which  he  had  himself  done  so 
much  to  uphold.  It  is  questionable  whether  in  Scotland  the 
business  was  followed  by  persons  any  more  respectable,  for  in 
1682  the  Edintiuigh  hangman,  Alexander  Cockburn,  was  himself 
hanged  for  murder.  Of  Scottish  executioners,  John  Dalghesh  is 
almost  historical  as  the  functionary  who  executed  Wilson  the 
smuggler  m  1736,  on  which  occasion  Captain  Porteous  ordered 
his  men  to  fire  upon  the  crowd,  an  act  which  led  to  remarkable 
consequences.  In  1784  John  High  or  Heigh,  convicted  of  steal- 
ind-  poultry,  was  offered  the  alternative  of  undergomg  due 
pu°nishment  for  his  crime  or  accepting  tlie  post  of  Edinburgh  E., 
and  chose  the  latter.  This  official  survived  to  1S17,  and  was 
succeeded  by  John  Scot,  who  was  assaulted  and  killed  m  IS47. 
The  mitigations  which  have  taken  place  in  the  criminal  code 
within  recent  years,  by  limiting  the  class  of  offences  for  Which 
the  punishment  of  death  is  inflicted,  have  produced  gi 
changes  vrith  respect  to  the  E.  In  London  executions  h„,- 
recently  been  performed  by  William  Calcraft,  who  has,  however, 
for  some  time  been  rendered  unfit  by  age  to  perform  his  office, 
and  has  consequently  been  superseded.  By  the  London  E.  all 
executions  are  performed  in  Scotland,  and  as  a  rule  m  the  pro- 
vinces of  England,  although  in  more  than  one  district  of  Eng- 
land a  local  fonctionary  is  available.  Sanson,  the  E.  of  Louis 
XVI.,  was  the  official  employed  in  Paris  on  similar  occasions 
for  many  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  (see  Meimrin  ot 
the  Safison  FaPiily,  1875).  In  the  United  States  the  sentence  of 
death  is  carried  out  by  the  sheriff,  assisted  by  the  undec-jaUer. 

Execution  of  Deed.  In  England  the  formalities  required 
to  make  a  deed  valid  against  the  granter  are  signing,  staling, 
and  deiivcnng.  {See  Delivery  ot  a  Debd.)  These  ag^n 
require  to  be  verified  by  Attestation  (q.  v.).  Delivery  to  the 
grantee  renders  a  deed  absolute.  The  E.  of  wilU  m  England 
aby  the  testator  signing  in  presence  of  two  witnesses,      _ 

In  Scotland  E.  of  D.  is  by  the  granter  sigmng  or  ownmg  his 
signature  before  two  witnesses,  who  sign  Uieir  names,  writing 
after  them  the  word  wUmss.  E.  is  venfed  by  what  is  called  the 
Testing  Clause  (q.  v.). 

Exee'utive.    See  Government. 

Exec'utor.  in  England,  is  the  person  to  whom  a  testator 
commits  the.execution  of  his  last  will  and  testament    If  the  tes- 
tator make  a  will  without  naming  executors,   or  if  he  name 
incapable  persons,  or  if  the  executors  named  refuse  to  act,  the 
ordinary  may  appoint  an  administrator,  whose  duties  are  nearly 
the  same  as  those  of  an  E.    The  personal  property  of  one  i 
ceased  vests  from  the  lime  of  his  death  in  his  E.     When  a  p 
son  dies  intestate,  the  Court  of  Probate  will  grant  admiiiistrali 
to  the  next  of  Mn,     An  E.  may  be  appointed  by  words  which 
are  indirect.     Ho  one  is  bound  to  accept  the  office  ;  but  if  he 
do  any  act  of  administration,  he  will  be  held  to  have  accepted, 


and  he  cannot  then  renounce  without  sufficient  cause.  It  is  tlie 
duty  of  an  E.  or  administrator  to  apply  for  probate  of  the  will 
or  foi  letters  of  administration.  Neither  will  be  granted  until 
the  piobate  duty  has  been  paid  on  the  full  value  of  the  deceased  s 
personal  property,  including  leasehold.  After  obtaining  pro- 
bate, an  inventory  must  be  made  of  the  whole  of  the  deceased  s 
goods  and  chattels,  which  if  required  must  be  delivered  on  oalh 
in  presence  of  two  credible  witnesses.  .*Jo  delivered,  no  creditor 
can  afterwards  object  to  it  An  K  must  be  careful  as  to  the 
order  in  which  he  pays  debts,  as  should  he  pay  one  kind  of  debt 
before  another  kmd  to  which  it  is  legally  postponed,  he  will  be 
personally  liable  in  the  event  of  a  deficiency  of  assets. 

In  Scotland  the  office  of  E.  is  conferred  either  by  the  wnlten 
nomination  of  the  deceased,  or,  failing  that,  by  decree  of  the 
Commissary  (q.  v.)  ;  the  E.  m  the  former  case  being  called  an 
E.-nominate,  and  in  the  hitter  an  E,-dative.  In  either  case  the 
E.  must  complete  his  title  to  admmister  by  a  judicial  proceeding 
called  a  confirmation,  without  which  he  has  no  title  to  sue  ;  nor 
is  it  safe  for  a  debtor  of  the  deceased  to  pay  him.  An  E.  should 
pay  no  debt  of  the  deceased  without  the  authority  of  a  decree  ; 
and  even  when  a  decree  is  produced,  he  should  pay  no  debt 
within  six  months  after  the  death  of  the  deceased,  except  what 
are  called  Privileged  Debts  (q.  v.). 

Executors,  or  heirs  in  mobiiihis,  are  in  Scotland  the  whole 
next  of  kin  of  one  deceased,  that  is,  ali  the  nearest  in  degree  of 
blood.  They  succeed  ai  inteslato  to  equal  portions  of  the  mov- 
able estate,  without  regard  to  primogenltnte  or  sSx,  But  when 
one  of  the  next  of  kin  is  heir  to  the  heritage,  he  is  not  entitled  to 
share  in  the  movable  succession,  unless  he  choose  to  collate. 
(See  Collation.)  Formerly  there  was  no  right  of  representa- 
tion regarding  succession  to  movable  estate  in  Scotland.  Thus 
children  of  one  deceased  excluded  the  grandchildren.  But  this 
has  been  changed  by  18  and  19  Vict.  c.  23.  In  oilfeteral 
succession  full  brothers  and  sisters  exclude  half;  and  if  there  be 
no  descendants  of  an  intestate,  a  father  is  entitled  to  one-h 
the  remainder  being  equally  divided  between  brothers  i 
sisters.  If  the  father  be  dead,  the  mother  takes  one-third ;  and 
iftherebenoother  surviving  relatives,  the  other  two-thirds  go 
to  the  crown. 

Exee'utory  Devise',  in  English  law,  is  the  term  which  de- 
notes the  devise  of  an  interest  which  does  not  vest  on  the  death 
of  the  testator,  but  the  vesting  of  which  is  deferred  or  contii^ent. 
The  law  on  this  subject  miderwent  much  learned  discussion 
regarding  the  will  of  Mr  Thellusson,  an  eminent  London  mer- 
chant.   He  died  leaving  three  sons  to  whom  he  left  smaU  lega- 
cies.    The  rest  of  his  property,  ;f  4500  a  year  of  real  estate  ar 
/6oo,DOO  of  personal  property,  he  devised  to  trustees,  to  I 
accumulated  &ring  the  lives  of  his  three  sons  and  of  their  son 
On  the  death  of  his  last  surviving  grandson  the  accumulati 
fund  was  to  be  divided  into  three  shares,  one  share  to  go  to  tl 
eldest  male  Imeal  descendant  of  each  of  his  three  sons,  with  pro- 
vision in  case  of  failure.     When  Thellusson  died,  he  had  three 
sons  and  four  grandsons,  two  being  born  afterwards.     Had  the 
intention  of  the  testator  been  carried  out  without  litigation,  i* 
has  been  calculated  that  the  fund  would,  when  it  came  to  b 
divided,  have  been  over  thirty-two  millions  of  pounds.    But  the 
result  was  protracted  and  enormously  expensive  litigation.      Itie 
judges  in  the  House  of  Lords  ultimately  tmanimously  resolved 
that  the  will  was  legal.     But  to  prevent  repetition  of  the  eceen- 
tricity,  the  Act  39  and  40  Geo.  III.  c.  98  was  passed-which 
does  not  apply  to  Ireland— prohibiting  any  settlement  of  pro- 
perty for  accumulation  for  more  tlian  twenty-one  years  after  the 
death  of  the  testator,  or  beyond  the  coming  of  age  of  any  01 
entitled  to  the  profits  under  the  settlement. 

Exege'sifl  (Gr.  from  esSgesmai,  '  I  lead  the  way,'  'set  forth, 

'explain;'  used  of  divmers  and  priests)  is  the  art  or  Kience  of 

interpretation,  or  of  discovering  the  true  meaning  intended  to  be 

conveyed  by  a  writer,  and  is  generally,  although  not  necessarily, 

understood  to  refer  to  the  Holy  Scriptures   in  which  sen^  it 

is  treated  in  the  present  article.    The  relation  of  E.   to  Her- 

meneutics  is  that  of  practice  to  theory.     The  task  the  exegete 

or  interpreter  has  to  perform  is  to  explain  the  serise  of  what  is 

._^..._  ^..  that  others,  as  &r  as  possible,  may  thmk  the  same 

writer  or  speaker  intended  they  should  think.      And 

_  order  properly  to  accomplish  this  task,  he  must  first 

understand  what  he  is  to  explain,  he  must  first  overcom-  'H 

605 


that  the  v 


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EXE 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


the  difficulties  that  lie  in  the  way  of  his  doing  so — difficulties 
aiising  from  :  (i)  the  language  in  which  the  books  are  written  ; 
(2)  the  subjects  of  which  they  treat;  and  (3)  his  own  precon- 
ceived notions  and  prejudices.  I.  For  the  first  there  is  re- 
quired a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  Janguages  used — Hebrew 

and  Greek — in  their  words,  idioms,  and  ligures  :  , '-'— ' 

interpretation.    2.  For  the  second,  a  knowledge  of 

jects  and  sciences — e.g.,  history,  geography,  chronology, 
juities,  astronomy,  geoli^y,  &c. — in  oi-der  to  place  what  is  v 
n  the  light  of  the  a^  from  which  it  is  descended,  as  thus  only 
;an  the  writer's  meaning  be  known:  historical  interpretation. 
3.  The  interpreter  roust  ponsider  the  passage  in  connection  with 
the  writer's  general  way  of  Ihinkmg  and  of  viewing  matters,  in 
order  to  illustrate  thereby  what  has  been  ascertained  by  gram- 
itical  and  historical  means :  this  has  been  called  dagmalical 
interpretation.  Such  are  the  true  principles  of  E.,  but  various 
otlier  methods  have  been  followed,  which  may  be  briefly 
noticed.  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable,  as  it  is  the  earliest,  is 
the  allegorical.  Allegorical  E.  is  the  system  of  explaining  as 
allegorical  what  is  not  allegory,  of  giving  to  words  a  secondary, 
mediate,  and  mystical  sense  in. addition  to  their  primary,  direct, 
and  literal  sens^  retaining  the  latter  merely  as  a  veil  to  the 
former.  Allegorical  interpretation  was  very  common  among  all 
nations  of  the  East.  For  example,  when  the  Greeks  began 
to  feel  that  the  mythical  stories  about  their  deities  were  too 
_  53  to  be  understood  literally,  their  philosophers  ingeniously 
discovered  in  the  descriptions  of  the  poets  '  ideas  less  revolting 
to  virtue  and  more  worthy  of  the  gods  themselves.'  The  custom 
existed  also  among  the  Jews,  especially  those  residing  in  Egypt, 
The  TherapatUi  rejected  the  literal  sense  of  Scripture  altogether. 
Philo,  who  expounded  the  Pentateuch  in  the  light  of  the  Neo- 
Platonic  philosophy,  did  not  deny  the  reality  of  the  literal  sense, 
but  represented  Moses  as  having  an  exoteric  doctrine  for  the 
illiterate  and  an  esoteric  for  the  cultivated,  who  are  able  to  reach 
the  secret  spiritual  sense  of  his  writings.  Among  the  Jews  of 
Palestine  also  the  same  desire  appeared  to  remove  in  the  same  way 
everything  objectionable  in  the  Bible.  In  tlie  oldest  Rabbinical 
writings  the  same  distinction  is  made  between  the  body  and  the 
soul  of  the  text.  The  same  method  was  pursued  by  almost  all 
the  Christian  fathers  down  to  the  7th  c.  One  of  them,  Justin 
Martyr,  alludes  to  three  of  the  four  senses  of  Scripture  men- 
tioned by  many  of  the  socceeding  fathers — namely,  the  littra!, 
the  alUgorical,  an(J  the  tropological ;  and  of  the  fourth,  the 
anagogical,  according  to  which  accounts  of  things  in  (his  life  are 
appUed  to  spiritual  and  heavenly  things,  many  examples  occur 
in  his  writings.  The  principles  of  E.  followed  by  the  Alexandrian 
school  of  divines,  at  the  head  of  whom  stands  Clement,  was  con- 
nected with  their  theology.  They  made  a  distinction  between 
pistis,  an  immediate  reception  of  the  truth  without  proof,  and 
gnosis,  a  complete  view  of  the  truth,  by  means  of  which  the 
object  of  faith  becomes  a  firm  and  sure  possession.  By  this  dis- 
tion,  and  the  separation  of  Christians  into /itftij  (believing) 
and  gtiostiioi  (discerning),  the  latter  came  to  be  regarded  as  pos- 
-—sed  of  a  divine  qualification,  by  virtue  of  which  alone  all  revela- 
n  could  be  expounded.  Further,  it  is  the  allegorical  sense 
of  Scripture  whidi  leads  lo  the  gnSsis,  while  thesis  alone  is 
produced  by,  and  can  tinderstand  only,  the  literal  sense.  Clement 
also  makes  menrion  of  'a  rule  of  truth,'  that  is,  a  tradition  or 
principle  of  E.  Aboutthebeginnlngof  the6th  c,  a  practice  took 
Its  rise  of  making  extracts  from  the  commentaries  of  preceding 
fathers.  When  the  annotations  of  several  writers  upon  one  book 
of  Scripture  were  collected  and  arranged  in  succession,  it  was 
caUed  a  ciain,  Lat.  catena.  The  custom  soon  became  general 
with  the  decline  of  sacred  literature;  the  very  practice  itself, 
which  toolc  for  granted  that  everythmg  connected  with  the 
interpretation  of  the  Bible  was  anticipated  and  exhausted,  being 
a  sign  of  degeneracy ;   and  a  great  many  of  the   subsequent 

