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rtlSTpRjC^y,  SUkxm 


tifirVB^SITY  OF  uimm: 


A  Glossary 

OF 

Mississippi  Valley  French 

1673-1850 


BY 


JOHN  FRANCIS  McDERMOTT 


WASHINGTON  UNIVERSITY  STUDIES -NEW  SERIES 
LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  —  No.  12 

DECEMBER,  1941 


Washington  University 


George  R.  Throop,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Bridge  Chancellor 
Walter  E.  McCourt,  A.M.,  Assistant  Chancellor 


The  College  of  Liberal  Arts 

Frank  M.  Webster,  Ph.B.,  Acting  Dean 

The  School  of  Engineering 

Alexander  S.  Langsdorf,  M.M.E.,  Dean 

Tlie  School  of  Architecture 

Alexander  S.  Langsdorf,  M.M.E.,  Dean 

The  School  of  Business  and  Public  Administration 
William  H.  Stead,  Ph.D.,  Dean 

Tlie  Henry  Shaw  School  of  Botany 

George  T.  Moore,  Ph.D.,  Director 

The  School  of  Graduate  Studies 

Richard  F.  Jones,  Ph.D.,  Acting  Dean 

The  School  of  Law 

Joseph  A.  McClain,  Jr.,  A.B.,  LL.B.,  J.S.D.,  LL.D., 
Dean 

The  School  of  Medicine 

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The  School  of  Dentistry 

Benno  E.  Lischer,  D.M.D.,  Dean 

The  School  of  Nursing 

Louise  Knapp,  A.M.,  Director 

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Kenneth  E.  Hudson,  B.F.A.,  Director 

University  College 

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The  Summer  School 

Frank  L.  Wright,  A.M.,  Ed.D.,  Director 


Mary  Institute,  a  preparatory  school  for  girls,  located  at 
Ladue  and  Warson  Roads,  is  also  conducted  under  the  charter 
of  the  University. 


A  GLOSSARY 
of 

MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 
1673-1850 


A  GLOSSARY 
of 

MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 
1673-1850 

By 

JOHN  FRANCIS  McDERMOTT 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OF  ENGLISH 
WASHINGTON  UNIVERSITY 


WASHINGTON  UNIVERSITY  STUDIES— NEW  SERIES 

Language  and  Literature — No.  12 

St.  Louis,  1941 


Copyright  1941 

by 

Washington  University 

St.  Louis 


All  Rights  Reserved 


I 


PREFACE 


Ten  years  ago,  when  I  began  reading  in  the  history  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley,  I  found  myself  occasionally  puzzled  by  words 
which  were  no  longer  current  in  French  and  by  others  whose 
meaning  obviously  differed  from  standard  usage.  Noticing  that 
^^translators  and  editors  frequently  had  the  same  difficulty,  I 
started  a  collection  of  unusual  and  obscure  terms.  The  present 
^^  monograph  is  the  result. 

"^n/^^'"  ^u''^7  ''  '''^^''^^^  ^^'^  *^^  "^^  «^  «t"d^^ts  of  any  phase 
rof  French  culture  m  the  Mississippi  Valley.    It  will  be  of  use 
^  to  them,  I  hope,  in  supplying  meanings  of  words  which  are,  to 
^  all  except  specialists  in  the  French  language,  obscure,  difficult, 
or  commonly  confused.    Particularly  have  I  been  interested  in 
^  new  words  and  new  meanings  for  old  words  which  often  are 
j^ot  to  be  found  in  the  large  standard  dictionaries.   I  have  given 
,  much  attention  also  to  interpretation  of  now  obsolete  legal  and 
commercial  terms.  I  have  included  a  number  of  Standard  French 
words  which  I  have  repeatedly  found  confused  and  mistrans- 
lated   I  have  also  included  a  number  of  other  terms,  commonly 
hsted  m  dictionaries,  not  for  the  sake  of  elucidating  their  mean- 
ing, but  for  the  sake  of  illustrating  and  describing  certain  cus- 
toms which  have  grown  up  around  them  in  the  area  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi  Valley;  these  terms  are  marked  with  an  asterisk 
1^      The  word  list  has  been  gathered  from  printed  and  manuscript 
sources  which  range  the  entire  Mississippi  Valley-from  the 
Allegheny  Mountains  to  the  Rockies,  from  the  Great  Lakes  to 
:ahe  Gulf    Much  use  has  been  made  of  Canadian  works,  because 
I   a  majority  of  the  French  people  of  the  central  part  of  the  valley 
I   and  a  considerable  portion  of  the  Louisiana  French  were  Cana- 
dian m  origin.   I  have  set  the  years  1673-1850  as  approximate 
limits  because  that  spread  of  time  represents  the  period  when 
.  J^renclimen  were  most  active  in  the  Mississippi  Valley 
|.  _    The  plan  of  the  glossary  is  simple.  All  words  have  been  placed 
;  m  one  alphabetical  order,  with  the  most  common  spelling  fol- 
!  lowed  by  variants.   When  a  word  is  clearly  borrowed  from  the 


PREFACE 

Indian,  I  have  next  placed  the  abbreviation  "Ind."  Then  follows 
the  customary  abbreviation  to  show  the  part  of  speech.  The 
definition  is  given,  whenever  possible,  in  a  single  word.  For  all 
words  of  unusual  meaning  I  have  cited  the  authority  of  region- 
al dictionaries  or  have  added  illustrative  passages  from  travel 
books  and  documents  to  show  the  particular  sense  in  which  the 
word  was  used.  For  terms  descriptive  of  customs  I  have  named 
sources  where  the  reader  will  find  much  fuller  accounts  than  I 
have  had  space  for.  For  those  standard  but  often  misused  words 
included  I  give  the  definition  without  citation  of  authority,  for 
they  are  to  be  found  in  Littre.  Except  for  words  of  these  last 
two  classes,  current  or  standard  uses  of  entries  have  not  been 
mentioned. 

The  documentation  I  have  made  as  simple  and  useful  as  pos- 
sible. The  four  studies  which  I  have  used  most  frequently  I 
have  referred  to  only  by  the  surnames  of  the  authors  (Clapin, 
Read,  Ditchy,  Dorrance).  In  citing  other  works  I  have  used 
the  author's  last  name  and  a  brief  title.  Every  source  mentioned 
is  fully  identified  in  the  "Sources  Consulted"  that  follows  the 
word  list.  This  list  of  sources  (which  is  not  intended  to  be  a 
bibliography  on  the  French  language  in  America)  I  have  ar- 
ranged in  one  alphabetical  order,  because  in  that  form  it  is  more 
conveniently  useful  than  if  it  were  split  into  several  classified 
groups. 

I  wish  to  express  my  gratitude  for  the  assistance  given  me 
by  many  persons  and  institutions.  The  Library  of  Washington 
University,  the  Missouri  Historical  Society,  and  the  Mercantile 
Library  of  Saint  Louis  have  been  particularly  kind  in  the  use 
permitted  me  of  their  collections.  The  Kansas  City  Public  Li- 
brary and  the  Stanford  University  Library  have  made  special 
loans  of  rare  books.  The  National  Youth  Administration  and 
Washington  University  have  provided  me  with  a  typist.  Pro- 
fessors William  Roy  Mackenzie  of  Washington  University  and 
William  Cabell  Greet  of  Columbia  University  have  given  me 
considerable  encouragement  in  my  work.  Professors  Ralph  P. 
Bieber  and  Bateman  Edwards  of  Washington  University,  and 
Miss  Stella  M.  Drumm,  Librarian  of  the  Missouri  Historical  So- 
ciety, have  been  kind  enough  to  read  my  manuscript  critically 


PREFACE 

and  to  make  valuable  suggestions  concerning  its  organization 
and  the  scope  of  its  word  list.  Professors  Richard  F.  Jones, 
Bernard  Weinberg,  and  Bruce  A.  Morrissette,  and  Dean  F.  W. 
Shipley  have  given  time  and  assistance  which  I  much  appreciate. 
To  Miss  Annie  Louise  Carter,  Miss  Elizabeth  Treeman,  and  Miss 
Alice  E.  Sellinger  I  am  indebted  for  reading  proofs. 

John  Francis  McDermott 

Washington  University- 
Saint  Louis 
23  May  1941 


Vll 


I 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface  v 

Introduction 1 

Glossary  ! 13 

Sources  Consulted 149 


INTRODUCTION 


Cajeu,  cerne,  mitas,  prelat,  habitant,  sauvage,  cotonnier,  voi- 
ture,  brulot,  gourde,  and  assolat^  were  all  words  in  common  use 
among  the  Mississippi  Valley  French  between  1673  and  1850; 
yet  several  of  them  are  not  to  be  found  in  Littre's  DictioiiTiaire 
de  la  Langue  Frangaise,  and  for  the  others  the  meanings  given 
in  Littre  are  almost  all  quite  unsatisfactory  for  local  use.  Imagine 
being  confronted,  in  the  inventory  of  an  estate,  with  the  infor- 
mation that  an  opulent  French  trader  at  Saint  Louis  owned  two 
grands  Prelats  valued  at  fifty  livres  each,  an  old  Prelat  worth 
half  as  much,  and  another  mechant  Prelat  of  no  value  whatso- 
ever— a  strange  state  of  religious  affairs  that  must  seem.  How 
astonished  a  Parisian  would  have  been  to  hear  one  morning  that 
his  voiture  had  broken  loose  from  its  moorings  and  was  float- 
ing down  the  river!  It  would  not  have  consoled  him  to  be  told 
that  a  quickly  made  cajeu  would  carry  him  across  the  river  where 
for  a  few  gourdes  he  could  readily  obtain  a  pirogue. 

There  were  difficulties  in  the  language  for  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury Parisian  traveling  in  America  to  satisfy  his  curiosity  as 
well  as  there  are  for  the  present-day  student  of  men  and  manners 
in  the  early  West.  Words  and  phrases  now  misleading,  obsolete, 
or  obscure,  words  with  a  local  meaning  distant  from  that  of 
Standard  French,  and  words  which  were  actually  new  word-stock 
confronted  them  both.  Although  the  French  used  by  educated 
people  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  was  as  good  as  that  spoken  in 
any  other  place,  the  conditions  of  the  new  life  obviously  called 
for  an  extension  of  the  vocabulary.  The  many  races  and  nation- 
alities in  the  great  territory — Canadian,  Indian,  Spanish,  Negro, 
West  Indian,  Louisiana  French,  and  the  French  of  France — all 
contributed  to  Mississippi  Valley  French.  The  new  fauna  and 
flora,  as  well  as  new  occupations,  made  necessary  additional 
words  and  extended  the  meaning  of  old  ones. 

1  All  French  words  cited  in  this  introduction  will  be  found  in  the  diction- 
ary that  follows;  it  is  unnecessary,  therefore,  to  document  them  here. 


2  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

One  considerable  influence  on  the  French  vocabulary  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley  was  that  of  Canada.  Within  a  century  after 
the  founding  of  Quebec,  settlements  of  Canadian  French  were 
growing  up  in  the  Illinois  Country  at  Cahokia  and  Kaskaskia, 
and  not  many  more  years  passed  before  the  villages  of  Fort 
Chartres,  Prairie  du  Rocher,  Saint  Philippe,  and  Vincennes  were 
peopled  from  Canada.  Sainte  Genevieve  drew  its  population  from 
its  parent  town,  Kaskaskia.  Saint  Louis,  founded  by  a  French- 
man of  France,  acquired  its  inhabitants  largely  from  the  old 
villages  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  Illinois  Country  or  from 
Canada.  The  militia  lists  for  Saint  Louis  in  1780  show  the  diver- 
sity of  population  in  the  district  and  the  preponderance  of 
Canadians :  one  man  was  born  in  Spain,  two  were  Italians,  three 
Americans,  seven  were  from  New  Orleans,  twenty-four  from 
France,  forty-eight  from  the  Illinois,  and  one  hundred  and 
twenty-nine  from  Canada.^  Louisiana,  as  well,  owed  much  to  the 
Canadians.  The  province  and  its  principal  towns.  New  Orleans 
and  Mobile,  were  founded  by  Canadians  under  the  leadership  of 
members  of  the  notable  LeMoyne  family,  and  Canadians  were 
familiar  with  that  country  from  the  very  beginning  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  Many  of  the  French,  then,  who  roamed  from 
the  Great  Lakes  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  from  the  Appalachians 
to  the  Rockies  were  of  Canadian  origin. 

It  is  to  be  expected  that  usages  developed  in  seventeenth  cen- 
tury Canada  became  part  of  the  word-stock  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley.  One  interesting  illustration  of  the  change  in  language 
brought  about  by  a  change  in  living  conditions  is  the  verb  habiter 
and  the  nouns  habitunt  and  habitation,  which  in  Standard  French 
mean  "to  live"  or  "to  dwell,"  an  "inhabitant,"  and  a  "house."  In 
early  Canada  there  were  four  classes  of  population :  the  military, 
the  religious,  the  trading  company  and  its  employees,  and  the 
true  colonists  who  had  come  "to  dwell"  permanently  in  the  new 
land.  Since  these  colonists — "inhabitants" — settled  on  farms  and 
were  expected  to  devote  themselves  to  agriculture,  the  word 
habitant  in  Canada  became  synonymous  with  "farmer."  The 
term  was  carried  down  to  the  Mississippi  Valley  in  this  particu- 
lar sense,  so  that  in  almost  every  instance  habitant  should  be 
translated  "farmer,"  and  habitation,  "farm." 

2  Houck,  Spanish  Regime  in  Missouri,  I,  184-189. 


INTRODUCTION  3 

Many  other  examples  of  such  change  might  be  cited.  Hiverner, 
"to  winter,"  and  hivernant,  "one  who  winters,"  were  first  used 
for  employees  of  the  French  trading  companies  who  stayed  in 
Canada  through  the  winter,  but  in  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth 
centuries  these  words  referred  to  employees  of  the  Canadian  and 
Saint  Louis  houses  who  stayed  at  distant  posts  during  the  winter. 
The  coureur  des  hois  was  not  a  "runner  of  the  woods"  but  a 
free  hunter  who  preferred  life  in  the  woods  to  life  in  the  towns 
or  in  the  service  of  one  of  the  fur  companies.  A  car7nole  in 
France  might  be  a  poor  excuse  for  a  cart ;  in  the  North  Country 
it  was  a  sled  drawn  by  horse  or  dog.  A  desei^t  for  a  native  of 
France  would  be  a  wild  or  deserted  country;  for  a  Canadian  it 
was  a  cultivated  field.  In  Canada,  faire  le  desert  was  to  clear 
land  for  agricultural  purposes. 

With  the  Canadians,  a  century  of  gradual  transformation  of 
Standard  French  was  brought  down  into  the  Mississippi  Valley, 
but  that  was  not  the  only  race  or  group  influence.  In  the  South 
slavery  meant  the  growth  of  a  speech  which  was  a  cross  between 
French  and  various  African  dialects,  and  words  like  gombo  and 
Congo  became  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  French  vocabulary  of 
educated  people.  Throughout  the  valley  the  Indians  contributed 
many  words :  iiiatache  for  spotted  or  painted  in  the  Indian  man- 
ner, parfleche  for  dressed  buffalo  hide.  A  word  like  boucaner, 
"to  smoke  meat,"  traveled  north  from  South  America;  tnarin- 
gouin,  "mosquito,"  is  another  acquisition  from  the  southern 
continent.  Patate  reached  the  French  vocabulary  through  the 
Spanish  but  it  came  originally  from  Haitian  batate.  Pirogue  was 
piragtm  when  the  French  took  it  over,  but  the  Spanish  had  bor- 
rowed it  from  the  Caribs.  The  Spanish  gave  the  French  such 
words  as  cabresse  (cabestro — "halter")  and  marron  ("wild")  — 
the  latter  was  a  particularly  useful  word,  for,  where  French 
sauvage  meant  "wild"  or  "savage,"  marron  signified  something 
once  domesticated  but  now  returned  to  a  wild  state,  whether 
negro,  horse,  or  cattle. 

Race  contacts  themselves  and  the  admixture  of  races  demanded 
new  words.  Americans,  for  Canadians  and  for  the  people  of  the 
Illinois  Country,  were  Bastonais.  The  native-born  whites  were 
Creoles.  Canadien,  even  in  the  nineteenth  century,  meant  the 
French  of  Canada,    Mixtures  of  white  blood  and  black  were 


4  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

described  as  muldtre,  griff e,  qimrteron.  Crossbreeding  of  French 
and  Indian  resulted  in  metis  and  bois-brule.  Zambo,  gens-libre, 
gens  de  cotdeur,  homme-libre,  Frangais  de  France  were  other 
necessary  terms. 

It  was  not  merely  contact  and  gradual  change  that  enlarged 
the  language.  The  new  flora  required  new  terms,  not  to  be  found 
in  the  existing  vocabulary.  An  important  part  of  the  Indian 
contribution  is  found  in  the  naming  of  trees  and  plants:  assi- 
mine,  plaquemine,  cassine,  pacane.  For  other  trees  the  French 
invented  names:  fevier  (locust),  bois  inconnu  (hackberry),  bois 
de  fleche  (dogwood),  bois  d'arc  (Osage  orange).  Animal  life, 
too,  called  for  new  words.  Here  the  Indians  contributed  pichou 
(bob-tailed  wildcat)  and  quiliou  or  kiliou  (calumet  bird).  The 
French  added  barbae  (catfish),  rat  de  bois  (opossum),  siffleur 
(groundhog),  and  used  with  new  meaning  outarde  (Canadian 
goose),  cerf  (elk),  cabri  (antelope).  The  English  contributed 
carencro  (carrion  crow,  buzzard).  Among  the  insects  new  to 
the  French  were  the  frappe  d'abord  and  the  brulot.  The  first 
was  so  named  because  "as  soon  as  it  has  alighted  on  the  skin 
it  bites  immediately."^  The  other  was  a  small  black  fly  which 
attacks  "the  nose,  the  eyes,  and  the  mouth,  the  mere  contact  of 
which  gives  a  lasting  sensation  of  a  burn."* 

The  very  important  contact  with  the  Indians  made  necessary 
a  new  vocabulary  for  the  details  of  Indian  life.  The  Indian  wore 
bragiiets  and  mitas,  or  mitasses.  He  smoked  kinikinik  or  bois 
route.  He  drank,  on  occasion,  cassine  and  he  ate  his  sagamite 
with  the  aid  of  a  micouen.  He  listened  to  or  gave  counsel  in  the 
loge  or  at  the  feu  des  vieillards.  When  he  went  out  with  a  war 
party  under  the  leadership  of  a  partisan,  he  left  the  aged  and 
sick  members  of  the  tribe  in  a  cache  des  vieilles.  The  discipline 
of  a  hunting  camp  was  maintained  by  soldats.  The  soldat,  or 
"soldier"  as  it  is  generally  Englished,  was  an  important  person- 
age, but  his  duties  make  it  clear  that  he  should  more  correctly 
be  called  "police"  or  "military  police."  According  to  Edwin 
James,  "on  all  occasions  of  public  rejoicings,  festivals,  dances, 
or  general  hunts,  a  certain  number  of  resolute  warriors  are 

3  Tixier,  Travels,  257. 
*  Ibid.,  85. 


INTRODUCTION  5 

previously  appointed,  to  preserve  order,  and  keep  the  peace.  In 
token  of  their  office  they  paint  themselves  entirely  black ;  usually 
wear  the  crow,  and  arm  themselves  with  a  whip  or  war-club, 
with  which  they  punish  on  the  spot  those  who  misbehave,  and 
are  at  once  both  judges  and  executioners.  Thus,  at  bison  hunts, 
they  knock  down  or  flog  those  whose  manoeuvres  tend  to  frighten 
the  game,  before  all  are  ready,  or  previously  to  their  having 
arrived  at  the  proper  point,  from  which  to  sally  forth  upon  them. 
Four  or  five  such  officers,  or  soldiers,  are  appointed  at  a  council 
of  the  chiefs,  held  in  the  evening,  to  preserve  order  amongst  the 
hunters  for  the  succeeding  day."^ 

Another  interesting  custom  among  the  Indians  was  that  called 
by  the  French  frapper  le  poteau.  On  ceremonial  occasions  war- 
riors would  step  forward,  strike  a  post  in  the  center  of  a  circle, 
and  recite  their  deeds  of  valor  (coups),  but  every  brave  must 
then  speak  only  truth,  for  the  act,  because  of  its  public  nature, 
was  as  binding  as  an  oath.  One  of  the  finest  exploits  was  in 
the  midst  of  battle  to  strike  an  enemy  with  one's  hand :  Victor 
Tixier  met  an  Osage  brave  who  bore  the  proud  name  of  Frappeur 
des  chefs.  Many  travelers  have  spoken  of  the  "crying"  of  the 
Osage,  but  pleurer  is  a  weak  and  unsatisfactory  word  to  describe 
the  Indian's  conduct — wailing  or  keening  are  closer  synonyms. 
Bradbury  recorded  an  amusing  variant  of  this  noisy  mourning: 
"I  have  been  informed,  that  when  the  Osages  were  in  the  habit 
of  robbing  the  white  settlers,  it  was  customary  with  them,  after 
they  had  entered  the  house,  and  before  they  proceeded  to  plunder, 
to  black  their  faces,  and  cry.  The  reason  they  gave  for  this  was, 
that  they  were  sorry  for  the  people  they  were  going  to  rob."® 

A  marmiton  enjoyed  an  official  importance  far  different  from 
that  of  a  cook  or  scullion  in  a  white  society.  He  was,  indeed,  no 
ordinary  fellow.  "The  cooks,"  Pike  noticed  in  1806,  "are  either 
for  general  use,  or  attached  particularly  to  the  family  of  some 
great  man ;  and  what  is  more  singular,  men  who  have  been 
great  warriors  and  brave  men,  having  lost  all  their  families  by 
disease,  in  the  war,  and  themselves  becoming  old  and  infirm,  fre- 
quently take  up  the  profession  of  cook,  in  which  they  do  not 

5  Long's  Expedition,  I,  297. 

6  Travels,  64. 


6  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

carry  arms,  and  are  supported  by  the  public  or  their  particular 
patron.  They  likewise  exercise  the  functions  of  town  criers,  call- 
ing the  chiefs  to  council  and  to  feasts ;  or  if  any  particular  per- 
son is  wanted,  you  employ  a  crier,  who  goes  through  the  village 
crying  his  name  and  informing  him  that  he  is  wanted  at  such 
a  lodge."^  These  are  but  a  few  of  the  words  or  expressions  that 
through  necessity  became  part  of  the  customary  vocabulary  in 
the  Mississippi  Valley. 

The  contact  with  the  Indians  was  largely  governed  by  trade. 
Consequently,  the  fur  trade  has  contributed  much.  Traite, 
traiteivr  for  the  "trade"  and  the  "trader,"  bourgeois  and  engage 
for  "employer"  and  "employee"  were  additions  to  the  vocabulary. 
The  trader  had  to  have  a  conge  (license).  Trading  companies 
often  sent  men  out  en  derouine  (to  trade  with  the  Indians  in 
their  own  country).   Plus  was  a  standard  of  value. 

But  even  more  new  terms  grew  up  with  the  use  of  the  water- 
ways in  the  Indian  trade  and  the  fur-taking  business.  A  boat 
was  a  voitu7'e;  but  it  might,  among  other  kinds,  be  a  canot  maitre, 
a  canot  du  nord,  a  ph'ogue,  a  bateau  plat,  a  berge,  a  cajeu,  a 
boucaut.  A  voyageur  was  not  a  "traveler"  but  a  "boatman" ;  the 
day's  tnarche  on  the  water  was  divided  into  many  pipes.  A  demi- 
chai-ge  or  portage,  if  more  than  a  third  of  a  mile,  was  generally 
divided  into  poses,  and  during  the  carrying  each  voyageur  bore 
two  pieces,  one  of  which  was  suspended  from  his  head  by  a  filet. 
The  boatman  by  old  custom  was  allowed  a  filet  of  hard  liquor 
two  or  three  times  a  day.  In  addition  to  portages  there  were  the 
traverse,  the  re^nous,  the  embarras,  the  chute,  the  chaudiere,  the 
sault  to  try  the  skill,  the  patience,  and  the  strength  of  the 
voyageur.  The  boat  was  under  the  command  and  guidance  of  a 
patron.  If  the  voyageur  on  the  Missouri  River  was  a  blanc-bec, 
a  man  who  had  never  been  more  than  a  few  hundred  miles  from 
Saint  Louis,  he  could  expect  to  be  initiated  when  the  boat  passed 
the  Platte.  Detour  and  dalle,  I'accourci  and  eboidement,  bayou 
and  coupe,  galet  and  galette  were  all  familiar  terms  in  the  vocab- 
ulary of  the  waterways. 

The  hunter  and  the  trapper  wandering  overland  found  need 
for  more  terms  than  the  names  of  animals  cited  above.    The 

■^  Coues,  ed.,  Expeditions  of  Pike,  II,  528. 


INTRODUCTION  7 

buffalo,  of  course,  furnished  many.  For  food  the  best  part  of 
the  animal  was  the  bosse,  the  fat  hump,  but  the  depouille  and  the 
plats-cotes  were  greatly  valued,  too.  Pemican,  dried  buffalo  meat, 
was  stored  and  carried  in  taureaux,  sacks  made  from  the  hide 
of  the  buffalo  bull.  The  bull  himself  was  a  cayac.  A  favorite 
dish  was  boudin,  a  prairie  sausage  made  and  consumed  on  the 
spot.  The  cerne  was  one  of  the  favored  ways  of  hunting  the 
buffalo.  Bois  de  vache  (buffalo  dung)  served  as  firewood  on  the 
open  prairies. 

II 

The  transformations  of,  and  additions  to,  word-stock  caused 
by  the  finding  of  new  animals,  new  trees,  new  plants,  new  breeds 
of  human  beings,  new  occupations  and  ways  of  life  account  for 
a  great  part  of  the  difference  between  Standard  French  and  the 
vocabulary  used  in  the  Mississippi  Valley.  But  there  are  other 
difficulties  that  come  between  the  modern  reader  and  the  eight- 
eenth century  books  and  documents  that  interest  him.  The  great- 
est of  these  were  the  result  of  the  changes  brought  about  by  the 
French  Revolution. 

While  the  French  ruled  the  Mississippi  Valley,  the  coutume  de 
Paris  was  the  law  of  the  colony,  and  weights  and  measures  of 
Paris  were  the  standards.  Acquit,  conquet,  and  propre,  com- 
munaute,  divorce,  emancipation,  majorite,  tutelle,  syndic  must 
be  understood  in  the  values  those  terms  had  before  the  Revolu- 
tion. The  old  money  terms  were  replaced  by  new  ones,  but  a 
reader  must  have  a  knowledge  of  the  eighteenth  century  mean- 
ing of  those  terms  and  of  their  purchasing  value  if  he  is  to 
understand  the  conditions  of  living  in  the  Illinois  Country.  The 
piastre  was  in  general  circulation  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  but 
it  was  not  the  same  thing  as  the  "piaster"  of  Turkey  or  of  Egypt 
or  of  Indo-China.  The  bon  was  a  private  note  which  announced 
itself  as  "good  for"  a  specified  amount  of  a  named  goods,  com- 
monly furs  or  lead,  and  rested  solely  upon  the  credit  and  the 
good  name  of  the  merchant  or  trader  issuing  it.  Strange,  difficult, 
and  confusing  are  the  old  weights  and  measures,  for  within 
France  there  were  a  number  of  values  attached  to  the  same 
term,  but  that  of  Paris  was  the  only  true  one  for  the  colony. 
The  English  foot  and  the  pied  du  roi  were  not  the  same;  con- 


8  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

sequently,  any  interpretation  of  the  perche,  toise,  brasse,  arpent, 
lieue  that  does  not  take  account  of  such  difference  will  be  in- 
correct. The  old  pinte  of  Paris  was  the  approximate  equal  of 
the  English  quart.  The  quintal  was  the  hundredweight,  but,  since 
the  pound  in  question  was  the  French  rather  than  the  English, 
the  quintal  was  nearly  eight  pounds  heavier  than  the  English 
hundredweight. 

Time  has  aided  the  Revolution  in  the  outlawing  of  words. 
Many  terms  once  common  are  obscure  today  because  they  have 
passed  out  of  use.  An  officier  reforme  was  a  half -pay  officer,  a 
mitoyenne  was  a  party  fence,  endossement  was  an  unturned  strip 
left  between  holdings  in  the  common-fields,  a  voyage  was  a  load 
(of  produce,  wood,  wheat,  and  so  forth).  Maison  de  poteaux  en 
terre,  ynaison  de  poteaux  sur  sole  were  phrases  that  describe  types 
of  buildings  common  in  the  Illinois  Country  in  the  eighteenth 
century. 

Confusing  also  is  the  apparent  similarity  of  French  and  En- 
glish words.  There  are  many  possibilities  of  confusion.  French 
vacation  has  nothing  to  do  with  English  "vacation" ;  it  is  rather 
the  opposite,  for  it  means,  in  a  legal  document,  the  attendance 
or  sitting,  the  day's  labor,  of  the  officials  engaged  in  conducting 
a  public  sale  or  administering  an  estate — and  the  estate  paid  for 
the  number  of  days  of  such  vacation!  Naturel,  used  with  the 
name  of  a  person  and  the  name  of  a  place,  does  not  have  the 
significance  often  attached  to  it  in  English;  it  merely  means 
"native  of."  Emancipation  in  most  French  documents  of  the 
eighteenth  century  refers  to  the  coming  of  age  of  a  young  man 
or  to  his  release  from  guardianship,  rather  than  to  the  freeing 
of  a  slave.  A  tuteur  was  a  "guardian,"  not  a  "teacher."  Ancien 
before  a  word  ought  not  to  be  rendered  "old" ;  an  ancien  avocat 
is  not  an  "old  lawyer"  but  a  man  who  formerly  practised  law. 
Sauvage  often  means  "wild"  or  "savage,"  but  when  used  as  a 
noun  it  has  almost  always  the  significance  of  "Indian"  and  when 
used  as  an  adjective  often  has  that  value:  few  will  insist  that 
souliers  sauvages  should  be  translated  "wild  shoes"  or  "savage 
slippers"  or  that  cabane  sauvage  should  be  rendered  as  anything 
but  an  "Indian  cabin"  or  "hut."  A  chat  or  chat  sauvage  was 
never  a  "wildcat"  but  always  a  "raccoon."  A  pare  was  not  a 
"park"  but  an  "enclosed  field." 


INTRODUCTION  9 

Again,  one  has  need  to  be  careful  of  the  usual  translation  of 
a  French  term  which  will  sometimes  be  adequate  but  not  always. 
Boeuf,  for  instance,  in  Standard  French  is  "ox,"  and  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley  the  word  retains  this  meaning  wherever  the 
farm  is  concerned.  In  texts  referring  to  the  plains  or  hunting 
or  the  fur  trade,  however,  it  must  be  rendered  "buffalo."  Origi- 
nally the  full  name  for  this  animal  was  boetif  sauvage  (Indian 
cattle)  but  later  it  was  shortened  to  boeuf.  Vache,  consequently, 
will  as  often  mean  a  "buffalo  cow"  as  a  "milch  cow."  But  the 
boeuf  de  prairie  is  the  "horned  lizard,"  and  the  vache-d-lait  is 
"milkweed" !  Boucaut  is  good  in  Europe  or  America  for  "hogs- 
head," but  in  America  it  is  also  "bull  boat,"  a  skin  boat  shaped 
something  like  a  hogshead.  Marais  in  France  is  "marsh" ;  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley  it  is  sometimes  "marsh"  but  is  more  often 
applied  to  ox-bow  lakes  and  open  ponds.  Cadet  means  the 
"younger,"  but  it  must  not  be  mistaken  (as  it  frequently  is)  for 
"junior,"  for  cadet  signifies  not  a  son  who  bears  the  same  name 
as  his  father,  but  the  younger  brother  as  distinguished  from  the 
elder. 

Similarly,  terms  like  bal  des  rois,  charivari,  and  guignolee 
which  refer  to  customs  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  need  to  be  under- 
stood as  they  were  in  the  earlier  centuries.  It  is  necessary  to 
remember,  too,  that  divorce  was  only  a  legal  separation  and  that 
the  signing  of  the  contrat  de  mariage  was  held  then  the  practical 
equivalent  of  marriage.  The  customs  of  a  district  must  be  repre- 
sented in  any  account  of  the  language  of  the  district. 

Ill 

The  sources  for  an  investigation  of  such  change  and  growth 
in  the  Mississippi  Valley  French  vocabulary  are  of  three  kinds : 
contemporary  documents  and  travel  accounts,  manuscripts  re- 
cently published  or  republished  and  edited,  and  the  work  of 
scholars  who  have  recorded  the  French  language  in  America 
today. 

One  important  source  must  be  the  documents  of  the  period 
concerned.  Obviously,  inventories,  court  records,  and  official 
papers  have  saved  in  their  context  those  words  once  in  good  use 
that  have  dropped  by  the  way — particularly  those  exiled  by  the 
Revolution.    The  French  and  Spanish  Archives  of  Saint  Louis 


10  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

(MSS.),  Houck's  SjKuiish  Regime  in  Missouri,  Margry's  Decou- 
vertes  et  Mahlissements ,  and  the  Illinois  Historical  Collections, 
for  instance,  make  large  quantities  of  such  documents  available 
for  examination. 

But  most  important  of  all  are  the  accounts  written  by  intelli- 
gent and  interested  travelers — and  these  were  many.  Soldiers, 
traders,  religious,  scientists,  explorers,  seekers  after  health  or 
amusement  made  up  the  bulk  of  these  alert  amateur  philologists, 
who  traveled  early  and  late  over  the  whole  continent.  The  Upper 
Mississippi  with  its  fauna  and  flora  was  examined  by  such  differ- 
ent persons  as  Zebulon  M.  Pike,  Stephen  Long,  J.  C.  Beltrami, 
and  Henry  Rowe  Schoolcraft.  The  "North  Country"  was  re- 
ported at  length  in  the  diaries  of  Alexander  Henry  and  David 
Thompson,  of  Nicholas  Garry  and  other  members  and  employees 
of  the  British  fur  companies.  A  detailed  early  view  of  nearly 
the  whole  course  of  the  Mississippi  River — Illinois  Country  and 
Louisiana — Father  Charlevoix  presented  in  his  letters  to  the 
Duchess  of  Lesdiguieres.  Andre  Michaux,  coming  over  the  Alle- 
ghenys  in  the  1790's,  managed  to  combine  botanizing  with  politi- 
cal work  for  Genet;  his  account  of  plant  and  animal  life  in  the 
Illinois  Country  is  particularly  valuable  because  he  very  often 
cited  both  Illinois  French  and  American  names  in  addition  to 
giving  scientific  classification. 

On  the  Missouri  we  find  travelers  of  all  kinds:  Jean  Baptiste 
Trudeau  represented  one  Saint  Louis  trading  company  there 
during  the  1790's;  Antoine  Tabeau  another  a  few  years  later. 
Perrin  du  Lac,  a  Frenchman,  whose  only  apparent  reason  was 
to  look  at  the  world,  made  a  trip  up  the  Missouri  in  1802.  Lewis 
and  Clark  two  years  later  set  out  on  their  long  journey  to  the 
Pacific.  Brackenridge,  a  young  Pennsylvania  lawyer  with  more 
time  than  practice,  and  John  Bradbury,  English  naturalist,  wrote 
parallel  accounts  of  their  trips  in  1811.  Major  Long  conducted 
another  oflScial  party  in  1819  and  1820.  Maximilian,  Prince  of 
Wied,  an  amateur  naturalist  of  importance,  needed  three  volumes 
to  present  the  record  of  his  American  tour,  much  of  which  was 
devoted  to  the  Missouri  River.  J.  N.  Nicollet,  John  James 
Audubon,  and  Father  De  Smet  were  other  interested  travelers 
in  the  Northwest.  The  western  plains  were  explored  and  reported 
by  such  British  sportsmen  as  Sir  William  Drummond  Stewart, 


INTRODUCTION  11 

Captain  John  Palliser,  and  Charles  Augustus  Murray;  and  by 
official  expeditions  under  the  command  of  Fremont  and  Stans- 
bury. 

Among  the  first  to  take  particular  interest  in  the  Arkansas 
Country  was  the  Jesuit  Father  Paul  du  Poisson  who  made  many 
notes  of  river  terms  and  of  plant  and  animal  life  new  to  him. 
His  account,  with  those  of  other  priests,  has  been  preserved  in 
the  Jesuit  Relations  and  Allied  Documents.  Bossu,  a  French 
army  officer,  wrote  informative  letters  from  this  district  some 
four  decades  later.  In  the  next  century  Pike  passed  through  the 
Arkansas  Valley  in  1806-1807,  and  Nuttall,  the  English  botanist, 
a  dozen  years  after  that.  Victor  Tixier,  young  French  medical 
student  in  search  of  health,  spent  three  months  on  the  western 
plains  and  in  the  Arkansas  Valley,  principally  in  company  with 
the  Osage,  in  the  summer  of  1840.  No  word  or  phrase  of  Creole 
vocabulary  escaped  this  amateur  of  language,  and  his  interest 
extended  from  the  French  as  spoken  in  America  to  the  Osage 
language. 

In  Louisiana,  Le  Page  du  Pratz  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century  recorded  in  his  history  a  great  many  observations  con- 
cerning the  new  country  and  enriched  the  vocabulary  necessary 
to  describe  it.  At  the  time  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  C.  C. 
Robin,  a  French  traveler,  and  William  Dunbar  of  Natchez,  a 
Scottish  planter  with  scientific  interests,  made  valuable  notations 
of  plant  and  animal  life,  Indian  life  and  customs,  boats,  and  other 
matters  of  interest  to  us  today.  Tixier,  who  spent  three  months 
on  French  plantations  before  he  traveled  north,  noted  many  cur- 
rent terms  in  the  Creole  vocabulary  which  were  not  found  in 
Standard  French. 

The  travelers  wandered  over  the  entire  length  and  breadth  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley  from  those  early  days  when  Joliet  and 
Marquette,  when  La  Salle  and  Henry  de  Tonty  opened  the  coun- 
try, and  the  notes  they  made  of  terms  concerning  animal  and 
vegetable  life,  slavery,  Indian  life  and  manners,  the  buffalo  hunt, 
the  fur  trade,  and  the  river  occupations  have  been  of  the  greatest 
value  in  showing  and  explaining  the  extension  of  the  French 
language  in  America. 

A  most  helpful  addition  to  the  observations  and  comments  of 
the  travelers  themselves  is  the  detailed  editorial  work  of  such 


12  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

men  as  Elliott  Cones,  Hiram  M.  Chittenden,  Reuben  G.  Thwaites, 
Clarence  Alvord,  and  Frederick  W.  Hodge  in  tracing  the  obscure, 
in  making  rare  texts  accessible,  and  in  making  available  an  ex- 
tensive knowledge  of  the  Indian.  When  the  traveler  has  failed 
to  make  himself  clear  enough,  the  investigations  of  an  editor  like 
Coues  prove  of  great  value.  Likewise,  such  a  study  as  Mrs. 
Surrey's  Commerce  of  Louisiana,  based  largely  on  unpublished 
documents,  is  invaluable. 

Very  important,  too,  in  such  an  investigation  as  this  of  the 
language  of  an  earlier  time  are  those  studies  that  have  been 
made  of  the  living  language.  There  are  four  monographs  that 
have  proved  as  valuable  to  me  as  the  travelers'  accounts  which 
have  provided  the  bulk  of  my  word  list.  Sylva  Clapin  published 
in  1894  his  Dictionnaire  Canadien-Frangais,  Sl  dictionary  of  cur- 
rent Canadian  usage.  In  1931  Professor  William  Read  of  the 
University  of  Louisiana  published  his  Louisiana-French,  in  1932 
Professor  Jay  K.  Ditchy  edited  Les  Acadiens  Louisianais  et  leur 
Parler,  and  three  years  later  Professor  Ward  Allison  Dorrance 
of  the  University  of  Missouri  published  his  monograph  on  The 
Survival  of  French  in  the  Old  District  of  Sainte  Genevieve  with 
its  extensive  vocabulary  of  French  still  spoken  in  that  section 
of  Missouri  today.  Without  these  studies,  my  progress  would 
have  been  slower  and  my  word  list  slighter. 


GLOSSARY 


a,  prep.  Used  as  the  equivalent  of  the  possessive  de:  Riviere 
a  Jacques,  fourche  a  Courtois,  le  moulin  a  Taillon,  la  vache  a 
RenoAid  (Clapin,  1;  Dorrance,  52;  Ditchy,  44). 

absinthe,  n.f.  Sagebrush,  wild  sage,  or  wormwood. 

Tixier  stated:  "the  prairie  was  covered  with  absinthe" 
{Travels,  210) .  Fremont,  on  the  plains  two  years  later,  wrote : 
"The  artemisia,  absinthe,  or  prairie  sage  as  it  is  variously 
called,  is  increasing  in  size,  and  glistens  like  silver,  as  the 
southern  breeze  turns  its  leaves  to  the  sun"  (Report  of  Ex- 
ploring Expedition,  14).  See  also  ibid.,  56,  71,  127,  147.  See 
herbe  sainte. 

a^itnine,  agmine.   See  assimine. 

acquet,  n.m.  Property  acquired  before  marriage  by  purchase 
or  gift,  but  not  that  acquired  by  inheritance  (Viollet,  Histoire 
du  Droit  Civil  Francais,  772).   Cf.  conquet,  propre. 

agres,  n.m.  pi.  Harness  (Fortier,  Louisiana  Studies,  186). 
Among  voyageurs  in  Canada,  however,  the  word  signifies 
"baggage"  or  "equipment"  (Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth 
of  Words,"  139).  See  hutin,  drigail. 

aguilanieu.  See  guignolee. 

aigle  a  tete  blanche,  n.m.  The  bald-headed  eagle.  Tixier 
spoke  of  this  as  the  calumet  bird  (Travels,  213,  261).  See 
kiliou,  oiseau  de  calumet,  quiliou. 

aigrette.  Seeegrette. 

aine,  ainee,  adj.  and  n.,  m.  and  f.  Elder,  the  elder  (of  two 
brothers  or  sisters) .  Often  applied  to  the  first-born  son  or 
daughter.  Seldom  to  be  translated  "senior."  On  12  May  1794, 
among  those  present  at  the  meeting  in  Saint  Louis  to  organ- 
ize the  "Compagnie  de  Comerce  pour  la  Decouverte  des  Nations 
du  haut  du  Missouri"  were  "Chouteau,  aine"  and  "Chouteau, 
cadet"  (Douglas,  "Manuel  Lisa,"  238,  n.  15)  ;  these  persons 
were  Auguste  and  Pierre,  the  two  sons  of  Madame  Chouteau. 
See  cadet. 


14  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

alisier,  n.m.   The  blackhaw  (Read,  2). 

allumer,  v.  tr.  To  light  a  pipe  (Clapin,  344;  Nute,  Voyageur, 
50-51). 

alouette,  n.f.  The  snipe.  The  meaning"  in  Canada  and  the 
Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  according  to  Chamberlain  ("Life 
and  Growth  of  Words,"  84).  Read  (5,  16)  gives  cache-cache 
as  the  most  common  Louisiana  French  designation. 

ancien,  ancienne,  adj.  m.  and  f.  As  in  Standard  French,  ancien 
before  a  word  means  "former."  Ancien  capitaine,  ancien 
traiteur  should  generally  be  rendered  "former  captain,"  "for- 
mer trader,"  i.  e.,  one  who  was  once  a  captain,  a  trader. 

ancre,  n.  A  barrel  or  cask  of  varying  capacity.  As  applied  by 
order  of  the  Superior  Council  of  Louisiana  in  1728,  90  pounds 
of  beef,  or  22  pots  (q.v.)  of  olive  oil,  or  23  pots  of  brandy  com- 
prised the  ancre.  In  1734,  however,  brandy  ran  16  pots  to  the 
ancre.  In  1745,  10  gallons  of  indigo  equaled  an  ancre,  and  in 
1747,  28  ancres  of  salt  pork  equaled  a  ton  (Surrey,  Commerce 
of  Louisiana,  254,  262,  274,  275,  204,  206). 

animaux,  n.m.  pi.  Domestic  animals,  stock  (Clapin,  16;  Read, 
2).  Standard  French  is  bestiaux. 

anse,  n.f.  A  cove  or  little  bay.  Sometimes  used  for  the  penin- 
sula that  forms  the  bay,  e.  g.,  I'Anse,  on  Lake  Superior;  cf. 
Anse  a  la  Graisse,  the  popular  name  for  New  Madrid,  Mis- 
souri. Fortier  found  anse  used  in  Louisiana  for  "the  prairie 
advancing  in  a  wood  like  a  small  bay"  {Louisiana  Studies, 
186)  ;  cf.  He. 

apakols,  apaquois,  Ind.,  n.  A  mat  of  reeds,  used  in  making 
cabins  and  for  various  other  purposes  (Wisconsin  Historical 
Collections,  XVI,  366;  XVII,  99  and  n.  1).    See  ajyichhnont. 

apichimont,  apishemeau,  Ind.,  n.  A  covering  made  of  skins 
{Wisconsin  Historical  Collections,  XVII,  116  and  n.  1).  In 
Townsend's  Narrative  of  a  Journey  (145)  the  word  appears 
as  apishemeau,  which  Thwaites,  the  editor,  explained  as  "mats 
made  of  reeds,  used  for  building  wigwams,  carpets,  beds,  cov- 
erings of  all  sorts."  Thwaites  added:  "The  early  Algonquian 
term  was  'apaquois.' "  Ruxton,  however,  described  apisha- 
mores  as  "saddle-blankets  made  of  buffalo-calf  skins"  {In  the 
Old  West,  102). 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  15 

apishamore.   See  apichimont 

apola,  Ind.,  n.f.  A  kind  of  stew  (Clapin,  344)  or  roast  (Cham- 
berlain, "Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  140).  Fremont  spoke 
of  "pieces  of  the  most  delicate  and  choicest  meat,  roasting  en 
appolas,  on  sticks  around  the  fire"  {Report  of  Exploring  Ex- 
pedition, 19). 

appenty,  n.m.    A  lean-to.   Variant  spelling  of  appentis. 

arbitre,  n.m.  An  arbiter  or  arbitrator.  In  Louisiana  and  the 
Illinois  Country,  during  the  colonial  period,  many  civil  actions 
were  settled  by  arbitration.  The  appraising  or  awarding  of 
disputed  property,  the  settling  of  a  board  bill,  the  determining 
of  the  position  of  a  fence,  the  awarding  of  damages  for  the 
death  of  a  slave  or  for  a  cargo  seized  by  river  pirates — such 
cases  were  first  placed  in  the  hands  of  arbiters.  Each  party 
appointed  one,  sometimes  two,  arbiters;  then  either  these 
arbiters  selected  an  additional  one,  or  the  chief  civil  officer 
named  one,  to  act  as  referee  in  case  of  disagreement  between 
the  others.  Their  decision  had  the  weight  of  a  court  opinion. 
Appeal,  however,  could  be  carried  through  district  and  pro- 
vincial courts  to  the  highest  tribunal  in  France  or  Spain.  For 
examples  of  such  proceedings,  consult  Billon,  Annals  of  St. 
Louis,  314-315;  Douglas,  "The  Case  of  Pouree  against  Chou- 
teau"; Dart  and  Porteous,  "Civil  Procedure  in  Louisiana." 

(Les)  Arcs.  The  Arkansas  Country.  Aux  Arcs:  at  the  Arkan- 
sas, in  the  Arkansas  Country,  at  the  Poste  des  Arcansas.  Cf. 
Kas. 

argenterie,  n.f.  Silver  trinkets  used  as  trade  goods  with  the 
Indians.  Bijouterie  en  argent. 

"Tu  ne  me  dis  rien  de  I'argenterie  pour  les  Creeks"  (A.  P. 
Chouteau  to  Pierre  Chouteau,  24  August  1829,  Chouteau 
Papers).  For  a  list  of  such  trinkets,  see  the  advertisement  of 
Antoine  Dangen  in  the  St.  Louis  Enquirer,  13  December  1823. 

armoire,  n.f.    Generally  a  wardrobe;  sometimes  a  cupboard. 

armurier,  n.m.    A  gunsmith. 

arpen.    Common  spelling  for  arpent  (q.v.). 

arpent,  n.m.  A  unit  of  linear  or  square  measure.  As  a  unit 
of  linear  measure  the  arpent  of  Paris   equaled   10  perches 


16  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

(q.v.),  or  180  feet  (Clapin,  22) .  Read  (3)  states  that  an  arpent 
is  "roughly  equal  to  192  feet."  The  explanation  of  this  appar- 
ent confusion  is  that  Clapin  means  French  feet  and  Read, 
English.  The  exact  figure  is  191,838  English  feet.  See  pied. 
As  a  unit  of  square  measure  the  arpent  of  Paris  equaled  ,8449 
English  acre, 

arpent  de  terre,  arpent  de  face.  A  piece  of  land  one  arpent 
wide  by  forty  deep,  A  double  grant  was  eighty  arpents  deep. 
Grants,  of  course,  were  frequently  more  than  one  arpent  wide 
{American  State  Papers,  Public  Lands,  I-VII,  passim) . 

arpenteur,  n.m.   A  surveyor. 

asseminier.   See  assiminier. 

assimine,  Ind.,  n.f.  The  papaw,  the  fruit  of  the  papaw  tree. 
Hodge  derives  asimina  from  the  language  of  the  Illinois  In- 
dians {Handbook,  I,  101).  Read  (79,  90-91)  declares  agimine 
to  be  the  correct  form,  and  shows  present-day  Louisiana  usage 
to  be  sometimes  agmine  but  more  commonly  jasmine.  Accord- 
ing to  Dorrance  (55),  the  Missouri  Creoles  still  use  assimine. 
He  states  that  Gabriel  Marest,  in  1712,  used  the  form  racemina, 
and  Charlevoix,  in  1721,  agimine. 

assiminier,  Ind.,  n.m.  The  papaw  tree.  Read  (79-80,  91)  uses 
aciminier  and  jasminier.  For  the  first  he  cites  Charlevoix 
{Histoire,  III,  395).  Le  Page  du  Pratz  wrote  assejninier  {His- 
toire,  II,  20).  See  also  Robin,  Voyages,  III,  482;  James,  Long's 
Expedition,  III,  189. 

Of  many  descriptions  by  travelers  (not  cited  by  Read  or 
Dorrance),  two  are  worth  quoting.  The  earlier  is  in  the  "De 
Cannes  Memoir"  (1690)  :  "There  were  other  trees  [in  the 
Illinois  Country]  as  thick  as  one's  leg,  which  bend  under  a 
yellowish  fruit  of  the  shape  and  size  of  a  medium-sized  cucum- 
ber, which  the  savages  call  assemina.  The  French  have  given 
it  an  impertinent  name.  There  are  people  who  would  not  like 
it,  but  I  find  it  very  good.  They  have  five  or  six  nuclei  inside 
which  are  as  big  as  marsh  beans,  and  of  about  the  same  shape. 
I  ate,  one  day,  sixty  of  them,  big  and  little"  (Pease  and  Wer- 
ner, French  Foundations,  320).  Father  Bonnecamps,  on  the 
Ohio  in  1749,  wrote:  "Now  that  I  am  on  the  subject  of  trees, 
I  will  tell  you  something  of  the  assimine-tree.  .  .  .  [It]  is  a 


f 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  17 

shrub,  the  fruit  of  which  is  oval  in  shape,  and  a  little  larger 
than  a  bustard's  egg;  its  substance  is  white  and  spongy,  and 
becomes  yellow  when  the  fruit  is  ripe.  It  contains  two  or  three 
kernels,  large  and  flat  like  the  garden  bean.  They  have  each 
their  separate  cell.  The  fruits  grow  ordinarily  in  pairs,  and 
are  suspended  on  the  same  stalk.  The  French  have  given  it  a 
name  which  is  not  very  refined,  Testiculi  asini.  This  is  a  deli- 
cate morsel  for  the  savages  and  the  Canadians;  as  for  me,  I 
have  found  it  of  unendurable  insipidity"  (Jesuit  Relations  and 
Allied  Documents,  LXIX,  173).  Tixier,  in  the  Osage  country 
in  1840,  also  described  the  tree  and  its  fruit  {Travels,  264). 

assolat,  n.   A  kind  of  broiled  meat. 

