OF
S LIBRARY
4iMA-CHAMPAIGN
ILL HIST. SURVEY
The gift &¥ James' R^
and Helen- £ . Davie's in
memory of Attorney ai
Mrs. Joseph L. Shaj
University of Illinois
at Urbana-Champaign
J,'~'
Sfatthbonks of Ammran
EDITED BY
Hatart nee IB. Enatw, ^Jj.S.
PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN TUFTS COLLEGE
The Government of Illinois
HANDBOOKS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT
The
Government of Illinois
Its History and Administration
BY
EVARTS BOUTELL GREENE
PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN THii
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS
SECOND EDITION
gorfc
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.
1904
All Rights Rtstrved
COPYRIGHT, igoc
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
Set up and Electrotyped. Published October. 1904
Reprinted September, igoj
THE MASON PRESS
Syracuse, New York, U.S.A.
•• '
To
JEREMIAH EVARTS GREENE
IN GRATEFUL RECOGNITION
OF THE EXAMPLE WHICH HE GAVE
OF LOYAL SERVICE
TO THE COMMONWEALTH
PREFACE
This volume is one of a series of handbooks dealing
with the constitutional development and present gov-
ernment of particular states of the American Union.
It conforms, therefore, in its main outlines to the gen-
eral plan of the series. As a text-book on American
government, it assumes a complementary volume on
the Federal system, which is here only incidentally
considered.
In the first part, dealing with the history of the
state, the emphasis is laid upon constitutional and po-
litical development, but the effort has been made to
treat that development broadly in its natural relation
to economic and social experience. This section,
though necessarily brief, may perhaps serve as a con-
venient guide for more extended study based upon the
references for collateral reading. The history of Illi-
nois is full of interest, not only for its own citizens, but
for all Americans who wish to understand the sectional
forces at work in our national development. The sec-
ond part is a study of the constitutional mechanism
and of the financial system by which it is kept in opera-
tion. The last group of chapters describes the public
services which the state performs and for which its
complex mechanism was created. .
This little book is not designed to meet the require-
ments of the specialist. It is hoped, however, that it
may prove useful to the general reader and especially to
young people beginning a serious study of American
viii Preface
government as illustrated in their own State. In deal-
ing with so broad a field, there is ample room for mis-
conceptions of every kind, but so far as possible, the
author has sought to go beyond the formal terms of
constitution and statute and to make clear the real
working of institutions. For such measure of success
as may have been achieved in this respect, the author
is largely indebted to some of his colleagues, who have
given him the benefit of their expert judgment by read-
ing certain parts of the manuscript. Special acknowl-
edgments for such service are due to Mr. William L.
Pillsbury, Registrar of the University of Illinois, Pro-
fessor James B. Scott of the Columbia University Law
School, and Professor M. B. Hammond of the Univer-
sity of Ohio.
For the guidance of teachers and students, reference
lists have been given at the beginning of each chapter.
It is needless to say that these lists make no pretensions
to completeness ; and there will doubtless be differences
of opinion as to certain selections. In addition to
books dealing specifically with Illinois, a few general
works have been listed which may suggest to the
teacher some applications of the historical and compara-
tive method which were not possible within the neces-
sary limits of this volume. The following books will
be found serviceable for general reference on the his-
tory and government of Illinois :
1. Moses, Illinois Historical and Statistical, 2 vols.,
Fergus Printing Company, Chicago, 1889-1892 (2nd
ed. 1895).
2. Hurd, Revised Statutes, The Legal News Com-
pany, Chicago, 1903. This has been issued at inter-
vals of two years by the Editor of the last official
revision (1874).
Preface ix
3. Starr and Curtis, Annotated Statutes of the State
of Illinois, 3 vols., Chicago, 1896. Useful as a guide
to the decisions of the courts on disputed points of
law.
4. Blue Book of the State of Illinois, Springfield,
The Secretary of State, 1903, and other years. A reg-
ister of state officials and a convenient manual of refer-
ence regarding the state and its government.
These special books on Illinois should of course be
supplemented by general works on American govern-
ment, such as Bryce, American Commonwealth, pub-
lished in various editions (Macmillan) ; and Hart,
Actual Governments Applied Under American Condi-
tions, Revised edition, New York, Longman's, 1904.
The latter contains elaborate bibliographies.
In conclusion, the author wishes to acknowledge his
indebtedness for many useful suggestions received
from the writers of previous volumes in this series and
especially from the editor, Professor Lawrence B.
Evans of Tufts College.
EVARTS B. GREENE.
University of Illinois, September, 1904.
CONTENTS
PART FIRST
THE HISTORY OF ILLINOIS
CHAPTER I
THE ILLINOIS COUNTRY AND ITS PEOPLE — 1673-1818
§ I. References. § 2. The Physiography of Illinois.
§3. The Indians of Illinois. § 4. The French in Illi-
nois, 1673-1765. § 5. British Dominion and Its Over-
throw, 1765-1783. § 6. The Northwest Territory, 1784-
1800. § 7. Illinois in the Indiana Territory, 1800-1809.
§ 8. The Illinois Territory, 1809-1818 .... I
CHAPTER II
THE OLD FRONTIER STATE — 1818-1848
§ 9. References. § 10. The Organization of the State.
§ ii. Frontier Conditions. § 12. Progress, 1818-1848.
§ 13. Problems of Government, 1818-1847. § 14. Early
Politics of the State. § 15. The Convention of 1847
and the New Constitution 21
CHAPTER III
THE NEW INDUSTRIAL STATE — 1848-1901
§ 16. References. § 17. Sectional Controversies in State
and National Politics, 1848-1870. § 18. Economic De-
velopment, 1848-1870. § 19. The Constitution of 1870.
§ 20. The People and Their Government, 1870-1901 . 42
Contents xi
PART SECOND
THE MACHINERY OF STATE GOVERNMENT
CHAPTER IV
UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES OF STATE GOVERNMENT
§ 21. References. § 22. The Field of State Government.
§ 23. The State Constitution. § 24. The Distribution
of Powers. § 25. Reserved Rights of the People . 56
CHAPTER V
ELECTIONS
§ 26. References. § 27. The Suffrage. § 28. The Con-
duct of Elections. § 29. The Counting of Votes.
§30. Nominations ...' . 64
CHAPTER VI
THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
§ 31. References. § 32. The Organization of the Legis-
lature. § 33. The Making of Laws. § 34. The Execu-
tive Power. § 35. The Judiciary 76
CHAPTER VII
THE LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
§ 36. References. § 37. County Government. § 38.
Town Government. § 39. Municipal Governments.
§ 40. Minor Local Governments 95
§ 41. References. § 42. The Government of Cook
County. § 43. The Government of Chicago. § 44.
Minor Local Governments 108
xii Contents
CHAPTER IX
THE FINANCES OF THE STATE
§ 45. References. § 46. The Taxing Power. § 47. The
General Property Tax. Assessment. § 48. Collection
of Taxes. § 49. Minor Sources of Revenue. § 50.
Regulation of Expenditure . . . . . . . 121
PART THIRD
THE WORK OF THE STATE
CHAPTER X
THE POLICE POWER
§ 51. References. § 52. State Action and Self-Help.
§ 53. The Police Power. § 54. Protection of Health
and Morals. § 55. The Enforcement of Law . . 134
CHAPTER XI
THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE
§ 56. References. § 57. Law and Equity. § 58. Pro-
cedure in Civil Cases. § 59. Procedure in Criminal
Cases 146
CHAPTER XII
THE WARDS OF THE STATE
§ 60. References. § 61. Treatment of the Criminal Class.
§ 62. Poor Relief. § 63. Care of Defectives . . 160
CHAPTER XIII
THE ECONOMIC SERVICES OF THE STATE
§ 64. References. § 65. State Regulation of Private En-
terprise. § 66. Industrial Combinations and Labor
Legislation. § 67. State Aid to Private Enterprise.
§ 68. Public Ownership 173
Contents xiii
CHAPTER XIV
PUBLIC EDUCATION
69. References. § 70. Reasons for Public Education.
§ 71. Growth of the School System. § 72. Principles
of the School System. § 73. The School Funds. § 74.
Local School Administration. § 75. State Educa-
tional Institutions. The State Superintendent. § 76.
Public Libraries 190
APPENDIX A
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES
77. Important Historical Events. § 78. Governors of
Illinois, with Places of Birth, Dates of Accession, and
Party Affiliations 207
APPENDIX B
HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS
79. The Northwest Ordinance, July 13, 1787. § 80.
Illinois Territorial Organization Act, February 3,
1809. § 81. The Enabling Act, April 18, 1818. § 82.
Joint Resolution for the Admission of Illinois into the
Union, December 3, 1818. § 83. The Constitution of
Illinois, 1870 (Excerpts) 213
APPENDIX C
POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF THE STATE
84. Counties in the Order of Their Erection. § 85.
Senatorial Districts. § 86. Judicial Districts and Cir-
cuits 254
xiv Contents
APPENDIX D
SYNOPTICAL REVIEW OF THE STATE GOVERNMENT
§ 87. The Central Government of the State. § 88. The
Local Governments of the State outside of Cook
County. § 89. The Local Governments of Cook
County 259
APPENDIX E
STATISTICAL TABLES
§ 90. Population by Counties. § 91. Cities of 10,000 or
More Inhabitants, 1850-1900. § 92. The Population of
Illinois and Chicago Classified According to Nativity.
§ 93. The Presidential Vote of Illinois. § 94. State
Finances, October i, 1900, to September 30, 1902.
§ 95. Finances of the City of Chicago, 1902 . . . 274
PART I
THE HISTORY OF ILLINOIS
CHAPTER I
THE ILLINOIS COUNTRY AND ITS PEOPLE— 1673-1818
i. REFERENCES
Physiography: Moses, Illinois Historical and Statistical, I.
ch. i ; Leverett, The Illinois Glacial Lobe, ch. i (U.S. Geolog-
ical Survey Monographs) ; Worthen, Geological Survey of Illi-
nois, I. ; Leverett, "The Water Resources of Illinois" ( U. S.
Geological Survey, i8th Annual Report, Pt. II.) ; Palmer,
Waters of Illinois.
Indians : Moses, Illinois Historical and Statistical, I. ch. 2 ;
Beckwith, The Illinois and Indiana Indians (Fergus Historical
Series). See also index and bibliography in Thwaites, Jesuit
Relations and Allied Documents.
The French in Illinois : Parkman, Works, especially his La
Salle and the Discovery of the Great West; Winsor, Cartier to
Frontenac and The Mississippi Basin, passim ; Winsor, Narra-
tive and Critical History of America, IV. ch. 5; V. ch. i (im-
portant for bibliography) ; Shea, Discovery and Exploration of
the Mississippi Valley; Shea, Early Voyages up and down the
Mississippi; Shea, The Catholic Church in Colonial Days, Book
III. ch. 5, and Book VI. ch. I ; Mason, Chapters from Illinois
History, 1-249, and other articles by him in the Fergus Histor-
ical Series; Wallace, Illinois and Louisiana under the French
Rule; Breese, The Early History of Illinois; Moses, Illinois
Historical and Statistical, I. chs. 3-6. Among the most impor-
tant printed sources for this period are the reports of the Jesuit
Missionaries found in Thwaites, The Jesuit Relations and Al-
lied Documents, 73 vols. (Originals with translations, good
index and bibliography). Other sources are in Margry, Decou-
vertes et Etablissements, 6 vols. ; and in French, Historical Col-
lections of Louisiana.
i I
2 Government of Illinois
British Period : Winsor, Narrative and Critical History of
America, VI. ch. 9 (important for bibliography of this and the
succeeding period) ; Winsor, The Westward Movement, ch. 3;
Moses, Illinois Historical and Statistical, I chs. 7,8; Davidson
and Stuve, A Complete History of Illinois, chs. 14, 15 ; Park-
man,Tke Conspiracy of Pontiac ; Mason, Chapters from Illinois
History, 232-249. Sources : Mason, Philippe de Rocheblave
and the Rocheblave Papers (Fergus Historical Series); Pitt-
man, The Present State of the European Settlements on the
Mississippi (1770) ; Hutchins, A Topographical Description of
Virginia (1778). For published papers from the Canadian Ar-
chives, see Illinois Historical Collections, I., and various vol-
umes of the Wisconsin Historical Society Collections; the
Michigan Pioneer Collections; the Chicago Historical Society
Collections, and Brymner, Reports on Canadian Archives. See
also Documents relative to the Colonial History of New York,
VII., VIII.
Virginia Period, 1778-1784: Boyd, "The County of Illinois"
(in American Historical Review, IV. 623-635) ; Hinsdale, The
Old Northwest, ch. 9; Mason, Chapters from Illinois History,
250-292 ; Moses, Illinois Historical and Statistical, chs. 9, 10;
Roosevelt, The Winning of the West (1889) II., chs. 1-4,0;
III., ch. 2; English, Conquest of the Country Northwest of the
River Ohio and Life of George Rogers Clark; Thwaites, Essays
in Western History, ch. i. Sources: Hening, Statutes at
Large (Virginia), IX. -XII.; Calendar of Virginia State
Papers, I. -1 1 1.; George Rogers Clark's Sketch of his Campaign
in the Illinois in 1778-9. See also ' ' Clark Papers' ' in American
Historical Review , I. 90-96; VIII. 491-506; W. W. Henry, Pat-
rick Henry, Life, Correspondence and Speeches; "John Todd's
Record Book" (in Chicago Historical Society Collections, IV.).
Illinois in the Northwest and Indiana Territories : Hinsdale,
The Old Northwest, chs. 14-16, 18 ; Roosevelt, The Winning of
theWest, III., IV.; Moses, Illinois Historical and Statistical, I. ,
chs. 11-14; Perkins and Peck, Annals of the West; Burnet,
Notes on the Early Settlement of the Northwest Territory;
Dunn, Indiana (American Commonwealth Series) ; Dillon, His-
tory of Indiana; Winsor, Narrative and Critical History of
America, VII. Appendix I. (with bibliography). Sources:
The Ordinance of 1787 and other important documents are con-
veniently collected in Hart and Channing, Documents relating
to Territorial Administration (American History Leaflets),
and in Hurd, The Revised Statutes (Illinois); Smith, The St.
Clair Papers, 2 vols. ; American State Papers( Volumes on Pub-
The Illinois Country and Its People 3
lie Lands, Indian Affairs, Military Affairs). For a bibliography
of Territorial records, see Starr and Curtis, Annotated Statutes.
The Territory of Illinois. 1809-1818: Moses, Illinois His-
torical and Statistical, I., chs. 15-18 and Appendix ; Davidson
and Stuve, A Complete History of Illinois, chs. 21-25. Sources :
Reynolds, Pioneer History of Illinois (to be used with care) ;
Reynolds, My Own Times (2nd ed.) ; Edwards, History of Illi-
nois from 1778-1833 and Life and Times of Ninian Edwards,
chs. 1-6, 15, 16; Washburne, The Edwards Papers (in Chicago
Historical Society's Collections, III.) ; see also various numbers
of the Fergus Historical Series; Forsyth, "Letter Book" (in
Wisconsin Historical Society, Collections, XL 316-355 ; James,
"Information relating to the Territorial Laws of Illinois" (in
Publications of the Illinois State Historical Library, No. 2) ;
"The Territorial Records of Illinois" (in Publications of the
Illinois State Historical Library, No. 3). For other information
about Territorial Laws, see Starr and Curtis, Annotated Stat-
utes of Illinois, I., Introduction, and Bowker, State Publications,
Part II. ; American State Papers (Public Lands, Indian Affairs,
Military Affairs).
2. THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF ILLINOIS
A practical and really living constitution must rest in Relation of
the main upon the experience of the people who frame ^^
it, and must be so framed as to serve those wants which economic
they have come to realize as the result of that experi-
ence. It is clear then that constitutional development
can not be understood without knowing something of
the economic and social facts and problems with which
governments have to deal. Constitutional history can
be most profitably studied not by itself, but in close
connection with economic and social history.
The first great factor in the experience of any people Area and
is the land on which they live. The State of Illinois has boundaries-
within its limits to-day a total land area of over 56,000
square miles, and is therefore neither one of the largest,
nor yet one of the smaller states of the American
4 Government of Illinois
union.1 This area is largely marked off by natural
boundaries. Its southern and western limits are formed
by two great rivers, the Ohio and the Mississippi. Its
eastern boundary is also partly 'of this kind, being
marked by the Ohio and the Wabash, and a line drawn
due north from Vincennes. Since this line runs into
Lake Michigan, that lake may for most purposes be
regarded as a part of the State boundary. The northern
boundary of 42° 30' is, of course, an imaginary line so
drawn as to give the State a frontage on Lake Michi-
gan.2
Geographical One of the most important geographical facts about
position. Illinois is its central position combined with its great
extension from north to south. From the northern line
of 42° 30' to Cairo, which lies almost exactly on the
parallel of 37° north latitude, is a distance of nearly
four hundred miles. These parallels continued to the
Atlantic coast include Boston on the north and nearly
all of Virginia on the south. The great water highways
of the State have also connected it almost equally with
the north and the south. The first Europeans came to
Illinois by way of the Great Lakes. Later the French
settlements of this region were connected most closely
with New Orleans and the lower Mississippi. The
early American settlers came mainly by way of the Ohio
river from the border southern States and, later still,
the Erie canal and the lake steamboats brought to
northern Illinois immigrants from New York and New
1 Commissioner of the General Land Office, Annual Report,
1901, 318 The total land and water area, including a part of
Lake Michigan, is 58,354 square miles.
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. I. ; cf. Constitution of In-
diana, 1851, Art. XIV. (both in Poore, Charters and Constitu-
tions, I.).
The Illinois Country and Its People 5
England. These geographical facts have given to
Illinois politics a sectional character somewhat like that
of the country at large.
The physical characteristics of this territory are sim- Physical
pie and may be summarized briefly. The first is a ^fcrsacter"
comparatively level surface. At the south, Cairo stands
about three hundred feet above the ocean level. Be-
tween this and the highest points in the State, which
are to be found in the northwestern counties, there is a
difference of less than a thousand feet. The slope from
north to south is gradual except in the southern part of
the State, where one range of hills rises somewhat
abruptly from the plains to the height of over one
thousand feet.1 A second characteristic, especially of
the northern and central sections, is the absence of
heavy forests, so that a large part of the surface is open
prairie. Thirdly, the soil is well watered, rich, and
adapted to the production of the great staple grains.
Finally, the coal mines of the State have proved an
important source of wealth.
The even surface, wide areas of open prairie, abun- influence of
dance of water, and richness of soil made Illinois first a these
physical
great agricultural State. Its central position in the character-
Union, with convenient access to great interior water- lstlcs-
ways, laid the foundation of its commercial prosperity;
and these advantages, taken together with the newly
developed coal deposits, have made it also one of the
chief manufacturing States of the Union. Out of this
many-sided economic development have come many of
the characteristic features of our social and political life.
Gannett, A Dictionary of Altitudes in the United States;
World Almanac, 1901, 65 ; Leverett, The Glacial Lobe of Illinois,
ch. 2.
6 Government of Illinois
3. THE INDIANS OF ILLINOIS
The Indians. Two hundred and fifty years ago the territory of the
theTistoV '" Present State had been occupied only by a few thousand
of the state. Indians. One of these tribes, the Winnebagoes, was
related to the Sioux or Dakotas of the Northwest, but
most of them belonged to the Algonquin family, which
included nearly all of the Indians east of the Mississippi.
The best known of these Algonquin tribes are those of
the Illinois Confederacy. During the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries, they were settled along the Illinois
and Mississippi rivers, and they have left their mark
upon the map of the State in such names as Cahokia,
Kaskaskia, and Peoria. It was among them that the
first permanent white settlements were founded, and
there are still in southern Illinois a few people of mixed
race who are descended from this Indian stock. The
Illinois suffered seriously from the invasions of the
Iroquois and the efforts of the French missionaries to
civilize and Christianize them met with little permanent
success. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the
most stubborn opposition to white settlement came from
the Sacs and Foxes of northern Illinois and southern
Wisconsin. These Indian tribes scarcely occupied this
country at all. Though they cultivated the soil, they de-
pended largely upon hunting and fishing and were con-
stantly changing the location of their villages. Their
numbers were always insignificant as compared with the
vast areas over which they roamed, and they had only
the slightest political organization. They are important
in the history of the State chiefly because of the obsta-
cles which they placed in the progress of the white
pioneers. This opposition continued for fifteen years
after the State was admitted to the Union, until, soon
The Illinois Country and Its People 7
after the close of the Black Hawk War, the last tract of
Indian lands in Illinois was surrendered to the whites.
4. THE FRENCH IN ILLINOIS. 1673-1675
The first European visitors to Illinois, of whom we
have any certain knowledge, were Louis Joliet, who Mariuette-
represented the French government at Quebec, and
Father Marquette, the Jesuit missionary. They ex-
plored together in 1673 the Mississippi and Illinois
rivers. Before Marquette died, in 1675, he had made
a second visit to the Indians on the Illinois River and
founded a Catholic mission, which was continued after
his death by other Jesuit missionaries.1
Meanwhile the Illinois country had also been entered La Saiie.
by a number of French traders and adventurers. Of
these the most important was the famous explorer, La
Salle, who had been authorized by Louis XIV to make
discoveries and establish posts in this western country.2
By 1682 he had made his way from the Great Lakes
down the Illinois and the Mississippi to the Gulf of
Mexico. In 1680, he built Fort Crevecoeur on the Illi-
nois River near Peoria. This was soon abandoned,
however, and in 1683 Fort St. Louis was built higher
up the river between Ottawa and La Salle. This post
La Salle proposed to make a great center of French
influence in the West. He soon, however, left the
Illinois country; and his post on the Illinois, though
1 Jesuit Relations (Thwaites ed.) LVIII.-LXII, especially
LIX., Doc. No. 86; cf. Shea, Discovery and Exploration of the
Mississippi Valley and his Catholic Church in Colonial Days,
260, 327, 535-
2 Patent in Margry, Decouvertes et Etablissements, 11-337-338.
8 Government of Illinois
kept up for some years by his lieutenant, Tonty, was
finally abandoned.1
Before 1700 the French had established a few mis-
sions and trading posts in Illinois, but there was hardly
any real colonization. In or about the year 1700, how-
ever, the Kaskaskia Indians on the Illinois River near
Peoria moved southward and established themselves
near the junction of the Kaskaskia and Mississippi
rivers. Here, as on the Illinois river, the Indian vil-
lages attracted the French traders and missionaries.
Gradually the wandering traders began to make homes
for themselves and there grew up the French village of
Kaskaskia. Something like this took place about the
same time at Cahokia, opposite the present city of St.
Louis.2 At first these settlements in Illinois were left
very much to themselves, though subject in a general
way to the authorities at Quebec. In 1717, however,
they were definitely annexed to the new province of
Louisiana. In 1718 a commandant was sent up to
govern the Illinois country, which became one of the
districts of Louisiana.3 By 1720 Fort Chartres was
built on the Mississippi between Cahokia and Kaskaskia
and three new villages soon grew up. These five vil-
lages lying between the Kaskaskia and Mississippi
rivers and a few obscure settlers on the Illinois were
1 Parkman, La Salle; Mason, Chapters from Illinois History,
1-211; Winsor, Cartier to Frontenac, ch. 15; Documents in
Margry, V. 51, 55, 65.
* Mason, Kaskaskia and her Parish Records (in Fergus His-
torical Series, 12) ; Thwaites, ed., Jesuit Relations, LXV., No.
75-
* Patent to Crozat in French, Historical Collections of Loui-
siana, III. 38-42; Patent to Company of the West, ibid., 49-59;
Hart and Channing, American History Leaflets, No. 16, p. 22;
Gayarre, Histoire de la Louisiane, I. 184-185.
The Illinois Country and Its People 9
practically all that the French accomplished in the way
of colonization in Illinois.1
In 1750, the Jesuit Vivier estimated that in the five character-
French villages there might be "eleven hundred white ^^ the
people, three hundred blacks and about sixty red colonists,
slaves." These people were chiefly farmers and trad-
ers. They cultivated wheat and corn and bred some
livestock, supplying the settlements on the lower Mis-
sissippi with flour, pork, and numerous other articles.2
On the whole they were ignorant and unenterprising.
They knew nothing of representative institutions as
they existed in the English colonies, and their govern-
ment was of the simplest kind. From 1717 to 1731,
Illinois with the other districts of Louisiana was under
the authority of the French Company of the West. In
the latter year, the company ceded its rights to the king
and Louisiana became a royal province, with a royal
governor at its head. The chief officers of the Illinois
district were a military commandant and a civil judge.3
A few French officers and missionaries had seen the pos-
sibilities of this region, but they were for the most part
undeveloped when, at the close of a long and desperate
war, France was compelled by the Treaty of Paris in
1763 to give up to England her claims to the territory
between the Ohio and the Mississippi. The uprising
of the western Indians under Pontiac prevented the
1 Mason, Old Fort Chartres, in Chapters from Illinois His-
tory; (also in Fergus Historical Series, No. 12).
2 Vivier in Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, LXIX., No. 220.
'Gayarre, Histoire de la Louisiane, I. 184-185, 270, 271, 287-
288; cf. Mason, Chapters from Illinois History, 217-226; Breese,
Early History of Illinois, Appendix E, F, G ; Pittman, Present
State of the European Settlements on the Mississippi, 53-54.
IO Government of Illinois
'British from taking possession for two years, but in
1765 a British commandant entered Fort Chartres.1
5. BRITISH DOMINION AND ITS OVERTHROW.
1765-1783
British During the next thirteen years, the people of the
Illinois^1 Illinois country were subjects of the King of England.
Though claims were made by different colonies, the
King's proclamation of 1763 left Illinois, for a time at
least, outside the limits of any of them.2 In 1774, how-
ever, the whole Northwest was included in the Canadian
Province of Quebec, much to the disgust of the other
English colonies. In the meantime, the Illinois country
was governed by British commandants supported by
British garrisons. A court was organized on the Eng-
lish model, but the Quebec Act of 1774 recognized
the old French civil law.3 Though under British sov-
ereignty, the Illinois settlements kept their French
character. There were few new settlers and many of
the French inhabitants left Illinois and took refuge
across the river in the new settlements of St. Louis and
St. Genevieve, which France was just giving up to
Spain. Two of the old villages were almost deserted
in a few years. On the eve of the American Revolution
there were in Kaskaskia and the neighboring villages
nine hundred white people and about half as many negro
slaves.*
1 Documents rel. to Colonial History of New York, VII. 619,
685-690, 711, 765, 808, 816.
z Proclamation in Annual Register, 1763, 208-213.
8 Coffin, The Quebec Act, ch. 5 and Appendix I ; Mason, Chap-
ters from Illinois Plistory, 232-242.
* Hutchins, Topographical Description of Virginia, 36-40 and
Appendix I ; Pittman, Present State of the European Settle-
ments on the Mississippi, 42-55.
The Illinois Country and Its People 1 1
On the outbreak of the American Revolution, the Clark's con-
British withdrew their troops from the Illinois country, S"?st.of
J ' Illinois.
leaving a Frenchman by the name of Rocheblave in Illinois a
charge of British interests.1 The frontiersmen of Vir- Virginia,
ginia and Kentucky soon became convinced that the Brit-
ish agents were instigating the Indians to attack the
American settlers. One of these frontiersmen, George
Rogers Clark, secured from Governor Patrick Henry
of Virginia a commission authorizing him to raise a
force for the purpose of attacking the Illinois posts.
Under this commission Clark captured Kaskaskia and
the adjoining villages in the summer of 1778; and in
1779 he made a brave winter march across Illinois to
Vincennes, where he captured Henry Hamilton, the
British governor at Detroit.2 Virginia then laid claim
to the whole Northwest as granted by her colonial
charter of 1609. In October, 1778, the legislature
passed an act recognizing the French inhabitants of
Illinois as citizens of Virginia, and organizing the whole
country north of the Ohio into the "County of Illinois."3
In 1779 Captain John Todd was appointed command-
ant and organized a temporary government under the
authority of Virginia. This Virginia government,
however, soon went to pieces.4 In 1783 the treaty of
peace with Great Britain gave the Northwest to the
1 "Haldimand Papers" (in Michigan Pioneer Collections, IX.
349-35O.
2 See references for Virginia period, § i.
* Hening, Statutes at Large, IX. 552-555-
* Henry, Patrick Henry, III. 212-216; John Todd, "Record
Book and Papers" (in Chicago Historical Society, Collections,
IV. 289-359) '» Boyd, "County of Illinois" (in American Histor-
ical Review, IV. 623-635).
12
Government of Illinois
Ordinances
for the gov-
ernment of
the North-
west.
The Ordi-
nance of
1787.
thirteen United States and in the following year Vir-
ginia ceded her special claim to the Union.1
6. THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. 1784-1800
The first act passed by Congress for the government
of the Northwest Territory, including Illinois, was the
ordinance of 1784 which, however, never went into
effect. Congress then passed the land ordinance of
1785, establishing the principles of the township survey
system, under which the lands of the Northwest have
been laid out in townships of thirty-six square miles.
The first practical measure adopted by Congress for
the government of Illinois was the famous ordinance
of 1787, one of the last acts of the old Confederation.
This ordinance provided, first, a temporary form of
civil government for the whole Northwest. The chief
officers of this first organized Territory of the United
States were the governor, the judges, and a secretary,
all to be appointed by Congress. After the adoption of
the new constitution, it was provided that these appoint-
ments should be made by the President.2 At the be-
ginning there was to be no representative assembly, but
the governor and judges were to adopt such laws of the
original thirteen States as they thought desirable for
the new Territory. When there were five thousand
free male inhabitants in the territory, there was to be a
representative assembly chosen by the freeholders and
a legislative council of five members selected by the
federal government from a list nominated by the repre-
sentatives. This legislature of two houses could then
1 Text of the deed in Hening, Statutes at Large, XI. 571-575.
Claims made to other parts of the territory by Massachusetts
and Connecticut were ceded in 1785 and 1786.
3 U. S. Statutes at Large, I. 50-53.
The Illinois Country and Its People 13
choose a delegate to Congress who had a right to be
heard, but not to vote. Finally, the people of the North-
west could look forward to membership in the Union
on an equal footing with the original States. Out of
the whole territory there were to be formed not less
than three, nor more than five States, any one of which
might be admitted to the Union whenever it had sixty
thousand inhabitants, or even earlier, if Congress
thought best. The Articles of Compact laid down a
few general principles on which these governments
should always rest. Their constitutions must be re-
publican. They must respect religious liberty and
secure to every man those rights of personal liberty
and protection to property which Englishmen and
Americans have long considered essential. Religion
and education were to be encouraged. The Indians
were to be fairly treated and their land was not to be
taken from them without their consent.
Three clauses of the ordinance are especially impor- Special pro-
tant for Illinois. The first secured to the settlers of ^°^^'
the old French villages "who have heretofore professed nois. Pro-
themselves citizens of Virginia" their existing laws and hlblt
customs with regard to the transfer of property. The
second had to do with boundaries. The western State
of the Northwest Territory was to be bounded, as
Illinois now is, by the Mississippi, the Ohio, and the
Wabash ; but its northern boundary might be pushed
northward to the Canadian frontier. Congress might,
however, form one or two States out of the region
north of a line drawn through the southerly bend of
Lake Michigan. If this line had been finally drawn
between the northern and southern tiers of States, Chi-
cago would have been a part of Wisconsin. The third
clause of special interest to Illinois was the sixth article
14 Government of Illinois
of the compact, which provided that "there shall be
neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the said
Territory otherwise than in punishment of crimes,
whereof the party shall have been duly convicted."
This clause, if literally enforced, would have deprived
the people of the old French villages of a considerable
number of slaves which they then held as property. It
really helped to make Illinois ultimately a free State.
Organization Government under this ordinance was set up in 1788
governments ky Governor St. Clair at Marietta in what is now Ohio,
in Illinois. and in 1790 the Illinois country was organized as St.
Clair County and received a regular local government.
The county, however, included only the southwestern
part of Illinois, and the eastern part was combined with
the Vincennes settlements (now a part of Indiana) in
the county of Knox. Five years later the southern
part of St. Clair County was set apart as Randolph
County with Kaskaskia as its county seat. The chief
officers of each county were appointed by the governor
of the Territory.1
Early The beginnings of American government in Illinois
problems. were unsatisfactory. The French settlers feared that
their slaves would be taken from them, and many of
them left Illinois for the Spanish territory across the
river. In order to check this emigration Governor
St. Clair declared that the ordinance was not intended
to affect slaves already held in the Territory. There
was also much confusion about land titles, which was
not cleared up for many years.2 Finally, the country
was disturbed by the hostility of the Indians. In 1795
General Wayne compelled the Indians to negotiate the
treaty of Greenville, opening up new territory for white
1 Smith, St. Clair Papers, IT. 137, 164-180.
"Ibid., 117-120, 176, 396-403.
The Illinois Country and Its People 15
settlers, but still reserving nearly all of Illinois to the
Indians.1
In spite of these discouragements, a few American American
settlers had come from the seaboard States into Illinois, Ploneers-
including a few of Clark's soldiers. Some of them
settled in the old French villages, but others founded
new American communities, almost all of them near
the Mississippi between Kaskaskia and Cahokia. These
American settlers, however, hardly more than made up
for the French who had crossed the river. In 1800
there were scarcely three thousand people, not includ-
ing Indians, within the present limits of Illinois. In
the political life of these frontier villages Americans
were already taking the lead. When, in 1798, the two
Illinois counties chose each its representative to the first
assembly of the Northwest Territory, neither sent a
Frenchman.2
7. ILLINOIS IN THE INDIANA TERRITORY. 1800-1809
In 1800 the people of Ohio were anxious for admis- The Indiana
sion to the Union as a State. The first step in this Territory-.
direction was the division of the Territory, the western
part, including Illinois, being organized into the Terri-
tory of Indiana. This Indiana Territory, like the "Old
Northwest," was at first governed by a governor and
judges appointed by the President. In 1804, however,
the freeholders voted in favor of a representative assem-
bly, which was organized in 1805. The Illinois counties
1 Text of the treaty in U. S. Statutes at Large, VII. (Indian
Treaties) ; also in Moses, Illinois Historical and Statistical, I.,
Appendix.
' Mason, Lists of Early Illinois Citizens (in Chicago Histor-
ical Society's Collections, IV.) ; Perkins and Peck, Annals of
the West, Appendix, ch. 2, § i ; Second U. S. Census; Smith,
St. Clair Papers, II. 438-439-
i6
Government of Illinois
The
Louisiana
Purchase.
Indian
treaties.
Land titles.
chose three of the seven members of the House of
Representatives and had two of the five Councillors.1
During this short period some important changes
took place. One of these events was the purchase of
Louisiana. For forty years the west bank of the Mis-
sissippi had belonged to Spain. When the Illinois
settler crossed the river to do business in St. Louis, he
entered a foreign country. When he sent his products
to the Gulf of Mexico, his trade was liable to restric-
tions imposed by the same power which also held New
Orleans. In 1803 the Province of Louisiana, after
being first ceded to France, was then sold by the Em-
peror Napoleon to the United States and the Illinois
country was for the first time in its history surrounded
on every side by the territories of the American Union.
A second important event of this period was the nego-
tiation of several Indian treaties which opened to white
settlement a large part of southern Illinois which
Wayne's treaty of 1795 had reserved to the Indians.2
William Henry Harrison, the governor of the Territory
during the whole of this period, was very active in this
work, which was probably the most important feature
of his administration. These large land cessions, how-
ever, caused serious dissatisfaction among the Indians.
Tecumseh and other far-seeing Indian chiefs tried to
get combined action by the tribes, in order to prevent
the piece-meal surrendering of their land to the United
States, and the constant friction between the two races
led in 1811 to another Indian war.3
Settlement in the Territory was still checked by the
1 U. S. Statutes at Large, 6th Cong., ist sess., ch. 41 ; Dillon,
History of Indiana, 414-416.
2 U. S. Statutes at Large, VII. 78-79.
'Dillon, History of Indiana, ch. 33.
The Illinois Country and Its People 17
old confusion with regard to land titles. In 1804, how-
ever, Congress established land offices at Vincennes, on
the Indiana side of the Wabash, and at Kaskaskia.
Commissioners were appointed to examine the old land
claims in order that future grants might be made in an
orderly way. Several years passed, however, before
they made their final report.1
Many people in the Territory believed that more The slavery
settlers would come in if slavery could be made legal. que!
A number of efforts were made to repeal the famous
"Sixth Article" of the ordinance, and in 1806 a com-
mittee of the federal House of Representatives reported
in favor of the proposal. Congress refused to repeal
the article prohibiting slavery, but there was no inter-
ference with the slaves already in the Territory, and
the Territorial legislature passed indenture laws, which
made possible the holding of negroes on terms little
better than slavery, even if not technically in conflict
with the ordinance.2
The Indiana Territory had scarcely been organized The Indiana
when the people of the western counties began to think ^"^y
it inconvenient to transact legal and official business at
Vincennes, then the seat of government. After several
unsuccessful efforts, a bill was passed by Congress on
February 3, 1809, dividing the Indiana Territory into
two governments.3
1 U. S. Statutes at Large, II., 337-338; American State Papers,
Public Lands, I. 285, 590; II. 123-127.
2 Hinsdale, The Old Northwest, ch. 18 ; Dillon, History of In-
diana, chs. 31, 32; American State Papers, Public Lands, I. 160;
Annals of Congress, Qth Cong., 1st session, 466-468.
8 House Journals (Reprints), V. 611; Annals of Congress,
9th Cong., passim; loth Cong., 2nd session, 971, 1093-1095;
U. S. Statutes at Large, II, 514.
2
18
Government of Illinois
Area and
population.
The govern-
ment of the
Territory.
8. THE ILLINOIS TERRITORY. 1809-1818
The act of 1809 defined the new Territory of Illinois
as "all that part of the Indiana Territory which lies west
of the Wabash River, and a direct line drawn from the
said Wabash River and Post Vincennes, due north to
the territorial line between the United States and Can-
ada." This meant that outside the present limits of
the State, the Territory included all of Wisconsin ex-
cept the northern end of the Green Bay peninsula, a
large part of the northern peninsula of Michigan, and
all of Minnesota east of the Mississippi. In this Terri-
tory there were, according to the census of 1810, 12,282
people, all but a few hundred of whom were in southern
Illinois on or near the Ohio and Mississippi rivers.
The majority of the settlers were now Americans from
the older parts of the Union. They came chiefly from
the slave holding States, but the number of slaves was
small. There were, however, about six hundred other
negroes, many of whom were probably held much like
slaves under the so-called "indenture law."1
For the first three years of separate government, the
people of Illinois went back to the first stage of Terri-
torial government, conducted without a representative
assembly, by a governor, a secretary, and judges, all
appointed by the President, the governor being Ninian
Edwards of Kentucky. In April, 1812, the people voted
in favor of a representative assembly, which was grant-
ed to them by Congress in the same year. The new
Territorial constitution of Illinois was more liberal than
the Ordinance of 1787. All male taxpayers, who had
lived in the Territory, could vote. The people could
1 Return of the Whole Number of Persons, 1810 (Third cen-
sus), 87.
The Illinois Country and Its People 19
elect directly the Councillors as well as the members of
the House of Representatives. The people also chose
directly their Territorial delegate to Congress. The
first representative legislature of the new Territory met
at Kaskaskia on November 25, I8I2.1
During the early years of the Illinois Territory, its Border
growth was checked by serious Indian troubles, which war£are<
finally resulted in open war. In 1811 General Harri-
son defeated the Indians at Tippecanoe, but when the
War of 1812 broke out the Indians generally took the
British side. The most terrible affair of this war in
Illinois was the Massacre of Fort Dearborn, on the
present site of Chicago, in which not only soldiers but
also women and children were killed or taken captive
by the Indians.2 The border warfare continued through
the next two years, but after the treaty with England
had been signed several Indian treaties were negotiated,
restoring peace and opening the way for new settle-
ments.3
The immigration which had been checked by the war Public
increased rapidly after it was over and was encouraged lands-
by the action of the United States government with
regard to the public lands. The claims of the settlers
under the British, French, and Virginian governments
were finally cleared up, so that the incoming settlers
could have secure titles to their lands. A preemption
law was passed granting those who had already settled
on the public lands a first right to buy, thus giving them
an advantage over speculators. Lands could be bought
1 Executive Register (in Illinois State Hist. Library, Publica-
tions, III. 23, 26, 27) ; Journal of Legislative Council, ibid., 62.
2 Wentworth, Fort Dearborn (Fergus Historical Series), Ap-
pendix.
8 U. S. Statutes at Large, VII. (Indian Treaties) 123-147.
2O Government of Illinois
at the low price of two dollars an acre and payments
could be made in istallments. Two new land offices
were established in Illinois, one at Shawneetown on the
Ohio, and another at Edwardsville on the Mississippi
above Kaskaskia.1 All these measures resulted in large
sales of public lands. In the last year of the War of
1812 about eight thousand acres were sold at the Illi-
nois land offices. Four years later the total amount
sold for the year was more than half a million acres.2
New county As the Territory grew new county governments were
governments. organize(j. jn jgog there were only two; in the next
nine years thirteen new counties were organized, almost
all of which were for the government of settlements in
the southern third of the State near the great rivers.3
The growth of population shown in the organization of
these new counties had also been preparing the Ter-
ritory for another advance in self-government. When
Congress met in the winter of 1817-1818, it was asked
to pass a bill admitting Illinois to the Union as a State.
1 U. S. Statutes at Large, II. 797 ; Illinois State Historical
Library, Publications, III. 109-111 ; Donaldson, Public Domain,
203-204.
* American State Papers, Finance, II. 657, 852 ; III. 284, 285.
'Executive Register (in Illinois State Historical Library,
Publications, III. 3-4, 26) ; Moses, Illinois Historical and Sta-
tistical, I. 547; cf. map at I. 277.
CHAPTER II
THE OLD FRONTIER STATE— 1818-1848
9. REFERENCES
Secondary Authorities : Harris, Negro Servitude in Illi-
nois; Moses, Illinois Historical and Statistical, I., chs. 19-31
and Appendix ; II., ch. 32 and Appendix ; Davidson and Stuve,
History of Illinois, chs. XXVI.-XLV. ; Blanchard, Discovery
and Conquests of the Northwest with the History of Chicago;
Anthony, Constitutional History of Illinois, chs. 12-21 ; Wash-
burne,Governor Coles and the Slavery Struggle in Illinois;
Edwards, History of Illinois from 1778-1833 and Life of
Ninian Edwards.
Sources : ( i ) Contemporary writers : Ford, History of Illi-
nois; Brown, History of Illinois; Reynolds, Pioneer History of
Illinois; Reynolds, My Own Times; Illinois in 1837; Gerhard,
Illinois As It Is; Washburne, ed., The Edwards Papers; Pat-
terson, Early Society in Southern Illinois {Fergus Historical
Series, No. 14). See also various other numbers in the same
series, especially on Chicago. (2) Documents : Annals of Con-
gress, i$th Congress; House Journal and Senate Journal of the
same Congress ; Enabling act and first and second constitutions
in Hurd, Revised Statutes of Illinois; Journal of the Constitu-
tional Convention (1847) ; Laws of the State of Illinois (the
"session laws") 1818-1848; House Journals and Senate Journals
of the General Assembly; Reports to the General Assembly.
For list of State documents, see Bowker, State Publications,
Part II., 229-249.
10. THE ORGANIZATION OF THE STATE
On January 16, 1818, Mr. Nathaniel Pope, the Illi- The enabling
nois delegate in Congress, presented to the House of ctngrew.
Representatives a petition from the Territorial legisla-
ture asking for State government and admission to the
Union, and this petition was referred to a committee,
21
22 Government of Illinois
of which Mr. Pope was chairman. He soon reported
a bill "to enable the people of the Illinois territory to
form a constitution and state government and for the
admission of such state into the Union on an equal
footing with the original states."1 Two important
amendments were afterwards adopted on motion of
Mr. Pope himself. The first fixed the northern bound-
ary at 42° 30', thus disregarding the Ordinance of 1787
which proposed a line drawn through the southerly
bend of Lake Michigan. This amendment gave to
Illinois its present frontage on the lake with fourteen
of the present northern counties, including Chicago.
Mr. Pope argued that this would give Illinois a closer
connection with the middle States and so "would afford
additional security for the perpetuity of the Union."
He also thought that in this way more attention would
be drawn to the plans for a canal between Lake Michi-
gan and the Illinois River and for improving the harbor
of Chicago. A second important amendment provided
that a part of the proceeds of the sales of public lands
in Illinois should be given to the State for the support
of education.2 A few other amendments were made,
but there was little opposition to the bill, which after
being passed by both houses was signed by President
Monroe April 18, 1818.
Provisions This enabling act gave to the people the right to
of the form a State constitution on certain conditions laid
enabling act.
1 House Journal, isth Cong., ist sess., 151, 174.
2 Ibid., 423-424, 428, 492 ; Annals of Congress, isth Cong., II.
1677-1678; Senate Journal, 328, 342, 354, 357. For the Wis-
consin view of this change from the ordinance of 1787, see
Thwaites, The Boundaries of Wisconsin (in Wisconsin Histor-
ical Society, Collections, XI. 494-501). Efforts were made
(1838-46) to restore the old boundary line.
The Old Frontier State 23
down by Congress. There was to be a constitutional
convention, the members of which were to be chosen by
the white male citizens who had been six months in
the Territory. The delegates must first decide whether
they would have a State government at all. After that
had been decided, they could either call a new conven-
tion to frame the constitution or they could do the work
themselves. Nothing was said about giving the people
a chance to vote on the constitution. The only condi-
tions imposed by Congress with regard to the form of
the government were that it must be republican in form
and not in conflict with the Ordinance of 1787 except
in the matter of boundaries. Congress did not, how-
ever, promise to recognize the new State unless a spe-
cial census should show at least forty thousand inhab-
itants.1
A rather doubtful census was taken which was made The conven-
to show a little over the required number.2 The con- tlon of
vention was elected in July and assembled at Kaskaskia
in August, 1818. Thirty-two members signed the fin-
ished constitution. Most of them were farmers, but
among the very few lawyers, there was one young man,
Elias Kent Kane, who probably had the most influence
in forming the constitution. The journal of the con-
vention has been lost, but the most exciting debate was
probably on the subject of slavery. A compromise was
finally adopted providing that "neither slavery nor in-
voluntary servitude shall hereafter be introduced into
this State." The old indentures of negroes were rec-
ognized, but future ones of a similar kind were forbid-
1 U. S. Statutes at Large, III. 428.
2 Brown, Early History of Illinois (in Fergus Historical Se-
ries, XIV.) ; Moses, Illinois Historical and Statistical, I. 282.
24 Government of Illinois
den. Until 1825, negro slaves from other States might
be employed in the salt works about Shawneetown.1
The first There was little originality about the constitution.
00' ^ was m°deled on those of the neighboring States of
Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky, though one important
provision was taken from New York.2 The powers of
government were to be distributed among three depart-
ments, executive, judicial and legislative, which were to
be kept as distinct as possible from each other.3 The
chief executive power was given to the governor, elected
by the people for a four year term, with a lieutenant-
governor to take his place, if necessary.4 The legisla-
tive power was given to the general assembly consisting
of a house of representatives and a senate. Both the
governor and the members of the general assembly were
chosen on a very liberal suffrage. All white male in-
habitants who had lived in the State six months were
allowed to vote. Bills which had been passed by both
houses of the general assembly were sent to a Council
of Revision consisting of the governor and the judges.
If the Council objected to the bill, it might still become
law if passed again by a majority of all the members
elected in each house.5 The judicial power was given
to a supreme court and such inferior courts as the leg-
islature might establish. The judges were elected by
the general assembly, and like the Federal judges held
1 Brown, Early History of Illinois, 86-88; Ford, History of
Illinois, 24; Moses, Illinois Historical and Statistical, I. 282-
283 ; Constitution of Illinois, 1818, Art. VI., in Kurd, Revised
Statutes.
3 Compare these constitutions in Poore, Charters and Consti-
tutions.
* Constitution of Illinois, 1818, Art. I.
•Ibid., Art. III.
6 Ibid., Art. II., Art. III. § 19.
The Old Frontier State 25
office during good behavior. They could be removed
by impeachment or by an address agreed to by two-
thirds of the members of each house.1 The most im-
portant area of local government in the State as a whole
was the county, which was governed by three elective
county commissioners. The people of each county
elected also a sheriff and a coroner.2 On the whole,
however, comparatively few officers were elected by
the people. The governor's appointing power was also
comparatively small under this constitution. The re-
sult was that most appointments came to be made by
the general assembly, an experiment which does not
seem to have worked well.3
The constitution was signed August 26 and the first First State
election for State officers was held in September. Shad- electlons-
rach Bond, formerly a Territorial delegate, was elected
governor, and Pierre Menard, the most prominent of
the French settlers, lieutenant-governor. A represent-
ative in Congress was also chosen, and in October the
newly elected legislature chose two United States sen-
ators. The governor and all three of the State's repre-
sentatives in Congress were natives of slave-holding
States.4
The State now presented itself with its new constitu- The state
tion for final admission into the Union. Some anti- ldmiT"ed to
the Union.
slavery congressmen objected because slavery was not
altogether prohibited, but the joint resolution recogniz-
ing Illinois as a State of the Union was finally passed
by large majorities in both houses, and on December 3,
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1818, Art. IV.
'Ibid., Art. III. § 11 ; Schedule, § 4.
klbid.; cf. Art. III. § 22 with the schedule § 10.
'Ford, History of Illinois, 26-29; Moses, Illinois Historical
ind Statistical, I. ch. 20.
26
Government of Illinois
the resolution became a law by the signature of Presi-
dent Monroe. On the next day, the Illinois members
were admitted to both houses of Congress and Illinois
was at last in full possession of all the rights and privi-
leges of Statehood in the American Union.1
The
frontier.
The people
of the new
State.
ii. FRONTIER CONDITIONS
The people of the new State lived on the border line
between settled life and the wilderness. Beyond them
to the northwest in what afterwards became the States
of Iowa and Wisconsin there were for many years only
a few hundred white people living in widely scattered
garrisons or trading posts. In 1818, the northern half
of Illinois was almost wholly unoccupied by white set-
tlers, and even in the southern half the settlements were
often separated by long stretches of wilderness. Com-
munication with the seaboard was slow and difficult and
was for many years carried on mainly by the Ohio and
Mississippi rivers. Steamboats were just beginning to
ply on the western waters.
The people of this frontier State were chiefly Ameri-
cans from the older States. Governor Ford, who was
then living in the State, estimated that in 1818, there
were only about two thousand descendants of the orig-
inal French settlers. They were kindly, social people,
but unenterprising for the most part, and they exerted
only a very slight influence on the subsequent develop-
ment of the State. There were also comparatively few
immigrants of foreign birth. The American settlers
had come almost wholly from Pennsylvania, Ohio, and
1 Annals of Congress, 15th Cong., 2nd sess., I. 296-298, 305-
311; Resolution No. i in U. S. Statutes at Large, III. 536;
House Journal, 60, 61, and Senate Journal, 52.
The Old Frontier State 27
the South. The most important immigration came
from the border slave-holding States, Maryland, Vir-
ginia, Kentucky and Tennessee. Few of these southern
immigrants, however, belonged to the rich slave-holding
class of the tide-water country. They were partly poor
whites and partly of the "small-farmer" class. Some,
at least, had felt the demoralizing influence of slavery
upon free white labor and were glad to come to a
country where slavery was prohibited. In 1820, there
were only about fourteen hundred negroes in the State
out of a total population of over fifty-five thousand.
Of these fourteen hundred, 917 were counted as slaves.1
The more restless part of the population could still Economic
devote themselves largely to hunting and fishing, but
the great majority were farmers. There were no man-
ufactures of any importance and little commerce either
within the State or with places outside of it. The aver-
age family had to supply its own needs in large part;
not only in food, but in clothing and furniture. Not a
single town in the State had more than a few hundred
inhabitants and the most important trading centre
within easy reach of Illinois people was St. Louis. The
political wants of such a people were naturally few and
simple.2
12. PROGRESS. 1818-1848
One of the most important factors in the development Public land
of the State as well as of the Territory was the public ^united
1 Ford, History of Illinois, 35-38; Patterson, Early Society in
Southern Illinois (in Fergus Historical Series, XIV.), 104-105,
112-114; Reynolds, My Own Times (ed. 1855), 60-65; U. S.
Census for 1820.
1 Patterson, Early Society in Southern Illinois; Reynolds, My
Own Times, ch. 35; Ford, History, 41-45.
28 Government of Illinois
land policy of the United States government. In 1818
there were two serious difficulties in the management
of the public lands in Illinois. One was the inability
of many settlers, who had bought their land partly on
credit, to make their payments. These payments could
hardly have been enforced without causing dangerous
discontent in all the western States. Another was the
occupation of public lands by "squatters" who had no
intention of paying anything themselves and were likely
to make it disagreeable for anyone who might after-
wards buy the land from the United States. The gov-
ernment met these difficulties by a series of important
measures. Those who were already in debt were given
somewhat easier terms of payment, but for the future
all public lands had to be paid for in full when they
were bought. At the same time, the price was reduced
from $2.00 an acre to $1.25. A few years later, Con-
gress took another important step by adopting, as a
general policy, the principle of preemption or preference
to existing settlers, which had already been applied to
settlers who had come into Illinois before 1813. The
result of all these measures was that the settlers who
now came to Illinois could secure at low prices land
which was surveyed according to a definite and con-
venient system and to which they could obtain safe
titles.1
The Indian For some years after the admission of the State, the
problem. Indian problem was still important. The United States
government steadily carried out its policy of buying up
the Indian claims and transferring the tribes to land
1 U. S. Statutes at Large, III. 566, 612 ; Burnet, Notes on the
Early Settlement of the Northwest Territory, 450-455 ; Patter-
son, Early Society in Southern Illinois, 107 ; Donaldson, Public
Domain, ch. 10.
The Old Frontier State 29
west of the Mississippi ; but the final withdrawal of the
Indians was not accomplished without some outbreaks.
In 1827, there was a small outbreak of the Winnebagoes
and a few other Indians in the northwestern part of the
State, which was easily disposed of.1 A more serious
affair was the war with the Sacs and Foxes, which is
best known as the Black Hawk War. The Sacs and
Foxes who occupied territory in northern Illinois had
ceded their lands in 1804 and the cession had been con-
firmed after the War of 1812. The Indians, however,
were allowed to occupy these lands until they were sold
by the United States government to private settlers.2
As settlers began to come in, there was as usual trouble
between them and the Indians. The Federal Govern-
ment then tried to get the Indians to move across the
Mississippi and most of them did so; but a warlike
party among them led by Black Hawk, a Sac chief, re-
fused to recognize the treaties or to give up their lands
on the Illinois side. In 1831, Governor Reynolds
called on the regular army and the militia to defend the
State against what he called the invasion of Black
Hawk and his followers. The Indians could not resist
this force and agreed to leave the State. The next year,
however, Black Hawk came back and a small war
resulted in northern Illinois and Wisconsin. The final
result was, of course, the crushing defeat of the In-
dians; many of them were killed and Black Hawk
himself became a prisoner.3 The "Black Hawk War"
1 Ford, History of Illinois, 66-69. War Department reports in
American State Papers, Military Affairs, III. 617; IV. i.
2 U. S. Statutes at Large, VII. (Indian Treaties), 84-87, 134-
136, 140-142.
'Report of the Secretary of War (1832), in American State
Papers, Military Affairs, V. 18, 23-25; reports of the Major-
30 Government of Illinois
is important chiefly because it was the last stand of
the Indian against the white settler in Illinois. In
his annual report for 1833, Lewis Cass, the Secretary
of War under Jackson, was able to say that with a
few exceptions, none of which were in Illinois, the
States of the Northwest had been "cleared of the em-
barrassments of Indian relations, and the Indians them-
selves have either already emigrated, or have stipu-
lated to do so within limited periods." This meant
a clear field in Illinois for the white settler.1
Not only was Illinois becoming more attractive to
new settlers; it was also being brought nearer to the
seaboard by improved means of travel. On the Ohio
river, which had been the great highway between the
East and West, steamboats were crowding out the old
barges and flatboats. By 1836, a small part of the
overland journey from the east could be made by steam
railroads and these were being gradually extended.
The Erie Canal and steamboats on the lakes made it
possible to go by water from Albany to Chicago and
so encouraged immigration into Illinois from New
York and New England.2
As a result of these changes the population of Illinois
increased from a little over 55,000 in 1820 to over
850,000 in 1850, or about fifteen times. This new
population came largely from the free States of the
Northeast and settled in the northern half of the State.
