!
t
^
SMITHSONIAN
/S
CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE.
VOL. X.
EVERT MAN IS A VALUABLE UEMBSB OF SOCIETY, WHO, BY HIS OBSERVATIONS, RESEARCHES, AND EXPERIMENTS, PROCURES
ENOWLEDQE FOR MEN. — SmITHSON.
CITY OP WASHINGTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
MDCCCLVIII.
61 ii
v.io
ADVERTISEMENT.
This volume forms the tenth of a series, composed of original memoirs on dif-
ferent branches of knowledge, published at the expense, and under the direction, of
the Smithsonian Institution. The publication of this series forms part of a general
plan adopted for carrying into effect the benevolent intentions of James Smithson,
Esq., of England. This gentleman left his property in trust to the United States
of America, to found, at Washington, an institution which should bear his own
name, and have for its objects the "increase and diffusion of knowledge among
men." This trust was accepted by the Government of the United States, and an
Act of Congress was passed August 10, 1846, constituting the President and the
other principal executive officers of the general government, the Chief Justice of
the Supreme Court, the Mayor of Washington, and such other persons as they might
elect honorary members, an establishment under the name of the "Smithsonian"
Institution for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." The
members and honorary members of this establishment are to hold stated and special
meetings for the supervision of the affairs of the Institution, and for the advice
and instruction of a Board of Regents, to whom the financial and other affairs are
entrusted.
The Board of Regents consists of three members ex officio of the establishment,
namely, the Vice-President of the United States, the Chief Justice of the Supreme
Court, and the Mayor of Washington, together with twelve other members, three of
whom are appointed by the Senate from its own body, three by the House of
Representatives from its members, and six persons appointed by a joint resolution
of both houses. To this Board is given the power of electing a Secretary and other
officers, for conducting the active operations of the Institution.
To carry into effect the purposes of the testator, the plan of organization should
evidently embrace two objects : one, the increase of knowledge by the addition of
new truths to the existing stock; the other, the diffusion of knowledge, thus
increased, among men. No restriction is made in favor of any kind of knowledge;
and, hence, each branch is entitled to, and should receive, a share of attention.
iv ADVERTISEMENT.
The Act of Congress, establishing the Institution, directs, as a part of the plan of
organization, the formation of a Library, a Museum, and a Gallery of Art, together
with provisions for physical research and popular lectures, while it leaves to the
Regents the power of adopting such other parts of an organization as they may
deem best suited to promote the objects of the bequest.
After much deliberation, the Regents resolved to divide the annual income into
two equal parts — one part to be devoted to the increase and diffusion of knowledge
by means of original research and publications — the other half of the income to be
applied in accordance with the requirements of the Act of Congress, to the gradual
formation of a Library, a Museum, and a Gallery of Art.
The following are the details of the parts of the general plan of organization
provisionally adopted at the meeting of the Regents, Dec. 8, 1847.
DETAILS OF THE FIEST PAET OF THE PLAN.
I. To INCREASE Knowledge. — It is proposed to stimulate research, hy offering
reioards for original memoirs on all subjects of investigation.
1. The memoirs thus obtained, to be published in a series of volumes, in a quarto
form, and entitled "Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge."
2. No memoir, on subjects of physical science, to be accepted for publication,
which does not furnish a positive addition to human knowledge, resting on original
research; and all unverified speculations to be rejected.
3. Each memoir presented to the Institution, to be submitted for examination to
a commission of persons of reputation for learning in the branch to which the
memoir pertains ; and to be accepted for publication only in case the report of this
commission is favorable.
4. The commission to be chosen by the officers of the Institution, and the name
of the author, as far as practicable, concealed, unless a favorable decision be made.
5. The volumes of the memoirs to be exchanged for the Transactions of literary
and scientific societies, and copies to be given to all the colleges, and principal
libraries, in this country. One part of the remaining copies may be offered for
sale; and the other carefully preserved, to form complete sets of the work, to
supply the demand from new institutions.
6. An abstract, or popular account, of the contents of these memoirs to be given
to the public, through the annual report of the Regents to Congress.
ADVERTISEMENT. V
II. To INCREASE Knowledge. — It is also proposed to appropriate a portion of the
hicome, annually, to special objects of research, iincler the direction of suitable
persons.
1. The objects, and the amount appropriated, to be recommended by counsellors
of the Institution.
2. Appropriations in different years to different objects; so that, in course of time,
each branch of knowledge may receive a share.
3. The results obtained from these appropriations to be published, with the
memoirs before mentioned, in the volumes of the Smithsonian Contributions to
Knowledge.
4. Examples of objects for which appropriations may be made : —
(1.) System of extended meteorological observations for solving the problem of
American storms.
(2.) Explorations in descriptive natural history, and geological, mathematical,
and topographical surveys, to collect materials for the formation of a Physical Atlas
of the United States.
(3.) Solution of experimental problems, such as a new determination of the
weight of the earth, of the velocity of electricity, and of light; chemical analyses of
soils and plants; collection and publication of articles of science, accumulated in
the offices of Government.
(4.) Institution of statistical inquiries with reference to physical, moral, and
political subjects.
(5.) Historical researches, and accurate surveys of places celebrated in American
history.
(6.) Ethnological researches, particularly with reference to the different races of
men in North America; also explorations, and accurate surveys, of the mounds
and other remains of the ancient people of our country.
I. To DIFFUSE Knowledge. — It is proposed to publish a series of reports, giving an
account of the new discoveries in science, and of the changes made from year to year
in all branches of knowledge not strictly pi-ofessional.
1. Some of these reports may be published annually, others at longer intervals,
as the income of the Institution or the changes in the branches of knowledge may
indicate.
2. The reports are to be prepared by collaborators, eminent in the different
branches of knowledge.
vi ADVERTISEMENT.
3. Each collaborator to be furnished with the journals and publications, domestic
and foreign, necessary to the compilation of his report; to be paid a certain sum for
his labors, and to be named on the title-page of the report.
4. The reports to be published in separate parts, so that persons interested in a
particular branch, can procure the parts relating to it, without purchasing the
whole.
5. These reports may be presented to Congress, for partial distribution, the
remaining copies to be given to literary and scientific institutions, and sold to indi-
viduals for a moderate price.
The folloioing are some o/ihe suhjects icMch may he embraced in the reports: —
I. PHYSICAL CLASS.
1. Physics, including astronomy, natural philosophy, chemistry, and meteorology.
2. Natural history, including botany, zoology, geology, &c.
3. Agriculture.
4. Application of science to arts.
IL MORAL AND POLITICAL CLASS.
5. Ethnology, including particular history, comparative philology, antiquities, &c.
6. Statistics and political economy.
7. Mental and moral pliilosophy.
8. A survey of the political events of the world; penal reform, &c.
IIL LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS.
9. Modern literature.
10. The fine arts, and their application to the useful arts.
11. Bibliography.
12. Obituary notices of distinguished individuals.
II. To DIFFUSE Knowledge. — It is proposed to puhlisJi occasionally separate treatises
on suhjects of general interest.
1. These treatises may occasional!}' consist of valuable memoirs translated from
foreign languages, or of articles prepared under the direction of the Institution, or
procured by offering premiums for the best exposition of a given subject.
2. The treatises to be submitted to a commission of competent judges, previous
to their publication.
ADVERTISEMENT. vii
DETAILS OF THE SECOND PART OF THE PLAN OF ORGANIZATION,
This part contemplates the formation of a Library, a Museum, and a Gallery of
Art.
1. To carry out the plan before described, a library will be required, consisting,
1st, of a complete collection of the transactions and proceedings of all the learned
societies in the world; 2d, of the more important current periodical publications,
and other works necessary in preparing the periodical reports.
2. The Institution should make special collections, particularly of objects to
verify its own publications. Also a collection of instruments of research in all
branches of experimental science.
3. With reference to the collection of books, other than those mentioned above,
catalogues of all the different libraries in the United States should be procured, in
order that the valuable books first purchased may be such as are not to be found
elsewhere in the United States.
4. Also catalogues of memoirs, and of books in foreign libraries, and other
materials, should be collected, for rendering the Institution a centre of bibliogra-
phical knowledge, whence the student may be directed to any work which he may
require.
5. It is believed that the collections in natural history will increase by donation,
as rapidly as the income of the Institution can make provision for their reception ;
and, therefore, it will seldom be necessary to purchase any article of this kind.
6. Attempts should be made to procure for the gallery of art, casts of the most
celebrated articles of ancient and modern sculpture.
7. The arts may be encouraged by providing a room, free of expense, for the
exhibition of the objects of the Art-Union, and other similar societies.
8. A small appropriation should annually be made for models of antiquity, such
as those of the remains of ancient temples, &c.
9. The Secretary and his assistants, during the session of Congress, will be
required to illustrate new discoveries in science, and to exhibit new objects of art;
distinguished individuals should also be invited to give lectures on subjects of
general interest.
In accordance with the rules adopted in the programme of organization, each
memoir in this volume has been favorably reported on by a Commission appointed
viii ADVERTISEMENT.
for its examination. It is however impossible, in most cases, to verify the state-
ments of an author; and, therefore, neither the Commission nor the Institution can
be responsible for more than the general character of a memoir.
The following rules have been adopted for the distribution of the quarto volumes
of the Smithsonian Contributions : —
1. They are to be presented to all learned societies which publish Transactions,
and give copies of these, in exchange, to the Institution.
2. Also, to all foreign libraries of the first class, provided they give in exchange
their catalogues or other publications, or an equivalent from their duplicate volumes.
3. To all the colleges in actual operation in this country, provided they furnish,
in return, meteorological observations, catalogues of their libraries and of their
students, and all other publications issued by them relative to their organization
and history.
4. To all States and Territories, provided there be given, in return, copies of all
documents published under their authority.
5. To all incorporated public libraries in this countrj', not included in any of
the foregoing classes, now containing more than 7000 volumes; and to smaller
libraries, where a whole State or large district would be otherwise unsupplied.
OFFICERS
OF THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES,
Ex-qfficio PRESIDING OFFICER OF THE INSTITUTION.
THE VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES,
Ex-qfficio SECOND presiding OFFICER.
ROGER B. TANEY,
CHANCELLOR OF THE mSTITUTION.
JOSEPH HENRY,
SECRETARY OF THE INSTITUTION.
SPENCER F. BAIRD,
ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
W. W. SEATON, Treasurer.
ALEXANDER D. BACHE, -j
JAMES A. PEARCE, V Executive Committee.
JOSEPH G. TOTTEN, J
RICHARD RUSH, \
WILLIAM H. ENGLISH, I Building Committee.
JOSEPH HENRY, j
2
REGENTS.
John C. Breckenridge,
EoGER B. Taney,
James G. Berret,
James A. Pearce, .
James M. Mason,
Stephen A. Douglas,
William II. English,
L. J. Gartrell, .
Benjamin Stanton,
Gideon Hawley, .
Richard Rush, .
George E. Badger,
Cornelius C. Felton,
Alexander D. Bache,
Joseph G. Totten, .
Vice-President of the United States.
Chief Justice of the United States.
Mayor of the City of Washington.
Member of the Senate of the United States.
IC (I
CI li
(( li
Member of the House of Representatives U. S.
a a
Citizen of New Yorh.
" of Iknnsylvania.
" of North Carolina.
" of Massachusetts.
Member of Nat. Inst. Washington.
MEMBERS EX-OFFICIO OF THE INSTITUTION.
James Buchanan, President of the United States.
John C. Breckenridge, Vice-President of ilie United States.
Lewis Cass, Secretary of State.
Howell Cobb, Secretary of the Treasury.
John B. Floyd, Secretary of War.
Isaac Toucet, Secretary of the Navy.
Aaron V. Brown, Postmaster- General.
Jeremiah S. Black, Attorney-Oeneral.
Roger B. Taney, Chief Justice of the United States.
Joseph Holt, Commissioner of Patents.
James G. Berret, Mayor of the City of Washington.
HONORARY MEMBERS.
Robert Hare,* Albert Gallatin,*
Washington Irving, Parker Cleaveland,*
Benjamin Silliman, A. B. Longstreet.
Hon. Jacob Thompson, Secretary of the Interior,
( * Deceased.)
TABLE OF CONTENTS.^
ARTICLE I. Introduction. Pp. 16.
Advertisement ........ iii
List of Officers of the Smithsonian Institution . . . . ix
Table of Contents ........ xiii
ARTICLE II. Nereis Borealt-Americana, or Contributions to a History of toe Ma-
rine Alq^ of Nortu America. By W. H. Harvey, M. D., M. R. I. A.
Part III., Chlorospermeae. Pp. 142, and fourteen plates.
ARTICLE III. Magnetical Observations in the Arctic Seas. By Eliboa Kent Kane,
M. D., TJ. S. N. Made during the second Grinnell Expedition in
Search of Sir John Franklin, in 185.3, 1854, and 1855, at Van Rens-
selaer Harbor, and other points on the West Coast of Greenland.
Reduced and Discussed, by Charles A. Schott, Assistant U. S. Coast
Survey. Pp. 72, and one plate.
Introductory Letter ....... v
Section 1. Magnetic Declination, 1854 ..... 1
2. Observations of the Magnetic Inclination, 1853, 1854, and 1855 27
,3. Observations of Magnetic Intensity, 1854 and 1855 . . 39
ARTICLE IV. A Grammar and Dictionary op the Toruba Language, with an intro-
ductory description of the Country and People of Yoruba. By the
Rev. T. J. BowEN, Missionary of the Southern Baptist Convention. Pp.
232, and one map.
' Each memoir is separately paged and indexed.
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE.
NEREIS
BOREALI-AMERICANA :
OB,
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HISTORY OF THE MARINE ALG^
OF NORTH AMERICA.
WILLIAM HENRY HARVEY, M.D., M.R.I.A., RL.S.,
l-ROr«SSOR OF BOTASI IH THE UNIVEKSITY OF DUBLIN; HONORART HKMBER OF THF. LICEUM OF NATURAL BISTORT, SEW YORK, ETC., ETC.
PART III.— CHLOROSPERMEiE,
[ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION, SEPTEMBER, 1857.]
COMMISSION
TO WHICH THIS PAPER HAS BEEN REFEKKED.
Db. John Torret,
Dr. Asa Gray.
Joseph Henry,
Secretary S. I.
SUB-CLASS in.
CHLOROSPERMEJ;, OR GREEN ALGM.
Diagnosis. Plants almost always grass green ; rarely olivaceous, or lurid purple, still
more rarely red. Propagation either by simple cell-divisioti ; by the transformation of
the colouring matter of the cells of the whole frond, or of some of the cells, into zoospores;
or rarely by ordinary spores developed in proper spore-cases. Antheridia, containing
spermatozoids, have been observed in some. Marine, or living in fresh-water streams,
ponds, and ditches, or in damp situations.
It is difficult, in a few words, to give such a diagnostic character of the Algae
included in this sub-class as shall comprise all the exceptional cases. The general idea
of the group is that it shall contain Algae of a herbaceous or grass green colour, propa-
gated by zoospores, or by the transformation of some considerable portion of the whole
of the endochrome into spores, without these spores being developed within proper spore-
cases, distinct from the ordinary cells of the frond. In the great majority of these
plants both characters are found ; but some few genera and species which agree with
the rest in the dispersed fructification, or in being propagated by zoospores, are of a
purple or red colour, thereby approaching the Rhodosperms in appearance ; while others
are olivaceous, and thus seem to approach the Melanosperms. It does not appear
to be desirable, for the mere variation in colour, to separate plants which are
in other respects so closely allied as are the Porphyrce to the Ulvce, or the red
Palmellacea; to those of a green colour. It would be necessary, were we to remove
these aberrant genera and species to the Rhodosperms, to construct special Orders
to receive them, nor could we place these new Orders in the series of Orders
as at present constructed ; but must establish for them a new division of the
sub-class, which would be characterised by the absence of cystocarpic fruit and of
tetraspores ; that is to say, by the absence of the fructification common to the whole of
this sub-class. Thus it would appear that these purpurascent Algse are more removed
from true Rhodosperms, notwithstanding the red colour of their spores, than from
Chlorosperms ; and consequently we retain them in this division. A graver anomaly,
as it appears to me, occurs in the genera which produce spores of the ordinary character
(not zoospores) contained within proper cysts. These have been removed by Endlicher
and others to the Melanospermic sub-class ; and certainly they show a considerable
approach to that group. But on the other hand, in the characters of their vegetation,
in the structure, habit, colour, and general aspect of the frond they are so closely united
to true Chlorosperms, that I am unwilling to separate them ; particularly as they do not
seem to be equally nearly related to true Melanospermese. These exceptional genera were
formerly included in SiphonecB,a.n(iwi:& in this work separated under the name Dasycladece.
B
2 CHLOROSPERME^.
The Chlorosperms are decidedly the lowest or simplest in structure not only of the
Algae, but of all plants. A very considerable number of them have the frond composed
of a single utricle or cell, and all cell-division in such plants issues in the production of
new unicellular fronds. The Orders Diatomacece and Desmidiacece, of which some
hundreds of genera, and perhaps thousands of species are now known to Botanists, are of
this character. In the whole of these, the frond consists of what may be called a bivalve
cell ; the primordial utricle being single while the cellular envelope is divided into two
halves by a medial line. When such a cell is about to be multiplied by dividing into
two, the two halves of the old cell remain unchanged, and a new growth of two new
half-cells originates at each side, along the medial line. While this growth is going on,
the old half cells are gently pushed asunder, and when it is completed, a separation takes
place, and two new fronds float apart, each of them composed of an old half-cell and a
new growth which gradually acquires all the characters of the opposing valve. But the
unicellular structure is not confined to such minute atoms as the Diatomaceae, or such
imperfect organisms as the Protococcus and its allies. Many of the larger Chlorosperms
are essentially unicellular, and in some of these the vegetable cell is found of very much
larger size than in any other plants. In Codium, Vaucheria, and Bryopsis single
cylindrical cells may be obtained several inches in length, and frequently of consider-
able diameter. In Valonia, saccate cells sometimes as large as a walnut and often as large
as a hazel nut, are found. Botrydium, a little siphonaceous Alga common on damp
ground in Europe, exhibits within the compass of a single branching cell all the ordinary
organs of a compound vegetable, as much specialized as is possible within such narrow
limits : thus, it has a descending axis or root, an ascending axis or stem, and a vesicular
body, within which its spores are developed. In Caulerpa, however, if the frond in that-
genus be really constructed by the evolution of a single cell, we have the vegetable cell
assuming its highest development and attaining gigantic size. These unicellular (?)
fronds are sometimes two feet in length, and excessively branched ; with specialized
root, stem, branches, and leaves.
The ordinary fructification of the Chlorospermeas consists of zoospores, or spores
endowed with ciliary motion, which have already been spoken of in the General Intro-
duction, (Part I. pp. 13-14). These are usually of very minute size, and are formed
within the cells of the frond, by the transmutations of the whole cell-contents. Myriads
of moving granules are thus evolved, each of which is pointed at one end, and there
furnished with two or four vibratile hairs, which act like oars, and drive the granule
through the water. In one instance (Hydrodictyon) the zoospores, whilst still
retained within the walls of the mother-cell, arrange themselves into a young frond,
which issues from the cell perfect in all its parts. But usually they are dispersed in the
water, and swim about until they commence germination. In some cases, a solitary
zoospore and that of large size, clothed all over its surface with cilia, is formed from
the mass of endochrome of the parent-cell. And often, as in Zygnema and its allies, the
spore is the result of the union of the matter of two cells.
Among the more interesting observations recently made on the development of these
Algae, Pringsheim's memoirs on the fertilization of their spores by means of spermato-
zoids are specially worthy of notice. Male organs of unquestionable character have
CHLOROSPERME^. 3
now been discovered in several, leading to the inference that they exist in all. In some
cases the spermatozoids are directly formed within the cells of the frond, from which they
are dispersed in the water, and find their way to the enlarged cell in which the nucleus
of the future spore, or rather sporangium, is contained, and which they penetrate, and
effect the fertilization of the contents. In other cases there are formed within the cells
of the frond and emitted into the water, solitary male-producing bodies resembling
zoospores in form, but of smaller size, to which Pringsheim gives the name androspores.
These androspores, after swimming freely for some time, like the zoospores, affix them-
selves (in (Edogonium) to the surface of the enlarged cell containing the female nucleus,
or in its immediate neighborhood ; and then develope into minute frondlets, consisting
of two or three cells, the lowest of which contains endochrome, and acts as a mother-
cell, Avhile the uppermost becomes an antheridium in which spermatozoids are formed.
After a time both the female-cell and the antheridium open at the summit ; the sper-
matozoid is liberated and enters the aperture of the ovarian cell and fertilizes the
enclosed nucleus ; from which there results the large, immoveable spore characteristic
of the genus. The whole process is described and its various stages elaborately figured
in Pringsheim's memoir, republished in a French translation in An. Sc. Nat. 4th ser.,
vol. 5, p. 250, t. 1-5, to which I must refer for a fuller account. A previous memoir by
the same author in An. Sc. Nat., vol. 3, describes the fertilization of the spores of
Yaucheria by an analogous process. Various memoirs have also recently appeared by
Thuret, and by Derbes and Soliere, describing the process of the fertilization of the
spores, and the development of the frond in other classes of the Algte ; and from the
large number of species which have been investigated by these excellent observers, we
may perhaps be warranted in drawing the general inference, that a process of fertiliza-
tion, by two opposing sexes, exists in all the Algaj. It certainly exists in the Melano-
sperms, Rhodosperms, and in many of the inferior Chlorosperms. There is much variety,
however, in the appearance of the antheridia in different classes ; in some no spermato-
zoids have yet been discovered, in others they are of considerable size, and very active
and well formed. In some cases each spore is separately fertilized ; in others it is a
body which afterwards developes spores. One important observation has been made by
Pringsheim which is specially interesting from its bearing on the disputed question of
the origin of the embryonic vesicle in the higher plants, namely, that in no instance has
he observed any growth to proceed from the spermatozoid, but that its function seems
to have been performed when its contents have mixed with those of the nucleus ; the
spermatozoid itself being wholly absorbed and dissolved in the mass.
Much still remains to be done in tracing the development of these AlgiB, more
especially in studying the transformations which many of them undergo. Very many
have two or three different modes of re-producing the species, as by self-division, by
zoospores or gemmae, and by properly fertilized spores ; and the individuals resulting
from these various modes of growth are not always similar. Thus there is in many an
" alternation of generations," to be studied, such as has been noticed among lower
animals ; and probably when the subject has been properly worked out, a large number,
not only of species, but of genera, especially among the fresh water kinds, must be
erased from our lists. It now appears probable to Pringsheim that many of the minute
B 2
4 CHLOROSPERME^.
unicellular Algte of Braun are the male organs or androspores of other Algae. I think
it can hardly be questioned that multitudes of the Palmelloid forms are either spores or
imperfectly developed fronds ; and the same is probable of many Confervoids. As yet
the subject, except in a few able hands, has been confused rather than rendered more
clear by the labour bestowed by authors upon it. There has been too great an anxiety
to establish new genera and species, without due regard being had to circumstances of
growth and development ; and the unfortunate student who now attempts to study
the fresh water Alg^e is oppressed by an accumulating mass of bad species and genera,
which all have to be in some degree mastered before he can make clean work. Add
to this, that in the present state of our knowledge it is absolutely necessary, in most
instances, to have the living plant at hand, and it will be understood what a difficult
task it must be to give a good account of the Chlorospermatous series of the Algae.
No one can be more sensible than I am myself of the very imperfect nature of the
sketch attempted in the present memoir. I write at a distance from my subject, and
have rarely had more than dried specimens to examine. Though many of them were
pei-sonally collected by myself in 1850, when travelling in America, on very few have I
preserved notes taken from the recent plant. This is perhaps of less account among
the marine kinds, which formed the staple of my personal collections, for the marine
species recover their characters on re-immersion much more perfectly than the fresh
water kinds. But the want of living specimens has seriously barred my attempts to
describe the fresh water species, with the exception of such easily preserved kinds as
Ht/drodlctyon, Batrachospermiim, Lemanea, Fetalonema, &c. The Zygnemaceae, of
which I have received several, and which are probably numerous in America, so com-
pletely lose their distinctive characters in drying, that I have been forced to omit them
altogether. So also it has happened with the species of Oscillatoria, and of the Con-
fervoid Algae generally. I must therefore leave the task of describing the fresh water
Algae of America to other hands ; to some one living among them, and having eyes
fully open to the difficulties of his task, and zeal and ability to work it faithfully. And
here I cannot omit a slight tribute to the memory of one in whom were combined in
no common degree the qualifications which make an able naturalist, and who, had he
lived, would probably have taken up the broken thread.
I allude to the late Professor J. W. Bailey of Westpoint, one of the earliest explorers
of American Algae, and whose very able memoirs on the Diatomacece have won for him
an imperishable name in the annals of science. To me his loss is more personal than
to most of his botanical friends, for from the hour we first met there grew up between
us a warm friendship which death has interrupted, but which I trust it has not ended.
He it was who first suggested to me a Memoir on the American Algae ; he arranged
with the Smithsonian Institute the terms of its publication ; he supplied me with a
multitude of specimens ; and to his influence I owe the assistance 1 have received from
many American algologists who looked up to him for direction in their studies. He
was, as far as the Algae are concerned, my chief American referee, to whom I could
apply when seeking information on local matters, connected with this branch of study.
With him I constantly associated my work, and to his approbation I looked forward as
CHLOROSPERME^. 5
the most grateful reward of my labours ; and now that he is removed, my interest iu
the work has sensibly flagged, and I am not sorry that it is brought to a conclusion.
Since the previous part was issued, two other of my correspondents have been
numbered with the dead — Professor Tuomey of Alabama, and Dr. Blodgett of Key West,
to both of whom I was indebted for very valuable contributions of specimens. Many
of these have been noticed in the two former parts, and several more will be found
described in the present. It has given me a melancholy pleasure to perpetuate the
memory of the assistance I obtained from these gentlemen, by giving their names to the
only new genera described in the present part.
Whilst thus I have to deplore the loss of a dear friend, and of two of my most valued
correspondents, I have to acknowledge obligations to two new contributors of specimens,
Mr. Samuel Ashmead of Philadelphia, and Mr. A. D. Frte of New York. From Mr.
Ashraead I have received a collection of the Algae of New Jersey, and a very interesting
series of those of Key West, including some new species ; the most remarkable of which
are a new Caulerpa, and a new and very beautiful Dasya. To Mr. Frye I have to
return my thanks for a collection of the Algte of California, very well prepared, com-
municated to me through Professor Henry in 1854 ; and to this gentleman I also owe
an apology for not having mentioned his name in a previous notice of Californian Algte,
which were sent to me by Captain Pike of New York in 1852, and which I supposed had
been collected by him. A letter addressed by Mr. Frye to Professor Henry, and forwarded
to me since the publication of the notice referred to, informs me that the packet of
Californian Algte attributed to Captain N. Pike was collected by Mr. Frye, and indeed
formed part of a fasciculus exhibited by Mrs. Frye at the American Institute in 1851,
and for which she obtained a gold medal. There were several other exhibitors at the
fair, but Mrs. Frye's were considered the most rare. " After the close of the fair," says
Mr. Frye, " I furnished Mr. Pike with a large number of specimens which I collected
in California. He professed to send them to Professor Harvey of Dublin, stating to
me that he would send them in my name, and that I should be credited for them in
Professor Harvey's work. In looking over the work I found Professor Harvey received
a collection of Californian Algae, and they were credited to Captain Pike. I was told by
Mr. Pike and other algologists in New York that mine was the only collection they
had ever seen or heard of from the Pacific, and I had made the first collection in Cali-
fornia. This, I think, after making much enquiry is correct, as I cannot find that
there has as yet been any brought from thence except mine, which I collected with
my own hands. I exhibited them to the ladies where I was then boarding, at Jones's
Hotel in San Francisco : they afterwards borrowed them to show at their parties, and
sent a gentleman, Mr. W. Ball, to purchase 20 specimens for 20 dollars — which I
furnished to them, and also spent several days in teaching him how to collect and pre-
pare them. I should be glad if Professor Harvey could know the facts, as I think he
would be glad to give me credit for the specimens." Justice to Mr. Frye compels me
to give these facts as much publicity as my former erroneous notice has obtained. The
plants were sent to me by Captain Pike, without mentioning any other person, and I
naturally supposed they had been collected by himself. Nor did I hear of Mr. Frye
as a collector of Algse, until his letter, quoted above, was received on my return from
6 CHLOROSPERME^.
Australia in 1856. I now take the earliest opportunity of acknowledging the merit
of his package, and trust that he will acquit me of any intentional suppression.
Should I be favoured with any further donations of specimens from America, I trust
that I may be correctly informed of the circumstances under which they were obtained.
Justice shall then be fully done to the merits of the collectors. The Alga? of the Pacific
coast have as yet been very imperfectly explored, and probably many curious and
beautiful species, still unknown to botanists, remain to reward the future exertions of
Californian collectors. Possibly, in the collections of those Californian ladies and
gentlemen mentioned by Mr. Frye, new species remain undescribed and unrecorded ;
and should these remarks meet the eye of any one possessed of such things, and who
may wish to see them duly published, I shall be glad to receive and acknowledge all
contributions of Algaa if sent to me through Professor Henry or Professor Asa Gray :
and the donors may rest assured that all such communications will be faithfully
acknowledged.
W. H. H.
Trinity College, Dublin,
1 Dec. 1857.
SYNOPSIS OF THE ORDERS OF CHLOROSPERMEiE.
1. SiPHONEJE. Rooting or basifixed. Frond simple or compound, formed either of a
single, filiform, branching cell, or of many such cells united together in a spongy-
frond. (Marine or fresh-water.)
2. DasycladEjE. Rooting. Fronds consisting of a simple or branched inarticulate
axial thread, whorled with articulated ramelli. Spores spherical, developed in
proper fruit-cells. (Marine.)
3. Valoniacej:. Rooting. Fronds polymorphous, formed of large vesicated cells,
filled with watery endochrome. (Marine.)
4. Ulvace^. Basifixed. Fronds tubular or flat, membranous, formed of minute
quadrate cells. {Marine or in fresh water.)
5. BATRACHOSPERMEiE. Basifixed. Fronds filiform ; the axis inarticulate, composed
of minute cylindrical or polygonal cells, naked, or whorled with articulated ramelli.
Spores in moniliform strings, naked. {In fresh water.)
6. Confervace.e. Basifixed or floating. Fronds filamentous, articulated. Endo-
chrome diSused. Zoospores minute, formed in all the cells. (Marine or in fresh
water.)
7. Zygnemace^. Floating. Fronds filamentous, articulated. Endochrome of some
definite figure. Zoospores large, formed by the union of two endochromes (of
difierent cells), or by the bisection of a single endochrome. (In fresh water.)
8. HydrodictyEjE. Floating. Frond forming a net-work with polygonal meshes ;
each side of the mesh formed of a single cell. Viviparous. (In fresh water.)
9. OsciLLATORiACEiE. Basifixed or free. Frond formed of subsimple filaments, having
a membranous inarticulate tubular sheath, enclosing an annulated medulla,
composed of very short, lenticular, cellules.
10. NosTOCHiNE-^E. Basifixed or free. Fronds consisting of moniliform jelly-coated
threads, free or enclosed in a gelatinous matrix.
11. Desmidiace^.* Microscopic, unicellular, green ; wall of the cell membranous :
growth by semisection of the cell, and the evolutions of two new half-cells at
the medial line.
12. Diatom ACEiE.* Microscopic, unicellular, yellow-brown ; wall of the cell silicious :
growth and fructification as in the preceding Order.
13. Palmellace^. Cells globose, or ellipsoidal, free, or lying in a gelatinous matrix,
not forming either threads or membranes. Propagation by division of the
endochrome.
* These Ordei-s are not included in the present work. The North American species have been ably worked
out by the late Professor J. W. Bailey of Westpoint, whose numerous memoirs on the siibject have a world-
wide reputation. The species are all of microscopic size, and some of them, from their extreme minuteness,
and the delicate sculpturing on their cell walls, form admirable test-objects for microscopes.
SIPHONACE^. 9
Okder I.— SIPHONACE^.
Siphonece and Caulerpece, Grev. Alg. Brit. p. 183. J. Ag. Alg. Medit. p. 17-
Endl. 3rd Suppl. p. 16. Dne. Class, p. 32 ; (also Halymedece, Dne.) Lindl. Veg.
Kingd. p. 18, and Vaucheriew, in part, p. 22. Vaucheriece, Caulerpece, Codiece (in
part), Kiltz. Sp. Alg. pp. 486, 494, 500.
Diagnosis. Green, marine or fresh water Algae, naked or coated with carbonate of
lime, composed either of a single, filiform, branching cell, or of many such cells united
together into a spongelike frond.
Natural Character. Root, where it is developed, formed of many branching
fibres interwoven together and entangled ; sometimes penetrating deeply into the sand
in which the plant grows, and attaching itself to the separate grains of sand, which
serve further to consolidate the mass of fibres. Frond very variable in appearance,
and differing much in complexity of structure, but always formed of very long,
branching, inarticulate filaments, which arise from the continued groAvth and evolution
of a single, undivided cell. In the genera of simplest structure, such as Bryopsis
and Vaucheria, the frond consists of a single branching filamentous cell, with a thin,
membranous, hyaline cell-wall ; its cavity being filled with a granular semifluid colour-
ing matter or endochrome, which may be wholly discharged if the tube be wounded
and slightly pressed. In Bryopsis the unicellular fronds stand apart from each other,
though many often rise nearly from the same base. In Vaucheria several such fronds
are interwoven together at the base, but remain distinct in their upper branches. In
Chlorodesmis there is a further union of many such threads, whose lower portion
unite together to form an evident stipes or trunk, which is crowned with a pencil of
free filaments ; the whole frond resembling a little tree. This habit, however, is not
so obvious in the American species as it is in Ch. comosa, the first described species of
the genus. Again, in Codium, we find a structure essentially the same as in Vau-
cheria and Chlorodesmis, but the union of the filaments is still more intimate. To
the naked eye, the species of Codium resemble green sponges or pieces of green cloth
or velvet, having a perfectly definite outline and closely interwoven substance, and it is
only when we tear or cut them asunder under the microscope that we perceive their
true structure. We then find that all the central part of the substance of the frond is
composed of innumerable interwoven, longitudinal branching cells, and that the velvetty
pile which constitutes the surface is formed of the tips of excurrent branches of the
axial cells, lying close together and presenting only their extremities to the eye. In all
c
10 SIPHONACEJE.
these genera the component filaments remain in the ordinary state of cellular tissue,
having their membranous walls composed of cellulose, and filled with endochrome. The
only further change which the plants of this group exhibit in structure consists in a
secretion of carbonate of lime, which in several genera is found coating the external
surface of the cells ; and sometimes, as in Halimeda and some species of Udotea,
surrounding the cells in such abundance as to cover the whole frond with a smooth
coat of plaister, and obliterate all appearance of filaments. In such cases it is necessary,
in order to see the structure, to macerate a portion of the frond in hydrochloric acid,
until the lime be removed. When so treated, the component cells may be extracted
and will be found to be of similar nature to those of Codium or Bryapsis. Indeed
through some species, such as Udotea membra?iacea, there is an almost direct passage
into Codium.
A more compound structure exists, as will be afterwards more fully described, in the
sub-order Caukrpece, where from the inner face of the cell-wall innumerable branching
and anastomosing processes issue, and fill up the cavity of the cell with a spongy,
filamentous substance, unlike any structure noticed within the cavity of any other
vegetable cells ; so far as I am aware. On this remarkable character several authors
propose to separate these plants into a distinct Order, and to this proceeding my only
objection is that it appears to be an unnecessary multiplication of Orders.
The fructification of these Algae has been observed in several but not in all, and
presents some modifications in the different genera. In some, as in Bryopsis, the whole
substance of the endochrome in fruiting specimens is changed into minute zoospores,
which when emitted from the parent have an apparent voluntary movement like that
of infusoria ; swimming backwards and forwards by means of retractile cilia, which only
disappear when the zoospore finds a point of fixture, and commences to germinate. In
others, as in Codium, similar zoospores are developed within special encysted fruit-cells
or vesicles, called by Agardh coniocystce, which arise from the branches and are divided
by a diaphragm from the branch on which they are formed. In others, as in Vaiicheria,
zoospores of a higher development are formed within similar cysts ; and in this genus
the cyst (or ovary) is accompanied by a well formed antheridium.
The process of fertilization of the spore in Vaucheria has recently been ably investi-
gated by Pringsheim, a French translation of whose memoir on the subject will be found
in Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser. IV. vol. 3, p. 363. The existence of two organs in Vaucheria,
one of which was supposed to be an antheridium, had been noticed originally by Vaucher
half a century ago, and they have passed under the eyes of succeeding observers ; but
no one appears to have actually watched the process of fertilization until it was
discovered and published by Pringsheim in 1855. I shall merely give an abstract of
the process, referring for full particulars, illustrated by beautifidly executed figures, to
the above quoted memoir. The anther or corniculum in Vaucheria consists of a small,
cylindrical spirally curved or helicoid process rising from one of the branches of the
frond, and at first not differing from an ordinary branchlet except in size. But
gradually a change takes place in its contents, at first manifested by a loss of colour in
the matter filling the upper portion of the young antheridium. Then a diaphragm is
formed, which walls off the portion toward the extremity of the antheridium from the
STPHONACE^. 11
lower half, which retains its union with the branch : and now the change is complete.
The anther thus formed consists of an isolated, curved, cylindrical, nearly colourless but
not empty cell, supported on a pedicle of variable length and curvature. In the anther-
cell spermatozoids are gradually evolved out of the contained matter, and are at maturity
emitted through an opening at the summit of the cell. So much for the structure of
the anther. The sporangium, or female organ, is placed on the branch close to the antheri-
dium, and like it, at first consists of a papilla, or minute ramulus rising from the branch.
It does not, however, lengthen into a cylinder, but assumes an ovoid form ; its contents
become dense and granular ; a diaphragm separating it from the branch is formed across
its base, and thus it becomes a separate egg-shaped cellule, sessile on the branch from
which it has been formed. A beak-like attenuation, directed toward the adjacent
antheridium, is now formed, and becomes at length perforated. At the same time the
antheridium, having curled round, directs its extremity toward the sporangium ; its
summit opens, aud the enclosed spermatozoids are discharged into the water, close to
the orifice of the sporangium, which they enter and efiect the fertilization of the matter
aggregated within. A cell-wall is then formed round the fertilized substance, which
thus becomes a spore, which gradually ripens and is detached on the bursting or decay
of the membranous cyst within which it was formed. In its process toward ripening
it loses its green colour, and at length becomes nearly colourless, except for one or more
brown masses which it contains. In this state it remains, often for a considerable time,
till germination takes place, when it suddenly resumes its green, and then elongates
into a tubular cell, which assumes the form and ramification of the parent plant.
This Order is dispersed, under one or other of its forms, over most parts of the world,
and its species are found either in the sea, in fresh water, or occasionally on damp soil ;
some species of Vaucheria and the curious little Botrydium being terrestrial. The
geographical range of several species is very extensive. Codium tomentosum and
Bryopsis plumosa are common to the Northern and Southern Oceans and to the
Eastern and Western Hemispheres, and are both found in the warmest parts of the
tropical seas, as well as in high latitudes of the temperate zones. Caulerpa is specially
characteristic of the tropical ocean, where its species are numerous, some of the more
common kinds forming the principal algoid covering of rocks or sands in shallow wat«r.
Some of its species are widely scattered, and others apparently limited to a few spots.
Several of the fossil algoid plants appear to have been Caulerpce, and the fossil figured
by Brongniart (tab. 9, bis, fig. Ij, under the name " Fucoides hypnoides," bears a very
striking resemblance to Caulerpa hypnoides of the Australian coast.
SYNOPSIS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN GENERA.
Sub-order I. CaulerpEjE. Frond with prostrate, rooting, primary stems (surculi), and
erect branches, membranous, unicellular ; cell within filled with a network of
branching fibrils.
I. Caulerpa.
12 SIPHONACE^.
Sub-order II. Codies. Frond uni- or pluri-cellular. Cells filled with granular
endochrome (without internal fibrous network).
* More or less coated with carbonate of lime.
II. Halimeda. Frond branching, articulate ; the joints flattened.
III. Udotea. Frond stipitate, fan-shaped, simple or cleft.
** Destitute of carbonate of lime, soft and flaccid.
IV. CoDiuM. Frond spongelike, of definite form, composed of closely interwoven,
irregularly branching filaments.
V. Chlorodesmis. Frond stipitate (or subsessile), pencil-shaped, composed of dichoto-
mous filaments, interwoven at base, and free in their upper portion.
VI. Vaucheria. Filaments numerous, tufted and somewhat matted at base, free
above, irregularly branched.
VII. Betopsis. Filaments free, tufted or solitary, pinnately branched.
I. CAULERPA, Lamour.
Frond consisting of prostrate surculi, rooting from their lower surface, and throwing
up erect branches (or secondary fronds) of various shapes. Substance horny-membran-
ous, destitute of calcareous matter. Structure unicellular, the cell (or frond) continu-
ous, strengthened internally by a spongy network of anastomosing filaments, and filled
with semi-fluid grumous matter. Fructification unknown.
The genus Caulerpa was founded by Lamouroux in 1810, and referred by him to
his family of Ulvaceae, though with doubt ; for he seems to have thought the structure
of these plants so anomalous that he hesitates to pronounce them vegetables, notwith-
standing their strictly vegetable form, immobility, and green colour. He had not,
however, made himself master of their real structure, for he describes the frond as
" consisting of an epidermis, and a cellular tissue consisting of cells so small that it has
been impossible to determine their form" (Ess. p. 67J. Turner appears to have been
the first author who noticed the fibrous spongelike network which fills up the cavity of
the membranous frond. This he describes under his Fucus hypnoides, but in terms
which show that he supposed this structure peculiar to that species. To Dr. Montagne
we owe the first and best account of the structure of the CaulerpcB. This able algologist,
in a paper read before the French Institute in 1837 and published in An. Sc. Nat. for
March, 1838, has given a full history of the genus, both as to its organization and what
he believed to be its fructification. To this memoir I refer the reader who wishes for
full information of all that was then known of these plants, and shall content myself in
this place with briefly describing their habit, structure, and geographical distribution.
siphonacej:. 13
The character seized on by Lamouroux as essential to a definition of the genus, and
happily indicated by him in the name Caulerpa (derived from ^(avXos, a stem, and
epTTft), to creep) consists in the prostrate, primary stems or surculi in which the frond
originates, and which are furnished at intervals throughout their length with branching
and fibrous roots that penetrate deeply into the sand in which the plant vegetates, or
attach themselves firmly to the rock in such species as grow on rocks and corals.
These roots are fibrous prolongations of the under surface of the prostrate stems, and
are probably, notwithstanding their great development, chiefly useful for fixing the
plant in its position. From the upper side of the surculi rise erect branches or secondary
fronds, which are very various in form, and are either sessile or supported on stalks or
stipites of greater or less length. Some recent writers on these plants have proposed to
divide the genus into several, assigning to them characters taken from the form and
ramification of the branches ; and those who wish to know what can be done in this
way may consult a memoir by Count Trevisan in the 22nd vol. of Schlechtendahl's
Linnsea, where subdivision is pushed to an extreme. I have not adopted these views
of arrangement, being unwilling to break up what appears a natural assemblage, and
thus needlessly to multiply generic names. By employing artificial characters it is very
easy to split up any genus of several species, but unless the number of species included
in a genus be inconveniently large, it seems undesirable to do so. The genus Caulerpa,
as defined by Lamouroux, includes about fifty species which agree in all essential
characters of structure and development. The differences among them are obviously
of a very minor character, and though proper enough for the definition of sections, are
we think of too trivial a nature to afford stable generic diagnoses. For instance, let us
take one of the proposed new genera, Corradoria, which differs from another, Chauvinia,
merely in having bifarious instead of multifarious leaves or ramenta. But the feebleness
of this character is shown by several species which are imperfectly bifarious ; so that
bifarious and tri- or multifarious ramenta may occasionally be found on one and the
same specimen. C. cupressoides of the North American coast has ramenta sometimes
bifarious, sometimes trifarious ; and C. falcifolia of the tropical Pacific, which is nor-
mally bifarious, is frequently quadrifarious on part of the same individual.
In all the North American species the ramenta are confined to the upright branches
or secondary fronds, and the surcidi are smooth and glossy except in C. lycopodium,
where both the surculus and the stalks of the fronds are densely clothed with branching,
woolly hairs. In several Australian and some Pacific species the surculi are equally
ramentiferous with the fronds, though the ramenta they bear are often of a different
shape. The forms and ramifications of the upright fronds are much varied. In our
C. prolifera, the type of Kutzing's genus Phyllerpa. we have an example of membranous,
expanded, leaflike, simple fronds, perfectly entire at the margin ; in C. denticidata and
C. scalpelliformis there are similarly flattened fronds, but deeply pinnatifid ; in
C. mexicana the marginal incisions are so deep that the frond becomes pinnate, and
thus we are led, by easy transitions, to C. taxifolia and C. plumaris where the pinnate
character is perfectly developed. Again, in C. falcifolia, Bail. & Harv. there is a
passage from the species with pinnate fronds to those having filiform ramenta imbricated
on all sides ; for, as already mentioned, the ramenta on some of the fronds are strictly
14 SIPHONACEtE.
distichous, and on others tristichous or quadrifarious, A further step brings us to
C. Selago, C. Lycopodium, and their allies, in which the branches are thickly-
set with imbricating ramenta ; and the highest development of this type is reached in
C. obscura, C. Muelleri, and C. hypnoides, where pinnate and imbricated characters are
combined. Another group of species, like our C. paspaloides, is characterised by having
pinnate or multifid ramenta ; and in another, the ramenta are baglike, either round,
pyriform, or topshaped. Of this type we have an American example in C. clavigera,
one of the most widely dispersed and most variable of the species. By depressing the
apex of a baglike ramentum it becomes top-shaped, and by further depression peltate,
and this form distinguishes C. chemnitzia and C. peltata ; and again, peltate ramenta
becomes perfoliate in C. nummularia and C. stellata by the development of young
ramenta from the centre of the discs. In such species as C. ericifolia and C. cupressoides
the gradual evolution of ramenta from mere prominent points of the frond is illustrated;
and such species lead us to C. Freycinetii where the ramenta remain in this rudimentary
condition. And thus we are conducted, by almost insensible gradations, through a
considerable number of forms, back to those from which we started, and which had
naked fronds destitute of ramenta or marginal incisions. And so, after a survey of all
the species, we become more reconciled to the generic group as limited by Lamouroux,
than if we had merely compared together such extreme forms as C- prolifera and C. pas-
paloides.
We have already said that the structure of all these plants is essentially the same.
It remains to describe more particularly what that structure is. I am not aware that
any observer has yet noted the early development of the frond, nor is the mode of re-
production as yet clearly made out. The spores are presumed to be similar to those of
Bryopsis, and to be formed in any portion of the grumous matter that fills the frond,
and most probably from that of the ramenta. When we take a fully formed frond,
distinguishable into creeping stem, roots, upright branches and ramenta, we find that
it is every where coated or encased in a homogeneous, hyaline, tough membrane des-
titute of further structure than this ; that it may be seen in the thicker parts to be
composed of several layers of cellulose, equally deposited one within another, as in the
wood-cells of higher plants. Thei'e is no septum throughout the plant, and no appear-
ance of cellular structure in the membrane of the walls. The frond, with all its
ramifications, is strictly '•'■continuous" forming a closed sac ; and so far as we know
it is formed by the evolution of a single cell, extending itself indefinitely without cell-
division, and showing in excess the same structure as we find in a minor degree in
such plants as Botrydium, Bryopsis and the like. This closed sac, frond or cell, in
Caulerpa, is filled as in Bryopsis, with a semi-fluid, semi-gelatinous, bright-green
endochrome containing starch-grains mixed with what seem to be oily particles, and
obviously highly organized, but its chemical composition remains to be examined.
Most probably it is highly nitrogenous, for it bears considerable resemblance in sub-
stance to the glairy semi-fluid of many sponges ; and hence probably the reason of
Lamouroux's supposition that these plants were of a semi-animal nature. If the
structure of Caulerpa were merely what we have described, a closed membrane filled with
grumous matter, it would not essentially difier from that of Codium and Bryopsis.
siphonacej:. 15
But there is found in Caulerpa a supplementary structure of a very peculiar and curious
kind, which has induced several systematic writers to separate this genus, as the type
of a family di-tinct from the other Siphonesje. An unwillingness needlessly to multiply
families, and a belief that synthesis, much more than analysis, ought to be the study
of a system framer, has prevented my adopting these views. The structure alluded to
is this : from the inner face of the wall of the membrane covering the frond there issue
innumerable, cylindrical, filamentous processes, which seem to be merely internal ex-
tensions of the cell walls, and not new cells. These branch and anastomose together
into a kind of spongy net-work that fills the whole cavity of the frond, and is bathed
and its fibres keep apart by the grumous fluid. This spongy net-work may be' regarded
as the proper frame-work of the plant, intended to give strength and unity to all parts
of the frond. The filaments appear to be tubular, but are empty and colourless. This
peculiar modification of structure is so like that of a sponge, that we may almost regard
a Caulerpa as a vegetable sponge enclosed in a membranous epidermis.
The genus Caulerpa is eminently characteristic of the tropical and subtropical oceans
and seas of both hemispheres. Very few species extend far into the temperate zone.
The most northern are found in the Mediterranean Sea ; and the most southern on the
shores of New Zealand. Many species exist on the southern coast of Australia, in
lat. 35° or 36° ; but the greater number are found within 35° of the equator. They
inhabit the littoral zone, from near high-water to low-water marks ; and some extend
into the laminarian zone, or even to that of the NuUipores. Their favorite locality is
on hard sand, or on sand-covered rocks ; and in the crevices of coral on the coral reefs,
and more particularly in hollows left on the surface of the reef, where the corals have
ceased to grow. Most of the American species grow within tide marks, but are not
luxuriant except at low-water mark, or a little below it. C. davifera commences to
grow nearly at high water mark, and is continued throughout the whole littoral zone
and into the laminarian. It consequently varies greatly in size and in general aspect,
and accordingly appears under several names in botanical works ; but these " book-
species," however distinct they may look in the herbarium, cannot be recognized on
the shore, where all the forms gradually blend together. Some of the species are very
local. Others are found in both hemispheres, and in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
Of the North American species C. plumaris, C. davifera, C. ericifolia and C. cupressoides
are the most widely dispersed, being found in all tropical waters ; C. prolifera is found
in the Mediterranean Sea ; C. paspaloides on the coast of Brazil, while C. Ashmeadii
and C. lycopodium, so far as is yet known, are peculiar to the Keys of Florida. C.
mexicana very closely resembles C. asplenioides, Grev. a native of the Indian Sea, and
it is questionable whether these are distinct ; and C. lycopodium also is nearly allied
to C. selago, a native of the Red Sea, but appears to be essentially characterised by its
woolly stems. The Eed Sea, the Persian Gulf, the shores of tropical Asia and those of
New Holland, with the coral reefs of the Pacific furnish many local species, some ex-
ceedingly curious and beautiful. Several species are eaten by the natives of the
Pacific archipelagoes ; and all furnish a favourite food to the turtle, whose green fat
they serve to nourish.
16 siphonacej:.
We shall distribute the nine American species into three sections, characterised as
follows : —
Sect. 1. Phyllerpa. Kutz : Fronds piano -compressed, or flat, leaflike, very entire.
1. Caulerpa prolifera, Lamour.; surculi naked, glabrous ; fronds erect, petiolate,
flat, leaflike, nerveless, entire, tongue-shaped, rarely once forked, proliferous from the
disc or apex. Lamour. Ess. p. 67. Ag. Sp. Alg. 1, p. 444. Trevis. in Linn. vol.
22, p. 129. Phyllerpa prolifera, Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 494. Fucus Ophioglossum, Web.
and Mohr. Turn. Hist. L 58. (Tab. XXXVIII. B.)
Hab. Keys of Florida, on submarine sands. Key "West, W. H. H., No. 95. Mr.
Ashmead. Soldier's Key, Professor Tuomey, No. 83 in part. (v. v.)
Surcidi prostrate, throwing out from their under surface branching and fibrilliferous
roots, simple or branched, twice as thick as hog's bristle, glabrous, glossy, cylindrical,
shrinking, and longitudinally channelled when dry. Fronds stipitate, the stipes
filiform, from a quarter-inch to an inch in length, of equal diameter with the surculi,
compressed at the apex, and gradually passing into the base of the oblong or
obovate, tongue-shaped obtuse lamina. The frond or lamina is flat and leafllike,
two to four inches long, from half to three-quarter inch wide, either quite simple
or once forked, with a perfectly entire flat margin. Occasionally similar stipitate
fronds spring proliferously from any point of the disc or from the base or apex,
especially if the latter has been wounded. The substance is membranaceous, somewhat
horny and translucent, with a very glossy surface when dry. The colour is a full
grass- green, becoming oil-green and variously tinged with yellow in a dried state. It
does not adhere to paper in drying.
This species is rather rare at Key West. My specimens were picked up on the
beach, after a southerly gale in the month of February. They closely correspond with
specimens from the Mediterranean Sea, where, as well as in the subtropical Atlantic,
this plant is not uncommon. C. proUfera has a very difierent habit from the other
American species, but is closely related to the Australian C. parvifolia, and to C. anceps
from the coral reefs of the Pacific. It appears to be still more closely akin to C. costata,
Kiitz, a Mediterranean species unknown to me, and said to differ in having a semi-
nerved lamina.
Plate XXXVIII. B. Fig. 1. Caulerpa prolifera ; the natural size.
Sect. 2. Ptilerpa. Fronds piano-compressed, inciso-serrate, pinnatifid or pinnate.
2. Caulerpa Mexicana, Sond. ; surculi naked, glabrous ; fronds erect, subsessile,
pinnato-pinnatifid ; rachis (broad), piano-compressed ; pinnae opposite, vertically
. siphonacej:. 17
flattened, two-edged, oblongo-falcate, mucronulate, scarcely constricted at base, their
margin entire. Sender in Kiltz. Sp. Alg. p. 496. (Tab. XXXVII. A.)
Hab. Keys of Florida, on submarine sands and sand covered rocks. Key West,
W. H. H. (No. 94.) Professor Tuomey, 1^0. 12. Mr. Ashmead. (v. v.)
Surculi prostrate, extensively creeping, rooting from their under surface, branched,
twice as thick as hog's bristle, glabrous, glossy, longitudinally furrowed when dry.
Fronds springing from the upper surface of the surculi, nearly sessile, or on very short
stipites, broadly linear (in outline), 4-6 inches long, ^-| inch wide, either simple or
with one or two branches, pinnate or rather very deeply pinnatifid, from just above
the base to the bifid or emarginate extremity. RacMs piano-compressed, from one to
two lines wide, somewhat thick and fleshy when recent, horny and longitudinally
rugulose when dry, closely set throughout with the opposite, distichous pinna3. Finnce
from two to four times as long as broad, patent, the lower ones somewhat ovate, the
upper gradually more and more oblong and incurvo-falcate, vertically flattened, two edged,
mucronulate, entire ; the margin quite free from denticulations. Substance when dry
horny, membranaceous and glossy, semi-transparent. Colour a brilliant grass green,
variously tinged with yellow, and becoming slightly olivaceous when dry.
This beautiful plant abounds at Key West, particularly under the bridge, where it
forms widely spreading patches. Sender's specimens were sent from Mexico, but the
exact locality is not given. It is nearly related on the one hand to C. denticulata, Dne.
from the Red Sea ; and on the other to C. asplenioides, Grev. {m. An. Nat. Hist. vol. 12.
tab. 1. /. 1.) a native of the East Indies, if indeed that species be really difierent. It
also bears much resemblance to C. taxifolia, Ag., but the pinnae are broader, more
sharply two-edged, and distinctly mucronulate.
Plate XXXVII. A. Fig 1. Cauleepa Mexicana ; the natural size. Fig. 2, a
pair of pinnae, magnified.
3. Cadlerpa plumaris, Ag. ; surculi naked, glabrous ; fronds erect, subsessile, dis-
tichously pectinato-pinnate ; rachis (narrow) filiform ; pinnae opposite, slender,
filiform, setaceous, incurved, or subfalcate, either acute or sub-obtuse. Ag. Sp. Alg. 1,
p. 436. KUtz. Sp. Alg. p. 496. Bory, Voy. Coq. tab. 22,/. 4. Corradoria plu-
maris, Trevis. in Linn. 22, p. 133. Fucus taxifolius, Turn. t. 54 (excl syn.) Fucus
plumaris, Forsk. (Tab. XXXVIII. C.)
Hab. Sandy shores, on the Florida Keys. Key West, W. H. H., Professor Tuomey,
Mr. Ashmead, (v. v.)
Surculi prostrate, rooting from the under surface, a line or more in diameter, branched,
glabrous, glossy, collapsing, and becoming longitudinally furrowed when dry. Fronds
numerous, rising from the upper side of the surculi, erect, simple or with one or two
D
18 SIPHONACE^.
branches, scarcely stipitate or subsessile, linear (in outline), 2-6 inches long, less than
half an inch wide, pectinato-pinnate from a short distance above the base to the extremity.
Rachis filiform, scarcely thicker than hog's bristle, closely set with pinnae. Pinnce
opposite, sometimes a little obliquely inserted, setaceous, 2-3 lines long, rarely straight,
generally more or less incurved or falcate, their apices sometimes very acute, ending in
a sharp mucro, sometimes bluntish. Substance when dry horny and semitranslucent.
Colour a deep and rather dark green, the tips of the pinnae often yellowish or orange.
A native of the tropics generally, both of the eastern and western hemisphere ; occa-
sionally straggling into the warmer parts of the temperate zone. It varies much in the
diameter of the surculi, and somewhat in the length of the pinnae, but is easily recog-
nised by the closely pectinate fronds, which resemble small green feathers. The speci-
mens from Key West are peculiarly robust, and if compared with some slender varieties
from the Pacific, might pass for difierent. But at Vavau, in the Friendly Islands, where
this plant is common, I collected specimens both of the robust and slender form.
Plate XXXVIII. C. Fig. 1. Caclerpa plumaris, the natural size. Fig. 2, a pinna,
magnijled.
4. Caulerpa Ashmeadii ; surculi naked, glabrous ; fronds erect, shortly stipitate,
distichously pectinato-pinnate ; rachis subcompressed ; pinnae opposite (or suboblique),
erecto-patent, straight, linear, somewhat incrassated at the very obtuse extremity.
(Tab. XXXVIII. A.)
Hab. Key West, rare. W. H. H., Samuel Ashmead, Esq. (v. v.)
Surcidi prostrate, distantly rooting, one or two lines in diameter, glabrous and
glossy, collapsing, and mostly channelled when dry. Fronds scattered, rising from the
upper side of the surculi, erect, each furnished with a stipes from half an inch to upwards
of an inch in length, and closely pectinato-pinnate throughout. Each frond, pinnae
included, is about an inch in breadth, and from four to six inches in length. The
pinnce are half a line in diameter, three-fourths of an inch long, terete, and nearly linear,
but more or less thickened towards the extremity, which is very obtuse, without trace
of mucro or acumination. The substance when dry is homy and semi-transparent.
The colour, when recent, is grass green, but in drying it turns to olive.
The roots, Mr. Ashmead remarks, penetrate so deeply, and fix themselves so firmly
in the hard sand, that it is with difiiculty obtained, except in fragments. I regard the
present as a distinctly marked new species, and have much pleasure in inscribing it to Mr.
Samuel Ashmead of Philadelphia, a gentleman who has already made some interesting
discoveries among the Algae at Key West, and from whom many more may be expected.
It is a much larger and stronger growing plant than C. plumaris, and remarkable for
the very obtuse and almost club-shaped ends of the nearly straight pinnae.
Plate XXXVIII. A. Fig. 1, Caulerpa Ashmeadii, the natural size. Fig 2, a pinna,
magnijied.
SIPHONACE^. 19
Sect. 3. Ciiauvinia, Bory ; Fronds terete, simple or branclied, set with tri-multifa-
rious, leaflike, saccate, or thornlike ramuli (ramenta).
5. Caulebpa clavifera, Ag. ; surculi naked, glabrous, robust ; fronds erect, simple,
short or elongate, more or less densely set on all sides with scattered, clubshaped,
pyriform, or nearly topshaped ramenta. Ag. Syst. 1. p. 437. Chauvinia clavifera,
Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 498. Ahnfeldtia racemosa, A. Lamourouxii, and A. uvifera,
Trevis. I. c. pp, 141-142. Fucus clavifer, Turn. Hist. t. bl. F. Lamourouxii, Turn.
t. 229. F. uvifer. Turn. t. 230.
Hab. Sand covered rocks, about low- water mark, and at a greater depth. Key West
and Sand Key, W. H. II., Professor Tuomey ; Conch Key and Key Biscayne, Professor
Tuomey (v. v.)
Surculi robust, glabrous, glossy, one or two lines in diameter, spreading in dense
mats, copiously supplied on the under surface with dense, excessively divided, fibrous,
and deeply penetrating roots. Fronds erect, crowded, varying very much in length,
according to the depth of water at which the plant grows, and from other circumstances
affecting its luxuriance. Sometimes the erect portion of the frond is scarcely an inch
in length, sometimes it is six, eight, or even ten inches long. It varies also in diameter
from half a line to a line or more, and is more or less densely set on all sides with
scattered, incrassated, very obtuse saccate ramenta. In the variety called Lamourouxii
these ramenta are inserted in a distant spiral so as to look almost distichous ; in other
varieties, and especially in that called uvifer, they are densely crowded and inbricated,
like grapes in a cluster. Numerous intermediate forms connect these extreme ones.
The shape of the ramenta is also very variable. When young, they are simply clavate;
but with advancing age they become more and more swollen at the ends, and at length
are pear-shaped, or, in some stunted specimens, top-shaped. Stunted specimens some-
what resemble C. sedoides, and have been mistaken for that species, which, however, dif-
fers in several respects.
This plant is common to the tropics of both hemispheres, and is particularly abun-
dant on the coral reefs of the Pacific, where it puts on many different forms, and varies
much in luxuriance. It is one of the species eaten as a salad by the natives, and some
of the European residents, of the Friendly and Feejee Islands, who call it Limu
(Lee-moo). I cannot consent to separate specifically the forms figured by Turner, and
above indicated as varieties. I fear also that C. oUgophylla, Mont., if I rightly under-
stand that species, must be regarded as an extreme form, nearly destitute of ramenta.
I gathered what I take to be Montague's plant at Vavau, in the Friendly Islands, where
its peculiarities seemed to arise from the circumstances of its habitat, which was in a
very rapid tide-stream between two islets.
6. Caulerpa Lycopodium ; surculi and stipites of the fronds tomentose with brand-
D 2
20 SIPHONACE^.
ing hairs ; fronds erect, stipitate, scattered, simple or slightly branched, densely set on
all sides with imbricated, erect, setaceous, acute, or mucronulate ramenta. (Tab.
XXX VIL B.)
Hah. On sand-covered rocks at Key West, abundant, W.H.H. (v.v.)
Surculi prostrate, widely creeping and rooting from the lower side, everywhere densely
clothed with woolly, branching hairs, which are slightly viscid and collect par
tides of sand ; the whole mass of surculi forming a dense mat. Fronds rather distantly
scattered, erect, stipitate. Stipes 1-2 inches long, filiform, tomentose, the hairs branching.
Frond simple, or rarely once-forked, two to four or six inches long, very densely beset
on all sides with slender, setaceous, erect, incurved, imbricated, acute, or mucronulate
simple ramenta, which are two or three lines long, and nearly of capillary diameter.
Substance somewhat horny when dry. Colour, a deep and rather a dull green, paler
in the surculi and stipites.
I had at first taken this plant for Caiderpa Selago, but Turner expressly says of that
species that the creeping stems or surculi are " smooth, shrinking, and wrinkled when
dry ;" whereas in our Key West plant they are everywhere densely clothed with
branching, woolly hairs. His figure (Hist. Fuc. t. 55) also represents the fronds as
sessile, or ramuliferous to the very base. With no other species can the present be
confounded. C. Selago is a native of the Red Sea. Two Australian species, C. Brownii
and C. furcifolia, have been sometimes confounded with it, but in both of these the
surculi are clothed with ramuli resembling those of the erect branches.
Plate XXXVII. B. Figl. CAVLVSiVX Lgcopodium, the natural size. i^z^. 2, whorled
ramenta in situ. Fig. 3, a ramentum, detached. Fig. 4, portion of the woolly
stipes. Fig. 5, branching hairs from the same. The latter figures more or less magnified.
7. Cadlerpa ericifolia, Ag. ; surculi robust, naked and glabrous ; frond shortly
stipitate, irregularly much branched ; branches scattered, repeatedly divided, clothed
on all sides with short, ellipsoidal, succulent, mucronulate, erecto-patent ramenta, set in
3, 4, or 5 ranks. Ag. Sp. Alg. 1, p. 442. Chauvinia ericifolia, Kiltz. Sp. Alg. p. 497.
Trevis. I. c. p. 137. Fucus ericifoUus, Turn. Hist. t. 56. (Tab. XXXIX. A).
Hab. Key West, W. H. H. Conch Key, Prof. Tuomey. (v. v.)
Surculi prostrate, robust, as thick as crow quill or thicker, branched, extensively
creeping, glabrous, glossy, shrinking and deeply channelled longitudinally when dry,
rooting from the under surface ; the roots distant and very long, branched and fibril-
liferous. Fronds erect, scattered, with short, simple or forked stipites, much and
irregularly branched ; branches scattered, once, twice, or thrice compounded, very erect,
as are also all their lesser divisions, all the angles being close and acute ; ramenta
densely set, tri-, quadri-, or quinquefarious, short, somewhat intricated, the lowermost
SIPHONACE^. 21
reduced to mamillseform tubercles, the upper more perfectly formed, ellipsoidal, saclike,
and mucronulate. The branch, including its ramenta, is not more than a line in
diameter. The substance is rather rigid, and is horny when dry. The colour is dull
green, inclining to olivaceous.
I have much doubt whether this plant, which was originally described and figured by
Turner, be permanently distinct from the following, of which it has very much the habit,
but from which it differs, at least in typical specimens, by the more numerous rows of
the ramenta and their more ellipsoidal shape. Specimens however vary in both these
respects, and I could be well content to unite both forms under one specific name.
Plate XXXIX. A. Fig. 1. Caulerpa ericifolia, the natural size. Fig. 2, small
fragment of a branch with its ramenta. Fig. 3, a ramentum ; the latter figures
magnijied.
8. Caulerpa cupressoides, Ag. ; surculi robust, naked and glabrous ; frond shortly
stipitate, irregularly much branched ; branches scattered, once or twice compounded,
set with short, conoidal, mucronate, sub-bifarious or bifarious ramenta. Ag. Sp. Alg. 1,
p. 441. Chauvinia cupressoides, Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 497- Trevis. I. c. p. 137- Fiicus
cupressoides, Esper. t. 161. Turn. Hist. t. 195. (Tab. XXXIX. B.)
Hab. Key West, with the preceding. Prof. Tuomey. (v. v.)
Except in the less imbricated, di-tristichous, and shorter ramenta, this species does not
differ from C. ericifolia. But these characters are variable. If the two species be united,
the name cupressoides, as the older, must be preserved. Both forms are natives of
the West Indies, and of the Pacific Ocean. C. ericifolia was first brought from
Bermuda ; and C. cupressoides from St. Croix.
Plate XXXIX. B., Fig. 1. Caulerpa cupressoides, the natural size. Fig. 2, apex
of a branch with tristichous ramenta. Fig. 3, portion of another branch with disti-
chous ramenta. Fig. 4, a ramentum ; the latter figures magnified.
9. Caulerpa paspaloides, Bory. ; surculi robust, naked and glabrous ; fronds with a
long naked stipes, flabellately branched, the branches once or twice forked, or simple,
fastigiate, densely beset in 3 or 4 ranks, with plumose, patent or recurved ramenta ;
ramenta sub-bipinnate, pinnae opposite turned to one side, subulate or mucronulate,
mostly pectinated with similar mucronulate pinnules on their inferior sides. Chauvinia
paspaloides, Bory, Coq. p. 205, tah. 23, fig. 1. Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 500. Trevis.
in Lin. 22, p. 13?. Caulerpa Wurdemanni, Harv. MS. — Var. yS; ramenta simply
pinnate, the pinnae very long and straight, destitute of pinnules.
Hab. Key West, abundantly. Dr. Wurdemann, W. H. H., Prof. Tuomey, Mr.
22 SIPHONACE^.
Ashmead. Conch Key and Key Biscayne, Prof. Tuomey. — Var. /3 cast ashore at
Key West. W. H. H. (v. v.)
Surculi prostrate, robust, sometimes nearly as thick as a goose's-quill, sometimes as
a crow-quill, glabrous, glossy, shrinking much in drying and becoming longitudinally
furrowed, vaguely branched, rooting at intervals of one or two inches ; the root long,
branched, and fibrilliferous. Fronds rising from the upper surface of the surculi
scattered, on long, glabrous, naked stipites, flabelliform in outline, pedate or digitate,
the branches spreading, simple or forked, fastigiate, densely set throughout with
imbricated, four or five-ranked ramenta. Rammta one to four lines long, varying
much in length and somewhat in ramulification on different specimens. Normally they
are patent or recurved and sub-bipinnate, or pinnate with pectiniform pinnules ; that
is, the ramentum is oppositely pinnate, the pinna? closely set, straight, subulate, or
filiform, mucronulate, and furnished along one (the lower) side with unilateral ramuli
of similar form. In different specimens the number and development of the processes
of the pinnje vary ; sometimes they are 5 or 6, and of considerable length ; some-
times but 2 or 3, and these very short. In var. y8 they are absent altogether, and
tlie ramenta of much greater length than is usual in var. « ; but I have seen speci-
mens so completely intermediate that I dare not make two species of these seemingly
different forms, particularly as both occur in the same locality. The normal form
has been admirably figured by Bory in the plate above quoted. I fear that C. phlce- •
aides of that author can only be regarded as a variety of the present species.
11. HALIMEDA. Lamour.
Boot fibrous, much branched. Frond erect, dendroid, branching, articulato-con-
stricted, with flattened internodes (or articulations), coated with a smooth calcareous
crust, and composed internally of a plexus of longitudinal, sub-parallel, unicellular,
branching filaments. (These filaments, which constitute the medullary stratum of the
compound frond, are constricted at intervals, and at each constriction emit a pair of
opposite, horizontal, di-trichotomous, corymbose ramelli, whose apices cohere together
into a false epidermis or periphery.)
The species comprised in this genus were placed by Ellis and Linngeus in the genus
Corallina, where they remained till 1812, when Lamouroux very properly separated
them to form the present group. The resemblance to Corallina is merely external.
Both genera have jointed fronds, encrusted with calcareous matter, but here the resem-
blance ceases. The structure, colour, substance and fructification, which determine
affinities, are widely different in Corallina from what they arc in Halimeda. In this
SIPHONACE^. 23
latter genus, after the lime has been removed by acid, there remains a plexus of
unicellular, branching filaments, filled wtth green endochrome, and essentially of the
same structure and nature as those of Codium. In C. Opuntia these filaments are
easily extracted, and may readily be pulled asunder ; in C. Tuna they adhere more
closely and require to be carefully manipulated. The Halimedce, like the Caulerpce,
are confined to the warmer portions of the globe, and are particularly abundant on
coral reefs, in both hemispheres. As many as thirteen species are described by authors,
but several appear to have been founded on very insufiicient data ; and probably they
might be reduced by one-half. C. Opuntia is the most widely dispersed, being found
abundantly in the tropical Atlantic and Pacific, and in the Mediterranean and Red
Seas. C. incrassata and C. Tuna occur in the Pacific as well as in the Atlantic, but
are less universally dispersed than C. Opuntia. When seen in herbaria the species are
frequently bleached white, but all are of a bright grass-green when growing. They
are furnished with deeply descending, fibrous, much branched roots, whose capillary
rootlets firmly grasp particles of sand, and with them form a solid ball, not easily
broken asunder.
1. Halisieda Opuntia, Lamour. ; frond very much branched, diffuse ; articulations
reniform, flat, obscurely lobed or repando-crenate along the upper margin. Lamour.
Exp.Meth.,p.21,t.20,fig.Q. JDne. Cor. p. 90. Kiltz. Phyc. Gen. t. 48, Jig. 2.
Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 504. Corallina Opuntia, Ellis and Sol. p. 110, t. 20, Jig. b. Ellis,
Cor. t. 25, a. (Tab. XL. B.)
Hab. On rocks and in tide-pools, near high water mark, on the Florida Keys.
Key West, W. H. H., ProJ. Tuomey. (v. v.)
Root deeply descending, fibrous, densely compacted into a fusiform mass, 1-2 inches
long. Stems very numerous from the crown of the root, weak, but supporting each
other by their proximity, and thus forming very dense tufts, much and irregularly
branched ; the branches spreading. Articulations, qxcq^Io^iq or two of the basal ones,
which are oblong or cylindrical, broadly reni-form, the more normal ones twice as
broad as their length, from | to more than \ inch across, flat, rather thin, but much
incrusted with calcareous matter, with a more or less evident or obsolete longitudinal
ridge through the middle ; the superior margin somewhat repando-crenate or lobed.
After the calcareous matter of the frond has been removed by acid, a spongy vegetable
structure remains, made up of a plexus of slender, longitudinal, unicellular filaments,
constricted at intervals, and at the constrictions emitting a pair of opposite, decom-
pound, dichotomous, corymboso-fastigiate, horizontal ramelli, whose apices cohere
together, and form a thin epidermal or peripheric stratum of cells, over the surface of
the frond. When the surface is viewed vertically, the cohering tips of the ramelli
appear like the areoli of a continuous membrane. The substance of the filaments is
tough, and they are filled with green matter. No fructification has been observed.
24 siphonacej:.
Plate XL. B. Fig. 1. ITalimeda Opuntia, the natural size. Fig. 2, portion of the
branching, unicellular filaments of which the frond is composed ; magnified.
2. Halimeda incrassata, Lamour. ; fronds solitary, erect, fruticose, somewhat flabelli-
form, much branched ; articulations thickened, the lowermost compresso-terete, qua-
drate ; the middle cuneate ; the upper (mostly) compressed, obscurely repando-crenate.
Lam. Exp. Meth. p. 25. Lam. Polyp, p. ^^1 . Dm. Cor. p. 91. KUtz. Sp. Alg.
p. 504. Corallina incrassata, Ell. and Sol. p. Ill, t. 20, d. — Var. /3, monilis ; all the
upper branches moniliform, composed of small, roundish, beadlike articulations. H.
monilis^ Lx. Dne.,Kiitz.,&c. Corallina monilis. Ell. and Sol. p. 1\0, t. 20, Fig. C.
Hab. Florida Keys. Key "West, W. H. H. (chiefly var. ^.). (v. v.)
Root a globose or oblong, bulblike, fibrous mass. Stems generally single, with a
short, undivided, compressed or subterete bole (or stipe) composed of two or more
incrassated and confluent articulations ; then expanding and divided into numerous
branches, which are repeatedly di-, tri-, or polychotomous at short intervals, spreading
generally in one place and thus forming a flabelliform frond. In the lower part of the
frond the articulations are very thick and almost confluent, a slender line merely defin-
ing the limits between each ; they are oblong or quadrate, and more or less cylindrical.
The middle articulations are more cuneate and less confluent ; and the upper ones, in
typical specimens, are still flatter and somewhat crenato-lobate. In the variety most
common at Key West, and which constitutes the H. monilis of authors, the upper
branches are slender and moniliform, composed of small, globose, or truncate, thick
articulations of variable size, and somewhat varying in form, the terminal ones on a
branch being frequently cuneate. The structure of the frond is similar to that of H.
Opuntia.
Both varieties, as indicated above, are excellently figured by Ellis and Solander, and
by tKem and succeeding authors are kept as distinct species. Lamouroux indeed
observes {Pol. flex. p. 307) that the characters attributed to each are frequently con-
founded on the same specimen. This I find to be the case in specimens collected at
Key West, and I have, therefore, united the two forms under one specific name.
3. Halimeda tridens, Lamour. ; frond solitary, erect, flabellately branched ; articu-
lations compressed, the lower ones quadrate or oblong ; the middle cuneate ; the upper
three lobed or tri-crenate. Lam. Exp. Meth. p. 27. Pol. Flex. p. 308. Dne. Cor.
p. 91. KUtz. Sp. Alg. p. 505. Corallina tridens, Ell. and Sol. p. 109- Tab- 20,
fig. a. (Tab. XLIV. C.)
Hab. Key West, Prof. Tuomey. (v. s.)
SIPHONACEtE. 25
Fronds solitary, erect, with a cuneiform stipes composed of several confluent articu-
lations and dividing at the summit into numerous branches, which soon again subdivide
in a di-poly-chotomous manner, all the branches lying in one plane, so as to form a
flabelliform frond. The articulations are all compressed, the middle ones more or less
cuneate ; the upper iisually tridentate or three-fingered, and frequently bearing articu-
lations from the summit of each lobe. Colour rather a bright green. Calcareous
incrustation thin.
This is nearly related to H. incrassata, and perhaps only a variety. But the crust
is not so dense, and the distinctly three-lobed upper articulations are characteristic.
Ellis's figure correctly represents a small branch.
Plate XLIV. C. Halimeda tridens ; the natural size.
4. Halimeda tuna, Lamour. ; frond much branched, diiFuse, di-trichotomous ; articu-
lations flat, thin, very broad, roundish or somewhat reniform, mostly entire ; the middle
ones sometimes cuneate. Lamour. Pol. Flex. p. 309, t. W.fig. 8. Dne. Cor. p. 91.
Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 504. Corallina Tuna., Ell. and Sol. tab. 20, Jig. e. Hal. platy-
disca, Dne. ? p. 90. (Tab. XL. A.)
Hab. Key West, W. H. H. Key Biscay ne. Prof. Tuomey. (v. v.)
Root deeply descending. Stipes scarcely any, consisting of a single, cuneate or
flabelliform articulation, which is sometimes more than an inch across, from the upper
margin of which spring numerous other articulations, forming the bases of so many
irregularly dichotomous branches. The articulations vary much in form and size.
Their usual shape is roundish or sub-reniform, and they are from half to | inch broad,
quite flat, smooth, and thinner than in most species. They are joined together by very
much constricted nodes, and are usually broader than their length. In some of my
specimens, however, some of the medial articulations are narrow-cuneate or almost
clavate. There is less incrustation in this species than in most ; the colour is a bright
green, and the substance somewhat flexible.
The original H. Tuna is a native of the Mediterranean ; and possibly the plant now
described may be referable to H. platydisca, Dne., but some of my Key West specimens
so closely resemble what I have received from the Mediterranean, that, habitat apart, I
cannot find a character to distinguish them. Others are certainly of larger size, witli
more discoid articulations. If, however, every slight variation in form and size is to
be made the foundation of a new species, and dignified with a special description and
name, the number of species to be established would only be limited by the num-
ber of specimens examined ; for scarcely two are to be found identical at all points.
Plate XL. A. Halimeda Tuna, the natural size.
26 SIPHONACEiE.
III. UDOTEA. Lamour.
Root fibrous, much branched. Frond erect, stipitate, expanded, flabelliform, more
or less incrusted with calcareous matter, concentrically zoned, composed internally of a
plexus of longitudinal, subparallel, unicellular, branching filaments. Sporangia "lateral,
globose." (Kiitz.).
The genus Udotea is intermediate between Halimeda and Codium,, differing from
the former in habit and from the latter in having the filiform cells of which it is com-
posed incrusted with carbonate of lime. The amount of incrustation varies much in
different species. In U. flabellata, which very closely agrees in structure with Hali-
meda, the calcareous matter forms a solid, smooth, and somewhat polished crust,
completely concealing the filaments of which the frond is constructed ; in U. conglu-
tinata the lime forms a thin coat round each individual filament, but does not conceal
the filamentous structure of the frond ; and in U. Desfontanesii there is scarcely any
calcareous deposit, and except in habit the plant is almost a Codium, in which genus
it was placed by Agardh. Ten species of Udotea are known, all of them natives of
the warmer parts of the sea. Our U. flahellata is found in the Indian Ocean, and I
have received U. conglutinata from Port Natal, S. Africa.
1. Udotea flahellata, Lamour. ; stipes simple, short, terete or sub-compressed,
expanding into a broadly flabelliform, simple or lobed, wavy, concentrically zoned^
smooth frond ; the margin either quite entire, undulato-repand, crenate, or deeply
lobulate, sometimes proliferous ; surface thickly incrusted ; concentric zones evident,
closely set or sub-distant. Dne. Cor. p. 93. Lamour. Pol. Flex. p. 311. Kiitz. Sp.
Alg. p. 502. Corallina flahellata, Ell. and Sol. Cor. p. 124. tah.'24: (excellent!).
Hab. Key West, W. H. H. Abundant between Key West and Cape Florida, Prof.
Tuomey. (v. v.)
Root a fusiform mass of intricately interwoven fibres, one to two inches long. Stipes
half an inch to an inch long, terete, a quarter-inch or more in diameter, simple, erect^
terminating in the broadly cuneate or reniform base of the frond. Frond sometimes
six inches across, but our specimens are mostly smaller, usually broader than its length,
more or less cuneate at base, the lateral margins prolonged downwards in old fronds,
which, therefore, are somewhat reniform ; flabellate, either quite entire with a flat
margin, or more frequently undulate, lobed at the margin or deeply divided (as Ellis's
figure represents) into numerous lacinias, which take the form of the primary frond, and
imbricate each other at the edges. The surface is thickly coated with a calcareous
crust, and quite smooth ; it is marked at short, but very uncertain intervals, with
concentric lines or furrows, much more obvious in some specimens than in others, but
always to be found. The substance is as thick as calfskin and leathery to the touch.
SIPHONACE^. 27
The structure, after removal of the lime, is seen to consist of closely packed, parallel,
longitudinal, unicellular filaments, branching and interlaced together, and emitting
toward the surface, or periphery, short, horizontal, rootlike, fastigiate, branching pro-
cesses, of whose cohering apices the surface of the frond is composed. Colour, a pale
grass green, bleaching to a dirty white.
2. Udotea conglutinata, Lamour. ; stipes short, simple, smooth, expanding into a
broadly flabelliform, simple or lobed, flat, scarcely incrusted, strigose frond, composed
of longitudinal, parallel, agglutinated, dichotomous filaments, constricted at the furca-
tions. Lamour. Pol. Flex. p. 312. Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 502. Corallina conglutinata,
EU. and Sol. p. 125, t. 25, fig. 7. Udotea Palmetta ? Dne. p. 93. (Tab. XL. C.)
Hab. Key West, W. H. H. (v. v.)
Root deeply descending, long and fibrous. Stipe terete or compressed, about half-
an-inch to f inch long. Frond flabelliform, 1-2 inches broad, flat, cuneate or cordate
at the base, either entire or somewhat lobed, or irregularly torn, but slightly incrusted
with lime ; the filaments of which it is composed being everywhere visible, and giving
to the surface a strigose, fibrous appearance. These filaments are longitudinal, parallel,
conglutinated together, but readily separable when the lime has been removed by acid.
They are dichotomous, constricted at the forkings almost as if jointed, very slender,
and destitute of lateral horizontal annuli, or of rooting processes. They more resemble
the threads of a Codium than of a Udotea, and may almost be compared to those of a
Penicillus. '
I have not seen any authentically named specimen of Solander and Ellis's plant, but
have little or no doubt of the correctness of my reference. The strigose or filamentous
surface at once distinguishes our plant from C. fiabellata ; and Solander truly observes,
" We can plainly distinguish all the dichotomous branches" (filaments) " of this Coral-
line on its surface, which are each of them separately covered with a thin calcareous
substance full of pores ; these, by growing so close to one another, become glued or
united together by their covering."
Plate XL. C. Figs. 1, 2, and 3. Udotea conglutinata, difierent varieties, the
natural size. Fig. 4. Portions of the branching, unicellular, constricted filaments of
which the frond is composed ; magnified. Fig. 5. Small portions of the same, more
highly magnified.
28 SIPHONACE^.
IV. CODIUM. StoAihh.
Frond sponge-like (globular, cylindrical or flat ; simple or branched) composed of a
plexus of unicellular, branching filaments, filled with green semifluid endochrome.
Sporangia lateral, on the ramuli of the filaments (forming the surface of the frond),
and containing innumerable zoospores.
The frond in this genus, though it assumes a well-defined shape, characteristic of the
particular species, does not form a solid, compact body as in Udotea, but consists
altogether of innumerable slender, unicellular, branching filaments, inextricably inter-
laced or woven together. In the centre of the filamentous mass these filaments are
threadlike, branching at longish intervals, curled or sinuous, filled with slimy fluid,
and only partially supplied with green colouring matter. In the elongated species, as
in C. tommtosum, these axial filaments take a longitudinal direction ; in the globose
ones they radiate from a central point, as in the singular C. mammillosum of Austra-
lia; and in the incrusting species, like C. adhcerens, they spread horizontally over the
surface of the rock on which the plant grows. In all cases they throw out more or
less club-shaped ramuli, which spread in a direction vertical with the surface of the
frond, and their apices lying close together, but not cohering, constitute the periphery.
There is no calcareous incrustation as in Udotea, and no false epidermis as in ffali-
meda ; but with these exceptions there is much similarity in structure. The external
habit is remarkably varied. In C. tomentosum, the type of the genus, and the most
widely dispersed species, the frond is somewhat cylindrical, and dichotomously branched ;
in a form (or species ?) called C. elongatum a similarly branching frond is extrava-
gantly dilated and flattened especially at the axils ; in C. laminarioides a stipi-
tate frond suddenly expands into a flat lamina a foot or two across, resembling nothing
so much as a piece of green friese-cloth ; in C. amphibium a number of minute papil-
liform branches rise from a flat adherent surface ; and in C. adhcerens there is a flat,
clothlike crust, destitute of branches, and indefinitely covering rocks and woodwork.
In C. bursa the frond is sessile, gradually becoming globose and at length hollow ; and
lastly, in C. mammillosum the frond is either exactly spherical or egg-shaped, composed
of filaments radiating from a central point, and being, so far as known, destitute of
any root-like attachment.
The fructification in Codium consists of an oblong, ovate sporangium, formed of a
single cell, separated from the ramulus near the base of which it is developed, by a
diaphragm, and containing, at first, a dense, dark-green endochrome, and finally a
multitude of zoospores. These latter are ovate, of a deep green colour, with a minute
" rostrum" at one end, which carries a pair of cilia, that serve as organs of locomo-
tion till the spore becomes fixed and germinates. This fruit is exquisitely figured by
Thuret, in his memoirs on the Zoospores of Algae, in An. Sc. Nat. 3rd Series, Bat.
vol. 14, tab. 23, where a full account of the evolution is given.
SIPHONACE^. 29
] . CoDiuM tomentosum, Stack. ; frond linear, dichotomous, cylindrical or compressed.
Ag. Sp. Alg. \.p. 542. Wyatt, Alg. Damn. No. 35. Kutz. Sp. Alg.p. 500. Harv.
Phyc. Brit. t. 93. Fucus tomentosus, E. Bot ^.712. Turn. Hist. t. 135.
Hab. Apalachicola, Captain Pike. Manatee River, Mr. Ashmead. Key "West,
W. H. H. Sitcha, Ruprecht. California, Dr. Coulter. (Not received from the east
coast), (v.v.)
Fronds rising from an expanded, velvetty incrustation, solitary, or gregarious, from
three inches to one or two feet in length, varying much in diameter, erect, dichotomous,
with or without lateral accessory branches. Branches cylindrical or compressed, ob-
tuse, clothed with hyaline, spreading, soft, byssoid hairs, which, when the plant is ex-
panded in water, stand out vertically on all sides, and give to the branches the tomentose
character commemorated in the trivial name. The axis is composed of innumerable,
interwoven, irregularly branched, slender filaments, from whose sides issue radiating,
horizontal, clubshaped ramuli, whose apices, closely placed, but not cohering, form
the surface of the spongy frond. To the sides of these ramuli are attached the spo-
rangia, which are oval or ovato-lanceolate, and subsessile.
It is a singular fact, (if it be really a fact) that this well-known and common species,
which is found in every latitude from the Equator to the colder parts of the temperate
zone, and nearly to the polar basin, is not a native of the Eastern coast of North Ame-
rica. It has not been sent to me by any of my correspondents from any part of the
Atlantic coast, except from Florida, at the mouth of the Mexican Gulf. There I have
myself gathered it. On the west coast it appears to be abundant, and extends as far
north as Sitcha. There is nothing to distinguish Californian specimens from those found
in Europe, in Ceylon, in Australia, at the Cape of Good Hope, or at Cape Horn, at all
which places it is common.
V. CHLORODESMIS. Bail, and Harv.
Frond pencil-form, stipitate or sub-sessile, flaccid, without calcareous incrustation,
wholly composed of cylindrical, dichotomous, unicellular filaments filled with dense,
vivid-green endochrome. Stipes, when present, spongy, formed of interwoven
threads.
The genus Chlorodesmis was founded by the late lamented Professor Bailey and my-
self on an alga brought by Captain Wilkes from the Feejee Islands, and which I have
since collected abundantly on all the coral reefs which I had the opportunity of visiting
in the tropical Pacific, where it forms a very striking object on the extreme outer edge
of the reef. This original species — C. comosa, Bail, and Harv. — has a distinct, and
30 SIPHONACE^.
often elongate, spongy stipes, and a brushlike habit, not unlike that of a Penicillus ;
and few algologists will question its claim to generic distinction. I am not quite sure
that I do well in associating the following species in the same genus ; but I know not
where else to place it. unless indeed in Vaucheria. The specimens, however, appear to
be scarcely mature ; there is a resemblance in the colour and substance, and the habitat
is not dissimilar ; and I am willing to think that more advanced specimens might
exhibit more of the spongy stipe which forms the most tangible character of this genus.
The fruit has not been observed.
1 . Chlorodesmis ? V auchericeformis ; stipes obsolete ; fronds subsessile, comoso
penicillate, fastigiate, dark-green, composed of innumerable, slender, dichotomous, ex-
ceedingly lubricous and subgelatinous, unicellular, cylindrical filaments ; apices equal,
level-topped, obtuse. (Tab. XL. C.)
Hab. On stones, at Brown's Wharf, Key West, W.H.H. (v. v.)
Stipes obsolete, consisting in a bulbous mass of interlaced, branching fibres, which
throw up the erect and free filaments of which the frond is composed. These filaments
form dense pencil-like tufts, about an inch high, and perfectly fastigiate. They are
exceedingly slender, cylindrical, of equal diameter throughout, dichotomous, obtuse,
gelatinoso-membranaceous, soft, and very lubricous, and filled with a dense, deep-green
endochrome. Each filament is strictly unicellular, without articulation or constriction.
Plate XL. C. Fig. 1. Chlorodesmis Vaucheiiceformis ; the natural size. Fig. 2.
Portion of one of the branching unicellular filaments. Fig. 3 and 4, small portions of
the same ; the latter figures magnijied.
VL VAUCHERIA. D.C.
Fronds densely csespitose, and somewhat interwoven ; each consisting of a single,
irregularly branched, unicellular cylindrical filament. Cell-wall very thin and delicate.
Endochrome granular. Sporangia lateral, on the sides of the branches. Antheridia
cylindrical, hooked, accompanying the sporangia.
The greater number of species of this genus occur in freshwater ponds, ditches, and
streams, and probably several may yet be found in North America. I have received
from Mr. H. W. Ravenel of South Carolina a specimen of a Vaucheria apparently
allied to V. dichotoma, but not in a state to be recognised. It was found floating in
limestone waters. Dried specimens of this genus are rarely of any use, as the specific
character is generally lost in drying.
SIPHONACE.E. 31
VII. BKYOPSIS. Lamour.
Root fibrous. Fronds tufted, each consisting of a single, erect, branching, unicel-
lular, cylindrical filament ; branches and ramuli either imbricated or pinnate. Cell-
vmU firmly membranaceous, glistening. Endochrome granular and viscid, at length
converted into zoospores, which escape through apertures formed in the cell-wall.
This genus consists of several littoral Algte of small size, but among the most ele-
gant of marine plants. They occur in tufts, seldom more than two to four inches in
height, and grow either on the rocky margins of clear tide-pools, or epiphytically on
other Algae. The frond is affixed to the rock by a slightly developed fibrous radicle,
or simply by a disc, and consists of a single cylindrical elongated branching cell, filled
with dense, starchy endochrome of a deep green colour, and destitute of any septum or
interruption of the cavity throughout the whole length of the tube. The ramification
is very generally on a pinnate type ; a primary undivided filament emits lateral virgate
branches, also quite simple, and these are generally naked in the lower half of their
length, and furnished with lateral, distichous or imbricated ramuli in the upper half.
In some species, as in B. Balbisiana, there are either no ramuli or very few ; in others,
as in B. myura, the ramuli are exceedingly numerous and densely set. Very many
species have been named and described, with more or less care, by authors ; but many
rest on very uncertain characters, and I fear that several must be regarded as mere
varieties of B. plumosa, the original and most widely dispersed species. All are
remarkable for a glassy lustre, when dry. They retain their colour, if carefully dried,
and adhere closely to paper.
1. Bryopsis plumosa, Lamour. ; frond setaceous, decompoundly much branched ; the
ultimate branches filiform, virgate, naked in their lower half, and. more or less plumoso-
pectinate above ; ramuli simple. Ag. Sp. Alg. 1. p. 448. Harv. Fhyc. Brit. tab. 3.
Kiitz. Syst. Alg. p. 493. Ulva plumosa, E. Bot. t. 2375. — Var. P. densa ; branches
excessively crowded, the ultimate divisions pinnate near the apex, the pinnai some-
times secund. — Var. 7 secunda ; tufts matted ; fronds irregularly much branched ;
branches flexuous, many of them naked, others set in the upper half with falcato-
reflexed, secund (occasionally bilateral) ramuli. (Tab. XLV. A.) Var. h ; ramulosa ;
branches nearly naked, with a few scattered, secund ramuli. Bryopsis ramulosa. Mont.
Hist. Cuba, p. 16. Tab. S.Jig. 2. (Tab. XLV. A.)
Hab. Between tide marks in rock pools. Various localities near New York, com-
mon. Charleston, South Carolina, and Key West. Vars. /9, 7, and B, intermixed with
the ordinary form at Key West and Sand Key, W.H H. (v. v.)
Root small, scutate, accompanied by lateral, entangled fibres, and sometimes matted.
32; SIPHONACE^.
Fronds 3-6 inches high, setaceous, much branched ; normally in a decompound pin-
nate manner, but very irregularly so. In what we may call typical or normal speci-
mens, the outline of the frond is somewhat pyramidal, the lowest branches being very
long and patent, the upper gradually shorter and more erect. In such specimens the
branches are sometimes simply, sometimes doubly pinnate ; in either case the lower
half of the branch or branchlet is bare, the upper plumose, with simple ramuli inserted
in nearly distichous order. To describe every variety of ramification different from
this, and commonly occurring in this species, would be an endless and useless task ;
and worse than useless to found new species on such variations. I have endeavoured
above to indicate the principal varieties which I have observed among American spe-
cimens. The var. 7 secunda looks very like a distinct species, and had I seen none
but carefully selected specimens, possibly I should have so regarded it ; but though
many specimens may be found strictly conforming to the character assigned, having
all their ramuli secund and recurved, others occur, growing intermixed with them,
in which the ordinary ramulification is followed. At Key West I collected some speci-
mens which I cannot distinguish from B. ramulosa, Mont., and which seem to pass
through var. 7 and other intermediate forms, into ordinary B. plumosa. Having re-
ceived from Dr. Montague himself an authenticated specimen of his plant, I can speak
with more confidence.
Bryopsis plumosa, under one or other of its many forms, is found in most parts of
the world, at least within the temperate and tropical zones. In Europe it occurs as
far north as the Faroe Islands (lat. Q5°). In the Southern Ocean it extends to Cape
Horn, and the Falkland Islands, and to New Zealand. The B. Rosce of the Southern
Hemisphere seems to be merely a luxuriant form, and not a distinct species.
Plate XLV. A. Fig. 1. Bryopsis jt)?i<mosa, var. 7 secunda ; the natural size. Fig.
2 and 3, secund and bilateral plumules from the same ; magnified. Fig. 4. B. plumosa-,
var. S ramulosa ; the natural size. Fig. 5, imperfectly pinnulate branch from the
same, magnified. Fig. 6, apex of a branchlet, more highly magnified.
2. Bryopsis hypnoides, Lamour. ; frond setaceous, decompoundly much branched >
branches spreading to all sides ; ultimate branches filiform, naked below, beset above
with scattered or crowded, irregularly inserted, very slender, byssoid, pinnated ramuli.
Grev. Alg. Brit. p. 180. Harv Phyc. Brit. tab. 119. Wyatt^Alg. Danm. No. 81.
Harv. Man. p. 146. (quere Lam. Jour. Bot. I8O9. p. 135 ?) B. cupressoides, Lam.
fide I. Ag.
Hab, Key West, W.H.H., Dr. Blodgett, Professor Tuomey. (v. v.)
Tufts dense, 4-6 inches high. Fronds setaceous, much branched, the branches issu-
ing from all sides of a common stem or central filament, long and virgate, either quite
simple, or bearing a second set of similar quadrifarious branches. These branches, as
in B. plumosa, though sometimes ramulose nearly to the base, are generally naked in
DASYCLADE^. 33
their lower half, and beset with ramuli only above. The ramuli are exceedingly slen-
der, many times more so than the part of the branch from which they spring, and are
generally furnished with opposite or scattered, slender pinnules. The colour is a pale
yellow green ; the substance exceedingly soft and tender.
The figure given in Phyc. Brit., taken from West of Ireland specimens, does not
very well represent the Key West plant, which, however, closely resembles specimens
from the South Coast of England and coast of Normandy, except that they are rather
more luxuriant. This plant is generally of a much paler colour and still softer sub-
stance than B. plumosa, and is distinguished from the varieties of that plant by its
ramuli being compound (pinnate), as well as greatly more slender than those of
B. plumosa.
Order II.— DASYCLADE^.
DasycladecB and Polyphysece, Kiitz. Phyc. Gen. p. 311-312. Valoniece, in part.
Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 507- Part of Siphonece, Auct. alior.
Diagnosis. Green, marine Alg^e, naked, or coated with carbonate of lime, having
a unicellular simple or branched axis, which is whorled, either throughout its whole
length, or near the summit, with articulated ramelli. Spores spherical, developed in
proper fruit-cells.
Natural Character. Root formed of tubular, elongated, branching fibres more or
less matted together. Frond either simple or branched, essentially consisting of an axis
and of ramelli. The axis is in all cases a continuous tube, without articulation or sep-
tum, running throughout the frond, containing endochrome in a young stage, but very
frequently found empty in the mature plant ; and is apparently formed by the evolution
of a single cell. Its walls are thick, tough, and readily seen, when a cross section is
examined under the microscope, to be composed of successive concentric layers of cellu-
lose. At regular intervals, either throughout the whole length of the axis, or in its
upper half only, the tube is pierced by a circle of holes, and from these holes there issue
whorled, articulated, confervoid ramelli, which appear to discharge the functions of leaves,
and are sometimes deciduous, sometimes persistent. In the less complex genera, Poly-
physa and Acetabularia, the ramelli are extremely delicate and fugacious, and are found
only on young plants, or during the process of evolution ; their position being indi-
cated on plants from which they have fallen, by the circle of holes in which they had
been inserted. In Dasycladus the ramelli are permanent, and thickly clothe every
part of the stem, in whorls sometimes very closely placed, sometimes sub-distant ; but
there is no connection among the ramelli or between the whorls. In Neomeris the
structure of the stem and ramelli is very similar to that of Dasycladus^ with this dif-
ference, that the apices of the ramelli cohere to form an investing membrane or epidermis
F
34 DASTCLADE^.
which completely encases the frond and conceals its filamentous structure. In Cymopo-
lia, again, we have a still further advance in structure ; for, not to speak of its calcareous
shells, every node of which the branching frond is composed may be compared to the
whole frond of a Dasycladus or a Neomeris. Like them, it is a tubular axis whorled
with ramelli ; but these latter are so closely placed together that the whorled character
is not obvious, and the branch has the mammillated look of a Codium, if its calca-
reous shell be removed ; or of a piece of honeycomb, if viewed with the shell still
remaining.
The spores are of large size, and are always formed within proper fruit-cells or spo-
rangia, and, so far as I am aware, are destitute of vibratile cilia, and appear to be
formed on a much more perfect type than ordinary zoospores. They have a tough,
hyaline, membranous coat, and enclose a mass of dense, dark green or brown endo-
chrome. In Polyphysa and Acetabularia the sporangia spring directly from the axial
tube ; in Dasycladus^ Neomeris, and Cymopolia they are found on the ramelli, and
are either special cells, developed in the axils of the ordinary cells (as in Dasycladus),
or are formed by metamorphose of a division of the ramellus, as in Cymopolia.
All the plants of this order, with the exception of Dasycladus, secrete carbonate of
lime, but in very different proportions. In Polyphysa and Acetabularia the calcareous
matter exists as a thin varnish to the surface of the stem ; but in Cymopolia it forms
as complete a shelly envelope as it does in one of the calcareous polypes, and indeed a
dead frond in this genus might readily be mistaken for the husk of a zoophyte : its
honeycombed pores closely resembling polype-cells.
All the species are natives of the warmer parts of the sea. Dasycladus and Aceta-
bularia have representative species in the Mediterranean ; and the latter is found also
in the tropical Pacific. Neomeris, which may probably yet be detected on the Floridan
Keys, has species in the West Indies and Pacific Ocean. Cymopolia is found in the
Carribean Sea, and also at the Canary Islands. Polyphysa was discovered by Dr. R.
Brown at King George's Sound, and has recently been found at Port Lincoln, Australia,
by Mr. Wilhelmi ; and at Swan River, by Mr. George Clifton.
I am very unwilling to multiply families, especially among plants of such low
organization as the Chlorospermatous Algae, and yet I have been in a manner com-
pelled to remove from the Siphonaceoe both the little group now described, and the
following one (Valoiiiacece) ; from the impossibility of devising any diagnostic charac-
ter which would include the whole. The true Siphonacew are typically known by being
wholly formed of long, tubular branching cells. In the DasycladecB the axis only is
of this character ; the rest of the frond consists, as in Conferva, of strings of short
cylindrical cells ; and the spores are of a higher type than in Siphonacece. In Valo-
niacece tubular branching cells are found, if at all, only in the root, or in a spongy caudex,
while the principal part of the frond is formed of confervoid filaments. They approach
DasycladecB through Chamcedoris, and possibly Kiitzing may be correct in associating
them, as he has done in his latest arrangement, with this group ; but, ignorant as we
are of their proper fructification, I have not ventured to adopt this course. The habit
of the true Valoniacew is dissimilar, and in none of them do we find the ramelliferous
internodes which characterise the present family.
DASYCLADE^. 35
SYNOPSIS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN GENERA.
I. Cymopolia. Frond with a calcareous, branching, articulated shell ; the internodes
honeycombed ; apices emitting pencilled ramelli.
II. Dasycladus. Frond soft, unbranched, set throughout with closely placed whorls of
trichotomous, horizontal ramelli.
III. Acetabulakia, Frond with a filiform, incrusted stipes, terminating in a peltate
disc formed of radiating fruit-cells (sporangia.)
I. CYMOPOLIA. Lamour.
Frond filiform, dichotomous ; its outer crust (or shell) calcareous, thick, distinctly
articulate, the articulations everywhere pierced with pores, and the younger nodes
fringed with byssoid, multifid fibrillte. Inner frond (enclosed in the crustaceous shell)
a membranous, continuous branching hollow tube, nodoso-constricted and moniliform,
but not septate ; the nodes when young fibrilliferous, at length bare ; the inter-nodes
whorled with several rows of short, horizontal, 3-4-fid, club-shaped ramelli, which pro-
trude through the pores of the outer crust. Sporongia globose, borne on the club-
shaped ramelli.
The frond in this genus consists of two distinct and separately organised systems —
one mineral, and which wholly disappears when the plant is put into muriatic acid ;
the other vegetable, of the same texture, substance, and very similar organization to
the frond of the following genus (Dasycladus) ; but still more nearly akin to another
genus, Heomeris, not yet recorded from our shores, but which very probably exists on
the Florida reefs, as one of its species is found in the West Indies. For sake of greater
clearness, I have, in the above diagnosis, first described the outer crust, or frond, as it
appears when lifted from the sea ; and then given the characteristics of the vegetable
axis which is brought to light when the calcareous envelope has been removed by acid.
When the plant is alive, and seen under water, its green colour, and the rich pencUs of
delicate, bright green byssoid fibres that crown all the growing branches and their
divisions, at once suggest its vegetable nature. But when seen dry and dead on the
shore, where all these fibres and the green colour disappear, the resemblance to a po-
rous zoophyte is so great, that it is no wonder that this Alga should, until quite recently,
have had a place in the animal kingdom. The pores of the crust may easily pass for
polype cells, and the enclosed tube has, when dry, an almost horny consistence.
36 DASYCLADEiE.
Two species, C. barbata and C. rosarium are usually kept up, and Kiitzing has added
a third, C. bibarbata, but it seems to me that the differences indicated have reference
more to the age and state of individual specimens, than to difference of species. The
fringing or non-fringing of the apices with fibrillae surely depends on the state of the
specimen. The fibrills are homologues of leaves, and, like leaves, are deciduous when
they have performed their functions. I had abundant opportunities of studying the
species at Key West, and see no ground for believing that there is more than one as
yet known to botanists.
1. Cymopolia barbata, Lamour. Cor. Flex. p. 293, and C. rosarium, I. c. p. 294.
Kiitz., Sp. Alg. p. 511. Corallina barbata, Lin. Syst. Nat. Ed. 12, p. 1305.
Ellis and Sol. Zoop. p. 112. Ellis, Cor. p. 54, t. 25, f. C. C. rosarium, Ellis and
Sol. Zoop. p. Ill, ^. 21, jig. h. Shane, Nat. Hist. Jamaica, t. 20, Jig. 3. Cymo-
polia bibarbata, Kiitz. Phyc. Gen. t. 40,/. 2. Kutz. Sp. Alg. p. 510. (Tab. XLI. A.)
Hab. Near low-water mark, under the bridge at Key West. W. H. H. (v. v.)
Fronds tufted, at first simple, till they attain to one or two inches in height, then
becoming branched, at first by the development of simple alternate branches. These
afterwards fork at their extremities, and throw out lateral branches ; and by continual
repetitions of this process of division the frond at length becomes much branched
in a di-trichotomous but irregular order. The tendency to become dichotomous is
greater in the older specimens ; the branches in all are fastigiate. Every part of
the frond, except the young tips of the branches, is invested with a thick calcareous,
brittle crust, pierced with innumerable horizontal canals, opening at the surface by
pores, arranged in transverse rings, which are so closely placed together that the sur-
face appears as if honeycombed. In these canals of the crust the ramelli of the enclos-
ed vegetable lie hid, the points only of their divisions protruding through the pores,
and this only in the younger parts, which then have a green colour. The calcareous crust
is regularly articulated at short intervals ; the internodes in the main stem and
branches are about twice as long as broad, those in the young parts of the frond sphe-
roidal and bead-like. The iwdes are much contracted throughout, and thus each branch
looks like a string of beads. In the older parts the nodes are bare ; but in the
younger, toward the ends of the growing branches, they emit whorls of extremely
delicate, byssoid, di-tri-chotomous or multifid, membranaceous fibrills ; and whorls of
similar fibrills terminate the young branch itself The branches in the developing plant
are thus penicillate or barbed at the extremity. When a piece of a frond is macera-
ted in acid, so as to remove the calcareous crust, the true frond becomes visible. This
we must now describe. It consists of a continuous, tubular axis or filament, seemingly
formed of a single, cylindrical, branching cell, which runs through every part of the
calcareous covering, and whose growing apices, clothed with byssoid fibres, pro-
trude at the ends of the branches. This filament is nodose, annularly constricted at
short intervals, corresponding to the articulations of the crust ; but there are no inter-
DASYCLADE^. 37
nal septa. The wall is very thick and tough, and is evidently seen, under the micro-
scope, to be formed of concentric layers, deposited one within another, as in the cell-
wall of the CaulerpcB. When a transverse section of a branch is examined, the ring
of cell-wall appears as if divided into numerous cells, corresponding in number to the
ramelli that issue from it ; the apparent septa of these supposed cells being placed
opposite the insertion of the ramelli. This would suggest a structure not very differ-
ent from what I have just described ; namely, that the axial tube was not a single cell,
but a tube formed by the lateral cohesion of a number of small, cylindrical, longitudinal
cells, placed in a circle ; a structure not very different from what occurs in Batra-
chospermum. After repeated examinations and dissections I am disposed to think that
the appearance of cell-division in the wall is deceptive, and that what look like septa
are prolongations inwards, through the wall, of the bases of the ramelli. The inter-
nodes of the axial filament are beset with very closely placed whorls of horizontal
ramelli, each composed of a primary, and 3 or 4 secondary, clavate cells ; the primary
cell issuing from the substance of the wall of the axial tube, and forming the basal
portion of the ramellus ; the secondary cells springing from its apex. The primary
cell is obconical ; the secondary more clavate, and inflated at the point. Fructification
takes place by the transformation of one of the secondary or terminal cells of the
ramellus, which is changed into a spherical sporangium, filled (at first) with dense,
dark green granular matter, surrounded by a pellucid margin, and raised on a short
stalk. Whether it eventually contains spores or only zoospores, I have not deter-
mined ; analogy with Dasycladus would lead us to the former inference. The colour
of the frond, when growing, is a pleasant, and rather a full, yellow green ; when dry,
the calcareous crust fades to a dirty white, and the tufts of byssoid apical fibrills become
brown or black, staining the paper to which they adhere.
Ellis's figures, quoted above, are both characteristic ; and so also is that in Sloane's
Jamaica, though rude and without analysis. Lamouroux strangely misquotes, under
his C. rosarium, Sloane, Tab. 20, fig. 4, which is a very fair representation, not of a
Cymopolia, but of Amphiroa fragilissima.
Plate XLI. A. Fig 1. Cymopholia barbata ; the natural size. Fig. 2. Apex of
a branch, crowned with its pencil of byssoid fibres. Fig. 3. Transverse section of a
branch, from which the calcareous shell has been removed. Fig. 4. Small portion of
the same, showing a sporangium formed from one of the peripheric ramelli. Fig. 5.
Portion of a longitudinal section of a branch, to show the insertion of the horizontal
ramelli, and the holes on the inner face of the cell wall. Fig. 6. Byssoid fibres from
the apical pencil. Fig. 7. Tips of the same ; the latter figures more or less highly
magnified.
38 DASYCLADEiE.
11. DASYCLADUS. Ag.
Frond destitute of calcareous crust, soft, and flaccid, cylindrical or club-shaped,
unbranched, composed of a tubular, unicellular filiform axis, beset throughout with
closely placed whorls of trichotomous, horizontal, articulate ramelli. Sporangia
globose, affixed to the nodes of the ramelli, and containing, at maturity, very numerous
spherical spores.
Small, densely tufted, erect plants, with almost spongy fronds, so densely are the
ramelli frequently inserted. Their substance is very soft and flaccid, but tough, and
the colour a full dark green. The membrane composing the frond is every where
hyaline, and becomes glassy when dry ; the colouring matter is viscid and granular as
in Bryopsis. The genus was founded by Agardh on D. davceformis, a common Alga
in the Mediterranean ; and Meneghini has described a second species from the
Adriatic. I now venture to add a third, which I was formerly disposed to consider
as identical with D. davceformis.
1. Dasycladus occidentalis ; whorls sub-distant ; apices of the ramelli very
obtuse. (Tab. XLI. B.)
Hab. On rocks between tide marks, on the Florida Keys, Key West, Dr. Wurde-
mann, W. H. H. Key Biscayne, Prof. Tuomey. (v. v.)
Root discoid, throwing out a few clasping fibres. Fronds mostly densely tufted,
sometimes solitary, 1-2 inches high, clavate, from a line to nearly half-an-inch in dia-
meter (including ramelli) erect, straight or curved, destitute of calcareous incrustation ;
consisting of a filiform, unbranched, unicellular axis, whorled throughout with densely
inserted polychotomous ramelli. The axial filament varies in diameter from the thick-
ness of a human hair to twice the diameter of hog's bristle ; it is cylindrical, with a
continuous cavity filled with endochrome, and seems to be developed from a single cell.
Its wall is very thick, tough, and composed of several distinct layers of cellulose, con-
centrically deposited. The filament is marked externally, at short intervals, varying
in distance in different specimens, with transverse rings or nodes, which give an appear-
ance of joints (but there are no internal septa) ; and immediately above each node from
six to twelve horizontal ramelli are inserted in a whorl, and in denuded specimens
their places are indicated by a whorl of disc-like scars surmounting the node. The
ramelli vary much in length and in density. In some specimens the internodes are
so short that the frond seems continuously clothed, like the spongy frond of a Codium,
from base to apex ; the axis being completely concealed by the ramelli. In others the
internodes are as much as a line in length, and the whorls appear sub-distant, like
those of a Myriophyllum. Sometimes the ramelli are scarcely a line long ; in other
specimens they are 2-3 lines or more. In all cases they are tri-dichotomous, twice or
DASYCLADE^. 39
thrice compounded and articulated ; being formed of two or three series of nearly-
cylindrical cells, four to six times longer than broad, filled with dark green slimy endo-
chrome. The terminal cells are very obtuse. Fructification is formed at the axils of
the ramelli, where two or three supplementary cells are developed and become spherical
sporangia, by absorbing all the endochrome of the cells from which they spring,
and finally that of the whole frond. When ripe, these sporangia are membranous bags,
stuffed with innumerable spherical spores. Colour, a deep grass-green. Substance,
soft and somewhat gelatinous.
This species closely resembles, in habit and structure, D. clavceformis of the Medi-
terranean ; but the ramelli, even in the densest specimens, are much more distantly
placed than in that plant, and the apices (or terminal cells) of all the American indi-
viduals I have examined are perfectly blunt ; not mucronulate, as they are in D. clavce-
formis. If this distinction prove constant, the species will be sufficiently characterised.
Plate XLT. B. Fig. 1. Dastcladus occidentalis ; the normal form. Fig. 2. An
attenuated and depauperated variety ; both figures the natural size. Fig. 3. Trans-
verse section of the frond, showing a whorl of trichotomous ramelli. Fig. 4. Portion
of a fertile ramellus with sporangia. Fig. 5. A sporangium. Fig. 6. Spores from
the same ; all the latter figures magnified.
III. ACETABULAPtlA. Lamour.
Root scutate. Frond stipitate, umbrella-shaped, thinly incrusted with calcareous
matter. Stipes tubular, unicellular, cylindrical, when young emitting whorls of byssoid
fibrills at and below the summit ; when mature, crowned with a peltate disc, formed of
numerous radiating cuneiform cells. Cells of the disc at first containing granular
endochrome, which is afterwards changed into spherical spores.
The two species which are included in this genus are among the most elegant and
singular of the Algae, resembling delicate fungi of the genus Agaricus, more nearly than
any marine production. This is, however, descriptive only of the fully grown plant,
for in the young state, the peltate umbr-ella which crowns the stipes is not found. In
the youngest specimens which I have examined (represented at fig. 2 in our plate)
the upper part of the stipe is beset at sub-distant intervals with whorls of extremely
slender byssoid fibrills, above the last of which a young disc is commencing to be
formed. In older plants these fibrills drop away, and their position is indicated by an
annular row of holes, the tube being also swollen at each whorl, so as to appear jointed.
There are no septa, however, and the tube is continuous, at least to the base of the
young disc. When the disc is further advanced, a dense pencil of fibres springs from
its centre, on its upper surface, or from what may be called its umbo, and which is
40 DASYCLADE^.
really the growing point of the frond. I regard the disc as being properly a whorl of
sporangia, united by their edges ; each radiating cell constituting a sporangium. The
discs, after they have developed spores, are deciduous ; and new ones are successively
formed, one above the other, as the stipe lengthens.
1. AcETABULARiA crmulata, Lamour. ; margin of the peltate disc minutely crenu-
late ; the cells apiculate (when young). Lam. Pol. Flea;, p. 6, Tab. 8, Jig. 1. Kutz.,
Sp. Alg.p. 510. (Tab. XLII. A.)
Hab, Eocks and corals, within tide marks, on the Florida reefs. Key West, W.H.ff.,
Prof. Tuomey (v. v.)
Root minute, discoid. Fronds scattered or tufted, two or three inches high, consisting
of a slender, setaceous stipes, thinly coated with carbonate of lime, and bearing at its
summit a peltate disc or cup, radiated like an agaric, and formed of clavato-cylindrical
cells cohering by their edges, and filled with green endochrome. The stipes, when
deprived of its lime by maceration in acid, forms a membranous, cylindrical tube, des-
titute of markings, slightly enlarged upwards, having near its summit one, two, three,
or more (according to age) annular swellings, from which issue whorls of very delicate,
polychotomous, byssoid ramelli, and terminating in the first formed disc, from whose
centre a pencil of similar byssoid fibres is produced. In further growth, the stipes
proceeds through the first disc upwards for a distance of 1-2 lines, where another an-
nulus emits a second whorl of filaments, above which a second disc is formed ; and thus,
by successive apical growths new discs succeed each other, the older falling off as the
younger are formed. In old specimens, therefore, you find the upper part of the stipe
furnished with 4-5 or more annuli, marked with scars of the fallen ramelli and discs.
In full grown specimens, the peltate disc, or circle of sporongia, is nearly half-an-inch
in diameter. At first the matter contained in its cells is fluid and homogeneous.
Eventually nuclei are formed in it, and the contents of each cell is converted into
numerous globose spores, the whole endochrome being consumed in the process. The
cell-wall of the stipe is thick and concentrically striate.
This species very closely resembles A. Mediterranean from which it is distinguished
by the minutely crenulate margin of the disc. In A. Mediterranea the margin is
quite entire.
Plate XLII. A. Fig. 1. Acetabularia crenulata ; the natural size. Fig. 2. Apex
of a young frond, before the development of the peltate disc. Fig. 3. A young disc,
Avithin which is a pencil of byssoid fibres. Fig. 4. A mature disc. Fig. 5. Apex of
one of the radiant cells, from a young disc in which they are mucronate. Fig. 6. One
of the radiant cells of a mature disc, converted into a sporangium, and full of spores.
Fig. 7- Spores from the same : all the latter figures magnified.
VALONIACEiE. 41
Order III.— YALONIACE^.
Valoniece, in part, Kutz. Sp. Alg. p. 507. Anadyomenece, Didyospheriece, and
part of Codiece, Kutz. I. c. Siphonece^ in part, Aixct. alior.
Diagnosis. Green marine Algte, naked or encrusted with carbonate of lime, with
fibrous roots. Frond polymorphous, formed of large vesicated cells filled with watery
endochrome ; either consisting of a single cell, or of several united into filaments, or
into net-works or membranous leaf-like expansions.
Natural Character. Root in most cases well developed, and consisting of a plexus
of tough fibres, forming a mat, and either penetrating the sand or grasping firmly to
the rock or stones on which the plant grows. Frond very variable in form, and in
complexity of structure. In Valonia the whole frond, in some species, consists of a
single vesicated cell, which is often of large size, upwards of an inch in length, and
three-quarters of an inch in diameter, filled with a thin, watery endochrome. In other
species of that genus, several such cells are strung together so as to form confervoid
branching filaments. In Dictyosphceria, a number of large globose cells cohere toge-
ther in a single stratum, and thus form a tessellated or honey-combed membrane. In
Anadyomene, the membranous expansion is formed in a difierent manner, namely, by
the lateral cohesion and anastomosis of a branching filament ; and in Mierodictyon, a
network is formed in a similar way, the difierence from Anadyomene being, that the
branches of the generating filament stand apart, leaving open spaces between their
anastomosing ramuli. A further advance in structure occurs in Penicillus, where the
frond has a dendroid habit ; tlie trunk of the treelike body being composed of branch-
ing, unicellular filaments like those of a Codium, and the head of confervoid, articulated
filaments like those of Valonia. This spongy caudex, or trunk, appears to me to be
merely an exaggeration of the rooting processes, common to most plants of the family.
A more definite stipes, or true stem, is found in Chamcedoris, Apjohnia, and Struvea,
the most highly organised genera of the Order, and those which connect it with the
DasycladecB. In these the stipe is monosiphonous, and is developed nearly to its full
size before any part of the capitulum makes its appearance. In the early stage these
plants are not to be known from the simple Valonice, and like them consist of a single
cell rising from a branching root.
In this description of the fronds of the Order I omit the curious plant which will be
G
42 VALONIACE^.
found described below under the name Blodgettia, because it is not quite certain
whether it be properly a member of this series ; or possibly the type of a separate
family.
The fructification of none of these plants is satisfactorily known.
All are natives of tropical and sub-tropical latitudes. The Penicilli or Mermaris
Shaving Brushes are characteristic of coral reefs, and are found in the Caribbean Sea,
and on the shores of Australia and of the Indian archipelago. Anadyomene is common
to the Mediterranean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico and the shores of Brazil. DictyosphcBria
is tropical and Australian. Valonia is found in most western oceans, and ought to
occur on the Floridan Keys, though not yet found there. Microdictyon is generally a
deep water production, lying at the bottom in 5-10 fathoms ; but it sometimes occurs
at low water mark. Species of it, all very similar to each other, have been found in the
tropics of both hemispheres and in the Mediterranean ; and one is very abundant in
Port Jackson, Australia. Struvea is confined to the West coast of Australia, and
Apjohnia to the Southern coast. Chamcedoris is Caribbean ; and Acrodadus, N«g., a
closely allied form, is found in the Mediterranean.
TABLE OF THE NORTH AMERICAN GENERA.
* Dendroid; stipitate, crowned with tufted filaments.
I. Cham^doris. Stipes monosiphonous, annulated ; head very dense.
II. Penicillus. Stipes formed of innumerable interwoven filaments, spongy ; head
brush-like.
** Confervoid ; densely tufted.
III. Blodgettia. Frond filamentous, articulated, branching, densely tufted.
*** Membranous., leaf -like.
IV. Anadyomene. Membrane erect, flabellately veined ; veins articulated, confervoid,
radiating from the base toward the margin.
V. DiCTYOSPHiERiA. Membrane amorphous, wholly formed of spherical cells lying in a
single stratum.
I. CHAM^DORIS, Mont.
Root much branched. Frond stipitate, dendroid. Stipes at first clavate, then
cylindrical ; tubular, unicellular, horny-membranous, annularly constricted and corru-
gated, at length crowned with a dense fascicle of confervoid, much branched, articulate
ramelli. Fruit unknown.
VALONIACEJE. 43
Young and full grown specimens of the little Alga which constitutes the present
genus are so unlike that they might readily pass for diiFerent entities. The frond
originates in a dense mass of branching, horny-membranous, intricate, rooting fibres,
from which spring erect unicellular branches, or fronds. These are at first quite simple
and naked ; but afterwards develope from their summit two or three very closely placed
whorls of much branched ramelli, which form a dense, fasciculate capitulum. The frond
is then mature and resembles a little tree; or perhaps, more justly, a little mop. The
genus was founded by Montague in 1842, by a separation from Fenicillus.
1. CHAMiEDOMS amiulata, Mont. An. Sc. Nat. Ser. 2, vol. 18, p. 261. Kutz. Sp.
Alg. p. 509. Nescea annulata, Lamour. Pol. Flex. p. 256. Corallina peniculum, Ell.
and Sol. Zoop. p. 127, tab. 1,fig. 5-8 and tab. 25,Jig. 1. (Tab. XLII. B.)
Hab. Key West, rare. W. H. H., Dr. Blodgett. (v. v.)
Root composed of many branching and clasping, tufted fibres, which issue from the
base and lower part of the stipes, and at length form a dense mat. Fronds tufted,
2-3 inches high, nearly a line in diameter, tubular, simple, membranaceous or some-
what horny, destitute of calcareous incrustation except in old age, when they are thinly
coated toward the base ; cylindrical, annularly constricted at short intervals as if
jointed, the internodes most apparent on old specimens, when the annular constric-
tions are deeper. In the young state the frond consists merely of such an annulated
tube, formed of a single cell. When this has attained the height of two or three inches,
it ceases to grow longer ; a septum is formed just below the summit, and a new cell
begins there to develope. This second cell is very short, and again divides, once or
twice, vertically ; so that the original tubular cell (now to be called the stipe) is
crowned with two or three minute cells, placed one above the other (Tab. XLII.^^. 3),
the terminal one being attenuated and pointed. These cells remain short and rudimen-
tary, but from their nodes dense whorls oi ramelli begin to grow (jig. 4), which finally
constitute a dense, mop-like capitulum. When fully grown the capitulum is an inch
or more in diameter, globose, very dense, composed of innumerable, crowded and inter-
woven, much branched, irregularly dichotomous, articulated filaments. The articulations
are cylindrical, constricted at the nodes and many times longer than broad ; but
variable in length. Colour, a bright, grass-green. Substance., membranaceous, rather
rigid and tough, not adhering to paper in drying. Thin slices of the tube, when
examined under the microscope, show concentric lines of growth, as in Dasydadus, &c.
This plant is rare at Key West, and none of my specimens are fully grown. It is a
native of the West Indian Islands.
Plate XLII. B. Fig. 1. Cham^doris annulata, the natural size. Fig. 2. A young,
unicellular frond, previous to the formation of the capitulum. Fig. 3. Apex of a frond
in a more advanced stage, showing the newly formed axial cells of the future capitulum.
Fig. 4. Apex of a still more advanced young frond, with the capitulum beginning to be
44 VALONIACE^.
formed. Fig. 5. Portion of the capitular filament ; the latter figures more or less
magnified.
II. PENICILLUS. Lamarck.
Root fibrous, much branched, matted. Frond stipitate, dendroid. Stipes erect,
cylindrical or compressed, incrusted, -wholly composed of numerous longitudinal,
unicellular branching filaments woven together into a compact spongy mass ; and
crowned with a dense pencil of confervoid, articulate ramelli, whose branches are either
free, or cohere together in fan-shaped laminae, and are invested with a porous pellicle
of carbonate of lime.
If Mer-men have beards and shave them, the Algae included in this genus may serve
as shaving brushes. The root is much branched and its fibres matted together, and
generally penetrates deeply into the sand in which the plant grows. The stipe is more
or less coated with carbonate of lime, and composed of a multitude of closely placed
and densely interwoven longitudinal, unicellular filaments, which send ofi" laterally,
throughout their length, short, fastigiate, corymbose ramelli, that unit« together to
form a periphery. Thus far we have a structure closely agreeing with that of a Codium.
But from the apex of this compact, spongy stipe there springs a dense tuft or capitulum,
composed of dichotomous, articulated, free filaments ; and the whole frond bears a
striking resemblance to a shaving brush. The habit is similar to that of Chamcedoris^
from which the spongy, multicellular stipe distinguishes it ; and to Chlorodesmis, which
difiers in having a capitulum formed of unicellular filaments.
The species naturally arrange themselves in two groups, or sub-genera, which Kiitzing
has separated ; a separation which is hardly needed, where the species are so few in
number and so closely related in structure.
Sect. 1. Haligraphium, Endl. (Corallocephalus, Kiitz.) ; branches of the capitulum
free.
1. Penicillus dumetosus^ Dne. ; stipes short, thick, somewhat compressed, velvetty;
filaments of the capitulum loosely spreading, ultra-setaceous, flaccid, deep-green ; their
joints cylindrical, many times as long as broad, equal, obtuse, strongly constricted at
the nodes. Dne. Cor. p. 97. Nescea dumetosa, Lamour. Polyp, p. 259. pi. S,fig. 3,
a. B. Corallocephalus dumetosus, Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 506. (Tab. XLIII. A.)
Hab. Key "West and Sand Key, W.H.H. Soldier's Key, Prof. Tuomey. (v. v.)
i?oo?, a dense mass of fibres deeply sinking in the sand. /Sfi^oes, 1-3 inches long,
half-inch to nearly an inch in thickness, sometimes rather hollow in the centre, more or
VALONIACE^. 45
less compressed, erect, coated with a velvetty scurf, and partially incrusted with cal-
careous matter ; nearly destitute of lime when young, much incrusted with it in old
age. This stipes is composed of innumerable, densely packed, longitudinal, unicellular
fibres which closely adhere by lateral branching processes, and are interlaced together.
The outer strata of these fibres emit, to form the periphery of the stipe, innumerable
short, lateral, horizontal, multifid, fastigiate ramelli, whose apices, lying close together,
give the velvetty appearance to the surface. As long as these longitudinal filaments
cohere into a stipe they are unicellular ; but when they become free at the apex of the
stipe, they are articulated, or pluricellular ; and a capitulum of confervoid filaments
completes the frond. According to the age of the specimen, the filaments of the
capitulum are more or less developed ; in young specimens they are less than an inch
long ; in older and full-grown ones they vary from 3 to 6 inches. They are densely,
but not intricately tufted, thicker than hog's bristle, dichotomous, radiating to all
sides, equal and obtuse ; their articulations are cylindrical, and many times longer than
broad. The colour is a full, deep green, and they are very thinly incrusted with lime ;
the crust pierced with minute pores. The primordial utricle separates readily from the
cell-wall, and is firmly membranous.