In  1815  Jules  de  Mun  wrote:  ".  .  .  we  made  a  good  meal 
off  of  the  beef  brought  by  our  men ;  I  mean  to  say  a  good  meal 
from  the  hunter's  point  of  view,  a  piece  of  meat  stuck  on  the 
end  of  a  small  piece  of  wood  which  one  sets  before  the  fire 
and  turns  from  time  to  time ;  this  is  what  is  called  assolat .  .  ." 
(Journals,  19).   Cf.  apola. 

ataca,  atoca,  atoqua,  Ind.,  n.m.  The  cranberry  (Clapin,  25- 
26;  Wisconsin  Historical  Collections,  XVI,  196  and  n.  1). 

au  dit.  Not  "the  said,"  but  "the  same,"  "ditto."  Used  in  in- 
ventories, lists  of  goods,  etc. 

aulne,  aune,  n.f.  An  ell.  A  linear  measure  equal  to  "3  pieds 
7  polices  10  lignes  5/6,"  or  1.182  meters  (Littre).  Alexander 
gave  the  English  equivalent  as  1.29972  yards  {Dictionary  of 
Weights  and  Measures,  5). 

avilonneau.  See  guignolee. 

aviron,  n.m.    A  canoe  paddle  (Chittenden,  La  Barge,  I,  92). 

avocat,  n.m.  The  avocado  pear  (Rafinesque,  Medical  Flora, 
II,  236). 

ayeul,  ayeulle,  n.m.  and  f.  Grandfather,  grandmother.  Com- 
mon spelling  for  a'ieul,  aieide. 


18  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

B 

babiche,  Ind.,  n.f.  A  leather  or  skin  thong  (Chamberlain,  "In- 
dian Words  in  French  Canadian,"  I,  232 ;  Clapin,  32 ;  Elliott, 
"Speech  Mixture  in  Canada,"  147). 

baire,  n.m.  A  mosquito  bar  or  mosquito  net  (Read,  3).  Cf. 
bie7'  (bar)  in  Criswell,  Leivis  and  Clark:  Linguistic  Pioneers, 
11.   See  ber. 

baissiere,  n.f.   A  gully  or  ravine. 

"During  the  first  three  miles  we  had  to  cross  hills  separated 
by  large  and  deep  coulees,  (more  commonly  called  by  the  voy- 
ageurs  'baissieres')  at  this  time  perfectly  dry  .  .  ."  (Nicollet, 
Report,  51).  See  coulee.  In  Canada  it  is  now  applied  to  that 
part  of  a  river  below  a  dam  or  to  an  irrigation  ditch  (Clapin, 
346).  Ba^siere  (q.v.),  meaning  "hollow"  or  "ravine,"  is  now 
in  use  among  Missouri  Creoles  (Dorrance,  58). 

bal  des  rois,*  n.m.  The  first  of  the  "kings'  balls"  was  held  on 
the  fete  des  rois,  Twelfth  Night. 

According  to  Primm,  at  the  dance  given  on  the  "day  of  the 
kings"  a  large  cake  containing  four  beans  was  cut  by  the  girls 
during  the  evening,  and  "the  four  whose  fortune  it  is  to  find 
the  beans  are  declared  Queens.  Each  of  the  queens  then  selects 
a  young  man  to  whom  she  presents  a  bouquet  and  proclaims 
him  her  King.  Thereupon,  a  consultation  is  had,  a  night  and 
a  place  are  fixed  for  the  first  'Bal  de  Rois'  [sic]  ...  at  which 
all  are  free  to  attend  without  further  invitation.  The  expenses 
of  this  ball  are  borne  by  the  four  kings.  ...  At  the  close  of 
this  first  Kings'  Ball,  the  queens  selected  new  kings,  and  they 
selected  new  queens  for  the  next  kings'  ball,  and  thus  a  series 
of  festivities  was  kept  up,  during  the  whole  of  the  Carnival" 
("New  Year's  Day  in  the  Olden  Time  of  St.  Louis,"  20-21). 
Primm,  of  French  descent,  was  born  in  Saint  Louis  in  1810; 
he  wrote  in  1867. 

Christian  Schultz,  who  stayed  for  some  weeks  in  Sainte 
Genevieve  in  1807,  reported  the  custom  in  slightly  diflferent 
terms:  "They  have  ...  a  very  pretty  practice  of  introducing 
their  balls  at  the  commencement  of  the  carnival,  which  I  shall 
endeavour  to  describe  for  your  amusement.  Two  or  three  ladies 
make  arrangements  with  their  male  friends  for  the  first  ball. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  19 

during  which  two  or  more  elegant  bouquets  are  presented  by 
the  ladies  to  as  many  gentlemen ;  this  piece  of  ceremony  raises 
the  select  number  to  the  rank  of  kings,  and  entitles  them  to 
the  privilege  of  saluting  the  fair  donors.  The  gentlemen  then 
each  makes  his  choice  of  a  favourite  lady,  to  whom  with  great 
politeness  they  present  their  bouquets;  this  mark  of  distinc- 
tion likewise  raises  the  favoured  ladies  to  the  rank  of  queens, 
and  the  gentlemen  take  their  pay  in  another  salutation  for  the 
honour  conferred.  This  ceremony  having  passed,  it  becomes 
the  duty  of  the  royal  parties  to  give  the  next  ball,  previous  to 
which  the  royal  ladies  pass  many  impatient  hours  in  waiting 
for  the  silk  shoes,  gloves,  stockings,  bracelets,  ear-rings,  &c. 
which  it  is  expected  the  royal  gentlemen  will  have  the  royal 
goodness  to  present.  The  royal  parties  always  do  the  company 
the  honour  to  open  their  balls"  (Travels,  II,  60-61). 

banc,  n.m.   A  canebrake. 

"Farther  down  the  marsh  begins,  the  trees  disappear  and 
are  replaced  by  actual  forests  of  wild  cane  which  go  as  far 
as  the  cypress  grove.  These  bancs,  as  they  are  named  in  this 
country,  are  almost  impenetrable.  The  stems  of  the  reeds,  very 
close  to  one  another,  are  bent,  broken,  and  intertwined  by  the 
wind.  They  grow  in  all  directions.  It  is  necessary  to  use  an 
axe  or  fire  to  make  any  progress"  (Tixier,  Travels,  84). 

Bande  des  Chiens.  Band  or  Society  of  Dogs.  Found  among 
the  Osage  by  Tixier  (Travels,  129).  See  corps  de  boeufs  and 
references  given  there. 

banquette,  n.f.   Sidewalk  (Read,  3-4). 

baptiser,  v.  tr.  To  name,  to  give  a  name  to.  Frequently  used 
without  reference  to  the  Christian  ceremony  of  baptism 
(Cameron,  "The  Nipigon  Country,"  252).  For  the  "baptism" 
of  a  fort  see  Luttig,  Journal  (Drumm,  ed.),  94. 

barbe  espagnole,  n.f.  Spanish  moss  (Le  Page  du  Pratz,  His- 
toire,  II,  51-53;  Ellicott,  Journal,  285;  Tixier,  Travels,  47; 
Read,  4;  Ditchy,  45). 

barbotte,  n.f.  A  name  given  by  the  French  of  the  Ohio  Valley 
to  the  white-eyed  barbot  (Rafinesque,  Ichthyologia  Ohiensis, 
84).   See  oeil  blanc,  poisson  lunette. 

barbue,  n.f.    Catfish  (Read,  4-5). 


20  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

bardache.    See   berdache. 

barque,  n.f.  A  vessel  with  a  capacity  of  45  to  50  tons;  used 
as  a  freighter  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  at  least  as  early  as  1707 
and  on  the  Mississippi  by  1713 ;  equipped  with  mast  and  sails 
as  well  as  oars,  the  latter  added  for  use  on  the  river.  In  1751 
six  such  boats  carried  400  soldiers  and  supplies  of  merchandise 
from  New  Orleans  to  the  Illinois  Country  (Surrey,  Commerce 
of  Louisiana,  70). 

barriere,    n.f.     A    rail    fence  (Ditchy,    46).     See    cloture    de 

perches. 
barrique,  n.f.  A  barrel  or  hogshead.    In  1757  four    barriques 

of  wine  equaled  one  tun    (Surrey,  Commerce  of  Louisiana, 

206). 

bas  fond,  n.m.  A  river  or  creek  bottom  (Cable,  Bonaventure, 
5;  Coues,  Henry  and  Thompson  Journals,  II,  586  and  n.  9). 

bassiere,  n.f.  A  gully.  Chamberlain  ("Life  and  Growth  of 
Words,"  141)  defines  it  as  a  "little  coulee"  (q.v.).  Also  spelled 
baissiere  (q.v.). 

Bastonais,  n.m.   Used  for  Bostonais  (q.v.). 

batard  (1),  n.m.   The  moccasin  snake. 

"A  rarer  snake,  the  moccasin,  known  by  the  Creoles  under 
the  name  of  batard  de  sonnette,  has  a  skin  spotted  like  the 
rattlesnake's"  (Tixier,  Travels,  78).  See  congo  (1). 

batard  (2),  n.m.  A  canoe  which  was  neither  "Montreal"  nor 
"North."   See  canot. 

bateau,  n.m.  Although  this  term  might  be  applied  to  any  boat, 
large  or  small,  equipped  with  sails  or  oars,  used  on  river  or 
sea,  it  was  used  generally  for  larger  boats  only — very  seldom 
for  canoe  or  pirogue.  For  a  detailed  discussion  of  the  various 
uses  of  this  word,  see  Surrey,  Commerce  of  Louisiana,  63-69. 

bateau  plat,  n.m.  A  light,  flat  boat,  sharp  of  bow  and  stem, 
of  light  draft  and  narrow  beam.  It  was  in  use  early  in  the 
eighteenth  century  for  the  transportation  of  buffalo  hides 
down  the  Mississippi.  In  1737  the  officials  of  Louisiana  let  a 
contract  for  fifty  bateaux  plats,  40  by  9  by  4  feet,  each  of  12 
tons  burden  (Surrey,  Commerce  of  Louisiana,  59-61).  They 
were  not  the  same  as  the  American  or  Kentucky  flatboats.  See 
chaland. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  21 

batlment  de  transport,  n.m.  A  transport  boat  (Surrey,  Com- 
merce of  Louisiana,  63). 

baton  croche,  n.m.    An  Indian  war  standard. 

"The  baton  croche  of  the  Osage  is  a  stick  bent  to  a  semi- 
circular shape  and  ornamented  with  swan's  down;  little  bells 
and  eagle  feathers  hang  to  the  convex  part  of  the  curve.  It 
is  the  ensign  of  the  red  warriors,  the  flag  which  has  to  be 
brought  back  in  perfect  condition.  The  council  of  the  braves 
alone  can  designate  the  one  who  will  carry  the  baton  croche 
during  the  war  expedition,  .  .  .  When  the  expedition  has  been 
completed,  the  baton  croche  is  thrown  into  the  fire  and  a  new 
one  is  made  when  it  is  needed"  (Tixier,  Travels,  213-214). 
Plate  21  of  the  JfBth  Annual  Repoj^t,  Bureau  of  American 
Ethnology,  shows  two  such  standards. 

batterie,  n.f.   A  threshing  floor  (Ditchy,  47). 

batture,  n.f.  A  sand  bar  or  bank  laid  down  by  a  river  on  the 
inner  side  of  a  turn.  (Robin,  Voyages,  II,  282 ;  Tixier,  Travels, 
54). 

baume  des  sauvages,  n.m.  "Gnafale  lilas  ou  baume  des  Sau- 
vages"  (Robin,  Voyages,  III,  433-434).  Rafinesque  gave 
gynema  balsamica  as  the  scientific  name  (Medical  Flora,  II, 
226). 

La  Baye.  Short  for  La  Baye  Verte,  Green  Bay. 

bayou,  Ind.,  n.m.  A  channel  no  longer  carrying  the  current 
of  the  river,  but  not  blocked  or  cut  off  so  as  to  form  a  marais 
(q.v.).  The  term  "slough"  is  sometimes  used  as  the  equivalent, 
but  the  bayou  is  always  a  body  of  water,  not  a  swamp  (Robin, 
Voyages,  II,  331;  Read,  82). 

bee  a  lancette,  n.m.  A  common  name  in  Louisiana  for  the 
anhinga  or  snakebird ;  also  known  as  the  water  crow,  grecian 
lady,  and  cormorant  snakebird  (Audubon,  Ornithological  Biog- 
raphy, IV,  138). 

bee  croche,  n.m.  A  common  name  in  Louisiana  for  the  white 
ibis;  also  known  as  the  Spanish  curlew  (Audubon,  Ornithologi- 
cal Biography,  III,  178).   See  (petit)  flamen. 

bee  fleur,  n.m.  The  humming-bird  (Ulloa,  Memoires  Philoso- 
phiques,  II,  240). 


22  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

beigne,  n.m.   A  fried  cake,  a  kind  of  doughnut. 

"Sorte  de  gateau,  frit  dans  le  saindoux  et  saupoudre  de 
Sucre,  qui  est  en  grande  faveur,  surtout  en  hiver,  a  I'occasion 
des  receptions  et  fetes  de  famille"  (Clapin,  41).  Tixier,  at 
dinner  in  an  Osage  lodge,  was  served  "cornmeal  dough  fried 
in  fat,  a  favorite  delicacy  which  the  traders  call  Beigne'' 
{Travels,  135).  See  also  ihicl.,  161.  Sometimes  written  beigne, 
beignet,  and,  by  Americans,  bang.   Cf.  croqiiignole. 

belette,  n.f.  The  Louisiana  mink  (Read,  39;  Dorrance,  60). 
The  latter  gives  blette  as  a  common  Missouri  French  spelling. 
See  foutreaii. 

La  Belle  Riviere.   The  Ohio. 

beluet,  n.m.  In  Canada,  the  blueberry;  in  Missouri,  the  huckle- 
berry (Dorrance,  59).    Also  spelled  bluet  (q.v.). 

ber,  n.m.  A  mosquito  bar  (Ditchy,  48).  Berquin-Duvallon 
wrote  herre  (Vue  de  kt  Colonie,  107).   See  baire. 

berdache,  n.m.  A  hermaphrodite ;  a  homosexual.  Also  written 
bredache,  and,  by  Americans,  bardache  and  berdashe.  From 
the  evidence  available,  the  word  means  "hermaphrodite"  when 
applied  to  animals  but  "homosexual"  when  applied  to  man. 
Among  the  Missouri  French  today  the  word  means  "coward" 
(Dorrance,  59). 

Tixier,  on  the  prairie  in  1840,  found  that  "the  Indians  think 
that  among  the  buffalo  there  are  hermaphrodites  which  are 
called  Bredaches  by  the  Creoles"  (Travels,  197).  Later  in  his 
narrative  he  reported :  "In  the  Head  Chief's  lodge  lived  a  war- 
rior named  La  Bredache.  This  man,  who  a  few  years  before 
was  considered  one  of  the  most  distinguished  braves,  suddenly 
gave  up  fighting  and  never  left  Majakita  [the  Head  Chief], 
except  when  the  latter  went  to  war.  The  extremely  effeminate 
appearance  of  this  man,  and  his  name,  which  was  that  of  a 
hermaphrodite  animal,  gave  me  food  for  thought.  Baptiste 
accused  him  of  being  the  lover  of  the  Woman-Chief;  but  the 
Osage  tell  only  half  of  what  they  think"  (ibid.,  234).  Dorsey 
said  that  "the  term  may  be  rendered  'hermaphrodite'  when  it 
refers  to  animals."  The  French  Canadians,  he  reported,  "call 
those  men  berdaches  who  dress  in  women's  clothing  and  per- 
form the  duties  usually  allotted  to  women  in  an  Indian  camp. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  23 

By  most  whites  these  berdaches  are  incorrectly  supposed  to  be 
hermaphrodites."  Among  the  Omaha,  according  to  Dorsey,  the 
berdache  is  beheved  to  have  been  affected  by  the  Moon  Being 
on  reaching  puberty;  he  cites  instances  in  which  berdaches 
had  taken  other  men  as  their  husbands  ("Study  of  Siouan 
Cults,"  378-379,  516).  James  Teit  found  among  the  Flatheads 
men  who  dressed  and  lived  like  women ;  two  known  specimens, 
however,  "were  full  sexed  males  and  not  hermaphrodites" 
("The  Salishan  Tribes,"  384).  See  also  Coues,  Henry  and 
Thompson  Journals,  I,  163-165, 

Among  travelers  opinion  generally  held  berdaches  to  be 
homosexuals.  Perrin  du  Lac,  1802,  stated  that  they  were  kept 
to  satisfy  the  brutal  passions  of  either  sex  {Voyage,  318,  352)  ; 
the  "De  Cannes  Memoir"  reported  a  similar  status  among  the 
Illinois  Indians  a  century  earlier  (Pease  and  Werner,  French 
Foundations,  329-330) .  Catlin,  in  his  Illustrations  of  the  Man- 
ners, Customs,  and  Conditions  of  the  Noi'th  American  Indians 
(II,  214-215),  described  a  dance  not  reported  by  other  travel- 
ers, the  "Dance  to  the  Berdashe." 
berge,  n.f,  A  barge.  The  size  and  shape  of  this  kind  of  river 
boat  varied.  In  statistical  lists  of  products  sent  down  the 
Mississippi  from  Saint  Louis,  some  bateaux  were  listed  by 
their  names  such  as  San  Francisco;  others  were  simply  listed 
as  pirogue  or  berge  (Houck,  Spanish  Regime,  I,  55,  and 
passim) . 

Dunbar  described  a  barge  he  obtained  on  the  Washita  in 
1804:  "It  is  upwards  of  50  feet  long  and  8I/2  feet  in  breadth 
built  tolerably  flat,  her  bottom  being  still  a  little  convex  & 
being  pretty  well  formed  for  running.  This  boat  with  some 
improvements  is  probably  the  best  form  for  penetrating  up 
shallow  rivers,  she  is  undoubtedly  too  long,  as  we  shall  cer- 
tainly meet  with  sharp  turns  among  logs  &  perhaps  rocks,  the 
passage  of  which  might  be  facilitated  by  a  shorter  boat"  (Life, 
Letters,  and  Papers,  237-238). 

berline,  n.f.   A  rectangular  four-wheeled  cart  (Dorrance,  22). 

berre.   See  ber. 

bete  puante,  n.f.    The  stinking  polecat  or  skunk. 

"On  the  9th  we  had  scarcely  embarked  when  there  came  from 
the  woods  an  execrable  odor;  we  were  told  that  there  was  on 


24  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

the  land  an  animal  called  bete  puante,  which  spread  about  this 
offensive  odor  wherever  it  might  be"  (Poisson  [1727],  Jesuit 
Relations  and  Allied  Documents,  LXVII,  303-305).  See  also 
Abel,  Tabeau's  Narrative,  81,  n.  25 ;  Ditchy,  49-50. 

bete  rouge,  n.f.  Chigger  (Ulloa,  Memoir es  Philosophiques,  I, 
172-173). 

biche,  n.f.  Literally  "doe"  but  in  general  use  "elk."  Fontaine 
a  biche,  "Elk  Spring"  or  "Deer  Spring."   See  cerf. 

biens  immeubles,  n.m.    Real  property. 

biens  meubles,  n.m.    Personal  property. 

billet,  n.m.  A  promissory  note.  For  the  billet  as  a  circulating 
medium  in  Canada,  consult  the  index  to  Shortt,  Documents 
Relatifs  a  la  Monnaie.  See  also  Surrey,  Commerce  of  Louisi- 
ana, 115-154.  See  bon. 

blanc-bec,  n.m.  A  novice;  a  voyageur  who  had  never  been 
far  from  home. 

"A  Missouri  voyageur  who  had  never  passed  the  Platte  was 
called  a  blanc-bec;  and  upon  his  first  passing  he  was  subjected 
to  an  initiation,  such  as  used  to  be  given  to  sailors  when  they 
first  crossed  the  equator"  (James,  Three  Years,  20,  n.  14). 
"The  river  Platte  is  regarded  by  the  navigators  of  the  Missouri 
as  a  point  of  much  importance,  as  the  equinoctial  line  amongst 
mariners.  All  those  who  had  not  passed  it  before,  were  re- 
quired to  be  shaved,  unless  they  could  compromise  the  matter 
by  a  treat.  Much  merriment  was  indulged  in  on  the  occasion" 
(Brackenridge,  Journal  [1811],  79).  For  a  similar  custom 
in  Canada,  see  Nute,  Voyageur,  40-41.  Robin  described  in  de- 
tail the  ceremony  at  sea  {Voyages,  I,  23-25). 

ble  de  Turquie,  n.m.    Corn. 

Vivier,  in  the  Illinois  Country  in  1750,  wrote:  "le  mais, 
connu  en  France  sous  le  nom  de  ble  du  Turquie"  (Jesuit  Rela- 
tione and  Allied  Documents,  LXIX,  218). 

ble  d'Inde,  n.m.  Indian  corn;  corn.  Much  more  common  in 
American  French  use  than  ble  de  Turquie.  See  mais. 

ble  fleuri,  n.m.   Popcorn. 

"There  is  a  particular  Sort  of  corn  that  opens  as  soon  as 
it  is  laid  on  the  Fire,  they  call  it  Bled  fleuri,  and  it  is  very 
delicate"   (Charlevoix,  Letters,  238). 


1 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  25 

ble  groule,  n.m.   A  roasting  ear. 

"When  the  Maiz  is  in  the  Ear,  and  still  green,  some  broil 
it  on  the  coals,  and  it  has  a  very  good  taste.  Our  Canadians 
call  it  Bled  groule"  (Charlevoix,  Letters,  238).  See  mais  bou- 
cane. 

ble  sarrazin,  n.m.  Buckwheat  (Vivier  [1750],  Jesuit  Relations 
and  Allied  Documents,  LXIX,  210-211). 

blette.  See  belette. 

bluet.    The  blueberry  or  huckleberry.    See  beluet. 

"Us  me  regalerent  aussi  d'excellent  gibier  &  de  bluet,  petit 
fruit  qui  croit  dans  les  bois  &  qu'ils  font  secher  comme  nous 
faisons  le  raisin"  (Bossu,  Nouveaux  Voyages  dans  VAmerique 
Septentrionale,  237).  See  also  Le  Page  du  Pratz,  Histoire,  II, 
22-23. 

blutteau,  n.m.    A  weaving  room. 

bodette,  n.f .    A  strap  bed  (Alvord,  Cahokia  Records,  452-453). 

bodewash.   See  bois  de  vache. 

boeuf,  n.m.  This  word,  as  applied  to  domestic  stock,  should 
generally  be  translated  "ox,"  except  where  the  context  clearly 
calls  for  "bull."  See  next  entry. 

boeuf,  boeuf  sauvage,  n.m.  A  bujffalo.  The  term  buffle  was 
in  occasional  use;  precise  travelers  used  the  word  bison.  In 
the  Mississippi  Valley  the  common  term  was  boeuf  sauvage, 
generally  simplified  to  boeuf.  It  is  not  to  be  translated  "wild 
cattle"  (see  marron)  or  "Indian  cattle."  For  an  eighteenth 
century  discussion  of  the  uses  of  the  buffalo,  see  Kalm,  Travels, 
III,  60-62.  For  an  account  of  buffalo  hunting  among  the  Illi- 
nois Indians  late  in  the  seventeenth  century,  see  "De  Cannes 
Memoir,"  in  Pease  and  Werner,  French  Foundations,  307-320. 
For  the  buffalo  hunt  among  the  Osage  in  1840  see  Tixier, 
Travels,  191-197.  Consult  also  Fletcher  and  La  Flesche,  Omaha 
Tribe,  271-309 ;  Branch,  Hunting  of  the  Buffalo.   See  cerne. 

boeuf  de  prairie,  n.m.    The  honied  lizard. 

"A  species  of  Lizzard  call[ed]  by  the  French  engages  prairie 
buffaloe  are  native  of  these  [Columbia  River]  plains  as  well 
as  those  of  the  Missouri.  I  have  called  them  horned  lizzard" 
(Coues,  Leivis  and  Clark,  III,  899).  Coues  identified  this  rep- 
tile as  Phyrnosoma  douglasi. 


26  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

bois  amourette.   See  bois  d'amourette. 

bois  ayac.   See  bois  puant. 

bois  blanc,  n.m.   Basswood. 

"Linden,  basswood,  or  whitewood,  Tilia  americana — bois 
blanc  of  the  voyageurs"  (Coues,  Pike's  Expeditions,  I,  315). 
According  to  Tabeau,  the  root  of  the  bois  blanc  was  used  as 
a  remedy  for  snake  bite  {Narrative,  80-81)  ;  in  this  connec- 
tion, see  herbe  a  serpent  a  sonnettes. 

bois  bleu,  n.m.   The  waxberry  or  snowberry. 

"The  Indian  interpreter,  Mr.  Dougherty,  also  showed  us 
some  branches  of  a  shrub,  which  he  said  was  much  used  in 
the  cure  of  lues  venerea.  They  make  a  decoction  of  the  root, 
which  they  continue  to  drink  for  some  time.  It  is  called  blue 
wood  by  the  French  and  is  the  symphoria  racemosa  of  Pursh, 
common  to  the  maritime  states,  the  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
and  the  Missouri.  It  is  here  rather  taller,  and  the  branches 
less  flexuous  than  in  the  eastern  states"  (James,  Long's  Ex- 
pedition, I,  129) .  The  symphoria  racemosa  or  symphoria  albus 
is  identified  by  Bailey  as  the  waxberry  or  snowberry  {Hortus, 
600). 

bois    bouton,    n.m.     Buttonwood,    dogwood    (Read,    12,    13 ; 

Rafinesque,  Medical  Flora,  I,  132) .  See  bois  de  fleche.  Michaux 
says  this  name  was  sometimes  given  to  the  sycamore  (see 
cotonnier)  and  reported  a  canoe  65  feet  long  being  made  from 
one  tree  (Sylva,  II,  33-37). 

bois-brule,  n.m.  A  half-breed,  Indian  and  white,  particularly 
Indian  and  French.  Used  in  northern  United  States  and  in 
Canada   (Clapin,  48).    See  briile. 

bois  connu.  See  bois  inconnu. 

bois  d'amourette,  n.m.  The  honey  or  sweet  locust.  See  Le 
Page  du  Pratz,  Histoire,  II,  46-47 ;  Ditchy,  165 ;  Read,  58.  It 
was  also  known  in  Louisiana  as  piquant  amourette  and  piquant 
d'amourette.  In  the  Illinois  Country  and  Canada  it  was  com- 
monly known  as  fevier  epineux  (q.v.). 

bois  d'arc,  n.m.  Bowwood.  Now  popularly  known  as  the 
"Osage  orange." 

"Bows,"  wrote  Bradbury,  "are  made  of  a  yellow  wood,  from 
a  tree  which  grows  on  Red  River,  and  perhaps  on  the  Arkansas. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  27 

This  wood  is  called  bois  jaune  or  bois  d'arc.  I  do  not  think 
the  tree  has  yet  been  described,  unless  it  has  been  found  lately 
in  Mexico.  I  have  seen  two  trees  of  this  species  in  the  garden 
of  Pierre  Chouteau,  in  St.  Louis,  and  found  that  it  belongs  to 
the  class  dioecia;  but  both  of  these  trees  being  females,  I  could 
not  determine  the  genus.  The  fruit  is  as  large  as  an  apple, 
and  is  rough  on  the  outside.  It  bleeds  an  acrid  milky  juice 
when  wounded,  and  is  called  by  the  hunters  the  Osage  orange. 
The  price  of  a  bow  made  from  this  wood  at  the  Aricaras  is  a 
horse  and  a  blanket.  Many  of  the  war  clubs  are  made  of  the 
same  kind  of  wood,  and  have  the  blade  of  a  knife,  or  some 
sharp  instrument,  fastened  at  the  end,  and  projecting  from 
four  to  six  inches,  forming  a  right  angle  with  the  club" 
(Travels,  170,  n.  102).  Nuttall,  on  the  Red  River  in  1819, 
found  the  "Bow-wood  (Madura  aiirantiaca)  here  familiarly 
used  as  a  yellow  dye,  very  similar  to  fustic"  (Journal,  220). 
See  also  Dunbar,  Life,  Letters,  and  Papers,  315-316 ;  Read,  13. 

bois-debout,  n.m.  Standing  timber.  En  bois-debout  signifies 
land  that  has  never  been  cleared  (Clapin,  48).  See  grand-bois. 
Cf.  desert. 

bois  de  derive,  n.m.   Driftwood  (Tixier,  Travels,  63). 

bois  de  fleche,  n.m.   Arrowwood,  dogwood. 

"The  Bois  de  fleche,  Dogwood,  being  the  cornus  or  cornelian 
tree  of  the  Botanists,  so  called  probably  from  the  fine  cornelian 
colour  of  its  ripe  berry,  is  one  of  the  most  elegant  ornaments 
of  the  Early  Spring,  it  consists  of  two  varieties,  one  furnishes 
a  flower  of  a  yellowish  green  inclining  to  white,  but  the  flower 
of  the  other  is  of  the  most  resplendent  white,  and  the  tree 
seldom  exceeding  50  feet  in  height,  spreads  wide  its  low 
branches  entirely  covered  with  dazzling  blossoms  displaying 
the  full  Blaze  of  its  beauties  about  the  commencement  of 
March"  (Dunbar,  Life,  Letters,  and  Papers,  95).  Read  (13) 
says  that  in  Louisiana  dogwood  is  sometimes  called  bois  bouton, 
"buttonwood."  See  Rafinesque,  Medical  Flora,  I,  132. 

bois  de  marais,  n.m.  The  buttonwood  shrub  or  buttonbush 
(cephalanthv^  occidentalis) ;  also  known  as  the  little  snowball 
(Rafinesque,  Medical  Flora,  I,  100).  See  also  Robin,  Voyages, 
III,  450. 


28  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

bois  de  plomb,  n.m.  The  Canadian  name  for  leatherwood 
(dirca  pahL^tris) ;  also  known  as  moosewood,  swampwood,  and 
ropebark  (Rafinesque,  Medical  Flora,  I,  158).  See  also  Bart- 
lett,  Dictionary  of  Americanisms ,  347,  404. 

bois  de  vache,  n.m.  Buffalo  chips.  On  the  Great  Plains  dried 
buffalo  dung,  called  bois  de  vache,  was  used  for  firewood.  Fre- 
quently written  bodeivash  by  Americans. 

bois  d'Inde,  n.m.   The  logwood  tree  (Ditchy,  52). 

bois  d'orignal,  n.m.  The  high  cranberry  (Tache,  Esquisse,  sec. 
edit.,  17). 

bois  dur,  n.m.  Ironwood  (Tache,  Esquisse,  15;  Michaux,  Sylva, 
III,  18). 

bois  fort,  n.m.  The  deep  forest;  heavy  timber.  According  to 
Coues,  this  was  a  term  for  "thick  woods"  or  "heavy  timber" 
{Henry  and  Thompson  Journals,  I,  83,  n.  4).  Clapin  (348) 
supports  this  interpretation.  Chamberlain  interpreted  bois 
fort  to  mean  "the  deep  forest,  the  great  western  country  near 
the  sources  of  the  Mississippi"  ("Life  and  Growth  of  Words," 
142).  See  bois- franc. 

bois-franc,  n.m.    Hardwood. 

"The  French  give  to  the  forests  the  name  of  Bois-francs, 
or  Bois-forts,  whenever  they  are  not  composed  principally  of 
trees  belonging  to  the  family  of  coniferae"  (Nicollet,  Report, 
19).  See  also  Thomassy,  Geologic  Pratique  de  la  Louisiane, 
86. 

bois  inconnu,  n.m.   The  hackberry  tree. 

Michaux  (Travels,  77,  78-79)  wrote  of  the  "Celtis  occiden- 
talis,  called  by  the  Americans  Hackberry  tree  and  by  the 
French  Bois  inconnu.  .  .  .  Celtis  o.  (Called  in  the  Illinois  coun- 
try Bois  connu  and  towards  New  Orleans  Bois  inconnu) ."  See 
also  Read,  12-13;  Michaux,  Sylva,  III,  26-27;  Robin,  Voyages, 
III,  359. 

bois  jaune,  n.m.  The  tulip  tree  or  yellow  poplar.  According 
to  Michaux  (Travels,  79)  the  French  Creoles  called  the 
"Liriodendron  tulipifera,  Bois  jaune  (yellow  wood)."  See  also 
Dunbar,  Life,  Letters,  and  Papers,  94-95 ;  Michaux,  Sylva,  II, 
24-29 ;  Read,  13.  The  name  was  sometimes  given  to  the  Osage 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  29 

orange  (bois  d'arc) ;  see  Brackenridge,   Views  of  Louisiana, 
119. 

bois  noir,  n.m.  The  redbud  or  Judas  tree.  Michaux  (Travels, 
79)  noted  that  the  French  Creoles  called  "Cercis  canadensis, 
Bois  noir'  (black  wood)."  See  also  Flagg,  Far  West,  I,  286. 
The  Canadians,  however,  use  bois  noir  for  the  striped  maple, 
acer  Pensijlvamcum  (Tache,  Esqiiisse,  sec.  edit.,  16). 

bois-pourri,  n.m.  The  Missouri  French  name  for  the  whip- 
poor-will   (Dorrance,  61).    See  pomme-pourrie. 

bois  puant,  n.m.  The  hop  tree  or  wingseed.  Called  "Bois  Ayac 
ou  Bois  puant"  by  Le  Page  du  Pratz  (Histoire,  II,  44-45). 
Identified  as  the  'Ttelea  [or]  orme  de  Samarie"  by  Robin, 
Voyages,  III,  509  and  by  Ditchy  (52).  See  Rafinesque,  Medi- 
cal Flora,  II,  234 ;  Bailey,  Hortus,  505. 

bois  rond,  n.m.    Unhewn  timbers.    Cf.  boulin. 

bois  rouge,  n.m.   Red  willow. 

bois  roule,  n.m.   A  mixture  smoked  by  the  Indians. 

Among  the  Sioux,  who  called  it  kinikinik,  this  "tobacco  or 
what  the  French  traders  call  bois  roule  ...  is  the  inner  bark 
of  a  species  of  red  willow,  which  being  dried  in  the  sun  or 
over  the  fire  is  rubbed  between  the  hands  and  broken  up  into 
small  pieces,  and  used  alone  or  mixed  with  tobacco"  (Coues, 
Lewis  and  Clark,  I,  139) .  Coues  added  that  the  favorite  barks 
of  the  Indians  were:  smooth  sumac,  silky  cornel  or  dogwood 
or  red  willow,  bearberry,  and  a  species  of  arrowwood  or 
viburnum.  Tixier  reported  that  the  Osage  "formerly  smoked 
the  papouah,  the  second  bark  of  a  species  of  sumac  tree  very 
common  on  the  prairie"  {Travels,  133).   See  kinikinik. 

boisseau,  n.m.  A  dry  measure  containing  .36915  American 
bushel  (Alexander,  Dictionary  of  Weights  and  Measures,  10). 

bois  Shavanon,  n.m.  "Bignonia  Catalpa,  [called]  by  the  French 
Creoles  Bois  Shavanon"  (Michaux,  Travels,  79).  See  also 
Michaux,  Sylva,  II,  39. 

boisson,  n.f.  Drink,  hard  liquor;  a  drinking  match.  Boisson 
signified  any  strong  liquor  (Clapin,  48).  This  term  was  also 
used  for  the  drinking  matches  staged  by  the  Indians  in  their 
villages  or  near  a  trading  post  (Roderic  McKenzie,  "Reminis- 
cences," 12). 


30  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

bois  tor,  n.m.  "So-called  climbing  bitter-sweet,  Celastrus 
scandens"  (Coues,  Henry  and  Thompson  Journals,  I,  172).  It 
is,  Henry  wrote,  "a  short  shrub  that  winds  up  the  stocks  of 
larger  trees;  the  wood  is  soft  and  spongy,  with  a  thick  bark, 
which  is  often  eaten  by  the  natives  in  time  of  famine.  There 
are  two  species  of  this  shrub ;  one  grows  thicker  than  the  other 
and  is  very  sweet,  but  too  astringent.  The  other  kind  is  more 
insipid  and  less  wholesome.  They  cut  it  into  pieces  and  boil 
it  a  long  time,  when  the  bark  is  peeled  off  and  eaten  without 
further  preparation.  I  have  subsisted  on  this  bark  for  days, 
but  always  found  my  weakness  increased  upon  me"  (ibid.). 

bon,  n.m.   A  personal  note  which  circulated  as  money. 

The  lack  of  circulating  medium  caused  the  bon  to  be  used 
in  Canada  at  least  as  early  as  1683.  "Instead  of  the  creditor 
drawing  orders  on  a  merchant,  the  merchant  issued  to  his 
creditors  promises  to  pay,  which  were  still  chiefly  redeemable 
in  goods  rather  than  money.  But  they  had  an  additional  ad- 
vantage of  serving  as  a  form  of  money,  much  of  which  re- 
mained in  circulation  instead  of  being  immediately  converted 
into  goods.  Thus  was  developed  the  system  of  bons,  from  the 
introductory  words  etc."  (Shortt,  Documents  Relatifs  a  la 
Monnaie,  I,  61,  n.  2).  In  the  Illinois  Country  the  bon  was  gen- 
erally good  for  a  specified  number  of  shaved  deerskins  or 
pounds  of  lead.  Although  the  billet  also  circulated,  it  was 
properly  a  note  made  out  to  a  specific  person ;  the  bon  gener- 
ally did  not  bear  the  name  of  a  creditor,  but  of  course  carried 
the  signature  of  the  merchant  or  trader  giving  it.  Typical  bons 
will  be  found  in  Dorrance,  28-29;  Alvord,  Cahokia  Records, 
218-219  and  n.  1. 

bonhomme,  n.m.  A  title  of  respect,  used  in  the  same  manner 
as  "Goodman"  in  early  New  England,  e.  g.,  Goodman  Andrews. 

boscoillot,  boscoyo,  n.m.   A  cypress  knee. 

"The  roots  grow  very  far  and  form  knees  from  which  hard, 
pointed,  and  smooth  excrescences  grow  to  the  height  of  four 
or  five  feet.  These  points,  called  boscoyos  by  the  Spanish,  are 
found  in  enormous  numbers  in  cypress  groves"  (Tixier,  Trav- 
els, 66).  See  also  Ellicott,  Journal,  285;  Read,  14.  Read  gives 
a  second  form  boscoillot,  and  treats  it  as  a  Louisiana  French 
word.   Ditchy  spells  it  bouscouyou. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  31 

bosse,  n.f.   Buffalo  hump. 

bosseman,  n.m.  The  man  whose  duty,  during  the  cordelling 
of  a  boat,  "was  to  watch  for  snags  and  other  obstructions,  and 
to  help  steer  the  boat  by  holding  it  off  the  bank  with  a  pole" 
(Chittenden,  La  Barge,  I,  104).  Robin  spelled  the  word  hos- 
man  {Voyages,  II,  212). 

Bostonais,  n.m.  An  American.  Originally  applied  by  the 
Canadian  French  to  the  New  Englander  with  whom  they  came 
into  contact,  it  was  carried  by  Canadian  settlers  to  the  Illinois 
Country  and  used  there  synonymously  with  "American" 
(Clapin,  38;  Dorrance,  61;  Featherstonhaugh,  Canoe  Voyage 
up  the  Minnay  Sotor,  II,  3) . 

botte  sauvage,  n.f.   A  moccasin. 

boucan,  n.m.  A  smokehouse;  a  place  where  meat  is  smoke- 
dried  (Clapin,  51).  See  boucane?-  (1). 

boucane,  n.f.    Smoke  (Dorrance,  61;  Read,  82). 

"On  fait  de  la  boucane,  c'est-a-dire,  un  grand  feu,  que  Ton 
etouffe  ensuite  avec  des  feuilles  vertes"  (Poisson,  Jesuit  Rela- 
tions and  Allied  Documents,  LXVII,  294) .  Poisson's  party  was 
making  a  smudge  for  protection  against  mosquitoes.  Boucane 
may  be  any  kind  of  smoke. 

boucaner,  boucanner  (1),  v.  tr.  To  smoke  (meat,  fish,  tobacco, 
etc.)    (Clapin,  62;  Read,  82-83). 

"Les  Sauvages  retirent  un  grand  avantage  de  ces  boeufs; 
ils  en  font  boucaner  la  chair,  qui,  de  cette  maniere,  se  conserve, 
sans  avoir  ete  salee.  .  .  .  Nos  aventuriers  Francois  adopterent 
ce  mot  lorsqu'ils  s'etablirent  parmi  les  Sauvages  pour  chasser. 
lis  firent  boucaner  de  la  viande;  ils  nommerent  le  lieu  de 
Taction  boucan,  et  les  auteurs  boucaniers"  (Bossu,  Nouveaux 
Voyages  dans  VAmerique  S e ptentr tonal e,  104,  178-179).  Cf. 
also  mdis  boucane. 

boucaner  (2),  v.  intr.   To  smoke  (Read,  82;  Dorrance,  62). 

boucanerie,  n.f.    A  smokehouse   (Read,  82;  Dorrance,  62). 

boucanier,  n.m.    One  who  smokes  meat.   See  boucaner  (1). 

boucaniere,  n.f.    A  smokehouse  (Read,  82;  Dorrance,  62). 

boucaut  (1),  n.m.  A  bull  boat.  Made  of  large  buffalo  hides 
stretched  over  willow  poles,  the  bull  boat  could  carry  five  or 


32  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

six  persons  or  a  quantity  of  baggage.    It  was  used  primarily 
for  ferrying  (Surrey,  Commerce  of  Louisiana,  55). 

Tixier  described  a  typical  scene  when  the  Osage,  on  the 
hunt,  arrived  at  the  Arkansas  River  (1840)  :  "II  fallut  con- 
struire  des  boucauts  (bull-boats)  pour  les  bagages.  On  etendit 
des  peaux  de  loges,  dont  on  releva  les  bords  qui  furent  solide- 
ment  attaches,  de  sorte  qu'elles  formerent  une  espece  de  bat- 
teau  carre.  On  langa  sur  la  riviere  ces  freles  embarcations, 
chargees,  outre  les  bagages,  des  jeunes  enfants  et  des  petits 
chiens.  Les  hommes  et  les  femmes  entierement  nus,  se  mirent 
a  la  nage  et  les  pousserent  sur  I'autre  rive"  (Voyage,  233). 
See  also  Chittenden,  La  Barge,  I,  96-102;  Coues,  Henry  and 
Thompson  Journals,  I,  331-332. 

boucaut  (2),  n.m.  A  hogshead.  The  regulations  of  the  Supe- 
rior Council  of  Louisiana  in  1728  fixed  the  boucaut  of  beef  and 
lard  at  360  pounds ;  of  olive  oil  and  white  wine  at  100  pots 
(q.v.) ;  of  red  wine,  rum,  and  vinegar  at  110  pots;  of  brandy 
at  150  pots;  of  salt  and  sugar  at  500  pounds  (Surrey,  Com- 
merce of  Louisiana,  254,  260,  262,  274,  280) . 

boudin,  boudin  blanc,  n.m.    Prairie  sausage. 

"A  sort  of  sausage,  boiled  and  eaten  hot"  (Stansbury,  Ex- 
ploration of  the  Salt  Lake  Valley,  35).  The  preparation  of 
this  favorite  dish  from  the  freshly  killed  buffalo  was  described 
in  detail  by  Meriwether  Lewis:  "From  the  cow  I  killed  we 
saved  the  necessary  materials  for  making  what  our  wright- 
hand  cook  Charbono  calls  the  boudin  (poudingue)  blanc,  and 
immediately  set  him  about  preparing  them  for  supper;  this 
white  pudding  we  all  esteem  one  of  the  greatest  del[ic]acies 
of  the  forrest,  it  may  not  be  amiss  therefore  to  give  it  a 
place.  About  6  feet  of  the  lower  extremity  of  the  large  gut 
of  the  Buffaloe  is  the  first  mo[r]sel  that  the  cook  makes  love 
to,  this  he  holds  fast  at  one  end  with  the  right  hand,  while  with 
the  forefinger  and  thumb  of  the  left  he  gently  compresses  it, 
and  discharges  what  he  says  is  not  good  to  eat,  but  of  which 
in  the  s  [e]  quel  we  get  a  moderate  portion ;  the  mustle  lying 
underneath  the  shoulder  blade  next  to  the  back  and  fillets  are 
next  saught,  these  are  needed  up  very  fine  with  a  good  por- 
tion of  the  kidney  suit  [suet]  ;  to  this  composition  is  then  added 
a  just  proportion  of  pepper  and  salt  and  a  small  quantity  of 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  33 

flour;  thus  far  advanced  our  skillful  opporater  C — o  seizes 
his  recepticle,  which  has  never  once  touched  the  water,  for 
that  would  intirely  distroy  the  regular  order  of  the  whole  pro- 
cedure; you  will  not  forget  that  the  side  you  now  see  is  that 
covered  with  a  good  coat  of  fat,  provided  the  anamal  be  in 
good  order ;  the  operator  sceizes  the  recepticle  I  say,  and  tying 
it  fast  at  one  end  turns  it  inwards  and  begins  now  with  re- 
peated evolutions  of  the  hand  and  arm,  and  a  brisk  motion 
of  the  finger  and  thumb  to  put  in  what  he  says  is  bon  pour 
manger;  thus  by  stuffing  and  compressing  he  soon  distends  the 
recepticle  to  the  utmost  limmits  of  it's  power  of  expansion,  and 
in  the  course  of  it's  longitudinal  progress  it  drives  from  the 
other  end  of  the  recepticle  a  much  larger  portion  of  the — 
[sic]  than  was  prev[i]ously  discharged  by  the  finger  and 
thumb  in  a  former  part  of  the  operation ;  thus  when  the  sides 
of  the  recepticle  are  skilfully  exchanged  the  outer  for  the 
inner  and  all  is  compleatly  filled  with  something  good  to  eat 
it  is  tyed  at  the  other  end,  but  not  any  cut  off,  for  that  would 
make  the  pattern  too  scant ;  it  is  then  baptised  in  the  missouri 
with  two  dips  and  a  flirt,  and  bobbed  into  the  kettle;  from 
whence,  after  it  be  well  boiled  it  is  taken  and  fryed  with  bears 
oil  untill  it  becomes  brown,  when  it  is  ready  to  esswage  the 
pangs  of  a  keen  appetite  or  such  as  travelers  in  the  wilderness 
are  seldom  at  a  loss  for"  (Thwaites,  Original  Journals  of 
Leivis  and  Clark,  II,  15-16).  See  also  ibid.,  II,  74,  207,  266; 
Tixier,  Travels,  195;  Fletcher  and  La  Flesche,  Omaha  Tribe, 
273-274. 

bouleau  a  canot,  n.m.  The  canoe  birch  (betula  papyracea)  of 
the  Canadians;  also  called  boideau  blanc  (Michaux,  Sylva,  II, 
50). 

bouleau  batard,  n.m.   The  river  birch  or  black  birch. 

"Betida    spuria   called    by    the    French    bouleau    batard" 
(Michaux,  Travels,  83).   See  also  Bailey,  Hortu^,  88. 
bouleau  blanc.   See  bouleau  a  canot. 

boulin,  n.m.  Log  used  in  building  houses  or  fences. 

"Troncon  d'arbre  brut,  ou  fondu  par  la  moitie  dans  sa 
longeur,  qui  sert  a  faire  les  clotures  de  nos  champs"  (Clapin, 
53).   But  Alvord  thought:  "This  [word]  probably  means  the 


34  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

upright  posts,  grooved  on  two  sides,  which  the  French  used 
in  building  their  houses.  These  posts  were  set  in  the  ground 
a  few  inches  apart  with  the  grooved  sides  together.  The  space 
left  was  filled  with  'cat  and  clay' — the  cat  being  finely  cut 
straw  or  moss — and  the  grooves  prevented  the  filling  from 
falling  out"  (Cahokia  Records,  284,  n.  1). 

bourgeois,  n.m.  In  the  fur  trade  of  the  West  and  North,  a 
partner  in  a  company  who  was  in  charge  of  a  trading  post  or 
expedition  was  called  a  bourgeois.  "Bourgeois  des  Postes: — 
Contremaitre  d'un  poste  a  fourrures.  Celui  qui  dirige  I'ex- 
ploitation  d'un  territoire,  d'un  poste  de  chasse"  (Clapin,  55). 

bouscouyou.   See  boscoillot. 

bousillage,  bouzillage,  n.m.  A  mixture  of  clay  with  grass, 
straw,  hair,  or  moss  used  as  chinking  between  logs  in  a  build- 
ing or  as  plaster  over  them.  Robin  reported  that  in  Louisiana 
"bousillage  est  compose  de  terre  trituree,  detrempee  et  melee 
de  barbe  espagnole"  (Voyages,  III,  172). 

bousiller,  v.  tr.  To  plaster  or  chink  with  bousillage. 

bouts,  n.m.    pi.    The  end  men  in  canoes. 

braguet,  n.m.  A  breechcloth.  The  braguette  was  the  codpiece 
of  fifteenth  century  masculine  costume.  In  the  Mississippi 
Valley  braguet  (so  spelled)  was  appHed  only  to  the  Indian 
breechclout.  Tixier  described  it  as  "a  piece  of  cloth  passed 
between  the  thighs  and  fastened  to  the  belt  at  both  ends" 
{Travels,  124).  Perrin  du  Lac  gave  a  history  of  the  garment: 
"Espece  de  tablier  s'attachant  fortement  au  bas  des  reins,  et 
qui  est  destine  a  cacher  les  parties  naturelles;  les  premiers 
FranQois  qui  vinrent  habiter  le  Canada  y  apporterent  ce  vete- 
ment,  qu'ils  ont  conserve  et  qu'ils  ont  communique  a  tous  les 
Sauvages  du  nord  de  I'Amerique"  {Travels,  223).  See  also 
Arese,  Trip  to  the  Prairies,  169. 

braie.    Another   form  for  braguet   (Stewart,  Altoivan,  I,  51). 
brasse,  n.f.    A  linear  measure  of  5  yieds  equal  to  5.328  English 

feet  or  1.624  meters  (Clark,  Metric  Measures,  11). 
bredache.    See  berdache. 
brigade,  n.f.    A  brigade.    In  the  fur  trade  a  party  of  hunters 

or  trappers  sent  to  the  fur  country  or  a  party  of  boatmen  and 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  35 

assistants  sent  to  trade  with  the  Indians  was  called  a  brigade 
(Chappell,  History  of  the  Missouri  River,  272). 

brin,  n.m.   Hemp  (Alvord,  Cahokia  Records,  450-451). 

brochetau,  n.m.  A  name  given  by  the  French  on  the  Missis- 
sippi River  to  the  gar  (lepisosteus  platostumus) ;  also  known 
as  the  duckbilled  gar,  alligator  gar,  alligator  fish,  or  gar  pike 
(Rafinesque,  Iclithyologia  Ohiensis,  136).  Other  local  French 
names  were  picaneau,  poisson  arme,  poisson  cciinuin  (q.v.). 

brule,  n.m.  A  half-breed ;  a  burnt  tract  of  forest.  An  abbrevi- 
ated form  of  bois-brille  (q.v.)  (Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth 
of  Words,"  142 ;  Clapin,  60) . 

brulot,  n.m.    A  kind  of  gnat  or  midge. 

