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HANDBOUND
AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF
TORONTO PRESS
A GRAMMAR
OF THE
LATIN LANGUAGE
FROM PLAUTUS TO SUETONIUS
BY
HENRY JOHN ROBY,
M.A. late FELLOW OF ST JOIIN'S COLL. CAMBRIDGE.
Part 1. containing: —
BOOK I. SOUNDS.
BOOK II. INFLEXIONS.
BOOK III. WORD-FORMATION.
APPENDICES.
FIFTH EDITION.
MACMILLAN AND CO.
AND NEW YORK.
1887
\^The Right of Translation is rcsoird.}
PA
5-0*79
CambriUgj :
PRINTED DY C. J. CLAY, M.A. & SONS,
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
Table of Contents
■4
Preface.
General Observations.
Compass of the book :
(i) A grammar, p. xvii.
(2) of Latin, p. xviii.
(3) of the classical period, p. xix.
Treatment of the matter of Book I. p. xxii.
Book 11. p. xxiv.
Book 111. p. xxvi.
Observations on Book I.; particularly on Pronun-
ciation, p. XXX.
On V consonant, p. xxxiii.
On f, p. xlvi.
On c before aa, e, i, &c., p. xlvii.
On g before ae, e and i, p. Iv.
On dentals: especially ti before a vowel, p. Ivi.
On bs, X, M, &c., p. Ivii.
On n before gutturals, gn, p. Ivii.
On s, p. Iviii.
Origin of ss, p. Ixii.
On the vowels, especially and e, p. Ixix.
On the diphthongs ai, ae, oi, oe, ui, p. Ixxv.
On a supposed sound like ii, p. Ixxvi.
Miscellaneous: chieHy on vowel pronunciation, p. Ixxvin.
Division of words into syllables, p. Ixxxiii.
Summary of Roman pronunciation, p. Ixxxvii.
a 2
iv Table of Contents. Book I.
Observations on Book II.
On noun-stems ending in e, p. xci.
On noun-stems ending in i, and in a consonant, p. xciii.
On verbs with vowel stems, p. xcvi.
Concluding Remarks.
Acknowledgment of obligations, p. c.
Editions used, p. cii.
Conclusion, p. ciii.
Preface to Second Edition, p. civ.
Book I. Sounds.
Chap. I. Elements of Speech; and particularly Con-
sonants, p. 3.
II. Combination of Consonants, p. 6.
III. Vowels and Combinations of Vowels, p. 8.
IV. Laws of Phonetic change, p. 11.
Sudden phonetic change, p. 11.
Gradual phonetic change, p. 16.
V. Latin Alphabet in general, p. 21.
VI. Latin Alphabet in detail:
Labials and Labiodentals, p. 24.
P, p. 24; B, p. 26; M, p. 27; V as consonant,
p. 29 ; F, p. 32.
VII. Gutturals and Palatals, p. 34.
K, C, p. 34; X,p. 36; Q, p. 37; G, p. 38; H,
p. 40; J, p. 42.
VIII. Dentals and Linguals, p. 44.
T, p. 44; D, p. 47; N, p. 50; L, p. 52; R, p. 54;
s, p. 57; Z, p. 61.
IX. Vowels, p. 62.
A, p. 62 ; 0, p. 65 ; U, p. 69 ; E, p. 72 ; I, p. 77.
Table of Contents. Book II. v
X. Diphthongs, p. 8i.
AU, p. 8i ; OU, p. 8i ; EU, p. 82; AI, p. 82; AE,
p. 82; 01, OE, p. 83; EI, p. 84.
XI. Of Latin Words and Syllables, p. 86.
§§ 369 — 271. Of the commencement and ending
of Latin words, p. 86.
§§ 272 — 274. Of the division of syllables in Latin
words, p. 87.
XIL Quantity of Syllables, p. 89.
i. Qiiantity of vowels not in last syllable, p. 90.
ii. Quantity of vowels in last syllable, p. 90.
iii. Quantity of syllables by position in the same
word, p. 93.
iv. Effect of initial sounds on preceding final syl-
lables, p. 94.
V. Peculiarities in early dramatic verse, p. 97.
XIIL Accentuation, p. 98.
Book II. Inflexions.
Chap. I. Of inflexions in general, p. 103.
H. Of NOUN INFLEXIONS, and particularly of Gen-
der, p. 104.
III. Of noun inflexions of Number, p. 109.
IV. Of Case inflexions in general, p. 112.
V. Nouns of Class I., p. 113.
I. Gender, p. 113.
II. Inflexions of Case, p. 115.
1. Declension of stems in -a and -e, p. 115.
2. Ordinary declension of -0 stems, p. 116.
3. Declension of stems in -ro, p. 117.
4. Prae-Augustan declension of stems in -uo,
p. 118.
5. Augustan and proe-Augustan declension of
stems in -io, p. 119.
vi Table of Contents. Book II.
VI. Old and exceptional forms of cases (Class I.),
p. 1 20.
1. Singular Number, p. 120.
2. Plural Number, p. 12.3.
§ 369. Defective or redundant words (Class I.),
p. 125.
VII. Peculiar declension of certain Pronouns and Adjec-
tives (Class I.), p. 126.
1. imus, ullus, nuUus, solus, totus, alter, uter,
&:c., ipse, p. 126.
2. ille, iste, alius, p. 127; illic, istic, p. 128.
3. Mc, p. 128.
4. is, p. 129 ; idem, p. 130.
5. qui, p. 130; quis, p. 131; compounds of
qui, quis, p. 131.
VIII. Personal Pronouns, p. 132.
IX. Nouns of Class II., p. 133.
i. Declension of -u stems, p. 133.
(Use of genitive in -i, p. 135.)
X. iJ. Declension of -i stems, p. 136.
1. Stems with labial before i, p. 138.
2. Stems with guttural before i, p. 140.
3. Stems with dental before i, p. 142.
4. Stems in -ni, p. 145; -li, p. 145 ; -'^, P- U7;
-si, p. 148.
XI. iii. Declension of consonant stems, p. 149.
1. Stems ending in mutes and -m, p. 150.
(a) Labial stems, p. 150 ; (^) Guttural stem?,
p. 151 ; (r) Dental stems, p. 152.
2. Stems ending in -n, p. 154.
3. Stems ending in -1, -r, -s, p. 156.
XII. Old or exceptional forms of Cases (Class II ),
p. 160.
Singular number, p. 160.
Plural number, p. 162.
Table of Contents. Book II. vii
XIII. Greek Nouns, Class I., p. 162.
i. Stems in -a, p. 163,
ii. Stems in -0, p. 164.
XIV. Greek Nouns, Class II., p. 166.
1. Stems in -0, -eu, -y, p. 166.
2. Stems in -e and -i, p. 167.
3. Consonant stems, p. 168.
(a) Labial stems, p. 169; (/^) Guttural stems,
p. 169; (c) Dental stems, p. 169; (d) Stems in
-n, p. 171; (f) Stems in -s or -r, p. 172.
XV. Adverbs and Conjunctions, p. 173.
Ending in -a, p. 1 73 ; in -se, p. 1 73 ; in -0, p. 1 73 ;
in -u, p. 175; in -e, p. 175; in -i, p. 176 ; in -b,
p. 177; in -m, p. 177; in -t, -d, p. 179; in -n,
p. 179; in -1, p. 180; in-r, p. 180; in-s, p. 181.
XVI. Inflexions of Verb. Introduction, p. 182.
Purpose of inflexions, p. 182.
English equivalents, p. 183.
XVII. Inflexions of Person and Number, p. 185.
First Person, p. 186.
Second Person, p. 187.
Third Person, p. 188.
XVIII. Inflexions of Mood, p. 189.
1. Indicative Mood, p. 189.
2. Imperative Mood, p. 189.
3. Subjunctive Mood, p. 191.
XIX. Classification of inflexions of Tense, p. 192.
XX. Tenses formed from the Present Stem.
Present, p. 194; Future, p. 194; Imperfect in-
dicative, p. 195; Imperfect subjunctive, p. 195;
Present Infinitive active, p. 196; Infinitive passive,
p. 196; Gerund and gerundive, p. 197.
Old Futures in -so, -sim, p. 197.
VI 11
Table of Contents. Book II.
XXI. Of Verb Stems; especially the Present Stem,
p. 200.
i. Consonant verbs, p. 200.
(Inchoative forms, p. 201.)
ii. Vowel verbs
1. with stems in -a, p. 203;
2. with stems in -0, p. 204;
3. with stems in -u, p. 204;
4. with stems in -e, p. 204;
5. with stems in -i, p. 205.
XXII. Tenses formed from the Perfect Stem, p. 206.
XXIII. Of the Perfect Stem, p. 209.
Perfect Stems foiTned
I. by reduplication, p. 209;
3. by lengthening the stem vowel, p. 210;
3. by suffixing -s, p. 210 ;
4. by suffixing -u, p. 212; -v, p. 213;
5. Perfect stem same as present stem, p. 214.
Verbs (non-derivative) which have no perfect active,
p. 215.
XXIV. Of the Supine Stem, p. 216.
i. Verbs with a vowel preceding supine suffix, p. 2 1 6.
ii. Verbs with a consonant preceding supine suffix,
1 . Verbs which retain t, p. 218;
2. Verbs which soften t to s, p. 220.
Nature of supines, p. 221.
Forms derived from supine stem, p. 222.
XXV. Of the Traditional Classification of Verbs, p. 223.
XXVI. Examples of the Complete Inflexions of Verbs,
p. 235-
Present stem. Consonant conjugation, p. 226.
Principal vowel conjugation, p. 227
Other vowel conjugations, p. 228.
Perfect stem, p. 230.
Supine stem, p. 231.
Table of Contents. Book III. ix
XXVIl. Inflexions of the Verb sum, and compounds, p. 232.
(possum, p. 233.)
XXVIII. Inflexions of some Irregular Verbs,
do ; volo, nolo, malo ; eo ; flo ; edo ; fero, feror,
pp. 234, 235; queo, p. 236.
XXIX. Alphabetical List of Deponent Verbs, p. 236.
List of deponent past participles, p. 238.
XXX. Alphabetical List of Verbs, with their perfects,
supines, &c., p. 239.
Additional verbs with no perfect or supine.
-e verbs, p. 264; -i verbs, p. 264.
Book III. Word-Formation.
Chap. I. Elements of Word-formation, p. 267.
i. Reduplication, p. 267.
ii. Internal change, p. 268.
iii. Suffixes: (<3) Suffixes of inflexion (see Book II.);
(/5>) Stem suffixes, p. 268; (c) Derivative suf-
fixes (see Chap. II.).
iv. Composition (see Chap. XL).
Interjections (see Chap. XII.).
XL Derivative Suffixes, p. 270.
III. Labial Noun-stems; ending in
i. -po, p. 272; -pho, p. 273; -pi, -p, p. 273.
ii. -bo, p. 273; -bi, -to, p. 274.
iii. -mo, p. 274; -umo (-imo), -iss-umo, p. 275;
-1-iimo, -r-^mo, -t-umo, p. 276; -es-iimo,
p. 277; -mi, -m, p. 277.
iv. -vo, p. 277 ; -^0, p. 278; -i-vo, -t-ivo, p. 279;
-vl, -Hi, p. 280.
V. -fo, p. 280.
Table of Contents. Book III.
IV. Guttural Noun-stems; ending in
i. -co, -qvo, p. 280; -ico, p. 281.
-ti-co, -ati-co, -li-co (-Ico), ri-co (-rco), p. 28a.
-in-Qivo, -i-qvo, p. 282.
-a-co, p. 282 ; -fl-co, -i-co, p. 283 ; i-a-co, p. 283.
-cu, -ci, -c, p. 283 ; -6c (ic), p. 283 ; -ic, p. 284.
-a-ci, -6-ci, -e-c, -I-ci, -ic, p. 284 ; -t-r-ici (-trie),
p. 285.
ii. -go, -gvo, pp. 285, 286; -gi, -g, gvi, p. 286.
iii. -ho, -hi, p. 286,
V. Dental Noun-stems; ending in
i. -to, p. 286; -to (-so), p. 287; -us-to, -es-to,
p. 289.
-en-to, -m-en-to, p. 289 ; -ul-en-to, p. 290.
-gin-ta, -ginti, p. 290; -cen-to, -gen-to, p. 291.
-a-to, p. 291 ; -o-to, -il-to, -e-to, p. 292 ; -i-to,
p. 293.
ii. -tu (-su), p. 293; -ul-tu, -a-tu, p. 294.
-ti (-si), p. 295; -at, p. 295 ; -6t, -ut (it), p. 296.
-6-ti (iti), -6t, -et (it), -m-6t (-mit), p. 296.
-en-ti, -1-en-ti, -s-ti, pp. 296, 297.
-a-ti, -at, -t-at, p. 297; -es-t-at, p. 298.
-o-ti, -6t, -lit, -ta-t, -e-ti, p. 298; -i-ti, p. 299.
iii. -o-so, p. 299; -c6-so, -16-so, i-cu-lo-so, p. 300.
-U-6-S0, i-o-so, p. 300.
-en-si, -i-en-si, p. 300.
iv. -do, p. 301; -gb-un-do, -ito-un-do, -ab-un-do,
p. 302; -c-un-do, p. 303.
V. -du, -di, -ud, -6d (id), p. 303; -od, -ed, -d,
p. 303-
VI. Dental Noun-stems (continued) ; ending in
vi. -no, -i-no, p. 304; -mi-no (-nino), p. 305; -gi-
no (-gno), p. 306.
-ti-no, p. 306; -ur-no, -er-no, -t-er-no, p. 306.
-a-no, -i-a-no, -it-a-no, pp. 307, 308 ; -6-no,
-oe-no, -u-no, p. 308.
Table of Contents. Book III. xi
-se-no, -e-no, -i-e-no, -il-e-no, p. .^09.
-i-no, p. 309 ; -ci-no, -tx-no, -li-no, -t-ri-no,
p. 311.
vii. -ni, p. 311 ; -6n (in). P- 3ii-
-g-6n (-gin), -ag-on, -Il-ag-on, -ag-6n, -ig-6n,
p. 312.
-d-6n, -Tld-dii, -t-vlcl-6n,-ed-6n, -id-6n, pp. 3 1 2, 3 1 3.
-6n, p. 313 ; -en (-in), -m-gn, p. 314.
-on, p. 31J ; -i-6n. P- 316 ; -ci-6n, -ti-6n, p. 317-
VII. Lingual Noun-stems; ending in
i. -lo, -6-I0, p. 319 ; -u-lo, p. 320; -pil-lo, -bu-lo,
P- .^23-
-ca-lo (-clo), p. 323 ; -un-cu-lo, p. 325 ; -us-cu-lo,
p. 326.
-e-du-lo, p. 326.
-ul-lu-lo, -el-lu-lo, p. 326; -il-lu-lo, p. 327 ;
-i-lo, p. 327-
-al-lv->, -aiU-lo, -ol-lo, -ua-lo, -el-lo, p. 327 ;
U-lo, p. 329-
-a-lo, -au-lo, -o-lo, -il-lo, -se-lo, -e-lo (-ello),
-i-lo, p. 330.
ii. -li, -1, pp. 330, 331; -siil, p. 331.
-i-li, -t)i-li, p. 331; -si-W-li, p. 332-
-ti-li (-sill), -a-ti-li, pp. zZ'^i ?>2,Z-
-a-li, p. ZZ?,\ -ii-li. -e-li, -i-U, P- Z2,S-
VIII. Lingual Noun-stems (continued) ; ending in
iii. -ro, -a-ro, -6-ro, -il-ro., pp. 336, 337.
-6-ro, -l)6-ro(-bro), p. 337 ; -c6-ro (-cro), p. 338.
-tS-ro (-tro), p. 338; -as-te-ro (-astro), p. 3395
. -d-ro, -i-ro, p. 339.
-a-ro, -au-ro, p. 339 ; -o-ro, -il-ro, -til-ro (-siiro),
p. 340.
-e-ro, -i-ro, p. 341-
iv. -ru, -ri, p. 341 ; -r, -ar, -6r, -fir, p. 342.
-6-ri, -6r, -b6-ri (-tori), p. 342; -bfir, p. 343-
-cS-ri (-cri), -tru, -t6-rl (-tri), -es-t6-ri (-estri),
p. 343; -ter (-tr), -in-6r, p. 343.
b2
xii Table of Contents. Book III.
-a-ri, p. 343 ; -or, -t-6r (-sor), p. 345 ; -fl-ri,
P- 348.
V. -6s (-6r), -n-6s (-n6r), -us (6r), -n-us (-nSr),
p. 348.
-es (-6r), -is (-6r), p. 348.
-OS (-5r), -i-os (-ior), p. 349; -Qs (-ur), p. 350.
IX, Vowel Noun-stems; ending in
(-U0, see p. 278.)
i. -e-o, p. 350; -a-ce-o, -il-ce-o, -te-o, p. 351.
-ne-o, -g-ne-o, p. 35 1 ; -a-ne-o, -ta-ne-o, -o-ne-o,
-le-o, p. 352.
ii. -i-o, p. 352; -ci-o, -i-ci-o, p. 356; -i-ci-o,
-ti-ci-o (-sicio), p. 357.
-ti-o, p. 357; -en-ti-o, p. 358; -n-di-o, p. 359.
-ni-o, -m-ni-o, -mo-ni-o, -ci-ni-o, p. 359.
-li-o, -a-li-o, -e-li-o, -U-li-o (-ilio), p. 359.
-ri-o, -b-ri-o, -a-ri-o, p. 360; -to-ri-o (-sorio),
p. 362.
-eio, p. 363.
iii. Proper names ending in
-pi-o, -M-o, -mi-o, -vi-o, p. 363; -fi-o, p. 364.
-ci-o, -gi-o, -ti-o, -di-o, p. 364.
-ni-o, p. 364; -li-o, -ri-o, -si-o, p. 365.
-ai-o, -ei-o, p. 365.
X. Verb-stems, p. 367.
i. Verbs with stems ending in a
(i) from substantives with -a stems, p. 367 ;
(2) from substantives with -e stems, p. 368;
(3) fi-om nouns with -0 stems,, p. 368 ;
(4) from substantives with -u stems, p. 370 ;
(5) from nouns with -i stems, p. 370;
(6) from nouns with consonant stems, p. 370.
Verbs ending in
-ic-a, -t-ig-a, p. 371-
-t-a (-sa), p. 371 ; -it-a, p. 372 ; -t-it-a (-sita),
P- 373-
Table of Contents. Book III. xiii
-cin-a, p. 373.
-61-a, -ul-a, -il-a, -il-la, p. 373.
Verbs formed from, or parallel to, other verbs,
p. 374-
Miscellaneous, p. 374.
ii. Verbs with -u stems, p. 375.
iii. Verbs with -e stems, p. 375.
iv. Verbs with -i stems, p. 375.
-ati, p. 376.
-uri, p. 377.
-ari, p. 377.
V. Inchoative verbs, p. 377.
Verbs with stems ending in -ss, -ssi (see p. 199).
XI. Composition, p. 378.
i. Spurious compounds, p. 379.
ii. Compounds of prepositions used absolutely, or
of inseparable particles, p. 380.
T. Verbs, p. 380.
2. Nouns, (<:?) containing a verbal st-em, p. 381 ;
(Zi) containing a nominal stem, p. 382.
iii. Compounds of words in regular syntactical re-
lation to one another, p. 385 ;
A. Attribute + substantive:
(a) numeral + substantive, p. 385,
(J?) ordinary adjective + substantive, p. 3 8 7 .
B. Preposition + substantive, p. 388.
C. Nouns collateral to one another, p. 390.
D. Object + verb, p. 390.
E. Oblique predicate + verb, p. 394.
F. Subjects- verb, p. 395.
G. Oblique case or adjective used adverbially
+ verb, p. 395.
Adverb + Participle, p. 396.
XII. Interjections:
1. Imitations of sounds, p. 396.
2. Abbreviated sentences or mutilated words,
p. 398.
xiv Table of Contents. Appendices.
Appendices.
App. A. Q_iiotations from M. Bell, A. J. Ellis, Sic, p. 401.
i. Introduction, p. 401.
ii — iv. On Nasals, p. 401.
V. On held or sustained Consonants, p. 402.
vi. On the length of Consonants, p. 403.
vii. On sharp and flat Consonants, p. 403.
viii. — X. On the imperfect vocality of Consonants, p. 404.
xi., xii. On diphthongs, p. 405,
xiii. — xvii. On English r, p. 407.
xvlii. Connexion of u, w, v, b, qu, &c., p. 409,
xix. Roman preference of vo to vu, p. 411.
XX. — xxii. On Labialisation, p. 411.
xxiii. On k, c, q, p. 412.
xxiv. Close affinity of i and j, p. 413.
XXV. On Palatalisation, p. 413.
xxvi., xxvii. On the change of t to s, p. 413.
xxviii. On the change of s to r, p. 414.
xxix. Omission of t before 1 and n, p. 414.
XXX. Interchange of 1 and r, p. 415.
xxxi. Correspondence of Latin f to Greek 0, p. 415.
App. B. Selection of Republican Inscriptions, arrang-
ed chronologically, p. 416.
i. — V. Before end of 5th centui-y, u.c, p. 416.
vi. Cir. 500U.C. On L. Scipio, son of Barbatus, p. 417.
vii. Of C. Placentius, p. 418.
viii. 520 U.c. On L. Corn. Scipio Barbatus, p. 418.
ix. 565 u.c. Decree of L. jEmilius, p. 419.
X. 568 u.c. S. C. de Bacanalibus, p. 419.
xi. End of 6th cent. On son of P. Afr. Scipio major,
p. 422.
xii. Before 620 U.c. At Sora, p. 422.
xiii. Beginning of 7th cent. u.c. On L. Corn.Scipio,p.423.
xiv. ib. On Cn. Corn. Scipio, p. 423.
Table of Contents. Appendices. xv
XV. 608 — 620 u.c. Of Mummius, p. 424.
xvi. After 620 U.c. At Aletrium, p. 424.
xvii. 622 U.c. Popillius' milestone, p. 425.
xviii., xix. 622 — 625 u.c. Boundary stones of the Gracchi,
p. 426.
XX. S. C. de Tiburtibus, p. 426.
xxi. 646 u.c. At Capua, p. 427.
xxii. Cir. 664 U.C. At ^clanum, p. 428.
xxiii. 674 u. c. Part of ' Lex Cornelia de xv. Quaestoribus,'
p. 428.
xxiv. On M. Caecilius, p. 429.
xxv. End of republic. Imprecation on Rhodine, p. 429.
xxvi. 709 U.c. Part of 'Lex Julia municipalis,' p. 430.
xxvii. End of republic. On Euchai^is, p. 431.
App. C. Degrees of Nouns Adjective, p. 432.
i., ii. Formation of comparative and superlative, p. 432.
iii. Irregular or Defective adjectives, p. 434.
iv. Adjectives used only in the positive, p. 435.
V. Participles which have comparatives and superla-
tives, p. 437-
App. D. Numerals, Measures, Weights, &c.
i. List of Numerals, p. 438.
ii. Signs for Numerals, p. 441.
iii. Inflexions of Numerals, p. 442.
iv. Order in compounding Numerals, p. 442.
V. Use of classes of Numerals, p. 443.
vi. Expression of Fractions, p. 444.
vii. Money coinage, p. 444.
viii. Expression of sums of money, p. 44b.
Division and multiples of the as, p. 447.
Expression of 'odd pence' (ses excurrens), pp. 448,
449.
ix. Expression of Interest of Money, p. 450.
X, Measures of Weight, p. 451.
xi. Measures of Length, p. 45 1.
xii. Measures of Surface, p. 452.
xvi Table of Contents. Appendices.
xiii. Measures of Capacity, p. 452.
xiv. Division of Time, p. 453.
XV. Expression of the Date, p. 453.
App. E. Names of Family Relations,
i. Relations by blood, p. 456.
ii. Relations by mamage, p. 457.
iii. Remarks.
App. F. Tabular arrangement of certain Pronouns,
i. Correlative (pronominal) adjectives, p. 458;
ii. Correlative (pronominal) adverbs, p. 459;
iii. Chief (pronominal) adverbs of place, p. 459 ;
iv. Chief (pronominal) adverbs of time, p. 460.
App. G. Abbreviations, p. 461.
App. H. Elements and Terms of Latin Metre.
Feet, p. 464; Verses, p. 464.
Falling Rhythms, p. 466. Dactylic; Dactylo-choriam-
bic; Trochaic; Dactylo-trochaic ; Trochaeo-dactylic ;
Cretic and greater Ionic.
RisingRhythms, p. 471. Anapcestic; Iambic; Anapassto-
iambic ; Bacchiac and lesser Ionic.
Composite, p. 474. lambo-dactylic ; lambo-trochaic.
Stanzas or Systems of Metre, p. 475.
App. I. Explanation of some Grammatical and Rheto-
rical Terms.
i. Grammatical Terms, p. 477.
ii. Rhetorical Terms, p. 480.
App. K. Principal (extant) Latin Authors and Writings.
Ante-Ciceronian Age, p. 483.
Golden Age, (A) Ciceronian, p. 484.
(B) Augustan, p. 485.
Silver Age, (A) Age of Seneca, p. 486.
(B) Age of Quintilian, p. 486.
(C) Age of Tacitus, p. 487.
Select Index, p. 489.
Preface.
General Observations.
As the present work differs in many respects from other
grammars in use, it may be desirable that I should briefly note
some of the more important changes which I have made, and in
some cases discuss the grounds of the change. In the work itself
• I have refrained from dissertation, and aimed at giving the facts
of the language in as few words as possible. If facts are stated
with their real limitations, they either explain themselves, or at least
afford a sound basis for theory to work on. If they are grouped
according to their natural affinities and arranged on natural prin-
ciples, the briefest statement is the most illustrative.
I have called the book, A Grammar of the Latin Language from
Plautus to Suetonius. Now first, by Grammar, I mean an orderly
arrangement of the facts which concern the form of a language, as a
Lexicon gives those which concern its tnatter. The ordinary divi-
sion into four parts seems to me right and convenient. The first
three Books on Sounds, Inflexions, and Word-formation, are often
comprehended under the general term Formenlehre. The fourth
Book, on Syntax, contains the use of the inflexions and of the several
classes of words. I have given much greater extension than is
usual to the treatment of Sounds and Woi^d-formation, and on the
other hand, have cut away from the and and 4th Books several
matters which do not properly belong to them. For instance,
numerals and pronouns are often included in Book II. in a way
which conceals the fact, that it is only so far as their inflexions are
peculiar, that they demand specific notice. Again, the use of pre-
positions and conjunctions is often discussed in the Syntax; whereas,
so far as the use depends not on the class to which a word belongs,
but on the meaning of the individual, the discussion belongs to lexi-
cography. The error lies in thinking, that because certain words
xviii Preface: General Observations.
are more general than others in their application, they are therefore
formal. However, there is no doubt a convenience in including
some of these matters in a Grammar, and accordingly I have put
them, or some of them, in the Appendices to this or the second
volume. Further, I have not attempted to twist the natural arrange-
ment of the facts so as to make it suitable for persons v\^ho are first
learning the language and cannot be trusted to find their own way.
There are plenty of other books for that purpose.
Secondly, it is a Grammar of the Latin language. It is not a
Universal Grammar illustrated from Latin, nor the Latin section of
a Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European languages, nor a
Grammar of the group of Italian dialects, of which Latin is one.
I have not therefore cared to examine whether the definitions or
arrangement which I have given are suited to other languages of
a different character. A language in which, like Latin, the Verb is
a complete sentence, or in which e. g. magnus can be made to de-
note great 7nen by a change in the final syllable, may obviously
require very different treatment from one in which, like English,
the verb requires the subject to be separately expressed, or the
adjective great requires, in order to gain the same meaning as
magni, the prefix of the definite article, or the addition of the
word men. I have confined myself, with rare exceptions, strictly
to Latin, and this for two reasons. First, Latin is the only
language which I have studied with sufficient care to enable me to
speak with any confidence about its Grammar, and I have learnt
in the process how little trustworthy are the results of an incom-
plete examination. Greek I have referred to in Books I. and III.
because of its close connexion with Latin, and I could rely, for the
purposes for which I have used it, on Curtius' Griechische Etymologie.
The Italian dialects, other than Latin, I have studied but little.
Such results, as can be drawn from the scanty remains which we
have, will probably be found in Corssen's pages, but I hesitate to
regard them as sufficiently solid to allow one to rest any theories of
Latin Grammar upon them. My second reason for declining frequent
reference to other languages, is the belief that such reference is in-
compatible with a natural treatment of my own proper subject. Each
language has its own individuality, and this is distorted or disguised
by being subjected to a set of general categories, even though
Compass of the hook. xix
guarantied by Comparative Philology. It is no doubt true that pro-
gress in the knowledge of language is to be attained only, as in other
sciences, by the constant action and reaction of theory and observa-
tion ; of the comparison of phenomena in different languages with the
special investigation of each for itsi'lf. I have chosen the latter part
of the woi-k, without supposing that all the secrets of Latin etymo-
logy could be discovered by so limited a view. But it is true all
the same, that if one's eyes are but armed or practised (and some
study of Comparative Philology alone can arm them), a closer and
longer gaze detects something which might otherwise be overlooked.
Lastly, this is a Grammar of Latin from Plautus to Suetonius.
That is to say, I have confined my statements of facts and lists of
words or forms (except with distinct mention) to the period from
the commencement of Latin literature to the end of the silver age,
i.e., roughly speaking, to the three centuries from cir. 200 B.C. to cir.
120 A.D. There are but few inscriptions before 200 B.C. What there
are I have of course taken into account. On the other hand, the
imperial inscriptions which come within this period are not yet con-
veniently accessible in trustworthy texts. The silver age I take to
end at latest with Tacitus and Suetonius^ and I am convinced that
this is as real a division with the line drawn at the right place, as
literature admits of. It is quite remarkable how many forms and
words are wholly confined to later writers, or at earliest are found,
and then only in one or two instances, in Pliny the elder, Suetonius,
&c. Nor can any subsequent writer be fairly regarded as within the
pale. The literature of the second century p. Chr. is but small. Aulus
Gellius and Fronto are near in time, being indeed contemporaries of
Suetonius' later life, but their claims are vitiated by so much of their
language being conscious antiquarianism. The lawyers Javolenus,
Julianus, Pomponius, Gains, &c. have perhaps the strongest claim,
for they naturally, as lawyers, use a somewhat older style than
their age would imply. Their inclusion however would not notice-
ably affect the statements. But it is intolerable to find frequently
given in modern Grammars, without a word of warning, forms
and words which owe their existence to Apuleius or Tertullian —
imaginative antiquarian Africans, far removed indeed from insig-
^ Suetonius' Lives of (he Civsars date about 120 A.D., though he
lived to cir. 160 A.D. Teuffel, Gcsch. Rom. Lit. § 324.
XX Preface: General Observations.
nificance, and not at all wanting in interest, but certainly not
representative of the ordinary or normal language of the Romans.
Some other writers, e.g. Justin, Florus, &c. are of too uncertain
an age, and too unimportant, to be worth considering. Writers of
the third and fourth century, however good, are quite inadmissible.
Nor am I at all disposed to attach weight to a mention of a word
or form in Priscian or other Grammarians, unless accompanied by
a clearly intelligible quotation from an author before 120 A.D., or
thereabouts. I do not mean that distinct proof can or need be
alleged e.g. for every person of every tense of an ordinary verb;
but any typical form not shewn to have been used in the period
here taken, ought to be excluded from a Grammar of Classical
Latin, or mentioned only with the authority affixed. E.g. indultum
is usually given as the supine of indulgere, but neither it nor its kin
(indultor, &c.) are found before Tertullian^ ; and this fact is seen to
be important when it is observed that they deviate from the regular
analogy of stems in -Ig (§ 191, 3), and that their occurrence is in
fact contemporaneous with the use of indulgeri as a personal passive.
Again, I have said in § 395 that quercus has no dative singular or
dat. abl. plural. But Servius uses (and the form seems right enough)
querculDus {Neiie^ i. p. 376). It should be understood therefore that
a statement in the following pages that a form or word is not found,
does not necessarily mean more than that it is not found within the
classical period. A form or word first found in subsequent writers
may be legitimate enough, and the absence of authority for it may be
only accidental, but in such cases the subsequent use does not
appear to me to add anything to the evidence for its legitimacy;
i.e. it does not make it more probable that Cicero or Livy, or
Horace, or Quintilian, or even Plautus might have used it. The
character of the formation and the probability that, if no objections
had been felt to lie against it, it would have been used by some now
extant author, who wrote before 1 20 a.d., form the real turning-points
of such a discussion. And to gain a firm basis for the discussion
we must have the facts of the normal Latin usage clear from later
and inferential accretions. Corssen has made his wonderful col-
lection of facts much less useful than it might have been, by not
distinguishing alivayj between later and earlier fonns. Of course
an exclusion of the later forms from a book like his is not at all
^ I have since found it in Plin. Ep. Traj. loS; a book of which the
only MS. authority is lo.st.
Compass of the book. xxi
to be desired ; but it is thoroughly misleading to put together
words first found in the 4th century of the Christian Era, along with
well-known words belonging to the ordinary language of the Ro-
mans. To take one instance — (hundreds might be given); he adduces
{Be'itr. p. 107; Aiuspr. i. § 77) nine substantives in -edin (edfin,
as I call it), which he says are from verbs with -e stems, and
stand beside six adjectives in -ido, from six of the same verbs.
Now the six adjectives are all well accredited. But of the nine sub-
stantives, two only (torpedo, gravedo) are well accredited ; one
more (pingvedo) occurs once in Pliny the elder, and then not again
till the 4th century : one other (frigedo) is quoted by Nonius from
Varro; three others are first found in Apuleius, two more not
until the 4th century p. Chr. Now these last five words are pro-
bably mere creations of a later age in conscious imitation of the
earlier words, and, it may be, imitating them, because they were
rare. But as soon as we get to conscious imitation by literary
speculators, the value of the words as evidence of the proper de-
velopment of the language is gone.
[Another instance may be taken. Gustav Meyer, in an in-
teresting essay on Composition in Greek and Latin in Ciulius
Studien V. i. p. 42, quotes from Corssen 11-. 318, as proofs "that
the weakening of a, 0, u to i in compounds was not always the
rule" (nicht von je her iiberwiegend iiblich), the examples sacro-
sanctus, Sacrovir, Ahenotoarbus, primogenitus, mulomedicus, albo-
galerus, albogilvus, merobiba, sociofraudus, vicomagister, and says
that "these justify the supposition that originally theo-stems entered
unaltered into composition." I take these words in order.
Sacrosanctus is not an ordinary compound, but its precise compo-
nents are not clear. I have suggested (§ 998) that it is possibly a spu-
rious compound. For in Pliny 7. § 143 we have resistendi sacroque
sanctum repellendi jus non esset. Probably sacro is an ablative, by a
sacrif.ce ; or victim ; or curse. Sacrovir is only known as the name
of a Hseduan in Tacitus. The origin of the name is obscure. Is it
Roman at all ? The first Ahenobarbus of whom we have any his-
torical account held oflfice about 200 years B.C., though the family
traditions carried the origin of the name to the battle of Lake
Regillus. Primogenitus appears to be first found in Palladius: (in
Pliny II. § 234, I find (in Detlefsen and Jan's editions) only
xxii Preface: General Observations.
primis genitis). Mulomedicus is in Vegetius; altoogalerus in the
extracts of Paulus from Festus. Merotoiba and sociofraudus are
each found once only in Plautus. They are evidently compounds
framed on the spur of the moment and not part of the ordinary
stock of the language. Moreover sociofraudus must retain the o
after i. Vicomagister appears to be found only in the barbarous
Curiosum urbis Romse regimen, which is referred to the end of the
4th century p. Chr.
Of the whole number often words, one only (Ahenobarbus) can
be taken as an instance of some weight for the matter in question.]
My authorities then are the writers of the classical period as
above defined ; and I have not knowingly admitted, without distinct
mention, any word which they have not used, or made any state-
ment which their writings critically examined do not justify. But
Donat and Priscian have so long reigned over Latin Grammar,
and Latin Grammar has so impi-egnated literary speculation, that
it is next to impossible, if it were desirable, to emancipate oneself
from their influence. Still it is important to decline to recognize
them as authorities for the grammatical usage of classical Latin,
except where they may be taken to be witnesses to facts. They no
doubt had access to some writings which are now lost, and they
often transmit the theories of older grammarians ; but they no
doubt also sometimes misunderstood them, they avowedly regai'ded
Greeks as their supreme authorities, they lived when Latin had long
ceased to be pure, and they probably would have regarded a state-
ment by Ccesar or Pliny of what ought to be said, as of more im-
portance than the actual fact of what Csesar or Pliny did say. But
it is to the usage, not to the grammatical theories, of good writers
that we should look for our standard of right. And for my part,
if canons of grammar ai'e to be laid down, I pi-efer Madvig to any
xxii Roman whatever, and believe Ritschl and Mommsen know a great
deal more about the Duellian inscription (§ 467) than Quintilian did.
The arrangement adopted requires a few words.
In Book L I have thought it important to give a sketch, how-
ever slight, of the analysis of vocal sound and of the laws of
phonetic change. The special Latin phenomena are treated at some
length; but I have been desirous rather that the instances given
Treatment of the matter of Book I. xxiii
should be tolerably certain, than that all possible instances should
be included. In most grammars these phenomena are collected and
arranged under the heads of Omission, Contraction, &c. If any one
desires such an arrangement, he can make it for himself, by simply
turning to those heads under each letter. But as the primary divi-
sion of the matter it seems to me much more natural and fruitful
to make each particular letter the centre of discussion, ^''hether it
be changed or inserted or absorbed must ultimately depend on
the sound it represents and on the relations of this sound to others.
The ordinary procedure is the same as if a treatise on chemistry
arranged all the phenomena of chemical action under such heads
as Explosion, Solution, Combination, Sec. Schweizer-Sidler's arrange-
ment by the affections of groups of letters is rational enough, but
not, I think, very convenient.
I have distinguished with some care between instances of corre-
spondence and representation (see note on p. 24). The distinction of
these two classes of phenomena is ignored in many of the eailier
grammars, and is still not unfrequently forgotten. Yet the distinc-
tion is of great moment. In questions of pronunciation representa-
tion gives very important evidence, while correspondence witnesses
at most to the pronunciation of primaeval or at least pras-historical
times. On the other hand, in discussing the affinities of language,
correspondence bears the whole weight of the argument, and repre-
sentation can only mislead.
The arrangement of the letters has been adopted as the one
which best brings into connexion allied sounds. Gutturals have a
tendency to pass into dentals, and dentals into linguals ; and these
classes should therefore come in this order. Labials form a class
somewhat apart from the rest, and I have therefore put them first,
out of the way. The relations of the nasals are on the whole
more with the labials, gutturals, and dentals respectively than with xxiii
one another. The order of the vowels is that given by Ritschl, and
is the same to a great extent as that given by Corssen. It is without
doubt, so far at least as it is common to these two authors, the
order of development in the history of the language. Any one re-
ferring to Bell's Visible Speech (p. 73), will see that the order has a
physiological side also, in so far that the vocal cavity of the mouth
is progressively diminished firom a in this order to i.
xxiv Preface: General Observations.
I have not followed Schleicher and others in the treatment of
Latin vocalization according to what for brevity I may call Sanskrit
principles. This method applied to Latin seems to me to fail both in
basis and result. Corssen's elaborate treatment of vowel-intensifica-
tion in the first volume of his new edition is not more satisfactory;
and on this point I can refer to Curtius {Studien, I. 2, p. 294) who,
commenting on Corssen's sanguine view of the result of his medley
collection of long vowels in root-syllables, suffixes and endings,
points out that vowel-intensification is " after all only a name for
the fact that we often meet with a long vowel, when we expect a
short one." The parts of my Grammar which deal with contrac-
tion^ hiatus, change of vo-ivel quantity, &c., are far from being what
I should like ; but there is a great difficulty in arriving at any satis-
factory conclusions, owing to our ignorance of the precise quality
and quantity of the vowels, which were, or may be regarded as
having been, the components of the long vowel or diphthong, at the
time when the long vowel or diphthong first arose. Our knowledge
of the language begins at a later period, when this process was
already over, and we have therefore not facts enough for the histori-
cal method. I have little right to speak on such a matter, but I
venture to think that the greatest light upon this branch of philology
is now to be expected from strengthening the theoretical side of this
investigation, but strengthening it not so much by the study of litera-
ture and grammar as in Sanskrit, but by a more accurate study of
the physiological conditions, and by a closer contact with nature
as exhibited in groups of dialects of living tongues. But the appli-
cation to Latin must in any case be difficult.
In Book IL I have regarded the main division as twofold only,
Nouns and Verbs. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, have place
xxiv here only as being originally parts of nouns or verbs. Numerals,
as I have said before, have no right to a separate place at all : they
are either adjectives or substantives or adverbs, and should be
classed accordingly. (For convenience they are also given, in the
ordinary arrangement, in Appendix D.) Pronouns are similarly
referable to the other classes.
Understanding by a declension a mode of forming the cases by
Treatment of t/ic matter of Book II. xxv
a separate set of inflexions, I have made two declensions only
instead of five. The distinction of the stem is subordinate to
this. At the same time it did not appear worth while to separate
such forms as fiUabus from the more usual forms, and put them
under the head of the second class, to which they strictly belong.
Pronouns are in their main features clearly words of the first class;
but, as the genitive singular is differently formed throughout, they
are here kept together in a separate chapter. Qvis of course belongs
to the second class, but here again convenience seemed to forbid
its separation from qvi.
The ordinary separation of substantives from adjectives, and the
gradually growing tendency to confine the tei-m tioun to substantives,
seem to me, in Latin at any rate, thoroughly wrong and misleading.
The difference between substantives and adjectives is almost entirely
syntactical, and, even as such, not so great as is generally assumed.
What slight inflexional differences there are, will be found noted (cf.
§§352, 403). The modification of adjectives to express degree in a
comparison has clearly as little right to be put in Book II.,
instead of Book III., as the formation of diminutives, or any other
common derivatives, which the language allowed to be formed
very much at pleasure from any stem, because it retained a consci-
ousness of the meaning of the suffix. (In Appendix C I have for
convenience sake treated the matter more in the ordinary way.)
The foiTnation of participles, &c. ought no doubt to be put in
Book III.; but they have so much bearing on the inquiiy into the
nature of the verbal stem, that I have preferred to leave them as
usual in Book II. The formation of the several parts of verbs has
been treated under the appropriate heads. The endeavour to form
the verbs into classes by combined consideration of their present
and perfect and supine stems, as is done in Vani^ek's Grammar,
after the analogy of Curtius' Greek Grammar, seems to me to lead
to inconvenience without much compensatory advantage. Chapter x.-cv
XXX. contains a list of so-called irregular verbs in alphabetical order,
as being that which is far the most useful for ordinary reference.
I have followed the Public Schools Primer in putting generally
the future instead of the imperfect next to the present tense.
It is very common, perhaps invariable, to prefix to Book II.
a classification of the Parts of Speech. So far as this bears on
xxvi Preface: General Observations.
Book II. I have briefly touched it. But in the main it is of a syn-
tactical nature, and in Book IV. it will therefore be found.
It may surprise some readers to see so imperfect an explanation
of the meaning and origin of the inflexions of nouns and verbs.
"\'\''here I have seen my way t(;lerably clearly, I have briefly stated
the view which appeared most probable, but in many cases I have
preferred merely to mention views entertained by others; in some
cases I have stopped short at the facts, and left the origin un-
touched. This indeed seems to me, at any rate at present, the proper
position of a Latin grammarian. What can be deduced from the
facts of the historical language comes fairly within his province, but
more than this can only be done by the light derived from other
languages. And greater agreement among philologers is necessary
before any theory of the precise origin and meaning of these in-
flexions can claim more than a very subordinate place in a grammar
of historical Latin.
In Book III. will be found fuller lists of Latin words, arranged
under their endings, than I have seen in any other grammar, except
Leo Meyer's (which has too the advantage of containing lists of
Greek words as well as of Latin). My lists are distinguished from
his in two ways. His embrace a great many words, often without
notice, which are only found in writers after the silver age; and
the arrangement is more subjective and consequently less convenient
than that which I have adopted. There is no doubt that almost
any arrangement made on some principle brings together words
which have a claim for common consideration and thereby may
give rise to useful result. The ordinary arrangement, when of an
etymological character, has been to class compound endings under
jcxvi the first part of the suffix, not the last^. This seems to me
wrong both as matter of convenience and theory. A word is not
so easy to find, because the analysis is more uncertain: and the
practice contradicts the essential character of a (Latin) suffix, that
^ Key's Grammar is an exception. See his tables in pp. 26, 28,
38, 39-
Treatment of the matter of Book III. xxvii
it is applied at the end of a word. Of course if we were quite cer-
tain what is suffix, what is root, either arrangement (i.e. by the first
part of the suffix or by the last) would be in some sort natural.
But when to the uncertainty, which in many words there is on
this point, is added the fact, that though some compound suffixes
are apparently used as if they were simple, and are appended at once
to a root or simple stem, yet in the majority of cases the last
part only of the suffix is to be regarded as truly suffixal in the
feeling and apprehension of the people, the safest plan seems to
be that followed in the present volume ; viz. giving all the words
of any importance and certainty, and arranging them under the final
suffix, or that final part which, if anything, would be the suffix,
or which is at least parallel to what is suffixed in other stems.
There are other principles of division which are followed in
some grammars either with or without the above. One is the
separation of substantives from adjectives and enumeration of the
suffixes und«r these supreme heads. Besides the general objection
to such a division, which I have spoken of before, the lists will
shew, that in far the majority of instances the suffixes or endings
belong to both classes, and the separation of them is cumbrous and
misleading.
Another division is according to the part of speech from which
the derivatives are formed. This again is liable to the same ob-
jections. Many substantives are not so different from adjectives
as to render it desirable to establish any sharp distinction between
their respective progenies. And though some suffixes are parti-
cularly or exclusively applied in derivatives from verbs, others in
derivatives from nouns, or, subordinately, from substantives or
adjectives, many have no such particular or exclusive attachment.
To treat the ' derivation of adverbs ' as coordinate to the deriva-
tion of nouns and verbs, is the same as it would be to treat so the
derivation of the several persons of a verb or cases of a noun. So xxvii
far as an adverb is formed with derivative suffixes &c., of the same
kind as adjectives, they may belong here, but most adverbs are
merely cases of nouns.
Many words formed, so far as we know, directly from a root
are, as I have implied (see also § 748), included in these lists. Where
any tolerably certain indication of the meaning of these roots was
c 2
xxviii Preface: General Observations.
known to me, it has been given ; but to add either Sanskrit homo-
nyms or investigations into doubtful etymologies would have been
unsuited to my plan.
I have also added to the lists a considerable number of proper
names, chiefly of persons. No attempt has been made to be ex-
haustive in this matter, those only as a rule being given, which are
either clearly intelligible and therefore instructive derivatives, or
which are names of well-known or at least not merely private
persons. There is however probably somewhat more vacillation
in the extent to which this enumeration has been carried, than there
is in the case of appellatives.
The list of derivative verbs is fuller than I have hitherto seen,
though in no way exhaustive as regards stems in a. Still here as
in nouns it brings into strong light the comparative prevalence of
different classes. And this is a matter which is commonly left with
little notice.
The Chapter on Composition deviates considerably from ordi-
nary treatment. In the first place, the lists are tolerably complete,
except in the case (i) of very common classes, e.g. words com-
pounded with numerals or with -f6ro, and the like; and (2) of some
m.omentary formations found in Plautus or Petronius or the like.
The result is to shew that, except with prepositions, there was no
great development of Composition in Latin, — certainly nothing
approaching the Greek. Secondly, I have ventured to lay down
(§ 979) more broadly than is usual, at least in Latin Grammars,
the principle that Composition is simply welding together in one
word two words conceived as standing in ordinary syntactical
relation with each other. The welding however is a welding of
stems, and the changes of letters are simply in accordance with the
xxviii general habits of the language and require no separate treatment.
Thirdly, the form of the compound word is given by the necessity
which produced it. If an adjective was wanted, an adjective was
formed ; if a verb, a verb ; and a suitable derivative or stem suffix
was appended, which might or might not be like that possessed by
the simple words. No doubt much of this view is identical with
the ordinary division into composita detertninati'va, coKstructa, pos-
Treatment of the matter of Book III. xxix
sessiva^; hut it seems in the ordinary treatment to be regarded
rather as a special and adventitious characteristic of some particular
classes than as the natural result of the determining cause of all
Composition. The compounds with prepositions used absolutely
may however, at least with our present notions of prepositions,
be a separate class.
Many will doubtless think the lists of words, derivative or
compound, needlessly full. But I do not fear the charge from
those who desire to study as a whole the formation of Latin words,
or to ascertain the meaning or use of particular suffixes, or the
laws of combination and change of the several vowels and con-
sonants, or the etymology of particular words. I have indeed
found these lists of much use in testing various etymological and
phonetic theories which I have seen in other writers or which have
occurred to myself. I have especially borne the possibility of this
use in mind when the multitude of instances forced me to make a
selection only. Indeed many of the instances inserted have been in
fact the answers I have found to various doubts which occurred to
me respecting the possibility or the behaviour of certain groups
of sounds or of certain elements of composition. Nonconformists
have a special right to a place in such a representative assembly.
The interjections I have tried to identify w^ith inarticulate
sounds of emotion. But a greater knowledge of phonetics and
more acquaintance with the habits of peoples of southern Europe
than I possess is requii-ed to do this clearly and fully.
1 I worked the matter out for myself with the hint given by this
division. But L. Tobler's book [ixber die Wortzusatnmensetzung, Berlin,
iS68) is well worth reading.
Observations^ on Book I.;
particularly on
Pronunciation.
The account which I have given of the several letters took its
origin in the desire of finding a tolerably firm basis for forming
a judgment of the real sound of each. But any inquiry of
this kind presupposes some acquaintance with at least the leading
divisions of articulate sound, so far as they are actually heard
from the lips of Europeans and Western Asiatics. For this
rc-ison I have prefixed to the discussion of Latin sounds, a
brief account of articulate sound in general, omitting, however,
many of the finer distinctions, and many of the sounds (chiefly
Asiatic and Slavonic) which there seems little room for sup-
posing were known to, or at least represented by, Greeks or
Romans. Etymology becomes a science only when its physiological
conditions are understood and applied, and I believe no greater
service could be rendered to Comparative Grammar, than the pub-
lication of a brief and clear Grammar of Phonetic, with illustrations
{a) from misformations of sounds, such as are now heard from in-
dividuals ; {b) from varieties of sound in living languages and dia-
lects; and {c) from well-ascertained facts in the history of words.
To write such a book would require, besides knowledge and caution,
an acute and trained ear, as well as sensitive and flexible organs.
Few possess these qualifications. I cannot pretend to any of them.
At present, the only book which can be named as combining these
different parts of the discussion in relation to the ancient languages
is Max Mailer's Lectures, Vol. II. But it is not nearly full enough.
1 A few copies of these Observations and of Book I. were privately
distributed in April 1871. Some verbal corrections, and one addition
(p. xli.), have been since made.
On Pronunciation. xxxi
Some other books which I have used are named in the note to ,\xx
p. ii. But to these must be added Alex. J. Ellis' elaborate
work (not yet finished) on Early English Pronunciation -d, work
with which I did not become acquainted till after Book I. was
stereotyped, and of which I have consequently made hardly any
use in that book (except in the list of vowels). When I see
the admirable mode in which English pronunciation is there dis-
cussed, I feel how very imperfect, nay almost perfunctory, by iJie
side of it is any inquiry into Latin pronunciation, which has yet been
made. And yet Mr Ellis' inquiry is into the pronunciation of a
language, still living, and familiar, and only five or six centuries old.
An inquiry into classical Latin is into a pronunciation which has
not been uttered by any accredited representative within the last
seventeen hundred years. Still, I persuade myself, that the pronun-
ciation which I have given, may be taken to be one which would
at least have been intelligible to Cicero or Cassar, and which would
not have differed from his own, more than the pronunciation of
educated men in one part of England would differ from that heard
in other parts.
I have assigned little weight to the accounts of pronunciation
given by Roman grammarians, except so far as they imply the
non-existence, at the lime, of sounds which the letters might on some
other grounds be supposed to have had. Some isolated state-
ments made by Cicero and Quintilian are worth careful notice ; but
to describe sounds properly requires a large acquaintance with
possible and actual sounds, and who in the ancient world had that?
It is absurd to see loose statements of writers of uncertain age,
but probably between a.d. 200 and 600, and often nearer the
latter than the former, taken as authenticated evidence of the pro-
nunciation cf Cicero and Cassar, and conclusions deduced from
them by writers who have themselves a loose knowledge of sounds,
and that derived only from books, not from close study of the human
voice itself. Assuming that the Roman spelling was in the main
phonetic, i.e. that it varied with the sound, (though doubtless the
change in the spelling lagged behind the change of sound,) I am
^ On the pronunciation of Greek a pamphlet by Friedrich Blass,
uber die Anssprache des Griechischcn (1870), has lately come to me. It
will be found well worth reading.
xxxii Preface: Observations on Book I.
xxxi sure that the only safe guide is the actual history of the letters,
aided by a knowledge of their possible and likely sounds.
I have thought it would be convenient if I put together here
some of the facts and arguments upon which my view of the
Roman pronunciation is based, instead of leaving them to be col-
lected from the accounts of the several letters in Book I. Some
points I have treated at greater length than others, because there is
not that general agreement which would permit of my using more
dogmatic brevity. Prof. Max Muller has recently (^Academv, i^ Feb.
1 871) thrown doubt on what he fairly states to be the conclusion
almost all scholars have come to with respect to the Latin c. [He
has since {Academy, 15 Dec. 18 71) explained that his arguments
were only intended to shew that the evidence for ce = ke, &c. was
weaker than that for ca = ka, &c., and that he himself is in favour
of pronouncing c always as k.] Prof. Munro has in a privately cir-
culated pamphlet^ replied to his arguments on this question, besides
expressing his own opinion on most other points of Latin pronun-
ciation. My own argument was written before I saw Mr Munro's
remarks, but I have since taken one or two hints from them. I
am glad to find my views on the pronunciation of Latin generally
accord closely with those of one whose fine taste and many-sided
scholarship need no commendation from me. I have mentioned
candidly my difference on some points, though I am well aware
how probable it is that I am wrong.
The question, What was the Roman pronunciation.' is quite
distinct from the question. Shall we adopt it ? Prof. Miiller's
argument has a tendency to confuse them. I quite admit that a
change in our pronunciation of Latin is inconvenient, but the in-
convenience is greater in imagination than in reality, and will be
soon overcome, whilst the benefit to any student of philology will be
very great. With our English pronunciation of the vowels, of j,
V, c, g, r and others, the development of the language becomes an
inextricable riddle, and the student naturally gets into the fatal
habit of dissociating letters from sounds. Nor can it be said that we
^ The reply to Prof. Miiller's arguments is now reprinted in Aca-
demv, March 15, 1871. [Mr Munro has since (Oct. 1871) published this
pamphlet under the title A fciu rcmai'ks on the projittnciation of Latin,
and added a Postscript.\
On V Consonant. xxxiii
shall not be approaching to the pronunciation of continental nations.
We shall approach them considerably at once, and if, as seems to me
probable, they change their pronunciation eventually, we shall be
coincident with them in proportion as we and they respectively
have succeeded in ascertaining the truth. Nothing short of that
can or ought to be the common goal and place of meeting. Argu-
ment from some supposed superiority of one sound, as sound, to xxxii
another, seems to me worthless : the question is one of historical
fact, not of assthetical selection ' ; and we shall do better in spealcing
Latin as the Romans spoke it, if we can but discover how, than in
either indulging fancy or being swayed by associations, which are
none the less delusive because they are habitual.
I assume throughout, until the contrary be proved, that a
letter has but one sound, except so far as it is necessarily altered
by its position as initial or medial or final. The phenomenon pre-
sented by most letters in English of sound and sign having but a
fortuitous connexion is, I believe, nearly unique.
On V consonant.
The following are the reasons for the pronunciation of v con-
sonant as Eng. w, or perhaps sometimes as French ou (in o«/), and
not as the labio-dental v.
I. The same letter was used without any distinction for the
vowel and the consonant sound. There is no doubt that the
vowel sound was English oo. ' By a slight appulse of the lips
the vowel oo becomes the consonant w' (Bell, p. 151). 'W is
often considered to be a vowel, but is not so' (Ellis, p. 580). At
the same time the Romans were quite alive to the distinction.
The emperor Claudius proposed a new letter, and Quintilian
thought it would have been desirable to have one. For (he says)
neither uo, as his teachers wrote, nor uu, as was written in his
own time, expressed the sound actually heard ; which he compares
to the digamma (i. 27. a6; xii. 10. 29, quoted in Book i. p. 29).
^ If the matter were really one of taste, I should not be afraid of
putting the questions : Is a sibilant or buzz a finer sound than a mute or
semivowel? Are seas and cheese pleasanter sounds than keys, sin and
chin than kin ; or veal and vain more expressive than weal and wane?
xxxiv Preface: Observations on Book I.
The later grammarians, e.g. Terentianus Maurus, dwell at greater
length on this difference. This makes it probable that the sound
was rather w than French ou. Comp. Gell. xix. 14 with id. x. 4.
2. A sound practically identical with w is generally consi-
dered to be the sound of u when following q. It is probable,
indeed, as Mr Ellis says, that qu in Latin represents only a
xxxiii labialised guttural, not a clearly pronounced kw, for it never
lengthened the preceding syllable: but then the nearest approach
to such a labialised k is kw, certainly not kv. (Comp. Quint, xii.
10, § 29.)
3. The vowel 0, when following v (consonant or vowel), was
retained till the Augustan age and later, though after other letters
it had usually changed to u ; e.g. servos, later servus ; quom, later
(in 4th century) quum. Compare this fact with Bell's statement :
' When w is before 00, the combination is rather difficult from the
' little scope the organs have for their articulative (i.e. consonantal)
' action : the w is in consequence often omitted by careless speak-
'ers, ef 00/ being pronounced 00/, woman, ooman, Sec' (Bell, p. 171).
It is worth notice, that in English the pure Italian a was retained
after w in several words Qivater, &c.), and in the 17th or i8th
century gave way to its present usual sound of aw (Ellis, 187-8).
4. u and V were frequently passmg into one another : compare
miluus and milvus, relictium and reliqvum ; genua sounded as
genva, pituita as pitvita, tenuia as tenvia (§92).
Again v is vocalised in soluo for solvo, acuse (Lucr.) for aquse,
siluse for silvse, &c. (§ 94. 2). So solvo has solutus, volvo, voliltus,
just as acuo has acatus.
5. V between two vowels constantly falls away, not sapped by
a slow decay, but as it were melted before the eye and ear of
the people. Compare amaveram, amaram; audiveram, audieram;
cavitum, cautum ; sevitas, aetas ; juvenior, junior ; reversum, nir-
sum; providens, pnidens, &c. (§ 94). This phenomenon, repeat-
edly occurring, seems hardly explicable, except on the assumption of
the V being a vowel, or the closest approach to a vowel.
6. V in Latin never (except in nivis, and the compounds bi-
vimn, tri-vium, &c.) follows short i. Now there is no difficulty
On V Consonant. xxxv
in pronouncing Engl, iv, but iw is very far from easy. Indeed
V after any short vowel is not common in Latin. I have only
noticed the following instances: avis, avus, Bavius, bovis, brevis,
cavus, exuvlse, induvise, favus, fluvius, gravis, Jovis, juvenis, levis,
ne-vis (§ 728), novem, novus, ovem, ovis, pluvia, pover ( = puer), sim-
puvium; and the verbs caveo, faveo, juvo, lavo (also luo), moveo,
paveo. (The syllable preceding v is in all accented.) The cause of
this rarity is the great tendency to fusion of two vowels w'hen xxxlv
only separated by a v. (See preceding paragraph, and comp.
Schleicher, Deutsche Sprache, p. 159, ed. 2.)
7. Consonantal v is never found before a consonant (Prise. 1.
23) or final; but always before a vowel. This is quite as it would
be if V be equal to w ; for w scarcely gains any consonantal power,
if indeed it be not absolutely unpronounceable ^, except before a vowel ;
but V is as pronounceable after as before a vowel. Thus sive (older
seive), neve when they drop the final e become seu, neu, not siv,
nev". Compare this with Italian, where (the labio-dental) v is fre-
quent before a consonant in the middle of a word; e.g. avro
(habebo), covrire (cooperire), &c.
8. The English name of the labio-dental voiced fricative is vee.
This name is derived from vau, the term applied to the digamma,
with which the Latin f, on account of its symbol f , and the Latin
consonantal u, on account of its sound, were identified (cf. Quint.
XII. 10. § 29). But in classical times, at any rate, v consonant
and V vowel (like i consonant and i vowel) were not distinguished
either in symbol or name. Nor were they by Terentianus Maurus.
Priscian (l. 20) speaks of the name vau being given it from its resem-
blance to the digamma. But had the sound of English v belonged
to it, at the time when the other letters received their name, it
would have been called ev. For it is the law of Roman nomencla-
ture^ to denote vowels by their sounds, mute consonants by sound-
^ [Mr Ellis says (Acad. 15 Jan. 1872), that W after a vowel, and
without a vowel following it, can be pronounced after some practice.]
^ Marius Victorinus (p. 2465') stands alone, I believe, in thinking
that obverto, obvius should be owerto, owius.
•^ The names of all the letters are given in Pompei. Comm. ad
Do7ia1. Vol. V. p. ici, Keil. Cf. also Serg. IV. p. 478. I cannot bring
myself to believe that Mr C. B. Cayley, Philol. Soc. Trans, for 1870,
xxxvi Preface: Observations on Book I.
ing a vowel after them, be, ce, de, ge, &c.; continuous consonants
by a vowel before them (e.g. ef, el, em, en, er, es), probably
because in this way each consonant gets its fullest and most charac-
teristic sound (Prise, i. 8) ; the explosives being chiefly distin-
guishable when they precede a vowel (§ 274), the continuous
consonants having when final an opportunity of being prolonged
at pleasure. Varro is said to have given va as the name and sound
xx.w of the digamma. If the Romans had named their consonantal use
of u, they would have denoted it similarly by va or ve (pronounced
wa, we), as w like h only obtains its full sound before a vowel.
9. The labio-dental f differs from the labio-dental v only as p
from b, t from d, s from z, tli (in thin) from tli (in then)^ &c.;
i.e. the foimer is whispered, the latter is voiced. The Saxons and
(formerly at least) Welshmen do not make this difference, or rather
they sound the voiced consonants nearly as the voiceless (e.g. pet for
bed) ; we give to each of the symbols, s and tli, both the sounds. With
so great similarity between f and v is it likely that the Romans, if
their v was a labio-dental, would not have confused them or noticed
the resemblance ? Yet {a) no inscription substitutes F for v
(Corssen, Ausspr. i. p. 136); and {b) the Roman writers (at any
rate before the 4th century') seem not to have noticed this close
resemblance, although (as was said before) the symbol F was the
ordinary symbol of f, and was borrowed from the digamma to
which the Roman v corresponded. Quintilian's description (xii.
ID, § 29) of the Roman f indicates strongly its dental and voiceless
character. I am inclined to think that no more is meant by his
words than 'blown out between the intervals of the teeth with no
sound of the voice 2.' In the next sentence he speaks of the 'iEolic
letter which we utter in senium, ceruum,' but seems in no way
pp. 5 — 16 (the only paper which I have ever seen on the question of
the names of the letters], is right in thinking that the Latin names have
not been assigned on phonetic principles. Comp. App. A. xxiii.
■'■ Marius Victorinus (p. 2464) speaks of the ' cognate letters b, f,
m, p, U,' which is of course in some sort correct on any supposition.
''■ Some think that a still harsher articulation than the ordinary Eng-
lish f is here meant, and no doubt this is possible enough, but, con-
sidering that Quintilian regards it as quite peculiar, some emphasis of
expression is not unnatural. Even in English f and V are different
enough from any other consonants.
On V Consonant. xxxvii
conscious of any close similarity of it to f. Terentianus Mau-
lus {v. 227) describes f quite correctly as uttered 'with a gentle
breathing while the under lip is pressed against the upper teeth,'
and speaks of v consonant at considerable length, but never suggests
any resemblance to f.
10. The ordinary and regular mode of expressing the Latin v
in Greek is by ov^, and no distinction is made whether it be a vowel
or consonant. On the other hand, Latin v is never used in the xx-xvi
transcription of a Greek word, except as a vowel, usually for
o or ov (cf. § 90. ii.).
But Latin v consonant is sometimes expressed in Greek by o,
and sometimes by /3. Now o was an occasional descendant from
a digamma (cf. § 91, and Curt. Gr. Etym. it. 145 — 500, ed. 2), and
is certainly, next to ou, the nearest vowel sound to the Latin u. This
use of o therefore tends to confirm the inference which may be
drawn from the use of on, viz. that Latin v consonant was the
consonantal sound nearest to the vowel u; and that is Engl. w.
The expression of the Latin v consonant by /3 is one of the
main arguments upon which the theory, which makes Latin v_
English V, rests. The argument proceeds, as I understand, thus:
' Greek /3 cither had the sound of Engl, v, or, if not, it had a
' sound, say b, nearer to v than to w. And it is probable that Greek
' /3 had the sound of Engl, v, for it has this sound in modern
' Greek. [As Greek /3 is constantly used to represent Latin v, it is
' probable therefore that Latin v had the sound of English v].'
Now the extent to which /3 was used to represent Latin v is
commonly taken to have been much greater than it really was.
Nothing but an undoubting acquiescence in an accredited belief could
have caused so vigilant and industrious a philologer as Coi'ssen to
treat the question in the superficial way which he has done (^Aus-
sprache^i I. 311, ed. 2). He gives no authority for the instances in
which V in proper names is represented by /3, and he quotes, as in-
stances of the same in words which are not proper names, two only
from inscriptions (date not specified : they are from Lycia), three
^ The sign 8 (originally a T put with its foot in the middle of the o)
is not found in inscriptions or coins till the end of the second century
p. Chr. (Franz, Eleftt. Epigraph. Grccc. p. 246).
xxxviii Preface: Observations on Book I.
from Suidas, and four from Lydus. Lydus was a Byzantine, and
not born before a.d. 490; Suidas is later, and indeed is often put as
late as the nth or 12th century p. Chr. Both therefore are wit-
nesses of little weight in such a question ; and when we remember
that in the 4th century p. Chr. there was a frequent confusion
between -Latin v and Latin b (which began as early as the 2nd
century but not before'), we see that the use by any writers later
xxxvii than the 4th century of a /3 for v is no evidence whatever of the
sound of V in the age of Cicero or of Qiiintilian.
The Greek writers of most importance for this matter are
Polybius (2nd cent. B.C.), Diodorus Siculus (ist cent. B.C.), Diony-
sius of Halicarnassus and Strabo (Augustan age), Josephus and
Plutarch (latter half of ist cent. p. Chr.), Appian (middle of 2nd
cent. p. Chr.), Dio Cassius (end of 2nd or beginning of 3rd cent.
p. Chr.). I have examined these attentively, though not ex-
haustively, and collected a large number of instances of transcrip-
tion of Latin words, principally proper names. I have since
examined Benseler's most painstaking dictionary of Greek proper
names, and the result is in both cases the same^ viz. that, except in
one writer, the instances of v consonant being represented by ^ are
few absolutely, and very few relatively to the instances of its being
represented by ov. The one exception is Plutarch, and, so far as I
have noticed, most instances commonly quoted have or might have
been taken from him. He has /3 for v frequently, though not as
often as he has ov- The same name appears with /3 in some of his
Lives, in others with ov. Other names are always written one way.
But this matter has been so little noticed that some details may be
interesting. I have looked particularly through (i) all Plutarch's lives
of Romans, and that of Pyrrhus (in Sintenis' edit., Teubner series);
(2) the first five books of Polybius (Hultsch's edit.), i.e. all that is
preserved in a continuous narrative; and (3) Books i v. — vi. of Diony-
sius of Halicarnassus (in Kiessling's edit., which in these books rests
on a better collation of the most important MS. than in the first three).
^ See § 72. Corssen, Atissprache, l. 131 sq. ; Schuchardt, I. 131;
Goschen's Pi-ef. to Gains, p. xxxxii. ed. Lachmann ; and Naber's edit,
of Fronto, pass!?n. So Priscian [Faj-t. 23 — ill. 46.;, Keil) makes the
strange statement, that ' all words beginning with Vi are written with v,
' except toitiunen, bills and the compounds of bis.'
On V Consonant. xxxix
The result is as follows, the numbers being possibly not strictly
accurate, but at any rate accurate enough for the present purpose'.
(i) In Plutarch there are of names of persons (almost all
Romans), or places, or peoples, 50 written with ou, and 43 with /3;
and the occurrences of these names are, in all, 323 with ov^ 180 with
^. Of these Valerius, Valeria, Valens, Ventidius, Verginius, Ves-
pasianus, Vibius, Vindicius, Vinius, Vitellius, Volsci occur at least
5 times each (Valerius and Volsci nearly 50 times each), and always
with ov ; Fulvius, Fulvia, Varro, Verres occur at least 8 times each, xxxviii
and always with /3. Others, e.g. Veil, occur both with ov and /3 ;
Volumnius (in Brutus) always with /3, Volumnia (in Coriolanus)
always with ov ; Octavius 16 times (chiefly in Crassus and Pom-
peius) with ov, 30 times (chiefly in Gracchi and Marcellus) with ^;
but Octavia (in Antony) 22 times with ov, and only twice (in Mar-
cellus) with /3; Servilius 9 times with ov, twice with /3; ServUia
once with ov, 14 times with /3. Yet other writers have ov in the
names which Plutarch wintes with ^ only. For instance, no one else
(according to Benseler's Lex^ writes "Qappisiv (except once Dionys.
Hal. I. 14) or Bepp?;?.
(2) In the tirst three books of Polybius I find 10 names,
making in all 20 occurrences, all with ov ; not a single instance of
/3. In the 4th and 5th books I find no instance of either. On
turning to the extracts from Polybius' lost books I find nothing
in those from the 6th and 7th; but in the 8th OvaXepioy once,
At'jStos four times.
(3) In Books IV. to VI. of Dionysius I find 21 names written
with ov (besides Aveirti/o?), and the occurrences are 184, Valerius,
Volsci, and Servilius being exceedingly frequent. There are 5 names
only in which v is represented by /3; Nsevius, Flavus (written in
the two best MSS. 0Xa/3tos'), Servius, Pulvlllus, and Elva, the last
only occurring twice, the others once.
How much of this comparative frequency of /3 in Plutarch is
due to the author, how much to his copyists, how much to his
editors, I do not know. The text of Polybius and Dionysius may,
^ I have not included instances where neither ov nor /3 are used,
e.g. in Plutarch, ^awi/ios, Noi/j-^pios, 'ZKaioXas : nor instances of u after
q (of. § 90, 2) ; though both these speak for a light value being given to v.
xl Preface: Observations on Book I.
I suppose, be fairly trusted as far as the editors are concerned. And
it may be noted that the most trustworthy part of the text of the
most trustworthy author (Polybius) gives no instance of jS.
Now in this representation of v by /iJ something doubtless is due
to the source of the Greek writer's narrative in each case. Some-
thing also to the instinctive desire of assimilating a word to Greek
forms; hence the frequent use of /3 before -my, e.g. Ai/3to? (in
Plutarch once only Aiovios), ^Xa^ios, 'OktcliSios, ^ovX^ios, &c.
Something again is due to phonetic reasons. Thus while ov is (in
Plutarch) initial in 34 names and medial in 16, /3 is initial in 1 7 and
medial in 26. In 15 of these 26 /3 follows X or p, and i-n the
rest it is between vowels ; which are exactly the positions in which
ix a German b is pronounced like Germ, w^ It will be seen that
the instances fi'om Dionysius are all thus disposed of. As regards
Plutarch it is perhaps not inappropriate to remark that he expressly
tells us he was not a good Latin scholar (Ht. Demosth. 2,
p. 846), and secondly, that he was a Boeotian; and the relations of
the Boeotian dialect to the digamma were such as to make it pos-
sible that his native pronunciation or habits may have had something
to do with this peculiarity. But all the MSS. of these authors are,
I suppose, posterior by many centuries to the time of confusion of
V and b ; and this fact, while not at all impairing their testimony
when they represent v by ov, is strong against its trustworthiness
when writing /3. For there is no apparent reason why a copyist, if
he found /3 written, should have changed it to ov, while the change
of ov (for consonantal v) into |3 would be in accordance with the
tendencies either of pronunciation itself or of its expression. A
reference to Benseler's lexicon will shew at once a number of words,
written earlier with ov, which in Byzantine writers received a ^.
Or look to the names of consuls, &c. given from various authorities
side by side in the Corpus Inscript. Latin. I. 483 sqq., and it will be
seen how persistently the Cbro)ncon Paschak of the 7th century
J Schleicher [Deutsche SpracJu, p. 212, ed. 2) says: ' b and g we
' write in accordance with the old language, but pronounce these sounds,
' when medial, between vowels, as w and [voiced] cb, consequently as
'spirants not as momentary sounds... e.g. graben, sagen, 7^% grawen,
"■ s6,chen...'\\iQ b also in the combinations lb, rb is pronounced as W;
' e.g. in gelber, far be, but not when the 1 and b belong to different
' words, e.g. stiilbein, harbeutcl.^
On V Consonant. xli
writes /3 where Dionysius or Diodorus or Dio has ov, and how
often the v of the Inscriptions gives place in the Latin of the 4th
century to to ; e. g. Calvus to Calbus, Sec.
Again, the MSS. of the New Testament, are, I beUeve, the
earliest MSS. existing (except some papyri and the Herculaneum
rolls), and the following facts may therefore be of use. The name
Silvanus occurs four times (2 Cor. i. 19; i Thess. i. i ; a Thess.
i. i; I Pet. V. 12). In St Peter Vat. alone (against Sinait. Alex.)
has 2tX/3ai/o?. In St Paul Vat. like the rest (and Ephr. in % Cor.,
being lost in r, 2 Thess.) has StXovai/oj : two bilingual MSS. Clar.
Boem. (cent. 6 and 9) with the transcripts Sang. Aug. and (once) the
second hand of No. 67, are the only MSS. late or early, as Mr Hort
informs me, which are known to spell the word with ^. The x
Latin version of Clar. (though not of Boem.) has Siltoanus. The
solitary instance of 2tX/3ai/oy in the Vatican is probably (as Mr Hort
suggests) only one of several indications of the Vatican scribe being
familiar with Latin ; the confusion of v and b being common in
early as well as late Latin biblical MSS.; e.g. the Codex Vercel-
lensis of the Gospels (middle of 4th cent,; i.e. same date as the
Vatican).
[Dittenberger, who has written two interesting papers on the
representations of Roman names in Greek inscriptions, says on this
point (Hermes VI. 303) 'ou is older' than /3 as a representative of v
'and in republican times is found almost exclusively, whereas /3
' comes most into use later, without however ever getting completely
'the upper hand; for even in Constantine's time there are inscriptions
'in which Latin v is represented by ou.' The only instances of /3
which he mentions are Bakepios (Attic. 2nd cent. B.C.) ; Bt/3ta for
Vibia (at Delphi); ^ovX/Stoy (Naples, 71 B.C.) once, against two in-
stances of initial and three of medial ov in the same inscription ;
AaijiiWos (Ephesus, not before Hadrian's time) with Ovfij3iov and
Ovapov in same inscriptions. The name of Varus, he adds, is com-
monly Ovfjpos, much less frequently BJJpoy. On the other hand, in
Italian inscriptions not uncommonly, but in those only, occurs
SeouacTToy for 2e/3aoTos.J
What then was the value of |3 ? Not, I think, that of the labio-
dental V. For the only argument that is brought for this value is
that it has this value in modem Greek. I do not doubt that some
xlii Preface: Observations on Book I.
Greek speakers give it this sound, but I am not disposed to admit
that all those who think they hear this sound are right. The truth
is there is a labial f and v, as well as a labio-dental f and v, and by
those who are not familiar with the labial the sound is often taken
for that of the labio-dental, Mr Ellis (p. 518) says of an eminent
modern Greek, ' The letters /3, (^ seem to be naturally pronounced
' by Prof. Valetta as a labial v and f, but when he became particularly
' emphatic he made them the labio-dental v and f.' Mr Geldart
(Journ. of Philology for 1869, II. p. 159) says, '/3 is pronounced in
' Greece not like our v but like the German w, only much more
' strongly and explosively, if one may use the word. It is not
' sounded by bringing together the lower lip and the upper teeth,
' but by compressing the two lips together. So too 0, and the con-
' sonantal sound of v, are pure lip-letters, and very different in
' point of formation from f or v.' (See also Appendix A. xviii.)
It is obvious that a sound like this stands in at least as close a rela-
tion to the English w as to the English v.
Here then we meet with a solution of the difficulties presented
by the confusion of Latin v with b, by the occasional representation
of Latin v by j3, and by the historical substitution of the labio-
dental V in the Romance languages for the Latin v. The phonetic
pedigree of the Romance v might be at once stated as : i. u vowel ;
2. French ou, pronounced as in oul; 3. English w; 4. Labial v;
5. Labio-dental v. But I do not assert that this represents an
historical succession in a single line. It is very probable that the
labial v existed dialectically in Italy (and probably in Greece) in
classical times, and that this accounts for such instances of the tran-
xli scription of Latin v by /3, as may be really the writing of Polybius,
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and others^ (e.g. Bea-fiiov apos for
Vesuvius-), and such vacillation in names of places as may be really
due to the ancient authors (e.g. Labici, Cic. Jgr. z.35 ; so also Greek
writers generally; but Lavici, Liv. 2, 3.9 ; S^'^S'^ 4, 45)- I" ^"^ ^fter
1 Some few instances in inscriptions between the battle of Actium
and the end of the 4th century p. Chr. are mentioned by Franz {£/em.
Epigraph. Grcec. p. 24S). I have not the means now for further
inquiry. [See above, p. xli.]
'^ [The Neapolitan dialect of modem Italian is characterised among
other things by ' its extremely frequent interchange of to and v.' (Diez,
Gram. i. 83.)]
On V Consonant. xliii
the 3rd century this sound encroached upon the domain of the w [and
b] , and rendered e.g. verba indistinguishable from berba. But because
the Greek /3 may very possibly have had this sound, and may have
been used for Latin v, it does not follow that Latin v had this
sound, but only that in the vi^ant of an exact representative /3 came
near enough to be used. I see no reason whatever for supposing
that in classical times educated persons pronounced the letter v (u)
(except in certain positions) otherwise than as the vowel 00, either
with a pause after it, or running on to a succeeding vowel, (as in
French oui,) or as English w. The first of these modes was the
usual sound of v when called a vowel, the third when called a con-
sonant. After q it may have been a mere sign of the labialisation
of the guttural, an effect which most people would not distinguish
■from w. And possibly the same may be its purport sometimes
after g, 1, r, s. (See §§ 89 ; 94, 2, and Append. A. xx. — xxii.) With
a short i following, qv made a sound which the Greeks represented
by Ku, i.e. k followed by the 12th vowel (see below). The rise of
b out of V in a few cases is noted in § 76, and this was probably
negotiated by a labial v, which perished in the transaction.
Corssen appears to think such a sound as the Engl, w to be too
weak for v generally, and points to its having expelled the preceding
consonant in some words. But the words in which this took place,
leaving evidence in historical Latin behind it, are very few^, viginti
from duo (§ 76), nivis from nigv-is, shown by ninguit and nix, vixi
compared with vivo (§ 129), possibly reduvia with ungvis. Others
are evidenced only by comparison with Greek or Sanskrit stems.
That these changes may have been produced by the mediation of a
labial v is likely enough, but they seem to me to be part or rem- xlii
nants of the changes which constituted the separation of the Latin
language from its common stock, and to prove nothing for the
pronunciation of v in the days of Cicero and Quintilian, unless
indeed guard (once, I suppose, pronounced givanl) compared with
ivard, &c. shews that w is in English pronounced as v. That Cors-
sen should also consider {Aussprache, i. 315) the omission of v in
such words as sos for suos, savium compared with svavliiin, &c.,
^ Corssen does not mention such words as sevoco, sevirl; and they
are only instances of the usual habit of sed, sex; see g§ 93, 2; 113.
d 2
xliv Preface: Observations on Book I.
or the absorption of v in fautor for favitor, nuper for novum per,
as proofs that v had not a ' weak vowel sound Hke the Enghsh w,'
but a consonantal tone like the Germ, w^, is to me very sui'prising.
I draw the precisely opposite inference. (See above, 5, p. xxxiv,)
[Mr A. J. Ellis has written in the Academy for 15 Jan. 187^2 a
very interesting paper on the letter v, to which I am desirous of
directing my readers' attention, as containing a great deal of
authentic infomiation and the results of an almost unrivalled power
of phonetic discrimination in reference to this subject. He points
out that, whereas, when 00 is followed by another vowel, English
speakers naturally pronounce a w, other nations do not; Italian
uomo, uopo, and French ouais, ouate^ ouest, out being distinguishable
by an attentive hearer from English 'wa{r)m, wa(r)p, ivay, ivattle,
luest, we. The case of 00 before a vowel is parallel to that of ee.
'The initial short and stressless elements ee, 00 do not occur at the
' commencement of diphthongs in English, as to my ears they do in
' Welsh ^, and as they may once have done in Latin. Those nations
' who use short ee, 00 habitually give them consonantal syllabic value.'
He objects to the notion, that Latin v was equivalent to English w,
mainly on the ground that it is, so far as he knows, not familiar to
the lips of any European people except the English. ' The final
' inference would seem to be that I, V (in Latin) should be considered
' as vowels capable of becoming the stressless elements of diphthongs,
' so long as II, W initial are not found ; that after these were found
' (and probably some time before they crept into writing, which
' always lags after speech) y and labial v were employed, when I, V
'were the initial (not the Jinal) stressless elements of diphthongs;
^ Corssen means by the Germ. W the labio-dental English V. The
soii(/i Germ, w is, according to Mr Ellis, the labial v (see App. A. xviii.).
But this is not known to all Germans, though Rumpelt {Dentsch.
Gram. i. 322 — 327 note) seems groping for it. See also p. 319, where
he argues for the old high German w or UU having had the sound of
English w.
^ Prof. M. Milller's remarks in Acad. 15 Dec. 1871, and the reply of
Prof. Munro in Acad, i Jan. 1872, should also be read.
^ ' In ia, ie, io initial, Welshmen conceive that they pronounce ya,
'ye, yo, and similarly in wl, wy they believe they say (Engl.) we, wy.
' This is doubtful to me, because of the difficulty all Welshmen expe-
' rience at first in saying ye, woo, which they generally reduce to e, 00.'
Ellis, Engl. Prou. p. 746 n.
On V Consonant. xlv
*and that later in some words, especially in provincial pronuncia-
' tion, y passed into dzli (English j) in Gaul (subsequently French j)
* and parts of Italy, and gh (Spanish j) in Spain; that v either
' remained provincially as labial v, or became dentalised into labio-
' dental v as being the firmer form and corresponding to the fa-
« miliar f. But there seems to be no time during which English w
' can be interpolated. As a matter of practical convenience, English
' speakers should abstain from w in Latin, because no continental
' nation can adopt a sound they cannot pronounce. As a question
'of date, if the spelling vv is used, the pronunciation of labial v or
' labio-dental v at pleasure may be employed, most of the Germans
' taking labial v, and the rest of the world dental v.' {Acad. pp.
36, 39 somewhat abridged.)
I cannot say that the fact of w being a difficult and now rare or
non-existent sound in Southern Europe is to my mind decisive against
its having been the sound of Latin v in the time of Cicero. For
that sound, whatever it was, did (as Mr Ellis agrees in thinking)
historically give place to other sounds, and is not now the sound of
the character v either in Italy or in France at least. And I can
detect nothing in English inconsistent with Roman phenomena, and
a great deal wonderfully identical. At the same time such a pro-
nunciation as oil in French oui does apparently con-espond equally
well with the early Roman phenomena; and it has existing Southern
usage in its favour as against English w. And I am quite content
to think that a labial v was provincially contemporary and in the
end generally superseded it. (This really differs little from what I
have said before; see §§ 61, 88 and supr. pp. xlii. xliii.) But "as a
matter of practical convenience," I venture to give a different
recommendation from Mr Ellis. I am confident that the labio-
dental V is a very misleading pronunciation of Latin v, and wholly
inconsistent with the Roman phenomena until some late periodi.
English people will practically be very near the truth, if they pro-
nounce V in Latin for some centuries after Christ as w. If the
French pronounce it as ou (in o«/), the Italians as ii (in uomo), and the
1 Comp. Prof Mnnro, Acad, i Jan. 1872, p. 17: 'Let Latin V be
' English or South-German w, or the French ou in oui, only not English
' or Romance V.'
xlvi Preface: Observations on Book I.
Germans as labial v, there will probably be no greater difference
than was often heard in the streets of Rome in the days of Cicero.
The close resemblance of English w to these French and Italian
sounds is shewn most strongly by the existing doubt as to whether
Welsh w is a vowel or a consonant, and by the uncertainty of
English orthoepists to which class to refer English w (Ellis, £ng.
Pron. p. 185). Its close resemblance to labial v will not be
doubted by those who hear a South German pronounce English
words. If the English hearer expects a v, he thinks he hears a w;
if he expects a w, there is difference enough to make him think he
hears a v.]
On F.
On the sound of f I have already spoken (p. xxxvi).
The facts adduced in this first book and in § 766 of the third
book would be almost enough to shew that f was not a sound of
the Indo-European original alphabet, but of a much later and more
special source. The number of words, in which it occurs as
initial, is not very large, but the number in which it occurs, as
initial of a suffix or after a vowel, is exceedingly small — four or five
only. (Of course compounds must for such a purpose be separated
into their members; e.g. in sestifer f is initial.) A few more are
named by Corssen {Krit. Nachtr. p. 193 sqq. Aussprache^ I. 140
sqq. ed. 2), e.g. Alflus, Orfius, Ufens, AuSdas, but these are proper
names and probably not Latin. Certainly such a rare occurrence of
f in suffixes goes far to shew that the sound did not exist at the time
when these suffixes first assumed shape and use. It may well be that
-bro is of the same stock as ferre to bear., but, if so, they are col-
lateral relatives, and -bro is the earlier of the two. Similarly the
verbal tense-suffixes -bam, -bo, &c., the derivative noun-suffixes
-bxUo, -bill, -bo, the case-suffix -bi in tibi, -bis in nobis, vobis, -bus
xliii in nouns, may very possibly have correspondents in Latin (or
Umbrian or Oscan') beginning with f, but I should be inchned to
^ Is it certain that the signs in Umbrian, Oscan, &c., for which we
write f, had the sound which we ascribe to the Lathi f, and not rather
a labial sound? [Compare what Mr Ellis says {Acad. 15 Jan. 1872):
' After some recent experience I feel doubtful of all assertions respecting;
' f as well as V. Certainly f is a comparatively rare sound, and labial f
' may prove more common than is generally supposed.']
On C before se, e, 1, &c. xlvii
regard such words with f as in a collateral not a parental relation
to those with b. And thus amavl would not be for ama-fui, but
it may contain a suffix from the same root as fui.
On C before se, e, i, &c.
That c before e or i was in Latin not pronounced as either
Engl, ch, i.e. tsli (so in Italian), nor as s (so in French and English),
nor as ts (so in German), nor in fact noticeably different from k,
may be inferred from the following arguments.
I. Closely connected forms exhibit perpetual alterations of the
letter following e, without any sign of a variance in the sound of c
when followed by e or i. Can Statins in writing replictus, instead
of the usual replicitus, have made so great a change as hardening s
or sh or ch into k ? If a final e be omitted, could the effect have
been to harden these dentals or palatals into k ? Yet die, due, sic, liunc
stand for dice, duce, sice, hunce. Hosce is common, but is never
abbreviated into hose : that is to say, c is frequently added when it
would, it a sibilant, be indistinguishable, it is not added, when its pre-
sence would have been audible ! Can decern have been pronounced
decheni or detsem or desem, and yet its derivative ordinal have been
sounded dekumus, and then, at the same time with that, decMmus,
&c. ? Kailius became Caelius : did the c change its sound when the
diphthong ai was changed into the diphthong ae ? or did it wait
until the diphthong ae gave place to the single vowel e (§ 262)?
Compare audacter (Quint. I. 6, § 17) with audaciter; difflculter
and difficultas with difficile ; capio, recipio, eepi, capt'om, receptum ;
cano, cecini; acer, acris; loeus, loci, loco, loculus, locellus; lacus
with its genitives laci and lacus, and dat. pi. laciiljus and lacibus ;
piscis, pisciculus, piscosus ; qverpLvetum with qvercotum ; prseqvo-
quis contracted into prsecox, and prsecox with its genitive prsecocis ;
fax with its old nom. faces ; Sec. I am aware that the substitution of
a guttural for a palatal (die - dik, for dice = diche) may be paralleled .\iiv
from Sanskrit as now pronounced^ but the change of sound is marked
by a change of letter, and the palatal letters are not dependent for
their sound on one vowel rather than another. But in classicaj
Latin the change supposed is not justified, so far as I know, by any
xlviii Preface: Observations on Book I.
analogy. Changes of consonantal sounds are frequent, but they are
rarely caused by any change of the subsequent vowel: and the
change of sound is frequently shewn by a change of the spelling,
e.g. in vet-ere, vec-tum, which is the nearest analogy that I know.
2. The letter c was used in early times in words which were
afterwards spelt, some with c, others with g ; and some instances of
this use remain in early inscriptions (see §§ 56, 104). Whether these
words were at the time pronounced with the flat guttural, or
whether the sharp and flat guttural were not clearly distinguished
(cf. App. A. vii.), it is not easy to say. But k was also in use, and
is found in a few inscriptions, generally before a, but also before 0,
and (in one inscription regarded on this account by Mommsen as
Graecising) before e; e.g. kalendas, korano, dekembres ; and it was
the regular abbreviation for the prsenomen Kseso and for kalendas
(§ 103). It is not likely that, if c before e and i was pronounced
otherwise than before a, 0, and u, no attempt should have been made
to retain k for the guttural. Yet such an idea does not appear to
have occurred to any of the reformers of Latin orthography — neither
to Accius nor to Lucilius nor to Claudius Caesar, in the name of
each of whom (see however § 946 n.) c occurs before one of these
supposed influential vowels. Quintilian (l. 7, § 10) speaks of the
desire on the part of some grammarians to write k before a, (not
before and u also,) but his remark on this seems clearly to imply
that c had but one sound, "k quidem in nullis verbis utendum
puto, nisi quae significat, etiam ut sola ponatur. Hoc eo non omisi,
quod quidam eam, quotiens a sequatur, necessariam credunt, cum
sit c littera quae ad omnes vocales vim suam proferat." ' k should
not in my opinion be used in any ijjord except in those for avhich it can
stand by itself as an abbreviation. I mention this because of the opinion
of some perso72s that k tnust be used if the vo^uel a follow it, though
c is a letter the sound of ivhich is heard before all I'owels.''
3. But with these facts must be considered, in order that
xlv their full force may be seen, the fact that there is no hint in any
ancient writer whatever of c having more than one sound, since
the early times mentioned in the last paragraph (Schneider, Lat.
Gr. I. 244, 247; Corssen, Aussprache, I. 48). And this is the more
remarkable, because there are many parts of their writings in which
On C hefore 89, e, i, &c. xlix
such a variety of sound could hardly help being noticed, if it had
existed. For instance Quintilian (i. 4, §§ 7 — 9) first refers to the
discussion of the grammarians whether the Romans lacked some
necessary letters, and then to the counter question whether some
were superfluous, and speaks of k and q. In 7 § a8 he is speaking
expressly of what is written one way and pi^onounced another, and
instances this very letter c as used to denote Gnseus (cf infr. § 104).
Terentianus Maurus (who is generally thought to have lived at end
of 3rd century p. Chr.), referring to the fact that the names of the
three letters c, k, q contained each a different vowel (ce, ka, qu ;
comp, App. A, xxiii.), says expressly, as I understand him, that k
and q are alike in sound and are both superfluous, because it
matters not whether c, k, or q be used, whichever of the vowels
follow (vv. 204 — 209) \
See also Diomed. pp. 423, 424, ed. Keil; Priscian Inst. I. 14,
17; pp. 12, 13, ed. Hertz; Servius, p. 422, ed. Keil; Pompeius,
V. no, ed. Keil; Max. Vict. p. 1945, Putsche; and others quoted
in Schneider, Lat. Gr. I. p. 292 sqq.
4. c is invariably represented in Greek transliteration by k, be
the vowel that follows what it may ; and k is invariably represented
by Latin c^. Now Greek k has never been, and is not either
^ The lines stand thus in Lachmann's edition, but the whole pas-
sage, beginning at v. 85, should be read:
k perspicuum est littera quod vacare possit ;
et q similis, namque eadem vis in utraque est ;
quia qui locus est primitus unde exoritur C,
quascunque deinceps libeat jugare voces,
mutare necesse est sonitum quidem suprcmum,
refert nihilum, k prior an q sict an c.
1. e. Wkatez^er vcnvels von please to utter after forming the guttural
contact for C, you vuist change accordingly the last part of the sound
(i.e. the voavel paii of the syllable ca, cu, ce ^c.), but it matters not
whether the for ?ner part (i. e. the consonant) be k or q or c. [Marius Vic-
torinus in the passage (I. 6) quoted by Prof. M. Miiller {Acad. 15 Dec.
187 1) had this passage of Terentianus before him. Both, I think, in
the words 'supremum sonitum (sonum)' are referring, not to the opening
of the organs as distinguished from the closing of them in the pronun-
ciation of niutes, but to the names of the letters, which were symbols of
the pronunciation. (See § 57). In Marius 'distento rictu' refers to the
vowel a (in ka), 'producto rictu' to the vowel U (in qu).]
^ Except possibly in a few early words, the spelling of which may
be accounted for from c being once the common sign of both the sharp
and flat guttural.
1 Pfeface: Observations on Book I.
xlvi palatalised or assibilated before any vowel, but is the sharp guttural
mute'.
Against this argument it may be urged that as the Latin c
coincided in sound with k before a, o, u, it was only natural for the
Greeks to use k for c before e and i, unless the sound before e or 1
was clearly different from the sound of k and was readily ex-
pressible by some other Greek letter".
Now the actual sounds given to c before e or i in words derived
from Latin are (i) Engl, cli ( = tsh) by the Italians and Wallachians,
(2) Engl, th (sharp) by the Spaniards. (3) s (sharp) by the other
Romance peoples (and the English). (4) The Germans pronounce
it in Latin words as ts. Further it may be argued on physiological
grounds that it may have been sounded as ky, or Germ, ch, or sh ;
these being possible mediating sounds between the sharp guttural
mute and the various existing sounds of Latin c. (See v. Raumer,
Gesam. Schriften^ pp. 40 — 43, 90—95; Schuchardt, I. 164; Ellis,
p. 204, quoted in App. A.xxv.; Max Miiller in Academy for Feb. 15,
1871.) Could these sounds have been represented in Greek?
The sound of s could easily and accurately have been expressed
by Greek o-.
sli could be expressed by either o-, (T(t or <ji (cf. Mullach, Gram,
d. Griech. Vulgarspracbe, p. 1 15).
til (sharp) would be expressed far more nearly by a than by k.
The sound of sharp th is now expressed in modern Greek by ^,
but it is not clear when 6 first obtained this sound.
ts could easily be expressed by to- or t( (see below). I regard
this value for Latin c, until at least some very late period, as utterly
inadmissible. No combination was so thoroughly alien to the
Romans, who never tolerated a dental mute before a sibilant in the
^ The Tzakonians say rfe for /cat (see below, p. li.)- Mr D. Bikelas
(in the Acadc-my for 15 March, 1871) says, 'in many of the Greek
'islands k is pronounced like Itahan C before the vowels e, i, v.'
" Prof. Max Miiller says : ' Unless we admit that C in Cicero was
' pronounced either exactly like f or exactly like a — and this nobody
' maintains — nothing remained to the Greeks but to use k as the nearest
' approach to the modified c' Surely this is going too far. He himself
explains the fact that the Germans wrote z or tz for C, as proving, not
that z or tz was the exact pronunciation of c, but that they came nearer
to c than did tlie Germ, k, or cli. {Academy, 15 Feb. 1871, p. 146.)
On C before ae, e, 1, &c. li
same woi^d. (Etsi is of course two words.) Nor did the Greeks xlvii
either.
Germ, cli is a sound which, so far as I know, has never yet
been actually proposed as a value of Latin c before e and i. In
modern Greek ;^ expresses it exactly, but x is not generally supposed
to have had this sound, at any rate till late Imperial times (cf.
Curtius, Gr. Etyni. p. 371, ed. 2). It is enough for the present to
wait till some spark of evidence for such a sound is produced. It
can never be a formidable claimant.
Engl. cli = tsli was expressed in Greek by t^ by Procopius in the
sixth century p. Chr. (in the word rCovpovAoi/, now Tchorlu, and
others in Benseler's Lexicon), and probably in the Ravenna docu-
ments of the same time, e.g. aKT^io., dovaT^ioi^fi, for actio, donationes
(Corssen, i. 65 sq. ; Ellis, p. 529). So in modem Greek t^ is used to
represent either ts, or sb, or tsli (Engl, ch) or zli, i.e. French j
(Mullach, p. 115). Compare the Tzakonian dialect, Mullach, p. 94
sqq., M. Schmidt in Curtius Studien, III. 349. Prof. Max Muller
objects to the supposition of ^ having been possible, ' because ^ was
' looked upon as a double consonant, and in the middle of a word
' would have made a preceding short vowel long.' This argument is
no doubt good in reference to verse in the Augustan age: I am not
sure of its being applicable to prose even then, if ci had really been
sounded as cM, and I believe it has little or no weight as applied to
transliteration in the and or 3rd century, when yet k represented c.
(See Prof. Munro's account of an Algerian inscription in Donald-
son's Farronianus, p. 522, ed. 3 ; Mullach, p. 71 ; Luc. Miiller's 2nd
Appendix to his De re 7netrica.~) But is not the prosodiacal argu-
ment as good against the supposition of ci being = tslii, as it is
against its being represented by ^? (cf. v. Raumer, p. 40); and is
there any trace whatever of a tendency, at a time when quantity was
felt, to make the first syllable in e. g. cecidi long ?
There remains one theoretical sound for ce, viz. kye. Here it is
necessary to discriminate. It is possible I believe to articulate ke at
the same pail of the mouth as ka, but neither English nor Germans
nor, so far as I know, any other European people do so. ke is
palatal and ka is guttural, but the difference is imperceptible. But
the real question is, had Latin ke either a full y sound or a slight y
sound, such as is sometimes heard in Engl, kind, card? Mr Ellis
lii Preface: Observations on Book T.
xiviii several times (e.g. p. 525, comp. 204) suggests that it had, but he
nowhere defines the time to which he is referring, and he seems to
think the distinction of ke and kye is too shght for us to rely upon
its being noticed. I can only say that the distinction is one which
seems to me obvious enough, far more obvious than many which I
find noticed by Roman grammarians; and I cannot trust my ear
or tongue to find or make any clear distinction between sounds
which Ellis discriminates, viz. a palatalised k (as heard in the occa-
sional pronunciation of kind, &c.) and a full ky. But be that as it
may, if the distinction was not obvious, surely we need not trouble
ourselves about it ; if it was, then would not the Greek kl have
been a tolerable representative? Yet no Greek gives us Kirjva-top
for censor, or KuKepwv for Cicero.
5. Latin c was represented by Gothic k, and the early Latin
words, received into High German, were all spelt with a k, what-
ever vowel followed; e.g. Caesar, Kaiser; career, Goth, karkara.
Germ, kerker. Later adoptions into German were spelt differently,
e.g. census, Germ, zins; cancelli, Gemn. chanzella, &c. (Prof.
Max Miiller accounts for this as due to the early poverty of the
German alphabet, not to the identity or similarity of the sounds ; and
as regards Gothic, partly to this cause, partly to a (supposed) habit
of taking letter for letter without regard to distinctions of sound,
partly to the possibility of Ulfilas having received the words through
the Greek.)
But the argument most pressed, for c having sometimes a different
sound from k, is the confusion which existed between ci before a
vowel and ti before a vowel. Now first, whatever force there may
be in this argument, it is one which cannot justify our attributing
an altered sound of c to ce, ci, &c. when before a consonant.
Secondly, it seems tolerably clear (Corssen, I. 50 — 67) that many
instances of the miswriting are due to the confusion not of two
sounds but of two distinct suffixes -cio, -tio ; and that there is no pro- •
bable instance of ti for ci before at least the end of the 4th century
p. Chr.; and only seven instances of ci for ti in inscriptions before
the 7th century p. Chr.i Further, of these seven instances, three
^ Corssen points out (ll. p. 1003) that Mommsen speaks to the
same purport (Liv. Cod. Veron. ^. 175). ' Numquam in libro Vero-
On C before », e, 1, &c. liii
(pericise, ocio, prudencius) are not of early times, and are given by xlix
collectors who lived at a time when the spelling ocio at least was
usual ; one (renunciationem) is from a notoriously bad collector : a
fifth (dlsposicionem) is from a late Neapolitan inscription contain-
ing several misspelt words'; the remaining two (terminac[iones],
defenciones) are from an inscription at Medjana in Africa of the
time of Alexander Severus {%%% — 235 p. Chr.). Even if these last
be rightly copied, (which is not certain,) an inference from African
spelling or pronunciation in the 3rd century to ordinary Roman
spelling and pronunciation in (say) the Augustan age would be
about as justifiable as an inference from the usage of words or
constructions in Apuleius or Tertullian to that of Cicero or
Quintilian. It is curious that the grammarian (Pompeius), whom
Prof. Max M tiller quotes as his authority for saying that ' we
'know for certain that in the jth century it was considered wrong
'not to assibilate ti before a vowel,' was also an African, from
Mauretania, and as regards his age all that is tolerably certain is
that he did not live before the 5th century, and not later than the
end of the 7th century (Keil, Gram. Lat. V. p. 93. See also
Teuffel, Gesch. d. Rom. Litt. p. 98a). And again, another African,
Commodianus, of the 3rd century, has in an acrostic the word rum
for the initial word of the line which is to give the last letter but
three of concupiscenrtae^ (L. M Oiler, De re metr. p. 262, quoted by
Corssen, 11. 1003).
Thirdly, what does this confusion really prove as to the pro-
nunciation of ci before a vowel, at the time, be it what it may,
when the confusion existed? Prof. M. Miiller says: 'The only
' point where these two letters (c and t) can possibly meet is the
' assibilation. Ti may go as far as tsi, but unless ki also went as
' far as tsM, the two could not have met, and no Roman whether in
' Italy or Africa could have attempted to write remmtiatio by
nensi commutatas reperies littcras c et t, quod qui ante septimum
sseculum obtinuisse sibi persuadent, ne {assuredly) ii vehementer errant.'
[See also to the same effect Mommsen's Preface to his edition of the
Digest, p. xl.]
^ Some of these remarks are due to Prof. Munro's pamphlet.
' Prof. Munro tells me that this line should be read, ' Turn pro die
tuo vigila,' in order to harmonize with the imperatives and antitheses
before and after. [Haupt has independently made the same correction.]
liv Preface: Observations on Book I.
' renunciatio ' {Academy, p. 146). I reply (i) by referring to Prof.
Milller's instructive Lectures, 11. p. 168, where, quoting Marsh, he
says, 'We are told by careful observers that the lower classes in
' (French) Canada habitually confound t and k, and say mekier,
'■moikie for metier, moitie.'' Quintilian (if the MSS are correct, I.
II. 5, ed. Halm) speaks of that 'fault of pronunciation by which
'c and g are softened into t and d' (comp. Schuchardt, in.
81, sq.). (2) I refer to an authority whom Prof. Miiller will
respect — Mr Ellis (quoted in App. A. xxv.), who explains dis-
tinctly how the confusion of t with c arises, and in the stage of
ky, ty, before either is assibilated; and v. Raumer (who seems
to me to have inspired M. Muller in his argument generally)
says the same {Gesam. Schriften, p. 92). (3) I venture to go still
farther, and, while fully admitting the theoretical possibility of pala-
talised k and t (ky, ty) having been the mediator between ce, ci and
the modern assibilated pronunciations, such as s, ts, or th, I hesitate
as to its reality. For, as Corssen says (i. 49), there is not a spark of
positive evidence for it : and, if c once became t, the change of t to s
is far too common a phenomenon in Latin to necessitate an explana-
tion, which applies only to t before i (cf. § 191 and infr. p. Ixii.).
It must be remembered that the palatalisation of c into cli = sh in
French is before the vowel a^. (Diez, i. 249, considers here the
intermediate step to have been a guttural aspirate. Germ, ch.)
To sum up; as there is not one particle of trustworthy evidence,
before at least the fifth or sixth century, for any other pronunciation
of c than that of the sharp guttural, except the few reminiscences
of the sound of g, two African inscriptions, and the [doubtful
text of the] African aci-ostic of the 3rd century with the doubtful
inferences deduced fi-om them, I am unable to see how it can be
any defence of so thoroughly confusing a pronunciation of the
Latin of Cicero and Quintilian, as arises from sounding c as s,
that it is theoretically possible for the Romans to have made a
difference in ci compared with ca, which was yet so small that no
grammarian noticed it, and no writer attempted to express it.
1 So in English the pronunciation of c as ky took place only (?)
before a; e.g. card, kind { = kyaind), sky {=skyai).
On g before ae, e and l. Iv
On g before ae, e and i.
That g in Latin was not pronounced as English j (r=dzli), and
that it was always hard before all vowels, may be infeired from the
following arguments. (Compare also the discussion of the sound
of c before the like vowels.)
I. Closely connected fonns exhibit perpetual alterations of the
vowel following g, without any evidence of a desire to change g
before e or i ; e. g. malignus for maligenus ; gigno for gigeno ; teg-
men for tegimen ; tignum compared with tigillum, &c. Similarly
rego, regis, regit becomes rectum (for regtum) ; reg- makes regis,
regi, regum, regulus, and rex (for reg-s, rec-s) ; ager, agrl ; fuga,
fugse, fugax, fuglo, fugitivus.
a. In Greek g is always represented by y; and y is represented
by g. It is true in modem Greek y before e and i is Eng. y; but it
is by no means certain when y first gained this sound. And more-
over the sound of y is not that of Engl. j.
3. There is no trace to be found in the grammarians of any
different sound of g before the several vowels. This is the more
noticeable, because they speak of the effect of g and c, upon a pre-
ceding n, in converting the dental into the guttural nasal. But they
make no allusion to any difference in the g. Yet the instances
adduced contain the lingual as well as the labial vowels, e. g. angvis,
ingenuus, anceps, Longinus, angulus, angens. It is no doubt not
impossible that this change in the sound of n should be made before
palatals such as Engl, cli and j ; but we do not make it in English.
I infer that the Latins had (in these cases at least, and if in these,
why not in others?) c and g hard, whether e and i, or a, 0, u
followed.
4. There is no evidence of g having such a sound as Engl, j
before the 4th or 5th century p. Chr., according to Schuchardt;
before the 5th century, according to Corssen. Diez (i. 268) infers
from the Anglo-Saxon alphabet that g was the guttural flat mute up
to the 7th century. The omission of g before i, in major for magior.
does not appear to imply the assibilation of g. For it takes place
Ivi Preface: Observations on Book I.
before v as much as before i, e. g. nivis for nigvls, malo for magvolo ;
and g is too commonly omitted before consonants to make its
omission before semiconsonants unnatural. There is evidence in
the 4th and 5th centuries of its having the sound of Engl, y (=j),
e.g. magestates for majestates, fieuvri for vlginti. Possibly this
sound of g may have existed dialectically earlier.
On dentals; especially ti before a vowel.
On the pronunciation of ti we have a distinct statement by
Isidore in the beginning of the 7th century p. Chr., viz. that before
a vowel tia should be sounded as zia. And Pompeius (v. pp. 104,
286, ed. Keil) and Consentius (v. p. 395, ed. Keil) appear to say
the same. But these are apparently not much, if at all, earlier wit-
nesses; and accordingly donationem, donationes, are represented in
Ravenna Greek of the 6th century by hava^ioveix., bovar^iova. And
since the 6th century, according to Corssen, instances occur of a
similar assibilation, in which the i was not preserved, e.g. con-
stantso, constanzo are written for constantio. Schuchardt (i. 104.
150) thinks that assibilation began as early as the 2nd century
p. Chr., but did not become general till a much later period. In
Umbrian and Oscan it appeared before the first Punic War, and
the origin of such fomis as formonsus is probably to be found in
formontios (see § 813). On di before a vowel see § 154.
A final d was often pronounced as t (§ 150) ; and Quintilian's
words (i. 7, § 5) imply, I think, that there was no difference in the
pronunciation of ad and at, though the difference in spelling ap-
pears to have continued long. But d is rarely final (§ 155), and
Velius Longus (beginning of and cent. p. Chr.) speaks of apud
and sed being pronounced with d (p. 2231, Putsche).
Mr Munro calls attention to the fact that the continental t (and
therefoi-e of course d) is more dental than with us, Mr Ellis {Phil.
Soc. Trans. 1867, Suppl. p. 12) describes the European dental as
formed by pressing the tongue against the teeth, whereas in English
the tongue scarcely reaches the gums. (See however Eng. Pron.
p. 477, n.) But I do not think this can affect the question of the
On tl ; final d ; bs, &c, ; n before gutturals; ga. Ivii
interchange of d and t. That interchange depended on the tendency liii
to drop the sound of the voice at the end of the word, as the
Germans do now, e.g. unt for z/W (Brilcke, pp. 38. 46. See also
below, App. A. vii.).
On bs, X, bt, &c.
That bs is = ps, not bz, follows from the general law of Latin, that
the former of two consonants is made conformable to the latter, and
from the fact that s was the sharp hiss. Some instances are found
of axaps, urps, pleps (Neue, i. p. 137). Compare also scribo,
scripsi, scriptum (cf. § 78). Plutarch writes Uphv oij/fKovfVTrjs
for templum obseciventis (Fort. Rom. 10).
Similarly x is for ks, not gz. Compare rego, rexl, rectum.
Reg-si first becomes rec-si, then is written rexi.
So also obtulit was pronounced optulit: optimus is for ob-timus,
(see Qiiint. i. 7. 7). And usually with the prepositions in compo-
sition, we shall be justified in thinking that, pen where MSS. and
inscriptions vary much in their spelling, the assimilation, entire or
partial, was expressed in pronouncing ; the spelling, as is natural,
oscillating between the claims of etymology and sound ; e.g. apparere,
adparere; imperium, inperium; &c.
On n before gutturals; gn.
The pronunciation of n as ng before a guttural (c, g, qu) is clear
from Nigidius Figulus, ap. Gell. xix. 14. 7. No mention is made of
the absorption of the g. And in the Greek to which it is compared
the y is written twice, ayyikos-
Gn is (or was) in Germany, I believe, pronounced like ng + n, i.e.
dignus is sounded ding-nus. In Italian and French it is like ny in
din-yus. There appears to be no allusion to such pronunciations
in any of the Latin writers, although they frequently discuss ng.