Plate XLIII. A, Fig. 1, 2, 3. Penicillus dumetosus, of difierent ages : the
natural sizes. Fig. 4. Portion of one of the dichotomous filaments of the capitulum.
Fig. 5. Small portions of the same, after the calcareous coating has been removed,
showing a pitted surface ; the latter figures more or less highly magnified.
2. Penicillus capitatus, Lamk. ; stipes long or short, cylindrical or clavate, terete,
incrusted, smooth ; filaments of the globose capitulum densely crowded, fastigiate,
capillary, rigid, pale green, their joints cylindrical, many times as long as broad,
obtuse, constricted at the nodes. Dne. Cor. p. 97. Nescea Penicillus, Lamour. Pol.
flex. p. 258. Corallina Penicillus, Ell. and Sol. p. 126, tab. 25, fig. 4, 5. Corallo-
cephalus Penicillus, Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 505. (Tab. XLIII. B.)
Hab. Key West, W. H. K, Prof. Tuomey. (v. v.)
Root very large, two inches long or more, deeply descending, very fibrous and
densely matted. Stipes from one to four or five inches long, a quarter to a third of
an inch in diameter, mostly cylindrical and equal throughout, occasionally compressed
and widened upwards, thickly incrusted with calcareous matter, and having a smooth
and sometimes a polished surfiice. Capitulum very dense, mostly globose, sometimes
oblong and rarely somewhat difi"use, fastigiate, one or two inches in diameter, composed
of innumerable, curved, densely packed and often entangled, capillary filaments which
are encrusted with calcareous matter to an extent that makes them rigid. The
structure is similar to that of the preceding species ; and the calcareous incrustation
is similarly dotted or pitted. The length of the articulations varies much ; usually
46 VALONIACE^.
they are many times as long as broad ; but now and then a short, globose articulus is
interposed between the two long ones. Colour, a pale green.
Plate XLIII. B. Figs. 1, 2, 3. Penicillus capitatus, different varieties ; the
natural size. Fig. 4. Portion of a dichotomous filament from the capitulum. Fig. 5.
Small portion of the same, after the lime has been removed ; the latter figures more or
less highly magnified.
Sect. 2. Halipsygma, Endl. (Rhipocephalus, Kiitz.) ; branches of the capitulum
cohering in flabelliform laminae.
3. Peniciixus Phoenix, Lamk. ; stipes elongate, terete, incrusted, smooth ; capitu-
lum ovoid or oblong, its filaments incrusted, very slender, dichotomous, cohering by
their edges into many distinct, flat, cuneate, level-topi)ed, spreading lamina3. Dne.
Cor. p. 98. Lamk. An. Mus. 20, jo. 299. Corallina Phoenix, Ell. and Sol. p. 126,
t. 25, fig. 2-3. Nescea Phoenix, Lamour, I. c. p. 256. Bhipocephalus Phoenix, Kiitz.
Sp. Alg. p. 506. (Tab. XLIII. C.)
Hab. Key West, W. H. H. Dredged in 3^ fathoms off Soldier's Key, Prof.
Tuomey. (v. v.)
Root somewhat fusiform, dense, descending. Stipes cylindrical, 1-3 inches long, a
quarter inch in diameter, thickly incrusted with calcareous matter, the surface smooth,
composed as in the rest of the genus of many slender longitudinal branching and
ramelliferous threads. The filaments of the capitulum are thickly incrusted with
calcareous matter, and disposed in many flat, cuneate, flabelliform laminae ; their
ramifications lying close together, and cohering laterally by means of the incrustation.
On removing the carbonate of lime the cohesion of the filaments is destroyed. The
articulations are many times longer than broad, cylindrical, and much constricted at
the nodes.
Plate XLIII. C. Fig. 1. Penicillus Phoenix, the natural size. Fig. 2. Portion
of one of the fanlike laminae of the capitulum. Fig. 3. Cells from the same, after the
removal of the lime ; the latter figures more or less magnified.
III. BLODGETTIA, Harv. (n. gm.)
Frond csespitose, branching, confervoid, articulate. Articulations unicellular, filled
with grumous, viscid endochrome ; the cell-wall formed of separable membranes,
VALONIACE^. n
the outer of which are hyaline and homogeneous, the innermost traversed by parallel,
longitudinal, anastomosing veinlets. Spores seriated in moniliform strings, and
developed from the veinlets of the inner cell-wall (!)
The highly curious little Alga on which the present genus is founded so closely
resembles a Cladophora that it will readily pass for one, unless it be very closely examined
under a powerful microscope. Indeed so great is the resemblance to a branched
Conferva that I formerly distributed it to my friends with the manuscript name of
Cladophora ccespitosa, under which it Avas my intention to have described it in the
present work ; nor did I discover my error until I commenced making sketches for
the plate now given. I was then first struck by the peculiar opacity of the dissepiments ;
and afterwards by what looked like a compound cellular structure in the walls of the
cells. On applying a higher power, other characters came out which induced me to
dissect one of the articulations, when I discovered the curious structure of the inner
membrane or primordial utricle ; in which (as far as I can make out) the spores are
developed. To see the structure, as above described, the readiest mode is to proceed
as follows. Cut off a portion of one of the long cells which terminate the branches ;
place it on the table of a dissecting microscope, moisten it, and you may readily express
the viscid endochrome, which generally contains, besides the usual starch and chloro-
phyll grains, a number of pyramidal crystals ; but these are probably adventitious.
When the endochrome has been pressed out, the structure of the inner membrane of
the cell-wall may be partially seen ; but to see it clearly, the outer coats must be
removed. This may readily be done, either by tearing, with a pair of dissecting
needles, or by making a longitudinal section through the cell, when the different coats
easily separate, on the section being teased in a drop of water. The outer coat, or
coats (for there are tivo or more, though the secondary ones sometimes elude detec-
tion, owing to their extreme tenuity) are quite transparent and structureless, as is
usually the case in the walls of cellular tissue. But the inner coat offers a peculiarity
of structure which I have not noticed in any other Algae, nor have heard of its occur-
rence in the cells of any other plant. At first sight the membrane seems to be
composed of numerous minute, elongated fusiform cellules, not unlike the wood-cells
of phanerogamous plants, but totally unlike any algae-cells known to me. Careful
examination has however convinced me that the appearance of cellular structure is
deceptive ; and that the membrane itself is homogenous, but traversed by slender
filaments or nerves, which anastomose together, forming areolae which look like cells.
These filaments give oS free ramuli whose apices swell into spores ; and (probably) by
repeated cell division produce the strings of roundish spores, which are so conspicuous
in most of the areola;. The appearance of the whole membrane with its spores is as
if a number of the ascl of a lichen were placed side by side ; the true structure,
however, I need hardly say, is widely different.
The generic name is bestowed as a grateful tribute to the memory of the late
Dr. Blodgett of Key "West, who had zealously collected and studied the Algte of the
reefs where this plant grows, and to whom I am indebted for many specimens of the
rarest Algaj of the Florida Keys.
48 YALONIACEiE.
1. Blovgettia confervoides, ReiTv. (Tab. XLV. C.)
Hab. At Key West, on rocks near low-water mark. Dr. Wurdeman, W. H. H.
Prof. Tuomey. (v. v.)
Fronds filamentous, densely tufted ; the tufts spreading extensively, from an inch to
an inch and half in height, very dense, pulvinate and fastigiate. Filaments rigid, not
collapsing when removed from the water, about as thick as hog's bristle, sparingly
branched, decumbent at base, then ascending, and the tips erect. The main divisions
and primary branches are very patent, either arching backwards or quite recurved.
They are destitute of branches along their lower or outer side, and more or less furnished
with unilateral ramification on the upper ; generally with a long excurrent point desti-
tute of ramuli. Often the filament has but a single series of simple, secund ramuli ;
but in luxuriant specimens there is a second series of similar secund ramuli. Articula-
tions variable in length, dark coloured, with opaque dissepiments, and not collapsing
when dry, contracted at the nodes, three to six times as long as broad ; the terminal
cell always very much longer than the rest, and frequently 10-12 times as long as its
diameter. Apices very blunt. The articulations are filled with dense, viscid endochrome
full of large green granules, and frequently containing also prismatical crystals. The mem-
branous cell-wall is divisible into three or more separate membranes, one concentrically
placed within the other. The outer are hyaline without obvious structure ; but
the inner one is reticulated with very slender nervelike fibres, which run longitudinally
through the membrane parallel to each other, and are connected by oblique crossbars ;
so that the surface is divided into narrow, pointed areolae. The spores are seriated in
moniliform strings, four or more in each string, and attached to short free veinlets
which issue from the veins of the inner cell-wall. The colour when recent is a very
dark green ; when dry it becomes more olivaceous. The substance is very firm, and
the plant imperfectly adheres to paper in drying.
Plate XLV. C. Fig. 1. Blodgettia confervoides ; the natural sjze. Fig. 2. Pecti-
nated branch. Fig. 3. Apex of the long terminal cell of the branch, the lower portion
represented with the outer cell-coats exfoliated. Fig. 4. Portion of the membrane of
the innermost cell-coat traversed by slender fibres, bearing strings oospores (?). Fig. 5.
One of the moniliform strings, apart. Fig. 6. Some of the crystals found in the cells.
All the latter figures more or less highly magnified.
IV. ANADYOMENE, Lamour.
Root fibrous. Frond stipitate, membranaceous, leaf-like, flabellately veined ; the
veins confervoid, radiating from the base to the margin, pedately multifid, excessively
branched, and everywhere closely anastomosing. Fructification unknown.
VALONIACE^. 49
The frond in this genus is thin and membranous, and at first view resembles that of an
C/foa, except that it is traversed everywhere by branching veins. When more closely
examined it is easily pei'ceived that the membrane is wholly formed by the anastomosis
and lateral cohesion of the branches and ramuli of a much branched, articulated, con-
fervoid filament, composed of large, oblong cylindrical cells ; as more fully detailed in
the subjoined description. As Professor J. Agardh remarks (Alg. Medit. p. 24), it is
nearly related to Valonia, from which it differs chiefly in the lateral cohesion of the
branches of the generating filaments, and to which it bears the same relation that
Codium does to Vaucheria. It is still more nearly related to Microdictyon, where the
fronds form an open network.
1. Aii XDYOKESE flabellata, Lamour. ; frond flattish or undulate, the veins multipar-
tite. Lamour. Pol. Flex. p. 365, tab. 14, Jig. 3. Bory, Fl. Mor. t. 41, jig. 5, Kutz.
Sp. Alg. p. 511. A. stellata, Ag. Sp. Alg. \,p. 400. (Tab. XLIV. A.)
Hab. Key West, on tidal rocks, common. Dr. Wurdeman, W.H.H., Prof. Tuomey.
(v. V.)
Root consisting of a mat of branching, articulate, confervoid filaments, emitting erect
branches which develope into flat, flabelliform, membranous fronds. Fronds tufted,
1-4 inches long and as much in width, rigidly membranaceous, shortly stipitate ; the
stipes uni- or pluri-cellular ; lamina at first flabelliform and entire, afterwards undulate
and more or less deeply lobed at the margin ; wholly composed of radiating, multifid,
branching, confervoid filaments, whose distichous branches closely cohere throughout,
and whose ramuli as constantly anastomose and coalesce. In other words, the membrane
is composed of longitudinally seriated, cylindrical cells, several series radiating from the
base toward the circumference in a flabellate manner, and dividing and subdividing
digitately throughout the whole length of the series ; each cell emitting from its sum-
mit 5-7 or more similar cells, which in their turn put forth another series, and so on.
In this way the frond increases in length. It is widened by the gradual evolution of
other cells formed along the sides of contiguous parallel cells in a pinnate order. At
first these lateral or transverse cells are very minute and placed opposite each other.
They gradually lengthen, anastomose and coalesce, and at length form a reticulated space
of a narrow wedge-form between each pair of tubular, longitudinal cells. The cuneate
space looks like a membrane, but is really constituted of closely placed, transverse bars,
leaving narrow slits between them, as may be readily seen by examining a dried speci-
men when the substance shrinks. In a moist state, by the swelling of the cells, the
slits close up, and the frond appears as if continuously membranous. The tubular,
longitudinally seriated cells, or those that form the veins and nerves of the frond, seem
to continue to lengthen during the whole growth of the lamina ; they are short in
young plants, longer in others, and in old plants are many times longer than their
diameter. The cell-wall in these cells is thick and tough, and when viewed under a
H
50 VALONIACE^.
moderately high magnifying power it appears to be transversely striate. The primordial
sac readily separates from the outer cell-wall.
This plant was first noticed in the Mediterranean Sea, where it grows in the fissures
of littoral rocks in many places. It occurs also in Brazil, from whence I possess a
specimen ; and is found generally throughout the West Indian Islands. Our Key West
specimens are rarely more than two inches high and about three in breadth. The
largest specimen I possess was given me by the late Mr. Menzies, as having been
dredged in twenty fathoms in the Gulf of Mexico. This specimen measures six inches
across, and its venation ofiers some peculiarities ; which perhaps may lead to its specific
separation. In our Key West plants the seriated cells of the principal veins stand apart
from each other, or are in single file, leaving wedgeshaped spaces between. In Mr.
Menzies' specimen the principal veins are partly unicellular, partly formed of several
parallel, closely placed cells, without interspaces. The structure is easily seen, but
difficult to describe in intelligible language. Should subsequent observations establish
this plant as a species, it may be called A. Menziesii.
Plate XLIV. A. Fig. 1. Anadyomene flahellata^ full grown ; and Fig. 2, a young
plant ; the natural size. Fig. 3 represents Fig. 2, magnijied, to show the structure of
the frond.
V. DICTYOSPH^RIA. Due.
Boot consisting of a few grasping processes. Frond, a decumbent, amorphous mem-
brane composed of a single series of vesicated, sub-globose, tough-coated cells, filled
with green, fluid endochrome. Fructijication unknown.
The plant for which this genus was defined by Decaisne was formerly referred to
Valonia, to which no doubt it is closely allied, but from which it differs by the greater
lateral coherence of the cells which compose the frond, and also by the structure of these
cells. It is of common occurrence throughout the tropics of both hemispheres. On the
coast of Australia a second species is equally common, difieringfrom D.favulosa in the
frond being never vesicated, and in the component cells being very much smaller, the
surface flatter, and the frond having a silky lustre. This I have elsewhere described
under the name D. sericea.
1. DictyospHjERIA favulosa, Dne.; frond at first globose and hollow, afterwards
irregularly torn, expanded ; the vesicated cells globoso-hexagonal, convex, and very
prominent. Dne. An. Sc. N^at. Ser. 2. vol. 17, p. 328. Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 512.
Valonia favulosa, Ag. Sp. Alg. 1. p. 432. (Tab. XLIV. B).
ULVACE^. 61
Hab. Key West, W.H.H., Prof. Tuomey. (No. 103). (v. v.)
Fronds at first globose, like tubers, heaped together, hollow and empty or filled with
sea-water, attached to the rock and to each other by a few short, rooting processes ; at
length irregularly torn, and then forming expanded, cartilaginous, or skinlike coarsely
reticulated membranes. The membrane is wholly composed of a single layer of large,
globose, or by mutual compression hexagonal cells, which closely cohere by their sides,
leaving the convex ends of the cell free, and these form the surface of the membrane,
which when dry resembles a piece of fish skin, or a miniature honeycomb. When the
cells have been separated, each is seen to be marked at the line of junction by a double
row of circular discs. In full grown cells the primordial utricle is easily separable from
the outer cell-wall, and contains a green, granular endochrome ; from which, by cell-
division, four new cells are formed, and thus the frond extends by repeated quadrisection
of its component cells. The cell-wall is very tough and semifibrous in texture, more
like an animal than a vegetable membrane ; and I have seen hairlike processes issue
from it internally, analogous perhaps to the fibrous processes of the membrane of Caulerpa.
I cannot say whether this be a constant character. It was observed in specimens from
the Pacific brought home in spirit, and cannot be readily ascertained from dried specimens.
Plate XLIV. B. Fig. 1. DiCTYOSPH^Ru/auMfosa, the natural size. Fig. 2. Portion
of the surface, showing the division of the cells. Fig. 3. One of the cells of which the
frond is composed, removed ; the latter figures magnijied.
Order IY.— ULVACE^.
Grev. Alg. Brit. p. 168. Hooh Br. Fl. 2, p. 309. Harv. Man. p. 211. /. Ag.
Alg. Medit. p. 14. Endl. 3rd Suppl. p. 18. Ulvacece et Enter omorpheoe, Kiitz.
Spec. Alg. pp. 471-475.
Diagnosis. Green or purple, marine or fresh water Algas, composed of small, poly-
gonal or quadrate cells, forming expanded membranes or membranous sacs or tubes ;
rarely arranged in filaments. Fructification, zoospores formed in the cells of the frond.
Natural character. Root a small disc, or point of attachment. Frond formed of
small, often very minute, roundish, quadrate or polygonal cellules cohering together
into thin, filmy membranes, of no very definite form, and either expanded into broad
leaves, contracted into narrow ribbons, or forming tubes which are either simple or
branched. In those of lowest organization, such as Tetraspora, the frond is of a nature
so loosely gelatinous that it can only by courtesy be called a membrane, and the cells
which give it consistency are widely separated by transparent jelly. In Prasiola the
52 - ULVACEiE.
cells are closer, with narrower hyaline interspaces, and the gelatine has a firmer consis-
tence, more like that of ordinary cellulose ; and in Viva there is perfect cohesion
between thin-walled cells, and the membrane formed by them is firm, and often rigid
and tough. Perhaps in all cases the cells multiply by a fissiparous division into four,
the old cell dividing longitudinally and transversely. This is very obvious wherever the
cells stand sufficiently apart, as in Tetraspora and Frasiola, and in the more trans-
parent Enteromorphce ; but is less evident in the ordinary marine Ulvce. Most of the
UlvacecB have the brilliant, grass-green common to the Chlorosperms ; but in the genera
Porphyra and Bangia the frond assumes a more or less pure dark-purple hue, and
hence some authors have removed these genera to the Rhodosperms. But I cannot
think such removal natural or desirable ; for there is really no difierence between
JJlva and Porphyra in structure or fructification, and the occurrence of a purple colour,
or even of a purer red, is by no means limited among Chlorosperms to these plants.
We frequently find purple colours in Batrachospermea;, especially in Tliorea ; they
occur also in Oscillatoriacese and in Palmellacege ; and in the latter, and also in the
spores of CEdogonia a pure carmine or scarlet is often seen.
The fructification of the Ulvaceee consists in zoospores, which are formed indifierently
in all or in any of the cells of the frond, and are furnished with two or four cilia. Their
development and germination are beautifully figured by Thuret in his valuable memoir
on the zoospores of Algte, in An. Sc. Nat. Ser. 3, vol. 14.
Ulvaceae are universally dispersed either in salt or fresh waters throughout the world,
and several are found on damp soil, or in half inundated places. All the genera and
most of the species are cosmopolitan. Their specific characters are difiicult to fix, and
authors differ very much in their opinions respecting them. Kiitzing describes a mul-
titude of species, which other writers find it difficult to separate, even as varieties. The
form of the frond, in the foliaceous species, is assuredly a most uncertain character ; and
the comparative size and branching of the tube, in the tubular, equally variable.
SYNOPSIS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN GENERA.
* Porphyrese : frond purple.
I. Porphyra. Frond leaf-like, purple.
II. Bangia. Frond filiform, purple.
** Ulvea; : frond green.
III. Enteromorpha. Frond membranous, tubular, simple or branched.
IV. Ulva. Frond membranaceous, leaf-like.
V. Tetraspora. Frond gelatinous, expanded.
ULVACEiE. . 53
I. PORPHYRA. Ag.
Frond membranaceous, flat and leaf-like, purple. Fructification, dark purple gra-
nules (spores) arranged in fours, dispersed over the whole frond.
The species of this genus are difficult to determine, and I am induced, in this place,
to unite the P. vulgaris and P. ladniata of authors, which I have elsewhere (Phyc.
Brit.) figured and described as distinct. They appear to me to run one into another ;
and if we contend for two species, with equal justice might we make half-a-dozen. Both
are indifferently used in England in the preparation of " marine saicce," or laver, which
is often brought to table as an accompaniment to roast meat. Kiitzing describes
sixteen species, several of which are probably reduceable to the following : —
I. PoRPHYRA vulgaris, Ag. ; frond polymorphous, either undivided or cleft into
several broad segments ; sometimes peltate, fixed by a middle point. P. purpurea, and
P. laciniata, Ag. Sp. Alg. p. 19O — 191. P. vulgaris, Ag. Aufz. p. 18. Harv.
Phyc. Brit. #.211. P. laciniata, Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 92. Wyatt. Alg. Damn.
No. 32. P. linearis, Grev. P. amethystea, Kutz.
Hab. Rocks between tide marks. On the eastern shores from Charleston, South
Carolina, to the Arctic Regions. Western Coast, from California to Russian America
(V.V.).
Very variable in form in different localities and at different stages of growth. In an
early state it is either oblong or linear-lanceolate, with an evident though minute
stipes, and then it constitutes the P. linearis of Greville, which is found truest to its
type in the beginning of winter, in situations near high-water mark, where its vegeta-
tion is less vigorous. Later in the season the form usually called P. vulgaris, as
figured in Phyc. Brit. t. 211, will be found in the same locality, and also throughout
the whole space between tide marks. In this the frond is ovate or ovato-lanceolate, or
broadly lanceolate, much waved at the margin, and without obvious stipe, several inches
long and 2-3 inches wide. P. laciniata, Ag., which merely differs in having a deeply
lobed or divided lamina, grows mixed with the simple variety (P. vulgaris) ; and
specimens may easily be found which are intermediate in character. The state called
P. umbilicalis grows on exposed rocks, generally near low water mark, and looks more
like a different species than any of the other varieties. In it the frond is always short,
usually of a very dull colour, fixed by a point removed from the margin of the lamina,
and therefore somewhat peltate, with the upper side depressed or umbilicate in the
centre. This variety is rarely more than two or three inches in length. Other varieties
attain to 8 or 10 inches or more.
The colour varies with the age and condition of the fronds. Often it is olivaceous
green, with little or no trace of purple ; but generally it is of a fine dark purple,
54 ULVACEiE.
especially when in fructification, the colour being wholly derived fi'om the fructifying
cells. The colour also generally becomes more intense and more purple after steeping
in fresh water, and in the process of drying ; and the dried plant has a very glossy
surface, like satin. Sometimes it adheres to paper and sometimes not ; and it always
shrinks considerably in drying.
II. BANGIA. Lyngb.
Frond thread-shaped, tubular, composed of numerous radiating cellules, disposed in
transverse rows, and enclosed within a hyaline continuous sheath. Spores purple, one
formed in each cell of the frond.
This genus was founded by Lyngbye on the Conf. fusco-purpurea of Dillwyn, and
several other Alg^e, both marine and of fresh water, which are more or less nearly allied
to it. Some of these have been properly removed. The genus still contains some
anomalous species, but the three following appear to me to be con-generic. The genus
was first placed by Greville in Ulvacese. This position has been questioned, and I was
formerly disposed to concur with those who refer it to the neighbourhood oiLynghya in
Oscillatorieee ; but a careful examination, especially of B. vermicularis, has now con-
vinced me that Bangia cannot be far removed from Porphyra^ to which it bears the
same relation that Enteromorpha bears to Viva.
1. Bangia fuscopurpurea, Lyngb. ; filaments elongated, simple, decumbent, nearly
straight, capillary, here and there constricted, forming a brownish-purple, glossy stratum ;
granules several in each transverse band, dark purple. Lyngb. Hyd. Dan. p. 83, t. 24.
Grev. Alg. Brit., p. 177. Wyatt, Alg. Danm., N'o. 167. Harv. Phyc. Brit, t. 96.
Kittz. Sp. Alg. p. 360. B. atropurpurea, Ag. Syst. p. 76. Alg. Bur. t. 25. Conferva
fuscopurpurea, Dillw. t. 92. B. Bot. t. 2055, and C. atropurpurea, Dillw. t. 103.
E. Bot. t. 2085.
Hab. On rocks and wood-work between tide marks. Newfoundland, Herb. Mon-
tagne. Narragansett Pier, Prof. Bailey. Little Compton, Mr. Olney. Providence, M.
Charles Giraud. Lynn, Mass. Mrs. Estes. (v. v.).
This is attached to rocks and stones, or to woodwork, and occurs in stratified patches
of indefinite extent, of a dark purple colour. The filaments are 2-3 inches long, and
float freely in the water, lying down in a fleece when left by the retreating tide. They
vary greatly in diameter according to age, and the miscroscopic characters are equally
varied in young and old specimens. In the young state the filament is formed of a
ULVACE^. 65
series of very short cells, much shorter than the diameter of the filament ; each con-
taining an undivided mass of dark purple endochrome, and at this age the whole
structure is very similar to that of Hormotrichum. When further advanced, the
endochrome divides longitudinally into many quadrate portions, round each of which
a cell membrane grows, and they become so many cells arranged in a radiant manner
round a central point, and appear, when viewed from the side, as transverse rows of
beadlike granules tessellating the filaments. Eventually, from repeated cell division,
the arrangement in transverse lines becomes difiicult to observe, and the filament looks
like a confused mass of tissue. The number of transverse granules seen in each row
depends on age. The figure in Phyc. Brit, represents an old state of the plant when
the granules have multiplied. The colour under the microscope is a beautiful ame-
thystine purple.
I have only received this plant from the above-named American localities, but it is
probably to be found along the rocky shores of all the northern States. In the British
Islands it grows indifierently in the sea or in fresh water ; in the latter case it often
occurs on the walls and gates of canal locks, and it may be expected to occur in similar
situations in America. The specimen from Newfoundland is in a very advanced
stage ; the filaments being of large diameter, irregularly constricted, and their granules
very numerous in each band, and of minute size. The specimen from Lynn, on the
contrary, is very young, with the transverse rows just beginning to be formed.
2. B XffGi A. vermicular is, Harv.; root scutate ; filaments basifixed, twisted, setaceous
at the base, gradually widening upwards and at last claviform, much incrassated toward
the end, undulating, flaccid, with a wide, hyaline, firm investing tube ; transverse bands
closely placed ; granules dark-purple, vertically flattened, few in each whorl toward the
base, very crowded and numerous toward the upper portion of the filament. (Tab.
XLIX. A.)
Hab. Golden Gate, California, A. D. Frye (v. s. in Herb. T. C. D.)
Filaments fixed at the "base by a scutate root, and probably freely floating in the
water ; perhaps tufted, but the specimens received have been pulled asunder. Each
filament is about two inches long ; at its origin it is of the diameter of human hair ; it
becomes gradually thicker upwards, until, near the apex, in old filaments, it is at least
twice as thick as hog's bristle. The form is therefore linear-clavate, though the club be
very slender in proportion to its length. When dried the threads look like sinuous
worms, tapering from a thickened apex to a very slender base. A cross section shows
a central cavity surrounded by a variable number of radiating, cuneiform, dark-purple
endochromes. Toward the base of the filament there are but four of these in a plane ;
a little higher up there are eight, and in the upper portions they are not only indefinitely
numerous in the whorl, but they form dichotomous radiating strings extending hori-
zontally from the central tube to the circumference. They do not cohere in regular
moniliform filaments, but there seems a tendency to do so. It is difiicult, in this part
56 ULVACE^.
of the frond, to see the exact cellular structure, owing to the great transparency of the
cell-walls, and the facility with which the endochromes are thrown out of their cavities
when cross-sections are moistened.
This is a very distinct species, remarkable for the great diameter of its worm-
like filaments, and their clavate form. Notwithstanding its somewhat greater com-
plexity of structure, I think there can be no doubt of its near afiinity with B. fusco-
purpurea.
Plate XLIX. A. Fig. 1. Bangu vermicularis, the natural size. Fig. 2. A frond ma^-
nijied. Fig. 3. Base; 4. middle portion ; and 5, apex of the same. Fig. 6,7,8. Trans-
verse sections at different heights. Fig. 9 and 10. Radiating endochrome-cells, all
highly magnijied.
3. Bangia ciliaris, Carm. ; filaments very minute, (forming a rosy down on the
fronds of other Algae) basifixed, straight ; granules either in a single series, or two or
three in each transverse row. Harv. Phyc. Brit. tab. 322. Chauv. Rech. p. 37.
Hab
;. Parasitic on Chondria atropurpurea, at Charleston, S. C, W.H.H. (v. v.)
This forms a very short, bright, rose-red downy pile on the fronds of the Chondria.
Each filament is scarcely the tenth of an inch in length, and consists either of a single
row of cells shorter than their diameter ; or of a double or triple series of such cells.
Possibly it may be only the very young state of B. fuscopurpurea ; but the habitat
is different, and the colour much brighter.
III. ENTEROMORPHA, ZM.
Frond tubular, membranaceous, green, reticulated. Fructification, granules, com-
monly in fours, contained in the cells of the frond.
The tubular frond distinguishes this genus from Ulva. The tube varies greatly in
width, in different or even in the same species. Sometimes it is of no greater diameter
than that of human hair ; and sometimes it is one or two inches across, forming an
inflated bag. The species are widely dispersed, extremely variable in ramification and
general appearance, and some of them are among the commonest of all littoral algas.
The green stringlike weeds that infest the bottoms of boats and vessels lying in harbour
are generally species of this genus, and mostly E. compressa, which is found in all parts
of the ocean from the Arctic and Antarctic basins to the Equator.
ULVACE^. 57
1. Enteromorpiia intestinalis, Link ; fronds jjerfectly simple, elongated, becoming
inflated, obtuse, tapering extremely to the base. Link, Hor. Fhys. Ber. p. 5. Grev.
Alg. Brit. p. 179- Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 154. Wyatt, Alg. Damn. No. 80. E. Bot.
Sup. p. 2756. Kutz. Sp. Alg. p. 478. Ulva intestinalis, Linn.
Hab. Whalefish Islands, Davis's Straits, L>r. Lyall. Boston Bay, Dr. Gray. Provi-
dence, Khode Island, Mr. Olney. New York Bay, Mr. Walters, ^-c. Beesley's Point,
Mr. Ashmead. Sullivan's Island, Mr. Ravenel. (v. v.)
Very variable in the length and breadth of the frond. Old specimens are often much
inflated and bag-like ; tlie frond being 1-2 inches in diameter. Others, often from the
same locality, are not more than quarter of an inch in breadth.
2. Enteromorpha compressa, Grev. ; fronds elongated, branched, cylindrical or sub-
compressed ; the branches simple or nearly so, long, obtuse, much attenuated at the
base. Grev. Alg. Brit. p. 180 t. 18. Harv. Phyc. Brit. tab. 335. Wyatt, Alg.
Danm. No. 168. Kutz. Sp. Alg. p. 480.
Hab. Sea shores, extremely common, (v. v.)
Under one or other of its many forms this species is found on all parts of the American
coast extending also up the estuaries of tidal rivers. Our most northern specimens
were collected in Lat. 75° 42' by Dr. Sutherland.
3. ENTEROMORPHAcZa^Amto, Grev. ; frond tubular, tesselated, cylindrical, slender, very
much branched ; branches erect or spreading, sometimes squarrose, more or less beset
with slender tapering subulate ramuli. Grev. Alg. Brit. p. ISl. E. clathrata, erecta
et ramidosa, Hooh. Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 340, t. 43, and t. 245. Wyatt, Alg.
Danm. Nos. 34, 166, and 208. E. clathrata, ramulosa, paradoxa, ^c. Kutz. Sp. Alg.
p. 479.
Hab. Eock pools, &c. Rhode Island, Mr. Olney. Staten Island, New York, Professor
Bailey. Red Hook, &c., Messrs. Hooper and Calverley. Boston Bay, Captain Pike.
Beesley's Point, Mr. Ashmead. (v. v.)
Very variable in appearance, but generally more slender and filiform than E. com-
pressa, and also more cylindrical. It is usually densely tufted, capillary, or setaceous,
soft to the touch and very much branched ; the branches either erecto-patent or patent ;
sometimes horizontal or squarrose, repeatedly decompound, and their ultimate divisions
furnished Avith slender ramuli that taper to a fine point, and are not constricted at base.
These ramuli are sometimes very numerous, sometimes few, and either short and spine-
like or elongated and filiform. When short, horizontally spreading, numerous and
I
58 ULVACE^.
spinelike, the plant becomes E. ramulosa of authors. I have seen the varieties ereda,
ramulosa and clathrata from the American coast. The cells of which the walls of the
frond are composed are larger and more quadrate than those of E. compressa ; the
surface therefore looks tessellated.
4. Enteromorpha HopMrkii, McCalla ; frond excessively slender and byssoid, flaccid,
very much branched ; branches feathery, decompound, erect, attenuated, set with minute
subulate ramuli ; cellules large, hyaline, each containing one or two minute grains of
endochrome ; the ramuli formed of a single series of such cells. Harv. Phyc. Brit.
tab. 263.
Hab. In rock pools between tide marks. Greenport, Mr. Hooper, (v. s.)
Tufts very soft, 3-4 inches long. Fronds very slender and much branched. The
frond of this species is composed of much larger and more hyaline cells than in the
preceding, and the endochrome is of very minute size in proportion to the cells in which
it is lodged. This species occurs also on the shores of England and Ireland ; but is
not so common as others of the genus, and appears to be sufficiently characterised by
its cellular structure. The ramuli are articulated, like the branches of a Cladophora.
IV. ULVA. L.
Frond membranaceous, flat, and leaflike, green. Fructification ; green granules
(spores) often arranged in fours, dispersed over the whole frond.
Under this generic name I still retain the species of the modern genera Prasiola,
Viva, and Phycoseris ; the first of which differs from the second in having its cellules
arranged in a most obviously tessellated pattern ; and the last, from either of the pre-
ceding, by its membrane consisting of two layers of cells instead of a single layer.
The species of the section Prasiola are of minute size, and are found in damp places,
on the soil, on old walls and on decaying timber and thatch, &c. ; and no doubt several
(such as P. crispa, P. calophylla, &c.) occur in America, but I have not received any
American specimens. Kiitzing describes a P. mexicana, Lieb. from Mexico, in words
which would apply equally to the P. crispa of Europe.
Sect. 1 . Phycoseris ; membrane formed of a double layer of cellules.
1. Ulva (Phycoseris) /ascja to, Delile; frond stipitate, cartilagineo-membranaceous,
rigid, cleft into several strapshaped segments, which are undulate at the margin, and
irregularly toothed or sinuate. Del. Egypt, p. 153, t. 58, /. 5. Mont. Alg. Alger,
p. 151, t. 14, fig. 1-2. Phycoseris fasciata,Kutz. Sp. Alg. p. An . Viva divisa, Suhr!
ULVACE^, 59
Hab. California, Dr. Coulter. Shores of the Gulf of Mexico, Dr. Schott. (v. v.)
More rigid than U. latissima, and divided into many long narrow segments, half an
inch to an inch wide, and 6-8 inches long or more, preserving a nearly equal breadth
throughout, and either simple or forking. Sometimes the laciniation is almost pinnate,
having an undivided leading segment with lateral and often opposite lesser segments.
Sometimes the division extends nearly to the base, and the form is then palmate. The
margin is mostly toothed, or cut, and frequently undulate. The colour is a full grass
green, and the substance rigid. It does not adhere to paper in drying.
I possess authentically named specimens from Montagne and Von Suhr.
2. Ulva (Phycoseris) Lima, Linn. ; frond linear-lanceolate, acute, crisped at the
margin, composed of two membranes closely applied. Linn. Sp. PI. p. 1633. Ag. Sp.
Alg. l,p. 413. Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 39. Wyatt, Alg. Danm. No. 164. Phycoseris
Lima and P. lanceolata, Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 475, (and probably others.)
Hab. Eocky shores of British America, and of the north-eastern States. Halifax,
W.H.H. Boston Bay, Captain Pike. New York Bay, Messrs. Calverley, Hooper, &c.
(v. V.)
Boot a small disc. Frond 6-12 inches long or more, from half inch to one or two
inches in width, linear-lanceolate, tapering to the base, and either blunt or attenuated
at the apex, much waved and curled at the margin ; formed of two distinct, separable
membranes, closely applied and cohering together. Colour, a full, brilliant grass green,
becoming pale in age. Substance, rather soft and thin. It adheres to paper in drying.
Agardh's U. Bertolonii appears to me to be a form of this species, which is also
nearly allied to Enteromorpha intestinalis, with which, if we omit the inflated frond,
there is much similarity in form and structure. It is not so common as the following
species, but is nevertheless widely dispersed.
3. Ulva (Phycoseris) latissima, Linn. ; frond polymorphous, very broad, ovate or
oblong, simple or lobed, undulate, bright green. Lin. Fl. Suec. p. 433, Ag. Sp. Alg.
1,^.407. Harv. Phyc. Brit. tab. 171. Wyatt, Alg. Danm. No. 33. Phycoseris
gigantea and others, Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 476.
Hab. Common on the American coast, (v. v.)
Fronds from six inches to two feet in length, from three to twelve inches in breadth,
tufted or scattered ; very variable in shape, sinuated and wavy or flat, often plaited.
Substance, thin and soft, very smooth and glossy, like fine green silk. Colour, a bril-
liant green, when growing near high water mark ; darker, and often glaucous when
obtained from deep water, and sometimes turning brownish in the herbarium.
60 ULVACE^.
Specimens are often found pierced with holes, the result either of age or of the attacks
of worms. Such individuals constitute the Phycoseris myriotrema of Kiitzing.
Sect. 2. Ulva. Membrane formed of a single layer of cellules.
4. Ulva lactuca, Linn. ; " frond at first obovate, saccate, inflated, at length cleft
down to the base ; the segments plane, unequal, laciniated, semi-transparent," Grev.
Lin.Sp. PL p. 1632. Ag. Sp. Alg. 1, p. 409. Grev. Crypt. Scot. t. 313. Harv.
Phyc. Brit. t. 243. Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 474.
Hab. Boston Bay, Miss E. H. Brewer. Indianola, Texas, Dr. Schott. (v. v.)
Much thinner and more delicate in substance, and of a paler colour than JJ. latissima ;
and clearly characterised, on dissection, by its simpler membrane. It is more trans-
parent, and the cells are more regularly grouped in fours, more distant, with hyaline
interspaces. When young it forms a bag, like a very short and broad Enteromorpha.
It closely adheres to paper in drying.
5. Ulva bullosa, Roth. ; frond very delicate, gelatinoso-membranaceous, at first
saccate, afterwards bursting, and opening out into a broad, wavy or torn floating
membrane. Both, Cat. Bot. 3, p. 32d. Ag. Sp. Alg. 1, p. AlA. Harv. Man. Ed. 1,
p. 171. Hass. Br. Fr. Wat. Alg. p. 297, t. 7S, Jig. 13. Tetraspora bullosa, Kiitz.
Sp. Alg. p. 226.
Hab. In fresh-water ponds and ditches. Whalefish Islands, Davis's Straits, Dr.
Lyall. (v. V.)
Probably as common in stagnant pools in America as it is in Europe, but I have as
yet only seen specimens brought from the Arctic Eegions by Dr. Lyall. When young
it is attached, and somewhat tubular, like large specimens of Ent. intestinalis ; but it
afterwards bursts open, and then generally floats on the surface, being buoyed up by
bubbles of oxygen, which it disengages.
By Kiitzing this species is referred to Tetraspora, from which it scarcely differs by
any definite character.
V. TETEASPORA. Link.
Frond gelatinoso-membranaceous, tubular, inflated or flat, green. Fructification,
green granules (spores) arranged in fours, dispersed throughout the hyaline cells of
the frond. (In fresh water.)
BATKACriOSPEEMEiE. 61
This genus scarcely differs from TJlva on the one side and Palmella on the other.
The frond is more gelatinous that in Ulva ; and more membranous than in Palniella.
The whole of the endochrome is converted into spores, which are arranged in squares
and more distantly placed than in Ulva.
1. Tetraspoka lacunosa, Chauv. ; frond at first tubular, then flat, or irregularly
lobed, membranaceo-gelatinous, pale -green, everywhere pierced with roundish holes of
various sizes. Chauv. Alg. Norm. Breb. Alg. Fal. p. 11, t. 1. Kiltz. Sp. Alg. p.
227. T. Godeyi, De Breb. Kiitz. Tab. Phyc. t. 30,/. 3. T. perforata, Bailey, M.S.
Hab. In fresh-water streams. Abundant near Westpoint, Prof. Bailey. Providence,
Rhode Island, 3fr. Olney. (v. s. in Herb. T.C.D.)
Frond at first funnel-shaped, afterwards splitting open, and then flat, expanding
upwards and irregularly lobed, everywhere pierced with roundish holes of various sizes,
large and small intermixed. These holes increase in size and numbers with age, and
thus at last the frond becomes an open network. The substance is very gelatinous, but
rather firmer than in some other species of the genus. The colour is a pale gx'een ; and
the hyaline gelatinous membrane is filled with roundish granules set in fours.
Kiitzing's figure of T. Godeyi answers well to our plant. I have not seen any
authentic specimens of T. lacunosa, which is referred by Kiitzing to his T. lubrica,
var. /9., but the description given of it applies to the American plant. When carefully
dried, it forms a very pretty object for the Herbarium.
Order Y.— BATRACHOSPERME^.
Batrachosperme^, Ag. Syst. p. 23, (partly) Harv. Man. Ed. 1, p. 119- Berk.
Crypt. Bot. p. 136, Dne. class, p. 33 (partly.) Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 535. Lemaniece,
Ag. Sp. Alg. 2, p. 1. Harv. Man. Ed. 1, ;?. 118, Dne. Class, p. 3], Kiitz. Sp.
Alg. p. 527 (partly.)
Diagnosis. Blackish-green, olivaceous or purplish fresh water Algge, with filiform,
branching, inarticulate fronds, composed of small cells ; naked, or whorled with monili-
form ramelli. Fructification ; moniliform strings of naked spores, either forming
external tufts, or concealed within a tubular frond.
Natural Character. Boot merely a point of attachment or little disc, by which the
frond is firmly fixed to the substances (usually rocks and stones in rapid rivers and
62 BATRACHOSPERME^.
streams) on which it grows. The plants referred to this Order naturally group
themselves into two suborders, distinguished from each other by the habit of the frond
but closely related in structure and fructification, and as it seems to me inseparably
connected by the genus Tuomeya, which unites in itself the characters of the seemingly
so dissimilar genera Batrachospermum and Lemanea. In the first suborder (Batra-
chospermece verce) the branching filiform frond consists of a solid axis, invested with a
gelatinous coating, and composed of vertical, confervoid filaments, strongly glued
together. This axis is either, as in Batrachospermum, whorled at short intervals with
moniliform ramelli, formed of globose cellules strung together ; or else, as in Thorea,
it is uniformly clothed with a villous stratum of byssoid ramelli, formed of cylindrical
cellules. The fructification, so far as known in this suborder, consists of globular, very
dense tufts of spore-threads, similar in structure to the ramelli, but of more minute
size, and far more densely packed together. I question whether they be properly spores^
probably they are rather highly developed or compound gemmae. In the second sub-
order, Lemaniece, the frond is denuded of confervoid ramelli, and consists altogether of
a compound, filiform axis, composed of minute cells. In Lemanea the frond is hollow
and tubular, the walls of the tube being laxly constructed within ; and moniliform
strings of spores, similar to those of Batrachospermum, are attached to the surface of
the tube. This structure is almost the exact reverse of that of Batrachospermecje,
where the central axis is most solid, and clothed externally with moniliform filaments.
In Tuomeya the frond has at first the external characters of a Lemanea, but is furnished
with an axis having the structure of a Batrachospermum, as if a Batrachospermum
were developed within the tube of a Lemanea ; and when fully developed the surface is
uniformly coated with minute filaments, as in Thorea.
Authors differ much in their views of the proper limits of this Order, Decaisne
unites with it Liagora and Dichotomaria (Galaxaura) both of which are undoubtedly
Rhodosperms ; and Myrioclaclia, which is a Melanosperm. Kiitzing separates Batra-
chospermum as the type of an Order of which it is the only genus ; while he refers
Galaxaura, Aetinotrichia and Lemanea to his Lemanieae ; and places Thorea with his
Chffitophorideae. My own views more nearly correspond with those of Mr. Berkeley,
who brings Batrachospermum, Thorea, and Lemanea together into one Order. These
genera are exclusively fluviatile or lacustrine, so far as I am aware. The marine
variety ^^ purpurascens," Roth, oi Batr. moniliforme is founded on a figure of Dillenius
(Hist. Muse. t. l.fig. 40j which certainly looks very like a Batrachospermum, but the
original specimen preserved in the Dillenian Herbarium belongs, according to Turner,
to Ceramium diaphanum. The marine " Thorea Americana" of Kiitz. is assuredly
not a congener with T. ramosissima, the type of the genus ; but properly referred by
Bory, who first described it, to Chordaria.
Like most fresh water Algaj, several of the species are widely distributed. Batra-
chospermum moniliforme is found throughout Europe in various parts of Asia, in Tas-
mania and New Zealand, and in extra-tropical South America ; and B. vagum and
atrum, of which as yet I have seen no North American specimens, have nearly as exten-
sive a range. Lemanea torulosa occurs in Europe. Tuomeya fluviatilis has only as
yet been found in North America, but occurs in distant localities (New York and
Alabama) and may probably be found to have a much larger area of distribution.
BATRACHOSPERME^. 6^
TABLE OF THE NORTH AMERICAN GENERA.
Sub-Order I. Batrachosperme^ ; Frond filamentous, gelatinous, externally clothed
with minute articulated ramelli.
I. Batrachospermum. Frond nodose, ramelli whorled,
Sub-Order II. LEMANiEiE. Frond cartilaginous, solid or hollow, with a cellular
peripheric stratum.
II. TuoMEYA. Frond solid, with a filiform, nodoso-articulate axis.
III. Lemanea. Frond hollow.
I. BATRACHOSPERMUM. Roth.
Root discoid. Frond filamentous, gelatinous, branched, consisting of an articulated
longitudinally striated axis beset with closely placed whorls of moniliform, free ramelli.
Fructification, globose clusters of seriated spores, attached to the ramelli. In fresh water.
Widely dispersed plants inhabiting clear fresh-water streams and wells in most parts
of the world ; rarely found in stagnant waters. Several species have been described,
but the characters of many are unsatisfactory. All are exceedingly gelatinous, every
part of the frond being invested with a clear, rather firm mucus, and when removed
from the water the collapsed branches have the colour and general aspect and feel of
frog-spawn; whence the generic name. Kutzing, in Plate 8 of his Phycologia Gene-
ralis, has given figures to illustrate the early development and gradual formation of the
frond. At first the young plant consists merely of a string of moniliform cells. Soon
there is a distinction into an axis and ramelli, the axis consisting of a series of long,
pellucid cylindrical cells, placed one above the other ; and the ramelli being more
coloured, formed of roundish cellules, and placed at the nodes of the axial filament,
round which they gradually form a whorl. At first these ramelli are simple ; after-
wards they are repeatedly dichotomous. The axis in the young plant consists merely
of a string of naked cells ; in the full-grown frond it is invested with a sheath or outer
coat formed of slender filaments which issue from the bases of the whorled ramelli,
growing downwards like roots, adherent to the axis and continued to the next node.
These give the longitudinally striate appearance to the axial filament ; and in old fronds
they constitute the axis itself, which then becomes tubular, from the absorption or
rupture of the primordial tube.
1. Batrachospermum moniliforme, Roth. ; frond irregularly much branched, very
64 BATEACHOSPERME^.
gelatinous ; whorls of ramelli globose, distinct, the branches resembling strings of beads.
Kiitz. Sp. Alg. 1, p. 535. Harv. Man. Ed. 1, p. II9. Hass. Brit. Fr. Wat. Alg.
p. 108. Conferva gelatinosa, Dillw. Conf. t. 32. E. Bot. t. 689.
Hab. On stones, &c. in running streams and wells of fresh water. New York, Prof.
Bailey, Mr. Calverley. Virginia, Mr. Jackson. Alabama, Prof. Tuomey. South
Carolina, Mr. H. W. Ravenel. Michigan, Dr. A. Gray. (v. v.)
Fronds densely tufted, gelatinous, capillary, irregularly much branched, decompound,
the branches tapering to their extremity, beset with short tapering ramelli, which are
very patent and once or twice divided. All the branches and ramuli are raoniliform,
and are composed of a filiform cylindrical axis ; set at short intervals with very dense,
globose whorls of multipartite, dichotomous ramelli. The axis is formed of an articu-
lated monosiphonous filament, externally coated with a sheath of closely-placed, cohering,
longitudinal, parallel, articulated, very slender filaments, derived from the bases of the
whorled ramelli, and developed along the internodes from above downwards. The
ramelli are excessively branched, and composed of short cells much constricted at the
points of union ; the lower ones are somewhat pyriform, the upper lanceolate. The
masses of fructification are very dense, appearing to the naked eye like black grains
among the ramelli. When examined, by squeezing between two glasses on the table of
the microscope, they are seen to consist of exceedingly densely packed, minute, dichoto-
mous ramelli, radiating from a common centre. These ramelli scarcely differ in
structure from those of the ordinary whorls, and can scarcely be regarded as composed
of true spores ; but seem to be rather of the nature of gemmae. The general colour of
this species varies much : commonly it is a dark slate colour, sometimes it is olive-green,
and often becomes purple after having been dried.
B. moniliforme is found in most parts of the world. It is very common in fresh-
water streams in Europe ; and we have received it from Van Diemen's Land, New
Zealand, and Cape Horn.
II. TUOMEYA. Harv. (Nov. Gen.)
Frond cartilaginous, continuous, solid, at first transversely banded, afterwards
annularly constricted ; composed of a longitudinal axis, and two strata of peripheric
cells. Axis columnar, consisting of several longitudinal, cohering filaments, beset with
closely placed whorls of moniliform ramelli, whose branches anastomose horizontally
and vertically into a cellular peripheric membrane, which is coated externally with
moniliform filaments, gradually developed. Fructification (probably in the superficial
filaments.) In fresh water.
TuoMEYA fluviatiUs, Harv.
BATRACHOSPERMEJ:. 65
Hab. On stones, in rivers and streams. River in Alabama, Prof. Tuomey. Near
Fredericksburg, Virginia, Prof. Bailey, (v. s. in Herb. T.C.D.)
Fronds tufted, an inch or two in height, scai'cely as thick as hog's bristle, much and
irregularly branched, bushy ; the branches alternate or secund, scattered or crowded,
twice or thrice divided, and set with scattered, patent ramuli, which are slightly con-
stricted at the insertions, and taper to an obtuse point. When young the branches
and ramuli are perfectly cylindrical, and when examined under a low power of the
microscope show a surface composed of minute, dotlike cells, placed close togethec,
and marked at short intervals with dark coloured transverse bands. These bands
disappear under a higher magnifying power. They are indications of the nodes of the
axis of the frond, seen through the peripheric stratum. In old, fully developed speci-
mens the branches and ramuli are annularly constricted at short intervals, the nodes
becoming swollen, while the internodes remain unchanged. When a young branch is
bruised between two pieces of glass the axis may be readily extracted. It consists of
several parallel, longitudinal, jointed threads combined together at closely placed nodes,
from which issue horizontal dichotomous filaments composed of roundish or angular
cells. These excurrent filaments spread both horizontally and vertically, and their
branches anastomose into a cellular mass or fleshy membrane which forms the inner
peripheric stratum. In young plants a portion of the frond, between the axis and
periphery, is hollow, but in older ones the cavity is quite filled up with cells. The
external surface of the cellular periphery is clothed with a coat of moniliform filaments
gradually developed, and forms what is above called the second peripheric stratum.
These are found only in fully grown specimens ; they consist of much smaller cells
than those of the inner stratum ; they are more strongly coloured, and I consider them
to be connected with fructification. The colour is a dark olive. The substance is
brittle and rigid when dry ; and the plant scarcely adheres to paper.
I formerly received specimens of this curious little plant from my late friend
Prof Bailey, under the name " Lemanea fuviatilis ;" but, as may be gathered from
the above description, it is very dilFerent from Lemanea in structure and much more
nearly related to Batra^hospermum. The external habit, substance, and colour are
however those of a Lemanea, and without microscopic examination it might pass for
one. The structure is difficult to see and also to describe in words. What I have called
the inner peripheric stratum is externally as solid as the walls of a Lemanea ; the outer
periphery consists in a continuous clothing of the external surface of the frond with
minute, fastigiate, horizontal ramelli, not unlike those of which the globose fructifi-
cations of a Batrachospermum are made up. In young specimens only can the mode
of evolution of the frond be observed ; old specimens become completely blocked up
with cellular tissue, and seem to be solid in every part when a transverse slice is
examined ; their axis may, however, be seen by employing a compressing glass.
The generic name is bestowed in memory of the late Prof Tuomey of Tuscalosa,
Alabama, so often mentioned as a valuable contributor to these pages. I have not
ventured to make a drawing from the dried specimens which alone I have yet seen.
66 BATBACHOSPERME^.
III. LEMANEA, Bory.
Frond cartilaginous, continuous, tubular, branched, its periphery composed of two
strata of cells, the inner stratum formed of roundish, empty, vesicated cells ; the outer^ of
minute, closely cohering, angular, coloured cellules. Fruit, tufts of seriated spores,
attached to the inner surface of the tubular frond. (In fresh water streams and rivers.)
The species referred to this genus are found in fresh water streams and rivers,
attached to stones by a discoid root. They are very dissimilar in appearance from
other fresh water algte, being of a remarkably firm fucoid substance, opake and closely
cellular. In many respects, however, they approach BatracJiospermum, near which
genus I have long considered to be their true systemic position, an opinion which
must be considered as confirmed by the discovery of Tuomeya, a genus of intermediate
structure. Kiitzing associates Lemanea with Galaxaura and Actinotrichia, two genera
that appear to me to belong to Helmixthocladie^, among the Ehodospermatous groups.
Thwaites has given in the 20th vol. of Linn. Trans, a short account of the early develop-
ment of the frond in L. fluvlatills. The spores at first vegetate into confervoid,
slender jointed filaments, with long joints containing a spirally arranged endochrome.
These constitute a sort of pro-thallus, or pseudo-colytedonous condition of the plant.
After a time thick branchlets, the germs of the permanent frond, spring from the cells
of the confervoid filament ; they are at first wholly dependent on the cell from which
they rise, but soon acquire rootlets at their base, and rapidly elongating grow into the
cellular, opake, cartilaginous fronds characteristic of the genus. Kiitzing, Phyc. Gen.
t. 19, also illustrates the early development, and gives elaborate sections of the cellular
structure of the mature frond.
1. Lemanea torulosa, Ag.; frond tufted, subsimple or divided near the base, robust,
nodoso-constricted at short intervals, or moniliform, tapering from the base to the apex.
Ag. Sp. Alg. 2, p. 6. Act. Holm. 1814. tah. % jig. 1. Kutz. Sp. Alg. p. 62%.
L. variegata, Ag. f I. c. p. 7.
Hab. On rocks and stones in rivers and streams. Kentucky, Dr. Short, (v. s.)
Root discoid. Stems many from the same base, 4-8 inches long or more, twice or
thrice as thick as hog's bristle, rising from a very slender, capillary base, and gradually
increasing in diameter upwards for about an inch, thence maintaining an equal diameter
for I of their length, and again tapering oif at the extremity ; either quite simple or
divided shortly above the base into numerous simple branches. The frond is regularly
constricted and swollen at intervals of from one to two lines, so as to be nodose in the
younger, and moniliform in the more advanced state, the distances between the swellings
as well as their intensity varying in different specimens. The walls of the tubular
frond are thick, composed of two layers of cells, the outer layer consisting of very minute
and closely crowded radiant, coloured cellules, whose apices unite to form the exterior
COKFEKVACEtE. 67
coating of the frond, the inner of three or four rows of large, colourless, oblong, irregu-
larly anastomosing cells. The tube is traversed and crossed by a few slender, cylindri-
cal, long jointed filaments issuing from the inner peripheric cells. Globose masses of
fructijication are attached to the inner face of the tubular frond, either at the nodes or
between them, without any apparent order. They consist (as in Batrachospermum)
of very densely crowded, moniliform, subsimple strings of cellules radiating from a
central point. The general colour is olivaceous when recent, and very opake ; it becomes
a livid purplish in drying. Substance firmly cartilaginous or subcoriaceous. It does
not adhere to paper in drying.
Agardh describes a L. variegata, " filis moniliformibus variegatis," as sent to him by
Muhlenberg, from North America. By the description given it seems merely to differ
from the common L. torulosa in being variegated with alternate bands of dark and
pale, a character most probably dependant on the state of the specimens. I am indebted
to Dr. Short of Kentucky, for fine specimens of the ordinary form. L. Jluviatilis, which
is the commonest European species, has not been sent to me from America.
Ordek YI. CONFERYACEiE.
Confervece, J. Ag. Alg. Medit. p. 1 2. Harv. Man. Ed. 1 and Ed. 2, p. 1 96. Lindl.
Veg. Kingd.p. 18. Confervoidece, Endl. SdSupp.p. 14. Confervacece, Berk. Crypt.
Bot. p. 131. Confervacece and Chcetophoroidece, (partly) Dne. class, p. 31, Kutz. Sp.
Alg. pp. d63-5Sl.
Diagnosis. Green, marine or fresh water Algae, composed of articulated threads or
filaments, and of cylindrical cells usually longer than their diameter. Endochrome dif-
fiised, or filling the cavity of the cell. Zoospores minute, indefinitely numerous in each
ceU.
Natural Character. Root rarely more than a mere point of attachment, and often
perishing on the evolution of the frond, which then floats on the surface of the water.
Frond in all cases filamentous, composed of strings of truncated, more or less cylindri-
cal cells, placed end to end, and usually longer than their diameter. These cells are
never branched, like those of the Siphonacece, and are usually much shorter in propor-
tion to their diameter than in that order ; but as compared with those of most of the
filamentous Algae they are long, varying however extremely in different species. The
endochrome generally fills the cavity or primordial utricle of the cell, but varies greatly
in density. In some cases it is thin and watery, and in others very dense, granular,
and subopaque. It is sometimes arranged in transverse bands. In most cases the
cell wall is membranaceous, soft, but of firm texture ; but in Draparnaldia and
Chcetophora, the filaments are invested with gelatine, and in the latter genus numerous
68 CONFERVACE^.
filaments are enclosed within a common gelatinous envelope, and thus formed into
somewhat compound fronds. In the great bulk of the Order no fructification other than
minute zoospores has been observed. These are formed out of the colouring matter of
the cells, are furnished with vibratile cilia, and when they escape from the cell in which
they have been organised, enjoy for a time active powers of locomotion. At length fixing
themselves to some object they change their form, becoming cylindrical ; and then,
dividing repeatedly, are changed into articulated filaments similar to those of the parent
plant. In the Confervm the frond lengthens in two ways ; either by the repeated
bisection of all the cells of the frond, as is usually the case in the unbranched species ;
or by the evolution of new cells, constantly at the apex of the terminal cell, as is com-
mon in the branching species. In these latter the cell, after having once formed one
or more new cells out of its apex by a cutting off of the summit from the basal portion,
remains unchanged, without further growth or- cell division. If but one new cell be
formed at the apex, the filament will be simple ; but in the branched species two or
more cells are formed, the central one continuing the frond, while the lateral ones, which
spring just below the summit of the old cell, grow out into branches.
The Confervacese are almost universally dispersed in water of every character
found on the surface of the globe. Many are marine, but perhaps the largest number,
at least of individuals, if not of species, are found in fresh water. The marine species
usually grow within tidal limits, but several of the Cladophora? occur in the Laminarian
zone, and some even at a greater depth. The fresh water species are found in lakes
and ponds, in rivers, streams, and wells, and in thermal springs or in mineral waters.
A large number of genera and species have been described ; but I fear the proper
number of both genera and species has been much exaggerated, and that multitudes
must be erased from the list whenever the Order shall be carefully revised. The fresh
water species have as yet scarcely been attended to in America. I have received very
few of these, and most of them in a state unfit for examination. Indeed, dried specimens
of such obscure algae are of little value for determining species. A few of the more
remarkable are here described ; being all those that I can clearly make out from the
specimens received. It is, however, often a difiicult task either to refer one of these
species to its supposed type, or to devise specific characters that shall not be illusory
for what appear to be new forms. The characters usually msisted on, namely, the
length of the cells as compared with their diameter, the absolute diameter of the cell,
and the degree of ramification of the filament, are all subject to much variation. There
appear to be no definite limits to any of these characters in any species. We are
forced therefore, in describing them, to be content with rude approximations. Figures
are of little use, for in many of the species, such as Chadophora glomerata, scarcely two
specimens are in all respects similar.
CONFERVACE^. 69
TABLE OF THE NORTH AMERICAN GENERA.
Sub-order 1 . Ch-STOPhore^e. Frond invested with gelatine.
I. Chjetophora. Numerous filaments combined into a gelatinous frond of definite
form.
II. Draparnaldia. Filaments separate, fasciculately ramulose.
Sub-order 2. Conferve^. Frond destitute of a gelatinous coating.
III. Cladophora. Filaments tufted, erect, branched.
IV. Ch^tomorpha. Filaments unbranched, membranaceous, with a thin cell-wall.
V. Hormotrichum. Filaments unbranched, gelatino-membranaceous, with a thick
cell-wall ; nodes constricted.
VI. Rhizoclonium. Filaments decumbent, spuriously branched, the branches few
and rootlike.
I. CH^TOPHORA. Ag.
Frond gelatinous, polymorphous, of definite form ; the gelatine tran versed by many
filaments aggregated together and issuing from a common base. Filaments articulated,
branched ; articulations of the branches nearly hyaline, those of the ramuli filled with
green endochrome. Sporangia globose, attached to the ramuli. Zoospores formed in
the articulations. (In fresh water.)
The species form gelatinous masses, of definite or sub-indefinite form, attached to
sticks, water-plants, or stones, in stagnant or running water. The gelatine is colourless,
tolerably firm and tenacious, and when a portion is placed under the microscope is seen
to be traversed in every part with slender, articulated, branching filaments, variously
arranged. The filaments are dimorphous, that is, their main divisions are formed of
differently shaped cells from those that compose the ramuli. The latter alone contain
much endochrome. Fructification has, as yet, been seen only in very few species. In
some stage of growth the terminal cell of the ramuli is tipped with a very long, hyaline
bristle, whence the generic name, from ^aiTJ?, a bristle, and <^opem, to bear. The two
following species have been sent me from America ; both are common European plants.
Probably several others occur in American waters.
1. CHiETOPHORA endiviwfoUa, Ag. ; frond elongate, irregularly much branched ;
branches linear, scattered, or fasciculate, very patent, dichotomous or pinnate, or
secundly ramulose ; longitudinal filaments parallel, hyaline, or transversely banded,
70 CONFEEVACE^.
emitting at short intervals tufts of multifid briglit-green ramuli. A(/. Syst. Alg. p. 28.
Lyngh. Hyd. Dan. t. 'oh, jig. C. Kutz. Sp. Alg. p. 532. Hass. Brit. Fr. W. Alg.
p. 125, t. 9, Jig. 1-2.
Hab. On sticks and stones, in running streams and ponds. Near West Point, Prof.
Bailey. Cumberland, Khode Island, Mr. Olney. South Carolina, Mr. Ravenel. (v. v.)
Frond gelatinous, varying greatly in size and in ramification ; the younger specimens
thicker, with fewer branches ; the older attenuated and compound. The American
specimens before me are 1-3 inches long, and from 1-2 inches in the expansion of the
branches. Their fronds are not more than half a line in diameter, linear, filiform, and
excessively branched, the branches very much crowded on a prolonged axis, from which
they issue without order and are directed to all sides. They are sub-dichotomous, and
more or less densely set with divaricated, simple or forked ramuli. When a portion of
a branch is examined with a magnifier, it is seen to be composed of several parallel,
longitudinal, articulated filaments, lying apart from each other, being separated by a
gelatinous matrix ; their cells are 4-6 times as long as broad, hyaline or marked with
a central transverse band of granules, and they emit, at short intervals, horizontally
spreading, multifid, coloured ramuli. The branching of the ramuli is irregular, and
between fasciculate and pinnate, the ramification being sometimes densely crowded,
sometimes distant. The cells of these ramuli are filled with green endochrome ; they
are 2-3 times as long as broad, and the terminal cells, which are short, are either
simple or carry at their summit a long bristle-shaped acumination. Substance gelatinous.
The plant closely adheres to paper in drying.
This species occurs in fresh-water ponds and streams in all parts of Europe, and its
many minor varieties have received several names. All agree in microscopic structure.
The ramification of the gelatinous matrix alone is variable, and that is a character of
very little moment. Professor Bailey's specimens are labelled " Batrachospermum
Americanum, Schweinitz ;" a synonym referred by Agardh to his Drapamaldia
opposita, which is quite different from the Alga now described.
2. Ch^tophoka pisiformis, Ag. ; frond globose, carnoso-gelatinous, formed of nume-
rous erect, radiating, sub-parallel filaments emitting to the circumference dichotomo-
multifid patent branches. Ag. Syst. p. 27- Sass. Brit. Fr. Wat. Alg. p. 128, t. 9,
Jig. 5-6. Kutz. Sp. Alg. p. 532.
Hab. On sticks, in fresh- water ponds and ditches. Dr. Witt's Meadow, New York,
Prof. Bailey, (v. v.)
Frond the size of a pea, or less, globose, several occurring together on the same stick,
gelatinous, but rather firm, bright green. When bruised between two glasses, and
examined under the microscope, the gelatinous matrix which forms the globe is seen to
be everywhere filled with much branched filaments which rise from the base and radiate
CONFERVACEiE. 71
towards all parts of the circumference, sending forth multifid coloured branches verti-
cally and laterally. The articulations of the filaments are once, twice or thrice as long
as their diameter in different parts, contracted at the dissepiments, and filled with bright
green endochrome. In a young state the apices of the ramuli are prolonged into setae,
or needleshaped, colourless acuminated cells, but these are deciduous in this and other
species of the genus. Colour^ a bright green.
Possibly this species is only a small state of C. degans.
II. DRAPARNALDIA, Bory.
Filaments separate, gelatinous, articulated, dimorphous ; the articulations of the
stem and branches hyaline, transversely banded ; those of the ramuli filled with green
endochrome. Zoospores formed in the articulations. (In fresh water.)
Yerj beautiful, and extremely gelatinous, bright green, filamentous, much branched
Algae, found in clear wells and gentle streams. The structure of the filaments is similar
to that of the filaments of the Chcetophorce ; and this genus merely differs from the
preceding in its filaments being separate one from another, and not combined by means
of gelatine into a compound frond. It therefore bears the same relation to Chcetophora
that Vaucheria does to Codium. The name was bestowed by Bory de S. Vincent in
honour of M. Draparnaud, a French naturalist.
1. Drapabnaldia opposita, Ag.; frond vaguely much branched ; joints of the main
filament as long as broad, or shorter ; pencils of ramuli mostly opposite, densely set,
lanceolate-acuminate in outline, plumose, bi-tripinnate, the apices much attenuated.
Ag. Syst. p. 59. Kiitz. Sp. Alg. 357. Lyngb. Hyd. Dan. tab. 65, Jig. A. Batra-
chospermum Americanum, Schweinitz.
Hab. In clear streams. New York, Professor Bailey. New Jersey, Mr. Jackson.
(v.s.)
Frond 2-3 inches long, gelatinous, capillary, irregularly much branched ; the branches
patent, lateral, more or less divided, and set with lesser ramuli. Main filaments with
short articulations, as long as their breadth or shorter, transversely banded. At every
two or three nodes and sometimes at every node a pair of opposite penicillato-multifid
ramuli are thrown off. These are bright green, ovato-lanceolate in outline, much
acuminated and twice or thrice pinnate, their pinnules somewhat constricted at the nodes,
and tapering at the apex into long, needle-like, hyaline points. Their cells are com-
monly nucleated and filled with endochrome.
Whether this be permanently distinguishable from D. glomerata is doubtful. It has
externally the aspect of that species, but its microscopic characters are nearer those of
D. plumosa.
72 CONFERVACE^.
2. Deapaenaldia glomerata^ Ag. ; frond vaguely much branched ; articulations of
the main stems once or twice as long as broad, swollen in the middle ; pencils of ramuli
alternate or scattered, often distant, ovate in outline, fasciculato-multifid. Ag. Syst. p.
58. .Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 356. Lyngh. Hyd. Dan. t. 64. Hass. Brit. Fr. W. Alg.
p. 120, tab. 13,/. 1. Conferva mutabilis, Dillw. Conf. t. 12. E. Bot. t. 1746.
Hab. In clear streams. New York, Professor Bailey. Rhode Island, Mr. Olney.
(v. V.)
Very similar to the last species, but less densely plumose, with scattered fascicles of
ramuli.
3. Deapaenaldia plumosa, Ag.; frond very slender, elongate, much branched ;
joints of the main filaments once or twice as long as broad ; pencils of ramuli opposite
or whorled, plumose, much attenuated, pinnate or bi-pinnate, the apices of the pinnules
acicular. Ag. Syst. p. 58. Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 357. Hass. Brit. Fr. W. Alg. p. 121.
tab. 12,/. 1.
Hab. In streams. West Point, Professor Bailey, (v. v.)
More slender than D. glomerata, and much more branched, forming dense, gelatinous
tufts, 3-6 inches long, often much drawn out in running water. In the American
specimens the articulations of the stem and branches are about twice as long as broad,
slightly constricted at the nodes, and swollen in the middle. Several seriated cells of
this length follow each other, and then occur two or three short, nearly globular cells
consecutively, which shorter cells emit the opposite or ternary penicillate ramuli. This
alternation of longer and shorter cells occurs throughout the branch, the shorter ones
always producing the ramuli. The ramuli are pinnate or bi-pinnate, but much less
compound than in J), opposita or D. glomerata.
The synonymy of this species is confused. The American plant differs slightly from
the European specimens with which I have compared it, but I am not disposed to fhink
it specifically different. Indeed the three forms now described as species are so similar
in all essential respects, that it may well be questioned whether they should be kept
separate.
III. CLADOPHORA. KUtz.
Filaments (not gelatinous) tufted, articulated, uniform, branched. Articulations
filled with green, granular endochrome, which is changed at maturity into zoospores.
(Marine or in fresh water. j
An immense genus, in which, for the present, are placed almost all the branching
CONFERVACE^. 73
species of a green colour formerly referred to the genus Confei^a. The species are
extremely difficult to define, and have been unreasonably multiplied ; but are so much
diversified that it is difficult to avoid giving diffiirent names to the many forms met
with, if they are to be described at all. Kiitzing admits 210 species, and probably
nearly 100 more have been described by other authors. A wholesale reduction will
probably be eventually made. I have referred most of the American forms, approxi-
maitely or absolutely, to European types ; in some cases perhaps incorrectly. But
unless better specific characters than those at present in use shall be discovered, it is
almost impossible to find words to characterise, as distinct, nearly allied forms. When,
therefore, I meet with an American specimen reasonably like a European, I here place
them under the same head, or specific name. Several doubtful specimens I have been
unable satisfactorily to identify, and hold them over for future examination, should
better materials be sent to me.
Sect. 1. — Species found in the sea.
* C^SPiTOS^. Filaments short, rigid, densely interwoven into cushion-like tufts.
1. Cladophora repens, J. Ag. ; filaments short, emitting root- like processes, densely
interwoven into globose or expanded mats, capillary, rather rigid, sparingly and very
irregularly branched ; branches erect, subsimple, filiform, naked or having a few secund
ramuli ; articulations cylindrical, many (10-20) times as long as their diameter.
J. Ag. Alg. Medit. p. 13. Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 236. Kutz. Sp. Alg. p. 416.
Hab. On rocks, &c. in the sea. Key West, W. H. H. (v. v.)
Tufts very dense, an inch or two in breadth and about half an inch high, cushion-
like, composed of innumerable, interwoven, capillary filaments. The filaments are at
first decumbent, and connected by rootlike fibres which form the substratum of the
mat ; the branches are erect, simple or branched, with or without secondary ramuli.
The articulations vary greatly in length in specimens from different localities.
This species is a native of the Mediterranean, and also of the British Channel Islands.
Except in the length of the articulations, which also vary much in the same filament,
the European and American specimens nearly coincide.
2. Cladophora memJranacm, Ag.; filaments short, creeping, densely interwoven into
globose or expanded mats, somewhat fastigiate, thick, almost setaceous, flaccid, mem-
branaceous, sparingly and irregularly branched ; articulations many times longer than
broad. Ag. Syst. p. 120. Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 415.
Hab. On rocks and the smaller Algee. Key West, W.H.H.^ Professor Tuomey.
(v. V.)
74 CONFERVACE^.
Matted tufts an inch or more in diameter, sometimes widely spreading. Filaments
scarcely an inch long, rising from creeping fibres, sparingly branched, flaccid, the
branches very irregular, few or many, either undivided or once or twice compounded,
naked or having a few secund ramuli toward the ends. Articulations, especially the
lower ones, very many times longer than broad, their membrane thin and membranous.
Colour a very pale green, with watery endochrome.
This has the densely matted habit of the preceding species, but the filaments of which
the mats are composed are much more robust, and less rigid, of a paler green, &c.
Kiitzing well observes that it has the aspect of a Valonia.
** KuPESTRES : rigid, dark-green, tufted ; the cell-wall thick.
3. Cladophoba rupestris, L.; filaments capillary, rigid, dark-green, straight, tufted,
bushy ; branches erect, crowded, densely clothed with appressed, opposite or tufted,
subulate ramuli ; articulations three or four times as long as broad. Linn. Sp. PI. p.
1637. Dillw. Conf. t. 23. E. Bot. t 1699- Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 130. Kiliz. Sp.
Alg. p. 396. Wyatt, Alg. Danm. No. 95.
Hab. Rocky shores, near low water mark. Fiskernaes, near Cape Farewell,
Greenland, Dr. Sutherland. Halifax, W. H. H. (v. v.)
Root a largish disc. Filaments densely tufted, 2-6-8 inches long (in my American
specimens scarcely two inches), capillary, rigid, very dark-green, much branched ; the
branches straight and very erect, repeatedly divided, the divisions either alternate or
opposite. Penultimate branches often nearly naked, filiform, elongated, very erect and
straight ; in luxuriant specimens set throughout with opposite or fascicled or scattered
subulate ramuli, whose terminal cell is sometimes acute, sometimes obtuse. The process
of cell division is well illustrated in this species, and may be observed even in dried
specimens, so perfectly does the endochrome recover its form. The cells of the middle
portion of the branches divide as well as those of the younger ramuli, and consequently
consecutive cells are found of various lengths.
Two specimens of what I take to be a much denuded and battered state of this species
were collected by Dr. Sutherland, in the Arctic expedition under Captain Inglefield, in
the above mentioned locality, and have been sent to me by Professor Dickie of Belfast.
They are faded to a dull green. The substance and ramification, so far as branches
remain unbroken, are those of C. rupestris ; but in one specimen the articnlations are
very short, being only as long as their diameter, or scarcely longer. This peculiarity
at first seems suificiently characteristic of a distinct species, but a little further exami-
nation shows that the character is deceptive, resulting merely from the ordinary
process of cell-division being in this specimen carried to an excess. On the other
specimen are cells of the common length mixed with these short or halved cells ;
and intermediate stages occur which quite explain the unusual character of the first
specimen.
CONFERVACE^. 75
4. Cladophora cartilaginea* Rupt.; tufts ? filaments robust, setaceous
elongate, firm, somewhat rigid, rather sparingly branched ; branches very erect, scattered^
long and virgate, undivided, straight, set with a few scattered, erecto-patent, filiform
branchlets, which are either naked or bear one or two minute ramuli ; articulations in
the older parts much shorter than their diameter ; in the younger (towards the ends of
the branches) as long, or twice as long as broad. Rup. Alg. Ochotzk, p. 211, (403.)
Hab. Unalaschka, Dr. Ruprecht. (v. s. in Herb. T.C.D.)
My only specimen is a fragment, bu,t it seems to belong to a well characterised species
of large size. The portion before me is about four inches long, with a few lateral
virgate branches, set at very acute angles, quite simple, straight and three inches long,
furnished with several scattered, simple, erect ramuli, each of them from half an inch to
an inch in length, obtuse, nearly as thick as the stem from which they spring. These
are mostly naked, but in a few cases they bear a minute ramulus near the tip. The
apices are not attenuated. The diameter of the filament is equal to that of hogs' bristle.
The substance is firm and cartilaginous, and the colour a pale-green. Through the
greater part of the filament the articulations are much shorter than their diameter ;
but towards the apices they are longer, and the few terminal joints are twice as long as
broad, or more.
*** Arct^. Filaments soft, forming dense, spongy, fastigiate tufts of a pale, but
vivid green.
5. Cladophora arcta^ Dillw. ; tufts dense, more or less matted at the base, starry,
fastigiate, soft, brilliant and glossy green ; filaments capillary, much branched ; branches
straight, crowded, very erect ; ramuli opposite or scattered, erect or appressed ; articu-
lations in the lower part of the frond about twice as long as broad, in the upper (younger)
branches many times longer than the diameter ; apices obtuse. Dillw. Conf. Supp,
p. 67, t. E. E. Rot. t. 2098. Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 135. C. arcta, vauchericeformis,
and centralis, Auct. C. scopcefurmis, Rup,
Hab. Coasts, from the Arctic Regions to New York Bay, on rocks near low water
mark. Whalefish Islands, Davis's Straits, Dr. Lyall. Prince Edward's Island, Dr. Jeans.
Penobscot Bay, Br. Young. Boston Harbour, Mr. G. B. Emerson. New York Bay,
Messrs. Walters, ^c, W. H. H. (v. v.)
Besides this species Dr. Euprecht notices the following from Russian America :— C adherens, Rup. from
the Arctic Sea, allied to C. arcta (if it be different) ; C. Chamissonis, Rup. from Unalaschka ; C. Mertenm, R.
from Sitcha ; C. viminea, Rup. from Sitcha and Unalaschka ; C. scopceformis, and C. coalita, from Northern
California. Of these Dr. Ruprecht has sent me fragments of C. Chamissonis, C. viminea, and C. coalita; but as
he has not, that I am aware of, assigned full specific diagnoses to any of the above species, I am unwilling to
describe the few that I possess, from the very imperfect materials at my command, lest I might add to the
confusion already sufficiently confounded in this genus. I collect the above names from Dr. Euprecht's Alff.
Ochotsk., as already quoted.
76 CONFERVACE^.
This species varies much in minor characters, but may generally be known by its
lubricous substance, brilliant colour, fastigiate tufts, and straight, much branched fila-
ments which radiate to every side from a common base, in a star-like manner. In the
young plant the tufts are less dense, the filaments nearly free from each other to the
very base ; but as the plant advances in age, root-like processes are developed along the
lower part of the filaments, while the tufts become matted together, sometimes into a
compact spongy frond. In very old specimens this condensation takes place throughout
the whole length of the filament, except in the very youngest ramuli. The tufts are
from two to four inches in height, hemispherical, or variously divided into two or more
hemispherical or flabelliform lobes, and are generally level-topped. They are composed
of many parallel, much branched, capillary filaments, of nearly equal diameter from base
to apex ; the branches all very straight and erect, repeatedly but most irregularly
divided, and set with lateral, erect, straight ramuli, which are nearly as robust as the
branches from which they spring, and very obtuse. Toward the base of the filaments
the articulations are once or twice as long as broad ; a little farther up they are three
to four times ; and in the young branches and ramuli six to eight or twelve times as
long as broad. In the state or variety called C. centralis they are uniformly short
throughout except in the very young tips. The endochrome is dense and granular, and
recovers its form on being moistened after having been dried. The colour in general
is well preserved in drying, in which state the tufts retain much of their gloss, and
closely adhere to paper.
Authors have made several species out of what we regard as simply C. arcta in
different stages. Thus C. vauchericeformis is the young, half-developed form ; C. arcta-,
Auct. the middle stage ; and C. centralis the old plant, where the matting together of
the threads has been carried to an extreme point. Other species of Kiitzing's section
Spongomorpha might probably be added to these synonyms A fragment of C. scopce-
formis, Rup. from Russian America, sent to me by Dr. Ruprecht himself seems to belong
to one of the spongy forms of this species. C. arcta is perennial ; and specimens
collected in the same locality at different seasons will be found to put on, successively,
all the characters attributed to the three principal forms indicated above.
6. Cladophora lanosa, Roth. ; tufts dense, globose, small, fastigiate, yellow-green ;
filaments slender, irregularly much branched ; branches straight and virgate, erect,
patent ; ramuli few, scattered, erect, straight ; axils acute ; articulations in the lower
part twice, in the upper six to eight times as long as broad. lioth. Cat. Bot. 3, p. 291,
/. 9. E. Bot. t. 2099. Lyngb. Hyd. Dan. t. 56. Kutz. Sp. Alg. p. 420. Harv.
Phyc. Brit. t. 6. Wyatt, Alg. Damn. 194.
Hab. On the smaller Algae, and on Zostera ; generally epiphytic. Boston Bay, Mr.
G. B. Emerson, (v. v.)
Tufts rarely more than an inch in diameter, globose, dense, formed of many filaments
radiating from a common base. These filaments are at first separate, but at length by
means of rooting processes issuing along their sides, they become somewhat interwoven
CONFERVACE^. 77
below. They are fastigiate and very irregularly divided, but mostly straight, with erect
branches and ramuli. The lower articulations are short ; the upper, and especially the
terminal ones, are very long. The endochrome generally recovers its form after having
been dried, at least in the younger portions of the frond, if it have not been discharged,
as often happens, by the rupture of the membrane, when the frond is immersed in fresh
water. This plant adheres closely to paper.
A much smaller species than C. arcta, to which, as well as to C. uncialis, it is nearly
allied.
7. Cladophora uncialis, Fl. Dan. ; tufts short, vivid-green, very dense, spongy,
globose, simple or somewhat lobed, fastigiate, composed of numerous filaments matted
together by lateral rootlets ; filaments flexuous, sparingly bi'anched, interwoven ;
branches and ramuli distant, patent, curved, alternate or secund ; articulations of
uniform length, about twice as long as broad. FL Dan. t. Ill, jig. 1. Lyngb. Hyd.
Dan. t. 56. Ag. Syst. p. 111. Wyatt, Alg. Damn. 146. Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 207.
Kutz. Sp. Alg. p. 420.
Hab. On rocks near low water mark. Prince Edward's Island, Dr. Jeans. Halifax,
W. H. H. Nahant, Mrs. Mudge. (v. v.)
Tvfts about an inch in height and diameter, very dense and spongy, either somewhat
globose, or cleft into numerous spongy divisions, fastigiate. Filaments very numerous
from a common base, densely matted and interwoven by root-like processes developed
along the sides, flexuous, more or less compound. Branches very irregularly disposed,
generally distant, secund or alternate, once or twice again divided, and having a few
patent, curved, simple ramuli. Colour, when growing, a vivid-green ; instantly dis-
charged in fresh water, and in drying the specimen fades to a pale yellow-green, especially
toward the centre of the tuft. The endochrome recovers its form and fills the cell, on
moistening after having been dried. The articulations in all parts of the filaments are
of nearly uniform length, twice or thrice as long as their diameter. Substance soft but
not gelatinous.
Very nearly related to C. lanosa, but the place of growth is different, and the fila-
ments are more flexuous, the branches more patent, and the rooting processes more
numerous.
**** Graciles. Filaments loosely tufted, feathery, very slender, pale or bright-green.
8. Cladophora glaucescens. Griff. ; filaments loosely tufted, pale or glaucous green,
very slender, flexuous, excessively branched ; branches erecto-patent, flexuous, repeat-
edly sub-divided, the penultimate ones pectinated with closely set, elongate, straight,
slender, many celled, erect or sub-erect ramuli ; axils acute ; articulations constricted
at the nodes, nearly uniformly thrice as long as broad, those of the main branches a
little the longest. Wyatt, Alg. Danm. No. 195. Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 196. Kutz. Sp.
78 CONFERVACE^.
Alg. p. 403. Var. ^. pectinella; small, very slender, all the divisions of the ramifica-
tion secund, the penultimate ramifications closely pectinated with short ramuli and
recurved.
Hab. On rocks and stones, between tide marks and in rock pools. Halifax, W. H. H.
Lynn and Nahant, Mrs. Mudge. Portsmouth, N. H., Dr. Durkee. "New York Bay,
Messrs. Hooper, Calverley, Walters, and Pike. Beesley's Point, Rhode Island, Mr.
Ashmead. Var. /3. Charleston, S. C, Prof. L. Gibbes, W. H. H. (v. v.)
Filaments very slender, 3-5 inches long, forming tufts of greater or less density, but
not usually entangled or interwoven, excessively branched, the main divisions and
principal branches flexuous, sometimes very much so, closely beset with lesser branches
which divide either alternately or secundly, the tendency to secund ramification
increasing as the frond extends. The penultimate branchlets are generally closely
pectinated with secund, erect, straight, simple ramuli composed of several cells ; and
occasionally the ramuli are fascicled, three or four springing from the same cell. Though
always very slender, the diameter varies. The articulations, on the whole, are pretty
uniform ; those of the ramuli are most consti'icted at the nodes, and also a little the
shortest. In drying the endochrome is dissipated from the centre of the cell, and
collapsed at the two ends, so that the filaments, in dried specimens, have a variegated
appearance under a pocket lens. On remoistening, it never perfectly recovers its form.
My Halifax specimens are identical with those published by Mrs, Wyatt, and on
which the species was originally founded. Those from other localities vary in some
degree, being either coarser or more slender, and more or less branched ; but on the
British coasts similar varieties occur.
9. Cladophora flexuosa, Grifi". ; filaments very slender, pale green, tufted, flexuous,
sparingly and distantly branched ; branches elongate, sub-simple, of unequal length,
flexuous, sometimes nearly naked, sometimes ramuliferous ; the ultimate ramuli secund
or alternate, short or long, curved ; articulations of the branches 3-4 times, of the
ramuli twice as long as broad. Griff, in Wyatt, Alg. Danm. No. 227. Harv. Phyc.
Brit. t. 353.
Hab. Rock pools between tide marks, &c. Hingham, Massachusetts, Miss Brewer.
Boston, Dr. Durkee. Jackson Ferry and Hell Gate, New York, Messrs. Walters and
Pike. (v. s.)
Very nearly related to C. glaucescens, if really specifically distinct. It is chiefly
known by its less compound habit, the length and nakedness of the principal branches,
and their flexuosity. The diameter of the filament is nearly as in C. glaucescens: the
articula ions are rather longer. Some of the specimens are nearly destitute of ramuli,
and scarcely two of those before us agree in all respects.
10. Cladophora Morrisice; tufts elongate, dense, somewhat interwoven, dark green ;
CONFERVACEiE. 79
filaments very slender, much and irregularly branched, the penultimate branches very
long, filiform, flexuous, simple, set with alternate or secund, short, erecto-patent ramuli,
some of which are simple and spine-like, others pectinated on their upper side ; articu-
lations filled with dense endochrome, in the branches 2-3 times, in the ramuli about
twice as long as broad, cylindrical, not contracted at the nodes. (Tab. XLV. B.)
Hab. Elsinborough, Delaware, Miss E. C. Morris, (v. s. in Herb. T.C.D.)
Tufts dense, 6-8 inches in length. Filaments inextricably bundled together, very
slender, much branched, the ramification of the principal divisions not determinable
from dried specimens. The penultimate branches which float out from the somewhat
rope-like tufts are generally simple for an inch or two- in length, or the longer ones are
furnished with similar simple branches ; and all are beset with short, erecto-patent
ramuli. Some of the ramuli are simple, of 3-4 cells ; others emit similar ramuli
on their upper side. The membrane of the cell-wall is very thick and tough, and
the endochrome peculiarly firm, recovering its form well on being moistened after
having been dried. The nodes are not contracted, and the internodes or articulations
rarely exceed thrice their diameter in length, and often do not reach that dimension.
The colour is a full dark-green, somewhat olivaceous when dried. Specimens adhere
closely to paper.
I have as yet only received this plant from Miss Morris. It differs in several
respects from any that I now remember.
Plate XLV. B. Cladophora Morrisice ; Fig. 1, the natural size. Fig. 3,
portion of a branch : and Fig. 2, a ramulus of the same; magnified.
1. Cladophora refracta^ Roth. ; filaments very slender, rather densely tufted, bright
green, membranaceous (not lubricous), excessively branched ; secondary branches
spreading on all sides, repeatedly divided and very patent, densely set with short, often
opposite, recurved or squarrose branchlets, which are pectinate on the inner face with
patent, simple or forked ramuli ; articulations of the branches 2-4 times of the ramuli
about twice as long as broad. Roth. Cat. 2, p. 193. Alg. Syst. p. 114. Wyatt,
Alg. Danm. No. 228. Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 24. Kiltz. Sp. Alg. p. 398.
Hab. On rocky coasts, in tide pools, &c. Rhode Island, Mr. Olney, Mr. G. Hunt.
Boston Bay, Dr. A. Gray. Portsmouth, N. H., Dr. Durkee. New York, Messrs.
Calverley., Walters, and Pike. Newport, R. I., Professor Bailey. Seaconot, Mr.
Congdon. Charleston, S. C, Professor Gibbes. (v. v.)
Tufts 2-3 inches long, feathery, rather diffuse, the main filaments sometimes inter-
laced in rope-like bundles. Filaments more slender than human hair, rather rigid, tough,
excessively branched, all the divisions patent or divaricate. The penultimate ramuli
are especially reflexed or refracted, and often opposite ; their ultimate divisions are
bo CONFERVACE^.
either simple or forked. The colour is a brilliant green, but it does not well preserve
in drying, in which state the specimen is without gloss and generally pale. The
endochrome is generally dissipated in drying, and does not, in ordinary cases, recover its
form when the frond is remoistened ; sometimes, however, the endochrome remains.
A beautiful species, and tolerably easily known. The American specimens are very
similar to our West of Ireland plant, but more robust than those from the South Coast
of England.
12. Cladophora alhida, Huds.; filaments exceedingly slender, flaccid, but not gela-
tinous, pale green, forming dense, silky or somewhat spongy, soft, intricate tufts, very
much branched ; branches zigzag, their divisions very patent, the lesser branches very
frequently opposite, and nearly horizontal ; ramuli alternate, opposite or secund, patent
or divaricating ; articulations 3-5 times as long as broad. Huds. FL Angl. p. 595.
E. Bot. t. 2327. Wyatt, Alg. Danm. No. 96. Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 275.
Hab. On rocks and algae, between tide marks. Staten Island, Dr. Torrey. Beesley's
Point, Mr. Ashmead (64, 65, 66). New York Bay, Messrs. Calverley, Walters, ^-e.
(v. V.)
Tufts 6-8 inches long, very dense and soft, and somewhat intricate or woven together,
occasionally feathering and opening out freely. Filaments excessively slender and very
much branched, and so interwoven that it is impossible to trace the branching. In the
American specimens the main branches are very flexuous, angularly bent from side to
side, and very much divided, all the divisions squarrose or divaricating. The penulti-
mate branches, which are nearly horizontally patent, are generally opposite, but three or
more sometimes issue from the same point ; the ultimate ramuli are scattered, either
alternate or secund. The nodes are somewhat contracted ; the cell-wall thin, and the
endochrome pale and watery. When dry the whole plant frequently becomes a dull
greenish white. It does not strongly adhere to paper.
1 3. Cladophora Budolphiana, Ag. ; filaments very long, exceedingly slender, flexuous,
sub-gelatinous, much branched, bright yellow-green, inextricable ; branches di-trichoto-
mous or irregular ; ultimate ramuli pectinate, secund, very long, and much attenuated ;
articulations of the main branches many times longer than broad, here and there
swollen, their granular endochrome somewhat spiral ; those of the ramuli 6-10 times as
long as broad. Ag. Bot. Zeit. 10, p. 636. Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 86. Kiltz. Sp. Alg.
p. 404.
Hab. Jackson Ferry, N.Y., Mr. Walters, (v. v.)
A specimen sent by Mr. Walters agrees pretty well with the Irish specimens figured
in Phyc. Brit. The filaments are 4-5 inches long, soft, and somewhat gelatinous,
closely adhering to paper, intricately interbranched, very flexuous, zigzag, and much
branched. The branches are patent, sometimes opposite, mostly alternate or scattered,
CONFERVACEiE. 81
and repeatedly divided ; the ramuli slender, few and subdistant. The articulations of the
branches are very many times longer than broad; those of the ramuli 5-6 times their
breadth. The endochrome is generally dissipated in drying. When dry the specimen
retains a brilliant green and has a silky gloss.
14. Cladophora gracilis^ Griff.; filaments very long, capillary, flexuous, silky, much
branched, bright yellow-green ; main branches entangled, sparingly divided, angularly
bent ; ultimate ramuli pectinate, secund, much attenuated, straight, and very long ;
articulations 3-5 times as long as broad. Griff, in Wyatt, Alg. Danm. No. 97. Harv.
Phyc. Brit. t. 18. Kutz. Sp. Alg. p. 403.
Hab. Growing on Zostera, and the various Algae, in the Laminarian zone. Nahant,
Mrs. Mudge. Beesley's Point, Rhode Island, Mr. Ashmead (67.) Seaconot, Rhode
Island, Mr. Olney. (v. v.)
Filaments more or less densely tufted, 4-12 inches long, (about 4 inches in the
American specimens), capillary, soft and silky, much branched ; the main branches
rather more robust and bent in a zigzag manner, sometimes very flexuous, and fre-
quently more strongly coloured than the rest of the plant, set throughout with lateral,
decompound branches all whose divisions are patent ; and the ultimate branchlets
pectinated with long, simple, secund ramuli. Colour a yellow-green. Substance soft
and silky, but not gelatinous. Articulations 3-5 times as long as broad. It does not
strongly adhere to paper in drying.
Mrs. Mudge's specimens are small, but in other respects very similar to English
ones. Those from Mr. Olney and Mr. Ashmead are less true to the type.
15. Cladophora brachyclados, Mont. ; filaments very slender, tufted, sparingly
branched ; branches long and virgate, set with distant, alternate, erecto-patent branch-
lets, which are pectinated along their upper sides with very short, erect, or incurved
ramuli, of 1 or 2 cells ; articulations of the branches 5-6 times as long as broad. Mont.
Cuba, p. 13, t. 4. Sylloge PI. Crypt, p. 456. C. Montagneana, Kiitz. Tab. Phyc.
vol. 4, p. 9, t. 41, Jig. 2.
Hab. Mouth of Rio Bravo, on the sea-beach. Dr. Schott. (v. s. in Herb. T.C.D.)
The specimen received from Dr. Schott is a very imperfect one, but its filaments,
when examined under the microscope, show so many characters in common with those
of Montague's C. brachyclados from Cuba, with an authentic specimen of which I have
compared them, that I am unwilling to separate forms so similar. The short, mostly
single-celled ramuli are characteristic.
] 6. Cladophora luteola; filaments very pale yellow-green, tufted, excessively slender,
M
82 CONFERVACE^.
and much branched, not matted together ; main and lesser branches remarkably
flexuous, the angles rounded, and the filaments arcuate ; branching irregular, frequently
trichotomous, the lesser ramuli secund or opposite, and their ultimate divisions pectinate,
somewhat corymbose and crowded toward the apices ; articulations cylindrical, hyaline,
6-8 times as long as broad.
Hab. Growing on littoral corals, at Key West, W. H. H. (v. v.)
Filaments 2-3 inches long, rather loosely tufted, excessively slender, and soft, but
not in the least gelatinous, very much branched, remarkably bent ; the filaments arcuate
between each ramification. The branching is irregular. In the principal and also in
the lesser divisions it is frequently trichotomous, three branches springing from a node ;
but the branches are almost as often alternate or sub-dichotomous. In the medial
portion of the frond the forkings are sub-distant ; they become more frequent upwards,
and the branches generally end in closely set, but scarcely fasciculate pectinated ramuli,
which are either opposite, alternate, or secund. The ultimate ramuli are erect and
incurved. Articulations seldom less than six times as long as broad, sometimes more,
with a very pale, watery endochrome, which is dissipated in drying. Notwithstanding
its tenuity this plant does not adhere closely to paper.
***** LvETEViRENTES. Filaments loosely tufted, robust, and somewhat firm or rigid,
vivid-green.
17. Cladophora Icetevirens, Dillw. ; filaments much branched, bushy, forming tufts of
a transparent, yellow-green colour (faded and without gloss when dry) ; branches
erecto-patent, crowded, repeatedly divided, flexuous, the lesser divisions often opposite ;
ultimate ramuli secund, blunt, of few articulations ; articulations of the branches six
times, of the ramuli thrice as long as broad. Dillw. Conf. t. 48. E. Bot. 1. 1 8.54. Harv.
Fhyc.BriLt.]90. Wyatt, Alg. Danm. No. 143. Kutz. Sp. Alg. p. AOO. Conf.
glomerata var. marina, Roth. Cat. Bot. S,p. 237.
Hab. In rock pools between tide marks. New York Bay, Messrs. Hooper ^- Walters.
Boston, Dr. Durkee. California, Dr. Coulter, (v. v.)
2\ifts feathery. Filaments 3-6 inches long or more, capillary, much branched, main
filaments flexuous or angularly bent, set with altei-nate or scattered, occasionally oppo-
site, repeatedly decompound patent branches, which are densely set with lesser branches
and ramuli, all of which are patent and often recurved. Lesser and penultimate
branches mostly secund, sometimes opposite or fasciculate, their ultimate divisions
pectinated with short closely set ramuli on the upper side. Articulations of the main
branches 4-6 or 8 times, of the ramuli 3-4 times as long as broad. Colotir, a full grass
green. Substance, not very soft. It adheres, but not strongly, to paper in drying.
COJsFEKVACE^. 83
18. Cladophora diffusa (?) ; filaments capillary, elongate, loosely tufted, somewhat
rigid, full green, flexuous, much branched ; branches distant, irregularly subdivided,
nearly naked, or furnished toward the ends with a few short secund ramuli ; articula-
tions 3-4 times as long as broad. Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 130 (?) &c.
Hab. New York Sound, Messrs. Walters, Pike, c^c. California, Mr. A. D. Frye.
(v. s.)
Tufts loose. Filaments 6-12 inches long or more, generally so rigid as not to col-
lapse when removed from the water, capillary or somewhat more robust, much and
irregularly branched. Branches distant, often an inch or more apart, erecto-patent,
naked in the lower portion or very sparingly ramulose, and sometimes naked throughout
and little subdivided. Generally, however, the upper divisions are more repeatedly and
more closely branched, and their branches furnished with a few short, secund, pectinate
ramuli. On some specimens these are very few and confined to the apices ; on others
they are more abundant.
Recognised chiefly by its naked and distant branches, nearly destitute of ramuli.
The more ramulose specimens seem gradually to glide ofi" into C. Icetevirens. I quote
the figure in Phyc. Brit, with a mark of doubt, and refrain from quoting other authori-
ties, because I am not quite sure of the specific identity of the American and European
specimens.
Sect. 2. Species found in brackish water, or in fresh-water ponds and streams.
19. Cladophora fracta, Fl. Dan. ; tufts irregular, entangled, often detached and
then forming floating strata, dull green ; filaments rather rigid, distantly branched, the
lesser branches somewhat dichotomous, spreading, with very wide axils ; the ramuli
few, alternate or secund ; articulations 3-6 times as long as broad, at first cylindrical,
then elliptical, with contracted nodes. Fl. Dan. t. 946. Dillw. Conf. t. \A. E. Bot.
t. 2338. Lyngb. Hyd. Dan. t. 52. Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 294. Kutz. Sp. Alg.
p. 410.
Hab. In salt water ditches and ponds, also in brackish or fresh water. Ehode
Island, and in the Hudson, at West Point, Prof. Bailey. Beesley's Point, Mr. Ash-
mead. Near New York, Mr. Walters, (v. v.)
This is at first tufted and attached to sticks or stones, but afterwards occurs floating,
and then forms strata of considerable extent. Filaments capillary, several inches long,
loosely tufted or bundled together, much but distantly branched, the branches widely
spreading at very obtuse angles, and again and again dividing, all the minor divisions
being equally patent, and the angles equally wide. The lesser branches sometimes bear
a few secund ramuli, and are sometimes quite naked. Colour, at first a grass green, but
gradually becoming darker. Substance, membranaceous and rather rigid, seldom quite
adhering to paper in drying, and readily detached.
84 CONFERVACE^.
To this species I am disposed to refer a specimen which was provisionally named
C. prasina, formerly received from Professor Bailey, who found it abundantly in the
Hudson at West Point, where it is thrown ashore after storms. I have also received a
fresh-water specimen collected by Dr. Bigelow when engaged on Lieutenant Whipple's
expedition to the Pacific.
20. Cladophora glomerata, Linn. ; filaments tufted, bushy, somewhat rigid, much
branched, bright grass-green ; branches crowded, irregular, erecto-patent, repeatedly
divided ; ultimate ramuli secund, subfasciculate ; articulations 4-8 times as long as
broad. Dillw. Conf. t. IS." E. Bot. t. 2192. Harv. Man. Ed. I, p. 134.
Hab. In streams, lakes, and rivers. Probably common.
I have received North American specimens from Milton, Saratoga County, N.Y., and
from Lake Erie ; also from the Mexican Boundary Surveying Expedition.
IV. CH^TOMORPHA, ^mY^. (May, 1845.)
Filaments (not gelatinous), membranaceous or cartilaginous, unbranched, attached,
or floating, articulated ; formed of a string of oblong cells, the basal cell longer than
the rest. Articulations filled with granular endochrome. (Marine.)
The genus, as here adopted from Kiitzing, is intended to include most of the marine
species of the older Conferva, which have unbranched filaments and articulations usually
longer than their diameter. It diifers from Cladophora solely in being branchless.
From Hormotrichum it is less easy to point out a clear distinctive character, unless we
seek it in the substance of the cell-coats, and in the shortness of the cells usual in that
genus. The name Aplonema was proposed for this group by Mr. Hassall (Brit. Fr.
W. Conf. p. 213.) only two months subsequently to the publication of Kiitzing's genus,
which thus establishes its priority on very narrow evidence. It forms a pait of the
Agardhian Lychcete, published in 1846 ; a group that includes both simple and branched
species, and which is thus characterised by its author : —
Lych^te, J. Ag. ; " fronde sub-heterogenea, articulo infimo (in simplicibus),aut infimis
ramorum (in ramosis) dissimilibus et non mutandis, superioribus omnibus continua
subdivisione iterum iterumque divisis atque coniocystis externis distinguendum."
Alg. Ined. Ed. 2, Ko. 9. (Lychcete mirabilis).
I prefer, with Kiitzing, to keep the branching and unbranched species in separate
genera, as being a more obvious, if not more natural arrangement. However, the
whole subject of the natural arrangement of these obscure plants is open to future
discussion. The present is but a temporary settlement of the question.
CONFEKVACEJ:. 85
1. Ch^tomorpha Piquotiana, Mont. ; filaments loosely bundled together in strata,
very long, ultra- setaceous, grass-green, rigid, glossy and variagated when dry, variously
twisted ; articulations 3-5 times as long as broad, contracted at the nodes. Mont. An.
Sc. Nat. SdSer.vol. 11, jo. 66. Mont. Syll. p. 459. Kutz. Sp. Alg. p. 379- Tab.
Phyc. vol. B,p. 19, t. 58,/. 2. (Tab. XLVI. C.)
Hab. In deep water ; from 5 to 6 fathoms. Coast of Labrador, M. Lamare-Piquot !
Burnt Coat Island, Maine, Dr. A. Young. Halifax, W. H. H. Boston Bay, Mrs.
A. Gray. Staten Island, N.Y,, Dr. Torrey. (v. v )
This occurs in large bundled strata, the filaments lying loosely together, but probably
they are attached at an early age. Filaments 12-14 inches long or more, twice as thick
as hog's bristle, crisp and rigid, variously curved and twisted, of a full grass-green
colour, fading in drying, but retaining a glossy surface. The endochrome, in drying,
is usually dispersed toward the ends of the cell, which gives the filament a variegated
look, with alternate pale and dark bands. The cell membrane is thick and tough. The
articulations are variable in length, but always much longer in proportion than those
of C. melagonium. They are commonly four times as long as broad ; occasionally only
thrice their breadth, and sometimes 5-6 times as long. The dissepiments or nodes are
always much constricted and very narrow. The endochrome recovers its form when
remoistened. It does not adhere to paper.
I have compared my specimens with an original one communicated by Dr. Montague.
The species is nearly related to C. melagonium^ but of larger dimensions and with
much longer articulations.
Plate XLVI. Fig. 1. Chjetomorpha Piquotiana, the natural size. Fig. 2, a
magnified poi'tion.
2. Ch^tomorpha melagonium., "Web. and Mohr. ; root scutate ; filaments erect,
straight, elongate, very robust, ultra-setaceous stiff and wiry, dark-green, tapering to
the base, obtuse ; articulations 2-3 times as long as broad. Ag. Syst. p. 99. Lyngb.
Hyd. Dan. t. 51. Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 99. A. Wyatt, Alg. Danm. No. 221. Kiitz.
Sp. Alg. p. 379.
Hab. In rock pools near low water mark, and at a greater depth. Greenland, Worms-
Mold. Halifax, W. H. H. Boston Bay, Mrs. Asa Gray. Newbury Port, Mr. Hooper.
Unalaschka, Wosnessensky. (v. v.)
Boot an expanded disc. Filaments either scattered, or somewhat tufted, 5-12 inches
long, twice as thick as hog's bristle, erect and stiff, peculiarly wiry to the feel when
growing, straight or slightly curved, very blunt at the apex, and tapering to the base.
Articulations rather longer in the American than in European specimens, but variable
even in the same tuft ; once and a-half, twice, or thrice as long as broad, filled with
dark-green endochrome and contracted at the dissepiments.
86 CONFERVACE^.
3 Ch^tomorpha cerea, Dillw. ; root scutate ; filaments setaceous, tufted, straight,
(sometimes twisted in age) harsh and brittle, yellow-green ; articulations about as long
as broad. Dillw. Conf. t. 80. E. Bot. t. 1929. Lynb. Hyd.Dan.t. 51. Ag. Syst.
p. 100. Wyatt, Alg. Danm. No. 191. Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 99- B. Kutz. Sp. Alg.
p. 379.
Hab. In rock pools, between tide marks, &c. Newport, Professor Bailey. New
Yovk'&&j, Messrs. Hooper, Walters., ^c (v. v.)
Filaments generally in dense tufts, 3-12 inches in length, and as thick as hog's
bristle, rather harsh to the touch when fresh, but much less rigid than C. melagonium,
and collapsing on being removed from the water, usually straight, but old specimens are
sometimes crisped and contorted. The colour when growing is a beautiful yellowish
green, but dried specimens are usually much faded, and dull-greenish white after long
keeping in the Herbarium. The endochrome fills the cell and is of a watery consistence,
and dispersed in drying. The articulations are pretty uniformly as long as broad, with
contracted dissepiments.
4. ChjETOMORPHA Olneyi, Harv. ; filaments tufted, setaceous, straight or curved, soft,
pale-green ; articulations once and half as long as broad. (Tab. XLVI. D.)
Hab. Rhode Island, Mr. Olney. (v. s. in Herb. T.C.D.)
This has the habit of C. cerea, but is of a soft and flaccid substance, adhering closely
to paper in drying. When dry it is very pale, greenish white, and without gloss.
The filaments are about the same diameter as those of C. cerea ; the articulations are
longer, and the cell-wall thicker.
Plate XLVI. D. Fig. 1. Ch^tomoepha Olneyi, the natural size. Fig. 2. a portion
magnijied.
5. Chjetomorpha longiarticulata, Harv. ; filaments capillary, curved, loosely bundled
together, flaccid, soft, pale green ; articulations 4-6 times as long as broad, swollen at
the nodes. (Tab. XLVI. E.) Var. ^8. crassior ; filaments more robust.
Hab. In rock pools, between tide marks. Ship Anne Point, Mr. Hooper. Boston
Bay, Mrs. Asa Gray. Little Compton, Mr. Olney. Var. /3, in brackish ditches at
Little Compton, Mr. Olney.
Filaments rather more slender than human hair, 3-4 inches long, loosely bundled
together, and somewhat stratified. Articidations filled with very pale endochrome,
almost hyaline when dry, several times longer than their diameter, nodoso-incrassate at
one or both ends, with contracted dissepiments. The cell-wall is very thin and mem-
branous.
CONFERVACE^. 87
I do not know any species to which this is nearly related. It is much more robust
than C. arenosa. The length of the joints and the swelling of the nodes distinguish it
from C. litorea.
Plate XLVI. E. Fig. 1. Ch^tomorpha longiarticulata ; the natural size. Fig. 2,
a portion magnified.
6. Chjetomorpha sutoria, Berk. ; filaments setaceous, elongate, flexuous, equal, pale
or dark green ; articulations once and half as long as broad ; interstices pellucid. Berk.
Gl. Alg. t. 14,/. 3. Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 150. B. Ch. rigida, Kutz. Sp. Alg. p. 377.
Hab. Floating in large masses at Stonington, Con., Prof. Bailey, (v. s.)
This occurs, loosely bundled together in extensive floating masses or strata. Fila-
ments as thick as hog's bristle, several inches long, rigid and variously curved and
twisted, pale-green, cylindrical. Articulations once and half as long as broad, at length
bisected. Substance rigid. It scarcely adheres to paper in drying.
Professor Bailey's specimens chiefly difier from the British plant with which I have
associated them in being of a paler colour, with less dense endochrome, and of rather
softer substance.
7. Ch^tomorpha litorea., Harv. ; filaments capillary, rigid, crisp, forming loose,
extensive, dull-green bundles ; articulations once and half as long as broad, here and
there swollen in pairs and discoloured. Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 333. C. linum, Alg. Danm.
No. 220 (Excl. Syn.) C. tortuosa, var. crassior, Pup. Alg. Och.
Hab. Sea-shores. Sitcha, Russian America, Wosnessensky. (v. s.)
Filaments forming loosely interwoven, extensive, floating strata, or entangled among
the branches of other Algaei, capillary, several inches in length, and of a dull green
colour. The articulations are once and a-half to twice as long as broad, cylindrical,
not contracted at the nodes, and mostly uniform in the same filament ; but here and
there a pair of longer cells occur, which are swollen towards their commissure, where
the endochrome collects in a dark mass. In drying the endochrome is usually dispersed,
and never recovers its form on being moistened.
This has been sent to me by Dr. Ruprecht from Sitcha, under the name C. tortuosa,
var. crassior. The filaments, however, are fully twice as robust as in C. tortuosa ;
they are more rigid, and adhere less strongly to paper, and their endochrome is dissi-
pated in drying. They agree pretty well with the C. litorea of British collections.
8. Ch^tomorpiia brachygona, Harv. ; filaments capillary, interwoven in strata,
curved and twisted, rigid ; articulations either as long as, or much shorter than their
88 CONFERVACEtE.
diameter, with occasionally a pair of swollen longer cells among the short ones.
(Tab. XLVI. A.)
Hab. Key West, W. H. iT., Mr. Binney. Boca di Rio Bravo, Dr. Schott. (v. v.)
Forming decumbent strata, covering rocks, or entangled with other Algae. Filaments
slender, variously curved and twisted, of a membranaceous, rather rigid substance,
destitute of gloss, and not adhering to paper when drying, cylindrical. The articula-
tions appear to be normally about as long as broad, but as they divide in the middle by
transverse cell division, they are frequently found less than half their proper length.
Here and there, throughout the filament, a pair of cells occur longer than the rest, and
swollen, with theendochromeof each cell collected at the dissepiment: these may be con-
nected with reproduction. The endochrome is dispersed in drying, and does not well
recover its form on being moistened.
A much more robust and rigid plant than C. tortuosa.
Plate XLVI. A. Fig. 1. Ch^tomorpha hrachygona, the natural size. Fig. 2.
Portion of a filament, magnified.
9. Ch^tomoepha tortuosa., Dillw. ; filaments very slender, somewhat rigid, densely
interwoven into dark green, crisped, fleecy strata ; articulations twice or thrice as long
as broad, filled with endochrome. Dillw. Conf. t. 46. E. Bot. t. 2220. Harv. Phyc.
Brit. t. 54, A. Ag. Syst. p. 98. Kutz. Sp. Alg. p. 376. (Tab. XLVI. B.)
Hab. On rocks, &c. about half tide level, Halifax, W. H. H. Coast of Maine,
Dr. A. Young. Massachusetts' Bay, Mr. Pike, W. H. H., ^x. Newbury Port, Mr.
Hooper. Unalaschka, Wosnessensky. (v. v.)
Strata spreading widely over the surface of rocks, &c. like a coating of dark green
wool. The filaments are very slender, about half the diameter of human hair, but they
are when recent crisp and rigid, and do not collapse when removed from the water. They
are densely interwoven, of a dark green colour, and not without gloss. The articula-
tions vary in length in diflerent specimens, but are usually twice as long as broad,
sometimes more, sometimes less ; and the endochrome generally recovers its form on
being remoistened after drying.
I have received from Dr. Ruprecht, under the name C. confervicola, a specimen from
Unalashka that I cannot distinguish, under the microscope, from the ordinary C tortu-
osa of the East coast. It grows attached to C melagonium, in which it is peculiar.
The " C. tortuosa crassior" of Dr. Ruprecht I have already alluded to under C. litorea.
Plate XLVI. B. Fig. 1, Ch-(ETOMORPHA tortuosa, the natural size. Fig. 2, portion
of two filaments, magnified.
CONFERVACE^. 89
V. HORMOTRICHUM, Kutz.
Filaments gelatino-membranaceous, unbranched (or with a few rootlike branches),
basifixed, articulated ; formed of a string of very short cells. Cell-wall very thick and
soft. Nodes constricted. Articulations often tumid, filled with dense, green, granular
endochrome, which is finally converted into darker-coloured compact sporidia. (Marine.)
The plants comprised under this genus have hitherto been placed either in Conferva
or in Lynghya. They all have a peculiar habit, by which they are more readily known
than by any definite character at present established. The changes that take place in
the endochrome will probably afibrd better characters when they have been carefully
ascertained and compared with what occur in Chcetomorpha. At present we are con-
tented to refer to this place all the soft, sub-gelatinous, marine Confervae, which are
basifixed, and have short joints — the type of these being C. Youngana, Dillw. ; and
such Lyngbya-\ike Algae as Lyngh. Carmichaelii and its allies, whose truly articulated
tube distinguishes them from proper Lynghya. The whole assemblage of species which
are thus brought together are remarkable for the brilliant green of their endochrome,
which at first fills the cells, and is afterwards contracted and condensed, and for the
breadth of the soft, sub-gelatinous, glassy cell-wall. At maturity the wall of the cell
opens, and the compact sporidium escapes. All the species are natives of littoral rocks
and objects growing within tide marks. Three of the following are European.
1. HoRMOTRiCHUM Younganum, Dillw. ; filaments short or elongated, tufted, capil-
lary, rather firm, grass-green, not remarkably gelatinous, nor glossy when dry ; articu-
lations as long, or once and half as long as broad, or shorter than their breadth, tumid,
constricted at the nodes. Dillw. Conf. t. 102. Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 328. Kiitz. Sp.
Alg.p. 382.
Hab. On stones and wood-work, between tide marks. New York Bay, Mr. Congdon.
Common at Fort Hamilton in spring. W. H. H. (v. v.)
Filaments densely tufted, 1-3 inches long, as thick as human hair, erect, straight or
curved, spreading over the surface of rocks and wood-work in grass-green fleecy tufts,
not lubricous or gelatinous (as compared with others of the genus), soft, but rather
firm. The filaments when young are cylindrical, but soon become constricted at the
dissepiments or nodes. The cells vary much in length, even in the same filament. The
common length is once and half as long as broad, but they are sometimes twice as long,
sometimes only as long as their diameter, and sometimes only half as long. At first
they are quite filled with the granular deep-green endochrome, which, while the filament
is elongating, divides in the centre, forming two new cells from each old one ; but in the
mature plant it gradually condenses, and retreats toward the centre of the cell, where it
forms a compact, globose or oval sporidium. In drying the filaments adhere, but not
strongly, to paper.
90 CONFERVACE^.
2. HoRMOTKiCHDM horeaU, Harv. ; filaments slender, forming decumbent strata of a
pale yellowish-green, flaccid, slightly interwoven ; articulations as long as broad or
somewhat longer, at length constricted at the nodes.
Hab. On rocks near high-water mark. Whalefish Islands, Davis's Straits, Dr. Lyall.
(v. s. in Herb. T.C.D.)
This forms a thin, yellow-green, decumbent fleece, lying on the surface of the rock,
and extending indefinitely. Filaments flaccid, glossy when dry, variously interwoven,
about half the diameter of those of H. Tounganum, but in other respects very similar,
except that the cells are commonly shorter. Articulations usually quadrate ; in age
contracted at the nodes.
A much more slender plant than H. Younganum, softer, more glossy, and spreading
in patches, not tufted.
3. HORMOTRICHUM speciosum, Carm. ; filaments long, thick, flaccid, straight, at length
curled, the margin slightly crenate, forming bright yellow-green strata, glossy when
dry ; articulations half as long as their breadth, the cell-wall very thick. Harv. Phyc.
Brit. t. 186, B. Wyatt, Alg. JDanm. N'o. 196. (Lyngbya.)
Hab. Mixed with the foregoing species, at Whale-fish Islands, Dr. Lyall.
Much more robust than the following species, to which it is allied.
4. HoEMOTRlCHUM CarmichaelH, Harv. ; filaments scarcely capillary, closely inter-
woven into decumbent, crisped, full-grass-green strata, variously twisted ; articulations
half as long as their diameter ; the cell- wall thick. Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 186. A. Wyatt,
Alg. Danm. No. 230. Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 382.
Hab. On rocks and fuci, between tide marks. Near Boston, Afr. Calverley. In a
"running stream" (quere, of salt, or fresh water?) on stones, in Wellington Channel,
Arctic Regions, Dr. Lyall. (v. v.)
Strata extensive, densely interwoven, full green, or somewhat yellowish, soft, but not
gelatinous, and not glossy when dry. Filaments very long, thinner than human hair,
variously curved and twisted. Articulations shorter than their diameter, generally
less than half as long as their breadth ; the cell-wall thick, and the endochrome at
length contracting into a lenticular sporidium.
This plant is common on the British Coasts, where it occurs between tide marks.
The specimen received from Mr. Calverley is said to come *' from fresh water near
Boston ;" but I suspect some mistake. Whether that from the Arctic Regions be from
brackish or fresh water I cannot tell ; but under the microscope there is no character
CONFERVACEtE. 91
by which I can distinguish its threads from British specimens of C. Carmichaelii. It
is very luxuriant, of a bright green colour, and quite resembles the ordinary marine
form. Quere, are two species confounded ? Or is there an error in the habitat ? Or
does this plant inhabit both salt and fresh water, as Bangia fuscopurpurea is well known
to do ?
5. HoRMOTRiciiUM ? Wormskioldu, Fl. Dan. ; filaments " branched at the base"
(Lyngb.) ; thence simple, erect, straight, ultra-setaceous, flaccid, bright yellow-green,
moniliform ; articulations at first nearly cylindrical and rather longer than broad, then
globular, and very much contracted at the nodes. Conferva Wormskioldii. Fl. Dan.
t. 1547. Lyngb. Hyd. Dan. p. 158.^. 55. A. Ag. Syst. p. 121. Hormotrichum
Wormskioldii, Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 383. Chcetomorpha monilis, Harv. in Herb, (olim.)
Hab. Coast of Greenland, common, Wormskiold. Fragments dredged in Queen's
Channel, lat. 76° 29', long. 96° 13' W. Dr. Lyall. (v. s.)
Dr. Ly all's specimens, which alone I have seen, consist of a few single threads (broken
branches ?) 6-8 inches long, as thick as hog's bristle or a little thicker, moniliform,
with very turgid globular articulations and strongly contracted dissepiments. These
fragments so strongly resemble the figure given by Lyngbye, (t. 55. A. 5.) that I cannot
doubt the above reference ; but I do question the propriety of arranging this species
under the present genus. I follow KUtzing, however, who had probably seen more
perfect specimens than I possess. Judging from the fragments collected by Dr. Lyall,
I formerly placed it in Choetomorpha, near C. melagonium, believing that it was an
undescribed species.
Lyngbye's description may be thus rendered : " Filaments densely tufted, parallelly
floating, an ell or more in length, branched at the base, slender, as thick as human
hair (below ?), then increasing to the thickness of hog's bristle, or sparrow's quill,
simple, attenuated toward the apex. Articulations as long as broad, in the thicker
filaments remarkably moniliform, ellipsoidal or globose, turgid ; in the more slender
filaments often twice as long as broad. Dissepiments contracted, mostly pellucid.
Colour green. Substance membranaceous, tendei', lubricous, soft. It adheres to paper."
VI. EHIZOCLONIUM, Kiitz.
Filaments (not gelatinous) membranaceous, uniform in diameter throughout, decum-
bent, simple or spuriously branched ; branches short and rootlike ; formed of a string
of oblong cells. Cell-wall thin. Articulations filled with granular endochrome.
(Marine, or in fresh water, or on damp ground.)
92 CONFERVACE^
Confervoid Algaj, forming decumbent strata ; the filaments lying heaped together,
and emitting at irregular distances rootlike branches. Kiitzing enumerates 28 species,
among which are several which we refer to Choetomorpha.
1. Rhizoclonium riparium, Roth. ; filaments long, slender, decumbent, pale-green,
forming wide strata, flaccid, entangled, angularly bent, furnished at the angles with
short, rootlike processes (which sometimes, but rarely, lengthen into very patent
branches, and often attach themselves to neighbouring filaments). Conf. riparia, Roth.
Cat. Bot. 3.J9. 216. E. Bot. t. 2100. Dillw. Conf. p. 111. Sup. t. E. Ag. Syst.
p. 106. Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 238. Conf. obtusangula, Lyngb. Hyd. Dan. t. 55. B.
Rhizoclonium obtusangulum, Kiitz. Sp. Alg. ^.261.
Hab. On sand covered rocks near high water mark. Greenland, Wormskiold, fide
Lyngbye. (v. s.)
I have not seen American specimens of this plant.
Order YII. ZYGNEMACE^.
Zygnemacece, Kiitz. Phyc. Gen. p. 274. Sp. Alg. p. 433. Zygneniece, Endl. 3d
Suppl. p. 14. Algce Synsporeoe^ Dne. Class, p. 32. Conjugates, Berk. Crypt. Bot.
p. 150. Conjugatece, Hass. Br. Fr. W. Alg., p. 129.
Diagnosis. Green (freshwater) Algae, consisting of simple, articulated, floating
threads, composed of cylindrical, seriated cells. Endochrome usually definitely figured.
Spores of large size, and mostly solitary, formed by the union of two endochromes or
by the division of a single endochrome.
Natural Character. Freshwater, floating, confervoid Algae, at first consisting of
unbranched threads, formed of a number of cylindrical cells placed end to end ; after-
wards often linked together in pairs by connecting processes. The endochrome in
different genera puts on a variety of forms. It is rarely diffused equally through
the cell as in ordinary Confervae, but is either arranged in spiral bauds, attached to
the cell-walls, or divided into two star-like masses ; or it consists of larger and smaller
grains subsymmetrically arranged. The cell-wall varies also much in character ; in
some it is membranous, in others gelatinous, and occasionally very thick. The
fructification consists of large and mostly solitary spores formed usually from the union
and condensation of the contents of two cells, either consecutive cells of the same fila-
ZYGNEMACE^. ' 93
ment, or cells of diflferent filaments. The latter mode of forming a spore is the most
usual, whence we have the origin of the names '■'■ Conjugatce" and '■'■ Zygnemece" applied
to these Algae, and alluding to their " yoked" character. When two filaments are about
to conjugate, they float near one another, lying parallel, or nearly so in the stratum.
Then, from the proximate sides of each cell of both filaments there issue short tubes,
which mutually unite ; the cell-wall at the point of union disappears, and the contents
of both cells are mixed together. Sometimes the whole contents of one cell is discharged
into the other, and the spore formed in that cell ; sometimes, and equally commonly,
the spore is formed in the connecting tubes. These tubes are sometimes long and
barlike ; and the pairs of conjugated threads resemble little ladders. Sometimes they
are very short, and the filaments are angularly bent at the point of union. In most
cases the spore forms a single spheroidal or angular mass ; but in Thwaitesia it is divided
into four sporules, exactly like the tetraspore of one of the Rhodosperms. In the genus
CEdogonium, which Mr. Berkeley refers to this Family, the filaments do not conjugate,
but the spores are formed by a division of the endochrome of a fertile cell. The cell
separates into two half-cells by a transverse partition, as in ordinary cell division ;
the spore is then formed in one half ; the other half lengthens to the size proper to the
genus and again divides, forming a second spore in one of its halves ; and so it may
divide repeatedly until a string of six or eight consecutive spores is formed, in the
centre or at the end of the thread, as in (E. monile, a beautiful species from Tasmania-
The spores are not always green ; but (especially in (Edogonium) are often brilliantly
coloured, orange or vermillion.
Several genera, containing a large number of species, are described, chiefly from
the stagnant or nearly still waters of the Northern Hemisphere. But they are pro-
bably dispersed over the globe, though few have yet been brought from the tropics.
Unfortunately they do not recover their characters sufiiciently, after having been dried,
to admit of being accurately verified from dried specimens : and consequently I am
forced to omit specific descriptions of those that I have received from North America.
No doubt many of the species of the genera Mougeotia ; Zygnema (Spirogyra) ;
Tyndaridea ; Staurocarpus ; and (Edogonium (Vesiculifera) exist in American
waters ; but they must be examined on the spot. Mr. Ravenel has kindly sent me a
few specimens of Staurocarpus and Zygnema^ but I have not been able to recognize the
species satisfactorily. Authors who have written on the subject appear to me to have
needlessly multiplied the European species, of which Kiitzing enumerates 200, including
58 Zygnemata and as many (Edogonia.
94 HYDEODICTYE^.
Ordek yill.— HYDKODICTYE^.
Hydrodictye^, KUtz. Phyc. Gen. p. 281. Sp. Alg. p. 448. Berk. Crypt. Bot. p.
138. Dne. Class, p. 31. (in part only.)
Diagnosis. Green (fresh-water) Algae, composed of cylindrical cells, united by their
ends into a saccate net-work, with polygonal meshes ; each side of the mesh formed of
a single cell. Endochrome of each cell resolved at maturity into indefinitely numerous,
minute zoospores., which arrange themselves, end to end, into a new net^work, whilst
still contained within the parent cell. Nets viviparous.
Natural Character. The genus Hydrodictyon differs so remarkably in the mode
of evolution of its frond from that of any other confervoid Alga that it has been found
necessary to constitute it the type of a distinct family. Its essentially distinctive
characters are thus well given by Messrs. Derbes and Soliere in their able memoir :
" Each zoospore of this plant gives birth to one cell only, whose further development
will consist merely in an increase of dimensions, without undergoing any multiplication.
Here then, without doubt, is the most distinctive character of the genus ; for in the
Confervce., with which it has the greatest affinity, one zoospore gives birth to an
individual, which increases in dimensions by the multiplication of its cells ; here, on the
contrary, a great number of zoospores unite together to form an individual, which is
composed of a limited number of cells, which number remains the >ame during the whole
duration of the plant ; that is to say, until each of these cellules, in its turn, gives birth
to a young Hydrodictyon complete. In other terms, a Hydrodictyon is an assemblage
of little plants reduced to a single cell, formed by the development of a zoospore." If
we trace the development, it will be obvious that this is a true explanation of the
viviparous net-work.
At all stages of its growth, then, the structure of the Hydrodictyon is the same.
Young specimens differ from old ones merely in the size of the cells of which the net is
composed ; the number of the cells, their form, and that of the net are the same in
young as in old nets. In all stages the Hydrodictyon is a bag-like or purse-shaped
net, with polygonal, generally five-sided meshes, each mesh consisting of a single
articulation or cylindrical cell, united by its ends to the neighbouring cells, just as the
cells of a Conferva are united, but having no passage from cell to cell, and each cell,
from first to last, carrying on an independent existence. When first emitted from the
HYDRODICTYE^. 95
parent, the young Hydrodictyon is of microscopic size. It grows rapidly until each
articulation becomes from a quarter to half an inch in length, and half a line in dia-
meter. Up to this period the cells are filled with a green semi-fluid endochrome, in
which grains of different sizes are formed. Gradually this green matter is resolved
into an infinite number of minute zoospores, which are at first spherical, afterwards
ovate, pointed at one end ; and which, while contained within the cell wall, exhibit
lively movements. At length these movements gradully subside, and the zoospores
arrange themselves, end to end, into polygonal, commonly pentagonal, areolae ; and
when all the zoospores contained within a single articulation have so arranged them-
selves, the little net is completed before its emission or birth. When all is thus ready,
the parent net falls to pieces, each articulation floating separately ; and shortly after-
wards, on the bursting or deliquescence of the wall of the mother cell, the little network
floats independently, and commences its career of growth and development. This
curious plant early attracted the notice of botanists, and has deservedly engaged the
attention of physiologists. The fullest of the earlier histories is to be found in
Vaucher's work on Fresh Water Confervae ; and recent accounts are given by Areschoug
in the 16th vol. of " Linnsea ;" and by Derbes and Soliere in their memoir presented to
the French Academy in 1848. I have never had the opportunity of examining living
specimens, though abundantly supplied with dried ones from many distant parts of the
world. The only species known inhabits ponds in Europe and in America, both North
and South. It is rare in England, and has not yet been found in Ireland.