Although  these  small  flies  have  not  been  identified,  many 
travelers  testify  to  their  violence.  Poisson,  on  the  Arkansas 
in  1727,  wrote:  "There  are  here  the  frappe-d'abord,  and  the 
bridots;  these  are  very  small  flies  whose  sting  is  so  sharp — 
or,  rather,  so  burning — that  it  seems  as  if  a  little  spark  had 
fallen  on  the  part  they  have  stung"  {Jesuit  Relations  and 
Allied  Documents,  LXVII,  293).  Arese,  on  the  Vermilion 
River  in  the  Northwest  in  1837,  wrote:  "The  night  was  made 
horrible  without  a  minute  of  sleep  because  we  were  so  tor- 
mented ...  by  the  brulots,  another  species  that  takes  its  name 
from  the  agreeable  effect  produced  by  its  sting"  {Trip  to  the 
Prairies,  74).  Tixier,  in  the  Arkansas  Valley  in  1840,  also 
met  these  ".  .  .  small  black  flies  which  attack  the  nose,  the 
eyes,  the  nostrils,  and  the  mouth,  the  mere  contact  of  which 
gives  the  lasting  sensation  of  a  burn.  They  are  called  bridots" 
{Travels,  85).  Le  Page  du  Pratz  declared  the  bridot  was  no 
bigger  than  the  head  of  a  pin  {Histoire,  II,  149)  ;  Michaux 
declared  that  one  could  see  a  brulot  only  under  the  microscope 
{Journal,  85).  See  also.  De  Smet,  Life  and  Travels,  II,  620- 
621.  Probably  the  brulot  and  the  buffalo  gnat  of  Gregg  {Com- 
merce of  the  Prairies,  II,  28)  are  the  same  insect.  In  the 
Minnesota  Country  the  word  is  used  for  midges. 

bucher,  v.  intr.   To  wood. 

Sire,  on  the  Missouri  River,  15  June  1845,  recorded:  "En- 
core arrete  aux  cotes  qui  trempent  a  I'eau  a  gauche  pour 
bucher,   perdu  environ  2  heures  pour  nous   en  procurer  4 


36  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

cordes";  on  24  June  he  noted:  "Cette  place  en  cas  de  besoin 
sera  bonne  pour  bucher  en  descendant"  (Log  Book,  104,  107) . 

bucheur,  n.m.   A  woodcutter. 

"L'arbre  choisi  est  attaque  au  niveau  de  I'eau  a  coups  de 
hache ;  il  est  important  pour  les  negres  de  bien  diriger  la  chute 
du  cypre  [q.v.] ,  qui  pent  les  ecraser ;  aussis  des  bucheurs  neg- 
ligents  ont-ils  ete  quelques  fois  victimes  de  leur  manque  d'atten- 
tion"  (Tixier,  Voyage,  37).   See  also  Clapin,  61;  Dorrance,  63. 

buffle,  n.m.    The  buffalo  fish.    See  carpe.    Sometimes  used  for 
"buffalo,"  but  see  boeuf,  boeuf  sauvage. 

butin,  n.m.  Baggage ;  merchandise ;  property  of  any  sort. 

"This  word  butin  seems  to  be  a  remnant  of  buccaneering 
times,  and  to  have  been  applied  to  luggage  and  personal  prop- 
erty of  every  sort  from  the  time  of  the  first  French  flibustiers 
or  freebooters,  and  to  have  come  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  up 
the  Mississippi,  the  Ohio,  and  all  the  great  water  communica- 
tions, for  the  Kentuckians  and  generally  the  Americans  in  the 
southern  parts  of  the  Republic  have  literally  translated  the 
word  into  plunder"  (Featherstonhaugh,  Canoe  Voyage  tip  the 
Minnay  Sotor,  I,  163).  See  also  Clapin,  61-62;  Ditchy,  60.  See 
agres,  dr-igail. 

butte,  n.f .   A  hill ;  a  knob.   Used  in  the  North  and  Northwest. 
See  cote,  coteau,  ecore,  mamelle. 


cabanage,  n.m.  A  group  of  temporary  shacks  erected  for  sea- 
sonal work,  as  at  the  salines  or  mines,  e.  g.,  Cabanage  a 
Renaudiere.  Also  applied  to  an  encampment  or  camping  place 
for  the  night:  "Ainsi  nous  etions  exposes  a  ne  point  trouver 
de  cabanage,  c'est-a-dire,  de  terre  pour  faire  chaudiere  et  pour 
coucher"  (Poisson  [1727],  Jesuit  Relations  and  Allied  Docu- 
ments, LXVII,  286). 

cabane,  n.f.  A  camp  or  temporary  shelter.  Seldom  to  be  rend- 
ered "cabin,"  as  that  term  is  used  for  the  American  frontiers- 
man's house,  but  see  cabane  a  negres. 

cabane  a  castor,  cabane  de  castor,  n.f.  A  beaver  dam  (Le 
Page  du  Pratz,  Histoire,  I,  251). 

cabane  (cabanne)  a  mahis,  n.m.    A  corncrib. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  37 

cabane  a  negres,  n.f.  Negro  cabins;  i.  e.,  slave  quarters 
(Robin,  Voyages,  III,  171-173;  Tixier,  Travels,  46-47). 

cabaner,  cabanner,  v.  intr.    To  encamp ;  to  build  shacks. 

"Le  12,  nous  cabanames  aux  Ecors  blancs"  (Poisson  [1727], 
Jesuit  Relations  and  Allied  Documents,  LXVII,  310) . 

cabanne,  part.  Housed  (Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth  of 
Words,"  141). 

cabinet,  n.m.  A  sleeping  room;  a  clothes  closet  (Clapin,  63; 
Read,  16). 

caboteur,  n.m.  A  boatman  or  keelboatman.  When  Tixier 
called  "les  caboteurs  du  Mississipi,  cette  plaie  de  la  Louisiane," 
he  was  probably  voicing  the  opinion  of  the  Creole  plantation 
owners  with  whom  he  was  associating  {Voyage,  30).  See  also 
Blair  and  Meine,  Mike  Fink,  King  of  the  Mississippi  Keelboat- 
men. 

cabree.   See  cahri. 

cabresse,  n.f.  A  halter  rope.  From  Spanish  cabestro:  "halter," 
or  "a  rope  made  of  hair"  (Read,  132) .  "Nous  campions  le  soir 
sans  loges,  laissant  nos  chevaux  enferges,  libres  avec  une 
longue  cabresse  qui  trainait  a  terre"   (Tixier,  Voyage,  240). 

cabri,  n.m.  The  American  antelope,  in  the  parlance  of  fur 
traders,  Santa  Fe  traders,  and  others.  Frequently  written  by 
Americans:  cabrie  or  cabree.  Tabeau  wrote  it  cabril  (Abel, 
Tabeau's  Narrative,  11) . 

cache,  n.f.  Literally,  a  hiding  place ;  in  practice,  a  temporary 
(often  hidden)  place  of  deposit,  by  hunters,  trappers,  or  trad- 
ers, of  supplies  or  accumulations  of  furs;  frequently,  buried 
stores. 

That  it  was  not  always  hidden  is  made  clear  by  Dunbar: 
"  'Cache  la  Tulipe'  (Tulipe's  hiding  place)  this  is  the  name  of 
a  french  hunter  who  concealed  his  property  in  this  place.  It 
continues  to  be  a  practize  of  both  white  and  red  hunters,  to 
deposit  their  skins  &c.  often  suspended  to  poles  or  laid  over  a 
pole  placed  on  two  forked  posts  in  sight  of  the  river,  untill 
their  return  from  hunting;  these  deposits  are  considered  as 
sacred  and  few  examples  exist  of  their  being  plundered"  {Life, 
Letters,  and  Papers,  245).  In  Maximilian's  Travels  (III,  76), 
cache  was  used  as  the  equivalent  of  store. 


38  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

cache-cache,  n.m.  The  snipe  (Audubon,  Ornithological  Biog- 
raphii.  III,  323;  Read,  16).   See  alouette. 

cache  des  vieilles,  n.f.  Literally,  "the  hiding  place  of  the  old 
women."  When  the  plains  Indians  went  out  on  the  warpath 
or  the  buffalo  hunt,  those  too  old  or  too  sick  to  travel  with  the 
tribe  were  "hidden"  from  enemies  in  a  new  encampment  some 
little  distance  from  the  permanent  village  and  with  them  were 
placed  any  valuable  possessions  too  bulky  for  the  journey.  An 
excellent  description  of  such  a  cache  des  vieilles  is  that  by 
Jules  de  Mun  (1816)  :  "After  having  made  a  short  halt  to 
await  those  of  our  men  who  had  remained  behind,  I  started 
ahead  and  at  the  end  of  a  good  league  I  arrived  at  the  Cache 
des  Vielles  which  A  [uguste]  had  had  much  difficulty  in  finding 
and  which  he  had  not  reached  until  afternoon. 

"Whenever  the  inhabitants  of  the  village  go  off  on  a  hunt 
they  put  their  corn  in  some  place  removed  from  the  woods 
where  they  think  there  is  less  risk  of  its  being  discovered  by 
their  enemies  and  they  leave  one  or  two  old  men  and  all  the 
old  women  of  the  village  to  guard  the  cache ;  one  must  see  such 
an  assembly  in  order  to  get  any  idea  of  it,  walking  corpses, 
decrepits,  most  of  them  blind  in  one  eye  or  almost  blind,  and 
just  as  squalid  as  it  is  possible  to  be.  In  the  lodge  where  I 
found  A  [uguste],  there  was  a  young  woman  who  had  remained 
to  look  after  her  husband  who  was  sick.  As  soon  as  the  latter 
had  offered  me  his  hand  his  wife  placed  before  us  bowls  filled 
with  crushed  corn  boiled  in  water  but  barely  cooked ;  she  also 
sent  some  to  our  men,  who  had  just  arrived  with  the  loads. 
Having  eaten  nothing  all  day,  I  appeased  my  hunger  with  this 
sort  of  pap  which  under  other  circumstances  I  could  not  have 
looked  at  without  it  turning  my  stomach.  At  nightfall  and 
rain  threatening,  we  had  everything  which  ran  the  risk  of 
getting  wet  put  into  the  lodges,  and  we  decided  to  sleep  here. 
The  men  and  horses  crossed  the  Marmiton  on  which  river  the 
cache  was  located  and  camped  on  the  opposite  bank.  The  cache 
consisted  of  five  lodges,  two  large  and  three  small  ones.  In 
the  one  where  we  are  lodged  there  are  two  fires  and  it  is  im- 
possible to  stand  up  in  it  owing  to  the  smoke.  We  lay  down 
midst  a  dozen  old  carcasses  who  in  order  to  alleviate  the  itch- 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  39 

ing  caused  by  vermin,  scratched  their  emaciated  bones  with 
corn-cobs,  and  it  was  to  the  sound  of  this  sweet  music  that  I 
fell  asleep.  .  .  .  This  [another]  cache  consists  of  five  lodges 
whose  inhabitants  appear  far  more  clean  than  those  at  the 
Marmiton  and  these  are  nearly  all  young  women  who  belong 
to  the  families  of  the  chiefs;  everything  is  also  much  more 
comfortable  than  at  the  other  cache  both  as  to  food  and  con- 
venience of  the  lodges.  One  cannot  say  that  prudery  is  a  strong 
characteristic  of  these  ladies ;  they  are  so  brazenly  licentious 
that  it  is  quite  disgusting"  (Journal,  26-30).  Cf.  Tixier,  Trav- 
els, 112. 
cacher,  v.  tr.   To  hide  by  burying  or  covering;  to  store. 

cadet,  adj.  and  n.  Younger,  the  younger.  But  the  term  is  to 
be  applied  only  to  persons  of  the  same  generation ;  it  is  never 
to  be  translated  "junior."  See  aine. 

]\Iany  members  of  the  Chouteau  family  and  other  persons 
concerned  with  the  history  of  Saint  Louis  have  assumed  that 
references  to  Cadet  Chouteau  were  always  to  Pierre  Chouteau, 
Junior.  This  was  true  only  in  part:  Pierre  junior  was  the 
second  son  and  was  therefore  called  Cadet.  Pierre  his  father 
was  also  a  younger  son  and  as  late  as  1822  was  still  on  occasion 
referred  to  as  Cadet.  A  number  of  references  will  illustrate 
this  distinction :  at  the  sale  of  the  Cambas  property,  10  Decem- 
ber 1784  (five  years  before  Pierre  junior  was  born),  "Mr. 
Cadet  Choteau"  was  written  down  as  surety  for  Louis  Lafleur ; 
his  accompanying  signature  was  Pre  Chouteau  (Fr.  and  Span. 
Arch.  St.  L.,  No.  2669).  On  26  June  1817,  John  B.  C.  Lucas 
informed  his  son  James  that  "Mr.  Le  Due  ...  is  to  accom- 
pany young  Cadet  Chouteau  in  a  journey  intended  for  the 
recovery  of  his  health"  and  in  a  letter  of  22  January  1822 
Lucas  declared  that  "Le  Vieux  Cadet  is  now  quite  polite  to 
me  .  .  ."  (Letters  of  J.  B.  C.  Lucas,  13,  169).  The  St.  Louis 
Enquirer  on  22  September  1821  informed  its  readers  that  "Mr. 
Pierre  (Caddy)  Chouteau,  Senior,  in  consequence  of  the  solici- 
tations of  several  citizens,  has  consented  to  become  a  candi- 
date at  the  approaching  senatorial  election,  to  fill  the  vacancy 
occasioned  by  General  Pratte's  resignation."  See  also  Mc- 
Dermott,  "Cadet  Chouteau — an  Identification." 


40  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

cage,  n.f.  A  raft.  In  Canada,  a  log  or  lumber  raft  (Clapin, 
64-65) .  In  the  Mississippi  Valley,  a  raft  chiefly  used  for  ferry- 
ing or  lightening  purposes.   See  cageux,  cajeu. 

cageur,  n.m.  A  man  employed  on  a  lumber  raft  (Chamberlain, 
"Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  137;  Clapin,  65). 

cageux,  n.m.  Raft.  For  the  making  of  a  simple  cageux  see 
Arese,  Trip  to  the  Prairies,  80.   See  cage,  cajeu. 

Caho,  Cahos.    Abbreviations  for  Cahokia. 

cai.  See  caille. 

caiac.  See  cayac. 

caille,  adj.   Spotted  or  piebald. 

"Caille  in  the  Creole  language  means  spotted  or  piebald," 
wrote  Tixier,  referring  to  a  village  of  the  Osage  which  he  said 
was  called  the  Maisons  C allies  (Travels,  128,  n.  30).  "Se  dit 
des  taches  irregulieres,  noires  et  blanches,  ou  blanches  et 
rousses,  de  la  robe  des  chevaux,  boeufs,  vaches,  etc.,  et  aussi 
du  plumage  des  poules"  (Clapin,  65).  "His  companion  .  .  . 
had  caught  up  the  horse  he  had  hitherto  led,  which  was  of  that 
spotted  color  they  call  cai"  (Stewart,  Altowan,  I,  38).  Cf. 
caille  de  prairie,  "meadowlark"  (Dorrance,  64).  According  to 
Dorrance  (64)  and  Read  (16-17)  this  word  caille,  used  with 
a  qualifying  term,  is  applied  to  many  songbirds. 

cailleau,  n.m.  The  Louisiana  name  for  the  sagetree  or  blue- 
berry (Rafinesque,  Medical  Flora,  II,  235).  Robin  identified 
caille  eau  (sic)  as  the  Louisiana  name  for  camara  annuel  or 
lantana  (Voyages,  III,  385). 

caiman,  n.m.  The  common  Louisiana  name  for  the  crocodile 
(Robin,  Voyages,  III,  291).  Read  (133)  says  this  term  is  used 
chiefly  for  a  "large  alligator  with  prominent  scales"  and 
cocodrie  for  a  smaller  type. 

caissette,  n.f.  A  trunk  or  box.  Variant  for  cassette.  Not  a 
diminutive.  Frequently  used  for  personal  baggage  or  for  mer- 
chandise. Bradbury,  on  the  Upper  Missouri  with  the  Astoria 
party  in  1811,  wrote  that  "as  the  Canadians  would  not  be 
permitted  to  take  their  trunks,  or,  as  they  termed  them,  their 
caissettes,  by  land,  I  purchased  from  them  seventeen,  in  wiiich 
I  intended  to  arrange  my  living  specimens,  having  now  col- 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  41 

lected  several  thousands"  (Travels,  168).   A,  P.  Chouteau  in 
a  letter  to  his  brother-in-law  Bernard  Pratte  (1824)  referred 
to  an  order  of  30  caissettes,  2  to  21/0  feet  long,  for  the  Indian 
trade. 
cajeu,  n.m.   A  raft.   See  also  cage,  cageux. 

Diron  d'Artaguiette  wrote  in  1723:  ".  .  .  we  perceived  in 
the  middle  of  the  river  two  men  on  a  raft  (cajeu)  made  of 
three  pieces  of  wood  tied  together"  (Mereness,  Travels  in  the 
American  Colonies,  54).  Surrey  (Commerce  of  Louisiana,  59) 
described  the  cajeu  in  the  south  as  "made  of  strong  canes 
bound  tightly  together  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a  light  vessel 
useful  in  making  crossings  from  one  bank  of  a  river  to  the 
other."  Le  Page  du  Pratz  called  it  a  pontoon  made  on  the  spot 
(Histoire,  I,  230;  II,  186-187).  In  a  letter  from  A.  P.  Chou- 
teau to  P.  M.  Papin,  Verdigris,  6  April  1824  (Chouteau  Collec- 
tion, Mo.  Hist.  Soc),  the  term,  there  written  cayeux,  seems 
applied  to  something  more  substantial  than  Surrey's  rafts — 
apparently  these  were  used  during  low  water  to  transport  furs 
downstream  to  a  larger  boat.   Cf .  boucaut. 

caleche,  n.f.  An  open,  two-wheeled  carriage  (Clapin,  65;  Dor- 
rance,  22). 

calumet,  n.m.  A  pipe.  For  the  nature,  variety,  and  importance 
of  the  calumet  consult  Hodge,  Handbook,  I,  191-195.  See  also 
Tixier,  Travels,  144,  230  and  n.  18,  261.  See  danse  du  calumet, 
oiseau  du  calumet. 

camp,  n.m.  Among  Canadian  lumbermen  and  boatmen,  a 
camp  or  campe  was  a  temporary  shelter  built  in  the  woods 
(Clapin,  66).  In  Louisiana  it  often  signified  the  group  of 
cabins  or  little  houses  in  which  were  lodged  the  workers  on  a 
plantation  or  those  employed  in  the  making  of  sugar,  etc. 
(Ditchy,  67). 

campe,  n.f.   See  camp. 

campement,  n.m.  A  stopping  place  for  the  night.  The  word 
campement  did  not  imply  any  kind  of  shelter  (Wilcocke, 
"Death  of  Frobisher,"  215). 

Canadien,  Canayen.  French  Canadian.  Not  applied  to  persons 
of  British  stock. 


42  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

canard  branchu,  n.m.    The  wood  duck. 

Robin  pointed  out  that  its  name  was  derived  from  its  habit: 
"il  se  perche  sur  les  arbres ;  ce  qui  le  fait  nommer  dans  le  pays, 
a  plus  juste  raison,  canard  hranchu"  {Voyages,  III,  307).  See 
also  Le  Page  du  Pratz,  Histoire,  II,  115;  Tixier,  Travels,  175; 
Read,  17-18. 

canard  cheval,  n.m.  The  Louisiana  name  for  the  canvasback 
duck  (Audubon,  Ornithological  Biography,  IV,  1). 

canicanick.   See  kinikinik. 

canon,  n.m.  The  large,  tubular  bead  used  in  the  Indian  trade 
{Wisconsin  Historical  Collections,  XVI,  45,  n.  1).  Cf.  7^assade. 

canot,  n.m.  A  canoe.  Used  both  for  the  birchbark  and  the 
dugout — in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  however,  the  latter  was  gen- 
erally called  pirogue  (q.v.).  According  to  Chittenden,  the  Mis- 
souri River  canoe  was  a  dugout,  not  bark.  There  were  several 
sizes  of  bark  canoes  built:  the  canot  maitre  or  canot  du  maitre 
(Montreal  canoe)  was  about  36  feet  long,  4  feet  wide,  21/2  deep 
in  the  middle  and  2  feet  deep  at  bow  and  stern;  it  carried  14 
men  and  a  corresponding  amount  of  merchandise.  The  canot 
du  nord,  about  25  feet  long,  carried  8  men ;  the  canot  hdtard, 
10  men.  The  canot  de  charge  was  a  heavy  laden  freight  boat. 
The  term  cayiot  allege  was  used  sometimes  for  an  Indian  canoe 
of  10  to  15  feet  and  sometimes  for  one  without  freight.  (Sur- 
rey, Commerce  of  Louisiana,  55-58 ;  Nute,  Voyageur,  23-32 ; 
Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  139). 

canotee,  n.f.  Canoe-load  (Coues,  Henry  and  Thompson  Jour- 
nals, I,  291). 

capitzune,  capitaine  des  sauvages,  n.m.  A  term  or  title  often 
used  for  an  Indian  chief  as  recognized  by  the  French  authori- 
ties. 

capot,  n.m.  "A  sort  of  mackinaw  coat  of  blanket  material, 
topped  with  a  hood  for  rain  or  snow"  (Dorrance,  64-65).  The 
early  notion  of  travelers  that  the  Mississippi  Valley  French, 
like  the  Indians,  wore  blankets  was  probably  derived  from  the 
blanket  stuff  of  the  coats. 

carancro.   See  carencro. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  43 

carcajou,  n.m.   The  wolverine. 

Michaux  referred  to  it  as  "un  animal  tres  ruse  que  les 
Canadiens  nomment  Carcajou"  (Journal,  83-84).  See  also 
Chamberlain,  "Indian  Words  in  French  Canadian,"  I,  270; 
Audubon  and  Bachman,  Quadrupeds,  I,  212. 

carencro,  n.m.  The  buzzard.  A  contraction  of  the  English 
carrion  crow.  Read  says  that  the  turkey  buzzard  is  properly 
carencro  tete  rouge  and  the  black  vulture  is  carencro  tete 
noire  (20-21).  Description  can  be  found  in  Le  Page  du  Pratz, 
Histoire,  II,  111-112  (spelled  there  carancro)  ;  Bossu,  N021- 
veaux  Voyages  aux  hides  Occidentales,  II,  133-134  (spelled 
karancro)  ;  Robin,  Voyages,  III,  67;  Tixier,  Travels,  34,  50-51. 
See  dance  du  carencro. 

cariole,  carriole,  n.f.  "A  convenient  wooden  sledge,  dra^vn  by 
one  horse"  (Maximilian,  Travels,  III,  53).  Gates,  however, 
speaks  of  the  cariole  as  a  dog  sled  (Five  Fur  Traders,  52,  n. 
38). 

carotte,  n.f.  Leaves  of  tobacco  twisted  or  rolled  into  the  shape 

of  a  carrot — the  common  form  in  which  tobacco  was  stored 

and  sold  in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 
carouk,  n.    The  red-breasted  snipe;  also  known  as   becassine 

de  mer  (Audubon,  Ornithological  Biography,  IV,  287;  Read, 

6). 
carpe,  n.f.  The  common  name  in  the  South  for  the  buffalo-fish 

(Read,  22). 

carre,  n.m.  "All  that  square  part  of  a  house  below  the  roof" 
(Alvord,  Cahokia  Records,  286,  n.  2;  Ditchy,  69).  But  see 
grand  carre. 

cartouche,  n.f.   Discharge  papers  (army). 

Among  papers  listed  in  the  inventory  of  the  estate  of  Com- 
parios  (former  soldier)  was  "Sa  cartouche  pour  son  conge 
absolu"  (Fr.  and  Span.  Arch.  St.  L.,  No.  2351). 

Cas.   Sometimes  used  as  an  abbreviation  ior  Kaskaskia  (q.v.). 

casburgot,  n.m.  Identified  by  Read  (22)  as  the  fresh-water 
or  common  sheepshead  fish.  Maximilian,  however,  thought  it 
was  the  buffalo-fish:  "At  this  place  [near  Arrow  Rock,  Mis- 
souri]  we  heard  a  strange  noise  under  the  boat  which  my 


44  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

people  affirmed  was  produced  by  the  prickly  fins  of  the  fish 
by  them  called  casburgot,  or  malacigan  {Castastoiinus  carpio, 
Les.),  and  by  the  Americans,  buffalo-fish"  {Travels,  III,  122). 
Read  spelled  it  also  casse-burgau.  Cf.  buffle,  carpe. 

cassant,  n.m,    "La  farine  de  mais  aigrie,  cuite  en  bouillie,  se 

nomme  cassant"  (Robin,  Voyages,  III,  40). 
casse-tete,  n.m.    A  tomahawk. 
cassette,  n.f.    A  box  or  trunk.   See  caissette. 

cassine,  Ind.,  n.f.    The  black  drink. 

A  drink  made  by  boiling  the  leaves  of  the  ilex  cassine  (the 
yaupon  tree)  in  water  (Hodge,  Handbook,  I,  150).  One  of 
the  best  descriptions  of  the  drink  and  the  ceremony  of  drink- 
ing is  that  of  Bossu:  "All  the  Allibamons  drink  the  Cassine; 
this  is  the  leaf  of  a  little  tree,  which  is  very  shady;  the  leaf 
is  about  the  size  of  a  farthing,  but  dentated  on  its  margins. 
They  toast  the  leaves  as  we  do  coffee,  and  drink  the  infusion 
of  them  with  great  ceremony.  When  this  diuretic  potion  is 
prepared,  the  young  people  go  to  present  it  in  calebashes 
formed  into  cups,  to  the  chiefs  and  warriors,  according  to 
their  rank  and  degree.  The  same  order  is  observed  when  they 
present  the  Calumet  to  smoke  out  of:  whilst  you  drink  they 
howl  as  loud  as  they  can,  and  diminish  the  sound  gradually; 
when  you  have  ceased  drinking,  they  take  their  breath,  and 
when  you  drink  again,  they  set  up  their  howls  again.  These 
sorts  of  orgies  sometimes  last  from  six  in  the  morning  to  two 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  The  Indians  find  no  inconveniencies 
from  this  potion,  to  which  they  attribute  many  virtues,  and 
return  it  without  any  effort"  {Travels,  249-250). 

After  Tixier  had  opened  a  Choctaw  grave  in  Louisiana  in 
order  to  examine  the  state  of  the  bones,  Pierre  Sauve  said 
to  him:  "On  their  return  they  will  engage  in  their  'medicine' 
to  find  out  what  became  of  the  bones  you  will  take  away,  for 
it  is  impossible  to  conceal  from  them  the  visitation  we  are 
going  to  commit.  They  will  guess  you  were  the  one  who  opened 
their  tombs,  but  it  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the  truth  will 
be  revealed  by  the  juice  of  the  cassine  they  will  drink  or  by 
information  cleverly  gathered"   {Travels,  81). 

See  also  Charlevoix,  Letters,  341-342 ;  Ellicott,  Journal,  286- 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  45 

287.  Tixier's  description  of  coffee  {manka-saheh,  "black  medi- 
cine") among  the  Osage  sounds  as  if  that  drink  might  be  re- 
lated to  cassine;  see  Travels,  135,  161,  201. 

cassinier,  n.m.  Ilex  cassine,  the  yaupon  tree.  Robin  described 
the  tree  {Voyages,  III,  513).   Consult  Read,  84-86. 

catalogne,    n.f.    A   home-made    carpet:    rag   rug,    mat,    etc. 
(Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  139;  Clapin,  71). 

catherinette,  n.f.  The  dwarf  raspberry  (Tache,  Esquisse,  sec. 
edit.,  17). 

caution,  n.f.   A  guarantor;  surety;  bondsman. 

In  a  contract  it  was  expected  that  the  purchaser  or  under- 
taker "sera  donne  Bonne  et  sufisante  caution  domiciliee  en  ce 
poste."  The  following  sample  caution  is  from  an  adjudication 
of  negroes  belonging  to  the  minor  heirs  of  Dr.  Conde,  5  July 
1778:  "Item.  A  Ete  mis  en  vente  le  nomme  Claude  mulatre 
qui  apres  plusiers  Eucheres  a  Ete  adjuge  au  Sr  Caspar  Roubieu 
pour  la  somme  de  onze  Cent  quatre  vingt  une  livres  en  paux 
de  chevreuil  ou  Castor,  lequel  au  meme  instant  a  presente  pour 
caution  la  personne  du  Sr  Louis  dubreuil  Negociant  de  ce  poste 
qui  a  volontairement  accepte  le  present  cautionnement  et  S  est 
oblige  Sous  L  hypoteque  generale  et  speciale  de  tous  ses  biens 
meubles  et  immeubles  presents  et  avenirs  de  payer  la  dite 
somme  au  terme  y  devante  explique  au  deffaud  du  Sr  Roubieu 
y  en  paux  de  Chevreuil"  (Fr.  and  Span.  Arch.  St.  L.,  No. 
2501). 

cayac,  cayak,  n.m.  A  buffalo  bull.  According  to  Tixier  this 
is  "a  Creole  word  for  male  bison"  (T^-avels,  168).  Neither 
Clapin  nor  Dorrance  lists  it.  Read  (141),  in  his  list  of  words 
of  Spanish  derivation,  has  katac  meaning  a  "big,  powerful 
fellow" — he  says  the  word  comes  from  "Standard-French 
game,  the  name  of  the  lignum-vitae  tree  {Guajacum  officinale 
L.  and  Guajacum  sanctum  L.)."  He  adds  that  "Canadian- 
French  has  kaiac  in  the  sense  of  'lignum  vitae',  as  in  the 
phrase  une  toupie  en  katac,  *a  spinning-top  of  lignum-vitae 
wood'."  Tixier's  authority  apparently  was  either  Pierre  Meli- 
court  Papin  or  some  of  the  half-breeds  in  his  employ.  His 
interpretation  is  reinforced  by  a  comment  by  J.  J.  Audubon 
on  the  Upper  Missouri  River,  18  August  1843 :  "  'Kayac'  is 
the  French  Missourian's  name  for  Buffalo  Bluffs"  (Audubon- 


46  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

Cones,  Aitdvbon  and  his  Journals,  II,  154) .  Sir  William  Drum- 
mond  Stewart  noted  that  "Cayack  [is]  a  name  given  to  a  bison 
bull,  by  the  mountain  men"  (Edward  Warren,  364  n.).  Kurz 
wrote  cayak  {Journal,  117). 

cayeux.   See  cajeu. 

cedriere,  n.  f.  A  cedar  grove  or  forest  (Chamberlain,  "Life 
and  Growth  of  Words,"  136). 

cerf,  n.m.  Elk. 

"My  guide  killed  an  Elk  called  Cerf  by  the  Canadians  and 
French  of  Illinois"  (Michaux,  Travels,  72).  "Corne  du  Cerf, 
Elk  Horn  River"  (Bradbury,  Travels,  78).   Cf.  chevreuil. 

cerise  a  grappe,  n.f.  The  choke-cherry  (Maximilian,  Trav- 
els, II,  83-84 ;  Townsend,  Narrative,  249,  268 ;  Abel,  Tabeau's 
Narrative,  93). 

cerise  a  sable,  n.f.  The  dwarf  cherry  (Tache,  Esquisse,  sec. 
edit,  16). 

ceme,  n.m.  In  Americanese,  the  surround.  From  Standard 
French  cemer,  to  encircle.  Tixier  explained  the  word  as 
"chasse  du  bison,"  but  the  term  described  a  manner  rather 
than  a  subject  of  hunting.  Tixier's  remarks  about  deerhunt- 
ing  (Travels,  169)  fill  the  demands  of  ceme;  his  buffalo  hunt 
(ibid.,  189  ff.)  was  certainly  not  conducted  as  a  ceme.  The 
best  description  of  this  manner  of  hunting  is  Tabeau's;  see 
his  Narrative,  245-248,  and  Dr.  Abel's  editorial  comment 
(ibid.,  116,  257). 

chaland,  n.m.  A  small,  flat-bottomed  boat  made  of  planks 
(Read,  135). 

Tixier  defined  chalands  as  "bateaux  plats  (flat-bottom 
boats)"  (Travels,  54,  n.  27).  Robin  interpreted  the  word 
similarly:  "les  autres  [bateaux]  sont  massivement  de  larges 
carres  longs,  comme  ceux  appeles  chalans"  (Voyages,  II,  208). 

chaloupe,  n.f.  A  sailing  vessel  used  in  coast  transport  and  on 
the  lower  Mississippi  River  (Surrey,  Commerce  of  Louisiana, 
61-62). 

champ,  le  grand  champ,  n.m.  The  common-field.  Also  known 
as  the  grand  carre  or  quarre. 

In  addition  to  a  house  lot  the  inhabitant  of  a  village  was 
granted  one  or  more  lots  in  the  common-fields,  that  portion 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  47 

of  the  nearb}"  lands  set  apart  for  cultivation.  Such  lots  (gen- 
erally one  arpent  front  by  forty  deep)  were  granted  in  strips 
after  the  manner  of  land  distribution  in  medieval  Europe  and 
became  the  private  possession  of  the  individual  holder.  The 
common-field  was  separated  from  the  commons  by  a  fence  of 
which  each  person  was  required  to  maintain  the  section  that 
crossed  his  land.  Consult  Houck,  History  of  Missouri,  II,  24- 
25,  233  (Houck  pointed  out  that  in  1907  the  "big  field"  of 
Sainte  Genevieve  was  still  cultivated  in  this  manner)  ;  Amer- 
ican State  Papers,  II,  182-185,  194.  For  an  account  of  the 
common-field  at  Sainte  Genevieve  see  Brackenridge,  Vieivs  of 
Louisiana,  227-228.  For  the  care  of  such  fences  at  Saint  Louis 
(1782)  and  at  Sainte  Genevieve  see  Billon,  AiiTials  [1764- 
1804] ,  216-220  and  Dorrance,  23-24.    Cf .  pare,  py-airie. 

chantier,  n.m.  A  boatyard;  a  woodyard;  a  lumber  camp;  a 
house  or  hut. 

Every  important  trading  post  in  the  nineteenth  century  had 
its  own  navy  yard,  Chittenden  declared  (La  Barge,  I,  96). 
Woodyards,  for  supplying  fuel,  were  scattered  along  every 
river  frequented  by  steamboats.  Clapin  (75),  however,  cited 
a  different  use  for  chantier  in  the  north  woods:  "Etablisse- 
ment  regulierement  organise  dans  les  forets,  en  hiver,  pour  la 
coupe  des  bois."  Also:  "Morgan  has  gone  again  to  the 
'Chantier,'  a  place  in  the  forest  up  the  river  where  workmen 
and  laborers  under  his  direction  are  getting  beams  ready  for 
the  palisades"  (Kurz,  Journal,  122). 

The  word  was  also  used  for  house  or  hut  (modern  English : 
shanty).  "Here  we  were  fixed  for  the  winter  in  new  and  com- 
fortable chantiers  with  plenty  of  firewood  and  good  acces- 
sories. .  .  .  We  put  up  the  chantiers,  store,  &c  and  passed  the 
winter"  (John  McDonald,  "Autobiographical  Notes,"  14,  20). 

chantre,  n.m.  A  lay  singer  in  the  church.  In  the  absence  of 
the  priest  the  chantre  baptized  and  officiated  at  burials.  See 
Houck,  Spanish  Regime,  I,  117. 

Cha-oua-non,  Ind.,  n.  and  adj.  Shawnee. 

charbon.  See  danse  du  cJiarbon. 

charbonniere,  n.f.   A  coal-hill. 

"The  charboniere  is  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mississippi. 
This  name  was  given  to  it  by  the  boatmen  and  the  earliest 


48  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

settlers,  on  account  of  several  narrow  beds  of  coal,  which 
appear  a  few  feet  from  the  water's  edge,  at  the  base  of  a  high 
cliff  of  soft  sandstone"  (E.  James,  Long's  Expedition,  I,  125- 
126).  See  also  Charlevoix,  Letters,  281;  Bradbury,  Travels, 
194. 
charivari,*  n.m.  A  raucous  serenade  in  celebration  of  a  wed- 
ding; particularlj^  a  kind  of  hazing  for  a  person  marrying  a 
second  time.  The  cacophony  did  not  cease  until  the  groom 
invited  the  serenaders  into  the  house  for  refreshments  or  gave 
them  money  to  drink  elsewhere. 

J.  Long  amused  himself  in  this  manner:  "Presuming  on 
my  appearing  exactly  like  a  savage,  I  occasionally  went  down 
in  a  canoe  to  Montreal,  and  frequently  passed  the  posts  as 
an  Indian.  Sometimes  I  would  distinguish  myself  at  a  chari- 
vari; which  is  a  custom  that  prevails  in  different  parts  of 
Canada,  of  assembling  with  old  pots,  kettles,  &c.  and  beating 
them  at  the  doors  of  new  married  people ;  but  generally,  either 
when  the  man  is  older  than  the  woman,  or  the  parties  have 
been  twice  married :  in  these  cases  they  beat  a  charivari  halloo- 
ing out  very  vociferously,  until  the  man  is  obliged  to  obtain 
their  silence  by  pecuniary  contribution,  or  submit  to  be  abused 
in  the  vilest  language"  {Voyages  and  Travels,  71).  See  also 
Flint  (who  spelled  the  word  cherrivaree) ,  Geography  and 
History  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  I,  471 ;  John  Darby,  Per- 
sonal Recollections,  147-148.  Dorrance  (66)  says  the  form  in 
use  among  Missouri  French  today  is  cJutrigari.  Shivaree  is 
the  Americanized  form. 

charme,  n.m.   The  name  used  by  the  French  of  Upper  Louisi- 
ana for  the  American  hornbeam  (Michaux,  Sylva,  III,  17). 

charrette,  n.f.    A  cart.   Sometimes  used  to  designate  a  small 
carriage  or  one-seated  buggy. 

According  to  Billon  the  charrette  was  "constructed  of  two 
pieces  of  scantling  some  ten  or  twelve  feet  long  framed  to- 
gether by  two  or  more  cross  pieces,  upon  one  end  of  which 
the  body,  of  wicker-work,  was  placed,  and  the  front  ends 
rounded  to  serve  as  shafts,  and  the  whole  set  on  the  axletree 
of  the  wheels"  {Annals  of  St.  Louis  [1764-1804],  85).  Char- 
rette a  hie,  wheat-cart.  Charrette  a  hois,  wood-cart.  See  also 
Dorrance,  21-22. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  49 

chat,  chat  sauvage,  n.m.   The  raccoon. 

"Le  chat  sauvage  (en  anglais  rackoon)"  (Cortambert,  Voy- 
age, 36) .  Although  the  raccoon  officially  was  the  chat  sauvage, 
in  common  practice  the  fur  trade  used  chat  alone.  Cf.  pichon, 
tig  re.  Louisiana  French  today  has  chaoui  (Read,  87-88)  ; 
Cable  spelled  it  chat-oue   {Bonaventure,  75). 

chat-tigre,  n.m.  Louisiana  French  for  cougar  (Read,  101). 
See  tigre. 

chaudiere  (1),  n.f.  Rapids  that  bubble  and  boil  as  water  does 
in  a  kettle  (Clapin,  78). 

chaudiere  (2),  n.f.  A  meal  or  dinner.  Faire  cJmudiere,  faire 
la  chaudiere:  "to  prepare  a  meal"  (Poisson,  Jesuit  Relations 
and  Allied  Documents,  LXVII,  286,  294) .  See  chaudiere  haute. 

chaudiere  de  guerre,  n.f.  The  war  kettle.  According  to  Tixier 
the  chaudiere  de  guerre  was  filled  with  a  mixture  of  pulver- 
ized charcoal  and  fat;  as  soon  as  a  warrior  was  accepted  for 
an  expedition  he  painted  himself  black  from  head  to  foot  with 
this  mixture  (Travels,  211  ff.).  See  danse  du  charhon.  See 
Fletcher  and  La  Flesche,  Oviaha  Trihe,  405  ff. 

chaudiere  de  medecine,  n.f.  The  medicine  pot;  that  is,  the 
content  rather  than  the  container,  a  ceremonial  dish.  Accord- 
ing to  Tixier  among  the  Osage  "there  is  only  one  meal  which 
is  a  formal  pledge  to  follow  the  partisans :  the  last  one  eaten 
at  the  lodge  is  the  'medicine  pot'.  They  give  this  name  to  a 
dish  of  beans  boiled  in  water"  {Travels,  217).  See  medecin, 
medecine,  natte  de  guerre. 

chaudiere  haute,  n.f.    Meal,  dinner. 

"Nous  cabanames  sur  la  premiere  batture  pour  faire  secher 
nos  hardes  et  pour  faire  chaudiere  haute.  Ces  repas  que  I'on 
fait  apres  une  bonne  chasse,  sont  tout-a-fait  a  la  sauvage; 
rien  n'est  plus  plaissant"  (Poisson  [Arkansas,  1727],  Jesuit 
Relations  and  Allied  Documents,  LXVII,  314).  See  chaudiere 
(2). 

chaudron,  n.m.  A  large  kettle,  boiler,  caldron.  Dorrance  (67) 
says  that  today  among  Missouri  Creoles  this  is  a  tin  bucket 
for  water  or  milk. 

chef -lieu,  n.m.  Seat  of  government  for  a  district.  Fort  Chartres 
was  the  chef-lieu  for  the  Illinois  Country  until  vacated  by  St. 


50  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

Ange  in  1765 ;  Saint  Louis  was  the  chef -lieu  for  the  Western 
Illinois  (Upper  Louisiana)  from  the  arrival  of  St.  Ange  until 
the  transfer  to  the  United  States.  Although  the  most  im- 
portant fort  of  the  district  was  located  at  the  chef-lieu,  the 
term  is  civil  rather  than  military  in  its  significance. 

chemin  croche,  n.m.  An  Osage  sign  to  announce  the  presence 
of  many  buffalo. 

Tixier  declared  that,  when  the  scouts,  sent  out  from  the 
hunting  party  to  search  for  buffalo,  wished  to  announce  the 
discovery  of  many  buffalo,  "ils  firent  le  chemin  croche" ;  that 
is,  instead  of  returning  to  the  camp  in  a  straight  line,  they 
ran  back  in  zigzags  {Voyage,  189). 

cheminee  d'ecrevisse,  n.f.  The  little  tower  or  cylinder  built 
up  by  the  crawfish  at  the  mouth  of  its  burrow  (Le  Page  du 
Pratz,  Histoire,  II,  157;  Tixier,  Travels,  52). 

chenall.   Variant  spelling  of  c/ieiiai  {Q-V.). 

chenal,  n.m.   A  channel. 

"Chenal  est  un  chemin  que  les  eaux  se  font  elles-memes,  a 
la  difference  de  Canal,  qui  est  un  ecoulement  ou  passage  des 
eaux  fait  par  mains  d'hommes"  (Le  Page  du  Pratz,  Histoire, 
I,  152).  Chenal  ecarte:  a  narrow  channel.  Seldom  used  for 
the  main  channel  of  the  river.  See  Ditchy,  74 ;  Ramsay,  Intro- 
duction to  a  Survey  of  Missouri  Place-Names,  32-35.  Some- 
times spelled  chenail. 

chene  a  gros  gland,  n.m.  The  bur  oak  or  overcup  white  oak 
was  so  named  by  the  Illinois  French  (Michaux,  Sylva,  I,  17). 

chene  a  lattes,  n.m.  The  lath  or  shingle  oak;  known  among 
Americans  as  the  jack  oak,  blackjack  oak,  or  laurel  oak 
(Michaux,  Journal,  124;  Michaux,  Sylva,  I,  35;  Bailey,  Hortiis, 
514). 

chene  frise,  n.m.    The  overcup  white  oak. 

"Quercus  cerroides  (by  the  French  [called]  chene  frise  and 

by  the  Americans  overcup  White  Oak)"   (Michaux,  Travels, 

73). 
chene  vert,  n.m.   The  live  oak. 
cheniere,  n.f.    An  oak  forest.    In  Louisiana,  a  live  oak  forest, 

according  to  Read,  25. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  51 

chessaquoy.   See  chichakois. 

chevelure,  n.f.   A  scalp.   See  danse  du  chevelure. 

chevrette,  n.f.    Shrimp. 

"Sorte  de  diminutifs  d'Ecrevisses"  (Le  Page  du  Pratz,  His- 
toire,  II,  157-158).   See  Read,  26. 

chevreuil,  n.m.  The  dwarf  deer. 

"Le  daim,  que  les  Frangais  de  ce  pays  appellent  chevreuil" 
(Cortambert,  Voyage,  36).  ".  .  .  the  dwarf  Deer  of  the  United 
States  of  which  there  is  an  abundance  also  in  the  Illinois  Coun- 
try and  which  the  French  of  these  countries  call  Chevreuil" 
(Michaux,  Travels,  72).  See  Audubon  and  Baclinian,  Quad- 
rupeds, II,  79-80.   See  also  cerf. 

chichakois,  Ind.,  n.m.  A  rattle  used  for  ceremonial  music. 
Also  spelled  chessaqiiois,  chichicois,  chichikois,  chichicoya, 
cicikoics,  schischikue,  sysyquoy. 

Perrin  du  Lac,  describing  a  seedtime  festival  among  the 
Arikara,  wrote  of  the  "Petites  calebasses  ou  citrouilles,  dans 
lesquelles  ils  introduisent  des  cailloux;  ces  instruments  leur 
servent  a  marquer  la  le  mesure  .  .  .  au  bruit  des  chichakois 
[les  vieillards]  chantent  tout  le  jour  pour  obtenir  du  grand 
Esprit  une  abondante  recolte"  (Voyage,  271) .  Clapin  (80-81) 
spells  this  word  chichikois:  "le  vrai  mot  sauvage  de  cet  instru- 
ment etrange  est  chichigoiMue,  de  chichigoue  signifiant  ser- 
pent a  sonnettes,  sans  doute  par  analogie  avec  le  bruit  de 
gi'elots  de  la  queue  de  ce  reptile."  See  Le  Page  du  Pratz, 
Histoire,  I,  108,  n.  (chichicois)  ;  Pease  and  Werner,  French 
Foundations  ("De  Cannes  Memoir"),  364,  366,  370,  390; 
Beltrami,  Pilgrimage,  II,  241;  Hodge,  Handbook,  I,  958-961; 
II,  355-356;  J.  Long,  Voyages  and  Travels,  85;  Maximilian, 
Travels,  II,  120;  Wisconsin  Historical  Collections,  XVI,  367. 

chicot  (1),  n.m.   A  sawyer,  snag,  stump. 

"The  Sawyers,  called  by  the  Canadians  Chicots"  (Collot, 
Journey,  II,  137).  "The  submerged  trunks  of  trees,  called 
snags  or  sawyers,  as  they  are  either  stationary  or  moveable 
with  the  action  of  the  current;  by  the  French  they  are  called 
chicos"  (Nuttall,  Travels,  6?,) .  Dorrance  (68)  lists  a  Missouri 
French  verb,  chicoter,  "to  whittle,"  which  seems  related  to 
chacoter  (Saintonge)  :  "tourmenter  un  morceau  de  bois  avec 


52  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

son  couteau"  (Clapin,  81).  Chicoter  (v.  tr.)  Clapin  defines  as 
"to  provoke,"  "to  irritate,"  "to  egg  on"   ("agacer  quelqu'un 
d'une  faqon  deplaisante"). 
chicot  (2),  n.m.   The  Kentucky  coffee-tree. 

".  .  .  the  guilandina  dioica  of  Linn.,  Marshall,  &c.  but  re- 
ferred by  Michaux  to  the  new  genus  gymnocladus,  of  which  it 
is  the  only  well  ascertained  species.  It  is  common  throughout 
the  western  states,  and  territories,  and  in  Canada,  where  it 
is  called  by  the  French  Chicot,  or  stump  tree,  from  the  naked- 
ness of  its  appearance  in  winter.  In  the  English  gardens, 
where  it  has  been  cultivated  many  years  under  the  name  of 
hardy  bonduc,  it  has  attained  considerable  magnitude,  but  has 
not  hitherto  been  known  to  produce  flowers"  (E.  James,  Long's 
Expedition,  I,  213,  n.  161).  See  also  Michaux,  Sylva,  I,  122. 
Bailey  (Hortus,  164)  gives  the  botanical  name  as  gymnocladus 
dioica.  See  (gros)  fevier. 

chien.   See  petit  chien. 

chien  de  prairie,  n.m.  The  kit  fox  (Tache,  Esquisse,  sec.  edit., 
119). 

chopine,  n.f.  A  liquid  measure  equal  to  one-half  pinte  (q.v.) 
or  nearly  equal  to  the  English  pint  (.12302  gallon)  (Alex- 
ander, Dictionary  of  Weights  and  Measures,  21). 

chou  gras,  n.m.  The  pokeweed  or  pokeberry  (Robin,  Voyages, 
III,  369;  Read,  27). 

chute,  n.f.  A  waterfall.  In  the  plural,  rapids.  Americanized 
into  "shoot."    Cf.  chaudiere,  sault. 

cicikoics.   See  chichakois. 

cipre,  n.m.  Cypress  (Le  Page  du  Pratz,  Histoire,  II,  30-34). 
More  commonly  spelled  cypre  (q.v.). 

cirier  (1),  n.m.    The  wax  tree. 

"In  this  vicinity  [New  Orleans],  and  still  more  towards 
Mobile,  grow  in  abundance  the  trees  called  Vax-trees' 
[^driers'],  because  means  have  been  found  to  extract  from  their 
seeds  a  wax,  which,  if  properly  prepared,  would  be  almost 
equal  to  French  wax"  (Vivier  [1750],  Jesuit  Relations  and 
Allied  Documents,  LXIX,  212-213).  See  also  Charlevoix,  Let- 
ters, 342 ;  Le  Page  du  Pratz,  Histoire,  II,  36-40 ;  III,  368-369 ; 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  53 

Bossu,  Nouveaux   Voyages  aux  Indes  Occidentales,  II,   120- 
121 ;  Robin,  Voijages,  III,  522 ;  Nuttall,  Sylva,  I,  43. 

cirier  (2),  n.m.   The  cedar  waxwing. 