There were, however, many foreign immigrants, chiefly
General commanding the Army, ibid., IV. 717; V. 29-31 ; Ford,
History, chs. 4-5 ; Reynolds, My Own Times, chs. 72-93.
1 American State Papers, Military Affairs, V. 172.
2 Hall, The West; Its Commerce and Navigation, ch. 8; Peck,
A New Guide for Emigrants to the West, ch. 15 (ed. 1837).
The Old Frontier State 31
German and Irish. One of the most striking features
of this development was the growth of Chicago. It
was incorporated as a village in 1833 and as a city in
1837, but even in 1840, there were less than four thou-
sand inhabitants. It was developing rapidly, however,
as a lake port, and by 1850 had a population of nearly
thirty thousand.1
13. PROBLEMS OF GOVERNMENT. 1818-1847
Slavery had existed among the French settlers of Slavery.
Illinois long before it became American territory, and
their right to this kind of property had been respected
by the United States government in spite of the Ordi-
nance of 1787. Still the "Sixth Article" remained on
the statute books in spite of all attempts to repeal it.
Slavery continued to exist, but its growth was effect-
ually checked. The constitution of 1818 had been a
compromise and so did not satisfy either party. A
determined effort was soon made to break down the
barrier against slavery in Illinois. In 1823, the legisla-
ture passed and submitted to the people a resolution
calling for a convention to amend the constitution. It
was understood that the constitution was to be made
more favorable to slavery. Fortunately the anti-slavery
party had a strong leader in Governor Edward Coles, a
former Virginia slave owner who had freed his slaves.
The vote was not taken until 1824, and in the mean- The slavery
time there was a vigorous debate all over the State. c°ntroversy-
1823-1824.
The proslavery men claimed that while Illinois was
suffering from "hard times," desirable immigrants were
passing through to Missouri, which had just been ad-
1 Compendium of the Seventh Census, 40; cf. Moses, Illinois
Historical and Statistical, I., II., Appendices.
Government of Illinois
Status of
the negro
after 1824.
The Mor-
mons in
Illinois.
mitted as a slave State. The southern born settlers
were not all, however, on the proslavery side. Next to
Governor Coles, the most important politician of the
anti-slavery party was probably Congressman Cook,
who came from Kentucky. Two other important anti-
slavery leaders were Morris Birkbeck, one of the
founders of an English colony in Edwards County, and
Rev. John M. Peck, a Baptist minister from Connecti-
cut. The majority in the older southern counties of
the State was in favor of the convention, but the new
counties to the north gave so overwhelming a majority
against it, that the pro-slavery party was decisively
beaten.1
The people of Illinois were not, however, radical
abolitionists or believers in the equality of the races.
Though the number of slaves gradually diminished,
slavery was not absolutely abolished until 1848. The
free negro could not vote, or give his testimony against
a white man and he was treated in general as belonging
to an inferior race. Yet after all, the great fact was
that Illinois was to be a free State, where the labor of
freemen would not have to come into degrading com-
petition with the labor of slaves.
The anti-slavery victory in 1824 had prevented the
immigration of one undesirable element, the negro
slaves. Twenty years later, the people of the State by
various means, lawful and unlawful, excluded another
class of people who seemed to them objectionable. The
Mormon Church founded by Joseph Smith in New
York had been set up for a time in Missouri. This
settlement, however, was soon broken up and they took
refuge in Illinois. Thomas Ford, then governor, esti-
1 Washburne, Sketch of Edward Coles.
The Old Frontier State 33
mated that by 1843 there were 16,000 of these people
in Hancock County, besides a large number in other
counties. They secured liberal charters from the State
legislature, and set up at Nauvoo on the Mississippi a
peculiar and largely independent government of their
own, with Joseph Smith at its head. Soon, however,
they got into trouble with their neighbors and were
charged with polygamy and other kinds of lawless con-
duct. By 1844, a small civil war had broken out in
Hancock County between the Mormons and their
enemies. The State government tried to settle the
difficulties in an orderly way, but the spirit of mob
violence was too strong. Joseph Smith and his brother,
who had been arrested and put in jail, were taken out
by a mob and murdered. After two years of confusion
and bloodshed, the Mormons were finally forced out
of the State in I846.1
During these early years, the State government made Financial
some unfortunate business experiments. One of these
was State banking. In 1821, when money was scarce
and people were suffering from hard times, the gen-
eral assembly chartered a State bank, with several
branches, which was intended to do business on the
credit of the State. The bank was to issue notes and
lend them on easy terms to private individuals. The
experiment was an utter failure. The bank finally
went to pieces, and in 1831 its affairs were cleared up
by the State, which had to borrow what was then con-
sidered a large sum of money to redeem the depre-
1 Ford, History of Illinois, chs. 10, n, 13 ; Moses, Illinois His-
torical and Statistical, I., ch. 30; Illinois Senate Reports, 1846-7,
34 Government of Illinois
dated notes.1 In 1835, another State bank was chart-
ered. This also was badly managed and during the
great panic of 1837 na^ to suspend payment. Its notes
depreciated in value until finally it went to pieces in
1842. This was the last attempt of the State to go
into the banking business.2
internal im- The State also undertook to carry out great plans of
provements. jnternai improvement. One of these, the Illinois and
Michigan Canal, was successful. The idea of a canal
connecting Lake Michigan with the Illinois River and
so with the Mississippi had been talked of for many
years. Grants of land were made for this purpose by
the United States, and in 1835 the legislature finally
authorized a loan for the building of the canal. Work
was begun in 1836 ; by April, 1848, the canal was ready
for use along its whole length; and during the next
twenty years it was an important highway of com-
merce.8 In other schemes, the State was much less
successful. In 1837, tne legislature appropriated ten
millions of dollars for a great system of railroads and
other internal improvements. Money was borrowed
and some work was actually begun ; but, after running
up a heavy debt and bringing the State to the verge of
bankruptcy, the great "system" was finally abandoned
in 1840. About fifty miles of railroad had been finished
and this was afterwards sold by the State at a heavy
loss.4
x Ford, History of Illinois, 45-48; Laws of Illinois, 1821, 80-
93 ; 1831, 178-185.
1 Ford, History of Illinois, chs. 6, 7; Laws of Illinois, 1835,
7-22 ; 1843, 21-26.
8 Moses, Illinois Historical and Statistical, I., ch. 29 ; Ford,
History of Illinois, 179-181, 370-395.
4 Laws of the State of Illinois, 1837, 121-151 ; ibid., 1840, 166-
168; Ford, History of Illinois, 182-198; Moses, Illinois His-
The Old Frontier State 35
As a result of these reckless experiments, the State The state
had incurred a heavy debt, its credit was seriously in- debt
jured and its bonds were selling below par. The fever
for speculation and the depreciated currency had left
the people so poor that they could hardly find ready
money to pay the existing taxes, even without the new
ones which were needed if the debt was to be paid.
There was some talk of repudiating either the whole
debt or a part of it. From this disgrace, the State was
saved largely by the courage and intelligent leadership
of Governor Thomas Ford, who came into office in
December, 1842. Acting largely on his advice, the
legislature adopted a plan by which the debt could be
gradually reduced without imposing too heavy a burden
of taxes upon the people at any one time. Illinois had
passed through a trying crisis, but she had come out of
it with honor.1
While the State was working at these financial and Public
industrial problems, some progress had also been made schools-
with public education. At first the school lands which
had been granted by the United States had brought in
little or no revenue, and a law passed in 1825 authoriz-
ing the people, of each locality to tax themselves for the
support of schools was so unpopular that it was soon
repealed. A little later, however, many of the towns
sold their school lands and used the money for the sup-
port of free public schools. In the meantime a few
colleges had been founded by people connected with
torical and Statistical, I., ch. 28; Davidson and Stuve, History
of Illinois, 442-448.
1 Senate Journal, 1842-3, 33-34 (Governor Ford's message) ;
Session Laws, 1843, 21-36, 287, 191-194; Ford, History of Illi-
nois, 291-310; Moses, Illinois Historical and Statistical, I.,
ch. 29.
Government of Illinois
Formation
of political
parties.
Illinois con-
servative on
the slavery
question.
various religious denominations and the teachers in
them took an active part in awakening public opinion
in favor of a complete school system. At first, how-
ever, these colleges were looked upon with suspicion
and had great difficulty in securing charters of incor-
poration.1
14. EARLY POLITICS OF THE STATE
At first political contests in Illinois were almost wholly
personal. Prominent politicians had their followers
but there were no organized parties as there are to-day.
During the thirties, however, the two great national
parties calling themselves Democrats and Whigs ap-
peared in Illinois as in other parts of the country. The
Democratic party was the first to adopt the policy of
nominating conventions, which was afterwards taken
up by the Whigs. The Democrats always had a much
stronger organization and the Whigs were never able
to elect a governor or more than a small minority of the
congressmen.2
For a quarter of a century, the political leaders of
the State were mainly men of southern birth. Every
one of the first six governors came to Illinois from the
South and all but one were natives of slave-holding
States. During the same period, Illinois elected eight
men as senators and eight men as representatives in
Congress. Of the eight senators one was born in
Illinois and one in New York. The rest came from
Maryland, North Carolina, and Kentucky. Of the
eight representatives, all, with possibly one exception,
1 Pillsbury,£ar/y Education in Illinois (in i6th Biennial Report
of the Superintendent of Public Instruction), CIV.-CLXIV.
2 Ford, History of Illinois, especially chs. 2, 3, 8 ; cf. Sheahan,
Douglas, chs. 2, 3.
The Old Frontier State 37
came to Illinois from Kentucky or Tennessee.1 It was
natural, therefore, that Illinois should have little sym-
pathy with radical views on the slavery question. In
1837 both houses of the legislature passed resolutions
condemning anti-slavery agitation. In the same year,
Elijah P. Love joy was murdered by a mob at Alton and
conservative men like the governor of the State, while
condemning mob violence, thought Lovejoy himself
largely responsible.2 In Congress, the Illinois repre-
sentatives voted solidly for the first of the so-called
"gag rules" intended to prevent the consideration of
abolitionist petitions, and when the last of these rules
was repealed in 1844, only two of the seven Illinois
representatives voted on the anti-slavery side.3 These
two men, however, stood for a minority which was
steadily gaining in strength, especially in northern Illi-
nois, largely as the result of the increasing "Yankee"
immigration.
15. THE CONVENTION OF 1847 AND THE NEW
CONSTITUTION
After nearly thirty years of growth and experiment The second
constitutional changes were naturally thought desirable, Constitution
partly to correct mistakes and partly to meet the changed adopted,
conditions. Under the first constitution, amendments
could only be made by the calling of a convention. In
1841, the legislature voted in favor of such a conven-
1 Moses, Illinois Historical and Statistical, passim; Bateman
and Selby, Historical Encyclopaedia of Illinois.
2 Kirby, Biographical Sketch of Joseph Duncan (Fergus Hist.
Series, 29); Nicolay and Hay, Lincoln, I., ch. 8; Lincoln,
Works, I. 15.
3 Cong. Globe, 24th Cong., ist sess., 505 ; ibid., 28th Cong., 2nd
sess., 7.
38 Government of Illinois
tion, but the resolution was not ratified by the people.
In 1846, however, another resolution was ratified by a
large majority.1 The convention met June 7, 1847,
and finished its work August 31. Among its members,
there was a considerable number of eminent lawyers.
Two had served as judges of the State Supreme Court
and one (David Davis) afterwards became a justice
of the Supreme Court of the United States. The new
constitution was submitted to a vote of the people at a
special election held in March, 1848, and was ratified
by a majority of nearly four to one. Two articles to
which there had been opposition were submitted sepa-
rately and these also were adopted by somewhat smaller
majorities. The new constitution finally went into
effect April I, i848.2
The work of the convention of 1847 can be best un-
derstood by comparing the constitution which it adopted
with that of 1818. In one respect, it was less demo-
cratic. The constitution of 1818 gave the right to vote
to all free white male inhabitants and under this pro-
vision foreigners were allowed to vote before being
naturalized. The new constitution allowed only citi-
zens of the United States to vote.3 In general, how-
ever, the new constitution was much more democratic,
because it provided for more direct action by the people
themselves in the work of government. This is seen,
first, in the provision that the new constitution should
be submitted to the people for their approval. This
1 Laws of Illinois, 1841, 359 ; ibid., 1847, 33-36 ; Senate Reports,
1846-7, 73-76.
2 Journal of the Convention, 1847; Laws of the State of Illi-
nois, 1849, 3 ; Moses, Illinois Historical and Statistical, II., ch.
32 ; Davidson and Stuve, History of Illinois, ch. 44.
* Constitution of Illinois, 1848, Art. VI. § i ; cf. Sheahan, Ste-
phen A. Douglas, 44-47.
The Old Frontier State 39
had not been done in iSiS.1 Even in the making of
laws, the legislature was required in certain cases to
submit its action to a popular vote, or what would be
called today a referendum.2 The people also had much
more to do with the choice of public officers. Under
the constitution of 1818, some were appointed by the
governor, a very large number by the legislature, and
very few by the people. This system had worked badly
and the legislature particularly had been demoralized
by having so much patronage to distribute. Under the
new constitution, nearly all important State and local
officers were to be elected by the people. Even the
judges who had previously been elected by the legisla-
ture for life and could be removed only by impeachment
or by a two-thirds vote of both houses of the legislature,
were now to be elected by the people directly for fixed
terms, judges of the Supreme Court serving for nine
years and others for shorter terms.3
Under the constitution of 1818, the legislature had Power of
been given large powers and almost complete freedom t^lfmit
in the use of them. The new constitution was full of
restrictions upon the power of the legislature. It was
forbidden to charter State banks, to make appropria-
tions in excess of revenue, to borrow more than $50,000,
unless authorized to do so by a special vote of the people,
or to lend the credit of the State for private enterprises.4
These provisions show clearly how the mistakes of the
early legislatures had made the people suspicious of
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1848, Preamble and Schedule, §§ 4,
10.
2 Ibid., Art. III. § 37 ; Art. X. § 5.
'Ibid., Art. IV. § 12; Art V.; cf. with Constitution of 1818,
Schedule, § 10, and Art. IV. §§ 4, 5-
4 Constitution of Illinois, 1848, Art. III. §§ 37, 38; Art. IV. §§
5, 22-24; Art. V. § 10 ; Art. X. § 3.
4O Government of Illinois
their representatives and disposed to tie their hands.
Probably the most honorable thing in these constitu-
tional restrictions was the determination shown to
guard the financial honor of the State. This was also
provided for by Article XV which established a special
annual tax of two mills on the dollar to be used exclu-
sively for the payment of the State debt.
Powers of The powers of the governor were not much changed,
he governor. except ^at j^ was given, for the first time, an independ-
ent veto power, the old council of revision being abol-
ished. This was, however, a very weak veto, for a
majority in each of the houses could pass a bill after
the governor had rejected it.1
Legal dis- An important part of the constitution of 1848 was its
crimination treatment of the colored people. Slavery was now. for
against the *
negro. the first time, absolutely prohibited in the State, but the
negro was not yet given the ordinary duties and privi-
leges of citizenship. He was not liable to militia ser-
vice or the payment of poll taxes and he could not vote.
The strong feeling against free negroes was best shown
by Article XIV of the constitution which required the
legislature to adopt at once laws which would prevent
the immigration of free negroes into the State and
would also prevent slaveholders from bringing in their
slaves, as Governor Coles had done, in order to set them
free.2
Township The constitution of 1848 is also noteworthy because
it made possible a radical change in the system of local
government. The early settlers of the State coming
largely from the South had been accustomed to what is
called the county system, in which the county was the
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1848, Art. IV. § 21.
'Ibid., Art. XIII. § 16; Art. VI. § i ; Art. VIII. §'i ; Art. IX.
§ i ; Art. XIV.
The Old Frontier State 41
unit of local government, without any township organ-
ization.1 The new settlers from New York and New
England were, however, accustomed to some form of
township government and through their influence the
constitution now provided that the legislature should
pass a law authorizing the majority of the voters in any
county to adopt the township system. Under this sys-
tem the county board was to be made up of supervisors
representing the various towns. During the next few
years, the northern and central counties were generally
organized on this plan, which has sometimes been called
the county-township plan because it is a compromise be-
tween the Virginia and New England principles.2
The new constitution was much longer and more constitu-
elaborate than that of 1818. There was, therefore, tional
amendments.
greater need for a comparatively simple way of cor-
recting mistakes which might be found by experience.
The new constitution made it somewhat easier to cor-
rect particular articles. One article at a time might be
amended, if the amendment, after being recommended
by two successive legislatures, the first time by a two-
thirds vote, should be ratified by the people at a general
election.8
'The word town was used before 1848 in nearly the same
sense as the word -village to-day. Thus the town government of
Chicago in 1833 was what would now be called a village govern-
ment. See below, ch. 7.
* Constitution of Illinois, 1848, Art. VII. § 6.
•Ibid., Art XII.
CHAPTER III
THE NEW INDUSTRIAL STATE— 1848-1901
16. REFERENCES
Secondary Authorities: Moses, Illinois Historical and Sta-
tistical, II. ; Davidson and Stuve, Complete History of Illinois;
Dresbach, Young People's History of Illinois; Anthony, Consti-
tutional History of Illinois, chs. 22-36 ; Lusk, Politics and Poli-
ticians of Illinois; Andreas, History of Chicago, 3 vols. ; county
and other local histories ; Smith, Liberty and Free Soil Parties
in the Northwest; Nicolay and Hay, Abraham Lincoln, A His-
tory, and the numerous other lives of Lincoln ; Sheahan, Ste-
phen A. Douglas; see also lives or memoirs of other public men,
e. g., Wentworth, Palmer, Logan, Grant.
Sources : Lincoln, Works (ed. Nicolay and Hay) ; The Amer-
ican Annual Cyclopaedia, 1861-1903; General Assembly of Illi-
nois, Journals of the House and Senate, and Reports; The Laws
of the State of Illinois, 1849-1903 (session laws) ; Supreme Court
of Illinois, Reports; Constitutional Convention (1862), Pro-
ceedings; Constitutional Convention (1869-70), Proceedings
and Debates; Report of the Adjutant-General of Illinois, 1861-
66, 8 vols., esp. I. (For bibliography of State publications, see
Bowker, State Publications, Part II., 229-249) ; U. S. Census
Reports (1850-1900) ; Official Records of the Union and Confed-
erate Armies, Third Series, I., IV.
17. SECTIONAL CONTROVERSIES IN STATE AND NA-
TIONAL POLITICS. 1848-1870
The anti- During the next twenty years after the adoption of
slavery ^ seconj State constitution, the most prominent thing
movement.
in Illinois politics is the conflict of parties in the State
on great national issues of a sectional character, par-
ticularly those relating to slavery. During the early
42
The New Industrial State 43
years of Statehood, Illinois had been very conservative
on these questions. There had been radical anti-
slavery men and anti-slavery societies, but the general
sentiment of the State was against them.1 This was
particularly true of the Democratic party. Already,
however, there were indications of a change. The
northern counties of the State grew much more rapidly
than the southern and these northern counties were rap-
idly being filled by settlers from New York and New
England who were strongly northern in their views
of the slavery question. The German immigrants who
were coming to Illinois in large numbers, had at first
supported the Democratic party, but they did not like
the pro-slavery and extreme States-rights views of the
Southern Democrats. When the Kansas-Nebraska bill
of 1854 repealed the Missouri Compromise prohibiting
slavery in the old Louisiana Territory north of 36° 30',
many of these German Democrats, together with other
moderate anti-slavery men, joined the radical abolition-
ists in forming the new Republican party, which held
its first State convention at Bloomington in i856.2
During the next four years, the State was pretty Lincoln and
evenly divided between the two parties, the most in- D°u«las-
teresting single event being the great senatorial con-
test of 1858 between Stephen A. Douglas, the author
of the Kansas-Nebraska bill, and Abraham Lincoln,
the Republican candidate. Douglas was able to keep
his place in the Senate of the United States, but the
election showed that Illinois was becoming more and
more northern in its political sympathies. These two
Illinois men became in 1860 the leaders of the two
1 See on this subject Smith, Liberty and Free Soil Parties in
the Northwest.
2 Cf. Koerner, Das Deutsche Element, ch. 13.
44
Government of Illinois
great political parties of the North. The presidential
election was hotly contested in this State, the northern
counties generally going for Lincoln and those of the
south for Douglas. Lincoln, however, gained many
votes in the central counties and so was able to carry
the State.
Though the State was divided on the question of
slavery and though many Illinois people believed that
the policy of the Republicans was unjust to the South,
few of them were ready to accept secession. When
in April, 1861, the southerners fired on Fort Sumter
and Lincoln issued his famous call for troops, the Illi-
nois Democrats generally followed their leader, Stephen
A. Douglas, in pledging their support to the Union.
During the Civil War, Illinois furnished to the Union
armies the equivalent of 214,133 men enlisted for three
years service, or about 238 three year enlistments for
every thousand of the male population in 1860. Nearly
35,000 of these men were killed or died of disease in
the service or died in southern prisons.1
Though the State responded generously to the call
for volunteers and its governor, Richard Yates, was an
aggressive supporter of the national administration,
there was during the war much dissatisfaction, espe-
cially in southern Illinois, with the policies of President
Lincoln and his party. This feeling was first shown
clearly in the constitutional convention of 1862. The
people had voted in favor of this convention before the
outbreak of the war, and there was real need of con-
stitutional reforms. The convention, however, was
1 War Department, Official Records of the Union and Confed-
erate Armies, Third Series, IV. 1269; Report of Provost Mar-
shal General, 1866 (in House Ex. Doc. 3Qth Cong., ist sess.,
IV) ; Moses, Illinois Historical and Statistical II. 731.
The New Industrial State 45
controlled largely by Democrats from the southern
counties and much of its time was spent in discussing
the conduct of the State and national governments.
The Republicans believed also that the constitution
which was formed by the convention was largely in-
tended for the advantage of the Democratic party.
The constitution as a whole was defeated by a large
majority, but separate articles prohibiting the immi-
gration of free negroes and limiting the suffrage to
whites were carried.1
Lincoln's emancipation proclamation of September, The
1862, was at first very unpopular in Illinois and in the l*^rt of
next elections the Republicans were badly beaten. The
legislature of 1863 voted to ratify an amendment to the
Constitution of the United States providing that no
amendment should ever be made interfering with slav-
ery in the States,2 and the House of Representatives
even passed resolutions calling for an armistice between
the Union and Confederate armies. This legislature
was finally prorogued or adjourned by Governor Yates.
Some of the members of this opposition party were
honest and patriotic men who were simply opposing
what they considered to be unwise or unconstitutional
measures of the Federal and State governments.
There was, nevertheless, some real disloyalty as was
shown, for example, in 1864 by what is known as the
"Camp Douglas Conspiracy" to set free Confederate
prisoners kept at Chicago.
1 Journal of the Convention ; Dickerson, The Illinois Consti-
tutional Convention of 1862 (Mss. thesis in library of the Uni-
versity of Illinois). The convention of 1862 is also notable be-
cause it claimed the right not only to frame a constitution, bat
to exercise all the powers of the State government.
"Public Laws, 1863, 41, 42.
46
Government of Illinois
Anti-slavery feeling was steadily growing, however.
In the presidential election of 1864, Illinois again gave
to the negro, its electoral votes to Lincoln. In 1865 the new legisla-
ture exactly reversed the policy of the last one and was
the first in the Union to ratify the "thirteenth amend-
ment," as we now know it, prohibiting slavery every-
where under the American flag.1 The same legislature
of 1865 repealed the so-called "black laws" which had
refused the negro equal rights before the law. A little
later, Illinois ratified the fourteenth and fifteenth amend-
ments to the Federal Constitution which were particu-
larly intended to give full civil and political rights to
the negroes of the southern States. Thus Illinois ac-
cepted for itself and for the nation the principle of the
political and legal equality of the races.2
18. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 1848-1870
Growth of This period of sectional conflict was also a period of
population. rapjd growth in population and wealth. The popula-
tion of the State in 1870 was about two and a half
millions, about three times that of 1850. Chicago grew
out of all proportion to the rest of the State. During
the war decade, Cook County increased at the rate of
about 140 per cent, as against less than 40 per cent, for
the rest of the State. About four-fifths of the people
of this county were either foreign born themselves or
the children of foreign fathers or mothers.3
industrial The occupations and interests of these people had.
interests.
1 Documentary History of the Constitution, II. 523 ; cf. pp.
522ff.
2 Public Laws, 1865, 105, 135. Cf. Senate Journal, 319, 320;
House Journal, 470, 490; Documentary History of the Constitu-
tion, II. 690, 808.
8 Ninth Census, I., xvii., 23, no, 307, 308.
The New Industrial State 47
changed greatly since the frontier period. Then
farming had been almost their only occupation.
These farming interests continued to be very impor-
tant and by 1860, Illinois had become the first grain
producing State of the Union. Other interests,
however, had developed, giving the State a broader
industrial development. During the twenty years
from 1850 to 1870, Illinois rose from the sixteenth to
the sixth place among the States in the value of
manufactured products.1
One of the most important factors in this develop- Railroads,
ment was the building of railroads. The first great
railroad enterprise which was successfully carried
out in this State was the building of the Illinois
Central. This was made possible by an act of Con-
gress in 1850 granting large tracts of land to the
States of Illinois, Mississippi, and Alabama, "in
aid of the construction of a railroad from Chicago to
Mobile."2 In 1851, the State granted these lands to
the Illinois Central Railroad Company, for the build-
ing of railroads which should connect Cairo on the
south with Chicago and Galena on the north. By
one of the conditions of this grant, the Company is
still required to pay to the State not less than seven
per cent, of its "gross receipts."3 During the next
five years, these lines were actually built. The rich
prairie lands of eastern and central Illinois were now
for the first time made easily accessible to settlers,
and something was done to break down the sectional
division between the northern and southern coun-
1 Ninth Census, III. 392, 451, 452, 458, 588.
* U. S. Statutes at Large, 3ist Cong., 1st sess., ch. 61.
3 Private Laws, 1851, 61-74.
48 Government of Illinois
ties.1 In the year of the Illinois Central land grant
(1850), there were about one hundred miles of rail-
road in the State. During the next ten years, Illi-
nois did more railroad building than any other State
in the Union, and by 1870 had risen to the first place
among the States in the total number of miles of
railway. In the meantime water communication
with the east had been supplemented by through
railroad lines and the products of the State were
brought within more convenient reach of eastern
and European markets.2
Public With material progress, there came also higher
ofigss1^ standards of life. One of the best evidences of this
is the passage of the school law of 1855 upon which
our present school system is founded. This act pro-
vided for the first time a State tax for schools, gave
the various districts the right to tax themselves for
the same purpose, and provided also "for a free
school in every district for six months of the year."
The new law was, on the whole, very successful and
"the free school made its way rapidly to every part
of the State."3
19. THE CONSTITUTION OF 1870
Constitu- The immense industrial development of the State
jonai brought with it new problems of government, par-
ticularly those resulting from the growth of great
1 Ackerman, Early Illinois Railroads (in Fergus Historical
Series, No. 23) ; Sanborn, Congressional Grants in Aid of Rail-
ways, ch. 2 ; Gerhard, Illinois As It Is, 406-408.
1 Poor, Railroad Manual, 1871-72, xxxiv. ; cf. Eighth Census,
Mortality and Miscellaneous Statistics, 331.
1 Pillsbury, Early Education in Illinois (in i6th Biennial
Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction}, CXC-
CXCIII. ; Public Laws, 1855, 51-91.
The New Industrial State 49
corporations. Many of them had secured from the
legislature special privileges of various kinds, often, it
was thought, without enough regard for the interests of
the people. There was particularly strong feeling
against the railroads which had received great privi-
leges from the State and Federal governments and
it was thought that they ought to be much more
liberal in their charges. Some attempt was made
to solve these problems through acts of the legisla-
ture, but it was generally agreed that the new con-
ditions called for a new constitution.1
The question of calling a constitutional conven- Convention
tion had been submitted to the people in the election of l86$>-7°-
of 1868 and a majority voted in favor of the call.
The legislature then provided that the members of
the convention should begin their sessions at Spring-
field in December, i86o,.2 The new convention was
smaller than that of 1847 and so was better fitted for
practical discussion. A considerable majority of the
members were lawyers, many of them of very high
standing. This fact taken together with the experi-
ence of half a century in State government resulted
in a new constitution much better than those which
had gone before. The convention finished its work
in May, 1870. The constitution which they had
formed was ratified by the people in July and went
into effect in August of the same year.3
Probably the most important new provisions of Special
this constitution were those which had to do with
.
prohibited.
1 Governor Palmer's Message (in House Journal, 1869, 1. 202-
208) ; Public Laws, 1869, 308-312.
3 House Journal, 1869, I. 642-643 ; Public Laws, 1869, 97.
* Journal of the Convention of 1870; Kurd, Revised Statutes,
1903, 53-
4
Government of Illinois
Other con-
stitutional
limitations.
The courts.
Disappear-
ance of the
color line.
Public edu-
cation.
the treatment of private corporations. In order to
prevent the legislature from granting special privi-
leges which might be obtained by corrupt methods
and prove injurious to the public, the new constitu-
tion contained a very sweeping provision against
special laws, requiring that all such matters should
be regulated by general laws. New clauses were
also introduced requiring the legislature to regulate
railway rates.1
The constitution contained other careful provis-
ions to protect the people against unwise or corrupt
representatives. Hereafter no bill could be passed
over the governor's veto without a two-thirds ma-
jority in each house of all the members elected.2
Counties, cities, and other local governments were
limited in the amount of taxes they could raise or
the amount of money they could borrow.3
The increasingly complicated needs of the State
were also shown by the development of the judicial
department. The legislature was given the right to
organize new appellate courts, standing between the
circuit courts and the supreme court. A special
judicial system was provided for the great popula-
tion and complicated business interests of Cook
County. In other respects also the peculiar charac-
ter of this county was recognized by special provis-
ions for its government.4
There were two other things in the constitution
which show in a striking way the growth of public
1 Constitution of Illinois (1870), Art. IV. § 22; Art. XI. (Cor-
porations) ; Art. XIII. (Warehouses).
3 Ibid., Art. V. § 16.
'Ibid., Art. IX. §§8, 12.
'Ibid., Art. VI., §§ 11-20, 23-28; Art. X. § 7.
The New Industrial State 51
opinion away from old ideas. One of these is the
complete disappearance of the color line. The right
to vote and the duty of militia service were recog-
nized as the same for blacks and whites.1 The
other was the recognition for the first time in the
constitution that it was the duty of the State to
provide a "system of free schools, whereby all children
of this State may receive a good, common-school educa-
tion."2
20. THE PEOPLE AND THEIR GOVERNMENT. 1870-1901
During the closing decades of the nineteenth Growth in
century, the population of Illinois was nearly dou- P°Pulatlon-
bled, and in that respect it is now the third State in
the Union. This growth has been mainly in one
county. In 1870, Cook County had about one-sev-
enth of the population of the State ; in 1900, the
proportion was nearly two-fifths. In these thirty
years, the State outside of Cook County gained only
thirty-six per cent., but Chicago gained over five
hundred per cent.3 Though Chicago is the only
great city in Illinois, city or town life has increased
throughout the State. In the year 1860, about one
person in every eight lived in a town of four thou-
sand or more people. By 1900, the ratio had in-
creased to more than one-half.* This tendency to
city life has had an important influence in the con-
1 Constitution of Illinois (1870), Art. VII. § i ; Art. XII. § i.
9 Ibid., Art. VIII. § i.
8 Twelfth Census of the United States, I., xxii., 16. A part of
the increased population of Chicago was due to the annexation
of adjoining territory.
4 Ibid., I., Ixxxiv.-xc. Cf. The Eighth Census, Population,
88-101.
Government of Illinois
Influence of
foreign im-
migration.
Broader
industrial
develop-
ment
stitutional development of the State. It has made
the problems of municipal government infinitely
more important than they were before the Civil War
and it is making the task of passing general laws for
the State, which shall also fit the special needs of
Chicago, more and more difficult.
The foreign elements in this population have also
largely increased, until in 1900, more than one-half
the people of Illinois and more than three-fourths
of those in Chicago were either foreign born them-
selves or the children of foreign parents. The Ger-
mans and the Irish were at first the most important ;
then came a great wave of Scandinavian immigra-
tion ; and, in recent years, the Italians and the Slavs
have come in large numbers.1 To a large extent,
these newcomers have, with the help of our public
school system, been trained in American political
ideas, but many who do not understand or appre-
ciate American institutions are easily influenced by
dangerous or corrupt political leaders. In many
ways, good or bad, the foreign population has in-
fluenced the law making of recent years. This in-
fluence has been felt particularly on such questions
as the proper regulation of the liquor business, and
the proper relation of church schools to our public
school system. In both these matters the foreign-
born voters have stood out strongly against what
they have considered undue State interference with
private business.
Even before 1870, it was clear that Illinois was no
longer a wholly agricultural State, though the cen-
sus of that year gave more people as engaged in
1 Twelfth Census of the United States, I., clxxxv., clxxxvii.,
cxciv.
The New Industrial State 53
agriculture than in all other occupations put to-
gether.1 Since that time there has been a constantly
broadening industrial development. In 1900, the
three great branches of industry, "agriculture,"
"manufacturing and mechanical pursuits," and
"trade and transportation," stood on a nearly equal
footing as measured by the number of people en-
gaged in them.2 Two great factors in this develop-
ment have been the building of six thousand miles
of railway, and the growth from very small begin-
nings in 1870 of the great coal mining industry.3
All these things, taken together with the prosperity
of the whole northwest, have made Chicago one of
the chief financial centres of the country. In the
last year of the nineteenth century, the banking busi-
ness of Chicago was greater than that of Boston or
Philadelphia and second only to that of New York.4
Great industrial changes like these cannot take Conflicts of
place without much friction, particularly between
labor and capital. Among these unfortunate con-
flicts, there are a few which stand out more promi-
nently than the rest. One of these is the great eight-
hour strike of 1886, ending in the so-called anarchist
riots.5 The year 1894 is also especially to be remem-
bered, because of the coal mining strikes in central
Illinois and the great railroad strikes centering in
Chicago. In the last case, United States troops
were called out by President Cleveland, though
1 Ninth Census of the United States, I. '670-674.
2 Twelfth Census of the United States, II. 508-50(3
8 Poor, Railroad Manual, 1901 ; U.S. Statistical Abstract, 1900,
343-
* World Almanac, 1901, 187.
* Annual Cyclopaedia, 1886, 1887, 1893.
54 Government of Illinois
Governor Altgeld thought such interference by the
Federal government unnecessary and unjustifiable.
In several of these conflicts, the State militia has
been called out by the governor to protect persons
and property.1
State con- These conflicts of labor and capital, taken to-
gether with the increasing power of the great in-
and in- dustrial combinations, have made it more and
dustry. more necessary for the general public to protect
itself by using the authority of the State. Some-
times this has been done by general rules of law.
Thus the State legislature has passed laws prohibit-
ing child labor and regulating railway rates, and it
has made some not very successful attempts to
prevent certain kinds of industrial combinations,
popularly known as "trusts." Sometimes executive
boards have been established by law in order to
supervise certain kinds of business and see that they
are properly conducted. In 1871, the Board of Rail-
road and Warehouse Commissioners was organized
which now has the power to fix maximum railway
rates. A State insurance department has been cre-
ated to supervise insurance companies and the State
Board of Factory Inspectors is expected to enforce
the laws regarding the employment of labor in fac-
tories. The State has also tried to prevent strikes
and lockouts, in some cases at least, by establishing
a State Board of Arbitration.2 Thus the State gov-
ernment is constantly being given new work to do
and organizing new offices or departments for that
purpose. As population has increased and the in-
1 Annual Cyclopaedia, 1893, 1894; Message of Governor Alt-
geld in Reports to the General Assembly, 1894.
* See on this subject Part III., ch. 14.
The New Industrial State 55
terests of the people have grown broader and more
complex, they have been obliged to make more elab-
orate and complex the machinery of their govern-
ment.
PART II
THE MACHINERY OF STATE GOVERNMENT
CHAPTER IV
UNDERLYINa PRINCIPLES OF STATE GOVERNMENT
21. REFERENCES
Bryce, American Commonwealth, I. chs. 36-39, 44, 45 ; Hart,
Actual Government, Part I.; Wilson, The State, §§ 1087-1115;
Cooley, The General Principles of Constitutional Law, ed. 1898,
ch. 18 ; Cooley, Constitutional Limitations, chs. 3, 4, 9-13 ; Black,
Handbook of American Constitutional Law, chs. 18, 19; Hitch-
cock, American State Constitutions; Patterson, The United
States and the States under the Constitution; Schouler, Consti-
tutional Studies, Part III. ; Borgeaud, Adoption and Amend-
ment of Constitutions, Part III., Book I. ; Jameson, A Treatise
on Constitutional Conventions; Thorpe, Constitutional History
of the American People; Oberholtzer, The Referendum in
America. Documents : Starr and Curtis, Annotated Statutes of
the State of Illinois (this gives the text of the constitution, with
foot notes citing important cases in constitutional law) ; cf.
Moore, An Index-Digest of the Illinois Reports, 2 vols.
22. THE FIELD OF STATE GOVERNMENT
state au- In the study of any government it is important to
ited'by lM understand clearly the foundation principles upon
the Federal which it rests, the fundamental laws to which all
lon- lesser laws must conform. For Illinois, as for every
other State of the Union, the Constitution of the
United States and all Federal laws and treaties made
in accordance with that Constitution are the "su-
56
Underlying Principles of State Government 57
preme law of the land;" and the judges are ''bound
thereby, anything in the constitution or laws of any
State to the contrary notwithstanding." Thus the
people of Illinois are, strictly speaking, not sover-
eign. By this "supreme law" some of the most
important departments of government action are
taken from the State altogether and given to the
United States. This is particularly true in such
matters of general interest as our foreign policy and
the regulation of foreign and interstate commerce,
in which action by separate States would lead to
great confusion. The Constitution, however, goes
much farther than this and even in the general field
of action reserved to the States insists that they
shall observe certain general principles. Their gov-
ernment, for example, must be republican. They
must not establish any order of nobility. They may
charter corporations, but they can not, generally
speaking, compel them to give up privileges once
granted. One of the most important results of the
Civil War was to limit still farther the freedom of
the States in what were previously supposed to be
purely State affairs. Thus no State may permit
slavery within its limits, nor refuse the right to vote,
even in State elections, on account of race, color, or
previous condition of servitude. The Constitution
of the United States now determines what shall
make any person a citizen of a State, and to a con-
siderable extent, places his rights as such a citizen
under the protection of Federal law.
Though large powers within each State are thus importance
of the State.
given to the Federal government, yet those interests
of the people which are left in the care of the State
are more numerous and not less important. The State
58 Government of Illinois
government as a whole is not sovereign because it is
not independent, but in many departments it does ex-
ercise really sovereign power. It must be remembered,
too, that the people of a State, through the choice of
presidential electors and of senators and representa-
tives in Congress, have a part in the exercise of sov-
ereign authority, whether that authority is State or
Federal.
The adoption
constitution.
23. THE STATE CONSTITUTION
Next in authority to the Constitution and laws of
^e United States is the constitution of the State.
This fundamental law was framed by a convention
chosen by the people for that purpose and had finally
to be submitted to them for their approval. In
some States, constitutions have been finally adopted
by conventions without being submitted to the peo-
ple, but in Illinois the present constitution expressly
forbids such action.1 Thus the constitution is a
part of the law of the State, made directly by the
people themselves and so above any other law which
may be enacted by their representatives.
Constitu- The constitution may be amended in two ways.
tional 11111 .
conventions. The first may be called the convention method.
When two-thirds of the members of each house of
the general assembly agree that it is necessary to
revise the constitution, they may submit the ques-
tion to a vote of the people at the next general elec-
tion. If a majority of all those who vote in that
general election vote in favor of a convention, the
legislature must provide for it at its next meeting.
When the members of the convention have done
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. XIV. § i.
Underlying Principles of State Government 59
their work, they must submit their proposed consti-
tution or amendments to the voters of the State for
their approval at a special election called for that
purpose. This somewhat slow and difficult method
is intended to prevent hasty or partisan changes in
the constitution.1
Where there is no strong demand on the part of Amend-
the people for a general revision, a simpler method ments Pr°-
posed by the
may be used. Amendments may be proposed in legislature,
either house of the general assembly and, if agreed
to by a two-thirds vote of all the members elected
in each house, they must be submitted to the people
at the next general election. A majority of all who
vote in that election must vote for the amendment.
Thus an amendment may be lost though more peo-
ple vote for it than vote against it. In order that
such amendments may not be forgotten by the voter,
the secretary of State is required to have published
a careful explanation of their provisions.2 In the
first thirty years after the adoption of the constitu-
tion of 1870, five constitutional amendments have
been adopted. A number of others proposed by the
legislature were not ratified by the people. No
comprehensive changes can be made in this way
because amendments can not be proposed to more
than one article at the same time.3
24. THE DISTRIBUTION OF POWERS
Though the people are the source of authority, Depart-
ments of
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. XIV. § i. government.
"Ibid., Art. XIV. § 2; Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. ;a.
3 An important amendment giving the legislature greater free-
dom in making laws for Chicago was agreed to by the legisla-
ture in 1903 and will be submitted to the voters in 1904. See
below p. 253.
60 Government of Illinois
the only power which can make and change consti-
tutions, the actual work of government must be
done by their chosen representatives. One of the
most important purposes of a constitution is, there-
fore, to organize the departments of the State and
to distribute among their officers the various powers
and duties of government. Following the example
of the Federal government and of the older States,
Illinois has provided for the distribution of consti-
tutional powers in three departments : the legisla-
tive, the executive, and the judicial.1 Roughly
speaking, it is the duty of the legislative department
to make the laws, of the executive to see that they
are obeyed, and of the judiciary to interpret the law
and apply it to special cases. It is the purpose of
this distribution that these different departments
shall check each other and so prevent unwise or
dangerous action. Thus the governor can prevent
the passage of laws by the use of his veto power.
The judges may declare unconstitutional and there-
fore of no force the acts both of the executive and
the legislature. Finally, the legislature may im-
peach and remove from office the governor and
judges for misconduct in the performance of their
duties.
AH repre- Though these great departments are more or less
:nt the distinctly separated, they are not wholly so and they
do not generally represent different interests, as
they do, for example, in a strongly monarchical gov-
ernment where the higher executive officers and the
judges derive their authority from the king, where
there is an upper house to represent the nobility and
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, esp. Art. III.
Underlying Principles of State Government 61
only the lower house represents the people. In
Illinois, the higher officers in each one of the great
departments are chosen directly by the people and
are supposed to represent their interests.
Cutting across these dividing lines which separate Central and
the legislative, executive, and judicial departments local gov'
of the State, there are what we may call latitudinal
lines, which mark off the field of the central govern-
ment from those of the local governments. The
constitution provides for county, town, city and
other local governments, partly to meet the local
needs of each of these districts and partly to help
the State in its work. Their field of authority is
not always clearly marked out by the constitution;
but they are in all things distinctly subordinate to
the State government, and their jurisdiction is
largely determined for them by the legislature. Yet
they have some legal rights which not even the
legislature can take away. Thus, the legislature
can not give the right to build a street railway in
any city or town without the consent of the local
government.1
25. RESERVED RIGHTS OF THE PEOPLE
This distribution of political powers among dif- BUI of
ferent sets of officers has sometimes been called a
system of "checks and balances," in which every
officer or department is checked in the exercise of
his power by the natural jealousy of some other
department or officer. But not even to all of these
officers taken together have the people given unre-
stricted power. To protect the rights of individuals
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. XI. § 4.
62 Government of Illinois
against the possible tyranny of their own represent-
atives, even in the law-making body, they have
placed in the constitution what is sometimes known
as a "bill of rights." Many of these rights were
recognized by the first colonists in America as a
part of their old English inheritance. Others were
either recognized for the first time or more clearly
stated as a result of early American experience.
With generally unimportant differences, they are
to-day set forth in the constitution of every Amer-
ican State.
Rights of The most important of these rights are those
which protect the personal liberty of the individual,
his rights of property, his freedom in religious
opinion and worship, and his liberty of speech and
publication. To secure the personal liberty of the
individual, it is provided that he shall not be deprived
of life or liberty without due process of law, and
the right of trial by jury is guaranteed. Private
property also may not be taken except by due pro-
cess of law, and when needed for public uses it must
be paid for. Every man is guaranteed liberty of
conscience and public worship. No one may be
compelled to support any church and no preference
can be given by law to any religious denomination.
To protect free discussion of all public questions, it
is provided that "every person may freely speak,
write and publish on all subjects," though he is
"responsible for the abuse of that liberty" and may
be punished for libel.1 Thus the old safeguards
which protected subjects against arbitrary kings are
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. II.
Underlying Principles of State Government 63
still considered necessary even in a government of
the people by the people.
Besides securing each individual in these personal other con
and property rights, the constitution contains, as we *tltutl°nal
* limitations
shall see later, a number of provisions intended to
protect the interests of the people as a whole against
unwise or corrupt legislation by their chosen repre-
sentatives. Certain general principles are laid down
to which all future laws must conform, and even in
some cases where no constitutional amendment is
necessary, the legislature is required to submit its
measures to the people for their approval.1
Thus, within the sphere of government left to the The people
State, the people are the supreme power. They
have made the constitution and they alone can
change it. They have given large powers to their
officers or agents, but these powers, large as they
are, are jealously guarded to protect the rights of
individual citizens and those of the people as a
whole.
1 Under a recent act of the legislature, the voters of the State
may express their opinion on public questions by means of what
is called the "little ballot." This opinion has no legal force, but
it may influence somewhat the action of the legislature. Three
such questions were voted upon in the general elections of 1902.
CHAPTER V
ELECTIONS
Meaning of
the term,
people.
Qualifica-
tions of
voters.
26. REFERENCES
Bryce, American Commonwealth, I., ch. 46; II., Part III.;
Hart, Actual Government, Part II. ; Hinsdale, American Gov-
ernment, ch. 54; Cooley, Constitutional Limitations, ch. 17;
Commons, Proportional Representation, esp. ch. 4; Dallinger,
Nominations for Elective Office; Ostrogorsky, Democracy and
the Organization of Political Parties, especially II., Part V.;
Political Science Quarterly XIV. 224-233. For comparison
with European political methods, see Lowell, Governments
and Parties in Continental Europe (Vol. I. of Ostrogorsky
describes English politics). Documents: Constitution of
Illinois, 1870, Art. VII.; Kurd, Revised Statutes, 1903, ch. 46
(Elections); Starr and Curtis, Annotated Statutes (ed. 1896),
161-162 and Notes on ch. 46; the Secretary of State, The Elec-
tion Law.
27. THE SUFFRAGE
The word "people" as found in the constitution
is often carelessly used without any definite knowl-
edge of its real meaning. Just what is meant by
saying that the "people" are the supreme authority
in State affairs? The term does not include all
persons who live in the State, but is practically lim-
ited to those who take part in the government as
voters, and this class is clearly defined by the con-
stitution.
The first important condition of the voting privi-
lege is citizenship. All new voters must show that
they are natural-born or naturalized citizens of the
64
Elections 65
United States. According to the Federal Constitu-
tion, "all persons born or naturalized in the United
States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof are
citizens of the United States and of the State where-
in they reside." A second qualification is residence.
A voter must have lived long enough in the place in
which the election takes place to have a real interest
in it and to be able to vote intelligently. So he must
have lived in the State one year, in the county ninety
days, and in the election district in which he votes
at least thirty days before the election is held. There
are also restrictions of age and sex. The constitu-
tion gives the right of voting only to men twenty-
one years old. Consequently, women are not al-
lowed to vote for any officer named in the constitu-
tion. They now have, however, the right to vote
for certain school officers not mentioned in the con-
stitution, including the members of local school
boards and trustees of the University of Illinois.
Finally, the right to vote may be forfeited for mis-
conduct. Following the requirement of the consti-
tution, the law now makes it a penal offense for any
person to attempt to vote who has been convicted of
bribery, felony, "or other infamous crime under the
laws of any State," unless he has been duly par-
doned.1
28. THE CONDUCT OF ELECTIONS
Since the people control the government chiefly Election
through their powers to choose officers, it is impor- lawa"
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. VII. ; Kurd, Revised Stat-
utes, ch. 46, §§ 65-70, 83, 332; Starr and Curtis, Annotated Stat-
utes, 161, 162, 1741, 1742; Plummer v. Yost, 144 Illinois Reports,
68-77-
5
66
Government of Illinois
Times of
elections.
Rights of
voters on
election
days.
tant that elections should be carried on freely and
honestly, so that they may express the real will of
the majority. For this purpose an elaborate code
of election laws has been enacted.
Elections in Illinois are held at different times.
The general elections for the choice of State execu-
tive officers, members of the legislature, and county
officers are held on the first Tuesday after the first
Monday in November in the even-numbered years.
This means that they are always held in connection
with the presidential or congressional elections, and
that they are more influenced by national politics
than they might be if held separately. For supreme
and circuit court judges, elections are held, at inter-
vals of nine and six years respectively, on the first
Monday in June. Township, village, and city elec-
tions are held every year in April. When, as in
Chicago, the city limits include one or more whole
townships, all these elections are held on the first
Tuesday in April. Other city or village elections are
held on the third Tuesday, two weeks after the town-
ship elections. Township school trustees and members
of district school boards are chosen, respectively, on the
second and third Saturdays in April.1
In order that the voter may not be prevented from
casting his ballot, the law has made some special
provisions for election days. On any general elec-
tion day, a voter has a right to absent himself for
two hours from any employment in which he may
be engaged, without a deduction in his wages.2 In
Chicago and in any other city where the provisions
1 Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 24, §§ 48, 190 ; ch. 122, §§ 34, 125 ;
ch. 139, § 51.
2 Ibid., ch. 46, §312.
Elections 67
of the city election law are in force, the day set for
any general, State, county, or city election is a legal
holiday.1 The voter is also entitled to freedom from
arrest in attending, in going to, and returning from,
the place of election; and, except in case of war or
public danger, he can not be compelled to perform
military service on election day.2
The law governing the management of elections The general
is not the same for all parts of the State. In Chicago *™ ™dc ^
and East St. Louis they are held under the so-called law.
city election law, and any other city or village may
by special vote adopt this system.3 In other parts
of the State, the general election law is in force. Un-
der the city law, all elections are under the super-
vision of three election commissioners appointed by
th county court. Both of the two leading political
parties must be represented on this board.4 Under
the general law, this work of supervision is given to
the county boards of supervisors or commissioners.
These supervising authorities must then divide Electoral
the city or county into election precincts or districts, distncts-
select the polling place in each precinct, and appoint
the election judges. In choosing the judges and
clerks, each of the two leading political parties must
be given representation.
One of the first duties of these election officers is Registration
the registration of voters. Under the city law, of voters-
voters must be registered on one of two days fixed
by law a few days before each general election. No
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 46, § 190.
a Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. VII. § 3.
8 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 46, §§ iss-287d, (esp. § 168).
'Ibid., ch. 46, §§ 170, 171.
68 Government of Illinois
one who is not registered is allowed to vote.1 Un-
der the general election law, voters need not registei
in person. The election officers must make up theii
registration lists three weeks before the election
including all persons still living in the precinct whc
voted at the last election, and any other persons whc
are "well-known" to be voters. The list must ther
be posted and an opportunity is given for any legal
voter who is not registered to add his name to the
list. Even if he fails to register before election day
he may still "swear in" his vote by swearing, 01
affirming, that he is a legal voter and having his
statement corroborated on oath by some household-
er who is already a registered voter.2 The purpose
of all registration is to make it certain that no one
shall cast a vote unless he is entitled to do so. In a
large city the danger of illegal voting is much greater
and a more stringent law is therefore needed than in
the country.
29. THE COUNTING OF VOTES
Legal safe- Every precaution is also taken to ensure the legal
guards. voter a free and fairly counted vote. This is secured
partly by choosing the judges and clerks from both
the leading parties, so that no party can have the
opportunity to control the election. Each party is
also entitled to keep at least one "challenger" at the
polling place while the votes are being cast and
1 The first of these days is "the Saturday immediately preced-
ing the Tuesday, four weeks before" the election. The second
day is just three weeks before the election. There is also some
provision made for correcting errors in registration and for the
registration of new voters at the intervening local elections.
Kurd. Revised Statutes, ch. 46, §§ 195-234.
d., ch. 46, §§ I35-I49-
Elections 69
counted, and under the city election law each party
may also have two additional persons as "watchers."1
One of the most important safeguards of free The Austral-
voting is the secret ballot. The constitution re- ianballot-
quires that the voting in all elections shall be by
ballot.2 Under the old method of voting, however,
the ballot was not always secret. Ballots were then
furnished to the voter by one or the other party in
the election. It was then comparatively easy for any
one who wished to intimidate or to bribe a voter to
see how he voted. In order to lessen as much as
possible the danger of such bribery or intimidation,
the present "Australian ballot" law is intended to
make voting absolutely secret.3
All the ballots are now provided at public expense. The official
Each voter having received his ballot goes to a
booth where he can mark it without being observed.
This official ballot contains the names of all candi-
dates who have been regularly nominated. All the
candidates of one party are arranged in a single
column with the name of that party at its head. If
the voter is a strong party man and wishes to vote
a "straight ticket," he puts his cross before the name
of his party, and his vote will be counted for all its
candidates. If he wishes to vote for the party ticket
as a whole with a few exceptions, he may mark the
name of the party as in the first case, but he will also
set his cross before the names of such individual
candidates of other parties as he may wish to vote
for. Finally, without paying any attention to the
party names, he may mark simply the names of indi-
1 Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 46, §§ 64, 235.
a Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. VII. § 2.
3 This law does not apply to school elections.
DEMOCRATIC. Q REPUBLICAN.
Por PmMot «l UM UnttW kt«t«S,
WILLIAM J. BRYAN
ARTHUR SEWALL
FRANCIS M. YODNQBLOOD
HOWARD S. TAYLOR
WILLIAM H. RUSSELL
LAWRENCE M. ENN1S
HERMAN ALSCHDLER
THOMAS A. SMYTH
MAURICE M. O'CONNOR
I I 11 A DTIW DPnfPR
WILLIAM McKINLEY
fW Vk«-Pr*»l««it «f the U»Ke4 »Utt«,
GARRETT A. HOBART
1M
^TSON
EMIL 0. HIRSCH
HORACE S. CLARK
NOBLE B. JUDAH
DAYTON G. GRAY
CHARLES L. SHERLOCK
FREDERICK M. BLOUNT
EPHRAIM BANNING
PWli'QTIi'R M H4WRS
EUAN
Elections 71
vidual candidates or even write in the name of some
one who is not on the list. This choice of methods
provides for the convenience both of the partisan and
the independent voter. From the booth where the
ballot is marked and folded, the voter goes to the
ballot box, where he gives his name and deposits his
vote. No electioneering of any kind is allowed in
the polling place, and the voter who shows his ballot
is guilty of a penal offense.1
Great care is taken to secure the prompt and accu- The canvass
rate counting of votes. It is conducted by the judges
and clerks in the presence of the "challengers" of
both parties. It must begin as soon as the polls
close and must not be interrupted until it is finished.
Under the general election law, the votes of all the
precincts for all county and State officers are can-
vassed by the county clerk assisted by two justices
of the peace. Under the city election law, all returns
are canvassed by the county judge assisted by the
city attorney and the board of election commission-
ers. In the case of members of the legislature,
judges of the supreme and circuit courts, and State
officers generally, all the returns are finally sent to
the secretary of state. Within twenty days after
the election they must be canvassed in the presence
of the governor by a board consisting of the secre-
1 The only exception to the rule that voters must mark their
ballots alone is in the case of persons who are willing to swear
that they can not read English or are physically unable to make
the necessary marks. Even then the voter must be assisted by
election officers of different political parties. Hurd, Revised
Statutes, ch. 46, §§ 288-326. An act approved May 14, 1903,
allows the use of voting machines in places where they may be
adopted by popular vote. Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 46, §§
430-451.
Government of Illinois
Penalties
for corrupt
practices.
Contested
elections.
History of
political
parties in
Illinois.
tary of state, the auditor, the treasurer, and the
attorney general. The successful candidates then
receive their commissions on certificates of election
from the governor.1
Every step in the election process is thus carefully
guarded by law, and there are heavy penalties for
illegal interference with the freedom and honesty of
elections. Under the general election law, the solic-
iting or receiving of bribes is punishable by impris-
onment and disfranchisement. In the case of a
second offense, the disfranchisement is for life.
Under the city election law, the intimidation or
bribery of a voter is punishable by imprisonment.