in  the  history  of  E.  was  initiated  by  the  paraphrases  and  anno- 
tations on  books  of  the  New  Testament  of  Erasmus,  whose 
E.  was  to  a  great  extent  the  guide  of  the  Reformers,  and  whose 
'great  object  was  to  ascertain  what  the  words  of  Scripture  were 
designed  to  express,  without  pursuing  the  far-fetched  senses 
among  which  the  schoolmen  and  mystics  loved  to  lose  themselves." 
Since  the  ReformatioQ  E.  has  not  run  into  the  same  excesses 
s  before,  but  nevertheless  various  arbitrary  and  unwarrantaWe 
systems  have  been  followed.  (l)  The  Mystic,  a  modification  of 
Ihe  oldailegorical  system,  which  has  always  found  favour  among  a  I 


certain  class  of  Protestants  as  well  as  Roman  Catholics.  Accord- 
ing to  this  system,  of  which  there  have  been  various  phases,  a 
mystic,  spiritual,  mediate,  or  sub-sense  is  sought  for  when  the 
literal  is  thought  not  to  be  subservient  to  morality.  (2)  The 
Pietistic,  in  which  the  regulating  principle  is  an  inward  light, 
somewhat  analt^ous  to  the  ancient  gnesis,  which  guides  to  a  true 
faith  and  a  pure  morality.  "This  inspiration  furnishes  explanations 
without  scientific  investigation ;  hence  the  feelings  rather  than  the 
understanding  are  consulted  and  followed.  (3)  The  Moral,  a 
mode  of  K  wdiich  was  advocated  by  Kant,  and  which  consists  '  in 
educmg  from  Scripture  such  ideas  alone  aa  are  conformable  to 
the  pure  principles  of  practical  morality  implanted  in  the  bosoms 
of  men.'  '  The  historical  part  of  the  Scriptures,  which  contri- 
butes nothing  to  make  men  better,  is  purely  indifierent. '  (4)  The 
Historico-Psycholc^ical,  chiefly  developed  by  Paulus  and  Eich- 
hom,  according  to  whidi  everything — in  the  Gospel  narratives, 
c.g.~is  explamed  quite  naturally,  that  is,  all  the  miracles,  when 
disentangled  from  the  misconceptions  of  the  narrators,  and  di- 
vested of  all  subsequent  accretions,  are  expkin'id  as  actual  facts 
within  the  limits  of  the  general  laws  of  nature.  (5)  According 
to  the  Accommodation  theory,  usually  associated  with  Sem' 
Jesus  and  the  apostles  accommodated  themselves  to  the  errone 
opinions  of  the  Jews  so  far  as  was  thought  necessary  or  useful 
for  the  reception  of  the  doctrines  inculcated.  (6)  According 
to  the  Mythical  systena,  which  was  followed  by  Strauss  in  his 
Lebm  yau,  portions  of  the  historical  accounts  of  the  Evan- 
gelists, especially  those  containing  miracles,  are  to  be  regarded 
as  mere  myths,  although  the  Evangelists  themselves  intended  tt 
relate  history.  (7}  In  the  Rationalistic  system,  an  external 
standard  is  set  up  to  which  Scripture  must  bend.  It  proceeds 
on  the  assumption  that  the  sacred  books  should  be  subjected  to 
the  same  treatment  as,  e.g.,  the  Greek  and  Roman  classics,  and 
that  what  is  contradictory  to  reason  is  to  be  discarded.  See 
Davidson's  &tri!rf  ZfoTHimniftVi  (Edinb.  1843);  Dcedes's  Manual 
ef  HermenmH^s  (from  the  Dutch,  Edinb.  1867)  ;  J.  Jahn's  En- 
cAiridinn  Herm.  iyienazi,  1812);  H,  N,  Clausen's  .tfawi.  oii  A'ea. 
Test.  BUS  dim  Ban.  uiets.  (Leips;  1841) ;  T.  H.  Home's  Inirod. 
to  the  Cril.  Study  and  Knmel.  of  the  H.  S.  (l  Ith  ed.  1S56). 

Bx'elmaiie,  Kemy- Joseph-Isidore,  Oomte,  Marshal  and 
Peer  of  France,  bom  at  Bar-sur-Omain  (Meuse),  13th  November 
1775,  entered  the  French  army  in  his  sixteentti  year,  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  capture  of  N^les  (1799),  and  served  as 
adjutant  to  Murat  in  1805.  After  Eylau  he  was  appointed 
brigadier-general ;  in  1808  he  co-operated  with  Murat  in  Spain, 
where  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  sent  to  England,  Regaining 
his  freedom  after  three  years'  captivity,  he  rejoined  the  French 
army.  He  fought  with  distinction  throughout  the  Russian  cam- 
paign, was  appointed  general  of  division,  and  received  the  decora- 
tion of  the  Legion  of  Honour  in  1813.  Proscribed  ailer  the  fall 
of  Napoleon,  he  lived  in  exile  until  the  July  revolution  of  1 830, 
after  which  Louis  Philippe  named  him  Grand  Cross  of  the  Legion 
of  Honour  and  Peer  of  France.  He  was  one  of  the  first  adherents 
of  Louis  Napoleon,  who  created  him  Marshal  of  France  in  1851. 
E.  died  on  the  21st  July  1852,  from  the  effects  of  a  fall  from  his 

Bxemplifica'tion  of  Letters  Patent  is  a  copy  or  tran- 
ript  of  the  letters  patent  made  from  the  enrolment,  and  sealed 
ill)  the  Great  Seal  of  England.      In  legal  force  the  E.  is  equi- 
valent to  the  letters. 
Esi'eroise,  Physiolog'ioal  Ac'tion  of.    E.,  either  mental 
■  muscular,  if  not  pushed  beyond  a  certain  limit,  cannot  fail 
L  bemg  beneficial  to  the  economy  of  the  body.     Moderate  K 
.creases  the  nutrition  of  both  the  muscular  and  nervous  systems, 
id  so  makes  them  stronger  and  more  fit  for  a  certain  amount 
of  work.    The  effect  of  such  E.  is  seen  m  the  well-developed 
muscles  of  the  artisan,  or  in  the  quickness  of  perception  and  of 
oiition  in  Ihe  active  brain  of  the  man  accustomed  to  mental 
fork.     Moderate  E.  also  increases  the  action  of  the  heart.    The 
luscular  movements,  for  example,  made    in  active  wallfing 
rive,  by  pressure  on  the  veins,  more  blood  to  the  heart.    This 
oi^an  consequently  beats  Eister,  and  sends  more  blood  to  the 
Inngs  and  to  the  .system  than  it  would  otherwise  have  done  in  a 
ore  lethargic  state  of  the  circulation.     Hence,  muscular  activity 
iproves  tlie  nutrition,  and  consequently  the  whole  tone  and 
power  of  work  of  the  body.      The  effect  of  excessive  E  is  to 
produce  fatigue  and  a  feeling  of  great  nervous  depression. 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


land,  capital  of  Deyonshire,  lies  picturesquely  on  a  height  oyer- 
looking  the  Exe,  9  miles  from  the  sea,  and  75  S.  W.  of  Bristol  by 
railway.    It  is  in  part  well  buiit,  and  has  some  fine  squares  and 
gardens. ,  The  see  of  a  bishop,  K  has  a  Norman-Gothac  cathedral 
(ii94~t327),  witli  a  length  of  383  feet  and  35,370  feet  of  area. 
Its  W.  fa5ade  is  one  of  the  finest  in  England,  and  it  has  a  magni- 
ficent organ,  a  canopy  over  the  bishqp's  cliair,  53  feet  high,  the 
parts  of  which  are  dovetailed  into  each  other,  and  a  beli,  the 
'  Great  Tom  of  K,'  weighing  12,500  lbs.    The  sum  of  jC^S.ooo 
has  been  expended  on  the  restoration  of  the  cathedral,  accord- 
ing to  a  government  return  of  1S76,     &  also  has  a  bishop's 
palace,  a  guildlmllof  1593,  restored  in  1864,  an  Albert  Memorial 
Museum  (1S68),  a  theatre,  &c.    There  is  a  dock  917  feet  long, 
connected  by  a  navigable  canal  with  the  lower  part  of  the  E»e. 
In  1875  there  entered  the  port  of  E.  611  British  and  foreign 
vessels,  tonnage  51,836;   cleared  316,  tonnage  23,510      Pop 
of  city  (1871),  34*650;  of  parliamentary  borough,  44      6 
returns  two  members  to  Parliament.     E.,  one  of  t 
cities  in  England,  was  in  existence  when  the   Rom 
quered  the  ffland,  and  was  called  by  them  I^a  Damnonio 
and  from  that  ^y  to  this  it  has  been  uninterruptedly         p  ed 
Roman  remains — coins,  bronze  statues,  penates,  lessela   d  p 
menls,  &c.— have  been  found  in  tlie  neighbourhood,  an    b 
the  old  walls.     It  was  the  scene  of  many  a  fierce  sieg    b 
English,  Danes,  and  Cornish  Britons.    .Sthelstan  foun    d 
abbey  here  in  932,  and  E.  soon  after  had  so  many  religio     b     d 
ings  that  it  was  called  '  Monk  Town. '    In  the  time  o    H       d 
it  was  held  by  his  mother  Gyiha,  and  was  stoimed  by  W       m 
the  Conqueror  in  1068,  who  built  a  castle,  called  by  its  N  rm 
occnpiers  Rougemont  ('red   mount'),  which   completely   com- 
'  manded  the  city.     In  the  civil  war  of  the  12th  c,  it  was  held  for 
Maud  by  the  Earl  of  Devon,  and  was  besieged  for  two  months 
by  the  troops  of  Stephen.     In  1537,  Henry  VIII,  made  E  a 
county  by  itself.     Queen  Elizabeth  conferred  on  it  the  title  of 
semptr  fiddis.    It  was  Royalist  during  the  Puritan  stru^le,  and 
was  for  a  time  the  headquarters  of  Charles's  forces  in  tiie  W.  of 
Engkind.    See  Izacke's  Eemarkabh  Antiquities  of  the  City  of  E. 
(Lond.  1724),  and  Jenkins's  History  and  Dtscriftion  of  ths  City 
ofE.  (Exeter,  1806). 

Exeter  College,   Oxford,  founded  in  1314  by  Walter  de 
Stapledon,  Bishop  of  Exeter,  and  sometime  Lord   High  Trea- 
surer of  England,   for  a  rector  and  twelve  fellows.     Eleven 
additional  fellowships  were  added  at  various  times.     Th      7      d 
18  Vict,  c.  81  reduced  the  fellowships  to  fifteen,  op      t      II 
who  have  passed  the  B.A.  examination,  been  incorp       t  d  as 
graduates  of  the  tmiversity,  or  become  members  of  Con         t 
Twenty-two   scholarships  have  been  founded ;    ten      p        t 
limited  to  persons  bom  or  educated  in  the  diocese  of  E    t 
and  two  to  persons  bom  in  any  of  the  Channel  Island       Th 
are  nine  exhibitions  m  the  gift  of  the  College,    and  t       m 
attached  to  it.    The  college  has  the  patronage  of  fiftee     1 
The  humber  of  undei^raduates  in  1875  was  166. 