HYDRODICTYON, Roth.
(Character the same as that of the Order.)
1. Hydrodictyon utriculatum, Both. Fl. Germ. 3. part 1, jp. 531. Fl. Dan. t. 1597.
Ag. Syst. p. 84. Lyngb. Hyd. Dan. p. 169. t. 58. Harv. Man. Ed. 1. p. 140.
Kiitz. Phyc. Gen. p. 281. Syst. Alg. p. 448. Conferva reticulata, Linn. Dillw-
Conf. t. 97. E. Bot. t. 1687.
Hab. In ponds of fresh water. West Point, Professor Bailey. Weehawken, Mr.
Walters. Waterholes between Van Horn's Wells and Muerte on the Mexican boundary,
Dr. Bigelow. (v. s. in Herb. T.C.D.)
This has been sufficiently described in the remarks under the Order. The full sized
nets are 6-8 or 12 inches long, and 3-4 in diameter ; their meshes from half an inch
to three quarters of an inch across. In different localities and climates the size varies-
No difference is appreciable between American and European specimens.
96 OSCILLATORIACE^.
Order IX.— OSCILLATORIACE^.
Harv. Man. Ed. 1. p. 219. Oscillatoriece, Harv. in Mack. Fl. Hib. part S,p. 164.
Endl. Sd. Suppl. p. 12. Oscillatoriece and Rivulariece, Harv. Br. Fl. J. Ag. Alg.
Medit. p. 8,10. Oscillatorece, Lindl. Veg. Kingd. p. 18. Oscillariece, Leptotrichiece,
Lyngbgece, Scytonemece, Mastichotrichece, Rivulariece, Kiitz. Sp. Alg. pp. 235-344.
Diagnosis. Green, (rarely olive-brown, blue, or purple) marine or fresh water Algaj,
composed of simple or slightly branched filaments ; each filament having a membranous
unicellular sheath, enclosing an annulated medullary chord of very short cells.
Natural Character. Boot either a simple point of attachment, or, in most cases,
not obvious. Filammts of small size, and often very minute, rarely solitary, variously
aggregated together. In some microscopic forms, as in Trichodesmium, a number of
minute filaments lie close together, cohering by their edges and parallel to each other,
forming little bundles, resembling faggots in miniature ; and these float freely in the
water, through which they move by a slow, proper motion, rising to the surface or
sinking, according to the season. In others, as in Oscillatoria, an indefinite number
of similar filaments lie loosely in a gelatinous matrix, within which they are developed,
and from the edges of which they radiate ; but they have no definite or determinate
arrangement in the mass. Again, in Calothrix, the filaments are fixed at the base, and
stand erect in minute tufts, or spread in a velvetty pile over the surface of various
objects. In Lyngbya the arrangement of the threads is similar, but they are
of much greater length, more curved and flexible, resembling tufts of hair or silky
Avool. Lastly, in Rivularia, there is a compact gelatinous frond of sub-definite
form, constructed of a multitude of symmetrically arranged filaments ; each one
springing from a minute, spherical, bulb-like cell, by which it is attached to the
neighbouring filament. These basal cells have been called " connecting cells," and
also " heterocysts." Their peculiar function has not been clearly ascertained. Through
all the genera of the Order considerable uniformity prevails Jin the structure of the fila-
ments. The external coating or peripheric portion, called the sheath., is a tubular
membrane, destitute of markings, hyaline, and apparently formed by the lengthening
of a single generating cell. In many cases it is delicately membranous and thin ; in
others it is thickened ; and in some (as in Petalonema), the sheath consists of many
foliations, one inside the other. In several of the Bivulariece also, the sheath is
similarly compound, and frequently plumoso-multifid at the extremity. Within the
sheath is the medullary column, or endochromatic part of the filament. This ahvays
consists of a series of short, lenticular, densely coloured cells, which in the full grown
OSCILLATORIACE^. 97
filament may be readily separated. They have been described as sporidia; but obser-
vations on their germination are wanting. Minute zoospores have been observed in
some. Besides the ordinary sheath which encloses each medullary column, a suppli-
mentary sheath is found in some genera, as in Microcoleus, enclosing a considerable
number of separately sheathed filaments. The origin of this general sheath has not
been observed. It probably originates as a simple filament, whose endochrome divides
and subdivides longitudinally, thus forming a number of filaments within the body of
the older one, whose walls continue to enlarge, being fed by the matter of the contained
filaments. This appears, at least sometimes, to be the case : in other cases probably
the investing sheath is formed of exuviae and dead filaments.
Many plants of this Order are celebrated for exhibiting peculiar movements resembling
those of animals. Some have a rapid progressive and regressive movement, by which
they can change their place, rising or falling in the water ; others, while remaining
nearly in one place, move from side to side, describing an arc. The genus Oscillatoria
is so named from the pendulum-like movements of its filaments. Species of this genus
are to be found in most pools of stagnant water, and their peculiar movements may be
easily observed. These plants occur, when fully developed, in floating, skin-like, slimy
pellicles, of a deep green or blackish or blueish colour and gelatinous substance. If a
small portion of the floating scum be placed in a cup of water, and allowed to remain
for some hours at rest, its edges will become finely fringed with delicate, radiating
threads, which extend further and further, from hour to hour ; and if the experiment
be continued for a day or two, in warm weather, the whole surface of the water will be
coated with a thin layer of filaments, which will spread till stopped by the dry edges of
the cup. These filaments were at first contained within the gelatinous matrix, and
have merely spread out, not grown, from it, by means of their peculiar movements.
These movements are of three kinds : — first, there is the oscillating movement ; one
end of the thread remaining nearly at rest, while the other sways from side to side,
sometimes describing nearly a quarter of a circle in a single swing. Secondly, the tip
of the filament has a minute movement, bending from side to side, like the head of a
worm : and thirdly, there is an onward movement, probably the result of the tAvo
former. It is this latter which causes the filaments to radiate and spread out from the
edges of the stratum. If a minute portion of a living Oscillatoria be placed in water,
under a moderately high magnifying power, all these movements can be seen without
trouble. They vary in vividness, however, in difierent species, some being active, and
some sluggish ; and also according to the state of the weather, being most rapid in
warm weather. Some of the species are furnished with minute cilia at the extremities,
but these do not seem to take part in the motion.
Oscillatoriaceoe are found in all parts of the world, and under a great variety of
circumstances. Not very many, with the exception of the Lyngbyce and Calothrices,
are marine ; the great proportion are found in fresh water. Several occur in hot-springs,
even in the Geysers of Iceland ; and others inhabit water highly charged with minei'al
salts or gases. Some are found on damp soil ; others under the spray of cascades, and
on the gates of canal-locks and about mill-dams. Few pieces of stagnant fresh water
are free from them ; but rivers and streams are equally furnished, and broad lakes are
9a OSCILLATOEIACEJE.
sometimes coloured, throughout their whole extent, with minute, perhaps microscopic,
species of this Order. The ocean itself, often for many hundreds of square miles, has
been found discoloured by microscopic Algae of this group, belonging to the genus
Trichodesmium ; one of which, of a red colour, is found at seasons abundantly in the
Red Sea, and is supposed to have caused that name to be given to the Arabian Gulf.
Others are found in the Indian Ocean, one of which is of a bright yellow-green, and
sometimes deeply tinges the upper strata of the sea off the coasts of Malacca. Others
have been noticed in equal abundance, but less strongly coloured, in various parts of
the Pacific, and on the coasts of Australia,
The species are very difficult to determine, and have been too much multiplied by
authors : little therefore can usefully be said respecting their geographic distribution.
Probably, if they are ever carefully investigated, the same kinds will to a large extent
be found in the most distant localities. This at least seems to be the case with some,
as Petalomma alatum, Lyngbya majuscula, L. ferruginea, Calothrix scopulorum, and
many others.
TABLE OF THE NORTH AMERICAN GENERA.
* Frond filamentous, branched, olive-brown, in fresh water.
I. Petalonema. Filaments with a flattened, longitudinally and transversely striate
sheath, much broader than the endochrome.
II. Scytonema. Filaments with a cylindrical, hyaline sheath, narrower than the
endochrome.
** Frond filamentous. Filaments separate, free, green or purple.
III. Lyngbya. Filaments very long, flexible, threadlike, bundled together.
IV. Calothrix. Filaments short, tufted, erect.
V. OsciLLATORiA. Filaments rigid, needle-shaped, lying loosely in a mucous matrix,
usually floating.
*** Frond formed of numerous parallel filaments contained within a simple or branch-
ing membranous common-sheath.
VI. MiCROCOLEUS,
**** Frond formed of numerous radiating filaments invested with firm gelatine ; each
filament springing from a spherical root-cell.
VII. ElVULARIA.
OSCILLATOKIACE^. 99
I. PETALONEMA, Berk.
Filaments stratified, decumbent, free, simple or branched. Tube or sheath very wide,
flattened, longitudinally and transversely striate, and crenulate at the edge ; endochrome
olivaceous, annulated, here and there interrupted by a heterocyst. Branches issuing in
pairs, formed by the division and protrusion of the endochrome of the original filament.
A very distinct and easily recognized genus established by Mr. Berkeley in 1833,
under the name here adopted ; a name changed by Professor Kiitzing in 1845 to
A rthrosiphon, for what reason I am not aware. The Alga on which it is founded was
discovered many years previously, in the West of Scotland, by the late Captain Car-
michael, and was first figured and described by Dr. Greville as an Oscillatoria. It has
more recently been found in several parts of Europe, and we have now to record its
occurrence in the New Continent. There are few more beautiful objects among the
fresh water Algae, and unlike many of its kindred the fronds perfectly recover their
form when moistened after having been dried. When placed under the microscope the
filaments present the appearance of a cylindrical central column, containing annulated,
olive-coloured endochrome, and a wide winglike border at each side of the column. This
border or sheath is obliquely striate, the striag running in an arch from the margin
toward the centre, where they become parallel, and are then continued longitudinally
downwards along the medullary column, till lost in the density. The margin of the
wing is closely crenulate, and in age transversely striate at the crenatures as if jointed.
Such is the apparent structure : the real structure seems to be, that an annulated
central filament is enclosed within a number of compressed, trumpet-mouthed gelatino-
membranaceous tubular sheaths, one arising within the other, and successively developed
as the growth proceeds. These sheaths, thus concentrically arranged, are indicated by
the longitudinal arching striae ; and the mouths of the younger sheaths, projecting
slightly beyond those of the older, form the crenatures of the margin.
Petalonema alatum, Berk. Gl. Br. Alg. p. 23, t. l^fig. 2. Harv. Man. Ed. 1,
p. 168. Hass. Fr. Wat. Alg. p. 237. t. 68./. 6. Arthrosiphon Grevillii, Kiitz. Phyc.
Germ. p. 177. Sp. Alg. p. 311. Oscillatoria alata, Carm. Grev. Sc. Crypt. Fl. t.
222. Harv. in Hook. Br. Fl. 2. p. 378. (Tab. XLVIII. A.)
Hab. On dripping rocks, under Biddle Stairs, Niagara Falls, abundantly, W. H. H.
(1849). (v. V.)
This forms strata of a dark chestnut -brown colour, and of indefinite extent, on the
surface of rocks or soil in places exposed to the constant drip of water. The Jilaments
are decumbent, lying without order in the gelatinous matrix in which they are deve-
loped, and which forms the groundwork of the stratum. They appear to be unattached
to the soil, and each filament may be about half an inch in length ; but they are com-
monly found broken ofi" at the inferior end, or the lower portion decays while the upper
continues to grow. They are slightly curved, in serpentlike fashion, never quite
100 OSCILLATORIACEiE.
straight ; at first they are simple, but now and then they emit lateral branches, which
issue at considerable angles, and generally in pairs. When a filament is about to
branch, a rupture takes place in the side of the sheath, and the endochrome issues in two
portions, one connected with the upper, the other with the lower half of the filament ;
these form the nuclei or medullary portion of two new branches, and become duly
invested with a membranous sheath, and gradually put on the aspect of the adult
filament. The endochrome is granular, dark-brown, and annulated at short intervals, the
transverse rings being placed very close together in the youngest portions, and less
closely in the older, where they are distant from each other about twice the diameter of
the column. This annulated endochrome is interrupted at certain fixed places, where an
ellipsoidal cell is formed, separating the endochrome of the lower from that of the upper
portions. These cells may be compared to nodes, and indicate, if I mistake not, the
points where the twin branches issue. I have not, however, noticed their development
into branches.
Plate XL VIII. A. Fig 1. Portion of the stratum formed by Petalonema alatum ;
andj^^. 2. Fronds removed from the same ; the natural size. Fig. 3. Portion of two
filaments magnified. Fig. 4. Apex of a filament, more highly magnified.
II. SCYTONEMA, ^^.
Filaments tufted, mostly basifixed, erect or decumbent, free, flexible, branched.
Tube or sheath cylindrical, continuous, membranaceous, tough ; endochrome olive-brown,
annulated. Branches lateral, issuing in pairs, formed by the division and protrusion
of the endochrome of the original filament.
When at Niagara Falls in the autumn of 1849, 1 collected on the rocks under Biddle
Stairs specimens of a large decumbent Scytonema^ which may possibly be referable to
one or other of the 50 species named and described by Kiitzing, but whose characters
appear to me to be founded, often, on insufiicient data. I am unwilling to add to the
synonyms by giving a new name to the American species, and I have not at hand the
means of comparing it with more than a few of the recorded species. It is of large
size, its filaments being nearly twice the diameter of those of the British S. myochrous.,
which it resembles in its branching. The endochrome is narrower in proportion to the
sheath and distinctly annulate ; the annuli rather distant. The sheath is of a deep
chestnut brown colour.
Probably several other /orw5, if not species, occur in North America.
oscillatokiacej:. loi
III. LYNGBYA, Ag.
Filaments destitute of mucous layer, free, flexible, unbranched, elongated, not oscil-
lating. Tube continuous, cylindrical, membranaceous ; endochrome green or purple,
densely annulated, at length separating into lenticular sporidia. (Marine or in fresh
water.)
A genus consisting of many species, most of which are found in the sea ; several
occur in estuaries of rivers and in brackish ditches, and a few are found in fresh water
or in thermal springs. From Oscillator ia they are known by the absence of a gelatinous
matrix and of oscillating movements, and by the greater flexibility of the filaments.
From Calothrix, to which they are more nearly related, they difier chiefly in habit ;
especially in the great length of the filaments, and in being rarely fasciculate. The
generic name is given in honour of H. C. Lyngbye, a Danish Algologist, and author of
an excellent work on the Algae of Denmark.
1. Ltngbya m-ajuscula, Harv. ; filaments thick, very long and tenacious, twisted,
issuing in long, crisped bundles from a blackish green stratum. Barv. Fhyc.
Brit. t. f32. Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 283. Lynghya crispa, Ag. Syst. p. 74 fin part.).
Conf. majuscula, Dillw.! Supp. t. A. L. maxima, Mont. L. Facijica, Kiitz. Sp. Alg.
p. 284. (Tab. XLVII. A.)
Hab. Long Island Sound, Frofessor Bailey. Peconic Bay, Mr. Hooper. Key West,
W. H. H. and Mr. Ashmead. (v. v.)
Tufts often several inches in diameter, the central portion densely interwoven or
stratified, the margins throwing off" long bundles or fascicles of free, crisped, or variously
twisted filaments, one to two inches in length, and floating freely in the water. The
strata at first are attached to the bottom, but with age float to the surface and are cast
ashore in large masses. The diameter of the filament is greater than in any other
species, being commonly rather more than -05 of an inch. The Key West specimens are
rather less broad than usual. The sheath or tube of the filament is thick, and forms a
wide, hyaline margin to the dark-coloured, closely but not strongly annulated endochrome.
The L. maxima, Mont. (L. paci/ica, Kutz.J which I have gathered in great abundance
on the shores of the Friendly Islands, appears to me to be merely a luxuriant state of
this common species. Excej^t in the greater diameter of the filaments, and this varies
in difierent specimens, I see no character by which it may be distinguished. The species
(as understood in England) has a peculiar external habit, and its microscopic characters
— however difiicult to describe — are easily remembered after having once been seen.
It was first found at Ban try, South of Ireland, by the late Miss Hutchins.
Plate XLVII. A. Fig. 1 . A tuft of Lynghya majuscula, the natural size. Fig. 2.
Portion of a filament, magnified.
102 OSCILLATORIACE^.
2. Ly^gsy A. ferruginea, Ag. ; filaments slender, flaccid, curved, forming a thin stratum
of a verdigris green colour, which gradually changes to a pale chestnut (but resumes
the green in drying), Ag. Syst. p. 73. Harv. Phyc. Brit. tab. 311. L. aeruginosa,
Kiitz. Sp. Alg. f. 282. (Tab. XLVII. B.)
Hab. On muddy shores, in tide pools and floating in ditches of salt or brackish water
near the sea. Haarlem River, N.Y. close to the High Bridge, W. H. H. Salt ditches
at Hoboken and near Green Port, Professor Bailey, (v. v.)
Stratum thin, expanded, covering the mud to an indefinite extent, or floating on the
surface of stagnant salt water, generally of an intense verdigris or blueish green colour,
now and then foxy or rust colour, scarcely at all gelatinous. Filaments about "001 of
an inch in diameter, flaccid, slightly flexuous, rather tough, with very thin, membranous
cell-walls, filled Avith dense closely and strongly annulated, bluish-green endochrome,
occasionally with empty spaces. The striae are very evident. In the dry state the blue-
green colour is mostly preserved ; and the surface is not glossy.
Plate XLVII. B. Fig. 1. Portion of the stratum of Lyngbya ferruginea. Fig. 2.
Portion of a filament, magnified. Fig. 3. Section of the same, more highly magnified.
3. Lyngbya /MZ?;a, Harv. ; filaments slender, elongate, flexuous, fulvous, issuing in
erect, crisped, plumose fascicles from a dark coloured stratum ; cell-wall thick, forming
a broad limbus to the endochrome. (Tab. XLVII. F.)
Hab. On the granite masses composing the breakwater at Stonington, Conn. Professor
Bailey, (v. s. in Herb. T.C.D.)
Stratum attached to the rock, dull olivaceous, throwing up long fascicles of filaments,
an inch or more in length, and standing upright in the water. Filaments about the
size of those of L. ferruginea, but with very thick walls, which form a glassy sheath to
the enclosed fulvous or ochre coloured endochrome ; the hyaline border being nearly half
as wide as the coloured portion. The annuli are strongly marked and very closely set.
This somewhat resembles L. luteofusca, Ag., but the walls of the tube are much
thicker, as thick in proportion to the enclosed matter as are those of L. majuscula to
the matter in its tube.
Plate. XLVII. F. Fig. 1. Lyngbya fulva, the natural size. Fig. 3. Portion of a
filament, magnified. Fig. 2. Section of a filament, more highly magnified.
4. Lyngbya nigrescens, Harv. ; filaments very slender, flaccid, densely interwoven
into a fleecy, blackish-green stratum. (Tab. XLVII. D.)
Hab. Sea shores or mud, &c. Canarsic Bay, Long Island, Mr. Hooper. Peconic
Bay. W. H. H. Also on leaves of Zostera, Peconic Bay, Mr. Hooper.
OSCILLATORIACE^. 103
Strata varying in extent, lying on the surface of mud, or floating, or entangled with
other Algae and attached to them, of a very dull, blackish, or somewhat violet colour,
with shades of a;ruginous green. Filaments scarcely more than half the diameter of
those oi L. ferruginea ; with thin, membranous cell-walls, and densely annulated, dark
or duU coloured endochrome. When dry the stratum becomes brittle, and frequently
breaks off from the paper in flakes.
Plate XLVII. D. Fig. 1. Lyngbya nigrescens, the natural size. Fig. 2. Portion of
a filament, magnified. Fig. 3. Section of the same, more highly magnified.
5. Lyngbya confervoides, Ag. ; filaments very slender, flaccid, elongate, forming long,
comose fasciculi, floating freely from a blackish green basal stratum ; annuli not very
strongly marked. Ag. Syst. p. 73. Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 285. (Tab. XLVII. C.)
Hab. Sea-shores, Charleston, S. Q;2t.vo\mSi,, Professor Lewis R. Gibbes. (v. s.)
Stratum dark, olivaceous, or blackish green, emitting long bundles of slender filaments,
1-2 inches long, which float freely in the water. Filaments lying parallel in the
bundles, flexuous, but scarcely interwoven and often separate ; with very thin, narrow,
membranous tubes, and a dense, dull-green endochrome, which is much less distinctly
annulated than in L. ferruginea. The diameter of the filament is also much less than
in that species.
I have compared the above quoted species with an authentic one from Professor
J. Agardh, and find little difference between them.
Plate. XLVII. C. Fig. 1. Lyngbya confervoides, the natural size. Fig. 2. Portion
of two filaments, magnified. Fig. 3. Section, more highly magnified.
6. Lyngbya pusilla, Harv. ; stratum minute, blackish-green ; filaments very slender,
short, crisped, spreading in small bundles ; endochrome pale, dull-green, annulate, cell-
wall very thin. (Tab. XLVII. E.)
Hab. Parasitic on small Algae, at Sullivan's Island, S.C, W. H. H. (v. v.)
This spreads over small Algae in thin strata, composed of densely matted filaments,
and emitting to all sides free, fascicled filaments. These latter are about quarter of an
inch long, and half the diameter of those of L. ferruginea^ with a pale endochrome. The
cell-wall is extremely thin ; the endochrome quite fills the tube, leaving a scarcely per-
ceptible margin. The annuli are tolerably definite.
Possibly this may be an Oscillatoria.
Plate XLVII. E. Fig. 1. Lyngbya pusilla., the natural size. Fig 2. Portions of
three filaments, magnified. Fig. 3. Section of a filament, highly magnified.
104 OSCILLATORIACE^
7. Lyngbya hyalina, Harv. ; filaments basifixed, erect, straight, very slender,
arachnoid, gelatinoso-membranaceous, flaccid, very pale yellowish green or nearly hyaline •
endochrome filling the tube, at first granular, then annulated. (Tab. XLVII. G.)
Hab. On lime encrusted rocks at Key West, W. H. H. (v. v.)
Forming indefinite, very soft and sub-gelatinous continuous tufts or pilose strata.
Filaments fixed by their base to the rock, and floating freely, exceedingly slender and
cobwebby, straight, glossy, cylindrical, from half an inch to an inch long, very pale
jeruginous or yellowish-green, often nearly colourless. The cell-wall is thin and delicate,
and the endochrome quite fills the tube, leaving no perceptible margin.
I do not know any species similar to this. It is exceedingly slender and delicate.
Plate XLVII. G. Fig. 1. Lyngbya hyalina, the natural size. Fig. 2. Portions of
three filaments, magni^ed. Fig. 3. Section of a filament, highly magnified.
8. Lyngbya muralis, Ag. filaments somewhat rigid, thickish, tortuous, very long,
interwoveninabright, grass -green stratum; annuli strongly defined. Ag. Syst. p. 74:.
Harv. Man. Ed. 1, p. 160. Conf. muralis, Dillw. tab. 7, E. Bot. 1. 1554. /3. aquatica.
Hab. var. /3, in pools of fresh water, Whalefish Islands, Davis Straits, Dr. Lyall.
(v.s.)
The specimens are mixed with turfy soil. Except in the submerged habitat, this
agrees with the ordinary form. Intermixed with threads of the usual size and structure
are others cohering in pairs, as in L. copulata, Hass., which is obviously only a state of
this widely dispersed species. I have not received specimens of the ordinaiy L. muralis
from America ; but no doubt it is common on damp walls, &c.j as in Europe generally.
IV. CALOTHEIX, Ag.
Filaments destitute of a mucous layer, erect, tufted, or aggregated, fixed at the base,
somewhat rigid, not oscillating. Tube continuous ; endochrome green, densely annu-
lated, at length separating into lenticular sporidia. (Marine or in fresh water.)
I retain the genus Calothrix, as established by Agardh, in preference to dividing it,
with Kiitzing and others, into the groups Leiblinia, Tolypothrix, ^c. which appear to
me to be separated on very uncertain and variable characters. The whole group
requires a careful study and complete remodelling ; but I have neither time not sufii-
ciently copious materials to attempt such a work. I can hardly suppose that the
multitude of species and genera of these obscure plants described by Kiitzing are all
OSCILLATORIACEiE. 105
distinct. To judge by the characters assigned by him, many appear very closely allied
to each other.
1. Calothrix confervicola, Ag. ; filaments short, glaucous, opake, filiform, blunt,
rigid, straight or slightly curved, minutely tufted. Ag. Syst. p. 70. Harv. Phyc.
Brit. t. 254. Wyatt, Alg. Danm. No. 229. Leibleinia confervicola, Endl. ?>d. Supp.
p. 221. Leibleinia chalyhea, Kutz. Sp. Alg. p. 277. (and probably other species of
Leibleinia of the same author). Conferva confervicola, Dillw. Conf. t. 8. E. Bot. t. 2576.
Hab. On the filiform marine Algae. Ehode Island shores. Professor Bailey^
Mr. Olney, Mr. Hunt. (v. v.)
Filaments about the tenth of an inch long, either forming little starry tufts along the
branches of the Alga it infects, or, by the confluence of several such tufts, covering the
branch with a continuous pile of dark seruginous-green threads. When seen under the
microscope the filaments are simple, curved, filiform, but little attenuated upwards, and
either separate from each other or variously combined by lateral cohesion into fascicles.
Their cell-wall is rather thick, and the endochrome within is of a dull bluish-green, here
and there interrupted and broken into separate masses, and sometimes nodoso-incrassate
at short intervals. The transverse striae are more or less distinctly seen according to
the age of the specimen examined. The colour varies in difierent specimens, from dull
to bright green ; and is sometimes olivaceous, and even yellowish or pale.
This species is a common parasite on the filiform Algae, and found in many distant seas.
2. Calothrix scopulorum, Ag. ; spreading in velvetty dull-green strata of indefinite
extent; filaments flexuous, subulate, subattenuate, simple. Ag. Sp. Alg.p.lO. Harv.
Phyc. Brit. t. 58, B. Schizosiphon scopulorum, KUtz. Sp. Alg. p. 329 (and probably
others.) Conferva scopulorum, Dillw. Conf . p. 39, Sup. t. A. E. Bot. t. 2171.
Hab. Rocks near high water mark. Shores of Rhode Island, Professor Bailey and
Mr. Olney. (v. v.)
This occurs in slimy and somewhat velvetty patches of indefinite extent, covering the
surface of marine rocks. The filaments rise from a slimy debris or matrix, which is
gradually accumulated. They are erect, flexuous, often very much bent, attenuated to
the apices, and sometimes, but not invariably, acuminate ; and they stand in the stratum
parallel to each other, crowded together, but not cohering in laminae. The endochrome
is commonly of a dark, olivaceous green, and the ceU-waU thin and membranous. Strice
evident.
Generally dispersed throughout the temperate zones, both north and south. Its
slimy patches are very treacherous to the feet of unwary trespassers who may happen
to tread on them.
106 OSCILLATOEIACE^.
3. Calothrix vivipara, Harv. ; spreading in continuous, velvetty strata ; filaments
thick-walled, fasciculate at base, straight or somewhat curved, viviparous above, and
pseudo-branched ; endochrome strongly annulated.
Hab. Seaconnot Point, Professor Bailey (v. s. in Herb. T.C.D.)
This appears to form a continuous stratum on rocks, like that of C. scopulorum, but
the filaments of which it is composed are longer, 2-3 tenths of an inch long and straighter ;
more united at the base into fascicles, and furnished above with appositional branches
which evidently rise from viviparous separations from the endochrome. Sometimes the
endochrome seems to split or divide longitudinally ; at other times it separates trans-
versely, the portions growing at each end and cohering laterally. The cell-wall is wider
than in C. scopulorum.
Certainly closely allied to C. scopulorum and also to C. hypnoides, and perhaps
intermediate between them, connecting the extreme forms of each. It was sent to me
by Professor Bailey as probably C. fasciculata, but it does not agree with the British
plant so called ; and not knowing what else to do with it, being unwilling to pass it by
altogether, I have given it a provisional locus in the genus, assigning to it the trivial
;/name vivipara. It may possibly be merely a viviparous state of C. scopulorum.
4. Calothrix pilosa, Harv. ; strata of indefinite extent, blackish or dark brown,
pilose ; filaments densely interwoven at the base, then free, elongate, rigid, cylindrical,
very obtuse, very flexuous, simple or slightly pseudo-branched ; cell-wall very thick,
fulvous or subopaque ; endochrome narrow, dark green. (Tab. XLVIII. C.)
Hab. On rocks between tide marks, Key West, W.H.H. (v. v.) ^
This forms strata of indefinite extent, covering rocks in patches of a very dark
blackish or brown colour, not in the least lubricous, and more pilose than velvetty. The
stratum is about quarter of an inch thick ; its matrix composed of the densely inter-
woven decumbent bases of the filaments which constitute it. These are afterwards
erect, unconnected together, standing separately like the hairs on a fleece, very much
curved or twisted, nearly half an inch long, rigid and not at all slimy. They are about
the same diameter as Lyngbya majuscula ; and are scarcely attenuated at the blunt
apex. The cell-wall or tube is remarkably thick and opaque, evidently formed of
successive deposits, indicated by faint longitudinal stria; ; and is fulvous or ochraceous
in colour. The endochrome seldom constitutes more than a third of the diameter of
the filaments, and is of a dull dark-green, more or less annulated. When dry the whole
plant is rigid and harsh, and does not adhere to paper.
This seems to be a well characterised species, difibrent at least from any with which
I am acquainted, and to be recognised by its shaggy, rigid pile of hair-like filaments,
and their dark colour. Its microscopic characters are quite different from those of
C. scopulorum. It abounds at Key West on littoral rocks. ,
OSCILLATORIACEtE. 107
Plate XLVIII. C. Fig 1. Stratified tufts of Calothrix pilosa, the natural size.
Fig. 2. Portion of the filaments magnified. Fig. 3. A more highly magnified portion.
5. Calothrix dura, Harv. ; strata indefinite, dull brown ; filaments at first decum-
bent and matted together, then erect, cohering laterally in tooth-like bundles ; each
filament angularly bent below, at first simple, then cleft longitudinally and afterwards
once or twice forked ; endochrome very narrow, annulate ; the cell-wall thick, lamel-
lated and subopaque ; apices acuminate. (Tab. XLVIII. D.)
Hab. On mudflats, near high water mark. Key West, W. H. H. (v. v.)
Possibly this may be only a state of the preceding species, to which, at least, it is
nearly allied, although it offers characters which would cause it to be referred to another
genus of Kiitzing. The filaments are matted together at base ; the mat being composed
of prostrate portions of each thread, intricately interwoven. The threads, after proceeding
for a time horizontally, suddenly become erect, bending nearly at right angles, and then
they cohere together into stiff", tooth-like fascicles, in which they stand parallel, and are
straight or but slightly curved. When a single filament is removed from the fascicle, i
is seen to be simple and filiform below, but gradually increasing in diameter upwardi
to a certain stage, at which the endochrome separates into two columns, which are at
first parallel with each other and contained in the same sheath ; but they soon separate,
and then each becomes invested by a separate sheath. In this way two branches are
formed, which may either remain simple or may again divide once or twice in a similar
manner. The cell-wall is much wider than the endochrome. The substance is rigid
and tough : and the colour dull brown or fulvous.
Plate XLVIII. D. Fig. I. Stratified tufts of Calothrix c?Mm, the natural size.
Fig. 2. Portions of the filaments magnified. Fig. 3. Apex of a filament, more highly
magnified.
V. OSCILLATORIA. Vauch.
Filaments lying in a gelatinous matrix, rigid, simple, acicular, vividly oscillating.
Tube continuous ; endochrome green, densely annulated with close, parallel, trans-
verse striae. (Mostly in fresh water — some marine.)
The Oscillatorice occur in gelatinous strata or pellicles, which at first are formed at
the bottom of stagnant or running water, and afterwards rise to the surface. The green
scum frequently seen on the surface of putrid ditches is generally formed by one or
108 OSCILLATORIACE^.
more species of this genus. Others occur in lakes, and sometimes in such abundance
as to impart a blue-green tint to the water, over very wide areas. Others, again, inhabit
mineral springs and thermal waters ; and some are found on the damp surface of the
soil, especially in the autumnal months. Varied as are the habitats, the general
characters of the species are very uniform : and all are remarkable for an oscillating
movement of the filaments, from side to side, like the motion of a pendulum. This
continues with greater or less vividness, while the plant lives : but some species exhibit
much more lively movements than others, and all appear to be more active in warm
than in cold weather.
A considerable number of species have been described by authors, but they require
to be studied in a living state, or at least with very perfect materials and an ample
suite of well preserved specimens. I cannot undertake to name specifically the few
scraps of American Oscillatorice which have been sent to me by various correspondents.
Probably most of the European species will be met with in America ; and no doubt
some others peculiar to the New Continent. It would be interesting to know whether
any species be found in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, or in other anomalous
localities.
VI. MICROCOLEUS, Desmaz.
(Chthonoblastus, Kiitz.j
Filaments minute, rigid, straight, annulated, bundled, and enclosed within membra-
naceous simple or branching sheaths, which are either open or closed at the upper
extremities.
The filaments in this genus have the structure of those of Oscillatoria or Calothrix,
but are developed within membranous common sheaths, which are either simple or
branched, and either lie prostrate in indefinite strata, like those of an Oscillatoria ; or
stand erect, in toothlike tufts, like those of many Calothrices. In all cases the sheath
is much attenuated at the base, gradually widening upwards, and terminating either in
an open, trumpet-shaped upper extremity, or in a closed club-shaped one. In the
lowest part of the sheath there is but a single longitudinal filament ; a little way up,
two or three parallel filaments are found ; and the filaments gradually increase in
number in the upper and wider portions of the common sheath. Hence it may probably
be inferred that the mode of growth of the frond is by the continual longitudinal
division of the filaments ; the older ones, having once split, remaining unchanged at
base ; while their apices by another splitting give birth to other filaments, which
multiply in the same manner. Such a mode of growth would account for the form
OSCILLATORIACE^. 109
which the full grown frond assumes. The species are found either in the sea or in fresh
or brackish water, and even on damp soil. A terrestrial species is common in Europe
by the borders of clayey highways and paths, and may also be found in America.
1. MiCROCOLEUS corymbosus, Harv.; fronds erect, rigid, tufted, multifid, the branches
erect, level-topped, linear-clavate, closed at the extremity ; filaments densely packed,
not oscillating. (Tab. XLVIII. B.)
Hab. On mud-flats, near high-water mark, at Key West, mixed with Calothrix dura.
W.H.H. (v. V.)
Fronds half sunk in the mud, erect, tufted, from an eighth to a quarter of an inch in
length, flexuous, tapering much to the base, gradually increasing in diameter upwards
and dividing above into three or four or more erect branches, the lowest of which are
longest, the upper gradually shorter, so that the apices of all are nearly on a level.
These apices are obtuse, and closed. The investing sheath is tough and firmly mem-
branous, and the enclosed filaments strongly cohere together, and are with difficulty
separated. The colour of the sheath is ochraceous yellow, and of the endochrome dull green.
The substance is very firm and rigid, and in drying the plant does not adhere to paper.
Plate XLVIII. B. Fig. 1. Tufts of Mickocoleus corymbosus^ the natural size.
Fig. 2. Magnified view of two fronds. Fig. 3. Portions of the enclosed filaments, more
highly magnified.
VII. RIVULARIA, Roth.
Frond globose or lobed, fleshy, firm, composed of continuous radiating filaments,
annulated within ; each springing from a spherical globule. (In the sea or in fresh
water.)
A fresh water species resembling the British R. pisum has been sent to me by Mr-
Eavenel from the Santee Canal, where it grows on submerged leaves and stems of plants.
It is hemispherical, very convex, dark blackish-green and soft, and consists of densely
set, spuriously branching, slender filaments. The specimens are not in a very perfect
state, and I cannot say to which, if any, of the modern species they would belong. In
old times they would pass for R. pisum, but it is nearly impossible at present to say
exactly what that species is.
110 NOSTOCHINE^.
Okder X.— NOSTOCHINE^.
NostochimoB, Endl. Srd Suppl. p. 12. B&rh Crypt. Bot. p. 139. Nostochece.,
Lindl. Veg. Kingd. p. 18. Kiitz. Phyc. Gen. p. 30. JSfostochacece^ Harv. Man. Ed. 2,
p. 230.
Diagnosis. Green, fresh water, or rarely marine Algae, composed of moniliform
filaments, lying in a gelatinous matrix. Filaments formed of globose cells, here and
there interrupted by a single cell (heterocyst) of a different character. Propagation by
zoospores.
o
Natural Character. — The least organized plants of this Order consist of isolated,
moniliform threads, invested with a gelatinous coat, and either lying on the soil,
without a root attachment, or floating freely in water. Others a little more compound
are made up of numerous similar threads aggregated in bundles, and imbedded in a
gelatine common to the colony : while even the most complex, as in the genus Kostoc,
present but little further in advance, except that the gelatine in which the threads are
developed is of a firm consistence, when dry becoming quasi-membranous, and assumes
the character of a frond, with definite outline, but generally polymorphous shape. The
filaments are almost always simple, consisting of strings of cells, and are curved or
twisted, or often spiral ; in one case (Monormia) the filaments branch. The cells are
spherical or oval, never truly cylindrical with flat ends, as in the Confervacece, and are
filled with a dense, bright-green endochrome. In some few cases, as in Spermosira,
the moniliform thread is enclosed within a tubular, membranous sheath, as in Oscil-
latorice, and there is little to distinguish such plants from individuals of that Order,
except the occurrence of the cells called " heterocysts." These latter cells are destitute
ef endochrome, but often clothed with cilia, and are of a different size and shape from
the neighbouring cells. They are always solitary, and occur at intervals in the fila-
ments, but vary in position in the different species. Their use has not been ascertained,
but they have been supposed to be connected with the male system of these plants.
They never change character, like the ordinary cells, and are always found occupying
a definite position in the filament, indicating that they perform some important function,
whatever it may be.
Though the process of fertilization has not yet been observed, there can be little
doubt but that a true fructification is formed in the ordinary cells, which at first are
filled with pale-green matter, and afterwards increase in size, alter their form, and
acquire a much denser and more darkly coloured, often deep brown, endochrome. All
the cells of the filaments do not exhibit these changes, but only one or more, generally
NOSTOCHINE^. Ill
those in the neighbourhood of the heterocyst. Finally, at maturity, the threads break
up, and the enlarged brown cells are found to contain spores which germinate and
continue the species. They have been stated to change into zoospores, but this requires
confirmation. M. Thuret, in a communication recently made to the Natural History
Society of Cherbourg (Aug. 1857, vol. 6) has described and figured the germination
oi iYiQ scores, oi Anabaina lichenif or mis, and A. major. In these species the sporan-
gium is oblong, and contains at maturity a deep brown solitary spore. M. Thuret
having obtained some specimens with ripe fruit, set them aside in a convenient glass
vessel, and observed them from day to day. The filaments soon broke up, the hetero-
cysts and sporangia floating apart in the water. Many of the latter perished, melting
away, and disappearing altogether. Some remained sound, and these were carefully
supplied with water, until germination commenced. The spore, in germinating, at
first lengthens, pushing against one end of the sporangium, which it finally pierces
lifting ofi" the tip of the periderm like a lid, and thus its extremity issues, as the radicle
from an monocotyledonous seed, capped with the lid of the sporangium. At this period
new cells begin to be formed, by the repeated sub-division of the spore, which continues
to lengthen till it is transformed into a moniliform filament or string of cells, like that
from which it was derived. At first the divisions between the cells are but little
distinct, but they become more and more strongly defined as growth proceeds. The
filament lengthens at both extremities, but more rapidly at that which projects into the
water ; the young articulations are of smaller size than the rest, and thus the filament
tapers towards each end. But this character gradually disappears, and the cells acquire
a uniform dimension, proper to the species. M. Thurefs first experiments were made
with freshly gathered sporangia : but he afterwards succeeded in causing to germinate
specimens which had been dried and preserved for several months in the herbarium-
They began to germinate in about a; fortnight. Others (of Anahaina licheniformis)
which had been kept for nine years in a dried state, germinated in an equal space of time,
and the experiment was repeated several times with like success. Several other fresh-
water Algae have been observed to possess the same property of revivification, and it
seems a necessary endowment to enable them to continue the existence of their species
through the alternate drying and moistening to which they are subjected in nature.
To M. Thuret we are also indebted for observations on the ordinary propagation by
gemmation of the Nostocs, and for an account of the way in which the compound frond
is developed. In the autumnal months, when this process goes forward, the old Nostoc
may be said to diliquesce, the gelatine becoming loose and exuding, and the filaments
contained in it breaking up into small fragments. If these be collected and placed in
a glass of water, they may be observed to have a slow, progressive movement, like that
of the Oscillator ice, which enables them to change their place ; and at length they
generally fix themselves on that side of the glass next the light. By continuing the
observations for some days, the broken threads are seen to become immoveable, and
then to be invested with a transparent pellicle. At the same time the green cells
increase in size, expanding laterally, till the thread attains nearly twice its ordinary
diameter. A cell division, in vertical order, then takes place throughout its component
cells, and thus the filament splits into two parallel filaments, which are then contained
112 NOSTOCHINE^.
within a common pellicle. The same process continues ; these split into other threads,
and thus, by gradual bisection of the first formed threads, the frond grows until it
become of the form and size proper to its kind. As it grows the filaments twist and
curl, and loose their parallelism. All these changes have been figured by M. Thuret
with the accuracy and delicacy of execution characteristic of that accomplished naturalist.
The Nostochinea3 are very rarely marine, and are chiefly found in fresh water streams
or ponds and lakes, or in damp places. Nostoc commune is dispersed over most
countries of the globe, being found lying on the bare soil after rains, or in very damp
weather. It may be observed often on garden walks in the autumn and winter months,
and is found throughout both temperate zones, extending almost to the tropics. A
similar species has been seen in Australia, after a shower of rain, to cover what had
seemed previously to be a bare hill side, with such a thick coating of jelly as to render
it impossible to walk over it without sliding. Such terrestial species have, in England,
the popular name of " fallen stars" ; their sudden appearance and disappearance being
accounted for by the supposition that they had fallen from the air. In Dr. Suther-
land's account of his Arctic voyage a species bearing a close external resemblance to
N. commune was observed in profusion, occurring on the shores of the Arctic Ocean,
but in windy weather frequently blown over the ice, and drifted out to sea. This will
be found described below as N. arcticum. Dr. Sutherland mentions that he had eaten
handfuUs of it on several occasions, without any inconvenience ; and although it was
generally infested with swarms of the larvae of flies and gnats, he considered it much
more nutritious than " tripe de roche," and perhaps not inferior to Iceland moss. A
very similar plant was noticed by Dr. Thomson as occurring in Thibet, up to the
height of 17,000 feet, floating on the surface of pools and lakes, in soils impregnated
with carbonate of soda, and drifted in heaps by the winds along their banks, Mr.
Berkeley, who examined the specimens of both plants chemically, " thinks we may safely
assume the jelly of the Nostoc to be a state of bassorin, passing into cellulose or
dextrine." Another species of this genus {Nostoc edule, Mont, and Berk.) is found
abundantly in streams in Tartary, whence it is exported to China, where it is sold in the
markets as an article of food, and highly esteemed as an ingredient in soups. It is
prepared for sale in boxes, one of which is in the Museum of the Linnoean Society.
These particulars are drawn from the abstract of a paper read by Dr. Hooker before
the Linnasan Society of London, January 20, 1852. (See Taylor's An. Nat. Hist.
2nd. Ser. Vol. 10, p. 301-303.^ As the edible Nostocs closely resemble N. commune
in substance, it may be worth enquiry whether the latter may not also be used as food.
Possibly a new source of luxury may lie hid under this humble exterior. Or it may
perhaps be a nourishing and delicate food for weak digestions. The dyspeptic had better
seek for it betimes.
nostochinej:. 113
NOSTOC. Vauck
Frond gelatinous or coriaceous, globose or lobed, filled with curled, beaded, simple
filaments, formed of spherical or ellipsoidal coloured cells, interrupted here and there by
a colourless cell of larger size. Spores formed from the ordinary cells. (On damp
ground or in fresh water.)
1. NosTOC commune, Vauch. ; terrestrial; frond expanded, membranaceous, plaited
and waved or curled, olive-green, polymorphous. Vauch. Tab. 16. Fig. 1, Ag. Syst.
p. 18. Harv. Man. Ed. 1, p. 183. Hass. Br. Fr. W. Alg. p. 288 t. 74,/. 2.
Kutz. Sp. Alg. p. 298.
Hab. On damp soil, in autumn. Common after rain on dry flats, Rio Bravo, Dr.
Schott. (v. vj
In dry weather the frond curls up and contracts, looking like a piece of shrivelled
skin, and in that state may be blown about without injury. When moistened it expands,
and then forms a semi-transparent, semi-gelatinous, elastic membrane, of a dull bottle-
green colour. Under the microscope it appears like a transparent jelly traversed in
every part with curled strings of beadlike, green cells.
2. NosTOC (Hoemosiphon) arcticum, Berk. ; fronds foliaceous, variously plaited, green
or brownish ; filaments at length (their gelatinous envelope being dissolved) free.
Berk, in Proc. Lin. Soc.fide An. Nat. Hist. 2d Ser. vol. \0,p. 302.
Hab. On the naked soil, in boggy ground. Assistance Bay, lat. 75° 40' N. Dr.
Sutherland, (v. s.)
" Fronds foliaceous, variously plicate, sometimes contracted into a little ball. Gela-
tinous envelope at length efiiised ; connecting cells at first solitary, then three together ;
threads, which are nearly twice as thick as in N. commune, breaking up at the con-
necting cells, so as to form new threads, each terminated with a single large cell, the
central cell becoming free." Berh. I. c.
" It grows," says Dr. Sutherland, " upon the soft and almost boggy slopes around
Assistance Bay ; and when these slopes become frozen at the close of the season, the
plant lying upon the surface in irregularly plicated masses becomes loosened, and if it
is not at once covered with snow, which is not always the case, the wind carries it about
in all directions. Sometimes it is blown out to sea, where one can pick it up on the
surface of the ice, over a depth of probably one hundred fathoms. It has been found at
a distance of two miles from the land, where the wind had carried it. At this distance
from the land it was infested with Poduras, and I accounted for this fact by presuming
that the insects of the previous year had deposited their ova in the plant upon the land-,
where also the same species could be seen in myriads upon the little purling rivulets,
at the side of which the Nostoc was very abundant." At p. 205 of his Journal, Dr.
Q
114 NOSTOCHINE^;
Sutherland further mentions having tried it as an article of food, and found it prefer-
able to the Tripe de Roche of the arctic hunters. Its nutritive qualities are probably
equal to those of the jelly derived from other Algse.
3. NosTOC verrucosum, Vauch. ; aquatic ; fronds large, gregarious, confluent, sub-
globose, plaited, at length hollow, blackish-green. Vauch. 1. 16,/^. 3. Ag. SysL p. 21.
Harv. Man. Ed. I, p. 185, Hass. Brit. Fr. Wat. Alg. p. 29i, tab. 15, fig. 1. Kutz.
Sp. Alg. p. 300.
Hab. On stones in fresh water streams. Pools of fresh water. Isle of Disko, and at
Beechey Island, Arctic Kegions, Dr. Lyall. Santa Fe, New Mexico, Fendler.
Fronds gregarious, at length confluent, adhering firmly to the rock on which they
grow, becoming hollow and torn in age, and finally floating to the surface. Colour a
bottle-green. Glossy when dry.
4. NosTOC cristatum, Bailey ; aquatic , fronds orbicular, piano-compressed, firm,
smooth or tuberculated, attached by a point of the circumference, erect. H. nummu-
lare, Harv. MS. in Herb.
Hab. In rivulets, attached to stones under water. Wear West Point, Professor
Bailey. Crumelbow Creek, Hyde Park, N.Y., W.HH. (v. v.)
This pretty little species grows on stones in running water and may possibly be of
common occurrence. The fronds are circular, about half an inch in diameter, or rather
more, the tenth of an inch in thickness, piano -compressed and solid ; but perhaps in age
they would become hollow, and then would probably be spherical. Such inflated fronds,
however, have not yet been seen. They are fixed to the stones on which they grow by
a single point of the circumference, and stand erect, like miniature cock's-combs, whence
the specific name cristatum bestowed by Professor Bailey. The substance is very firm
and cartilaginous. The filaments are much curled and very densely packed together,
moniliform, and of a dark bluish-green under the microscope. The colour of the frond
to the naked eye is a dark olive-green, blackish rather than blueish.
5. 'RoSTOC SutherlandiyDlckie; "discoid, coriaceous; filaments crowded ; cells mostly
spherical." Dickie in App. Suth. Voy. I, p. 193.
Hab. South side of harbour, in winter quarters, Baffin's Bay, July, 1851. Dr.
Sutherland.
" The plant is one to two inches in diameter, attached by one point of the margin.
Plicato-venose beneath, the plicae radiating chiefly from the point of attachment ; faintly
venose above, especially near the point of adhesion ; toward the margin reticulately
venose." Dickie, I. c. '
NOSTOCHINE^. 115
This is unknown to me. It seems to be closely allied to the preceding species, if it
be distinct. The plicae and reticulations observed do not appear to be characters of
much value for the discrimination of species among these gelatinous plants.
6. NosTOC microscopicum, Carm. ; fronds densely aggregated, very minute, globose
or oblong, immersed in a blackish crust ; filaments few. Carm. in Hook. Brit. Fl. 2,
p. 399. ffarv. Man. Ed. 1, jo. 184. N. muscorum, Hass. Br. Fr. Wat. Alg. p. 292,
t.l^fig.4..
Hab. " Stones in a small stream, Baffin's Bay, Dr. Sutherland^ fide Prof. Dickie.
I have not seen American specimens. In Britain this species grows among mosses
on exposed calcareous rocks, but not in water. The above specific character is taken from
the British plant. The fronds are rarely more than the tenth of an inch in diameter,
and contain two or three beaded filaments lying in a copious transparent jelly.
7. NoSTOC flagelliforme, Berk, and Curt. ; terrestrial ; frond cartilaginous, linear,
very narrow, compressed and often channelled, much branched, irregularly dichotomous ;
branches solid, densely fiUed with moniliform curved threads. Berk, and Curt.
No. 3809.
Hab. On naked aluminous soil, at San Pedro, Texas, Mr. Charles Wright (v. s.)
Fronds several inches in length, half a line in diameter, lying prostrate on the
surface of the soil, much branched in an irregularly dichotomous manner : branches
exactly linear, compressed, often channelled on one or both sides, thinned in the middle
and incrassated to the edge. Substance firm and elastic, cartilaginous, solid, densely
filled with moniliform, curved or curled, interlaced threads, which are set longitudinally
in the frond, and lie nearly parallel to each other. Colour dark olive.
A very curious and most distinctly marked species, differing from others of this
genus, much in the same manner that Chcetophora endivicefoUa does from the ordinary
globose forms of Chcetophora.
116 PALMELLACEiE.
Order XIII.*— PALMELLACE^.
PalmellacecB, Harv. Man. Ed. 2, p. 234. Falmellece, Due. Class, p. 31, Endl.
3rd. Supp. p. 10. Kutz. Phyc. Gen. p. 166. Hass. Brit. Fr. Wat. Alg. p. 306.
Lindl. Veg. King. p. 18. Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 196. Berk. Crypt. Bot. p. 114. Thwaites,
in An. Nat. Hist. 2ndSer. vol. 2, p. 312, and vol. 3, p. 243. Part of Ulvacece, Harv.
Man. Ed. 1, p. 169- Part of Nostochinece, Ag. Syst. p. 13. Harv. in Hook. Br.
fl. 2, p. 394.
Diagnosis. Green or red, orange or yellowish, fresh-water Algee, composed of separate
or aggregated (but not united) globose or ellipsoidal cells, free, or lying in a gelatinous
matrix ; sometimes stipitate. Propagation by division of the endochrome.
Natukal character. The plants of this family are the simplest in organization of
any of the great class of the Alga3, and therefore fall to the lowest point of the scale in
the arrangement we have adopted. In them we no longer find any distinction of root
from frond ; most of them are amorphous masses of gelatinous substance, and only in a
few, as in Hydrurus, does the gelatine assume a tolerably definite form, and display
itself as a branching frond. The simplest of the group (Protococcus) consists of single,
isolated cells, strewn on the surface of the soil or of whatever object to which they
happen to attach themselves. These cells are globose or egg-shaped, have a hyaline,
often gelatinous coat, and contain a utricle filled with dense endochrome of various
colours ; sometimes green, but often red or orange. Of this character is the Red Snow
plant (Protococcus nivalis) which has attracted so much notice, from the accounts of
arctic travellers, and which may often be seen tinging the snows of Mount Blanc and
other snowy Alps with a pale roseate hue. The mode of propagation of this primordial
plant is as simple as its structure. The matter in the cell becomes condensed at
maturity, and then subdivides into 4, 8, 16, or more parts, on a quaternary scale of
increase ; each frustule acquires a new cell-coat while yet within the parent cell, and
when the process is completed, and all the endochrome of the mother cell has thus been
used up in providing for the progeny, the cell-coat bursts and a multitude of minute
cell-plants, similar in all respects to the parent except in size, are launched into the
world. These grow till they attain the dimensions of the parent, when a similar cell
division takes place ; and thus in a very few generations millions of new plants may
be produced from a few or even from a solitary original. As the process of growth and
* Orders XI. Desmidiaoece , and XII. Diatomacece are omitted in this work ; the American species having
been already partially described and published by Professor Bailey, and the author not being supplied with
any new materials for publication.
PALMELLACE^. 117
development is very rapid, we may easily account for the rapidity with which the
Protococcus nivalis has been seen to extend, and also for the vast surface covered by so
minute an organism. Each individual is not more than ToVij of an inch in diameter, yet
the surface of snow visibly reddened by the congregated masses often covers hundreds
of square miles. A species very similar, if really different, called F. pluvialis, is found
in shallow pools of rain water, on the surface of rocks, in gutters of houses, &c, ; and
has been noticed in very distant parts of the globe under various climatial conditions ;
and of this species a most elaborate monograph,* illustrated by figures, has been given
by De Flotow, in the Hov. A ct. Leop. Carol. Nat. Cur. vol. 20, where no less than
twenty-two distinct and many more subdistinct varieties, or rather states, are enume-
rated, described, and measured to fourteen places of decimals (!) and figured. Several of
these forms are endowed with movements resembling those of the infusorial animalcules,
and have been described as animalcules by Shuttleworth in his account of the Eed Snow
(Bib. Univ. Geneva, Feb. 1840.J
A little higher in organisation than Frotococcus is the genus Gloeocapsa (Hcemato-
coccus) in which what is only a passing phase of the Frotococcus becomes a permanent
character. In this we have several cells (of the structure of Frotococcus) enclosed
within a common, primary cell, which is persistent, or at least partially so. In some
species (as in G. Hookeri) the primary cell-coat exfoliates repeatedly, the old coats
remaining permanently attached on one side to each other, and to the cell, which per-
petually bursts through them ; and thus a sort of spurious frond, simple or branching,
is formed, consisting of exuviae, each branch being tipped with the living cell, which
shines like a gem at its summit. These plants occur generally in damp situations, on
rocks and among mosses, about the spray of cascades, &c., and Kiitzing has described
and figured upwards of fifty.
Next come the Falmellce proper, where a large number of protococcoid cells are enclosed
within a common gelatine, in which they sometimes appear to be distributed without
order ; and sometimes arranged in a subquaternary manner. In this latter case the
structure approaches very closely to that of Tetraspora, a genus we have already
referred to the Ulvacece ; but which is placed by many authors next to Palmella.
Possibly among these obscure plants forms are associated in one genus which will be
separated when their development is better understood. Among some of the Falmellce
Broome and Thwaites have described and figured a more definite organization than was
previously known ; namely, that the apparently scattered cells of the mass are connected
in an early stage of growth, by means of slender gelatinous threads, with a central cell
* This extraordinary essay is well ■worth looking at— (I will not say carefully perusing) — as one of the most
remarkable commentaries on the text, " how great a flame a little fire kindleth." The object to be examined
is a microscopic Alga of the simplest possible structure, being in fact merely an isolated living cell. All that
need to be said of its history might, one would suppose, easily have been written in a page or two. But the
learned and most laborious author has occupied nearly two hundred large quarto pages on this theme ; and
not content therewith, has appended long tables of decimal measurements of microscopic areas and volumes,
whose only reference to his subject appears to be that they enable him to arrive at such important calculations
and useful results as describing the mean differences of the shorter and longer diameters of different individuals
of his Protococcus, and their mean comparative bulk and spherical aberration. In computing these tables, the
decimals have been carried sometimes to fourteen places, and in most cases at least to six.
118 PALMELLACE^.
of large size, from which they radiate. Afterwards they become detached, and then each
is seen at the end of a mucous prolongation similar in appearance to that already
noticed as occurring in Gloeocapsa. Mr. Thwaites compares these threads to the
mycelium of a fungus, but regards the increase of cells by cell-division as properly an
act of gemmation and not of true reproduction. The reproductive process in these
plants is by conjugation of two cells, which takes place in a manner similar to that
already noticed as occurring in Zygnemacece. A narrow connecting tube, soon enlarg-
ing to the breadth of each cell, is formed between two contiguous cells, through which
the contents of both cells are mixed together ; and thus a sporangium filled with a
denser and more distinctly granular endochrome is formed, the membranes of the
original cells being absorbed in the process. Probably at a future stage the contents
of this sporangium are resolved into zoospores. (See Thw. An. Nat. His. ser. 2, vols.
2 and 3.)
Higher in structure than Palmella, and showing some approaches to the JSfostochinece,
or even to the gelatinous Confervace^ (Chcetophora) is Hydrurus, the only genus
which we shall further describe.
I. HYDRURUS, Ag.
Frond fixed at base, cylindrical or compressed, elongated, branched, gelatinous.
Structure : seriated, but separate, cellules, filled with bright-green endochrome, enclosed
in gelatinous parallel tubes, ranged longitudinally in the frond, and surrounded by a
common gelatinous envelope.
Of this genus several species have been described by authors, all having a close
resemblance to each other, and all very variable in ramification. Indeed it is almost
impossible to fix characters by which they can be permanently kept apart ; and instead
of adding another specific name to the already too numerous list, I prefer to consider the
American specimens received as constituting a luxuriant variety of the best known of
the established species. All previously recorded species or varieties of these plants are
natives of rapid rivers and streams in various parts of Europe.
1. Hydrurus penicillatus^ var. occidentalism Harv.; frond very long (1-2 feet or
more) much branched ; branches very irregular, scattered or crowded, wormlike, taper-
ing to a fine point, naked or clothed with feathery villous ramuli ; cells ellipsoidal or
pearshaped, twice as long as their diameter.
Hab. On the rocky bottom of rivers and streams, in a strong current. Santa Fe,
New Mexico, Mr. Fendler, February to April, 1847. (v. s. in Herb. T.C.D.)
PALMELLACE^. 119
Fronds attached at base, one or two feet long, from one to four lines in diameter,
very much and irregularly branched ; branches scattered or crowded, simple or divided,
a foot or more in length, attenuated to a fine point, sometimes smooth and naked, but
generally densely clothed with slender, villous ramenta, spreading to all sides. The
gelatinous tubes or sheaths in which the cells are seriated are very obvious, and lie close
together in longitudinal, parallel strata. The cells are of large size, bright-green colour,
and variable shape ; some are twice as long as others.
This I had at first supposed to be a new species, but now regard it as a very gigantio
state of H. penicillatus, Ag. which under various forms and of various sizes is common
in alpine streams in Europe. I fear characters derived from the shape and size of the
cellules are not more to be depended upon than are those taken from the ramification.
SUPPLEMENT.
No. 1. Additional Species discoyered since the publication of the
First and Second Parts.
Part I.— MELANOSPEKME^.
Part 1, p. 61, add,
I.* TURBINABIA. Lamour.
Root branching. Frond alternately decompound, having a distinct stem, branches,
vesicated leaves and receptacles. J5mwcAe<s filiform, simple or pinnate. Leaves spirally-
inserted, on long petioles, peltate, becoming inflated and changed into peltate air-vessels
with leafy dentate margins. Receptacles cylindrical, verrucose, much branched, rising
from the petiole of the leaf, near its base, on the upper side ; of similar structure to
those of Sargassum.
A genus consisting of two or three tropical or subtropical Algae, distinguished from
Sargassum by its peltate leaves, which are at first thin and flat, but afterwards become
hollow and are changed into flat-topped, margined air vessels.
1. Tdrbinaria vulgaris, kg. ; frond membranaceo-coriaceous ; leaves on an inflated
petiole obconic or top-shaped, the margin entire or toothed, the disc naked. J. Ag. Sp.
Alg. \,p. 267. Turbinaria denudata and T. decurrens, Bory. Fucus turbinatus,
Turn. Hist. t. 24, fig. a. and b.
Hab. At Key West, Mr. Ashmead. (v. v.)
Root a mass of branching fibres, as thick as sparrow's quills, loosely entangled
together. Fronds several from the same mat of roots, either quite simple, or dividing
near the base into three or four principal branches ; or pinnately compound by the
evolution of lateral branches, erect and rigid, 6-10 inches high, cylindrical and smooth.
Leaves spirally inserted, spreading to all sides, patent, rigid ; petioles at first cylindrical,
B
122 SUPPLEMENT.
then becoming clubshaped and somewhat inflated, from half an inch to an inch long,
crowned with a peltate horizontal lamina, Avhich is either subentire or sharply dentate
at the margin. In young specimens or on young branches the peltate leaves are found
flat and thin, their upper and lower surfaces forming one substance ; but more com-
monly the centre of the leaf becomes inflated or vesicated, and then is formed a compound
top-shaped flat-topped body, half vesicle, half leaf, which is characteristic of the genus.
Receptacles dichotomous, much branched, shrubby, their branches verrucose. Colour
when growing a pale olive, but in the herbarium changing to a dark brown or black.
Substance, when dry very hard and rigid.
A common plant in tropical seas, both in the eastern and western hemispheres. Mr.
Ashmead obtained fine specimens at Key West, but it appears to be of rare occurrence.
Part 1, page 64, add,
III.* CYSTOPHYLLUM.
(Generic character the same as that of Cystoseira, except that the air-vessels are
confined to the ultimate ramuli, which are simple and filiform.)
1. Cystophyllum geminatum, Ag. ; stem ; fronds elongate, filiform, un-
armed, decompound-pinnate ; branches issuing from all sides, geminate ; vesicles solitary
in the ramuli near the summit, oval, tipped with an excurrent point ; receptacles
paniculate, warted, attenuate, often tipped with a vesicle. J. Ag. Sp. Alg. 1, p. 232.
Cystoseira thyrsigera, Post, and Rupr. 111. Alg. 13, t. 38,/. 4.
Hab. Banks' Island, North Western America, Mr. Menzies, 1787. (v. s.)
In Mr. Menzies' Herbarium, now preserved at the Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, is
a specimen of this plant, marked C. trinodis in Mr. Menzies' handwriting. Two
branches are laid on one piece of paper. The largest is about 10 inches long, as
thick as sparrow's quill, smooth, decompound, pinnate and ovato-lanceolate in circum-
scription. The branchlets are mostly geminate, filiform, alternately decompound ;
their lesser divisions also subgeminate. Vesicles oval, 1^ lines long, scarcely a line
wide, either solitary in the filiform ramuli, about the middle or a little beyond it, or two
in the ramulus, the second one terminal, apiculate, and removed by a rather long pedi-
cel from the first. Receptacles lanceolate, 2-3 lines long, verrucose, apiculate, often
with a slender beak nearly as long as the receptacle, and sometimes two receptacles occur
on the same ramulus. The upper branches are very dense.
Page 71, add,
8. Fucus serratus, Linn. ; frond flat, dichotomous, midribbed, serrated, without air-
vessels; receptacles flat, terminating the branches, serrated. J. Ag. Sp. Alg. 1, p. 211.
Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 590. Turn. Hist. t. 90. E. Bot. t. 1221. Harv. Phyc. Brit,
t. 47, ^c.
SUPPLEMENT. 123
Hab. On rocky sea-shores. Newbury port, Mass. Captain Pike, 1852. (v. v.)
Fronds, two feet long or more, from one half-inch to one or two inches in width,
dichotomous, with a thick midrib, bordered by a sharply serrated lamina. Air-vessels
none. Receptacles flat, formed in the acuminated extremities of the branches, sharply
serrate like the other parts of the frond.
I have received a small fragment of this common European plant, stated to have
been found in the above locality on the American coast. It is hardly probable that it
is either confined to one locality, or even rare, wherever it occurs ; yet none of my
other American correspondents have sent it ; nor do I know the circumstances under
which Captain Pike obtained it. I hope this notice may lead some one on the coast to
investigate the subject ; for European botanists are yet uncertain whether F. serratus
be really a bona fide native of the American coast, or merely a stray waif, accidentally
cast ashore.
Page 106, add,
2. ZoNARLi/ava, Ag. ; frond erect, with an elongated, branched, woolly stipes, the
branches expanding into cuneate, flabelliform, vertically cleft and laterally laciniated,
naked laminae ; segments wedge-shaped, with radiating, longitudinal striae ; sori
roundish, scattered. J. Ag. Sp. Alg. \, p. 110. Stypopodium flavum, Kutz. Sp. Alg.
p. 563.
Hab. Pacific Coast, Dr. Schott. (v. s.)
A small specimen, apparently referable to this species, was collected by Dr. Schott
on the Pacific coast, but the locality is not stated. It is about two inches high, much
narrower and more branched than Z. lobata, with stupose, linear, riblike patches
extending up the principal lobes. Perhaps, therefore, it is rather referable to Z. stuposa,
J. Ag., if that be a distinct species from Z.flava.
Page 113, add,
VI.* STEIARIA, Greo.
Root a small, naked disc. Frond tubular, membranaceous, continuous, branched.
Fructification, groups of naked, roundish spores, disposed in transverse lines.
1. Steiaeia attenuata, Grev. ; branches and ramuli mostly opposite, tapering to each
extremity. Grev. Crypt. Fl. Syn. p. 44, tab. 288. Alg. Brit. p. 55. t. 9. Wyatt,
Alg. Danm. No. 160. J. Ag. Sp. Alg. 1. p. 80. Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 25. Kiitz.
Sp. Alg. p. 553. Phyc. Gen. t. 21. f. 11.
Hab. Flushing, New York Bay, Professor Bailey.
124 SUPPLEMENT.
The only American specimen I have yet seen is small and very slender, about two
and a half inches long, and not thicker than hog's bristle. It is abundantly in fruit ;
otherwise it could hardly be recognised. The branches are few, opposite or alternate,
. some of the larger ones bearing a few ramuli, and all tapering to a very fine point.
On the British coast this species varies greatly in size. Sometimes it is nearly as
small and slender as that just noticed. Other specimens, like that figured in Phyc.
Brit, are 8-12 inches long, and from one to two lines in diameter. The branching is
irregular and sometimes whorled.
Page 137, add,
3. Sphacelaria arctica ; filaments naked at the base, erect, elongate, slender, irre-
gularly branched, scarcely pinnate ; ramuli filiform, naked, erect.
Hab. In tide pools. Isle of Disko, Greenland, Dr. Lyall. (v. s. in Herb. T.C.D. )
Filaments 1-2 inches high, irregularly once or twice compounded, the main branches
few, the secondary numerous, densely set and very erect, lateral, either naked or bearing
few or many, long, filiform, erect, naked, slender ramuli, from half an inch to an inch
in length. Articulations short in the stem and branches ; once and a half as long as
broad in the ramuli. Colour a dull olive. Fruit unknown.
Page 138, add,
III* MYRIOTRICHI A, ZTaru.
Frond capillary, flaccid, jointed, (simple), beset with quadrifarious, simple, spinelike
ramuli, clothed with byssoid fibres. Fructification, elliptical spores, containing dark-
coloured endochrome.
1. 'MxmOTmcnik filiformis, G-rifi". ; stem filiform, slender, often flexuous or curled,
beset at irregular intervals with oblong clusters of short, papilliform ramuli. Harv.
Phyc. Brit. t. 156. Wyatt, Alg. Danm. No. 213. J. Ag. Sp. Alg. 1. p. 14. Kutz.
Sp. Alg. p. 470.
Hab. Parasitic on Dictyosiphon foeniculaceus at Penobscot Bay, Mr. Hooper, (v. v.)
Fronds an inch or more in length, very slender, filiform, but thickened at intervals, as
if nodose ; the thickening caused by the dense aggregation of short ramuli of two or three
cells each. These ramuli emit byssoid fibres. Spores roundish, scattered. Substance
soft. It adheres closely to paper.
On the British Coast this parasite commonly infests Chorda Lomentaria.
Page 139, add,
2* EcTOCARPUS longifructus, Harv. ; tufts large, branching, the divisions feathery ;
filaments robust, excessively branched, branches mostly opposite, the lesser ones set
SUPPLEMENT. 125
with short, spine-like, opposite, or rarely alternate ramuli ; articulations as long as
broad ; sUicules very long, linear-lanceolate, attenuate, densely striate transversely,
terminating the principal branches and ramuli. Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 258.
Hab. Penobscot Bay, Mr. Hooper, (v. s.)
I have seen an American specimen collected by Mr. Hooper, which I venture to
associate with the Orkney plant to which the above character is given in Phyc. Brit.
Perhaps it is a mere form of E. littoralis; though a remarkable one.
Page 140, add,
3* EcTOCARPUS amphibius, Harv. ; tufts short, loose, soft, pale olive ; filaments very
slender, sub-dichotomous ; ultimate branches alternate, spreading ; articulations two or
three times longer than broad ; sUicules linear-attenuate, spine-like, mostly sessile,
scattered. Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 183.
Hab. In fresh (probably brackish ?) water, near New York, Mr. Hooper, (v. s.)
Tufts 2-3 inches long, very flaccid and slender ; pale brown when fresh, fading to a
dull greenish-olive in drying. This is nearly related to E. siliculosus, and may perhaps
be regarded as a depauperated variety of that common species, altered by having grown
in a less saline medium than usual. In England it occurs in brackish ditches near the
coast. The American locality is not particularly specified.
Part II.— EHODOSPERME^.
Page S3, add,
7. Chondeia nidijica ; frond ultrasetaceous, filiform, sparingly and distantly branch-
ed ; branches alternate or secund, quite simple or forked, long, cordlike, naked,
or emitting at intervals fascicles of forked or multifid fructiferous ramuli ; tetraspores
several, near the tips of the ramuli. (Tab. L. B.)
Hab. Pacific Coast, Dr. Schott. (v. s. in Herb. T. C. D.)
Fronds 6-8 inches long, as thick as sparrow's quills, cylindrical, inarticulate, sparingly
branched in a manner between alternate and dichotomous ; the branches, by frequent
non-development of one of the arms of the fork, appearing unilateral. Branches several
inches long, quite simple, or once or twice forked ; or bearing a few secondary branches
one or more inches long, either quite naked or furnished at intervals of about an inch
with tufts of short, fructiferous ramuli. These latter are about quarter-inch long,
as thick as hog's bristle, densely tufted, and simple or sub-divided. In the specimen
examined some of them bear tetraspores. A transverse slice of the inarticulate frond
126 SUPPLEMENT.
shows a central axial-cell surrounded by several primary radiating cells, and many
external rows of secondary cells which become smaller towards the circumference.
Colour a dull brownish red. Substance cartilaginous, not adhering to paper.
I have seen but a single specimen of this seemingly very distinct plant, which has
more the habit of Champia lumbricalis than of one of the present genus. It was picked
up, it is presumed on the Western coast, by Dr. Schott, during the Mexican Boundary
Survey, but no note regarding its exact habitat accompanied the specimen. I am
indebted to my friend Professor Torrey for specimens of this and other Algae collected
by the officers attached to the Mexican Boundary Survey.
Plate L. B. — Fig. 1. Chondru nidijica ; the natural size. Fig. 2. Portion of a
branch, with a tuft of ramuli. Fig. 3, a ramulus, containing tetraspores. Fig. 4, a tetra-
spore. Fig. 5, transverse section of a branch ; the latter figures more or less magnified.
Page 36, add,
4.* Rhodomela lycopodioides, Ag. ; frond divided near the base into several long,
simple branches, which are densely beset with slender, finely divided branchlets, mixed
with the short, rigid, bristlelike remains of a former series. Ag. Sp. Alg. 1. p. 877-
Harv. Phyc. Brit. t. 50. Lophura lycopodioides^ Kiitz. Sp. Alg. p. 850. Ficcus lyco-
podioides, Linn. Turn. Hist. t. 12. E. Bot. t. 1163.
Hab. Whalefish Islands, Davis Straits, Dr. Lyall. (v. s.)
Fronds 1-2 feet long, half a line in diameter at base, attenuated upwards, filiform,
either quite simple or divided a short way above the root into several long simple
branches. In its winter state the virgate branches are closely set with short, rigid,
simple or slight divided ramuli, from half an inch to one inch in length. In summer, long,
capillary, multifid ramuli from one to two inches in length are thrown out both from
the remains of the winter ramuli and from the main branches, and the frond thus
acquires a plumose aspect very difierent from its winter state. Conceptacles are abun-
dantly borne on the summer ramuli ; and tetraspores., lodged in clustered, podlike
branchlets or stichidia, are found on the winter ramuli. Substance cartilaginous.
Colour a purplish brown, becoming very dark in drying.
This interesting addition to the American Nereis occurs abundantly in various places
on the shores of Northern Europe. In the British Isles it is almost confined to the
coasts of Scotland and of the North of Ireland ; but has occassonally been met with on
the East coast of England.
Page 69,
1. Dasya GiBBEsn, Harv.
Add to the description : Conceptacles of large size (^ inch in diameter), borne on
the penultimate ramuli, at first globose, afterwards broadly ovate, inflated, with thin,
highly cellular walls and a berry-like nucleus of much branched filaments, bearing many
SUPPLEMENT. 127
small, pyriform spores. Specimens in fruit communicated by Mr. S. Ashmead from
Key West. (v. s.)
Page 61,
3. Dasya ramosissima, Harv.
Add to description : Conceptacles sessile on the lesser branches, ovato-globose, thin
walled, inflated, without prominent orifice, containing a large nucleus. Stichidia on
the ramelli, either fusiform or ovato-acuminate, always tapering to a slender point ;
tetraspores in a single or double row. Specimens in both kinds of fruit communicated
by Mr. S. Ashmead from Key West. (v. s.)
Page 62, add,
3.* Dasya Harveyi, Ashmead ; rose red ; stem cartUagineo-membranaceous, longi-
tudinally striate, glabrous, inarticulate, robust, attenuated upwards, .much branched ;
branches alternate or secund, once or twice decompound, their ultimate divisions being
pinnated with capillary, closely set, articulated (polysiphonous) ramuli, which are
densely clothed with byssoid, dichotomous ramelli ; cells of the epidermis of the branches
very narrow, parallel; articulations of the ramelli many times longer than broad;
conceptacles sessile near the tips of the lesser ramuli, urceolate, with a prominent orifice ;
stichidia on the ramelli, tapering to each end. (Tab. L. A.)
Hab. Key West, Mr. Ashmead. (v. s. in Herb. T.C.D.)
Frond 8 — 10 inches long, as thick as crow-quill in the main divisions ; very much
branched, the successive divisions being more and more slender, till the ultimate ones
have become finer than human hair. The branching is irregular, the larger divisions
frequently secund, several lateral branches directed successively first to one side and
then to the opposite one of the main branch. All the main branches and their lesser
divisions down to the last are inarticulate, being coated with very slender, coloured,
longitudinal, parallel, seriated cells, which give the branches a striated appearance under
the microscope ; they are also glabrous, or bare of ramelli. The ultimate branchlets,
which are half an inch to an inch long, are plumose, very flaccid and soft, and closely
set with lateral, but not strictly distichous pinnules, which are clothed with excessively
slender, cobweb-like, flaccid ramelli. These latter are many times dichotomous and
taper to the points ; their articulations are many times longer than broad. The concep-
tacles are nearly of the form of those of Polysiphonia urceolata, and are sessile at or
near the ends of the pinnules of the plumose branchlets. The stichidia spring from the
lower forkings of the byssoid ramelli, and are much attenuated, tapering at each end,
and containing a double row of tetraspores. The whole plant is of a beautiful, clear,
rose-red colour. Its substance is very soft and flaccid, and in drying it adheres very
strongly to paper.
128 SUPPLEMENT.
For fine specimens of this distinct and beautiful species I am indebted to its discoverer
Mr. Ashmead of Philadelphia, who sent them to me marked with the specific name here
adopted.
Plate L. A. Fig. 1. Dasya Harveyi, the natural size. Fig. 2. A ramulus bearing a
conceptacle near its summit. Fig. 3. Portions of different ramelli bearing stichidia.
Fig. 4. A portion of a branch, showing the linear striaeform surface-cells : the latter
figures magnified.
Page 64,
7. Dasya Tumanowiczi, Gatty. add to the description : Conceptacles on very short
peduncles, borne by the lesser branches, ovate or sub-urceolate, thin walled, without
prominent orifice, with a large nucleus. Specimens from Dr. Blodgett and Mr. Ash-
mead.
Page 105, add,
3. NiTOPHYLLUM Fryeanum,; frond sessile, full-red, nerveless, thickish, deeply divided
into many cuneate lobes, which are again vertically cleft, the segments rounded, frequently
crisped at the margin, specially towards the base, the sinuses narrow ; fruit ?
Hab. Golden-gate, California, Mr. A. D. Frye. (v. s. in Herb. T.C.D.)
I propose this species with much hesitation, having as yet seen only very imperfect
specimens, which I know not how to dispose of but by giving them a local habitation
and name. Two specimens are before me ; one faded, the other in a better state of
preservation, but neither in fruit. The frond is about 3 inches long, and 4 in lateral
expansion, and is deeply divided into 4 or 5 principal segments which are broadly
cuneate, and each again partially cloven into 4 or 5 lesser, vertical segments. The
margin towards the base of the lobes is crisped or undulate ; in other parts it is plane.
The lesser lobes are somewhat crenate or sub-lobulate, and all the tips are rounded, and
the axils or sinuses very narrow. The substance of the membrane is thickish ; the
surface- cells large and tessellated ; the cells of the interior appear also to be of large
size, and quadrate, but the specimens examined have been too much squeezed in the
process of drying, and their cells are consequently broken and difiicult to examine. No
traces of veins in the specimens seen. More perfect specimens must be had before this
species can be considered as other than provisional.
Fragments of one or two other Nitophylla have reached me from the Pacific Coast,
but not sufficiently perfect to warrant me in naming them.
Page 160, add,
5. Ehodymenia corallina, Grev. (?) ; stipes cylindrical, sub-simple, expanding into
a fan-shaped, many times dichotomous, rose-red frond ; lacinise linear, with rounded
SUPPLEMENT. 129
interstices and a flat, entire margin ; apices rounded ; conceptacles clustered near the
ends of the laciniae, on the surface of the lamina ; tetraspores forming deep-red sori in
the dilated apices. J. Ag. Sp. Alg. 2, p. 379. Sphcerococeus corallinus, Borg, Coq.
p. 175, t. 16. Kutz. Sp. Alg. p. 780.
Hab. San Diego, California, Mr. A. D. Frye. (v. s. in Herb. T.C.D.)
A single Californian specimen only has yet been seen, and I doubtfully refer it to
R. corallina, in preference to founding a new species on such imperfect data. The frond
is stipitate ; the stipes filiform, 2-3 inches long, then widening and passing into the
cuneate base of a flabelliform, dichotomously parted lamina, with broadly linear or
somewhat cuneate segments. The lower part of the stipes throws out 2 or 3 proliferous
frondlets, and similar ones spring from the margin of the lacinias. The conceptacles are
immersed in the ultimate segments of the laciniae, which then are truncated and foliiferous.
The colour is a deep-red, and the substance rigid and membranaceous. Such is the
Californian specimen, and it tolerably agrees with the Chilian species, whose character
is given in the above diagnosis.
Page 175, add,
2* GiGAETiNA Chamissoi, (?) Mont. ; J. Ag. Sp. Alg. 2, p. 267. Sphoerococcus
Chamissoi, Ag. Ic. Med. t. 6. Mart. 2c. Sel. Bras. t. 3, jig. 1.
Hab. West Coast, Dr. Schott.
A fragment of a Gigartina, closely allied to G. Chamissoi, if not a mere form of it,
occurs in Dr. Schott's new Mexican collection. It is too imperfect for description.
G. Chamissoi is a common species on the coast of Peru, and may very probably extend
to the north of the Equator.
Page 180, add,
6. Iridjea dichoto ma, Harv.; stipes linear, compressed, simple or branched, passing
into the cuneate base of the broadly cuneiform or obovate, repeatedly forked lamina ;
lacinise shallow and rounded, divaricating, their margin entire or denticulate ; surface
smooth and glossy. /. micans, var. dichotoma. Hook.f. and Harv. Fl. Ant. 2, p. 487.
/. dichotoma, Harv. in Hook. Journ. 1 845, p. 262.
Hab. California, Mr. A. D. Frye. (v. s.)
Stipes 1-2 inches long, about a line wide, throwing out 2-4 minutely stipitate fronds,
which are 4-6 inches long, and 3-4 wide, at their greatest width. The base of the
frond is cuneate, and the lobes into which it divides are also broadly cuneiform. They
divaricate from each other, leaving very wide sinuses between. The frond is thus
sometimes thrice forked, the last furcation being minute, and frequently a mere inden-
tation. The substance is rather thin and membranous. The surface is smooth and
glossy, and the colour a fine purple-red.
s
130 SUPPLEMENT.
Whether a distinct species or a mere variety of /. micans remains to be shewn, when
some competent observer on the Pacific Coast shall have properly examined the several
reputed species of this most troublesome genus. If we admit more than one species it
is difiicult to refuse admission to many, the forms are so varied. The present is, at
least, a well-marked variety.
Page 195, add,
4. Halosaccion dumontioides ; stem short, filiform, emitting many crowded, tubular,
membranaceous, long branches, which are quite simple, destitute of ramenta, and taper
much to the base and apex.
Hab. Northumberland Sound, Queen's Channel, lat. 76° N., Dr. LyaU. (v. s. in
Herb. T.C.D.)
Stem 1-3 inches long, simple or forked, filiform, about twice as thick as hog's bristle,
emitting throughout its length, and directed towards all sides, numerous crowded, perfectly
simple branches. Branches two feet long, more than quarter inch wide in the middle,
cylindrical for their greater extent, but attenuated and fusiform to the base, and tapering
at the extremity to an acute point, hollow, destitute of ramenta, smooth and glossy,
formed of a very thin membrane. Colour a brownish pinky-red, partly discharged in
fresh water. Celhdar structure very dense.
I have some hesitation in proposing this as a species distinct from H. ramentaceum ;
but if not a good species, it is at least a strongly marked variety, and has so much the
external aspect of Dumontia Jiliformis, that until I had submitted a section to the
microscope, I supposed I had before me a very luxuriant specimen of that plant. The
microscopic structure of the membrane is that proper to Halosaccion (section Halocoelia),
but is not easy to see, as the collapsed cells do not readily expand on reimmersion of
the dried frond. The substance is much softer and more membranous than in H. ra-
mentaceum, and in drying the branches adhere much more strongly to paper. Dr. Lyall
brought home several fine specimens.
Page S42, add,
16.* Callithamnion tenue ; filaments tufted, ultra-capillary, irregularly much
branched, difi"use, flexuous, the branches and their divisions very generally secund,
springing from the middle of the internodes ; ramuli few and distant, patent, filiform,
beset toward the attenuated apices with whorls of minute, byssoid fibres ; articulations
cylindrical, those of the branches 4-6 times, those of the ramuli 3-4 times as long as
broad, and gradually shorter towards the extremities, Griffithsia tenuis, Ag. Sp. Ahj.
p. 13. J. Ag. Sp. Alg. 2, p. 84. Kutz. Sp. Alg p. 661.
Hab. Beesley's Point, New Jersey, Mr. Samuel Ashmead. (v. s. in Herb. T.C.D.)
Filaments 3-4 inches long, somewhat thicker than human hair, loosely tufted,
flexuous, very irregularly branched, the ramification on a lateral, not a dichotomous
SUPPLEMENT. 131
type. Branches usually secund, in some cases opposite or alternate, springing from the
middle of the articulation (or internode), or from near its base (not from the shoulder),
long and filiform, flexuous, furnished with several distant, secund, filiform, patent,
secondary branches, which are either simple, or furnished with a few similar, secund
ramuli. All the branches and ramuli of every grade spring from the middle of the
internodes of the branches of the preceding grade. The ramuli taper to their summit ;
the last six or eight internodes are very short, or rathei' are gradually developed whilst
the ramulus lengthens, and their nodes are beset, especially those of the younger ones,
with whorls of minute and very delicate byssoid ramelli, which seem to be connected
with the growing process ; but perhaps may also accompany fructification, as they do
in the nearly allied C. thyrsoideum. The articulations are cylindrical, 4-5 times as
long as broad, with a wide, hyaline margin and dissepiment, and are filled with rosy
endochrome. Substance membranaceous and delicate. The frond closely adheres to
paper in drying,
I have compared Mr. Ashmead's specimens with an authentic one of Agardh's
Griffithsia tenuis from the Mediterranean, and find them to agree in every essential
character ; the only diiference that I can perceive being, that the American specimens
are larger and more luxuriant than the European. The fructification has not been
observed either in America or Europe, and I may therefore be accused of indiscretion
in removing this species from Griffithsia to the present genus. I do so because its
afiinity with C. thyrsoideum of Ceylon and Australia is so great that they cannot be
placed in separate genera ; and the fruit of the latter is known. I only question
whether I ought not to go a step further, and unite C. thyrsoideum to C. tenue as a
mere variety. Both are remarkable for the manner in which the branches and ramuli
are inserted ; and may be known by this character alone from all allied species. But
there is no American species to which the present is nearly allied.
Page 247, under Fikea califoruica, add to the specific diagnosis,
(Tab. XLIX. B.)
And insert the following reference to the figure,
Plate XLIX. B. Fig. 1. Pikea califomica, a robust specimen ; and^^. 2, a more
slender and smaller individual ; both of the natural size. Fig. 3. Longitudinal
section of the frond, showing the central, articulated axial filament, and the two strata
of cells. Fig. 4, a transverse section of the frond ; these two figures equally magnified.
132
No. 2. List of Arctic Algse, chiefly compiled from collections brought
home hy Oflicers of the recent Searching Expeditions.
1. Fucus vesiculosus, Linn. Ner. Bor. Amer.part 1, p. 71.
Hab. Common along the Arctic Seas, and continuing through Behring's Straits along
the North-west Coast. Whalefish Islands, and north end of Disco, Dr. Lyall.
2. Fucus nodosus, Linn. JSfer. Bor. Amer. part l,p. 68.
Hab. North end of Isle of Disco, Di\ Lyall.
3. Agarum Turneri, Post. & Rup. JSfer Bor. Amer. part I, p. 95.
Hab. Navy-board Inlet and Whalfish Islands, Dr. Lyall.
4. Laminaria saccharina, Lamour. JSfer. Bor. Amer. part l,p. 92.
Hab. Floating off the West Coast of Greenland, five miles from shore, in lat. 63,
Dr. Lyall.
5. Alaria Pylaii, Grev. Ner. Bor. Amer.part l,p. 89.
Hab. Northumberland Sound, Queen's Channel, Lat. 76°. 52', Dr. Lyall.
6. Desmarestia aculeata, Lamour. Ifer. Bor. Amer. part I, p. 78.
Hab. Dredged in 6 fathoms,in Queen's Channel,lat. 76°29',long 96° l3'W.,Dr. Lyall.
7. DiCTY osiTUOfi fceniculaceus, Grev. JSfer. Bor. Amer.part \,p. 114.
Hab. Whalefish Islands, Dr. Lyall.
8. CnoviDXRiA. Jlagelliformis, Ag. Ifer. Bor. Amer.part 1, p. 123.
Hab. Whalefish Islands, Dr. Lyall.
9. Ch^topteris plumosa, Kiitz. JSfer. Bor. Amer. part 1, p. 136.
Hab. Arctic Coast, Dr. Seeman. Roots of large Algae, floating near Whalefish
Islands, Dr. Lyall.
10. Sphacelaria arctica, Harv. Ner. Bor. Amer. part 3» suppl. p. 124.
Hab. Isle of Disco, Dr. Lyall.
11. EcTOCARPUS /ascicwZaftis, Harv. Ner. Bor. Amer.part 1, p. 141.
Hab. Whalefish Islands, Dr. Lyall.
12. ECTOCARPUS littoralis, Lyngb. Ner. Bor. Amer. part 1, p. 139.
Hab. Whalefish Islands, Dr. Lyall.
133
13. Rhodomela lycopodioides, Ag. Ner. Bor. Amer. part 3, suppl. p. 126.
Hab. Cast ashore on Disco and Whalefish Islands, Dr. Lyall.
14. RnODOMELA gracilis., Kiitz. Ner. Bor. Amer. part 2, p. 26.
Hab. In rock-pools. Disco and Whalefish Islands, Dr. Lyall.
15. PoLYSiPHONU urceolata, Grev. Ner. Bor. Amer. part 2, p. 31.
Hab. Dredged in 10 fathoms, ofi"Cape Cockburn, 75° N. 100° W., Capt. M'Clintock.
16. CoEALLiNA officinalis, L. Ner. Bor. Amer. part 2, p. 83.
Hab. Lively Harbour, Isle of Disco, Dr. Lyall.
17. Delesseeia sinuosa, Ag. Ner. Bor. Amer. part 2, p. 93.
Hab. Off the Greenland Coast, Dr. Lyall. North Shore of Prince of Wales' Strait,
Sir JR. McClure. Cape Cockburn 75°, and Lowther Island 74°, Capt. McClintock.
18. EuTHOEA cristata, J. Ag. Ner. Bor. Amer. part 2, p. 150.
Hab. Disco Island, Dr. Lyall.
19. Rhodymenia interrupta, Grev. Ner. Bor. Amer. part 2, jo. 149.
Hab. Arctic Sea, Lieut. W. H. Griffiths, R.N.
20. Rhodymenu palmata, Grev. Ner. Bor. Amer. part 2, p. 148.
Hab. Queen's Channel, Northumberland Sound, 76° 52' N., Dr. Lyall.
21. Halosaccion ramentaceum, J. Ag. Ner. Bor. Amer. part 2, p. 194.
Hab. Whalefish and Disco Islands, and in Queen's Channel, Dr. Lyall.
22. Halosaccion dumontioides, Harv. Ner. Bor. Amer. part 2, supp. p. 130.
Hab. Northumberland Sound, Lat. 76° N., Dr. Lyall.
23. Kallymenu Pennyi, Dickie. Ner. Bor. Amer. 2, p. 172.
Hab. Dredged in 15-20 fathoms in Assistance Bay, Dr. Sutherland. Dredged in
6 fathoms. Queen's Channel, Lat. 76° 29' N., Long. 96° 13', Dr. Lyall.
24. Ptilota serrata, Kiitz. Ner. Bor. Amer. 2, p. 222.
Hab. Arctic Coast, Sir J. Richardson. Whalefish Islands and West Coast of Green-
land, Dr. Lyall.
25. Tthotx plumosa, Ag. Ne)\ Bor. Amer. 2, p. 224.
Hab. Arctic Sea Coast, Sir J. Richardson.
26. Cladophoea arcta, Kiitz. Ner. Bor. Amer. 3, p. 75.
Hab. Whalefish Island, Davis's Straits, Dr. Lyall.
27. Cladophoea rupestris, Kiitz. Ner. Bor. Amer. 3, p. 74.
Hab. Whalefish Islands, Davis's Straits, Dr. Lyall. Fiskernaes, near Cape Farewell,
Dr. Sutherland.
134
28. Ch^tomorpha Melagonium, Kiitz. Ner. Bor. Amer. 3, p. 85.
Hab. Boots of large Algae, Whalefish Islands, Dr. Lyall.
29. Ch^tomoepha Piquotiana, Mont. Ner. Bor. Amer. 3, p. 85.
Hab. Floating in the sea, near Whalefish Islands, Davis's Straits, Dr. Lyall. (A
single filament only !)
30. HoRMOTEiCHUM CarmichaelU, Harv. Ner. Bor. Avier. 3, p. 90.
Hab. Wellington Channell, Dr. Lyall.
31. HoRMOTEiCHUM boreole, Harv. Nei'. Bor. Amer. 3, p. 90.
Hab. Whalefish Islands, Dr. Lyall.
32. HoEMOTEiCHUM WormsMoldU, Kiitz. Ner. Bor. Amer. 3, p. 91.
Hab. Dredged in 6 fathoms, in Queen's Channel, 76° 29' N., 96° 13' W., Dr. Lyall.
Coast of Greenland, Lyngbye.
33. MouGEOTiA (species innominata.)
Hab. In fresh water. Isle of Disco, Dr. Lyall.
34. Lyngbya m,uralis, var. aquatica. Ner. Bor. Amer. 3, p. 104.
Hab. In pools of fresh v?ater, Whalefish Islands, Dr. Lyall.
35. Ulva latissima, L. Ner. Bor. Amer. 3, p. 59.
Hab. Isle of Disco, and dredged in Queen's Channel, Dr. Lyall.
36. Ulva bullosa, L. Ner. Bor. Amer. 3. p. 60.
Hab. In pools of fresh water, Whalefish Islands, Dr. Lyall.
37. Enteromorpha intestinalis, Link. Ner. Bor. Amer. S p. 57.
Hab. Whalefish Island, Dr. Lyall. (Probably universally spread.)
38. OsciLLATORiA corium, Ag. Harv. Man. Ed. 1 p. 166.
Hab. On stones in a running stream. Wellington Channel, Dr. Lyall.
39. NoSTOC arcticum, Berk. Ner. Bor. Amer. 3, p. 113.
Hab. Assistance Bay, lat. 75° 40' N., Dr. Sutherland.
40. NosTOC verrucosum, Vauch. Ner. Bor. Amer. 3, p. 114.
Hab. Pools of fresh water. Isle of Disco, and at Beechey Islands, Dr. Lyall.
41. NosTOC Sutherland\J)\.Q)siQ. Ner. Bor. Amer. 3, p. 114.
Hab. Winter quarters, Baffin's Bay, Dr. Sutherland.
42. NosTOC microscopicum, Carm. Ner. Bor. Amer. 3, p. 115.
Hab. Baffin's Bay, Dr. Sutherland.
ALPHABETIC INDEX.
135
ALPHABETIC INDEX OF NAMES.
[The systematic names in capitals are those which are adopted. The names in italic indicate synonyms,
whilst the vulgar names are in roman. The asterisks refer to the page of description.]
ACETABULARIA, 35, 39.*
CRENULATA, 40.*
MEDITERRANEA, 40.
Ahnfddtia Lamourouxii, 19.
racemosa, 19.
uvifera, 19.
Anadyomene, 42, 48.*
flabellata, 49.*
stdlata, 49.
AnadyomenecB, 41.
Arctic Algse, list of, 132.
Arthrosiphon GreviUii, 99.
Bangia, 52, 54.*
atropurpurea, 54.
ciliaris, 56.*
. ruscoPURPUREA, 54.*
vermicularis, 55.*
Batrachosperme^, 7, 61.*
Batrachospermum, 63.*
americanum, 71.
moniliforme, 63.'
Blodgettia, 42, 46.*
confeevoides, 48.*
Brtopsis, 12, 31.*
cupressoides, 32.
HYPNOIDES, 32.*
PLUMOSA, 81.*
ramulosa, 31.
CALLITHASraiON tenue, 130.*
Calothrix, 98, 104.*
• confervicola, 105.*
DURA, 105.*
PILOSA, 106.*
Caulerpa Ashmeadii, 18.*
clavifera, 19.*
cupressoides, 21.*
ericifolia, 20.*
ltcopodium, 19.*
mexicana, 16.*
paspaloides, 21.*
plumaris, 17.*
prolifeea, 16.*
Wurdemanni, 21.
Caulerpe^, 9, 11.*
Ch^tomorpha, 69, 84.*
^rea, 86.*
scopulorum, 105.'
vivipara, 106.*
Caulerpa, 11,- 12.*
beach ygona, 87.*
• litorea, 87.*
longiarticulata, 86.'
melagonium, 85.*
Olneyi, 86.*
• PiQUOTIANA, 85.*
• RIGIDA, 87.*
• SUTOEIA, 87.*
- TORTUOSA, 88.*
Chjetophora, 69.*
endivi^folia, 69.*
pisiformis, 70.*
ClL^TOPHOREiE, 69.*
Choetophoroidece, 67.
Cham^edoris, 42.*
annolata, 43.*
Chauvinia, 19.*
Chauvinia clavifera, 19.
cupressoides, 21.
ericifolia, 20.
paspaloides, 21.
Chlorodesmis, 12, 29.*
COMOSA, 29
136
ALPHABETIC INDEX.
Chlorodesmis vaccheri^formis, 30.*
CHLOROSPEEMEiE, 1.*
Chondria nidifica, 125.*
Cladophora, 69, 72.*
adhcerens (note) 75.
albida, 80.*
ARCTA, 75.*
BRACHYCLADOS, 81.*
CARTILAGINEA, 75.*
centralis, 75.
Chamissonis (note) 75.
coalita (note) 75.
DIFFUSA, 83.*
FLEXnOSA, 78.*
FEACTA, 83.*
GLAUCESCENS, 77.*
GLOMERATA, 84.*
GRACILIS, 81.*
L^TEVIEENS, 82.*
LANOSA, 76.*
LUTEOLA, 81.*
MEMBRANACEA, 73.*
• Mertensii (note) 75.
Montagneana, 81.
MoERisi^, 78.*
prasina, 84.
REFEACTA, 79.*
REPEKS, 73.*
RUDOLPHIANA, 80.*
RUPESTRIS, 74.*
scojxeformis, 75.
CNCIALIS, 77.*
vauchericeformis, 75.
viminea (note) 75.
Codies, 9, 12.*
CoDiuM, 12, 28.*
TOMENTOSUM, 29.*
Conferva cerea, 86.
albida, 80.
arcta, 75.
atropurpurea, 54.
hrachydados, 81.
centralis, 75.
confervicola, 105.
fracta, 83
fuscopurpurea, 54.
gdatinosa, 64.
glaucescens, 77.
gracilis, 81.
Icetevirens, 82.
lanosa, 76.
linum, 87.
litorea, 87.
Conferva majuscula, 101.
melagonium, 85.
membranacea, 73.
mutahilis, 72.
obtiisangula, 92.
Piquotiana, 85.
refracta, 79.
repens, 75.
reticulata, 95.
riparia, 92.
Rudolphiana, 80.
rupestris, 74.
scopceformis, 75.
scopulorum, 105.
sutoria, 87.
uncialis, 77.
' vauchericeformis, 75.
tortuosa, 88.
Wormskioldii, 91.
Youngana, 89.
CONFERVACE^, 7, 67.*
Confervoideos, 67.
Corallina barbata, 36.
conglutinata, 27.
fldbeUata, 26.
incrassata, 24.
monilis, 24.
Opuntia, 23.
Penicilhis, 45.
Peniculum, 43.
Phoenix, 46.
rosarium, 36.
tridens, 24.
Tuna, 25.
Corallocephalus dumeiostis, 44.
penicillus, 45.
Corradoria plumaris, 17.
Cymopolia, 35.*
BARBATA, 36.*
bibarbaia, 36.
• Rosarium, 36.
Ctstophyllum, 122.
• geminatum, 122.*
Cystoseira thyrsigera, 122.
Dasya Gibbesii, 126.
Harveyi, 127.*
ramosissima, 127.
Tdmanowiczi, 128.
Dasyclade.*, 7, 33.*
Dasycladus, 35, 38.*
claveformis, 38.
occidektalis, 38.*
Desmidiacej;, 7.
ALPHABETIC INDEX.
137
DlATOMACE^, 7.
DlCTTOSPH^RIA, 42, 50.*
FAVULOSA, 50.*
Dictyosphmriece, 41.
Draparnaldia, 69, 71.*
glomerata, 72.*
opposita, 71.*
PLDMOSA, 72.*
ectocarpcs amphibius, 125.*
longifr0ctus, 124.*
Enteromorpha, 52, 56.*
clathrata, 57.*
compressa, 57.*
erecta, 57.
HOPKIRKII, 68.*
INTESTINALIS, 57.*
paradoxa, 57.
ramulosa, 57.
Fucns clavifer, 19.
cupressoides, 21.
ericifolius, 20.
Lamourouxit, 19.
lycopodioides, 126.
Ophioglossum, 16.
plumaris, 17.
8ERRAT0S, 122.*
taxifolius, 17.
tomentostis, 29.
iurbinatus, 121.
uvifer, 19.
GiGARTINA ChAMISSOI, 129.
Haligraphium, 44.*
Halimeda, 12, 22.*
incrassata, 24.
rnonilis, 24.
OPUNTIA, 23.*
platydisca, 25.
TEIDENS, 24*
TUNA, 25.*
Halimedece, 9.
Halipsygma, 46.*
Halosaccion dumontioides, 130.*
hormotrichum, 69, 89.*
BOREALE, 90.*
Carmichaelii, 90.*
speciosum, 90.*
wormskioldii, 91.*
younganum, 89.*
hydrodictye.e, 7, 94.*
Hydrodictyon, 95.*
dtriculatum, 95.*
Hydrurus, 118.*
penicillatus, 118.*
Irid^a dichotoma, 129.*
Leibleinia chalybea, 105.
confervicola, 105.
Lemanea, 68, 66.*
torulosa, 66.*
variegata, 67.
Lemanie^, 63.*
Lophura lycopodioides, 126.
Lychaete, 84.
Lyngbya, 98, 101.*
aeruginosa, 102.
Carmichaelii, 90.
confervoides, 103.*
crispa, 101.
ferruginea, 102.*
FULVA, 102.*
HYALINA, 104.*
MAJUSCOLA, 101.*
' maxima, 101.
MUEALIS, 104.*
nigeescens, 102.*
pacifica, 101.
PUSILLA, 103.*
speciosa, 90.
MicROCOLEUs, 98, 108.*
corymbosus, 109.*
Myriotrichia, 124.
filiformis, 124.*
Nescea annulata, 43.
dumetosa, 44.
Penicillus, 45.
— Phoenix, 46.
NiTOPHYLLOM Fryeakum, 128.
Nostoc, 113.*
arcticum, 113.*
commune, 113.*
cristatcm, 114.*
flagellare, 114.*
microscopicum, 116.*
mtbscorum, 115.
nummulare, 114.
Sutherlandi, 114.*
verrucosum, 114.*
NostochinejE, 7, 110.*
oscillatoria, 98, 107.*
alata, 99.
OsCILLATORIACE^, 7, 96.*
Palmellacejs, 7, 116.*
Pekicillus, 42, 44.*
capitatus, 45.*
dumetosus, 44.*
Phosnix, 46.*
Petalonema, 98, 99.*
138
ALPHABETIC INDEX.
Petalonema alatum, 99.*
Phycoseris fasciata, 68.
gigantea, 59.
lanceolata, 59.
Lima, 59.
Phtllerpa, 16.*
Phyllerpa prolifera, Ifi.
Pikea califoknica, 131.
Polyphysece, 33.
POEPHTRA, 52, 53.*
amethystea,, 53.
laciniata, 53.
linearit, 53.
purpurea, 63. ~
vulqaeis, 53.*
Ptilerpa, 16.*
Rhipocephalus Phcenix, 46.
Ehizoclonium, 69, 91.*
obtusangulum, 92.
RIPAEIUM, 92.*
Rhodomela ltcopodioides, 126.*
Rhodymenia coeallina, 128.
EivuLARiA, 98, 109.*
Rivulariece, 96.
Schizosiphon scopulorum, 105.
SCYTONEMA, 98, 100.*
SiPHONEiE, 7, 9.*
Sphacelaria arctic A, 124.*
Struria, 123.*
attenuata, 123.*
Stypopodium Jlavum, 123.
Tetraspora, 52, 60.*
Tetraspoea bullosa, 60.
~ Oodeyi, 61.
• LACHNOSA, 61.*
perforata, 61.
Tdometa, 63, 64.*
fluviatilis, 64.*
tcrbinaeia, 121.*
— decurrens, 121.
— denudata, 121.
vulgaris, 121.*
Udotea, 12, 26.*
•- conglutinata, 27.*
flabellata, 26.*
Palmetta, 27.
Ulva, 52, 68.*
Bertolonii, 59.
BULLOSA, 60.*
divisa, 58.
FASCIATA, 58.*
intestinalis, bl.
LACTDCA, 60.*
LATISSIMA, 59.*
LINZA, 59.*
plumosa, 31.
Ulvace^, 7, 51.*
Valonia favulosa, 50.
Valoniaceje, 7, 41.*
Vaucheria, 12, 30.*
Vaucheriem, 9.
zonaeia flava, 123.*
Ztgnemace>e, 7, 93.*
REFERENCES TO THE PLATES.
139
REFERENCES TO THE PLATES.
Plate XXXVII. A.—
B..
XXXVIII. A.-
B.
C.
XXXIX. A.—
B.
XL. A.
B..
C
D..
XLI. A..
B.-
XLII. A..
B.
XLIII. A.
B.
C-
• XLIV. A..
B.
C.
XLV. A.
B.-
C-
XLVI. A..
B.
C.
D.
E.-
XLVII. A.
B.
C-
D.
E.
F..
G.
Caulerpa Mexicana, Sond. p. 16.
Caulerpa Lycopodium, Harv. p. 19.
Caulerpa Ashmeadii, Harv. p. 18.
Caulerpa prolifera, Lamour. p. 16.
Caulerpa plumaris, Ag. p. 17.
Caulerpa ericifolia, Ag. p. 20.
-Caulerpa cupressoides, Ag. p. 21.
—Halimeda Tuna, Lx. p. 25.
—Halimeda Opuniia, Lx. p. 23.
- Udotea conglutinata, Lx. p. 27.
—Chlorodesmis vaucherimformis, Harv. p. 30.
—Cymopolia barbata, Lx. p. 36.
—Dasycladtis occidentalis, Harv. p. 38.
—Acetabularia crenulata, Lx. p. 40.
—Chamcedoris annulata, Mont. p. 43.
—Penicillus dumetosus, Dne. p. 44.
—Penicillus capitatus, Lamk. p. 45.
—Penicillus Phanix, Lamk. p. 46.
—Anadyomene flahellata, Lamour. p. 49.
—Dictyosphceria favulosa, Dne. p. 50.
—Halimeda tridens, Lx. p. 24.
—Bryopsis plumosa (vars.) Ag. p. 31.
—Cladophora Morrisice, Harv. p. 78.
—Blodgettia confervoides, Harv. p. 48.
—Chcetomorpha hrachygona, Harv. p. 87.
—Cheetomorpha tortuosa, Dillw. p. 88.
—Chcetomorpha Piquotiana, Mont. p. 85.
- Chcetomorpha Olneyi, Harv. p. 86.
—Chcetomorpha longiarticulata, Harv. p. 86.
—Lynghya majuscula, Harv. p. 101.
—Lyngbya ferruginea, Ag. p. 102.
—Lyngbya confervoides, Ag. p. 103.
—Lyngbya nigrescens, Harv. p. 102.
—Lyngbya pusilla, Harv. p. 103.
—Lyngbya fulva, Harv. p. 102.
—Lynghya hyalina, Harv. p. 104.
140 KEFERENCES TO THE PLATES.
Plate XI^VIII. A. — Petalonema cdatum, Berk. p. 99.
B. — Microcoleus corymhosw, Harv. p. 109.
C.^Calothrix pilosa, Harv. p. 106.
D Calothrix dura, Harv. p. 107.
.. XLIX. A — Bangia vermicularis, Harv. p. 55.
B Pikea Ccdifornica, Suppl. p. 131.
, L. A. — Dasya Harveyi, Ashm. Suppl. p. 127-
B Chondria nidifica, Harv. Suppl. p. 125.
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
WASHINGTON CITY,
MABOH, 18S8.
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SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE.
MAGNETICAL OBSERVATIONS
ARCTIC SEAS.
BT
ELISHA KENT KANE, M.D., U.S.N.
MADE DURING THE SECOND GRINNELL EXPEDITION IN SEARCH OP SIR JOHN FRANKLIN,
IN 1853, 1854, AND 1855, AT VAN RENSSELAER HARBOR, AND OTHER
POINTS ON THE WEST COAST OF GREENLAND.
REDUCED AND DISCUSSED,
BY
CHARLES A. SCHOTT,
ASBISTAKT V. S. COAST SURVEY.
[accepted roR publicatiom, mat, 1868.]
C0LLIN8, PBINTEB.
FHILADELFHIA :
CONTENTS.
PAoa
Introductory Letter ......,.., y
SECTION I.
Magnetic Declination, 1854 . . . . . . . .1
r
SECTION II.
Observations of the Magnetic Inclination, 1853, 1854, and 1855 . . . .27
SECTION III.
Observations of Magnetic Intensity, 1854 and 1855. . . . . .39
INTRODUCTOEY LETTEE.
Washington, May 17, 1858.
Professor Joseph Henry, LL.D.,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution :
Dear Sir : The records of the magnetic observations made under the direction
of Dr. Kane, in the second expedition to the Arctic regions, were placed in my
hands by his late lamented father. Judge Kane, in December last.
Dr. Kane had selected Assistant Charles A. Schott, of the Coast Survey, for
the reduction of a considerable portion of the observations made in that expedi-
tion ; and I, therefore, placed these in Mr. Schott's possession for reduction and
discussion. The work has been faithfully performed, and I recommend it for
publication in the " Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge." It is proper to
state that the instruments were furnished by the Coast Survey and the Smith-
sonian Institution, and that the computations have been made at the expense of
the latter.
Very respectfully, yours,
A. D. BACHE.
SECTION I.
MAGNETIC DECLINATION.
1854.
COMMENTS AI^D ADJUSTMEITS.
Instruments. — The observations for diurnal inequality as well as those for abso-
lute declination, were made with a Jones unifilar magnetometer (No. 3), kindly
loaned by Prof A. D. Bache, Superintendent U. S. Coast Survey. The azimuth
circle reads to 20" and the centre division of the scale reads 280. The magnet
was suspended by means of a silk thread 9i inches in length. Several trials to
determine the effect of torsion gave such small quantities that it was not considered
necessary to take the same into account. The instrument was not originally
intended to give absolute declinations, but at the Winter Quarters the observer
succeeded in obtaining a few values for absolute declination by detaching the box,
containing the magnet, from the circle which bears the telescope. The same was
then moved in azimuth until a well defined object within the small range of its
vertical motion could be observed. The focus of the telescope was adjusted to the
distance. We find the instrument " perched on a pedestal of frozen gravel," the
contents of two barrels. This mounting was considered as stable as the rock
underneath. On the 9th of June, 1854, Mr. Sonntag examined the instrument in
reference to local disturbance, and found no sensible deviation arising from such a
source. " The local deviation seems to have corrected itself; the iron in our com-
fortless little cell seems to have been so distributed that our results were not
affected by it." (Narrative, vol. I.) The adjustments were made according to Eid-
del's magnetical instructions. The mirror attached to the suspended magnet faces
the magnetic north. The following are the determinations for the angular value
of a scale division: —
Circle.
Scale.
Circle.
Scale.
Readings; January 13, 1854. Winter Quarters, Van Rensselaer Harbor.
120° 60'- 58'
120 16—14
120 16—14
119 30—27
119 30—27
118 48—45
118 48—45
118 11—07
45*.5
100.7
92,5
153.5
148.0
199.0
201.0
250.5
118° ll'-07'
117 34 30
117 34 30
116 49—46
116 49 46
116 13—10
116 05 00
115 31—29
253<i.0
303.0
303.2
351.0
354.5
394.0
405.5
451.0
Taking alternate means, we
obtain from each set the
values : —
-1'J=0'.797.
MAGNETIC DECLINATION.
Circle.
Scale.
Circle.
Scale.
Readings; January 16, 1854.
(Dr. Hayes, observer.)
119° 31'-31'
120 48—46
120 48—46
122 09—06
452'!
350
353
251
121° 53'-55'
123 19—18
123 19—18
124 42—40
256*
150
149
42
l'i=0'.'741.
Readings; February 16, 1854.
127° 04'-04'
125 55—56
125 55—56
124 18—17
124 18—17
123 00-00
123 00—00
121 34—34
62d.5
153.0
136.0
257.0
259.7
355.0
354.5
463.0
121° 34'-34'
122 55—56
122 55—56
124 23—24
124 23—24
125 47—47
125 47—47
127 05—05
453'i.0
356.0
360.0
249.0
254.0
150.0
145.5
42.0
1*=0'.839.
Yalue resulting, equal mean of all or one division of scale = 0'.804.
Value adopted = 0'.80.
An ■] Jf '''"^^^^ I of scale readings indicates a movement of the north end of the magnet to the •] ^ . i
A well rated pocket chronometer, nearly showing Greenwich mean time, was
used for noting the time.
Diurnal Variation. — The observations for changes of magnetic declination were
made during the months of January, February, and March, 1854, at the following
dates: —
and
January
10-
-11 .
n
13-
-14 .
tl
24-25 .
it
27-
-28 .
tt
31-
-32 .
February
r 3-
-4 .
ti
7-
-8 .
)rua
ry 10-11
((
14-15
((
17-18
((
21-22
ti
28-29
rch
3-4
((
7-8
To these must be added the term days during the same period of the year, viz:
January 18-19, February 24-25, and March 22-23. The remaining three terms
in April, May, and June, of the same year, furnish values of the change of the
diurnal inequality at a later season. Readings (the mean of two extremes during
a vibration when the magnet was in motion) were taken every sixth minute, com-
mencing, with but one exception, between 4 and 5 o'clock in the afternoon. The
error of the chronometer has been applied and the time in the abstracts is given in
local mean (astronomical) time. The readings are, as stated above, uncorrected
for torsion, and are expressed in scale divisions. In regard to the observers. Dr.
Kane remarks in his narrative: " It was not until the close of the winter that I
was able to take my share in the preceding (the observations for variation) or the
term-day observations; and I desire to express my obligations to Dr. Hayes and
MAGNETIC DBCLIXATION. 5
Mr. Bonsai, as well as to George Stephenson, for their zealous and intelligent co-
operation with Mr. Sonntag and myself." Each set of observations extends over
twenty-four hours ; they were taken nearly one minute earlier (between 56" and 40")
than indicated in the abstract. The general remark on page 435 of the second
volume of the Narrative, " the scale reading 280 corresponds to a magnetic declina-
tion of 108° 3' west, etc.," appears to leave no doubt that the instrument was left
undisturbed, and there being no statement to the contrary, we can assume the
hourly and daily means at the several days of observation to refer to the same zero
or to be comparable amongst themselves. At a later period in June, 1854, the
azimuth circle appears to have turned about 19 minutes.
Term-day Observations. — There were six in number. The observations com-
mence at 10 P. M., mean Gottingen time, or about 4'' 37"" 34" mean Fern Rock
time, the difference of longitude being assumed to equal 5*" 22™ 26'. The obser-
vations were not taken at the precise instant as indicated in the abstracts ; the
small deviation is noted at the head of each table.
Absolute Declination. — The expedition not being provided with a proper instru-
ment, the magnetometer was temporarily converted into a declinometer by Mr.
Sonntag, who determined the declination on June 9th, the 14th, and the 26th,
1854, The top of a mountain was used as a mark; it bore south 22° west
(magnetic).
The mirror attached to the magnets can be inverted so that the mean reading of
mirror direct and mirror reversed corresponds to the reading of the magnetic axis
of the magnet.
Geographical Position of Observatory. — The latitude and longitude of the astro-
nomical observatory has been determined as follows: Lat, 78° 37',0 north. Long.
70° 40' west of Greenwich, (See p. 305, vol, II, of the Narrative, also pp, 385 and
387 of the same volume.) The island (Observatory Island) on which the obser-
vatory (Fern Eock Observatory) was placed, was some fifty paces long by perhaps
forty broad. (See p. 116, vol. I. of Narrative.) The magnetic observatory was ad-
joining; it was of stone, ten feet square, with a wooden floor as well as roof, and
supplied with a copper fire grate. No iron was used in its construction.
The following is an extract of note 56, p, 464, of vol. I, of the Narrative: "The
subjoined are given as aids to physical inquiry on the part of future travellers:
Directions to sites of Rensselaer harbor. The observatory was placed upon the
northernmost of the rocky group of islets that formed our harbor. It is seventy-
six English feet from the highest and northernmost salient point of this island, in
a direction S, 14° E., or in one with said point and the S. E. projection of the
southernmost islet of the group, A natural face of gneiss rock formed the western
wall of the observatory, A crevice in this rock has been filled with melted lead,
in the centre of which is a copper bolt. Eight feet from this bolt, and in the
direction indicated by the crevige, stood the magnetometer. This direction is
given in case of local disturbance from the nature of the surrounding rocks,"
The highest point of the island was about thirty feet above the mean tide level
of the harbor. The observatory was known by the name of " Fern Rock Ob-
servatory."
6 CHANGES OF THE MAGNETIC DECLINATION
Observations for Changes of the Magnetic Declination at Van Rensselaer Harbor, 1854.
Mean
M.ean
Hourly
local
36m.
42m.
48m.
54m.
OOm.
06m.
12m.
18m.
24m.
30m.
local
means.
time.
time.
Fern Rock Observatory,
Januarj
' 10 and 11, 1854.
4h
SOOd
300*
299*.3 299*
295*.5
294*
294*
294*
293*
291. *5
5"
296*.0
5
291
290.8
290.7
300
295.2
292.8
292
290.8
289
288.4
6
292.1
6
290.2
292
290.6
288
290
287.5
284
282.5
281
280
7
286.6
1
280
279
277
276 .
277.5
278
279.5
280
280.5
281
8
278.9
8
282
283
284
284
285
285
287
286
286
285
9
284.7
9
286
287
286
288
290
289
292
290
287
286
10
288.1
10
289
292
294
295
295
297.5
298
303
304
303
11
297.0
11
300.5
300
300
299
298
298
• 297
298.5
803
304
12
299.8
12
304
306
307
308
310
807.5
311
311.5
810
310.2
13
308.5
13
310
309
308.5
808.2
309.8
310
309.8
306
813
314
14
309.8
14
312
310
310
809
308
306
303.3
308.5
306
308
15
307.6
15
309.5
308
305.8
306
304.5
303
301.5
306
306
305
16
305.5
16
304
302
298
298
801
301
295
290
289
289
17
296.7
IT
289
286
287
288
292
287
302
299
297
299
18
292.6
18
287
285
283
288
282
268
252
241
244
246
19
267.1
19
249
255
256
254
257
270
291
295
294
298
20
271.9
20
290
277
273
271
273
250
275
270
260
251
21
269.0
21
260
266
257
249
248
247
251
253
255.3
248.6
22
258.5
22
246.3
255
260
258
256.5
254
256.5
258.5
257
256
23
255.8
23
258
262
267.5
270
272
278.5
282.3
279.0
280
273.5
272.3
272
270
263
259
253
251
250
246
254
252
1
257.0
1
252
360
265
268
269
271
273
273
274
274
2
267.9
2
2T4
279
275
274
278
276
275
276
276
280
3
276.3
3
291
289
294
297
300
301
302
304
304
805
4
298.7
4
312
314
310
312
314
O 1. il
Mean
284.7
F
em Rock Observatory, .
lanuary
13 and 14, 185
4.
800*
299*
29.5*
4"
4U
302*
304*
308*
311*
314*
317*
315*
813
816
819
5
311*.9
5
317
314
311
813
315
319
322
828
335
887
6
321.1
6
839
340
336
331
326
830
328
816
329
335
7
331.0
t
340
338
844
346
348
843
342
342
345
349
8
343.7
8
350
364
371
371
368
366
358
356
850
849
9
360.8
9
344
338
334
329.5
329
327
330
336
342
842
10
335.1
10
339
339.5
335.5
340
347.5
350
349
348.7
350.2
354.8
11
845.4
11
354
352
350.8
353
351
347
343
343
844.8
342.8
12
348.1
12
341
342
343.8
344
348.5
343
342
340.5
840
341
18
842.1
13
341
842
343
347
346
346
347
357
352
348
14
846.9
14
355
352
854
356
352
348
845
344
346
349
15
850.1
15
350
351
352
358
362
371
877
378
374
372
16
864.5
16
370
868
371
374
374
374
371
365
859
358
17
368.4
n
352
352
346
341
889
330
328
325
824
320
18
335.7
18
321
823
330
335
845
347
337
330
293
295
19
325.6
19
295
292.5
288
280
260
263.5
269.5
274
269.8
272
20
276.4
20
274
284
254
263
257.7
266.5
272.5
270
267
285
21
269.4
21
295
297
285
271
272.8
276
271.5
270
266
266
22
277.0
22
265
264
265.5
267
269
270
270
269
266
264
23
267.0
23
261
267
274
275.
277
269
262
250
246
242
262.3
212
218
224
231
242
252
262
255
264
273
1
242.3
1
276
277
278
278
278
276.5
276
277
282
289
2
278.8
2
290
287
288
288
292
301
311
810
805.8
309
3
298.2
3
306
299
296.5
297.5
299.5
300.5
307
818
319.5
315.5
4
305.9
4
315
319
316
Mean
317.0
Va
lue of a
divisior
1 of the scale 0'.80.
Inc
rease of
scale re
idings corresponds to a moveme
at of the
north end of th
e magne
t to the (
;ast.
AT VAN RENSSELAER HARBOR.
Mean
Mean
Hourly
local
36m.
42m.
48m.
54m.
00m.
06m.
12m.
18m.
24m.
30m.
local
means.
time.
time.
Fern Rock Observatory,
January 24 and 25, 1854.
305''
3051
305'i
411
4h
30td.3
310d
313'!
315''
317'*
318<i
323*
326
331
333
5
319''.3
5
33t
340
342
346
348
350
353
355
353.5
354
6
347.8
6
355
355
357
357
359
360
361.5
363
361
369
7
359.7
■7
373
371
366
363
368
367
366
367
367
366
8
367.4
8
364
363
362
357
356
358
360
362
364
365
9
361.1
9
364
361
358
362
365
367
363
359
357
356.5
10
361.2
10
355
354
354.5
357
356
358
358.5
360.5
359
358.5
11
357.1
11
356.5
354
356
358.5
359
361
363
364
359
352
12
358.3
12
350
352
35.3.5
351.5
352
354
356
359.5
361
363
13
355.2
13
360
355
359
368
370
370
373
366
361
358 •
14
364.0
14
360
366
365
361
359
353
351
350.8
350
349
15
356.5
15
347
348
347
344
344
344.5
342
343
340
340
16
344.0
16
340
342
344
344
344
344
343
343
343
342
17
342.9
11
340
338
338
337
337
338
338
339
341
342
18
338.8
18
344
345
348
348
347
346
346
346
347
347
19
346.4
19
347
348
348
349
350.5
350
349.5
348
346
336
20
347.2
20
322
316
318
318.5
320
321
308
305
304
301
21
313.3
21
301.5
300.5
292
291
286
291.5
304
302
310
314
22
299.2
22
317
315
315
314
316
316
318
316
314
314
23
■315.5
23
315
313
312
313
314
310
309
309
308
300
310.3
298
301
304
302
292
287
282
285
288
294
1
293.3
1
300
305
300
294
292
304
304
311
309
310
2
302.9
2
312
314
316
312
308
310.5
314
315
315
314.5
3
313.1
3
316
316.5
318
316
310.5
310
310
312
315.6
318.5
4
314.3
4
311.5
310.5
Mean
337.0
Fern Rock Observatory,
January
27 and 28, 185
4.
4h
306d
305'!
307<>
313<i
320'i
327'!
321'!
315<i
312'i
308''
5'^
313''.4
5
304
302
302
306
307
308
306
308
314
316
6
307.3
6
320
325
330
332
328
326
324
323
325
326
7"
325.9
7
326
328
323
324
324
325
325
320
319
320
8
323.4
8
319
319
319
319
318
319
320.5
321
322
322
9
319.8
9
322
322
322
322
323
324
323.7
324
323
323
10
322.9
10
322
320
322
323.7
325.8
326.5
327
327.3
325
328
11
324.7
11
329
329.8
330
329
328
326
326
337
338
334.7
12
330.7
12
332
342
342.2
341
339.5
334
331
328
330
331
13
335.1
13
331.4
336
337
334
330
336
334
332
331
330
14
333.1
14
330
332
334
330
338
347
357
353
348
344
15
341.3
15
346
348
348
346
345
345
346
351
356
350
16
348.1
16
346
345
347
348
349
355
359
364
368
370
17
355.1
11
378
380
384
386
388
389.5
388
387
387.5
386
18
385.4
18
386
386
386
386
385
381
378
375
375
374
19
381.2
19
374
373
370.8
365
365
360
355
355.5
352
349.5
20
362.0
20
360
365
362
360
356
353
352
351.5
353
356
21
356.8
21
354.5
356
357.5
360
362
364.5
365
365.5
363
361
22
363.8
22
359
360
361
362
363
365
367
368
365
363
23
363.3
23
360
356
341
346
341.5
336
337
338
338
335
342.8
332
335
339
342
341
340
340
341
342
346
1
339.8
1
351
356
360
359
358
363
355
362
357
354
2
357.5
2
350
350
350
348
346
350
345
344
349
350
3
348.2
3
352
352
353
355
358
359
354
340
333
332
4
348.8
4
336
340
343
345
345
Mean
342.9
Value of a
division of the scale 0'.80.
Increase in
scale readings corresponds to a movemer
it of the
north end of the
magnet
to the e
ast.
Aurora vis
ible on the 27th and 28th.
CHANGES OF THE MAGNETIC DECLINATION
Mean
Mean
Hourly
local
36m.
42m.
48m.
54m.
OOm.
06m.
12m.
18m.
24m.
30m.
local
means.
time.
time.
Fern Rock Observatory, January 31 and February 1
, 1854.
304''
306''
325*
4"
4"
332*.5
340^
341d.5
335 d.5
345''
333'i.5
334*.5
330
330
328
5
335'i.0
5
326
327
328.5
324
318
311
313
320
325
330
6
322.2
6
338
344
348
356
358
359.5
356
357
358
358
7
353.2
7
359
359
360
360.5
361
362
363.5
365
367
368.5
8
362.5
8
3t0
372
372
374
371
370
371
371
371
372
9
371.4
9
372
372
373
373
374
372
372
372
371
370
10
372.1
10
368
368
367
364
361
365
371
370
369
367
11
367.0
11
365
366
370
377
376
377
380
387
384
382
12
376.4
12
379
374
375
376
374
373
370
368
374
375
13
373.8
13
376
.376
380
384.5
385
384
383.5
382
380
378
14
380.9
14
379
381.5
383
384
385.5
383
380
379
376
370
15
380.1
15
368
365
364
365
367
369
371
373.5
374
375
16
369.1
16
374.5
375
375
374.5
374
375
374
374
373
373
17
374.2
It
373
374
374.5
375
374
374
374
375
378
382
18
376.3
18
385
387
390
389
388
388
389
390
385
386
19
387.2
19
387
388
389.8
387
389
389
389
387
387
386
20
387.9
20
385
385
385
384.5
383
382
382
382
376
370
21
381.4
21
367
369
370
370
292
288
278
284
285
291
22
319.4
22
294
297
311
328
338
348
359
359.5
351
350
23
333.5
23
342
338
334
318.5
314
3,12
311
314
318
323
322.4
329.5
331
322
332
333
342
346
350
359
365
1
340.9
1
370
370
370
375
381
379
■375
372
368
364
2
372.4
2
359
356
355
354
352
351
351
350
363
373
3
356.4
3
375
377
377
380
383
376
376
378
380
386
4
378.8
4
390
396
400
398
396
40t
419
430
440
5
Mean
362.2
Pern Rock Observ
atory,
Februa
ry 3 anc
I 4, 185
4.
336'i
335-'
342''
8^
8"
348'i
353*
358<i
363^.5
367 «.5
372''
374''
374
374
376
9
366''.0
9
377 .