This seems decisive against the above-named pronunciations of gn, at
least in the absence of any other evidence for them. (See Schneider,
Lat.Gr.i. 372; Corssen, 11. 262, ed. 2; and below, p. Ixxx.)
Iviii Preface: Observations on Book I.
On s.
liv Corssen maintains (Jiarpr. i. 294) that s had in Latin three
sounds :
(i) Sharp (i.e. a hiss) as initial, and medial before and after
other consonants, except n.
(2) Soft (i.e. flat = Engl, z) between two vowels, as now in the
Romance tongues, and after n.
(3) Dull and faint at the end of words.
Of the sound of s as s sharp there is the strongest possible
proof. For (a) it maintains its place before sharp consonants in st,
sp, sq, sc, and it does not maintain its place before flat consonants,
e.g. d, m, n, 1, r (§ 193. 2). And(i) it changed a flat consonant preced-
ing it to a sharp. It may be said that consul, mons, ars show flat
consonants preceding. But consul was abbreviated cos, which shows
the evanescence of the n. Mons, ars (from stems monti-, arti-)
are instances of the refusal of the Romans, when sacrificing some-
thing, to sacrifice all. The ti had already gone: it was necessary at
least to write n and r to preserve the individuality of the words.
But the pronunciation is a different thing. I conjecture that both n
and r were in these cases whispered, not voiced (cf App. A. viii.— x.).
This necessity made the Romans unwilling to permit the retention
of n and r, when there was no further reason. A whispered r
exists in Icelandic (written hr, Ellis, p. 544). A similar whispered r
may be presumed in words like prorsum, sursum, which became
prosum, susum, by r assimilating to s. But that r as a general rule
was voiced, appears clearly from its pathology and influence.
The third sound, attributed by Corssen to s, is infeired from
the frequent omission of s in writing, and from its non-pronuncia-
tion in early verse (§ 193. 5). I do not know what precise sound
(Corssen means to give it, nor what it could have, different from s
or z, but, this difficulty over, I have nothing to object.
But the second sound seems to me very doubtful. I cannot
estimate properly the value of the argument from the Romance lan-
guages ^ Their list of sounds is not so closely accordant with that
1 Mr Payne {PM. Soc. Traits. 1868—9, p. 4 19) doubts the s between
two vowels having a z sound in French in the 13th or 14th centuries.
On s. lix
attributed either by Corssen or myself to the Romans, as to render I\
it necessary to suppose any identity of pronunciation in this case.
In Italian particularly s has a very different character from what it
had in Latin. Witness the combinations sb, sm, sg, sd, sn, si, sr,
&c. There remain three other arguments which appear to me, if
they prove anything, to prove that s written was s sharp.
(i) The fact that r supplanted s in many words is justly ad-
duced (p. 280) as a proof that s was in these words pronounced
like z. But why this should prove that s was pronounced as z in
other words, in which this change did not take place, is far from
clear. I draw exactly the opposite inference. If s had in these
words been pronounced like z, it would have passed to r as in
other woi"ds. This rhotacism swept over the language like an
epidemic, and seized those instances of s as its victims which were
predisposed to it by the sound; and it is surely most probable that
it seized all such. Reason for discrimination I see none.
(2) Another argument (p. 281) is that an s between two
vowels, which in some forms was changed to r, in other forms of
the same stem was omitted. I cannot see what this proves, except
that the flat s which changed to r was sometimes omitted. But
the question is, what was the sound of an s which was not omitted,
and which did not change to r?
(3) The last argument brought by Corssen (p. 284) is that s
after n was pronounced, in certain words at least, as if between
two vowels, the n being omitted, and, consequently, it would have
the ordinary sound of s between two vowels, i.e. z (see § 168. 3).
On this matter I would refer to the extract from Mr Bell given
in App. A. § v. It will be remembered that Cicero tells us that ns,
nf lengthened the preceding vowel (§ 167). Now s and f agree in
being voiceless continuous consonants. And voiceless consonants
are just those 'before which n is so short, as scarcely to add any
' appreciable quantity to the; syllable.' I conclude from these facts that
s was a voiceless consonant in this case also ; that the n was scarcely
audible; but that to compensate for this, the Romans lengthened
the preceding vowel, i.e. dwelt longer on the preceding vowel, to
signalize the fact of the syllable being more than the vowel + s,
t 2
1x Preface: Observations on Book I.
Ivi Greek transcriptions show that it was the 'vonvel, not merely the
syllable, that was lengthened.
[Mr Munro contends for s having had the flat sound 'in the
' comparatively few cases in which s not representing a real ss
' comes between two vowels.' He points to the fact that ' in
' Italian there are most suggestive exceptions to s being soft' (flat)
' between two vowels: in cosa, riso, etc.; and in the adjective ter-
' mination -oso it is sounded, as' sharp s. ' The Italian too is strongly
'supported by late Greek; we find Kaacros (casus), Kovpioaa-os
' (curiosus), ^a/icocro-a (famossa), f^Kova-a-aros (excusatus), f^Kova~
' a-areiieiv (excusare) and the like. What is the meaning of this crar,
' if there was no difference between the s of casus (cassus) and casa,
' of rosus (rossus) and rdsa?" (ivtu Remarks, pp. 13 and 26.) If
indeed the Italian representatives of all the words enumerated in
§ 193. 3. c, which are not really referable to a, or h of that section,
and if no other words with Latin s have a flat s between two
vowels, the coincidence would be so striking as perhaps to justify
Mr Munro's inference. I do not know whether this is so or not.
An intimate knowledge of Italian in its whole development is re-
quisite to enable due weight to be given to an argument from
pronunciation which seems to spring over many centuries.]
Curtius has made the origin of the long vowel in the nominative
case of ceilain classes of Greek substantives the subject of an
instructive essay (as indeed all he writes is instructive), Studien, li.
ij(j — lyj; and has put forth a theory of the pathology of these
cases, which has considerable bearing on the Latin long vowel
before ns, a fact which he naturally notices in this connexion.
I am not sure that in setting out the different moments of the
change from e.g. Trar/ps to Trar/Jp, yva^ovs to yvuifiMv, (pepovrs to
0/pcBi/, (Ta4>f(Ts to (ra(f)i]s (p. 169), he means to imply any chrono-
logical interval, even the smallest, between the stages of the change.
But there seems to me to be an unreality about it, which makes me
unable, at least without explanation, to adopt his theory. He de-
scribes the process thus : ' n, r, s before a final s make the preceding
' vowel long ; and thereby becoming weak themselves, run a risk of
' passing, as it were, into the preceding vowel, as is the case in the
'accusative plural {fiova-as, xnusas, for nova-avs, musams). But in-
stead of so doing, they draw the following s to themselves, assi-
On s. Ixi
' milate it to themselves, take, as it were, the duration of the s, and
' so recover their full sound of n, r, s.' The unreality of this lies
first in speaking of n, r, s as going through successive stages of
weakness and recovery, and secondly in the notion of assimilation
itself. The fact is, I suppose, that in Greek and Latin the vocal n
and voiceless s were incompatible. The Latin generally, after its
wont, and the Greek in some instances (e.g. ^oiJa-as', Sovs), made the
former of the two give way to the latter ; n became voiceless, and
the vowel was lengthened by the involuntary dwelling upon it in
consciousness of the obscuration of one of the normal sounds of the
word. In Greek generally the n won the day, and the so-called
assimilation of ns to nn is, in reality, the voice dwelling longer on
the n and not uttering the s at all, the previous vowel having been,
as before, prolonged in anticipation of the loss. If I may use
metaphorical language, the voice may be said to lengthen the vowel
just as a leaper presses the ground more firmly before a spring.
The speaker is aware of a difficult combination of sounds ap-
proaching, and instinctively spreads the time required for the vowel
+ 11+ s over two of them, because he knows he cannot apportion it
strictly and preserve them all.
In Latin hoinoiis became homos, and the s was then dropped; ivii
partly perhaps, because otherwise a confusion with the ace. plur. of
nouns would be imminent, partly from the slight hold a final s
had in the early language. But in by far the majority of -on stems
(cf. §§ 449, 450) the was naturally long. The stems in -r and -1
(which were voiced consonants) repudiated the sharp nominative
sign s. Stems in -s with a short preceding vowel and not neuter
are rare. In some we have a long vowel in the nominative (e.g.
Ceres, arbos), in others a short vowel (e.g. venus, vetiis, lepus,
cinis). Of stems in -t with short vowel, only abies, aries, paries
lengthen it in nom. sing.
Ixii Preface: Observations on Book I.
Origin of ss.
It passes now for a recognized and certain theory among most
philologers that ss is in many words the result of a progressive
assimilation (§31. n.). This assimilation is alleged in (a) the supine
stem; and (1^) in superlatives and ordinals. It is always assumed by
Bopp, Curtius\ Corssen, L. Meyer, Schleicher.
(rt) Corssen, who especially has defended this theory against
all comers (Beitr. 419, 426 sq.), holds that, e.g. tond-tum became
tons-tum, and then tons-sum, afterwards tonsum ; and that in such
cases as mer-sum, lap-sum, &c., where there is no dental at the end
of the stem, the change of t to s is due to a false analogy.
Now to this theory there are, as it seems to me, two fatal ob-
jections: (i) tons-tum is a perfectly stable sound, and if this form
had once arisen, no further change (except pei'haps to tostum) would
have occurred; (2) there is a <whole class of stems forming their
supine in -sum (§ 191. 3), for which the theory utterly fails to account.
I have not a word to say against the possibility of Corssen s first
step; viz.thattond-tumbecametons-tum. Neither Greeks nor Romans
tolerated two dental mutes coming together. It was important to
show the existence of the suffix, and yet tond-tum, if left to the
ordinary law, would have become simply tont-tum, and the double
Iviii t would have been sounded like one only. The Greeks therefore
softened the former of the two mutes into s ; e. g. awr-ros, awaTo^ ;
dS-reof, ncrreov; nfi6-diivai, iTfi(T6r]vai. (Curt. Gr. Gr. § 46. See also
§ 50.) The Romans also adopted this course in cases in which it
was impoilant to presei"ve the t (e.g. in est for edit (edt), eats') \ and
where an r follows immediately, because an s immediately before
an r is hardly pronounceable ; e. g. tond-trix becomes tons-trix (not
tond-srix, tonsrix) ; and compare mulctrum with mulsum. There is
therefore nothing against, but much to favour, the first step of
Corssen's theory, if dental stems only were concerned. Tond-tum,
init-tum may well have become tons-tum, mis-tum ; but why should
^ Curtius says, ' ar is in all Greek dialects one of the most favourite
'groups. I only know at the most of one instance of its passing into
' cr...The passage of st into s is in Latin as frequent, as it is strange in
' Greek.' {StiiJicn, I. i, p. 241 — 2.)
Origin of ss. Ixiii
any further change have occurred? If, as Curtius says {Erl'dut. %u
§ 147), 'it is a prevalent law of speech that difficult combinations
' of sounds are more bearable, if they have arisen from others yet
' more difficult, language setting limits to the change of sounds in
'order to make their origin more patent,' still less is it likely that,
when change has secured an easy combination, a causeless further
change should be made. The combination st is one of the com-
monest in the language^; e.g. fastus, festus, § 787; arista, costa,
prsetexta, &c. § 788; angustus, funestus, &:c. § 789; astus, csestus,
&:c. § 800; fustis, hostis, pestis, &c. § 803; agrestis, &c. § 808;
egestas, potestas, § 811; equester, pedester, &c. § 903; post, ast;
ostendo, abstineo, sustento, &c. ; est, estis ; venisti, audisti, &c. ;
Stella, stumus, sto, sterno, antistes, &c. Nor, so far as I am aware,
is there a single clear instance of st passing into ss or s'-. There is
no necessity whatever for assuming that os, ossis, or the old form
ossu, are formed from otrrtov. The root of os may have had a d or
t; in which case this instance would only exemplify the very same
difference between the Greek and Roman method of dealing with
double dentals, which we are here discussing. Corssen indeed
brings forward adgrotus, egretus, quoted by Festus as old forms of
the past participles; comestum is also found in one or two places^
as well as comesum; and ostensa is found as well as ostenta.
Now adgretus and egretus are of course, if genuine, simply in- lix
stances of the preservation of the starting-point common to all
theories: comestum is, I believe, the only instance of a perfectly
' Leo Meyer calls it ' a combination for which our languages
' (i.e. Greek and Latin) have a general and strong predilection.' ( Vergl.
Gr. I. 243.)
^ Even in the later imperial times there seems little evidence of such
a change. See Schuchardt, i. 145. III. 75.
^ [They are (see Neue, il. 442) Cato, R.R. 50, 'comesta' (but in 58
'comesEe'j ; Val. Max., 9, 12, Ext. 6 ; and the African physician (referred
by Teuffel to Hadrian's time)Coelius Aurel., Chron. II. i. Priscian, X.
28, 30, quotes 'comestum' from Cic. Clit. 62, § 173, where the oldest
MS. has 'comesum.' Diomedes, pp. 363, 387, ed. Keil, condemns the
formation 'comestum,' but adds a quotation from an obscure ' Didius de
Sallustio, comesto patrimonio.' If this is the Declamatio in Sallust., the
MSS. give comeso. In a passage of Varro (Mcnip. Sat. 523, ed.
Biicheler) quoted by Nonius, p. 152, we have 'acinis electis et comestis.'
(In Yarr. R.R. I. 2, § 11, we have 'comesa' or 'comessa.')]
Ixiv Preface: Observations on Book I.
possible way of dealing with the double dental in these forms,
but may be equally Veil regarded as the sister, not the mother, of
comesum : ostenta may be an instance of the same, but is probably
to be regarded as belonging to ten-ere, while ostensa belongs to
tend-6re. (On infestus, &c., quoted by Corssen, see my note on p.
220. On liaesum, hausunis see below, p. Ixv.) It can hardly be
said that there is any evidence for the change of st into s or ss.
My second objection to Corssen 's theory is this. All the verbs
which form their supine in -sum may be divided into three classes -
the first, stems of which the final consonant is a dental mute, viz.
t, d; the second, stems in which the final stem consonants are 1 or r
preceding g, 1, orr; the third consisting of a miscellaneous list of
verbs, all of which are however characterised by the active perfect (if
they have one) being in si (§ 705). Now this third class, not a large
one (lapsum, jussum, pressum; parsurus, mulsum from mulcere;
fixum, fluxum; mansum; censum, hassum, hausurus), but containing
stems ending similarly to other verbs which have -turn, exhibits
probably the result of various laws, and the -sum may be partly
due to a kind of attraction exercised by the perfect. At any rate
no light on its origin is derivable from Corssen's theory. But the
second class, which is quite as numerous, is pervaded by a law : all
words of the character named have the supine in -sum. And yet
this is utterly alien from Corssen's theory. No one will suppose
that sparg-tum, mulg-tum, fall-tum, curr-tum became spar-sum,
mul-sum, fal-sum, cur-sum by passing through the stage of spar-s-
tum, mul-s-tum, fal-s-tum, cur-s-tum. (Torreo with stem tors-
made torstum, then tostum, and there stayed.)
Two other grounds for hesitation in accepting Corssen's theory
may be mentioned, (i) It supposes a progressive assimilation,
whereas this is very rare indeed in Latin ^ But I admit that it is
possible. Its probability however is very small. Moreover (z),
Ix the fact should be noticed that stems ending in s originally do not
follow the change prescribed by Corssen; e.g. ges-tum does not
become ges-sum. But there are three verbs in which such a change
1 It is rare in other cognate languages too, if I may judge from
Schleicher's Compaidhini. (For the definition oi progressive zx\A re_p-es-
sive assimilation see note to page 12. Kiihner (Ausf. Gr. Gr. % 64,
Vol I. p. 209, ed. 2) reverses the usual application of these terms).
Origin of ss. Ixv
appears to be found; censeo, haurio, hsereo. Now censeo is origi-
nally a t- stem (comp. Kevrtw), and is perhaps a secondary
derivative from census, which would in that case be the participle
of a lost consonant verb. Hausurus is quite anomalous. I find
it only in Verg. ^. IV. 383, and an imitation in Stat. ^. i. 667,
twice in Silius, and possibly once in Seneca (see p. 247)' Hausturus
(Cic.) and haustus show the regular supine stem. Hsereo is,
I suspect, an r stem (comp. alpeco, though li in Latin does not
usually correspond to an aspirate in Greek), and owes its supine stem
(haesurus, lisesito) to the long penult (comp. curro, verro).
[Mr Nettleship {Jcademy I March 1872) brings, against my
theory and in favour of a progressive assimilation of st into ss, the
words jussus (for Justus) from jus ; assus, assura apparently par-
ticipial fonnations (as-tus, as-tura) from a stem as- which in arere,
aridus follows the ordinary law ; pustula with another form pusula
(or pussula?) which had it been formed from stem pus + ulo would
have been purula. Now jussus is from a stem jou-, as I believe, §§
76. 2 ; 705, though why it has jussus and not jutus I cannot explain.
Possibly the desii^e to avoid comparison with the participle of juvare
may have had something to do with it: (see also p. Ixiv). Assus,
assura I take from a root ar- and parallel them to hser-, hsesum.
Pustula, in texts accessible to me, I find only in Cels. 2. i; 3, 22,
ed. Daremberg; Sen. Ep. 72. § 75, ed. Haase; Mart. 8. 51. 6 ; 11,
98, 4. ed. Schneidewin; Vitruv. 7, 2. § 9 ed. Rose. Also pustu-
latum Suet. Ner. 44, ed. Roth.; Mart. 7, 86. On the other hand
I find pusula in Cels. v. 26. §31, 28. §§ 6, 10, 15 (eleven times), 16,
17; Sen. Ir. 3. 43; Pliny (ed. Detlefsen) xx. § 44; and at least
eleven other places, besides xxxvii. §§ 77, 98, ed. Jan.; in Martial.
14, 167; Colum. VII. 5. § 15 ; Paul. ap. Fest. p. 99, s.v. Hetta, ed.
Muller; and pussula in Tibull. 2. 3. 10, ed. L, MuUer q. v. p. xxii.;
also pusulatum Dig. 19. 2. 31; pusulosum Cels. 5. 26. 31; Colum.
7. 5. 17. I believe pusula to be the earlier form of the two, and
to be from the Greek (^icra, cfivcraWis- Pustula, if not due to
copyists, is probably formed from the Latin pus.]
The theory which I oppose to Corssen's is, taking the dental stems
as instances, that tt, dt became first ts, ds, and then ss or s. This
theory fulfils the really necessary conditions of truth as completely
as Corssen's fails. For the first step is equally applicable to all
stems, inasmuch as it supposes the suffix only to be primarily
Ixvi Preface: Observations on Book I.
affected: the second step is inevitable if the first be admitted. Ts,
ds are utterly unstable (in Latin), and must become entirely sibilant.
The only objection which I can see to this theory is that the
phonetic cause of the change of dt, tt, Igt, bt, &c. into ds, ts, Igs,
ps, &c. is not apparent. But neither is the phonetic cause of the
change of dt to st. Possibly a good phonetician, like Mr M. Bell or
Mr Ellis, may find a reason for the change where others cannot.
I content myself with referring to the fact that in Greek r before i
frequently changed to s (e. g. (prjai, Dor. (puTi), (})a(ris by the
side of (ftdris'^ elVocri, Dor. et/cort; di/aiadrjcria from avai(T0T]Tos
(Schleicher, rerg/. Gr. § 148; Curtius, Gr. Gr. § 60); and some-
times before i;; e.g. o-v, Dor. rt5, Lat. tu (but also a-ov, (toI)- and
to the word ipse, which is generally taken to be for ip-te ; noxa for
noc-ta; capsa, a box, from capere; &c. (See App, A. xxvi.)
A double t is found in a few words; e.g. Attius, tolatta, cette,
Cotta, cottidie, quattuor, gutta, matta, sagitta, vltta, futtilis, littera,
Mettius, mitto, and, it may be, some others. The question is perhaps
one rather of spelling than of pronouncing. But, considering the
frequency of suffixes commencing with t, the paucity of words with
double t is striking. As I hold, the Romans had two ways of avoid-
Ixi ing it; they changed tt either into ts or into st. The first produced
an unstable combination, and therefore passed on into ss or s. This
was the course usually adopted. The second produced a stable com-,
biiKition, but was (in Latin) used only where the first would occasion
further difficulties of pronunciation. (Comp. §§ 151. 2 ; 152.3.)
(^) The double s in the superlative form of most adjectives is
also supposed by Corssen (see esp. Ausspr. Ii. 550 sqq. 1022, ed. 2)
and many philologers to have arisen out of st. The superlative is
formed from the comparative stem in ios, by adding, as is supposed,
tumus (or timus), and compressing ios to is, as in magis for mag-ios
{Ausspr. II. 215). My objection to this is the same as in the
former case, the extreme improbability of a stable combination like
st changing to ss. Corssen states that his theory of this change rests
principally on his explanation of the two words sinistimus, sollis-
timus, as being superlatives. But, even granting that these are super-
latives, such a fact would only show that a superlative might, not that
it must, be so formed. Here again, as I conceive, the Latins had
two modes of forming the superlative; either by a suffix -iimo, or by
a compound suffix -tumo. It is agreed that some superlatives are
Origin of ss. Ixvii
formed by the simple addition of a suffix (without a dental) -mo or
-iinio to the positive or comparative stem (see § 754; Corssen, i.
780); e.g. primus, minimus, plurimus, &c. I think that the easiest
way of explaining the formation of the ordinary superlative is by
adding the same suffix -ftmo to the comparative, and regarding the
double s as accentual and phonetic only, i.e. as representing the
length of the syllable and the sharp sound of the s. It is possible
to explain the superlative of words in 1 or r, as having the same
suffix, but attached to the stem of the positiir^ and to give a similar
explanation of the double 1 or r. But the suffix may have been
appended to the comparative, and then a strong contraction have
taken place, facilios-imus, facilisumus, facilsimus, facillimus. This
presumes indeed a progressive assimilation. But 1 and r seem to
me the only sounds in Latin which show signs of such an m-
fluence; comp. velle for volere, turris by the side of Tvpcrt? (Cors-
sen, Beitr. p. 402), and the evident incompatibility of 1 and r with
a final s ; e. g. consul for consuls, pater for paters. Corssen con-
siders miserrimus to be for misersimus, and that for misertimus ;
' for t after r and 1 is frequently changed to s' (^Ausspr. 11. 552);
but with this I cannot agree. I do not remember any instance of Ixii
t after a simple r or 1, preceded by a short vowel, becoming s. The
instances are after rr, 11, and haurio, heereo ; on which see above, p. Ixv.
Corssen accounts for the s in ordinal numbers on a similar
hypothesis to that which he applies to the superlative forms ; e.g.
vlgesimus for vigenstimus, for vigentitimus. As in the case of the
supine form I suppose nt-t to have become nt-s, and then necessarily
ns-s, and easily ns or s only. (Cf. §§ 757. c. 168. 3.)
Besides the above-named classes of formations we find ss also (c)
in the old futures ; e. g. prohitiessit, levassit ; {d) in arcesso, capesso,
&c.; (e) in verrucossus, &c.; (/) in essem, amavlssem, amavisse,
&c. ; {g) in assis, bessis, tressis, &c.; (/^) to represent Greek (.
The cases of double s in proMbessit, &c. are explained in § 622;
and here I have the authority of Corssen in supposing the double s
to be due to accentual considerations (Ausjpr. 11. 563, ed. 2). For
arcesso, &c. see § 625; for verrucossus, §§ 168. 3, 813; for essem,
see § 609 ; for amavlssem and other similar forms of the perfect stem
Ixviii Preface: Observations on Book I.
see §§ 658, 659. Assis is of uncertain origin, unless it be a mas-
culine formation from the same stem as aes, but retaining its s and
therefore defending it with a double s.
The double s used to represent the Greek f, at least in
early times (§ 189), was perhaps really from the Dorian acr.
Whether this ss represented the sound of s or sli (which Curtius
once attributed to aar) is not, as it seems to me, certain. Sh appears
to my tongue and ears a more natural result of ky, ty, which are
regarded as the origin of cro- in Greek, than s (Curt. Gr. Gr. § 57).
But see above, pp. liii, liv.
It appears to be generally conceded that the sound of sh was
not unknown in Italy. According to Mommsen the Etruscans
had it (Unter-Ital. Dial. p. 6); the Greek alphabet of Cjere had it
(p. 15); the Umbrian had it (p. 22); perhaps also the Sabellian
(p. 24) and Oscan (p. 26). Moreover, of the Romance languages
Portuguese and French have this sound (written ch), and Ital. and
Wallach. c before i and e, and Spanish and Provencal cli are
sounded as (English eh; i.e. as) tsh. (See Diez, Gram. Vol. i.)
l.\iii On the assumption made in the above explanations that ss may
stand merely for s, or at least for s when some letters or syllables
have been extruded, I will only observe that the fact that the early
Romans wrote no double letters (§ 58) seems to me a very im-
portant one. For, when first the Romans took to writing them
double, what clue did they follow ? It is possible that they followed
the pi-onunciation, as an Italian now makes a difference between
such sounds as ato and atto — a diffei'ence which Englishmen do not
make. (Comp. also Ellis, Early Engl. Pron. p. 56.) I am not sure
whether Quintilian's language (quoted in note to p. 58) should be
taken to imply a real difference in pronunciation, though the word
dixerimt looks like it'. But, when the practice of writing double
1 Mr Munro (in his note on Lucr. Tii. 545) quotes Servius on y£"«.
I. 616: '■ appUcat: secundum prccsentem usum per d prima syllaba scri-
'bitur: secundum antiquam orthogi-aphiam, quaspraepositionum ultimam
' litteram in vicinam mutabat, per / : secundum vero euphoniam per a
'tantum;' and adds, 'i.e. only one / was sounded. In this, as in so
' many other points, it is clear that the artificial modern Italian pronun-
' ciation is directly contrary to that of the old Latins, with whom causa
'and caussa, excisus and exscissus, were identical in sound.' In his
note, Lucr. in. 504, he points out the striking instances of momiua,
On the vowels, especially o and e. Ixix
letters came in, it is surely very probable that they were guided, at
least to some extent, by etymological theories; and thus, though
I regard the supposition that levasso arose by assimilation from
levaviso as unsound, I think it by no means unlikely that the notion
of a syllable being dropt justified to the popular apprehension the
spelling levasso ^
On the vowels, especially o and e.
The exact determination of the quality of the vowels is a
problem which scarcely admits of satisfactory solution. Descrip-
tions of vowel sounds are worth very little, and the ancients had no
full list of customary or possible vowels, derived, either from
observation of provincial pronunciations, or from analysis of vowel
sound, so as to assign to any particular vowel its nearest representa- ixiv
tive. Still less had they any such definitions of vowels as Mr Bell's
system affords, and his Visible Speech exhibits. It is quite possible
that the same letter did not always represent the same quality of
vowel; indeed, when we see one letter supplanted eventually by
another, we may be sure (as I have said before) that the sound had
been already supplanted, before the letter was changed.
But there seems no ground for doubting that a, u, i were what
they are now in Italian, the distinction between the Germ, a and
Ital. a being relatively unimportant, o and e are intermediate
vowels, being somewhere between a and u, e somewhere between
a and i. Modern Italian which, as the local representative of Latin,
has perhaps . the right to maintain its identity, until a reason for
inferring a difference is brought foi-ward, has two sounds of each of
these vowels. They will be found included in the list on p. 9,
the close sounds being further from a and nearer respectively to i
and u than the open sounds. Illustrations of the present use of these
sounds in connection with their Latin original are given in Diez,
niS,inllla ; oflFa, 6fella ; tintino, tlntlnnabulum ; Porsenna, Pors6na ;
Catillus, Catilus ; and perhaps currus, curxUls ; quattuor, quater ;
littera, litura. See also on iii. 1044. And comp. dmitto, fiperio, § 784.
^ A similar account may be given of dissicto, porricio for dis-jicio,
por-jicio : cf. § 144, 2 and 143. (I doubt these being analogous to
aXXos for alius, &c. on which see Curt. Gr. Etyin. p. 592 sqq. ed. 2.)
Ixx Pr^eface: Observations on Book I.
Gram. Vol. I. ed. 3; (see also Schuchardt in. p. 161 sqq.). The
most important facts seem to be these :
Open e arises (i) from short e, (2) from e before two conso-
nants, (3) from SB:
close e arises (i) from short i, (a) from i before two conso-
nants, (3) from long e; and (4) is usually heard when e is final.
Open arises (i) from short 0, (2) from before two consonants,
(3) from au ; and (4) is heard (without exception ?) when is final :
close arises (i) from short u ; (2) fiom u or y before two
consonants; (3) from long o in the suffixes one, oso, ore, ojo
(though this last is identical with orio which has open 0).
From most of these rules there are more or fewer individual ex-
ceptions, especially (perhaps in accordance with the real length or
shortness of the vowel) from the rules relating to the vowel before
two consonants : and both e and have the close sound frequently
when the former of the two consonants is n. Moreover it appears
that Italian grammarians are not always agreed as to whether a
particular word has the close or open vowel ^
Lxv Two points here are noticeable. The first is that both e and
are often w^ritten in Italian where the Romans had i and u, and in
this case the e and have the close sound, i.e. a sound nearer to i
u than the open sound is. If the cultivated Latin dialect had been
the parent of the Italian, we should have had here a reversal of the
early tendency by which became u, and e became i (§§ 196, 213,
234). But, as the Italian has sprung not from the cultivated
language, but from one or more rustic provincial dialects '', the
explanation is simpler, — the old sounds having been preserved, if the
close sounds were original, or, more probably, having advanced only
half, and not the w^hole, distance tow^ards i and u. In either case
we gain little if any light on the question, how and e were
pronounced in the cultivated language of, say, the Augustan age.
The second point is that long e and (though less decisively) long
' I am not acquainted with Italian myself. IMy notion of the Italian
sounds is mainly derived from Mr Ellis's book.
* [This is from Schuchardt : see also Diez, Gram. i. 6. Mr Munro
says {Feio Remarks, p. 29), 'I on the other hand hold it to be
' demonstrable that the Romano-Tuscan is the child of cultivated Latin
' falling to pieces, and caught up and subdued by Gennan mouths.']
,' Oft the vowels, especially a and e. Ixxi
in Latin generally receive in Italian the close sounds, short e
and receive the open sounds. The inference which may be
drawn from this is confirmed, as Schuchardt^ maintains, in the case
of e, by the fact that se is often miswritten for 6, and i for e ; by the
language of the grammarians, who describe 6 as having the sound
of a diphthong (apparently ae), e as having the sound of i; and
by the same difference in quality accompanying the difference
in quantity in the e of the Greeks, Kelts, Germans, English
(Schuchardt, I. 461 sq.). In the case of the sounds the mis-
writing is not so decisively one way. And though Marius Victorinus
(p. 33, ed. Keil) says, 'O, ut e, geminum vocis sonum pro con-
'dicione temporis promit...Igitur qui correptum enuntiat, nee
' magno hiatu labra reserabit, et retrorsum actam linguam tenebit :
' longum autem productis labiis, rictu tereti, lingua antro oris
' pendula, sonum tragicum dabit ; cujus observationis et in e litera
' similis paene ratio est : ' yet other grammarians (Sergius in Donat. i v.
p. jao, ed. Keil; Pompeius v. p. 102, ed. Keil), probably copying
from Donatus, speak of 6 as being expressed at the extremity of the
lips (primis labris exprimitur), and o as sounding within the palate
(intra palatum sonat), which apparently would make 6 to be a
sound nearer a, and 6 to be nearer u. And the Greek w^ never ixvi
became so completely u as 7; became 1 (Schuchardt, II. p. 146),
though the Germans and English, it may be added, give to their
long a sound nearer to u, and to their short a sound nearer
to a.
It is not easy to draw with much confidence any argument from
this to the pronunciation of the Romans in the classical period.
For (i) Italian is (as has been already remarked) not the child of
classical Latin, but of one or more unsubdued dialects, [or, if the
child of cultivated Latin, has grown up under foreign influences ; (see
above, p. Ixx)]. (z) The inference from misspellings is by no
^ In reading Schuchardt it is well to remember that his distinction
of 'clear' and 'dull' corresponds with 'open' and 'close' in the o
sounds, with ' close' and 'open' in the e sounds. His use of accents
in Italian words is different from Diez's (see 11. p. 146 n., but also 111.213).
* Mr Ellis says (p. 523), that Prof. Valetta (Greek) pronounced
Greek (o and w) and English with a clear 7 th vowel (Ital. open 0), and
did not seem to be aware of the 8th vowel at all.
Ixxii Preface: Observations on Book I.
means clear in the case of o, and is not very weighty in the case of e.
For se is frequently miswritten for long e, and 1 for short e ; and
many instances of ae for short e are probably due to mistaken ety-
mology (e.g. prseces, Bsecundum, qusestus for questus). (3) The
grammarians quoted (Schuchardt, in. 151, 212) are none of them
earlier than the 4th century i; and three centuries are a long intei-val,
when delicate distinctions of sound have to be caught. (4) The
analogy of other languages is proof only of what was possible, not of
what was actual, still less of what was actual at a particular time.
And long e and long 0, even if they changed at all, may yet very well
have been open e and open in the mouths of Cicero and Quintilian.
Mr Ellis's investigations into English pronunciation show a similar
direction and at least as great an extent of change within the period
from the i6th to the 19th century. The whole section of Mr
Ellis's book (chap. in. § 6) is highly illustrative of the question,
but some of his words describing the change may be quoted.
' The long vowels have altered more than the short vowels. The
' voice being sustained, there was more time for the vowel-sound to
' be considered, and hence the fancy of the speaker may have come
' more into play. This has generally given rise to a refining process,
' consisting in diminishing the lingual or the labial aperture. The
' lingual aperture is materially diminished in the passage from a long
' Italian a (2nd vowel) successively to Somersetshire a (13th vowel),
ixvii 'to open e (15th vowel), to close e (i6th vowel); and again in the
' passage from open e to Ital. i. The change of long open (7th
' vowel) to long Ital. u (loth vowel) was a similar refinement, con-
'sisting first in the elevation of the tongue, and corresponding
' narrowing of the labial passage, producing long 9th vowel, and
' secondly in the narrowing of the pharynx. The change from open
' to close consisted simply in narrowing the pharyngeal cavity.'
(Ellis, p. 232.)
This tendency of long vowels is a tendency working through
long periods of time, and is not at all inconsistent with Mr Bell's
assertion, ' that the tendency of all vowels is to open in prolonga-
tion' {Principles, p. 34, comp. 122). This latter physiological tend-
1 Terentianus, quoted by Pompeius (AV//. v. p. 102), does not bear
out the quotation, at least if the poem of Terentianus Maurus is
meant.
On the vou'c/s, especially o and e. Ixxiii
ency accords with the following line of argument, which seenas
to me to furnish us with some evidence as to the quality of o and e
in Latin. It has two premises; (i) the representation of Latin
vowels in Greek, and of Greek vowels in Latin ; (2) the compo-
nents which under crasis, contraction, &c., gave rise to a and ;;
or a.
The details of the representation ^ will be found under that head
m Book L Chap. 9 (viz. in §§ 208, 218, 219; e in §§ 229, 239).
The facts of Greek contraction, &c., may be found in Greek
Grammars (e.g. Kuhner's Ausfubrllche Gram. ed. 2, §§ 50, 51.
Curtius, Gr. §§ 2,(>—i^- Comp. also ib. § 42).
Now the very introduction of the new symbols w and r} proba-
bly implied a sound different in quality as well as in quantity from
o and 6 respectively. And this is confirmed by the fact that the
name of o was ov, not w, and of e was et, not rj ; in other words
that, as the voice dwelt on the sound of o, it naturally uttered ov,
and as it dwelt on e, it uttered et. In the same way, when the
vowels € and o were lengthened in compensation, as it is called (see
below, § 273. 4), for an omitted consonant, they become et and ov.
But when ao and oa are contracted, we get w in Attic : when ae
is contracted, we get a ; from ea, usually rj in Attic. From these
facts I infer that a and r) differed in quality from o and e by being
nearer a, and not by being nearer the u and i sounds; i.e. a and r]
were opener, not closer than o and e. But 7; was perhaps nearer to ixviii
e than on was to o.
But Latin 6 represents Greek co, and w represents Latin 6.
Both Latin 6 and Latin u represent Greek o; Greek o represents
Latin ; and both o and ov represent Latin u (as well as Latin v,
cf. §§ 90, 91). This seems to imply that Greek o was between
Latin 6 and Latin u. Again Latin e represents Greek »;, and rj re-
presents Latin e. Latin 5 represents Greek e, and Greek e re-
presents both Latin 6 and often Latin i. This seems to imply that
e was between Latin 6 and Latin i; but perhaps, considering the
sphere of t, e was nearer to Latin 6, than o was to Latin 0. [ft is
■'■ Correspondence,!. &. Etymological representation (seep. 24, n.) is
not here concerned. And to this head belong the suffixes of inflexion,
e.g. Hecuba,' 'EiKa^rj.
f
Ixslv Preface: Observations on Book I.
possible that the Greek e, when used apparently to represent Latin 1,
is really a representative of the older vowel e (of. §§ 234, 239) wluch
older vowel may have remained dialectically for a long time].
In the stricter Doric 00 gives w, ao and oa give a' ; ee, ae and
ea give T}. This is probably to be accounted for by supposing
o and e to have been opener in Doric than in Attic or Ionic, and
perhaps a to have inclined more to the o sound than it did in
Attic. But the language with which we compare Latin is the
language of Polybius, Dionysius, Diodorus, S:c., and this is an
Attic dialect, though a late one.
Now, without professing to be able to assign any absolute quality
to the ancient vowels, I may, if tliis argument be sound, express
their relative qualities by a tabular arrangement. I take a, aw.
Fr. au, u to represent four regions of labial vowel sound, and
a, 6, i, i to represent four regions of lingual vowel sound. Then
we may arrange Attic, Doric, Latin somewhat as follows :
Labial a aw Fr.au u
AUIC
a
0)
0, ov
Doric
a
0),
ou?
vi
Latin
a
6
u
ingiial
a
e
6
i
Attic
a
V
e, et
(
Doric
a
^ f
1
Latin
a
e g
i
It should always be borne in mind, in comparing the transcrip-
tion of a word in different languages, that each can supply only
ixix what it possesses, and therefore if the sounds are not the same (and
the whole range never is the same), the representation of them can
be but approximate. Hence the Latin u and the Greek o may
sometimes be representative of one another. But generally Gr. o
and go together, and ov represents Latin u. That ov should in
the Roman period represent u even exactly, is no obstacle to its
having earlier represented the long sound of the Greek o. This
1 The Doric substitution of a for w is reproduced in the Cumberland
quarter, and Somersetshire cord with ^nd vowel instead of 6th; the
Ionic substitution of tj for a by the Somersetshire Bath with the 13th
vowel instead of the 2nd. (Cf. Ellis, p. 67.)
On the diphthongs ai, ae, oi, oe, ui. Ixxv
change is analogous to that which has befallen rj, which is now
identical with long i. And both are but instances of the same law
as that which we find to have prevailed in English. So ft (at least
before consonants, § 229) was in the Roman period a long 1, but
earlier a long e. Whether both ft and ov had, at first, the slight
diphthongal termination which we hear in our ordinary Southern
English long a (= ft), and 6( = ov), is not easy to say positively,
but it looks probable enough on the mere face of it.
On the diphthongs ai, ae, oi, oe, ut.
The Latin se, the ordinary representative of the Greek ai, be-
came eventually hardly, if at all, distinguishable from e, just as at
was confounded with f. Originally it was doubtless a diphthong.
And this seems to have been the case in Varro's time; for he states
i^Lat. Ling. V. § 97, Miill.) that in the country edus was used, in
the city sedus, ' with the addition of a as in many words ;' (see
also VII. § 96, Mull). Speaking, not writing, must be meant.
Now a diphthong with so small an intei'val between its limiting
vowel-positions easily passes into a single intermediate sound. It
may be assumed that this sound, if it differed from e, lay on the
side nearer a and not on the side nearer i. So that if Latin e be
represented by the Italian open e, perhaps the English a (13th
vowel) may be taken (in quality) for se. The sounds are quite near
enough to be readily confused, and yet are in themselves distinct.
A Saxon (says Mr Ellis, p. 58, 106) would pronounce the English
words had, head, with the substitution of the Italian open e for the
vowel in each. If the Latin e be represented by the English open e,
we get a somewhat greater distinction (and that is desirable) be-
tween Latin se (13th vowel) and e (15th vowel).
The sound of oe is somewhat perplexing. Mr Ellis has suggested kx
(Trans. Phil. Soc. 1867, Supp. p. 65, and Early Eng. Pron. p. 529)
that Greek 01 was originally ui with the first element preponder-
ating, Latin oe was originally ue with the second element preponder-
ating. This seems possible enough for the Greek, as o had fre-
quently that approximation to our w, which is here presumed (see
App. A. xii.). But the Latin sound is much more doubtful. It is
Ixxvi Preface: Observations on Book I.
true that ce is the successor of Latin oi and the representative of
Greek oi, and that both oi and ce passed frequently into u, e.g.
coirare, coerare, curare ; mcerus, murus ; mcenia, munia ; poena, pimire,
&c.; but 1 am not aware of any indication that Latin o had any
such approximation to our w; and oe never alternated with ui. The
passage of oi and of ce into u seems to imply that at that time the
first, not the second, element, the o, not the i or e, was in the pre-
ponderance. In imperial times ce became confused with e and se,
and then the second element may have been preponderant. And
this was the case also in the words which in very early times
were spelt with ce, e.g. Icetoertas, does (cf. §§ 264, 363, 366), and
afterwards were written with i. I am inclined to think that the
diphthongal sound implied by the letters and i, or and e, (with
their Latin sounds) is the safest conclusion, and that in the words
which the ordinary language spells with ce (e.g. amoenus, coepi,
mcenia, foedus, Poeni, poena, oboedio) the stress should be laid on the
rather than the e.
ui as a diphthong occurs (besides an interjection or two) only in
huic, cui. In both of these words it represents an earlier oi, e.g.
hoic, quoi. In Quintilian's time (i. 7. § 27) cui and qui appear to
have been pronounced alike. Probably the sound was French out.
In the dative of -u stems, e. g. gradui, the vowels would probably
be pronounced separately, when both written. But a diphthongal
pronunciation may have led to the omission of the i. On the pro-
nunciation of -aius, oius, -eius, see § 138.
On a supposed sound like ii.
There are three cases in which it appears more or less pro-
bable that the Latins had a modified sound of a short vowel similar
Ixxi to that of French u or Germ, u, especially when it inclines, as it
does in some parts of Germany, more to i than to u.
(i) The first case is in the combination qui-, which is generally
represented in Greek by kv, though sometimes by kvi or koi. Cf.
§ 90. 2. And in some Latin words qui- is descended from cu- or
CO-; e.g. Quirinus from cures, esquilia3 from aesculus, inquilinus
from incola, sterquilinium (§ 934) from stercus. So Tarquinius
On a supposed sound like ii. Ixxvii
from the Etruscan Tarchun (Schuchardt, il. 277). Tlie labialisa-
tion of the guttural, which is expressed by qu, affected the follow-
ing vowel, and the result was a pronunciation like kii instead of
kwi.
(2) The second case is that of i after v, which is noticed by
several of the grammarians in almost the same words. Priscian
{Part. § 24, 25 = 111. p. 465, Keil) lays down generally, that words
beginning with vi followed by d, t, m, r or x appear to have the
sound of the Greek u, and instances video, vim, vis, virgo, virtus,
vitium, vix, and says most people gave the same sound to fli. But I
see no other authority for such a statement, the only examples
quoted by Diomedes, Servius, Sergius and Cledonius being vir,
to which Velius Longus adds virtus, and the Appendix to
Probus (iv. p. 198, Keil) adds virgo and virga. (Cf Schuchardt,
II. 219. Schneider, i. 19 sq.). I notice this because vir and its
probable kin are almost the only words in which short i occurs
before r, and some peculiarity of the sound of i in these words is
therefore not unnatural (cf. § 184, 3).
(3) The third case is that of the vowel in the penultimate of
superlatives and ordinal numbers, which was u in the earlier language,
and i usually in the subsequent language. Jul. Ccesar is said to
have first written i. The variation in spelling remained for long.
Quintilian (i. 7. 21) expressly says that the sound of 1 in optimus
was intermediate between i and u, and this view is confirmed by
the later grammarians.
But on the other hand there are difficulties, (i) It may be said
that, if the sound of this vowel had been that of the French u, the
Latin y, which was the Greek u, would have been often used to
represent it. But from Schuchardt's collections (il. 224, 225), it
appears that it is rarely found in this termination. Indeed it is more
common in gyla, Sylla (Schuchardt, 11. 198, 205). Its rarity, how- ixxii
ever, may be accounted for by the natural shrinking of the Romans
from writing their own words with a foreign letter. (2) The Greek
transcription of these words is, so far as I am aware, uniformly by
I, not by V. [Dittenberger {Hermes, VI. 296) says that in inscrip-
tions we find earlier only o, later ov or t, never i;]. (3) Quintilian
dwells on the beauty of two Greek sounds, tp and v, and expressly
Ixxviii Preface: Observations on Book I.
says the Romans have not got them (xii. lo, § 27). (4) The later
grammarians, except Marias Victorinus, do not suggest the y sound
for this vowel, though Priscian does almost in the same sentence
suggest it for 1 after v.
I do not see much likelihood or possibility of u changing to i,
without some such intermediate step. But yet it may be, that the
vowel was not specifically u or specifically i, but simply an unac-
cented vowel in a suffix, which for a time was, under the influence
of the following labial, retained at the stage of u, but afterwards was
earned away by the general drift and became i. In this case the
precise quality of the vowel need never have been very sharply
defined, and the representation of it by one of the five vowel signs
was approximate only. Or, indeed, the relation of the two sounds
in this and in many other cases may be more analogous to the corre-
spondence of sounds in different languages. U may have belonged
to one dialect and i to another, and the eventual substitution of i
may have been mainly the triumph of the second dialect. Thus
Mr Ellis (p. 473, n.) speaks of the Peak in Derbyshire having two
distinct pronunciations of e.g. slxep, and one of these is a sound
which one Southerner might interpret one way and another another.
Thus sheep might be sounded with the i6th vowel, or the i8th or
the diphthong 3 to 18. We shall not be far wrong, if we print
proxiunus or proximus according to the best evidence we may have
respecting the particular author in whose text it occurs, or the
period at which each author wrote, and then pronounce accordingly
either u or i lightly. But our English sound (the 3rd vowel) is,
1 suppose, entirely out of the question, though 1 expect many English
speakers often utter it in these as in many other unaccented syllables.
Miscellaneous: chiefly on vowel pronunciation.
There are one or two other points respecting the pronunciation
of vowels which may here be mentioned.
. •• The length of the voqvel should be preserved, as much before
two consonants, as before one or more. In the cases of ns, nf a
vowel originally short was lengthened by position (§ 167). MrMunro
Miscellaneous: chiefly on vowel pronunciation. Ixxix
takes Priscian's statement^ (ll. 63), that the vowel before gn was
always long, as meaning that the gn makes it long by nature : but
I cannot agree to this. Priscian could on his principles come to
no other conclusion; for he held that gn begun the final syllable
(II. 8) and that gn made a preceding syllable common, i.e. allowed
a short vowel to remain short (i. 11; 11. 12). Hence, finding all
words which ended in gnus had the penultimate long, he concluded
the vowel must be long. But, I believe, gn did not belong to the
last syllable; the g belonged to the penultimate^. And, as in Greek
such a syllable with a short vowel (e. g. eyvav) is always long by
position, although at one time it was supposed that occasionally
it remained short, there seems no reason for assuming in general
the vo-iuel to be lengthened. In ignavus, &c. where the n is omitted,
the i may be lengthened in compensation. Many words no doubt
had, or were supposed to have, a naturally long vowel, e.g. reg-
num fi-om reg-, rex, instead of from r6g-ere ; but tignum, signum,
magnus, &:c. (comp. tigillum, sigUlum, magis) probably have a short
vowel. The Latin words Egnatia, Egnatius occur not unfrequently
in Greek with e. (See Benseler's Lexicon).
[Mr Munro has replied {Few Remarks, p. 26 sqq.) to these ob-
servations at length. But I am still unconvinced. I do not think
Priscian or those from whom he copied were at all incapable of
substituting a theoretical conclusion for an actual obsei-vation.
Very much better orthoepists than he was have stated rules,
which their own ear, if emancipated from prejudice, would have
told them were not true, or not universally true. This particular
statement may very likely not be of Priscian's own discovery, but
I should require further evidence before I should think it properly
attributable to a good authority four or five centuries earlier ; and
less time will not give us a contemporary statement. A statement
like that of Cicero's about ns has very different weight.
But I have endeavoured to show (p. lix.) how ns lengthened the
^ Priscian is, I think, unsupported in this statement.
^ See § 272. The Verona palimpsest of Livy, which was probably
written in the 4th cent. p. Chr., and consequently before Priscian's
time, always divides words with gn occurring at the end of a line be-
tween the g and n, so as to give the g and n to separate syllables (Momm-
sen, Cod. Liv. I'er, p. 164).
Ixxx Preface: Observations on Book I.
preceding vowel. I do not see, why gn, if pronounced as hard g
followed by the dental nasal, could have done so, any more than
any other mute followed by a nasal. If Priscian's statement is true,
then I should argue that probably gn was pronounced like ng-n
or like ny, (Spanish fi.) And this statement of Priscian has, I see,
actually been brought forward by C. Brugman (in Curtius Studien,
IV. Toj — io8) to prove that gn was ng-n. But against this sound of
gn is the fact that no Roman grammarian, so far as I am aware, al-
ludes to such a sound of gn, though the occasions for so doing
were obvious (see p. Ivii.).
I did not refer before to Mr Munro's arguments in support of
his view derived from the long I in signa, digna, "in inscriptions
of high authority not likely to err on such points," and " from
regni and regno with the apex," because the long I is certainly
sometimes misplaced, and I expect the apex is too. And it is not
at all clear to my mind why one stone-cutter puts long I or apex,
and another omits them, or on what grammatical authority the
stone-cutter who did put them acted. But until we get further
volumes of the Berlin edition of the Inscriptions, I deem it wise to
postpone any positive opinion on this as well as on some other
points.
Mr Munro has I think missed my meaning when I refer (p.
Ixxix. n.) to the mode in which syllables are divided in the Verona
palimpsest of Livy. I endeavoured to account for Priscian's statement
by his theory of syllables. And I adduced the Verona palimpsest
to show that this theoiy was apparently not that of more ancient
authorities. Rightly or wrongly, I do at present hold that a
Roman did not pronounce i-gnominia, i-gnota, co-gnatus, re-gnum,
gi-gno, but ig-nominia, ig-nota, cog-natus, reg-nmn, gig-no.
For we have to account for the Romans writing inglorlus, con-
gredior, but ignotus, cognatus. Now gl and gr are, and were
readily pronounceable in an initial position. Gloria and gradior
were so written whether in or out of composition. But gn is not
easily so pronounced, and therefore gnomen, gnatus, became nomen,
natus. Accordingly I divide inglorius, congredior, as ing-glorius,
cong-gredior, the ng being a single sound, viz. the guttural nasal
(see § 162). Had the Romans retained the n of the prepositions
before gn, they would have felt bound to pronounce ing-gnotus.
Miscdla7icous : ch'ufly on voiud prommciation. Ixxxi
cong-gnatus, but would practically have pronounced ing-notus, cong-
natus. But they did not retain the n and write ingnotus, congnatus,
but ignotus, cognatus. AVhat is the explanation ? Does this repre-
. sent a pronunciation ing-notus, cong-natus, or inyotus, conyatus?
Mr Munro (and I agree with him) holds that it does not. I ac-
count for it by supposing the Romans to have reduced the mass
of consonants, the whole of which they were unable to pronounce,
by omitting as usual (§ 31) the former n, that of the preposition,
rather than the later and radical n. And then I divide the conso-
nants according to phonetic laws, and pronounce with the ordinary
sounds of the consonants ig-notus, cog-natus. That the vowel i may
here be lengthened, as an n is omitted, I have said abov't is quite
possible. But it is very remarkable that Cicero, only a few lines
before he calls attention to the lengthening of the vowel before ns,
nf, refers to this very phenomenon without giving a hint that the
vowel was lengthened. His words are: 'noti' erant et 'navi,' et
'nari,'quibus cum 'in' praeponi oporteret, dulcius visum est 'ignoti,
ignavi, ignari' dicere, quam ut Veritas postulavit (Or. 47). The
context shews that 'dulcius' here has no distinctive reference to any
peculiar pronunciation.
I see no ground for thinking that the Romans pronounced
according to the etymology, and therefore neither did they (before
Greek-following systematisers like Priscian gave artificial rules)
divide the words in writing according to the etymology, which is
all that Mommsen means in his words quoted by Mr Munro.
It is hard to believe that the i in gigno was ' long by nature.'
In reference to Egnatius, I will quote some of Mr Munro's
remarks. ' The words Egnatia, Egnatius, are no more Latin than
' Di6gnetus, Polygnotus, Progne, Cygnus : the town is Peucetian,
'akin to Greeks, not Latins; and Mommsen tells us that the native
' name is Gnatliia, the genuine Latin form Gnatia; and certainly
' our two oldest authorities Horace and Mela know no other
' form '.]
Of course a short vowel before two consonants (unless length-
ened as above) should be pronounced with its usual short quantity.
In English we are in the habit of changing, or pronouncing ob--
Ixxxii Preface; Observations on Book I.
scurely, short vowels in unaccented syllables, e.g. in the first syllable
oi appear, together, iScc, and in the final syllable ol mention, goodness,
cabbage, futile, honour, &c. In Latin the pronunciation may be
presumed to have been, as in Italian, more distinct; and though
changes of the vowels occur, we shall be safest in following the
spelling, which represents, though no doubt sometimes laggardly,
the pronunciation.
Ixxiv The pronunciation of a final vowel before an initial vowel is
somewhat uncertain. But that it was not omitted, but either lightly
pronounced separately, or formed into a diphthong with the initial
vowel, seems both in oratory and poetry to be the right conclusion,
both from the language of Cicero {Orat. 13. § 77 ; 14. § 150 sqq.),
and Quintilian (ix. 4, § 33; xi. 3. 34), and from the fact that the
vowel was written, not omitted. (See Corssen, Ausspr. 11. pp. 770
— 793). The chief points of usage in this matter in Latin verse are
given (after Luc. M tiller) in §§ 2 8 8 — 291. (I have there used the teiTOs
elided and elision in conformity with general usage and for brevity.)
The modern analogies are thus stated by Mr Ellis (p. 324).
' In common Fi-ench discourse the final e and many medial e's
' may be said to be entirely elided When singing, the French
' not merely pronounce these e's, but dwell upon them, and give
' them long and accented notes in the music. This recognition is
* absolutely necessary to the measure of the verse, which, depending
' solely upon the number of the syllables in a line, and having no
'relation to the position of accent, is entirely broken up and
' destroyed when these syllables are omitted. And yet when they
' declaim, the French omit these final e's without mercy, producing
' to English ears a hideous, rough, shapeless, unmusical result,
' which nothing but a consciousness of the omitted syllables can
' mass into rhythm.' Again (p. 329 n.), ' In German and French
' poetry the omission of the vowel is complete and absolute. It is
' not in any way slun-ed over, or rapidly pronounced in connection
'with the following vowel, as is the case in Italian and Spanish
' poetry, and even in Italian singing. The Germans, like the Gi-eeks.
' do not even write the elided vowel. The Latins wrote the elided
'vowel, as the Italians do, and may therefore have touched it briefly,
'as in the English custom of reading Latin verse; whereas it is
' the German custom to omit such vowels altogether, even in reading
Division of words into Syllables. Ixxxiii
'Latin verse. Except in a few instances as /', t\ Sec. the French do
not make the elision of a final e before a following vowel, and in
* old English the vowel was written even when elided.' Mr Ellis
thinks Chaucer sounded, at least usually, his final e's.
Final m before an initial vowel was, according to Quintilian (ix.
4. 40), sounded, though slightly: ' Etiamsi scribitur, tamen parum
' exprimitur, ut yjiultum ille et quantum erat, adeo ut pcene cujus-
' dam novae litterae sonum reddat. Neque enim eximitur, sed l
' obscuratur et tantum in hoc aliqua inter duas vocalis velut nota
' est, ne ipsas coeant.' [Mr Ellis {Quantitati've Pron. of Latin ^ p. 43
foil, 1874) suggests that final m was itself always inaudible, but
that, if it came before a word commencing with a consonant, the two
words were run together, and this initial consonant was doubled in
pronunciation ; e. g. purpiureos spaxgafilores animacque nepotis Ms
salte accumuladdonia. He quotes a striking analogy from Italian.]
The omission of the initial vowel in est is mentioned in § 721.
Perhaps also the same may have taken place in istuc, (Sec. (§ 375).
The chief rules of accentuation are given in Book I. Chap. xiil.
I confess to entertaining some doubts as to a short syllable, when
followed by an enclitic, receiving the accent, e.g. primaque. As
the Romans would not have accented primaque on the penult, if it
bad been one word, I do not see why the i should have lost the
accent by the addition of the enclitic. But the grammarians no
doubt are against me, and I cannot pretend to any great confidence
in my own judgment in matters of accentuation and quantity.
Division of words into Syllables.
The general doctrine given (in §§ 14 — 16, 272 — 274) is, I
think, in fair accordance ^ with the teaching of Mr Bell and
Mr Ellis. To a pamphlet of the latter I owe the first hint of
^ But the mode of representing the pronunciation is often different
from what they appear to recommend. For instance, Mr Bell ( Visible
Speech, p. 119; and comp. Ellis, p. 55 note) sa.ys critical is pronounced
cri-ti-cai not crit-ic-al. I am quite aware that his ear is far better than
mine, but I cannot think, if we are to assign the t to one syllable
more than the other, that it would be generally felt to belong to
the second syllable. However, write the division how we may, I do
not mean more in what I say of Latin pronunciation of mutes than
that the consonant was pronounced as much with the vowel before it
as t is (invariably I believe) in this word critical. And this is not the
notion which I get from the ordinary statement.
Ixxxiv Preface : Observations on Book I.
what I believe to be the truth. Their views will be found in Bell's
Visible Speech^ p. 69 sq., Principles of Speech, p. 87 sq.; Ellis's Early
English Pronunciation, p. 5 1 sqq.
The application of this doctrine to Latin brings me at once into
collision with the doctrine faithfully transmitted from Priscian
(Lib. 2), and even with the same doctrine as modified by Kruger
(Z«/. Gr. §§ 32, 33) and Madvig {Bemerkungen, p. 17). Madvig's
Ix.wi account of both is as follows {Lat. Gr. § 13): 'A consonant be-
' twcen two vowels belongs to the last vowel, and with tliis it is
' combined in pronunciation. Of two or more consonants the last,
' or, if they can begin a Latin word, the two last, belong to the
' following vowel, the remaining consonant or consonants to the
' preceding vowel (pa-tris, fa-scla, ef-fluo, perfec-tus, emp-tus).
' The double x is best united with the preceding vowel. In words
' compounded with prepositions the final consonant of the preposi-
' tion is not separated from it (ab-eo, ad-eo, prseter-eo, also prod-eo,
' red-eo).
' According to a generally spread custom' [this is Priscian's doc-
trine and is the only one which has ancient authority in its favour]
' words are in many books so divided, that all consonants which
' in Greek can begin a word, and all mutes with liquids (even
' though they could not begin a Greek word, e. g. gm), and similar
' combinations of two mutes (e. g. gd as ct) are drawn to the syllable
' following (i-gnis, o-mnis, a-ctus, ra-ptus, Ca-dmus, i-pse, scri-psi,
' Le-sbos, a-gmen, Da-phne, rby-thmus, smara-gdus).'
I assert, on the contrary, that the Roman pronunciation tended
to unite a consonant with the preceding, not with the following,
vowel; and I have briefly mentioned in § 273, and need not here
repeat, the indisputable facts of Latin etymology and prosody, which
seem to me to justify this inference. I have in § 274, p. 89, briefly
noted (in some words of Mr Bell's) the probable basis of the ordi-
nary doctrine, and will now remark on some objections which may
possibly be urged to three of my four arguments.
I. It may be said that the retention of o after v (instead of
allowing the change to u, § 93) shows a connexion with the follow-
ing, not with the preceding, vowel. Unquestionably it does, and
the reason is that the vowel u only becomes consonantal at all by its
Division of 7Uords into Syllables. Ixxxv
rapid pronunciation before a following vowel. V ( = -w) is not a
consonant standing independently between two vowels (as it ought
to have been to invalid.ite my principle), but a vowel, which, if it
be distinctly pronounced as such, does not necessarily aflect either
the preceding or subsequent soiaids, but, when coming before
a different vowel, naturally gains a semiconsonantal character. W is
hardly pronounceable at the end of a syllable. See above, p. xxxiv.
2. It may be said that a change of the final sound of a word is
sometimes caused by the initial sound of a <ivord following; e.g. Ixxvii
c]fi-7rt8ov for aua tt/Soi/ ; imprimis for in primis ; and that therefore
such a change does not imply the union in one syllable of the con-
sonants so affecting each other. I do not deny that sounds in
different syllables may aff^ect one another ; the law of assimilation or
dissimilation does undoubtedly extend over several syllables, and in
some languages, I believe, prevails much more largely than it does
in Latin ; but when we find, as we do in Latin, such changes
frequent and regular, almost invariable indeed, in the case of con-
tiguous consonants, and very rare, in the case of separated conso-
nants, it seems to me difficult to suppose that these contiguous
consonants were separated in speech. And such instances of the
influence of initial sounds of a v\'ord on the terminal sound of a
preceding word rather show that the two words run into one
another in pronunciation. This is confirmed («) by the express
statement of the Latin grammarians, that prepositions with a case
had no separate accent (§ 299) : (i) by their being constantly writ-
ten as one word in inscriptions (Coi-ssen, Aujsprache^ II. 863 — 872) ;
(c) by the change of vowel in (for instance) illico for in loco
(lb. p. 869).
3. It may be said that the prosodiacal law, of a syllable being
long if its vowel has two consonants after it, applies just as much
when these two consonants are in different words, as when they are
in the same word as the vowel ; and therefore, if the lengthening of
the syllable proves that the consonants are in the same syllable, it
proves also that the initial consonant of a word must be regarded as
in the same syllable as the end of a preceding word. This is so,
no doubt, but how else is the fact to be accounted for .' The
Romans did not arbitrarily invent the laws of prosody : these laws
Ixxxvi Preface : Observations on Book I.
must in substance rest on sounds actually heard. Part of the
solution of the apparently strange confusion of word with word is,
I think, to be found in the fact that words were not divided in
writing, and that consequently a law strictly applicable to con-
sonants in the same word was applied also to consonants in different
words, partly from a real confusion in rapid speech, partly fi-om a
want of distinction in writing. When both consonants are in the
second word, the Romans were much more reluctant (cf. § 293) to
'^xviii admit in theory, because they were less liable to produce in prac-
tice, the same prosodiacal effect. The confusion of two words
here supposed finds an analogy in French, when the final consonant
otherwise mute is revived in order to be pronounced, not with its
own word, but with the following word. (Comp. also Ellis, Early
Eng. Pron. p. 56.)
To the 4th argument I do not see what answer can be made.
Madvig {Bemerk. pp. 17, 26. «.) points to the vowel e being
found in parfectus, nomen compared with i in perflcio, nominis, and
considers it to be due to the syllable being closed in the first two
words, open in the last two. And it may be urged that on my
theory, though perfect-us compared with perfic-io may admit of
explanation, there are not two consonants to account for the e in
nomen. True, but neither is there a closed syllable to account for
mare compared with maris ; and still more clearly in words like iste,
ante, compared with istic, antistes, &c. (see § 234, 3), the open
syllable exhibits the e, but becoming closed takes i instead. The
true explanation of the e in nomen, I am not at all sure of: it might
perhaps be held to be the result of the suffix having once been, as
some philologers (e.g. Leo Meyer, 11. 263) suppose, ment (for mant),
in which case the e has remained as in eques for equets, &c. But
it is enough to observe that on examining carefully the laws of
change as set forth (more systematically than I have elsewhere seen)
in § 234, 3: it will be found that nomen, nominis is quite consistent
with other words, and that these laws, be their basis what it may,
do not depend on the syllable being open or shut.
■Stanmary of Rowan Pronunciation. Ixxxvii
The following is a summary statement of the probable pro-
nunciation of educated Romans in the period from Cicero to
Quintilian, say 70A.C. to 90 p.c. (The references in brackets are
to pages of the preface or sections of the book where arguments
are given.)
I. Vowels : ]
The long and short sounds of a vowel were probably identical in
quality. In English they are always different.
a as in Italian, i.e. as m father ; not as m fate.
a the same sound shortened, as in French chatte- not as in hat.
6 as Italian open 0, nearly as m dot.
6 as Italian open 0, or the Cumberland pronunciation of home.,
a sound nearer to English a^iv than is the ordinary in dote,
or in the ordinary English home. (pp. Ixix.— Ixxv.)
fi as in Italian, i.e. as French ou in poide, nearly as in pull;
not as in lull.
u as in Italian, i.e. 00 in pool ; not with a prefixed j-sound, as
in pule., mule.
6 as Italian open e ; nearly as in pet., met.
e the same sound lengthened ; not as 'mpeat,mete. (pp.lxix. — Ixxv.)
i as Italian 1, i.e. as in machine; not as in shine, pine.
i the same sound shortened : but practically the ordinary
English short i may be used, as in pin.
y as Germ, ii, but inclining to i, e. g. MUller, which is nearer
Miller than Muller.
This pi'onunciation of 5 and e is recommended, partly be-
cause it appears more probably to be right than the sound of
French au and French i : partly because the ordinary English
long and long a, which might be otherwise used, are usually
diphthongs (see § 21).
A long vowel was pronounced long, and a short syllable short,
whether by itself or before one or more consonants, e. g. Iflx, Klce ;
pater, patre; mater, matre; amant, regunt, &c. (pp. Ixxviii. Ixxxi.)
A vowel before ns or nf was pronounced long (§ 167).
Ixxxviii Preface : Observations on Book I.
In unaccented syllables, each vowel probably had Its proper sound,
instead of their being all alike reduced as commonly in English to the
sound m mention^ paper, labd, turbsin, &c. (pp. Ixxxi. Ixxxii.)
When est followed a vowel or m, the e was omitted (§ 721).
Ujcx II. Diphthongs.
The right rule for pronouncing diphthongs is to pronounce the
constituent vowels as rapidly as possible in their proper order. (See
a more exact account in App. A. xi. xii.) This will give as fol-
lows :
au as in Germ, haus, i.e. a broader sound than ow in co^iv;
not as au in cause.
eu as in Italian Etiropa, i.e. as ow in Yankee tonvn.
ae nearly as (the single vowel) a in the Somerset pronunciation
of Bath, i.e. as in bat lengthened, (p. Ixxv.)
oe as a diphthong, (p. Ixxv.)
ei nearly as in feint, but with the stress on the latter vowel ;
not as long English i. (Cf. § 267.)
ui (in huic, cui) as French oui. (p. Ixxvi. and § 222.)
The diphthongs ou (§ 251) and oi (§ 263) are found only in
early Latin.
III. Consonants:
c always hard, as k in kitty; not as c ( = s) in city. (pp. xlvii —
liv.)
g always hard, as g mgive; not as in^/«. (p. Iv.)
ng as ng + g i.e. as in anger (i.e. ang-ger^; not as in hang-er.
So nc, nq, as ng + c, ng + q. (p. Ivii.)
j as English y, xwyear; not as English j mjeer. (§ 138.)
V as English w in ivine, or French ou in oui; not as v in 'vine.
(pp. xxxiii. — xlvi.)
qu as in English, e.g. queen. But quu should be avoided, and
e.g. quom or cum uttered. On qui- see p. Ixxvi.
Summary of Roman Prommciation. Ixxxix
r always trilled, never vocalized as commonly in English when
a vowel does not follow. (See App. A. xiii.— xvii.) Thus
per should be sounded as in perry ^ not as in pert; ere as
English a-ry^ not airy: ire as (English) ee-ry^ not eary.
s always sharp as in hiss ; not (like z) as in his. (pp. Iviii. — ljtx.<
Ixi.) The mispronunciation by Englishmen occurs most
when s follows e or n.
las as ps, not as bz. (p. Ivii.)
X always as ks, as in axe; not gz, as in exact, (p. Ivii.)
ti always tee (long or short as the case may require), not (as
before a vowel, e.g. natio) as sb or she. (p. Ivi.)
ph, ch, th were not like English f, German ch, English th,
but as p + h, k + h, t + h: sounds somewhat difficult to
Englishmen, but often heard from Irishmen (§ 132).
In prepositional compounds assimilation in pronunciation appears
to have been usual in certain cases :
ad was completely assimilated to all consonants, except b,
f, and m. (§ 160. 9.)
Bub, Ob were completely assimilated to c, f : and became sup,
op, before sharp consonants. (§ 78.)
com was completely assimilated to 1, r ; became co before gn
and h ; and became con before all other consonants, ex-
cept labials. (§ 85. 4.)
in was completely assimilated to 1, r, and became im before
labials. (§§ 168. i. 2; 176. i; 184. i.)
per was completely assimilated to 1. (§ 176. i.)
On other cases see Book I.
The other consonants in Latin were probably pronounced as
we now pronounce them. But final m was sometimes not sounded,
or perhaps was assimilated to the following consonant (p. Ixxxiii.)
An observance of the Latin rules for accentuation does not in-
volve much which is different from the usual English practice
(p. Ixxxiii.). On the division of the words into syllables, see §§ 15,
232; pp. Ixxxiii. — Ixxxvi.
g
xc
Preface: Observations on Book I.
u.wii A few examples will show plainly the great difference between
the ordinary English, and what is here represented to be the Roman,
pronunciation. To express the pronunciation I have thought it
best to follow no exact system, but to select, where possible, common
English words or syllables. I have however used ah, se, eh, and 6
for what I suppose to be the true sounds of Latin a, se, e, and o
as defined above; 6rr for the sound in herring, not in English err ;
ay for the ordinary English long a.
Pronounce
as
not as
cerno, crCvi
kerr-no, kreh-wee
sur-no, kree-vie
Civitates
kee-wi-tah-tace
sigh-vi-tay-teez
exercitui
eks-err-kit-oo-ee
og-zur-sit-you-I
fagls
fah-geese
fay-jis
fieri
fee-err-ee
fire-eye
fumare
foo-mah-reh
few-Mary
infra
een-frah
in-fray
jaciunt
yahk-i-oont
jas-i-unt or jay-si-
unt, jay-shi-unt
jovTs
yo-wis
joe-vis
natio
nah-ti-o
nay-shi-o
obscurior
ops-koo-ri-orr
obz-kyoor-i-or
paucos
pow-kas
paw -see
rerum
reh-room
rear-um
scire, cire
skee-reh, kee-reh
sire-y
sciscitari
skis-ki-tah-ree
sis-si-tare-eye
veni, vidi, vici
weh-nee, wee-dee,
vee-nigh, vie-die,
wee-kee
vie-sigh
inbs
oorrps
urbz]
The division of syllables in the above is, in order not to embarrass
the reader, accommodated in the main to the ordinary view.
Observations on Book II.
Noun-stems ending in e.
I BELIEVE the general doctrine of grammarians may be represent- ix
ed to be, that the stems commonly fonning the fifth declension have
the genitive and dative singular, except occasionally in poetry, in ei ;
that the ei is a dissyllable; and that the e is usually long, e.g. diei,
but short, if it follows a consonant, e.g. fidei. And accordingly
it is common enough to find modern writers using such words as
materiel, and referring (e.g. Corssen, ii. 723) without hesitation
to words like faciei, notitiei, amicitiei, as if they were of common
and undoubted occurrence. Now, putting aside the Latin authors
subsequent to the silver age, into whose usage on this point I have
made but little investigation, and speaking of the older period, that
which alone I regard in this volume, I believe all the above parts
of the ordinary doctrine to be quite unfounded. I do not profess to
have read through all the writers of the gold and silver ages with
a view to this inquiry, but I have used such other means as were
available, and have had the point before me for some years. The
result is stated in §§ 340—343, 'ind 357 and 360. The kernel of the
whole matter is to be found in Gellius, IX. 14, and in Quintilian's
significant question (v. 6. § 26) quoted in the note to p. 116; and
the inference, which may be thence drawn, is confirmed by Neue's
collection of the facts of actual usage. The great mistake com-
monly made is in starting from the assumption, derived from Roman
grammarians, that a dissyllabic ei is the regular ending, and con-
sequently only noticing what are supposed to be deviations. In
§§ 35 7. 360 will be found all the instances that I have been able to
collect of the use of a genitive or dative singular of an e stem at all.
It will be seen that dies, res, spes, fides and plebes, are the only
words which are found in these cases, except quite sporadically.
.?'2
xcii Preface: Observations on Book II.
Ixxw. Of these, only dies has i before e, and the 1 here is a vowel of the
root, not part of a derivative suffix, as in notities, See. As for the rule
concerning the quantity of the e, diei alone, when ei is dissyllabic,
has always an e long (as indeed a short e between two i's would
be utterly unstable in Latin) : rei is used with e long in Plautus
and Lucretius, with 6 short in Plautus, Terence, and Horace : fidei
has e long in Ennius, Plautus, and Lucretius; 6 short in Manilius
and Silius. There are, so far as I can find, no other instances in
verse of a genitive and dative singular in ei. The dissyllabic nature
of ei can be shown only by express mention or by verse.
Now, putting together the following facts, (i) that at least in
many words the stems in e are collateral to stems in a; (2) that an
antique genitive of -a stems, in al, was preserved in poetry by occa-
sional usage for some time; (3) that in Cicero's time the genitive
and dative of the -e stems were written either with e or with i;
(4) that ei was an accredited spelling of either an intermediate
sound between e and i, or of long i: (5) that the use of any
genitive or dative sing, of these stems is decidedly rare, except in
three or four words, and that Quintilian i-egarded the form, at least
as regards progenies, as either non-existent or disputed ; — putting
these facts together, we may conclude that while ei may very pos-
sibly have been one mode of spelling the ending of the genitive
and dative, it was probably monosyllabic, except in poetic and
antiquarian writers. There is, however, no reason to doubt that,
after Gellius' time, this was the ordinary spelling, and possibly, under
the deceptive influence of diei, fidei in the old phrases Tdoiisb fidei,
and plebei (in tribunus pletoei, plebeiscitum), and the monosyllabic
stems re-, spe-, the ei was regarded as dissyllabic. I have given
in the paradigms of the declension (§ 343) what I suppose Cicero
or Livy would have given.
It may perhaps be the most convenient course in modern times
to continue to write ei, but we should pronounce it as a diphthong
(§ 267), and use such forms as little as may be. It is impossible
to suppose, considering the words \ that the rare occurrence of
the genitive and dative is not in some degree the result of a felt
difficulty : and some of the instances which do exist are probably
1 e. g. acies. I have not hit upon any place in Livy where the geni-
tive or dative of this word is used.
Noun-stems ending in l or in a consonant. xciii
due to copyists who restored the ordinary spelling of their time, Ixxxv
not to the writing of the authors of the gold or silver age them-
selves.
Noun-stems ending in i and in a consonant.
In determining which are i stems and which are consonant
stems, I have followed principally the clue given by the genitive
plural, and, in the case of neuter substantives or of adjectives, that
of the nominative and accusative plural also. But I have also
taken into account, especially where evidence on the above points
was either non-existent or vacillating, the use of -is in the nom.
or accus. plural of masculine and feminine nouns, and of course,
in the few nouns which exhibit it, -im in the accus., and the more
frequent I In the abl. singular. Many writers have considered words
like ars, mens, &c., which do not exhibit the i in the nominative
singular, as having, either in this case or in the singular number
generally, passed Into the consonant declension, or as having two
stems, a consonant stem and an i stem. But the thorough-going
distribution of the words of the third declension, adjectives in-
cluded, between consonant stems and i stems, and the enumeration
of all the words (except very numerous derivatives), with mention
of any peculiarities they may show, have not, so far as I am aware,
been done before. And this has brought into light two important
'points, stated respectively in § 406 and in § 408, compared with
§ 435-
I. The first of these points is that the difference between re-
taining or omitting the i in the nominative singular Is due to
phonetics and not to etymology. The i was evidently so weak
m this final syllable, that, with rare exceptions, it was retained
only when the nature of the preceding consonants was such as
to be powerfully affected by an adjoining s. Thus stems in -mi,
-vi, -qvi, -gvi, -ni, -li, -ri, -si, retain the i with rare exceptions.
The exceptions show the extent to which the stem would have been
disguised, if this protective influence had not been exerted. Thus
nix Is hardly recognizable as of the same stem as nigvis or nivis;
prsecox, though looking very different, really stands to prsecoqvis in
xciv Preface: Observations on Book II.
Ux.wi the 5.11110 relation that c6cus does to coqvos. CI generally drops 1,
but sci retains it, clearly because fascis would otherwise have been
confused with fax. Tl generally dropped it, notwithstanding that
this occasioned the loss of the t also. I presume, the close affinity
of the continuous dental sharp s to the explosive dental sharp (t)
rendered the former a sufficiently clear symbol of the real stem.
But this clearness could not last, if other consonants were also to
be absorbed by the nominative suffix; and therefore sti and -di
retain the i, and thereby retain their distinctive consonants; restis
is not allowed to become res, nor pedis to become pes. Assis,
semissis, bessis (cf App. D. p. 449), are found both in the full
form, and as as, semis, lies, the abbreviation being the natural
result of constant usage. Again, where t is preceded by a short
vowel, the omission of the i would confuse stems having a short
vowel, with stems having a long vowel. Hence natis does not be-
come nas, because nas would presume a stem nati- ; sitis is, by the
retention of its i, preserved from an identity with the commonly
occurring word sis. On the other hand, intercus, compos, com-
pared with cutis, potis, show the tendency allowed to operate,
because the desire of shortening a long word prevailed over the
risk of confusion — a risk which is indeed less when a word
has a prefix than when it is a simple stem. But the confusion
is evident, where such principles have been disrejjarded. Princeps
may fairly enough represent principis, but then prsecipitis should
not have been allowed to sink into an apparently analogous prae-
ceps. Ennius indeed, and another old poet, seem to have been de-
ceived by the nominative, and used prsecipim, praecipe, for accus,
and abl.i Clear evidence of the antipathy of n, 1, and r to an ad-
joining final s is afforded by the nominative of such consonant
nouns as had stems ending in these sounds. It would not have been
well to cut all such words down, as supellectilis v.as cut down,
simply through this, to (supellectils, supellects) supellex. Who
could have borne messis becoming mes, tussis becoming tus ?
Corbis and orbis retained their i, probably because otherwise
they might be confused with p stems. Thus urbs was doubtless
^ This is by no means the only instance in which the very early
poets (Greeks by origin) seem to have simply blmidered.
Nowi-stems ending in i, or in a consonant. xcv
pronounced xirps, but there appears to have been an unwillingness ixx.w;;
so to write it, lest the last evidence of the b stem should vanish.
For, it must be remembered, though the Romans knew nothing of
the modern theory of stems, yet they were struck by the apparent
anomaly of writing, e.g. urps in the nominative and urbem in
the accusative.
It is probable that the i has a very different origin in some
of these words from what it has in others : in some it may be
original, in others a weakened a (or o or e) ; in others it may
have been inserted in order to give more distinctness and indepen-
dence to a puny stem, and ward off the dangers of an overbearing s.
This appears to be the case in canis, juvenis. Senex found another
way out of this difficulty.
The stems with nom. in -es, I have thought best to class
with the i stems, as those with which they have most resemblance.
I am well aware that they are often supposed properly to have
their j/fw, not merely their nominative case, in -es (cf. e. g.
Schweizer-S idler Lat. Gr. § 50, and see Leo Meyer, Corssen, &c.),
but this appears to me far from certain (see § 405). And in a case
of obscurity I have preferred to be guided in my arrangement by
the balance of objective facts.
2. In §§ 408, 435, I have pointed out some striking differences
between the words which have i stems, and the words which have
consonant stems. While fully admitting the probability of some
of both classes of stems being as original as stems in a and 0, I
am inclined to regard the second class of nouns as on the whole
of later birth than the first class, and the majority of these stems as
being weakened fonns of and a stems, the so-called i stems having
been for phonetic reasons arrested at an intermediate stage, the
consonant stems showing the latest and furthest stage. As the
words increased in length by the addition of derivative suffixes,
they under the influence of the Latin accentuation first thinned the
final vowel, then dropped it altogether. This final vowel was,
it is true, originally very important as the sign of gender, but as
the language grew older, the imagination which saw sex in inani-
mate objects grew duller, and first the distinction of male and
female became unimportant in such matters, and then the distinc-
xcvi Preface: Observations on Book II.
ixxxviii tion of sex and no sex. The new derivatives which were the off-
spring of the rational faculty were names of abstractions, not of
things, and they were by the process of their formation descriptions,
not pictures. Thus the gender became masculine or feminine
according to some distant analogy, instead of present vision ; and
it was recognized not by one special and invariable suffix for
each sex (o or a), but by the character of the derivative suffixes
themselves; e.g. on masculine, -ion feminine; -tor masculine, -trie
feminine, &:c. ; -us or -6s neuter. So again some suffixes were
confined primarily at least to adjectives, e.g. -till: others to sub-
stantives, e.g. -on, -ion.
Gossrau (Lat. Gr. § 86, p. 92) has called attention to the con-
nection of the genitive plural with the accent, and proposed the
following rules: ' (i) All pari-syllables, as belonging to the 1 de-
' clension, have -ium. (2) All words, which with the ending in
' -ium need not draw the accent forward from the syllable on which
' it falls in the genitive singular or nominative plural, have ium ;
' others have um. Or the rule may be thus stated: all words which
' in the genitive singular have the penultimate syllable long have
'-ium, those which have it short have -um. This rule,' he adds,
' is good also for all adjectives.' But there are some considerable
exceptions, as he acknowledges, to these rules.
In my opinion the only truth, contained in these rules, is what
I have before referred to ; viz. that the consonant stems are to a
considerable extent stunted i stems, the Roman law of accentuation
exerting a constant influence to shorten the word at the end, and
this particularly, when the penultimate syllable is short.
Verbs with vowel stems.
Some readers will probably be surprised at seeing the final vowel
of some verb-stems marked as short; e.g. doma,-, mon6-, faci-, and
others of the classes to which these belong. My reasons for regard-
ing them as short are these.
To take first the case of e stems 1. (i) A few verbs with e
^ A very competent comparative philologer, Grassmann, has already
taken a similar view, and on much the same grounds (Kuhn's Zeii-
ichrift, XI. p. 89).
Verbs with vowel stems. xcvii
radical (all but two, -ole, and -vie being monosyllabic steins) have
-etum in the supine (§ 692). But the great mass of the rest have
-itum (§ 693). A few omit the vowel altogether (§§ 700—709).
Short i is a very frequent substitute for 6, especially in unaccented
syllables (§ 234). The occurrence therefore of a short i in the great
majority of suffixes from verbs with e stems is strongly suggestive
of the shortness of the final stem e.
(2) There is a numerous class of adjectives with stems in -do
(§ 816). Most of these are derived from verbs, and all but a few
of these are from verbs with e stems. In all these cases there is
a vowel preceding the -do, and this vowel is short i. In no in-
stance is there a long vowel, unless radical, preceding -do, and in
no instance is the adjective derived from a stem with a or e or
a or i. This again points to a connection of i-do with shortness
of the stem vowel of the e verbs.
(3) The perfect of verbs with e stems which have -itum in
the supine is in -ui, never in -evi. And the same perfect is found
m a great many other verbs of the like stems, which have no supine
or other word of this formation in use. Now it seems difficult to
account for the general prevalence of ui (instead of evi) in e verbs,
compared with -avi in a verbs, unless from the quantity of the
vowels being different. The difference in quality between a and e,
when these vowels come before u, does not seem of a kind to
account at all for the nearly universal solution of the one vowel
and maintenance of the other. Verbs which, as monosyllables and
as having radical e, have the best claim on a priori grounds to e
long, have evi in the perfect, accompanying etum in the supine.
But e + u seems calculated to pass into eu and then into u with-
out difficulty.
These facts together seem to me to make strongly for the short-
ness of the g in none- and such like verbs. Nor do I see any argu-
ment^ for its length, which is not drawn from facts which, to say
1 Gellius indeed speaks (vil. =vi. 15) as if 'calescit, nitescit, stu-
pescit, et alia hujuscemodi multa' had e long, and 'qviescit' 6 short.
Those who consider this a proof of the characteristic vowel of e verbs
being long naturally, may explain how ' quiescit' came to be (according
to Gellius) short. [In Greek inscriptions we have from verbs with e
stems OvoKevros, Jlouoeiros though the nominatives were written OuaXijs,
xcvili Preface: Observations on Book II.
the least, are perfectly compatible with this theory. I conceive the
xc length of e in parts of the present stem, e. g. mones, monemus,
monetis, monere, and similar parts of the passive verb, to be explica-
ble by a contraction of the final e with the initial vowel of this
suffix, mon§-6re = monere. For the existence of the initial vowel
of the suffix, I refer to the consonant stems. (For Corssen's theory
respecting these consonant stems, see § 743.)
The analogy of Greek stems appears to confirm the same
view. There the e is unquestionably short, e.g. (juXew] and
wherever a long vowel appears in its stead, a contraction has taken
place.
I might refer to the quantity of the e in the half compounds,
e.g. pudefacis, but the evidence is not decisive. All the instances
will be found collected in § 994. The majority of them have
e short, and of the dozen which are found with a long e, three
(experge-, rare-, vace-) are not from e stems, one (sve-) is from
a verb with radical e, four others (liqve-, pate-, putre-, tepe-) are
also found with e short ; and the remaining four (conferve-, contabe-,
perfrige-, obstupe-) are each used once only, and that in writers
(Plaut., Ten, Lucret.) whose use in such a matter can hardly be re-
garded as decisive. The probable solution of this occasional lengthen-
ing may be sought in a wrong inference from the length of the e in
monemus, monere, or in a fancy that, e.g. perfrige-facio is contracted
for perfrigere facio. Anyhow the evidence from these compounds
on the whole inclines considerably in favour of the theory of the
final e of the stem being short.
There are a few verbs with a stems which seem to me to have a
short. They will be found named in §§ 645 and 688. The
greater number of them are markedly distinguished from ordinary
a verbs by the same characteristics as have been noticed in most e
verbs, viz. a perfect in -ul (instead of avi), and a supine in -itum
(instead of atiun). Some of these show indications of having their
natural character eventually overborne by the analogy of the others.
Hence we have micui and dimicavi, enecui and enecavi, -plicui
UovSn^ (for Valens, Pudens, cf. § 167) ; OuaXevreivos, ^Xcopevrm ; just as
much as Kp-r]ffK€VTos, Upaiaefra which are from consonant verbs.
(Dittenberger, Hermes vi. 308.)]
Verh with vowel stems. xcix
and -plicavl. Da- retains its radical short quantity throiigliout,
except in das; sta- is, as regards the present stem, swept into the
strong current of the derivative verbs; sona- gives place to a verb
sdn- ; or it may perhaps be held that souis, son6re are really attempts xd
at preserving the proper quantity without the apparent anomaly
of a short a. [Lavdre, lavl, lautum or lotum with compound
(diluo for dilauo) points to a stem lau- ; but there is also lavatiun
pointing to lava- : the common point of origin may well have been
lava-]. Ba- and sa- deviate in other ways. On inqvam, see § 561.
The argument from the supine will be best appreciated by an
examination of Book 11, Chap. xxiv. It will be seen how few are
the cases in which a vowel is found before turn in the supine, with-
out the other parts also showing a vowel stem. (See § 698, also
fruiturus and ruiturus.) Nor are the instances many more in
which, if the above principles be adopted, the quantity of this
vowel does not correspond with the quantity of the final stem
vowel. (Corssen supposes in the case of e stems a shortening of
an original e ; in the case of the a stems the coexistence of a verb
of the 3rd conjugation. Amspr. 11. 292 — 295 ed. 2.)
The verbs like facio, capio, &c. are generally regarded as having an
inorganic i inserted in some parts, whilst in others what is considered
its real consonant stem is shown. I have ventured to consider these
verbs to be vowel verbs with stem ending in -i. For, as far as I un-
derstand the laws of vocalization in Latin, the phenomena are exactly
those which would be found, if they had this stem ending : i would
maintain its place before a labial vowel (0 or u), and would be
omitted before i; comp. adice for adjice, &c. (§ 144). But when
s becomes r, i would of course become 6, and this completely ac-
counts for w^hat otherwise seems such strange variation as capio,
capis, capit, capiunt, capiebam, capias, capies, capgre, capfirem^,
&c. The imperative singular cape from a stem capi- is evidently
analogous to mare from a stem mari-, and may be accounted for m
the same way, whatever that be (see § 196). It may be remarked
that a final i is very rare in Latin words (see §§ 280, 243, a)- Such
^ Comp. Grassmann in Kuhu's ZeitscJu-ifl, xi. p. 50.
c Preface: Observations on Book II.
instances as do occur are all due to poetic shortenings of original
long vowels.
Some of these verbs exhibit this i short in the supine. In others
it is omitted, as is the case in many vowel verbs. Any short vowel in
this position would almost inevitably have become i, and the omis-
sion of i in, or adjoining to, suffixes is far from being uncommon.
[Just as the current of the derivative verbs with -a stems, swept
with it some verbs whose stem was properly in -a, so some verbs
with I stems were made occasionally to assume the character of
verbs with I stems. Thus e.g. cupi- has cupivi, cupitvun and once
cupiret; mori- has moriri; aggredi- has aggrediri, aggredimur;
f odi- has fodiri ; on- has orlmur, adoriris ; poti- has potitus, potirer,
potiri. (See Chap. XXX.) Comp. also § 657.]
I am not confident as to the quantity of the final stem vowel in
such verbs as senti- (sentio, sensi, sensum). I have sometimes marked
it long as usual. It may be, these verbs are instances of a semi-per-
version by the analogy of more regular i stems, e. g. audio, audivi,
auditum; or the i is here distinctly realized as a suffix of inflexion
only, a mark of the present stem, instead of the verb stem. In verbs
which have reduplicated perfects, or perfects in -si, the same dis-
tinction is practically recognized.
Concluding Remarks.
I have stated in different parts of the book' such obligations as
I thought necessary to mention in a book of this kind, which can
rarely be formed by independent research from the original authori-
ties directly. But I desire here expressly to recognize the debt I owe
to Ritschl, Corssen, Neue, and Curtius, to all of whom I hope,
at a future time, to express renewed obligations for further infor-
mation. Many of the statements about Latin inscriptions of the
Republican period are taken from Ritschl, and taken with the con-
fident belief that, though they may not prove always right, it is ex-
ceedingly improbable that I should be able to correct him. Some of
his writings on Inscriptions are not easily accessible. I look forward
with much interest to their republication in his Opuscula, as well as
to the new edition of his Plautus, and the promised Grammar
Concluding Remarks. ci
of old Latin, if indeed the last is not put off to the Greek Kalends.
The statements about later inscriptions, and some respecting Repub-
lican inscriptions, are chiefly founded on statements by Corssen or
Brambach (^Die Neiigestaltung der late'mischeri Orthographie^ 1868).
These of course cannot claim anything like the weight of Ritschl's
statements, which are the outcome of years of skilled and careful
labour. To Corssen I am the more anxious to acknowledge my
frequent obligations, because his very prominence in the field of
Roman phonetics has made it necessary for me, in some cases,
to express and vindicate my dissent from his views. The second
volume of the new edition of his Aussprache did not reach me in
time to make much use of, except in occasional reference and cor-
rection. Cuitius' very careful identification of Latin and Greek
roots has been followed almost implicitly to this extent, that I have xcii!
rarely suggested an identity which he has not approved, though I
have frequently omitted some which were either superfluous for the
purpose ia hand, or appeared to me to admit of some doubt.
Neue's Formenlehre (1300 closely printed pages without an index)
has enabled me to give a more complete, and at the same time a
briefer, account of Latin inflexions than will be founds in other
Grammars. It seemed to me useless, as a general rule, to encumber
my book with references to the passages where a particular form
occurs, when this work has been done exhaustively already, and
the result can be easily obtained by any scholar who seeks to test
a matter himself. On the other hand Neue's book is quite unreadable
by the majority of students, and is, in fact, not so much a grammar
itself, as a quarry from \^hich grammars will be built. I hope
greatly to improve my own ist and 3rd Books when the corre-
sponding paits of Neue's work are published. It may be useful to
add that, being mainly a collection of references, it is accessible to
a great extent by students who have little knowledge of German.
I have tested his references in a great many cases, and rarely found
them inaccurate. Of course, later critical editions of authors will
sometimes alter his results.
Madvig's Grammar (3rd Germ, edit.) has not been of so much
service to me in this volume, as in the Syntax. In that my obliga-
tions to him are paramount to all others. To Key's Grammar
I certainly owe much in the way of suggestion, but how much
cii Preface: Observations on Book II.
I cannot tell, as I have often used it for many years, and in such a
case it is impossible to distinguish between ideas which have been
more or less borrowed, and those which have been obtained by
independent inquiry with eyes turned in the same direction. But
there is no recent Latin Grammar, that I know of (except Madvig's
in the Syntax), which is based on so fresh a study of the facts,
or has done more in awakening a more scientific treatment. I have
also read some of his other Philological papers, and sometimes got
useful hints even from those with whose general arguments and
conclusions I am quite incompetent to deal.
Gossrau's elaborate, but not, as I think, very happily conceived
Grammar, and Schweizer-Sidler's Formenlehre, were not published
till my first two books were in print. And two English books,
xciv Peile's Introduction to Greek and Latin Etymology^ and Ferrar's
Comparati've Grammar^ vol. I., did not come into my hands till
still later.
I have intended to use always the best texts of the Latin authors.
What I have used are Cicero by Baiter and Kayser, and the larger
edition by Baiter and Halm ; Sallust by Jordan; Caesar by Kraner
and Dinter; Livy by Madvig; Curtius by Hedicke ; Pliny the
elder by Detlefsen, so far as it had appeared (now 3 vols, containing
Books i. — xxii.), and Jan for the rest ; Quintilian by Bonnell, and
• latterly the edition by Halm ; Plautus by Ritschl, and Fleckeisen,
with Wagner's Aidularia; Terence by Wagner and Umpfenbach;
Lucretius and Horace by Munro, to whose notes on Lucretius
I am often indebted ; Vergil by Ribbeck, whose grammatical index
has been of much sei-vice to me. For most other books I have
used the editions in Teubner's series.
Of some plays of Plautus which have had no recent critical
editors, and of Cato and Varro, de re rustica, I have made less use
than I should have done, had I been able to regard the text as in a
fairly trustworthy condition.
I have the pleasure of expressing my thanks to my friend, the
Rev. Professor Joseph B. Mayor, who has kindly read over most
of the proof sheets, and by whose criticisms I have always benefited :
and to the Rev. J. H. Backhouse, who read and commented on the
Concluding Ronaiks. citi
proof sheets of the book when in an early stage. The draft he saw
(an enlargement of my Elementary Latin Grammar^ published in
1862) has however been twice superseded since, and I can only regret
that the present book has not passed under his most accurate eye.
There are several real or apparent inconsistencies, especially in
the printing of the volume, which I mention, lest they should
deceive any one. I have by no means always distinguished
(as I think it desirable to do in a grammar) the consonant v
from the vowel u; nor always marked the suffixes or parts of
suffixes with hyphens, nor always marked the quantity of vowels,
nor been rigid in spelling, especially in cases of assimilation, e.g.
qvanqvam or qvamqvam. Sec, nor named a word always ac-
cording to its form at the same stage of the language, e. g. xcv
proxumus and proximus; com, cum, con; &c. Nor have I been
always consistent in noticing or not noticing very exceptional oc-
currences of words or forms, or rare occurrences in extinct writers
(e. g. the early dramatic poets) ; or the non-use of particular cases
of nouns, where the non-use was probably accidental, and the like.
In some cases I have had a reason for the apparent inconsistency,
but in others it has been unintentional. I fear too that there are
some unintentional omissions and misplacements of words in the
lists in Book III.
The second part containing the Syntax is half printed, and will
be ready, I hope, in a few months. References made here to sections
bearing numbers higher than 999 are to the Syntax.
I have now only to add that I shall be thankful to any one
who may take the trouble, either privately or publicly, to point
out any mistakes I may have made.
H. J. ROBY.
London, May, 1871.
{.Published 7 July, 1871.)
civ Preface to Second Edition.
In this second edition I have silently corrected the errors which
have been pointed out to me and those which I have myself noticed.
Some additions also have been made, though these had to be kept
within narrow limits owing to the book being stereotyped. Both
corrections and additions, thpugh not inconsiderable in number, are
mostly of slight moment, and none, I think, involve any change
of principle. A thorough revision of the book has been out of
the question. Such time as I have to spare for studies of this kind,
has been fully taken up with the preparation of the Syntax. Nor
indeed could a re-examination of the subject-matter be so usefully
undertaken now, as after a few more years have brought further
criticism and further aids from without.
The additions made to the Preface have been included in square
brackets. A few verbal corrections have been made without notice.
I have marked in the margin the pages of the first edition.
I am glad to be able to refer my readers for a fuller exposition
of many points of phonetics and philology to the second edition of
Mr Peile's able and interesting Introduction to Greek and Latin
Etymology.
I have the pleasure of acknowledging corrections kindly sent to
me by the Rev. John E. B. Mayor, of Cambridge; Henry Nettleship,
Esq., of Harrow; Charles C. Tancock, Esq., of Exeter College,
Oxford; and especially by Professor George M. Lane, of Hai-vard
College, Massachusetts, who favoured me with a long list of cor-
rections, of which many might have escaped my notice, and all have
been of much service.
The second Part has been delayed partly by increased official
work, but chiefly by my having recast and enlarged the doctrine
of the cases. I hope now a few months will complete it.
14 Octob. 1872.
In the fourth and fifth editions a few slight corrections and
additions have been made. Three Appendices, on Metre, on Gram-
matical and Rhetorical Expressions, and on Latin Authors, which
first appeared in my School Latin Grammar, are added to the fifth
edition. H. J. R.
Jan. 1 88 1 & 18S7.
BOOK 1.
SOUNDS.
BOOK I.
SO UND S.
CHAPTER I.'
ELEMENTS OF SPEECH; and particularly CONSONANTS.
The human voice may be regarded as a continuous sti-eam of i
air, emitted as breatfi from the lungs, changed, as it leaves the larynx,
by the vibration of two ligaments (called cliordse vocales) into
vocal sound, and either modified by various positions, or intei"-
rupted or compressed by various actions, of the uvula, the tongue,
and the lips. In a whisper the ligaments do not vibrate, but other-
wise the description holds good.
Interruption by complete contact, or compression by approxi-
mation of certain parts of the organs, or vibration of the tongue
or uvula, produces consonants.
Modification, without interruption or compression, and without
vibration of the tongue or uvula, produces vowels.
Consonants.
Consonants admit of a fourfold classification, according to z
1. the completeness or incompleteness of the contact;
2. the accompaniment or absence of vocal sound;
3. the position of the organs, where the contact takes place;
4. the passage of the breath through the mouth or nose.
^ In this and the next two Chapters, much use has been made of
Lepsius' Standa7-d Alphabet (1S63); Max Miiller's Sumy of Lajigiuigis
(1855) and Lectures ■2nd series; Melville Bell's Principles of Speech
(1S63); Brlicke's Physiologie dcr Sprachlaiite (1856).
Sounds. [^Book I.
1. (rt) If the contact is complete, so as to cause an entire in- 3
terruption of the passage of the breath, we get mutes (explosive
consonants, checks, &c.); as p, b; k, g; t, d.
(b) If the contact is only partial, i.e. if the organs do but
approximate more or less closely to each other, we get a continuous
sound caused by the friction of the breath against the parts.
These sounds are called fricative consonants {continuous, spirants,
flatus, breathings, &:c.); as s, z; sh, zh (French j); th; f, v; &c.
2. {a) Again the contact or approximation may be made with 4
the vocal chords wide apart, in which case a whisper only takes
place. These consonants are called sharp or voiceless (breathed,
hard, surd, tenues, &c.); as p, k, t, s, sh, tli (in thin), f, wh, h (in
huge), rli (as r in French theatre, fiacre). Sec.
(b) If the contact or approximation is made, with the vocal
chords close to one another, the consonants are called fiat or voiced
(soft, blunt, sonant, medlaa, &c.); as to, g, d, z, zb, tli (in the?;), v, w,
y, r, Sec. The chords being thus ready to vibrate usually do vibrate,
causing voice, either during the approximation, or, in the case of
a mute, the instant that the contact is released. But the sound of
the voice is not essential, as, in whispering, a rustle in the throat
takes its place. (See App. A. vii.)
3. Again the parts of the mouth which are put in contact or s
approximation or movement are very various, and the sound is
modified accordingly. For the purposes of classification in Euro-
pean languages five parts may be especially distinguished; viz. the
lips, the throat (or rather the soft palate just above the larynx), the
hard palate, the teeth, and the tongue.
(a) Consonants formed at or with the lips are called Labial;
viz. p, to, m, w, and labial f, v. The ordinary f, v are labio-dentals,
being formed by the under lip and upper teeth.
(b) Consonants formed in the throat (or soft palate) are called
Guttural; viz. k (c, ct), g, ng, ch (in loch).
(c) Consonants formed at the hard palate are called Palatal,
of which some approach nearer to gutturals, some to dentals:
such are y, ch (in Germ. Ich, or h in Engl, huge), sh, French j.
(The Italian c (in cima) i. e. English cli (in church), and Italian g
(in giro) i. e. English j (in join), which are sometimes classed as
_palatals, appear to be really double consonants ; viz. cli = tsh; j = dzli
where zli is French j.) v
Chap. /.] Elements of Speech. 5
{d) Consonants formed at or just above the teeth are called
Dental; viz. t, d, n; th; s, z.
(f ) 'Vwo other consonants, called Lingual consonants or liquids
(or trills), are r, 1. r is caused by the breath passing over the tip of
the tongue, which is more or less vibrated: 1 is caused by the
breath passing over the sides of the back of the tongue, which is
then removed from its position to complete the sound. For an r
(common in France), caused by vibration of the uvula, see App. A.
4. If the uvula be lowered so as to obstruct the passage of the 6
air through the mouth, but allow it to vibrate in the cavities of the
nose, a nasal sound is produced. If the organs are otherwise in
the positions required for b, d, g, but the air passes into the nose,
the nasal consonants m, n, ng (a single sound as in sing) are respec-
tively produced. (The palatal n has much the same sound as a
dental n.)
The nasals resemble the explosive consonants in requiring a
vowel before and after to give the full effect; they resemble the
continuous consonants in the possibility of continuing the sound,
which is however that of the first half only of the consonant.
5. The semivowels w and y will be best described after the 7
vowels (§ 23).
Another letter has yet to be noticed, viz. li (spiritus asper).
This is a mere expulsion of breath through the perfectly open
glottis, i.e. with the vocal chords apart, not approximated and
vibrating, li stands to the vowels, as p to to, k to g, &c.
(If h is breathed immediately after an explosive consonant we
get sounds, represented in Greek, viz. = p + li, x = l2: + li, ^ = t + h,
and in Sanscrit (g + h &c.). A strong articulation of consonants
e.g. by Scotchmen or Irishmen gives a similar sound.)
There is also a very slight sound heard before any initial vowel,
and best caught when two vowels come together, but are pro-
nounced separately, as in go over. This is rarely expressed by any
letter. It is the spiritus lenis of the Greeks.
The principal sounds in European languages may be tabulated 8
as follows, the letters being supposed to be sounded as in English,
except where it is otherwise stated.
Sounds.
\Book I.
Explosive.
Nasal. Fricative.
Sharp. Flat.
Usua'
flat.
lly Sharp.
Flat.
( will
wi
Labial. p b
m
j labial f
labial v
Labiodental.
ordinary f
'ch in
ordinary v
Scotch loch
g in Germ.
Guttural. ii g hard ng
j (Gemi. cli after
la or o)
tage
f li in huge
7
Palatal.
j (nearly Germ, cli nearly g in
"^ after i or e) Germ, iviege
sh
zh. (French j)
Lingual.
whispered r
^ Welsh (?) U
r
1
Dental. t d
n
s
th
th
[_ (in thin')
(in then)
It may be added that s,
z, and sometimes sh and French j are
called sibilants.
CHAPTER II.
COMBINATION OF CONSONANTS.
Single consonants may be sounded either before or after a g
vowel. But the semivowels y and w are sounded only before a
vowel.
A continuous consonant has always the same sound whether
its vowel be before or after : but an explosive consonant has not
the same. The full pronunciation of an explosive consonant re-
quires both the closing and opening of the organs. Thus in ap
only half the p is properly sounded: in pa we have the other half.
The full pronunciation is heard in apa, or, as commonly written,
ap-pa. In ap-ka the first half of p and the second half of k is
sounded.
Writing consonants double has either an etymological origin,
when it is done to preserve the memory of distinct sounds now lost;
e.g. ac-cedo for ad-cedo; uW-os compared with ali-us; &c., or a
phonetic origin, as in English it is used to distinguish a short accented
vowel from a long one, e.g. Aite, kitten; Sec. In either case the
consonant is wholly pronounced once only.
1 The continuous part of the sound wh is really a bloiving, the con-
tinuous part of w is the vowel u.
Chap. II?[ Combination of Consonants. 7
Two or more consonants may be pronounced w^ith only one 10
vowel, but the possible combinations are somewhat different, when
the vowel is before the consonants and when it is behind them.
When the vowel is sounded after the consonants, the combination
may be called initial; when the vowel is before the consonants, final.
(The Germans give the name Anlaut., Inlant., Auslant (on-
sound, in-sound, out-sound) to the sound of a consonant with the
vowel following, on both sides, and preceding, respectively.)
An Initial^ combination may not consist of a liquid or nasal n
followed by any other consonant, except that an m may be fol-
lowed by n, nor of a fricative, except a sibilant, followed by an
explosive: nor of two explosives unless the former of the two be a
labial or guttural, the latter a dental. Semivowels are never fol-
lowed by any consonant.
Of the rarer combinations may be given as instances:
Greek, rkaa., tttuco, kt^ipco, yj/'evda), ^a'lva, y.vrj^a, (^dluo), x^'f-
German, Pfanne, Pfaum, Pfropf Zerren (i.e. tserren^.
A final combination may not consist of a nasal preceded by any 12
consonant, except a liquid ; noi- of a liquid preceded by any consonant,
except that 1 may be preceded by r; nor readily of two explosives
or two fricatives, unless the latter of the two be a dental: e.g. akp,
apk, atk, atp, seem harsher than akt, apt ; and (taking th as in
English and cli as in German) athf, asf, athch, afch, than afth, afs,
aclith, achf.
Instances of the rarer combinations are
English, _/7w, /iiln, strength, ^.vatch., texts, cringed.
German, ttopf, dumpf obst, balgst, birgst.
Neither in initial nor final combinations are sharps pronounceable 13
before fiats, or readily flats before sharps. When they occur to-
gether in writing, the former of the two, if a sharp, is usually changed
in speaking into the corresponding flat ; if a flat, into the corre-
sponding sharp. Sometimes the latter is changed, to suit the former,
which is retained : e. g. otost is either pronounced opst, or otozd.
(But }nidst, stri-v''st, hugg'st are pronounced without this change.)
Nor can either an initial or final combination contain more ex-
plosives than two, with or without a fricative before or after each.
A syllable is such a sound or combination of sounds as can be 14
uttered with one breath. It may consist of a vowel (or diphthong)
only, or of a vowel (or diphthong) combined with one 01 more
consonants.
A word consists of as many syllables, as it has vowels separately
pronounced.
^ The languages of the Grceco-Latin and Teutonic stocks are alone
regarded in the following statements.
8 Sounds. \Book I.
A single syllable may contain a vowel with two or more con- is
sonants on each side of it. Two consecutive syllables may therefore,
if the first ends and the second begins with a combination of con-
sonants, bring together in the middle a twofold aggregation of
consonants.
The aggregation of consonants in the middle of a word is
limited only by the necessity of its being capable of precise division
into a pronounceable final combination followed by a pronounceable
initial combination.
But in ordinary pronunciation a consonant between two vowels
is uttered partly with both. The real division of the syllables is
therefore neither before nor after the consonant, but in the middle
of it, i.e. after the closing of the organs and before the opening.
Accordingly a valid aggregation of consonants in the middle of a
word must be such that some one of the consonants shall fitly close
the first syllable, and also open the second syllable: e.g. actra is
divisible into act-tra; but act-pra is not divisible into act-tpra or
into actp-pra, tpra not being a possible initial combination, nor actp
a possible final combination.
The division of a word into syllables is in modern languages 15
decided rather by the etymological than by a phonetic division.
So far as this phonetic principle is disregarded, the word is either
resolved not into separate syllables, but into separate words, or else
a vowel is lightly interposed between the consonants by the open-
ing of the organs to complete one consonant before uttering the
next ; e. g. actpra becomes actSpra or acStgpra.
On the division in Latin, see Chap. xi.
CHAPTER III.
VOWELS AND COMBINATIONS OF VOWELS.
The shape of the mouth determines the quality of the vowel. ^^
There are two great agents in modifying vowel sound, the tongue
and the lips. The tongue by the elevation of its hinder part towards
the palate diminishes internally the oral channel: the lips being pro-
truded lengthen the oral channel and contract the external aperture.
The purest and simplest vowel is Italian a, English ah. The ig
extremes are Italian i (i.e. English ee), being the vowel with the nar-
rowest channel: and Italian u, English 00, the vowel with the long-
est channel and narrowest external aperture. Of these a is formed
nearest to the guttural point of contact ; i at the palato-dental
point ; u at the labial.
Other vowels, i.e. other modifications of vowel sound, may be ig
regarded as intermediate either between a and i {lingual vowels), or
Chap. III?[ Vowels and Cotnbhiations of Vozvcls. 9
between a and u (labial or round vowels), or partaking in some
degree of the characters of both hnes. Each vowel also may be
cMtde or close, according as the pharynx (i.e. the cavity at the
back of the tongue above the larynx) is more or less expanded.
It is difficult to put any precise limit to the number of possible
vowels, most nations, and, indeed, most individuals, differing more
or less from one another in vowel pronunciation. But the vowels
most worth notice for an English student of Latin are given in the
following list. All may be either long or short. (Ellis's palasotypic
symbols and Bell's names are subjoined to each. Most of the
parallelisms are from Ellis.)
X. Germ, a [a. 'Low back wide'). Scot, m^n; Germ, tiitmii,
I. Ital. a (a. * Mid back wide'). ILngl. fsither ; Ital. initio, m&no ;
Fr. ch^tte.
3. A common Engl, vowel (a or jj. ' Mid mixed ' or ' Mid back '),
Engl. Xip, siSii, does; nearly tailor, paper; long in ur;;, luoxd, ftxn, bird;
nearly Fr. queje me repente.