Exhaua'liona,  Metliod  of,  a  geometrical  method  mpl  >  d 
by  the  ancient  mathematicians,  which  may  be  looked  p 
anticipating  the  principles  upon  which  the  differential  calculus  is 
founded.  It  was  the  method  by  which  Archimedes  squared  the 
parabola,  and  discovered  his  famous  theorems  of  the  sphere  and 
cylinder ;  and  it  depended  upon  the  assumption  that  a  curved 
line  may  be  regarded  as  the  limit  of  the  circumscribing  and  in- 
scribing polygons,  as  the  number  of  the  sides  is  increased,  ajid 
therefore  the  size  of  each  side  diminished, 

Bxhibi'thm,  a  term  of  Scotch  law  applied  to  an  action  for 
compelling  production  or  delivery  of  writings.  See  DILIGENCE, 
Havek,  Incident  Diligence. 

Exhibitions,  Art.    See  Aet  Exhibitions. 

ExLibitions,  Indue'trial,  are  collections  of  industrial  pro- 
ducts and  manufactures  exhibited,  generally  &ir  a  limited  period, 
by  different  manufacturers  and  producers,  with  the  view  of 
showing  the  nature  of  their  calling  or-  the  perfection  of  their 
manufactures.  Some  are  merely  local,  and  confined  to  the 
pecuhar  products  and  manufactures  of  the  district  in  which  they 
are  held,  Othets  are  devoted  to  special  branches  of  industry, 
the  '  exhibits '  in  which    are    not    necessarily  confined  to  any 


example.  A  third  class  is  univt 
nothing  less  than  illustrating  the  natural  products,  processes  of 
manufacture,  and  finished  articles  of  the  entire  world.  Indeed, 
the  later  E.  of  this  third  class  have  been  even  more  ambitiocs 
still,  and  in  addition  to  illustrating  the  industry  of  the  world, 
they  have  attempted  to  bring  together  representations  of  the  fine 
arts,  archeology,  social  condition,  habits,  and  religious  practices 
of  all  mankind.  The  parent  of  all  the  I,  E.  of  modern  times 
was  one  projected  by  the  Marquis  d'Avfae,  and  opened  in  1 798 
in  the  Maison  d'Orsay.  The  second  exhibition  was  held  in 
1801,  under  the  patronage  of  Napoleon  as  First  Consul.  Tlie 
number  of  exhibitors  meantime  had  increased  from  no  to  229. 
From  this  period  onwards  E.  came  to  be  of  frequent  occurrence 
in  Paris  and  the  French  provinces,  and  they  gradually  extended 
to  every  state  of  Europe.  It  was  not  till  1828  that  an  industrial 
exhibition  was  attempted  in  London,  hut  m  that  year  an  organi- 
sation selected  from  mechanics'  institutes  throughout  the  country, 
under  the  presidency  of  Dr  Biikbeclt    instituted  a 


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Park, 

by      '  M  j    tj;  Q         V  ,   "  M  y    85       Th  \ 

of  the  gigantic  idea,  and  much  of  the  credit  of  its  realisation,  a 
due  to  the  Prince  Consort,  who  at  a  meeting  of  the  Society  of 
Arts  in  June  1849  propounded  the  scheme.  The  story  of  the 
many  diffictilties  regardmg  plans  for  a  suitable  btiilding,  and  the 
ultimate  acceptance  of  Paxton's  plan,  founded  on  his  experience 
of  conservatory  building  as  a  practical  gardener,  has  often  been 
told.  The  building  of  glass  and  iron,  at  a  cost  of  ji' 193, 1 68, 
enclosed  20  acres,  and  was  1851  feet  in  length.  It  accommo- 
dated the  works  of  13,937  exhibitors,  of  whom  6S61  were 
British,  520  colonial,  and  6556  foreign.  The  exhibition  remained 
open  five  months  and  a  half,  durmg  which  time  it  was  visited  by 
6,039.195  visitors,  the  admission  fees  amounting  to  ;^423>792. 
Afteraliexpenseswerepaid,a  surplus  of  about^i8o,ooo remained, 
which  her  Majesty's  Commissioners  invested  in  the  purchase  of 
t  te  at  South  Kensington,  on  which  subseqnentlythe  South 
K  ton  Museum,  the  Royal  Horticultural  Society's  Garden, 

th  I  t  rnational  Exhibition  of  1S62,  the  Albeit  Memorial  Hall, 
and    ther  institutions  were  placed.     The   Great  Exhibition  of 

85  as  hailed  by  the  public  with  extraordinary  enthusiasm, 
and  th  most  extravagant  expectations  of  millennial  peace,  com- 
bm  d  with  increased  trade,  were  widely  entertained.  That  the 
pansons  which  it  permitted  quickened  industrial  energy,  and 
m  particularly  made  British  manufacturers  realise  their  back- 
d      s  in  taste  and  artistic  design,  cannot  be  doubted,  but  the 

th  d  eams  to  which  it  gave  occasion  were  quickly  dissipated. 
1  h  ccess  pecuniary  and  otherwise  of  the  exhibition,  however, 
g  b  rth  to  a  numerous  train  of  successors,  among  which  we 
shall  only  enumerate  those  which  were  on  even  a  greater  scale 
and  more  cosmopohtan  in  character, 

Ti\s  ExfosHion  Universel/e  of  Paris  in  1855  was  held  in  the 
Palais  de  Vlndtistrie,  a  specially  ■  erected  permanent  building, 
which,  with  its  temporary  annexes,  cost  half  a  million  sterling. 
It  accommodated  20,839  exhibitors,  and  while  open  from  15th 
May  to  30th  November  was  visited  by  5,162,330  persons ;  the 
tot^  receipts  bemg  ^128,000,  against  an  expenditure  of  about  one 
million.  In  this  and  subsequent  E.  intemalional  collections  of 
pictures  fonned  a  peculiar  feature.  The  next  great  exhibition, 
in  order  of  time,  was  the  London  International  Exhibition  of 
1S62.  The  building  was  of  brick,  the  main  hall  being  a  parallelo- 
gram 1150  feet  long  by  560  wide,  which  with  annexes  cost 
^460,000,  Remaining  open  from  the  1st  May  till  the  ISth 
November.it  vras  visited  by  6,211,103  persons,  and  thetotalreceipts 
were/408,530.  A  ^azfia^Exfosition  UtmierseUe^aso^atA  on 
the  Champs  de  Mars  in  May  1867,  the  building  for  which  was  ovi- 
form, and  tlie  different  sections  were  arranged  in  concentric  bands. 
By  the  arrangement  adopted,  the  entire  collections  of  any  nation 
could  be  examined  by  proceeding  from  the  outer  band  to  the 
607 


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THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


KXO 


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IS  could  be 


Etitre,  and  special  dasses  of  articles  froi 

isited  by  making  the  circuit  of  tlie  building 
ring.  Beyond  the  exhibition  building,  pEirt  of  the  park  was  en- 
dosed  foe  illustrations  of  national  habitations ;  and  the  life,  cloth- 
ing, food,  and  domestic  habits  of  various  peoples  were  practically 
illustrated  by  living  families  brought  from  all  comers  of  the 
globe  to  mhabit  the  houses  of  their  countries.  The  Expodiion 
3  vi^ted  by  6,805,969  pei:sonB,  and  the  receipts  from  all 
tees  were  £,t,-2a,  735-  The  WellaussUllung  of  Vienna,  1 873,  a 
building  with  a  central  rotunda  312  feet  in  diameter,  covered  by 
a  dome,  supported  on  iron  girders,  larger  than  that  of  St  Peter's 
at  Rome,  was  constructed  by  J,  Scott  Russell,  and  was  visited 
by  6,7,(o,SOO  persons  during  the  six  months  it  remained  open, 
and  the  total  receipts  amounted  to  ^3o6,477-  The  Centennial 
Exhibition  of  the  United  States,  being  held  this  year  (1S76)  in 
irniount  Park,  Philadelphia,  is  the  'biggest  thing'  which  bas 
, .  jr  been  diawn  toeether.  It  comprises  a  main  building  1880 
feet  long  by  464  wide,  covering  2ii  picres,  a  permanent  art  gal- 


haS',  t1 


r,  the  whole  extendii^  over  40  acres.  An  exhibition  on  a 
itill  more  gigantic  scale  is  contemplated  for  1S78,  to  be  held 

In  proportion  as  these  great  shows  have  been  repeated  and 
srown  in  bulk,  public  enthusiasm  for  them  has  steadily  waned. 
TTiey  are  found  to  involve  a  large  expenditure  on  the  part  of  the 
states  which  organise  them,  which,  however,  is  partly  recouped 
by  the  traffic  drawn  towards  the  cities  in  which  they  are  held. 
White  they  are  regarded  as  a  very  good  advertising  medium 
by  the  enterprising  merchants  and  manufactnrera  who  exhibit  in 
tiiem,'  ail  faith  in  their  mission  to  promote  nniversal  brotherhood 
'.s  gone,  and  it  is  seriously  doubted  whether  they  do  much  to- 
wards  a  real  extension  of  commercial  relationship,  or  aid  in 
[he  improvement  of  manufacturing  processes, 

Ex'itue,  a  term  of  Scotch  law  denoting  the  issues  or  profits 
of  anything,     E.  terra  are  the  rents  and  fruits  of  the  land. 

Bx'Hloor  For'est,  a  high  wild  tract  of  moorland,  broken 
by  deep  romantic  glens,  in  ^e  W.  of  Somersetshire,  and  N.  ai  ' 
N.  E.  of  Devon.  Its  highest  point  is  Dnnkerry  Beacon,  Somf 
setshlte  (1668  feet).  It  is  traversed  by  the  rivers  Exe  and  Bar) 
E.  F.  was  formerly  of  greater  extent,  but  is  being  brought  nnd 
cultivation,  and  has  several  hon-mines.  Red  deer  are  to  be  see 
and  E.  Is  famous  for  its  hardy  ponies. 

Sx'mouth,  a  watering-place  in  S.  Devon,  pn  the  English 
Channel,  and  on  a  rising  eround  at  the  mouth  of  the  Exe, 
10  miles  S.E.  of  Exeter,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail.  It 
has  a  mild  climate,  being  sheltered  from  E.  winds  by  a  range 
of  hills.  Its  chief  industries  are  lace-making  and  the  fisheries 
A  sea-wall,  18  feet  high,  affords  an  excellent  promenade.  Ti 
the  rise  of  Torquay  it  was  the  most  noted  watering-place  i 
Devonshire.     Pop.  (1871)  5614. 

Bxmoutli,  Edward  Pellew,  Viscount,  an  English  naval 
commander,  was  bom  at  Dover,  April  19,  1757.  He  entered 
the  navy  at  thirteen,  and  had  a  career  of  unmterrupted  success 
and  lionour.  In  1793,  when  captain  of  the  ilj''"/'^  "^  captured, 
after  a  fierce  fight,  a  French  fr^ate.  La  Cleopatre.  For  this  he 
was  knighted.  During  the  wars  with  France  he  performed  many 
brilliant  exploits  off  the  French  coast.  In  1804  he  vras  appointed 
to  the  command  of  the  English  fleet  in  the  E.  Indies,  and  after 
1808  held  a  similar  post  in  the  Mediterranean.  Inl8r4hevras 
raised  to  the  peerage,  and  two  years  later,  at  the  head  of  an  Eng- 
lish and  Dutch  fleet,  he  bombarded  Algiers,  destroyed  its  fleet, 
and  compelled  the  Bey  to  accept  the  terms  imposed  upon  him, 
which  included  the  total  abolition  of  the  slave  trade.  Tliis  was 
the  crowning  achievement  of  his  career.  He  was  made  Viscount 
Exmouth,  and  publicly  thanked  for  his  services  by  both  Houses 
of  Parliament,  E,  died  23d  January  1833,  See  Osier's  Life  of 
ViseimntE.  (Lond.  1S54). 