There are other penalties for corrupt conduct or
negligence on the part of election officers.2
Even with all these precautions, there is still dan-
ger of unfairness or carelessness. The constitution
and laws, therefore, provide methods for the trial of
contested elections. Contests in the elections for
governor and other State executive officers are de-
cided by a joint meeting of the two houses of the
legislature. Each house of the legislature, acting
separately, decides disputes regarding the election
of its own members. Other contested elections are
determined by the circuit and county courts.3
30. NOMINATIONS
The right of the people to vote for public officers
will mean little unless they are able also to control
the nomination of candidates. In any large State
with hundreds of thousands of voters, there can be
* Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 46, §§ 71-78, 248-254.
'Ibid., ch. 46, §§ 81-93 K', 255-280.
8 Ibid., ch. 46, §§ 94-123.
Elections 73
no intelligent choice at the ballot box unless in some
way a few names are brought before the people of
the whole State as candidates. In the early days,
candidates nominated themselves or were put for-
ward in an informal way by their admirers. For
many years there were no nominating conventions
in Illinois and no really organized political parties.
As the population increased, this informal way of
making nominations became impossible, and politi-
cal parties grew up with elaborate machinery for the
purpose of nominating candidates for office. These
parties in Illinois, as in other parts of the Union, are
generally divisions of great national organizations.
For about half a century, the great majority of the
voters have cast their ballots for the candidates
either of the Republican or Democratic parties.
The subdivisions of each party organization cor- Party con-
respond closely with those of the government. The
township convention nominates candidates for
township offices, but it also appoints and sometimes
instructs delegates to the county convention. The
county convention in turn, besides nominating can-
didates for county offices, usually sends its delegates
to the State convention. In Chicago, the delegates
to the State convention are chosen directly by the
voters in the "primary elections." The State con-
vention is the highest authority in the State in mat-
ters of party policy. It prepares the party platform
and nominates candidates for State offices. There
are also city and ward conventions for the nomina-
tion of municipal officers ; senatorial district conven-
tions where candidates for the legislature are chosen ;
and congressional conventions where congressmen
74
Government of Illinois
Party com-
mittees.
"Primary
elections"
regulated
by law.
are nominated and delegates chosen to national con-
ventions.
Only a small part, however, of the business of any
party can be transacted by conventions of any kind.
The real work of pushing candidates is done by
comparatively few men organized in political com-
mittees. Each party has its township, city, county,
and "State central" committees. At the head of
each committee is a chairman, who may be the lead-
er or "boss" of his party, though the real power is
often in the hands of a stronger man behind the
scenes.
It is now generally understood that political par-
ties are an essential part of the system of choosing
public officers. In some districts where one party
has an overwhelming majority, the nomination of
that party is said to be "equivalent to an election,"
and is practically more important than the election
itself. Because of these facts, the "primary elec-
tions," in which the voters of each party nominate
their local candidates for office and choose delegates
to the higher conventions, are now partially regu-
lated by law. The most thorough measure of this
kind is that which is now in force in Chicago, and
which may be adopted elsewhere if the voters desire
it. Primary elections under this act may be held by
any party which polled not less than ten per cent, of
the total number of votes cast at the last general
election. These "primary elections" are then placed
under the supervision of the regular board of election
commissioners and conducted under rules much like
those prescribed by law for general elections, includ-
Elections . 75
ing penalties for the bribery or intimidation of voters
and any interference with an honest count.1
Though the law recognizes political parties, it independent
.«...., i 11 • j.' nominations.
does not limit the voter wholly to party nominations.
If he does not sympathize with the policy of any
existing party, or if he is dissatisfied with any par-
ticular candidate, he may join with others in the
making of independent nominations. In the case
of a candidate for any State office, a nomination
paper, signed by one thousand legal voters, is suffi-
cient to place his name on the official ballot. A
smaller number is, of course, allowed for local offi-
ces. This independent method of nomination,
though of little importance in State elections, is
sometimes successful in municipal elections and in
the choice of members of the legislature. In any
case, it is clear that the man who merely votes on
election day will have little influence in the choice
of his representatives. He must first do his part in
seeing that the right kind of men are nominated for
public office. 2
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 46, §§ 380-427.
* Ibid., ch. 46, §§ 292-294.
CHAPTER VI
THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
31. REFERENCES
Bryce, American Commonwealth, I., chs. 40-42; Hart, Actual
Government, Part III.; Wilson, The State, §§ 1126-1208; Hins-
dale, The American Government, chs. 51-53; Goodnow, Com-
parative Administrative Law, especially Book I., ch. 4, Book II.,
Division I., ch. 3 ; Cooley, Constitutional Limitations, chs. 5-7 ;
Black, Handbook of American Constitutional Law, chs. 11-13;
Andrews, American Law, chs. 22, 23.
Documents : Constitution of Illinois, especially Arts. III.-
VI. ; Kurd, Revised Statutes; Starr and Curtis, Annotated
Statutes and Supplements; cf. Moore, An Index-Digest of the
Illinois Reports, and [Reed Adams], The Citator (a conven-
ient guide to recent decisions of the Illinois Supreme and
Appellate Courts) ; Rules of the House and Senate (in House
and Senate Journals} ; the Secretary of State, Elue-book of the
State of Illinois; Pickering, Official Directory, 42nd General
Assembly.
32. THE ORGANIZATION OF THE LEGISLATURE
Distribution The officers of the State have been already divided
of powers. jnto two ma{n groups, those who act for the State as
a whole and those who represent the various sub-
divisions of the State in the work of local govern-
ment. The central government and, somewhat less
clearly, the local governments are also divided into
executive, legislative and judicial departments. This
distinction is emphasized by the constitution, which
declares that "'no persons, or collection of persons,
being one of these departments, shall exercise any
76
The Central Government 77
power properly belonging to either of the others."1
The highest power within the State, next to that
of the people themselves, has been given to the law-
making body. In Illinois, this is officially known
as the General Assembly and, more popularly, as
the Legislature. To it belongs "every power in
State affairs not delegated to some other depart-
ment, or expressly denied to it by the constitution."2
The general assembly, like the Federal congress, The general
consists of two houses, the Senate and the House of assembly-
Representatives ; but in the State legislature, both
senators and representatives are chosen directly by
the same people grouped in the same districts. In
some respects, however, the two houses are quite
different. Both senators and representatives must
be citizens of the United States and must have lived
in the State five years and in their districts two years
before their election ; but senators must be" at least
twenty-five years old, while the representatives need
be only twenty-one. Again, the Senate with only
fifty-one members is a small body as compared with
the House, which has three times that number. The
senators' term is four years, while that of the repre-
sentatives is only two. At the close of every bien-
nial period, half of the senators retire, but the other
half remain as "hold-over" members of the next
general assembly. Hence senators are more likely
than representatives to be experienced in public
business.3
For the election of the general assembly, the State Senatorial
districts.
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. III.
a Winch v. Tobin, 107 Illinois Reports, 215 (citing earlier
decisions).
* Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. IV. §§ 1-7.
78 Government of Illinois
is divided into fifty-one senatorial districts, marked
out by the legislature every ten years and having as
nearly as possible equal population.1 The districts
must, however, be bounded by county lines except
when one county is entitled to more than one sena-
tor. Cook County now has eighteen senatorial dis-
tricts, or a little more than one-third of the total for
the State. No other county has more than one.
Each senatorial district has one senator and three
representatives. It is commonly charged that the
apportionment is unequally made or "gerryman-
dered;" but the courts will not declare such an act
unconstitutional except in very clear cases.2
The three representatives are chosen according
to the plan of "minority representation." Each
voter may cast three votes for representatives and
may cast them all for one candidate or give one and
one-half votes to each of two candidates or one vote
to each of three. Thus any party supported by
more than one-fourth of the voters of a district can
always, by uniting on one candidate, secure his elec-
tion. Each party usually designates on the official
ballot the precise way in which it wishes the votes
divided and in close districts the party vote is usual-
ly divided equally between two candidates. Voters,
however, frequently show their personal preferences
by "plumping" their votes for a single candidate.
No one can be legally elected to either house who
has been convicted of bribery, perjury, or any other
"infamous crime," or who, having held public funds,
has not satisfactorily accounted for them. The hold-
1 As shown by the last Federal census.
8 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. IV. §§ 6-8; Starr and Cur-
tis, Annotated Statutes, 123.
The Central Government 79
ing of lucrative State or Federal offices is also a
disqualification. Each member must, before he can
take his seat, declare on oath that he has not given
any bribe to secure his election and that he will
accept none during his term of service. Any mem-
ber who refuses to take this oath or who swears
falsely or violates his oath, forfeits his seat. All
questions as to the right of any member to his seat
are decided by each house for its own members.1
The election of the general assembly takes place Sessions of
on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November
in the even-numbered years. Their regular session
begins on the first Wednesday after the first Monday
in the following January. Other sessions can be
held only when called by the governor on what the
constitution calls "extraordinary occasions." The
governor then in his proclamation states the busi-
ness for which the session is called and no other
business can be transacted.2 The sessions of the
legislature are held at Springfield which is also the
seat of the chief executive offices and of the Supreme
Court.
During the sessions, members of each house have Privileges
a privileged character. Except for "treason, felony, of members-
or breach of the peace," they can not be arrested
while in attendance or while going to or returning
from any session. They can also not be held to
account elsewhere for anything said by them in
either house.3 Their salaries are fixed by law. At
present each representative or senator is entitled to
a fixed salary of $1,000 for his attendance at a regu-
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. IV. §§ 3, 4, 5, 9.
'Ibid., Art. IV. §9; Art. V. §8.
3 Ibid., Art. IV. § 14.
8o
Government of Illinois
Officers of
the House
and Senate™
Semi-judi-
cial powers.
The making
of laws.
lar session. For special sessions, members receive
five dollars a day. There is also an allowance for
traveling expenses.1
When the general assembly meets, its first work
is to organize itself for the orderly transaction of
business. The Senate is presided over by the lieu-
tenant governor, but it also elects a president pro tern.
to preside in his absence. The House of Repre-
sentatives is called to order by the secretary of state,
who presides until a temporary speaker is chosen.
This temporary organization is, however, soon suc-
ceeded by the choice of a permanent speaker and
other permanent officers of the House, of whom the
most important is the clerk. Similar subordinate
officers are appointed for the Senate.
Either house may by a two-thirds vote expel one
of its members and may even impose small penalties
for improper conduct in the house by persons who
are not members. It may also compel the attend-
ance of witnesses and punish by fine any one who
refuses to obey. Thus the two houses of the general
assembly have some of the powers of a court of law.2
33. THE MAKING OF LAWS
The chief purpose of the general assembly is to
pass laws. This requires the consent of the major-
ity of the members elected in each house. A bill so
passed must be presented to the governor, who can
either approve or veto it. If he does not act upon
the bill within ten days after it is presented to him,
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, § 21 ; Kurd, Revised Statutes,
ch. 63, §§ 15, 16.
2 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. IV. § 9 ; Kurd, Revised
Statutes, ch. 63, §§ 6-14; Rules of the House in House Journal,
1901.
The Central Government 8l
it becomes a law without his approval. If he vetoes
it, it may still become a law if passed over his veto
by a vote of two-thirds of the members elected to
each house.1
These general principles are simple, but the real Legislative
work of passing laws is difficult and is governed by r
elaborate rules laid down partly in the constitution
and partly in rules of each house. These rules are
adopted at the opening of every general assembly
but are ordinarily continued with slight changes
from year to year. In order to secure an accurate
record, the constitution requires each house to keep
a journal. Since the people are entitled to know
what their representatives are doing, the journals
must be published; the votes of individual members
must always be recorded in the final passage of all
bills and on any other occasion when called for by
a sufficient number (five in the House and two in the
Senate). The purpose of each bill must be stated
in the title, the bill must be "read at large on three
different days in each house, and before its final
passage it must be printed with all of its amend-
ments." In passing bills, the two houses have equal
rights. A bill may be introduced in either house
and after its passage there it may be amended or
rejected by the other.2
An important feature of legislative business is the The commit-
committee system. In 1901 the Senate had thirty- *
eight standing committees and the House fifty-eight.
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. IV. § 12; Art. V. § 16 (as
amended, 1884).
2 Ibid., Art. IV. §§ 10-13. The constitutional provision that
any five members may demand the yeas and nays has sometimes,
however, been evaded by the speaker's refusing to recognize
members for this purpose.
6
82 Government of Illinois
In the State, as in the Federal, Senate, committees are
appointed by resolution of the Senate. In the House,
this great power is given to the speaker. Among
the most important committees are those of each
house on the judiciary, appropriations, finance, rev-
enue, and corporations. Each house has a compar-
atively small Committee on Rules, which has gen-
eral oversight over methods of conducting business.1
In some large committees much important work is
done by sub-committees.
Party cau- The conduct of business is also influenced by
committed Party machinery. Most measures passed are non-
partisan ; that is, they are not made issues between
the parties ; but in some matters, such as the election
of United States senators, party lines are always
drawn. Even in matters naturally non-partisan,
one party or the other sometimes thinks it desirable
to have a definite party policy. A caucus of the
members of that party may then be held. To carry
out such party policies and to look after party inter-
ests generally, there are Republican and Democratic
"steering committees" appointed in each house.2
The history These legislative methods may be illustrated by
of a bill. taking as an example an imaginary bill introduced
in the House. It is first read by title and referred to
a committee. Some bills never get farther than this.
If the committee approves of the bill, it will be
reported to the House with a recommendation that
1 These committees vary greatly in size. In 1901 the impor-
tant House committee on rules had only nine members, and the
Senate committee, only seven. The committees on appropria-
tions are always large. In 1901 the Senate committee had
eighteen members and the House committee thirty-three. House
Journal, IQOI, 97-98; Senate Journal, 1901, 213, 206-208.
2 Pickering, Official Directory, 42nd General Assembly.
The Central Government 83
it be passed. If the members of the committee ap-
prove of the bill as a whole, but not in all its details,
they will either report the bill with their amendments
or propose a substitute.
A bill reported favorably by the committee is
usually read a first time in full and ordered to be
read a second time on a subsequent day. On the
second reading, amendments may be made, after
which the bill with the amendments adopted is or-
dered to a third reading. After that, it can not be
amended except by unanimous consent of the mem-
bers present, or by sending it back to a committee.
On some later day the bill is read a third time and
the vote taken on its final passage.
Throughout these House proceedings, the speaker Power of
has great influence ; not only because he appoints the
committees, but because he may recognize or ignore
members according as he approves or disapproves
their motions. He also declares the result of the
vote, and if he is an unscrupulous partisan, he may,
except when the yeas and nays are taken, declare
motions carried which on a fair vote would be de-
feated. In other cases, however, the speaker uses
these large powers as the representative of the ma-
jority, in order to hasten the passage of measures
desired by them.
After passing the House, the bill goes to the Sen- Senate pro-
ate, is again referred to a committee and is otherwise 0^^^
treated much as in the House. The Senate may committees.
then pass the bill as a whole or with amendments.
If amendments are adopted, the House must agree
to them. If it does not do so, a conference is held
by committees of the two houses and they try to
patch up their differences.
84
Government of Illinois
Governor's
veto.
Law-making
power
limited.
Prohibition
of special
legislation
evaded.
If they finally agree, the bill goes to the governor,
who may still defeat it by veto. In most cases the
governor must either veto or approve the bill as a
whole. He may, however, veto objectionable items
in an appropriation bill while approving the bill as
a whole.1 The number of bills vetoed is usually
small as compared with those which are killed in the
House or Senate. In 1901, out of more than twelve
hundred bills introduced, only 187 passed both
houses and were presented to the governor, and all
but eight of these were signed by him and became
law. These statistics do not, however, show fully
the influence of the governor, which is often strongly
used for or against bills in which he is interested.8
Powerful as the legislature is, its law-making
power is carefully defined and limited. One of the
most important differences between the present
constitution of Illinois and that of 1818 is the great
increase in the number of these limitations. Thus
the legislature is forbidden, in most cases, to pass
special laws. It may not incorporate a particular
railroad or pass a law referring specifically to a
particular city. All such laws must be general, that
is, they must apply to all persons, or places, or cor-
porations in the State, or to all those of a given
class.3
The needs of certain places, particularly those of
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. V. § 16, as amended in
2 Rules of the House ( in House Journal, 1901, 95-102; Senate
Rules (in Senate Journal, 1901, 210-216). Trace also the his-
tory of House Bill 798 (primary election law), using the indexes
of the House and Senate Journals. See also statistics in House
Journal, 1069.
s Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. IV. § 22 ; X ; XL
The Central Government 85
Chicago, are so different from those of others that
this restriction has proved inconvenient and has
sometimes been evaded. This may be done by pass-
ing a law which, though general in its language, can
really apply only to one city or county. Thus the
primary election law of 1901 provided that certain
rules should apply unconditionally in any county
with more than 125,000 inhabitants. This could
only mean Cook County. Sometimes also it is
provided that a particular act shall apply only in
those counties which vote in favor of it.1 Though
in some respects this prohibition of special legisla-
tion is inconvenient, it has probably prevented much
reckless and corrupt legislation in aid of private
interests. Another important clause forbids the in-
curring of a large debt without a special vote of the
people.2 These restrictions seem to show that in
Illinois as in other American States the people do
not have unlimited confidence in the wisdom and
integrity of their representatives.
34. THE EXECUTIVE POWER
The general assembly makes the laws, but it can The
not itself enforce them. For the purpose of seeing
that the general rules of the law are actually carried
into effect, the constitution has established the
executive and judicial departments. Though the
judges must be looked to to decide just what the law
is in any particular case, it is the executive which in
the long run has the force necessary to compel obedi-
ence.
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 46, §§ 287, 28;a, 428 ; Starr and
Curtis, Annotated Statutes, 781.
2 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. IV. § 18.
86
Government of Illinois
Federal and
State
executives
compared.
Qualifica-
tions and
tenure of
office. Im-
peachment.
There is one great difference between the State
executive and that of the Union. The constitution
of the United States adopts the principle of a single
executive head and says, "The executive power shall
be vested in a president of the United States of
America." Hence the other executive officers de-
rive their authority, directly or indirectly, from the
president, who is responsible for all executive poli-
cies. The constitution of Illinois says, indeed, that
"the supreme executive power shall be vested in the
governor," but it declares also that the "executive
department shall consist of a governor, lieutenant
governor, secretary of state, auditor of public ac-
counts, treasurer, superintendent of public instruc-
tion and attorney general." Each of these additional
officers is chosen directly by the people, quite inde-
pendently of the governor. Nevertheless, the gov-
ernor does have the duty of general oversight, and
it is his peculiar duty "to take care that the laws be
faithfully executed."1
The governor of Illinois must be at least thirty
years old and must have been for five years a citizen
of the State and of the United States. His term of
four years is the same as that of the president and
longer than those of most American governors. He
may also be reflected for one or more terms,2 though
few have actually been so reflected. Like other
State executive and judicial officers, he may be
removed by impeachment. This requires, first, the
votes of a majority of all the representatives. The
impeachment is then tried by the Senate and in the
trial of a governor the chief justice would preside.
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. V. §§ i, s, 6.
2 Ibid., Art. V. §5-
The Central Government 87
Two-thirds of all the senators elected must consent
in order to secure a conviction.1 No governor of
Illinois has yet been impeached.
The governor exercises a general supervision over Supervision
the State government in order that the laws may be of oth?r
•* executive
"faithfully executed." All executive officers and officers. Ap-
the governing boards of the State institutions must P°intments
0 t . and remov-
therefore report to him regularly and on such special ais.
occasions as he thinks necessary.2 Closely connect-
ed with this duty is the governor's power of appoint-
ing and removing officers. Though some of the
more important State officers are elected, a very
large proportion of all the officers of the central
government are appointed by the governor with the
consent of the Senate, and may be removed by him.
The number of officers appointed by the governor
has steadily increased during recent years and he
may justly be held responsible for their management
of the public interests.3
If the authority of legal officers is anywhere re- The governor
sisted, the governor as commander-in-chief may call mander-in-
the State militia into service for the preservation of chief,
order and the enforcement of law. In the exercise
of this authority as commander-in-chief, the gover-
nor is assisted by an officer appointed by him called
the adjutant general.4
The governor has also the power in individual Pardoning
power.
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. IV. § 24.
"Ibid., Art. V. §§6, 21.
3 Even in the case of such State officers as the secretary of
state and the treasurer, the governor may make temporary ap-
pointments to fill vacancies. Ibid., Art. V §§ 10-12, 20.
* Ibid., Art. V. § 14; The Military and Naval Code of Illinois
(Act approved May 14, 1903), especially §§ 2-32 (in Kurd, Re-
vised Statutes, ch. 129).
88
Government of Illinois
cases to pardon offenses against the State. He may
pardon a criminal outright, or delay his punishment
by a reprieve, or commute (lessen) the penalty. The
legislature, however, may lay down rules as to the
method of applying for pardons and such applica-
tions must now be passed upon first by the State
Board of Pardons. The report of the Board does
not, however, bind the governor.1
The governor has a considerable power over the
general assembly through his right of veto. He
can also fix the date of adjournment when the two
houses can not agree. He calls special sessions of
the legislature at his discretion and decides what
subjects may then be acted upon. He may also
recommend measures to the general assembly and
his influence over it is often very great, especially
with those members who belong to his own party.
On the other hand, the general assembly is entitled
to have from the governor at the opening of each
session a general report on the condition of the
State and a particular account of money spent by
his order. He must also transmit to the general
assembly the reports which he has received from
other State officers.2
The governor is the usual representative of the
State in its relation with the United States and with
other State governments. One of his most impor-
tant duties of this kind is that of delivering up fugi-
tives from justice on the demand of other States, or
himself issuing requisitions upon other governors
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art..V. § 13; Revised Statutes,
ch. 1043.
2 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. V. §§ 7-9, 16, 20, 21.
The Central Government 89
for fugitives charged with offenses against the laws
of Illinois.1
If the governor dies or resigns, or is removed from Lieutenant
office by impeachment, his place is filled for the s°vernor-
remainder of his term by the lieutenant governor,
who also acts for him if he is unable, because of
absence from the State or for any other reason, to
perform his duties. At other times the lieutenant
governor's only duty is that of presiding over the
Senate. He does not appoint the committees, but
may give the casting vote in case of a tie.2 When
there is neither a governor nor a lieutenant governor,
the work and the authority of the governor pass in
succession to the president pro tern, of the Senate
and the speaker of the House of Representatives.3
There are five other State executive officers elected Other execu'
by the people, all but one chosen for the term of four elected by"
years.4 The secretary of state has charge of the the people,
records of the State and certifies the official proceed-
ings of the governor and assembly. He also issues
charters to corporations under the general State laws
and is expected to exercise a certain supervision over
them.5 The attorney general is the legal adviser
of the other State officers and acts as counsel for the
State in important cases. He may also be called
upon to give legal advice to the general assembly.8
The State superintendent of public instruction,
though classed as an executive officer, has little real
1 Constitution of the United States, Art. IV. § 2.
3 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. V. §§ 17-18.
'Ibid., §19.
'Ibid., § i.
5 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 124 ; 32, § 2.
•Ibid.,ch. 14.
90 Government of Illinois
executive power. His work is chiefly that of super-
vision and advice.1
The two officers who are specially entrusted with
the finances of the State are the State treasurer and
the auditor of public accounts. The State treasurer
receives the public money and pays it out in accord-
ance with law, giving heavy bonds in order to insure
the State against loss. Unlike the other elective
State officers, his term is limited to two years and
he can not serve two consecutive terms. The treas-
urer is checked by the auditor, who keeps the ac-
counts of the State. No money can be received or
paid out by the treasurer without the auditor's order
or warrant.2
To these officers who do their work at the capital,
we must add, as the only other officers who are
elected by the people of the State as a whole, the
trustees of the University of Illinois.3 Most of the
other State officers are appointed either by the gov-
ernor or by some other elective State officer.
35. THE JUDICIARY
In the enforcement of the law, questions con-
stantly arise either as to its meaning or as to the
facts in any particular case to which that law is
supposed to apply. Has an officer acted within his
rights? Is John Smith guilty of theft? Does a
particular piece of land belong to John Doe or
Richard Roe? Such questions must be answered
by the courts of law.
There are now three kinds of courts whose au-
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 122, §§ 1-6. See below ch. 14.
'Ibid., chs. 15, 130.
* Ibid., ch. 144.
The Central Government 91
thority extends over districts larger than a single
county and which may therefore be considered as
State rather than local courts. These are the circuit
courts, the appellate courts, and the supreme court.
Two general principles apply to them all. First,
they are not appointed by the governor,1 as the
Federal judges are by the president, but are elected
by the people. Secondly, instead of holding office
for life or during good behavior like the Federal
judges, they have definite terms of six or nine years.
The State judges are thus more dependent upon the
people. During their terms of office, however, they
can not be removed except by impeachment, or by
a three-fourths vote of all the members elected to
each house of the general assembly. Their inde-
pendence is also protected by the constitutional pro-
vision that their salaries can not be changed during
the terms for which they are elected.2
For the organization of the circuit courts, the Circuit
State is now divided into eighteen judicial circuits. courts>
Cook County makes a circuit by itself, but elsewhere
three or more counties are combined. In each cir-
cuit except Cook County three judges are elected on
a "general ticket" once in six years. The sessions
of the circuit court are held in succession in each
county of the circuit and at every such session or
term one of the circuit judges, and one only, must
preside. The distribution of this work is arranged
by the judges among themselves.3 In Cook County,
legal business is so much greater that the number of
judges is made larger. Provision is also made for
1 Except to fill vacancies for short periods.
3 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. VI.
* Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 37, §§ 73-81.
92 Government of Illinois
two special courts known as the Superior Court of
Cook County and the Criminal Court of Cook County,
each of which does some of the work which would
elsewhere be done by the circuit judges.1 The gen-
eral rule of the constitution is that the circuit courts
have "original jurisdiction of all causes in law and
equity." This means that the trial of any case may
be begun in these courts. The circuit judges may
also hear appeals from decisions of the county and
other local courts.2
Next above the circuit courts are the appellate
courts. The law now provides for four appellate
court districts. Cook County again constitutes one
district and there is one each for the northern, cen-
tral, and southern sections of the State. No judges
are specially elected for this service, but in each dis-
trict three circuit judges are assigned by the supreme
court for three years' work in the appellate court.
These three judges then choose one of themselves
as presiding justice. The appellate courts hear ap-
peals, in certain cases, from the circuit and county
courts.3 On account of the overcrowding of the
appellate court of Cook County, the legislature in
1897 provided for a branch appellate court to be
formed by the assignment of three more circuit
judges.4
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. VI. §§ 23-28. In a few
cities of the State, there are so-called "city courts," which have
a jurisdiction like that of the circuit courts. Blue Book, 1903,
19-
8 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 37, §§ 36-82C. The circuit court
also appoints in each county a judicial officer called the master
in chancery. Revised Statutes, ch. 90.
8 Ibid., ch. 37, §§ i8-35a. In Cook County superior court
judges may be so assigned.
*Ibid.t ch. 37, §§ 35b-35k.
The Central Government 93
The highest State court is the supreme court, con- Supreme
sisting of seven judges, one from each of seven judi-
cial districts. The elections in the different districts
are held in different years, but each judge is elected
for a term of nine years. Since judges are frequent-
ly reflected, the court is made up largely of men
who have had long experience. Of the five judges
elected in 1897, f°ur nacl already been members.
The office of chief justice is held in turn by different
members and four judges must agree in order to
decide any case. In a few cases, the supreme court
may exercise original jurisdiction, that is, it may act
upon a suit which has not been heard in the lower
courts. In general, however, it is a court of appeals
either from the appellate court, or directly from the
circuit and county courts.1
Though the work of the judges consists chiefly in Advice on
the trial of individual cases, the constitution also lesislatlon-
requires them to give advice on general principles
of law. Thus, the judges of the lower courts are
required to report to the supreme court every year
such defects in the law as they may have observed.
The supreme court judges, besides pointing out such
defects in the constitution and laws, are required to
submit "forms of bills to cure such defects and omis-
sions in the laws."2
For the assistance of the judges, certain clerical clerks,
and administrative officers are provided. The su-
preme court has a clerk elected by the people of the
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. VI. §§ 2-10; The Blue
Book, 1903, 263-264.
2 Ibid., Art. VI. §31-
94 Government of Illinois
State for a term of six years and a reporter chosen
by the court itself. The appellate and circuit court
clerks are also elected by the people.1
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, §§ 9, 100; Kurd, Revised Stat-
utes, ch. 25, § 5 ; ch. 37, §§ 3a, 20, 21.
CHAPTER VII
THE LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
36. REFERENCES
Bryce, American Commonwealth, L, chs. 48-52; Hinsdale,
The American Government, ch. 55 ; Hart, Actual Government,
Part IV. ; Wilson, The State, §§ 1209-1259; Goodnow, Compara-
tive Administrative Law, Book III. ; Cooley, Constitutional Lim-
itations, ch. 8; Black, Handbook of American Constitutional
Law, ch. 17; Andrews, American Law, chs. 24, 25; Commons,
Proportional Representation, ch. 8; Dillon,Commentaries on the
Law of Municipal Corporations, especially I., ch. 5 ; How and
Bemis, Municipal Police Ordinances; Brooks, "Bibliography of
Municipal Administration and City Conditions" (in Municipal
Affairs, L, with supplementary lists in later issues) ; Howard,
Local Constitutional History of the United States, chs. 4, 10;
Goodnow, Municipal Home Rule; Wilcox, Study of City Gov-
ernment; Shaw, "Local Government in Illinois" (in Johns
Hopkins University Studies in History and Political Science, I.,
No. 10) ; Haines, Township and County Organisation; James,
The Charters of the City of Chicago, Part L, ch. i. Compare
for suggestions from European experience Shaw, Municipal
Government in Continental Europe and Municipal Government
in Great Britain, and Fairlie, Municipal Administration.
Documents: Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 24; Starr and
Curtis, Annotated Statutes; revised ordinances of particular
37. COUNTY GOVERNMENT
It is one of the most important principles of Principles
American politics that the people of any particular
district or community ought, so far as possible, to
manage their own affairs. On the other hand, the
different parts of a State, being much more closely
95
Government of Illinois
The county.
County
boards.
related to each other than are the different States
of the Union, must be largely governed by general
laws adopted by and for the State as a whole. To
a large extent, also, local officers have not only to
manage local affairs, but must also act as agents of
the State, as, for example, in laying taxes and keep-
ing order.
The largest subdivision for purposes of local gov-
ernment is the county. There are now 102 counties
in Illinois, differing greatly in area, one county
(McLean) having about the same land area as
Rhode Island. The differences in population are
even greater. Cook County had in 1900 nearly
2,000,000 inhabitants, and a few of the smaller
counties had less than 10,000.
The chief authority in each county is the county
board which has general charge of county property
and has the right to lay a limited amount of taxes
for county purposes.1 There are now three distinct
kinds of county boards in Illinois. The county com-
missioner system is in force in nineteen counties
where no township governments have been organ-
ized. The board there consists of three commis-
sioners elected by the people of the county.2 Under
the township-county system, the county is divided
into townships and is governed by a board of super-
visors, one or more supervisors being elected by the
people of each township.3 Finally, Cook County,
with its great city population and immense business
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 34, §§ 25-28 ; Constitution of Illi-
nois, 1870, Art. IX. §§ 8, 12.
2 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. X. § 6; Hurd, Revised
Statutes, ch. 34, §§ 42-48; Blue Book, 1903, 377-380.
3 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. X. § 5; Hurd, Revised
Statutes, ch. 34, §§ 50-58.
The Local Governments 97
interests, is given a peculiar government of its own,
which will be discussed later.
These different systems have had an interesting History of
history. The early settlers, having come largely ^nfzTtio
from the south, naturally adopted the southern policy
of making the county the important unit of local gov-
ernment. On the other hand, the later settlers from
New England and the Middle States were accus-
tomed to some form of township government and
they were finally able to secure in the constitution of
1848 a provision giving each county which desired it
the right to adopt a township organization. This
system was soon established in all the northern
counties and finally in a majority even of the south-
ern and central counties.1
Though the county board has general super- The sheriff
vision over all county administration, it is pri-
marily a legislative body and its orders must be
carried out by executive officers. The most impor-
tant of these is the sheriff, elected by the people for
a term of four years. It is his duty to execute the
orders of the county courts. The law also calls him
a "conservator of the peace," and makes him chiefly
responsible for preventing crime and seeing that
peace and order are maintained. In counties with-
out township organization he is also the collector of
taxes for the county. The other county officers and
their duties may be briefly summarized :2
i. The county clerk has charge of the county County
Clerk.
1 See Shaw, "Local Government in Illinois" (in Johns Hop-
kins University Studies, I.) ; Constitution of Illinois, 1848, Art.
VII. § 6.
2 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. X. § 8 ; Kurd, Revised
Statutes, ch. 125.
7
98 Government of Illinois
records, sends out notices of election, issues mar-
riage licenses, and has some important work in
connection with the assessment and collection of
taxes. He also serves as clerk of the county court.1
County 2. The county treasurer holds the funds of the
treasurer. county. In counties without township organization,
he assesses the taxes. In "township-counties" he
supervises the work of the township assessors and
acts as county collector.2
Coroner. 3. The coroner may sometimes acts as substitute
for the sheriff, but his most important duty is that
of holding, with a jury of six men, the coroner's in-
quest to determine in suspicious cases whether the
death of any person is due to other than natural
causes.3
state's 4. The State's attorney does for the county much
the same kind of work which the attorney general
does for the State. He prosecutes violators of law,
acts as counsel for the county, and gives legal advice
to county officers.4
Recorder of 5- The recorder of deeds. In a few of the larger
deeds. counties (having more than 60,000 inhabitants), a
separate recorder of deeds is elected, but generally
land titles are recorded by the clerk of the circuit
court.6
County su- 6. The county superintendent of schools supervises
sntl the schools of the county and examines teachers.
Surveyor. j , The county surveyor6 must mark out the lines
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 35 ; cf. ch. 25, § 2.
2 Ibid., ch. 36; cf. ch. 120, §§ 144, 296.
3 Ibid., ch. 31.
4 Ibid., ch. 14.
5 Ibid., ch. 46, § 27; ch. 115.
*Ibid., ch. 133.
The Local Governments 99
of any piece of land in the county when asked to
do so.
All these officers are elected for terms of four Tenure of
years. As a special precaution sheriffs and treas- office*
urers, after serving one term, are made ineligible for
the next four years.1
The judicial authority in the county government County
is chiefly exercised by the county court, held by a courts-
single judge who is elected for a term of four years.
The county judge has original jurisdiction in some
cases, but he also hears appeals from justices of the
peace and police magistrates. Among the most im-
portant matters in which he has original jurisdiction
are taxes, assessments, and inheritance cases. From
the county court, appeals may be taken, according
to the circumstances, to the circuit, appellate, or
supreme courts of the State.2 In some of the larger
counties, the probate business is given to a separate
court. The judge of this probate court is then
elected for the same term as the county judge.3
38. TOWN GOVERNMENT
The great majority of all Illinois counties are now The town
divided, for purposes of local government, into "
towns or townships, corresponding roughly, but not
exactly, with the "congressional townships" into
which the western public lands were subdivided by
the Federal government, and which, before the organ-
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. X. § 8 (as amended).
'Ibid., Art. VI. §§ 18, 19; Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 46,
| Id
'Ibid., Art. VI. § 20; Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 37, §§ 216-
2396. Probate cases are those which have to do with the settle-
ment of property after death.
ioo Government of Illinois
ization of regular township governments, had al-
ready been organized for school purposes.1 The
chief authority in each town belongs to the voters
in town meetings, the annual meeting being held on
the first Tuesday in April. In the morning, the
town officers for the year are elected, and in the
afternoon other business is attended to, including
the laying of taxes for local purposes.2
Town The principal executive officers of the town are
the supervisor, the town clerk, the assessor, the col-
lector, and the highway commissioners. The super-
visor, besides representing the town in the county
board, has charge of township funds, and is also,
except in the larger towns, overseer of the poor? The
larger towns are entitled to more representatives on
the county board, but these assistant supervisors
have no authority in strictly town affairs. The town
clerk has charge of all town records. He also serves
with the supervisor and the justice of the peace on
a board of auditors to examine the accounts of town
officers. The highway commissioners have general
charge of roads and bridges and have the right to lay
a special tax for this purpose.4 The town assessor
and collector have to do largely State and county
work. The assessor determines the valuation of
property according to which all State, county and
local taxes are laid, and the town collector has to
collect state and county as well as town taxes.5 All
these officers are chosen by the voters of the town
aHurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 139, §§ 1-20.
2 Ibid., §§38-83.
"Ibid., ch. 139, §§ loi-ui; ch. 107, § 18.
* Ibid., ch. 139, §§ 112-1263. See also §§ 132-149, and ch. 121,
§§ i-ii.
8 Ibid., ch. 139, Art. XII., and ch. 120 passim.
IOI
at the annual meeting and serve for one year, except
the three highway commissioners, of whom one is
elected each year for a three year term.
The judicial business of the town is done by the Justices and
justices of the peace, who, with or without a jury, constables-
try petty civil and criminal cases. The number of
justices in each town varies from two to five. They
are elected by the voters of each township and serve
four years. The orders of the justices are enforced
by the constables, who are elected in the same way.
It is their duty also to keep the peace and bring
offenders before the courts. In counties without
township organization, justices and constables are
chosen in each election precinct.1
The purely local business of the town is on the Character
whole not important. Town officers do their most °f t.own
r business.
important work as agents of the state and county
governments, especially in the assessment and col-
lection of taxes.
39. MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENTS
Wherever there is a considerable gathering of Reasons for
people, the simple machinery of town and county mumciPal
* government.
governments needs to be supplemented by that of
the village or city. These municipal governments
unlike the towns are intended largely to serve the
special local needs of the community for which they
were organized. When a city becomes large enough
to include one or more townships, a large part of
the purely local town business is transferred to the
city, and the town becomes more than ever a mere
agency of the county government.
1 Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 79, especially §§ 16-33 ; cf. ch.
38, §§ 339-346.
IO2 Government of Illinois
Municipal The general principles of city and village govern-
mentTregu- ment are laid down by acts of the legislature.
lated by Before the adoption of the present constitution, it
law& was customary to grant special charters to particular
villages and cities. The constitution now provides
that all cities and villages must be incorporated
under general laws. The special needs of different
communities can, however, be met to a certain ex-
tent either by passing laws applying to cities of a
certain population, or by allowing the people of any
particular town to decide whether they will accept
for themselves certain parts of a general law.1 Thus
Chicago has been able to get the benefit of certain
laws without forcing them upon the cities where
they are not necessary or desirable. It is not always
easy, however, to frame these in such a way that
they will be sustained by the courts.2
Village Though the general principles of city and village
government are much alike, they are differently
organized. The chief officers of the village are the
president and the board of trustees. The board is
composed of six members besides the president, all
elected by the voters of the whole village for a term
of two years. Three of the six trustees retire each
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. IV. § 22. This did not af-
fect the government of cities which preferred to keep their for-
mer special charters. There are now nearly one thousand mu-
nicipal governments in Illinois, of which only seventy-five are
organized under special laws. Blue Book, 381-382. See notes
on this article in Starr and Curtis, Annotated Statutes, I. 134-
137. There are still a few municipal governments which are
called towns, but which are really villages or cities in the sense
in which these words are used in this section.
3 See Devine v. Commissioners of Cook County, 84 Illinois
Reports, 590, and Cummings et al. v. City of Chicago, 144 Illi-
nois Reports, 563.
The Local Governments 103
year. This board passes the necessary ordinances
for the regulation of local affairs. In the passage
of ordinances, the president has the casting vote and
also the right to veto, but four of the six trustees
may pass ordinances over his veto. The president
is the chief executive officer of the village.1 The
village clerk is elected by the people, but the treas-
urer and some minor officers are appointed by the
president with the approval of the board. The judi-
cial business of the village is done partly by justices
of the peace and partly by a special village officer,
the police magistrate, chosen by the people, and
having an authority like that of a justice of the
peace.2
The village government is intended for small Conditions
communities. Any area not exceeding two square "nia^e or '^
miles, not yet included in any incorporated place, city govem-
and having not less than three hundred inhabitants, ^organi^d
may be incorporated as a village, if a majority of
the legal voters desire it.3 Such a government may
be continued so long as the people desire it, but
when the population is not less than one thousand,
village organization may be changed for the more
elaborate city government.4
The representative body in a city is called the city City govern-
council or board of aldermen. For the purpose of "
electing aldermen, the city is divided into wards,
which should be roughly equal in population. Each
ward is usually allowed two aldermen, one of whom
, Revised Statutes, ch. 24, §§ 178-19311.
"Ibid., §§ 191-192.
f/Wrf.,§§ 178-184.
4 Ibid., §§ i-iac.
IO4 Government of Illinois
is elected each year for a term of two years.1 Sub-
ject to the veto of the mayor, the council makes the
local laws or regulations of the city, which are com-
monly called ordinances.2
Powers of The subjects upon which a city council may act
counclf. are carefully defined by State law.3 A brief sum-
mary of these provisions will show what are the
general purposes for which village and city govern-
ments are instituted. In the first place, the city
council is responsible for good order. It therefore
organizes the police and makes such other rules as
are necessary to suppress disturbance. It also pro-
vides places of detention for petty offenders. In
the second place, it has charge of the safety and
health of the people. Under this head come pro-
visions for the fire department and health regulations
of various kinds. In the third place, the council
makes provision for the proper care of streets, and
regulates the use of them by gas companies, by rail-
ways, and by vehicles of all sorts. In the fourth
place, the city regulates various kinds of business
within its limits by requiring licenses from those
engaged in them, as in the case of hackmen, pedlars,
and liquor dealers. The proper management of all
this business requires the spending of money. The
council has therefore the right to lay taxes and to
borrow money. These financial powers are, how-
1 Except in cities where the plan of minority representation
has been adopted.
2 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 24, §§ 29-61.
8 A municipal corporation has only those powers which have
been clearly delegated to it by the State law. "Any fair, reas-
onable doubt concerning the existence of power is resolved by
the courts against the corporations, and the power is denied."
Dillon, Municipal Corporations (ed. 1890), I. 145.
The Local Governments 105
ever, carefully limited and guarded by the constitu-
tion and laws of the State.1
The chief executive officer of the city is the The mayor.
mayor, who is chosen for a term of two years, but
may be indefinitely reflected. In recent years the
tendency has been to increase his power in order
that he may be held accountable for the proper
administration of city affairs. Though a few city
officers are elected by the people, the majority of
the important ones are appointed by the mayor with
the approval of the council. He may also remove
such officers but must give his reasons for doing so
and the council may by a two-thirds vote of all its
members restore the persons removed. The mayor
can thus generally control the policy of the impor-
tant city departments. He has also a general right
to supervise other city officers not appointed by him
and is bound to see that the laws and ordinances are
faithfully executed. For the preservation of order
within the city limits, he has powers somewhat like
those of the sheriff.2
The mayor is also a part of the city legislature. His relation
He presides over the council and in case of a tie *? the coun"
may give the casting vote. He may also veto ordi-
nances, or particular items in them when they pro-
vide for the spending of money. The veto must,
however, be sent to the council within five days and
the ordinance may then be passed by a vote of two-
thirds of all the members elected.3
To guard against abuse of powers, mayors and all His account-
ability to
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 24, §§ 62-71. See also below, the court9'
ch. g.
2 Ibid., §§ 14-28.
3 Ibid., §§ 46, 47-
io6 Government of Illinois
other city officers who "may be guilty of a palpable
omission of duty or shall willfully and corruptly be
guilty of oppression" or other misconduct, may be
tried in any court of law and if guilty may be re-
moved by the court.1
Minor offi- Besides the mayor, the people of each city elect a
ciTcivii16 c^y clerk, a city treasurer, and a city attorney,
service law. The executive officers appointed by the mayor vary
greatly in different cities. Among the most impor-
tant are the city collector, the corporation counsel,
who is the chief legal adviser of the city, the super-
intendent of streets, and the chiefs of the police and
fire departments. Sometimes certain kinds of city
business are entrusted to boards or commissions.
Thus the law now allows the people of any city
which desires it to appoint a Board of Fire and
Police Commissioners.2 Any city 'which desires it
may adopt a system of competitive examinations for
places in the city service under the supervision of a
city civil service commission. This civil service
law, however, has not yet been generally accepted
in the cities of the State. It does not in any case
affect the appointment of the important heads of
departments.3
Police mag- In most cities the only judicial officers who belong
istrates. distinctly to the city government are the police mag-
istrates, whose authority is substantially the same in
a city as in a village.4
1 Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 24, § 27.
2 Ibid., §§ 72-87, 4343-434!. See Revised Ordinances and of-
ficial directory of any city.
3 Ibid.,%% 446-485-
* Ibid., §§ 249, 250. The so-called city courts have a jurisdic-
tion similar to that of the circuit courts and exist only in a few
cities. See above, p. 92, note.
The Local Governments 107
40. MINOR LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
The county, the town, and the village or city are the Electoral
only local governments which have any general author- subdivi-
. sions.
ity. There are, however, certain other subdivisions
of the State for certain clearly specified purposes.
For example, the State is divided into judicial dis-
tricts and circuits for the election of judges and into
congressional districts for the choice of congress-
men. In connection with the system of taxation,
the State is again divided into districts, each of
which elects a member of the State board of equali-
zation. All these, however, are merely conven-
iences for the administration of the central govern-
ment, and not local governments at all
Other divisions have been made for distinctly Drainage
local purposes. One of these is the drainage dis- *nd ?ark
districts.
trict, which is organized under a board of commis-
sioners, having charge of the building of drains
either as an agricultural improvement or in the
interest of the public health.1 Similarly also the
laws allow the people of a given area to organize a
park district and to elect park commissioners. These
commissioners have authority to maintain parks and
to lay taxes for that purpose.2
By far the most important governments organized School di§-
for a specific local work are the school townships *
and the school districts. The history and present
organization of this branch of local government will
be considered in a later chapter; but it may "be noted
here that the school board of every district except
Chicago has the important governmental power of
laying taxes.
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 42.
2 Ibid., ch. 105.
CHAPTER VIII
THE LOCAL GOVERNMENTS OF COOK COUNTY
41. REFERENCES
(See also the general references under Sec. 36)
Secondary Authorities : Andreas, History of Chicago, 3 vols. ;
Sparling, Municipal History and Present Organisation of the
City of Chicago (University of Wisconsin, Bulletin No. 23) ;
Gage, "Chicago and Its Administration" (in Open Court, XL
I93~2I3) 5 James, The Charters of the City of Chicago; Gray,
"Greater Chicago" (in Annals of the American Academy of Po-
litical and Social Science, XVII. 291) ; McVeagh, City Govern-
ment of Chicago (in Municipal League Publications, Philadel-
phia, 1894). Much material on municipal government in Illi-
nois and elsewhere is to be found in the periodical called Mu-
nicipal Affairs and in the Proceedings of the National Munic-
ipal League. There is also a good working bibliography in
Sparling, Municipal History.
Documents: The Revised Code of Chicago (1897) ; Hurd,
Revised Statutes, ch. 24; Starr and Curtis, Annotated Statutes,
ch. 24; Chicago, Department of Finance, 46th Annual Report
(1003) ; see also the Reports of other heads of city departments,
especially those of the commissioner of public works which con-
tain messages of the mayor.
42. THE GOVERNMENT OF COOK COUNTY
Though the constitution lays down the principle
that legislation regarding local government should
be the same throughout the State, it is generally
understood that the great metropolitan district of
Chicago requires legislation suited to its special
needs. This is recognized to a certain extent even
108
The Local Governments of Cook County 109
in the constitution itself. Furthermore, laws really
intended particularly for Chicago, may be so framed
that they do not conflict with the constitutional pro-
hibition of special legislation.
The result of these special needs may be seen first Cook County
in the government of Cook County. Unlike other ^oard.of
» Commis-
counties in which township organization has been sioners.
adopted, Cook County is governed by a Board of
Commissioners. Of these fifteen commissioners, each
elected for a two year term, ten are chosen by the city
of Chicago, and five by the country towns, which are
thus given a representation far out of proportion to
their population. Under the present law, the voters
may select one of the candidates for commissioner as
President of the County Board.1
Though the powers of these commissioners are Powers of
like those of the supervisors elsewhere, they are *e com™ls-
sioners de-
much more exactly defined and limited, doubtless fined,
because they have to do business on a so much
larger scale. This is seen particularly in money
matters. Thus two-thirds of the commissioners
must agree in order to appropriate more than $500.
During the first quarter of every financial year, the
annual appropriation bill must be passed. This must
specify the different items in detail, and no addi-
tional appropriations may be made except in a few
clearly defined cases. On the passage of this bill
the votes of the commissioners must be taken by
yeas and nays.
The President of the Board of Commissioners is The Presi-
in some respects like an ordinary commissioner, and ?ent °f the
board.
as such has the right to vote, but he has also impor-
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 34, §§ 42-63.
no
Government of Illinois
Other
county offi-
cers.
Judicial of-
ficers. Jus-
tices of the
peace.
tant special powers. He may veto appropriation
bills and other acts which incur financial obligations.
He may also veto specific items in appropriation
bills. Four-fifths of the commissioners must agree
in order to overcome this veto. The President also,
with the approval of the Board, appoints such im-
portant officers as the county attorney (not the State's
attorney), the superintendent of service (who buys
the county supplies) and the heads of some of the
county institutions. He also appoints three county
civil service commissioners who have charge of the
system of competitive examinations established for
the choice of subordinate officers. Not more than
two of these commissioners, however, may be ap-
pointed from the same political party.
The county executive officers chosen by the people
elsewhere, the sheriff, county clerk, county treas-
urer, State's attorney, coroner, recorder of deeds,
and surveyor, are similarly chosen by the people of
Cook County. In general, they have similar work
to do, but the clerk of Cook County has specially
important financial duties and is given the additional
title of comptroller. A few county officers not elected
by the people elsewhere, are so elected in Cook
County. These are the county assessors, five in
number, and the County Board of Review, chosen
for the purpose of securing a proper assessment of
taxes, as will be explained in a later chapter.
All the courts which do business within the limits
of Cook County show clearly the influence of city
conditions and it will, therefore, be convenient to
treat them together,beginning with the lowest grade.
The office of police magistrate still exists in the
smaller cities and towns of the county, but it has
Ill
been abolished in Chicago where the work of that
officer is done by the justices of the peace.1 The
Chicago justices instead of being elected by the peo-
ple of each town, as they are elsewhere, are appoint-
ed by the governor on the recommendation of the
Cook County judges (those of the circuit, superior,
probate, and county courts) and with the approval
of the Senate. There were in 1903 over fifty of these
justices apportioned roughly in proportion to popu-
lation among the various towns or parts of towns
which make up the City of Chicago. A certain
number of justices are assigned by the mayor to the
trial of petty cases in the police courts of the various
districts into which the city is divided. There has
been much criticism of this part of the judicial sys-
tem and some radical reforms have been proposed.2
As in the other larger counties of the State there other courts
is one county judge and one probate judge, each m the
elected by the people. The State courts, however,
have been much influenced by the great mass of
business in Cook County. Cook County forms a
circuit by itself and has instead of three circuit
judges, fourteen of this class beside twelve judges
of the Superior Court exercising a similar jurisdic-
tion. Some of the Circuit and Superior Court judges
are also assigned to duty in a special Criminal Court.
Finally the Appellate Court of Cook County has
been relieved of a part of its business by the creation
of a branch appellate court.
1 Starr and Curtis, Annotated Statutes, I. 158 (note on Con-
stitution, Art. VI. §28).
2 The Revised Code of Chicago, ch. 52. See list of Police
Courts in 1003 in Department of Finance, 46th Annual Report,
15, 16.
112 Government of Illinois
43. THE GOVERNMENT OF CHICAGO
Early gov- The constitutional history of Chicago begins with
Chicago! ° t^ie year :^33- ^n tnat year> while still a small trad-
ing post, it was incorporated as a village under a
general law passed by the State legislature in 1831.
The needs of this little village were simple and it
had a simple government under a board of trustees
elected by the freeholders. The town grew fast
during the next few years and in 1837, it received a
city charter. Its needs, however, were still simple,
and the change from village to city government
meant little more than a change of name. The
Board of Trustees became the City Council. There
was also a mayor, elected by the freeholders, but he
was hardly more than the chairman of the council.
Later For nearly forty years, the growing needs of
charters. Chicago were largely provided for by special laws
or charters. The powers of the council were in-
creased in order that it might deal properly with new
problems. The mayor gradually became an impor-
tant executive officer and administrative depart-
ments were organized to manage particular interests
of the city. Thus the simple government of a coun-
try village gradually gave way to the complicated
and expensive machinery of a modern city.
Organiza- The State constitution of 1870 forbade new char-
thtTiiTw of ters to particular cities ; in 1872, the legislature
1872- passed a general law for the organization of all cities
which chose to accept it; and in 1875 this law was
accepted by the people of Chicago.1 Even under
this general law, there is some recognition of the
1 Sparling, Municipal History of Chicago, Part I. ; James, The
Charters of the City of Chicago, Part I.
The Local Governments of Cook County 113
special needs of a large city. The act of 1872 itself
was largely based upon the experience of Chicago
and since the general law does not prescribe all the
details of government, these are left to be filled out
by ordinances of the city council, which may be very
different in different cities. Finally Chicago may
get a kind of special legislation even under the
present constitution. Laws may be passed which
apply only in cities which choose to adopt them, or
which apply only to cities of a certain population.
It is always hard, however, to be certain that any
particular law of this kind will not be declared un-
constitutional and an amendment has therefore re-
cently (1903) been submitted to the people which
if adopted by them will give the legislature greater
freedom.1
Chicago like other cities is governed by a mayor The city
and a city council. The council is made up of sev- counci1-
enty aldermen, two from each of the thirty-five
wards.2 The average area of a ward is about six
square miles and its average population in 1900 was
about 50,000. Thus two aldermen represented more
people than the two United States senators from Neva-
da. The Chicago city council like other representa-
tive bodies works largely through committees elect-
ed by the whole council every year. The commit-
tees on finance, judiciary, streets and alleys, licenses,
and police are important examples.
The mayor of Chicago is a powerful officer. He The mayor,
is elected by the voters of the city for a term of two
years, but he may be indefinitely reflected. His
salary is fixed by the city council and cannot be
3 See the note at the close of this chapter.
2 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 24, Art. III.
8
114 Government of Illinois
changed during his term. He presides over the
council and has the right to veto ordinances, includ-
ing items in an appropriation bill. A two-thirds
vote of all the aldermen elected is necessary to pass
an ordinance over the veto.1
His appoint- The superior power of the mayor of Chicago as
compared with those of smaller cities is due not so
much to any special constitutional or legal provisions,
but rather to the immense interests placed under his
care, and the large number of officers necessary to
care for such interests. This is shown especially
in his appointing power. The general State law
provides for the election of a city treasurer, the city
attorney, and the city clerk, but the manner of
choosing other city officers is determined by the
council. In Chicago, the important department
officers are now appointed by the mayor with the
approval of the city council. They may be removed
by the mayor, but he must report his reasons to the
council which may, by a two-thirds vote restore to
office any one who has been removed. Usually the
mayor's action both in appointing and removing
officers is accepted by the council.2 Thus the coun-
cil, though having the power to restrict seriously
the powers of the mayor has actually enabled him
to become the real head of the city administration.3
Administra- In organizing the various departments, the coun-
mlntsepar c^ ^as a great deal °f freedom. City offices are
• Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 24, §§ 14-47, 72~&7-
z Ibid., ch. 24, §§ 14-28, 72-87. Cf. Sparling, Municipal His-
tory, Part II.
8 The mayor is somewhat less independent of the council in
Chicago than in other large American cities. James, The Char-
ters of the City of Chicago, Part I., 9.