376
375
373
370
365
363
362
362
363
10
368.6
10
369
370
372
372.5
374
377
378
378.7
379
385
11
375.5
11
386
388
390
393
400
408
407
404
402
398
12
397.6
12
403
408
406
407
410
408
406
405
408
410
13
407.1
13
413
410
411
415
435
450
454
456
457
430
14
433.1
14
425
415
412
411
411
410
406
405
400
400
15
409.5
15
400.5
400
398
397
396
394
390
385
392
408
16
396.0
16
411
414
418.5
408
397
393
389
389.5
389
389
17
399.8
It
390
392
393
391
389
388
378
362
342
337
18
376.2
18
335.5
336
342
351
362
380
386
409
367
350
19
361.8
19
339
320
308
323
316
309
296
285
270
262
20
302.8
20
261.5
260
258
261
262
275
270
274
278
287
21
268.6
21
295
302
303
299
296
300
303
320
334
340
22
309.2
22
355
354
344
332
340
362
350
342
340
344
23
346.3
23
348
352
345
341
330
320
315
314 .
314
315
329.4
320
332
336
340
345
340
339
350
348
346
1
339.6
1
346.5
346
345
350
340
332
340
346
325
305
2
337.5
2
298
308
315.5
316
314
311
311
310
308.5
306
3
309.8
3
304
302
300
294
286
294
301
307
319
333
4
304.0
4
345
349
349
353
358
361
362
364
364
362
5
356.7
5
360
358
356
359
362
362
364
362
368
370
6
362.1
6
369
366
371
375
378
377
375
380
390
389
7
376.0
t
389
379
373
371
370
370
370
371
371
8
Mean
(373.5)
358.6
Va
lue of a
divisior
I of the scale 0'.80.
Inc
rease in
scale rea
dings corresponds to a n
lovemen
t of the
north ei
id of the
magnet
to the e
41St.
Note. — Another stove had been put up temporarily; it was removed at the close of the observations.
AT VAN RENSSELAER HARBOR.
Mean
Mean
local
30m.
42m.
48m.
54m.
00m.
00m.
12m.
18m.
24 m.
30m.
local
time.
time.
Hourly
means.
Fern Rook Observatory, February 1 and 8, 1854.
4"
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
n
18
19
20
21
22
23
1
2
3
4
316d.5
319
333
341
35t
356
369
371
367
386
389
362
333
330
302
271
295
313
297
322
306
335
327.5
317
336
316<i
317"^
317-1
4i>
317'!
317''
316'!
314'i
SUd
SIS'!
315
316
317
5
320
322
323
322
320
321
323
326
329
6
336
339
342
344
345
347
349
345
339
7
345
349
355
355
361
454
346
352
356.
8
356.5
356
355
354
354
355
355
355
356
9
356
356
355
354
352
352
354
355
360
10
370
369
368
368
369
370
372
374
375
11
379
375
370
367
368
368
368
368
368
12
367
368
369
370
372
375
377
380
383
13
389
392
395
396
394
392
389
389
390
14
387
386
384
381
378
375
372
369
365
15
359
355
350
346
342
337
336
334
333
16
334
334
335
336
338
339
339
338
336
17
325
320
314
311
308
304
302
301
302
18
302
298
294
290
287
284
280
276
273.5
19
270
268
266.5
274
283
287
290
294
294
20
297
298
300
301
305
307
310
313
313
21
312
312
311
303
295
287
294
294
295
22
298
296
295
293
294
301
31«
319
326
23
323
325
323
322
321
319
318
314
312
299
300
301
303
306
310
320
328
334
1
336
337
336
332
329.5
330
332
332
330
2
320
313
308
301
296
288
291
308
315
3
315
312
309
313
320
329
333
333
334
4
341
347
350
352
5
Mean
315-1.7
322.5
341.9
351.4
355.3
355.0
370.4
370.8
372.8
391.2
378.6
345.4
336.2
311.7
288.6
279.7
303.9
301.6
302.9
319.9
310.7
332.9
306.7
321.5
332.8
Fern Rock Observatory, February 10 and 11, 1854.
4"
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
1
2
3
4
251-1
254-1
256-1
4h
261-1
206-1
272-1
284*
294-1
300-1
306-1
312
318
323
5
330
340
352
366
368
362
354
352
355
362
6
360
358
357.5
360
366
365
365
364
366
368
7
371
373
376
378
380
384
385
385
390
396
8
396
395.5
394
392.7
394
390
390
389
387
387
9
387
386
386
386
380
382
382
382
382
382
10
382
381
380
378
377
376
376
375
374
374
11
376
380
383
385
385
385
386
386
386
387
12
388
389
389
392
393
392
390
390
392
394
13
396
397
396
394
392
400
412
420
424
422
14
422
430
444
460
464
470
487
480
493.5
498
15
501
504
503
499
479
460 .
448
429
417
407
16
405
400
398
397
395
389
383
379
371
368
17
362
370
377
373
369
365
357
348
348
350
18
350
329
329
325
321
317
312.5
297
288
280
19
272
265
263
261
261
262
262
263
265
266
20
267
268
269
270
273
276
279
274
270
265
21
261
256
251
246
240
238
225
231
239
235
22
216
196
196
193
203
203
202
201
206
211
23
215
216
215
215
211
208
205
203
200
195
200
203
201
201
200
199
203
211
215
220
1
227
232
239
254
280
300
314
325
320
320
2
319
319
319
321
327
331
345
350
362
369
3
353
359
361
363
365
365
361
364
365
364
4
361
301
354
351
347
5
Mean
293-1.6
354.1
362.9
381.8
391.4
383.5
377.3
383.9
390.9
405.3
464.8
464.7
388.5
361.9
314.8
264.0
271.1
242.2
202.7
208.3
205.3
281.1
336.2
362.0
337.2
Value of a scale division 0'.80.
Increase of scale readings corresponds to a movement of the north end of the magnet to the east.
10
CHANGES OF THE MAGNETIC DECLINATION
Mean
Mean
Hourly
local
36m.
42m.
48m.
54m.
OOm.
06m.
12m.
18m.
24m.
30m.
local
means.
time.
time.
Fern Rock Observatory, February 14 and 15, 1854.
4h
304*
303*
304*
303*
307*
311*
316*
824*
5^
(307.*0)
5
331*
339*
343
347
350
352
355
358
359
300
6
349.4
6
302
362
305
369
372
380
387
396
401
410
7
880.4
1
393
398
398
401
417
449
440
435
440
440
8
421.1
8
435
434
428
420
420
412
405
408
413
422
9
419.7
9
439
450
470
478
487
486
486
494
482
405
10
473.7
10
4G2
458
451
443
438
432
426
431
443
457
11
444.1
11
472
483
494
493
491
487
483
477
458
486
12 .
477.4
12
434
414
410
409
410
407
406
408
413
419
13
413.0
13
428
441
452
456
459
462
473
464
465
462
14
450.2
14
458
454
450
449
447
446
458
473
478
481
15
459.4
15
486
489
491
492
490
492
494
494
490
485
16
490.3
16
478
470
468
460
452
444
434
430
428
420
17
448.4
IT
416
420
414
414
409
404
401
399
396
394
18
406.7
18
391
376
876
377
378
392
391
366
359
356
19
376.2
19
349
344
338
320
312
334
340
336
329
329
20
333.1
20
331
339
350
356
359
354
849
345
831
817
21
343.1
21
296
292
289
292
292
291
289
287
284
278
22
289.0
22
275
273
258 •
246
244
238
234
228
223
218
23
243.7
23
212
208
211
18»
160
138
146
136
132
129
165.8
131
144
159
171
181
192
203
211
218
226
1
188.6
1
236
244
245
246
247
257
269
252
236
238
2
247.0
2
241
242
240
243
247
254
249
249
251
254
3
247.0
3
257
266
278
292
316
322
316
311
819
332
4
300.9
4
331
351
360
Mean
360.7
F
ern R
ock Ol
jserva
tory, :
^'ebruar;
r 17 am
18, 18
54.
193*
193*
194*
4h
4h
190*
184*
172*
172*
169*
172*
181*
188
196
198
5
182*. 2
5
193
183
185
188
180
182
185
195
207
208
6
190.6
6
208
230
258
298
296
286
272
271
270
270
7
205.9
1
265
258
252
244
237
230
227
225
226
228
8
289.2
8
232
235
238
242
249
255
260
260
261
202
9
249.4
9
262
263
265
268
273
276
279
281
291
300
10
275.8
10
302
300
280
273
260
249
242
236
228.5
287
11
200.7
11
241
247.5
245
240
236
231
232
230
229
227.8
12
235.9
12
225
222
240
238
242
239
236
230
247
253
13
237.2
13
261
248
240
231
233
237
250
244
242
240
14
242.6
14
238
236
235
238
243
242
240.5
237
234
231
15
237.4
15
229
229.5
234
239.5
239
238
240
241
243
247
16
238.0
16
249
251
250
247
245
242
237
233
228
223
17
240.5 •
n
218
220
223
228
232
235
237
238
239
240
18
231.0
18
235
232
230
233
235
237
233
228
-234
237
19
233.4
19
240
234
228
220
204
166
164
147
130
152
20
188.5
fiO
179
188
206
230
256
250
241
236
226
217
21
222.9
21
218
221
224
221
217
208
221
237
244
245
22
225.6
22
244
248
254
250
247
244
242
241
240.5
240
23
245.0
23
240
250
252
247.5
238
227
220
219
216
214
232.8
214
215
216
220
226
232
236
240
247
255
1
230.1
1
262
271
180*
190
187
184
181
177
175
174
2
198.1
2
169
163
156
150
144
146
148
147
152.5
151
3
152.6
3
154
151
161
175 •
187
192
201
202
202
208
4
183.3
4
210
209
226
233
Mean
226.6
Ve
lue of a
scaled
vision
'.80.
In
urease of
scale re
adings c
orrespoi
ids to a
moveme
nt of the
north e
nd of th
e magne
t to the
east.
Note. — The mean in brackets includes two interpolated values.
* A sudden change of 90* occurring at 6'' 80™ chronometer time (Greenwich time nearly).
AT VAN RENSSELAER KARBOR.
11
Meaa
Me.an
Hourly
local
S6m.
42m.
4Sm.
54m.
OOm.
06m.
1 2m.
18m.
24m.
30m.
local
means.
time.
time.
Fern Rook Observatory,
February 21 and 22, 1854.
270<i
269*
268*
4h
4h
268*
268'!
273d
2761
271-1
260'i
252'!
252
252
252
5
262*. 4
6
252
253
256
256
.253
254
256
257
258
260
6
255.5
6
2G1
263
263
265
267
267
268
269
271
273
7
266.7
7
274
275
276
277
280
282
286
291
296
301
8
283.8
8
302
302
303
303
302
302
301
302
301
299
9
301.7
9
296
293
290
289
287
286
284
283
283
283.5
10
287.4
10
282.5
280.5
278.5
276
274
274
274
279
284
287
11
278.9
11
288
289
290
294 •
297
299
300
296
294
293
12
294.0
12
292
292
290
287
284
281
276
276
275
280
13
283.3
13
285
287
290
293
297
290
282
280
278
276
14
288.3
14
276
278
282
282
284
285
287
287
287
288
15
283.6
15
288
288
289
290
293
293-
294
294
296
296
16
292.1
16
295
295
293
292
291
291
293
290
287
283
17
291.0
n
280
278
275
272
271
268
267
266
265
263
18
270.5
18
261
260
258
255
254
255
257
260
262
263
19
258.5
19
264
262
259
260
261
261
260.5
260
259
256
20
260.2
20
251
244
240
242
230
218
216
212
205
203
21
226.1
21
206
210
216
221
223
224
230
237
350
250
22
226.7
22
250
250
254
257
258
262
260
260
261
263
23
257.5
23
261
260
260
258
260
261
262
262
262
262
260.8
262
262
262
262
263
263
262
261
261
260
1
261.8
1
259
259
258
257
258
259
259
260
261
263
2
259.3
2
264
266
269
271
273
275
277
280
278
274
3
272.7
3
274
275
278
290
294
304
293
286
282
280
4
285.6
4
283
282
279
276
^o^
Mean
271.2
Fei
n Roc
k Obs(
srvato
ry, Fel
Druary 2
8 and Ik
larch 1,
1854.
220*
220*
219*
4h
4h
218<i
216'!
213*
207'!
200'!
■191*
183*
179
180
182
5
196*. 9
5
184
186
189
191
192
193
193
192
193
193
6
190.6
6
195
198
202
210
219
227
230
244
256
260
7
224.1
7
272
274
280
278
242
226
220
250
300
320
8
266.2
8
344
333
321
310
306
322
335
341
350
•362
9
332.4
9
353
352
350
355
368
365
360
370
371
372
10
361.6
10
374
378
399
402
408
404
398
394
390
400
11
394.7
11
398
396
397
402
405
408
407
421
436
440
12
411.0
12
452
476
484
483
450
438
418
400
390
381
13
437.2
13
372
363
354
343
337
343
347
352
357
364
14
353.2
14
372
355
340
324
315
320
326
330
333
335
15
335.0
15
331
327
325
324
322
325
314
320
315
314
16
321.7
16
326
338
346
363
362
356
348
342
342
339
17
346.2
17
325
322
324
318
316
324
312
310
318
322
18
319.1
18
319
318
317
314
312
316
317
314
314
317
19
315.8
19
320
315
314
310
308
309
308
307
308
308
20
310.7
20
306
306
302
298
297
299
302
302
301
301
21
301.4
21
298
299
300
301
296
284
274
269
264
268
22
285.3
22
272
278
280
283
286
288
284
279
276
280
23
280.6
23
285
303
320
332
341
350
362
374
366
356
338.9
345
333
321
310
296
293
305
296
289
280
1
306.8
1
274
276
266
264
258
256
252
259
251
255
2
261.1
2
278
260
261
262
265
268
276
280
286
291
3
272.7
3
299
301
299
302
306
310
314
316
317
320
4
308.4
4
319
317
318
315
312
5
tJX 1
Mean
311.3
Va
lue of a
scale d
ivision (
'.80.
In(
:rease of
scale re
adings c
orrespoi
ids to a
movcme
Dt'of thf
! north e
nd of th
e magne
t to the (
;ast.
12
CHANGES OF THE MAGNETIC DECLINATION
Mean
Mean
Hourly
local
36m.
42m.
48m.
54m.
OOm.
06m.
12m.
18m.
24m.
30m.
local
means.
time.
time.
Fern
Rock Observatory
, March 3 and 4, 1854.
250d
247'!
246*
4h
4"
248<»
249'>
240'!
238*
242'!
245'!
248'i
250
260
265
5
248'i.5
5
258
269
281
284
380
279
277 .
274
275
277
6
275.4
6
280.5
279
272.5
275
270
280
286
290
298
296
7
282.7
7
283
311
315
332
329
326
321
329
347
349
8
324.2
8
356
356
360
352
347
346
330
302
291
283
9
332.3
9
287
290
282
286
275
264
265
267
269
270
10
275.5
10
272
274
276
278
280
282
285
287
290
292
11.
281.6
11
295
298
302
306
313
318
322
325
327
329
12
313.6
12
330
337
345
349
352
850
348
345
343
336
13
343.5
13
325
321
313
302
295
299
308
314
309
302
14
308.8
14
297
294
288
292
286
284
280
276
272
285
15
285.4
15
291
294
291
289
282
276
268
264
260
258
16
277.3
16
257
257
256
258
259
260
262
260
258
258
17
258.5
17
257
255
251
244.5
238
230
220
205
190
172
18
226.2
18
152
144
133
134
136
140
143
160
174
198
19
151.4
19
209
216
210
205
201
195
190
186
181
177
20
197.0
20
173
170
167
164
171
178
184
189
193
199
21
178.8
21
206
200
194-
188
183
178
172
170
169
164
22
182.4
22
152
160
156
156
153
155
157
154
150
150
23
154.3
23
156
176
195
184
155
160
125
131
131
134
.0
154.7
6
135
137.5
155
179
195
184
187
200
197.5
192
1
176.2
1
195
200
190
185
182
179
150
136
150
156
2
172.3
2
173
190
200
206
217
204
196
190
186
183
3
194.5
3
189
192
199
204
209
216
222
229
234
243
4
213.7
4
249
251
254
257
Mean
242.0
Fern
Rock
Obser'
oratory
', Marcl
1 7 and
8, 1854
igo*
202'!
4h
4h
218d
223^
213d
218'!
228'
224'i'
221d
231*
230
235
5
224''.1
5
242
243
246
247
251
270
275
275
274
274
6
259.7
6
269
261
268
260
273
270
269
255
268
271
7
266.4
7
275
271
279
284
278
269
281
282
281
286
8
278.6
8
292
304
294
302
303
312
306
299
297
293
9
300.2
9
284
288
286
287
291
294
300
305
298
290
10
292.3
10
287
280
276
270
277
280
286
281
278
273
11
278.8
11
269
272
267
270
272
274
267
268
272
280
12
271.1
12
273
279
284
290
289
291
294
291
283
274
13
284.8
13
290
288
285
282
283
291
297
300
296
291
14
290.3
14
285
278
281
284
298
291
289
286
284
283
15
285.9
15
281
282
285
288
290
292
295
297
298
298
16
290.6
16
299
300
302
297
291
285
280
278
283
288
17
290.3
17
292
296
299
297
295
293
289
287
281
275
18
290.4
18
269
264
260
256
260
255
258
260
266
270
19
261.8
19
275
272
277
264
270
268
270
259
271
268
20
269.4
20
264
276
278
270
264
260
268
282
284
286
21
273.2
21
280
278
281
285
287
274
291
297
295
291
22
285.9
22
284
276
274
268
263
257
264
271
286
293
23
273.6
23
300
299
287
285
281
274
278
271
267
265
280.7
261
246
252
245
247
243
242
246
250
252
1
248.4
1
252
252
250
250
249
250
252
255
256
258
2
252.4
2
260
205
270
272
275
276
276
280
285
280
3'
273.9
3
285
284
274
258
242
247
258
263
4
(264.3)
A
262
265
268
258
245
5
rt
Mean
274.5
Va
lue of a
scale di
vision
'.80.
Im
;rease of
scale re
adings c
orrespor
ids to a I
novemei
it of the
north e
Qd of th
i magne
t to the c
ast.
Note. — Tlie mean in brackets inchides two interpolated values.
AT VAN RENSSELAER UARBOR.
13
Diurnal Range of the Declination. — The diurnal range being an index to the
magnitude of the diurnal excursions, is best presented before the examination of
the diurnal inequality. The following table contains the highest and lowest scale
readings in the hourly series, and the maximum and minimum values observed,
together with the corresponding ranges. One division of scale = 0'.80.
Daily Range op the Declination.
DATE.
IN HOURLY SERIES.
OBSERTED.
Ili.NGE.
1854.
Highest.
Lowest.
Maximum.
Minimum.
In hourly series.
Total observed.
January 10-11
309<>.8
• 253'i.5
SU'J.O
241''.
56^.3
73'!.
13-14
368.4
242.3
378.0
212.0
126.1
166.0
18-19
357.9
109.7
369.0
85.0
248.2
284.0
24-25
367.4
293.3
373.0
282.0
74.1
91.0
27-28
885.4
307.3
389.5
302.0
78.1
87.5
31-32
387.9
319.4
440.0
278.0
68.5
162.0
February 3- 4
433.1
268.6
457.0
258.0
164.5
199.0
7- 8
391.2
279.7
396.0
266.5
111.5
119.5
10-11
464.8
202.7
504.0
195.0
262.1
309.0
14-15
490.3
165.8
494.0
129.0
324.5
365.0
17-18
275.8
152.6
302.0
130.0
123.2
172.0
21-22
301.7
226.1
304.0
203.0
75.6
101.0
" . 24-25
531.3
321.4
558.5
268.0
209.9
290.5
March 0- 1
437.2
190.6
484.0
179.0
246.6
305.0
3- 4
343.5
151.4
360.0
125.0
192.1
235.0
7- 8
300.2
224.1
312.0
190.0
76.1
122.0
22-23
290.5
238.8
304.0
228.0
51.7
76.0
The mean diurnal total range observed during the above period becomes 2° 28'.6,
and the maximum diurnal range observed took place on the 14-15 February, and
amounted to 4° 52'.0. For comparison with similar quantities at other high lati-
tude stations we may take Lake Athabasca, where the greatest range in any one
day between October, 1843, and February, 1844, was 2° 35', it happened October
16, 1843; at Fort Simpson the maximum range was 7° 27', observed on the 16th
of April, 1844, in a series of observations extending over April and May, 1844,
The mean diurnal range during January and February, 1844, at Lake Athabasca,
was 31'. 4, and the mean range at Fort Simpson in April and May of that year was
1° 12', these two quantities, however, were taken from the hourly series.
If we classify the ranges according to this magnitude we obtain the following
results : —
Daily range less than 1°
" " between 1 and 2° .
1
6
2 and 3 .
4
3 and 4 .
3
4 and 5 .
3
" " greater than 5 .
The diiirnal range in the winter months, January, February, and March, when
compared with its annual fluctuation, is probably below the mean value of the
year.
14 CHANGES OP THE MAGNETIC DECLINATION
Diurnal Inequality/ of the Decimation. — The following table contains the hourly
means of all observations at the Winter quarters, between January 10 and March
23, 1854. The remaining observations on term-days at a later season have been
excluded on account of their isolation. The above period includes the coldest
season of the year, and during more than one-half of the period the sun was below
the horizon. #
The hourly means were made out separately for each month, the general mean
includes seventeen values for each of the twenty-four hours. In January we have
complete observations on six days, in February on seven, and in March on four
days. The table also contains the monthly means, and all numbers are expressed
in scale divisions (one division = 0'. 80).
AT VAN RENSSELAER HARBOR.
15
Abstract of Hourly Means during the months op January, February, and- March, 1854, observed
AT Fern Rock Magnetic Observatory.
(The readings are given in scale divisions ; the values taken from the term-day observations embrace the
same number of single readings between the same times.)
Fern Rock
mean time.
5h.
6h.
7h.
8h.
9h.
lOh.
llh. 12h.
1
13h.
14h.
15h.
16h.
17h.
Fern Rock Observatory, January and March, 1854.
Jan'y 10-11
296.0
292.1
286.6
278.9
284.'-
r 288.ll 297.0
299.8
308.5 309.8
307.6 305.5 296.7
" 13-14
311.9
321.1
331.0
343.7
360.3' 335.1 345.4
348.1
342.1 346.9
350.1 364.5 368.4
" 18-19
308.2
316.9
317.3
313.3
319.9 321.8 343.3
346.7
338.4 345.3
347.8 353.8 357.9
" 24-25
319.3
347.8
359.7
367.4
361.1 361.2
357.1
358.3
355.2 364.0
356.5J 344.0 342.9
" 27-28
313.4
307.3
325.9
323.4
319.8 322.9
324.7
330.7
335.1
333.1
341.3
348.r355.1
" 31-32
335.0
322.2
353.2
362.5
371.4 372.1
367.0
376.4
373.8 380.9
380.1
369.1374.2
Means
313.9
317.9
329.0
331.5
336.2 333.6
339.1
343.3
342.2 346.7
347.2
347.5349.2
Feb'y 3- 4
*356.7
*362.1 *377.0
*(373.5)
366.0 368.6
375.5
397.6
407.1 433.1
409.5
396.0399.8
" 1- 8
315.7
322.5
341.9
351.4
355.3,355.0
370.4
370.8
372.8 391.2
378.6
345.4336.2
" 10-11
293.6
354.1
362.9
381.8
391.4! 383.5
377.3
383.9
390.9' 405.3
464.8
464.7388.5
" 14-15
(307.0)
349.4
380.4
421.1
419.7; 473.7
444.1
477.4
413.0 456.2
459.4
490.3448.4
" 17-18
182.2
190.6
265.9
239.2
249.41275.8
260.7
235.9
237.2 242.6
237.4
238.0240.5
" 21-22
262.4
255.5
266.7
283.8
301.7:287.4
278.9
294.0
283.3 288.3
283.6
292.l'291.0-
" 24-25
344.7
429.6
461.2
514.1
531.3,526.4
491.8
498.3
498.2 496.2
501.2
512.4|520.8
Means
294.6
323.4
350.9
366.4 373.5 381.5
371.3
379.7
3
4
71.8' 387.6
390.7
391.3 375.0
March 0- 1
196.9
190.6
224.1
266.2
332.4' 361.6
394.7
411.0
B7.2 353.2
335.0
321.7346.2
" 3- 4
248.5
275.4
282.7
324.2
332.3 275.5
281.6
313.6
343.5 308.8
285.4
277.3 258.5
" 7- 8
224.1
259.7
266.4
278.6
300.2 292.3
278.8
271.1
284.8,290.3
285.9
290.6 290.3
" 22-23
261.3
246.3
258.5
258.6
240.t
) 238.8
270.1
280.3
274.3:266.7
260.8
269.6 269.8
Means
232.7
243.0
257.9
281.9
301.f
) 292.1
306.3
319.0
334.9
304.8
291.8
289.8291.'2
General means
286.9
302.5
321.3
334.2
343.3 343.5
344.6
352.6
352.7 353.5
352.0
352.1346.2
Fern Rock
18h.
19h.
20h.
21h.
22h.
23h.
Noon.
Ih.
2h.
3h.
4h.
Daily
mean time.
Oh.
Jan'y 10-11
292.6
267.1
271.9 269.0
253.5
255.8
272.3
257.0
267.9
276.3
298.7
284.7
" 13-14
335.7
325.6
276.4
269.4
277.0
267.0
262.3
242.3
278.8
298.2
305.9
317.0
" 18-19
347.7
327.9
348.1
336.3
306.4
236.2
•109.7
246.6
289.3
333.1
321.3
313.9
" 24-25
338.8
346.4
347.2
313.3
299.2
315.5
310.3
293.3
302.9
313.1
314.3
337.0
" 27-28
385.4
381.2
362.0
356.8
363.8
363.3
342.8
339.8
357.5
348.2
348.8
342.9
" 31-32
375.3
387.2
387.9
381.4
319.4
333.5
322.4
340.9
372.4
356.4
378.8
362.2
Means
345.9
239.2
332.3
321.0
303.2
295.2
270.0
286.7
311.5
320.9
328.0
326.8
Feb'y 3- 4
376.2
361.8
302.8
268.6
309.2
346.3
329.4
339.6
337.5
309.8
304.0
358.6
" 7- 8
311.7
288.6
279.7
303.9
301.6
302.9
319.9
310.7
332.9
306.7
321.5
332.8
" 10-11
361.9
314.8
264.0
271.1
242.2
202.7
208.3
205.3
281.1
336.2
362.0
337.2
" 14-15
406.7
376.2
333.1
343.1
289.0
243.7
165.8
183.6
247.0
247.0
300.9
360.7
" 17-18
231.0
233.4
188.5
222.9
225.6
245.0
232.3
230.1
198.1
152.6
183.3
226.6
" 21-22
270.5
258.5
200.2
226.1
226.7
257.5
260.8
261.8
259.3
272.7
285.6
271.2
" 24-25
492.4
494.0
448.1
433.8
321.4
401.2
(389.9
378.7
377.7
407.7
443.7
454.8
Means
350.1
832.5
296.6
295.6
273.7
285.6
272.3
272.8
290.5
290.4
814.4
834.6
March 0- 1
319.1
315.8
310.7
301.4 i 285.3
280.6
338.9
306.8
261.1
272.7
308.4
311.3
" 3- 4
226.2
151.4
197.0
178.8
182.4
154.3
154.7
176.2
172.3
194.5
213.7
242.0
" 7- 8
290.4
261.8
269.4
273.2
285.9
273.6
380.7
248.4
252.4
273.9
(204.3)
274.5
" 22-23
255.0
286.0
(285.0)
(275.8)
254.7
287.0
290.1
287.0
247.3
244.8
290.5
266.6
Means
272.7
253.8
265.5
257.3
252.1
248.9
266.1
254.6
233.3
246.5
269.2
273.6
General means
330.4
316.3
302.0
295.5
279.0
280.3
270.0
273.5
284.4
290.8
308.6
317.3
Th
e values in the above table do not refer exactly to the even hour but to 3™ later.
Fin
;ures between brackets ( ) are means derived from less that ten readings.
* r
rhese four values were observed on the 4th at the hours indicated.
16
CHANGES OF THE MAGNETIC DECLINATION
Mean Monthly Curves of the Diurnal Changes of the Magnetic Declination at Van
Rensselaer Harbor, 1854.
And Simultaneous Mean Diurnal Variation at GREEN^^cH.
4''
ih
5 6 7 8
e 10 llMidix. 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Noon 12 3 4
h
390d
380
370
360
—
y
V
/
\
w
/
/
\1
^
/
\
\
V
X
__.
/
/
\
5 '
.
/
■' /
Y
.,/
\
\
•5
350
i
^
r
$r
\
340
330
i
¥/
y
/ 5
*i
t
/
\
N
M
i.
\
'^/j
I/A
/
\
t\
\
A
y
320
\
/
\
^\
\
W
\,
//
\
\
\<V<
Y
1
310
\\
J f
>/
L
/
/
\
\
S
N
s
7
If
\
7
/
\
/
\
s,
b
k
\
\
,
^1/
300
290
280
270
260
250
240
1
j
/
\
K
\j\
Ki
./
//
f^
1
i
\
\
\
/
N
r
r
1
\
1^
1
^
o
o
\
/
\
/
\
/
\
<
e
o
\
/
^
\
/
\
\
/
\
/
/
\
/
\
/
5
'■:
—
-M
e an
rfi
urn
al
in e
qua
lit
y-
«
^
0-
a.
ea
me,
fre
e
fdi
s tu
rb a
nee
s.
+10
^^
.^
—
^
Me
an
diu
rna
I
V ar
iat
ion
at
Gr
een
wic
X7~
■—
'
10
Me
an
lo c
al
tim
e.
\
8 9 10 llMidn.l3 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Noon 1 2
4li
The irregularities in the daily curves compared on succeeding days are very
considerable, as may be seen by glancing the eye over the last column of the pre-
ceding table, headed " daily means." No observations on account of disturbances
have been excluded from the table, and the following mean diurnal inequality,
therefore, contains their full effect. Comparing each hourly mean in the last
horizontal line of the above table with the general mean, the following figures
represent the resulting diurnal inequality of the declination during the first three
months of the year 1854. For the sake of comparison the diurnal inequality
observed at Greenwich during the same seventeen days has been made out and is
given in the last column.
AT A' AN RENSSELAER U ARBOR.
n
Mean Diurnal Inequality of Declination during Seventeen Days in January, Pfbruary,
AND March, 1854, at Van Rensselaer Harbor, and at Greenwich during the same days;
expressed in Minutes op Arc.
Local
Van
Green-
Local
Van
Green-
Local
Van
Oreen-
Local
Van
Green-
mean
Kensselaer.
wich.
mean
Rensselaer.
wich.
mean
Rensselaer.
wich, j
mean
Rensselaer.
wich.
time.
time.
time.
\
time.
5"
+ 24'.3
— 0.'5
IP
— 21'.8
-4'.5|
171.
— 23'.1
— 0'.3
23''
+ 29'.6
+ 3'. 5
6
+ 11.8
—2.5
Midn.
—28.2
-4.1
18
—10.5
+ 0.6;
Noon
+ 37.8
+ 5.8
1
— 3.2
—1.6
13
—28.3
-3.1
19
+ 0.8
-0.4:
1
+35.0
+ 5.8
8
—13.5
—3.9
14
—29.0
— 0.8i
20
+ 12.2
+ 0.5 1
2
+ 26.3
+ 5.0
9
—20.8
4.5
15
—27.8
0.3}
21
+ 17.4
+ 1.0 1
3
+ 21.2
+ 3.9
10
—21.0
—5.1
16
—27.8
+ 0.5 j
22
+ 30.6
+ 2.3
4
+ 7.0
+ 2.6
A negative sign indicates a deflection to the east, a positive one a deflection to
the west of the mean position.
The diurnal inequality at the two stations presents in general the same charac-
teristic features, namely, the principal deflection to the west shortly after noon,
and the opposite eastern position about midnight ; in regard to the diurnal ine-
quality, therefore, the motion of the magnet at Van Rensselaer Harbor follows in
general the same law as recognized in lower geographical latitudes.
The extreme westerly position is attained at noon ; after this hour the westerly
declination diminishes gradually, with an exception of a period of opposite motion
of very limited range between the hours of four and five. The easterly extreme
is reached two hours after midnight. Whether the small irregularity just noticed,
producing apparently a secondary minimum and maximum, is real or only caused
by the accidental deviations of the few observations under discussion, it is not easy '
to decide with certainty. The motion from 14 hours to 24 hours is performed with
great uniformity. Thus, while the diurnal motion agrees with that observed at
Lake Athabasca, Fort Simpson, Sitka, Toronto, etc., it shows no trace of that
marked deviation observed at Reikiavik, in Iceland, or at Fort Confidence. In
1824 (June), at the Whalefish islands the maximum westerly deviation happened
about a quarter past one o'clock P. M. ; the time of the maximum eastern deflection
was not determined. At Port Bowen the maximum westerly variation appears to
have occurred between the hours of 10 A. M. and 1 P. M., the mean result being:
ll"" 49™; the greatest deflection of the north end of the needle to the eastward
took place between 8 P. M. and 2 A. M., the mean hour being 10 P. M. These
observations were made during January, February, March, and April, 1825.
The range of the mean diurnal inequality is 1° 06'.8, when it is at Greenwich
during the same time 10'.9.
Analysis of Disturbances of the Declination. — The declination at the commence-
ment and end of the observations appears to have remained nearly the same ; the
daily and monthly means indicate at first a gradual decrease of westerly declination,
which motion, however, is speedily overcome in the month of March. No further
attention need be paid to this circumstance in the following discussion of the dis-
turbances, and of their effect upon the diurnal inequality.
The mean disturbance for each of the 24 hours has been obtained by comparing
the monthly mean with each hourly reading; let A equal this difference, n the
3
.-.y
.-T '*
l8 CHANGES OF THE MAGNETIC DECLINATION
number of hourly readings (equal to 17), and m the mean disturbance, then m =
I V A 2
+ I . This quantity is analogous to the mean error of an observation. In
\7l — 1
the following comparisons we must always bear in mind that the observations for
the present discussion are rather limited, and that the comparisons with results at
Lake Athabasca and Fort Simpson are of a date nearly ten years earlier. This
interval is perhaps favorable to the comparison.
At Van Rensselaer Harbor the mean disturbance force is greater than at either
place just named, and pretty regular during two well-marked periods, as shown by
the following table : —
Table of the Mean Distitrbance of the Declination at Van Rensselaer Harbor, taken
without regard to direction, for each of the observation hours, and expressed in minutes
OF Arc.
Local Mean Time.
&h.
6h.
7h.
8h.
9h.
lOh.
llh.
Midn.
13h.
14h.
15h.
I6h.
±31'
41
31
4t
49
50
46
52
51
4t
50
±53'
1
17h.
18h.
I9h.
20h.
21h.
22h.
23h.
Noon.
Ih.
2h.
3h.
4h.
±49'
42
54
48
46
31
46
60'
46
39
45
±41'
The disturbing force is least during the day (if such an expression is admissible
in this case), from 10 A.M. to 7 P. M., and greater and equally regular during the
hours of the night (]), from 8 P. M. to 8 or 9 A. M. At Lake Athabasca the hours
of least disturbance are between 9 A. M. and 7 P. M., and at Fort Simpson from
10 A. M. to 7 P. M. Captain Lefroy, in his discussion of the disturbances of the
declination remarks : " There are indications in each of the three curves (for Lake
Athabasca, Toronto and Sitka) of a small increase in the mean disturbance about
noon." At Van Rensselaer Harbor we find the maximum disturbance at this very
hour preceded and followed by quite small values ; this circumstance certainly
deserves our particular attention. Further coincidences of the disturbing force can
be noticed at 5 P. M., at which hour at Van Rensselaer, Lake Athabasca, and Sitka
the minimum disturbance has been observed. At Fort Simpson, in April and May,
1844, the mean disturbance was but one-fourth of that observed in January, Feb-
ruary and March at Van Rensselaer, and the ratio of the minimum to the maximum
value was 5.6 and 2.0 at the two places respectively.
By adding the squares of the dififerences for each hour of the day and month, we
find the mean monthly disturbance by the formula ^ |-t -J. The mean disturb-
•' ^ \iV— 24
ance for each month is as follows : —
In January, 1854 ±30'
In February, " ±65
In March, " . . . . . . ± 40
• Principally due to a very large disturbance.
AT TAN RENSSELAER HARBOR.
19
The month of February was, therefore, that of the maximum amount of disturb-
ance. At Lake Athabasca the greatest mean disturbance occurred in January
(from observations between October and February inclusive). At Toronto,^ on the
contrary, the months of January and June are those of least disturbance. It is
quite possible that at Van Rensselaer the above values are surpassed in other
months of the year, yet relatively February contains the greatest mean disturbance
during the period of observations.
Hitherto the recognition and separation of the disturbed observations have been
effected by an arbitrary process of fixing upon a certain deviation from the mean
as the greatest allowable departure, and regarding all observations beyond this
limit as disturbances. In the present case, I have sought to introduce a more
definite idea by the application of Pierce's criterion for the rejection of doubtful
observations,^ or what is equivalent — for the recognition of the disturbances — they
following a different law from the general one. The average mean deviation of
the readings composing an hourly mean I find = +^ 46', and for 17 values aP' = 4.55;
hence readings deviating from the mean more than 1° 38' or 123d are to be recog-
nized as disturbances.
The table of hourly readings contains 23 such values, or one disturbed observa-
tion for every 18 ordinary readings. In the five years of hourly observations ending
June 30, 1848, at Toronto, the disturbances averaged one in 17 of the whole body.
Excluding the above 23 values from the mean, the diurnal inequality freed of the
disturbances undergoes no material change, as shown by the following table -. —
5h.
6h.
7h.
8h. 9h.
lOh.
iih.
Midn.
13h.
14h.
15h.
16h.
+ 23'.1
+ 6.0
—3.8
—9.3
—16.4
—12.5
—22.5
—34.7
— 27.3
—35.1
—34.1 — 26'.0
1
17h.
18h.
19h.
20h.
21h.
V
22h.
23h.
Noon.
ih.
2h.
3h.
4h.
— 20'.1
—8.0
+ 9.0
+ 19.0
+ 23.3
+ 30.0
+ 29.0
+ 29.2
+ 34.4
+ 25.T
+ 1.3.6 +6'.9
The maximum west deflection is displaced from noon to one o'clock. The general
mean changed from 317.3^ to 316.5*, and the range of the mean inequality from
1° 06'.8 to 1° 09'.5. Eleven deflections were towards the east and twelve towards
the west. The limited number of observations renders it necessary to conclude the
foregoing examination of the disturbances.
Aurora Borealis. — In connection with the disturbances, a short notice of the
auroral displays witnessed at the winter quarters will here find an appropriate place.
In conformity with the supposed periodicity of this phenomenon, as recognized by
Prof. Olmstead, no brilliant and complete auroras have been seen ; with an excep-
tion of a very few, they may all be placed in his fourth class, to which the most
simple forms of appearances have been referred. The aurora of October 24, 1854,
* See Vol. III. of the Magnetical and Meteorological Observations at Toronto, Canada,
by Major-General E. Sabine. London, 185T.
' See Gould's Astronomical Journal, Nos. 45 and 83.
Discussion
20 CHANGES OP THE MAGNETIC DECLINATION
at 9 P. M. (see first volume of the Narrative), appears to have been one of the
more conspicuous displays. A full record of the rest will be found in the 8th
volume of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, in the collection made by
Peter Force, Esq. There are 19 in number. The following statement is given in
a foot-note: "The processes have no apparent connection with the magnetic dip,
and in no case did the needle of our unifilar indicate disturbance."
Term-day Observations for Change of Magnetic Declination. — These observations
were made at the following dates: January 18-19, February 24-25, March 22-23,
April 19-20, May 26-27, and June 21-22, 1854. The readings are given in the
following tables : —
AT VAN RENSSELAER HARBOR. 21
Term-pay Observations for Changes of Magnetic Declination at Van Rensselaer Harbor, 1854.
Gilttingen
mean time.
Om.
OCm.
]2m.
18m.
24m.
30m.
36m.
42m.
48m.
54m.
Fern Rock
mean time.
(toOm.)
Fern Rock Observatory, January 18 and 19, 1854.
Readings taken 2™ 14'' earlier than indicated.
lO''
11
12
13
14
15
16
n
18
19
20
21
22
23
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
10
BOS'!
311.2
320
311
320
321
329
362
330
344
346
349
356
360.5
336
343
33T
342
251
115
163
268
336
314
312
305''
313
314.8
30t
322
323
329
354
332
346.5
345
354
358
358
333
352
332
339
244.5
90
180
254
336
326
310
305-1
314
315
309
319
323.3
330
353
335
345
345.5
359
359
355
330.5
350
328
329
240.5
89
193
240
336
332
307<i
315.8
315.7
311
316
322.3
330
347
338
344
345
363.5
361.5
351.5
326
346
324
320
250
96
220
266
331
338
308*
318.5
317
313
320
320
327
347
338
344
348
359.5
361
350
320
340
332
313
261
88
254
289
337
323
312'!
317
320
315
320
319
336
346
340
345
347.5
351
355
349
320
348
336
300
254
85
290
297
337
318
Sll-i.e
317
321
317
322
320
350
346
342
346
349
350
352.3
346
323
353
340
292
243
105
291
320
337
316
306'i.5
309'i.5
319.7
320.5
320
316
318
317
318
320
320
325
366
367
341
337
343.5
342
346.5
347
351.5
351. 5
351
350.8
357.8
358
340
332
226
328
357
349
343
346
284
277.5
230
235
129
145
307
298
318
320
330
327
316
316
312''.5
322.5
314
315
322
325
369
334
344
345
349.5
351
360.5
335
337
343
345
268
155
155
270
321
324
314
4'' 37"'. 5
5 "
6 "
7 "
8 "
9 "
10 "
11 "
12 "
13 "
14 "
15 "
16 "
17 "
18 "
19 "
20 "
21
22 "
23 "
"
1
2 "
3 "
4 "
The series commences with readings 304'^, SOS-i, and 304'i, at 9'' 42™, 48", and 54°
Fern Rook Observatory, February 24 and 25, 1854.
Readings taken 2™ 15^ earlier than indicated.
10i>
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
1
2
8
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
312'!
3224
329'!
338*
341*5
319*.5
342*
359*
377*
407*
4h3ijm
408
411
405
418
437
445
445
447
441
439
5 "
438
438
440
432
460
482
477
471
480
494
6 "
490
493
506
520
516
509
519
531
530
527.5
7 "
541
558.5
532
527
518
511
521
532
538
535
8 "
532
529
527
528
530.5
542
526
521
516
513
9 "
510
508
506
504
493
483
446
470
503
495
10 "
490
493
496
498
500
502
500
500
501
503
11 "
503
502
502
502
503
500
494
490
492
494
12 "
496
495
495
492
488
499
506
498
492
501 -
13 "
514
509
502
506
509
501
491
490
492
498
14 "
504
509
517
516
514
512
511
512
512
517
15 "
521
529
535
536
529
508
510
516
514
510
16 "
511
507
490
491
489
489
488
488
486
485
17 "
502
499
496
489
496
500
499
500
484
475
18
456
448
440
435
442
447
451
457
456
449
19 "
445
440
425
412
427
438
449
445
440
417
20
370
312
284
289
268
298
326
332
360
375
21 "
390
400
415
408
405
404
392
396
401
401
22 "
404
408
390
375
370
372
393
403
402 .
23 "
402
407
390
374
370
358
355
370
381
380
"
376
377
379
380
382.5
365
370
373
380
395
1 "
381
385
372
386
398
406
435
437
438
439
2 "
438
438
437
442
446
444
455
448
446
443
3 "
450
469
482
497
4 "
The series commences with readings 290*, 288*, 282*, at 9'' 42", 48"", and 54™,
Value of a scale division 0'.80.
Increase of scale readings denotes a movement of the north end of the magnet to the east.
22
CHANGES OF THE MAGNETIC DECLINATION
/^ ^(t Im «.»«
^^^K.. Da...!*
liottingen
mean time.
Om.
06m.
12m.
18m.
24m.
30m.
36m.
42m.
48m.
54m.
rem Ivock
mean time.
(to Om.)
Fern Rock Observatory, March 22 and 23, 1854.
Readings taken 1™ 34' earlier than indicated.
lO''
269'»
262'»
265*
272*
285*
295*
250*
232*
228*
255*
4i'37»'.5
11
240
261
243
246
232
228
236
260
259
258
5 "
12
258
256
254
256
258
258
259
260
263
263
6 "
13
262
253
258
264
263
267
265
256
251
247
7 "
14
235
237
239
239
240
244
243
247
245
240
8 "
15
240
238
239
237
234
233
234
237
245
251
9 "
16
268
265
267
279
280
277
272
264
260
269
10 "
17
275
279
277
282
279
280
282
284
283
282
11 "
18
281
280
278
277
275
273
272
270
269
268
12 "
19
269
268
268
268
267
267
268
266.5
264
262
13 "
20
261
261
262
261
261
258
258
259
262
265
14 "
21
269
267
266
264
264.5
262
269
273
278
284
15 "
22
283
282
278.5
275
270.5
263
265
260
260
261
16 "
23
260
257
256
250
253
256
248
250
257
263
17 "
272
280
283
285
292
288
289
287
290
294
18 "
1
300
302
291
290
292
283
277
273
271
1
19 "
2
—
—
—
—
—
280
284
278
271
269
20 "
3
267
267
263
255
248
247
252
249
248
251
21
4
260
265
274
292
296
295
298
298
297
295
22 "
5
291
290
290
293
292
294.5
291
292
288
290
23 "
6
293
291
291
290
294
295
290
281
276
269
"
7
264
252
250
249
242
239
235
242
252
248.5
1 "
8
246
245
243
242
240
239
241
244
250
258
2 "
9
270
282
284
286.5
288
292
297
300
304
302
3 "
10
301
300
299
4 "
Fern Rook Observatory, April 19 and 20, 1854.
Readings tak
en 2'" 14' earlier than i
idicated.
10''
4'-37"°.5
11
—
5 "
12
"
6 "
18
—
.
.^_
7 "
14
^_
8 "
15
—
,
9 "
16
'
272*
271*
275*
273*
272*.5
278*
282*
10 "
17
289-'
299*
298*
312
310
305
301
296
299
262
11 "
18
271
287
294
290
289
286
280
268
254
230
12 "
19
236
250
245
242
239
234
229
230
242
256
13 "
20
265
262
260
256
252
247
243
236
231
228
14 "
21
225
224
230
236
229
226
231
233
230
227
15 "
22
226
222
218
215
213
189
187
183
190
187
16 "
23
184
182
194
220
221
223
218
220
222
225
17
231
236
242
236
238
240
235
224
215
203
18 "
1
194
190
187
184
181
180
178
178
168
164
19 "
2
175
208
236
242
212
205
202
190
190
193
20 "
3
194
196
199
200
210
192
180
175
164
152
21 "
4
140
137
139
148
147
160
164
152
140
121
22 "
5
107
113
116
136
145
132
130
120
90
63
23 "
6
+ 62
+ 43
+ 30
+ 32
—4
—7
+ 4
+ 8
"
7
+ 30
+ 23
+ 16
+ 12
+ 16
+ 11
+5
—2
+ 25
+ 58
1
8
71
67
73
77
79
81
75
73
76
80
2 "
9
75
74
97
110
128
132
138
147
142
134
3 "
10
126
122
128
132
4 "
Valu
e of a sc
ale divi
sion 0'.80.
Incre
ase of s
cale rea
lings denotes a
movement of the north
end of the mag
net to tl
le east.
* Watch stopped.
AT VAN RENSSELAER HARBOR.
23
G<ittin,2:en
mean time.
Om.
06m.
12m.
18m.
24m.
30m.
36m.
42m.
48m.
64m.
Fern Rock
mean time.
(to Om.)
Fern Rock Observatory, May 26 and 27, 1854.
Readings taken 1"" 34* earlier than indicated.
11
12
13
14
15
16
It
18
19
20
21
22
23
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
244'J
243d
258'J
262'!
278*
280*
279*
276*
292*
304*
330
345
357
365
372
369
365
360
364
368
360
355
345
342
350
348
341
333
330
338
349
356
364
359
354
351
355
360
381
395
403
413
411
408
400
389
395
400.
407
410
414
423
428
436
442
443
442
438
436
433
435
434
440
450
476
490
520
555
570
575
593
600
575
548
533
523
516
506
498
492
485
482
479
477
477
476
475
475
477
480
483
487
493
495
488
495
527
552
568
587
595
612
624
630
633
631
625
620
612
604
599
603
609
612
615
626
633
635
644
650
663
667
665
661
658
659
653
646
640
637
639
641
632
618
595
590
583
572
559
541
543
545
546
546
544
540
537
536
535
537
538
525
523
539
527
520
515
513
480
479
487
493
498
503
506
509
509
533
562
571
573
653
537
517
495
489
486
488
496
510
512
510
507
513
514
512
511
506
497
487
486
485
483
484
480
477
476
476
477
463
449
443
442
440
441
443
447
454
463
470
478
483
487
489
488
483
471
459
457
446
435
447
460
468
475
490
487
478
485
491
493
513
525
530
533
535
534
515
500
—
^^
4''37"'.5
5 "
6 "
7 "
8 "
9 "
10 "
11 "
12 "
13 "
14 "
15 "
16 "
17 "
18 "
19 "
20 "
21 "
22 "
23 "
"
1 "
2 "
3 "
4 "
Observations commence at g"" 24"°, scale readings 280*, 271*, 266*, 235*, 231*, 240*, corre-
sponding to 9^ 24"', 30'", 36", 42", 48", and 54" respectively.
Fern Rook Observatory, June 21 and 22, 1854.
Readings taken 1"34' earlier than indicated. (Magnet suspended, I. 7.)'
lOii
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
295*
297*
299*
300*
302*
305*
309*
312*
313*
313*
314
315
315
314
314
313
312
310
316
325
333
337
340
344
347
351
352
350
350
351
352
348
346
343
337
333
334
338
348
350
355
354
355
358
364
366
374
374
374
373
367
366
367
366
370
373
377
377
377
378
383
384
385
379
379
379
381
383
384
383
384
387
384
385
382
384
386
386
382
385
387
384
382
383
385
387
386
387
390
392
396
400
402
400
396
394
394
388
376
384
394
390
383
382
381
379
370
364
368
372
370
367
363
358
355
357
361
367
369
367
364
364
363
361
355
350
350
352
355
359
362
363
363
370
369
367
368
370
363
355
351
348
343
337
335
333
329
330
.331
331
328
322
318
320
322
325
327
328
328
326
324
322
318
319
322
323
323
322
324
326
331
326
315
334
330
326
326
319
318
318
318
312
316
318
317
323
321
317
310
312
308
306
320
316
316
318
323
304
303
312
290
291
287
286
286
291
283
275
281
283
288
289
290
292
289
291
293
297
298
302
304
304
309
313
312
308
303
295
290
282
273
264
212
257
207
245
283
232
230
234
239
242
228
4''37".5
5 "
6 "
7 "
8 "
9 "
10 "
11 "
12 "
13 "
14 "
15 "
16 "
17 "
18 "
19 "
20 "
21
22 "
23 "
"
1 "
2 "
3 "
4 "
5 "
Value of a division of the scale 0'.80.
Increase of scale readings denotes a movement of the north end of the magnet to the east.
' This magnet I. 7 was undoubtedly used on all previous occasions. Murk reads on circle 338° 22',
circle reads 314° 12'.
24
CHANGES OF THE MAGNETIC DECLINATION
The results of the preceding tables have been thrown into curves, to which the
corresponding readings at Greenwich and Washington have been added/ These
readings have all been referred to the same scale, and thus present at a glance the
great difference in the magnitude of the diurnal motion as well as that of the dis-
turbances. The Greenwich observations were taken by means of photography ; the
Washington corresponding observations were also obtained by means of Brooke's
automatic photographic registration, and have as yet only been published in the
6th volume of the Astronomical Expedition to Chili, under the direction of Lieut.
Gilliss, U. S. N. ; Washington, D. C, 1856.
For the Greenwich curves the zero line corresponds to 22° west declination. A
remarkable absence of disturbances of any magnitude as well as a small diurnal
range of motion at the time of the vernal equinox, is shown by the March curves
both for Van Rensselaer and Greenwich.
There appear to be some disturbances common to both places, and if these
indications should not be accidental they are of an opposite character, that is, a
magnetic east deflection is presenting itself as a magnetic west deflection at the
other station, and vice versa. For this the reader may examine hours 17 and 5i
of the curve for January 18 and 19, hours from 6 to 8, April 20th, and one or
two other less striking cases. The needle at Van Rensselaer Harbor actually points
with its north end to the south of the astronomical west, and its meridional compo-
nent of the direction is pointing in a southern or opposite direction to the same
component at Greenwich or Washington.
Absolute Declination. — The magnetic declination at Van Rensselaer Harbor was
determined on three occasions in the summer of 1854. Two difi'erent magnets
were used.
Determination of June 9tb. Magnet A 68, mirror facing magnetic north.
Position.
Circle reads.
P. Circle reads.
P.
Circle reads.
Marl£.
Magnetic meridian (south).
Mark.
I.
338° OC
I. 316° 01'
I.
338° 02'
06'
00
01
II.
338 00
II. 315 57
II.
338 05
337 59
56
04
Means
338 02.8
315 58.5
338 03.0
at 6'> 35™ Green, t.
Mean reading on mark 338° 03'
Astronomical bearing (N.) . . . . . . . 93 29 E.
Reading of meridian (N.) 244 34
Magnetic meridian (N.) . . . . . . . 135 59
Declination 108° 35'
W. (of north) at l*" 52" P. M. local time.
• See accompanying plates 1 and 2. ,
AT VAN RENSSELAER HARBOR.
26
Determination of June 14. Magnet I. 10. Mirror facing magnetic north.
Magnetic south meridian.
I. 311° 10'
at 5^ 12" Gr. t.
09
II. 317 02
01
Means 338 06.5
Mark.
I.
338° 09'
08
II.
338 05
04
317 05.5
Mark.
I.
338° 04'
02
II.
338 09
08
338 05.8
Mean reading on mark 338° 06'
Astronomical bearing (N.) 93 29 E.
Reading of true meridian
Reading of magnetic meridian
244 37
137 05
Declination 107° 32'
W. at 0'' 29" P. M. local time.
The magnet showed considerable agitation during the day.
Determination of June 26.
Magnetic south meridian.
I. 315° 49'
47
n. 316 18
17
Mirror facing magnetic north.
Marie.
I. 338° 24'
23
II. 338 20
19
Means 316 02.7
at !>» 3" P. M. local time.
338 21.5
Magnetic south meridian.
I. 315° 52'
50
II. 315 40
38
315 45.0
at 2'' 0™ P. M. local time
Mark reads 338° 21'
Astronomical bearing (N.) 93 29 E.
N. meridian (true)
Magnetic meridian
244 52
135 53
Declination 108° 59'
W. at l^ 31" P. M.
Resulting mean declination (for June 16) 108° 22' W. ; if we omit the 2d determination on account
of disturbance, and apply a correction for diurnal change to the mean of the first and last determination,
we find 108° 12' W.
SECTION II.
OBSERVATIONS OF THE MAGNETIC INCLINATION.
1853, 1854, AND 1855.
SECTION II.
MAGNETIC mCLINATION.
Instrument and Remarks. — The observations for dip were made by Mr. Sonntag
by means of a Barrow dip circle received from Prof. Henry, of the Smithsonian
Institution, through the courtesy of Col. Sabine. The inclinometer was supplied
with Lloyd needles, for determining the total intensity, but unfortunately the com-
plete record of these observations could not be recovered ; the absence of the record
for determining the constants necessary for their reduction being wanted, no use
could be made of these observations, even for relative intensity at Saikatle and
Marshall Bay, and the partial results given in Appendix XV., vol. II. of the Nar-
rative, must, therefore, remain fruitless for the present. There is likewise a defi-
ciency in the record of the dip observations at Van Kensselaer Harbor after
February 23, 1854; the results, however, are all preserved in the Appendix just
mentioned.
In regard to the index error of the dipping needles, we can only make an
approximate comparison. The observations at New York, where the dip has been
represented by the formula
I = 72°.69 — 0.00491 (t— 1845) + 0.001 14 (t—1845)^
with a probable error of any single observation' of Hi3'.3, would apparently pro-
duce a correction to needle 1 of — 9', and to needle 2 of — 14', the changes, how-
ever, from one station to another in the immediate vicinity of the city are much
greater, and these quantities may, therefore, as well indicate local deviation as
index error. The polarity of the needles has been reversed at each station, the
effect of this operation upon the resulting dip is somewhat irregular, and will be
found exhibited in tabular form.
* See Coast Survey Report of 1856, p. 240. The formula includes dip observations taken between
December, 1822, and August, 1855 (exclusive of the observations of the present expedition).
30
MAGNETIC INCLINATION
Station No. I. New York, at Me. Rutherford's Observatory.
Latitude 40° 43'. 8. Longitude 73° 58'. 9. W. of G.
May 18, 1853. 4'' P. M. Needle No. 2. Poles direct. Magnetic meridian reads 248° 10'.
CIECLE BAST.
CIRCLE WEST.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
72°''57'
72 56
b
72° 37'
72 35
73°" 08'
73 05
b
7.3° 27'
73 24
72°" 51'
72 54
b
72° 52'
72 54
72°" 53'
72 56
b
73° 25'
73 29
72 56.5 72 36.0 73 06.5
72 46.2 73
73 OLl
73 25.5 72 52.5 72 53.0 72 54.5
16.0 72 52.7 73
73 01.7
73 01.4
73 27.0
10.7
Needle No. 2. Poles reversed.
CIRCLE WEST.
CIRCLE BAST.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east.
72° 08'
72 10
h
72° 16'
72 18
72° 17'
72 30
b
73° 17'
73 30
73° 20'
73 19
b
72° 38'
72 36
73°" 00'
73 00
b
73° 05'
73 06
72 09.0
72 1
•
72 17.0
3.0
72 J
72 23.5
72
!3.2
73 23.5
53.5
72 4
73 19.5 72 37.0 73 00.0
72 58.2 73
73 00.5
6.8
73 05.5
02.8
May 18, 1853. 22'' 30". Needle No. 2. Poles reversed. Magnetic meridian reads 248° 10'.
CIRCLE EAST.
CIRCLE WEST.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
73°'o7'
73 03
b
73° 28'
73 26
72°" 42'
72 40
b
72° 44'
72 47
72° 50'
72 54
b
73° 11'
73. 13
72°" 37'
72 40
b
72° 37'
72 34
73 05.0
73 ]
73 27.0
6.0
72 I
72 41.0
72
)9.6
72 45.5
43.2
72
72 52.0 73 12.0
73 02.0
72
54.6
72 38.5
72
49.5
72 35.5
37.0
Needle No. 2. Poles direct.
CIRCLB WEST.
CIRCLE EAST.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east.
72°'52'
72 55
b
72° 51'
72 55
72° 49'
72 52
b
72° 54'
72 59
73° 37'
73 34
b
73° 51'
73 48
72 "58'
72 57
b
73° 20'
73 17
72 53.5
72 {
72 53.0
)3.2
72 !
72 50.5
72
33.4
72 56.5
53.5
73
73 35.5
73
09.3
73 49.5
42.5
73
72 57.5
73
25.2
73 18.5
08.0
AT MR. RUTHERFORD'S OBSERVATORY.
31
May 20, 1853. i^. Needle No. 1. Poles direct.
CIRCLE EAST.
CIRCLE WEST.-
Face east.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
71°'37'
71 34
i
72° 00'
71 59
75°" 55'
75 52
b
76° 22'
76 21
73°11'
73 13
3
73° 02'
73 04
73°'41'
73 45
A
74° 04'
74 06
71 35.5
71 4
71 59.5
7.5
73 £
75 53.5
76
7.5
76 21.5 73 12.0 73 03.0
07.5 73 07.5
73
73 44.1
73 43.0
73
30.7
74 05.0
54.0
Needle No, 1. Poles reversed.
CIRCLE WEST.
CIRCLE EAST.
Faoa west.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east. 1
69°'58'
70 00
b
70° 10'
70- 13
73" 17'
73 16
b
72° 52'
72 55
72° 32'
72 30
b
73° 08'
73 06
72° 56'
72 53
b
73° 09'
73 06
69 59.0
70 (
70 11.5
)5.2
71 c
73 16.5
73
i5.1
72 53.5
05.0
72
72 31.0 73 07.0 72 54.5 73 07.5
72 49.0 73 01.0
72 55.0
15.1
May 20, 1853. Needle No. 1. Poles direct.
CIRCLE BAST.
CIBCLB WEST.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
71° "48'
71 45
72° 03'
72 01
74°" 18'
74 17
b
74° 48'
74 45
72°" 38'
72 40
b
72° 33'
72 35
74°" 26'
74 29
i
74° 27'
74 31
71 46.5
71 e
72 02.0
4.2
73 1
74 17.5
■74
3.1
74 46.5
32.0
73
72 39.0
72
22.7
72 34.0
36.5
73
74 27.5
74
32.3
74 29.0
28.2
Needle No. 1. Poles reversed.
CIRCLE EAST.
CIRCLE WEST.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east. 1
72°'47'
72 45
i
73° 21'
73 19
73" 13'
73 11
b
73° 32'
73 30
69*55'
69 59
b
69° 48'
69 51
72*24'
72 28
b
72° 27'
72 29
72 46.0
73 C
73 20.0 73 12.0
3.0 73
73 12.2
73 31.0
21.5
72
69 57.0
69
11.2
69 49.5
53.2
71
72 26.0
72
10.1
72 28.0
27.0
32
MAGNETIC INCLINATION
Station No. II. Fiskernaes, Flagstaff near the Governor's House.
Latitude 63° 05'.3. Longitude 50° 34'4. W. of O.
June 29, 1853. Needle No. 2. Poles reversed. Meridian reads 106° 01'.
CIRCLE EAST.
Face east.
80° 01'
80 11
80° 05'
80 07
Face west.
82° 08'
82 08
81° 59'
81 58
CIRCLE WEST.
Fa«e east.
80° 28'
80 25
80° 36'
80 34
Face west.
80° 30'
80 28
80° 50'
80 49
80 09.0 80 06.0
80 07.5
82 08.0 81 58.5
82 03.3
80 26.5 80 35.0
80 30.7
80 29.0 I 80 49.5
80 39.2
81 05.4
80 34.9
80 50.2
Needle No. 2. Poles direct.
CIRCLE BAST.
Face ea^t.
80° 47'
80 46
80° 38'
80 41
Face west.
80° 28'
80 28
6
80° 29'
80 29
CIRCLE WEST.
Face east.
80° 13'
80 10
b
80° 24'
80 22
Face west.
80° 42'
80 40
80° 41'
80 39
80 46.5 80 39.5
80 43.0
80 28.0 80 29.0
80 28.5
80 11.5 80 23.0
80 17.2
80 41.0 80 40.0
80 40.5
80 35.7
80 28.9
80 32.3
Station No. III. Fiskernaes Harbor, on a small island on the north side of harbor.
July 1,1853. Needle No. 2. Poles direct. Meridian reads 150° 22'.
CIRCLE WEST.
CIRCLE BAST.
Face west.
Faoe east.
Face west.
Faoe east.
82°"24'
82 27
i
83° 01'
83 04
79°" 54'
79 57
i
80° 03'
80 06
a
81° 59'
81 59
*
82° 05'
82 03
80° 53'
80 50
79° 49'
79 51
82 25.5
82 4
83 02.5
4.0
81 2
79 55.5
80
2.0
80 04.5
00.0
81
81 59.0 1 82 04.0
82 01.5
81
16.6
80 51.5
80
ILl
79 50.0
20.7
Needle No. 2. Poles reversed.
CIRCLE WEST.
CIRCLE EAST.
Face east.
Faoe west.
Faoe east.
Face west.
81°'o7'
81 11
4
81° 23'
81 23
79*52'
79 55
i
80° 00'
80 02
80*49'
80 46
i
80° 52'
80 58
79*54'
79 53
*
79° 54'
79 53
81 09.0
81 I
81 23.0
6.0
80 i
79 53.5
79
16.6
80 OLO
57.2
80 <
80 47.5
80
29.4
80 55.0
31.2
80
79 53.5
79
22.3
79 53.5
53.5
AT SUKKERTOPPEN.
33
Station No. IV. Saikatle, island south feom Sukkeetoppen.
(Latitude and longitude not determined.)
The magnetic station was on a small bay on the southeast side of the island, and
is covered with water at high tide. The Lloyd needles only were used.
Station No. V. Sukkeetoppen, in the garden near the Governor's House.
(Latitude and longitude not determined.)
July 9, 1853. 15^. Needle No. 2. Poles reversed. Meridian reads 15° 20'.
CIRCLE WEST.
CIRCLE EAST.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
80° 30'
80 28
i
80° 43'
80 46
81°" 15'
81 15
A
81° 48'
81 45
80°" 46'
80 46
4
80° 30'
80 33
81^20'
81 20
i
81° 20'
81 21
80 29.0
80 3
80 44.5
6.7
81 (
81 15.0
81
)3.t
81 46.5
30.7
81
80 46.0
80
)1.6
80 31.5
38.8
80
81 20.0
81
59.5
81 20.5
20.2
Needle No. 2. Poles direct.
CIRCLE WEST.
CIRCLE EAST.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
81°"30'
81 28
82° 25'
82 24
80° 17'
80 14
b
80° 40'
80 37
80°" 53'
80 57
i
80° 42'
80 45
79°'31'
79 34
i
79° 04'
79 05
81 29.0
81 5
82 24.5
6.7
81 1
80 15.5
80
1.8
80 38.5
27.0
80 ;
80 55.0
80
57.8
80 43.5
49.2
80
79 32.5
79
33.8
79 04.5
18.5
34
MAGNETIC INCLINATION
Station No. VI. Peoven, ground near the Governor's House.
Latitude t2° 25'. 9. Longitude 55° 25' (both approximate).
July 19, 1853. Needle No. 2. Poles direct. Magnetic meridian 0° 33'.
CIBCLE EAST. * CIRCLE WEST.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
82°''35'
82 34
b
82° 45'
82 44
83° IC
83 14
h
83° 19'
83 17
82° 38'
82 40
b
82° 41'
82 43.
83°" 44'
83 47
4
83° 44'
83 47
82 34.5 82 44.5 83 15.0
82 39.5 83
82 58.0
83 18.0
16.5
83
82 39.0 1 82 42.0
82 40.5
83
55.5
83 45.5 1 83 45.5
83 45.5
13.0
Needle No. 2. Poles reversed.
CIRCLE EAST.
CIRCLE WEST.
Face ea^.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
83°'l5'
83 14
h
83° 14'
83 12
83° 11'
83 10
b
83° 30'
83 28
88° 30'
83 30
b
83° 19'
83 21
82° 14'
82 17
b
82° 23'
82 25
83 14.5 1 83 13.0
83 13."?
83 1
83 10.5 i 83 29.0
83 19.7
6.7
83 (
83 30.0
83
)4.5
83 20.0
25.0
82
82 15.5
82
52.4
82 24.0
19.8
Needle No. 2. Poles direct. Meridian reads 0° 33'.
CIRCLE EAST.
CIRCLE WEST.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
83°'l0'
83 08
b
83° 02'
83 01
sp'^so'
81 30
b
81° 35'
81 34
82° 22'
82 23
*
82° 27'
82 29
83°" 28'
83 29
b
83° 41'
83 44
83 09.0 83 01.5
83 05.2
82 1
81 30.0
81 ;
8.7
81 34.5
J2.2
82 ,
82 22.5 82 28.0
82 25.2
83
J9.5
83 28.5
83
00.3
83 42.5
35.5
Needle No. 2. Poles reversed.
CIRCLE EAST.
CIRCLE WEST.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
83° "13'
83 15
b
83° 20'
83 19
82°" 57'
82 55
b
82° 52'
82 49
83^03'
■^3 05
b
83° 19'
83 20
82° 30'
82 32
b
82° 32'
82 34
83 14.0
83 1
83 19.5
6.7
83
82 56.0 82 50.5
82 53.3
5.0
82 £
83 04.0
83
)8.4
■83 19.5
11.7
82 {
82 31.0
82 .
)L8
82 33.0
32.0
AT UrERNAVIK.
35
Station No. VII. Upernavik, station in garden near the Governor's House.
(Latitude and longitude not determined.)
July 22, 1853. Needle No. 2. Poles direct. Magnetic meridian reads 239° 18'.
CIRCLE EAST.
CIRCLE WEST.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east. j Face west.
82° 42'
82 39
b
82° 43'
82 40
84°" 22'
.84 21
b
84° 21'
84 18
83° 13'
83 16
A
83° 33'
83 36
83° 59'
84 01
b
84° 12'
84 14
82 40.5 82 41.5 84 21.5 84 19.5
82.41.0 84 20.5
83 30. t
83
S3 14.5
83
iS.l
83 34.5
24.5
83
84 00.0
84
45.5
84 13.0
06.5
Needle No. 2. Poles reversed.
CIRCLE EAST.
CIRCLE WEST.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
84°"l5'
84 13
b
84° 40'
84 37
83°" 22'
83 20
h
83° 20'
83 18
83° 33'
83 34
b
83° 44'
83 45
83°" 40'
83 42
b
83° 28'
83 30
84 14.0 1 84 38.5
84 26.2
83 I
83 21.0
83
)3.1
83 19.0
20.0
83
83 33.5
83
45.0
83 44.5
39.0
83
83 41.0
83
37.0
83 29.0
35.0
Station No. VIII. Bedevilled Reach, Force Bay. Station half a mile east of ANCH0RAaE(?).
Latitude 78° 34'.5. Longitude 71° 33'.6.
August 12, 1853. Needle No. 2. Poles direct. Meridian reads 248° 30'.
CIRCLE EAST.
CIRCLE WEST.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
84°'54'
84 48
b
85° 03'
84 59
86° 12'
86 17
b
86° 35'
86 30
84° 16'
84 14
b
84° 17'
84 14
86°" 18'
86 19
b
86° 02'
86 04
84 51.0
84 S
85 01.0
6.0
85 S
86 14.5
86
9.7
86 32.5
23.5
85
84 15.0 1 84 15.5
84 15.2
85
26.3
86 18.5
86
12.9
86 03.0
10.7
Needle No. 2.
Poles reversed.
CIRCLE WEST.
CIRCLE EAST.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east.
84° "15'
84 20
b
84° 04'
84 10
84°" 55'
84 55
b
85° 04'
85 03
84 "13'
84 09
b
84° 43'
84 38
85°" 44'
85 40
b
85° 43'
85 39
84 17.5
84 ]
84 07.0
2.2
84 [
84 55.0
84
55.8
85 03.5
59.3
84
84 11.0
84
49.7
84 40.5
25.8
85
85 42.0
85
03.6
85 41.0
41.5
36
MAGNETIC INCLINATION
Station No. IX. Near Marshall Bay.
Latitude T8° 52'. Longitude 69° 01'.'
The observations on September 3d, 1853, were made with the Lloyd needle. No.
1, Box B. The dip by the statical needle is 85° 26', and the resulting corrected
dip 84° 49'. See Narrative, vol. I. p. 99.
Station No. X. Van Rensselaer Harbor, Winter Quarters. Magnetic Observatory on
Fern Rock.
Latitude 18° 31'. Longitude 10° 40'. W. of G.
January 26, 1854. Needle No. 2. Poles direct. Magnetic meridian reads on circle 9° 02'.
CIRCLE WEST.
CIRCLE EAST.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
83° "05'
83 05
i
83° 02'
83 03
83° 48'
83 47
b
85° 06'
85 05
82° 53'
82 47
b
82° 30'
82 26
85°" 16'
85 10
b
85° 22'
85 17
83 05.0
83 C
83 02.5
3.T
83 4
83 il.b
84
5.1
85 05.5 82 50.0 82 28.0 85 13.0
2G.5 82 39.0 85
83 51.6
83 51.8
85 19.5
16.2
Needle No. 2. Poles reversed.
CIRCLE WEST.
CIRCLE EAST.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
84°''48'
84 48
b
85° 22'
85 23
84°" 09'
84 15
*
84° 40'
84 39
86° 20'
86 15
h
86° 05'
86 00
84°" 27'
84 21
*
85° 20'
85 16
84 48.0
85
85 22.5
5.2
84 4
84 12.0
84
5.5
84 39.5
35.8
85 C
80 17.5
86
8.0
86 02.5
10.0
85
84 24.0
84
30.5
85 18.0
51.0
* Erroneously given 67° 01' in the Narrative, vol. II. p. 431 ; the date should also be changed as
given above.
AT VAN RENSSELAER HARBOR.
37
February 16, 1854; Needle No. 2. Poles direct. Meridian reads 69° 30'.
CIRCLE WEST.
CIRCLE EAST.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east.
85°"38'
85 38
b
86° 02'
86 02
84°* 41'
84 41
84° 30'
84 28
85°" 24'
85 23
b
85° 38'
85 39
83^51'
83 66
b
83° 44'
83 44
85 38.0
85 5
86 02.0
0.0
85 1
84 41.0
84 .
2.5
84 29.0
55.0
84 .
85 23.5 85 38.5 83 53.5 | 83 44.0
85 31.0 83 48.7
84 39.9
56.2
Needle No. 2. Poles reversed.
CIRCLE WEST.
CIRCLE EAST.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east.
84°"28'
84 30
84° 25'
84 23
84°" 53'
84 52
i
84° 49'
84 49
84°" 35'
84 36
84° 33'
84 33
85°" 11'
85 13
b
85° 38'.
85 38
84 29.0 t 84 24.0
84 26.5
84 i
84 52.5 84 49.0
84 50.7
8.6
84
84 35.5
84
49.1
84 33.0
34.2
84
85 12.0 1 85 38.0
85 25.0
39.6
February 23, 1854. Needle No. 2. Poles reversed. Magnetic meridian 6T° 35'.
CIRCLE EAST.
CIRCLE WEST.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
85° 30'
85 26
85° 35'
85 30
85° 11'
85 06
i
85° 14'
85 10
85°" 06'
85 08
6
85° 04'
85 07
84° 26'
84 27
b
84° 12'
84 14
85 28.0
85 E
85 32.5
0.2
85 S
85 08.5
85
0.2
85 12.0
10.2
85
85 07.0 85 05.5
85 06.2
84
D1.6
84 26.5
84
43.0
84 13.0
19.8
Needle No. 2. Poles direct. '
CIRCLE EAST.
CIRCLE WEST.
Face east.
Face west.
Face east.
Face west.
84°'27'
84 24
84° 08'
84 04
85°" 01'
84 57
b
85° 21'
85 18
84°" 28'
84 29
b
84° 12'
84 14
a
85° 06'
85 07
b
85° 13'
85 15
84 25.5
84 ]
84 06.0
5.7
84 '
84 59.0
85
t2.5
85 19.5
09.3
84
84 28.5
84
44.0
84 13.0
20.7
84
85 06.5 1 85 14.0
85 10.2
45.4
38
RECAriTULATION OF RESULTS.
Recapitulation of Results for Magnetic Inclination.
No. of
station.
Locality.
. Date.
No. of
needle.
DIP.
Difference
for change
Mean and resulting
din.
Pole
direct.
Pole
reversed.
of polarity.
r-
1.
New York city
May 18; 1853
2
73° 01'.4
72° 46'.8
+ 14'.6
72° 54'. 11
tl
a tt
tt li
2
73 09.3
72 54.6
+ 14.7
72 61.9
■72° 55'.6
H
a tt
May 20, "
1
73 44.1
72 15.1
+89.0
72 59.6
tt
II.
tl tt
Fiskernaes
11 i[
June 29, "
1
73 22.7
80 32.3
72 11.2
80 50.2
+ 71.5
72 47.0 .
80 41.3
2
—17.9
III.
Fiskernaes Harbor
July 1, "
2
81 16.6
80 29.4
+ 47.2
80 53.0
IV.
Saikatle
July 9, "
LI.
(Approx
imate.)
80 56.0
v.
Sukkertoppen
July 9, "
2
80 37.8
81 01.6
—23.8
80 49.7
VI.
Proven
July 19, "
2
83 05.5
83 04.5
+ 1.0
83 05.0
82 57
tt
it
U ii
2
82 39.5
82 58.4
—18.9
82 49.0
VII.
Uiiernavik
July 22, "
2
83 38.1
83 45.0
— 6.9
83 41.5
VIII.
Bedevilled Reach
Aug. 12, "
2
85 26.3
84 49.7
+36.6
85 08.0
IX.
Marshall Bay
Sept. 3, "
LI.
(Approx
imate.)
84 49.0
X.
Fern Rock Obser-
vatory, Yan Rens-
selaer Harbor
Jan. 26, 1854
2
83 51.3
85 08.0
—76.7
84 29.7 ^
((
tl It
Feb. 16, "
2
84 56.2
84 49.1
+ 7.1
84 52.6 ,
tt
It tt
Feb. 23, "
2
84 44.0
85 01.6
—17.6
84 52.8 /
11
tl tt
March 2, "
2
—
84 49.0 V
84 45.8
tl
a tl
June 10, "
2
—
—
84 47.2
tt
ii tt
il tl
2
—
—
.— .
84 51.0
tl
tl tl
April 24, 1855
2
(12
sets.)
84 48.7
tl
tl tt
May 20, "
2
—
—
84 35.6 /
The resulting dip at Van Rensselaer Harbor may be taken as corresponding in time to June, 1854.
SECTION III.
OBSERVATIONS OF MAGNETIC INTENSITY.
1854 AND 1855.
SECTION III.
OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION OF THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY.
The instrument used (a unifilar magnetometer) has already been described.
For the determination of the intensity, the long magnet A. 67 has exclusively
been used for oscillations and deflections. The effect of the torsion in the sus-
pension was found so small that it was neglected. The vibrations have been
observed in sets of two, one containing the readings of the chronometer when the
magnet was moving in the direction of the scale readings, and the other when the
magnet was moving in the opposite direction.^ A mean time pocket chronometer
was generally used for noting the time, and its rate was too small to affect sensibly
the duration of a single vibration. In the deflections, the magnets were always
kept at right angles to one another; the distance of the middle of the deflecting
magnet, A. 67, from the suspended magnet, is given by a scale divided into feet and
decimals of a foot.^ The observations were made by Mr. A. Sonptag. At Van
Rensselaer Harbor the observations extend over the time from January, 1854, to
May, 1855. Two other stations were occupied, one in June, 1855, at Hakluyt
Island, the other in July, on the coast between Parker Snow Point and Cape
York, at the return of the party.
The necessary constants have been determined at Washington, D. C.
Magnet A. 67 is nearly three inches in length, the two other magnets, I. 7 and
I. 10, are somewhat shorter.
» The vibrations given in the Narrative, vol. II., Appendix, No. XV., pp. 431 — 434, are, therefore,
double vibrations, and should have been noted as such.
* By some inadvertence, Appendix No. XV. of vol. II. of the Narrative contains the distances ex-
pressed in inches; it should have been given in feet and decimals, thus, 13 inches should be 1.3 feet, and
9 inches should read 0.9 feet.
42
MAGNETIC INTENSITY, FERN ROCK OBSERVATORY
January 11, 1854. Fern Rock Observatory, Van Rensselaer Harbor.
A. 67 suspended. Experiments of vibrations. (From right to left.)
No.
Time by pocket chronometer.
No.
Time by pocket chronometer.
Time of 45 double vibrations.
1
5^ 58» 87^3
46
6>' 10" 10«.8
11" 33«.5
2
52.9
47
26.3
33.4
3
59 08.0
48
41.4
33.4
4
23.8
49
57.0
33.2
5
38.7
50
11 12.7
34.0
6
54.5
51
28.0
33.5
7
6 00 09.9
52
43.3
33.4
8
25.9
53
58.4
32.5
9
40.2
• 54
12 14.0
33.8
10
55.8
55
29.6
33.8
Mean ll"33^45
Arc at beginning 4° 40'. Temp. 50°. Time of 2 vibrations 1
" end 1 28 15».410.
TJie vibrations from left to right could not be observed.
January 18, 1854. Fern Rock Observatory.
Experiments of vibrations. (From right to left.)
No.
Time by pocket chronometer.
No.
Time by pocket chronometer.
j Time of 60 double vibrationi.
1
5h 30m 438.0
51
5^ 43" 37^5
12" 54.5
2
58.8
52
53.8
55.0
3
31 14.0
53
44 08.8
54.8
4
29.3
54
23.9
54.6
5
44.4
55
39.8
65.4
6
32 00.0
56
54.0
54.0
7
15.3
57
45 10.8
55.5
8
31.5
58
25.8
54.3
9
46.5
59
41.8
55.3
10
33 02.0
60
57.0
55.0
11
18.1
61
46 12.5
54.5
12 54.81
Arc at beginning 4° 40'. Temp. 68. Time of 2 vibrations 1
" end 1 12 15».496.
January 18, 1854. Fern Rock Observatory.
Experiments of vibrations. (From left to right.)
No.
Time by pocket chronometer.
No.
Time by pocket chronometer.
Time of 50 double vibrations.
1
b^ 30" 50 '.8
51
5h 43m 46 s. 7
12" 55».9
2
31 06.7
52
44 02.0
55.3
3
22.0
53
18.4
56.4
4
36.9
54
32.7
55.8
5
52.9
55
49.0
56.1
6
32 08.0
56
45 04.8
56.8
7
23.8
57
20.0
56.2
8
39.2
58
35.3
56.1
9
54.8
59
51.0
56.2
10
33 10.3
60
46 07.0
56.7
11
26.0
61
22.2
56.2
12 56.15
Arcs and temp, as before. Time of 2 vibrations 15«.523. 1
(Dr. Hayes assisted in these observations.) 1
AT VAN RENSSELAER HARBOR.
43
February 21, 1854. Fern Rock Observatory.
Experiments of vibrations. (From right to left.)
No.
Time by pocket chronometer.
No.
Time by pocket chronometer.
Time of 50 double vibrations.
1
4h 59m 26».0
51
5)1 12m 23'. 5
12'° 57.5
2
41.8
52
39.4
57.6
3
56.4
53
56.0
68.6
4
5 00 12.6
54
13 10.2
57.6
5
28.2
55
26.2
58.0
6
43.5
56
41.6
58.0
7
58.9
67
57.3
58.4
8
01 14.6
58
14 12.8
58.2
9
30 2
69
28.3
58.1
10
45.6
60
43.6
57.9
11
02 01.3
61
59.2
57.9
12 57.98
Arc at beginning 5° 52'. Temp. 79°. Time of 2 vibrations 1
" end 2 24 15«.560.
Experiments of vibrations. (From left to right.)
No.
Time by pocket chronometer.
No.
Time by pocket chronometer.
Time of 50 double vibrations.
1
4'' 59" 33'. 5
61
5" 12"* 31'. 8
12'° 58'. 3
2
48.3
62
47.1
58.8
3
5 00 04.8
53
13 02.8
68.0
4
20.4
54
18.4
58.0
5
35.7
65
34.0
58.3
6
51.2
56
49.6
68.3
7
01 06.9
57
14 06.2
58.3
8
22.5
58
20.8
58.3
9
38.0
59
36.2
58.2
10
53.5
60
51.7
58.2
11
02 09.5
61
16 07.4
67.9
12 58.24
Arcs and temp, as before. Time of 2 vibrations 15'. 565. 1
February 21, 1854. Fern Rook Observatory,
Experiments of vibrations. (From right to left.)
No.
Time by pocket chronometer.
No.
Time by pocket chronometer.
Time of 50 double vibrations.
1
gh 20"' 47 '.5
61
6h 33m 42'. 6
12'° 55.1
2
21 03.0
52
58.0
55.0
3
19.0
53
34 14.0
66.0
4
34.3
54
29.6
55.3
5
49.5
55
45.0
55.5
6
22 05.5
66
35 00.3
54.8
1
20.9
57
16.8
55.9
8
36.3
58
32.0
56.7
9
61.5
59
47.0
55.5
10
23 07.0
60
36 03.7'
66.7
12 66.45
Arc at beginning 5° 20'. Temp. 55°. Time of 2 vibrations 1
" end 1 36 15^509. 1
Corrected by 10'
44
MAGNETIC INTENSITY, FERN ROCK OBSERVATORY
February 21, 1854. Fern Rock Observatory.
Experiments of vibrations. (From left to right.)
No.
Time by pocket chronometer.
No.
Time by pocket chronometer.
i Time of 50 double vibrations.
1
gh 20-1 55».2
51
6" 33-»51».0
12"°
55.8
2
21 11.0
52
34 06.5
55.5
3
2t.0
53
22.6
55.6
4
42.0
54
37.5
55.5
5
51.5
55
53.4
55.9
6
22 13.3
56
35 08.6
55.3
1
29.0
57
25.0
56.0
8
43.8
58
39.6
55.8
9
59.2
. 59
55.5
56.3
10
23 15.3
60
36 12.0
56.7
12
55.84
Arcs and time as before. Time of 2 vibrations 15'. 517.
Recapitulation of Results.
January 11, 1854. Time of 2 vibrations 15».410 Temp. 50°
18, " " " 15.496> " 68 ■>
18, " " " 15.523i " 68 j
February 21, " " " 15.560") " T9 ")
21, " " " 15.5653 " 79 1
21, " " " 15.509)^ " 55 •^
21, " "
Combination by two m
15.517i
" 55 i
63.0
eans 15.499
Time of one vibration 7.749
Janu!
iry 31, 1854. Experiments of deflections. Distance 1.3 feet. Deflecting magnet A 67.
Magnet.
North pole.
Circle reads.
Mean.
Diff. or 2 u.
Temp. 1
E.
w.
318° 40'
41
287 57
57
40'. 5
68°
tt
E.
57.0
30° 43'.5
73
W.
E.
288 47
47
319 37
37
47.0
75
ti
W.
37.0
30 50.0
72.5
72.1
Means 30 46.7
Febru
ary 13, 1854. Experiments of deflections. Distance 0.975 feet.
Magnet.
North pole.
Circle reads.
Mean.
2u.
Temp. 1
E.
E.
162° 07'
06
83 10
10
06'.5
50°
<<
W.
10.0
78° 56'.5
61
W.
W.
86 24
24
24.0
65
78 23.0
E.
164 47
47
47.0
66
60.5
Means 78 40.0
AT VAN RENSSELAER HARBOR.
45
February 27, 1854. Experiments of deflections. Distance 1.3 feet.
Magnet.
North pole.
Circle reads.
Mean.
2u.
Temp.
E.
it
W.
E.
W.
W.
E.
140° 54'.5
54.5
109 58
59
110 31
32
141 15
15
54'. 5
58.5
31.5
15.0
30° 56'.0
30 43.5
58°
58
58
56
57.5
30 49.7
June 7, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Left to right.)
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
Time of 45 double vibrations.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
3h 04m 345.2
49.4
/ 05 05.0
20.3
35.8
5L1
06 06.3
21.8
36.9
52.1
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
3h le- 02'. 5
17.8
33.0
48.3 .
17 03.6
19.0
34.2
49.4
18 04.8
20.0
11™ 28'.3
28 4
28.0
28.0
27.8
27.9
27.9
27.6
27.9
27.9
11 27.97
Arc at beginning 6° 8'. Temp. +33°. Time of 2 vibrations 15».288.
" end 2 48
Rate of mean time chronometer 2721 (showing nearly Greenwich time), about 2'.0 losing.
June 7, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Right to left.)
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
Time of 45 double vibrations.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
3h 04m 428.3
57.6'
05 12.7
28.1
43.3
58.8
06 13.8
29.2
44.4
07 00.0
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
3h IQm 108.2
25.5
40.8
56.0
17 11.2
26.5
41.9
57.4
18 12.5
27.8
11™ 27'. 9
27.9
28.1
27.9
27.9
27.7
28.1
28.2
28.1
27.8
11 27.96
Arcs and temp, as before. Time of 2 vibrations 15'. 288.
46
MAGNETIC INTENSITY, FERN ROCK OBSERVATORY
June t, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Left to right.)
• No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
Time of 45 double Tibrations.
1
3^ 22" 08».0
46
3h 33m 378.0
11"29«.0
2
23.3
47
52.3
29.0
3
38.5
48
34 07.6
29.1
4
53.8
49
23.0
29.2
5
23 09.2
50
38.2
29.0
6
24.5
51
53.7
29.2
7
39.7
52
35 09.0
..29.3
8
55.0
53
24.5
29.5
9
24 10.3
54
39.6
29.3
10
25.7
55
5.4.9
29.2
11 29.18
Arc at beginning 6° 8'. Temp. 33°. Time of 2 vibrations 15».315.
" end 2 48
June 1, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Right to left.)
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
Time of 45 double vibrations.
1
3h 22™ 16^0
46
31^ 33" 45».0
11"29».0
2
31.2
47
34 00.2
29.0
3
46.3
48
15.5
29.2
4
23 01.8
49
30.9
29.1
5
17.0
50
46.3
29.3
6
32.3
51
35 01.5
29.2
7
47.8
52
16.8
29.0
8
24- 03.1
53
32.2
29.1
9
18.3
54
47.3
29.0
10
33.3
55
36 02.5
29.2
11 29.11
Arcs and temp, as before. Time of 2 vibrations 15».313.
June 1, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Left to right.)
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
Time of 54 double vibrations.
1
8^ 12"'39M
55
8'^ 26"" 30».7
13"'51«.6
2
54.5
56
46.0
51.5
3
13 09.8
57
27 01.5
51.7
4
25.1
58
17.0
51.9
5
40.3
59
32.2
51.9
6
56.0
60
47.8
51.8
7
14 11.3
61
28 03.2
51.9
8
26.5
62
18.8
52.3
9
42.1
63
34.0
51.9
10
57.5
64
49.3
51.8
13 51.83
Arc at beginning 6° 40'. Temp. 35. Time of two vibrations 15^403.
" end 2 56
AT VAN RENSSELAER HARBOR.
47
June 7, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Right to left.)
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
Time of 54 double vibrations.
1
gh 12m 46S.8
55
gh 26°' 38«.5
13"'51».7
2
13 02.0
56
54.0
52.0
3
17.2
57
27 09.3
52.1
4
32.6
58
24.8
52.2
5
48.1
59
40.3
52.2
6
14 03.3
if. 7
60
55.7
52.4
1
61
28 11.1
52.4
8
34.0
62
26.4
52.4
9
49.5
63
41.9
52.4
10
15 05.0
64
57.4 .
52.4
13 52.22
Arcs and time as before. Time of 2 vibrations 15'. 412.
June
7, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Left to right.)
No.
Time by ohronometer 2721.
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
Time of 50 double vibrations.
1
8^ 35°'17M
51
gh 48"n 07^.8
12"' 50^7
2
32.2
52
23.1
50.9
3
48.0
53
38.6
50.6
4
36 03.3
54
54.0
50.7
5
19.0
55
49 09.3
50.3
6
34.3
56
24.8
50.5
T
49.6
57
40.1
50.5
8
37 05.1
58
55.6
50.5
9
20.6
59
50 10.9
50.3
10
36.2
60
26.3
50.1
11
5L5
61
4L6
50.1
12 50.47
Arc 7° 28'. Temp. 35°. Time of 2 vibrations 15«. 409. 1
3 12
June
7, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Right to left.)
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
No.
Time by ohronometer 2721.
Time of 50 double vibrations.
1
8^ 35°>24«.7
51
gh 48m 15s. 2
12"'50^5
2
40.0
52
30.7
50.7
3
55.2
53
46.0
50.8
4
36 10.8
54
49 01.3
50.5
5
26.2 .
55
16.8
50.6
6
42.0
56
32.2
50.2
1
57.2
57
47.7
50.5
8
37 12.7
58
50 03.0
50.3
9
28.3
59
18.7
50.4
10
43.8
60
33.8
50.0
11
59.0
61
49.2
50.2
12 50.43
Arcs and temp, as before. Time of 2 vibrations 15'. 409.
48
MAGNETIC INTENSITY, FERN ROCK OBSERVATORY
Recapitulation of Results, June 7, 1854.
* Set No. 1. Time of 2 vibrations .... 15^.288 Temp. 33°
15.288 " 33
Set No. 2. " " .... 15.315 " 33
15.313 " 33
Set No. 3. " " .... 15l403 " 35
15.412 " 35
Set No. 4. " " .... 1.5.409 " 35
15.409 • " 35
June t, 1854. Mean
15.355 +34.0
Time of 1 vibration . . . 1.678
June 7, 1854. Experiments of deflections.
Deflecting magnet A. 67. Deflected magnet I. 10. Distance 0.9 feet.
Magnet.
North pole.
Circle reads.
Mean.
2 a.
Temp.
w.
tt
E.
W.
374° 16'.3
15.0
265 55.0
54.0
15'.7
54.5
108° 21'.2
36°.2
38.0
w.
tt
W.
E.
260 58.0
55.5
368 31.0
30.0
56.7
30.5
107 33.8
36.0
34.0
36.0
Means 107 57.5
Experiments of deflections. Distance 1.3 feet.
Magnet.
North pole.
Circle reads.
Mean.
2u.
Temp.
E.
tl
E.
W.
331° 33'.0
31.0
300 34.0
33.0
32'.0
33.5
30° 58'.5
34°.5
34.3
W.
it
W.
E.
301 01.0
00.0
332 37.0
35.0
00.5
36.0
31 35.5
35.8
3.5.0
34.9
Means 31 17.0
Tliese two
sets of deflections were observed between the second and third set of t
he preceding
vibrations. 1
AT VAN RENSSELAER HARBOR.
49
June 8, 1854. Experiments of yibrations. (Left to right.) 1
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
Time of 40 donble vibrations.
1
3'' 16°' 20».0
41
31. 26" 40».4
10"" 20».4
2
35.5
42
56.0
20.5
3
50.9
43
27 11.5
20.6
4
17 06.5
44
27.2
20.7
5
22.2
45
42.6
20.4
6
37.8
46
58.1
20.3
1
53.3
47
28 13.5
20.2
8
18 08.8
48
29.1
20.3
9
24.3
49
44.6
20.3
10
39.8
50
29 00.5
20.7
11
55.2
•
51
15.5
20.3
10 20.43
Arcs 5° 30'. Temp. 35°. Time of 2 vibrations 15'. 511.
3 20
June
8, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Right to left.)
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
Tfme of 40 double vibrations.
1
3h i6»> 27^3
41
3h 26"' 48'.0
10"" 20'. 7
2
43.2
42
27 03.5
20.3
3
58.6
43
19.0
20.4
4
17 14.2
44
34.6
20.4
5
29.7
45
50.0
20.3
6
45.3
46
28 05.6
20.3
7
18 00.8
47
21.1
20.3
8
.16.2
48
36.5
20.3 .
9
31.8
49
52.2
20.4
10
47.3
50
29 07.6
20.3
11
19 02.9
51
23.3
20.4
10 20.37
Arcs and temp, as before. Time of 2 vibrations 15'. 509.
June
8, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Left to right.)
No.
i
Time by chronometer 2721.
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
Time of 40 double vibrations.
1
3^ SI-" 33».3
41
3h 41m53s_9
10"° 20^6
2
49.0
42
42 09.2
20.2
3
32 04.5
43
24.7
20.2
4
20.0
44
40.2
20.2
5
35.6
45
55.8
20.2
6
51.2
46
43 11.2
20.0
7
33 06.7
47
26.7
20.0
8
22.1
48
42.1
20.0
9
37.6
49
67.7
20.1
10
63.1
50
44 13.0
19.9
11
34 08.3
51
28.5
20.2
10 20.15
Arcs 6° 8'. Temp. 35°.2. Time of 2 vibrations 15\503.
and 3 12
50
MAGNETIC INTENSITY, FERN ROCK OBSERVATORY
June 8, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Right to left.)
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
Time of 40 double vibrations.
1
3h 31m 408.8
41
3h 42^>01^2
lO"" 20».4
2
56.4
42
16.5
20.1
3
32 11.9
43
32.2
20.3
4
21.3
44
47.5
20.2
5
43.1
45
43 03.0
19.9
6
58.6
46
18.4
19.8
• 1
33 14.1
47
33.9
19.8
8
29.6
48
49.4
19.8
9
45.1
49
44 04.9
19.8
10
34 OO.t
50
20.3
19.6
11
16.2
51
85.8
19.6
10 19.93
Arcs and temp, as before. Time of 2 vibrations 15».498.
(4 sets of deflections were taken after the above, for which see below.)
June
8, 1854. - Experiments of vibrations. (Left to right.)
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
Time of 40 double yibrations.
1
8'' 31" 54 ». 3
41
gh 42m 09^.5
10™ 15».2
2
32 10.2
42
24.9
14.7
3
25.3
43
40.2
14.9
4
40.8
44
55.5
14.7
5
56.2
45
43 10.9
14.7
6
33 11.4
46
26.2
14.8
■7
27.0
47
41.7
14.7
8
42.3
48
56.9
14.6
9
57.4
49
12.8
14.9
10
34 13.1
50
27.5
14.4
11
28.3
51
42.9
14.6
10 14.75
Arcs 6° 48'. Temp. 35°. Time of 2 vibrations 15^369.
and 2 08
June
8, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Right to left)
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
Time of 40 double vibrations.
1
8'' 32"" 02 ".3
41
gh 42m i8«.3
10" 16.0
2
17.8
42
33.6
15.8
3
33.2
43
49.0
15.8
4
48.7
44
43 04.4
15.7
5
33 04.0
45
19.9
15.9
6
19.3
46
35.2
15.9
7
34.8
47
50.6
15.8
8
50.2
48
44 06.0
15.8
9
34 05.5
49
21.4
15.9
10
21.2
50
36.9
15.7
11
36.8
51
52.3
15.5
10 15.80
Arcs and temp, as before. Time of 2 vibrations 15 '.395. 1
AT VAN RENSSELAER HARBOR.
51
June 8, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Left to right.)
Ko.
Time by chronometer 2721.
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
Time of 40 double vibrations.
1
gh 48m52».0
41
gh 59m04».6
10"'12».6
2
49 07.3
42
19.7
12.4
3
23.0
43
35.3
12.3
4
88.2
44
50.5
12.3
5
53.4
45
9 00 05.8
12.4
6
50 08.9
46
21.1
12.2
T
24.3
47
36.3
12.0
8
39.6
48
51.6
12.0
9
54.7
49
1 07.0
12.3
10
51 10.1
50
22.2
12.1
11
25.3
51
37.5
12.2
10 12.25
Arcs 6° 50'. Temp. 35°. Time of 2 vibrations 15».306. 1
and 3 20
June 8, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Right to left.)
No.
Time by chronometer 2721.
No.
•
Time by chronometer 2721.
Time of 40 double vibrations.
1
gh 4gm 598_8
41
gh 59m 128.0
10" 12».2
2
49 15.1
42
27.5
12.4
3
30.3
43
42.8
12.5
4
45.8
44
58.0
12.2
5
50 01.1
45
9 00 13.4
12.3
6
16.3
46
28.6
12.3
7
31.8
47
. 43.9
12.1
8
47.2
48
59.3
12.1
9
51 02.2
49
01 14.6
12.4
10
17.8
50
29.9
12.1
11
33.0
51
45.3
12.3
10 12.26
Arcs and temp, as before. Time of 2 vibrations 15«.306. 1
Daily rate of chronometer 2T21, losing I'.O.
Recapitulation of Results, June 8, 1854.
Set No. 1. Time of 2 vibrations 15". 511 Temp. 35°
15.509 " 35
Set No. 2. " " .... 15.503 " 35.2
15.498 " 35.2
Set No. 3. . " " .... 15.369 " 35
15.395 " 35
Set No. 4. " "-.... 15.306 " 35
15.306
" 35
Means
. 15.425
35.0
Time of 1 vibration . . . 7.712
The following deflections correspond in time to the middle of the above vibration results.
52
MAGNETIC INTENSITY, FERN ROCK OBSERVATORY
June 8, 1854. Experiments of deflections.
Deflecting magnet A. 6Y. Deflected magnet I. 10. Distance 1.3 feet.
Magnet.
North pole.
Circle reads.
Mean.
2u.
Temp.
w.
E.
it
E.
W.
W.
E.
329° 46'
45
298 36
34
298 08
06
329 41
40
45'.5
35
01.0
40.5
31° 10'.5
31 33.5
36°.1
31.1
31.0
36.2
36.9
Means 31 22.0
Experiments of deflections. Distance 0.9 feet
Magnet.
North pole.
Circle reads.
Mean.
2n.
Temp.
E.
it
W.
tt
E.
W.
w.
E.
365° 52'.5
51.0
254 54
53
262 30
28
369 08
06
51'.1
53.5
29.0
01.0
' 110° 58'.2
106 38.0
31°.2
36.6
31.0
31.0
36.9
Means 108 48.1
Experiments of deflections. Distance 0. 9 feet. 1
Magnet.
North pole.
Circle reads.
Mean.
2n.
Temp.
w.
il
E.
tt
E.
W.
W.
E.
369° 08'.0
06.5
262 20
18
254 41
40
364 48.0
46.5
01'.2
19.0
40.5
41.2
106° 48'.2
110 06.1
31°.2
31.0
31.6
36.6
31.1
Means 108 21.4
Experiments of- deflections. Distance 1.3 feet.
Magnet.
North pole.
Circle reads.
Mean.
2 a.
Temp.
E.
tt
W.
tt
E.
W.
W.
E.
328° 52'
52
291 23
22
298 03
02
329 13
13
52'.0
22.5
02.5
13.0
31° 29'.5
31 10.5
36°.0
35.2
36.3
31.0
36.1
Means 31 20.0
AT VAN RENSSELAER HARBOR.
63
Jane 19, 1854.
Experiments of deflections.
Deflecting magnet
A. 67. Deflected magnet I. 7. Distance 0.9 feet.
Magnet.
North pole.
Circle reads.
Mean.
2u.
Temp.
w.
w.
268° 50'
49
49'.5
107° 33'.0
40°.6
E.
376 23
22
22.5
41.6
E.
E.
373 05
04
04.5
41.2
106 05.0
(1
W.
267 00
266 59
59.5
41.2
4L1
Means 106 49.0
Experiments of deflections. Distance 1.3 feet.
Magnet.
North pole.
Circle reads.
Mean.
2u.
Temp.
E.
w.
303° 38'
37
37'.5
40°.8
30° 43'.0
11
E.
334 21
20
20.5
41.0
W.
E.
334 46
46
304 04
03
46.0
43.5
li
W.
03.5
30 42.5
43.0
42.1
Means 30 42.7
June 19, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Left to right.)
No.
Time.i
No.
Time.'
Time of 40 double vibrations.
1
4^ 33" 20M
41
4h 43m 38S.6
10»18«.5
2
35.3
42
54.0
18.7
3
51.0
43
44 09.5
18.5
4
34 06.5
44
25.0
18.5
5
21.9
45
40.4
18.5
6
37.3
46
55.9
18.6
T
52.8
47
45 11.2
18.4
8
35 08.3
48
26.6
18.3
9
23.8
49
42.1
18.3
10
39.3
50
57.7
18.4
11
54.9
51
46 13.0
18.1
10 18.44
L.
Arcs 1° 28'
Temp. 43=
Time of 2 vibrations 15 '.461
and 3 44
Number of chronometer not stated.
54
MAGNETIC INTENSITY, FERN ROCK OBSERVATORY
June 19, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Right to left.)
No.
Time.
No.
Time.
Time of 40 double vibrations.
1
4h 33m 28».2
41
4" 43" 46«.8
10" 18^6
2
43.4
42
44 02.3
18.9
3
59.0
43
17.8
18.8
4
34 14.3
44
33.2
18.9
5
29.9
45
48.6
18.7
6
45.3
46
45 04.2
18.9
7
35 00.9
47
19.5
18.6
8
16.3
48
35.1
18.8
9
31.9
49
50.4
18.5
10
47.2
50
46 05.8
18.6
11
36 02.8
51
21.4
18.6
10 18.72
Arcs and temp, as before. Time of 2 vibrations 15^.463. 1
Experiments of vibrations. (Left to right.)
No.
Time.
No.
Time.
Time of 40 double vibratioDB.
1
4'' 50" 26».2
41
5h 00"44«.0
10" 17».8
2
41.8
42
59.3
17.5
3
57.3
43
01 14.8
17.5
4
51 12.9
44
30.3
17.4
5
28.2
45
45.9
17.7
6
43.6
46
02 01.3
17.8
1
59.1
47
16.7
17.6
8
52 14.5
48
32.2
17.7
9
29.9
49
47.7
17.8
10
45.4
50
03 03.2
17.8
11
53 01.0
51
18.8
17.8
10 17.67
Arcs 6° 56'. Temp. 43°. Time of 2 vibrations 15».442.
and 4 00
Experiments of vibrations. (Right to left.)
No.
Time.
No.
Time.
Time of 40 double vibrations.
1
4" 50" 34M
41
51»00"51^6
10" 17^5
2
49.5
42
01 07.1
17.6
3
51 04.9
43
22.4
17.5
4
20.3
4.4
37.9
17.6
5
35.9
45
53.4
17.5
6
51.2
46
02 08.9
17.7
t
52 06.9
47
24.3
17.4
8
22.2
48
39.6
17.4
9
37.8
49
55.0
17.2
10
53.1
50
03 10.3
17.2
11
53 08.6
51
25.8
17.2
10 17.44
Arcs and temp, as before. Time of 2 vibrations 15^.436. 1
AT VAN
RENSSELAER HARBOR. 65
June 19, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Left to right.)
No.
Time.
No.
Time.
Time of 40 double vibrations.
1
5h 13m i2«.2
41
5h 23™ 30«.3
lO-" 18M
2
27.9
42
45.7
17.8
3
43.3
43
24 01.2
17.9
4
58.9
44
16.8
17.9
5
14 14.2
45
32.3
18.1
6
29.5
46
47.9
18.4
1
45.1
47
25 03.4
18.3
8
15 00.3
48
18.9
18.6
9
16.1
49
34.1
18.0
10
31.3
50
49.7
18.4
11
46.9
51
26 05.1
18.2
10 18.15
Arcs 6° 48'. Temp. 42°.4. Time of 2 vibrations 15».454.
3 36
Experiments of vibrations. (Right to left.)
No.
Time.
No.
Time.
1 Time of 40 double yibrations.
1
5h 13m 20\2
41
5h 23°' 37 '.6
10'»17».4
2
35.1
42
52.9
17.2
3
51.2
43
24 08.3
It.l
4
14 06.5
44
24.0
17.5
5
22.1
45
39.5
17.4
6
31.5
46
54.9
17.4 •
1
53.2
47
25 10.2
17.0
8
15 08.4
48
25.2
16.8
9
23.7
49
40.8
17.1
10
39.2
50
56.5
17.3
11
54.8
51
26 11.7
16.9
10 17.19
Arcs and temp, as before. Time of 2 vibrations 15».430.
Experiments of vibrations. (Left to right.)
No.
Time.
No.
Time.
Time of 40 double vibrations.
1
5h 33m 23\3
41
5" 43™ 39^5
10"'16^2
2
38.9
42
64.9
16.0
3
54.2
43
44 10.3
16.1
4
34 09.5
44
25.8
16.3
5
25.2
45
41.3
16.1
6
40.4
46
56.7
16.3
Y
55.9
47
45 11.9
16.0
8
35 11.2
48
27.4
16.2
9
26.8
49
42.8
16.0
10
42.2
50
68.2
16.0
11
67.6
51
46 13.6
16.6!
10 18.11
Arcs 7° 04'. Temp. 42°.4. Time of two vibrations 15«.403.
3 28
56
MAGNETIC INTENSITY, FERN ROCK OBSERVATORY
Experiments of vibrations. (Right
to leff)
1
1
No.
Time.
No.
Time.
Time of 40 double vibrations.
1
5h 33m 316.2
41
5h 43ra 41JS 2
lO-o 16».0
2
46.5
42
44 02.8
16.3
3
34 02.1
43
18.1
16.0
4
17.4
44
33.5
16.1
5
33.0
45
49.0
16.0
6
48.4
46
45 04.5
16.1
7
35 03.7
47
19.8
16.1
8
19.0
48
35.2
16.2
9
34.3
49
50.6
16.3
10
49.5
50
46 05.9
16.4
11
36 05.2
51
21.3
16.1
10 16.15
Arcs and temp, as before. Time of 2 vibrations 15 '.404.
Recapitxjlation op Results, June 19, 1854.
Set No. 1. Time of 2 vibrations .... 15».461 Temp. 43°
15.463 " 43
Set No. 2. " " .... 15.442 " 43
15.436 " 43
Set No. 3. " " .... 15.454 " 42.4
15.430 " 42.4
Set No. 4. " " .... 15.403 • " 42.4
15.404
" 42.4
Means ....
15.437
42.7
Time of 1 vibration . . 7.718
June 19, 1854. Experiments of deflections.
Deflecting magnet A. 67. Deflected magnet I. 7. Distance 1.3 feet.
Magnet.
North pole.
Circle reads.
Mean.
2u.
Temp.
w.
w.
298° 54'
53
329 47
46
53'.5
42°.
((
E.
46.5
30° 53'.0
42.2
E.
E.
329 20
19
298 30
29
19.5
43.2
II
W.
29.5
30 50.0
42.0
42.4
Means 30 51.5
Experiments of deflection. Distance 0.9 feet.
Magnet.
North pole.
Circle reads.
Mean.
2u.
Temp.
E.
w.
259° 19'
18
365 31
29
18'.5
42°.2
U
E.
30.0
• 106° 11'.5
42.0
w.
E.
369 39
38
263 09
07
38.5
43.2
II
w.
08.0
106 30.5
41.8
42.3
Means 106 21.0
AT VAN RENSSELAER HARBOR.
57
June 24, 1854. Experiments of deflections.
Deflecting magnet A. 67. Deflected magnet I. t. Distance 0.9 feet. 1
Magnet.
North pole.
Circle reads.
Means.
2u.
Temp.
w.
w.
264° 10'
09
369 42
41
09'.5
38°.0
<<
E.
41.5
105° 32'.0
38.0
E.
E.
W.
365 00
364 59
259 50
49
69.5
49.5
IC
Means l(
5 10.0
38.0
38.0
38.0
)5 21.0
Experiments of deflection. Distance 1.3 feet.
Magnet.
North pole.
Circle reads.
Means.
2u.
Temp.
E.
w.
298° 37'
36
329 21
21
36'. 5
38°.5
H
E.
21.0
30° 44'.5
38.6
w.
E.
330 13
12
299 42
41
12.5
40.3
tl
W.
41.5
30 31.0
40.0
39.4
Means 30 37.7
June 24, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Left to right.)
No. Time by chronometer 264.
No.
Time by chronometer 264.
Time of 40 donble vibrations.
1
4h 21"'34^3
41
4'' Sl^SS^.S
10">
19\0
2
49.6
42
32 08.8
19.2
3
22 05.2
43
24.2
19.0
4
20.7
44
39.6
18.9
5
36.3
45
55.0
18.7
6
51.8
46
33 10.4
18.6
7
23 07.3
47
26.3
19.0
8
22.8
48
41.8
19.0
9
38.4
49
57.2
18.8
10
53.8
50
34 12.5
18.7
11
24 09.1
51
28.0
18.9
1
10
18.89
Arcs 6° 16'. Temp. 41°.2. Time of 2 vibrations 15«.472
and 3 20
The chronometer nearly shows Greenwich mean time, and its daily rate is less than 0'.5
(gaining).
68
MAGNETIC INTENSITY, FERN ROCK OBSERVATORY
June 24, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Right to left.)
No.
Time by chronometer 264.
No.
Time by chronometer 264.
Time of 40 double vibrations.
1
4h 21"'41«.8
41
4'' 31°>59».0
lO-" 17».2
2
5T.1
42
32 14.3
17.2
3
22 12.6
43
29.2
16.6
4
28.2
44
. 44.4
16.2
5
43.4
45
59.5
16.1
6
59.0
46
33 14.9
15.9
1
23 14.3
4T
30.3
16.0
8
29.8
48
45.8
16.0
9
45.2
49
34 01.0
15.8
10
24 00.8
50
16.3
15.5
11
16.2
51
31.6
15.4
10 16.17
Arcs and temp, as before. Time of 2 vibrations 15 '.404. 1
June 24, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Left to right.)
No.
Time by chronometer 264.
No.
Time by chronometer 264.
Time of 40 doable vibrations.
1
4" 40°'31M
41
4h 5om 46S.0
10" 14».9
2
46.5
42
51 01.3
14.8
3
41 02.0
43
16.8
14.8
4
n.4
44
82.0
14.6
5
32.8
45
47.5
14.7
6
48.2
46
62 02.8
14.6
T
42 03.5
47
18.1
14.6
8
18.9
48
33.4
14.5
9
34.3
49
48.8
14.5
10
49.8
50
63 04.1
14.3
11
43 05.1
51
19.4
14.3
10 14.60
Arcs 5° 52'. Temp. 41°.2. Time of 2 vibrations 15».365. (
and 3 20
June 24, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Right to left.)
No.
Time by chronometer 264.
No.
Time by chronometer 264.
Time of 40 double vibrations.
1
4h 401' 388.8
41
41' 50-° 53^8
10° 15».0
2
54.2
42
61 09.2
15.0
3
41 09.5
43
24.6
15.1
4
24.9
44
40.0
15.1
5
40.2
45
55.4
15.2
6
55.8
46
52 10.8
16.0
T
42 11.1
48
26.2
15.1
8
26.3
47
41.6
15.3
9
41.9
49
57.0
15.1
10
57.2
60
63 12.3
15.1
11
43 12.6
51
27.8
15.2
10 15.11
Arcs and temp, as before. Time of 2 vibrations 15". 378. 1
AT VAN RENSSELAER HARBOR.
59
June 24, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Left to right.) 1
No.
Time by chronometer 264.
No.
Time by chronometer 264.
Time of 40 doable vibrations.
1
5h 03" 29^3
41
5h 15m 448,5
10" 15.2
2
44.9
42
59.5
14.6
3
04 00.3
43
14 15.1
14.8
4
15.6
44
30.4
14.8
5
31.0
45
45.9
14.9
6
46.4
46
15 01.3
14.9
1
05 01.8
47
16.8
15.0
8
It.l
48
32.2
15.1
9
32.3
49
47.7
15.4
10
41.8
50
16 02.9
15.1
11
06 03.2
51
18.2
15.0
10 14.982
Arcs 6° 16'. Temp. 41°. 2. Time of 2 vibrations 15 ^ 375. 1
and 3 28
June 24, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Right to left.)
No.
Time by chronometer 264.
No.
Time by chronometer 264.
Time of 40 doable vibrationa.
1
5h 03°'3'7M
41
b^ 13"'52«.0
10>? 14.9
2
52.4
42
14 07.6
15.2
3
04 07.8
43
23.0
15.2
4
23.2
44
38.3
15.1
5
38.4-
45
53.8
15.4
6
53.8
46
15 09.1
15.3
1
05 09.3
47
24.5
15.2
8
24.5
48
39.9
15.4
9
40.0
49
55.2
16.2
10
55.0
50
16 10.6
15.6
11
06 10.8
51
26.0
15.2
10 15.24
Arcs and temp, as before. Time of 2 vibrations 15'. 381. 1
June 24, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Left to right.) 1
No.
Time by chronometer 264.
No.
Time by chronometer 264.
Time of 40 double vibrations.
1
5h 18ni38s.3
41
b^ 28°'54».8
10°'16».5
2
54.0
42
29 10.1
16.1
3
19 09.3
43
25.3
16.0
4
24.9
44
40.8
15.9
5
40.3
45
56.2
15.9
6
55.7
46
30 11.6
15.9
1
20 11.2
47
27.0
15.8
8
26.7
48
42.4
15.7
9
42.2
49
57.8
15.6
10
57.5
50
31 13.1
15.6
11
21 12.9
51
28.7
15.8
10 15.89
Arcs 6° 48'. Temp. 41°.2. Time of 2 vibrations 15^.397. 1
3 20 1
60
MAGNETIC INTENSITY, FERN ROCK OBSERVATORY
June 24, 1854. Experiments of vibrations. (Right to left.)
No.
Time by chronometer 264.
No.
Time by chronometer 264.
Time of 40 doable vibrations. 1
1
5'> 18" 46«.2
41
5h 29m 02«.7
lO"
16».5
2
19 01.9
42
18.0
16.1
3
17.2
43
33.6
16.4
4
32.8
44
49.0
16.2
5
48.2
45
30 04.2 -
16.0
6
20 03.6
46
19.7
16.1
1
19.0
47
35.0
16.0
8
34.3
48
50.4
16.1
9
49.7
49
31 05.8
16.1
10
21 05.1
50
. 21.5
16.4
11
20.6
51
36.8
-
16.2
10
16.19
Arcs and temp, as before. Time of 2 vibrations 15».405.
Recapitulation of Results, June 24, 1854.
Set No. 1. Time of 2 vibrations .... 15«.472 Temp.
41°.2
15.404
41.2
Set No. 2. " " .... 15.365
41.2
15.378
41.2
Set No: 3. " " .... 15.375
41.2
15.381
41.2
Set No. 4. " " .... 15.397
41.2
15.405 •
ti
41.2
41.2
Mean
15.397
Time of 1 vibration . . . 7.699
June 24, 1854. Experiments of deflections.
Deflecting magnet A. 67. Deflected magnet I. 7. Distance .1.3 feet. 1
Magnet.
North pole. Circle reads.
Means.
2u.
Temp.
w.
w.
300° 17'
15
330 29
27
16'.0
44°.2
tf
E.
28.0
30° 12'.0
43.0
E.
E.
330 41
40
300 04
03
40.5
42.2
((
W.
03.5
Means 3
37.0
42.4
42.9
24.5
Experiments of deflections. Distance 0. 9 feet.
Magnet.
North pole.
Circle reads.
Means.
2u.
Temp. 1
E.
w.
261° 24'
22
367 31
30
23'.0
41.4
((
E.
30.5
106° 07'.5
41.0
W.
E.
373 07
05
06.0
42.4
It
W.
1(
)9 04.5
41.7
41.6
264 02
01
01.5
Means 1(
)7 36.0
AT VAN RENSSELAETl HARBOR.
61
The detail record of the observations of deflections and vibrations at Van
Rensselaer Harbor, in May, 1855, and of the vibrations at Hakluyt Island, and
near Cape York, in June and July, 1855, could not be found; the results, how-
ever, are preserved in Appendix No. XV. of the Narrative (vol. II.), and are here-
with subjoined.
Synopsis of Results of Vibrations and Deflections, Observed at Van Rensselaer Harbor
during the years 1854 and '55.
Date.
Temp.'s
Time of
Mean
Corresponding
Angle of
Distance
observed.
1 vibration.
adopted.
temp.
deflection.
in feet.
T.
*.•
u.
r.
1854.
January IT
50°.0
7^705
18
68.0
7.748
18
68.0
7.761
31
February 13
21
72.1
60.5
79.0
7.780
7».749
63°.0
15° 23'.3
39 20.0
1.3
0.975
21
79.0
7.782
" . 21
55.0
7.755
21
55.0
7.758
21
57.5
15 24.8
1.3
June 1
33.0
7.644
1
33.0
7.644
7
33.0
7.657
7
33.0
7.656
7
7
36.0
34.9
7.678
34.0
53 58.7
15 38.5
0.9
1.3
7
35.0
7.702
7
35.0
7.706
7
35.0
7.705
7
35.0
7.704
June 8
35.0
7.755
8
35.0
7.754
8
35.2
7.752
8
35.2
7.749
8
36.9
15 41.0
1.3
8
8
36.9
37.1
- 7.712
35.0
54 24.0
54 13.7
0.9
0.9
8
36.1
15 40.0
1.3
8
35.0
7.685
8
35.0
7.697
8
35.0
7.653
8
35.0
7.653
June 19
41.1
53 24.5
0.9
19
42.1
15 21.3
1.3
19
43.0
7.730
19
43.0
7.731
19
43.0
7.721
•
19
19
43.0
42.4
7.718
7.727
- 7.718
42.7
19
42.4
7.715
19
42.4
7.702
19
42.4
7.702
19
42.4
15 25.7
1.3
19
42.3
53 10.5
0.9
62 MAGNETIC INTENSITY, FERN ROCK OBSERVATORY.
Date.
Temp.'s
Time of
Mean
Corresponding
Angle of
Distance
observed.
1 vibration.
adopted.
temp.
defleation.
in feet.
T.
'.■
w.
r.
1864.
June 24
38°.0
52° 40'.5
0.9
24
39.4
15 18.8
1.3
" 24
41.2
t.t36
24
41.2
t.t02
" 24
41.2
t.683
" 24
" 24
41.2
41.2
t.689
t.688
t.699
41°.2
" 24
41.2
t.690
" 24
41.2
t.698
" 24
41.2
t.t02
" 24
42.9
15 12.3
1.3
" 24
41.6
53 48.0
0.9
1855.
May 16
It.O
t.448
"
16
19.3
t.416
" 16
" 16
It.O
It.O
- t.405
19.3
14 3t.l
50 50. t
1.3
0.9
16
22.0
t.384
16
19.0
t.3t]
-
May It
It
23.0
23.0
t.394
t.388
1 t.391
23.0
It
23.0
49 59.8
0.9
« i>j
23.0
14 32.6
1.3
May 18
18
15.0
15.0
t.383
t.385
I t.384
15.0
18
2t.0
14 23.2
1.3
18
2t.0
48 00.8
0.9
May 19
28.0
t.40t
)
19
28.5
t.413
y t.405
28.2
" 19
28.0
t.396
)
19
2t.O
49 OO.t
0.9
19
2t.O
14 36. t
1.3
Abstkact of Observations of Vibrations at Hakluyt Island.
Approx. lat. tt° 23'. Approx. long. t2° 30' W. of Gr.
1855. June 21. 33°.3 t«.020 )
" 21. 33.3 t.026 >• t».026
" 21. 33.8 t.033 )
33°.5
Abstract of Observations of Vibrations at a station in lat. t6° 03' and long. 68° 00' W. op
Gr., on the coast between Parker Snow's Point and Cape York.
1855. July 19. 40°.0 6».4t5~
" 19. 41.5 6.489
" 19. 41.2 6.544
" 19. 39.5 6.4t4
6».495
40°.5
Determination of the Moment of Inertia of Magnet A. 6t.
(With stirrup and mirror attached.)
No determination of the moment of inertia of magnet A. 67 having been made
by the expedition, it became necessary to determine the same afterwards. The
following observations for this purpose were made by myself at the Coast Survey
Office, Washington, D. C.
MOMENT OF INERTIA OP MAGNET A. 67.
63
After adjusting the instrument and suspending A. 67, the following experiments
of vibrations were made : —
March 18, 1858. Mean time chronometer Kessels 1285.
No. of
vibrations.
Mean local time by
chronometer 1285.
20 vibrations.
No of
vibrations.
Time by chronometer
1285.
18 vibrations.
20
40
60
80
100
9" SI-" 10^7
32 32.4
33 54.0
35 15.1
36 36.5
37 58.0
]m 218.7
21.6
21.1
21.4
, 21.5
18
36
54
72
90
lOi" 28°' 51«.3
30 04.5
31 18.0
32 31.0
33 44.8
34 57.9
1>" 13^2
13.5
13.0
13.8
13.1
Mean 1 21.47
Mean 1 13.32
Temp. 71°. 8. (Rate of chronometer too small
to affect the result.) 1 vibration=4'.073.
Arc 234* and 328'i Temp. 71°.0.
242 318 1 vibration=4'.073
The mirror was below the magnet in these two sets; in the following four sets it
was above.
Magnet suspended with inertia ring Z^ of the following dimensions: Outer
diameter 2.322 inches; inner diameter 1.837 inches; thickness 0.188 inches at
69°; weight 648.937 grains: hence JTi^i (r^ + ri^)w = 4.936 (in feet and grains),
?^jri = 0.69338.
Vibrations with ring.
No. of
vibrations.
Time by chronometer
1285.
20 vibrations.
No. of
vibrations.
Time by chronometer
1285.
20 vibrations.
20
40
60
80
100
12'' 34"'06'.0
36 32.2
38 58.8
41 24.1
43 49.6
46 15.4
2"" 26'. 2
26.6
25.3
25.5
25.8
20
40
60
80
100
12'' 48'° 13'. 6
50 39.5
53 05.3
55 31.5
58 00.4
13 00 26.6
2'» 25».9
25.8
26.2
28.9'
26.2
2 25.88
2 26.02
Arc 190'J — 360'! Temp. 75°.
228 —321 1 vibration 7^294.
Arc 229'i 321'i
239 301 1 vibration— 7'. 301
Vibrations without ring.
No. of
vibrations.
Time by chronometer
1285.
20 vibrations.
No. of
vibrations.
Time by chronometer
1285.
20 vibrations.
20
40
60
80
100
Ih lYm 298.9
18 51.2
20 12.5
21 34.0
22 55.1
24 17.0
1™ 21'. 3
21.3
21.5
21.1
21.9
20
40
60
80
100
1" 26'° 50'. 7
28 12.1
29 33.0
30 54.5
32 15.9
33 37.0
im 218.4
20.9
21.5
21.4
21.1
1 21.42
1 21.26
Arc 298"! —230* Temp. 76°.
1 vibration 4 '.071.
1 vibration=4».063.
* Omitted, disturbed by a current of air.
64
MOMENT OF INEETIA OF MAGNET A. 6T.
Observations for torsion.
Torsion circle.
Scale readings.
Mean.
DifF.
14°
164
344
74
248—304
361—234
11—428
190-370
276
297
220
280
For torsion with ring use
21*
77
60
31' = 39'! for 90°
42
March 19, 1858.
Vibrations without ring. (Mirror above.)
No. of vibrations.
Time by chronometer 1285.
20 vibrations.
20
40
60
80
100
gt 23°» 31'. 9
24 53.1
26
27'
28
30
14.3
35.5
56.9
18.0
1™ 21«.2
21.2
21.2
21.4
21.1
1 21.22
Temp. 75°.
1 vibration =4 '.061.
Vibrations with ring.
No. of vibrations.
Time by chronometer 1285.
20 vibrations.
20
40
60
80
gi- 50"' 17».0
52 43.3
55 09.7
57 35.5
60 01.1
2°'26«.3
26.4
25.8
25.6
2 26.02
1 vibration=7'*.301.
Recapittjla,tion of Restjlts.
March 18, 1858. 1 vibration, without ring
with
March 19
1858.
without
II
with
Mean by combination
4».073
4.073
4.071
4.063
4.061
7^294
7.301
7,301
T=4.069
at 74°.0
T,=7.299
at 75°.0
Temp. 71°.8
71.0
75.0
75.0
76.0
76.0
75.0
75.0
The moment of inertia of the magnet (with appendages) K becomes for the
temp. 69° (and corrected for torsion)
K=K, {rj^r_j^ = 2.220 and Ig K= 0.34631.
Using 0.0000068 for the coeiRcient of dilatation for 1° Fahr., the above Ig K for
different temperatures becomes :
For 62°, lgK= 0.34628 and lg7i'K=^ 1.34058
" 32, " 0.34609 " = 1.34039 (Chas. A. S.)
MAGNETIC INTENSITY, FERN ROCK OBSERVATORY. 65
The value of the induction coefficient
p r'^Ti sin. Ml — r^r^ sin. u
Ti sin. Ui — r' sin. u
may be put in the following convenient form —
P= — r^ i where a = — '- — and e=— .
a — g sm. u i\
We find: June 7,1854 p = _0.00'7
" 8, " —0.003
" 8, " —0.006
" 19, " +0.009
" 19, " —0.003
" 24, " —0.001
" 24, " [-+0.033 1
May 16, 1855 i +0.035 I
" 17, " [+0.039 J
" 18, " —0.011
" 19, " —0.011
If we take the indiscriminate mean of the above values we find P= + 0.007,
and if we reject the three values marked by brackets, P = — 0.004; the latter
value is probably nearer the truth than the first one, but both are so small that
they may be neglected in the computation of the intensity.
In the absence of observations, the temperature coefficient for the magnetic
moment or q may be assumed =0.0003, a value found for other magnets of the
same magnetic moment and size ; with but three exceptions, the temperature cor-
rections are small.
After correcting for difference of temperature, the following results for magnetic
moment m and horizontal intensity X have been computed by the formula3
— =^i r sm. u and m X = -—-.
66 MAGNETIC INTENSITY, FERN ROCK OBSERVATORY.
Table of Results of log. — , log. m X, of m the Magnetic Moment of Magnet A. 67, and of the
X.
Horizontal Intensity X, at Van Rensselaer Harbor.
Date.
Ig. m X.
m.
X
1854.
Jan. 31
9.46463
9.56091
0.326
1.117
Feb. 13
9.46795
9.56243
0.327
1.115
" 27
9.46532
9.56282
0.327
1.119
June 7
9.46954
9.56964
0.330
1.122
7
9.47155
9.56980
0.331
1.120
8
9.47268
9.56583
0.330
1.113
8
9.47184
9.56583
0.330
1.114
8
9.47091
9.56581
0.330
1.115
8
9.47223
9.56593
0.330
1.114
" 19
9.46636
9.56570
0.328
1.121
" 19
9.46371
9.56556
0.327
1.124
" 19
9.46574
9.56552
0.328
1.122
" 19
9.46504
9.56553
9.328
1.123
" 24
9.46218
9.56801
0.327
1.130
" 24
9.46256
9.56782
0.328
1.129
" 24
9.45956
9.56737
0.326
1.133
" 24
9.46855
9.56754
0.330
1.121
1855.