"This  bird's  inner  primaries,  and  sometimes  its  tail  feathers, 
are  tipped  with  horny  red  bits  that  look  like  drops  of  sealing 
wax.  Hence  the  name  cirier,  Svaxmaker'."  Also  known  as 
murier,  because  it  is  fond  of  berries,  and  ortolan  because  of 
supposed  resemblance  to  the  European  bird.  In  Canada,  known 
as  the  recollet,  its  crest  suggesting  the  Franciscan  hood  (Read, 
27). 

citron,  n.m.   The  fruit  of  the  May  apple  (Don^ance,  68). 

citronelle,  n.f.    A  kind  of  horsemint  (Robin,  Voyages,  III,  387; 

Bailey,  Hortus,  400).   See  herhe  a  houton. 
cllsse,  n.f.   In  the  bark  canoe  the  clisse  was  the  "strip  between 

the  varangues  [q.v.']  and  the  bark"   (Chamberlain,  "Life  and 

Growth  of  Words,"  139). 
cloche,  n.f.    The  large  bell  used  to  call  farm-hands  to  meals. 
".  .  .  que  la  Cloche  etant  atachee  sur  des  Poteau  plante  en 

terre  et  couverte  avec  des  planches  .  .  ."   (Alvord,  Cahokia 

Records,  390) . 

cloture  de  perches,  n.f.   A  rail  fence.   See  barriere. 

cochon  de  bois,  n.m.  According  to  Flint  this  was  one  Louisiana 
name  for  the  opossum  (Geography  and  History  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  I,  101-102).   See  rat  de  bois. 

cocodri,  cocodrie,  cocodril,  cocodrile,  n.m.  Crocodile.  See 
cawmn. 

cocombe,  n.m.  Cucumber. 

college,  n.m.  The  equivalent  of  the  secondary  school,  similar 
to  English  usage,  as  in  "Eton  College."  Not  to  be  rendered 
"college"  in  the  American  sense. 

college  des  Jesuites,  n.m.  A  college  only  in  the  sense  used  in 
the  organization  of  the  English  university,  i.  e.,  a  living  ar- 
rangement for  those  studying  together.  The  Jesuit  College  at 
Kaskaskia  in  the  eighteenth  century  was  not  a  school  for  the 
higher  education  of  the  young  in  the  Illinois  Country  but  the 
seat  of  the  Jesuit  organization  there. 


54  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

commandeur,  n.m.  An  overseer;  a  gang  boss  or  foreman. 

"Les  negres  doivent  .  .  .  se  rendre  au  champ.  ...  lis  sont 
conduits  ou  par  un  commandeur  negre,  ou  par  un  econome 
blanc  .  .  ."  (Robin,  Voyages,  III,  173).  "On  remarque  que  les 
negres  qui  n'ont  jamais  ete  punis  evitent  les  chatimens  par 
une  bonne  conduite;  ils  se  font  meme  une  gloire  de  n'avoir 
point  ete  fouettes ;  mais  aussitot  que  le  comr)iandeur ,  qui 
execute  les  sentences  du  maitre  ou  de  I'econome,  les  a  f  rappes 
une  fois,  tout  est  change  .  .  ."  (Tixier,  Voyage,  31). 

commis,  n.m.  A  clerk.  In  the  fur  trade  the  clerk,  though  an 
employee,  differed  from  the  engage  in  that  he  was  a  prospec- 
tive hoiirgeois  (q.v.). 

communaute,  n.f.  Community  of  property  between  husband 
and  wife,  the  terms  of  which  were  generally  established  in  the 
marriage  contract.  Specific  amounts  of  money  or  its  value  in 
goods  were  contributed  by  each  party  in  the  contract;  on  the 
death  of  husband  or  wife  the  remaining  partner  was  entitled 
to  one-half  of  the  joint  estate,  the  other  half  being  divided 
equally  among  the  children.  The  survivor,  however,  if  it  was 
to  his  financial  advantage,  might  renounce  the  community  and 
withdraw  from  the  estate  his  original  contribution.  The  com- 
munity might  also  be  renounced  during  the  lifetime  of  both 
parties.  During  its  existence  the  cotninunaute  operated  as  a 
partnership  in  which  each  had  equal  interest.  Consult  Viollet, 
Histoire  du  Droit  Civil  Francais,  771-794 ;  Coiitumes  de  Paris, 
I,  383-430. 

commune;  (terre)  en  commun,  n.f.  Commons.  The  area  of 
land  set  apart  and  used  in  common  by  all  inhabitants  of  the 
village  for  the  gathering  of  firewood  and  the  pasturage  of 
animals.  Not  to  be  confused  with  common-fields,  which  were 
areas  designated  for  cultivation.  The  term  commune,  how- 
ever, was  not  in  general  use ;  at  Saint  Louis,  for  example,  the 
expression  sur  la  prairie  or  la  gy^ande  prairie  signified  "on  the 
commons"  or  "the  commons."  Generally  the  fields  under  cul- 
tivation were  protected  by  a  common  fence ;  the  pasture  lands 
were  open.  Concerning  the  commons  at  Saint  Louis  consult 
Houck,  History  of  Missouri,  II,  25.  See  also  American  State 
Papers,  Public  Lands,  II,  182-183,  194,  254,  671-672.  See 
champ,  grand  carre,  pare,  prairie. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  55 

concession,  n.f.  In  the  South,  a  large  grant  generally  made  to 
persons  of  wealth  and  rank  in  contrast  to  the  small  grants 
made  to  habitants.  In  Upper  Louisiana,  however,  the  term 
was  used  to  describe  any  grant  of  land  from  the  Spanish 
government,  irrespective  of  persons  or  quantity  of  land. 

"A  certain  tract  of  land  granted  by  the  Company  of  the 
Indies  to  a  private  individual,  or  to  several  persons  who  have 
together  formed  a  partnership,  for  the  purpose  of  clearing 
that  land  and  making  it  valuable,  is  called  a  'concession'.  These 
are  what  were  called,  when  the  Mississippi  was  in  greatest 
vogue,  the  'Counties'  and  'Marquisates'  of  the  Mississippi;  the 
concessionaries  are,  therefore,  the  gentlemen  of  this  country. 
The  greatest  part  of  them  were  not  people  who  would  leave 
France ;  but  they  equipped  vessels  and  filled  them  with  super- 
intendents, stewards,  storekeepers,  clerks,  and  workmen  of 
various  trades,  with  provisions  and  all  kinds  of  goods.  .  .  ." 
(Poisson  [1727],  Jesuit  Relations  and  Allied  Documents, 
LXVII,  281-283) .  See  also  Burns,  "The  Spanish  Land  Laws  of 
Louisiana,"  and  "Spanish  and  French  Ordinances  Affecting 
Land  Titles." 

conge,  n.m.   A  license  to  trade  in  the  Indian  country. 

Congo  (1),  Afr.,  n.m.  The  Creole  and  Acadian  name  for  the 
water  or  cotton-mouth  moccasin  (Read,  121-122).  See  also 
Tixier,  Travels,  78-79;  Berquin-Duvallon,  Vue  de  la  Colonic, 
105.   Cf.  bdtard  (1). 

Congo  (2),  Afr.,  n.m.  The  French  dialect  spoken  by  the 
negroes  of  Louisiana.  Also  known  as  gombo  (q.v.)  or  negre 
(q.v.).  Consult  Tinker,  "Gombo:  the  Creole  Dialect  of  Louisi- 
ana." 

conquet,  n.m..  Property  acquired  during  the  existence  of  com- 
munaute  (q.v.)  between  husband  and  wife  other  than  that  by 
direct  inheritance  (Viollet,  Histoire  du  Droit  Civil  Franqais, 
772).  Cf.  acquit,  prop^^e. 

consideres,  n.m.  pi.  The  principal  men,  below  the  great  chiefs, 
of  an  Indian  tribe. 

"Terme  usite  dans  le  pays  et  le  seul  qui  puisse  rendre  le  mot 
employe  par  les  Sauvages  pour  designer  des  hommes  qui,  sans 
avoir  un  pouvoir  reel,  en  ont  cependant  un  d'opinion"  (Perrin 
du  Lac,  Voyages,  201,  n.). 


56  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

contrat  de  mariage,  n.m.  Marriage  contract.  Under  French 
and  Spanish  civil  law  in  the  eighteenth  century,  marriage  was 
a  civil  institution  which  was  to  be  ratified  by  a  religious  cere- 
mony. The  contract,  drawn  up  by  a  notary  and  signed  be- 
fore witnesses,  could  be  followed  immediately  by  the  con- 
summation devoutly  to  be  wished  if  there  were  no  priest  in 
the  neighborhood  to  perform  the  religious  ceremony.  In  the 
Illinois  Country  man  and  wife  frequently  lived  together  in  a 
legal  and  respectable  state  and  sometimes  had  two  or  three 
children  before  they  were  "churched."  The  terms  of  the  com- 
munaute  (q.v.),  the  amounts  contributed,  the  relationship  of 
witnesses,  and  other  pertinent  matters  were  all  part  of  the 
contract.  See  Houck,  Spanish  Regime  in  Missouri,  I,  119. 
More  than  one  hundred  such  contracts  may  be  found  in  the 
French  and  Spanish  Archives  of  Saint  Louis.  Consult  also: 
Dart,  "Marriage  Contracts  of  French  Colonial  Louisiana" ; 
Cruzat,  "Marriage  Contract  of  d'Iberville" ;  Porteous,  "Mar- 
riage Contracts  of  the  Spanish  Period  in  Louisiana." 

copal,  copalm,  n.m.   The  liquidambar  or  sweet  gum  tree. 

"The  Copal  is  another  tree,  from  which  issues  a  gum  that 
diffuses  an  odor  as  agreeable  as  that  of  incense"  (Marest 
[Kaskaskia,  1712],  Jesuit  Relations  and  Allied  Documents, 
LXVI,  227).  "Liquidambar  stryaciflus  [called]  by  the  French 
of  Louisiana  Copalm.  ...  A  Frenchman  who  traded  among 
the  Cheroquis  Savages  cured  himself  of  the  Itch  by  drinking 
for  ten  days  a  decoction  of  Chips  of  that  tree  which  he  called 
Copalm  and  which  is  the  true  Liquidambar"  (Michaux,  Ti^av- 
els,  11).  See  Le  Page  du  Pratz,  Histoire,  II,  27-29;  Michaux, 
Sylva,  II,  30 ;  Read,  139-140. 

corail,  n.m.  A  corral,  yard,  or  enclosure  (Read,  140;  Ditchy, 
80).  Fortier  spelled  the  word  corrail  (Louisiana  Studies); 
Robin,  corraille  (Voyages,  III,  28).   Cf.  jmrc. 

corbeau,  n.m.  The  crow — an  ornament  worn  by  Indians  during 
the  war  dance. 

"The  corbeau  is  an  ornament  made  with  the  feathers  of  the 
crow;  it  is  tied  to  an  embroidered  sash  on  the  back  of  the 
wearer.  The  head  and  tail  of  the  animal  are  the  two  ends  of 
a  waving  mass  of  black  feathers,  attached  to  a  cushion  from 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  57 

which  project  four  curved  branches  provided  with  porcupine 
quills  and  ending  in  a  cluster  of  little  bells.  The  side  of  the 
cushion  which  touches  the  body  of  the  dancer  is  convex,  so 
that  when  he  jerks  the  branches  violently,  the  feathers  wave 
and  the  bells  tinkle.  The  brave  who  has  killed  and  scalped  a 
man  in  the  midst  of  his  companions  is  the  only  one  entitled 
to  wear  the  crow  during  war  dances.  This  ornament  is  care- 
fully kept  in  a  case  of  hardened  bison  skin ;  it  is  never  worn 
on  expeditions"  (Tixier,  Travels,  213).  See  also  E.  James, 
Long's  Expedition,  I,  235,  and  Fletcher  and  La  Flesche,  Oinaha 
Tribe,  279,  282,  441  ff. 

cordeau,  n.m.  A  towing-line  (Bradbury,  Travels,  122).  The 
term  in  more  common  use  was  cordelle.  The  cordeau  or  cor- 
delle  came  into  use  for  river  traffic  about  1750  (Surrey,  Com- 
merce of  Louisiana,  73).  For  a  description  of  cordelling  see 
Chittenden,  La  Barge,  I,  104-106. 

cordelle.   See  cordeau. 

cornier,  n.m.  The  Canadian  mountain  ash;  also  known  as 
masquahina  (Tache,  Esquisse,  sec.  edit.,  17). 

corps  de  boeuf,  n.m.    The  Buffalo  Society  or  Band.    For  an 

account  of  this  and  other  bands  among  the  Mandans  see  Maxi- 
milian, Travels,  II,  291-296.  Consult  also  Dorsey,  Omaha  So- 
ciology, 342-355;  La  Flesche,  Rite  of  Vigil,  205-212.  Tixier 
mentioned  this  society  as  the  corps  de  boeuf s  among  the  Osage 
{Travels,  219). 

corrail,  corraille.   Variant  spellings  of  corail  (q.v.). 

cote  (1),  n.f.  A  hill.  Butte  in  the  north  and  northwest,  cote 
in  the  central  part  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  were  terms  for 
a  clearly  defined  hill  in  contrast  to  ridge  (coteau,  q.v.)  or 
river  bluff  {ecore,  q.v.).    Cf.  ynamelle,  teton. 

cote  (2),  n.f.  A  bank  (of  a  river)  ;  a  coast.  Cote  des  Alle- 
mands:  the  German  Coast;  i.  e.,  in  Louisiana  that  part  of  the 
bank  of  the  Mississippi  on  which  Law's  German  colonists  were 
settled.  In  the  Illinois  Country  a  la  cote  d'Espagne  was  the 
Spanish  (west)  side  of  the  Mississippi. 

coteau,  n.m.   A  ridge,  height  of  land,  divide. 


58  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

Coteau  des  prairies,  Coteau  du  Missouri.  The  divide  between 
the  Mississippi  and  the  Missouri  drainage  systems. 

"The  basin  of  the  Upper  Mississippi  is  separated,  in  a  great 
part  of  its  extent,  from  that  of  the  Missouri,  by  an  elevated 
plain;  the  appearance  of  which,  seen  from  the  valley  of  the 
St.  Peter's  [the  Minnesota],  or  that  of  the  riviere  Jacques, 
looyyiing  as  it  ivere  a  distant  shore,  has  suggested  for  it  the 
name  of  Coteau  des  Prairies.  Its  more  appropriate  designa- 
tion would  be  that  of  plateau,  which  means  something  more 
than  is  conveyed  to  the  mind  by  the  expression,  a  'plain.  .  .  . 
The  plateau  dividing  the  waters  that  empty  into  the  Tchan- 
sansan  (riviere  Jacques)  from  those  that  flow  into  the  Mis- 
souri. ...  is  known  as  the  'Coteau  des  Prairies  du  Missouri', 
or,  more  shortly,  'Coteau  du  Missouri'  "  (Nicollet,  Report,  9, 
35-36).  Cf.  butte,  cote  (1),  ecore,  mamelle. 

coter,  V.  intr.  To  coast;  to  skirt  a  wood  on  the  prairie  (Fortier, 
Louisiana  Studies,  185).   Cf.  nxiviguer  au  large. 

Cote  sans  Dessein.  The  name  of  this  French  settlement  in 
Missouri  has  occasionally  caused  trouble.  It  was,  of  course, 
not  a  "hill  without  shape"  but  one  "without  purpose" — a  hill 
so  located  that  there  seemed  no  reason  for  its  being.  Appar- 
ently the  Missouri  River  once  flowed  on  the  north  side  of  this 
long,  narrow  hill  and  later  cut  a  new  channel  to  the  south  so 
that  this  hill  was  cut  off'  from  the  hills  or  bluffs  that  one  would 
ordinarily  expect  to  find  with  it. 

cotes  brulees,  n.f.  pi.  Burnt  hills,  black  hills.  This  name  was 
commonly  applied  by  Canadian  voyageiirs  to  arid  and  sterile 
hills  in  the  Northwest  that  presented  a  burnt  and  blackened 
appearance;  it  was  not  used  for  an  area  ravaged  by  fire  (see 
hrule) .  Terres  brulees  was  sometimes  used  synonymously  with 
cotes  brulees. 

cotonnier,  n.m.   Sycamore. 

"Platcmus  occidentalis,  by  the  Americans  [called]  Sycamore 
and  by  the  Illinois  French  cotonnier"  (Michaux,  Travels,  11). 
See  also  Le  Page  du  Pratz,  Histoire,  II,  40.  Not  the  cotton- 
wood:  see  liard.   Sometimes  called  bois  bouton  (q.v.). 

coucou,  n.m.  The  yellow-billed  cuckoo,  more  commonly  known 
as  the  rain  crow  or  cowbird  (Audubon,  Ornithological  Biog- 
raphy, I,  19;  Pvead,  30). 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  59 

coulee,  n.f .   A  gully  or  ravine. 

"We  passed  numerous  transverse  valleys  coming  into  the 
Mississippi  at  right  angles,  about  1200  yards  wide,  all  of  them 
presenting  mural  escarpment  like  those  on  the  banks  of  the 
Mississippi.  The  Canadians  call  these  transverse  valleys 
'coulees'  .  .  ."  (Featherstonhaugh,  Canoe  Voyage  up  the  Min- 
nay  Sotor,  I,  220).  See  also  Keating,  Long's  Expedition,  I, 
362 ;  Murray,  Travels  in  North  America,  II,  134 ;  Clapin,  95 ; 
Read,  165-166.   See  haissiere. 

coup,  n.m.    A  blow  or  stroke.   Faire  coup:  to  kill  or  strike  an 
enemy;  to  steal  horses. 

"The  capture  of  a  prisoner  confers  the  highest  honour  on 
the  captor.  Striking  an  enemy,  whilst  active,  appears  to  be 
the  second  in  rank,  of  their  great  martial  achievements.  Strik- 
ing his  dead,  or  disabled  body  on  the  battle  field,  confers  the 
third  honour.  Capturing  a  horse  may  be  regarded  as  the 
fourth;  presenting  a  horse  to  any  person,  the  fifth,  and  the 
shooting,  or  otherwise  killing  of  an  enemy,  by  a  missile,  is 
the  sixth  in  point  of  rank  of  military  deeds,  in  the  estimation 
of  the  Omawhaws.  The  taking  of  a  scalp  is  merely  an  evi- 
dence of  what  has  been  done,  and,  of  itself,  seems  to  confer 
no  honour"  (E.  James,  Long's  Expedition,  II,  82).  See  also 
Tixier,  Travels,  217,  228,  238;  Fletcher  and  La  Flesche,  Omalia 
Tribe,  437-439;  Hodge,  Handbook,  1,  354.  See  f rapper  au 
poteau.  L'amiee  du  coup  in  the  history  of  Saint  Louis  was 
"the  year  of  the  attack"  (1780). 

coupe,  n.f.    A  cut-off. 

"Passed  la  coupe  a  VOisselle.  This  name  originated,  in  the 
circumstance  of  a  trader  having  made  a  narrow  escape,  being 
in  the  river  at  the  very  moment  that  this  cut-off  was  forming. 
It  had  been  a  bend  of  fifteen  miles  round,  and  perhaps  not 
more  than  a  few  hundred  yards  across ;  the  gorge,  which  was 
suddenly  cut  through  by  the  river,  became  the  main  channel. 
This  was  effected  in  a  few  hours.  ...  At  ten  passed  a  similar 
cut-off  called  l<i  coupe  a  Jacque"  (Brackenridge  [1811],  Jour- 
nal, 80-81). 

coupon,  n.m.    A  piece.     E.  g.,  coupon  d'indienne:  a  piece  of 
calico. 


60  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

coureur  de  derouine,  n.m.  A  "travelling  salesman"  in  the  In- 
dian trade.    See  derouine. 

coureur  des  bois,  n.m.  A  hunter  or  trapper,  living  in  the  woods, 
engaged  in  gathering  furs,  who  came  to  the  settlements  only 
to  sell  fur  and  purchase  supplies.  For  an  elaborate  analysis 
of  this  word  see  Saunders,  "Coureur  de  Bois :  A  Definition." 

cousin,  n.m.  An  expression  of  intimacy  used  for  any  degree 
of  relationship;  not  to  be  relied  upon  as  indicating  cousinship. 

coutume  de  Paris,  n.f.  By  edict  of  Louis  XIV  all  French  colo- 
nies were  placed  under  the  "common  law  of  Paris."  For  local 
affairs  the  coutmne  de  Paris  remained  in  effect  during  Span- 
ish occupancy  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

couverte,  n.f.   Blanket.   Standard  French:  couverture. 

couverture,  n.f.  The  roof  of  a  building,  both  the  framework 
and  the  covering  material ;  also  the  covered  deck  of  a  canoe 
(Clapin,  98).    Cf.  tendelet. 

crachats  de  serpent  a  sonnettes,  n.m.  pi.  "The  tall  grasses 
were  covered  with  a  white  substance  in  which  horse-flies  breed. 
In  Louisiana  this  substance  is  called  crachats  de  serpent  a 
sonnettes,  it  is  believed  that  these  reptiles  leave  their  slime 
on  the  grass"  (Tixier,  Travels,  257  and  n.  26). 

crapaud,  n.m.  Literally,  toad.  Freely  used  as  a  term  of  re- 
proach.   "Qui  est  infame,  canaille"  (Clapin,  99). 

crapaud  volant,  n.m.  The  nighthawk  (Audubon,  Ornithologi- 
cal Biography,  II,  275;  Read,  32). 

Creole,  n.m.  and  f.  A  white  person  born  in  America  of  Euro- 
pean ancestry.  As  a  noun  this  word  is  never  applied  to  a 
mixed  blood.  It  is  used  principally  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 
descendants  of  French  and  Spanish  immigrants  before  1803. 
Many  travelers  could  be  called  to  give  evidence.  Among 
others,  Karl  Postl  wrote  of  "Louisiana  ...  its  white  inhabi- 
tants, the  Creoles"  (The  Americans  as  They  Are,  168,  169). 
Charles  Lyell,  the  English  geologist  (1846),  was  more  specific 
and  emphatic:  "The  word  creole  is  used  in  Louisiana  to  ex- 
press a  native-born  American,  whether  black  or  white,  de- 
scended from  old-world  parents,  for  they  would  not  call  the 
aboriginal  Indians  Creoles.    It  never  means  persons  of  mixed 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  61 

breed;  and  the  French  or  Spanish  Creoles  here  would  shrink 
as  much  as  a  New  Englander,  from  intermarriage  with  one 
tainted,  in  the  slightest  degree  with  African  blood"  (Second 
Visit,  II,  93-94) .  Lyell  is  wrong  in  applying  the  term  to  blacks 
unless  he  has  in  mind  the  adjective  Creole  (q.v.).  Dorrance 
(5)  cites  the  Dictioyinaire  Generale  de  la  Langue  Franqaise  of 
Hatzfeld  and  Darmesteter,  which  lists  the  word  as  derived 
from  criollo  (Span.)  and  accepted  by  the  Academy  in  1762: 
"Individu  de  race  blanche  ne  dans  les  colonies  espagnoles  de 
I'Amerique ;  par  extension,  individu  ne  dans  certaines  colonies 
europeennes  intertropicales."  Littre  (Dictionnaire  de  la 
Langue  Francaise)  defines  Creole  as  a  white  person  born  in 
a  colony. 

Although  generally  applied  to  French  and  Spanish  descen- 
dants in  the  lower  IMississippi  Valley,  it  has  been  used  for 
any  descendants  of  Europeans.  Charlevoix  wrote:  "Mathieu 
Sagean  est  Creole  de  Canada,"  meaning  a  native  of  Canada 
(Margry,  Decoiivertes  et  Etablissements  de  Francais,  VI,  95). 
Lambert  spoke  of  "the  Creoles  of  Canada,  both  French  and 
English,"  and  explained  the  word  Creole  in  a  note :  "By  Creoles, 
I  mean  the  descendants  of  Europeans,  born  in  Canada,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  natives  of  Europe,  who  may  be  settled  there; 
and  not  (as  many  persons  imagine)  the  offspring  of  black  and 
white  people,  who  are  properly  called  'people  of  colour,  or 
nudattoes"  (Travels  in  Canada,  I,  275).  The  term  has  also 
been  applied  to  the  descendants  of  German  settlers  in  Louisi- 
ana: consult  Deiler,  "The  Settlement  of  the  German  Coast  in 
Louisiana  and  the  Creoles  of  German  Descent." 

Usage,  however,  has  limited  the  term  principally  to  the 
descendants  of  French  or  Spanish  settlers  in  the  lower  Mis- 
sissippi or  the  persons  in  the  Saint  Louis  region  who  had  as 
ancestors  Louisiana  French  or  Louisiana  Spanish  rather  than 
Canadian  French  persons.  See  also  frangais,  metis,  middtre, 
quarteron,  zambo. 
Creole,  adj.  As  an  adjective  Creole  means  anything  produced 
by  Creoles,  anything  native  to  the  land  of  the  Creoles.  "Creole" 
vegetables  and  fruits  were  domestic  products.  Robin  spoke  of 
Creole  horses  (Voyages,  III,  35).    The  adjective  was  applied 


62  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

to  blacks,  as  to  other  native  growths:  un  negre  Creole  was  a 
negro  born  in  the  colonies  as  distinct  from  one  born  in  Africa, 
and  in  the  nineteenth  century  it  was  commonly  applied  to  a 
negro  speaking  a  French  dialect  rather  than  an  English.  See 
also  Surrey,  Commerce  of  Louisiana,  272;  Read,  Louisiana 
French,  32;  Littre. 

crete-de-coq,  n.f.  The  coxcomb  or  cockscomb.  According  to 
Baudry  des  Lozieres  {Seconde  Voyage,  II,  39)  this  was 
Rhinantu^  cristagalli  Didynamie  angiospermine  (mesidor)  ; 
Bailey  gives  rattlebox  as  the  popular  name  of  this  flower 
{Hortus,  523).  Bezemer  renders  the  French  name  by  its 
English  equivalent  (Dictionary,  64)  ;  for  cockscomb,  however, 
Bailey  gives  Celosia  argentea  as  the  botanical  name  {Ho7'tu^, 
132,  162). 

crevasse,  n.f.  A  crack  in  a  levee.  (Tixier,  Travels,  69-71; 
Brackenridge,  Views  of  Louisiana,  314  ff . ;  Darby,  Louisiana, 
57,  n.). 

criard,  crieur,  n.m.    A  kind  of  curlew. 

"II  en  est  de  meme  [curlews]  d'une  autre  espece  que  Ton 
appelle  Frayletes,  ou  selons  quelques-uns  Gritadores  ou  crieurs ; 
lis  ressemblent  un  peu  aux  vanneaux  (Aves  frias)  .  .  ."  (Ulloa, 
Memoir es  Philosophiques ,  I,  195). 

croquignole,  croquecignole,  n.f.    Doughnut. 

"Patisserie  du  genre  beigne,  que  Ton  fait  frire  dans  du 
saindoux"  (Clapin,  101).  Primm  said  "croquecignolles  were 
a  kind  of  crull  made  of  wheaten  dough,  sweetened,  rolled  out 
thin,  cut  into  strips,  and  thrown  into  boiling  lard  in  such  man- 
ner, as  that  when  cooked,  they  formed  a  convoluted  mass" 
("New  Year's  Day  in  St.  Louis,"  18).  Cf.  beigne. 

culte,  n.m.  A  creed,  religion,  public  worship,  or  the  church. 
For  the  relation  of  church  and  state  in  colonial  days  see  Houck, 
Spanish  Regime  in  Missouri,  I,  114-120,  121-125. 

curatelle,  n.f.  A  partial  guardianship.  Consult  Viollet,  His- 
toire  du  Droit  Civil  Frangais,  514,  548-551 ;  Las  Siete  Partidxis, 
1289.    Cf.  tutelle. 

curateur,  n.m.  A  guardian,  a  curator.  The  curateur  was  ap- 
pointed only  to  assist  an  emancipated  minor  in  the  conduct  of 
law  cases  and  the  examination  of  the  accounts  of  the  guardian- 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  63 

ship  (tutelle).  Consult  Viollet,  Histoire  du  Droit  Civil  Fran- 
gais,  545.    Cf.  tuteur.   See  emancipation,  majorite. 

cypre,  n.m.  Cypress  (Berquin-Duvallon,  Vue  de  la  Colonie, 
111;  Tixier,  Travels,  52-53,  66). 

cypres,  n.m.  The  red  cedar;  the  grey  pine.  According  to  Read 
(35)  cypres  is  the  regular  Acadian  word  for  the  red  cedar. 
In  Canada,  however,  it  is  used  for  the  grey  pine,  pinus  bank- 
siana  (Tache,  Esquisse,  sec.  edit.,  15). 

cypriere,  n.f.  A  cypress  forest  or  swamp.  Cortambert,  at  New 
Orleans  in  1836,  spoke  of  the  "cyprieres,  marecages  ainsi 
nomme  des  cypres  qui  y  croissent"  {Voyage,  54).  For  a  de- 
scription of  a  cypress  forest  see  Tixier,  Travels,  65-69,  89. 

D 

dalle,  n.f.   Trough  or  gorge ;  narrows. 

"The  name  is  given  by  the  Canadian  voyageurs  to  all  con- 
tracted running  waters,  hemmed  in  by  walls  of  rock"  (Chit- 
tenden and  Richardson,  Life  and  Travels  of  De  Smet,  II,  547, 
n.  12).  "At  sunset,"  wrote  De  Smet,  "we  were  at  the  Dalles 
of  the  Dead  [Columbia  River] .  Here,  in  1838,  twelve  unfor- 
tunate voyageurs  were  swallowed  up  in  the  river.  For  about 
two  miles  the  waters  are  compressed  between  a  range  of  per- 
pendicular rocks,  presenting  innumerable  crags,  fissures  and 
cliffs,  through  which  the  Columbia  leaps  with  irresistible  im- 
petuosity, forming  as  it  dashes  along  frightful  whirlpools, 
where  every  passing  object  is  swallowed  and  disappears" 
(ibid.,  II,  547-548).  "Dells,"  as  in  the  Dells  of  the  Wisconsin 
River,  seems  to  be  an  Americanized  form  of  dalles. 

dame,  n.f.  Commonly  to  be  translated  "wife,"  but  used  mostly 
for  persons  of  substance  or  position  in  the  locality.  As  a 
courtesy  title,  it  has  the  value  of  "Mrs."  La  dame  Lafleur  is 
Mrs.  Lafleur;  la  nommee  Lafleur  is  the  woman  Lafleur,  the 
person  named  Lafleur.  Such  a  distinction,  however,  is  not 
found  regularly  adhered  to.  Dame  is  not  used  in  its  earlier 
aristocratic  value  as  the  title  given  to  the  wife  of  a  seigneur. 
Cf.  demoiselle. 

danse  du  boeuf,  n.f.  The  buffalo  dance.  The  dance  prepara- 
tory to  the  hunting  of  the  buffalo  was  one  of  the  chief  cere- 


64  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

monials  of  the  plains  Indians.  For  descriptions  of  it  see  Char- 
levoix, Letters,  209;  E.  James,  Long's  Expedition,  II,  127; 
Hodge,  Handbook,  I,  382.  Consult  also  Michelson,  "The  Mythi- 
cal Origin  of  the  White-Buffalo  Dance  of  the  Fox  Indians." 

danse  du  calumet  (de  paix),  n.f.  Dance  of  the  (peace)  pipe. 
Generally  a  dance  of  peace,  an  adoption  dance.  "The  one  for 
whom  the  dance  of  the  calumet  was  performed  became  there- 
by the  adopted  son  of  the  performer"  (Hodge,  Handbook,  I, 
192).  For  accounts  of  the  dance  consult  Charlevoix,  Letters, 
207-208 ;  Le  Page  du  Pratz,  Histoire,  I,  105  ff. ;  Perrin  du  Lac, 
Voyage,  322-326;  E.  James,  Long's  Expedition,  II,  123-126. 
For  description  of  the  calumet,  its  construction  and  function, 
see  Hodge,  Handbook,  I,  191-195. 

danse  du  carencro,  n.f.    Carencro  dance. 

Among  the  Creeks  "the  buzzard  dance  is  said  to  have  been 
a  very  pretty  affair,  the  arms  of  the  dancer  being  spread  out 
and  made  to  flap  like  the  wings  of  the  buzzard"  (S wanton, 
"Religious  Beliefs  and  Medical  Practices  of  the  Creek  Indians," 
534).  Tixier  reported  a  performance  at  the  plantation  of 
Robin  de  Logny  (1840)  :  "As  we  were  leaving  the  infirmary 
some  negroes  performed  the  Carancro  dance  for  our  enter- 
tainment. It  is  an  imitation  of  the  long  walks  that  the  sus- 
picious vulture  takes  around  a  dead  body  to  assure  himself 
that  it  is  really  deprived  of  life  before  preying  upon  it.  A 
slave  had  painted  himself  and  made  up  in  order  to  look  like 
a  carrion  crow;  several  other  negroes  accompanied  with  sad 
songs,  which  describe  the  caution  of  the  carrion  crow,  the 
motion  of  the  dancer  around  a  child  on  the  ground.  The  ex- 
pressions and  the  attitudes  of  the  negro  were  so  amusing  and 
realistic  that  we  applauded  his  talent  for  imitation.  This  man 
had  spent  many  hours  studying  his  model  before  imitating 
him  in  public"   (Travels,  50-51).   See  carencro. 

danse  du  charbon,  n.f.  Charcoal  dance;  war  dance.  One  of 
the  best  descriptions  of  the  war  dance  is  that  by  Tixier,  Trav- 
els, 212-215.  Consult  also  Hodge,  Handbook,  II,  914-916.  See 
pcvrtisan  for  other  references  to  war  customs. 

danse  du  chevelure,  n.f.  Scalp  dance.  The  scalp  dance  was 
performed  by  the  women  on  the  return  of  a  successful  war- 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  65 

party.  For  accounts  of  it  see  Brackenridge,  Journal,  143-145 ; 
E.  James,  Long's  Expedition,  II,  85-86;  Tixier,  Travels,  227. 
Many  other  travelers  described  it. 

de,  particle.  The  particle  de  (with  its  variants  de  la,  du,  des), 
common  in  the  names  of  nobility,  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a 
patent  of  nobility.  The  presence  of  one  of  these  words  is,  in 
fact,  no  sign  of  nobility  whatsoever.  It  merely  indicates  the 
place  of  origin  of  the  individual — as  if  one  wrote  today  John 
of  Chicago  or  John  Smith  of  Chicago.  The  particle  is  a  sign 
of  noble  rank  only  when  it  adds  to  the  name  of  the  individual 
the  name  of  a  fief,  a  noble  property.  One  person  who  adds  de 
to  his  name  may  be  far  from  noble ;  another  whose  name  does 
not  bear  the  particle  may  be  of  an  ancient  aristocratic  line. 
(Louandre,  La  Noblesse  Frangaise,  104-107).  LeMoyne  de 
Longueuil  became  a  noble  name  when  Louis  XIV  raised  Le- 
Moyne's  estate  Longueuil  to  the  rank  of  a  barony.  Louis 
Groston  de  St.  Ange  de  Bellerive,  which  was  the  full  name  of 
the  last  French  commandant  in  the  Illinois  Country,  had  at- 
tached to  his  original  name  certain  district  or  property  names, 
but  since  these  were  not  noble  properties  the  particle  has  no 
aristocratic  significance.  In  names  which  carry  the  particle 
either  the  full  name  is  used  or  the  last  name  (estate  name) 
without  the  particle;  one  writes  LeMoyne  de  Longueuil  or 
Longueuil,  never  de  Longueuil.  Before  names  beginning  with 
a  vowel  or  silent  h,  however,  the  particle  is  used:  D'Hozier. 
Concerning  the  Canadian  noblesse  consult  Munro,  The  Seig- 
norial  System  in  Canada. 

decharge,  demi-charge,  n.m.  In  the  North,  the  lightening  of 
canoes  preparatory  to  the  passage  of  the  boats  over  the  shal- 
low waters  of  the  rapids.  A  carrying  of  the  goods  or  freight 
in  contrast  to  the  carrying  of  goods  and  canoe  at  a  portage 
(Nute,  Voyageur,  39). 

degrader,  v.  tr.  To  bring  down,  or  "drop,"  an  enemy  with  a 
gun;  to  distance,  to  leave  behind  (Clapin,  109-110).  Also  used 
by  the  voyageur  to  mean  "being  prevented  from  proceeding 
by  unfavorable  weather";  degrade  (adj.)  means  "weather- 
bound" (Wilcocke,  "Death  of  Frobisher,"  215  and  n.  1). 

demi-ard,  n.m.  A  liquid  measure  equal  to  i^  pinte  (q.v.)  or 
1/2  chopine  (q.v.)    (Clapin,  112). 


66  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

demi-charge.    See  decharge. 

demi-galere,  n.f.  A  type  of  military  boat  used  on  the  Missis- 
sippi. See  galere. 

deml-meamelouc,  n.m.  A  person  with  one-thirtysecond  negro 
blood  (Olmsted,  Seahoard  Slave  States,  583).  See  meamelouc, 
middtre. 

demoiselle  (1),  n.f.  Daughter  (Fortier,  Louisiana  Studies, 
177;  Clapin,  112;  Read,  35;  Dorrance,  71;  Ditchy,  89).  Cf. 
dame,  fille. 

demoiselle  (2),  n.f.    Dragon-fly. 

"Les  Demoiselles  sont  en  assez  grand  nombre ;  on  ne  cherche 
point  a  les  detruire,  parce  qu'elles  se  repaissent  de  marin- 
gouins,  qui  est  I'espece  d'Insectes  la  plus  incommode"  (Le  Page 
du  Pratz,  Histoire,  II,  148). 

denier,  n.m.  A  money  term  equal  to  the  twelfth  part  of  a 
sol  or  sou  (q.v.).  Copper  coins  of  12  and  6  deniei^s  (made  in 
France)  were  authorized  by  royal  edict  (Louis  XV)  in  1716 
(Zay,  Hist.  Monetaire  des  Colonies,  48-51).   See  livre. 

depouille,  n.f.  Buffalo  tallow ;  the  layer  of  fat  under  the  skin 
along  the  backbone.  "Buffalo  tallow,  called  depouille  by  the 
Canadian  mountaineers"  (De  Smet,  Life  and  Travels,  II,  564). 
See  also  Coues,  Henry  and  Thompson  Journals,  I,  62.  Accord- 
ing to  Audubon  and  Bachman,  the  term  was  used  similarly  for 
the  caribou  (Quadrupeds,  III,  118). 

derouine,  n.f.  The  phrase  eourir  la  derouine  or  en  derouine 
means  to  go  to  trade  with  the  Indians  on  their  own  grounds 
away  from  the  trading  post.  "I  sent  Collin  &  Seven  men  off 
en  derouine.  .  .  ."  (McLeod,  "Diary,"  144).  See  also  Malhiot, 
"Journal,"  200 ;  Coues,  Henry  and  Thompson  Journals,  I,  166. 
The  word  is  sometimes  spelled  drouine. 

desert,  n.m.  Field;  cleared  land. 

"Un  tres-beau  desert  (champ)  d'une  cinquaintaine  d'arpens, 
s'etendant  en  face  de  la  maison,  etait  cintre  par  des  bois.  .  .  ." 
(Robin,  Voyages,  II,  346).  "Les  negres  doivent,  au  lever  du 
soleil,  se  rendre  au  champ  qu'on  appelle  desert"  {ibid..  Ill, 
173).   Cf.  Tixier,  Travels,  51. 


I 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  67 

deserter,  v.  tr.  To  destroy  the  forest;  to  clear  land  for  culti- 
vation (Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  142). 
Faire  le  desert  has  the  same  significance  (Clapin,  115). 

detour,  n.m.  A  bend  or  turn  of  a  river  that  makes  almost  a 
complete  circuit. 

"In  the  afternoon  we  entered  upon  the  Great  Bend,  or,  as 
the  French  call  it,  the  Grand  Detour,  and  encamped  about  five 
miles  above  the  lower  entrance.  This  bend  is  said  to  be  twenty- 
one  miles  in  circuit,  and  only  nineteen  hundred  yards  across 
at  the  neck"  (Bradbury,  Travels,  110).   Cf.  anse,  coupe. 

devant,  n.m.  The  bow-paddler  in  a  canoe  (Chamberlain,  "Life 
and  Growth  of  Words,"  139 ;  Nute,  Voyageur,  26) .  See  gouver- 
nail,  milieu. 

diable  des  bois,  n.m.  A  Canadian  French  name  for  the  wolver- 
ine (Hodge,  Handbook,  I,  206).   See  carcajou. 

dime,  disme,  n.f.  In  Canada  the  "tithe"  was  one-twentysixth, 
not  one-tenth.  During  the  Spanish  regime  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley  the  priests  were  supported  by  the  King.  See  Houck, 
Spanish  Regime,  I,  121,  125. 

dinde,  n.m.    Turkey,  cock  or  hen  (Clapin,  119). 

dit,*  particle.  With  proper  names  this  may  be  translated 
"alias"  so  long  as  one  remembers  that  "alias"  simply  means 
"otherwise  known  as"  or  "called" — it  is  best  not  translated 
at  all.  The  custom  of  the  double  names  was  brought  to  Canada 
(apparently  by  the  Normans)  and  by  the  Canadians  brought 
into  the  Mississippi  Valley.  According  to  Brissaud,  it  origi- 
nated in  nicknames  used  to  disguise  the  army  recruits  {His- 
tory of  French  Public  Law,  530,  n.  6).  The  dit  became,  how- 
ever, a  sort  of  inherited  family  nickname.  Gilles  Michel,  who 
settled  in  Canada  in  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  was  also 
known  as  Taillon;  by  the  time  his  great-grandson  Joseph 
Michel  settled  in  Saint  Louis  a  hundred  years  later  the  name 
had  become  established  as  Joseph  Michel  Taillon,  Joseph 
Michel  dit  Taillon,  or  Joseph  Taillon  (and  within  another  gen- 
eration the  customary  spelling  was  Tayon) . 

The  character  of  the  dit  names  is  worth  comment.  Some, 
as  Brissaud  suggests,  may  well  have  been  military  sobriquets : 
Roussel  dit  Sansquartier,  Roussel  dit  Sanssoucie,  Hennet  dit 


68  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

Sanchagrin,  La  Bouillerie  are  names  that  have  the  proper  ring 
to  them.  Many  other  dits  may  have  been  military  in  origin 
but  they  seem  clearly  to  be  names  earned  through  some  per- 
sonal quality  or  habit,  for  they  illustrate  obviously  a  witty 
comment  made  upon  an  ancestor:  Pepin  clit  Lachance,  Urban 
Maurice  dit  Lafantaisie,  Guitard  dit  Lagrandeur,  Bisonet  dit 
Bijou,  Olivier  dit  Bellepeche,  Querez  dit  Latulipe,  Leroux  dit 
Lajoie,  Roubieu  dit  Europeen,  Casavan  dit  Ladebauche,  Hebert 
dit  Lecompte,  Noiset  dit  L'Abbe,  Canac  dit  Marquis,  Gresa 
dit  Capitaine,  Gibert  dit  Montaigne,  Petit  dit  Milhomme, 
Thaumer  dit  Lasource,  Couture  dit  Chatoyer,  Benoit  dit  Sera- 
phim. 

Another  group  of  dit  names  apparently  was  drawn  from 
place  of  origin:  Chauvin  dit  Charleville,  Gouin  dit  Cham- 
pagne [?],  Lemoine  dit  Bourgignon,  Payant  dit  St.  Onge  (i.  e,, 
Saintonge),  Masse  dit  Picard.  Antoine  Melloche[e?]  dit 
Hibernois  and  Jean  Hamilton  dit  I'Anglais  (who  in  1767  con- 
tracted to  build  a  mill  for  Pierre  Laclede  at  Saint  Louis)  are 
clearly  enough  dit  names  in  the  making.  Occasionally  one  dit 
name  replaces  another:  Langevin  dit  Baguette,  for  example, 
had  probably  a  still  different  earlier  family  name,  Picard  dit 
Destroismaisons  is  a  similar  construction ;  Jean  Comparios  dit 
Gascon  and  Kerceret  dit  Comparios  who  figure  in  early  Saint 
Louis  history  were  probably  the  same  person.  Lerouge  dit 
Gagnon  shows  reversal  of  surname  and  dit. 

In  some  instances  the  dit  is  merely  a  mistaken  or  false  use : 
Rene  Kiercereau  dit  Renaud,  for  instance;  or  Collet's  strange 
listing  of  Alexander  Laforce  Papin  and  Pierre  IMelicourt  Papin 
as  Papin  dit  Laforce  and  Papin  dit  Melicourt  (because  these 
men  were  commonly  called  by  their  middle  names!).  Other 
names  mistakenly  assumed  to  be  true  dits  include:  Laplante 
dit  Plante,  McHugh  dit  McGue,  John  Whitesides  dit  Juan  Wed- 
say.  The  dit  names  were  veiy  common  in  the  Illinois  Country 
because  the  population  was  predominantly  Canadian.  For  lists 
of  dit  names  in  Saint  Louis  consult  Collet,  Index  to  St.  Louis 
County  Archives,  i-vii;  in  Canada,  Tanguay,  Dictionnaire 
Genealogique,  I,  xix-xxxii;  see  also  Houck,  History  of  Mis- 
souri, II,  244,  n.  30,  For  discussion,  consult  Dauzat,  Les  Noms 
de  Personnes,  165-174 ;  Le  jMoine,  "Canadian  Names  and  Sur- 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  69 

names";  McDermott,  "French  Surnames  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley." 
divorce,  n.m.  This  was  not,  of  course,  divorce  in  the  sense  in 
which  the  term  is  used  today,  but  merely  separation.  Like 
marriage,  separation  was  a  secular  matter.  Consult  Houck, 
Spanish  Regime,  I,  119;  Viollet,  Histoire  du  Droit  Civil  Fran- 
cais,  443-452.  The  sample  document  below  is  from  Billon, 
Annals  of  St.  Louis  [1764-1804],  229-230. 

"In  the  year  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  eighty-five, 
the  seventh  of  the  month  of  March,  before  noon,  before  me, 
Francis  Cruzat,  commander  and  lieutenant-governor  of  the 
western  part  of  Illinois,  personally  appeared  Joseph  Verdon, 
an  inhabitant  of  this  post,  and  IMarianne  Richelet  his  wife, 
who  declare  that  after  twelve  years  of  marriage,  not  being 
able  to  sympathize  together  and  wishing  to  put  an  end  to 
their  disagreements,  have  unanimously  resolved  of  their  own 
free  will  to  contract  by  these  presents  an  act  of  separation, 
hoping  by  this  means  to  ensure  the  safety  of  their  souls  which 
each  appears  to  desire,  not  being  able  to  do  so  on  account  of 
their  continual  quarrels  in  their  conjugal  state;  for  these  rea- 
sons they  have  consented,  covenanted  and  agreed  between 
themselves  that  Marianne  Richelet,  wife  of  the  said  Joseph 
Verdon,  her  heirs  or  legal  representatives,  shall  remain  in 
peaceable  possession  and  hold  all  the  goods,  real  and  personal, 
which  they  this  day  own,  and  which  they  jointly  acquired  dur- 
ing their  marriage ;  the  said  Verdon  being  bound  not  to  trouble 
her  nor  make  any  demand  for  a  division,  withdrawing  only 
the  following  articles,  viz.:  his  gun,  bed,  clothes,  two  axes, 
and  all  the  implements  of  turner  and  cabinet  maker,  these 
being  indispensably  necessary  to  him.  And  the  said  IMarianne 
Richelet  binds  herself  from  this  day  to  pay  all  the  debts  they 
may  have  contracted  while  living  together,  and  should  there 
be  any  hereafter  unknown  to  her,  they  will  be  on  account  of 
the  said  Verdon  individually.  Each  renouncing  all  the  rights 
and  goods  which  may  accrue  to  them  individually,  they  cannot 
compel  each  the  other  to  furnish  any  pecuniary  assistance  for 
the  future,  and  as  the  said  Richelet  by  these  presents  finds  her- 
self in  possession  of  all  the  property,  the  said  Verdon  will  be 


70  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

entirely  released,  and  without  being  held  to  any  examination, 
from  the  dower  which  he  acknowledged  in  the  marriage  by  and 
before  Don  Balthazar  de  Villiers,  commander  at  the  time  at 
Pointe  Coupee. 

"As  regards  the  children,  the  issue  of  said  marriage,  they 
being  four  in  number,  two  male  and  two  female,  the  parties 
have  agreed  that  they  shall  remain  under  the  care  and  charge 
of  the  said  Richelet,  their  mother,  who  binds  herself  to  take 
charge  of  them,  and  raise  them  in  honor  and  in  the  fear  of 
God. 

"Thus  it  has  been  covenanted  and  agreed  in  the  govern- 
ment hall  in  St.  Louis,  in  Illinois,  the  same  day  and  year  as 
above,  in  presence  of  Mariano  Izaguire  and  Josef  Bermeo, 
attending  witnesses,  the  parties  declaring  they  knew  not  how 
to  write. 

her  his 

"Marianne  x  Richelet,  Joseph  x  Verdon,  Josef  Bermeo 

mark.  mark. 

"Mariano  Izaguire.  Francisco  Cruzat." 

donation,  n.f.  Deed  of  gift.  For  the  law  governing  donations 
consult  Viollet,  Histoire  du  Droit  Civil  Frangais,  884-887 ;  Las 
Siete  Partidas,  739,  1022-1026 ;  Coutumes  de  Paris,  II,  18-59. 

dos  gris,  n.m.  The  redheaded  duck  (Audubon,  Ornithological 
Biographij,  IV,  198). 

drigail,  n.m.  Equipment  or  baggage  of  any  sort  (Chamber- 
lain, "The  Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  136 ;  Tache,  Forestiers 
et  Voyageurs,  210;  Clapin,  123).  According  to  Read  (36)  the 
word  is  pronounced  as  if  written  drigaille.   See  agres,  butin. 

drouine.   See  derouine. 


Eau  Post.  A  short  and  familiar  form  of  Au  poste  des  Arkansas 
used  by  Thomas  James  (Three  Years  Among  the  Indians,  98, 
and  passim) .    Cf.  Oposte. 

eboulement,  n.m.   The  falling-in  of  river  banks. 

"Encamped  at  the  falling  in  banks,  or  grand  eboulment.  .  .  . 
In  nearly  all  the  bends  there  are  a  great  many  fallen  trees, 
the  banks  being  acted  upon  by  the  current,  appears  to  have 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  71 

fallen  in  with  every  thing  growing  upon  it"  (Brackenridge, 
Journal,  75).  Cf.  emharras. 

ecarir,  v.  tr.   To  square;  to  cut  posts  square  (Clapin,  127). 

ecor.   See  ecore. 

ecorce,  n.f.  Bark  canoe  (Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth  of 
Words,"  139).  See  canot. 

ecore,  n.  A  river  bluff.  E.g. :  Ecore  a  Margot,  tcore  de  Prud- 
homme.  Sometimes  written  ecor.  From  Standard  French 
accore  (adj.).  See  Thomassy,  Geologic  Pratique  de  la  Louisi- 
ane,  233 ;  Ditchy,  96. 

ecrivain,  n.m.  A  scrivener;  a  public  "writer."  In  the  Illinois 
Country  the  term  was  generally  applied  to  the  clerk  or  secre- 
tary of  the  Lieutenant-Governor.  It  is  not  the  equivalent  of 
notaire  (q.v.)  either  in  the  requirements  of  education  or  in 
function. 

ecu,  ecu  blanc,  n.m.  The  silver  ecu  was  a  coin  of  three  livres, 
or  sixty  sous.   See  livre. 

ecuyer,  n.m.  Like  its  English  counterpart  esquire  (now  weak- 
ened in  its  free  application  to  any  educated  person  in  the  pro- 
fessions or  in  a  superior  position  in  business),  this  word  was 
formerly  added  to  the  name  of  a  person  without  title  who 
was  without  question  a  member  of  the  gentry,  the  petty  nobil- 
ity. In  documents  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  in  the  eighteenth 
century  it  was  consistently  used  in  its  proper  early  sense.  Con- 
sult Suite,  Histoire  des  Canadiens-Frangais,  V,  104. 

efardocher,  v.  tr.  To  clear  away  undergrowth  (Clapin,  130). 
Cf.  effredoche,  ferdoches. 

effredoche,  n.m.  Cleared  land  (Chamberlain,  "Life  and 
Growth  of  Words,"  142).    Cf.  efardocher,  ferdoches. 

egrette  folle,  n.f.  The  Louisiana  heron — so  called,  according 
to  Audubon,  because  of  "apparent  insensibility  to  danger" 
(Ornithological  Biography,  III,  137). 

emancipation,  n.f.  The  right  given  to  a  minor  to  conduct  his 
own  affairs.  Emanciper  un  mineur:  to  put  outside  the  tutelle, 
to  release  from  the  power  of  parent  or  guardian.  Cf.  Viollet, 
Histoire  du  Droit  Civil  Frangais,  516-530.  See  curateur, 
majorite,  tnineur,  tutelle,  tuteur. 