The Local Governments of Cook County 115
therefore, with a few exceptions established by city
ordinances which may be and are frequently
changed. It was formerly customary to place the
important departments in charge of boards of com-
missioners, but this system was gradually aban-
doned and now the departments are generally in
charge each of a single commissioner. Since these
commissioners are appointed and removed by the
mayor, he may fairly be held responsible for their
conduct.1
Perhaps the most important of these departments Finance,
is that of Finance. The chief of this department is
the comptroller, appointed by the mayor with the
approval of the council. Other important officers
of the department are the city treasurer elected by
the people and the city collector appointed by the
mayor. The comptroller oversees all officers who
have to do with the receiving and paying out of city
funds, prepares the annual financial report of the
city, and furnishes the council with estimates of the
amount of money needed for the various depart-
ments. Closely associated with this department is
that of Supplies, with the Business Agent at its head
whose duty it is to buy the various kinds of supplies
needed by the city.2
An important group of departments is that classed The public
under the general head of The Public Safety. This s
includes the Police Department, with the General
Superintendent at its head, whose duty it is, not only
to protect the city against crime and disorder, but
also to cooperate with other city departments in
1 Sparling, Municipal History of Chicago, Part I.
2 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 24, §§ 88-110; Revised Code of
Chicago, ch. 4; Department of Finance, 46th Annual Report.
u6 Government of Illinois
their work.1 The Fire Department, in charge of the
Fire Marshal, protects the people against another kind
of danger and has earned an excellent reputation.2 The
Health Department tries to guard the city against dis-
ease and unhealthful conditions of every kind. Its
chief officer is the Health Commissioner and he has as-
sociated with him among others, the city physician and
the smoke-inspector.3 The danger of improper build-
ings is especially guarded against by the Department of
Buildings. The Commissioner is required to see that
buildings of all kinds are safely constructed.4
Public The city is also engaged in various kinds of construc-
works. tjye work it is expected to provide the people with
water, light, sewerage, and proper streets. There are
also public buildings to be built and kept in order. Most
work of this kind falls under the jurisdiction of the
Commissioner of Public Works. This is a very large
department and is divided into several bureaux, in-
cluding among others those of Water, Sewers, and
Streets and the office of the City Engineer. The work
of electric lighting for the streets and for city business
generally is in the hands of the City Electrician, who
is now at the head of an independent Department of
Electricity.5
1 Revised Code, ch. 51; list of officers in Department of Fi-
nance, 46th Annual Report, 4, 5.
3 Revised Code, ch. 26 ; list of officers in Department of
Finance, Annual Report.
'Revised Code, ch. 35, and list of officers as above.
4 Thus a commissioner of buildings was recently criticised be-
cause of alleged carelessness in allowing an unsafe grand-stand
on an athletic field. There are also a few minor officers who
have to do with the Public Safety, as, for example, the oil in-
spector and the boiler inspector. Revised Code, chs. 17, 45, 65 ;
list of officers as above.
B Revised Code, ch. 54 ; list of officers as above ; Sparling, M u-
The Local Governments of Cook County 117
A city, having these immense business interests needs Department
the constant service of expert legal advisers. In Chi- oflaw>
cago, as in other cities, there is a city attorney elected
by the people, but the real head of the Department of
Law is the Corporation Counsel, appointed by the mayor
with the consent of the council.1
In the management of the city schools, the board School and
system is still in force. The Chicago Board of Educa- j^dl
tion consists of twenty-one members appointed by the
mayor, with the approval of the council. Though it
does not have the power to levy a tax directly like other
school boards of the State, it is in most respects inde-
pendent of the general city administration. The Pub-
lic Library is also managed by a Board of Directors
appointed by the mayor.2
In the various city departments, there is now a large City civil
body of subordinate employees, usually appointed by service law>
the heads of departments. To guard against partisan
appointments, the city civil service law was passed by
the legislature and accepted by the city of Chicago.
Under this law, most subordinate officers are now in-
cluded in the so-called "classified service" and are
chosen by means of competitive examinations conduct-
ed by the City Civil Service Commission. The three
members of this commission are appointed by the
mayor, but it is provided that not more than two may
be members of the same political party.8
nicipal History, ch. 12; Reports of the Commissioner of Public
Works.
1 Revised Code, ch. 5.
2 See below, ch. 14.
* Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 24, §§ 446-485. This act was
passed by the legislature in 1895 and adopted by the voters of
Chicago at the city election of that year. See People v. Kip-
ley, 171 Illinois Reports, 44-93.
n8
Government of Illinois
44. MINOR LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
The city and county are by far the most important
local governments exercising authority within the city
limits of Chicago; but they are by no means the only
ones. In fact the great variety of different govern-
ments operating within the same territory is one of the
most serious problems of the municipal reformer.
Of these minor governments, the first in order of
time is the town. Within the city of Chicago, there
are now seven whole towns and parts of three others.
In all of these towns forms of government have until
very recently been kept up similar to those in other
parts of the State. The system is not, however, well
adapted to the needs of a large city and has for the
most part been abandoned. In 1898 the new revenue
law took the assessment of taxes within the city away
from the town assessors and gave it to a board of five
county assessors. In 1901, an act of the State legis-
lature provided that in towns lying wholly within cities
of more than 50,000 inhabitants, the powers of the
town meeting might be exercised by the city Council ;
that the city clerk might be made ex-ofUcio town clerk
and town assessor ; and the county treasurer, ex-ofhcio
collector and supervisor in each township. The offices
of highway commissioners might also be abolished.
This law was soon after accepted by the voters of
the Chicago township and town government was
thus practically abolished.1
1Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 120, §§ 297-323; ch. 25, §§ 643-
650; cf. pp. 407-408; Gray, "Greater Chicago" (in Annals of the
American Academy of Political and Social Science, XVII. 291).
One of the surviving evils of the system is the method of choos-
ing constable?. At a recent election, "there were elected in the
Two other kinds of local governments in Chicago Park
have been created more recently. These are the park cts*
districts and the sanitary district. Some of the smaller
parks are cared for by the city, but the most important
ones are managed by separate park boards organized
under special laws. These are the Board of South
Park Commissioners, the Board of Lincoln Park Com-
missioners, and the Board of West Park Commission-
ers. Each of these Boards has charge of the parks
within a particular district of the city and exercises
some other governmental authority. It may levy taxes
for park purposes and employ a special police force.
Instead of being under the control of either the city
government or the citizens, the commissioners are
appointed either by the governor with the approval of
the Senate, or, as in the case of the South Park Com-
missioners, by the circuit judges of Cook County.1
The sanitary district of Chicago was organized under Sanitary
an act of the legislature passed in 1889, in order to pro- dlstnct-
vide for the construction of a drainage canal to carry
the sewage of the city from Lake Michigan and the
Chicago river into the Illinois. The affairs of the
district are managed by a board of nine trustees elected
by the people of the district for a term of four years.
This sanitary or drainage district includes large parts
both of the city and of the county outside the city. Its
board of trustees has the power to maintain a police
town of West Chicago, on a single ballot, sixty-four constables."
Gage, "Chicago and Its Administration" (in The Open Court,
XL 203). See also below, p. 270.
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 105, §§ 20-64 1 Sparling, Munic-
ipal History of Chicago, ch. 15; Private Laws, 1869, I., 342-376;
South Park Commissioners, Municipal Code (1897), especially
p. in. Park districts have also been organized in Chicago
under the general law. See above, p. 107.
120
Government of Illinois
Proposed
consolida-
tion of local
govern-
ments.
force and to levy both special assessments and a gen-
eral tax. It thus exercises real governmental author-
ity.1
Thus it will be seen that instead of having one com-
pactly organized local government, the people of Chi-
cago are subjected to a great variety of local govern-
ments organized for different purposes, acting inde-
pendently of each other, and in many cases exercising
an independent right of taxation. It is generally agreed
that this system ought to be simplified, but the consti-
tutional rule against special legislation makes it difficult
to frame a law which will not be declared unconstitu-
tional by the courts. It is difficult also to interest the
people in other parts of the State sufficiently to secure
such constitutional changes as may be thought neces-
sary by the people of Chicago. The general assembly
voted in 1903 to submit to the people a constitutional
amendment authorizing the legislature, with the consent
of the people of Chicago, to simplify somewhat this
system of local governments. The proposed amend-
ment does not, however, provide for the consolidation
of the city and county governments which many re-
formers think desirable.2
1Hurd, Re-vised Statutes, ch. 24, §§ 337-369111. This district
was considerably enlarged in 1903, and now includes the city of
Evanston.
3 See the text of this amendment below in Appendix B. It
was to be submitted to a vote of the people at the general elec-
tions of 1904.
CHAPTER IX
THE FINANCES OF THE STATE
45. REFERENCES
Bryce, American Commonwealth, I., ch. 43 ; Hart, Actual
Government, Part VII. ; Black, Handbook of American Consti-
tutional Law, ch. 15 ; Lalor, Cyclopedia of Political Science (ar-
ticle on Taxation, by D. A. Wells) ; Plehn, Introduction to Pub-
lic Finance; Daniels, Public Finance; Adams, Public Debts;
Adams, Science of Finance; Cooley, A Treatise on Taxation;
Ely, Taxation in American States and Cities, especially Part II.,
ch. 8; Seligman, Essays in Taxation; Wells, Report on Taxa-
tion (soth Cong., ist session, House Ex. Doc. No. 40) ; Tooke,
The "New Revenue Law" of Illinois (in Proceedings of the Na-
tional Conference on Taxation, 89-97, Buffalo, 1901) ; Whitten,
"Assessment of Taxes in Chicago" (in Journal of Political
Economy, V. 175).
Documents : [Illinois] Bureau of Labor Statistics, Eighth
Biennial Report (1896) ; Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 120, with
notes on the same chapter in Starr and Curtis, Annotated Stat-
utes; Auditor of Public Accounts, Biennial Reports.
46. THE TAXING POWER
Just as a complicated machine cannot be worked The need
without fuel, so government cannot long be carried on °
without money. Though some of this money may come
from such minor sources as gifts or fines, and though
it may sometimes be borrowed, modern governments
must in the long run be supported by some kind of
taxes.
In Illinois the taxing power is exercised by a large Taxing
number of bodies varying in importance from a village £™erd
121
122 Government of Illinois
board of trustees to the general assembly and the Fed-
eral Congress. All of them, however, are subject to
some important restrictions. Thus the Federal Con-
stitution prevents any State from raising money by
import or export duties, or taxing any property or
other agency of the United States. The Federal taxes
on tobacco and spirits deprive the State of another
method of raising revenue of which they might other-
wise make use. The State constitution also defines and
limits the taxing power. Thus county boards may not,
except by special vote of the people or for the payment
of a debt incurred before the adoption of the present
constitution, lay a tax of more than 75 cents for each
100 dollars of property. There are, furthermore, pro-
visions of State law limiting the rate of taxation which
may be required by various other local governments.1
47. THE GENERAL PROPERTY TAX. ASSESSMENT
General The various governments of Illinois are supported
mainly by the general property tax. The theory of this
tax as stated by the constitution is, "that every person
or corporation shall pay a tax in proportion to the value
of his, her or its property." For this purpose, all
property is divided into two main classes, real property
(including lands, buildings, and railroad tracks) and
personal property (including money, stocks and bonds,
and all other movable articles).
1 Thus city governments are limited to two per cent, of the
total value of property ; park boards to four mills on the dollar ;
school boards to a total of five per cent. In Chicago, the total
taxes for city, school (except school buildings), drainage dis-
trict, park, and county purposes must not exceed five per cent.
In other parts of the State, school taxes need not be counted
within this limit. Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 24, § in ; ch. 105,
§ 183 ; ch. 120, §§ 3433, 343b ; ch. 122, § 208; Constitution of Illi-
nois, 1870, Arts. VIII., IX.
The Finances of the State 123
In order to tax any property, it is first necessary to Principles
determine as nearly as possible what its value is. This ^enje"
is called assessment. It was originally intended that
property should be assessed at its "fair cash value,"
which in the case of real estate is interpreted to mean
"the price it would bring at a fair voluntary sale."
Practically, however, property was assessed far below
its real value, partly because the local assessor tried to
keep down the proportion of taxes paid by his own
town or county and partly also because individual tax
payers failed to pay their just share. The present law
tries to establish a uniform proportion throughout the
State by calling the "assessed value" upon which all
taxes should be calculated one-fifth of the "full value."
Even this attempt has only been partially successful.1
The work of assessment is done mainly by county Assessors.
and town officers. In counties under the general town-
ship organization law property is assessed first by the
town assessors. They are, however, subject to the
instructions of the county treasurer, who is called the
supervisor of assessments. In Cook County, taxes are
assessed by a board of five assessors elected by the
people of the county. In those towns which are wholly
within the city of Chicago the town assessors no longer
assess property. In other Cook County towns, they
still act subject to the authority of the county assessors.
In counties without town governments, the county
treasurer acts as assessor with the right of appointing
deputies for the various districts.2
Between April I and June i of each year, the assessor Methods
of assess-
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 120, §§ 1-4, 309-313 ; 8th Biennial ment.
Report of Bureau of Labor Statistics of Illinois, passim. Pro-
ceedings of Buffalo National Conference on Taxation, 89-97.
"Ibid., ch. 120, §§ 72-94, 295-320, 348.
124 Government of Illinois
must call upon every owner of taxable property and
secure from him a sworn statement of the amount of
his personal property. If the owner refuses to give
such a statement, the assessor must estimate the value
himself adding- fifty per cent, to that valuation. The
making of a false statement is punishable as perjury.
Real estate is somewhat differently assessed. The
county clerk first makes up every four years a list of
all taxable lands in the county. The assessor takes this
list arid estimates the value of the real estate within his
town or district. Though the regular assessment is
made once in four years, some changes may be made
in the interval, as in the case of improvements, or the
destruction of property. Real estate, unlike personal
property, is thus assessed not according to the state-
ment of the tax payer, but simply according to the
opinion of the assessor.1
Revision Assessments are examined and revised by a higher
authority in each county known as the Board of Re-
view. In Cook County this board is composed of three
citizens elected by the people, one being chosen every
two years for a term of six years. In other counties,
having township organization, the board consists of
the chairman of the Board of Supervisors and two
other citizens appointed by the county judge. In
counties without township organization, this work is
done by the county commissioners. Under the present
law, the powers of the Board of Review are very great.
They may increase or reduce the assessments either of
xHurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 120, §§ 301-314. Certain kinds
of property are exempted by law from the payment of taxes.
This is the case with property used exclusively for educational,
religious, charitable, or scientific purposes. Cemeteries and pub-
lic grounds or buildings are also exempted. Ibid., § 2.
The Finances of the State 125
individual persons or corporations, or of particular
classes of property or of particular parts of the county.
The law, however, provides for an appeal to the State
Supreme Court, either by any person who considers
that he has been treated unfairly or by the State audi-
tor if he thinks the assessment is too low.1
Just as the county Board of Review is intended to The state
secure equal assessments within the county, so the
State Board of Equalization is established for the pur-
pose of distributing the State taxes fairly among the
different counties. It consists of the State Auditor
and one additional member from each congressional
district of the State, elected by the people of that dis-
trict. This Board examines the summary or "abstract
of assessments" sent in by the clerk of each county and
may increase or reduce the total assessment of different
classes of property in any county. It cannot, however,
reduce the assessment of the State as a whole nor in-
crease it more than one per cent.2 Besides this work,
of revision, the State Board also makes the original
assessment on railroad tracks and rolling stock (loco-
motives, cars, etc.), and in certain other cases. In
the case of railroad tracks and rolling stock, the State
Board assesses the value of the property for the State
as a whole and allows each county for purposes of
taxation an assessed value in proportion to the number
of miles of track in that county. There is a similar
plan for telegraph lines.3
48. COLLECTION OF TAXES
When this complicated process of assessment has The tax
rate.
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 120, §§ 324-337.
'Ibid., §§ 100-116.
8 Ibid., §§ 40-52.
f26 Government of Illinois
been finished, the governor, auditor, and treasurer must
calculate the rate per cent, of the property assessed,
which is necessary to raise the amount of taxes called
for by the General Assembly. The auditor then notifies
the clerk of each county who adds to the State tax the
rates of taxation authorized by the county board and
by other bodies having the power to levy taxes. The
sum of these rates will then be the per cent, of his
property required of each tax payer for the support of
the State and local governments.1 The practical work-
ing of this plan will be made clearer by taking as an
example a particular tax paid in 1901 upon a piece of
land in one of the smaller cities of the State. The "full
value" of the land was estimated at $200.00 The "as-
sessed value" was one-fifth of that, or $40.00. The
total tax on that property was $2.98, which was about
7^2 per cent, of the "assessed value" or about il/2 per
cent, of the "full value." The exact amounts required
for each purpose are set down below :
State tax $ .20
County tax 40
Town tax 04
Roads and bridges tax 14
School district tax .90
City tax 1.14
Registered bond tax 16
Total $ 2.98
Relative de- It will be seen that the State takes only about one-
mands of fifteenth of the total, that the city tax is the largest item,
State and •'«.«• i
local gov- and that the school and city taxes taken together make
emments. Up more than two-thirds.
lHurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 120, §§ 117-132.
The Finances of the State 127
When the amount of taxes has thus been determined, Collection
the tax lists are made up by the county clerk, and the
work of collection begins. In counties under township
organization, including Cook County, this is done by
town collectors. In counties without township organ-
ization, the sheriff is the collector. The collectors
receive their lists in December of each year and are
expected to finish their collections and settle their ac-
counts by the end of March. If any person refuses to
pay his taxes, so much of his property may be sold as is
necessary to raise the amount. Having collected the
tax, the town collector pays the State and county money
over to the county treasurer, who in turn pays the State
money over to the State treasurer. In counties without
township organization, this payment is made by the
sheriff. The various local governments or boards also
receive from the collectors their proper share of the
general tax.1
Few parts of our system of government have worked Defects of
so badly as this general property tax. Though each the system-
person is supposed to pay an equal percentage of his
property, the assessments actually made are very un-
equal as between different places and different individ-
uals. There is much unfairness even in the assessment
of real estate, but the most serious evil is the under-
valuation of personal property, which, especially in the
case of stocks and bonds, can be easily concealed. Only
a small fraction of this kind of property has really been
taxed for the support of the government. While many
people of wealth escape their just share of taxation,
honest people of moderate means are often made to pay
more than their just share. The evils of the system
1 Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 120, §§ 133-177.
128
Government of Illinois
Special
taxes.
Inheritance
tax.
Illinois
Central tax.
have been most clearly seen in Chicago. In spite of
the wonderful increase in population and wealth during
the twenty-five years from 1869 to 1894, the assessed
valuation of the city actually diminished. Notwith-
standing some improvements made in recent years, the
system is still unsatisfactory as a means of distributing
equally the burdens of the State.1
49. MINOR SOURCES OF REVENUE
Though the expenses of State and local governments
have been largely paid by the general property tax,
there are some other sources of income. The most
important of these for the State government are the
inheritance tax and the special tax on the Illinois Cen-
tral Railroad.
The inheritance tax is laid upon property which at
the death of its owner passed into the hands of others
and it varies according to the relationship of those who
inherit the property. Such near relatives as wives or
children pay a comparatively small tax. The rate of
taxation also increases with the amount of property and
small amounts are not taxed at all. This tax is much
less easily evaded than the ordinary personal property
tax, because when anyone dies, the condition of his
property generally becomes a matter of record.2
The special tax on the Illinois Central is a part of
the original bargain made between the company and
the State. In return for the public lands made over by
the State to the railroad, the company agreed to pay
the State at least seven per cent, of its gross earnings
1 Eighth Biennial Report of Bureau of Labor Statistics of Illi-
nois, 22 and passim; C. W. Tooke in Proceedings of the Buf-
falo National Conference on Taxation. 80-07.
2 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 120, §§ 366-388.
The Finances of the State 129
or total income. This is, therefore, an income tax
rather than a property tax, such as is paid by other
railroad companies.1
The State also secures some income from fees paid Fees,
to State officers which are turned into the State treasury
and amount practically to taxes. The most important
are the corporation fees paid to the secretary of state
and those paid by insurance companies to the State
Commissioner of Insurance.2 The local governments
have some special methods of raising money for local
purposes. A considerable part of the expenses of city
government is paid by means of license fees. Of
these the most important are those paid by liquor deal-
ers for the privilege of carrying on their business.8
Another tax used especially in cities and villages is Special as-
the special assessment. This is a tax laid for the 8
purpose of building sidewalks, or paving streets, or
making other similar local improvements. Such asses-
ments or taxes may be laid not upon all residents but .
only upon those whose property will be benefited by
the improvement.4
Many reformers favor separation between State and Proposed
local taxation, setting apart certain taxes for State pur- ^ Of
poses and others for local purposes. This has been and local
done to a certain extent in other States and a step has fc
been taken in that direction here by the adoption of the
1 Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 120, §§ 364, 365. See above ch. 3.
2 Auditor's Biennial Report, 1902, 1-3; Secretary of State, Bi-
ennial Report, 1902, 3.
8 In Chicago, nearly a third of the city's revenue comes from
licenses. Department of Finance, 46th Annual Report, 19, 88.
There is also a poll tax levied in the towns for the maintenance
of roads. See Engineering Record, 47 .'431.
4 See notes in Starr and Curtis, Annotated Statutes (1896),
on Art. IX. of the Constitution.
9
130 Government of Illinois
State inheritance tax. In the main, however, State and
local governments in Illinois are supported by the same
kind of taxation.
Loans. Any government may at times find it necessary and
proper to borrow money. This is particularly true
when unusual expense is required for some object of
permanent importance to the welfare of the community.
In this way, the additional burden of taxation may
fairly be distributed over a considerable number of
years. The experience of Illinois has shown, however,
that there is danger of reckless borrowing both by
State and local governments. A good example is the
heavy expenditure for internal improvement, which, as
was noted in a previous chapter, almost destroyed the
credit of the State.1
Borrowing The constitution now limits carefully the borrowing
limited. powers of the State and local governments. The State
legislature is forbidden to contract any debts of its own.
authority except in the following cases: (i) To meet
merely temporary deficits in the revenues, the State
may borrow not more than $250,000.00. The legisla-
ture has provided by law that in such a case, the gov-
ernor, treasurer, and auditor may borrow the money;
but not for a longer time than two years. (2) For th*1
purpose of "repelling invasion, or defending the stat*
in war." In all other cases, where it seems necessary
to borrow money, the law for this purpose must be
submitted to the people at the next election for members
of the general assembly. With this law there must be
submitted a provision for some tax or other kind 01
revenue to pay the interest on the debt, and this tax
cannot be repealed until the debt has been fully paid.
1 Above, ch. 2.
The Finances of the State 131
The State is also forbidden to lend its credit to any
person or corporation.1
The local authorities are similarly restricted. No Restrictions
county or other local government may borrow money onv^I.local
amounting to more than five per cent, of the assessed ments.
value of the taxable property under its jurisdiction.
Moreover, when any debt is incurred, a direct tax must
at once be laid large enough to pay not only the interest
but the debt in full within a period of twenty years.2
Under the actual working of the revenue laws, the
assessed value can never be more than one-fifth of the
real value of property and is generally much less than
that. The local governments are, therefore, more re-
stricted than the framers of the constitution intended.
In fact, many people believe that the present rule fre-
quently prevents reasonable and safe plans of public
improvement.
50. REGULATION OF EXPENDITURE
The people who pay taxes have clearly the right to Checks
determine how they shall be spent and to make all uP°"ex'
penditure.
necessary rules to prevent corrupt or careless use of
public funds. One safeguard against extravagance
is the restriction of the borrowing power which makes
it necessary to raise money mainly by increasing taxes.
Representatives generally dislike to risk their popularity
by unnecessarily raising the tax rate.
There are, however, other safeguards imposed by Constitu-
the constitution. No money may be drawn out of the tl.onal provj"
. . stems.
bitate treasury except to meet appropriations made by
law and no appropriations may be made to continue for
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. IV. §§ 18-20.
3 Ibid., Art. IX. §12.
132
Government of Illinois
Statutory
provisions.
Financial
safeguards
in the local
govern-
ments.
a longer time than the adjournment of the next general
assembly, or, in other words, for more than about two
years. All appropriation bills must be divided into
distinct items, indicating in detail the purposes for
which the money is to be spent, and the governor may
veto any one cf these items or the whole bill as he sees
fit.1
These general constitutional principles are enforced
by more detailed provisions of statute law. The State
treasurer and other financial officers must make fre-
quent and regular reports and give heavy bonds to
guard the State against any loss by carelessness or
dishonesty. No money can be paid out of the State
treasury unless the order is signed by the State auditor
and countersigned by the treasurer. Violations of
trust by such officers may be punished not only by
impeachment, but through the ordinary courts and by
the ordinary processes of law.2
Similar restrictions are imposed by law upon the local
governments. The mayor of a city or the president of
a village board may, like the governor, veto particular
items in appropriation ordinances. In Cook County,
the president of the county board has a similar veto
power.3 Local officers having charge of funds, such
as, for example, county, city, and school treasurers, are
required to give special bonds for the faithful keeping
of public money, which must also be paid out in accord-
ance with carefully prescribed rules. In cities, for
example, money may usually be paid by the city treas-
urer only on a warrant, signed by the mayor and the
city clerk or the comptroller, and stating the precise
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. IV. §§ 16-18; Art V. § 16.
8 Kurd, Revised Statutes, chs. 15, 130.
slbid., ch. 24, §§ 29-47, n6-ii8r.
The Finances of the State 133
fund or appropriation from which the money is taken.1
After this study of the forms of government and of The real
the taxes, by which it is suported, it is natural to ask the ernment^
familiar question put by Peterkin after hearing about be consid-
the great victory at Blenheim, "But what good came of
it at last?" It will be the purpose of the concluding
chapters of this book to answer this question and to
show as far as possible what are the real ends for which
officers are elected and taxes paid.
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 24, §§ 88-89.
Extreme
views.
PART III
THE WORK OF THE STATE
CHAPTER X
THE POLICE POWER
51. REFERENCES
Hart, Actual Government, ch. 30; Cooky, Constitutional
Limitations, ch. 16; Wilson, The State, chs. 15, 16; Willoughby,
Nature of the State, ch. 12 ; Hare, Constitutional Law, passim,
esp. Lecture 34; Black, Handbook of American Constitutional
Law, ch. 14; Brannon, The Fourteenth Amendment, especially
ch. 12 ; Lalor, Cyclopedia of Political Science; Woolsey, Polit-
ical Science, I., Part II., chs. 4, 5 ; G. M. Price, Handbook on
Sanitation; Fairlie, Municipal Administration, ch. 8.
Documents : McClain, Cases on Constitutional Law; Hurd,
Revised Statutes of Illinois, especially chs. 24, 34, 38, with notes
on the same chapters in Starr and Curtis, Annotated Statutes;
Reports of State Board of Health.
52. STATE ACTION AND SELF-HELP
One of the most difficult problems of government is
that of drawing the proper line between state action
and private initiative or self-help.1 Theories of almost
every kind have been held on this subject. At the two
extremes are the anarchists and the socialists. The
anarchists believe that government is not only an evil
but an unnecessary evil, that the individual man ought
to be freed from all external authority. At the oppo-
site extreme are the radical socialists who believe that
1 The word state is here used in a broad sense to designate the
community as organized for political purposes. The word state
action as here used includes all government action, whether
Federal, State, or local.
134
The Police Power 135
the work of the state ought to be greatly increased
until it finally controls all commerce and industry.
Between these two extremes, there are various shades
of opinion. Roughly, however, men may be divided
according to their opinions on this subject into two
classes.
Some men believe that government is a "necessary The police
evil" and ought to be limited as much as possible. Uieory.and
its critics.
One of the best American representatives of this class
was Thomas Jefferson. In his first inaugural address
as President, he declared that his ideal government was
one "which shall restrain men from injuring one an-
other, shall leave them free otherwise to regulate their
own pursuits of industry and improvement, and shall
not take from the mouth of labor the bread it has
earned." This may be called the "police theory" of
government. The other class of political thinkers be-
lieves that the state ought not merely to restrain men
from injuring each other, but that it ought also to be
a positive factor in the prosperous development of the
people ; that government exists not merely to prevent
evil, but to do good and to promote in various ways the
general welfare.
Our Federal and State governments have not fol- Recent
lowed strictly either of these theories, but have acted tendencies-
first on one theory and then on the other. A
century ago the popular view was that of "laissez
faire," that is, letting men alone as much as possible.
Now the tendency is to give our governments more
and more work to do. This is seen particularly in
municipal governments, where the policy of municipal
ownership of certain industries, such as water works,
lighting, and even street railways, is becoming more
and more popular.
136 Government of Illinois
ciassifica- In this study of the work of the State it will be con-
er°nmentaiV venient to consider first, those more negative services
services. in protecting the people from disorder and danger,
which nearly all men think necessary. Under this head
will come the police work of the State, the administra-
tion of justice and much of the public service for the
vicious and unfortunate classes. The more positive
work of the State in promoting the material and the
ideal interests of the community will then be considered,
including first, the industrial work and influence of the
government, and, secondly, its share in the education
of the people. This classification must not be thought
of as absolutely fixed and definite. Many things done
by the State are done from various motives. Thus
public schools may be and are maintained partly be-
cause the ignorant citizen and voter is a menace to
our democratic government. Yet they are also thought
of as organized for the more positive purpose of giving
to all the children of the people equal opportunities of
intellectual development.
53. THE POLICE POWER
Police Whatever theories men may hold as to the proper
firtedr ' work of the State, few will deny that it is its right and
duty to exercise what is called the "police power."
Though it is difficult, and indeed impossible to give an
exact definition, it may be roughly described as the
power necessary to protect the people from injury,
whether that injury be to life, health, comfort, liberty,
property, or other just right of the citizen. So far,
also, as may be necessary to accomplish this protection,
the rights and liberties of individuals may be justly lim-
ited by the State. Every man must so use his own as
not to injure others.
The Police Power 137
Under the Federal Constitution, this power is main- Reserved
ly reserved to the individual States. The Federal gov- ^"3^;
ernment protects the States against external danger,
and especially under the fourteenth amendment, guar-
antees to a certain extent the rights of citizens within
the States ; yet, in the main, these rights are left under
the protection of the State governments.
Since the State cannot protect individuals unless it Power of
is strong enough to defend itself and to preserve public the srtate,
0 r to defend
order, it imposes severe penalties for resistance to its itself,
authority. Thus, resistance to any officer serving a
warrant of arrest is punishable by fine and imprison-
ment.1 The law also prohibits and punishes riotous
assemblages of any kind. If two or more persons
combine to do even "a lawful act in a violent and
tumultuous manner," they are liable to punishment for
riot.2 Riotous assemblages may be ordered to disperse
by any magistrate and even killing is justifiable if
necessary to enforce such an order. Finally, the high-
est offense against the State, that of "levying war"
against its "government and people," or giving aid
and comfort to its enemies is treason and is punishable
by death.1
Having maintained its own authority, the State pro- Protection
tects the people at large and individuals against willful of personal
and prop-
attacks upon their personal and property rights, wheth- erty rights.
er these attacks consist of petty thefts or serious crimes,
as burglary or murder. This protection is given, first,
by defining such offenses in the criminal code and pro-
viding penalties for them ; and, secondly, by direct pre-
vention. Thus the citizen may not only secure the
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 38, § 244.
albid.,ch. 38, §§248-255.
*Ibid.,ch. 38, §§263-265.
138
Government of Illinois
punishment of any attacks made upon him, but he may
have the help of the State in defending himself. Crim-
inal acts may also be negative as well as positive. Thus
the law recognizes and punishes severely criminal care-
lessness on the part of persons who manage public con-
veyances, such as railway trains or steamboats.1
It is not enough, however, to defend men against
criminal acts or criminal neglect. Individuals may
suffer serious loss by acts which may, or may not, be
recognized as distinctly criminal. Even when the act
is clearly criminal, its punishment does not compensate
the injured party for his loss. In such a case, he may
claim a definite money compensation from the person
responsible, and the claim will be enforced by the
courts. Sometimes if there is no other way of pre-
venting a threatened injury, the courts will issue cer-
tain writs for that purpose. Thus, the writ of injunc-
tion may, in certain cases, forbid the doing of certain
specific acts. The courts may also be called on to
compel the observance of contracts or agreements made
by individuals according to the proper forms of law.
It will also enforce rights and duties growing out of
such personal relations as those of father and child,
husband and wife, or master and servant
Besides protecting men against direct violations or
refusals of rights, the government tries to guard them
against indirect and remote dangers. This precau-
tionary legislation may be illustrated by the law regu-
lating the storage, sale, and transportation of explo-
sives. Because of the great danger of criminal or
careless use, the law prescribes carefully the manner in
which the business must be carried on.2 Under this
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 38, § 49.
"Ibid., ch. 38, §§ 54h-54n.
The Police Power 139
head also come the organization of city and village fire
departments and the power of municipal governments
to prevent the erection of wooden buildings within
certain limits in order to lessen the chance of destruc-
tive fires. So also the public safety is protected by
orders of city councils regulating the speed of railway
trains within city limits.1
54. PROTECTION OF HEALTH AND MORALS
Under the same police power, the State is doing more The state
Board
of Health.
and more to protect the health of the people against Board
contagion and unhealthful conditions of every kind.
The legislature has provided for a State Board of
Health, for local boards in cities and villages, and more
recently for county boards exercising authority outside
of cities and villages.2 The State Board consists of
seven persons appointed by the governor, with the
consent of the senate. They are supposed to have
general supervision "of the health and life of the citi-
zens of the State," and have a liberal grant of power to
make such regulations as they think best, "for the
preservation or improvement of public health." This
Board has charge of quarantine when that seems neces-
sary to keep out contagious diseases. It also has a
general supervision of the medical profession in the
State and no person may now begin the practice of
medicine in Illinois without a license from the Board,
given either on examination or on the certificate of
some reputable medical college. Thus the people are
partially protected against ignorant or dishonest per-
sons who claim to be physicians. The State Board is
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 24, § 62 ; Revised Code of Chi-
cago, 18, 26, 45.
'Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 34, §§ 116-121. (Act approved
May 10, 1901).
140 Government of Illinois
given special authority in Chicago, and is required, for
instance, to inspect all hotels and lodging houses in the
city to determine whether the sleeping rooms are of
proper size and propertly ventilated.1
Local The powers and duties of the municipal boards,
appointed by city or village authorities are defined
partly by law and partly by local ordinances. These
local boards also have large powers which may in time
of danger be expanded almost indefinitely. Similar
powers are exercised in Chicago by a single Health
Commissioner, assisted by the city physician and the
superintendent of police.2
Other For the same general purpose of protecting the public
iatk>ns.regU" nealtn> the law provides for a State Board of Pharmacy
and forbids any person to engage in the technical part
of the druggist's business without having been properly
registered.3 There is also a State Food Commissioner
to protect the public from unhealthful and adulterated
food.4 Under the same head also come State laws
prohibiting the employment in factories of children
under fourteen and regulating the labor of women, and
of men engaged in certain unhealthful or dangerous
occupations. Another State law regulates particularly
places in which clothing of any kind is manufactured,
the purpose being to prevent the possible spread in this
1 Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. I26a. See also Governor's Mes-
sage, Jan. 7, 1903. The State Board also has general charge of
the State system of registering births and deaths. Hurd, Re-
vised Statutes, ch. 1263, §§ 19-33.
* Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 24, § 62 ; Revised Ordinances of
Urbana, ch. 7 : Revised Code of Chicago, ch. 35.
"Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 91, §§ 19-34
'Ibid., ch. I27b. Cf. Governor's Message, Jan. 7, 1903.
The Police Power 141
way of infectious diseases.1 These are only a few
examples of the various State and local regulations
adopted for the protection of the public health.
Besides protecting life and property, the State also Protection
tries to guard the people, and especially the young,
against immoral influences. This power is, however,
limited. No government can make men virtuous by
law, and the State will ordinarily punish only those
wrong acts which do tangible and definite harm to
innocent persons, or are clearly injurious to the whole
moral tone of the community. Thus the State pro-
hibits by law the circulation of indecent books and
pictures, and the maintenance of gambling houses.
Theatres and other places of entertainment may be
regulated by city or village governments, and if con-
sidered to be indecent, may be suppressed.2
One of the most difficult problems of government is
the regulation of the manufacture and sale of intoxi- |!on of the
liquor
eating liquor. Some believe that its sale as a beverage business.
is so harmful to public morals and good order that it
ought to be prohibited altogether. Others consider
that a moderate use is entirely proper. The attempt
to prohibit liquor-selling altogether by State law
has not been successful ; but under the present laws city
or village governments actually do prohibit saloons
within their limits. It is generally agreed that the
business even when permitted should be carefully reg-
ulated. The present law provides that no city, village,
or county government may license any one to sell intox-
icating liquors without the payment of a high license
1 Hurd, Revised Statutes, chs. 48, 93. See also the child-labor
and factory inspection acts, approved May 15, 1903. Ibid., ch.
48, §§ 2O-20n, 29.
* Ibid., ch. 24, § i. Cf. Revised Code of Chicago, ch. 42.
142
Government of Illinois
The rela-
tion of the
State to
religion.
The rela-
tion of law
to morality.
fee. Those who sell only malt liquors (beer, etc.),
must pay at least $150 a year, but other saloon keep-
ers must pay at least five hundred dollars. The license
fee may be made still larger by any city which chooses
to do so. Saloons are also forbidden to sell liquors to
minors, or to habitual drunkards. Besides these State
regulations, many others are made by city and other
local governments, in order to guard against the evils
of the traffic.1
The State does not attempt to regulate religion, but it
guarantees to every man entire liberty to hold and ex-
press religious opinions of any kind and it will protect
him from disturbance in his public worship. It also
recognizes the value of religion, in general, by exempt-
ing church property from taxation.2 The law does not
enforce any religious observances on Sunday, but it
does restrict public amusements and the doing of work
in the interest of public health, morality, and good
order.3
It is generally agreed that it is a mistake to depend
much on the government for the promotion of morality
and particularly dangerous to enact laws which are
much in advance of public opinion ; for such laws can-
not be properly enforced and the failure to enforce them
not only brings the particular measure into contempt
but tends to produce disrespect for all law and hence a
spirit of lawlessness or anarchy.
1Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 43. Cf. Revised Code of Chi-
cago, ch. 39 (Liquor). See also the People ex rel vs. Cregier,
138 Illinois Reports, 401 (case of a prohibition district in Chi-
cago).
3 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. II. § 3; Kurd, Revised
Statutes, ch. 38, § 58 ; ch. 120, § 2. The exemption is limited to
property "actually and exclusively used for public worship."
8 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 38, §§ 259-262.
The Police Power 143
55. THE ENFORCEMENT OF LAW
For the most part men accept as a matter of course Public
the restraints which the State imposes on their per- c
sonal liberty. If they do not obey the law as a matter '
of conscience, they often do so because they wish to
gain the good opinion of their neighbors. This power
of public opinion is one of the most important factors
in the enforcement of all law and without its support
other agencies must in the long run prove useless.
Yet government cannot continue and laws be carried Local offi-
into effect without the use of force, or at least the ce" for the
enforcement
knowledge that force may be used if necessary. Of law.
Though some men will obey the law because it is right
and some because they fear the reproach of their
neighbors, there are always others who will do right
only because they are forced to do so. This duty of
compelling men to obey the law is entrusted first to the
local governments — the town, the village, or the city.
In the town, the special officer for this purpose is the
constable.1 In the cities and villages the work is done
mainly by policemen or police officers, acting under the
orders first of the chief of police and finally of the
mayor or village president. In a great city, like Chi-
cago, the police force would make a respectable army
and is under something like military discipline. These
police officers serve the community not only by pre-
venting crime and arresting law breakers, but in
numerous other ways, as for example, by protecting
passers-by on crowded street crossings, or by giving
assistance to other departments of the local govern-
ment.2
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 38, §§ 339-346 ; ibid., ch. 79.
2 Ibid., ch. 24, §§ 72-87. Cf. Revised Code of Chicago, ch. 51.
144 Government of Illinois
At ordinary times, local officers furnish all the force
necessary to maintain order. If, however, they fail
to do so, then the responsibility falls on the sheriff of
the county. If the sheriff with his usual subordinates
cannot cope with the disturbance, he may call on the
citizens to help him.1 The Illinois statute provides
that in any such time of disorder, the sheriff may com-
pel as many persons as he thinks necessary to serve
under his orders as deputy sheriffs.2 When, as has
frequently happened in recent years, the sheriff cannot
or will not keep order, the remedy is an appeal to the
, governor who, as commander-in-chief, has the right to
call out the militia whenever necessary to execute the
laws, as well as "to suppress insurrection and repel
invasion."
The militia. In theory, all able-bodied male citizens of the State
between the ages of sixteen and forty-five years, are
liable to military duty and are said to belong to the
State militia. In time of danger, all such persons may
be called into the service of the State or of the Union.
Under ordinary circumstances, however, militia duty
is performed by men who voluntarily enroll themselves
and receive training in the use of arms. Such vol-
unteers are regularly organized on the model of the
United States Army, and are known as the Illinois
National Guard. The governor is commander-in-
chief, but he acts ordinarily through the adjutant gen-
eral. The higher officers are appointed by the gover-
nor; other commissioned officers are elected, but the
choice must be approved by him. There is a similar
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 125. Cf. Hare, American Con-
stitutional Law, Lecture XLI.
1 Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 38, § 2s6h.
The Police Power 145
organization of volunteers for naval service known as
the Illinois Naval Reserve.1
Finally, if the civil and military power of the State Federal
cannot enforce the law, the general assembly, or, when support>
that is not in session, the governor may call upon the
President of the United States. It is then the duty of
the President to use the armed forces of the Union
for the defense of the State government.2 Thus, al-
though a few policemen may in most instances furnish
all the force necessary to compel obedience, they have
behind them, pledged to their support, if necessary, the
full military power, not only of the State, but of the
Union.
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. V. § 14; Military and
Naval Code of Illinois (Act approved May 14, 1903) in Hurd,
Revised Statutes, ch. 129; ibid., ch. 38, § 2566-25611.
1 Constitution of the United States, Art. IV. § 4.
10
CHAPTER XI
THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE
56. REFERENCES
Cooley, Constitutional Limitations, chs. 10, n ; Black, Hand-
book of American Constitutional Law, §§ 134, 212-223, ch. 20;
Hare, American Constitutional Law, especially Lecture 39;
Holmes, The Common Law, especially Lectures 1-3 ; Robinson,
Elements of American Jurisprudence; McKinney, Encyclopae-
dia of Pleading and Practice; Bispham, The Principles of
Equity; Eaton, Handbook of Equity Jurisprudence, especially
ch. i ; Bigelow, The Law of Torts; Puterbaugh, Common Law
Pleading and Practice, especially chs. 1-3, 25, 30-37.
Documents : Hurd, Revised Statutes, especially chs. 13, 22, 38,
78, no, with notes on the same chapters and on the Constitu-
tion, Art. II., in Starr and Curtis, Annotated Statutes.
57. LAW AND EQUITY
The rules Since the State, in protecting the community, exer-
£ law* cise great power over the liberty, the property, and even
the lives of individuals, it is clearly necessary to make
sure that this power shall be justly used. For this
purpose the constitution has established the courts of
law, charged with the duty of determining what the
right and the law are in each individual case. In the
doing of this important business, the judges are not
free to choose their own methods, but are bound by
elaborate and well-established rules which, though
sometimes criticised as useless technicalities, really
serve in the main the great purpose for which they were
intended, namely, to do justice "decently and in order."
146
The Administration of Justice 147
The most important of these rules are those of the The com-
common law, made up of a great mass of legal customs mon law-
and principles inherited by the American people from
their English ancestors and applied by English courts
for centuries before the founding of the American colo-
nies. To a certain extent these principles of the com-
mon law have been formally stated in acts of parlia-
ment or congress or State legislatures. Many of them,
however, are to be found, not in such acts of the law
making body, but in the reported decisions of the
courts. These decisions, in turn, have been constantly
interpreting and applying to new conditions precedents
set by many generations of judges on both sides of the
Atlantic.
The courts are bound also by acts of the law-making statute
body. Although this statute law often merely restates law-
the principles of the common law, it has other and more
important purposes. Since the judges are expected to
apply, not the law as it ought to be, but the law as it is,
the law-making body must make such changes and
additions as are required to meet the needs of different
times and places. In Illinois this statute law includes
acts of Congress and acts of the General Assembly.
Even the Federal and State constitutions may be in-
cluded as fundamental statutes enacted by the highest
law-making authority, the people themselves.
Besides following the rules of the common and the Equity,
statute law, the courts of Illinois are also governed in
certain cases by what are known as the rules of
"equity." To understand what is meant by "equity"
in distinction from "law" we must again go far back
into English history. It was then found that the rules
of the common law as applied by the ordinary courts
were sometimes too narrow, or too hard and fast, to
148 Government of Illinois
give justice. In such cases, men could go to a special
court which came to be known as the High Court of
Chancery, because it was presided over by the Lord
Chancellor. This court, instead of abiding by the strict
rules of the common law, was supposed to act more
freely, according to the broad principles of justice or
"equity." Gradually precedents were set and definite
rules of procedure in "equity" cases were established
by custom until "equity" became simply a particular
branch of the law applied to certain kinds of cases. In
the meantime, as many of the principles of "equity"
have been applied to the administration of the common
law there has been less need for separate courts of chan-
cery or "equity." In England, they were abolished in
1873 and in Illinois, as in most States of the Union,
equity and common law are administered in the same
courts.
Examples It is difficult to explain in a few words, the character
proceedkies. °^ ^e cases to which these principles of "equity" are
now applied. In general, however, it may be said that
there are certain kinds of title or right which the com-
mon law does not recognize and certain other rights for
which it does not provide a satisfactory remedy or
means of enforcement. The first principle is illustrat-
ed by the case of property held by trustees for religious
or other purposes. Though the legal title is in the
trustees, the rules of equity may be applied to prevent
them from diverting the property to their private uses.
The second principle may be illustrated by the use of
injunctions. In some cases in which the ordinary
common law proceedings would not promptly prevent
a threatened injury, the rules of equity allow the issue
of an injunction enjoining or forbidding such injurious
action. Disobedience to such an injunction may then
The Administration of Justice 149
be summarily punished as contempt of court. The
practice of the Illinois courts in equity proceedings is
still largely the same as in the English Chancery
"though modified in certain particulars by our stat-
ute."1
All this elaborate machinery and these complicated Rights
rules of practice exist for the purpose of defining and
protecting rights. It is important, however, to remem-
ber that courts do not concern themselves with these
rights except when it is claimed that they are either
actually infringed or are in danger of being infringed.
In some cases, the courts will act to prevent the doing
of a threatened injury, but for the most part they pro-
tect rights by providing punishments or remedies for
wrongs already done.2 It is one of the famous maxims
of the law that wherever there is a right, there is also
a remedy. Wherever a legal right is infringed, there
is, or should be, some legal process by which an injured
party may claim reparation from the person who has
injured him. It is for the courts to decide whether a
wrong has been done and what remedy may be applied.
58. PROCEDURE IN CIVIL CASES
Most cases which the courts are thus required to Civil and
pass upon may be divided into two main classes. These
are (i) civil cases and (2) criminal cases. Civil cases
have to do with private rights and the court is then
called upon to decide disputes between two or more
1 Bispham, Principles of Equity, passim, especially chs. I, 2 ;
McKinney, Encyclopaedia of Pleading and Practice, VII., 813 ;
Supervisors of Fulton County v. Mississippi and Wabash Rail-
road Co., 21 Illinois Reports, 365.
2 See Robinson, Elements of American Jurisprudence, §§ 156-
161.
150 Government of Illinois
individuals or corporations. Criminal cases, on the
other hand, are those in which "the people" or the State
may be considered as the injured party. Sometimes
the wrong has been committed against the State direct-
ly, as in the case of treason, but in the vast majority of
cases, criminal acts are wilful wrongs done to individ-
uals. In primitive times, such acts were thought of as
simply private wrongs. The stealing of an ox, for
example, was an offense against the person from whom
it was stolen for which he was entitled to get satisfac-
tion. Now it is recognized that murder and theft and
all other crimes are not only wrongs against particular
persons, but offenses against the authority of the State
whose right and duty it is to preserve order. The fact,
however, that a particular act is criminal, and therefore
punished by the State, need not prevent the injured
person from securing by civil proceedings the proper
compensation for his own injury or loss.
Civil suits. In civil cases there are always two parties, the plain-
Attorneys. tiff and the defendant. The plaintiff has to show that
through the action or neglect of the defendant he has
been denied some right to which he is entitled. If he
proves his case he is entitled to compensation for the
loss which he has suffered. Since a suit of this kind
must be carried on in accordance with carefully pre-
scribed rules, which are not familiar to anyone except
the specially trained student of law, the parties are
generally represented by attorneys whose duty it is to
see that their clients have the advantage of every right
which the law allows them. On the other hand, the
lawyer is also regarded as an officer of the court. He
is bound to conduct his client's case in a lawful and
orderly way. Since the lawyer has this important part
in the administration of justice, it is necessary that high
The Administration of Justice 151
standards of character and ability should be enforced.
Anyone who wishes to begin the practice of law in
Illinois must pass the bar examination carried on under
rules prescribed by the State supreme court1
When a suit is to be begun, the plaintiff must apply Preliminary
to the clerk of the proper court for a writ summoning P1"0066^"^-
the defendant to appear in court and meet the charges
made against him. This writ or summons must then
be served on the defendant by the sheriff or the coroner.
The clerk must also issue summons or subpoenas to all
\vitnesses who may be desired by either party. Some-
times, in order to guard against prosecutions which are
not serious, the plaintiff is required to give bond that
he will pay the costs of the suit.2
The next important step is to get before the court a Pleadings,
proper statement of the exact points in controversy.
The plaintiff acts first by filing with the court a state-
ment in legal form of the ground of his suit. This is
called his declaration. This may be answered in
various ways by the defendant and subsequent state-
ments may be made by the plaintiff. An exact under-
standing of these various pleadings back and forth is
hardly necessary for anyone except the professional
lawyer. It is enough to say that they are con-
tinued until an issue is reached, "that is some specific
point of law or fact, affirmed on one side and denied on
1 Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 13 ; Cooley, Constitutional Lim-
itations, ch. 10; Puterbaugh, Common Law Pleading and Prac-
tice, ch. 30 ; Rules of the Supreme Court of Illinois, No. 39, in
204 Illinois Reports, 20-23.
2 Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. no, §§ 1-13; Puterbaugh, Com-
mon Law Pleading and Practice, ch. 2. In some cases, as when
there has been a charge of fraudulent conduct, the defendant
may be arrested and compelled to give security for his appear-
ance at the proper time.
152 Government of Illinois
the other." This is then "the exact question for the
court or jury to determine."1
The jury In general, either party in a civil case may demand
cases™ a tnal by jury. This is not, however, required in
equity cases and any civil case may be tried by a judge
without a jury, if both parties consent. Ordinarily a
jury consists of twelve men, but in some cases the par-
ties to the suit may agree upon a smaller number. The
method of selecting the jury is carefully regulated by
law and either party may secure the rejection of objec-
tionable jurors by means of challenges. If jurors can
be shown to be disqualified for intelligent and impartial
service, they may be challenged for cause. The law
also allows each party in a civil case three peremptory
challenges for which no cause need be shown.2
The verdict. After a jury has been selected, the final decision rests
with it. The judge presides over the trial, decides what
evidence may properly be presented to the jury, and
sees that the rules of law are observed by each party in
presenting its case. When the evidence has been given
and the arguments made on both sides, the judge in-
structs the jury in writing on the points of law involved
in the case. After receiving their instructions, the jury
usually retires from the court room in charge of an
officer of the court. The jurymen will usually be kept
together so long as there is hope of their being able to
agree upon a verdict, but if after a reasonable time they
are still unable to agree, they may be discharged by the
judge. If the decision of the court is in favor of the
xHurd, Revised Statutes, ch. no; Puterbaugh, Common Law
Pleading and Practice, chs. 1-3.
2 Puterbaugh, Common Law Pleading and Practice, ch. 25 ;
Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. II. § 5 ; Kurd, Revised Stat-
utes, ch. no, §§ 41-42, 49.
The Administration of Justice 153
plaintiff, the verdict is usually in one of two forms. In
the first case, he may be put in possession of the par-
ticular property or right of which he has been unjustly
deprived. This would be done, for example, in the
case of disputed lands. In many cases, however, it will
be impossible to put the plaintiff in precisely the posi-
tion which he would have occupied if the wrong had
never been done or the right been denied. In these
cases, the defendant will be compelled to give him
damages, that is, a definite money payment for his loss.1
This decision is not, however, always accepted as New trials
final. Under certain conditions prescribed by law, the and *PPeals-
judge who tried the case will grant a new trial. The
dissatisfied party may also appeal to a higher court.
Thus cases tried before a circuit judge may be taken
to the Appellate Court or to the Supreme Court of the
State. The Court of Appeals may either give the final
decision or it may send the case back to the lower court
for a new trial. Cases involving rights guaranteed by
the Constitution and the laws of the United States may
of course be carried from State to Federal courts.2
59. PROCEDURE IN CRIMINAL CASES
In criminal cases, the State is seeking to punish pri- crime*
vate persons for offenses against its own authority. A
crime may be either a positive illegal act, or a failure
to do some act which the law requires, as for example,
in cases of "criminal carelessness." In order to make
any act criminal, it must be done intentionally and by
1Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. no; Puterbaugh, Common Law
Pleading and Practice, chs. 34, 35, 37; Robinson, Elements of
American Jurisprudence, §§ 148-155.
2 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. no, §§ 57-92; Puterbaugh, Com-
mon Law Pleading and Practice, ch. 32.
154
Government of Illinois
Legal rights
of accused
persons.
Criminal
prosecution
and arrest.
some one who has intelligence enough to understand
what he is doing. Thus, young children and insane
persons cannot be made to answer for criminal offenses.
Drunkenness, however, is not a sufficient excuse. The
law also recognizes two grades of crime. The more
serious offenses, punishable by death or by imprison-
ment in the penitentiary, are called felonies. Less seri-
ous offenses are called misdemeanors*
In criminal cases, the State is the plaintiff and all
proceedings are in the name of The People of the State
of Illinois.2 Nevertheless the State takes every possi-
ble care of the rights of the citizen as against unjust
prosecution or conviction. The State will even provide
an attorney for a defendant in a criminal case who is
too poor to pay a lawyer. The constitution provides
that "No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or
property without due process of law" and these words
include a great variety of safeguards against injustice,
from the first arrest until the final execution of sen-
tence.3
A criminal prosecution may be begun in various
ways. It may begin with the complaint of a private
individual. The person bringing such a charge must
declare on oath that he has good reason for believing
that the person accused by him is guilty of the offense
charged. The judge or justice before whom the charge
is made will then issue a warrant ordering the arrest of
the supposed offender. In the case of persons caught
in the act of crime, any person present may make the
arrest. An officer may make an arrest when he knows
that a crime has been committed and has "reasonable
lHurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 38 (Criminal Code), §§ 273-293.
* Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. VI. § 33-
9 Ibid., Art. II. § 2.
The Administration of Justice 155
ground for believing" that the person to be arrested
has committed it.1
The person arrested must be taken at once before a Examina-
magistrate for examination. Witnesses must be heard £™ and
for and against him and the magistrate may then either
discharge him for lack of evidence, or, if there is good
reason for thinking him guilty, he may be held for trial.
When the accused person is thus held, the court must
give him his freedom provided he can find anyone who
will give sufficient bail, or security, for his appearance
at the trial. The constitution guarantees this right of
release on bail in all cases except capital offenses
"where the proof is evident or the presumption great."
Another constitutional safeguard against illegal in- Habeas
terference with personal liberty is the writ of habeas cort>us-
corpus. Whenever anyone has been deprived of his
liberty, a writ of habeas corpus may be issued by any
judge of a court of record. The person so imprisoned
must then be brought before the court which will set
him free unless there is some legal ground for holding
him.2
Special precautions are taken against unjust prose- indictment
cution in the case of persons charged with felony.
Such persons cannot be subjected to trial unless they
have first been indicted by a grand jury of the county.
The members of the grand jury are selected by the
county board and it is their duty to present indictments
for all criminal acts committed in the county. The
full jury consists of twenty-three ; but only sixteen are
1 For a discussion of the legal principles involved, see Bige-
low, The Law of Torts, Part 2, ch. 9. See also Hurd, Revised
Statutes, ch. 38, §§ 339-371-
2 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. II. § 7; Hurd, Revised
Statutes, ch. 38, §§ 339-371, 414-420.
156 Government of Illinois
necessary for the transaction of business and twelve
must agree in order to present an indictment. Some-
times the persons indicted have already been arrested.
In other cases, the arrest follows the indictment.1
Counsel. Having prevented the arrest of any person except for
serious reasons, the law also promises the defendant an
impartial trial and every possible means of making his
defense against unjust charges. He has a right to
know the exact charges made and the names of the
witnesses who are to testify against him. In defend-
ing himself, he has a right to the services of a lawyer
both before and during the trial. All statements made
by him, privately, to his counsel are protected by the
law and cannot be used against him. If a prisoner
cannot secure counsel for himself, one or more lawyers
will be appointed by the court to defend him.2
First steps Trials for petty offenses are tried by justices of the
m the trial. peace> police magistrates, or county judges. Impor-
tant criminal cases are tried in the circuit courts, except
in Cook County, where a special criminal court is or-
ganized for that purpose.3 The first step in the trial
proper is the arraignment, when the prisoner is formal-
ly brought before the court to answer to the charge
against him. He may then plead either guilty or, not
guilty. If he refuses to plead, the plea of not guilty
will be entered for him. If the plea is guilty, sentence
is imposed by the judge according to the provisions of
the law. If the prisoner pleads not guilty, he must be
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. II. § 8; Kurd, Revised
Statutes, ch. 38, §§ 403-420. The constitution, however, gives
the legislature the right to abolish grand juries altogether.