May 16
9.44285
9.60156
0.332
1.200
" 16
9.45125
9.60156
0.336
1.189
" 17
9.44593
9.60293
0.334
1.198
" 17
9.44065
9.60293
0.332
1.206
" 18
9.43607
9.60219
0.331
1.210
" 18
9.43286
9.60219
0.329
1.215
" 19
9.43956
9.60148
0.332
1.205
" 19
9.44266
9.60148
0.332
1.200
Mean value of m = 0.330 at i = 36°.'
Recapitulation of Values of X.
January 31, 1854
February 20, "
June 15, "
May 18, 1855
= 1.117
1.117
1.121
1.203
1.139
Mean corresponding to June, 1854
Taking the above value 1.139 for the mean horizontal force during the whole
period, and multiplying it by sec. 84° 45'. 8, tlie total force at Van Rensselaer
Harbor during the same period becomes ^=12.479.
By means of the known value of m the horizontal intensity at the stations
Hakluyt Island and coast near Cape York has been computed as follows: —
Hakluyt Island, June 21, 1855 . . X= 1.344
Coast near Cape York, July 19, 1855 . X 1.573
' I redetermined m at Washington, D. C, in March, 1858, and found it equal to 0.311, exhibiting
but a small loss of magnetism dnring nearly four years.
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h
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE,
GRAMMAR AND DICTIONARY
OF THE
TOEUBA LANauAaE
WITH AN
INTRODUCTORY DESCRIPTION
or
THE COUNTRY AND PEOPLE OF YORUBA.
BY THE
HEV. T. J. BOAVEN
^ntt'onars of tl;c £oull;crn l}aptiet Coitbcnliuii.
ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION,
BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
May, 1858.
, E. CUAIGHKAD,
PRINTER, STEREOTYPER, AND ELECTROTTrER,
Cation 33uili)ins,
81, 88, and 85 Cen'trt Strttt, A'. Y.
ADVERTISEMENT.
This work is tlie result of the labors of one of the members of the Southern
Baptist Missionary Society, who resided several years in the Yoruba country, and
enjoyed a very favorable opportunity of becoming intimately ace[uainted with the
manners, the customs, the mental character, and the language of the people.
The manuscript was offered to the Smithsonian Institution for publication ; but
before it was accepted, it was referred by the Secretary to Professor W. W.
Turner of this city for critical examination, and was subsequently placed in. his
hands for general revision and scientific arrangement. It was next submitted to
the American Oriental Society for an opinion as to its character, and was finally
adopted for publication as one of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge on
the receipt of the following report ;
Boston and New Haven, May, 1858.
The undersigned, having been appointed, by the American Oriental Society, at
its meeting held in Boston, May 19th, 1858, a Committee to examine and report
upon the Grammar and Dictionary of the Yoruba Language presented to the
Smithsonian Institution for publication, have made examination of these works,
and declare that they are, in their opinion, true contributions to knowledge,
interesting and valuable from the subject and the manner in which it is treated,
and that they will be welcomed both by philologists and by those who have at
heart the success of philanthropic and Christian effort in Africa.
JOSIAH "W. GlBBS, ^
W. D. Whitney, > Committee.
K. Andeeson, j
The Institution is much indebted to Professor Turner for the labor he has
bestowed upon the revision of the work, as well as for the time he has given to it
in its passage through the press.
JOSEPH HENRY, Sechj S. I.
Washing tov, June, 1858.
PREFACE.
The task of reducing the Yoruba language to writing was "begun about twenty-
years ago in Sierra Leone, by -a youthful Yoruba named Adi&ye, since widely known
and much beloved under the title of the Rev. Samuel Crowther. His first Grammar
and Vocabulary exhibited a rude attempt to write the Yoruba language in English
letters without diacritical points or tone-marks. After the Church Missionary
Society had agreed on a more appropriate alphabet for the Yoruba, Mr. Crowther
prepared a revised edition of his work, which was published in London in 1852.
This Vocabulary, which contains " nearly three thousand vocables," is the basis of
the present enlarged Dictionary.
The grammatical principles here presented have been deduced from a multitude
of sentences taken chiefly from the lips of the natives. With the assistance of
Professor W. "W. Turner, of Washington, to whom the work was referred by the
Smithsonian Institution, the whole has been carefully revised ; the orthography of
the language has been somewhat modified for the purpose of reducing it to a more
harmonious system ; and the entire Grammar has been re-arranged and re-written
so as to present the phenomena of the language, in accordance with the require-
ments of modern philology, as nearly as practicable from a native point of view.
It is simply justice to say that whatever merits it may possess, as to plan and
details, are due to that accomplished scholar.
T. J. B.
Greenesboro\ Ga^ June, 1858.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
The Yoruba Country .
Geographical and Historical Description
Natural Productions and Climate
The Yoruba People
Physical Characteristics and Origin
Pago
Page
ix
Religious Belief . . . .
xvi
ion . ix
Industrial Pursuits ....
xvii
xi
Intellectual and Moral Characteristics
XX
xiv
List of Yoruba Publications
xxi
xiv
YORUBA GRAMMAR.
Part I
, — Orthoepy and Orthography.
Chap. I.— The Alphabet . . . .
3
Elision
6
Vowels .......
3
Consonants ......
7
Simple Vowels
3
Simple Consonants . . . .
7
Diphthongs
4
Compound Consonants
7
Quantity
4
Interchange of Letters . . . .
8
Tone
5
Chaf. 11.— Syllables
8
Assimilation
6
Accent .......
9
Part II.—
-Etymology and Syntax.
Chap. I. — Formation of Words
10
Verbs
27
Derivation of Verbs
11
Principles of Conjugation
27
Derivation of Nouns
12
Auxiliary Particles
28
With Vowel Prefixes .
12
Indicative Particles
28
With Syllabic Prefixes
13
Particle of Continuance, r) or m
28
By Reduplication
14
Past Particle, ti .
28
By Composition ....
15
Future Particles, 6 or 6
29
Derivation of Adverbs
16
a
29
Derivation of Prepositions
17
Emphatic Particle, ni or 11
30
Derivation of Conjunctions
17
Optative Particle, ma
30
Chap. II. — Inflexion and Construction oj
r
Subjunctive Particles, ba .
31
Words
17
aba and iba
31
Pronouns
18
ki . .
31
Personal Pronouns
18
Occasional Prefix, i .
32
Nominatives ....
18
Forms for the Passive Voice
32
Objectives ....
20
Modes and Tenses
33
Possessives ....
21
Indicative Mode
33
Emphatic and Reflexive Pronouns
22
Aorist Perfect
33
Pleonastic Use of Pronouns
22
Aorist Imperfect .
35
Omission of Pronouns
23
Past Perfect
35
Demonstrative Pronouns
23
First Future
36
Definite Article
24
Optative and Subjunctive Modes
37
Relative Pronoun
24
Imperative Mode
37
Omission of the Relative .
26
Infinitive Mode
38
Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns
25
Verbal Nouns ....
38
VIU
Participles .
Substantive Verbs
mbfe
Mtra
ya. . .
si . . '.
ri *.
ni or li .
gbe
dl .
se .
dze
Pleonastic Uses of Verbs
Nouns ....
Gender
Number
Case ....
Apposition .
Adjectives
CONTENTS.
Page
Pag.
39
Comparison ....
46
40
Numerals
47
40
Cardinals .....
47
40
Formation of Cardinals .
48
41
Cardinals of Price . . .
49
41
Construction of Cardinals
49
41
Ordinals
49
41
Distributives ....
49
42
Numeral Adverbs
50
42
Adverbs
60
42
Formation of Adverbs .
50
. 42
Classification of Adverbs
61
43
Construction of Adverbs
61
43
Prepositions .....
62
43
Formation of Prepositions .
62
44
Construction of Prepositions
63
44
Conjunctions
53
45
Interjections
55
45
Specimens of Composition.
Yoruba Proverbs
Parable of the Prodigal Son
56
69
The Lord's Prayer
Part I. — Yoruba-English .... 5
Appendix of Additional Words . 81
YORUBA DICTIONARY.
Part II. — English- Yoruba
71
91
INTRODUCTION.
THE YORrBA COUNTRY.
GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL DESCRIPTION.
The Yoruba country includes all the territory which is inhabited by people who speak the Yoruba
language. It is bounded on the East by Ibinig or Benin and the Niger, on the West by Dahonii and
Mahi, on the North by Barba (Borghoo) and Nufe, and on the South by the Bight of Benin. At the
present time it is divided into eight independent kingdoms, as follows :
1. Iketu, situated immediately east of Dahomi, of which the extent is two thousand square miles,
with a population of about one hundred thousand ;* capital, Iketu. The surface of the country is level ;
timber and water are scarce, and the soil rather poor. Still this little kingdom has sufficient resources to
repel the power of Dahomi, which it has done on two occasions.
2. £ko, or Lagos, situated immediately on the sea coast, has an area of about four hundred square
miles, and a population of thirty thousand. The greater part are in Lagos, the capital, which is
situated on a small island in the lagoon or bay, called Osa by the natives, and Cradoo by the English.
Lagos claims all the coast to a point some miles west of Badagry. If this claim be allowed, the area and
population of the kingdom are two or three times greater than above stated.
For many years Lagos was a stronghold of the slave trade. It was then nominally dependent on
Benin ; but the turbulent chiefs and people seem to have paid little regard either to Benin or to their
own kings, who were frequently deposed and banished. Lagos is now under the protection of the English,
but they claim no jurisdiction over the soil or people. It is the residence of several European merchants
and missionaries, and bids fair to become' one of the most flourishing towns in western Africa. The
people speak the Yoruba language, which they frequently call the Eko ; just as the Iketus, Egbas, &c.,
call it, after the name of their own tribes, the Iketu, the Egba, &c. By Europeans it is generally called
the Aku language.
3. Egba is a small kingdom on the south of Yoruba and east of Iketu, lying on both sides of the
Ogui) river, but principally on the east. The whole area, including the fallen kingdom of Ota, is about
three thousand square miles, with a population of one hundred thousand ; the capital, Abeokuta, has a
population of eighty thousand souls.' The surface of the country is generally hilly, especially east of the
river ; the soil is unusually fertile, and the whole region well supplied with streams of clear water.
In ancient times, as the Egba people relate, their country was a province of the Yoruba kingdom.
After obtaining their independence, they were governed by a king of their own ; but finally growing
weary of monarchy, they determined that every town should be ruled by its own chiefs. This led
to mutual jealousies and dissensions. About fifty years ago, these dissensions, stimulated by the slave
trade and by the machinations of the Idzebus and Yorubas, resulted in civil war. The Egba country
then contained more than a hundred towns, some affirm nearly three hundred, several of which
were very populous. In the course of twenty-five years, every one of these towns was swept out of
existence, with the single exception of Oba, wliich is yet standing, about ten miles south-west of Abeokuta,
It is probable that five hundred thousand people perished by sword and famine. Many thousands were
sold to the slave ships, and the remnant of the tribe was scattered abroad.
The city of Abeokuta is situated on the east bank of the Ogui) river, among twenty or thirty
immense masses of granite, several of which rise to a height of two or three hundred feet. Forty years
ago, a grotto or cave under one of these rocks, which surmounts an abrupt hill, was inhabited by a band
* It is scarcely necessary to remark that these numbers are conjectural.
X INTKODUCTION.
of robbers. After the Egba country was destroyed, the robbers withdrew, and their place was supplied
by a few refugees from some of the desolated towns. Their number was increased from time to time by
the arrival of other refugees, and this continued till the new settlement contained about fifty thousand
inhabitants, the remnants of about one hundred and thirty towns. In reference to the dwelling of the
first inhabitants under the great rock, the town was called Abe-okuta, literally. Under-stone. The rock
itself is called Olumo, The Builder, and some of the Egbas honor it with a sort of woi'ship.
The people of Il9rii), of Ibadai), of Idiebu, and of Ota made repeated attempts to destroy the new town
and sell the inhabitants for slaves. But the Egbas, now united under a skilful leader named Sodeke,
were too strong for their assailants. After repelling several invasions, Sodeke began to take vengeance on
his enemies, and conquered the kingdom of Ota. By this means he opened a road by which his people
could trade to the sea-coast.
In the meantime several recaptured Egbas returned home from Sierra Leone, where they had learned
something of civilization and Christianity. Sodeke and the Egbas generally were so much pleased with
the accounts of the English furnished by the new comers, that he and the whole tribe invited missionaries
to come and settle in Abeoknta. The consequence was that the English commenced a mission there in
1846. It is probable that there are now two thousand converts in that city.
On the 3d of March, 1851, the king of Dahomi attacked Abeokuta with a strong force, said to consist
often thousand men and six thousand women — for about one third of his army is composed of Amazons.*
The king expected a rich booty of slaves and plunder ; but he seems to have been greatly mistaken in
regard to the real strength of the town. The Egbas met him with a force at least equal to his own.
Both parties were armed with guns. The battle raged for about four hours, and occasionally with such
fury that the combatants were scarcely visible through the smoke at a distance of one hundred yards. In
some cases they broke their empty guns over each other's heads. The king, though long accustomed to
victory, was obliged to retreat. On the following day it was ascertained that he left twelve hundred and
nine of his warriors dead on the battle-field. Although hotly pursued with continual volleys of musketry,
the Dahomies retired in good order, and carried away all their wounded.
Since this battle the Egbas have generally enjoyed peace, and have made considerable advances towards
civilization. They are now governed by a king, who is one of the ancient royal family of the nation.
4. Idzebu, on the south-east of Egba, and extending to the sea-coast, may have an area of five thousand
square miles, with a population of two hundred thousand souls. The surface is undulating, and, like all
the adjacent territories, is covered with a mixture of forests and grass-fields or prairies. The Idiebus are
generally, though perhaps unjustly, regarded as the most barbarous of all the Yoruba tribes.
5. Idzesa, on the east of Yoruba, probably has an area of two thousand square miles, with a population
of at least, two hundred thousand. The capital is Ilesa, and we hear of other considerable towns in the
same vicinity.
6. Efog extends from the north-oastof Yoruba eastward to the Oya or Niger. Very little is known of this
country, but it is understood to contain six thousand square miles, and a population of three hundred
thousand souls. It is said to comprise several extensive towns, one of which, Ibodo or Kakanda, on the
Niger, is the capital. The Efoij people are skilful in working brass and copper, and it is affirmed that
they have copper mines in operation, six days' journey, or one hundred and twenty miles, east of Ilorii).
7. Ilorir), so called from its capital city, is a small Mohammedan kingdom, composed chiefly of
Yorubas, Fellatahs, and Hausas. Its area is about one thousand square miles, and its inhabitants number
at least two hundred thousand, nearly one half of whom are in the capital. This district revolted from
Yoruba and became independent about thirty years ago. For several years they waged continual war
against the heathen population of Yoruba, and they succeeded in destroying the capital, old Oyo (Katanga
or Eyeo), a great city, twenty miles in circuit. But finally they were defeated by the people of Ibadaq, since
which time they have acted chiefly on the defensive. The king and most of the principal people of
Ilorir) are Pulohs or Fellatahs ; but the Yorubas and Hausas, both of whom are numerous, have some
inferior officers of their own tribes.
lloriq is one of the great marts of Central Africa, and is much frequented by people from various
countries beyond the Niger, and even by Moors and Arabs. The principal exports are fine cotton cloths
of Nufe manufacture, and slaves or prisoners captured in petty wars with the neighboring tribes. The
imports consist of Arabian and common horses, salt, trona or crude carbonate of soda from the Great
* On the day after the battle, the writer saw several hundreds of these women lying dead on the fiehJ. So far as
he has learned, Dahomi is the only country in Africa which employs female soldiers. They fought with great fury.
INTKODUCTION. XI
Desert, kola or goorah nuts, guns, swords, and European goods. Much of this traffic is carried on across
the Desert, although Ilorii) is not two hundred and fifty miles by the road from the Bight of Benin.
8. Yoruba, properly so called, lies immediately to the north of Iketu, Egba, and Idzebu, and approaches
within sixty miles of the sea-coast. This division is by far the largest of the eight kingdoms which compose
the Yoruba country. Its area may be estimated at thirty thousand square miles, and the population at
about eight hundred thousaud souls. This estimate may seem large ; but it must be observed that the
principal towns in this part of Africa are from ten to twelve miles in circuit, and densely peopled. There
are thousands of houses in such towns, and each house usually contains from twenty-five to sixty-five
persons. The large towns of the Yoruba kingdom are, -Ibadar), Ide, If 6, Iwo, Idiaye, Oyo or Ago-Odza
the capital, Ogbomoso, Ofa, Ikisi, Isaki, Isehirj, Igana, and Isabe ; and besides these crowded cities there
are a multitude of smaller towns containing each fi'om two to fifteen thousand people. The kingdom of
Yoruba embraces the two former kingdoms of If§ and Isehii), which are now integral parts of the nation.
Another ancient line of hereditary kings resides at Itabo, a small village near Bi-ol9rui3-kpelu, among the
mountains.
The entire Yoruba country, comprising the eight kingdoms above mentioned, has an area of about fifty
thousand square miles, with a population of nearly two millions. The extent of sea-coast claimed by the
two kingdoms of Lagos and Idiebu is about two hundred miles.
The Slave Coast, of which Lagos is nearly the central point, has been formed partly by the sands of an
immense drift, which left the coarser materials in the interior of the country, and partly by the gradual
upheaval of the land — an action which is still going on, not only here, but at El Mina and Cape Coast
Castle. For these reasons the sea grows deeper quite slowly from the sandy beach, which is always
lashed by a violent and dangerous surf. The various little rivers which descend with a rapid current
from Yoruba are compelled to creep along the coast within a mile or two of the surf, till they meet with
the Ogui) at Lagos, where they spread out into a broad lagoon called Osa, and force a tumultuous passage
into the sea. Hence the landing at Lagos is always dangerous, although there are about two fathoms
water on the bar.
Between Abeokuta and the sea the country is nearly level, quite free from stones, and mostly covered
with dense entangled forests. Beyond Abeokuta the surface is undulating or hilly, and is generally well
supplied with gneiss, granite, claystone, and quartz rocks. This part of the countty is mostly open or
free from forests, therein resembling some of the partially wooded prairies of North America. It is worthy
of remark that this whole region is entirely free from swamps. The streams arc clear, rapid, and rocky,
and the soil is everywhere dry and firm. From the sea to the interior the surface of the country rises
gradually and almost imperceptibly, and yet so rapidly, that the tides do not extend ten miles above the
mouth of the Ogui), and the plain at the Ogbomoso is one thousand three hundred and five feet above
the level of Lake Osa at Lagos.
The chain of mountains formerly marked on the maps of Yoruba has no existence. The only mountains
in the country consist of isolated peaks, or little clusters of rugged hills, which rise abruptly from the
surrounding plains, sometimes to a height of a thousand feet.
NATURAL PRODUCTIONS AND CLIMATE.
The only metal known to exist in the Yoruba country is iron, which in some places is quite abundant.
The copper mines of Efoq are hypothetical ; but lead mines are known to exist beyond the Niger.
The plants of Yoruba are similar to those of Western Africa generally. I observed, however, an
unusual number of North American genera, together with many others not mentioned in Hooker's Niger
Flora. Comparatively few of the somewhat numerous plants which are common to the interior of Africa
and the East Indies are noticed in that work. Pine-apples arc never found here in the forests, as they
are in Liberia;* and there is but one species of Datura, — whereas on the Gold Coast there are two, one
of which has a double and sometimes a triple corolla. The Cactus, which grows so vigorously at Cape
Coast Castle, is never seen in Yoruba ; but Euphorbias of various species are abundant. Grape-vines of
• In the Yoruba language the pine-apple is called okpaimbo (okpe ambo), the white maii'g palm. The orange also
appears to have been received from the whites, as it is called orombo (oro ambo), the white man's manyo.
Xll INTBODUCTION.
three or four distinct species are common on the interior plains. Some of them produce large fruit,
but too dry and insipid to be valuable.
African travellers have erroneously reported that various plants, as the castor-oil bean, sesame, red
pepper, cotton, &c., are indigenous in Africa. The mistake has arisen from seeing such plants on deserted
farms, overgrown with bushes, and perhaps far away from 'any place which is now inhabited. The
existence of indigenous coffee is doubtful. I have seen the so-called native coffee-trees in gardens, and
the leaves were certainly narrower and yellower than those of the plants introduced from the West
Indies. But a tree in the forest which was triumphantly pointed out as coffee happened to be in flower,
and inspection proved at once that it belonged to a totally different family. The probability is that the
slavers of former days planted coffee-trees, which are now found occasionally growing in the woods.
Among cultivated plants we may mention Indian corn of the variety grown in our Southern States,
and yams similar to those of the West Indies, as staple articles of food. The yam is indigenous, and all
the cultivated varieties have been reclaimed from the forests where they still grow. It is a traditional
saying that yams were the primitive food of man. The first man made an attempt to eat a raw yam, but
pronounced it unfit for human food. Afterwards one, accidentally lying near his fire, became roasted ;
and this was the first discovery in the important art of cooking. Indian corn is said to have been brought
from beyond the Niger by a. yellow monkey. It may not be irrelevant to remark that the natives
sometimes call foreigners monkeys by way of derision. When a white man appears in the streets of
Abeokuta, the children usually cry out, Oibo akiti agba ! The white man is an old baboon ! Maize is
called in the Yoruba language, agbado (agba odo), what is beaten or cleansed in a mortar.
The other articles of food are, Guinea corn or sorghum, of four varieties, called baba, homo, gero, and
maiwa ; sugar cane ; several kinds of beans ; pea-nuts, both oily and mealy ; sweet potatoes ; onions ; and
various herbs of little value. The fruits are, oranges, limes, pawpaws, plantains, bananas, and a few
pine-apples. The oro, or mango, and a fruit called osuij, are almost the only wild fruits that can be eaten.
Most farmers plant a little cotton for home consumption, and some attempt to raise tobacco ; but
neither of these plants succeeds well. The cotton fails, to use a planter's phrase, by " running to
weed," i. e. the joints of the branches where the pods appear are much too far apart, and the blooms are
often fruitless. The defect of the tobacco is a want of strength and flavor. The weeds attendant on
cultivation are similai' to those of our Southern States ; so much so, indeed, that a careless observer would
scarcely perceive a difference between a corn-field in Yoruba and one in Georgia or Alabama.
As the inhabitants of Yoruba are all crowded together in towns, and derive their support from circum-
jacent farms, at least two thirds of their fine region is given up to wild beasts. A broad belt of country,
once populous but now totally desolated by war, extends from near the sea to the Niger, running to the
eastward of Abeokuta, and to the westward of Idiaye, Oyo, and Ogbomoso. Between the towns there
are other desert regions, some of which are twenty miles in breadth. As these partially wooded prairies
are covered with grass from eight to twelve feet in height, and the people are not addicted to hunting, the
numerous population of the country has not greatly diminished the abundance of animal life. Hyenas
prowl around the walls of large towns, and people are sometimes attacked and killed by leopards in the
adjacent farms. Even the chase-loving Anglo-Saxon would find it impossible to extirpate the wild
animals on the plains of Yoruba, so long as they remain covered with grass, which impedes the progress
of the horseman.
The following brief sketch may give some idea of the animals known to exist in this part of Africa.
The monkey tribe affords several interesting species, some of which I have not seen in the Zoological
Gardens of London, or in any other collection. The most remarkable of these creatures is the well known
Chimpanzee, which is found in several of the larger forests of Yoruba. The full-grown male is nearly
four feet in height. His weapons of defence are his tusks, which are truly formidable ; and his strength
is so great, that the negroes consider him as more than a match for a man. He never defends himself with
sticks or stones, never walks upright, and never builds a shelter or so much as a nest to defend himself or
his young against the weather. He is generally seen on the trees, making prodigious leaps from branch to
branch, and exhibiting all the habits of other monkeys. The face of the young Chimpanzee is
remarkably human-like ; but after the appearance of the tusks, it becomes disgustingly prognathous.
Hyenas are rather common, but I was not able to determine by examination whether or not they differ
from those of northern Africa. The adiako, or wild dog, is a noiseless creature which prowls in solitude.
According to the statement of the natives, which is confirmed by Lander, lions are common in Barba
and northern Yoruba; but I have never hoard of one's being seen east of the Oguq river. Leopards are
common everywhere. Though not so fierce here as in the forests of Liberia, they sometimes, as
remarked above, seize men even on the farms. In 1855, an instance of this kind occurred within three
INTRODUCTION". XIU
miles of Ogbomoso, which is surrounded for miles by a well cultivated country. There are several smaller
animals of the cat-tribe, some of which are spotted like Leopards.
Elephants are common on the prairies of Yoruba, and still more numerous in the forests of Barba.
They seldom intrude into the farms, and are not regarded as mischievous animals ; but the people have
considerable aversion to meeting them on the plains. The hippopotamus is confined to the deep waters
of the Osa and the Niger. I believe the rhinoceros is never seen in this region ; but the people have
heard of it as existing somewhere in the interior. There are two species of wild boar, the larger of which
is said to be very fierce ; the smaller kind is frequently killed by men who make hunting their
occupation, and brought into market, A species of Hyrax, different from that of the Cape, but uttering a
similar shrill cry, is common among the mountains.
This country nourishes several species of Antelope, some of which are very small, while otliere are
twice the size of the common American deer. A species of Buffalo, called in Sierra Leone the "jack-ass
cow," is frequently seen in Yoruba, sometimes singly, but commonly in small droves of ten or twelve.
Birds are very numerous. Among them may be mentioned, a large and a small eagle, both rare ;
several kinds of hawks and falcons, some of which are migratory ; a booted owl ; two species of vulture,
one quite large ; orioles ; red and parti-colored sparrows ; a blackish mocking-bird with an orange breast,
a beautiful songster ; swallows; several species of the whip-poor-will family, including the curious long-
shafted "goat-sucker" of Sierra Leone; larks; various creepers ; crows; sunbirds ; kingfishers, one small
species of which feeds on buttei'flies ; horn-bills ; parrots ; two species of Guinea hen ; a large and a
small partridge ; quails ; several species of doves ; storks and adjutants.
I have seen but one species of Tortoise, a small kind, eight or ten inches in length, which lives in the
prairies. According to the natives, there are two species of crocodiles. The several specimens which I
have seen appeared to be intermediate between the true crocodile and the alligator. One of them, seen
in the Ogui) river, was probably twelve feet or more in length. Lizards are very numerous ; some of
them, analogous to the iguana, are two feet long. I have Caught several Chameleons. They creep along
very slowly, as if wounded and in pain ; but their form is not quite so ungainly as those of Arabia, and
their eyes are less prominent. None of the lizards are thought to be poisonous by the natives.
Snakes are not numerous. The largest is the python, which, I believe, never attains a greater length
than about fifteen feet. The natives speak of another species nearly as large. There are no water-snakes.
A green snake and a black viper are the only ones said to be poisonous.
I have seen two kinds of Snails, one of which, the Achatina, is found seven or eight inches in length.
Good Oysters are found on the sea-coast ; in some localities they attach themselves to the roots of the
mangrove trees, presenting a curious spectacle. The principal fresh water shell-fish are a Muscle,
resembling that of the United States, and another, found in the rapids of the Oguig river, precisely similar
in appearance to the oyster. The taste is very unsavory.
Insects, and especially flies, fleas, and mosquitoes, are not so numerous as might perhaps be expected. But
ants of several species are in abundance. One species, which the natives call ota, the stmger, is frequently
useful as an enemy of the termes, which devours every dry vegetable substance within its reach. Another
species very like the ota is called "the driver" in Liberia, and idzalo, the fighter which makes one go, in
Yoruba, because it moves in countless multitudes, and attacks every living thing in its way with the
utmost fury.
Tliere are two species of Scorpion, the black, about seven inches in length, and the yellow or brown,
which is much smaller, but is said to be more dangerous. After being stung three times by yellow
scorpions, and knowing others to be stung by both species, I regard them as far less poisonous than some
have reported. Centipedes are seen in Yoruba, but I have never known a pereon to be stung by them.
The natives affirm that the Spiders of that country are entirely harmless, and I have never seen one of
that hideous kind, resembling a tarantula, which is so much dreaded in the Mendi country, west
of Gallinas.
As the Landers passed through the Iketu country, they saw innumerable swarms of Butterflies. I have
once seen the same myself in the same region, and nowhere else. On one occasion, when descending the
Ogui) river, we met millions of Dragonflies, about one-fourth of an inch in length, making their way up
the country by following the couree of the stream. In order to observe all the phases of animal life
which this region exhibits, a man must reside there for several years, and visit the forests, mountains,
and plains at different seasons. The same remark applies equally to the vegetation of the country.
When we arrive at the highest lands between .the sea and the Niger, we enter a new climate, and a new,
or at least a modified, zoological and botanical region.
The climate of the different sections of Yoruba extending from Lagos to Nufe, though similar in its
XIV INTRODUCTION.
main features, is quite difFereirt in some particulars. The lower countries, from Lagos to Idiaye at Oyer,
are remarkable for a rather strong breeze which blows incessantly from the sea, generally from the south-
west, but varying occasionally to the west or south. The course of this wind must be attributed cliiefly
to the shape of this part of the continent. If it were occasioned by the heat of the Great Desert, I
suppose it would continue to blow in, the same direction for several hundred miles into the interior of the
country. In point of fact, however, the winds at Ogbomoso, especially in the dry season, are
very variable.
In consequence of the south-western breeze, the climate of the low country is quite damp, the dews
very heavy, and the niglit air so chilly that we found it dangerous to go out after twilight. But during my
stay at Il9rir), in April, 1855, the nights were so much warmer than any I had before experienced in
Africa that, instead of being obliged to retire to my room immediately after sunset, I found it pleasant to
walk in the yard of the house at or 10 o'clock in the evening, and sometimes without a coat.
As there are no swamps in this country, it is probable that all the interior regions of Yoruba,
particularly those of the northern watershed sloping towards the Niger, are as healthy as any other
country within the tropics. I believe that the natives at least enjoy as good health as those of any part
of the temperate zone.
Yoruba has the advantage of two rainy seasons. The "former rains" commence about the first of
March, and increase till the sun has reached the Tropic of Cancer. After the middle of July there is
little rain till about the first of October ; then the "latter rains" commence, and continue for about two
months. During December, January, and February, there is no rain except an occasional shower
produced by a chilly wind from the north-east, which is called Oye by the natives, and Ilarmattan by the
whites. But the moisture produced by these showers is speedily evaporated by the excessive dryness of
the Harmattan, which generally continues to blow for two or three days. The eff'ects of the dry season
are very decided ; the grass on the prairies is withered and dried up, many kinds of trees cast their
leaves, and most of the smaller streams cease to flow.
During my stay in the country, the thennometer ranged from 60° (when the Harmattan was blowing)
to 9l'S° on one occasion at Ogbomoso. The highest reading at Idzaye was 93°, and the lowest 68°.
The average for the dry season, both at Idiaye and Ogbomoso, wiis about the same, viz. within a
fraction of 82°, The differences indicated by the wet and dry bulbs of the hygrometer during the dry
season varied from 0'2°, one morning after rain had fallen, to 25° under the influence of the Harmattan ;
and the averages for December, January, and February, were 5° at Idzaye, and 9° at Ogbomosg, fifty
miles further in the interior. At the latter place, during the two rainy seasons, including the interval of
delightful weather between them, the thermometer varied from V0° to 85°, and the hygrometer from 0'6°
to 9°.
THE YORUBA PEOPLE.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND ORIGIN.
The Yorubas arc black and have woolly hair, but we occasionally meet with individuals who are fully
as light-colored as American Indians. Tliis color is hereditary in certain families ; and it is a curious fact
that, although it may seem to be lost, it sometimes reappeai-s in subsequent generations. Individuals of this
color are found not only among the Yorubas and other tribes of the interior, but among the Iboes, and
even among the Kroomen. They are called "red men" in Africa, though their color is not exactly that of
Indians, nor yet of mulattoes, and is something wholly distinct from albinism. Several entire tribes of
red men are found in the interior. The people of Ilorir) spoke of a tribe of pastoral people called Alabawo,
Hide-wearers, who are said to be decidedly light-colored. They build no towns, but live in leather tents,
which they pitch in the form of a circular village, and remove from place to place for the sake of
pasturage. Their language is said to be the Fulfude or Fellatah ; but they have no political connexion
with the other Pulohs of Central Africa. They are Mohammedans, acquainted with books, excellent
horsemen, brave, and rapacious. Caille mentions a tribe of Fulahs who were heathens and quite distinct
from other Fulahs in language and habits. In fact they were not Fulahs, although resembling them in
color. The Mandingoes, also, and others in that region, are not true negroes, either in color or features.
It seems reasonable to suppose that the red men among the Yorubas had the same origin as the red
Pulohs and other red tribes of the interior. On the other hand, it is unnecessary to refer the light color
of these people to climate or to other conjectural causes, when we have good evidence that an extensive
amalgamation of the black and white races has taken place in the countries where most of the mulattoes
INTRODUCTION. XV
are now found. We may admit in advance tliat some of the evidence of this amalgamation may be
spurious or doubtful. For instance, king Belo of Sokoto may be mistaken, wlien he asserts in his History
of Takroor* that Bornu was peopled by an Egyptian colony. Still it is undeniable that a strong Caucasian
intermixture extends from the Red Sea through Nubia and Darfur to the Shoas, south-west of lake Tsad ;
and it is just here, at the last named point, that we first meet with the red Pulohs, who extend through
Ilausa, Bambara, &c., to the Senegal and the Atlantic Ocean.
Again, the brown men of the Desert belong to the white race. As a natural consequence of continual
Intercourse in peace and war, they often intermix with the blacks of Negro-land, and their half-caste
offspring are as light-colored as mulattoes in America. The color, however, is different, being, as before
observed, a more healthy and pleasing red, something between that of the mulatto and the North
American Indian. When these African mulattoes intermarry with negroes, their children are more or
less black ; but their features and the texture of their skin afford unmistakable evidence that they are not
pure negroes. They assume, in fact, the very appearance of the Mandingoes, whose peculiarities have
been attributed to climate. Now, if there had been no amalgamation of races to the eastward of Lake
Tsad, the intermixture constantly going on along the southern borders of the Desert is sufficient to account
for all the types of mankind found in Sudan. The red Pulohs, who are a numerous class, correspond
exactly to the half-breed offspring of negroes and the people of the Desert, while the darker Pulohs and
the Mandingoes correspond to the descendants of such mulattoes and negroes. It is a curious fact,
however, that some of the Pulohs at Iloriij are lighter colored and more of the white man in every respect
than any half-blood mulatto I have ever seen either in America or Africa. But even in these cases the
hair is woolly, although it grows sufficiently long for the women to plait it and tie it under the chin.
Finally, the Saracens, who overran Sndan in the tenth century, left many descendants ; and these, of
course, were not pure negroes. In short, there is no want of evidence that the light color of many
families and tribes in Sudan may have resulted from amalgamation. When we see that the children of a
brown Moor and a black woman of Yoruba or Nufc are red, we very naturally conclude that all the red
people in the country are of mixed blood. On the whole, then, the origin of the red or mulatto-colored
men whom we find in Africa is more easily accounted for than the origin of the blacks.
But we return to the Yorubas, who are certainly negroes, if we except a few red men or mulattoes.
They are not generally, however, such negroes as are frequently met with in the forests of Guinea and
again, it seems, on the Benue river, in the heart of the continent.f Many of the Yoruba people, like those
of Nufe and other countries, have kandsome liands and feet, pleasing features, and well developed fore-
heads, and are altogether noble-looking men.
The traditions of the Yoruba people as to the origin of their tribe are obscure and contradictory.
They generally affirm that mankind were created at IfS, a considerable town in the eastern part of the
Yoruba country. Sometimes they speak of If5 as being four months' journey distant, as though the
present town of that name were confounded with some other place of which the people retain an obscure
traditional recollection. The word If6 appears to be derived from fS, to enlarge ; in which case it signifies
enlargement.
Notwithstanding the prevailing belief that men were created at If |, I have been informed by some
intelligent natives, that the Yoruba people once lived in Nufe beyond the Niger. They were driven from
this position by war, at a time when the river was much swollen and difficult to cross. After retreating
for some time, they founded the present city of If |, whence colonies were afterwards sent, first to Igboh6,
and then to Oyo,J; Lander's Bohoo and Katanga or Eyeo. Igboho finally became the capital of Yoruba
as a kingdom independent of Ife. In subsequent times the seat of government was transferred to Oyo^
where it remained till the city was destroyed by the Pulohs, about the year 1835. The king then
removed his residence to Ago-Odia, the Tent-Market, which at present is commonly called Oyo.
It would seem that Yoruba proper was once divided into three provinces, Ibakpa in the west, Ibolo in
the east, and Oyo (Eyeo or Ilio) in the north. At least the three principal dialects of the language are
still called by these names. The Dictionary contained in the present work is chiefly in the Oyo dialect,
which is considered the standard by a majority of the natives.
* See the extracts from Belo's Ilistory in tlie Appendix to Denham and Clapperton's Travels in Africa, vol. ii.
f See Crowther's Journal of the Chadda Expedition in 1854.
X Igho, forest ; \\\o, sho'Uing, clamor ; Ighoho, the clamorou/! or noisy forest, i.e. "the howling wilderness." Oyo,
probably escape, from yo, to escape. This might indicate that Oj-o was their first settlement west of the Niger.
XVi INTRODUCTION.
EELIGIOUS BELIEF.
The religion of Yoniba is a curious mixture of pure theism and idolatry. All the people believe in one
universal God, the creator and preserver of all things, whom they generally call Ol9rui) (6 li orui)), the
Owner or Lord of Heaven, and sometimes by other names, as Olodumare, the Ever-Righteotis, Oga-Ogo,
Glorious High One, Oluwa, Lord, &c. They hold the doctrines of the immortality of tlie soul and of
future rewards and punishments ; but on these points their notions are obscure. All the dead are in
orui), Hades. Oke-orui), the Upper Hades, is the abode of the righteous, and Oruq-akpadi, the Crucible-
Hades, is the place of punishment.
Their idols are never confounded with God, either in name or character. They are called ori^a,
a name which appears to be derived fi'om asa, customs, or religious ceremonies. Among the numerous
orisas worshipped there arc three great ones, called Obatala, Sapgo, and Ifa. Obatal4 is thought to be the
first made and greatest of all created things. Others, however, affirm that he was nothing more than an
ancient king of Yoruba, and they profess to tell the name of his father. His name Obatala appears to be
a contraction of oba ti nlA, the king who is great, or of oba ti ala, the king of whiteness, i.e. purity. A
white cloth (ala) is worn by his worshippers. Some of his other names are, Orisa nla, the great orisa ;
Alamorere, he of the good clay, because he made the human body of clay ; and Orisa kpokpo, the orisa of
the gate, because he is the guardian of the gates of cities. He is frequently represented as a warrior on
horseback, holding a spear. His wife, lyaijgba, the receiving mother, is represented as nursing a child.
But Iyar)gba herself is Obatal4. The two are one, or in other words, Obatala is an androgyne, repre-
senting the productive energy of nature as distinguished from the creative power of God. Obataja forms
or produces the bodies of men ; but God himself imparts life and spirit, and God alone is styled Eledai
Creator. The second great orisa is Saijgo, the thunder god, who is also called Dzakuta, the Stone-caster.
The stones or thunderbolts which Sar)g6 casts down from heaven are preserved as sacred relics. In
appearance they are identical with the so-called stone-hatchets picked up in the fields of America ; but
■whether they were made originally for battle-axes, or leather dressing implements, or emblematic thunder-
bolts, is not easily determined.
According to one account, Saijgo was born at If 5, and reigned at Ikoso, a town recently destroyed, which
stood thirty or forty miles south of Isaki. He was much addicted to predatory wars, in commemoration
of which his worshippers still carry a bag, as the emblem of booty. When a house is struck by lightning,
they have a right to pillage it, and also to steal as many goats and chickens as they can find at large in
any part of the town. They affirm that their master was translated alive to heaven, where he reigns in
great state, having a palace with gates of brass, and ten thousand horses, and amusing himself with
hunting, fishing, and war.
But the abstract Saqg6 is quite a diS'erent being. He is the son of Oruijgai), midday, and the grandson
of Agaijdzu, the desert. His mother is liemodia, the mother of fishes, a small river in Yoruba. His elder
brother is Dada, nature, one of the Yoruba idols ; his younger brother is the river Oguq, which bears the
name of the god of war and smith's work. His wives are the rivers Oya, Osur), and Oba ; his associate is
Orisako, the god of farms ; his slave is Biri, darkness; and his priest is Magba, the receiver.
The third great idol is Ifa, the revealcr of future event«, and the patron of marriage and childbirth.
He is called Banga, the god of palm-nuts, because sixteen palm-nuts are employed in obtaining responses.
The head-quarters of Ifa are at Ado, a village on the top of an immense rock near Awaye.
There are several other idols of note, as Odudua, the universe, Xocai^d. at Ife; J) a.<ik, nature ; and
Orisako, the god of farms, whose symbol is a large iron bar. These bars are obtained at a great cost
from the high priest of the idol, who dwells at Irawo. Many of the inferior idols are men and women
who were distinguished in their day by some remarkable relation to the tribe.
The doctrine of idolatry prevalent in Yoruba appears to be derived by analogy from the form and
customs of the civil government. There is but one king in the nation, and one God over the universe.
Petitioners to the king approach him through the intervention of his servants, courtiers, and nobles ;
and the petitioner conciliates the courtier whom he employs by good words and presents. In like manner
no man can directly approach God ; but the Almighty himself, they say, has appointed various kinds of
orisas, who are mediators and intercessors between himself and mankind. No sacrifices are made to God,
because he needs nothing ; but the orisas, being much like men, are pleased with offerings of sheep,
pigeons, and other things. They conciliate the orisa, or mediator, that he may bless them, not in his
own power, but in the power of God.
As the people make a clear distinction between God and idols, so an idol, which is a real spiritual being.
INTRODUCTION. XVU
is not to be confounded with its symbol,* which may be an image, a tree, or a stone. A charm or amulet
is thought to have much power, but it is not an orisa. It has no life and no intelligence as the ori^as
have. White men are generally much mistaken in regard to the religion and superstition of the negroes.
They suppose that the idols are looked upon as gods ; that the symbol is the idol ; and that a greegree, or
charm, is an object of worship — all of which is incorrect.
It is usual among Europeans to call the idols of the natives " devils." The natives themselves speak of
only one devil, though they believe in the existence of various other evil spirits. In the Yoruba language
the devil is called E^u, the Ejected, from su, to cast out ; and Elegbara, the Mighty, on account of his great
influence over mankind. The name Ebilisi has been borrowed from the Pulohs, and by them from the
Arabs. The devil is not reckoned as one of the mediatorial orisas ; but the Yorubas worship him with
sacrifices, to conciliate his favor and prevent his doing them injury.
Eguqgui), bones, and Oro, torment, are the executive or vindictive power of civil government deified
The latter is most usual among the Egbas, who term the punishment of criminals " giving them to Oro.'
On Oro day all women arc obliged to remain closely shut up in their houses. Egupguq, or the " Aku
Devil," makes his appearance in the person of a tall fellow, fantastically clad and masked, and is declared
to be a tenant of the grave. No one, not even the king, may dare to lay his hand on Egnqgug ; and if
any woman should say he is a man, she would be put to death. Even Mohammedans and Christians are
obliged to conceal their knowledge of the imposture under penalty of martyrdom.
INDUSTRIAL PURSUITS.
Most of the people of interior Africa are more advanced in civilization than those on the coast. The
deeper barbarism of the coast people is attributable to the dense forests in which they live, to the sparse-
ness of the population, and to the vicious and idle habits which have naturally resulted from the slave
trade. The degree of civilization which exists in the interior is probably very ancient. King Belo,
already quoted, may not be correct when he afiirms that the ancient Copts colonized Bornu ; but we have
independent evidence of an early, if not extensive, intercourse between Central Africa and Egypt. The
Popo beads which are dug from the earth in the south-eastern part of Yoruba, and in countries east of
the Niger, are identical in appearance with the beads found on the Egyptian mummies. Several of the
arts and customs of Yoruba and other interior countries are Egyptian in their character ; and the use of
cowries for money must have been introduced from the east, since none of these shells are found in the
Atlantic.
The most important industrial pursuits of the Yorubas are agriculture, blacksraithing, and the
manufacture of clothing.
Unoccupied land is common property, and free for any one to cultivate. But each man has an exclusive
right to his own farm, whether in actual cultivation or in fallow. When a farm is sold, the fruit-trees
remain the property of the former owner, unless they are specially mentioned in the contract. Except a
few hedges of Jatropha, Curcans, and Euphorbia, in the immediate vicinity of towns, there are no fences in
the country; because there are not many cattle, and these are always under the care of keepers. Disputes
concerning the boundaries of farms or fallow lands are generally settled at once by the neighbors.
Although the Yorubas are an agricultural people, their implements are few and of a very simple
description. The usual tools of the farmer are, an axe, three inches in width, for felling trees ; a bill-
hook, or heavy pruning-knife, for cutting bushes; and an oval hoe, with a handle about two feet in length.
Ploughs and carts are entirely imknown. Their oxen, though large and strong, are never employed for
labor ; and the horses, which are usually small, though well formed, are used exclusively for the saddle.
Yams are planted in large hills in January and February, and are matured in August and September.
The first crop of maize is planted between the middle of February and the first of April, and ripens in July
• Some of these symbols, occasionally engraved on the temple doors of Obatala, deserve a more special notice. On
several distinct panels are seen a fish, a land tortoise, and a serpent. Another has a female figure with one hand and
one foot, probably a half Obatala, or the female principle of Nature. This figure is remarkable for having a queue of
very long hair (which no negro can have) with a ball or globe at the end. Opposite to this are the male and female
paries genitales in coitu. They are represented in the natural forms, and are never disguised by being formed into a
handled cross, for instance, as they were in Egypt. Phallic worship is practised, but, I believe, without impurity.
2
XVm INTRODUCTION.
and August ; tbe second crop is planted chiefly in August or the latter part of July. As the heavy rains
of May and June are not favorable to the growth of cotton, it is planted in July ; in December the crop
is cut short by the dry season. Maize and yams are generally housed in the farms where they grow, and
brought into town in small quantities to supply the daily market. In case the town is large, some of the
farms may be ten or even twenty miles distant ; but all the produce is brought in on the heads of the
owners. Pack-horses and asses, though employed east of the Niger, are never seen in Yoruba. I have
travelled with a caravan of two or three thousand persons, all of whom carried their goods in packages on
their heads.
Some parts of the country are rich in ore, from which the people obtain a very good quality of iron.
As the smelters are not communicative, I can only state what I have seen as to tlieir manner of working.
The furnace is a pit in a house, and may be entered either by the door or by an underground passage
which emerges twenty' or thirty feet from the building. The broken ore is placed in the furnace with
layers of charcoal ; a number of well dried clay tubes, about an inch in diameter and fifteen inches in
length, are inserted into the mass of ore and coal, I think at the bottom. Although no bellows are
employed, the heat is so intense that the ends of these tubes are partially vitrified. The iron is sold to
blacksmiths, who manufacture it into various articles, among which may be enumerated axes, adzes, hoes,
sickles, bill-hooks, swords, knives, razors, scissors, needles, chains and staples, all of rude workmanship.
The smiths' bellows are identical in principle with those of the ancient Egyptians and Greeks. The large
anvil is a stone, the smaller one a block of iron. Copper, brass, and silver are wrought by the same smith
with the same implements.
The Yoruba carpenter employs himself chiefly in the manufacture of bowls, mortars, and door shutters.
His principal tools are wedges for splitting trees, an axe, and an adze. The carver who makes images of
■wood, or carves figures on doors and calabashes, works chiefly with knives. The ornamental engraving
of calabashes appears to be a thrifty business. Considerable numbers of people are engaged in the pro-
duction of clothing. Cotton is freed from the seeds by rolling it under a small iron cylinder on a smooth
piece of wood. It is then whipped with a bow to prepare it for spinning, which is done with a distaff.
The yarn is sold to the weavers every evening in market, and the cloth given to the tailors, who cut and
make garments. Thread is warped on pins driven into the ground, and then fonned into a large ball
instead of being wound upon a beam. With the exception of the thread beam, the parts of an African
loom are the same as those of hand-looms in our own country ; but the implement is so small, that the
cloth is scarcely six inches in width.
Among the other employments of the people we may mention the manufacture of earthen pots and
vessels for cooking and eating; the dyeing of cloth with indigo, which grows abundantly on the farms;
the dressing of black, red, yellow, and white morocco, and the making of it into shoes and saddles ; the
manufacture of various oils, chiefly from the palm-nut, the fruit of the shea-butter tree, and the seeds of
sesame and of watermelons ; the manufacture of beads from broken palm-nuts and from jasper, both beau-
tiful articles ; the making of soap ; and the grinding of snuff, which is practised in every town. As the
tobacco is poor, it is always ground with carbonate of soda from the desert, to give it pungency.
So far as I could ascertain, the art of making glass is confined to three towns in Nnfe, one of which is
west of the Niger. This art is kept a profound secret.
There is no legal or customary restraint as to the choice of occupations, except that it is not reputable
for women to labor on the farms. In their favorite capacity of traders, however, they are constantly
engaged in bringing the produce which they have purchased from the farms to the market. Many poor
women also obtain a living by supplying the market with firewood, which they sometimes bring from a
distance of six or eight miles. Others gather large leaves, which they sell by the basketful to the market
women to be employed as wrapping paper. The other employments of females are housework, spinning,
washmg, soap-makmg, and the manufacture of earthenware. The cultivation of the soil, blacksmithing,
wood work, weaving, tailoring, and the barber's trade, are performed by men.
All the Africans, and none more so than the people of Yoruba, are addicted to traffic. Their trade
with the people nearer the coast consists in palm oil, ivory, cotton cloths, indigo, iron, horses, cattle,
sheep, (fee; for which they receive cheap guns and powder, calicoes, velvet, salt, and other articles from
Europe and America. Their inland trade embraces the foregoing and many other commodities, including
large quantities of soda, and some fine horses, worth several hundred doUare each, from Hausa and Bornu.
Uides, coffee, and a superior kind of indigo will be among the future exports.
In the present condition of the countr}', without roads or vehicles, the traffic gives employment to
thousands of people. Sometimes a single caravan consists of hundreds and even thousands of persons of
INTRODUCTION. XIX
both sexes. Their only travelling equipment is a mat to sleep on, a coarse cotton sheet for a cover, a
small bag containing provisions, and a little earthen pot to warm the sauce, which, with yams and pre-
parations of corn, is the universal diet. A carrier's burden varies in weight from forty to eighty pounds.
As there are neither weights nor standard measures in the country, such articles as salt, soda, and oil are
sold from town to town by the load till they reach a consumer.
Markets, for the sale of provisions and other common necessaries of life, are held daily in all the towns ;
but the large market for the sale of general merchandise is usually held every fifth day. On these
occasions we frequently see thousands of people busily engaged in traffic. At Ilorii), the greatest market
in the country, which is held daily owing to the abundance of business, there are men from every part of
Central Africa, and frequently from Tripoli and other countries of the North. The merchandise includes
a great variety of articles, African, European, and Asiatic, from a slave to a ready-made pen and a bottle
of ink.
Owing to the frequent wars which afflict the country, and partly perhaps to the gregarious disposition
of the people, they invariably reside in towns. Even the farmers, who are obliged to pass many of their
nights in the distant fields, never erect a better dwelling than a hut in the country. All the towns in the
interior are surrounded by rather strong mud walls five or six feet in height, with a deep ditch on the
outside. The gates are closed at night with heavy shutters and guarded by keepers.
African towns are never laid out in a regular manner. All the streets, except the few which lead from
the gates to the market, are very narrow, and intersect each other at every possible angle. The broader
streets, the markets, and other open spaces are beautifully shaded with wide-spreading trees. Architecture
is wholly unknown. The houses, from the palace to the dwellings of the poorest people, are built of mud
and covered with a thatch of grass. They are all of the same form, that of a large square inclosed by a
series of single rooms, after the manner of a fort. The interior court, which is open to the sky, is entered
by a large gate with a heavy board shutter. Most of the rooms are scarcely six feet between the dirt floor
and the fire-proof ceiling of sticks and mortar overhead, and the usual dimensions are six or seven feet in
width by twelve or fifteen feet in length. As there is only one low door and no windows, these rooms
are always dark. During the day, the people sit in the piazza which extends in front of the rooms ;
when they retire to rest at night, or enter a room by day, they use an earthen lamp supplied with oil.
The Africans have no chairs, tables, or bedsteads : their furniture consists of mats, earthen pots, bags,
and gourds. Their food is taken with the fingers from a deep earthen dish. A sort of sauce com-
posed of meats and vegetables, or of vegetables and oil only, and highly seasoned with red pepper, is
a universal article of diet. They never roast or boil joints of meat in Yoruba. Yams are prepared to be
eaten with sauce, either by simply boiling, or by boiling and pounding with the addition of water to the
consistence of wheaten dough. Indian corn is first soaked till it becomes a little sour, then pounded or
ground on a flat stone with a small stone cylinder or rubber, and the starch, after being washed out in
pure water, is boiled down to the consistence of thick paste. This food is much used, both diluted as a
warm drink in the morning, and cold in the form of round dumplings, which are wrapped in leaves for
sale. When they make bread, it is fried, never baked. Very little milk is used except at Il9rii).
Most of the laboring people take their breakfast at an early hour in the streets, around the pots of women
who prepare food for sale. At noon they eat in the farms or wherever they may happen to be, and their
supper is taken just before they retire to sleep. The flesh of sheep, goats, and cows is sold daily in the
market ; but the people use it sparingly. Fish is not plentiful in Yoruba except on the larger streams.
The dress of the men consists of trowsers or short breeches, a tunic or a kind of shirt without sleeves,
and a sheet or wrapper, or else a large flowing gown. The head, which in general is smoothly shaven, is
covered with a tight cloth cap, to which is sometimes added a hat or turban. A woman's dress is com-
posed of three wrappers, two around the waist and one over the shoulders, but the last is often laid aside.
Women do not shave their heads except as a mark of mourning. Their usual headdress is a fillet of cloth.
Horsemen wear a sort of shoes and sometimes boots. Travellers who go on foot frequently wear sandals ;
but most of the people of both sexes generally go barefoot. Boys are usually provided with breeches, or
at least an apron, at the age of five or six ; but girls of ten or twelve years often appear in the streets, from
choice, wearing nothing but their beads and bracelets. Most of the Yorubas are cleanly in their habits,
and rather fond of being finely dressed.
The principal amusement of the young people is dancing to the sound of drums. Tlie older men meet
together under the shady trees to talk, and sometimes to play a sort of draughts and other games of a similar
nature. Several times in a year the whole population enjoy tlie recreation of religious festivals, the
greatest of which, called 9d(ii), or new year, occurs about the first of October. On these occasions they
XVIU INTRODUCTION.
and August ; the second crop is planted chiefly in August or the latter part of July. As the heavy rains
of May and June are not favorable to the growth of cotton, it is planted in July ; in December the crop
is cut short by the dry season. Maize and yams are generally housed in the farms where they grow, and
brought into town in small quantities to supply the daily market. In case the town is large, some of the
farms may be ten or even twenty miles distant ; but all the produce is brought in on the heads of the
owners. Pack-horses and asses, though employed east of the Niger, are never seen in Yoruba. I have
travelled with a caravan of two or three thousand persons, all of whom carried their goods in packages on
their heads.
Some parts of the country are rich in ore, from which the people obtain a very good quality of iron.
As the smelters are not communicative, I can only state what I have seen as to their manner of working.
The furnace is a pit in a house, and may be entered either by the door or by an underground passage
which emerges twent}' or thirty feet from the building. The broken ore is placed in the furnace with
layers of charcoal ; a number of well dried clay tubes, about an inch in diameter and fifteen inches in
length, are inserted into the mass of ore and coal, I think at the bottom. Although no bellows are
employed, the heat is so intense that the ends of these tubes are partially vitrified. The iron is sold to
blacksmiths, who manufacture it into various articles, among which may be enumerated axes, adzes, hoes,
sickles, bill-hooks, swords, knives, razors, scissors, needles, chains and staples, all of rude workmanship.
The smiths' bellows are identical in principle with those of the ancient Egyptians and Greeks. The large
anvil is a stone, the smaller one a block of iron. Copper, brass, and silver are wrought by the same smith
with the same implements.
The Yoruba carpenter employs himself chiefly in the manufacture of bowls, mortars, and door shutters.
His principal tools are wedges for splitting trees, an axe, and an adze. The carver who makes images of
wood, or carves figures on doors and calabashes, works chiefly with knives. The ornamental engraving
of calabashes appears to be a tlirifty business. Considerable numbers of people are engaged in the pro-
duction of clothing. Cotton is freed from the seeds by rolling it under a small iron cylinder on a smooth
piece of wood. It is then whipped with a bow to prepare it for spinning, which is done with a distaflf.
The yarn is sold to the weavers every evening in market, and the cloth given to the tailors, who cut and
make garments. Thread is warped on pins driven into the grovind, and then formed into a large ball
instead of being wound upon a beam. With the exception of the thread beam, the parts of an African
loom are the same as those of hand-looms in our own country ; but the implement is so small, that the
cloth is scarcely six inches in width.
Among the other emplojTnents of the people we may mention the manufacture of earthen pots and
vessels for cooking and eating; the dyeing of cloth with indigo, which grows abundantly on the farms;
the dressing of black, red, yellow, and white morocco, and the making of it into shoes and saddles ; the
manufacture of various oils, chiefly from the palm-nut, the fruit of the shea-butter tree, and the seeds of
sesame and of watermelons ; the manufacture of beads from broken palm-nuts and from jasper, both beau-
tiful articles ; the making of soap ; and the grinding of snuff, which is practised in every town. As the
tobacco is poor, it is always ground with carbonate of soda from the desert, to give it pungency.
So far as I could ascertain, the art of making glass is confined to three towns in Nufe, one of which is
west of the Niger. This art is kept a profound secret.
There is no legal oi' customary restraint as to the choice of occupations, except that it is not reputable
for women to labor on the farms. In their favorite capacity of tradere, however, they are constantly
engaged in bringing the produce which they have purchased from the farms to the market. Many poor
women also obtain a living by supplying the market with firewood, which they sometimes bring from a
distance of six or eight miles. Others gather large leaves, which they sell by the basketful to the market
women to be employed as wrapping paper. The other employments of females are housework, spinning,
washing, soap-makmg, and the manufacture of earthenware. The cultivation of the soil, blacksmithing,
wood work, weaving, tailoring, and the barber's trade, are performed by men.
All the Africans, and none more so than the people of Yoruba, are addicted to traffic. Their trade
with the people nearer the coast consists in palm oil, ivory, cotton cloths, indigo, iron, horses, cattle,
sheep, &c.; for which they receive cheap guns and powder, calicoes, velvet, salt, and other articles from
Europe and America. Their inland trade embraces the foregoing and many other commodities, including
large quantities of soda, and some fine horses, worth several hundred dollars each, from Hausa and Bornu.
Uides, coff'ee, and a superior kind of indigo will be among the future exports.
In the present condition of the country, without roads or vehicles, the traffic gives employment to
thousands of people. Sometimes a single caravan consists of hundreds and even thousands of persons of
IXTKODUCTION. XIX
both sexes. Their only travelling equipment is a mat to sleep on, a coarse cotton sheet for a cover, a
small bag containing provisions, and a little earthen pot to warm the sauce, which, with yams and pre-
parations of corn, is the universal diet A carrier's burden varies in weight from forty to eighty pounds.
As there are neither weights nor standard measures in the country, such articles as salt, soda, and oil are
sold from town to town by the load till they reach a consumer.
Markets, for the sale of provisions and other common necessaries of life, are held daily in all the towns ;
but the large market for the sale of general merchandise is usually held every fifth day. On these
occasions we frequently see thousands of people busily engaged in traffic. At Iloriq, the greatest market
in the country, which is held daily owing to the abundance of business, there are men from every part of
Central Africa, and frequently from Tripoli and other countries of the North. The merchandise includes
a great variety of articles, African, European, and Asiatic, irom a slave to a ready-made pen and a bottle
of ink.
Owing to the frequent wars which afflict the country, and partly perhaps to the gregarious disposition
of the people, they invariably reside in towns. Even the farmers, who are obliged to pass many of their
nights in the distant fields, never erect a better dwelling than a hut in the country. All the towns in the
interior are surrounded by rather strong mud walls five or six feet in height, with a deep ditch on the
outside. The gates are closed at night with heavy shutters and guarded by keepers.
African towns are never laid out in a regular manner. All the streets, except the few which lead from
the gates to the market, are very narrow, and intersect each other at every possible angle. The broader
streets, the markets, and other open spaces are beautifully shaded with wide-spreading trees. Architecture
is wholly unknown. The houses, from the palace to the dwellings of the poorest people, are built of mud
and covered with a thatch of grass. They are all of the same form, that of a large square inclosed by a
series of single rooms, after the manner of a fort. The interior court, which is open to the sky, is entered
by a large gate with a heavy board shutter. Most of the rooms are scarcely six feet between the dirt floor
and the fire-proof ceiling of sticks and mortar overhead, and the usual dimensions are six or seven feet in
width by twelve or fifteen feet in length. As there is only one low door and no windows, these rooms
are always dark. During the day, the people sit in the piazza which extends in front of the rooms ;
when they retire to rest at night, or enter a room by day, they use an earthen lamp supplied with oil.
The Africans have no chairs, tables, or bedsteads : their furniture consists of mats, earthen pots, bags,
and gourds. Their food is taken with the fingers from a deep earthen dish. A sort of sauce com-
posed of meats and vegetables, or of vegetables and oil only, and highly seasoned with red pepper, is
a universal article of diet. ITiey never roast or boil joints of meat in Yoruba. Yams are prepared to be
eaten with sauce, either by simply boiling, or by boiling and pounding with the addition of water to the
consistence of wheaten dough. Indian corn is first soaked till it become? a little sour, then pounded or
ground on a flat stone with a small stone cylinder or rubber, and the starch, after being washed out in
pure water, is boiled down to the consistence of thick paste. This food is much used, both diluted as a
warm drink in the morning, and cold in the form of round dumplings, which are wrapped in leaves for
sale. When they make bread, it is fried, never baked. Very little milk is used except at Il9rii).
Most of the laboring people take their breakfast at an early hour in the streets, around the pots of women
who prepare food for sale. At noon they eat in the farms or wherever they may happen to be, and their
supper is taken just before they retire to sleep. The flesh of sheep, goats, and cows is sold daily in the
market ; but the people use it sparingly. Fish is not plentiful in Yoruba except on the larger streams.
The dress of the men consists of trowsers or short breeches, a tunic or a kind of shirt without sleeves,
and a sheet or wrapper, or else a large flowing gown. The head, which in general is smoothly shaven, is
covered with a tight cloth cap, to which is sometimes added a hat or turban. A woman's dress is com-
posed of three wrappers, two around the waist and one over the shoulders, but the last is often laid aside.
Women do not shave their heads except as a mark of mourning. Their usual headdress is a fillet of cloth.
Horsemen wear a sort of shoes and sometimes boots. Travellers who go on foot frequently wear sandals •
but most of the people of both sexes generally go barefoot. Boys are usually provided with breeches, or
at least an apron, at the age of five or six ; but girls of ten or twelve years often appear in the streets, from
choice, wearing nothing but their beads and bracelets. Most of the Yorubas are cleanly in their habits,
and rather fond of being finely dressed.
The principal amusement of the young people is dancing to the sound of drums. The older men meet
together under the shady trees to talk, and sometimes to play a sort of draughts and other games of a similar
nature. Several times in a year the whole population enjoy the recreation of religious festivals, the
greatest of which, called pddi), or new year, occurs about the first of October. On these occasions they
XX INTKODUCTION.
offer sacrifices and make charms to promote the prosperity of the town, and have various noisy processions
to the temples and sacred groves. Once a year, at the close of the dry season, they spend several days in
burning off the prairies and in hunting. On the chief's hunting day, hundreds of people of both sexes
attend him. The game is taken with dogs and clubs, as the use of guns would be dangerous.
The government of the country is a monarchy engrafted on the ancient patriarchal rule. Every house
contains several families under the government of a bal6 or lord of the house, every towmhas its bal& or
lord of the land, and the whole nation is under a king. The adult males are also apportioned under rulers
who stand intermediate between them and the balS, or governor. The king, the governor, and the head
of the family has each his associate or lieutenant, and the elders under him are his counsellors. Even the
king is bound by the laws of the land, of which the elders are the conservators and exponents. The laws
are generally good, except in so far as they are connected with idolatry and polygamy. They are rigidly
executed, and sometimes with displeasing promptness ; but causes are always decided by the ruler and his
council according to testimony.
INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL CHARACTERISTICS.
In regard to intellect the Yorubas occupy a low position. All their arts are rude, and the people are
wholly destitute both of literature and science. But they are by no means deficient either in natural
shrewdness, or in that sort of common sense which is adapted to their condition. Their language also,
which is surprisingly rich in abstract terms, is a proof that they are accustomed to think. Since their
acquaintance with white men they evidently begin to feel the aspirations of intellect, and their desire to
improve is leading to good results. At Abeokuta several hundred persons have learned to read their own
language.
Like other rude people, the Yorubas are much addicted to the marvellous. In the opinion of many, the
power of a white man is almost infinite. He can look around on all the passing events of the earth, he
can stop the clouds in their course,* and even create cowries whenever he may need them. They seize
with avidity on every extravagant story they may hear. Marvellous things have been told me of the asori
or igi nla, a tree somewhere in the interior, to which they attribute all the properties of the deadly upas ;
even birds that fly near it fall dead. The common people, old men, and grave chiefs have repeatedly
affirmed the existence of a unicorn, which they describe as a large antelope with a straight black horn in
the middle of its forehead. When I visited Ibriq in 1855, this story was repeated ; and my host, Nasamu,
an intelligent Bornese, added others still more wonderful. He assured me that somewhere eastward of
Nufe and Yakobu there was a tribe of men, called Alabiru, who had inflexible tails about six inches in
length. The Alabiru were a very ingenious people, especially in working iron ; and all the fine swords in
Sudan were made of iron from their furnaces. Beyond this tribe was another called Alabiwo, distinguished
by a small goat-like horn projecting from the top of the head just above the margin of the hair. Somewhere
in the same region was a tribe called Alakere, the tallest of whom were scarcely three feet in height.
Being a weak people, the Alakere surrounded their towns with walls of iron. Nasamu had never seen any
person of these tribes; but he asserted that there was one of the horned women then in slavery at Ofa,
about thirty miles east of Il9riij. She always wore a handkerchief around her head, because she was
ashamed of her horn. In reply to my question, whether any of the tailed men were in slavery in or near
Ilorii), he replied, " Who would have a slave with a tail ?" A few days after this I received a visit from an
Arab trader, who confirmed all the statements of Nasamu, and added others of his own. Among the rest
he told of a tribe of people south of Mandara who have four eyes. A Negro from beyond the Niger
proceeded to inform me how these eyes are situated in the head, but the Arab corrected him and showed
me exactly where each of them is placed. In short, it is manifest that all the floating stories of upas
trees, unicorns, &c., have originated with the wandering Arab traders, who are equally distinguished by a
vivid imagination and a small regard for truth. In the simple Negroes they find ready listeners to all
their wonderful stories, and they were not at all pleased with the incredulity of an-Nasran, the Christian.
The moral character of the Yorubas exhibits strong contrasts. On the one hand we are shocked at their
occasional human sacrifices, their unlimited polygamy, and their custom of allowing the heir to inherit all
his father's wives except his own mother. Their universal covetousness, their deficiency in regard to
conscience, and their want of manly self-respect disgust us. On the other hand we see much to admire
• At the close of the dry season I was observing the movements of a black thunder cloud, when an old farmer
said to me imploringly, Dzo, dze 6 rt) fu ni I Pleat* let it rain for vt !
INTKODUCTION. XXI
and to mitigate our judgment even in regard to the bad features of their character. Tliey are naturally
kind and simple-hearted, remarkably courteous in their mutual intercourse, and strongly attached to their
country, friends, and kindred. All the moral virtues, and especially gratitude and honesty, are inculcated
in their proverbs. It is a remarkable fact, that although the missionaries have had hundreds of parcels of
cowries and supplies brought by native carriers from the coast to their interior stations, there has scarcely
been an instance of theft. Adultery and other crimes are much rarer than we could suppose. During my
six years' residence in the country I never knew a case of an illegitimate child, although the women do not
marry before they are eighteen or twenty years of age.
When the first missionary entered the Iketu country in 1850, some regarded him as a spy, and others
had superstitious fears that the presence of a white man would bring misfortune on the country. For these
reasons they, in many instances, refused to admit him into their towns, but they never treated him with
violence. The same thing occurred subsequently when he entered the kingdom of Yoruba. They obliged
him to sleep without the walls, but they supplied him with food without charge. On one occasion he
encamped under a tree near the gate of Awaye. Hundreds of friendly people came to look at him, and
next day the women were singing a newly made song commencing with, Oibo gui) sidi akpe, " The white
man encamped aft the foot of the akpe tree." Now that the people understand the real object of the mission-
aries, they are not only willing but anxious to receive them.
The gospel was first preached to the Yorubas in Sierra Leone, where there are thousands of them who
have been rescued from the slave ships. Most of them have embraced Christianity, and many have learned
to read. Some have accumulated considerable wealth, and others have made no mean attainments in
information if not in learning. The character of the Rev. Samuel Crowther, whose Yoruba name is
Adiaye, struggling for life, is known to the public, and much admired both in Europe and America;
and yet Mr. Crowther is only one among other Yoruba men, his equals in mind, moral character, and
respectable attainments. The people are found to be equally susceptible of improvement in their native
country. Although the missions have been so recently established, all the eight kingdoms of the Yoruba
country have felt more or less the stimulus of truth ; and if the social laws now at work among the people
produce their natural results, it cannot be many generations before Yoruba will be reckoned among civilized
nations.
LIST OF YORUBA PUBLICATIONS.
Within the last ten years the Church Missionary Society of London has published the following Yoruba
books and tracts, nearly all of them the work of the Kev. Samuel Crowther.
The Yoruba Primer. Iwe Ekinni on ni tu awon ara Egba ati awon ara Yoruba. London, 1849.
A Vocabulary of the Yoruba Language, compiled by the Rev. S. Crowther, Native Missionary of the
C. M. Society, together with Introductory Remarks by Rev. O. E. Vidal, M. A., Bp. Designate of Sierra
Leone. London, 1852.
A Grammar of the Yoruba Language, by the Rev. S. Crowther, Native Missionary of the C. M. Society.
London, 1852.
The First Book of Moses, commonly called Genesis. Translated into Yoruba, for the use of the Native
Christians of that Nation, by the Rev. S. Crowther, Native Missionary. London, 1853.
The Gospel according to St. Matthew. Translated into Yoruba for the use of the Native Christians of
that Nation, by the Rev. S. Crowther, Native Missionary. London, 1853.
The Second Book of Moses, commonly called Exodus. Translated into Yoruba for the use of the Native
Christians of that Nation, by the Rev. S. Crowther, Native Missionary. London, 1854.
The Psalms of David. Translated into Yoruba for the use of the Native Christians of that Nation, by
the Rev. S. Crowther, Native Missionary. London, 1854.
Iwe Owe ati Iwe Oniwasa. Li Ede Yoruba tu awon Kristian ti ilu nan nipa Rev. S. Crowther, Alafa
ti ilu nan. (Proverbs and Ecclesiastes.) London, 1856.
The Gospel according to St. Luke, The Acts of the Apostles, with the Epistles of St. James and St.
Peter. Translated into Yoruba, for the use of the Native Christians of that Nation, by the Rev. S. Crow-
ther, Native Missionary. London, 1856.
Katekismu Itan, ti Dr. Watts, Testamenti Lailar on Testamenti Titun. — Watts's Catechism of the Old
and New Testament. Translated into Yoruba, by the Rev. Samuel King, Native Missionary. London,
1857.
Katekismu Ekeii, ti Watti. — Watts's Second Catechism. Translated into Yoruba, by the Rev. T. King,
Native Missionary. London, 1857.
Iwe Orin Mimo. (Yoruba Hymns.) London, 1857.
GRAMMAR
OF THE
YORUBA LANGUAGE
Y K U B A GRAMMAR.
PART FIRST.
OETHOEPY AND OETHOGRAPHY.
§ 1. The system of orthography adopted in this work is essentially the same
that has been widely employed for African languages. In it an endeavor has been
made to give a true expression of all the well distinguished sounds of the language.
To each simple fundamental sound there is assigned a single character; and each
compounded sound is represented by the charactera which stand for the elements
of such compound sound.
§ 2. The reader should be reminded that the sound of each letter, in this as in
other languages, is subject to slight modifications from accent and connexion.
CHAPTER I.
THE ALPHABET.
§ .^. The characters that represent the simple sounds of the Yoruba language are,
a, a, b, d, e, e, f, g, h, I, k, 1, m, n^ t), o, o, p, r, s, s, t, u, w, y, i.
VOWELS.
Simple Vowels.
§ 4. The simple vowels are as follows :
a is sounded long, as in the English word fatlwr ; and short, as in fat.
Examples: ha, to meet; lati, from.
a has the obscure sound of u in but, o in motlier, &c. Ex. : bani, in tlie hand.
e is sounded like a mfate, or ey in grey. Ex. : de, to come.
e is sounded like e in met. Ex. : fe, to love.
i is sounded long, like ee in fee, or i in ravine; and short, like i mfg. Ex.:
di, to bind ; igo, a bottle.
o is sounded as in go, tone. Ex. : f6, to fiy.
o is sounded long, like a in ^oater, all; and short, like o in not. Ex.: fo, to
wash ; oni, a crocodile.
u is sounded long, like oo In fool, or u in rvle ; and short, like %i mftdl. Ex. :
lu, to -strilce ; bule, to lis dmcn.
4 ORTHOEPY AND OKTHOGKAPHT,
§ 5. The vowels are either pure or nasal. Nasalization is indicated by the
character q ; as, dai), to polish, ; siiq, to deq>.
§ 6. We may here observe :
1. That the sound of ' e ' after ' kp ' is more open and liquid than usual.
2. That 'a,' 'i,' and *o,' are short before a consonant; as in ate, a hat; ile, a
house ; ofa, an arrow ; pronounced as if written atte, ille, offa. But to this rule
there is one exception, viz. when the tone is grave, these vowels are always long ;
as, 4bo, a shelter ; imo, hnowledge ; 5ro, a word.
§ Y. In the Egba and some other dialects, 'o' long, when followed by 'q,' and
occasionally when preceded by 'm' or 'n,' takes the sound of 'u' long; as, toq,
ogam; mo, to drinh ; in6, within ; pronounced, and sometimes written, tui), mu, imi.
Diphthongs.
§ 8. The following are the compound vowels, or diphthongs :
ai, pronounced like i in phie, or y in fly^ only it is longer and more open.
Ex. ; bai, thus ; aim5, vmJcnown.
au, pronounced like ou in house., or ow in 7iow. Ex.: daudu, a prince,
ei, ei, oi, oi, in all of which the second vowel, ' i,' is very short. Ex. : ei-di, a
wart ; ei-ye, a bird ; oi-b6, a white man; koi-koi, timidly.
ua, ue, ue, ui, uo, uo, are formed only by the union of two words, the former of
which ends in ' ku ' ; as in akuale, good evening., from aku, a word of
salutation, and ale, evening. In all these cases the lettei*s ' ku ' have the
force of qu in English.
Quantity of Yowels.
§ 9. The vowels are either long or short, as exemplified in the following sen-
tence : ^lafi^ ki o wa fu gb6gb6 enia rere, peaxie he unto all good men.
§ 10. Although it is not possible to lay down rules by which to determine the
quantity of vowels in all cases, yet there are several facts and general principles
a knowledge of which will be useful.
1. In regard to long vowels:
a. The diphthongs ' ai ' and ' au ' are always long ; as, aimS, unhnown / daudu, a
prince.
h. Vowels having the grave tone (except i, 6, and 5, negative) are generally long ;
as, ^bo, a shelter ; hve, gain ; ibi, evil ; odo, vmter ; 6ro, a wm'd.
c. The vowels ' o ' and ' a,' when employed as auxiliary particles in conjugating
the verb, are long ; as, emi 6 ri, I shall see^ emi li a ri, I am seen. These, for the
sake of distinction, are marked with a circumflex accent.
d. The final vowel of a noun is long when followed by a personal pronoun in the
possessive case ; as, iwe mi, my hook ; aso r^, his cloth.
e. When a letter or syllable is suppressed or elided, the vowel which imme-
diately preceded it becomes long ; as, bal^, a governor, contracted from oba ile, the
lord of the land ; suru, ^Mtie nee, from se (often pronounced se), to do, and iru, the
act of hearing a hurden (see § 16, 3) ; aba for abara, a slap with tlie hand.
2. In regard to short vowels :
THE ALPHABET. 5
a. The negatives i, 6, and 5, not^ are short ; as, emi o mo, / do not hioto / ete
i m6 ete ni ik6 oraq ba ereke, lip not heqnng to lip brings trouble to tliejaws.
b. The initial 'i' of the infinitive mood is very short and slight; as, iwo 1^ i^e,
tli(m canst do.
c. The objective pronouns a, G, &c., are so short as to be scarcely perceptible.
(See § 88, 2, i.)
Tone of Vowels.
§ 11. There are three primary tones, the Middle, the Acute, and the Grave; as,
ba, to meet; bd, with', and b^, to bend. The middle is the ordinary tone of
the voice without inflexion ; the acute and grave tones are simply the rising and
falling inflexions of elocutionists. In the Yoruba language, however, they are
employed to distinguish words which are spelled alike, but have different meanings.
Thus the two words obe, sauce^ and obe, a hnife^ are quite different to the ear,
when uttered with the proper tones. The tones, though simple in theory, are
difficult for us to seize, and require close attention.
The acute and grave tones will be denoted throughout this work by the acute
and grave accentual marks placed over the vowel, as in the examples just given.
Assimilation of Vowels.
§ 12. The principle of t^ocalic assimilation exhibited in the Yoruba language
consists in changing a weak or unaccented 'o' into some other vowel, so as to
assimilate it to the adjacent strongly accented vowel of a verb or preposition.
§ 13. Assimilation is either Perfect or Imperfect. In perfect assimilation, the
unaccented ' o ' becomes identical with the accented vowel of the word to which it
is appended.
1. a. The vowel 'o,' the shortened or simplified form of the objective pronoun
of the third person, is regularly exchanged for a vowel which is identical with that
of the governing verb, so that this pronoun assumes all the following foi-ms :
emi wo (3, / looked at him. emi kpe e, / called him.
emi m5 8, / Tenew him. emi fe §, / loved him.
emi lu ii, I struck him. emi ri i, I saw him.*
emi ba S, / met him.
b. The principle applies equally when the governing word is a preposition ; as,
bd S, with him; si i, to him ; fii ii,./w him.
In all these cases the unchanged full form ' or) ' may be used ; as, emi fe oi), Iloved
him; fa or^, for him ; but the assimilation, if employed at all, must be perfect.
2. The preformative ' o ' of nouns is perfectly assimilated, if at all, to the vowel
of the root ; as, oko, a farm (from ko, to gather); 6ro, a word (from r^, to uttet%
relate., exptlmn); ata, pepper (from ta, to burn) ; ere, goodness (from re, to be good) ; ^6e,
sin (from ^e, to sin). Frequently, however, no assimilation takes place. (See § 40.)
§ 14. To understand the rule of imperfect assimilation, it is necessary in the fii-st
place to observe that the vowels are divided into three classes, which, in reference
* No example of 'a' is given, ns no verb, nor indeed any otljev word in Yoruha, ends in that
vowel.
6 • ORTHOEPY AND OETIIOGRAPIIT.
to the general character of their sounds, may be called the close vowels, viz. e, i,
o, u ; the open or hroad vowels, e, o ; and the neuter vowels, a and a. In
imperfect assimilation the rule is that the vowel 'o' when occurring before a close
vowel, that is, a vowel of its own class, remains unchanged ; but before an open
vowel, it is changed into its corresponding open fonn ' o.' Before the neuter vowels,
it may take either form, ' o ' or ' o.'
This rule applies to the nominative pronouns, mo, // o, thm ; . 6q or 6, Tie ; the
auxiliary particle 6, slwU or will ; and k6 or 6, not ; in all of which the 'o ' before
an open vowel becomes ' o ' ; as,
mo fe, Ilove. yi 6 fe, he will love.
o fe, thou lovest. nwoq ko fe, they do not love.
6 or 6i) fe, lie loves. d 6 fe, we do not love.
The same change takes place before the other open vowel, 'o.' The reader,
however, most be informed that the rule is one which is often disregarded in
speaking.
Elision of Vowels.
§ 15. All Yoruba verbs end in a vowel either pure or nasal ; as, ko, to build •
raq, to spin. And most of the nouns begin with a vowel ; as, ile, a house; owu,
cotton. To avoid an inconvenient hiatus, it is customary in speaking to drop either
the final vowel of the verb, or the initial one of the noun which follows it ; as,
k' ere for ko ere, to gather a crop ; raq 'wu, for rag owu, to spin cotton.
In this work, the vowels which are usually elided in speaking are designated by
the inverted crescent ('^) ; as, k8 ere, raq 8wu (pronounced ke-re, raq-wu).
§ 16. The principal rules of elision are as follows :
1. When two vowels of the same name concur, one of them is dropped ; as, n\
fiso, to buy cloth ; f§ e^e, to love sin.
2. The stronger of any two concurring vowels is retained in preference to the
weaker.
The circumstances which make a vowel strong in the sense here contemplated
may be shown as follows :
Strong Vowels. Weak Vmcels.
Long. Short.
Grave. Acute.
Accented. Unaccented.
Open. Close.
But these elements of strength and weakness may be variously distributed. One
of the vowels may be grave, and the other accented, long, or open. To give aU
the combinations which may arise from the various quantities, tones, and accents of
two concurring vowels, would be more tedious than profitable. It may sufiice then
to specify a few cases, with examples, to verify the general rule that the weaker of
the two concurring vowels is elided.
a. When the fii-st vowel is grave, and the second vowel is weak, the latter is
elided ; as, 6 r^ ewe, she bought leaves ;* dk §se, to breah the foot ; bo fira, to cover
the body ; k^ Groq, to behoarse. But if the second vowel should be long, the grave
* Leaves are soM to market-women to be used for wrappiiiE: ai'ticlos in.
THE ALPHABEl".
vowel is elided ; as, omori gbS, oru, tlie lid receives (gl>ji) the steam ; mo anu, to
hriotc (m^) mercy.
b. If the fii-st vowel is open, and neither of the vowels is long, grave, or accented,
the second is elided ; as, ko ebe, to make a ymirhill ; fo 5ru, to h^eak a jug ; fe ina,
to blow the fire. Sometimes, however, the choice of the vowel to be retained is
reversed, to prevent ambiguity ; and frequently both vowels are sounded, for the
same reason.
3. In a few cases neither vowel is dropped, but the two are exchanged for ' u ' ;
as, wure (for wi ire), to bless; suru (for se ivn), patience ; sufe (for so ife) to
whistle; sure (for sa ire), to run; duro (for da iro), to stamd, <fec.
CONSONANTS.
Simple Consonants.
§ 17. The simple consonants, b, d, f, k, 1, m, n, r, s, t, w, and y, are sounded as in
English, and are never quiescent.
g is always hard, as in go^ get. Ex. : igi, wood; gele, a liandherchief.
h in some dialects is silent when it occurs between two vowels ; as, behe, so ;
lohuq, yonder; pronounced be-e, lo-uq. In all other cases, 'h' has the
same power as in the English word hat.
r) is the sign of nasalization. At the end of a word or syllable it is equivalent
to the French n in ban. Ex.: daq, to polish; suq, to sleep. Before a
consonant, that is, at the beginning of a word or syllable, it has a stronger
sound, nearly equivalent to the English ng in song. Ex. : qso, to proceed.
The nasal pronoun q, 7, is pronounced as a part of the preceding word,
when it follows a vowel ; as, ki g 16h? shall I got pron. kiq ]6h. But
if ' q ' is not preceded by a vowel, it is attached in pronunciation to the
following word; as, q kd mo, / do not hnow ; q 6 ri, I shall see; pro-
nounced r)k5 mc>, qo ri.
p occurs only in the compound 'kp.' (See § 18.)
8 is sounded like English sh in shm. Ex. : se, to do.
z has the sound of English z in azwe. It occurs only in the compound ' d^.'
(See § 18.)
Compound Coiisoncmts.
§ 18. Three compounds, of two consonants each, are of such common occurrence
as to have been frequently regarded as simple letters, viz. dz, gb, and kp.
dz is sounded like English _;', as in jiig, or «; in gem. Ex.: di;o, to dance.
(This sound was formerly represented by^'.)
gb represents the sounds of g hard and b ; as, gb^, to receive ; ^gba, an
old man.
kp is equivalent to h and p^ as, kpa, to beat ; akpa, an arm. (Formerly
represented by p.')
The sound of ' g ' and ' k ' in these compounds is very slight at the beginning of
words.
8 OBTHOEPi' AND ORTHOGRAPHY.
§ 19, Compounds of a nasal and another consonant occui' incidentally :
1. The nasal ' q,' as an auxiliary particle, may be prefixed to all the consonants ;
as, emi qb5, I am coming ; emi qdd, I am making^ &c.
2. Before the labial consonants, 'm' is frequently employed as an auxiliary
prefix, instead of 'q'; as, emi mb5, X am, coming ; emi mfe, I ami loving.
3. 'M,' 'n,' and 'q,' are occasionally prefixed to consonants in other cases; as in
the words, mbfe, to ^e ; mbi, or/ a-la-mgba, a Z^2W»*(^; nde^ to arise ; vAk^tohelarge ;
qso, to proceed.
INTERCHANGE OF LETTERS.
§ 20. In consulting the Dictionary for the meaning of words, as also in tracing
out their roots, it is necessary to remember that letters ai-e frequently interchanged ;
as in the following examples :
1. Not a few words begin indififerently with 'a' or 'o'; as, abanidze, or obd-
nid^e, an injurer.
2. Some words begin indifferently with ' a ' or ' i ' ; as, afidzi, or ifidi;i, remission
(of sins).
3. ' E ' and ' o ' are interchangeable ; as, onia for enia, a person ; leni for loni,
to-datj ; eri for ori, the Tiead^ &c.
4. ' E ' and ' o ' are interchangeable, as, oni for eni, one^ any.
5. In certain cases, previously stated (§ 7), 'u' is substituted for 'o'; as, diii)
for d6q, to 5e sweet.
6. ' G ' for ' k ' ; as, ge for ke, to cut.
7. ' H ' for ' f ' ; as, eho for efo, a valley.
8. ' S ' and ' k ' are frequently interchanged with each other, and in some dialects
with ' ts.' Thus, for ^e, to dx)^ the Ibakpa dialect has ' tse,' and the Ibolo has ' se ' ;
and in other places s^, to coo\ is pronounced ' se.'
9. In the Egba dialect, ' w ' is frequently used for ' h ' ; as, w6, to boil, instead of
h6 ; and aw6q, the tongue, instead of ah6q.
CHAPTER II.
SYLLABLES.
§ 21. A syllable consists:
1. Of a single vowel, pure or nasal ; as, o, tliou ; 6q, he.
2. a. Of a consonant and a vowel; £is, da, to create ; daq, to polish.
b. Of a consonant and a vowel, with the nasal q prefixed ; as, qdd, is creating ;
qdaq, is polishing.
3. a. Of two initial consonants and a vowel ; as, die, to eat ; ghh, to receive ; kpfe,
to call ; mb|, to be; nde, to arise ; gboq, to be wise, &c.
b. Of two initial consonants and a vowel, with a nasal prefixed. (See § 19.)
§ 22. No word or syllable ends in a consonant, except occasionally in the nasal
' m ' ; as, bam-bam, a beetle.
SYLLABLES. . 9
§ 23. As consonants do not occur at the end of syllables, they are not redupli-
cated in spelling. Thus we write ile, a hcnise^ and ofa, an arrow, instead of ille
and offa. (See § 6, 2.)
ACCENT.
§ 24. By the term accent is here meant that emphatic pronunciation of a
syllable which distinguishes it from other syllables of the same word. This, when
marked, is denoted in the present work by the sign ( ' ), commonly termed the
acute accent, placed after the accented syllable ; as, i-da', a swcyrd, e'-ni-a, a person.
§ 25. In words of two or more syllables, the accent falls regularly on the
penult ; as, a'-ga, a chair • e-le'-da, a creator.
§ 26. But since the accent of derivative words follows that of their primitives,
this rule has several exceptions.
1. Nouns of two syllables dei-ived from verbs having the acute tone (§11) are
accented on the ultimate ; as, e-dd', a creature, from dd, to create.
2. When a verb or preposition having the acute tone enters into the composi-
tion of a noun of three or more syllables, it usually takes the accent ; as, a-bd'-ni-
d^e, an injurer.
3. When an accented vowel is elided or changed, as in the union of two words
to form one, the accent retains its place ; as, be'-ru (for ba' eru), to he afraid •
ni'-no (for ni' in()), witliin / su'-re (for sa' ire), to run.
§ 2Y. Primitive nouns, or those which cannot be r^erred to any root in the
Yoruba language, are generally irregular in regard to accent ; as, a'-da-ba, a dove /
o'-ri-sa, an idol; a-lu-fa', a learned man.
§ 28. In polysyllables, a lighter secondary accent usually falls on the second
syllable before or after the primary; as, d'-la-tai)'-kpo-k6', a grasshopper;
d'-la-^a'-ra, a dealer in snuff. But many compounds retain the accents of their
component words ; as, a-lai'-lo'-gboq, a foolish man ; o-ni'-ba'-ta, a slwemaTcer.
§ 29. 1. It is proper to observe here, that all the Yoruba vowels (unless very
short as to quantity) are sounded much more fally and distinctly than English
vowels. Thus, a-la'-ra-da', a healthy man, which has two full accents, is pro-
nounced with a strong emphasis on both the accented syllables, and with a consi-
derable although slighter stress on the unaccented ones.
2. The distinctness with which Yoruba vowels are uttered is particularly
observable in the monosyllabic verbs, prepositions, and adverbs, which are
generally spoken as if accented ; as, d le' 6e' e, we can do it ; 161i' so' o nd', go^
throw it atvay.
2
PART SECOND.
ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
CHAPTEK I.
FORMATION OF WORDS.
§ 30. In tlie former part of this Grammar we described the characters employed
to represent the sounds of the Yoruba hmguage, the nature of these sounds, and
the changes which they undergo. We now proceed to the consideration of sounds
as the representatives of ideas ; in doing which we will have to treat first of the
foj-mation of words, and then of their inflexions and the mode of combining them
into sentences.
§ 31. The primitive words of the Yoruba language, amounting in all to about
five hundred, consist of the following classes :
1. Personal and other pronouns.
2. About one hundred and sixty verbs, several of which are obsolete.
3. About two hundred and fifty nouns, including several which are clearly
exotics.
4. A few particles, as adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.
The remainder of tlie language, amounting to at least fifteen thousand vocables,
has been built up on this foundation, chiefly by prefixing personal pronouns to
verbs to form nouns, and by the union of nouns with vei'bs and prepositions.
§ 32. 1. The primitive verbs are all monosyllables, and most of them are of the
simplest possible form, consisting of a single consonant simple or compound and a
vowel either pure or nasal; as, dd, to create; daq, to j)olisli ; d^e, to eat ; kpoq, to
he red.
2. A few monosyllabic verbs begin with two consonants ; as, mbe, to^6/ nld, fo^e
large., &c. These, however, are secondary forms : mb^ is simply b^, to he., with the
auxiliary prefix 'm,' which is the sign of continuance or permanence; nhi is a
contraction of nild, to he great (lit. ni, to have., ila, greatness).
3. The verbs of two syllables are all either derivatives or exotics. Thus, sufe, to
wlhistle., is composed of so, to eject wind., and ife, a blowing (from the root fe, to
hlow). Fe is now pronounced fe ; but its original form is detected not only in sufe,
bnt also in fere, astlima., ifere, a flute ^ and ifefe, a reed. Tuba, to rqyent., is a recent
importation from the Arabic.
§ 33. The primitive nouns may be classified as follows :
1. Very few are monosyllables ; as, he, mali-gnant envy.
FOKMATION OF WORDS. 11
2. Most of thetn'are dissyllables, of which the following are examples : aba, a
crib, or barn ; al5, evening ; ana, hindred hy marriage ; anu, ^j>i7y ; ara, the lady ;
babd, fatJier ; bote or ibote, silliness ; iha, fever ; irii), iron; igi, wood ; odo, and
om\^ water; ovun, the sun ; qrxLT), Jieaven ; gmo, a child.
3. Some are of three syllables ; as, ^bata, a marsh; adaba, a dove; akara, bread;
ahana, a violent lawless man.
§ 34. Among the primitive particles we have : ni, in, on ; si, to, against ; ti,
from; 6ugb6r), but ; and a number of adverbs,
§ 35. Very few of the exotic words have come to the Yoruba people through
the Arabic ; and it is remarkable that some words of undoubted Eastern origin
are unknown among the tribes further in the interior.
Having thus stated the general principles on which the words of this language,
both primitive and derivative, are formed, we will now proceed to the special rules
for the formation of the several parts of speech.
DERIVATION OF VEEBS.
§ 36. Verbs of more than one syllable are frequently compounded of a mono-
syllabic verb and a noun; as, beru, to be afraid (from ba, to meet, and evu,fear^ ;
sauu, to pity (from se, t0 7nake, and anu, jj«Vy) ; bil^, to onahe room in a, crowd (from
bi, to push, and il^, an opening^.
§ 37. There are three classes of transitive verbs, distinguished by the peculiarity
that the objective case is placed between the component parts or members of the
verb. Their foiination is as follows :
1. a. Two verbs are used for one.* Tims, from fi, to make, and hflq, to appear, is
formed fi... haq, to show ; as, 6 fi woq hai) mi (Jie made them appear to-me\ he
showed them to me. From ba, to meet, and diie, to eat, is formed ba . . . d^e, to spoil ;
as, mo ba iwe di;e {I met booh consimne), I spoiled the booh. From te, to spread,
and bere, to be flat, comes te . . . b^re, to level ; as, te oke bSre (spread hill flat), to
level a hill.
h. Verbs of this class are often used intransitively, so as to be equivalent to a
passive; as, iwe badze, the booh spoils or is spoiled ; oke teberc, the hill levels or is
levelled.
2. a. The second member of a compound transitive verb is sometimes composed
of a preposition and a noun. Thus, be, to cut, li, in regard to, and ori, the head,
form the compound verb, be . . . lori, to beliead ; as, 6 be ole lori (7^6 cut Orthief
as-to-tlis-hea<T), lie beheaded a thief. Ko, to gather, li, in regard to, and eru, pro-
perty, goods, form ko . . . loru, to rob ; as, nwoq ko nu leru {they gathered-iip me a^s--
to-goods\ they robbed me. When the noun in the second meml)ur of the verb has ' n '
in it, 'ni' is used instead of ' li'; as, bi . . . nino, to vex (from l>i, to affect or afflict;
ui, in regard to ; in6, the mind).
b. An intransitive verb, composed of a verl) and a noun (§ 3G) may be converted
into a transitive verb by inserting ' li ' or ' ni ' between the verb and noun. Thus,
* These so-called coinpouiul transitive verbs are, it is true, ratlu!!* phrases than words; but they
are considered as words, because their parts acquire a new meaning by composition, and because
they are actually united into one word when used in a passive sense, and also in forming nouns ; as,
ibadie, a r,poiling, from ba . . . dze, to xjwil.
12 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
beru (ba eru), to be afraid^ becomes ba . . . leru, to frighten ; as, 6 ba mi leru, lie
frightened me.
3. Sometimes the formation of compound transitive verbs is still more com-
I^licatecl, as may be seen in the following example. Ba . . . d:^e, as above stated,
means to spoil j and ni in6, or nino, means in regard to tlie mind; the entire
expression, ba. . .nino d;&e, means to grieve; as, 6 ba mi nino d^e, he grieves me.
The compound here consists of three members, the first and last of which are verbs,
and the middle one is composed of a preposition and noun.
DERIVATION OF NOUN'S.
With Vowd Prefixes.
§ 38. Nouns are formed from verbs, both primitive and derivative, by prefixing
the pure or nasalized vowels, a, e, e, i, o, o, and oq.* These prefixes (excepting
perhaps the vowel ' i ') are simply variations of the pronoun of the third person, in
accordance with the principle of vocalic assimilation already noticed (§ 13).
§ 39. The primary use of these prefixes appeare to have been to form concrete
noims denoting the actor or agent ; as, ofe, a parrot (lit. a whistler, from fe, to
whistle) ; akpedia, a fisliermxin (from kped^a, to hill fish) ; esiq, a horse (from siq,
to run rapidly). But at present, nouns formed by these prefixes have various
meanings, being frequently employed to denote : 1, the doer of the action, or agent ;
2, the receiver of the action, or patient ; 3, the action or state of being ; as, aba
(from ba, to meet), lie who meets, he who is met, or, a meeting ; e^e, sin ; a&e, tJie state
of sin (from ^e, to sin).
§ 40. It is to be observed further that regularly, in accordance with the law of
euphonic concord (§13, 2), the vowel prefixed to the verb should be identical
with that of the verb itself; as, aba, a meeting ; ese, sin ; ofo, loss ; oro, a word.
But if this principle had been adhered to exclusively, only one noun could be
derived from each verb; whereas by prefixing different vowels, there may be several.
Thus, from we, to fold, are derived ewe, a leaf ; iwe, a booJc ; owe, a proverb.
§ 41. The facts in regard to these preformatives, as the practice now stands,
may be summed up as follows ;
1. Concrete nouns are formed from all verbs by prefixing 'a'; as, aba, a meeter,
from ba, to meet. But nouns of this form have various other meanings, as shown
above (§ 39).
2. Nouns denoting an action are formed from all verbs by prefixing ' i ' ; as, iba,
the act of meeting / ife, love. But sometimes this form has a concrete signification ;
as, iMd^a, a peace-maher.
3. The other vowel prefixes, although of frequent occurrence, are not employed
before every verb. They generally form nouns denoting either the doer, the
receiver, or the result of an action ; as, ofi, a loom, from fi, to swing ; esir), a horse,
from siq, to rtm ; edd, a creature, from dd, to create ; oro, a word, from ro, to utter,
to relate.
§ 42. The prefix 'oq ' is not much used, but is met with occasionally; as, oqgbo,
* The vowels a ami u arc never employed as formative prefixes.
FORMATION OF WORDS. 13
thirsty from gbe, to he dry. Before a dental consonant, the nasal ' i) ' is changed to
' n ' ; as, onde, a priaoyiei\ from de, to hind. In one case ' or) ' becomes ' am ' in the
Iketu dialect, and ' oi ' in Yoruba : viz. ambo, oib6, a tvliite man.^ from b6, to peel*
Hence, oi-ombo (oro amb6), tlie tvMte matiUs fruity the usual name of tlie orange ;
and okpaimbo (okpe ambo), tliexoliite mavUs palm.^ that is, a pine-apple.
§ 43. The prefix ' ai ' (composed of ' a ' and ' i,' not)., and its equivalent ' e,' are
attached to verbs to form nouns of a negative meaning; as, aim5, or emo, tlmt
vjliich is unTcnown or unusual.^ a monster • aidze, that which is not eaten or must
not he eaten. Roots vs^ith this prefix are also used imperatively ; as, aiwi, do not
speak., heep silence ! '
With SyllabiG Prefixes.
§ 44. Aba (composed of the prefix 'a' and ba, to meet) is prefixed to verbs to
torm nouns implying union ; as, abata, a marTcetrpUice (lit. aba ita, the meeting of
streets') ; abase, a helper (lit. aba ^e, Iw who meets one to do something). Aba is
sometimes changed into eba; as, ebado, a shore (lit. eba odo, tlie meeting of tJte
water).
§ 45. Abi, which signifies heirig in a state of., haviiuj^ is prefixed to nouns, to form
nouns expressing a quality, endowment, or condition ; as, abiye (abi iye), that tvhich
has feathers ; abara (abi ara), that which has a hody., e. g. agaliti abara yiyi, the
lizard which has a hody of roughness., i. e. a rough hody.
§ 46. Abu is sometimes a derivative from bu, to give j as, abuso, a falsehood (lit.
abu iso, tJie giving of taW). In other cases abu is equivalent to abi ; as, aburo, that
which stands erect (lit. abi iro, heing in a standing posture). For the vowel change,
see § 16, 3.
§ 47. 1. Ada (from dd, to mdke) is prefixed to nouns, to form others implying
the cause or result of an action ; as, adalu, a mixture., adulteration (from ada, a
making., and ilu, a mixing) ; adakpe (ikpe, a calling)., contraction of words., by
elision ; adado (odo, water)., an island.
2. Sometimes the final ' a '/of ada is elided, thus shortening the prefix to ' ad ' ;
as, adete, a leper., from ete, leprosy ; adogui) (oguq, war)., that which causes xoar •
adote (ote, enmity)., that tvhich causes enmity.
§ 48. 'Afi' or 'af (from fi, to make) is prefixed to verbs; as, afih^q, « *Acw,
display (lit. afi, a making., h^q, to appeal"). It is also prefixed to nouns when they
are followed by verbs ; as, af onahAq, a guide (lit. a, lie., fi, makes., 5na, a road.,
h^r), to appear., i. e. one who shows the roaxT).
§ 49. Am, a contraction of amy, a knowing., he who knmvs., is prefixed to nouns ;
as, amero (ero, co7isideration)., a discreet person., discretion; amoye (oye, intel-
ligence)., an intelligent man.
§ 50. Ati (probably composed of ' a ' and ' ti,' from) is prefixed to verbs to
form nouns expressing the abstract idea of the verb ; as, atiri, seeing.
§ 51. Bu and ibu are formed from ibi, a place ; the final 'i' being changed into
' u ' (§ 16, 3). They are prefixed to nouns ; as, Trado, or ibudo, a camp (lit. ibi ido,
tlie place of camping) ; budzoko or ibudi:oko, a seat (ibi id^oko, the place of sitting).
* "When the skin of a negro peels off, especially after a burn, the surface becomes white like the
skiu of a white man. Ambo or oibo means, literally, loho is peeled.
14 • ETYMOLOGY ANB SYNTAX.
§ 52. 1. The vowels, a, e, &c., prefixed to li or ni, to have^ form the prefixes al,
el, el, ol, ol, &c., which form nouns of possession from other nouns ; as, alaso, the
owner of doth, a dealer in cloth (from a^o, cloth^ ; elesiq, the owner of a liorse,
a horseman (from c^ii), a horse) ; oloti, the oioner of ale, a dealer in ale (from
oti, ale).
2. Since the performer of an action may be regarded as its possessor, nouns of
this form frequently denote the actor or agent ; as, al^bo, a defender (from abo,
defence) ; elegbe, a helper (from egbe, help) ; el^se, a sinner (from ^se, sin) ; olore,
a benefactor (from ore, a favor) ; olore, a giver (from ore, a gift).
3. Occasionally we have the form olu, by § 16,3 ; as, oluwa (oil iw&, he who lias
life), a lord i olusc (ise, tvovTc), a lahorer.
4. a. The vowel prefixed to '1' must be the same as the initial vowel of the
noun which takes the prefix, according to the principle of euphonic concord
(§ 13, 2), as seen in the examples given above. But the jirefix '11' is never used;
and hence, when a prefix is required for a jioun beginning with ' i,' it is customary
to employ ' on ' ; as, onibu, that which has breadth, which is broad (fi-om ibu, breadth) ;
onigb^gbo, a believer (from igb^gbo, belief).
b. Sometimes it is more agreeable to the ear to substitute ' ol ' for ' on ' ; as, olifa,
tJiat which is profitcd)le (from \i'A,profii). But in such cases it is usual for the final
'i ' of oli, and the initial ' i' of the noun to be changed into ' u.' (See § 52, 3.)
5. a. By exchanging the initial vowel of these prefixes for 'ai,' they become
negative. Thus, elese, a sinner, becomes ailese, one wlio is sinless ; olomo, one wlw
lias a child, ailomo, tvJw is childless ; aMgbdra, %olio is strong, aiMgbdra, who is not
strong.
b. Frequently the prefix ' al ' is employed before negative nouns ; as, aiko, the state
of being ^mlearned (from ko, to Uarn), alaiko, o^ie xoho is unlearned; aise, shv-
hssness, alaise, he wlw is sinless; aidd, wicreatedness, alaid^ which is not cre-
ated, tohich has no existence.
Nouns formed hy Reduplication.
§ 53. Nouns are formed from verbs by reduplicating the first syllable of the
verb; as, didara, goodness (from dara, to be good)', kpikp6, duration (from kp^, to
stay, to continue). The vowel of the reduplicated syllable is changed into ' i,' as in
the above examples, except that occasionally 'u' is not changed; as, giguq or
gugur), length (from guq, to be long).
§ 54. Nouns formed by reduplication from active transitive verbs have both an
active and a passive signification ; as, tit^, a selling, also, that which is sold or to be
sold (from t^, to sell) : e. g. tit^ ki ise bibu, selling is not giving ; aso tita, cloth to sell.
§ 55. A few inelegant nouns are formed by reduplicating the entire vei-b ; as,
kpedzakpedza, a fisherman (from kpedi;a, to Mil fish). . Either akped^a or oni-
kpedza is preferable to the reduplicated form.
§ 56. Nouns are formed by redupHcating a noun and inserting ki, li, ri, de, or iyi,
usually with an elision of the final vowel of the particle, as follows :
1. a. Ki has the sense of any or wlmtever ; v^, eiyekoiyo, any bird wlmtever
(from eiye) : e. g. d 6 ri eiyekeiye, we saio no birds whatever ; eiyokoiyc a to, any
bird will do (a to, icill sufiice).
FORMATION OF WORDS. 15
h. Nonns of this form are sometimes employed to express contempt ; as, eiiia-
kenia li iwo, tlwu art a contemptible person ; oLirikobiri, a trifling woman.
c. When tlie reduplicated noun begins with ' i,' it is converted after the particle
into 'u' (§ 16, 3) ; thus, from isiq, service^ we have isiqkusiq, superstition.
d. Observe that the vowel following 'k' invariably has a strong accent, as,
eniake'nia.
, 2. Li, to have, when inserted in a reduplicated noun, implies ownership in refer-
ence to a .third pereon ; as, omolomo, another persoiUs child : e. g. &mk omolomo, roe
must not whip anotlier person! s cliild (lit. omo olomo, tlie child of tlie cJiild-otvner').
3. Ri, ever, only ; as, ^yer^ye, ever living (from ^ye, the state of heing alive) ;
medi:ired^i, only two (from med^i and ed^i, two).
4. De, to ; as, owodowo, tradition (lit. owo de owo, hand to Imnd). x\ti, from,
is sometimes prefixed to nouns of this form ; as, atiraqdiraq, genealogy (lit. ati iraq
de iraq, from generatimi to generation).
5. lyi (perhaps i. q. eyi, this) makes a noun emphatic ; as, ekuru-iyekuru, the
dnst, this dust, i. e. the very dust.
Nouns formed hy Composition.
§ 57. Two nouns are occasionally compounded together, the qualifying term or
possessoi' being placed last, which is the reverse of the English order ; as, omo ohii),
a follower, a disciple (from omo, a cliild or servant, and ehiq, tlie haclc) ; odzii ona
(eye road), a gate ; oluso dgutaq (toatclier sheep), a shepherd ; ile tubu (liouse
prisoti), a jail.
§ 58. A whole phrase is frequently united to form a noun ; as, afibikpore, an
ungrateftd person (from a, lie, % put, ibi, evU, kpe, to call, dre, good) ; agabagcbe,
a dovUe-dealer, a hypocrite (from a, he, guq, clhnbs, aba, tlie crib or lam, guq,
climbs, ebe, the yamdiiU).
§ 59. Many nouns in 'a' are compounded with verbs to form new abstract
nouns ; as, asdM, escape (from asd, a running, and \k, to he safe) ; afetdq, perfect
love (from afe love, and tdq, to be completed) ; ased:iu, excess, as to conduct (from
ase a doing, an action, and dzu, to surpass).
§ 60. Adverbs also are attached to this class of nouns in the same manner ; as,
akpedz;o, a congregation (from akpe, a calling, and d^o, together) ; agbesoke, a
lifting up (from agbe, a lifting, and soke, up) : e. g. gbe e li agbes6ke, lift it as
to a lifting tip, for gbe e soke, lift it up.
§ 61. To exhibit the various regular methods of forming nouns and verbs from
a verbal root, we subjoin the following list of words regularly derived from g^q,
to despise :
1. Nouns formed by attaching a single prefix to the root or by reduplicating It :
ag^q, one wlio despises or tolw is despised; tlie state of being despised, contempt ;
tlie act of despising.
ig^q, tlie act of despising ; a despise^\
oqgj^q, a despiser.
atigiiq, a desprising ; as an infinitive, to despise, to he despised.
gig^q, a despising, that whieh is despised; as an infiniti\'p, to desjyise or be
despised.
1& ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
gkrjgkr), a despieer.
aigaq, the state of not being despised.
2. Verbs formed from agflq, igt^q, and aig^i), by prefixing the verb dd, to make ;
die, to he; ]i, to Imve; m6, to Tcnow or experience ; or ^e, to do., to act:
dag^r), to cause contempt or liatred.
diag^q, fo ^6 despised.
if^, ^' > to he despised.
mag^q, to he despised; to experience Imtred or contempt.
sagfiq, to he despised; to despise.
laig^q, to he not despised.
saig^q, to he not despised., to despise not.
3. Nouns formed from these verbs by the prefixes ' a/ ' i,' and ' ati.' It seems
unnecessary to write these nouns ; but observe that instead of aligilq, a despiser^ one
who is despised., we frequently hear oligaq, olug&q, and onigaq. Adagiq, one wlix)
causes contempt^ may be changed into onidag&q ; and in like manner ' oni ' may
be prefixed to diag^q, sagfiq, and saig^q, instead of ' a.'
DERIVATION OF ADVERBS.
§ 62. In the Yoruba language many abstract relations, as those of time and
place, are expressed by nouns ; as, oni, this day ; ana, the day hefore to-day., yesterday;
ola, the day after to-day^ to-morrow ; ibi, this place ; ibe, that place. These nouns
are formed into adverbs by prefixing 11 or ni, in ; as, li oni or loni, to-day ; li
ola or lola, to-morrow ; ni ibe or nibe, there, &c.
§ 63. Adverbs of time expressing the idea of recurrence or repetition are
formed by reduplicating the first syllable of a noun expressing time, and then
prefixing li or ni, in ; as, odio, a day ; odiodio, day after day ; lodiodio, daily.
So from osu, a month., we have ososu and lo^osu, montldy., &c.
§ 64. A few adverbs are formed by combining several words ; as, nigbagbogbo,
alioays (from ni, i)i, igba, ti?ne, gbogbo, all or every) ; nitorikini ? xoherefore ?
(from niti, in., as to ; ori, reason or cau4e ; kini, %olmf) ; boyi, perhaps (from bi,
§ 65. Many adverbs consist of a reduplicated syllable or word; as, goge., alihe ;
gldigidi, w;'?/ / gmgoi., sluggishly ; 'kiiT)'kai),quicMy ; fiofio, w?'^/ (high). It is pro-
bable that all such adverbs were originally nouns, formed by reduplicating the
entire verbal root.
§ 66. Although the adverbs are quite numerous, there are some relations which
none of them definitely express ; and hence both verbs and nouns are frequently
used adverbially, as in the following cases :
1. For want of an adverb to express the idea of more, the verb diu, to surpass,
is employed in that sense ; as, dara dih {good s-mpassing), more good or hetter ; iwo
sise dzu mi, ymt worh more than I. Sometimes loli, to go, is added ; as, iwo kihe
(Mvl mi loh ; but it makes no perceptible addition to the sense.
2. The adverb sokaq, togetlier, exjiresses the idea of unison or congrulty, rather
than that of being or acting in common ; and hence to denote the latter idea, the
IITFLEXION AND CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS. lY
verbs dio, to asseirible^ and kp5, to he common^ are employed ; as, k6 d^o, to collect
togetlier ; soro kpo, to talk togetJier.
3. The adverbs of place with the idea of motion, as, loke, vp^ and nisale, doion^
correspond very nearly to the English words iiinvcirds and downwards ; and hence
to express the precise idea of iip and dxnon^ the Yorubas employ the verbs, dide,
to rise, and ^ubu, to fall; as, ih dide, to raise (one) up ; bi ^ubu, to push (one)
down.
4. Finally, to mention one more example among many, the Yoruba adverbs
meaning mxicli refer to number and quantity rather than to degree ; and hence to
express this last idea, the noun kpikp5, oLundaTwe, is used ; as, fe kpikp6, to love
onucJh or greatly.
§ 67. Many Yoruba adverbs are restricted in their use to a single word, or at
most to a single idea ; as, fiofio, very or mvoh, which is applied to nothing except the
idea of height; scqseq, (standing) uprigld ; buruburu, (hiding) closely ; biribiri,
intensely (dark). Ex: igi ga fiofio, the tree is very tall; li duro seqseq, toe stand
erect ; ole kpamo buruburu, the thief hid closely ; il^ ^li biribiri (tlie-ground is-darh
intensely^, it is very darTc.
DERIVATION OF PREPOSITIONS.
§ 68. A few of the prepositions are verbs ; as, ba, iDith, along with (prop, to
ineet) ; fi, with, hy means of (prop, to make) ; de, for (prop, to he ready, prqxired).
But most of the Yoruba prepositions are composed of a noun and one of the pri-
mitive particles ni, in ; si, to ; or ti, from ; as, nin6, in, within (from ni and ino, the
inside^. (See Prepositions.)
DERIVATION OF CONJUNCTIONS. '
§ 69. A few of the conjunctions may be primitive words.; but it is not difficult
to refer them to verbal roots ; as, bi, if ; probably from the obsolete verb bi, to he,
which is still retained in composition, e. g. abi, the state of existence.
§ 70. Most of the remaining conjunctions are compound words; as, ndiie, then
(from 6q, it, and d^e, to he) ; nitori, hecause (from niti, in, and ori, reason).
§ Yl. The origin of others is more doubtful. Thus, adi, notwithstanding, may
be derived from di, to suhtract ; oq, and, appeai-s to be the pronoun 6ij, he ; ki, that,
is a primitive. (See Conjunctions.)
CHAPTEE II.
INFLEXION AND CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS.
§ 72. When words are combined together to form propositions, the relations
which they bear to each other are indicated partly by their position with regard
to each other, or collocation, pai-tly by certain subordinate words or particles
employed for this purpose, and partly by changes in the form of words, called
inflexions. In the Yoruba language the first and second of these methods are
3
18
ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
mostly employed. Of inflexion, properly so called, the language exhibits but
faint traces.
§ Y3. The verb is the most important part of speech, and that from which most,
if not all, the other words in Yoruba may be considered as derived. It would
therefore be proper to commence this division of the Grammar with the verb.
But the verb cannot be conjugated except by means of the pei-sonal pronouns ; and
hence it is most convenient to begin with the pronouns.
PRONOUNS.
Personal Pronomns.
NOMINATIVES.
§ Y4. The primary forms of the personal pronouns are : emi, /; iwo, thou ; oq,
he, she, or it. Each of these pronouns is inflected, or varied in form, to distinguish
the plural from the singular number ; as, emi, I ; awa, we ; but there is no variation
of form to express gender.
§ 75. Besides the primary forms just mentioned, each of the singular personal
pronouns, when employed as the subject of a proposition, has two contracted or
secondary forms, the use of which depends on the principle of euphonic concord
laid down in a previous section (§ 13) ; and the pronouns of the first and third per-
sons have each two additional contracted forms, founded on other considerations,
which will presently be explained. The plurals are likewise subject to contraction.
§ 76. The contracted or secondary forms of these pronouns may be classified as
follows :
1. The euphonic forms, which are divided into,
a. The close form ending in ' o,' which is used before the close vowels.
b. The open form, ending in ' o,' which is used before the open vowels.
2. The citatvve form, the pronouns of which, mi, I, and i, lie, slie, it, appear to be
contractions of ' emi ' and ' yi.'
3. The future form, so called because employed chiefly in the future tense.
4. All the plural nominatives are sometimes abridged in form by the suppression
of the entire second syllable, to allow of their being more closely connected with
the following verb.
§ 77. The various forms of the personal pronouns, m what may be called the
nominative case, are then as follows :
SINGULAR.
I'LUKAL.
Primary Forms.
Contracted Forms.
Primary.
Contr''d.
1, 1, emi
2, thou, iwo
3, he, she, it, 6r), oq
Eupli
Open.
mo
6
onic.
Close.
mo
o
6
Citative.
mi
i
Future.
yi, ii
we, awa
F, <:i)yiq
tliey, awoq, nwoq
ii
INFLEXION AND CONSTKUOTION OF WORDS. X9
Remarks on the Nominatives.
§ 78. The primary forms of these pronouns may be employed on all occasions,
the use of the contracted forms being optional.
§ 79. The close and open forms are employed instead of the primary forms
merely for the sake of euphony.
1. The rules to be observed in their use are as follows;
a. When the first vowel of the following verb is a close vowel, viz. e, i, o, or u,
the close form of the pronoun must be employed ; as, mo se, I did ; o ri, tlioit seest.
b. "When the first vowel of the verb is an open vowel, viz. e or o, the open form
of the nominative pronoun is employed ; as, mo fe, Ilove ; o mo, lie hnmos. This
rule, however, is often neglected in practice.
c. Before the neuter vowel ' a,' the open or close form of the pronoun is used
indifferently; as, mo tk or mo t^, I sell.
2. There are two peculiarities to be noted in reference to the use of the close and
open forms.
a. None of them can be employed as nominatives to verbs in the future tense.
For instance, it is correct to say either,'emi 6 ri, or i) 6 ri, I slmll see j but mo 6 ri
is inadmissible.
i. Before the particle k6 or k6, Twt^ 6 or 6, A^, is uniformly omitted : as, k6 ri,
Jie does not see ; k5 mb, he does not Tcnow. But 6r) or 6q is used with that par-
ticle ; as, 6r] kd m6, lie does not hnow.
§ 80. 1. The citative forms, mi, 7", and i, he^ are rarely used; but they are
sometimes emploj^ed in repeating what has been said, with the suppression of the
verb of saying, asking, or replying; as, mi, nibo, Z (enquired) cohere? i, lohuq, lie
(replied) yonder ; mi, ho, /(answered) 6 ; this word '6' being the usual reply to
a salutation, which is aspirated in the above example for the sake of euphony.
2. The pronouns of this form are never employed in negative or interrogative
sentences ; neither is there any analogous contracted form for the second person
singular or for the plural.
§ 81. The pereonal pronoun 'q' appeai-s to be a modification of 'emi.' The
manner in which it is formed is seen in the subjunctive phrase, ki emi ri, that I see^
which is frequently contracted to ki em' ri, and ki 'm' ri ; and is still more fre-
quently pronounced ki q ri. Although we have classed ' q •' along with ' yi ' in the
future form, its use is not confined to the future tense. It is employed as follows :
1. In the future tense, instead of ' emi ' ; as, q 6 ri, I shall see.
2. In negative propositions, before k6 or k5, 7wt ; as, q ko ri {I not see), I do not
see ; q k() 16h (^I not go), I do or will not go. It is especially employed to express
refusal ; as, q ko 6e e, I 'will not do it; emi ko se 6, suggests the idea of denial, /
did not do it.
§ 82. The use of the demonstrative yi, this or that, as a pronoun of the third
person, is confined to the future tense.
1. It is employed instead of 6q, lie, she, it; as, yi 6 de, lie will come.
2. It is often used pleonastically after other nominatives, either singular or plural.
a. In affirmative sentences it is generally preceded by ni, to he ; as, babd ni yi 6
ri {father it-is tJiat will see), father will see ; awa ni yi 6 mh {we it-is that toill
hnow), we toill hnmn.
20
ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
In these examples we have probably the full original construction of ' yi ' in the
future, from which the briefer modes of expression — awa 6 ri, and awa 6 m^ —
are formed by ellipsis.
h. In negative future propositions, ' yi ' is always placed betweeii ki, Twi^ and the
auxiliary 6 or 6 ; as, emi ki yi 6 ri {I not iluxt shall see), I sJudl not see ; nwoq ki
yi 6 mo, tJiei/ will not Tcnow.
§ 83. The pronoun ' d ' is employed before verbs in the future tense, as a substitute
both for yi, he, and 6 or o, will ; as, d, lu mi, lie will strike me ; k fo 6, lie will
break it.
§ 84. Awoq, they, is not employed as the direct subject of a proposition, except
occasionally in the Egba dialect. Its use is restricted to two cases, in both of which
nwoq is inadmissible :
1. Before ti, tvho or which, it is employed as the subject of a proposition ; as,
awoq ti o de {they wlw he came), tliey xolio came ; awoq ti eba 6na, tliey which (fell
by) tlie road side (Luke 8. 12).
2. Before nouns, to indicate plurahty ; as, awoq agba kp^d^o {tliey elder met),
tlie elders were assembled ; ona awoi) elese, tlie toay of sinners.
§ 85. The use of the contracted plural forms, d, 6, d, is oj)tional, and differs in no
respect from that of the full forms, except that d, they, is used imj)ersonally to form
a substitute for passive verbs. (§ 147.)
OBJECTIVES.
§ 86. The personal pronouns when employed as the object of a proposition,
whether governed by verbs or prepositions, take the following forms :
SINGULAK.
PLUEAL.
Primary Forms.
Contracted Forms.
Primary.
Contracted.
1. me, emi
2. tliee, iwo
3. him, her, it, og oq
mi
o
^ r\ A r\ /*! A '^
o, o, u, a, e, e, i
US, awa
yon, eqyig
iliem, awoq, nwoq
wa
woq
Remarks on the Objoctivos.
§ 87. The primary forms, which are the same as in the nominative, are used in
the following cases :
1. When two objective pronouns are connected by a conjunction ; as, 6 dd iwo
ati emi, he made thee and me ; d mc) oq ati awog, we know him and tliem. In this
case awoq is preferable to nwog.
2. When an objective pronoun is connected with ' nd,' having the sense of self ;
as, nwoq k6 ri og nd, they did twt see himself ; 6 kpe awog nd, he called themselves.
Here again awog is preferable to nwog.
3. When an objective pronoun begins a sentence ; as, iwo ni mo ri (tliee it-is 1
saw), I saw tliee ; awog or nwog ni d kpe, we called them.
INFLEXION AND CONSTRUCTION OF WOKDS.
21
4. Wlien. the objective pronoun is followed by the relative ti, tvlu) or which / as,
mo ri oq ti o de (I smo himioho he came), I saw him xolio came ; mo fe awoq ti o
fe emi, I love tlwm who love me. Nwoi) is not used in this case.
5. The full form is frequently employed because it is more agreeable to the ear ;
as, mo fe awoq ti o fe emi, I love them tvho love me.
§ 88. As the objective pronouns are generally governed by a preceding word to
which they are closely attached in pronunciation, the contracted forms are, for the
most part, made by eliding the initial vowel of the pronoun, so that it may be more
closely joined to the governing word. On these forms the following observations
are to be made :
1. "We occasionally hear e for o, tliee ; as, mo ri e, I see you. This is a con-
traction of the pronoun of the second person plural, which, as with us, is often used
instead of the singular by way of politeness.
2. a. Reasoning from analogy, we may assume that the original contracted form
of the third person singular, was 'o,' like the nominative; but as this vowel
becomes perfectly assimilated to the final vowel of the governing verb or pre-
position, it assumes in turn all the forms of these vowels ; as, mo r^ a, I bought it •
mo se e, I did it / mo ri i, I saw it ' fu u, to it, &g.
b. The objectives, S, e, 6, i, o, 8, and u, have no accent, and scarcely any per-
ceptible quantity, especially when they follow a sharp vowel. The practised ear
can discover, however, that they slightly sharpen the preceding vowel. Thus, mo
ri i, J see it, is pronounced mo ri ; and mo m6 6, / know him, is pronounced, as
nearly as signs can represent it, mo m6'.
POSSESSIVES.
§ 89. As the pronouns when used to indicate possession are closely attached to
a preceding noun, they assume the same contracted forms as the objectives ; the
only difference is that ' r^ ' is employed as the possessive of the second and third
persons singular.
SINGULAK.
PLURAL.
Primary Forms.
Contracted Forms.
Primary.
Contracted.
1. ony, emi
2. thy, iwo
3. his, her, its, oq
mi
our, awa
your, oqyiq
tlieir, awoq, nwoq
wa
woq
§ 90. The full or primary forms are employed as possessives only Avhen the rela-
tion of possession is expressed by the preposition ti, of (see §131,2); as, iwe ti emi
{booh of me), my boolc' iwe ni ti emi {book it4s of me), it is my book.
§ 91. 1. Frequently, however, the relation of possession is indicated simply by
placing the pronoun immediately after the noun (see § 131, 1), and then the con-
tracted form is employed ; as, iwe mi {l>ook of me), my hook ; iwe re {book, of thee
or hhri), tliy book or his book.
22 ETYMOLOGY AITO SYNTAX.
2. The same forms are used after a so-called compound verb, consisting of a verb
and a noun (§ 36), when, although the pronoun is rendered into English as an
objective, it really stands in the relation of possessor to the noun ;. as, mo beru r^,
I fear liim ; lit. mo ba eru r^, I meet tlie fear of Mm or Jiis fear.
EMPHATIC AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.
§ 92. The personal pronouns are augmented by the addition of several words
equivalent to the English word self^ selves^ &c., as follows :
1. Nd, tliat^ added to a pronoun makes it emphatic; as, ami nd, I myself ; iwe ti
emi nd, my own hook.
2. Ara, body or self^ is used only before possessives, and performs two offices:
a. Before a singular possessive it makes the pronoun reflexive ; as, 6 fe ara r^,
lie loves Mmself.
h. Before a plural, it often makes the pronoun reciprocal ; as, nwoq fe ara woq,
tliey love eaxih other.
3. Tikara (composed of ati, amd., eki, ovUy.^ and ara, sdf^., sometimes pronounced
tikala, is employed before possessives, and forms emphatic pronouns ; as, emi tikara
mi mo (/ and-only-self my hnow)^ 1 myself hnow / eqyiq tikara nyiq ri, ye your-
selves see.
4. Kpakpa, self is added either to a nominative or objective pronoun, and ren-
ders it emphatic ; as, iwo kpakpa, tliee thyself. Kpakpa is more definite than nd,
being equivalent to very self. Sometimes tikara with its possessive pronoun is
followed by kpakpa; as, iwo tikara r^ kpakpa, tTiee thyself or thy very self.
But the expression ' iwo kpakpa ' appears to be equally strong without the addition
of ' tikara r^.'
§ 93. Each of the foregoing expressions may be used in conjunction with nouns,
as follows : babd nd ri — ^babd ara vh ri — babd tikara r^ ri — babd kpakpa ri — ^babd
tikara r^ kpakpa ri ; each of which sentences signifies, failier Mmself sees.
PLEONASTIC USE OF PRONOUNS.
§ 94. Personal pronouns which would be superfluous in English are frequently
employed in Yoruba, as in the following cases :
§ 95. 1. When a verb is separated from its nominative by intervening words ;
as, okoqri kaq ol9ro 6 ni iridiid kag (man oTie rich lie Iwd steward one)., a richmnn
had a steward.
2. When the objective noun is separated from the governing word by a relative
clause, an objective pronoun is supplied after the governing word, whether it be a
verb or a preposition ; as, omo, ti o 16h oko, ekuq mu u (the cMld^ wlio lie tvent to-
thefarm^ a leopard catight hmi)^ a leopard caught tlie child who went to tlie farm, ;
alagbe, ti o koqriq li ode ni, mo fi i fu {tlie beggar., lolio lie sa/ng at tlie door it4s, I
gave it to), I gave it to the beggar who sang at the door.
§ 96. Pleonastic 6 or 6, he, she, it, frequently occurs before verbs :
1. When ti, tolio, which, is the subject of a relative clause ; as, enia ti o de (tlie
person who he came), tlie person who came; eqyiq ti o m5, ye who hnow.
2. After ni or li, this one, tlmt one, when employed as a substitute for the relative
ti ; as, enia li o sin a, a people who err.
INFLEXION AND OONSTEUCTION OF WORDS. 23
3. After ni or li, when this word is used pleonastically in the sense of to he ; as,
iwo li o se e (thou it-is that did it)^ tJwu didst it ; iya li o kp6 o, inother called tliee.