4. Ital. close (;/h. 'High mixed wide round'). Ital. croce, dolce,
J\oma. It sounds to English ears between 3 and 9, but nearer 9.
5. Engl, short (o. ' Low back wide round '). Engl, odd, doll,
John, dog.
6. Engl, aw (A. 'Low back round'). Engl, awe^/, (3,11, ps.vfii;
Austrian a ; short in Engl. :\.\\g!ist.
7. Ital. open (o. ' Mid back wide round '). Cumberland home;
Ital. nomo ; French short o, e. g. homme ; Germ, short o, e. g. gold.
8. French au {0. ' Mid back round '). Engl. 6w;V, window, home
(but cf. § 21) ; Germ, long o, e.g. gj-oss.
9. Engl, short u {it. ' High back wide round '). Engl, /u//, i^oo/C',
wood.
10. Ital. U (u. ' High back round '). Engl, brxxte, rxile, do, mood ;
short in French ponle, coupe.
II. French eu (oe. 'Mid front wide round'). Fr. penr, jewic;
Germ, o, e.g. bocke, G'othe.
12. French u (y. 'High front wide round'). Devonshire combe,
you; French d\x, kutte; Germ, ti, e.g. lucke, Mnller.
i^. Engl, short a (as. ' Low front wide'). Engl, h^t, m^n; long in
(sometimes) /i3.lf, ask, and in Somersetshire B&th.
14. Ital. open e (E. 'Low front'). Scot, ell, pet; Ital. bello, letfo,
bene, Galileo; Genu, a, e.g. V&ter ; Fr. meme.
15. Engl, short e (e. 'Mid front wide'). Engl, ell, pet, men;
Scot, ill, pit; Germ, fett, eben ; Fr. elle, les.
16. Ital. close e {e. 'Mid front'). Engl, a in aerial; lia\. quello,
detta, remo ; Fr. i, e.g. it^.
17. Engl, short i (/. ' High front wide'). Y.w^. shin, fit, pity ; the
long sound is heard in singing and in Icelandic.
18. Ital. i (i. ' High front '). Y.w^. machine, feet ; Scot. /i/j'; the
ordinary Fr., Germ., and Ital. i.
lo Sounds. \Book I.
Of these 5 to i8 may be arranged tabularly from their common
base a to each of the extremes:
Labial. Labio-lingual. Lin<nial.
Wide Close Wide Wide "^ Close
_ 5 6 13 14
Engl, short Engl, aw Engl, short a Ital. open e
7 8 II 15 16
Ital. open French au French eu Engl, short e Ital. close e
9 10 12 17 18
Engl, short u Ital. u French u Engl, short i Ital. 1
A diphthong is the sound made by the voice while passing from 20
one vowel position to another. The precise sound varies according
to (i) the quality of the limiting vowels; (2) the distance between
them; (3) the evenness of the rate of speed. The most usually
recognized diphthongs are formed when the passage is from an
open to a close position, i.e. when the initial position is nearer to
a, and further from i or u than the final position is.
The following may here be noted, the limiting vowels being 21
denoted by their numbers in the list given above. (Ellis' symbol is
added in brackets. On diphthongs with Engl, r see Appendix h.~)
1 to 10 (au). Germ, /^aiu, /au/.
3 to 10 (au). Engl. «o\v, bongh, koMse, loud.
8 to 10 [oov). Southern Engl, long o, the second element being
faint, e.g. no, bone, hose.
13 to 10 (ffiu). Cockney /own.
15 to 10 (eu). American town; Ital. and Span. Enropa.
2 to r8 (ai). Engl, ay (yes), a broad sound of I, /sa.iah; Germ.
ha.in, A'aiset; th€\l; Ital. ai (with first element prolonged), dsxjio, l^xdo;
French ai (with second element prolonged ),_/aic'«f(?.
3 to 18 (ai). Engl, long i, e.g./i//^, ^ye, ^uy, d\t.
13 to iS (rci). Cockney and Scotch long i.
16 to 18 (ce\). Southern Engl, long a, the second element being
faint ; e. g. fade, fzxn, feint.
5 to 18 (oi). Engl, oi, e.g. boU, boy, oyster.
7 to 12 or 18 (oy or oi). Germ, eu, e.g. keyite, e^ck.
A diphthong sometimes gives way to an intermediate vowel, 22
which yet is often written as a diphthong. Comp. Germ, au, ai
with French au, ai. Again, au intermediate vowel is sometimes re-
solved into a diphthong; e.g. Cockney au for 6.
The sounds represented in English by w and y when initial 23
are usually called semivo-zvels. They easily arise when the voice
passes fi-om a closer to a more open vowel position; i.e. "w in pass-
ing from u or 0, y in passing from i or e, backwards towards a.
The consonantal character (compare Engl, we with Fr. oui) is pro-
duced by very slight pressure of the lips in the case of w, of the
tongue and palate in the case of y, followed by instant separation.
Chap. IV.] Laws of Phonetic Change. ii
CHAPTER IV.
LAWS OF PHONETIC CHANGE'.
i. Phonetic change in words is either 'voluntary^ e.g such as 24
is made for the purposes of inflexion, or involuntary. The latter
alone is the subject of the following statements.
ii. Involuntary- phonetic change is the result of a struggle be- 25
tween the physical tendency to reduce the effort of articulation, and
the intellectual or instinctive desire of preserving any parts of the
word which are characteristic of its meaning. The latter acts
mainly by way of resistance.
e.g. at) is much seldomer changed in composition than sub,
because of the danger of confusion with ad.
In the passive voice forms like amabaris, amaberis, amareris are
shortened into amabare, &c., but amaria is not shortened to amare
lest it should be confused with the present infinitive.
iii. The normal condition of these forces is one of apparent ^^
equilibrium, but really of slow conflict, which however is called
into greater and more perceptible activity, when a new sound or
syllable is added to the word, as is done by inflexion or derivation
or composition in order to adapt the word to a modification or
enlargement of the conception.
Sudden phonetic change.
iv. Such an addition may produce phonetic changes in two 27
ways: (i) by its adding to the length or weight of the word; and
(2) by its bringing into contact sounds, which do not then admit of
easy articulation in their integrity.
^ The illustrations throughout this Chapter are meant as illustra-
tions only, not as in any way exhausting the phenomena. Many of the
facts are stated more fully as regards Latin in the sixth and followmg
Chapters.
Sounds. \Book I.
V. So far as such an addition lengthens a word, there is a 23
tendency to counteract this in other ways, especially
1 . by omitting short unaccented vowels ; e. g. audacter for
audaciter ; jurgium for jiirigium ; disciplina for discipulixia, &c.
2. by omitting entire syllables; e.g. homicldium for horaini-
cidium ; veneflcium for venenificium ; viginti for dvi-decen-ti ; cor-
pulentus for corporulentus ; voluntas for voluntitas, &c.
Compound verbs rarely retain the reduplication in the perfect;
e.g: tango, tetigi, but contingo, contigi.
So in French semet ipsissimum becomes in old Provencal smet
essme; in Proven(;;al medesme ; in old French meisme ; in modem
French meme. Maleaptus becomes Prov. malapti • Ital. malato ;
French malade.
In English Cholmondeley is pronounced Chumley; Brighthelmstone,
Brig/jton ; Wymondham, Wyndbam ; To^wcester, To^vster ; Marjori-
batiks^ Marchbanks ; Cirencester, Clcester ; &c.
3. by slurring over the final syllable, which in Latin is always
unaccented ; e. g. amavere for amaverunt ; amatOr for amator, &:c.
Each of these changes may again bring incompatible sounds into
contact.
vi. The incompatibility of neighbouring sounds may be abso- 29
lute, or only relative to other combinations ready at hand to
replace them. That is, it may be impossible to pronounce two
neighbouring sounds, or. at least, it may be much easier to pro-
nounce other sounds nearly allied to the more difficult sounds.
Thus we have suggero as well as succurro, though subgero con-
tains no such incompatibility as subcurro does.
vii. Sounds are incompatible either from requiring very different 30
positions of the organs, or from being respectively voiced and voice-
less (flat and sharp).
viii. "When two incompatible sounds would othenvise come 31
together, usually the difficulty is foreseen, and instead of the organs
being left, after pronouncing the former, to do what they can with the
latter, the anticipation works a change in the former, or at least
acts so as to preserve the latter. (But the reverse is sometimes the
case'.)
^ When the former of the two consonants or vowels is changed to
.suit the latter, the assimilation is called regressive ; when the latter is
changed to suit the former, progressive.
Chap, /v.] Lmvs of Phonetic Change. 13
The former is either made compatible with the latter by par-
tial assimilation, or by complete assimilation, or the former is omit-
ted altogether, or other changes are made. And the change thus
produced may propagate effects still further back.
ix. The phenomena are naturally divided into four classes, 32
according to the nature of the sounds brought into contact :
I. Consonant 4- consonant ; 2. vowel + consonant ; 3. con-
sonant + vowel ; 4. vowel 4- vowel.
I. Consonant + Consonant: 33
{a) Partial assimilation.
Thus, voiced are changed to the corresponding voiceless conso-
nants ; e. g. sub-porto to supporto ; scrib-tus to scriptus ; ag-tus
to actus ; aug~si to auc-si (auxi), &c.
Again a nasal of one organ is changed to that of another ; e. g.
com-tero to contero; exim-de to exinde ; In-pero to impero, &c.
Analogous to this is the change of an explosive to a continuous
consonant as seen in Ig, rg, 11, rr, changing a following suffixed t
to s ; e. g. mulg- mulsum ; curro, cursum, &c.
(h) Complete assimilation is found, chiefly, either (a) when 34
both consonants belong to the same organ, or (/3) in the case of
prepositions in composition ; (y) rarely otherwise.
e. g. (a) cessi for ced-si ; fossus for fod-sus ; pos-sidere for
por-sidere ; summus for sut>-mus ; gemma for gen-ma ; sella for
sed-la; puella for puer-la; columella for columen-la ; &c.
(/3) ad in compounds ap-pello, accurro, aggero, afficio, attraho,
assideo, arrideo, allicio, &c.
Ob in oppono, occurro, ofiacio, oggannio, &c. ; sub in suppono,
summoveo, succurro, sufficio, suggero, &c.
ec- in eflfero, efifugio, &c. ; dis in diffugio, &c. ; com in corruo,
collido, &;c.
(y) press! for prem-si (pren-si) ; flamma for flag-ma, &c.
(f) Omission : the preceding vowel is often lengthened: 35
(a) Medial: before c; e. g. hoc for bodce.
Before nasals; e. g. examen for exag-men ; jftmentum for jug-
mfentum ; csementum for caed-mentum ; semestris for ses-iaestris ;
pono for posno ; lilna for luc-ua ; deni for dgc-ni ; satin' for satisne ;
&c.
14 Sounds. \Book I.
Before t ; e.g. nitor for gnictor (§ i lo) ; autunmus for auctumnus.
Before d ; e. g. jvldex for jusdex.
Before s ; e. g. sustollo for substollo ; ostento for obstento ; as-
porto for absporto.
Before 1 ; e. g. qualus for quas-lus.
Before j ; e. g. dijudico for disjudico ; rejectus for redjectus ;
pejero for perjero ; major for magjor.
Before v ; e. g. torgvis for bregvls (§ 129).
The middle of three consonants is frequently omitted ; e. g.
fulmen for flagmen: fultus for fxilctus; miil-si for mulgsi; pars
for parts. Comp. pergo for perrigo ; surpuit for surripuit, &c.
(/3) Initial: e. g. lamentum for clamentum ; lis for stlis ;
bonus for dvonus ; Janus for Djanus ; nitor for gnitor, (S:c.
(y) In fmal syllable; e.g. cor for cord; lac for lact; con-
sul for consuls ; eques for equets ; pes for peds, &c.
(d~) Dissimilation: e.g. in order to avoid the recurrence 36
of 1, the suffix alls is frequently changed after 1 to -aris; e.g. pueri-
lis, but puellaris, &c. Similarly Parilia from Pales.
(f) I nsertion ; e. g. sumptus for sum-tus ; Memps for liiems, 37
&c.
So also in early Latin ; e. g. Alcumena for ^KkKjxrjvr] ; Tecumessa
for TeKfxTjcra-a] .ffisculapius for 'Ao-kXtjttlos.
In Greek du8p6s for dutpos ; fxe(Trjij,[3pia from [leo'i] i^jiepa.
In French chambre from camera; tiendrait from tenir ; humble
from humilis ; notnbre from numerus.
In German ^Lvesentlicb^ namentl'ich for ivesenlich, Sec. ; Fandrich
for Fayirich ; aendlich (in rustic dialect) for ahnlicb ; in Dutch Hen-
drick from Henricuj, Sec.
(/) Transposition: 33
(a) of two consonants ; e. g. mixtus for misctus (as some think :
but cf. § 635). So in Greek ea-xaros for e^aros, superlative of i^;
English ivasp, dialectically ivafis.
((3) of liquid (r, 1) with succeeding vowel ; e. g. stra-, sterno ;
spre-, sperno ; ere-, cerno. So in Greek Kapdia for KpaSla ; dpaK-,
tepKco ; &c. dulcis compared with yXvKvs ; in English, purty for
pretty; burn for bren; firth znd frith; Althorp pronounced Altrup ;
&c.-, and all terminations in -bre, -ere, -gre, -tre; -ble, -cle, -gle,
-tie, pronounced ber, cer, ger, ter ; bul, cul, gul, tul.
Chap, /v.] Laws of Phonetic Change. 15
(^) The combinations dt, and (almost always) tt appear to have
been unbearable; hence they are usually changed to ss, apparently
by the latter letter being changed to s and then the fonner assimi-
lated to it; e.g. cessum, missum for ced-sum, mit-siun from ced-tum,
mit-tixm. (But mitto, quattuor, &c. are allowed.)
3. Vowel + Consonant. . 30
{a) The vowel 6 is substituted or retained before r (also br, tr)
in place of 1 ; e. g. pario, pep6ri, comp6rio compared with cado, cecidi,
concido; fero, ref6ro with 16go, colllgo; funus, fimSris with homo,
liominis; anser, ansgris with ales, alitis; regeris from regis; &c.
In fieri, flerem (for firi, flrem) e is inserted (or not absorbed)
before r. So in English >nire,fire pronounced mier,Jier.
(b) If a precedes two consonants, of which the first is 1, a is
changed into u instead of into e; e.g. salsus, insulsus, compared
with cantus, concentus; calco, conculco, with tracto, contrecto, &c.
11 prefers e; e.g. vello, vulsum; pello, pulsum ; &c.
Before a single 1, 6 is changed to ii (or retained) instead of bemg
changed to i (unless i follow; cf. § 41); e.g. popolus, populus; eVt-
cTToX?/, epistula; compared with homo, hominis; Xeyofiei', legimus, &c.
(c) & is found before two consonants, where i is found before
a single consonant; e.g. scando, conscendo compared with cano,
concino; nutrimentum compared with rxutriminis; biceps with
bicipitis ; &c.
(d) u was preferred to i before m (at least before Cesar's
time); e.g. maxumus, documentum, drachuma, &c.
3. Consonant + Vowel. 4°
(a) The vowel i when following c, g, t, d assibilated the pre-
ceding consonant in late Latin, and languages thence derived. Hence
we pronounce nation, nasbon; musician, musishon. The Italians
pronounce c as English cb, in Cicero; gi as English j, in collegiato,
religione, &c., and have Ivlarzo from Martius; palazzo from pala-
tium; mezzo for medius, &c.
The French have assibilated c before other vowels ; e. g. chambre
from camera; f/jif« from canis; c/^f-yw/ from caballus ; &c.
(Zi) The vowel 6 was retained (to avoid confusion) after the
consonantal v (§§ 93, 213) for a considerable time after it had given
place in other words to u ; e. g. equos, quom, servos, &c. were not
changed to equus, quum, servus, &c. till long after dominos (ncm.
sing.), (S:c. had given place to dominus, &c. In English rMant, was,
<war, Sec. the sound of a has been partially assimilated to w.
i6 Sounds. [£ook I.
4. Vowel + Vowel. 4,
{a) Though 1 has a liking for u (or earlier 0) before it, yet
if i follows, i also precedes: hence siraUis, facUis, compared with
simiUo, simiUtas, facultas; inquilinus from incola; iEmilius, familia,
exsilium, compared with aemillus, famulus, exul, &c.
. (J)) A similar assimilation is seen in bene for bone; soboles for
suboles; socordia for secordla; solvo for se-luo (Curtius).
In German this principle has a much wider application, under
the name of Umlaut, when a, 0, u of the stem are changed to a, 6, U
in consequence of an i or e in the termination, e.g. Glas, Glaser;
Schlojs. Scklosser; Kuh, Kuhe; Kunst, kunstlich; ^fiog.Jidge; &c.
X. The usual changes are sometimes foregone from dread of 42
some characteristic part of the word being obscured. Hence (i)
sometimes an unstable combination of sounds is preserved, espe-
cially where it is the result of previous changes: (2) sometimes
the incompatibility of sounds is removed by other methods than
those usual.
(i) Thus ars, puis, amans, frons are allowed to remain because
they are for arts, pults, amants, fronds or fronts; while pater,
consul have thrown away the s, and homo, sermo for homons,
sermons have thrown off ns. In fers (so also in vis for vils) the s
is preserved as the sign of the second person.
(2) In tonstrix for tondtrix the suffixed t is preserved, because
tonsrix would be contrary to Latin pronunciation; tonsor for
tondtor follows the ordinary rule by which dt becomes ss or s.
In pietas, societas, ebrietas, &c., the of pic-, socio-, ebrio-, is
changed to e instead of to i (as in bonitas, &c.), because piitas
would have become pitas, &c.
Gradual Phonetic Change.
xi. The more gradual phonetic changes, not caused by any 43
sudden derangement of the balance, take place mainly according to
the following laws or tendencies:
1. A position of the organs requiring greater exertion is changed
for one requiring less exertion.
2. The change is either between sounds of different characters
(sharp, flat, nasal, fricative) uttered at the same part of the mouth ;
or
3. A sound made in the more forward part of the mouth is
substituted for one which should have been made further back.
Chap, /v.] Latus of PJionetic Change. 1 7
xii. The result of these tendencies (when uninfluenced by the 44
neighbouring sounds) is that
{a) Explosive sounds change to fricative, not the reversed
c = k to c = s; e.g. centum ( = kentum), Fr. cent.
k to ch FV., (sh Engl.); e.g. caballus, Fr. cheval.
gtoy; e.g. Geist, Bcrl. Jeiit; Germ. Gestern, Engl.^^j/dT-dny.
t to s; e.g. Indo-Europ. Lat. tu, Doric tv, Attic av.
g to Fr. j; e.g. pagina, F v. page.
d to 1; e.g. 8dKpv, Lat. lacruma; 'o8va-a-evs, Ulixes,
d to th; e.g. ovS«V, modern Greek SeV, pronounced as English
then.
b to v; e.g. habere, Ital. avere. So Greek /3 = b has become
in modern Greek a labial fricative, between our v and w.
p to v; e.g. sapere, Fr. savoir; faba, Yv.feve.
So the three aspirates ;^, 6, (p, once pronounced k + h, t + h, p + h,
are in modern Greek fricative; viz. cb Germ., tb, f. And the
Latin b and f are representatives of earlier aspirates.
(b) Gutturals change to palatals and dentals, not the reverse. 45
Thusc^k changes to c = Eng. ch; e.g. Cicero (KiKepuj/) to Ital.
Cicero: caseus, GeiTn. Kase, Engl, cheese.
hard g to g = Engl, j ; e.g. gyrus, Ital. gire.
The labials conform apparently to no definite law,
(r) Of tlie liquids &c., r appears to be older than 1, Greek 46
and Latin often giving 1 where Sanscrit has r. In the Romance
languages they interchange both ways; e.g. peregrinus, Ital. felle-
grino; Tibur, Ital. Ti-voli; lusciniolus, Ital. rojsignuolo; apostolus,
Fr. ajiotre; Sec.
N also passes into either, and sometimes vice versa ; e.g. Bononia,
Ital. Bologna; venenum, Ital. veleno ; lamella, Vroveng^] name/a ;
bominem, Span, hombre; tympanum, Fr. timbre. In Greek, iXdiiv is
in Doric evdslv ; (jiiXraros^ cftivraros] &C.
m appears to be earlier than n; e.g. Sanscrit damam, (Lat. do-
mum), Gr. fio/Lioi/; rem, Fr. rien, -Sec.
s changes to later r in Latin ; and to the rough breathing in
Greek; e.g. arbosem, arborem; Sansc. saptan, Lat. septem, Gr.
(Trra, &C.
' See Curtius, Gr. Etym. p. 385, ed. 2.
^1
i8 Sounds. \Book I.
H in Latin becomes in French almost always inaudible: 1 is often
omitted or sounded as y; final s is not sounded; and the nasals
merely give a twang to the vowels.
(^) In the case of the vowels a appears to have been earlier 47
than o and e, and changes through them respectively to u and i.
Thus Sanscrit frequently has a, where Greek and Latin have the
more forward vowels. In Latin the order of priority is a, 0, u, e, i,
not the reverse. (See § 196.)
xiii. By a similar laxness of pronunciation parasitical sounds 48
often arise, the organs assuming a position for one sound in the
effort to reach or leave the position required for another sound.
Thus from Latin vastare comes Ital. guastare; from vadium,
guage; from vespa, Yvench guepe ; &c. The same was perhaps the
case with vivo compared with vic-si, as if from vigvo; (see §129 f).
So in English a parasitical d becomes attached to n in the vulgar
pronunciation oi go^n as gownd ; dro-Mned as dro-Tunded^.
Y is by some speakers inserted before i ( = ai) in guide pro-
nounced ^_>'/Vf; kind, kyind; sky, skyi; &c. : and before u, e.g. duty,
usually pronounced dyooty ; music, use, &c., always pronounced
mjoosic,yoos; &;c. But see App. A. xx, xxv.
After a broad a = ah or er, a slight raising of the tip of the tongue
suggests to some speakers a vibration, and an r is the result; e.g.
Emma Ann becoming Emma ran, Sec.
xiv. The difficulty of uttering a particular sound varies with 49
different individuals, sometimes from want of practice, sometimes
from organic defect; and where there is no absolute incapacity or
even difficulty, there is often a greater tendency for the organs to
assume one position, and consequently to pronounce one sound,
rather than another.
Thus in English we have persons pronouncing rake for /ake;
lake for rake (cf. Aristoph. Fesp. 45); thin for sin; dound for round;
ivun,giveen, for run, green; hat for at, and at for hat; ivine for vinf,
and fine for ivine ; &c. Foreigners often pronounce tree and dat
for three and that
XV. As with individuals, so with tribes and nations. Certain 50
sounds and certain classes of sounds are preferred or avoided, are
ft-equently or never pronounced. In this way the same word may,
when tribes separate from a common stock, assume gradually a
^ Prof. Key considers this tendency to have been widely operative in
language. £ssays, p. 204 foil.
Chap, /r] Laws of PJiondic Change. 19
somcsvliat dilTerent shape (even apart from inflexions) in one tribe
from what they bear in another, each tribe fixing differently an
ambiguous or intermediate sound, or developing it in a different
way. A few illustrations only can be given, (i) of the absence or
presence of certain sounds in nations^; (2) of the different shapes
the same root assumes in different languages.
r. {a) The dentals appear to be the easiest sounds, for they are 51
usually the first uttered by children and they are the most universal.
But it is said the voiced dental d does not occur in Chinese, or in
the Mexican and other American languages.
Q}) Several of the Polynesian languages have no gutturals; and
several of the North American have no labials. In the language of
the Sandwich Islands the gutturals and dentals are indistinguish-
able. " It takes months of patient labour to teach a Hawaian
youth the difference between k and t, g and d, 1 and r." Steel is
pronounced nearly as k'lla; Cook as tute; &c.
(f) Again the sharp and flat sounds are not distinguished in any
Polynesian dialect. So the Welsh often pronounce sharp for flat;
e.g. pet for 6eti: and the inhabitants of Saxony are said not to know
the distinction. Cf. App. A. vii.
(d) The Sanscrit has aspirated flat mutes (b + h, g + h, d + h);
the ancient Greek had aspirated sharp mutes p + h, k + h, t + h;
the Romans had neither.
(e) The labio-dentals denoted in English by F and V are absent
from Hottentot and Australian languages, and probably from an-
cient Greek. F is absent also from Finnish, Lithuanian, Tamil,
Burmese, &c.
(/) R is absent altogether from some American and Polynesian
dialects: L is absent from Zend, Japanese, and several American and
African tongues. The Chinese substitute 1 for r, saying, e.g. £u-
lopa for Europa, and (avoiding the pronunciation of two consonants
together), Ki-li-sse-tu for Christ.
{g) The Arabic and cognate languages have peculiar guttural
and gutturo-dental consonants. The Indian languages have a pecu-
liar palatal class. The Hottentots accompany the pronunciation
of other letters with peculiar clicks.
1. The variation of the same root in languages of the same 52
stock is best illustrated by the law which Grimm (following in
Rask's track) showed to prevail between the Sanscrit, Greek and
^ These statements are chiefly from Max Miiller, Lectures, Second
Series, p. 1C7, &c.
20
Sounds.
{Book /.
Latin together, compared with the Gothic and low German dialects,
on the one hand, and the old High German and its stock on the
other, the one having an aspirated mute or fricative, where the
second has a flat mute, and the third a sharp, and so on. Initial
mutes exhibit the law most clearly, being freest from the influence
of neighbouring consonants, and dentals most regularly. The Eng-
lish is here taken as the representative of Gothic, and the modern
German as representative of high German.
( Greek 6 ^i^ytl
■rrjp, eijp,
dvpa,
H(di>.
I Latin f
fera
, fores.
English d daughter, deer,
door,
mead.
German t, or til = t tochter, thier
; thor.
mcth.
f Greek S oSo^j,
Safinv,
8vo, eSeiv,
v8u)p.
\ Latin d dens,
domare,
duo, gdere,
unda.
English t tooth,
tame,
t-zvo, eat.
ivater.
German z or s %ahn,
zdhmen
ziL'ei, esseti,
luajser,
j Greek t Dor. tv Att. <tv
, rpeU,
To.
\ Latin t tu,
tres,
tenuis, is-tud
., frater.
English th thou.
three.
thin, that.
brother.
German d du.
drei,
dilnn, das,
bruder.
Similarly a Greek aspirate often con-esponds to a Latin s.
xvi. It results from the action of these laws, both those of 53
sudden and those of gradual change, that while the same word may
under different influences give rise to variously modified forms, the
same form may also eventually result from different original combi-
nations of sounds.
e. g. page in English is in its different senses derived respectively
from Greek TraiSiov and from Latin pagina.
From the three Latin words mare, major, mater come three
French words all pronounced alike; viz. /a mer, lemaire, la mere.
xvii. The introduction of foreign words into a language is H
subject to special phonetic conditions. One nation has rarely got
just the same set of sounds as another, or allows the same combina-
tions. Consequently in adopting a foreign word by the sound
an approximation more or less clumsy has to be made, and a greater
divergence is sometimes caused by the tendency to approximate to
a familiar indigenous word, especially if it seem to afford an intelli-
gible etymology.
e.g. the Romans had Hercules for 'HpaKA^?; and in early Latin
tocina for rixvr] ; Clutfimestra for VSKvTanxvrjaTpa.
CJinp. I'l^?[ Laivs of Phonetic C/iafige. 2T
The English pronunciation of such words as pure (j>yoor) is
said to be from an attempt to imitate the French u.
As errors caused by what has been called Popular Etymology-
may be quoted Jtrusakm artichoke for Girasol which comes from
gjTus and sol: ^Malnitt, which is from Angl. Sax. ivealh-knut^ i.e.
foreign or Italian nut.
xviii. Tlie use of letters reacts on the sounds. They rarely fit 55
each other precisely to start with; and the pronunciation has a
constant tendency to change, while the spelling remains. The
letters then become symbols of different sounds from those proper
to them, and sometimes are supposed to carry, and thence do carry
these new sounds into other words. In the case of foreign names
the want of correspondence in the alphabets is an additional cause
of error to that named in the preceding paragraph.
CHAPTER V.
LATIN ALPHABET IN GENERALi.
The alphabets of all Italian peoples were borrowed immediately 56
from that of the Dorian Greeks of Italy and Sicily. The Roman
or Latin alphabet was probably obtained from the trading colony of
Cumae. Its oldest form, as collected from coins and inscriptions,
dating between the end of the Samnite wars (272 B.C. = 482 v.c.').
and the end of the second Punic war (201 B.C. = 553 u.c), con-
tained the following twenty letters; A, B, C, D, E, F, H, I. K, L, M, N,
0, P, Q, R, S, T, V, X.
The Romans appear never to have used the three aspirates which
the Greek alphabet contained, e, *, M^ ( = X): and there is but
slight evidence of their having at first taken Z.
In the course of the century, 300 to 200 B.C., a modified form
of C, viz. G, was introduced, in order to distinguish the fiat fi-om
the sharp guttural ; and K was used only in very few words. Z, if
it ever had been in use, had passed out again. In Cicero's time or
somewhat earlier, the characters Z and Y were used in writing words
borrowed from the Greek.
The Romans devised a very simple nomenclature for the letters, 57
the vowels being denoted by their own sound, the explosive con-
sonants and li by a vowel after them, the fi-icative consonants by
^ See Corssen, Aiisspraclu, i. i foil. ed. 2.
22
Sounds. [Book I.
a vowel before them. The vowel used fcr this purpose was e,
excepting that the gutturals k and li were called ka, lia, q was called
qu, and x was called ix.
The consonants were not, so far as we know, written double 58
before Ennius (who is said to have introduced the practice), the
first inscription containing doubled letters being A.u.c. 56? : but
from that period the practice began, and, if we judge from inscrip-
tions, became predominant about the time of the Gracchi, and con-
stant twenty years later. Plautus could have used the doubled
letters only in his last years, if at all.
To denote the length of a vowel several methods were tried. 59
(i) They doubled the voweP. This method introduced into Latin
by the tragic poet Accius prevailed in inscriptions from about 1.50
to 75 B.C. It was also used by other Italian nations, but neither in
Oscan nor Latin was doubled. After Cicero and Coesars time
the douole i had a different meaning, the second i being a semi-
consonant; e.g. Pompeijus, &c.
(2) The length of an i was often denoted by writing the diphthong
ei, but also and most usually since Sulla's time by making the
i taller than the other letters. In imperial times this sign appears
to have sometimes stood between two vowels to denote the semi-
consonant I (i.e. J). In later times, e.g. even in Domitian's reign,
in some Spanish inscriptions the tall I is used indiscriminately for
long and for short vowels, and also for the semiconsonant.
(;,) Since about the time of Cicero's consulate, a long vowel
was frequently denoted by an accent, e.g. Julio: but this too came
gradually to be misapplied.
The Emperor Claudius attempted to introduce three new cha- 60
racters; viz. an inverted digamma (J) for v when used as a semi-
consonant : a reversed Greek sigma ( 3) for the combination bs or
ps: and the sign of the Greek spiritus asper (j-) for the middle
sound between i and u; that is, according to inscriptions in which
we find it used, merely to represent the Greek v (not for the doubt-
ful vowel in max.mus, Sec.'). The first and the last of these new
1 ' ^
signs are found in inscriptions of this reign ; the antisigma, as it
was called, is not found.
The following table contains the letters of the Latin alphabet C'
with their signs and probable pronunciation, as inferred chiefly from
the facts respecting the several letters given in the ensuing Chapters.
■> Probal)ly this is the meaning of the double U whicli occurs regii-
l.irlv in the gen. sing, and nom. and ace. plur. of u stems in MSS. of
Fliiiy, &c. ; e. g. v^tuus, specuus.
Chap. V:\
Latin Alphabet in General.
23
Old <;ic:ns
{other than in
c!r. Bo n.c.
(Ritschl.
Modern
Name.
T, Greek letier
for same
next col.)
tab, Lxix.)
signs.
ciatiun.
sound.
AAAAA
A
A a
a
ah
A
^g
B
Bb
be
b
B
<
C
C c
ce
k
K
>
D
Dd
de
d
A
£^E 11
E
Ee
e
)ItaI. open
Hfor^
(Eas Ital.
close e)
/^F 1'
F
Ff
ef
f (cf.§98)
C G
G
Gg
ge
g{slvi)
r •
H
Hh
ha
b{hat)
c
!
li
i
(ee(fiet)
I
Ijijes)
K
Kk
ka
k
K
V
L
LI
el
I
A
/W/A
M
M m
em
m
M
N
N
Nn
en
N
r
ooo
\ Ital. open
) 0?
7 foro
as Engl.
jiiiit)
r
P
Pp
pe
P
n
9
a
051
qu
k
K
k P
k
Rr
er
r (trilled)
p
SX
s
Ss
es
J (sharp)
2
-TT
T
Tt
te
t
T
Uu )
/Engl. 00:
OY:
X
V
X
Vv j
Xx
u
ix
) Entrl. Tt<
j (or Fr. ore
[ in out)
X
u Fr.
F7 later
OY
Y
Y y (Ypsllon)
Y
Z z (Zeta)
(cf. § 195)
Z
Modem. Pronunciation. Greek.
AI ai ay{=yes) earlier AI
AE ae (cf. § 258) later AI
EI ei Engl, (fate) EI
AU an Gevm.au {bans') AY
OU oil Engl. {note) OY
Modern. Pronunciation. Greek.
EU eu Ital. eu eY
01 oi nearly o/(i^o//) earlier 01
OE oe (cf. § 263) latero!
UI ui as Fr. OM/ (cf.§222)
24 Sounds. \Book I.
The Greek v was Fr. u. (It did not correspond to Latin u,
which Greek expressed by ou). The Greek co was probably the
sound of English aw. It must be remembered that the contraction
of 00 in Greek gives ov, not co ; of ee gives ft, not t). Moreover
the name of o wasoJ; of e was d. On the English 6 and a being
really diphthongs, see § 2*:.
CHAPTER VI.
LATIN ALPHABET IN DETAIL.
LABIALS AND LABIODENTALS^
Character: in the oldest inscriptions P (but not after cir. 620 c?
u.c), then P, last P.
Sound: always the sharp labial mute; English p. Never aspi- 63
rated, except in Greek words ; e. g. sphsera, pliilosophus.
Position: never final, except in volup (for volupe). It can 64
stand immediately in same syllable
1. before 1 or r; e.g. plaudo, prandeo, &c.
3. after s ; e. g. spatium, splendor, sprevi, &c.
Representation: (i) of Greek i. tt (ps for ^/,): e.g. -nv^viia- 65
TtKoy, pneumatlcus; IlroAe/xaZos-, PtolemaBus; -^dXXco, psallo; &c.
2. rarely /3; e.g. 0pian(3os, triumpus (later triumplius).
3. frequently 0; e.g. nopcjiipa, purpura; A[(f)i\os, na/n0tXoy,
^ikovfLKTis, Dipulus, Pampilus, PUdnices; ^npi/axn?, Pamaces; &c.
almost always in inscriptions before cir. 660 u.c. (see § 132).
^ In the following account of each letter, the term Representation
has been confined to the way in which one language transcribes the words
borrowed from another : Correspondence to tlie etymological correspon-
dence, i.e. the shape which the same stem, though forming perhaps a
verb in one and a noun in another language, assumes in sister languages.
The instances of correspondence are almost nil selected from Curtius,
Griech. Etym. 2nd ed. Influence is used for the way in which a letter
affects others, weakness for the way in whicli it is affected by others.
The sound is inferred from the facts here collected. Throughout, great
help has been obtained from Corssen's Aussprache, &c., and in some
parts from Luc. Miiller's De re f?ietrica.
Chap. VI.] Labials and Labiodentals. P. 25
(ii) in Greek by tt; e.g. Paplrius, Uandpiog (also IlaTri'pios);
capitolium, KaTrircoAio:/; Spurius, STTopioy; Appius, "Attttios ; &C.
Correspondence: i. to an original Indo-European p. 66
2. to Greek tt; e.g. rapio, ap7r-afco; septem, tTj-ra; pac-iscor,
pang-o, pig-nus, Tvrjy-wfxi, aor. e7ray-T]v; pater, 7rarf;p; imple-o, ple-
nus, Tri-fi-irXi^-nL, TrArJ^co; pannus, nrivos; pullus, TraiXoy; palma,
naXdfiT]-, ngpos, neptis, dve\ln()s, pisum, mo-or ; Pilleus, TrtXor; pluo,
TrXeoj, rfkvvu)] pfl-S, puteo, putris, nvov, nvdco; pulmo, irvev^av, liktv-
fXU>V\ &c.
3. to Greek 0; e.g. caput, capillus, Ke^aXrj] ops, a^evos.
4. to Greek /3 in pasco, (ioa-Ka.
5. rarely to Greek k. So probably lupus, 'Kvkos; spolium,
cr<v\ov\ ssepes, prsesepis, arjicos.
Possibly these Latin words may have been borrowed from the
Umbrian or Oscan, in which p often corresponds to an original k.
Substitution: p is often a substitute for b; e.g. sup-porto 67
for sub-porto; op-timus for ob-timus; scrip-si, scrip-tus from
scrib-o; op-sides (in early inscriptions) for ob-sides; &c.
Influence: i. before p the prepositions sub, ob, ad become 63
sup, op, ap in pronunciation, though not always in writing; e.g. sup-
porto, op-portunus, ap-pello; &c. Possibly this was the original
form of sub, ob (compare super, eVi).
2. requires a preceding nasal to be m, not n; e.g. impar,
com-porto; &:c. ru-m-po compared with fu-n-do.
Weakness: i. changed (cir. 650 u.c.) to b before 1 in the f^
word publicus, for poplicus, from populicus (old form pouplicos).
So Publius is JIottXios in Polybius and Dion. H.).
2. becomes m before a nasal suffix; e.g. som-nus compared
with s6p-or, s6p-io. And comp. trgpidus with trgmo.
Insertion: i. P is naturally pronounced in passing from 70
m to t or s or 1 ; e.g. sum-p-tus, sum-p-si ; em-p-tus, em-p-si ; tem-
p-to for the (etymologically better) form tea-to; biem-p-s for Mems;
exem-p-lum, from exim-ere; tem-p-lum, comp. reyavos. In amp-
sancti, am-p-lus, the p may be for b in amb-.
2. In late imperial language we have dam-p-num, calum-p-
niare, &c.
26 Sounds. \Book T.
B.
Character: similar to modern B. 71
Sound: the flat labial mute ; English b. 72
In later Latin inscriptions, not frequently before the 4th cen-
tury A.D., words were written with v for b, chiefly between vowels
(e.g. devitum, sivi, Lesvia, verva), and b for v (e.g. bolo, berba,
bixit; hence Danubius for the earlier and correct Danuvius), one
or both having then perhaps the sound of labial v. The confu-
sion is also found in the MS. of Gains, and in the Florentine MS.
of the Digest. Flabio. Jubentius are rare instances from the 2nd
century after Christ. Besbius (cf. § 90. 3) for Vesuvius in Pompeian
inscriptions.
Position: Final only in ab, sub, ob. 73
It can stand immediately in same syllable before 1 or r; e.g.
blan.dus, br6vis, brama, &;c.
Representation (i) in Greek by /3; e. g. Aboriginuir, 74
'A/Soptyii/coi/ ; Umbrici, 'O/ii/^piKot'; Bovillani, BoiAXai/ot'; &;c.
(ii) of Greek: i. ordinarily /3; ^da-ts, basis; Botwro/, Boeoti ; Sec.
2. For (f) and tt Ennius always used b, at least in the words
Burrus for Uvppos, and Bruges for ^pvyes (Cic. Or. 48, § 160).
Probably Ennius was following the etymological correspondence
(see next section).
Correspondence: i. to an original Indo-European b or bb, 75
or, in the middle of a word, to an original db.
2. to Greek ^; e.g. brevis, ^paxvs', bulbus, /3oA/3oj; balare,
^\T]XCiOiJ.ai.
3. to Greek tt; e.g. ab, otto; buxus, Tru^oy; carbasus, Kapwa-
cros'-i lambo, labium, XaTrrtu, \ac{)vcreru>.
4. medial b to Greek (p (frequently): e.g. amb-, dficfil; ambo,
afjLcjia); labor, dXcp-dvai; umbo, umbilicus, 6fj.(paXos-^ nub-es, j^/^-oj;
orb-us, 6p(f>-avus', sorb-eo, pocptw; glflbo, ■yXi^t^w; scribo, ypd(pu>.
So probably the derivative suffix -ber (comp. fero) to -(popo^ ((jjipu)) ;
e.g. salii-bsr, candela-brum.
5. medial b to Old Italian f; e.g. tribus, Umbr. trefu; sta-
bulum, Umbr. stafu; tibi, Umbr. tefe; sibi, Oscan sifei.
Substitution: i. It is in several words a substitute for an 76
earlier dv. Thus bis, bellum, Bellona, Bellius, bonus are for dvis,
dvellum, Dvellona (so in S. C. de Bacchan. 568 A.u.c), Dvellius,
dvonus (dvonoro i.e. bonorum in epitaph on Scipio, son of Barbatus,
Chap. V/.] Labials and Labiodental s. M. 27
cir. A.u.c. 500). C. Duellius the consul of 494 A.u.c. is said to have
been the first of the family called Belliiisi (Cic. Or. 45, § 153).
2. In a few words, it stands for medial v in order to avoid
the combination uu. Thus bubile, bubulcus from bovUe, bobulcus,
when was giving place to u (§ 213); deferbui from deferveo;
Jtlbeo from a root jou- (conip. oid pert. Jousi;, joveo (jubeo), jus,
juro being fiirly parallel to caveo, causa, ciiro. Cf. dubius, § 926.
I\FLUi:xcr. : It requires the preceding nasal to be m: e.g. com- 77
buro compared with conduco; im-buo with in-duo; im-berbis, com-
bibo, (Sec.
Weakness: i. Before a sharp (s or t),b is sometimes changed 78
top; e.g. scrip-si, scrip-tus froin scrib-o; op-sequi for ob-sequi; op-
tineofor ob-tineo, (Sec. In compounds with sub, ob, the inscriptions
before cir. 650 u.c. have p; later inscriptions and MSS. oscillate.
So occasionally urps, pleps for urbs, plebs. But in os-tentum, sus-
cipere, sustuli, asporto, &c. b in obs, subs, abs is omitted.
2. Before c, g, p, f, sub and ob are assimilated; e.g. suc-curro,
oc-cumbo, suggero, suppono, suffero, &c
3. Before f, ab takes the form au; e.g. aufugio, aufero (but
abs-tuli, ab-latum) ; or b is dropped; e.g. afui, afore. (On af see
§ 97 n-)
4. In omitto, operio, oportunus (if they are compounds) the b
is oinitted. [Some consider the dat. abl. in -is to have arisen from
an omission of b (or bh), filiis being for flliabus.]
5. b becomes m before a nasal suffix; e.g. sum-mus for sub-
mus (for sup-imus) ; scam-num compared with scab-ellum ; sam-
nium (?) lavviTi^ Polyb.) with Sabini. So perhaps glomus is for
gl6):-mus.
M.
Character: In a few of the oldest inscriptions before 500U.C. 79
the modern shape with the middle strokes not reaching to the
bottom is found, but not afterwards. The usual form has the four
strokes of equal length and all inclined, not vertical. Verrius
Flaccus (in Augustus' time) wished to use only half the ordinary
letter as its sign at the end of words before an initial vowel, on
account of its faint sound.
Sound: the labial nasal ; English m. 80
At the end of words it appears to have been scarcely audible.
Position': very frequently final: viz. i. in accusative and 81
neuter nominative singular, and in genitive plural of nouns: 2. in
^ In Polybius, T. 1^, 23, we read B/Xios ; (but the MSS. have Ai^ics
or 'AriXtos Al^ios). Diodonis (XI. 6S) has AoviWios.
28 Sounds. \BoGk I.
ist person singular of verbs ; 3. in some adverbs ; e.g. turn, quani,
nam, clam, autem, enim, partim, &c.
Never before or after another consonant as the commencement
of a syllable.
Representation: (i) in Greek by ;xj e.g. Marciusby Map/ctor, 82
Viminalis by Oui/xtraXioj; &:c.
(ii) of Greek yn; e.g. MapaBav, Marathon; ivpay^jiaTLKos, pras-
maticus; Sec.
Correspondence: i. to Indo-European m. s-
2. to Greek p-^ e.g. simul, similis, ap.a, 6p.o1os, opoKos^
v6mo, e/i eco {FefJ.)', mol-lis, jaaXaxos; me, fxe, ep.€] magnus, magis,
ixtyai, piyia-Tos] mel, ;xe'/\t, mor-ior, mor-tuus, mar-ceo, fiap-alvu>,
(dpoTos (for fxpoTos) ; minuo, piuvOco ; um-erus, wpos; Sec.
3. but in inflexions final m corresponds to Greek v] so in the
ace. sing, and gen. pi. of nouns and in the ist pers. sing, of verbs:
e.g. navem, vaiiv] musariun, pova-mu:, sim, siem, e'lrji/ ; feretam, i'cfjfpov.
Substitution: i. for p orb before a nasal suflix; e.g. som- S4
nus, comp. s6p-or, s6p-io; scam-num compared with sca'o-ellum;
Sam-nium with Sab-ini; sum-mus with sub or sup-er.
2. for n before a labial; e.g. im-pello for in-pello; &c. Compare
ru-m-po with fu-n-do.
Influence: i. often occasions the assimilation or omission 85
of a preceding consonant, especially if three consonants would
otherwise be together: e.g. flam-ma (flag-); exa-men for exag-men;
ju-mentum (jug-); tor-mentum (torquere); lu-men (luc-ere); ful-
men (fulg-ere); cae-mentum (cssd-ere); ra-mentum (rad-ere) ; sum-
movere, sum-mus (sub); conta-minare (contag-); se-mestris (sex).
But seg-men from sec-are; ag-men from ag-6re; &c.
So n becomes m; e.g. im-motus for in-motus; imus, immo for
Inimus, inimo (superlative from preposition in).
2. prefers a short u (instead of 6 or i) before it; e.g. doc-u-
mentum (doc-e-); monumentum (mon-e-). So till Cesar's time
decumus, facillumus, durissumus, marltumus, &c. Similarly sestumo,
lacruma, and in Greek words the short inserted vowel is u; e.g.
Alcumena, dracbuma, Tecumessa (compared with tecina, Sec).
Weakness: i. Final m having a faint sound fell away; in 1st 86
pers. sing, of present, and perfect indie, and future in -bo of all
verbs; e.g. amo, amavi, amabo; the words sum and inquam alone
Chap. J v.] Labials and Labiodentals. V. 29
ntaiiiing it. Cato is said to have written recipie, dice, &c. for reci-
piam, dicam (recipiem, dicem?). Cf. Qumtil. i. 7, § 23 ; ix. 4. § 40.
2. In nouns early inscriptions frequently omit final m. but not
regularly. Thus in the oldest Scipionic inscription Luciom is found
by side of Corsica, oino (for unum), Scipione, optumo (all accusatives),
duonoro (for bonorum). The omission is rare in the legal inscrip-
tions, and in others also after 620 u.c, but is found in the vulgar
vv-all inscriptions at Pompeii; and towards the end of the third cen-
tury after Christ becomes frequent again (even in words which are
not nouns; e.g. mecu, dece, oli for mecum, decern, olim).
Noji is for noenum (ne-oinom, i. e. ne-uniun).
J,. Before a vowel, a final syllable in m was disregarded in verse :
and com in composition dropped its m; e.g. co-ire, coMbeo, coheres,
coopto ; c5go (com-ago), coperio (com-operio), como (com-emo).
But m is retained in comes, com-itium, comitor ; com-edo.
So circu-itus ; but circum-ago.
4. Betore most consonants except the labials p, b, m, m becomes
n; e.g. an-ceps, prin-ceps, nunc (num-ce), tantundem (tantum),
ean-dem, eorun-dem, con-sul, con-fero, con-jux, con-venio, septen-
trio, aliquan-diu, &c. So quoniam for quom jam.
In a few compounds of com m is omitted; e.g. co-gnosco, co-
gnatus, co-necto, conitor, coniveo, conubium. So in old time cosol
for consul and this form was retained in the abbreviation cos; also
in inscriptions cosentiont, &c. Cf. §§ 168, 167, 2.
5. m before r became b; e.g. Mbernus is for Memrinus (cf.
XeifxfpLvus). So in Greek fiporos from root fiop-, morior.
V as Consonant.
Character: always v, whether as vowel or consonant. 87
(Throughout this article v is used for the consonantal sound, u for
the vowel.)
Sound: as the English -w, or perhaps, at least originally, the 88
more vocal Fr. ou in oui.
Position: always before a vowel. Not after any consonant, 89
except q, g, s, 1, r; e.g. qvis, pingvis, svavls, salvus, servus.
Representation: (i) in Greeki, i. usually by ov (which 9°
was also the usual representation of v as vowel) ; e. g. Servlus, 2ep-
^ The Oscan v was represented in Greek by the digamma ; e.g.
Joveis, Aiovfei- ; Clovatius, /cXof arcot ; tovtiks, toFto. (^uintilian says
/Eolicffi litters?, qua 'servum,' ' cervum'que dicimus, etiam si forma a
nobis repudiata est, vis tamen nos ipsa persequitur (xii. 10. 29).
30 Sounds. [Book I.
oiitoy; Venusia, Ovtvovcria (Polyb.) ; Veil, Ovrjior., Volsci, OmiKaKoi
(Strab.), Ovu\oi(T<oi, (Dion. H.. Pint.), OvoXoo-Kot (Pint.); Qvinti-
lius Varus, KovivtIXlos Ovapos (Joseph.); Juvenalia, 'lououexiXtn;
Qvadratus, KovtiS/mros- (Dio Cass., Ep'tt.); .Equum Faliscum, At-
Kovovfj.(P('iknrKov:, Svessiila, '2ov(crcrov\a (Strab.); Sic.
2. after q. before!, also by u or o; e.g. Qvlntus, Koivros (Polyb.,
Diod., Dion. H.), Kmuros (Dio Cass.); Qvintilius, KoivriXios
{Mon. J/icyr.), KvlvtiXios (Dio C); Nonis Qvintilibus, KvivnX/at?
Nowatf (Pint.); Aqvinum, \\kvlpoi^ (Strab., Plut.); &c.
But qyl-Ku, e.g. Aqvillms, 'AkuWio?; Qvlrinus. Ku.ni/of; Qui-
rites, Kn/jtrai (but Kviplrai, DioJ ; AqvUeia, 'akvAtji'u; Tarqvinius,
TapKin/ioS'
3. by /3 rarely, except in Plutarch, who has for Flavius
^XafSios (also <i>\aovcos); Livius, Ai/:iios- (also Polyb.); Varro, luip-
pu)v\ Fulvius, $ouA^ioy; ServUia, 'S.fpiiikia. (Servilius, SepoviAAioy) ;
Voconius, BoKco'i^ios; &c. So Piilvillus, noX/^tXAos-; Flavus, Flavius,
*Aa/3os, <I>Aa,yios-, also $Xaoutos (Dion. H.); Vesuvius, Bt'cr/cJtoj
(Dio C. App.), but Oveaovovioi (Diod.); Beneven'.um, Beveiievrov
(Appian), but Bei/eouet/roi/ (Appian, Strabo), Bsneventana, Oveuoav-
ravT] (Polyb.). Nerva and Severus in contemporary inscriptions are
Nepova, Nep/ria; 'S.eovripos, 2i(3fjpos. In and after the sixth century
after Christ (3 appears frequently for v. Compare § 72.
(ii) of Greek. V as consonant is never found in transfemng
a Greek name into Latin, the digamma, which alone had the same
sound, not being in use in the time of the Roman writers.
Correspondence: i. to original Indo-European V: sometimes 91
(e.g. in first four instances given infi-. 3) to G (where Greek has /j).
2. to Greek f , which often fell away without altering the word,
sometimes was replaced by o or v; e.g. ssvuin, alFes, dd; ovis,
oft?; avis, otcowy (oftcoi/os); ovum, a>F6v\ silva, vXrj (for vAfa);
svavis (for svad-vis), svadus, r/dvs (for crFrjSvi); vallus, f^Ao$; vel-
lus, villus, Ftpiov, flpos] vfeliere, Foxos; venum, v5n-eo, Ji/oj; ver,
Feap, r/p; verbum, Fepfco, prjpa:, vesper, Fta-rrepos:, vestis, Fiv-wpi,
f'a-d^s; vetus. Ferns {a year)] videre, fiSeii^, (Lac. I:ii8eiv) otSa;
viginti, FfUofTi. Bccot. FiKari, (Lacon. jBeUaTi); viola. Flop; vitu-
lus, firaAos; vitex, vi-men, FiTta; vomere, Fefi-eli'; volvo, FiXvco,
eiXvco.
vah, vse, 6a, ovai; vinum, olvos' vicus, oIkos. The noise of
frogs is represented by Koa$, which Ovid imitates by ' sub aqua
sub aqua maledicere temptant.' (Met. vi. 376.)
Arvum, dpuco, ajovpa] nervus, vevpov] vereor, ovpos, a ivatc^er
(Fop).
3. to Greek /3; e.g. v6n-io (beto, perbito, Osc.benust = venerit),
Satfco; vivo fdios, IBi6a>\ voro, (:ii[dpa.aK(i}, fiopl\ ervum, opo/iios;
severus, aijias, aejiofiaL ; v61o, /SouAopai
Chap, r/.] Labials and Labiodentals. V. 31
Substitution : In verse the vowel u is sometimes hardened into 92
the consonant V. Thus in Plautus, tvos, svos, tvi, svi; &c., fvit,
pver, pvella, dvorvun, (comp. above § 76 dvonoro, dvello); in dactylic
poets, svo (Lucr. twice); genva (Verg., Stat.); pitvita (Hon),
patrvi (Stat.), sinvatis, sinvatur (Sil.). Also larva, larvatis (Hon),
lor larui, laruatis (Plant.); milvus and reliqms after the 8th cent,
u.c. for the earlier milMs, relicuus. In tenvis, tenvia, tenvior, the
consonantal v seems to be the regular pronunciation : Statiuss use
is peculiar. See § 142.
Influence: i. The vowel 6 when following v (consonant 93
or vowel) was retained till the Augustan age and later, though after
other letters it had usually changed to u; e.g. servos, nom. sing.,
seqvom, &:c. Vorto and derivatives are said by Quintilian (i.7.25),
to have been changed to verto, &c. by Scipio Africanus (i.e.
minor), but the forms with e are not usually found in republican in-
scriptions.
2. medial V causes omission of preceding consonant; e.g. se-
voco for sed-voco ; seviri for sexviri ; pavi from pasco (for pas-sco).
3. The consonantal character of v is shown by its use in metre
(«) in not causing elision, e. g. dicerS verba :
(})) in lengthening with another consonant a preceding short
vowel. Comp. volvo, vdlutus. But it has not this effect when fol-
lowing q; e.g. aqva.
Weakness: i. v between two vowels usually fell away, or 9.1
resumed its vowel power and formed a diphthong or long vowel
with the preceding vowel: the succeeding vowel was absorbed in
either case.
{a) in perfect suffix; e.g. amaram for amavSram; fleram for
fleveram ; noram for n6v6ram ; plui for piiivi ; audieram for audiv6-
ram; amasse, for amavisse; petiit, petit for p6tivit; fovi for fov-vi ; &c.
(b) nauta for navita; auceps for avlceps; cautor for cavitor;
cauneas for cave ne eas (Cic. Div. 11. 40); Gnseus for Cnaivos;
prssdes for praevides ; setas for sevitas ; prseco for prjevico (voc-are),
horsuin for ho-vorsum; homus for lio-ver-nus ; cunctus for co(ni)-
vinctus; prudens for providens; Juppiter for Jovipater; jtlcundus
for jovicimdus ; junior for juvenior; tipilio for ovipUio (cf /Soutto-
Xos); nuper for novumper; oblitus for oblivitus; rursum for re-
versum; briima for brgvima; nolo for n6v61o; neu, seu for neve,
sive (neve, seve old).
So in Plautus, Jovem, 6vis, b6ves, br6vi, and (after Greek model)
navem are monosyllables, and avonculus, oblivisci trisyllables.
2. V, after any other consonant than q, g, s, 1^ or r, was vocalised;
e.g. vacuus for (old form) voclvos. (Plautus wrote always vacivos
or vocivos.) Compare conspicuus, arduus, annuus, noctua, with
longinqvus, curvus, fulvus. (But also suus, irriguus, patruus.")
32 Sounds. [Book L
Poets, rarely after Augustan age, sometimes vocalised a (usually)
consonantal v. Thus suadeo, suSsco (Lucr.); suerunt (Cic.)-
EUfctus (Lucr.. Hon); consecue(Lucr.), adsecue,ol3secuum (Plant.) •
acilai, acuae (for aqvas) Lucr. So also soluo, dissOluo, &:c. (Lucr.'
Cat., and elegiac poets); vdluo (elegiac); sUuse (Hon).
decuria, centuria, cQria are by some supposed to be for dec-
vir-ia, cent-vir-ia, co-vir-ia.
3. V fell out in some few words; e.g. savium for svavium;
tibi, te for tvitoi, tve ; ungo, tingo, iirgeo for ungvo, tingvo, urgveo.
(In slave names, e.g. Publipor, Marcipor, por is for puer, probably
the e being extruded).
So also qum, qur is sometimes written for quom, qucr, or
cum, cur.
4. Apparently an initial v has fallen off in some words begin-
ning with r and 1; e.g. rdsa, p6^ov, Ko\. jBpiSov; rigare, IBpexfi"'-,
radix, pt^-a, Lesb. (BpiaSa; lacer. paKos, Mo]. jSpdKos; lupus, Germ.
ivo/f; laqueus, jSpoxos, r6ta for vrota (from vortere). (Compare
cur pronunciation of wreci, 'lureai, ivrong, 'wrought, &c.)
5. V after d hardened to b, and then d fell off; e.g. dueUum,
bellum, &c. (see § 76).
In a few words medial v changed to b; e.g. deferbui, bubUe;
see § 76. 2, and compare the examples in § 90. 3.
6. On the confusion in late Latin of v and b see § 72.
F.
Character: before 500 u. c. sometimes |*, which is also
found in (later) cursive writing; e.g. the wall inscriptions at Pompeii.
(See also E, § 226.) The sign F is the Ro\\q. digamma, which the
Latins adopted instead of 8, which form was used by the Etruscans,
Umbrians, and Oscans.
Sound: a sharp labio-dental fricative formed between the upper 96
teeth and under lip: English F. The dental element appears to
have been predominant.
Position: never final except in the old rarely used form of ab, 97
viz. af 1. Can stand in the commencement of a syllable before I or
r; e.g. fluo, frango; but not after a consonant.
Representation: i. in Greek by 0; e.g. Fabius, $a/3ioj; 98
^ This word, apparently an Italic form of the preposition ab, is
found only before consonants, chiefly in Republican inscriptions; e.g.
af Capua, af vobels, af solo. Corssen holds af, ab and au (see § 78. 3)
to be all three of distinct origin {Aussjir. i. 152 — 157, ed. 2),
95
Chap. /'/.] Labials and Lahiodcutals. F. 33
Fortuna, #oproi"i'a; Furius, <^ol'/)to?; Fidense, *iSj;i/;; ; prsefectorum,
Trp(nrl)(KTo)v (Polyb.) &:c. Quintilian (l. 4, 14) says the Greeks used to
l^ronounce the Latin f with an aspiration, and instances Cicero's
ridiculing a witness for not being able to pronounce the first letter of
Fundanius.
2. of Greek (p, not until 4th centuiy after Christ. So in the
MS. of Gaius, elefantis, chirografis, Sec.
Correspondence: i. to an original Indo-European bh and dh. 99
2. to Greek initial cp (which was tt followed by an aspirate,
not English ph or f ) ; e.g. fa-ri, fa-ma, (fn'a'ni, 4>W^'i ^^^' ^^P'l
fero, (/)epa) ; fluo, (pXva) {bubble) ; frater, (ppar-qp {clansman) ; fu-i,
0i'co; folium, (^uXXov; farcio, ^pacro-co ; fuga, (jSuyr;; frigo, <^puyto ;
fagus {bi'ecb), (prjyos {pak)\ fallo, cF(paXkai] fungus, o-^o-yyos; funda,
3. to Greek ;8(rare); e.g. frSmo, ^pffj-co; fascino, paa-Kaiva;
fod-io, f-iod-pos.
4. to Greek x (which was k followed by an aspir.ate ) ; e.g. frio,
Xpt'ftr; fel, xoXj/'; fa-mes, fa-tisco, x7T0f, xht'C'^ ; frenum, xaXij^os;
f finis, (TXOivos.
5. to Greek digamma, later an aspirate; e.g. frango, Fpi^yvvpi,
priyvvp.1. ; frigeo, frigus, p'iyeo), p'lyos.
6. to Greek initial 6 (which was r followed by an aspirate, not
English tb); e.g. fe-mina, (J/'j-Xu?; -fen-do, (5f I'l'co ; fSra, 6>]p, Aoi.
</)r;/j; foris, 6vpa; fil-mus, sub-fi-o, 6vp6i, 6va>, SvfWa; fingo,
fig-ura, diyyai/co, diyp-a. Also to medial d in riifus, epvd-pos-
Substitution: i. for d in preposition ad; e.g. before af- 100
fero, af-fatim, &c.
a. In ef-f6ro, ef-fatus for older ecfero, ecfatus, the first f may
perhaps be only a mark of a long syllable for efero, efatus.
Ixfluence: i. requires a preceding nasal to be n; e.g. in- ici
fero, con-fero, Osic.
3. nf lengthens a preceding vowel; See under N (§ 167. 2).
Weakness : Parts of the stem fu- are supposed to have been ,^^
modified and used as a verbal suflix, viz. ania-vi to stand for ama-
fui; ama-bam for ama-fuam, ama-bo for ama-fuio. But if these
verbal inflexions really came from that verb-stem, it was probably
fi-om an earlier form in which the initial was bli, not f.
34 SouNlDS. [Book I.
CHAPTER VII.
GUTTURALS AND PALATALS.
K, C.
Character : as above, except that c was in early inscriptions 103
sometimes angular ^.
k went out of use at an early period, probably before the
decemviral laws, almost entirely, except in a few old abbreviations ;
e. g. in republican inscriptions, K. for Kseso ; k. k. for kalumniae
causa ; XVIR. SL. IVDIK. for Decemvir stlititous (litibus) judicandis ;
K. or KAL. for Calendse ; INTERKAL. for intercalares ; MERK. for
Mercatus ; and in later times K for caput, cardo, castra, carus, and
KAR. for Carthago. In early inscriptions the words Kastorus (Cas-
toris), Korano (Coranorum ?) ; Ksel. for Cselius ; Dekem. for Decem-
bres also occur. There was a tendency with some grammarians in
Quintilian's time (i. 7, 10) to use k always before a.
Sound : K always as the sharp guttural mute : i. e. English k. 104
C was used indiscriminately for both the sharp and flat guttural
mute, till the beginning of the sixth century u.c, when a modified
form (G) was introduced for the flat souml. A few instances, pro-
bably accidental, are found in later inscriptions. For Gaius and
Gnasus the abbreviations always followed the old form, viz. C. Cn.
C had not the sound of s (as in English). Nor does ci before a
vowel appear to have been pronounced as sh, except provincially,
before the 6th or 7th century after Christ (see § no. 4)-
Position: never final, except in a few words from which a 105
short 6 has fallen off: die, due, fae, ac, sic, Mc, illic, &c. for dice,
duce, &c. Also usually lac for lacte (nom. sing.).
It can stand in the commencement of a syllable (i) before 1, r ;
e.g. clamo, crimen, &c. : (2) afters; e.g. scindo, scribe, &c.
Representation : (i) in Greek by k always ; e. g. Campani, 106
KafiTvavoL ; Lucius Caecilius, AevKios KaiKikios; centurio, KevTvpiodv;
Ciu-ius, Koptos ; Cornelius, KopvifKios (all in Polybius) : pontifices,
TTovTicfiiKes ; Numicius, No/iiKioy ; Cicero, KiKepcov ; Compitalia, Ko^i-
TTiTaXia] &c.
Chap. V/I.] Gutturals and Palatals. K. C. 35
(ii) of Greek i. k; e.g. Xvy/coj, lyncis ; KiAi|, Cilix; Ku-
kKu)-^, Cyclops ; UfpSiKKus, Perdiccas ; Kt'/xcor, Cimon ; KaS/xor, Cad-
mus; (Sec.
2. also in eai'ly times ;( ; e. g. Bacas, (i. e. Baccas) for BnK;^;!^
in the (so-called) S. C. de Bacanalibiu, A. U.C 568; and in later
inscriptions Cilo for Xt'Awi/; Antiocus for 'Ai/rio^os; &c. But the
h was usually written in Cicero's time {Or. 48. § 160).
Correspondence : i. to an original Indo-European k. 107
2. to Greek AC ; e.g. arx, arceo, apKios, apKem; decern, fieV-o ;
dico, maledic-us, deiKwixi, Sikt; ; dScet, doK(l ; centum, eKarov (i. e.
fu-KOT-ov one hund-red)'^ sScer, e/cupoj; cadus, Kabo^'.! calare, ca-
lendse.nomenclator.KaXeri/jKXrj'-rwp; cerebrum, Kapa:, caput, Kecjj-a'Xj] ;
cluo, cli-ens, inclutus, kAuco, k\vt6s; canis (for cvanis), kvcou]
spgcio, (TKOTTelv:, cucaius, KOKKv^, cuckoo; scipio, aKrJTr-TpoVi &c.
3. to Greek -nr (cf. § 118); e.g. voc-are, vox, i'n-os dnov, o\j/
(stem FfTT-)] 6c-ulus, on-co.s-a, co\|/'; sucus, sapio, ottos; j§cur, ^nap.
Substitution: i. for g before a sharp ; e. g. actus from ag-o; 108
punctus from pungo ; rexi = rec-si from reg-o ; &c.
2. for h before t; e.g. trac-tus from trah-o; vec-tus from
V6I1-0.
3. frequently written for final consonant of ob, sub, ad, id, in
composition before c or q; e.g. oc-curro, suc-curro, ac-curro, ic-
circo, quicquid, acquiro. So also ecce, ecquis for en-ce, enquis.
4. cu for quo; e.g. cum, cuius, cui, cur, &c. for quom,
quoius, quoi, quor, &c. ; cotidie for quotidie; quicumque for qui-
quomque ; alicubi for aliqu6bi ; 6cus, c6cus, hircus, ajcus, anticus,
oblicus, for equos, coquos, hirquos, sequos, antiques, obliquos (all in
nom. sing.) ; secuntur, locuntur for sequontur, loquontur. Both
forms were in use from the later part of the republic, till after the
middle of the first century after Christ, when quo- began to give
place to quu, the forms with c however remaining also, and being
often found in our earliest MSS. Quum appears to be not earlier
than the fourth century after Christ; and to have been sounded
as cum.
Influence: i. changes a preceding flat consonant in prepo- joc;
sitions and pronouns to c ; e. g. ac-curo, ic-circo, Sec. § 108).
2. occasions omission of preceding dental ; e. g. ac for ate,
atque ; boc for hodce.
3. changes preceding m to n (sounded here as the guttural
nasal § 162): e.g. hunc, nunc, tunc, for hum-ce, num-ce, tum-ce ;
anceps for am-ceps; prin-ceps for primi-ceps; sinciput for semi-
caput; &c.
2,6 Sounds. [Book I.
o
Weakness: i. c is omitted before m, n, t, the preceding
vowel being lengthened to compensate ; e. g. lu-na, lu-men, com-
pared with luc-eo ; de-ni (for d^cini) from dec-em ; quini (for
quincini) from quinque ; lana, lanugo compared with Aa;^-!'?;; ara-
nea with apa^vr] ; limus, shinty with licinus, crumpled, obliq-uus,
\iXP'-^i ^i-K-f)Lcf)is- ■-, pi-nus for pic-nus (pic-, nom. pix), va-nus
compared with vac-uus ; au-tumnus from aug-eo ; dumeta for
dumec-ta ; setius for ssctius ; nitor for gnic-tor, comp. nlxus,
geniculum.
2. c is often omitted when preceded by 1, r, n, and fjlloAved
by a consonant ; e. g. ar-tus for arc-tus ; far-tus for farc-tus ;
ful-tus for fulc-tus; ul-tus for ulc-tus; quin-tus (usually) for
quinc-tus; nac-tus as well as nanc-tus; nasturtium for nas-torc-
tium; fulmentum from fulc-ire; mul-si, mulsum from mulc-ere, &c.
3. Initial c is sometimes omitted before 1, r, n; e. g. lamentum
compared with clamare ; lasna with x^alva ; alapa with Ku\a(f)os
(a Syracusan word ?) ; raudus, rildus with crfidus ; nidor with Kvla-a.
4. cl (before a vowel) is often confused with ti in the
spelling of derivative suffixes, partly from doubts as to the etymology
of a word, partly fromthepalatilisation of both ci and ti ( = sli) in
times when the MSS. were written, ci for ti does not appear, till
an African inscription in 3rd century after Christ ; and not numer-
ously before Gallic inscriptions and documents of the 7th century
after Christ, ti for ci is not certainly found before end of 4th
century after Christ. In certain proper names (e. g. Marcius,
Martins) both forms appear to have existed as separate names with
different origin, and then to have been confused.
The following appears according to inscriptions to be the coiTect
spelling of certain disputed words : dicio, condicio, solacium, patri-
cius, tribunicius;
contio, nuntius (and derivatives), fetialis, indutise, otium, nego-
tium, setius.
Both suspicio and suspitio. convlcium and convitium are found
in good MSS. ; neither in inscriptions.
This character is a mere abbreviation for cs. It is first found in
a single saxto, referred to times before the second Punic war, and
afterwards not until S.C. de Bacc. 186 B.C. (The inscriptions
before this date are but few.)
In inscriptions at all times (perhaps from regarding x as a mere
guttural like Greek x) xs is often found instead of x; e.g. exstrad,
Chap. FJ/.] Gutturals and Palatals, x. Q.
(in 5. C. de Bacc), taxsat, lexs, proxsumus, exsigito, deixserit, by
side of exigatiir, exterarum, taxet, &c. in laws of Gracchus' time.
So in Greek ^eia-ros and 2e^Tos. In the Augustan age and sub-
sequently, the simple x is the more frequent.
Influence : Words beginning with s, if compounded with ex, 112
usually dropped the s, but the retention is not unfrequent ; e. g.
exilium, also exsiliiun; expecto, also exspecto; Sec.
Weakness: Before semivowels, liquids, nasals, and flat mutes, 113
sex and ex in composition usually dropped x; e.g. seviri, sejugis,
semestris, sedecim, seni, educo, escendo (but exsto or exto);
evado, ejuro, emergo, elicio, enormis. So also e for ex out of com-
position, after (rarely in inscriptions before) Augustan age.
Before c, sex became ses ; e. g. sescenti.
Before f, ex sometimes became (or reverted to) ec ; e. g. ecfari,
ecficio.
Before 1 and m a medial x was sometimes omitted ; e. g. tela for
texula ; subtemen for subteximen ; subtilis for subtexilis ; mala
for maxxila ; pa'olus for pauxillus ; ala for axula; <S:c.
Q.
Character: In one or two very old inscriptions Q is like ,14
the Greek Koppa with a short vertical stroke: its normal form in
the best period was with a horizontal- stroke to the right.
Sound: the same as k, the sharp guttural mute. It is always „5
followed by the consonantal u, except in some old inscriptions
where it is immediately followed by the vowel u (§ 119). Qu was
probably sounded as it is in English, i.e. as kw, and was regarded in
prosody as a single sound. But see App. A. xx.
Position : never final, or followed immediately (with or with- ue
out the consonantal u) by any consonant: nor preceded immedi-
ately in the same syllable by any consonant except s; e.g. squama.
Representation : (i) q in Greek by k: qu by kov, kv, or ko, 117
see § 90.
(ii) of Greek. Q is not used in writing any Greek woid.
Correspondence : i. qv to original Indo-European kv (so us
Lepsius, Donaldson, Grassmann,L. Meyer); or to k, to which a
parasitic v very early fastened itself (Curtius, CorsseiO. Some
languages exhibit the labial, some the guttural.
3'"> Sounds. [Book I.
2. to Greek tt, Oscan p; e.g. quo-d? quo? qua-ntus? qva-lis?
7TO-01, TTov, TTo-cros', TTo-tof, loFiic KoOl, Kov, KocTos, Kolos'i qvliique,
TreVre, JEo\. Tre/nTTf (cf. ivifxiv-Tos), Osc. pomptis; c6qvo (also written
qvoqvo), cdqvlna, TreVco, (Oscan?) pdpina; linqvo, re-liqv-us, XfiVw;
sgqv-or, f7!-co; 6qvus, otttos; torqv-eo, rpenai. Probably also in-
qvilinus, cSlonus, colere, neXu), TroXeuco, ttoXos-
3. to Greek r, Osc. Umbr. p; e.g. quis, rls, Osc. Umbr. pis;
quisquis, Osc. pit-pit; -que, re; quattuor, Tia-aapes, Mo\. nia-vpfs,
Umbr. petur.
4. to Greek k ; e. g. qui-squil-ise, Ko-a-KvX-naria ; quiesco
(cu-bo, cunaa), K(lp.ai, koItt) ; oc-cul-o (oquoltod for occulto S. C. ae
Bacc), clam, celare, /caXuTrro), Kpinrra.
Substitution : Q is found before u in inscriptions (rarely be- ii<v
fore A.u.c. 620), in words which commonly have c; e.g. pequnia
(frequently), pequlatus, qura, mirqurios (for mercurius). Quer-
quetum also was found for quercetum.
Influence: i. changes a preceding d to c; e.g. ac-quiro for 120
adquiro ; quicquam, quicque, quicquid for quidquam, iScc.
2. changes a preceding m to n; e.g. con-queror, con-quiro,
con-quiesco; an-quiro; tan-quam, nunquam. Before -que, and
usually in compounds, as quiquomque or quicumque, utrumque,
utrimque, quotiescumque, the m is generally written.
Weakness : i. When 6 was changed to u, qu passed into c; ,21
e.g. 6cus for 6qvos; c6cus for qvoqvos; cum, cur for qvom, qvor;
see under C § 108. 4. So perhaps stercus for sterqvos, comp. ster-
qvilinium; csenum, ciinire for quenum, comp. inqvinare. But
sometimes q is found without v; e.g. qum, qur, (Sec. See above
§ 119-
2. Before a consonant qu changed to c; e.g. coctum, coxi
(=coc-si) from coqu-o; relic-tus from relinquo.
3. Q fell away in certain forms of the pronoun qui (stem quo-),
and, as the short 6 past into u, the semiconsonantal u then fell
away also. Hence uM, uti, uter, unde, for quobi, quoti, quoter,
quonde.
So vapor for quapor, comp. Kanvos.
4. -qve and -pe appear to have been collateral forms. Cf.
§ 517, and above, § 118. 3.
6.
Character: a slightly modified C. The earliest inscription 122
in which it is found is that on Scipio Barbatus, inscribed probably
boon after 500 u.c. Plutarch ascribes its invention to a Spurius
Chap. V1I.\ Gutturals a fid Palatals. G 39
Carvilius, who, if the freedman of Sp. Carvilius Ruga is meant,
kept a school probably twenty or thirty years later. See under C
(§ 104).
Sound: the flat guttural mute — English hard G. There ap- 123
pears to be little, if any, evidence of its ever having the soft sound
is i" gentle) at least before the sixth century after Christ.
Position : never final. As initial it stands before vowels and 124
the liquids 1, and r, and in a few words before n; e.g. glajis, grus,
gnarus, (S:c. (See below § 129. 3.)
Representation: (i) in Greek, by y; e.g. Verginius, OiVp- '=5
yiVtos; Sergius, S/pytojr; Gaius, Vinos; Gnaeus, Vva'ios; Gabii, Vaiioi;
Gellius, FeAXtof; &c.
(ii) of Greek y; e.g. YpdiKU., Grsecus; ^pvyes, Pliryges; 'Ai^a-
^aynpas, Anaxagoras; &c.
Correspondence: i. to original Indo-European g, and me- 123
dial gli.
2. to Greek y; e.g. ago, «yw; ager, aypos; arg-entum, arg-
illa, apyvpos, cipyiXos'i gaudeo, ynv-pos, yr}-dea>, ya-vvpai ; gigno,
g6nus, yiyvopni, yevos; gus-tare, yev-opai; gmosco, ytyi'cocrKco ; genu,
yovv ; urg-eo, t'lpyco (pfpy-) i rego, op/yoo ; fulg-eo, (^A/ya) ; vig-eo,
t'yt-ij? ; mulg-eo, dpeXya ; garrio, garrulus, yfjpvs, yrjpvco ; &c.
to Greek /3, Indo-Eur. g: e.g. glans, /iidXaws; gravis, [Bapvs.
3. g medial, or before r, to Greek ;^ ; e.g. ango, ay^w ; rigo,
/Spe^'o); anguis, anguilla, exts, i'yX'^^vs', lingo, \fixa>:, grando, ^u'
\a(a; gratus, gratia, x^-'^P^i X'^P'-^i ^i^suis, ow^ {.owx-)] ^*^-
4. to Greek k; e.g. viginti (but vicies), etKoo-t, Bccot. ptKan;
gubernator, Ki;/3epi'7/TT7s; mQgio, puKoouat; Gnossus, Kvcoaaos'i gtim-
mi, Koppt ; Saguntum, Zdnauda (Polyb.).
r. to old Umbrian k; e.g. Iguvini, Umbr. Ikuvini; tergean-
tur, Umbr. terkantur. (The old Umbrian like old Latin had no
separate character for g as distinguished from k.)
Substitution: for c in the word nee; e.g. neg-o, neg-otium, 127
neg-lego. So probably gloria, from cluere.
"Influence: i. turns to g the final consonant of sub, ob, and i^a
ad ; e. g. suggero, suggredlor ; oggannio ; agger, aggredior, aggravo,
agglomero, agnoscor (for ag-gnoscor), &c.
Ex in composition before g appears as e (perhaps for eg- from
ec-) ; as e-gelidus, egero, egredior, Sec.
40 Sounds. [Book I.
a. always gives a guttural clang (as English ng) to a pre-
ceding nasal; e.g. con-gero, in-gredior, &c. were sounded as cong-
gero, ing-gredior, S:c.
Weakness: i. Medial g before a sharp consonant (t cr s) '^o
is changed to c; e.g. punc-tiun, pimxi ( = puncsi) from pvmj-o;
auc-tum, auxl from aug-eo ; miilctriun from mulg-eo ; &c.
2. Medial g drops away in several cases, viz.
(a) after 1 or r and before s; e.g. mul-si, mulsum fi-om
mulgeo ; mer-si, mersum from mergeo ; spar-si, sparsum from
sparg-o; &c.
(b) after u; e.g. flu-o compared with fluc-tus; struo with
struc-tus; fruor with fruc-tus, frflges ; su-men from sug-o; ju-
mentum from jungo (jug-) ; u-mor compared with vy-p6s.
(r) before v; e.g. vivo (for gvigvo) compared with vic-tns,
vixi (cf. Engl, "the quick and dead"'); nivis with nix, ningult
(it snows); conivere with conixi, nixus, nic-to; brevis (for breg-
vis) with [Bpaxvs] l§vis with iXaxvs] malo from mag-volo.
before m in a few words; e.g. conta-minare, comp. contag-es;
fla-men, a priest, comp. flag-rare, fulg-ere, flamma; examen for
exagmen; sil-men for sQg-men; u-mor for ug-mor (cf. Oy-pos); sti-
mulus for stig-mulus (comp. in-stig-are). (But augmen, coagmea-
tum, fragmsn, sagmen, tegmen, &c. preserve the g.)
(d) before i in derivatives with stem mag-; e.g. major, ma-
jestas for mag-ior, mag-iestas; and perhaps in ajo for ag-io, comp.
ad-ag-ium.
3. Initial g before n was rarely retained in classical times; e.g.
nascor, natus for gnascor (i.e. gen-a-scor), gnatus (which is found
in Vergil and in compounds cognatus, prognatus, &c.); nosco for
gnosco (which is found in 5. C. de Bacc. and also in compounds
cognosco, ignotus, ignominia); narus (C. Or. 47) for gnarus (so
often written : also in comp. ignarus) ; navus for gnavus ; nixus for
gnixus (froni g6nu, the knee)] norma compared with yvu>p-iixos.
(Comp. English pronunciation of gna^v, gnat, gnarl, knee.) In the
proper name Gnseus (which abbreviated is written Cn.) the g remained.
Also before 1; e.g. lact-is compared with yiXuKT-os.
Character as above. 1^0
Sound: the rough breathing, as in English. 131
Pb, ch, th, were not sounded either as in English or as in
German; but as p + h, k-^b, t + b; i.e. a rough breathing imme-
diately after an ordinary p, k, t.
Chap. V//.] Gutturals and Palatals. H. 41
Position : never final, either of a word (except a few interjec- i.s^
tions) or syllable ; and never before a consonant.
After the consonants p, c, t, r it is found chiefly in Greek
words. Inscriptions of the jtii century u.c. give it, though rarely
until cir. 660 u.c. After cir. 700 u.c. they give it regularly; e.g.
philosophus, Achilles, Thyrsis, (Sec. Cicero (Or. 48, § 160) says that
at one time he spoke as the old Romans did, pulcros, Cetegos, Kar-
taginem, triumpos: afterwards he conformed to the ordinary prac-
tice, and said Pliryges, Pyrrhus (not Bruges, Burrus, as Ennius
wrote) ; but still sepulcra, coronas, lacrimas, Otones, Matones,
Caepiones. Catullus wrote an epigram (lxxxiv) ridiculing the
pronunciation of chonimoda for commoda, hinsidias for insidias.
See Gell. n. 3, xill. 6, where Nigidius is quoted: " Rusticus fit
sermo, si aspires perperam." According to Quintil. i. 5, 20, some
inscriptions had choronaa, chentiiriones, praecliones.
Representation: (i) In Greek, by the sign of the rough '33
breathing; e.g. Horatius, 'Opcmos ; Hernici, "E^j/t/ces; Hostilius,
'OariXfos; &c.
(ii) Of Greek rough breathing; e.g. 'wpo^oTO's, Herodotus;
ly/jcof, heros; 'PoiSottt;, Rhodope; IIu/jpos, Pyrrhus; &c.
ph, oh, th respectively for (/>, x? &\ ^-g- 'AjU^iTroXt?, Amphipolis;
Xi'oy, Chios; Oea-aaXol, Thessali; $aXap.os, thalamus; &;c.
Correspondence: i. to original Indo-European gh. 134
'2. Initial h to Greek ^; e.g. pre-hendo, x'^vddvoo; helvus,
X>^o-r], x'^^-pos'i h6ri, hes-tenius, ^^i's (where the ^ is parasitical);
Memps, hib-ernus, ^'wi', X^'-F-^'^i ;^€tju.fpti/os'; hrr (old v/ord used by
Lucilius for hollo-zu of hand'), -^([p^ hirundo, ^'e^'Scoj'; hira, hilla,
haru-spex (but see § 136. 4), xo^'^) X'^P'^'i ^^°j ^isco, x.o-ivu,, x«-
cr/cw ; hoxtus, cors (for cohors), x,^proi ; humi, xap-ai
Medial h to Greek ^ in veh-o, vec-tus, e^co, ox^'"-
3. to a Sabine fi; e.g. hsedus. Sab. faedus; hariolus. Sab.
fariolus; harena. Sab. fasena; hordeum. Sab. fordeum; hircus. Sab.
flrcus; hostis. Sab. fostis. Quintilian attributes fordeum, foedos
(faedos, Halm) to the old Romans (i. 4. 14).
So forctus and horctus are said to have both been used with the
meaning of bonus; and horda to have been an old form for forda,
pregnant. Perhaps horreum is connected with far.
Influence: none. »35
^ So Spanish has h for Latin f j e. g. hijo for Alius.
42 Sounds. \Book I.
Weakness: i. changes (or reverts?), after a vowel, to c (before 136
t or b) ; e. g. v61i-o, vectus, vexi ( — vec-si) ; trali-o, tractus, traxi.
2. h was not a consonant, so as to affect the quantity of a
preceding syllable or prevent the elision of a preceding final vowel ;
e. g. inliibet ; tollit humo ; tollite humo.
3. H between two vowels dropped out, and the vowels if like
one another coalesced. Thus Plautus uses dehibeo, prseMbeo, for
which afterwards detoeo, prsebeo. So comprebendo, comprendo;
cobors, cots; ahenus, ae-nus; vebemens (always two syllables only
in verse), vemens; nibil, nil; mibi (and not very frequently), mi,
existed side by side. Debinc as monosyllable sometimes in Augus-
tan verse. Mebercules as trisyllable (mercules) in Phsedrus.
Incobo is an older form for which tacboo is found as early as
the second century after Christ at least.
4. In several words the pronunciation appears to have been
uncertain, and the spelling varied accordingly ; e. g. harundo,
barena, heres, bolus, bordeum; aruspex, 6d6ra, ei (interjection), grus,
. erciscundse, umgrus, ilmor (the preferable spelling is here given).
Gellius (II. 3) speaks of b being formerly found in ballucinor,
beluor, bonera, honustum. Late inscriptions insert and omit b
almost at random; e.g. baditus, hii, bauctoritas; 6miiil, abitat,
inospita. In modem Italian b is not sounded.
In foreign proper names both spellings often occur; e.g. Hiberus,
Ibsrus; Hirpini, Irpini; Hannibal, Annlbal; &:c.
J i.e. I as consonant.
Character : same as the vowel I. In the middle of words 137
Cicero is said to have written the i twice; e.g. Aiiax, Maiia. In-
scriptions of the imperial time, rarely any of earlier date, use a tall
I for the consonantal i between two vowels. The form j is modern,
Sound: As English y. In the middle between two vowels it 138
probably gave a sound to the preceding vowel, as if forming a
diphthong with it, besides its own sound of y. Thus Aiiax or Ajax
would be sounded as (English) Ay-yax; Pompeiius or Pompejus as
(English) Pompa-yus; quojus as Engl, quoy-yus; cujus as Engl,
cwee-yus.
For j after consonants in verse see below, § 142. 2.
Position: never final. I is consonantal (i) when it stands 139
as initial, before any of the vowels a, e, o, u, in Latin words (except
iens from ire, to go) ; e. g. jacio, jeci, Jovis, jugum, <S:c.
(2) when it stands between two vowels, in Latin and some
Greek words, viz. :
Chap. V//.] Gutturals and Palatals. J. 43
aj-; Gajus (but in Martial, nom. Gaitis; voc. cai), Trajanus,
Bajae, Cajeta, bajulus, major, ajo; Achaja, Maja, Ajax, Grajus.
ej-; Aquileja, Veji, pulejum, legulejus, pletoejus, jejunus, pejor,
ejus, ejulo, mejo, pejero; and proper names, as Pompejus (voc.
Pompei as trisyllable in Ovid; as disyllable in Her.).
oj-; quojus, Troja, Bojos (ace. pi.).
uj-; cujus, hujus. In tenuia, tenuior, assldulor, i is a vowel,
u consonantal. For compounds of jacio see below.
Representation: (i) in Greek by i; e.g. Junius, ^\ovvio%\ m"
Jul.us, 'lovAtos; Vejos (ace), O0?;toi;j; Gajus, rdtoy; Pompejus,
no/xTrfJtoy ; Appulejus, 'A777rovA>;tos ; &c.
(ii) of Greek t, which sometimes forms a diphthong with the
preceding vowel; e.g. Atay, Ajax, or (Cic.) Aiiax; Tpoi'a, Troja; &c.
Correspondence: i. to an original Indo-European j. ,4,
2. to Greek ^ (perhaps Engl. dy)\ e.g. jugum, ^vyov\ Juppiter,
Jovis, Zfus (i.e. Ajeur); jus, brotb^ (oi-ixos.
3. to Greek 8; e.g. ja-m, S^.
4. to Greek rough breathing; e.g. j6cur, ^irap; juvenis, TJ/3r].
Substitution: i. for di, gi (the i first becoming j, and then 142
pushing out the preceding consonant); e.g. major for magior; Janus
for Dianus.
2. In verse the vowel i becomes sometimes hardened to j. Thus
in Plautus in scjo, djes (scio, dies) ; filjo, otjum : in the dactylic poets,
arjetat, arjetibus (Verg. Stat. Sil.), abjete, parjete, parjetibus (Verg.
Sil.), flfljorum (or flvulorum), steljo, omnja, precantja (Verg.);
vindemjator, Nasldjeni, and (in alcaics) consUjum, prlncipjum
(Hor.); abjegnse (Prop.), antjum, promuntorjum (Ovid, but see
§940); ludjiun (Juv.). So also in words compounded of semi-
(e. g. semjanimus, semjesus), unless the i be really elided (e.g. sem-
animis, semesus). In Statius tenuja, tenujore (or tgnvia, tSnviore ?)
appear to occur; for tenvja, Sec. seem impossible.
In conubium probably the u is short in the numerous cases, in
which the metre has been supposed to require conubjum. (See
Luc. Muller, p. 258, and Munro on Lucret. iii. 776.)
Influence: i. caused the omission of a preceding conso- 143
nant ; e. g. pejor for p6d-ior, lower (compare pes-simus, pessum) ;
pejgro for perjero (in good MSS.), later per-jflro; di-judico, tra-mitto,
&c. for disjudico, transmitto (cf. t68. 3); rejectus, rejecto, for red-
jectus, red-jecto ; sejugis for sexjugis ; Janus for Djanus (for
Dianus); see § 160. a
44 Sounds. {Book 1.
The effect attributed to j by the old grammarians that it
lengthens a preceding vowel is usually explicable either by the ab-
sorption of a consonant, or by the vowel being long independently;
but the pronunciation (§ 138) may have had some effect; e.g. \\\
hoius, quoius (Mjus, cujus).
2. At a late period of the language it caused, (when followed by
a vowel,) the assibilation of a preceding c, g, t, d; viz. ci, ti — cM,
or sM; gi, (ii = ii (either with French or English pronunciation of
j). This assibilation is not proved for any period of Latin proper
before the 3rd or 4th century after Christ. Instances of it are
found in old Umbrian and Oscan.
Weakness: i. j was vocalised (rarely), when occurring be- 14^
tween tvi'o vowels, and absorbed the succeeding vowel ; e. g. biga
for bl-juga.
2. Ja,cio in composition becomes -icio or -jecio, not -jicio. The
regular forms are abicio, adicio, conicio, deicio, eicio, inicio, obicio,
proicio, reicio, traicio, the first syllable being regularly long, till end
of Augustan age. (Manilius, Lucan, Martial, &c. have it short.)
Dis-jacio became dissicio ; por-jacio, porricio. Probably abicio,
conicio, &c. were pronounced abbicio, connicio, &c. Sometimes
the vowels were contracted, e.g. eicit (Lucr.), reice (Verg.) as di-
syllables. Of jecio (cf. § 43 end) we have instances in the presents
ejScit, trajec6re (Lucr.). For Roman theory see Quint, i. 4 § 11;
Gell. IV. 17. From ajo come iis, ait.
In the same way the i of capio, fugio, &c. dropped away before
-is, -it ; e. g. capis, capit (tor capiis, &c.) ; and the i of the i- stems
dropped away in the genitive sing, and dat. abl. plural; e.g. navis
for navi-is ; nav-ibus for navi-ibus.
3. In late imperial inscriptions z is sometimes written for j;
e. g. Z3SUS, Zanuari for Jesus, Januari : or Gi ; e. g. Gianuaria, Glove
for Januaria, Jove.
CHAPTER VIII.
DENTALS AND LINGUA LS.
T.
Character : as above, but with the top stroke sometimes 145
slanting, and sometimes mainly or entirely to the right or left of
the vertical stroke.
Sound : the sharp dental mute : English t, ,46
Position : frequently final, being so used in verbal inflexions 147
of the third person. Also in some conjunctions.
Chap. VIII!\ Dentals and Lingiiais. T. 45
As initial it can stand immediately before r, and in the oldest
language also (rarely) before 1; e.g. tlatum, stlis. In Greek words
before 1 or m; e.g. Tlepolemus, Tmessiis. It can also stand imme-
diately after an initial s; e.g. s'>,o, stravi: and in Greek words after
p; e.g. Ptolemseus.
On its aspiration see under H (g 13a).
Representation: (i) in Greek by r; e.g. Titus, TiVoy; Pala- 148
tiiun, Ila\aTiov\ Sec.
(ii) (a) of Greek r; e.g. AItmXoI, .ffitoli; MikriaSrjs, Miltlades ;
aarpov, astrum ; &c.
{b) of Greek 6, in early period (see § 132); e.g. 'K.opivOos, Co-
riutus; (9earpoi', teatnun; ^tao-oj, tiasus ; iScc.
(c) of Greek 8, only in two or three of the oldest inscriptions;
e.g. 'AXs'^ai'Spoj', Alixentrom; Kao-trai/Spa, Casenter. (Gomp. Quin-
til. I. 4, 16.)
Correspondence: i. to original Indo-European t. 149
2. to Greek r; e.g. ten-do, ten-eo, retVco; taurus, ravpos] tu,
tuus, TV Dor. {(TV Att.), reoi'., tuli, toUo, tolerare, rok-paa, rXfj-vai]
terminus, Tepixa; tero, ter-es, trua, reipco, rpllSco, rpi'/xa; torr-eo,
repcrnpai'i Sto, sisto, crTam^, iVrr/pi; di-sting-uo, arly-pa, aTi^ai',
stemo, stra-tus, torus, a-rop-evvvfjn, vTpu>-p.vr] ; Stella (for ster-ula),
do-rf?p(aa-7-fp-); tSgO, oreyco ; et, eVt ; peto, prfflpes, ntTopai, Trt-Trrco ;
pateo, TTer-avvvpii ', &C.
3. st sometimes to Greek o-tt; e.g. stMeo, aTrev^w] so talpa,
a-rrnka^ (also a-KoKoxp) ; turgeo, cnrapyaoi (the s having fallen off as in
tego, ore'-yco) ; &C.
Substitution: i. ford (in the preposition ad) before t; e.g. 150
at-tineo for adtineo, 5:c. Also, in the old language, cette for
c6dite, from imperative cSdd.
2. for final d in a few words (in inscriptions) in and after the
8th century u.c; e.g. aput, aliut, quitquit, it; and in and after,
rarely before, 4th century after Christ, set, at (for preposition
ad). Haut is found in republican inscriptions. Ut is probably for
quod.
3. For confusion of ti with ci see under C (§ no. 4).
Influence: i. changes a preceding b, g to p, c; e.g. scrip-tum 151
from scrib-o; ae-tum from ago^ So the prepositions ad, ob, sub
^ Laclimann (Liicr. p. 54) generalizing from Gcllius' statements
(IX. 6, XII. 3), lays down the following rules for the quantity of the
vowel in past participles and frequentatives. Stems in b, g, d and u (for
46 " Sounds. [Book I.
were changed (in pronunciation, though the spelling varies); e.g.
at-tineo, optimo, supter, &c.
2. A preceding d or t is softened to s before a suffix com-
mencing with t, if it was important to preserve the suffixal t; e.g.
tons-trix from tond-eo (tonsrix was almost unpronounceable); ras-
tram from rad-o; eques-tris from equit-, nom. eques ; est, eat^ for
edt (i.e. edit, the t being preserved as the sign of the 3rd pers.).
(See below (§ 152.3) for another course which the language adopted
in order to avoid the double dental.)
3. retains a preceding original s, which before a vowel has
passed into r; e.g. us-tus from ur-o; tos-tus (comp. tes-ta) from
torr-eo; mses-tus from mserere; arbus-tum from arbos, arbor;
hones-tus from honos, honor; sceles-tus from scelus, sceler-is; &c.
4. requires the insertion of p, if m would otherwise have
preceded it ; e. g. em-p-tus, prom-p-tus from emo, sumo. The p is
involuntarily pronounced, as the organs change from pronouncing
m to pronouncing t (or s, § 70).
Weakness: i. Initial t fell oif before 1; e.g. lis for stlis;
locus for stlocus ; latiun for tlatum.
2. Drops away or is assimilated before s; e.g. misi from mitto;
percussi from percutio ; &c.
At the end of a word one s only is retained, and the preceding
vowel, if short, usually remains so ; e. g. virtils for virtut-s ; regens
for regent-s (originally regentis, § 245. 2); sors for sort-s; equ6s for
equet-s (equit-) ; compos for comp6t-s ; damnas for damnat-s ; (Sec.
But paries, abies, aries for parigt-s, &;c.
3. The initial t of a suffix is changed (but see § 151. 2) to s
after t, d, Ig, rg, 11, rr, and in a fev»* other cases, the last letter of the
stem being then assimilated or omitted; e.g. casum for cad-tum;
divisum for divld-tum; messum for met-tum, mer-sum for merg-
tum; pul-sum from pello, (but in expultrix compared with expulsor
the t resumes its place in order to prevent the combination sr).
So also vicensumus or vicesimus for vicent-tilmus ; tricensumus
or trigesimus for trigent-tumus ; pes-simus for ped-timus ; (S:c.
On eques-tris for equet-tris, see above § 151. a.
4. tn, tm were not allowable combinations in Latin, (.ffitna
is Greek.) Hence e.g. vice-nus for vlcent-nus; sexagenus for
sexagint-nus ; &c.
gu) lengthen tlie preceding vowel (e.g. actus, Striictus from ago, struo) :
Lu C, shorten it (e.g. dictus from dico); in p, t, are short except missus,
sensus: in m, n, 1, r, s, h, retain quantity of present tense.
Chap, n//.] Dentals and Lingiials. D. 47
5. Final t had a weak position. Thus it fell oft':
(fl) in Umbrian; e.g. habe, facia for habet, faciat;
Q)) in the oldest Latin inscriptions of Picenum; e.g. dede for
deaet (i.e. dedit). (This is the only word in 3rd pers. sing, which
occurs in these inscriptions.)
(<r) in vulgar inscriptions on walls of Pompeii ; e.g. ama, valia,
parci for amat, valeat, parcit, (but the t is much oftener retained) ;
{d) frequently in inscriptions of fifth century after Christ and
later ; e. g. fece, quiesce, militavi, vixi, for fecit, quiescit, militavit,
vixit, &c.
6. nt fell off in 3rd pers. plur. perf. in Cato, Sallust, dactylic
poets, &c. (Cic. Or. 47, § 157); e.g. scripsere, amavere for scripse-
nmt, amaverunt.
In late inscriptions sometimes fecenin, vivon, &;c. are found for
fecerunt, vivont (vivunt).
7. A long vowel preceding a final t was shortened; e.g. amat
compared with amas, amatis ; amargt compared with amares, ama-
retis; &c.
Character : as above. 151
Sound : the flat dental mute : English d. di before a vowel, 154
at and after the end of the 4th century after Christ, was pro-
nounced 'cum sibilo,' i.e. probably as ji or as j, with English or,
perhaps, French sound of j. (See below under Z, § 195.)
Position : final only in sed, baud, ad, apud, and the pro- ^ss
nouns id, quod, istud, illud, aliud. (Often final in early Latin, see
below § 160. 6.)
Never immediately precedes another consonant in same sylla-
ble, except in a few Greek words, and Drusus (said to be from the
Gallic, Suet. Tib. 3); and see § 158.
Representation: (i) in Greek by S; e.g. Decius, Ae'/^to?; is^
C£sdicius, KatStKtos ; Domitius, AojuiVto? ; Fidense, ^i^vq ; &c.
(ii) of Greek 8; e.g. SpeVai/oi', Drepanum; ATy/ioa-^eVjyy, Demo-
stlienes ; duura, diaeta ; &c.
Correspondence: i. to an original Indo-European d, and 157
(medial) dh. The final d of the ablative corresponds to an ori-
ginal t.
48 Sounds. \Book T.
2. (rt) to Greek h\ e.g. dOmare, Sa/xa^w; daps, SaTrrw, SeZ-
TTi'oi'; densus, Sno-ilj; dSmus, Se'/nco, hop.oi\ dexter, Se^ios; dare,
dator, 8oTrip, fii'Sco/xt; d61us, SoXoj; duo, dis-, dubius, Suo, Sir, Sto--
o-d?; Sdo, es-ca, fr^w, eV-^ioj; dens, dSoil? (oSoj^t-); op-pidum, pe(d)s,
ireSou, TToS-, (Troi'j) ; scindo, ax^C^, (Txi8a^ ; unda, uScop ; &c.
(6) to Greek medial (9; e.g. fido, fides, Tre/^o), TriVrty; gau-
dere, ■yj^^fZi-; va(d)s, vad-imonium, uid-\ov.
Substitution': i. for tv before r in words derived from 15 s
quattuor; e.g. quadraginta, quadra, quadrupes, quadriduum (not
quatriduum), &c.
2. once (in a very oki vase inscription) for final t: fecid for
fecit. (The Oscan had sometimes the 3rd pers. sing, in d.) So in
the Mo«. Ancyr. adque. aliquod, for atque, aliquot. In late imperial
inscriptions occasionally capud for caput ; reliquid for reliquit ; (Sec.
IxFLUEN'CE : I. requires a preceding consonant to be flat ; e.g. ,=g
sub-duco, ab-do, &c.
2. changes preceding m to n; e.g. con-do (for com-do), &:c.
3. changes a following t to s, and then is assimilated or
omitted; e.g. divi-sum for divid-tum; scan-sum for scand-tum;
fossa from f6d-io ; &c. (For d before tr see below.) In the prse-
Ciceronian language cette for c6dite is found.
Weakness : i. Initial d before v dropped off, the v be- i6c
coming b ; e.g. duonus becomes bonus. See § 76.
a. Initial d before j dropped off; e.g. J6vis for (old) DiSvis;
Janus for Dianus ; jiivenis, Jvlnius from stem diu- ; jacio compared
with dio)K(o, dicLKToyp ; &c.
3. Before the initial tr of a suf^x, d changed to s. (The t
was retained because sr was unpronounceable.) e.g. tonstrix foi-
tond-trix ; claus-trum for claud-trum ; ras-trum for rad-trum ; ros-
trum for rod-trum ; frus-tra for fraud-tra ; &:c.
4. Before the initial m, 1, n of a suflix, d fell off or was assi-
milated; e.g. cse-mentum from csedSre; ra-mentum from rad-ere;
rl-mus compared with radix; &c.
sca-la (for scand-la) from scand-Sre ; nitela or nitella for nitS-
dula.
f i-nis (for fld-nis) from findo ; mercennarius for mercednarius.
5. Before s, d is assimilated or falls away; e.g. ces-si for
ced-si; ten-si for tend-si ; &c. See also § 159. 3.
At the end of a word, the d being assimilated, one s only re-
mains, and the preceding vowel, if short, remains so; e.g. incQs
for incuds ; lieres for bereds ; lapis for lapids ; compes for compeds ;
[pes, vas (from stems pfid-, vad-), are long as being mono-
syllables].
I
Chap. VIII.I Denials and Linguals. D. 49
6. Final d fell off at an early period from the ablative case
of which it appears to have been the characteristic. It is not
found in any inscription later than the S. C. He Bare. 186 B.C.
and is not found constantly even in the earliest inscriptions. The
Oscan shows thisd: the Umbrian and other Italian dialects (Vol-
scian, Sabellan) do not, though some inscriptions are much older
than the Latin. Plautus probably used it or not as he chose.
This ablatival d has dropped off also from the adverbs supra,
infra (suprad, infrad), &c., and probably from interea, postea, &c. ;
also from the particle red, and the prepositions, sed, prod, antid,
postid, except sometimes in composition ; e.g. sed-itio, red-eo, prod-
est, antidhac (for anteliac) ; &c. So also facilumed (6'. C. iie Bacc),
for later facillime.
The pronouns me, te, se (both accusative and ablative) were in
early times med, ted, sed.
Of the final d of the imperative (also retained in Oscan), one
example is found in Festus and others in early inscriptions : see
p. 190 n.
7. In the particle red in composition, the d was frequently
either assimilated, or fell off, the vowel being lengthened to com-
pensate. Thus reddo, recido, or reccido, rejectus always : redduco
or reduco in early poets including Lucretius ; reliquiae, rellglo,
relicuus in Lucr. ; (reliquiae, &c. in iambic &c. (Plant. Ter. Pha;dr.
Sen.); rglicus in Persius and later poets;) receptus, relictus (Lucil.);
reUatus and rSlatus (Lucr.). The perfect stem has always a long
first syllable in repperi, reppuli, rettuli, rettudi, probably as a joint
effect of the original red and the loss of the reduplication. In
other words the d is lost without compensation.
8. The preposition prod always drops the d in composition
except before a vowel ; e. g. prodeo, prodest, but prosum, produco.
But the is always lengthened, except in a few words, viz. prft-
cella, pronepos, prdneptis, protervus, and before f (except profero,
proficio, profligo, proflo); usually propago (noun and verb), pro-
cure, and, rarely, prSpello, Prcserpina. (In Greek words pro is
always short, except prologus and sometimes propino.)
9. D in the preposition ad is usually assimilated to a follov/-
ing P, c, g, t, 1, r, n ; e. g. apparet, accipio, aggero, attinet, alloquor,
arrlpio, annuo (but adnepos). It is usually omitted before gn, sp,
sc, st; e.g. agnosco, aspicio, asclsco, asto. It always remains be-
fore b, j,v,m; e.g. adbibo, adjuvo, advena, admiror; and in inscrip-
tions before q, f, s^; e.g. adquiro, adfero, adslgno.
^ The retention of the d is not a proof of the pronunciation, as we
see from the pun in Plaut. Fa-n. i. 1. 67. MI. Adsum apud te eccum.
AC. Ego elixus sis volo. The pronunciation was acsv.ni.
50 Sounds. [Book J.
For the more usual atque, ad-que is found in the Mon. Ancyr
and frequently in other inscriptions.
ID. Final d in old Latin sometimes changed to r. Thus in ad
in composition, chiefly before v and f ; e.g. arvocatos, arvorsum,
arveho, arvena ; arfines, arfari, arfuisse. Hence arbiter from ad-
beto, arcesso for ad-cesso.
So also meridies for medi-dies (according to the Romans) ;
Ladinum on old coins for Larinum ; apor (in Festus) for apud,
Comp. aud-io, aur-is ear.
II. In quicquid, quicquam, cette (for cgdite), d is assimilated.
In quo-circa (for quod-circa, comp. idcirco), hoc (for hodce), d
is omitted.
For the more usual baud, are found haut, and in early Latin
(and in mss. of Livy and Tacitus) before consonants hau. (For
aput, set, &c. see § 150, and for the practical omission of d in apud
in the comic poets, see § 295. 4.)
N.
Character: as above. j6,
Sound: both (i) dental, and (z) guttural, nasal. ,02
1. as dental nasal usually, like English n.
2. as guttural nasal ("n adulterinum") before a guttural (c, q.
g, X); sounded like English ng, (or n in inkj, fi'ig'^r). Varro {ap.
Prise. I. -59) said the oldest Roman writers followed the Greek rn
writing g for n before c and g; e.g. aggnlus for angulus (comp.
Greek ayKvKoi) \ agguiUa (comp. eyxeXuj) ; agcora (comp. ayKvpa)\
agceps for anceps; aggens for angens; iggerunt for ingemnt.
Position: final, only i. in nom. ace. sing, of neuter nouns in i6j
-men, and a few others; e.g. gluten (n), &c.; tibicen, comicen,
tubicen, fidicen (for tibicinus), &c.
2. in some adverbs ; e. g. in, an, sin (for si-ne), quin (for qul-ne),
tamen; also viden, audin, &c. (for vides-ne, audis-ne).
3. in Greek words; e.g. splen, sindon, &c.
Never after another consonant in an initial combination (§ 11),
except in a few words which in the older language began with gn
(see § 129. 3). Never initial before another consonant.
Frequent before t and s at end of a word (§ 271).
Rei^resentation: (i) in Greek by v, or, before gutturals, by 164
y\ e.g. Faunus, 4>a{;i/os; Numitor, Ne/xf rwp ; Cincius, Kt'yKtoi-; uncia,
oily/cia ororyyt'a; Longus, Aoyyos ; &c.
Chap. V/IJ.'] Denials and Lingnah. N. 51
(ii) of Greek i/, or, before gutturals, y; e.g. yvci>fxuiv, gnomon;
Ylav, Pan; ^eipjji/, Siren; 'Ayvio-?;?, AncMses; anoyyia, spongia;
Coruncanius, KopoyKavios (Poly-b.) ; &c.
Correspondence: i. to an original Indo-European n. ,65
2. to Greek v, or, before gutturals, -y; e.g. animus, anima,
("I'f/^o?; g6na, -yeVi/y ; an-helo, dvd'i in, ev, els (for fVs) ; maneo,
me-min-i, mens, &c., n^voo, fie-pov-a, /xeV-oy, &c. ; N6ro (a Sabine
word), dvi]p (avfp-); novns, veos {veFosj', anas (anat-s), vfja-cra:, nix,
niv-is, nin-guit, ptcjieros, vlcjift.] nun-c, vvv] unguis, ow^] nuo, co-
niveo, i/euco, i/ucrrafoj, &C.
Substitution: i. For m before all but labial consonants; e.g. ,66
con-cors, con-gero, conjux, &c. (see under m, § 86. 4).
a. nn for nd. There is some evidence for forms distennite,
dispennite for distendite, dispendite (PI. Mil. 1407); and tennitur
for tenditur (Ter. P/j. 330).
Influence: i. causes c, s, t, d, m to fall out before it; e.g. ,6,
Iti-na for luc-na ; pono for posno ; vicenus for vicentnus ; fi-nis for
fid-nis (undo) ; septenus for septem-nus ; novenus for novem-nus, &c.
a. ns, nf lengthened the preceding vowel. See Cic. Or. 48,
§ 159: " ' Indoctus' dicimus brevi prima littera, ' insanus' producta,
'inhumanus' brevi, ' infelix' longa ; et ne multis, quibus in verbis ese
primae littei"?e sunt, qua; in sapiente atque felice, producte dicitur, in
ceteris omnibus breviter." So Consus, Consualia, consules (ace),
consilia, Considius, are written Kcovaos, KcovcrovdXia, KavaovXas,
Koiva-LXia, Kcoi/o-i'Sioy (Dionys. Hal.); Consentia, Kwi/o-eiria (Appian),
KcocTfi'TLa (Strab.) ; Constantinus, KcovcrTavrluos (Dio Cass.); cen-
sus, accensus, kTjvo-os, a<Kr]v(Tos (Inscr.); Censorinus, Krjvacopivos
(Mon. Ancyr. App.); Ramnenses, Titienses, 'Papvijvcrrjs, TiTiijvarjs
(Plut.). [Compare with Centenius, Keir^wof (Polyb., App.); Cen-
turiones, Kei'Tvpicoves (Polyb.).]