72  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

embarras,  n.m.  Obstruction  in  the  river.  Equivalent  Ameri- 
can usage:  "raft." 

"By  the  way,  what  we  call  emharras  is  a  mass  of  floating 
trees  which  the  river  has  uprooted  and  which  the  current  drags 
onward  continually.  If  these  be  stopped  by  a  tree  that  is  rooted 
in  the  ground,  or  by  a  tongue  of  land,  the  trees  become  heaped 
upon  one  another,  and  form  enormous  piles;  some  are  found 
that  would  furnish  your  good  city  of  Tours  with  wood  for 
three  winters.  These  spots  are  difficult  and  dangerous  to  pass. 
It  is  necessary  to  sail  very  close  to  the  embarras.  .  .  ."  (Poisson 
[1727]  Jesuit  Relations  and  Allied  Documents,  LXVII,  289). 
"This  word  requires  some  explanation.  Independently  of  the 
current  of  that  vast  volume  of  water  rolling  with  great  im- 
petuosity, the  navigation  is  obstructed  by  various  other  im- 
pediments. At  the  distance  of  every  mile  or  two,  and  frequently 
at  smaller  intervals,  there  are  emharras,  or  rafts,  formed  by 
the  collection  of  trees  closely  matted,  and  extending  from 
twenty  to  thirty  yards.  The  current  vexed  by  interruptions, 
rushes  round  them  with  great  violence  and  force"  (Bracken- 
ridge  [1811],  Journal,  37-38).  See  also  Bradbury,  Travels,  57. 
Clapin  (133)  gives  a  parallel  Canadian  use  for  the  term  in 
the  forests. 

embouchure,  n.f.  Pass,  mouth.  This  teiTn  is  used  of  a  pass 
in  the  mountains  as  well  as  for  the  "mouth"  of  a  river;  e.  g., 
see  Abert,  "Report,"  440. 

emerillon,  n.m.  Sparrow  hawk  (Read,  36).  See  mangeur  de 
Tpoulet. 

encan,  n.m.  A  public  sale,  particularly  one  ordered  by  the 
court  for  the  settlement  of  an  estate  or  the  payment  of  debts, 
etc.  E.  g.,  "Encan  ou  vente  judiciere  des  Effets  de  deffunt 
Louis  Lambert,  11  aoust  1772"  (Fr.  and  Span.  Arch.  St.  L., 
No.  2547) .  See  also  Dart  and  Porteous,  "A  Judicial  Auction  in 
New  Orleans,  1772." 

endossement,  n.m.  In  the  common-fields,  the  strip  left  to  show 
boundary.  ".  .  .  the  several  narrow  slips,  left  uncultivated 
between  each  of  the  fields  .  .  .  which  the  French  call  endosse- 
ment .  .  ."  {Hunt's  Minutes,  II,  104). 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  73 

enfant  de  diable,  n.m.  The  skunk  (Chamberlain,  "Life  and 
Growth  of  Words,"  86;  Clapin,  137).  See  bete  puante. 

enfarger,  enferger,  v.tr.   To  hobble. 

Clapin  (137)  says  that  "En  France  enfarger  signifie  sur- 
tout:  mettre  des  entraves  a  un  cheval."  De  Smet  noted  in  the 
Northwest  that  "To  prevent  all  accident,  they  [the  horses]  are 
hobbled — enfarge,  as  the  Canadian  voyagers  say — that  is,  the 
two  fore-legs  are  tied  together  so  as  to  prevent  their  straying 
too  far  from  camp"  {Life  and  Travels,  II,  619).  See  also 
Tixier,  Travels,  114,  159. 

engage,  n.m.  Any  employee  in  the  fur  trade.  Not,  however, 
including  the  commis  (q.v.)  who,  though  "employed,"  enjoyed 
the  status  of  the  bourgeois.  See  voyageur. 

engagement,  n.m.  The  contract  between  an  engage  and  his 
employer. 

epinette,  n.f.    The  tamarack  or  black  larch  tree. 

".  .  .  epinette  of  the  French  voyageurs,  the  name  of  the  tree 
we  commonly  call  tamarac  or  hackmetack,  and  which  the  botan- 
ists know  as  black  larch,  Larix  americanu"  (Coues,  Pike's  Ex- 
peditions, I,  319,  n.  20). 

epinette  a  la  biere.  See  epinette  noire. 

epinette  blanche,  n.f.  The  white  or  single  spruce  (Michaux, 
Sijlva,  III,  105) . 

epinette  noire,  n.f.  The  black  or  double  spruce  (Tache,  Es- 
quisse,  15;  Michaux,  Sylva,  III,  101).  Also  known  as  epinette 
a  la  biere. 

epinette  rouge,  n.f.  The  American  larch  or  tamarack  (Tache, 
Esqiiisse,  15;  Michaux,  Sylva,  III,  121). 

epinettiere,  n.f.  A  grove  or  forest  of  tamarack,  spruce,  or  fir 
trees. 

epluchette,  n.f.  Cornhusking  (Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth 
of  Words,"  137;  Clapin,  140). 

eprevier,  n.m.  The  sparrow  hawk  (Read,  37).  A  variant  of 
epervier.   See  mangeur  de  poidet. 

equeurri,  adj.  Well-made;  solidly  built  (Clapin,  141).  Cf. 
ecarir. 

equiere,  n.f.    A  balustrade  (Alvord,  Cahokia  Records,  284-285). 


74  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

erable  a  giguieres,  n.m.  The  box  elder  or  ash-leaved  maple 
(Michaux,  Sylva,  I,  115). 

erabliere,  n.f.  A  forest  of  maples;  a  sugar  maple  grove;  an 
establishment  for  making  maple  sugar.  See  Clapin,  142; 
Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  137. 

escalin,  n.m.  A  silver  coin  eight  of  which  equaled  one  piastre 
(q.v.).  The  American  "bit."  Now  used  among  Missouri 
French  and  in  Louisiana  only  in  the  expression  deux  escalins 
and  six  escalins,  two  bits  and  six  bits  (Dorrance,  73;  Read, 
140).  In  common  use  during  the  colonial  times.  Alvord, 
{Cahokia  Records,  176,  n.  1)  mistakenly  gives  its  value  as 
that  of  the  English  shilling;  this  arises  from  the  origin  of  the 
French  word  in  the  Dutch  schelling  and  its  relation  to  English 
shilling.   See  liv7^e. 

escalin  platllle,  n.m.  Same  value  as  escalin.  The  meaning  of 
platille  is  not  clear.  It  may  be  a  French  version  of  Spanish 
platillo,  derived  from  plata,  and  therefore  used  for  escalins 
in  coin. 

escuyer.  See  ecuyer. 

esquipomgnole,  n.  Another  name  for  kinikinik,  (q.v.)  (Bart- 
lett.  Dictionary  of  Americanisms,  202). 

estomac,  n.m.  The  breasts,  the  chest.  Also  that  part  of  the 
clothing  over  the  chest  (Clapin,  145). 

etablissement,  n.m.    A  settlement. 

"L'etablissement  Frangaise  des  Natchez  devient  consider- 
able" (Poisson  [Arkansas,  1727],  Jesuit  Relations  and  Allied 
Documents,  LXVII,  310) .  "On  appelle  etablissement  un  canton 
oil  il  y  a  plusieurs  habitations  peu  eloignees  les  unes  des  autres, 
qui  font  une  espece  de  village"  (ibid.,  282). 

etofFe  du  pays,  n.f.  Homespun ;  coarse  woolen  cloth.  The  term 
was  also  applied  at  times  to  moonshine,  home-distilled  white 
whiskey  (Clapin,  146). 

etrennes,  n.f.  pi.  New  Year's  gifts.  See  Primm,  "New  Year's 
Day  in  the  Olden  Time  of  St.  Louis,"  18. 

etuy,  n.m.   Variant  spelling  of  etui:  case. 

eveque,  n.m.  The  indigo  bird  or  indigo  bunting  (Read,  56). 
See  papebleu. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  75 


fabrique,  n.f.  The  vestry  board  in  the  Catholic  Church.  The 
body  of  laymen  (generally  two?),  elected  annually  by  the  con- 
gregation; its  duty  was  the  care  of  the  temporal  properties 
of  the  church.  The  term  was  also  used  at  times  to  include  those 
properties  themselves  and  the  parish  funds  (Houck,  Spanish 
Regime,  1,  116).  For  the  functioning  of  such  a  board  see 
Garraghan,  Saint  Ferdinand  de  Florissant,  142-154.  (Gar- 
raghan  there  makes  the  mistake  of  translating  ancien  as  senior, 
as  applied  to  the  wardens,  when  apparently  he  is  referring  to 
former  wardens).  Consult  also  Rothensteiner,  History  of  the 
Archdiocese  of  St.  Louis,  I,  247-251.    See  marguiller. 

faon,  n.m.  A  bag  or  sack  made  of  fawn  (calf)  or  doe  skin, 
used  for  storing  meat,  etc.  See  Le  Page  du  Pratz,  Histoire, 
I,  207;  II,  88-89;  Tixier,  Travels,  196;  Wisconsin  Historical 
Collections,  XX,  406  and  n.  33 ;  Bartram,  Voyage,  I,  416.  Cf. 
taureaii. 

fardoches.   See  ferdoches. 

farine  froide,  n.f.  Corn  meal  as  made  by  the  Indians  (Charle- 
voix, Letters,  238;  Robin,  Voyages,  III,  41). 

fausse  riviere,  n.f.  An  old  channel  of  a  river,  now  blocked 
on  one  end  and  forming  a  kind  of  long  lake  (Flint,  Geography 
and  History  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  I,  154).  Cf.  bayou, 
marais. 

faux-maitre,  n.m.  In  the  bark  canoe  this  is  a  "strip  along  the 
edge  to  protect  the  bark"  (Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth  of 
Words,"  139). 

ferdoches,  n.f.  pi.  Brush,  brushwood  (Chamberlain,  "The 
Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  142;  Clapin,  152).  Read  (39) 
gives  the  Louisiana  French  form  of  this  word  as  fordoches. 
Dorrance  (75)  and  Ditchy  (107)  give  fardoches  as  a  variant 
spelling. 

fesse  de  chevreuil,  n.f.    A  haunch  of  venison. 

festin,  n.m.    A  feast  or  jollification  (Chamberlain,  "Life  and 

Growth  of  Words,"  139;  Brackenridge,  Journal  of  a  Voyage, 

32-33).   See  festiner.   Cf.  chaudiere  Jiaute. 


76  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

festiner,  v.  intr.   To  feast. 

"Deux  fois  I'annee  ils  I'invoquent  en  se  festinant  et  en  dans- 
ant.  .  .  ."  For  festinant  Perrin  du  Lac  gives  this  note :  "Terme 
propre  au  pays,  et  le  seul  qui  rende  litteralement  I'expression 
qu'emploient  les  Sauvages."  (Voyage,  17S;  cf.  ibid.,  2^5) .  Al- 
though Perrin  du  Lac  was  here  talking  about  a  reUgious  festi- 
val, the  term  was  frequently  used  for  any  occasion  of  special 
note. 

feu  des  vieillards,  n.m.  The  fire  of  the  old  men;  the  lodge  of 
council.   See  loge  des  vieillards. 

feve,  n.f.  Bean.  The  Riviere  a  feves  in  Wisconsin — which,  of 
course,  was  the  Bea7i  (or  Locust)  River — became  for  the  Amer- 
icans Fever  River. 

fevier,  n.m.  The  false  or  black  acacia  or  yellow  locust. 
Michaux  {Journal,  124)  described  it  as  "Robinia  pseudo  acacia 
(par  les  francais  fevier) ."   Consult  Bailey,  Hortus,  531. 

(gros)  fevier,  n.m.    The  Kentucky  coffee  tree. 

"le  Guilandina  dioica  [est  nomme]  Gros  fevier"  (Michaux, 
Journal,  124).  Bailey  {Hortus,  291)  gives  the  botanical  name 
as  Gymnocladus  dioica.   See  chicot  (2). 

fevier  epineux,  n.m.  The  honey  or  sweet  locust. 

"Le  Gl[editsia]  triacanthos  est  nomme  fev[ier]  epineux" 
(Michaux,  Journal,  124).  Consult  Michaux,  Sylva,  II,  78; 
Bailey,  Hortus,  278.   See  bois  d'amourette. 

fil  d'epinette,  n.m.  Spinet  string. 

filet,  n.m.   The  ration  of  liquor  allowed  engages. 

"La  voix  du  patron  anime  alors  de  plus  en  plus  les  rameurs, 
et  il  n'a  pas  oublie  auparavant  de  leur  distribuer  le  fiUt;  c'est 
la  mesure  ordinaire  de  tafia"  (Robin,  Voyages,  II,  214).  Robin 
said  that  such  an  allowance  was  issued  three  times  a  day 
{ibid.,  217).  In  the  instructions  given  by  Ulloa  to  Captain 
Rui,  in  command  of  an  expedition  to  build  a  fort  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Missouri  River  in  1767,  item  10  reads:  "Since 
the  serving  of  rations  of  brandy  to  the  soldiers  and  sailors 
both  on  voyages  and  when  halting,  and  which  the  French  call 
'File'  is  an  abuse,  and  from  it  results  intoxication  and  dis- 
order, that  liquor  shall  not  be  taken  or  included  among  the 
rations.  .  .  ."  (Houck,  Spanish  Regime,  I,  3). 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  77 

filet,  a  boire  le — .  According  to  Alvord,  this  is  a  Canadian  and 
Mississippi  Valley  expression  meaning  to  drink  from  a  faucet 
or  bung  hole  (Cahokia  Records,  418,  n.  1). 

filet,  fillet,  n.m.  The  head  strap  worn  by  voyageurs  to  support 
the  pack  during  a  portage. 

fiUe,  n.f.  Servant  (Fortier,  Louisiana  Studies,  177;  Clapin, 
155).    Cf.  demoiselle  (1). 

fiole,  n.f.  Flask ;  bottle. 

fleunen,  n.m.  Audubon  gave  petit  flamen  as  one  Louisiana 
name  for  the  white  ibis  {Ornithological  Biography,  III,  178). 
See  bee  croche. 

flammette  petite  douve,  n.f.  A  Louisiana  name  for  the  butter- 
cup or  crowfoot  shrub  (Robin,  Voyages,  III,  463;  Bailey, 
Hortus,  518). 

fleche,  n.f.  An  arrow  stone  (Flint,  Geography  and  History  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley,  I,  32;  II,  83). 

flute,  n.f.  In  Canada,  the  wood  thrush  (Chamberlain,  "Life 
and  Growth  of  Words,"  85). 

foUe  avoine,  n.f.  Wild  rice  (Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth 
of  Words,"  136;  Ditchy,  111).  Folles  avoines  was  also  the 
French  name  for  the  Menominee  Indians. 

fonds,  n.m.  pi.  "The  forest-lands  from  which  the  settlers  ob- 
tain their  wood"  (Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth  of  Words," 
142). 

fontaine,  n.f.  Spring.  Fontaine  a  Laclede,  Fontaine  a  Biche: 
LaClede's  Spring,  Deer  Spring. 

fordoches.  See  ferdoches. 

fouet  de  cocher,  n.m.  The  coachwhip  snake  (Bartram,  Voy- 
age, I,  374).  Read  (39)  gives  fouetteur  as  the  Louisiana  name 
for  this  snake. 

fouine,  n.f.   The  Louisiana  weasel  (Read,  39).   See  foutreau. 

fourche,  n.f.  Fork  (of  a  river),  creek.  Fourche  a  Courtois, 
Fourche  a  Renaidt:  Courtois'  Fork,  Renault's  Fork. 

fourtreau,  n.m.  The  mink  (J.  Long,  Voyages  and  Travels,  258). 
See  belette. 

foutreau,  n.m.  The  weasel  (Dorrance,  76).  See  fouine. 


aata^aaBaamamsumaiBiaaasmm 


78  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

Frangals,  n.m.  Used  in  the  Missouri  River  country  and  on  the 
Great  Plains  (at  least  during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century)  for  a  Frenchman  of  the  Illinois  Country,  of  Saint 
Louis,  etc. — i.  e.,  a  Frenchman  born  in  America.  So  used  by 
the  Indians.  Creole  generally  signified  a  Frenchman  of  Louisi- 
ana origin  or  ancestry;  Canadien,  a  Frenchman  of  Canadian 
origin;  Francais,  a  Frenchman  born  in  the  western  United 
States. 

Frangais  de  France,  n.m.    A  European  Frenchman. 

frappe  d'abord,  n.m.  The  deer  jfly.  The  term,  Read  says  (39), 
was  carried  to  Louisiana  by  the  Acadians.  Le  Page  du  Pratz, 
however,  recorded  the  insect  by  this  name  in  the  1730's  {His- 
toire,  II,  146).  Tixier  described  this  insect  as  a  "certain  gray 
species,  quite  large  in  size,  called  Frappe  d'abord,  for  as  soon 
as  it  has  alighted  on  the  skin  it  bites  immediately"  {Travels, 
257).  In  De  Smet's  Life  and  Travels  (IV,  1392)  the  insects 
are  called  "Frappe  d'abord  or  buffalo  gnats."  See  also  brulot. 

f rapper  au  poteau  (1),  v.tr.  To  strike  the  post,  to  recite  one's 
deeds  of  valor. 

"In  the  intervals  of  the  dances,  a  warrior  would  step  for- 
ward and  strike  a  flagstaff  they  had  erected  with  a  stick,  whip, 
or  other  weapon,  and  recount  his  martial  deeds.  This  cere- 
mony is  called  striking  the  post,  and  whatever  is  then  said 
may  be  relied  upon  as  rigid  truth,  being  delivered  in  the  pres- 
ence of  many  a  jealous  warrior  and  witness,  who  could  easily 
detect  and  would  immediately  disgrace  the  striker  for  exag- 
geration or  falsehood"  (E.  James,  Long's  Expedition,  I,  231). 
For  further  descriptions  see  Bossu,  Nouveaux  Voyages  aux 
Indes  Occidentales,  I,  83  and  n. ;  Perrin  du  Lac,  Voyage,  301 ; 
E.  James,  Long's  Expedition,  I,  231-234,  262-263 ;  II,  82,  125 ; 
Tixier,  Travels,  211-212;  Ruxton,  In  the  Old  West,  76. 

frapper  au  poteau  (2),  v.tr.  To  have  sexual  intercourse  (?). 
"My  kindly  friend  asked  me  if  I  had  frappe  au  poteau,  that 
is,  if  I  had  had  relations  with  an  Osage  woman"  (Tixier, 
Travels,  258).  Can  there  be  an  extension  here  of  the  meaning 
of  frapper  au  poteau  previously  explained — i.  e.,  boasting  of 
sexual  prowess?  Maximilian  described  a  custom  among  the 
Mandans  that  may  explain  the  phrase  used  by  Tixier's  Osage 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  79 

friend:  "A  chief  business  of  the  young  men  among  these  In- 
dian tribes  is  to  try  their  fortune  with  the  young  maidens  and 
women.  .  .  .  They  have  a  singular  mode  of  displaying  their 
achievements  in  this  field,  especially  when  they  visit  the  women 
in  their  best  dresses.  On  these  occasions  they  endeavor  to  gain 
credit  by  the  variety  of  their  triumphs,  and  mark  the  number 
of  conquered  beauties  by  bundles  of  peeled  osier  twigs,  painted 
red  at  the  tips.  These  sticks  are  of  two  kinds.  Most  of  them 
are  from  two  to  three  feet  in  length,  others  five  or  six  feet. 
The  latter,  being  carried  singly,  are  painted  with  white  and 
red  rings  alternately,  which  indicates  the  number  of  conquests. 
The  shorter  sticks  are  only  painted  red  at  the  tips,  and  every 
stick  indicates  an  exploit,  the  number  of  which  is  usually 
bound  up  into  a  pretty  large  bundle.  Thick  fasces  of  this  kind 
are  carried  about  by  the  dandies  in  their  gallant  excursions. 
Among  the  Mandans  these  sticks  are  generally  quite  plain; 
among  the  Minitaries,  on  the  contrary,  there  is,  usually,  in  the 
middle  of  the  bundle,  one  larger  stick,  at  the  end  of  which  is 
a  tuft  of  black  feathers.  These  feathers  indicate  the  favorite, 
and  the  dandies  tell  everybody  that  she  is  the  person  for  whom 
this  honor  is  intended"  (Travels,  II,  282-283). 

frene  gras,  n.m.  The  black  ash  (Tache,  Esquisse,  sec.  edit., 
16). 

fuzee.   Variant  spelling  of  fusil:  flintlock  musket. 


gaie-anneur.   See  gidgnoleur. 

galere,  n.f .  Galley.  This  was  the  name  generally  used  for  the 
largest  class  of  war  vessels  on  the  Mississippi  in  the  eighteenth 
century;  such  a  boat  carried  fifty  or  more  armed  men  and 
apparently  mounted  cannon.  The  term  was  never  used  for 
private  or  commercial  boats. 

galerie,  n.f.  A  covered  gallery,  balcony,  or  porch  which  on  the 
houses  of  the  well-to-do  in  the  French  colonies  often  ran  about 
the  four  sides,  both  on  the  first  and  second  floors.  The  style 
was  derived  from  the  West  Indies. 

galet,  n.m.  Coues  interprets  galet  as  meaning  "boulder"  (Henry 
and  Thompson  Jownals,  I,  30).    Gates  declares  that  "in  the 


80  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

Northwest  [galet]  usually  meant  a  gravel  bank"  (Five  Fur 
Traders  of  the  Northivest,  250,  n.  4).  Clapin  does  not  list  the 
word;  Standard  French  means  "pebble"  or  "gravel." 

galette,  n.f.   A  kind  of  bread. 

Kennicott  stated  that  "Galette  is  the  only  form  of  bread  used 
on  a  voyage.  ...  It  is  made  in  a  very  simple  style:  the  flour 
bag  is  opened,  and  a  small  hollow  made  in  the  flour,  into  which 
a  little  water  is  poured,  and  the  dough  is  thus  mixed  in  the 
bag;  nothing  is  added,  except,  perhaps  a  little  dirt  from  the 
cook's  univashed  hands,  with  which  he  kneads  it  into  flat  cakes, 
which  are  baked  before  the  fire  in  a  frying  pan,  or  cooked  in 
grease"  (quoted  in  Nute,  Voyageur,  53). 

galiote,  galliot,  n.f.  A  galley.  Galiote  and  galere  (q.v.)  appar- 
ently were  interchangeable  terms  for  a  class  of  war  vessels 
used  on  the  Mississippi. 

gargon,  gargon  majeur,  n.m.  A  bachelor,  an  "emancipated" 
male,  a  man  of  legal  age.   See  emancipation,  majorite. 

garde-magasin,  n.m.  A  storekeeper,  but  only  of  military  stores 
or  public  supplies. 

garde  soleil,  n.m.  A  Louisiana  name  for  the  American  bittern ; 
also  known  as  the  Indian  pullet  or  Indian  hen  (Audubon, 
Ornithological  Biography,  IV,  296). 

garzette,  n.f.  A  Louisiana  name  for  the  white  heron  (Ulloa, 
Memoires  Philosophiques,  I,  192-193).  Read  (1,  45)  gives 
aigrette  caille  and  heron  dos-blanc  for  this  bird. 

gave,  n.m.  An  underground  stream  (Chamberlain,  "Life  and 
Growth  of  Words,"  141). 

gens  de  couleur,  n.m.  pi.  People  of  color.  Term  for  persons 
of  mixed  blood  of  which  some  part  was  negro.  Generally  ap- 
plied to  free  people  rather  than  to  slaves.  For  list  of  terms 
describing  such  mixtures  see  muldtre. 

gens-Iibres,  n.m.  pi.  The  white  and  Indian  halfbreeds  of  the 
North  and  Canada.   See  homme-libre,  metis. 

giraumont,  n.m.   The  cushaw  or  crookneck  squash. 

". . .  ils  plantent  surtout  cette  immense  quantite  de  citrouilles 
ou  potirons  qu'ils  nomment  giraumonts"  (Robin,  Voyages,  III, 
42).    Although  in  Louisiana  French  giraumont  is  used  for 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  81 

"pumpkin"  as  well  as  for  the  cushaw,  Robin's  combination  with 
'potiron  apparently  singles  this  fruit  out  as  the  cushaw.  Le 
Page  du  Pratz  (Histoire,  II,  11)  said  that  giromons  were  of 
two  sorts:  "les  uns  sont  ronds,  les  autres  en  forme  de  corps 
de  chasse."   See  also  Read,  89-90. 

glaise,  n.f.  Clay  (for  pottery)  ;  lick.  La  Grande  Glaise:  the 
Big  Lick. 

"The  soil  around  consisted  of  a  white  tenacious  clay,  prob- 
ably fit  for  Potter's  ware:  hence  the  name  'Glaise'  which  the 
french  hunters  have  bestowed  upon  most  of  the  licks  which 
are  frequented  by  the  beasts  of  the  forest,  altho'  salt  is  not 
always  to  be  found  in  such  places  so  as  to  merit  attention" 
(Dunbar,  Life,  Letters,  and  Papers  [Washita  River,  1804], 
269) .  Dunbar  wrote  also  of  "licks,  which  are  sometimes  termed 
'saline'  sometimes  'glaise'"  (ibid.,  242).  Thomassy  likewise 
noted  "terres  salees  nommees  glaizes  par  les  anciens  Creoles 
et  licks  par  les  Americains"  (Geologie  Pratique  de  la  Louisiane, 
244).  See  saline. 

gombo  (1),  Afr.,  n.m.  The  French  dialect  of  the  Louisiana 
negroes:  see  congo  (2),  negre. 

gombo  (2) ,  Afr.,  n.m.  Gumbo  or  okra ;  a  favorite  dish  of  which 
okra  is  a  principal  ingredient  (Ditchy,  122 ;  Read,  122) . 

gombo  (3),  Afr.,  n.m.    A  thick,  heavy  soil  (Read,  122). 

goudron  (eau  de — ),  n.m.  Tar  water.  A  favorite  medical 
remedy  in  the  eighteenth  century.  See  George  Berkeley,  Siris: 
A  CJiain  of  Philosophical  Reflexions  and  Inquiries  concerning 
the  Vi7^tues  of  Tar  Water  ...  (in  Works  of  George  Berkeley, 
G.  Sampson,  ed..  III). 

gouffre,  n.m.  "In  the  pine  barrens  of  Florida,  Alabama  and 
Mississippi,  is  found  an  animal,  apparently  of  the  tortoise 
class,  commonly  called  the  gouffre.  It  has  a  large  and  thick 
shell,  and  burrows  to  a  great  depth  in  the  ground.  It  is  of 
prodigious  power  and  strength,  and  resembles  in  many  re- 
spects the  loggerhead  turtle"  (Flint,  Geography  and  History 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  I,  120). 

gourde,  n.f.  A  West  Indian  coin  equal  to  five  livres  or  one 
dollar;  also  known  as  piastre  gourde.   Read  (41)  says  the  use 


82  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

of  the  gourde  as  a  coin  was  brought  to  Louisiana  by  refugees 
from  Haiti ;  he  cites  also  a  story  from  John  W,  Vandercook's 
Black  Majesty  which  imphes  that  the  gourde  became  a  symbol 
of  currency  in  Haiti  in  1806.  In  Saint  Louis,  however,  the 
term  was  in  use  at  least  ten  years  before  Christophe  came  to 
power,  for  on  20  September  1796  an  inventory  was  made  of 
the  estate  of  Louis  Dubreuil  and  under  the  heading  of  "Argent 
en  espece"  was  listed  "2000  gourdes  Entre  les  mains  de  M. 
Sarpy  a  la  Nouvelle  Orleans  faisant  dix  Mille  livres"  (Fr.  and 
Span.  Arch.  St.  L.,  No.  2457).  For  the  circulation  of  the 
gourde  in  the  French  West  Indies  in  the  first  years  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  consult  Zay,  Histoire  Monetaire  des  Colon- 
ies Frangaises,  194-199,  211-212,  217-222,  226.  The  term  con- 
tinued to  be  used  for  dollar,  after  the  disappearance  of  the 
French  unit,  until  the  middle,  at  least,  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury; see  Stewart,  Altowan,  I,  69. 

gourgane,  n.f.  The  bean  of  the  gros  fevier  or  guilundina  dioica 
was  called  gourgane  by  the  Illinois  French,  according  to 
Michaux  (Journal,  124). 

gouvemail,  n.m.  The  steersman  of  a  canoe  (Chamberlain, 
"Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  139;  Nute,  Voyageur,  26).  See 
devant,  milieu. 

grain  de  boeuf,  n.m.  The  buffalo  berry  (Fremont,  Report  of 
Exploring  Expedition,  51).   But  see  graisse  de  boeuf. 

graine-de-Ioup,  n.f.  The  wolf  berry  (Tache,  Esquisse,  sec.  edit., 
17). 

graine  d'hiver,  n.f.  The  snowberry  (Tache,  Esquisse,  sec.  edit., 
17). 

graine  d'ours,  n.f.  The  bearberry  (Keith,  "Letters  to  Roderic 
McKenzie,"  102).   See  sacacomi. 

graisse,  n.f.   Tallow,  fat.   Commonly,  bear's  fat. 

graisse  de  boeuf,  n.f.   The  buffalo  berry  or  rabbit  berry. 

"There  is  a  shrub  which  the  French  call  graisse  de  boeuf, 
bearing  a  red  berry,  of  a  pungent  taste;  its  leaves,  though 
smaller  and  more  delicate,  bear  a  resemblance  to  those  of  the 
pear  tree"  (Brackenridge,  Joiuyial,  87).  "Great  qualities  of  a 
small  red  acid  fruit  [Shepherdia  argentea] ,  known  among  the 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  83 

Indians  by  a  name  signifying  rabbit-berries,  and  called  by  the 
French  graisse  de  buffle  or  buffalo-fat"  (Coues,  Expedition 
of  Lewis  and  Clark,  I,  176).  See  also  Nuttall,  S^jlva,  I,  120; 
Tabeau,  Narrative,  96-97;  Dr.  Abel's  note  12  (p.  96)  cites  a 
number  of  references  concerning  this  shrub  and  its  fruit. 

grand-bois,  n.m.  Virgin  forest  (Ditchy,  124).  Cf.  bois-debout. 

grand  carre,  n.m.  According  to  Alvord  this  was  the  designa- 
tion for  the  common-field  {Illinois  Country,  207).  See  also 
champ  quarre. 

grand  quarre.   Variant  of  grand  carre  (q.v.). 

grandVue,  n.f.  A  "wide  expanse  in  a  river"  (Chamberlain, 
"Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  140). 

grange,  n.f.  A  barn.  Not  to  be  confused  with  English  usage 
(farm  or  farmstead).  Rue  des  granges  in  early  Saint  Louis 
(the  third  street)  was  the  street  on  which  "barn  lots"  were 
located.  The  term  grange  was  also  applied  to  barn-shaped 
bluffs;  e.  g..  La  Grange  (Red  Wing  Village),  667  miles  above 
Saint  Louis  at  the  head  of  Lake  Pepin. 

grassel.  See  grasset. 

grasset,  n.m.  The  towhee  bunting  or  chewink  (Audubon, 
Ornithological  Biography,  I,  151).  Read  (43)  gives  grassel 
as  a  variant. 

gravois,  n.m.    pi.   Gravel. 

gref,  n.m.  The  office  of  the  clerk  of  the  court;  depository  of 
notarial  records.  Ati  Gref  de  ce  Siege:  at  the  office  of  this 
court  (Cahokia  Records,  474-475). 

greffier,  n.m.   Recorder  or  clerk  of  the  court. 

gres,  n.m.  Sandstone.  Cap-o-gris  (correctly:  Cap-au-gres)  is 
Sandstone  Cape  or  Bluff. 

griffe,  n.f.  A  griffin.  A  mixed  blood — the  child  of  a  mulatto 
and  a  negro  (Read,  44).  See  muldtre.  Sometimes  applied  to 
the  child  of  a  negro  and  an  Indian — see  sambo. 

grive,  n.m.  In  Louisiana  grive  (Standard  French  for  "thrush") 
is  the  American  robin  (Read,  90). 

gros-bec,  n.m.  The  night  heron;  also  known  as  the  Indian 
pullet,  Indian  hen,  or  qua  bird  (Audubon,  Ornithological  Biog- 
raphy, III,  275). 


84  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

grosse-corne,  n.f.  The  bighorn  or  Rocky  Mountain  sheep.  Ac- 
cording to  Bradbury  its  horns  were  used  by  the  Indians  for 
bows  (Travels,  170,  n.).  For  a  description  of  the  bighorn  see 
Maximilian,  Travels,  II,  67-69. 

gru,  n.m.   Hominy. 

"The  most  ordinary  food  of  this  country  [lower  Mississippi 
River] — almost  the  only  one  for  many  people,  and  especially 
for  travelers — is  gru.  Corn  is  pounded,  in  order  to  remove 
the  outer  skin,  and  then  is  boiled  a  long  time  in  water,  but 
the  Frenchmen  sometimes  season  it  with  oil;  and  this  is  gru. 
The  Savages,  pounding  the  corn  very  fine,  sometimes  cook  it 
with  tallow,  and  more  often  only  with  water ;  this  is  sagamite 
[q.v.l.  However,  the  gru  answers  for  bread;  a  spoonful  of 
gi-u  and  a  mouthful  of  meat  go  together"  (Poisson  [Arkansas, 
1727],  Jesuit  Relations  and  Allied  Documents,  LXVII,  291- 
293).  According  to  Perrin  du  Lac  the  typical  voyageur's  meal 
consisted  of  "un  morceau  de  lard  et  du  mais  lessive,  qu'ils 
appellent  gru"  (167).   See  also  Robin,  Voyages,  II,  217. 

guignolee,*  n.f.  A  New  Year's  Eve  festival  traditional  in 
Canada  and  the  Illinois  Country,  the  origin  of  which  remains 
unknown.  Parallel  customs  are  cited  in  Saintonge  and  Perche. 
Efforts  have  been  made  to  trace  the  festival  back  to  Druid 
custom,  but  no  explanation  carries  any  certainty.  The  word 
is  found  in  various  forms :  ignolee,  aguilanieu,  guillannee,  gui- 
I'an-neu,  avilonneau,  gui-Van-neou. 

In  Canada  a  band  of  persons  went  around  on  the  night  of 
December  31st  to  wish  friends  and  acquaintances  a  Happy 
New  Year  and  to  make  a  collection  for  the  poor — the  singing 
of  the  guignolee  song  being  the  principal  part  of  the  per- 
formance. According  to  Primm,  however,  in  Saint  Louis  the 
object  of  running  the  guignolee  was  to  collect  supplies  for  the 
first  of  the  hals  des  rois  to  be  given  on  Twelfth  Night.  The 
singers  were  in  masquerade  costume  and  each  carried  a  bucket, 
basket  or  sack.  On  entering  a  house  they  sang  the  song,  re- 
ceived their  contributions,  danced  the  "rag  dance"  {la  gue- 
nille) ,  and  then  left,  singing  the  departing  chorus.  Mrs.  Schaaf 
(from  guignol  meaning  "clown"  [puppet?])  interprets  la 
guignolee  as  being  a  band  of  clowns  or  revellers.    She  gives 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  85 

the  order  of  procedure  as  follows :  the  guignoleurs  sing  in  the 
street  and,  on  knocking  at  the  door,  are  admitted  singing  and 
marching  around  their  leaders  and  fiddlers  (all  are  masked 
and  supposedly  unknown)  ;  they  sing  the  greeting  verse,  then 
the  request  verse ;  the  daughters  of  the  house  are  called  forth, 
the  leaders  dance  with  them  and  sing  a  love  song  to  the  girls ; 
next,  they  do  the  "rag"  dance ;  then  they  sing  their  thanks  to 
the  master  of  the  house  and  depart  with  their  load,  singing 
"Bonsoir." 

The  music  of  the  guignoUe  was  traditional;  Gagnon  gives 
several  versions  of  it.  Canadian  versions  of  the  words  will  be 
found  in  Gagnon,  200-201,  207-208,  209-210.  In  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  two  slightly  different  sets  of  words  have  been  pre- 
served: by  Wilson  Primm  of  Saint  Louis  (15-16)  and  by  Gus- 
tave  St.  Gemme  of  Sainte  Genevieve.  The  latter  version,  a 
fuller  set  printed  first  in  the  History  of  Southeast  Missouri, 
was  reprinted  by  Mrs.  Schaaf .  Consult  Clapin,  176-177 ;  Dor- 
rance,  80-81 ;  Gagnon,  Chansons  Populaires  du  Cmmda,  198- 
210;  Primm,  "New  Year's  Day  in  the  Olden  Time  of  St. 
Louis,"  14-16;  Schaaf,  "The  Passing  of  an  Old  Custom — La 
Guignolee" ;  Tache,  Forestiers  et  Voyageurs,  11 ;  Carriere, 
Tales  from  the  French  Folk-Lore  of  Missouri,  6-7. 

guignolee,  courir  la — .  To  go  out  singing  with  the  guignolee 
party. 

guignoleur,  guignoleux,  n.m.  One  who  goes  singing  the 
guignolee.  Dorrance  (81)  adds  for  the  Missouri-French  to- 
day: gaie-anneur,  guionneur. 

gui-1'an-neou.   See  guignolee. 
gui-I'an-neu.  See  guignolee. 
guillannee.   See  guignolee. 

guilledive,  n.f.   Rum  (Bossu,  Nouveaux  Voyages  aux  Indes  Oc- 

cidentales,  II,  122). 
guionneur.   See  guignoleur. 


86  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

H 

habitan,  habitant,  n.m.  A  farmer.  Seldom  to  be  translated 
"inhabitant." 

"Canadian  Habitant,  or  countryman"  (Lambert,  Travels,  I, 
159).  "Les  habitans  &  negocians  des  Illinois  .  .  ."  ("Memoire 
Des  Habitans  &  Negocians  de  la  Louisiane,  sur  I'Evene- 
ment  du  29  Octobre  1786  A  L'Univers"  in  Champigny,  La 
Louisiane  Ensanglantee,  7).  "The  settlers  of  La  Fourche,  are 
chiefly  what  the  French  call  petits  habitants,  small  planters" 
(Brackenridge,  Vieivs,  302).  Examples  of  usage  could  be 
greatly  multiplied.  The  word  came  into  use  originally  to  dis- 
tinguish those  who  settled  on  the  soil  from  the  soldiers,  mer- 
chants, and  artisans.  But  habitant  always  meant  the  man 
who  owned  as  well  as  worked  the  farm.  See  Clapin,  178 ;  Gag- 
non.  Chansons  Populaires  du  Canada,  225.  See  habitation, 
journalier.  See  militia  rolls  for  Saint  Louis  (1780)  where 
among  the  occupations  listed  (trader,  mason,  carpenter,  cur- 
rier, rower,  blacksmith,  etc.)  appear  many  habitants  (Houck, 
Spanish  Regime,  I,  184-189). 

habitation,  n.f.  A  farm,  including  farmhouse  and  other  build- 
ings. 

"A  smaller  portion  of  land  [than  a  concession  (q-v.)] 
granted  by  the  company  is  called  a  'habitation.'  A  man  with 
his  wife  or  partner  clears  a  little  ground,  builds  himself  a  house 
on  four  piles,  covers  it  with  sheets  of  bark,  and  plants  corn 
and  rice  for  his  provisions;  the  next  year  he  raises  a  little 
more  for  food,  and  has  also  a  field  of  tobacco;  if  at  last  he 
succeeds  in  having  three  or  four  Negroes,  then  he  is  out  of 
his  difficulties.  This  is  what  is  called  a  habitation,  sl  habitant." 
(Poisson  [Arkansas,  1727],  Jesuit  Relations  and  Allied  Docu- 
ments, hXVlll,  2SS) .  See  habitant. 

herbe  a  bouton,  n.f.  Horsemint  (Robin,  Voyages,  III,  388; 
Bailey,  Hortus,  400). 

herbe  a  la  houate  [.sicl,  n.f.  A  species  of  asclepias,  milkweed, 
silkweed  (Robin,  Voyages,  III,  413-414).  See  houatte,  vache 
a  lait. 

herbe  a  la  puce,  n.f.    Poison  oak,  poison  ivy,  trumpet  flower. 
According  to  De  Smet  herbe  a  la  piice  is  "the  Rhus  Toxi- 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  87 

codendron  of  the  botanists"  (Life  and  Travels,  II,  792).  Tixier 
saw  it  on  the  younger  trees  "opening  its  red  bell-flowers" 
(Travels,  73).  But  these  illustrate  two  different  uses  for  the 
name:  De  Smet's  is  Canadian  (poison  oak)  ;  Tixier's  is  Louisi- 
ana (trumpet  flower).  Read  (45)  indicates,  however,  that  the 
more  common  Louisiana  use  of  the  phrase  is  for  poison  ivy 
(toxicodendron  radicans  L.).  Robin  used  herhe  a  puce  for  the 
bignonia  (Voyages,  III,  406-407). 

herbe  a  malo,  n.f.    The  water  plantain   (Robin,  Voyages,  III, 
340). 

herbe  a  quatre  feuilles,  n.f.    The  common  speedwell,  or  Cul- 
ver's root. 

"Veronica  virginica  called  by  the  French  herbe  a  quatre 
feuilles  (four-leaved  grass)  is  often  added  [to  the  Racine  a 
Becquet  as  medicine] ....  Confirmed  once  more  in  my  opinion 
that  the  root  of  Veronica  virginica,  vulgarly  known  as  Herbe  a 
quatre  feuilles  (four-leaved  grass),  used  as  a  decoction  for  a 
month,  is  effective  for  the  cure  of  venereal  Diseases.  Four  or 
five  of  the  roots  are  boiled.  As  this  beverage  is  purgative  the 
strength  of  this  Ptisan  must  be  increased  or  reduced  by  put- 
ting [in]  more  or  less  according  to  the  effect  it  has  on  one.  It 
is  sufficient  for  the  first  days  that  the  bowels  be  relaxed  and 
looser  than  usual ;  it  is  not  unusual  that  the  bowels  be  moved 
3  or  4  times  the  first  day"  (Michaux,  Travels,  77-19).  See 
7'acine  a  becquet.  Consult  Bailey,  Hortus,  684. 

herbe  a  serpent  a  sonnettes,  n.f.    Snakeroot;  Read   (45)  sug- 
gests the  Indian  or  false  mallow. 

Travelers  frequently  noted  among  Indians  the  use  of  roots 
in  the  treatment  of  snake  bite,  but  their  descriptions  are  so 
general  that  the  plants  cannot  be  identified.  Consult  Mar- 
quette, "Premier  Voyage,"  100-101 ;  Le  Page  du  Pratz,  His- 
toire,  II,  60-61 ;  Coues,  ed.,  Expedition  of  Lewis  and  Clark, 
I,  238;  Tixier,  Travels,  58-59;  Tabeau,  Narrative,  80-81  and 
Dr.  Abel's  note  24.  Swanton  discussed  Sampson  snakeroot 
(Source  Materials  for  the  Choctaw,  237).   See  also  bois  blanc. 

herbe  a  trois  quarts,  n.f.    Verbesina;  the  small  white  or  Vir- 
ginia crown-beard  (Robin,  Voyages,  III,  443;  Read,  45). 


88  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

herbe  sainte,  n.f.    Artemisia,  sagebrush. 

J.  J.  Audubon  at  Fort  Union,  18  June  1843,  recorded  "a 
prairie  covered  with  large  bushes  of  artemisia  (called  here 
'Herbe  Sainte')"  (Audubon-Coues,  Audubon  and  His  Journals, 
11,39).   See  absinthe. 

hivemant,  n.m.  Any  person  in  the  fur  trade  {bourgeois  or 
engage)  who  stayed  at  the  trading  post  throughout  the  winter. 
It  was  originally  applied  to  the  employees  of  the  French  trad- 
ing companies  who  spent  the  winter  in  Canada  (Clapin,  181). 
Cf.  habitant. 

hivemer,  v.  intr.  To  winter.  To  remain  at  a  trading  post 
throughout  the  winter  in  place  of  returning  to  the  settlements. 

homme-libre,  n.m.  The  term  was  first  applied  to  the  Canadian- 
French  trapper  or  voyageur  who  married  an  Indian  woman 
and  took  to  the  free  life  of  the  woods  or  plains.  The  descen- 
dants of  the  hommes-libres  are  the  metis  or  bois-brules  (q.v.). 
See  Clapin,  181. 

honnete  homme,  n.m.  An  honorific  (without  legal  distinction) 
applied  only  to  persons  of  assured  bourgeois  rank,  not  to  the 
lower  class.  Suite  declared  it  the  equivalent  of  "respectable" 
(Histoire  des  Canadiens-Frangais,  V,  104).  See  honorable 
homme. 

honorable  homme,  n.m.  An  honorific  (without  legal  distinc- 
tion) indicating  excellent  bourgeois  standing  somewhat  less 
than  that  indicated  by  the  noble  homme  {q.v.)  and  superior  to 
that  shown  by  honnete  homme  {q.v.).  "Est  une  qualite  que 
prennent  dans  les  actes  publics,  ceux  qui  ne  sont  pas  nobles, 
&  qui  sont  pourtant  d'une  condition  honneste"  {Dictionnaire 
de  VAcademie  Frangoise,  1694).  See  also  Suite,  Histoire  des 
Canadiens-Frangais ,  V,  104. 

houatte,  n.f.  Bitter  dogsbane  {apocynum) ,  milkweed,  snake's 
milk,  bitterroot  (Rafinesque,  Medical  Flora,  I,  49,  262).  See 
herbe  a  la  houate,  vache  a  lait. 

huile  d'ours,  n.f.  Bear  oil  (bear's  grease),  a  favorite  ingredi- 
ent in  French  frontier  cooking. 

"The  hunters  count  much  of  their  profits  from  oil  drawn 
from  the  Bear's  fat,  which  at  New-Orleans  is  always  of  ready 
sale,  and  is  much  esteemed  for  its  wholesomeness  in  cooking, 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  89 

being  preferred  to  butter  and  hog's  lard;  it  is  found  to  keep 
longer  than  any  other  of  the  same  nature,  without  turning 
rancid:  they  have  a  method  of  boiling  it  from  time  to  time 
upon  sweet-bay  leaves  which  restores  it  or  facilitates  its  pres- 
ervation" (Dunbar,  Life,  Letters,  and  Papers  [Washita,  1804], 
244). 

huissier,  n.m.   Sheriff's  officer,  marshall  of  the  court. 

Alvord  said  that  "the  duties  of  the  huissier  were  not  different 
from  those  of  the  sheriff" ;  i.  e.,  executing  of  judgments,  serv- 
ing of  writs,  etc.    (Cahokia  Records,  111,  n.  3). 

hypotheque,  n.f.   A  mortgage.  For  laws  governing  mortgages 
consult  Viollet,  Histoire  du  Droit  Civil  Frangais,  731-748. 

I 

ignolee.  See  guignolee. 

ignoleur.   See  guignoleur. 

lie,  n.f. ;  ilet,  ilot,  n.m. ;  isle,  Islette,  n.f.  A  city  square  or  block ; 

a  grove  of  trees  on  the  open  prairie  or  along  a  river  bank. 

Robin  noted  that  in  New  Orleans  "on  reserva  pour  la  place 
d'armes  un  ilot  entier"  (Voyages,  II,  73).  Sir  Wm.  D.  Stewart 
wrote  that  the  father  of  one  of  his  hunting  companions  in  the 
1830's  lived  in  "an  old  wooden  house  on  a  square  plot,  call[ed] 
in  St.  Louis  an  island,  that  is,  a  square  piece  surrounded  by 
streets"  (Edtvard  Warren,  482,  n.).  "Lesquels  Batimens  .  .  . 
Sont  Batis  sur  une  isle  de  trois  cents  pieds  quarre  de  terrain" 
(LaClede  Papers,  Missouri  Historical  Society). 

Read  (46)  says  that  this  term  originated  in  New  Orleans 
because  the  squares  there  were  once  surrounded  by  drainage 
ditches  which,  filled  with  water,  created  "little  islands."  It  is 
not  likely,  however,  that  the  use  of  the  word  had  such  a  literal 
origin.  Cf.  Cable,  who  said  that  the  Acadians  on  the  Louisiana 
prairies  called  their  homestead  groves  ties  {Bo7iaventure,  10). 
Littre  gives  He  and  ilot  for  what  we  would  call  a  "block  of 
houses" ;  usage  in  America  was  obviously  different.  Cf .  also 
islettes,  islettes  de  bois  in  the  Henry  and  Thompson  Journals 
(I,  66),  which  Coues  explains  as  a  term  Canadian  voyageurs 
used  for  patches  or  clumps  of  trees  bordering  a  river.  In  all 
of  these  instances  we  are  obviously  concerned  with  the  sem- 
blance of  an  island,  not  with  the  reality. 


90  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

Illinois.  The  Illinois  Country  during  the  French  Regime  was 
all  that  portion  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  on  both  banks,  in- 
cluding the  Ohio  and  Missouri  Valleys  as  well  as  that  of  the 
Illinois,  from  the  Ohio  north  through  the  hunting  grounds  of 
the  Illinois  Indians.  The  chef-lieu  at  Fort  Chartres  was  the 
seat  of  government  not  merely  for  the  settlements  in  the  im- 
mediate neighborhood  but  also  for  Vincennes  and  Arkansas 
Post.  Originally  a  part  of  Canada,  during  the  first  third  of 
the  eighteenth  century  its  possession  was  a  matter  of  dispute 
between  Canada  and  Louisiana;  it  was  included,  however,  in 
the  grant  to  the  Mississippi  Company  in  1717  and  came  to  be 
effectively  a  dependency  of  Louisiana.  For  an  excellent  descrip- 
tion of  the  region,  the  people,  and  their  ways  of  living,  consult 
Alvord,  The  Illinois  Countnj,  190-224. 

After  the  evacuation  of  the  eastern  portion  of  this  country 
by  Saint  Ange  in  October,  1765,  the  country  west  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi from  the  Ohio  northwards  was  known  in  both  French 
and  Spanish  documents  as  the  "western  part  of  the  Illinois" 
until  the  district  of  New  Madrid  was  set  up.  In  its  last  colonial 
decade  the  region  north  of  New  Madrid  was  generally  named 
in  documents  "Upper  Louisiana."    See,  however,  Missouri. 

The  name  was  customarily  written  Aux  Illinois:  at  the  Illi- 
nois (in  the  country  of  the  Illinois), 

inconnu.   See  bois  inconnu. 

indien,  indienne;  indien  (indienne)  rouge;  n.  and  adj.,  m.  and 
f.  Indian,  red  Indian.  These  forms  were  rarely  used  before 
1840.   See  naturel,  sauvage. 

isle,  islette.  See  He. 