'Constitution of Illinois 1870, Art. II., especially §§ 9, 19;
Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 38, §§ 421-438.
"Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 79, §§ 164-190; ch. 38, §§392-402.
The Administration of Justice 157
tried by a petit jury, so-called to distinguish it from the
grand jury which makes the indictment.1
Service on juries is one of the duties of citizens, but Jury
many exceptions are allowed by law, as in the case of Ice*
lawyers, teachers, ministers, physicians, and some pub-
lic officers. Others not legally excepted often furnish
more or less reasonable excuses and thus escape what
they consider a serious burden. It is often difficult,
therefore, to secure men of good character and intelli-
gence for jury service. In Cook County, lists of jurors
are made up by a board of three jury commissioners
appointed by the judges of the higher courts of the
county. From these lists, jurors are selected both for
the grand jury and for the petit juries. Elsewhere,
lists are made up by the county boards. When in any
particular trial, twelve competent and impartial jurors
cannot be found on the official lists, the judge may
order the sheriff to bring in other men for service.2
Before a jury is selected in any particular case, the
proposed jurors are carefully examined by the court *lon o£
and by the lawyers on both sides. In criminal, as in
civil cases, either party may challenge a juror for cause,
as for example, when it is shown that he is probably
prejudiced for or against the prisoner. The number of
peremptory challenges allowed in criminal cases is
larger than in civil cases. Whenever the penalty in
case of conviction would be death or imprisonment for
life, both the defendant and the prosecuting attorney
are allowed twenty peremptory challenges. In less
serious cases, the number allowed is smaller. Every
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. II. § 5; Kurd, Revised
Statutes, ch. 38, §§ 421-438; Puterbaugh, Common Law Plead-
ing and Practice, ch. 25 ; Starr and Curtis, Annotated Statutes,
ch. 38, Division 13.
2 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 78.
158 Government of Illinois
possible care is taken to prevent the jurymen from
being influenced in any way except by the regular
proceedings in open court and secret or illegal com-
munication with them is a penal offense.1
After the selection of a proper jury, the case is ready
for trial. Usually the prosecuting attorney and the
counsel for the prisoner make introductory speeches,
stating what they expect to prove, and then the wit-
nesses are heard on both sides. Each party has the
right to cross-examine the witnesses of the other. The
judge may refuse to allow evidence which he considers
likely to influence the jury unfairly. When the. wit-
nesses have given their testimony, the lawyers sum up
the evidence on each side. Finally, as in civil cases, the
judge gives his instructions to the jury on the points of
law.2
When a criminal case has finally gone to the jury,
they have the right to decide all questions both of law
and fact, though they should ordinarily be guided by
the judge's instructions on legal points.3 In consider-
ing their verdict, they have to decide first whether the
prisoner is guilty or not guilty. The prisoner is always
to be supposed innocent until his guilt is proved "be-
yond a reasonable doubt," and no verdict can be given
unless the jury is unanimous. The jury may also in
1Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 38, §§ 421-438; ch. 78; Puter-
baugh, Common Law Pleading and Practice, ch. 35.
* Puterbaugh, Common Law Pleading and Practice, chs. 34,
37; Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. no, §§ 52-54.
"The Supreme Court has ruled that a judge may instruct a
jury "that it is the duty of the jury to accept and act upon the
law as laid down to you by the court, unless you can say upon
your oaths that you are better judges of the law than the court."
Davison v. the People, 90 Illinois Reports, 223.
The Administration of Justice 159
certain cases fix the penalty.1 When a verdict of
guilty has been returned, sentence is pronounced by
the court and this sentence or judgment is then usually
carried out by the sheriff of the county.2
The constitution of Illinois provides that no person New trials
shall "be twice put in jeopardy for the same offense." and aPPeals-
It follows that an acquittal by a jury is final and that
there can be no new trial and no appeal to any higher
court. On the other hand, if the prisoner is found
guilty, the judge may allow a new trial or an appeal
may be taken either to the Appellate Court or, in more
serious cases to the Supreme Court of the State. This
higher court will then, in case of unfairness or illegality
in the proceedings, order a new trial.3 Finally, if the
prisoner has been found guilty and the higher court
has refused to interfere, he has still the privilege of
appealing to the governor to exercise his power either
of giving a full pardon or reducing the sentence.4
Throughout this criminal procedure, the State, "The techni-
though itself the prosecuting party, gives the accused
person every opportunity to defend himself, assuming
that he is innocent until he is proved guilty. Doubtless
this system prevents the punishment of many people
who are really guilty and this fact often causes an out-
cry against the "technicalities" of the law. In the long
run, however, most Americans believe that it is better
to let a few guilty men escape than to punish one inno-
cent man unjustly.
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 38, §§ 431, 439-457- Cf. Cooley,
Constitutional Limitations, ch. 10.
1 Revised Statutes, ch. 38, §§ 439-457-
3 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. II. § 10, Art. VI. ; Kurd,
Revised Statutes, ch. 38, §§ 458-470; ch. no.
4 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. V. § 13.
CHAPTER XII
THE WARDS OF THE STATE
60. REFERENCES
Wines, "Prisons and Prison Discipline" (in Lalor, Cyclo-
paedia of Political Science, III. 352-360) ; Henderson, Introduc-
tion to the Study of the Dependent, Defective, and Delinquent
Classes (full reference lists in Appendix) ; Holmes, The Com-
mon Law, Lecture 2; Wines, Punishment and Reformation;
Boies, The Science of Penology; Warner, American Charities.
Documents : Board of State Commissioners of Public Chari-
ties of the State of Illinois, Biennial Reports, especially the Re-
ports for 1876, 1903 ; Illinois Conference of Charities and Cor-
rections, Proceedings; Hurd, Revised Statutes, chs. 23, 38, 85,
86, 107, 118, with notes on these chapters in Starr and Curtis,
Annotated Statutes. See also reports of the various State penal
and charitable institutions.
61. TREATMENT OF THE CRIMINAL CLASS
The guard- Freedom, responsibility, and self-reliance, are the
testate* marks of the good citizen. In every community, how-
ever, there are some who have forfeited their freedom
because they have used it to the injury of their neigh-
bors, or of the State. Others because of misfortune or
weakness cannot be expected to care for themselves.
For all these people, the State has to act as a kind of
guardian. This guardianship of the State is necessary,
first, for the criminal or delinquent class. Though
murder may be punished by death and many minor
offenses may be atoned for by the payment of fines
without the loss of personal freedom, serious offenses
160
are generally punished by depriving the criminal of
his freedom and placing him in the custody of the State,
in other words by imprisonment.
The proper treatment of criminals is a difficult prob- Theories
lem and the practical policy adopted will depend largely m
upon one's theories as to the real purpose for which
men are imprisoned or otherwise punished. In old
systems of punishment, two ideas were made most
prominent. One was that of punishment as a retribu-
tion. In the earliest times the man who was injured
could get retribution or vengeance by striking back.
He was entitled to an eye for an eye and a tooth for a
tooth. Under civilized governments, the State has
taken the place of the individual and has claimed retri-
bution for the wrong done to its own dignity and to
the rights of its citizens. A second idea was intimida-
tion. Men were to be deterred from crime by the fear
of the penalty imposed by law. This idea of punish-
ment as a deterrent is still an important element in our
criminal law. A third purpose of imprisonment is
particularly important in the case of "habitual crimi-
nals" who may be kept for longer terms not merely
because of what they have done, but because, if set free,
they would be a constant menace to the community.
These various theories have one thing in common.
They all regard imprisonment as something which is
necessary to protect the dignity or the interest of the
rest of the community. Recently, however, men have
come to lay more stress upon reformation. Crimes are
now regarded not only as offenses to be punished, but
as symptoms of a moral disease which has to be cured.
Though this principle is often neglected in our modern
ii
1 62
Government of Illinois
Penal
institutions.
State peni-
tentiaries.
prisons, it is at least constantly held up as the ideal
toward which all penal institutions should work.1
In Illinois there are several different kinds of places
in which prisoners are confined by law. There is,
first, the police station in which prisoners may be kept
for a short interval before they have been formally
examined in court. The county jail is used partly for
prisoners charged with crime and awaiting trial, and
partly as a place of imprisonment for persons convicted
of minor offenses. These county jails are, probably,
the most unsatisfactory part of our prison system.
Young men and even children are sometimes associated
here with old and hardened criminals. In some coun-
ties the prisoners are treated in a really cruel and bar-
barous way. A county work-house may be provided
for the employment of prisoners in the county jail, but
as a rule little is done for their training and reforma-
tion.2 Any city also may establish a prison of its own,
called the house of correction, and a similar institution
for women called a "house of shelter." In these places
prisoners may be kept at work and receive more careful
supervision.8
The most important penal institutions of Illinois are
those maintained by the State. Serious offenders are
kept in the State penitentiaries at Joliet and Chester,
1 Cf. Wines, Punishment and Reformation, especially chs. 3,
7,14-
2 See recent reports of the State Board of Charities, especially
the Fourth Biennial Report (1876), Appendix II. Cf. Hurd,
Revised Statutes, ch. 34, §§ 25-26. The Cook County jail is one
of the best managed in the State. Here provision is made for
separating older and younger offenders, and the younger prison-
ers are given elementary teaching. See Chicago Tribune, May
20, 1903.
8 Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 67; Revised Code of Chicago,
ch. 36.
The Wards of the State 163
each of which is under the management of a board of
commissioners appointed by the governor with the ap-
proval of the senate. The commissioners are expected
to meet frequently at the prison and make the necessary
rules for its management. They also appoint the
warden, who is the chief executive officer.1
The chief principles of prison management may be Principles
brieflv stated : ( I ) The convicts are kept under a severe of pnson
manage-
and semi-military discipline, partly in order to control ment.
them and partly for the purpose of moral training.
(2) Hard labor is required of all convicts physically
able to do it. This employment of prisoners relieves
the State of a part of the heavy expenditure necessary
for their support, but it is quite as much for the interest
of the prisoners themselves. The work given will
depend in part on the prisoner's previous experience,
character, and ability. Formerly convict labor was let
by contract to private individuals or companies, but
this is now forbidden and it is a serious problem how
to keep the prisoners properly employed without bring-
ing them into unfair competition with free workmen.2
(3) Great emphasis is laid upon moral training. Since
the first thing necessary to a wise treatment of any
individual prisoner is a thorough knowledge of his
character, every convict is elaborately examined at the
outset in order to bring out every possible fact about
his physical constitution, mental habits, and moral
character. These facts are carefully recorded, and
1 Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 108.
2 In 1903, the legislature passed an elaborate law regulating
the labor of convicts in the penitentiaries and the State reforma-
tory, and leaving their enforcement to the Board of Prison
Industries, consisting of the governing boards of the three insti-
tutions. Act approved May n, 1903. Hurd, Revised Statutes,
ch. 108, §§ 75-102.
164
Government of Illinois
Indetermi-
nate sen-
tences and
the parole
system.
Habitual
criminals.
supplemented by a record of his conduct in the peni-
tentiary. Religious services are provided and some
provision is also made for education.1
There are some important provisions intended to en-
courage good conduct in prison and if possible to pre-
pare the prisoner for good citizenship in the future.
Under the so-called good time rule, a prisoner may by
good conduct reduce his term of imprisonment.2 Un-
der the indeterminate sentence law, a prisoner may be
sentenced for a term which must be at least one year,
but after that may be long or short according to his
conduct in prison and the evidence which he gives of a
purpose to live honestly when released. If his conduct
is bad, he may be confined for the maximum term fixed
by law for the offense for which he was convicted. On
the other hand, a promising prisoner may be released
on parole, with the understanding that he may at any
time be brought back for misconduct.3
In spite of- all efforts to reform them, a large number
of the convicts are or become what are called habit-
ual criminals. For this class, the law partly provides
by imposing much longer terms of imprisonment for a
second or third offense, so that the community may be
protected, even though there may be little hope of
reforming the criminal.4
1 See on this subject Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 108 (Peni-
tentiary) ; Wines, Punishment and Reformation; recent reports
of Penitentiary Commissioners ; Biennial Message of Governor
Yates, 1903 ; Constitutional amendment adopted 1886 ; Blue
Book of Illinois, 1903, 436-438.
2 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 108, §§ 45-49 (Act of 1872).
* Ibid., ch. 38, §§ 498-509. Cf. Wines, Punishment and Refor-
mation. In 1903, a bill to repeal the indeterminate sentence law
was vetoed by Governor Yates.
4 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 38, §§ 473-479-
The Wards of the State 165
Since the hardened criminal is likely to have a Reforma-
demoralizing influence on younger and less hopelessly
vicious men, prison authorities are giving more atten-
tion to the proper classification and separation of crim-
inals. Two State institutions are now provided for the
punishment and reformation of boys and girls convicted
of crime. These are the State Reformatory for Boys
at Pontiac and the State Training School for Girls at
Geneva. Here young prisoners can receive the kind
of training best adapted to them and are saved from the
contaminating influence of hardened criminals.1
Students of crime and the criminal classes are agreed Preventive
that the best way to deal with this problem is by pre- ™*™u*'
ventive measures and particularly by saving the chil- court law.
dren before they become really criminals at all. Some
important laws have recently been passed with this end
in view. In 1899, the legislature passed the so-called
Juvenile Court Law, which provides for the bringing
into court of children who are neglected or vicious.2
Such children may either be left with their own families
under the care of a probation officer appointed by the
judge or placed in some good home or in some State
or private institution where they can be properly cared
for. In Chicago, a judge of the Circuit Court is
selected to hold the Juvenile Court. In other counties,
such cases may be heard by the county judge.
The purpose of the Juvenile Court Law is, if possible, State Home
to give every child the advantage of family life. Since
this is not always practicable at once, the State has
recently organized for boys who are showing criminal
tendencies, the State Home for Delinquent Boys located
1 Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 118; ch. 23, §§ 216-244.
*Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 23, §§ 160-190. (Act approved
April 21, 1899.)
i66
Government of Illinois
at St. Charles. There can be no doubt that this care
of the children is the one method of dealing with crime
which offers the best hope of substantial results.1
62. POOR RELIEF
The State has also to take under its special guardian-
ship the pauper or dependent class. This includes all
people who, for any reason, are not able to support
themselves and have also no family or relatives to care
for them. They may be orphans or neglected children,
old people without the means of support, or widows
who are unable to provide for themselves or their chil-
dren. Sometimes they are good men and women,
thrown out of employment because of illness and acci-
dent; but in other cases they have been brought to
poverty by their own vices. Thus the problem of
poverty, or pauperism, is closely connected with that
of crime. The same personal habits, the same demor-
alizing surroundings which make men criminals may
also make them paupers. In caring for the dependent
classes, therefore, the State has two very different ob-
jects. One is to relieve the suffering of the poor
themselves, and the other, hardly less important, is to
protect the healthy part of the community, and espe-
cially the young, from the demoralizing influence of a
pauper class.2
When any person is unable to support himself, the
Illinois law requires his family to provide for him. If
there are no relatives or friends able to support him,
then the burden falls upon the whole community. In
xHurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 23, §§ 191-215; Blue Book of
Illinois, 432-433. See also ch. 14 below on parental schools.
* Warner, American Charities; Biennial Report of State
Board of Charities, 1876, App. I., III.
The Wards of the State 167
some cases, the town government provides for the sup-
port of its own paupers; but, for the most part, the
relief of the poor falls upon the counties. In looking
after the poor, however, the county makes use of town
officers. Thus in counties under township organiza-
tion, the town supervisors act as overseers of the poor,
except in the larger towns, where the county board may
appoint a special overseer. In counties without town-
ship organization, the county board appoints a "justice
of the peace or some other suitable person" in each
precinct to serve as overseer.
It is the duty of the overseer, first, to provide "out- Outdoor
door relief." That is, money or supplies of any sort rehef-
may be given to relieve poor people whom it would not
be desirable to send to the poorhouse. This kind of
relief is most appropriate with honest and industrious
people who are temporarily in need of help, but who
would be humiliated, and, perhaps, demoralized by
being sent to the poorhouse. There is so much danger,
however, that this outdoor relief may be too freely
given and so weaken the spirit of self-help, that many
people believe that there ought to be no outdoor relief
given by the public. They believe that whenever relief
of this sort is absolutely necessary, it can be provided
by private charity and that people who ask support
from public money should be discouraged as much as
possible by requiring them to go to the poorhouse.
"Indoor relief" is usually provided at the expense of indoor
the county at the county poorhouse or almshouse. rehef*
These poorhouses vary greatly according to the size
and wealth of the county and the intelligence and
humanity of those in charge. In some counties, the
honest poor and children are brought together with
insane, diseased, and vicious paupers. Sometimes the
i68
Government of Illinois
The relief
of veterans
and their
families.
Defectives.
The insane.
insane are still treated according to the barbarous
methods of former days. In the better county institu-
tions special and separate provision is made for differ-
ent classes, as for example in the Cook County estab-
lishment at Dunning. It is now generally recognized
that children ought so far as possible to be saved from
the unfortunate influence of life in the poorhouse and
cared for in other ways.1
Although the State cares for those who have no
claim except that they need help, it also recognizes the
special claim of those who have come to poverty because
of injuries received in the country's service. For the
disabled soldiers and sailors who have served in the
Mexican, Civil and Spanish-American Wars, the State
has established the Soldiers' and Sailors' Home at
Quincy. The families of old soldiers are also provided
for in the Soldiers' Widows' Home at Wilmington and
the Soldiers' Orphans' Home.2 The law also provides
a way in which veterans may receive special outdoor
relief through the relief committees of the various
Grand Army posts. These provisions for veterans and
their families may be regarded not as charity in the
ordinary sense but as the discharge of a public debt.8
63. CARE OF DEFECTIVES
There is another class of State institutions, usually
grouped with those for the poor as charitable institu-
tions. They belong, however, only partly under that
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 107 ; Report of the State Board
of Charities for 1876 and for recent years. Cf. Warner, Amer-
ican Charities, chs. 6, 7 ; Henderson, Dependents, Defectives,
and Delinquents, Part II., chs. 2-5.
*Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 23, §§ 104-121, 127-139; Laws,
1865, 16; Laws, 1869, 39.
3 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 23, §§ 140-147.
The Wards of the State 169
head. These are the institutions for the defective
classes, those who because of some mental or physical
defect or disease, require special supervision or in some
cases a special kind of education. Of these defective
classes, one of the most important is that of the insane.
An insane person cannot usually be trusted with free-
dom or be held responsible for his acts. The law,
therefore, lays down careful rules for determining
whether a particular person is insane and whether he
should be kept under special supervision or restraint.
In Illinois, the question must be passed upon by a court
of law with the help of expert physicians. If the per-
son supposed to be insane demands it, he may have a
trial by jury. This is called an "inquest in lunacy" and
is held by the judge of the county court with the help
of six jurors of whom at least one must be a physician.
If no jury is called for, the judge may appoint instead
a commission of two physicians to examine the person
claimed to be insane. If the jury or commission finds
that he is insane, the judge may either leave him to the
care of his relatives or commit him to an asylum, or
send him to the insane department of the county poor-
house. The court may also, if the patient has property
which requires care, appoint a conservator who will act
for him much as a guardian takes care of the property
of children. Through these precautions, the State tries
first to prevent any sane person from being deprived of
his liberty,1 and, secondly, to prevent improper advan-
tage being taken of those who are really insane.2
Insane persons may be cared for in various ways, insane
asylums.
1 It is worth noting that a person confined on the ground of
insanity is entitled to the benefit of the writ of habeas corpus,
precisely as if he had been imprisoned on any other ground.
3 Kurd, Re-vised Statutes, chs. 85, 86.
of treat-
ment.
170 Government of Illinois
Some go to the county poorhouse. In some cases, as
in Cook County, there may be a county insane asylum
connected with the poorhouse. Few counties, how-
ever, are able to provide proper care for the insane and
the burden, therefore, falls largely upon the State.
There are now six State hospitals for the insane besides
one for insane criminals. The oldest of these was
established at Jacksonville in 1847 and others have been
provided for the northern, southern, eastern and west-
ern sections of the State. There is also at Bartonville,
near Peoria, an Asylum for the Incurable (or better
chronic) Insane.1
Methods During the last century, there have been great im-
provements in the methods of caring for the insane.
In former times they were treated almost like wild
animals and often looked upon with superstitious hor-
ror. These cruel and barbarous methods have been
rapidly disappearing, however, and insanity is now
looked upon as a disease which should be carefully
studied and which, if properly treated, may often be
cured.
Medical Though any citizen of the State may receive free
chanties. treatment at these State hospitals, they cannot be re-
garded as necessarily public charities. If the insane
patients or their families have property, they are of
course taxed for the support of these institutions which
may, therefore, be regarded as great cooperative enter-
prises undertaken by the State, because they cannot be
so well managed in any other way. Somewhat similar
in character to these insane hospitals are the medical
charities. Thus the State maintains at Chicago the
1 Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 23, §§ 60-91 ; cf. also note at end
of ch. 23, ibid.; Reports of State Board of Chanties, especially
1876; Blue Book of Illinois, 413-424.
The Wards of the State 171
Illinois Charitable Eye and Ear Infirmary, and poor
people may also be given free care at city or county
hospitals.1
Other institutions for defective children are distinct- Schools for
ly educational. The normal healthy child is provided d
for in the ordinary public school, but many children are
prevented by physical defects from receiving their edu-
cation in this way and require a special training in order
to take their places as self-supporting members of
society. For this purpose, there have been established
several important State institutions. The first to be
established in Illinois was the Illinois Institution for the
Education of the Deaf and Dumb, founded at Jackson-
ville in 1 839.* Ten years later the Illinois Institution
for the Education of the Blind was founded at the same
place, and there has since been organized at Chicago,
an Industrial Home for the Blind. A less hopeful kind
of institution is the Illinois Asylum for Feeble Minded
Children in which these unfortunates are given such
education as they are capable of receiving. The work
that is done for children in these institutions, though
generally spoken of as "charitable," may also be treated
as a part of the public school system of the State.3
The State institutions for the care of the poor and state insti-
defective classes are usually managed by boards of t
trustees appointed by the governor with the advice and
consent of the senate. The governor also has the
power to make removals for good cause. These trus-
tees receive no pay except their expenses in the service,
, Revised Statutes, ch. 23, §§ 148-165.
* The name of this institution has recently been changed to
the Illinois School for the Deaf. Act approved May 16, 1903.
Laws, 1903 (Legal News ed.).
3 See ch. 14 below.
172 Government of Illinois
but each board has power to appoint the superin-
tendent who does receive a salary and who is, subject
to the authority of the trustees, the chief executive
officer of the institution.
State Board Nearly all of these institutions are subject to the
of Chanties. SUpervisjon of the Board of State Commissioners of
Public Charities. This Board consists of five mem-
bers, all appointed by the governor for a term of five
years, one member, however, retiring each year. Mem-
bers serve without salary but have an allowance for
their expenses. They have the right to visit and ex-
amine the various State charitable institutions. They
also visit the county poorhouses and jails and describe
the conditions which they find in the biennial reports
which they are required to make to the governor.
Though the State Board of Charities has under its care
a large number of public and private charities, it has
little or no real control over the management of the
various institutions. It is believed by many that a
board which should really control and which should be
made up of salaried officers giving their whole time to
the work would give the people of the State a much
more systematic and businesslike administration of
these important interests. This plan was recommended
by the State Board itself in 1900 but has thus far not
been carried out.1
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 23, §§ 2-18; Reports of the State
Board of Charities.
CHAPTER XIII
THE ECONOMIC SERVICES OF THE STATE
64. REFERENCES
Willoughby, An Examination of the Nature of the State, ch.
9; H. C. Adams, "Relation of the State to Industrial Action"
(Publications of the American Economic Association, I., No.
6) ; "The Relation of Modern Municipalities to Quasi-Public
Works" (Ibid., II., No. 6) ; Hart, Actual Government, Part IX. ;
Bemis, Municipal Monopolies; Maltbie, "Municipal Functions,"
(Municipal Affairs, II.) ; American Academy of Political and
Social Science, Social Activities and Social Legislation (various
authors, 1902) ; Zeublin, American Municipal Improvements;
Brooks, "Bibliography of Municipal Administration and City
Conditions" (in Municipal Affairs, I., with supplementary lists
in subsequent issues) ; Baker, M. N., Municipal Year Book;
Dillon, Commentaries on the Law of Municipal Corporations, 2
vols. Compare for illustrations of industrial and social enter-
prises by European cities, Shaw, Municipal Government in Eu-
rope and Municipal Government in England, and Fairlie, Mu-
nicipal Administration, chs. n, 12.
Documents : Constitution of Illinois, Arts. XL, XIII. ; Hurd,
Revised Statutes of Illinois, especially chs. :6a, 24, 32, 47, 73, 114,
121, with notes on these chapters in Starr and Curtis, Annotated
Statutes; Auditor of Public Accounts, Biennial Reports; Bu-
reau of Labor Statistics, Reports; Board of Railroad and Ware-
house Commissioners, Reports, especially 1872-1876 and recent
issues ; Secretary of State, Biennial Reports.
65. STATE REGULATION OF PRIVATE ENTERPRISE
In the exercise of the police power, in the administra- The state
tion of justice, and even to a certain extent in the care fs a ffctor
J in social
of the abnormal and degenerate classes, the purpose of progress.
the government is to protect the ordinary citizen in the
173
174 Government of Illinois
free and safe enjoyment of his rights. In all modern
countries, however, the government actually does much
more than this. It is not content with merely protect-
ing right private enterprises and prohibiting injurious
ones, but has become an important positive factor in
the progress of the people. It renders important ser-
vices of an economic or material kind, and it tries also
by means of public education to serve the higher inter-
ests of the community.
Economic The positive services performed by the State in the
services economic life of the people are, roughly, of three kinds :
classified. . ,. . .
(i) State regulation of private enterprise; (2) State
aid to private enterprise; and (3) public ownership or
management of industrial enterprises.
state regu As business interests have grown constantly larger
(rfTate°en- an(^ more complicated, it has become more important
terprises. that they should be made to work in harmony. Men
are coming to have higher ideas of industrial and social
organization and since these ideas are often in conflict
with private interests, it is desirable that the strength
of the State should be used to bring about more just
and reasonable conditions. Acting on this theory, the
government has come more and more to regulate cer-
tain kinds of business in order to promote their develop-
ment along those lines which shall be best for the inter-
ests of the whole community. Some of this work is
given to the Federal government, particularly under its
power to regulate inter-state and foreign commerce, but
much is still left to the States. This is clearly shown
by the clauses of the Illinois constitution which have to
do with corporations in general, and with such specific
kinds of business as railroads, banks, and warehouses.
Corpora- Since the important business of the community, and
particularly its commerce and manufactures are largely
The Economic Services of the State 175
in the hands of corporations rather than of individuals,
it is important to understand something of the general
principles of law which apply to these organizations.
It is not easy to state accurately and yet without techni-
cal language just what a corporation is, but it is com-
monly defined in law as an artificial person. Thus a
corporation may consist of one person and his succes-
sors in some particular office or trust ; or it may be, as
is usually the case, an association of several persons.
In any case, the law regards it as a sort of person,
having rights and duties similar to those of a natural
person, and quite distinct from those of the individuals
who compose it. Thus a corporation may buy and
sell property, and it may sue and be sued in the courts
like any individual person. It may also have debts
which are quite distinct from those of its individual
members. It is important to note, however, that these
privileges, which seem almost necessary for the conduct
of any great enterprise at the present time, are not
enjoyed as a matter of course but are given by the
State and limited by law. In Illinois corporations
might formerly be chartered by special acts of the
legislature, and many such charters were issued just
before the adoption of the present constitution.1 They
are now forbidden by the constitution and all new cor-
porations must be organized under general laws. These
general laws need not be the same for all corporations,
but may be only for those of a particular class. Some
of these classes are recognized by the constitution itself
and others are provided for by statute.2
1 See the session laws, 1865-1869, and note the marked reduc-
tion in the size of the volumes after the adoption of the present
constitution.
2 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. XL
176 Government of Illinois
Public cor- Some corporations are not organized for the purpose
and^corpo- °^ making profits for their members and therefore do
rations "not not concern us here. Thus there are public corpora-
or pro t. lions doing a part of the work of government. A city
is a corporation and as such can sue and be sued in the
courts. So is the State University, maintained by the
people as a part of the public school system. There are
also many private associations having corporate privi-
leges, but not organized for strictly business purposes.
Under this head come churches, literary societies, politi-
cal clubs, and many other societies.1
The general Among the private corporations organized for pure-
ly business purposes, the law recognizes several distinct
classes. Many of them are organized under a general
law regulating "corporations for pecuniary profit," but
other corporations such as railroads, banks, and insur-
ance companies are chartered in accordance with laws
specially adapted to each of these particular kinds of
business. The general law requires, first, that all per-
sons who wish to organize themselves into a corporation
must secure a license from the secretary of state and
must choose their officers according to rules prescribed
by law. Corporations are also required to make regu-
lar reports to the secretary of state and are expressly
declared to be bound by such regulations as the State
legislature may from time to time think necessary.2
Banking Of the laws relating to special classes of business
laws- corporations, the most important are those on banking,
insurance and railroads. In the early history of Illi-
nois, the State itself attempted to engage in the banking
business, but this policy was unsuccessful and is now
forbidden by the constitution. Banks are now organ-
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 32, especially §§ 29-49.
2 Ibid., ch. 32, §§ 1-28.
The Economic Services of the State 177
izecl under general laws which must be submitted to
the people for their approval.1 The present law regu-
lates the manner in which bank directors are to be elect-
ed, the minimum amount of capital stock which they
must hold, and the ways in which they may lend money.
For the purpose of enforcing these regulations and
protecting the rights of stockholders and depositors,
banks must be examined at least once a year by a bank
examiner appointed by the State Auditor of Public
Accounts.2
Somewhat similar regulations are made for com- Regulation
panics carrying on various kinds of insurance business of msu™nce
J companies.
such as life, accident, and fire insurance. Insurance
companies are now under the Supervision of the State
Insurance Department. The superintendent of this
department has the right to examine insurance com-
panies, to receive reports from them, and in some cases
to deprive them of their privilege of doing business in
the State.3
The proper regulation of railroad companies is a state regu-
most difficult problem, and it has been especially impor- l^"".^*
tant for Illinois because of the great railroad interests
which center in the city of Chicago. Until the adoption
of the present constitution, the State had failed to work
out any satisfactory policy. The unsuccessful improve-
ment scheme of 1837 had provided for the building of
railroads by the State. Later aid was given to railroad
companies in various ways by the Federal, State, coun-
ty, and town governments. When the railroads had
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. XI. §§ 5-8.
2 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. i6a. It must, however, be re-
membered that a large proportion of the important banks are
organized not under State law, but under the authority of the
national bank act.
3 Ibid., ch. 73. Cf. Act approved May 14, 1903, §§ 272a-272g.
12
178 Government of Illinois
been built, however, the people and particularly the
farmers felt that they were not being fairly treated in
the matter of charges ; that the great corporations which
had received so many privileges from the State should
be brought more thoroughly under its control. The
Constitution of 1870, therefore, defines carefully the
mutual rights and duties of the railroad companies and
the people, and these constitutional principles have been
worked out in detail by acts of the State legislature.
Principles One important principle of this State regulation is
re uiatbn publicity. Every railroad company doing business in
Illinois must have a public office in the State where its
records must be kept, and make an annual report to the
State Auditor and to the Board of Railroad and Ware-
house Commissioners.1 In the second place, investors
as well as the general public are protected by rules
restricting the increase of capital stock.2 A third prin-
ciple is the preserving of competition by prohibiting the
consolidation of companies which own parallel or com-
peting lines.3 The most important principle, however,
laid down by the constitution is in the statement that
the railroads are not purely private property, but "pub-
lic highways" "free to all persons for the transportation
of their persons and property." Because the railroads
are "public highways" the State has a right to prevent
unjust discrimination among their patrons and even to
establish "reasonable maximum rates of charges" both
for freight and for passengers.4 Acting under these
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. XI. § 9 ; Kurd, Revised
Statutes, ch. 114, § 24.
2 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. XI, § 13 ; Kurd, Revised
Statutes, ch. 114, §§ 15, 22.
'Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. XL § n; Revised Stat-
utes, ch. 114, § 23.
* Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. XL §§ 12, 15.
The Economic Services of the State 179
clauses the legislature passed a law prohibiting "extor-
tion and unjust discrimination." It also attempted to
fix definite maximum rates which might be charged for
freight and passengers. This law was objected to as
unconstitutional, and in 1873 a new law was passed
which left the duty of publishing such rates to the
Board of Railroad and Warehouse Commissioners.
These rates are enforced by the courts unless shown to
be unreasonable.1
This Board consists of three commissioners appoint- Railroad
ed by the governor and the senate to serve for a term
of two years. No one can hold this office who has any
money interest in any railroad. The commissioners
are entitled to receive every year from the railroads, a
sworn statement giving information of almost every
kind about their property and business. It is the duty
of the Board to enforce various acts of the legislature
regulating railroads, but their most important work is
the publication from time to time of schedules fixing
the maximum rates which may be charged for freight
and passengers. In the case of passengers a uniform
maximum rate of three cents a mile has been fixed. In
the case of freight, the maximum rates which may be
charged vary according to the character of the business.
At first, the railroads resisted this principle of State reg-
ulation of railway rates, but it has since been sustained
by the State Supreme Court and finally by the Supreme
Court of the United States.2
1 J. H. Gordon, Illinois Railway Legislation and Commission
Control (in University of Illinois, University Studies) ; Kurd,
Revised Statutes, ch. 114, §§ 124-133.
2Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 114; Reports of Railroad and
Warehouse Commissioners; 111. Central Railroad Company v.
iSo Government of Illinois
Regulation Somewhat different from the problem of the steam
of street railroads is that of the street railways which, especially
railways. *
since the development of electricity, have spread rapidly
in all the large cities and many of the smaller towns of
the State. Since they use the public streets it is gen-
erally recognized that the people, who own the streets,
have a right to determine the conditions under which
such use may be allowed. The State constitution,
therefore, provides that no law shall be passed giving
the right to establish a street railway through the streets
of a city or town without the consent of the local au-
thorities.1 In the past, this valuable privilege of using
the streets has been given away without any sufficient
return to the people, but the tendency now is to require
greater concessions from the street railway companies
and to subject them to municipal regulations of various
kinds. Within recent years, city street railways have
been developed in many places into what are sometimes
called inter-urban railways, carrying not only passen-
gers, but sometimes freight also for long distances and
thus coming into competition with steam railroads.
These inter-urban companies probably will require reg-
ulations similar to those already adopted for steam
railroads.2
Regulation Much the same principles which have been applied
to railroad freight-rates have also been thought neces-
sary in the case of the great warehouses, particularly
those for the storing of grain. The law provides cer-
tain maximum rates for the storage of grain, requires
the People, 95 Illinois Reports, 313, and Ruggles v. Illinois, and
111. Central R. R. Co. v. Illinois, 108 U. S. Reports, 526-543 ; cf.
Munn v. Illinois, 94 U. S., 113.
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. XI. § 4.
8 See on this subject the Message of Governor Yates, Jan. 7,
1903.
The Economic Services of the State 181
that rates shall be published and that there shall be no
unjust discrimination in favor of or against particular
customers. The enforcement of these regulations is
entrusted to the Railroad and Warehouse Commission-
ers.1
There are many other examples of State control of other ex-
private enterprises. There is special legislation regu- *mplei
lating building and loan associations, gas companies, troi.
and trust and surety companies.2 Coal mining is an-
other kind of business which is subjected to many spe-
cial regulations. It is supervised by a State mining
board which appoints inspectors and holds examina-
tions to determine who may be employed as managers
or engineers.3
66. INDUSTRIAL COMBINATIONS AND LABOR
LEGISLATION
Within recent years two objects of State regulation Regulation
have seemed particularly important. The first is the ^
protection of the people from abuse of power by the tions.
so-called "trusts," great combinations of capital having
a partial control or even a complete monopoly of certain
lines of business. It is not clear just how much can
be done in this field by the Federal government and how
much should be left to the States. The Illinois legisla-
ture, however, has attempted to prevent by law combi-
nations made for the purpose of securing a monopoly in
particular lines of business or for limiting the quantity
or fixing the price at which articles shall be sold.4
1 Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. XIII. ; Hurd, Revised
Statutes, ch. 114, §§ 134-160.
2 Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 32 passim.
* Ibid., ch. 93.
*Ibid., ch. 38 (Criminal Code), §§ 26oa-26ot.
1 82
Government of Illinois
Labor
legislation.
State Board
of Arbitra-
tion.
These laws have not overcome the tendency toward
great industrial combinations, and there is great differ-
ence of opinion as to how far this tendency ought to be
checked.
Another important object of State intervention is to
secure better conditions for the employment of labor
and to prevent, so far as possible, strikes or lock-outs.
Thus the law makes eight hours a legal day's work,
where there is no specific contract. Factory laws have
been passed to secure better conditions in manufactur-
ing establishments and factory inspectors have been
appointed to enforce these regulations. To help men
who are out of work, State free employment agencies
have been provided for. The courts of Illinois are,
however, somewhat conservative about measures which
seem to restrict individual liberty and some important
acts of this kind have been declared unconstitutional.1
One of the most important measures of this class was
the establishment of the State Board of Arbitration,
consisting of three members appointed by the governor.
One of them must be an employer, another an employee
and the third, some one who is neither employer or
employee. The Board may investigate a dispute be-
tween employers and workmen when one or both of
the parties ask for it. When both have applied for
arbitration, the failure of either to accept the decision
may be punished by the courts. The board may also,
when the interests of the public seem to be endangered
by a strike or lock-out, investigate the case of its own
1 Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 48, §§ 53-67. One act for this
purpose was declared unconstitutional by the State Supreme
Court, but a substitute measure was passed in 1903. Act ap-
proved May n, 1903. Cf. Starr and Curtis, Annotated Stat-
utes, ch. 38, § 442 note, and Frorer et al v. the People, 141
Illinois Reports, 171.
The Economic Services of the State 183
motion and make recommendations to the parties. It
cannot compel either party to accept arbitration, but
has doubtless done something to prevent undesirable
conflicts between labor and capital.1
Many of the provisions just spoken of may, in so far Negative an4
as they are intended to protect the community from a P°91tive a8-
pects of this
harmful use of individual liberty, be considered as a legislation,
part of the police work of the State. Yet, taken as a
whole, they show in a positive way how the State to-day
tries to guide private enterprise along safe and wise
lines of progress.
67. STATE AID TO PRIVATE ENTERPRISE
Besides controlling or "regulating private enterprise, state aid to
the State does much to encourage and aid certain kinds aenculture-
of private activity which are considered especially use-
ful to the whole community. Since Illinois is an im-
portant agricultural State, some effort is naturally made
to help the farming industry. This is done partly by
State appropriations to various agricultural organiza-
tions which are intended to develop improved methods
of farming. Thus appropriations are made by the
State to the State Board of Agriculture, to the State
Horticultural Society, and to State and county farmer's
institutes. Much is also appropriated for scientific
investigations in the interests of the farmers. Thus
the State entomologist is employed to investigate insect
enemies of vegetation.2 The State also cooperates with
the Federal government in supporting the State Agri-
cultural College, where investigations are carried on
which throw light on many practical problems. The
1 Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 10.
2 Revised Statutes, chs. 5, 1273; biennial appropriation acts in
Laws, 1903.
184 Government of Illinois
State further helps the farming interests of Illinois by
the passage of suitable drainage laws. In order to
carry out drainage plans, private individuals must some-
times be compelled to allow the use of their lands and
all persons who will receive any direct benefit must be
compelled to contribute their share of the expense.
Through acts of the legislature and through the courts
the State gives its compulsory power for this purpose.1
Bureau of There has not been so much direct legislation by
Usdcs Sta t^ie State in aid of manufactures, but in 1879 the legis-
lature established the State Board of Commissioners of
Labor, better known as the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
It is the duty of this Board to collect statistics "relating
to the commercial, industrial, social, educational, and
sanitary conditions of the laboring classes, and to the
permanent prosperity of the mechanical, manufactur-
ing, and productive industry of the State." The pub-
lished reports have given special attention to the coal
mining industry.2
Aid to Both agriculture and manufactures are, however,
largely dependent for their prosperity upon the com-
merce and transportation which bring the farm and
factory products from the producer to the consumer.
In this field the positive help of the State to private
enterprise has always been very important. Without
good roads, there can be little commerce between dif-
ferent communities, but the building and improvement
of roads is largely the work of county and town gov-
ernments. In order to facilitate commerce, the State
has spent a large sum of money on the Illinois and
1 Revised Statutes, ch. 42, and Constitution of Illinois, 1870,
Art. IV. § 31 (amendment).
2 Revised Statutes, ch. i?b. See also Reports of the Bureau
of Labor Statistics.
commerce.
The Economic Services of the State 185
Michigan Canal, and has from time to time either
through the central or the local governments given
help in the building of railroads.
Perhaps the most important help which the State Eminent d»
gives in the building of a railroad is by allowing the maiiu
railroad company to exercise the right of "eminent
domain." It is one of the fundamental principles of
any government, that private property is subject to the
public welfare and may be taken over by the State, if
necessary, with the understanding, however, that the
owner must receive compensation for property so
taken or condemned. Thus if the government desires
to build a public road, it may condemn the land of any
private owner over which the road must pass, and the
courts will decide what is a reasonable compensation.1
Through the grant of the State, railroad corporations
also may exercise this power under the same condition
that they must pay a reasonable price to be fixed by the
courts.2 A similar right to take property under the
principle of eminent domain is given to telegraph com-
panies.3
68. PUBLIC OWNERSHIP
There are some kinds of business carried on for the Government
purpose of satisfying the material needs or conven- enterPnses-
ience of the people, which the State takes out of private
hands altogether and entrusts to the government. The
line between public and private business has been dif-
ferently drawn in different governments and at differ-
ent times. In a general way, however, it may be said
that certain services which are needed by all or nearly
1 Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 47.
"Ibid., ch. 114, esp. §§ 18, 19.
' Ibid., ch. 134, § 19.
i86
Government of Illinois
State own-
ership and
socialism.
Th- ex-
perience of
Illinois.
all the people, and which are of such a kind that real
competition is either impracticable or undesirable, are
being more and more treated as government business.
Thus the national governments of all civilized coun-
tries undertake the business of delivering letters for the
convenience of their citizens, and many governments
have taken over the telegraph lines and the business of
sending goods by express. Thus also a State govern-
ment may own and operate a canal, and a county or
town government may build and maintain roads. A
city may undertake the business of furnishing water
for the people who live within the city limits, or it may
even own and operate a street railway system.
All the forms of business just mentioned have at
some times and in some places been left to private en-
terprise, but each of them is now being somewhere car-
ried on as government business. It is quite possible
that many other kinds of business now managed by
private individuals for private profit may be hereafter
taken over by the government, acting as a sort of co-
operative society for all the people of the community.
If all industrial enterprises should thus be taken over
by the state, we should have what is called socialism.
In the early history of this State, the legislature pro-
posed, as has been seen, to undertake on a large scale
the business of building canals and railroads. Though
large sums were appropriated for this purpose, the
only substantial result accomplished was the building
of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, now in charge of a
Board of Canal Commissioners appointed by the gov-
ernor. This is probably the best example in Illinois of
an industrial enterprise carried on by the central gov-
ernment of the State, but there is great difference of
The Economic Services of the State 187
opinion as to the real value of this canal under present
conditions.1
One of the most important industrial enterprises Public
undertaken by any government is the building and roads*
maintaining of public highways, including roads and
bridges. Roads have often been in the past private
enterprises, carried on for profit and collecting tolls
from travelers. A few such toll roads still exist, but
in Illinois the practically universal rule is that roads and
bridges are made and repaired by the local govern-
ments and are free to all who wish to pass over them.
In counties under town government, this work is in the
charge of commissioners of highways elected by the
people of each town. Counties not under township
organization may either be divided into road districts
in charge of elected commissioners, or they may leave
the general management of the roads in the hands of
the county board.2
The cities, however, furnish the best examples of Public
government ownership of the so-called "public util- utlllties-
ities." Much which might elsewhere be safely left to
private enterprise cannot be so left in these crowded
places without serious inconvenience and danger.
Thus, a city family cannot well have its own separate
arrangements for sewerage or water or street lighting.
Sometimes these public utilities are furnished by private
companies. In that case, there is usually a monopoly,
because, as in the case of water or street railway serv-
ice, there is not room for several companies on the same
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 19; Message of Governor Yates,
1903. See above, ch. 2.
"Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 121. An excellent account of
the road laws of Illinois is given by I. O. Baker in the Engi-
neering Record, XLVII. 431-432.
i88
Government of Illinois
Examples of
municipal
ownership.
Municipal
ownership
as a prac-
tical issue.
streets. If there is a monopoly, there is always a
chance that the citizen who needs these services will
not be treated fairly by the company. Sometimes a
strong corporation may, through corrupt methods or
otherwise, prevent proper regulations by the city au-
thorities in the interest of the people. For these and
other reasons, city governments in Illinois, as else-
where, have taken up new lines of business, formerly
left to private enterprise.1
The public utilities managed by the municipal gov-
ernments may be divided roughly into two classes. Of
the first class are those which, being considered gener-
ally useful, are furnished free and paid for by public
taxation. In this way, nearly all the city governments
of Illinois manage their sewerage systems, maintain
public parks, and care for the cleaning and lighting of
streets. In the second class are those services for
which the city is paid by those who make use of them.
Thus a large majority of the city governments of Illi-
nois own water works, but the private consumer usually
pays for what he uses. It is also proposed that city
governments should be given the right to furnish elec-
tric lights to private consumers who are willing to pay
for them. Under the so-called Miiller law of 1903, a
city government may even under certain conditions own
and operate a street railway system.2
The question of private or public ownership of pub-
lic utilities will certainly be much discussed in future
years. If in any given case, people are convinced that
a particular kind of business will be better managed, in
1Maltbie, "Municipal Functions" (in Municipal Affairs, II.).
* M. N. Baker, Municipal Year Book; Bemis, Municipal Mo-
nopolies, especially chs. i, 7 and pp. 281-285 ; Hurd, Revised
Statutes, ch. 24, esp. §§ 254-27oq, 280-282, 655-660.
The Economic Services of the State 189
the interest of the whole community, by public rather
than by private ownership, they will probably not hesi-
tate to have their city governments undertake it, even
though such a measure may be called socialistic. Con-
servative people, however, have the right to demand
substantial reasons for believing that there will be a
real improvement of the service. One of the great
objections now made to public ownership is that city
affairs are so much in the hands of professional poli-
ticians that they are not likely to be managed on sound
business principles. Civil service reform or the merit
system in city appointments is therefore necessary if
municipal governments are to undertake these new and
difficult responsibilities.
CHAPTER XIV
PUBLIC EDUCATION
Education
as the safe-
guard of
popular
government
69. REFERENCES
Hart, Actual Government, ch. 28 (gives a good bibliography
of public education in the United States) ; Boone, Education in
the United States; Dexter, History of Education in the United
States; Willard, "A Brjef History of Education in Illinois" (in
Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1883-1884) ;
Pillsbury, articles in Biennial Reports of the Superintendent of
Public Instruction as follows : "Sketch of the Permanent School
Funds of Illinois" (i4th Report) ; "Early Education in Illinois"
(i6th Report) ; and "Historical Sketch of the State Normal
Universities and the University of Illinois" (i7th Report) ;
Clark, The Public Schools of Chicago.
Documents : U. S. Commissioner of Education, Reports ;
Hurd, Revised Statutes of Illinois, ch. 122; [Illinois] Depart-
ment of Public Instruction, The Illinois School Law, 1889-1901 ;
Bateman and Pillsbury, School Laws and Common School De-
cisions of the State of Illinois (ed. 1889) ; Superintendent of
Public Instruction, Biennial Reports ; Chicago Educational Com-
mission, Report, 1899; Chicago Board of Education, Annual Re-
ports, especially
70. REASONS FOR PUBLIC EDUCATION
Though the duty of the State to provide free public
schools is now generally recognized, it has not always
been so. Even to-day some men consider that the edu-
cation of children should be a purely private affair, that
no man ought to be taxed in order to help educate the
children of his neighbors. It is therefore desirable to
understand, at the outset, why it is that education is
190
Public Education 191
regarded as a public rather than a purely private inter-
est. One of the best answers to this question was given
in the well-known Ordinance of 1787. "Religion, mor-
ality and knowledge being necessary to good govern-
ment and the happiness of mankind, schools and the
means of education shall forever be encouraged."1 The
first reason implied in this statement is that education
is necessary to make men good citizens. In an abso-
lute monarchy, it may be less necessary that men should
be generally educated, but in a republic, where the
people instead of being subjects have the sovereign
power in their own hands, government cannot be safe
without a large body of citizens who are intelligent as
well as patriotic. This principle was recognized even
when, as in 1787, the right to vote and hold office was
given only to that part of the population which had
special advantages of property and education. It is
more than ever important to-day in a State like Illinois
where the government is purely democratic.
There is, however, another reason why the State Public edu-
should undertake this work of education. It is reason- cation ** a
cooperative
able to educate children for better service of the State, enterprise.
but after all the State is only an agency for promoting
the welfare of the people. So it may be said that chil-
dren should be educated not only that they may be good
citizens, but also that as men and women they may
make the most of all their powers. This work may be
.done by individuals, by churches, and by other private
institutions, but in Illinois it is largely done by the
State, because that is the agency through which the
great mass of the people can best cooperate for the ben-
efit of their children.
1 Ordinance of 1787, Art. III. of the Compact.
192
Government of Illinois
Early
Federal
legislation.
Early State
legislation.
71. GROWTH OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM
The history of the public school system of Illinois
begins more than thirty years before the State was ad-
mitted to the Union. In 1785, the Congress of the old
Confederation passed an ordinance establishing for the
Northwest Territory the present system of land surveys
by townships six miles square. This ordinance pro-
vided that section 16, or one thirty-sixth part of each
township, should always be set apart for maintaining
public schools within that township.1 In 1818, Con-
gress gave these lands to the new State for the same
purpose, and also promised three per cent, of the net
proceeds of all public lands sold in Illinois after Janu-
ary i, 1819, to be appropriated by the legislature of the.
State for the encouragement of learning. Thus Illi-
nois owes the beginning of its public school system to
the generous action of the Federal Congress.2
Many years passed before much practical use was
made of these provisions. A very liberal law of 1825
provided for a system of free schools which might be
supported partly by public taxation, but the people were
not yet ready to be taxed for this purpose and this pro-
vision was soon repealed.3 A few years later, however,
the school lands of various townships began to be sold
for the purpose of maintaining public schools. The
first free public school in Illinois was probably founded
in Chicago about 1834. As a result of constant agita-
tion by those who believed in public education, some
1 Text of the ordinance in Hart and Channing, American His-
tory Leaflets, No. 32.
1 Text of the enabling act in Appendix B, § 81.
8 Laws of Illinois, 1825, 121-128; Pillsbury, Early Education
in Illinois (i6th Biennial Report of Superintendent of Public
Instruction).
Public Education 193
important progress was made during the next few
years. Provision was made for school township and
school district officers. County superintendents of
schools were also provided for and the secretary of
state was made ex-officio State superintendent. The
school districts were again given the right to lay school
taxes, though at first only in a very limited way.
In 1854, the office of Superintendent of Public In- The School
struction was separated from that of secretary of state ^ ^J855
and in 1855 a general school law was passed which is constitution
generally regarded as "the foundation of our present sys- of l870'
tern. The new law provided for free schools in every
district, supported by local taxation, but aided also by
the State school funds. So far, the school system of
the State was provided for only by acts of the legisla-
ture; but in 1870, the new constitution recognized the
responsibility of the State by requiring the general as-
sembly to "provide a thorough and efficient system of
public schools whereby the children of this State may
receive a good common school education."1
72. PRINCIPLES OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM
In studying the school system of to-day, a few funda- Education
mental principles ought to be kept constantly in mind : ^Lw6
I. Since education is one of the most important
functions of government, it must be regulated by law.
Those who have in charge the teaching and manage-
ment of the public schools are public officers and their
powers and duties are prescribed for them by the law,
sometimes in great detail. The State does not, how-
ever, take the work of education exclusively into its
1 Pillsbury, Early Education in Illinois; Laws, 1854, I3-I5 >
, 51-91 ; Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. VIII.
13
194 Government of Illinois
own hand. Side by side with the public school system,
there are private schools of every grade from the kin-
dergarten to the university. The churches have been
particularly active in this work. Thus the Catholic and
Lutheran churches have established parochial schools,
and universities and colleges have been founded by the
efforts of various religious denominations. There is
some dispute as to just how far the State may regulate
such private institutions; but the more important pri-
vate schools and colleges are required to make formal
reports to the State Superintendent.1
Free educa- 2. The constitution requires a school system "where-
to°aii°ff€ ky M children of this State may receive a good com-
mon school education."2 The school board in every
district must keep a sufficient number of free schools to
accommodate all the children in the district and "secure
to all such children the right and opportunity to an
equal education in such schools." In the country dis-
tricts, schools must be kept open for at least no days
in each year and in the more populous districts for at
least six months.3 In 1900, there were only 32 districts
out of nearly twelve thousand in the State in which
there were no free schools, and about a hundred more
in which a school was not kept for at least six months.4
Compulsory 3. The compulsory education law provides that those
who are given this opportunity of free education shall
1Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 122, § 5; Biennial Reports of
Superintendent of Public Instruction.
' Constitution of Illinois, 1870, Art. VIII. § I.
8 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 122, §§ 146, 166.
* Biennial Report of State Superintendent, 1902, 271. In the
crowded districts of Chicago and in the sparsely settled rural
districts, there is often difficulty in providing suitable and equal
accommodations. Ibid., 50-53 ; Report of the Educational Com-
mission (Chicago), Art. XVIII.
Public Education 195
be required to make use of it. All children between the
ages of seven and fourteen years, who are not phys-
ically or mentally unfitted, must now be kept in school
at least no days in each year. Penalties are imposed
upon parents who fail to see that this is done and truant
officers may be appointed by school boards to see that
the law is enforced.1 There is a close connection be-
tween this rule of compulsory education and the law
which prohibits the employment in factories of children
between these same ages of seven and fourteen. Both
of these laws have been found difficult to enforce, partly
because it is not easy to prevent false statements by
parents as to children's ages. The Chicago School Re-
port for 1901 showed that the proportion of children
actually in school to the total number of children of
school age was considerably less in 1900 than in 1892.
There has recently been established, however, in Chi-
cago, a Compulsory Education Department with a su-
perintendent and a number of truant officers. This de-
partment, cooperating with the State factory inspectors,
has done a good service by placing in school children
who had been kept out either by their own willfulness
or the neglect of their parents. For children who can-
not be properly managed in the ordinary day school, the
city has established a Parental School, where they can
have special training to prevent their drifting into the
criminal or vicious class. Similar parental or truant
schools may be established in other cities of twenty-five
thousand or more inhabitants.2
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 122, §§ 313-318.
2 Chicago School Report, 1900 ; 1901, 45-52, 113-114 ; Report of
the Educational Commission (Chicago), Art. XIV.; Hurd, Re-
vised Statutes, ch. 122, §§ 433-444. Cf. message of Governor
Yates, Jan. 7, 1903.
196
Government of Illinois
Public
schools sup-
ported by
public
taxation.
School
funds clas-
sified.
Township
fund.
4. Since education is a public business, the cost must
be met by taxes, paid by all who are tax-payers at all,
whether they have children in the public schools or not.
These taxes now make up by far the larger part of the
income of the public schools and are of two kinds, the
district tax and the State tax. The school board in
each district has the right to levy taxes for school pur-
poses which are included with other State and local
charges in the total annual payment which each tax-
payer has to make. Nearly nine-tenths of the public
money spent by the school districts is raised by this dis-
trict tax. The State also levies an annual school tax of
one million dollars, which is finally distributed to the
districts in proportion to population under twenty-one
years of age. Thus the richer districts contribute some-
thing toward the needs of the more backward parts of
the State.1 Besides this special tax for the local schools,
the general assembly also makes large appropriations
for the support of State educational institutions includ-
ing the normal schools and the State University.
73. THE SCHOOL FUNDS
Though the present needs of the schools must be met
mainly by the tax-payers of to-day, there are some per-
manent funds which have had an important influence
on the development of the school system. These funds
are of two classes, those for the support of common
schools and those for higher education.
Of the permanent funds for the support of common
schools, by far the largest is the township fund. This
fund was provided for by Congress when it set apart
the sixteenth section of every township for the support
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 122, §§ 232-241 ; Bateman and
Pillsbury, School Laws and Decisions, 234.