Exoce'tus.    See  Flying-Fish, 

Ex'odus,  the  second  book  of  the  Pentateuch  and  of  the  Bible, 
and  so  called  from  its  narrating  the  departure  (Gr.  exodss)  of  the 
Hebrews  from  Egypt,  consists  of  two  parts,  an  historical  and 
legislative.  It  is  a  continuation  of  Genesis,  and  the  first  pai 
relates  how  the  descendants  of  Jacob  were  reduced  to  slavery  by 
a, successor  of  the  Pharaoh  the  patron  of  Joseph,  and  grievously 
oppressed  (i.),  till  at  last  Jehovah,   their  God,  took  pity  upoi 


them,  and  appointed  his  servant  Moses,  who  had  been  providen- 
tially preserved  in  his  in&ncy,  and  was  at  the  time  m  the  land 
of  Midian,  to  deliver  them  (ii.-iv.) ;  how  Pharaoh,  by  means  of 
miraculous  plagaes  sent  on  the  land  by  Jehovah,  was  compelled 
to  let  the  Hebrews  go,  in  commemoration  of  which  d  " 
the  Passover  was  instituted  (v.-xiil) ;  and  how,  purs 
them  (?  he  and)  his  host  were  drowned  in  the  Red  '■ 
the  Hebrews,  for  whom  a  path  through  the  sea  had  1 
culously  opened,  passed  southwards  along  the  short 
arrived  at  the  desert  of  Sinai  (xiv.-xviii-).     The  secoi 
the  book  relates  how  Moses  received  from  Jehovah 
Sinai  the  Decalogue  (xii.-xx.),  laws  for  the  regulal 
social  life  of  the  people  (xxi.-xxiii.),  and  instractio 
making  and  all  the  appointments  of  the  Tabernacle,  s 
keeping  of  the  Sabbath  (xxiv.-xxxL) ;  and  how  the  T 
was  made  and  inaugurated  in  the  first  month  of  the  si 
after  the  departure  from  Egypt  (xxxii.-xl.).     This  a 
deal  principally  with  the  E.  as  an  historical  fact     Th 
of  the  eutluirs/dp  ai  the  book  is  involved  in  that  of  tl 
ship  of  the  Pentateuch ;  other  details  will  be  found  und 
Plagues  of  Egypt,  Passover,  Sabbath,  &c 

The  Exodus.— I.  rjBiif.— The  important  questions 
with  the  chronology  of  the  E.  are — (i)  how  long  did  the  oppres- 
sion of  the  Hebrews  by  the  Egyptians  last,  and  {3)  when  did  it 
cease.  The  light  on  the  subject  comes  from  two  sources— the 
Hebrews  tiieniselves  and  the  Egyptians.  The  narrative  in  E, 
implies  that  the  oppression  did  not  last  long,  for,  beginning  as 
soon  as  the  generation  of  Joseph  had  passed  away,  and  a  king 
who  knew  him  not  sat  upon  the  throne  (in  whose  reign  Moses 
was  bom),  it  ended  with  the  E-  in  the  reign  of  his  successor 
(ii.  23).  This  is  confirmed  by  the  genealogy  of  Moses,  given 
vi.  l6-^3a  He  vras  at  the  same  time  the  grandson  and  the  great- 
grandson  of  Levi,  the  son  of  Jacob,  which  corresponds  with 
the  statement  in  Genesis  xv.  16,  that  they  would  return  to 
Canaan  m  the  fourth  generation  after  their  settlement  in  Egypt. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  stated  elsewhere  (Gen.  xv.  13,  and  Exod, 
xii.  40)  that  the  slavery  lasted  40O  years,  and  the  whole  sojourn 
in  Egypt  430  years.  But  the  Apostle  Paul  (GaL  iii.  17)  dates 
the  beginning  of  the  430  years,  not  from  the  tune  of  the  going 
down  into  Egypt,  but  from  the  giving  of  the  promise  to  Abram 
(Gen.  XV.),  which,  counting  25  years  from  Abram's  leaving 
Haran  to  the  birth  of  Isaac  (Gen.  xii.  4,  xsi,  5),  60  to  the  birth 
of  Jacob  (Gen.  XXV,  26),  aud  130  to  the  going  down  Into  Egypt— 
in  all  215  years— leaves  215  for  the  sojourn  in  Egypt.  This  is  in 
fact  the  only  way  that  the  lime  can  be  made  neariy  to  correspond 
with  the  genealogy  of  Moses  (Exod.  vL  16-20),  because,  if  the 
sojourn  in  Egypt  lasted  430  years,  Moses,  who  was  80  years 
old  at  the  E.  (Acts  vii.  23,  30),  must  have  been  bom  when  his 
mother  was  256  years  old,  even  if  we  suppose  her  to  have  been 
begotten  in  the  last  year  of  her  father's  life ;  for  her  father,  Levi, 
who  lived  137  years  (Exod.  vi.  16),  was  43  years  old  when  he 
went  down  to  Egypt  with  his  father  [being  four  years  older  than 
Joseph,  because  born  in  the  thnd  year  after  Jacob's  marriage 
with  Leah  (Gen.  xxix.  34),  and  Joseph  in  the  seventh  (Gen. 
XXX.  25,  cf.  xxxi.  41),  and  Joseph  was  39  years  old  at  the 
time  {cf.  Gen.  xli.  46,  and  add  nine  years)],  which  gives  430 
-  (137  -  43  +  80}.  There  would,  moreover,  be  no  necessity  for 
putting  St  Paul,  who  followed  the  LXX.,  in  the  wrong,  were  it 
not  for  the  numbers  of  the  nation  who  are  said  to  have  gone  out 
of  Egypt— 600,000  fighting  men,  which  implies  a  population  of 
at  least  2,500,000.  This  increase  from  the  70  persons  who  went 
down  to  Egypt  (Gen.  xlvi.  27)  in  215  years  spears  to  some  so 
improbable  as  to  make  them  adopt  the  430,  or  even  a  longer 
period,  while  to  others  the  215  seems  quite  sufficient,  with  allow- 
ances for  polygamy  and  foreign  marriages.  According  to  the 
traditional  Biblical  chronology,  then,  the  date  of  the  E.  would 
be  about  1650  B.C.  or  1865  B.C. 

The  Egyptian  accounts  are  derived  from  inscriptions  on  mo 
ments,  andfrom  the  history  of  Manetho  (q.  v.).  Manetho  (a/W 
Josephus)  teils  the  foUowingstory ;— King  Amenophis  desired 
the  privilege,  which  had  been  granted  to  Horus,  of  seeing  the 
gods.  One  of  the  priests  told  him  there  would  be  no  difficulty 
about  it  if  he  would  rid  Egypt  of  all  who  were  unclean  or  leprous. 
Whereupon  the  king  assembled  all  the  lepers,  to  the  number  of 
80,000,  and  sent  them  to  work  in  the  quarries  E.  of  the  Nile. 
The  priest,  in  terror  for  the  consequences  of  what  he  had  done, 
took  his  own  life,  but  first  sent  to  the  king  a  prediction  that 
these  outcasts,  with  foreign  help,  would  be  masters  of  Egypt  for 


yLaOOgle 


EXO 


THE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EXO 


thirteen  years,  the  rerenge  of  tlie  gods  for  tbe  indignity  offered 
to  tlieir  servants,  the  priests  among  the  lepers.  Thereupon  the 
king  relieved  lliem.  all  from  their  bondage,  and  permitted 
them  to  remove  to  the  town  of  Avaris,  where  Osarsiph,  a 
priest  of  Heliopoll^  who  afterwards  took  the  name  of  Moses, 
put  himself  at  their  head,  gave  them  laws  which  violated  all  the 
customs  of  the  E^ptians,  and  sending  foT  the  remnant  of  the 
Hyksos,  who  had  been  expelled,  with  their  help  conquered 
Egypt.  After  a  mle  of  thirteen  years  tliey  were  driven  out  by 
the  king's  son,  Sethos  or  Ramses,  and  pursued  to  (he  borders 
of  Syria.  The  question  here  is  to  identify  the  King  Amenophis 
and  his  son  Sethos- Ramses  with  the  historical  rulers  mentioned 
on  the  monuments.  It  is  in  the  reign  of  Rameses  II.  (Miamun 
of  the  monuments,  Gr.  Sesostris),  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty,  who 
ascended  the  throne  about  1400,  that  there  occur  events  recorded 
on  the  monuments  which  correspond  with  those  recorded  in  E. 
This  Pher-ao,  who  reigned  sbtty-sii  years,  erected  as  a  bulwark 
ugainst  the  Asiatics  a  great  wall  on  the  E.  side  of  Egypt, 
from  Pelusinm  to  Heliopolis,  with  a  chain  of  forts,  tlie  two  chief 
of  which  were  Pa-khatem  (Pithoin)  and  Patamessu  (or  '  cit^  of 
Rameses,'£/C  Exod.  i.  ii.).  In  an  official  report  of  the  king's  reign, 
preserved  on  a  papyrus  which  is  in  the  museum  of  Leyden,  a 
scribe  reports  to  his  superior  that  he  has  distributed  the  rations 
'  among  the  Hebrews  (Apuru)  who  cariy  the  stones  to  the  great 
city  of  Rameses-Miamun.'  Several  other  distinct  references  are 
made  to  the  Hebrews  in  other  papyri,  and  in  the  rock  inscrip. 
tion  of  Hamamat.  Rameses  was  succeeded  about  1334  B.C.  by 
his  son  Menephtah  (the  Amenophis  of  Manetho),  who  continued 
the  construction  of  Paramessu,  and  the  brick-makers  were  con- 
demned to  send  in  a  certain  number  every  day  {cf.  Esod.  v.  8). 
It  is'generally  supposed  by  ^yptologists  that  this  is  the  Pher-ao 
in  whose^reign  the  E.  took  place,  on  which  supposition,  as  he 
reigned  about  twenty  years,  the  date  would  be  about"  1334-1 4. 

a.  RbuU. — The  traditional  route  followed  by  the  Hebrews  in 
Iheir  march  from  Egypt  is  in  a  sense  well  known.  Setting  out 
from  Rameses,  supposed  to  have  been  about  40  miles  N.W.  of 
Suez,  they  went  S.  and  K  a  three  days'  journey,  halting  at  Suc- 
coth  and  Etham,  and  encamped  on  Uie  Red  Sea,  near  the  head 
of  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  the  only  controversy  being  as  to  the  place 
—a  few  miles  up  or  down — at  which  the  passage  took  place. 
Those  who  wish  to  avoid  the  miraculous,  and  to  account  for 
the  crossing  by  natural  causes,  e.g. ,  an  ebb-lide,  S:c ,  place  it 
at  the  very  head  of  the  Gulf.  ,  A  new  theory  has  lately  been  put 
forth  by  Professor  Bragsch-Bey,  which  he  asserts  corresponds 
far  better  with  the  ge<^raphy  of  the  tune,  namely,  that  the 
route  taken  was  E.  and  then  N.  between  Lake  Serbonis  and 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  He  asserts  that  Rameses,  from  which 
they  started,  was  Paramessu,  afterwards  called  Zoan,  and  still 
later  Tanis  by  the  Greeks,  and  that  Succoth  was  Pilhom. 
conjectures  Etham  to  be  the  Egyptian  Khetam,  which  is  o 
boi-ders  of  the  desert  iff.  Exod.  xiii.  20),  to  the  W.  of  the  modem 
El-Khantereh.  From  hence,  he  thinks,  they  directed  their 
course  northwards  to  Migdol  (Gr.  Magdolon,  the  modern  Tel- 
es-Semout).  Then  they  encamped  between  Migdol  and  the 
Mediterranean,  in  face  of  Pihahiroth  and  before  Baal-iephon 
(Egrot.  Baali-Tsapuna),  a  sancluaiy  close  to  Mount  Kasios; 
and  It  was  in  the  isthmus  there,  between  Lake  Serbonis  (the 
'  Serbonian  Eog ')  and  the  Mediterranean,  that  the  Egyptian 
army,  when  in  pursuit  of  the  Hebrews,  fierished  amidst  '  a  sea  of 
seaweeds '  or  '  reeds,'  which  has  often  proved  fatal  to  numerous 
hosts  and  single  travellers,  notably  a  lai^e  part  of  the  Persian 
army  of  Ochus  about  350  B.C.  Arrived  at  Mount  Kasios,  the 
E.  frontier  of  Egypt,  they  went  S.  to  Marah,  or  the  Bitter  Lakes, 
and  from  thence  to  Elim  (Egypt.  Aalim,  'fish-town')  to  the 
N.  of  tlie  Red  Sea.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  for  '  Red  Sea ' 
in  the  authorised  version  of  E.  the  Hebrew  has  simply  the  'sea' 
— xiv,  2,  9,  &c. ;  in  other  pissages  it  is  'seg,  of  weeds'  or  'reeds' 
— x.  19.  Ste.Co\e\isa'i  Pentateuch  and  Book  of  Joshua  (1860); 
Btugsdi-Bey's  Aus  dem  Orient  (Beri.  1865),  afid  lecture  before 
International  Congress  of  Orientalists,  September  1874 ;  and 
Birch's  Egyfit/rom  the  Monumenls  (1875). 