J 

jambo,  n.m.  A  sambo;  a  person  of  mixed  blood,  generally 
Indian  and  negro. 

Bossu  has  a  definition  varying  from  the  customary:  "Ceux 
[qui  sont  nes]  d'un  Sauvage  &  d'une  metive  sont  nommes 
jamhos"  (Nouveaux  Voyages  clans  VAmerique  Septentrionale, 
334,  n.).   See  zambo. 

jasmine,  n.f.  The  papaw.  Bossu  used  this  form  in  his  Nou- 
veaux Voyages  aux  Indes  Occidentales,  II,  118-119.  See  assi- 
mine. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  91 

jassemlnier,  n.m.    The  papaw  tree.    This  form  of  assiminier 

(q.v.)  was  used  by  Berquin-Duvallon  (Vue  de  la  Colonic,  112). 
jongler,  V.    intr.    To  waver  between  two  propositions  (Kurz, 

Journal,  104). 
jonglerie,  n.f.    Indian  magic  or  medicine;  the  medicine-hut 

(Clapin,  192;  Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  142; 

John  McDonnell,  "The  Red  River,"  276-277).    See  medecine. 
jongleur,  n.m.    An  Indian  medicine  man.    The  favorite  term 

with    Bossu    and    other    eighteenth    century    travelers.     See 

tnedecin,  medecine. 
Jour  de  TAn,*  n.m.  New  Year's  Day.  For  descriptive  accounts 

see  Primm,  "New  Year's  Day  in  St.  Louis,"  Papin,  "Early  St. 

Louis,"  638-641. 
Jour  des  Rois,*  n.m.  Twelfth  Night.  See  hal  dcs  rois. 
journalier,  n.m.    A   day  laborer,   principally  in  agriculture. 

Farm-hand.  Not  much  in  use  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  because 

of  slavery.  See  Jmbitant. 
journee,  n.f.    A  day's  journey,  travel,  or  work. 

K 

kanikanik.   See  kiniJdnik. 

Kao.   Abbreviation  for  Cahokia. 

karancro.    More  commonly  spelled  carancro,  carcncro  (q.v.). 

Kas.  Abbreviation  for  Kaskaskia.  Aux  Kas.:  at  the  village 
of  the  Kaskaskia  Indians,  in  the  country  of  the  Kaskaskia 
Indians,  at  (the  town  of)  Kaskaskia. 

The  statement  made  by  many  nineteenth  century  writers 
that  Kaskaskia  was  as  old  as  Philadelphia  (founded  1682) 
was  based  on  a  confusion  of  names.  The  Kaskaskia  Indian 
villages  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  seventeenth  century  were 
located  on  the  upper  part  of  the  Illinois  River  and  among  them 
in  1675  Marquette  established  a  Jesuit  mission.  Pressure  from 
the  Iroquois  forcing  the  Kaskaskia  to  move  further  south,  they 
formed  a  settlement  at  the  Des  Peres  River  on  the  right  (west) 
bank  of  the  Mississippi  and  in  that  place  the  Jesuits  main- 
tained a  mission  from  1700  to  1703.  In  the  latter  year  Indians 
and  Jesuits  moved  to  the  Kaskaskia  River  location  and  French- 
men began  to  settle.  Fifteen  years  later  the  Indian  village  was 


92  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

removed  a  few  miles,  but  the  French  remained  and  Kaskaskia 
became  a  finnly  established  colonial  town.  Consult  Garraghan, 
"The  First  Settlement  on  the  Site  of  St.  Louis"  (Chapters  in 
Frontier  History,  73-84)  ;  Palm,  Jesuit  Missions  of  the  Illinois 
Country. 

kayac.  See  cayac. 

kiliou,  Ind.,  n.m.  The  calumet  bird  (Abel,  Tabeau's  Narrative, 
90  and  n.  6).  Dr.  Abel  identifies  this  bird  as  the  golden  eagle. 
Tixier  spoke  of  the  aigle  a  tete  blanche  (q.v.),  (the  bald-headed 
eagle)  as  the  calumet  bird  (Travels,  213,  261).  See  oiseau  de 
calumet,  quiliou. 

kinikinik,  kinikinick,  Ind.,  n.m.  An  Indian  smoking  mixture 
made  principally  of  various  kinds  of  bark.  By  Ruxton  spelled 
kinnik-kinnik  (In  the  Old  West,  174)  ;  by  E.  James,  kinne 
canick  (Long's  Expedition,  II,  122)  ;  by  Townsend,  kanikanik 
(Narrative  of  a  Journey,  146)  ;  by  Arese,  canicanick  (Trip  to 
the  Prairies,  93).   See  bois  route. 

kiniou,  kinuw.   See  quiliou. 

L 

laboureur,  n.m.  A  farmer.  The  word  in  common  use,  how- 
ever, was  habitant  (q.v.). 

In  France  "owners  of  means  and  farmers  on  a  large  scale 
(often  called  laboureurs)  constituted  only  a  small  minority  of 
the  rural  population.  .  .  .  The  peasants  .  .  .  did  not  all  possess 
the  same  amount  of  property.  There  were  some  who  could  live 
exclusively  from  the  cultivation  of  their  fields,  and  who  con- 
stituted a  sort  of  peasant  aristocracy,  the  class  of  laborers" 
(See,  Economic  and  Social  Conditions  in  France  during  the 
Eighteenth  Century,  5-6,  15-16). 

lait  des  Francois,  n.m.  Brandy,  whiskey.  According  to  Bossu 
(Nouveaux  Voyages  dans  VAmerique  Septentrionale,  222,  n.), 
this  was  an  Indian  term  for  eau  de  vie,  or  firewater.  See  also 
Wisconsin  Historical  Collections,  XVII,  381  and  n.  2. 

lapanie.    See  marmiton. 

large,  n.m.  The  open  prairie,  the  great  plains,  the  interior 
country. 

According  to  Clapin  (358),  in  Canada  the  term  au  large 
means  to  be  at  a  distance  (in  field  or  wood)  from  the  farm 


I 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  93 

house.  Cable,  however,  said  the  phrase,  common  among  the 
Acadians  of  Louisiana,  was  derived  from  the  habits  of  their 
seafaring  ancestors :  au  large  meant  on  the  open  prairie  which 
had  much  the  appearance  of  the  open  sea.  ''The  cottage  was 
au  large — far  out  across  the  smooth,  unscarred  turf  of  the 
immense  prairie"  (Bonaventure,  5).  Tixier  defined  au  large 
as  "the  farthest  regions  of  the  prairies"  (Travels,  122) ,  Cham- 
berlain said  that  in  the  north  large  signified  the  open  country 
("Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  139).    Cf.  naviguer  au  large. 

latanier,  n.m.  The  dwarf  palm  or  palmetto  (Le  Page  du 
Pratz,  Histoire,  II,  48-49;  Robin,  Voyages,  III,  337;  Flint, 
Geography  and  History  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  I,  85). 

laurier  amande,  n.m.  The  almond-cherry  or  cherry  laurel  tree 
(Robin,  Voyages,  III,  362;  Nuttall,  Sylva,  II,  18). 

laurier  tulipier,  n.m.  The  large  magnolia  or  big  laurel 
(Michaux,  Sylva,  II,  5).  Read  (47)  says  that  the  sweet  bay 
tree  in  Louisiana  is  called  the  laurier  doux  or  le  magnolia. 

liane  blanche,  n.f.  According  to  Robin,  this  was  the  name 
given  in  Louisiana  to  the  broom  shrub  (Voyages,  III,  500). 

liar,  Hard  (1),  n.m.  The  Cottonwood  (Carolina)  poplar. 
Cotonnier  (q.v.)  was  used  only  for  the  sycamore.  "Populus 
Caroliniana,  by  the  French  Creoles  [called]  Liard,  and  by  the 
Americans  Cotton  tree"  (Michaux,  Travels,  75,  77).  Nuttall 
spoke  of  seeing  "enormous  cotton- wood  trees  (Popuhis  angidi- 
sans) ,  commonly  called  yellow  poplar,  some  of  them  more  than 
six  feet  in  diameter"  (Travels,  90).  In  Spanish  documents 
this  word  frequently  appears  liar.  Read  (47)  gives  the  botani- 
cal name  as  Populus  deltoides  virginiana  Sudw.  For  the  cotton- 
wood  poplar  see  Michaux,  Sylva,  II,  115-118,  121-122. 

liard  (2),  n.m.  A  copper  coin  of  2  deniers  value,  known  also 
as  a  double  denier  (Shortt,  Documents  Relatifs  d  la  Monnaie, 
I,  12-13).   ^QQlivre  (2). 

liard  amere,  n.m.  The  Canadian  name  for  the  narrow-leaved 
Cottonwood  (Fremont,  Report  of  Exploring  Expedition,  118). 

liasse,  n.f.  Bundle.  In  an  inventory  or  auction  record,  this 
word  may  sometimes  be  read  lot. 

lieue,  n.f.  The  French  post  league  was  2000  toises  or  2.4229 
English  miles  (Clark,  Metric  Measures,  56). 


94  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

ligne,  n.f.  A  linear  measure  equal  to  one-twelfth  of  a  French 
inch.  See  pied. 

lilas  Creole,  n.m.  The  China  tree.  Tixier  identified  this  as 
azedurac  bipinne  (Travels,  34).  Read  (48)  says  it  is  the 
China-Berry  or  China-Ball  Tree  (Melia  azedarach  L.)  and 
adds  that  it  is  also  known  in  Louisiana  as  lilas  parasol.  An- 
other common  English  name  for  the  lilas  Creole  was  "pride  of 
India"  (Michaux,  Sijlva,  III,  3). 

llmbourg,  n.m.    A  kind  of  coarse  cloth. 

"Une  espece  de  gros  drap  teint  en  bleu  connu  dans  ces 
regions  sous  le  nom  de  Limbourg,  que  Ton  tire  principalement 
d'Allemagne,  est  encore  une  branche  de  commerce  presque 
aussi  considerable  que  celle  des  petites  couvertures.  Ces  draps, 
large  de  cinq  quarts  [q.v.],  coutent,  la  piece  de  seize  aunes, 
quinze  a  vingt  piastres  a  la  Nouvelle-Orleans ;  ils  s'emploient 
a  faire,  pour  I'hiver,  des  vestes  et  pantalons  aux  gens  de 
couleur,  aux  ouvriers,  aux  habitans  des  campagnes  moins  aises. 
Ce  debit  est  immense  parmi  toutes  les  nations  sauvages.  Ces 
peuples  s'en  font  des  braguets  [q.v.'],  des  mitasses  [q.v.],  des 
mantes  ou  especes  de  manteaux  et  des  especes  de  jupes  pour 
les  femmes"  (Robin,  Voyages,  II,  106-107). 

lisiere  de  bois,  n.f.    A  strip  or  border  of  woods. 

"Passe  encore  les  Prairies  entrecoupees  de  lisieres  de  bois" 
(Michaux,  Journal,  123). 

Hsse,  n.f.  The  framework  of  a  canoe. 

livre  (1),  n.f.  As  a  measure  of  weight  the  livre  equalled 
1.079219  English  pounds  (Alexander,  Dictionary  of  Weights 
and  Measures,  56) . 

livre  (2),  n.f.  As  a  money  term,  roughly  equal  to  the  franc 
that  supplanted  it.  Never  to  be  translated  by  the  English 
monetary  term,  "pound."  Officially  five  livres  (sometimes  five 
livres,  five  sous)  equalled  one  piastre  (one  dollar)  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Actually,  however,  if  one 
judges  from  valuations  in  inventories  and  records  of  sale,  as 
well  as  from  conditions  of  life,  the  livre  in  practice  should  be 
thought  of  as  worth  about  one  dollar.  E.  g.,  a  Saint  Louisan 
who  left,  in  1772,  an  estate  that  included  a  house  and  lot  in 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  95 

town,  a  barn,  two  pairs  of  oxen,  two  horses,  four  cows,  a  boar, 
thirty-four  pigs,  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  acres  of  farm 
land,  two  negro  men  slaves,  and  other  personal  property  (offi- 
cial valuation  10,000  livres)  certainly  had  lived  in  a  style  a 
good  deal  more  comfortable  than  a  property  of  $2,000  would 
indicate  (McDermott,  "Paincourt  and  Poverty").  For  coin- 
age and  values,  paper  money  and  credit,  consult  Zay,  Histoire 
Monetaire  des  Colonies  Frangaises;  Shortt,  Documents  Relatifs 
a  la  MonTiaie;  Surrey,  Commerce  of  Louisiana,  102-154.  For 
individual  coins  and  paper  issue  consult  the  proper  term  in  this 
volume. 

French  money  terms  commonly  met  with,  considered  in  rela- 
tion to  the  livre  at  20  cents,  were : 

denier %  .000833         ecu $  .60 

sol   01  loids  d'argent .60 

sou 01  gourde 1.00 

picaillon   06 14  piastre 1.00 

escalin I21/2  piastre  gourde  1.00 

escalin  gourde  I21/2  pistole  —  2.00 

escalin  platille 12 1/2  louis  d'or  5.00 

It  must  be  remembered  that  this  is  merely  a  table  showing 
proportionate  value.  The  shifting  of  value,  the  fluctuations 
caused  or  marked  by  French  financial  decrees  are  reported  in 
detail  in  the  sources  already  cited.  In  the  central  part  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley,  at  least,  financial  transactions  were  fre- 
quently expressed  in  terms  of  peltry;  at  Saint  Louis  many  a 
contract  or  inventory  named  the  amount  concerned  in  both 
silver  and  shaved  deerskins  (commonly  worth  two  livres  the 
pound). 
loge  des  vieillards,  n.f.    The  lodge  of  the  Old  Men. 

In  the  village,  the  war  camp,  the  hunting  camp,  it  was  the 
custom  of  the  plains  Indians  to  set  up  two  special  lodges,  one 
called  the  lodge  (or  fire)  of  the  Old  Men,  the  other  the  lodge 
(or  fire)  of  the  Warriors.  The  first  represented  counsel,  wis- 
dom; the  second,  courage,  action.  There  was  not,  however, 
any  "membership"  based  on  youth  or  age.  The  men  of  the 
tribe  might  attend  at  the  lodge  of  the  Old  Men  to  hear  a  noted 
chief  advise  caution  and  immediately  afterwards  adjourn  to 


96  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

the  other  lodge  where  an  ambitious  partisan  was  trying  to 
form  a  war  party.  See  Perrin  du  Lac,  Voyage,  269 ;  Tixier, 
Travels,  172,  218-219. 

louis  d'argent,  n.m.    A  silver  coin  worth  3  livres  (q.v.). 

louis  d'or,  n.m.   A  gold  coin  worth  25  livres  (q.v.). 

loup  a  moule,  n.m.    The  prairie  wolf  (Tache,  Esquisse,  118). 

loup-cervier,  n.m.   Lynx.    Less  common  than  carcajou  (q.v.). 

M 

magasin,  n.m.    Storeroom,  warehouse.    Used  for  the  public 

supplies.   See  garde-magasin. 
mahls,  mahiz.   Variants  of  mdis  (q.v.). 
mai,  arbre  de  mai,  n.m.    A  pole  set  up  as  a  marker  along  the 

river,  similar  in  purpose  to  the  blazing  (see  plaque  [2])  of  a 

trail  in  the  forest.    See  James  McKenzie,  "The  King's  Posts 

and  Journal  of  a  Canoe-Jaunt,"  416. 
maiis,  n.m.    Corn,  Indian  corn.    For  an  early  account  see  Le 

Page  du  Pratz,  Histoire,  II,  3-6.  See  hie  de  Turquie,  hie  d'Inde. 
mai's  boucane,  n.m.  Roasting  ears. 

"Quand  il  [mais]  est  vert,  les  negres,  les  Creoles,  les  Anglais 

surtout,  le  mangent  en  epis  grille,  ce  qu'ils  nomment  viais 

boucane"   (Robin,  Voyages,  III,  41-42).    Cf.  hie  groule.    See 

boucaner  (1). 
maison,  n.f.  A  permanent  village  of  the  Indians.   "Town"  was 

the  customary  American  word.    So,  at  least,  Tixier  used  and 

explained  this  word  among  the  Osage    (Travels,  127  and  n. 

128;  176  and  n.  18). 
malson  de  pieces  sur  pieces,  n.f.    The  American  style  cabin 

built  of  hewn  logs  laid  horizontally.    For  architectural  types 

in  the  Mississippi  Valley  settlements  consult  Peterson,  "French 

Houses  of  the  Illinois  Country"  and  "Early  Ste.  Genevieve  and 

Its  Architecture." 
maison  de  poteaux  en  terre,  n.f.    The  French  log  cabin  built 

with  upright  hewn  timbers  set  in  the  earth.    See  maison  de 

pieces  sur  pieces. 
maison  de  poteaux  sur  sol,  n.f.   A  house  of  upright  timbers  set 

on  a  sill  or  foundation.   A  "frame"  house,  but  built  of  logs. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  97 

Sol  was  frequently  spelled  sole  and  solle.   See  maison  de  pieces 
sur  pieces. 

maison  en  boulins,  n.f.  Another  name  for  the  maison  de  pieces 
sur  pieces.  See  boulin. 

majorite,  n.f.  The  Frenchman  did  not  attain  his  full  majority 
until  he  reached  the  age  of  twenty-five.  Consult  Viollet,  His- 
toire  du  Droit  Civil  Frangais,  509-516.  By  emancipation  (q.v.) 
he  might,  however,  be  granted  full  legal  rights.  See  also 
tutelle. 

makague,  Ind.,  n.m.  A  large,  birch-bark  box  or  container  used 
by  the  Chippewa  Indians  to  hold  sugar.  See  Hodge,  Handbook 
of  Ameincan  Indians,  I,  918 ;  Wisconsin  Historical  Collections, 
XIX,  232,  n.  40.  Nute  writes  makuk  (Voyageur,  80).  Other 
spellings  are  mocock,  mocuck. 

mamelle,  n.f.  A  hill.  The  name  was  commonly  in  use  in  the 
central  and  lower  parts  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  for  hills  of 
a  particular  shape  and  grouping.  Cf .  butte,  cote,  coteau,  ecore, 
teton. 

Of  the  mamelles  near  Saint  Charles,  Missouri,  Flint  said 
in  his  Recollections  of  Ten  Years  (121),  "These  are  a  succes- 
sion of  regular,  cone-shaped  bluffs,  which  the  French, — who 
are  remarkable  for  giving  names  significant  of  the  fancied  re- 
semblance of  the  thing, — have  supposed  to  resemble  the  object 
whose  name  they  bear."  Flagg  described  the  same  hills  in 
more  detail:  "The  natural  eminences  which  have  obtained  the 
appropriate  appellation  of  Mamelles,  from  their  striking  re- 
semblance to  the  female  breast,  are  a  pair  of  lofty,  conical 
mounds,  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  feet  altitude,  swelling  up 
perfectly  naked  and  smooth  upon  the  margin  of  that  cele- 
brated prairie  which  owes  them  a  name.  So  beautifully  are 
they  paired  and  so  richly  rounded,  that  it  would  hardly  re- 
quire a  Frenchman's  eye  or  that  of  an  Indian  to  detect  the 
resemblance  designated,  remarkable  though  both  races  have 
shown  themselves  for  bestowing  upon  objects  in  natural  scen- 
ery significant  names"  {Far  West,  I,  273).  Cf.  Maximilian 
{Travels  in  North  America,  III,  139)  :  "Mr.  Lesueur  visited 
the  Indian  barrows  [near  Vincennes],  of  which  there  are  sev- 
eral in  the  plain,  and  which  the  French  settlers  call  mamelon." 


98  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

mandat,  n.m,  A  government  warrant,  apparently  negotiable. 
It  differed  from  the  billet  and  the  bon  in  that  these  last  two 
terms  were  applied  to  private  notes,  whereas  the  former, 
mandat,  was  a  note  of  government  issue.  Such  distinctions  in 
terminology,  however,  were  not  always  made. 

mandragore,  n.f.    The  ginseng  plant. 

According  to  Ulloa,  "Les  marchands  en  gros  de  cette  meme 
partie  de  la  Louisiane  [the  Missouri  River  and  the  great 
plains] ,  qui  font  des  courses  dans  ces  contrees,  disent  que  non- 
seulement  on  y  appergoit  la  figure  humaine,  mais  qu'on  y 
distingue  meme  les  deux  sexes"  (Memoires  Philosophiques,  I, 
144-145). 

mangeur  de  lard,  n.m.  A  pork-eater,  a  novice,  a  greenhorn. 
A  name  given  by  voyageurs  and  coureurs  des  bois  to  the  be- 
ginner who  in  his  first  hardships  "regrettait  souvent  le  pain 
et  le  lard  de  la  table  paternelle"  (Clapin,  198).  See  also  Maxi- 
milian, Travels  in  North  Arnerica,  II,  25.  See  blanc-bec,  voy- 
ageur. 

mangeur  de  poulet,  n.m.  The  chicken  hawk  or  hen  hawk 
(Audubon,  Ornithological  Biography,  I,  85,  270).  Read  (49) 
gives  the  present  Louisiana  form  as  mangeur  poulets;  he  also 
(36-37)  gives  emerillon  and  eprevier  as  other  Louisiana  names 
for  the  sparrow  hawk  or  chicken  hawk. 

mangeur  des  maringouins,  n.m.  Goatsucker,  nighthawk,  bull- 
bat. 

"If  we  shot  a  goatsucker,  we  found  in  his  capacious  jaws  a 
ball  of  mosquitoes,  which  quite  filled  it,  which  are  gradually 
collected  and  swallowed  from  time  to  time;  so  that  the  name 
mangeur  des  maringouins,  given  to  this  bird  by  the  Canadians, 
is  very  appropriate"  (Maximilian,  Travels  in  North  Aynerica, 
II,  20).  Read  (95)  has  Canadian  French:  "nighthawk"; 
Louisiana  French :  "bullbat." 

marabou,  n.m.  A  term  used  to  describe  the  child  of  a  muldtre 
iq.v.)  and  a  griff e  (q.v.)  ;  a  person  with  five-eighths  negro 
blood  (Olmsted,  Seaboard  Slave  States,  583). 

marais,  n.m.  Literally,  a  swamp,  but  more  properly  rendered 
"lake"  or  "pond." 

In  the  central  part  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  marais  was 
generally  used  for  ox-bow  lakes.    Marais  Croche  near  Saint 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  99 

Charles,  Missouri,  means  "crooked  lake"  rather  than  "crooked 
swamp."  On  the  prairie  in  Louisiana,  according  to  Cable,  the 
term  was  used  for  "the  clear  circular  ponds  which  one  sees  of 
every  size  and  in  every  direction  on  the  seemingly  level  land" 
(Bonaventure,  5).  Dorrance  (84)  has  for  Missouri  French  to- 
day: a  "watering  hole"  for  horses  and  cattle.  Cf.  also  Mc- 
Kenney  (Tour  to  the  Lakes,  221)  :  "There  being  no  good  land- 
ing for  many  miles  ahead,  we  entered  this  place  [Grand 
Ma7'ais'] — which,  however,  instead  of  being  a  great  marsh,  as 
its  name  imparts,  is  a  most  beautiful  bay,  and  a  harbor  of  the 
finest  sort." 

marais  tremblant,  n.m.  Le  Page  du  Pratz  (Histoire,  I,  274- 
275)  applied  this  term  to  land  called  prairie  tremhlante  (q.v.) 
by  Tixier. 

marangouen,  marangouin.    See  maringouin. 

marchand,  marchant,  n.m.  A  resident  merchant.  Used  in  the 
sense  of  wholesaler  or  jobber,  one  who  handled  supplies  for 
traders.   Cf.  traiteur. 

marchand  voyageur,  n.m.  A  traveling  trader  who  carried  his 
merchandise  to  the  Indian  country. 

marche,  n.f.  A  distance  to  be  covered.  The  term  applied  as 
much  to  travel  on  water  as  on  land.  Voyageurs  habitually 
called  any  stretch  of  river  or  lake  to  be  traveled  a  marche. 

marguillier,  n.m.    A  churchwarden. 

In  the  villages  of  the  Illinois  Country  the  members  of  the 
parish  elected  annually  two  such  agents  to  handle  secular  af- 
fairs, particularly  financial.  For  the  range  of  their  functions 
consult  Brissaud,  History  of  French  Public  Laiu,  424.  For 
particular  accounts  see  Palm,  Jesuit  Missions  of  the  Illinois 
Country,  63 ;  Rothensteiner,  History  of  the  Archdiocese  of  St. 
Louis,  I,  247-251;  Garraghan,  St.  Ferdinand  de  Florissant, 
142-154.   See  fabrique. 

mariage,  n.m.  For  various  matters  relating  to  marriage  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley  see  contrat  de  mariage,  communaute,  di- 
vorce. 

maringouin,  n.m.    The  mosquito. 

"II  y  a  encore  tant  de  maringouins  ou  cousins,  que  vous  ne 
sauriez  sortir  sans  en  etre  couvert  et  pique  de  tous  cotes" 


100  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

(Marest  to  Lamberville  [Canada,  ca.  1706],  Jesuit  Relations 
and  Allied  Documents,  LXVI,  112-114).  "Mais  on  ne  parlerait 
point  des  [autres]  insectes  sans  les  maringouins :  ce  petit  ani- 
mal a  plus  fait  jurer  depuis  que  les  Fran^ais  sont  au  Mississipi, 
que  Ton  n'avait  jure  jusqu'alors  dans  toutes  le  reste  du  monde. 
.  .  .  Chicagou,  pour  faire  comprendre  a  ceux  de  la  Nation  la 
multitude  des  Frangais  qu'il  avait  vus,  leur  disait  qu'il  y  en 
avait  autant  le  grand  village  (a  Paris)  que  de  feuilles  sur  les 
arbres  et  de  maringouins  dans  les  hois"  (Poisson  [Arkansas, 
1727]  Jesuit  Relations  and  Allied  Documents,  LXVII,  292- 
294).  "The  night  was  horrible,  without  a  minute  of  sleep  be- 
cause we  were  so  tormented  by  the  marangouens,  which  are 
a  sort  of  giant  mosquito"  (Arese,  Trip  to  the  Prairies,  74). 
For  the  use  of  maringouin  and  moustique  in  Louisiana  see 
Read,  92-95. 
marmiton,  n.m.  A  scullion.  In  its  application  to  the  Indians, 
however,  the  functions  of  this  personage  were  more  important 
and  more  varied  than  such  a  title  indicates.  The  following  cita- 
tions will  show  that  the  marmiton  should  be  given  a  good  deal 
more  respect  than  he  has  received  from  some  travelers. 

Pike  in  1806  noted  that  "The  Cooks  are  either  for  the  gen- 
eral use,  or  attached  particularly  to  the  family  of  some  great 
man ;  and  what  is  the  more  singular,  men  who  have  been  great 
warriors  and  brave  men,  having  lost  all  their  families  by  dis- 
ease, in  the  war,  and  themselves  becoming  old  and  infirm,  fre- 
quently take  up  the  profession  of  cook,  in  which  they  do  not 
carry  arms,  and  are  supported  by  the  public  or  their  particular 
patron. 

"They  likewise  exercise  the  functions  of  town  criers,  calling 
the  chiefs  to  council  and  to  feasts ;  or  if  any  particular  person 
is  wanted,  you  employ  a  crier,  who  goes  through  the  village 
crying  his  name  and  informing  him  that  he  is  wanted  at  such 
a  lodge.  .  .  ."  (Coues,  ed.,  Expeditions  of  Z.  M.  Pike,  II,  528). 

Washington  Irving,  too,  recognized  the  true  quality  of  this 
official:  "Chief  cook  of  Osage  villages — a  great  dignitary — 
combining  grand  chamberlain,  minister  of  state,  master  of 
ceremonies  and  town  crier — has  undercooks.  He  tastes  broth, 
etc.  When  strangers  arrive  he  goes  about  the  village  and  makes 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  101 

proclamation — great  white  man,  great  chief  arrived — warriors 
turn  out  and  prepare  to  receive  him  properly.  Chief  lodge  pre- 
pared for  reception — mats  placed,  etc. 

"In  the  course  of  our  journey  from  Independence  we  met 
with  camp  of  Osage  hunters — the  cook  a  tall  man  painted — 
head  decorated  with  feathers — and  an  old  greatcoat,  with  a 
wolf's  tail  dangling  below"  (Journals,  III,  156). 

In  addition  to  these  citations  see  Bradbury,  Travels,  129, 
137;  Brackenridge,  Journal,  58,  112-113;  E.  James,  Long's 
Expedition,  I,  289-293;  Tixier,  Travels,  119  and  n.  10,  172, 
187,  199,  216.  Among  the  Osage,  according  to  Tixier,  the  word 
for  marmiton  was  lapdnie. 

maroon.   See  mai^ron. 

marron,  marronne,  n.  and  adj.,  m.  and  f.  Wild,  but  used  only 
for  a  reversion  from  a  domesticated  state. 

"Des  troupeaux  des  vaches  devenues  marronnes,  c'est-a-dire 
qui  n'avaient  pas  de  maitres  connus"  (Robin,  Voyages,  III, 
65).  "Les  Creoles  ont  nommes  marrons,  les  chevaux  qui  vivent 
a  I'etat  sauvage  dans  les  immenses  prairies  des  deux  Ameri- 
ques.  Ces  chevaux  descendent,  dit-on,  de  ceux  que  perdirent 
les  anciens  conquerants  du  Mexique,  et  leurs  troupes  se  sont 
grossies  de  tous  ceux  qui  ont  echappe  aux  habitants  des  fron- 
tieres.  C'est  done  un  melange  des  races  andalouse  et  anglaise. 
lis  sont  generalement  bien  faits  et  gras.  lis  vivent  en  troupes 
peu  nombreuses  dans  les  prairies  de  I'Amerique  septentrionale ; 
on  en  rencontre  rarement  plus  de  soixante  a  la  fois,  mais  on  en 
voit  frequemment"  (Tixier,  Voyage,  223) .  See  also  Le  Page  du 
Pratz,  Histoire,  I,  334. 

The  term  was  applied  also  to  runaway  slaves.  Cf.  English 
"maroon"  as  used  in  the  West  Indies. 

marte,  n.f.  Marten  (Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth  of 
Words,"  85). 

martinet,  n.m.  The  swallow.  Audubon  said  the  swallow  was 
known  in  Louisiana  as  le  petit  martinet  a  ventre  blanc  (Orni- 
thological Biography,  I,  355).  Read  (49)  gives  le  petit  rnarti- 
net  a  ventre  bronze  as  the  name  for  the  barn  swallow. 

maskeg,  muskeg,  Ind.,  n.m.  Swamp,  bog,  morass  (Clapin,  359 ; 
Coues,  ed.,  Henry  and  Thompson  Journals,  I,  287). 


102  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

masquabina.   See  Cormier. 

matacher,  v.tr.   To  paint  in  various  colors  and  designs. 

"They  [two  Indians]  were  arrayed  as  for  a  ceremony,  care- 
fully matache, — that  is  to  say,  the  whole  body  painted  with 
different  colors.  ...  A  matache  skin  is  a  skin  painted  by  the 
Savages  in  different  colors,  and  on  which  they  represent  calu- 
mets, birds  and  beasts"  (Poisson  to  Patouillet  [1727],  Jesuit 
Relations  and  Allied  Documents,  LXVII,  251,  257-259) .  Perrin 
du  Lac  described  it  as  a  term  used  by  the  Canadian  traders: 
"matacher  correspond  a  peindre  ou  barbouiller"  (Voyage, 
270).  Clapin  (360)  spelled  this  verb  matachier.  The  past 
participle  matache  frequently  means  "spotted."  See  also  Read, 
95-96. 

matachias,  Ind.,  n.m.pl.    Beads   (Clapin,  360;  Chamberlain, 

"Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  141). 
matelas,  n.m.    "A  layer  of  sugar  canes  kept  to  be  planted" 

(Tixier,  Travels,  80  and  n.  67). 
mauvaise  terre,  n.f.    Applied  to  any  district  "cut  up  into  deep 

and  intricate  chasms"  (Nicollet,  Report,  41).   For  description 

of  the  Bad  Lands  of  Dakota,  see  Audubon  and  Bachman, 

Quadrupeds,  166-170 ;  Owen,  Report,  194-206. 
meamelouc,  n.m.    A  person  with  one-sixteenth  negro  blood 

(Olmsted,  Seaboard  Slave  States,  583).   See  middtre. 
medecin,  n.m.  A  medicine  man.  Variously  called  by  travelers : 

jongleur,  sorcier,  pretre. 

medecine,  n.f.  Medical  practice,  magic,  priestcraft  among  the 
Indians.  The  doctor,  juggler,  sorcerer,  or  priest,  as  he  has 
been  variously  labelled  by  travelers,  was  the  intermediary  be- 
tween the  Indian  and  the  supernatural  powers ;  before  any 
important  undertaking  the  medicine  man  performed  an  ap- 
propriate ceremony  leading  toward  successful  culmination  of 
the  enterprise.  Consult,  among  others,  Hodge,  Handbook,  I, 
836-839;  Tixier,  Travels,  81,  217,  219,  231  and  n.  20,  240; 
Fletcher  and  La  Flesche,  Omaha  Tribe,  295;  Swanton,  "Re- 
ligious Beliefs  and  Medical  Practices  of  the  Creek  Indians." 
Many  eighteenth  century  travelers  had  much  to  say  about  the 
religious  customs  of  the  Indians. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  103 

medecine  de  castor,  n.f.   Beaver  bait. 

"The  bait  which  is  put  on  it  [the  trap]  is  a  mixture  of 
beaver  secretions  {castor eum)  with  various  spices  and  some 
whiskey.  A  twig  or  two  is  smeared  with  this,  and  set  upon 
the  trap.  The  bait  must  project  over  the  water"  (Wislezenus, 
Journey  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  120). 

melon  frangals,  n.m.   Watermelon. 

"Les  habitants  sement  encore  des  melons  d'eau,  et  d'autres 
especes  qu'ils  nomment  vulgairement  melon  frangais"  (Robin, 
Voyages,  III,  42).  Read  (50)  has  "cantaloupe  or  rockmelon." 
See  also  Le  Page  du  Pratz,  Histoire,  II,  12-14, 

menuisier,  n.m.    A  cabinet-maker  or  furniture-maker.    Clapin 
(216)  gives  a  variant  Canadian  spelling:  menusier. 

metif.  See  metis, 

metis,  metisse,  n.m.  and  f.   A  half-breed  of  white  and  Indian 

parents.   Sometimes  written  metif,  metive. 

"They  are  called  Metis,  or  half-breeds,  being  descendants 
of  Canadians  [French],  English,  and  Scotch,  crossed  with 
Chippeways,  Kristinaux,  Assiniboins,  Sioux,  &c.,  &c.  They 
represent  the  remains  of  Lord  Selkirk's  colony  and  of  the  Hud- 
son Bay  Company.  .  .  .  The  Metis  call  themselves  'free  people', 
{gens  libres,  [q-v.] )  but  by  their  neighbors  they  are  designated 
as  'Metis  of  the  Red  River',  'the  Red-river  people',  'the  People 
of  the  North'"  (Nicollet,  Report,  49).  See  also  Tache,  Es- 
quisse,  65-73.  See  bois-brule,  homme-lihre.  Olmsted  reported 
metis  used  in  the  South  for  the  octoroon  {Seaboard  Slave 
States,  583).   See  muldtre. 

mi-careme,  n.f.  Mid-Lent.  Thursday  of  the  third  week  of  Lent, 
a  day  of  relaxation  from  Lenten  rules. 

micoine  (1),  n.f.   A  spoon.   See  micouene. 

micolne   (2),  n.f,    A  Louisiana  name  for  the  shoveler  duck 

(Audubon,  Ornithological  Biography,  IV,  241). 
micoinee,  Ind.,  n.f.   A  spoonful  (Chamberlain,  "Indian  Words 

in  French  Canadian,"  II,  17),   See  micouene. 
micouene,  micouenne,  mikouen,  Ind,,  n.f.    A  spoon  made  of 

wood  or  horn    (Bossu,  Nouveaux   Voyages  dans  I'Amerique 

Septentrionale,    104;    Elliott,    "Speech    Mixture    in    French 


104  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

Canada,"  148;  Clapin,  217;  Tixier,  Travels,  117  and  n.  4,  132). 

Chamberlain  gives  other  variant  spellings :  micoine,  micouaine, 

micouanne  ("Indian  Words  in  French  Canadian,"  II,  17). 
milieu,  n.m,    A  middleman;  a  man  in  the  center  of  a  canoe 

(Nute,  Voyageur,  26). 
mille,  n.m.  A  mile.   1000  toises  or  1.2114  English  miles  (Clark, 

Metric  Measures,  65). 

mineur,  n.m.  One  w^ho  has  not  attained  legal  age.  See  emanci- 
pation, majorite,  tutelle. 

minot,  n.m.  A  dry  measure,  equal  to  39.36  liters  (Littre). 
Clapin  (217),  however,  gives  the  equivalent  as  36.34  liters.  It 
has  been  erroneously  translated  as  equal  to  about  3  bushels; 
the  proper  equivalent  is  1.10746  bushels  (Alexander,  Diction- 
ary of  Weights  and  Measures,  70).  In  1735,  according  to 
Surrey,  the  minot  of  salt  weighed  70  lbs.  {Commerce  of  Louisi- 
ana, 291). 

miserable,  n.m.  An  appropriate  name  for  a  very  small  glass 
of  brandy  or  spirits.  In  Normandy,  according  to  Clapin  (218) , 
it  was  the  equivalent  of  1/32  liter.  See  Malhiot's  Journal,  222. 
Cf.  filet 

Misere.  Nickname  for  Sainte  Genevieve,  Missouri.  Generally 
held  to  signify,  jokingly,  that  the  town  was  a  place  of  little 
importance.  But  cf.  pays  de  misere. 

Missouri.  After  the  Cession  of  1763  the  west  bank  of  the 
Mississippi  from  the  Ohio  north  to  Saint  Louis  was  known 
as  the  "Western  Part  of  the  Illinois."  The  Missouri  River 
formed  a  special  district  in  this  jurisdiction  and  was  known 
as  the  Missouri  Country.  Fort  San  Carlos,  built  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Missouri  by  Rui  in  1767,  was  outside  the  district  of 
Saint  Louis.  Piernas  in  1772  was  commissioned  lieutenant- 
governor  of  "San  Luis,  San  Genevieva,  and  the  districts  of  the 
Misuri  River  and  the  Ylinnesses  in  the  province  of  Luisiana" 
(Houck,  Spanish  Regime,  I,  110). 

mitas,  mitasse,  Ind.,  n.f.  Legging  (Tixier,  Travels,  124  and  n. 
17,  138 ;  Perrin  du  Lac,  Voyage,  174,  327 ;  Read,  97-98 ;  Elliott, 
"Speech  Mixture  in  French  Canada,"  149). 

mitoyenne,  n.f.  A  party  fence  (Alvord,  Cahokia  Records,  254- 
255). 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  105 

mocassin,  Ind.,  n.m.  A  moccasin ;  a  shoe  of  soft  skin  worn  by 
the  Indians.  Consult  Hodge,  Handbook,  I,  916-917;  Elliott, 
"Speech  Mixture  in  French  Canada,"  145.  Note  the  difference 
between  French  and  English  spelling  of  this  word.  See  Soulier 
sauvage. 

mocksines,  moksines.  Variant  spellings  by  Perrin  du  Lac  (Voy- 
age, 174,  337)  of  mocassins. 
mocock.  See  makague. 

mocqueur,  n.m.  Mockingbird.  So  spelled  by  Berquin-Duvallon 
{Vue  de  la  Colonie,  107).   See  moque7\ 

mocuck.  See  makague. 

monoque,  n.    A  hogshead  (as  of  tobacco). 

montagnard,  n.m.  Not  to  be  translated  "mountaineer"  but 
"mountain  man."  The  free  trapper  of  the  mountains  took  his 
fur  there  but  did  not  live  in  the  mountains.  See  Kurz,  Jo2ir- 
tial,  31,  125 ;  Ruxton,  In  the  Old  West,  passim. 

moquer,  moqueur,  n.m.  Mockingbird. 

Bossu  {Nouveaux  Voyages  dans  VAmerique  Septentrionale, 
213)  noted  "Oiseaux  nommes  Moquers  par  les  Frangois  (et 
par  les  Anglois  Mocking  Birds)."  Read  (51)  gives  the  second 
form  as  correct. 

mouche  a  feu,  n.f.  The  firefly. 

"Fireflies  flew  about  the  woods  at  night,  though  not  in  great 
numbers;  the  French  call  them  M ouches  a  feu"  (Kalm,  Trav- 
els, III,  256).   See  also  Ditchy,  150. 

mouche  anglaise,  n.f.  A  bee  (Ulloa,  Memoir es  Philosophiques, 
II,  199). 

moucher,  v.  intr.   To  travel  by  sled  dogs. 

Originally  mouche  ("go  fast")  was  a  term  of  command  to 
sled  dogs ;  by  extension  it  came  to  mean  to  travel  by  sled  dogs. 
Consult  Nute,  Voyageur,  96. 

moustique,  n.m.  Mosquito.  Not  used  as  commonly  as  marin- 
gouin  (q.v.).  For  variations  in  the  use  of  these  two  words  in 
Louisiana  see  Read,  92-95. 

muce,  n.f.  A  liquid  measure  equal  to  one-half  roquille  (q.v.)  ; 
approximately  one-fourth  of  an  English  pint  (Alexander,  Dic- 
tionary of  Weights  and  Measures,  135). 


106  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

mulatre,  mulatresse,  n.m.  and  f.  Mulatto.  A  half-breed  of 
white  and  negro  parentage.  For  other  mixtures  of  blood  see 
demi-meamelouc,  griffe,  marabou,  meamelouc,  vietis,  quar- 
teron,  sacatra,  sang-mele,  and  zambo. 

mulot,  n.m.    Gopher. 

Audubon,  digging  gophers  (pouched  rats)  at  Pierre  Chou- 
teau's farm  in  1843,  remarked  that  "the  name  given  these  ani- 
mals by  the  Creoles  of  this  country"  was  midoe  (Audubon- 
Coues,  Audiihon  and  His  Journals,  I,  464). 

murier.   See  drier  (2). 

N 

nagane,  nugane,  Ind.,  n.f.  A  cradle  (Clapin,  362;  Elliott, 
"Speech  Mixture  in  French  Canada,"  149). 

nations,  n.f.  pi.  The  Indians,  the  tribes.  Used  in  the  singular 
with  the  name  of  a  particular  tribe:  la  nation  Osage.  In  the 
plural  the  word  signifies  the  Indians  in  their  own  part  of  the 
country.  See  sauvage. 

natte  de  guerre,  n.f.  A  war  mat,  war  pack,  or  medicine  bag. 
A  case  in  which  were  kept  the  war  birds  and  other  "medicine" 
of  the  warrior. 

"Every  young  man  [among  the  Illinois]  has  a  little  mat 
made  of  the  round  reeds  I  have  mentioned  grow  in  the  marshes. 
The  women  dye  them  black,  yellow,  and  red,  and  make  them 
three  feet  long  and  two  feet  wide.  They  fold  over  one  end 
about  a  foot  in  the  form  of  a  comb  case  and  in  which  they 
put  some  of  the  birds  of  which  I  have  spoken"  ("De  Cannes 
Memoir"  in  Pease  and  Werner,  French  Foundations,  375-376). 
"The  war  mats  of  the  Osage  to  a  certain  extent  correspond 
to  the  medicine  sack  of  certain  nations.  These  mats  are  made 
of  bison's  hair  in  the  shape  of  a  portemanteau ;  the  inside  is 
of  finer  texture.  They  contain  the  war  birds,  bags  of  white 
skin  in  which  the  scalps  taken  away  from  the  enemy  are  kept 
together  with  small  pieces  of  wood,  which  determine  the  num- 
ber and  kind  of  coups  made  by  the  warriors,  a  few  shapeless 
pieces  of  stone  and  wood,  which  doubtless  correspond  to  the 
manitous,  and  finally  some  ornaments  with  which  the  warriors 
adorn  themselves  when  they  prepare  for  death.  On  the  mat- 
string  there  generally  hangs  a  scalp.   The  opening  of  the  mat 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  107 

must  be  done  by  a  warrior  priest  who  gives  to  the  brave  the 
things  he  needs.  The  priest  deposits  the  trophies  there  per- 
sonally after  the  expedition  is  over  and  puts  the  bird  back. 
The  mat,  constantly  carried  by  the  brave's  first  wife,  must 
never  touch  the  ground.  On  dismounting,  the  Ouakau  [wife] 
ties  it  to  her  belt  and  drives  a  stake  in  the  ground  to  hang  it 
on  while  waiting  for  the  lodge  to  be  built.  The  Osage  would 
never  give  up  their  war  mats.  If  a  warrior  dies  in  the  village, 
it  is  buried  with  him.  It  is  never  taken  to  a  battle"  (Tixier, 
Travels,  217-218). 

Consult  also  E.  James,  Long's  Expedition,  II,  80;  Fletcher 
and  La  Flesche,  Omaha  Tribe,  404  ff.,  595.  See  danse  du 
charbon,  inedecine,  oiseau  de  guerre. 

naturel,  n.m.  A  native.  Le  Page  du  Pratz  (Histoire,  I,  121, 
135,  142,  324)  and  Bossu  (Nouveaux  Voyages  dans  VAmerique 
Septentrionale)  used  naturel  consistently  for  the  Indians,  as 
the  people  born  in  the  country. 

naviguer  au  large,  v.  intr.  To  cross  the  open  prairie  (Cable, 
Bonaventure,  21;  Ditchy,  152-153).    See  large. 

negocian,  negociant,  n.m.  A  merchant.  More  commonly  used 
than  the  synonym,  marchant  (q.v.). 

negre,  n.  m.  The  French  dialect  spoken  by  the  negro;  also 
known  as  conga  and  gombo  (q.v.). 

negrion,  negrionne,  n.m.  and  f.  Variant  spellings  of  negrillon, 

negrillonne;  a  negro  child. 

noble  homme,  n.m.  In  addition  to  its  obvious  use  for  persons 
of  noble  family,  this  term  was  also  used  by  some  bourgeois 
in  public  acts  (Littre).  Unless  there  is  supporting  evidence, 
noble  homme,  used  with  a  proper  name,  ought  not  to  be  inter- 
preted as  indicating  aristocratic  origin.  Cf.  honorable  homme, 
honnete  homme. 

noir,  n.m.  In  Louisiana,  the  sooty  squirrel  was  known  as  le 
petit  noir  (Audubon  and  Bachman,  Quadrupeds,  III,  241). 

nonpareil,  n.m.  The  painted  finch  (Audubon,  Ornithological 
Biography,  I,  281).   See  pape. 

notaire,  n.m.  The  French  notary  in  the  eighteenth  century 
was  a  far  more  important  personage  than  the  English  term 


108  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

implies   today;  his  position   was  approximately  that  of  an 

English  "solicitor,"  not  "notary  public."    Consult  Brissaud, 

History  of  French  Public  Law,  469-470 ;  Grima  and  Dart,  "The 

Notarial  System  of  Louisiana." 
noyau,  n.m.   A  kind  of  cordial. 

"On  designe  par  noyau,  liqueur  de  noyau,  une  liqueur  domes- 

tique  faite  avec  I'eau-de-vie  sucree,  dans  laquelle  on  a  laisse 

macerer  des  noyaux  de  cerises  ou  de  prunes"   (Clapin,  228). 

Cf.  Berquin-Duvallon,  Vue  de  la  Colonie,  113. 
noyer,  n.m.   The  walnut  tree  (generally,  black  walnut) .   The 

wood  of  the  tree. 
noyer  amer,  n.m.   The  bitter  pecan  tree. 

Michaux  noted  in  the  Illinois  Country  "Noyers  piquants  (par 

les  francais  Noyer  amer)"  (Journal,  124).  Identified  by  Read 

(100)  as  the  bitter  pecan. 
noyer  dur,  n.m.   The  hickory  tree. 

In  the  Illinois  Country  Michaux  observed  "hiccory  Nut-trees, 

called  by  the  French  Noyers  durs"  (Travels,  73).  Read  (100) 

says  noyer  is  sometimes  used  in  Louisiana  for  hickory:  noyer 

bkinc,  white  hickory;  noyer  rouge,  red   hickory.    See   also 

Michaux,  Sijlva,  I,  77. 
noyer  noir,  n.m.    According  to  Read   (100),  Charlevoix  used 

this  teiTn  for  the  walnut  (Histoire,  II,  App,  48  if.). 
noyer  tendre,  n.m.    The  butternut  (Dorrance,  88).    See  also 

Michaux,  Sylva,  I,  80. 
nugane.  See  nagane. 

O 

Oca.   Kaskaskia. 

oeil  blanc,  n.m.  The  white-eyed  barbot  (Rafinesque,  Ichthyolo- 
gia  Ohiensis,  84).   See  barbotte,  poisson  lunette. 

officier  reforme,  n.m.   Half-pay  officer. 

oignon  sauvage,  n.m.  The  Indian  turnip  according  to  Cham- 
berlain ("Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  136).  See  pomme 
blanche. 

oiseau  de  guerre,  n.m.   War  bird. 

The  skins  of  birds  were  the  chief  and  sacred  part  of  the 
content  of  war  packs,  nattes  de  guerre  (q.v.).  The  author  of 


I 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  109 

"De  Cannes  Memoir"  found  that  among  the  Illinois  in  the  late 
seventeenth  century,  "Besides  the  animals  I  have  already  men- 
tioned as  manitous,  they  have  also  several  birds  which  they 
use  when  they  go  to  war  and  as  to  which  they  cherish  much 
superstition.  They  use  the  skins  of  stone  falcons,  crows,  car- 
rion crows,  turtledoves,  ducks,  swallows,  martins,  parrots,  and 
many  others  that  I  do  not  name"  (Pease  and  Werner,  French 
Foundations,  375).  See  also  Tixier,  Travels,  217;  Fletcher  and 
La  Flesche,  Omaha  Tribe,  404. 

oiseau  du  calumet,  n.m.   The  calumet  bird. 

Identified  by  Tixier  as  the  aigle  a  tete  blanche  (q.v.)  and 
by  Dr.  Abel  as  the  golden  eagle  (see  kiliou,  qidliou).  Coues 
{Expedition  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  III,  878-880  and  n.  82)  made 
clear  that  no  one  variety  was  represented  by  this  name;  any 
eagle  whose  tail  feathers  were  suitable  for  decorative  purposes 
was  so  called.  For  the  construction  of  the  calumet  and  the 
symbolism  of  the  feathers  used  consult  Hodge,  Handbook,  I, 
191-195. 

oiseau  puant,  n.m.    Turkey  buzzard    (Coues,   ed.,  Henry  and 
Thompson  Journals,  I,  147  and  n.  28) .  See  carencro. 

Oka,  Okaw.     American  phonetic  spellings  of  Aux  Kas.    See 
Kaskaskia. 

olivier,  n.m.   The  gum  tree,  tupelo  tree. 

"Nyssa  [called  by  the  French  Creoles]  Olivier"  (Michaux, 
Journal,  127).  Read  (54)  does  not  distinguish  between  olivier 
and  olivier  sauvage  {q.v.) .  So  called  because  its  fruit  has  much 
the  appearance  of  the  olive. 

olivier  sauvage,  n.m.    The  black  gum  tree. 

"Nyssa  montana  is  called  by  the  French  Creoles  Olivier 
Sauvage  and  by  the  Kentucky  Americans  Black  Gum  tree  and 
by  the  Pennsylvania  Americans  Tupelo"  (Michaux,  Travels, 
83). 