§ 97. A pleonastic pronoun of the third person singular follows verbs of saying,
writing, tfec, in connexion with kpe, tlmt, to wit ; as, 6 t6nunio 8 kpe 6q ko ^e G
(]i6 affirmed it tlmt he not did it'), lie affinned tliat he did Twt do it / mo kowe r^ kpe
emi mbo {Ihmlt-hook of -it that I was-coming), I to rote that Itvas coming.
§ 98. Yi, he, she, it, is frequently employed pleonastically before verbs in the
future tense ; as, oba yi o kpa S, tlie hing lie will kill him.
OMISSION OF PRONOUNS.
§ 99. The personal pronoun 6 or 6, he, she, it, is always omitted before k6, k6,
or ki, not- as, ko ri, he does not see j ko m5, lie does not hioiv ; ki ise enia rere (iwt
is person goodness), he is not a good man. But the full form 6q or oq, he, is not
omitted ; and hence, instead of the above expressions, we may use their precise
equivalents, or) ko ri, he does not see ; 6q k6 m6, he does not know • 6q ki ise enia
rere, he is not a good man,
§ 100. Possessives are sometimes omitted for the sake of brevity ; as, 16h bo
odi;u, go wash (your) face; iya de, (my) mother has come.
Demonstrative Pronouns.
§ 101. The demonstrative pronouns are yi, this ; nd, that; m,this one, that one;
with their plurals woqyi, these, woni, tlwse, formed by prefixing awoi), they, to 'yi'
and ' ni.'
§ 102. The demonstratives are placed immediately after the nouns which they
define ; as, ile yi, this Iwuse ; ile woni, those Jiouses. When the noun is followed
by a descriptive word, the demonstrative is placed after both; as, enia rere nd
(^person of goodness that), tliat good person.
§ 103. Both 'yi' and 'nd' may be attached to plural nouns; as, awoq enia yi,
tliese people ; gbogbo ile nd, all those houses.
§ 104. The pronoun ' ni ' appears to be, as regards its origin, the near demon-
strative this. At present, however, this word and its corresponding substantive
' eni ' have the following uses and acceptations.
1. It is employed as an indefinite pronoun, which may be variously rendered
according to circumstances ; as, wi fu ni or eni (speak to one or a person), speak to
me or us ; bd ni sise, help one, or ns, to work ; eni ti mb6 (one wlio is coming), he
who is coming ; emi k6 ri eni kaq (I not see some one), I see no one.
2. ' Ni' is frequently employed as a definite article (§ 108).
3. It is combined with other pronouns in composition ; as, eyini (eyi ni), tliat ;
awoni (awoq ni), those; tani? (ta? ni), who? kini? (ki? ni), what?
§ 105. When the demonstratives are employed substantively, they are aug-
mented by the addition of the usual preformatives ; as, eyi, alayi, eleyi, this ;
oqnd, tlmt; of which the plurals are awoqyi, iwoqyi, nwoqyi, tliese; awoni, awoqnd,
tlwse. Sometimes ' eyi ' reduplicates the second syllable ; as, eyiyi, this ; and fre-
quently it is compounded with ni, forming the compound substantive pronoun
eyini, meaning that.
1. The substantive demonstratives are construed like nouns ; as, eyi li o se e
24 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
{this itris lie did it), this person did it / ognd 11 o wi i (that it-is lie said it), that
person said it ' iwogyi mo, tliese hwio.
2. 'Oqnd' and 'awoqnd' are emphatic; as, awoqnd ni mo ri (tliose it-is I saw),
I saw tlmse very persons, or themselves.
DEFINITE ARTICLE.
§ 106. The demonstratives nd and ni, tJmt, and the substantive pronoun eyi, this,
frequently have the force of the definite article.
§ 107. Nd is always equivalent to the English demonstrative that, although in
some cases it may' be rendered by the article the ; as, okoqri nd ti o de lana, tJie
inrni who ca/rtie yesterday.
§ 108. Ni is scarcely used as a demonstrative, and is more nearly equivalent to
the article ; as, d ri odo nld ni, we saxo tlie great river ; oba ni li o wi i (hing tJie it-
is that said it), the hing said it. In the use of ni we observe two peculiarities.
1. It is employed in connexion with kar), one, which is used to indicate sin-
gularity ; as, omode kaq ni li o se e, the child did it.
2. It frequently qualifies a phrase or sentence; as, ile qdzo ni, tliere is a Iwuse an
fire; baloguq med^i, ti o 16h oguq nd ni, ko huwa re, two generals, xolw we)it to tliat
war, did not hehave well. In these and all similar examples 'ni' may be rendered
by it is.
§ 109. Eyi, this, is employed as a definite article, before the noun, in speaking
of one among a plurality of things previously mentioned. Thus in Luke 15. 12,
after mentioning the two sons, we have the phrase ' eyi aburo,' the yownger.
The Relative Protunm.
§ 110. The relative ti, w/w or which, is applied to both persons and things, and
is not varied to indicate gender, number, or case. Hence, as is the case, for instance,
with the uninflected Hebrew relative, a pereonal pronoun is often employed in
connexion with it to indicate the number and person which the relative would have
if inflected.
§ 111. 1. a. When employed as the subject of a relative clause, or in what may
be called the nominative case, ti is usually followed by o or o, Jie, site' it, which is
used in a general way for all numbers and persons ; as, awa ti o ri, we who see ;
iwo ti o ko, thou who learnest.
h. When the verb of the relative clause begins with 'm,' 'n,' or 'ij,' either as an
auxiliary particle or as a component part of the verb, the ' o ' or ' o ' is usually
omitted ; as, iwo ti qsoro, thou who art speahing / awa ti mbe, we wlio are.
2. Frequently, however, instead of ' o ' or ' o,' a pronoun is used, agreeing in
person and number with the antecedent ; as, enia ti awoq ^e G (person who tliey did
it), tlie people wlio did it; emi ti mo m6 ( I who ITcnow), I who Icnow.
3. It being regarded as sufiicient if the plurality of the antecedent is once
expressed, the same thing may be said in several difterent ways. Thus the sen-
tence, he slew his sons tvJio rebelled, may be expressed in Yoruba either by, 6 kpa
awoq omo rh ti o sote (lit. ?ie slew tJtem son of him wTio lie rebelled) ; or by, 6 kpa
omo r^ awoq ti o sote ( he sleio son of him they wlio lie rebelled) ; or else by, 6 kpa
omo re ti nwoq soto {he sleio son of Jtim who they rebelled).
IKFLEXION AND CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS. 25
§ 112. 1. In what may be called the objective case, 'ti' is not followed by 'o'
or any other pleonastic pronoun ; as, ile ti oba ko, tlw Jiouse wliicli the hing huilt.
2. The relative cannot be governed directly by a preposition, but only through
a noun or pronoun ; hence when the preposition has no other word for its object,
the pronoun eni, one^ is introduced before the relative ; as, si eni ti {to one who)^
to whom J fu eni ti {for ofie who)^ for whom,
§ 113. The possessive case is expressed:
1. By employing a personal pronoun, which must follow the name of the thing
possessed ; as, okoqri ti il6 r^ d^o {man v)ho Iwii-se of him burned)^ the man whose
hmise was burned.
2. By employing the pronoun eni, one^ before ti ; as, bata eni ti emi ko t6 gbe
{shoes of one which I not am-s^(fficientto-bear')^ whose shoes I am not worthy to hear.
Eni is sometimes introduced to make a phrase definite; as, gbogbo qyiq eni ti
rjgbo {all you one who are-hearing)., all you wlw hear.
§ 114. When its antecedent is a noun signifying time or place, 'ti' may be
rendered by wlien or wliere; as, igba ti mo de, tlie time when I came ; ibi ti 6 w^,
the place where he is.
§ 115. The compound relative wMt is expressed:
1. By a noun and ' ti,' which; as, emi k6 fe qkaq ti 6 6e, I do not lilce what
(lit. thing which) lie did.
. 2- By eyi ti, this which ; as, awa k5 m^ eyi ti 6 ri, we do not Tcnow wliat he saw.
3. By bi . . . ti, a^ . . . which; as, mo gb6 bi o ti wi, I heard what thmi saidst.
§ 116. We occasionally meet with ni or li, that., employed as a relative instead
of ti ; as, enia li o sina li eyi, this is a people that err.
OMISSION OF THE RELATIVE.
§ 117. The relative is omitted in the following cases:
1. Before an adverb composed of a preposition, a noun, and the relative ; as,
eqyiq li awoq nigbati eqyiq gbo {ye are they in-time^hicliye hear)., ye are they who
when ye hear.
2. Before mdh, not; as, alagbara mdh m5 6ro {strong-man not Mows conside-
ration), a strong tnan who does not consider; abani^e mdh ba ni 6e m6 {helper not
with one acts more)., a helper who helps no more.
3. Sometimes, instead of making use of a relative clause in dependence on the
main proposition, two separate propositions are employed ; as, am^raq mh owe, i
l&d^a or^q {wise-man hnows proverbs., he recoTiciles difficulties)., a wise man who
hnows proverbs reconciles difficidties.
Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns.
§ 118. Ta? who? is generally, if not invariably, compounded with ni or li, iJ/iai!.
It is employed as follows :
1. As an interrogative pronoun; as, tani? who'i tani ni? who is it? iwo tani?
{tlm.0 who), who art tluruf tani se e? who did it? or, tali o 6e e? {who he did it),
who did it ? 6 lu tani ? lie struck whom ? tani 6 wi fu ? whom did he speak to ? or
6 wi fu tani ? he spoke to wJiom ?
4
26 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
2. As an indefinite pronoun ; as, emi m6 tani 6 lu, ITcnow wlwm Tie struck.
In the Egba dialect, before the auxiliary particle 'i),' 'ta' is sometimes omitted, and 'li' only is
employed ; as, li i)kp6 mi ? who is calling me ?
3. Tani is equivalent to a possessive in various constructions :
a. After the name of the thing possessed ; as, ile tani r)di;o ? (Jiouse of whom
is-hurning f ) wlwse house is burning f At the option of the speaker, ti, of, may be
inserted before tani ; as, ile ti tani gd^o ?
h. The same thing may be expressed by tani ? xvlio f and ni, to Imve or own^ with
ti, ivhich^ following the name of the thing possessed; as, tani ni ile ti qd^o? {who
house which is-bu7'ning^^ whose hcmse is-hurning ?
§ 119. The relative 'ti' is employed as an interrogative in the sense oiwliat?
1. Ti alone is used; as, emi 6 ti se? {IsJutU what do)^ what shall I do? egyiq
6 ti se md ? (ye xvill what do tchhnow)^ luno will ye Tcnow ?
2. Very often bi, as^ is employed as a complement to ' ti ' ; in which case ' bi '
precedes the subject of the verb; as, bi emi ti qse? {as I what am-doing^, wluxt
am I doing ? bi iwo ti se vah ? {as thou what dost to-hiow^^ lunv dost thou hnow f
§ 120. The particle or pronoun ' e,' which the natives regard as a contraction of
eyi, thi^^ is used for what in the expression, e se ? {what is it), what is the matter?
why ? or, e ti se, which has the same meaning.
§ 121. Ki? tvhat? which? is also combined with ni or li, tliat^ and is used /is
follows :
1. As an interrogative pronoun; as, kini? or kini ni? what is it? kill 6 qse?
ivhat is lie doing ? nitori kini iwo qkigbe ? {for what thmi, art-lawlin^)^ xvhy art
tJu)u bawling? lati kini 6 de? {from tvhat it came)^froni tohat did it arise?
2. It is also employed as an indefinite pronoun; as, emi mo kill 6 6e, ITcnow
xolmt he did.
3. "When inserted between the parts of a reduplicated noun ' ki ' has the force
oi whatever • as, ile ki ile, or ilekile, any house whatever (§,56, 1, a).
§ 122. 1. Wo? xohich? what? is an adjective pronoun, attached interrogatively
to nouns ; as, ile wo li 6 ri ? {house lohicli is-it he bought)^ xohich house did he biiy ?
^nia wo li o fe ota r^ ? {person what is-it he loves enemy his), what nutn loves his
en&tny ?
2. a. Ewo ? formed by prefixing ' e ' to ' wo,' is a substantive pronoun ; as, ewo
ti o dara ? (which that it is-good), which, or which one, is good ? emi 6 mb ewo ! I do
nx)t hnow which !
b. Ewo is employed as an indefinite pronoun ; as, b^re ewo li 6 fe {ash which itris
he wants), inquire which he wants.
In the Egba dialect ' si ' and ' yisi ' are sometimes employed as substitutes for ' wo' and 'ewo ' ; as, ni
id^9 si 6 de ? on what day did he come ? yisi 6 gba ? which did he take ?
INFLEXION AND CONSTKUCTION OF WORDS.
27
VERBS.
Principles of Conjugation.
§ 123. Througli all the variations of person, number, mode, and tense, the
Yoruba verbal root remains unchanged.
§ 124. Person and number are denoted by the form of the personal pronoun
that represents the subject, as follows :
emi ri, I see or saw. awa ri, we see or saw.
iwo ri, thou seest or sawest. egyiq ri, ye see or saw.
6q ri, lie sees or saw. nwoq ri, they see or saw.
§ 125. The modes and tenses are indicated by auxihary particles placed before
the verb. The whole difficulty of the Yoruba verb lies in the position and meaning
of these particles ; and thus the intricacies usually found in the inflexions of the verb
ai-e here transferred* as it were, to the department of syntax.
§ 126. There is but one conjugation, and no irregular verbs, in Yoruba; all verbs
being varied in the same manner. We will here give a synoptical view of the
various forms of the verb.
AoRIST.
Past.
FuTUKE.
INDICATIVE FORMS.
Simple.
I Per/, emi ri, I see or saw.
\ Impf. emi qri, I am or was seeing.
j Perf. emi ti ri, I have or liad seen.
\ Impf. emi ti qri or qti qri, I have or had been seeing.
{ First, emi b ri or k ri, I shall or will see.
\ Sec. emi 6 ti ri,* I shall or loill ha/ve seen.
with ni or li o.
( pf.,f j emi ni ri, I see or saw.
\ \ emi li o ri, I saw or see.
emi ni qri, I am or was seeing.
emi li o ti ri, I have seen.
\ . . . ^ . [ I shall ov will see.
( emi ni yi o ri, )
emi ni yi 6 ti ri, I sliall or will have seen.
OPTATIVE OR POTENTIAL FORMS.
AoRisT. emi ma ri, I may or would see., or am seeing.
Past. emi ma ti ri, I might or woidd have seen.
Future, emi 6 ma ri, I may see or shall be seeing.
This form is scarcely recognised by the Natives.
28 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
SUBJUNCTIVE FOBMS.
Simple.
. , J I*e)'f. bi emi ba ri, if I see or saw.
\ I/npf. hi emi Tiha. ri, if I am ov was seeinff.
p ^ I^eif. bi emi ba ti ri, if Iliave or Jtad seen.
\ Impf. bi emi qba ti ri, if I have or Tiad been seeiiuj.
Tfi 5 First, bi emi 6 ba ri, if I slidll or will see.
\ See. bi emi 6 ba ti ri, if I shall have seen.
with ki.
Present, ki g ri or ki em' ri, tJmt I see.
FuTUKE. ki emi ki 6 ri, that I shall or will see.
AiKdliary Particles.
§ 12*r. Before exhibiting in detail the forms of expression in Yoruba wkich
correspond to our ideas of mode and tense, we will first examine into tlie nature
and uses of each of the particles by the help of which these various accidents are
denoted.
INDICATIVE PARTICLES.
Particle of Continuance.
I) or m.
§ 128. 1. The particle 'q,' sometimes exchanged for 'm' before 'b' or 'f,'is
probably a contraction of ni, to he. We have analogous formations in several
words ; as, nM, to he great, which is composed of ni, to Imve, and ild, greatness ; mbh
(colloquial), there, from ni, in, and ibe, that place.
2. When ' g ' is attached to a verb, it may be prefixed to the accompanying
particles also ; as, emi qsi r)s5ro, and I was speaking.
§ 129. 1. The use of 'q' or 'm' in conjugation is to denote a continuing or
unfinished action, or one which was unfinished at the time referred to ; as, omo
qsuq, the child is slewing or is asleep ; nigbati awa mb6 lana, when we were coming
yesterday.
2. Although it is not customary to prefix ' g ' to verbs in the future tense, no
reason is apparent why this should not be done ; as, yi 6 qsi^e, he will be wo^'Mng.
3. This prefix is very appropriately employed in making general propositions,
that is, in asserting that which always holds good ; as, keferi r)bo 8kpe, the heathens
worship tlie palm-t/ree ; eni ti qke omo ni qba omo dze, he toho indulges a child
spoils a child.
Past Particle.
ti.
§ 130. This particle denotes that an action is, was, or will be finished at or before
INFLEXION AND CONSTRUCTION OF WOEDS. ^.
some point of time expressed or implied in the sentence. It is variously employed
as follows :
1. To express anything that is past at the time of speaking ; as, mo* ti ^e e lana
iIlia/€6 done it yesterday), I did it yesterday ; 6 ti kxi, lie is dead; 6 qti ijb^ lana,
lie tvas coining yesterday ; aragb^ni ti qsina, the ancients erred.
2. To express what is past in relation to some point of past time ; as, mo ti 16h,
ki 6 t6 de, Iliad gone, before he arrived (ki . . , t6, before).
3. To express what will be past before some future point of time; as, emi 6 ti
loh, ki 6 t6 d6, 1 shall Imve gone, before he arrives.
4. It is employed indefinitely like the English auxiliary liave ; as, mo ti ri i
nigbakugba, / have seen him often.
§ 131. 1. The origin of the particle 'ti' is doubtful. It is not improbably,
however, a modification of t6, to he sufficient, to attami to, which is sometimes
employed as a sort of auxiliary particle ; as, bi omo dagba k t6 li ogboq {if child
is-grown, it^ill attain to-lmve wisdom), when the child is grown, it will get wisdom /
nigband ni nwoq t6 sina (tlie/i it-is they attained-to erring), then they erred.
2. The use of ' ti ' as a pleonastic particle seems to favor the suspicion that its
original is ' t6.'
a. It is sometimes employed pleonastically after prepositions expressing instru-
mentality ; as in the general proposition, nikpa i^e ow6 ti wdh, by labor inoney
comes, lit. attai/)is to, or reaches the point of, comimg.
h. Again, ' ti ' is often thus employed after mdh, ki, ko, or k5, not ; as, mdh ti
16h ! (not arrime-at going), do not go yet ! 6g ko le ti so eso (it not is-alle to-attainr
to bearing fruit), it camiot bear fruit.
3. The auxiliary particle ' ti ' coincides with ' t6 ' in accent, but not with any
other particle ' ti ' in the language.
Future Particles.
6 or 6.
§ 132. This particle is the sign of the future tense, and is generally equivalent to
sludl or tvill. The difference between ' 6 ' and ' o ' is simply euphonic, ' 6 ' being
employed before close, and '6' before open vowels (§ 14).
§ 133. It is probable that ' 6 ' or ' 6 ' was originally the personal pronoun 6 or 6,
lie, she, it. If so, the expression emi 6 ri, / shall see, means literally, I oxn he to-
see, or that is to see.
§ 134. The particle ' 6 ' or ' 6 ' is frequently preceded in all persons and numbers
by the pleonastic pronoun yi, he, she, it / as, iwo yi 6 6e e, thou wilt do it / awa yi
6 ri, tve shall see ; 5ro ti yi o ^e (word tvhich it will come-to-pass), a v)ord which
will be fulfilled. (Luke, 1. 20.)
§ 135. This particle may be regarded as an emphatic substitute for 6 or 6. It
is used as follows ;
* The secondary forms of the pronouns, as, mo or mo, /, arc more frequently used than the longer pri-
mary forms.
30 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
1. a. To give emphasis to an assertion, it being used in connexion with a nomi-
native, before any vowel whether close or open ; as, emi k ri, / shall see ; emi k
m5, / sludl Tcnow.
h. Or without a nominative, when the subject of the verb is of the third person,
either singular or plural ; as, a ri mi, he or tliey will see me / k kpa mi, he or tliey
will Mil me.
2. Before a verb used subjunctively, after ki, that^ without a nominative, and
frequently with a preceding clause understood ; as in the evening salutation, ki k
sdq r^ ! may you sleq) well ! lit. I wish that you tvill sleep well. Servants fre-
quently ask such questions as, ki k k>Q eyi? shall I do this? lit. do you wish that
I shall do this? But the clause preceding 'ki' is often expressed; as, 6 ni, ki k
loh, he said^ let us ffo, lit. he said that we tvill go.
Emphatic Particle.
ni or li.
§ 136. The demonstrative 'ni ' or 'li,' which assumes the nature of a substantive
verb (see § 181), is sometimes employed in the latter sense along Avith verbs for
the sake of emphasis ; as, babd ni ijvi, father is or was seeing ,' babd li o vi^ father
saw or sees.
OPTATIVJi PARTICLE.
ma.
§ ISY. This particle is used as follows :
1. In affirmative propositions with a nominative of the first or third person, and
in interrogative sentences with a nominative of the second pei-son, it expresses will
or desire ; as, emi ma 16h, J desire to go ; nwoq 6 ma 16h, they will go., or will desire
to go ; eqyii) ma loh ? do ye wish to go ?
2. In affirmative propositions, with a nominative of the second person, it
expresses permission • as, ma 16h, or iwo ma 16h, tlwu mayst go / 6 ma gbe e, ye
mmj take it.
This form of expression is much employed instead of the imperative, as being more courteous ; as, ma
kuro, tlion may est get out of my way ; 6 ma yara, ye may make haste.
3. In connexion with words denoting the continuance or repetition of an action,
it expresses what is customary or habitiuil ; as, d ma 16h nigbakiigba, xoe go often-
6q ma nd mi lodi;6di;um6, he flogs me daily ; iwo ma s5ro kpod:iu, thou taUcest too
mwbch ; 6 ma seuq ! (he is always Mnd\ lie is very hind! 6 ma kpe! (^ye always
stay)^ Iww long ye stayed!
§ 138. "When the particle 'ti' is employed, 'ma' precedes it; as, iwo ma ti ^e
buburu, thou hast done evil (habitually). But when le, to lie able., can^ or may., is
employed with the verb, it may either precede or follow ' ma ' ; as, ki d 1^ ma m6,
th/it we may hnow / boya yi 6 ma 1^ di;oba, perluxps 1i£ may or can reign. In these
cases also ' ma ' denotes the continuance of the action.
INFLEXION AND CONSTRUCTION OP WORDS. 31
SUBJITNOTITE PARTICLES.
ba.
§ 139. The verb 'ba' signifies to arrive at, attain to, meet, find, &c. It is
employed as an auxiliary particle, chiefly in what may be termed the subjunctive
mode, with something of the sense of o^eacMng, arriving at, or attaining to, the
action expressed by the verb before which it is placed ; as, bi iwo ba ri i, kpa S, if
them seest it. Mil it, lit. if thou attaim, to seeing it or chance to see it.
§ 140. It is also employed as an emphatic or definite particle in the indicative
mode ; as, ile ti mo ba ko ni, o w6 (Jiouse which I huilt Oris, it fell dotoii), the house
which I huilt has fallen down ; 6hur) ti Olorui) ba ti wen5, mdh fi kpi^ li aim6
(thing which God has cleansed not mahe to-call t&ie uncleanness), the thing which
God has cleoMsed call Twt unclean.
§ 141. It is customary also to use ' ba ' after nigbati, when ; as, nigbati mo ba
de, wlien I arrive.
aba and iba.
§ 142. These particles, which appear to be derivatives of 'ba,' imply duty or
obligation ; as, emi aba ^e e, or iba se e, / ought to do it; eqyiq ki iba ti 16h, ye
shoidd not go or have gone. (For the use of ti after ki, not, see § 131, 2, 6.)
§ 143. In subjunctive sentences 'iba' is equivalent to if; as, iba se woli, i ba
mb, if he wei'e a prophet, he tvould hnow / iba ^e mo ni iye {if it-were I had
wings'), if I had wings ; a form of expression employed for oh! that I had, c&c.
ki.
§ 144. Another subjunctive form arises from the use of the conjunction ki, that :
1. If the nominative to the verb is i), I, or a monosyllabic pronoun (except
' 6i) '), only one ' ki ' is used ; as,
ki n ri, ) , _
1 A • • r that 1 see.
ki emi n, j
ki o ri, tliat tliou see. •
ki 6 ri, that he see.
ki d ri, that we see.
ki 6 ri, that ye see.
2. If the nominative begins with a consonant or consists of two or more syllables,
it is usually followed by a second 'ki,' with the pronoun 6 or 6, he, she, or it; as,
ki iwo ki 6 ri, tlmt thou see.
ki awa ki 6 ri, tlmt toe see.
ki nwoi) ki 6 ri, tluit they see.
ki babd ki 6 ri, that father see.
3. The pronoun 6r), lie, she, it, is used with one ' ki' or with two ; as, ki 6q ri, or
ki 6q ki 6 ri, tlmt he s^e.
§ 145. These forms are employed as follows :
1. Subjunctively ; as, ki q ri, ki emi ri, or ki emi ki 6 ri, which may be rendered,
according to the context, tliat I see, that I shall see, that I may see.
2. Imperatively; a.s.
32 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
ki q ri, J
ki emi ri, >• let me see.
ki emi ki 6 ri, ;
ki o ri, ) -
ki iwo ki ri, J
ki 6 ri, \
ki 6q ri, >let him see.
ki 6r) ki 6 ri, )
3. a. When the verb with 'ki' is preceded by an objective, it may often be
rendered by an infinitive ; as, mo kpe o ki o se e, Z called tliee that thou do it or to
do it • mo kpfe nyiq ki 6 wo 8, J called yo^i to look at it / 6 bebe wa M d wi, A^
hegged us to tell ; 6 bebe wa ki d mdh wi, he hegged tis not to tell.
h. In this construction an objective of the third person plural is sometimes fol-
lowed by ki 6, that lie ; as, d kpe wog ki 6 ^e e, we called tliem to do it.
OCCASIONAL PEEPIX.
i.
§ 146. The inseparable prefix 'i' (which is not to be confounded with i, he, and
i, not) is attached to verbs for the following purposes :
1. To denote what is permanently true or customary ; as, li okpolokpo okan li
enu iso, in the ahmida/me of the heart the mouth speaketli.
2. It is frequently emphatic after ko, not ; as, nwoq k6 ide, tliey have not come.
It would seem that, since ' ko ' is immutably unaccented, the ' i ' is introduced to
supply the place of an emphatic accent on the negative.
3. It appears to be sometimes merely euphonic.
a. After 'ki' employed instead of ko, not • as, ki i^e awodi, it is Tiot a hatok;
emi ki iloh ibe, I never go there.
1). When the 'o ' which usually follows the relative 'ti' (§ 96, 1) is omitted; as,
eni ti iloh, lie wlw went.
Farms for the Passive Voice.
§ 147. In Yoruba, as in many other African languages, there is, properly
speaking, no passive voice. Various forms of speech, however, supply its place.
§ 148. 1. The most frequent form is the plural impersonal, employing the con-
tracted nominative d, they ; as, d ri mi, tliey see me, for I am seen / d ti ri mi, tJiey
Imve seen me, for Ilmve been seen ; d 6 ri mi, tliey will see me, for I shall be seen.
2. Frequently, retaining this construction, the noun or pronoun denoting the
object is placed first ; thus, emi li d ri {I it-is they see), I am seen.
§ 149. Although the above substitute for the passive is applicable in all cases,
there are several other forms which may be used occasionally with good effect :
1. All the compound active transitive verbs, as ba . . . d^e," to spoil, kpa . . . mo, to
conceal (§ 37, I), and a few other transitive verbs, may be used instead of passives ;
as, nwoq bad^e, tliey are spoiled ; awa kpamo, ^ve are hid ; 6 se li od^u mi, it tvas
done before me, lit. in my eye ; 6ke bo mole, the hills were covered over ; nikpa
5ro Oluwa aiye ti dd, hy ths v)ord of the Lord the loorld was made.
INFLEXION AND CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS. 33
2. Occasionally an abstract noun with a substantive verb is employed instead of
a passive verb ; as, mo ^e igbagbe {I am a-forgetti-ng)^ I am forgotten ^ ile di dhoro,
the house is a desolation, or is desolated.
3. All nouns formed from transitive verbs by reduplicating the first syllable have
a passive signification ; as, riri, which is seen ; kpikpa, which is slain ; hike, lohich
is done. And any of these nouns may be employed before ni, to le, to form a sub-
stitute for the passive of the perfect aorist tense ; as, riri li emi, I am seen ; gbigb^
ni nwoq, they are received; kpikpa ni 'bahk, father is hilled. In the past and
future tenses of the passives just mentioned, the word which represents the subject
is followed by ^e or di;e, to do, to he, to get ; as, kpikpa ni iwo 6 ke or d:^e, you will
be hilled, or get hilled-.
Modes and Tenses.
§ 150. The various forms of the verb, including verbal nouns, may be arranged
in five modes, viz, the Indicative, the Optative or Potential, the Subjunctive
(formed from the two preceding), the Imperative, and the Infinitive.
§ 151. The tenses may be divided into three classes or groups, the Aorist or
Indefinite, the Past, and the Future. In the Indicative mode, and in the Sub-
junctive formed from it, the Aorist and the Past tenses have a perfect and an
imperfect form, while the Future exhibits a first and second future form. Those of
the Indicative, for example, are as follows :
Aorist Tenses.
Perfect, emi ri, I see or soaj).
Imperfect, emi qri, I am or was seeing.
Past Tenses.
Perfect, emi ti ri, Ilmve or had seen.
Iinperfect, emi ti qri, I have or had been seeing.
Future Tenses.
First, emi 6 ri, / slmll or vjill see.
Second, emi 6 ti ri, I shall or tvill have seen.
§ 152. The foregoing synopses and remarks present the general principles of the
Yoruba verb ; but the importance and intricacy of this part of speech seem to
require a more detailed exhibition of particulars. We will therefore give the
various usual and occasional forms of each tense, and describe the peculiarities of
each form.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Aorist Perfect.
ACTIVE.
A ff i r ma ti ve .
emi ri, ")
emi ni ri, > I see or saw.
emi li o ri, j
emi iri, I see or sair roiitiniicnisly.
34 KTTMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
Negative.
emi 6 (or ko) ri, I do or did not see.
emi ki ii-i, I do not see.
Interrogative.
emi li bi ? ]
emi ni ri bi ? \do or did I see ?
emi \\ o ri bi ? )
Negative Interrogative.
emi ko ri or 6 (ri) bi? ) , ,.77- «
emirik6? \ do ov did I m)t see ?
emi ki iri bi, do I not see?
PASSIVK.
Affirmative.
ii ri mi, ) ^ ^
emi li ii ri I V *^^ *^^' ^''''^ ^'^ — ^'"' *^''' '^'^'^^ ^^^'^^"
emi ^e riri, ] ^
ririliemi, | ^ ^^ or «;a.9 ^^m.
Negative.
A kd (or 6) ri mi, they do or c?2'(^ not see me — I am or xoas not seen.
emi ko (or 6) se riri, I am or ?i;a* ?w^ ^e^..
Interrogative.
k ri mi bi ?
-am or wa^s I seen?
emi li A ri bi ?
emi ^e riri bi ?
riri li emi bi?
Negative Interrogative.
d ko (or 6) ri mi bi ? ]
emi ko (or 6) ^e riri bi ? >• am or wa,9 / not seen ?
riri ko li emi bi ? )
Eemarks.
§ 153. On the various forms of the aorist perfect we may observe :
1. That the simple form, as, emi ri, I see or sa/w, is wholly ambiguous as regards
time, it being used either in a present or past sense.
2. The form with ' ni ' may be used with a past signification ; but it naturally
suggests the idea of present time, and will probably become a definite present
tense.
3. The form with ' li o ' seems to have more of the past signification ; but it can-
INFLEXION AND CONSTKUCTION OF WOKDS. 35
not be set dowu as a definite past tense, because it is still frequently employed in
the present.
4. The prefix ' i,' in the form ' emi iri,' denotes continuous or habitual action. It
is not a usual form, except in the cases already stated (§ 146).
§ 154. As to the negative and interrogative forms, observe:
1. The particles 'k6' and '6' are exact equivalents. Before open vowels they
become ' k6 ' and ' 6.'
2. Ki, not^ is employed before verbs beginning in 'i,' as shown in the example.
As the prefix ' i ' denotes continuation, ' ki ' generally has the sense of never ; as,
emi ki il6h ib^, I never go tlwre. This form is to be rendered by the present tense.
3. The particle ' bi,' or its equivalents abi, tabi, is merely a sign of interrogation,
and is often omitted ; as, emi ri ? did I see f
4. K6, not^ is used only in interrogations ; as, emi ri k6 ? do I not see ? and in
negations where the verb is not expressed ; as, 6g k6, it is not he.
emi
emi
Aorist Imperfect.
ACTIVE.
i nri, ) j-
. '. ' . Y I am or was seeinq.
1 ni qri, j ^
PASSIVE.
d nri mi, j ^
. -y. t • \ J- dfn or was seen.
emi li a qri, )
Remarks.
§ 155. This tense needs but little elucidation ; still we may observe :
1. That the first form is employed either in a present or past sense ; whereas the
second form more frequently refers to present time.
2. This tense has no negative forms, and the interrogative forms differ from the
affirmative only in the use of 'bi' or its equivalents (§ 154, 3) immediately after
the verb.
Past Perfect.
ACTIVE.
emi wfi ri, I saw.
. ,^ ' . . ? Iliofve or Tmd seen.
emi li o ti ri, ^
Eemarks.
§ 156. The verb w&, to be, is used in all tenses; but there is a tendency to
restrict it to the past. When it is used as an auxiliary particle, it invariably
forms an indefinite past tense ; as, emi w^ ri, I saw ; nwoq w^ li el^^e, they tvere
sinners.
§ 157. A perfect tense is occasionally formed by other particles besides ti ; as,
emi gbe e de {Ihrmight it come), I have hrovght it ; emi ^e tdq {I did done), I
liave Jmished.
36
ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
§ 158. Li o ti ri is rather more definite tlian ti ri.
The negative, interrogative, and passive of this tense, as also of the past imper-
fect, are formed in accordance with the principles laid down in treating of the
aorist tenses.
First Future.
ACTIVE.
Af f i rmati ve.
cmi o ri,
X) 6 ri,
emi a ri,
emi ni 6 ri,
emi ni yi 6 ri, )
I ■sliall nee.
Negative.
.mikiyiori, _ \ j ,^,ai not
jmi m ki yi o ri, )
see.
Interrogative.
emi 6 ri bi ?
emi k ri bi ?
emi ni 6 ri bi ?
emi ni yi 6 ri bi ?
-shall I see?
Negative Interrogative.
?
emi ki yi o ri bi ? }-,-,-. ^ ^
emi 111 ki yi o n bi ? )
see .
PASSIVE.
Af f irma t i ve.
a 6 ri mi, )
emi li ii 6 ri, )
I shall he seen.
Negative.
d ki yi 6 i-i mi, I shall not he seen.
Interrogative.
d 6 ri mi bi ? ) 7 77 t / a
. i„ , , . 1 . o h shall 1 lie seen f
emi 11 a o ri bi ? )
Negative Interrogative.
A ki yi 6 ri mi bi ? shall I not he seeti ?
Remarks.
§ 159. It is to be observed here:
INFLEXION AND CONSTEUCTION OF WORDS. 87
1. That the forms 'emi 6 ri' and 'i) 6 ri' have the same force ; and that the
three other forms of the active afiirmative are emphatic.
2. That ki, not^ is the only negative employed in the future ; and that yi, Tie,
always follows it. This arrangement is designed, partly to distinguish the future
from other similar combinations of words, and partly to avoid uneuphonious
expressions. Thus, if k6, not, were employed, k6 6, pronounced as two syllables,
would be disagreeable to the ear ; and if pronounced as one, it would be confounded
with ki 6, tJiat he.
3. Here, as elsewhere, the affirmative active exhibits a greater number of forms
than the negative, &c.
OPTATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE MODES.
§ 160. As these modes are but variations of the Indicative, it is thought that
what has been said of them, together with the detailed treatment of the Indicative,
will suffice to explain their construction.
IMPEEATIVE MODE.
§ 161. The following are the forms of the Imperative mode :
Imperative Active.
Affirmative.
, , . , . . , A , . r*^^> or see thov.
ki o n, or ki iwo ki o ri,
ki o ma ri, or ki iwo ki 6 ma ri,
Negative.
mdh ri, w iwo mdh ri, "]
mdh 6e ri, or iwo mdh se ri, , ^7 ^
1 , ,, ' . ,•. . 1 A , ,, ysee not, ov see thou not.
ki o man ri, or ki iwo ki mah ri,
ki o mdh 6e ri, or ki iwo ki 6 mdh ^e ri, J
Passive.
Affirmative.
ki ji ri o, or iwo ui ki A ri, ) , t
^ be thou seen.
ki k ma ri o, or iwo ni ki k ma
Negative .
ki a mah no, ) ^ ^
kiAmdh^erio, \iethon not seen.
Remarks.
§ 162. Here, as elsewhere in the conjugation of the verb, the multiplicity of
38 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
forms arises from two causes : fii'st, from the use of synonymous words, as ' o ' and
' iwo '; and, secondly, from redundant words, as ' ki o ' and ' 6e.'
§ 163. On the use of the above forms observe :
1. That 'ma' denotes continuance (§ 137, 3).
2. 'Ki' denotes that, and ki 6, that he (§ 144, 2) ; so that the forms with 'ki'
are analogous to the French construction, qioHl voie, qxOil iie voie pas.
3. ' Mdh ' means Twt^ and is employed instead of ' ko ' in the Imperative and in
some other connexions.
4. The verb 6e, to cfo, is frequently employed pleonastically after mdh, not ; as,
mdh ^e 16h, do not go^ instead of mdh loh.
INFINITIVE MODE.
§ 164. The Infinitive Active is regularly and usually expressed by the simple
verb or root ; as, emi fe ri, / desire to see ; 6 qgbero loh, he is thinhing to go i 6
dSgmo woq 6e e, it pleased th&m to do it. Frequently, however, a substitute for
the infinitive is formed by the verbal nouns treated of in the following sections.
Verbal Nouns.
§ 165. The following are the forms of the verbal nouns which correspond to our
infinitives and gerunds or participles.
iri, to see / a seeing.
ari, to he seen ; tlmt which is seen.
atiri, to see or to he seen ; a seeing.
riri, to see or to he seen / a seeing.
atima ri, to he seeing ; a continued seeing.
§ 166. The form in ' i ' is employed as a gerund ;
1. In the nominative ; as, isode k6 ye fu oloko, hunting is not suitable for a
farmer.
2. In the objective ; as, nwoq k6 fe isode, they are not fond of hunting^ or they
do not love to hu/nt.
§ 16V. The form with ' ati ' prefixed is employed as a gerund or infinitive :
1. In the nominative ; as, atigbo ko ito, to hear or hearing is not enough.
2. In the objective, in which case it is frequently equivalent to a simple infini-
tive ; as, 6 k6rira atisise, he liatedtoorlcing or toworh ; d ma d:§;e atiye, toe eat to live.
§ 168. The preposition li, in^ in regard to., is frequently inserted between the
gerund or infinitive in ' ati ' and the verb on which it depends ; as, 6 ko li ati^i^e,
he refused to wor\ instead of 6 k5 atisise. The insertion or omission of 'li' is not
always optional :
1. When the governing verb is composed of a verb and noun, as beru (ba eru),
to he afraid^ ' li ' is omitted, because the gerund in ' ati ' sustains the relation of
a genitive to the noun contained in the verb ; as, 6 beru atise e {lie tnet-thefear
of doing it)., he was afraid to do it ; 6 mura (mu ara) atisiig (Jie tooh-himself to-
sleep or sleeping').^ lie prepared to sleep / nwoq wona (wd 6na) atiw6 ile {fliey sought-
Orroad of -entering or .to-enter tlie-lioiise)^ they endeavored to enter the house.
INFLEXION AND CONSTRTTCTION OF "WOEDS. 39
2. A simple verb, on the contrary, may govern the infinitive by means of ' li ' ;
as, 6 sd li ati^e e (he fem^ediTirrega/rdrto doing it), Tie feared to do it, instead of 6
s& atise e.
a. It should be observed that, although the use of ' li ' in such cases is not indis-
pensable, yet the people generally prefer it. Hence we constantly hear such
expressions as, nwoq rd li atikpa S, they thought to hill him ; awa kpfed^o li
atikole, we assembled to huild a house.
h. In many cases the form with ' li ati,' and the simple form of the verb, may be
employed indifferently and interchangeably ; but when the infinitive is gerundive
in its nature, the form with ' li ati ' is preferable. Thus it is perfectly correct to say,
awa kp^dio kole (instead of li atikole), toe assembled to build a house; but it would
not be proper to say, nwoq r6 kpa fi (instead of li atikpa), they thought to hill him,
because the precise meaning of the expression is, tJiey thought of hillvng him.
§ 169. Nouns formed by reduplication have much the same sense when employed
actively as those in ' i ' and ' ati.' Thus, igb6 ko ito, atigb6 k6 it6, gbigb6 k6
it6, hearing is not enotigh, are equivalent and equally proper forms of expression.
§ lYO. In the form atima ri, to be seeing, the auxiliary particle takes the for-
mative prefix like a principal verb. A gerund or infinitive of this form denotes
continued or customary action ; as, atima ^e eru ni ii^oro, to be a slave is hard; emi
I)r6n6 li atima gb6 6ro Olorui), lam thinking to hear the woi'dof God, i. e. to become
a hearer, or to make a (mstom of hearing.
§ 171. The infinitive passive is expressed;
1. By the form in 'a'-; as, 6hug ari, a thing to be seen; nwoq ^e agbarar^ akpa-
ruq {they made power his Ordestruction*), they caused his pcnoer to be destroyed.
2. By nouns in ' ati ' preceded by ' li ' ; as, 6 kp6 woq di;ade li atikpa, he called
them out to be hilled, or to hill them.
3. a. By reduplicated forms preceded by di, ni or li, or ^e, in the sense of to be ;
as, 6 mu woq di kpikpa, he caused them to be slain ; 6 fi woq le ^e tit^, he delivered
them wp (fi . . . le) to be sold ; 6 fu woq li eraq ni diid^e (he gave tliem to have meat
to he eaten), he game tJiem meat to eat.
b. But the verb di, ni, or ^e is sometimes omitted ; a.s, Yoruba 6oro fif5, Yoi"id)a
is difficult to speak or he spoken, ; mo r^ dgutaq kpikpa, I bought sheep to hill or be
hilled.
Participles.
§ 172. The Yoruba language has no participial words except the verbal nouns just
noticed. The substitutes to be employed for participles depend on the nature of
the sentence.
§ 173. Our Present Participle is represented,
1. By a simple verb ; as, 6e gbogbo re here nihinyi, do all of it beginning here.
2. By a verb with the prefix ' g ' ; as, d ri enia qdiioko lebd 5na, we saw people
sitting by the road.
3. By nigbati, when, with a verb and nominative ; as, nigbati 6 si yanu r^, 6 k6
Akparui), which is destroyed, which is to be destroyed ; ari, which is seen or to he seen. A noun in ' a,'
•when It denotes the object or recipient of an action, has no exact equivalent in English. See ' a ' in the
Dictionary.
40 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
woq (tvJien Tie also opened-moutTi Jiis^ he tonight them)^ and opening his mxmth^ he
ta/wght them.
4. By a noun beginning with 'a' ; as, 6 ^e aga aruq fi tdi), hs broke the chair
ridning it entirely.
§ 174. The Perfect Participle is represented much in the same manner as the
present :
1. By a verb with the prefix 'q '; as, ifefe qmi fu afefe, a reed shaken hy the
wind.
2. By a verb used impersonally ; as, igi ti & gbiq leti 6do (tree which they planted
hy river), a tree planted by the river.
3. By a verb used passively with a nominative ; as, d ba ile-tubu 6 se (we found
jailrhonse, it wa-s-s-hut), xoe found tlie prison shut.
4. By ki, that.^ and a verb ; as, mo fe ri gkaq ki 6 to wo r| ^e {I wish to see some-
thing that it by thee is-done)., I wish to see something done by thee.
5. By a noun, or preposition and noun ; as, nwoq ba S oku, they found him dead
(oku, a corpse) ; 6 sSkdle si ile re ni idalare, he descended to Jiis house justified, lit.
in justification.
Substantive Verbs.
§ 1Y5. No language, perhaps, can claim so many verbs expressing existence,
either absolutely or in different relations and capacities. The whole number of
these verbs to be, including those which have other meanings, is ten, to wit : mb^,
w^, y^, gbe, si, ni, ri, 6e, d^e, di. Most of them have peculiarities which prevent
them from being interchangeable.
§ 176. This verb denotes existence ahsolutely, as Olorur) mb^, God exists, or God
is, an expression often employed by the Yorubas as a solemn asseveration. Mb^ is
used in all modes and tenses ; but in the imperative its place is usually supplied
by gbe or wA.
■wk.
§ 177. W^ is also a verb absolute, but is not entirely equivalent to mb|.
1. It is occasionally employed as an auxiliary particle, and in this capacity forms
an indefinite past tense, the only one in Yoruba corresponding to the English
imperfect ; as, 6 wk ri, he sato.
2 In some dialects it is preferred to mb| in the preterite ; as, 6 wa, he was.
3. W4 is preferred to mbe in the future, and in the imperative ; as, yi 6 w^, he
will be ; 6 wk ib^, be ye there.
4. In the Egba dialect, w^ is preferred to mb^, to express existence in a place ;
as, 6 vfk iltS, he is in the house ; lit. he is house, the preposition ni, in, being omitted
after the substantive verb.
5. In speaking of the duration of existence, -wk (but not mb|) is employed in
the sense of to live / as, 6 w^ li ogoruq oduq, Its Uved a hundred years, lit. he was
foi' a hundred years.
INFLEXION AND CONSTKUCTION OF WORDS. 41
§ 178. This verb, -whicli denotes existenoe in a state or condition^ is nearly obso-
lete except in composition ; as, 6 y^di, he is diimb^ lit. y^ odi, is a dumb persmi.
si
§ 179. This verb, denoting existence in a place, is chiefly used in negative sen-
tences ; as, ko si owo, or ow6 k6 si, there is no money.
2. The only instance in which 'si' is used without a negative, is in the phrase
o si qkaq (it is a thing), there is something the matter, said in reply to the ques-
tion k^ si gkaq ? (not is a thing), is not something the matter ?
§ 180. Hi denotes a inode of existence, and is always employed in connexion
with such words as behe, so, thus ; bi, as ; bi , . . ti, how, &c. ; as, behe li 6 ri (so
it-is it is), so it is ,' -bi 6 ti ri, how is it f
§ 181. The original of ri' is doubtful ; but it may be ri, to see, employed in the
sense of to appear, to seem,
ni ov li.
§ 182. 'Ni,' whether employed as a verb, pronoun, or preposition, usually
becomes ' li ' before a vowel ; as, li ori, on tlie top. But this change does not
generally take place before the combinations idi, igb, ih, ik, ikp, il, and in ; as, ni
\dize, for food ; ni igba, at the time ; ni ika, tolmve cruelty, to be cruel; ni ikpa, in
tlifi path ; ni ile, in the Iwuse ; ni in6, in tlve inside.
§ 183, The substantive verb 'ni' or 'li' appears to be the demonstrative 'ni'
employed as a copula, in like manner with the personal pronouns of the third
person in the Aramaic languages. The pronominal origin of the word is shown by
the fact that in many cases it is equivalent to it is / as, tani ni 'i who is it ? ami ni,
it is I; awa li o Se e, we it is that did it. In other cases it may be rendered
simply by the verb to be ; a.s, tani ni babd, r^ ? toho is thy fatJier ? oba li iwo, thou
art a Mng.
§ 184. 'Ni' or 'li' is frequently employed pleonastically :
1. For the purpose of making a proposition emphatic or definite ; as, emi ni ri
(/ it4s see), I see ; emi li o ri (/ am that saw), I saw. (See § 185, 1.)
2. Before nouns following verbs of naming, calling, &c. ; as, nwoq so oruko r^ li
Alaidzu, they called his name Alaidiu (lit. to be Alaidi;u) ; d kpt; woq li ole,
we called them thieves.
3. After an objective placed emphatically at the beginning of a sentence ;
as, malii li d kpa (cow it-is tve hiUed), ive hilled a coto. And in like man-
ner after adverbs and adverbial phrases ; as, behe li 6 wi (so it-is lie said), he
said so.
§ 185. When 'ni' is used pleonastically, it is frequently followed by a pei-sonal
pronoun of the third person singular employed relatively :
6
42 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
1. In the perfect aorist, 6 or 6, Ae, she, it, or that, often follows ' ni ' ; as, emi li o
ri (I Oris that saw), I saw • eijyir) li o m5 {ye it-is that Tcnetv), yehnew. But
when this tense refers to present time, the relative pronoun is generally omitted ;
as, emi ni ri (I it-is see), I see ; eijyii) ni mo {ye it-is hiow), ye hioiv.
2. In the future tense 'ni' is followed by yi, he, she, it, or that ; as, emi ni yi 6
ri (/ it-is that will see), I shall see ; eqyiq ni yi 8 m6 {ye it-is that will know), ye
will Tinow.
•
gbe.
§ 186. Gbe, to dwell, abide, takes the place of mb^ in the imperative and sub-
junctive; as, gbe ib^, le there; die ki 6 gbe {make that lie he), let him he, or let
him alone.
§ 187. This verb is often pleonastic after adverbs of place; as, ni ile ti 6 gbe
yfh, in the house where he was ; nihinyi nwoq gbe kii, here they died.
dl.
§ 188. Di, to hecome, maybe rendered by the verb to he, when change of state is
implied ; as, iwo 6 di omo buburu, tJwu toilt he a had child ; 6 di arugb6, he is
getting old ; di atoqbi, to he horn again ; 6 di eni egki) {lie hecame one of contempt),
lie was despised.
se.
§ 189. The verb se, to do, to act, may be rendered as a substantive verb in seve-
ral cases, as follows ;
1. When it has for its object a noun which denotes one who acts in some capa-
city or fills a station ; as, nwor) se woli, they were prophets, i. e. they acted as pro-
phets or performed the work of prophets ; iwo ni q^e babd mi, thou art my father ;
eni ti ise akobi, he who is first-born ; okpo li 6q se, she is a widow ; yi 6 se krm fu
gyiq, it will he a sign to you.
2. The verb ' se ' (and sometimes ' die ') is used with a negative instead of ' ni ' ;
as, oba li 6q, he is a hing ; ki i^e oba, he is not a Mng.
3. It is also frequently employed to express the relation of ownership ; as, yi 6
^e ti r^, it shall he thine.
§ 190. In the imperative with the negative mdh, not, ' s4 ' is frequently used pleo-
nastically, like the English do ; as, mdh se loh, do not go. It is sometimes used in
the same manner in connexion with other negatives to express a refusal ; as, emi d
se 16h, I will not go.
idze.
§ 191 . Die appears to be another form for ' se ' ; at least the use of the two verbs
is very similar. Die is employed as follows :
1. To express being or acting in the capacity of an officer; as, o die bale {lie
acts governor), he is governor ;. tali o fi mi die onidadio ? who made nie to he
judge f i. e. who made me a judge?
2. Die is the only word employed in the sense oitohe'va. connexion with num-
bers ; as, 6 die ogota {it makes sixty), it is sixty.
INFLEXION AND CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS. 43
3. Sometimes ' d^e,' like ' ^e,' appears to mean simply to he ; as, emi 5 mo eni
ti i d^e or i se (I not Tcnoto Mm who Tie is)^ I do not hnow who he is.
§ 1 92. In expressing refusal, ' d^e ' is more frequently used pleonastically than ' se '
(§ 190) ; as, emi o dze 16h, I will not go.
Pleonastic Use of Verbs.
§ 193. In addition to the pleonastic uses of verbs which have already been
spoken of, the following are worthy of notice :
Verbs of going and coming are much employed pleonastically after verbs of
motion to or from a place, and this gives peculiar definiteness to the language ; as,
6 gbe e lati oko 16h, he tooh it from the farm — to some place at a distance from the
speaker (which fact is indicated by 16h, to go or going) ; 6 gbe e lati oko wdh, he
tooh it from the farm — and brought it hither (which is indicated by wdh, to come or
coming). So, 6 kpada 16h (Ae returned going~)., he went hach ; 6 kpada de (lie
returned coming), he came bach. And so, lati isisiyi 16h (^from now going)., hence-
forth.
§ 194. After verbs of giving, ni or li, to h-a^e., is always added ; as, bu mi li omi,
give me water ; Oloruq li o fil woq li agbara, God gave them potoer.
NOUNS.
§ 195. Yoruba nouns are not varied in form to express gender, number, or case ;
or in other words, they exhibit no traces of inflexion.
Oender.
§ 196. Gender is distinguished only where there is an actual difference of sex, as
follows :
1. By using different words ; as, ako, a he-animal, a male, abo, a she-ani-
mal, a female ; akuko, a cock, agbeb5, a hen- oko, a he-goat, ake, a she-goat;
6koi]ri, a man, 6biri, a woman; babd, a father, iya, a mother ; and a few
others.
2. By adding to a common term one of the above general expressions in appo-
sition.
a. In the case of animals, by prefixing ako, male, and okib, female ; as, ako malii,
a hull, ab6 malu, a cow ; ako e^iq, a horse, ab6 e^ii), a mare.
h. In the case of persons, by appending the words 6kor)ri, man, and 6biri,
woman ; as, om6koi)ri (omo dkoqri, child man), a man-child, a boy, om6biri (omo
6biri), a woman-child, a girl ; iwofa 6kor|ri, a bond-man, iwofa obiri, a bond-
woman; egb6r) dkoqri, an elder brother, egboq 6biri, an elder sister ; aburo 6kor)ri,
a younger brother, aburo obiri, a younger sister.
3. By compounding two or more words in construction ; as, bale (oba il^, lord
of house), the master of a house, or father of a family ; iyale (iya, mother, mis-
tress, ile, house), the mistress of a house, or mother of a family ; balogui) (oba,
lord, li, as to, oguq, war), a general; iyal^e (iya, mistress, li, as to, dse, coohing),
a female cook.
44 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX,
Number.
§ 197. There are two metliods of indicating that a noun is plural :
1. By employing the personal pronoua awoq, they.^ before the noun ; as, awoq
Iraale fe oguq, tJie Moliammedans love war ; d 6 ri awoq esiq, we did iwt see tJie
horses I budi;oko awoq eleg^q, tlie seat of the scornful.
When two or more plural nouns in this construction are connected by a conjunction, ' &yioi) ' is repeated
before each of them ; as, awoij alagbAra, awoq ologboi), ati awoi) olododo, the powerful, tlie wise, and the
righteous. But 'awoij' is not employed unless it is really necessaiy to indicate plurality. Thus in the
general proposition, aragbani bgboi), the ancients were wise, it is dispensed with, because we naturally infer
that the noun is used collectively.
2. When the idea of reciprocity or of repetition is connected with that of plura-
lity, the two ideas are indicated by redu2:»lication,
a. The ideas of reciprocity and plurality are occasionally expressed by redupli-
cation and a copulative conjunction ; as, ore or) ore ki iba ard woq d^^ (^friend and
friend not tvith self their figh£), friends do not fight with each other.
b. Repetition and plurality are indicated by simple reduplication ; as, bu ikoq-
wo ikoqwo eru (talce handfid after handful of ashes), take handfuls of ashes ; eiye
eiye mbe nib^ {bird bird is there), birds are tliere, i. e. in flocks.
G. In the numerals plurality is indicated by reduplicating the first portion ; as,
egbegb6ruq, thousands, or thonsands on thousands ; ogogorui), hundreds, many
hundreds.
Case.
§ 198. There is no inflexion of the Yoruba noun to indicate case. The relations,
however, in which a noun may stand to the other words in a sentence are denoted
in various ways.
§ 199. The subject of the proposition, or nominative, is always placed before the
verb ; as, esiq sare, the horse runs. To this rule there is no exception.
§ 200. The usage in regard to the vocative is various :
1. In calling to a person at a distance, the particle 'o' is often employed after
the noun ; as, omode o ! O child !
2. If the person addressed is not far ofi", the speaker uses nd, tTiat ; as, 6koi)ri uA
wAh, man, come.
3. In addressing one who is quite near to the speaker, the demonstrative yi, this,
is frequently employed ; as, omode yi, kuro ! child, get out of the way !
4. Usually, however, the name of the person addressed receives no addition ; as,
omode, t6 mi wdh, child, come to me; eqyiq Yoruba, gbo ti emi {ye Yanibas, hear
the words of ?ne), ye Yortd>as, hear me.
§ 201. The position of the objective depends on the character of the sentence:
1. It usually follows the governing word; as, mo ri oba, I saw the king ; dig
dkara fu babd, bake bread for fatlier.
2. In cases of emphasis, however, the objective precedes the governing word ; as,
erai) ki d di ? {ineat that toe fry), shall I fry meat f obo ri ! see the baboon I 6q li
d wi fu {him it-is toe spoke to), we told him.
INFLEXION AND CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS. 45
3. When the governing verb is an infinitive, depending on another verb, the
objective is placed between the two verbs ; as, ye mi kp^ (cease me calV)^ cease
calling me; 6 mo iwe \h, {lie Tcnoivs hook read')^ he knows Iww to read ; emi fe
babd ri (I want fatlier see)^ I want to see my father.
§ 202. The possessive relation is expressed in the following ways:
1. By placing the two nouns in juxtaposition, the name of the possessor always
following that of the thing possessed ; as, iwe omo (hooh of child^^ the child's booh;
ile babd, father'' s liouse ; ile eiye, a bird's nest; ebado okuq, the shore of the sea, or
the sea-shore ; okpa irii), a staff of iron, or an iron staff.
2. Less frequently, the relation between the two nouns is expressed, in the Ara-
maic manner, by tlie relative pronoun ti, ivho, wJiich, placed between thera, which
thus becomes equivalent to the preposition of; as, ile ti babd (house of father),
father'' s house ; Kristi ti Oluwa, the Christ of the Lord, or tlie Lord's Christ.
§ 203. The pronoun or particle 'ti' is necessarily used in the following cases :
1. When the first noun is omitted.
a. In propositions where the relation of possession is predicated ; as, ti babd mi
ni (of father my it-is), it is my father'' s ; agbara ti idie ti Oloruq (power which is
of God), the power which is God''s.
b. In propositions where the possessive relation is simply indicated and not pre-
dicated, but where the name of the thing possessed is not expressed ; as, nwoq se
ti orisa (they do of idols), they da the work of idols, i. e. they serve idols ; awoq
Nasdra fe ti Oloruq (they Christian love of God), Christians love the doctrine or
service of God. When a laborer was looking for a suitable stone, another said to
him in my hearing, gbe ti ese r^ (take of foot thy), take the one at thy foot. The
following instance comes under the same category : ki i^e Oloruq okii bikd^e ti
dye, he is not the God of the dead, but of the living.
2. When the names of the possessor and possessed might be mistaken for names
or epithets of the same person in apposition, the relation of possession must be
indicated by ' ti ' ; as, Kristi ti Oluwa, ths Lord^s Christ ; Atiba ti oba, Atiba the
servant of the king. Atiba oba, means Atiba tJie King — the present King of
Yoruba being named Atiba.
Apposition.
§ 204. 1. "When nouns are in apposition, the principal word comes firet; as,
Atiba oba, Atiha tlie king, or King Atiba ; Kumi bale, Kumi the governor.
2. When a pronoun is in apposition with a noun, the pronoun comes first ; as, iwo
omo, thou child ; eqyiq ^nia, ye people.
3. If words in apposition be connected by a copula, the predicate usually comes
first; as, emi li Oloruq (spirit is God), God is a spirit; ologboq li iwo (loise-
man art thou)., thou art wise.
ADJECTIVES.
§ 205. The ofiBce oi predicative adjectives, i. e. of those which affirm or predicate
a quality, is performed :
1. By simple verbs; as, Aina dara, Airui is good; 6 ti dara, /^ has been good;
46 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
yi 6 dara, lie will he good ^ oyig dor), honey is sweet • igi nld, the tree is large. Like
other verbs, they sometimes take the auxiliary particle ' ni ' ; as, Aina ni dara,
Aina is good ; Aina ni yi 6 dara, Aina will he good.
2. By compound verbs, formed by prefixing ni or li, to have, or ^e, to
he, to nouns; as, Aina lagbara (li agbara, has strength').^ Aina is strong ; iwo
khma, {he enia, art a person)., thou art Tcind; 6 sble (se ole, is a lazy one)., he is
lazy.
§ 206. The office of qualificative adjectives, i. e. of adjectives wbicli are attached
to a noun to indicate quality, is performed :
1. By abstract nouns placed after the nouns which they qualify. These are
either :
a. Abstract nouns formed by reduplication from the simple neuter verbs which
are employed as predicative adjectives; as, ohuq didara (thing of goodness)., a
good thing ; oyir) didSq (honey of s^veetness), sweet honey , igi nldnla (tree of
largeness)., a large tree.
b. Primitive abstract nouns ; as, baqga 6ke (room "of wpperness)., art, upper
room ; enia agbara, a person of strength., or a strong man ; ise wahala (work of
trouble)., a troublesome worTc.
2. By concrete nouns placed in apposition before the noun they qualify ; as,
alagbaraenia (strong-one person)., a strongman • otosi 6biri (miserable-one woman).,
a miserable or wretched woman • okp6 6biri (widow woman)., a vndow.
3. By the relative pronoun ti, who., which., and a verb ; as, oyiq ti o doq (honey
which it is-sweet)., sweet honey ; ida ti o mu (sword which it is-sha?p), a sharp
sword; igi ti o ^e (stich ivhich it is-hroheii)., a broken stick.
4. In a very few instances, by a simple neuter verb ; as, mo ri obo nld, / saw a
large baboon ; enia rh li o 6e § (person is-good it-is that did it)., a good person
did it.
Comparison.
§ 207. Higher degrees of quality, answering somewhat to our comparative., are
indicated by the addition of words which perform the office of adverbs.
1. The word most commonly employed for this purpose is d^ii, surpassing.,
exceeding., very ; as, 6 dara d^ii (it is-good exceeding), it is very good., it is better.
L6h, to go, is frequently employed pleonastically after d^u ; as, 6 dara diu 16h ;
but this adds nothing to the sense.
2. A form of expression equivalent to a comparative is made, when only one
term of the comparison is given, by adding si i, to it, i. e. in addition, more ; as, 6
dara si i (it is-good more), it is better.
3. More than is expressed simply by d^ii, or di;u 16h ; as, isubu roroq d^ii idide,
or d^u \^\^^\()\i, falling is easier than ris^ing ; 6 ye fu ni ki k 6ise di^u ki d ^e oto-
6i, it is proper for us that we labor rather than that toe be poor.
§ 208. The highest degree, or superlative, may be expressed:
1. By dill gbogbo, or di:u gbogbo loh, surpassing all; as, eyi dara diii gbogbo
16h (this is-good surpassing all away), this is the best.
2. By tdq, completed, perfected, placed after the adjective; as, 6 dara tdq (it is-
good perfectly), it is best.
INFLEXION AND CONSTRUCTION OF WORDS.
47
NUMERALS.
Cardinals,
§ 209. The following list exhibits the Yoruba cardinal numerals and their con-
struction :
1. eni, okai).
2. edii.'
3. eta.
4. eriq.
5. arurj.
6. efa.
7. ed^(5.
8. edi;o.
9. esaq.
10. ewa.
11. okaqld
12. ediild
13. etald
14. eriqld
15. 6ed6gui)
16. 6rii}dil6guq
17. ^tadil6guq
18. c^dzidil6guij
19. 6kaqdil6guq
20. ogiiq.
21. 6kaqlel6guq
22. ed;^ilel6guq
23. ^taleloguq
24. 6riqlel6guq
25. 6ed6gboq
26. ^riqdilogboq
27. 6tadilogboq
28. ed:^idil6gboq
29. 6kaqdilogboq
30. ogb6q.
31. 6kaqlelogboq
35. druqdilogod^i
39. 6kaqdilogd6^i
40. ogodi;i, od^i
45. druqdiladota
50. adota
60. ogota, ota
70. adoriq
80. ogoriq, oriq
90. adoruq
100. ogoruq, oriiq
{great 1).
( " 2).
( " 3)-
( " 4).
(20—5).
(20—4).
(20—3).
(20—2).
(20-1).
(20+1).
(20 + 2).
(20+3).
(20+4).
(30—5).
(30—4).
(30—3).
(30—2).
(30-1).
(30 + 1).
(40—5).
(40-1).
(20x2).
(50—5).
(60—10).
(20x3).
(80—10).
(20x4).
(100-10).
(20x5).
101. okaqlelogoruq
105. druqdilad6fa
110. adofa
120. ogofa, ofa
130. adodi:e
140. ogodie, odie
150. adod^o
160. ogodiio, odi;o
170. adosaq
180. ogosaq, osaq
190. ewadiliigba
200. igba, or igbeo.
210. ^walelugba
220. ogiiqleliigba
230. ogb6qlehigba
240. 6d^ilehigba
250. adotalehigba
300. oduruq
400. iriqwo, or iriq'o.
500. od^gb6ta
600. egbeta
700. od^gberiq
800. egb^riq
900. od^gberuq
1000. egb^ruq
1100. odegbefa
1200. egb^fa
1300. od^gbedie
1400. egbedi;e
1600. egbgdio
1800. egbfeaq
2000. egba
2100. egba 6 le ogoruq
2200. egbokaqla
2300. egb6kaqla 6 le
ogoruq
2400. egbediila
2600. egb^tala
2800. egbfriqla
3000. egbged6guq
4000. egbadiii
(100 + 1).
(110—5).
(120—10).
(20x6).
(140—10).
(20x7).
(160—10).
(20x8).
(180—10).
(20x9).
(200—10).
(200+10).
(200+20).
(200+30).
(200+40).
(200+50).
(400—100).
(600—100).
(200x3).
(800—100).
(200x4).
(1000—100).
(200x5).
(1200—100).
(200x6).
(1400—100).
(200x7).
(200x8).
(200x9).
(200x10).
(2000+100).
(200x11).
(2200 + 100).
(200x12).
(200x13).
(200x14).
(200x15).
(2000 X 2).
48
ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
5,000.
egheeddghoi) (200x25).
16,000.
egba.d:&o
(2000x8).
6,000.
egbata
(2000x3).
18,000.
egbasaq
(2000x9).
7,000.
ed^gbariq
(8000—1000).
20,000.
egbawa
(2000x10),
8,000.
egbariq
(2000x4).
07' olv6 kdq
(one hag).
9,000.
ed^gbaruq
(10,000—1000).
100,000.
ok6 maruq
(5 hags).
10,000.
egbaruq
(2000x5).
1,000,000.
adota ok6
(50 hags).
12,000.
egbafa
(2000x6).
2,000,000.
ogoruq ok6
(100 hags).
14,000.
egbadie
(2000x7).
FORMATION OF CARDINALS.
§ 210. The primitive numerals are the units from one to ten^ and the numbers
twenty^ thirty^ and two hundred. Most or all of these might be referred to existing
Yoruba roots ; but it would be difficult to establish any plausible connexion
between the meaning of the root and that of the numeral. The only exception is
igba (from gbd, to sioe^, to collect into a lieap^ as 'by sweeping), a collection or
heap., and hence two hundred • so called from the fact that, in counting cowries, the
Yorubas sweep each two hundred into a separate heap. This number is also called
igbeo (igba ow6), a heap of money.
The number edze, seven, appears to be 5 + 2 ; which makes it not improbable that the latter units are
founded on the first five, as is the case in so many African languages. A more extensive and accurate
acquaintance, however, with the cognates of this language than is now possessed, would be necessary to
establish the fact.
§ 211. The derivative numbers, which are by far the more numerous class, are
formed as follows :
1. By appending the term nld, large^ to the four first units ; as, okagM (great one).,
eleven^ &c.
2. By subtracting smaller numbei's from larger round numbers; as, ^ed6gui)
(aruq di oguq, five from twenty)., fifteen / erii)dil6gui) (eriq di li ogiiq, four
from on twenty)., sixteen^ adota (ewa di ota, ten from sixty), fifty ; odiirur) (oriiq
di iriqwo, one hundred from four hundred)., three hundred ^ od^gbeta (oruq di
egbeta, one hundred from six hundred)., five hundred.
3. By addition ; as, okar)lel6gur) (okaq le li ogiiq, one laid on twenty)., twenty-
one ; ewalehigba (ewa le li igba, ten laid on two hundred)., two hundred and ten.
4. By multiplication ; as, ogod:&i, sometimes contracted to od^i (ogiiq edi;i,
twenty two or twenty twice)., forty ; ogoruq or oriiq (ogtiq aruq, twenty five times),
one hundred; egb6ta (igba eta, two hundred three times), six hundred; egba (igba
ewa, two-hundred ten times), two thousand ; egb6kar)la (igba okayld, two hundred
eleven times), two thousand t^vo hundred.
§ 212. The fact that two hundred, two thousand, and twenty thxmsand are round
numbers, is to be accounted for by their method of counting cowries as shown in
the following table.
C
owry Table.
40 cowries = 1 string,
,
called ogodii.
worth $0.02
5 strings =1 bunch.
,
" igbeo,
" 0.10
10 bunches=l head.
•
" egba,
1.00
10 heads=l bag or sack,
.
" ok^,
10.00
INTLEXION AND CONSTEUCTION OF WORDS.
40
§ 213. This custom of counting by cowries also gives rise to the following,
Cardinals o'f Price.
okdq (ow6 kdij)
1 cowry.
^wa
10
cowries.
e<3li
2 "
6k6wo .
20
((
eta
3 "
ogboqwo
30
((
eriq
. 4 "
ogodzi (1 string)
40
a
aruq
5 "
ogoriq (2 " )
80
a
efa
6 "
ogofa (3 " )
120
u
idi6 .
1 "
ogodio (4 " ) .
160
11
edio
8 "
igbeo (5 " ) .
200
u
esaq
9 "
iriqwo (10 " )
400
u
It will be observed that up to ogodi;i,/or^y, the first vowel of each numeral is
long. The reason of this is that okaq, edii, &c., are contractions of ow6 kdq, ow6
ed:^i, 07ie coiory^ two cowries^ &c.
Construction of Cardinals.
§ 2 1 4. The cardinal units, from two to ten inclusive, have ' m ' prefixed to them when
they belong to nouns expressed or understood, as, enia m^wa, ten men. Eni, one,
is used only in counting. The word ' kdq ' is employed when the noun is ex-
pressed; as, 6nia kdq, one man; and. ' okaq ' when the noun is not expressed; as,
okaq de, one came.
The ' m ' prefixed to tlie numerals is probably a contraction of mft, to catch, used in the sense of amounting
to. When an African speaks in English, he generally says, he catch ten, he catch twenty, for there were
ten, dc.
§ 215. The round numbers, as ogiiq, ogboq, ogodii, &c., are generally placed be-
fore the nouns to which they belong ; as, ogiiq enia, twenty men. The other numerals
follow the noun; as, ^nia medii, two men; hms. metalel6gboq, thirty-three msn.
ORDINALS.
§ 216. The ordinals, from one to nineteen, are formed by prefixing 'ek' or 'ek'
(the choice being determined by the law of euphonic concord) to the cardinals ; as,
okim, first ; ekedi;i, second ; eketa, third, &g. But the vowel of the prefix is often
omitted ; as, kini, kedii, keta. These ordinals follow the noun ; as, odi;o ekedzi
or kedi;i, the second day.
DISTRIBUTIVES.
§ 21Y. The distributive numerals are of two kinds.
1. Distributives of number or quantity, formed as follows :
a. By doubling the cardinals which commence with ' m ' ; as, medi;imedi;i, t/wo
by two / metameta, three hy three.
6. By reduplicating the two first letters of such cardinals as do not commence
with ' m ' ; as, okokaq, one ly one ; ogoguq, twenty Jnj twenty.
2. Distributives of price, formed by reduplicating the two first letters of the
cardinals of price; as, okokaq, one cowry each; ediedi;!, two cowries each.
7
50 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
NUMERAL ADVERBS.
§ 218. Numeral adverbs are of two kinds, viz. cardinal and ordinal adverbs.
1. a. The cardinal adverbs, signifying the number of times an event takes place,
are formed by prefixing '1' (li, in) and 'e' (a contraction of eriq or ariq, time) to
the adjectival forms of the cardinals; as, lekdq, once; lemedii, twice. Very often
erig or arii) is pronounced in full ; as, leriq kdq, or lariq kdr).
h. For the round numbers, igba, time^ is employed ; and in this case ' n ' (ni, in)
is preferred to '1,' as being more euphonious ; as, ni igba ogiiq, twenty times ; ni
igba ogodiiA, forty times.
2. Ordinal adverbs, which denote the order in which events occur, are formed
by prefixing ' le ' to the ordinals ; as, lekini, first ; lekedii, secondly.
ADVERBS.
Formation of Adverbs. .
§ 219. In regard to their origin, adverbs may be divided into four classes:
1, primitive adverbs; 2, nouns used adverbially; 3, words compounded of
nouns and other accompanying words, as prepositions, &c. ; and 4, verbs used
adverbially.
§ 220. There are but few primitive adverbs, that is words which are adverbial
in their primary acceptation ; as, lai, eveft^ ; ewe, again ; eq, yes ; ndau, nx).
§ 221. Nouns employed as adverbs are of two classes :
1. Primitive abstract nouns; as, die, a little^ e. g. 6 suq die. Tie shpt a little ;
6ke, the parts above^ on Mgh, wp^ e. g. 6 gori 6ke, he rose tip ; isale, the parts
below, down, e. g. o 16h isale, he went dmon.
2. Derivative abstract nouns, especially those formed by reduplication ; as,
nwoq gbero kpikpb, they consulted much / 6 huwa buburu, he behaved badly.
§ 222. 1. Many adverbial expressions are composed of ni or li, in, and an abstract
noun (§ 62) ; as, loni (li oni, in this-day), to-day ; nigbani (ni igbani), long ago ;
l6t6 (li oto), truly, &c.
2. Sometimes, however, several words are combined into one ; as, disisiyi (di isisi
yi, till time this), hitherto ; nigbagbogbo (ni igba gbogbo, in time every), always.
§ 223. Verbs are frequently converted into adverbs :
a. t6, to be enough, is used in the sense of sufitcientl/y / as, 6 s6ro t6, he spoke
enough.
b. toq, or tiiq, to be new, fresh, young, is used for again / as, 6 t6q de, he came
again.
c. kp6, to be common, for in comm/m, or together / as, nwoq gbero kp6, they con-
sulted together.
d. d^u, to surpass, excel, for mm-e, much; as, burn d^u, moreroicked ; 6 sised^u,
he labored m,uch or excessivel/y.
INFLEXION AND CONSTKUOTION OF WOKDS. 51
Classification of Adverbs.
§ 224. There is no deficiency of adverbs to express the various relations of time,
place, &c. A few of each class will be given, and the othera may be found in the
Dictionary.
1. Of Time : loni (li oni), to-day / lana (li ana), yesterday / lola (li ola), to-mor-
row ; lod^od^o (li odi;o-od^o, § 63), daily ; lo^o^u (lio^u osu), momOdy ; lekaq,
mice I lemedi;!, twice ; nigbati, when ', nigbana, thmi j ki. . . to, before^ e. g. ki emi
to de, hefore I come.
2. Of Place : nihiqyi (ni ihiq yi), Jiere ; nibe (ni ibe), there; loke (li oke),
xipwards ; lehig (li ehiq), backwards.
3. Of Manner or Quality : di;ed:?;e, softly / li okpoloko (in ahundance)^ abun-
dantly ; fi ogboq {with toisdom)^ loisely ; fi ika, cruelly ; fi agbara, poiverfully,
violently. '
4. Of Quantity : kp6, okpo, mioch ; die, little ; to, enough / bi . . . ti . . . kp6 t6,
Jww much^ e. g. bi mo ti fe 16h kp5 to (as I how wish to-go much enough^^ how
much I wish to go I bi . . . ti, how.^ e. g. bi emi 6 ti ^e m5 ? (as I shall how do to-
Tcncno)^ how sliall ITcnotc ?
5. Of Comparison: d^ti, more, exceedingly; gidigidi, di;od;^o, much, very ;
tdq, kpe, most, perfectly, completely; rere, well; behe, bayi, so, thus; fere
almost.
6. Of Affirmatio7i : eq, yes ; beheni, so, so it is, yes ; 6, yes.
T. Of Negation : ndau, n, no ; beheke, not so, no ; ki, kd, k6, k6, not ; to
which it may be added that any grave unaccented vowel, except ' a' and 'e,' is a
negative.
8. Of Doubt : boya (bi 6 y^, if it be), perhaps ; bol^^e, bolfe^ekpe (bi 6 le se
kpe, if it can be that^, if possible; kosekpe (ki 6 6e kp^,- that it be thai), if tliat,
suppose that.
9. Of Interrogation : bawo ? (bi ewo, if what), Iww f ese ? (eyi se, this is), tohy ?
nitorikini ? (niti ori kini, as to reason what), wherefore ? why ?
Const/ruction of Adverbs.
§ 225. As a general rule, adverbs follow the words which they qualify ; as, mo
ri i loni, / saw him to-day. We may state, however, three exceptions to this
rule:
1. The adverb is sometimes placed first for the sake of emphasis ; as, loni ni mo
ri i, to-day I satv him. But although this construction is emphatic, emj)hasis does
not ahvays seem intended when it is employed.
2. Adverbs of doubt, negation, and some others, generally precede the word
which they qualify; as, boya yi o \6h., perhaps he will go ; emi ko ri i, / did not
see him.
3. Adverbial phrases composed of fi, with, and a noun, precede the verb ; as,
6 fl ogboi) ^e e (he with wisdom did it), he did it loisely.
52 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
PREPOSITIONS.
FormaiAon of Prepositions.
§ 226. Prmdtives. Three of the prepositions, ni, in ; si, to ; and ti, from^ are re-
garded as primitives. It is not improbable, however, that ' ti ' is the verb ti, to push^
to prop. Retaining a trace of this meaning, it becomes a preposition, ti, hy ; as, 6
d^oko ti mi. Tie sat hy me^ i. e. touching me. But at present the most usual meaning
of ' ti' \sfrom.
§ 227. Verhs employed for Prepositions. Many verbs are employed as prepo-
sitions, although they still continue to be construed as verbs. A few examples will
be given here ; the remainder will be found in the Dictionary.
a. ba, to meet., becomes bd, witTi,fo9\ from ; as, 6 bd. mi 16h, Tie went witTi rne i
6 bd mi vk d,die, Tie hougTit a fowl fromi me ; bd mi wd aso, seeTc dotlifor me., i. e. help
me to procure some cloth. If this w^ord were construed as a preposition, it would
follow the verb ; as, 6 16h bd mi ; but the phrase would be unintelligible to a
native of Yoruba.
h. fi, to moTce^ becomes fi, witTi ; as, 6 fi ida ^dq. Tie smote witli a sww'd.
G. fu, to give^ becomes fu, to, for • as, wi fu ii, speaTs to Tiim / mo r^ S fu, I
hougTit it for Tiim. But ' fu,' unlike ' bd ' and ' fi,' is construed as a preposition.
The reason is that ' fu ' wherever used is in the infinitive mode ; whereas ' bd '
and ' fi ' belong 1;o the preceding nominative, and the verb which follows is an
infinitive.
d. m6, to adTiere^ and t6, to approacTi^ to follow^ are used for to / as, kaq S mo igi,
nail it to tTie wood ; th mi wdh, come to me.
e. kd, to place^ set^ and lu, to striTce^ are employed for on j as, gbe e kd ina, set it
on tTiefire ; 6 subu lu mi, it falls on me.
§ 228. Compound Prepositions. We have already noticed the fact that the Yoruba
language has names for purely abstract relations, which in many other languages
are expressed by adverbs and prepositions. These abstract nouns are frequently
employed as adverbs'; but to make them available as prepositions, they must be
compounded with ni, m; si, to; or \j\ from; as, nino, m, witTiin^ from in6, tJie
inside.
§ 229. This account of prepositions leads us to notice the manner in which the
mind of the people contemplates relations. First, they regard the relations of ?/p,
down^ within.^ witTiout^ c&c, as actual things, and give them names. Secondly, they
view these relations as fixed or permanent ; and to form adverbs of permanent rela-
tion, they prefix ' ni ' or ' li ' to the abstract noun. This word ' ni ' denotes fixedness
of relation, and is always employed after the substantive verb, whence it may be
called the substantive preposition. Finally, the Yorubas contemplate the relations
as in a state of motion or emanation /rom the subject to the object. Motion from
is invariably expressed by ' ti,' and motion to by ' si.' Thus from each noun of
relation are formed three prepositions, to point out the mode in which the relation
exists between the subject and the object ; as, 16do (li odo), down, employed after
verbs of rest or fixedness ; sodo (si odo), down, employed after verbs of motion to
INFLEXION AND C0N8TKU0TI0N OF WORDS. 53
or towards (lie object ; todo* (ti 6do), doivn^ employed after verbs expressing motion
from the olyect to the subject ; e. g. 6 w^ lodo mi, it is below me; 16h sodo mi, go
below me.; 6 mb6 t6do mi, it is coming below me, i. e. it is approaching from below
towards me.
§ 230. Of the three fundamental prepositions, 'ti' only takes the substantive form
by receiving the prefix ' a ' ; as, ati, the fromTiess. For obvious reasons this noun
does not take the prefixes ' si ' and ' ti,' but it is often compounded with ' li ' ; as,
lati il6 de oko, from the house to the farm.
. Construction of Prepositions.
§ 231. Usually the preposition is placed immediately before the objective, and
the verb precedes both ; as, 6 mbe nin6 ile, he is in the lunise. But to this rule
we note two exceptions :
1. A finite verb employed as a preposition (§ 227. <?.) precedes the verb; as,
6 ba mi r&, he bought from me.
2. The relative ' ti' precedes the preposition by which it is governed in the object
tive, as is sometimes the case in English ; as, emi ri ibi ti 6 dioko si, I sav) the
pla<;e tohich lie sat in ; ' si ' in this construction being substituted for ' ni.'
CONJUNCTIONS.
§ 232. We will here state the peculiarities of the principal conjunctions, arrang-
ing them under the English words to which they correspond.
§ 233. And is represented by various particles.
1. By 'ti' in two cases only:
a. To connect personal pronouns ; as, iwo ti emi ri i, thou and I sato it ; yi 6
kpa emi ti iwo, he will Mil me and thee. The pronouns, whether singular or plural,
which are connected by ' ti,' must be of the primary forms, except that ' re ' may
be employed after 'ti' instead of iwo, thou, or 6q, he ; as, emi ti r^ d, o 16h, I and
thou will go ; emi ti r^ ^e e, I and lie did it.
b. In connecting verbs or clauses of sentences, ' ti ' is frequently employed with
' si,' and, also ; as, d ri i, ti d si mu u. (we saw him, and we also caught hirn), we
saw him and caught him ; bi 6 ba de, ti 6 si kpfe mi (if he shoidd come, and he
also call me), if he should come and call me.
2. By ' ati,' the substantive form of ' ti.'
a. 'Ati' is employed to connect nouns, pronouns, adverbs, and prepositions ; as,
6biri ati omo loh, the woman and the child toent ; 6 kpe iwo ati emi, Jie called thee
and me ; d ri wog leba ati nin6 6do, we saw them by and in the river ; 6 s5ro
l^saq ati lailogboq, he spoTce vainly and foolishly.
b. ' Ati ' 6annot be employed to connect verbs, because it would make the verb
which might follow it equivalent in sound to a verbal noun with the prefix ' ati.'
Thus, 6 dide ati loh, he arose and went, would always be taken by the hearer for
6 dide atil6h, he arose to go.
* This form is little used.
54 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
3. ' Oq ' is equivalent to ' ati ' in all respects, only it is sometimes preferable to
connect nouns ; as, mo ri Dadd og Ade^ina, I saw Dada and Adeslmm.
4. Kpelu, wiih^ is frequently employed in tlie sense of and to connept nouns
and occasionally pronouns ; as, 6biri kpelu omo li o de, the woman amd the child
came.
5. ' Si ' (si ehiq, to hac\ go hachwa/)-ds) is employed to connect verbs only ; as,
dide si 16h, a/rise and go.
Very often a nominative pronoun, agreeing in number and person with the
nominative of the first verb, is employed pleonastically before the conjunction ; as,
emi dide, mo si loh, I arose and went; iwo ati emi ri d si m5, thou atid I see and
Tcnow.
§234. 1. Because^ for., is represented by 'nitori' (ni itori), in or ly reason.^
or ' nitori ti,' hy reason of^ either of which may be employed at the option of the
speaker ; as, d ni 16h nitori oba mb5, we must go for the Tcing is coining.
2. Before ' ati,' and^ the initial ' n ' (or preposition ' ni ') is dropped ; as, nitori mo
beru re, ati itori ti iwo qSe oqroro 6nia, hecatise I feared thee, atid hecause thou art
an austere nian.
§ 235. But., 6ugb6q, biko^e, bio^e; as, mo kp^ e,^ugb6q k6 die wdh, / called
Mm, but he wovM not come ; ki i^e asiwere bikose ologboq, he is not a fool but a
wise man.
§ 236. If bi, kosekpe, iba; as, bi 6 ba; -mS, if he knew or Tcnows ; kosekpe
eqyir) loh, if you go ; iba m5 eyi, yi 6 kpada, if he Tcnew this, he would return.
§ 237. Lest, ki...mdh, sometimes with 'nitori' immediately preceding 'ki';
as, d ^ise ki d mdh 6agbe (or nitori ki mdh, &c.), we ^oorli lest we should beg.
§ 238. Neither . . . nor, ko or ki . . .behe ; as, ko 16h behe ni k6 dioko, lie neither
goes nor stays. Sometimes ko . . . k6 ; as, ko ni babd ko ni lya nd, he has neitJier
father nor mother.
§ 239. Or, tabi, mbi : iwo tabi emi, tliou or I ; ako mbi dbo ? a male or a
female ?
§ 240. Whether ...or, iba... iba: iba 6e 6koqri iba 6e 6biri ni, yi 6 kpa W9q,
whether they be men or women, he will hill tliem.
§ 241. Since, nigbati; nigbati eqyir) ti de, d gbo 8ro Olorug, since you hawe
come, tve hear the word of God.
§ 242. Tluit, is represented by several particles :
1. By ki, ki . . . ki 6 ; as, mo ni ki 6 16h, I say tliat he must go ; or if the nomi-
native following ' ki ' has two or more letters, ' ki 6' follows it ; as, mo ni ki oq
ki 6 16h, I say that he must go.
2. By ti ; as, ki li emi 6 ^e ti . emi 6 dioguq iye ? what shall I do tJiat I may
inherit life ?
3. By kpe ; as, 6 ri i kpe 6 dara, he saw tliat it was good; kpe is used pleo-
nastically after verbs of saying, writing, perceiving, &c. ; as, d ti kowe r^ kpe, saw6 !
6 mb6, it is written, behold ! he cometh ; emi vah kpe iwo 6euq, Ihnow tluni art good ;
6 bi wor) lere kpe, li oruko ta ni nwoq s5ro, he asked them in whose name they
spoke; nwoq be e kpe ki 6 16h, they begged him to go.
§ 243. Then, ndie ; as, nd^e d 6 suq li odaq, then we must sleep inihe prairie.
§ 244. Though, bi, frequently followed by tile, even; as, bi d tile ^ote si i,
dltltmigh we have rd)elled against him.
INFLEXION AND CONSTEUCTION OF WORDS. 55
INTERJECTIONS.
§ 245. The principal interjections are the following :
Alaa I oh ! ah ! ye ! aa !
Behold ! w6 ! saw6 ! kiyesi ! sA kiyesi !
Fudge ! huq ! kai !
Pshaw ! 816 !
Silence! dake! simi !
WoTidei-ftd! kpa! ekpa! ari!
Get out of the way ! ago ! kuro !
56 SPECIMENS OF COMPOSITION.
SPECIMENS OF COMPOSITON.
YOEUBA PEOVEEBS.
The Yorubas have no songs, and, I believe, but few popular stories ; but the
language abounds in proverbs, which are at once the poetry and the moral science
of the nation. Many of them are sententious observations on the nature of things ;
others are designed to inculcate the various relative duties of men ; and a few are
simply an ingenious play upon words.
We subjoin some specimens of these proverbs, not only to exhibit the idioms of
the language, but also to illustrate the character of the Yoruba mind. They are
taken chiefly from Crowther's Vocabulary.
1. Eni aba kb t6 bi eni ore: eni aba kd &e ika; riruq ni i ruq
Mat of grass not lasts as mat of bulrush : mat of grass not does bend ; breaking it-is it breaks
w6mwom.
to-pieces.
A grass mat does not last like a bulrush mat : a grass mat will not bend ; it breaks to pieces.
2. Abaiyed^e k6 ^e ifl idi 6ran h&q.
Tattler not does to-make root of matter apypear.
It will not do to reveal one''s secrets to a tattler.
3. Abd k6 &e ik^q m6 ni li ese, biko^e eni ti r)^e buburu.
Staple not does drive to-adhere-to one on foot, except one who is-doing evil.
The stocks are not fastened on the foot of one, except of him who does evil.
4. Abata tdkete, bienikpe k6 bd 6do tar).
Marsh stands-aloof, as-if not with stream be-akin.
The marsh stands aloof, as if it were not akin to the stream. — Said of people who are proud and
reserved.
1. Kd ^e, does not; — 'ika,' infinitive after ^e, tlie preformative 'i' being very slightly sounded.
Observe the Hebraism, riruij ni i ruq, breaking it breaks, instead of 6 ruij, it breaks. This form is
poetical.
2. Abaiyedie (4, he ; ba . . . die, spoils ; aiye, the world), a world-spoiler. ' Kd ^e ' here means it will
not do, it is not proper, which is quite an English idiom ; — ' fi . . . h^i) ' (to make . . . appear) is a compound
transitive verb, meaning to show, reveal ; — idl brar), the root of the matter, a secret.
3. In various and widely separated countries of Africa, prisoners are sometimes confined by placing a
large iron staple around the ankle and driving the ends into a log, thus forming a rude kind of stocks.
4. BI eni kpe, as if one should say.
SPECIMENS OF COMPOSITION. 57
5. Bi od^um6 mo, oldwo gbe 6wo, iranwu A gbe keke, ad^agnq d gbe akpata,
If dawn dawns, trader takes trade, spinner she takes distaff, warrior he takes shield,
iwoq^o d bere gbe asa, kghe &, di'A ti oq ti aruko, omo-ode d
weaver he stoops to-take sley, farmer he wakes and he and hoe-handle, child-oi-hunting he
diiX ti akpo ti oroq.
wakes and quiver and hoio.
This picturesque proverb, or poem, may be rendered thus —
When the day dawns, the trader betakes himself to his trade ;
The spinner takes her distaff, the warrior takes his shield ;
The weaver stoops to take his sley (i. c. bonds over it) ;
The farmer awakes, he and his hoe-handle ;
The hunter awakes with his quiver and his how.
It would not be easy to give a more correct description of the usual day-break scene in every
Yoruba town.
6. Ebi k6 kpa Imale, 6 li 6q ki id^e ayd.
Hunger not affects Mohammedan, he says he not eats monkey.
When a Mohammedan is not hungry, he says he never eats monkey. But when he is hungry,
he is not so scrupulous.
7. A ki iru eraq eriq li ori ki d ma fi ese tkq ire ni il^.
One not carries flesh of elephant on head that he may with foot dig crickets in ground.
One never carries elephant s flesh on his head that he may dig in the ground with his foot for
crickets, i. e. one who has a plenty of elephant's meat (which is considered good food) does not
put it on his head and go about searching for crickets to eat. The proverb is applied to rich
men who stoop to mean actions for the sake of gain.
8. Kpikpe ni yi 6 kpe, eke k6 mu Srd.
Long-time it-is it mil he-long, lie not catch body.
A long time may pass away before one is caught in a lie ; but he will be detected at last.
9. Amu ni ^e esiq ; ete ti imu ni li agogo imo.
Making one to-be disgrace ; leprosy which attacks one on point of nose.
The slanderer brings disgrace on one, like a leprosy which attacks one on the point of the nose,
i, e. where all see it.
10. Abdnise mdh bd ni he. m6.
Helper not with one acts more.
He is a helper who helps no more, i. e. he can no longer be depended on.
5. Bi, if, when ; — a, he or she, pleonastic, as it often is in animated discourse ; — ti . . . ti, and . . . and, or
both . . . and.
6. Ni, to say, becomes ' li ' before a vowel. The construction is participial, that is, no word for if or
when is employed at the beginning of the sentence.
7. Li ori : burdens are commonly carried on the head in Africa ; — ire, a large cricket used for food.
8. Ar4, body, used for person, as sometimes in English ; eke mu ara, a lie catches a person, an idiomatic
form of saying a person is caught in a lie.
9. Amu ^e esiij, a making or causing to he a disgrace, means simply disgracing, or bringing disgrace on.
10. Bk...ie (with ...to do or act), a compound transitive verb meaning to help, to aid ; hence abase, he
who helps, a helper ;—ii\, one; mi, my ; r§, thy, d-c, may be inserted before se ; as, abdnise, the helper of
one, ab^imi^e, 7ny helper, dc. ; — ti, who, is omitted before mah, not ; — mo, again, more, any more.
8
58 SPECIMENS OF COirPOSITION.
11. Akuko gkgara ui idadiio fu ni li ariq ogaijdiq.
Cock of bulkiness it4s decides for us in midst of depth-of-night.
A large cock decides for us in the midst of the night. Persons are supposed to te disputing
about the time of night, when the crowing of the cock shows that it is very late. The proverb
may be quoted whenever a dispute is suddenly decided by unexpected evidence.
12. Akobi ni ti eleraq.
First-born is of shepherd.
When a woman takes a ewe or she-goat, both of which are termed erai), cattle, to feed for the
owner, she claims the first-bom lamb or kid for her own. Hence the proverb. The first-hom is
the shepherd's.
13. Ibaluwe gbe ile, ^e bi akurS.
Bath-room ahides4n house, is like water-side garden.
Although the bath-room is in the house, it is as wet as a garden by the water-side.
14. Ologbdq ogb6q li d r6 id^anu; okokaq li d mh iwa enia: d
With to JS(^o»i wisdom it-is they forge bridle-bits ; one-by-one it-is we know character oi persons : we
ba vab iwa enia, d ba bug o, k6 f e ; d dbq ni bi^abadio.
attain to-know character oi person, they attain to-give thee,not desire; it is-painful to one as calamity.
On various plans bridle-bits are made ; one by one we learn the characters of men : the cha-
racter of a man being known (to be bad), if it were given thee as a present, thou wouldst not desire
it ; it is painful to one as a calamity.
15. Ti id^o ti &jh ni i^e idiq, wuye wuye ni i^e igoqgo : d
Both dancing and rejoicing it-is acts the skipper, wriggling wriggling it-is acts the worm : they
qdfo, d qy^; omo banabana T)vh oko igi.
dance, they rejoice ; child of banabana is-going-to farm of wood.
With dancing and joy moves the skipper, wriggling about moves the worm: they dance, they
rejoice ; but the child of banabana is going to the wood-farm. — According to Mr. Crowther, this
proverb means, " others may amuse themselves, but the poor man has no holiday."
16. A ki iwd ala^o dla ni iso elekpo.
We not search him-of-cloth white-cloth in quarters of him-of -palm-oil.
We do not look for a man clad in white cloth in the quarters of the palm-oil maker. — We
should riot expect any result from incongruous or inadequate means.
17. Okete m, odi;6 gbogbo li 6 mb; 6q ko mo odi6 miraq.
Rat says, day every it-is he knows ; he not knows day another.
The rat says he knows every day ; but he does not know another day ; i. e. he lays up nothing
for the future, in which he is imitated by the improvident.
12. For the mode of predicating possession in Yoruba, see Gram. § 203, 1, a.
13. Gbe, to live or be in a place, is always used without a preposition ; — akurS, a garden by a stream, which
is cultivated in the dry season only.
14. Ologboi), that Which has wisdom ; ogbor), wisdom; ologb6i) ogb6;), various wisdom or skill ; so
oniru iru, or oniruru, means /tmc^s, this reduplication always implying variety ; — a r6, they forge, is equivalent
to is or are forged (Gram. § 148, 1) ; — a ba, like ' iba,' implies a condition (Gram. § 143) ; — k6 fe, the sub-
ject, ' iwo,' omitted, a common practice in Yoruba.
15. Ti . . . ti (see Prov. 5) ; wuye wuye, wriggling about ; so taka taka, staggering to and fro, repetition
of the act being implied by the repetition of the word ; wriggling is thought to indicate pleasure ; — bana-
bana, said to be an insect which carries a bit of wood in its mouth, which is thus an emblem of the poor,
many of whom, both men and women, gain a livelihood by bringing firewood from the farms on their
heads ; — omo banabana is equivalent to banabana simply ; comp. the biblical expression, son of man, i. q.
man.
SPECIMENS OF COMPOSITION. 59
18. Odiiik6koro baM okandiua.
Govetousness is the father of unsatisfied desires.
19. 016gb6 babd arokiq.
TVie ologbo w the father oi tradilionists.
20. Alagbara mdh m6 ^ro babd ol^.
Strong man not knows consideration is father of laziness.
A strong man who is destitute of forethought is the father (or prince) of laziness,
21. Eni ti kb gb6 ti ega, d li ega qkpdtoto enu.
One who not hears of oriole, he says oriole is-noisy of mouth.
One who does not understand the oriole says the oriole is noisy, i. e. is merely chattering. But
the orioles are supposed to undei-stand each other. — The meaning of the proverb is that men are
prone to despise what they do not understand.
22. Eleda eda li Oloruq dd ni.
With nature nature it-is God made us.
God has created us with different natures or dispositions ; hence we should not expect to find
the same qualities in every one.
23. Bi alagbdra die o ni iya, ki o fi eriq si i.
J^ great man does thee in wrong, that thou make smile to him.
If a great man should wrong you, smile upon him. Because resistance would bring upon you
a still greater misfortune.
24. Alakpatd ko m6 iru eraq.
Butcher not knows breed of sheep.
The butcher has no regard for the breed of the sheep (which he kills). He attends to his own
business, and does not meddle with matters which do not concern him.
25. Igbo biribiri, 6kuqkuq birlbiri; 6kuqkuq ni yi • o sete igbo.
Forest is-dark, night is-dark ; night it-is that will conquer forest.
The forest is dark, and the night is dark ; but the darkness of the night will soon conquer that
of the forest,
26. Bi ko ^e oboq ^nia, tani iba d^i li oiiro ki 6 mdh. bo Od^u r^ m6
If not is sloven person, who useth to-wake in morning that he not wash face his clean
6a^a?
very ?
Except a sloven, who is wont to rise in the morning without washing his face nicely?
19. Tlie Ologbo is the chief of the Arokiq, whose business it is to remember the history of the country.
20. Before mdh, not, the relative is always omitted.
21. Gb6 ti, to hear the meaning of, to understand.
22. Eleda eda (see Prov. 14) ; — ni, same as ' eni,' an indefinite pronoun, signifying one, some one, a per-
son, and frequently employed instead of wa, us.
23. Die, to do, to act ; ni, in, in regard to ; iya, affliction, wrong ; die . . . niya, to affict, oppress, wrong
(Gram. § 37, 2, a) ; — ki, with a nominative, is much used imperatively ; as, ki o fi, make thou, ki 6 fi, let
him make (Gram. § 161).
24. Erai), cattle, a term including homed cattle, sheep, goats, (fee
26. Bikdse (usually written as one word), except.
60 SPECntENS OF COMPOSITION.
27. Emu bal^ agbede.
Tongs are governor of smithshop.
The tongs are at tlie head of the blacksmith'' s shop ; because they control the hot iron which
otherwise would bo unmanageable.
28. 0^6 onibud^e k5 kpe isaq, oh6 oninaH ko d^u oduq
Ornaments of hadze-woman not remain nine-days, ornaments of inabi-woman not exceed year
Mil.
going.
The murks made by the budze-womaw do not last nine days ; the marks made by the inabi-wo-
man do not last more than a year. — No advantage or possession is permanent.
29. Bi adiia ba li eni lehir), d kpa obo.
If dog * has person behind, he-will kill baboon.
If a dog has his master behind him, he will kill a baboon. — This proverb is designed to show
the advantage of sustaining and encouraging people in their efforts.
30. Ad^a ti k6 li eti k6 ^e idegbe.
Dog which not has ears not do for hunting.
A heedless dog will not do for the chase. — If a person will not take advice, no one will employ
or trust him.
31. Gagal6 subu, ow6 t^ akpako.
Stilts fall, hand seizes palm-stalk.
If a man let fall his stilts, a hand will be stretched out to seize them. — ^That is, so soon as one
man loses an office or position, another is ready to occupy his place.
32. A ki dd ow6 16 ohuq ti & ko le igb6.
We not give hand to thing which we not can perform.
We should not undertake a thing which we cannot accomplish.
33. OniM r)d:^e eso gbir)gbuid6; aled^o ni ki d se oq li ow6 kdg
Housekeeper is-eating fruit of wild-beans; guest says that we do him as-to hand on«
ewa.
boiled-maize.
Although the host may be living on wild beans, the guest expects a handful of boiled com.
28. Oso, an ornament. In this place it means the deep black stripes with which maidens ornament their
faces and arms. — ' Budi6 ' is the fruit of a small tree of the same name, which when green makes a jet black
stain on the skin. ' Onibudie ' is the woman who makes a trade of marking the faces and arms of girls for a
few cowries each. There is a fable of a jet black and exquisitely beautiful girl who was sought in marriage
by all the nobles and rich men of the country ; but she treated every suitor with disdain. At last a worthless
fellow laid a plan by which she was enticed into his house and detained all night. Although she escaped
uninjured, the community at first thought otherwise; and the disgrace afflicted her so much, that she fled
into the woods, where the violence of her grief changed her into the bush that still bears her name.
' Inabi ' is a plant the acrid root of which burns a durable black mark pn the skin. It is seldom used for
marking. — ' L6h,' pleonastic after dzil (Gram. § 207, 1).
29. Ba, an auxiliary particle (Gram. § 139) ;— a, he will (Gram. § 135, 1, b).
31. Stilts are made of the foot-stalks of the akpako, or wine-palm, called bamboo by the whites on the
western coast.
33. Ndze (Gram. § 1 29, 3) ;— se .. .li, to do . . . in regard to, i. e. to supply with.
SPECIMENS OF COMPOSITION. 61
34. Mdli gbiyel6 ogiiq ; ti ow6 eni ni it6 ni.
^ot trust-in inheritance ; of hand of one is sufficient-far one.
Trust not to an inheritance ; the product of one's hands is sufficient for one. — Said to those who
neglect industry because they expect to inherit property.
35. Akoseba, eyi ti idie odiiq.
Chance, this which amounts-to year.
He who xvaits for chance may wait a year. — Said to those who are " waiting for something to
turn up."
36. Eni ti o rag ni ni ise li d iberu ; d ki iberu eni ti d raq ni si.
One who he sends one on message it-is we fear ; we not fear one whom they send one to.
We should fear him who sends us with a message, not him to whom we are sent. — Applied to
messengers sent from one king or chief to another.
37. Er6 kpesekpese ; ko m5 bi ard qkag igbiq.
Light very ; not know as body is-paining snail.
You say it is a very light blow, but do not reflect that it would hurt a snail. — Said to those
who would excuse their bad conduct to others on the ground that it does them no great harm.
38. E^iq ri ogui), d^o ; bko ri ogug, 6 y6.
Spear sees battle, it dances ; lance sees battle, it rejoices.
When the spear sees the battle, it dances ; when the lance sees the battle, it rejoices,
39. Ohuq ti d fi ^so mii ki bad;^e ; okuq ti d fi agbara mii ni
Thing which we with gentleness handle not is sjyoiled ; thing which we with violence handle it-is
ini ni li ard.
has one as-to body.
An affair which we conduct with gentleness is not marred ; an affair which we conduct with
violence causes us vexation. — Said to men who are irritable and impetuous.
40. Bi eyd ba di ekiiq, eraq ni ikpa di,e.
If wild-cat * becomes leopard, beasts it-is it will kill eat.
When the wild cat becomes a leopard, it ^oill devour beast*.
41. Afedzu toto k6 in5 6kor)ri.
Gesticulation much not knows a man.
Much gesticulation docs not prove manliness. — " A barking dog does not bite."
34. Ti ow6 (Gram. § 203, 1, b) ;— eni and ni ( Prov. 22, and Gram. § 104).
35. An elliptical proverb. Comp. Prov. 9 and 10.
36. Iberu; for the initial ' i,' see Gram. § 146, 1 ; — a rai) ni, they send us, for the passive, we are sent,
Gram. § 148, 1. Si and other prepositions frequently close a sentence, as in English.
37. Observe the ellipses; — ara kai), it hurts ; so, in6 doi), it is pleasant (Prov. 56).
39. Ni . . . lara (ni . .,. li ark, to have as to the body), to annoy, to cause vexation ; — ni, one, often equivalent
to wa, us.
40. Eya, a beast resembling a leopard, but rather smaller, the leopard cat ; — ikpa ; for the initial ' i,' see
Gram. § 146, 1 ; kpa dze, to devour, destroy, e.g. ef5i) kpaoi) die, the buffalo killed him totally, violently.
41. Afediu, /rownm^r and other airs put on under pretence of courage ; — md, to prove, to he evidence of.
A
o
m6,
esu
vi
A
o
\6h;
nibo
li
will
drink,
locust
he
will
go ;
where
is-it
62 SPECIMENS OF COMPOSITION.
42. Oko nlA he alamgba kpeq^aq ; 6 ni, behe li eni ti o diu ni 16h
Stone large did lizard crush; he said, so it-is one who he surpasses one going
i^e ni.
does to <me.
A large stone (being thrown) crushed a lizard. It said, " So he who is stronger than one
treats oner — Said in allusion to the fact that the strong oppress the weak.
43. Alantakuq bi yi 6 ba o d^^, ^ ta ka o li ard.
Spider if it will meet thee to-fight, it extends to-enfold thee as-to body.
,'When the spider would attack thee, it extends its web to entangle thee. — Applied to the intrigues
of men who endeavor to eflfect the ruin of others.
44. Ala^ediiu kpere ni it|.
A self-willed man soon has disgrace.
" Pride goes before destruction."
45. Esu yi 8 di;e, e^u yi
Locust he will eat, locust he
alatamkpoko yi 8 w6 ?
grasshopper he shall enter?
The locust will eat, the locust will drink, the locust will go; where shall the grasshopper hide ? —
Probably intended to describe the effects of war.
46. K6 si alaMra ti \tk igboku ; gbogbo woq ni it^ oyiq.
Not is snuff-dealer who sells stale ; all of them it-is sell honey.
No snuff-dealer sells stale tobacco ; they all sell the best.
47. AldrMie k5 mb oduq ; abi isu ita bi igi.
Buyer not knows year; perhaps yams grow like logs.
The buyer does not consider the seasons ; he thinks perhaps yams grow as big as logs.
48. A se dlakpa li o&6, kb gb6; d he obuq gbogbo fu igi, 6 ye
We do old wall as-to ornament, it not hears ; we do things all for wood, it suitt
wood.
If we ornament, an old wall, it is not improved ; if we do anything for wood (as painting or
carving), it is adapted to the wood, i. e. our design is accomplished by making the wood as
we desire it to be. — Some persons cannot be improved by any means that we can employ.
49. Awigb6 ti iff ow6 ad^ae mo omi.
Disobedience which with hand of neck-cord drinks water.
Disobedience which drinks water with the hand tied to the neck. — Meaning that a person who
is determined to disobey will have his own way in spite of all obstacles.
42. Se . . . kpeijsai), to crush.
43. Ba . . . dia, to fight with, to attack ; — ta, to stretch a rope ;— ka . . . \a.rk, to enfold, entangle, as a net.
46. Igboku, anything stale; as, igboku taba, stale tobacco; igboku 4kara, stale bread ; — oyii), honey,
applied to that which is excellent ; the girls in the street cry, oyii) oti ! honey beer ! that is, beer of the
best quality.
47. M6, often employed in the sense oi consider ; — odfii), a year, a season, in reference to its quality.
48. Se . . . li 080, to ornament, adorn ; — gb6, to receive an impression or benefit.
SPECIMENS OF COMPOSITION. 63
50. Afom6 k6 li egb6; igi gbogbo ni Ibataq.
Parasite not has root ; tree every is its kindred.
Aparasite has no root; every tree is its kindred. — A parasite does not care on wtom he sponges
for a living.
51. Enl k6 6e omo igi: erii kii, iya k6 gb6: omo ku, igbe ta; erii
Slave not is child of wood : slave dies, his mother not hears : child dies, cry arises ; slave
&e omo ni il6 iya r| ri.
was child in house of mother his once.
A slave is not a block of wood : if a slave dies, his mother does not hear of it J if a child dies,
lamentation is made : the slave was once a child in his mother''s house. — This fine sentiment exhi-
bits something of the heart of the people who use it as a proverb ; and it explains the reason why
the Yorubas usually treat their slaves with a degree of kindness worthy of a Christian people.
52. Ada ^dq igbo, ko ri ere igbo ; 6 ro 6na, ko ri fere ona ; ada
Bill-hook cuts hush, not sees ^profit of bush ; it clears road, not sees profit of road ; bill-hook
dd idakiida, ada dk id^kuda; ada dd, 6 fi aruq
breaks a-bad-breaking, bill-hook bends a-bad-bending ; bill-hook breaks, it with five-cowries
gbadi, 6 di oko olowo; ada li eka li oroi), 6 gbadi;a girigiri.
girds-its-hilt, it reaches farm of owner ; bill-hook has ring on neck, it is girded tightly.
The bill-hook clears <ihe farm, but receives no profit from the farm ; the bill-hook clears the
road, but receives no profit from the road ; the bill-hook is badly broJcen, the bill-hook is badly
bent ; the bill-hook breaks, it pays five cowries to gird its handle with a ring ; it reaches its
owner's farm ; the bill-hook has a ring on its neck (handle), it is girded tightly (for new
labors). — Has reference to the severe and unrequited labor of slaves,
53. Ibi ki idiii ibi; bi d ti bi eni li d bi omo.
JBirih not surpasses birth ; as they * bore slave so it-is they bore child.
One birth does not excel another ; as the slave was born, so was the free-born child.
54. Bi o ti wu ki 6 ri, d ki reriq abiroq ; boya obuq ti o ^e e
As thou * please that it be, we not laugh-at invalid ; perhaps thing which it ails him
loni k ^e iwo lold.
to-day will ail thee to-morrow.
One should never laugh at an infirm person ; perhaps the same evil that afflicts him to-day
may afflict thee to-morrow.
55. Iwo ni qse abodiuwo leliiq babd; todzu ile rere.
Thou it-is art superintendent behind master ; look-to house well.
Thou art the superintendent in the master^s absence ; look well to the house.
56. Ni igba ti dgbe ba qdi ab6 okd, in6 r| d dbq ; nikpa abd
In time when farmer * is-binding bundles of corn, mind his it is-sweet ; by bundles
okd ni yaqgidi ow6 iti wdb.
ot corn it-is bundles of money also come.
When the farmer is tying up bundles of corn, he rejoices ; by bundles of com bundles of money
are obtained.
52. Skx) Igbo, to clear land for a farm; — ri ere die, to receive profit.
53. Bi . . .ti, as ; — a bi, they bore, in the sense oi was born (Gram. § 148, 1).
54. Bi o ti wil ki 6 se, followed by a negative, is the usual expression for by no means, not in any vnse.
56. Nigbati, spoken and written as one word, when; — ba, the subjunctive particle (§ 139), follows nigbati ;
— ino d6r), to he pleased, to rejoice ; as, ino mi d6i), / am glad ; in6 r§ d5i), he is glad ; — iti, the con-
junction ti, and, also, with 'i' prefixed (§ 146).
64 SPECIMENS OP COMPOSITION.
57. Ohuq tl i^e ohuq abukuq ki A mdh. se si omo-enik^dii eni.
Thing which is thing of contempt that we not do to fellow-man of one.
A contemptuous action should not be done to one's fellow-man.
58. AbuM ni mu aso il6 to ; |ni ti k6 ba ^e todiu abul6, yi 8 6e
Patch it-is makes cloth last long ; one who not * does look-to patch, he will make
ard r^ li ofo aso.
self his in want oi clothing.
Patching makes a garment last long ; one who does not attend to patching will come to want
clothes. — A man who neglects the little affairs of his business will fail, or come to want.
59. Bi d ti rag ni ni i^e, li d di;e ; bi iwo ba seni si i, adabowo
As they * send one on message, it-is we deliver it ; if thou * add to it, responsibility
ard r|.
of self thy.
As one is sent on a message, so he should deliver it ; if thou add anything to it, it is on thy
own responsibility,
60. Addq dorikodo 6 qwo i^e eiye gbogbo.
Bat hangs-head-down it is-watching work of birds all.
The bat hangs suspended with its head down watching the actions of all birds. — This proverb
is probably designed to teach silent observation.
61. 6 d^8 aiye diu alaiye 16h.
ITe eats world more than owner of world going.
He enjoys the world more than the owner of the world. — Said of extravagant persons.
62. Dulum6 ekpa li oroq se^e, d d^ebi 6raq w6 ti.
Slander of ground-pea on neck of white-pea, it condemns the-cause to-enter to-fail.
The slander of the ground-pea against the white field-pea falls upon itself. — Designed to show
that a slanderer may injure himself more than he injures another.
63. Obdnid^e 6 ba ard r^ die.
Injurer he * body his injures.
He who injures another brings injury upon himself.
64. Abdnidie mdh. bd ni se ifd enia ; eni ti o die did5q ni idie kikaq.
Quest who not with one is profit oi person ; one who he eats sweet it-is eats sour.
So is a guest who is no advantage to a person ; he who eats the sweet should also eat the sour. —
Said of persons who live on others, and will not assist in the labors of the family.
57. Ohui) abuMi), a contemptuous action or word ; — ki amah ^e, we should not do (§ 145, 2).
68. Ba, after eniti (§ 139).
69. Bi ... ti, as ;— ba, after bi, if (§ 139).
61. Diaiye (die aiye), to enjoy the world ; — loh, pleonastic.
62. This proverb is highly idiomatic and therefore difficult : li oroi) refers to an accusation : 6 fi |^e r§
li oroi) mi, he charged his sin upon me ; — ti implies/aiVwre ; 6 ko ile ti, he built a house failed, i. e. began
to build and could not finish ; — diebi 6rar) wo ti, means that the condemnation recoiled on the accuser.
63. ba . . . die, to injure.
64. The relative is omitted before mdh, not ;-^m idie ; obligation is frequently expressed by the indicative
form of the verb.
SPECIMENS OP COMPOSITIOH". 65
65. Abati Makpa; d ba S ti, d bd 8, t6.
Shakiness of old-wall ; we against it, push, we taith it are-friendly.
It is like a shaky old wall ; we push against it, and (finding that it does not fall) we make
friends with it (by sitting down in its shade). — Said of persons whom we are at first suspicious
of, but, on further acquaintance, receive into our friendship.
66. Abebe ni ib^ ikii, ab^be ni ibe 5raq ; bi oru ba mii,
Pleader it-is pleads off death, pleader it-is pleads off difficulty ; if heat * is-sharp
abebe ni ibe f.
fan it-is dissipates it.
A pleader (or supplicaior) wards of death, a pleader wards off a difficulty ; if the heat is severe,
a fan mitigates it. — A fanciful play upon the word ' abebe ' is the principal design of this pro-
verbial saying. It also shows the power of entreaty.
67. lyar) mii, ire yo ; iyaq r6, ire rii.
Famine is-sharp, cricket is-fat ; famine is-relieved, cricket is-poor.
When famine is sharp, the cricket is fat ; when famine is relieved, the cricket is jyoor. — A
paradoxical play upon words. It also expresses the fact that when famine prevails, the cricket
is eaten as if it were fat or delicious ; but when the famine is over, the cricket is rejected as
poor and unfit to eat.
68. Ocli;o kpa bata bdta, bata bdta, li ori akpdta, li ode adi^dlubdta; bdta
Jiain beats patter patter, patter patter, on top of rock, in yard of chief-drummer ; drum
li igi, bata li aw9.
is wood, shoe is hide.
The rain beats, " shoe drum, shoe drum," (or patter patter,) on the rock in the yard of the chief
drummer ; the drum is wood, and the shoe is leather. — A play upon words.
69. Kdnakdna bd kdnakdna dzd, kdnakdna dd kdnakdna. — Eni.
Crow with crow fought, crow conquered crow. — One.
A crow fought with a crow, a crow conquered a crow. — One. — The Yonibas sometimes
amuse themselves by repeating a play upon words by way of competition. At the end of the
sentence, each time it is repeated, a bystander says, " one," " two," &c. ; and he who repeats
the sentences oftenest without marring a syllable is victor.
70. Ose ni isad^u ekiiq, abamS ni igbehiq Sraq ; gbogbo
Smacking-of-lips it-is precedes weeping, mortification it-is follows difficulty ; whole
otokulu kpe, nwoq kd ri ebo abamo ^e.
of town assemble, they not see sacrifice of mortification to-make.
As smacking the lips precedes weeping, so mortification follows a difficulty ; the whole popu-
lation of the town assembled cannot find a sacrifice to make against tnortification.
71. Ikpa obere li okuq it6.
Path of needle it-is thread follows.
The thread follows the needle. — Applied to anything which happens as a natural consequence.
65. A ba a ti (we meet it to-push), we push against it.
66. Oral), a difficulty, generally a cause before the judges.
67. The ' ire ' is a large cricket eaten by the poor in times of scarcity.
10. Ose ; the Yoruba people are accustomed to smack their lips several times before they begin to weep.
9
66 SPECIMENS OF COMPOSITION.
72. Abo^e ki i^e i6e odi6; i6e babd ni ighk od^o eni.
Job-work not is work of day ; work of master it-is receives day of one.
A job (done for oneself) is not the day's work ; the master's work claims tlie chief part of
one's time. — Said of slaves, who may perform little jobs for themselves, but must not neglect
their master's business.
73. Adarid^ini ni i^ete edi;o.
For giver it-is conquers dispute.
He that pardons the aggressor gains the victory in the dispute. — Designed to inculcate a for-
giving spirit.
74. Bi Oloruq ba k^ ese si ni li oroq, d gbe.
If God should count sin against us on neck, we perish.
If God should compute our sins, we would perish. — I have heard this remark made by hea-
thens in attempting to settle disputes, but am not sure that it is a national proverb.
75. Fi obur) we ohuq, fi 5raq we 6raq ; fi 6raq d^ii), ki d
Put thing to-compare thing, put matter to-compare matter; put matter to-be-distant, that they
praise thee.
Compare thing with thing, and matter with matter ; forgive the matter, that thou mayest
be praised. — Inculcates, as praiseworthy, the duty of examining into the facts of a dispute and
exercising a forgiving disposition.
76. Abere bo li owo adete, 6 di ete; 6raq ba il^, 6 di
Needle falls in hand of leper, it becomes consideration ; matter comes-upon the-land, it becomes
ero.
thought.
If a needle fall from the (mutilated) hand of a leper, it requires consideration (how to pick
it up) ; if a difficult matter come upon the country, it requires thought (how to avert it).
77. Aditaqmd esuo ti o li 4kulu li o bi iya r^.
Genealogy of esuo toho he said ekulu it-is she bore mother his.
It is like the genealogy of the esuo, who said his grandmother was an 6kulu. — Applied to
persons who pretend to be related to great families.
78. Elede kpa Mo tdq, 6 qwd eni r^re ti yi 6 fi ard rh yi.
Pig wallowing in-mire finished, it is-seeking person good whom he will make body his rub.
The pig, having done wallowing in the mire, is seeking some clean person to rub against. —
Said of disgraced persons who attempt to intrude themselves upon good society.
79. Onifuru ti itete ise onile kpele.
Suspicious-character who first does master-of-house gently.
A suspicious character (being found in a house) immediately salutes the owner of the house
(before he is saluted).
72. Odi6 and odi6 are not equivalent terms : odzo, the space of a day ; odzo, time, a day. See Dic-
tionary.
75. Fi . . . we, to compare ; — fi . . . diiq, to forgive.
11. AditaqmS (da itaq mb), a tracing of genealogy ; — esuo and ekulu, two different species oi antelope.
79. Onifuru, lit. one who is pale with apprehension ; — se . . . kpele, to deal wtll with, to salute civilly.
SPECIMENS OF COMPOSITION. G7
80. Agada ko 1116 ori alagbede.
Sabre not knows head of blacksmith.
(In battle) the sabre does not know the head of the blacksmith (wlio made it). — Applied to
iugratitude.
81. Agbed:^e gb^ woq 1^, d ni ki d kpd S ni kpansa.
Squash received them safe, they said that they cut it for drinkinff-cup.
The squash having saved them (in time of famine), they said, Let us cut it for a drinkiny-
cup. — Designed to illustrate ingratitude.
82. A ri abdnid^e ^gboq isale; bi 6 kii li 6wur6, k ya li ale.
We see yuest of chin below ; if it die in morning, it separates in evening.
We meet with guests who are like the lower jaw ; if one die in the morning, it separates (from
the upper jaw) in the evening. — Said of those who forsake their friends in time of trouble.
83. Akpdro diare adi;anakpa, Ki li 6 mu aso wdh ise li oko? A
Partridge reasoned bird-snare-of-cloth, What is-it he brought cloth coming to-do in farm ? He
d^are akpdro, Li oko li d gbe imu aso il6h.
reasoned partridge. In farm it-is ice do bring clothing going.
The partridge argued concerning the bird-snare of cloth. Why did the farmer bring cloth to the
farm ? He replied to the partridge. We are accustomed to take our ovcrclothes to the farm. —
The meaning of this proverb is, that something can be said on both sides of a question. The
partridge, seeing a cloth so spread out as to form abird-snare, was suspicious and said, What does
he mean by this ? The farmer replied, that people always bring their wrappers to the farm
(laying them on the grass or a bush while at work).
84. Adie, Sdluga, 6 fi eni iwadiu sil^ se eni eliiq ni kpele.
Fortune, the Elevator, he puts one before doton to-do one behind in gently.
Adzhe, the Mevalor, he leaves the foremost to deal favorably with the hindmost. — That is, the
first may sometimes be last, and the last first.
85. Ad:ie, omo lie — iya mi ^oro ga — d kpa nidli gb^giiq.
Witch, child of envy — trouble my is-hard is-high — she kills not inherits.
The witch, child of envy — my troubles are sore and hard — she kills but cannot inherit. —
Witches are thought to destroy people when asleep by sucking their blood like a vampire.
86. Ad^ekasu k5 in5 bi iyaq rrni.
Loaf-eater not knows if famine jrrevails.
The man who has plenty to eat does not appreciate the severity of a famine.
8*r. Akeke ti qke igi k6 se; gb6nagb(ma mbu etu si atari.
Axe which is-cutting tree not refuses ; woodman offers propitiation to head.
The axe which cuts the tree is not afraid ; but the wood-man makes a sacrifice to his head. —
Some kinds of trees are supposed to be inhabited by evil spirits, which might inflict some
injury on the woodman unless he ofi'ered a sacrifice to his good genius, which is thought to reside
in the head.
81. The agbedze grows hard with age, and is cut to make cups; — gba ... Id, to save ; — ki k kp4 a, let
us cut it (Gram. § 145, 2).
82. Agb9i), the chin ; agboq isale, the lower jaw.
83. Mu...wah, to bring; niu . . . I6I1, to take; — gbe, to abide, to be, pleonastic like do in Englth
(Gram. § 187).
68 SPECIMENS OF COMPOSITION.
88. Abetele ni ifod^u oiiidadi;6; notori abetele ki ilfe i^e idddi;o otito.
Bribe it4s blinds judge ; for bribe not can do judgment of truth.
A bribe blinds the judge, for a bribe cannot give a true judgment.
89. Bi 6 kui) oni kur) ola ki ogbe ki 6 kpa agiliti, bdiio k r5.
If it remains to-day remains to-morrow that thirst that will kill iguana, rain will fall.
If there remain to-day or to-morrow before the iguana will die of thirst, it will rain. — De-
signed to show the providence of God over his creatures.
90. Fi id^4 fu Oloruq d^^; fi owo le erdr).
Give battle to God to-fight ; jmt hand upon temple.
Leave the battle to God, and rest your temp>le on your hand (as a spectator). — That is trust
in God's providence.
91. Tinotino, t61iii)t61iiq ni labaMba ifi iyiq fu Oloruq.
Within, without it-is butterfly gives praise to God.
By its beauty, the butterfly praises God within and without, i. e. in all its parts.
92. T)i\ agba oti, d^i agba etu ; eni ti d raij wdh, ki id^i agba.
Open cask of rum, open cask o^ powder ; one whom they send to-come, not opens cask.
Open the cask of rum, open the cask of powder (if yours) ; but he that is sent with it does not
open the cask. — The Yoruba carriers are remarkably faithful to their trust.
93. Ogiiq k6 r5 ike, agbede k6 r6 bata; oko k6 ^oro ro, agbede k6
Ogun not works ivory, smithy not works leather ; farm not is-hard to-till, the smithy not
kpa ok6 ik.
makes hoes to sell.
Ogun does not work ivory, the smith does not work leather ; if the farm were not difficult to
cultivate, the smith would not make hoes to sell. — That is, every man to his trade.
94. lie kiiq w^ li Oyo ni igba atidi;o, ti k r)kpe Akidi;e : oib6
House one was in Katunga in time of antiquity, which they called Silence : white-man
kii mb|.
died there.
In old times there was a house in Katunga called Silence : a white man died there.
95. O sure iku, 6 bo si ako Ida.
He fled death, he entered into scabbard of sword.
He fled from the sword, and hid in the scabbard. — " He leaped out of the frying-pan into the
fire."
96. A ri ti eni m5 iwi, i fi akpadi bo ti r| mol|.
We see that one knoivs to-speak, he puts potsherd to-cover that of him up.
We see that one knows how to speak (the faults of others), although he covers his otan with a
potsherd.
97. A ki igb^ 4kaka low6 akiti; & ki igb^ ile babd lowo eni.
We not take squatting from baboon; we not take house of father from one.
We cannot cure a baboon of squatting (because it is natural to him) ; we cannot take the home-
stead from a man (because it is his by natural right).
93. Oguj) is the god of smiths.
94. Historical and other facts are frequently transmitted to posterity in proverbial sayings.
96. Ti r|, that of him, his.
SPECIMENS OF COMPOSITION. 69
98. A§,e 6rai) ikoko 6ebi 6q li d mbawi, abi ard ifa bi
Doer of crime of secresy supposes he it-is they are-speak'mg-ahout, being body is-pale as
eni ^e ohuq.
one who did thing.
The perpetrator of a secret crime supposes it is he they are talking about (if be sees men in
conversation), his face being pale as one who has done something (wrong). — " Conscience makes
cowards of us all."
99. Asbrokele bodzu\v6 igbe: igb6 ki iro; eni ti k bd so ni ise ikukpani.
Whisperer watches bush : bush riot tells ; he who one with speaks it-is acts traitor.
A whisperer watches the bush ; a bush never tells secrets ; he to whom one S2}eaks is the traitor. —
If a man wish his secrets to be kept, he should not confide them to others.
100. Odo ki k6q bo edia 11 odzii.
River not is-full to-cover fish in eye.
The river is never so full as to obscure the sight of the fish. — That is, no scheme or purpose is
too deep to be confided to a friend.
PAEABLE OF THE PRODIGAL SON.
Luke XV. 11—82.
Okoqrl kdq 11 om6kor)i'l med^i. Eyi aburo ni ln6 wov) wi fu babd re
Man one had son two. This younger-brother in among them said to father his
kpe, Babd, fu ml nl Iwoq ogiiq tl o tori ml. 6 si kplq obuq
to-wit, Father, give me to-have measure of inheritance which it belongs me. He and divided thing of
ini r^ fu woq. Ki Isi t6 ldi;6 melokaq 11 ehlq eyi, eyl omdkoqri
possession his to them. Not and amounted-to day few in after this, this son
aburo k6 ohuq gbogbo tl 6 nl d^o, 6 si mu ona r^ tp9^
younger-brother gathered thing all which he had together, he and took road his straightway
I6h si llu 6kere ; nl lb| ni 6 gbe nd gbogbo Inl r^ ni Inakuna. Ni igbd
go to town of distance; in there it-is he was spending all possession his in extravagance. In time
tl 6 ba gbogbo r| d^e* tdq, iyaq nlanla wdli mii nl llu nd ; 6
which he to-destroy all of it ended, famine of greatness came to be sharp in town that ; he
si beresi Idi alaini. 6 si 16h, 6 dd ard r^ kp5 m6 oloto kdq ard
and began to-be needy-one. He and went, he made self his join cleave-to citizen one inhabitant
llu nd ; 6i) si raq a loli si oko r^ loh iso elede. Ayh nl 1 ba fi di;e
of town that ; he and sent him go to farm his go to-ioatch sioine. Joy it-is he would with eat
ondie tl awoq elede di;e; enlkeni ko fi fu li.
food which they swine ate; any-one not give to him.