Ex  Offl'cio  is  a  terra  legally  applied  to  acts  done  by  a 
functionary  in  virtue  of  his  office,  and  not  at  the  suit  or  on  the 
employment  of  any  other  party.  In  the  law  of  England,  an  E. 
O.  information  is  an  Information  (q.  v.)  filed  by  the  Attorney- 
General  ex  pTopHo  motu,  and  without  the  intervention  of  any 
judicial  authority. 
152 


Es'ogens,  Exog^enons  Plants,  terms  used  in  botany  in 
opposition  to  the  name  Mndogenaus  and  Endogen  (q,  v.).  E. 
''.  are  'outwaiil  growers,'  that  is,  increase  by  the  growth  of  new 
latter  on  the  external  or  outer  surface  of  the  already-formed  mate- 
id.  All  our  familiar  trees  and  plants  are  E.,  and  the  name  may 
therefore  be  regarded  as  synonymous  with  Dicotyledons  (q.  v.). 
In  its  young  state,  an  E.  stem  is  entirely  composed  of  cells,  but 
ioon,  by  the  growtii  of  bundles  of  vessels,  the  stem  of  the  young 
;xogen  divides  into  two  parts— an  inner  or  centra!  part,  the  pith 
Dr  medulla ;  and  an  outer  or  cutical  part,  the  bark,  which  is 
covered  by  the  Epidermis  (q.  v.).  The  pith  and  bark  ace  con- 
nected by  lines  of  cellular  tissue,  named  mtdullaiy  rays,  which 
radiate  through  the  wood.  Tlie  pith  is  separated  from  the  wood- 
by  the  medullary  sheath.  The  old  wood  next  the  pith  is  usually 
hard  and  dry,  and  is  hence  named  duramm  or  heart-wood,  the , 
outer  and  softer  wood  being  termed  alburmim  or  sap-viood. 
Between  the  wood  and  bark  we  find  the  cambiam  layer  of  cells, 
which  forms  the  new  wood,  arran^ng  it  in  concentric  circles 
or  zones,  each  representing  one  year's  growth.  The  bark,  cellular 
at  first,  consists  of  the  liber  or  inner  bark,  and  of  the  corky 
layer  which  forms  the  outer  bark.  The  bark  increases  by  addi- 
tions to  its  inner  surface,  but  as  its  rate  of  growth  is  in  many 
cases  slower  than  that  of  the  true  wood,  it  cracks  and  exhibits 
the  familiar  gnarled  appearance.  The  branches  of  E.  are  lateral, 
that  is,  are  given  off  from  the  sides  of  the  axis  of  the  stem. 

Exogo'Dium  (or  Ipomss'a)  Piirg'a,  the  species  of  Convohu' 
laeete  which  affords  the  Jalap  (4.  v.)  of  medicine.  It  is  a  native 
of  Mexico,  but  is  cultivated  with  success  in  many  parts  of  Britain 
as  an  open-air  plant.  Other  species  are  I.  Orizabensis,  from 
which  an  inferior  quality  of  jalap  is  obtained,  named  '  fusiform ' 
or  '  light  jalap.' 

BKonerfl/tion  (Lat.  fx,  '  out  of,'  and  otitis,  '  a  burden '),  in 
law,  signifies  tire  legal  act  which  frees  one  from  an  obligation. 

Exophthal'mia  (Gr.  ex,  '  out, '  and  ophthalmos,  '  the  eye  '), 
protrusion  of  the  eyeball,  may  be  caused  by  disease  of  the  eye, 
or  by  any  kind  of  growth  within  the  orbit  If  the  case  is  left 
to  itself,  the  protruded  eye  sometimes  inflames  and  bursts. 

Ex'oroism  (Eccl.  Gr,  from  exorike,  'I  administer  an 
oath'),  or  the  driving  out  of  Demons  (q.  v.)  from  those  pos- 
sessed by  them,  has  been  practised  by  Jews,  Christians,  and 
Pagans.  The  power  of  E.  was  regarded  as  a  peculiar  gift  or 
art,  the  means  used  in  it  being  certain  incantations  or  charms, 
drugs,  and  ligatures.  The  first  trace  of  the  art  among  the  Tews 
occurs  in  the  case  of  Saul,  whose  demon  was  exorcised  by 
David's  music.  Various  words,  especially  names,  were  used 
for  this  purpose.  Origen  {Cotit.  C'h.)  says  that  the  name  of 
Abraham  was  irresistifle,  even  when  nsed  by  those  who  knew 
not  who  Abraham  was.  So  was  that  of  Solomon,  who,  Josephus 
tells  us,  was  particularly  instructed  in  the  art  of  E.  by  God,  and 
left  rules  and  charms  for  it,  which  Josephus  himself  saw  effec- 
tually used  by  one  Eleazac  {Ant.  Jud.  viii.  2,%-,cf.  Matt.  xii.  27, 
and  Acta  xix.  13).  Several  acts  of  E.  performed  by  Jesus 
Christ  are  recorded  in  the  Gospels.  The  power  was  part  of  the 
equipment  of  the  apostles  (Matt.  x.  I,  8  ;  Luke  x.  17-19); 
hence  St  Paul,  as  a  true  apostle,  possessed  it  also  (Acts  xvi. 
16-18).  According  to  ecclesiastical  historians,  the  same  power 
was  continued  in  the  Church.  At  first  it  was  not  confined  to 
particular  persons  ;  any  Christian  could  do  it  by  the  irresistible 
charm  of  the  name  of  Jesus  and  the  sign  of  the  cross.  Then, 
as  the  whole  world  was  held  to  be  divide!  between  the  kingdom 
of  God  or  die  Church,  in  which  demons  could  only  persecute 
and  afflict,  and  the  kingdom  of  Satan,  that  is,  the  pagan  world, 
in  which  they  possessed  supreme  power,  it  was  specially  re- 
quired that  all  candidates  for  baptism  should  be  properly 
exorcised.  For  this  purpose,  in  the  3d  c,  an  inferior  order  of 
clergy,  called  exorcists,  whs  instituted,  who  were  ordained  to 
the  office.  There  seems  to  have  been  great  numbers  of  demo- 
niacs in  those  early  ages,  who  were  kept  in  a  certain  part  of 
I  the  churches,  as  in  an  hospital,  and  it  was  the  duty  of  the 
exorcists  '  to  pray  over  them  on  some  occasions,  and  to  provide 
their  d!uly  food,  and  keep  them  employed  in  some  bodiiy  exer- 
cise and  innocent  business,  of  sweeping  the  church  and  the  like, 
to  prevent  the  more  violent  agitations  of  Satan.'  After  the  K  of 
all  candidates  for  baptism  was  thus  reduced  to  the  ordinary  duty 
of  an  order  of  the  clei^,  the  power  of  extraordinary  E.  of  demo- 
niacs seems  to  have  ceased,  and  it  Is  admitted  by  all  classes  of 
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writers  that  E.  died  out  altogether  alx>ut  the  time  when  Chris- 
tianity was  made  the  eslabhshed  religion  by  Constaiitine  (324). 
This  was  only  for  a  time,  however,  for  there  were  instances  of 
it  after,  as  well  attested  as  any  in  the  earlier  ages.  ChriBtiaoi 
apolt^ists  hold  very  various  opinions  as  to  tlie  time  when  this 
miraculous  power  ceased  In  Che  Church.  The  Church  historians 
down  to  Che  EeformaCion  all  relaCe  the  exercise  of  it  down  to 
their  own  time.  By  many  eminent  Roman  Catholic  writers  the 
same  power  is  brought  down  to  the  present  day.  Among  Pro- 
testants, the  most  prevaihng  opinion  perhaps  is  that  it  ceased 
after  the  time  of  Che  apostles,  although  a  century  ago  it  was  just 
as  well  received  that  it  continiied  through  the  flrat  three  cen- 
turies till  the  time  of  Constantine.  Others,  again,  drew  the  line 
at  the  end  of  the  4th  c,  Others  at  the  end  of  the  Sth,  while  others 
put  it  back  to  tiie  2d.  Besides  persons,  certain  things  were 
exorcised,  e.g.,  water,  salt,  and  oil,  to  be  used  for  sacred  purposes. 
See  Bingham's  EccUsiaslkal  AnttavUUs,  and  Dr  C.  Middleton's 
Free  Inquiry  into  thi  Miraculous  Powers  in  the  Christian  Church 
(1748).      • 

Ex'osmo&e  {Gr,  'outward  motion')  and  fhl'doamose 
(('inward  motion'),  terms  applied  by  Dutrochet  to  denote  the 
transfusion  resulting  from  the  separation  of  two  liquids  or  gases 
by  an  animal  or  vegetable  membrane.     See  Cellulak  Tissue. 

Hzoatemm'a,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  Cinchona' 
cea  {a.  v.).  The  species  of  E.  afford  varieties  of  cinchona,  known 
as  '  false  cinchona, '  which  may  be  distinguished  from  the  true 
cinchonas  by  having  exserled  stamens,  that  is,  stamens  entending 
beyond  the  corolla,  £.7i!ofiii«wrfoof  the  W.  Indies  is  a  familiar 
example. 

Exosto'sia  (Gr.  ex, '  out  of,'  and  osteon,  '  a  bone '),  an  uima- 
tural  protuberance  or  morbid  enlai^ement  of  a  bone,  E.  is  pre- 
disposed to  by  syphilis,  scrofula,  and  cancer,  and  is  sometimes 
hereditary ;  but,  in  general,  it  occurs  without  any  distinct  or 
appreciable  escitlng  cause,  ^ard  E.  differs  in  appearance 
and  composition  from  true  bone.  Soft  E.  grows  rapidly,  often 
attains  a  considerable  size,  and  is  very  commonly  multiple.  In 
structure  and  chemical  composition  soft  E.  is  identical  with  can- 
cellated bone.  It  is  often  necessary  to  remove  Such  tumours  by 
operation  on  accomit  of  the  pain  they  give  rise  to  from  pressure. 

Exoteric.     See  Esoteric. 

Exotic  Plants,  the  name  generally  applied  to  plants  derived 
from  a  foreign  country.  E.  P.  may  grow  openly  and  wilhout 
care,  or  may  require  delicate  attention  and  shelter. 

Ex  Par'te.  In  judicial  proceedings  a  step  is  said  to  be  taken 
ex  parte  when  the  opponent,  by  neglect  or  refusal  to  appear,  has 
not  been  heard  in  opposition.    See  DEFAULT,  Absence. 

Expeo'torants  (Lat  ex,  'out  of,'  saA.pectiis,  'the  breast') 
medicines  which  promote  the  secretion  of  bronchial  mucus, 
modify  the  character  of  the  secretions,  and  promote  their  dis- 
chat^.  E.  are  all  stimulants,  and  most  of  them  contain  a  re- 
sinous elemeikt.  Their  use  is  contra-indicated  during  the  acute 
or  inflammatory  stage  of  bronchitis.  The  principal  E.  are— acid, 
benzoioum,  ammonia.  A,  carbon,  amraoniacum,  ammonia  chlo- 
ridum,  antim.  tart.,  bals,  Peruv.,  bals.  Tolui,  copaiba,  cubeba, 
galbanum,  ipecacuanha,  myrrha,  scilla,  and  senega. 

.Expeu'ses.  The  Costs  (q.  v.)  of  a  lawsuit  are  called  E.  in 
ScotlMid.  The  general  rule  of  law  is  that  the  party  found  in  the 
right  is  entitled  to  a  decree  for  his  K  ;  but  as  it  often  happens 
that  right  is  found  to  be  partly  on  both  sides,  or  that  the  party 
mainly  in  the  right  has  somewhat  erred  in  legal  procedure,  the 
adjustment  of  E.  often  involves  nice  calcuktion  and  considerable 
le^  difficulty.  The  practice  is  for  the  judge,  after  deciding 
points  of  law  affecting  E,,  to  remit  accoimts  to  the  Auditor  {q.  v.) 
of  the  Court  of  Session  to  adjust  accordmgly.  If  farther  ques- 
tion arises,  the  auditor  must  remit  back  to  the  judge.  Either 
party  may  object  to  tlie  auditor's  report,  and  his  objection  will 
be  heard  and  decided  on  before  the  judge  in  the  cause,  CLenCs 
may  requhe  taxaCion  of  their  agents  accounts.  The  amount  of 
fees  paid  to  counsel  is  never  interfered  with  if  bona  fidi  and 
reasonable  ;  but  a  certificate  from  the  counsel  or  his  clerk  must 
if  required  be  produced,  that  the  fees  paid  were  of  the  amounts 
and  dates  slated  in  the  accounts. 


mulated  result  of  human  observation  and  experiment,  and  forms 
the  backbone  of  all  inductive  science.  Experiment  difTers  from 
observation  solely  in  the  fact  that  the  phenomena  observed  are 
controlled  and  directed  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  by  human 
agency,  and  it  is  usually  undertaken  with  a  view  to  the  testing 
of  preconceived  truths,  or  to  the  further  elucidation  of  some  p' 
nomenon,  though  frequently  the  result  obtained  is  not  that  which 
was  expected.  Many  of  the  most  important  physical  laws,  m- 
deed,  have  been  discovered  from  expeiimenls  which  the  investi- 
gator made  to  test  ^ome  relation  which  his  fancy  conceived  Co 
exist,  On  account  of  the  varied  combinations  wliich  the  experi- 
menter has  at  his  disposal,  it  would  naturally  be  expected  that 
a  science  in  which  experiment  is  possible  would  be  developed 
much  more  rapidly  and  with  greater  unity  than  one  in  which 
E.  rests  upon  observation  merely.  Such,  indeed,  is  the  ca 
for  of  all  sciences,  meteorolc^  seems  the  most  dkjointed  and 
unsatisfactory.  Astronomy,  it  is  true,  is  the  most  complete  of 
all,  and  in  it  experiment  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word  is  not 
possible  i  but  here  such  uniformity  reigns,  that  observation 
Bided  by  theory  has  acquired  a  degree  of  certainty  which  i; 
scarcely  equalled  in  any  branch^of  experimental  science.  When 
once  a  great  general  principle  in  nature  is  laid  bare,  progress 
and  developmenC  follow  immediaCely.  This  principle,  how- 
ever, can  be  discovered  only  by  experimenC,  or  by  appeal  to 
experiment.  In  astronomy,  Newton's  discoveiy  of  the  law  of 
gravitation  was  the  signal  of  progress  ;  and  what  Newton  did 
for  astronomy,  CErsted,  Ampere,  and  Faraday  have  done  for 
electricity.  Young  and  Fresnel  for  light,  and  Rumford,  Davy, 
and  Joule  for  thermo-dynamics.  The  principle  of  the  conserva- 
tion of  energy  is  itself  a  scientific  induction  from  experiment, 
and  to  it  are  due  the  great  strides  wliich  scientific  knowledge 
has  taken  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century. 