Public Education 197
of schools in that township. The law requires that
only the income of this fund shall be spent from year to
year. Some of these lands are still held by the school
authorities and rents are received for them. Chicago
has sixteenth-section lands worth several millions of
dollars and producing a large income for school pur-
poses. Outside of Chicago, however, nearly all of
these lands have been sold and the principal invested in
various ways. These funds are held by the school
township treasurers (in Chicago by the city treasurer),
and the income is distributed every year to the various
districts in proportion to the number of children. The
total value of this fund was estimated in 1900 at over
fifteen millions of dollars, much the larger part of this
amount being in Cook county.1
Next in importance to the township fund is the State state school
school fund, which goes back to the enabling act of f
1818. Congress then granted to the new State three
per cent, of the proceeds of all public lands sold in Illi-
nois. One-sixth of this amount was to be given to a
college or university, but the rest has been reserved for
the common schools.2 In 1837, this fund was increased
by adding a part of the money received by the State
under the congressional act of 1836, distributing the
surplus revenue among the States. The whole fund
now amounts to about one million dollars. The prin-
cipal has been borrowed by the State and spent for
other objects, but in return the State has pledged itself
1 Pillsbury, Sketch of the Permanent Public School Funds of
Illinois (i4th Biennial Report of Superintendent of Public In-
struction) ; Bateman and Pillsbury, School Laws and Decisions,
24; Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruc-
tion, 1900, 24, 250-252.
2 Text of Enabling Act in Appendix ; Pillsbury, Sketch of the
Permanent Public School Funds.
198
Government of Illinois
County
funds.
Federal
grants for
higher
education.
to pay interest at six per cent, for the use of schools.
This annual interest is then distributed to the various
counties and finally through the township treasurers to
the school boards to help maintain the local schools.1
Besides the State and township funds, a majority of
the counties have County School Funds. These, how-
ever, are of comparatively slight importance.2
The State also holds three funds for the support of
higher education, all received originally from the
United States government. The Seminary fund comes
from the sale of two townships granted by Congress in
1804 and 1818 for "a seminary of learning." The Col-
lege fund was founded by the congressional grant made
in 1818 of one-half of one per cent, of the proceeds of
public land sales within the State. The interest on
these funds, which were also borrowed by the State, is
now divided between the two older normal schools.3
The most important State fund for higher education is
that of the University of Illinois, which originated
in an act of Congress passed July 2, 1862, making
large grants of land to Illinois and the other loyal
States of the Union, for the purpose of founding col-
leges in which the "leading object" should be "to teach
such branches of education as are related to agriculture
and the mechanic arts." The principal of this fund
now amounts to over six hundred thousand dollars and
though much of it was afterwards lost, the State has
1 Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 122, §§ 232-241 ; Biennial Report
of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1900, 24.
2 Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public in-
struction, 1900, 24; Bateman and Pillsbury, School Laws and
Decisions, 201. The schools also receive a small amount of
money each year from fines and forfeitures. Illinois School
Report, 1900, 1 6
B Pillsbury, Sketch of the Permanent School Funds.
Public Education 199
complied with the conditions of the original grant by
agreeing to pay interest on the fund regularly at five
per cent. This endowment was increased by an act
of congress in iScp.1
Thus it will be seen that though the later develop-
ment of the school system has been mainly the result
of taxes voluntarily imposed by the people of the State
upon themselves, much is also due to the encourage-
ment given, especially in the earlier years, by the Fed-
eral government.
74. LOCAL SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION
The most convenient starting point for studying the School
organization of the present school system is the school townshlP«-
township. This local authority was first provided for
in order to secure the proper use of the school lands
and the money which came from their sale and it is still
kept up in all of the State except Chicago and a few
other districts organized under special laws. In each
school township, there are three trustees chosen by the
people and these in turn choose a township treas-
urer. The legal title of all school property in the
township is in the hands of these trustees, and all
school funds expended within the township pass
through the hands of the township treasurer.2
For the actual management of schools, the township School
is subdivided into school districts. In each district there dlstncts-
is a school board, whose duty it is to provide school
houses, employ teachers, and do whatever else is neces-
sary to maintain public schools. For these purposes,
each district receives from the township treasurer its
1 Pillsbury, Sketch of the Permanent School Funds; Univer-
sity of Illinois, Catalog, 1902-3; U. S. Statutes at Large, XII.
503-505; XXVI. 417-419.
3 Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 122, §§ 30-98.
2OO Government of Illinois
share of the school fund and the board has also the right
to levy the district school tax. The organization of
these boards varies somewhat in different districts.
Leaving out some districts organized before 1870 under
special laws, the general law now recognizes three kinds
of school boards. In districts, having less than a
thousand people there are three directors chosen by the
people.1 When the district has a thousand or more
inhabitants, there is a Board of Education, consisting
of a President and six or more other members also
elected by the people. This Board of Education has
somewhat larger powers than the school directors and
may appoint a school superintendent. Chicago has a
Board of Education consisting of twenty-one members
appointed by the mayor. The Chicago school board
does not have the power to levy school taxes like the
other district boards. School expenses there are paid
partly from the permanent funds and partly from
school taxes levied by the city council. All school
funds are held by the city treasurer.2
The range The character of the schools maintained by these
'thooi'1" various school districts depends very much upon their
work. population, their wealth, and their public spirit. In
the small country schools, only very elementary subjects
can be taught ; pupils cannot be divided into classes or
grades and it is hard to keep good teachers. In larger
places, pupils are grouped in grades and high schools
are added, though at first the right of the school board
to spend money for high schools was considered
doubtful.3 When the people of a single district cannot
1Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 122, §§ 121-156.
"Ibid., §§ 157-184!}. Cf. The Illinois School Law, 137 ("In-
terpretations")-
s Bateman and Pillsbury, School Laws and Decisions, g.
Public Education 201
establish a satisfactory high school, a township high
school may be organized.1 In Chicago and some other
cities the school boards have gone farther and organ-
ized schools for the training of teachers.
The work of the public schools is being almost con- Recent
stantly extended. The people of any school district extensions-
may now establish public kindergartens and this has
actually been done, as for example, in Chicago. In
Chicago there are also night schools for those who have
not had the advantage of ordinary day schools, and
special arrangements for the deaf and blind and for
crippled children. For otherwise unmanageable chil-
dren there is a Parental School; and in the House of
Correction, there is a school for the younger prisoners.
All of these special schools in Chicago are under the
direction of the Board of Education.2
In the larger cities and towns, the school business is The superin-
so important that a strong executive officer is needed *efdef* of
0 schools.
to supervise the whole. This power is generally given
to the superintendent of schools. There is some differ-
ence of opinion about the powers which the school
board ought to keep to itself and those which ought to
be trusted to the superintendent. This has been a
particularly important question in Chicago and the
tendency recently has been to strengthen the power of
the superintendent.3
Though the success of the schools depends mainly The county
on the public spirit of the people in each district, these suPerintend-
local authorities are not wholly independent. Local
1 Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 122, §§ 67-69 ; Superintendent of
Public Instruction, 24th Biennial Report, 18.
"Chicago School Reports, esp. Report for 1901, and Revised
Statutes, ch. 122, §§ 414, 415.
8 Chicago School Report, 1901, n; Report of the Educational
Commission, Arts. I., III.
202 Government of Illinois
officers must not only conform to the general school
law, but they are also subject to some supervision by
higher authorities. Next above the district and town-
ship officers stands the county superintendent. This
officer is elected by the people of each county once every
four years. He may be removed by the county board
for clear neglect of duty and in small counties the board
may limit the number of days' service for which he may
be paid. In general, however, he may act independent-
ly of them.1 The county superintendent has, first,
important financial duties. He examines the accounts
of the school township treasurer and distributes State
and county funds among the townships. He also
supervises district officers and teachers and may even,
in case of extreme neglect of duty, remove a school
director. He is the official adviser of all school officers
within the county and must inspect all the schools at
least once a year. Finally, he holds examinations for
teachers' certificates and no one may teach in the public
schools without a certificate either from him or from
the State superintendent. This office of county super-
intendent has been in the past and is still one of the
most important agencies for the improvement of the
public schools.
75. STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. THE STATE
SUPERINTENDENT
Above all these local school authorities stands the
State government, which also has an important part in
the work of education. It undertakes, first, to com-
plete the school system by adding to the local schools
institutions for advanced education. In order to train
1Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 122, §§ 7-29; Bateman and Pills-
bury, School Laws and Decisions, 30, 198.
Public Education 203
teachers for service in the public schools, five normal
schools have been established. The oldest of these was
founded at Normal in 1857 an<^ f°ur others have since
been established in different parts of the State.1
At the head of the State school system is the Univer- The State
sity of Illinois at Urbana. Though the movement for Umverslty-
a State college or university began very early, the first
important step toward the actual founding of a State
university was taken in 1862. Congress then made
large grants of public lands to the States for the pur-
pose of founding colleges which should give special
attention to agriculture and the "mechanic arts,"
though other subjects might also be taught. Illinois
accepted this grant and in 1867 chartered the Illinois
Industrial University. The State has since made gen-
erous provision for liberal as well as technical education
and in 1885 the name was changed to the University of
Illinois. Various professional schools have since been
added. The University Board of Trustees consists of
the Governor, the President of the State Board of
Agriculture, the State Superintendent of Public In-
struction, and nine other members elected by the peo-
ple.2
The supervision of all the varied educational interests The State
of Illinois is now entrusted to the State Superintendent suPenntend-
of Public Instruction. He does not have as much
1 Pillsbury, Historical Sketch in Biennial Report of the Su-
perintendent of Public Instruction, 1888. The later schools are
located at Carbondale, Charleston, DeKalb, and Macomb.
2 U. S. Statutes at Large, XII. 503-505 ; Pillsbury, Historical
Sketch in Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public In-
struction, 1888; Laws, 1867, 123-129; University of Illinois, Re-
ports and Annual Catalog. In order to appreciate the variety
of these educational institutions, the State schools for defectives
should not be forgotten. See ch. 12.
204 Government of Illinois
power as similar officers in some other States, but still
enough to give him real influence on the growth of the
• school system. The county superintendents are re-
quired to present to him every year elaborate financial
and statistical reports and those who fail to do so may
be punished by losing their share of the State school
fund. He may also do something to stimulate good
teachers by holding examinations for State teachers'
certificates. Finally, the superintendent makes general
rules for the better enforcement of the school law and
is the official adviser, especially on questions of school
law, of the local school officers.1
76. PUBLIC LIBRARIES
Probably the most useful educational institutions of
Illinois, next to the public schools, are its public libra-
ries. Two important libraries, the State Library and
the State Historical Library are maintained by the State
in the Capitol2 at Springfield. Still more important are
1Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 122, §§ 1-6, 186; Bateman and
Pillsbury, School Laws and Decisions, 16. The State Superin-
tendent is also trustee of some State educational institutions, as,
for example, the University of Illinois; and is required to visit
and report upon those charitable institutions which have an
educational character.
Besides maintaining schools of various grades, the State ex-
ercises an important educational influence by establishing exam-
ining boards of various kinds and making their certificates nec-
essary for those who wish to engage in certain occupations.
Thus young lawyers must take the bar examinations and there
are similar examinations and certificates required of physicians,
druggists, dentists, architects, and engineers. Though the ex-
aminations may not always be hard enough to have much value,
they are required on the principle that special training of some
sort is necessary to protect the interests of the public. Hurd,
Revised Statutes, chs. xoa, 13, 66, 91, 93.
2 Hurd, Revised Statutes, chs. I2;c and 128.
Public Education
205
*
with the
school.
the city and village libraries to be found in nearly every
part of the State.1 The council of any incorporated
city may establish a public library and support it by
means of a tax, which must not, however, be more than
two mills on every dollar of the property. Villages
may also establish libraries by vote of the people.
These libraries are managed by boards of directors
which in cities are appointed by the mayors, but in the
villages are elected by the people.2
Libraries are constantly being made more accessible The coopera-
te the people and the librarian is doing more and more
the work of a public teacher.3 Even books not used
by the general reader, really serve his interest indirectly
when they are worked over by students and repro-
duced in more or less popular form. Thus the library
cooperates with the public school in training men for
intelligent citizenship.4
JHurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 81.
"One interesting feature of public library development in
America is the voluntary cooperation of private individuals
with the public authorities. Thus city libraries, which are
supported by taxes which everyone must pay, also receive
many voluntary gifts in the form of buildings, or money, or
the books themselves.
3 It is now understood that a librarian requires expert training
and this is provided by the State at the University of Illinois.
* Educational work somewhat similar to that of public libra-
ries is done by the State in encouraging scientific investigation
and providing museums and laboratories where such work can
be done. Thus there have been State appropriations for an
Agricultural Experiment Station, for the State Laboratory of
Natural History, and for the State Museum of Natural History.
Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. I27C. See the appropriation acts in
Laws, 1903.
APPENDIX A
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES
77. IMPORTANT HISTORICAL EVENTS
(1) FRENCH PERIOD — 1673-1763 (1765)
J6F3. Joliet and Marquette explore the Mississippi and Illinois
rivers. Beginning of Jesuit missionary work in Illi-
nois.
1679-1680. La Salle on the Illinois River. Fort Crevecoeur
built (1680).
1683. Fort St. Louis built by La Salle.
1700. Kaskaskia Mission on the Mississippi founded. This
mission and that of Cahokia, founded about the same
time, developed into the French villages of the same
name.
1717. Illinois annexed to Louisiana under the jurisdiction
of the Company of the West.
1718. Boisbriant becomes commandant of the District of Illi-
nois.
1720. Fort Chartres on the Mississippi completed.
1732. Illinois, with the rest of Louisiana, placed under royal
government.
1754. French and Indian War begins.
(2) BRITISH PERIOD — 1763 (1765) -1778
1763. Treaty of Paris. France cedes the Illinois country to
the British.
1763-1764. Pontiac's conspiracy prevents British occupation.
1765. Fort Chartres surrendered to the British. The Illinois
country governed by a British commandant.
1775. American Revolution begins.
(3) ILLINOIS A COUNTY OF VIRGINIA — 1778-1784
1778. George Rogers Clark conquers the Illinois country for
Virginia. The Virginia legislature creates the County
of Illinois.
207
2o8 Appendix A
1779. Clark's expedition against Vincennes. John Todd, com-
mandant of the Illinois county, organizes government
under the authority of Virginia.
1783. Treaty of Paris. Great Britain recognizes the title of
the United States to the Illinois country.
1784. Virginia claim to the Northwest, including Illinois,
ceded to the United States.
(4) ILLINOIS UNDER TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT — 1784-1818
1784. First Congressional ordinance for the Northwest
Territory.
1785. Massachusetts claim to the Northwest surrendered.
Congress passes Grayson's "Land Ordinance" (town
ship survey system).
1786. Connecticut cession.
1787. The ordinance for the government of the Northwest
Territory passed. General Arthur St. Clair appointed
governor.
1788. The government of the Northwest Territory organized
at Marietta.
1790. St. Clair county organized for the Illinois settlements.
1795. Wayne's treaty with the Indians at Greenville.
1799. First representative assembly of the Northwest Terri-
tory (includes representatives from Illinois).
1800. The Northwest Territory divided. Illinois included in
the new Territory of Indiana. William Henry Har-
rison appointed governor.
1803. Louisiana Purchase. Location of Fort Dearborn at
Chicago.
1804. United States land office established at Kaskaskia.
1805. Representative government organized in the Indiana
Territory.
1806. The Burr conspiracy.
1809. The Illinois Territory (extending northward to Canada)
organized. Ninian Edwards appointed governor.
1811. Battle of Tippecanoe.
1812. Representative government organized for Illinois Ter-
ritory. First session of the Territorial Legislature
at Kaskaskia. War of 1812 begins. Massacre of
Fort Dearborn (Chicago).
1812-1815. The War of 1812.
1813. Preemption Act for Illinois.
1816. Fort Dearborn rebuilt.
Chronological Tables 209
(5) ILLINOIS A FRONTIER STATE— 1818-1848
1818. Enabling Act passed by Congress (April). First State
constitution adopted (August). State of Illinois ad-
mitted to the Union (December).
1820. State capital transferred to Vandalia.
1822-1824. The slavery controversy in Illinois. Pro-slavery
resolution for a constitutional convention passed by
Legislature, but defeated by popular vote (1824).
1825. First general school law.
1831-1832. Indian troubles in Northern Illinois. Black Hawk
War.
1833. Town of Chicago incorporated.
1836-1848. Building of the Illinois and Michigan Canal.
1837. Elijah P. Lovejoy murdered at Alton for publishing
an anti-slavery newspaper. Internal improvement
scheme passed by the Legislature (Lincoln and Doug-
las members). Springfield made the State capital.
Chicago incorporated as a city. Financial panic of
1837. First State nominating convention in Illinois
held by the Democratic party.
1844-1846. Mormon troubles in Hancock county. Expulsion
of the Mormons.
1846-1848. Mexican War. Illinois regiments engaged.
1847. Second State constitutional convention.
1848. Second State constitution ratified by the people.
(6) ILLINOIS UNDER THE SECOND CONSTITUTION — 1848-1870
1849. Township organization law passed by the Legislature.
1850. Congressional land grant for the Illinois Central Rail-
road.
1851. Illinois Central Railroad Company incorporated by the
State (road built by 1856).
1855. General education law.
1856. First Republican State convention in Illinois.
1858. The Lincoln-Douglas debates.
1860. Abraham Lincoln of Illinois elected President of the
United States.
1861. Civil War begins. First calls for volunteers by Presi-
dent Lincoln and Governor Yates. Illinois Demo-
crats and Republicans unite in support of the Union.
1862. Third State constitutional convention. Proposed con-
stitution rejected by the people. Reaction against
Republican policies. Republicans defeated in elec-
tions for Congress and the Legislature.
14
2io Appendix A
1863. State Legislature ratifies the proposed thirteenth
amendment prohibiting any interference by the
Federal government with slavery in the States.
1864. Camp Douglas conspiracy. Abraham Lincoln of Illi-
nois reflected President of the United States.
1865. Illinois the first State to ratify the Thirteenth Amend-
ment abolishing slavery. Repeal of the Black Code.
1867. Illinois ratifies the Fourteenth Amendment. The State
University incorporated.
1868. Ulysses S. Grant of Illinois elected President of the
United States.
1869. Illinois ratifies the Fifteenth Amendment. Fourth
State constitutional convention.
1870. Third State constitution ratified by the people.
(7) ILLINOIS UNDER THE THIRD STATE CONSTITUTION — 1870
1871. Great Chicago fire. Governor Palmer protests against
the use of United States troops to preserve order in
Chicago.
1871-1873. State railway legislation. Board of Railroad and
Warehouse Commissioners created (1871). State
regulation of railway rates.
1872. General incorporation law for cities and villages under
which most of the cities of the State, including
Chicago are now (1904) organized. Ulysses S.
Grant of Illinois reflected President of the United
States.
1873. "The Panic of 1873." State Farmers' Convention at
Springfield. The "Farmers' Movement" for political
action restraining corporate interests (1873-1876).
1877. Decisions of the United States Supreme Court (Munn v.
Illinois and other cases) asserting the right of the
State Legislature to regulate railroad and warehouse
charges. The State Board of Health established.
Appellate Courts established.
1880. The Supreme Court of Illinois affirms the constitu-
tionality of the railroad law of 1873. (Illinois Cen
tral Railroad v. The People of the State of Illinois,
95 Illinois Reports, 313.)
1883. Harper high license law passed.
1884. Constitutional amendment adopted authorizing the
governor to veto items in appropriation bills.
1886. Anarchist riots at Chicago. Anarchist leaders tried
for murder and convicted.
Chronological Tables 211
1889. Revision of the school law. Compulsory education
law (subsequently amended).
1891. Australian ballot system adopted.
1892. New University of Chicago opened.
1893. Columbian Exposition at Chicago.
1894. Pullman and American Railway union strikes at
Chicago. Governor Altgeld's protest against Presi-
dent Cleveland's use of United States troops at
Chicago.
1895. Municipal civil service law passed by the Legislature
and adopted in Chicago.
1896. Democratic National Convention in Chicago adopts
the Chicago Platform (free silver).
1900. Chicago Drainage Canal opened.
1903. Miiller law passed allowing city ownership of street rail-
ways. Constitutional amendment submitted by the
Legislature authorizing the consolidation of local gov-
ernments in Chicago (to be voted on by the people itt
1904).
212
Appendix A
78. GOVERNORS OF ILLINOIS, WITH PLACES OF BIRTH,
DATES OF ACCESSION, AND PARTY AFFILIATIONS
[See Blue Book of the State of Illinois, 195, 207-227.]
I. TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT, 1809-1818.
NinianEdwards Maryland
2. STATE GOVERNMENT SINCE 1818.
Name
Place of Birth
Party
Date of
Acces-
sion
Shadrach Bond
Maryland
Democratic
Republican
Democratic
1818
1822
Republican
Democratic
1826
Republican
Democratic
1830
William L. D. Ewing4
Joseph Duncan
Kentucky
Kentucky
Republican
Democrat
Democrat
1834
1834
1838
Thomas Ford
Augustus C. French
Joel A. Matteson .
William H. Bissell8
John Wood4
Pennsylvania
New Hampshire...
New York
New York
Democrat
Democrat
Democrat
Republican
1842
1846
1853
1857
1860
Richard Yates
Kentucky
Republican
1861
1865
John M. Palmer
Richard J. Oglesby6
John L. Beveridge8 ,
Shelby M. Cullom7
John M. Hamilton8
Richard J. Oglesby
Joseph W. Fif er
John P. Altgeld
John R. Tanner
Richard Yates
Kentucky
Kentucky
New York
Kentucky
Ohio
Kentucky
Virginia
Prussia
Indiana
Illinois
Republican... .
Republican
Republican
Republican
Republican
Republican
Republican
Democrat
Republican
Republican
1869
1873
1873
1877
1883
1885
1889
1893
1897
1901
'Resigned November 17, 1834. 'Acting Governor. *Died March is.
1860. 4Elected as Lieutenant Governor. 'Resigned January 23, 1873.
'Elected as Lieutenant Governor. 'Resigned February 6, 1883. 8Elected
Lieutenant Governor.
APPENDIX B
HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS
79. THE NORTHWEST ORDINANCE, JULY 13, 1787
An Ordinance for the government of the territory of the United
States Northwest of the River Ohio.
Be it ordained by the United States in Congress Assembled
that the said territory for the purposes of temporary govern-
ment be one district, subject however to be divided into two
districts as future circumstances may in the opinion of Con-
gress make it expedient.
Be it ordained by the authority aforesaid that the estates
both of resident and non resident proprietors in the said
territory dying intestate shall descend to and be distributed
among their children and the descendants of a deceased child
in equal parts ; the descendants of a deceased child or grand
child to take the share of their deceased parent in equal parts
among them ; and where there shall be no children or descend-
ants then in equal parts to the next of kin in equal degree ; and
among collaterals the children of a deceased brother or sister of
the intestate shall have in equal parts among them their de-
ceased parent's share & there shall in no case be a distinction
between kindred of the whole & half blood ; saving in all cases
to the widow of the intestate her third part of the real estate for
life, and one third part of the -personal estate; and this law rela-
tive to descents and dower shall remain in full force until altered
by the legislature of the district. And until the governor &
judges shall adopt laws as herein after mentioned estates in the
said territory may be devised or bequeathed by wills in writing
signed and sealed by him or her in whom the estate may be,
being of full age, and attested by three witnesses, and real estates
may be conveyed by lease and release or bargain and sale
signed, sealed and delivered by the person, being of full age in
whom the estate may be and attested by two witnesses provided
such wills be duly proved and such conveyances be acknowl-
213
The terri-
tory to con-
stitute a
district.
Rules re-
garding the
inheritance
and transfer
of property.
214
Appendix B
Officers of
the district.
Adoption
of laws.
Militia
officers.
edged or the execution there of duly proved and be recorded
within one year after proper magistrates, courts and registers
shall be appointed for that purpose and personal property may
be transferred by delivery saving, however to the french and
Canadian inhabitants & other settlers of the Kaskaskies, St.
Vincents and the neighboring villages who have hereto fore pro-
fessed themselves citizens of Virginia, their laws and customs
now in force among them relative to the descent & conveyance
of property
Be it ordained by the authority aforesaid that there shall
be appointed from time to time by Congress a governor,
whose commission shall continue in force for the term of
three years, unless sooner revoked by Congress; he shall
reside in the district and have a freehold estate therein, in
one thousand acres of land while in the exercise of his office.
There shall be appointed, from time to time by Congress a
secretary, whose commission shall continue in force for four
years, unless sooner revoked; he shall reside in the district
and have a freehold estate therein in five hundred acres of
land while in the exercise of his office; It shall be his duty
to keep and preserve the acts and laws passed by the legis-
lature and the public records of the district and the pro-
ceedings of the governor in his executive department, and
transmit authentic copies of such acts & proceedings every six
months to the Secretary of Congress. There shall also be
appointed a court to consist of three judges any two of whom
to form a court, who shall have a common law jurisdiction
and reside in the district and have each therein a freehold
estate in five hundred acres of land while in the exercise of
their offices, and their commissions shall continue in force
during good behaviour.
The governor, and judges or a majority of them, shall
adopt and publish in the district such laws of the original
states criminal and civil as may be necessary and best suited
to the circumstances of the district and report them to Con-
gress from time to time, which laws shall be in force in the
district until the organization of the general assembly therein,
unless disapproved of by Congress ; but afterwards the leg-
islature shall have authority to alter them as they shall think
fit.
The governor for the time being shall be commander in
chief of the militia, appoint and commission all officers in the
same below the rank of general Officers. All general officers
shall be appointed & commissioned by Congress.
Historical Documents
215
Previous to the organization of the general assembly, the
governor shall appoint such magistrates and other civil officers
in each county or township, as he shall find necessary for the
preservation of the peace and good order in the same. After
the general assembly shall be organized, the powers and duties
of magistrates and other civil officers shall be regulated and
defined by the said assembly ; but all magistrates and other civil
officers, not herein otherwise directed shall during the contin-
uance of this temporary government be appointed by the gov-
ernor.
For the prevention of crimes and injuries the laws to be
adopted or made shall have force in all parts of the district and
for the execution of process criminal and civil, the governor
shall make proper divisions thereof, and he shall proceed from
time to time as circumstances may require to lay out the parts
of the District in which the indian titles shall have been extin-
guished into counties and townships subject however to such
alterations as may thereafter be made by the legislature
So soon as there shall be five thousand free male inhabitants
of full age in the district upon giving proof thereof to the gov-
ernor, they shall receive authority with time and place to elect
representatives from their counties or townships to represent
them in the general Assembly, provided that for every five hun-
dred free male inhabitants there shall be one representative and
so on progressively with the number of free male inhabitants
shall the right of representation encrease until the number of
representatives shall amount to twenty-five after which the
number and proportion of representatives shall be regulated by
the legislature ; provided that no person be eligible or quali-
fied to act as a representative unless he shall have been a citizen
of one of the United States three years and be a resident in the
district or unless he shall have resided in the district three years
and, in either case shall likewise hold in his own right in fee
simple two hundred acres of land within the same ; provided
also that a freehold in fifty acres of land in the district having
been a citizen of one of the states, and being resident in the dis-
trict, or the like freehold and two years residence in the district
shall be necessary to qualify a man as an elector of a represent-
ative.
The representatives thus elected shall serve for the term of
two years and in case of the death of a representative or re-
moval from office, the governor shall issue a writ to the county
or township for which he was a member to elect another in his
stead to serve for the residue of the term
Appointment
of civil
officers.
Subdivi-
sions of the
district.
Institution
of represent-
ative gov-
government.
Tenure of
representa-
tives.
2l6
Appendix B
Composition
and powers
of the gen-
eral as-
sembly.
Oath of
office. Del-
egate in
Congress.
Fundament-
al principles.
The general Assembly or legislature shall consist of the gov-
ernor, legislative council and a house of representatives. The
legislative council shall consist of five members to continue in
Office five years unless sooner removed by Congress, any three
of whom to be a quorum and the members of the council shall
be nominated and appointed in the following manner, to wit;
As soon as representatives shall be elected, the governor shall
appoint a time & place for them to meet together, and when met
they shall nominate ten persons residents in the district and
each possessed of a freehold in five hundred acres of Land, and
return their names to Congress ; five of whom Congress shall
appoint & commission to serve as aforesaid ; and whenever a
vacancy shall happen in the council by death or removal from
office, the house of Representatives shall nominate two persons
qualified as aforesaid, for each vacancy, and return their names
to Congress ; one of whom Congress shall appoint and Commis-
sion for the residue of the term ; and every five years, four
Months at least before the expiration of the time of service of
the Members of Council, the said House shall nominate ten
Persons qualified as aforesaid, and return their names to Con-
gress, five of whom Congress shall appoint and Commission to
serve as Members of the Council five years, unless sooner re-
moved. And the governor, legislative Council, and House of
Representatives, shall have authority to make laws in all Cases
for the good government of the district, not repugnant to the
principles and Articles in this Ordinance established and de-
clared. And all bills having passed by a majority in the House,
and by a Majority in the Council, shall be referred to the Gov-
ernor for his assent; but no bill, or legislative Act whatever,
shall be of any force without his assent. The Governor shall
have power to convene, prorogue, and dissolve the General As-
sembly, when in his opinion, it shall be expedient —
The Governor, Judges, Legislative Council, Secretary, and
such other Officers as Congress shall appoint in the District,
shall take an Oath or Affirmation of fidelity, and of Office, the
Governor before the President of Congress, and all other Offi-
cers before the Governor. As soon as a legislature shall be
formed in the District, the Council and house assembled in one
Room, shall have authority by joint ballot to elect a Delegate to
Congress, who shall have a seat in Congress, with a right of
debating, but not of voting, during this temporary Govern-
ment—
And for extending the fundamental principles of Civil and
religious liberty, which form the basis whereon these republics,
Historical Documents
217
their laws and Constitutions are erected ; to fix and establish
those principles as the basis of all laws, Constitutions and Gov-
ernments, which forever hereafter shall be formed in the said
territory; — to provide also for the establishment of States, and
permanent Government therein, and for their admission to a
Share in the federal Councils on an equal footing with the orig-
inal States, at as early periods as may be consistent with the
general interest —
It is hereby Ordained and declared by the authority aforesaid, Articles of
That the following Articles shall be considered as Articles of compact,
compact between the Original States and the People and States
in the said territory, and forever remain unalterable, unless by
common consent, to wit,
Article the First. No Person demeaning himself in a peace- Religious
able and orderly manner shall ever be molested on account of liberty.
his mode of worship or religious sentiments in the said terri-
tory—
Article the Second. The Inhabitants of the said territory Guarantee
shall always be entitled to the benefits of the writ of Habeas of personal
Corpus, and of the trial by Jury ; of a proportionate representa- afd property
tion of the people in the legislature ; and of judicial proceedings rishts-
according to the course of the common law; all Persons shall
be bailable unless for capital offences, where the proof shall be
evident or the presumption great ; all Fines shall be moderate,
and no cruel or unusual punishments shall be inflicted ; no man
shall be deprived of his liberty or property but by the judgment
of his Peers, or the law of the land ; and should the Public ex-
igencies make it necessary for the common preservation, to take
any person's property, or to demand his particular Services, full
compensation shall be made for the same, — and, in the just pres-
ervation of rights and property it is understood and declared,
that no law ought ever to be made, or have force in the said ter-
ritory, that shall in any manner whatever interfere with or
affect private Contracts or engagements, bona fide and without
fraud previously formed
Article the Third. Religion, Morality and knowledge being Education,
necessary to good Government and the happiness of mankind, Humanity to
Schools and the means of education shall forever be encour- the Indians.
aged. The utmost good faith shall always be observed toward
the Indians ; their lands and property shall never be taken from
them without their consent; and in their property rights, and
liberty, they never shall be invaded or disturbed, unless in just
and lawful wars authorized by Congress ; but laws founded in
justice and humanity shall from time to time be made, for pre-
Appendix B
Future rela-
tions of the
Territory
with the
Union.
Formation
of new
States.
venting wrongs being done to them, and for preserving peace
and friendship with them —
Article the Fourth. The said territory, and the States which
may be formed therein, shall forever remain a part of this Con-
federacy of the United States of America, subject to the Articles-
of Confederation, and to such alterations therein as shall be
constitutionally made ; and to all the Acts and Ordinances of
the United States in Congress Assembled, conformable thereto-
The Inhabitants and Settlers in the said territory, shall be sub-
ject to pay a part of the federal debts contracted or to be con-
tracted, and a proportional part of the expenses of Government,
to be apportioned on them by Congress, according to the same
common rule and measure by which apportionments thereof
shall be made on the other States; and the taxes, for paying
their proportion, shall be laid and levied by the authority and
direction of the legislatures of the District or Districts or new
States, as in the original States, within the time agreed upon by
the United States in Congress Assembled. The legislatures of
those Districts, or new States, shall never interfere with the pri-
mary disposal of the Soil by the United States in Congress-
Assembled, nor with any regulations Congress may find neces-
sary for securing the title in such Soil to the bona fide purchas-
ers. No tax shall be imposed on lands the property of the
United States ; and in no case shall nonResident proprietors be
taxed higher than Residents. The navigable Waters leading
into the Mississippi and St. Lawrence, and the carrying places
between the same shall be common highways, and forever free,
as well to the Inhabitants of the said territory, as to the Citizens
of the United States, and those of any other States that may be
admitted into the Confederacy, without any tax, impost or duty
therefor —
Article the Fifth. There shall be formed in the said territory,
not less than three nor more than five States ; and the boun-
daries of the States, as soon as Virginia shall alter her act of
Cession and Consent to the same, shall become fixed and estab-
lished as follows, to wit : The Western State in the said terri-
tory, shall be bounded by the Mississippi, the Ohio and Wabash
Rivers ; a direct line drawn from the Wabash and Post Vin-
cents due North to the territorial line between the United States
and Canada, and by the said territorial line to the lake of the
Woods and Mississippi. The middle State shall be bounded by
the said direct line, the Wabash from Post Vincents to the
Ohio ; by the Ohio, by a direat line drawn due North from the
mouth of the great Miami to me said territorial line, and by the
Historical Documents
219
said territorial line — The eastern State shall be bounded by the
last mentioned direct line, the Ohio, Pennsylvania, and the said
territorial line ; provided however, and it is further understood
and declared, that the boundaries of these three States, shall be
subject so far to be altered, that if Congress shall hereafter find
it expedient, they shall have authority to form one or two States
in that part of the said territory which lies north of an east and
west line drawn through the Southerly bend or extreme of Lake
Michigan : and whenever any of the said States shall have sixty
thousand free Inhabitants therein, such State shall be admitted
by its Delegates into the Congress of the United States, on an
equal footing with the original States, in all respects whatever ;
and shall be at liberty to form a permanent Constitution and
State Government ; Provided the Constitution and Government
so to be formed, shall be republican, and in conformity to the
principles contained in these Articles ; and, so far as it can be
consistent with the general interest of the Confederacy, such
admission shall be allowed at an earlier period, and when there
may be a less number of free Inhabitants in the State than sixty
thousand.
Article the Sixth. There shall be neither Slavery nor invol-
untary Servitude in the said territory otherwise than in the
punishment of Crimes, whereof the Party shall have been duly
Convicted : Provided always that any Person escaping into the
same, from whom labor or service is lawfully claimed in any
one of the original States, such fugitive may be lawfully re-
claimed and conveyed to the Person claiming his or her labor or
service as aforesaid. —
Be it Ordained by the Authority aforesaid, that the Resolu-
tions of the 23d of April 1784, relative to the subject of this
ordinance, be, and the same are hereby repealed and declared
null and void. —
[This text of the Ordinance of 1787 is reprinted from that in Hart and
Channing, American History Leaflets, No. 32, the latter text being taken
from the manuscript journals of Congress.]
80. ILLINOIS TERRITORIAL ORGANIZATION ACT.
FEBRUARY 3, 1809
[U. S. Statutes at Large, II. 514-516.]
An Act for dividing the Indiana Territory into two separate
governments.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of
the United States of America in Congress assembled, That from
Slavery
prohibited.
Resolutions
of 1784
repealed.
22O
Appendix B
Illinois
Territory
defined.
Government
to be like
that of the
Northwest
Territory.
Appointment
and func-
tions of
territorial
officers.
Organiza-
tion of a
general
assembly.
and after the first day of March next, all that part of the In-
diana territory which lies west of the Wabash river, and a direct
line drawn from the said Wabash river and Post Vincennes, due
north to the territorial line between the United States and Can-
ada, shall, for the purpose of temporary government, constitute
a separate territory, and be called Illinois.
SEC. 2. And be it further enacted, That there shall be estab-
lished within the said territory a government in all respects
similar to that provided by the ordinance of Congress, passed on
the thirteenth day of July, one thousand seven hundred and
eighty-seven, for the government of the territory of the United
States, northwest of the river Ohio ; and by an act passed on the
seventh day of August, one thousand seven hundred and eighty-
nine, intituled "An act to provide for the government of the
territory northwest of the river Ohio;" and the inhabitants
thereof shall be entitled to, and enjoy all and singular the rights,
and privileges, and advantages, granted and secured to the peo-
ple of the territory of the United States, northwest of the river
Ohio, by the said ordinance.
SEC. 3. And be it further enacted, That the officers for the
said territory who, by virtue of this act, shall be appointed by
the President of the United States, by and with the advice and
consent of the Senate, shall respectively exercise the same
powers, perform the same duties, and receive for their services
the same compensations, as, by the ordinance aforesaid, and the
laws of the United States, have been provided and established
for similar officers in the Indiana territory. And the duties and
emoluments of superintendent of Indian affairs shall be united
with those of governor: Provided, that the President of the
United States shall have full power, in the recess of Congress,
to appoint and commission all officers herein authorized, and
their commissions shall continue in force until the end of the
next session of Congress.
SEC. 4. And be it further enacted, That so much of the ordi-
nance for the government of the territory of the United States
northwest of the Ohio river, as relates to the organization of a
general assembly therein, and prescribes the powers thereof,
shall be in force and operate in the Illinois territory, whenever
satisfactory evidence shall be given to the governor thereof that
such is the wish of a majority of the freeholders, notwithstand-
ing there may not be therein five thousand free male inhabitants
of the age of twenty-one years and upward : Provided, that
until there shall be five thousand free male inhabitants of twenty-
one years and upwards in said territory, the whole number of
Historical Documents
221
Not to
affect the
government
of the
Indiana
territory
Provision
for contin-
uance of
legal
proceedings.
representatives to the general assembly shall not be less than
seven, nor more than nine, to be apportioned by the governor to
the several counties in the said territory, agreeably to the num-
ber of free males of the age of twenty-one years and upwards,
which they may respectively contain.
SEC. 5. And be it further enacted, That nothing in this act
contained shall be construed so as in any manner to affect the
government now in force in the Indiana territory, further than
to prohibit the exercise thereof within the Illinois territory,
from and after the aforesaid first day of March next.
SEC. 6. And be it further enacted, That all suits, process and
proceedings, which, on the first day of March next, shall be
pending in the court of any county which shall be included
within the said territory of Illinois, and also all suits, process
and proceedings, which, on the said first day of March next,
shall be pending in the general ciurt of the Indiana territory,
in consequence of any writ of removal, or order for trial at bar,
and which had been removed from any of the counties included
within the limits of the territory of Illinois aforesaid, shall, in
all things concerning the same, be proceeded on, and judgments
and decrees rendered thereon, in the same manner as if the said
Indiana territory had remained undivided.
SEC. 7. And be it further enacted, That nothing in this act
contained shall be so construed as to prevent the collection of
taxes, which may, on the first day of March next, be due to the
Indiana territory on lands lying in the said territory of Illinois.
SEC. 8. And be it further enacted, That until it shall be other-
wise ordered by the Legislature of the said Illinois territory,
Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi river, shall be the seat of govern-
ment for the said Illinois territory.
APPROVED, February 3, 1809.
81. THE ENABLING ACT. APRIL 18, 1818
[C7. 5. Statutes at Large, III. 428-431.]
An Act to enable the people of the Illinois territory to form a
Constitution and State government, and for the admission
of such State into the Union on an equal footing with the
original States.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of Authorized
the United States of America, in Congress assembled, That the to form
inhabitants of the territory of Illinois be, and they are hereby, a State
authorized to form for themselves a constitution and State gov- government,
ernment, and to assume such name as they shall deem proper;
Taxes.
Kaskaskia
the seat of
government.
Appendix B
Boundaries
of the State.
Choice of
delegates
to the
convention.
Powers
of the
convention.
and the said State, when formed, shall be admitted into the
Union upon the same footing with the original states, in all re-
spects whatever.
SEC. 2. And be it further enacted, That the said state shall
consist of all the territory included within the following boun-
daries, to wit ; Beginning at the mouth of the Wabash river ;
thence, up the same, and with the line of Indiana, to the north-
west corner of said state ; thence, east with the line of the same
state, to the middle of Lake Michigan ; thence, north along the
middle of said lake, to north latitude forty-two degrees thirty
minutes ; thence, west to the middle of the Mississippi river ;
and thence, down along the middle of that river to its confluence
with the Ohio river ; and thence, up the latter river along its
north-western shore, to the beginning : Provided, That the
convention hereinafter provided for, when formed, shall ratify
the boundaries aforesaid ; otherwise they shall be and remain as
now prescribed by the ordinance for the government of the
territory north-west of the river Ohio : Provided also, That the
said state shall have concurrent jurisdiction with the state of
Indiana on the Wabash river, so far as said river shall form a
common boundary to both, and also concurrent jurisdiction on
the Mississippi river, with any state or states to be formed west
thereof, so far as said river shall form a common boundary to
both.
SEC. 3. And be it further enacted, That all white male citi-
zens of the United States, who shall have arrived at the age of
twenty-one years, and have resided in said territory six months
previous to the day of election, and all persons having in other
respects the legal qualifications to vote for representatives in the
general assembly of the said territory, be, and they are hereby,
authorized to choose representatives to form a convention, who
shall be apportioned amongst the several counties as follows :
[Here follows a list of the counties of the State with the num-
ber of representatives assigned to each.]
And the election for the representatives aforesaid shall be
holden on the first Monday of July next, and the two following
days, throughout the several counties in the said territory, and
shall be conducted in the same manner, and under the same
regulations, as prescribed by the laws of the said territory regu-
lating elections therein, for members of the House of Repre-
sentatives.
SEC. 4. And be it further enacted, That the members of the
convention, thus duly elected, be, and they are hereby, author-
ized to meet at the seat of government of the said territory, on
Historical Documents
223
the first Monday of the month of August next, which conven-
tion, when met, shall first determine, by a majority of the whole
number elected, whether it be, or be not, expedient at that time
to form a constitution and state government for the people
within the said territory, and, if it be expedient, the convention
shall be and hereby is authorized to form a constitution and
state government ; or, if it be deemed more expedient, the said
convention shall provide by ordinance for electing representa-
tives to form a constitution or frame of government ; which said
representatives shall be chosen in such manner, and in such
proportion, and shall meet at such time and place, as shall be
prescribed by the said ordinance, and shall then form for the
people of said territory a constitution and state government:
Provided, That the same, whenever formed, shall be republican,
and not repugnant to the ordinance of the thirteenth of July,
seventeen hundred and eighty-seven, between the original states
and the people and states of the territory northwest of the river
Ohio ; excepting so much of said articles as relate to the boun-
daries of the states therein to be formed : And provided also,
That it shall appear, from the enumeration directed to be made
t>y the Legislature of the said territory, that there are, within
the proposed state, not less than forty thousand inhabitants.
SEC. 5. And be it further enacted, That until the next gen-
eral census shall be taken, the said state shall be entitled to one
representative in the House of Representatives of the United
States.
SEC. 6. And be it further enacted, That the following propo-
sitions be and the same are hereby, offered to the convention of
the said territory of Illinois, when formed, for their free ac-
ceptance or rejection, which if accepted by the convention, shall
be obligatory upon the United States and the said state.
First. That section numbered sixteen in every township, and,
when such section has been sold or otherwise disposed of, other
lands equivalent thereto, and as contiguous as may be, shall be
granted to the state, for the use of the inhabitants of such town-
ship, for the use of schools.
Second. That all salt springs within such state, and the land
reserved for the use of the same, shall be granted to the said
state, for the use of the said state, and the same to be used
under such terms, and conditions, and regulations, as the legis-
lature of the said state shall direct : Provided, The legislature
shall never sell nor lease the same for a longer period than ten
years, at any one time.
Representa-
tion in
Congress.
Propositions
offered.
Section 16
for the use
of the
schools.
Salt springs
reserved to
the State.
224
Appendix B
Land grants
for roads
and
education.
A seminary
of learning.
Grants con-
ditional.
Northern
parts of
Illinois and
Indiana
added to
Michigan.
Third. That five per cent, of the net proceeds of the lands
lying within such state, and which shall be sold by Congress,
from and after the first day of January, one thousand eight hun-
dred and nineteen, after deducting all expenses incident to the
same, shall be reserved for the purposes following, viz. : Two-
fifths to be disbursed, under the direction of Congress, in mak-
ing roads leading to the state ; the residue to be appropriated, by
the legislature of the state, for the encouragement of learning,
of which one-sixth part shall be exclusively bestowed on a col-
lege or university.
Fourth. That thirty-six sections, or one entire township,
which shall be designated by the President of the United States,
together with the one heretofore reserved for that purpose, shall
be reserved for the use of a seminary of learning, and vested in
the legislature of the said state, to be appropriated solely to the
use of such seminary by the said legislature. Provided always,
That the four foregoing propositions, herein offered, are on the
conditions that the convention of the said state shall provide, by
an ordinance irrevocable without the consent of the United
States, that every and each tract of land sold by the United
States, from and after the first day of January, one thousand
eight hundred and nineteen, shall remain exempt from any tax
laid by order, or under any authority of, the state, whether for
state, county, or township, or any other purpose whatever, for
the term of five years from and after the day of sale : And fur-
ther, That the bounty lands granted, or hereafter to be granted,
for military services during the late war, shall, while they con-
tinue to be held by the patentees, or their heirs, remain exempt,
as aforesaid, from all taxes, for the term of three years, from
and after the date of the patents respectively; and that all the
lands belonging to the citizens of the United States, residing
without the said state, shall never be taxed higher than lands
belonging to persons residing therein.
SEC. 7. And be it further enacted, That all that part of the
territory of the United States lying north of the state of Indiana,
and which was included in the former Indiana territory, to-
gether with that part of the Illinois territory which is situated
north of and not included within the boundaries prescribed by
this act, to the state thereby authorized to be formed, shall be,
and hereby is, attached to, and made a part of the Michigan ter-
ritory, from and after the formation of the said state, subject,
nevertheless, to be hereafter disposed of by Congress, according
to the right reserved in the fifth article of the ordinance afore-
said, and the inhabitants therein shall be entitled to the same
Historical Documents 225
privileges and immunities, and subject to the same rules and
regulations, in all respects, with the other citizens of the Michi-
gan territory.
APPROVED, April 18, 1818.
82. JOINT RESOLUTION FOR THE ADMISSION OF ILLI-
NOIS INTO THE UNION. DECEMBER 3, 1818
[17. S. Statutes at Large, III. 536.]
RESOLUTION declaring the admission of the state of Illinois into
the Union.
Resolved, by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
United States of America, in Congress assembled, That, where-
as, in pursuance of an act of Congress, passed on the eighteenth
day of April, one thousand eight hundred and eighteen, entitled
"An act to enable the people of the Illinois territory to form a
constitution and state government, and for the admission of
such state into the Union, on an equal footing with the original
states," the people of said territory did, on the twenty-sixth day
of August, in the present year, by a convention called for that
purpose, form for themselves a constitution and state govern-
ment, which constitution and state government, so formed, is
republican, and in conformity to the principles of the articles of
compact between the original states and the people and states in
the territory north-west of the river Ohio, passed on the thir-
teenth day of July, one thousand seven hundred and eighty-
seven. Resolved, by the Senate and House of Representatives
of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, that
the state of Illinois shall be one, and is hereby declared to be
one, of the United States of America, and admitted into the
Union on an equal footing with the original states, in all re-
spect whatever.
APPROVED, December 3, 1818.
83. THE CONSTITUTION OF ILLINOIS, 1870
[Excerpts]
[Taken from that published by the secretary of state. The complete
text is published and certified to by him in The Blue Book of the State of
Illinois, 1903.'}
PREAMBLE
We, the People of the State of Illinois — grateful to Almighty Preamble.
God for the civil, political and religious liberty which He hath
so long permitted us to enjoy, and looking to Him for a blessing
15
226
Appendix B
upon our endeavors to secure and transmit the same unimpaired
to succeeding generations — in order to form a more perfect gov-
ernment, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide
for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and se-
cure the blessing of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do
ordain and establish this Constitution for the State of Illinois.
ARTICLE L— BOUNDARIES
Boundaries. The boundaries and jurisdiction of the State shall be as fol-
lows, to-wit : Beginning at the mouth of the Wabash river ;
thence up the same, and with the line of Indiana to the north-
west corner of said State ; thence east with the line of the same
State, to the middle of Lake Michigan ; thence north along the
middle of said lake to north latitude forty-two degrees and
thirty minutes, thence west to the middle of the Mississippi
river, and thence down along the middle of that river to its con-
fluence with the Ohio river, and thence up the latter river along
its northwestern shore to the place of beginning: Provided,
that this State shall exercise such jurisdiction upon the Ohio
river as she is now entitled to, or such as may hereafter be
agreed upon by this State and the State of Kentucky.
ARTICLE II.— BILL OF RIGHTS
Inalienable Section i. All men are by nature free and independent, and
rights. |lave certain inherent and inalienable rights — among these are
life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. To secure these rights
and the protection of property, governments are instituted
among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the
governed.
Due process § 2. No person shall be deprived of life, liberty or property
pf law. without due process of law.
Religious § 3- The free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession
liberty. and worship, without discrimination, shall forever be guaran-
teed ; and no person shall be denied any civil or political right,
privilege or capacity on account of his religious opinions ; but
the liberty of conscience hereby secured shall not be construed
to dispense with oaths or affirmations, excuse acts of licentious-
ness, or justify practices inconsistent with the peace or safety
of the State. No person shall be required to attend or support
any ministry or place of worship against his consent, nor shall
any preference be given by law to any religious denomination or
mode of worship.
Historical Documents
227
Searches
and
seizures.
Bail and
habeas
corpus.
§ 4. Every person may freely speak, write and publish on all Freedom of
subjects, being responsible for the abuse of that liberty; and in speech and
all trials for libel, both civil and criminal, the truth, when pub- the Press<
lished with good motives and for justifiable ends, shall be a suf-
ficient defense.
§ 5. The right of trial by jury, as heretofore enjoyed, shall Jury trials,
remain inviolate; but the trial of civil cases before justices of
the peace, by a jury of less than twelve men, may be authorized
by law.
§ 6. The right of the people to be secure in their persons,
houses, papers and effects against unreasonable searches and
seizures, shall not be violated ; and no warrant shall issue with-
out probable cause, supported by affidavit, particularly describ-
ing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be
seized.
§ 7. All persons shall be bailable by sufficient sureties, ex-
cept for capital offenses, where the proof is evident cw the pre-
sumption great ; and the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus
shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or in-
vasion the public safety may require it.
§ 8. No person shall be held to answer for a criminal of- indictments,
fense, unless on indictment of a grand jury, except in cases in
which the punishment is by fine, or imprisonment otherwise .
than in the penitentiary, in cases of impeachment, and in cases
arising in the army and navy, or in the militia, when in actual
service in time of war or public danger : Provided, that the
grand jury may be abolished by law in all cases.
§ 9. In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall have the Rights of
right to appear and defend in person and by counsel ; to demand defendants,
the nature and cause of the accusation, and to have a copy there-
of; to meet the witnesses face to face, and to have process to
compel the attendance of witnesses in his behalf, and a speedy
public trial by an impartial jury of the county or district in
which the offense is alleged to have been committed.
§ 10. No person shall be compelled in any criminal case to
give evidence against himself, or be twice put in jeopardy for
the same offense.
§ ii. All penalties shall be proportioned to the nature of the Penalties
offense; and no conviction shall work corruption of blood or limited,
forfeiture of estate ; nor shall any person be transported out of
the State for any offense committed within the same.
228
Appendix B
Imprison- § 12. No person shall be imprisoned for debt, unless upon
ment for refusal to deliver up his estate for the benefit of his creditors, in
debt such manner as shall be prescribed by law ; or in cases where
prohibited. there is strong presumption of fraud.
Compensa- § 13. Private property shall not be taken or damaged for pub-
tion for ]ic use without just compensation. Such compensation, when
property not ma(je by the State, shall be ascertained by a jury, as shall be
ta en* prescribed by law. The fee of land taken for railroad tracks,
without consent of the owners thereof, shall remain in such
owners, subject to the use for which it is taken.
Legislative § 14. No ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation
power lim- of contracts, or making any irrevocable grant of special privi-
lted- leges or immunities, shall be passed.
The military § 15. The military shall be in strict subordination to the civil
power. power.
Quartering § 16. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any
of soldiers, house without the consent of the owner ; nor in time of war ex-
cept in the manner prescribed by law.
Right of § i?. The people have the right to assemble in a peaceable
petition. manner to consult for the common good, to make known their
opinions to their representatives, and to apply for redress of
grievances.
Elections. § 18. All elections shall be free and equal.
Justice must § IQ. Every person ought to find a certain remedy in the
be certain, laws for all injuries and wrongs which he may receive in his
free, speedy, person, property, or reputation ; he ought to obtain by law, right
and justice freely, and without being obliged to purchase it,
completely and without denial, promptly and without delay.
Fundamental § 2O. A frequent recurrence to the fundamental principles of
principles. civil government is absolutely necessary to preserve the bless-
ings of liberty.
ARTICLE III.— DISTRIBUTION OF POWERS
Depart- The powers of the government of this State are divided into
ments. three distinct departments — the Legislative, Executive and Ju-
dicial ; and no person, or collection of persons, being one of
these departments, shall exercise any power properly belonging
to either of the others, except as hereinafter expressly directed
or permitted.
ARTICLE IV.— LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT
General Section i. The legislative power shall be vested in a general
assembly. assembly, which shall consist of a senate and house of repre-
sentatives, both to be elected by the people.
Historical Documents
229
ELECTION
§ 2. An election for members of the general assembly shall Election,
be held on the Tuesday next after the first Monday in Novem-
ber, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and
seventy, and every two years thereafter, in each county, at such
places therein as may be provided by law. When vacancies
occur in either house, the governor, or person exercising the
powers of governor, shall issue write of election to fill such
vacancies.
ELIGIBILITY AND OATH
§ 3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained Eligibility,
the age of twenty-five years, or a representative who shall not
have attained the age of twenty-one years. No person shall be
a senator or a representative who shall not be a citizen of the
United States and who shall not have been for five years a resi-
dent of this State, and for two years next preceding his election
a resident within the territory forming the district from which
he is elected. No judge or clerk of any court, secretary of state,
attorney general, state's attorney, recorder, sheriff, or collector
of public revenue, members of either house of congress, or per-
sons holding any lucrative office under the United States or this
State, or any foreign government, shall have a seat in the gen-
eral assembly : Provided, that appointments in the militia, and
the offices of notary public and justice of the peace, shall not be
considered lucrative. Nor shall any person holding any office
of honor or profit under any foreign government, or under the
government of the United States, (except postmasters whose
annual compensation does not exceed the sum of three hundred
dollars) hold any office of honor or profit under the authority of
this State.
§ 4. No person who has been, or hereafter shall be convicted Disqualifi-
of bribery, perjury or other infamous crime, nor any person cations,
who has been or may be a collector or holder of public moneys,
who shall not have accounted for and paid over, according to
law, all such moneys due from him, shall be eligible to the gen-
eral assembly, or to any office of profit or trust in this State.
§ 5. [Member's oath.]
APPORTIONMENT — SENATORIAL
§ 6. The general assembly shall apportion the State every
ten years, beginning with the year one thousand eight hundred
and seventy-one, by dividing the population of the State, as
ascertained by the federal census, by the number fifty-one, and
Senatoiial
districts.
230 Appendix B
the quotient shall be the ratio of representation in the senate.
The State shall be divided into fifty-one senatorial districts,
each of which shall elect one senator, whose term of office shall
be four years. The senators elected in the year of our Lord
one thousand eight hundred and seventy-two, in districts bear-
ing odd numbers, shall vacate their offices at the end of two
years, and those elected in districts bearing even numbers at the
end of four years, and vacancies occurring by the expiration of
term shall be filled by the election of Senators for the full term.