Weakness: i. changes to m before a labial (p, b, m), though 168
the change is not always marked in writing ; e. g. imperator, impe-
rium (sometimes inperium); compleo (conpleo), imtauo, commute,
immortalis (often inmortalis) ; &c.
z. in drops its n in composition before gn ; e.g. i-gnavus, i-
gnarus, i-gnosco, i-gnominia. (Compare § 86. 4.)
3. Before s it frequently falls away, sometimes is assimilated:
(a) in adjectival suffixes; e.g. formosus for formonsus (Verg.);
verrucossus, imperiossus (Augustan inscript.); Maluginesis (ib.);
4—2
52 Sounds. {^Dook I.
Tliermeses (also Thermenses, Termenses, in some inscr. A.u.c.
68;,); Pisaureses (very old inscr.). Cicero is said to have writ-
ten Megalesia, Foresia, Hortesia. So 'Oprrjo-tos for Hortensius.
In late inscriptions also in pres. part.; e.g. doles, lacrimas for
dolens, lacrlmans, &c.
(Z-) numeral suffixes; e.g. quoties, vicies, millies, ?<.c.^ vicesimus,
millesimus, &c. are post-Augustan forms for quotiens, viciens,
vicensumus (or vicensimus), &:c.
(f) in stems; e.g. cesor, in proe-Aug. inscriptions for censor;
mostellaria from monstrum (raostrum, Verg.); tosillas (C. N.D.
2. 54) for tonsillse; trimestris for trimenstris; tQsus, passus,
fressus, also tunsus, pansus, frensus. So elephas for eleptians;
trastrum (Verg.) for transtrum.
4. n final (or ns?) falls away always in nom. case of stems in
-on; e.g. homo, cardo (homon-, cardon-), sermo, obllvio (sermon-,
obliviSn-), &c. Theoretically the change would be homons, homoss,
homos, then (to avoid confusion with 0- stems) homo.
So ceteroqui, alioqui, for prs-Augustan csetero-quin, See.
Insertion: i. Athamans, Indigens in Augustan inscriptions 169
for Athamas, Indiges, <S:c. Also thensaurus (tensaurus?) in Plautus
for 6i](Tavpos.
2. in verbal forms; e.g. tango (see Book II). So also con-
Jirnx, conjugis from jug-, jvmgo.
Character: always asabove, after 570 or 580 A.u.c. Before 170
that the earlier form (with the bottom stroke not horizontal but
forming an acute angle with the other), once exclusively used, was
still in use.
Sound: as in English. 171
Position: final only in a few nouns in nom. aiid neuter ace. 172
cases sing. It can stand immediately before a mute at the end of a
syllable; e.g. sculptus, calx, &;c. ; and immediately after p, to, c, g at
beginning of a syllable; e.g. pluma, tolandus, clamo, glans, &c.
Representation: i. in Greek by A always; e.g. Publius 173
Lentulus, IIoTrXios AeVronXos (Polyb.), IloinrXios AsVrXos (Appian) ;
Popillius, noniWios; Latini, Aarli^oi; &c.
2. of Greek X; e.g. x^^l^vs, chlamys; 3>i;XXis, Phyllis; 'EX/j't;,
Helena; &c.
Correspondence: i. to an original Indo-European 1 or r. 174
[Some (e.g. Schleicher) consider 1 to arise always from a weakening
of an original r].
Chap. Vin?\ Denials and Linguah. L. 53
2. to Greek X; e.g. alius, iiXXoi; diilcis, yXvKvs] volvo, iXvco
(ffX-); oleum, eXawv] calx, Xd$ (for fcXaf); lana, \fi)(V)y, lego,
Xeycu; leo, \ls, Xe'wv; luo, Xi'co; lavo, ad-luo, Xovco; tilulo, oXoXv^w;
fallo, o-(/)aXXa}; pillex, \//-uXXa; ulna, coXeV;;; volo, jSovXanca; &c.
:?. to Greek p (rarely); e.g. vellus, villus, epos (ionic), epiov;
balbus, ^aplBapos ; lilium, \dpiov.
4. to Greek S; e.g. lacruma, Sajcpuor/; levir, Mrjp] oleo, 6dor,
o^o) (perf. oS-coS-a), oS/xr;.
Substitution: for m, d, n or r before 1. See next section. In 17s
composition com- generally became con-, sometimes col-; e.g. colle-
gium; &c. In inscriptions conlegium, conlega till about end of
Augustus' reign; then collegium, &;c. (Momms. Epbem. i. p. 79.)
In usually remained. Ad generally became al; e. g. alloquor, &c.
Influen'CE: i. Assimilates to itself or omits a preceding 176
c, d, n, r, s, x, an intervening short vowel being omitted; e.g.
paullus for pauculus; lapillus for lapid-ulus; sella for sedula;
corolla for corSn-Ma ; Catullus for Caton-Glus ; HispaUus for His-
panulus; Asellus for Asin-ulus; prelum for pren-lum (from pre-
mo) ; agellus for ager-lus ; qualus for quas-lus (comp. quasillus) ;
ala for ax-la (or axilla); velum for vex-lum (or vexiUum).
2. 1 preferred 6 or u before it; e.g. salto, insulto, compared
with tracto, detrecto; poculum with pulcer (old polcer); &c.
(§ 204. 2, e!)
11 prefeixed e ; e. g. vello compared with vulsus ; fiscella with
fiscina; &;c. (§ 213. 5.)
3. caused the omission of a preceding initial tor guttural; e.g.
latus for tlatus (tollo); lis for stlis; Idcus for stl6cus; lamentum
compared with clamo; lac (lact-) with -yaXoKr-; or the insertion
(or transposition) of a short vowel between; e.g. scalpo, sculpo
compared with yXa^o), ykv^a ; dulcis with yXvKvs (for SXv/cvy).
4. caused the omission of a preceding short vowel after c or p ;
e.g. vinclum, sseclum, periclum, hercle, disciplina, maniplus, for
viuculum, &:c. ; publicus for populicus.
5. threw off a following s; e.g. consul for consuls, sol for sols,
&c. vigil for vigilis. In velle a succeeding r is assimilated (v616sa
becoming volere, voire, velle).
6. Ig, 11, changed a following suffixed t into s; e.g. mulg-,
mulsus; veil-, vulsus.
7. changed a subsequent .1, in suffix -ali, into r; e.g. famularis.
palmarls, -"mlgaris compared with talis, animalis, frugalis, auguralis,
edOlis, (Sec.
54 Sounds. [Boo/i /.
So also a preceding 1 is changed into r; e.g. cseruleus iiom
Cielum; Parilla from Pales.
Weakness : In some words the spelling varied between a single 177
and double 1, viz.:
1. if i (not being a case-inflexion) followed 1, the grammarians
held that single 1 should be written; e.g. mille, mllia (Mon. Ancyr.
has millia); Messalla, Messalina; villa, vilicus; but stillicidium
(not stilicidium) usually. So inscriptions give both Amulius and
AmuUius; Petilia, Petlllius; Popilius, Popillius; &c., but -ilius is
much more frequent than -illius m most words; Pollio however is
more frequent than PoUo.
2. the suffix -ela is in good MSS. written -ella after a short
syllable; e. g. lotiueUa, querella, m6della; suadela, tutela, corrupttla.
Character: usually as above, but in early inscriptions the 178
right hand lower limb is very short.
Sound: the sound made by vibration of the point of the tongue : 179
rather the Italian or Scotch r, than the English. (See A pp. A. xiii.)
Position: frequently final; viz. in nom. and neut. ace. sin- 180
gular of nouns, and in ist and 3rd persons singular and plural of
passive verbs. It can stand immediately before any final conso-
nant; e.g. ars, arx; and immediately after an initial mute.
Representation: i. in Greek, by p; e.g. Roma, 'Poj'/hj?; iSi
Trebia, Tpe/3/a; Tiberius, Tt^/ptos; Hernici, "EpwKey; Brutus, Bpov-
TOS] &c.
2. of Greek p; e.g. Koar^p, crater; p>]Tccip, rhetor; Ilapt?,
Paris; &c.
3. of Greek A; e.g. KavBrjKim, cantSrius.
Correspondence: i. to an original Indo-European r. 132
eptTTjs, epeTfJ.'
vo
rivus
fffipa, opjios] &c
os; r6pente, pfVco ; frigus, piyoj; radix, p/^a; rixa, fptf^(epi8-);
ivus, pea,, pfvais] sero, sertum, series, servus, t'lpa {ep-, ep-),
Chap. VI/I.] Dentals and Linguah. R. 55
3. to Greek X (rarely); e.g. grando, y^{ka^a\ hirundo, xe-
XtScBi'; strigilis, stringo, crrXfyyis, (rreX-yi's-, or/ja-y-yf uco ; liaru-spez,
hilla, xo'^'^) XopSi; ; curvus, Kvp-Tos, kvWos-
Substitution : i. R between two vowels is frequently, and 183
final r is sometimes, a substitute for an earlier s^ But this substitu-
tion was prior to any inscription which we have, and may probably
be referred to the fourth century B.C. on the ground of Cicero's state-
ment (Fam. 9, 21), that L. Papirius, consul 336 B.C. ( = 418 u.c),
was the first of his family who ceased to be called Papisius. (Cf.
Pompon. Dig. i. 2. § 36.)
This change is noted in
(rt) stems; e.g. lares for lases (in song of Arval brothers);
aras for asas; ferias for fesias; arena for asena. Compare
nar-is, nas-us; heri, x^^^^ hes-ternus; puer, ptis-us; er-am,
6r-o, sum (for es-um); g6ro, ges-tum; ilr-o, us-tum; Sec.
qusero, quseso.
(Zi) darifordasi; dirimere, dlrhitoere from dis-.
(r) noun suffixes; e.g. pigndra, pignus ; onera, onus, onustus;
vetSra, vetus, &c. ; Veneris, Venus ; CerSris, Ceres ; pulver-is,
pulvls. So also honor has old form lionos ; arbdr, arbos ; robur
had once abl. robose, and apparently nom. rebus.
So also adjectives; e.g. Papirius for Papisius; Valerius for
Valgsius ; Veturius for Vetusius ; Numerius for Numisius ; ns-
farius compared with nefas-tus ; Etruria with Etrus-ci ; me-
liorem for melios-em (comp. neut. melius) ; plurima for
plusima.
[The genitive plural suffix -rum is generally held to be for -sam ;
and the r of the passive voice to be for s; i.e. for se, the passive
having been originally reflexive.]
(J) r before m and n appears to have sometimes arisen from s ;
e.g. carmen is connected with casmena (old form of camena).
So veter-nus (for veter-inus) from vetus; diur-nus compared
with interdius, nudius.
a. For d in the word ad (in composition), and apud, see
§ 160. 10. II.
3. For 1 in suffix -alis, after a stem containing 1, see § 176. 6.
' In some Greek dialects (e.g. Laconian, Elean, Eretrian) p is found
ior Jl]ia/ s ; e.g. rotp, rip, for toTs, tls ; and for o' before consonants;
e.g. Kopp.rjTaL lor KO(T/j.TJTai ; but not between vowels. Set Curtius, (Jr.
Ety?7i. p. 396, ed. 2.
56 Sounds. lB<?o/e I.
Influence: i. assimilates to itself the final letter of the pre- 184
positions com, in, ad, sub; e.g. corripio, irrogo, arripio, surripio.
(No instances in republican inscriptions.)
2. Changes a preceding tv to d, in quadriduum, quadrupes, &c.,
from quattuor (§ 158). tr, later dr, is found in some early tran-
scriptions of Greek words (§ 148. c).
3. dislikes short i (for e) to precede it; comp. legis, legit,
legitur, with legSris, legere, legerem ; Numerius with Numisius ;
confgro, contfiro compared with coUigo, corrigo ; pario, pepSri, com-
perio compared with cado, cecidi, concido ; pulvis, cucumis with
pulverem, cucumerem ; anser, anseris with ales, alitis ; funus,
luneris with homo, hominis ; (Sec.
The only Latin words in which r is preceded by a short i are
vir, viridis, vireo, &c.; Qvirites, Qvirlnus; plrus, pirum; Mrundo,
Mrildo; and dir- for dis- in composition; (e.g. dirimo). Comp.
also Ilirrus, hirrlo. In vir, virtus, Sec. i is said by the Roman gram-
marians to have had the sound of Greek v. Cf. § 237.
4. prefers a vowel before it, instead of after it; e.g. cer-no,
certus, compared with KpU'co, crevl, cre-tum; serpo, repo; sorbeo,
po(j)€co; porrum, TrpfiVoi/ ; tardus, /3paSi'f ; tertius, rptVos ; crfrcodilus
(sometimes), KpoKoSeiXos'-, caro, carnem, Kpsa^; tarpessita (some-
times), rpoTrft'Tf^s; farcio, (ppaaa-co:, Tarsumemius, also Trasumen-
nus. This metathesis appears to have been common to the Latin
with the j^olo-Doric Greek. (Ritschl, Opiac. ii. 531.)
5. occasioned the omission of a subsequent s, or of s preceded
by a short vowel ; e. g. puer for puerus, tener for tenerus, orator for
orators, &c.
6. rr, rg converted a subsequent suffixed t to s; e.g. curr-o,
cur-sum; merg-o, mersum; &c. (see § 52. 3).
Weakness : i. is assimilated to a succeeding s, and then 185
often omitted; e.g. prosa, for proversa (oratio) : rusum (also
russum) for rursum (reversum) ; Tuscus for Turscus (comp. Etrus-
cus); tos-tus for torstus from torr-eo (which was for tors-eo, comp.
Tepa-ojxaL). Pono for por-sino, pos-sino, posno. (Corssen.)
2. is omitted (sometimes) when the following syllable contains
r ; e. g. mulie-bris from mulier- ; fune-bris from funer- (funos-) ;
febris from fervco; p5-jerare for perjerare.
The same dislike of the repetition of r is seen in the retention
(or preference) of -alls instead of -aris as a suffix when an r pre-
cedes; and in the rare occurrence of the future participle (except
faturus) in the genitive plural. Neue (11. 462) mentions only ven-
turorum(Ov.); iturarum, exiturarum, transiturarum, moritxirorum
(Sen.); periturorum (Sen. Quintil.).
Chap. V/I/.] Dentals and Lingiials. S. 57
S.
iS6
Character: as above; but the older form was angular.
Other Italian alphabets, viz. Etruscan, Umbrian, and old Sabelliaii
had two characters, 2 (or an angular s) and M, for sibilants, ap-
parently the sounds s and s'n. The Samnite (Oscan) and Faliscan
agreed with the Roman.
Sound: a hiss, as English initial s (e.g. in sin), i.e. s sharp, ^z^
At one time s between two vowels was probably sounded, as medial
and linal s is often sounded in English (e. g. reason, rose) ; i. e. s flat,
which is same as z: hence the change of s to r (§ 183), the posi-
tion of the organs being very similar for z and r. final s was at
one time not audible.
Position: very frequently final both in nouns and verbs. It iss
never stands (in Latin words) immediately after an initial con-
sonant ; but often before p, c, t.
Representation: (i) in Greek by ?; e.g. Sergius, S/pytos ; 189
Spurius, STToptoj; Kseso, KuiVcd!/ ; Crassus, Kpacro-os; &c.
(ii) I. of Greeks; cro^io-rT;?, sopMstes ; o-7rX/;V, splen; &c.
2. of Greek initial ( before Cicero's time; e.g. ZTjBos, Setus ;
^a)vr], sona; &;c.
3. ss for Greek medial ^ before Cicero's time; e.g. ixa^a,
massa ; Kw/na^o), coniissor ; fxaXaKL^w, malacisso ; 'ArrtKtXco, Atticisso ;
&c. (In the Tarentine dialect such forms as XaKTicra-o), a-aX-n-iaaoi
are said to have occurred.) So the Etruscan Mezentius was iu
the older language Messentius.
Correspondence : i. to an original Indo-European s. ,50
2. to Greek $■ ; e.g. sam (for es-um), et^ui (for ia-jxi); vestis,
fadqs, €vvvfxi\ sanus, aao^, crco? ; sfts, o-O?, vs \ vesper, ecrnepoi'i
sciltum, aKVTos ; scipio, a-nr^TTTpov ; sporta, a-nvpis ; &c.
3. to Greek rough breathing; e.g. sal, aXr ; salio, aXkopai;
sex, €^ ; septem, (tttci ; sedeo, sedes, e^opai, e8os ; se, suus, e, a(f)€
(for o-fe), (OS, o-(^o9; serpo, rSpo, epTTw] simplex, dnXoos'i silva,
vXt]] sisto, toTT/yxi; solus (old soUus), oXos] sopor, sonmus, vttvos]
socer, sKvpos] suto, v-n-o] super, vnep] &c.
Substitution: i. st for tt or dt, if the last t was to be pre- igi
served ; e. g. claustrum from claudo ; tonstrix from tond-eo ; eques-
tris, equester from eques (6qu6t-); &<:. Cf. § 151. 2.
58 Sounds. [Book I.
z. ss (or s) for ts or ds; e.g. clau-si for claud-si; mi-si for
mit-si ; equ§s for equ6t-s ; es-se for ed-se (i. e. 6dere to eat) ; frons
for front-s and for frond-s ; Sec.
So also n (sometimes) and r (rarely) are assimilated to a follow-
ing s, and, it may be, subsequently omitted; e.g. formosus for for-
mon-sus (Verg., Ov.); imperiosus or -ossus for imperion-sus; vicies
for viciens ; vlcesumus for vicensumus ; trigesumus for trigensumus
(see below 4) ; mensas (and other ace. plurals) for mensams (mensans);
dispessus for dispan-sus ; mostnim from monstriun (see next ^) .
Prosa for proversa (prorsa) ; prosus for prorsus ; rflsus (or rus-
sus) for rursus. But mer-sus, ver-sus, &c. (see next §) remain (§ 42).
3. s for t after Ig, rg, 11, rr; e. g. nml-sum for mulg-tum; mer-
sum for merg-tum; cur-sum for curr-tum; pul-sum for pell-tum,
&c. (Quintilian, I. 4. 14, speaks of mertare, pultare, as being the
old forms for mersare, pulsare.) Rarely after single mutes ; e. g.
lap-sum for lab-tum; &c. (see § 705 and Preface).
4. ss (or s) for dt or tt ; (i. e. dt, tt, become ds, ts as in pre-
ceding paragraph, and then by assimilation ds, ts became ss, of which
one s was after Cicero's time omitted^; e.g. cessum for ced-tum;
casum (cassum Cic.) for cad-tum; mis-sum for mitt-tum; sen-sum
for sent-tum; divisum (divissum Cic.) for divid-tum; &c. vicen-
sumus for vicent-tiimus ; trigensumus for trigent-tumus (see above
2); &c.
5. -iss for ios (cf § 242) in adjectives of the superlative degree;
e.g. durissimus for duriosimus; doctis-simus for doctios-imus, &c.
See also the next paragraph and the Preface.
6. ss in proMbessit, levassit, &c. appears to be only indicative
of the length of the preceding vowel. Possibly there may have been
some confusion with such forms as complessent, recesset, levasse,
&c. which contain the perfect suffix -is. Moreover an s left single
would have formed an exception to the general law of Roman
pronunciation which changed such an s to r (§ 183).
For the etymology of arcesso, capesso, &c. see § 635.
Influen'Ce: i. Changed a preceding flat consonant to sharp; 192
e. g. scrip-si from scrib-o ; rexi (i. e. rec-si) from reg-o. So (in
^ Quintilian's words (i. 7. 20) deserve quoting; "Quid quod Cicero-
nis temporibus pnulumque infra, fere quotiens slittera media uocalium
longarum uel subjecta longis asset, geminabatur? ut 'caussae,' 'cassus,'
'diuissiones :' quomodo et ipsum et Vergilium quoque scripsisse manus
eorum decent, atqui paulum superiores etiam illud, quod nos gemina
dicimus ' jussi,' una dixerunt."
Chap. VIII.'] Dentals and Lingiiah. S. 59
pronunciation at least) op-sequor, sup-signo, though b in sub (subs)
sometimes fell away; e.g. suspicio (§ 78).
2. changed a preceding m to n; e.g. con-scribo, consul, &c.; or
required insertion of p; e. g. Memps for Mems; sunip-si for sum-si;
&c. (but pres-si (for pren-si) from prem-o).
3. Completely assimilated, or threw out, a preceding d or t
(always), n or r (sometimes) ; e. g. ces-sum for ced-sum, for ced-tum ;
&c. See § 191, 2. But mons tor monts ; ars for arts. See § 42,
4. ns lengthens a preceding vowel: see § 167. 2.
Weakness: i. Initial s has fallen off before a consonant in 193
some words; e.g. fallo compared with acpaWa; fungus with
<T(p6yyos ', t6gO with crre'yco; torus with sterno, arrop-vvfj-i, crTpcivvvyLL]
tono with o-reVco; &c., but in most stems the Greek and Latin agree
in this matter, and the omission is discernible only by comparison
with other languages; e.g. nix, vi(^eL compared with sno-zu; taurus,
ravpos with steer; limus with jlime; &c.
2. Medial s falls away before nasals, liquids, and other flat
consonants.
(a) before m; e.g. dflmus for dus-mus (comp. Sacru'?); Camena
for Casmena; pomerium for posmcerium; triremis compared
with triresmos (Duillian inscript.); dimota for dismota; tra-
mitto for transmitto; &c.
(b) before n; e.g. pono for posno (comp. pos-ui and § 185);
viden for vides-ne; in (Ter. Eiin. 651) for is-ne, art going? \
satin for satis-ne; ae-num for aes-num (ses-).
(c) before d; e.g. jii-dex for jus-dex; idem for is-dem ; tre-decim
for tres-decim; diduco for dis-duco.
{d) before 1, r; e.g. dilabor, diripio for dis-labor, &c.
3. S between two vowels almost always changed to r in early
times, see § 183. Consequently no Latin words exhibit s between
two vowels.
Except {a) where s is not original, but due to a substitution
(often indeed standing for ss); e.g. prosa, hse-sum, esuries,
ausim, causa (caussa, Cic), formosus, &c. where it stands for
d or t.
(h) compounds of words where s was initial; e.g. de-silio, po-
sitiura, prse-sentia, bi-sextus, &c.
(c) the following woi'ds (some of which may perhaps fall under
the foregoing classes), viz. asinus, basium, csesaries, csesius,
casa, caseus, cisium, msus, laser, miser, nasus, pflsillus, qua-
6o Sounds. \_Book I.
sillum, quseso (also qusero), r6sa (comp. po^ov), vasa; and
some proper names; e.g. Csesar, Kseso, Lausus, Pisa, Pisaumm,
Sisenna, Sosia (gsesum is a Keltic word).
4. Final s became r; {a) in the nom. sing, of stems in s (in
compliance with the change in the other cases?) ; e.g. arbor from ar-
bos- ; honor from bonos- ; robur from robos- ; melior from melios- ;
&c.
(A) where a vowel originally followed; e.g. puer for puerus,
originally puesus. The characteristic r of the passive voice is
generally held to be for se.
5. Final s after a vowel at an early period of the language
was frequently not pronounced, and thus frequently omitted in
writing also. (In the 4th century after Christ the same tendency
recurred and remains in Italian, &c.) Instances are
(«) nom. sing, of -a stems; e.g. nauta, scriba, &:c. compared
with vavTT]^^ Sec; luxuria, spurcitia, &c. with luxuries, spur-
cities, Sec. See Book II.
(b) nom. sing, of -0 stems; e.g. ille, ipse for illus, ipsus. So
perhaps the vocatives domine, fili ( = filie), (Sec. which however
most philologers take for the stem itself weakened.
So, frequently in early inscriptions, Cornelio, Fourio, Herenio,
&:c. for Cornelios, Fourios, Herenios (nom. sing.), the forms
with s (both -OS and -us) occurring likewise at the same time.
In later, chiefly imperial, inscriptions occur, e.g. Pliilarg;tru,
Secimdu, &c.
s with the preceding vowel (6 at that time) fell off in puer for
puerus, tibicen for tibicenus, &C. Inscriptions (e.g. 5. C. Bacc.)
give Claudi, Valeri, &c. for Claudios, Valerios (nom. sing.),
which some refer to a shortened form Claudis, Valeris, as alia
for alius ; some take to be a mere abbreviation.
(c) pote (all genders) for potis; mage for magis (adv.). After
1 and r we have vigil, pugil for vigilis, pugilis (nom. s. masc.
fern.); acer, equester, saluber (m. nom.), &c. for equesteris,
saluberis; <S>:c.
(d) The nom. pi. of -0 stems of all kinds in early inscriptions had
frequently s final, which the ordinary language dropped; e.g.
Minucieis, Vituries, ItaUceis, vireis, publiceis, conscriptes, lieisce,
liisce, Sic. See Book II.
(<?) The ordinary genitive sing, of -a, -e, and -0 stems, e. g. famillse
or familial, diei or die, domini, is either formed by omission of
a final s as in old genitives, familias (for familiaes) ; dies, rabies,
illius (for illo-ius); or is a locative form in -i (so Bopp, Mad-
vig, and others). Only in late inscriptions occur integrltati,
Isidi, &c. for integritatis, Isidis. &c.
Chap. F//I.] Dentals and Lingiiah. z. 6t
(/) In verbs (2nd pers. sing, ot passive voice) amabare, loquerere,
conabere, ivc. for amabaris (old amabares), &c. So the impe-
rative present (unless taken as the bare stem, cf. 5. b) is
formed from the indicative present ; e. g. ama, amate for amas,
amatis, &:c.
The old imperative forms praefamino, progredimino, &c. are for
prsefaminos, progrefiiminos, having same suffix as rvTrr-o/xfi/or,
and therefore belong to {b).
(?) In the early poets, so also frequently in Lucretius and once in
Catullus, the final s before an initial consonant was treated as
omitted; e.g. at end of some hexameters, quoted for this pur-
pose by Cicero {Or. 48, § 161), Qui est omnibu' princeps;
Vita ilia dignu' locoque. Compare Vergil, jEti. xii. 115, Soils
equi lucemque elatis naribus efflant, copied, with a transposi-
tion on this ground, from Ennius (p. 8j, Vahlen), funduntque
elatis naribus lucem.
This letter was common in Umbrian and Oscan. It is found 19^
for instance in the Latin transcription of an Oscan law of the time
of the Gracchi (Corp. Inscr. Lat. No. J 9 7). It is also found in an
extract from the song of the Salii given by Varro {L.L. vii. 26).
In Latin it appears first (unless the above be an exception) in
Cicero's time, merely to write Greek words, which were before
written with s or ss.
The introduction of z into Plautus must therefore probably be
due to a later recension.
In the writers of the 3rd and 4th centuries after Christ z is 195
used for di in the words zaconus, zabulus, zeta, &c. for Sta/coi/o$-,
8idl3oXos, 8iaiTa, &c. So in an Algerian inscription (198 A.D.)
Azabenico for Adiabenico.
The converse is seen in manuscripts giving glycyrridia, gargari-
diare, Medientius for yXvKvppiCa, yapyapl^nv and (Etruscan) Me-
zentius.
(In MoY\c dialect of Lesbos C,a is found for Sm; e.g. f« wktos'.,
and so in tragedy, (('mvpos, Caxpva-os, &c. So tts^'u? for tt(8los,
&:c.). It seems probable that f, and, if so, then Latin z, was (at least
sometimes) sounded like English j (which sound soon rises out of
dy) or French j; but Curtius, Corssen, and others (not Key or
Donaldson) assign it the sound of English z, as in modem Greek.
62 Sounds. \^Book L
CHAPTER IX.
VOWELS.
The Latin vowels will here be treated in the order which ap- ip6
pears to have been followed in the development of the language ;
viz. a, 0, u, e, i. That is to say, where one vowel has given place
to another, it has been in the direction of a to i, not i to a. Thus a
was capable of changing to o, or u, or e, or i ; o to u, or e, or i ;
u to e or i ; e to i. Changes which prima facie seem to be made
in the reverse direction are the result of our regarding, as the
standard form, what is really a later development ^ : e.g. mare, from
the stem (as we now call it) mari- ; effectus fi-om eflficio, &c. (See
Ritschl, BJDe'ni. Mm. (1859) ^'V. p. 406. Opusc. Ii. 622, n.) But
see § 234. 5- and 244. And the priority of e to i in the -i stems
rests on but little positive evidence.
A.
Character: usually as above, but all positions of the middle 197
stroke are found ; e, g. bisecting the angle, or bisecting either side
and parallel to, or touching the bottom of, the other.
Sound: as Continental a ; viz. long a as in psalm- short as the 198
broader pronunciation of pastime.
Position: frequently final ^^
1. in nouns; as nom. (a) and abl. (a) singular, of a- stems, and
nom. ace. neuter plural (a) of all stems;
2. in verbs; only and pers. sing. pres. imperative (a) of a- verbs.
Representation: (i) in Greek by a; e.g. Marcus, Map/coy; 200
Fabius, <l>a/3ios; Publicola, nozrXtKoXas; Alba longa, "Kk&a \oyya
(Dionys. H.);&c. ^^
(ii) of Greek a\ e.g. 'AXAc/xT^rr;, Alcumena (Plant.); 'Ayajxifjivav,
Agamemno; (^dXay^, phalanx; napaniiyixa, parapegma; Sec.
of Greek at; e.g. KpanrdXr], craptila.
^ Corssen contests this, arguing for the priority in some cases of e
to U, and of i to e. A'rif. Bcitr. p. 546 foil. So also Schleicher,
Vergl. Gram. % 49, ed. 2. See also Corssen, Aiissprache, il. 226, ed. 1.
Chap. IX.\ Vowels. A. 63
Correspondence!; i. To an original Indo-European A. ^^
2. a to Greek a (usually); e.g. ago, «yco; angor, ayxoMat; alius,
«XXof; ab, dyro; argentum, apyupos; daps, hcmavr]\ latere, Xa^eti/;
pater, 7rarr;/3; calare, KaXtio] sal, salxun, aXs, o-aXoy; &c.
3. a to Greek f; e.g. angustus, eyyvs; caput, /ce^aX?;; magnus,
/Ltf'ya?; salix, fXiK/y; pateo, Treran^u/xt; quattuor, re'o-crapej; maneo,
/ieVco ; malus bail, jxtXas ; &c.
4. a to Greek o (rare); e.g. salvus, oXoos, comp. 6\oc(j)pa)v]
haru-spex, ;^'oXas ; to co ; e. g. capulum, kcJiti] ; am-axus, co/xoy.
5. a to Greek d, Doric and, after p or a vowel, Attic; other-
wise Attic 77; e.g. suavls, dSvs, i]8vs] clavis (kXuF-), kXciIs, kXtjIs;
malum, app/e, fiaXov, /n^Xoi'; mater, /xdrj/p, fJi.riTrjp] plaga, TrXnyd,
TTATjy??; frater, (ppuTi'jp] fa-ri, (^a/xi, i^T^/xt'; ajo, ijpi] farcio, (ppaaao)]
stare, itrrfl/xi, '[(tttjixi. ; macero, ixaa-a-u) ; pannus, Trdi/os , tttjvos-
6. a to Greek w; e.g. labes, XcJjStj; acer, ocior, wku?.
7. In suffixes, to Greek a or ?;; e.g. ama-, amabo, rtpidco,
Tt/iT/crco; legatis, Xeyr;re; caritas, cj)iX6-Tr]s] musa, povaa:, serva,
SovXtj; nauta, i/aurifs (rauras, Dor.); magna, jnfydXa (neut. pi.); &c.
Contraction, Hiatus, &c. : i. Hiatus is rare; e.g. Gaius, &c. 20a
(§ 139)-
2. a + o to a; e. g. mag-volo, malo : (on the omission of the g,
see § 129. c).
3. a + radical u to au (which then absorbs a short i); e.g. ga-
video, gaudeo; cavitum, cautum; avlceps, auceps ; Sic.
4. a + e to a; amavenmt (later amaverunt), amarunt; &c.
5. a-t-itoe; e.g. amaitis, ametis; &:c.
6. a + i to a; e.g. prima-inus, primanus; ama-itis, amatis;
amavisse (with i.'), amasse ; &c.
Change of quantity: i. in the radical vowel of derivatives; 203
e.g. placere, placare; agere, amb-ages, a-ctus (§ 151, note); sagax,
sagus, prsesagire; frag-ilis, suffragium; flagrare, flagitium, flagito;
tag-, tango, contages; labare, labi; carere, carus (comp. Caristia);
sa-, sator, Saturnus; fateri, fatum, fari; pag-, pango, pad- (pax),
pacare, compages.
^ The instances of co7-respondence of vowels, throughout this chapter,
are taken from Curtius' paper, Uebcr die Spaltnng des A-Lautcs. (Berk/Ue
d. k. sachsischen Gcsdlschaft &^c., Leipzig, 1864.)
64 Sounds. [Book I.
2. Lengthened as a means of inflexion; e.g. caveo, perf. cavl;
faveo, favi; paveo, pavi; lavo, lavi; (perhaps however for cav-ui,
&c.) ; scatoo, scabi. (For jacio, jeci, &c. see below § 204.)
3. Lengthened in compensation for extrusion of a consonant;
e.g. lana comp. with \d^w]\ aranea with dpuxvr]] major for mag-
ior; casum for cassum (cad-tuni); &c.
4. In final syllables often shortened; e.g. in nom. sing, of -a
stems musa, scriba ; &;c., which were probably originally long, and
are sometimes found long in Plautus, Ennius, &c. So teclma for
Before -t; e.g. amat, audiat, regat, &c. ; all originally long.
Also calcar, pulvinar, for calcare, Sic; bidental for bidentale ; Sec.
Chaxge of quality: i. Radical a changed and lengthened 204
by way of inflexion; e.g. jacio, jeci; capio, cepi; facio, feci; ago,
egi; pango, pegi.
a. Radical a changed after a prefix:
(<7) a to 6 before two consonants or a final consonant ; e. g.
carpo, discerpo; spargo, aspergo; farcio, confertus; rapio, correptus;
jacio, rejectus; capio, inceptus; pasco, compesco ; scando, conscendo;
damno, condemno; tracto, detrecto; patro, perpfitro; sacer, con-
secro; fallo, fefelli, refello.
Ars, sellers ; pars, expers; barba, imberbis; ago, remex; facio,
artifex, effectus; caput, anceps; capio, mimiceps; cano, cornicen,
concentus; annus, triennium, perennis; castus, incestus.
(But atastractus, subactus, expanio, exaggero, incandesco, 6cc.)
(ii) a to e before r, or (rarely) some other single consonant,
e.g. patior, perpetior; gradior, ingrfidior; fatisco, defetisccr; fatlgo,
defetigo (also defatigo); pacisccr, depeciscor; paro, impero. squi-
pgro; pario, peperi, comp6rio; balo, anhelo. (Hut compare sutatiabo,
and words compounded with per. post, circum. &c. ; e.g. per-
lacilis, parmaneo, posthabeo, Sec. Also reparo, exaro, Sec.)
(c) a to i before ng; e.g. pango, impingo; frango, confringo;
tango, attingo ; Sec. Before x; e. g. laxus, prolixus.
(<■/) before a single consonant, except r; e.g. rapio, abripio;
sapio, desipio; capio, incipio; apiscor, indipisocr; Mbeo, prcMbeo;
statuo, instituo; fateor, infiteor; lateo, deliiesco; ago. prodigo;
jacio, inicio; facio, inficio; taceo, conticesco ; cano, concino ; maneo,
immineo; cado, incidi; salio, insilio; Sec. (But adanio, adjaceo, Sec.)
tango, tetigi; cado, cecidi; cano, cecini; pango, pepigi.
ratus, irrltus; datus, conditus, conditor; pater, Juppiter; caput,
sinciput; stabulum, prostibulum ; amicus, inimicus; facetus, infics-
tds; facies, superficies; facilis, difficilis.
Chap. /A'.] Vowels. 65
{e) a to u, only before labials, or before 1 with another conso-
nant; e.g. capio, aucupari, ocoupare; rapio, subrupio (early Latin);
tabema, contubemium ; lavo, diluvies ; salto, insulto; calco, inciilco;
salsus, insulsus. So also quatio, concutio, (on account of qu).
cj. Radical a to in derivative; e.g. pars, portio; scabere,
scobis.
4. a as final vowel of stem is changed to i before a suffix
commencing with a consonant; e.g. doma-, doraitum, domitor,
dominus ; cuba-, cubitum, cubiculum ; berba, herbidus ; Stella,
stelliger; tuba, tubicen.
Character: In early inscriptions the is frequently not quite 205
closed.
Sound: Probably varying between aw English and au French. -^oO
Compare the modern Italian. These sounds are heard short in
English not and omit. Apuleius (Met. viil. 29) describes as
as'ino proprium. We express this sound by {Jxe)ba^Jj.
Position: Frequently final; viz. i. in dat. abl. sing, of nouns =07
with stem in -0; e.g. domino, (Sec, and in nom. sing, of nouns with
stem in -on-; e.g. lectio, sermo, margo, &c. and the words, duo,
ego. In the older language was even more frequently final,
owing to the omission of m and s; e.g. optumo, Cornelio, &c.
for optumom, Cornelids (nom.).
2. In first pers. sing, indie, act. of verbs; e.g. amo, amabo,
amavero, &c.; and in 2nd and 3rd pers. sing, future imperative
active; e.g. amato, &;c.
3. In adverbs; e.g. cito, pro, modo, quando, &c.
Representation: (i) in Greek; 6 by w, 6 by o; e.g. Kseso,
Kat'o-a)!/; Capltolinus, KaTrtrcoXIi'os' ; Roma, 'Pco/^jy; Postumius, IIo-
gToi^/itoj; Cornelius, Kopi/TJAtoy; &:c.
(ii) I. of Greek « and o; e.g. AaKeSai'/iow?, LacedamSnic;
apKTov, arcton; a-roixaxos, stomaclias; Ilap/xeVcoi/, Parmeno; Tpcotoy,
Troius; 'PoSo?, Ehodos (orRhodus); &c.
2. of Greek v, e.g. '\ayvvos, lagona or lagoena.
3. 6 is inserted in Latin of second century B.C. where in Greek
two consonants touch; e.g. 'Aya6oK\fjs, Agathocoles ; IlarpoKX^y,
Patricoles; 'HpoKX^s, Hercoles (later Hercules) ; &c.
5
20S
66 Sounds. [£ook J.
Ccrrespondenxe: i. to an original Indo-European A. 2nq
2. 6 to Greek o usually; e.g. boaxe (bovare Enn.), /3oai/; -vdrus,
voraxe, -[iopos, /3t/3pcoo-Kf m^ ; bovis, /3ooy (gen.); dolus, SoXoy; ddmus,
8o/iioy; inc61umis, koAouo); c6ma, koiitj; corvus, Kopa^; coxa, (co;^cow;;
mSrior, ^poros (for ^opros-) ; 6dor, o^co " 6vis, ms ; octo, oktco ; 6c-
ulus, oTT-coTra; orbus, op(^ai/os-; OS, oort'oi'; vox, o\//; portus, Trop-
^p6s; p6tis, TToo-ts; sorbeo, pocjiew; corium, scortum, x^P^ov'i liortus,
XopTos'i rosa, poSoj/; orior, op-vupt; porro, Troppca] ab-61ere, dn-oX-
Xwai; Sec.
-?. 6 to Greek a; e.g. domare, 8ap.av:, dSceo, bi^aa-Kfiv, dormio,
Sap^drco; j6coris (gen.), rJTruTos'i cordis, KapSias; comus, Kpdvov]
Idquor, XuKew; marmor, nappapos] quattuor, rtcra-apes; &:c.
4. 6 to Greek e, chiefly before or after v; e.g. sdcer, eKvpos',
volvo, et'Aco (FeX-); vSlup, i'Xnofiai; v6mo, ep«a> ; novem, eVj/ea
(for veFa); 6b, eVt; cornu, Kepas] n6vus, vtos] c6qvo, TreWo);
torqveo, Tptiroi.
5. 6 to Greek v; e.g. nox, vv^\ mola, piIX/;.
6. 6 to Greek «; e.g. gnosco, yiyvd>(TKOi\ nos, j/co; vos, o-c^co;
ovum, 6)01/ ; ambo, ap.(Pa)] \iinbo, afijiap; domun, ficopoj/; ocior,
(OKVS-
7. in suffixes: 6 to Greek 5; viz. -or- to -op-; e.g. oratoris,
p/iropoj; but also -ijp-; e.g. datoris (gen.), ^oriipos; auditorium,
aKpouTjjpLOi'', &C.
-lor- to -10V-; e.g. maj5ris, fid^ovos', &c.
Substitution: i. for au; e.g. Clodlus for Claudius; olla for 210
aula; plostrum for plaustrum; &c. So after a prefix; e.g. plaudo,
explodo; fauces, suf-foco; &c. (See § 249.)
2. for a in derivatives; e.g. portio from pars, sc6bis from
scabere.
3. for 6 (?) in derivatives; e.g. toga from tdgo; pondus from
pendSre; &c. (§ 234- f)-
Contraction, Hiatus, &c.: i. o + a and o + e remained 2"
without contraction; e.g. co-egi, co-actus (but this may be due
to the m in com).
2. o + i (probably i) occurs in cases of o stems; viz. gen. sing,
e.g. domino-i, domini; dat. e.g. domino-i domino; nom. pi. e.g.
dominoes, dominois, domini Quoi, prain are monosyllabic, though
t*ie vowels remain.
Chap. /A".] Vowels. 0. 67
3. + 0, ore, or i becomes 6; e.g. copia for co-opia, copeiio
for cooperio (but coortus remains uncontracted) ; coventio, contio;
retro-vorsus, retrorsus; coliors, cors; co-igo, cogo; movissa, mosse;
mOvitor, motor; &c.; probeat for proMbeat; comptus for coemp-
tus ; prosa for proversa.
Sometimes where a v has stood between the vowels, the resulting
contraction becomes tl; e.g. novendinse (noundinse old), nundinae;
mdvito, mttto ; bilbus (rarely bobus) for b6vibus ; &c.
Change of Quantity: i. in stems; e.g. molestus, moles 212
(? cf. § 789); v6care, vocem (from vox) ; sdnus, sdnare, persona;
sdpor, sopire; ndta, notus (but agnitus), nomen.
2. lengthened in compensation for an extruded consonant ; e.g.
pono for p6s-no ; glomus for glob-mus ; conubium for com-nubium ;
hoc for liodce ; &c.
In formosus for formonsus; dominos for dominoms; &c. the
length of the is probably due to ns. Cf. § 167. 2.
3. A final 6 is sometimes shortened (see § a 81);
(«) in the nom. sing, of proper names; e.g. Scipi6, &c. So
also mentiO.
{h) in the ist pers. sing, active present indicative; e.g. veto,
put6; rarely in other parts of the verb; e.g. dabd, casdito, oderb;
&c.
(f) in a few other words; e.g. egd, clt6; and sometimes in
porro, intro, modo.
4. in final syllables of Latin words 6 followed by a consonant is
regularly shortened; {a) in nom. sing, of stems in -or; e.g. hondr,
sordr, orat6r, majdr; (Z-) in ist pers. sing, of passive voice; e.g.
amdr, amabOr, audior; &c. (f) in 2nd and 3rd pers. sing. fut. imper.
pass.; e.g. amatftr, &c.
Change of Quality. The general change of o to u took 213
place about the same time as that of 6 to i, see § 234. But it was
retained after v till later (§ 93) and always in suffix -olus after i or e
(infi\ %b).
Thus I. to u (usually) before two consonants (mn, nc, nd, nt,
It, St); e.g. («) in 3rd pers. plural of verbs; e.g. dederont, dedro
(old), dederunt; cosentiont, consentiunt; legunt compared with
\iyovTi (Att. XiyovdC). So vivont, vivunt; loquontur, loquntur,
later loquimtur ; comfluont, confluunt; &c.
{U) in final syllable of stem; e.g. colomna (old form: comp.
TV7rro/i€voy), columna; tiron-, tirunculus; qussstion-, qu^stiuncula ;
homon-, homunculus; arbos, arbustum; minor (for minos), minus-
culus; nocturnus compared with j/v/crcop; &c.
5-2
68 Sounds. [Book I.
(c) sometimes in root vowel; e.g. hone, hunc; poplicus,
puplicus; Poplius, Publius; Polcer, Pulcer; moltaticod, multatico;
oquoltod {S. C. de Bacc), occulto; volt, VTxlt; adolesce, adultus;
conctos, cunctos ; sesconcia, sescuncia ; nontiata, nuntiata ; nondiniun,
nuiidmum ; &c.
2. 6 to u, (-7) before a final consonant; e.g. donom, donum;
locom, locum; duonoro, bonorum; filios, filius; Comelio, Cornelius;
equos, ecus, later equus; quom, cum; mortuos, mortuus; femor-,
femur; corpos-, corpus; cosol, consul; majos, majus (neat.) ; illo-,
illud; &c.
But remained in sequor, marmor. (In uxor, honor, moneor,
major, &c. the is properly long, and hence is not changed.)
(b) in a suffix before 1 unless followed by i (infr. 5) ; e.g. popdlus,
populus ; parvolus, parvulus ; singolis, singulis; tabola, tabula ; semol,
simul; conciliaboleis (A.U.C. 632), conciliabulis ; Hercoles, Hercules ;
&c. (The i in singulis &c. is only inflexional.) But after e. i, or
V, the was often preserved; e.g. aureolus, filiolus, Scsevola; &c.
3. The root vowel is changed in adulescens from adole-,
tuli for older toll, I bore. (But stultiloquus, concolor, benivolus,
innScens, dissonus, &c. ; arrogo, evomo, &c. retain 0).
4. to e, (rt) (sometimes) before two consonants (st, nt, nd) ;
e.g. honos-, honestas; majos-, majestas; temp6s-, tempestas; funds-,
funestus. So in present participle and gerundive ferenti- compared
with (jifpovT-; faciendus (and faciundus), with presumed common
original faciondus; (cf. § 618) &c.
(b) as final vowel ; e. g. censuerS (in S. C. de Bare.) for censuoront
(censuerunt) ; ipse, ist6, illS, for ipsus (old ipsos) ; &c. So the
vocatives; e. g. taure for taiuros or tauro-; and adverbs; e.g. bSne
forbonod; certe and cert5; anxie for anxiod ; Sec. (In other words
where is final a loss has already taken place (cf. § 42); e.g.
cardo, for cardons; rego for rSgom; &c.)
(f) After V the republican language (but see § 93) showed in
some words, where later e was usual; e.g. voster, vorto and its
derivatives, vorro, v6to; later vester, verto, &c., verro, veto.
5. 6 to 6: (rt) before 11; e.g. velle for volSre; vello, pello,
-cello, compared with p6pul-i, vul-sum, (volseUa,, pincerj), -culsum;
ocellus (for ocololus) from oculus. (But lapillus from lapid-, &c. ;
ille for ollus; tollo compared with tuli. In corolla, olla, Pollio or
Polio, Marullus for maronulus, &c. the is long.)
(b) before r followed by a vowel; e.g. foederis compared with
foedus; funeris with funus; vulnero with vulnus; &c. (0 is pre-
sumed as the common original ; cf. yevos-)
Chap. /X] Vo7vcls. U. 69
(f) before a single consonant and after i; e.g. socio-, sociStas;
pio-, pifitas; &:c.
6. 6 to (usually) i; in final stem syllable, before a single
consonant followed by a vowel, except 1 not followed by i, and
except before r; e.g. legimus compared with Xf'yo/xeM and volumus;
cardon-, cardinis; homon-, hominis; cselo-, cslitus; alto-, altitudo;
bono-, bonitas (compared with tVor?;?, S^^-)\ amico-, amicitia;
uno-, unicus; armo-, armipotens; fato-, fatidicus; fago-, faginus;
stereos-, sterquilinium ; incola, inquilinus ; humo-, humilis; simol
(later simul), similis; ficto-, fictilis (compared with crusto-, crus-
tulum, <Scc.) ; &;c.
So also senatuos, senatuis; Castoris compared with Kao-ropof,
old Lat. Kastorus.
Omission: apparently in victrix, compared with victor-; 2,4
tonstrina with tonsor-, cf § 209. 7 ; neptis with nepot- (nepos).
U.
Character: In inscriptions always as English V: the rounded 215
form is found in MSS., the earliest extant being the papyrus from
Herculaneum.
Sound: as Italian u; i.e. il as English u in brute (or 00 in pool, 216
fooT) \ u same sound shortened. An owl's cry is written tutu in
Plant. Men. 653.
Position: u never final, except in inscriptions, chiefly post- 21-
Augustan, in which a final s or m has been omitted, il is final only
in some cases of nouns with stems in u; and the adverbs diu,
noctu, simitu.
It is frequent in suffixes before 1, unless 1 is followed by i (see
Book III).
Representation: (i) in Greek; i. usually by ov whether the 213
Latin vowel be short or long; e.g. Regulus, 'Py^youAoj; Venusia,
Ouewno-ia ; Postiimius, noo-rou/xto?; Superbus, 2ot7rep/3os'; Vibula-
nus, Oi;t/3ouXai^of ; Vitulum, Ov[rov\ov\ Belluti, BfXXoi^rot; (Dion.
Hal.); Novum Comum, No/3ou/x/ca)/uoi;;x; Mantua, Mai^roua (Strabo) ;
AppMeius, 'ATTTTouXijtos' {Mon. Ancyr.') ; &c. For u in suffixes,
see § 220. For v after s and g, see § 90.
2. ■& by o, chiefly before X, p or a vowel (see § 213. 2. U) ; e.g.
Amulius, 'AyaoXXto? (Appian), 'A/ioi;Xio? (Plut., Polyoen.) ; Liicullus,
Af v/coXXo? and AoiJ/couXXos' ; Cluentius, KXoeVrto? (Appian); Curius,
Koptoj (Polyb.), Koi^pio? (Plut., App.); Fulvius, ^oKovlos (also
4>ovXoi'toj, <I>oi>Xouio?, <I>oi;X/3£o?) ; Coruncanius, Kopoy/cai/ios (Polyb.),
KopovyKaKtoff (Appian); Satuminus, 2aropi/ii/or and 'S.aTovpv'ivo%\
Mummius, Moixfiios (Plut.), Moup/xio? (App.) : &c. noTrXtos (Polyb.)
really represents the early form Poplius, not Publlus (noinrXios)-
According to Dittenberger (Hermes, VI. 282) inscriptions before
Christ always give o, not ov.
Sounds, [Book I.
3. by v\ e.g. Tumus, Tvpi/os-; Tullius, Ti/XXto? (Dion. H.);
Capuam, Y>.anvr]v (Polyb., Diod., &c.); Romulus, 'Pco/inXoj (Dio
C); &;c., but also Toupi/os, ToiAXtos (Dio Cass.); Lutatius, Aurd-
Ttos (Polyb.; others have Aovr.). Sulla is always 2t;XXas.
4. by e ; only in some non-Roman names, e. g Brundusium,
BpeireVto;/; Bruttii, BpeVrioi (but App. also Bpijrrtoi) ; Numgrius,
Nf/Mtpio? (Inscr., Nou/^epios, Dio, Plut.); Numitor, Nf/ieVwp (No/ij;-
T-ojp, Plut., Nou/itVcop, Strab.).
5. sometimes omitted; e.g. Lentulus, AevrKos; (Appian, Pint.);
Catulus, KdrXoi- (Appian, Plut.); Tusculum, ToioKXov (Strabo,
Plut.); Figulus, 4>iyXos'; &:c., cf. intY. § 225.
6. a. (sometimes) by ev ; e.g. Lucius, A fVKios(Mon.uincyr.,Flut);
Lucullus, AeuKoXXoj (Appian); Lucani, AtvKavoi (always); &c.
(ii) I. of Greek v before Cicero's time (see§ 56); e.g. Tlvppos, 219
Burrus; ^pvyes, Bruges (Ennius); rXuKe'pa, Glucera; 'Ha-vxi-ov, He-
sucMum ; AvkIovs, Lucios ; <I>tXdpyiipos, Pilargurus, Philargurus ;
2i5pof . Sums ; all in Republican inscriptions. So trutina for rpvTavTj.
Similarly Plautus must have written sucopanta for o-vKo^air/;? ;
muropolac! ior pvporrSiXai; sumlDoliun for o-i'/i/^oXof; &c. Compare
Bacch. .362, " Nomen mutabit mihi, facietque extemplo Crucisalum
me ex Crusalo {^x^pva-akoi)^
2. ii of Greek a in suffixes before 1; e.g. KpanrdXt], crapula;
a-KVTiikrj, scutula (later scytale).
3. u of Greek o; e.g. Kodopvos, cothurnus; apooyT], amurca;
Trop(f)vpa, purpura; eniaToXT], epistula; /coXeos (Ep. KovXfoi),
culleus.
4. ■& of Greek ou; e.g. AvKovpyng, Lycurgus; Uea-a-ivovs,
Pessinus; StTroCy, Sipus (Lucan: but Sipontum, Cic).
Corresponden'CE: i. to an original Indo-European u; and 220
to a.
2. to Greek v] e.g. miicus, mungo, -pva-a-a, pvKTTjp; lupus,
\vKos; Hv-idus, iimor, vypos; cubare, KinrTco; gltlbo, yXvcjxo; fiimus,
6va), 6vpos\ ecfutio, futtilis, -^^v-, ;;^ecd, x^o"'fi cluo, inclutus, AcXrco,
/cXiVor; cucQlus, kokkv^ (kokki"-)/-) ; luceo, lux, dpcfiL-XvKri, Xvxfos,
jugum, ^wyoi/; lilgere, Xvypos] fui, </n'co; sus, Is] mus, pfy; rufus,
ruber, epvdpos; &c.
3. to Greek o; e.g. bulbus, ^oX/So?; upupa, eVo-v//'; nummut.,
fopos; umbilicus, dpcfiaXos] unguis, ow^; sHcus, onos; uter (for
quoter), noTepos; fungus, a(p(jyyos; luxus, Xo^os; uncus, oyKos.
In suffixes; e.g. gSnus, yevos] lupus, Xikos] Ifigunt, Xtynvtri
for Xty ovTL.
4. to Greek oj; e.g. ciiueus, KcScoy; filr, ^c?p; ulna, coXfi/??;
Gmgrus, co/xoy.
Chap. /X] Vowels, u. 71
5. to Greek a; e.g. umbo, a^^cop; ursus, apKroi] puer, TraTr;
hfimi, vaMfl''; sturaus, i/^op.
6. to Greek e; e.g. mulgeo, «/ue'XyG); ulcus, cAkos-; suus, ec?;
tUUS, TfOi.
7. inserted between two consonants in early Latin in words
obtained by oral tradition, not through literature'; e.g. Alcflmena,
'AXKfjLrjvTj; .Ssculapius, 'Ao•^■Xr/7I•£os•; Hercules (also Hercoles), 'Hjja-
KXrjs] Tecumessa, TeKurja-a-a:, dracuma or drachuma, dpdxM-
Substitution: i. for a radical a (after a prefix) before labials, 2^1
or 1 with another consonant; e.g. tabema, contubemium ; salto,
lusulto; &c. (see § 204. 2. e).
2. tl for au; after a prefix; e.g. causa, ac-ciiso; claudo,
excludo; &c. Frildare, clildus, &c. seem to be earlier forms for
fraudare, claudus.
3. for before two consonants, or a final consonant, or a suffix
beginning with 1; e.g. hone, liunc; robor-, robur; singolus, singulus;
&c. (see § 213).
4. a for older oi or oe; e.g. oinos, oenus, unus; oitile, atile;
moiuicipieis, moenia, miiiiicipiis, mQnia; &c.
5. -0. for older ou ; chiefly after the time of the Gracchi ; e. g. jus,
Judex for jous, joudex; abducit for abdoucit ; (see § 251).
Contraction, Hiatus, &c.: u + e and u + i are contracted 2?2
into u in some cases of substantives with u stems; e.g. senatuis,
senatus; senatui, senatu; gradues, grades. In the words huic, cul
(for hoic, quoi) and interjection hul, ui is a single syllable, probably
pronounced like French cut or Engl. r^ue.
Before other vowels, and before these in other cases, u rem.ains,
usually as vowel, but sometimes as consonant: see § 92.
Change of Quantity: i. in root syllable; e.g. i-udis, crudus; 223
piisillus, pusio; fluvius, fluvidus and fluvidus (both in Lucret.);
lucema, luceo, lux (luc-); due- (dux), dfico; jugum, jugerum;
ruber, rufus, robigo ; putris, puteo, piltidus; rumpere (rup-), rupes.
2. lengthened by way of inflexion in perfect tense; e.g. fugio,
fUgl; fundo (fud-), fiidi; rumpo (rup-), rupi; juvo, jGvi (for
juvui?). The u in perfect of verbs with u stems is probably long,
but becomes short before the following vowel; e.g. pluo (for
pluvo, cf. pluvia), perf. pliii (for plflvi), usually plui; Sec. (Corssen
considers the u in the present also to be properly long.)
Eitsclil, Opiisc. II. 450.
7 2 Sounds [Book I.
3. lengthened by compensation for an extruded consonant; e.g.
dilmus for dus-mus (comp. haa-xn).
CiiAXGE OF Quality: i. The short vowel before a suffix 224
commencing with m, p, or f, is usually written u in prae- Augustan
inscriptions, i aftenvards. Thus in prae-Augustan inscriptions max-
umus, optumus, proxsumus, sanctissumus, vicensumus, decumus,
maritumus ; aestumo, recupero ; aiirufex, ponttifex; &c. Jul. Ci?sar is
said to have first written i, which is somewhat^ rare in Republican
inscriptions, but is exclusively used in the Monum. Ancyr., and is
most usual in and after the Augustan age. Quintilian (i. 4, 8)
describes this vowel (instancing optimus) as intermediate between
u and i. In Greek almost always t, never v; e.g. Ma^t/^os, AeKifios,
HovTLipiKes- but also in inscr. Aexo/jf-s, AsKov/ios, 2f7rrov/xe. Au-
gustus is said to have written simus for sumus, q.ue are.
The dat. abl. plural of stems in u probably had the ending
-ubus in all originally, which some retained always; e.g. acubus,
arcubus, &:c. ; (but manibus, exercitibus, &c.)
Similarly clupeus, mancupem, lubens are earlier forms than
clipeus, mancipem, libens; &c. In Vergil obstipui for obstupm.
2. Before suffixes not commencing with labials, u becomes i;
e.g. comu-, comiger; gelu, gelidus ; arcus, arcitenens; &c.
Caputalem (5. C. eld Bacc), manufestus are earlier fomis than
capitalem, manifestus.
3. For some o'her words (e. g. funus, fiuier-is ; vul-sum, vello;
&c.) in which u appears to have been only a transition vowel, sec
§ 313. 5. For genmdus &c. see § 618.
Omission : The suffixes -culo-, -pulo- were shortened to -clo-, 225
-plo- sometimes in prose; e.g. Asclani for Asculani; vinclum for
vinculum ; nucleus for nuculeus (Plant.) ; bercle for bercule ; and
often in verse; e.g. maniplus, circlus, saeclum, periclum, oraclum,
spectaclum, tomaclum ; Sec. So usually assecla, nomenclator; and
always, disciplina, simplus, duplus, &c. Lucretius has (once)
coplata for copulata. Instances of -glo- are rare, e.g. figlinus for
figulinus often ; singlariter for singulariter once (Lucr.). Plautus
has always columen for (later) culmen. Comp. § 218. 4.
Character : as above, but with the horizontal hues sometimes 226
very short. In the very oldest inscriptions probably before 500 u.c.
another form, 1 1, is found frequently, but not exclusively. It is also
common in the cursive winting of the Pompeian inscriptions, though
^ The earliest instance infimo in an inscription of the year 623 u. c.
{Corp. I. R. 199), ■which everywhere else has infumo, is perhaps a slip
of the stonecutter.
Chap. /X] Vowels. E. 73
rare in any other inscriptions, at least of republican times. (See
also F § 95.)
Sound: e probably varying between e and e French. These 227
sounds are heard short as e in Engl, net., and (the first) a in aerial.
Position : frequently final ; viz. e in gen. dat. abl. singular of 22S
noun stems in -e, and in 2nd pers. sing. pres. imper. act. of verbs
with -e stems: also in pronouns me, te, se, preposition e, conjunc-
tion ne, and adverbs (e.g. docte).
e is final in abl. sing, of nouns WMth consonant, and (often) -i
stems (e. g. patre, puppe) ; in nom. sing, of neuter -i stems (e. g.
mare); in voc. sing, of stems (e.g. taure), and nom. sing. masc. of
some pronouns (e. g. ill6) ; in many parts of verbs, especially the 2nd
person (e.g. regS, regite, regebarg, regare, regere, regere, and 3rd
pers. rexere, &:c.); also some adverbs, prepositions, &c. (e.g. toenS,
inde, -ciue, ante, &c.)
Medial e is frequent before two consonants, or 11; e.g. perfectus,
vello; and before r. Cf. § 204, 2, b\ 213. 5, b\ 234, 3, b.
Representation : (i) in Greek, e by ?;, e by e ; Menenius, 2^9
Mfj/fjwoj; Cornelius, Kopi/r/Xtos; Veturius, Ouerouptos- ; Tiberius,
Ti/3epto?; Metellus, M«'reAXos-; &c.
e by a in Calendse, KaXai/5at (always) ; by t in Puteoli, IlortoXot
(Inscr. always).
(ii) I. of Greek t;, and e; e.g. 7;&5o? Ep., fwof Att., eous, Sous;
A^yni/o9,Lemnos; eXXe'/yopoi/jlielieborum; nepo-e(/)wf;, Persephone; &;c.
2. before vowels, of f?; e.g. jSakave'ioi', balineum; TrXarfla,
platea; Alueias, Aeneas; 'AXf^di/Speta, Alexandrea (Cic); Aapelos,
Dareus (Cic); &c. But 'Akf^wSprja, Sec. are found in papyri.
3. of Greek t; e.g. /co;(Xias', cochlea; i-auo-ia (Att. i/auT-t'a), nausea.
Correspondence: i. to an original Indo-European a. 230
2. 6 to Greek e (usually); e.g. fremo, jipuioy; genus, yeVo? ;
sSdeo, eSoy ; 6do, e'Sw ; sex, 'i^ ; septem, (.ttto. ; serpo, epTrco ; est,
eVri ; 6t, eVi ; cervus, Kepaos ; lego, Xeyco ; leo, X/coi/ ; mel, peXi ;
mgdeor, /leSopai ; mgdius, pe'0-0? ; mens, ^eVoy; pSto, TreVo/^ai ; rgpens,
peVco ; sgverus, (Ttiiop.cn ; que, re ; hSri, ^Bis ; &;c.
to Greek rj\ e.g. fgra, OPip ; j6cur, rfirap.
3. 6 to Greek a; e.g. brSvis, jSpaxvs (§ 129. 2. c) ; centum,
(Karov ; cerebrum, Kcipa ; egenus, ax^via ; 16vis, iXaxvs ; per, irapa ;
pre-hendo, xavhavui ; stemuo, irTapvvco ; vlber, ov6ap ; venter, yaarTjp.
4. 6 to Greek o; e.g. gSnu, yow] dentis, oSoj-ror; fel, -oXoy;
herba, (l)op^r) ; sfirum, dpoj ; p6dem, TroSa.
5. e to Greek ,7; mensis (§ 167), ii^v\ ne, 1.7?'; lien, o-TrXjf:/;
8tr5nuus, orprjrjfy; semi-, 7;/ii-: to Greek «; e.g. me, pa] t§, ae.
74 Sounds. \^Book J.
6. e to Greek w ; e. g. venum, Zvos-
7. In suffixes 6 to e ; e.g. lege, Xc'ye; legitg, Xf-yere ; gengris,
■ye'i/eo?; dextfir, 8t^'iTij)oi\ Sec. Compare also in6-inini, fxe-fxuua
(cf. §665).
6 to a ; e.g. nomSn, ovofia {ovojxaT-).
e (old ti) to o; legent-, Xeyo^r-; Sec.
Substitution : i. e, for radical a after a prefix, is found before 231
two consonants or a final consonant, or r, or sometimes other single
consonants; e.g. tracto, detrecto ; pars, expers; cano, comicen;
parlo, peperl; gradior, ingredior; &c. (§ 204).
2. for radical 0, before 11; e.g. vello compared with vulsi ;
ocellus for ocololus ; &:c. (§ 213. 5): and after v in vSster, verto,
&c. (§ 93).
3. for suffixed (§ 213);
(i?) before r followed by a vowel, or after i before other single
consonants ; e. g. gengris from genus (yeVoy) ; soci6tas from socius
(stem socio-) ; hietare compared with fluitare, &c.
(b) before two consonants; e.g. faciendus for faciundus, older
faciondus ; tempestas from tempos- ; &;c.
(c) in final syllables ; e. g. censuere for censueront ; ille for
illus (illo-) ; domine for dominfis or dominiis ; &c.
4. for ae, not frequent till in and after third century after Christ
(see § 262).
Contraction, Hiatus, &c. :
1. e + e to e; e.g. deleverunt, delerunt ; del5v6rat, delerat ; 232
deerat, deesse, deest always to derat, desse, dest ; ne liemo (old for
homo), nemo ; prfehendo, prendo ; &:c.
2. e + i to e, or (especially if the contraction was not constant)
ei ; e. g. delevlsse, delesse ; dehilDeo, debeo ; mone-is, mones.
dsin, deinde, deinceps, (never uncontracted till late) ; dehinc as
monosyllable occasionally ; ei (also ei), eidem (dative), often.
So also rei, spei, fidei, diei &c., often written re, spe, fide,, die.
In Vergil, &c. also aurei, aureis, aerei, ferrei ; and Greek proper
names as Terei, Thesei, Orphei, Pelei, &c., sometimes written
Teri, &c.
In reice for rejice, eicit (Lucr.) for ejicit, eius (rarely a mono-
syllable), Pompei (voc.) something of the consonantal sound of j
may have remained (§ 138). Anteit is used as a trochee, the e being
elided. So also ante ea becomes antea.
Chap. /,V.] Vowels. E. 75
%. e before a, o, u, remained usually a vowel, and without con-
traction; e.g. moneas; saxeo, saxea, saxeum ; eiint, earn, eo ; &c.
But in the following, e was probably pronounced as j, so as not to
form a separate syllable; eodem, eadem, eaedem, eorundem (Lucr.,
Verg.); alveo, alvearia, aureo, aurea (Verg.), ostrea, cerea,(Hor.);
alveo, aureo, aureie, aurea (Ov.): and Greek proper names; e.g.
Idomeneos, Peleo, Perseo, Mnestheo; &c. After the Augustan age
this use was confined to proper names and the cases of balteus,
aureus, alveus.
So, in comic poets, in the cases of the following words, meus,
deus, 80, earn (both the pronoun and verb).
It is contracted in neve, neu; ne-uter, neuter; &c. revorsus,
rursus; and probably in seorsum (sometimes written sorsum),
deorsum; omitted in n-usqvam, n-utiqvam.
Change of Quantity: i. in roots; e.g. r^gere, rex (reg-); ^33
tfigere, tegula ; 16gere, lex (leg-) ; sedere, sedes ; Mrus, lieres.
2. lengthened, as a means of inflexion ; e.g. 16go, legi ; 6do, edi ;
Efideo, sedi ; vfiaio, veni ; 6mo, emi.
3. lengthened in compensation for the extrusion of a consonant;
e. g. deni for d6eini ; se-viri for sex-viri ; dumetum for dumectum ;
&c. In vicies for viciens; vicesimus for vicensinius; Hcrtesia for
Hortensia; the long e is probably due to ns. Cf § 167. 2.
4. In final syllable often shortened; e.g. toene, malg, supem6,
infemg, (compared with docte, &c.) ; so in the imperatives cavg,
vld6, (see § 279) ; and frecjuently in the comic poets, in verbs
with short penult; e.g. ten6, move, tacg, manS, vidS, liatag, jubg.
Mongt, amgt, reg6t, (for monet, &c.) ; tergs, equgs, &c. (for
terets, <S:c.) ; viden (for videsne) ; compes, deses (for comped-s, &c.).
In the ablative of -i stems, and of consonant stems; e.g. nulbg,
principg, the final syllable was probably once in -ed; e.g. nubed,
principed. The earliest fomis actually found in inscriptions are
airid, aire, patre, nominid, coventionid ; and, in and after the time
of the Gracchi, e. g. virtutei, salutei, luci, deditioni, fontei, cmiiei,
parti, vectigali, &c.
Change of Quality: i. g is found in the old language, in 234
many places where an i is found later. The change began'towards
the end of 5th century u.c, and was completed, with some excep-
tions, before Plautus's time' (Ritschl, Opusc.u. 623); e.g. s6mul,
fuet, dedet, mereto, tempestatebus, casdete, Fabrecio, &c. for simul,
fuit, dedit, merito, tempestatibus, cseditis, Fabricius, &c.
76 Sounds. [Book I.
2. 6 IS found in a final suffix, where i is found before s or d, e
being according to Ritschl (§ 196) tlie earfier vowel; e.g. facile,
facilis; marS, maris; mage, magis; fortasse, fortassis; pote, potis ;
aere, aerid (old abl. but see § 2;,3); rege, regis; r6ge, regis; ama-
bare, amabaris; amabere, amaberis; fateare, fatearis; capg, capis;
&c.
3. g is changed to i, in a final syllable to which a letter or
syllable (one or more) is suffixed ; —
(rt) either if e be final and the suffix begin with a consonant ;
ille, illic (for illice) ; iste, istic (for istice) ; tute, tutine, tutimet ;
nunce, nuncine; sice (i.e. sic), sicine; unde, undique; inde, indidem;
poste (old form of post), postidea ; ante, antidhac, anticipo, antistes;
bene, benivolus, benignus ; male, malificus, &:c. ; pave-, pavldus ;
pude-, pudibundus; rube-, rubicundus ; mone-, monitus ; morde-,
mordicus ; babe-, babito; pate-, patibulum; rege, regite, regito; forte,
fortiter ; radice, radicitus ; babe-, babilis.
(In nubes, esuries, &c. ; amares, ames, mones, &c., the e is long,
arising fi^om contraction with the initial vowel of the suffix. So
originally amet, monet ; &c.)
(Zi) or, if e be not final, but the suffix begin with a vowel ;
e. g. ales, alitis ; pedgs, peditis ; antistes, antistita, antistitem ;
tibiceu, tibicmis, tibicina ; agmen, agminis ; semen, seniino ; manceps,
manciipsm (old mancupem) ; biceps, bicipitem ; vertex, verticis ;
artifex, artificis ; decem, declmus.
But e remains after the vowel i, or before r (or tr) ; e.g. aries,
arletis ; tener, tenera ; piper, piperis ; aaser, anserem ; regis, regSris ;
genitor, genetrix; &c. ; or if the suffix begin with a consonant;
e.g. ales for alet-s ; obses (for obsed-s); lamella (for lamen-la)
compared with lammina; nutrimen, nutrimentum (but nutriminis);
senex, senectus ; pedes, pedester ; potestas compared with potis,
pote ; patens, compared with patina ; (comp. viden for videsne).
Other exceptions are rare; e.g. fasnisex, faenlsScis ; seges, seg6-
tis ; (Pudefacio, &c. are not complete compounds, as is evident from
the accent and vowel a being retained ; e.g. pudefacis).
4. Radical 6 changed to i when a syllable has been prefixed ;
e.g. 16go, coUigo, dillgo, &c. (but intellfigo, neglego, rel6go ; contego,
&;c.); rggo, corrigo; 6mo, adimo; s6co, subsicivus; teneo, retineo;
6geo, indigeo; pr6mo, opprimo; teneo, protinus; but decem, unde-
cim, where the penultimate remains, but the final is changed.
But not before r or two consonants; e.g. refero, consentio; Sec.
5. The root vowel is (apparently) changed from e to in some
derivatives; e.g. tSgo, t6ga; sequi, socius; precari, prdcus; pendo,
pondus; terra, extorris; s6rere, sors; perhaps r6g6re, rdgus. Pro-
bably the is directly from the original a.
Chap. IX\ Vowels. I. 77 '
, ^ . s
6. e to I, frequently through ei as an intermediate sound; e.g.
matre, Maurte, Junone in old inscriptions, for matri, Marti, Junoni ;
conscriptes, Atilies for conscript!, Atilii (nom. pi. see Book II); &c.
leber, leiber, liber. So sibe, quase, are old forms, used by Livy
(Quint. I. 7. 24); and duovlr jure dicxmdo, tresviri auro aere
argento flando, feriundo, etc. apparently are forms retaining the old
dative. On the general theory, see § 196.
Omission : i. 6, in a root syllable which has received prefixes 235
or suffixes, is sometimes omitted; e.g. gigno for giggno (or gigino) ;
malignus for maligenus ; gnatus for ggnatus.
2. Before r the vowel 6 is frequently omitted; e.g. September,
Septembris ; acer, acris ; f rater, fratrein ; ager, agrum ; inferus,
injEira; dextera, dextra; noster, nostra; ludibrium; &c.
3. Final e fell off; (a) in neuter nom. ace. of stems in al- and
ax-; e.g. calcar, laquear ; tribunal, puteal; &c. So also lac (for
lact, for lacte, nom. sing.) ; volup for volupe ; simul for simile.
(1^) in enclitic particles; e.g. Mc, haec, hoc, &c. (for Mce, &c.),
illic, istic, sic, nunc, tunc ; nee, ac, for nece, ace, for neque,
atque ; vidgn for vides-ne ; potin for potis-ne ; quin for qui-ne,
sin for sl-ne. (In seu, neu for sive, nive (old seve, neve), fili for
filie, a contraction has taken place.)
4. On the omission of e in est and es after a vowel or m, see
Book II.
Character : as above. In the first century B.C., probably not 236
before Sulla's time, began the habit of making a tall I to indicate the
long vowel. (See § 59. 2.)
Sound; as in Italian, viz.: i as in English machine; i same 237
sound shortened. But in some classes of words, e.g. vir, qvjrites,
optimus, there is some evidence for a modified sound of i, perhaps
a fine Germ. ti. See Preface; also §§ 90, 2; 184, 3.
- Position: I is never final; except i. in quasi, nisi, sicuti;238
and 2. (short or long) in mitii, tibi, sibi, ubi, ibi.
i frequently final ; i. in gen. and loc. sing, and nom. pi. of
o stems (e.g. domini) ; sometimes gen. and dat. sing, of a stems,
e stems and u stems (e. g. musai, diei, domui) ; dat. sing, of conso-
nant stems, and dat. abl sing, of i stems (e.g. nomini, mari);
and dat. sing, of many pronouns; e.g. illi ; 2. some adverbs, once
7 8 Sounds. ^Book I.
oblique cases; e.g. lieri, vesperi, ubi, uti, si; &;c. 3. ist and 2nd.
persons sing. perf. ind. active and present infinitive passive of all
verbs, and 2nd pers. sing, imperative active of I- verbs (e.g. audivi,
audivlsti, audiri, audi).
Representation: (i) in Greek, i. i by i, e.g. Gaius Livlus, ^-.^
Vciios Ai/3toy ; Claudius, KXavStoy ; Titus Otacilius, TiVo? 'Okto-
Kt'Atos (Polyb.); Priscus, npta-Kus\ Opiter, 'Otriraip (Dion. H.);
Capitolium, KairiTcoXiov (Strab., Dion. H., Plut.); KaniTcoXlvos
(Dion, H., Dio. Cass.); Sec.
By e; e.g. Capitolium, KanermXiov (Polyb.. Strab., Plut.), KaTre-
TcoXivos (Diod. S., Dion. H.); Atilius, 'AreAioj (Dion. H., 'AriXios
Diod. S.); Tiberis, Te/Sfpis (Dion. H. but Ti'/Stpts Strab., D. Cass.).
In inscriptions are sometimes found (besides forms with i) Te-
^€pio!i (so always before Tiberius' adoption by Augustus. Ditten-
berger, Herm. VI. 133), AeVeSoy, Ao/xeTioy, and others; often
KaTTfTcoXtoi', 'O0eXXtoy (but also in Latin Ophellius), Aeyewj/.
By v; e.g. Bibulus, 'Qv^Xos (inscr.).
By a in suffixes; e.g. bflclna, ^vmurj (Polyb.).
Sometimes omitted, e.g. Decimus, A^Kfios.
2. i by r; e.g. Capitolinus, KaTnroiX'ivos (videsupr.); Albinus,
'\Xi3lvos'i Scipio, 2/ci7ri'coi/ (Diod. S., Appian, Strabo); Tibur, Tt-
^ovpa; Tarracinam, TappaKivav (Strabo).
By 7; ; e. g. Scipio, "S.Krjnioiv (Plut.).
(ii) I. of Greek t; e.g. KaXXtKX^s, Calllcles; UaLyvlov, Paeg-
nium; rpa7rf^tV»;r, trapessita; 'A/3S;;ptV7^y, Abderites; eeVty, Thetis.
2. i of Greek a in suffixes; e.g. pia)(^Liva (Dor.), machina; rpv-
rdvT], trutina; Karavrj, Catina; (Sec.
3. i of Greek et; e.g. TreipaTijs, pirata; NflXoy, Nilus; dXeiTTTr}:,
alipta; 'AvTioxeia, Antiochia; Sec.
4. i inserted in early Latin (cf. § 220. 7) between kv, x^, mi')'
e.g. npoKvi], Procine; kvkvos, cucinus; tecina, re'^i/j;; mina, fiva.
Correspondence: i. to original Indo-European i; and to a. 240
2. to Greek t; e.g. die- in-dico, causidic-us, dico, SUr],
SeUvvixi ; viginti, fiKoa-i ; cio, kicj, Kivta ; clx-vus, recli-nare, kXii"],
kXItvs ; cri-brum, cer-no, Kplvco ; Memps, ;^tQjj/ ; frio, fiico, XP^'^ !
stinguo, stimulus, oriyco, orty/x;; ; tri- (e.g. tria), rpflj, rpiros;
divus, dies, 8los, f u-5/a ; video, vidi; Id-, etSoi/; scindo, axi8-,
(T;^i{'a);pilleus, ttiXo?; frigus, plyoj; quis, xi's; vis, 'Is {lu-); vitex,
vitis, trvs ; viola, 'lou ; &c.
3. to Greek e ; e.g. in, indo (old, endo), intus, eV, ev8ov,
(VTos ; rigo, /Spexo> ; strigilis, arXeyyls ; tinguo, Ttyya.
4. to Greek ft, ot; e.g. fido, fides, -rveWu, ; quies, Keljiai, kditt] ;
pingo, pic-tura, ttolkiXos ; linquo, relicLuus, Xelnoo, Xoinoi.
Chap. /X] Vowels. I. 79
5. to Greek «; e.g. in-, av- (Engl. m«-); digitus, fia/cTuXoy;
pinguis, Traxi^s- ; strlngo, o-rpay-yfiJco.
6. to Greek o ; e.g. cinis, kovls ; imber, Z\x^po^.
Substitution : i. i for a in root syllable after a prefix, before 241
a single consonant (except r), and before ng; e.g. tango, tetigi ;
cano, concino; facetus, inficetus; pango, impingo; &:c. (see § 204).
^. (a) I for older 6 in many words- e.g. dedit for dedSt; &c.
(see § 234).
(b) i for 6 in root syllable after a prefix; e.g. 16go, col-
Ugo; Sec.
(c) Also in final closed suffix, and in final syllable of stem, to
which a letter or syllable is suffixed ; either if e be final and the suffix
begin with a consonant, or if e be not final, but the suffix begin with a
vowel ; e.g. marg, maris ; ind6, indidem ; ales, alitis ; &c. (see § 234).
3. I for 6 in final syllable of stem before a single consonant
followed by a vowel, except before 1 not followed by i, and except
before r ; e.g. carddn- cardinis ; bono- bonitas ; &c. (see § 213. 5).
4. i for ii in final syllable of stem, but before m, p, f, not until
last century of republic ; e. g. comu- comiger ; maximus for maxu-
mus; Sec. (see § 224).
5. 1 appears to have been, at least in many words, preceded in
order of time by e or ei, both in root syllables and suffixes, some-
times by both (see §§ 265, 268).
6. i for ai: possibly in the dat. plur. of a- stems: e.g. musis for
musais. See § 257.
7. i for 38 in root syllable after a prefix; e.g. quaro, inquiro;
sequus, iniquus; &c.; csedo, cecidi; &.c. (§ 262).
Contraction, Hiatus, Sec: i. i + l, if one be long, is con- 242
tracted to i ; e. g. dii, di ; consilil, consili ; petiit, petit ; audiis,
audis ; audivisti, audisti; si vis, sis; nihil (ne Mlum), nil; niiM,
mi; &c. If both are short, one is dropped; e.g. fugiis, fugis; egregi-
lor, egregior; navi-ibus, navibus ; etc. (cf. § 144). In tibicen we
have a reminiscence of tibia canfire.
2. i before other vowels usually remained. It absorbed a
succeeding vowel in biga for bijiiga ; flU for filie ; sis for sies ;
magis for magios ; duris-simus for durios-imus ; &c., in which
comparatives i is perhaps properly long; comp. ^eXT-lcov, /SeXrlop-a;
"Sec. (On minor see § 245.)
8o Sounds. [Book I.
Change of Quantity: i. in root syllable; e.g. libet, liter, ,^3
libertas; fides, perfidus, fido, fcadus; suspicere, suspicio; die-,
male-dic-us, dico; ar-bit-er, per-bit6re; liqvor, also liqvor (once),
liqvidus and liqvidus (Lucret. IV. 1259, '' liquidis et llquida
crassis"); liqvare, liqvere, liqvi.
2. in final syllables; e.g. audit for audit; sit for sit (siet) ;
velit for velit ; also sometimes audiveris for audiveris (perf. subj.
see Book II).
3. hnal i is shortened in nisi, quasi (comp. siquidem). and fre-
quently in mihi, tibi, sibi, ubi (always sicubi, nicubi, ubivis, but
ubique), ibi (but ibidem, alibi). So utinam, utique, from uti.
In Plautus also dari, pati, 16qui; d§di, stSti; v6ni, abi, are
found with i short.
Change of Quality: i. to e before a or or i; e.g. mei, ^u
meo, compared with mis (old gen.), mihi; queo, queam, from qui-re;
eo. earn, from ire ; eura, earn, compared with is, id. (But audiam,
audio, audiit; &c.) Perhaps the e is even here prior to the i.
2. ii is found, from stems (apparently) in e or i, in early Latin
before m, f ; e. g. testi-, testumonium ; ponti-, pontufex ; cami-,
carnufex; doce-, dScumentum; m6n§-. monumentum. The forms
with i, e.g. testimonium are later (cf. § 224).
3. For change of 1 to j see § 142.
4. For e instead of i, before r, see § 184. 3, 569, 656.
Omission: i. i in suffixes is often omitted between two conso-^-is
nants; e.g. facultas for facilitas; misertum for miseritum; puertia
(Hor.) for pueritia; postus (Verg.) for positus; replictus (Stat.)
for replicitus; audacter for audaciter (Quint, i. 6. 17); propter for
propiter; fert for ferit; volt for volit; est for edit; valde for vallde;
caldus (Augustus) for calidus; soldus (Hor.) for solidus; lamna
for lammina; alumnus for aluminus; tignum compared with tigil-
lum; tegmen for tegimen; probably benficium, Sec. (in Plant., Ter.,
Phaedr.) for beniflcium; &:c.
2. In the nom. sing, of -i nouns, but rarely after a short
syllable ; e. g. ars for artis ; ferens for ferentis ; Arpinas for Arpinatis ;
mendax for mendacis ; nux for nucis ; &:c. (see Book II). So in
the gen. plur., e.g. amantum for amantium ; &c.
3. A radical i is omitted in surge for surrigo; porgo for porrigo ;
pergo for perrigo ; purgo for purigo ; jurgium for jurigium (jus,
agere) ; surpere (Luc, Hor.) for surripere.
4. In minor, minus, i is apparently dropped (for min-ior, mlnius).
Insertion: 1. i is apparently inserted between consonant stems
and derivative suffixes, e. g. alitus from al-gre ; tfigimen from teg-6re ;
fullonicus fi-om fullon- ; hereditas from liered- ; &c. But see § 746.
a. in words from Greek. See above, § 239, 5.
Chap. A'.] Diphthongs. AU. ou.
CHAPTER X.
DIPHTHONGS.
AU.
Sound : as in German ; i. e. nearly as English qvj ^ in co^v , tozvn.
Representation: (i) in Greek by av\ e.g. Auninculeius, 247
AvpovyKQvKriios'i Aulus, AuAoj; &c.
(ii) of Greek av; e.g. Ai^Vo/xe'Scoi', Automedon; &:c.
Correspondenxe: to Greek av\ e.g. augeo, av^ava:, aurora, 248
avcos j^ol., (jia>s Att.); nauta, vavrrjs] taurus, Tavpoi\ caulis,
KavKos.
Substitution: i. for av before a short vowel, which is then ^49
absorbed ; e. g. cautum for cavltum ; fautor for f avitor ; auceps for
aviceps; &c.
2. for ab before f; e.g. aufuglo, aufero compared with abstuii,
ablatum. But see § 97 n.
Change of Quality: i. to 6 in the older language, but the -s-:
same words are more frequently found with au retained ; e. g. Clodius
for Claudius ; copa for caupa ; codex for caudex ; Plotus for Plautus ;
plostrum for plaustrum; lotus for lautus; rodus, (rudus, rudus-
culum) for raudus, raudusculum; olla (ola.') for aula; &c. So
(according to Festus) in the country dialect orum, oriculas for
aurum, auriciilas. In Plautus ausculor for osculor (cf. Suet.
Vesp. 22).
explode from plaudo; suffocare from fauces; &c.
2. into a; e.g. frustra from fraus; frudare, frude old forms for
fraudare, fraude; exclude from claudo, sometimes cludo; accuso
from causa; &c.
OU.
Sound: probably that of the Southern English 8, which is really
a diphthong formed of and u. Cf. § 21.
^ In Phsedr. Append, ai, A raven {con'iis) is said to have cried
ave (ah-we, or au? cf. § 94). We represent a raven's ordinary cry by
caw. But Pliny (H. N. 10, § 121) tells of a raven who sertnom adsue-
/actus, Tiberimn sahitabat ; and a iraitied raven is bad evidence.
251
82 Sounds. [Book I.
This diphthong is found in inscriptions in a few words regularly
before the seventh century u.c, and frequently until after the mid-
dle of the same. Afterwards ft became exclusively used in its place.
Thus Fouiius, Loucajiam, Loucina, abdoucit, plouruma, poloucta.
poublicom, pious, jous, jousit (jussit), joudex, jouranto, noundinum.
Instances of long u before the time of the Gracchi are rare; e.g.
Juno, Junone, Luciom, Lucius, in some of the earliest inscriptions.
EU.
Sound: probably pronounced as a diphthong. So in Italian. 252
History: This diphthong is found in very few Latin words, 253
viz. heu, lieus; neu (for neve); seu (for sive); ceu; neuter,
lur ne uter. Neutiquam (nutiquam?) has first syllable short.
It is otherwise found only to represent the Greek fv\ e.g. 'Evpt- 2-,^
tt/St/s-, Euripides; Evpo?, Eurus; Pseudvdus from ■v//-6v5c<) ; &c.
AI.
Sound: probably diphthongal; viz. that of a broad English /; 255
i.e. as at in ay (^yfj).
History: This diphthong is found almost exclusively in the 256
inscriptions older than the seventh century u.c. in words afterwards
spelt with a. Thus in root syllables we find aidilis, aide, airid (i.e.
£ere), praidad (prseda), quaistores, praitor, Aimilius, aiquom. Some
instances are found in later inscriptions both republican and
imperial, chiefly in proper names, especially Aimilius, Caicilius:
also Caisar, praifectus; &c. In final syllables it is found fre-
quently m republican and imperial inscriptions in the genitive and
dative singular, rarely in the nominative plural, of stems in a,
chiefiv proper names, but also others; e.g. faciundai, colonial,
maxsumai, deal, Manliai, Agrippai; &c. So frequently (making
ai two long syllables) in Plautus and Ennius: Lucretius and Vergil
appear to have adopted the form as an archaism, or in imitation of
Ennius.
Change of Quality: In the dat. abl. plural of -a stem 2,7
probably the origmal form was -ais as in Oscan. In inscriptions are
found only -eis, and -is (§ 366).
AE.
Sound: the diphthong formed by these two vowels would 253
approach neariy to the sound of a in hat lengthened.
Chap. A'.] Diphthongs. 01. OE. %2>
Representation: (i) i. in Greek by ai\ e.g. .ffimilius (see 259
however § 256), AlfiiXios] .Sbutius, Alf:iovTios; Kseso, Kaiacciv;
Caesar, Kcucrap; ^qui, aIkoi (Strabo); &c.
2. Rarely by e; e.g. CsecUius, KeKiXios (cf. §262); Csecina.
KfKLvai (Plat, but KatKLuas, D. Cass.). This e is not found in in-
scriptions till the second century p. Chr. at earliest. (Dittenbcrger.)
(ii) I. of Greek at: e.g. Aheias, .ffineas; TLavaiTios, Pansetius;
AaKedalncov, Lacedsemon; alyis, aegis; JJau'iv, Paean; aWijp, setlier;
&c.
2. of Greek a; e. g. 'Acr/cXa7rto? (Dor.), .ffisculapius (an old geni-
tive Aisclapi is found) ; niXXa^, paelex, (also pelex),
3. of Greek jy; e.g. a-KTjutj, scsena.
Correspondence: to Greek at; e.g. sestas, sestus, at'^co, 26c
ai6r]p\ laevus, Xatos; scaevus, (tku6s\ sevum, ala>v, ales (Att. del).
Substitution: for ai, which however lingered beside se. JE is 261
found first in the S. C. de Bacc in aedem, where in all other words
(aiquom, Duelonai, haice, tabelai, datai) ai is retained. 1& is very
rare in inscriptions before the time of the Gracchi, but after that
time is almost exclusively used in all the longer and more important
inscriptions; e.g. the laws, the Mon. Ancyr. &c.
se, for e and 6, is rare in inscriptions before (at least) the 2nd
cent, after Christ. It is frequent in MSS.
Change of Quality: 1, to e both in root and final syllable. 262
A few instances occur in very old inscriptions; e.g. Victoria, For-
tune, Diane: so also occasionally in rustic language noted by Varro,
edus for haedus, Mesius for Maesius; Cecilius pretor, ridiculed by
Lucilius. But instances in inscriptions (except the Pompeian wall
inscriptions) are not numerous till in and after third century after
Christ ; e. g. prefectus, presenti, aqua, patria, &c.
2. to i in root syllables after a prefix, e.g. caedo, concido; laedo,
illido; quaero, requiro; sestiuno, existumo; sequus, iniquus; &c.
01, OE.
Sound: oi nearly as in English; e.g. voice, &c. : oe was also 263
probably sounded as a diphthong.
Change of Quality : Words with a in the root syllable z,^
were in the older language written with oi or ce ; and words with
oe in the root syllable were also earlier written with oi.
In inscriptions oi is rarely found so late as the first century before
Christ: cb (though probably as old as Plautus) is little found in
84 Sounds. \Book I.
inscriptions before the first century B.C.: u is found in their place in
and after the time of the Gracchi.
1. oi, ce to u; e.g. olno, oenus, unus; oinvorsei, universi;
ploirume, ploera, plurimi, plura; comoinem, moinicipieis, mcenia,
moeniundffi, inmcenes for commuiiem, municipiis, mxinia, muniundse,
immunes; moiro, moeruni, murum; oitile, cetantiir, oetier tor utile,
utantur, uti; coira, coiravit, coera, coeravit, ciira, curavit; loidos,
loedos, ludos; &;c.
2. oi to ce; e.g. foidere, foideratei, foedere, foederati; coipint,
ccepint, Coilius, Coelius.
3. some other changes are, noenum afterwards non; loeljertas,
libertas ; oboedio from audio.
4. In final syllables, hoice, hoic, quoi (also quoiei), quoique
are early forms of huic, cui, cuique: pilumnoe poploe, for pilumni
populi (gen. sing.?), pike-armed tribe; Fescenninoe for fescenniai
(nom. pi.) ; al) oloes for ato illis.
EI.
I. This diphthong is found in inscriptions older than the ^ti
Gracchi in the following forms, in which i occurs later. (The
S. C. de Bacc. has rarely i, frequently ei.)
(«) a few root syllables; e.g. leiber, deivus, deicere, ceivis.
(J?) dative singular of consonant nouns ; e. g. Apolenei, Junonei,
virtutei, Jovei. Frequently also in inscriptions later than the
Gracchi, in which i also is found. The dative in e is also found,
and more fi-equently in the earlier than in the later inscriptions.
(f) nominative phu-al of stems; e.g. foideratei, iei. After
the time of the Gracchi both i and ei are frequent. Earlier forms
were es, e, and ce (see Book ii).
{d) dative and ablative plural of stems; e.g. eeis (5. C. de
Bacc), also vobeis. -eis is frequently found in this case after the
time of the Gracchi. Both -is and -eis occur also from -a stems
since that period, but apparently before that period no instance
of those cases occurs.
(e) also in the datives and adverbs sibei, tibei, ubei, ibei, sei,
nei, utei; in which e was probably a still older form.
a. In prce-Augustan inscriptions later than the Gracchi it is 266
found instead of and beside an earlier i, or e in the classes num-
bered below (g), (b).
Chap. X] Diphthongs. SL 85
(fl) in some root syllables; e.g. deicere, deixerit also (dicere,
&c.); promeiserit, eire, adeitur, conscreiptum, veita, leitis, leiteras,
meilites, feilia, Teiburtis, eis, eisdem (nom. plur.).
(i) in suffixes; e.g. Serveilius, genteiles, ameicorum, disci-
pleina, peregreinus, fugiteivus, peteita (for petlta), mareitus, &c.
(c) occasionally, but not frequently, as the characteristic vowel
of the fourth conjugation; e.g. audeire, veneire, &c.
(d) in infin. pass, not commonly till Cicero's time; e.g. darei,
solvei, possiderei, agei, &c.
{e) in perfect (for an older i or sometimes e) ; e. g. obeit, fecei,
poseivei, dedeit, (Sec.
(/) other verbal fonns; e.g. nolei, faxseis, seit, &c.
(^) also rarely in the ablative from consonant and i nouns ; e. g.
virtutei, fontei, &c.
{h) nom. and ace. plur. of i stems ; e. g. omneis, turrels, &c.
(/) genitive singular of stems ; e. g. colonel, danmatei (one or
two instances occur a little before the Gracchi).
3. Ei is but occasionally found in post- Augustan inscriptions.
In the Fast. Triumph. Capit. (C. /. R. i. 453 sqq.) cir. 720 U.C.
the ablative plur. is almost always in -eis; e.g. Etrusceis, Galleis, &c.
Corssen's conclusion is, that in the root syllable of the words 267
deiva, leiber, deicere, ceivis, in the dat. abl. plur. of -0 stems and
probably of -a stems, and in the locative forms, as sei, utei, S:c., ei was
a real diphthong ; in all other cases it expressed the transition vowel
between i and e {Ausspr. i. 719. 788. ed. 2). As a diphthong its
sound would be nearly that of the English a; e.g. fate.
Ritschl's view of the relations of e, ei and i is as follows (Opiisc. 268
II. 626): '■'■First period (5th century u.c. to and into the 6th).
Predominance of e in place of the later i, and, in fact, both of
e for i and of 6 for i. Second period (6th century). Transition of
e to i (so far as e was changed at all), 6 changing to i absolutely,
but e to i with this modification, that where in the case of e the
pronunciation noticeably inclined to i, the habit was gradually
adopted of writing ei. Third period (ist decad of the 7th century).
Accius extends this mode of writing to every i without exception,
m order to obtain a thorough distinction of i from i, in connexion
with his theory of doubling a, e, u to denote the long vowel.
Short i remains unaltered. Fourth period. Lucilius, recognising the
arbitrary and irrational character of this generalisation, confines the
writing ei to the cases where i inclines to e. Short i remains un-
affected by this also."
S6 Sounds. [Book I.
CHAPTER XL
OF LATIN WORDS and SYLLABLES.
A Latin word may commence with any vowel or diphthong, 269
semivowel, or single consonant.
But of combinations of consonants the following only are in
Latin found as initial; viz.
1. an explosive or f followed by a liquid; i.e. pi, pr; fcl, br;
cl, cr; gl, gr; tr; fl, fr: but not tl, dl, dr;
e.g. plaudo, precor; blandus, brevis; clamo, crudus; globus,
gravis; traho; fluo, frendo. (Drusus is possibly an exception (cf.
§ 155) ; other words in dr are Greek or foreign ; e. g. dracliina, draco,
Druidse.)
2. s before a sharp explosive, with or without a follo«-ing
liquid; viz. sp, spl, spr; sc, scr; st, str;
e.g. spemo, splendeo, sprevi; scio, scribe; sto, struo. Also
stlis, afterwards lis. No instance of scl is found.
3. gn was found in Gnseus and in some other words; e.g. gna-
rus, gnavus, gnosco, gnascor, but the forms with g are almost con-
fined to the early language (§ 129. 3).
4. The semi-consonant v is also found after an initial q or s;
e.g. qvos, svavis (§ 89): and in Plautus scio, dies are pronounced
scjo, djes (§ 142).
A Latin word may end with any vowel or diphthong, but with 270
only a few single consonants; viz. the liquids 1, r, the nasals m, n,
the sibilant s, one explosive, t. A few words end with b, c, d.
Of these, b occurs only in three prepositions, ab, ob, sub.
only where a subsequent letter has fallen away; e.g. die, due,
fac, lac, ac, nee, nunc, tunc, and the pronouns bic, Ulic, istic (for
dice, duce, face, lacte, atque, neque, nunce, tunce, Mce, illice, istice).
d only in baud, ad, apud, sed; and the neuters of certain pro-
nouns; e.g. illud, istud, quod, quid. In the earliest language it
appears to have been the characteristic of the ablative singular; e.g.
bonod patred, &e. (§ 160. 6).
Chap. AV.] Of Latin Words and Syllables. 87
The following combinations of consonants are found to end 27'
Latin words. With few exceptions they are either in nominatives
singular of nouns, or the third person of verbs.
1. s preceded
{a) by certain explosives; i.e. ps, mps, rps; bs, rbs; cs( = x),
n?., Ix, rx;
e.g. adeps, Memps, stirps; caeletos, urbs; edax, lanx, calx, arx;
&c. Also the words siremps, abs, ex, mox, sex, vix.
(Zi) by a nasal or liquid; i.e. ns, Is, rs;
e.g. amans, frons, puis, ars. Each of these combinations is
unstable (e. g. hoino for bomons, consul for consuls, arbor for arbors) ;
but is here preserved owing to one consonant having been already
sacrificed; viz. amans for amants; frons for fronts or fronds; puis
for pults; ars for arts. In trans, quotiens, the combination is not
more stable: comp. tramitto, quoties.
2. t preceded by n, or rarely by 1, r, s; i.e. nt. It, rt, st;
e.g. amant, amaverlnt, &c. The only instances of the other
combinations are vult, fert, est, ast, post;
3. c preceded by n, i.e. nc. Only in the following, nunc, tunc,
iiinc, illinc, istinc; bunc, banc; illunc, illanc; &c.
The division of a word into syllables appears to have been in 27=
accordance with the general principles (see § 15)^; that is to say,
I. the division was made in the middle of a consonant.
z. the tendency was to pronounce with a vowel as many of the
following consonants as were so pronounceable.
3. the admissibility of a particular combination of consonants
in the middle of a word depends on the laws of phonetics, not on
the particular causes, partly etymological, partly accentual (the
last syllable, where there is more than one, being in Latin always
unaccented, § 296), which controlled the occurrence of consonants
at the end of a word. But the laws of phonetics in this matter
depend on the Roman mode of pronunciation, not on our mode;
e. g. ts, ds were not stable ; &c.
That such was the mode in which the Romans actually pro- 273
iicunced is shewn by the following facts:
I. Vowels are affected by the consonants _/b//otiwVzg- them; viz.
6 before r is retained instead of being changed toi (§ 234, 204. 184);
6 or u before 11 is changed to e (§ 213. 4, also § 204); the short
^ See some discussion of this matter in the Preface.
88 Sounds. \Book J.
vowel before 1 is 6 or ii, not 1 or 6, as before n &c. (§ 176. 2).
So € remains before two consonants (§ 234. 3. b).
2. Consonants are affected by the consonants fo/Iozuing ; e.g.
scribtus is changed to scriptus, the pronunciation being script-tus,
not scritj-tus or scri-tidus. (Even in the few cases where a conso-
nant is affected by the preceding consonant, the combination of the
two (or more consonants) in the jawe syllable is presumed; e.g.
dividtum could not have been divid-tiun or it would not have become
divissum or divisum).
3. A syllable with a short vowel is treated as long, if two
consonants /0//0W the vowel. This means that though the vowel is
short, the aggregation of consonants occupies as much time in pro-
nouncing, as if the vowel were long. The exception to this rule of
prosody, which a nmte and liquid form, is in accordance with the
principle of division of syllables ; e. g. patris cannot be divided into
patr-ris but into pat-tris (where the double t represents not twice
t but the two halves of one t, §§ 9. 15).
4. A vowel is often lengthened to compensate for the extrusion
of a consonant /o//o>iy/;7^ (§ 2.5)- The consonant must therefore
belong to the preceding vowel, or that vowel could not be entitled
to the compensation. The so-called compensation is in truth a natural
phonetic effect of the effort to pronounce a difficult combination of
lettei's.
The division of syllables in writing, which is found in inscrip- 274
tions of the eighth and ninth centuries U.C and the MSS. of the
fourth or fifth century after Christ^ or eariier (if any), is (though
not quite invariably) as follows :
1. Where a single consonant is between two vowels the division
is before it ; e. g. dede | rit, protu | lerint, publi | ce, ma | num, &c.
2. Where two consonants come together the division is between
them ; e. g. op \ tima, res j ponsum, ig | nota, prses | to, tran | sisse.
Sec.
3. Where three consonants come together the division is after
the first two, unless the second and third be a mute and liquid, in
which case the division is before both ; e. g. Vols | ci, abs ; cedimus,
cons I pexisset, obs | tinati, Quinc | tius, cunc | ta; ins | tructo,
cas 1 tris, pos | tremo.
4. The letter x is treated as a single consonant ; e. g. eni | xa,
di 1 xit, pro ] xumus.
^ See Mommsen, Zivl Cod. Veron. p. 163—166. Mo7t. Aiicjr.
p. H5. Siadtrccht d. Salpcnsa, &c. p. 505.
Chap. XI/.] Quantity of Syllables. 89
(It is obvious that if the division in pronunciation takes place in
the middle of a consonant, the writing cannot mark this accurately.
That the preference was given to the second half of the consonant
is no doubt due to the fact, that in the case of p, k, t the distinctive
power of the sound consists entirely, and in to, g, d considerably,
in the slight puft" or explosion which follows the separation of the
organs (cf. § 5 7). When three consonants occur together, the writing
conforms better to what is above shewn to have been the pronuncia-
tion.)
The early inscriptions avoided division of a word altogether.
Augustus (Suet. Aug. 87) wTote the superabundant letters over or
under the word. MSS. in the sixth century (e.g. the Florentine
jMS. of the Digest) began to follow Priscian's rules, which were
borrowed from the Greeks; e.g. perfe | ctus, i ] gnominia, &c.
CHAPTER XII.
QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES'.
That part of grammar which treats of the Quantity of Sylla- 275
bles is often called Prosody^ a term which the ancients applied prin-
cipally to accentuation.
If the voice dwells upon a syllable in pronouncing it, it is called
a long syllable: if it passes rapidly over it, it is called a short
syllable.
Long syllables are marked in grammars by a straight line over
the vowel : thus, aQdI.
Short syllables are marked by a curved line over the vowel :
thus, r6g§.
Two short syllables are considered to occupy the same time as
one long syllable.
A syllable is long or short, either because it contains a njo^joel
naturally long or short ; or on account of the position of its vowel.
^ Much use in this chapter has been made of Luc. IMiiller's De re
mctrica.
9° Sounds. \Books I.
i. Quantity of vowels not in the last syllable of 276
a word.
I- An_diphthongs are long (except before another vowel); e.g.
am-um ; deinde ; &c.
2. All vowels which have originated from contraction are
long; e.g. cogo for c6-ago, momentum for movlmentiun, tibicen for
tibii-cen; &c.
3. The quantity of the radical syllables of a word is generally
preserved in composition or derivation, even when the vowel is
changed; e.g. mater, maternus; cado, incido; caedo, incido; amo,
amor, amicus, inimicus ; &:c.
Some exceptions will be found under the several vowels, and as
regards red and prod (pro), under D (§ 160. 7, 8).
So also almost always where the members of a compound word
may be treated as separate words, as quapropter, mecum, alioqui.
agricultura. But we have siquidem and quandoquidem (ficm si
and quando) ; and for the compounds of ubi, ibi, see § 243. 31.
For the quantity of root vowels no rule can be given. The
quantity of inflexional or derivative affixes is given in Books II. III.
Greek words usually retain in Latm their own quantity.
ii. (Quantity of vowels in the last syllable of a word. .77
(A) Monosyllables are long.
Except
(a) The enclitics qu6, ng, vS, which are always appended to
other words.
{b) Words ending with b, d, t; e.g. ab, sub, 6b; ad, id: at,
6t, t6t, fl6t, dat ; &c.
(f) gs {thou art), fac, lac, nee, fel, m61, v61, an, in, fer, pgr,
t6r, vir, cor, quis (nom. sing.), is, bis, cis, 6s (a bone). The
nom. masculine Mc is not frequently short, (es in Plaut., Ter.)
(B) In polysyllables. ^yS
1. a and e (and Greek y) fnal are short.
Chap. XII.\ Qmntity of Sv//aMrs. 91
Except a in
(a) Abl. sing, of nouns with a- stem ; e. g. musa.
(i5) Imperative sing. act. of verbs vv^ith a- stem ; e. g. ama.
(c) Indeclinable words; e.g. erga, intra, quadrasinta ; but
puta (Pers. and Mart.), ita, quia, eja.
(d) Greek vocatives from nominatives in as; e. g. Aenea, Palla;
and Greek nom. sing, of a- stems; e.g. Electra. Cf. §5 472. 473.
Except e in 279
(a) Gen. dat. abl. sing, of nouns with e- stems ; e.g. facie;
so also hodie.
(b) Imperative sing. act. of verbs with e- stems; e.g. mone ;
but in cave (Hor. Ov.), and vide (Phasdr. Pers.) it is sometimes
short (§ 233. 4).
(c) Adverbs from adjectives; with o- stems; e.g. docte, to
which add fere, ferme, olie; but bene, male, inferne, superne;
tSniere is only found before a vowel. MactS, probably an ad-
verb, also has e short.
(d) Greek neut. pi.; e.g. tempe, pelage ; fem. sing, crambe,
Circe ; masc. voc. Alcide.
2. i, 0, Vi final are long. 23^.
Except i in
{a) milu, tibi, sibi, ubi, ibi, m which i is common,
and quasi, nisi. (See § 243. 3.)
(Ip) Greek nom. ace. neuters sing.; e.g. sinapi: vocatives; e.g.
Pari, Amarylli : rarely dat. sing. Miaoidi.
Except 6 in 2S,
(a) cits, immS, mod6 (and compounds), duo, ego, c5d6 and
'endo (old form of in). Rarely ergd. Martial, Juvenal, &c.,
have intra, porr6, sero, octo, &c. ; modo has sometimes final
long in Lucretius and earlier poets.
(I?) In the present tense of the verbs sci6, nesciS, put6, void, used
parenthetically, is sometimes short: and occasionally in and
after the Augustan age in other verbs with short penult; e.g.
rogo, vetd, nuntiS, obsecrd. Instances of being short in other
parts of the verb, or in verbs with long penult, are rarer; e.g.
esto, coedito ; odero, dabS ; tendo, tolld, credo.
92 Sounds. \^Book I.
(c) In Nominatives of Proper names with consonant stems 6
is common, e.g. Pollio, Scipio, cario, Naso; sometimes virgo,
nemd, homo, and other appellatives in Martial, Juvenal, &c.
Datives and ablatives in o are never short, except the ablative
gerund once or twice in Juvenal and Seneca.
3. Final syllables ending in any other single conso- 2S2
nant than s are short.
But the final syllable is long in
(«) all cases of illic, istic, except the nom. masc.
(b) all compounds of par, e. g. dispar, compar.
(f) alec, lien.
(/) lit, petiit, and their compounds (and of course it, petit as
contracted perfects).
(f) some Greek nominatives in -er ; e. g. crater, character, aer,
aether; and some cases in -n; e.g. siren (nom.), JEnean (ace),
Eucliden (ace), epigrammaton (gen. pi.) ; &c.
4. Of the final syllables in s, ^g
as, OS, es, are long.
Except
(fl) anas (probably) ; ex6s; compSs, imp6s; pgn6s.
{h) nom. sing, in -es of nouns with consonant stems, which
have 6tis, itis, idis, in genitive, e.g. s6g6s, milgs, obs6s: but
paries, abies, aries, Cgres.
(c) compounds of es (fi-om sum), e.g. ah6s.
(d) some Greek w^ords : e.g. Ilias (nom.), crateras (ace. pi.) ;
Del6s (n. sing.), Erinnyos, chlamyd6s (gen. sing.), Arcadgs, cra-
teras (nom. pi.) ; Cynosarges (neut. s.).
5. us and is are short. 284
Except lis in
(a) gen. sing, and nom. and ace. plu. of nouns with -u stems.
(^) nom. sing, of consonant nouns, when genitive singular
has long penultimate, e.g. tellfls (tellOris), palus (paliidis),
virtus (virtiitis).
{c) some Gr-eek names; SapphGs (gen. s.), Panthfls (nom. s.).
Chap. X//.] Quantity of Syllables. 93
Except is in ^iJs
(rt) dat. and abl. plural, e.g. mensis, vobis, quis ; so gratis,
foris. Also in ace. (and nom.) plural of -i stems; e.g. omnis.
(J)) and pers. sing. pres. ind. of verbs with -i stems ; e.g. audis :
also possis (and other compounds of sis), velis, nolis, malls.
(c) 2nd pers. sing, of perf. subj. and compl. fut. in which is is
common ; e.g. videris. (But see Book II.)
{d) Samnis, Quiris. Sangvis sometimes (always in Lucr.),
pulvis (once Enn., once Verg.), has -is.
{/) some Greek words; Simois, Eleusis, Salamis (nom. sing.).
iii. Quantity of syllables by position in the same 286
word.
1 A syllable ending with a vowel (or diphthong) immediately 287
followed by another syllable beginning with a vowel, or with li and a
vowel, is short ; as, via, praSustus, contraMt.
Except
((?) In the genitives of pronouns, Sec. in-ius; e.g. illius, where
i is common. In alius (gen. case) the i is always long : in
solius it is short once in Ter. In utrivis, neutrius it is not
found short, but in utriusque frequently ^.
{]}) the penultimate a in the old genitive of nouns with -a
stems ; e. g. aulai. So also e in diei, and, in Lucretius, rei, and
(once) fidei. Also ei (dat. pronoun), unless contracted ei.
(c) a or e before i (where i is a vowel) in all the cases of
proper names ending in ius; e.g. Gaius, Pompeius (but see
§ 139)-
{d) The syllable fi in fio (except before er; e.g. figri, figrem).