Oposte.     Vincennes.     American    phonetic    rendering    of   the 
French  Aii  Poste  (de  Vincennes) .  See  Eau  Post,  poste. 

orignal,  n.m.     Moose  (Clapin,  232).    Spelled  orinal  by  Audu- 
bon and  Bachman  {Quadrupeds,  II,  191). 

orme  gras,  n.m.     The  red  or  slippery  elm    (Robin,   Voyages, 
III,  521;  Michaux,  Sylva,  III,  53). 


110  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

ortolan,  n.m.  Meadow  lark  in  Canada,  bobolink  or  ricebird 
in  Louisiana  (Read,  54;  Audubon,  Ornithological  Biography, 
I,  377).   Sometimes  known  as  drier  (q.v.). 

otoka,  Ind.,  n.m.  The  cranberry  (Clapin,  345,  362).  A  variant 
of  ataca  (q.v.) . 

Ouabache.   The  Wabash  River. 

The  lower  part  of  the  Ohio  River  as  late  as  the  mid-eight- 
eenth century  was  commonly  called  the  Ouabache  by  the 
French.  See  Diron  d'Artaguiette,  1723,  and  Antoine  Bonnefoy, 
1741  (Mereness,  Travels  in  the  American  Colonies,  66,  241). 

ouaouaron,  ouararong,  Ind.,  n.m.   The  bull  frog. 

**For  the  first  time  I  heard  among  their  voices  the  roaring 
of  the  bull  frog  which  the  Creoles  call  ouararong"  (Tixier, 
Travels,  67).  For  the  derivation  consult  Clapin,  233;  Read, 
98. 

ouigouam,  Ind.,  n.m.  Wigwam  (Chamberlain,  "Indian  Words 
in  French  Canadian,"  II,  52). 

Ouisconsin,  Ouisconsaint.   The  Wisconsin  River. 

ouragan,  ouragane,  Ind.,  n.  A  vessel  or  dish  of  birch-bark. 
(Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  81;  Wisconsin 
Historical  Collections,  XVI,  49  and  n.  1 ;  Elliott,  "Speech  Mix- 
ture in  French  Canada,"  149,  339). 

outarde,  n.f.    The  goose. 

Michaux  "killed  a  Canada  goose  called  by  the  French  Cana- 
dians and  Illinois  French  Outarde"  {Travels,  76). 

P 

pacane,  n.f.   The  pecan. 

pacanier,  n.m.  The  pecan  tree.  For  description  of  the  tree  and 
its  fruit  see  Charlevoix,  Letters,  293-294;  Le  Page  du  Pratz, 
Histoire,  II,  26.   For  derivation  consult  Read,  99-100. 

pacaniere,  n.f.    A  pecan  forest. 

Paincourt.  A  nickname  for  Saint  Louis  in  its  colonial  days. 
Applied,  apparently,  because  Saint  Louis  was  commercial 
rather  than  agricultural,  it  has  been  mistakenly  interpreted 
as  implying  poverty.  For  discussion  of  this  consult  McDer- 
mott,  "Paincourt  and  Poverty." 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  111 

palma  christi,  n.m.    The  castor-bean  plant  (Dorrance,  89). 

panthere,  n.f.    The  cougar,  puma,  mountain  lion. 

"Le  jagar,  que  les  habitans  de  la  Louisiane  appellent  pan- 
there"  (Perrin  du  Lac,  Voyage,  250).   See  pichoii,  tigre. 

papabote,  papabotte,  n.m.  The  plover  or  Bartramian  sand- 
piper (Audubon,  Ornithological  Biography,  IV,  24;  Tixier, 
Travels,  106,  131;  Read,  55). 

pape,  n.m.  The  painted  finch  or  painted  bunting  (Audubon, 
Ornithological  Biography,  I,  280;  Read,  55).  Also  known  as 
nonpareil  (q.v.). 

papebleu,  n.m.  In  Louisiana,  the  indigo  bird  or  indigo  bunting 
was  called  le  petit  papebleu  (Audubon,  Ornithological  Biog- 
raphy, I,  377).   It  was  also  called  eveque  (q.v.). 

pape  de  bois,  n.m.  The  Baltimore  oriole  (Audubon,  Ornitho- 
logical Biography,  I,  224).  Read  (73)  gives  'tit  pape  as  a 
variant. 

pape  de  prairie,  n.m.  The  orchard  oriole  (Audubon,  Ornitho- 
logical Biography,  I,  224). 

papiconah,  Ind.,  n.   Spiraea,  Indian  physic. 

"Spiraea,  trifoliata  is  a  purgative  used  by  the  Savages  and 
the  Illinois  French.  They  call  it  Papiconah"  (Michaux,  Trav- 
els, 11). 

papouah,  Ind.,  n.  Kinikinik,  an  Indian  smoking  mixture. 

"The  Osage  formerly  smoked  the  papoimh,  the  second  bark 
of  a  species  of  sumac  tree  very  common  in  the  prairie.  The 
smoke  of  the  papouah  is  very  pleasant"  (Tixier,  Travels,  133). 
See  bois  roule. 

pare,  n.m.  An  enclosed  field. 

Speaking  of  the  islands  in  the  Missouri  River  near  modern 
Leavenworth,  E.  James  mentioned  "another  cluster,  known  as 
the  Four  Islands,  and  by  the  French  as  the  Isles  des  Pares, 
or  Field  Islands"  (Long's  Expedition,  I,  174)  ;  other  references 
to  these  islands  will  be  found  in  Thwaites,  ed..  Original  Jour- 
nals of  Leivis  and  Clark,  I,  63 ;  VII,  15.  The  particular  sig- 
nificance of  this  word  is  explained  by  Clapin :  "Dans  la  langue 
des  chasseurs,  un  pare  est  un  enclos,  dispose  de  maniere  a  y 
attirer  le  gibier"  (236).    "The  people  [the  Assiniboine]  gen- 


112  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

erally  winter  together  in  large  camps  and  make  what  the 
French  call,  pares,  an  enclosure  of  wood  in  form  of  a  fence 
and  circular  into  which  they  drive  whole  herds  of  buffalos** 
(John  McDonnell,  "The  Red  River,"  279).  See  also  Kurz, 
Journal,  145-146.  Mettre  au  pare  means  to  bring  animals  in 
from  the  prairie  and  to  shut  them  in  enclosures  (Fortier, 
Louisiana  Studies,  185). 

parefleche,  parfleche,  n.  Dressed  buffalo  hide;  any  object 
made  from  such  hide. 

"A  parfleche  is  a  hide,  usually  a  Buffalo  bull's,  denuded  of 
hair,  dressed  and  stretched  to  the  desired  shape.  All  articles 
made  from  this  hide  are  also  called  parfleche,  such  as  wallets, 
pouches,  etc."  (Audubon-Coues,  Audubon's  Journals,  II,  164, 
n.  1).  The  variety  of  such  use  may  be  illustrated  by  a  num- 
ber of  quotations:  "Hitherto  I  had  worn  a  pair  of  thick  moc- 
casins, with  soles  of  parfleche"  (Fremont,  Report,  69)  ;  Tixier 
explained  pare-fleche  as  a  Creole  word  for  "shield"  (Travels, 
134)  ;  De  Smet  saw  "a  parfleche  sack  neatly  ornamented  and 
fringed"  (Life  and  Travels,  III,  1068)  ;  Abeii;  "purchased  some 
'par  fleche',  buffalo  skin,  dressed  so  as  to  form  a  stiff  leather 
resembling  saddlers  leather,  and  is  used  for  pack  saddles,  har- 
ness, and  so  forth"  ("Report,"  430-431)  ;  in  an  "ear-cutting" 
ceremony  (of  children)  among  the  Cheyennes,  De  Smet  noticed 
that  the  mother  placed  the  child  "on  the  skin  of  some  animal, 
carefully  prepared  and  painted,  and  which  the  Canadians  call 
'^cire  fleche'  "  (Life  and  Travels,  II,  679)  ;  Hodge  used  par- 
fleche as  meaning  "the  ordinary  skin  box  of  the  Rocky  mtn. 
tribes"  (Handbook,  II,  203). 

paresseu[x],  n.m.  A  name  given  to  a  lazy,  non-cooperating 
male  beaver  who  is  driven  from  the  lodge  by  the  workers 
(Audubon  and  Bachman,  Quadrupeds,  I,  352). 

partisan,  n.m.   The  leader  of  a  war  party. 

Since  war  parties  among  the  plains  Indians  were  purely 
voluntary  affairs,  any  reputable  brave  might  easily  obtain 
tribal  permission  to  raise  a  party.  Such  a  leader  held  the 
command,  all  gain  was  officially  his,  and  all  responsibility  for 
loss  of  men  or  horses  likewise  was  his.  There  were  partisans 
also  for  hunting  parties.   Excellent  accounts  of  partisans  and 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  113 

the  making  up  of  war  parties  will  be  found  in  E.  James,  Long's 
Expedition,  II,  79-84;  and  Tixier,  Travels,  172-175.  Consult 
also  Perrin  du  Lac,  Voyage,  284,  293;  Hodge,  Handbook,  II, 
914-915 ;  Fletcher  and  La  Flesche,  Omaha  Tribe,  402-458.  See 
danse  du  charbon,  natte  de  guerre,  oiseau  de  guerre,  peau  de 
guerre. 

passe,  n.f.  A  mountain  pass;  a  ford  (Chamberlain,  "Life  and 
Growth  of  Words,"  141). 

passe  avant,  n.f.  The  catwalk.  The  narrow  walk  on  each  side 
of  the  cargo  apace  on  a  keel  boat  (Chittenden,  La  Barge,  I, 
102). 

patassa,  Ind.,  n.m.  The  sunfish  (Read,  101;  Le  Page  du  Pratz, 
Histoire,  II,  156). 

patate,  n.f.  Potato,  sweet  potato  (Le  Page  du  Pratz,  Histoire, 
II,  9-11;  Read,  145-146). 

patate  anglaise,  n.f.   The  Irish  potato. 

patron,  n.m.  The  captain,  sailing  master,  or  navigating  officer 
of  a  river  boat;  the  steerman.  See  Robin,  Voyages,  II,  212; 
Bradbury,  Travels,  184,  198 ;  Brackenridge,  Journal,  63 ;  Chit- 
tenden, La  Barge,  I,  95. 

pause.   See  pose. 

pays  de  misere.   Barrens? 

"Barren  and  gravelly  veins  of  earth,  called  by  the  Canadians 
pays  de  misere"  (Collot,  Journey  in  North  America,  I,  4) .  Cf. 
Misere. 

peau  de  guerre,  n.m.  War  skin. 

''We  also  knew  that  with  certain  well  prepared  skins,  they 
assume  the  appearance  of  various  animals  to  enter  the  camp 
of  their  opponents.  These  skins  are  quite  beautiful.  They  are 
called  war  skins.  The  feet,  ears,  and  eyes  are  embroidered 
with  porcupine  hair ;  the  inside  is  painted  in  various  designs" 
(Tixier,  Travels,  111  and  n.  20).  See  also  Fletcher  and  La 
Flesche,  Omaha  Tribe,  345-347;  Catlin,  Illustrations  of  the 
Manners,  Customs,  and  Conditions  of  the  North  American 
Indians,  II,  246-248,  and  Plates  306-312. 

peau  rouge  (1),  n.m.  A  redskin,  an  Indian.  The  nineteenth 
century  use  of  peau  rouge  for  Indian  was  largely  due  to  the 


114  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

great  popularity  in  France  of  the  works  of  James  Fenimore 
Cooper.   See  naturel,  sauvage. 

peau  rouge  (2),  n.f.   The  red  deerskin. 

A.  P.  Chouteau  to  B.  Pratte  and  Co.,  30  Aout  1824:  "45 
paquets  peaux  rouges"  (Chouteau  Papers,  Missouri  Historical 
Society).  "Peaux  rouges  de  chevreuil"  (F.  V.  Malhiot,  "Jour- 
nal du  Fort  Kamanaitiguoya,"  234). 

pelle,  n.f.  The  shovelfish  sturgeon.  See  poisson  pelle. 

pelleterie,  n.f.  Skins,  furs,  peltry.  Particularly  at  Saint  Louis 
peltry  was  used  as  a  medium  of  exchange;  the  most  common 
item  was  shaved  deerskins.  Many  contracts  during  the  colonial 
years  called  for  payment  either  in  so  many  livres  in  silver  or 
in  deerskins  of  the  first  grade  at  the  rate  of  two  livres  the 
pound.  See,  for  instance,  the  "patriotic  contributions"  col- 
lected there  in  1799  (Houck,  Spanish  Regime,  II,  299). 

pemican,  n.m.  Pemmican.  Buffalo  meat,  dried,  pounded,  and 
mixed  with  fat.  A  concentrated  meat  that  did  not  require 
cooking,  it  was  particularly  suitable  for  use  on  long  trips  and 
was  much  in  favor  in  the  North  and  Canada.  Cf.  Tixier, 
Travels,  196. 

Pencour.    Variant  spelling  of  Paincourt  (q.v.). 

perche  (1),  n.f.  The  perch  or  rod;  a  linear  measure.  The 
perche  of  Paris,  the  standard  for  linear  measurement  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley,  was  18  French  feet,  one-tenth  of  a  linear 
arpent,  and  therefore  19.1838  English  feet.   See  pied. 

perche  (2),  n.f.  The  pole  used  in  canoeing.  See  Nute,  Voy- 
ageur,  40. 

perche  (3),  n.f.  Fence-rail  (Audubon  —  Coues,  Audubon  and 
His  Journals,  I,  459). 

perdrix,  n.f.  The  quail;  in  Canada,  the  grouse.  Read  (56) 
identifies  perdrix  as  partridge  in  the  South  and  quail  in  the 
Central  States.  See  also  Abert,  "Notes,"  388;  Le  Page  du 
Pratz,  Histoire,  II,  126;  Tixier,  Travels,  102.  For  the  Cana- 
dian usage  consult  Tache,  Esquisse,  129. 

periogue.    Variant  spelling  of  pirogue  (q.v.). 

perusse,  n.f.  Canadian  name  for  the  hemlock  spruce  (Michaux, 
Sylva,  III,  106). 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  115 

petit-bonhomme,  n.m.  In  the  bark  canoe  this  is  a  "small  piece 
of  wood  put  in  at  each  end  to  give  the  vessel  more  strength 
and  firmness"  (Chamberlain,  ''Life  and  Growth  of  Words," 
139). 

petit  chien,  n.m.   The  prairie  dog. 

"As  we  descended  from  this  dome  we  arrived  at  a  spot,  on 
the  gradual  descent  of  the  hill,  nearly  four  acres  in  extent  and 
covered  with  small  holes.  These  are  the  residence  of  a  little 
animal,  called  by  the  French  petit  chien  (little  dog),  which  sit 
erect  near  the  mouth  and  make  a  whistling  noise,  but  when 
alarmed  take  refuge  in  their  holes.  In  order  to  bring  them  out 
we  poured  into  one  of  the  holes  five  barrels  of  water  without 
filling  it,  but  we  dislodged  and  caught  the  owner.  After  dig- 
ging down  another  of  the  holes  for  six  feet,  we  found,  on 
running  a  pole  into  it,  that  we  had  not  yet  dug  halfway  to 
the  bottom.  We  discovered,  however,  two  frogs  in  the  hole, 
and  near  it  we  killed  a  dark  rattlesnake,  which  had  swallowed 
a  small  prairie-dog;  we  were  also  informed,  though  we  never 
witnessed  the  fact,  that  a  sort  of  lizard  and  a  snake  live  habitu- 
ally with  these  animals.  The  petits  chiens  are  justly  named, 
as  they  resemble  a  small  dog  in  some  particulars,  though  they 
have  also  some  points  of  similarity  to  the  squirrel.  The  head 
resembles  the  squirrel  in  every  respect,  except  that  the  ear  is 
shorter;  the  tail  is  like  that  of  the  ground-squirrel;  the  toe- 
nails are  long,  the  fur  is  fine,  and  the  long  hair  is  gray"  (Coues, 
ed..  Expedition  of  Letvis  and  Clark,  I,  110-111).  See  also 
Audubon  and  Bachman,  Quadrupeds,  II,  320). 

Petites  Cotes  (Les).  Saint  Charles,  Missouri,  for  a  number  of 
years  after  its  founding,  was  known  as  the  "settlement  of  the 
little  hills"  because  the  bluffs  rolled  back  from  the  river  rather 
than  rose  abruptly  from  it.  In  Spanish  documents  the  name 
was  translated  directly  as  Las  Pequeiias  Cuestas.  It  was  not  a 
nickname  like  Paincourt  and  Misere. 

piacmlnier,  Ind.,  n.m.   The  persimmon  tree.  Le  Page  du  Pratz 

noted  that  the  piacminier  was  called  by  the  French  of  Louisi- 
ana Piacminier  (Histoire,  II,  18).  More  commonly  written: 
plaqueminier.   See  also  Read,  99-100. 


116  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

piakimina,  piaklmine,  piaquemine,  Ind.,  n.f.  The  persimmon. 
So  the  word  was  spelled  respectively  by  Marest  at  Kaskaskia 
in  1712  (Jesuit  Relations  and  Allied  Documents,  LXVI,  229)  ; 
by  Charlevoix  {Letters,  294)  ;  and  by  Bossu  (Nouveaux  Voy- 
ages aux  Indes  Occidentales,  II,  118  and  n.).  More  commonly 
written:  piaquemine.   See  also  Read,  99-100. 

piastre,  n.f.   A  dollar.   For  list  of  coins  and  values,  see  livre. 

piastre  gourde,  n.f.  A  dollar.  Same  as  piastre.  The  special 
term  may  have  been  used  to  distinguish  piastre  coins  from 
paper  piastres.  Alvord  (Cahokia  Records,  54,  n.  2)  said  that 
the  term  gourde  always  appeared  in  combination  with  qyiastre; 
this,  however,  is  not  true,  for  many  instances  can  be  found  in 
which  gourde  (q.v.)  was  used  alone. 

picaillon,  picayon,  n.m.  A  picayune.  A  coin,  or  value,  of  six 
and  one-fourth  cents  (Ditchy,  164).  The  importance  of  the 
escalin  (q.v.)  and  the  picaillon  in  circulation  is  indicated  by 
the  very  frequent  bids  in  public  sales  of  61/4  cents,  12 1/2  cents, 
56 1^  cents,  87I/2  cents,  and  the  like.  Flint  spelled  it  picalion 
{Geography  and  History  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  I,  559). 

picaneau,  n.m.  A  name  given  by  the  French  on  the  Mississippi 
to  the  gar,  duckbill  gar,  jack  or  gar  fish  {lepisosteu^  plato- 
stomus) ,  according  to  Rafinesque,  Ichthyologia  Ohiensis,  136. 
Flint,  however,  gave  "pike"  as  the  equivalent  of  piccannau 
{Geography  and  History  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  I,  129). 
Rafinesque  also  said  that  "the  French  settlers  of  the  Wabash 
and  Missouri  call  them  [esoxl  Piconeau  and  the  American 
settlers  Pikes  or  Pickerel"  and  that  the  Canadians  used  this 
name  for  the  streaked  pike  {op.  cit.,  131-132).  See  hrochetau, 
poisson  arme,  poisson  caJiynan. 

picaneau  blanc,  n.m.  A  name  given  by  the  Missouri  French 
to  the  salmon  pike;  also  known  as  white  pike,  white  jack,  and 
white  pickerel  (Rafinesque,  Ichthyologia  Ohiensis,  132-133). 

picasse,  picassee,  adj.  m.  and  f.  Marked  by  smallpox  (Ditchy, 
164;  Clapin,  245).  See  picote. 

piccannau.   See  picaneau. 

pichou,  Ind.,  n.m.  The  wild  cat  or  a  Canadian  lynx.  Accord- 
ing to  Read  (101)  pichou  in  Louisiana  was  the  bob-tailed  wild 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  117 

cat.  Canadians,  according  to  Clapin  (245),  used  the  term  for 
the  lynx.  See  pijou. 
piconeau,  n.m.  According  to  Rafinesque  the  Louisiana  French 
call  the  buffalo  fish  (catostomus  bubalus)  piconeau  (Ichthyolo- 
gia  Ohiensis,  112).  But  he  also  gave  this  name  for  the  pike, 
spelling  it  both  piconeau  and  picaneau  (q.v.).  See  buffle, 
carpe,  casburgot. 

picote,  n.f.  Smallpox  (Clapin,  245). 

picote,  picotee,  adj.  m.  and  f.  Marked  with  smallpox.  See 
picasse. 

piece,  n.f.  In  the  fur  trade  the  package  of  goods  carried  by 
a  voyageur  during  a  portage.  The  piece  weighed  90  to  100 
pounds;  two  constituted  a  load.   See  Nute,  Voyageur,  47. 

pied  (du  roi),  n.m.  The  French  foot  was  the  equivalent  of 
32.5  cm.  or  12.7893  English  inches  (Alexander,  Dictionary  of 
Weights  and  Measures,  86 ) . 

pierrier,  n.m.   A  swivel  gun. 

pierrotage,  n.m.  Rubble  stone  and  clay  used  as  filling  between 
the  upright  logs  of  the  French  house  (Peterson,  "French 
Houses  of  the  Illinois  Country,"  5).   Cf.  bousillage. 

pierroter,  v.  tr.  To  fill  or  stuff  with  a  stone  and  clay  mixture. 
Cf.  bousiller. 

pieu,  n.m.   A  plank  or  stake. 

"Ces  cabanes  [a  negres]  sont  couvertes  de  ces  longs  et  larges 
bardeaux  de  cipre  appeles  pieu"  (Robin,  Voyages,  III,  172). 
According  to  Cable  pieux  were  split  cypress  boards ;  in  Bona- 
venture  (91)  he  described  a  schoolhouse  "rudely  walled  with 
cypress  split  boards, — pieux, — planted  endwise  in  the  earth, 
like  palisades.  .  .  ."  In  the  Cahokia  Records  (Alvord,  ed.,  256) 
pieux  was  used  for  the  stakes  of  a  fence. 

pijou,  Ind.,  n.m.   The  wild  cat. 

"We  met  on  the  Route  [the  Mississippi  below  the  Ohio]  with 
a  Kind  of  wild  Cats,  called  Pijoux,  which  are  very  much  like 
ours  but  larger.  I  observed  some  had  shorter  Tails,  and  others 
that  had  much  longer,  and  bigger.  They  also  look  very  wild, 
and  [the  voyageurs'\  assured  me,  that  they  are  very  Carnivo- 
rous and  good  hunters"  (Charlevoix,  Letters,  304) .  See  pichou. 


118  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

pince,  n.f.  The  sharp  end  of  a  birchbark  canoe  (Chamberlain, 
"Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  139;  Nute,  Voyageur,  25). 

pinette  de  prairie,  n.f.  The  blazing  star,  gayfeather,  or  button 
snakeroot. 

Identified  by  Abert  ("Notes,"  398)  as  a  liatris  pychno- 
stachia.  Bailey  spells  the  second  term  pychostachya  {Hortus, 
360). 

piniere,  n.f.   A  pine  forest. 

pin  rouge,  n.m.  The  red  pine  or  Norway  pine  of  the  Canadians 
(Michaux,  Sylva,  III,  67) . 

pinte,  n.f.  The  French  pint  was  the  equivalent  of  .24603 
American  gallon  (Alexander,  Dictionary  of  Weights  and 
Measures,^!) .  See  chopine,  pot. 

pipe,  n.f.  In  water  travel,  the  distance  between  the  rest  pe- 
riods, during  which  the  voyageurs  were  allowed  time  to  smoke 
their  pipes,  was  called  a  pipe.  Robin  (Voyages,  II,  217)  noted 
that  the  pipe  was  about  two  hours  long ;  but,  as  Keating  pointed 
out,  conditions  of  weather,  haste  of  travel,  and  the  like  caused 
frequent  variation  in  length  of  pipe  (Long's  Expedition,  II, 
90).  See  also  Nute,  Voyageur,  50.  Nute  has  written  of  trois 
pipes  as  about  twelve  miles  (ibid.,  58).  Chamberlain  gave  the 
pipe  as  two  leagues  (French  or  English?)  and  therefore  five 
or  six  miles  ("Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  140).  Cf.  marche, 
pose. 

piquant  amourette,  piquant  d'amourette.  See  hois  d'amourette. 

pique,  piquee,  adj.  m.  and  f.    Tattooed. 

pique-bois-jaune,  n.m.  The  golden-winged  woodpecker  or 
flicker  (Audubon,  Ornithological  Biogy^aphy,  I,  191).  Read 
(59)  gives  grande  pique-hois  as  the  ivory-billed  woodpecker 
and  pique-hois  do7^e  as  variant  of  pique-bois-jaune. 

pirogue,  n.f.  A  dugout  canoe.  The  Missouri  River  canoe  and 
that  used  on  the  lower  Mississippi  and  its  branches  was  a  dug- 
out made  most  commonly  from  the  cottonwood  poplar  or  the 
cypress,  though  cedar,  walnut,  and  other  woods  were  some- 
times used.  "On  nomme  pirogues  ceux  d'un  seul  tronc:  il  est 
de  ceux-ci  qui  ont  quarante  a  cinquante  pieds  de  longueur  sur 
une  largeur  de  plus  de  six,  avec  une  profondeur  de  quatre  a 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  119 

quatre  et  demi;  ces  pirogues  sont  faites  de  lyard  ou  peuplier, 
arbre  qui,  dans  ces  regions,  parvient  a  una  grandeur  deme- 
suree;  mais  le  plus  ordinairement  elles  sont  de  cypres,  bois 
aussi  leger  et  beaucoup  plus  solide,  se  dejetant  moins,  et  se 
conservant  long-temps  dans  I'eau,  sans  s'alterer  a  I'air"  (Robin, 
Voyages,  II,  208).  For  other  descriptions  see  Le  Page  du 
Pratz,  Histoire,  I,  107,  n. ;  Perrin  du  Lac,  Voyage,  148. 

Chittenden  pointed  out  that  on  the  Missouri  River  the 
pirogues  were  smaller,  averaging  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  in 
length  {La  Barge,  I,  91-92).  Surrey  noted  that  some  could 
carry  thirty  men  and  that  they  varied  in  freight  capacity  from 
one  ton  to  forty-five  or  fifty  tons  (Commerce  of  Louisiana, 
57-58).  The  pirogue  had  seats  and  was  rowed,  not  paddled  in 
the  fashion  of  the  birchbark;  the  larger  pirogues  often  car- 
ried masts  and  sails.  They  provided  the  most  common  type 
of  transport  on  the  river  system.  Chittenden  listed  also  a 
variant  of  the  pirogue:  sometimes  two  such  canoes  were  joined 
by  planking  to  form  a  larger  vessel  something  like  a  flatboat 
(La  Barge,  I,  92-93).  For  derivation  of  term  consult  Read, 
146.    Cf.  canot. 

piroguee,  n.f.    A  pirogue-load  (Ditchy,  166).    Cf.  canotee. 

piroguer,  v.intr.   To  travel  or  to  transport  goods  by  pirogue. 

pisikiou,  Ind.,  n.  According  to  Marquette  this  was  the  Indian 
name  for  the  buffalo  ("Premier  Voyage,"  110).  See  boeuf 
sauvage. 

piskiniou.    See  quiliou. 

pistache,  n.f.    The  peanut  (Read,  59). 

pistole,  n.f.   A  coin  of  10  livres  (q.v.). 

pite,  n.f.   The  Spanish  bayonet  or  yucca  (Read,  60). 

placee,  n.f.  The  colored  mistress  of  a  white  man  (Olmsted, 
Seaboard  Slave  States,  596).   See  also  Ditchy,  166. 

placer,  v.tr.  To  keep  a  mistress  (Olmsted,  Seaboard  Slave 
States,  598). 

placottes.  See  plats-cotes. 

plaine,  n.f.  Red  or  swamp  maple  (Wisconsin  Historical  Col- 
lections, XVI,  197  and  n.  1;  Michaux,  Sylva,  I,  100).  Clapin 
(249)  said  it  was  so  called  because  it  was  something  like  the 
plane  tree  of  France. 


120  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

plaine  batarde,  n.f.    The  dwarf  maple    (Tache,  Esquisse,  sec. 

edit.,  16). 
plaque  (1),  n.f.    A  bar  (of  lead). 
plaque   (2),  n.f.    A  blaze — the  hunter's  slashing  of  the  bark 

on  a  tree  to  mark  his  way  (Clapin,  364). 
plaquemine,  Ind.,  n.f.   The  persimmon.    See  piakimina. 
plaqueminier,  Ind.,  n.m.    The  persimmon  tree.    See  piacminier. 
plarine.   See  praline. 
platin,  n.m.     A   marshy   place    (Cable,   Bonaventure,   21   and 

D  itchy,  167). 

plats-cotes,  n.m.  pi.  Short-ribs. 

In  the  butchering  of  the  buffalo,  after  "casting  aside  the 
shoulders  and  the  legs,  [the  Indians]  lift  in  one  piece  the  flat 
muscles  of  the  chest  and  stomach"  which,  Tixier  said,  were 
called  plats-cotes.  "It  is  the  most  desirable  cut  of  meat,"  he 
added,  ".  .  .  the  short-ribs  are  flattened  and  sown  with  pieces 
of  bark  until  they  form  a  wide  expanse  of  meat"  (Travels, 
193  and  n.  7,  195).  See  also  Fletcher  and  La  Flesche,  Omaha 
Tribe,  272-273 ;  Coues,  ed.,  Henry  and  Thompson  Journals,  I, 
81,  n.  3.   See  boeiif,  boudin. 

pleurer,  v.intr.   To  wail,  to  cry  out. 

The  action  described  by  travelers  in  the  verb  pleurer  was 
not  generally  a  weeping  or  crying  in  the  ordinary  use  of  those 
words,  but  was  rather  a  crying  out  by  the  Indian  to  the  un- 
seen spirits  around  him;  it  voiced  not  a  personal  grief  but  a 
lament  and  prayer,  propitiation  and  supplication.  Tixier  has 
left  one  of  the  best  descriptions  of  this  crying  out  {Travels, 
164-166) : 

"It  was  not  yet  daylight  when  I  was  awakened  by  unusual 
cries.  I  thought,  at  first,  that  some  misfortune  had  happened. 
I  was  wrong:  the  wallers  were  singing  a  monotonous  tune,  a 
few  words  which  they  repeated  constantly  and  among  which 
the  word  'tseht-houkcC  recurred  frequently:  so  the  matter  was 
the  bison  or  buffalo.  This  religious  song  was  addressed  to  the 
Great  Spirit  (Oua-Kondah)  to  ask  of  him  a  good  hunt  and  to 
avert  the  wrath  of  the  Evil  Spirit.  This  supplication  was  ac- 
companied by  abundant  tears. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  121 

"The  Osage  wail  with  a  rehgious  purpose ;  it  is  a  prayer  in 
which  they  expose  before  the  Master  of  Life  their  pains  and 
their  needs;  this  prayer  is  sometimes  addressed  to  the  Evil 
Spirit,  when  the  supplicant  dreads  some  misfortune.  For  in- 
stance, the  warriors  who  are  to  take  part  in  an  expedition  tear- 
fully beseech  the  Evil  Spirit.  They  hope  to  be  spared,  through 
fasting  and  prayers,  the  death  which  threatens  them.  They 
believe  that  those  privations  they  force  on  themselves  will  ap- 
pease the  anger  of  the  evil  one,  and  that  they  will  be  able  to 
return  to  their  lodges  safe  and  sound. 

"This  song  of  tears,  if  I  may  call  it  thus,  has  its  fixed  rules ; 
the  men  begin  their  loud  praying  long  before  daylight,  and  the 
women  are  allowed  to  sing  only  when  the  men  have  finished. 
They  wail  at  any  time  during  the  day  but  especially  in  the 
morning  in  the  lodges.  During  the  day  they  sing  while  riding 
on  horseback  or  in  camp  at  some  distance  from  the  huts.  Tears 
necessarily  accompany  fasting,  or  the  smearing  with  clay :  but 
a  waller  is  not  obliged  to  fast.  They  usually  cry  several  days 
in  succession  when  they  have  made  such  a  vow,  but  there  are 
tear  songs  which  are  heard  only  after  an  accident. 

"When  an  Osage  dies,  his  relatives  wail  for  some  time  in 
front  of  the  lodge  of  the  dead  one ;  then  they  go  and  announce 
their  loss  to  their  friends;  they  arrive  at  the  house  perfectly 
composed,  but  as  soon  as  they  reach  the  door  they  utter  three 
loud  cries  and  begin  the  song  of  tears  with  an  accompaniment 
of  sobs.  The  following  days  they  cry  over  the  dead  one  with 
more  regularity. 

"Many  times  I  have  seen  our  cook  Ouichingheh  stop  working 
and  crouch  comfortably  in  front  of  our  lodge ;  after  some  pre- 
liminaries, she  started  her  song  in  a  very  low  tone ;  she  gradu- 
ally sang  more  excitedly,  her  voice  grew  louder,  her  breathing 
irregular,  her  eyes  filled  with  tears,  her  body  trembled;  she 
uttered  ear-splitting  cries  and  big  tears  rolled  down  her  cheeks. 
She  had  reached  a  condition  of  extreme  excitement  and  sang 
with  frenzy.  She  seemed  to  have  become  insane,  but  little  by 
little  she  grew  more  calm,  wiped  her  tears,  and  resumed  her 
work. 

"The  savages  do  not  succeed  immediately  in  wailing  per- 
fectly.  It  takes  much  practice  and  training  to  become  a  good 


122  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

waller.  Young  children  begin  very  early;  one  can  often  see 
little  girls  getting  together  to  improve  in  this  respect.  They 
concentrate  all  their  faculties,  excite  their  imaginations,  and 
reach  a  feverish  exaltation  which  looks  like  the  ecstasy  of 
religious  fanatics.  It  is  a  sort  of  frenzy  which  comes  to  them 
and  leaves  them  at  will." 

For  other  accounts  of  this  wailing  see  Brackenridge,  Jour- 
nal, 61-62;  Bradbury,  Travels,  63-64;  Coues,  ed.,  Pike's  Ex- 
peditions, II,  367-368;  Gregg,  Cominerce  of  the  Prairies,  II, 
303-305;  Nuttall,  Journal,  244.  On  the  general  subject  of 
prayer  and  religion  consult  Hodge,  Handbook,  II,  365-371; 
Dorsey,  "A  Study  of  Siouan  Cults." 

plomb,  n.m.  Lead.  Particularly  in  the  district  of  Sainte  Gene- 
vieve lead  was  used  as  a  medium  of  exchange  as  commonly 
as  peltry. 

plus,  n.m.  A  standard  of  value  for  furs  and  goods  in  trade. 
Perrin  du  Lac  in  1802  noted  that  the  Missouri  River  traders 
"appellent  plu  I'equivalent  d'une  piastre ;  ainsi  deux  peaux  de 
chevre  ou  de  chevreau,  font  un  plu.  Une  peau  de  chevreuil, 
ou  de  castor,  fait  un  plu:  une  peau  de  loutre  deux  plus,  etc. 
etc."  {Voyage,  201).  E.  James  {Long's  Expedition,  I,  311) 
recorded  that  "in  trade,  the  largest  sized  beaver  skin  is  called 
by  the  French  a  plus,  and  constitutes  the  chief  standard  of 
value.  Thus  as  many  of  any  other  description  of  skins  as  are 
considered  of  equal  value  with  this  large  beaver  skin,  are  col- 
lectively denominated  a  plus;  and  the  number  of  deer,  raccoon, 
otter,  &c.  that  shall  respectively  constitute  a  plus,  is  settled 
between  the  parties,  previous  to  the  commencement  of  the 
exchanges."   See  also  Luttig,  Journal  (Drumm,  ed.),  125. 

poll  de  boeuf,  n.m.  Buffalo  wool,  buffalo  hair.  For  accounts 
of  its  use  by  the  Indians  see  Penicault's  "Relation"  (Margry, 
Decouve7'tes  et  Etahlissements,  V,  490)  and  Charlevoix,  Let- 
ters, 293. 

point,  n.m.  Point — "a  short  black  stripe,  about  four  inches 
long,  woven  into  the  mackinaw  blanket  to  indicate  its  weight ; 
a  3-pound  blanket  had  three  such  stripes"  (Coues,  ed.,  Forty 
Years  a  Fur  Trader,  I,  13,  n.  17).  Blankets  came  in  2,  2V2, 
3,  3 1/2  and  4  point  weights. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  123 

polnte,  n.f.   A  wooded  point  of  land. 

This  curious  word  is  obviously  a  contribution  of  the  voy- 
ageur  who  measured  distance  on  the  river  by  the  bends  of  the 
stream  as  indicated  by  the  points  or  arms  protruding,  but  it 
was  used  apparently  for  wooded  points  only.  Tixier,  for  in- 
stance, wrote  in  Louisiana  "deja  les  bois  prenaient  la  disposi- 
tion qu'ils  ont  sur  toute  la  rive  du  fleuve,  formant  ce  qu'on 
nomme  des  pointes  (timbers),  e'est-a-dire  une  bordure  qui 
longe  le  Mississipi"  {Voyage,  20).  Jean  Baptiste  Trudeau 
nearly  fifty  years  earlier  used  the  word  in  much  the  same  way ; 
"on  trouve  Sur  les  Bord  du  Missouri  de  distence  en  distence 
quelque  pointe  de  Bois  etroite  et  peu  longue  fourni  seulement 
en  petit  Hard,  saules,  et  aussi  menu  bois"  (Abel,  ed.,  "Trudeau's 
Description  of  the  Upper  Missouri,"  158-159).  In  her  note 
Dr.  Abel  added  that  the  trader  Chardon  used  the  word  in  the 
same  way  in  his  "Fort  Clark  Journal"  and  that  Audubon  in 
his  "Missouri  River  Journal"  wrote  "We  saw  a  patch  of  wood 
called  in  these  regions  a  'Point'."  Cf.  tie  (islette)  de  bois, 
lisiere  de  bois. 

poire,  poirier,  n.f.,  n.m.  The  service-berry  and  the  tree  which 
produces  it. 

Identified  by  Coues  (Henry  and  TJiompson  Joiirrvals,  I,  405) 
as  Amelanchier  canadensis  or  A.  alnifolia.  The  fruit,  he  said, 
the  Canadians  called  poire.  See  also  Garry,  "Diary,"  119  and 
n.  3,  124  and  n.  3.  Chamberlain  ("Life  and  Growth  of  Words," 
136)  cited  it  as  petite  poire  and  translated  it  juneberry. 

poisson  arme,  n.m.  The  gar.  The  several  species  of  gar  (alli- 
gator gar,  long-nosed  gar,  and  short-nosed  gar)  found  in  the 
waters  of  Louisiana  are  there  known  as  poisson  arme  (Read, 
61).  See  brochetau,  picaneau,  poisson  caiman.  Rafinesque 
noted  that  the  French  near  Sainte  Genevieve  used  poisson 
arme  for  the  spotted  hornfish,  proceros  tachete  (Ichthyologia 
Ohiensis,  156). 

poisson  caiman,  n.m.  A  Louisiana  name  for  the  alligator  fish 
or  alligator  gar  (Rafinesque,  Ichthyologia  Ohiensis,  136,  139). 
See  brochetau,  picaneau,  poisson  arme. 

poisson  lunette,  n.m.  The  white-eyed  barbot  (Rafinesque, 
Ichthyologia  Ohiensis,  84).  See  barbotte. 


124  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

poisson  pelle,  n.m.  The  shovelfish  sturgeon,  also  known  as 
spadefish,  shovelfish,  shovelhead,  and  flathead  (Rafmesque, 
Ichthyologia  Ohiensis,  146). 

poivrier,  n.m.  Spicewood,  spicebush,  wild  allspice. 

"I  had  supped  the  previous  evening  on  Tea  made  from  the 
shrub  called  Spice-wood.  A  handful  of  young  twigs  or  branches 
is  set  to  boil  and  after  it  has  boiled  at  least  a  quarter  of  an 
hour  sugar  is  added  and  it  is  drunk  like  real  Tea.  There  was 
no  Milk  at  the  time  and  I  was  told  that  Milk  makes  it  much 
more  agreeable  to  the  taste.  This  beverage  restores  strength 
and  it  had  that  effect  for  I  was  very  tired  when  I  arrived. 
This  shrub  is  the  Laurus  Benjoin  Linn.  The  Illinois  French 
call  it  Poivrier  and  the  hunters  season  their  meat  with  its 
wood"  (Michaux,  Travels,  91). 

pomme  blanche,  n.f.  The  prairie  turnip  or  Indian  breadroot. 
E.  James  made  note  of  "the  Nu-ga-re,  or  ground-apple,  called 
by  the  French  Pomme  blanche;  a  root  resembling  a  long 
turnip,  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  with  a  rough  thick  skin, 
and  hard  pith.  It  is  sometimes  eaten  raw,  and  has  a  sweet 
taste,  but  is  rather  dry;  or  it  is  dried  in  the  sun,  and  pulver- 
ized; in  this  state  it  furnishes  the  chief  ingredient  of  an  ex- 
cellent soup"  (Long's  Expedition,  I,  294-295).  Audubon,  at 
Cedar  Island  in  the  Missouri  River,  22  May  1843,  wrote :  "We 
found  here  an  abundance  of  what  is  called  the  White  Apple, 
but  which  is  anything  else  but  an  apple.  The  fruit  grows 
under  the  ground  about  six  inches;  it  is  about  the  size  of  a 
hen's  egg,  covered  with  a  woody,  hard  pellicle,  a  sixteenth  of 
an  inch  thick,  from  which  the  fruit  can  be  drawn  without  much 
difficulty;  this  is  quite  white;  the  exterior  is  a  dirty,  dark 
brown.  The  roots  are  woody.  The  flower  was  not  in  bloom, 
but  I  perceived  that  the  leaves  are  ovate,  and  attached  in  fives. 
This  plant  is  collected  in  great  quantities  by  the  Indians  at 
this  season  and  during  the  whole  summer,  and  put  to  dry, 
which  renders  it  as  hard  as  wood ;  it  is  then  pounded  fine,  and 
makes  an  excellent  kind  of  mush  upon  which  the  Indians  feed 
greedily"  (Audubon-Coues,  Audubon's  Journals,  I,  505-506). 
Tixier  thought  its  taste  and  shape  similar  to  those  of  the  horse- 
radish (Travels,  188).  Tabeau  (Abel,  ed.,  Tabeau's  Narrative, 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  125 

98) ,  Arese  {Trip  to  the  Prairies,  88) ,  and  many  other  travelers 
made  note  of  the  prairie  turnip.   Botanically  it  was  identified 
as  psoralea  escidenta.   See  oignon  sauvage,  racine  blanche. 
pomme  de  cygne,  n.f.   The  swan  apple  or  swan  potato   {alisma 
plantago)  according  to  Owen,  Report,  619. 

pomme  de  raquette,  n.f.   The  prickly  pear. 

"Pomme  de  raquette  grows  here  in  great  plenty  and  very 
large,  some  the  size  of  the  hand ;  it  is  painful  to  horses,  when 
they  happen  to  tread  upon  it,  for  the  points  project  on  all 
sides,  as  strong  and  sharp  as  awls.  The  plants  lie  in  clusters 
on  the  ground,  and  are  generally  flat  and  green"  (Coues,  ed., 
Henry  and  Thompson  Jonrnals,  I,  321).  In  his  note  42  Coues 
identified  this  plant  as  "the  prickly-pear  (Opuntia)  so  called 
from  the  racket-shaped  or  rather  oval,  flat,  and  fleshy  joints 
of  the  stem,  beset  with  prickles,  and  bearing  upon  their  edges 
a  juicy  fruit,  the  'pommes'  of  the  Canadians,  and  the  'tunas' 
of  the  Spanish-Americans."  See  also  Abel,  ed.,  Tabeau's  Nai'- 
rative,  97  and  nn.  14,  16.  Not  the  same  fruit  or  plant  as  the 
poire  and  poirier  (q.v.). 

pomme  des  prairies,  n.f.  "The  prairie  turnip  of  the  Americans, 
the  pomme  des  prairies  of  the  Canadians"  (Nicollet,  Report, 
11).    See  pomme  blanche. 

pomme  de  terre,  n.f.  The  cowberry,  groundnut,  or  wild  bean. 
"I  observed  in  the  broken  banks  of  this  island  [Bonhomme, 
in  the  Missouri  River  above  Saint  Charles] ,  a  number  of  tuber- 
ous roots,  which  the  Canadians  call  pommes  de  terre.  They  are 
eaten  by  them,  and  also  by  the  Indians,  and  have  much  of  the 
consistence  of  and  taste  of  the  Jerusalem  artichoke:  they  are 
the  roots  of  glycine  apios"  (Bradbury,  Travels,  41).  Tache 
gives  porame  de  terre  as  a  name  for  the  cowberry  (Esquisse, 
sec.  edit.,  17).  Owen  (Report,  610-611)  identifies  the  apios 
tuber osa  as  the  pomme  de  terre  of  the  voyageur.  See  sagaban. 

pomme-pourrie,  n.f.  The  Canadian  French  name  for  the  night- 
jar or  whip-poor-will  (Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth  of 
Words,"  86).  See  bois-pourri. 

pommette,  pommier,  n.f.,  n.m.  The  mayhaw,  and  the  tree 
which  produces  it  (Read,  61). 


126  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

porcelaine,  n.f.  Wampum.  Collier  de  porcelaine:  belt  of  wam- 
pum. See  Nicolas  Perrot  in  Blair,  Indian  Tribes  of  the  Upper 
Mississippi,  I,  152 ;  Kurz,  Journal,  251. 

portager,  V.  intr.  To  make  a  portage ;  to  carry  a  canoe  and  its 

load  of  freight  from  one  navigable  stretch  of  water  to  another. 

La  Portraille.  According  to  Schoolcraft  (Narrative  Journal, 
150-151),  this  was  the  name  given  by  the  voyageurs  to  the  Pic- 
tured Rocks  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Superior. 

pose,  n.f.  In  a  portage,  the  distance  traveled  by  the  voyageur 
without  stopping.  Derived  from  poser  (to  deposit) .  The  aver- 
age length  of  a  pose  was  about  one-third  of  a  mile.  The  voy- 
ageurs, having  progressed  so  far,  deposited  their  loads  and 
returned  for  more ;  when  the  canoe  and  all  the  load  had  been 
moved  to  this  point,  the  voyageurs  struck  out  immediately  for 
the  next  pose.  See  Keating,  Long's  Expedition,  II,  90 ;  School- 
craft, Narrative  Journal,  164  and  n. ;  J.  Johnston,  "Account  of 
Lake  Superior,"  165 ;  Nute,  Voyageur,  46.  The  word  was  some- 
times spelled  pause.  Cf.  pipe. 

poste,  n.m.  Post,  settlement.  Used  for  any  of  the  French  set- 
tlements (particularly  in  the  military  or  official  sense),  not 
merely  Vincennes  as  the  Americans  erroneously  assumed. 

pot,  n.m.  A  measure  containing  two  (French)  pints,  and  equal 
therefore  to  .49206  American  gallon  (Alexander,  DictioTiary  of 
Weights  and  Measures,  89).   See  pinte,  chopine. 

pouce,  n.m.  An  inch.  The  French  inch,  one-twelfth  of  the 
French  foot,  was  equal  to  1.0658  English  inches  (Alexander, 
Dictionary  of  Weights  and  Measures,  89).   See  pied. 

poudingue  blanc.   See  boudin  blanc. 

poudrerie,  n.f.   A  fine,  powdery  snow. 

"What  pleases  me  most  is,  that  we  see  no  rain;  and  after 
a  certain  period  of  snow  and  poudrerie  (it  is  thus  that  they  call 
a  fine  snow  that  sifts  in  everywhere)  the  air  is  pure  and  clear" 
(Marest  to  Lamberville  [Canada,  ca,  1760]  Jesuit  Relations 
and  Allied  Documents,  LXVI,  113).  See  also  Clapin,  255; 
Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  83. 

pouillerie,  poullerie,  n.f.    Hen  house,  chicken  house. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  127 

pouilleux,  pouilleuse,  adj.  and  n.,  m.  and  f.  Literally,  lousy. 
Figuratively,  contemptible,  low.  It  was  in  the  latter  sense  that 
the  word  was  applied  as  a  nickname  to  Kaskaskia  in  retaliation 
for  Misere  and  the  like. 

poule  d'eau,  n.f.  A  Louisiana  name  for  the  American  coot 
(Audubon,  Ornithological  Biography,  III,  293). 

poule  de  bois,  n.f.  The  wood-hen,  woodpecker,  prairie  chicken, 
grouse. 

Read  (59)  gives  "woodpecker"  for  this  term  in  Louisiana. 
Michaux,  however,  in  the  Illinois  Country  recorded  seeing 
"poules  de  bois  nommees  Perdrix  (Tetrao  lagopus)  par  les 
Canadiens"  {Journal,  84) .  It  was  probably  the  prairie  chicken 
that  Michaux  saw.  Chamberlain  ("Life  and  Growth  of 
Words,"  86)  reported  that  the  Canadians  gave  this  name  to 
the  golden  woodpecker. 

poule  d'Inde,  n.f.  Turkey  hen.  Sometimes  used  for  the  night 
heron,  gros-hec  (q.v.),  or  the  American  bittern,  garde  soleil 
(q.v.). 

pourcelaine,  pourceline.    Variant  spellings  of  porcelaine  (q.v.). 

prairie  (1),  n.f.  In  the  Illinois  Country  the  most  usual  equiva- 
lent for  "commons."  In  inventories  or  other  documents  ani- 
mals described  as  sur  la  prairie  were  at  large  on  the  commons. 
See  commune. 

prairie  (2),  n.f.  Properly  speaking,  a  prairie  was  an  extent 
of  natural  meadow  land  of  varying  size  bounded  by  woods. 
The  prairies  around  Saint  Louis,  the  famous  Looking-Glass 
prairie  near  Belleville,  Illinois,  were  typical  examples.  For 
descriptions  see  Hall,  Notes  on  the  Western  States,  69-79.  The 
so-called  great  prairies  between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  the  woodless  or  open  prairies,  are  more  properly 
referred  to  as  the  great  plains.    See  large. 

prairie  planchee,  n.f.    A  small  plateau. 

Nicollet  noted  "...  a  small  plateau  (or,  as  the  voyageurs 
call  it,  a  prairie  planche)"  (Report,  52). 

prairie  tremblante,  n.f.    A  shaking  prairie,  marsh,  quagmire. 

In  Louisiana  the  country  east  and  south  of  Lake  Borgne  to 

the  sea,  a  region  of  quicksand  covered  with  vegetation,  was 


128  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

known  as  the  "shaking  marshes."  Tixier  hunted  in  that  region 
in  1840 :  .  . . .  "la  prairie  tremblante,  sol  mouvant  ou  s'enfoncent 
pour  ne  plus  reparaitre  les  imprudents  qui  osent  s'y  hasarder" 
{Voyage,  26;  Travels,  36,  72).  Robin  described  the  same  re- 
gion at  the  beginning  of  the  century:  "Sur  les  lieux  mare- 
cageux,  les  massettes,  les  souchets  se  sement  de  graines  avee 
plus  de  profusion,  jettent  des  racines  plus  longues,  plus  multi- 
pliees,  plus  entrelacees,  et  elevent  des  touffes  plus  larges  et 
plus  fournies,  jusqu'a  former  sur  la  surface  de  ces  eaux  mare- 
cageuses  d'immenses  plaines  de  verdures,  nommees  prairies 
tremblantes"  (Voyages,  II,  457).  See  terre  tremblante. 
prairillon,  prairieon,  n.m.   A  little  prairie  or  meadow. 