Ex'pert  (Lat.  expertus,  'one  thoroughly  proved  by  exper: 
ence'),  a  term  applied  to  one  who  has  special  practical  knowledge 
on  any  subject,  and  particularly  to  an  adept  in  handwriting  for 
detecting  foi^ery,  or  to  a  witness  m  a  law-court  who  has  peculiar 
scienrific  knowledge,  as  in  the  exposure  of  a  case  of  poisoning. 

Explo'sivea,  the  name  given  to  substances  which,  under  the 
influence  of  heat,  electricity,  or  percussion,  are  suddenly  converted 
from  a  solid  or  liquid  state  into  a  gaseous  form,  producing  a 
eiplosion  whose  force  is  proportional  to  tlie  volume  of  the  ga 
and  its  rapidity  of  disengagement.  These  substances  are  eithe 
chemical  compounds  or  intimate  mechanical  mixtures.  In  the 
former  the  explosion  results  from  the  violent  dissociation  of  the 
combined  elements,  as,  for  example,  when  the  liquid  chl  d  E 
nilic^en  is  resolved  into  its  two  component  gases,  chlon  e  and 
nitrogen ;  and  in  the  latter  the  explosion  arises  from  Ih  m 
bination  or  rearrangement  of  tlie  elements  composmg  tl  m 
ture,  of  which  gunpowder  is  the  type. 

Gunpowder  and  analogous  preparations  have  long  b  d 

for  purposes  of  war  and  pyrotechnic  display,  but  the  b  Ik    f 
the  substances  embraced  under  the  term  E.  have  only     f  I  ' 
years  been  discovered,  and  already  their  manufacture       d  u1 
sation  in  mining  and  blasting  operations  have  made  w    d 
ful  progress.     In  tlieir  respective  places  in  this  work,  th 
position  and  character  of  the  most  important  E.  will  b    d  alt 
with ;  here  we  only  can  enumerate  those  kinds  which  h       bee 
commercially  prepared,  or  practicallv  used,  and  for  con 
of  arrangement  we  shall  classify  them  as  mixtures  a  d 
pounds.     In  mechanical  mixtures  a  nitrate  or  a  chlor  t        tl 
predominant  ingredient,  and  with  heat  it  freely  gives  ofi      yg 
which  in  a  nascent  Condition  combines  with  the  oth  g 

dienta,  generally  carbon  and  sulphur,  forming  gaseous  p  du  t 
The  nitrate  mixtures  embrace  gunpowder,  pyrolithe  (nicrat  w  tl 
carbonate  of  soda,  sulphur,  and  sawdust),  and  poudre-sa  f  g  n 
(nitrate  of  baryta,  saltpetre,  sulphur,  and  charcoal).  Th  hlo- 
rate  mixtures  comprehend  Horsley's  blasting-powder  {II  t 
of  potash,  charcoal,  powdered  nut-galls,  &c ,  soaked  wi  1  t 
glycerine),  Brain'sblasting-powder  (resembling  that  of  H  1  y) 
Ehrhardt's  powder  (chlorate  and  nitrate  of  potash,  P  wd  d 
coal  and  tannm),  teutonite,  chlorated  gun-cotton,  &  ,  Th 
chief  chemical  compounds  constituting  E.  are— nitro-glycerine, 
and  bodies  prepared  from  it— dynamite,  dualine,  lithofracteur ; 
glyoxiline  (gun-cotton  pulp  and  saltpetre  saturated  with  nitro- 
glycerine and  methylic  niCrate),  gun-cotton,  cotton-gunpowder, 
Schultze's  powder  (woody  fibres  treated  with  nitric  and  sulphuric 
acid  and  hot  alkalies,  and  afterivards  satiiraled  with  niltale  of 


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potash  solution),  nitro-mannile,  picric  powder,  the  chloride  and 
the  iodide  of  nitrogen,  and  the  fulminates  of  mercBiy,  silyer,  &e, 
In  Great  Britain,  on  the  jst  January  1876,  the  Explosive  Sub- 
stances Bill,  1875,  'came  into  operation.  It  provides  for  the 
greater  safety  of  the  pubhc,  in  so  far  as  it  secures  the  proper 
conduct  of  the  manufacture,  storage,  transport,  importation  and 
shipment  of  E.,  heavy  penalties  being  eiaclid  for  non-obEervance 
of  the  regulations. 

Stm-aii  of  Explodves.~Mx  W.  H.  Chambers  of  the  Control 
Department,  Woolwich,  has  recently  invented  a  magazine  which 
reduces  the  danger  aftendmg  storage  of  E,  to  a  minimum.  It 
takes  the  form  of  a  cylinder  or  dram,  the  sides  and  bottom  of 
which  are  formed  of  materials  of  low  conducting  power,  as  plaster 
of  Paris,  Portland  cement,  and  gconnd  cork,  with  an  outer,  inner, 
and  intermediate  casing  of  galvanised  sheet  iron.  The  top  is 
similarly  constructed  and  is  screwed  down,  and  the  outer  casing  is 
pierced  with  several  small  holesplu^ed  Willi redlead.  Theholes, 
in  the  removal  of  the  red  lead,  allow  of  the  escape  of  moisture  or 
-team  that  may  be  generated  by  llie  enposure  of  the  magaiine  to 
great  heat.  A  fire  sufficiently  strong  to  raise  the  outer  casing  to 
welding-heat  in  no  way  affects  the  gunpowder  stored  within, 
The  magazines  are  as  thoroughly  damp-proof  as  fire-proof. 

Explosive  Material,  Law  Segardmg.—Ry  24  and  25  Vict,  c 
loo,  whoever  shall  maliciously,  by  gunpowder  or  other  explosive 
substance,  destroy  or  injure  any  dwelling-house,  any  one  being 
in  it,  is  guilty  Of  felony  subjecting  to  penal  servitude  for  life. 
To  place  or  permit  any  spring-gun,  man-trap,  or  other  engine 
dangerous  to  life  ill  his  ground,  renders  the  owner  liable  to  penal 
servitude  for  three  years.  See  Guwpowdeh,  Law  Regarding. 
Exptfuent,  in  algebra,  is  a  number  or  symbol  representing  a 
number  placed  above  and  to  the  right  of^  an  expression,  thus 
indicating  the  power  to  which  that  expieasion  is  to  be  raised. 
(See  Evolution  and  Involution.)  From  this  definition  we 
have  at  once  the  lam  of  exponents,  a"  x  ii"  =  a™  +  "  ;  from 
which,  by  putting  «  =  -  sw,  we  deduce  that  a  -  ™  is  the  recip- 
rocal of  ant,  and  by  putting  it  equal  to  nothhig,  a"  =  I.  In 
these,  m  and  »  may  be  either  integral  or  fracdonal.  An  exps- 
nmlial  equation  is  tme  into  which  the  unknown  quantity  enters 
as  an  E.,  suti  as  n*  jp  i.  Tlie  exponentiaX  tktorim  is  the 
expansion  of  o*  in  ascending  powers  (£x.  The  whole  subject  is 
intimately  connected  with  Lt^arithms  (q.  v.). 

Expo'sing  Ollil'dren,  If  with  intent  to  kill,  this  is  murder'; 
if  the  exposure  be  culpably  reckless  and  the  child  die  in  conse- 
quence, the  act  is  regarded  as  highly  criminal,  and  consequently 
as  severely  punishable. 

Ex  Post  Tao'to  is  a  legal  term  denoting  an  act  done  to 
affect  a  right  previously  questioned  or  a  demand  previously  made. 
An  ex  post  facto  law  operates  retrospectively.  It  is  only  in  ex- 
traordinary circumstances  that  this  effect  is  given  to  a  penal 


Exten'aion  (Lat.  extendo,  '  a  stretching  out ').  In  logic  most 
terms  have  a  meaning  in  E.  and  a  meaning  in  intension,  the 
foi-mer  comprising  the  individual  things  to  which  the  term  ap- 
phes,  the  latter  comprising  the  qnalities  which  those  things  must 
possess.  Thus  //ami  in  E.  denotes  the  earth.  Mars,  Venus, 
&c. ;  in  intension  it  means  a  heavenly  body  with  the  qtialily  of 
revolving  round  the  sun,  &c.  Different  but  rekted  terms  vary 
in  the  ipantity  of  their  K  and  intension.  Thus  animal  has  a 
greater  E.  of  meaning  than  man,  as  including  all  quadrupeds 
and  other  creatures ;  while  it  has  a  less  mtension,  for  among  the 
qnalities  of  mem  must  be  the  qualities  of  animal  as  well  as  others 
peculiar  to  man.  IE  we  add  the  adjecdve  'uiAlle  to  man,  we 
narrow  the  meaning  in  E.,  but  we  deepen  the  meaning  in  inten- 
sion, while  man  being  applicable  to  fewer  individuals  than  the 
term  man,  hut  implymg  aaiew  quality  in  addition  tp  the  qnali, 
ties  implied  by  man.  It  is  an  invariable  law  that  as  the  inten- 
sion  of  a  term  is  increased  the  E.  is  lessened,  but  not  in  any 
enact  ratio.  Hamilton  uses  breadth  and  deplk  for  E.  and  inten- 
sion, while  Mill  uses  deastalioa  and  eonnotation. 


of 


Extents,  in  English  law,  is  a  writ  at  Qie  suit  of  the  Queen,  or 
'  a  crown  debtor.  In  the  former  case  it  is  called  an  E  An  chief; 
n  the  latter,  an  E.  in-  aid.  It  is  of  the  nature  of  a  writ  of  exe- 
:ution,  and  binds  all  the  defendant's  lands  and  property;  the 


person  may  also  be  taken  unless  otherwise  directed.     A  writ  of 
error  on  an  E,  lies  in  the  Excliequer,  as  also  in  Parliament. 

Extent,  OlOwn's,  in  Scotland.'  By  the  treaty  of  union  be- 
tween England  and  Scotland  the  revenue  laws  of  the  two 
countries  were  assimilated,  and  the  crown's  preference  and  the 
English  form  of  execution  by  extent  were  introduced  in  revenue 
matters,  with  limitation  of  operation  to  movable  property.  By 
the  Court  of  Exchequer  Act  the  forms  of  procedure  agdnst  crown 
debtors  have  been  remodelled  and  made  similar  to  the  proce- 
dure in  other  cases. 

Eztor'tion.  (Irom  Lat,  ex,  and  torgaeo,  'I  wrest'},  m  a  wide 
legal  sense,  signiiies  any  oppression  under  pretence  of  right.  In 
a  limited  sense  it  denotes  the  offence  of  any  one  taking  money  or 
other  valuable  officially  where  none  is  due,  or  taking  more  than 
what  is  due,  or  of  requiring  a  payment  before  the  proper  time. 
The  punishment  is  removal  from  office,  fine,  or  imprisonment. 
By  34  and  25  Vict,  c  96,  if  any  one  knowingly  send  or  delinsr 
any  writing  demanding  with  threats  money  or  other  valuable,  or 
send  or  dehver  any  writing  threatening  to  accuse  any  one  of  any 
crime  punishable  with  death  or  penal  servitude,  he  is  liable  to 
penal  servitude  foe  life.  And  any  one  accusing  or  threatening 
to  accuse  another  of  the  crimes  referred  to  is  declared  guilty  of 
felony  and  subject  to  penal  servitude, 

Ex'tract  (Lat.  exlracliim,  'what  is  drawn  or  taken  out'), 
in  Scotch  law,  signifies  either  the  proper  written  evidence  or 
warrant  on  which  diligence  or  execution  on  a  judicial  decree  may 
issue,  or  an  authenticated  copy  of  deed  or  other  writing  the  prin- 
cipal of  which,  or  a  transcript  of  fhe  principal,  has  been  pre- 
served in  a  public  office.  "ITie  official  by  whom  the  E.  is  pre- 
pared  and  authenticated,  and  who  is  tisually  the  clerk  of  court, 
is  called  an  Extractor. 