(f) The first syllable of eheu! and the adjective dius. In
' Diana and olie the first syllable is common.
In Greek words a long vowel is not shortened by coming before
another vowel; e.g. Nereidi, E60 (but cf. § 229), Aeneas, aera,
Maeotia.
2. A syllable^ containing a vowel immediately followed by two
consonants, or by x, or z, is long; as, regent, strix.
But if the two consonants immediately following a short vowel
be the first a mute or f, and the second a liquid, the vowel remains
1 See Ritschl, Opusc. II. 678 foil.
* For the length of the voivel itself in some cases see §§151 note, 167. ■2,
94 Sounds. \Book I.
short in prose and in comic poets, though in other verse it is fre-
quently lengthened.
The following combinations occur in Latin words : pr, tor, cr,
gr, tr\ dr, fr; pi, cl, fl; e.g. apro, tfinebrse, volucris, agrum, patris,
qvadriga, vafrum; maniplus, assecla, refluus.
Bl also occui-s in publicus, but the first syllable is always long
(for pouplicus).
In Greek words other combinations allow the vowel to remain
short ; e.g. Atlas, Tficmessa, Cycnus, Dapline.
Where the combination is due to composition only, the syllable
is always lengthened, just as if the words were separate (cf. § 292);
e.g. subruo, abluo.
iv. Effect of initial sounds on the final syllable of 2S8
a preceding word.
In verse the final syllable of a word is affected by the vowel or
consonants at the commencement of the next word, in something
the same way in which one syllable is affected by the succeeding
syllable in the same word.
I. A final vowel or diphthong or a final syllable in m is om.it-
ted (or at least slurred over) in pronunciation, if the next word
commence with a vowel or diphthong or h. See the preface.
Thus vidi ipsum, vive hodie, monstnun ingens are read in verse
as of no more length than vid-ipsum, viv-hodie, monstr-ingens.
When est follows a vowel or m the e was omitted (see in
Book II.).
But the poets (except the early dramatists) refrain in certain cases 289
from so putting words as to occasion such an elision 2. Especially
it is avoided when the second word begins with a short vowel; viz.
{a) Monosyllables ending in long vowel or m are rarely elided
before a short syllable, and, particularly, the following are nerer
so elided; sim, dem, stem, rem, spem, spe, do, sto, qui (plur.):
the following are so elided; cum, tum, num, sum, jam, nam,
tarn, quam, me, te, se, de, mi (dat.), qui (sing.), ni, si, tu.
(h) An iambic word, ending in a vowel, in dactylic verse is not
elided before a short syllable or an accented long syllable.
^ Arbicro, arbitrium, &c.; genetrix, meretrix, are nowhere found
with long second syllable.
- These statements are abridged from Luc. Miiller, p. 283.
Chap. XI I ^ Quantiiy of Syllables. 95
(c) A cretic ending in a vowel was very rarely elided before a
short syllable, except by Catullus, and Horace in Satires.
(<-/) A spondee ending in a vowel, is rarely elided, by Horace
in lyrics, or by Ovid and subsequent poets, before a short syllable,
except in first foot; e.g. certe ego, multi inopes, risi ego (Lucan,
Martial).
(e) Of words ending in m (counting the last syllable as short)
a pyrrich is very rarely elided before a short syllable or accented
long syllable, except uninflected particles; e.g. enim, quidem. A
dactyl is rarely elided before a short syllable by Ovid or later writers.
(/) Of words ending in a or 6 a pyrrich or dactyl is rarely
elided befoi'e a short syllable, except (i) in proper names; or (2)
in first foot; or (3) in words ending in a, before a word beginning
with a ; or (4) in the words cito, ego, modo, duo.
An elision at the end of a verse before a vowel in the same verse 290
is very rare in any poet, except in Horace's Satires and Epistles.
An elision at end of a verse before a vowel at the beginning of
the next verse is found not uncommonly in Vergil, only once or
twice in other writers' hexameters. In glyconic and sapphic stanzas
it is not uncommon; e.g.
Aut dulcis musti Volcano decoquit umorem
et foliis. (Verg.)
Dissidens plebi numero beatorum
eximit virtus. (Hon)
An hiatus is however permitted; 251:
Always at the end of one verse before an initial vowel in the
next verse except in an anapcestic metre.
Occasionally in the same verse; viz.
(fl) if there is an interruption of the sense; though it is very rare,
when the first of the two vowels is short ; e. g.
Promissam eripui genero, arma impia sumpsi. (Verg.)
Addam cerea pruna: honos erit huic quoque pomo. (Verg.)
(J)) in arsis, chiefly at the regular caesura; e.g.
Stant et juniperi et castaneas hirsute. (Verg.)
Si pereo, hominum manibus periisse juvabit. (Verg.)
(f) in thesis, a long vowel, especially in a monosyllable, is some-
times shortened instead of elided ; e. g.
Credimus? an qui amant ipsi sibi somnia fingunt? (Veig.)
Hoc motu radiantis Etesix in vada ponti. (Cic.)
96 Sounds. [Book I.
(,-/) a word ending in m is rarely not elided (there being only
about seven instances in arsis, and a few of monosyllables in thesis) ;
e.g.
Miscent inter sese inimicitiam agitantes. (Enn.)
Sed dum abest quod avemus, id exsuperare videtur. (Lucr.)
2. A short final syllable ending in a consonant is lengthened by 29a
an initial consonant in the word following ; e. g.
Vellitur, huic atro liquntur sanguine guttse ! (Verg.)
Quo Phoebus vocet errantis jubeatque reverti. (Verg.)
3. A short final syllable ending in a vowel is rarely lengthened 293
before two consonants at the beginning of the next word.
This is done before sp, sc, st; more rarely still before pr, tor,
fr, tr. There are a few instances in Catullus, Tibullus, Martial, &c.
(none in Lucretius, Vergil, Horace, Propertius, Ovid); e.g.
Nulla fugce ratio; nulla spes omnia muta. (Cat.)
Tua si bona nescis
Servare, frustra clavis inest foribus. (Tib.)
On the other hand a short final vowel is rarely found before
sp, sc, sot, st, gn.
Lucilius, Lucretius, Horace in Satires, and Propertius have about
23 instances; Vergil one, and that where the sense is interrupted.
Other poets have hardly a single instance: the collocation was
avoided altogether. But before Greek words, e.g. zmaragdus,
and (before z in) Zacynthus, instances are found in many poets.
4. The enclitic -que is lengthened in arsis not uncommonly by
Vergil (before two consonants, or a liquid or s), and by Ovid:
very rarely by others ; e. g.
Tribulaque trahesque et iniquo pondere rastra. (Verg.)
So once final a;
Dona dehinc auro gravia sectoque elephanto. (Verg.)
5. Occasionally (in Vergil about 50 times) a short final closed 294
syllable is lengthened by the arsis, though the next word begms with
a vowel: this is chiefly in the csesura, or when a proper name or
Greek word follows, or where the sense is interrupted; e.g. (all
from Vergil) :
Pacem me exanimis et Martis sorte peremptis
Gratis ? Equidem et vivis concedere vellem.
Desine plura puer, et quod nunc instat agamus.
Chap. AY/.] Quantity of Syllables. 97
Olli serva datur, operum hand igiiara Miiiervie,
Ipse, ubi tempus erit, omnes in fonte lavabo.
Pectoribus inhians, spirantia consulit exta.
In thesis it is very rai-c; e.g.
Si non periret immiserabilis captiva pubes. (Hon)
So also Ennius in arsis has soror, genitor, clamor, jubar (masc);
veneror; populus; servat, memorat, versat, manat; faciet, tenet,
fieret, jubet, constituit, ponit, cupit (pres.?), it, tinnit, volult, vellt,
and a few others. In thesis lie has clamor, ponebat, esset, infit.
(See Nettleship, Cojihigton's I'ergil, Exciirs. to Book xii.)
V. Peculiarities in early dramatic verse.
In early dramatic verse the quantity of syllables was not so 295
definitely fixed or observed, as in the later dactylic and other verse.
The principal cases oi variation may be classified as follows'.
1. Final syllables, afterwards short, were sometimes used with
their original long quantity; e.g. fama (nom. s.), soror, patSi-,
amet, sciat, ponebat, percipit, vendidit, amer, loquar, &c.
2. Final syllables with long vowels were sometimes used as
short; e.g. domd (abl. s.), prob6 (adv.), tacd, manu, viri, &c. ;
conrigi, bonas, foras, dolos, ov6s, manus (ace. pL), bonis, &c.
Comp. also § 205, 233
3. Syllables containing a vowel followed by two consonants
were sometimes used as short. Such aje
(a) Syllables in the later language written with doubled conso-
nants (cf. §58); e. g. immo, ille, simiUimse, Philippus, esse, 6c-
cnlto, Sec.
(b) Some syllables with two different consonants; e.g. inter,
interim, intus, inde, unde, n6mpe, 6mnis. So also (according to
some) voluptas, magistratus, ministrabit, venustas, senSctus, &c.
(better volptas, magstratus, &c.) ; gxpediant, Sxigere, uxorem.
4. Final syllables ending in a consonant were sometimes not
lengthened, though the next word began with a consonant; e.g.
(in Terence) enim vero, auctus sit, soror dictast, dabit n6mo, simul
conficiam, tamSn suspicor, &c.; apud is frequently so used: even
studSnt facere. This licence is mo?t frequent, when the final con-
sonant is m, s, r, or t ; and is due to the tendency of the early
language to drop the final consonant (see § 86. 15a, 5. 193, 5), and
to shorten the final vowel.
5. On the freer use of synizesis, e.g. tvos for tuos, scjo for scio,
&c. see § 92. 14a.
^ See Ritschl i?/;«« yJ/?«. (1859), xiv. 305 sq. and Opusc. 11. Pref.
pp 10, 1 1 : Wagner's Pref. to Plaut. Aulttl. (1866), and to Terence (1869).
y8 Sounds. [Book /.
CHAPTER XIII.
ACCENTUATION.
Accent is the elevation of voice, with which one syllable of 296
a word is pronounced, in comparison with the more subdued tone
with which the other syllables are pronounced^.
Monosyllables always have the accent.
Disyllables have the accent on the penultimate syllable, unless
they are enclitic.
Words of more than two syllables have the accent on the ante-
penultimate, if the penultimate syllable is short ; on the penultimate,
if it is long.
The Romans distinguish between an acute and a circumflex
accent. The circumflex stands only on monosyllables which have
long vowels ; and, in words of more than one syllable, on the penul-
timate, if that have a long vowel, and the final syllable have a short
vowel.
If the acute be marked by a ' over the vowel ; the circumflex by
a '», the above rules may be illustrated by the following examples:
Monosyllables ; ab, mel, fel; ars, pars, nix, fas; spes, flos, mds,
lis; mdns, f6ns, Itlx.
DisvUables; dens, citus, arat; deo, Cato, arant; sollers, pontus,
p6nto, liina; Itina, R5iiia, vldit.
Polysyllables ; Sergius. fiiscina, credere; Sergio, fiiscinas, crederent,
Met611us, fenestra; Matello, fenestrae; Sabino, praedives; Sablnus,
Romane, amicus, amare.
All compound words, whether their parts can or cannot be used 297
as separate words, are accented according to the regular rules; e.g.
anhelo, reciiino ; lindique, itaoue {therefore') ; itidem, utinam, post-
hac, postmodo, introrsus, quicumque, jandiidum, exadversum, quodsi,
forsan, &c. So respiiblica or res publica.
^ This subdued tone is called by grammarians the grave accent.
The principal rules of Latin accentuation are given by Quintilian,
I. 5. 22— 3r.
Chap. XJII.^ Accentuation, 99
A few words, called enclitics, always appended to other words, 293
caused, according to the Roman grammarians, the accent to fall on
the last syllable of the word to which they were attached. These
are -que (and)^ -ne, -ve, -ce, -met, -pte, -dum, and also the separable
words, quando, inde; e.g. itdque (and jo), utfque {cind as), illice,
hicine, mihimet, respic^dum, 6xlnde, ecquando, &c. So also que in
pleraque. In the case of many words called enclitics (owing to
their own quantity) the accentuation is the same, whether they be
considered as enclitics proper, or parts of a compound ; e. g. quaaido-
quidem, scilicet, quibiislibet, quantiimvis, &c.
Prepositions and adverbs used as prepositions (e.g. intra) were ^99
regarded as closely attached to the word which they precede, and
belong to. In inscriptions they are frequently written as one word
with their nouns. The Roman grammarians considered them to have
no accent when thus preceding their noun or a woi'd (e. g. adjective
or genitive case) dependent on it; e.g. ad eas, adMc, in foro, vtrtii-
tem propter patris, &c. But if they follow their noun, they are
siiid to retain their own accent; e.g. qusepropter, quacum, but cum
after personal pronouns is said to be enclitic ; e. g. nobiscum,
(L. MuUer, resting on the usage of dactylic poets as to the
cjEsura, (Sec, confines this to the words me, te, se, nos, vos, in
company with disyllabic prepositions in -ter, -tra; e.g. internes,
intra se).
So also the relative was unaccented, the interrogative accented;
e.g. quo die, on ivhicb day: qu6 die? on ^vbich day?
Apparent exceptions to the general rules are some words in .^00
which the accent remains, notwithstanding the loss of a syllable; e.g.
1. Some words where the accent is on what is now the last
syllable; e.g. illic, prodHc, tanton, bonan, satin, nostras, for illice,
prodtlce, tantone, bonane, satisne, nostratis (§ 418), &c.
2. Some where the accent is on the penult instead of on the
antefcnult; e.g. (gen. and voc.) Valeri, Vergili, &c. (for Valerie.
Valerii; Vergilie, Vergilii; &c.); and the verbs (really not complete
compounds) calefacis, mansuefacit, Sec.
It would appear^, though little reference is made to such a doc- 301
trine in the Roman grammarians, that words of more than three
syllables must have frequently had besides the principal accent
another subordinate one; e.g. numeravlmus, sisteremus, longltUdo,
difflcultatibus had probably a subordinate accent on the first s)l-
lables.
* See Corssen Ausspr, ll. p. 242 foil. ed. r.
loo Sounds. [Uoo/: L
The first part of a compound especially may have retained to
some extent the accent which it had as a simple word ; e. g. per-
giandis, prseterire, vdrsipellis, undeviginti.
The frequent omission or absorption of a short vowel, or of 302
a s) liable which has according to the general rules the accent, leads
to the inference that there must have been a tendency to put the
accent nearer to the beginning of the word than the antepenultimate
or penultimate syllable '. The effort to do this, and the resistance
made by the heavy dragging of the unaccented syllables after it,
were the cause of the omission , e. g. intellexisti became intellexti ;
dehibeo, debao; gavideo, gaiideo; suiripuit, surpuit; calcare, cal-
car; ajmigerus, armiger; pueritia, puertia; &:c.
So the weakening of the vowel in compounds ; inquiro for In-
ciusero, conclude for com-claudo, abreptus for ab raptuc, is difficult
to explain, so long as the affected syllable is considered as accented.
Similarly the change of ille-ce to illice, illic, suggests doubts as
to the truth of the doctrine respecting enclitics, given above § 298.
^ lb. p. 321 foil.
BOOK II.
rNFLEXIONS.
BOOK 11/
INFLEXIONS.
CHAPTER I.
OF INFLEXION IN GENERAL.
Words may be divided into two classes, those which have .103
inflexions, and those which have not.
Nouns, pronouns, and verbs are inflected: other words are not
Inflexions arc those alterations or additions, which are made in a 304
word in order to fit it for different functions, as part of a sentence.
Thus in mulier, nuoman; mulier-is ivoman^s; mulier-es, women;
mulier-um, women's: ama-t, loiv-s; ama-sti, love-dst; amatus, lo-ve-d;
ajxia,-ns, /ov-ing : pu-n-go, I prick; Tpu--j?VLS-i, I prick-ed ; pu-n-c-tus,
prick-ed; we have the same noun or verb differently inflected.
That part of a word, which is essentially the same under such 305
different uses, is called the stem. In the above words mulier, ama,
and pug are the stems. The suffix, which fomis the inflexion, often
affects or is affected by the neighbouring letters of the stem, so that
the two melt as it were into one another.
A stem is in Latin rarely used without having, or at least having
had, some inflexions; e.g. consul is both stem and nominative case;
but this is probably because the nominative suffix is incompatible
with 1 (see § 176, 5).
^ Throucjhout this book great and constant use has been made of
F. Neue's Formenlehre Th. i. (1866); Th. li. (1861). The authorities,
on which the statements in the text are based, will usually be found
there. Frequent reference has also been made to Rucklimann's (ed.
Stallbaum 1823), Schneider's (1819), G. T. Kriiger's (1842), Madvig's
(3rd ed. 1857), an<l Key's (2nded. 1S58) Grammars. Also to Biichelcr's
Grutidriss der latcin. Declination (1866); besides Corssen, Ritschl, &c.
I04 Inflexions. [Book II.
Different nouns and verbs and other words have frequently a 306
common part: such common part is called a root. Thus the root
sta- is common to sta-re, sta-tio, sta-tuo, sta-men, sta-tiira, sta-
tim, iScc, to stand, itanding, stablish, standing-thread, standing-
height, instantly, &c. A root may be used as a stem, or the stem
may contain the root with alterations or additions. The additions
made to form a stem from a root are discussed in Book III.
The inflexions of nouns and pronouns are in the main the same,
and will be treated of together. The inflexions of verbs are quite
distinct, but the formation of certain verbal nouns, though properly
belonging to Book III., is generally treated in connexion with the
inflexions of the verbs.
CHAPTER II.
OF NOUN INFLEXIONS, AND PARTICULARLY
OF GENDER.
The inflexions of nouns are always additions to, or alterations in, 307
the end of the stem. They serve to mark the gender, the number,
and the case, of the word.
As re^zvAs gender a two-fold distinction was made; (i) accord- 30S
ing as sex could be attributed or not; (2) according as the sex
attributed was male or female.
Names of things, to which sex was not attributed, are said to be
of the neuter gender: but the Romans, yielding to their imaginations,
attributed sex to many things, which really had it not, and thus
living creatures are but a small number of the objects, which have
names of the masculine Rnd /Iminine genders.
The distinction of gender is not marked throughout all the 3^^
cases. In the nouns put together as the first class, the feminine was
perhaps originally different from the masculine and neuter through-
out, and it still is so in most cases. The masculine and neuter
differ only in the nominative singular, and nominative and accusative
plural.
In the second class, the masculine and feminine are alike through-
out: the neuter differs from both in the accusative, and usually
in the nominative.
Chap. II.~\ Liflcxions of Gender. T05
The neuter form is always the same in the nominative and
accusative cases. In the singular of the first class this form is the
same as that of the accusative masculine: in the second class it is
the bare stem, unprotected by a suffix, and therefore sometimes
withered : in the plural of both declensions it always ends in -a.
The real significance of the inflexions is best seen in adjectives, 3'o
because they have the same stem modified, if of the first class, to
represent all three genders ; if of the second class, usually only to
represent the masculine and feminine genders as distinguished from
the neuter; i.e. sex as distinguished from no sex; e. g. bonus (m.),
bona (f.), bonum (n.); tristis (m. f.), triste (n.); amans (m. f. n.),
but accusative amantem (m. f.), amans (n.).
Substantives differ from adjectives as regards their inflexions, 3"
chiefly in being fixed to one gender only. But
1. Some substantival stems have a masculine and feminine form ;
e.g. Julius (m.); Julia (f.); equus (m.); equa (f.).
2. A few substantives of the first class are feminine, though
with stems in -0 ; others masculine, though with stems in -a.
3. A substantive of the second class may be masculine, or
feminine, or both, the form being indeterminate.
4. Some suffixes of derivation are exclusively used for substan-
tives, and not for adjectives: some again are confined to the masculine
gender, others to the feminine. E.g. no adjective is formed with
the suffix -ion : again all abstract substantives, if formed by the
suffix -ion, or -tat are feminine; if formed by the suffix -or are
masculine.
It follows from the above, that the gender is not always known 3"
by the foi-m.
The test of a substantive's being of a particular gender is the use
of an adjective of that particular gender as an attribute to it; e.g.
bumus is known to be feminine, because dura bumus, not durus
bumus is used.
An adjective, where the form is not determinately significant,
is commonly said to be in the same gender, as that of the substantive
to which it is used as an attribute.
But though the sex attributed to the person or thing is not 3'3
always expressed by the form, the gender was never assigned in
defiance of the true sex in persons, nor in animals, if the sex was
of importance. Many animals are denoted by a substantive of only
one form and only one gender, the masculine or frminine having
To6 Inflexions. {Book IT.
been originally selected, according as the male or female was most
fi-equently thought of. Animals of the kind generally would be
spoken of, without distinction, by this noun, whether it were
masculine or feminine; e.g. olores (m.) snvans in general; anates
ducks^ including drakes. If a distinction is important, the word mas
or femina, as the case may be, is added; e.g olor femina, the female
f^vaii; anas mas, the male duck. Such nouns are called epicoena
(Quint, i. I. 24).
In the same way a feminine, e.g. .ffitna, can be spoken of as
masculine, if mons be added ; a river can be neuter, if flumen be
added : and the appropriate change of gender takes place some-
times without the explanatory word being expressed; e.g. Eunuchus
acta est, i.e. the play Eunuchus; Centauro inveMtiir magna, i.e. on
the ship Centauros. So occasionally herba or litera is understood.
The genders assigned to names of persons, animals, or vegetables, 3"»
and of some other classes of natural objects were as follows:
I. Names of persons: Names of males are masculine, of females
feminine. Thus proper names of females, derived from the Greek,
though retaining the neuter suffix corresponding to their neuter
gender in Greek, are in Latin feminine; e.g. in Plautus, and
Terence, Planesinm, Glyc6rium, Plironesium, Stephanium, Del-
pliium.
For Appellatives, especially those derived from age or relation- 315
ship, there are separate forms, sometimes from different roots, for the
males and females ; e. g. mas, femina ; pater, mater ; avus, avia ;
proavus, proavia, &c. ; Alius, fllia ; puer, puella; nSpos, neptis,
&c. ; vir, mulier; maritus, uxor; vitricus, noverca; privignus, pri-
vigna; s5cer, socrus; g§ner, nurus ; frater, s6ror; patruus, amita;
avunculus, matertSra; vema (m.), ancilla (f ) ; antistes, antistita;
liospes, hospita ; cliens, clienta ; tibicen, tibicina ; fidicen, fidicina.
So also many (derived from verbs) with -or for masculine, and -rix
for feminine; e.g. tonsor, tonstrix.
Homo, animans (of a rational creature) are masculine ; virgo and
matrona, feminine.
Others (all of 2nd class of nouns) are common: viz. conjunx,
parens, afllnis, patruelis, sfinex, juvfinis, adMescens, infans. In
Ennius and Ncsvius puer, n§pos, and socrus are common. So are
ranked liospes (in the poets) and antistes. In none of these, except
puer (when used as f.) and vema is the form opposed to the sex.
Other personal appellatives are usually or exclusively masculine, 316
because the offices, occupations, &c., denoted were filled by men,
or at least by men as much as by women.
Chap. IJ.'l Injfexions of G aider. 107
The following are sometimes feminine; civls, mflniceps, con-
tubernalis, hostis, exiil, vates, sicerdos, augur (once or twice),
dux, cfimes, satelles, custos, interpres, miles, vindex, index, JMex,
testis, prseses, heres, artifex, auctor. Others are used of females,
but without a feminine adjective; e.g. 6plfex, camifex, auspex,
sponsor, viator, defensor, tutor, auceps, manceps.
So also some with -a stems (see § i2,S)\ auriga, adv§na, &:c.
Others are nowhere found applied to females; e.g. corniocn,
tibicen, tubicen; latro, fullo, mango, ngbulo.
Some words which are only metaphorically applied to men or 317
women retain their original gender; e.g. mancipium (n.) a chattel,
acroama (n.) a musical performer, scortum (n.), prostibulum (n.);
vlgUiae (f.), excQbiae (f.), 6p6ra3 (f.), delicise (f.); auxIUa (n.).
2. Names of Animals. For some animals, with which the 3-8
Romans had much to do, separate forms are found for the male and
female. The stems in -0 are masc, those in -a fern.
Agnus, agna; aper, apra; aries (m.), verves (m.), 6vls (f);
asinus, asina; asellus, asella; hircus, caper, capra; catus (m.),
feles (f.); cataius, catula ; cervus, cerva; cfilumbus, columba;
6QLUUS, equa; gallus, gallina; hsedus, capella; binnus, hinna; jH-
vencuR, juvenca; leo (m.), lea, or (Greek) leaena; lupus, lupa;
miilus, mula ; porcus, porca ; simius, simia (also of apes in general) ;
taurus, vacca ; verres, scrofa; vitulus, vitula; ursus, ursa.
(Of these ovls is said to have been also used as masc. in old
sacrificial language. Varro had the expression lupus femina : Cato
had porcus femina; an old law (ap. Gell. 4, 2- i) agnus femina.)
For most other animals there was only one form; e.g. —
Quadrupeds (besides above); bidens (f. sc. ovis); bos (m. f.); 319
camelus (m. f.) ; canis (m. f ) ; damma (m. f.) ; glgphans, elephantus
(m. rarely f.); fiber (m.); gHs (m.); hystrix (f.) ; 16pus (m.
rarely f.) ; lynx (f. rarely m.) ; mus (m.) ; mustella (f.) ; niteUa
(f ) ; pantbera (f.) ; pardus (m.) ; quadrupes (m. f. n.) ; sorex
(m.); sus (m. f.); talpa (f. rarely m.); tigris (f. rarely m.) ; ves-
pertilio (m.) ; vulpes (f ).
Birds: e.g. accipiter (m. rarely f.) ; 51es (m. f.) ; anas (f ) ; anser 3^0
(m. rarely f); aquUa(f.); avis (f.); bilbo (m. rarely f); ciconla
(f.); ciris (f.); cornix (f.); cStilmix (f.); cygnus (m.), 61or (m.);
fmica and fulix (f ) ; graciilus (m.) ; grus (f. rarely m.) ; hirundo
(f.); ibis (f); luscinius (m.), luscinla (f. also of nightingales in
general); mgriila (f); miluus, mUvus (m.); noctua (f.); oscen
io3 Inflexions. [Book IT.
(m. f.); palumbes (m. f.), palumbus (m.) ; passer (m.); pavo (m.);
perdix (m. f.); pica (f.); stilmus (m.); stnltlidcainelus (m. f.) ;
turdus (rarely f.) ; turtur (m. f.) ; vultur (m.).
Reptiles: e.g. anguis (m. f.); Mfo (m.); chamseleon (m.) ; \-ii
cSluber (m.), colubra (f. also oi snakes generally) ; cr6c6dnus (m.) ;
draco (m.) ; lacertus (m.), lacerta (f. also of lizards generally) ; rana
(f.) ; serpens (m. f.) ; stelio (m.) ; testUdo (f.).
Fishes: acipenser (m.) ; mugil (m.) ; mursena (f.); mullus (m.);
piscis (m.) ; rliombus (m.) ; salar (m.); scarus (m.) ; s61ea (f.).
Invertebrates: apis (f.); cicada (f.); araneus (m.), aranea (f.
also of spiders generally) ; cimex (m.) ; cMex (m.) ; formica (f.) ;
hirMo (f.); lendes (pi. f.); Umax (f rarely m.); mvlrex (m.);
musca (f); papilio (m.); pgdis (m. f.) ; pulex (m.) ; sepia (f ) ;
vermis (m.) ; vespa (f.).
3. Almost all trees and shrubs are feminine. Some of them 3=2
have -0 stems (§ 336), but these are mostly from the Greek.
Of plants and flowers^ some are masculine, the rest chiefly
feminine.
Names of fruits and ivoods are often neuter, with stems in -0,
and some trees are also neuter, probably because the name was first
applied to the product.
The principal masculine names are: acanthus, amaracus (alsof.),
asparagus, bSletus, calamus, carduus, crocus, cytisus (also f.), dil-
mus, ficus (alsof.), fungus, lielleborus (often -um n.), intubus (also
intubum n.), juncus, lotus (usually f.), malus (but as an apple
tree f.), muscus, 61easter, pampinus (also f.), raplianus, rhamnus,
rubus, riimex (also f.), scirpus.
The principal neuter names are apium, acer, baJsimum, laser,
papaver (also m.), piper, robur, siler, siser (but in plural siseres),
tuber {triiffle): and the fruits or woods arbGtum, buxum, &c. (but
castanea, 61ea, balanus, are also used as fruits, and retain their fern,
gen. So buxus and buxiun for a flute).
4. Names of jewels are mainly feminine and Greek. 3-^3
Masculine are adamas, beryllus, carbtuiculus, cbrysoUthus (also
f.), 6nyx (as a marble., or a cup)., Opalus, sarddnjrx (also f.), sma-
ragdus, &;c.
5. Names of towns, countries, &c. have, if of Latin origin, their 324
gender marked by their termination; e.g. masculine; Veji, Putefili,
properly the Feians, &c. : feminine; e.g. Africa (sc. terra), Italia,
Roma: neuter; Tarentum, B6n6ventum, Reate, Praeneste, Anxux (n.
also m. of the mountain), Tibur (n.).
Chap. I/IJ\ Norm Inflexions of Number. 109
Of Greek nouns many retain their Greek gender (though often
with stems in -0), others, owing sometimes to their termination
being misunderstood, have other genders: e. g. Argos usually neut.,
but Statins has freciuently patrios Argos, afflictos Argos, &c. ; Livy
occasionally Argi, as nom. pi.
The Spanish towns are sometimes feminine in -is, e. g. Illiturgis ;
sometimes neuter in -i, e.g. Illiturgl.
Some neuter plurals are found; e.g. Leuctra, Artaxata, Tigrano-
certa.
6. Names of mountains are all masculine, except those with 325
marked feminine terminations (stems in -a or Greek -e); e.g. .ffltna,
Ida, RhSdope, (Sec; or neuter terminations (nom. in -urn, Greek in
-^\ ; e. g. Felion, SoractS. Alpes (pi.) is feminine.
7. Names of ri'vers are masculine, even those with -a stems,
except Allia, Duria, Sagra, Lethe, Styx, which are feminine. But
sometimes rivers are made neuter by prefixing flumen and giving a
termination in -um; e.g. flumen Rhenum (Hor.); flumen Granicum
(Plin.) ; &c.
8. Names of w/V/Jj are masculine; e.g. aquilo, Vultumus, &c.
So also EtesiSB (pi.).
All indeclinable words are neuter: e.g. fas, nefas, instar (except 326
barbaric names, e.g. Abraham); and to this class belong infinitives
(e.g. non dolere istud, totum hoc philosophari) ; words used as names
of themselves (e.g. istuc 'taceo,' hoc ipsum 'honesti'); and often
the letters of the alphabet (as 'c in g commutato'); but these last
are sometimes feminine, litera being expressed or understood.
CHAPTER III.
OF NOUN INFLEXIONS OF NUMBER.
In Latin the only distinction in point of number which is 327
marked by inflexions is between one {singular number), and more
than one {jplural number).
The particular inflexions ot number will be best treated in
connexion with the case inflexions.
Some nouns, in consequence of their meaning, have no plural,
others have no singular.
no Inflexions. \ Book IT.
1. The following have ordinarily no plural :
(rt) Proper naynes of persons and places ; e.g. Metellus, Koma, &c.; 328
but MetelU of several members of the family; CamiUi of persons
with qualities like CamiUus : Gallise, of the two divisions of Gaul,
GflUia Cisalpina and Transalpina ; Volcani of gods with different at-
tributes, but bearing the name of Vulcan ; or of statues of Vulcan, &c.
{b) Single natural objects; e.g. sol, the sun; tellus, the earth;
but soles is used in discussions as to whether there are more suns
than one, or as equivalent to days, &c.
(f) Continna ; i.e. natural objects which are measured or
weighed, not numbered, e.g. cruor, blood; ros, de-zu ; ss, bronze;
frumentum, corn ; faba, beans, as a class ; fumus, smoA-e. But these
are used in the plural, when several kinds, or distinct pieces or drops,
are meant; e.g. vina, different wines; mves, Jlakes of snow ; fabae,
indi'vidual beans ; aera, bronze works of art ; carnes, pieces of flesh ;
fuini, wreaths of smoke. In poetry the plural is sometimes used
without such a distinction.
(d) Abstract nouns ; e. g. justitia, justice ; but not uncommonly
the plural is used even in these in order to express the occurrence
of the event or exhibition of the quality at several times or in
several forms, e. g. virtutes, virtues ; cupiditates, desires ; odia, cases
of hatred ; conscientise, several persons^ consciousness (of guilt) ;
mortes, deaths (of several persons') ; otia, periods of rest ; adventus,
arrivals; maturitates, culminations; vicioitdite^, position of people as
neighbours; lapsus, slips; calores, frigora, times of heat, of cold ;
similitudines, resemblances ; Sic.
2. The following are found only or ordinarily in the plural: 329
though some of them correspond to what in other languages aie
denoted by singulars.
(fl) Names of certain towns or places, Sic: TliebaB, Tigra-
nocerta, Leuctra, Veji (originally the Feians), Cannse (i.e. Reeds):
Gades, Cumse. So Pergama, the towers of "Troy, Tartara.
{b) Groups of islands and mountains, ^Q..\ e.g. Cyclades, Alpes,
Esquilise, Tempe (properly ^/(?«j).
(f) Bodies of persons: e.g. decemviri, a commission of ten
(though we have decemvir also used of a commissioner) &c. ;
majores, ancestors; prScfires, TprimoTes, leading jnen; Mbhvi, children;
lnf6ri, the spirits belcw ; sup6ri, the Gods above ; cselites, the heavenly
ones; penates, the hearth gods; manes, the ghosts ; gratise, the
Graces; Furise, the Furies; Dirse, Curses (conceived as goddesses) ;
&c.
Chap, IJJ.'\ Noun Inficxions of Number. 1 1 1
(^/) Parts of the body; e.g. artus, the joints; cervices (before
Hortensius), the neck {rieckbones])] exta, intestina, visc6ra, the
internal organs; fauces, the throat; lactes, the lacteal I'essels ;
pantlces, bowels ; renes, kidneys ; t6ri, the inuscles ; prsecordia, mid-
riff; ilia, loins.
(f) Names of feasts or days; e.g. Calendae, Nonse, Idus; feria9, 330
the feast-day ; nundinse, market-day ; Baccanalia.ydflj/ of Bacchus ;
&c.
(y) Other collections of things, actions, &:c.; altaria, an altar;
ambages, evasion (but § 415); angustise, straits (sing, rare); argil-
tise, subtlety; antes, rows, e.g. of vines; arma, tools, esp. nueapojis,
armour; armamenta, ship's- tackling; balneaB, the baths, i.e. bath-
house; bigse, a carriage and fair (sing, not till Sen.); cancelli, rail-
ings; casses, a hunting net (properly meshes, cf. § 432); castra, a
camp (properly huts, tents ? castrum is found only as part of proper
names, e.g. Castrum Novum); clathri, a grating; claustra, bars
(sing, in Sen. Curt, rarely); clitellae, a pack saddle (panniersl);
comTpiAes, fetters (but §446); crepunCdSi, child's rattle, &c.; cflnse,
ciinabula, incilnabdla, cradle; delicise, delight; divitias, riches; ex-
cubiae, the watch; 6pulse, a dinner; exsgquise, funeral procession;
exuvise, things stripped off, spoils; facetise, jokes (sing, rare); falae,
scaffolding; fasti, the Calendar; fori, decks; fraces, oil dregs;
grates, thanks (§ 418); induti33, a truce; ineptise, silliness (sing, in
Plant. Ter.) ; inferise, offerings to the shades below; uilitia,s, denial
(€£§369); insidiss, a>?ibush; inimicitise, /^oj/i/i/); (rarely sing.); lapi-
cidlnas, stone quarries; Idculi, compartments, and so box, bag, &c.;
lustra, a den ; manubiae, booty ; minae, threats ; moenia, town quails ;
nilgae, trifes; nuptise, marriage; obices, bolts (but § 439) ; parietinse,
ruins; plialgrse, horse trappings; prsestigise, juggling tricks; prices,
prayers (but § 438); primitise,jif/-j^ /rwVj; pugillares, writing tablets;
quadrigae, a carriage and four (sing, not till Propert.) ; quisquilise,
refuse; reliquias, the remains; rfipagula, bolts, Sec; salinae, saltpits;
Eata, the crops; scalae, stairs; scopae, a broom; sentes, thornbush:
serta, fl ^wreath; sordes, flth (sing, rare §421); supp6tias, supply (cf.
§ 369); t6n6brae, the darkness; thermae, the warm baths (cf balneae);
tesqua, <^.uastes ; yalvdi, folding-doors ; vepres, thorns (but cf. §430);
vindiciae, claims ; virgulta, bushes; iitensilia, necessaries.
Some of these words are used in one or two cases of the singular.
See the references.
3. The following words are used in the plural with a special 53,
meaning, besides their use (in most instances) as an ordinary plural :
aedes sing, a temple, plur. a house (y)vo^r\Y, hearths, chatnbersi);
aqua, water; aquae, a watering-place: auxilium, assistance; auxilla,
means of assistance, auxiliary troops: bdnum, a good; bdna, goods,
112 Inflexions. \Book II.
i.e. oties property: career, a prison; carcSres, the barriers (in horse
races): codicillus, a small piece of nvood; codicilli, <^^Lriting tablets:
copia, plenty; copise, supplies, troops: cSmitium, the place of tribes-
assembly at Rome; cdmitia, the assembly: fides sing, a harpstring,
plur. a stringed i?istri(ment : tortihia,, fortune; fortunse, one''s posses-
sions: gratia, thankfulness ; gratise, grates, thanks: tortus, a garden;
tiOxVi, pleasure-gardens, a country house: impedimentum, « hindrance;
impedimenta, baggage: littera, a letter (of the alphabet) ; litterse, a
letter, i.e. epistle: Ifldus, a game; lUdi, Public Games: natalis, a
birthday; natales, one's descent: 6p6ra, ^Mork; operse, ^workmen: Ops,
a goddess; oveva.,help; opes, ^.vealth, resources: pars, apart; partes,
a part on the stage: rostrum, a beak; rostra, the tribune or pulpit at
Rome: tafeula, a plank; tabiilse, account books.
CHAPTER IV.
OF CASE INFLEXIONS IN GENERAL.
In Latin the distinctions of case are in the singular five, the 33»
cases being named nominative, accusatii'e, genitive, dative, ablative.
In some nouns with stems in -o, besides others derived from the
Greek, a sixth form, (not properly a case, cf. § 1007), generally
called the vocative is also found.
In the plural there are only four; viz. nominative, accusative,
genitive, and a common form for the dative and ablative.
Another case, distinguished in some other languages, called the
locative, is in Latin always the same in form, as either the genitive,
dative, or ablative.
A similar confusion of forms is found between some of the other
cases in some classes of nouns. Originally perhaps there was a
different form for each case in each number.
Nouns and pronouns, whether substantival or adjectival, may 333
be conveniently divided according to their case inflexions (called
collectively their declension) into two great classes, containing
respectively —
I. Nouns with stems ending in -a, -e, or -0.
II, Nouns with stems ending in -u, -i, or a consonant.
Chap. IV.] Case Inflexions. 113
All the pronouns, except personal pronouns, belong to the
first class, though a few have kindred forms belonging to the
second class.
The personal pronouns belong strictly to neither class. They
will be treated of as an appendix to the first class.
The chief constant differences between the inflexions of the two
classes are these : —
Nouns of the first class have the genitive singular (except in
the pronouns), the locative singular, and the nominative plural
(except in a few -e stems) alike, and ending in a long vowel or
diphthong ; the genitive plural in -rum preceded by a long vowel ;
the dative and ablative plural (except in two -e stems) in -is.
Nouns of the second class have the genitive singular and nomi-
native plural ending in -s, the locative usually the same as the
ablative, the genitive plural in -um, the dat. abl. plural in -bus
(usually -ibus).
Some of these differences were not found in the older language.
See Chapters vi. and xii.
[The ordinary division of nouns substantive was into five 334
declensions. Of these the ist contained -a stems (§ 339) ; the 2nd,
-0 stems (§ 344 sqq.); the 3rd, consonant (Chap, xi.) and -i stems
(Chap. X.); the 4th, -u stems (Chap, ix.); and the 5th, -e stems
(§ 340). Adjectives were divided into those of three terminations,
-us, -a, um (§§ 339, 344); those of two terminations, -is, -e (Chap.
X.), and -or, -us (§ 460); and those of one termination, e.g. felix
(Chaps. X. XI.)].
Examples of the regular declensions of the different subordinate
classes will be given in the next chapter. Any peculiar forms
of inflexion which existed will be found in Chapters vi. and Xii.,
or appended to the mention of the particular word to which they
relate.
CHAPTER V.
NOUNS OF CLASS I.
I. Gender.
As regards the gender of nouns of this class, with comparatively 335
few exceptions, (i) all masculine and neuter nouns have stems in
-0 ; (2) all feminine nouns have stems in -a, or -e.
8
XI4 Inflexions. [Book II.
The exceptions are as follows ;
1. Some stems in -a are masculine; e.g. appellative substan-
tives expressing occupations in which men are exclusively or pri-
marily thought of, viz. accola, agricola, incola ; assecla, advena,
convena ; aiiriga, collega, couvlva, guiiiia, lanista, lixa, matricida,
parricida, profuga, transfuga, p5pa, rabula, scriba, sciirra, verna.
And the same termination was given to Greek words in -;;$-, e.g.
nauta, poeta, Persa, Scytha (see § 475).
Damma is also sometimes masc: talpa larely so (§ 319).
So also almost all rivers (§325) : e.g. Sequana, Trgbia, iScc, and
Hadria (the Hadriatic sea).
A considei^able number of proper names, e.g. Numa, Lamia,
Ahala, Pansa, Sulla, Galba, Natta, Tucca, Nasica, Perpenna, Cinna,
Mela, Messalla, Poplicola. So also some feminine appellatives were
used as family names of men, e.g. Ruga, Scapula, Sura, Fimbria,
Merula, Pica, Musca, Murena, Dolabella, Fenestella, Hemina, Trabea.
2. Some words with -0 stems are feminine. These are 336
chiefly either names of trees or Greek words, especially names of
jewels and towns.
{a) alvus (in old language m.) ; carbasus, colus (sometimes
m.), humus, vannus. For d6mus see § 394.
(b) Names of trees : sesculus, alnus, arbutus, buxus, cedrus,
cerasus, citrus, coriius, corulus, cupressus, cytisus (also m.),
gbenus, fagus, fasSlus, ficus (rarely m.), fraxinus, junipgrus, laurus,
lotus (rarely m.), malus {apple-tree)^ morus, mjTtus, nardus,
ornus, papyrus, pinus, pirus, platanus, pomus, populus, prunus,
quercus, sabiicus, sorbus, spinus, ulmus. Also balanus, acorn.
(f) Jewels: e.g. amethystus, crystallus, sapphirus, topazus,
meliclirysos.
((/) Towns, (S:c. ; Abydus, .ffigyptus, Aspsndus, Carystus,
Chersonesus, Cyprus, Epidamnus, Epiclaurus, Epirus, Peloponnesus,
P^hodus, &c.; but Canopus (m.). Isthmus (m.), Orchomenus (m.),
Pontus (m.). So also Delos, Lemnos, &c. are feminine.
(e) For Greek appellatives, e.g. atomus, mSthodus, &;c.,
see§ 478.
3. Of nouns in -es only dies and meridies are masculine. 337
Dies however is in the singular number often feminine, especially as
an appointed day, and almost exclusively fern, when it means time,
period of time.
All neuters (except some pronouns, § 370) have nom. ace. sing. 33S
in -um: except virus, vulgus (in ace. often vulgum), and the Greek
pelagus, plur. pelage. (Virus and vulgus have no plural. The
authority lor vulgus as masc. seems insufficient.)
Chap. K] Noun Stems ending in -a and -e. 115
II. IXFLEXIONS OF CASE.
The suffixes for the different cases are usually combined vvith 339
the final vowel of the stem, so as not always to be readily
distinguishable.
I. Declension of stems in -a and -e.
I. The substantive stems in -a (chiefly feminine), and the
feminine form of those adjectives which have stems in -0, are declined
alike; e.i,'. mensa (f.), a table; scriba (m.), a clerk; bona (adj. f.),
good; tenera (adj. f.), tender. There are no neuters of this declen-
sion.
a. Stems in -e of this class (comp. § 407) are all substantives 340
and all feininine: one (dies) is also masculine. All but a few have
stems in -ie with a short antepenultimate, and most are words of
more than three syllables.
They are as follows: dies, fames (also famis), fides, plebes
(also plebs), res, spes, and (in ablative sing, only) scabre, squale;
acies, alluvies (with other derivatives of lavo), barbaries, csesa-
ries, caries, congeries, eflfigies, esuries, facies, glacies, ingluvies,
luxuries, maceries, macies, matSries, muries (only nom. s.), paupe-
ries, pernieies (? permities, Munro, ad Lucr. 1. 45 1). progenies, rabies,
rgqvies (also with stem in -et, § 445), sanies, scabies, series, species,
superficies, tempeiies, and its compound intemperies ;
and abstract substantives in -ities, viz. amarities, amicities,
avarities, calvities, canities, durities, lentities, mollities, niundities,
neqvlties, nigrities, notities, pigritico, planities, pullities, segnities,
spurcities, tristities, vastities.
Only two of these words, viz. res and dies, are inflected through- 341
out all cases of both numbers. None (besides dies and res) have any
plural, except acies, facies, eflgies, species, spes, series, Avhich are
found in the nominative and accusative plural ; glacies in accus,
(Verg.), eluvies in nom. (Curt.). But old forms of spes, viz. speres,
nom. ace. plur., speribus, dat. abl. plur., are mentioned as used by
Ennius and Varro respectively^, Facierum is quoted from Cato,
Specierum, speciebus occur in the Digest, &c. but are repudiated by
Cicero ijop. 7. § 30).
^ The stem appears to liave been spes- : compare sper-o. So also
perhaps dies-; comp. diur-nus. See also § 405.
8—2
ii6
Inflexions.
{Book If.
The genitive and dative singular are rare', except from dies, 342
res, spes, fides, and plebes.
These cases appear to have ended regularly in -el in and after
the second century after Christ at latest (Gell. ix. 14), but whether
ei was usually one syllable or two is uncertain. Probably it was
a diphthong. Before that time ei is proved to be sometimes di-
syllabic, but in the words diei, fidei and fldei, rei and rfii only. Sec
§§357, 360.
Luxuries, materies, bartaries, intempgries, effigies, and almost all
the words in -ities, have collateral stems in -a (of. § 932), and these
supply the forms generally used in the genitive and dative singular.
Examples: mensa, a table; bona (adj.), good; luxuria, luxury; 343
res, a thing; acies, a point. All feminine.
Stems in
Stevis in -a.
-a and -e.
Stems
in -e.
Singular. Subst.
Adj.
Subst.
Subst.
Subst.
Nom.
niens3.
b6na
luxGria
or luxurie-s
re-s
acie-s
Ace.
mensa-m
bona-m
luxuria-m
or luxurie-m
re-m
acie-m
Gen. ]
Loc. )
Dat. J
menssa
bonaa
luxurias
re-i
acii or
acie
Abl.
mensa
bona
luxuria
or luxurie
re
acie
Plural.
Nom.
Ace.
mensse
mensa-3
bonse )
bona-s \
(Plural
not used)
re-s
acie-s
Gen.
mensa-rum
bona-rum
re-rum
(none)
Loc. )
Dat. \
mensi-s
boni-s
re-bus
(none)
Abl.
2. Ordinary declension of -0 stems.
The following is the regular declension of substantives with 344
stems ending in -0, and of adjectives, with the like stems, in the
masculine and neuter gender.
e.g. animils (m.), a soul; bellum (n.), ivar; bSnus (adj.), ^00^.
^ Quintilian says (l. 6, § 26), "Nee plurimum refert, nulla hcec an
prjedura sint. Nam quid 'progenies' genetivo singulari, quid plurali
'spes' faciei?"
Chap. K]
Noun Sinns ending in -o.
117
Mascul
ine
Neuter
Singular.
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Subst.
animii-s
animg
animvi-m
Adj.
bonu-s
b6n-6
b6nu-m
(
Subst.
bellu-m
Adj.
b6nu-ra
Gen. )
Loe. S
animi
bdni
beUi
bdni
Dat. \
Abl. )
animo
bono
bello
bSno
Plural.
Nom.
Ace.
Gen.
animi
animo-s
animo-rum
boni \
b6no-s \
bdno-rum
bella
bello-rtun
b6na
bono-rnm
Loc. )
Dat. \
Abl. j
animl-s
boni-s
belU-s
bfini-s
The vocative masc. sing, of mens, m'lne^ is mi. Deus, god^ lud 34j
voc. Deus; nom. plur. di; dat. abl. dis; but del and dels are not
infrequent in Ovid and later poets, and even in some M:^S. of Varro
and Cicero.
3. Declension of stems in -ro.
Of Stems in -6ro, {a) most drop the final -us of the nominative 34G
singular, and -8 of the vocative ; and (^) many omit the e before r
in all the cases except the nom. voc. masculine singular.
{a) The following only exhibit -us in the nominative singular :
niimftrus, umgrus (or humenxs), fit6rus, and (the single fern, stem
in -6ro), jilnipfirus, and the adjectives propgrus, prsepr6p6rus,
prseposterus, morigerus, triquetrus, and usually prosperus. The
nominative masculine singular of the adjectives cet6rum, post6rum,
Ifldicrum, creperum is not found.
(Adjectives with long e in penultimate (e.g. severus), and some
Greek forms, e.g. Evandrus, Petrus, exhibit -us. But Iberi ajid
Celtiberi have for singular Iber and Celtiber, but only once each.)
Vir, a man., and its compounds, e.g. triumvir, semivir (adj.), and
the adjective satiir (satiira, saturum), also drop -us. Lucretius
once uses famtil for famulus.
Puere is frequently found in Plautus as the vocative of puer. 347
{K) The following only retain e before r ; viz. —
(i) All those which retain -us in the nominative singular,
Tl8
Inflexions.
\Eook 11.
(2) Adulter, s6cer, ggner, Liber (jh; god Bacchiu), puer, vesper
{e-vetihig star),}Vigerma. (which last in phiral belongs to 2nd Class);
(3) The adiectives asper (aspris, abl. plur. once in Vergil),
lacer, liber, miser, t6ner, gibber, alter; and oeterum, postenim,
creperum (above named). Also exter (Papin.), infer (Cato), super
(Cato), chiefly used in plural;
Dexter has both forms; e.g. dexteram, dextram. (The compa-
rative of dexter is alw^ays dexterior. So also deterior.)
(4) Compounds of more than two syllables ending in -fer or
-ger; e.g. mortifer, aliger, (Sec.
The following are the principal substantives which omit e ; ager,
aper, arbiter, auster, cancer, caper, coluber, culter, faber, liber
{hook), magister, minister. The neuters are chiefly in -brum, -trum,
-crum, see in Book III. The adjectives omitting e are: aeger, ater,
crtber, (dexter, § 347,) glater, macer, niger, piger, impiger, integer,
ludicrum,tulclier, ruber, sacer, scaber, sinister (in comparative always
sinisterior), tseter, vdfer: also Afcr, Calaber.
Examples: puer (m.), a boy; vir (m.), a niaii ; faber (m.),
a ivork}77an ; membrujn (n.), a limb.
34S
349
Singular. M
a s c u 1 i n e
Neuter
Nom. )
Voc. i P"^'^
vir
fabgr
)
\
membru-m
Ace. pueru-m
Gen. )
Loc. \ P^^^^
viru-m
fabru-m
viri
fabri
membri
Dat". )
Voc. 1 P^^^°
viro
fabro
membro
Plural.
Nom. pugri
Ace. puSro-s
virl
viro-s
fabri )
fabro-s \
membra
Gen. puero-rum
viro-rum
fabro-rum
membro-mm
Loc. ■\
Dat. I pueri-s
Abl. \
(andviru-
m) (and fabru-
m)
viri-s
fabri-s
membri-s
On -um in the genitive plural of
vir and faber
see § 365.
4. Pras- Augustan declension of stems in
(i.e. either -uo, -vo, or -qvo).
-uo
The older language, as shown especially by inscriptions not 350
later than cir. 520 B.C., retained the final -0 of the stem in the
nominative and accusative cases singular; e.g. fni6s, primes,
Chap, v.]
Noun Stems ending in
119
LQciom, donom. Though this -0 was changed to -u generally
(§ 213), yet the stems in which it was preceded by v or u or qu
retained it until the Augustan age and later (Quintil. i. 7. 26).
The change was however made in these stems also in the course of
the ist century after Christ. In words like gqviis the concurrence
of u with u was also avoided by writing 6qus, or 6cQs.
e.g. 6qv6s or 6cus (m.), a horse; sevom (n.), aii age; ardu5s
(adj.), lofty.
Masculine Neuter
Singular
Nom. )
Voc. \
Ace.
Gen. )
Loc. \
. Subst.
6qv6-s or Scu-s
6qvS
Sqvo-m or 6cu-in
eqvi
Adj.
arduo-s )
ardue '
arduo-m )
ardui
Subst.
sevo-m
£evi
Adj.
arduo-m
ardui
Dat. )
Abl. \
gqvo
arduo
sevo
arduo
Plural.
Nom.
Ace.
6qvi
6qv6-s
ardui }
arduo-s \
aeva
ardua
Gen.
Loc. )
Dat. [
Abl. )
eqvo-ri:in
arduo-rum
Eevo-ruin
arduo-rum
eqvi-s
ardui-s
se^a-s
ardui-s
5. Augustan and Prce-Augustan declension of stems in -io.
In the Augustan and prce-Augustan period substantives with 351
stems ending in -io formed the genitive singular in -i single. So
always in the scenic poets, in Lucretius, Vergil, Horace ; also in
Persius and Manilius. The genitive of trisyllabic words with a
short antepenultimate (e.g. gladius, foliiun), appears to have been
generally avoided by these poets; but prgti, viti (from pretium and
vitium) occur. Propertius, Ovid, Lucan, and the later poets, used
the full form in -ii; e.g. Mercurii, exsilil, vitii; but in proper
names the contracted form continued to be most common; e.g.
Antoni, Capitoli, Terenti, Livi. In inscriptions -ii appears fi-om
the end of Augustus' reign, and with increasing frequency after
Nero's reign, though -i is also found to the end of the 3rd century
after Christ and probably longer (Ritschl. Opiisc. 11. 779).
The vocative sing. masr. of these stems also ended in -i (not -ie). 352
e.g. Publi. But the vocative is found only in proper names and in
the words gSnius, f nius, vulturius (cf. Gell. 14. 5). The nomina-
tive plural rarely had ii contracted into i. The dative ablative
plural had sometimes, especiallN in neuters, -is for -iis. (See § 367.)
I20
Inflexions.
\Book II.
Adjectives always had -ii in genitive. Only those derived from
Greek proper names had a distinct form for vocative; e.g. CyntMe,
Delie.
In stems ending in -aio, -eio the i both formed a diphthong with
the preceding vowel, and also was pronounced as English y before
a following vowel. (For some exceptions see § 139.) Hence Cicero
wrote the i double, -alio, -eiio ; but this spelling is not now found
in the MSS. or in republican inscriptions.
Substantives.
Adjectives. 353
Singular
masc.
masc.
neut.
masc.
Nom.
Claudius
Pompejus
\
egrggius
Voc.
Claudi
Pompel and
-
consilium *
Pompei
Ace.
ClaudiuTTi
Pompejum
egrggium
Gen. )
Loc. i
Claudi
Pomptii
consili
egrggii
Dat. \
Abl. \
ClaudiS
Pompejo
consilio
egrggio
Plural.
Nom.
Claudii
Pompei \
consilia
egr§gia
Ace.
Claudios
Pompejos \
Gen.
Claudio-nim Pompejorum
consiliorum
egrggiorum
Loc. \
Dat. \
Claudiis
Pompeis
consiliis or
egrggiis
Abl. j
consilis
CHAPTER VL
OLD AND EXCEPTIONAL FORMS OF CASES.
(CLASS I.)
I Singular Number.
Nominative: Stetiis In -0. On the faint sound of final s and m
which led to their omission even in the older language, see §§ 193,
5. 86. Old inscriptions give such forms as Acilio, Fourio, Fatorecio,
pocolo (for Acilius, Furius, Fabricius, poculum). The nominative
sing, of proper names with stems in -io are fi-equently written in
old inscriptions without the final syllable: e.g. Claudi, Valeri, Minuci
(for Claudius, &:c). This may be merely an abbreviation, due as
Ritschl supposes, to a once collateral nominative in -is; e.g. Comelis.
Compare alls, alius § 373.
33-1
Chap. VI.] Old Forms of Casex. {Nouns of Class I ^ 121
Accusative: For the omission of the final m, see § 86. 335
Stems in -e. Qiiintilian (ix. 4. 39) speaks of diee hanc (if text
be right) being found in Cato the censor's writings, '• m litera in -e
moUita".
Genitive : i. Stems in -a. Instances of the ordinary genitive 356
in -ae are very rare in inscriptions before the time of the Gracchi.
Three old forms of the genitive singular are found, viz. -aes, -ai
and -as.
(a) The ending -aes occurs fi-equently in inscriptions after
Sulla's time, but chiefly on tombs of freedwomen and slaves, and
rarely in other than proper names; e.g. Juliaes, Dianaes, Anniaes,
Faustinaes, dominaes, vernaes. Some hold it to be intended for
the Greek genitive in -r;?. Ritschl (comparing a single Prosepnais
from the 6th century u.c.) holds it to be a genuine old Latin form,
&nd possibly used by Plautus {Neue Plant. Exc. I. p. 115).
(b) Of the ending -as examples are given from Livius Andro-
nicus, escas, monetas, Latonas; from Nsevius. terras, fortunas; and
from Ennius, vias. Some so take molas in Plant. Pseud, iioo.
This form is preserved in one word at all periods, viz. familia,
when combined with pater, mater, filius, filia; e.g. paterfamilias
(Cato, Cic), a father of a household. Pater, &;c. familise (Cic,
Liv.) is also used. In the plural we find both patres, &c. -famUiae
(Varr., Cass., Liv.), -familias (Varr., Cic), -familianim (Cic,
?>3iW.^, fathers Sec. of households.
(c) The endmg -ai (originally the locative according to
Madvig) is more common and earlier, and in Plautus and hex-
ameter verse (retaining probably the old pronunciation) is treated
as a spondee (-ai). It is frequent in Lucretius, and is also used by
Cicero in his poetry, and by Vergil in four w^ords, aquai, aulai,
aurai, pictai. Republican inscriptions give, e.g. Duelonai (i.e.
Bellonse), Glabrai, ejus rei quaerundai et faciimdai causa, calcis
restinctai, &c.
2. Stems in -e. Four forms of the genitive-ending are found, 357
viz. es; ei; e; i. (See Gell. 9. 14).
{a) -es; viz. Dies, Enn.,^. 401, Vcrg. G. I. 208 (die, Ribbeck),
Cic. Sest. 12. § 28; rabies, Lucr. iv. 1083 ; facies, Claud. Quadrig.
(in Sulla's time) ; fides, see below b ; pemicies, said to have been
written by Cicero.
{b) -ei; viz. diei, frequent in prose; diei, Lucr. (often), Verg. A.
iv^i56, Hon 5.1.8. 35, Phasdr. 11. 8. 10, Ter. Haut. 168, 212, Plaut.;
diei, Ter. Eun. 801; rei, always in Republican inscriptions; rei,
Plaut. Alii. G. 103, magna! rei publicai gratia; Lucr. 11. 112,
122 Inflexions. [Book JI.
548 ; r6i, Plant., Tlm"., Hor.; rei, Plant., Ten, Lucil., Lucr.; fidei, fre-
qumt in prose; fidei, Enn. A7in. 342, Plaut. AuL 121, 575, Lucr
V. 102; fid6i, Manil. 11. 605, 627, Sil. (four times); fidei (fides
Wagner), Plaut. ylnl. 609; spei, frequent in prose; spei, Ter.
always; plebei (especially in phrases tribunus plebei, plebeiscitum,
&:c.) frequent: aciei, Bell. Afr. 59 and 60. Mundiciei, hiscr. 136,
A.D. (cf. Corssen. Aussp. 1. 54, ed. ^).
(c) -e; viz. die, in several places (in some Mss.) of Ca^s., Sal!.,
Liv., also Plaut. Pseud. 115 8; Sen. Cons. Marc. 18. 2; compare also
postridie, &c. ; re, Css., Liv. in some mss.; fide. Poet. ap. C. Off.
3. 26; Plane, ap. Cic. Fam. 10. 17 ; Hor. C. 3. 7. 4; Ovid. Met. iir.
341, VI. 506, VII. 728, 737, &c.; acie, Sail.; facie, Lucil., Plaut. Mil.
G. 1172; requie, Sail.; scabie, Lucil. "C. Caesar in libro de analogia
secundo hujus die et hujus specie dicendum putat," Gell. 9. 14.
(il) -i; viz. dii, Verg. A. 1.63'''; plebi, frequent in phrases above
quoted; acii, Cn. Matins; pernicii, Cic. Rose. -^w. 45, Sisenna ;
specii, Cn. Matins; progenii, Pacuvius ; luxiirii, C. Gracchus;
fami, Lucil., Cato ; fidi, Augustan legal inscription {Corp. I. L. II.
5042).
3. Stems in -0. The oldest form was perhaps -oe; e.g. poploe. 358
But the inscriptions to the time of the third Punic war give only i;
e.g. Barbati, urbani; after that time, till Augustus, -ei is also fre-
quently found; e.g. populei, cogendei, siiei, ostiei, pagei, Marcei,
Vergilei; but not so frecpiently in laws as -i. In Augustus' time
-ei went out of use (§§ 265 — 268). Lucilius wished to establish
the distinction of -i for the gen. sing.; -ei for nom. plur.
The locative has the same form as the genitive and was not
improbably identical with it.
Dative: i. Stems in -a. Early republican and other inscrip- 339
tions have not unfrequently -ai. The disyllabic ai is not found
in the dative in any poet.
Fonns like Fortune, Diane in very old inscriptions are probably
imitations of Greek.
2. Stems in -e. Three forms of the dative are found; -ei, e 3^0
and i.
{a) -ei; viz. diei, often; rei, Lucr. i. 688, II. 236; rei, Corp.
I. L. 201, also (at beginning of verse) Ter. Ad. 95 ; rSi, Ho.-.
C. 3. 24. 64 ; rei, Enn. Trag. 361 ; Plaut., Ten, Lucil; fidei, often in
prose; fidei, Enn. Ann. 11 1 (fide, Vahlen); Ter. Aiid. 2()6, Eun.
886, 898; Plaut. ylul. 667, 676, Tnn. 117 (al. fide), 128, 142;
fidei, IVLanil. 3. 107, Sil. 2. 561 ; plebei, Plin. H. A\ 19. 4. 19, § 54,
18. 3. 4; aciei, Caes. Civ. HI. 89, ib. 93; perniciei, Nep. 12. 4.
Chap. V/.] Old Fo)- 111 s of Cases. {N'oiuis of Class I) 133
(U) -5; viz. die, Plant.; fide, Corp. I. R. I. 170; Plaut. A>7jph.
391; Aid. cf. Charis. pp. 5^, 70 Keil; Hor. 5. i. 3, 95: pemicie,
Liv. 5. 13, § 5; facie, Lucil. "In casu dandi qui purissime lociiti
sunt, non 'faciei', uti nunc dicitur, sed 'facie' dixerunt." Gc!l.
<;• 14-
(c) -i; vi/.. pernicii, Nep. 8. 2; fami, Plaut. Stub. 158; fa^ii
(cf. Gell. 9. 14); fidi, Fast. Coll. Arval. ad Kal. Oct.
3. Stems in -0. The oldest form was -oi ; e.g. hoic, quoi, 361
populoi. Perhaps also oe in pUumnoe, poploe, Fest. p. 205.
Ablative. In early times the ablative ended in -d; e.g. oqucl- 362
tod (occulto); Benventod (Eenevento), praidad (prseda), seutentiad
(sententia). The latest inscription containing such ablatives is the
S.C. de Bacc. B.C. 186. Plautus probably used it or not as he chose.
See § 160 and Ritschl, Neiie Plaut. Exc. I. 106.
Plural Number.
Nominative: 6'/^;;;^ /;; -a. The ending -as is quoted from 3^3
Pomponius, ' Quot Istitias insperatas modo mi inrepsere in sinum.'
(See Ritschl, A^. P. Exc. i. 117.)
Steftis in -0. The earliest forms of ending in inscriptions are
~es (not beyond cir. 90 B.C.) and very rarely -e or -oe; e.g. Atilies,
magistres, ploirume, Fescennince: from 200 B.C. or earlier to about
the birth of Christ, more frequently -ei, and from about the Gracchi
till cir. 90 B.C. -eis, or sometimes -is; e.g. Italicei, oinvorsei (uni-
versi), Q. M. Minucieis, Q. F. Rufeis (i.e. Q. (et) M. Minucii, Quinti
fUii, Hufl), gnateis, heisce. So in Plautus Msce, illisce.
The ordinary form in -i appears since the Gracchi, and becomes
exclusively used in the Augustan age.
The only instances of dual forms (compare the Greek) are duo
and amlio, which are the forms used in the masc. and neut. (dusa
feminine as in plur).
Accusative : Duo, ambo, masc. and neut. ; duos, amlDOD, also
masc. (duas, ambas, fem.).
Genitive: Future participles except futurus are very rarely 36^
found in the genitive plural, probably on account of the unpleasant-
ness of repeated r (§ 185).
I. Stems in -a. The ending -lun for -arum (romp. Oscan
-azum; Umbr. -arum or -aru; old Greek -acav) is found ;
(a) in some names derived from the Greek ; viz. : amphorum,
(e.g. trium ampLorum), drachmum.
124 Inflexions, \Book I J.
(J}) in proper names, especially patronymics, but almost ex-
clusively in dactylic verse (esp. Vergil); e.g. Lapithmn, Dardanidmn.
iEneaduJii.
(f) The only strictly Latin words in which it occurs are (mas-
culine) compounds of gigno and colo, and these are so used in
dactylic verses only; e.g. Grajugenum, terrigenum, cselicolmn.
The forms in -arum are also used.
2. Stems in -0. The ending -tun (apparently similar to the 365
Umbrian and Oscan forms, and the Greek -Qtv) was perhaps the
original Italian form, except in the pronouns, and was gradually
superseded in Latin by -orum, which is common in inscriptions of
the second century B.C. and later. In and after Cicero's time (see
Cic. Or. 46) the genitive in -um for ordinary language was found
only in certain words. Thus it is found:
{a) in names of weights and measures (chiefly Greek) in combi-
nation with numerals. Thus niimmum (e.g. tria millia nummum;
but nunimorum accessionem), sestertium, denarium, talentmn, me-
dimnuiu, stadj.uia.
{b) in deum, divum, the compounds of virum e.g. quinquevi-
rum, dumn virum, &c. (but in Liv. decern virorum isfi-equent), and
in poetry virum itself; liberum {childre)i), fabrum (in phrases as
prsefectus Tabrum. collegium fabrum), socium (in prose rarely ex-
cept of the Italian allies^ or with prsefectus), equum (often written
eciim).
(f) in names of peoples (in poetry) ; e.g. AcMvum, Argivum, Teu-
crum, Celtibenim (sometimes in prose), Rutiaum, Italum, &;c. Other
words, e.g. fluvium, famulum, juvencum, are found occasionally.
{d) But few instances of neuters are found; e.g. somuium,
annum, &c., oppidum (Sulpicius ap. Cic. Fam. 4. 5. § 4).
(e) In adjectives instances are few, e. g. centum doctum bominum
consUia, celatum indagator, &c. (Plant.); motus superum atque
inferum, meum factum pudet (Ennius); prodigium horriferum
portentum pavor (Pacuv.); amicum, iniquom, sequom (Ter. Haiit.
24, 27); &c., and the old phrase liberum sibi quaesendum (or quEe-
rendum) gratia, &c. So in Vergil magnanimum generator equorum.
(/) Duum (frequently), ducentum, quingentum, sescentum, &c
So usually distributives; e.g. binum, quaterniim (never binorum,
quatemorum with milium), senum, ducenxun, quadragenum, &c.
(§■) For nostrum, vestrum, &c., see § 388.
Dative, Ablative, i. Stems in -a, and-o. i. The oldest foi-m, gjig
of which any instances are found, was -oes; e.g. does for illis.
But the form most used in pras-Augustan inscriptions is -eis. The
ending -is is found since the Gracchi, and, almost exclusively, in and
after the Augustan time.
Chap. VI.] Old Forms of Cases. {Nouns of Class I.) 125
2. Stems in -ia, -io are found sometimes with -is instead of -iis 367
in inscriptions; e.g. suffragis, prsedls, provlncis. So in C\c. Rep.
socis, prffisidis, pecunis, &c. Plautus has gaudis, fills (from
filius); Vergil has tsenis; Seneca suppUcis; Martial denaris. In
Mon. Ancyr. both forms occar not unfrequently ; e.g. municipiis,
municipis. Gratiis (Plant., Tcr.), gratis (Cic, Mart.).
3. An ending in -bus, as in the second class of nouns, is found 368
in a few words: viz,
(«) Ambo, duo, always make ambSbus, ambabus; duobus, duabus.
{U) Dibus is found in inscriptions for DIs. (So also ibus, Mbus,
from is and bic.)
(f) In prose, chiefly in inscriptions and legal expressions, -abus
for -is is found in a few substantives; viz. deabus (chiefly in phrases,
dis deabusque), filiabus, llbertabus in opposition to the (usually)
masculine filiis, libertis; rarely, conservabus, natabus. In late
writers also animabus, equabus, mulabus, and (sometimes in in-
scriptions) nympbabus.
A few adjectives occur with this form in Rhenish inscriptions;
e.g. matronis Gabiabus, Junonibus Silvanabus, &;c.
The following words of this class are defective or redundant in 369
certain cases. (All words of this sort which in any way belong to
the 2nd class have their peculiarities mentioned, where they occur
in the enumeration of that class.) See also § 330.
sevom (n.), also used as ace. m.; balneum (n.), also plur. balneas,
of the bath house; balteus (m.), also balteum (n.), esp. in plur.;
buxus (f), also buxuin(n.); caelum (n.), no plur. except cselos once
in Lucret., where the meaning compels it; caUus (m.), also callum
(n.); carbasus (f., rarely m.), pi. carbasa; caseus(m.),a]socaseum(n.);
cavum (n.), a hollow, also cavus, m. (sc. locus); clipeus (m.), also
clipeiun (n.) ; collum (n.), also in old language coUus (m.) ; crdcus
(m.), in sing, also crocum (n.) ; cytisus (m. f.), in sing, also cytisum
(n.) ; delicium (n.) or delicia (f.), plur. delicise, sing, not frequent;
dica, dicam, dicas, dicis, la-uu suits (h'lKr]), no other forms; gpulse (pL),
also sing, gpulum (n.) ; limus (m.), in sing, also fimum (n.) ; frenum
(n.), plur. freni (m.) and frena (n.); bordeum (n.), of pUu-al only
nom. ace; Infitias, ace. pi. only with verb ire, used in no other
case; intibus or intubus (m.), also intubum (n.); j6cus (m.), in
plur. j6ci and joca; jugulus (m.), in sing, also jugulum (n.); jus
jtLrandum (n.), both parts of the word are declined, e. g. juris
jurandi, jure jurando, &c. ; IQcus (m.), in plur. also Idea, oi places,
126 Inflexions. ^Book 11.
properly speaking; loci, chiefly of places, metaphorically; macte,
indecl. adj. or adverb, once in Pliny macti, but not in all iMSS.;
margarita (f.), also margarltum (n.); mendum (n.), also menda (f.);
nasus (m.), also in Plant, nasum (n.); nauci only gen. sing.; nihil
(n.) only in nom. ace. s.; often contracted nil: of the fuller fonn
nihilum are used niliili as gen. (or loc?) of price; niliilo after prepo-
sitions, comparatives, and as abl. of price; and ad niliilum (in
ordinary language we have nullius rei. Sec); ostrea (f.), also cstreum
(n.); palatus (m.), usually palatum (n.); pgdum (n.), a crook, only
found in ace. s.; pessum, I'ottom, only ace. s. after verbs of motion,
e.g. ire, dare;pill3us (m.),alEopilleum(n.); pondo, properly abl. s.,
also used as indeclinable, '■pounas^\ porrus (m.), also in sing, por-
rum (n.); puteus (m.), also rarely puteum (n.); ranientum (n.),
also in Plant, ramenta; rastrum (n.), also in plur. rastri (m.);
reticulus (m.), more frequently reticulum; scalper, scalpellus (m.),
also scalprum, scalpellum (n.); sibilus (m.), also sibilum (n.); sup-
pgtias, ace. pL, no other case; tergus (m.), usually tergum (n.) ;
vallus (m.), usually vallum (n.); venum (n.), ace. sing, after verbs of
motion : Tacitus alone has veno. For virus, vulgus see § 338.
For numerical adjectives, some of which are indeclinable, see
App. D. i.
CHAPTER VII.
PECULIAR DECLENSION OF CERTAIN PRONOUNS
AND ADJECTIVES.
Some nouns adjective, and all pronouns adjective (except 37°
possessive pronouns, meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester), have for all
genders the genitive singular ending in -ius, the dative in -X. In the
other case the inflexions are the same as ordinary stems in -0 and -a.
The words belonging to this class are Unus, ullus, nullus, solus,
t5tus, alter, uter (and its compounds uterque, &c.), alius, ille,
iste, ipse, hie, is, idem, qui and its compounds (quivis, occ.).
Of these alius, ille. iste, is, qui have neuter nom. and ace. ending
in -d instead of -m. Other irregularities are named below.
1. totus, cMhoIe, 371
Singular. Plural.
m. f. n. m. f. n.
Nom. totus tota totiim toti totae ) ....
. '. tota
Ace. totiun totam totiun totos totas ]
Gen. totius in all genders totoruni totarum totorum
,C ." ( toti in all genders ) x-^- • n j
Dat. ) ° V totis m all genders
Abl. toto tota toto -'
CJiap. VII.] Declension of Pronouns adjective, &=€. 127
In the same way are declined solus, alone., Gnus, owf, ullus (i. e.
ilnulus), any at all., nullus, noyie.
Also alter {the other), altSra, alterum, gen. alterius, dat. altgri.
utSr, utra, utruin, ^.vbeth.'r., i.e. njobichoftH.vo, gen. utrius, dat.ut.ri.
alteruter {one or other'), alterutra, or altera utra, altgrutrum, or
alterum utrum ; gen. alterius utrius (post- Aug. alterutrius), dat.
alteri utri or alterutri.
iiterquG, utraque, utrumqiue, each ; utercumque, utracumque,
utrumcumque, ivhich jo cvtr (of two).
utervis, utravis, utrumvis, n.vhich (of two) you please ; uterlibst,
utralibet, utrumlibet, <rMbicb (of two) you like.
neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither,
ipse (in early writer.^ frequently ipsus), b.' himself., ipsa, ipsum.
The genitive has usually a long penultimate^; but all (except 372
solius, utrius, and neutrius) are frequent in poetry with -ius: so
utriusque always: solius once in Terence.
soli is found as gen. masc. (Cato); toti as gen. fem. (Afran.);
nulli is once or twice used for the masc. and neut. genitive; and
nullo for the dative; ulli once (Plant.) for gen. masc.; neutri is
used in the gen. neut. in the sense of neuter gender. The feminine
datives unse, nullse, solae, tots, alterse, are (rarely) found in early
writers to the time of, and including, Cicero and Nepos. Toto for
dat. masc. is used once by Propertius.
The genitive nuUius and abl. nullo are rarely used substan-
tively of things, but frequently of persons ; neminis being only
found in prce-Ciceronian writers, and nemine being only used by
Tacitus and Suetonius, except once in Plautus.
2. ille, that; iste, that near you (declined like ille); alius, 373
another.
Singular. Singular.
m. f. n. m. f. n.
Nom. ille ilia ) .,,., aliiis alia , .,..^
illud .,. .,. \ aliud
Ace. ilium illam ( allura alium
Gen. illius in all genders alius in all genders (rare)
-p^j.' illi in all genders alii in all genders
Abl. iUo ilia illo alio alia alio
The plural is regular in both.
^ In the comic poets -ius and -ius are both found. Cicero {Or. 3. 47.
183) implies that illius was in his time pronounced illius ; Quintiliau
t28 Inflexions. [Book II.
Old forms of ille found in Knnius, Lucretius, and Vergil, are
olll for dat. sing, and nom. pi. majc; ollis, dat. and abl. plural; and
in Lucretius ollas, oUa, ace. plural. Ab does for ab illis is men-
tioned by Festus; ollus and olla (nom. sing.) by Varro.
Istus for iste is found once in Plautus.
In the prae-Ciceronian phrases alii modi, illi modi, isti modi, we
have genitives (or possibly locatives) ; as also in alii dei, alii generis
in Varro, alii rei in Caslius. Illae, istae, alise are found in early
writers rarely for dat. fem. sing.; alise as genitive in Cicero, Livy,
and Lucretius (once each). Collateral forms, viz. alis, masc. nom.
(Catull.), alid, neut. nom. ace. (Lucretius), ali, dat. sing. (Cat.,
Lucr.) are also found. The adverb alibi appears to be sn old
locative.
The demonstrative particle c6 was sometimes appended to the 374
cases of ille and iste which end in -s, and frequently in an abridged
form to the others (except genitive plural), especially in Plautus
and the early writers ; e. g.
Singular.
Plural,
Nom.
Ace.
iUic msec )
illunc illanc ]
illic iUsec 1 .,,
mosce masce )
Gen.
illiusce in all genders
Loc.
Dat.
illTc in all genders 1
misce in all genders
Abl.
moc iliac moc
So also istic.
In nom. sing, mace, istace for fem., and moc, istoc for neut. are
also found.
The initial 1 of iste, istic appears to have been sometimes omit- 375
ted; e.g. At stuc periculum (Ter. Andr. 566); quae sti rhetores
(Cic. Or. I. 19); quid me sta res (Cic. Fa>7i. 4. 3. 2); jam stinc
(Verg. A. 6. 389); modo sto (Hor. Epist. il. 2. 163), &c. See
Lachm. ad Lucr. p. 197.
3. Hie (stem ho-), this near me, is declined as follows, the forms 376
in brackets being older forms used by Plautus, &c. (hosce, hasce,
hujusce also in Cicero; lisec for nom. fem. plur. is found in Varro,
Lucretius, and twice or oftener in Vergil. Haice neut. pi. only in
S. C. de Bacc.)
(i. 5. 18) that unius was in his time unirts. Probably these words
mius, unius) are taken as instances only. (Ritschl, Opiisc. 11. 696.)
Chap. VII ?^ Declension of Pro7iotms adjective, &=€. 129
Nom.
Ace.
Gen.
Log.
Dat.
Abl.
Singular.
f.
hsec
ni. r. n.
hic (Mce) hsec J , - ,
nunc banc (hance) } ^°° (^°«<^)
htijus or bujusce (hoiusce) in all genders
Mc (adverb)
huic (hoice) in all genders
Nom.
Ace.
Gen.
hoc
m.
hi (hisce)
hos (hosce)
horum (horunce,
horunc)
hac (hace)
Plural.
f.
haa (hsec) }
has (hasce) f
harum (hanmce,
harunc)
hoc
hsec (haice)
honim
his (hlbus) in all genders
4. Is, that (stem i- and eo-), is thus declined.
377
id
Singular.
m. f. n.
Is ea
eum earn
ejus (in all genders)
Ibi (adverb)
ei or ei (in all genders)
eo
eo
ea
Plural.
_m. f.
ei or ii eae
eos eas
eonun earum
6is, eis or iis
n.
ea
eorum
Nom.
Ace.
Gen.
Loc.
Dat.
Abl.
Em or im for eum is quoted from the xii. Tables; eaa for dat.
fem. in Cato; eiei, lei for dat. sing, in post-Gracchan and pras-
Augustan inscriptions; eis once for nom. s. masc. ; iei, eis, eeisorieis
for nom. plur. masc. and eieis, eeis, and ieis for dat. and abl. plural
in pras- Augustan inscriptions; ibus sometimes in comic poets and
Lucretius'; eabus in Cato for abl. plur. fem.; i and is in Plautus.
ii and iis were common in post-Augustan inscriptions. Of poets
only the pra;-Augustan used any of the cases, except that Horace
has the genitive and accusative in his non-lyrical writings.
Ennius is said to have written sometimes sum, sam for eum,
earn, and sas for eas. (Or perhaps for suas.)
The dat. sing, ei has rarely a short penultimate (6i) : as ei it is
frequent in Plautus and Terence and (in the last foot of the hexa-
ineter) in Lucretius. As a monosyllable it is also common.
^ Where ibus appears to be long, hibus is probably the right
reading.
T30 Inflexions. \Book II.
The suffix -pse is sometimes found in Plautus appended; e.g. 378
eapse, eumpse, eampse, eopse, eapse; and in Cicero often in the
phrase reapse (for re eapse). In ipse (see above) the suffix is made
the vehicle of the case endings.
Idem, 6adem, Idem, ace. eundem, eandem, idem (compound of
is-dem) is declined like it, the forms iidem, iisdem however not
being found, and eldem, gisdem not frequently.
For the nom. masc. sing, and plur. eidem, eisdem are found in
pr^-Augustan inscriptions. Comp. § 265, 363. Isdem also appears
to have been in use. For neut. s. eidem is found once in a prs-
Aug. inscr.
5. qui (stem qu6-), ivhich, nvhat? any, an (adjective) relative, 379
inteiTOgative, and indefinite pronoun is thus declined. Older forms
found in Plautus, &c. are added in brackets.
Singular. Plural.
m. f. n. m. f. n.
Nom. qui qu^ ) qui qu^ )
Acc. quern quam \ ^ quos qUEs ]
Gen. cujus (quoius) in all genders quorum quaxum quorum
Dat. cut (quoi or quoiei) in al'
Abl. quo qua quo
Dat. cut (quoi or quoiei) in all genders | . ^^. ^^.^^
quo qua quo J '^ ■'
As an indefinite pronoun qua is more common than quse in fem.
nom. sing, and neut. plur.
Cujus was treated (in pras-Augustan writers and once in Vergil)
as a declinable genitive, i.e. an adjective with -0 stem (e.g. is cuja
res, cujum periculum est. Cujum pecus? (See the suffix -io in
Book III.) The following forms are found so used: nom. s. cuja
(f.), cujum (n.); acc. cujum (m.n.); cujam (f.); abl. cuja (f.); plur.
nom. cujEB (f.). (Never used instead of quorum or quarum.)
In Plautus cuius is often a monosyllable.
Qui is used (i) as an ablative (of all genders, and, occasionally
in early writers, of the plural) with the preposition cum appended
(quicum) ; (2) as a substantive relative and interrogative (e. g. liatoeo
qui utar); (3) as an adverbial interrogative, how? and (4) oc-
casionally as indefinite, e.g. neuqui, siqui (Plant.). As a locative
iibi (for qu6bi) is used.
The ablat. plur. quis is found often in Varro, Sallust, and
Tacitus, rarely in Cicero.
Qui like any other adjective can be used substantively, but 380
(owmg to the use of quis, quid) it is actually so used in the nom.
singular and neuter acc. sing., as an interrogative rarely, and
chiefly in dependent questions : as an indefinite pronoun, whether
substantively or adjectively, only after si, nisi, ne, num.
Chap. F//.] Declension of Pronouns adjective, &'C. 131
In the cases named, an allied form quis, neut. quid takes its
place. Quis (i) as an interrogative is generally a substantive (and
as such is in early writers predicated of males or females), but
sometimes a masculine adjective : (2) as an indefinite pronoun, it is
used both as substantive and as masculine and feminine adjective.
Quid and its compounds are always substantives.
The compounds of qui, quis are mainly declined like them, but s^r
all have -quid (not -quod), when used as substantives. Other
peculiarities are here named
Aliqui, aliqua, §.liquod, so77ie. Aliquis is a subst. and masc. adj.;
and is more common than aliqui. Aliquse as nom. fem. sing, occurs
in Lucretius once, and not at all as neut. plur. Abl. aliqui is some-
times used in Plautus.
Ecqui, ecqua, or- ecquse, ecquod, a?iy ? Ecquis is subst. and masc.
adj. The only cases besides the nom. in use are dat. eccui ; ace.
ecquem, ecquam ; abl. m. and n. ecquo. The plural is rare, but the
forms ecqui, ecquos, ecquas, are found.
Quinam, qusenam, quodnam, <what? ivhich? (numquinam, &c.,
ecquinam, &c., ai%y'i). Quisnam is also used.
Quidam, qusedam, quoddam, certain.
Quicunque, qusecunque, quodcunque, n.vhatsoever. The -eunque
is sometimes separated fi-om qui, &c.; e.g. qua re eunque possum :
Qullibet, quselibet, quodlibet, ivhichyou like:
Quivis, qusevis, quodvis, ^vhich you ivill. Sometimes with
eunque attached ; e. g. quiviscunque, luhatsocver.
The followmg have quis instead of qui for the nom. sing. masc. 382
Quisquis, avhosoe'ver or n.vhatsoei<er ; quidquid or quicquid,
ivhatcver, also a substantive. Quiqui (nom. sing.) only in Plautus
once. Quisquis as adjective is not applied to females. Of the other
cases we have only the locative quiqui in Plant, and possibly in eui-
euimodi: the abl. masc. and neut. quoquo; ace. in comic poets
quemquem; quiqui nom. plur. masc; in Livy quibusquibus (dat.
pi. perhaps in quotation from ancient document), and quaqua, in
Tacitus as abl. fem. sing.; elsewhere only as adverb.
Quisquam, n. quicquam, any at all. Generally used as substan-
tive, but quisquam is also used adjectively of females (as well as of
males). Quiquam as ablative in Plautus. The plural and the femi-
nine singular are not used. Quodquam also not used.
Quispiam, qusepiam, quodpiam, some. Plant, has an abl. quipiam.
Quisque, quseque, quodque, each. Quicque or quidque is subst.
quisque used of a woman in Plautus.
9—2
132
Inflexions.
\Book II.
Its compound imusquisque is similarly declined.
Quis appears to have stem qui-, and to belong to the -i stems (see 38^
Chap. x). Probably the forms (now partly assumed by quo-) were,
Nom. quis, neut. quid (so also is, id) ; Gen. quis; Ace. queui (the
proper accus. of quo- being quoni now used as conjunction), neut.
quid; Abl. qui (hence possibly quid, ivherefore; but comp. ti).
Plural nom. and ace. ques (old form used by Cato and Pacuvius,
cf. § 363), neut. quia (used as conjunction); Gen. cuium (found in
Plautus); Dat. Abl. quibus.
CHAPTER VIII.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
The substantives, called personal pronouns, are very peculiar in 384
their inflexions, nor are all the cases formed from the same stem.
\st Person.
Z7id Person.
Zra
' Person.
Singular.
SING.
and PLUR
Nom. 6go
tu
no nom.
Ace. me
te
se
Gen. (see below)
Dat. mihi or mi
tibi
sibl
Abl. me
te
se
Plural.
Nom. Ace. nos
vos
Gen. nostrum
vestmm
(vostnim)
Dat. Abl. nobis
vobis
Singular. Jccusatme. The forms med and sed occur as 38s
accusatives in some early inscriptions, and med and ted both as
accusatives and ablatives in Plautus. The d is probably the ablatival
d, incorrectly transferred to the accusative as well 1. Quintilian also
mentions an old form mebe. Tete was rarely written for te : sese
frequently for se.
Getiiti-ve. The old genitive of the ist and 2nd persons was mis, 386
tis ; the latter is found in Plautus. This was replaced as possessive
by the adjectives meus, tuus; and as objective by the gen. sing. neut.
mei {of my being), tul. So suus (adj.), sui for the genitive (both
singular and plural) of the reflexive pronouns.
' Ritschl, Neue Plant. Excurs. (1869), p. 11,
Chap. VII I?\ Declension of Personal Pronouns.
Dative, mi is used both by Cicero and the poets. 387
For sibi old forms are sibe, sibei (cf. § 265).
Ablative. See above under accusative.
Plural. Accusative. For nos we have enos in the Carmen
Arvale.
Genitive. As possessive genitives the adjectives noster and vester 388
were used; as objective nostri, vestri, and rarely nostrum, vestrum;
as partitive nostnim, vestrum, and in the comic poets sometimes
nostronun, nostrariun, vestrorum, vestrarum.
To all cases (except tu nom.) of these substantive pronouns the 389
particle -met is sometimes added. For tu, tut6 or tutimet are
found.
The adjectives have in the ablative case -met or -pte often ap-
pended; e.g. meopte, suamet; rarely in the gen. sing., e.g. tulpte;
and ace. plur., e.g. suosmet, suamet.
CHAPTER IX.
NOUNS OF CLASS II.
The second main class of nouns contains stems ending m the
semiconsonantal vowels u and i, or in a consonant.
i. Declension of -u Stems.
The case suffixes, as seen in consonantal stems, are preserved 390
entire only in three or four nouns. They usually combine with
the final vowel of the stem. The terminations thus become sing,
nom. -us; ace. -um (for -u-em); gen. -iis (for -u-is) ; dat. -ui,
often -u; abl. -il (for-ue); plural nom. ace. -ils (for -u-es); gen.
-uum; dat. abl. -ubus, generally -ibus. Some have collateral stems
in -0, which are at least as early as the -u stems (see below).
The few neuter nouns differ only in the nom. ace. sing., 391
which exhibits the bare stem, and the nom. ace. plural which has
the vowel a added (-ua). The contracted form of the dat. sing.
is alone found now. (The neuters are comu, genu, pecu, vera;
also artua and ossua pi.)
No adjectives have stems in -u ; except perhaps compounds of
manus ; but these are found only m nom. and ace. sing., except
angvimantls ace. pi. twice in Lucr.
1 3 4 Inflexions. [Book II.
(a) The words which retain the suffixes entire (being semi- 392
consonant stems) are
grils (usually f.) ace. s. gruem ; See. dat. abl. pi. gruibus ;
sis (m. f.) ace. s. suem; &c. dat. abl. pi. sulbus, silbus and
silbus ; a gen. sing, sueris is also mentioned ;
bos (m. f.) ace. s. b6v-em; &c., gen. pi. bourn, bovom or bovum ;
dat. abl. bubus rarely bobus ;
Jdv- nom. s. Jup-piter (for Jov-pater) ; ace. s. J6v-em; &c. : an
old gen. pi. Joum is also mentioned.
(i) The remaining words are here arranged according to the 393
letter preceding the final u. (But few however of the numerous
verbals in -tu are here given.) All are masculine, except colus,
domus, idus (pi.), manus, porticus, quinquatrus (pi.), tribus; and
names of women and trees. A few are fern, or neut. as well as masc.
The dat. pi. is in -ibus, unless otherwise stated.
-bu tribus (f. dat. abl. pi. tribubus).
-mu donius (f.) voc. domus, gen. domus (domi only in Plaut.), 394
loc. domui, usually (as from -0 stem) domi; dat. domui,
rarely domo; abl. domo, sometimes domu. Plur. nom.
domus, ace. domos, sometimes domus; Ren. domorum
(Lucr. Verg.), domuum (Sen. Plin. Tac), dat. abl.
domibus.
-cu acus (m. f. dat. abl. pi. acubus) ; arcus (m. rarely f. dat. 39s
abl. pi. arcubus: another form of gen. is arci or arqui
(Cic. Lucr.), nom. pi. arci); ficus (f., only found in gen.
and abl. s. and nom. ace. pi. ; other cases, as well as
these, from a stem in -0 which is rarely m.); lacus (m.
dat. abl. pi. usually lacubus; laci gen. s. in inscr. of
Sulla's time); p6cu (n. not in gen. s. or dat. abl. pi.
see § 458); porticus (f.); quercus (f. gen. pi. quercorum,
no dat. s. or dat. abl. pi.); spgcus (m. also f. dat. abl. pi.
usually specubus: rarely a nom. s. neut. specus; also
nom. pi. speca).
-gu algu (only as abl. s.); fagus (f. -u stem only in nom. pi.;
other cases from -0 stems).
-tu (-su) sestus (m.) ; artus (m. dat. abl. plur. almost always ar- 396
tubus); sing, very rare : astus (m. often in abl. sing. ; also,
rarely and in silver age, nom. s. and nom. ace. pi.) ; csestus
(m. also abl. pi. from -0 stem) ; exercitus (m.) ; fastus (m.
I.e. pride; fastis, fastibus are also found, rarely, in
sense of calendar) ; frStus (m. only in nom. gen. ace. abl.
sing.; but a neuter stem in -0 is more usual) ; impetus (cf.
§ 443); mgtus (m. no gen. or dat. abl. plur.); myrtus (f.
only nom. ace. pi.; all cases, except gen. pL, are found from
a stem in -0); noctu (f. only abl. s.; generally as adverb;
i
Chap. IX.'] Declension of -a- Sfe?ns. 135
for -i stem see § 418) ; partus (m. dat. plur. partubus) ;
portus (m. dat. abl. plur. both in -iibus and -Ibus) ;
angiportus (m. only abl. s. and ace. pi. ; a neuter with
stem in -0 is more common); rictus (m. rarely rlctum
n. nom. ; ricta nom. pi.) ; ritus (m.) ; saltus (m.) ; sgnatus
(m. for genitive see §§ 399, 463); singultus (m.) ;_ situs,
drought (m. no plur. or dat. s.; also a stem in -i, § 417);
spiritus (m.); testu (only in abl. sing.; also testum, testo,
n.); tumultus (m.); vultus (m. ace. pi. vulta twice,
Enn., Lucr.).
Also numerous verbal substantives (e.g. gemitus, ictus, 397
luctus, nexus, qusestus, cf. § 800); some of which are
found only in the ablative singular; e.g. arcessitu, con-
cessu, natu, &c., in promptu, in procinctu, injussu:
others only in the dative and ablative singular; e.g. irri-
sui, irrisu; ostentui, ostentu; &c. An oscillation be-
tween abl. in -u and -0 is found in plebis scito, -scitu;
opus est facto, factu, &c.
-du gradus (m.); idus (f. pL).
-nu anus (f.); cornus (f. besides nom. s. only in abl. s. and 398
nom. pi.; an -o stem in dat. abl. s. and pi.) ; cornu (n.
also nom. ace. s. oornum); g6nu (n. also an old nom.
ace. ggnus); manus (f.); pSnus (f. rarely m.; also two
neut. stems, in -0, and, rarely, in -6s (§ 458): all are
found in sing, but usually penu for abl.; in plur. only ace.
penus, penora); pinus (f. has -0 stem also; abl. s.
always pinu, abl. pi. pinis; no gen. pi.); sinus (m.).
-lu colus (f. dat. only colo, abl. colu, colo ; ace. pi. also c61os;
no gen. or dat. abl. plur.) ; gfilus (m. rare, except in abl.
s.; a stem in -0 is also used).
-ru currus (m.) ; laurus (f. besides nom. s. only in gen. and
abl. sing, and nom. ace. pi.; also a stem in -0 declined
throughout, but no gen. pi.); niirus (f); pronurus (f.) :
quinquatrus (f. pi.) ; sScrus (f.) ; prosocrus (f.) ; tdnitrus
(m. also a neuter stem in -uo); v6ru (n. dat. abl. pi.
verubus and veribus; also nom. s. verum).
-Bu cupressus (f. besides nom. only gen. abl. s. and nom. ace.
pi. both from -u and -0 stems) ; luxus (m.) ; ossu (n.
only gen. pi. ossuum, Pacuv. and nom. ace. pi. ossua in
inscript.); sexus (m. also an indec. n. nom. ace. secus).
See also, for supine forms, under -tu.
A genitive in -i, chieRy in words with t preceding the i, pos- 399
sibly from some confusion with the past participle, was frequent in
writers of the sixth and seventh centuries u.c. These instances
are given : adspecti (Att.) ; adventi (Ter.) ; sesti (Pac.) ; exerciti
136
Inflexions.
{Book IT.
(Nsv., Att., Varr.); fructi (Cat, Ten, Turp.) ; gemlti (Plant);
lucti(Att); ornati (Ten); parti (Pac); piscati (Turp.); port!
(Turp.); qusesti (Plaut., Ten, &c.); salti (Att.); senati (Plaut,
Sallust, and was most common in the seventh cent, u.c); soniti
(Case, Pac); strepiti (Enn.); sumpti (Plaut, Cat., Lucil., &c.);
tumulti (Plaut., Ter., Enn.); victi (Plaut.). In some other words
(see above) the -0 stem is found in other cases as well as the genitive.
[For other forms of the genitive, see § 463.]
Examples of declension of stems in -u. 400
Singular.
Nom. sa-s arca-s gradu-s |
Ace. su-em arcu-m gradu-m f coma
arcii-s gradii-s cornii-s
arcu-iorarcQ gradu-iorgradill
„^„,-, ™x.,.-« • comii
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
SU-IS
su-i
su-e
Plural.
Nom. )
Ace. I
Gen.
Dat. I
Abl. r
su-es
arcil
arcH-s
su-um arcu-um
su-bils and
su-ibus
arcii-'bus
gradii
gradu-s
gradu-um
grad-Ibus
cornu-a
cornu-um
com-ibils
CHAPTER X.
ii. DECLENSION OF -i STEMS.
Nouns with stems ending in -i exhibit the following case end- 401
ings, composed partly of the final stem vowel, partly of case
suffixes.
Singular. The nominative has one, sometimes more than
one, of four forms. It ends
(a) in -es. These are almost all feminine.
(b) in -is, masc. and fem.: neuter in -e.
(c) in -s, after dropping the final vowel ; a preceding t or d is
then also dropped as in consonant stems (§ 436). The same form is
used in adjectives for all genders. No neuter substantives have -s.
(d) in -r or -1; viz. some stems end in -er for masc; others,
neuter in -ar or -al. A few adjectives have -ar, or -6r for all gen-
ders. The r or 1 is the final consonant of the stem.
Chap. X?\ Dedcnsiofi of -1 Stems. 137
Accus. -em is found for masc. and fern, in all adjectives, and 402
always or usually in most substantives. A few substantives have
also -im; very few have -im always, and of these List only vis and
sitis are found often in the accusative at all. (The neuter accusa-
tive is like the nominative.)
Gen. in -is, Dat. -i,
Loc. Abl. in -6 or -i. Adjectives with nom. sing, in -is have -i 403
always, other adjectives, except participles, used as such (see § 419),
have -i usually. Most substantives, substantively used adjectives,
and participles have -6. Neuters with -6, -1, or -r in the nom. sing,
have -i in the abl.
Plural. Nom. -es, rarely -Is ; Ace. -es or -is indifferently (on 404
-eis see § 265, 266). Neuters have in both cases -ia, that is, -a suf-
fixed to the stem. Gen. -ium in prose. In verse the i is sometimes
omitted for metre's sake in stems ending in -nti, and in a few other
words. Dat. Loc. Abl. -ibus.
Some older forms of the cases will be found in Chap, xii., but
the early inscriptions, i.e. before the seventh century u.C, contain
very few instances of -1 stems.
(N.B. In the list given below, the occurrence of an accus. in -im,
or of an abl. in -e from an adjective, or in -i fi-om a substantive,
will be mentioned. The instances of the nom. plur. in -is, being
probably not peculiar to particular words, will not be mentioned.)
The origin of the -i stems ^ and of their case-endings^ is ob- 405
scure. Very few of these stems appear to correspond with -1 stems
in Sanskrit or Greek (e. g. ignis, Sanskr. agni-; poti-, Sanskr. piti-,
Greek Troo-t- ; angui-, Sanskr. aM-, Gr. e^t- ; turris, Tvpa-is ; ovis,
Sanskr. avis, Gr. oi^') ; many correspond to stems with a, or (Greek)
o or u as final vowels. Some are clearly weakened forms of -0
stems (e.g. exanimis, inermis, sublimis, &c., and comp. humilis
with ^dafxaXoi, imber- (imbri-) with ofxlSpos, nocti- with noctu,
sitis with situs, perhaps also ponti- with pontufex, fusti- with
fustuarium, &c.): others have lost a consonant^ (e. g. vi- for viri-,
cucumi- for cucumis-, tigri- for tigrid-, and compare clavis with
/cXftS-; apis with innii, fp.Tri8-] i'piu ace. from eptS-^). It is
probable therefore that the -i of these stems is, at least in most
cases, the representative of an earlier vowel, and, according to the
1 See L. Meyer, Verg/. Gr. l. 126, 11. 117 sqq., 162 sqq.; Schleicher,
Vergl. Gr. p. 384, 432, 452, ed. 2.
'^ See Corssen, Aussprache, I. 727, 734, 738 sqq. ed. 2; Biicheler,
Lat. Dec.
^ Key considers -i to stand for ic; Essays, ii^, 236, &c.; Lat. Gr.
p. 441, cS:c. ed. 2. ■* But see Curtius, Gr. Etym. p. 563, ed. 2.
138 Inflexions. \Book II.
general law of Latin vowel-changes, may therefore often have
been historically preceded by e (long or short). (In the very
early inscriptions we have aidiles beside sedilis n. sing., and marte,
martei for marti, dat. s., militare for militaris, nom. s.)This con-
clusion is confirmed by the fact that in numerous stems a nom. sing,
is found in -es, as well as in -is ; and it would account for the pre-
dominance of -e in the ordinary case-endings. It may be noted
that none even of the words quoted above, as having the best claim
to an original -i, have -im in the accusative sing. (But see § 196.)
The weakness of the -i is shewn by its frequent omission before 406
the nominative suffix s, whenever the effect of an adjoining s on the
preceding consonants would not be dangerous to the identity of
the stem. Thus loquax, stirps, mens, ars, mus for loquacis, stirpis,
mentis, artis, muris (cf. § 192); but sublimis not suWimps; avis
not aus; ungvis not unx (comp. ningvis, nivl-, nix); vates or vatis
notvas; vestis not ves; &c. In the words canis, juv6nis, mensis
the i as well as the s is suffixal, and it is not unUkely that some
other words (e. g. indoles, vates, &:c.) may belong properly to the
class of nouns with consonant stems. (See the Preface.)
The origin of the long vowel in the nominatives in -es is not 407
clear. Some stems (e.g. plebes, also plebs; fames, also famis) have
cases like the first class of nouns (§ 340).
A large proportion of the -i stems have only one syllable besides 408
the -i, or are compounds with no further derivative suffix. Again,
a very large proportion have the syllable preceding -i long. And
in many of these, two consonants immediately precede the -1, as if
the addition of the -i had either forced together the other syllables,
or were itself a means, at least in the gen. plur., of giving play to a
too heavy mass. (Comp. § 435-)
The chief derivative suffixes are -aci, -enti, -iU, -all, -ari.
The following is a tolerably complete list of words of this 409
class, except that some little-used compounds are omitted, and
specimens only given of the principal classes of derivatives. In
some words there is little or no positive evidence of the stem having
-i, and they are placed here or among consonant stems in accord-
ance with such analogies as may be found.
I. Stems with labial before -i. 410
All retain i or e in nom. sing, except stirps, trabs, plebs, urbs.nix.
(a) Stems in -pi.
-api apis (f. gen. pi. sometimes apum); gausape (f. abl. sing,
also has ace. pi. A neuter stem in -0 is more usual).
Chap. X] Declension of -1 Stems. i39
-opl copem (adj. no nom. sing.),
-api rflpes (f.).
-uppi puppis (f. ace. regularly -Im; abl. often in -i; puppe,
though frequent, being later; not before Ovid).
-3epi csepe (n. only used in nom. ace. sing. ; usually stem in -a) ;
ssepes (f. also sseps rarely).
-epi prsesepe (n. also has ace. pi. praesepes (f.); abl. s. prse--
sepio; abl. pi. prsesepiis; and perhaps ace. s. prjesepim).
-Ipi Alpes (f. pi.); volpes (f. also volpis once Petron.).
-rpi stirps (f., sometimes as tree stem m. ; nom. s. stirpis twice,
and stirpes once in Liv.); turpis (adj.).
(/3) Stems in -bi. 4"
-abi trabs (f. trabes Enn.).
-6bi scobis (f.) ; scrobis (m. f. also nom. s. scrobs Colum.).
-abi labes (f.); tabes (f. only in singular, and that is rare;
abl. tab6, tabo usually, tabe once in Lucr.).
-■Qbi nubes (f. also nubs Liv. And.) ; pUbes (f. dat. pube Plaut.
once) ; impubis (adj.).
-ebi plebs (f. sometimes written pleps ; also has nom. s. plebes
and (Liv.) plebis; see §§ 340, 357 ; no plural).
-mbl delumbis (adj. Plin. once) ; palumbes (m. f. also paliim-
bis, besides gen. and ace. sing, and nom. ace. and abl.
pi. from a stem in -0; palumbibus is not found).
-rbi corbis (m. f. abl. in -i twice in Cato); imberbis (adj.
older stem in -0) ; orbis (m. abl. sometimes in -i) ; urbs
(f. sometimes written urps).
(■y) Stems in -ml. ^j,
-ami famis (f. rare except in gen. s.; other cases from fames,
§ 340).
-uml cucumis (m. ace. in -im, abl. in -i; also with stem
cucumis-); incolumis (adj.).
-imi exanimis, semianimis, unanimis (adj. also earlier -0
stems, which alone are used in plur.).
-ami infamis (adj.; ace. infamam once Lucil.).
-omi comis (adj.).
-ami Impiamis (adj.); rumis (f.? old word; only ace. in -im;
abl. in -i).
I40 Inflexions. [Book II.
-emi toiremis, triremis, &c. (adj. often as subst. f.; abl. rarely
in -e).
-imi sublimis (adj. also an early -o stem).
-rail abnormis, enormis (adj.); biformis, informis, &c. (adj.);
inermis (adj. also an earlier form in -o); vermis (m.).
(S) Stems in -vi, (For -qvi see § 414; for -gvi § 415.) 4,3
-Hi lues (f. also has ace. and rarely abl. s. no plur.) ; strues
(f. 110 gen. or nom. ace, plur.). For griis, siis, see
§ 392-
-avl avis (f. abl. sometimes in -1); gravis (adj.)
-6vi 6vis (f. but in ancient formula m.).
-6vi brgvis (adj.); ISvis (adj.).
-ivl nix (f. gen. pi. only in Lamprid. See below ningvis).
-avl clavis (f. ace. sometimes in -im); conclave (n.); navis
(f. ace. often in -im; abl. often in -i); ravis (f. ace. in
-im; abl. in -i); svavis (adj.).
-evi levis (adj.).
-ivi civis (m. f. abl. often in -1) ; acclivis, declivis, proclivis
(adj. also with -0 stems).
-nvi tenvis (adj.), see § 92.
-Ivi pelvis (f. ace. sometimes in -im ; abl. usually in -i),
-rvi enervis (adj.).
2. Stems with a guttuial before -i. 414
(a) Stems in -ci, -qvi.
All drop -i in nom. sing, except those ending in -sci and -qvi.
-qvi quis (pronoun. See § 383. Comp. also is § 377).
-6ci prsecox (adj. for older prsecoquis; also rarely a stem
in -0).
-6ci(-ici) simplex (adj.); duplex, &c. (For supplex see § 439.)
-aci fornax(f.); pax (f., no gen. pi.), and numerous verbal
adjectives (abl. s. rarely in e, except as proper names) ;
e.g. audax, dicax, fgrax, loquax, vivax, &c.
-auci fauces (f. pi., also fauce abl. sing.).
-oci atrox (adj.); cSlox (f., but in Liv. m.); fgrox (adj.)^
solox (adj., old word); velox (adj.).
-ilci lux (f. abl. sometimes In -i), Pollux (m. old nom. s.
PoUflces).
-seci feex (f. no gen. pi.).
Chap. X]
Declension of -1 Stems.
141
-ici 1311106111 (adj. ace. s.); fellx (adj.); pernix (adj.); and
the verbal forms chiefly feminine, but in plural used also
as neuter adjectives ; e. g. victrix, ultrix, corruptrix, fau-
trix, &:c.
deunx (m.); quincvinx (m.), &;c. ; lanx (t. no gen. pi.).
calx (f. sometimes m., no. gen. pi.) ; falx (f.) ; dulcis (adj.).
arx (f.); merx (f., also old nom. s. merces, mers).
torqvis (m. rarely f. nom. cing. rarely in -es).
fascis (m.); piscis (m.).
(^) Stems in -gi, -gvi, -hi.
All retain i or e in nom. sing,
amljages (f. pi. also abl. s., ambage; the gen. pi. only in
Ovid once, ambagum); compages (f.); contages (f. only
in Lucr. abl. once contage); propages (f. once in Pacuv.) ;
strages (f.).
jiigis (adj.).
angvls (m. f. abl. rarely in -i) ; bilingvis (adj.) ; exsan-
gvis (adj.); nlnguis (f. once in Lucr. same as nix);
pingvis (adj.); ungvis (m. abl. sometimes in -i).
vSlies (f. also vehis Colum., gen. pi. vehum in Cod.
Theod.).
-nci
-lei
-rci
-rqvi
-sci
-agi
•ilgi
-DgVl
-6M
4'5
Examples of declensions of stems woith labial or guttural 416
before -i. Compare § 447.
adj.
Singular.
m. f. n.
Nom.
nQtoe-s
navi-s
audax
Ace.
nutoe-m
nave-mornaviinaudace-in n. audax
Gen.
nubi-s
navi-s
audaci-s
Dat.
nubi
navi
audacl
Loc.
nubi
navl )
Abl.
nub§
nave )
audaci
(rarely audac5)
Plural.
Nom.
nube-s
uave-s
audace-s n. audaci-a
Ace.
nube-s or
nave-s or
audace-s or
uubl-s
navi-s
audaci-s
n. audaci-a
Gen.
nubi-um
navi-um
audaci-um
Dat.|
Loc. •
nubi-bus
navi-bus
audaci-biis
Abl.]
142 Inflexions. [Book II.
3. Stems with a dental before -i, 417
{a) Most stems in -ti, preceded by a consonant or long vowel,
and a few others drop i (and then t also) in nom. sing.; but stems in
-sti, and a few others, retain it. Two or three have nom. sing, in -es.
-ati natis (f.); ratis (f.). So also fatis (found only in adfatim).
-6ti p6tis, p6t6 (only in nom. and both forms alike for all
genders and numbers). For compos, &c. see § 443.
-iltl cutis (f.). Perhaps also intercus, § 443.
-6ti ligbes (adj. abl. in -i, but in Celsus once in -e) ; t6r§s (adj.).
No gen. pi. ; hebetia occurs twice ; teretia only in Gell.
-Sti (-iti) ancipiti-, nom. s. anceps, also (once in Plant.) ancipes
(adj. abl. s. always in -i, no gen. pi.): so also biceps, tri-
ceps, praeceps (ace. s. prsecipein (Lcev. or Liv. Andr.?),
abl. praecipe Enn.).
-iti sitis (f. ace. in -im, abl. in -i, no plur. Comp. situs, § 396).