Read  (179)  renders  prairieon  as  "little  prairie,"  and  cites 
American  State  Papers,  Public  Lands,  III,  527.  Fremont  {Re- 
port of  the  Exploring  Expedition,  55,  64)  used  the  term  for 
mountain  meadows:  "The  [Sweet  Water]  river  is  again  shut 
up  in  rugged  hills,  which  come  down  to  it  from  the  main  ridge 
in  a  succession  of  spurs  three  or  four  hundred  feet  high,  and 
alternated  with  green  level  prairillons  or  meadows."  See  also 
Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  142. 

praline,  n.f.  A  sugar  and  nut  candy.  In  Canada,  a  candy  of 
maple  sugar  and  almonds;  by  metathesis  the  word  there  has 
become  plarine  (Clapin,  249).  In  Louisiana  a  candy  of  brown 
sugar  and  pecans. 

prelat,  n.m.   A  tarpaulin. 

In  describing  river  boats  Robin  wrote:  "Une  autre  grande 
toile  nommee  prelat,  goudronnee  avec  encore  plus  de  soin, 
couvre  tons  les  objets  dont  il  [le  maitre]  est  charge,  afin  qu'ils 
ne  puissent  etre  avaries  par  le  mauvais  temps"  {Voyages,  II, 
211-212).  Standard  French:  prelart.  By  metathesis  some- 
times: perlat. 

prele,  n.f.   Rush,  horsetail. 

Michaux  "observed  on  the  banks  of  the  Mississipi  river 
Equisetiim  which  the  French  Creoles  call  Prele.  This  Plant  has 
here  a  circumference  of  nearly  one  inch  and  the  stalk  is  4 
feet  high"  {Travels,  80).  According  to  Stansbury,  prele  was 
the  "common  scouring-rush"  {Exploration  of  the  Salt  Lake 
Valley,  227).  See  also  Coues,  ed.,  Henry  and  Thonipson  Jour- 
nals, II,  667,  n.  16 ;  Robin,  Voyages,  III,  330. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  129 

procureur  du  roi,  n.m.   Public  prosecutor.   For  the  powers  and 

duties   of  this   official   consult   Brissaud,   History   of  French 

Public  Law,  465-469. 
propre,  n.m.  Property  acquired  by  inheritance ;  not  therefore 

part  of  the  communaute   (q.v.).    Consult  VioUet,  Histoire  du 

Droit  Civil  Frangais,  772.    Cf.  acquet,  conquet. 
Puant.  The  French  name  for  the  Winnebago  Indians.  La  Baye 

des  Pimnts  was  one  name  for  Green  Bay. 
puante,  n.f.     Ulloa  gave  this  name  for  a  species  of  solanum 

(nightshade)    used  in  Louisiana  as  a  vermifuge    {Memoir es 

Philosophiqiies,  I,  141). 
punaise  de  bois,  n.f.    The  wood  tick  (Ulloa,  Memoir es  Philoso- 

phiques,  II,  243). 

Q 

quantier,  n.m.    A  moccasin  (Read,  63-64). 

quarre,  n.m.   Common-fields.  See  champ,  grand  carre. 

quart  (1),  n.m.  A  barrel  of  varying  size.  In  standardizing 
measures  in  1728  the  Superior  Council  of  Louisiana  fixed  the 
quart  of  beef  at  180  lbs.;  of  olive  oil  at  45  pots;  of  flour  at 
180  lbs. ;  of  brandy  and  red  and  white  wine  at  50  pots;  sugar 
at  200  lbs.  (Surrey,  Commerce  of  Louisiana,  254,  262,  267, 
274,  289).  From  time  to  time,  however,  there  was  a  good  deal 
of  variation  in  these  measures. 

quart  (2),  n.m.  Used  as  a  measurement  of  cloth,  a  quart  is  a 
length  or  piece  one-fourth  of  an  aune  (q.v.)  in  width  (Littre) . 

quarte,  n.f.   A  liquid  measure  equal  to  two  pintes  (q.v.). 

quarteron,  quarteronne,  n.m.  and  f.  Quadroon.  A  person  with 
one-fourth  negro  blood  and  three-fourths  white.  This  has  been 
occasionally  used  in  Canada  for  a  person  with  one  Indian 
grandparent;  metis,  however,  is  the  common  term  for  Indian 
mixed-bloods  there  (Tache,  Esquisse,  65).    See  muldtre. 

quatine,  n.m.  A  basin  for  melting  metals  (Alvord,  Cahokia 
Records,  16,  n.  1). 

queue  de  rat,  n.f.   Cattail. 

"We  procured  a  quantity  of  small  white  root,  about  the 
thickness  of  a  goose  quill,  which  had  an  agreeable  nutty  flavor. 


130  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

I  ascertained  that  it  was  the  root  of  the  Smm  lineare  ...  it 
is  named  uskotask  by  the  Crees  and  queue  de  rat  by  the  Cana- 
dians" (Richardson,  Arctic  Exploring  Expedition,  65).  See 
also  Read,  64. 

quiliou,  Ind.,  n.m.   The  golden  eagle. 

*'In  this  manner  they  catch  the  eagle,  called,  by  the  English, 
the  war  eagle,  and  the  golden  eagle  (Aquila  chrysaetos)  the 
Quiliou  or  oiseau  de  medicine  [«2c],  of  the  Canadians"  (Maxi- 
milian, Travels  in  North  Atnerica,  II,  348).  Clapin  (364)  gave 
the  Indian  forms  of  this  word  as  kiniou,  kiniw,  piskiniou.  See 
kiliou,  oiseau  de  calumet.  Consult  also  Chamberlain,  "Indian 
Words  in  French  Canadian,"  II,  77. 

quincajou.   Variant  of  carca/ow  {q.v.). 

quinquinque,  n.f.  The  katydid  (Dorrance,  93). 

quintal,  n.m.  The  hundredweight;  100  French  pounds  or 
107.9219  English  pounds  (Alexander,  Dictionary  of  Weights 
and  Measures,  95). 

quintaux,  n.m.  pi.  Sheaves  of  wheat. 

"Gerbes  de  ble,  formees  avec  les  epis  fauches  le  long  des 
fosses,  aux  endroits  ombreux"  (Clapin,  265). 


rababou,  n.  According  to  Chamberlain  this  dish  was  a  "con- 
coction of  flour  and  pemican"  ("Life  and  Growth  of  Words," 
140). 

racacha,  n.m.  In  Louisiana  French  of  the  Gulf  Coast  and  New 
Orleans  racacha  is  the  name  of  the  bur-grass  or  sand-bur.  For 
derivation  consult  Read,  146-149. 

racatcha,  n.m.  A  large  spur  (Fortier,  Louisiana  Studies,  185; 
Read,  147). 

raccourci,  n.m.  A  short-cut.  Applied  equally  to  land  or  water 
travel  (Clapin,  268;  Ditchy,  176). 

raceminia,  Ind.,  n.f.    The  papaw. 

A  variant  form  of  acimine,  assimine  (q.v.).  "Among  the 
fruits  of  this  country  those  which  seem  to  me  the  best,  and 
which  would  certainly  be  appreciated  in  France,  are  the 
Piakimina  and  the  Racemina.    The  latter  are  perhaps  twice 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  131 

as  long  as  the  finger  and  about  as  large  as  an  infant's  arm" 
(Marest  to  Germon  [Kaskaskia,  1712],  Jesuit  Relations  and 
Allied  Documents,  LXVI,  229). 

racine  a  Becquel,  n.f .   The  pink-root ;  the  wormroot. 

"Sanicula  marylandica  or  Racine  a  Becquel  [as  it  is  called] 
by  the  Illinois  French.  ...  a  decoction  of  the  root  is  a  sov- 
ereign remedy  for  several  diseases  and  for  long-continued 
venereal  diseases"  (Michaux,  Travels,  68;  Sargent,  in  editing 
the  Journal,  suggested  for  sanicula:  spigelia-,  p.  121).  The 
spigelia  marylandica  is  the  pink-root  (Bailey,  Hortu^,  586). 

racine  a  Becquet,  n.f.   The  wild  geranium. 

"In  the  neighborhood  of  Fort  Cheroquis  is  found  also  the 
Geranium  called  herbe  or  rather  Racine  a  Becquet  which  is 
given  for  chronic  diseases  during  several  weeks"  (Michaux, 
Travels,  77).  This  root  is  possibly  that  listed  in  the  previous 
entry,  but  both  the  Thwaites  edition  and  the  original  Journal 
(126)  spell  the  name  as  above.  Rafinesque  identified  the 
racine  a  Becquet  as  geranium  maculatum:  crowfoot,  alum-root, 
spotted  crane's  bill,  and  storkbill  were  popular  names  for  it 
in  English  {Medical  Flora,  I,  215). 

racine  a  Begnet,  n.f.   Snakeroot. 

"La  viperine.  .  .  .  celle  que  les  habitans  de  ce  pays  con- 
noissent  sous  le  nom  Racine  a  Begnet.  Ce  nom  lui  est  reste 
de  I'effet  presque  miraculeux  qu'elle  produisit  sur  cette  homme 
plus  que  sexagenaire"  (Perrin  du  Lac,  Voyage,  244-245).  This 
root,  to  which  Perrin  du  Lac  attributed  aphrodisiac  power,  was 
quite  possibly  the  same  as  the  racine  a  Becquel  and  racine  a 
Becquet. 

racine  blanche,  n.f.  Another  name  for  the  prairie  turnip?   See 
pomme  blanche. 

Townsend  described  it  as  "the  white  or  biscuit  root,  the 
Racine  blanc  of  the  Canadians, —  (Eulophus  ambigus,  of  Nut- 
tall).  This  is  dried,  pulverized  with  stones,  and  after  being 
moistened  with  water,  is  made  into  cakes  and  baked  in  the 
sun.  The  taste  is  not  unlike  that  of  a  stale  biscuit,  and  to  a 
hungry  man,  or  one  who  has  long  subsisted  without  vegetables 
of  any  kind,  is  rather  palatable"  (Narrative  of  a  Journey 
across  the  Rocky  Mountains,  248). 


132  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

racine  de  quenouille,  n.f.  Cattail  (Denig,  "Indian  Tribes  of  the 
Upper  Missouri,"  plate  67). 

racine  d*ours,  n.f.   White  baneberry. 

"The  Actaea  alba  grows  abundantly  here;  it  is  called  by  the 
Canadians  le  racine  d'ours,  and  by  the  Crees,  musqua^rnitsa-in 
(Bear's  food)"  (Richardson,  Arctic  Exploring  Expedition, 
58).   Consult  Bailey,  77or^i6S,  24. 

racine  noire,  n.f.  The  black  root  or  comb  root,  a  specific  for 
snakebite  (Denig,  "Indian  Tribes  of  the  Upper  Missouri,"  plate 
67). 

racine  percee,  n.f.    The  water  chinquapin. 

"On  the  table  there  was  a  dish  of  tchera-ouas  which  we 
found  excellent  in  the  prairie  but  which  we  disregarded  en- 
tirely at  Duglass'  house.  The  tchei-a-ouas  are  the  roots  of  a 
water  plant  which  looks  very  much  like  water  lilies.  The 
flowers,  of  a  yellowish  white  color,  have  a  pleasant  odour;  in 
the  center  there  is  a  bright  yellow  capsule  in  the  shape  of  the 
spout  of  a  wateringpot ;  its  upper  part  is  flat  and  half  lets  out 
five  or  six  seeds  of  a  deep  black  colour.  This  plant  is  common 
in  Louisiana ;  in  the  marshes  of  the  prairie,  it  spreads  its  wide 
green  leaves  on  the  water.  Six  or  eight  canals,  from  which 
their  name  originated,  run  through  the  entire  length  of  these 
roots.  They  taste  somewhat  like  boiled  chestnuts;  they  are 
flavoured  with  bison  fat"  (Tixier,  Travels,  262-263).  The 
true  Osage  form  of  Tixier's  Indian  term  is  tse-iva-the  (La 
Flesche,  Dictionary  of  the  Osage  Language,  160).  According 
to  La  Flesche,  the  root  is  eaten  either  raw  or  boiled  and  large 
quantities  of  it  are  stored  for  the  winter ;  the  seeds  are  eaten 
raw.  See  also  Robin,  Voyages,  II,  441,  443,  and  the  detailed 
description  of  Nicolas  Perrot  in  Blair,  Indian  Tribes  of  the 
Upper  Mississippi,  I,  115-117. 

racine  rouge,  n.f.    The  redroot;  probably,  madder. 

"We  also  found  growing  here  a  plant  which  is  now  green, 
called  by  the  french  'racine  rouge'  /  red  root  /  which  is  said  to 
be  a  specific  in  female  obstructions ;  it  has  also  been  used  com- 
bined with  the  China  root  to  die  red ;  which  last  probably  acts 
as  a  mordant"  (Dunbar,  Life,  Letters,  and  Papers,  277).  See 
also  Robin,  Voyages,  III,  453;  Bartlett,  Dictionary  of  Ameri- 
canisms, 519. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  133 

radeau,  n.m.   A  kind  of  flatboat. 

"Toward  the  end  of  the  French  period  in  Louisiana  ...  a 
boat  resembling  a  flatboat  of  the  present  day  began  to  be  used 
on  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries.  This  was  called  a 
'radeau'  and  served  principally  as  a  freight  boat  and  for  heavy 
and  bulky  merchandise  in  general"  (Surrey,  Commerce  of 
Louisiana,  61). 

rale  bleu,  n.m.  In  Louisiana,  the  purple  gallinule  (Audubon, 
Or7iithological  Biography,  IV,  40). 

(grand)  rale  de  prairie,  n.m.  In  Louisiana,  the  great  red- 
breasted  rail  or  freshwater  marsh  hen  (Audubon,  Ornithologi- 
cal Biography,  III,  28). 

raquette.    See  pomme  de  raquette. 

raquette,  n.f.    A  snowshoe. 

rassades,  n.f.  pi.  Beads  for  the  Indian  trade. 

"Petits  grains  de  verre  ou  de  faience  perces"  (Perrin  du 
Lac,  Voyage,  838).   See  also  Tixier,  Travels,  137-138. 

ratafia.  See  tafia. 

rat  de  bois,  n.m.    The  opossum. 

"Je  rencontrai  un  opossum,  que  dans  le  pays  on  nomme 
rat  de  bois"  (Robin,  Voyages,  II,  327).  See  also  Bossu,  Nou- 
veaux  Voyages  aux  Indes  Occidentales,  II,  127.  See  cochon  de 
bois. 

ravage,  n.m.  The  gnawed  branches  of  trees  and  shrubs  on 
which  elk,  moose,  caribou,  bears,  and  the  like  have  fed;  the 
feeding  area  itself  (Clapin,  273). 

Reaumur.  The  thermometer  invented  by  Rene  Antoine  de 
Reaumur  (1683-1757)  had  a  range  of  80°  between  the  freez- 
ing point  and  boiling  point.  9°  F.=5°C.=^4°R.  For  the  con- 
version of  Reaumur  temperatures  into  Fahrenheit,  multiply 
by  9/4  and  add  32°. 

recollet.   See  drier  (2). 

reduction,  n.f.  A  missionary  station  about  which  converted 
tribes  were  induced  to  settle  (Chittenden  and  Richardson,  De 
Smet's  Life  and  Travels,  I,  306,  n.  14;  315,  n.  1). 

regale,  n.m.  The  materials  for  a  feast — commonly  flour  for 
cakes  and  puddings  and  half  a  pint  of  rum — given  to  engages 


134  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

on  special  occasions  like  Christmas  and  New  Year  (Nute,  Voy- 
ageur,  85). 

regaler,  v.  tr.   To  treat,  to  entertain.  See  regale. 

A  special  significance  was  sometimes  attached  to  the  word: 
"Les  Mandanes,  Ricaras,  Gros-ventres  et  autres  peuples  du 
Nord,  ne  font  au  contraire  aucun  cas  de  la  fidelite  conjugale; 
ils  se  plaisent  meme  a  regaler  leurs  amis  de  leurs  femmes  les 
plus  jeunes  et  les  plus  jolies"  (Perrin  du  Lac,  Voyage,  351). 
Of  regaler  he  said  "c'est  leur  expression  litteralement  tra- 
duite." 

remous,  remoux,  n.m.  A  whirlpool  or  eddy  (Maximilian,  Trav- 
els in  North  America,  I,  239;  II,  35). 

renverse,  n.m.  "Tract  of  forest  covered  with  trees  blown  down 
by  storms"  (Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  142). 

reveillon,*  n.m.  Used  particularly  for  the  Christmas  break- 
fast. 

"On  leaving  the  church  [Christmas  Day],  the  members  of 
the  different  families  assembled  together,  and  proceeded  in 
a  body  to  the  house  of  the  head,  or  patriarch  of  the  family, 
to  partake  of  the  'Reveillon'.  This  was  a  breakfast,  ample  and 
abundant  for  all,  and  was  an  occasion  for  the  expression  and 
acknowledgment  of  those  reciprocal  sentiments  and  obligations 
which  should  ever  exist  in  families  .  .  ."  (Primm,  "New  Year's 
Day  in  Saint  Louis,"  19). 

rigolety  n.m.    Creek. 

Standard  French  has  rigole,  irrigation  ditch,  canal.  Louisi- 
ana French  has  rigolet  for  the  strait  connecting  lakes  (Read, 
180).  In  the  central  part  of  the  Valley  the  word  was  used  for 
"creek"  {American  State  Papers,  Public  Lands,  II,  194). 

robe  de  boeuf,  n.f.  A  buffalo  skin  was  commonly  called  a 
buffalo  robe. 

(Le)  Rocher.   Starved  Rock,  on  the  Illinois  River. 

roquille,  n.f.  A  liquid  measure;  two  roquilles  make  one 
chopine  (q.v.)  (Alexander,  Dictionary  of  Weights  and  Mea- 
sures, 135). 

rossignol,  n.m.  In  Canada,  the  song  sparrow  (Chamberlain, 
"Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  85).  In  Louisiana,  according  to 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  135 

Berquin-Duvallon,  this  name  was  sometimes  given  to  the  mock- 
ingbird (Vue  de  la  Colonie,  107). 
roulaison,   n.f.    Sugar-making;   the   process   of  manufacture 
(Robin,    Voijages,  II,   223-232;   Tixier,    Travels,  47;   Ditchy, 
188). 

S 

sabliere,  n.f.  A  sleeper.  A  timber  on  which  the  joists,  rafters, 
or  partitions  rest.    Clap  in   (287)   uses  the  masculine  form. 

sac,  n.m.  The  sac  of  Paris,  as  a  measure  of  capacity  for  wheat 
and  flour,  equalled  5.99872  American  bushels  (Alexander, 
Dictionary  of  Weights  and  Measures,  100). 

sacacomi,  saccacomi,  Ind.,  n.m.  The  bearberry.  Also,  the 
smoking  mixture  made  from  the  leaves  of  this  shrub.  Some- 
times mistakenly  written  sac-d-commis.  Consult  Chamberlain, 
"Indian  Words  in  French  Canadian,"  II,  77;  Clapin,  287; 
Elliott,  "Speech  Mixture  in  French  Canada,"  150.  See  graine 
d'ours. 

sac-a-feu,  n.m.  The  sack  or  bag  containing  the  pipe  and  other 
smoking  equipment  of  the  voyageur  (Tache,  Forestiers  et 
Voyageurs,  159). 

sacamlte,  sagamite,  Ind.,  n.f.    Hominy. 

"Corn  boiled  in  salt  water"  (Tixier,  Travels,  56).  See  also 
Charlevoix,  Letters,  238;  Chamberlain,  "Indian  Words  in 
French  Canadian,"  II,  87.  For  derivation  see  Read,  105-106. 
Cf.  gru. 

sacatra,  n.m.  The  child  of  a  griff e  (q.v.)  and  a  negro ;  a  person 
with  seven-eighths  negro  blood  (Olmsted,  Seaboard  Slave 
States,  583).  See  middtre. 

sagaban,  n.  The  groundnut,  potato  bean,  or  wild  bean.  Ac- 
cording to  Bartlett  the  "root  of  the  apios  tuberosa  was  used 
as  food  by  the  Indians  of  the  North-west  and  elsewhere"  {Dic- 
tionary of  Americayiisms ,  545) .  See  Bailey,  Hortus,  51.  Cf. 
pomme  de  terre. 

sagamite.   See  sacamite. 

salaison,  n.f.  The  salting  of  meat,  the  operation  of  curing  or 
preserving  by  means  of  salt.  Nuttall  mentioned  a  "brook, 
called  by  the  French  Salaiseau,  from  some  hunters  having 


136  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

killed  a  quantity  of  bison,  and  salted  the  beef  for  traffic" 
(Jou7-nal  of  Travels,  231). 

saline,  n.f.  Salt  spring,  salt  lick,  salt  works.  See  glaise. 

sang-mele,  [sang-mele] ,  n.m.  In  Canada,  according  to  Clapin 
(290),  this  was  a  synonym  for  metis  (q.v.).  In  Louisiana,  ac- 
cording to  Olmsted,  it  was  the  child  of  a  demi-meamalouc 
(q.v.)  and  a  white,  a  person  with  one-sixtyfourth  negro  blood 
(Seaboard  Slave  States,  583).  See  muldtre. 

»ans  dessein.  To  do  anything  sans  dessein  was  to  do  it  "with- 
out any  cause,"  "with  no  particular  object,"  or  "for  nothing" 
(John  McDonnell,  "The  Red  River,"  288  and  n.  1 ;  Chamber- 
lain, "Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  138-139 ;  Tache,  Forestiers 
et  Voyageurs,  171 ) .   See  Cote  sans  Dessein. 

sarcelle,  n.f.   The  blue-winged  teaL 

"At  New  Orleans,  and  during  spring,  when  this  bird  is  in 
full  plumage,  it  is  called  by  the  Creoles  of  Louisiana  'Sarcelle 
Printanniere' ;  and  in  autumn,  when  scarcely  an  individual  can 
be  seen  retaining  the  beauty  of  its  spring  plumage,  it  is  known 
as  the  'Sarcelle  Automniere'  "  (Audubon,  Ornithological  Biog- 
raphy, IV,  112).  Elsewhere  Audubon  gave  sarcelle  d'hiver  as 
the  Louisiana  name  for  the  green-winged  teal  and  sarcelle 
d'ete  for  the  blue-winged  teal  {ibid.,  Ill,  220). 

sauliere,  n.f.  A  wood  or  thicket  of  willows. 

sault,  n.m.   A  rapid  or  waterfall. 

Saulteurs.  The  people  of  the  sault — ^the  French  name  for  the 
Chippewa  Indians. 

sauter  les  rapides.  To  run  or  shoot  the  rapids,  in  highwater. 
See  J.  Johnston,  "Account  of  Lake  Superior,"  166 ;  Clapin,  290. 

sauvage,  sauvagesse,  n.m.  and  f.  An  Indian.  Throughout  this 
period  (1673-1850)  the  French  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  com- 
monly referred  to  the  Indians  as  the  nation  {s),  used  the  tribal 
name,  or  used  the  general  term  sauvage.  See  Indien,  peau 
rouge. 

sauvage,  adj.  Literally,  "savage,"  "wild,"  but  better  rendered 
"Indian."  In  some  contexts  such  a  distinction  will  not  matter. 
As  an  adjective  one  hardly  wishes,  however,  to  translate 
pirogue  sauvage  (Poisson,  Jesuit  Relations  and  Allied  Docu- 
ments, LXVII,  298)  as  a  "wild"  or  "savage  canoe." 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  137 

savane,  n.f.  According  to  Read  (149)  savane  in  Louisiana 
signifies  "pasture  land,"  but  in  Canada  "wet"  or  "swampy 
ground."  Chamberlain  gives  the  Canadian  meaning  as  "bogs 
and  marshes"  ("Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  141).  Not  used 
for  "plain"  or  "prairie." 

schischikue.   See  chichakois. 

seigneur,  seigneurie,  n.m.,  n.f.  For  a  discussion  of  patents  of 
nobility  granted  in  Canada  consult  Munro,  The  Seignorial  Sys- 
tem in  Canada. 

serpent  a  come,  n.m.  The  horned  snake.  Tixier,  among  other 
travelers,  discussed  the  horned  snake  (^Travels,  78-80).  Con- 
sult Van  Denburgh,  The  Reptiles  of  Western  North  America, 
II,  953-958. 

serpent  a  sonnettes,  n.m.  The  rattlesnake.  Louisiana  French 
has  now  serpent  sonnettes  (Read,  69). 

serpent  fouetteur,  n.m.  The  whip  snake,  coachwhip  snake. 
Michaux  called  it  "un  serpent  noir  de  I'espece  Veep-Coach 
(fouet  de  cocher)"  (JourTial,  17).  Tixier  spoke  of  it  as  the 
serpent  fouetteur  (Travels,  80-81).  Consult  Read,  39;  A.  I. 
Ortenburger,  The  Whip  Snakes  and  Racers. 

sieur,  n.m.  This  term  of  address  has  only  the  value  of  mon- 
sieur. See  dame.  For  a  discussion  of  nobility  in  Canada,  con- 
sult Munro,  The  Seignorial  System  in  Canada. 

siffleur  (1),  n.m.   The  hog-nosed  snake. 

Perrin  du  Lac  made  note  of  "le  siffleur  que  les  Anglois  ap- 
pellent  serpent  cuivre,  a  cause  de  la  couleur  de  sa  tete  qui  est 
d'un  jaune  de  cuivre"  {Voyage,  248).  Read  points  out,  how- 
ever, that  Perrin  du  Lac  is  in  error  in  identifying  this  snake 
with  the  copperhead,  for  the  siffleur  is  harmless  (70). 

siffleur  (2),  n.m.   The  ground  hog. 

Audubon  wrote  that  "the  Quebec  Marmot  is  called  by  the 
French  Canadians  siffleiir  always,  by  the  Americans  Ground 
Hog,  and  rarely  indeed  marmot  by  any  one"  {Jouryml  .  .  . 
18JfO-18Jt3,  Corning,  ed.,  107-108).  "Marmottes  par  les  Cana- 
diens  Siffleux"  (Michaux,  Journal,  83). 

sirop,  n.m.   In  Louisiana,  molasses. 


138  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

soldat,  n.m.  Soldier.   More  exactly:  military  police. 

"On  all  occasions  of  public  rejoicings,  festivals,  dances,  or 
general  hunts,  a  number  of  resolute  warriors  are  previously 
appointed,  to  preserve  order,  and  keep  the  peace.  In  token  of 
their  office  they  paint  themselves  entirely  black;  usually  wear 
the  croiv,  and  arm  themselves  with  a  whip  or  war-club,  with 
which  they  punish  on  the  spot  those  who  misbehave,  and  are 
at  once  both  judges  and  executioners.  Thus,  at  the  bison 
hunts,  they  knock  down  or  flog  those  whose  manoeuvres  tend 
to  frighten  the  game,  before  all  are  ready,  or  previously  to 
their  having  arrived  at  the  proper  point,  from  which  they  sally 
forth  upon  them.  Four  or  five  such  officers,  or  soldiers,  are 
appointed  at  a  council  of  the  chiefs,  held  in  the  evening,  to 
preserve  order  amongst  the  hunters  for  the  succeeding  day" 
(E.  James,  Long's  Expedition,  I,  297).  Consult  also  the  "De 
Cannes  Memoir"  (Pease  and  Werner,  French  Foundations, 
309);  Tabeau,  Narrative,  116-120;  Tixier,  Travels,  175,  189, 
190,  245;  Fletcher  and  La  Flesche,  Omaha  Tribe,  210,  279, 
281,  282,  442. 

sol,  n.m.  The  sou.  The  twentieth  part  of  a  livr-e  (q.v.)  or 
franc. 

sorcier,  n.m.    Medicine-man.   See  7nedecin. 

sou,  n.m.    The  twentieth  part  of  the  livre  or  franc.   For  a  list 

of  coins  and  values,  see  livre. 
Soulier  sauvage,  n.m.    A  moccasin. 

spatule,  n.f.  The  shoveler  duck  (Ulloa,  Memoir es  Philoso- 
phiques,  I,  193). 

squine,  n.f.   The  greenbriar. 

"The  French  Creoles  call  the  species  of  Smilax  found  in  the 
Illinois  country,  Squine.  Only  the  thorny  species  grows  there" 
(Michaux,  Travels,  79). 

subroge  tuteur.   Surrogate  guardian.   See  tuteur. 

succession,  n.f.  For  laws  governing  wills  and  probate  proce- 
dure see  the  Coutumes  de  Paris,  II,  59-198.  For  examples  see 
Porteous,  "A  Louisiana  Will  of  the  Spanish  Era,  1776,"  and 
Dart,  Price,  and  Cruzat,  "Inventory  of  the  Estate  of  Prevost." 

suce-fleur,  n.f.  The  hummingbird  (Ulloa,  Memoir  es  Philoso- 
phiques,  II,  240).   See  bee  fleur. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  139 

sucrerie,  n.f.  An  establishment  for  the  making  of  sugar.  In 
Canada,  maple  sugar ;  in  Louisiana,  cane  sugar.  For  Louisiana, 
see  Berquin-Duvallon,  Vue  de  la  Colonie,  120-141.  See  rou- 
laison. 

suerie,  n.f.  A  sweat  bath  in  the  Indian  fashion  (Chamberlain, 
"Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  142). 

Suisse  (1),  n.m.   A  beadle. 

According  to  the  report  on  the  religious  condition  of  Louisi- 
ana, 1772,  the  beadle  was  "dressed  in  a  blue  uniform,  with  a 
scarlet  scarf.  He  carries  a  pike,  and  in  this  guise  attends  the 
divine  service.  His  function  is  to  prevent  irreverence  in  the 
sacred  edifice,  and  to  repress  conversation"  (Houck,  Spanish 
Regime  in  Missouri,  I,  117). 

Suisse  (2),  n.m.  According  to  Clapin  (305),  in  Canada  Suisse 
is  used  for  Huguenots  and  Canadian-French  Protestants. 

Suisse  (3),  n.m.  Chipmunk.  So  called  "from  the  resemblance 
of  its  body  to  the  striped  Swiss  guards  of  the  Pope"  (Cham- 
berlain, "Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  86). 

syndic,  n.m.   An  attorney,  an  agent. 

The  syndic  served  as  agent  of  the  inhabitants  and  as  agent 
of  the  administration.  In  the  first  capacity  he  called  assem- 
blies of  the  inhabitants  and  presided  over  them  in  the  absence 
of  the  local  judge.  He  received  and  expended  the  funds  of 
the  community  and  had  custody  of  papers  and  archives.  In 
the  second  capacity  "he  played  a  role  in  the  levying  of  taxes; 
he  supervised  the  repair  of  roads,  looked  after  the  lodging  of 
troops  in  transit,  the  destruction  of  caterpillars,  the  quaran- 
tine of  epizootics  and  informed  the  intendant  of  all  happenings 
which  could  affect  the  service  of  the  king  or  the  public  tran- 
quility (epidemics  etc.)."  The  syndic  served  for  one  year. 
The  duties  were  so  heavy  that  the  post  was  little  sought  after, 
but  no  one  was  permitted  to  decline.  For  neglect  of  duty  the 
syndic  was  subject  to  heavy  fine.  By  way  of  compensation  he 
was  exempt  from  serving  on  the  watch  and  from  part  of  the 
taille.    (Brissaud,  History  of  French  Public  Law,  422.) 

At  Saint  Louis  in  1782,  for  example,  eight  syndics  were 
named  by  an  assembly  of  inhabitants  "for  the  purpose  of 
establishing  fixed  and  unalterable  rules  for  the  construction 


140  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

and  repair  of  streets,  bridges  and  drains  of  this  village."  The 
council  decided  that  thereafter  an  assembly  of  the  inhabitants 
on  the  first  day  of  each  year  should  elect  two  syndics  to  super- 
vise these  public  affairs.  The  council  of  syndics  also  provided 
rules  for  the  construction  and  repair  of  fences  of  the  village 
common  and  for  the  selection  of  a  syndic  and  umpires  to  in- 
spect fences  and  enforce  rules.  (Billon,  AnTials  of  St.  Louis, 
[1764-1804],  116-120.) 

In  private  law  he  was  an  administrator  or  agent:  in  1779 
Eugene  Alvarez  was  "Syndic  de  la  succession  de  deffunt 
Domingo  Bargas"  (Fr.  and  Span.  Arch.  St.  L.,  Nos.  2579, 
2356). 

sysyquoy.  See  chichakois. 

T 

tafia,  taffia,  n.m.  Rum.  Coup  de  tafia:  a  drink  of  rum.  Con- 
sult Read,  106-107. 

taique,  Ind.,  n.f.  A  squaw  (Read,  107)  ;  Tixier  wrote  tahik 
{Travels,  57). 

talle,  n.f.   A  thicket,  brush,  a  clump  of  trees  or  bushes. 

"A  very  celebrated  spot  [on  the  river  Jacques],  called  by 
the  Sioux  Otuhu-ojii — meaning,  literally,  the  place  'where  the 
oaks  spring  up'.  ...  (or,  as  the  French  call  it,  Talle  des 
Chenes)"  (Nicollet,  Report,  46).   Ditchy  (199)  spells  it  tale. 

tannant,  adj.  Tiresome,  annoying,  irksome,  boring. 

tanner  (se),  v.  intr.  "To  labor  hard  for  a  thing"  (Kurz,  Jour- 
nal, 104). 

taureau,  n.m.  A  large  skin  sack  used  for  storing  pemmican, 
merchandise,  etc.  So  called  because  the  skin  of  the  bull  buf- 
falo was  used  for  it.  Cf.  faon. 

tavelle,  n.f.  Lace,  embroidery,  edging  (Clapin,  311). 

tendelet,  n.m.  A  kind  of  cabin  or  sheltered  deck  near  the  stern 
of  a  river  boat. 

"Les  voitures  destinees  a  remonter  le  Mississipi  pour  aller 
si  loin  dans  les  divers  etablissemens  de  la  Louisiane  porter  aux 
cultivateurs  les  objets  necessaires  a  leurs  besoins,  ont  toutes 
sur  I'arriere  un  couvert  nomme  tendelet,  fait  quelquefois  en 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  141 

menuiserie,  mais  le  plus  ordinairement  en  simples  perches 
cintrees,  recouvertes  d'une  large  toile  bien  goudronnee,  pour 
y  etre  a  I'abri  du  soleil  et  des  pluies;  quelquefois,  au  lieu  de 
toiles  goudronnees,  on  le  couvre  de  peaux  de  boeuf .  Ce  tendelet 
est  destine  pour  le  maitre  de  la  voiture  et  ceux  de  sa  societe : 
plus  eleve  que  le  reste  de  la  voiture,  il  est  assez  commode 
durant  la  marche,  pour  observer  le  paysage :  on  y  dort  la  nuit, 
on  y  mange  de  jour,  quand  il  fait  mauvais  temps,  et  il  faut 
s'y  tenir  pendant  la  duree  de  la  marche,  quoiqu'elle  soit  lente, 
parce  qu'en  beaucoup  d'endroits  on  ne  trouverait  pas  de 
chemins  pour  suivre  a  pied"  (Robin,  Voyages,  II,  211). 

terre  graisse,  n.f.  "A  very  stiff,  black  soil,  called  'terre  graisse* 
and  having  a  feeling  when  wet,  like  lard  or  grease"  (Flint, 
Geography  and  History  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  I,  150). 

terreine  [terrine?],  n.f.  This  "is  the  name  given  earthen  jugs 
used  for  clarifying  river  water"  (Alvord,  Cahokia  Recor^ds, 
453,  n.  2). 

terres  brulees.   See  cotes  brulees. 

terres  folles,  n.f.  pi.  The  district  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake 
Superior  (Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  142). 

terres  jaunes,  n.f.  pi.  The  Yellowstone  country  of  the  Missouri 
River  (Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  142). 

terre  tremblante,  n.f.  In  Canada,  shaky  ground,  not  swamps 
(Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  141).  Cf.  prairie 
tremblante. 

tete  de  femme,  n.f.  A  tussock  of  long  grass  (Coues,  ed.,  Henry 
and  Thompson  Journals,  I,  131)  ;  "little  clumps  of  moss  on 
the  prairies"  (Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth  of  Words," 
136). 

tete  plate,  n.f.  According  to  Flint,  the  water  moccasin  was  so 
called  because  of  its  large  flat  head  (Geography  and  History 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  I,  113).   See  bdtard  (1). 

teton,  n.m.  A  breast.  Applied  by  the  French  to  mountains 
similarly  to  their  use  of  mamelle  (q.v.)  for  "hill,"  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  Grand  Tetons. 

the  canadien,  n.m.  Common  meadowsweet  (Tache,  Esquisse, 
sec.  edit.,  16). 


142  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

tiergon,  n.m,  A  measure  of  liquid  capacity.  A  tiergon  of  indigo 
in  1745  was  42  gallons  (Surrey,  Com^nerce  of  Louisiana,  204). 
According  to  Alexander  {Dictionary  of  Weights  and  Measures, 
113),  the  tiergon  of  Paris  equalled  23.61926  American  gallons. 
Surrey  may  have  confused  the  French  tiergon  with  the  English 
and  American  tierce  of  42  gallons. 

tigre,  tigre  americain,  n.m.  The  cougar,  puma,  or  mountain 
lion.  See  Le  Page  du  Pratz,  Histoire,  II,  90-92 ;  Tixier,  Travels, 
175;  Read,  101.    Cf.  chat-tigre,  pichou. 

tiourouk,  n.  The  rice  bird,  rice  bunting,  reed  bird,  or  bobolink. 
"Une  petite  espece  de  chevaliers,  qu'on  nomme  tiourouks, 
couraient  avec  eux  [pluviers]  dans  I'herbe  et  les  rizieres,  ou 
volaient  en  troupes  compactes  en  rasant  la  terre"  (Tixier, 
Voyage,  52).  See  also  Audubon,  Ornithological  Biography,  I, 
283-287. 

toise,  n.f.  A  linear  measure  of  6  French  feet,  1.949  meters, 
or  6.3945  English  feet. 

tom-beck-be,  n.   The  trumpet  flower. 

"A  kind  of  trumpet  flower  [bignonia]  common  along  the 
Tom-beck-be  river  which  flows  into  the  Alabama"  (Tixier, 
Travels,  83  and  n.  74).   See  also  Robin,  Voyages,  III,  409-410. 

tombereau,  n.m.  A  farm  wagon  with  double  sides  (Dorrance, 
98). 

tomberee,  tombre,  n.f.  A  cart-load,  the  contents  of  a  tom- 
bereau.    E.  g.,  "la  tomberee  de  dixhuit  sacs  de  deux  minots." 

tonneau,  n.m.  The  old  French  ton  equalled  2158.43  English 
pounds  or  42.567  bushels  (Alexander,  Dictionary  of  Weights 
and  Measures,  115). 

toque,  n.f.   A  style  of  hair-dressing  among  the  Indians. 

"The  toque  among  the  Blackfeet  is  a  tail,  seven  or  eight  feet 
long,  made  of  horse  and  bufl"alo  hair,  interwoven  with  their 
own.  But  instead  of  floating  behind  in  the  ordinary  way,  this 
tail  is  located  upon  the  party's  forehead  and  stands  out  spirally, 
something  like  a  rhinoceros  horn.  Such  a  tail  among  the  Black- 
feet  is  a  mark  of  great  distinction  and  bravery ;  the  longer  the 
tail  the  greater  the  courage  the  bearer  must  display  upon 
occasion"  (De  Smet,  Life  and  Travels,  II,  590).  See  also 
Hodge,  Handbook,  I,  524-526. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  143 

tourte,  n.f.    Wild  pigeon.     (Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth 

of  Words,"  85;  Clapin,  319). 
train  de  bois,  n.m.    A  lumber  raft   (Chamberlain,  "Life  and 

Growth  of  Words,"  137) .   Cf.  cage. 

tralne,  n.f.  A  large  sled,  drawn  by  horse  or  dog,  used  for 
hauling  (Clapin,  320).   See  travail. 

traineau,  n.m.  A  small,  dog-drawn  sled  (Clapin,  320).  See 
travail. 

traine  sauvage,  n.f.  A  toboggan,  an  Indian  sled  (Chamberlain, 

"Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  137). 
traite,  n.f.   The  fur-trade. 
trailer,  v.  tr.    To  trade  with  the  Indians  for  furs. 

"Seul  terme  en  usage  dans  le  pays  pour  designer  les  echanges 
que  les  Blancs  font  avec  les  Sauvages"  (Perrin  du  Lac,  Voy- 
age, 177). 
traiteur,  n.m.  Trader.  At  first,  any  man  trading  directly  with 
the  Indians.  Later,  the  resident  trader  or  representative  of  a 
fur  company. 

travail,  n.m.  A  sled  commonly  drawn  by  dogs.  Often  written 
by  the  English  and  Americans  travail,  travaille,  travee,  tra- 
verse, travois  (Coues,  ed.,  Henry  and  TJio7npson  Journals,  I, 
142,  n.  23 ;  Ruxton,  In  the  Old  West,  170-172 ;  Kurz,  Journal, 
75). 

travail  a  cheval,  n.m.    A  horse-litter.    Cf.  cariole. 

travee.    See  travail. 

traverse,  n.f.  In  the  language  of  the  voyageur,  a  traverse  was 
any  large  open  body  of  water  to  be  crossed  in  canoes.  See 
Chamberlain,  "Life  and  Growth  of  Words,"  140-141;  Nute, 
Voyageur,  61.  Traverse  is  also  a  variant  spelling  of  travail 
(q.v.). 

traversier,  n.m.  According  to  Surrey,  this  was  a  general  term 
for  larger  boats,  used  much  for  vessels  in  the  Gulf  trade  (Com- 
merce of  Louisiana,  63 ) .  In  Canada  traversier  signifies  ferry 
(Clapin,  321;  Ditchy,  207). 

travois.   See  tr^avail. 


144  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

tremble,  tremblier,  n.m.    The  Canadian  poplar  or  quaking 

aspen. 

"The  Canada  Poplar  is  called  by  the  Canadians  Tremble  and 
by  the  English  of  Canada  Quaking  Aspen"  (Michaux,  Travels, 
75). 

trembliere,  n.f.  A  grove  or  forest  of  aspens,  Canadian  poplars. 

tremper,  v.  intr.   To  stand  in  water,  to  soak. 

In  the  phrase  La  Montague  qui  trempe  a  I'eau  (in  the  Mis- 
sissippi River  at  Lake  Pepin)  tremper  has  frequently  been 
mistaken  for  tromper,  "to  deceive,"  and  therefore  mistrans- 
lated. According  to  Catlin  (Illustrations  of  the  Manners,  Cus- 
toms, and  Conditions  of  the  North  American  Indians,  II,  209) 
American  soldiers  called  it  Mount  Strombolo.  The  name  of 
this  mountain  is  now  generally  given  as  Mount  Trempealeau. 
The  term,  however,  which  means  "the  mountain  that  stands 
in  the  water,"  was  applied  to  more  than  one  such  hill.  Richard- 
son noted  on  the  Mackenzie  River  that  "a  round-topped  hill, 
named  'Rock  by  the  River's  Side'  {Roche  qui  trempe  a  I'eau), 
rises  precipitously  from  the  water's  edge  to  the  height  of  five 
or  six  hundred  feet  or  more"  {Arctic  Exploring  Expedition, 
109).  A  description  of  the  Lake  Pepin  mountain  can  be  found 
in  Keating,  Long's  Expedition,  I,  271-272.  See  also  Coues, 
Pike's  Expeditions,  I,  52  and  n.  26. 

tripe  de  roche,  n.f.   A  lichen;  edible  moss. 

J.  Long  wrote  that  "Tripe  de  roche,  or,  haivercoon,  is  a 
weed  that  grows  to  the  rocks,  of  a  spongy  nature,  and  very 
unwholesome,  causing  violent  pains  in  the  bowels  .  .  ."  {Voy- 
ages and  Travels,  156).  It  was  likewise  used  as  food  in  the 
Illinois  Country  (Charlevoix,  Letters,  238).  See  also  Wiscon- 
sin Historical  Collections,  XVI,  24  and  n.  1. 

tutelle,  n.f.  The  state  of  guardianship,  the  authority  given  for 
the  conservation  of  the  property  of  a  minor.  For  a  discussion 
of  the  tutelle  see  Viollet,  Histoire  du  Droit  Civil  Frangais,  531- 
547.  Although  a  guardian  might  be  named  by  will,  or  guard- 
ianship might  fall  by  natural  course  to  the  surviving  parent 
or  grandparent,  as  well  as  by  court  appointment,  in  practice 
all  guardianships  had  to  be  made  or  approved  by  the  court. 
Cf .  curatelle,  miancipation. 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  145 

tuteur,  n.m.  Guardian.  The  duty  of  the  guardian  was  to  watch 
over  the  physical  welfare  of  the  minor,  to  administer  his  prop- 
erty, and  to  represent  him  in  various  public  acts.  In  some  of 
his  acts  the  tuteur  was  required  to  have  the  consent  of  the 
conseil  de  famille.  When  the  interests  of  the  guardian  and 
those  of  the  minor  were  in  conflict,  the  tuteur  gave  way  to 
the  subroge  tuteur.  Consult  VioUet,  Histoire  du  Droit  Civil 
Frangais,  531-547.  Cf.  curateur,  emancipation.  See  also  Cruzat, 
"French  Colonial  Procedure  for  the  Appointment  of  Tutors 
to  Minors,  1735" ;  Porteous,  "Governor  Unzaga  and  the  Fam- 
ily Meeting." 


vacation,  n.f.  The  sitting  or  attendance  of  public  officials,  as 
at  a  public  sale. 

vache,  n.f.  In  the  buffalo  country,  very  often  used  for  buffalo 
cow  and  by  extension  for  the  buffalo  in  general.  Cf.  boeuf, 
boeuf  sauvage.  In  Canada  vache  or  vache  sauvage  was  used 
for  the  moose  (Shea,  Discovery  and  Exploration  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley,  17,  n.). 

vache  a  Isut,  n.f.    Milkweed. 

"My  Frenchman  called  it  vache  a  lait.  The  Mexican  cook 
calls  it  capote  des  acarte"  (Stansbury,  Exploration  of  the  Salt 
Lake  Valley,  175). 

vacherie,  n.f.   Stock  farm. 

vacheur,  n.m.   Herder  (Cable,  Bonaventure,  66). 

varangue,  varengle,  n.f.  Rib  of  a  canoe  (Chamberlain,  "Life 
and  Growth  of  Words,"  139). 

vase,  n.f.   A  morass  or  swamp  (Garry,  "Diary,"  104-105). 

vaseuse,  vaseux,  adj.    Muddy,  swampy. 

John  Sibley  spoke  of  "a  river  [in  Louisiana]  .  .  .  called  La 
Vazzures  or  Boggy  River  this  river  is  about  200  yards  wide, 
shallow,  &  muddy  bottom"  (Dunbar,  Life,  Letters,  and  Papers, 
168-169).  In  the  central  part  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  such 
a  name  was  generally  written  Riviere  aux  Vases. 

venaison,  n.f.  Venison.  May  be  used  for  any  meat  killed  on 
the  hunt,  but  particularly  that  of  the  deer  or  caribou. 


146  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH 

verge,  n.f.  A  linear  and  superficial  measure.  As  a  (super- 
ficial) measure  of  land,  the  verge  was  almost  a  quarter  of  an 
arpent  (Littre).  The  surveyor's  verge  in  France  varied  from 
6.15777  to  6.70645  yards  (Alexander,  Dictionary  of  Weights 
and  Measures,  119).  As  a  measure  of  cloth,  the  verge  equalled 
the  English  ell  (Malhiot's  Journal,  223,  n.  31).  Clapin  (329) 
gives  the  equivalent  as  92  cm.,  almost  1  English  yard. 

Vide  Poche.  A  nickname  for  Carondelet,  now  a  part  of  Saint 
Louis. 

La  Vieille.  A  deity  of  the  voyageurs  on  the  northern  lakes: 
"the  old  woman  who  presides  over  the  winds"  (Richardson, 
Arctic  Exploring  Expedition,  63). 

vieux,  vieille,  n.m.  and  f.  Old  man,  old  woman.  But  often 
used  as  equivalents  of  husband,  wife,  from  marriage  day  forth, 
regardless  of  age  or  youth.   See  Cable,  Bonaventure,  67. 

vigne  sauvage,  n.f.  In  Canada,  the  winter  grape  (Tache, 
Esquisse,  sec.  edit.,  16). 

vigne  vierge,  n.f.   Woodbine  (Tache,  Esquisse,  sec.  edit.,  16). 

la  ville.  In  the  eighteenth  century  New  Orleans  was  commonly 
referred  to  as  la  ville.  For  the  Illinois  French  to  go  a  la  ville 
meant  to  go  to  New  Orleans.  Volney  noted  at  Vincennes  in 
1796  that  the  people  there,  too,  said  of  a  man  who  was  going 
to  New  Orleans,  il  va  en  ville,  just  as  if  he  lived  in  a  suburb 
rather  than  fifteen  hundred  miles  away  {Tableau  du  Climat, 
II,  402). 

vinaigrier,  vinigrier,  n.m.  The  sumac  (Le  Page  du  Pratz,  His- 
toire,  II,  45;  Dorrance,  100). 

violon,  n.m.  The  gadwall  duck  was  so  called,  said  Audubon, 
''on  account  of  the  whistling  sound  of  its  wings"  {Ornithologi- 
cal Biography,  IV,  353). 

viperine,  n.f.  The  snakeroot  (Bossu,  Nouveaux  Voyages  aux 
hides  Occidentales,  II,  123;  Perrin  du  Lac,  Voyage,  244-245; 
Ulloa,  Memoir es  Philosophiques,  I,  149). 

vivres,  n.m.  pi.   Provisions;  consequently,  food  crops. 

voiture,  n.f.   Boat. 

"L'on  est  tellement  accoutume  a  voyager  dans  ce  pays  par 
eau,  que  le  mot  generique  de  voiture  s'applique  toujours  a  un 


MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  FRENCH  147 

bateau  ou  nacelle,  Quand  un  habitant  dit,  J'ai  amene  ma 
voiture,  je  vous  offre  une  place  dans  ma  voiture,  il  faut  sup- 
poser  qu'il  parle  de  sa  pirogue  ou  de  sa  barque,  comme  le 
Parisien,  en  disant  le  meme  mot,  designe  son  carosse"  (Robin, 
Voyages,  II,  207).   See  also  Truteau,  "Journal,"  305. 

voyage,  n.m.  A  load,  a  wagon-load,  a  boat-load.  Voyage  de 
fain:  a  load  of  hay. 

voyager,  v.  intr.  To  travel  by  canoe. 

voyageur,  n.m.  A  boatman  or  canoeman.  Engage  was  a  gen- 
eral term  including  any  and  all  employees  in  the  fur  and  In- 
dian trade;  voyageur  was  applied  only  to  boatmen.  Though 
on  other  occasions  a  voyageur  might  hunt  or  trap,  those  func- 
tions were  not  ordinarily  his.  For  an  interesting  and  detailed 
account  of  the  boatmen,  consult  Nute,  Voyageur. 

Y 

yamme,  n.f.    The  yam   (Read,  145,  149). 


zambo,  n.m.  A  sambo;  a  person  of  mixed  blood,  generally 
Indian  and  negro  (Littre;  Ulloa,  Memoir es  Philosophiques,  II, 
63-64).   See  jambo,  metis,  muldtre. 


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officiels.    Paris,  1912. 


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