Extract  of  Sleat  is  obtained  by  separating  from  animal 
food  all  the  nutritious  constituents  and  condensing  them  into 
small  bulk.  For  commerpial  purposes  the  extract  is  placed  in 
hermetically-closed  vessels,  that  it  may  remain,  for  an  indefinite 
length  of  time,  without  any  putrefactive  change  occnning.  It 
is  useful  in  many  wrcumstances,  for  with  it  beef-tea  or  soup  can 
be  prepared  in  a  short  time.  Although  the  extract  may  contain 
all  the  nutritions  constituents  of  animal  food,  it  can  never  serve 
as  an  exclusive  article  of  diet,  for  quantity  is  as  necessary  as 
quality  for  the  sustenance  of  animal  life. 

Extracts  are  substances  resulting  from  the  evaporation  of 
vegetable  juices,  or  the  solutions  of  their  active  principles.  The 
solutions  are  obtained  by  means  of  such  menstrua  as  water, 
acetic  acid,  alcohol,  ether,  and  glycerine,  cold  or  in  various 
degrees  of  heat.  The  process  of  evaporation  is  best  conducted 
in  vacuo,  E,  vary  in  consistence  from  a  soft  paste  to  a  hard, 
brittle  solid,  and  they  may  be  administered  in  pill,  solution,  or 
mixture.  The  group  of  E.  oompiehends  all  medicinal  substances 
from  the  vegetable  kit^dom. 

Extradi'tiop  (Lat.  extra,  and  dilio,  'a  giving  over')  is  the 
giving  Hp  of  a  person  accnsed  of  a  crime  committed  in  a  foreign 
country  to  the  foreign  jurisdiction.  Conventions  were  concluded 
hy  Enghind  with  France  and  the  United  States  in  1843  for  the 
E.  on  both  ddes  of  persons  accused  of  specified  offences.  Similar 
treaties  have  been  entered  into  with  other  powers.  The  E.  Act 
of  1870  con^  on  the  Queen  a  general  power  of  making 
arrangements  with  any  foreign  state  with  respect  to  the  sur- 
render of  any  fugitive  criminal  chaiged  with  certain  crimes,  and 
provides  that  exisring  E.  conventions  should  be  carried  out  under 
the  Act,  By  the  E.  Amendment  Act  of  1873  accessories  are 
liable  tp  be  surrendered, 

Extrajndi'dial.  The  term  is  csually  applied  in  law  in  con- 
tradistinction to  judicial.  E.  matter  is  that  which  is  not  intended 
to  form  any  part  of  the  record,  or  of  the  judicial  pleadings,  or 
admissions  of  the  parties,  such  as  communings  or  correspon- 
dence with  a  view  to  a  private  settlement  of  the  case.  E.  con- 
cessions to  avoid  a  lawsuit  cannot  be  founded  on  where  negotia- 
tion has  failed. 

Extrav^a'tioii  (from  Lat.  extra,  'beyond,'  and  vado,  '1 
goquicltly')istheescapeofany  of  the  fluids  of  the  living  body 
from  their  vessels  owing  to  disease  or  injury  of  their  coats.  The 
term  is  most  commonly  applied  to  E.  of  blood,  or  blood  effusions, 
,  where  tlie  contents  of  the  vessels,  arteries,  capillaries,  or  veins. 


vLaOogle 


Tim  GIOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EYE 


escape  entire  into  tlie  cellular  tissue  beneatli  the  skin.  In  the 
broader  sense  of  the  term  there  may  be  E.  of  blood  into  any  organ 
or  part  of  the  body,  or  E.  of  aiiy  fluid  contained  in  vessels  mto 
any  part  of  the  body  through  which  they  pass,  such  asE.  of  fieccs 
into  the  abdominal  cavity  from  ruptnre  of  the  intestines. 


Ext 


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t  th  ouls  f  th  d  p  t  d 
tl  D  gu  i)d  II  hjs  pow  jn  gl  t  be  bl  t 
11  L  111  m  th  th  soph  W  h  th  Ch  h  t  g 
nated  m  the  act  of  anointing  by  a  bishop  or  pnest,  which  was 
immediately  connected  with  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper, 
when  administered  to  dying  persons.  An  anointing  of  the  sipk 
is  mentioned  by  Innocent  I.  m  the  beginning  of  the  5th  c,  and 
by  Feibi  IV.  in  the  beginning  of  the  6th.  It  pame  into  general 
use  from  the  gth  c,  although  it  was  not  imiversally  adopfed  in 
the  West  till  the  I2th.  It  is  allnded  lo  by  St  Augustine,  St  Gre- 
gory, Fortunatus  of  Poictiers,  and  Gregory  of  Tours ;  and  in  the 
Greek  Church  by  Origen,  Chrysostom,  Victor  of  Antioch,  and 
Cyril  of  Jeoisalem,  but  the  first  who  spoke  of  it  as  a  sacrament 
was  Hugo  of  St  Victor. 

The  Church  of  Ronie  founds  her  doctrine  on  the  subject  (Coun- 
dlof  Trent/can,  3,  4;  sess-xiv.jon  Markvi.  13,  ondjamesv.  14, 
I5>  although  both  of  these  passages  seem  to  have  more  reference 
lo  the  recovery  of  the  ack  than  to  their  death.  See  Marcodam, 
in  Neander's  Geschichtsd.  C&ristl.  gel.  mid  Kirche;  Walcott's 
Soired  Archsohgy  {ljm&,  \%^). 

Extiin'sio  Evidence  is  evidence  beyond  (Lat,  extra)  that 
of  the  deed  or  document  under  consideration.  The  general  rule 
of  law  is  that  IE  is  incompetent  to  contradict  or  moiif/  the 
terms  of  formal  writings  unless  fraud  be  alleged  and  proof 
offered ;  but  ui  certain  circumstances,  as  where  there  is  ambi- 
guity in  the  writing,  such  evidence  is  admiited  in  explanation. 
See  Evidence. 

Exudation  (Lat.  ex,  'out,'  and  sudaiio,  'a  sweating')  is 
the  escape  of  a  portion  or  constituent  of  the  fluids  pf  the  living 
body  from  their  vessels,  and  is  not  necessarily  the  result  of  disease 
or  injury.  E.  never  results  from  the  ruptijre  of  a  vessel,  and  in 
this  respect  it  is  distinguished  fiom  extravasation,  When  E. 
occurs,  the  vessels  may  be  entirp,  or  their  coats  may  be  in  a 
relaxed  condition,  or  a  pact  may  be  injured  from  disease  or 
injury  ;  and  the  eftiision  takes  place  by  mechanical  filtration, 

Exu'mas,  The,  a  cluster  of  W.  India  islands  forming  part  of 
the  Bahamas  (q,  v.).  They  are  known  as  the  '  Great  Exuma,' 
'  Little  Exuma,'  and  '  Exuma  Keys.'  Great  Exuma  is  30  miles 
long  and  3  broad.  Agriculture  and  salt-making  are  the  chief 
pursuits.  Salt  is  exported  amounting  to  116,000  bushels  in  a 
year.  Little  Exuma  is  next  in  importance  to  Nassau  as  a  port 
of  entry  in  the  Bahamas.     Pop.  about  2000. 

Ejr'alet,  a  former  division  of  Turkey,  which  was  ruled  by  a 
pasha,  but  which  gave  place  to  the  vilayet  on  the  administrative 
reorganisation  of  the  empire  in  1871. 

Eyek^  Hubert  and  J^em  Van,  two, Flemish  painters  of  the 
latter  pact  of  the  I4.th  and  the  beginning  of  the  istli.c.,  of  whom 
the  chief  facts  known  are  that  Hiey  were  the  first  to  make  the 
jractice  of  painting  in  oils  general  {see  Painting),  and  that 
liey  have  exercised  an  extraordinaiy  influence  on  the  develop- 
nentof  the  art  of  modern  times.  Hubert,  born  at  Maas-Eyck 
near  Liege  in  1366,  was  a  member  of  the  fraternity  of  Notre 
Dame  at  Ghent,  where  he  died,  18th  September  1426.  Of  his 
- 1  no  distinctively  authentic  specimens  remain,  but  from  the 

■cumstances  that  he  was  the  instructor  of  his  brother  Jan  (who 

IS  thirty-four  years  younger),  and  that  they  lived  and  painted 
together  until  the  latter  was  thirty-six  years  of  age,  and  had 
risen  to  fame,  it  is  presumable  that  the  reputation  of  the  younger 
brother  was  shared  in  by  the  elder  during  the  lifetime  of  the 
ktter.  Jan  Van  E.,  the  great  master  of  the  old  Flemish  school, 
born  at  Maas-Eyck  about  1390,  readed  and  practised  painting 
6l3 


with  his  brother  successively  at  Bruges  and  Ghent.  He  was 
the  fiist  to  employ  drying  oils  with  suitable  varnish  in  painting, 
and  with  such  success  that  to  the  present  day  his  works  com- 
pare favourably  for  freshness  of  colour  and  foe  solidity  with  those 
of  living  painters.  The  '  AdoraSon  of  the  Lamb,'  on  which 
b  ththe  brothers  worked,  but  which  was  completed  by  Jan,  and 

his  greatest  work,  is  an  altar-piece  with  folding  wings.  The 
tre  pieces  are  at  Ghent,  the  wings  in  Berlin.  In  the  National 
G  llery  are  tliree  pictures  (portraits)  by  Jan,  but  his  chief  works 
ar  in  the  great  museums  of  the  C6niinent,  He  died  at  Bruges 
1440  or  1441.  See  the  Abb^  Carton's  Trois  Frh-es  Van  E. 
(Bruges,  1848),  and  Hotho's  Die  Malerschtik  Hubert's  Van  E. 
(B  ri.  ISS5-59). 

Bye  (Old  Eng.  eag-e ;  cf.  Ger.  aug-e,  Lat.  oc-ulus).  Ana- 
i  y  of  the  Eye.~1W  orean  of  vision  consists  (1)  of  external 
p    tective  parts  or  appendages ;  (2}  of  an  optical  apparatus  of 

f  active  media  by  wiiich  a  distinct  inverted  image  of  any  ex- 
ternal object  is  formed  on  the  retina  or  sensitive  coat;  and  (3)  of 
the  teiminal  organ  termed  Ae  retina,  connected  with  the  expan- 
sion of  the  optic  nerve,  whleh  receives  the  impressions  of  rays 
of  light  and  transmits  these  along  the  filaments  of  the  optic 
UMve  to  the  brain. 

TIa  External  Protectine  Paris  or  Appendages.  —  These  are 
the  eyelids,  which  are  movable  folds  of  skm,  having  between 
the  Uyers  a  thin  plate  of  cartilage.  Each  eyelid  is  lined  by  a 
mucous  membrane,  which  is  reflected  over  the  surface  of  the 
globe  of  the  E.  and  constitutes  the  conjunctiva.  Between  the  skin 
and  the  conjunctiva  there  are  numerous  fibres  of  connective  tissue, 
muscular  fibres,  the  cartilage  above  mentioned,  and  numerous 
small  gknds  called  the  meOoimcm  glands,  which  secrete  matter 
for  lubricating  the  surface  of  the  eyeball.  The  eyelashes  are  hairs 
attached  to  the  margin  of  the  lids.  Intimately  connected  with 
the  external  appendages  of  the  E.,  there  is  an  arrangement  for 
the  secretion  pf  the  tews,  termed  the  lachrymal  apparatus,  con- 
sisting of  the  followmg  parts :  the  gland  (lachrymal  gland)  by 
which  the  tears  are  secreted  near  Ihe  upper  side  of  the  orbit ; 
two  snjall  canals  near  the  inner  angle,  into  which  the  fluid 
secreted  by  ths  gland  is  received ;  and  the  lachrymal  sac  and 
Masai  duct,  or  passage  by  which  the  teais  are  conveyed  from  the 
lachrymal  cansls  to  the  cavity  of  the  nose.  The  eyebrows;  eye- 
lids, and  eyelashes  shade  the  E.  from  excessive  light,  and  prevent 
the  access  of  dust  floating  in  the  air.  The  watery  fluid  secreted 
by  the  lachrymal  gland  keep  the  anterior  suifiice  of  the  E.  moist 
and  translucent.  When  this  fluid  is  formed  in  excess,  under  the 
influence  either  of  an  emotion  or  of  an  irritant  applied  to  the 
surface  of  the  E.,  it  consdtutes  tears. 