-ati cratis (f. nom. s. only in Veget., ace. s. cratim Plaut. and 418
cratem; comp. craticula); grates (f. pi. ; only nom. ace.
and once, in Tacitus, abl. gratibus) ; vates (m. f. also
rarely vatis; gen. pi. usually vatum). So EeS,te (abl.
in -e).
Burgher names (adjectives); e.g. Arpinas (old form Ar-
pinatis); Larinas; Fidenas; Antias; Privernas; &c.: also
cQjas (nom. cujatis, Plant.); nostras; optlmas (nom.
sing, not found); pgnates (m. pi.); summates (m. pi.);
infimatis (nom. s.) occurs once in Plaut. [primas, mag-
nas only late]. For sanates see Fest. p. 321, Mill).
-auti cautes (f.).
-oti cos (f. no gen. pi.) ; dos (f. gen. pi. usually in -ium).
-etl locGples (adj. abl. s. usually in -e; gen. pi. sometimes in
-um); rete (n. abl. sometimes in -e; ace. s. also re-
tem, m.); tapete (n. sing. ace. m. tapeta, abl. tapete
(both in Sil. only); plur. nom. ace. tapetia, tapeta; dat.
abl. tapetibus, tapetis); trapetes (m. pi., ace. trapetas,
abl. trapetibus; but forms from a stem in -0 are gene-
rally used).
-Iti lis (f., older stlis); dis (adj., contracted for dives), nom.
sing, once only (Ter.); miti-s (adj.); Quiris (adj.); Sam-
nis (adj.); viti-s (f.).
-pti neptis (f. abl. once in -i in Tac.).
-cti nox (f., also abl. s. noctu, chiefly adverbial); lac (n.,
also lact (Pliny, H.N. xi. §§ 232, 236, &c. ed. Dctlefsen)
and lacte ; abl. s. lacti ; no plur. ; lactes (f. pi.) ; vectis
(m. abl. i-arely in -i).
Chap. X] Declension of -1 Steins. 143
The neuter names of towns, Bibracte, Soracte, have
abl. in -e (Sauracti Varr. once),
-ntl- Adjectives and participles. Abl. sing, usually in -i when 4:9
used as epithets, in -e as substantives; participles always
in -e as participles proper (e.g. in abl. of circumstances,
or with an object). Nom. pi. sometimes in -is, usually in
-es; ace. plur. in -is or -es indifferently; gen. plur. in
-ium, but sometimes -um for metre sake in poetry.
Participles (very numerous) ; e. g. amans, monens, s6-
quens, praesens, &c.
Adjectives; e.g. amens, Clemens, continens, demens,
diligens, elSgans, eloQLuens, ingens (abl. always in -i),
inndcens, insolens, libens, pStulans, prsestans, prMens,
recens, rgpens, sapiens, sons (nom. s. not used), insons,
vdliemens, violens (Hor. but usually -0 stem), &c.
Substantives have abl. in -e; gen. pi. in -um occasion-
ally in poets, except fi-om monosyllabic nominatives;
adulescens (m.); animans (m. f. in plur. n.); antes (m.
pi.) ; cliens (m. also clienta f.) ; consentis (m. plur. ;
gen. consentum); dens (m. gen. pi., according to Varro's
express statement dentum; but MSS. and later gramma-
rians give dentium) ; bidens, a rake (m. abl. in -i once
in Lucr. at end of verse; a sheep f.); tridens (m. abl.
in -i sometimes at end of verse); dextans (m.); dodrans,
&c. (m.); fons (m.); frons (f., in old writers some-
times m.); gens(f); infans (m. f.); lens (f. ace. s. some-
times in -im) ; mens (f. old nom. s. mentis) ; mons (m.) ;
occidens (sc, sol m.) ; 5riens (sc. sol m.) ; parens (m. f.
gen. plur. often in -um even in prose) ; pons (m.) ; rMens
(m. gen. often in -um); sementis (f. ace. sometimes in
-ira) ; sentes (m. pi. rarely f.) ; serpens (f. generally) ;
sponte (abl. s. f.; also rarely spontis gen. sing.) ; torrens
(sc. fluvius m.); triens (m.).
-Iti puis (f gen. pi. only in Arnob.). 420
-rti ars (f); iners, sellers (adj.); cohors, cors (f.); fors (f. no
plur.); fortis (adj.); Mavors, Mars (m.); mors (f.); pars
(f. sometimes ace. in -im, abl. in -i) ; expers (adj. no
gen. pi.); sors (f. abl. s. rarely sorti; old nom. s. sortis);
consors, exsors (adj. no gen. pi.).
-eti agrestis (adj. abl. as substantive (m.) in -e rarely);
cselestis (adj.); fustis (m. abl. often in -i); bostis (m. f.);
pestis (f.); postis (m. abl. often in-i); restis (f. ace.
usually in -im); testis (m.), a nvitness (m. f.); tristis
(adj.); vestis (f). So Prseneste (abl. in -e except once
in Propert.).
144
Inflexions.
{Book II.
(j3) Stems hi -di. 421
All in -di preceded by a vowel retain -i or -e in nom. sing, except
fraus.
-ildi rudis (adj.); rudis (f.); sudis (f. not found in nom. s.) ;
trudes (f. only plur., and that rare).
-§di pedis (m. f.).
-idi fidis, a harpstr'mg (f. fides once Cic. Arat. 381); viridis
(adj.).
-adi elades (f. also cladis Liv.).
-audi fraus (f. sometimes with u for au ; gen. pi. also fraudum).
-5di enodis (adj.).
-sedi sedes (f, also sedis) ; csedes (f. also csedis Liv.).
-edi sides (f. gen. pi. usually sedum).
-ndi frons (f. old nom. frondis and fros); glans (f.); grandis
(adj.); juglans (f.); lendes (f. pi.); libripens (m.); ne-
frendes (adj. pi.).
-rdi sordes (f. plur., also sing. sordem;sordis gen. Plant, once;
sordi once in Ulpian; abl. sorderare; sorde once Lucr.).
Adjective compounds of cor, stem cord- (abl. s. always
in -i) : excors, concors, discors, mis6ricors, socors, vecors.
Examples of declension of stems ivith a dental before -i.
Camp. § 447.
42a
S INGULAR.
Nom.
rati-s
s6quen-s
ar-s
sedes or
sedis
Ace.
rate-m
sequente-m
n. sequens
arte-m
aede-m
Gen,
rati-s
sequenti-s
arti-s
sedi-s
Dat.
Loc. )
Abl. J
rati
sequent!
arti
sedi
rats
sequent^ or
arts
sedS
sequenti (§41
9)
Plural
•
Nom.'
rate-s
sequente-s (§419)
arte-3
sede-s
1
n. sequenti-a
sequente-s or
Ace.
rate-s (or
sequenti-s
artis or
S3di-s or
rati-s ?)
n. sequenti-a
artes
S3de-s
Gen.
rati-um
sequenti-um
arti-um
sedi-um
. Dat.
Loc- •
rati-biis
sequenti-biis
arti-Ms
SBdi-biis
AblJ
Chap. X] Declension of -1 Stems. 145.
4. Stems ending in -nl, -li, -ri, -si. ^z^,
(a) Stems in -Tax.
All retain -i in nom. sing. None have nom. sing, in -es.
-ani immanis (adj.); inanis (adj.); mane (n. indecl. abl. in
-e); manes (m. pi.); panis (m. no gen. pi.),
-ani clflnis (m. f.) ; fiinis (m., once f. in Lucr.); miinis (adj.
Plant.).
-cEni moenia (n. pi.).
-Gni effrenis, infrenis (adj. stems in -0 more frequent) ; lenis
(adj.) ; lien (m. also Uenis Gels., gen. pi. in -ium and
-um) ; pSnis (m.) ; renes (m. pi. gen. pi. sometimes in
-um. Also a stem rien-).
-iai acclinis (adj.); crinis (m.); finis (m. f.; in plur. rarely
f. ; abl. s. often in -i); affinis (adj. as subst. m. f. ; abl. in
-e and -i).
-mnl amnis (m. abl. often in -i); inderanis (adj. post-Aug.);
insomnia (adj. Aug. and post-Aug.); omnis (adj.); sol-
lemnis (adj.).
-gnl insignis (adj.) ; ignis (m. abl. usually in -i) ; segnis (adj.).
-nni biennis, sexennis, &c. (adj.) ; bipennls (adj. also subst. f.
abl. in -i); perennis (adj.).
-mi bicomis (adj.).
(/3) Stems in -li. 424
All retain -i or -e in nom. sing, except neuters in -all, which
sometimes drop it.
-oli indoles (f. no plur.); s6b61es or suboles (f. plur. rare; no
gen. pi.). Comp. proles, § 426. Also interpolis (adj.).
-ill agilis, debilis, facilis, and many other verbal adjectives;
gracilis (adj. also a stem in -0, Ter. Lucil.); novensiles
(adj. m. pL); similis (adj.); stgrilis (adj. with -0 stem
once in Lucr.) ; strigilis (f. abl. usually in -i).
-ill sequalis (adj. also subst. m. abl. in -i) ; canalis (m. f. abl. in ^25
-i); contubernalis (m. f. abl. -e and-i); jugalis (adj.); na-
talis (adj. as subst. m. abl. often in -e: see also § 331);
novalis (as subst. f. and -ale n.); qualis (adj.) ; rivalis
(adj. as subst. m. abl. in -e and -i); sodalis (m. abl. in
-e and -i equally); talis (adj.). Proper names, e.g. Ju-
vSnalis, have abl. in -e.
Neuter adjectives used substantively often drop the
final -e and shorten final -al ; e. g. animal, Baecanal, bi-
dental, capital, cervical, Lupercal, puteal, tdral, tribilnJll,
vectigal, &c. But focale, penetrale.
ic
146 Inflexions. \Book II.
Plural names of feasts; e.g. Baccanalia, compitalia,
Floralia, Satiirnalia, sponsalia, &c. have gen. pi. some-
times in -ortiin, as if from -0 stems. So also vectigalio-
rum (Varr. Suet.).
-alll callis (m. f.) ; valles (f. also vallis) ; convallis (f.). 4^5
-auli caiQis (m. also colis).
-oli moles (f. ) ; proles (f. the plur. once only, viz. ace. in
Colum.).
-olli collis (m. abl, rarely in -i); folUs (m.); mollis (adj.).
-uli fedillis, cQriilis, tribillis (adj.).
-eli feles (f. also felis) ; meles (f. also mselis Varr.) ; crudelis,
fidelis, patruelis (adj.).
-elli imtoellis (adj.); perduellis (adj.); pellis (f.); versipellis
(adj.).
-ili sedilis (m. aidiles in very early inscr., abl. usually in -e; 427
as adj. once in Plant.); Aprilis, Quintilis, Sextilis have
abl. in -i; bills (f. abl. usually in -e); Civilis (as proper
name, abl. in -e) ; vills (adj.); exilis, servilis, and other
derivative adjectives.
Neuter adjectives used substantively: e.g. ancile (gen.
pi. anciliorum), cubile, equile, Lastile, mantfle, mfinile,
ovile, sfidile.
-illi imlDecillis (adj. in Seneca rarely; regular stem in -0);
mille (adj. indecl. in sing. ; in plur. only used as subst.).
Examples of declension of stems in -ni, -11. Comp. §§ 451, 461. 4-'!^
Singular.
Nom. igni-s simili-s
, . . ., ^ simil5 animal
Ace. igne-m sumle-m
Gen. igni-s simili-s animal-is
Dat. igni 1
Log. )
Abl. ^
igni or ign6 [ simill animali
Plural.
Nom. igne-s simile-s
Ace. igni-s or simili-s or \ simili-a animali-a
igne-s simile-3
Gen. igni-um sinr-i^-um animali-nm
Dat.
Loc.J- igni-bus simili-bus animali-bus
Abl,
Chap. A'.] Declension of -1 Stejns. 147
(y) Stems in -ri. 429
Stems ending: in -ri preceded by 6 usually drop the i in the
nom. sing. masc. and drop the 6 before r in all other cases ; hence
usually, e.g. acer (m.), acris (f.), acre (m.). Those ending in -ari
usually drop e or i in the nom. ace. sing, neuter.
art Arar (m. ace. in -im; abl. in -i or -e); Mlaris (adj. also
with stem in -0, Plaut. Ter. Cic); mare (n. abl. some-
times in -e in poetry; pi. only nom. ace. except maruin
Naev., maribus Caes. once); bimaris (adj.); par (adj.
cf. § 454); impar, dispar (adj.).
-6rl f6ris (f.); bifdris (adj.); mgmor (adj. gen. pi. only once
used, viz. memorum in Verg., no neut. nom. ace.) ; im-
mfimor (immemoris nom. Cascil.); indecdris (adj. no
gen. or neut. pi.).
-Ori c61er (c61eris m. in Cato); Liger (m. ace. in -im; abl. in 430
-i or -e); Tiberis or Thybris (m.) ; V6s6ris (m.).
(-pri) vepres (pi. in sing, only veprem, vepre; usually m. Pro-
bably had n. sing, in -es, comp. veprecula).
(-bri) bilibris (adj.); bimembris (adj.); c61eber (adj. cSldbris
as m. sometimes); December (adj.); febris (f. ace. often
in -im; abl. usually in -i); fenebris (adj.); ffln6bris (adj.);
imber (m. abl. in -i frequently) ; lagubris (adj.) ; mulie-
bris (adj.); November, October (adj.); saluber (adj. often
salubris m.).
(-cri) acer (adj. in Nasv. and Enn. also as f.; acris is rarely
m.); alacer (adj. alacris as m. i-arely); mSdiocris (adj.);
voliicer (adj., rarely volucris as masc. adj. cf. § 456).
(-gri) tigrls (usually f., also with stem tigrid-).
(-trl) linter (or lunter f. rarely m.); puter (adj. usually
putris); venter (m.) ; titer (m.). Also tres (pi.).
(-stri) aplustre (n. also rare pi. aplustra) ; bilustris, illustris,
sublustris (adj.); bimestris (adj. abl. rarely in -e Ovid);
campester (adj. also campestris as m.); equester (adj.
equestris as m. once) ; paluster (adj. also palustris);
pgdester (adj.); sequester (m. ; an ace. and dat. abl. s.
and nom. pi. from a stem in -0 occur rarely) ; Silvester
(adj. usually silvestris) ; terrestris (adj. once terrestsrj.
-ari Numerous adjectives, with contemporaneous or subse- 431
quent stems in -io. The neuter when used as substantive
often drops e in nom. sing.
articularis, auxiliaris, popularis, Sec. (see Book III.).
10 — 2
,_|S Inflexions. \^Book II.
molaris (m. sc. dens, abl. in -i); nari3(f.); PugiUares
(m. sc. codicilli).
Neuters: altaria (pi.), alveare, calcar, cochleare, exem-
plar (exemplare Lucr.), lacunar, laquear, lupauar, pul-
vinar, talaria (pi.), torcular.
-auri auri3 (f.).
-ori concdlor, discolor, versicolor (adj. abl. in 1, except rarely
in verse),
-orrl torris(m.); extorris (adj.).
-ari Mris (m. ace. in -im; no abl. found; also with -a stem);
sScvlris (f. ace. often in -im; abl. always in -i).
-urri turris (f. ace. usually in -im; abl. often in -i).
-erri verres (m. also verris Varr.).
(S) Stems in -si. 435
All retain -i in the nom. sing., except as, mas, mus, glis.
-asi (-ari) mas (m.).
-assi as (m. rarely assis). So also its compound semis: but
bessis, decussis, centussis, &c. (probably adjectives) are
parisyllabic. Casses (m. pi. also casse abl. s.) : classis
(f. abl. often ni -i).
-U3i (-uri) mas (m.) ; plils (n. gen. s. pluris only of price, cf. Prcf.
vol. II. p. Iviii.) abl. s. plure rare, no dal. s. ; in plural
nom. pltires (m. f.), plQra (n.); ace. pUires, rarely pluris,
gen. plOrium; dat. abl. pmribus ; so also complilres
(plur.); but compluria once Ter. and see Gell. v. 21).
-ussi amussim (m. only ace. s.); tussis (f. ace. in-lm; abl.
in -i).
-6331 messis . (f. ace. sometimes in -im) ; nficesse (indec, used
only as secondary predicate, '•a matter of necessity.^ The
form necessum is found in prjs-Ciceronian writers and
Lucr.; necessus as nom. in Ter.; as genitive (according to
Lachm. ad Lucr. 6. 815) in 5. C. de Bacc).
-lsi(-iri) glis(m.); vis (f. ace. vim, abl. vi, gen. and dat. rare:
in plural ace. vis is found once or twice in Lucr., but
the regular pi. is vires).
-nsi ensis (m.). Also numerous derivative adjectives; e.g.
Castrensis, Narbonensis, &c. So atriensis (m. sc. servus
abl. rarely in -e); circenses (m. pi. sc. ludi); Maluginensis
(as proper name with abl. in -e); bimensis (adj.). For
mensis see § 460.
-xi axis (m. also written assis; abl. rarely in -i).
Chap. X/.] Declension of Consonant Stems.
149
Examples of decle?iiions of stems in -ri, and declension of vis. 433
Camp. § 461.
m.f. n.
ac3r(m.) acri-s(f.)
Singular.
Nom. imbgr
Ace. imtore-m
Gen. imbri-s
Dat. imbri
Loc. ) imbri or ]
Abl. \ imbre ]
Plural.
Noni. imbre-s
Ace. imbri-s or
imbre-s
Gen. imbri-um
Dat. I
Loe. imbrl-bus
Abl. J
acre-m
acri-s
acri
acre
acre-s
acri-s or
acre-s
acr:-a
acn-um
acri-bus
vis
vim
vis (rare)
vi (rare)
vi
vire-3
vlri-s or
vire-s
viri-um
viri-bus
CHAPTER XI.
iii. DECLENSION OF CONSONANT STEMS.
The suffixes for masc. and fern, nouns with stems ending in a 434
consonant are: Singular Nom. -s (which however has fallen off or
was intolerable in stems ending in -n, -1, -r) : Ace. -em ; Gen. -is ;
Dat. -i; Abl. -6. Plural Nom. Ace. -es. Gen. -um. Dat. Abl.
-ibiis. For the older forms see Chap. xii.
The locative was usually the same as the ablative, but in some
words what was probably its original form remains, the same as the
dat. (e.g. Carthaging or Carthagini; tempori (written temperi),ruri).
These suffixes are appended without alteration of the stem
except for nom. sing.
The suffixes of neuter nouns differ from the above only in having
the bare stem, sometimes with the vowel modified, for nom. ace.
sing.; and -a (instead of -es) suffixed for nom. ace. plural.
A large proportion of the consonant stems have two syllables. 435
the second syllable being a derivative suffix. The final stem cou-
150 Inflexions. [Book 11.
sonant is always preceded by a vowel (except in cor, from stem
cord-, raensis, volucris), and this preceding vowel generally shorts
(Comp. § 408.) The principal exceptions to this short quantity
are the numerous stems in -tat, -on, -or and a few in -Ic.
The following enumeration is tolerably complete, except that
specimens only are given of such classes of derivatives as contain
very numerous instances.
I. Stems ending in mutes (and m). 436
Stems ending in mutes forni the nominative singular by adding
s, but the dentals (t, d) being assimilated to it fall away. A short §
preceding the final stem consonant is usually changed to i in other
cases than the nom. sing. (§ 234. 3 U).
e. g. princep- noni. princeps, ace. princip-em ; judSc- nom.
jxldex, ace. jildic-em; radic- nom. radix, ace. radic-em; eqiiet-
nom. eques, ace. Squit-em ; p6d- nom. pes, ace. ped-em.
Only three substantives are neuter, viz. alec (also alex f.),
caput (with its derivatives occiput, siaclput) and cor. The ad-
jectives have no neut. nom. ace. plural.
{a) Labial Stems, ^yi
■ip daps (f. nom. s. rare ; no gen. pi.).
-6p ops (f. nom. s. only as name of goddess) ; inops (adj.
abl. s. in i ; no neuter n. ace. pi.).
-ep (-up) auceps (m.) ; manceps (m. manoip- is more usual than
the older mancup-).
-01) (-Ip) forceps (m. f); municeps (m. f.); particeps, princeps
(adj. abl. s. always in -e ; no neut. n. ace. pi.)"''; adeps
(m. f. sometimes written adips : no gen. pL).
-ip stip-em (f. no certain nom. s. or gen. pi.).
-§b (-ib) cselebs (adj. ; no neut. nom. ace. pi.).
-m Memps (f. sometimes written Mems ; cf. § 70).
"^ Consequently, the accentuation of the syllables is not altered, as it"
would have been, if the gen. pi. had ended in -ium, or neut. nom. ace.
pi. in -ia ; e.g. princeps, principum, but principium, principia.
^ TJie genitives, municipium once or twice in inscriptions, princi-
pium often in MSS. of Livy, forcipium in extract from Lucilius, are
probably only mistakes of scribes. So hospitium in good MSS. of
Cic. and Liv., obsidium in Liv. and Cres., judicium, artificium, &c.
Chap. XI?[ Declension of Consonant Stems. 151
(1^) Guttural StefTts. 458
(a) Stems in -c:
-a2 fax (f. no gen. pi.; old nom. s. faces); frices (f. plur.
no gen.).
-uc crux (f. no gen. pi.); nux (f.); dux (m. f.); tradux (m.
rarely f.); rSdiix (adj. abl. in -i except as oblique predi-
cate) ; trux (adj. no gen. or neut. n. ace. pi.).
-6c fcenisex (m.); nex (f.); pr6c-em (f. no nom. s.); rgsex
(m.); semingc-em (adj. no nom. s.).
-gc (-ic) ChieRy masculine, apex (m.); carex (f.); caudex or 439
codex (m.); cimex (m.); cortex (m. sometimes f.);
culex (m.); forfex (m. f.); frutex(m.); ilex (f.); illex
(m.); imbrex (m. f.); latex (m.); mflrex (m.); obice
(only in plur. and abl. sing. f. sometimes m.); pselex or
pelex (f. probably iraKKa^); podex (m.); pollex (m.);
piilex (m.); pftmex (m.); ramex (m.); nimex (m. f.);
silex(m.f.); sorex(m.); vortex or vertex (m.); vitex(f.).
Semi-adjectival compounds; e.g. index (m. f.); jMex
(m. f.); vindex (m. f.); artifex (m. f. ; abl. sing, as
adjective in -i); carnifex (m. f.); Cpifex (m. f.); pontifex
(m. f.); auspex (m. f.); extispex (m. f.).
Adjectives: supplex (abl. i in prose; 6 frequently in
metre); bivertex, &:c.
ibic-em (m. ace. s.); pantices (m. pi.); urpicem (m.
ace. sing.; irpices nom. pi.) are not found in nom. sing.
-Ic Chiefly feminine, appendix (f.); calix (m., kv\i^ t): u°
dicis (gen. s. only in phrase dicis causa or gratia) ; f ilix
(f.); fornix (m.); fulix (f. usually fulica) ; larix (m. f);
pix (f. no gen. pi.); salix (f); varix (m. f); vic-em (f;
no nom. sing, or gen. pi.).
-ac Umax (usually f.). For adjectives see § 414,
-Oc vox (f.).
-ec alex or hallex (f. also a neuter form alec or halec);
vervex (m.).
-ic All fem. cicatrix; cervix; comix; cSturnix; coxendix; 441
lodix; matrix; mgretrix (the adjective has -i stem);
natrix; nutrix; radix; struix; vibic-em (nonom.s.). (Of
152 Inflexions. [^Book II.
cicatrix, cervix, meretrix, instances of an ace. pi. in -la
are found).
(/3) Stems in -g : 44a
-ug conjunx, often written conjux (m. f.) ; Wjiigem, quadrljG-
gem, &c. (adj. no nom. s., stems in -0 more usual).
-eg grex (m.); segr6g-em (adj. ace. s.) ; aquilex (m.).
-ig strix (f.) ; remex (m.).
-iig frilgem (f. no nom. sing.; frux and fruges quoted as
early forms of nom. s.).
-eg rex (m.); lex (f.); exlex (adj. only nom. and exlegem,
ace. s., in use) .
(c) Dental Stems.
(a) Stems in -t: 443
-at anas (f.), (gen. anitum, C. N. D. 2. 48).
-6t compos (adj.); impos (adj.).
-•at intercus (adj. not found in abl. s. or nom. ace. or
gen. pL).
-ut (-it) caput (n. abl. in -i, Catull.) ; occiput (n.) ; sinciput (n.).
-6t Nom. sing, in -es; abies (f.) ; aries (m.); paries (m).
Nom. sing, in -6s; interpres (m. f.) ; indiges (m., rare in
sing.); perpes (adj. abl. sometimes in -i); praapes (adj.
abl. sometimes in -i); sSges (f.) ; teges (f.) ; impete (abl.
s. also rarely impgtis gen- sing.).
-6t (-it) Nom. sing, in -§s;
Substantives: anies(m.?); csespes(m.); fomes (m.):4M
gurges (m.); limes (m.); merges (f. .') ; palmes (m.);
poples (m.); stipes (m.); termes (m.); trames (m.).
Semi-adjectival: antistes (m. f., also antistita f.):
cseles (m., also in Ovid cselitibus regnis); codes (m.);
comes (m. f.) ; gques (m.) ; hospes (m., sometimes in
poetry f. ; also hospita, as f. sing, and neut. pi.); miles
(m. f.); p6des (m.f.); prsestes (m. f.); satelles (m. f.);
veles (m.).
Adjectives: ales (mostly as subst. m. f. ; gen. pi.
usually, because in dactylic verse, alituum.); Cser6s of
Cicre (from which Vergil has abl. Cserete, and Hor.
CJiap. Xl!\ Declension of Consonant Stems. 153
Cserite) ; dives ; sospes (also as epithet of Juno sospita ;
old form dat. seispitelC. I. R. iiio) ; superstes. None
of these have neut. nom. ace. pi.
-at A very numerous class of (chiefly abstract) substan- 4-!5
fives (all feminine) in -tat, e.g. civitas, sestas. calamitas,
simultas, hereditas, tempestas, voluptas, cupiditas. The
genitive plural is occasionally formed in -ium, especially
from civitas and the three nouns next following, but from
others than civitas rarely before the Augustan age.
satias (f. usual only in nom. s. ; ace. and abl. also in
Lucret.).
damnas (adj.; in formula damnas esto, sunto both for
nom. sing, and plur.).
-6t Bgpos (m.); sacerdos (m. f.).
-■as juventas (f.); sgnectfts (f.); servitas (f); virfciis (f.);
saliis (f. only sing.).
-5t quies (f); inquies (f. also in nom. sing, as adj.); requies
(f. no dative, or plural; also as an -e stem, § 340).
(/3) Stemj in -d: 4^6
-ad vas (m. f. no gen. pi.), bail.
-fid p6cus (f.), a head of cattle.
-6d pes (m.); tripes, comipes (adj.), &c.; compgdes (f. pi.
also abl. s., compede, gen. pi. once compedium Plant.);
quadrupes (f. usually, also m. n.; abl. sometimes in -i:
nom. pi. quadrupedia once in Colum.).
-§d (-id) obs6s (m. f. ; prsesgs (m. f.); des6s (adj.); r§ses (adj.).
-id capis (f.); cassis (f.), a helmet; cuspis (f.); hence tri-
cuspide (abl. sing.) ; lapis (m. rarely f.); promulsis (f.).
-rd cor (n. no gen. pi.). Compounds of cor have stems in -i
(§447)-
-33a pr^s (m., gen. pi. praedum, Lex Malac. 64; prsaium,
Gai. Inst. iv. 94; old form of plur. provides).
-5d custos (m. f.).
-aud laus (f., gen. pi. rarely in -iiun).
-M palils (f. paliis Hor.) ; inciis (f ) ; subscus (f.).
-e4 heres (m. f.) ; exheres (adj.) ; merces (f.).
154
Inflexions.
Examples of declensions of mute stems.
Compare §§ 416, 422.
[Book IT.
Singular.
(adj. m. f. n.)
m. or t.
f.
m.
Norn.
princep-s
jadex
seta-s
pes
Ace.
(prmcip-ein(m.f.)
(princeps (n.)
judic-em
setat-em
p6d-em
Gen.
princip-is
judic-is
setat-is
ped-is
Dat.
princip-i
judic-i
aetat-i
ped-i
Loe.)
Abl.i
princip-6
judic-6
3etat-S
ped-6
Plural.
Nom.j
Ace. \
princip-es (no
neut.)
judic-es
setat-es
ped-es
Gen.
princip-um
judicum
setat-um
(sometimes
setat-ium)
ped-um
Dat.)
Loe.V
princip-ibiis
judic-Ibus
setat-ibiis
ped-ibU3
zVbl.J
AA7
2. Stems ending in -n.
Stems ending In -n form the nominative singular in one of two 44?
ways :
Either the nom. sing, is formed by dropping the final n; thus
stems in -on, -d6n, -g6n, and a few others which are all masc. or
fern. : e. g. sermon-, senno (m.) ; Ifigion-, legio (f.) ; grandon-,
grando (f.); origdn-, 6rigo (f). In the oblique cases -5n becomes
-in.
Or the stem becomes the nom. sing, without alteration or addi-
tion. Thus stems in -m6n, which, except one, are all neuter, and
a few others which are mainly masculine: e.g. agm§n (n.), gen.
agminis ; tibicen (m.), gen. tibicinis. In the oblique cases -6n be-
comes in.
Three words, can-is, juv6n-is, sgn-ex, are exceptional.
-an canis (m. f., old form canes (Plant.). The derivative
canicula seems to imply an -i stem).
-6n (-in) nom. s. in -0. All except some here named are femi- 4^0
nine, homo (m. also in old language with stems homSn-,
hemon-); nemo (m. f gen. and abl. sing, rare; cf § 372);
turbo (m. turben, Tib.) ; caro (f. no gen. pi. The stem
is cam- for carSn-. In Liv. 37. 3 carnis is nom. s.).
Chap. A'/] Declension of Consonafit Stems. 155
margo (m. rarely f.); drigo (f.); aborigines (m. pi.);
aspergo (f.) ; compago (f.); ambagine (f. abl. s. only);
indaginem (f., also in gen. and abl. sing.); and other
feminine substantives in -g6n.
cardo (m.); ordo (m.); grando (f.); harundo (f.); hiriido
(f.); testiido (f.); alcedo (f,); gravedo (f.); iiredo (f.);
cupido (f. sometimes m.); solitQdo (f.), &c. ; and some
other abstract feminme substantives in -idon, -tiiddn, &c.
-fin (-in) flamen (m.), a priest ; fidicen (m.); oscen (m., some-
times f.); tibicen (m.); tubicen (m.); peeten (m.),
giaten (n.); sangven (n.), and more frequently sangvis
(m.); pollin-em (m. also gen. and abl. s.). For stem
femen-, nom. f6mur (n.), see § 454.
A nd the numerous verbal neuters ; e. g. agmen, lenimen,
putamen, vdlumen, nomen, (S:c. ; flamen (n. is little used
except in abl. s. and pi. and nom. ace. pi.) ; binominis
(adj. gen. s. no other case); cognominem (adj. also abl.
sing, and nom. pi.).
-6n sen-ex (m. sometimes in poetry f.) : the other cases do
not contain -ec- (which is seen in senec-tus, senecio, &c.) ;
juv6n-is (m. f.).
-on All masculine, except Juno and abstract substantives in 450
-ion, which are all leminine, even when used with con-
crete meaning.
agaso(m.); aquilo (m.); baro (m.); bQbo (m. once
fern.); bQfo (m.); caupo (m.) ; cento (m.); cMon-e (m.
only in the abl. case); leo (m.); ligo (m.); mango (m);
mQcro (m.); opilio or upilio (m.); papilio (m.); preedo
(m.); pugio (m.); sermo(m.); stellio (m.) ; vesper-
tilio (m.); titio (m.); and others.
Capito (m.) ; and other descriptive names of persons.
ternio (m.) ; senio (m.) ; and other names of numbers.
Anio (also stem in -en with nom. Anien).
communio (f); perduellio (f.); r6glo (f.); Iggio (f.) ;
6pinio (f.); dicion-em (f. ace. also in gen. and abl. sing.);
and other derivatives from adjectives and present stem of
verbs.
lectio (f); orStio (f.) ; C3natio (f); sorbitio (f);
natio (f ) ; and many other derivatives from supine stem
of verbs.
156
Inflexions.
[Bool' IF.
Examples of decle/is'ton of nouns ivlth -n stems.
Compare § 42
8.
FNGULAI
\. m.
n.
m.
f.
Nom.
tibic§n )
A fvyv^ ^^%^
homo
I§gi6
Acc.
tibicin-em ]
agmeii
homln-em
legion-em
Gen.
tibicin-is
agmin-is
homin-is
leglon-is
Dat.
tibicin-I
agmin-i
homin-i
legion-i
Loc.)
Abl.)
tibicin-S
agmin-g
liomm-6
legion-e
'lural.
NomJ
Acc. \
tibicin-es
agmin-a
homin-es
legion-es
Gen.
tiblcin-um
agmin-um
homin-um
legion-inn
Dat.)
Loch
tibicin-ibus
agmin-ibus
liOTniTi-ibris
legion-ibus
Abl.J
•«5i
3. Stems ending in -1, -r, -3.
Stems ending in -1, -r, -s are used as the nominative singulai 452
without addition or change, except that some neuters change 6s
into us, and others change or into ur, 6s into us.
-al
-ul
-U
-61
-eU
-ar
^r
(a) Stems in -1. 45^
sal (m. sometimes in sing, n., no gen. pi.); Hannibal;
Adherbal; &c.
consul (m.); exul (m. f.); praesiil (m. f.).
vigil (m. sometimes f.); pervlgil (adj.); pugil (adj.);
milgil (m. also miigilis). The ablat. sing, when it occurs
(as in vigil and pervlgil) is in -i (cf. § 424).
supellectil- (nom. s. supellex, f., no pku-al; abl. s. in i
frequently) ; sil (n.).
sol (m. no gen. pi.).
f61 (n.) ; mel (n.). Both drop the second 1 in the nom.
sing., and in plural have only nom. acc.
(/3) Stems in -r. (Some are properly in -s: cf. § 183.) 45-1
Lar (m.) ; baccar (n.) ; jubar (n.) ; instar (n. only in nom.
acc. sing.) ; par (m. t.) ; compar (m. i- ; as adjectives the
last two have -i stems).
sequor (n.) ; marmor (n.) ; ador (n. only nom. acc. s.
except adOris twice, adoris once in old poet).
Chap. XI. \ Declension of CofisonaJit Stems. 157
Four neuters change -or- to -ur- for nominative and ac-
cusative cases; 6bur (n.); fSmur (n., in other cases stems
fem6r- and femSn-, § 449, are ahke used); jficur (n., in
other cases stems j6c6r-, j6cin6r-, are ahke used, and more
rarely jdcmSr-); robur (n., probably once had stem in-s;
comp. robua-tus; and Cato probably wrote in one place
robus).
Slave names; e.g. Marcipor, i.e. Marcus' slave (por=;
puer, old pover), Lucipor, Publlpor, Quintipor, &c. were
disused in Quintilian's time. The stem was probably
in fir.
-iir augur (m. f., once had stem in -s; cf. augus-tus); furfUr
(m.); Lfimures (m. pi.); turtxir (m. f.) ; vultur (m.);
cicur (adj.).
fulgur (n.); guttur (n. rarely m.); murmur (n.);
sulfur (n.). So Anxur (n. m. § 324), Tibur (n.).
-€r acipenser (m.); agger (m.); anser (m. rarely f); asser -tss
(m.); career (m.); C61eres (m. pi.); later (m.); laver
(f.); Mulciber (m. also Mulciberi in gen. s.); mulier (t.);
Opiter (m.); passer (m.); prdcSres (m. pi., sing, rare);
tuber (also with stem in -ur), a kind of fruit-tree (f.?);
the fruit (m.); vesp6r-e (m. abl.; otherwise with -0 stem);
vomer (m. sometimes in nom. vomis).
degSner (adj. abl. always in -i) ; pauper (adj.) ; Gber
(adj. abl. almost always in -i)., fruitful.
acSr(n.); cadaver (n.); cicer(n.); gibber (Plin. n.?); .»
Iter (n. rare except in nom. ace. sing.); itiner (n. rare m
nom. ace. sing.); jilgSra (n. pi.; in sing, has stem in -0);
papaver (n. also in Plant, m.); piper (n.); siler (n.) ;
siser (n.); siiber (n.) ; tQber (n.), (i) a hump, (2) a
!7ioril; ilber (n.), a teat; verbera (n. pi. also abl. sing,
verbgre, and rarely gen. s. verberis).
-§r (-r) pater (m.) ; mater (f.) ; frater (m.) ; acciplter (m.) ; all
omit e before r in all cases except nom. sing.
-arr far (n., in plur. only nom. ace).
-5r All, except three, masculine. ■♦5'^
61or (m.) ; s6ror (f ) ; uxor (f ) ; primor-em (ace. m., nom.
sing, not found, abl. s. usually in i).
ardor (m.) ; ddlor (m.) : amor (m.) ; cruor (m.) ; ful-
gor (m.) ; and other verbals from present stem.
actor (m.) ; auctor (m. f.) ; amator (m.) ; auditor (m.) ;
censor (m.) ; and other verbals from supine stems. For
adjectives in comparative degree see § 460.
153 Inflexions. [Boo/: 1 1.
-Hr fvlr (m.).
-er ver (n. no plur.).
-cr vdlucris (f. Cf. § 430).
(•y) Stems in -s. 457
All except vas, os {a bone)^ mensis, change s into r before a
vowel ; i. e. in all cases except nom. sing.
-ds (-or) All neuter, except 16pus and axbos. 433
corpus (n.); dScus (n.); ded6cus (n.); faclnus (n., also
stem facmfir-); fdenus (n.); frigua (n.); litus (n.); nSmus
(n.); pectus (n.); p6cus (n. See also § 395); pSnus (n.,
more usually f. with stem in -u; see § 398); pignus (n.,
also stem pignSr-); stercus (n.); tempus (n., but tempdri
is the best attested spelling for the locative) ; tergus (n.).
lepus (m.); arbos (f. also arbor),
tenus (indecl.), stretch] used as adverb.
-us (-er) nom. sing, -ub; other cases, -6r. Originally -6s, § 213. 5-
acus (n.); fcsdus (n.); fOnus (n.); gSnus (n.); gl5mua
(n.); jiigeruin (n. gen. pi. and jugeribus dat. abl. pi.; the
other cases from an -0 stem); latus (n.); miinus (n. in
nom. ace. pi. both munera and munia); bolus (n.); Onus
(n.); 6pus (n.); pondus (n.); raudus (n.); rudus (n.) ;
bScus (n. only nom. ace. sing.) ; sc61us (n.) ; sidus (n.) ;
veUus (n.) ; viscus (n.) ; ulcus (n.) ; vulnus (n.).
Venus (f.) ; vetus (adj. ; abl. almost always vetere).
-$s (-6r) nom. s. -es (gen. -6ris). ^.^
Geres (f.); piibes (adj.); impQbes (adj., oftener impQ-
bis, neut. impilbe).
-is (-6r) cinis (m. rarely f.); cucumis (m., also with stem cucuml-
§ 412); pulvis (m. rarely f., also pulvis). In oblique
cases -is becomes -er; e.g. pulvis, pulvSreni (§ 184. 3).
-as vas (n., plural vasa, vasorum, vasis, from stem in -0, of
which the singular is found in early writers), a -vessel;
fas (n.), nefas (n., both only in nom. ace. sing.).
-CSS OS (n. See also § 398), a bone; exos (adj. once in Lucr.).
-OS (-or) All masculine except os, a month, ^(^
16p6s (m.) ; bonos (also lionSr) ; labos (more frequently
labSr; once in Verg. labor); c616s (also color); pavos
Chap. XI.\ Declension of Consonant Stems.
159
(usually pavdr); 6d6s (also 6d6r); rflmdr (cf. rumus-
cvdus); flos (m.); mos (m.); ros (m.); os (n., no gen.
pi., dat. and abl. rare).
Adjectives of the comparative degree ; e. g. m61i6r (m.
f.), melius (n.); durior (m. f.), diirius (n.); &c. have
ablat. sing, rarely in -i. Instances of the neuter also in
-or are found in writers of the seventh century u.c; e.g.
prior, posterior bellum in Valerius Ant., Claudius Quad.
&c.
-us (-iir) teims (f ).
crds (n.); jiis (n., gen. dat. abl. pi. very rare); piis(n.);
ras (n.); tus (n.): (the last three have in plural only
nom. and ace).
-aes (-ser) ses (n.; the gen. dat. abl. plural are very rare).
-ens mensis (m.); mensium and mensuum genitive pi. are
sometimes found in MSS. but mensum usually.
Examples of declension of stems in -1, -r, and -s.
Compare § 433-
Singular. m. m.
Nom. consul pat6r
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Loc. )
Abl. J
Plural.
Nom. )
Ace. i
consul-em patr-em
consul-Is
consul-i
consul-S
consul-es
patr-is
patr-i
patr-S
adj. m.
mSUOr (m. f.) hSnos
meliiis (n.) or lionSr
melior-em (m. f.) honor-em
melius (n.)
melior-is honor-is
melior-i honor-i
melior-6 honor-S
(rarely meliori)
patr-es
melior-es (m.f.) honor-es
melior-a (n.)
consul-um patr-um melior-um honor-um
consul-ibus patr-itous melior-ibus honor-ibus
461
i6o
-^
Inflexions.
Boo/i 11.
Singular
n.
n.
n.
n.
Nom. )
Ace. ]
cadavSr
robur
6pus
tempus
Gen.
cadavgr-is
rob6r-is
op6r-is
temp6r-i3
Dat.
cadaver-i
robor-i
oper-i
tempor-i
Loc. I
Abl. ]
Plural.
cadaver-6
rol3or-6
oper-S
tempcr-6
(cf. § 434;
Nom. )
Ace. )
cadaver-a
robor-3.
oper-a
tempor-a
Gen.
cadaver-um
robor-um
oper-um
tempor-iim
Dat. 1
Loc. }
cadaver-itous
robor-ibus
oper-ibus
tempor-Ibiis
Abl. J
CHAPTER XII.
OLD OR EXCEPTIONAL FORMS OF CASES (Class II.).
Singular Number.
Accusative. On the omission of the final m see § 86. Its v^
omission in writing was gradually given up during the 6th century
u. c.
Genitive. On the omission of the final s see § 193. 5. Cicero,
in his poems, and Lucretius appear to be the last who made use of
this omission.
I. Stons in -u. Four endings, besides the regular -us, are 463
mentioned, viz.:
(a) -uos, e. g. Senatuos four times in the S. C. de Baccanalibus.
Augustus is said to have written doraos. Ritschl conjectures domuos.
(J/) -uis, the uncontracted ending is mentioned as used by seve-
ral writers; e.g. senatuis (Sisenna); anuia (Ten Varr.); partuis,
fructuls, domuis, victuis, graduis, rituis (Varr.). Gellius (4, 16)
be.ieved that Varro and Nigidius Figulus wrote so always.
Chap. XII.] Old forms of Cases {Norms of Class II.). 1 6 1
(f) -uus as found in MSS. (e.g. of Pliny the elder) was pro-
bably merely so written to denote the length of the il. It is found
also in the nom. ace. plur.
(^) -i, see § 399.
2. Stems in -i. Partus is found on the Bantine bronze a.u.c. 464
621 — 636.
2- Consonant stems. An ending in -us is found in some in-
scriptions, but rarely later than 100 B.C.; e.g. Castorus, Venerus,
Cererus, Honorus, Csesarus, patrus, nominus, hominus, pravari-
cationus.
An ending -es is found in Salutes, Apolones (before the 2nd
Punic war), and Ceres.
_ Dative. Consonant and -i stems, -e is found in inscriptions 465
chiefly before the end of the sixth century u.C; {a) e.g. Junone,
matre, salute, Diove; also in one -i stem marte. It appears to have
been retained in some phrases ; e.g. solvendo sere alieno; jure dicundo,
even in Livy and Suetonius.
{b) -ei in prce- Augustan inscriptions; e. g. Apolenei, legel, here-
dei, Diovei, Hercolei, &c. The only instances from -i stems seem
to be fraudei, martei, urbei.
Both -ei and -e appear in the oldest inscriptions; i not till the
time of the Gracchi. Corssen with others holds -ei to be the
original dative suffix, -i the locative.
Ablative, i. Stems in -u and stems in -i. The ablative 466
probably ended in -Od and -id (older -ed). But no certain instances
occur in inscriptions except navaled, marid in the Duillian in-
scription.
In one or two instances we have uu to deaote long u; e.g.
pequlatuu, arbitratuu.
From -i stems we have, in prae-Augustan inscriptions, both -ei
and -i; e.g. partei, parti; fontei, onuiei, sorti.
Ablatives in 6 from adjectives with nom. s. in -is (cf. § 403) are
found occasionally, e.g. Coeleste, perenne, bimestre (Ovid); inco-
lume (Sen.); Viminale, Martiale (post- Aug. inscr.), exgregale (fre-
quently in inscr. of 2nd cent. p. Chr.); Antiochense, Atheniense,
Parmense, &:c. (Plin.).
2. Consonant stems. In these it ended in early times in -e and 467
-id. Thus in very old inscriptions we have airid and aire ; patre,
nominid. In the Duillian inscr. also -ed ; e.g. dictatored. (But
the copy which we have is post-Augustan, and, as Ritschl thinks,
1 1
1 62 Inflexions. \Book II.
not even a faithful copy of the original.) In the S. C. de Bacc.
is coventionid. ( No later examples.) Hence the ablative occa-
sionally appears with i, the d having fallen off ; e. g. deditioni, por-
tion! (prar;- August, inscrip.); cami, vengri, oneri (Plant.); rationi,
mucronj (Lucr. in elision), &c. But since the time of the Gracchi
the ablative in -6 is much the most common even in inscriptions.
Plural Number.
NoMixATiVE AND ACCUSATIVE. I. -uus Sometimes in in- 468
scriptions and MSS. for -as (see Detlefsen"s edition of Pliny, H.N.).
2. Consonant stems. A few instances are found in MSS. of the
ending -is.
Genitive, i. Stevis in -u. The contraction of -uum is rare; 469
but currum (Verg.), passum (Lucil. Mart.) are found; exercitum
in Mon. Ancyr., magistratum (Liv. Cod. Feron.^.
2. Consonant stems. Varro speaks of old forms boverum, Jo-
verum for bourn, Jovxim; and Charisius speaks of the annalist
Cselius having used nucerimi, and Gellius, the historian, regerum,
lapiderum, (from nux, rex, lapis). Possibly such forms are due to
a collateral stem in -is (-er); as in cucumis, §§ 405, 459; sus gen.
sing., suer-is (Plant.). But they may arise from the simple addition
of -um to the gen. sing.; e.g. nucis-um would become nucerum.
Compare familias sing., familiarum plural.
Dative and Ablative. The final s was omitted or not 470
pronounced in eai^ly poetry before a word beginning with a con-
sonant.
The early form w^as in -ebus; e.g. tempestatebus.
CHAPTER XIII.
GREEK NOUNS. CLASS I.
Greek nouns in the prs-Augustan period generally received 471
slight changes, especially of vowels, to adjust them to the Latin
usage. These forms w^ere generally retained by the prose writers,
but the Augustan poets, especially Propertius, Ovid and (later)
Chap, XIII.^ Greek Nouns. Class I. i6
J
Statius, often introduced the Greek forms instead ; and many words
not in common use are found in the Greek form only^
i. Stems in -a.
The Greek nouns corresponding to the Latin -a stems, ended in 472
the nom. sing, as follows: masc. -ds (-as), fem. -& (-a), after a vowel
or r: otherwise, masc. -Tyy (-es), fem. -i] (-e). If Latinized all
become simply -a.
In oblique cases the Greek declension has (usually) -a, -e in the 473
vocative, -an, -en in the accusative singular. But the Latin voca-
tive in -a and ace. in -am (or -em, from Greek gentile names) are
often found even when the nominative retains the Greek form.
Stems in -tes had vocative (Greek, as well as Latin) -ta, e. g. Thy-
esta; also -te, e.g. Boote. Patronymics in -des had vocative -de,
e.g. Tydide, .ffiacide, Alcide; sometimes -da, e.g. .fflacida, Cecroplda
(Ovid), Anchisiada (Verg.); accusative always -den, e.g. Laertia-
den, Peliden. So also feminine nouns with nom. s. in -e; e.g. Cir-
cen, Prienen.
The genitive, dative, and locative almost always take the Latin
form -33. But Propertius, Ovid and later poets usually make the
genitive in -es from nominatives in -e. So also Quintilian in names
like musice. A dative in -e is rarely found except in some (not
early) inscriptions, e. g. Baebiae Plicebe ; Julise Stratonice, &c.
The ablative of stems in -es and -e is usually -e.
The plural is almost always in the Latin form. (Names of 474
peoples &c, often have -um for -arum. See § 364.)
The following examples will serve to show the variety in the 475
nominative case singular.
I. Greek nouns in -as (-as), or -r]s (-es). Masculine.
{a) Appellati'ves. SycSplianta, pSeta, nauta, pirata alwajs.
Similarly atMeta, bitoliopola, propola, citharista, and in Plaut.
trapessita (rpa7re{'tr?;s) ; danista (Sai'eto-xr/s). In Cicero, anagnostes,
geometres, sopMstes. Later dynastes, choraules, aliptes, cometes,
pyctes, tetrarclies, pyrites, &c. So satrapes (ace. usually satrapam).
^ " Nunc recentiores instituerunt, grtecis nominibus grsecas declina-
tiones potius dare, quod tamen ipsum non semper fieri potest. Mihi
autem placet rationem latinam sequi, quousque patitur decor."
Quintilian (i. 5. ()-^.
II — 2
164 Inflexions. [Book II.
([}) Gentile names. Persa (Plaut.), Perses (Cic.) ; Scythes (Cic.
Hor.), Scytha (Lucan). In Cicero Abderites, Crotoniates, Epirotes,
Stagirites.
(c) Na>7ies of men. Hermia (Cic), Mida (Ten), Marsya (Hor.
Ov.), Pausania (Cic), Phssdria (Ter.), Perdicca (Curt.), .ffieta
(Ov.), Prusia (Cic. Liv.). On the other hand ArcMas, Amsmtas
(Cic.) ; Prusias (Liv.) ; .ffineas, &c.
AncMses, Achates, Thyestes. Patronymics rarely have -a. Thus
Heraclides, Alcides, Asclepiades, Pelides. But Atrida is found (Hor.
Ov.). Lucretius has two patronymics from Latin names: Memmla-
d33 (dat. sing.), son of Memmius; Scipiadas (nom. s.; Scipiadam
ace. s. Hor.; Scipiadse gen.s., Prop., Hor.; Scipiadas ace. pi., \'erg.),
son of Scipio.
2. Greek nouns in -d (-a) or -q (-5). Feminine. 476
(rt) Appellatives. Apotheca, aula, hibliotheca, tragosdia, coraoe-
dia, prora, machsra, purpura (TTopcfjvpd), ancora {liyKvpa), nausea
(vavcTid), epistula (eVio-roXT;), scsena (aKr^vrj), always. In Cicero,
grammatica, dialectica, rhetorica, milsica : in Qiiintilian gram-
matice, &c.
(i) Names of places, .ffitna, Creta, Libya, Sparta, Ida, Ithaca,
&c., but in Ovid usually .ffitne, Crete, &c. Thessalonica (Cic.) ;
Thessalonice (Liv. Plin.). Always Cso-ene, Meroe.
(c) Names of nvomen. For \\\Kfxr)vri Alcumena (Plaut.), Alc-
mena (Cic), Alcmene (Ovid). In Cicero, Varro, &c., Andromacha,
Antiopa, Europa, HScata, Hglena, S6mela, &c. In poets usually
Andromache, &c. But nympha (Cat. Verg. Ov.), nymphe (Ov.).
Always Berenice, Hebe, Daphne, PersSphone, Phoebe, Khodope,
Thtlle, TisiphSne, &c.
ii. Stems in -0. 477
The -0 stems in Greek had -or (-6s) in nom., -ov (-on) in accus.
(and neuter nominative) singular. The Latin form (-um) for the
accus. is often found, even when a Latinized nominative (-us,
sometimes -er for -6rus) is not found. The other cases rarely re-
ceived any other than a Latin form.
The following arc instances of the usage :
Singular, i. Appellatives (Feminine), e.g. methSdus, periS- 478
dus, atomus, antiddtus, dialectus, always. So trimfitrus or trime-
ter; tetrametrus, or tetrameter; on the other hand diametros (also
diametrus), perimetros, baxbltos (m. and f.) ; phaselos, a boat,
faselus, a boat, a bean.
Chap. XIII.'] Greek Nouns. Class I. 165
2. Names of plants.^ &c., e.g. acanthus (m.), asparagus (m.),
asphodglus (m.), hyacinthus (m.), hellSborus (m. more frec|uently
heUeborum, n.), papyrus (f.), &c. But 16t6s (f.), aspalathos, &r.
Precious stones (mostly feminine), amethystus (f.), zmaragdus (m.),
electrum (n.), topazos (f.), &c. Animals., arctos (f.) ; scorpios or
scorpius (ni.), camGlus (m. f.), &:c.
3. Names of ton.vns and islands (feminine), e.g. Abydus, Cor-
inthus, Lampsacus, Paphus, Cyprus, Rhodus, T6n6dus, Epirus, &c.
The forms in 6s, on (-ov, -ov) occur in the poets cliiefiy. Always
.Sgyptus, but(nom.)Imbrcs, Lemnos, Delos, Samos, Sestos, Tyros, &:c.
Names of rivers and mountains (masculine), Peneus, Caystrus,
Mseander, Parnassus, (Sec. Also Peneos, &c. Usually Pelion (n.)
and nom. Olympus (m.), Caucasus (m.), ace. Olympum, Caucasum.
4. Na}?ies of men. Usually Latini/.ed, especially those in -pos
(-rus), preceded by a consonant ; e.g. Teucer, Mgleager, rarely Me-
leagros, Antipater, Alexander, Menander, sometimes Menandros,
Evander, sometimes Evandrus. So we have as accusatives Daidalon,
Sisyphum, &c.
The genitive is sometimes in -u; e.g. Meaandru, ApoUodoru.
Panthus, voc. Pantliu is a contracted form (jlavBoos, UavBoe). 47S
Greek words in -ewy (-eos), are either completely Latinized;
e. g. Tyndareus, Peneleus, or sometimes have nom. -os, ace. -on or
-0, e.g. Androgeos (gen. Androgeo, and Androgei in Vergil).
So also a few names of places, viz.: Athos, Ceos, ace. Atli6n
(Cat. Ov. Verg.), AtHo (Liv. Plin.), Ceo (Cic). Coos (Mela), Cous
(Liv.) for Koujf, KcGy, has ace. Coum (Plin. Tac.), abl. Coo fCic
Plin.). ^ ^
Similarly lectica octophoro (abl. Cic); Dianam Tauifopolon
(Liv.) ; nave thalamego (Suet.) ; &c.
For some stems in «u- (eu-) see § 482.
Plural. The Nominative rarely in -ce; e.g. AdelpHoe (Ter ) 470
canephorce, arctce, cosmce (Cic), Solce, lotce (Plin.). The Greek
genitive in -av (-on) is found sometimes with liber as the name of a
book; e.g. Vergil's Bacolicon, Georgicon; Manilius' AstronSmicon
rarely otherwise; e.g. Colonia Tberaeon, for Theraeorum (Sail.).
On the genitive in -um, e.g. Pelasgum, Grajum, see § 365.
1 66 Inflexions. [Book II.
CHAPTER XIV.
GREEK NOUNS. CLASS II.
Greek nouns of this class, as of the first class, frequently retain 480
such of their Greek inflexions as are not very dissimilar to the Latin
inflexions. Plautus, Terence and Cicero for the most part Latinize
the inflexions. Propertius, Ovid and the post-Augustan poets very
frequently retain the Greek vowels and -n (for -m) of the ace. sing,
and short pronunciation of the final syllables. Intermediate between
these two parties stand Vergil and Horace, who with Com. Nepos,
Pliny and other post- Augustan prose writers share the same ten-
dency as Ovid, but use many of the Latin fornis. The Greek
forms in all writers are much more frequent in proper names than in
appellatives.
I. Stems in -0, -eu, -y. 4^1
-0 (<?) Masculine, nom. in -os; ace. -5em or (poet.) -6a;
gen. -ois; dat. -6i. Plural nom. -oes; ace. -oas; gen.
-oum; dat. abl. -oitous? (-oisin once in Ovid).
e.g. heros, Minos.
(Zi) Feminine. All cases in -0, except gen. -fis. Ovid
occasionally has accusative in -on. The early poets (En-
nius, Pacuvius, Accius, and once Plautus), treated them
as having stems in -on (e.g. Didonem, &c.). So also the
late writers, e. g. Servius, Macrobius.
e.g. Allecto, Argo, Callisto, Calypso, Dido, Echo, H5ro,
lb, Ino, Manto, Tlieano, Sappho.
-eu Masculine. Nom. -eiis; voc. -eu; ace. -eum or (poet.) 482
6a^; gen. -ei or (poet.) -eos; dat. abl. -eo. The poets
(e.g. Verg. Ov. Prop.), often treat -ei, -eo as one syllable
(see §232).
^ Cicero in a letter to Atticus {C^. 9. § r") had used the expression
"In Pireeea cum exissem," and, Atticus having commented on it, Ciceio
replies (7. 3. §10), " Venio ad 'Pirreea,' in quo magis reprehendendus
sum, quod homo Romanus ' Pirceea' scripserim, non 'Pivseum,' sic
enim omnes nostri locuti sunt, quam quod ' in ' addiderim."
Chap. X/K] Greek Nouns. Class II. 167
e.g. Atreus, Cepheus, Erechtheus, Mnestheus, Nereus,
Orpheus, Peleus, Perseus, Prometheus, Pirseeus, Proteus,
Tereus, Theseus, Typhoeeus, Tyndareus, &:c. f'or metre's
sake we have in ace. Idomenea, Ilidnea (Verg.), Capanea
(Stat.).
The plural is rarely found; e.g. accus. Megareos
(Qaintil.), Phineas or Phineas (Mart.).
'I'he name of the Macedonian king Perseus had an e-
stem used in Cicero, and an -eu stem used in Livy.
Other writers generally follow Livy. Thus in Cicero,
nom. Perses ; ace. Persen, rarely Persem ; gen. dat. Persae ;
abl. Persa. In Livy, nom. Perseus; ace. Perseiun and
Persea; gen. Persei; dat. abl. Perseo.
In Horace are found Achillei, Ulix6i.
The Greek a/x^opeu? (m.)' ^^ '" ^^^- 'i^^'^'ays amphora
(f.).
-y Nom. -ys Voc. -y (in poets); ace. -yn or -ym; gen. -yis ^83
or -yos ; dat. -yi ; abl. -ye.
e.g. chelys (f.), Cotys (m.), Erinys (f.), Halys (m.),
Phorcys (f.), Tethys (f. dat. Tethyi once CatuL).
2. Stems in -e and -i. 484
-e (a) Masculine. Nom. s. -es^ Ace. -em or more fre-
quently (especially in post-Augustan writers), in -en.
Gen. usually in -i^, sometimes -is. Abl. in -g, rarely -e.
In plural these stems are often treated as if they ended
in -a 3.
-ce e.g. Pharnaces.
-Che e.g. Laches.
-te e.g. Acestes, Achates, B56tes, Euphrates, Hippocrates, Iphi-
crates, Isocrates, Mithridates, Orestes, Phraetes, Polycrates,
Socrates, Thyestes, Tiridates, Timocrates, XSnocrates, &c.
A genitive in -£e is occasionally found in the poets;
e.g. Antiphatse, Bootae, Orestse, Thyestse.
^ These stems properly end in -os, or -ej; e.g. 2aj/cparej, -Revo's.
The final s, which is changed to r in Latin (§ \'&},b), is omitted in
Greek.
^ In Greek inscriptions such forms as 'ZwKpd.Tov, KaWiKpaTov, Ka\-
\iadivov, &c., (instead oi "Zwh-pdrov^, &c. ), occur, even in Attic.
^ P'orms like Sw^aVat, Upa^ir^Xai, &c. occur in Greek since Plu-
tarch.
i68 Inflexions. \Book II.
-de e. g. Alcibiades, Aristides, Cameades, Diomedes, Euripides,
Ganymedes, Hjrpgrides, Miltiades, Palamedes, ParmSnides,
Simonides, TMcydides. Proper patronymics belong to
the first class, § 475.
-ne e.g. Artaphemes, Clisthgnes, Demosthenes, Dioggnes,
Xgnophanes.
-le e.g. AcMlles (see §482), AristOteles, Hercules. Praxiteles,
Thales (see § 494); Agathocles, Empgdocles, Thgmistocles,
Pgricles.
A few instances of ace. in -a are found from stems in
-cle, e. g. Pgriclea, Stratoclea (Quintil.) ; Psrthoclea, Soplid-
clea (Sen.) ; Eteocl6a (Stat.).
-se (-ze") e.g. Gotarzes, Oaxes, mixes (see §482), Xerxes, Vologeses
(some cases of a stem in -0 are found from the last-named).
(/3) "NTeuters. Nom. ace. sing. -6s or -lis. Nom. ace. pi. -e (no 485
other cases), e. g. cetos, mSlos, pelagiis ; Tempe (plur. only).
Pelagus (n.), and cetus (m.), are also used with -0 stems. So also
grgbum (ace), erebi (gen.), erebo ; cliao (dat.), cacoethSs (adj. n.).
-1 (a) Feminine (chiefly, except names of rivers). Nom. 4S6
in -is. Ace. in -im or -in, abl. -i.
Appellatives: e.g. basis (ace. also in -em), cannabis,
phthisis, paralysis, poesis, pristis, tigris (also with stem
in -id).
Names of Persons, e.g. Sesostris (m.), Mephitis (f.),
Alcestis (f.).
Names of Places, e. g. Amphipolis, Neapolis, &;c. ;
Charybdis, Hispalis, Leptis, Memphis, Sybaris, Sic, also
the plurals Gadis, Sardis, Syrtis, Trallis.
Names of Rivers. Masculine, e.g. Albis, Bsetis (abl.
also in -6), Liggris, Liris, Tamesis, Tanais, Tigris (see also
§ 501), TibSris; Veseris, Visurgis.
A gen. pi. in -on occurs in the word mStamorphoseon as
part of the title of Ovid's work.
O) Neuter. Nom. in -i. Cappari, gummi (or cummi), 4£7
sinapi, &:c. These three are also found with nom. in -is,
ace. in -Im.
3. Consonant stems.
The Greek forms are: Singular gen. -6s (Lat. -is); ace. -3,488
(Lat. -em); Plural nom. -6s (Lat. -es). Other differences apply
only to particular stems.
Chap. X/V.] Greek Noims. Class IT. 169
(«) Labial stems : ^8^
-ap e.g. Lselaps (m.).
-op e.g. .Sthiops (m.), P61ops (m.).
-op e.g. Cyclops (m.).
-yp e.g. gryps (m. In plur. also grypi, gryporum, grypis.
Some MSS. have plx for p).
-ab e.g. Arabs (m., also nom. Arabus; abl. Arabo).
-yb e.g. Chalybs (m.).
(i) Guttural ste>7is: 490
-ac e.g. anthrax (f.), Corax (m.).
-6c e.g. Cappadox (some cases from stems in -0 in post-
Augustan writers).
-yc e.g. Eryx (m. ace. Erycum; abl. Eryco Cic. Tac).
-ic e.g. choenix (f.), Cilix (adj.), hystrix (f.).
-ac e.g. thorax (m.), Ajax (m.), Thrax (m.), Phseax (m.).
-yc e.g. Ceyx (m.), bombyx (m.).
-ych e.g. onyx (m. f.), sardonyx (f.). 491
-nc e.g. lynx (f. rarely m.).
-yg e.g. Phryx (m.), Styx (f.), lapjrx (m.).
-yg e.g. coccyx (m.).
-ng e.g. Sphinx (f.), syrinx (f.), phalanx (f.).
402
(f) Dental stems : (a) items in -t.
-at (i) Neuter. Nom. s. in -a: Plural nom. in -ta; gen.
in -torum ; dat. abl. in -tis, sometimes in -tibus.
e.g. diploma, emblema, gpigramma, parapegma, pgri-
stroma, plasma, poema, prdblema, tSreuma. The early
scenic poets and Sueton. treated schema as having an -a
stem with short penult (but Ncevius has schemate) : Varro
is said to have used schemasin as the dat. plur. In
Plautus glaucHmam (ace.) for -yXau/cw/xn (n.).
(7.) Neuter. Nom. s. in -as; e.g. artocreas, bacSras,
erysipelas.
-it Nom. s. in is; e.g. Charis (f.).
Neuter. Nom. s. in -i; e.g. oxymgli, hydr6m§li.
-6t Nom. s. in -6s; e.g. iEgoceros (m.), rhin6ceros (m.), 45,
Eros (m.).
-et Nom. s. in-es; e.g. Igbes (m.), magnes (m.); Ores, Dares,
Thales, Chromes, Phil61aches, &c. The last three have
170 Inflexions. [Book II.
also forms as from -i stems; e.g. Thaiem, Thaii, Tliale
(§ 484. It has vowel, not dental, stem in Herodotus
and Attic Greek).
-eth Nom. s. in -es; e.g. Parnes.
-ant Nom. s. in -as, rarely in -ans; ace. in -anta, often in 495
poets; vocative sometimes in -a; e.g. Calcha, Palla.
e.g. adamas (m.), gigas (m.), elephas (m. the other
cases most frequently formed as from a stem in -anto);
Atlas (m.), Calchas (m.), Corybantes (m. plur.), Pallas
(m.), Thoas (m.).
For the Greek forms Acragas (m.), Taras (m.) in prose
we have regular -0 stems; e.g. Agrigentum, Tarentum.
-ont Nom. s. in -on. All masculine. ^gg
e.g. hSrizon, scazon, Anacreon, Aut6m§don, Charon,
Leon, Timoleon, Phaethon, draco (init as proper name
Draco, Draconis), Creon, Antiphon, Xenophon.
The last three words, and others ending in -phont, have,
in Plautus and Terence and sometimes in Cicero, stems
in -on, nom. -0; e.g. Creo, dat. Creoni; Ctesipho, ace. Ctesi-
phonem; &:c. (besides Creon, dat. Creonti, Hor. Stat. &c.).
-unt Nom. s. in -us. 497
e.g. Pessinus (m.), Selinus (f.), Trapezus (f.). For
"Slttovs Cicero has Sipontum; Lucan and Silius Sipus
(m.); so in Livy and Pliny, Hydruntum ('yS/joOj).
Acheruns (Plaut., Lucr.), Acheron (Cic. &c.).
-ent Nom. s. in -is; e.g. Simois.
-ynth Nom. s. in -ns ; e. g. Tiryns
(/3) Stems in -d.
I n nom. sing, -d gives place to -s. ^^3
-ad Nom. s. in -as. All feminine; e.g. hehdomas, lampas
(ace. s. generally lampada) ; Pallas (dat. s. Palladi once) ;
Areas, Cyclas, Dryas, Hamadryas, Hyas, Ilias, Msenas,
Nomas, Oreas, Pleias, Thyas.
A few instances of gen. pi. in -on occur; e.g. hebdS-
madon, Arcadon (Varr.); and of dat. pi. in -asin; e.g.
Hamadryasin, &c. (Prop.) ; Troasin, Lemnlasin (Ovid),
-6d Nom. s. in -fls; e.g. tripQs (m.), dasypus; Melampus, 499
m. (voc. Melampu, once in Stat.). From (Edipus (m.)
the following forms are found, chiefly in Seneca (Trngf)
and Statins: nom, -'Cis, -odes; voc. -6; ace. -um (Cic),
-6da? -odem, -oden; gen. -odis (Cic, Stat.), -odse (Sen.,
Stat.); dat. -odse; abl. -ode (Cic), -6da.
Chap. XIV.] Greek Norms. Class II 1 7 r
-yd Norn. s. in -ys; voc. in -y in poets; e.g. chlamys (f.),
pglamys (f.), lapys.
-id Nom. s. in -is; voc. in poets (not Plant, or Ten), fre- 500
quentiy in -i. Other Greek forms are frequent; dat.
sing, in i occurs once, viz. Minoidi (Catul.).
As regards the ace. s. these stems fall into two classes:
(i) Ace. s. in -idem in prose and pras-Augustan poets;
in -Ida in post-Augustan poets. All feminine.
Appellatives: e.g. aagis, aspis, cantharis, endrSmis,
gphemgris, herois, pgriscelis, proboscis, pyramis, pyxis,
tyrannis (ace. s. in -ida once in Cicero).
Names of persons: e.g. Amaryllis, BaccMs, Chrysis,
Doris, Lais, Lycoris, Phyllis, Thais.
Patronymics, &:c. : e. g. Briseis, Cadmeis, Colchis, Gnosis,
Mlnois, Priameis, Salmonis, Titanis.
Names of countries: e.g. Aulis, Chalcis, Locris, Persis,
Phocis.
(2) Ace. s. in -im or, sometimes, esp. in Augustan 501
and post-Augustan poets, -in. So all masculines and
some feminines. An abl. or dat. s. in -i is found in some;
e.g. Eupoli, Osiri, Phalari, Theti, Semirami. A gen. in
-is (besides -idis) is found from Apis, Mseotis, Osiris,
Serapis, Tanais, iris.
Appellatives: e.g. ibis (f., also in plur. ibes, ibium).
Iris (f.), tigris (both river and animal, also declined as
if with stem in -i. Dat. abl. plur. only tigribus).
Names of persons. Masculine; e.g. Alexis, Adonis
(in Plautus once ace. Adoneum), Daphnis, Eupolis, Nabis,
Paris (the last three have ace. also in -idem), Moeris,
Thyrsis, Zeuxis, AnQbis, Busiris, Osiris, Serapis.
Feminine; e.g. Isis, Sgmiramis, Procris, Th6tis.
Names of countries: e.g. Phasis (f.), Plithiotis (f.)
have also ace. in -idem or -ida.
-id Nom. s. in -is; e.g. apsis (f), crenis (f.). (From Kpr]Tr'i8- 502
we have only an -a stem, crgpida.)
(il) Stems in -n.
These generally retain -n in nominative (except some in -on);
ace. s. frequently in -a; plur. in -as.
-5n Nom. s. usually in -on; gen. s. sometimes in -nos; e.g.
canon (m.), daemon (m.), gnomon (m.), sindon (f.),
Arion (m.), Gorgon (f.), Memnon (m.), Ixion (m.).
1 7 ^ Inflexions. \^Book II.
Some have also nom. s. in -o; e.g. Agamemno (m.).
Amphio (m.), Lacfidaemo (f.), Macedo (m.), Strymo (m.).
lasSni dat. sing, in Statius.
-6n e.g. PhilSpoemen.
-an Masculine; e.g. paean, Alcman, Acarnan, Titan (rarely 504
declined as with -0 stem), Pan (ace. s. always Pana).
-on Mostly masculine.
Names of persons and things. Nom. s. usually in -0 ; 50s
e.g. arrhabo (sometimes f.), myoparo, sipho, Apollo (also
e.g. Apollinem), Laco, Amphitruo, Dromo, Pliormio, Simo,
Tranio, Dio, Hiero, Milo, Parmenio, Plato, Pyrrho, Zeno.
So also stems in -phon, see§ 496.
But Triton, T61amon, Chiron.
Names of places. Nom. s. usually in -on ; e. g. ColOplion
(m.), Maratlion (f.), Sicyon (f.), Babylon (f.), Calydon (f.),
Helicon (m.), Cithcsron (m.), (Rubico (m.), is not a Greek
word). For Ancon, Croto (m.), we have often -a stem,
viz. Ancona, Cr6t6na.
-en e.g. attagen (m. Also a stem in -a, attagena) ; Siren (f.), 506
splen (m.), Troezen (f.).
-In e.g. delphin (m. usual nom. delpMnus) ; Eleusin (f.),
TracMn (f.). Rarely nom. s. in -s; e.g. Salamis (f.).
{e) Stems 'm -s or -x\ exhibit simple stem in nominative. 507
-ar e.g. nectar (n.).
-or all masculine, e.g. rhetor (m.), Amsmtor, AntSnor, Castor,
Hector (Hectorem ap. Cic. T. D. i. 44), Mentor, Nestor.
-us (ur) Nom. s. in -us; e.g. Llgus.
-hx Nom. s. in -er; e.g. aer; (m. ace. s. usually a6ra, but
aerem in Cato and Celsus) ; aether (m. ace. always
jethera).
-er e.g. character (m.), crater (m.) ace. cratera (Cic). Also
with stem in -a ; nom. s. cratera and creterra. For pan-
ther, stater, we have always panthera, statera.
I
Chap. XV.] Adverbs and Conjunctions. 173
CHAPTER XV.
ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS.
Adverbs and Conjunctions are indeclinable words, some of 508
them cases of existing words, others cases of lost words, others
words with case-suffixes, different from those in common use in
Latin, others mutilated remnants of fuller expressions.
They are here arranged according to the final letter of the
ending, which sometimes is a suffix, sometimes part of the stem
or some modification thereof.
-a Abl. sing. fem. from -0 or rather -a stems. (Cf. § 11 20.) 5C9
ea, in that directiofi; bac, iliac, and (Plaut., Ter.)
ilia; alia; qua, quaque, quanara, qualitoet; nequaquam,
by no means; usquequanue, everywhere; utrallbet, in
nvbichever direction you please. These ablatives are often
used with tenus; e.g. eatenus, thus far ^ liactenus, qua-
tenus, quadamtenus, aliquatenus. So circa, about; Juxta,
clos-e; erga^ toqvards.
Supra (supera Lucr. often), above; infra, below;
extra, outside; intra, within; ultra, beyond; citra, on this
side; contra, against. (See § 160. 6.) So frustra (in Plaut.
sometimes frustra; ne frustra sis, fiot to deceive you),
in vain.
So with prepositions, which in the ordinary language
take an accusative; e.g. antea (antidea old), antehac
(antidhac old), before; postea (postidea old), posthac,
afterwards; interea, meanwhile; praeterea, praterhac,
besides; propterea, therefore; quapropter, wherefore.
These expressions may be compared with paucis post
dlebus, &c.
-a Apparently accusatives plur. neut. 5'°
ita, thus (comp. iti-dem); quia, wh.reas; aliuta (in
old law), otherwise: it stands to aliud, aliut in same
relation as ita to id.
-3 prse, in front (old locative?).
-6 Adverbs chiefly of manner (e.g. certo for certod; comp. s^
(i) fi-om substantives.
174 Inflexions, yBook II.
ergo, on account of. therefore (ep-yco) ; estemplo, at once
(extempulo, diminutive of extempore) ; ilico, on the spot,
instantly (in loco) ; modo, only, just nouo (lit. m measured
terms); numero (pras-Ciceron.), y«j^ (PI. Amph. 180),
quickly (Varr. R.R. 3. 16. 7), usually too soon (lit. by
number\)\ oppido (pras-August.), very (lit. on the plain,
cf. eTrnrtScos); postmodo, after-zuards (cf. § 528); prsesto,
at hand; profecto, really (for pro facto?); propemodo (PL
Fs. 276), almost (cf. § 328).
(2) From noun adjectives and participles.
arcano (Plant.), secretly; assiduo (Plant.), constantly;
certo, for a certainty; cito, quickly; continuo, straight-
ivay; ciehTO, frequently ; denuo, afresh (de novo); directo,
directly, straight; falso, falsely; fortuito, by chafice; gra-
tuito, gratuitously; liquido, clearly; manifesto, palpably;
merito, deservedly ; mutuo, mutually; necessario, necessa-
rily ; omnino, entirely (as if from an adj . omninus) ; per-
petuo, perpetually ; precario, on sufferance ; raxo, seldom;
secreto, secretly; sedulo, actively; serio, seriously; sero,
late; suMto, suddenly; supervacuo (post-Aug.), super-
fluously; tuto, safely; vero, indeed, no doubt.
bipertlto, tripertito, quadripertito, divided into t-wo,
three, four; improviso, unforeseen; inaugurato, ^jjithout
taking auspices; inopinato, necopinato, unexpectedly; Sec.
(3) Ablatives of order.
primo, in the first place; secundo, tertio, &c.; postremo,
ultimo, in the last place; immo (imo, at the bottom ?) at
the least, nay rather.
(4) Direction to'Jjards a place.
eo, thither; eodem, to the same place; eousque, adeo,
so far; quo-ad, as long as; hue (for hoc), hither; adhuc,
hitherto; illo, illuc (illoc Plant.), thither; isto, istuc (istoc
Plant.); alio, elsenx)hither ; quo, -jj hit her; quonam, quo-
vis, quocumque, quoquo, quousque; aliquo, somewhither ;
citro, to this side; ultro, further; intro, in^Jjards; retro,
backwards ; utro (rare), to which of the two sides; utro-
que. in either direction ; neutro, in neither direction.
VOTCO, further (^noppoo); quocirca, cf. § 160. it.
-0-vorsus or cvorsum, lit. turned towards; but versus and vorsum 512
were used indifferently and not inflected.
horsum, hitherwards (ho-vorsum) ; quorsus, quorsum,
whitherwards? istorsum, illorsiun (Cato ap. Fest.),
aliorsum, aliquovorsum, utroquevorsum, altrovorsum
(Plaut.,&c), qvoqvoversus (Cic.),qvoqveversum (Cxs.).
Chap. XV.] Adverbs and Conjunctions. 175
controversus (adj.), in dispute {turned against') ; in-
trorsus, introrsum; retrorsum, dextrorsum, sinistrorsum.
deorsum, do-zvn^zvards ; seorsum, separately (se-vcrsum,
turned to itselj] or turned aside) ; sursum, upr^uards ; pror-
sum, prorsus, forivards ; rursum, rursus, back^iards
again. (Susum, prosum, rusum (russum), are forms
also found in Plant., Lucret., &c.)
-do quando, 'when (quam-do) ; aliquando, sometimes; quando- 513
que, avhenever, some time or other; quandocumque, c^uhen-
soenjer; endo, also indu, old fomis of in; (comp. indupe-
rator for imperator, Enn., Lucr.; indigeo, indipiscor, &;c.).
-u diu, for long; interdiu (interdius Cato, Plaut., cf. SH
§ 828), in the daytitne; noctu, by night; simitu (also, in
an Augustan inscription, simitur), at the same time; du-
dum, a long time (for diu-dum).
-e Apparently old forms of ablative. (Comp. facilumed in 515
5. C. de Bacc.) From adjectives with -0 stems both posi-
tive and superlative.
e. g. segre, hardly (segro-) ; blande, soothingly (blando-) ;
certe, surely (certo-) ; considerate, ivith co?isideration
(considerato-) ; docte, skilfully (docto-); plane, quite
(piano-); ornate, in ornate 7nanner (ornato-) ; promisee
(Liv. 5. 48); recte, rightly (recto-); sane, of course
(sano-); valde, very (valido-); vere, truly, actually
(vero-); S:c.
ardentissime, ))iost eagerly; audacissime, inost boldly;
creberrime, 'very frequently; doctissime, 'uery skilfully;
maxime, especially; minime, least of all; psenissume
(Plaut.), iiery nearly; Sec.
apprime (prx-Ciceronian), exceedingly (aA'PTimo) ; fgre,
ferme (superlative of fere?), almost.
-8 (i) From -0 stems; beng, well (bono-); male, badly 5:6
(malo-) ; inferne, below (inferno-) ; superne, above (sn-
pemo-). Perhaps here belong temgre, rashly; mact6,
blest. (Some take macte for a vocative; but it appears
to be invariable in form, though used with a plural (cf.
however, Plin. H. N. 11. 12), or as an oblique predicate.)
(2) From other stems; abunde, abundantly; ante (for
antid), before; forte, by chance (abl. of fors); facU§,
easily (facili-; comp. dulce ridens, Sec); impune, with
impunity (as if from adj. impunis); mage (cf. magis,
§545)) niore; paene, almost; r^pente, suddenly (repenti-);
rite, duly; sjepe, often; sponte, of its own accord (abl. of
a nom. sponsj; sublime, aloft (sublimi-); volupe (or
better volup), with pleasure (almost always with est).
176 In FLExi ON s. \Book II.
So the ablatives mane, in the morning; Itlce, bv day-
light; nocte, by night; magnopere, greatly (magno opere;.
hercle, 'pon honour (for hercules. See Syntax).
-p6 A form of que (compare quispiam, quisquam) ; nem-pe, 517
indeed (nam-pe, comp. namque); quippe, indeed (for qui
pe? comp.utique); prope, «£«r(comp. proximus, §754,a).
-v6 Perhaps for vel. Sive (old seve, hence seu), or if; neve 518
(neu), or not.
-ce ceu, as (for ceve, ce being of pronominal origin ?). 519
hie, illic, &c., see § 524. 3 ; ecce, behold (for ence); sic,
thus (cf. §524).
-qvS Appended to pronouns (a kind of reduplication); e.g. 520
quisque, each; quandoque, -whenever; quicumque (qui-
quomque), <ivbosoet'er ; ubique, et'eryrojhere ; undiqus,
from all sides; utique, anyho~iu; usque, e-z'er; uterque.
each. Also absqve, r^vithout (abs) ; atque (ac), and also
(for ad-que, cf. p. 50); neque (nee), not; namque, /or.
-ptg e.g. suopte; see § 389. For pote? comp. utpote, as. 521
-de i.e. the preposition de shortened by losing the accent?; 522
e.g. m&.e, thence (im-de) ; indidem, yrow the same place;
delude, exinde, thereupon; proinde, perinde, just so; sub-
inde, immediately nfter-Lvards^ repeatedly; unde, 'n.vhence
(quom- or cum-de) ; undique, //-ow ait sides; undecum-
que, r^vhencesosver; quamde (Enn,, Lucr.), than.
-ne sine, ivithout; p5ne, behind (for pos-ne comp. § ^^5^ 'ind s^i
for -ne comp. supeme from supernus).
ne, not, lest; ne (wrongly written nae), ferilv (comp.
vol, vf])\ ne interrogative particle, perhaps the same
as ne. Comp. n6-fas, nS-quis, ne-vis, § 728,
-I (rarely i) (i) Ablative cases of manner.
qui, (interrogative and relative like ut), how, in -ivhich
case; quin, r^chy not? but (qui-ne); alioqui, alioquin, ce-
teroqui, ceteroquin, in other respects (the final n is of
obscure origin): nequiquam, to no purpose; atqui, but;
perhaps also quippe; si, if (abl. or loc. of pronoun, in
eivhich case") ; nisi, unless (for ne si) ; quidem, indeed; si-
quidem, if indeed, since; quasi, as if (quam si); sic, thus
(si-ce, in ^<.vhich or this <ttv7v) ; ni, not (for ne, nei), also
tised as = nisi; quidni, ^Mby not? uti (ut), o-jr^ (for
quo-ti); utique, any ho-iv; utinam, thai! ne utiquam
(nutiquam), by no means. (For itidem see §§ 510, 531.)
(2) prsefiseini (also prsefiscine), •^.uithout offence (prse
faseino-,_/br i.e. to avert bewitchments^; proclivi (or pro-
clivS), down-Mar d (proclivi-, old stem proclivo-); brevl,
in few words (brSvl-).
C/iap. XV.\ Adverbs arid Conjtinctions. 177
(3) Locative cases; illi, isti (Plaut., Ter.); illic, istic,
there (illo-, isto-) ; Mc, here (ho-) ; pridem, some time
ago; and perhaps li6ri (in Quintilian's time berg), yester-
day; peregri, more commonly peregre, abroad, from
abroad; temper!, /'« good time (tempos-) ; and others ; see
in Syntax.
-bi ibi, there (is); inibi, therein; postibi (Plaut.), thereupon; 525
interibi (Plant.), in the meantime; ibidem, in the same
place; ubi, cohere (for quobi, cubi); ubique, e'veryn.vhere ;
ubicTimque, ivheresoever; si-ciibi, if anyavhere; ali-cubi,
some^where ; alibi, else^vhere (ali-) ; utrubi, at ^uhich of
tqvo places (utro-); utrubique, at both places.
-b ab (a?os),from; 6b (obs), opposite to; sub (subs), under.
-am jam, no-^u; etiam, also (et jam); quonlam, since (quom 526
jam) ; nunciam (Plaut.), no^w (nunc jam) ; nam, for^
(J noiu); quam, ho^zu, as; quamquam, ho'zvever, a/though;
aliquan-do, sometimes ; aliquamdiu, for some time; ndti-
quam (§ 524), not at all; uspiam, usquam, any ivhere;
nusquam, no ivhere; praequam, co>npared with; tam, so;
tamquam, as if; tandem, at length.
coram, face to face (com, os-) ; clam, secretly (comp.
oc-cul-o, conceal) ; obvlam, opposite (obvio-; or ob viam,
comp. obiter); palam, pr3palam, openly (pad-? pand6re) ;
perpSram, badly (per-per-am ? thoroughly ?) ; promiscam
(P\a.ut.), promiscuously ; protinam (Plaut.), immediately.
So the compounds with fariam ; e. g. bifariam, divided
in two (bi-); trifariam, quadrifariam; multifariam, in
many places ; plurifariam, in several places.
-dam quondam, at one time. (Comp. quidam, a certain one.) 527
-om (um) Probably accusative cases.
donicum. (Plaut., donique Lucr., donee commonly), im- 528
//■/; dum, ivhile; dH-dum, sometime ago (diu dum) ; inter-
6.um.,foratime; quidum, how sof priinumdum,7?rj/ of all;
appended to imperatives, e.g. agedum, come now; mane-
dum, stop pray; &c.; num (in questions), now? nunc
(i.e. num-ce), now; etiamnum, evennow; quom, cum,
when (quo-); quom (sometimes in prce-Augustan inscr.),
com (in composition), cum (prep.), with (comp. ^I'l^) ;
quon-dam, at one time (quom-dam) ; quandocumque,
(whensoever; tum, tunc, then; umquam, ever (um for
quom; cf. § 121. 3); numquam, never (ne tunquam);
nonnunquam, at times.
actQtum, instantly {on the move? actu-) ; circum, round
(circo-); clanculum, secretly (clam, cf. § 862. c) ; com-
m6dum, suitably, just now (commodo-) ; demum, at length;
12
lyS Inflexions. {Book IT.
extremum, for the utmost (i.e. last') time (extremo-); in-
cassum, to no purpose (in cassum) ; minimum, in phrase
quam minimum, as little as possible (minimo-) ; nimium,
too much; ncenum (generally contracted to non), not (ne
unum); parum, little; parumper, for n little 'while; ple-
rumque, for the most part (plero-, que); postmodum
(Liv.), afterwards (cf. § 511. i); postremum, for the
hindmost (\.e. last) time (postremo-) ; potissimum, ifj^^-
cially (potissimo-) ; priraum, for the first time (primo-) ;
propemodum, almost (cf. § 511. i); iterum (§ 888), yor
the second time; tertium, quartum, &c.; ultimum, ybr the
furthest (i.e. last) time; secundum, prep, folloiuing, along
(sequondo-). For rursum, adversum, &c. see § 512.
Imprsesentiarum, at the present time (for in prsesentia 529
rerum? cf. § 28. 2).
-em prop§diem, very shortly (for prope die, on a near day})
-tem autem, however; item, likewise (comp. ita, itidem) ; 530
saltem, at least.
-dem quidem, fiquldem, indeed; pridem, sometime ago; tandem, 531
at length (tamdem) ; indidem (§ 522); itidem, likewise
(ita) ; identidem, repeatedly (for idem itidem ? or idem et
idem ?). (Comp. idem, the same, for is-dem ; totidem
(indec. adj.), Just so many ; tantusdem.)
-im denotes at or from a place ; hin-c, hence (him ce) ; illim, 532
istim, illinc, istinc, thence ; im in inde (§ 522), thereupon;
exim, exin, exinde, therefrom ; dein, deinde, thereupon ;
inter-im, fneanwhile ; olim, in those times, i.e. formerly or
hereafter (olio = illo) ; 6nim, for. in fact ; utrinque, on both
sides (utro-).
altrinsecus (for altrimsecus; Plant.), on the other side;
extrinsecus, from outside; intrinsecus, from 'within; fo-
rinsecus (Col., VYin.),from out of doors (comp. foris).
t-im(sim) Formed from or similarly to past participles; e.g. csesim, 553
edgewise (csedere) ; carptim, by pieces, separately (lit.
plucking at it, carpere) ; cautim, cautiously (cavere) ; con-
fertim, compactly (confercire) ; confestim, immediately
(conferire? cf. § 704); conjunctim, unitedly (conjun-
gere) ; contemptim, scornfully (contemnere) ; cursim,
swiftly (currere) ; dispersim, dispersedly (dispergere) ;
efflictim, desperately (effligere, to kill, hence efilictim amare,
to love to death) ; exsiiltim, friskingly (exsilire) ; furtim,
by stealth (fur, a thief, fura-ri); incisim. hi short clauses
(incidere) ; juxtim, close at hand (comp. juxta) ; mixtim,
mingling (miscere); vsirtiva, partly (parti-); passim, here
and there (in a scattered way, pandere); p6d6tentim,
Chap. XV?\ Adverbs and Conjunctions. 179
feeling the way (pede tendgre) ; prsesertim, especially {put-
ting in front., prsesSrgre) ; punctim, point-Mise (punggre) ;
raptim, hurriedly (rap6re) ; sensim, gradually (lit. per-
ceptibly., sentire) ; statim, immediately (lit. as you stand.,
sta-, stare) ; strictim, slightly (lit. graxing, stringere) ;
tractim, in a long-drawn way (trahgre); vicissim, in
turns (vici-); ^Taertim., plentifully (uber-), SiC.
-at-im (i) From verbs with -a stems; e.g. acervatim, in heaps, 534
summarily (acerva-re); centuriatim, iy centuries (centu-
ria-re) ; certatim, tying 'with one another (certa-re) ;
citatlm, at full speed (citare) ; datatim (datatim ludere,
to play at ball), giving and regiving (data-re frequenta-
tive of dare) ; gravatim, with difficulty (gravari) ; minu-
tatim, by bits (as if from minutare) ; nominatim, by name
(nominare) ; privatim, inditiidually (privare) ; pr6p6ra-
tim, hurriedly (properare), &c.
(2) From nouns (compare bartoatus, &c.); e.g. cater-
vatim, in troops (caterva-); ggnSratim, taking classes
(genus) ; gradatim, step by step (gradu-) ; gregatim, in
focks, herding together (greg-); membratim, H?nb by limb
(membro-) ; ostiatira, from house to house (ostio-) ;
paullatim, little by little (pauUo-); pectinatim, combwise
(pecten-); regionatim, region by region (region-) ; singillatim
one by one (ccmp. singnlo-) ; summatim, slightly, summa-
rily (taking the tops, summo-); turmatim, by squadrons
(turma-) ; vicatim, street by street (vico-) ; &c. Plautus
used also tuatim, after your fashion (tuo-); Sisenna had
nostratim, and meatim is mentioned by the grammarians.
-flt-im mintltini, in small pieces (minugre) ; tolutim, full trot
{raising the feet, tollgre) ; tributim, tribe by tribe (tribu-).
-it-im viritim, man by ynan (viro-).
-t ast, but; at (for ad?), but (also atque, atqui); aut, or 535
(comp. avri)\ gt, ^^(comp. en); ut (for uti), as (prout,
praeut, sicut, velut) ; post, after (also pos, poste, postidea ;
comp. ante, antidea). Sat is shortened for satis. For
-met see § 389.
-d Old ablative suffix ? cf. § 160. 6; ad (cf. § 160. 10), to; 536
apM, at; liaud (or hau), yiot; sed, but (properly by itself?).
Quod, because, is neut. ace. (comp. 6Vt), but in quod si,
quod quia, quod utinam is by some taken to be an old
ablative (see Ritschl, A''. Plaut. Exc. p. 57).
-n quin, why not? (qui ne); sin, but if {si ne, if not?): 557
(comp. vlden, audin, &c.); an, ivhether; forsan, forsitan
(fors sit an), perhaps; tamgn, yet; en, lo! in (cf. §51;,), '''•
12 — 2
i8o Inflexions. [Book II.
-1 prOciil, off, afar; simul, older semol (for simile), together; s6- 533
jn61, once; v&l,or (probably imperative of volo, hence choose).
-ur igitur, therefore; quor or cQr, 'wherefore. For simitur 539
see§ 514.
-6r Suffix of comparative degree: siiper, cibove {higher; sub,
«/)); desuper, insuper. Per, through; ter (for tris, cf.
§ 429), thrice ; quater, _/b«r times.
'■SHit nQper, lately (novumper) ; parumper, for little time 540
(parum) ; paixllisper, for a little r^vhik (paullo-) ; quan-
tisper (Pompon.), /or hor^ long (quanto-) ; tantisper, /er
so long (tanto-) ; semper, always (sim-, whole i comp.
simplex, simiil).
-t6r (i) From adjectives with -0 stems: duriter (also dure), 341
hardly (dtlro-); firmiter (also flrme), firmly (flrmo-);
hvlmaniber, inhumaniter (also humane, inliumane), polite-
ly, impolitely (humano-) ; largiter (also large), lavishly
(largo-); longiter {Lwcr.), far (longo-) ; naviter, ignavi-
ter (also nave, ignave), skilfully, unskilfully (gnavo-);
luculenter (also luculente), brilliantly (for Itlculentiter
from luculento-); pilri-ter (CatulL, but commonly pure),
purely (puro-); turbulenter (also turbulentS), confusedly
(for turbulentiter froni turbiilento-) ; violen-ter, violently
(violento-; the -i stem is not till Augustan time). Also
from pras-Ciceronian writers are quoted: sequiter, ami-
citer, ampliter, aspSriter, avariter, aviditer, blanditer,
iracunditer, msestiter, misgriter, munditer, parciter, prse-
clariter, primiter, prognariter, properlter, protervlter,
sseviter, severiter, superbiter, torviter, and a few others.
Also in Varro, cadiiciter, probiter.
(2) From adjectives with -i stems, and one (supplex)
with consonant stem: acri-ter, eagerly (acri-); ali-ter,
otherwise (ali-, § 373); aman-ter, lovingly (for amanti-
ter); atroci-ter, audac-ter, brSvi-ter, cel6ri-ter, clemen-
ter (for clementi-ter), concordi-ter, constan-ter (for
constanti-ter), cupien-ter (Plaut., Enn.), decen-ter,
demen-ter, diligen-ter, el6gan-ter, felici-ter, ferven-ter
(Cffil. ap. Cic), frequen-ter, gravi-ter. indulgen-ter,
laten-ter, leni-ter, 16vi-ter, mediocri-ter, memori-ter,
^Mith good memory, misericordi-ter, pari-ter, salQbri-ter,
scien-ter, simill-ter, simplici-ter, soUemni-ter, soller-ter
(for sollerti-ter), supplici-ter, tenvi-ter, vemili-ter, vigi-
lan-ter, utUi-ter, and others from stems in -nti, of which
-ti is dropped before the suffix.
(3) From other words: circi-ter, about (circo-) ; in-
ter, between (in) : praeter, beside (prse) ; prop-ter, near
(prSpe) ; sub-ter, beneath (sub).
Chap. XV^ Adverbs a7td Conjunctions. i8i
nequi-ter, badly (nequam). Obiter (not ante-Augustan),
on ths way, is apparently ot) iter (comp. obviam).
-s abs (ab, a),frow; bis, t^uice (cf. § 76); cis, on this side 542
(comp. ci-timus) ; ex, out (ec in compounds, cf. § 113 and
e); raox, presently ; obs (ob), ok, opposite; subs (sub), tinder
(in subs-trabo, &:c.); trans, beyond; uls, beyond (comp.
ul-timus); us-quam, us-piam, anywhere; vix, scarcely.
Dainceps, next, is like particeps, but indeclinable.
siremps (old), alike, according to Ritschl, for si (=.sic)
re ipsa, m being inserted as in rumpo, cumbo.
-as alias, at other times; eras, to-morrow ; fdras, (/o) out of
doors (cf. § mo).
-us mordi-c-us, ivith the teeth (mordfi-, mordere) ; s6c-us, other- 543
wise; tfinus, as far as (subst. ace. s. extent? cf. § 1086);
IpTot&nvLS, immediately. 'Emlmis, from a distance ; comminus,
hand to hand, are probably compounds of manus, hand.
-tus from; same as Greek -Oev (comp. ypa(/)o/x6i^, scribim?«). 544
antiqui-tus, from of old (antique-) ; divini-tus, from
the Gods (divlno-) ; fundi-tus, from the bottom (fundo-) ;
hilmani-tus, after the manner of men (bumano-) ; in-tus,
from within (in) ; p6ni-tus, from the i>2terior (p6no-) ;
primi-tus, at first (prime-) ; publici-tus (Plaut., Ter.
&c.), on the public account (publico-) ; radici-tus, from
the root (radioi-) ; stirpi-tus, from the stock (stirpi-) ;
sub-tus, underneath (sub). From pras- Ciceronian writers
also are quoted, medulli-tus, //-o;« the marrow (medulla);
immortali-tus, 6culi-tus, pugni-tus, and from Varro
communi-tus.
-€s p6nes, in the possession q/'(comp. pgnitus).
-is for -ios, the stem or neuter ace. of the comparative 54s
suffix; e.g. nimis, too much (for nimios-); magis (mag6,
sometimes'), more (for magics-); satis (also sat), etiough.
Fortassis (fortassg), perhaps. Perhaps the same is the
origin of -is in paulis-per, tantis-per, quantis-per, § 540.
FSris, out of doors; imprimis, in the first place; ingra- 546
tis, thanklessly (gratiis); multimodis, many wise; quotan-
nis, yearly, are locatives or ablatives.
-iens post- Augustan -ies; the regular suffix for numeral ad- 547
verbs: tdtiens, so often (tot); qudtiens, how often (quot);
aliquotiens, sometimes; plGriens, o//^« (plils-) ; quinquiens,
five times (quinque) ; sexiens, six times (sex) ; septiens,
se-ven times (septem) ; dgciens, ten times (decem) ; viciens,
twenty times (for vicintiens, cf § 28; from viginti); duo-
detriciens, twenty-eight times; quinquagiens (in Plaut.
Men. 1 161, quinquagensiens), y?/(y times (quinquaginta) ;
centiens, a hundred times (centum) ; quadringentiens,
four hundred times (quadringenti), and others. See App. D.
1 82 Inflexions. [Book II.
CHAPTER XVI.
INFLEXIONS OF VERB. INTRODUCTION.
Latin verbs have inflexions to denote difTerences of voice, 543
person, number, mood, and tense.
1. There are two voices, the Active and the Passive (sometimes
called Reflexive or Middle).
Some verbs have both voices, some have only the active, except
in the third person ; others, called deponents, have only the passive,
but with the signification (apparently) of the active. (Cf. § 1215.)
2. Two fiumbers, the Singular and Plural.
In a few verbs no plural is found.
3. There are three persons (First, Second, Third) in each
number. In the imperative mood there is no form for first person
singular.
A few verbs are used only in the third person.
4. Three 7}joods, Indicative, Subjunctive (often called Con- 549
junctive). Imperative.
5. (a) Six tenses, in the Indicative mood, active voice:
(rt) Three, denoting incomplete action; the Present, Fu-
ture, and Imperfect (sometimes called respectively, present
imperfect, future imperfect, past imperfect).
{b) Three, denoting completed action ; the Perfect,
Completed Future, and Pluperfect (sometimes called re-
spectively, present perfect, future perfect, and past perfect).
(J?) In the Subjunctive mood there are only four distinct tense
forms, called Present, Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect. In the
Imperative there are only the p/esent and future.
Some verbs in the active and all verbs in the passive have in the 55'^
Indicative only three simple tense-forms, those of incomplete action,
and in the Subjunctive only the present and imperfect. The de-
liciency of the tenses of complete action in the Passive voice is
supplied by participles in combination with certain tenses of the
verb of being.
Certain verbal nouns are from their mode of formation and 35,
use usually treated in connexion with the verb. These are
Chap. XF/.]
Inflexions of Verb.
183
{a) Two indeclinable substantives, called hifiniti'ves (or
the Infinitive Mood). They are the Present infinitive,
denoting incomplete action, and the Perfect, denoting com-
pleted action.
{U) Three verbal adjectives, called Participles^ the Pre-
sent and Future belonging to the active voice; the Past
participle belonging to the passive voice.
(c) A verbal substantive and adjective, called the Gerund
and Gerimdi've, usually classed, the first with the active, the
second with the passive voice.
(d) Two siipmes^ i.e. the accusative and ablative (or
dative) of a verbal noun.
The forms of the verb proper are often called collectively the
Finite Verb; the verbal nouns above named are sometimes called
the Infinite Verb.
The following are the usual English equivalents of the several 552
tenses and verbal substantives connected with the verb : (See Book
IV. Ch. XVIII. XX.)
Finite
Verb.
dicati've.
Active.
Deponent.
Passive.
Present. Sing. i.
amo
prficor
amor
I am loving
/ am praying .
lam being loved
or I lo-ve
or Ipray
or / am loved
Future. Sing. I.
amabo
prficabor
amabor
/ stxill lo've
I shall pray
/ shall be loved
3-
amabit
prgcabitur
amabitur
He <will love
He ^will pray
He n.vill be loved
Imperfect.
amabam
precabar
amabar
Sing. I.
/ ^vas loving
/ ivas praying
Iivas being loved
or / loved
or I prayed
or lavas loved
Perfect. Sing. I.
amavi
prgcatus sum
amatus sum
I loved ov I have
I prayed Or /
/ was loved or
loved
have prayed
/ am loved
Comp. Future.
amavgro
prgcatus §ro
amatus 6ro
Sing. I.
/ shall have
/ shall have
/ shall have
loved
prayed
been loved
Sing. 3.
amav6rit
prficatus 6rit
amatus 6rit
He <zvill have
He will have
He ^vill have
loved
prayed
been loved
Pluperfect.
amavgra.m
prScatus firara
amatus §ram
Smg. I.
/ had loved
I had prayed
/ had been laved
i84
Inflexions.
{Book II.
Subjunctive.
Present. Sing. I.
Imperfect.
Perfect.
Pluperfect.
hnperative.
Present. Sing. 2.
Future. Sing. 2.
Infinitive.
Present.
Perfect.
Participles.
Present.
Future.
Past.
Gerund.
Gerundive.
amem
/ b; loving or /
love
amarem
1 nvere loving
or / loved
amavSrim
1 have loved
amavissem
/ had loved
§,ma
love
amato
Thou shalt love
pr6c6r
1 be praying or
I pray
pr6carer
/ 'T.uere praying
or I prayed
prgcatus Sim
/ have prayed
prgcatuB essem
I had prayed
am6r
/ be loved
amarer
/ c^vere being
loved or /
<zvere loved
amatus sim
/ n.vere loved or
I am loved
amatus essem
/ had been loved
orl ivere loved
prficare amare
pray be loved
prgcator amator
Thou shalt pray Thou shalt be
loved
Verbal Nouns.
SS3
Sjnarg
to love
amavlssg
to have loved
amans
loving
amat^rus
going to love
amandum
loving
amaudus
to love or to be
loved
prgcari
to pray
prficatus esse
to have prayed
prgcans
praying
pr6caturus
going to pray
prgcatus
haviyig prayed
prficandum
praying
prgcandus
to pray or to be
prayed
d,mari
to be loved
amatus esse
to have been or
to be loved
amatus
having been or
being loved
Every single word in the Latin (finite) verb is a complete sen- 554
tence, the verbal stem being used, not by itself, but in combination
with abbreviated forms of pronouns of the first, second, and third
persons.
C/iap.XVII.] Inflexions of Person and Numhej'. 185
The principles, on which all verbs are inflected, are the same.
The differences in detail which are found are due, some to the
nature or ending of the stem of the particular verb, some to the
unequal preservation of parts of an originally fuller system of
inflexions.
The inflexions for tense, mood, person, number, and voice are 555
attached to the stem in the order now given. The forms of th?
present tense, indicative mood, singular number, active voice, are
the simplest, and arise from the union of the stem and personal
pronouns. All other parts of the verb contain modifications for
tense, mood, number, and voice; and of these the modifications for
tense and mood are made between the stem and personal pronoun,
and the inflexions for number and voice appended after them.
Thus r6g-6r-e-m-us is the 1st pers. plur. active, imperfect sub-
junctive of a verbal stem meaning rule. R6g is the stem, 6r denotes
past time, e the mood of thought (instead oi fact)., m the speaker
himself, us the action of others with the speaker. And, if for -us
we have -ur, the speaker and others are passive instead of active.
These inflexions will be discussed in regular order, beginning, at
the end of the word, with the most characteristic and universal
inflexions.
CHAPTER XVII.
INFLEXIONS OF PERSON AND NUMBER.
TiiE suffixes, which denote person and number in the active 556
voice, are the same in all tenses of the indicative and subjunctive
moods, except in some persons of the perfect, and in the first person
singular of the present and completed future of the indicative mood.
In the passive voice the inflexions for this purpose are the same
in all tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods, which are ex-
pressed by simple forms. (The tenses denoting completed action
are expressed by compound forms.)
1 86 Inflexions. \Book II.
These suffixes are as follows, the initial vowel being given in 557
the oldest form (cf. § 196) in which, apart from early inscriptions,
it appears in any verbs. For earlier forms, see § 234, and compare
§§570, 581.
Active.
Passive.
Perfect Active.
Singular,
ist person
-om
-or
-CO
2nd ,,
-is
-Sr-is
-(is)ti
3rd ,.
-it
-it--ur
-it
Plural.
ISt „
-flm-us
-im-ur
-im-us
2nd ,,
-it-is
-imini
-(is)t-is
3rd „
-ont
-ont-ur
-(er)unt
The short initial vowel of the suffix (6, u, 6, i) is absorbed 558
by an immediately preceding a, e, or i; except (i) in the ist pers.
sing., if the m is not retained; (2) in the 3rd pers. pi. present, if
-unt follow -i. In a few other verbs (sum, do, fero, volo, edo) some
of these suffixes drop the initial vowel in the present tense.
First Person.
The -m in the ist pei-son singular and plural is the same as is ^59
seen in the oblique cases of the pronoun me.
Singular, -m is dropped (see § 86) in the singular of the pre- 560
sent indicative of all verbs (e.g. reg-o) except two; viz. siun (for
6s-om), I am, andinqua-m, quoth I; also in the completed future of
all verbs, and in the future indicative of all verbs with stems ending
in -a or -e, and of some with stems ending in -i; e.g. amabo,
mdnebo, ibo.
In a- verbs the final a is contracted with the initial of the suf- 561
fix; e.g. am-o for ama-om; do for da-om. Other vowel verbs
retain their characteristic vowel; e.g. trib-u-o, m6ii-e-o, aud-i-o,
cap-i-o. But three 1 verbs change 1 to e; viz. 60 (stem i-), queo
(stem qui-), and its compound nfiqueo. Inquam has apparently
a stem in a, which except in ist sing. pres. passes intoi.
In the perfect indicative the personal suffix has dropped off al- s^?
together. The final i has another origin. (See § 658.)
In the passive voice the only change from the active is the 563
addition of r, if the m has dropped away, or the substitution of
it for m if the m has been retained in the active. This r is generally
considered to be a substitute for s, the proper passive inflexion
being, as is supposed, the reflexive pronoun ^ se.
^ A passive formed by a reflexive pronoun is seen in Germ. Dt7s
versteht sick von selbst ; Y reach. Le co/'ps se trouva ; Ital. Si Icda Vuomo
modesto ('The modest man is praised'); Span. Las agicas se secaroii
('The waters were dried up'). Key, Lat. Gr. § 379.
Chap. XVIJ.'\ htflexions of Person and Number. 187
Plural. The vowel before m is weakened (see § 241) to i in 564
all verbs with stems ending in u, or in 1, or in a consonant, except
in the present indicatives of three verbs; viz. sumus, <^ve are, v61-
umus, and their compounds, and the old form quaesiinius (stem
quaes-), ^ve pray, where we have the older vowel u. da-mus retains
the radical a. With these exceptions the suffix is the same in all
tenses of all verbs, except when the initial vowel is absorbed by a
preceding a, e, or i.
The final -us is the part of the suffix which distinguishes the s^s
plural number. By some it is considered to arise from the pronoun
of the second person, by others from the pronoun of the third
person ; so that ive (-mus) would be expressed by /, thou, or by /,
he; by others again it is considered to be the same as the s, which
is used to mark the plural of nouns.
In the passive the final s is changed to r.
Second Person.
The consonant contained in the suffix of the second person is s 566
in the singular, (changed before another vowel to r in the passive),
and t in the plural. The perfect indicative has t in the singular
also. The personal pronoun of the second person sing, in Latin
(tu), and the Doric dialect of Greek (jv) exhibits this t; in the
Attic dialect of Greek it exhibits s (o-v).
Shigular. In the present tense of fSro, v61o, 6do, the short 567
vowel (i) is omitted or absorbed; hence fers (for feris), vis (for
v61is, vilis, vils), and es (for §dis, eds). es (es Plautus and
Terence, 6s in subsequent poets) is also the and pers. sing, present
indicative of sum.
All a-, e-, and i- verbs have the final syllable long; viz. as, es,
is. (Not so the verbs with i ; e. g. capio, capis.)
In the perfect indicative the suffix for the second pers. sing. 568
ends in -isti, of which ending -ti is the proper personal suffix. (For
the rest of the ending see § 658.)
In the passive -erls (at fii^st sight) appears to be formed by 569
placing the characteristic passive r before the personal suffix ; the
true theory however is no doubt that the passive suffix, with a short
preceding vowel, being placed after the personal suffix caused the s
between two vowels to change to r, necessitating also the change of
the vowel i to e before r. The passive suffix itself (i.e. s for se,
§ 183) was allowed to remain s, instead of being changed to r, as
usually, in order to avoid having two r's close together.
-re (e.g. amatoare, cf § 193. 5. f. 234. 2) is more common than 57°
-ris (e.g. amabaris) in Plautus, and, except in present tense, in Cicero
1 88 Inflexions. \^Book II.
and Vergil. It is frequent in Horace, rare in Livy; and is usually
avoided by all writers where the form would then be the same as
the present infinitive active. Hence -ris is retained in pres. indie,
with rare exceptions in verbs which have an active voice; but in
deponents (where there is no risk of confusion, as the infinitive
ends in i) -re is frequent in Plautus, sometimes found in Cicero;
-ris is usual in Vergil and Horace.
Plural. The plural suffix -itis contains the personal pronoun 571
of the second person (t), and the syllable -is, which is either
a pronoun of the second person in its other form, or a suffix of
plurality.
In the present tense of the four verbs named above (§ 567) the
initial i of the suffix is again omitted: fertis, vultis, estis, for Kritis,
volitis (§ 213 «), fiditis (§ 151. i^^ye eat., and for (originally) esitis,
ye are. So also in da-tis.
In the perfect s is simply suffixed to the singular form.