Senatorial districts shall be formed of contiguous and compact
territory, bounded by county lines, and contain as near as prac-
ticable an equal number of inhabitants : but no district shall con-
tain less than four-fifths of the senatorial ratio. Counties con-
taining not less than the ratio and three-fourths may be divided
into separate districts, and shall be entitled to two Senators, and
to one additional Senator for each number of inhabitants equal
to the ratio contained by such counties in excess of twice the
number of said ratio.
MINORITY REPRESENTATION1
Minority §§ 7 and 8. The house of representatives shall consist of
representa- three times the number of the members of the senate, and the
tlon> term of office shall be two years. Three representatives shall be
elected in each senatorial district at the general election in the
year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and seventy-two,
and every two years thereafter. In all elections of representa-
tives aforesaid, each qualified voter may cast as many votes for
one candidate as there are representatives to be elected, or may
distribute the same, or equal parts thereof, among the candi-
dates, as he shall see fit; and the candidates highest in votes
shall be declared elected.
TIME OF MEETING AND GENERAL RULES
Organiza- § 9. The sessions of the general assembly shall commence at
tion and twelve o'clock noon, on the Wednesday next after the first Mon-
rules. <jay ;n january, in the year next ensuing the election of mem-
bers thereof, and at no other time, unless as provided by this
constitution. A majority of the members elected to each house
shall constitute a quorum. Each house shall determine the
rules of its proceedings, and be the judge of the election, returns
and qualifications of its members ; shall choose its own officers ;
1 By a separate vote taken at the time of the adoption of the constitu-
tion, this paragraph on minority representation was substituted for the
original sections 7 and 8.
Historical Documents
231
and the senate shall choose a temporary president to preside
when the lieutenant governor shall not attend as president, or
shall act as governor. The secretary of state shall call the house
of representatives to order at the opening of each new assembly,
and preside over it until a temporary presiding officer thereof
shall have been chosen and shall have taken his seat. No mem-
ber shall be expelled by either house, except by a vote of two-
thirds of all the members elected to that house, and no member
shall be twice expelled for the same offense. Each house may
punish by imprisonment any person not a member who shall be
guilty of disrespect to the house by disorderly or contemptuous
behavior in its presence. But no such imprisonment shall ex-
tend beyond twenty-four hours at one time, unless the person
shall persist in such disorderly or contemptuous behavior.
§ 10. The door of each house and of committees of the whole Publicity,
shall be kept open, except in such cases as, in the opinion of the
house, require secrecy. Neither house shall, without the con-
sent of the other, adjourn for more than two days, or to any
other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting.
Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, which shall
be published. In the senate, at the request of two members, and
in the house, at the request of five members, the yeas and nays
shall be taken on any question, and entered upon the journal.
Any two members of either house shall have liberty to dissent
from and protest, in respectful language, against any act or res-
olution which they think injurious to the public or to any indi-
vidual, and have the reasons of their dissent entered upon the
journals.
STYLE OF LAWS AND PASSAGE OF BILLS
Enacting
style.
Votes on
bills.
§ ii. The style of the laws of this State shall be : "Be it en-
acted by the People of the State of Illinois, represented in the
General Assembly."
§ 12. Bills may originate in either house, but may be altered,
amended or rejected by the other; and, on the final passage of
all bills, the vote shall be by yeas and nays, upon each bill sepa-
rately, and shall be entered upon the journal; and no bill shall
become a law without the concurrence of a majority of the
members elected to each house.
§ 13. Every bill shall be read at large on three different days, Restrictions
in each house ; and the bill and all amendments thereto shall be
printed before the vote is taken on its final passage ; and every
bill, having passed both houses, shall be signed by the Speakers
thereof. No act hereafter passed shall embrace more than one
on passage
of bills.
232 Appendix B
subject, and that shall be expressed in the title. But if any sub-
ject shall be embraced in an act which shall not be expressed in
the title, such act shall be void only as to so much thereof as shall
not be so expressed ; and no law shall be revived or amended by
reference to its title only, but the law revived, or the section
amended, shall be inserted at length in the new act. And no act
of the General Assembly shall take effect until the first day of
July next after its passage, unless, in case of emergency (which
emergency shall be expressed in the preamble or body of the
act), the General Assembly shall, by a vote of two-thirds of all
the members elected to each house, otherwise direct.
PRIVILEGES AND DISABILITIES
Members' § 14. Senators and Representatives shall, in all cases, except
privileges. treason, felony or breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest
during the session of the General Assembly, and in going to and
returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either
house, they shall not be questioned in any other place.
Disabilities. § 15. No person elected to the General Assembly shall re-
ceive any civil appointment within this State from the Governor,
the Governor and Senate, or from the General Assembly, dur-
ing the term for which he shall have been elected ; and all such
appointments, and all votes given for any such members for any
such office or appointment, shall be void ; nor shall any member
of the General Assembly be interested, either directly or indi-
rectly, in any contract with the State, or any county thereof,
authorized by any law passed during the term for which he
shall have been elected, or within one year after the expiration
thereof.
PUBLIC MONEYS AND APPROPRIATIONS
Appropria- § 16. The General Assembly shall make no appropriation of
tions. money out of the treasury in any private law. Bills making
appropriations for the pay of members and officers of the Gen-
eral Assembly, and for the salaries of the officers of the govern-
ment, shall contain no provision on any other subject.
Payments § 17. No money shall be drawn from the treasury except in
from the pursuance of an appropriation made by law, and on the presen-
treasury. tation of a warrant issued by the auditor thereon ; and no money
shall be diverted from any appropriation made for any purpose,
or taken from any fund whatever, either by joint or separate
resolution. The auditor shall, within sixty days after the ad-
journment of each session of the general assembly, prepare and
publish a full statement of all money expended at such session,
Historical Documents 233
specifying the amount of each item, and to whom and for what
paid.
§ 18. Each general assembly shall provide for all the appro- Appropria-
priations necessary for the ordinary and contingent expenses of tion bills,
the government until the expiration of the first fiscal quarter
after the adjournment of the next regular session, the aggre-
gate amount of which shall not be increased without a vote of
two-thirds of the members elected to each house, nor exceed the
amount authorized by law to be raised in such time; and all
appropriations, general or special, requiring money to be paid
out of the State treasury, from funds belonging to the State,
shall end with such fiscal quarter : Provided, the State may, to
meet casual deficits or failures in revenues, contract debts, never
to exceed in the aggregate two hundred and fifty thousand dol-
lars, and moneys thus borrowed shall be applied to the purpose
for which they were obtained, or to pay the debt thus created,
and to no other purpose ; and no other debt, except for the pur-
pose of repelling invasion, suppressing insurrection, or defend-
ing the State in war (for payment of which the faith of the
State shall be pledged), shall be contracted, unless the law au-
thorizing the same shall, at a general election, have been sub-
mitted to the people and have received a majority of the votes
cast for members of the General Assembly at such election. The
General Assembly shall provide for the publication of said law
for three months, at least, before the vote of the people shall be
taken upon the same ; and provision shall be made, at the time,
for the payment of the interest annually, as it shall accrue, by a
tax levied for the purpose, or from other sources of revenue;
which law, providing for the payment of such interest by such
tax, shall be irrepealable until such debt be paid: And, pro-
vided further, that the law levying the tax shall be submitted to
the people with the law authorizing the debt to be contracted.
§ 19. [Certain extra compensations forbidden.]
§ 20. The State shall never pay, assume or become respon- State not to
sible for the debts or liabilities of, or in any manner give, loan lend its
or extend its credit to, or in aid of, any public or other corpo- credit,
ration, association or individual.
§ 21. [Salary and allowances of members.]
SPECIAL LEGISLATION PROHIBITED
§ 22. The general assembly shall not pass local or special Local or
laws in any of the following enumerated cases, that is to say: special laws
for prohibited.
Granting divorces ;
234 Appendix B
Changing the names cf persons or places ;
Laying out, opening, altering and working roads or highways ;
Vacating roads, town plats, streets, alleys, and public grounds ;
Locating or changing county seats ;
Regulating county and township affairs ;
Regulating the practice in courts of justice;
Regulating the jurisdiction and duties of justices of the peace,
police magistrates and constables ;
Providing for changes of venue in civil and criminal cases ;
Incorporating cities, towns or villages, or changing or amend-
ing the charter of any town, city or village ;
Providing for the election of members of the board of super-
visors in townships, incorporated towns or cities ;
Summoning and impaneling grand or petit juries;
Providing for the management of common schools ;
Regulating the rate of interest on money ;
The opening and conducting of any election, or designating
the place of voting ;
The sale or mortgage of real estate belonging to minors or
others under disability;
The protection of game or fish ;
Chartering or licensing ferries or toll bridges ;
Remitting fines, penalties or forfeitures ;
Creating, increasing, or decreasing fees, percentage or allow-
ances of public officers, during the term for which said officers
are elected or appointed ;
Changing the law of descent ;
Granting to any corporation, association, or individual, the
right to lay down railroad tracks, or amending existing charters
for such purposes.
Granting to any corporation, association or individual any
special or exclusive privilege, immunity or franchise whatever ;
In all other cases where a general law can be made applicable,
no special law shall be enacted.
§ 23. [Liabilities to State and municipal governments not to
be released.]
IMPEACHMENT
Trial of § 24. The house of representatives shall have the sole power
impeach- of impeachment ; but a majority of all the members elected must
ments. concur therein. All impeachments shall be tried by the senate;
and when sitting for that purpose, the senators shall be upon
oath or affirmation to do justice according to law and evidence.
When the governor of the State is tried, the chief justice shall
preside. No person shall be convicted without the concurrence
Historical Documents
235
of two-thirds of the senators elected. But judgment, in such
cases, shall not extend further than removal from office, and dis-
qualification to hold any office of honor, profit or trust under the
government of this State. The party, whether convicted or ac-
quitted, shall, nevertheless, be liable to prosecution, trial, judg-
ment and punishment according to law.
§§ 25-33. [Miscellaneous limitations of legislative power.]
ARTICLE V.— EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT
Executive
officers.
Section I. The executive department shall consist of a Gov-
ernor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, Auditor of Pub-
lic Accounts, Treasurer, Superintendent of Public Instruction
and Attorney General, who shall each, with the exception of the
Treasurer, hold his office for the term of four years from the
second Monday of January next after his election and until his
successor is elected and qualified. They shall, except the Lieu-
tenant Governor, reside at the seat of government during their
term of office, and keep the public records, books and papers
there, and shall perform such duties as may be prescribed by
law.
§ 2. The Treasurer shall hold his office for the term of two Treasurer,
years, and until his successor is elected and qualified; and shall
be ineligible to said office for two years next after the end of the
term for which he was elected. He may be required by the gov-
ernor to give reasonable additional security, and in default of so
doing his office shall be deemed vacant.
ELECTION
§ 3. An election for governor, lieutenant governor, secretary
of state, auditor of public accounts and attorney general shall be
held on the Tuesday next after the first Monday of November,
in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and seventy-
two, and every four years thereafter; for superintendent of
public instruction, on the Tuesday next after the first Monday
of November in the year one thousand eight hundred and sev-
enty, and every four years thereafter ; and for treasurer on the
day last above mentioned, and every two years thereafter, at
such places and in such manner as may be prescribed by law.
§ 4. The returns of every election for the above named offi-
cers shall be sealed up and transmitted by the returning officers
to the secretary of state directed to the "Speaker of the house of
representatives," who shall, immediately after the organization
of the house, and before proceeding to other business, open and
publish the same in the presence of a majority of each house of
Election of
executive
officers.
Returns
canvassed.
236 Appendix B
the general assembly, who shall, for that purpose, assemble in
the hall of the house of representatives. The person having the
highest number of votes for either of said offices shall be de-
clared duly elected ; but if two or more have an equal, and the
highest number of votes, the general assembly shall, by joint
ballot, choose one of such persons for said office. Contested
elections for all of said offices shall be determined by both houses
of the general assembly, by joint ballot, in such manner as may
be prescribed by law.
ELIGIBILITY
Qualifica- § 5. No person shall be eligible to the office of governor or
tions of lieutenant governor who shall not have attained the age of thirty
executive years, and been, for five years next preceding his election, a
officers. citizen of the United States and of this State. Neither the gov-
ernor, lieutenant governor, auditor of public accounts, secretary
of state, superintendent of public instruction, nor attorney gen-
eral shall be eligible to any other office during the period for
which he shall have been elected.
GOVERNOR
Supreme § 6. The supreme executive power shall be vested in the
executive governor, who shall take care that the laws be faithfully exe-
P°wer- cuted.
Reports to § 7. The governor shall, at the commencement of each ses-
the general sion, and at the close of his term of office, give to the general
assembly. assembly information, by message, of the condition of the State,
and shall recommend such measures as he shall deem expedient.
He shall account to the general assembly, and accompany his
message with a statement of all moneys received and paid out
by him from any funds subject to his order, with vouchers, and
at the commencement of each regular session, present estimates
of the amount of money required to be raised by taxation for
all purposes.
Special § 8. The Governor may, on extraordinary occasions, con-
sessions, vene the General Assembly, by proclamation, stating therein the
purpose for which they are convened, and the General Assem-
bly shall enter upon no business except that for which they were
called together.
Adjourn- § 9. Jn case of a disagreement between the two houses with
ment by the respect to the time of adjournment, the Governor may, on the
lon same being certified to him by the house first moving the ad-
journment, adjourn the General Assembly to such time as he
thinks proper, not beyond the first day of the next regular ses-
sion.
Historical Documents
237
§ 10. The Governor shall nominate, and by and with the ad- Appoint-
vice and consent of the Senate (a majority of all the Senators ments.
elected concurring by yeas and nays), appoint all officers whose
offices are established by this constitution, or which may be
created by law, and whose appointment or election is not other-
wise provided for; and no such officer shall be appointed or
elected by the General Assembly.
§ II. In case of a vacancy, during the recess of the Senate, Temporary
in any office which is not elective, the Governor shall make a appoint-
temporary appointment until the next meeting of the Senate, ments.
when he shall nominate some person to fill such office ; and any
person so nominated who is confirmed by the Senate (a major-
ity of all the Senators elected concurring by yeas and nays),
shall hold his office during the remainder of the term, and until
his successor shall be appointed and qualified. No person, after
being rejected by the Senate, shall be again nominated for the
same office at the same session, unless at the request of the Sen-
ate, or be appointed to the same office during the recess of the
General Assembly.
§ 12. The Governor shall have power to remove any officer Removals,
whom he may appoint, in case of incompetency, neglect of duty
or malfeasance in office; and he may declare his office vacant
and fill the same as is herein provided in other cases of vacancy.
§ 13. The Governor shall have power to grant reprieves, Pardons,
commutations and pardons, after conviction, for all offense's,
subject to such regulations as may be provided by law relative
to the manner of applying therefor.
§ 14. The Governor shall be Commander-in-Chief of the Military
military and naval forces of the State (except when they shall powers.
be called into the service of the United States), and may call
out the same to execute the laws, suppress insurrection and
repel invasion.
§ 15. The Governor and all civil officers of the State shall be impeach-
liable to impeachment for any misdemeanor in office. ment.
VETO
§ 16. Every bill passed by the General Assembly shall, be- Veto power,
fore it becomes a law, be presented to the Governor. If he ap-
prove, he shall sign it, and thereupon it shall become a law ; but
if he do not approve, he shall return it, with his objections, to
the House in which it shall have originated, which House shall
enter the objections at large upon its journal and proceed to
reconsider the bill. If then two-thirds of the members elected
agree to pass the same, it shall be sent, together with the objec-
238
Appendix B
When the
lieutenant
governor
may act
President of
the senate.
tions, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be recon-
sidered ; and if approved by two-thirds of the members elected
to that House, it shall become a law, notwithstanding the objec-
tions of the Governor; but in all such cases the vote of each
House shall be determined by yeas and nays, to be entered upon
the journal. *Bills making appropriations of money out of the
treasury shall specify the objects and purposes for which the
same are made, and appropriate to them respectively their sev-
eral amounts in distinct items and sections. And if the Gov-
ernor shall not approve any one or more of the items or sections
contained in any bill, but shall approve the residue thereof, it
shall become a law, as to the residue, in like manner as if he had
signed it. The Governor shall then return the bill, with his ob-
jections to the items or sections of the same not approved by
him, to the House in which the bill shall have originated, which
House shall enter the objections at large upon its journal, and
proceed to reconsider so much of said bill as is not approved by
the Governor. The same proceedings shall be had in both
Houses in reconsidering the same as is hereinbefore provided in
case of an entire bill returned by the Governor with his objec-
tions ; and if any item or section of said bill not approved by
the Governor shall be passed by two-thirds of the members
elected to each of the two Houses of the General Assembly, it
shall become part of said law, notwithstanding the objections of
the Governor. *Any bill which shall not be returned by the
Governor within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall
have been presented to him, shall become a law in like manner
as if he had signed it, unless the General Assembly shall by
their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall be
filed with his objections in the office of the Secretary of State,
within ten days after such adjournment, or become a law. [As
amended, Nov. 4, 1884; the substance of the amendment is in-
cluded between the two asterisks.]
LIEUTENANT GOVERNOR
§ 17. In case of the death, conviction on impeachment, fail-
ure to qualify, resignation, absence from the State, or other dis-
ability of the Governor, the powers, duties and emoluments of
the office for the residue of the term, or until the disability shall
be removed, shall devolve upon the Lieutenant Governor.
§ 18. The lieutenant governor shall be president of the sen-
ate, and shall vote only when the senate is equally divided. The
senate shall choose a president, pro tempore, to preside in case
of the absence or impeachment of the lieutenant governor, or
when he shall hold the office of governor.
Historical Documents
239
§ 19. If there be no lieutenant governor, or if the lieutenant Other provi-
governor shall, for any of the causes specified in section seven- sions for the
teen of this article, become incapable of performing the duties succession,
of the office, the president of the senate shall act as governor
until the vacancy is filled or the disability removed ; and if the
president of the senate, for any of the above named causes, shall
become incapable of performing the duties of governor, the
same shall devolve upon the speaker of the house of representa-
tives.
§ 20. [Temporary appointments by governor to fill vacan-
cies in elective offices. Financial reports.]
§ 21. The officers of the executive department, and of all the Executive
public institutions of the State, shall, at least ten days preceding a«d adminis-
each regular session of the general assembly, severally report to tratlve °ffi-
the governor, who shall transmit such reports to the general
assembly, together with the reports of the judges of the supreme
court of defects in the constitution and laws ; and the governor
may at any time require information, in writing, under oath,
from the officers of the executive department, and all officers
and managers of State institutions, upon any subject relating to
the condition management and expenses of their respective of-
fices.
§ 22. [The State seal.]
cers report
to the
governor.
FEES AND SALARIES
§ 23. The officers named in this article shall receive for their
services a salary, to be established by law, which shall not be in-
creased or diminished during their official terms, and they shall
not, after the expiration of the terms of those in office at the
adoption of this constitution, receive to their own use any fees,
costs, perquisites of office, or other compensation. And all fees
that may hereafter be payable by law for any services performed
by any officer provided for in this article of the constitution,
shall be paid in advance into the State treasury.
§§ 24-25. [Office defined. Oath of office.]
Pay of
State offi-
ARTICLE VI.— JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT
Section I. The judicial powers, except as in this article is Courts,
otherwise provided, shall be vested in one Supreme Court, cir-
cuit courts, county courts, justices of the peace, police magis-
trates, and in such courts as may be created by law in and for
cities and incorporated towns.
240
Appendix B
Organization
and juris-
diction.
Qualifica-
tions of
judges.
Election dis-
tricts.
Tenure of
office.
Salaries.
Legislature
may organ-
ize appel-
late courts.
SUPREME COURT
§ 2. The supreme court shall consist of seven judges, and
shall have original jurisdiction in cases relating to the revenue,
in mandamus and habeas corpus, and appellate jurisdiction in
all other cases. One of said judges shall be chief justice; four
shall constitute a quorum, and the concurrence of four shall be
necessary to every decision.
§ 3. No person- shall be eligible to the office of judge of the
supreme court unless he shall be at least thirty years of age, and
a citizen of the United States, nor unless he shall have resided
in this State five years next preceding his election, and be a resi-
dent of the district in which he shall be elected.
§ 4. [Provisions regarding "grand divisions" now consoli-
dated by statute.]
§ 5. ... The State shall be divided into seven districts
for the election of judges, and, until otherwise provided by law,
they shall be as follows : [Here follows a list of districts with
the names of the counties included in each.]
§ 6. ... The term of office of judges of the Supreme
Court, elected after the adoption of this constitution, shall be
nine years, and on the first Monday of June of the year in which
the term of any of the judges in office at the adoption of this
constitution or of the judges then elected, shall expire, and
every nine years thereafter, there shall be an election for the
successor or successors of such judges in the respective districts
wherein the term of such judges shall expire. The Chief Jus-
tice shall continue to act as such until the expiration of the term
for which he was elected, after which the judges shall choose
one of their number Chief Justice.
§ 7. From and after the adoption of this constitution, the
judges of the Supreme Court shall each receive a salary of four
thousand dollars per annum, payable quarterly, until otherwise
provided by law. And after said salaries shall be fixed by law,
the salaries of the judges in office shall not be increased or
diminished during the terms for which said judges shall have
been elected.
APPELLATE COURTS
§ ii. After the year of our Lord one thousand eight hun-
dred and seventy-four inferior appellate courts, of uniform or-
ganization and jurisdiction, may be created in districts formed
for that purpose, to which such appeals and writs of error as
the general assembly may provide, may be prosecuted from cir-
cuit and other courts, and from which appeals and writs of error
Historical Documents
241
shall lie to the supreme court, in all criminal cases, and cases in
which a franchise, or freehold, or the validity of a statute is in-
volved, and in such other cases as may be provided by law.
Such appellate courts shall be held by such number of judges of
the circuit courts, and at such times and places, and in such
manner as may be provided by law; but no judge shall sit in
review upon cases decided by him ; nor shall said judges receive
any additional compensation for such services.
CIRCUIT COURTS
§ 12. The circuit courts shall have original jurisdiction of all Jurisdiction
causes in law and equity, and such appellate jurisdiction as is or of circuit
may be provided by law, and shall hold two or more terms each courts-
year in every county. The terms of office of judges of circuit
courts shall be six years.
[§§ 13 and 15 provide alternative methods, either of which
may be adopted by the general assembly, for the organization of
judicial circuits and the election of judges by the qualified
voters.]
§ 14. The general assembly shall provide for the times of Sessions,
holding court in each county; which shall not be changed, ex- Election of
cept by the general assembly next preceding the general election JucJscs-
for judges of said courts ; but additional terms may be provided
for in any county. The election for judges of the circuit courts
shall be held on the first Monday in June, in the year of our
Lord one thousand eight hundred and seventy-three, and every
six years thereafter.
§ 16. From and after the adoption of this constitution, judges Salaries.
of the circuit courts shall receive a salary of three thousand dol-
lars per annum, payable quarterly, until otherwise provided by
law, and after their salaries shall be fixed by law they shall not
be increased or diminished during the terms for which said
judges shall be, respectively, elected ; and from and after the
adoption of this constitution, no judge of the Supreme or circuit
court shall receive any other compensation, perquisite or benefit,
in any form whatsoever, nor perform any other than judicial
duties to which may belong any emoluments.
§ 17. No person shall be eligible to the office of judge of the Qualifica-
circuit or any inferior court, or to membership in the "board of tions of
county commissioners," unless he shall be at least twenty-five Judses-
years of age and a citizen of the United States, nor unless he
shall have resided in this State five years next preceding his
16
242
Appendix B
election, and be a resident of the circuit, county, city, cities or
incorporated town in which he shall be elected.
County
courts and
their juris-
diction.
Appeals.
Probate
courts may
be organ-
ized.
Justices and
constables.
State's at-
torneys.
COUNTY COURTS
§ 1 8. There shall be elected in and for each county one
county judge and one clerk of the county court, whose term of
office shall be four years. But the General Assembly may create
districts of two or more contiguous counties, in each of which
shall be elected one judge, who shall take the place of and exer-
cise the powers and jurisdiction of county judges in such dis-
tricts. County courts shall be courts of record, and shall have
original jurisdiction in all matters of probate, settlement of
estates of deceased persons, appointment of guardians and con-
servators and settlements of their accounts, in all matters relat-
ing to apprentices, and in proceedings for the collection of taxes
and assessments, and such other jurisdiction as may be pro-
vided for by general law.
§ 19. Appeals and writs of error shall be allowed from final
determinations of county courts, as may be provided by law.
PROBATE COURTS
§ 20. The General Assembly may provide for the establish-
ment of a probate court in each county having a population of
over fifty thousand, and for the election of a judge thereof,
whose term of office shall be the same as that of the county
judge, and who shall be elected at the same time and in the
same manner. Said couits, when established, shall have orig-
inal jurisdiction of all probate matters, the settlement of estates
of deceased persons, the appointment of guardians and con-
servators, and settlement of their accounts ; in all matters relat-
ing to apprentices, and in cases of sales of real estate of deceased
persons for the payment of debts.
JUSTICES OF THE PEACE AND CONSTABLES
§ 21. Justices of the peace, police magistrates and constables
shall be elected in and for such districts as are, or may be, pro-
vided by law, and the jurisdiction of such justices of the peace
and police magistrates shall be uniform.
STATE'S ATTORNEYS
§ 22. At the election for members of the general assembly in
the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and seventy-
two, and every four years thereafter, there shall be elected a
State's attorney in and for each county, in lieu of the State's
Historical Documents
243
attorneys now provided by law, whose terms of office shall be
four years.
COURTS OF COOK COUNTY
§ 23. The County of Cook shall be one judicial circuit. The
circuit court of Cook county shall consist of five judges, until
their number shall be increased as herein provided. The pres-
ent judge of the recorder's court of the City of Chicago, and the
present judge of the circuit court of Cook county, shall be two
of said judges, and shall remain in office for the terms for which
they were respectively elected, and until their successors shall
be elected and qualified. The superior court of Chicago shall be
continued,and called the "Superior Court of Cook County."
The general assembly may increase the number of said judges,
by adding one to either of said courts for every additional fifty
thousand inhabitants in said county over and above a popula-
tion of four hundred thousand. The terms of office of the
judges of said courts, hereafter elected, shall be six years.
§§ 24, 25. [Miscellaneous provisions about these courts.]
§ 26. The recorder's court of the city of Chicago shall be
continued, and shall be called the "Criminal Court of Cook
County." It shall have the jurisdiction of a circuit court in all
cases of criminal and quasi criminal nature, arising in the county
of Cook, or that may be brought before said court pursuant to
law ; and all recognizances and appeals taken in said county, in
criminal and quasi criminal cases, shall be returnable and taken
to said court. It shall have no jurisdiction in civil cases, ex-
cept in those on behalf of the people, and incident to such crim-
inal or quasi criminal matters, and to dispose of unfinished busi-
ness. The terms of said criminal court of Cook county shall
be held by one or more of the judges of the circuit or superior
court of Cook county, as nearly as may be in alternation, as may
be determined by said judges, or provided by law. Said judges
shall be ex officio judges of said court.
§ 27. [Clerks of these courts.]
§ 28. All justices of the peace in the city of Chicago shall be
appointed by the Governor, by and with the advice and consent
of the Senate (but only upon the recommendation of a majority
of the judges of the circuit, superior and county courts), and
for such districts as are now or shall hereafter be provided by
law. They shall hold their offices for four years, and until their
successors have been commissioned and qualified, but they may
be removed by summary proceeding in the circuit or superior
court, for extortion or other malfeasance. Existing justices of
Circuit and
Superior
courts.
"Criminal
Court
of Cook
County."
Justices of
the peace in
Chicago.
244
Appendix B
the peace and police magistrates may hold their offices until the
expiration of their respective terms.
§ 29. [Judges commissioned by the governor. Laws regu-
lating courts must be uniform.]
Removal of § 30. The general assembly may, for cause entered on the
judges. journals, upon due notice and opportunity of defense, remove
from office any judge, upon concurrence of three-fourths of all
the members elected, of each house. All other officers in this
article mentioned shall be removed from office on prosecution
and final conviction for misdemeanor in office.
§ 31- [Judges to report defects in laws.]
§ 32. [Miscellaneous provisions relating to the judiciary.]
§ 33. [Legal formulas.]
ARTICLE VII.— SUFFRAGE
Qualifica- § I. Every person having resided in this State one year,
tions of in the county ninety days and in the election district thirty
voters. days next preceding any election therein, who was an elector in
this State on the first day of April, in the year of our Lord one
thousand eight hundred and forty-eight, or obtained a certificate
of naturalization, before any court of record in this State, prior
to the first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand
eight hundred and seventy, or who shall be a male citizen of the
United States, above the age of 21 years, shall be entitled to
vote at such election.
The ballot. § 2. All votes shall be by ballot.
§ 3. [Privileges of electors.]
§§ 4, 5. [Legal residence and military service.]
§ 6. [Officeholders must be citizens and residents.]
Disqualifica- § 7- The General Assembly shall pass laws excluding from
tions. the right of suffrage persons convicted of infamous crimes.
ARTICLE VIII.— EDUCATION
Free § I. The General Assembly shall provide a thorough and
schools. efficient system of free schools whereby all children of this State
may receive a good common school education.
§ 2. [Faithful application of school funds.]
No grants § 3. Neither the General Assembly nor any county, city,
to sectarian town, township, school district or other public corporation shall
institutions, ever make any appropriation or pay from any public fund what-
ever, anything in aid of any church or sectarian purpose, or to
help support or sustain any school, academy, seminary, college,
university or other literary or scientific institution, controlled by
Historical Documents
245
any church or sectarian denomination whatever; nor shall any
grant or donation of land, money or other personal property
ever be made by the State or any such public corporation to any
church or for any sectarian purpose.
§ 4. [School officers not to be interested in text-books, etc.]
§ 5. There may be a county superintendent of schools in County su-
each county, whose qualifications, powers, duties, compensation perintendent.
and time and manner of election and term of office shall be pre-
scribed by law.
ARTICLE IX.— REVENUE
§ i. The general assembly shall provide such revenue as
may be needful by levying a tax, by valuation, so that every
person and corporation shall pay a tax in proportion to the
value of his, her or its property — such value to be ascertained
by some person or persons to be elected or appointed in such
manner as the general assembly shall direct, and not otherwise ;
but the general assembly shall have power to tax peddlers, auc-
tioneers, brokers, hawkers, merchants, commission merchants,
showmen, jugglers, inn-keepers, grocery-keepers, liquor-dealers,
toll-bridges, ferries, insurance, telegraph and express interests
or business, venders of patents and persons or corporations
owning or using franchises and privileges, in such manner as it
shall from time to time direct by general law, uniform as to the
class upon which it operates.
§ 2. The specification of the objects and subjects of taxation
shall not deprive the general assembly of the power to require
other subjects or objects to be taxed, in such manner as may be
consistent with the principles of taxation fixed in this constitu-
tion.
§ 3. [Exemptions.]
§§ 4, 5. [Rules regarding unpaid taxes.]
§ 6. [No exemption of particular localities.]
§ 7. All taxes levied for State purposes shall be paid into the
State treasury.
§ 8. County authorities shall never assess taxes the aggre-
gate of which shall exceed seventy-five cents per one hundred
dollars valuation, except for the payment of indebtedness exist-
ing at the adoption of this constitution, unless authorized by a
vote of the people of the county.
§ 9. The General Assembly may vest the corporate authori-
ties of cities, towns and villages with power to make local im-
provements by special assessment or by special taxation of con-
tiguous property, or otherwise. For all other corporate pur-
General
property
tax.
Special
taxes.
Other taxes
permissible.
State taxes.
County
taxes
limited.
Municipal
taxation.
246
Appendix B
poses, all municipal corporations may be vested with authority
to assess and collect taxes, but such taxes shall be uniform in
respect to persons and property within the jurisdiction of the
body imposing the same.
Local in- § 12. No county, city, township, school district, or other
debtedness municipal corporation shall be allowed to become indebted in
limited. any manner or for any purpose to an amount, including exist-
ing indebtedness in the aggregate exceeding five per centum on
the value of the taxable property therein, to be ascertained by
the last assessment for State and county taxes previous to the
incurring of such indebtedness.
§ 13. [Chicago World's Fair bonds. Amendment. 1890.]
ARTICLE X.— COUNTIES
§§ 1-4. [Rules regarding organization and division of coun-
ties and removal of county seats.]
Township § 5- The General Assembly shall provide, by general law,
organization, for township organization, under which any county may organ-
ize whenever a majority of the legal voters of such county, vot-
ing at any general election, shall so determine ; and whenever
any county shall adopt township organization, so much of this
constitution as provides for the management of the fiscal con-
cerns of the said county by the board of county commissioners,
may be dispensed with, and the affairs of said county may be
transacted in such manner as the General Assembly may pro-
vide. And in any county that shall have adopted a township
organization, the question of continuing the same may be sub-
mitted to a vote of the electors of such county, at a general elec-
tion, in the manner that now is or may be provided by law ; and
if a majority of all the votes cast upon that question shall be
against township organization, then such organization shall
cease in said county ; and all laws in force in relation to coun-
ties not having township organization, shall immediately take
effect and be in force in such county. No two townships shall
have the same name, and the day of holding the annual town-
ship meeting shall be uniform throughout the State.
County com- § 6. At the first election of county judges under this consti-
missioners. tution, there shall be elected in each of the counties in this State,
not under township organization, three officers, who shall be
styled, "The Board of County Commissioners," who shall hold
sessions for the transaction of county business as shall be pro-
vided by law. One of said commissioners shall hold his office
for one year, one for two years, and one for three years, to be
determined by lot ; and every year thereafter one such officer
Historical Documents
247
shall be elected in each of said counties for the term of three
years.
§ 7. The county affairs of Cook county shall be managed by Commission-
a board of commissioners of fifteen persons, ten of whom shall ers °f Cook
be elected from the city of Chicago and five from towns outside county-
of said city, in such manner as may be provided by law.
COUNTY OFFICERS AND THEIR COMPENSATION
§ 8. In each county there shall be elected the following Election
county officers, at the general election to be held on the Tuesday of county
after the first Monday in November, A. D. 1882: A county officers,
judge, county clerk, sheriff and treasurer, and at the election to
be held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November,
A. D. 1884, a coroner and clerk of the circuit court (who may
be ex officio recorder of deeds, except in counties having 60,000
and more inhabitants, in which counties a recorder of deeds
shall be elected at the general election in 1884). Each of said
officers shall enter upon the duties of his office, respectively, on
the first Monday of December after his election, and they shall
hold their respective offices for the term of four years, and until
their successors are elected and qualified: Provided, that no
person having once been elected to the office of sheriff or treas-
urer, shall be eligible to re-election to said office for four years
after the expiration of the term for which he shall have been
elected.
§§ 9-13- [Miscellaneous provisions regarding fees and other
compensation of State and local officers.]
ARTICLE XL— CORPORATIONS
§ I. No corporation shall be created by special laws, Corporations
or its charter extended, changed or amended, except those for to be organ-
charitable, educational, penal or reformatory purposes, which ized under
are to be and remain under the patronage and control of the
State, but the General Assembly shall provide, by general laws,
for the organization of all corporations hereafter to be created.
§ 2. [Legal effect of previous special legislation.]
§ 3. [Election of directors of corporations.]
§ 4. No law shall be passed by the general assembly grant-
ing the right to construct and operate a street railroad within
any city, town or incorporated village, without requiring the
consent of the local authorities having the control of the street
or highway proposed to be occupied by such street railroad.
general
laws.
Street rail-
ways.
248
Appendix B
Railroad
corpora-
tions.
Banking § 5- No State bank shall hereafter be created, nor shall the
laws. State own or be liable for any stock in any corporation or joint
stock company or association for banking purposes now created,
or to be hereafter created. No act of the general assembly au-
thorizing or creating corporations or associations with banking
powers, whether of issue, deposit or discount, nor amendments
thereto, shall go into effect or in any manner be in force, unless
the same shall be submitted to a vote of the people at the gen-
eral election next succeeding the passage of the same, and be
approved by a majority of all the votes cast at such election for
or against such law.
§ 6. [Individual liability of stock-holders.]
§ 7. [Suspension of specie payments forbidden. Quarterly
reports required.]
§ 8. [Necessary provisions of a general banking law.]
§ 9. Every railroad corporation organized or doing business
in this State, under the laws or authority thereof, shall have and
maintain a public office or place in this State for the transaction
of its business, where transfers of stock shall be made, and in
which shall be kept, for public inspection, books in which shall
be recorded the amount of capital stock subscribed, and by
whom ; the names of the owners of its stock, and the amounts
owned by them respectively ; the amount of stock paid in, and
by whom ; the transfers of said stock, the amount of its assets
and liabilities, and the names and place of residence of its offi-
cers. The directors of every railroad corporation shall annually
make a report, under oath, to the Auditor of Public Accounts,
or some officer to be designated by law, all of their acts and
doings, which report shall include such matters relating to rail-
roads as may be prescribed by law. And the General Assembly
shall pass laws enforcing by suitable penalties the provisions of
this section.
§ 10. [Taxation of railroad property.]
§ ii. [Consolidation of competing lines forbidden.]
Regulation § I2- Railways heretofore constructed or that may hereafter
of railway be constructed in this State, are hereby declared public high-
rates, ways, and shall be free to all persons for the transportation of
their persons and property thereon, under such regulations as
may be prescribed by law. And the General Assembly shall,
from time to time, pass laws establishing reasonable maximum
rates of charges for the transportation of passengers and freight
on the different railroads in this State.
§ 13. [Limitation of stock and bond issues.]
§ 14. [Eminent domain. Jury trial in condemnation cases.]
Historical Documents
249
§ 15. The general assembly shall pass laws to correct abuses Unfair rates
and prevent unjust discrimination and extortion in the rates of to be pro-
freight and passenger tariffs on the different railroads in this hibited
State, and enforce such laws by adequate penalties, to the ex- by law.
tent, if necessary for that purpose, of forfeiture of their prop-
erty and franchises.
ARTICLE XII.— MILITIA
§ I. The militia of the State of Illinois shall consist Members of
of all able-bodied male persons, resident in the State, between the militia,
the ages of eighteen and forty-five, except such persons as now
are or hereafter may be exempted by the laws of the United
States or of this State..
§ 2. The general assembly, in providing for the organ- Conformity
ization, equipment and discipline of the militia, shall conform to Federal
as nearly as practicable to the regulations for the government of regulations,
the armies of the United States.
§ 3. All militia officers shall be commissioned by the gov- Commissions,
ernor, and may hold their commissions for such time as the gen-
eral assembly may provide.
§ 4. [Militiamen privileged from arrest.]
§ 5. [Military memorials.]
§ 6. [Exemptions.]
ARTICLE XIII.— WAREHOUSES
§ I. All elevators or storehouses where grain or other
property is stored for a compensation, whether the property
stored be kept separate or not, are declared to be public ware-
houses.
[§§ 2, 3 and 6 of this article provide for the regulation of pub-
lic warehouses. §§ 4-5 contain regulations regarding railroads
and other common carriers engaged in the transportation of
grain.]
§ 7. The general assembly shall pass laws for the inspection
of grain, for the protection of producers, shippers and receivers
of grain and produce.
ARTICLE XIV. AMENDMENTS TO CONSTITUTION
§ I. Whenever two-thirds of the members of each
house of the general assembly shall, by a vote entered upon the
journals thereof, concur that a convention is necessary to revise,
alter or amend the constitution, the question shall be submitted
Public ware-
houses.
Inspection
laws.
Constitu-
tional con-
ventions.
250 Appendix B
to the electors at the next general election. If a majority vot-
ing at the election vote for a convention, the general assembly
shall, at the next session, provide for a convention, to consist of
double the number of members of the senate, to be elected in the
same manner, at the same places, and in the same districts. The
general assembly shall, in the act calling the convention, desig-
nate the day, hour and place of its meeting, fix the pay of its
members and officers, and provide for the payment of the same,
together with the expenses necessarily incurred by the conven-
tion in the performance of its duties. Before proceeding, the
members shall take an oath to support the constitution of the
United States, and of the State of Illinois, and to faitnfully dis-
charge their duties as members of the convention. The quali-
fication of members shall be the same as that of members of the
senate, and vacancies occurring shall be filled in the manner pro-
vided for filling vacancies in the general assembly. Said con-
vention shall meet within three months after such election, and
prepare such revision, alteration or amendments of the consti-
tution as shall be deemed necessary, which shall be submitted to
the electors for their ratification or rejection at an election ap-
pointed by the convention for that purpose, not less than two
nor more than six months after the adjournment thereof; and
unless so submitted, and approved by a majority of the electors
voting at the election, no such revision, alteration or amend-
ments shall take effect.
Amend- § 2. Amendments to this constitution may be proposed in
merits pro- either house of the General Assembly, and if the same shall be
posed by the voted for by two-thirds of all the members elected to each of
legislature. ^ twQ nouseS) sucn proposed amendments, together with the
yeas and nays of each house thereon, shall be entered in full on
their respective journals, and said amendments shall be sub-
mitted to the electors of this State for adoption or rejection, at
the next election of members of the General Assembly, in such
manner as may be prescribed by law. The proposed amend-
ments shall be published in full at least three months preceding
the election, and if a majority of the electors voting at said elec-
tion shall vote for the proposed amendments, they shall become
a part of this constitution. But the General Assembly shall
have no power to propose amendments to more than one article
of this constitution at the same session nor to the same article
oftener than once in four years.
Historical Documents
251
SECTIONS SEPARATELY SUBMITTED
ILLINOIS CENTRAL RAILROAD
No contract, obligation or liability whatever, of the Illinois
Central railroad company to pay any money into the State treas-
ury, nor any lien of the State upon, or right to tax property of
said company, in accordance with the provisions of the charter
of said company, approved February tenth, in the year of our
Lord one thousand eight hundred and fifty-one, shall ever be
released, suspended, modified, altered, remitted, or in any man-
ner diminished or impaired by legislative or other authority;
and all moneys derived from said company, after the payment
of the State debt, shall be appropriated and set apart for the
payment of the ordinary expenses of the State government, and
for no other purposes whatever.
MINORITY REPRESENTATION
[See sections 7 and 8, Article IV.]
MUNICIPAL SUBSCRIPTIONS TO RAILROAD OR PRIVATE CORPORATIONS
No county, city, town, township, or other municipality, shall
ever become subscriber to the capital stock of any railroad or
private corporation, or make donation to or loan its credit in aid
of such corporation : Provided, however, that the adoption of
this article shall not be construed as affecting the right of any
such municipality to make such subscriptions where the same
have been authorized, under existing laws, by a vote of the peo-
ple of such municipalities prior to such adoption.
CANAL
The Illinois and Michigan Canal shall never be sold or leased
until the specific proposition for the sale or lease thereof shall
first have been submitted to a vote of the people of the State, at
a general election, and have been approved by a majority of all
the votes polled at such election. The general assembly shall
never loan the credit of the State, or make appropriations from
the treasury thereof, in aid of railroads or canals : Provided,
that any surplus earnings of any canal may be appropriated for
its enlargement or extension.
[Then follows the Schedule, the provisions of which relate
for the most part to the method of voting on the new constitu-
tion and the manner in which its various provisions are to be
put into operation.]
Liabilities
of the Illi-
nois Central
not to be
released.
Local
governments
not to sub-
scribe to
stock of
private
corporations.
The Illinois
and Michi-
gan Canal.
252 Appendix B
Amendment The following constitutional amendment was submitted by
proposed the General Assembly of 1903 to a vote of the people at the gen-
1903, eral election of November, 1904:
authorizing Resolved, That Article IV. of the Constitution of this State
consolidation , ijijj-^i ^ i_ i_jj
of local be amended by adding thereto a section to be numbered and
governments known as Section 34 and reading as follows, to wit :
in Chicago SECTION 34. The General Assembly shall have power, sub-
and other ject to the conditions and limitations hereinafter contained to
special pass anv }aw (local, special or general) providing a scheme or
legislation. charter of local municipal government for the territory now or
hereafter embraced within the limits of the city of Chicago.
The law or laws so passed may provide for consolidating (in
whole or in part) in the municipal government of the city of
Chicago, the powers now vested in the city, board of education,
township, park and other local governments and authorities
having jurisdiction confined to or within said territory, or any
part thereof, and for the assumption by the city of Chicago of
the debts and liabilities (in whole or in part) of the govern-
ments or corporate authorities whose functions within its terri-
tory shall be vested in said city of Chicago, and may authorize
said city, in the event of its becoming liable for the indebtedness
of two or more of the existing municipal corporations lying
wholly within said city of Chicago, to become indebted to an
amount (including its existing indebtedness and the indebted-
ness of all municipal corporations lying wholly within the limits
of said city, and said city's proportionate share of the indebted-
ness of said county and sanitary district, which share shall be
determined in such manner as the General Assembly shall pre-
scribe) in the aggregate not exceeding five per centum of the
full value of the taxable property within its limits, as ascer-
tained by the last assessment either for State or municipal pur-
poses previous to the incurring of such indebtedness, (but no
new bonded indebtedness, other than for refunding purposes,
shall be incurred until the proposition therefor shall be con-
sented to by a majority of the legal voters of said city voting on
the question at any election, general, municipal or special) ; and
may provide for the assessment of property and the levy and
collection of taxes within said city for corporate purposes in
accordance with the principles of equality and uniformity pre-
scribed by this Constitution ; and may abolish all offices, the
functions of which shall be otherwise provided for; and may
provide for the annexation of territory to or disconnection of
territory from said city of Chicago by the consent of a majority
of the legal voters (voting on the question at any election, gen-
Historical Documents 253
e,ral, municipal or special) of the said city and of a majority of
the voters of such territory, voting on the question at any elec-
tion, general, municipal or special ; and in case the General As-
sembly shall create municipal courts in the city of Chicago it
may abolish the offices of Justices of the Peace, Police Magis-
trates and Constables in and for the territory within said city,
and may limit the jurisdiction of Justices of the Peace in the
territory of said county of Cook outside of said city to that ter-
ritory, and in such case the jurisdiction and practice of said
municipal courts shall be such as the General Assembly shall
prescribe ; and the General Assembly may pass all laws which
it may deem requisite to effectually provide a complete system
of local municipal government in and for the city of Chicago.
No law based upon this amendment to the Constitution, af- Such legis-
fecting the municipal government of the city of Chicago, shall lation must
take effect until such law shall be consented to by a majority of be submitted
the legal voters of said city voting on the question at any elec- to the vpters
tion, general, municipal or special; and no local or special law ° . 1 ef 1S'
based upon this amendment affecting specially any part of the fecte<j
city of Chicago shall take effect until consented to by a major-
ity of the legal voters of such part of said city voting on the
question at any election, general, municipal or special. Noth-
ing in this section contained shall be construed to repeal, amend
or affect section four (4) of Article XI. of the Constitution of
this State.
84-
APPENDIX C
POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF THE STATE
COUNTIES IN THE ORDER OF THEIR ERECTION
[Counties whose present areas lie wholly south of Springfield, or prac-
tically so, are indicated by italics. The fourteen northern counties are in-
dicated by asterisks. The counties without township organization are
marked thus t See Blue Book of the Slate of Illinois, 190.3, pp. 379-380.]
Name
Date of
Organ-
ization
Area,
Square
Miles
Name
Date of
Organ-
ization
Area,
Square
Miles
i St Clair
680
1825
1795
560
44 Vermilion
1826
882
1812
1826
c76
1812
46 Shelby
1827
1812
1827
1814
48 Tazewell
!827
7 White
1815
1827
1816
380
1829
864
1816
580
1829
580
tio Pope
1816
1830
1816
1830
1817
380
1831
890
1818
1831
1818
1831
1818
1831
486
1819
1831
484
17 Clark
1819
1833
1008
1819
466
1833
1819
$! \vill
1836
850
182
*62 Kane
1836
182
1836
612
182
g7e
1836
23 Pike
182
7rg
*6S Whiteside
1836
676
24 Hamilton
182
*66 Winnebago
1836
25 Montgomery
182
182
740
67 Livingstone
1837
1877
1026
846
1823
C7fi
1837
28 Fulton
1823
864
1837
288
29 Edgar
1823
*7i DeKalb
1837
1823
563
1837
573
3 1 Clay
1824
466
1839
1824
^8?
1810
oO6
J33 Wabash
1824
1825
220
*75 DuPage
1839
1839
340
1825
830
1839
1825
780
1839
311
1825
g2c
t79 Scott •
1839
1825
*8o Carroll ........
1839
1825
*8i Lee
1839
728
1825
1839
360
1825
1839
42 Schuyler
1825
84 DeWitt
1839
440
254
Political Divisions
255
Appendix C
84. COUNTIES IN THE ORDER OF THEIR ERECTION (Confd)
Name
Date of
Organ-
ization
Area,
Square
Miles
Name
Date of
Organ-
ization
Area,
Square
Miles
*8$ Lake
1810
«6
1839
180
1843
87 Stark
1839
1843
"t88 Henderson.
1841
180
1843
1841
1843
1841
rig
1847
1841
1851
680
1841
1857
1841
380
1859
580
256
Appendix C
85. SENATORIAL DISTRICTS
f Each district is entitled to one senator and three representatives in the
general assembly. See Blue Book of the State of Illinois, 1903, p. 289-291. and
Kurd, Revised Statutes, 1903, ch. 46, \ 152.]
Senatorial Districts Counties
I- VII, IX, XI, ]
XIII, XV.
XVII. XIX. 1 r .
XXI, XXIII. f Look
XXV. XXVII.
XXIX. XXXI .
f Lake
VIII \ McHenry
Senatorial Districts Counties
(Scott
Calhoun
Pike
Adams
( Henry
XXXVII ... X Bureau
I Stark
(Greene
(. Boone
X 1 Ogle
JIersety°mery
• ( Winnebago
f Stephenson
XII \ Jo Daviess
XXXIX .... LaSalle
(Christian
( Carroll
Shelby
"VTV / Kane
X1V 1 Kendall
Cumberland
XLI . { ^,,Page
Putnam
I Will
1 Clinton
Livingston
Woodford
XVIII Peoria
Marion
Clay
Effir.gham
f Kankakee
XX -< Grundy
VT TTT -f Knox
XL111 .... | Fulton
1. Iroquois
V-VTT / Vermilion
xxii .... | Edgar
( Champaign
XXIV .'....-I Piatt
f Washington
Randolph
XLIV ....•! Perry
Monroe
I Jackson
XLV. . ( Mor^an
•V-V-ITT f McLean
xxvi .... | Ford
( Logan
XXVIII . . . -< DeWitt
( Macon
(Tazewell
Mason
Menard
Cass
1 Brown
(. Schuyler
f McDonough
XXXII . . . . -j Hancock
( Sangamon
(J eff erson
Wayne
Richland
Jasper
VT -,7TT f Madison
XLVII .... | Bond
Hardin
Gallatin
White
XLVIII . . . J Edwards
W abash
Lawrence
. Crawford
XLIX St. Clair
f Rock Island
XXXIII . . . •< Mercer
f Franklin
Williamson
f Douglas
XXXIV . . . •{ Coles
I Clark
f Whiteside
XXXV. . . .4 Lee
I DeKalb
Alexander
I Pulaski
1 Hamilton
Saline
Pope
Johnson
Massac
Political Divisions 257
86. JUDICIAL DISTRICTS AND CIRCUITS
[See Blue Book of the State of Illinois, 1903, pp. 7-17.]
A. JUDICIAL DISTRICTS. SUPREME COURT
First District. — Counties of St. Clair, Clinton, Washington, Jef-
ferson, Wayne, Edwards, Wabash, White, Hamilton, Frank-
lin, Perry, Randolph, Monroe, Jackson, Williamson, Saline,
Gallatin, Hardin, Pope, Union, Johnson, Alexander, Pu-
laski, and Massac.
Second District. — Counties of Madison, Bond, Marion, Clay,
Richland, Lawrence, Crawford, Jasper, Effingham, Fayette,
Montgomery, Macoupin, Shelby, Cumberland, Clark, Greene,
Jersey, Calhoun, Christian, Pike, and Scott.
Third District. — Counties of Sangamon, Macon, Logan, De
Witt, Piatt, Douglas, Champaign, Vermilion, McLean, Liv-
ingston, Ford, Iroquois, Coles, Edgar, Moultrie, and Taze-
well.
Fourth District. — Counties of Rock Island, Mercer, Warren,
Henderson, Fulton, McDonough, Hancock, Schuyler,
Brown, Adams, Mason, Menard, Morgan, and Cass.
Fifth District. — Counties of Knox, Henry, Stark, Peoria, Mar-
shall, Putnam, Bureau, La Salle, Grundy, and Woodford.
Sixth District. — Counties of Whiteside, Carroll, Jo Daviess,
Stephenson, Winnebago, Boone, McHenry, Kane, Kendall,
De Kalb, Lee, and Ogle.
Seventh District. — Counties of Lake, Cook, Will, Kankakee, and
DuPage.
B. JUDICIAL DISTRICTS. APPELLATE COURTS
First District. — County of Cook.
Second District. — Counties of Boone, Bureau, Carroll, DeKalb,
DuPage, Grundy, Henderson, Henry, Iroquois, Jo Daviess,
Kane, Kankakee, Kendall, Knox, Lake, LaSalle, Lee, Liv-
ingston, Marshall, McHenry, Mercer, Ogle, Peoria, Put-
nam, Rock Island, Stark, Stephenson, Warren, Whiteside,
Will, Winnebago, and Woodford.
Third District. — Counties of Adams, Brown, Calhoun, Cass,
Champaign, Christian, Clark, Coles, Cumberland, De Witt,
Douglas, Edgar, Ford, Fulton, Greene, Hancock, Jersey,
Logan, Macon, Macoupin, Mason, McDonough, McLean,
Menard, Montgomery, Morgan, Moultrie, Piatt, Pike, San-
gamon, Schuyler, Scott, Shelby, Tazewell, and Vermilion.
258 Appendix C
Fourth District. — Counties of Alexander, Bond, Clay, Clinton,
Crawford, Edwards, Effingham, Fayette, Franklin, Gallatin,
Hamilton, Hardin, Jackson, Jasper, Jefferson, Johnson,
Lawrence, Madison, Marion, Massac, Monroe, Perry, Pope,
Pulaski, Randolph, Richland, Saline, St. Clair, Union, Wa-
bash, Washington, Wayne, White, and Williamson.
C. JUDICIAL CIRCUITS
First Circuit. — Counties of Alexander, Pulaski, Massac, Pope,
Johnson, Union, Jackson, Williamson, and Saline.
Second Circuit. — Counties of Hardin, Gallatin, White, Hamil-
ton, Franklin, Wabash, Edwards, Wayne, Jefferson, Rich-
land, Lawrence, and Crawford.
Third Circuit. — Counties of Randolph, Monroe, St. Clair, Madi-
son, Bond, Washington, and Perry.
Fourth Circuit. — Counties of Clinton, Marion, Clay, Fayette,
Effingham, Jasper, Montgomery, Shelby, and Christian.
Fifth Circuit. — Counties of Vermilion, Edgar, Clark, Cumber-
land, and Coles.
Sixth Circuit. — Counties of Champaign, Douglas, Moultrie,
Macon, De Witt, and Piatt.
Seventh Circuit. — Counties of Sangamon, Macoupin, Morgan,
Scott, Greene and Jersey.
Eighth Circuit. — Counties of Adams, Schuyler, Mason, Cass,
Brown, Pike, Calhoun, and Menard.
Ninth Circuit. — Counties of Knox, Warren, Henderson, Han-
cock, McDonough, and Fulton.
Tenth Circuit. — Counties of Peoria, Marshall, Putnam, Stark,
and Tazewell.
Eleventh Circuit. — Counties of McLean, Livingston, Logan,
Ford, and Woodford.
Twelfth Circuit. — Counties of Will, Kankakee, and Iroquois.
Thirteenth Circuit. — Counties of Bureau, La Salle, and Grundy.
Fourteenth Circuit. — Counties of Rock Island, Mercer, White-
side, and Henry.
Fifteenth Circuit. — Counties of Jo Daviess, Stephenson, Carroll,
Ogle, and Lee.
Sixteenth Circuit. — Counties of Kane, DuPage, De Kalb, and
Kendall.
Seventeenth Circuit. — Counties of Winnebago, Boone, Mc-
Henry, and Lake.
Cook County constitutes a distinct judicial circuit, in addition
to those above named.
APPENDIX D
SYNOPTICAL REVIEW OF THE STATE GOVERNMENT
87. THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE
I. Legislative Department.
1. Senate, — fifty-one (51) members, one elected from each
senatorial district for a term of four years, one-half
the membership retiring every two years. (Const.,
iv. § 6.)
2. House of Representatives, — one hundred and fifty-three
(153) members, three elected from each senatorial dis-
trict for two years on the plan of minority representa-
tion. (Const., iv. §§ 7-8.)
II. Executive Department.
1. Principal Executive Officers, — elected by the people..
(Const., v.)
Elected for four years :
( i ) . Governor.