Ni igbd tl odi:ii r^ wdli 11^, 6 ni, Awoi) aldgba^e babd ml melomelo
In time which eye his came to-ground, he said. They hireling of father my how-many
11 o li ondi^e ad^e y6 atl ad^e ti, emi si qku fu ebi! Eml
it-4s he have food eating to-be-full and eating to-leave, I and am-dying for hunger/ I
Ba . . . dze, to destroy.
70 SPECIMENS OF COMPOSITION.
6 dide s6, emi 6 to babd mi 161i, emi 6 si wi fu ii kpe, Babd, emi
will arise indeed, I will go-to father my go, I will and say to him to-wit, Father, I
qti qdese si oruq, ati ni iwadi;ii re ; emi k6 si ye ti d ba ma kpfe li
Iiave sinned against heaven, and in presence thy ; I not and fit that they should may call to-be
omo r§ m6, fi mi ^e bi okaq ni in6 awoq alagbase r|. 6 si dide 6 to
child thy more, make ms do as one in among they hireling thy. He and arose he went-to
babd r^ lob. Ni igbd ti 6 si ti w& li 6kere, babd r^ ri i, anu se
father his going. In time which he and had was in distance, father his saw him, pity affected
g, 6 si sure, 6 r5 m6 8 li oroi), 6 si fi enu ko 8 li
him, he and ran, he hung upon to-cleave-to him on neck, he and made mouth touch him on
enu. Omo si wi fu Q. kp6, Babd, emi qti qdese si oruq ati ni iwad;^u
mouth. Son and said to him to-wit, Father, J have sinned against heaven and in presence
r^ ; emi k6 si ye ti d ba ma kpe li omo r^ m6. Babd si wi fu awoq
thy ; I not and fit that they should may call to-be child thy more, Fathtr %nd said to ihem
omo-odo r^ kp6, E mu ayo ago iguqwa wdh,* ki 6 fi i wo 8; 6
servant his to wit. Ye take choice garment of stateliness coming, that ye make it clothe him ; ye
fl 6ruka bo 8 li ow6, ati bata si ese r^. E si mii esrboro raalu
make ring slip-on him on hand, and shoe to foot his. Ye and take young-one of cow
abokpa wdb, ki 6 si kpa S, kl d ma dze, ki d si ma se driya;
fatted-to-kill coming, that ye and kill it, that we mxiy eat, that we and may make merriment;
nitori ti omo mi yi ti kii, 6 si toq ye. Nwoq si beresi ise driya.
because that child my this had died, he and again lives. They and began to-make merriment.
Omdkoqri r^ eyi egboq ti mbe li oko, bi 6 si qtif mbd, ti 6
Son his this elder-brother who was in farm, as he and was-coming, and he
soqmo eti ile, 6 gbo 6nq oq id^o. O si kp^ okaq ni ino awoq
drew-near-to edge of house, he heard singing and dancing. And he called one in among them
omo-odo woq; 6 bere kpe, Kili d mo J qkdq woqyi si? (3 si wi fu ii
servant their; he inquired to-wit. What they knew thing these to? He and said to him
kpe, Aburo r^ de ; babd r| si kpa egboro malu abokpa,
to-wit. Younger-brother thy is-come ; father thy and has-killed young-one of cow fatted-to-kill,
nitori ti 6 ri i kpdda li alafia ati ni Uera. (3 si bin6, 6 ko li
because that he sees him return in peace and in health. He and was-angry, he refused as-to
atiwb ile. Nitori nd ni babd re si 6e§ di^ade, 6 si wd isikpe fu
entering house. On-account of that it-is father his and did go-out, he and was beseeching to
vl. O si ddhuq, 6 wi fu babd r^ kpe, Kiye si i lati odiiq melo yi
him. He and answered, he said to father his to-wit, Take-notice to it from year how-many this
li emi qti qsiq o, belie li emi ko si rufiq r^ ni igba kdq ri ; iwo k6
it-is I have served thee, so it-is I not and break-law thy in time one heretofore ; thou not
* Mu . . . wah, to bring.
f Bi . . . ti, as ; ' ti ' having the auxiliary particle ' i).' (Gram. § 1 28, 2.)
J The phrase 4 mb ... si, we know . . .to, is equivalent to the verb to mean.
§ Se, to do, is generally employed pleonastically aflcr nitori na, therefore.
SPECIMENS OF COMPOSITION. "71
si ti ifi omo ewur^ kdq fu mi ki 6 fi bd awoq ore mi ^e driya.
aTul hast given child of goat one to me that it make with them friend my to-make merriment.
Sugboq bi omo r^ yi si ti de, eni ti 6 fi kpan^aga ruq or6 r^, iwo
But as child thy this and has come, one who he made adultery destroy wealth thy, thou
si ti kpa egboro malu ab6kpa fu ii. O si wi fu ii kp6, Omo
and hast killed young-one of cow fatted-to-kill for him. He and said to him to-wit, Child
titi ni iwo mb^ lodo mi; obuq gbogbo ti mo ni ti r& ni i^e. O ye
continually it-is thou art with me; thing all which I have of thee it-is is. It is-fit
ki d ma ie driya : nitori ti aburo r^ yi ti kii, 6 si toq y^ ; 6 si
that we may do merriment: because that younger-brother thy this had died, he and again lives; he and
ti n6, d si ri i.
had been-lost, we and see him.
THE LOED'S PKAYEE.
Babd wa ti mb| li 6ke oruq, bwo li oruko re, idioba r^ de; ife ti rh
Father our who art in above heaven ; honor be nam£ thy, reign thy come, will of thee
ni ki d ^e li aiye, bi ti 6ke oruq ; fu wa H ondi;e odi6 wa li oni ; dari
be that we do in earth, as above heaven ; give^ us have food of day our in to-day ; forgive
igbese wa d^i wa, bi awa ti qdaridi;i awoq onigbese wa ; mdb si fd wa
debt our from us, as we are-forgiving them debtor our; not and lead us
81 in6 idewo, ^ugboq gbd wa ni in6 tulasiq. Amiq.
to within temptation, but deliver us in within distress. Amen,
DICTIONARY
OF TflE
YORUBA LANGUAGE
INTRODUCTION.
It is proper to inform the reader that the following Dictionary contains scarcely one half of the Yoruba
Language. There are doubtless some primitive words which the compiler has not learned ; and several
thousand derivative vocables have been omitted for the sake of brevity. This severe abridgement, however,
is no real defect, since the exact meaning of the omitted words may be ascertained by the rules of derivation
quite as easily as we can determine the meaning of inflected nouns and verbs in Latin from the nominative
and infinitive. For the convenience of the reader, supposing him to be already acquainted with the rules of
derivation as laid down in the Grammar, we here present a review of the various classes of words which
have been omitted.
I. Many verbs of the following kinds :
1. Verbs composed of a verb and noun ; as, beru, to be afraid ; from ba, to meet, and era, fear. The
omitted verbs of this class are formed chiefly as follows :
a. Of da, to make, and a noun ; as, dSse, to sin, from 6se, sin.
b. Of die, to be, to act, to make, and a noun ; as, diolu (olu, a prince, officer), to be a prince, to rule as a
prince.
c. Of li, to have, and a noun ; as, 16^e (^^e, sin), to have sin, to be sinful, to sin ; laini (aini, need), to be
needy, destitute.
d. Of mo, to know, and a noun ; as, mete (ete, consideration), to be considerate, provident.
e. Of ^e, to do, to make, to be, and a noun ; as, iaimS (aim5, ignorance), to be ignorant, untutored ; saro
(aro, meditation), to meditate. Verbs of this class are very numerous.
2. A considerable number of verbs which appear to be formed by placing two verbs in juxtaposition ;
as, bllu (bi, to push, and lii, to strike), to beat upon, as waves ; sare (sa, to run, and re, to go), to run ; but in
fact, the second member of these verbs is a contracted noun, for ilu, a striking, vch, a going. Bearing this in
mind, the omitted verbs of this class are easily defined by referring to the roots.
3. A considerable number of verbs composed of three or four words ; as, fesetfe, to trample on. A little
practice will enable the reader to analyse these verbs, or, as the natives express it, " to take them to pieces,"
and thus discover their meaning. Usually an elision occurs in the first syllable ; as in fesete, which is com-
posed of fi, to make, ese, the foot, ih, to jyress. But sometimes the first vowel of the noun is elided ; as,
teriba, to bow, from te, to bend, ori, tJie head, ba, to meet.
4. Many compound transitive verbs ; as, fi . . . hai), fo show ; da . . . lebi (li ebi), to condemn.
All the foregoing verbs are in fact phrases, and it is probable that none of them would be treated as
vocables in a dictionary compiled by a native.
IL The number of nouns omitted from the Dictionary is very large :
1. Several classes of nouns formed from verbs primitive and derivative.
a. Nouns formed by the prefixes ' a ' and ' i.'
b. By the prefix ' ai.'
c. By the prefix ' ati.'
d. By reduplicating the first syllable of the verb. For the meaning of nonns formed by these prefixes see
" Derivation of Nouns" in the Grammar, or refer to each prefix in the Dictionary.
2. Nouns formed from nearly all nouns by the prefixes, al, all, el, el, ol, ol, alai, olu, oni. (See Derivation
of Nouns and Dictionary.)
3. Nouns formed from most verbs by prefixing ' a,' as above, with the addition of a suffix, chiefly d^u, to
surpass ; kp6, together ; tin), completed ; as, asedzu, excess, lit. an action surpassing or exceeding the bounds
of propriety ; asekpS, an acting together, co-operation ; asetai), a completed action, completion. Sometimes
other suffixes aro employed ; as, la, to be safe, e. g. asalil, a running to be safe, esrajye, from sd, to run.
4 INTRODUCTION.
and U, to he safe. Such nouns arc easily analyzed, by ascertaining the meaning first of the verbal root
or middle syllable, and then of the prefix and of the suffix.
III. Adverbs, or adverbial phrases, composed of a nonn and the preposition ni or li, in, are often omitted ;
as, lola (li ola), to-morrow ; lokere (li okere), in the distance, far off. The meaning of such words is
obvious so soon as we ascertain that of the noun to which ' 1 ' or ' n ' is prefixed.
The student is requested to observe that the accent of Yoruba words in the Dictionary is marked
only in those cases where it cannot readily be determined from the rules laid down in the Grammar,
§§ 25-27.
PART I.
YORUBA-ENGLISII
ABA
a, a prefix, the primary use of which is to form con-
crete nouns from verbs. But the meaning of nouns
thus formed is various ; and accordingly they may
be classified as denoting :
1. The actor or agent ; as, asoro, a speaker, from
soro, to speak ; adia, a dog, lit. a fighter,
from dik, to fight.
2. The patient or recipient of an action; as, aba,
that which is met, from ba, to meet : e. g.
ohuq ab4, a thing which is met.
3. The action itself; as, abS, a coming, from hb,
to come : e. g. ayuq ab5 mi di emefa loni, my
goings and comings amount to six times to-
day.
4. Tlie abstract quality implied in an intransitive
verb ; as, abade, suitableness, from bade, to
fit ; aye, the state of being alive, from yh,
to live.
6. pron. he, she, it ; and, by contraction of awa and
awoi), we, they. It is much used in forming a sub-
stitute for the passive verb ; as, d li) mi, they struck
m£, i. e. I was struck.
fi, an auxiliary jmrticle equivalent to shall or will ;
as, eqyir) k 16h, ye reill go.
§. ! aa ! interj. oh ! ah ! alas !
ab, n. a contraction of abi, that which is or has any
thing ; as, abeti (abi eti), that which has ears,
which is eared : e. g. fila abcti, a cap with ear-
flaps.
ab, a-ba, a prefix formed of ' a ' and ba, to meet, and
occasionally of ' a ' and ba, with, implying :
1. Meeting with, or encountering; as, abadi9
(aba edi9), meeting with a difficulty or trou-
ble.
2. With or together ; as, abase (^e, to do), co-
operation, assistance ; abasili], a sleeping
together.
a-ba. See root ba.
a-ba, n. a thinking of, expecting, expectation, hope :
aba ki li o i)da ? (^fiope what is-it thou art-making? )
what do you hope for?
a-ba, M. an iron staple ; stocks, consisting of a large
staple driven into a log and enclosing. the ankle.
a-ba, n. a species of wild fig-tree,
a-b&. See root ba.
a-bft, (ba), ». a mat of coarse grass : eni aba, a mat
of the grass aba.
3.-ba, n. a stack of corn, crib, barn, store.
a-bS.-bu-dza, n. tohich surprises or thwarts, <S;c.
See abudza.
ft'-ba-da, fS.'-ba-da, adv. for ever, used only after a
negative ; as, emi 6 ie e mo fabada, / will never
do it again.
a-ba-de (bade), n. that which fits or is fitted ; sui-
tableness, adaptedness, congruity.
a-bfi.-d6 (do), n. a camping together, a fellow en-
camper.
a-bft-do (6do), n. a confiuence of streams.
a-ba-dza (dza), n. a fighting together.
a-ba-dze (die), n. an eating together.
a-ba-dze (badze), n. which spoils or is spoiled ; a
kind of yam.
a-ba-dzo (edzo), n. a meeting with trouble or dif-
ficulty. As an inteijection, ?«owrfer/MZ.' shocking!
a-ba-dztl (ba), n. a meeting, <S:c. ; greatly, ex-
tremely : 6 ba mi li abadzu, it fell upon me with
a great or grievous falling.
a-b4-dzu (ba), n. an excessive plaiting, <£'c.
a-ba-fe, n. a medicinal tree.
a-ba'-fir)-dze (ba ofiij die), n. a law-breaker ; law-
breaking.
a-ba-fo (fo), n. a speaking together.
a-bS.-g6-ke (goke), n. a going up or ascending
together.
a-ba'-kpa-de (kpade), v. a chance event, accident,
coincidence,
ABA
6
ABO
a-ba-lS, n. See balB.
a-ba-in5 (imi)), n. ■painful rejlection on what has
hapiyened, chagrin.
a-ba-mo-le (111919), n. ambush, conspiracy, high-
way rohhery.
a-bfi-ni-bS-be (eni), n. a fellow-pleader, an advo-
cate, intercessor.
a-bfi-ni-dze (ba eni), n. a guest.
a-ba-ni-dze (ba . . . die), n. an injurer, slanderer,
corrupter.
a-bS.-iii-dz6, n. a fellow-dancer, jmt-tner.
a-bfi-ni-gbe-le (ile), n. an inmate.
a-bS,-ni-k^ n, an assistant in counting money or
the like.
a-bft-ni-ko, n. an assistant in collecting or ga-
thering.
a-bfi.-ni-r§, n, a partner in buying ; also, a cus-
tomer who buys from one.
a-bfi-ni-iir), «. a felloiv-traveller.
a-bfi.-ni-r6-le (ro ile), n. an assistant in tilling the
ground.
a-b&-ni-ru, n. an assistant in carrying anything.
a-bfi-ni-siln, n. a bed-fellow.
a-bfi-ni-se, n. a helper, co-worker.
a-bS.-ni-si-kpe. See a'banibebe.
a-ba-ni-s6-"W0, n. a fellow-trader, jmrtner.
a-ba-ra (aba ara), n. a slap : 6 gba mi li abara,
(lie slapped me in-regard-to a-slap), he gave me a
slap.
a-ba-ra (abi ara), n. having a body or skin : agiliti
abara yiyi, the rough-skinned lizard.
a-ba-sCir), n. a sleeping with, cohabitation.
a-ba-se, n. aid, co-operation.
a-ba-ta (ita), n. a public square.
fi.'-ba-ta, n. a little marsh, a pool.
9.'-ba-ti (ba ti), n. failure, shakiness of a wall. (l^s.
62, 3.)
a-bd-'Wl (ba), n. reproof, the act of scolding.
a-bfi.-'w6r), ». a sprinkling, a stain.
a-be-kS.-na (abi ekana), n. that which has claws :
erai) abekana, carnivorous animals.
a-bS-re. See hhre.
a-be-se, n. a contemptible person : iwo abese
yi ! you good for nothing ! addressed to infe-
riors.
a-bfe-tl (abi eti), n. that which has ears : fila abeti,
a cap 10 ith flaps to cover the ears.
a-be-Awe (abi ewe), n. that which has leaves.
a-be, a-b^, &c. See be and be.
a-be, n. the underneath : 6 wa li abe okuta, Jie was
in underneath the rock.
a-b§ (be, to cut), n. a razor, lancet, penknife.
a-be-be, n. a fan.
a-b6-be, n. a pleader, an advocate.
?l-be-gi (igi), n. a hewer or cutter of wood.
a-be-hir) (abi ehiij), n. tohich has something on or
pertaining to the back: abiam6 abehii) diidia, a
mother ivith a kicker (i. e. a struggling child) on
her back.
a-bfe-i-ya-nu, n. importunity.
a-be-ka (abi), n. ivhich has boughs or branches.
a-be-lS, n. privacy, secresy.
a-be-lS, n. flatness, thinness of a flat substance.
a-be-na-gbo-ro (abi), n. which has a wide mouth :
iboi) abenugboro, a wide-mouthed gun.
a-b6-nu-gb9.-gba (abi), n. a kind of loose trow-
sers.
A-be-o-ku-ta, n. tohich is under the rock, the name
of the capital of Egba.
a-bfe-re, n. See b|re.
a-be-re, n. a needle, a pin.
a-be-ri, n. See beri.
a-b6-r6 (oro), n. a trowel, a shovel to trim mud
walls with.
a-be-ru, n. See beni,
a-be-te-le, n. a begging beforehand ; a bribe,
bribery, briber.
a-be-tu (abi etu), n. a brook.
a-be-"w6 (b§w6), n. visitation, visitor.
a-be-ya (iya), n. the armpit.
a-bi, a-bi, n. See bi and bi.
abi, a preflx, implying being in a state of, having.
a-bl, n. an existence, a being: araiye abi odzu kpete,
man, a being of limited eye, i. e. circumstances.
a-bl (bi, if), adv. perhaps ; eh ? iwo mh abi ? you
know, eh ?
a-bl-a-m6, n. a nickname for a mother.
a-bi-ga, n. a mixed breed of large and small horses.
a-bi-ke-hir) (kehiij), n. the latter or last born.
a-bi-ku, «. an evil spirit, supposed to kill chil-
dren.
a'-bi-ia, n. See bila.
a-bi-l§ (ile), n. one homeborn.
a-bi-l§-k9 (ba, ile, oko), n. a woman living in her
husband's house.
a-bI-16 (ile), n. a native.
a-bl-mo (omo), n. a parent of children.
a-bin6, n. one wlw is angry, <&c. See bin6.
a-bi-n6-dze, n. See bino die.
a-bl-n9-k(i, n. an enemy. (Ps. 37, 8.)
a-bi-r9r) (abi iroij), n. which is hairy.
a-bi-r5r) (ba iroij) n. a sick person, an invalid.
a-bi-si (bisi), n. i7icrease, propagation by birth.
a-bl-ye (abi iy^), M. which has feathers. (Gen. 1,21.)
a-bi-ya (iya), n. the armpit.
a-b6, a-bd, n. See bo and bo.
a-bd, n. a female, applied to children and to ani-
mals : abo esiq, a mare ; abo malii, a cow ; also,
tlie half cock of a gun.
fi-bo, n. a bag, a bundle.
ABO
ADE
^-bo, n. a shelter, covert, refuge.
a-bo-de (ba), n. the outer yard, the space without.
a-b6-dztl (bo odiu), n. a covering for the face, a
veil.
a-bo'-dzu-"w6, n. official visitation, superintend-
ence ; a superintendent.
a-bo-16 (ile), n, a burglar, burglary.
a-bo'-nii-'w6r), n. a sprinkling, a sjmnkler.
a-bd-ra (ara), n. a garment, a mantle. See bora.
a-b6-ri, n. Sec bori.
a-bo-ru (abi), n. which is hot.
a-bo-yHr) (abi), n. which is pregnant. '
a-bo, a-b6. See b9 and b5.
fl.-b9, n. cessation ; a half : abo ^ikcdii, two and a
half ; abo siketa, three and a half.
a-b6-dtli), (ba), n. a meeting of the new year, a
living to see it come, the anniversary of the new
year.
a-b9-gi-bo-kpe (igi 9kpe), n. an idolator.
a-bo-kpa, «. which is fatted to Mil. (Luke 15, 23.)
a-b6-ri-sa (orisa), n. an idolator.
a-b6-se-dze (ba . . . die ose), n. a sabbath-breaker,
a-bo-se (ise), n. a job, job-work.
a-b6-"W9-gfi.r) (bu owo), n. a musketo.
a-bu, a-bil. See bu and bu.
a'-bu-dza, n. a cutting across, short cut, anticipation
of one's words, a confounding : abudia ona, a cross
road or street.
' a'-bu-ka, n. the act of surrounding.
a-bu-ke, n. a hunchback.
a-bu-k9r), n. an adding, a blessing. Sec bukoq.
a'-bu-ktlr), n. remainder, deficiency ; contempt (Ps.
35, 26) : ^e li abukiq, to desinse. See bukui}.
a'-bu-la, n. adulteration.
a-bu-l§, n. a patch, something added to the true
statement.
a-bu-in6, n. an addition, exaggeration.
a-bu-ra, n. who swears. See bura.
a-bu-rai), n. which is carded, prepared to be spun.
a-bu-ro (abi iro), n. which stands erect.
a-bil-ro, n. a younger brother, or aiiy younger rela-
tive male or female.
a-bu-ru, n. Sec buru.
a-bfi-ru-bu-tfi.1), n. a whale.
a-bu-si, n. a grove ; one who blesses. See busi.
a-bu-S9, n. an invention, a falsehood.
a-da, n. a bill-hook, a pruning knife.
a-da, a-da. See dA and dk.
a-d&. A prefix implying making, constituting, ap-
pointing.
a'-da-ba, a'-ta-ba, n. a dove : adaba in&n, the white
pigeon.
a-da-bi, n. which resembles, likeness.
a-da'-bo-bd-ni (da abo eni), n, a defender, an
ally.
a-da-b9, «. a half: adabo odza, a market held on
the day after market-day.
a-da-b9-"W9, n. self-assumed responsibility.
a-da-dzi, «. the time just before day.
a-da-dz9, n. a judge, an appointed day.
a-da-gur), n. a lake, a pond.
a-da'-gUl)-lS a-kpo, n. a large quiver set on the
battle-ground, from which arrows arc given to tlie
men.
a-d&-k9.-d§-ke (ikaeke), n. a tattler, a mischievous
pierson.
a-da-ko (eko), n. a maker of eko.
a-da-kpd, n. contraction of words.
a-da-kp5, n. union, confederacy.
a-da-la-re, n. justification, a justifier,
a-dS.-lu, n. mixture,
a-da'-mah'-ld-se, n. one ivho makes a failure.
a-da-md, n. a mistaken opinion, heresy.
a-da'-m5-rar), n. advice, a proposal ; an adviser.
a-d^-mu, n. confusion of mind.
a-da-na, n. Sec dana.
a-da'-ni-dfi., n. which is natural or according to
nature.
a-da-ni-du-ro, n. a detainer.
a-da'-ni-dzi, n, that which awakes or arouses
one.
a-da'-ni-kpa, «. one who is cruel.
a-da'-nl-lfi.-ga, n. one who is wearisome, impor-
tunate.
a-da-ni-la-ra, n. a mortifier, disappointer.
a-da-ni-la'-ra-ya, n. one who enlivens or cheers
others.
a-da-ni-l^-kui), n. a p>rohibitor.
a-da-ni-lo-dzu, n. one who disapiwints.
a-da-ni-lo-ro, n. a tormentor.
a-da-ni-ni-dzi, «. one who alarms people, an
alarmist.
a-dfi.-n6, n. which is thrown away or lost.
a-dar), n. which polishes, is polished, dx. See dai).
a-dfir), n. a bat.
a-da-re, n. a justifier, justification.
a-da-ri-dzi-ni, n. one loho forgives.
a-da'-ri-kp9r), n. tlie red-headed lizard.
a-dfi-ro, n. anxiety, one who is anxious.
a-da-ni-da-kp5, n. indiscriminate mixture, con-
fusion.
a-da-S&r), n. a hereditary debt.
a-da-sl, n. which is spared, reserved, a gleaning ;
an intermeddler, intermeddling.
a-da-sd, n. a fiction, a fictitious report, a lie.
a-da-"wir), n. instalments of a debt.
a-da-wo, n. a contribution of money.
a-dfi.-W9-l§, n. who assumes responsibility.
a-de, n. a covering, a crown : dc li adc, to crown ;
fi ade de, to set a crown on.
ADE
8
AD^
a-de, M. a charm to briny home the ijhost of one
killed in war.
a-de-bi-kpa-ni (da cbi), n. that which starves one,
A-de-g'b6, ?». The name of a man, meaning who
comes to hear.
a-de-hCir), n. bargain, covenant ; contracted;
a-de-ke, n. a liar.
a-de'-le-lj^ (lie), n. a newly married woman, a
bride.
a-de-mo, a-de-mu, n. a water-gourd.
a-de-na (ona), n. who lies in ambush ; an impe-
diment.
a-de-bi, n. condemnation,
a-de-te (da etc), n. a leper.
a-de-ti-si-le, n. a listener to private conversation.
a-di, n. a binding, tangling, <kc. See di.
a-dl, n. oil of the palm-nut kernel.
a-dl, conj. notwithstanding, after all.
a-di-d5g, n. flour of parched com, anything savory.
a-di-dzd. (di idza), n. coming to blows or to a fight.
a-di-dzi, n. a scarecrow, a fright,
a-di-dzu, n. a blinder or deceiver,
a'-di-e. See adire.
a-dl-gba-ro, n, a colander,
a-dl-lu, n, child's game of casting lots,
a-di-ini-ni6 (da mimo), n, a sanctifier, sancti-
ficaticm,
a-di-in6, n. he who shuts one in, state of being
shut in.
a-di-in5, n. a secret covenant, a plot.
a-di-mu, n. who holds fast, a holding fast ; used
also as a proper name.
a-dir)-gbe, n, which is dried over the fire, jerked
meat.
a'-dl-re, n. a domestic fowl,
a-di-ro, n, a colander,
a-di-si (da isi), n. an inventor, (Rom. 1, 30.)
a-di-tar)-in5 (da itaij), n, a tracing of kinship.
a-dl-tl (eti), n. a deaf person.
a-do, n. a small gourd used for a vial.
a-d6, n. an adulterer; lewdness.
a-do-do-dze, num. one hundred and thirty (cow-
ries) each .■ clo o ta a ? how dost thou sell it ?
adododze, one hundred and thirty each.
a-do-dze, num. one hundred and thirty.
a-do-gui) (da oguq), n. which causes tear.
a-do-dz9, num. one hundred and sixty.
a-d6-dzo-dzo, num, one hundred and sixty each.
Sec adododze.
a-do-do-fa, num, one hundred and ten each.
a-d9-fa, num. one hundred and ten.
a-d5i), n. fiavor, taste, sweetness.
a-dp-rip, num. seventy.
a-do'-ro-rir), num. seventy each.
a-do'-ro-ruij, num. ninety each.
a-do-rur), num. ninety,
a-do-sag, num, one hundred and seventy.
a-do'-so-sap, num. mie hundred and seventy each.
a-do-ta, num. fifty.
a-do'-to-ta, num. fifty each,
a-du, H. a few: sAm hrAsi, a few people,
a-dti, n, a very black person,
a'-du-gb6, n, an old acquaintance, a neighbor,
a-du'-gbo-lil. a stumbling block,
a-du-kpe, n, thanks, thankfulness: adukpe lodo
Ol9ru]3, tlianks to Ood,
a-du-ra, n, prayer to God only.
a-dza, n. a dog ; a fairy skilled in medicine,
d.-dza, n, an attic, a loft, a ceiling overhead.
a-dza. Sec adzara, of which it is a contraction.
a-dza-ba, n. troicble, unhappiness,
a-dz9.-b5, n. escape through hard struggling.
a-dza-di, n, which is broken in the bottom ; adzadi
agboij, a broken bottom basket,
a-dza-dze, n. a low, mean fellow.
a-dza-e, n. a cord with which a prisoner's hand is
bound to his neck,
4-dza-ga, n, a neck-shackle, a yoke,
a-dza-ga-dzi-gi, n, a violent jerking at something
solid,
a-dza-gboi), n, the tamarind-tree.
a-dza-gun, n, a soldier, a title of respect much like
" esquire."
a-dza-i-lS, n, a ceiling over the mouth of a grave
or pit,
a-dza-ka, a-dza-ka-le, n, an epidemic, pestilence.
a-dza'-ka-su (die aka^u), n. one who eats the large
loaf, i. e. who has plenty,
a-dza-ko (oko), n, a kind of wild dog,
a-dza-kpa, n, a petty trader, a nickname given to
the tortoise,
a-dzi-ia. See adzkhb.
a-dza'-na-kpa, n. a bird-snare made of cloth.
a-dza'-na-ku, n. the elephant.
a-dzai), w. meat cut small to retail.
a-dza-o, n. a kind of large bat.
fi.-dza-6-SU, n. the moon's dog, i. c. the evening star.
See aguala.
a-dza-ra, n. a climbing plant the leaves of which
impart a black stain.
a-dz§, n. the god of money, fortune,
a-dze-dze, n, a stranger or alien : adzedic ilu, a
strange or foreign town ; se adzedze si, to be es-
tranged from, (Ps. 78, 30.)
a-dze-re, n, an earthen pot pierced full of holes to
dry meat in.
a-dze, n. a paddle, an oar.
a-dz§, n. a witch.
a-dze-kdr), n. a remnant after eating.
a-dze-kpd, n. the cud, an eating together.
ADZ
AGA
a-dze-le, n. an official agent, consul.
a-dze-ni-a (enia), n. a cannibal.
a-dze-ti, n. eating and leaving a part uneaten.
(Liike 16, 17.)
a-dze-y6, n. eating to the full. (Lake 15, IV.)
a-dzl-lib-'wa-'bfi., n. which pre-exists.
a-dzi-dzlr), ?i. a shadow. (Ps. 23, 4.)
a-dzi'-gbe-se, n. a debtor.
a'-dzi-ra6 (Arab.), n, the Mohammedan Sabbath.
a-dzi-na, n. expenditure, expenses.
a-dzl-nde, n. a rising tip, the resurrection.
a-dzir), n. profound silence, the depth of night.
a-dzlr)-sir(-sir), n. deep concealment, that which is
concealed.
a-dzi-re ! good morning ! (lit. did you wake well ?)
d.-dzo, n. a journey.
a-dzo, n. anxiety : se adzo, to be anxious.
a-dz6-gur) (dze ogu^), n. an heir.
a-dzo-kpa-rur), n. lohich bums fiercely, devour-
ing fire.
a-dz6-6-kil (o, not), n. which is unquenchable.
a-dz6-r3.r), n. a catching fire from sometliing else
on fire.
a-dzo-vru, n. one who is jealous ; jealousy.
a-dzo, n. an assembly, crowd : adz9 odu^, a feast,
festival.
a-dzo-dze-kp5, a-dzo-mo-kpd, 7i. an assembly
for a feast. (1 Pet. 4, 3.)
a-dz6-kpir), n. a jxirtaker, sharer : seadzSkpiq, to
partake, share.
a-dzo-rir), n. a travelling together : egbe adzoriij,
a travelling companion.
a-dz6-r6, n. a consultation, council.
a-dzo-SO, n, a talking together.
a-dzo-y6, n. a rejoicing together.
a-dzu-ba, n. a newly cleared field.
a-dzu-de (ode), n. an armlet of iron worn by hun-
ters.
a-dzu-mo, n. an acting or being together, com-
panionship.
a-fa. See fa.
a-fa. See ik.
a-fai-mo (fi aim9), adv. perhaps, liossibly, doubt-
fully : bi yi 6 de lola afaimo, if he will come to-
morrow is uncertain.
a-fi-ra, n. a bridge ; two sticks rubbed together to
produce fire : afara oyii), honey-comb.
fi.-fa-ra, n. slowness, dilatoriness.
a-fe, n. a kind of rat.
a-fe-bi-kpa, n. See adebikpa.
a-fe, n. pleasure, affection, love : mo fe li afe tai), /
love with perfect love.
a-fe-dzu, n. a frowner, a frowning.
a-fe-fe, n. wind, air, spirit.
a-fe-hir)-ti (fi ehig), n. a prop, support.
2
a-fe-ni6-dzu-in6, n. the dawn, daybreak.
a-fe-n5, n. which is winnoioed atoay.
a-fe-nu-si (fi enu), n. a meddler.
a^fe-re, w. lightness ; cork-wood.
a-fi|-ri, n. search, a seeker : ie aferi, to seek.
a-fe-s6-na (si ona), n. who is betrothed.
a-fe-tS.r), n. perfect love.
a-ff, a-fi-bi, conj. unless, except.
a-fl-bi-kpd-re (fi kp6), n. an tingrateful person.
a-fi-dzi, n. forgiveness, repeal of law.
a-fi-hS.r), n. a showing, guidance, exhibition.
a-fi-16 (fi ile), n. abandonment, renunciation.
a-fi-na (fiq ona) n. an engraver, engraving.
a-fi'-n6-sa'-dze-re (fi in6 se adzere), n. one with a
treacherous memory, an unreliable person, unteach-
able.
a-fi-no-se-hir) (ehiij), a-fi-no-so-de (ode). See
the preceding word.
a-fir), n. a palace ; an engraver, engraving ; an
albino.
a-fir)-dzu (odiu), n. neatness, tidiness ; a tidy per-
son.
a-fir)-gba (igba), n. an engraver of calabashes.
a-fi-re-se (ire), n. wilfulness in doing an evil action.
a-fi-sor), «. one who is accused.
a-fi-yag-dzu-se, n. acting by constraint ; reluc-
tance.
a-fl-ye-sl (iye), n. attention, noiableness. (Acts 2,
20.)
a-fo, n. a space, room ; openness, an opening.
a-fo-dzu-di (fi), n. insolence.
a-fi6-dzu-s6-na, n. a looking for, expectation.
a-fo'-fo-ro, n. cork-wood.
a-fo-in6, n. a parasite, mistletoe.
a-fo'-ni-f6-dzi, «. a valley.
a-fo-re-se-bi (fi ore se ibi), n. an ungrateful person.
a-fo-ta, n. purblindness : 6 ie afota, he is purblind.
a.-fg, n. hogs^ mire.
a-fo-ba-dze, n. overthrow, destruction.
a-f6-dz11 (fo), n. a blind person.
a-f6-gur), n. a bottle.
a-fd-ko-ko (ikoko), «. a poi-ioasher. (Ps. 68, 8.)
a-fo-na-h3.r) (fi 6na), n. a guide.
a-fori-fe-re, n. a fiutc-player, pnper.
a-f6-6-gb6 (6, not), n. unruliness, disobedience.
a-f6-rar)-lo (fi oraij), n. one who investigates a case
or dis2)ute, a reconciler.
a-f6-rar)-in6 (fi oraij), n. accusation, suspicion.
a-f6-sf , «. a fulfilled prediction ; a foretelling.
a-fo-"w6-b6 (fi owo), n. a secret.
a-fo-"w6-ra, n. pilfering.
a-f9-'w6-ta, «. a careless search.
a-fu-ra (fu ara) n. a suspicious person.
a-ga, n. which is high, a lieight ; a rampart, ladder,
chair, stool, table.
AGA
10
AGB
a-g§.. See agara, of which it is a contraction.
a-ga-lja-ge-be (gnij aba gn^ cbe), a double-dealer,
a hypocrite.
a'-ga-da, n. a short sword : agada k5 m5 ori ala-
gbede, the sword knows the head of the blacksmith
(who made it).
a'-ga-da'-go-do, n. a lock, especially a padlock.
a-ga-kpo-si, n. a bier.
a-ga-la-ma-sa, n. a trick, deceit, naughtiness.
a-ga-na, n. a highway robber.
a-ga-ndzu, n. a palace.
a-ga-ndzu. See agindiu.
a-g4i), n. which sews or is sewed, cuts or is cut, dbc.
See gaij.
a-gdX), n. which despises or is despised, a despising,
contempt ; a barren woman : yh agai), to be barren.
a-gai)-gar), n. a flat stone on which glass beads are
ground or polished.
a-g&r)-gS.r), n. a pinnacle, topmost point.
a-ga-ra n. weariness : agara &iye ma dii mi, / am
weary of life.
a-g&-ra, n. the coney (hyrax).
a-gba, n. a cask.
a-gba, n. help.
fi.-gba, n. an elder, an adult, a man : igba agba,
man by man.
a-gba-bor) (iboi)), n. a cannon.
a-gba.-bo, n. a foster-child.
a-gba-da, n. a loose garment ; in the translation of
Exodus, the laver.
a-gbfi.-do, n. maize.
a-gba-du, n. a viper.
a-gba-dza, n. a girdle.
a-gba-dz9, n. an assembly of the whole people.
a-gba-gba, n. a plantain : agbagba eiyele, a spot-
ted pigeon.
a-gba-gur), n. that which causes the assembling of
soldiers ; an army.
a-gbai-ye, n. the whole world : odzu agbaiye, the
face of the earth.
a-gba-ko, n. a coming in contact, a precise point of
time ; a moment : li agbako na, at that moment.
a-gba-ku, «. a frame in which a load is placed to
be carried on the head.
a'-gba-la, n. a walled garden.
a-gba-la-dza, n. a kind of shirt.
a-gba-lfi.-gba, ». an elderly or honorable man.
a-gba-le, n. a kind of insect.
a-gba-lu, n. the whole town, the population.
a-gba-mi, ji. the open sea.
a-gb^-ni, n. a helper.
a-gba-r)r6-re, n. the unicorn : agbaqr^re olowo
kan, the agbaijrere is one-horned.
a-gba-9-dzo, n. one who is old in days, an aged
person.
a-gba-ra, n. strength, violence.
a-gbfi-ra, n. a strong climling plant used for ropes.
a-gb&-ra, n. a. stockade.
a-gba-ri, n. the skull.
a-gba'-ri-gba, n. a kind of antelope.
a-gba-sa, n. a mass of rocks.
a-gba-si, n. accumulation.
a-gba-sil), n. a ewe taken care of for a portion of
her increase.
a-gba-ee, n. help for hire : fu mi li agbase, hire
me. (Matt. 20, 7.)
a-gba-tSr), n. entire help, helping throughout.
a-gba-to-dzu, n. one who keeps something for an-
other, a trustee.
a-gba-"w5, n. which is hired or rented, as a house.
a-gbe, n. a resident, inhabitant; forgetfalness ;
begging for alms.
3.-gbe, n. a large gourd-bottle.
a-gbe-b6, «. a hen.
a-gbe-de (gb6), n. one skilled in language, a lin-
guist.
a-gbe-de-me-dzi, n. the middle, midst.
a-gbe-dzi (gba edzi), n. a rain hat.
a-gbe-dzo-lo, n. a long-necked gourd.
a-gbe-dzvl, n. great assistance ; 6 gbe mi 11 agbe-
diu, Tie aided me much.
a-gbe-gbe, n. neighborhood, surrounding region.
a-gbe-lS-bu, n. a cross. (Luke 21, 21.)
a-gbe-nde, n. a raising up, the resurrection.
a-gbe-ni, n. who exalts or aids one.
a-gbe '-ra-ga, n. who exalts himself, is proud.
a-gbe-re, n. fornication.
a-gbe, m. awhetter; a farmer; a kind of sword.
a-gbe-de (agbe ide), n. a smith's shop, smith work,
lit. the whetting of brass.
a-gbe-dze, n. a kind of squash.
a-gbe-ku-ta (okuta), n. a stone-cutter, a lapidary.
lie makes beads and other ornaments of agate,
jasper, and cornelian.
a-gbe-mfi-ye, n. a barren hen.
a-gblr)-yi-kfi-gba. (ogba), n. a hedge.
a-gbo, n. a flock, a ring of dancers, a stack of corn :
omo agbo, a babe ; agbo ile, the inner court of a
house.
a-gbo, n. a ram.
a-gb6, n. which is old, an old person : so agbo, to
be old ; a cat-flsh ; a fermented medicinal taash.
a-gb6-de-gbS, n. a thief stationed out of doors to
receive what burglars steal.
a-gb6-dzu-16, n. who perseveres, acts firmly.
a-gbo-"w6-de (gba ow6 ode), n. a toll-gatherer,
tax-collector.
a-gboi), n. the cocoanut-tree, a cocoanut.
il-gbor), n. the chin : ^gboi) isale, the lower jaw.
a-gb5r|, n. a basket, hamper.
AGB
11
AIL
a-gb6r), «. a wasp.
a-gbor)-rir), n. a kind of antelope.
a-gb9-ti (gba oti), n. a butler.
a-gbo-ya, n. hearing quickly: iwo gbo agb9ya
{thou hearest hearing-qmckly), you pretend to be
deaf.
a-ge-re, n. the stand on which Ifa is set.
a-ge-ni6, n. a chameleon ; the cock of a gun.
a-gl-di, n. stubborn ; an obstinately wicked person.
a-gi-dl, n. balls of cold eko wrapped in leaves.
a-gi-ll-ti, n. a kind of lizard.
a-gi-ndzu, n. a wilderness, a desert.
a-gl-sa, «. a rag.
a-go, a-go-go, n. a bell, a clock : ago melo ? lohat
o'clock is it ? ago mediSi ni, it is two o'clock ; ago
medzi ro, the clock struck ttoo.
a-gO, n. a cup, small box as for pills.
a-g6, n. a striped rat.
a-g6 / get out of the way ! ag6 mi H 5na, get out oj
my road ! ago esiq, get out of the %oa>j of the
horse !
a-g6-gO, n. that which is tall ; tallness.
a-go-go-ri (gopgo ori), n. a sharp point.
a-go-ro, w. a rabbit.
a-gO-r6, n. a striped rat.
a-gO, n. a shroud.
a-g6, n. a tent, hut, shanty.
a-g6, a-g5-ni, n. one who neglects family discipline.
a-goi), 71. a grudge, hatred, strife. (Roin. 1, 29.)
a-gor)-go, n. one armed with a club.
3,-gu-a-la, n. the planet Venus, called the moorHs
dog.
A'-gU-da, n. a Spaniard, or other dark European.
a'-gu-foi) (gur) of9i)), n. the crested crane.
a-gu-na, n. an embroiderer.
a-gu-ndze (guij die), n. a table-fork.
a'-gu-tar) (gui) itaq ?), n. a sheep.
a-ha, n. a drinking-gourd.
a-ha-le, n. a boaster ; boasting.
a-ha-mS, n. entanglement, difficulty.
a-ha'-mo-ra, n. who is entangled in business, who
is harnessed in armor.
a-ha-na, n. a reckless, wicked man.
a-har)-hai), n. a lizard resembling the iguana.
a-ha'-ri-ya, n. bird-shot.
a-he-re (ere), n. a farm-house, a barn.
a-h6' (ho), an exclamation of contempt : se ali6 si,
to despise.
a'-ho-ro, n. desolation, ruins.
a-ho-to, «. tight pantalocms.
a-h.6r), n. the tongue,
a-hu-sa, n. an esculent nut.
ai, a prefix, not, un-, in-.
at-ba, n. which is not met, dr., not meeting, <tc.
See ba.
ai-ba-dze, n. which is not corrupted or spoiled, in-
corruptible.
ai-bfi.-wf, n. blamelessness. (Mat. 12, 5.)
ai-be-ru, n. courage, boldness. (Acts 18, 26.)
ai-b6, M. defencelessness.
ai-dfi, n. unceasingness, uncreatedness.
ai-da-a-ra, n. bad health.
ai-de-ra, n. unnegligence, strict application.
ai-di'-ba-dze, n. uncorruptedness, incorruption.
ai-dze, n. which is uneatable ; a not permitting,
unsuitable.
ai-dze-bi, n. innocence, uncondemned.
ai-dzi-yai), n. which does not dispute, is indis-
putable.
ai-fe, n. unwillingness, indifference.
ai-fe-ni, n. uncharitableness.
ai-fo-ya, n. boldness, courage.
ai-fi6, n. soundness, unbroken.
ai-f 5, n. uncleanness, unwashed.
ai-gba-gbo, n. unbelief.
ai-gbe-de, n. state of ignorance of a language.
ai-gbo, n. sluggishness, stubbornness.
al-gb6, n. unripeness, immaturity.
ai-gb6, n. disobedience.
ai-gboi), M. lack of wisdom, folly, &L<i. See gboij.
ai-gb6-rar), n. See aigbo.
at-k^ n. which is uncounted, left out, excepted :
gbogbo W91) li aika eyi, all of them except this.
ai-k6r), n. which is unfilled. See the next word.
al-k6r)-si-n6 (si in6), i\ being unsatisfied, a mur-
muring.
ai-kpa, n. which is not killed, unquenched.
ai-kp6, n. who is not invited, uncalled.
ai-kp6, n. undurableness.
ai-kpir), n. which is undivided, undistributed.
ai-ku, n. immoi'tality, unquenchableness ; aiku,
usually pronounced aku! or oku! is a very common
salutation, whence the Yorubas are called in Sierra
Leone " the Aku people."
ai-la'-ba-vrgr), n. which is unstained, unblemished.
ai-la'-bu kur), n. which is faultless, uncensurable.
ai-la'-bu-la, n. which is unadulterated.
al-le-ra (le ara), n. infirmity, weakness.
ai-le-ri (li eri), n. purity, cleanness.
ai-le-'WU (li ewu) n. which is in safety.
ai-le-bi (li ebi), n. which is guiltless.
ai-le-mi (li emi), n. which is spiritless, dead.
ai-le-nu (li enu), n. which has no mouth or opening.
ai-le-ri, (H eri), n. which has no testimony, is un-
proved.
ai-le-se (ese), n. which has no feet.
ai-16-se (ese), n. which is sinless, innocent.
ai-lo-la (ola), n. which is unhonored.
ai-19-niO (om9), n. who is childless : 6 wa li ai-
l9m9, he was childless.
AIM
12
AKE
ai-m&h, a double negative employed pleonastically
after anotlier negative ; as, enii 6 le ise aimah I6I1,
/ must go, lit. / not am able to do not go. Ail6h
or mdh 16h may be used instead of aim4h 16h.
ai-mO-re {mh ore), n. ingratitude, who is un-
grateful.
ai-mo-ye (moye), n. ignorance, who is ignorant.
ai-md, n. ignorance, which is unknown or unusual.
al-mo, n. tvhich is unclean, not clear or light ; un-
cleanness, pollution.
ai-ni, n. who has not ; need, destitution.
ai-ni-dl (idi), n. which is causeless, unreasonable :
nwoi) korira rl lii ainidi, they hated him without a
cause, or unreasonably.
ai-ni-kpai-ya, n. fearlessness.
ai-nI-kpe-16, n. tohich has no addition : li alni-
kpcle, without addition.
ai-ni-kpe-te, n. which is undesigned, unintended :
li ainikpete, without intention, undesignedly.
ai-ni-kpe-kur), n. which is endless, everlasting.
ai-nl-kpi-le-se, n. which is unfounded or has no
foundation.
ai-ni-ni-ye, «. tvhich is numberless.
ai-nl-ye-n6, n. who has no understanding.
ai-nl-yii), n. which is unpraised, unhonored.
ai-nI-yo-n6, n. which has no mercy or compassion :
6 16 woij li ainiyono, he drove them unmercifully.
ai-ri-kpa-da, n. who is unredeemed.
ai-re-k9-dza, n. soberness, temperance.
ai-re-lS, n. which is unhumbled, lack of humility.
ai-ri-rai), n. dimness of sight.
ai-rl-'wl, n. who is inexcusable, finds nothing to
plead ; inexcusableness.
ai-rd, n. thoughtlessness, inconsiderateness.
al-ro-dzfl (ri odiu), n. a being busy, unremitting
occupation.
ai-r9-"wo (ri 9VV0), n. Same as the preceding.
ai-s&r), n. sickness : so aisaq, to be sick.
ai-sl, n. absence.
al-si-mi, n. unrest, perseverance.
ai-sir), n. independence.
ai-sfi, n. which is uncut, unreaped.
ai-sa-na (se anu), n. unmercifulness. (J as. 2, 13.)
ai-se, n. inaction ; which is not done.
ai-se-de-d6, n. transgression.
ai-se-gbe, n. equity, impartiality.
ai-se-me-le, n. diligence ; industry.
ai-se, n. tohich is unfulfilled.
ai-sd, n. which is innocent, faultless. (Ps. 59, 4.)
ai-se-tar) (etaij), n. undeceitfulness, sincerity.
ai-si-me-le. See aisemele.
ai-si-ye-me-dzi, n. undoubtedness, certainty.
ai-SO-do-do, n. injustice, unrighteousness of action.
ai-so-dzfl-sa-dzti, n. impartiality.
ai-SO-t6 (se ot6), n. injustice, wrong.
ai-ta-ra, n. equality : eiii) sure li aitara nwor) yo,
the horses ran equally and came out together.
ai-t6, n. insufficiency : se aito, to be not enough.
(Mat. 25, 9.)
ai-t6, n. crookedness, absurdity.
ai-"wfi.-ka-ra (wu), ?«. unleavened bread.
ai-"w6,ra. which is unwashed : aiwi ow6, wnwasAerf
hands. (Mat. 15, 20.)
ai-AVli, n. which is unswelled or unleavened : awu
akara, unleavened bread.
ai-ya, n. breast, chest, heart, stomach, bosom ; cou-
rage, influence.
ai-ya-fd, ai-ya-dza, ai-ya-kpa, ai-ya-ia, to
affect with fear : aiya fo mi, / am afraid, lit. the
heart jumps me ; da aiya fo, to frighten one (Ps. 10,
18) ; aiya kpa mi, my heart fails. (Ps. 40, 12.)
ai-ya-kpa, n. undeviatingness, union, as opposed to
schism.
al-ya-to, n. tohich does not differ, identity.
al-ye, n. the world ; condition, days or times of one,
circumstances in life, duration of life, as distin--
guishcd from aye, life.
ai-y§, n. which is not understood, unintelligibleness ;
unceasingness.
af-yS, n. tohich is lifeless ; lifelessness.
ai-ye-rai-ye, al-ye-ti-ti-lai, n. which is ever-
lasting ; eter7iity.
ai-ye, n. See aigbo.
ai-ye-se (yi ese), n. firmness, steadfastness.
a-kfi, n. a crib.
a-ka-be, n. the cloth-beam of a loom.
a-ka-d3.Q, n. a felon on the finger.
4-ka-ka, n. the squatting posture.
8.-ka-la, n. the large vulture.
a-ka-lfi-mbi, n. a sack.
a-kfi.-ni6, n. the act of surrounding.
a-k9l), n. a crab ; an epaulet.
a-kar)-se, n, a rarity ; which is made to order ; a
s^xciality. (Acts 19, 11.)
fi.-ka-ra, n. bread.
a-kfi-SO S-WU, 71. a sack coat, loose garment.
a-ka-s6, n. stairs, ladder, fork of a tree.
3.-ka-su, n. a large loaf or ball of eko.
a-ka-ta, n. a kind of wild cat.
fi.-ka-ta, n. the timbrella-hat of the natives.
a-ka-tar)-kpo, ». a cross-boio.
a-kfi.-ta-ri, n. the zenith.
a-ka-"we, n. metaphor, allegory, explanation : aka-
we oraq, a comparison of matters.
a-kft-TVe, n. a reading, a lesson.
a-ka-yil) (ka chiij), n. a toothless person.
a-ke, n. an axe : tike gboro, an adze,
a-ke-de (ode), n. a public crier.
a-ke-dza-5-na, n. a cross-road.
a-ke-gi (igi), n. a chopper or heteer of tcood.
AKE
13
AKP
a-ke-guQ (oko), n. an old worn-out hoe.
a-ke-ke, n. See ake.
a-ke-ke. See akerekere.
a-ke-kur), n. stubble.
a-ke-16, n. drops;/ of the chest.
a-ke-re, n. a very small person.
a-k§-re-k6-re, n. a scorpion ; the trigger of a gun.
a-ke-re-ko-ro, n. a nickname given to spiteful little
people.
a-ke-ri (ke, to cut, ori, head), n. a hater.
a-ke-ru, n. a bob-tail.
a-ke-si, n. a call, a caller, visitor.
a-ke-te, n. a bed of earth, a bed,
a-ke-ti, n. a crop-ear.
a-ke, n. a large she-goat.
a-ke-dur), n. the gout.
a-ke-hir)-d3.-si (ehiij), n. a turning the bach upon,
one who forsakes (Mat. 26, 33) : ^e akehiijdasi, to
forsake.
a-ke-sar), n. a palace.
a-ke-se, n. the red-flowered cotton.
a-k&-te, n. a hat.
a-ke-tgr), n. a new hoe ; a bough.
a-ki-i-dze (i, not), n. who does not reply, silence.
fi-ki-loh, n. a salutation on parting, good-bye. '
a-ki-ni6-le (ile), n. that which is pressed down.
(Luke" 6, 38.)
a'-ki-ra, n. African tobacco.
a-ki-ri, n. a wandering, a wanderer.
a-ki-sa, n. a rag, scrap of cloth.
a-ki-tar). See atag.
a-ki-ti, n. a baboon : oib6 akiti agba ! the white man
is an old baboon ! (cried in the streets of Abbeokuta
by the children when tliey see a white man.)
a-kl-ye-si, n. attention to, an overseer, that which is
notable.
a-ko-bi-a, n. barrenness : ya akobia, to be barren.
a-ko-de (aku ode), n. a salutation to one in the
streets.
a-ko-dza, n. a bringing to an end, finishing, coin-
pletion.
a-ko-dzO, n. a piling up, accumulation, a lump
(Rom. 14, 16) : se akodio, to gather in a crop.
a-k6-k§, n. the first of a series, first counted.
a-k6-ki, n. a salutation on meeting in the road.
' a-ko-ko, n. a tooth ; a woodpecker.
a-kd-ko, n. a point of time : akoko kodza, the time
is past.
a-k6-kCir), n. a remainder, remnant.
a-k6-kp5, n. a collecting together, collection,
draught. (Luke 5, 4.)
a-ko'-16-10, n. a stutterer, a staminerer.
a-ko'-ni-si-se, n. a taskmaster, a driver.
a-k6-ri-ra, n. a hater.
a-k6-ro, n. a boggy or muddy place.
a-kd-sa, n. a bird of prey.
a-k6-S0, n. control, restraint : ie akoso, to rule over.
(Gen. 1, 16.)
a-ko-so, n. a smelling-bottle.
a-k6-tfi.r), n. a completion of collecting : li ak6tai),
finally. (1 Pet. 3, 8.)
a-ko-to, n. a calabash.
a-ko, n. the male of beasts. See abo. Also, full
cocked (gun) ; harshness, roughness : okuta ak9, a
hard stone.
a-ko, n. a stork ; a scabbard.
a-k6-bi, n. first-born.
a-ko-dztl, n. a very learned man, scholar.
a-k6-gba, n. a fence, hedge.
a-ko-kar), n. the first, the foremost.
a-ko-l§, n. a superscription (Luke 23, 38) ; the
address on a letter.
a-k6-le, n. a builder.
a-ko-mu, n. that which is first taken.
a-ko-ni (eni), w. a strong man.
a-k6-ni (eni), n. a teacher.
a-koi), a-kur), n. beads made of shell.
a-k9 9-dz6, n. every fifth day when full market
is held.
a-kor)-rir), n. a singer.
a-k5r)-si-n6 (ino), n. a grumbling, a grumbler.
a-k5r)-'wo-si-le (il|), n. which is full to overfiowing.
a-k6-r6, n. the first rains.
a-ko-ror), «. a closet, private room,
a-k6-se-ba (ese), n. chance, luck.
a-k6-SO (eso), n. first ripe fruit, first fruits.
a-k6-se, n. first made, beginning.
a-k6-tfi.r), n. one who is perfectly taught, well in-
formed.
a-k6-"wah, n. the first coming, first comer.
a-ko-vre (iwe), n. a writer, a scribe.
a-kpa, n. an arm, wing, side, hough : li akpa kaij,
on one side, aside.
a-kpa, n. a thorny tree.
d.-kpa, n. a prodigal, a spendthrift ; a drum cord,
a pack rope : akpa asara, a roll of tobacco.
a-kpa-da, n. a return, renovation.
a-kpa-da-htl, n. afresh start, a young sprout.
a-kpa-di, n. a potsherd.
a-kpa-gbfe-yii), n. a' runt.
a-kpfi-ko, n. a board, a plank fioor.
a-kp9,-ko, n. a footstalk of the wine-palm.
a-kpa-la, n. a kind of gourd ; a clod of earth ; a
tohistle.
a-kpa-l9 (alo), n. a riddle-maker : akpalo kpatit^,
a riddle-nmkcr makes them to sell.
a-kpa-mo-ra, n. long suffering.
a-kpa-ni (eni), n. a murderer, an executioner.
a-kpa-ni-dze, n. a devourer, (Mat. 7, 15.)
a-kpa-ra, «. barrenness of land.
AKP
14
ALA
- a-kpa-ri, n. a bald-headed person.
a-kp9.-ro, n. a partridge.
a-kpa-ror), n. a kind of ratan.
a-kpa-ta, n. a shield.
a-kpfi-ta, M. a rock.
a-kp6-dze, n. an invited guest.
a-kpd-dz6, n. an assembly.
a-kpe'-dzu-re, n. a pattern, model.
a-kpe-l§, n. a surname.
a-kpe-na, n. one who summons or calls a meeting
together.
a-kpe-na, n. warp-piins of a native loom.
a-kpe-re, n. a pad to ride on. ,
a-kpe, n. a staying : akpe li o kpe, you stayed long.
a-kp§, n. a clapping of hands : ae akpe, to clap.
a-kpe-dza, «. a fisherman.
a-kpe-re. See akpedzurc.
a-kpe-ta, n. part of a dead body, as a finger, a
nail, or a lock of hair, brought home from the battle-
field to the relatives.
a-kpi-ni, n. the chief of the priests called odie.
a-kpi-nti, n. a kind of drum.
a-kpo, n. a quiver.
d.-kpo, n. a bag : akpo agadagodo, a kind of lea-
thern bag ; akpo isana, a bag for flint and tinder.
a-kpo-fir), n. the chief archer.
a-kpo-kpo, n. a roll of cloth ; tlie pod of certain
a-kpo-lu'-ku-tu, n. the large cocoon of the African
silkworm.
a-kpo'-ri-ki, n. See akpofiq.
a-kpo-ro, n. a walk in a garden.
a-kpo-r6 (kpa oro), n. an antidote.
a-kpo-ti, n. a box, a stool : akpoti itise, afoot-stool.
a-kpor), n. a bachelor : akpoi) obiri, a woman who
has weaned her child.
a-kpoi), n. restlessness.
a-kp6-nti, a-kp6-ti, n. a brewer.
a-ktl (aiku), n. a salutation.
a-kua-bS (abS), n. salutation to one returning.
a-kua-lS (ale), n. salutation in the evening.
a-kua-re (are), n. salutation to one who is fa-
tigued.
a-kua-r5 (auro), n. salutation in the morning,
good morning.
a-kua'-ti-dzo (atidzo), n. salutation to one who
has not been seen for a long time.
a-ku-td. See akuabo.
a-ku-dir), n. the heart-ioood of a tree.
a-kti-dz6-ko, 71. salutation to one who is sitting.
a-kue-m (eru), salutation to one carrying a load,
a-kui'-e-gbe, n. rheumatism.
a'-ku-ko, n. a male fowl, a cock.
a-ku-16 (ile), n. salutation to one in the house.
a-kur), a-kui)-re-te, n. a stupid person.
a-kur)-yui)-gb&, n. a court flatterer, a bard, a
drummer.
a-ku.-r6, n. a garden by the water side, for the dry
season.
a-ku-t&, n. salutation to one who is selling.
ft-la, n. fine white cloth, linen, cambric, d:c.
a-M, n. a dream : 14 ala, to dream.
a-la'-ba-dze, n. a fellow-guest, an associate.
a-la'-ba-kpa, n. a partner in hunting or fishing.
a-la-ba'-kpa-de, n. chance, luck.
a-la'-ba-kpir), n. a partner, a sharer.
a-la'-ba-mo-lS, n. a highway robber, a kidnapper.
a-la'-ba-iii), n. a fellow-traveller.
a-la'-ba-se, n. a lielper.
a-la'-bi-n6-k1i, n. a deadly foe.
a-lfi-bd, n. a shelterer, defender.
a-la'-bo-dzu-to, n. a superintendent.
a-la'-bd-o-viT'd, n. the owner of a bundle of cowries.
a-la'-bu-k6r), n. who blesses or is blessed.
a-la'-bu-kdr), n. who despises or is despised : ala-
bukuij aroi), an invalid, a disabled person.
a-la-bu-si, ». one who bestows.
a-la'-da-ra5, n. an errorist, a heretic.
a-la'-da-si, n. a meddler.
a-la'-da-so, n. one who speaks in the name of ano-
ther without authority : aladas9 ni Mobomodu,
Mohammed was self -sent.
a-la-de, n. one who wears a crown, a crowned head,
king : omo alade, the king's children,
a-la-dl, n. a dealer in the oil adi.
a-la-d5i), n. paste of bene-seeds.
a-la-do-ta, n. which costs sixty cowries.
a-la'-du-gbo, n. a neighbor.
a-la-dza, n. a peace-maker, a reconciler.
a-la-dze, n. a self-assumed nickname.
a-la'-dzo-kpa. See alabakpa.
a-la-dzo-ni, n. a partaker ; one in the same con-
dition, a fellow.
a-la'-dzu-ku, n. a seller of diuku tobacco.
a-la'-fe-ti-gb6 (fi eti), n. a hearer.
a-la'-fe-hir)-ti (fi eliiij), n. a prop, a supporter.
a-la'-fe-nu-si (fi enu), n. a meddler, a busy-body.
a-la'-fe-ri, n. a seeker.
a-la-fl-a, n. peace, safety, prosperity.
a-la'-fi-hfi.r), n. a shower, exhibitor ; a traitor,
a-la'-fi-la, n. a dealer in caps.
a-la-fir), m. one who owns a palace.
a-la-fi-ye-si, n. an observer, overseer, superintend-
ent.
a'-la-fo, n. a hole, scuttle ; a valley.
a-la'-fo-dzu-to (fi odiu). See alafiyesi.
a-la'-fu-ra, n. a suspicious person.
a-la-fu-ta, «. a jmrse, a wallet.
a-la-ga (aga), n. a dealer in chairs.
a-la-ga-ri, n. a saddler.
ALA
15
ALA
a-la-gba, n. an elder, honorable man, gentleman.
a-la'-gba.-f 5, n. a washerwoman.
a-la-gb&-ra, n. a strong man, a great man.
a-la'-gb§.-r6, n. a hired farm-servant.
a-la'-gba-so, a-la'-gba--wi, n. a spokesman, an
advocate.
a-la'-gb§.-se, n. a hireling.
a-la'-gbfl.-t^ n. one who sells on commission.
a-la'-gb3.-to, n. a foster-nurse.
a-la'-gba-^wi. See alagbaso.
a-la-gbe, n. a beggar.
a-la'-gbe-de, n. a blacksmith, a smith.
a-la'-gbo-wo (ghk owo), n. a receiver of money.
a-la'-gb6-rar) (gb6 oraij), n. one who is heedful,
obedient.
a-19.-gi, «. a splitter or sawer of wood.
a-la-gi-di-gba, n. beads manufactured from
palm-nuts.
a-la-gi-sa, n. a ragged person, a dealer in rags.
a-la'-he-re, n. one who gathers in a crop.
a-la'-he-so, n. a news-monger, a smatterer.
a-la'-ho-ro, n. one who is desolate.
a-lai-bo, n. which is unsheltered, defenceless.
a-lai-du-ro, n. which is unstable, changeable.
a-lai-gbe-de (gb6 ede), n. one who is ignorant of
the language, a barbarian.
a-lai-gb6, a-lai-gb6-rar), n. one who will not take
advice.
a-lal-gboi), n. one who is unwise.
a-lai-ko-la, n. who is untattoed, uncircumcised.
a-lai-k6, n. one who is untaught, ignorant.
a-lal-ku, n. who is immortal.
a-lai-ia, ». who is unsaved, unsafe.
a-lai-le, «. which is weak, unsound.
a-lai-le-ra, n. who is weak or infirm.
a-lai-16-re, n. which is unjyrofitable.
a-lai-le-so, n. which is fruitless, barren.
a-lai-lS-se, n. who is sinless, innocent.
a-lai-16-gb9r), n. one without wisdom.
a-lai-lo-la, ?j. one without honor.
a-lai-mo-re, one who is ungrateful.
a-lai-mo-ye, n. one without understanding.
a-lal-ni5, n. one who is ignorant.
a-lai-in5-"W§, n. one who cannot read.
a-lal-nf, one tvho lias not, who is needy : ie alaini, to
need, to tvant.
a-lai-ni-ba-bfi, n. a fatherless child.
a-lai-ni-gba-gb6, n. an unbeliever.
a-lai-nl-ka-n6, n. one without cruelty.
a-lai-ni-to, n. one who has not enough.
a-lai-nl-ya (iya), n. a motherless child.
a-lai-nl-ye, n. which is numberless.
a-lai-nl-ye-ii6 (iye in6), n. who is without under-
standing.
a-lai-ri-Tvl, n. one without excuse.
a-lai-sf, n. one who is absent.
a-lai-se, n. one who fails to do ; which is necessary.
(Acts 15, 28.)
a-lai-se, n. one who does not sin. (Ps. 19, 13.)
a-lai-so-do-do, n. one who is unrighteous.
a-lai-so-t6, n. one who does wrong,
a-lai-t6, n. which is not right.
a-lai-ya, n. who has a heart : alaiya mim6, one with
a clean heart.
a-lai-ye (li aiyc), n. the owner of the world : 6 diaiye
dzu alaiyc loh, he enjoys the world more than the
owner of the world (said of extravagant persons).
a-lai-y6, n. which is alive.
a-lai-ye, n. one who is unfit, unworthy.
a-lai-y6, n. one who is hungry. (Luke 6, 11.)
a-la'-ka-ra, n. a baker, a dealer in bread.
a-la-ka-tar)-kpo, n. a, cross-bow man.
A-la-ke, n. the Lord of Ake, a title of the King
of Egba, from li, to have, and Ake, the name of the
royal city.'
a-la'-ke-le, n. a master weaver.
a-la'-ke-si, n. a visitor.
a-la-kor), n. an addition to.
a-la'-ko-se, n. a beginner.
a-la'-ko-ti, n. a disobedient person.
3.'-la-kpa, n. an old wall.
a-la'-kpa-rui), n. a destroyer.
a-la'-kpa-ta., n. a butcher.
a-la'-kp6-dze, n. an invited guest.
a-la-kpir), n. a divider, sharer.
a-la'-kpo-lu, n. a mixer, an apothecary.
a-l^-la, n. which is white.
a-la-lS., M. a dreamer.
a-la-lS, n. evening by evening : li alal|, every
evening.
a-la'-lu-kpfi-yi-da, n. a juggler.
a-la'-mgba, a-la-m&, n. the red-headed lizard.
a-19.-nii, w. a spy, a secret observer ; which is spot-
ted, speckled.
a-la-mb, n. a secret. See alamgba.
A-la'-mp-re, n. A title of Obatala, as the maker of
the body, lit. the owner of the good clay.
a-la'-mo-rl. See alamgba.
a-la-nf-yai), n. one who is anxious.
a-la'-nta-kur) (ta okuq), a-lai)-sa-sa, n. a spider.
a-la-nu, n. one who is merciful.
a-la-ra (liara), n. which has a body (Mat. 14, 36),
a free person.
a-la'-ra-b&-ra, n. kinds, fashions : oniruru alara
bara, all sorts of fashions.
a-la'-r9.-dze, n. one who buys his provisions.
a-la'-rar)-se, n. a helper.
a-19.-re, n. one in the right, righteous.
a-la-r6-ke-r§-ke, n. a scoundrel.
a-la'-r6-k6-dza, n. a transgressor.
ALA
16
AMO
a-la'-re-na, n. one employed to engage a bride for
another, a go-between.
a-la-rl, n. scarlet.
a-la'-rir)-dz6, n. a strolling dancer.
a-la'-riij-ki-ri, n. a wanderer, stroller.
a-la-ro, n. which is blue.
a-la'-ro-l)5, n. a petti/ trader.
a-la'-ro-ko, n. a farmer, tiller.
a-la'-ro-ye, n. a great talker.
a-la-rvl, n. a porter, carrier.
a-la-sa, n. a king's messenger.
a-la-s6, ti. a cook.
a-la'-si-ki, n. who is prosperous.
a-la-so, n. a talker.
a-la-s5, n. a quarrelsome person.
a-la'-so-ddr), n. a flatterer, one who exaggerates.
a-la-sa, n. a military officer.
a-la-sfi.-ra, n. a dealer in tobacco or snuff.
a-la'-se-dzCl, n. who acts extravagantly, a self-
willed person.
a-la'-se-rftr), n. one whose actions infect others, a
leader in evil.
a-la-BO, n. one who has cloth, a dealer in cloth.
a-la-ta'-mkpo-ko, n. a grasshopper.
a-la'-ti-le-hir), n. a sustainer, supporter.
a-la-t9r)-se, n. one loho mends or repairs, a re-
former.
a-la-'we, n. which has cotyledons.
a-la-vsre, n. a faster, a mourner.
a-la'-'wi-l-gb6, n. one who is unruly, who refuses
advice.
a-la'-"wi-i-ye, n. one who does not speak intelligibly.
a-l-a'-wi-k&, n. a wizard, a witch.
a-la'-^wl-ye, n. one who explains.
a-la-'Wd, n. a diviner, a priest.
a-la-"w6, n. a leather or fiide dealer ; — as an adj.,
which has color: malu alaw5 kpukpa, a red colored
cow ; alawo kpikpS, many colored.
a-la'-"w5-fir) (afiq), n. one toho lives in a palace.
a-la-y&r)-dze, ». a swindler.
a-la-ye, n. which is spacious, roomy,
a-19.-ye, n. which has life.
a-la'-y e-kar), n. a kind of apron.
a-la-yi, pron. this.
a-la'-yi-dfi.-yi-d&, n. an artful fellow, a dissem-
bler. (I's. 26, 4.)
a-le, n. a concubine.
a-le-bu, n. one who vilifies, or abuses.
a-le-dzo, n. a stranger.
a-le-gba, n. a kind of yellow monkey.
a-le-SO, which is fruitful.
a-le, n. evening.
a-li-ga'-ri-mi, w. a spirited horse.
a-li-kfi-ma, n. wheat.
a-li-kl-ba, n. « blanket.
Al-ku-ra-ni (Arab.), n. tlie Koran.
a-16, n. a district ; flame.
a-lo-ngo, n. tight-legged trowsers.
a-lo-re, n. a sentinel's stand, a gibbet.
a-lo, n. which is inverted ; a riddle.
a-16, n. which is bent, grafted : al6 ina, flame.
a-lo'-le-ke (ileke), n. a bead-grinder.
a-lo'-mo-ri (omo ori), n. which has a lid.
a-lo-m6, n. which is engrafted.
a-ld-ni-ld-TVO-gbS. (!o owo), n. an extortioner.
a-lu-ba-ra, n. a beetle. See bambam.
a-lil-ba-ta, n. a beater of the drum called bata.
a-lu-bo-sa, n. an onion.
a-lii-dor)-d9i), n. a beater of the drum called
dopdo:).
a'-lu-fa, n. a learned man, religious.
a-lu-fa, n. teacher, doctor in religious knowledge.
See olifa.
a-lu-gba, n. a door-facing.
a-lu-gbe, n. domesticated honey-bees.
a-lu-gbor), 7i. a likeness, resemblance.
a-lu'-kar)-rin, n. a crow.
a-lu-ka-sa-fa, n. a jacket, tunic.
a-lu-ka-vra-ni, n. an agreement.
a-lu-ke-mbu, «. a stirrup.
3.'-lu-ko, n. a cockatoo.
a-lu-kb, n. purple. (Acts 16, 14.)
a-lu-kpa'-yi-da, n. sleight of hand.
a-lu-ma-ga-dzi, w. scissors.
a-lu-se, n. a door-lock.
a-lu-sir), n. a damage, misfortune.
a-lu'-"wa-la, n. ablution.
a-lu'-'wa-si, parade, ostentation.
a-mi-lfi. (mo aid), n. an interpreter of dreams.
a'-ma-la, n. yam-flour mush.
a-inb6 (bo, to peel), a white man, in the Iketu dia-
lect; whence orombo, lit. orange, or the white man's
fruit.
a-mbo-sir), a-nib9'-to-rl, adv. lohat else ?
a-mbu-a, n. red ink.
a-m.6-wa (ni6 ^wa), n. a judge of beauty.
9.-nii, n. a sign.
a-ml, n. a spy.
a-mi-kir), n. a breathing on.
a-mi-kpb, n. which is shaken together. (Luke 6,
38.)
a-mlr), adv. amen.
a-ird-sl, n. a breathing into.
a-md-fir) (mo ofiij) n. a lawyer.
a-mo-dz(i-k<i-ro (niu), n. an overlooking, or not
observing.
a-mo-re, n. a thankful person.
a-mo-ye, n. an intelligent person.
a-mo, n. a large earthen pot.
k-rag, n. potter's clay.
AMO
17
ARI
a-in6, n. which adheres ; figuratively, a child.
a-mo-dur), n. next year : woyi amodui) m' k to
gbai)ga-gbai)ga, b)j this time next year I shall be a
great man.
a-in5-dza, n. a guess : &e amSdia, to guess.
a-m5-dze, n. one who tries susjyected persons by
water ordeal : id amodie, to try by water.
a-mb-dztl, n. one who is well informed.
a-m.6-dzil, n. drunkenness, a drunkard.
a-in5-hur)-gbo-gbo, n. who is omniscient.
a-mo-kpa, a-mo-kpa-ra, n. drunkenness, a
drunkard.
a-ni5-kp§, conj. though, notwithstanding.
a-mo-kur), n. a latne jierson, lameness.
a-mo-le (mo ile), n. a builder.
a-mo-le, n. a conspirator : se amoll, to conspire.
a-ino-16-kpa, n. assassination.
a-ni6-na, n. a guide : se amona, to guide, lead.
a-ni6-na, n. booty, plunder.
a-ni6-ra, n. an attendant, body-servant.
a-mb-rar), n. a wise person.
a-in5-se, n. wilfulness, obstinacy.
a-ni5-tS.r), n. pretended knowledge, self-conceit.
a-mo-te-kur), n. an animal like a leopard.
a-m5-te-le, n. foreknowledge.
a-mu, 71. a hook.
a-mu, n. confusion of mind.
a-mu-bfi, n. means, instrumentality. ^
a-mu-di, n. a cold.
a-mu-kpa-da, n. a bringing back, restoration.
a-mu-rar), n. a tailor's hook, to hold the cloth
while sewing.
a-mu-re, n. a girdle ; a kind of lizard.
a-mfi-ror), n. a bleeding at the nose.
a-mu-'wSll, n. result, effect, issue.
a-mu-ya, n. seizure of goods for debt.
a-na, n. yesterday : 6 de li ana, he came yesterday.
fi-na, n. a relative by marriage ; extension of kin-
dred. (Gen. 30, 20.)
a-na-bi (Arab.), n. the prophet : anabi Musa li o
wi, the prophet Moses said.
a-na'-bi-ri (obiri), n. a female relative, sister,
aunt, dc.
a-na'-kor)-ri (okoqvi), n. a male relative.
a-nl (ni, to say), adv. even, yea.
a-nl-a-ni, n. doubt, uncertainty.
a-nl-do-kpir) (de okpii)), n. complete possession.
a-nl-ni-la-ra, n. an o^opressor.
a-ni-tftr), n. complete possession; used also as a
proper name.
a-ni-yar), n. anxiety, care.
a-nte-te, n. a kind of cricket.
a-nfl, n. pity, sorroto : ie anu, to pity ; ko anu, to
moxirn.
aij-fa-ni, which is easily performed ; advantage.
3
ag-ge-re, ??, a wooden leg.
a-ra, n. an oath.
a-rfi, M. body, skin, member of a community, self :
ar41e {\\i), family ; arale (ile), citizen ; ara mi dd,
my body is well, i. e. / am well ; ard mi fuq, my
skin is pale, i. e. / am alarmed ; ard kai) mi, my
body pains me, i. e. / am grieved, vexed ; ara
iyara, the body itself, the natural body.
a-ra, n. thunder.
a'-ra-ba, n. the cotton-tree (bombax).
a-ra'-bi-ri (obiri), n. a sister, a female relative.
a-rft-dzo {vh adio), n. a traveller.
a-ra'-kor)-ri, n. a male relative.
a-rfi.-16, M. a melnber of the family.
a-rfi,-16, a-rS.-lu, n. a citizen, inhabitant.
a-ra-in6-ri, n. a tight cap.
a-rai), n. intestinal worms.
a-rS.1), n. velvet.
S,-rar(, n. dotage : se ^raij, to be old and silly.
a-rar)-ba-ta, n. a shoemaker.
a-rar)-k9.r), n. bitterness, spitefulness.
a-raij-mfl, n. which is infectious.
a-rfi.r)-ni-16-"WO, n. help, a helper.
a-rar)-se, n. See the preceding.
a-rar)-so, n. a sewer, tailor.
a-rarj-'WTi, n. a cotton-spinner.
a-ra-ra, adv. at all, in the least.
a-ra-rfi, w. a dwarf.
a-ra-rtm, num. five by five.
a-rS.-tu-bu, n. a prisoner, one in jail.
a-ra-yfi, n. liveliness, cheerfulness, merriment.
9.-re, n. a being in the right : emi ^e are, I am right.
a-r§-ke-r§-ke, n. dishonesty, knavishness ; a trick,
a knave : edio so ar^kereke, the serpent was subtle.
(Gen. 3, 1.)
a-re-re, n. deep silence.
a-re, n. eldership, older ; as a title of honor, gene-
ralissimo : iwo ^e are mi, you are older than I ; are
ni i die, he is the are.
a-re, n. fatigue : are mu mi, / am tired : 6 t6 are,
it is enough to tire one ; ara mi di are tAi), / am
tired. (Ps. "73, 2C.)
a-re-kfi.-kai)-f6, n. a general in the army.
a-re-kfi-nda, n. deceit.
a-re-16, n. abasement, an abaser.
a-re-mo (omp), n. the eldest child, first born.
a-re-ni-dze, n. a cheater.
a-re-AVa (ara ewa), n. a beautifid person.
a-rf, n. which is seen : etu mbe li oko ? ari, are there
any guinea-fowls on the farm? there are : ari! see
now !
a-ri-di-dzi, n. an apparition.
a-ri-fi, n. which is hot, heat : in6 re gbona bi arifi,
the inside is hot as heat.
a-ri-hur)-gbo-gbo, n. all-seeing.
\
ARI
18
ASO
a-ril), n. the centre, time, previoumess : li arii) rS,
in the middle of it : mo se e li arin kaq, / did it
once ; mo ri li aiiij k4n, / liave seen it before ; li
arijj odio, in the midst of the rain.
a-rir)-dzo, n. a street dancer.
a-rii)-ko, n. a point of time ; chance.
a'-rl-'Wfi, n. the north.
a-ri-'wi, n. an excuse, extenuation.
a'-ri-vro, n. noise, uproar.
a-rd, n. meditation : se aro, to meditate.
a-r6, n. a corn-crib ; blue dye.
d,-ro, n. sorrow, mourning : da aro, se aro, to
mourn, to be soi-ry.
a-ro, n. restlessness ; a hearth, a stand on which pots
are set to boil.
a.-TO-'hg, n. petty traffic.
a-rd-dze, n. a resting-place on the road.
a-r6-h.ur)-g'bo-gT30. See arihuijgbogbo.
a-r6-k3.r), n. painful reflexion, grief, remorse.
a-ro-ko, n. the head man of a farm.
a-ro-kpin, n. a limit : ie arokpii), to limit.
a-ro-le, n. an heir.
a-ro-in6-le, n. the afternoon.
a-r6-ni-kfi, n. a witch, wizard.
a-ro-si-ld, a-ro-tS-le, n. a thing agreed on, terms,
bargain.
a-ro-"wa, n. now : wdli li arowa, come now.
a-ro-ye, n. grumbling, disputing : se aroye, to
grumble, dispute.
a-ro, n. one with withered limbs, a cripple.
a-r6, n. the smithes trade.
a-r5, n. affliction, lamenting.
a-r6, n. a quiver made of a long gourd.
a-ro-kii), n. one skilled in traditions.
a-ro-ku-ro, n. the latter rains.
a-r6-ni9-'bl-nio (6 ri om9), n. one who has grand-
children.
A-rp-ni (aro enia), n. the name of a fairy. (It is
sculptured as a female, with one arm and one leg,
with a long queue and a ball at the end.)
a-r5r), n. sickness : ni ibule aroi), in sickness. (Ps.
41, 3.)
a-r5n-ka-r5r), n. all sorts of diseases; an evil
disease.
a-ru-da, n. a propitiatory sacrifice.
a-ru-fir), n. a law-breaker.
a-ru-gb6, n. an old person.
a-ru-go-gai), n. an iron hook.
a-ru-k9i), ». a freshet; an extra sacrifice.
a-nii), num. five.
a-ruQ-di-lo-gljor) (di W, from on), num. twenty-
five.
a-rur)-le-lo-ta (le li, laid on), num. sixty-five.
a-sa, n. a saddle.
a-Sfi, n. a flight, a running.
a-sfi. ! inter}, excuse me ! said by a bailiff when he
arrests a man. See asia.
a-sa-di-dze, w. afoot-race.
a-sa-ka-ni-l§, n. the square of a house.
a-sfi-lfl, n. a fleeing for safety, escape, refuge : sa
asala, to escape.
a-sft-lS, n. barrenness : di asale, to be barren. (2
Pct."l, 80.)
a-s9l), n. emptiness, vanity, naught : asag li ori^a,
idols are vain or contemptible ; It asaq, in vain,
without excuse or cause.
a-sfiii-k6r), ». full payment.
a-sa-re, m. a runner.
a-sfi.-s6, n. a cook.
a-sS.-sii), n. a runaway, who forsakes his father to
live with another.
a-se, a-se, n. paint, color.
a-sd, n. a meal, a feast : ase al5, a supper ; as6
idio, a public feast ; ase iyawo, a wedding-feast ;
asfe owurS, breakfast ; ase osai), dinner.
a-se-kpoi), n. a barren woman, used as a term of
reproach.
a-se-ndze. See asase.
a-se-n6, n. a barren woman.
a-se, M. a strainer ; the fetid field-rat.
S.-se, ai-s&, n. a large door.
a-se-mi (omi), n. a water-filter.
a'-si-a, n. a flag, ensign.
a'-si-a ! interj. excuse me ! I beg pardon ! alas !
See as4.
a-si-ki, n. good luck, success.
a-sir), n. service.
a-sir)-gba, n. an express, or the sending of things,
generally the king's goods, from post to post.
a-sir)-kpa, n. bitter service.
a-sir)-rir), n. the rat called ase.
a-sir)-AVii), w. afool, a crazy person, lunacy.
a-si-"wa, n. the last state. (Luke 11, 26.)
a'-si-'wa a'-si-bb, adv. now at last : ndie, asi w a
asibo yi 6 de, then, at last he will come.
a-so-fei-ye-dze (fu eiye), n. a species of fig (lit.
it bears for birds to eat).
a-s6-gb6, n. ripe fruit.
a-s5, a-s6-kp5, n. wrangling : tisb baba idia,
wrangling is the father of fighting.
a-s5-d5r), n. sweet talk, flattery, exaggeration.
3.-s6-ni-dS.-ho-ro, n. a desolation.
a-s6-ni-d3.-y6, n. which quickens, or makes
alive.
a-SOq-k6r), n. increase, the dropsy.
a-S9r)-nx6, n. nearness, proximity,
a-s5-ro-dze-dze, a-s6-ro-ke-le, n. a whisperer,
tattler.
a-so-t&ij, w. completeness of talking : 6 sbro If aso-
tdq, he spoke perfectly. (Acts 18, 26.)
ASO
19
ATE
a-SO-td-le, n. prophecy, prediction ; so asotSle, to
prophesy, predict. (Acts 19, 6.)
a-SO-ti, n. an unfinished talking, a failure in
making a speech.
a-so-ye, n. a reasoning, explaining : so asoye, to
convince. (Acts 18, 28.)
a-sd-bd, n. a gilding, or plating of metal.
a-silr), n. state of being asleep.
a-silr)-k<i, n. the sleep of death.
a'-sur)-"w6g, n. a wallet, a purse.
&-sa, n. a fashion, a custom : asa lailai, an old
custom.
a-sa, n. a falcon : asa ni Takpa eiye, the falcon is
the Takpa of birds. (The Takpa or Nufe people
are said to be the swiftest of men.)
a-S&, n. which is picked up : &ik enia, an idler,
lounger, vagabond.
a-sa-dzii, n. a forerunner.
a-sa-gbe, n. a beggar.
a-sa-gi (igi), n. chips.
a-sa-goi), n. contention, a contentious person.
a-sa-kpa, n. a canopy over a corpse.
a-sfi.-lS, n. barren or worn out land.
a-sa-le, n. evening.
a-sarj, n. food without meat or sauce.
a-s&-ra, n. snuff.
a-sa-ro, n. mush, porridge.
a-sa-ro, n. meditation, meditator: ie a^aro, to meditate.
a-sa-ti, n. a stack or shock.
a-sa-tl, n. which is rejected.
a-sS.'-'wa-da, n. jesting, playfulness.
a-sa-"wi, n. a one-sided statement, special pleading.
a-sa-ya, n. playfulness, as that of a kitten.
a-sa-yar), n. which is selected.
a-se, n. an action, actor ; paint.
a-se-dzil, n. extravagant behavior, excess.
a-se-fe-fe, n. who is puffed up, proud.
a-se-h9.r), n. tohich is done for display.
a-se-kS.r), n. a final action.
a-se-kpe, n. which is perfected. (1 Pet. 5, 10.)
a-se-ktir), n. lohich remains unfinished.
a-se-le-ke, n. falseness. (Jas. 1, 21.)
a-se-sa, n. disgraceful action.
a-se-tSu, n. which is completed.
a-se-tl, n. a failure. See asekui).
a-se-ti-n6, w. self-will. (2 Pet. 2, 10.)
a-se, n. power, a commandment ; good speed, suc-
cess : ase ik5, authority, commission (Acts 26,
12) ; He ase, a mighty work, a miracle ; kpa a^e,
kpa . . . li a^e, to command, decree.
a-se, n. which comes to pass, a fulfilment, effect;
imjrrecation ; the menses.
a-sei-ye-sa-te (eiye ate), n. a double-dealer, dis-
sembler.
a-se-hir)-de (ehii)), n. an agent.
a-se-nu (enu), n. an advocate, mediator.
a-s§-se-ko-se, n. beginning.
a-si-kpa-ya, n. a revealing, disclosing.
a-si-ri, n. a secret, a discovery.
a-si-se, n. a laborer, a poor man.
a-si-so-ri, n. a pistol.
a-si-AV^-re, n. a fool. (Ps. 31, 33.)
a-B6, n. a morose sour look : aio erig, an elephant
feeding alone.
a-so-dzu. See a^ehiijde.
a-so-re, n. a well-doer, benefactor.
a-so-ri, n. a tree to which the natives ascribe the pro
perties of the upas.
a-S0-r6, n. a sharp-pointed knife.
a-s6-ro, n. a tormenter, a vindictive person.
a-sd-TWO, n. a trader, merchant.
a-so, n. cloth, clothing ; a watcher : aio oio, a fine
dress ; &ko tita, a curtain.
a-s5, n. one who is fierce, a savage.
a-SO-lu (as9, watcher, ilu, town), n. a magistrate.
a-SO-te, 71. a revolter, rebel, hater.
a-su-kar), n. a kind of bread.
a-su-Tvpr), n. a measure.
a-ta, n. red pepper.
fi.-ta, n. the ridge of a house.
a'-ta-ba, n. a dove : ataba orei)k^re (re ni k^re),
a wild pigeon.
a-tfi-dza-te-rar) (ati adia ati eraij), n. cattle, do-
mestic animals of any kind.
a-ta-fo, n. a whitlow.
a-tai-ye-rai-ye, adv. everlastingly.
a-ta-16, n. ginger.
a-ta-li-a, n. the larger species of Malaghetta pepper.
a-ta'-mkpo-ko, n. the thumb.
a-ta'-mo-ra, n. one who is girded with armor, or
entangled in business.
a-t&-na-infi.-na (ati ana m8 ana), adv. from yester-
day till now.
a-t&-n5, n. what is thrown away, refuse.
9.-tar), n. a dung-hill, dirt-pile.
a-ta-re-re, n. a kind of pepper.
a-ta-ri, n. the crown of the head.
a-te, n. a kind of rat.
a-te, n. a hat ; bird-lime.
a-te-te, n. which is first, youngest.
a-te-te-ba, n. which is first met,an outer yard, fron-
tier.
a-te-te-bi, n. the first-bom.
a-te-te-kg-se, a-te-te-se, n. the beginning,
a-te, n. fiatness, insipidity, disgrace.
3.-te, n. a fan for winnoioing.
a-te-gur), n. afresh breeze.
a-te-le, n. which follows, the next, the second.
a-tfe-le-bg-si, n. the outer yard.
a-te-le-hir), n. a hunchback.
ATE
20
AWI
a-te-le-se, n. the sole of the foot.
a-t6-lo-'VB"6, w. the palm of the hand: ibu atelow6,
a hand-breadth.
a-te-mo-ra, n. long suffering.
a-te-ru, n. a slave-dealer.
a-te-'wo-gb&, n. which is acceptable.
a-ti, a prefix, forming nouns which present the
meaning of the verb in a substantive form ; as,
atiri, seeing ; k i)w6na atiri, we are trying to see.
a-ti, prep. from.
a-ti, conj. and ; ati — ati, both — and : ati iwo ati
emi, both you and I.
a-tl, n. a sheaf.
a'-ti-bfi, n. a meeting, a coincidence ; used also as
a proper name.
a'-ti-ba-TDa, n. a platform, a scaffold.
a'-ti-b5, n. a coming, an advent.
a'-ti-de, n. an arrival.
a.-ti-dia.-T\iT), from five days till now : emi 6 ri i li
atiiarug, I have not seen him for five days.
a'-ti-dze-fa, n. from six days till now.
a'-ti-dzo (ati odz9), n. old times, former days : li
atidio iwa, from the day of being, i. e. from the
beginning of creation.
a-ti'-kpi-le-se, ». the beginning.
a'-ti-kpo, n. a resident, sojourner, immigrant : se
a'tikpo, to sojourn, emigrate.
a'-ti-ma, auxil. part, denoting continuance : atima
ri, to be seeing.
a-ti-rar)-di-rai) (irai) de iraij), n. genealogy.
a-ti'-si-si-yi-16h, n. this time and forward : )i
atisisiyiloh, henceforth.
a'-ti-se-nl-s©, n. a punishing, 2>umshment.
a'-ti-tu'-ni-n6, n. a comforting, consolation.
a'-ti-AVfih, n. a coming, arrival, advent.
a'-ti-"wfih o-dzo, n. the east.
a'-ti-"w6 o-rui), n. the west.
a-to, n. which straightens, a long-necked gourd.
a-to, a-to-to, n. noise : kpa ato, to make a noise ;
atoto ! hear ye ! " oh yes ! " a word used by the
town criers.
a-to-ni-mo-ni (ati oni m6 oni), n. morning till
now : emi b diehug li atonimoni, / have not eaten
to-day.
a-to-ri, n. reason of, account of: li atori, for the
reason that, on account of.
a-to, n. urine : ile ato, the bladder.
a-to-dz9-in6-dzo, n. a long time ; which is old :
5ro at6dz9modzo, an old story.
a-to-dzu, n. a director.
a-tp-ko (tu oko), n. a pilot, helmsman.
a-to-kur), n. , a leader, guide.
a-to-mo-do-mo (ati de omo), n. generation to
generation : yi 6 wa li atomodomo, it will remain
from generation to generation.
a-t6-na, n. a spy, loatchman on the road.
a-torj-bi, a-tur)-bi, n. regeneration.
a-t9r)-d&, n. a recreating.
a-tOQ-hii, ». a repetition of behavior, a fresh
sprouting out, revival.
a-toi)-kpa, n. a candle.
a-tor)-se, n, a mending, amendment.
a-tog-wi, n. repetition of a thing said.
a-t9-rur)-"W"fili (ati wug), n. which is original.
a-t6-si, M. gonorrhoea.
a-to-'wo-do-"W9 (ati de owo), n. tradition. (Mat.
15,2.)
a-t9-'W"9-"W&h, n. which originates with oneself.
a-tu-b6-se, n. ivhich brings to completion.
a-tu-b5-tS.r), n. termination, end of life.
a-tu-di-mb, n. a covenant breaker. (Rom. 1, 31.)
a-tu-k9, n. one who rows or paddles a boat.
a-tu-l&, n. which breaks up the ground, as a plough.
a-tti-ni-ni-n6, n. which comforts.
a-tur). For words beginning in atm), see atog.
a'-u-r6, n. morning.
a-vra, pron. we : awa nd, we ourselves ; awa tiks^-
ra wa, we ourselves, our own selves ; ara wa, our-
selves.
a-"W&, 71. a sparrow.
fi.'-"wa-da, a jest, a joke : se awada, to jest.
a'-"wa-intl, n. adherence.
a'-"wa-n6, n. a waster, spendthrift.
a-"wa-ri, n. search : wah li awari 1, look till you
find it.
a-'wa-tfii), n. perfect ov perfected search.
a-'Wa-ti, n. an abandoned search, a failure to find :
k wdh a li awati, we looked but could not find it,
a-"W"a-"wi (wah wi), n. an excuse, subterfuge.
a-'wa-ya, n. bird shot.
a-vra-yfi, n. struggling, agony : se awaya, to
struggle, to be in agony.
SL-Mve-re, n. the yellow monkey.
a-'wS-re, n. folly, silliness.
a-"we, n. breadth of cloth ; a cotyledon,
i-we, n. mourning, a religious fast : gba awe, to
fast.
a-'we-in6, n. a washing clean, purification.
a-vre-nb, n. which is washed off, a being cleansed
or pure.
a-"wi-gb6, n. hearsay, plain speaking.
a-wi-i-da-ke (i, not), n. incessant talking.
a.-'vn.-l-ghd, n. one who refuses to receive advice.
a-"wi-kpe, conj. j^rovirfec? that.
a-wi-m&h-yi-hur) (ohuij), n. a true statement,
one who speaks without equivocation.
3.-wir), n. credit : ta li awii), to sell on credit.
a-wi-rir), n. a witch, a loizard.
a-Avi-si, n. which is said in addition, superadded
terms.
AWI
21
Bi
a-"wrl-ya-nu (enu), n. importunity.
a-"wi-ye, n. discussion, explanation : s5 awiye, to
explain, discuss.
a-'WO, n. any white earthen vessel, a plate ; a shock
of corn ; the black-crested Guinea hen : awo koto,
an earthen basin ; awo oko, awo kpoko, a dish ;
awo imi, a chamber-pot ; awo aiya, a breast-plate.
a-'Wd, n. a secret bargain, a superstitious mystery ;
a spy-glass : awo odiu, spectacles ; awb dzidii, a
looking-glass.
a-'wo-di, n. a hawk.
a-'wd-ko, n. colic.
a-"w6-ko, n. the mocking-bird.
a-'wo-ni, n. a visitor.
a-"w6-rai), n. a likeness, resemblance.
a-"wo-re, n. luck.
a-Tvd-se, M. a pattern.
a-"w6-tfi.r), n. a cure : so aw5tai], to cure.
a-'wo-tl-ii, n. a bow-knot.
a-'WO-'WO, n. a channel.
a-"WO-ye, n. an inspector, spy.
ii.-'wo, n. a hide, leather; color, outward appearance :
awo sama, a cloud.
a-w5-hii), n. a hunch-back.
a-'WO '-16-h.ii, a. a fabrication, a lie.
a-'w5-le-'w6-ri, n. a boivlegged person.
a-"W"9-nl, pron. those.
a-'WO!), n. a tortoise ; a cunning scamp, a miser,
stinginess : se aw9i), to be stingy.
a-'WO!), pron. they : awoi) na, awoij tikara yfOT),
they themselves.
a-"w6i), n. the tongue.
a-'WO!), n. a net.
a-^VOQ-k&i), pron. certain, some.
a-"wor)-so, n. a weaver.
a-'wor)-yi, pron. these.
a-'WU-dze, n. red beans.
a.-'WM-dig, n. the midst of a crowd.
a-'WTi-dzu, n. confusion, the midst.
a-ya, n. a wife.
a-yfi., n. a monkey.
a-y a-ba, n. a king^s wife, a queen.
a-ya-bfi, n. devoutness. (Acts 17, 17.)
a-ya-ko, n. a mother-in-law. (Mat. 10, 35.)
a-ya-kpa, n. division, separation.
a-ya-mo, n. a daughter-in-law.
a-ya-mo-'bi, n. otherwise, unless.
a-ya-ndze, n. a cheat, imposition.
i.-yar), n. a cockroach, a stench : ie iiyai), to stink.
a-yai), n. inquisitiveness.
a-yar)-fe, n. which is chosen, beloved ; a friend ;
in the translation of Scripture, " the elect."
a-yar)-ga, n. a word of threatening or rebuke to an
inferior.
a-yar)-se, n. ivhich is made or done to order.
a-yar)-8e-bi, conj. unless, except.
SL-ye, n. space, room, opportunity, or time to do a
tiling ; aye agba, a chief room.
a-y6, n. breadth of cloth.
§.-ye, n. the state of being alive, that which is alive,
a-ye-tfir), n. perfect understanding of a thing.
(Acts 24, 22.)
a-yi-dfi., n. change, cycle of time, a year, next
season.
a-yi-da'-yi-da, n. much talk, loquaciousness.
a-yi-ka, n. a surrounding, circle, halo.
a.-yin, n. a palm-leaf mat.
a-yii)-rii), n. light blue color.
d.-yo, n. the game called warry.
a-yo, n. which is beloved, much prized.
a-y6, n. eating to the full, which is full.
a-yo, n. which is selected, chosen.
a-y6, n. joy, happiness : y6 ay5, to rejoice.
a-y9-lu-'w6 (ilu), n. a spy sent to survey a town.
a-yo-mo, n. a daughter-in-law, the wife of a
king's son.
a-yo-ni-'w6 (eni), n. a spy set over one.
a-yo-sai), n. money paid for sacrifice.
a-y9-se, n. which is done by stealth.
a ydr), w. a going : ayfig ab6, ayiir) aw4h, going
and returning.
a-yun, n. a saw, a fie.
B
ba, V. to come in contact with ; and hence, to meet,
overtake, find, befall : ba ti r§ loh {meet of thee
go), go thy way ; go about thy business ; ba . . . li
ohur) (See ba . . . lohui)) ; ba . . . li oruko die (See
ba . . . lorukodie) ; ba . . . ni ino die (See ba . , .
ninodie).
ba, V. to bring in contact with ; and hence, to plait ;
to strain, to bespeak, to come to the point in speaking
about a thing ; to fit ; to alight ; to sit, to lie close
or hide ; to bend or to be bent : ba aro, to strain
potash ; rao b^ e^ii), / bespoke the horse ; eiye b^
16 okuta, the bird alighted on the rock ; ib9i) \>k,
the gun is bent.
ba, aux. pref. shall, will, would, should, ought.
bfi, adv. at all : ki ise 6i) bii, it is not he at all.
ba, ba-ui), adv. so, as : tali o wi ba ? who said so ?
iru 6nia ba w6ni, such people as these.
bfi, prep, with, from, for : hk mi loh, go with me :
6 b4 mi ra .idie (he from me bought fo^ol), he bought
a fowl from me ; ba mi wa owo {for me find
money), find or get money for me.
ba-ba, n. copper, red Guinea-corn.
ba-bft, n. a father, a master.
bfi-ba, «. a great matter.
bA
22
BE
b3.-ba, n. a small matter : Mba bo baba mole, a
great affair covers up a small affair.
ba-ba-lfi. (baba nla), n. a grandfather, a patri-
arch.
ba-bfi.-li.-se (alase), n. a chief cook.
ba-bfi.-lQ.-'wo (al4w6), n. a priest of Ifa.
bfi.-bi-ka, n. a popular dance.
bfi.-bu-dzfi (abudza), v. to surprise by coming upon
suddenly, to thwart.
ba-da, n. a title.
bfi. . . . dfi,-kpd, V. to unite with, to join : 6 hk woq
dakpo, he joined them.
ba-de, v. to suit, agree, ft : 6 bade, it suits or fits :
bata b4 mi li ese de, the shoe fits me (on the foot).
ba . . . dze, v. to spoil, corrupt, injure, destroy :
badie, to be spoiled, dc.
ba . . . dzi-yar), v. to contradict: 6 ba mi dziyag,
he contradicted me.
ba-dzo (edio), v. to get into trouble : mo badi9 ni
Ilorig, I got into trouble at Ilorirj.
ba-fir) (b4 afii)), n. a eunuch, in the King's palace,
where there are six of them.
bfi-ga-dai'! by the staff of ]^gu5 ! (an oath):
bagadai' ! igid4 oloko sa, the tree fell and frightened
the farmer, i. e. the mountain labored and brought
forth a mouse.
bal, adv. See bayi.
bdi-bdi, adv. dimly shining.
bfi.-ka-nfi. (bi okaij n4), adv. alike, the same.
ba-lft-bu-dza (ba li abudia), v. See abudza.
ba-la-ga (b4 le aga), n. a youth, a yonng man
nearly grown, an adolescent.
ba-16 (ile), n. a master of a house, landlord.
b9.-l&, V. to be quiet, contented.
ba-lS (il&), w. a governor.
bfi. . . . le-ru (li eru), v. to frighten.
ba-lo-gur) (li oguij), n. a military officer.
bfi. . . . 16-hur) (li in ohuij), v. to assent to. (Luke
23, 51.)
bfi . . . lo-ru-ko-dze (ba die li orukp), v. to slan-
der : 6 hk mi loruko die, he slandered me.
ba-lu-Ave (ibi aluwe), n. a bath-house.
bam-bam, n. a beetle, for beating mud floors.
bS.-in6, V. to consult with.
b9.-ino-le (mo il§), v. to lie in ambush.
bar)-gl-dzi. See obaijgidzi.
bfi. . . . ni'-dzam-ba, v. to do violence to, to assault.
bfi . . . ni-n6-dze (ba die ni ino), v. t. to vex, to
grieve.
See bawo.
the vine of the egusi.
See elegbara.
. t. to agree, to be friendly.
bfi-sa (Egba), n. a large room, parlor.
bfi . . . s6, V. to quarrel with, scold.
bfi. . . . stir), V. to cohabit.
bfi. ... se, I
15, 15.)
ba-so-rui).
to assist, co-operate; to suit. (Acts
See iba^orui).
hide, leather, shoe, sandal, hoof; a small
bfi.-0, adv.
ba-ra, n.
bfi-ra, n.
bfi . . . re, V,
bfi . . . re-kp5, v. t. to be adapted to. (Luke 5, 36.)
bfi . . .rd, v. to advise, to consult with.
ba-ta, n.
box.
bfi-ta, n. a kind of drum.
ba . . . tfi.r), V. to be akin.
ba . . . ti, t". to miss (as an arrow) : mo \>k eiye ti,
/ missed the bird.
ba-tu-re (Hausa), n. a white man.
bfi . . . wl, V. to rebuke, to blame.
ba . . . wi-dzo (wi edio), v. to judge. (Acts 1, 1.)
ba-"wo, adv. how ?
bfi . . . ■wor), V. to blot, besprinkle.
ba-yi, adv. so : 16h bayi, go in this or that direction
(as the speaker points out).
ba-nl (Egba), adv. in the hand : mu oko bani, take
a hoe in your hand.
be, an obsolete verb signifying to heap up (?) whence
bebe and ebe.
be-be, n. tlie bank or brink of a river or ditch ; a
shoal ; a lieap : bebe idl, the rump : bebe odi6,
the eyebrow.
be-kpe-dze, (ba ekpe die), v. to swear falsely.
bS-re, V. to ask, to inquire, to exact : 6 bere o, he
inquired after you.
be-se, n. a saddle-cloth.
be, V. l.tocut; 2. to jump ; 3. to be of a red color ;
4. to be impudent; 5. formerly, perhaps, to rfe«cenc?,
whence abe and b|re ; 6. to breed, applied to
pigeons and to carnivorous animals only ; T. to cool
by fanning : be 1§ (i[i),jump down : be s4r)4ai), to
split into strips : be . . . li ori (See be . . . lori).
b&, bS-be, V. to beg, entreat.
be-he, adv. so, thus : behe ko, no, not so ; behe
gege, even so ; behe ni, yes, so it is ; behe ni ko,
neither.
be-kpe, «. a pawpaiv.
be-le, be-le-be-le, v. to be thin, fiat.
be-le-dze, adv. beautifully red or yellow.
be . . . lo-ri (li ori), v. to behead.
be-nde, n. a blow with the fist : ko . . . ni bende,
to strike with the fist.
be-nte, v. to be lean, weakly : axa mi bente, / am
lean.
be-re, n. a kind of grass (broom-sedge).
bS-re (be and rS), v. to be low, fiat, sloping ; to
stoop : kd bere, to be lying dead.
bS-re-sI, V. to begin.
be-ri (ori), v. to behead.
be-ru (ba eru), v. to fear.
be-ru-be-ru, v. to be timid ; adv. timidly.
BE
23
BO
be-ru-ke-ni (era ki era), v. to fear something ;
generally employed in the negative : emi 6 bera-
keni, I fear nothing.
be . . . "wd, V. to visit, to investigate,
bi, V, to ask; to affect, or cause to suffer ; bi . . . li
ebi (See bi . . . lebi) ; bi ino die (See bin9die).
bl, V. to generate, beget, hear, breed ; to follow or
succeed.
bi, V. to push, vomit : bi kiri, to beat or drift about
on the water.
bl, conj. if, as, though, whether : bl 6nia, like a
person ; b£ ofi^, according to law.
bl ? a sign of interrogation : 6 m6 bi ? does he know ?
bi-ba-'WO 1 adv. loherehy ? in what way ? how ?
bi-bS, n. a begging, supjilication.
bi-bi, n. birth, a bearing : 6 dekni) bibi, she left
off bearing.
bi-bd, n. a covering, which is covered.
bi-bd-mo-le, re. which is overwhelmed. (Ps. '77, 3.)
bi-bu, n. a patch in a roof.
bI-6-n.i-a, adv. humanlike, humanely.
bi-e-ru-kpe, adv. like dust.
bi-e-ni-kp6, adv. as, as if.
bi-e-rai)-ko, adv. brutishly.
bi'-ki-ta, v. to notice or regard.
bi-kd-se, bi-k6-se-kp6, conj. but, except, unless.
bi-l&, V. to open a way or give place in a crowd.
bi . . . le-bi (li ebi), v. to ask, inquire : bi og lebi,
ask him.
bi . . . 16-re (li ere), v. to question, interrogate.
bi . . . le-dzo (li edio), v. to arraign, interrogate a
person in a court.
bi . . . 16-hur) (li obui)), v. to reproach for a fault.
bi-lil, V. to beat against, as waves.
bI-rQ9 (omo), V. to beget, or bear a child.
bl-na-bl-na, n. abusive language.
bi . . . nl-n6 (ino), v. to grieve, to vex.
bi-n6 (ino), v. to be angry.
bi-n6-dze, v. to feel grieved or vexed.
bi-6-su-ma-r6 (osumarc), adv. in the form of a
semicircle.
bi-0-kor)-ri, adv. manly.
bi-9-16-rur), adv. godlike, godly.
bi-ri, a suffix, contr. from obiri, a woman : om9-
biri, a girl.
bl-rl, v. to be small (applied to land).
bi-ri, V. to be large (applied to land).
bi-ri, bi-ri-bi-ri, n. darkness ; — adv. darkly, very
dark.
bi-ri-ga-mi, n. a haversack, satchel.
bi-ri-ko-to, v. to be small, as a hole in the ground :
d4 iho birikoto, dig a small hole.
bi-si, V. to increase or multiply.
bi . . . ti, adv. and pron. as, how, what, that : se bi
ti enia, do like a person ; bi emi 6 ti ie ? how or
what shall I do ? eni bi ti Egba, a mat like those
of the Egbas ; bi ti in6 r§, according to your mind
or will ; n! bi ti, inasmuch as.
bl . . . ti-le, conj. though, if even : bi 4 tile iote si i,
though we have rebelled against him.
bi-ye-sl (bil), to respect or reverence the great. See
kabiyesi.
b6, V. to peel, to strip off, to bray like a he-goat.
bd, V. to cover, to be full of leaves, to overwhelm.
bo-bo, adv. very or intensely (hot).
bo-de (ba ode), n. a custom-house.
bd-dzo (bi odio), adv. like a coward, cowardly.
bo-dzu-in6 (ba odiu), v. to chide, reproach.
b6-dzu-to, bC-dzu-'wd, v. to look ujmu, to care
for, to see after.
bo-dzu-"w6 (bil), v. to look at, visit.
b6-dzu-yai) (ba odiu), v. to blind with brightness:
orar) bodzujai), the sun is blinding.
b6-16 (ile), V. to rob a house, to confiscate.
b6-l§, V. to cover or thatch a house.
bo-le-bo-le, n. a robber.
bd-le-bo-le, n. a thatcher.
bo-lS-se-bl, bo-16-se-kp6 (bi), adv. if possible.
b6-le (ile), iJ. to cover the ground ; to flourish.
b6-lo-b6-lo, n. a honey-making gnat without sting.
b6-nii-'w6l) (bil omi), v. to sprinkle with water.
bo-mo, the white-grained Guinea-corn (a species of
Sorghum).
bd . . . in6-16, v. to overwhelm.
b6-ni (Egba), v. to be large.
bo-ni-bo-ni, v. to be very large.
b6-ra (ara), v. to cover, to cover the body.
b6-ri (b6 ori), v. to surpass, to prevail, to cover the
head or top.
bo-r9, very near (as to distance). See gboro.
bo-rtl-ko . . . dze (ba oruko dze), v. to slander.
b6-ti, V. to tear half-way open, to half strip.
bo-ti-bo-ti, adv. foolishly (talking), sillily.
bo-yui) (abi oyui)), v. to be pregnant.
ho, V. 1. to drop (as of a solid) ; hence 2. to slip
or slide ; 3. to take down, as from a peg; 4. to
ta^e ozone's clothes; 5. to feed; hence, 6. to wor-
ship ; 7. to wash any part of the body, as the face ;
8. to beat, as a mud-floor ; 8, to empty (Ps. 10, 8) :
oral) n4 bo li owo mi, that business failed in (lit.
fell out of) my hands ; mo bo li cwu ni, I escaped
(lit. slipped out of ) that danger.
b6, V. 1. to insert ; 2. to pierce ; to boil or cook in
water ; 4. to put on a garment; 5. to shake (lit.
insert) hands ; 6. to enter or go out of a house ;
V. to arrive, to be in the act of coming : b6 1&, get
down ; sokalB b6, come doion ; 6 ijtutu b6, it is
getting wet ; nw9i) sare b6, they are coming on a
run ; 6 mb6 w4h, he is coming.
bo-dzu (odzii), V. to wash the face.
BO
24
DA
bo-gi (igi), V. to worship a tree or image.
bo-ki-ni, n. a neat person, dandy.
bo-lfl. (bil ola), V. to honor, reverence.
b6-l&, V. to fall down, as when struck. (Ps. 89, 23.)
b6-lo-gI, n. a kind of lily.
bo-lo-dzo, adv. beautifully (black). Comp, beledie.
b6 . . . l9-'w6 (li 9w6), v. to shake hands.
"bq-Toi (omi), v. to put into water, to dip.
b9r), V. to he filthy, slovenly.
bo-ni, n. a kind of acacia used hy tanners.
bo-ra (ard), v. to loash oneself.
bo-ru-ko-nu, n. a stupid spendthrift ; wasteful-
ness.
bo-se (b6 ese), v. to go aside on a call of nature.
b9 . . . si-kpo (ikpo), V. to restore one to his place
or position.
b5-vrfih, V. to he in the act of coming : k ^bowah,
we are coming (now on the road).
bo-'wo (bil owo), V. to divide.
bS-^wfi, V. to shake hands.
b5-'W9 Q^^ 9^'9)i *"• ^<' honor.
bo-'W9-lo-"WO, adv. fancifully made.
b9-ya (bi 6 ya), adv. perhaps.
bil, v. to cry aloud, to ahuse ; to stink ; to take a por-
tion of.
bin, V. 1. to give ; 2. to cut or break, as bread ; 8.
to cross each other, as roads ; 4. to roast in the
ashes ; 5. to moulder or rot : bO. mi 11 omi, give
me some water.
bu-ba (ibi iba), n. a hiding-place.
bu-bu-ru (buru), n. badness : fenia buburu, a bad
person.
bu-do (ibi ido), w. a camping-place.
bCl-dza (odia), to entrust a thing to one to be sold.
bu-dza (ba idza, a reaching the road ; see dia), v.
to make a near cut to a place, to anticipate what
one is about to say.
bu-dz6, n. a fruit used for making black ornamen-
tal marks on the skin.
bu-dze (ibi idze), n. a feeding-place, a stall.
bCi . . . dze, V. to bite.
btl . . . ka (ika), v. to surround, encompass.
bCl . . . kfi, V. to distribute around : mo bti owo k4
W91), I gave them money all round.
bu . . . kfi, V. to set on the top> of : bu ikoko ka ina,
set the pot on the fire.
bil-ke (bil oke), v. to swell, to rise in a hump or
hillock.
b'Cl-k6r), v. to add to, to fill up ; to bless.
bii-kili), V. to be deficient, to despise, to make little
of. (Jas. 2, 6.)
btl-ia, V. to mix, to adulterate.
bil . . . lfi.-bu-ka (li abuka), v. to surround.
btl . . . la-dzar) (adzaij), v. to cut into bits, to mince.
bu-le', V. to add to, to patch.
bil . . . lil, V. to overwhelm, to smite toitk, to affect
with : 6 bil ifodiu lil W013, he smote them with
blindness.
bil-m6, V. to add to ; to hide or ccmceal itself aio«<
one, as vermin : 6 bil m6 ijyifl, it hides about or
cleaves to you.
bill), for bil, v. to give.
bu-ra (ara), v. to swear, to take an oath.
bu-ru, V. to be bad, ugly.
bu-ru-bu-ru, adv. badly, closely (hiding).
bu-ru-ku, adv. intensely, very.
Bu-ru-kii, n. an evil deity who causes some kinds
of fits, and produces death in small-pox.
bil-sl, V. to add to, to bless, to offer sacrifice to.
bu-s6 (ibi iso), v. a tying-place for animals, a stall.
bu-s6 (ibi iso), n. a resting-place, where travellers
put down their loads.
bu-sil, n. loose, heavy sand.
bu-silr) (ibi isilij), n. a sleeping-place, a bedstead.
bil . . . S&V), V. to bite severely, as a dog : o bil mi
ikj), he bit me.
bil . . . ■w6r). V. to sprinkle with anything.
bil-yii) (iyiri), v. to praise, to honor : mo bilyiij
fu o, I praise thee.
D
dfi, V. 1. to make, create.
2. to assault, strike : 6 da mi 11 igi, he struck me
tcith a stick.
3. to flash: m&n&m&nA dk, the lightning fiashes.
4. to break or he broken : 6 d4 mi li ese, he broke
my foot, or leg : ese mi da, my foot is broken.
5. to cease : 6dio d4, the rain ceases.
C. to be dry, without rain : oda d4 li od&i) ni,
there is a drought (lit. it droughts) this year.
1. to give : Ak eko fu adza, give mu^h to the dog :
da ow6, to contribute money.
8. to prepMre or buy : da eko, buy mush, i. e. have
it prepared.
9. to pay : da owo ode, to pay a tax.
10. to prescribe : ta li o da ebo n4 ? who prescribed
that sacrifice ?
11. to speak or mention: mah se da oruko r|, do
not mention his name.
1 2. to conquer, whip : kanakana da kanakana, a
crow whipped a crow.
13. to be intelligent, give promise : omo n4 da,
that child is intelligent.
14. to be sound : ara mi d4, my body is sound.
15. to overturn, as a stone or anything heavy:
d4 . . . li aga. See da . . . laga.
dfi, V. 1. to pour out.
2. to overturn, capsize, as a boat.
DA
25
DAN
3. to remove a tliing/rom one position to another.
4. to betray, disappoint.
5. to purify, as silver.
6. to he acceptable, as a sacrifice.
7. to turn aboict, change the position of.
8. to offer a sacrifice.
9. to become.
10. to bend or be bent, as a sword.
1-1. to attend to, as cattle.
da, adv. where ? iwe mi da ? where is my book ?
da-ba (aba), v. to think of, expect, suppose.
dd.-ba, V. to be flat, as a roof.
da-bl, V, to resemble, be like, to act the part of.
da-bd-bo (abo bo), v. to shelter, defend, protect.
da-da, n. which is made.
Da-da, n. one of the Yoriiba idols, a proper name
of a person.
da . . . du-ro, v. to detain.
da-dza, v. to serenade.
da-dzi, V. to arise before day.
da-dz6-ko, v. to sit, to sit steadily or long.
da-dzo, V. to a2}point a day for any purpose ; to
judge.
da-dzu, V. to be evident, confident, impudent.
da-dzu-da-dzu, adv. evidently, confidently, cer-
tainly.
dS. . . . f 5, V, to invent a report or story.
da-gba (iigba), v. to grow, to be developed.
da-gbe-re (da), v. to bid farewell.
da-gbe-se, v. to run in debt.
da-gbo (ogbo), v. to grow old.
da-gir), n. the hack of a furnace or chimney.
da . . . gi-ri, v. to frighten, to drive people together,
as when they collect from fear of war.
da-gnr) (oguij), v. to collect into a pool or 2'>ond.
da'-ho-ro, v. to desolate or destroy a town.
da-hur) (da ohui)), v. to reply, answer.
dai-ya-fo (do aiya), v. to frighten, discourage.
dfi.-ka-ka, v. to squat.
dS.-k&r), V. to strike against.
da-ke, v. to he silent, to cease ; figuratively, to he
dead.
dfi.-ke-dze, d&-ke-r6-ro, v. to he calm, as the
wind.
da-ko-dza, v. to step over, 2mss by, to neglect.
da-kpa-ra, v. to be hard, as flint ; to canker, to rust.
da . . . kpS, V. to contract a, word.
da . . . kp5, da . . . kp5-in6, v. to adhere, join,
mingle.
da-kti, V. to faint, to be at the point of death.
da-kur), v. to withhold.
dS.-kiir(, V. to reel thread.
dfi. . . . ku-ro, V. to release, acquit ; to depart.
dfi, . . . la-da-dzO. (li), v. to over-drive, as a flock.
dfi . . . la-ga (li aga), v. to weary.
4
dfi . . . la-gbe-de-me-dzi, 11. to cut in two, to di-
vide.
da . . . la-mu (li), v. to confuse, confound.
da . . . la-ra (li), v. to disappoint, to annoy.
da . . . la'-ra-ya, v. to enliven, to cheer.
da . . . la-re, v. to justify.
da . . . la.-'wir), 4'. to trust, to sell to on credit.
da . . . Ifi-ye, v. to give life to, to quicken.
da ... 16, V. to put down.
da . . . le-kur), v. to prevent, forbid.
da . . . le-se (li), v. to cripple the foot or leg.
da . . . le-se, v. to convict of sin.
da . . . li-da, v. to strike with a sword.
da . . . 16-dzo, v. to frighten, intimidate.
da . . . lo-dztl, V. to make one certain: 6 da mi
lodzd, I am sure of it.
da. . . . lo-dzfl, V. to disappoint.
da . . . lo-go, v. to glorify.
da . . . 16-hur), v. to answer, reply.
da . . . lo-ro, v. to torment, torture.
da . . . lu, V. to bore.
da . . . 1% V. to mingle, adulterate.
da-lii, v. to fall upon : okuta dali\ kpa a, a stone
fell on and killed him.
da . . . me-dzi (medzi), v. to cut or divide into two
jiarts. So, da . . . meta, da . . . merir), &c., to divide
into three iMrts, four 2>arts, dx.
da . . . ni6, v. to cause to adhere, to strike against,
to impute : k6 da |se m6 wa, he does not impute
sin to us : ko da ese mo Adama, he did not create
Adam a sinner.
da-md, v. to hold an erroneous opinion, to invent a
doctrine, to be a heretic.
da-mo-dza (anwdza), v. to guess.
da-ni6-rar) (Sraij), v. to purpose, advise.
da-mu (amu), v. to per^^lex, confuse ; to he con-
founded, to he damned.
da'-mu-re (amure), v. to gird.
da-na (ina), v. to make or kindle a fire.
da . . . ni-da (d4 ni ida), v. to he or to make ac-
cording to nature, to look or be natural.
da-ni . . . da-gi-ri, v. to frighten people, as war,
which drives them together.
da . . . ni-de (ide), v. to redeem, set free.
da . . . ni-dza (Idza), v. to throw in wrestling,
da . . . ni-dzi (idii), v. to frighten, surprise.
da . . . ni-gi (igi), v. to heat with a stick, to cudgel.
da . . . nl-kpa (ikpa), v. to cause division or strife,
to separate or alienate friends.
da-ni ... lo-dzQ. (odiu), v. to make one certain:
6 danilodzd, we are certain of it, confident as to its
truth.
da . . . n5, v. to pour out, throw aivay, waste : nwor)
S9r9 dano loni, they failed in their negotiatimi to-
day.
DAN
26
DI
dfi.-nil (enu), v. to he fluent, talkative.
dar), V. to he smooth, hright, as metal ; to he slip-
pery, as a road ; to polish ; to he good, all right.
c"ai), a sign of interrogation : iwo m6 dai) ? do you
know ?
dar)-dar), n. a talc mirror.
dar)-ka-re, n. soldiers.
,dar) . . , 'wd, v. to try, to tempt ; to consult an ora-
cle or a priest, to divine. "
da-ra (da ara), v. to he good, handsome, pretty.
d9.-ra (iini), v. to introduce a neio fashion or custom.
da-ra-da-ra, n. goodliness ; — adv. in a good man-
ner, well.
dd.-rai) (oral)), v. to transgress, to commit a fault.
da-r3.r)-da-r9.r), n. a cattle-driver, herdsman.
da'-ra-ya (araya), v. to make or to he cheerful,
merry.
da-ri (d^ ori), v. to lead, to drive.
da-ri . . . dzi (dari and di\,far), v. to forgive,
da-ri . . . dzo, v. to assemhle, to meet.
da-ro (ar6), v. to dye hlue.
di-ro (aro), v. to grieve, to feel uneasy about a thing.
Aa.-Ta.,v. to stir up, confuse things ; to he mingled in
a confused manner.
da-ru-da-kp5, da-ru-kp5, v. to mix or he mixed
confusedly.
da-ru-da-ru, adv. entirely: ikuku bo ilu mole
darudarii, the fog hides the town entirely.
da-ru-g'b6 (dl arugbo), v. to grow or he old.
da-sa, n. a small covered dish.
da-sa, V. to tire doion, to fail and stop.
da-se (ese), v. to sto]) going to a place ; to cease,
leave off.
da ... si, V. to intermeddle ; to reserve, to spare.
da . . . si-le (ile), v. to cause a thing, to introduce ;
to reserve, sjiare, discharge.
da . . . s6, V. to talk ahout, mention.
da-sfi., V. to presume, dare. (Acts 5, 13.)
d§.-sa, ('. to introduce a custom ov fashion.
da . . . se, V. to fail, to risk. (Ps. 12, 1.)
da-so-bd (aso), v. to clothe, cover.
dau-du, n. eldest son of a prince, the heir apparent.
da-Avir) (awii)), n. to pay hy instalments.
dfi. . . . 'WO, V. to consult an oracle, to inquire of the
gods.
da-'Wd (ovvo), V. to contrihwte, to pay : dawo 5su,
to pay into the savings cluh ; dawo IB, to pay down.
da-"wo-kp5 (ow6), v. to combine in a scheme.
da-WO-l§ (owo), V. to lay hands on, undertake,
da-vrti (owu), V. to reel or wind thread,
da-ye-16. See diyele.
de, V. to come to, arrive at, come upon, to extend
to ; to cover with a lid ; to wear, as a hat : ba mi
de odzu 6na, go with me to the gate ; de . . . li ade
(see de . . . lade).
de, prep, for, ready for, to.
d6, V. to hind, shackle: de mo, to bind to.
de-bi-kpa (da ebi), v. t. to starve.
de-de (Egba), pron. all, every.
de-de, adv. rightly, properly,
de-hCir) (ohuij), v. to conclude a bargain,
de-ke (da), v. to invent or tell a lie.
de . . . la-de (li ade), v, to crown,
de . . . Lb-na (ona), v. to withstand, oppose,
de . . . m6-16, v. to cover up,
d6-na (yna), v. to stop the road, to obstruct : d6na
de, to lie in wait for,
de-ri (ori), v, to cover the head,
de-ti. See diti.
de-"w6 (d4 ewo), v. to prohibit on religious
grounds,
de, V. to hunt, chase, to set a trap : de si, to set a
dog after ; de sile, to lay a snare.
d6, V. to he soft, rijje, loose, slack ; to grow negligent,
to mitigate, as pain : d5 . . . li ara (see d6 . . .
lara).
de-bi (d4 ebi), v. to pronounce guilty, to condemn.
d&-d&, adv. near hy, at hand : hdio su dede,
the clouds are dark and low, i. e. near the earth,
de-dd (odo), v. to fish with a net.
de-dza (edza), v. to fish.
de-dza' (aida), v. to hunt ivith a dog.
d&-dztl (odzu), n. coarse cloth.
de-gbe, v. to hunt in the woods or prairies.
de-hir) (Egba), adv. again, more : mah dehii) soke,
don^t lie any more.
d6-kur) (da. ekui)), v. to cease, to yield : dekuq !
forbear ! desist! let me alone !
dS-kur) (6kui)), v. to set a rape snare.
de . . . la'Ta (li ar4), v. to relieve, to make comfort-
able.
d6-n6 (in6), v. to fast,
der)-gf, n. soft mush.
de-ra (ara), v, to he negligent, slothful.
de-re-d6-re, adv. loosely hanging.
de-ru (eru), v. to be terrible : 6 deru si mi, it is
terrible to me.
de-ru (di), v. to bind or pack goods.
de-ru-ba (eru), v. to make afraid.
de-se (esc), v. to slacken the pace, stop.
dS-se (dil Pse), v. to sin.
de-ti (eti), v. to incline the ear, to listen, hearken :
deti sile, to listen secr.etly or attentively,
dS-ti, V. to be difficult, to fail in an attempt.
de . . . "wd. See dai)w6.
di, V. to hind, tie, close up ; to toreathe ; to require ;
to cheu) tobacco ; to he entangled, complicated ; to
coagulate, to groio hard on cooling, as tallow ; to he
deficient, to lack : 6 di edzl, it lacks two cowries ;
di . . . li odiu (see di . . . lodzu). See dii).
DI
27
DUll
di, V. to be, become, to be changed: 6 ijdi arugbo di-ye-le, f . to set a price on, charge for.