In the passive voice the suffix -imini is probably a masculine 572
plural participial form. The Greek present passive participle is of
the same form; viz. -6mgn6s, plur. 6m6noi. Originally, perhaps,
estis was used with it, as in the perfect passive. (This form may
have been resorted to because of the unpleasant forms which the
course observed in forming the passive of other persons would have
produced ; e. g. regitis-er, amatis-er would become r6git6r6r, ama-
t6r6r, or, if the analogy of the and pers. sing, were retained, re-
git6ris, amatgris, which would then have come to regetris, amatris
(§ 235. 2), or r^giter, amater (§ 184. 5); both of which foiTns look
more like adjectives or adverbs than verbs.)
Third Person. I
The -t in the suffix of the 3rd person, both singular and plural 573 1
in all tenses, is a demonstrative pronoun, found in the Greek (so- '
called) article, and in iste, tot, talis, tantus, &c.
Singular. In the present tense of sum, 6do, f6ro, v61o, the short 574
vowel before -t is not found; viz. est (both for sum and 6do), fert,
vult, or (older) volt.
The third person sing, active of a-, e-, and i- verbs was origi-
nally long, as may be inferred from the passive voice (amat-ur,
monet-\ir, audit-ur), and is actually found not unfrequently in
Plautus, and som.etimes in Augustan poets.
In the perfect active the suffix is the same as in the present 575
(-it). Plautus sometimes, and more rarely Augustan poets, have
this -it long.
I
Chap.XVIII.\ Inflexions of Mood. 189
To form the passive, -ur is suffixed to the active form.
Plural. The plural suffix is usually -unt, but in prce-Augustan 57(5
inscriptions, in Plautus, and Varro, the older -ont was retained
after v (or u) ; e. g. vivont, confluent, loquontur. The fonns nequi-
nont and sont are also found (for nequeunt, sunt). Of this suffix
the t is probably the same as in the singular; the origin of the n is
uncei'tain.
The passive is formed (as in the singular) by suffixing -ur to
the active form.
The perfect suffix is the same as the present, the ending being 577
er-unt, of which the -er is the same (cf. § 184. 3) as the -is (before
t) of the second person. The peimlt (-er) is usually long, but the
dactyhc poets, beginning with Lucretius (not Ennius) often, and
others occasionally, shorten it; e.g. dormi6runt, locaverunt, subegS-
runt, &c. (Plaut.), emgrunt (Ter.); dedSrunt, fu6runt, exigrunt,
&c. (Lucr.).
For -erunt is rarely found -eront (cf Quint. I. 4. 16); but -ere 578
is found in some of the earliest inscriptions, and is not uncommon
in Plautus and Terence, rare in Cicero and Caesar, but frequent in
dactylic poets and Livy.
In the completed futui-e indie, the suffix-vowel is i instead of 579
u (-erint for -erunt) ; probably in order to avoid confusion with
the perfect.
CHAPTER XVni.
INFLEXIONS OF MOOD.
1. Indicative Mood.
The indicative mood contains no special inflexions to distin- 580
guish it. The imperative and subjunctive moods are distinguished
from it by certain modifications.
2. hnperative Mood.
(rt) Presetit. The imperative present appears to consist of 581
shortened forms of the indicative present. The final s is thrown
off, and -i is changed to -6 (or rather, as the form originally ended
1 90 Inflexions. \Book II.
in -es, the s is simply thrown off, cf. § 234. %). Hence the active
regis (older reggs) becomes r6g6; rggitis (older rgggt^s), regite;
the passive r6g6ris (older rgg6r6s), r6g6r6: the 2nd pers. plural
rggimini is the same as in the indicative. But from verbs with
vowel stems in a-, e-, I- (not i-) the s is thrown off in the singular
without further change ; e. g. ama, mone, audi. The exceptional form
noli is formed from the and pers. sing, of the subjuncti've present.
In the verbs diico, f6ro (and their compounds), facio (with 5S2
compounds which retain the radical a), and dico, the final e of the
singular was always dropped after Terence's time; e.g. dQc, f6r,
fac, calefac, die. In Plautus and other poets the imperatives often
occur before words beginning with a vowel, in which case it is
difficult to decide between due and duce ; &c.
es or 6s (from sum, cf. § 720), es from gdo were used for the
imperative 2nd pers. sing, as well as for the indicative.
In verbs with short penult, and having vowel stems in a-, e-, i-, 5S3
and also in the compounds of eo, the imperative-forms in Plautus
and Terence often shortened the final vowel (cf § 295); e.g. com-
moda, m6n6, jiibg, adi, atoi; especially in colloquial forms; e.g.
manddum, tacedum, mSnesis, vidgsis.
{ps Future. The future imperative active is distinguished by 584
a suffix, originally -od^. In the form which is common to the
second and third persons, e. g. reg-it-6, and the form for the third
person plural, e.g. regunto, the -d has fallen off, as in the ablative
case of nouns (cf § 160. 6). The suffix appears to have been
simply added to the present indicative forms of the third person
singular and plural. (The use of this form for the second person
singular was probably due to -t being a characteristic of the second
personal pronoun.) The plural second person is formed by ap-
pending -e (for -es, later -is) as the sign of plurality in this per-
son to a modified form of the singular; e.g. reg-it-6t-e (for r6g-
it-6d-e). Others (e.g. Schleicher) consider the -tote to be simply
the demonstrative pronoun doubled (as in the Vedic Sanskrit -tat).
The passive forms substitute -r for the final -d; e.g. regit-or 535
for r6git-od ; regunt-or for r6gunt-od.
The form in -to (for t-od) was apparently at one time also used 586
as passive; e.g. censento, initianto, in pras- Augustan inscriptions;
and from deponents; e.g. arbitranto, partiunto, utunto, &c., some
of which verbs however had once an active voice, of which these
forms may be relics.
^ A few instances only are actually found in Latin ; viz. Festus,
p. 230^. 14, 'Si nurus... sacra divis parentum estod ' ; several in two
Inscr. ap. Bruns Fontcs, p. 45, ed. 4. e.g. Sei quis scions violavit dolo
malo lovei bovid piaclum datod et a[ssesj ccc moltai suntod. The Oscan
also had this d ; e. g. estud, licitud.
Chap. XVI 11^ Inflexions of Mood. 191
In Plautus, Cato, and old inscriptions, a form in -mino is 5S7
(rarely) found for the 2nd and 3rd pers. sing, of the imperative of
deponents; e.g. profite-mino, prsefa-mino, progredi-mino, fru-i-mino.
One instance of a passive verb denuntiamino is found. This old
form is formed just like the 2nd pers. plur. indicative in -mini.
3. Siibjunct'i've Mood.
The subjunctive is characterised by a lengthened vowel imme- 5S8
diately before the consonant of the personal suffix.
Present. This vowel is a in the present tense of all verbs, ex-
cept verbs with a- stems, in which it is e ; e. g. reg-a-mus, regamur ;
moneamus, moneamur; audiamus, audiamur; tribuamus, tribua-
mur; but amemus, amemur. Except also some in which it is i;
viz. Sim, sis, &c. from sum; velim, velis, &c. from volo; and the
compounds of both ; e. g. possun, absim, &:c. nolim, malim.
So also (besides the more usual forms) edlm, edis, edit, edimus, sSy
editis, edint (Plaut. esp. in phrase ' habeo quod edim,' Cat., Hor.);
comedim, comedis, comedint (Plaut.), exedint (Plaut.); also from
duo (an old form of do?i), duim, duis, duit, duint (Plaut., Ten,
and old law language); interduim (Plaut.); perduim, perduis, per-
duit, perduint (Plaut., Ten, chiefly in phrase ' Di te perduint,'
which is also used by Cicero); creduis, creduit (Plaut., who has
also forms from this verb with the more regular a ; e. g. duas, cre-
duas, creduant, accreduas. Cf. fuat, § 722).
Sum and its compounds had an older form siem, sies (see 590
§ 722), from which sim, sis, &c. are contracted. The -es, -et
is perhaps only the older form of the personal suffix -is, -it. (But
comp. Gn el'j^j/, Sansk. sydm.)
Imperfect and Pluperfect. The long vowel in these tenses is e in 591
all verbs; e.g. rexissemus, amavissemus, &c.
Perfect. The vowel (assumed to have been originally long) is i, 392
which however, probably from confusion with the completed future,
is in dactylic poets as often short as long. The pertinent instances
are as follows :
Perf subj. -6ri- dederitis (Enn.); fueris (Hor. in hexam.);
respueris (Tib.) ; dederis, credideris, contu-
leris (Ovid).
^ The forms interduo, PI. Capt. 694, concreduo, Id. Anl. 577, are
used apparently as completed futures ind.; concredui in PI. Cas. 2. 8. 43,
as a perfect indie. In Phn. H. N. 21. 3. 5, is duitur (comp. fut. pass.?),
for which duitor (imper. pass.) is usually read. See Neue 11. 339;
Scholl, Leg. XII. tab. reliq. p. 82.
192 Inflexions. \Book IT.
-6ri- egeiimus, respexeris (Verg.), dixeris (Hor.
in hexam.).
Comp. Fut. Ind. -6ri- dederitis, transieritis, contigeritis (Ovid'*,
fecerimus (Catull. in a hendecasyllable),
dederis, occideris, miscueris, audieris (Hor.
in hexam.), dederis (Prop., Ov. several
times).
-6ri- viderimus (Lucr.) ; videritis, dixeritis
(Ovid); suspexeris, revocaveris (Verg.);
vitaveris, detorseris, acceperis, coeperis
(Hor. in hexam.).
In Plautus and Terence there appears to be no instance incom-
patible with the rule of i for perf. subj., i for compl. fut. indie.
(See Neue 11. 196.)
The forms for the subjunctive appear best explicable by as- 593
suming the proper suffix to be i (seen in the Greek optative), which
was contracted with a preceding a to e. Thus amas, ama-i-s, ames ;
amara-s (an assumed indicative, see below, § 610), amara-i-s,
amares; amavissa-s (an assumed indie), amavissa-i-s, amavlsses
(or esses for esa-i-s may be supposed to have been suffixed at
once). But as 1 suffixed to the present indicative of other vowel
verbs than those with a stems would have given still the same form
when contracted, an a (seen in the Greek subjunctive) was sub-
stituted in all such cases. The consonant verbs eventually followed
this analogy, the forms in i (§§ 588, 589) being either sporadically
used or (if originally used) only sporadically retained. Sis and veils,
&c. retain the I, because they have other points of difference from
the indicative.
CHAPTER XIX.
CLASSIFICATION OF INFLEXIONS OF TENSE.
The inflexions of tense are divLsible into two classes; viz. those 59+
which are common to several tenses or forms, and those which are
peculiar to the particular tense.
The inflexions common to several tenses or forms may be r?-
ferred to three forms of the verbal stem, called the Present stem,
the Perfect stem, and the Supine stem.
Chap. XIX?^ Inflexions of Tense. 193
1. The present stem is very often identical with the verbal 595
stem, but not unfrequently is more or less modified. From this
present stem are formed all the tenses and verbal forms which
express incomplete action ; viz. both in Active and Passive voice, —
Indicative. Present, Future, Imperfect.
Imperative. Present, Future.
Subjunctive. Present, Imperfect.
Also the following verbal forms :
Present Infinitive ;
Present Participle, (none in Passive) ;
Gerunds and Gerundive.
2. ThQ perfect stem is sometimes identical with the verb-stem 596
and with the present stem, but usually is considerably modified.
From this perfect stem are formed all the tenses denoting com-
pleted action ; viz. in the Active voice, —
Indicative. Perfect, Completed Future, Pluperfect.
Subjunctive. Perfect, Pluperfect.
Also the perfect Infinitive.
3. The supine stem is always a modification of the verbal stem, 597
and from it are formed certain verbal nouns, of which the forms
called the supines, and the passive past participle, and future parti-
ciple active are generally treated in connection with the verb.
The past participle passive is used with certain tenses of the
verb of being, to form the perfect, pluperfect and future indicative,
and the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive of the passive voice.
In accordance with the order of discussion which has been thus
far followed, the inflexions of the derivative tenses, being nearer to
the end of the word (§ sss)^ will be discussed before the formation,
of the stem to which they are appended.
13
194 Inflexions. \Book II.
CHAPTER XX.
TENSES FORMED FROM THE PRESENT STEM.
Present. The present indicative is formed simply by suffixing sqS
the inflexions of number and person. The present subjunctive has
the mood inflexion as well.
Future. The future indicative is in consonant, in i- verbs and 599
in u- verbs a modified form of the present subjunctive. The first
person singular is the same: the other persons have long e where
the present subjunctive has a; e.g. fut. reges, reget; pres. subj.
regas, regat. In the 3rd pers. sing. act. the final syllable was short
in the ordinary language (§ 152. 7).
Cato the Censor is said (Quint, i. 7. 23) to have written dice, facie, 600
for dicam, faciam, and so in other verbs. Probably this statement
refers only to the future indie, not to the present subjunctive.
This e probably arises fi-om suffixing i (compare the Greek 601
optative) to the present subjunctive of these verbs; e.g. reg-a-mus.
reg-a-i-mus, rege-mus; just as amemus, pres. subj. was formed
(§ 593)- But this formation would not do for a- and e- verbs;
because in a- verbs such a form (e.g. amemus) is already used for
the pres. subj.; and in e- verbs, it (e.g. monemus) would be iden-
tical with the present indicative.
Accordingly in a- and e- verbs there is a different mode of 602
forming the future indicative ; viz. by suffixing ib- to the present
stem, with the final vowel of which it is contracted; e.g. ama-,
ama-ib-, amab-; istpers. plu. amab-imus, mon-e, mone-ib-, moneb-;
I St pers. plur. monebimus.
A similar future (besides the ordinary form in -am, -es, -at), is 603
not unfrequently formed from i- stems in early writers (Plautus,
Terence, &c.); e.g. aperibo, adgredibor (comp. adgredirifor adgredi),
largibere, opperibor, sclbo, &c. But of these forms none are found
so late as the first century b. c, except ibo, quibo, nequibo, which
are the only forms in use at any time (with a few doubtful excep-
tions). Lenibo is also found in Propertius. Veniet (from ven-eo)
for venibit is found however in the lex Thoria (642 A.U.C.), and
in Gaius; exiet in Seneca.
I
Chap. XX?\ Tenses formed from the Present Stem.. 195
The verb do has a short penultimate dabo. Its compound reddo 604
(which usually has reddam), has reddibo (i.e. red dabo) in Plaut. •
who has also exxigebo, as if from an e- stem exuge-.
The verb sum and compounds have apparently merely a different 605
form of the present for tlie future ; viz. 6r-o, ist pers. plur. er-imus
(compare pres. sumus for 6s-um-us). Most philologers consider
ero, Sec. to be for esio, the i being similar to that of the present
subj.
Imperfect. The imperfect indicative has in all stems a long a 606
(except in 3rd sing. act. §§ 152. 7. 574) preceding the personal in-
flexions, and in all_ stems but one (that of 6s-, be) b prefixed to this
long a. Moreover in all stems but da- the vowel preceding ba is
long.
The long a, which is always found, serves to distinguish the
imperfect from the future where the forms are otherwise similar;
e.g. amabamus (for amabaimus), amabimus; monebamus, monebi-
mus; ibamus, ibimus; dabamus, dablmus; 6ramus, driinus. It is
apparently a sign of past time, and as such is found in the pluper-
fect also.
In consonant stems the suffix is -5ba-, and this is usually found 607
also in verbs with i stems; e.g. reg-eba-mus, audi-eba-mus. But
this long e is not found in eo, queo, and their compounds, and
is not unfrequently absent in the earlier language (Plautus, Ter.,
Varr., &c.); e.g. scibam, nescibam, aibam, &c., gestibat, grundi-
bat, insanibat, moUibat, prsesagibat, servlbas, stabilibat, venibat.
So also, apparently for metrical reasons, in the dactylic poets
(Catull., Lucr., Verg., Ovid, Sil., Stat.); e.g. audibant, lenibat,
sjevibat, redimibat, molibar, feribant, &c.
Probably the suffix was originally the same as the future suffix 6 iss
of a- and e- verbs with a added, i. e. -ib-a-. The form -eba-, seen
in consonant and most i- verbs, is difficult to explain. It is gene-
rally supposed to have been erroneously borrowed from the
e- stems.
Imperfect suhjuncti-ve. This tense had the suffix -6r (for 6s). 6oj
which with the modal suffix e made -6re. The first vowel coalesced
with a preceding a, e, ori; e.g. reg-6r-emus, tribu-6r-emus, am-
ar-emus, mon-er-em-us, aud-ir-emus, and caused the omission of a
preceding i ; e.g. capi-, capgrem.
In sum, 6do, volo, fero, and their compounds, the vowel 6 was
dropped out; e.g. ist pers. plur. es-sem-us (for M-es-emus); vel-
lem-us (for v61-er-em-us) ; fer-rem-us (for f6r-6r-em-us). Do has
daremus. Sum (as well as 6do) has essemus.
Essem (from sum) is formed from the imperfect indicative with 610
the subjunctival suffix i (§§ 588, 589). Thus 6sa-i-m becomes
13—2
196 Inflexions. {Book 11.
esem, the first syllable being lengthened by a double s as a compen-
satory result of the contraction. The imperfect of sum in a some-
what different form appears to have been used to form the imperfect
subj. of regular verbs: e.g. reg- with the imperfect indie, of sum is
reg-eram : hence reg-era-i-m, regerem.
The imperati've tense suffixes have been already discussed
C§§ 581-586).
The present infimU've active has the suffix -6rg (for -6se, §§ 183, 611
193. 3), in which the first e coalesces with a preceding a, e, or i;
e.g. reg-6re, tribu-6re; amare, mon-ere, aud-Ire. CapSre as cap-
erem, § 609.
In sum, edo, v61o, fSro, and their compounds, the first vowel e 612
was dropped out, as in the imperfect subj. Hence the infinitives
pre esse (for edese), velle (for volere), ferre (for ferere). The in-
finitive is generally considered to be the dative or locative case of a
verbal noun with stem ending in s- or si-; e.g. dicer-e for daikas-ai,
viver-e compared with Sanskrit jivas-ai. The final e ( = ai) would
be originally long.
The present infinitive passive has the suffix i appended to the 613
stem in verbs, whose stem ends in a consonant or in i or in u; e.g.
reg-i, tribu-i, cap-i (but fieri from stem fl-; ferri from fer-). In
other vowel verbs i takes the place of the final e of the active in-
finitive; e.g. aud-ir-i, mon-er-i, am-ar-i. So also da-ri from do.
A further suffix -6r is found appended to these forms (e.g. figier, 614
amarier, &c.), in old legal inscriptions (not after the S. C. de
repetundis, 631 u. c); and frequently in Plautus, Terence, Lucre-
tius, Cicero (in poetry), and not uncommonly in Vergil and Horace,
only occasionally in later poets. But the shorter form is more
common even in the first named poets. In inscriptions it occurs
first in the 5. C. de repetundis (darei, beside abducier, avocarier).
The forms in -ier (-arier, -erier, -irier) are probably the original 615
forms, and arose by the addition of the ordinary passive suffix r in
the foi-m -6r to the active infinitive, whose final e took the form of
i before er. The final r was then dropped on account of its ill
sound after another r (§ 185), and ie contracted to i. Thus
amare- er, amari-er, amari.
If the same course had been followed in consonant, and in -1
verbs, then owing to the penultimate vowel of the active infinitive
being short (e.g. duc6re), the syllable gr would have recurred (e.g.
ducerier). The Romans therefore preferred to omit the first
(§ 28); i.e. to append -ier immediately to the final consonant of
the stem; (e.g. duc-ier, capier). The only instance of the reten-
tion of at least some part of the first er is in fer-rier for fererier.
Analogy afterwards reduced ducier, &c. to duci.
Chap. XX?[ Tenses formed fro7n the Present Stem. 197
Present Participle. The suffix is -enti, nom. sing, -ens; e.g. O16
reg-ens, tribu-ens, audi-ens. But in the verb eo and its compounds,
an older form of the suffix, viz. -unti, is retained; but the nom.
sing, is usually -iens. The form nequeuntes (from nequeo) occurs
once.
In -a and -e verbs the suffix coalesces with the final stem vowel;
e.g. amans, monens.
Gerimd and Gerundi-ve. The suffix is -endo-, Avhich as a sub- Ci?
stantive is called a gerund, as an adjective, gerundive; e.g. reg-
endum, tribuendum, audiendum; amandum, monendum.
An older form in -undo (probably for an earlier -ondo), is com- 6iS
mon in inscriptions to the end of the 7th century, u.c. ; in Plautus,
Terence, and Sallust; and, after i, and in the words gerundus and
ferundus, fi-equently in the MSS. of Csesar, Cicero, and Livy.
Some law phrases always (or at least usually), retained the form;
e.g. rerum repetundarum ; familise erciscundaa, finitous regundis, de
jure dicundo. But after u or v the suffix is found only in the form
-endo (cf. § 213. 4. a. c).
Old Futures in -so, -sim ^.
In the older language, of Plautus and ancient laws and formu- 619
laries, a future indicative in -so (-sso), subjunctive in -sim (-ssim),
infinitive in -s6re (-ss§re), and pass, indie, in -situr (-ssitur) is
found. Instances of the indicative and subjunctive active of this
formation are very frequent. (In some instances it is not clear to
which mood the word belongs.)
I. From verbs ^vith -a stems: amasso (ind.), amassis, amas-
Eint (subj.), appellassis (subj.), celassis (subj.), coenassit (ind.),
occoeptassit (ind.), reconciliasso (ind.), creassit (subj.), curassis,
curassint (subj.), accurassis (ind.), decollassit (ind.), indicasso
(ind.), indicassis (subj.), invitassitis (ind.), exoculassltis (ind.),
fortunassint (subj.), irritassis (ind.), locassim (subj.), locassint
(ind.), mactassint (subj.), mulcassitis (ind.), servassit, servassint
(subj.), peccasso, peccassiS; peccassit (ind.), and many others.
Passive: turtoassitur (ap. Cic), mercassitur (Lex. Thor.).
Infin. Act.: averruncassere (Pacuv.), reconciliassere, impetrassere
(four times), oppugnassere (Plant.), depoculassere (or depeculassere),
deargentassere, depeculassere (or despeculassere) (Lucil.).
^ The fullest discussions of tliese forms are by Madvig (Opusc. IT.
p. 64 foil.), Liibbert {Gram. Stud. Breslau, 1867), and Neue (ll.
+21 sciq.).
iqS Inflexions. \^Book II.
2. From verbs <witb -e stems, preserving the vowel: habessit
(subj.), prohibessis, proMbessit (subj.), proMbessit, proMbessmt
(ind.), coMbessit (subj., Lucr. 3. 444), licessit (subj.).
3. From verbs ^uith -i stems : ambissit, ambissint (PI. Amph.
69. 71. ex conj.).
4. In verbs 'n.vhh consonant or -i stems, and some ivtth -e 620
stems, the -so, -sim is attached immediately to the final stem con-
sonant :
(a) -e stems: ausim (subj.), noxit (subj.), sponsis (subj.),
auxitis (subj.), jusso, jussis, jussit (ind.), jussim (subj.).
Also passive jussitur (Cat.).
(I?) -I stems: faxo (ind.), faxis, faxit (ind. subj.), faxim, faxi-
mus (subj.), faxitis (ind. subj.) frequently, faxint (subj.), eflfexis,
defexis (ind.), capsis (ind.), capsit (subj.), capsimus (ind.); ac-
cepso, occepso, recepso (ind.) ; incepsit, occepsit ; injexit (ind.),
objexim, objexis (subj.); adspexit (subj.), respexis (ind.); rapsit
(ind.), surrepsit (subj.); excussit (subj.).
Passive: faxitur (ap. Liv.); and perhaps nanxitur (Fest.).
(c) Consonant stems: axim, adaxint (subj.), transaxim, axit;
incensit; excessis (subj.); clepsit (ind.); occisit (ind.); dlxis (subj.),
induxis, addiixit (subj.); comessis (subj.); afflixint (subj.); amissis
(ind. subj.); empsim (subj.), adempsit (ind.), surrempsit; parsis
(subj.); rupsit (ind.); serpsit; exstinxit (subj.); taxis (subj.);
adussit (ind.).
Of all these forms faxo, faxis, ausim, ausis, almost alone are 621
found after the time of Terence, who himself has only excessis,
appellassis besides. But the following other instances occur: coM-
bessit (Lucr.); the phrase, di faxint (Cic); recepso (Catull.); a
few infinitives in Lucil.; jusso (Verg., Sil.); and one or two in-
stances in the antiquarians Varro and Fronto. The style of the
laws, Sec. in Livy and Cicero does not of course belong to the age
of their (real or feigned) recorders.
These forms are apparently to be explained as a future indica- 622
five, subjunctive, and infinitive, formed by the suffix s as in the
Greek future to the stem, a short 1 or sometimes e of the stem
being omitted; e.g. leva-, levaso; prohibe-, proMbeso; sponde-,
spond-so, sponso; faci, fac-so; die-, dixo. The double s in the
forms from a- and (a few) e- verbs is either a mode of marking
the place of the accent, or due to a mistaken etymology, as if the
form were analogous to amasse from amavisse, &c. Possibly both
causes may have combined. Moreover a single s between two
vowels was in the prie-Augustan language rare (cf. § 191, 193).
C/iap.XX.'] Tenses formed from the Present Stem. 199
The subjunctive is formed by the regular suffix i; the infinitive by
-gre, as in the present infinitive.
The use of these forms is analogous to that of the forms in 62^
-ero, -erim, but is confined to those classes of sentences in which
those forms differ least from a future indicative, or present subjunc-
tive; viz. (i) the indicative in the protasis (not the apodosis) of
a sentence ; (except faxo, which might be either a simple or com-
pleted future): (2) the subjunctive in modest affirmations, wishes,
prohibitions, purpose, and in dependent sentences for the future,
never for the perfect indicative (as the form in -erim frequently
is). In all these classes the English language ordinarily uses an
incomplete tense (present or future). The infinitives in -sere might
be taken as either simple or completed futures.
(The ordinary explanation of these forms, viz. that e.g. levasso C24
is for leva-v-eso ( = levavero) has much in its favour ; but it meets
with great difficulties^ in such forms as cap-so, rap-so, proMbesso,
&c.; and it does not really account for the double s. For levaveso
would become leva-eso, levaso, levaro ; or if it became levav-so,
as is assumed, it would be contracted into levauso or levuso (le-
vauro, leviiro) not levasso. . Comp. § 94.)
The verbs arcesso, capesso, facesso, lacesso, are probably (Key, 625
Lat. Gr. p. 88) similar formations from arcio (i.e. adoio), capio,
facio, lacio, and have been treated as verb stems, and thus received
new inflexions of tense and mood. Incesso is probably from in-
cedo ; petesso from peto (pet- or peti-) is also found.
^ Not removed, I think, either by G. Hermann {Dissertatio de Mad-
vigii interpretatione, Lips. 1844), or Curtius {deverbi latini fut. exact.,
Dresden, 1844); or Key {Lat. Gr. § 566, 1209 f.); or Schleicher {Vergl.
Gr. p. 830, ed. 2) ; or Liibbert {ubi supr.). My view agrees partly with
Madvig's (p. 64, 65), and partly with Corssen's {Ausspr. II. 37 sq. ed. i.
See also l. 31Q, ed. 2). A somewhat different view is given by Merguet
(Die Entwickdimg dcr Lat. Fonnenbildung, 1870, p. 224). Pott deci-
dedly rejects the view that these forms are from the perfect, not the
present, stem [Etytn. Forsch. II. Th. 4 (1870), pp. 269, 272).
[Gossrau {Lat. Gr. § 174, Aftm. i) derives these forms from a perfect
in -si. Nettleship (.^c^i/t'OT/, 15 July, 187 1) has taken (independently)
a similar view to mine].
200 Inflexions. \Book II.
CHAPTER XXL
OF VERB STEMS, ESPECIALLY THE PRESENT STEM.
A VERB often exhibits a different stem in the present tense from 626
that which appears to be presumed in the perfect or in the supine.
The changes, which belong strictly to the formation of the perfect
or supine themselves, or follow from that formation according to
the laws of Roman pronunciation, will be found in Chapters xxiii.
XXIV.
Verbs may be divided into consonant verbs and vowel verbs
according as the present stem ends in a consonant or in a vowel.
(In the following enumeration the different instances will be
classified according to the last letter of the verb stem; and some-
times the perfect and supine added in illustration.)
i. Consonant verbs.
1. Most consonant verbs exhibit in the present stem no altera- 627
tion of the regular stem of the verb; e.g. reg-, reg-o; C3ed-, C38d-o,
&c.
2. Other consonant verbs exhibit such alteration ;
{a) The stem is reduplicated to form the present tense; e.g. 62S
g6n- (geno old form), gigno for gi-g6no (gen-ui, gSn-itum) ; sta-,
sisto (steti, statum); sa-, s6ro for s6so (sevi, satum).
(Jj) The radical "vo^juel is lengthened; e. g. 6:9
due-, dflco; die-, (cf. die-are, causidic-us), dico; fid-, fido; nub-
(cf. pronGbus), nabo. (Probably Key is right in supposing the
radical vowel to be always short, and a long vowel (e.g. scribo,
ludo, &c.) to be due to the formation of the present stem).
(c) n is suffixed to the stem of the verb ; e. g. to stems end- 630
ing in
M. tem-, tem-no.
R. cer-, cer-no; spar-, sper-no; star-, ster-no. In these verbs
the perfect and supine have the r transposed ; cr^-, spre-, stra-.
Chap. XX/.] Of the Present Stetn. 201
A. da-, da-no (old form of do). 631
I. 11-, ll-no ; qui ; si-, si-no ; and its compound pono for pSsino
(old perf. posivi, sup. pdsitum).
So apparently frilniscor from frugv-, fruor. Conquin-isco (con-
quexi) may be for conquic-n-isc-o, or may have vowel stem conqiii-
n-isc-o and belong here; see § 6t,s.
Festus quotes from Liv. Andr. nequinont (apparently nequinont)
for nequeunt; from Ennius prodinunt, redinunt for prodeunt, re-
deunt : he also speaks of obinunt for obeunt, of explenont for
explent, and of ferinunt, solinunt for feriunt, solent.
{cl) A nasal is inserted before the final stem consonant ; e. g. to 632
stems ending in
P or B. cub-, cumbo (also cuba-) ; rup-, rumpo.
C or QV. liqv-, linqvo ; vie-, vinco ; na,c-, nanc-isc-or (nactus or
nanctus).
G. frag-, frango; pag-, pango (old pago); pug-, pungo (in the
compounds the stem contains n in all tenses); rig-, rlngor; tag-,
tango (old tago). In some verbs the nasal is retained in the per-
fect and dropped only in the supine stem : fig-, fingo (finxi, fictum) ;
mig-, mingo (minxi, mictum, also minctum); pig-, pingo (pinxi,
pictum); strig-, stringo (strinxi, strictum). In other verbs the
nasal is constant in the verb stem; e.g. jungo, junxi, junctum (from
jiig-, comp. jiiguni). So ninguit from nigv- (nix).
D. fid-, findo (fidl, fissum) ; fud-, fundo (fudi, fQsum); scid-,
scindo (scidi, scissum); tM-, tundo (tMudi, tQsum, or tunsum).
Perhaps also frendo (frendi, fresum) may have fred- for stem (but
cf. § 168. 3).
In metior, mensus (properly a vowel verb) the n appears to 633
have been dropped in the present stem.
In piso, a collateral form of pinso, the n is dropped in present
and supine stems.
(e) sc- (isc) is suffixed to verbal stems, especially to vowel stems 634
in -e, and gives often the special meaning of beginning or becoming.
This inchoatiue form sometimes exists alone, sometimes is used be-
sides the ordinary stem, sometimes is found in a compound, but
not in the simple verb. The perfect and supine, if any, are the
same as those of the ordinary stem (real or assumed). A very
few stems carry the suffix -sc- throughout all the tenses.
To Consonant stems: al- (alSre), al-esc-ere; die-, di-sc-Sra (for 635
dic-sc-ere), didici; frun-, frun-isc-i (frunitum); gem- (gemere),
ingem-isc-ere (ingSmui); here- (or ere-), herc-isc-ere (herctum);
man- (perf. mSmini), commin-isc-i (commentum); pae-, pac-isc-i '
(pactum) ; pas-, pase-6re (for pas-se-ere, comp. Trar-e'o/xaO ; trem-
CtremSre), contr6m-isc-ere (contrgmui); perg- (pergere\ experg-
202 Inflexions. \Book IT.
isc-i (experreotum) ; v6d- (comp, 6d6re), ve-sc-i (for ved-sc-i);
vigv- (vivere), reviv-isc-Sre (revixi) ; ulc-, ulc-isc-i (ultum). For
escit, see § 72a.
Poscgre (pdposci); compesc-ere (compescui; comp. pasco) re-
tain sc throughout; miscere (for mig-sc-ere ; comp. yniy-j/D/xt) appears
to contain the same suffix, but with an -e stem.
So perhaps conciumiscere, conquexi (see § 672).
To Vcnvel stems: A. ira-, ira-sc-i (iratum) ; laba-, laba-sc-ere 636
(also labare) ; na-, na-sc-i (natum) ; vespera-, vespera-sc-gre (ves-
peraverat, Gell.) ; Vetera- (inveterare, tran.), vetera-sc-ere, also
invetera-sc-gre (intrans., inveterav-, tran. and intran.).
0. no-, no-sc-Sre (novi).
E. acg- (acere), ac3-sc-6re (acui), and many others from -e 637
stems, with perfect in -ui; see §§ 677 — 680.
segre- (aegrere, I'are), £egre-sc-Sre ; albe- (albere, rare), albesc6re;
arde- (ardere), exarde-sc-6re (exarsi); auge- (augere), auge-sc-6re
(intrans.); calve- (calvere rare), calve-sc-6re ; cane- (canere),
cane-sc-ere; fronde- (frondere), fronde-sc-6re ; refrige-, refrigescfere
(refrixi); flav6- (flavere), flave-sc-6re; liserS- (hssrere), inisere-sc-
6re (inlisesi); li6be- (habere), hebe-sc-gre ; hilme- (bvlmere), tiune-
sc-6re; lacte- (lactere), lacte-sc-ere ; live- (Uvere, rare), live-sc-
6re(rare); luce- (lucere), illuce-sc-gre (illuxit); mace- (macere,
rare), mace-sc-ere; muce- (mucere), muce-sc-ere ; splende- (splend-
ere), splende-sc-ere ; turge- (tnrgere), turge-sc-6re.
ere-, cre-sc-6re (crevi); quie-, quie-sc-ere (quievi); sue-,
sue-sc-6re, mansuescere, &c. (suevi).
1. dormi- (dormire), obdonni-sc-6re (obdormivi); oblivl- (comp. 638
livGre, intrans.), oblivi-sc-i; sci- (scire), sci-sc-ere (scivi).
api-sc-i (aptum) ; cixpi- (cup6re), concupi-sc-§re (concupivi) ;
fati- (?), fati-sc-ere and fati-sc-i (fessum); faci- (facere), profici-
sc-i (profectum) ; gli-, gli-sc-gre; hi- (comp. M-are), M-sc-Sre;
nanci- (nanciam, old fut.), nanci-sc-i (nactum); sapi- (sapSre),
resipi-sc-ere (resipui and rSsipivi).
For a number of inchoatives formed directly from noun stems
see in Book III. (§ 978).
(/ i) The guttural is omitted in some stems which probably C39
ended in -gv; e.g. conigv-, coniveo (conivi or conixi); flugv-. Quo
(fluxi, adj. fluxus, subst. fluctus); frugv-, fruor (fructus); strugv-,
struo (struxi, structum); vlgv-, vivo (vixi, victum).
Of these coniveo properly belongs to the vowel verbs.
(/.a) Other stems vary between -gv and -g; e.g. stingvo, stingo; 640
tingvo, tingo; ungvo, ungo; ningvit, ningit. Similarly urgveo, urgeo.
Chap. XXI?^ Of the Present Stem. 203
(_§■) In tralio (traxi, tractum), vSho (vexi, vectum), the li re- 641
presents a fricative guttural, which becomes paiiially assimilated in
the perfect and supine, and is weakened in the present.
(JS) s is changed, between vowels (according to the general 642
law, § 193. 3), tor; e.g. ges-, gSro (gessi, gestum); haus-, haurio
(hausi, haustum); hses-, hssreo (hsesi, liaesum); quaes-, qusero
(qussivi, quaesitum) ; qu6s-, qu6ror (questus); Qs-, uro (ussi,
ustum).
O f these haurio, liaereo properly belong to the vowel verbs.
(i) A few verbs have 11 in present stem, but not in perfect; 643
the supine appears however to show the effect of 11 (cf. § 705).
c61-(?), percello (perculi, percxilsum); pol- (?), pello (pepuli,
pulsum) ; tol-, tollo (tetull) ; vello retains n in perfect (velli, vul-
sum) ; sallo, salt., is a byform of salio (salsum).
ii. Vowel verbs.
1. Ferhs ivith stems ending in a: 644
(«) Most of these verbs have the stem ending in a-, and pre-
sence it in all tenses; e.g.
Fla-, flare, (flavi, flatum) ; fa-, fari, (fatus) ; in which a is
radical. In na-, nare (navi, natum), the a is constant, but the
derivative nato shows that a is radical. In stra-, sternere (stravi,
stratimi) ; tla-, tollgre (tetull, latiun for tlatum) ; the present-stem
is consonantal.
Derivative verbs with a- stems are very numerous; e.g. ama-,
amare; crea-, creare; nuntia-, nuntiare; leva-, levaie, <S:c. ; all
have perfects in -avl, atum.
(i) Ferbs ^Mith stems ending in a- ; e. g. 645
da-, dare, (d6di, datum), but das has a.
In all other verbs of this class, the final a- combines with the
initial vowel of the suffixes in tenses formed from the present stem,
so as to exhibit a ; e. g.
Sta-, stare (st6ti, statum, but sometimes statum) where a is
radical, cr^pa-, crepare; cuba-, cubare; doma-, domare; frica-,
fricare; mica-, micare; eii6ca-, enecare, (but neca- usually in simple
verb); -plica- and -plica- (cf §§ 677, 688), plicare; seca-, secare;
sona-, sonare (also son6re); tona-, tonare; v6ta-, vetare; all which
have perfects in -ul, and most of them usually supines in -itum.
204 Inflexions. \Book II.
Also lava-, lavare (and lavgre); juva-, juvare ; which vocahse
and contract the radical v with -ui of the perfect; and contract or
omit it in the supine (cf. §§ 669, 688).
(c) In some verbs derivative stems in a are found besides other 646
derivative stems in e or i ; e. g.
Artare, old artire; toiillare, later bullire; densare, old densere;
fulgurare, old fulgurire ; impetraxe, Impetrire, especially in sacrificial
language; singultare, old singultire; tmtmnare, tintinnire.
2. Of 'verbs nxjith stems ending in 0, the only traces are no-, 647
which has the inchoative suffix in the present tense, noscSre (novl,
notum), where the root has 6, comp. nota (subst.), notare, cogni-
tum, (Sec; p6- (potum), the frequentative pota-, potare being other-
wise alone in use.
3. Verbs r^vith stems ending in u:
(rt) Most have stems in u, which however becomes short 64S
before the initial vowel of the suffixes; e.g. acu-, acuere, acuis,
acMsti, aciias, acuebam, acuerem, &c. The supine has u. (See list
in § 690.)
Plu- is apparently contracted for pluv- (plov-), (cf. § 684).
And the same may be the case with all : comp. fluo, fluv-ius.
(b) ruo has ru- in supine of compounds (but rQta (n. pi.)
according to Varro: see § 691). pu- is found only in adj. putus
and frequentative putare.
(c) A few verbs have u vocal in supine, but consonantal usually 649
(see § 94. 2), in present and perfect.
I0CIV-, loqvi (locGtum); seqv-, sSqvi (secGtum); solv-, solvere
(solvi, solutum); volv-, volvere (volvi, volutum).
4. Ferbs r^vith stems ending in e (see Pref. p. xcvi.): 650
{a) Few verbs have the stem ending in e, and these are mono-
syllables, where e is radical ; e. g.
dele- (compound), delere; Qe-, fiere; ne-, nere; -pie, -plere.
All these have perfect and supine in -5vi, -etum.
Other verbs with e (-evi, -etum) have consonantal present stems;
ere-, crescSre; also ore-, cerngre; -61e-, -olescSre (also aboleo, abolevi,
abolitmn; and adolesco, adultum); qvie-, qviescere; sve-, svesc6re ;
spre-, spernSre.
(^) In most verbs with stems in -e, the e is short, as may be 651
inferred from the perfect being in -ui (for -eui), and supine in -itum
Chap. XXI?[ Of the Present Stem. 205
(old -Stum, cf. § 234. i), which in some verbs was reduced to -turn.
Contraction with the initial vowel of suffixes gives e in most forms
of the present stem; e.g. monere, mones, monemus, monebam,
monetoo, monerem, monetur (monSt, as amat, audit). In the impera-
tive (2nd pers. sing, act.) of verbs with short penult, it is in early
Latin not uncommonly used as short; e.g. tene (§ 233. 4); e.g.
mong-, monere (monm, monxtum), and many others; see
§§ 677—681.
cav§-, cavere (cavi for cavui, cavitum contracted to cautum),
and others; see § 669.
(c) Many verbs have e (probably 6) in present stem, but drop 652
it entirely and show consonantal stems in the other parts of the
verb. (If the vowel had not been dropped, and a perfect in -si or
supine in -sum had been formed, there would have been a tendency
in the s to become r. Where -si, -sum follows a vowel now, a
consonant has been omitted, § 193. 3).
morde-, mordere (momordi, morsum), and others, in § 666.
vide-, videre (vidi, visum) ; sede-, sedere (sedi, sessum) ;
prande-, prandere (prandi, pransum).
arde-, ardere (arsi, arsum) ; and many others in §§ 672—676.
{d^ Some have a present stem in -e, besides another (older or 653
poetic) consonantal stem; e.g.
fervere, ferv6re ; fulgere, fiQgSre ; 61ere, emit scent., 616re ; scatere,
scatere; stridere, stridere; tergere, tergere; tueri, -tui; ciere, -cire.
(Among other forms the ist persons fervo, fulgo, olo, scato,
strido, tergo, fervlmus, &c. appear not to occur.)
5. Verbs ivith stems etiding in i: 65^
(a) Some verbs with radical i, and many derivatives have i,
and retain it through all the tenses ;
scl-, scire; ci-, -cire (also ciere); i-, ire; qui-, quire. In these
the i is radical.
audi-, audire ; dormi-, dormire ; and many other derivatives.
In all these the perfect is in -ivl, and, in the derivative verbs and
scio, the supine is in -itum. For the others see § 696.
(Jo) Some verbs have i in present stem, but drop it and show 653
a consonantal stem in other parts ; e. g.
amici-, amicire (amicui, amictum); farci-, farcire (farsi, far-
tum) ; fulci-, fulcire (fulsi, fultum) ; hausi-, haurire (hausi, haus-
tum); meti- (for menti-), metiri (mensum); ordi-, ordiri (orsum);
-p6ri-, aperire (ap^rui, apertum) ; reperire (rSpperl, repertum),
2o6 Inflexions. \Book II.
and other compounds (Chap, xxx.); ssepi-, ssepire (ssepsi. saeptum);
sanci-, sancire (sanxi, sanctxim, rai-ely sancitum) ; sarci-, sarcire
(sarsi, sartum) ; senti-, sentire (sensi, sensum) ; v6ni-, venire (veni,
ventum); vinci-, vincire (vinxi, vinctum). Sepeli-, sepelire has
perfect sepeli vi, supine sepultum. (But see Pref. p. c.)
ori-, oriri (orsum) ; poti-, potiri show in some tenses a present
stem either in i or consonantal. (See Chap, xxx.)
(c) Some verbs have the stem ending in i, which fell away 656
before i or 6r ; and as final in imperative, was changed to (or if e
was the original, remained) e (§ 234. 1). The i is generally dropped
in the supine stem.
cap!-, cap§re (cepi, captum); coepi-, ccepere (ccepi, coeptum);
faci-, facere (feci, factum) ; fodi-, fodere (fSdi, fossum) ; fugi-, fug-
gre (fiigi, fut. part, fugiturus) ; gradi-, inf. gradi (gressum) ; jaci-
jac6re (jcci, jactum) ; -lici-, -licere (-lexi, -lectum) ; mori-, inf
mori (also moriri, fut. moriturus) ; pari-, par6re (peperi, partum.
old pres. part, parens) ; pat!-, inf. pati (passum) ; quati-, quatere
(-quassi, quassum) ; rapi-, rapgre (rapui, raptum) ; -spici-, -spi-
cSre (-spexi, spectum).
Two have i in other tenses than those derived from the present ;
cupi-, cupere (cupivi, cupitum ; in Lucr. also cupiret) ; sapi-, sap6re
(sapivi, resipui and resipivl).
{d) A few verbs have consonant stems in present, but i stems 657
in other parts; pSt-, p6t6re (p6tivl, p6titum); rud-, rudSre (rudivi) :
quses-, quserere (qusesivi, qusesitiim) ; arcesso, capesso, facesso,
lacesso, incesso, all have inf -ere, perf -ivi, sup. -itnm; tri-, tSrere,
(trivi, tritum). So evSno is found for evenio.
CHAPTER XXII.
TENSES FORMED FROM THE PERFECT STEM.
The suffixes for the tenses formed from the perfect stem; i.e. 658
for the perfect, completed future, and pluperfect in indicative, and
perfect and pluperfect in subjunctive, are the same in all verbs; viz.
Comp. Future -6r-; Pluperf Ind. -6r-a,; Perf. subj. -6r-i; Plu-
pcrf. subj. -iss-e. The perfect indicative has a suffix -is which
Chap. XX I I. \ Tenses from Per feet Stem. 207
however is not found in the 3rd pers. sing, and the first pers. plurai;
in which the same personal suffixes as in the present indicative are
used. This suffix -is in the first pers. sing, loses its s ; in the third
pers. plural, being followed by a vowel, changes to -er.
The perfect infinitive is formed by the suffix is-se. This is 659
apparently composed of the suffix is- just mentioned, and -se for
-6se as in the present infinitive. (Comp. esse from sum, §§ 611, 612.)
The great resemblance of these suffixes to the parts of the verb 660
sum, which are used to form the same tenses in the passive voice,
suggests (and the suggestion has been generally adopted) that they
are identical in origin.
This theory would give a complete explanation of the pluper-
fect and the completed future indicative, with the exception that
the 3rd pers. plural of the latter has firint instead of firunt, perhaps
in order to avoid confusion with the the 3rd pers. plur. perfect
indicative.
The perfect subjunctive would be explained by assuming as
the suffix an older form of sim; viz. -Ssim, or with the usual
change, -6rim.
The perfect indicative and infinitive and pluperfect subjunctive
seem to require the assumption of a long i being suffixed to the
perfect stem before the respective parts of the verb sum were added ^.
Thus audivissem, audivisse would stand for aud-iv-i-essem, audiv-
i-esse, rexissem, &c. for rex-i-ssem, &c.
In the perfect indicative the 2nd pers. sing. e.g. audivlsti would
stand for aud-iv-i-esti (the personal suffix -ti being lost in the
simple verb sum es), 2nd pers. plu. e.g. audivistis for aud-iv-i-estis;
3rd pers. plur. e. g. audiverunt for aud-Iv-i-gsunt. The 3rd pers.
sing, may have the simple personal suffixes, or may have been re-
duced from a fuller form ; e.g. au-divi-est, audivist, audivit. The
-it is sometimes found long. The first person singular, e.g. audivi,
may then be for aud-iv-i-esum, audivlsm, audivim. And the ist
person plural may have had a similar pedigree.
It must however be observed that the resemblance to the parts
of the stem es-, on w^hich this theory rests, is in some degree decep-
tive, for it consists largely in personal and modal suffixes, which
even on another hypothesis might be expected to be the same. And
the rest of the suffixes is, as has been seen, in some tenses but
pooi-ly eked out by the simple stem 6s.
The perfect stem when formed by a suffixed v (§ 681); is fre- 66i
quently modified by the omission of the v in all tenses and. persons
^ The same view is taken and certain Sanskrit forms compared by
Corssen, Atisspr. i. 614 sqq. ed. 2.
2 08 I^NFLEXIONS. [Book IT.
and both numbers, except in the ist pers. sing, and plu., and .3rd
pers. sing, of the perfect indicative. The vowels thus brought toge-
ther are contracted, (excepting -ie, and sometimes -ii) ; e. g. ind.
perf. amasti, amastis, amarunt; phiperf. amaram, &c. ; comp. fut.
amaxo, &c. ; subj. perf. amarim, &c.; Plup. amassem, &c. ; infin.
amasse: so flesti, fleram, &c.; and (though here the v omitted is
radical) mosti, commosti, &c. (from moveo), and derived tenses.
But we have some instances of uncontracted forms; e.g. audie-
ram, &c. ; audiero, &c. ; audiisti as well as audisti, &c. And such
forms occur not unfrequently from peto, eo, and their compounds.
Novero (ist pers. sing, ind.) always retains the v. (But cognoro,
norim, noris, &c.) And so does the shortened form of the 3rd
pers. plu. perf. ind. of verbs with a stems; e.g. amavere. The in-
finitive being amare, the perfect, if contracted, would be liable to
confusion with it.
In desino, pSto, eo, and their compounds the omission of v, 662
usually, (in the compounds of eo almost always), takes place even in
the excepted persons; viz. in the ist pers. sing, and plural, and third
pers. sing, of the perf. indicative; e.g. desii, desiit, desiimus. In
other verbs with -i stems, -iit is sometimes found ; -ii hardly ever ;
-limus never.
The contracted forms are sometimes found from the above-
mentioned three verbs; peti (Sen., Stat.); p6tit (Verg., Ov., Lucan,
Sen., &c.); desit (Sen., Mart.); desimus (Sen. Epist.y^ r6di (Sen.);
abl, ini (Stat.); it (Ten, Verg., Ov., &c.); abit (Plaut., Ter.,
Sen.); pent (Lucr., Phasdr., Sen.); adit, obit, redit, &c.
Apparently irritat, disturbat, are used as contracted perfects in
Lucretius.
In the older poets, and occasionally in Vergil and Horace, in 663
tenses formed from perfect stems in -s, an i between two ss is omit-
ted and the sibilant written once or twice, instead of thrice ; e. g.
promisse (Cat.) for promisisse ; despexe (Plaut.) for despexisse ; sur-
rexe (Hor.) for surrexisse: consumpsti (Prop.) for consumpsisti ;
dixti (Plaut., and twice or thrice in Cic.) for dixlsti; erepsemus
(Hor.) for erepsissemus ; extinxem (Verg.) for extinxissem.
Percepset for percepisset (Pacuv. ap. C. Off. 3. 26); faxem, PI.
Pseud. 499, are the only instances ofsuchaform from perfects not
in -si. The latter passage is generally considered corrupt.
C/iap.XXIIL] Of the Perfect Stem. 209
CHAPTER XXIII.
OF THE PERFECT STEM.
The perfect stem is formed in one of five different ways, some 664
of which are pecuHar to, or invariably found in particular classes of
verbs. All are used without any distinction of meaning. Some
verbs have two or even more forms of the perfect stem.
The five ways are: (i) Reduplication; (ii) Lengthening the
stem vowel; (iii) Suffixing -s; (iv) Suffixing either -u or -v; (v)
Using the stem of the verb without change.
In the following enumeration the present stem is added where
it differs from the verbal stem. All the verbs, whether consonant
or vowel stems, are arranged under the class to which their final
conso7iant belongs : except monosyllabic vowel stems, and u stems,
which are arranged separately.
i. Perfect, stem formed by reduplication.
The first consonant of the stem is prefixed with a short vowel, 665
which is e, if the stem vowel is a or e, and, if not, is the same as
the stem vowel. In the prse- Ciceronian language the vowel of the
prefixed syllable appears to have been (always?) e, whatever the
stem vowel might be. And Cicero and Ceesar are said to have
used memordi, spepondi, pepugi (Cell. 6 (7), 9).
If the stem vowel is a, it is changed to e before two consonants,
to i before one; se is changed to i. Before single 1 6 and 6 be-
come ti.
If the stem begins with sp, sc, st, the second consonant is
treated as the initial consonant, and the s prefixed to the reduplica-
tion syllable.
Gutturals, die-, (Pr. disc- for dic-sc-), di-dic-i; pare-, p6-perc-i; 666
pose-, p6-pose-i; pag-, (Pr. pang-; comp. pac-isci), p6-pig-i; piig-,
(Pr. pung-), pu-pug-i; tag-, (Pr. tang-), t6-tig-i.
Dentals, cad-, eg-cid-i; caed-, e6-cid-i; ped-, pg-ped-i; pend- (also
pend-e-, intran.), p6-pend-i; scid-, (Pr. scind-), sci-cid-i (old); tend-,
t6-tend-i; tud-, (Pr. tund-), tu-tld-i (Ennius is said to have used
eontildit).
14
2IO Inflexions. \Book II.
morcl-6-, m6-mord-i ; pend-6- (see above) ; spoiid-6-, spS-pond-i ;
tond-6-, t6-tond-i.
Nasals, can-, c6-cin-i (but compounds suffix -u, § 679, except 667
once, oc-cS-cmi) ; man-, mg-min-i ; t6n-e-, te-tin-i, quoted from
Pacuvius and Accius (usually t6n-ui).
Liquids. faU-, f6-fell-i; p61-, (Pr. peU-), p6-pM-i; tol-, (Pr. toU-),
t6-tiil-i (in pras- August, poets; t61i in some pras- Ciceronian inscrip-
tions; usually tiili-).
ciirr-, cu-curr-i; p^ri-, pg-p6r-i.
Voxels. d§,-, d6-di; sta- (Pr. sta-), stg-ti; st6- (Pr. si-st-), sti-ti.
ii. Perfect stem formed by lengthening the stem vowel. 668
If the stem vowel be a, it is changed to e (except in scabgre).
Labials, riip-, (Pr. rump-), nlp-i; scab-, scab-i; em-, em-i.
cap!-, cep-i.
Gutturals, liqv-, (Pr. linqv-); liqv-i; vie- (Pr. vine-), vic-i;
ag-, eg-i; frag-, (Pr. frang-), freg-i; 16g-, leg-i (but some com-
pounds suffix s, §673); pag-, (Pr. pang-), peg-i.
faci-, fec-i; jaci-, jec-i; ffigi-, fug-i.
Dentals. 6d-, ed-i; fud-, (Pr. fund-), fGd-i; 6d-, (Pres. obsolete;
comp. 6dium), 6d-i.
s6d6-, sed-i; vidS-, vid-i; f6di-, fod-i.
Nasals. v6ni-, ven-i.
Semivo^vels. jCva-, juv-i; lava-, (lav- old), lav-i. 669
cav6-, cav-i; fav6-, fav-i; f<5v6-, fov-i; m6v6-, mov-i; pav6-.
pav-i; v6v6-, v6v-i.
The lengthening of the vowel in the verbs, which have v for
their final consonant, is probably due to the absorption of a suffixed
V (§ 681); e.g. cavi for cav-vi or cavui. In a similar way vici,
vidi, veni may have arisen from an absorption of a reduplication,
for v6vini, &c.
iii. Perfect stem formed by suffixing s.
If the present stem ends in a vowel, the vowel is dropped before 670
the suffixed s. None of the verbs whose present stem ends in a have
their perfect formed by s suffixed.
Chap. XXIIL] Of the Perfect Stem. 211
(This sufiix is supposed to be (with the personal suffix) es-i, the
ancient perfect of the stem 6s, and is apparently identical with the
suffix of the first aorist in Greek.)
Labials. P. B. carp-, carp-s-i; cl6p-, clep-s-i (old); nilb-,
nup-s-i; rep-, rep-s-i; scalp-, scalp-s-i; scrib-, scrip-s-i; sculp-,
sculp-s-i; serp-, serp-s-i.
jfll)6-, ju-ss-i (jou-s-i old fonn: probably jubeo is for joveo);
ssepi-, ssep-s-i.
M. A euphonic p is generally inserted before s ; m is once 671
assimilated.
com-, comp-s-i; so also dem-, prom-, sdm-; pr6m-, pres-s-i
(for pren-s-i); tem- (Pr. temn-), temp-s-i.
Gutturals. Ic, re, Ig, rg throw away the guttural before s. 672
C. QV. coqv-, cox-i; die-, (Pr, die-), dlx-i; diie-, (Pr.dilc-),dux-i;
pare-, par-si (also p6-perc-i); so conciviiiisco has conquex-i (for
conquinx-i? comp. mix-tum from misceo).
Iiic6-, lux-i; mulc6-, mul-s-i; torqv6-, tor-s-i.
farci-, far-s-i; fulei-, ful-s-i; sanci-, sanx-i; sarci-, sar-s-i;
Vinci-, vinx-i.
-lici-, -lex-i; -spici-, -spex-i.
G. GV. cing-, cinx-i; fig-, fix-i; fing-, (sup. fic-t-), flnx-i; -flig-, 673
flix-i; flugv-, (Pr. flu-), flux-i; jung-, junx-i; -16g- (in compounds
dil^g-, intelleg-, neglSg-), lex-i (rarely intel-leg-i, neg-leg-i) ; merg-,
mer-s-i; ming-, minx-i; emuug-, emunx-i; ningv-, ninx-it; pang- (or
pag-), panx-i (usually pegi or pfipigi); ping-, (supine pic-t-), pinx-i;
plang-, planx-i; -pung-, -punx-i; r6g-, rex-i; sparg-, spar-s-i;
stingy-, stinx-i; string-, (sup. strict-), strinx-i; strugv-, (Pr. stru-),
strux-i; sUg-, sux-i; t6g-, tex-i; tingv-, tinx-i; vigv-, (Pr. viv-),
vix-i; ungv-, unx-L
algS-, al-s-i; augg-, aux-1; frigg-, frix-i; fulgg-, fvQ-s-i; in-
dulge-, indul-s-i; lilgS-, lux-i; mulgg-, mul-s-i; conigvg-, (Pr.
conive-), conix-i; terg6-, (terg- old), ter-s-i; turgg-, tur-s-i; urg6-,
ur-s-i.
H. trah-, trax-i; v61x-, vex-i.
Dentals. The dental falls away or is assimilated before s, but 674
the preceding vowel is lengthened (cf. § 191. a, 4).
T. fleet-, flex-i; mitt-, mi-s-i; nect-, nex-i; pact-, pex-i.
senti-, sen-s-i; quati-, quas-s-i (e.g. coneuti-, concus-s-i).
D. ced-, ces-s-i; claud-, clau-s-i; divid-, divi-s-i; laed-, las-s-i;
md-, m-s-i; plaud-, plau-s-i; rad-, ra-s-i; rod-, ro-s-i; trad-, trii-s-i;
va,d-, va-s-i.
T4 — 2
212 Inflexions. \Book IF.
arde-, ar-s-i; ridg-, rl-s-i; svad6-, sva-s-i.
Nasals. manS-, man-s-i. 673
Liquids, Sic. veil-, vul-s-i (post- Augustan cf. §683); g6s-,
(Pr. gSr-), ges-s-i; us-. (Pr. ur-), us-s-i.
liaesg- (?), (Pr. hsere-), bse-s-i; hausi- (Pr. hauri-), hau-s-i.
(Cf. p. 247 and Preface.)
Semivowel, ravi-, -rau-s-i (rare).
iv. (rt) Perfect stem foiTned by suffixing u^ (vowel). 676
Labials. P. B. strSp-, strep-u-i.
crepa-, crep-u-i (very rarely -crepavi) ; cfiba-, (Pr. also cumb-),
cub-u-i (rarely cubavi).
albe-, (Pr. also albesc-), alb-u-i; liab6-, hab-u-i; labg-, lub-u-it;
rubg-, (Pr. alsorubesc-), rtib-u-i; sgng-, (Pr. senesc-), sen-u-i; sorbS-,
sorb-u-i; stiipe-, (Pi\ also stilpesc-), stup-u-i; tabg-, (Pr. also
tabesc-), tab-u-i; tep6-, (Pr. also tgpesc-), tep-u-i; torpg-, (Pr. also
torpesc-), torp-u-i.
rapi-, rap-u-i; rgsipi-, (Pr. resipisc-), r6sip-u-i (also resipivi).
M. frem-, fr6m-u-i; gSm-, gSm-u-i; tr6m-, trSm-u-i; vdm-,
v6m-u-i.
doma-, d6m-u-i; tim6-, tim-u-i.
Gutturals. C. frica-, fric-u-i; mica-, mic-u-i (liut dimicavl) ; 677
enSc£u , en6c-u-i, (also en6c-a-vi) ; -plica-, plic-u-i, (also plic-a-vl) ;
s6ca-. s6c-u-i.
ac6-, (Pr also acesc-), ac-u-i; arce-, arc-u-i; dgce-, dSc-u-i;
d6cg-, doc-u-i; flacce-, (Pi-, also flaccesc-), flacc-u-i; jac6-, jac-u-i;
llcg-, lic-u-it; liqve-, (Pr. also lictvesc-), lic-u-i; marc6-, (Pr. also
marcesc-), -marc-u-i; n6cS-, n6c-u-i; plac6-, plac-u-i; tace- (-ti-
cesc-), tac-u-i.
G. 6gg-, eg-u-i; langvS-, (Pr. also langvesc-), -lang-u-i; pig6-,
pig-u-it; rigg-, (Pr. also rigesc-), rig-u-i; vig6-, (Pr. also vigesc-),
vig-u-i.
Dentals. T. ni6t-, mess-u-i'-^ (old and rare); stert-, stert-u-i; 678
tgr-, -tgr-u-i (once in Tibull. ; usually trivi).
^ The suffix -ui or -vl is supposed by most philologers to be for fui.
Thus the Umbrian ambre-fust is said to correspond to ambiverit. But,
if vi and fui are from the same root, they are probably sister forms
only.
^ Messui is perhaps a secondary derivative, and stands in the same
relation to meto, messum that statui does to sto, statum.
Chap. XXIII.] Of the Perfect Siem. 213
v6ta-, v6t-u-i (in Pers. once v6t-a-vi).
latS-, (Pr. also latesc-), lat-u-i; obmatg-, (Pr. obmutesc-), ob-
miit-u-i; nitd-, (Pr. also nitesc-), nit-u-i; innote-, (Pr. innotesc-),
irmot-u-i; 6port6-, 6port-u-it; psenit^-, psenit-u-it ; pat6-, (Pr. also
patesc-), pat-u-i; piit6-, (Pr. also putesc-), pQt-u-i.
D. candg-, (Pr. also candesc-), cand-u-i; crildg-, (Pr. crudesc-),
criid-u-i; madg-, (Pr. also madesc-), mad-u-i; pud6-, pud-u-it ; sord6-,
(Pr. also sordesc-), sord-u-1; obsurdg-, (Pr. obsurdesc-), otasurd-u-i.
Nasals^ Liquids, Sec. N. -cin-, -cin-u-i (but can-, cgcini) ; gSn-, 679
(Pr. gign-), g§n-u-i.
s6na-, s6n-u-i; t6na-, t6ii-u-i.
eminS-, emin-u-i; m6nS-, m6n-u-i; s6ne- (Pr. usually sSnesc-),
s6n-u-i; tgn6-, t6n-u-i; evang- (Pr. evanesc-), evan-u-i.
L. al-, al-u-i; c61-, c61-u-i; consul-, consul-u-i; mol-, m61-u-i;
61-, (also olg-), dl-u-i; v61-, (Pr. inf. velle), v61-u-i.
cal6-, (Pr. also calesc-), cal-u-i ; calle-, (Pr. also callesc-), call-u-i;
coalg-, (Pr. coalesc- intrans.; comp. aio trans.), coal-u-i; d616-, d61-u-i;
pallg-, (Pr. also pallesc-), pall-u-i; sil6-, (Pr. also sUesc-), sil-iui;
sttidfi-, stud-u-i; valS-, (Pr. also valesc-), vai-u«i.
evil6-, (Pr. evilesc-), evil-u-i.
sali-, sal-u-i (rarely salii).
R. s6r-, s6r-u-i. 680
arg-, (Pr. also aresc-), ar-u-i; car6-, car-u-i; clarg-, (Pr. also
clarese-), clar-u-i; crebre-, (Pr. crebresc-), crebr-u-i; durg-, (Pr
duresc-), dilr-u-i; florg-, (Pr. also floresc-), flor-u-i; horrg-, (Pr. also
horresc-), borr-u-i; mature-, (Pr. matiiresc-), matilr-u-i; mgre-,
mgr-u-i; nigre-, (Pr. also nigresc-), nigr-u-i; parg-, par-u-i; terrg-,
terr-u-i.
aperi-, apgr-u-i; gpgri-, 6pgr-u-i; sari-, sar-u-i (also sarivl).
S. deps-, deps-u-i: nez-, nex-u-i; p6s-, (Pr. pon-), p6s-u-i; tex-,
tex-u-L
censg-, cens-u-i; tors-, (Pr. torrg-), torr-u-L
Semivo^vels. ferv- (also fervg- and ferve-sc-), ferb-u-i (also
fervl).
iv. (^) Perfect stem formed by suffixing v (consonant). 63i
The consonantal v is suffixed to vowel stems only (except
pasco?), and the precedi;ig vowel is always long.
2 14 Inflexions. \Book II.
All regular verbs with stems in a- or i- (unless otherwise men-
tioned) have their perfect stem formed in this way. So also
Labials, cflpi-, (Pr. cupi-, except once cupiret), cupi-v-i; sapi-,
(Pr. sapi-), sapi-v-i.
Dentals. p6tl-, (Pr. p6t-), peti-v-i; rttdi-, (Pr. riid-), rudi-v-1.
Sibilant, arcessi-, (Pr. arcess-), arcessl-v-i ; capessi-, (Pr. capess-),
capessl-v-i ; facessi-, (Pr. facess-), facessi-v-i; incessi-, (Pr. incess-),
incessi-v-l; lacessi-, (Pr. lacess-). lacessi-v-i; p6si-, (Pr. pon-),
posi-v-i (always in Plant., Ter., also in Cato, Catull.: for posui
see § 680); qusesi-, (Pr. qussr-), qusesi-v-i.
pas-, (Pr. pasc-, for pas-sc-), pa-v-i (cf. § 93. 2).
Monosyllabic vo^jjel verbs : (also oleo, quiesco). 682
A. sS,-, (Pr. s6r-), se-v-i; stra-, (Pr. stern-), stra-v-i.
0. no-, (Pr. nose-), no-v-i.
U. fu- (§ 719), fH-v-i (Plant, but usually fui); comp. plu-
(§648), pmvi (also plui).
E. ere-, (Pr. eer-n-), cre-v-i; ere-, (Pr. cre-sc-), ere-v-i; fle-,
fle-v-i; dele-, dele-v-i; ne-, ne-v-1; -61e- (e.g. abole-sc-o, adole-so-o,
obsole-se-o), -61e-v-i;-ple-,-ple-v-i; quie-, (Pr. quiesc-), quie-v-i;
spre-, (Pr. sper-n-), spre-v-i; sve- (Pr. sve-sc-), sve-v-i.
1. ei-, (Pr. eie-, also ci-), ei-v-i; i-, (Pr. ind. ist pers. eo), i-v-i;
li-, (Pr. lin-), li-v-i and le-v-i; qui-, (Pr. ind. ist pers. queo), qui-v-i;
SC1-, (Pr. sci-se-; besides the regular i verb, scio), sci-v-i; si-, (Pr.
sin-), si-v-; tri-, (Pr. t6r-), tri-v-i (cf. § 678).
V. Perfect stem, same as present stem. 683
This is frequent (i) in the compounds of verbs of which the
simple has a reduplicated perfect (see Chap, xxx.); (2) by the
dropping of v, in perfects, in -ivl, -evi, -avi (see §§ 661, 662);
(3) regulai-ly in verbs with -u stems, which with other, chiefly
consonantal, stems are here named : —
Labials. Mb-, bibi; lamb-, Iambi.
Gutturals, ic-, ici.
langv-e, langvi (cf § 669) ; conigvS--, (Pr. conive-), conivl (also
conixi).
Dentals. T. vert-, vert-1.
D. -eand-, -cand-i; cM-, cild-i; -fend-, -fend-i; fid-, (Pr. find-),
fid-i (probably for f6fid-i); mand-, mand-i; pand-, pandi; pre-
bend-, prebend-i; scand-, scand-i; scid-, (Pr. scind-), scid-i (sei-
cid-iold); sid-, sidi-; retund-, retundi.
prand-e-, prand-i; strid-e-, strid-i.
Chap. XXIIL] 0/ the Perfect Stem. 215
Liquids and Sibilants.
L. psall-, psall-i; v61-, (Pr. veil-), vell-i (rarely viUsi).
R. verr-, verr-i.
comp6r-i-, comp6r-i; repgri-, r6ppSr-i (both probably compounds
of a perfect p6p6ri).
S. pins-, (also pis-), pins-i; vis-, vis-i.
Vonvels. Sf.^
U, vowel and consonant.
acQ-, acu-i; argfl-, argu-i; Mtfl-, bata-i; exa-, exu-i; fu-, fU-i
(in Plautus sometimes fQ-vi); grii-, gru-i; imbfl-, imbu-i; indil-,
indu-i; 1Q-, lu-i; mStfl-, mStu-i; minfl-, minu-i; pm-, plu-i, also
piavi; nu-, nu-i; spQ-, spu-i; statfl-, statu-i; sterna-, stemu-i; sft-,
su-i; tribil-, tribu-i.
solv-, solv-i; volv-, volv-i.
ferve-, ferv-i (also ferbui).
I. adi-, (Pr. ind. ist pers. sing, adeo), adi-i; so usually the
compounds of eo; inqui-, (Pr. ind. inquam), inquii; sali-, sal-i-i
(rare, usually salnl).
Among those verbs which have no perfect active in use 685
the following non-derivative verbs may be mentioned.
Labials, gliib-.
Gutturals. C. fatisc-; gli-sc-; M-sc-.
amic-i (see however Chap. xxx.).
G. ang-; clang-; frig-; ling-; verg-.
Dentals. D. fid-, (f isus sum) ; frend-.
aud-e, (ausus sum).
Liquids. f6r-, (Pr. inf. ferre: perfect in use, tWi); fir-; gavid-,
(Pr. gaud-e-, gavisus sum).
Vonvels. E. vi-e-.
I. ai-, (Pr. ind. ajo); fi-, (Pr. ind. flo).
2 1 6 Inflexions. \Book IT.
CHAPTER XXIV.
OF THE SUPINE STEM.
The supine stem has a common base with the stem of the past 6S6
and the future participles, and that of some verbal substantives, to
which class the supines themselves belong; e.g. supine, ama-t-u-;
past part, ama-t-o-; fut. part, ama-t-ftro-; subst. denoting agent,
ama-t-6r- ; denoting action ama-t-ion-. This common base, which
will be here spoken of as the supine stem, is -t- suffixed to the stem
of the verb, \^'^hen the verb-stem ends in a vowel, the vowel is, if
long, generally retained; if short, almost always changed, (except
in monosyllables), to i (§ 241), or omitted altogether. A few
verbs which have a consonant stem, have -it- instead of -t in the
supine, as if from a vowel stem. When the verb-stem ends in a
consonant, or loses its final vowel, the -t is, when following certain
consonants, changed to -s. A few other instances of this softening
admit of special explanation.
The verbs here will be classified according as they do or do not
exhibit a vowel before the supine suffix, and, subordinately to that,
according to the final vowel or consonant of the verb stem.
N.B. The supine itself will be here named whenever either supine,
past participle, or verbal substantive in -tu exists : otherwise such
other form from the same base, as does exist.
i. Verbs with a vowel preceding the supine suffix, gg^
A. I. Verbs having a in supine stem; na- (for g6na? Pr.
inf. nasci), natum; stra-, (Pr. stem-), stra-tum; tla-, (Pr. toll-),
la- turn; ama-, ama-tum; and all other verbs with derivative a
stems.
frica-, frica-tiim (also fric-tum); mica-, -mica- turn; ii6ca-,
n6ca-tura (but cf. § 700); seca-, secaturus (once).
2. Verbs having -a in supine stem; da-, da-tum; ra-, (Pr. inf. 6S8
reri: for the vowel, cf. §668), ratum; sa-, (Pr. s6r-), sa-tum; sta-,
(Pr. inf. stare; also sistSre), sta-tum (but in some compounds
sta-turus).
Chap. XXI V.\ Of the Supine Stem. 217
3. Verbs having -i (for -a) in supine stem; cr6pa-, crepi-tum;
cfiM-, (Pr. also cumto-), cGM-tum; d6ma-, d6mi-tum; -plica-, -plicl-
tum (also plica-tum); s6na-, s6nl-tum (sona-turus, once); tdna-,
t6iii-tuin (intona-tus, once); v6ta,-, v6ti-tum.
In juva-, jQ-tum (rarely juva-turus) ; lava- (also lav-), lau-tum ;
the i is absorbed by the v preceding.
0. no-, (Pr. nose-), no-tum; p6-, (whence potare frequentative) 689
p6-tus; cogn6- (cf. § 647), (so also agno-), cogni-tum.
U. I. Verbs having u in supine stem; acH-, acQ-tum; argfl-, 690
argii-tuni; dilfl-, dilu-tum; exQ-, exu-tum; glii- (Pr. gluta-, fre-
quentative) glvl-tus, adj.; imbu-, imbu-tum; indil-, indu-tum; metil-,
metG-tum (Lucr. once); minil-, minu-tum; -nfl-, nft-tum (abnui-
turus in Sail.) ; spu-, spH-tum ; statil-, statu -turn ; sfl-, sil-tum ;
tribfl-, tribii-tum; tti- (Pr. tue- usually), tii-tum.
16q.v-, locii-tuni; seqv-, sgcH-tum; solv-, solu-tum; volv-, volu-
tum.
fru- (for frugv-) has rarely fruitQrus (usually, fruc-tum).
2. Verbs having -u in supine stem; rii-, ru-tum, (but rfttum 691
according to Varr. ; fut. part, is rui-tilrus) ; pu-, (whence ptitllre
frequentative), pii-tus (adj.); clu-, (almost always clue-), -clfttum
(incliitus).
E. I. Verbs having -e in supine stem; ere-, (Pr. cem-, also 692
Pr. cresc-), cretum; dele-, dele-tum; fe-, (Pr. feta-, frequentative),
fe-tus (adj.); fle-, fle-tum; ne-, ne-tum (Ulp.); -ole- (Pr. obs-, ex-
olesc-), -61e-tum; -pie-, ple-tum; quie-, quie-tum; sve-, (Pr. svesc-),
Bvetum; spre-, (Pr. spem-), spre-tum. Perhaps also fer-re, fre-tus.
2. Verbs having -6 in supine stem; v6g6-, veg6-tus (adj.); 693
vi6-, vl6-tum (Hor., but vie-tum Ter. Lucr.).
3. Verbs having i (for -g) in supine stem; abSle-, abdli-tum ;
call-, cali-turus; cari-, cari-turus; d6ii-, d61i-turus; exercS-, exerci-
tum; tabg- (and compounds deb6-, prasb^-), habi-tura; jac6-, jaci-
turus; iicS-, lici-tum; lube-, Iftbi-tum; mgrg-^ m6ri-tum; niis6r6-,
mis6ri-tum (rarely misertum); m6ne-, moni-tiun; n6c6-, n6ci-tmn;
parg-, pari-turus; pigS-, pigl-tum; plac6-, placi-tum; pud6-, pMi-
tum; s616-, soli-tum; tac6-, taci-tus (adj.); terr6-, terri-tum; val6-,
vali-turus; vSrS-, v6ri-tum. Sorbg- has subst. sorbi-tio.
cavS-, cavi-tum (old: usually cau-tum) ; fav6-, fau-tum (for favi- 694
turn; cf. favitor Plant.). So also fdve-, fo-tum; m6v6-, mo-tum;
v6v6-, votum.
2 1 8 Inflexions. [^ook II.
I. (i) Verbs having -i in supine stem ; audi-, audi-tum; and £95
others which have -ivi in perfect, except those in § 655.
blandi-, blandi-tiun; largl-, largi-tum ; mentl-, menti-tum; moU-,
moli-tum; parti-, parti-tum; poti-, poti-tum; sorti-, sorti-tum,
sanci-, sanci-tum (sanc-tum more frequently) ; pSri-, p6r-itus,
adj. (but in comp. -per-tum) ; opperi-, opperltum (also oppertum);
oblivi-, oblltum (for oblivituni) probably has stem in i. Perhaps
also pinsi- (usually pins-), pinsi-tum (see Chap. xxx.).
ciipi-, ciipi-tum; p6ti-, (Pr. p6t-), p6ti-tum; qusesi-, (Pr. quser-),
qusesi-tum; rudi-, (Pr. rfid-), rudi-tum; tri-, (Pr. tSr-), tritum;
arcessi-, (Pr. arcess-), arcessi-tum; so also lacessi-tum, capessi-tum,
facessi-tum.
(2) Verbs having -i in supine stem; ci-, (Pr. cie-), ci-tum 695
(sometimes -ci-tum); i-, (Pr. ind. eo), i-tum); li-, (Pr. lin-), 11-
tum; qui-, (Pr. ind. queo), qui-tum; si-, (Pr. sin-), si-tum.
fugi-, fugi-tum; elici-, elici-tum (but illici-, illec-tum, &c.),
mSri-, mori-turus; ori-, ori-tilrus (sup. or-tum); pari-, pari-turus
(sup. par-turn); posi-, (Pr. pon-), p6si-tuia.
Cotisotiant stems, al-, ali-tum (more usually al-tum) ; fr6m-, 697
fr6m-i-tum ; g6m-, g6m-i-tum; gen- (Pr. gign-), g6ni-tum; m61-,
mOl-i-tum; strgp-, str6p-i-tum ; v6m-, v6m-i-tuin). In Columella
(no where else) pecto has pectitum.
[Of these supines in -itum from consonantal stems, alitum is a 69S
post- Augustan form, used perhaps to distinguish the participle of
al6re fi-om its use as the adjective al-tus. A like cause may be
given for the form molitum, to distinguish from multus ; fremitum,
gemitum, vomitum would, without the i, have to lose their charac-
teristic m (fren-tum, gen-tum, von-tum), or assume the ugly forms
fremptum, gemptum, vomptum (cf. § 70). And gemitum, genitum,
would in the former case become identical. Genitum is probably
fi-om g6na- (comp. gna-sc-or) ; and strepitum may have had a pre-
sent stem strepa- once. Comp. the words in § 688. All have per-
fects in -ui.]
ii. Verbs with a consonant preceding the supine 6gq
suffix.
1. Verbs which retain -t-.
Labials. P. carp-, carp-tum; cl6p-, clep-tum; rep-, rep-tum ;
riip-, (Pr. rump-), rup-tum (rumptum, Plaut.); scalp-, scalp-tum ;
sculp-, sculp-tum; sarp-, sarp-tum; serp-, serp-tum.
Chap. XX/V.] Of the Supine Stan.
2I(
api-, (Pr. api-sc-), ap-tum; cap!-, cap-tiim; rapi-, rap-turn;
ssepi-, ssep-tum.
B. glub-, glup-tum; nfib (Pr. nUb-), nup-tum; scrib-, scrip-tum.
M. 6ni-, em-p-tum; tem-, (Pr. temn-), tem-p-tum.
Gutturals. After a preceding consonant (except n), the guttural 700
usually falls away.
C. Qv. Coqv-, coc-tum; die-, (Pr. die-), die-tum; due-, (Pr.
dac), due-tum; here- (? Pr. hereiseere), herc-tum ; ic-, ic-tum ;
liqv-, (Pr. linqv-), -lio-tum); vie-, (Pr. vine-), vlc-tuin.
friea-, fric-tum (also friea-tum) ; eneca-, enSe-tum; seca-, sec-
turn (also sficaturus).
are6-, are-tum or ar-tum; d5c6-, doc-tum; misce-, mix-turn
(for misc-tum? but of. § 635: in MSS. often mis-tum) ; torctv6-,
tor-turn.
amici-, amic-tum; farci-, far-txun; fulci-, ful-tum; sanci-, sanc-
tum (also sanei-tum) ; sarci-, sar-tum ; vinei-, vlne-tum.
faci-, fac-tum; jaci-, jactum; nanci-, (Pr. nanci-sc-), nanc-tum
or nac-tum ; -spici-^ -spec-tum.
G. GV. (For stems ending in -Ig-, -rg, see § 706) ; ag-, ae- 701
turn; cing-, cinc-tum; fig-, (Pr. and Perf flng-), flc-tum; -flig-,
-flic-tum; flugv-, (Pr. flu-), fluc-tus subst., also fluxus adj.; frag-,
(Pr. frang-), frac-tum; frig-, frie-tum; frugv-, (Pr. fru-), fruc-
tum; fung-, func-tum; jung-, junc-tum; 16g-, lec-tum; ling-, lic-
tum; mig-, (Pr. ming- and mej-), mie-tum and mine-turn; -mung-,
-mtme-tum; pag-, (Pr. pang-), pactum; pig-, (Pr. and Perf. ping-),
pic-tum ; plang-, planc-timi ; pimg-, pune-tum ; r6g-, rec-tum ;
rig-, (Pr. ring-), ric-tus subst.; stingy-, stinc-tum; strig-, (Pr. and
Perf. string-), stric-tum; strugv-, (Pr. stru-), struc-tum; stig-, sue-
tum; tag-, (Pr. tang-), tac-tum; t6g-, tee-tum; tingv-, tinc-tmn;
ungv-, unc-tum; vigv-, (Pr. viv-), vic-tum.
aug6-, auc-tum; lugg-, luc-tus subst.
-lici-, -lec-tum (except eliei-tum).
H. trah-, trae-tum; v61i-, vec-tum.
Dentals. See §§ 707, 708. 702
tend-, ten-tum (also tensum; probably the supines of tendo and
teneo are mixed) ; com6d-, eomes-tum (rarely).
Nasals., Liquids, <t}'c. 703
N. Can-, can-tus subst. ; -man-, e. g. commia-isc-, commen-tum.
t6n6-, tentum; v6ni-, ven-tiun.
220 Inflexions. \Book IT.
L. al-, al-tum; c61-, cul-tum; consul-, consul-turn; occul-,
occul-tum ; vol- (Pr. inf. velle), vultus, subst. expression.
addle (Pr. adolesc-), adul-tum (see Chap. xxx.).
sail-, sal-tum; sepgli-, s6pul-tum.
R. c6r-, (Pr. cern-), cer-tus adj. (also ere-, cre-tus); s6r-, -ser-
tum (also serta, n. pi. garlands').
6ri-, or-tum (cf. § 696); ap6ii-, aper-tum; pari-, par-tum.
S. deps-, deps-tum; f6s-, (Pr. f6ri-'?), fes-tum (e.g. infes-tus, 704
manifes-tus) ; ges-, (Pr. ger-), ges-tum; pas-, (Pr. pasc-), pas-tum;
pis-, pis-tuni; qugs-, (Pr. qu6r-), ques-tum; tex-, tex-tum ; iis-, (Pr.
flr-), us-tum; tors-, (Pr. torre-), tos-tum.
hausi-, (Pr. hauri-), haus-tum; posi-, (Pr. pon-), pos-tum (some-
times).
2. Verbs with t suffixed: but softened to s by the 705
influence usually either of a preceding dental, or of two consonants
of which the first is a hquid. A vowel preceding -sum is always
long. (Other cases are but few; and the sum may be partly due
to the active perfect (if any) having -si, as it has in all these ex-
ceptional cases, except censui, and there the s of the stem is perhaps
a substitute for an earlier t.)
Labials, lal)-, lap-sum; jab6-, jus-sum (for j6v6-, jousum?).
prem-, pres-sum (for pren-sum).
Gutturals. The guttural usually drops out. 7=6
C. QU. pare-, par-sum.
mulcg-, mul-siun.
G. fig-, fixum (but flctiim in Varr. Lucr.); flugv-, (Pr. flu-),
fluxus adj. (fluc-tus subst.); merg-, mer-sum; sparg-, spar-sum.
mulgS-, mul-sum; tergg-, ter-sum.
Dentals. The dental either drops out, the preceding vowel 707
being therefore lengthened, or is assimilated. N.B. All dental stems
have -sum (see § 702).
^ F6rire seems a suitable verb to wliich to refer infestus and manl-
festus, confestim ; (comp. also festlnare) ; and festus itself is in meaning
allied to feriss, which Festus (p. 85) derives a feriendis victimis; comp.
fcedus fSrire, to strike a bargain. The differing quantities of e are how-
ever noticeable in this last etymology. Fendere, to which these forms
are often referred, both ought to make, and does make, fensus, not
festus.
Chap. XXI V?^ Of the Supine Stem. 221
T. fleet-, flexum; mSt-, mes-sum; mitt-, mis-sum; nect-, nexum;
nict-, (Pr. nit-), nixum or ni-sum; pect-, pexiun (in Columella, pecti-
tum); -plect-, -plexum; vert-, ver-sum ; ilt-, H-sum.
fat6-, fas-sum.
menti-, (Pr. meti-), mensum ; senti-, sen-sum,
fatx, (Pr. fatisc-), fes-sus adj. ; pati-, pas-sum ; quati-, quas-sum. 708
D. cad-, ca-sum; csed-, cae-sum; ced-, ces-sum; claud-, clau-
sum; cfld-, cG-sum; divid-, divi-sum; 6d-, e-sum (rarely comes-tum,
from comgd-); -fend-, -fen-sum; fid-, fi-sum; fid-, fissum; frend-,
fres-sum or fre-sum; fud-, (Pr. fund-), fQ-sum; Ised-, Uesura; lad-,
la-sum ; mand-, man-sum ; 6d-, -osum (e.g. per-osus, exosus) ; pand-,
pan-sum or pas-sum ; pend-, pen-sum ; plaud-, plau-sum ; prehend-,
prehen-sum; rad-, ra-sum; rod-, ro-sum; scand-, scan-sum; scid-,
(Pr. scind-), scis-sum; tend-, ten-sum (also ten-turn); trfld-, trii-
sum; tud- or tund-, tu-sum or tun-sum.
arde-, ar-siirus; aud-e-, au-sum; gavid-e-, (Pr. gaude-), gavi-
sum; morde-, mor-sum; pende-, pen-sum; prande-, pran-sum; ride-,
ri-sum: sgde-, ses-sum; sponde-, spon-sum; suade-, sua-sum; tsed-e-,
tse-sum; tonde-, ton-sum; vide-, vi-sum.
ordi-, or-sum; fodi-, fos-sum; gradi-, gres-sum (ad-gre-tus is
said to have been used by Ennius).
Nasals., Liquids., Sec.
N. mane-, man-sum.
L. -ceU-, -cul-sum; fall-, fal-sum; pell-, pul'sum; sail-, sal-
sum; veil-, vul-sum.
E. curr-, cur-sum; verr-, ver-sum.
S. cense- (perhaps a derivative from census), ceu-sum ; hsese- (?)
(Pr. hsere-), hse-sum.
hausi- (Pr. hauri-), hau-siirus (also taus-tum, see p. 24 7),
Many verbs have no supine or other words of this formation
in use.
The supines are respectively the accusative and ablative (or in 710
some uses apparently the dative), of a verbal noun in -u. They are
called respectively active supine, or supine in -um, and passive supine
or supine in -u.
222 Inflexions. \Book II.
From this so-called supine stem are formed, as has been said,
the future participle active by suffixing -tiro-, sing. nom. -arus (m.);
-■ara (f.), -ilruin (n.); and the past participle passive, by suffixing the
ordinary case endings of the second class; e.g. sing. nom. -us (m.),
-a (f.), -um (n.).
These participles, in the appropriate gender and number, are
used in the nominative case with the finite tenses of the verb sum,
and in the accusative as well as the nominative with the infinitive of
the same verb to supply the place of certain tenses for which there
is no special fonn. The future participle thus supplies additional
future tenses in the active voice especially in the subjunctive: the
past participle supplies the perfect tenses of the passive voice, whe-
ther the passive voice have a strictly passive meaning, or, as in
deponents an active or reflexive meaning.
A few instances are found in which the real formation of these yn
compound expressions appears to have been forgotten. Thus
Gracchus is said to have used the expression "Credo ego inimicos
meos hoc dicturum" (for dicturos) ; Valerius Antias to have written
'•Aruspices dixerunt omnia ex sententia processurum" (Gell. i.
7- lo)-
For the future infinitive passive is sometimes used a combination
of the supine in -um and the passive infin. of eo, viz. iri. imper-
sonally, but Plautus has {Rud. 1242), "Mi istac videtur prasda
prsdatum irier;" and Quintil. IX. 2. 88, "Reus parricidii damna-
tum iri videbatur."
From Claudius Quadrigarius is quoted "hostium copias hi
occupatas futurum " (for occupatum iri). (Gell. i. 7, 9.)
Chap. XXV.] Classification of Verbs. 223
CHAPTER XXV.
OF THE TRADITIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.
As the ordinary classification of verbs is often referred to, it 7"
may be convenient here to give a brief account of it. It is as old as
Charisius at least, who wrote probably in the fourth century after
Christ.
Verbs are generally divided according to their form into four
classes, called Conjugations.
The four conjugations are distinguished by the vowel which
immediately precedes re in the infinitive mood; which in the ist
conjugation is a: in the second e^: in the third S, not usually be-
longing to the stem : in the fourth i.
The distribution of the verbs among these conjugations is as
follows.
I. First conjugation contains all vowel verbs, whose stem ends
in a; as am-o, I love, infin. ama-re.
II. Second conjugation contains all vowel verbs whose stem
ends in e; as mone-o, I advise, infin. m6ne-re.
III. Third conjugation contains all verbs whose stem ends in
a consonant, or in u, or a variable i (called i above, § 656); as
r6g-o, / rule, infin. r6g-6re.
tribu-o, I assign, infin. tribu-6re.
capi-o, 1 take, perf. cep-i, infin. cap6-re.
IV. Fourth conjugation contains all vowel verbs whose stem
ends in i, as audi-o, / hear, infin. audi-re.
^ i. e. e according to the ordinaiy doctrine : but see §§ 650 — 652.
2 24 Inflexions. [Book IT.
The following are the regular forms of the perfect and supine 713
in the several conjugations according to the ordinary description.
In the I St conjugation the regular perfect is formed by the
addition of vi to the stem, the regular supine by the addition of
turn, e.g. ama-vl, ama-tum.
The exceptions are few: two verbs do, sto have a reduplicated
perfect dedi, st6ti: two others, jilvo, lavo, lengthen the stem vowel
e. g. ( juvi, lavi) : the others add ui to the stem, the final a being
omitted; e.g. crepa-, cr6p-ui. None form the perfect in si or i
simple. None form the supine in sum.
In the 2nd conjugation the regular pei-fect is formed by the
addition of ui to the stem, the regular supine by the addition of
itum, the final stem vowel e being omitted, as mone-, mon-ui. The
exceptions are numerous, and of all kinds : the larger number add-
ing si. Many have the supine in sum.
In the 3rd conjugation all the forms are much used, some
having even the long characteristic vowel of the other three conju-
gations, e.g. sterno, stravi; sperno, sprevi; tero, trivl. These are
clearly instances of a vowel stem in the perfect and supine super-
seding a consonant stem. Many have the supine in sum.
In the 4th conjugation, the regular perfect is formed by the
addition of vi and the regular supine by the addition of turn to
the stem; e.g. audi-vi, audi-tum. The exceptions are few: one
lengthens the stem vowel (v6ni-o, veni): one simply adds the per-
sonal inflexions (comperi-o, comp6r-i). Three have perfect in ui;
viz. aperio, operio, and salio, nine have perfect in si. Two, viz.
eo and cio, have short i in supine. None form the perfect by re-
duplication, except perhaps reperi-o, repp6r-i. Several have supine
in sum.
Chap. XXVI.\ Complete Inflexions of Verbs. 225
CHAPTER XXVI.
EXAMPLES OF THE COMPLETE INFLEXIONS OF
VERBS.
Ix this chapter are given specimens of the complete inflexions
of verbs : first, of the tenses fonned from the present stem ; second-
ly, of the tenses formed from the perfect stem ; and lastly of the
verbal nouns, which have the same base as the so-called supines,
and assist in supplying defective tenses.
For the present stem the different persons in each number are
given in full, of one consonant verb (r6go), and of one verb (amo)
belonging to the class of vowel verbs wliich is most numerous, and
has inflexions most different from consonant verbs, viz. a stems.
Specimens, less full, of four other classes of vowel stems, viz. in u,
i, i and 6 are given on pp. 228, 229. The omitted forms can be
easily supplied by comparison with the fonns of rego and amo.
The tenses formed from the perfect stem and the verbal nouns
classed under the supine stem have the same inflexions generally,
whatever be the verbal stem, except so far as regards the formation
of the perfect and supine stems themselves. And the differences in
the formation of these do but very partially coincide, as has been
seen (ch. xxill. xxiv.), with the classification of verbal stems.
The specimens given on pp. 230, 231 are therefore only an arbitrary
selection of the most striking sorts.
15
226
Inflexions.
\Book II.
Present Stem.
Consonant Conjugation.
7M
Active Voice.
Passive Voice.
Sing. I.
2.
3-
Plur. I.
2.
3-
Sing. I.
2.
3-
Plur. I.
2.
3-
Sing. I.
2.
3-
Plur. I.
2.
3-
Indie.
r6g-o
reg-is
reg-it
reg-im-ils
reg-it-is
reg-imt
rgg-am
reg-es
reg-6t
reg-em-us
reg-et-is
reg-ent
reg-eb-am
reg-eb-as
reg-eb-at
reg-eb-am-us
reg-eb-at-is
reg-eb-ant
Present.
Subjunc.
r6g-am
reg-as
reg-at
reg-am-us
reg-at-is
reg-ant
Indie.
r6g-6r
reg-6r-is
reg-it-ur
reg-im-ur
reg-imin-i
reg-\mt-ur
Subjunc.
r6g-ar
reg-ar-is
reg-at-ur
reg-am-ilr
reg-amin-i
reg-ant-ur
Future.
r6g-ar
reg-er-is
reg-et-ur
reg-em-ur
reg-emin-i
reg-ent-iu:
Imperfect.
r6g-er-em
reg-er-es
reg-er-6t
reg-er-em-iis
reg-er-et-is
reg-er-ent
r6g-eb-ar
reg-eb-ar-is
reg-eb-at-ur
reg-eb-am-ur
reg-eb-amin-i
reg-eb-ant-ur
r§g-er-er
reg-er-er-is
reg-er-et-ur
reg-er-em-ur
reg-er-emin-i
reg-er-ent-ur
Present.
Sing. 2.
Plur. 2.
Imperative
Active.
reg-6
reg-it-6
Mood.
Passive.
reg-6r6
reg-iTtiTn-i
Future.
Smg. 2 )
Plur. 2.
3-
r6g-it-o
reg-it-6r
reg-it-5t-6
reg-unt-o
(none)
reg-unt-6r
Verbal Noun-Forms.
Infinitive (Present)
Participle (Present), Norn.
Nom
Ace.
Gerund
Active.
r6g-er-e
r6g-ens
rfig-end-um
&c.
Passive.
r6g-i
Gerundive l
nom. mase. | r6g-end-u3
sing. J &:c.
Chap.XXVI?!^ Complete Inflexions of Verbs.
227
Present Stem. Principal Foivel Conjugation.
71S
Active Voice.
Passive Voice.
Sing.
Plur.
Indicative.
1. am-o
2. am-as
T,. am-at
1. am-am-us
2. am-at-is
3. am-ant
Present.
Subjunctive. Indicative.
am-em
am-es
am-et
am-em-us
am-et-is
am-ent
am-or
am-ar-is
am-at-ur
am-am-ur
am-amin-i
am-ant-ur
Subjunctive.
am-er
am-er-is
am-et-ur
am-em-ur
am-emin-i
am-ent-ur
Future.
Sing. I.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
am-ab-o
am-ato-is
am-ato-it
am-ab-im-iis
am-ab-it-is
am-ab-unt
am-ab-am
am-ab-as
am-ab-at
am-ab-am-us
am-ab-at-is
am-ab-aiit
am-ab-6r
am-ab-er-is
ani-ab-it-ur
am-ab-im-ur
am-ab-imin-i
am-ab-unt-ur
Imperfect.
am-ar-em am-ab-ar
am-ar-es am-ab-ar-is
am-ar-6t am-ab-at-ur
am-ar-em-us am-ab-a-m-ur
am-ar-et-is am-ab-amin-i
am-ar-ent
am-ab-ant-ur
am-ar-3r
am-ar-er-is
am-ar-et-tir
am-ar-em-ur
am-ar-emin-i
am-ar-ent-ur
Imperative
Active.
Mood.
Passive.
Present.
Sing. 2.
am-a
ani-ar-6
Plur. 2.
am-at-g
am-amin-i
Future.
Sing. 2 ]
3i
Plur. 2.
am-at-o
am-at-6r '
am-at-6t-e
(norie)
ji»
am-ant-o
am-ant-6r
Verbal Noun-Forms.
Infinitive Present.
Participle Present Nom.
Gerund.
Nom.
Ace.
Active.
am-ar-6
am-ans
&c.
am-and-um
&c.
Passive.
am-ar-i
Genmdive \
nom. masc. > am-and-us
sing. ) &c.
15—2
228
Inflexions.
{Book IT.
Present Stem.
Othsr Voivel Conjugations.
Indicative Mood.
Present.
Active Voice. 716
Sing. I.
2.
3-
Plur. I.
2.
3-
trib-u-o
trib-u-is
trib-u-it
trib-u-im-iis
trib-u-it-is
trib-u-unt
cap-i-0 aud-i-o
cap-is aud-is
cap-it aud-it
cap-im-us aud-im-us
cap-it-is aud-it-is
cap-i-unt aud-i-imt
m6n-e-o
mon-es
mon-6t
mon-em-ils
mon-et-is
mon-ent
Sing. I.
2.
trib-u-am
trib-u-es
&c.
Future.
cap-i-am aud-i-am
cap-i-es aud-i-es
&c. &c.
mon-eb-o
mon-eb-is
&c.
Sing. I.
2.
trib-u-eb-am
trib-u-eb-as
&c.
Imperfect,
cap-i-eb-am aud-i-eb-am
cap-i-eb-as aud-i-eb-as
&c. &c.
mon-eb-am
mon-eb-as
&c.
Sing. I.
2.
trib-u-am
trib-u-as
&c.
Subjunctive Mood.
Present,
cap-i-am aud-i-am
cap-i-as aud-i-as
&c. &c.
m6n-e-am
mon-e-as
&c.
Sing.i.
2.
trib-u-gr-em
trib-u-er-es
&c.
Imperfect.
cap-6r-em aud-ir-em
cap-6r-es aud-ir-es
&c. &c.
mon-er-em
mon-er-es
&c.
Sing. 2.
Plur. 2.
trib-u-6
trib-u-it-6
Imperative Mood.
Present.
cap-6 aud-i
cap-it-6 aud-it-g
Future.
m6n-e
mon-et-e
Sing. 2)
Plur. 2.
3-
trib-u-it-o
cap-it-o aud-it-o
mon-et-o
trib-u-it-6t-e
trib-u-unt-o
cap-it-6t-6 aud-it-6t-e
cap-i-imt-o aud-i-imt-o
mon-et-6t-6
mon-ent-o
Verbal Noun-Forms.
Inf.Pr.
trib-u-6r-e
cap-6r-e aud-ir-e
m6n-er-<
Part.Pr
. trib-u-ens
&c.
cap-i-ens aud-i-ens
&c. &c.
m6n-ens
&c.
Gerund
. trib-u-end-um cap-i-end-um aud-i-end-um
&c. &c. &c.
mdn-end-um
&c.
CIiap.XXVIi\ Complete Inflexions of Verbs.
229
Present Stem.
Other Vonvel Conjugations.
Indicative Mood.
Present.
Passive Voice.
Sing. I.
2.
3-
Plur. I.
trib-u-6r
trib-u-6r-is
trib-u-it-ur
trib-u-im-ur
trib-u-imm-i
trib-u-unt-ur
cap-i-6r
cap-6r-is
cap-It-ur
cap-im-fir
cap-imin-i
cap-i-unt-iir
aud-i-6r
aud-ir-is
aud-it-ur
aud-im-ur
aud-imln-i
aud-i-imt-ur
Sing. I.
2.
trib-u-ar
trib-u-er-is
&c.
Future,
cap-i-ar aud-i-ar
cap-i-er-is aud-l-er-is
&c. &c.
Imperfect.
Sing. I. trib-u-eb-ar cap-i-eb-ar aud-i-eb-ar
2. trib-u-eb-ar-is cap-i-eb-ar-is aud-i-eb-ar-is
&c. &c. &;c.
m6n-e-6r
mon-er-is
mon-eb-ur
mon-em-ur
mon-emm-i
mon-ent ur
nion-eb-5r
mon-eb-gr-is
&c.
mon-eb-ar
mon-eb-ar-is
&c.
Sing. I. trib-u-ar
2. trib-u-ar-is
&c.
Sing. I. trib-u-6r-6r
2. trib-u-6r-er-is cap-6r-er-is
&c. &c.
Subjunctive Mood.
Present.
cap-i-ar aud-i-ar
cap-i-ar-is aud-l-ar-is
&c. &c.
Imperfect.
cap-gr-6r aud-ir-6r
aud-ir-er-is
&c.
mdn-e-ar
mon-e-ar-is
&c.
mon-er-6r
mon-er-er-is
&c.
Sing. 2. trib-u-6r-g
Plur. 2. trib-u-imin-i
Sing. 2
trib-u-it-5r
Imperative Mood.
Present.
cap-6r-6 aud-ir-6
cap-imin-i aud-imin-i
Future.
cap-it-6r aud-it-6r
Plur. 3. trib-u-unt-6r cap-i-imt-6r aud-i-unt-6r
m6n-er-6
mon-emin-i
mon-et-dr
mon-ent-or
Verbal Noun-Forms.
Infin. Pres. trib-u-i cap-i aud-ir-i
Gerundive, trib-u-end-us cap-i-end-Gs aud-i-end-us
•Sec. &c. &c.
mdn-er-i
mon- end-US
&c.
2,3°
Inflexions.
\Book II.
Perfect Stem.
Active Voice. 717
Present
stem.
Verb
stem.
Perfect 1
STEM.
I. 'Reduplication.
1. tang- tag- tS-tlg-
2. pend- (or pend-6-) p6-pend-
3. mord-6- mord- mo-mord-
II. Lengthening of stem-'vo^ivel.
V. Without change of stem.
24. tribu- tribu-
25. solv- solv-
26. vert- vert-
27. find- fid- fid-
Suffixes of tense, mood, person,
4-
5-
6.
ag-
juv-a-
vid-6-
juv-
vid-
eg-
jQv-
vid-
appended to Perfect stem.
Indicatit'e. Subjuncfvve.
7-
III
cap-i-
. Addition
cap-
of -S-.
cep-
Perfect.
-i
Comp.
Fut. Perfect
-6r-o -6r-im
I Sing
8.
carp-
carp-s-
-is-ti
-6r-!s
2
9-
com-
com-p-s-
-it
-6r-it
10.
r6g-
re-x-
-im-us
-6r-im-us
I Plur
II.
mulg-g-
mulg-
mul-s-
-is-tis
-gr-!t-is
2
12.
Ised-
l3e-s-
-§r-unt
-6r-int
3
13-
14-
quat-i-
haur-i-
haus-
quas-s-
hau-s-
Pluperfect.
IV.
(a) Addition of
-U-.
Indicative
Subjunctive.
15-
d6m-a-
ddm-
dom-u-
-6r-am
-is-sem
I Sing.
16.
17.
mon-g-
tex-
mon-
mon-u-
tex-u-
-gr-as
-6r-at
-6r-am-us
-is-ses
-is-s6t
-is-sem-us
2
3
iPlur
18.
(b) Addition of
am-a-
-V-.
ama-v-
-6r-at-is
-6r-ant
-is-set-is
-is-sent
2
3
19.
20.
fle-
sue-sc-
sue-
fle-v-
sue-v-
Infnitive Perfect.
21.
aud-i
audi-v-
-is-se
22.
p6t-
peti-v-
23-
sin-
si-
si-v-
Chap. XX V/.] Complete Infiexions of Verbs.
231
Supine Stem.
Present
Verb
SUPINE
stem.
stem.
STE\f.
I.
tang-
tag-
tac-t-
A >
pend- (
or
pen-s-
pend-6-)
3-
mord-6-
mord-
mor-s-
4-
ag-
ac-t-
.V
juv-a-
juv-
ja-t-
6.
vid-6-
vid-
vl-s-
/•
cap-i-
cap-
cap-t-
8.
carp-
carp-t-
9-
com-
com-p-t-
10.
r6g-
rec-t-
II.
mulg-e-
mulg-
mul-s-
12.
Ised-
Ise-s-
13-
quat-i-
Quat-
quas-s-
14.
liaur-i-
haus-
hau-s-
15
dom-a-
dom-
dom-it-
16.
m6n-6-
mdn-
mdn-it-
I/-
tex-
tex-t-
18.
am-a-
ama-t-
19.
fle-
fle-t-
20.
sue-sc-
sue-(?)sue-t-
21.
aud-i-
audl-t-
22.
p6t-
p6ti-t-
23-
sin-
si-
si-t-
24.
tribu-
triba-t-
25-
solv-
solfl-t-
26.
vert-
ver-s-
27.
find-
nd-
fis-s-
Noun suffixes appended to Supine stem.
Active Voice.
Future participle.
-■ilr-us(m.), -iir-a(f.), -iir-mn(n.).sing.nom.
&c. &c. &c.
Future infmiti-ve.
_ „ , „ s ( esse
-virus (-a, -um) I „ .
^ ' ^\ fuisse
Supines.
-um, i.e. accusative case of verbal noun
with u- stem.
-ft, i.e. ablative, or sometimes dative,
case of same.
Passive Voice.
Past participle.
-us (m.), -a (f.), -um (n.). sing. nom.
&c. &c. &c.
With this participle in the proper gender
and number are used certain tenses of the
verb sum, / am, in order to form the per-
fect tenses of the passive verb, viz.
Indicative. Subjuncti've.
Comp.
Perf. Fut.
-us(-a,-um) sum 6ro
gs Sris
est 6rit
-i (-se, -a) sumus 6rimus
estis 6ritis
sunt grunt
Perf.
Sim
sis
sit
simus
sitis
sint
I Sing.
a
3
I Plur.
z
3
-us (-a, -um)
-i (-89, -a)
Pluperfect.
Indie.
Subjunc.
gram
essem
I Sing.
eras
esses
a
erat
esset
3
eramus
essemus
I Plur.
gratis
essetls
a
erant
essent
3
Perf. pass. infiiffve.
-us (-a, -um) esse
232 Inflexions. [Book II.
CHAPTER XXVII.
INFLEXIONS OF THE VERB sum, I am, AND COM-
POUNDS.
The tenses, &c. of the verb of being are partly from the root 719
es, whence es-um, Gr. d[il (for eV/ti), and partly from the root fu-
(whence fio), Gr. c^uco.
N.B. The parts of tenses not here given are quite regular.
Subjuncti've.
Ind'icati've. usual form, old forms.
Present Sing. I. s-iun, /awz s-im s-i-em fu-am
7. 5s, Thou art
3. es-t, He is
Plur. I. s-um-us, IFe are
2. es-t-is, Te are
3. S-unt, Tbey are
Future Sing. i. 6r-o, 7 shall be
2. er-is, Thou <wilt be
Plur. 3. er-unt
Imperf. Sing. i. er-am, I ^^vas
Perfect Sing. i. ta-i, I luas or have been fu-6r-im
2. fu-is-ti fu-er-is
3. fu-it fu-6r-it
Plur. I. fu-im-us fu-er-im-us
2. fu-is-ti-s fu-er-it-is
3. fu-Sr-unt fu-er-int
Comp. Fut.
Sing. I. ta-iT-o,Ishall have been
Plur. 3. fu-er-int
Pluperf. Sing. I. fu-ex-aja, I had been fu-is-sem
Imperative.
Present Sing. 2. €s, be Future Sing. 2 and 3. es-t-o
Plur. 2. es-t-6 Plur. 2. es-t-ot-g
3. s-unt-o
Injinitive.
Present. es-s6. Past. fu-is-s6. Future. f6-r6 or futurus ess&,
or fuiss6.
Participle.
Present (s-ens or ens) only in Future, ffit-ilr-us, -a, -um.
compounds.
s-is
s-i-es
fu-as
s-it
s-i-6t
fu-at
s-im-us
s-it-is
s-int
s-i-ent
fu-ant
usual for
ms.
es-sem
f-6r-em
CJiap. XX VI J ^ Inflexions of the Verb sum, '^c. 233
Es in pres. ind. is always long in Plant., Terence. 72c
When est came after a vowel or m, tlie e was omitted both in 721
speaking and writing (nata st, natum st, oratio st). So e. g. in Cicero,
and (according to L. Muller) always both in scenic and dactylic
verse. The same was not unfrequently the case with es after a
vowel, and perhaps after m also; e.g. nacta's, lignum's. In the
comic writers a short final syllable in s also coalesces with est; e. g.
factust, opust, similist, for factus est, opus est, similis est ; occasion-
ally with es ; e. g. nactu's, simili's, for nactus es, similis es. (Ritschl.)
An old form for the fut. indie, was escit, escunt; (apparently an 722
inchoative form). It is found once in Lucretius.
The form for the pres. subj. siem, xc. (§ 590) is frequent in
Plautus, Terence, and early inscriptions; Cicero speaks of it as used
in his time {Orat. 47, § 157). Fuam, &c. is also frequent in Plautus
and other scenic poets, except Terence, who like Vergil uses it once
only. The compounds occasionally have -sies, -siet, -sient.
The perf. and tenses formed from it are in Plautus occasionally 72^
filvit, fuverit, &c. So also Ennius has fuisset (ap. Gell. 12, 4. 3),
Like sum are inflected its compounds, viz. absum (perf abfui or 724
afui), adsum or assum (perf. adful or affui), desum (de-est, de-eram,
&c. pronounced dest, deram, &c.), insum, intersum, obsum, prse-
sum (3rd pers. sing, praest), prosum (prod- before a vowel; e.g.
prod-es, prod-ero), subsum, supersum. Of these adsum and prse-
sum alone have a present participle absens, prassens.
Possum, 7 can, compounded of p6te sum, usually retains the 72=
t before a vowel (e.g. p6t-es, pot-est, potestis, pot-ero, poteram),
but assimilates it before s (e.g. pos3iimus, possunt, &c.). The
imperf. subj. is pos-sem, inf posse (in Plaut. potessem, or potissem,
potesse), perf ind. potui (for potivi, the perfect of an active form
of potior: comp. posivi, posui). It has no participle, potens being
used merely as an adjective, powerful. Possiem, possies, &c. later
possim, possis, &c. are frequent in Plautus and Terence.
The full forms, potis sum, es, est, eram, ero, sim, &c. are found
in prce- Augustan poets; especially potis est in Terence, Lucretius,
and once in Vergil ; pote fuisset once in Ter. Potis and pote are
also used as direct predicates without the verb.