(2). Lieutenant Governor.
(3). Secretary of State.
(4). Auditor of Public Accounts.
(5). Superintendent of Public Instruction.
(6). Attorney General.
Elected for two years and ineligible for two years fol-
lowing :
(7). Treasurer.
2. Administrative Officers, Boards, and Commissions.
FINANCE
(i). Commissioners of State Contracts, — four ex of-
ficio members, viz., attorney general, secretary
of state, auditor of public accounts, treasurer.
(Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 127.)
259
260 Appendix D
(2). State Board of Equalization, — twenty-six mem-
bers in 1905, the auditor of public accounts ex
ofUcio, and twenty-five members elected by the
people, one from each Congressional district,
for four years. (Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch.
120, §§ 100, 101.)
MILITARY AFFAIRS
(3). Adjutant General, — appointed by the governor.
{Military and Naval Code, approved May 14,
1903, Art. III. ; Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch.
129, §§ 33-4I-)
(4). Inspector General and other minor staff officers,
— appointed by the governor. {Military and
Naval Code, Art. II. ; Hurd, Revised Statutes,
ch. 129, §§ 4-32.)
PUBLIC SAFETY
[Some administrative officers listed under Commer-
cial and Industrial Interests belong, partly at least, also
under this head.]
(5). State Board of Health, — seven members ap-
pointed for seven years, one retiring each year.
(Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. I26a.)
(6). State Board of Pharmacy, — five members ap-
pointed for five years, one retiring each year.
(Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 91, §§ 19-34.)
(7). State Food Commission, — one commissioner
(with assistant commissioners) appointed for
four years. (Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch.
I27b.)
(8). State Board of Dental Examiners, — five mem-
bers appointed for five years, one retiring each
year. (Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 91, §§ 35-
44-)
(9). State Board of Examiners of Architects, — five
members appointed for four years. (Hurd,
Revised Statutes, ch. loa.)
PROTECTION OF ANIMAL LIFE
(10). Board of Fish Commissioners, — three commis-
sioners appointed for three years, one retiring
each year. (Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 56.)
Synoptical Review 261
(n). State Game Commissioner, — appointed by the
governor and holds office during the term of
that governor or until his successor is ap-
pointed. (Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 61.)
(12). Officers to enforce the law for the prevention of
cruelty to animals, — three officers appointed
for two years, one each for Chicago, Peoria,
and East St. Louis. (Hurd, Revised Statutes,
ch. 8.)
CHARITIES AND CORRECTIONS
(13). Board of State Commissioners of Public Char-
ities,— five commissioners appointed for five
years, one retiring each year. (Hurd, Re-
vised Statutes, ch. 23.)
The following charitable institutions, (14) -(25), are
each under the supervision of a distinct board of trus-
tees, each composed of three trustees appointed for six
years, one trustee retiring every two years. (Hurd, Re-
vised Statutes, ch. 23.)
(14). The Illinois Central Hospital for the Insane, at
Jacksonville.
(15). The Illinois Northern Hospital for the Insane, at
Elgin.
(16). The Illinois Southern Hospital for the Insane, at
Anna.
(17). The Illinois Western Hospital for the Insane, at
Watertown.
(18). The Illinois Eastern Hospital for the Insane, at
Kankakee.
(19). The Illinois Asylum for the Incurable Insane, at
Bartonville.
(20). Illinois School for the Deaf, at Jacksonville.
(21). The Illinois Institution for the Education of the
Blind, at Jacksonville.
(22). The Illinois Asylum for the Feeble-Minded Chil-
dren, at Lincoln.
(23). The Illinois Charitable Eye and Ear Infirmary,
at Chicago.
(24). The Illinois Soldiers' Orphans' Home, at
Normal.
(25). Soldiers' and Sailors' Home.
262 Appendix D
(26). Trustees of the Illinois Industrial Home for the
Blind, at Chicago, — five trustees appointed for
two years. (Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 23,
§§ 92-103.)
(27). Trustees of the Soldiers' Widows' Home, at
Wilmington, — five trustees appointed for four
years. (Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 23, §§
127-139.)
(28). Commissioners of the Illinois State Penitentiary,
at Joliet, — three commissioners appointed for
six years, one commissioner retiring every two
years. (Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 108.)
(29). The Commissioners of the Southern Illinois Pen-
itentiary, at Chester, — three commissioners ap-
pointed for six years, one commissioner retir-
ing every two years. (Hurd, Revised Stat-
utes, ch. 108.)
(30). Board of Managers of the Illinois State Reform-
atory, at Pontiac, — five managers appointed for
ten years, one manager retiring every two
years. (Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 118.)
(31). Trustees of the State Home for Juvenile Female
Offenders, at Geneva, — five trustees appointed
for three years. (Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch.
23, §§ 216-244.)
(32). Trustees of the State Home for Delinquent Boys,
at St. Charles, — seven trustees appointed for
three years. (Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 23,
§§ 191-215.)
(33). Board of Pardons, — three members appointed
for three years. (Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch.
1043.)
AGRICULTURAL INTERESTS
(34). State Board of Agriculture, — a president, a vice-
president at large, and twenty-five other vice-
presidents, one from each congressional dis-
trict, elected annually by delegates of the
county agricultural societies. (Hurd, Revised
Statutes, ch. 5, §§ i-:6a.)
(35)- Board of Directors of the Illinois Farmers' Insti-
tute,— thirty members, one elected from each
congressional district and five ex officio, viz.,
the State Superintendent of Public Instruction,
Synoptical Review 263
the professor of agriculture in the University
of Illinois, the presidents of the State Board
of Agriculture, the State Horticultural So-
ciety, and the State Dairymen's Association,
the two latter organizations being also given a
certain measure of state authority. (Kurd,
Revised Statutes, ch. 5, §§ 43-51.)
(36). Board of Live Stock Commissioners, — three
commissioners appointed for three years, one
retiring each year. (Kurd, Revised Statutes,
ch. 8, §§ 47-61.)
(37). State Veterinarian, — appointed with indefinite
tenure. (Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 8, § 49.)
(38). State Entomologist, — appointed for two years
"and until his successor shall be appointed."
The State Entomologist is also (1904) Di-
rector of the State Laboratory of Natural His-
tory. (Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 1273.)
(39). Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station.
This office is combined with that of Dean of
the College of Agriculture of the University of
Illinois.
COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL INTERESTS
(40). Railroad and Warehouse Commission, — three
commissioners appointed for two years.
(Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 144, §§ 167-191.)
(41). Chief Inspectors of Grain, — seven inspectors in
1903, appointed for two years. (Hurd, Re-
vised Statutes, ch. 114, § 146.)
(42). Board of Commissioners of Labor, — five com-
missioners appointed for two years. (Hurd,
Revised Statutes, ch. I7b.)
(43). State Mining Board, — five examiners appointed
by the Commissioners of Labor for two years.
(Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 93.)
(44). State Board of Arbitration and Conciliation, —
three members appointed for three years.
(Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 10.)
(45). Factory Inspector (with assistant and deputies),
— appointed to hold office during good behav-
ior. (Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 48.)
264 Appendix D
(46). Illinois Free Employment Offices, — four super-
intendents, three in Chicago and one in Peoria,
appointed for two years. (Kurd, Revised
Statutes, ch. 48, §§ 53-67-)
(47). The Canal Commissioners, — three commission-
ers appointed for two years. (Hurd, Revised
Statutes, ch. 19.)
(48). Insurance Department, — insurance superintend-
ent appointed for four years. (Hurd, Revised
Statutes, ch. 73.)
PUBLIC BUILDINGS AND PARKS
(48). Lincoln Homestead Trustees, — five trustees ex
officio as follows : the governor, secretary of
state, auditor, treasurer, and superintendent of
public instruction. (Hurd, Revised Statutes,
ch. 82a.)
(49). Board of Commissioners of the Lincoln Monu-
ment Grounds, — three commissioners ex officio,
viz., the governor, superintendent of public in-
struction, and treasurer. (Hurd, Revised
Statutes, ch. 823.)
(50). Fort Massac Trustees, — six trustees as follows:
the governor, secretary of state, and auditor,
ex officio; the State Regent of Illinois of the
Daughters of the American Revolution and
two Illinois daughters appointed by the State
Regent. (Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 1053.)
(51). State Supervising Architect, — appointed for four
years. (Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. loa.)
(52). Board of Commissioners of Lincoln Park, —
seven commissioners appointed for five years.
(Blue Book of Illinois, 1903, 56, 478.)
(S3)- Board of West Chicago Park Commissioners,—
seven commissioners appointed by the gov-
ernor. (Blue Book of Illinois, 1903, 56, 479.)
EDUCATIONAL, LITERARY, AND SCIENTIFIC INTERESTS
(54)- Trustees of the University of Illinois,— three
trustees ex officio, viz., the governor, the pres-
ident of the State Board of Agriculture, and
superintendent of public instruction ; and nine
Synoptical Review 265
elected by the people for six years, three retir-
ing every two years. (Kurd, Revised Stat-
utes, ch. 144.)
(55). State Board of Education (Trustees of the
"State Normal University"), — the superintend-
ent of public instruction ex oMcio and fourteen
others appointed for six years. (Blue Book
of Illinois, 57, 406.)
(56). Board of Trustees of the "Southern Illinois
Normal University," — the superintendent of
public instruction ex officio and five others ap-
pointed for four years. (Blue Book of Illi-
nois, 46.)
(57). Board of Trustees of the Northern Illinois
Normal School, — the superintendent of public
instruction ex officio and five others appointed
for four years. (Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch.
122, §§ 381-397.)
(58). Board of Trustees of the Eastern Illinois State
Normal School, — the superintendent of public
instruction ex officio and five others appointed
for four years. (Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch.
122, §§ 364-380.)
(59). Board of Trustees of the Western Illinois State
Normal School, — the superintendent of public
instruction ex officio and five others appointed
for four years. (Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch.
122, §§ 398-413-
(60). Board of Commissioners of the State Library, —
three ex officio members, viz., the governor,
secretary of state, and superintendent of public
instruction. (Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch.
128.)
(61). Trustees of the Illinois State Historical Library,
— three trustees appointed for two years.
(Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 1270)
(62). Trustees of the Natural History Museum, —
three trustees ex officio, viz., the governor, sec-
retary of state, and superintendent of public
instruction. The trustees appoint a curator,
who also performs the duties of State Geolo-
gist. (Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 1270.)
266 Appendix D
m
III. Judicial Department.
1. Court for the Trial of Impeachments, — the senate. In
case of the impeachment of the governor, the chief
justice must preside. (Const., iv. § 24.)
2. The Supreme Court, — consisting of seven judges, one
judge being elected by the people of each judicial
district for a term of nine years. (Const., vi. §§
2-10.)
3. Appellate Courts,— consisting, in each of the four ap-
pellate districts, of three judges of the circuit court
assigned by the supreme court for this service. In
Cook County, three additional judges are similarly
assigned to a branch appellate court. (Const., vi.,
§ ii ; Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 37, §§.i8-3Si.)
4. Circuit Courts, — consisting of three judges in each of
the seventeen judicial circuits outside of Cook
County, and of fourteen judges in the Circuit Court
of Cook County. The Superior Court of Cook
County exercising similar jurisdiction consists of
twelve judges. Certain judges of the circuit and
superior courts of Cook County are assigned to
service in the Criminal Court. All of these judges
are elected by the people of their respective circuits
for terms of six years each. (Const., vi., §§ 12-17,
23 ; Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 37, §§ 36-82C ; Act
approved April 17, 1903.)
5. Court of Claims — consisting of three judges appointed
for four years. (Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 37, §§
264-274.)
88. THE LOCAL GOVERNMENTS OF THE STATE OUT-
SIDE OF COOK COUNTY
A. THE G-OVERNMENT OF THE COUNTY
[t'onst., vi., \\ 18-20, 22, X.; Kurd, Revised Statutes, chs. 34, 37, 46.]
I. Legislative Branch.
a. In counties with township organization : Board of
Supervisors, — one supervisor elected from each
town, with one or more assistant supervisors elected
from the larger towns.
Synoptical Review 267
b. In nineteen counties without township organization :
Board of County Commissioners, — three commis-
sioners elected by the people of the county for three
years, one retiring each year.
II. Executive Branch.
i. Sheriff. 2. State's Attorney. 3. County Treasurer. 4.
County Clerk. 5. Recorder of Deeds (in counties
having more than 60,000 inhabitants). 6. Clerk of
the Circuit Court, who is ex officio Recorder of Deeds
in the smaller counties. 7. Coroner. 8. County Su-
perintendent of Schools. 9. County Surveyor. — All
of these officers are elected by the people of each
county for terms of four years each.
III. Judicial Branch.
i. County Court, with civil and criminal jurisdiction. 2.
Probate Court (only in counties of 70,000 or more in-
habitants).— Each of these courts is held by a single
judge elected by the people of the county for four
years.
B. TOWN GOVERNMENT
[.Const., X., I 5; Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 139.]
I. Legislative Branch.
Town meeting, consisting of all qualified voters.
II. Executive Branch.
i. Supervisor. 2. Town Clerk. 3. Three Highway Com-
missioners. 4. Assessors. 5. Collector. 6. Two or
more Constables. — All these officers are elected at the
annual meeting to serve for one year, except the high-
way commissioners, who are elected for three years,
one commissioner retiring each year. There is also
a town Board of Auditors consisting of the super-
visor, the town clerk, and the justices of the peace,
ex-ofhcio.
III. Judicial Branch.
Justices of the Peace, — two or more, elected for four
years.
In the nineteen counties without town government,
two constables and two or more justices of the peace
268 Appendix D
are elected in each election precinct. Such counties
may also be divided into road districts for the election
of commissioners of highways.
C. VILLAGE GOVERNMENTS
[Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 24, §§ 178-19311.]
I. Legislative Branch.
Board of Trustees, — a president and six trustees elected
for two years.
II. Executive and Administrative Officers.
1. President, — elected for two years.
2. Village Clerk, — elected for one year.
3. Treasurer, Street Commissioners, Board of Health,
Chief of Police, and other administrative officers
appointed by the President and Board of Trustees.
III. Judicial Branch.
Police Magistrate, — one only unless more are author-
ized by special acts.
D. THE GOVERNMENT OF CITIES. GENER/L LAW
[Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 24.]
I. Legislative Branch.
The City Council, — consisting of the mayor and six or
more aldermen, elected for two years.
II. Executive and Administrative Officers.
Elective Officers: i. Mayor. 2. City Clerk. 3. City
Treasurer. 4. City Attorney.
Administrative Officers: These vary in different cities,
but the following are authorized specifically by stat-
ute: City Collector, City Marshal, Superintendent of
Streets, Corporation Counsel, City Comptroller, City
Marshal or Chief of Police, Board of Fire and Police
Commissioners, Board of Health.
HI. Judicial Branch.
1. Police Magistrate,— one or more, elected for four
years.
2. City Courts, — each held by one judge, elected for
four years. (These city courts exist only in a
few cities (Alton, Aurora, Canton, East St. Louis,
Elgin, Litchfield, Mattoon) and have a jurisdic-
tion similar to that of the circuit courts.)
Synoptical Review 269
E. SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION
[Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 122.]
a. School Townships.
1. Trustees of Schools, — three trustees elected for three
years, one trustee retiring each year.
2. Township Treasurer, — appointed for two years by the
trustees.
3. Township Board of Education in townships which
have township high schools, — elected for three years.
b. School Districts.
1. School Directors in districts of less than 1,000 inhab-
itants,— three directors elected for three years, one
retiring each year.
2. Board of Education in districts of more than 1,000 in-
habitants,— the president of the board elected an-
nually, and from six to fifteen other members elect-
ed for three years, one-third retiring each year.
F. MINOR AREAS OF LOCAL ADMINISTRATION
a. Park Districts in charge of Park Commissioners elected by
the people.
b. Drainage Districts in charge of Drainage Commissioners
appointed by the county court. (Hurd, Revised Statutes,
ch. 42.)
89. THE LOCAL GOVERNMENTS OF COOK COUNTY
A. THE GOVERNMENT OF COOK COUNTY
[Hurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 24; see also Chicago Daily News Almanac.]
I. Legislative Branch.
Board of County Commissioners, — a president and four-
teen other commissioners, ten commissioners to be
elected from the city of Chicago and five from the
towns outside of the city, all elected for two years.
II. Executive and Administrative Officers.
1. President of the County Board, — elected for two
years.
2. Sheriff. 3. County Treasurer. 4. County Clerk who
is ex officio Comptroller. 5. County Surveyor. 6.
State's Attorney. 7. Coroner. 8. County Super-
intendent of schools. 9. Recorder of Deeds.— All
of these officers are elected for four years.
270 Appendix D
10. Board of Assessors, — five assessors elected for six
years.
11. Board of Review, — three members elected for six
years, one retiring each year.
12. Jury Commission, — three commissioners chosen for
three years by the judges of the courts of record of
the county. (Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 78, §§ 26-
3i.)
13. Civil Service Commission, — three commissioners ap-
pointed for three years by the president of the
county board.
Administrative officers appointed by the president of
the county board with the advice and consent of the
board, as follows :
14. The Superintendent of Public Service. 15. County
Agent. 16. Warden of the County Hospital. 17.
Superintendent of the Insane Asylum and Poor
House. 18. County Attorney. 19. County Archi-
tect. 20. County Physician.
Subordinate administrative positions are included in the
classified civil service and appointments are based upon
examinations conducted by the County Civil Service Com-
mission.
III. Judicial Branch.
County and Probate Courts as in other counties. [See
above § 88, III. See also § 87, III., 4.]
B. TOWN GOVERNMENTS OF COOK COUNTY
The town governments of Cook County outside of Chicago
are like those in other parts of the state, but the town govern-
ments of Chicago have almost wholly disappeared. Under the
act of 1901, accepted by the people of Chicago in 1902, the powers
of town meetings and boards of auditors are vested in the city
council ; the city clerk of Chicago is ex officio town clerk and
town assessor ; the county treasurer is ex officio supervisor and
collector; and the offices of highway commissioners are abol-
ished. Constables are, however, still required by law to be
elected in each of the various towns, each of which is also en-
titled to a certain number of justices of the peace. The justices
for the Chicago towns are appointed, on the nomination of the
Cook County judges, by the governor with the approval of the
senate. (Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 24, §§ 643-650; ch. 79;
see also Chicago Daily News Almanac, 1903, 364.)
Synoptical Review 271
C. THE CITY GOVERNMENT OF CHICAGO
[See Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 24; Revised Code of Chicago, 1897;
Department of Finance, Forty-sixth Annual Report.]
I, Legislative Branch.
The City Council,— consisting of the mayor and two al-
dermen from each ward.
II. Executive Branch.
Elective officers, — elected by the people for two years.
I. Mayor. 2. City Clerk. 3. City Treasurer. 4. City
Attorney.
Administrative Departments, — the heads of which are
appointed by the mayor and removable by him, unless
otherwise stated.
(i). Department of Finance, — under the Comptroller,
and including also the offices of City Treas-
urer (elective), City Collector, and Pay-
master.
(2). Department of Supplies, — under the Business
Agent.
(3). Police Department, — under the General Super-
intendent of Police.
(4). House of Correction, — under the supervision
the mayor as chairman, the Superintendent,
and Inspectors.
(5). Fire Department, — under the Fire Marshal.
(6). Department of Health, — under the Health Com-
missioners, and including also the City Physi-
cian, the Smoke Inspector, and the Board of
Examining Plumbers, and various other bu-
reaux.
(7). Department of Buildings, — under the Commis-
sioner of Buildings.
(8). Other offices classed by the Comptroller as
"Other Public Safety," including the offices of
Oil Inspector, City Sealer, Boiler Inspector,
Board of Examining Engineers.
(9). Department of Public Works, under the Com-
missioner of Public Works, and including,
among others, the Bureaux of Streets, Water,
Sewers, Maps, the City Engineer's office, and
the Board of Local Improvements.
272 Appendix D
(10). Department of Electricity, — under the City Elec-
trician.
(li). Civil Service Commission, — three commission-
ers appointed by the mayor for three years,
and having in charge the examinations for
positions in the classified civil service in which
most subordinate city offices are included.
(12). Board of Election Commissioners, — three com-
missioners appointed, under the city election
law, by the County Court, for three years.
(Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 46, §§ 170-194.)
(13). Board of Education, — consisting of twenty-one
members appointed by the mayor, with the
approval of the City Council, for three years,
one-third of the members retiring every year.
(14). Public Library, — under nine directors appointed
by the mayor with the approval of the council
for three years.
(15). Board of Trustees of the Police Pension Fund,
— consisting of the comptroller and city offi-
cers ex oiRcio.
(16). Board of Trustees of the Firemen's Pension
Fund, — consisting of the Comptroller and
other city officers ex officio.
The list of city administrative officers is subject to
frequent changes and additions.
III. Judicial Branch.
Police Courts, — eighteen courts in twelve districts
(1903), each conducted by a justice of the peace ap-
pointed by the governor but assigned to this service
by the mayor.
D. THE SANITARY DISTRICT OF CHICAGO
[Kurd, Revised Statutes, ch. 24, gg 343-369111.; see also above, ch. 8.]
Board of Trustees, — nine trustees elected for five years by the
people of the district.
E. THE PARK DISTRICTS OF CHICAGO
I. South Park Commissioners, — five commissioners appointed
for five years by the judges of the Circuit Court of Cook
County. (See Municipal Code of the South Park Com-
missioners, 1 10- 1 1 1.)
Synoptical Review 273
2. West Chicago Park Commissioners, — seven commissioners
appointed by the governor with the approval of the sen-
ate. (See Private Laws, 1869, I. 342-376; Hurd, Revised
Statutes, ch. 105.)
3. Lincoln Park Commissioners, — seven commissioners ap-
pointed by the governor with the approval of the senate.
(Ibid.)
4. There are also park districts organized under the general
law. See above, p. 107. An Outer Parks Commission
has recently been organized to provide a park system
extending beyond the city limits.
18
APPENDIX E
STATISTICAL TABLES
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Statistical Tables
275
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276
Appendix E
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Statistical Tables
277
gi CITIES OF 10,000 OR MORE INHABITANTS.
1850—1900
[See various volumes of the U. S. Census. This list does not include
for 1880 and 1890 cities or towns subsequently annexed to Chicago.]
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
1900
19 688
Belleville
23 286
Q
-
109,2 0
1,099, 50
16 841
17 823
18 607
Jolict
13,595
LaSalle
10 588
22 849
13 7l8
27 268
Rockford
13 584
I9i493
24.963
14.079
278
Appendix E
92. THE POPULATION OF ILLINOIS AND CHICAGO
CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO NATIVITY
Based on the Twelfth Census of the United States. (1900)
Total
Native-born
Foreign-born
Population of Illinois. .
" Chicago.
4.821,550
1.698,575
3,854.803
1,111,463
966.747
587,112
Place of Birth
Illinois
Chicago
NATIVE BORN
2,893,857
960,946
3.854.803
332,169
203,338
50,595
144,812
769,882
341,581
1,111,463
170,738
115.385
34,779
81,013
59.713
36,362
24,178
16,008
i8,555
11.815
3,251
2,98?
4,946
1,160
1.493
1,179
3,548
Other parts of U. S
FOREIGN-BORN
29.308
10.347
1.818
73.912
United Kingdom
64,390
20,021
4.364
114.563
Wales
Canada
41.466
9,129
29.472
5,307
Scandinavian Countries
99.147
29,979
15.686
48,836
22,011
10,166
Poland, (Russian, Austrian and
Italy
Holland
Statistical Tables
93. THE PRESIDENTIAL VOTE OF ILLINOIS
279
[The successful candidates are indicated by asterisks (*). The State
law in force in 1820 and 1824 provided for the choice of electors by districts,
there being one elector chosen in each of three electoral districts. Since
1824 the electors have been chosen by the people of the State on a "general
ticket". The statement given below is based on the official figures in the
office of the Secretary of State at Springfield, but after 1840 no candidate is
mentioned who received less than one thousand votes. The author is in-
debted for this work of verification to Mr. Mason H. Newell of Springfield.]
ELECTORAL VOTE IN 1820 AND 1824
1820
1824.
*Monroe, Dem. -Rep.
3
Jackson, Dem.
2
J. Q. Adams, Nat. Rep
0
*J. Q. Adams, Nat.
Rep. i
Henry Clay, Whig
0
Crawford, Dem.
0
POPULAR VOTE SINCE 1828
1828
1852
*Jackson, Dem. Rep.
9,582
*Pierce, Dem.
80,368
J Q . Adams, Nat. Rep.
4,662
Scott, Whig
64,733
1832
Hale, Free Soil
9,863
*Jackson, Dem.
14,617
1856
Clay, Nat. Rep.
6,745
*Buchanan, Dem.
105,528
1836
Fremont, Rep.
96,278
*VanBuren, Dem.
18,412
Fillmore, Amer.
37,531
Harrison, Whig
15,220
1860
1840
Van Buren, Dem.
*Harrison, Whig
Birney, Liberty
ISM
47,631
45,574
149
*Lincoln, Rep.
Douglas, Dem
Bell, Const. Un.
Breckenridge, )
South Dem. )
172,171
160,205
4,913
2,332
*Polk, Dem.
58,795
Clay, Whig
Birney, Liberty
1848
45,854
3,469
1864
*Lincoln, Rep.
McClellan, Dem.
189,519
158,724
Cass, Dem.
55,952
1868
*Taylor, Whig
52,853
*Grant, Rep.,
250,293
VanBuren, Free Soil
15,702
Seymour, Dem.
199,143
280 Appendix E
POPULAR VOTE SINCE 1828 (Continued}
1872
1892
*Grant, Rep.
241,237
^Cleveland, Dem.
426,281
Greeley,
Lib. Rep. &Dem.
• 184,772
Harrison, Rep.
Bidwell, Pro.
399,288
25,871
O'Connor, Dem.
3,138
Weaver, People's
22,207
1876
1896
*Hayes, Rep.
278,232
*McKinley, Rep.
607,130
Tilden, Dem.
258,601
Bryan, Dem. -Pop.
464,523
Cooper, Greenback
17,207
Levering, Pro.
9,796
1880
Palmer, Nat. Dem.
6,307
Matchett, Soc. Labor
1,147
*Garfield, Rep.
318,037
Bryan, People's
1,030
Hancock, Dem,
277,321
Weaver, Greenback
26,358
1900
1884
*McKinley, Rep.
597,985
Bryan, Dem. -Pop.
503,061
Elaine, Rep,
337,469
Debs, Soc. Dem.
9,687
*Cleveland, Dem.
312,351
Maloney, Soc. Lab.
1,373
St. John, Pro.
12,074
Woolley, Pro.
1,141
Butler, Anti-Monop.
10,776
1904
1888
Roosevelt, Rep.
*Harrison, Rep.
370,475
Parker, Dem.
Cleveland, Dem.,
348,371
Swallow, Pro.
Fisk, Pro.
21,703
Watson, Pop.
Streeter, Union Labor 7,534
Debs, Soc. Dem.
Statistical Tables
281
94. STATE FINANCES, OCTOBER i, 1900, TO SEPTEM-
BER 30, I9O21
1 For the preparation of these financial tables, §§ 96. 97, the author is
indebted to Mr. L. W. Zartman, Fellow in Economics at the University of
Illinois. The arrangement is mainly his, though modified at a few points
by the author. It is intended to conform, in general, with that adopted in
the New York volume of this series.
[See Biennial Report, 1902, of the Auditor of Public Accounts.]
A. STATE REVENUE
I. FROM THE GENERAL PROPERTY TAX.
General State tax . . . $6,467,544.52
State school tax . . . 2,083,619.02
SPECIAL TAXES AND FEES.
Tax on Illinois Central Rail-
road . * . . . . $1,695,773-85
Inheritance tax . . . 987,545.59
Insurance companies (taxes
and fees) .... 622,759.87
Fees of secretary of state's
office (mainly corporation
fees) 532,877-90
Fees of auditor's office . 1,718.60
Mining Board fees . . 1,948.75
$8,551,153.54
MISCELLANEOUS SOURCES OF INCOME.
From United States Govern-
ment (including the fol-
lowing items : Soldiers' and
Sailors' Home, payment of
expenses incurred by the
State in Civil and Spanish
wars, and payment for Uni-
versity of Illinois) . . 1,435,616.51
From public lands . . 09,438.30
From unexpended appropria-
tions 237,944.32
Various items in addition to
amounts above stated . 78,690.54
3,842,624.56
1,851,536.12
1 Total State receipts . . . $14,245,467.77
1 This does not include receipts on account of the local bond funds. See
below, C, State Funds Account.
282
Appendix E
B. STATE EXPENDITURES
i. GENERAL GOVERNMENT EXPENSES
(i). For Executive Departments.
Office of governor
Office of secretary of state
Office of auditor
Office of treasurer
Office of attorney general
Office of superintendent of
public instruction
Office of adjutant general
Salaries of executive officers
named above
Board of Equalization
(2). For Legislative Department.
General Assembly
Printing ....
Public binding
Committees ....
(3). For Miscellaneous Items.
Public buildings
Executive mansion
Heating and lighting
State architect
Expert printer
Inheritance tax attorney
Governor's contingent fund .
Care of State House
$19,471.38
90,248.76
33,592.25
42,196.13
54,435-55
9,743-92
20,723.23
60,976.94
34,355-25
$330,297.95
69,342.81
31,460.27
200.00
$119,679.76
16,584.23
29,303.46
10,000.00
8,248.00
3,000.00
5,2U.i5
93,186.22
365,743-41
431,301.03
285,212.82
Total general government expenses . $1,082,257.26
2. EXPENSES OF SPECIAL DEPARTMENTS OF ADMINISTRATION
(i). For Administration of Justice.
Reporters and reports . . $24,651.98
State Practice Commission . 2,470.00
Appellate courts . . . 86,956.52
Supreme court . . . 141,309.05
State's attorneys . . . 83,152.45
Superior court, Cook County 86,625.00
Circuit court, Cook County . 99.750.00
Circuit courts . . . 352,885.77
877,800.77
Statistical Tables
283
(2)
(3).
For Protection of the Community.
Slaughter of cattle . . $9,827.05
Inspection of convict labor . 2,550.00
National guard . . . 657,147.51
Board of Health . . . 54,431.14
Live stock commission . 75,832.80
Food commissioners . . 41,388.08
Prevention cruelty to animals 7,000.00
Game commission . . 5,000.00
For Charities and Corrections.
Commissioners of public
charities .... $21,407.50
Conveying convicts . . 58,891.14
Apprehending fugitives . 30,051.09
Rewards for criminals . . 1,000.00
Asylum for Feeble-Minded . 557,011.01
Asylum for Incurable Insane 370,840.23
Asylum for Insane Criminals 78,216.71
Eye and Ear Infirmary . 73,469.41
Juvenile Female Offenders . 124,279.62
Soldiers' Orphans' Home . 132,227.90
Soldiers' and Sailors' Home . 408,301.44
Soldiers' Widows' Home . 57,150.98
Insane asylums . . . 2,206,775.40
Home for Blind . . . 61,193.00
Education of blind . . 112,309.05
Education of deaf and dumb 247,671.04
State penitentiaries . . 655,643.88
State Reformatory . . 562,525.00
Parole agents . . . 6,000.00
Board of pardons . . . 31,040.00
(4). For Promotion of Agricultural Interests.
Farmers' institutes . . $35,307.66
Dairymen's Association . 3,000.00
State Horticultural Society . 9,000.00
Poultry and Pet Stock Asso-
ciation .... 3,000.00
Stock Breeders' Association 500.00
State entomologist's office . 42,803.57
State board of agriculture . 153,240.00
853,176.58
5,796,004.40
246,851.23
284
Appendix E
(5). For Promotion and Control of
Industrial and Commercial
Interests
Illinois and Michigan canal . $169,348.75
Canal commissioners . . 12,330.00
Factory and workshop in-
spection .... 31,734.40
Fish commission . . . 32,688.49
Commissioners of labor sta-
tistics 24,208.53
Employment agencies . . 44,650.99
Mine inspection . . . 31,688.85
Board of mine examiners . 13,995-19
Railroad and warehouse com-
mission .... 46,499.78
Insurance department . . 75,744.83
Board of arbitration . . 19,005.76
Miscellaneous items . . 8,712.96
510,608.53
(6).
For Public Education.
State Historical Library . $8,967.16
State Library . . . 7,263.40
Museum of Natural History 8,928.19
Firemen's Association . . 1,000.00
Interest of school fund . 56,937.31
Normal schools . . . 658,600.36
State University . . . 919,429.96
Proceeds of State school tax
distributed to counties . 2,066,215.06
3,727,341.44
Total expense of special departments of
administration $11,918,692.05
3-
Monuments
Portrait .
Presidential electors .
Inter-State Exposition
Louisiana Exposition
Pan-American Exposition .
UNCLASSIFIED EXPENDITURES
$28,076.23
1,000.00
1,074.00
24,294.34
8,974-45
56,867.33
Statistical Tables
285
Incidentals 65,180.42
Lincoln homestead and monument . 35,069.03
Miscellaneous 71,655.06
292,190.86
Total disbursements at State treasury, not
including Local Bond Funds . . . $13,386,231.07
C. STATE FUNDS ACCOUN'
i. RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES
Name of Fund. Receipts.
General revenue . . . $12,151,242.17
State school .... 2,083,619.02
Unknown and minor heirs fund
Commission merchants' license
State game protection . . 10,606.58
r
Expenditures.
$11,310,687.50
2,066,456.18
75O.OO
1,876.19
6,460.70
Aggregate . . . $14,245,467.77
Local bond funds1 . 2,136,552.57
$13,386,231.07
2,235421.12
Totals . . . $16,382,020.34
$15,621,652.19
2. GENERAL BALANCE SUMMARY
Balance Oct. i, 1900
Receipts for two years
Expenditures for two
ending Sept. 30, 1902
Balance Sept. 30, 1902
Totals .
years
$2,617,955.88
16,382,020.34
$18,999,976.22
$15,621,652.19
3,378,324.03
$18,999,976.22
1 This term refers to bonds issued by counties, townships, and municipal
governments and registered in the office of the auditor of public accounts.
The local bond funds are derived from local taxation and held by the
State for the payment of principal and interest on such bonds.
286
Appendix E
1900.
1901.
$4,102,180.96
$5,209,765.20
6,179,195.22
6,939,51545
10,972,543.08
11,258,556.88
19,226,721.22
19,053,561.44
2,780,890.84
3,245,800.49
984,411.59
859,600.81
5,994,988.50
6,446,135.01
. $50,240,931.41
$53,012,935.28
D. AGGREGATE AMOUNT OF TAXES, STATE AND
LOCAL,1 CHARGED ON THE TAX BOOKS
FOR THE YEARS 1900 AND 1901
State taxes
County taxes .
City taxes
District and city school taxes
Road and bridge taxes
Registered bond fund taxes
Town, district, etc., taxes
Totals .
95- FINANCES OF THE CITY OF CHICAGO, 1902
[See Department of Finance (Chicago), Forty-sixth Annual Report.]
A. REVENUE
(l). For Corporate Purposes.
From taxes .... $5,770,876.97
From licenses . . . 3,770,735-37
Police justice courts . . 110,334.33
House of correction . . 111,105.96
Police department . . 15,740.42
Public pounds . . . 2,519.46
Department of buildings . 75,265.30
Department of electricity . 51,904.51
Department of public works 127,564.64
Insurance tax . . . 158,702.18
Franchise tax . . . 422,346.21
Other sources . . . 438,296.43
(2). For Water Department.
Assessed rates . . . $1,850,837.16
Miscellaneous sales . . 7,183.28
Meter service . . . 1,330,805.29
Permits .... 17,107.71
Rent of Rookery . . 35,000.04
Miscellaneous . . . 264,539.68
•$11,055.391.78
'This statement includes only the amounts raised for the State and local
governments by the general property tax. It does not include such special
State taxes as those on the Illinois Central Railroad and on inheritances.
Nor does it include such revenues of city governments as are derived from
other sources than taxation. See ? 98 on the Finances of the City of Chicago.
Statistical Tables
287
(3). For Schools.
From taxes .... $7,397,860.50
From school funds . . 997,930.56
(4). For Public Library.
From taxes .... $273,696.69
Miscellaneous . . . 10,392.39
(5). Miscellaneous.
General taxes undistributed
Grand total (not including receipts
for trusts)
8,395,791.06
284,089.08
. 181,647.95
$23,422.393.03
B. EXPENDITURES.— I. FOR CORPORATE PURPOSES
i. GENERAL GOVERNMENT
(i). Executive.
$16,299.99
(2). Legislative.
City council .... $126,265.30
City Clerk .... 59,514.24
(3). Law Department.
Corporation counsel . . 66,187.17
Prosecuting attorney . . 21,564.10
City attorney . . . 67,500.00
(4) . Finance Department.
Comptroller's office . . $66,934.12
City collector's office . . 48,848.25
(5). Miscellaneous.
City Hall .... $58,290.54
Board of election commis-
sioners .... 342,067.60
Civil service commission . 29,878.71
Department of supplies . 15,704.89
Interest on bonded debt . 454,111.06
Miscellaneous interest . . 184,290.58
Miscellaneous . . . 84,086.35
1,168,429.73
Total general government expenditures . $1,641,542.90
185,779-64
155,251.27
115,782.37
288
Appendix E
2. EXPENSES OF SPECIAL DEPARTMENTS OF ADMINISTRATION
(i). Public Safety.
Police department . .$3,333,128.68
Police and justice courts . 115,954.17
House of Correction . . 188,619.30
Public pounds . . . 10,734.25
Fire department . . . 1,617,340.76
Department of building . 48,277.58
Health department . . 213,156.71
City physician . . . 4,201.06
Track elevation . .* . 5,564.29
Department of inspection . 37,574.00
Other public safety . . 10,524.80
Hospitals .... 12,000.00
Lodging houses . . . 4,641.92
(2). For Public Recreation and Art.
Small parks commission . $2,070.29
Play grounds . . . 12,929.67
$5,601,717.52
14,999.96
(3). For Public Works.
Department of public works,
general administration . $1,878.11
Bureau of maps . . . 4,110.87
City architect . . . 259.28
Bureau of engineering . . 258,028.41
Bureau of streets . . . 1,194,361.15
Bureau of sewers . . . 247,372.75
Board of local improvements 307,422.75
Department of electricity . 719,956.66
2,733,392.08
(4). Miscellaneous Expenses.
City real estate and buildings $13,287.81
Markets .... 3,045.00
Loss and cost cf collection of
taxes 148,040.54
i64,373.35
Grand total ordinary expenditures for
corporate purposes .... $10,156,026.71
Statistical Tables
289
EXTRAORDINARY EXPENSE FOR CORPORATE PURPOSES, 1902
Police department
Fire department
Health department
Public works
Local improvement .
Department of electricity
Bureau of water
$1,537.67
104,912.50
40,000.00
404,612.37
63,936.83
34,797-72
2,894,979.02
649,797.09
Total expenditures for corporate purposes . $10,987,267.28
II. FOR PUBLIC EDUCATION. (Through School and Library
Boards.)
(i). For Schools.
Educational account . .$1,444,772.84
Building account . . . 1,687,343.49
Indebtedness . • . . 126,228.12
. Fund income .... 4,961,559.06
Fund principal . . . 45,350.00
Special fund, income . . 1,999.71
Special fund, principal . . 17,650.00
Building Parental School . 51,276.50
Loss and cost of collection of
taxes, 1902 .... 344,079.34
(2). For Public Library.
Salaries, books, etc.
$8,680,259.06
217,164.17
$8,897,423.23
III. BUREAU OF WATER
Ordinary expenses
Extraordinary expenses
. $1,512,772.34
. 2,894,979.04
Grand total expenditures for corporate pur-
poses, etc. (not including trusts1)
$4,407,751.38
$24,292,441.89
1 See C. below, City Funds Account and Department of Finance, Forty-
sixth Annual Report, 184-185.
19
290
Appendix E
C. CITY FUNDS ACCOUNT
i. RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES
Name of Fund
Corporate purposes
Trusts
Water fund
Schools
Library
Miscellaneous .
Totals
Receipts
$14,654,553.01
2,895,561.81
3,371,942.16
13,519,35946
414,530.07
181,647.95
$35,037,59446
2. GENERAL BALANCE SUMMARY
Balance Jan. i, 1902 . . . $7,173,981.39
Receipts for year ending Dec.
31, 1902 .... 35,037,59446
Expenditures for year ending
Dec. 31, 1902 ....
Balance Dec. 31, 1902
Totals
$42,211,575.85
Expenditures
$15,341,830.28
2,695,091.33
4,365,662.80
13,003,870.95
402,355.12
$35,808,810.48
$35,808,810.48
6,402,765.37
$42,211,575.85
INDEX
Admission of Illinois to the Union,
21-26; joint resolution, 225.
Agriculture, State aid to, 183;
State board of, 183. See also
Economic conditions.
Aldermen, 103; Chicago, 113.
Algonquin Indians, 6.
Almshouse. See Indoor relief.
Altgeld, Governor John P., 54.
Amendments, constitutional. See
Constitutional amendments.
Anarchist riots, 53.
Anti-slavery movement, 31, 32, 42-
46; condemned, 37. See also
Slavery.
Appeals, 153, 159.
Appellate courts, 92, in, 153, 159;
districts, 257-258.
Appointing power, constitution of
1818, 25; 1848, 39; 1870, 87; of
mayor, 106, 114.
Area of Illinois, 3-4; of Illinois
Territory, 18.
Arraignment, 156.
Arrests, 137, 154-155.
Assessment and assessors, 100,
123-125.
Attorney general, 89.
Attorneys, 150, 157.
Auditor of public accounts, 90,
125. 177-
Australian ballot. See Ballot,
Australian.
BAIL, 155.
Ballot, Australian, 69; official, 69-
7i-
Banking laws, 176.
Banks, State, 33-34.
Bar examination, 151.
Bill of rights, 61-62.
Bills, 80-82.
Birkbeck, Morris, 32.
Black Hawk war, 7, 29.
Blind, care of, 171.
Boards, State, 259-265.
Bond, Shadrach, first governor,
25-
Borrowing power. See Loans.
"Boss," party, 74.
Boundaries of Illinois, 4, 15, 22.
Bridges. See Highways.
British dominion, 10-12.
Buildings, department of, Chicago,
116.
CAHOKIA, 8.
Camp Douglas conspiracy, 45.
Capital and labor. See Labor and
capital.
Challengers, 68, 71.
Challenges, 152, 157.
Chancery, 148.
Charities, medical, 170.
Charities, State board of, 172.
Charities and corrections, 160-172.
"Checks and balances," 61.
Chicago, history and government
of, 31, 46, 52, 112-117; city of-
ficers and institutions, list of,
271-272; drainage canal, 119-
120; finances, 286-290; Fort
Dearborn massacre, 19; park
districts, 119, 272-273; popula-
tion, 31, 52, 278; sanitary dis-
trict, 119, 272; special legisla-
tion, 85, 112, 113.
Child labor laws, 140.
Circuit courts, 91-92, in; dis-
tricts, 258.
Cities of 10,000 or more inhab-
itants, list, 277.
2QI
2Q2
Index
Citizenship, 64-65.
City government, 103-106; Chi-
cago, 112-117; officers and insti-
tutions, list, 268; Chicago, 271-
272.
Civil cases, 149-153.
Civil service law, city, 106; Chi-
cago, 117; Cook county, no.
Civil war, 44-46.
Clark, George Rogers, conquest of
Illinois, ii.
Coles, Governor Edward, 31.
Collector, town, JQO, 118, 127.
College fund, 198.
Commerce, State aid to, 184-185;
and industry, State regulation
of, 54, 174-183. See also Eco-
nomic conditions.
Committee system, 81-82.
Committees, conference, 83; polit-
ical. See Party committees;
steering, 82.
Company of the West, 9.
Comptroller of Chicago, 115; of
Cook county, no.
Compulsory education law, 194-5.
Common law, 147.
Conference committees, 83.
Conquest of Illinois, British, 9,
10; Clark's, n.
Conservator, 169.
Constables, 101, 118-119, 143.
Constitution, 1818, 24-25; 1848,
38-41; 1870, 49-51, 58-59; ex-
cerpts, 225-253; proposed 1862,
44-45-
Constitutional amendments, Fed-
eral, 1 3th, 1 4th, isth, 46; pro-
posed 1 3th, 45; State, 58-59.
Constitutional conventions. See
Conventions, constitutional.
Constitutional limitations, 39, 61-
63-
Contested elections. See Elec-
tions.
Contracts, enforcement of, 138.
Conventions, constitutional, 1818,
23; 1847, 37-38; 1862, 44-45;
1869-70, 49; nominating, 43, 73-
74-
Cook, Daniel P., 32.
Cook county, 108-111; courts, 91,
92; local governments of, 269-
273; population, 51; senatorial
districts, 78; special legislation,
85, 112-113.
Coroner, 98.
Corporation counsel, 117.
Corporations, 49-50, 174-176, 181-
182.
Correction, house of, 162.
Corrupt practices, 72.
Council, city, 103; Chicago, 113,
114, 115.
Council of revision, 24; abolished,
40.
Counsel, 156.
Counties, list in order of their
erection, 254-255; population of,
274-276.
County commissioner system, 96;
courts, 99; Cook county courts,
in; county governments in Illi-
nois Territory, 20; under consti-
tution of 1818, 25; 1870, 95-99;
of Cook. 108-111; officers and
institutions, list of, 266-267;
township plan, 41, 97.
Courts. See Judiciary, County
courts, Justices of the peace.
'Criminal carelessness, 153; cases,
153-159; class, 160; court of
Cook county, 156.
DAMAGES, 138, 153.
Deaf and dumb, care of, 171.
Debt, State, 35. See also Loans.
Declaration, 151.
Defectives, care of, 168-172.
Defendant. See Civil cases, Crim-
inal cases.
Delegates to party conventions, 73.
Delinquent boys, State home for,
165; class. See Criminal class.
Distribution of powers, 59-61, 76-
77-
Divisions, political, 254-258.
Documents, 213-253.
Douglas, Stephen A., 43-44.
Index
293
Drainage canal. See Chicago;
districts, 107; Chicago, 119, 269;
laws, 184.
ECONOMIC conditions, early period,
9, 27, 46-48; recent, 52-55; eco-
nomic services of the State, 173-
189.
Education, public, 190-205 ; early
history, 35-48.
Elections, 64-75; early, 25; of
general assembly, 77-78.
Elective franchise. See Suffrage.
Electoral districts, 67, 256-258.
Eminent domain, 62, 185.
Enabling act, 21-23; text, 221-225.
England. See British.
Entertainments regulated, 141.
Entomologist, State, 183.
Equalization, State board of, 125.
Equity, J47-I49-
Executive, State, 85-90, 259-265.
See also, City, County, Town,
and Village governments.
Expenditures, 131-133.
Explorations, French, 7-8.
Extradition, 88.
FACTORY legislation, 140.
Farmers' institutes, 183.
Federal support of State author-
ity, 145; troops in Illinois, 53-
54, 210; relation of Federal to
State government, 57.
Feeble-minded children, 171.
Fees, 129.
Felonies, 154.
Finances, Chicago, 115, 286-290;
State, 121-133; 281-286; early
history, 33-34.
Fire departments, 104, 116, 139.
Food, State commissioner, 140.
Ford, Governor Thomas, 32, 35.
Foreign immigration. See Immi-
gration.
Fort Chartres, 8, 10; Crevecoeur,
7; Dearborn, 19; St. Louis, 7.
Foxes. See Sacs and Foxes.
French in Illinois, 7-10.
GAG rules, 37.
General assembly, constitution of
1818, 24-25; 1848, 39; 1870, 77-
85. 259-
General property tax. See Taxes.
"Gerrymander," 78.
Good time rule, 164.
Government ownership. See Pub-
lic ownership.
Governor, influence on legislation,
88; powers under constitution,
1818, 24, 25; 1848, 40; 1870, 85-
90; right to call out militia, 53-
54, 144. See also Executive,
Appointing power, Veto.
Governors, list, 212.
Grand jury, 155.
Habeas corpus, 155.
Hamilton, Governor Henry, n.
Health, protection of, 116, 139-
141.
Highway commissioners, 100.
Highways, 187.
Historical events, list, 207-211.
House of Representatives. See
General assembly.
ILLINOIS Territory, 18-20; organic
act, 219-221; population. See
Population; University of, 198-
199, 203.
Illinois and Michigan canal, 34,
186-187.
Illinois Central Railroad, 128-129.
See also Railroads.
Illinois Indians, 6.
Illinois National Guard and naval
reserve, 144-145.
Immigration, French, 8-9; Amer-
ican, 15, 26, 27; foreign, 52,
278.
Impeachments, 86-87.
Indenture laws, 17, 18, 23.
Indeterminate sentence, 164.
Indiana Territory, 15-17.
Indians, 6-7, 9, 14, 16, 19, 28-29.
Indictments, 155-156.
Individuals, rights of, 62, 137.
Indoor relief, 167-8.
294
Index
Industrial conditions. See Eco-
nomic conditions.
Industry, State regulation of.
See Commerce and industry,
State regulation of.
Inheritance tax, 128.
Injunctions, 138, 148.
Insane, regulation of, 169-170,177.
JAILS, 162.
Joliet, Louis, 7.
Judgment, 153, 159.
Judges. See Judiciary and Jus-
tice, administration of.
Judicial districts and circuits, 90-
93, 257-258.
Judiciary, State, 90-94, 266. See
also county courts; Justice, ad-
ministration of; Justices of the
peace.
Juries, 62, 152, 155-157.
Justice, administration of, 146-159.
Justices of the peace, 101 ; in Chi-
cago, IIO-III.
Juvenile court law, 165.
KANSAS-NEBRASKA bill, 43.
Kaskaskia, 8, 10, 11.
LABOR, State board of commission-
ers, 184.
Labor and capital, 52-53, 182-183.
Land titles, 14, 17. See also Pub-
lic lands.
LaSalle, explorations, 7.
Law, 146-149; department of, Chi-
cago, 117.
Legislature. See General assem-
bly.
Libraries, public, 204-205.
Lieutenant governor, 89.
Limitations, constitutional. See
Constitutional limitations.
Lincoln, Abraham, 43-46.
Liquor laws, 141-142.
Loans, State and local, 130-131.
Local governments, 95-120, 266-
273-
Louisiana, Illinois a district of, 9;
purchase of, 16.
Lovejoy, Elijah P., 37.
Lunacy, inquest in, 169.
MANUFACTURES. See Economic con-
ditions, commerce and industry.
Marquette, visits to Illinois, 7.
Mayor, 104-105; of Chicago, 113-
114.
Medical profession regulated, 139.
Menard, Pierre, first lieutenant
governor, 25.
Militia, State, 53-54, 87, 144.
Minority representation, 78.
Misdemeanors, 154.
Missions, French, 7-9.
Missouri compromise repealed, 43.
Monopoly, 181-182. See also Cor-
porations.
Morals, State protection of, 141-
142.
Mormons in Illinois, 32-33.
Miiller law, 188.
Municipal government, 101-106,
112-120; ownership, 187-188.
NATIONAL guard, Illinois, 144.
Nauvoo, 33.
Naval reserve, Illinois, 145.
Negro, legal status of, 40, 45, 50.
See also Slavery.
Nominations, 72-75. See also Con-1
ventions, nominating.
Normal schools, 202-203.
Northwest ordinance, text, 213-
215; Territory, 12-15.
OFFICIAL ballot. See Ballot, offi-
cial.
Outdoor relief, 167.
Overseers of the poor, 100, 167.
Ownership, public. See Public
ownership.
PARDONING power, 87-88.
Pardons, State board of, 88.
Parental schools, 201.
Paris, treaty of, 1763, 9; of 1783,
11-12.
Park districts, 107, 119- 269, 272-
273-
Parole, 164.
Index
295
Parties. See Political parties.
Party committees, 74. See also
Steering committees; conven-
tions. See Conventions, nomi-
nating.
Paupers. See Poor relief.
Peck, John M., 32.
Penal institutions, 162-166.
People, definition, 64.
Pharmacy, State board of, 140.
Physiography, 3-5.
Plaintiff, 150-153.
Pleadings, 151.
Police, 104, 106, 143; Chicago,
US-
Police magistrates, 106.
Police power, 134-148.
Political parties, 72-74; formation,
36; tickets, 69. See also Conven-
tions, nominating.
Pontiac's conspiracy, 9.
Poor relief, 166-168.
Popular vote, 38-39, 59, 85; in
presidential elections, 279.
Public lands, 19, 28.
Population of Illinois, 9, 10, 30-31,
46, 51; by counties, 274-276; by
nativity, 26, 30, 46.
Pre-emption laws, 19, 28.
President, Cook county board, 109-
110.
President, village, 102-103.
Presidential vote of Illinois, 279.
Primary elections, 74.
Prisons. See Penal institutions.
Private initiative, 134-135.
Probation officers, 165.
Property, real and personal, 122.
Property rights, 137-138.
Prosecution, 149, 154-159.
Public schools. See Education;
ownership, 134-135, 185-189;
works, commissioner, Chicago,
116.
Publicity for corporations, 176,
178.
Punishment, theories of, 161.
QUEBEC act, 10.
RAILROAD and warehouse commis-
sioners, 178, 179, 181.
Railroads, early history, 34, 49;
State aid, 185; State regulation,
177-179.
Railways, street, 180.
Recorder of deeds, 88.
Referendum. See 'Popular vote.
Reformatories, 165.
Registration of voters, 67-68.
Representatives. See General as-
sembly.
Religion, relation of the State to,
142.
Review, boards of, 124-125.
Revolution, American, 1 1.
Rights. See Bill of rights, Indi-
viduals.
Riot, 137.
Roads. See Highways.
Rocheblave, n.
SACS and Foxes, 6, 29.
St. Clair, Governor, 14; county,
14.
Sanitary district of Chicago, 119.
Schools. See Education.
Sheriff, 97, 127, 144.
Secret ballot See Ballot, Austra-
lian.
Secretary of State, 89.
Sectionalism, 42-46. See also
Slavery.
Self-help, 134-135.
Seminary fund, 198.
Senate. See General assembly.
Senatorial districts, 77-78, 256.
Sentence, 159.
Shelter, House of, 162.
Slavery in Illinois, 9, 13-14, 17,
23, 25. 31-32; prohibited, 40, 46;
proposed amendment, 45. See
also Indenture laws; Negro,
legal status of.
Smith, Joseph, 32.
Socialism, 186.
Soldiers' and sailors' home, wid-
ows' home, orphans' home, 168.
Speaker of the House, 80, 83.
Special assessments, 129.
2g6
Index
Special legislation, 50, 84-85, 112-
i'3. i?5-
State action, 134.
State and Federal governments,
relations of, 57.
State superintendent of public in-
struction, 89, 203, 204.
State's attorney, 98.
Statute law, 147.
Steering committees, 82.
Strikes. See Labor and capital.
Subpoenas, 151.
Suffrage, 64-65; early history, 12,
30, 57. See also Elections,
Negro voters.
Summons, 151.
Superintendents of schools, city,
county, town, 201; State super-
intendent, 203, 204.
Superior court of Cook county,
in.
Supervisor of assessments, 123.
Supervisors, 100; boards of, 124.
Supreme court, 93, 153, 159; dis-
tricts, 257.
Surveyor, 98.
TAXES, 121-130.
Territory. See Illinois Territory.
Tippecanoe, 19.
Tonty, Henri de, 8.
Town government, 99-101; in Chi-
cago, 118-119, 270; list of offi-
cers, 267-268.
Township organization, 40-41, 97;
school township, 199; high
school, 201; survey system, 12.
Transportation. See Railroads,
Commerce, Economic condi-
tions.
Treason, 137.
Treasurer, State, 90; county, 98;
city, 106, 115; school township,
199.
Trials, 151-153, 156-159.
Troops, U. S., 53-54.
Truant officers, 195.
Trusts and combinations of cap-
ital. See Corporations.
UNITED STATES. See Federal.
University of Illinois. See Illi-
nois, University of.
VETO, of Council of Revision, 24;
governor, 40, 50, 80-84; mayor,
104, 114; president, Cook county
board, 109-110; village presi-
dent, 103.
Verdict, 152-153, 158.
Village government, 102-103; list
of officers, 268.
Vincennes, Clark's capture, n.
Virginia, Illinois county of, n.
Voters, rights of, 66-67; registra-
tion, 67-68. See also Suffrage,
Elections.
Votes, counting of, 68-72.
WARDS, 103; Chicago, 113.
Warehouses, 180.
Wars, Revolutionary, n; 1812,
19; Black Hawk, 29; Civil, 44-
46.
Watchers, 69.
Wayne, treaty of Greenville, 14.
Winnebago Indians, 6, 29.
YATES, Governor Richard, 44-45.
HANDBOOKS of AMERICAN
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