16h, he is growing old ; di dfo, to disappear, vanish;
titi 6 fi di isisiyi, till now (lit. till it made to be-
come now) ; 6 di ola, loait till to-morrow (lit. till
it becomes to-morrow) ; 6 di idi6 kedii nwoq loh,
they went the next day.
di (di), prep, from, employed in composition :
mcdzi di li oguq {two from on twenty), eighteen.
di-ba-dze, v. to spoil, be corrupted.
di-bi. See da-bi.
dl-bo (di), V. to cast lots.
di-da, n. which is made, which is healthy : dida
ebi, condemnation ; dida ard, health ; se dida ara,
to heal.
di-de, V. to arise.
dl-di, n. which is bound, wreathed. Sec di.
di-di, n. the game of drafts.
di-dzd^ V. . to cause war, to become a fight.
di-dze, V. to complete, to emulate.
di-dzi, V. to be afraid, to be disappointed, mistaken :
mo didii baba mi ni, / thought it was my father,
but was mistalien.
di-dzu, V. to be entangled.
dl-6, n. a little, a few, some.
di . . . e-le-se niu-16 or ni-lS, v. to establish, con-
firm.
di-fe, V. to bloom, to blossom.
di-gba-ro, v. to remain standing, to wait.
di-gba-ti, conj. till.
di-gbo-se, adv. by and by.
di-gi, ». a glass, a mirror.
di-go, n. a breech-cloth.
da.... ha'-mo-ra, v. to gird.
di . . . ka-lfe, V. to establish, confirm.
di-kpa-ra, v. See dakpara.
di . . . la'-mu-re (li), v. to gird.
di . . . le-ti (li), v. to deafen, to refuse to hear,
di-le, V. to be dilatory, at leisure.
di . . . le-ru (li), v. to enslave.
di . . . le-'wor) (li), v. to chain.
di-lo-dzH (li), V. to tangle, to blindfold.
dl-lu, V. to congeal.
di-in6, V. to fasten on, to cleave or cling to.
di-m5, V. to agree upon, covenant,
di-mu, V. to hold, uphold, lay hold on.
di-na, V. to block up the road, impede, hinder.
di-nl-bo (ni), v. to grasp, enclose in the hand.
di-nl-gbe-sir) (ni), v. to take captive.
dir), di, v. to bake, parch, fry.
dir)-ka-ra (al^ara), v. to bake bread,
di-ri-ki-si, v. to consjnre, plot against.
di-ror) (^vovi), v. to plait the hair.
di'-si-si-yi, adv. till now, hitherto,
di-ti (cti), V. to be deaf.
di-'w6, V. to be in a strait or difficulty.
d6, V. to encamp, to cohabit (an indecent word) : do
ti ka, to encamp against, to besiege.
do-do, n. the navel ; in the Ikctu dialect, a room
in a Louse.
d6-d6, do-do-d6, n. truth, righteousness : &c dodo-
do, to be upright.
do-dzu-bo-lS, V. to turn the face towards the
ground, to hang down the head.
do-dzu-de, v. to turn upside down.
do-dzu-kd-do, v. to Jiang down the head, to medi-
tate, 2ionder.
do-dzu-ti, V. to make ashamed, to put to shame, to
abash.
d6-gi-ri, v. to gallop.
do-go-tl, V. to dun.
do-gur), V. to rust.
dom-dom-ai-ye (dSij doi)), n. comforts, luxuries
of life.
do-ri-kd-do (ori). See dodzukodo.
d9-ba-l& (da ibale), v. to prostrate, to lie flat.
do-de, n. a raven.
do-do, adv. 7nitch slirivelled or cool.
dp-gba, V. to be equal, right, straight.
do-ko-du-ro (oko), v. to anchor.
d6r), V. to cry, as any beast or bird.
dbr), V. to be sweet, pleasant ; to affect pleasantly or
painfully : ino mi doij, my mind is pleasant, i. e. /
am jjleased ; ino d<)q mi, my belly aches or pajws
me ; in& mi d8i) si i, 1 am pleaded with him (Mat.
3, 17) ; ki li o doij o, wliat ails thee.
doQ-doi), n. a kind of drum.
dor)-m6, v. t. to please.
dtl, V. to be black.
dCl, V. to deny, to refuse, to grasp : 6 dh mi li owo,
he refused me money.
du-bu-l©, V. to lie down : dubule aroij, to be sick
a-bed.
du-du, n. blackness.
du-dze, V. See didze.
du-gbo-lu, n. a stumbling-block.
du-ke-lu-ke, adv. merrily.
du-kpe, V. to thank.
du-lu-ni6, v. to slander,
dtir), dill). See d6i], dSi).
du-ra, V. to make an effort to prevent falling when
one stumbles.
du-ro, V. to stand, to wait, stay : dnro ti, duro tiri
SI, to stand by, wait on ; mu . . . duro, to make or
cause to stand.
du-ru, n. a violin, a guitar : li\ duru, to play the
violin ; li odiu 6kui) duru, on the harp. (Ps.
49,4.)
du-ru-du-ru, n. greatness (applied to the works of
God).
D^A
28
DZI
dza, V. to jerk, to break, as a rope ; to break loose,
as a horse ; to snatch, to drop from aloft, to find
out a thing ; to reach the road.
dzS, prep, through, throughout a place.
dz4, V. to fight, quarrel, strive ; to rage, as a
storm : dza ole, to steal ; nwoij dza a t9 bfile loh,
they dragged him to the governor ; dza . . . li ole
(see dza . . .lole).
dza-l)5, V. to escape by struggling.
dza-de, v. to go out ; — adv. out, forth : diade !
turn out !
dza-fa-ra (die afara), v. to be slow, to loiter.
dzS.-gai), V. to be rough, harsh.
dzS.-gbfi, V. to perform a job (applied to pawn-
servants, who must do jobs for the pawnee, when
called on).
dzfi.-gba-dza-gba, adv. confusedly.
dza-gi-di-dza-gar), n. a low, mean fellow (Acts
17, 5) ; base conduct.
dzd.-gu-dS.-kpa-ll, adv. on any account.
dzfi.-gu-du, V. to struggle together, tug at each other.
dza-gur), v. to fight, in war; — n. a title.
dzfi.-h.ir)-dza-hir(, adv. through, from side to side.
dzai-ye (die), v. to enjoy the world, to act extra-
vagantly.
dza-ka, n. a mug.
dza-ka-di, v. to wrestle.
dza'-ka-re, n. soldiers.
dza-ko-ro, v. to contradict, oppose.
dza'-ku-ni6, n. a leopard.
dz9.-kui) (okui)), V. to break a rope, to break loose.
DzS.-ku-ta (okuta), n. the stone-caster, a name of
Sarjgo, the god of thunder.
dza-ld., v. to escape by fighting, to fight one's way
through.
dzS.-le (ole), v. to steal, pilfer.
dz^ . . . le-ka-na (li ekana), v. to pinch, to scratch.
dza-le (il6), v. to go through the country ; — adv. to
the ground (see koro) ; flatly, utterly refusing.
dza-le, dzfi.-le-dz&-le, adv. thoroughly.
dza . . . l§-nu (li enu), v. to wean.
dza . . . Id-le (li ole), v. to steal from.
dz3.-lil, V. to attack by surprise.
dza-ma, n. a soldier.
dza-iuba, n. damage, violence : ba ni diamba, to
assault, to do violence to.
dza-na (ona), v. to reach the road, to be reasonable
in one''s position.
dza . . . ni-de (ni ide), v. to release one by force.
dza . . ni-ko-ro (ikoro), v. to contradict.
dza . . . ni-yar) (iyaij), v. to dispute with.
dza-nu (enu), v. to boast.
dzaq-dzai), adv. intensely hot: oru m<i dia;)
dial), the sun is very hot.
dza-Qgbo-ro, n. the knee-cap.
dza-r)ka.--w5, n. soot.
dza-re, v. to be right ; to justify, to be justified ;
if you please.
dza-si, V. to reach, arrive at, drop into ; to be or act
as : diasi bi, to be according to.
dza . . . ti-l& (ti ile), v. to cast down.
dze-gbe-dze-gbe, adv. childishly, foolishly.
dze-ni-a-dz6-ni-a, n. a cannibal.
dz6-re, V. to gain, deserve, earn.
dz§-re-dz6-re, adv. sparklingly, dazzlingly.
dze, V. to be, to act in a capacity : bi Ol9rui) ba
die kpelu m\,-if God shall be with me.
die, V. to eat, to consume ; to otoe ; to deserve, to
gain, earn, get ; to perform, to make ; to reply, to
deliver (a message) ; to let or permit, to be ivilling,
will, would; to mean, as a word, to be named : die
fu, to consent to (Gen. 34, 23) ; die . . . li eri (see
die . . . leri).
dze, dze-dze, adv. quietly, still.
dze-bi (ebj), V. to be guilty, to be condemned.
dze-di-e-di-§, n. a kind of cockatoo, so called from
its cry.
dze-dze-dze, adv. very gently, quietly.
dze . . . gbe-se. Sec diigbese.
dze-gtl-du-ra-gtl-du, n. a vagabond, a loafer.
dze-hur) (oliui)), v. to eat : diehui) lara (li ar4), to
feed on. (Ps. 49, 14.)
dze-ka, v. to snore.
dze-la-ra (li ara), v. to feed on.
dze-le-ri (li ori), v. to bear witness.
dze-lo-"we (li owe), v. to aid in work.
dze-ni-ya (iya), v. to punish, afflict.
dz6-ri, v. See die-leri.
dz^-rur), v. to devour.
dze-iir), V. See diehui).
dze-"W9 (9^?)? *'• ^^ confess.
dzi, V. to steal.
dzi, V. to awake, awaken, quicken, frighten.
dzf, dzll), V. to fall into a hole, to tap a cask, to
knock ; to be deepi, obscure, or hard to understand,
to be distant : dii li ese (see dil . . . lese).
dzi . . . di-de, v. to arouse, to raise from the dead.
dzi-dza, n. which is lustrous.
dzi-dzft. See di4.
dzi-dza-du, v. to scramble for a thing.
dzi-dze, n. food. See die.
dzi-dzii) (dii), n. depth, distance, lowness.
dzi-dzo, n. resemblance. See dio.
dzi-dzu, n. which is cast, etc. See diu.
dzi-gbe-se (die), v. to go in debt, to owe.
dzl-gbi-ni, adv. abundantly fruitful.
dzi-goQ-ror), v. to be deep, as a pit.
dzi-hir) (di;e), v. to deliver a inessage, to answer
for an offence.
dzi-ka-nu (Nnfe), n. a brick.
DZI
29
EGB
dzi . . . le-se (li ese), v. to strike the foot against,
to supplant.
dzl . . . le-S§ (e^e), v. to strike with the fist.
dzi-mi-dzi-mi, adv. gorgeously.
dzi-mi-r9.-ta, n. a term of abuse.
dzi-na, v. to heal, as a wound.
dzi-na (ona), v. to he far off.
dzi-nde, v. to arouse, to raise from the dead.
dzi-ndl (di), v. to steal and conceal : diindi dzindi
to be thievish.
dzi-nle (ni ile), v. to be deep, abstruse, mysterious.
dzi-se (die i^e), v. to deliver a message, to act as a
mediator.
dzi-ya (iya), v. to suffer.
dzi-yar) (iyaq), i). to be careful, anxious ; to contra-
dict, deny.
dz6, V. i. to dance, to whirl ; to burn.
dzd, V. to leak, to drop, as water.
dzo-fo-lo, n. a kind of cap.
dzo-gnr) (oguij), v. to inherit, possess.
dzo-ko, V. to sit, dwell, abide : dioko de mi, wait
for me.
dzo-kpa, V. t. to consume, burn up.
dzo-na (ina), v. i. to bum.
dzo . . . ni-rur), v. t. to burn up, consume.
dzo-rar), v. .to catch or take fire.
dzo-rur), v. to burn up, consume.
dzo-'we-re (dza), v. to struggle, to be in trouble.
dzo-vru (die owu), v. to be jealous.
dzo-ye (dze eye), v. to be a ruler, to govern.
dzo, V. to be alike ; to assemble, to he together : dio !
please ! diio mi li oroi), let my neck alone ; dio r§,
let it alone ; dzo mi lowo, let me alone.
dzo-ba (dze 9ba), v. to reign, rule.
dzo-dzo, adv. very, greatly, loell.
dzo-l& (die), v. to enjoy an honor due to another.
dz6-15, n. a long-necked calabash.
dzo-'wo (die ow6), v. to let, permit ; to let alone.
dzo-"W9 . . . dze, v. to let alone.
dzo-'WO-lo-'W9, v. to release, dismiss.
dzu, V. to be toorm-eaten, as wood; to take up a
tting.
dzfl, v. to cast, to throw ; to surpass. In compa-
rison, more, more than, above, very. (See Gram.
§ 207.)
dzu-ba, V. to respect, to remember with gratitude.
dzu-di-dzu-di, adv. confusedly, applied to the
mind.
dzii-fu, n. an armlet.
dzu-ku, n. tobacco of native manufacture.
dzu-in5, adv. together.
dzu-n6, V, to throw away, to lose, to be lost.
dzu-re, v. to point, direct, show how to do,
dzu-"w6 (6w6), V. to beckon.
E.
e, a prefix, having the power of&.
e, interrog. what ? which ? C ti ^e ? why ?
d, adv. and prefix, in-, un- : hmh, unknown ; 6
dara, not good.
§, pron. him, her, it, after a verb ending in ' e ' ; as,
se e, do it, kpo e, call him.
6-be, n. a hill to plant yams in : k6 5be, to make
yam-hills.
e-be, n. yam-parings : fl ebe fu eraij, give the yam-
peelings to the goat.
e-bi, n. a journey : mo vh ebi, / went a journey.
e-bl, n. hunger : ebi kpa, hunger afects ; ebi gkpa
mi, / am hungry ; ebi ko kpa 9, thou art not
hungry.
e-bi, n. vomit.
6-bi, n. a question, interrogation : bi i It h\>\, ask
him.
e-bi-ll-si, n. a demon, the devil.
6-bo, n. a binding ; a species of fig-tree,
e'-bo-lo, n. a pot-herb.
e-bu, n. a crossing ; a curse, abuse.
e-bu, 71. mildew.
d-bu, n. small yams to plant, yam-plantings,
e'-bu-te, n. a landing-place, wharf: omi bo ebute
m9le, the water covers the wharf.
e-de, n. a crawfish, a prawn.
6-de, n. a language, a nation : emi 9 gbo fede rB, /
do not understand thee.
e-di, n. a deficiency.
e-dl, n. a cause, origin. See idi.
6-di, n, a binding, a bond.
e-dl-di, n. a stopper, a cork; a bundle, parcel.
§-do-16, n. the horise-cricket.
e-dfi, n. charcoal.
e-dza-n6, n. passion, intense feeling,
e-dz§, num, seven,
e-dzi, nmn. two.
6-dzi (Egba), n. rain.
6-dzi-kfi, n. the shoulder.
6-dzi-kar), n. a thief, a robber.
e-dzi-lfi, num. twelve.
6-dzo, n. a snake : edio li oro, the snake is poi-
sonous.
e-dzo-no (ino), n. an intestinal worm.
e-dzu-dzu, n. a kind of fan.
e-ga-ke, e-gi-ni, n. a tickling ; mah rir) 9m9 II
cgakc, do not tickle the child.
e-gba-y a, n. a pole tied across rafters.
e-gbe, n. profit ; vindication ; contiguity.
e-gb§, n. loss, perdition : egbe ni fa o ! damn thee !
e-gbe-re, n. a kind of evil spirit.
e-gbir), n. a kind of antelope.
EGB
30
KRI
e-gbix), n. filth.
e-gbo, 11. bran, husk of grain.
e-gbO, n. boiled maize, hominy ; toughness.
h-gbo, n. a root ; a sore, ulcer.
e-gb6r), n. a flea, a tick.
e'-ge-de, adv. only.
e-gi-ni. See egake.
e-gi-ri, n. chilliness : egiri mu mi, / am chilly.
e-gurj, n. an im.precation.
e-gur), e'-guij-gur), n. a bone.
E'-gur)-gur), n. one of the gods.
e'-gu-re, n. a village.
e-gu-rir), n. dirt, filth.
e-h&-se, e-h&-ti-ae, adv. why? what for?
e-he-re, n. a crop, a harvesting.
e-hir), n. a tooth : ehiij okii;)kag, a front tooth ;
ehiijdSri, toothache.
e-ho-ro, n. a rabbit.
e-hu, 71. a sprout, blade of young grass.
e-h\l, n. which is old and stale.
e'-i-bd, o'-i-b6, n. a white man.
ei-di, n. a wart.
e-kar), e-ka-na, a claw, finger-nail.
e-kar), n. young sprouts.
6-kar), n. a wooden pin or peg.
e-ke, n. a lie, falsehood ; a liar.
e-ke-dze, num. the seventh.
e-ke-dzi, num. the second.
eki, adv. only : eki wura, pure gold.
e-ki-ri, n. a kind of goat.
6-ki-ti. See okiti.
e-k6, w. which is callous ; hard pods of okra.
e'-ko-lo, n. the earth-worm.
e-ko. See oruko.
ft
e-kpa, n. a crust.
e-kpe, ti. a curse, an oath.
e-kpo, n. chaff, husk, bark ; palm-oil.
e-ku. See ekute.
e-ku-ku, n. a cocoon.
e'-ku-lu, ». a kind of antelope.
e-kur), e-ku-kur), n. a knife-handle, a hilt of a
sword.
e-kui), n. protracted sickness ; a region of coun-
try.
e-kur), e-ku-rur), n. the knee.
e'-ku-ro, n. the dry palm-nut.
e-ku-ru, n. bread of pea-meal.
e'-ku-ru, n. dust.
e-kH-ru, «. the mange.
e'-ku-te, n. a rat.
e-ku-ya, n. a pot-herb.
e-le, n. force, violence, hardness.
e-16, w. a course or layer, on a wall ; an eminence ;
iron tools, toeapons ; interest on money ; ele ! to
arms !
e-le-gbe, n. an aider, instigator ; one who responds
in chorus.
e-le-g6-de, n. a pumpkin.
e-le-ke, n. a liar.
e-le-kpe, n. a swearer.
e le-ni-ni, n. a backbiter, a despiser.
e-le-ri, n. which is filthy, filthiness.
e-le'-ru-kpe, n. which is earthy or earthly.
e-16-se, n. a maker or seller of colors.
e-le-so, n. which is fruitful, fruit-bearing.
e-16-su, n. one possessed with the devil.
e-le-ti, n. one who is obedient.
e-le-yi, pron. this.
6-lo, adv. how much ? in price : elo yi ? hoio much
for this ?
h-\o, n. use ; furniture, a utensil, ingredient : oLui)
elo, a vessel.
e'-lu-b9, n. yam-flour.
e-mi, pron. I, me : emi na, emi tikari mi, I myself.
e-mi-ni, n. the fruit-bearing yam-vine.
e-mi-rii), n. the sand-fly.
e-in6, n. a bur growing on grass : em6 agbo, a
large kind of bur.
d-md, n. which is unknown, strange ; a monster, a
wonder ; fem6 de loni, a wonderful thing has hap-
pened to-day.
e-na, n. a stretching ; a visit.
e-na, n. warp-pins of a loom.
e-ni, num. one.
6-ni, n. an addition to price or quantity, something
added to a message.
e'-ni-a, n. a human being, person ; mankind, people.
e-ra, i-ra, n. a kind of antelope.
e-r3., n. a small black ant.
e-x&i). See IrAq.
6-rar), n. crab-grass.
6-r^l), n, inflection.
e-r§, n. an imprecation.
e-rh, n. jin image '; goodness, gait, going : ere e^iij,
the gait of a horse.
e-re, n. a question : bi li ere, to ask ; ere idi re ?
why ? for what reason ?
e-re, n. the boa constrictor.
6-re, M. gain, desert, guilt, interest on money ; a
crop : die ere, to gain.
e-re-k§-re, ?«. dishonest gain, filthy lucre.
e-re-k6-ti, n. a dunghill.
e-re-ko, n. a hamlet.
e-re-ku-su, n. an island.
e-re-ni, ?». the fourth day hence : i) 6 loh li ereni,
/ will go four days hence.
e-ri, for ori, n. the head : eri ekuij, the knee-pan.
e-ri, e-rip, n. filth, wet bran fed to goats.
6-ri-gi, n. the gums.
e-rii), n. an elephant.
ERI
31
EDi;
S-riq. See cri.
e-rirj-mi (omi), n. the river-horse, hippopotamus.
e-ro, n. a caravan ; a nit.
e-r6, n. a percussion-cap, a lucifer match.
6-ro, n. consideration ; a relation or telling ; a de-
vice, thought.
e-ro, n. a funnel, lamp-filler.
e-rtl, n. deceit, craft.
5-ru, n. ashes, lime, ash color.
e-ru-ku-ku, n. the tame pigeon.
e'-ru-kpe, n. dust, earth.
e-rur), n. an ant.
e-sa, n. a small red ant.
e-se, n. a cat ; the butter-tree nut.
§-se, n. preparation for the future, providence.
6-se, n. paint, color.
e-si, n. a reply.
e-SO, n. frxiit, a seed-vessel of any kind.
e-s5l), n. accusation, a suit at laio.
e-su, n. jasper, camelian.
§-SU, M. a payment to the funds of a club.
e-stl, n. sugar-cane grass.
e'-su-e, n. nausea : kpa li csue, to nauseate.
e-su-ru, n. a small bitterish yam.
e-SU-SU, n. a leech.
e-se, n. gleaning.
e-S§, adv. why ?
h-hi, n. a mistake, accident, error.
e-siri-sir), w. a fiy.
e-stl, n. a locust, the white ant when winged.
6-SU, n. the devil, Satan.
e-su-su. See esusu.
e-su-"wa, n. former times.
e-ta, n. dry bran ; soreness of the gums.
e-te, m. a lip ; intention, thought, device,
e-t§, M. a fragment, morsel.
e-ti, n. an ear ; edge, proximity : fi cti si ti emi,
. hear m£ ; eti igor), a corner, angle.
e-ti-le (ile), n. vicinity, nearness : 6 wa li etile, he
was near.
e-ti-ri, n. numbness.
e-ti-ri, adv. why ? See eyi.
e-ti-he, adv. ivhy? what for?
e-tu, n. lohich is loosed, stripped off ; a discovery.
e-tu, n. an old farm nearly worn out.
6-tu-tU, n. pacification, reconciliation.
e-'We, n. childhood, youth, a child.
e-vrfe, n. a leaf, herb.
e-TVfe-b^ (^be), n. an esculent herb of any kind.
e-we-ke-Ave, n. a leaf or herb of any kind.
e-wS-ko (oko), n. a garden herb of any kind.
e-Avi, n. insanity.
e-'Wd, pron. which ? what ? why ?
e-AWO, n. time, season : ewo odzo, the rainy season.
6-W9, n. prohibition, something prohibited.
e-VTU, n. danger : di ewu, to be or become dan-
gerous.
e-"WTi, n. grey hair.
^-"WU-tSl, n. a kind of soft yam.
g-vru-rS, n. a goat.
S-wu-ro, n. a pot-herb.
e-yi, e-yi-yi, pron. this : cyi ti, this or that which ;
eyi na, this, that, the same ; cyi ti ri ? why ?
e-yi-ni, pron. that : cyini ni, that is,
e-yir). See eliiij.
e-yl-ta-"wl-yi (ti a), adv. just now, straightway,
directly, immediately.
e-yo, M. a pod of okra,
E.
e, a prefix. See a.
e, adv. yes. See he.
§, ^071. ye, you.
^, pron. him, her, it.
e-l)a, n. nearness, proximity to the ground : li eba,
by (if near the ground). See leba.
e-'ba-dd (odo), n. the water-side, shore.
6-be, n. entreaty, supplication.
e-bl, n. fault, guilt, condemnation.
e-M-ri, n. a large quiver.
e-bi-ti, n. a trap, an insecure crag, or the like.
e-bo, n. a sacrifice : ebo alakoto, the sacrifice in the
basket or vessel, i. e. a human sacrifice.
E-bo-r9, n. a name q/"Egui)gui).
&-b6-t9, n. coto-dung.
e-bu, n. an abode ; a kiln, a furnace,
e-bti, n. a crosswise direction.
e-bur). See ebu.
S-b€ir), n. a gift, present.
6-bu-ru, n. a back door or passage.
e-da, n. afiower.
e-dfi, n. a creature ; instinct, natural pi^operties,
nature ; creation ; a kind of rat ; interest on
money : se eda, to create.
e-dS.-16 (il6), n. a deceiver, traitor.
e-dar), n. the Ogboni staff.
6-de, n. which is soft, ripe, slack.
e-df-gba-rir), num. seven thousand.
e-di-n6-gur), nmn. sixteen.
e-d6-gur), num. fifteen.
e-d.6, n. the liver ; resolution, firmness : ed6 fofo,
irascibility.
e-dor), n. a kind of monkey.
e-d6r), n. sweetness; grief (aoo doq) ; a hatchet ;
a proper name frequently given to one of twins :
imi edfti), a sigh.
e-dza, n. a fish.
edze, M. blood : eni edie, a bloody or bloodthirsty
man.
EDZ
32
ELA
e-dzo, num. eight.
e-dz6, n. a criminal matter ; dispute ; harm : da
edzo, to judge, as a magistrate ; da, . . . li edi8, to
condem,n.
ee-di-n6-gur), &c. See e-di-no-guij, &c.
e-fk, num. six.
e-f&, n. a kind of trowsers.
e-fe, n. fault-finding, -accusation.
6-fe, n. a jest, mockery : se efe, to jest ; se |fe si,
to mock, ridicule,
e-fi, e-fir), n. smoke.
e-fo, n. greens, pot-herhs.
e-fo-ko (ok9), n. shipwreck.
e-foi), n. a corn-husk ; footstalk of a palm-leaf ; a
crossbow arrow : efoi) iha, a rib.
e-f 5r), n. a buffalo.
e-fu-fu, n. wind, breeze, air.
e-fur), n. chalk, lime, white clay.
e-ga, n. the yellow palm-bird.
^-ga, n. a grasshopper.
e-gai), n. a thick forest : egai) osusu, a thorny
forest.
S-gar), n. contempt, reproach, blasphemy : s6ro
egai), to blaspheme.
e-ga.X)-Ta.i), n. unripe fruit.
e-gba, n. which is swept.
e-gba, n. the mangrove tree.
E-gta, n. the name of a tribe.
6-gba, n. the palsy.
e-gba, num. two thousand.
e-gba-dze, num. fourteen thousand.
e-gba-dzl, num. four thousand.
e-gba-dzo, num. sixteen thousand.
e-gba-fa, num. twelve thousand.
e-gba-ra, n. a kind of rat.
e-gba-rir), nmn. eight thousand.
e-gba-ruQ, num. ten thousand.
e-gba-sar), num. eighteen thousand.
e-gba-ta, num. six thousand.
e-gba-"wa, num. twenty thousand.
e-gbe, n. the side, the loins ; a companion, a com-
pany, society : egbe-egbe orilS hde, a multitude of
nations.
e-gbe-d6-gur), num. five thousand.
e-gbe-fa, num. twelve hundred.
e-gbe-gbe-rur), num. adv. by the thousand.
e-gbe -ra, n. equality.
e-gbe-ri, n. obscurity, mystery ; one initiated.
e-gbe-rir), num. eight hundred.
e-gbe-rir)-lfi, num. twenty-eight hundred.
e-gbe-rur), num. one thousand.
e-gbe-sar), num. eighteen hundred.
e-gbe-sir), n. nettle-rash.
e-gbe-ta, num. six hundred.
e-gb6-ta-l&, num. twenty-six hundred.
e-gbir), n. filth.
e-gb9r), n. an elder brother, a male relative.
fegboi), n. which is shaken or to be shaken : Sgbofl
owu, cotton whipped with a bow ready for spinning.
e-gbo-ro, n. the young of cattle : egb9ro malii, a
calf.
e-ge, n. a snare, a trap ; brittleness.
e-gi, n. a dog''s collar.
e-gu, n. a seat in a tree on which a hunter sits to
watch for beasts.
e-gtlr), n. a thorn, brier, prickle : egui) ikoko, a
large thorn used for arrow-heads.
e-hfi., n. a close-fitting garment.
e-hii), n. the back, hinder part ; the last of a series ;
the outside of a town ; the top of anything in a
vessel ; absence : ehiq ola, after to-morrow : ehii)
asa, a remnant of cloth left in the loom; A 6 li
agbara li ehiq Ol9rui), we have no power loithout
(or apart from) God ; se e li ehii) mi, do it in
my absence ; wo ehiij, to look after one who is
walking away.
e'-i-ye, n. rebellion, revolt.
ei-y6, n. a bird.
e-ka, n. a band, ring ; a branch, bough, prong;
the collar-bone.
e-kar), adv. once : li ekaij, once, at once, imme-
diately, formerly ; mo ti se li ekaij, / have done
it once.
e-kar), n. sourness.
e-ke, n. indulgence to inferiors, confidence.
e-k§, n. a beam, joist, rafter ; the trigger of a gun.
e-ko, n. sour mush of maize.
e-k6, n. which is hard, as fruit.
e-k6, n. doctrine.
e-ko-k§-ko, n. superstition, false doctrine.
e-k6r), n. which fills up, fulness, a supplement.
e-k5r), n. a grumbling, murmuring.
e-kpa, n. the ground pea or pea-nut : ekpa roro,,
the oily pea-nut ; ekpa bisa^, the mealy pea-nut.
e-kpor), n. a spoon, a dipper.
e-kp6r), n. redness, ripeness of fruit, flattery.
e-kp6r), n. a testicle.
e-kpo-ro, n. a ditch, drain, sewer.
e-ktl, n. a kind of trap or snare.
e-ktl-16, n. a gable end, a back yard.
e-kut), n. cessation, prohibition, a door, shutter :
da ekur), to cease ; da . . . li ekui), to forbid, pro-
hibit ; se ekui), ha ekui), to shut the door.
e-kfl.r), n. a crying, weeping.
e-kur), n. a leopard ; a region, a ivaste jjlace.
e-ku-ya, n. the herb Cleome.
el, ele, (see al, ala), prefixes, denoting the actor,
owner, (kc.
e-l&, n. which is cloven, split off ; a, detached portion,
fragment.
ELE
33
ESO
6-11-1)6, n. a pleader, advocate.
e-le-b6-to, n. cow-dung.
e-le-da, n. a creator.
e-le-de, n. a hog.
e-le-dze, n. which is bloody.
e-le-fii), n. which has smohe, is smoky ; a smoker, a
steamer.
e-le-g9.r), n. a despiser, scoffer.
e-le-gbfi, n. a helper, deliverer.
e-lS-gba, n. a palsied person, a paralytic.
e-le-gba-ra, n. the devil.
e-le-gbe, n. a companion, a leader.
e'-le-ge,«. which is fragile, brittle.
e-le-go-do, n. coarse calico.
e-le-k6'-re-de, n. which is weak, infirm.
e-le-kug, n. a weeper, mourner ; figuratively, a
daughter.
e-le'-kpe-re, n. a kind of soft maize.
e-le-la, n. a part or portion.
e-lS-mi (emi), n. one who has breath ; a servant, so
called because his master's life is in his hands.
e-le-mo, n. a palm-wine dealer.
e-le-mb-so, n. one who is tasteful in dress.
e-le-no, n. a spider.
e-ler)-ga, w. a grasshopper.
e-le-ri (eri), n. an eye-witness.
e-le-se, n. which has feet, which relates to the feet:
elese merirj, which has four feet, a quadruped j
di elese nile, to establish, confirm.
e-16-se, n. who has sin, a sinner.
e-le-sir) (esiij), n. a horseman.
e-le-tai), n. a dissembler.
e-le-ya (eya), n. who is scorned, despised ; ridi-
cule ; a scorner.
e-le-ye, n. a tidy person, who has clothes made to
order.
e-le-"w3. (ewa), n. a handsome person.
e-le-'wor), n. who is chained, a prisoner.
e-lo-mi, e-lo-ml-rar), pron. another, others.
e-lu, M. indigo ; a mixture.
e-ltl-lu, n. a thrush.
e-lu-ru, n. a mouse.
e'-me-dzi, num. twice.
e'-me-fa, num. six times.
e-me-ta-lo-kar) (meta li okai)), n. that which has
three in one ; the trinity.
e-ine-"wa (m6 ewa), n. a chief councillor, a prime
minister.
e-mi, n. the shea-tree, its fruit, the butter made of it.
6-nii, M. breath, life, spirit.
e-mo, e-mu, n. palm wine.
e-mu, n. tongs, pincers ; seizure.
e-na, n. inversion of words or letters ; as, de mi
babd, for baba mi de.
e-ni, n. a mat.
5
e-ni, pron. a person, oiie : eni ikpe, one who is in-
vited ; eni kaij, some one, anyone, the only one;
eni kedii, a companion, friend, the next person ;
eni ti a da tdij, a happy man.
e-nu, n. a mouth, opening : enu kokoro, the beak of
a bird ; enu ikpa, the mouth of a river ; enu ona, a
gate, door; enu osqrq, eaves of a house ; enumira,
my appetite fails or is bad ; enu mi ^i, my appe-
tite is good ; enu mi ya, / am astonished.
ei)-yir), pron. ye, you : egyii) nd, ej]jii) ara jgyifl,
eijyir) tikard ijyir), ye yourselves.
e-rag, n. a beast, a goat or sheep ; meat, flesh :
eraij nl4, a cow ; eraq fui), a kind of bufalo ; erai)
shokana, a carnivorous animal; eraqar4, man'' s flesh.
B-T&I), n, the temple of the face.
e-rar)-ko (oko), n. a wild beast, a brutish person.
e-rari-lfi. (nl4), n. a cow.
6-re, n. a bank, gully, mire, bog.
e-re-ke, n. the cheek, jaw-bone.
e-re-rii), num. by fours.
e-rl, n. witness, testimony : gba . . . se eri, to take
as a pledge.
e-rir), num. four : eriij di loguij [four from
twenty), sixteen ; erii) di logogi, thirty-six.
e-rir), n. (number of) times : li eriq medii, twice.
e-rlr), n. laughter.
e-rir)-lfi, num. fourteen.
e-ro, n. skill, contrivance, subtlety.
6-ro, n. softness, gentleness.
e-rtl, n. a slave ; a hoe or axe-handle.
e-rCl, n. a load, luggage, goods.
6-ru, n. fear, aioe, terribleness.
e-rtl-bi-ri (obiri), n. a female slave.
e-iHi), n. a fragment, a crumb, splinter.
e-rur), n. the dry season, great heat.
e-sSr), n. payment, retaliation, vengeance.
6-sar), num. nine.
e-se, n. a row, order.
6-se, n. afoot, track, course.
e-se-sai), num. nine by nine.
S-s§-se, n. an orderly manner.
e-si, e-sir), n. shame, ridicule ; a secret.
S-SO, n. carefulness, gentleness.
e-s5r), e-Silr), n. an accusation, a suit at law.
e-s§, n. a bloto with the fist ; a broken part, piece ;
6-se, n. sin, guilt : |se edie, blood guiltiness ; ese
oba, treason.
e-se-na (ina), n. coals of fire.
e-se-ri, n. rancidity.
e-sir), n. a horse : gui] esii), to ride on horseback ;
disgrace.
e-Sir), n. a spear. .
e-so, n. a watchman, guard, police.
e-s6, n. newly smelted iron.
ETA
34
FEK
e-ta, n. a bulb, tuber, ear of com, coarse flour ; ex-
tension ; a sting.
e-ta, num. three.
h-tSL, n. a fragment of a corpse brought home to the
family, over which funeral rites axe performed.
e-ta-la, num. thirteen.
g-tai), n. deceit, allurement : &e etag, to deceive.
e-t§, n. disgrace, reproach.
^-te, n. leprosy, scrofula.
e-te-ta, num. by threes.
6-ti, n. a failure.
e-t6r), n. a bough, branch.
e-tu, n. a kind of antelope.
§-tu, n. gunpowder.
6-tu, n. checked cloth, a guineafowl ; coolness ; a
propitiatory sacrifice.
e-AvS, num. ten ; mind, intentions.
e-weL, n. beauty, likeness : Ii ew^, to be beautiful.
^-■wa, n. a jest, a joke.
e-'we, n. a kind of bean.
S-vre, conj. again, on the other hand.
e-'we-'wa, num. by tens.
e-"wi-ri, n. a bellows.
e-"WO, n. a company, caravan.
fe-WO, n. hail.
e-'WOl), n. a thistle.
©-■wor), n. a chain, bondage.
fe-"WU, n. which pleases ; a loose garment, shirt.
e-"WTi-nl, n. a pit covered with earth.
e-ya, n. a kind of panther.
6-ya, M. separation, contempt ; a division, tribe.
e-y§, n. fitness, worthiness.
e-3rl, adv. yes (used only by males to superiors).
e-yll), n. a palm-^ut ; the eye-ball.
B-yft), n. an egg.
6-yir), ». praise, that which is celebrated.
e-yir)-ko-lo, n. little hills made by earth-worms.
e-yir)-n6-gi, n. starch made of maize.
e-y6r), n. toe-itch.
R
fa, V. to scrape, shave, toipe, pluck ; to prefer.
fil, V. to draw, lead, crawl, creep, as a melon-vine ;
to shrink, as a raw hide ; to abate : fa, . . . li eta^
(see fa . . . letaij).
f&, adv. leisurely, freely, without restraint ; exceed-
ingly.
fS-lja-da. See 4bada.
fll-da, n. (at Ilorii)), the aristocracy, the aristo-
cratic quarter of the town.
fa-da-ka, n. silver,
fa-dze-re, n. the dawn.
f^-dzu-ro, v. to look sad.
fa-gbor) (agbofl), v. to shave the chin.
fa-giii), V. to protract.
fil-kpa, V. to withdraw, draw back.
f ^ . . . 13, ti. to lick.
fd... . 16, V. to tighten, to string a bow. .
f 3. . . . le-tai) (li), V. to seduce.
f 3.-1116, V. to cleave, to adhere.
fS. . . . in6-ra (ara), v. to embrace, to hug, to cleave
to.
ffi-ra-hSr) (fi ar^), v. to become visible, to appear.
ffi-ra-kpfi, v. to hurt, to wound.
ta.'-r2L-m.6 (fi), v. to adhere, to adjoin.
fa'-ra-"we, v. to compare, make a trial of powers,
emulate.
f i-ri, V. to shave the head.
f a-ri, n. display, parade.
fa-rd, V. to be sad.
fa . . . se-hir) (si ehiq), v. to draw back, withdraw,
abstain ; to shun, delay, withhold,
fa-t6-le, n. a small canoe.
fa ... ti, V. to draw aside.
fa-tl-la, n. a lamp.
fa-tu, V. to loosen, pull up by the roots.
fa . . . ya, v. to tear, rend : 6 fa mi sokoto ya, it
tore my trowsers.
fa-yo, V. to draw out, extricate.
fe, adv. long (in time), /or ewr.
fe-bi-kpa (ebi), v. to famish, starve.
fe-fe, n. boasting : &e Me, to boast.
fe-re, n. asthma.
fS-re, n. a fiute, pipe.
f 6-re, v. to sip.
fS-re-se, n. a window.
fe-si (fi esi), v. to reply.
fe-ti (fi eti), v. to listen, hearken, regard. (Gen. 21,
12.)
fe, V. to blow, fan: fe 16h, to blow away ; fe efesi,
to find fault with.
fS, V. to love, to wish, desire, to be willing ; to woo,
to marry, procure in marriage. (Gen. 21, 21.)
f 6, v. to breathe heavily, to puff, to distort the face,
to frown ; to enlarge : f | . . . li efe (see fe lefe).
fe-di. See fe idi.
fe-dze (idie), v. to seek food.
fe-dze-fe-dze, n. provender, food.
fe-dzb-m6 (fi), v. to accuse.
fe-dzO. (odzfi), V. to look angry, to frown.
fe-dzu-fe-dzu, adv. frowningly.
fe-fe, V. to be few, to be near.
fe-fe (efe), v. to find fault, to axxuse.
fe-fa, V. to betroth for or to.
fe-hir)-ti (fi ehi;)), v. to lean on, to trust in ; to
prop, support.
fe-i-dl, V. to investigate.
fe-ka, V. to scatter, to strew.
FEK
35
FIR
ffe . . . kui), V. to miss what is lost : mo fe iwe mi
kuij, / miss my book.
fe-le, fe-le-fe-le, v. to be fine in texture, smooth,
fiat, thin.
fh .. . le-fe (li efe), v, to accuse, find fault with.
fe . . . lo-dzu (li odiu), v. to choke.
f§-IU-fl-ni, n. dry pea-hulls.
fe . . . nl-ya-^wo, v. to court, woo.
fe-n5, V. to fan or winnow away, blow off.
fe-nu-ko (fi enu), v. to kiss.
fe-nu-si (enu), v. to reply, intermeddle.
fe-ra (ara), v. to be selfish.
fe-re, v. to be light, as to weight.
fe-re, adv. almost : fere m4h, with difficulty,
scarcely.
fe-re-fe-re. See fefe.
fe-ri (ori), v. to cool the head, to rest ; to seek, in-
quire after.
fe-Sl, V. to find fault with.
fe . . . sd-na (si), v. to betroth : 6 ti fe aya s5na, he
has betrothed a wife.
fi, V. to make ; to place, put, apply to a purpose.
fl, prep, with, in, by, for, during : 6 & ida ^a
woi), he smote them, with a sword y fi i ^e baui), do
thus with it; fi oruko oba, in the name of the
king ; ami wo li a 6 fi mo eyi ? by what sign shall
we know this ? fi gbogbo odio, for or during the
whole day.
fl, V. to swing, vibrate, wave, sling, incline to one
side.
fi . . . ba-le (il^), V. to place on the ground, to put
down ; to reject : fi agb9g bale, set the basket down ;
mo fi dkh) bale, / laid my heart on the ground,
i. e. / rested, was contented, satisfied.
fi . . . Tjo, v. to put into, to put on, as a garment ; to
dip,, to soak : fi oka bo di otxb, soak the corn till
morning.
fi . . . bo-mi (omi), v. to dip, immerse, soak in
neater.
fi . . . bu, V. to put on oath, to swear one ; to accuse.
fi . . . bo., V. to abuse, vilify, curse.
fi . . . da-le (ile), v. to throw, as a horse his rider.
fi-di-ba-le (idi ilS), v. to sit down.
fi . . . dzfi-fa-ra, v. to slight, to treat with dis-
respect.
fi . . . dz9.-re, v. to justify, in a forensic sense.
fi . . . dze, V. to place in authority, to ajipoint.
fi . . . dze-bi (ebi), v. to condemn, to regard as
guilty.
fi . . . dze-AVO ai-ye, v. to condemn to death.
fi . . . dzi, V. to forgive, to remit sin, repeal a law.
fi . . . dzi-y9. (die), v. to punish, to give up to
misery.
fi . . . dz6-na, v. to burn : fi igi diona, bum the
wood.
fl . . . dzo-ye (die), v. to aprimnt to office.
fi . . . dzo-ba (die), v. to appoint one to be king.
fi-fil, n. a tearing, that which is torn or to be torn.
See fa.
fi-fa-yo, n. which is dratvn out, extricated.
fl-fl, flr)-flr), w. dimness, twilight.
fi-fi, n. a swinging, which swings, &c. : ebo f ifi, a
wave-offering.
fi-fo, n. which is broken. See f6.
fi-f 5, n. which is washed. See f5.
fi . . . fu, V. to give to, endow toith.
fi-fli. See fuijfufl.
fi . . . gbe, V. to give up to destruction, to destroy,
fi-gbo-na, V. to heat, to warm.
fi . . . gTirj, v. to put to the male.
fi . . . ha, V. to hang up, to suspend.
fi . . . h&T), V. to show, exhibit, reveal, betray.
fi . . . kfi, V. to place or set upon.
fi . . . k6i), V. to add to : fi omiraij k6q 8, ddd an-
other to it.
fi . . . kp^, V. to suppose, to pretend, to mean (Gen.
33, 8) : nwoi) fi i kpe woli, they supposed him to
be a prophet ; 6 fi axk rS kp6 :Qkaq, he pretended
to be something great.
fi... 16-16 (ilg), fi...l6, fi...si-le, V. to put
down, leave, forsake : fi oye IS, to abdicate, resign
office.
fi . . . l§-lo-'WO, V. to deliver to.
fi . . . 11-kpo, V. to substitute.
fi . . . lo, V. to investigate, inquire, interrogate.
fi . . . m6, V. to suspect, attach to, impute.
fi . . . ni5, V. to cause to know, to show, inform of.
fi . . . mu, V. to take hold of, grasp : fi ese mu ilu
(or ilS), to grow firmly, to be established, confirmed.
fi . . . inu-16 (ilB), V. to establish, confirm ; 6 _fi -ese
mu ilB wayi, he is noio established.
fi-na, n. a leather string.
fi-na, fe-na (fe ina), v. to blow the fire, kindle.
fi...nij&. Seefi-le-16.
fix), V. to terminate, to be perfected ; to discover ;
to engrave, embellish ; to be fine, nice : bo . . . li
abo fii), to peel off the bark.
fir), V. to fill with smoke, smother, suffocate.
fil)-dzu (odifi), v. to be neat, tidy, tasteful in re-
gard to one's appearance.
fig-fir), n. which is carved, engraved, <tc. See fiij.
flr)-flr), n. dimness, twilight.
fir)-rir), n. a thread.
fi-O-fi-0, adv. very (high) : il6 ga fiofio, the house
is very high.
fi . . . ra-na. See fi . . . gbona.
fi-rax) (oral)), v. to aggress, to seek a quarel.
fi . . . r§, V. to curse : fire, to be accursed.
fi-ri (fi and ri, to be), a complement of diH, to sur-
2)ass, employed in the sense of more ; as, 6 tobi
FIR
36
FUL
diii fenia firi (he is great surpassing man), he is
greater than' man.
fi . . . ro, V. to twist, to sprain a joint,
fi . . . r9. See fina.
fi . . . ror), V. to chew, to dip into sauce.
fi . . . ru-bo, V. to sacrifice.
fi . , . S&Q, V. to value ; 6 fi dgutaq s4i) egba, he
valued the sheep at two thousand (cowries) ; fi . . •
s4r) o\v6 k4g, to value at one cowry, i. e. to treat
with contempt ; vaih fi 9mo sai) owo k4i], do not
treat the child with contempt.
fi . . . si, «». to add to, to contribute.
&... ai-lh, V. See fi . . . le-15.
fi . . . si-n6 (ino), v. to keep or harbor in the mind.
fi . . . sir) or sir)-sir), v. to conceal.
fi . . . SO-1^ (ile), v. to dash down, to lay the foun-
dation of a clay house.
fi . . . s5r) or siiX), v. to accuse, to sue.
fi . . . se, V. to appoint.
fi . . . se-eg, V. to ridicule, disgrace.
fi . . . se-fe, V. to ridicule.
fi . . . se-le-ya, v. to set at naught.
fi . . . SO-fo, V. to waste.
fi . . . su, V. to deliver to.
fi . . . su-ra, V. to treasure up.
fi-ti, V. to lean against ; to suspend or postpone.
fi-ti-la, n. a lamp.
fi . . . to-re, V. to give, make a present.
fl . . . "We, V. to compare ; to w^rap up.
fi . . . "w6, V. to put into, to clothe with, indue ; to
bait a fish hook.
fi . . . ya-na. See figbona.
fl-ye-de-n6, v. to be patient under trials.
fi-ye-sl, V, to attend to.
fo'v. to be empty, wasted, lost ; to feel bereaved.
fd, V. to fly, jump, palpitate ; to break away, as
clouds : aiyo fo mi, / at7i alarmed ; ib soke, to
float.
fd-dzi-s6r) (odii), v. to accuse of adultery.
fo-dzu-di (odz<i), V. to be insolent.
fo-dztl-kar)-Av6, v. to squint.
fo-dz<i-kp6, V. to wink to, give a hint.
fo-dzd-si, V. to look at, attend to.
fo-dzQ.-s5-na (si ona), v. to look for, expect.
fo-dzti-tl, V. to abash.
fo-dztl-to, V. to oversee, superintend.
fo-fo, n. foam.
fd-fo, V. to be bright, glittering, radiant ; — adv.
brightly, radiantly.
fd-ko-dza, v. to pass by, neglect. (Mat. 23, 23.)
f6-lo-f(5-lo, n. the lights, kings.
fS-re-si-gi, n. an ungrateful person, an ingrate.
fo-ri, V. to be thin, empty, as an ear of corn.
fo-ri-b9.-le (ori ile), v. to bow down, worship,
submit.
fo-rl-bo (ori), V. to plunge into.
fo-ri-fui), V. to submit to. (Gen. 4, 1.)
fo-ri-tl, V. to endure, persevere.
fo-ro, V. to afflict, to be bitter against.
fd-ya (aiya), v. to fear, to be discouraged.
fo, V. to skin, flay.
f6, V. to break, as a vessel ; to ache, as the head.
f 6, V. to wash, cleanse ; to speak,
f6-dzu (odz(i), V. to be blind.
f 6-hur) (ohui)), v. to speak.
f5-kar)-sl (fi), v. to set the heart on, to be in
earnest.
f 5-kar)-sii), v. to be devout, to serve in heart.
f55-l§ (ile), n. to break into a house.
fo . . . li-o-dzu. See f9 . . . lodiu.
fo . . . lo-dzu (li), V. to blind, put out the eyes of.
fo-lu (iln), V. to destroy a town.
fo-na (ina), v. to take flre from the hearth.
f6-na-h9,r) (fi), v. to show the road, direct, guide.
for), V. to scatter, to sow ; to be slender ; to press,
squeeze, choke ; to blow a flute or trumpet, to kin-
dle a fire.
foi)-f9r), adv. soundly (sleeping).
fog-gblr), V. to soio seeds.
for)-ka, V. to scatter abroad, disperse.
for)-kor), v. to discharge menses.
for)-kpa, V. to choke.
for)-kp5 (ikpe), v. to blow a trumpet.
for)-kp5, V. to crowd, as in a congregation.
for) . . . lo-roi) (li), V. to choke.
f5-raQ-in6 (orai)), v. to accuse, charge with.
fgT)-TU-gl>ii) (iru). See foqgbiQ.
fo-'W9-ba (fi), V. to touch, feel.
fo-'W9-ko, V. to go hand in hand, to embrace.
fo-"W9-kpd, V. to beckon to.
f9-"W9-ra-nu (enu), v. to be silent under wrong or
affliction.
fo-AVO-ta (fi), V. to search or seek for carelessly.
fu, V. to grow, as a plant.
fu, fur), prep, for, to, of, by, with, on account of:
mu ii fu mi, catch it for me ; so fu W95, speak
to them ; 6 koq fii omi, it is full of water ; fu ara
r| li 6 id e, he did it of himself, or of his own ac-
cord ; ifefc I) mi fu afefe, a reed shaken by the toind ;
odifi r§ wnwo fii oruq, his eyes were heavy with
sleep ; dio fu ay 5, to dance for joy.
fQ, ftir), V. to give, to be white.
fii, adv. quickly, at once, rapidly.
fll-dza, V. to brag, to boast.
fu-fu, fur)-fur), n. whiteness, purity ; boiled yams
2}ounded.
fu-ke-fu-ke, adv. violently (palpitating).
fVi-le, V. to be soft, as corn.
fu-le-fu-le, adv. softly.
fu-lu-fu-lu, n. dry corn-husk.
FUN
37
GBA
fur). Sec fa. Foi) alone, or as a syllable, is often
pronounced fill).
fu-ra (arl), v. to be pale, to be suspicious, to do
wickedly.
fu-ra, n. beer of grain and honey.
fHi-ru, adv. silently, quietly.
fu-te-fu-te, adv. easily (torn).
fu-ye, V. to he light, as to weight ; to he better, in
sickness.
a
ga, V. to be high, tall,
ga, m. a title.
ga-bau' ! interj. wonderful !
gfi-ba-si, n. the east.
g&-fa-ra, v. an excuse : ka gafara fii mi, excuse me ;
id gafara lodo woi), let them alcme.
gfi-fa-ra ! interj. beware ! take heed ! (Gen. 24, 6.)
ga-ga, adv. closely (crowded).
ga-ga-lo, n. stilts.
ga-ga-ra, re. a large gawky animal.
ga-la, n. a kind of antelope.
ga-mu-ga-mu, n. a tomahawk, battle-axe.
ga.-ni-g9.-ni, n. a despiser.
ga'-ni-ki, ga'-ri-ki, n. a shield.
gar), V. to pierce, to stab ; to sew coarsely ; to cut
hushes ; to take by little at a time ; to he upright,
perpendicular.
gar), adv. firmly : duro gag, to stand firmly.
g9.r), V. to despise, revile.
gar)-gaQ, n. a small quantity of sauce or the like.
gar)-gaQ, v. to be perpendicular ; overhead ; — n.
erectness, perp>endicularity : osai) gai)gai), midday.
gar)-gar), adv. erectly, exactly, very.
gai)-gar), n. a kind of drum.
gar)-rar), adv. straight (onward).
gar)-rar)-gar)-rag. See gagara.
ga-ri, n. farina.
ga-ri, n. a saddle.
g&-ri-ki, n. a shield.
ga-sa, V. to he tired out, much fatigued.
gSi-sa.] interj. wonderful/ indeed!
gaur), adv. very (much).
glja, V. to slap, to sioeep, to collect together, to fioat
about : gba fu, to permit to remain at ease: gba...
lodiu (li), to slap in the face.
gba, adv. loudly (slapping) ; — v. to sound.
gba, V. to take, to take away from ; to receive, to
hold, as a vessel ; to assist, succor ; to strain ; to
wrap up ; to fiourish ; to consent : gba id4raya,
to recreate, amuse oneself; gba aye, to he large,
roomy ; fi odia ghk, to gird, encircle with a
band.
gba-di (idi), v. to encircle the loins or the hilt of a
sword.
gba-du-a, gba-du-ra, v. to pray to God.
gba . . . dU-Iu-mo, v. to slander.
gbfi.-dza-m6, n. the barber's trade.
gba.-dze (edie), v. to let blood, to bleed, cup.
gba-dzo (adio), v. to assemble, to collect an assent-
bly.
gba-e-ri-dze, v. to bear witness.
gb3.-gba, n. ivhich is capacious, wide.
gba-gbar)'-di-di, n. a dry uncut gourd.
gba-gba-ro, n. eaves of a house.
gba-gbe (igbe), v. to forget.
gba . . . gb6, V, to believe, to obey.
gb§.-ge-de, n. a wall around a yard.
gbi.-gur) (og&i)), V. to inherit.
gbdi, adv. loudly, noisily.
gbai-ye (gba), v. to live, to be in the world.
gba-ko, adv. exactly, fitly.
gba-kpe (gba erukpe), v. to make mortar.
gbfi. . . . 1&, V. to save, rescue.
gba.. .la-ba-ra (li), V. to slap.
gbfi. . . . 13.-Avir) (li), v. to credit, trust for goods.
gba-l§ (ile), V. to sweep the house.
gba-lS (il6), V. to sweep the ground or yard.
gba.-16, V. to spread over the ground, to extend, in-
crease, fiourish.
gba. . . . le-dze (li), v. to bleed or cup.
gba. . . . le-ri-dze (li), v. to hear witness for.
gba . . . lo-dza (li), v. to gird (Ps. 18, 32), swaddle.
gba. . . . 16h, V. to take away : 6 gba mi li aso ]6h,
he took atvay my cloth.
gba . . . lo-^wo (li), V. with one objective, to help,
succor ; with two, to deprive of, to take away
from : 6 gba mi I9W0, he assisted me ; 6 gba 9010
lowo mi, he deprived me of my child.
gba . . . ICl, V. to dash or cast upon the shore, as
waves : 6 gba 6ko It. okuta, it cast the ship upon
the rocks.
gbam-gbam, adv. tightly, compactly (tied up),
gba. . . . in6-ra (ard), v. to embrace, hug.
gba . . . mu, V. to seize upon, to make a pretext of.
(Luke 11, 54.)
gbar)-ga, n. a large room, hall, parlor.
gbar)-gba, n. publicity, which is exposed to public
view.
gba-ra, v. to boil slightly, parboil.
gba . . . rd, V. to relate in behalf of one, to defend a
cause : gba braj) rai rd, defend my cause.
gba . . . Sl-lS (il6), V. to redeem by exchanging one
thing for another. (Exod. 13, 13.)
gba . . . so-do (si), V. to receive into friendship.
gba . . . se, v. to obey, observe a rule.
gba-ti, V. to crowd after one. '
gba-'we (aiwe), v. to mourn, to fast.
GBA
38
GBO
g"b3.-ye (^ye), v. to be broad, large, roomy.
gbd. . . . "wQ, V. to hire or rent a house.
gbe, V. to be, to live, to abide at ; to take up, raise ;
to make, cause, perform ; to bear loith one.
gb§, V. to perish, to go to perdition.
gbd, V. to be near, to help ; to be difficult : k6 gbe
badie, (it) is not hard to spoil.
gbS-de (gb6), v. to understand a language.
gbe-de-gbe-yo (gba ede gba yo), v. to interpret
for persons speaking different languages.
gbe . . . di-de, v. to cause to rise, to raise up.
gbe . . . du-ro, v. to cause to stand, to uphold.
gbe-dze, v. to remain quiet, to be undisturbed.
(Ex. 23, 11.)
gbe . . . ga, V. to raise up, exalt, magnify, to pro-
mote in rank.
gbe-go (ago), V. to dwell in a tent, to tabernacle.
gbe . . . ha, v. to hang up, suspend.
gbe . . . kfi, V. to set upon : gbe § ka. ina, set it on
the fire.
gbe . . . ka-le, v. to set down, set before, establish.
gbe-16 (gba), V. to exact usury, to take interest.
gbe . . . Ig, V. See gbe . . . ka.
gbe . . . le-bu (li), v. to lay crosswise.
gbe . . . le-ke, v. to exalt, extol.
gbe . . . 16-rag (li), v. to clear, acquit.
gbe . . . mi, v. to swallow.
gbe-ra-ga (arA), v. to exalt oneself, to be proud,
vain.
gbe-r6, V. to bid farewell.
gbe-ri (ori), v. to lift up the head, take courage.
gb6-ro (gba), v. to consider, intend, consult, think,
jmrpose.
gb§ . . . ro, V. to cause to stand, erect, build.
gbe . . . iH, V. to lay upon. (Ps. 89, 19.)
gbe . . .sar)-le, v. to dash down.
gbe . . . "wfth, V. to bring.
gbe . . . ■wd, V. to raise from the ground in order to
judge of the weight.
gbe-ya-'WO (iyawo), v. to take a bride, to marry.
gbe, D. to be dry; to sharpen, whet ; to carve, hew;
to cackle, as a hen.
gbe-du, n. a kind of drum.
gbe-du-gbe-du, n. an overflowing, a wide extent
of water.
gbe-dze. See gbadie.
gbe-hir) (gbe ehii)), v. to follow ; to be too late.
gbe-dz9 (gbo), v. to hear a cause or suit.
gbe-kar), v. to feel sore : ar4 mi gbeka^, my body
is sore or aches.
gb6-ke-16, gb5-kar)-16 (gbe), v. to trust, in, to
depend on : mo gbekele woi), or mo ghoknx) mi le
woq, / trusted in them.
gbe-na-gbe-na (9na), n. a carpenter.
gber)-gbe, adv. widely (extending).
gber)-gbe-gber)-gbe, n. largeness or bulkiness.
gb6-sar) (gba), v. to take vengeance, to avenge.
gbe-se (gbe), v. to step nimbly.
gbS-se (gba), v. to sin.
gbi-dza (gba), v. to assume a quarrel, to defend.
gbi-gba, n. which is received, &c. See gba.
gbi-gbe, n. which is exalted.
gbi-gbe, n. which is dry, dryness ; which is hewn.
gbi-gbo-na, «. which is hot, heat.
gbi-gb6, n. which is heard, hearing.
gbi-hir) (gb6), v. to hear news.
gbi-ke (gba), v. to accept a propitiation (applied
to idols).
gbi-kpe, V. to accept consolation, to take comfort,
to be comforted.
gbi-kpo (gba), v. to take one's place, to be substi-
tuted for.
gbi-le. See gbale.
gbi-m5 (gba), v. to consider, advise, consult.
gbi-na (gba), v. to be on fire, to catch fire, kindle,
to glow.
gbi-ni-k6r), v. to fester, to be full of pus, to in-
flame.
gbil), V. to breathe heavily.
gbiJ), V. to plant, sow.
gbir)-gbi-ni-ki, n. bulk, bulkiness.
gbi-ro. See gbero.
gbi-yari-dzti, v. to endure.
gbi-te (ite), v. to accept worship or caressing.
gbi-ye-16 (iye). See gbakel6.
gbo, V. to bark as a dog ; to rub : gbo eiij) li ard,
curry the horse.
gb6, V. to be or grow old, to ripen, to be tough : gbo
loh, to wax old.
gbo'-do-gl, M. the yaws.
gbo-dzu (odiu), V. to be bold, impudent.
gbo-dztl-gba, V. to be bold, impudent.
gbo-dzu-16, V. to be resolute, confident.
gbo-dzu-"w6-ke (okc), v. to look up.
gbo-gbo, pron. all, every : titi gdiq gbogbo, all
the day.
gbo'-gO-d6, V. to be clumsy ; — adv. clumsily.
gbd-hui) (gb6), v. to hear : gbohuq ! hear ! an
exclamation during a public address.
gb6-h.ur)-gb6-hur), n. an echo: gbohuijgb^liur)
gba, the echo sounds.
gbo-ku (gba), V. to be stale, rancid.
gbo . . . le-nu (li), v. to contradict.
gbo-16-hur), n. a single word, just a word.
gbdm-gbo, V. to be large, as a heap.
gbo-mi-gbo-mi, v. to be large, as a surface.
gbo-na, V. to be rearm, hot, zealous, fervent.
gbo-nu (enu), V. to resist a jiroposition.
gbo-r)gbo, n. root, bottom of a matter.
gb6-r)gbo-ta, ?i. Malaghetta pepper.
GBO
39
HAL
gTjO-ro, w, a kind of snare.
gb6-ro, V. to he narrow.
gljo-ro, V. to he wide.
gbd-rur) (gb6 oruri), v. to smell, lit. to hear a
scent.
gblS, V. to hear, heed : gb6 ti, to hearken.
gbb, V. to flourish, as a plant.
gbo-do (gba edo), v. to dare, presume : b gbodo,
k6 gbodo, no, not (emphatic).
gl39-g9-do, adv. (falling) with a crash.
gbo-hir) (ibii)), v. to hear news.
gbg-hur) (61iui)), v. to hear a voice, to hear. See
gbbhuT).
gb6-kar)-l§. See gbSkele.
gbb-ko (gba), v. to be navigahle.
gbor), V. to he deep, great.
gb6r), V. to he wise, cunning ; to strike ; to hale out
water.
gbbr), V. to sliake ; to move to tears, to he in dis-
tress, to sling a stone, to cast, throw.
gborj-gboi), n. depth ; — adv. headlong.
gbor)-gbor)-gbor)-gbor), adv. clumsily.
gb6-rar) (Sraij), v. to hear a cause, to hear.
gbo-ro, n. greens of squash-leaves.
gb6-ro, V. to be long and slender.
gbu-ro (gb6 iro), v. to hear of.
gbu-ru, adv. violently (raining).
ge (Egba for ke), v. to cut.
ge, n. a kind of cloth.
ge-ge, n. a lot : ie gcge, to cast lots.
gb'-ge-le, n. a bank of earth, a furrow.
ge-gur), n. a curse.
ge-le, n. a handkerchief.
gS-le, V. to be elevated, raised above the surface.
ge, adv. exactly.
ge-de-ge-de, n. dregs, sediment.
ge-ge, adv. even so, well : gege bi, even as.
gS-ge, n. a wen.
ge-ne-ge-ne, n. dilatoriness : it genegene, to be
dilatory.
ge-re-ge-re, adv. in a lambent manner, as flame.
ge-re-ge-re, n. descent, slope, or brow of a hill.
ge-sir) (guq eiiri), v. to mount, to ride.
gi-di, a pleonasm in tlic Egba dialect : libisi 6 jgloh
gidi, whither art thou going ?
gl-di-gl-di, adv. very much.
gl-di-gl-ni, n. tumult, uproar.
gi-ga, n. height.
gi-ga-gi-ga, n, great height ; — adv. loftily.
gi-gai), n. which is pierced or to be pierced.
gi-gar), n. which is despised. (Acts 19, 27.)
g^-gi, gi-gi-le (ile). See g^gele.
gi-gi-e-se, n. the heel.
gi-go, w. which is slender ; which is putzling.
gi-gd, n. which is stupid, awkward.
gi-gui), n. which is long ; which is to be ridden.
(Acts 23, 24.)
giQ-gU), n. a very little quantity or thing.
gi-ri, gi-ri-gi-ri, adv. closely, firmly, diligently.
gl-ri-gl-ri, n. a corn cob.
go-go, n. sharp 2>oints ; — adv. sharply, severely:
ar4 mi bar) gogo, I am lean.
g6-ke (gw)), go-ri, v. to go up, mount, ascend.
gor)-go, V. to he sharp, acute.
go-ri. See goke.
go-ro, adv. shrilly.
go, V. to he long and slender, to stoop, to hide.
g6, V. to puzzle, perplex.
gd, V. to be stupid, awkward.
go-go, V. a horse's mane; a stick with a hook at the
end, for plucking fruit from trees; a child'' s play
of lots.
go-go-'WTi, n. a sheet.
goi-goi, adv. sluggishly.
go-mbo, n. a table-spoon.
gox)-gov), V. to be prominent, as the eyes ; to be
large, as a bird's beak.
gor)-gor), gor)-gor)-gor)-gor), n. a height, a steep.
gu. See gui).
gu-de-gu-de, n. cloudiness.
gti-du-gd-du, n. scrambling : ie gudugudu, to
scramble; — adv. entirely. (Gen. 31, 15.)
gCl-du-gll-du, n. a poisonous wild yam.
gu-fe, v. to belch.
gu-na (Il9rii)), n. the esculent watermelon.
gu-nu-gu-nu, n. a buzzard.
gUT), V. to climb, to ride ; to be long.
gux), V. to encamp ; to land, as a boat ; to pond, as
water.
gtU), V. to strike against, pound, stab, pierce : guggi
(igi) fo, to be torn or broken, as a bush in travelling.
gui)-le (il&), V. to land, to run aground.
gui)-r9r), V. to recline.
gur)-'wa, V. to put on stately dress, to sit in state.
gui)-ye (iye), v. to he fledged, feathered.
gvl-SU (Hausa), n. the south.
H.
ha, V. to scrape, scratch, bruise.
hfi., V. to lock, to wattle, to be entangled, crowded,
narrow.
hfi, an expletive auxiliary.
hS, n. astonishment : ha ie woij, they were asto-
nished.
ha ! interj. denoting wonder.
ha-ha, n. a blade of corn, fodder.
ha-kur) (ekuij), v. to shut a door.
ha . . . la-ye (li), v. to throng, crowd.
hfi.-16 (ile), V. to boast.
HAM
40
IBE
hfi. . . . ni6, V. to lock up, imprison.
ha . . . m6-ra (ard), v. to gird ; to he armed, har-
h^-na, n. to he crazy, to act the madman.
hfi-na-ha-na, n. roughness.
ha-nta, adv. scrawnihj : 6 ril hanta, he is very
lean.
ha-ntu, ha-ntu-ru (Hausa), v. to write.
hai), V. to scrape, to he worn out, as land ; to scream.
hdl), V. to appear, become visible ; to draw out a nail ;
to hang up.
hM) . . . 16-in6 (li), v. to maltreat.
ha-ri (ori), v. to do homage, to worship, to reve-
rence ; to share.
hau I See ho.
he, V. to pick up things scattered.
he . . . so, V. to collect news to tell, to pick up crude
knowledge, to smatter.
he-'WTi (own), V. to grow grey-headed.
he, adv. yes (addressed by females to superiors).
hee, n. malignant envy.
he-le, adv. pantingly.
he-yi, adv. used for he by males.
hi-ha, n. narrowness.
hi-hil, n. conduct, behavior.
h6, v. to boil, ferment, lather, foam ; to shout, roar,
hoot at ; to peel, strip : ho iho, to make a noise ;
ddio i)h6 b6, the rain is close at hand, lit. roaring
to come.
ho-kui), V. to shout, applaud.
h6-16, V. to salute by acclamation.
h6, V. to he narrow ; to peel or pare ; to scratch ;
to move hastily ; to retreat.
h6, k6, adv. not : eyi h6 ! is it not this ?
ho ! h9-hu ! an exclamation of contempt or of op-
position.
ho-ho, m. a kind of crow.
hoi). See huij.
h6r), V. to itch, be irritable.
hdr), V. to caiv : kanakana die, 6 yo, a h6i), the
crow has eaten, he is full, he caws.
hor)-rur), v. to snore.
ho., V. to pull up by the roots, to disinter.
h\l, V. to moulder, rot ; to be feeble ; to germinate,
come up, as a plant ; to behave ; to occur, to come
into notice, to he notable, distinguished: lailai li 6
hvi, he flourished in ancient times.
hu-ko (oko), V. to produce herbs, as the earth ; to
spring up.
hu-ko, V. to cough.
hu-m6, V. to meditate, devise, originate an idea or
notion.
htlr), V. to grunt.
hd-vrS. (iwa), v. to behave, to conduct oneself.
hu-ye (iye), v. to be fledged, feathered.
i, a preflx forming nouns of action, and occasionally
other nouns from verbs ; as, iba, a meeting, from
ba, to meet. It is also used with the subjunctive
mode.
i, pron. he, she, it.
% pron. him, her, it.
i, adv. not : odudua igba nla medii, 4 de i ^i, the
universe is two large calabashes, which are shut
and can not he opened.
i-ba, n. the act of meeting, &c. (see ba) ; a hiding,
an ambuscade ; a coincidence, a lucky hit.
iba, aux. part. should, ought, might, suppose
that : iba se fenia, if he were a man ; awa iba ti
kpada, we might have returned ; iba de ! would
that ! if that !
i-ba. See ba.
i-ba, n. fever : iba rise e, he is sick of a fever.
i-ba-de, n. fltness, accordance.
i-ba-di (id£), n. the hips or loins.
i-ba-dze, «. a spoiling, corruption, injury.
i-ba-dzo, n. a meeting with trouble, a difficulty,
i-ba-fii). See bafi^.
i-bai-ye-dze, n. mischief, a stirring up of strife.
i-ba-ka, n. a mule.
i-ba-ka'-si-e, n. a camel.
i-ba-kpa-de, n. a chance meeting.
i-ba-le (ilS), n. quietness, contentment ; the train
or tail of a loose garment ; a throwing or casting :
ibale oko, a stone's throw.
i-ba'-lo-gur), n. a military officer. See baloguij.
i-ba-16h, n. accom2}animent, attendance.
i-ba-in6-le, n. an ambuscade.
i-ba-nte, n. an apron.
i-bfi-ra, n. the passage of migratory birds : awodi
loh Ibara, the hawks are gone to Jbara.
i-ba-re, n. friendship, alliance.
i-ba-r6, n. consultation.
i-ba-so-kp6, «. a talking together, conference.
i-ba-so-rui), n. a prime minister.
i-ba-tar), n. a relative, kinsman.
i-ba-"wi, n, a judging, rebuke.
i-be-dzi (bi edii), n. twins. ,
i-be-kpe-dze, n. perjury.
i-bfe-re, n. an inquiry.
i-b6, adv. that place, yonder, there : nib|, there ;
sib§, to there, yet ; niha ibe, near there.
i-b^-be, n. entreaty, supplication.
i-be-kpe, ». a pawpaw.
i-be-re, n. a stooping ; a beginning, commencement.
i-be-ru, n. fear, dread, a fearing.
i-be-ru-bo-dzo (ba odio), n. fear and trem-
bling.
IBE
41
IDA
i-b&-tS-le, M. hrihery.
i-be-"w6, n. a visitation, investigation.
i-bi, 71. a place, this place, here : ibi gbogbo, every-
where, every respect ; ibi iyawo, a marriage ; ibi
oku, a burial ; ibi dioko, an abode ; ni ibi ti, lohere.
i-bi, n. evil, hurt; a question.
i-bl, n. birth : ogui) ibi, birthright ; ibi to, travail
comes on. (Gon. 35, 10.)
i-bi-ki-bi, n, any place whatever.
i-bi-l§ (ilo), n. one home-horn.
i-bl-lS (ile), n. a native.
i-bi-mbi, n. the natural state, untutoredness.
i-bi-n6, n. vexation, anger, wrath.
i-bi-n6-dze (ino), n. sorrow, regret, vexation.
i-bl-ro-gbo-ku, n. a couch, a sofa.
i-bl-si, n. increase.
i-bo, n. the ]}lace in which, where : ni ibo, where ?
iiiha ibo, where away, in what place ? ara ibo li
iwo ? a citizen of what pilace art tliou ? or lohence
art thou ?
i-bo, M. breadth ; lot, sortilege.
i-bo-de (ba ode), n, custom-house at the gates of
towns.
i-bo-dzi, n, a den, pit, grave.
i-bo-dziQ, n. a shade.
i-bo-dzo, n. a fearing, trembling for fear.
i-bo-dzu (odifi), n. a veil ; dissimulation.
i-bo-dzu-'w6, n. superintendence.
i-bo-nii-'w6r), n. sprinkling, affusion.
i-bd-nio-16, n. a concealing, concealment.
i-bd-ra (ar4), n. a covering for the body.
i-bo-ri (ori), n. a covering for the head or top.
i-bd-se (ese), n. a hoof.
i-bo-ni, n. a supporting of one^s cause.
i-bor), n. a gun.
i-bo'-ri-sa, n. idolatry.
i-bo-se (ese), n. a stocking.
i-b9-"wo (owo), n. a glove.
i-bu, «. abstraction of a part.
i-bu, i-bu-bu, n. breadth, diameter ; an abyss, a
chamiel ; depth.
i-bu-ba, n. a hiding-place.
i-bu-bu, n. crosswise, coastwise : m ibubu ; — adv.
crosswise.
i-bu-do, n. a camp, encam2)ment.
i-bu-du-ro (ibi iduro), n. a stand, stand-point.
i-bu-dze (ibi idie), n. a feeding-jylace, a manger.
i-bu-dzo-ko, n. a habitation, abode.
i-bu-ke, n. a carver, engraver, carving.
i-bu-koi), n. a blessing
art thou.
i-bu-kCir), n. a deficiency, remnant ; disgrace, con-
tempt.
i-bu-in9 (ibi imo), n. a watering-place or trough.
i-b0.r), n. a gift, present,
i-bu-ra, n. an oath.
i-bu-ru, n. wickedness, evil-doing.
i-busi, n. an addition, a blessing.
i-bu-Av6r), n. a sprinkling, staining.
i-bu-yir), n. honor, reverence.
i-da, n. wax, resin.
i-dfi, n. which is created, which is natural ; a divi-
sion, part, point of time : ni Ida ana, at this time
yesterday ; Ida keriij, a fourth part ; ida nieriij,
four jyarts.
i-dft, n. See dii.
i-da, 71. a sword, cutlass.
i-da-a-sa, n, a scrap of cloth, a 2)atch.
i-da-do, n. «» island, a detached abode.
i-da-du-ro, n. detention.
i-da-dzi (edzi), n. half; aflaio in cloth.
i-da-dzo, n. a collecting, a collection.
i-dfi.-dzo, n. judgment, sentence of the judge.
i-da-dzo-lCl, n. condemnation.
i-da-gi-ri, n. an alar7n.
i-da-gil-de, w. cold cloudy weather.
i-da-gur)-si-le, n. which causes war.
i-dfi-ho-ro, n. desolation.
i-da-hui), n. a i-eply.
i-da-ke, n. silence, quietness.
i-da-ke-dze, i-da-ke-ro-ro, n. quietness, a calm
i-da-ko-dza, n. a ptassing over or by.
i-dfi-ko-rd (5k9), n. an anchor.
i-d5.-kp5, n. mixture, fellowship, union.
i-da-ktl-da, n. a bad breaking.
i-d3,-k\i-da, ?«. a bad bending.
i-da-me-dzi, n. half.
i-da-me-rir), n. a fourth part, quarter.
i-da-me-ta, n. a third.
i-da-me-^wa, n. a tenth.
i-ASi-iab, n. a mistaken opinion, heresy.
i-da-mo-rai), n. a plan, device, invention.
i-da-mu, n. confusion, perplexity.
i-da-na, ». a little portable furnace ; a feast.
i-da-nde, n. redemption.
i-da-ni-la-ra, i-da-ni-lo-dzu, n. disappointment,
trouble.
i-dai), n. which is smooth, sleek ; sleight of hand ;
a joint of grass ; brightness ; a piece sewed to the
bottom of trowser legs : omo idaij, a damsel.
i-dar)-ra-'w6 (ar4), n. a trial of strength, exertion.
i-darj-vrd, n. trial, temptation.
I l-da-ra, n. goodness, beauty.
\ i-da-rar), n. transgression.
ibukoi) fa li iwo, blessed \ i-da-ra-ya, ?i. cheerfulness, liveliness.
i-da-ri-dzi, n. forgiveness, pardon.
i-da-ro, ?i. anxiety, sorroiv.
i-dfi.-ro, n. dross of iron, cinders.
i-dS.-r5r)-si-le, ». lehich causes disease or ^'f*'*-
lence.
IDA
42
IPA
i-da-ru-da-kp6, n. a confused mingling p^e mixture.
i-da-si, n. which is spared, a remnant, gleaning,
officiousness.
i-da-si-lS, n. « beginning, cause ; an ordinance or
law.
i-da-se, n. a venture, risk, hazard.
i-dfi-wS, w. consulting the gods or an oracle,
i-da-wo, n. See idaro.
i-da-'wo-kpd, n. union, combination.
i-da-ye-da-ye, adv. now and then, occasionally.
i-de, n. bandage, bond ; a binding : ni ide, bound.
i-de-bi-kpa {Ak ebi), n. starvation.
i-de-hui), n. a bargain.
i-de-le, n. guardianship ; family medicine.
i-de-na, n. a king's officer who has charge of the
revenues of a district ; a custom house ; an ob-
struction in the road, a hindrance ; a lying in wait,
an ambuscade.
i-de-ni, «. bondage.
i-de-ri, n. a lid, a cover.
i-de-ti (idi eti), n. the bur of the ear.
i-de. Sec de.
i-de, n. brass.
i-de, n. a demijohn.
i-dS. See de.
i-de-kur), n. a snare.
i-de-ti, n. failure, inability.
i-de-'WO, n. a trial, temptation, snare.
i-di, n. a bundle, sheaf, bunch ; costiveness.
i-dl, n. the rump, buttock, hilt ; a source, cause, rea-
son : ri idi, to understand, to prove ; wk idi, to in-
vestigate ; so idi, to expilain.
i-di, n. an eagle : idi baba akosa, the eagle is the
father of birds of prey.
i-di-dzi, n. a fright, an (Harm,
i-di-glia-rO (da), n. a remaining in a standing
posture,
i-di-kp5 (da), n. union, combination.
i-di-le (ile), n. kindred or race of the same stock.
i-di-lu (ilu), n. a mixing, a mixture.
i-di-n6 (ino), n, anger, passion ; costiveness.
i-dir), n. a maggot, skipper : di idig, to breed
worms.
i-di-ror) (iioi)), n. a plaiting of the hair,
i-dl-ibl) (oroi)), n. a neck-tie.
i-do', n. encampment, settlement, colonization ; siege;
the herb canna.
i-do-do, n. the navel ; in the Iketu dialect, a room.
i-do-gbo-lu, n. a stumbling-block.
i-do-ko, n. an arriving at the farm ; the name of
a town.
i-dor), n. the bed-bug, chinch.
i-d6r), n. sweetness, pleasantness.
i-du-gbo-lu. See idogbolu.
i-du-ro, n. a standing, the erect position.
i-dza, n. a blow.
i-dza, n. wrestling, fighting, war, strife : idia idi\,
motion of the whirlwind.
i-dza-ba, n. trouble, annoyance.
i-dza-dar), m. fruit which the bats have gnawed.
i-dza-de-16h, w. a going forth.
i-dza-du, n. scrambling, earnest contest.
i-dza-i-ya, n. fear.
i-dza-kS.-di, n. wrestling, struggling.
i-dza-kpa-ti, n. a pitched battle, contest ; a snatch-
ing from the hand.
i-dza-16h, n. the black ants called " drivers."
i-dza-nu, n. a bridle-bit ; a club with an irmi hook
on the end used by kidnappers.
i-dzai)-dza, n. small pieces.
i-dza-r9, n. detection of falsehood.
i-dza-sar), n. a leathern guard on the left wrist to
defend it against the bow-string.
i-dze, n. a race, competition, emulation.
i-dz§, n. a reed ; the seventh day.
i-dze-dzi-la, n. twelve days ago.
i-dze, n. an effect ; a response, reply.
i-dze, n. feed, food, wad of a gun.
i-dze-'bo, n. an altar.
i-dze-ka, n. deep sleep, snoring.
i-dze-re, n. the silk of maize.
i-dze-ri, n. testimony, evidence.
i-dze-riri, n, four days ago,
i-dze-ta, n. three dags ago,
i-dzi, n. a whirlwind, a storm ; fright, surprise.
i-dzi-gbo, n. a chief priest.
i-dii-gg-igx), n. a ravine, valley.
i-dzi-ka, n. deep sleep.
i-dzi-la, n. a famous or notorious person,
i-dzi-le, n. depth, mysteriousness.
i-dzi-in6, n. See adiim6.
i-dzi-na, n. depth (from tbe top of a height), dis-
tance, expenditure.
i-dzi-ni (oni), n. seven days hence,
i-dzir). Sec idzi and idiina.
1-dzi-se-kpa-le (ile), n. the early afternoon.
i-dzo-WTi, n. jealousy, envy.
i-dzo-ye, n. officer.
i-dz9, ft. an assembly.
i-dz6, n. a day : idz& odui), new year's day ; idio
bibi, birth-day ; idi6 gbogbo, daily.
i-dz6-kfi.i)-lo-g'b6r) (li ogboij), adv. seldom, occa-
sionally, now and then.
i-dzo-ni, n. eight days hence.
i-dzu, n. wilderness.
i-dzu-re, n. a pattern. See akpediure.
I-fti, n. one of the Yoruba idols.
i-fa, n. a round shave, used for scoopitig out the
pulp of green calabashes.
i-fk, n. gain, luck ; abatement, ebbing.
IFA
43
IGO
i-fS-gi (igi), «. a drawing-knife,
i-fa-ni, n. the space of six days.
i-fa-ror) (oroq), n. an iron instrument with which
the bowstring is drawn.
i-fe, n. a cup ; a whistling.
i-fe-fe, n, a reed.
i-fe-re, n. a flute, a pipe.
i-fe-ti-si (fi), n. attention to, obedience.
i-fe, n. love, will, desire.
i-fe, n. a belching, eructation.
i-fe-ktl-fe (k! ife), n. irregular desire, lust.
i-fe-ni, n. charity, philanthropy.
i-f e-se-dzi, n. forgiveness of sins.
i-fi-bu, n. who is cursed: ifibu li 6i), accursed is he.
i-fi-bur), n. a gift, present.
i-ii-dzi, n. pardon, remission.
i-fi-har), n. a showing, revelation.
i-fi-mo, i-fi-rar)-mo, n. suspicion, a fastening upon.
i-fo-le, n. a home-born slave.
i-fo-ri-fo, n. a flake, a spark of fire.
i-fo-ya, n. fear, dread.
i-f6, n. abundance ; bawling.
i-f 6, M. cleansing ; utterance.
i-fo-ko, n. shipwreck.
i-fo-le (ile), n. burglary.
i-fo-lu (ilu), n, the destruction of a town,
i-for), n. a gut, bowels, tripe.
i-f6r), n. a severe eruptive itching of the hands,
i-for)-for), n. a small honey -making fly.
i-for)-kpo, n. a crowd.
i-fui), n. whiteness.
i-ga, n. height, stature.
i-ga, n. stretch, extension : na iga, to stand at full
stretch, reaching up.
I-ga-na, n. a wall, a walled enclosure, the name of
a town.
i-gai), n. contempt, coniemptuousness : igaij amado,
the large wild boar.
i-gar)-gar), n. a kind of yam,
i-g§.r)-gar), n. largeness, hugeness.
i-gag-riq, n. a mattock.
i-gar)-re, n. a pick-axe.
i-ga-ra, n. a robber, robbery,
i-gba, n. admittance, reception ; beating upon ; a
gourd cut for use ; time, opportunity : ni igba ti,
in the time which, when ; ni igba na, then ; ni
igba kpik6, many times ; igba ori, the skull,
i-gba, n, the African locust-tree,
i-gba, mtm, ttco hundred.
i-gbfi., M. tomato,
i-gba-dzi, n, a loin-girdle,
i-gba-dze, n, a large gourd.
i-gba-gbe, n. forge tftdness, oblivion,
i-gba-gb6, n. faith,
i-gbako, n, a ladle.
i-gba-ku-gba, n, any time : ni igbakugba, often
i-gba-la, n, salvation, deliverance : se igbala, to save,
i-gba-mu, n. seizure,
i-gba-ni, n. a span,
i-gb3.-nl, n. ancient times : ara igbani, ancients,
i-gba-ro-ko, n, the hip-joint,
i-gba-ti (eti), n. a border, edge.
i-gbe, n. a taking ; forgetfulness. See igbagbe.
i-gbe-kur), n. a male captive,
i-gbe-le, n. usury, interest ■' se igbele, to exact
usury.
i-gbe-ra, n, self-defervce, vindication,
l-gbe-ri (gbe and ri), w. nearness.
i-gbe-ri (ori), n. position above the head, (Mat.
27, 37.)
i-gbe-ri-ko, n, a neighborhood, province.
i-gbe-ro, n. consideration.
i-gbe-se, n. debt, desert.
i-gb6, ». bush; figuratively, /ceces.
i-gbe-hir) (igba), n, the last, the afterpart, the emd
of a period.
i-gbe-ke-le, n. hope, assurance. See gbekele.
i-gbe-sir), n, a female captive,
i-gbl-md, n, a councillor,
i-gblr), n, a snail ; an effort to remove anything,
i^bo, n. a forest.
i-gbo, n. an assembly of priests, a sacrifice.
i-gbo-du, i-gbo-fa, n. a sacred grove,
i-gbo-i-ya, i-gbo-dzfl, n, courage,
i-gbd-kui) (gba), n. a sail.
i-gbd-ro, n. bush-grown fallow land.
i-gbo-ro, n. a street,
i-gbo-ro-bo, n, the thumb,
i-gbo-se, n, after a while : 6 di ^boie, let him wait
a while, after a little ; yi 6 w^h ni igbose, lie will
come by and bye,
i-gb6, n. hearing, attention, trust, obedience.
i-gbo-kti-gbo, n. credulity, one who is credulous.
i-gbor)-ra (ar4), n. a shaking of the body.
i-gbor)-'w6, n. the elbow, a cubit : so ni rgboi)\v6,
to jog with the elbow,
i-gbo-'WO (gbil), n a pledge, token ; a cubit,
i-ge-de, n, a mystery (superstitious).
i-ge-re, n, a fish-pot,
i-ge, n, a sitting, perching,
i-ge, n, the breast, chest,
i-ge-kpa, n, a bird-snare.
i-gi, n, laood, tree, stick, stalk, stem : igi imo, snout,
i-go, n. a bottle,
i-g6r)-gO, n, a gruh-worm : igoijgo ofoi), the wind-
pipe.
i-gor)-gor), n. tip, end.
i-g6, n. per2)lexity : igo igi, roots above the ground
bracing the tree.
l-gor), «. the shin.
IGO
44
IKP
i-gor), n. a corner, an angle.
i-gVLQ, n. a vulture,
i-gur)-wa, n, sitting in state, statcliness (of dress).
i-gfU-SO, n. a tobacco pipe, a forked stick, an instru-
ment of torture.
i-ha, n. the side, a part, portion, region : iha ikpig
il§, the ends of the earth ; iha ino, the inward
parts ; ni iha ibe, in those parts ; iha ekpo, the
husk of the palm-nut.
i-h.a-ga-ga, n, a pre§s, a crowd.
i-ha-ho, n. crust or burnt part at the bottom of the
pot.
1-ha-le, n. poverty.
i-ha-ri, n. homage.
i-hlr), n. place, this ^ylace, here, hither.
i-hil), n. narration, news, thing, reputation.
i-h6, n. noise, &c. See ho.
i-h.0, n. a hole, pit, ditch : iho imo, the nostrils ;
iho itebo, a socket for a tenon, a mortise.
i-ho, i-hd-ho, i-hd-ri-ho, n. nakedness : ni ihoho,
naked.
i-hd-kilr), i-h6-l§, n. acclamation.
i-h6, n. a district spared for hunting, a park.
i-hd-hu, n. down.
i-hu-lS (ile), n. origin, rise.
i-ka, n. a finger. •
i-k^ n. cruelty, obstinacy, wickedness.
i-ka-ka, n. a muscle (shell-fish).
i-ka-ki-ka, n. great wickedness.
i-ka-ndu, n. a large stinging ant.
i-ka-ni, n, a waist-band.
1-ka-ni-la-ra (kag li), n. piercingness, or power of
words.
i-ka-n6 (ino). See ika.
i-kar), n. cane with which chairs are bottomed.
i-k&r), n. the white ant, a large species of termites.
i-kS.r), n. a kind of egg-plant.
i-karj-dzu, n. a hastener: ikaqdzu dzaiye, one
who haptens to be rich.
i-kar)-gur), n. extremity, remote corner.
i-ka-ra, n. a back yard ; a clam.
i-ka-si, M. respect ; that which is stale.
i-k^-wS, n. control, mastery : ie ikawo, to subdue.
i-ke, n. ivory ; a hump or hunch ; carving,
sculpture ; a joint, a partition, a ring of bread ;
an outcry.
i-ke-de, n. a proclamation : 4e ikede afidzi, to pro-
claim tlie repeal fif a law.
i-ke-le (il6), n. a partition, a room.
i-ke, n. indulgence, devoted attention to.
i-ke, n. hoarseness.
i-ke-hir), n. the end, the last : ni ikehiij, at last.
i-ke-kur), M. a snare.
i-ke-na, n. large wood for the fire,
i-ki, n. thickness of a liquid, as soup.
kl, n. salutation.
■ki-lse, n. a sash, a band,
■ki-ni, n. salutation,
■ki-ri, n, wandering.
•ki-"we-dze, n. a wrinkle.
■ko, n. palm-leaf fibres woven into cloth : iko-eti,
a binding on the edge of cloth,
■ko, n, a large tall basket in which peas are stored,
•ko-dzo, n, a gathering : ikodi9 oko, harvest.
•ko-gur), n. plunder, captivity.
■ko-ko, n, a pot : ikoko taba, a tobacco pipe,
■ko-ko. See ikoriko.
■ko-16h, n, a carrying away, captivity,
■kor)-ko-SO, n, a kind of rat-trap,
■ko-re, n. a harvest, a crop.
■ko-ri-ko, n. grass ; a hyena,
■ko-ro, n, bitterness,
■k6-ro, n. a sky-light.
ko-ro, n. a perch (fish).
■ko-ti, n. a hair-pin.
•ko, n. a cold chisel, a tack ; a cough ; a skein ;
doctrine. See k9.
■ko, n. a messenger,
■k6-dzu-sl, ». a fronting on, moving or looking
toivards,
ko-k9, n. the inner comer of a thing, a secret
place, privacy,
k6-ko-ro, n. a hook,
■ko-ku-ko (iko ki iko), n. false doctrine.
ko-le (ile), n. the head man of a farm.
koi), M. a squirrel ; mucus ; fulness.
k5r), n. a murmuring.
kor)-d6 (6do), n. a freshet,
kor)-du, «. the end, as of a box,
kor)-ra, n. fatigue, satiety,
k5r)-si-no (ino), n, a grumbling.
'k.gr)-wg (owo), n. a handful.
kog-wS-si-le (ile), n. an overflowing full mea-
sure,
ko-ra, n, a loud hotoling, a crying out, '
ko-se (ese), n, a stumbling, a hindrance,
k6-se-bfi., n. an unexpected event, a chance.
■kpa, M. a path, foot-print, channel: ikpa ona, a
road.
■kpa, n. power, circumstances in life ; a part, a
party ; a kick,
kpai-ya, n, fearfulness,
■kpa-ka, n. a corn-floor, barn.
kpa-kai), n. a part.
kpa-ka-ra, n. a spacious back yard.
kpa-ko, n. the hollow on the back of tlie neck :
yi ikpako si, to flee from,
kpa-kpa, n, a prairie,
kpa kp5, n, a mingling, a mixture.
kpa-la-ra, n. hurt, injury.
IKP
45
IMA
l-kpa-le-ni6, n. jrreparation : ikpalem6 oko, har-
vest.
i-kpa-na, n. a place : iwo mbS ni ikpana mi, thou
art in my place or seat.
i-kpa-ni, n. manslaughter, murder.
l-kpar)-ka, n. a largain as to price.
i-kpar)-ko-ro 9-ino, «. a girl.
i-kpa-ra, n. suicide ; rust on metal.
i-kpa-r&, i-kpa-rur), n. destruction.
i-kpa-ri (ori), n. baldness.
i-kpa-ro, n. a change, exchange.
i-kpa-se (ese), «. a foot-])rint, a 2)ath.
i-kpe, «. a trumpet. See kpe.
i-kpe-dze, n. an invitation to a feast,
i-kpe-dzi, n. an opening, interval, interstice, as be-
tween the teeth, or between threads of cloth.
i-kpe-le, n. a distant relation.
i-kper)-kpe-dzu, n. the eye-lash. •
i-kpe-re, n. the small snail.
i-kpe-ti, n. a snare/or beasts.
1-kpe, n. the shoot of maize or Indian com ; a fish-
scale ; a flat stick on which raw cotton is wound.
i-kpe, n. entreaty : is ikpe, to beseech.
i-kpS-for), M. a bailiff: ikpSfoi) igbese, ^ciiy (ieSis.
i-kpe-kpe, a scale, as of a fish, a small shell: ikpe-
kpe okuij, a sea-shell.
i-kpe-re, n. a halter for a horse.
i-kpe-re, n. young people.
i-kpi-lS, i-kpi-le-se, n. foundation, beginning.
i-kpir), n. one's good genius ; a species of rough-
leafed fig ; a division, <&c. (See kpii)) : ikpiq il§
nini, a portion of an inheritance ; ikpiij r&, his
share.
i-kpir)-ka, n. distinction.
i-kpo, n. place, stead, office, rank, condition ; fold,
double : ikpo ok6, the 2>lace of the dead, hades.
i-kp6-ni6, n. mingling, mixture : ikpom6 enia,
mingled people.
i-kpo-rur), n. a parasol.
i-kp5, n. abundance, clteapness.
i-kp5-dzu, n. the greater part, majority.
i-kpor), n. thickness ; a wooden spoon. Sec kpoij.
i-kpor), n. irony ; rai) ikpoij si, to speak ironically
of
i-kpor)-dzu, n. distress, adversity.
i-kpo-ri, n. the great toe.
i-kp9-si, n. scorn, contem2H.
i-ku, «. end, termination.
i-ktl, n. death.
i-kCl, n. the gable of a house, end of a box.
i-kti-du, n. a clay pit.
i-ku-dza-re (die), n. the gathering of locust fruit.
i-ku-gbu, n. presumption.
i-ku-ku, n. the fist.
i-ku-ku, n. a cloud, fog.
i-kil-le (iI6), m. the gable of a house.
i-kur), n. the belly, abdomen ; a cavity, bowl.
i-kur)-ra (ard), n. ointment for the body.
i-ku-sa, n. nearness.
i-la, n. oJcra.
i-lft, n. a cleaving, a cleft ; salvation, escape ; ap-
pearing, state, condition ; tattoo ; circumcisimi :
ila onii), sunrise, the east.
i-la-gur), 11. first fruit of the season.
i-lai-ya, n. boldness, courage.
i-la-ka-ka, n. forcible impression.
i-la-na, n. an ordinance : ia ilana, to ordain.
i-la-ra, n. envy ; freedom : se ilara, to envy.
i-la-ri, n. a king's herald.
i-la-sa, n. the okra leaf.
i-la-sa-dd, n. a kind of herb.
i-l§, n. a house : ile abere, a needle-case ; ilo ^se,
a kitchen ; ilo ato, the bladder ; ile ero, an inn ;
ile eiye, a bird's nest ; lie iso, a stable ; ile oku, a
tomb.
i-le, n. a bird snare. See also le.
i-le-ke, n. which is above, an upper garment.
i-lg-ko. See ileto.
i-le-ko, n. a pistol.
i-le-ra (ara), n. strength, which is strong.
i-le-ri, n. a promise, vow : se ileri, to promise.
i-le-ru, n. a furnace.
i-le-to, n. a village.
i-ld, n. ground, earth (see 1^) : il5 ini or nini, a pos-
session ; il| oku, a burying ground ; ilS oba, a
kingdom; i\h m6, it is daybreak ; ile iu, it is dark ;
il§ aiye, the earth ; il5 biri, a small piece of ground,
a field.
i-lS-dti, n. black soil, manure.
i-le-ke, n. a bead : ileke okp9l9, toad's eggs.
i-le-kpa, n. a grave, tomb.
i-le-kui), n. a door-shutter.
i-le-se, n. the beginning.
i-lo, i-lo-ro, n. a porch.
i-16, n. a using, use : ohug ilo, a vessel.
i-lo-ri, n. a whirling round.
i-lo, n. an accusation, a charge. See lo.
i-loh, n. See l9h.
i-lo-lo, n. fetidness ; lukewarmness.
i-lo-ra, n. delay : se ilora, to delay, tarry.
i-lo-S9, **• ** squatting posture.
i-lu, n. a gimlet ; a town. See lu.
i-lu, n. a drum. See 111.
i-lu-ke-dzi, n. a small village.
i-ma, aux. part, a sign of continued action. See
ma.
i-md.-do, n. a kind of wild boar.
i-ma-le, ?*. a Yoruba inoselyte to Mohammedanism.
i-ma-ra-du-ro (mu ara), n. continence, self-re-
straint.
IMA
u
IRO
i-ma-ti-ko, n. an instrument for drawing the bow-
string.
i-me-le, n, idleness, indolence : se imele, to he in-
dolent.
i-ml, n. dung.
i-ml, n. a breathing.
i-mi, n. a shaking : imi ed5i), sighing, a sigh.
i-mi-lS, n. a shaking of the earth.
i-mi-si, n. breathing on, inspiration.
i-mo-dzo, w. a kind of rat.
i-mo-dug-dzu-o, i-mo-dzu-o, n. the fore-finger.
i-md-re, n. gratitude.
i-mo-ru (imu oru), n. heat of the sun: imoru
odio, the heat or middle of the daij.
i-mo-ye, n. intellect, understanding. See moye.
i-mo, n. the nose.
i-ni6, n. knowledge, interpretation, decision : fi im5
sokai), to agree together.
i-mo-dze, n. the water ordeal.
i-in6-dzCl, n. drunkenness.
i-in5-dzu, n. sujterior knowledge.
i-ni6-dzu-in6, n. the dawn.
i-in6-le, n. light : ie imole, to enlighten.
i-in5-le, n. a conspiracy.
i-mo-mo, n. the grass-nut.
i-mS-ni-no, n. conscience.
i-mo-rai), n, a wise man.
i-mo-ti (mo t^), n. a having sold out.
i-mb-te-le, n. foreknowledge.
i-mu, m. sharpness, severity. See mu.
i-inu-'b&, n. means, instrumentality.
i-mu-ku-ro, n. taking ateay.
i-mu-le, n. firmness, as to standing.
i-mu-na-mu-na, n. the fire-fly.
i-mu-ni-bi-no, n. a provocation.
i-mu-nO., «. activity, in a cause.
i-mu-re, n. a flea.
i-na, n. a flre ; a blossom ; a louse. See na.
i-n^ n. a whipping, a stripe or stroke with the whip.
See na.
i-na-bi, n. a plant which blisters the skin.
i-na-ki, n. the chimpanzee, ape.
i-na-kH-na (ki), n. extravagance.
i-nar), n. sight, vision.
i-ne-dz§-dzi, n. sides of the doorway.
i-nl, n. possession : ini ih kpc>, his possessions are
great.
i-ni-la, n. greatness.
i-ni-la-ra, n. oppression.
i-ni-ra, n. freedom ; difilcully, strait, need.
i-ni-rai), w. remembrance.
i-n6, n. the inside, mind, womb ; an indentation or
bowl (Ex. 25, 34) : ino didoi), pleasure (of mind) :
se in6 d8r) si, to he pleased with, delight in ; ino
rere, o good disposition ; ia ino rfere, to he kind-
hearted ; ino badie, to be displeased ; in6 yo,
to pity ; ekog in6, the Julness of a thing (Ps. 50,
12); ni in6, in, within ; ino midSq, I am pleased,
happy ; in6 d6r) mi, / am pained, grieved.
no-bi-bi, n. fretfulness.
n6-dz(i, n. a towel for the face, a handkerchief.
■n6-le (ile), n. inside the house.
Ii5-se, n. a foot-towel.
■n6-'w6, n. a hand-towel.
•ra, n. a morass, a bog ; a kind of horse. See ra.
■ra-do, n. compassion.
-ra-kpa-da, n. redemption.
ra-le, n. lathing, laths.
-ra-le, n. evening.
ra-na, n. a propitiation made for the dying.
■-TB.T), n. a sight, seeing ; a generation, a race ; re-
semblance.
•rai)-dl-rar), n. successive generations, genealogy.
■rai)-se, n. a servant.
•rai)-wu, n. a cotton-spinner. (Pr. 44.)
•ra-"wo, n. a star,
-re, n. plaff.
■r6, n. a going off, as a trap : a curse, an urging
forward, haste.
-rh, n. goodness ; well-wishing ; gait of a horse.
re-de (ode), n. revelling, revelry.
•re-gur), n. abuse, a curse,
,-re-ke, n. sugar-cane.
•re-k9-dza, n. a passing over.
,-re-kpa, n. transgression.
re-kpe, n. a scrap or remrmnt of cloth.
■re-ni, n. four days hence.
•re-ra, n. pride.
,-re-ri, n. a being past harvest time.
•re-ti, M. hope.
re, n. friendship, <&c. See re.
-re, n. a corn-tassel.
re-na, n. candle-snuffers.
-re-ni-dze, n. a cheating, fraud.
ri, n. sight, <&c. See ri.
ri, n. dew, mist.
■ri-dzti, n. a steward.
-ri-na, n. a sight, a spectacle.
ri-ndo, n. nausea.
rlr), n. iron ; a kind of rat-trap. /
rir), i-rio-le, i-rir)-ini, n. dampness, moisture.
■rir), n. walking, <fcc. See rii).
-ri-ra, n. hatred, an abomination.
-ri-rai), n. See irina.
ri-ri, n. experience.
-ro, n. a telling, d:c. See ro.
■rd, n. a stirring, <kc. See r6.
■ro, n. the chimpanzee.
•ro-bi-n6-dze, n. grief, trouble.
•ro-gba, n. an assembly of the elders.
IRO
47
ITA
i-rd-ktl-rd, n. an evil thought.
i-ro-na, n. a going in quest of.
i-ro-n6, n. consideration, thought.
i-ro-n6-kpi-wa-da, n. repentance.
i-ro-ra, n. pain, groaning.
i-ro, n. a relating, interpretation, <&c. See ro.
i-r6, n. a Jib ; texture, the warp of cloth.
i-ro, n. an equal, a companion.
i-rg-gbo-ku, n. a couch.
i-ro-kp5, n. acting for an absent person.
i-ro-n6, n. abstinence from food, solemnity, pain in
the stomach.
i-ro-nu, n. tenderness, compassion.
i-ror), n. hair : vtoii gauqgaui), a bristle.
i-roi), n. prayer by rote.
i-r6r), n. a being sick.
i-ror)-g4r), n. barrenness.
i-ror) -gbor), n. the beard.
i-ro-ra (am), n. a bolster.
i-ro-xi (ori), n. a pillow.
i-ru, n. a rising, a fountain, an uproar, <kc.
See ru.
i-ru, m. seed of plants ; kind, species, such : bi iru
eyi ti 6 fe, such as (bi . . . ti) he loves.
i-ni, n. the tail ; a gadfly.
i-ru-di, n. a bud.
i-ru-gbir), n. seed for sowing.
i-rfl-ke-rii-do, 71. a tumult, insurrection.
i-ru-ke, n. a cow''s tail carried as a badge.
i-ru-ke-re, n. corn-silk.
i-ru-kpe-kpe, n. vexation ; vigorous growth.
i-ru-la, n. okra seeds.
i-ru-lu, n. a tumult, an uproar.
i-ru-mi, n. waves. «
i-ru-mo (91110), n. seed, offspring.
i-ru-ru, n. a variety of kinds, any kind.
i-ni-ya, n. an emetic.
i-sa, n. flight, <&c. See sa.
i-S&, n. a grave, a pit.
i-sh, n. an attempt, <kc. See si.
i-sa-bo-ti, n. an outer yard.
i-sa-ga-da-gba, n. a regular set-to in battle.
i-sa-ga-ti, n. a siege.
i-sa-le, n. the lower part, bottom, below.
i-sar), n. retaliation, dtc. See sa^.
i-sai), i-sa-ni, n. nine days hence.
i-sS.r), n. a sinetv.
i-sfi.r)-dur( (odfii)), n. harvest.
i-sar)-sa, n. a deserter, a runaway.
i-s3.-se, w. a feast.
i-sh-hi, n. confection.
i-se-le, n. an earthquake.
i-si, n. a new invention, a new era.
i-si-mi, n. rest, the sabbath.
i-sir), n. service.
i-sirj-kii-sir), n. superstitious worship.
i-si-si-yi, n. this time, now.
i-SO, m. a tying ; an emission of wind ; a producing
of fruit : iso melokai), a little while. (Gen. 24, 55.)
i-SO-fir), n. a giving of law, a prohibition.
i-so-ko, n. a mooring-place.
i-SO-kpa, n. a hard knot.
i-SO-lu, n. a coupling.
i-SO-r9, **• '^ hanging, a curtain.
i-SO-3^-gi, n. marriage.
i-S9, n. a place, station, quarter of tbe town : iso
4gba, meeting-place of the elders.
i-SO-di, n. which is made, or caused to be.
i-SO-ka, n. a kind of bird snare.
i-s5-kil-S9, n. silly or evil talk.
i-S9-nu, n. the Mohammedan supper after the long
fast.
i-sog, n. a fountain.
i-su-"wa, n. goodness of a proposition or act.
i-sa, n. ebb-tide.
i-sa-dzCl, n. former (time or state).
i-sa-na, n. a flint and steel.
i-sa-kpa, M. a kind of hibiscus.
i-sar), n. a flood ; a vein, artery.
i-sa-sur), n. a sauce-pan.
i-se, n. custom,fashion, character, etc. See ^e.
i-se-ur), n. kindness : iionr) ife, loving kindness.
i-se, n. work, trouble, distress : He ami, a sign ; i^e
ase, a miracle ; ise ikpa, hard toil ; i^e isi^, duty,
service; \i& oro, torment; loh sibi ise, go to
work.
i-se-ki-se, i-se-ku-se, n. a wicked work.
i-se-kpe, n. small fire-wood.
i-se-kpo, n. a fold, a double.
i-se-n9, n. abortion, miscarriage.
i-se-ti, n. a hem.
i-si, n. paleness, fading.
i-si, i-sir), n. a kind of indigenous fruit,
i-si-nu, n. appetite.
i-sir), n. a tree and its fruit.
i-si-si, n. a fault, error of action.
i-SO, n. peevishness.
i-s6, n. slackness, as of a rope.
i-S9-de, n. patrol, jiolice.
i-SO-kai), n. concord.
i-SO-ra, n. watchfulness.
i-s6-rar), n. an offence, an offender, evil doer.
i-S9-te, n. enmity, rebellion, sedition.
i-SU, n. a ball, a lump ; the yam, dr. (see su) : i^u
ode, wild yam ; isu okpe, palm-cabbage.
i-su-ra, n. treasure.
i-ta, n. a street ; woof of cloth ; pain, pungency ; a
setting sail, d'c. See ta.
i-ta-do-gur), «. seventeen dags.
i-ta.-fo (local), n. a table.
ITA
48
lYA
i-ta-le, M. a worm which comes up from the ground
and attacks people when asleep.
i-ta-le-mo, n. ancestors.
i-ta-mo-ra, n. accoutrements for war.
i-ta-na, n. a flower, blossom.
i-tai), n. the thigh, a ham ; kinship, tradition, com-
pletion, d;c. See taij.
i'tarj-kpa-ra, n. an ulcer caused by small-pox.
i-ta-ra, n. haste, hurry, zeal, anxiety.
i-ta-so-ri, n. which is poured on the head.
i-ta-S9 (a^o), n. a cloth stretched or hung asacuriain.
i-te, n. a throne, d;c.
i-te-bo,». the underside of a roof ; a tenant. Seeiho.
i-te-hir), n. a saddle-cloth.
i-te-le, n. the leg of a beast.
1-te-le, n. foundation.
i-te-le-se, n. a private sign (as a nod, wink, &c.)
to attract attention.
i-te-ri-gb§, n. the lintel of a door.
i-te-se, «.■ the treadle of a loom.
i-ti, n, timber, a log.
i-tl, n. a bundle, sheaf, wisp ; breaking, snapping in
two.
i-ti-dzu, n. shame, modesty.
i-ti-se, n. a foot-stool.
i-to-ri, n. a share : so itori, to share.
I'-to-rl, n. the cause, reason ; therefore.
i-to-si, n. nearness : nitosi, near.
I-to-t6, n. truth.
i-to-ye, n. merit, value.
i-to n. straightness ; a creek; old age, endurance,
leading ; spittle, dbc. See to.
i-t5, n. urine, dx. See t5.
i-to-dzu, n. oversight, care, perseverance: se
itodzii, to persevere, to ovfrsee.
i-t&-k9, n. an oar, a rudder.
i-tor)-ri-rar), n. recovery of sight.
i-to-re, n. a gift : itore fmu, alms.
i-to-'WO, n. an earnest, anticipation.
i-tu, n. overthrow, eradication, dr. See tn.
i-tu, n. a spiarroio.
i-tCl, n. ease, relief: \i\S. cdo, consolation ; io itii
ard, to rest.
i-tu-mb, n. interp>retation, sense, meaning.
1-111-116, n. comfort, consolation.
i-tu-ra, m. ease from 2)ain, refreshment: ituraodi6,
the cool of the day.
i-'wS, n. distribution. (1 Pet. 4, 10.)
i-vrS, 71. being, origin, life, duration of life, conduct,
disposition, nature of a thing, presence (Gen. 43,
9) : iwh ikpa, violence ; iwil buburu, wickedness ;
iwa tito, integrity, honesty ; iwa tiltn, meekness ;
iwa ibi, iwa ika, mischief; iwa mimo, holiness ;
iwa ara, brotherhood ; iwa Olorui), the Godhead ;
oAio odftij iwk r6, th<- years of his life.
i-wa-dze, n. gain, profit, seeking for food.
i-'wa-dzu, n. the front, presence, before, brow.
i-'W&-ku-'w3, 71. bad behavior, caprice.
i-"wa-le, n. a digger ; figuratively, a man child, a
son.
i-"wa-na, n. a smithU poker.
i-'wa-ra, n. haste, impatience : ie iwara, to hasten,
hurry.
i-Tva-se, n. powder, fine grains ; the menses.
i-wa-'wi, n. an excuse, extenuation.
i-AVa-ya i-dza, n. struggling, agony.
i-'we, n. the kidneys.
i-"W§, n. a book, a comparison.
i-Ave-dze, n. a wrinkle.
i-'we-dze, n. a curl, a tress.
i-vre-re, n. silliness, folly : se iwere, to be foolish,
to act foolishly.
i-'we-ri, n. a head-band.
i-"we, n. a frog ; fineness of grain or of threads.
i-"we-fa, n. a eunuch.
i-'we, n. a horn.
i-"w6, n. the thrush in children.
i-"W"6-do, n. a ford.
i-'WO-ro, n. a heathen, an idolater.
i-"WO-ye, n. foresight, 2irovidence.
i-'WO-yi, n. the present time, now.
i-'we, pron. thou.
i-'w6, n. the navel, crookedness ; husk of certain
seeds ; a horn.
i-'w5, n. poison put in food ; entering, dr. See
■wo.
i-'we, «. suitableness, form ; a fish-hook.
i-"WO-dzo, n. a gathering together, an assembly,
crowd. •
i-'WO-fa, w. a pawn servant.
i-'wb-ni, j)ron. those.
i-'WOl), n. scarcity of food, <fcc. ; a long neck, as
of a gourd.
i 'w6r), n. a measure of quantity or distance, sise :
iw6i) fadaka, a piece of silver, as money; ni iw5i)
bi, so long as ; iw5i) linia, as many people as.
i-'WOr)-'WOI), n. the igxiana ; a bundle.
i-'WOl) -yi, pron. these.
i-'wa-ra, n. greediness.
i-'wp-si, n. contempt, spite : ic iwosi si, to insult.
i-'W^O-SO, n. a ball of thread, wound up ready for
weaving.
i-'WTi, n. a choice, preference, dc. Sec wu.
i-"WTi'-ka-ra (akara), n. leaven.
i-'wnr), n. a thing.
i-ya, n. the armpit.
i-ya, n. loss, pmtrrty, suffering : die lya, to suffer ;
emirii) die ni ko to lya, the bite of a sandfly is not
so shar]) as poverty.
i-ya, n. mother, mistress of a servant.
lYA
49
KAN
i-ya-fii) (afiq), n. a queen, mistress of a house,
i-ya-gb^ n. a midwife.
i-ya-ko, n. a mother-in-law.
i-ya-kpa, n. separation, a sect.
i-ya-lft, i-ya-nlft, ». a grandmother.
i-ya-l&.-se, n. a female cook.
i-ya-le (ile), n. the mistress of the house (that is,
tlie first wife),
i-ya-le-ta, n, about eight o'clock in the forenoon.
i-ya-lo-de, n. a wise woman.
i-ya-nu, n. wonder, astonishment.
i-yfi.r), n. boiled yam pounded.
i-y4l), n, denial, contradiction, a question in dis-
pute, (tc. See yai).
i-yar), n. famine.
i-yar)-dze, n. a cheats imposition,
i-yar)-dz<l, n. exhortation, perseverance, constraint,
i-yar)-fe, n. Sec ayaijfe.
i-yar)-gbe, n. dryness, that which is dried.
i-yan-gbo, m, chaffs.
i-yar)-rar), n. an oven.
i-yaq-rii), n. sand : iyaijrir) dide, quicksand.
i-ya-ra, to. activity, nimbleness : ar4 iyara (eyi ard),
the body itself. v
i-ya-ri, n. vivacity.
i-ya-to, n. difference, separation,
i-ya-Twd, ». a bride : ibi-iyawo, a wedding.
i-ya-AVU, to. a sledge-hammer.
i-ye, in composition, this, self, very. See iyekuru.
i-y§, TO. mind, understanding.
i-y6, TO. life, dec. See yh.
i-ye, TO. number, value, price : so iye, to value, set a
price on ; a reed ; in composition, mother, as,
iyekai).
i-ye-bi-ye, w. great price, 2>reciousness,
i-ye-kai), n. a mother's relative.
i-yg-ku-ni (iye), to. the very dust,
i-ye-me-dzi, n. doubt : ie iyemedil, to doubt.
i-ye-ni, n. which is intelligible.
i-ye-n6, to. sense, understanding,
i-ye-re, «. black pepper,
i-ye, TO. fitness, comeliness ; a feathers akpa-iye, a
wing.
i-ye, TO. dust of worm-eaten wood.
i-ye-fuQ, n, -flour.
a kind of trowscrs.
the very branches, natural branches of
i-yo, n. salt, the flood tide (sec yo) : iyo oibo,
sugar.
i-yo-n6, re. compassion.
i-yo-nu, n. trouble.
i-ydr), to. coral, pearl.
K.
i-ye-gbe, w.
i-ye-ka, re.
a tree.
i-ye--wd, n.
i-ye-"WTi, TO.
DivestigatMn.
a chamber,
i-yir), to. praise.
i-yi-SO, TO. a pin to turn the weaver's beam,
i-yo-dzd (iye), re. the natural face. (James
23.)
1-yo-kui), n. the remainder, the rest.
1
kS, V. to gather, to reap, to pull a tooth ; to fold, to
roll; to fail.
k&, prep, around^ on ; — adv. around.
k&, V. to count, to read j to regard, respect ; to set or
place upon.
ka (ki a), adv. not. See Gram. § ITO.
kS, adv. presumptuously.
ka-ba-ka-ba, adv. roughly, unevenly.
ka-bi-ye-si ! (ki 4), let us reverence! an excla-
mation as the king approaches.
kd.-dui) (odur)), v. to he the space of a year.
ka-fo, re. tight-legged pantaloons,
ka-gba, v. to hang or be entangled in,
ka-hur). See kauij,
kair)-kair)-ka, to. chaff of millet,
kfi-ka, re. which is strong., stiff.
kd.-ka, adv. instead of, otherwise ; presumptu-
ously.
ka-kar)-fo, n. a military generaL
kS-ka-ra, n. a muscle-shell.
ka-ka-ra-ka, adv. strongly, stiffly.
kfi-ki-ri, adv. abroad, wanderingly.
ka-ko, V. to curl, to twist,
ka-ko, V, to be stiff.
kfi. . . . k6r), V. to add to.
k&-la-ni6, re. a pen to write with.
ka . . . la-ra (li), v. to enfold, entangle, as a net.
ka . . . le-hiQ (li), v. to pull a tooth of.
k^-le (ile), V. to set down, to deposit, to establish ; —
adv. around, abroad.
ka-16h {ki k loh), v. let us go to follow !
ka . . . in6, v. to surround, to enclose.
ka-na-ka-na, re. a crow.
ka-na-k§.-na, re. a sling.
k9.-n6, V. to be cruel, harsh.
ka-nu, V. to be sorry, to grieve, mourn.
kar), adv. at once, quickly.
kar), V. to be sour, morose, painful, opposed to ; to
bore.
k&Q, num. one: awoij kai), certain ones; niirai)
kai), others ; owo kaij, the last cowry ; ise kaq,
the last action ; — adv. precious. (Ps. 22, 20.)
k&r), V. to drip, drop, as water : to pluck, nip, to
take off, as a ring.
k^, V. to knock upon, nail, touch ; to gore, as an ox.
kag-dzu, v. to hasten.
KAN
50
KEY
kar)-ga, n. a well.
kar)-gi, n. to be difficult, callous.
kar)-gur), n. to be the last, at the end.
kar)-kar), adv. hastily.
kd.r)-kar), k3.r)-ri-kar(, n. soft fibres used instead
of sponge.
kar)-ki, n. tight pantaloons.
kai)-kur) (ekuij), v. to knock at the door,
kag . . . la-ra (ar4), v. to pierce, as words,
kaj) . . . in6, v. to nail or fasten to : kaijin6 agbe-
lebu, to crucify.
kag-mo-le, v. to stick fa^t, as in mud.
kai)-inu-kar)-niu, adv. sweetly (flavored).
kar)-ra (ar4), v. to be morose, peevish.
kar)-ri (ori), v. to nail a cut-off head to a tree ; to
touch the head with a sacrifice.
kar)-ri, kar)-ri-kar)-ri, adv. far distant.
kar)-rui)-kar)-rur)-f§, n. a long time.
ka-ra, n. a gland.
ka-rfi, adv. loudly.
ka-ra-wor), ». a conch-shell.
k§.-ri (ori), v. to set on the head.
ka-rur), num. fifth.
kd.-sai), n. sarsaparilla.
kd.-se, V. to walk leisurely ; to terminate.
ka-si, V. to be stale.
ka ... si, V. to place upon, to impute, to respect :
kd ka 6ro Olorug si, he docs not regard the word
of God. '
k3.-si-r)kai3 ? (ki d si), whafs the matter ? is any-
thing amiss ? kd si ijkai), there is nothing ! 6 si
i)kai), there is something.
ka-sa, adv. proudly (walking),
kd.-sa, V. to introduce a new fasMon ; to recite the
names of the gods.
ka-ta-ka-ta, adv. scatteringly, staggeringly.
ka-ta-ri, v. to be in the zenith, overhead.
ka-ti, adv. (not) at all, (none) ivkatever.
kauri, n. trona, carbonate of soda (from the Great
Desert).
kaug-kaui), adv. sweetly (scented) ; quietly.
kfi.-"we, V. to wind.
k§.--we (iwe), v. to read.
k§.-'w6 (owo), V. to count money.
ka-'w6 (owo), V. to abstain from things prohibited ;
to assort ; to grasp, rule over.
ka-'W9r). See karawop.
k3.-"W<i (ow<i), V. to reel, roind ; to walk to and fro.
ke, V. to cry out ; to cut, chop.
ke-de, v. to be scarce, unfrequenf.
ke-d6 (ode), v. to proclaim aloud.
ke-de-re, adv. clearly (seeing).
ke-dze, num. seventh.
ke-dzi, num. the second, the next.
k6-fe-ri (Arab.), n. an unbeliever, a heatlien.
ke-gi (igi), V. to cut or chop wood.
ke-ke, n. a stick on which carded cotton is wound
for spinning.
ke-ke, n. ring of metal, <fec., when struck.
ke-k§, n. child's play of lots ; a custom-house, a
ticket or check.
k6-k6, adv. clamorously.
ke'-ke-ke, n. littleness, a little one.
ke-ke4u-ke, n. which is full-breasted, as a bird.
k6-ke-re, n. smallness.
ke-kp6, V. to call, to call upon.
k§ . . . le-g&-ke (li), v. to tickle.
ke-lo, adv. how many?
k6-ni-<i, n. a lion.
ke-re, v. to be little.
ke-re-o-"Wtl, n. cotton-seed.
ke-ri (ko), v. to grow dirty, to be filthy.
ke'-ro-ra (irora), v. to cry out for pain, to groan.
ke-si, V. to visit.
ke-ti, ke-ti-ii, v. to be benumbed, asleep, as the
foot.
ke-to, V. to call upon, to cry to.
ke-vni, V. to read.
ke, V. to indulge, cherish, as a child or wife ; to set
a snare.
kS, V. to extend, to grow worse, as a sore ; to be
hoarse ; to glow.
ke-dzo, num. eighth.
kee-do-gur), num. fifteenth.
kee-d6-g'bor), num. twenty-fifth.
ke-fa, num. sixth.
ke-g9.r) (ko), v. to despise.
ke-gbe, v. to associate with.
ke-hirj, v. to be last, to follow.
ke-hig-da-sl, v. to turn the back on, to forsake.
ke-ke, n. cackling, as of a hen ; a black squirrel.
ke-ke, n. a wheel of any kind, a distaff.
k§-ke, n. profound silence.
kS-ke, adv. slowly, gradually.
ke-ke-kpa, v. to be dumb, quiet.
ke-ke-ru, n. a wagon, cart.
ke-ko (k9), v. to learn, study.
ke-le, adv. gently.
ke-le-ke-le, n. a spy, vanguard ; — adv. gently.
ke-le-kll, n. calico.
ke-re, n. a kind of mat.
k6-re, n. a simpleton.
ke-re-de, v. to be weak, infirm.
ke-rir), num. fourth.
ke-rir)-lfi, num. fourteenth,
ke-sai), num. ninth.
ke-ta, tzvm. third.
ke-te-ke-te, n. an ass.
kfe-vya, num. tenth.
ke-y6r), n. the toe itch.
KI
51
KOT
ki ? pron. what ? ki li eyi ? what is this ? odi6 ki
odio, any day whatever.
ki, conj. that : ki iwo ki 6 16h, that thou go ; ki . . .
to, ki . . . teni, hefore ; ki 6 to 16h, before he goes ;
ki a to loh, hefore we go.
ki, V. to he thick, as oil or bushes ; to ram, to press
down.
kl, V. to salute.
ki, V. to press, load, as a cart.
kl, adv. not.
kl-bi-ti, adv. in a small compass.
kl-W-ti, adv. in a large compass.
ki . . . bo-mi (omi), v. to press into the water, to
immerse.
ki-dzi-ki-dzi, adv. tremulously (shaking), with
quivering.
ki-dzi-kpa, n. a kind of coarse cloth.
ki-gl3§ (ke), v. to cry aloud.
ki-ki, n. salutation.
ki-kl, adv. only : kiki wura, pure gold.
ki-ki-ni, n. a small particle or bit.
ki-k6Q, n. that which is full : kikoi) omi, a freshet,
a food.
ki-kur), n. which is hard, loud.
ki-kuQ-ki-kur), adv. hardly, loudly.
ki-lo, V. to warn, caution, threaten.
ki . . . mo-lS, V. to press to the ground.
ki-ni, n. a thing, something.
ki . . . ni-be-nde, v. to strike with the fist.
kl-ni-dze-be', adv. no ! not at all !
ki-ni-ki-ni, adv. neatly, accurately.
ki-ni-si, n. a carpet.
ki'-ni-tl. See keniu.
ki-nla ? pron. what is it f
kiq-kir), n. a very little portion.
kir)-rir), v. to rub, to curry.
ki-re-dze, v. to twist, entangle, as thread.
ki-ri, V. to wander, stroll.
ki-ri, ki-ri-ki-ri, adv. about, wanderingly,
ki-ri-bi-ti. See kibiti.
ki'-ri-m6, v. to press one, to insist on, to apply
closely to work.
ki'-ri-kpa, w. which is dry and hard.
ki-ror) (irog), V. to pray by rote.
ki-sar) (koq isaij), v. to be nine days.
ki-ta, V. to be three days.
ki-tir), n. a very little.
ki-we-dze, v. to wrinkle.
ki-'wo-bo (owo), V. to thrust the hand into.
ki-yax), adv. at once.
ki'-ye-si, v. to notice, look, attend to : kiyesi ar4,
take care of yourself.
ki . . . y6, V. to cram full.
ko, V. to gather, collect ; to grow hard ; to take up,
as a load ; to strike two hard substances together :
ko iinu, to mourn ; ko irira, to hate ; ko fu, to de-
liver to ; ko woi) to mi wah, bring them to me.
ko, V. to meet, confront : bl 6 le k6, if possible, if it
may be.
k6, adv. not : ko ^e kp6, if, suppose that.
ko-bi-ko-bi, adv. thickly (breaking out).
ko'-bi-ta, n. riding shoes with spurs.
ko' . . . d£l-n6, V. to take up and throw away.
k6-d§-de, adv. no wonder ! no doubt !
ko . . . dzo, V. to collect, heap up.
ko-dzu-dza, v. to resist, withstand.
k6-fi-ri, V. to espy, to happen to see.
ko-gur) (ogun), v. to inherit, to take pro^jerty.
ko-ki-ki, V. to magnify, extol.
ko-ko, w. a knot, protuberance, wen : koko o\v6, <Ae
knuckles ; koko ese, the ankle.
k6-ko, adv. very much.
kd-ko, n. the tania, root and plant.
k6-ko-r6, n. a worm, an insect.
ko-ko-se e-se, n. the ankle.
ko . . . kp6. Sec ko . . . dio.
ko-16 (ile), V. to steal from or plunder a house.
kd-le-ra (ar4), v. to be feeble, infirm.
k6 . . . le-ru (li), v. to despoil, to rob.
k6-lo-b&, n. a mattock.
k6-lo-bo, n. an oil-pot, a lamp-filler.
ko . . . lo-dzfl (li), V. to confront.
kd-lo-fir) (li), n. a lawless person.
k6-lo-lo, V. to stutter.
ko . . . 16h, V. to take away, carry off, lead captive.
ko . . . l&-na (li), v. to meet, encounter.
ko . . . lo-no (li), V. to discourage, alarm.
ko-mo-kur), n. the muscle between the breasts.
ko-nl-ba-bfi, n. a fatherless child.
ko . . .ni-be-nde, v. See ki . . . ni beude.
ko . . . ni-dza-nu, v. to hold in with a bridle.
ko-ni-gba-gbe, v. one ivho is not forgetful f also
a proper name.
kor)-ko-tO, n. a play-god of children,a kind of dove.
ko-re (ere), v. to gather, to reap.
k6'-ri-k6, n. grass.
kd'-ri-kd, n. the hyena.
ko'-ri-ra, v. to hate, abhor.
ko-ro, V. to be bitter, spiteful.
ko-ro, adv. very, entirely : okuta la dzalekoro, the
stone split to tlte very bottom.
k6-ro, M. a smelting-pot, crucible.
ko-ro-ko-ro, n, a small brass bell.
ko'-ro-AWO, n. a ditch.
ko-SO, n. a kind of drum.
ko-sur) (kun), v. to paint red.
ko-ti, V. to collect around; to encounter.
ko-to, n. a hole, pit, ditch : koto aiya, the pit of
the stomach ; koto diigorjrog, a deep ravine ; koto
6ke, a valley, glen.
KO
52
KPA
ko, V. to learn, teach ; to build, to lay one thing on
another (Gen, 21, 14) ; to dig earth into heaps; to
mark, tattoo, write ; to flash ; to call, crow, shout ;
to entangle : ko okuij, to make a rope.
k6, V. to be not: omi k6, it is not I ; iw9 li oba
k6 ? art thou not a king ?
k6, V. to refuse, reject, rebel; to hang up, to deter.
k5, adv. not.
ko-bi, w. tall projecting gables of a royal palace ;
hence, a projection.
ko-dza, V. to pass by, to omit, to be beyond : 6 fo
soke odzii r| kodia rere, it is above far out of his
sight.
ko-dzu-dza-si, v. to resist, oppose.
ko-dzu-si, V. to face, to attend to.
ko-glia (ogba), V. to build a fence.
koi-koi, V. indirectly, suspiciously.
ko-kar), num. one.
k6-ka-rEi, v. to howl aloud.
k9-ko-ro, n. a hook, a key, a bird's beak : k9koro
gai), the iron pin %oith which a weaver turns the
toarp-bca7n.
k6-ko-so. See koqkoso.
k9-ktl, n. green color.
ko-kui), n. to make a rope.
ko-l&, V. to tattoo, to circiimcise.
k5-la, 