The  eyeball  is  situMed  in  the  cavity  of  the  skall  termed  the 
orbit,  in  whicli  it  lies  embedded  amongst  a  quantity  of  fat.  It  is 
moved  about  by  the  action  of  six  muscles — four  straight,  or  recti, 
and  t  0  Bll'q  e  By  the  ac  'on  of  these  muscles  may  be 
rotated    pon  e  I  er  an  antero  poster  or  -or  a  t  ansve  se  axis. 

Tlie  gene  al  fo  n  ai  d  a  peara  ce  of  the  eyebal   a  e  seen  in 


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BYE 


TJIE  GLOBE  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


BYE 


minenU  It  consists  of  several  investing  membranes,  enclosing 
certain  fluid  and  semi-fluid  matters.  The  membranes  are  three 
in  ntunber,  viz. — (i)  A  tough  fibrous  covering  termed  the 
siUroUc  (o) ;  (a)  a  middle  vascular,  pigmentBiy,  and  partially 
muscular  layer,  divided  into  an  anterior  portion  c^ed  the  choreid 
(k\  and  a  posterior,  the  iris  (h\ ;  and  (3)  a  nervous  stratum,  the 
redmt  (»  o).  The  enclosed  refracting  media  are  also  three  in 
number,  viz.— (l)  The  aquio%ts  humour  ()«}  ;  (2)  the  aystallint 
Itns  (f) ;  and  (3)  the  vitrams  kumour  {x\  The  anterior  part  of 
the  eyeball,  which  ia  clear  and  transparent,  is  called  the  cornea 
(ji).  The  cornea  consists  of  a  thick  fibrous  part,  the  cornea 
proper,  covered  in  front  by  the  conjunOiua  (c),  and  a  thin  elastic 
layer  known  as  the  anterior  daitic  lamina ;  and  behind  by  a 
similar  elastic  lamina,  seen  dotted  in  fig.  I,  nsually  called  the 
membrane  of  Demeurs.  The  proper  cornea  is  of  the  nature  of 
epidermis  rendered  transpM^nt.  The  middle  tunic  of  the  eye- 
ball consists,  as  above  mentioned,  of  two  coats,  viz,,  a  vascular 
and  pigmentary  coat  called  the  choroid  i,k),  and  a  small  anterior 
muscular  part,  the  iris  [If).  The  inner  surface  of  the  choroid  is 
lined  by  a  layer  of  hexagonal  cells  filled  with  black,  pigment, 
and  serves  the  same  purpose  of  absorbing  extraneous  rays  of 
light  as  the  bkckening  seen  on  the  inner  surface  of  a  camera. 
TTie  iris  is  the  contractile  and  coloured  membrane  wliich  is  seen 
behind  the  cornea,  and  which  gives  colour  to  the  E.  Its 
centre  is  perforated  by  an  aperture  termed  t]xe  pupil.  Fibrous 
tissue  and  involuntary  muscle  form  the  tissue  of  the  iris,  in  the 
meshes  of  which  numerous  pigment  cells  are  also  found.  The 
iris  serves  as  a  contractile  diaphn^,  by  which  excess  of 
light  is  cut  offi  and  sharpness  of  definition  of  the  retinal  image 
is  dius  secured.  The  pupil  contracts  under  the  influence  of 
light,  so  that  with  brilliant  illumination  it  may  be  reduced  to 
very  small  size.  The  iris  and  the  crystalline  lens,  the  latter 
being  held  in  position  by  a  transparent  capsule  {p),  divide  the  E. 
into  two  chambers,  an  anterior  {m),  containing  the  aqueous 
humour  (m),  and  ^posterior,  filled  with  vitreous  humour  1.x).  The 
former  consists  simply  of  water  holding  in  solution  a  small  quan- 
tity of  saline  material,  while  tlie  latter  is  composed  of  a  jelly- 
like substance,  lying  in  a  meshH  ok  of  eit  emely  dehcate  con- 
nective tissue.  The  crystaUim  lens  (/)  s  a  do  bly  convex,  solid, 
transparent  body,  formed  of  numerous  lammte  placed  one  out- 
side of  the  other,  and  having  n  the  centre  a  firm  and  hard 
nucleus.  The  convexity  of  the  lens  is  greatest  behind.  Its 
Various  laminse  are  formed  of  tl  n  del  a  e  fib  es  The  leus  is 
held  in  its  place  by  a  suspen  oty  Hgament, 
which  Eutrou  ds  ts  n  a  g  n,  and  it  also  pos- 
sesses a  transpa  ent  ap  le.  The  retina  {n 
0)  is  a  most  dehcate  pulpy  substance,  placed 
behind  the  vitreous  humour,  and  in  front  of 
the  choroid  It  extends  forward  nearly  to 
the  antenor  margin  of  the  choioid  Its 
onter  surface,  that  next  to  the  choroid,  is 
formed  by  a  special  layer,  named  after  its 
discoverer  Jacob's  memirane  After  the  soft 
retina  has  been  hardened  m  alcohol  or  chromic 
acid,  and  thin  sections  are  made  perpendi- 
cular to  Its  surface,  an  appearance  similar  to 
Fig.  2  may  be  obtjdned.  It  will  be  seen 
that  it  consists  of  a  series  of  dissimilar  strata, 
vi& — (i)  A  layer  irf  rod  and  cone  like  bodies 
forming  Jacob's  membrane  ip  c  if  IT);  (2)  a 
fine  granular  layer  (d) ;  (3)  another  granu- 
lar layer  having  larger  granules  (/)  \  {4)  a 
finely  molecular  layer,  composed  of  molecules 
and  extremely  fine  fibres  \g) ;  (5)  a  layer  of 
lat^e  nerve-eells  (^),  which  are  connected  by 
filamraits  (.4')  with  (6)  tlie  innermost  layer 
(that  is,  the  one  next  the  vitreous  humour) 
formed  by  ihe  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve. 
In  the  centre  of  the  retina,  there  is  a  yellov) 
spot,  where  vision  is  most  acute.  In  this 
spot  the  only  part  of  the  retina  present  is  the 
layer  of  rods  and  cones.  About  one-tenth  of 
-glg_  ^  an  inch  inside  the  yellow  spot  is  a  round 

disc,/flrHj  opticus,  where  the  oplic  nerve  es- 
pands,  and  wheie  there  is  complete  insensibility  to  light. 

Physiology  of  the  £>e.— Within  the  limiu  of  this  article  it  is 
impossible  to  do  raore  than  to  give  a  brief  ouOine  of  the  more 


mporte 


tpomi 


General  Optical  Character. — The  E.  may  be  regarded  as  a 
mera  consisting  of  four  lenses  of  different  structures,  densities, 
and  curves,  surrounded  by  a  strong  fibrous  covering,  the  scle- 
rotic, and  lined  by  pigmentary  layer,  the  choroid.  The  four 
refractive  structures  through  which  a  ray  of  light  must  pass  be- 
fore it  reaches  the  retina  are,  from  before  backwards,  the  cornea, 
the  aqueous  humour,  the  crystalline  lens,  and  the  vitreous 
humour.  The  action  of  these  four  refi-active  structures  is  to 
form  a  picture  of  external  objects  on  the  retina.  The  action  of 
rays  of  light  on  the  retina  is  to  stimulate  the  terminations  of  the 
filaments  of  the  optic  nerve,  which  are  in  connection  with  the 
retinal  elements;  the  influence  on  the  nerves  is  conveyed  by 
them  to  the  sensorium,  and  the  consequence  is  consciousness  of 
vision.  It  has  been  sho.wn  that  the  layer  of  rods  and  cones  in 
the  retina  is  the  part  really  sen^tive  to  the  action  of  light,  and 
tliat  the  specific  action  of  light  is  to  effect  certain  chemical 
changes  in  thisj  part,  which  may  l>e  delected  by  the  electrical 
variations  they  praluce. 

Position  of  Objects  on  the  Jietina.-^AU  objects  refracted  on 
the  retina  are  inverted,  and  yet  they  are  seen  m  the  natural  posi- 
tion. The  probable  explanation  of  this  is,  that  the  mind  is  not 
conscious  of  images  on  the  retina,  but  of  the  external  object 
which  produces  the  image. 

Accommodation  of  the  Eye. — A  normal  E,  is  capable  of  seeing 
objects  distinctly  which  are  placed  at  almost  any  distance,  and 
consequently  there  must  be  some  power  of  accommodating  or 
of  focussing  the  E.  for  different  distances.  It  has  been  ascer- 
tained that  this  is  accomplished  by  the  action  of  a  small  muscle, 
the  ciliary  viusde  Kfg),  which  relaxes  the  anterior  layer  of  the 
capsule  of  the  lens,  and  thus  allows  the  lens,  by  its  elasticity',  to 
become  more  convex  anteriorly.  This  is  effected  for  near  objects. 
A  reflection  of  a  candle  flame  on  the  anterior  surface  of  the  lens 
hasbeenobservedto  approach  ttiecorneawhenlheK  was  directed 
to  a  near  object.  The  radii  of  curvature  have  also  been  carefully 
measured,  and  it  has  been  found  that  the  length  of  the  radius  of 
the  anterior  surface  of  the  lens  diminishes  for  nair  distances ; 
consequently  the  anterior  surface  becomes  less  convex  for  distant 
objects.  The  mechanism  occurs  without  consciousness.  For 
fnrtlier  details  see  Hermann's  Human  Physiology,. -p.  572. 

Anomalies  and  Peculiarities  of  the  Eye — As  an  optical  instru- 
ment the  K  is  not  absolutely  faultless,  but  the  defects  are  so 
slight  as  not  to  be  observable  unless  the  attention  has  been  care- 
fiilly  directed  to  them,  with  the  aid  of  special  apparatus.  Tlie 
chief  defects  are;— (i)  Chromatic  aberration  (see  Aberration). 
When  the  E.  is  accommodated  for  too  near  a  distance,  the  mar- 
gin of  the  fieid  is  blue,  and  for  too  great  a  distance  the  margin  is 
of  a  feint  reddish  yellow.  Thus  the  power  of  accommodation  is 
not  equal  for  all  colours.  (2)  Spherical  aierration  is  nearly  cor- 
rected by  die  action  of  the  iris  cutting  off  a  large  amount  of  the 
peripheral  rays  which  fall  upon  the  E.  by  the  ellipsoidal  form 
of  the  refracting  surfaces,  and  by  the  density  of  the  lens  being 
greatest  iji  the  centre  or  nucleus ;  but  when  the  pupil  is  dilated, 
a  certain  amount  of  spherical  aberration  is  always  present,  giving 
rise  to  circles  of  diffuse  light,  and  consequently  to  indistinct 
images.  (3)  Astigmatism.  In  many  cases  it  will  be  foand  that 
fine  vertical  lines  made  by  chalk  upon  a  black  board  can  be  seen 
distinctly  from  a  greater  distance  than  similar  horizontal  lines. 
This  depends  on  the  fact  that  the  vertical  meridian  of  the  cornea 
is  more  arched  tiian  the  horizontal,  so  that  the  two  meridians 
have  different  focal  distances.  This  is  astigmatism,  an  error 
which,  if  too  pronounced,  may  give  rise  to  much  discomfort, 
which  may  be  remedied  by  the  use  of  cylindrical  glasses.  (4)  All 
the  media  of  the  E.  are  slishtiy  fiuotescent.  {$)  The  E.  is  so 
affected  by  polarised  light,  that  when,  for  example,  we  look  at 
the  sky  (the  blue  rays  of  which  are  already  polarised),  a  peculiar 
tuft-like  im^ge  is  seen,  usually  called  ffaidinger's  image. 

The  Blind  Sfot  of  the  Eye.— The  point  of  the  reilna  which 
corresponds  to  the  entrance  of  the  optic  nerve  is  insensible  to 
light,  so  that  any  image  falling  upon  it  does  not  excite  a  visual 
sensation.  This  proves  that  the  optic  nerve  can  only  lie  affected 
by  light  through  the  medium  of  the  retina. 

The  Sensitiveness  of  the  Yellow  5j*oA— This  spot  is  most  sensi- 
tive to  light,  and  when  we  wish  to  obtain  an  accurate  view  of 
any  object,  we  unconsciously  so  move  the  E.  as  to  bring  its 
image  upon  the  spot.  For  example,  if  we  fix  our  attention, 
without  moving  our  eyeballs,  on  a  word  in  the  centre  of  a  long 
line  of  print,  we  see  that  word  distinctly,  while  the  other  words 
on  each  side  of  it  are  but  vaguely  noticed.  But  if  we  wish  to 
613 


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