Potestur, possitur, poteratur, are quoted as used occasionally
with passive infinitive in early writers (Pacuvius, Cash Ant. &c.).
Potestur also in Lucr. 9. loio.
234
Inflexions.
[Book II.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
INFLEXIONS OF SOME IRREGULAR VERBS.
Malo
Nolo
(Ma-volo
Indicative Mood
Do,
Volo,
(Ne-volo),
for mag-volo),
Present Tense. gi've.
be ivilling.
be unn.villmg
prefer.
Sing. I.
do
v61o
nolo
malo
2.
das
T^S
non vis
mavis
.V
dat
vidt
non vult
mavult
Plur. I.
damus
volilmus
nolumus
malumus
2.
datis
VTlltiS
non vultis
mavultis
3-
dant
vSlunt
nolunt
malunt
Future Sing. i.
dabo
vdlam
(not used)
(not used)
2.
dabis
v61es
noles
males
Imperf. Sing. i.
dabam
volebam
nolebam
malebam
Perf. Sing. i.
d6di
volui
nolui
malui
Subjiinctit'e Mood.
Pres. Sing. i.
dem
veiim
no! 1m
malim
Plur. I.
demus
vglimus
nollmus
malimus
Imperf. Sing. i.
darem
vellem
nollem.
mallem
Imperat'fve.
Pres. Sing. 2.
da
noli
Plur. 2.
date
nolite
Future Sing. 2.
dato
nolito
Plur. 2.
datote
nolitote
3-
danto
nolunto
hijitiitive.
Present.
dare
velle
nolle
malle
Future.
datOrus esse
Participle.
Present.
dans
vSlens
nolens
(not used)
Gerund.
dandum
volendum
Gerundive.
dandus
Perfect.
datus
726
Of these verbs do alone has a passive voice,
demur are not actually found anywhere.
For the subjunctive forms duim, &:c. see § 589.
The fornis der and
727
In pras-Augustan language the 3rd pers. sing, and 2nd pers. plural was 728
volt, voltis. In conversational language si vis, si vultis became sis, sultis.
For non vis, non vult Plautus has fi-equently ngvis, ngvult; on the
other hand, for nolis, nolit, nolint, noUem he has sometimes the full forms
non velis, &c. He hiis also mavolo, mavolet, mavelim &c., ma-
vellem.
C/iaJ>. XXVIII.^ Inflexions of some Irregular Verbs.
235
Also in Plautus frequently mav61o (once also in Terence), mavdlet,
mavelim, mavelis, mavelit, mavellem.
Fio
(used as pas-
Eo (stem i-),
sive of facio)
Edo,
Fero,
Feror,
SO-
become.
eat.
bear.
be borne.
60
flo
gdo
f6ro
fSrOr
is
fis
6dis or es
fers
ferris
it
tit
§dit or est
fert
fertur
imus
6dimus
fgrimus
ffirimur
itis
Sditis or estis
fertis
fgrimini
eunt
fiunt
6dunt
Krunt
feruntur
ibo
fiara
6dam
fera.TTi
ferar
ibis
fies
6des
feres
fgreris
ibam
fiebam
ddebam
ferebam
ferebar
ivi
factus sum
edi
tuU
latus sum
hzxa.
flam
§dam or fidim
ffiram
fSrar
6amus
fiamus
edamus or
ddimus
fgramus
feramur
irem
fierem
6d6rem or essem ferrem
ferrer
1
fi
6de or es
f6r
ferre
ite
fite
6dite or este
ferte
fgrimini
Ito
Sdito or esto
ferto
fertor
itote
fiditoteorestote
fertote
6imto
edimto
fgrunto
fgnmtor
ire
fi§ri
6d6re or esse
ferre
ferri
itQrus esse
factum iri
esurus esse
latHrus esse
latum iri
iens
§dens
fgrens
G. Suntis
esGrus
latHrus
eundiim -di -do
faciendus
gdendus
ferendus
-eundus (in comp.)
factus
latus
Ambio is the only compound of eo, which is inflected regularly like 730
a verb of the fourth conjug.
Futurus Sim, fore, futurus esse, frequently supply the place^of parts of flo, 731
Fierem, fieri, in Plautus and Terence often have the stem i long.
Of the compounds with prepositions the following forms occur: con-
fit, confleret, confierent, confleri; defit, defiunt (Gell.), defiet, defiat, defieri;
ecfieri; infit; interfiat, interfieri; superfit, superfiat, superfierl.
■J
6 Inflexions. \Book 11.
In the passive we find estur for editxir (3 pres. ind.), and ess6- 732
tur (once in Varr.) for gdSretur (3 pers. imperf. subj.). The con-
tracted forms are also found from comSdo, and some (exest, exesse,
exesset) from ex6do.
Qu6o, n6qu6o have forms like eo, but have no imperative or 733
gerund. A participle nequeuntis is quoted once from Sallust. For
the form nequinont, see § 631. Only the present indie, and subj.
are at all frequent.
Quis and quit (pres. act.) are only used after non, as non quls
(for nequis), nonquit (for nequit). With the passive infinitive
there are a few instances in early writers of passive forms, quitus
sum, quitur, queatur ; nequita est, nequitur. Queatur also in Lucr.
I. 1045. ^f- § 725-
CHAPTER XXIX.
LIST OF DEPONENT VERBS.
The following verbs are used as deponents. Sometimes they, 734
especially the past participle, are used in a passive as well as an
active sense. Instances of this are here mentioned. Sometimes the
deponent use is exceptional, and the active form with corresponding
passive usual. Such deponents have here the name of the authors,
who use them, simply appended. A few rare words are omitted.
Compounds also are usually omitted.
Adjdtari (Pac, Afran.; adjGtare Plant., Ter.); adQlari (adulare
Lucr., Cic. poet.); semulari; altercari (altercare Ten); alucinari;
ampullari; ancillari (old); apisci {pass, once. Plant.; so adeptus
Sail., Ovid, &c.; indipisc6re Plant.); apricarl; aquari; arbitrari
(pass., Plant., Cic. once; arbitrare Plant.); architectari ; argumen-
taxi; argtltaxi; aspernari; assentiri (also/iajj., and assentire frequent
in Cic, also Ov., Tac); assentari; auctionari; aucupari (aucupare
scenic poets); augurari (augurare, Plaut. &c., Verg.; auguratus
pass., Cic, Liv.); auspicari (auspicare early writers: auspicatus
pass., Ter., Cic, Liv.); auxiliari; bacchari; bauban; bellari
(Verg.); blandiri (eblanditus/^jj. Cic); calumniari; calvi; cavil-
laxi; causari; circular!; comissari; comitari (passive Lucr., Ov.,
FVm.; pass. part, frequently Cic, Liv. &c.; comitare Ov.); com-
mentari (pass. part. Cic); comminisci (pass. part. Ovid); commii-
nicari (Liv.); comperiri (Ter., Sail.); expSriri (pass. part. Cic,
Liv. frequently, Tac); contionari; coaflictari (rarely a.spass.; con-
flictaxeTen); conari; consiliari; conspicari(/)«jj.Sall.); conteclmari;
contemplari (contemplare Plaut. often); conviciari; convivaxi; cri-
mlnari (pass. Cic; criminare Plant.); cunctari (pass. part, impers.
t
C/iap.XX7X.] List of DepoJient Verbs. 237
Tac); despicari (jiass. part. Plaut., Ten); digladiari ; dlgnarl
(dlgnare Att., Cic. poet.; pass. part. Cic, Verg.); ddminari; elu-
cubrari (rare) ; gpulari; ex6craxi \pass.part. Cic.) ; expergisci; fabri-
caxi (Plaut., Com., Cic, Tac; pass. QuintilT; part. pass. Ov., Liv.,
Suet., Tac; fabricare Hon, Ov., Sen. &c); fabularl; famulari;
fateri {jyass. Cic?); confiteri {part. pass. Cic, Sen., Quint., &c.);
profiteri {part. pass. Ov., Sen.); fatisci (Lucn); fenerari (part,
pass. Plaut., Ten, SciEvol. ; fenerare Ten, Sen., Plin., &c.); feriari;
flnctuari (Liv., Sen.; fluctuare Plaut., Corn., Cic, Verg.); fari
(effatus/«j.f. Cic, Liv.); frilmentari ; frunisci (old); frui; frustrari
{pass. Sail., pass. part. Veil. ; frustrare once Plaut.,) ; fruticari (Cic;
fruticare Col., Plin.); fungi (perfunctum /)«jj. Cic); mrari; gesti-
cillari; gloriari; gradi; grsecari; grassari; gratlflcari; gratari;
gratulari; gravari; bariolari; heluari; hortari*; hospitaxi; jacMari;
imaginarl; Imltaxi {pass. part. Cic poet., Ov., Quint.); infitiari;
injuriari; insidiari; interpretari {pass. part. Cic, Liv., &c.);
jocari; irasci; jurgari (?Hor., jurgare Ten, Cic); juvenari; labi;
Isetari; lamentari; largiri; latrocinari ; lenocinaxi; libidinari; li-
ceri; licitari; lignari; loqvi; IGcrari; luctari (luctare Enn., Plaut.,
Ten); mdificari (ludificare and pass. Plaut. often); lUxuriari
(usually luxuriare) ; macbinari {part. pass. Sail.) ; mandQcari (old) ;
materiari; mederi; medicari (medicare more common); meditari
{pass. part. Plaut., Cic, Liv., Tac); mendicari (Plaut.; oftener
mendicare); mentiri {pass. part. Ov., Quint., Plin.; enieiititus/rt.fj.
Cic); mercari (pass. part. Prop., Plin.); mgreri, to deser've (fre-
quent; rarely to earn; mgrere just the reverse: of the compounds
emerere, commerere are more frequent than the deponent forms) ;
metari {part. pass. Hor., Liv.); metiri {part. pass. Cat., Cic);
minitari (minitare Plaut. rarely) ; minari (interrainatus /^jj. Hon);
mirari; misgrari; misgreri (miserere Lucr.; cf. ch. xxx.); modgrari
{pass. part. Cic, Sail.); modulari {pass. part. Ov., Suet., &c);
moecbari; moliri; mori; m6rari (morare Plaut. rarely); moriggrari;
mOnferari (also munerare); murmurari (rare; commurmurarl Cic);
matuari {pass. part. Plin.); nancisci {fut., nanciam Gracchus);
nasci; naucMari (Mart, once); nSgotiari; nictari (Plin., nictare
Plaut.); nidulari (Plin. once); niti (enisum est impers. Sail.);
nixari (Lucr.); nagari; nundinari; natricari (also nutricare);
niitriri (Verg. once; usually nutrire); oblivisci {pass. part. Verg.,'
Prop.); obsidiari; ddorari; ominari (abominatus /^.r j. Hon, Liv.)'
6p6rari; dpinari (opinare Enn., Pacuv.; pass. part. Cic); 6pitu-
lari; oppSriri; opsonari (Plaut., opsonare usually); ordiri (exorsus
pass.VXmt., Cic, Verg.); 6nri; oscitari (also oscitare); oscWaxi;
otiari; pabiilari; pacisci {pass. part. Cic, Liv.); palaxi; palpari
(Plaut., Hor., also palpare); pandiculari; parasitari; partiri (par-
_ 1 In form frequentative : the simple verb in the 3rd pers. (liOritur)
IS quoted from Ennius. *- \ /
2
8 Inflexions. \Book II,
tire Plaut., Lucr., Sail., pass. part. Cic, Liv., Verg., &c.; disper-
tire, impertire usually); pasci, of animals (sometimes pascgre;
frequently pascens; depasci pass. Cic. once); pati; patrocinari;
pgcQlaii; percontari; p6r6griiiari ; pgriclitari (^pass. part. Cic.
once) ; philosopliari (philosopliatixm pass, impers. Plaut. once) ;
pignfirari, take in pledge; pigrarl (pigraris a fut. per/. Lucr.);
piscari; -plecti (amplect6re, complectere rare; pass. part, rare);
polliceri (pass. part. Ov.); poUicitari; popular! (populare Verg.,
pass. Liv., pass. part, often) ; potiri (potire, to put in possession,
Plaut. once); pr^dari; prasmiaxi (rare); praesagiri (once Plaut.;
prsesagire is usual); prsestolarl; prsevaricari; precari; procari
(rare); proeliari; proficisci; procemiari; puniri (Cic; usually pu-
nire); quadruplari; queri; radicari; ratiocinari; recordari; rgfra-
gari; reliquari; reri; rimari; ring!; rixari; ructari (Varr., Hon;
usually ructare) ; rusticari; sacrificari (Varr.; sacriflcare usually);
sciscitarl; scitari; scortari; scrataxi (part. pass. Sen.; perscrutare
Plaut.); scurrari; sectari (rarely pass.; insectare Plaut.); s6qui
(pass. Com. once; obsecutum /i^jj. impers. Plaut.); sermocinari;
solan; sortiri (sortire Enn., Plaut., pass. part. Cic, Prop.); spa-
tiari; specular! ; stabulari (stabulare Verg., Stat.); stipulail;
stomachari ; svaviari (or saviari) ; subsidiari ; sufifragarl (sufifragare
old); suppetlari; suspicari (pass, once Plaut.); testificari (part,
pass. Cic, Ov.); testari (testatus, and compounds often passive,
Cic, Ov., Quint.); tricari (once extricari Plaut.; usually extricare,
intricare); tristari; trutinari; tuburcinari ; tueri (pass. Varr.; tu-
tus pass, almost always; tuere rare and old); tutari (pass.; Plaut.,
Cic. rarely); tumultuari (pass. if?ipers. Ter., Cass., Liv.; tumul-
tuare Plaut.); ulcisci (pass. Sail, once; pass. part. Liv.); urinari;
ilti (the active ut6re in Cat. &c.) ; vadari (part. pass. Plaut. once) ;
vagarl (vagare old) ; vaticinari ; velif icari (velificare Prop., Plin.
once; part. pass. Juv.); velitari (Plaut.); venari; venSrari (vene-
rare Plaut; part. pass. Verg., Hon); verecundari; v6reri; vergl
(Lucr., Lucan); vermiculari; verminari (also verminare) ; versari;
vesci; vilicaxi old (vilicare Cic once); vitulari.
The following are used as past participles in the same sense as 73s
the active inflexions.
adiiltus; cenatus; coalitus (Tac.) ; concretus; conspiratus (Caes.,
Suet.); conflagratus (Cora.); deflagratus (Cic); eventum (subst);
fluxus; inv6t6ratus; jflratus (conjuratus) ; nupta; occasus (post,
ante, ad, occasum solem Plaut); osus (Sen., exosus, perosus often
generally); placitus; potus (also pass.'); prseteritus (of time and
thehke); pransus (Cic, Liv., Hon); qvietus (reqvietus Liv., Sen.,
&c.) ; svetus (and comp.) ; tacitus.
CHAPTER XXX.
LIST OF VERBS, WITH THEIR PERFECTS, SUPINES,
&c.
The following list contains all verbs of the Latin language, with 736
certain exceptions, which exceptions are —
1. All verbs with a- or i- stems, which have their pres. infini-
tive in -are, -ire (-ari, -iri), perf. in -avi, -ivi (-atus, -Itus, sum),
and supine in -atum, -itum. (Lists of both, tolerably complete as
regards i- stems, will be found in Book III.)
2. All verbs with e- stems, which have perfect in -ui, but no
supine. (They are generally intransitive, and are named in
Cb. XXII.)
3. Most inchoatives, which either have no perfect or supine, or
one of the same form as the simple verb. (They are all named
either in Ch. xx. or Book III.)
4. Verbs compounded with prepositions. But such are
named as differ from the form of the simple verb in perfect or
supine, or which agree with it in having a reduplication in the
perfect.
5. A few verbs, with e- or i- stems, which have no perfect or
supine, are given in an appended list at the end of the chapter.
The supine is not much used, but is here mentioned wherever it
or a perfect participle is known, as this is similarly formed.
N.B. Where the English translation as given here, whether 737
with or without a preposition, allows of the immediate addition of
an object, the verb is transitive (though it may perhaps also be
intransitive), e.g. arcesso, setidfor; Isedo, hurt, are transitive. W)iere
it requires the addition of an English preposition, the verb is
intransitive, e. g. nficeo, be hurtful.
240 Inflexions. [Boflk 11.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Pres. Stem.
Infinitive.
accerso. See arcesso. 738
acuo, sharpen acui aciitum acu6re acil-
ago, do^ drive egi actum agfire ag-
adigo, adegi, adactum, adiggre. So the other compounds,
Except: cogo (coegi, coactum, cogere), dego, which has no perf.
or supine, prodigo which has perf. only, and
circumago, perago, which retain a in pres., &c.
satago is really two words: perf. egi satis.
aio, say aj-
The following forms only are preserved, pres. ajo, ais, ait (ais,
ait in Plaut.), ajunt.
Imp. ajebam, &c. complete. In Plaut. and Ter. aibam. Pres.
subj. ajas, ajat. The part, aiens is used only as adj.
algeo, be cold alsi algere alg-6-
The participle in compar. neut. alsius occurs in Cicero^.
alo, nourish^ raise alui altum al6re al-
alitiun is found in post-Augustan writers.
amicio, clothe amictum amicire amic-i-
amicui and amixi are both said to have been used for perf. Fronto
has inf amicisse.
ango, throttle^ vex anggre ang-
diV^soor, fasten to one- aptum apisci ap-i-
self, get
More usual in compound adipiscor, adeptus sum, adipisci. See
also coepio.
arceo, inclose, keep off" arcui adj . artus arcere arc-6-
artus, only used as adj. confined, narro<iv:
exerceo, exercise, exercui, exercitum, exercere. So also coerceo.
arcesso, fetch, send arcessivi arcessitum arcessSre f arcess-
for (arcess-i-
Another form (perhaps of different origin : cf. Wilkins, Journ.
of Phil. VI. p. 278 foil.) is accerso. In pass. inf. arcessirl
sometimes occurs.
, I ardeo, be on fire arsi ardere ard-S-
\\ Fut. part, arsilrus.
\ arguo, charge Qivith argui argiitum argugre argii-
crime &c.)
^ A positive alsls (not alsus) would suit also alsia (Lucr. v. 1015).
Ill
Chap. JOrX] List of Verbs. 241
argutus, rare, except as adj. sharp. Fut. part, axguiturus (once
in Sail.).
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine, Infinitive. Stem.
audeo, dare ausum audere aud-5-
ausus sum is used for perf., / ha've dared, ausus also (rarely)
passive part. (Verg. Tac).
ave, imperat. hail (in Quintilian's time liavS) alsoaveto, plur. 5,vete:
int". avere. Martial has ave.
iveo, long no perf. or sup. avere av-6-
augeo, /wfrt'fljf (trans.) auxi auctxim augere aug-6-
endo^M
batuo, beat, fence batui batufire batd-
(with a weapon)
1^ bibo, drink bibi bibgre bib-
-bito, go, only in compounds.
Nonius quotes betere or baetere from Pacuvius and Varro.
abitere, interbitere, perbitere ( = perire), rebitere are found
in Plautus.
cado, fall c6cidl casmn cadgre cad-
occido, occidi, occasmn, occid6re. The other compounds,
except recido and (rarely) incido, have no supine.
caedo,j^//, cut, day c6cidl csesum csed6re csed-
occido, occidi, occisum, occidere. So all the compounds.
\fi caleo, be hot calui (calitOrus) calere cal-6-
calvor, play tricks (also as passive) calvi calv-
Only in early writers for later calunmior.
-cando, light, only in compounds. cand-
e. g. accendo, accendi, accensum, accendSre.
cano, sing, play cficini (cantus canSre can-
(on a harp &c.). subst.)
concino, concinui, concentmn, concinere. So occino (also once
occecini), incino and prsecino. No perf. found of other com-
pounds.
capesso, undertake capessivi capessitum capessfire ^'^^^^^^
( capess-i-
capio, take cepi captum capSre cap-i-
concipio, concepi, conceptum, concipgre. So the other com-
pounds, except antecapio, antecepi, anteceptum, antecapgre.
cSxeo, be in nvant carui (caritiirus) carere car-6-
caro, card (wool), very rare. carfire car-
t6
242 Inflexions. \Book J I.
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
carpo, nibble, pluck carpsi carptum carpSre carp-
decerpo, decerpsi, decerptum, decerpgre. So the other com-
pounds.
caveo, be avare, be cavi cautiim cavere cav-6-
ivare of
cavltum is \\ritten twice in a seventh century (u.c.) inscription.
cedo, give ivay, yield cessi cessum ced6re ced-
c6d6, gi-ve, said to be old imperative and per. sing. The plural
cette (for cfidite) only in early scenic poets.
-cello, strike? only in compounds: celsus adj. high cell-
percello {strike dozun), percuU, perculsus, percellere.
excello {distinguish myself) has (in Gellius) a perf. excellui. Of
antecello and prgecello no perf. or sup. are found, excelsus,
praecelsus, lofty, arc used as adj.
censeo, count, reco>n- censui censiun censere cens-e-
mend
cemo, sift, distin- crevi (cretum cern6re (c6r-
guish, decide, see (certus, adj. sure (cre-
The meaning see is confined to pres., imp., and fut. tenses.
decerno, decrevi, decretum, decernSre. So the other compounds.
cieo) ,. - . -^ iciere (ci-6-
. } stir up civi citum ] . \ .
-CIO) ^ (-cire (ci-
The -i stem is rare in the simple verb : the -e stem rare in the
compounds, accio makes (once) accitus; excio, excitus and
excitus; concio, concitus, and (once) concitus; percio, percitus.
cingo, gird cinxi cinctiun cingere cing-
clango (rare) clang olangere clang-
claudo, shut clausi clausum claudere claud-
concliido, conclvlsi, conclflsum, concliidere. So the other com-
pounds.
cl6po (old), steal clepsi cleptum clgpgre cl6p-
clueo, be spoken of -clutum cluere clu-e-
In Seneca (once) cluo. -clutus only in compound inclutus.
c61o, till, pay atten- c61ui cultmn c616re c61-
tion to
So the compounds excolo, exc61ui, excultum, exc616re, but
accolo, incolo have no supine.
occulo, hide, occulm, occultmn, occulere, is probably from a dif-
ferent stem.
ccepio, begin coepl coeptiun coepgre ccep-I-
Chap. XXX^^ List of Verbs. 243
Pres. ind. and subj. only in Plaut. Fut. coepiam in Cato.
Imperf. subj. ccepfirem once in Ter. Otherwise only perfect
stem in use. But coeptus and coeptums are also used.
(Coeptus sum often with a pass, infin. ; but also coepi.) The
verb is apparently from co-apio (apiscor).
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
compesco. See pasco.
conquinisco, fro/^r/) conciuexi, old conquiniscgre cf.§§63i,'"-^
and rare 635.
\ consiilo, consult consului consultmn consulgre consul-
c6qvo, cook coxi coctuin c6qv6re cdqv-
credo. See do.
- crtpo, rattle crSpui crgpitmn crSpaxe cr6p-a-
1 cresco, grow crevi cretum cresc6re cre-
Though cresco is intransitive, it has a part, cretus, sprung from.
\ cibo, //V, lie ill cubui cubitum cubare cub-a-
cubavl is occasionally found.
Ajictido, hammer cvldi cusum cGdSre cCld-
-cumbo, //>, only in compounds, as strengthened form of cilbo.
accumbo, accubui, accubitmn, accumbgre.
cupio, desire cfipivi cupitum ctipgre cup-i-
cupiret once in Lucr.
curro, run cucurri cursiun currSre curr-
The compounds frequently retain the reduplication, e.g. accu-
curri, deciicxirrl, excucurri; more usually (in Cicero and Livy)
drop it, e.g. accmri.
deleo. See lino.
depso, knead depsui depstum depsgre deps-
dico, say dixi dictum dic6re die-
disco, learn didici disc6re dic-
Compounds retain reduplication, e.g. edisco, learn by heart,
edidici.
dispesco. See pasco.
I divldo, divide divisi divisum dividSre di-vid-
do, ^zW (see § 726) d6di datum dare da-
The half-compounds circumdo, surround, pessumdo, ruin, sa-
: tisdo, satisfy, venumdo, expose to sale, follow do precisely.
credo, entrust, believe, vendo, sell, reddo, give back, and the com-
pounds with monosyllabic prepositions have consonant stems :
e.g. credo, credidi, creditum, cred6re. So also accredo, accredidL
The compound with prae exists only in praeditus, endued.
16 — 2
244
Inflexions.
\Book 11.
The reduplication is retained in the compounds, except usually
in atoscondo.
For the passives of vendo, perdo (except past part, and
gerundive) veneo and (usually) pereo are used.
Pres.
Present.
Perfect.
Supine.
Infinitive.
Stem.
d5ceo, teach
ddciii
doctum
ddcere
d6c-6-
d61eo, he in pain
d61ui
(ddlitOrus)
ddlere
dol-g-
ddmo, tatne
ddmui
dSmitum
d6mare
d6m-a.
dGco, draw, lead,
duxi
ductum
dflcere
duc-
account
6do, eat
edl
esum
6d6re
gd-
Supine sometimes essum. Com6do has also (rarely) comestum.
6mo, buy (orig. take) emi empttun 6m6re 6ni-
adimo, ademi, ademptum. So other compounds, except
(i) c6gmo (c6eini, coemptum), perfimo, intergmo, which re-
tain e.
(2) the earlier compounds como, demo, promo, silmo, which
make compsi, comptum, &c.
60,^0 (see Ch. XX VIII.) ivi itum ire I-
Compounds always omit v (e.g. adii), in 1st pers. perf., and
usually in other persons of perfect and thence derived tenses.
veneo, be for sale, is a compound of eo. It has no supine.
esuo, strip off exui exiltiim exu6re exu-
(clothes, &c.)
,^1 facesso, cause, make facessi facessitum facessfire ( facess-
off" |facess-i-
f9,clo, make, do feci factum facSre fac-i-
For the passive, in tenses formed from present stem, fio is used-
proficio, make progress, profeci, profectiun, proficSre. So the
other compounds with prepositions. But calefacio being only
half compound (§ 300) retains a.
proficiscor, set out {on a journey), travel, prdfectiim, proficisci.
fallo, deceive, elude fgfelli falsum fallgre fall-
refello, refute, refelli, refell6re.
farcio, stuff farsi fartum farcire farc-i-
rgfercio, rSfersi, rgfertum, rfifercire. So also differtus.
I fateor, acknowledge fassiim fateri fat-S-
conflteor, confessum, conf iteri. So prOfiteor. difiFIteor has no
part. perf.
Chap. xxx:\
List of Verbs.
245
Pres.
Infinitive.
Stem.
fat-i-7
afffiro,
attuli,
aufero,
abstaii
differo,
distuU,
ofFero,
obtuli
rgfgro,
rettuli,
Present. Perfect. Supine.
fatisco \ 4, A h (fessus adj. Uatiscere
fatiscor (old) 1 «5"«^^' '^'"""-^ ^eary) (fatisci
defgtiscor, defessum, defetisci.
faveo, be favourable favi fautum favere fav-6-
-fendo, strike, only in compounds. fend-
I defendo, ^vard off, guard, defendi, defensum, defendSre. So also
Offendo, strike against.
fgrio, strike (see ico) fgrire f6r-i-
(percussi, percussum are often used as perfect and supine.)
fgro (Ch. XXVIII.), (taii) (latum) ferre f6r-
bring
Perfect and supine are borrowed from tollo.
allatum, aflferre ;
ablatum, aiiferre ;
dilatum, diflferre;
oblatiun, ofiFerre ;
rglatum (or rSferre ;
rarely rellatum)
refert, // is of importance (probably for rei fert) is used as
impersonal.
suffgro, (sustinui) sufferre.
sustuli as perf. of suifero is rare.
ifGrvi
ferveo, boil, gloiu ferbui fervere ferv-6-
A consonantal stem (e. g. feirvit, ferv6re) frequent in pr£e-Aug.
and Aug. poets.
fido, trust fisrnn fidgre fid-
fisus sum is used for perf., I have trusted.
ngo,fx fixi fixum figere flg-
fictus as past participle in Varro, R. R. and Lucr.
fio, become (see Ch. XXVIII.), fiSrl fl-
The compound infit, be begins, only in this one form (poetical).
"I flndo, cleave fidi
, Sngo, form, invent finxi
fleo, weep flevi
flecto, bend flexi
-fligo, strike, only in compounds.
affligo, strike against, knock down, afilixi, afflictum, affligfire.
fissum
findgre
fid-
Actum
fing6re
fig-
fletiun
flgre
fig-
flexum
flectere
flect
146
Inflexions.
[Book //.
So the other compounds, except profligo, put to rout, profllgavi,
profligatmn, profllgare.
Supine.
Pres.
Infinitive.
flu6re
Stem.
flugv-
f6dere
f6d-i-
fa-
Present. Perfect.
fluo, _/?oiy fluxi
(fluxus, adj. loose, fluctus, subst. a ivave')
f6dio, dig fodi fossum
Inf. fodiri, efifodiri are found in the older language.
fatur, iie speaks faX\xxa. fari
The following only found: pres. ind. fatur; fut. fabor, fabitiir;
perf. fatus est; pluperf. fatus eram, erat ; imper. fare, inf.
fari; part, fantem, &c. (no nominative, except in plirase
fans atque infans, Plaut.), fatus, fandus, and fatu.
In compounds we have also -famur, -faminl; -fabar, -farer, &c.,
and in comp. imperat. &c., prsefato, praefamino.
f5veo, keep ^varm, fovl fotum fSvere f6v-6-
cherlsh
frango, break inpieces fregi fractum fraugere frag-
Compounds as confringo, confregi, confractum, confringgre.
frgmo, roar, snort frSmui
frendo, j-waj/j (with the teeth)
frico, rub fricui
frigeo, be cold frixi
frigo, roast, (corn,
&c.)
fruor, enjoy tnyself
fruitum once (Ulpian), fut. part. fruitvLrus once (Cic). An
old form fruuiscor, frunitum is quoted from early writers.
fvigio, Jlee,JIy from fiigi (fugitHrus) fuggre fug-i-
fulcio, />rq/> fulsi fultum fiQcire fulc-i-
fulgeo, 7?flj/^ fulsi fulgere fulg-6-
A consonantal stem e.g. fulgit, fulg§re is found in pras-Aug.
poets; twice in Vergil.
fundo, /lowr, rout ffldi fusum fundgre fud-
(an enemy)
fungor, get quit, dis- functum fungi fung-
charge myself {oi 3X\. office, &c.)
fuo, ^row.? see sum, Ch. xxvii.
ftiris, thou ragest farere fur-
Only furls, furit, furunt, furebas, furebat, furere, furens are
found.
frgmitum
jfressum
( fresum
jfrictiun
jfricatum
frictum
fructum
frgmSre
frem-
frendgre
frend-
fricare
fric-a.
frigere
frig-g'
friggre
frig-
frul
frugv-
Chap, xxx:
List
of Verbs.
247
Present. Perfect,
gaudeo, be glad
gavisus sum, / rejoiced
gSmo, j/g-A, groan gemui
gSro, carry, perform gessl
gigno, beget, produce gSnui
Supine.
gavisum
gfimitum
gestum
gdnitum
Pre";.
Infinitive.
gaudere
ggmfire
g6r6re
glgnSre
Stem.
gavid-6-
g6m-
g6s-
ggn-
/
In old language (Lucr. Varr.), sometimes g6no is found.
glisco, swell, kindle gliscSre gli-
SWoo,peel gluptum glQbgre glflb-
gralior, step gressum gradi grad-i-
Compounds, as aggrfidior, attack, aggressum, aggrgdi. Inf. ag-
grediri, progrediri, pres. aggredimur are found in Plaut.
-gruo only in compounds. gru-
congruo, agree, congrui, congrugre. So also ingruo, impend.
habeo, ha'Z'e habui habitum habere liab-6
So the compounds debeo, owe, debui, debitum, debere ; prsebeo,
afford, prsebui, praebitum, praebere (in Plautus dehibeo, prse-
Mbeo) : probeo (Lucr.) for proMbeo.
hsereo, stick intr. lisesi li3sum haerere hses-g-
(or liser-6 ?)
baurio, drain, draw hausi liaustum baurire haus-i-
(water)
In Varr. once baurierint. Fut. part, baustiirus (C. Fam. 6. 6.
9) and hausHrus, Verg. A. iv. 383; Stat. Ach. i. 667; Sil. vii.584,
XVI. 11; and perhaps Sen, Ep. 51. 6, exbausurus.
Msco, gape, open the month, to speak hiscere M-
jaceo, lie jacui (jaciturus) jacere jac-6-
jacio, cast jeci jactum jacere jac-i-
abicio, abjeci, abjectum, abicSre. So the other compounds (see
§ 144). Dissicio for dis-jacio.
porricio, offer {sacrifces'). Sec, porrectum, porricere (without perf.).
ico (or icio?), J/r/;^(? ici ictum icere ic-
Of the present (rare), only icit, icitur, icimur occurs: (fSrio is
generally used instead). The perfect is often in MSS. written
iecit,
imbuo, steep, imbue imbui imbiltum imbuSre imbil-
iincesao, attack incessivi incessgre '™'^^^^"_
I ' ( mcess-i-
indvlgeo, yield, intr. indulsi indulgere indulg-&«
(Indult-um &c. appears not to be used before the 2nd or 3rd
century or later. See Pref. p. xx.)
248 Inflexions. [Book II.
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
Induo, put on indul indfltum indu6re indH-
(clothes), &c.
mqva-
Inquam, quoth inquii ^ ^^ j^q^j_
The following forms only occur. Pres. ind. inquam, inquis,
inquit, inquimus, inquiunt. Fut. inquies, inquiet. Imperf.
inquiebat. Perf. inquii, inquisti, inquit. Imperat. 2nd sing,
inque, inquito, plur. inquite.
Irascor, gro-M angry iratum irasci ira-
iratus sum, / am angry : succensui, / '^va5 angry.
jiibeo, bid jussi jussum jubere jiib-6-
jungo,j'0/fc', /o/w junxi junctum junggre jung-
jiivo, help^ delight jilvi jGtum juvare juv-a-
fut. part, juvatilrus. Adjilvo has adjUturus.
labor, slip^ glide lapsum labi lab-
lacesso, /(ro-uo/^^ lacessivi lacessitum lacessgre \
-lacio, entice. Only in compounds. laci-
allicio, allexl, allectum, allicSre. So illicio, pellicio.
' elicio, elicui, elicitum, elicgre. Prolicio has no perfect or supine.
Isedo, strike (rare), laesi Isesum Isedgre Ised-
burt
collido, dash together., collisi, collisum, collidSre.
lambo, lick Iambi (once) lambgre lamb-
langveo, Z't'/«/«? langvi langvere langv-6-
!lav3,tum
lautum lavare lav-a-
lotum
A consonantal stem (e.g. lavit, lav6re, &;c.) is frequent in prae-
Augustan and Augustan poets.
For compounds see luo.
16go, pick up., choose^ legi leetum 16gere 16g-
read
colligo, collect, collegi, collectum, colligSre. So compounds
generally :
Except that (i) allSgo, choose besides, perlggo, read through,
prselSgo, read to others, rglggo, read again, sublSgo, pick up,
substitute, retain e.
Chap. XXX?\ List of Verbs. 249
(2) dilego (or diligo), /ot^<?, intellggo, understand, neglSgo, neg-
lect, retain e and have perf. in -xi, e.g. neglexi. (Rarely
intellegi, neglegi.)
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
,,. . .^ . (libuit
libet, it pleases 5,-t,-4. *
'^ (libitum est
Only used in 3rd pers. Rarely in plural. Also participle libens,
(The stem vowel was in early times u; e.g. lubet.)
liceo, be on sale licui licitum licere lic-6-
liceor, bid for licitus sum liceri lic-g-
Xx^^X, it is permitted j^^ est "'=^"" ^''°-^-
Only used in 3rd pers. Rarely in plural. Liceto, licens, licitus,
also found,
lingo, lick linctum linggre ling-
lino, besmear 15vi lltum lingre li-
livi is also found.
In post-Augustan writers, we have linio, linivl, linitum, linire.
deleo, blot out, delevi, deletum, delere, probably belong to this
stem.
linqvo, leave Uqvl linqvgre liqv-
The compound, relinqvo, reiiqvl, rglictum, r61inqv6re, is more
usual,
liqveo, be clear, fluid licM liqvere liqv-g-
nqvor, melt, intV. liqvi liqv-
loqvor, speak IScutum loqvl loqv-
mceo, be light, beam luxi liicere luc-6-
liido, sport liisi lilsum IQdere lild-
IGgeo, mourn, trans, luxi (luctus subs.) mgere liig-6-
luo, pay, expiate lui lu6re lii-
Compounds retain the original meaning, ivash (Iuo = lavo), and
have past part. e.g. diluo, diltU, diliitum, dilu6re.
-mgniscor, only in compounds. m6n-
Only perfect stem (with present meaning) in use. Memini, /
(noticed, Key; hence) remember. Imperative memento, me-
mentote.
comminiscor, devise, commentum, comminisci. So also reminis-
cor, call to tnind.
mando, ckei.v mandi (once) mansum mandere mand-
maneo, retnain,ariuait mansi mansum manere man-6-
emineo, project, eminui, eminere (no supine),
immineo, impend, promrneo, no perf. or supine.
permaneo is like maneo.
250
Inflexions.
\^Book IT.
Pres.
Infinitive.
.V
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
mSdeor, be a remedy mederi ingd-6-
mSreo, earn in6nii
mgritum
mfirere mSr-6-
mergo, s'mk^ trans. mersi
mersmn
mergere merg-
emergo, emerge^ is intrans., but has part. pcrf. emersus, having
emerged.
metiri met-i-
metere mSt-
metior, measure
inSto, movj
mensum
messui (rare)inessmn
The perfect is found only in quotations from Cato and Cassius
Hemina.
mk'm.o^ fear rngtiii metuSre mStil-
metiltus, once in Lucret.
mico, qufver, flash., micui micare mic-a-
emico, emiciil, fut. part, emicaturus.
dimico, dimicavi (dlmicui twice in Ovid), dlmicatum.
mingo minxi mictum
Another form of the present is mejo.
minggre mig-
minuSre
miscere
minG-
ralsc-6-
misgreri miser-6-
minuo, lessen minui minutum
misceo, mix misciil mixtum
The supine is sometimes written mistiun.
misgreor, /'£■//)//>' misgritum
misertum is rarely found.
misgreo is very rare : miseret and (in early writers) miseretur,
miserescit are used impersonally.
mitto, let go, send
m6l0, grind
moneo, ivarn
mordeo, bite
mftrior, die
fut. part, moritiirus
Inf. morlri, emoriri several times in Plaut. once in Ter. once in
Ovid.
mSveo, move, trans, movi motum mdvere mdv-g-
nuilceo, stroke miQsi mulsiun miacere mulc-g-
PermiUctus is also found besides the more usual permulsus.
mulgeo, 7nilk mulsi mulgere mulg-S-
mulctu abl. in Varro. mulctrum, milking-pail.
m!si
missiim
mittere
mitt-
m61ui
molitnm
molgre
mol-
monui
mSnitum
mdnere
m6n-g-
momordi
morsiim
mordere
mord-g
mortuus sum
m6ri
mor-i-
Chap. XXX.] List of Verbs. 251
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
-miingo only in compound mung-
emungo luipe (nose), emunxi, emunctiun, emimgSre.
(iia,nctum „„„„,.„„i (nanc-i-
nanciscor, ^«/« jnactum ''^''^'''^ jnac-
C. Gracchus is said to have used a future nanciam.
nascor, be born natiun nasci gna-
Originallygnascor, whence agnatus, cognatus, prognatus. But
enascor, enatiis.
yneoo, kill necavi ngcatiun n6oare ngc-a-
nscui once in Phasdrus and Ennius: engco, stifle completely,
engciii and enScavl (both rare), enectum, engcare.
necto, link together nexi nexmn nectSre nect-
nexui is probably from neso, nex6re which is quoted from early
writers.
ne-
ning-
ningv-
gnict-
Originally gnitor, kneel ^ from g6nu, knee. Nixus generally in
sense of leaning, nisus, striving. Conitor, aduitor, enitor
have both fonris frequently (in sense of bearing children always
enlxa). Innisus, otonisus, subnisus are infrequent: and in
poetry all the compounds of nisus are rare.
-nivso only in compound. nigv-
com.-v&o, shut eyes, tconivi) (both/ . , _ . .
. ,' -^ \ ■} \ (no supme) conivere
wtnk, (conixij rare) '^ f /
nOceo, be hurtful nocui n6citum nocere n6c-6-
nosco, get to kno^vu novi, notum nosc6re gno-
The perf. means got to know^ and so knoiv.
notus only as adj. knoiun: fut. part, is not used.
agnosco, cognosco, have supines agnitum (fut. part, agnoturus
once, Sail.), cognitum:
ignosco, ignotum, fut. part, ignoturus (quoted from Cato andCic;
ignosciturus from Piso) : dignosco, internosco, have no supine.
neo, spin
nevi
netum(Ul
p.) nere
neqveo. See qveo.
ningit ) .^
ningvit! "'"°'^'
ninxit
ninggre
nitor, lean, strive
(nixiim
(nisiiTri
niti
fut. part, nistlrus
: so also
compounds.
252
Inflexions. [Book II.
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
vSCoQ.putona'veil nupsi nuptum nilMre niil)-
(as a bride), marry
Part, nupta, yyiarried.
-QUO, nod., only in compounds: but ntltus is used as subst. nu-
annuo, annui, annugre.
alDiiuo has (once in quotation from Sail.) fut. part, alanuiturus.
ii\i&<n.%zox{px\%. cover luithblacK)., obUtum otoUvisci ob-Uv-i-
forget
occulo, conceal. See c61o.
odi, I hate 6^"
Only perfect stem with present meaning in use. Fut. part,
osurus. A perf. form odivi, once (used by M. Antony)
Exosus, perosus, are used with an active meaning.
-61eo, grow, is only used in compounds, and is a different word
from 61eo, smell (intrans.). 61-e-
atidleo, destroy, atoolevi, abSlitiun, atoolere.
abolesco, decay, abolevi, no supine, abolescgre. So also inSlesco.
( adSlesco, grow up, addlevi, adolescere, adultus, adj. grown up.
adoleo {increase}'), pile up {in sacrifice), (so sometimes used).
obs61esco, wear out, intr. obsdlevi, obsolescere, obsoletus, adj.
nuorn out. So also exolesco.
61eo, smell (intrans.) 61ui olere 61-6-
A consonantal stem (olat, olant, subolat, praeolat, olere) is
found rarely in the comic poets. Here belongs
redoleo, give scent, s>nell of; and probably
adoleo, make to smell, offer in sacrifice, burn, only in present
stem (except adolevl quoted from Ennius and Cassius ; and
adulta from Valer. Antias).
6portet, it behoves oportuit dportere 6port-6-
Only used in 3rd pers. sing.
opperior. See -perio.
ordior, commence, orsmn ordiri ord-i-
trans.
drior, rise ortiim 6riri 6r-i
fut. part. Sritvlrus: gerundive 6riimdus used as adj. sprung from.
Pres. ind. 6r6ris, oritur, orimur, imperf. subj. orirer, orerer.
The compound adorior has in pres. ind. adoriris, adoritur.
dvo, triumph 6v-a-
The only forms found are ovet, ovaret, ovans, ovatus, ovandL
paciscor. See pango.
Chap.XXX:\ List of Verbs. .253
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
paenitet, it repents psenituit psenitere psenit-6-
Rarely personal, psenitendum and (in quotations from Sail, and
Ace.) paeniturum (for psenititurum ?) are also found. Pseni-
tens as ?id]. penitent.
pando, spread out, pandi passum pandfire j pand-
> open [ pad-
Dispando has dispansum, dispessum. Expando, expansum. The
simple pansum once in Vitruvius.
\ P^^°' >•''''« P^Sl {pancrm ^^^^^^^ | pan'g-
Panxi is found twice (in Ennius and Columella).
compingo, compegi, compactum, compingere. So impingo.
oppango, oppegi, oppactum, oppanggre. Depango, repango also
retain a.
pac-isc-or, bargain, p§pigl, pactum pacisci pac-
Compaciscor or comp6ciscor has compactxun or compectum.
In the XII Tables paco (for pago), bargain, is found.
parco, spare pgperci paxcere parc-
Fut. part, parsurus. Plautus always, and Terence sometimes,
has parsi.
comperco, compersi, compercfire. Imperco, reperco (or reparco)
found in present only.
I \dt^ parui (pariturus) parere par-6-
pario, get, bring forth p6p6ri partum parSre par-i-
Fut. part, pariturus.
Parens, a pare7it, is an old participle of this verb.
' compSrio ) ^ . _ . .
' comperior (rare)[' ^•'^^'"^«'«> comp6ri, compertum, comperire.
r6p6rio,^«^, reppSri, rSpertum, r6p6rire.
i -B^sco, pasture, feed pavi pastum pascgre pas-
The active is rarely used of the animals feeding except in pres.
participle.
Depasco follows pasco.
/ Compesco (lit. pasture together'!'), confne, compescui, compescfire
(no supine). So dispesco (rare), separate.
;54 Inflexions. [^Book II.
Prcs.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
\ patior, suffer passum pati pat-i-
perpfitior, perpessus sum, perpfiti.
paveo, quake <uiitb pavi pavere pav-S-
fiar
pecto, comb pexi (once) pexmn pectere pect-
pedo pepedi pedgre ped-
peUo,/«j>6, drive back pgpuli pulsum peUere pell-
appello (esp. of a ship, put in), appuli, appulsum, appellSre.
So the other compounds. Repello always lias reppuli or
repuli.
..^-
pendeo, hang^ intr. pgpendi pensum pendere pend-6-
pendo, (weigh, pay, pgpendi pensum pendere pend-
'value
originally hang, trans. So suspendo, hang up.
-pSrio only in compounds, except peritus, skilled. p6r-i-
Comp. periculum, Treipno).
aperio (ab perio?), uncover, open, apSrui, apertum, apSrire.
expgrior, try, expertum, expgrirL
operio (ob perio?), cover, 6p6rM, opertiun, 6p6rire.
opperior, q^ait for, oppertum and opperitum, opperirL
V^lo, seek, aim at j^^J'T^ pgtitum p6t6re | pgj'j.
piset, ;V -z,.... |p-Snest ^"^^^^ P'^-'"
Only used in 3rd pers. sing. The gerund and gerundive are also
found.
jping-
vvaso, paint pinxi pictum pinggre
pinso,) , ^ pinsui (pinsitum (pinsere pins-
plso, \ ^°"^ \ pinsi (pistum (pisgre pis-
Pinsibant once in Ennius. Hence pinsitus, often in Columella's
prose, has perhaps L Pinsui, pinsi occur once each.
placeo, be pleasing placui placitum placere plac-6-
plango, beat (esp. the planxi planctum plangSre plang-
breast in grief)
plaudo, clap (the plausl plausum plaud6re plaud-
hands, &c.)
Chap. XXX.'l List of Verbs. 255
explodo {hiss off., i.e. drive away by hissing), explosi, explosiun,
explodere. So the other compounds, applaudo does not
change the vowel.
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
plecto, strike, punish (rare except in passive) plect6re plect-
-plecto, twine plexum -plectere plect-
Only in perf. part, and compounds, which are always of depo-
nent form, except in one or two instances of imperatives in
pras-Ciceronian writers.
amplector, tivine oneself round, embrace, amplexum, amplecti.
So complector. Of other compounds only participles, implexus,
entwined, perplexus, entangled, are found.
-■plQOjfll, only in compounds pie-
Compounds as compleo, complevi, completum, complere.
T£>lico,fold pUcatum plicare plic-£-
(rare except in compounds)
avv^co, apply, put (applicavi, applicatum, „ _^
in (to shore) (applicm, applicitum, °^^®
So the other compounds: the pras- Augustan writers used almost
always -avi, -atmn.
( pluit
pluo, ram ^ ^^^^^ (frequent in Livy) ^^^^^^^ P^^^"
pollilceo, offer in polluctiun poUucere pollilc-6-
sacrifice
pono, place pSsui pdsitiim ponSre p6-si-
Posivi frequent in Plautus; also in Cato. Posit, poseit (3rd
pers. sing.) are also found in prs-Augustan inscriptions.
Postum (simple and compound) is frequently found in poetry.
posco, demand poposci posc6re pose-
Compounds retain reduplication, as depoposci, expoposcL
possideo. See s6deo.
pos-ium, be able pStui (see Ch. xxviii.) pStesse p6t8S-
potior, be master pStitum potiri p6t-i-
In pres. ind. almost always pStltur, potimvir; imp. subj. potgrer
or potirer. In Plaut. int. once poti: also act. perf. potivi.
poto, drink potavi potum potare pot-a-
Potatum is rare ; fut. part, potaturus and poturus.
potus, that has drunk.
prandeo, dine prandi pransum prandere prand-g-
pransus, having dined.
256
Inflexions.
{Book IT.
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
prfeliendo, lay hold of pr61iendl prghensiom pr61iend6re prehend-
Often contracted into prendo, &c.
prSmo, press press! pressvun pr6m6re prgin-
comprlmo, compress!, compressum, comprimgre. So the other
compounds.
prof ictscor. See facio.
psallo, play on a psalli psallere psall-
stringed instrument
vm^X, it shames j^^di^li est P^"^^"" ^^"^"^
puditurum and gerund and gerundive are also found. Pudens as
adj. modest.
(pilg-
pungo, ^r;V/& piipiisi punctum pungSre jpuj^g.
Compounds have for perfect -punx!.
\ qvaes-
qvsero, seek^ inquire qvsesiv! qvsesitiun qvserere Igyjeg.j.
conqviro, conqvis!vl, conqvisituin, conqvirfire. So the other
compounds.
In the ist pers. sing, and plur. there is an old colloquial form,
qvaeso, qvsesumus, prythee.
qvatto, shake^ trans. qvass\un
coiiciit!o, concuss!, concussum, conciitgre.
pounds.
qvivl
qvatgre qvat-i-
So the other com-
qvitum
qvire
qvi-
qvievi
rasi
qvestum
qv6r!
qv6r-
qvletum
qviescgre
qv!-e
ratSre
rab-
rasum
radfire
rad-
raptiun
rap6re
rap-i
qveo, be able (Ch.
XXVIII.)
qvgror, complain
qv!esco, rest
rabo, ra've (rare)
rado, scrape
ripio, snatch, hurry rapui
a-zvay, trans.
arrlpio, arripui, arreptxun, arripgre. So the other compounds.
KLvio, be hoarse, (ir-rauserit Cic.) ; (rausurus Lucil.) rav-i-
once in Plaut.
refert. See fero
r6go, keep straight, rexi rectum r6g6re r6g-
rule
Compounds as arrlgo, raise, arrexi, axrectum, arriggre.
Chap. JOTX] List of Verbs.
Except pergo, continue^ perrexi, perrectum, perggre,
whence expergiscor (heghi to stretch myself out), a-wake mysef,
experrectum (expergitum in Liicil. Lucr.).
surgo (sub-rego) rise, surrexi, surrectxun, surggre.
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
reor, tJjink ratum reri ra-
reor has no present part,
repo, creep repsi reptum repgre rep-
rideo, smile, laugh risi risum ridere rid-g
ringor, she<w the teeth, (rictus subs.) ringi rig-
s liar I
rodo, gnaw rosi rosum rod6re rod-
rudo, roar, bray rudivi (rare) rfidere ] '^
^ '' (rud-i-
Persius has rudere.
riimpo, break rflpi ruptum nunpere rup-
In Plautus the m is sometimes retained, e.g. dirrumptum, cor-
rumptor (subs.).
ruo, tumble, dash rui -riituni ru6re rfi-
Generally intrans. The past part, found only in phrase rata csesa
(has a long, according to Varro, but in compounds it is
always short; e.g. dirutum).
fut. part, (post- Augustan) ruiturus.
Esepio, hedge in ssepsi sseptum saepire ssep-i-
salio ) „;. ( salitum „, C sal-i-
sauo } -^^'^ \ salsum ^^^^^« j sail-
An inf. salire is not certain. Nor is the quantity of the first
two syllables in salitum. Both foiTns of the verb are found
in MSS. with 1 and IL
salio, leap salui (saltus salire sal-i-
subst.)
Desilio, desilui, desilire. So the other compounds.
The forms salivi, salii are rare both in simple and compounds.
salve, hail! also salvete inf. salvere and fut. salvebis. (The present
salveo once in Plautus, perhaps in joke, salve being probably
originally an adverb.)
sancio, halloiv, ordain sanxl sanctiun sancire sanc-i-
sancitum (rarely). Sancierat is quoted from Pompon, Secundus.
17
258
Inflexions.
\_Book IL
Supine.
Pres.
Infinitive.
sapgre
Stem.
sap-I-
Present. Perfect.
sapio, have a savour sapivi
of^ be luise
desipio, be foolish, no perf. or sup., desipgre.
rSsipisco, recover senses, rgsipui and rgsipivi, rgsipiscgre.
Barcio, patch sarsi sartmn
sario, hoe sanii (once) saritum
Also written sarrio. Perf. also sarivi.
sarpo, trim sarptum
scabo, scratch scabi (rare)
scalpo, scrape scalpsi scalptum
Compounds follow sculpo.
scando, climb scandi scansum
ascendo, ascendi, ascensum, ascendgre. So the other compounds.
sciBdo, tear, cut scidi scissum scindgre Gcld-
A perfect scicidi is quoted from Navius, Attius, &:c.
Exscindo has no perfect. The other compounds follow Bcindo.
sarcire
sarire
sarpSre
scabere
Ecalpgre
sarc-i-
sar-i-
sarp-
scab-
scalp-
scandgre scand-
scisco, enact scivi
A strengthened form of scio.
Ecituia
sciscere
SCI-
scribo, avrite scrips!
script)] m
scribere
scrib-
scidpo,crtrx'£' in stone, sculpsi
&c.
Another form of scalpo.
sculptura
sciUpgre
sciilp-
sgco, cut
secui
sectum
Ggoare
sec-a-
fut. part, secatiirus (once in Colum.).
sgdeo, sit sedi sessum sgdere sgd-g-
Possideo, occupy, possedi, possessum, possidgre. So the other
compounds, except stipersedeo, refrain, circumsgdeo, which do
not change the e. Dissideo, prsesideo have no supine.
sentio, feel, think sensi sensum sentire sent-i-
Assentior, assensus sum, is used as deponent (besides assentio).
sgpglio, bury sgpgHvi
sgpultum
sgpglire sgpgl-i-
sgqvor, follo^ji}
sgcutum
sgqvi seqv-
s6ro, sonv, plant sevi
satum
sgrgre sa-
s6ro, Imk together
(serta,
garlands).
sgrere ser-
Compounds as consgro, consgrOi, consertum. consgrgre.
Chap. XXX?^ List of Verbs. 259
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
serpo, crawl serpsi serptum serpdre serp-
Another form of repo. Cf. Greek epira.
sido, settle, intr. sidi sid6re sid-
sedi and sessum from s6deo are the usual perfect and supint?,
and so the compounds.
smo, put, leave, suffer sivi situm sinere si-
In subj. perf. sirim, siris, sirit, sirint.
Desino, desii in post-Augustan writers (desisti, desiit, pkiperf.
desigram, perf. subj. desierim), desitum, desingre. (Cicero
and CiEsar generally use destiti for perf.)
Desitus sum used before a passive infin. / ceased.
sisto, set, stay, trans, stiti (rare) statum sistfire sta-
desisto, destiti, destitum, desistere. So the compounds, all in-
transitive. Thei^eduplication is retained. Sisto is rarely intrans.
and then has perf. steti (from sto). So also circumsteti.
s61eo, be r^ont sSlitum solere s61-e-
Perf. solitus sum, / ivas accustomed.
solvo, loose, pay solvi sSlutum solvere solv-
Sometimes in Augustan poets s61ui.
sSno, sou}2d s6nui sSnitiun sSnare s6n-a-
fut. part. sonatHrus (once in Hor.). In prce-Augustan poets
sometimes sonere, sonit, sonunt.
sorljeo, sup up, sorbui (sorbitio, sorbere sorb-6-
suck in subst.)
absorbeo, absorbui, absorbere. So other compounds. Rarely a
perfect (post- Augustan) in si; absorpsi, exsorpsi.
spargo, scatter, be- sparsi sparsiun spargere sparg-
spnnkle.
Compounds as conspergo, conspersi, conspersum, conspergere.
spgcio, look, only in Plautus. (But spicio Plant. Mil.') spec-i-
aspicio, aspexl, aspectum, aspicere. So the other compounds.
sperno, reject, despise sprevi spretum spernere < sper-
17 — a
26o
Inflexions.
{Book II.
Present. Perfect.
spondeo, pledge spopondi
oneself
Despopondi twice in Plautus.
Gpuo, spit spui
statuo, set-up, Si'ttle statu!
{fivith oneself)
sterno, thro^w on the stravi
ground, cover
stemui
stertui
Supine.
sponsuni
spiitimi
statutiuu
stratum
Pre-:.
Infinitive.
spondere
spu6re
statugre
stemgre
Stem.
spond-6-
spii-
statii-
star-
stra-
stemu6re stemG-
stertere stert-
stingvere stingv-
sternuo, sneeze
sterto, snore
stingvo (rare), stamp,
extinguish
Exstingvo, exstinxi, exstinctum, exstingvere. So the other
compounds.
sto, stand stfiti statum stare sta-
Fut. part, staturus in Lucan.
Prsesto, be superior, show, warrant, prsestiti, prastatum (also
prsestitum), prsestare. The other compounds have fut. part,
-staturus (constaturus Luc. Mart., perstaturus Stat.) but no
supine: disto, has no perf. or supine: those with disyllabic
prepositions retain e in the perf. (e.g. circumstSti).
strgpo, tnake a din strSpui strgpitum strepgre strgp-
strideo, hiss, screech stridi stridere strid-g-
A consonantal form (e.g. stridunt, stridere) is found in Augus-
tan poets; also Plin. Epist.
stringo, strip, graze, strinxi
draw tight
struo, heap up, build struxi
svadeo, recommend svasi
svesco, accustom one- svevl
self
An old form of present indie, ist pers. plur. suemus (as from
sueo).
sQgo, suck suxi suctum
sum, be see Ch. xxvii.
suo, so^u, stitch sui siltmn
taceo, be silent tacui tacitum
tajdet, it wearieth tsesum est
For perf. pertsesum est is more common. Tsedescit, obtse-
descit, pertsedescit, distaedet are also used impersonally.
strictum
strtnggre
jstrig-
( string-
structum
struere
strugv-
svasum
svadere
svad-g-
svetum
svescgre
sve-
sUggre
sug-
esse
es-
sugre
stl-
tacere
tac-g-
t»d-g
tectum
tegere
teg.
temptum
temnere
tem-
tentum
tendere
tend'
Chap. XXX ?^ List of Verbs. 261
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
tango, touch tetigi tactum tangere tag-
Attingo, attigi, attactum, attingSre. So the other compouitds.
In Plautus rarely tago, attigo.
tSgo, cover texl
temno, despise tempsi
tendo, stretch, tend tStendi
In post- Augustan writers sometimes tensmn. Compounds have
-tensum occasionally.
teneo, hold t6nui tentum (rare)tgnere ten-6-
Perfect tetinl is quoted from Pacuvius and Accius.
Supine and cognate forms are little used, except in the com-
poimds, detinSo, obtineo, and retineo. Contentus only as adj.
content.
detineo, detlnui, detentum, detinere. So the other compounds.
teneo, frighten terrui territum terrere terr-6-
tergeo, ^.vipe tersi tersum tergere terg-6-
A consonantal stem (e. g. tergit, terguntur) is also found some-
times.
tgro, rub trivl tritum t6r6re ^"
attgruisse in Tibull. (once).
I tri-
texo, qveave texui textum texgre tex-
}^^ ' ( dip, dye tlnxi tinctum L- " . tingv-
tmgvo, ^ ^^ •' (tmgvere
tollo, lift up, remo've (sustuli) (sublatum) tollere toU-
tuli (in prce-August. poets tgtiili, in some old inscriptions toll) and
latum (for tlatum) are the proper perf. and supine: but as
these are taken by fero, tollo takes the perf. and supine of its
compound sustollo.
The compounds have no perf. or supine.
tondeo, shear tStondi tonsum tondere tond-g-
tono, thunder t6nui tSnitum tonare ton-a-
intSno has part, intdnatus (once Hor.). The other compounds
follow tSno.
torqveo, t-wist, <ivhirl torsi tortum torqvere torqv_§_
torreo, roast torrul tostum torrere tcrs-6-
262
Inflexions.
{Book 11.
Present. Perfect.
traho, drag traxi
trSmo, tremble tremui
tribuo, assign, grant tribui
triido, thrust trilsi
Supine.
tractum
tribiltum
trUsum
Uiltum
(tuitiun
Pres.
Infinitive.
trahgre
trgmere
tribugre
trudgre
tueri
Stem.
trali-
trgin-
tribu-
trQd-
tu-6-
tu6or, look at, protect
tutus, adj. safe.
Tutatus sum (from tutor) is generally used as perfect ; tQtus or
(post- Augustan) tuitus sum are rare, Contueor, Intueor
have (post-Augustan) contuitus, intuitus sum. A present
with stem in -u (e.g. tuimur, contuor, c&c.), is frequent in
prce- August, poets and Seneca's tragedies.
I t\i.sum
I tunsum
tuudgre tiid-
tundo, thump tutudi
Contundo, contudi, contiisum, contundere. So pertundo. Ob-
tundo, retundo have both -tunsum and -tasum. Perfect of
retundo always retundi.
turgeo, snuell tursi turgere turg-e-
tursi is quoted from Ennius (once); obtursi from Lucilius
(once).
vtdo, go vadere vad-
Invado, invasi, invasum, invadgre. So other compounds.
valeo, be strong valui
vegeo, stir up (old word)
(valitvlrus) valere
(vggetus vesere
adj.)
vectum v6here
val-6-
veg-e-
V6I10, carry V8xl vectum venere veh-
Pres. part, and gerund also used intransitively, riding.
^^Vio, pull, pluck veUi vulsum veUere vell-
Vulsi both in simple and compounds is sometimes found in
post-Augustan writers.
vendo, sell. See do.
veneo, be sold. See eo.
venio, come vSni ventum
v6reor, be a-.ued at v6ritum
vergo, incline
verro, brush verri (rare) versum
verto, turn verti versum
venire
v6reri
verggre
verrgre
vertere
vcn-i-
ver-e-
verg-
verr-
vert-
So the compounds generally, but
divertor. put up (at an inn), divert! (perf.), diversum, divert! (inf.)
Chap. XXX?\
List of Verbs.
26'
reverter, return, perf. reverti, reversiun, revert! (inf.), rever-
sus, ha'ving returned.
prsevertor, attend to first, is entirely deponent : praeverto, be
beforehand 'with, is very rare.
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
vescor, feed oneself vescl vesc-
y^to, forbid v6tiil vfititum v6tare v6t-a-
Persius has a perfect vetavl. Plautus has an older form v6to,
v6tui, vfititus.
video, see vldi visum videre vid-g-
videor, visum, videri, very common in sense of seem.
vieOjflait (twigs, 8cc.) vletum viere vi-6-
part. vietus (Ter. Lucr., but vlgtus, Hor.), shrivelled.
vincio, bind vin-iri
vinctum
vincire
vinc-i'
vinco, conquer vici
victum
vincgre
vic-
viso, visit visi
visSre
vis-
vivo, lime vlxi
vlctiim
T^v6re
vigv-
ulciscor, avenge one-
ultum
ulcisci
ulc-
self on, avenge
ungo,
UTIgVO, ^'"^^•^^ "^^
unctum
(unggre
|ungv6re
ungv-
v610, 'Uiill v61ui
velle
v61-
So its compounds nolo, malo;
see Gh. xxviii.
volvo, roll volvl
vSiatum
volvgre
volv-
Sometimes volui in Augustan poets.
vSmo, vomit vfimui
vSmitum
v6m6re
v6m-
voveo, vo^ vovi
votum
v6vere
v6v-g-
urgeo, push, press ursi
lu-gere
urg-6-
uro, burn ussi
ustnm
■arfire
ils-
ComMro, combussi, combustum, combflrSre, is a compoui:d of com
with an older form buro, seen in bustum, tomb.
Other compounds (exilro, &c.) follovsr the usual form.
utor, avail oneself,
make use
usum
utl
ut-
264
Inflexions.
\Book II.
The following verbs also have no perfect or supine.
(i) e- verbs:
frondeo, be in leaf polleo, be ponverful
73Q
aegreo, be sick
albeo, be ivhite
aveo, be greedy
calveo, be bald
caneo, be hoary
flaveo, be yellow
foeteo, stink
hSbeo, be blunt renideo, shine
lacteo, be a suckUng, scateo, bubble forth
have milk
liveo, be bluish pale splendeo, be bright
maceo, be lean squaleo, be rough
msereo, grieve tabeo, ivaste aivay
muceo. be mouldy iimeo, be wet
(2) i- verbs:
csecutio, be blind prurio, itch for
dementio, rave singultio, sob
glocio, cluck
ineptio, be silly
desideratives
cenaturio, have an
appetite
emptiirio, wish to buy
parturio, be in labour
BOOK III.
WORD-FORMA TION.
BOOK iir.
WORD-FORMATION.
CHAPTER I.
ELEMENTS OF WORD-FORMATION.
Words are formed either directly from roots or from other 740
words. The elements of formation are four: reduplication^ internal
change, addition of suffixes^ combination of two or 7nore words into one.
Two or more of these modes of formation may be called into use
in forming a word ; and especially, almost all words, whatever other
change the root may have undergone, exhibit some suffix or other.
i. Reduplication is the repetition of the root syllable, either to 741
express repeated action or simply to give additional emphasis to the
root. In Latin there appear but few instances of reduplication.
The following are probably such :
1. Reduplication of a closed syllable:
toar-bar-us, foreign (from ^dp^apos); car-cer (n.), a prison, a
barrier (for the vowel cf. § 204. 2); cin-cin-nus, a curl (comp.
KLKivvos)] cur-cul-io, a weevil (for the change of liquid cf. § 185. 2);
fur-fur (m.), bran; gur-gul-io, the windpipe (cf. § 852); marmor
(n.), marble; mur-mur (n.), a murmur (comp. fxopfxvpeLv); quisquis,
whosoever; tin-tin-are, to tinkle (cf §646); tur-txir (m. f.), a
dove; ul-ul-a, a screech-owl; ul-fil-are, to howl, ivail (comp. o\-oX-
v^eiu). Similarly per-per-am (adv.), badly (§ 526).
2. Reduplication of an open syllable; or rather, of the initial
consonant, with a vowel appended:
bi-bere, to drink; ci-cada, a grasshopper; ci-catrix (f.), a scar;
ci-cer (n.), cbickpease; ci-conla, a stork; ci cur, ta7?ie; ci-cftta,
hemlock; c6cus (qvoqvus), a cook; cu-cQlus, a cuckoo (comp. kokkv^;
ca-cumis (m.), a cucumber; cu-curbita, a gourd; je-j^nus, fasting;
^ In this book much use has been made of the lists in Leo Meyer's
Vergleich. Gram. (1861 — 1865) especially the second volume. Cor-
responditig Greek words have been usually taken from Curtius (see
above, p. 24 n.}.
2 68 Word-Formation. [Book III.
raaxaxaz., a breast ; mg-mor, mindful; pa-paver (n.), a poppy; pa-pilla
(diminutive of an assumed papa), a teat; pi-pire, to chirp; p6-pQlus,
a people; qvi-sqvilise, refuse (comp. /co-orKi;X-/xdTta, and for the
omission of s § 193); su-sumis, a whisper (comp. a-vpl^i v); ti-
tillare, to tickle; ti-tubare, to stumble.
For the use of reduplication to form the present stem of verbs
see § 628; and to form the perfect stem, § 665 sqq.
ii. Internal change is frequently found accompanying the addi- 742
tion of suffixes, or composition, but is then due mainly to the
consequent shifting of the accent, or to the influence of neighbour-
ing consonants. The usual changes have been set forth in Book I.
There appear to be but few instances in Latin, in which there is
clear evidence of internal change being employed as the main element
in the foiTnation of a word. Compare however, e.g. toga with
t6g-6re; sed-es with s6d-ere; fides with fidSre; proc-us with prec-
^^ (§§ 2.33. I, 234. 5, &c.); duc-ere with due- (dux); dicers with
maiedicus, &c.; voc-, nom. vox, with vdcaxe. For the change of
vowel in forming the perfect tense see § 668.
But if, as is probable, the primary fonn of roots admits of short
vowels only, then all instances of (apparent) roots with long vowels
fall under this head (unless the long vowel is a compensation for
omitted consonants); e.g. lux, pax, &c., scribere, mdere, &c.
iii. Sujixes are of three kinds : (i) Suffixes of inflexion, (2) stem- 743
suffixes (included under inflexions in Book II.), (3) derivative suffixes.
(i) Suffixes of inflexion are those which are employed to form
the several cases and numbers of nouns, and the persons, moods,
tenses, voice, &c. of verbs.
(2) Stem-suffixes are those which form the distinguishing marks
of the several declensions of nouns, and the several conjugations
(or classes) of verbs. In nouns of the first class they are a, e, o;
in nouns of the second class u, i or e ; in verbs a, u, e, i. A large
class of nouns, and the most primitive verbs, have no stem-suffix.
The application of the stem-suffixes in Latin nouns coincides to
a large extent with the distinction of gender: in verbs it coincides, at
least asregards the a and e stems, to a noticeable degree with the
distinction of transitive and intransitive action. The absence of
a stem-suffix in many nouns is the result of the shifting of the
accent, and consequent slurring of the end of the word, the conso-
nant stem being thus reduced by one syllable from what was, or
would otherwise have been, their full form (with a stem-suffix);
e.g. praeceps for prsecipits, &c. In other nouns of the same class
(consonant stems) there appears to be no clear ground for assuming
the previous existence of a stem-suffix. (A similar loss or weaken-
Chap. /.] Elements of Word-Formation. 269
ing of the stem-suffix is held by Corsseni to have occurred in_ the
consonant verbs, regis, regit, regere, &c., being properly divided
regi-s, regi-t, reg§-re, &:c. for earlier raga-sa, raga-ta, &c.)
Many noun-stems and many verb-stems are apparently formed
directly from the root by the addition of these stem-suffixes. In
some a reduplication or an internal change, especially of the vowel,
occurs also. The foiTnation of one word, compound or simple,
from another is often effected by the substitution of the stem-suffix
appropriate to one part of speech for that appropriate to another.
Words of simple form which contain no known derivative suffix
are presumably formed in this way directly from the root. Instances
may be collected from the lists given in this book.
The following are examples of the formation of nouns from 744
roots or from other words by the addition or substitution of no
other than a stem-suffix. The majority of verbs are so formed
(see Chap. x.).
A. advfina, a stranger (adveni-re) ; conviva, a guest (conviv-ere) ;
funda, a sling (fund-ere); mola, a mill (m61-Sre); scritoa, a clerk
(scrib-6re); t6ga, a cloak (t6g-6re); traha, a sledge (trah-ere).
0. ahenobartous, bron%e-beard (barba-) ; condus, a store-keeper
(cond-Sre) ; coqvus, a cook (c6qv-6re) ; f idus, trusty (fid-ere, f ide-s) ;
jugum, a yoke (comp. juwgere) ; mergus, a diver (merg-ere) ; nescius,
ignorant (nesci-re) ; profugus, deserting (profugS-re) ; promus, a
butler (prom-6r6) ; rSgus, a futieral pile (r6g-ere, comp. erigere, to
erect) ; sdnus, a sound (s6n-§re and soaare) .
U. acus, a needle (ac-, comp. ac-u-6re) ; currus, a chariot
(ciirr-6re); domus, a house (comp. Sefx-eLv, to build, domare, to tame).
I (or E). abnormis, abnormal (norma-) ; bilingvls, t<ivo-tongued
(lingva) ; niibes, a cloud (nvlb-gre, to cover, comp. uecfy-os) ; riipes,
a rock (rump-ere, to break) ; sedes, a seat (sgd-ere) ; veLes, a cartload
(v6h-ere).
[Without stem-suffix, dux, a leader (due- comp. dilc-6re) ; incus.
an anvil (inciid-ere) ; obex, a bolt (obice-re) ; planipes, Jlatfooted
(ped-).]
(3) Derivative suffixes are those additions (not being recogni-
sable roots) which are interposed between the root and the stem-
suffix; or, when there is no stem-suffix, between the root and the
suffix of inflexion. If they are themselves recognisable as roots,
the formation of the word belongs to the sphere of
(iv) Composition (which is treated of in Chapter xi.).
Interjections, some of which are words, some mere natural
sounds, will be enumerated in the last Chapter.
^ Aussprache, II. 50, foil. ed. 2.
2 70 Word-Formation. [Book III.
CHAPTER II.
DERIVATIVE SUFFIXES.
Derivative suffixes may originally have been words, but are 745
now merely sounds or combinations of sounds which have no
separate use or separate meaning, but modify the meaning of the
word to which they are suffixed. The same suffix does not usually
express precisely the same modifications, and different suffixes often
seem to have the same effect: compare -tuddn, -tia, -tat, &c. Fre-
quently indeed the use of a suffix may have proceeded from a fan-
cied or imperfectly apprehended analogy; and the ending of a word,
which is partly composed of stem-consonants or stem-vowels, and
partly of a suffix, has been apparently taken for an entire suffix, and
as such applied to other stems. Compare montanus, § 830, mon-
tuosus, § 814. Sometimes the sense of the suffix has been obscured,
and a further suffix is added to realize what the former suffix once
expressed; e.g. puella is diminutive of puera, but aftenvards sup-
planted puera as the ordinary term for a girl, and thus puellula was
formed for a little or very young girl.
A light vowel, 6, u, 6, more frequently i, is often found between 74G
the last consonant of the stem and the suffix. Its origin is not
clear. Sometimes it appears to be part of the suffix; e.g. -6c (-ic)
in s6nex, pilmex, &c. ; more frequently it appears to be the stem-
suffix weakened; e.g. candidus from cande- (see the words given in
§ 816), altitfldo from alto-; sometimes it appears to owe its birth
to analogy with other words; sometimes to a desire to ease the pro-
nunciation, or avoid the destructive effect of contiguous consonants;
or even to render possible the use of the word in verse. It is
indeed possible that it may be an expression of the slight sound
occasioned by opening the organs, in order fully to articulate the
final consonant (cf. § 9).
It has most frequently been treated in the following lists as the
weakened stem-suffix; but its occurrence in words formed from
consonant stems is by no means unusual, and seems to conflict with
this theory of its origin. If these consonant stems are the stunted
remnants of forms which originally were vowel stems, this weak-
ened vowel may be the relic of the fuller form. (So in French the
Chap. Il!\ Derivative Suffixes. 271
6nal t of the Latin 3rd pers. sing, is preserved only before a vowel;
e.g. a-t-il, and its meaning lost to the popular consciousness). If
otherwise, one of the other explanations must be resorted to.
The long vowel, found not uncommonly in the same part of 747
a derivative, is sometimes part of the suffix; e.g. dum-etum for
dum-ec-tum ; sometimes due to contraction of the stem-suffix with
a short initial vowel of the suffix ; e. g. the suffix -ino appended to
the stems Eoma-, divo-, tritou-, mari-, 6ge- gives Romanus, divinus,
tribiinus, marinus, egenus: the suffix -ill appended to anc6ra-,
tribu-, fide-, civl- gives ancoralis, tribiilis, fidelis, civilis. Some-
times it is due to following a false analogy; e.g. mont-anus, anser-i-
nus, &c., virgin-alis, reg-alis, &c.i
In other respects the ordinary laws of consonant and vowel
changes (given in Book I.) are observed.
In the following lists many words, which so far as our know- 748
ledge goes are primitive, are given along with the derivatives, partly
because of the difficulty and consequently arbitrary nature of an
attempt to separate them, partly because, as was said above, the
ending of a primitive word appears sometimes to have been sup-
posed to be a suffix, and consequently to have been applied as a
suffix in the formation of other words. The word-endings there-
fore, under which the Latin words are here arranged, are not
necessarily, though they are usually (except as regards a long initial
vowel, cf. § 747), suffixes.
These suffixes are sometimes simple, i. e. consisting of a single
vowel, or a single consonant with a vowel; sometimes compound,
i.e. consisting of two consonants with one or two vowels. Com-
pound suffixes are usually the result of adding a suffix to a stem
which is itself a derivative; but sometimes the suffix, though origi-
nally compound, has come to be treated as if it were a simple suffix ;
e.g. -unculo: sometimes it may be really a word which has ceased
to be used separately, and only appears now to be suffixal; e.g.
-ginta, § 794, and perhaps -gno, -monio, -cinio, &c.
The primary arrangement of noun-endings is according to the 749
consonant or vowel which immediately precedes either the stem-
suffix, or, in consonant nouns, the suffix of inflexions. Subordinately
to this, first come all word-endings which have the stem-suffix of
nouns of the first class (0 being used, for convenience sake, as
inclusive of a); secondly, word-endings of the second class. The
simplest endings, among which are those beginning with short
vowels, are put first ; then such compound endings as have a conso-
^ Key, Lat. Gr. §§ 227. 232.
272 Word-Formation. \Bodk III.
nant before the same short vowel; then simple endings with long
vowels; lastly, compound endings with the same long vowel. The
order of the consonants and vowels is the same as in Books I. and II.:
the order of the words is alphabetical.
The lists are intended to be fairly complete, except in those
classes of derivatives which contain too numerous instances to be
conveniently or usefully given. Of these a full and typical selection
is given. But the lists do not as a rule, though they do sometimes,
contain,
(i) Words found only in writers later than Suetonius.
(2) Words only quoted by Nonius or Festus, or other gram-
marians, and some others of early or rare use.
(3) Words (especially technical or scientific words), found
only and seldom in Cato, Varro, Vitruvius, Celsus, Pliny the elder,
Columella, Petronius. Many such are however given.
(4) Compounds with prepositions, if the simple form is also
found.
(5) Words borrowed from the Greek.
. CHAPTER III.
LABIAL NOUN-STEMS.
i. Stems endhig in -po, -pi, -p.
-po I. Adjectives: crispus, curling; lippus, blear-eyed; olistipus, 750
be?it.
2. Substantives :
(a) Masculine: capus, a capon; cippus, a post or upright block;
lupus, a ivolf (comp. AvKoy, § 66); napus, a turiiip; pupus, a boy;
rumpus (Varr.), a -vine branch; scapus, a stem (comp. scopae, scipio,
o-K^TT-rpoi-) ; scirpus, a rush; scrflpus, a rough stotie (scnipiHus more
common); stloppus, a slap; struppus, a cord (from aTp6<l>os'i)\
verpus, a circumcised man.
p6pa, a sacrificing priest (i.e. coqva, cf. § 118); Agrippa.
(Z>) Feminine: alapa, a slap; copa, a barmaid (comp. caupo,
KaTrrjXo?); culpa, a fault; cftpa, a tub; lappa, a bur; mappa (a Punic
word according to Quint.), a napkin; n6pa, a scorpion (African
Chap. II I ?^ Labial Noun-Stems: -vo,-vi,-v\ -^0. 273
word?); pidpa, Jleshy substance; ptlpa, a girl; ripa, a stream bank;
scopse (pl.)i tnvigs (see scapus) ; sapa, must boiled down to a third
(coinp. (iTTos); stuppa, tow (comp. o-TUTTTreioi/) ; talpa (rarely m.),
a mole ; vappa, flat wine (comp. vap-or, vap-idus) ; vespa, a wasp
(comp. a(prj^).
(c) Neuter: gausapura, a frieze cloth (cf. § 410); palpum,
stroking (only found in ace. and abl.) ; rapum, a turnip.
-plio lympha, water (comp. vvy.^r{).
-pi apis (f.), a bee (comp. e'/xTn'?, a gnat); csepe (n.), an
onion; copis, plentiful (com, op-; comp. inops); puppis
(f.), a ship's stern; rupes (f.), a rock (rump-ere) ; s^pes
(f.), a hedge (comp. arjKos, § 66); stirps (f.), a stock;
turpiSjfoul; volpes (f.), a fox (comp. dXajr-T]^).
-p adeps (m. f.), fat (comp. aXei4>a, ointment, cf. § 174. 4);
daps (f.), a banquet (comp. SaiTTfiv to devour, duTravr],
SfiTTfo:/); ops (f.), help (comp. a(p-evos)] stips, a small gift in coin.
Compound stem-ending: only pulo, § 860.
ii. Stems ending in -bo, -toi, -to.
-bo I. Adjectives: acer-bus, unripe, bitter (comp. actTi-, acies, 751
&c.); albus, nvhite; balbus, lisping; gibbus, humped
(comp. Kvn-reLv); orbus, bereft (comp. dp(p-av6s)\ pr5-
bus, honest; super-bus, haughty (super).
2. Substantives :
(a) Masculine: barbus, a barbel; bulbus, a bulb (l3o'k^6s)\
clbus, food; Columbus (also columba, f ), a pigeon; globus, a ball;
limbus, a border or fringe; lumbus, a loin; mor-bus, disease (moT-i) \
nimbus, a rain-cloud (comp. ve(f)-os, nQbes) ; rubus, a bramble;
tubus, a pipe.
Galba (see Suet. Galb. 3; some compare Germ, gelb, yellow);
scrib-a, a clerk (scrib-6re, § 744).
(b) Feminine: barba, a beard; faba, a bean; gleba or glseba, « jo^;
berba, grass (comp. ferre, (pop^i], (pepeiv, and § 134); juba, a mane;
obba, a beaker; teba, a hill (old Saoine word); sorbus, a service-
tree; tuba, a trumpet (comp. tubus); turba, a crowd (comp.
tur-ma).
(c) Neuter: libum, a cake; plumbum, lead (comp. fj.6\v^8oi);
sebum, fat; sorbum, a service-berry ; tabum, corrupt matter; ver-
bum, a word (comp. Ftp-, epelv, § 91).
iS
2 74 Word-Formation. [Book III.
-bi corbis (m. f.), a basket; labes (f.), a spot (comp. Xco/377, 752
outrage) ; nGbes (f.), a cloud (comp. n6bula, vi(f)-os) ;
orbis (m.), a round; palumbes (m. f.), a dove (comp. columbus
and § 66); plebs (f.), the common people (comp. ple-nus, po-pul-us,
■n\y]-6v<:^ '^c.); pUbes (f.), hair of commcticing tnanhood; scobis (f.),
sa-wdust (scab-ere); scrobis (m. f.), a ditch; tabes (f. § 411),
decaying matter (comp. TTy-Ketv); urbs (f.), a city (comp. orbis).
-Ij cselebs (adj.), unmarried.
Compound stem-endings: -bundo, § 818; -bulo, -bill, -tibili,
§§ 861, 875, 876; -b6ro, -bgrl, §§ 886, 901; -brio, § 941.
iii. Stems ending in -mo, -mi, -m.
-mo I. Adjectives: 753
al-mus, nourishing, kind (al-Sre) ; firmus, Jirm ; limus,
side^vays, e. g. limis oculis, out of the corners of the eyes (for lic-mus :
comp. obliqvus); 6pimus, _/«/, rich; suans, fat-nosed; patrimus,
having father living (patr-) ; matrimus, having mother living
(matr-).
bimus, t'wo years old; trimus, quadrimus are probably com-
pounds of Mm-, which appears uncontracted in Mem-p-s.
a. Substantives:
(a) MascuHne: ani-mus, sotd (comp. ave^os); ar-mus, a
shoulder Joint (ap-, apapLar<€Lv) ; cala-mus, a reed (probably from
KtiXa/ioj); culmus, a stalk, haulm; diimus, a thicket (for dus-mus;
comp. 8aa-vi)] fimus, dung; fii-mus, smoke (cf. § 99. 6); grumus,
aheap (of dirt, &c.); Mmus, a hook; li-mus, slime (for lit-mus;
comp. U-n-Sre); mimus, an imitator (from ^Ijuoj?); nummus, a
coin (comp. vopos); racemus, a bunch of berries (comp. pay-, pa^);
ra-mus, a branch (for rad-mus? comp. rad-ix, padivos); re-mus,
an oar (comp. iperpov, § 193); R^mus; scalmus, « thole, is bor-
rowed from (T/caX/ioy.
(h) Feminine: d6-mus, a house (comp. bep-fiv, d6mi-nus);
biimus, the ground (comp. x«M"Oi Pomus, a fruit-tree; ulmus, an
elm.
anima, ireath (see animus) ; bru-ma, ivinter solstice (for brfivi-
ma, sc. dies); coma, hair of head (borrowed from Koprj); damma, a
hind; fa.-ma,, fame (fa-ri); &a.m-mdi, fame (for flag-ma; comp. flag-
rare); forma, shape; gem-ma, a bud (for gen-ma; comp. g6n itus):
gluma, a husk (gmb-6re) ; gro-ma, a surveyor's rod (from -yi/wpoji/) ;
lacri-ma, a tear (comp. buKpv-); la-ma, a slough (for lac-ma; comp.
Chap. I 11^ Labial Noun-Stans: -bi; -mo, -fimo. 275
lacus); ll-ma, a file; mamma, a teat; nor- ma, a standard (perhaps
from -yi^copt//'/) ; pal-ma, the palm of band (comp. ■naka\xr])\ par-ma,
a light shield; pliima, a feather; rima, a chink (comp. ric-tus) ;
R6-ma, stream-city'i (comp. ru-o, riv-us, pevfia: so Gors., Curt.);
rama, a breast; spHi-ma, foam (spu-ere); squama, a scale of a fish,
&c. ; struma, a tumour; tama (Lucil.), a snivelling in the leg
(tumere?); tra-ma, a web; tur-ma, a troop (comp. tur-ba); victl-
ma, a victim (victo-).
(f) Neuter: arma (pi.), arms (ap-, see above) ; pomum, an apple,
fruit; volema or volsema (pi.), a kind of pears.
-umo or -imo. On the vowel preceding m see § 224. It may often 754
be that this vowel belongs to the stem, not to the suffix.
(a) Superlatives: extre-mus, outmost (for extra-imus) ; i-mus,
inmost, at the bottom (for in-imus) ; inf-imus, lozuest (inf-er, § 885);
jnin-imus, least (comp. min-6s-); plvlr-imus (old ploirumus, § 264),
most (for plo-ios-imus, plur-imus; with plo- comp. ple-rique, jroX-vi,
TrXe-t'coi/) ; postre-mus, hindmost, last (for postera-imus) ; post-umus,
esp. last born, usually, one born after his fat her'' s death (post; but
the t may be part of the suffix; cf. § 535); pri-mus (for pris-mus,
for pri-os-imus; comp. prior, pris-tinus, and § 193. 2; or directly
from pri-, a locative form seen in pri-die ; or for pro-imus, comp.
Trporfpoj, Trp&jroj); sum-mus, upmoit (for sub-mus ; comp. sub,
sup-er) ; supre-mus, highest (for supra-imus). In Petron. § 75,
ipsimus, ipsima for master, mistress (ipso-). So also the adv. de-
miun {downmost), at length (de).
(b) Ordinal numbers: dJbclmViS, tenth (for decim-imus) ; Septi-
mus, seventh (for septim-imus) ; quot-umus, how 7nanyth (quot;
formed by Plautus in imitation of septimus); no-nus is perhaps for
novimimus, contracted nomus, by assimilation of m to the initial n.
-iss-umo or -iss-imo, for -ios-umo; i.e. umo, suffixed to the stem of 755
the comparative. For the omission or absorption of the
6 see §§ 314, 242. For the formation of the comparative § 917.
The double s is due partly to the desire to indicate the length of the
syllable (which moreover is accented), partly perhaps to preserve
the sound of s sharp, instead of s flat or eventually r (cf. §§ 187,
191. 5. 6). For the ordinary explanation see the Preface.
alt-iss-umus, highi'st (alto-, alti5s-) ; antiqv-iss-imus, )?iost ancient
(antiqvo-, antiqvios-); audac-iss-imus, boldest (audaci-, audacios-);
bene-ficent-iss-imus, most benevolent (benefico-, beneilcentios-, as if
from a participial form) ; dign-iss-imus, worthiest (digno-, dignios-) ;
dur-iss-imus, hardest (dtlro-, durios-) ; fello-issimus, happiest (felici-,
felicios-) ; fertil-iss-imus, most fertile (fertili-, fertilios-); frugalissi-
mus, thriftiest (friigalios-, as if from fru?alis, for which frilgi, § 1108,
is used) ; imbectU-iss-imus, ^weakest (imbecillo- and imbecilli-, im-
becillios-) ; ips-issumus (Plaut.), the very tnan (ipso-) ; max-imus,
18—2
176 Word-Formation. [Book III.
greatest (for mags-imus from magis for magios-); 6c-iss-imus,
s-wiftest (ocios-, comp. wkvs:) \ neqv-iss-imus, absolutely good for
nothing (neqvios- from neqvam) ; p6nit-iss-mius, most in-ivard (p6iii-
tus, adv. but cf. PI. Asln. 42); sever-iss-imus, strictest (severo-,
severios-); verbgrabil-issiinus (Piaut.), most thrashable (verbera-
bili-) ; and many others. See Appendix C.
> These suffixes are formed in the case of a few superla- 756
^ tives, where the final consonant of the simple adjective
is 1 or r. Probably they are the result of a strong contraction,
caused by the desire to avoid s following 1 or r (cf. § 193. 5. r).
The double 1 or r may be the result of assimilation (§ 176. 5), or
evidence of the length of the syllable (see last section). Possibly
the apparent analogy of altus, altissimus, &:c. may have led to
acer, acerrimus, (S:c.
facill-imus, easiest (facili-, faciliSs-). So also dilflcil-limus ;
gracil-limus, thinnest (gracili-); humil-limus, lo^ivliest (Mmili-);
simil-limus, likest (simili-) and dissimiUimus.
acer-rimus, sharpest (acri-, actios- for acSrios-); asper-rimus,
roughest (aspfiro-, aspgriSs-); celer-rimus, quickest (c616ri-, celgrios-);
creber-rimus, jnost cro-.vded (crebro-, crebrios- for creberios-) ; deter-
rimus, worst (deterios-, no positive); salxlber-rimus, most healthful
(salubri-. salubrios-) ; v6ter-rimus, oldest (veterios- from v6tus-). So
also maturrimus (oftener matiuisslmus), miser-rimus, pulcer-rimus,
tSnerrimus, tseterrimus, vaferrimus, and the adverb nUper-rime, all
from stems; pauperrimus, iiberrimus, from consonant stems.
t -°^°1 («) sedi-tiimus (comp. sdituus, § 992, and Varr. R.R. 757
- -imo \ J, ^-^ Gell. 12. 10), a sacristan (sedi-); finl-timus, on the
borders (fini-) ; leg-i-timus, la^vful (leg-) ; mari-timus, by
the sea (mari-).
(Z") Superlatives:
ci-timus, nearest here (ci-s; comp. ob-s, ul-s); dex-timus, on the
extreme right (comp. dex-ter, Sf ^m, bf^irepo^) ; ex-timus, outmost
(ex); in-timus, inmost (in); op-timus. best (lit. overmost, upmost^
ob-s; comp. (ni); pes-simus, --vorst (lit. bottom-most^. p6d-; or
from the stem of pessum ?) ; proximus (for proc-timus), nearest (from
pr6que=prope, cf. namque, nempe, § 517); sinis-timus, on the
extreme left (only with auspicium ; comp. sinis-ter) ; vil-timus,
furthest, last (ul-s).
sollistimum, only found with tripudium, is by some translated
perfect, and derived from sollus (Oscan for totus), i. e. solus.
(f) Ordinal numbers from 20th to 90th inclusive. The initial
t of the suffix forms with the final t of the stem of the cardinal ss,
of which one s was omitted ; and in post-Augustan times the pre-
Chap. II T\ labial Noun- Stems: -tumo; -esimo; -vo. 277
ceding n was omitted (see 5j 168). Both the c and e of the ordinal
are earlier sounds than the g and i of the cardinal. (Cf. §§ 104, 234).
vicens-umus, vicesimus, vigesiinus (all found), Hucntifth (for
vicenti-tumus ; comp. viginti, vicies, and § 28. 2); tricens-umus,
&c. thirtieth (triginta); quadrages-imus, yo/V/c/^ (quadraginta). So
also qvinqvagesimus, sexagesimus, septuagesinius, octogesimus,
nonagesimus, and perhaps centes-imus, huudrcdtb^ for centum-timus,
centuntimus, cententimus (comp. e. g. regendum for regundum).
-es-umo Ordinal numbers from 200th upwards to loooth inclu- 758
sive. The first part of this suffix is due to the mistaken
notion that in the lower numbers es was part of the suffix, instead of
(as it really was) the representative of the last part of the cardinal.
It is possible that centesimus, which no doubt formed the immediate '
pattern for the higher numbers, may itself be a product of this false
analogy.
ducent-es-imus, t<ivo hundredth (ducenti-) ; trecentesimus, three
hundredth (trecenti) ; qvadringent-esimus, four hundredth (quadrin-
genti). So also qvinqvagesimus, sexcentesimus, septingentesimus,
octingentesimus, nongentesimus, mill-eslmus, thousandth (mille),
and (in Lucr.) multesimus, many-th (multo-).
-mi fames, hunger (cf. § 99). Comp. also cGcumis, comis, 759
rumis, vermis, &.c. § 412-
-m hiemps, winter (cf. § 134, and for the p § 70).
Compound stem-endings: -mento, -mSt, §§ 792, 806; -mino,
-men, §§ 825, 850; -mnio, § 934; -monio, § 935.
iv. Stems ending in -vo, -no, -vi.
-vo is found after vowels, or 1 or r ; -no after other consonants 760
(p, b; c, g; t, d, n; also tr).
-vo I. Adjectives:
arvus (r^xe)., ploughed (see arvum, § 761 c); cavus, hollow 761
(comp. cselum, KOLkos:)\ calvus, bald; cur-vus, curved (comp. cir-
cus, Kvp-Toi, KvX-Xoi); flavus, golden in colour; fulvus, tawny
(comp. fulgere); furvus, brown, dusky (comp. fus-cus, ^pvvr])\
gilvus, dun (comp. helvus); gnavus. knowing (comp. gnarus, gno-
sc6re) ; helvus, yellow (comp. xkli-rj, y\(^i-pQ%) ; Isevus, on left-hand
(comp. Xatoy); novus, new (comp. vio<i)\ parvus, small (comp.
par-cus, -..aCpos); pravus, ivrong; pri-vus, single, one^s own (lit.
standing forward; comp. pri-mus, § 754); VT^btervus, frolicsome;
ravus, ^rav, hoarse; ssevus, raging; salvus, safe (comp. ovXos, oXos,
solus) ; sesevus, on the left hand (comp. cr/catoy) ; torvus, grim (tor-
qvere?); vivus, living (cf. § 129 c).
275 Word-Formation. [Book III,
2. Substantives:
{a) Masculine : acervus, a heap; alvus (m. f. § 336), the belly;
aviis, a grandfather; cervus {horned; hence), a stag (comp. /cepaoy);
clavus, a nail, helm; stripe on dress (comp.'clavls, § 765); clivus, a
slope (comp. In-cli-nare, K.\ivw)\ corvus, a raven (comp. comix,
Kopa^)-, divus (diva, also deus, dea, and (Lurr. 4. 211) sub diQ)'
" g°'h goddess; favus, a honeycoynb cell; milvus (§ 762. 2 a); nsevus,
a ynole on the body, a birthmark (gl-gen-o, comp. gnaivos); nervus
a sinew, a cord (comp. yedpov)] rivus, a stream (comp. pelv, fut!
pfi)(T(Lv)\ servus (also adj. a.id serva, f.), a slave {severe, Join).
Nerva, a family name.
(b) Feminine: calva, a skull, or bald head; caterva, a crowd;
clava, a club; gingiva, the gum of the teeth; larva (§ 762. z b)';
Minerva (old Menerva) ; malva, the mallozv (comp. /xaXci;^/;. Hesiod) ;'
oliva (also olea), olive (comp. "\aios)\ silva, a wood (comp. iTXt;);
stiva, a plough handle; valva, a folding-door; lUva, sedge; volva, the
"juomb; flva, a grape.
(f) Neuter: aevum, an age (comp. aldv, § 91); arvum, a feld
(comp. arvus, § 761, ar-are, npoo), plough)-^ ervum, bitter vetch
(comp. opajSos); ovum, an egg (comp. cow, § 91); urvum, a plough-
tail (comp. curvus and § 121. 3).
-uo I. Adjectives: 762
(rt) from verb stems: ambig-uus, on both sides, ambiguous
(amb-ig-ere) ; assld-uus, constant (adsid-ere) ; csed-uus (of a wood),
for ctttting (csed-6re) ; congru-us, suitable (congru-ere) ; contig-uus,
touching (conting-ere); contin-uus, continuous (continere); decid-uus,
falling (decid-6re) ; divid-uus, parted (divid-6re) ; exig-uus, small,
orig. precise (exig-gre) ; iRg^n-xius. free-born (inglgn-6re); innoc-uus,
harmless (in, noc-ere) ; mQt-uus, by way of change (muta-re) ; oc-
cid-uus,/rt///«^; hence, from the sun, western (occid-6re); pasc-uus,
(of land) for grazing (pasc-ere) ; perp§t-uus, uninterrupted (perpet-
ere); prsecip-uus, taken in front, i.e. chief (praecip-6re) ; procid-uus
ipost-Aug.), falling forward (procid-6re) ; promisc-uus (also pro-
miscus), mixed (promiscere) ; reiic-uus (also reUcus, § 160. 7), left
behind, remaining (relinqv-6re) ; rSsid-uus, sunk to the bottom like
dregs, left unused (resid-ere) ; rig-uus, irrig-uus, irrigated (riga-re) ;
succid-uus (not prx-Aug.), sinking (succid-6re) ; vac-uus (§ 94. 2),
empty (vaca-re) ; and others.
(b) from substantives, or of obscure origin : ann-uus, for a year
(anno-) ; ard-uus, lofty (comp. up6-6i) ; cem-uus, headlong (comp.
Kpav-iov); fatuus, foolish; menstr-uus, monthly (mens-tr-i- from
niens-; cf. § 904); mort-uus, dead (morti-); stren-uus, active; suus,
his own; tuus, your; vid-uus, widowed (comp. di-vid-6re; Genn.
wittwe, Engl, widow).
Chap. I 11?^ Labial N'oim-Stcms : -vo, -MO, -ivo, ~\VT0. 279
2. Substantives:
{a) Masculine: carduus, a thistle; lituus, an augur's crook;
mnuus (§ 94. 2), a kite; patr-uus, a father's brother (patr-).
(b) Feminine: belua, a beast; jan-ua, a gate (jano-); larua
(§ 94. 2), a ghost, a mask; noct-ua, an owl (nocti-); stat-ua, a
statue (statu-) ; trua, a spoon.
(c) Neuter: februa (pl.),/iMr^fl^/i'fj (febrl-).
-I-vo (For words where i is apparently radical see § 761). 763
1. Adjectives:
jest-ivus, of summer (sestu-, heat) ; adopt-ivus, taken by choice
(adopta-re); cad-ivus (Plin.), /rt///«^ (cad-6re) ; interngc-ivus, ^f-
structme (interngc-a-re) ; lasc-lvus, playful; noc-ivus (^Phaedr., Plin.,
but nocuus, Ov.), hurtful (nScere); r4cid-ivus, restored (like a seed
fallen back into earth and sprung up; Lange: r6cid-6re); rgdivivus,
a builder's term for old tnaterlal (according to Lange, properly red-
iv-ivus, stripped off o\i\ buildings, from reduo; comp. reduvlse ; exuo,
exuviae, &c.) ; sement-ivus, for sowing (sementi-) ; subsic-ivus, cut
off, spare (subsec-are) ; tempest-ivus, seasonable (tempos-; either
the t is due to a false analogy with sestivus, or the word may be
shortened for teinpestativus) ; v6c-ivus (or vac-ivus), early fomi
for vacuus (vaca-re).
2. Substantives: Gradlvus (once Gradivus), a name of Mars;
saJ-iva, spittle (sal, salt).
-t-ivo i.e. -ivo, appended to the stem of the past participle. 764
(Only passivus not earlier than Appuleius exhibits the s.)
I, Adjectives:
{a) General: ac-t-ivus, active, practical (ag6re); adoptivus,
adoptive (comp. adoptare, frequentative in form) ; cap-t-ivus, cap-
tured (cap6-re); collec-tivus (post- Aug.), collected (collig-6re) ;
condi-tivus, stored (cond-6re); fes-tivus, gay, handsome (festo-);
fugi-t-ivus, run-away (fug6-re); fur-t-ivus, stolen (comp. filra-ri);
insi-t-ivus, ^^/-(t/W (inserfire) ; iustaura-t-ivus (f^xc), renewed (ys^-
staurare) ; lilcra-t-ivus, counted as gain (lucra-ri) ; na-t-ivus, bom,
self-grown (na-sc-i-); praeroga-t-ivus, first-asked (prserog-are) ;
sa-t-ivus, for sowing (s6-r6re) ; sta-t-ivus, stationary (stare) ;
sec-t-ivus (Col., Plin.), split (s6care); subdi-t-ivus, supposititious
(sub-d6re) ; v6-t-ivus, vowed (v6-vere) ; and others little used.
(b) Technical terms in rhetoric, grammar, &c.: defini-tivus,
explanatory (def inire) ; demonstra-tivus, expository (demonstra-re) ;
horta-tivus, hortatory (borta-ri); lauda-tivus, laudatory (lauda-re);
ratiocina-tivus, of reasoning (ratiociua-ri) ; transla-tivus, transferred
(translate-); and others. Similarly in grammar (in Quintilian),
2 So Word-Formation. [Book III.
ablativus, accusativus, ggngtivus, dativus, nominativus, possessi-
vus, reiativus; and others in later writers.
2. Substantives: donativum (post-Aug.), a largess (dona-re).
-vi avis (f.), a bird; brgvis, short (comp. ^pa^vs, § 129); /^s
civis (m.), a citizen (comp. qvl-es, Kel-fxai, Curt.) ;
clavis (f.), a key (comp. claudgre, AcXe/y, kXtjis) ; gravis, heavy (comp.
[:iapvs, as glans with /SaXai^oy); 16vis, /ig/jt (comp. eXnxvs, § 129);
navis (f.), a ship (comp. raOs); niv- (nom. nix., f.; cf. § 129. 2f);
snonv (comp. i/i^-froy); pelvis (f.), a basin; ravis (f.), hoarseness
(comp. rau-cus) ; sva-vis, sweet (comp. svad-us, 7;S-i;s); tSnvis, thin
(comp. ten-dere, t6n-er, Tavaos).
-nl grus (f.), a crane (comp. yepavos) ; lues (f.), pestilence
(comp. Xotfioi); strues (f.), a heap (comp. stru-ere, ster-
n6re); sus (m. f.), a pig (comp. vs).
V. Stems ending in -fo.
ofifa, a morsel; rilfus, red; scr5fa, a so-w; tofus, tufa stone. 766
CHAPTER IV.
GUTTURAL NOUN-STEMS.
i. Stems endingi in -co, -qvo; -cu, -ci, -qvl; -c, -qv.
I. Stems ending in -co, -qvo.
-co I. Adjectives:
seqvus, level; avemincus, averting; csecus, blind; cascus, 767
old; cdruscus, flashing; flaccus, flabby; fuscus, dark coloured; lus-
cus, ojie-eyed; mancus, manned; parous, thrifty; paucus, y^iy (comp.
TraO-por); Plancus (piano-?); priscus, ancietit (prius); raucus (for
ravicus), hoarse (ravi-); reciprocus, backwards and forwards (r6-
co, pro-co, derivatives of re and pro; Key, ^jj^jj, p. 74 sq.); siccus,
^ On sufn-xes with -c see Key, Pliilol. Soc. Trans, for 1 856.
Chap. IF.] Guttural Noun- Stems: -co, -qvo, -Ico. 281
dry (for siti-cus from sitis, thirst]):, spiurcus, dirty; troncus, lopped;
vescus, small.
2. Substantives:
(«) Masculine: abacus, a board (comp. afSa^); arcus (arqvus),
a bonv (see § 395); circus, a ring (KpUoi); c6cus (cocivus), a cook;
ecus (eqvTXs), a horse (comp. Ittttos, §11!^); flscus, a basket; floccus.
a flock of wool; focus, a hearth; fucus (i), sea-zueed (comp. (f)vKos,
Hom.); (2) a drone; hlrcus, a goat; jocus, a Joke; juncus, a
biilrush; juven-cus, a ifullock (iviv^n-); lacus, « /oo/ (cf. §§ 395, 776);
16cus, a place; lucus, a grove; maccus, a clo<ivn (comp. fxaKKoav, to
moan); Marcus, hammer i a Roman prasnomcn; mflcus, snot (comp.
munggre); picus, a ivoodpecker ; porcus, a pig; procus, a suitor
(comp. pr6ca-ri); saccus, a bag (comp. (TaKK.o%)\ soccus, a slipper;
siicus, juice (comp. otto?, § 107); siilcus, a furrow (comp. oXkos,
fAKfii/); truncus, a lopt stem (see above); vicus, a street (comp.
oIkos); vopiscus (see Plin. 7. 10, § 8).
Roman family names: Murcus; Casca (comp. cascus, old); S6-
n6ca (senec-, old)\ Tucca.
{b) Feminine: ficus, a fig-tree; ruscus (or ruscum, n. ?) bulchers
broom.
aqva, ivater; area, a chest (comp. arcere, apKf'iv) ; baca, a berry;
braccse (pi.), breeches; bucca, a cheek; esca, food (6d-, gd6re, esse,
to eat); furca, a fork; juvenca, a heifer (see above); labrusca, a
wild vine; marisca, a ki?id of fig; mica, a grain; moUusca, a soft
nut (molU-) ; musca, a fly (comp. ^.v'la for /xucrta ?) ; orca, a whale,
a tun; Parcse (pi.). Fates (from par-ti-, the apportioners"? comp.
fio'ipai, fxepos' or eulogistic from parc-6re, to spare]); porca, (i) a
furrow; (2) a farrow, i. e. a sow (cf. Key, Essays, p. 95); posca,
an acid drink; rica, a woman s veil; sica, a dagger; spica, an ear of
corn; tricse (pi.), trifles ; vacca, a cow.
(c) Neuter: molluscum, a fungus (molli-); naucum (?), a
trifle (?); tesca (tesqva, pi.), waste places ; viscum, mistletoe (comp
l^og).
i-co i.e. (usually) -co, suffixed to vowel stems.
I. Adjectives: Afri-cus, of the Afri (Afro-); belli-cus, 768
of war (bello-); civl-cus, of a citizen (civi-); classi-cus, of a class,
esp. the fleet (classi-) ; Creti-cus, of Crete (Creta-) ; domini-cus, of
a master (domino-); fullon-icus, of a fuller (fullon-); Germani-cus,
of Germans (Germane-); lubricus, slippery; mangon-icus (Plin.,
Suet.), of a dealer (mangon-) ; m6di-cus, of healing (m6d6-, mfideri);
modi-cus, moderate (mode-); publi-cus, public (p6pulo-, cf § 69);
sonti-cus, dangerous (sonti-, guilty); t6tri-cus, rough (comp.
t£etro-?); varicus (Ov.), j^ra^^/Ziw^ (v3xo-); flni-cus, single {^J^o-);
urbi-cus, of the city (urbi-).
Common in Greek v^^ords; e.g. comicus, grammaticus, posticus, &c.
282 Word-Formation. [Book III.
2. Substantives:
(a) Masculine: vili-cus (vHica), a farm ste<iuard (villa-).
{b) Feminine: alica (halica), speh; brassica, cabbage; fabri-ca,
a manufacture (fabro-) ; IQricse (pL), see Juv. 3. 38; fulica (fulix),
a coot; mani-cse (pi), gloves, handcuffs (manu-); p6d-ica, a snare
^^p6d-, ybo/") ; ridica, a-vhieprop; siliqva, a pod; sublica, a pile for
a bridge, &c.; tunica, a shirt; v6mi-ca, a running abscess (v6m§re,
cf. § 698).
(c) toxicum, poison, orig. for smearing arrows (jo^ov).
-ti-co i. e. -co added to real or presumed adjectives in -to. 7^9
I. Adjectives: domesticus, of home (ddmo-; comp.
mSdestus, § 789; agrestis, § 808); Ligus-ticus, of the Ligurians
(Llgus-) ; rus-ticus, of the country (rQs-).
2. Substantives: can-ticum, a song (can-to-, cangre); man-
tica, a bag; pertica, a pole; scutica, a whip (comp. sciituni, a leathern
shield)] tri-ticum (threshed) wheat, corn (tri-to-, t6rere).
-ati-co I. Adjectives: aqvLaXicus, living in or near avater(a,qua,-);T!°
erraticus, wandering (errare); fanaticus, inspired (fano-);
lympliaticus, of the frenzied (lymphato-, Isrmplia-) ; silvaticus, of a
wood (silva-) ; venaticus, for hunting (venaxi-) ; umbraticus, of the
shade (lunbra-); volaticus, winged (v61a-re, tofy).
2. Substantives: xisiticvaa., Journey-supplies (via-; comp. viator).
-li-co I ^ Adjectives: farae-licus, starving (fame-); hiu-lcus, 77'
" S^P'^^S (bia-re; cf. § 204. ze)\ p6tu-lcus, frolicsome
(p6t-6re, cf. § 657, and comp. p6tul-ans).
2. Substantives: bubul-cus, an ox-tender, i.e. a ploughman
(b6v- whence biibulus, cf. § 76. 2); sub-ulcus, a swineherd (su-
for s6v-? or perliaps the word is simply formed in imitation of
bubulcus) ; remulciun (only in abl. s.), a towrope (probably from
Greek; comp. pv^ovXKelv, Polyb.).
"ri~co )
\ vitricus, a stepfather; noverca, a stepmother (novo-;
' comp. vios, vfapos)-
'. "^ I Adjectives: ant-iqvus, ^r(?/fr(7^/?, «««>«/ (for antinqvus ? 772
-iqvo- ) fpjjji ante, but cf. § 774); long-inqvus, distant (longo-);
pr6p-itiqvus, 7iear (prope). Possibly from locative forms
antim, &c. (J. Wordsworth).
(In obliqvus the q is radical; comp. lic-inus, Xe';^-ptos).
-aco mer-acus, pure (of wine without water ; m6ro-) ; op- 773
acus, shady ; clo-aca, a sewer (cluere old=purgare : comp.
KXv-^eiv).
Chap. I V.^ Guttural Noun- Stems: -co, -c^Yo; -cvL,-ci, -c. 283
-ilco ser-uca, verdigris (ses-); cad-ucus, yjj///Vzg- (cad-§re); car-
ruca, a carriage; eruca, a caterpillar, colcrMort; festuca,
a stalk; flstuca, a pile-dri'ver; lact-uca, a lettuce (lactl-);
mand-ucus, a cbe^joer (raand-6re) ; mastruca (Sardinian),
a sheepskin; aatoucus (sambucus), f., elder-tree; verruca,
a njnart.
-ico The 1 seems to be at least in some cases the result of con- 774
traction with a final vowel ; e. g. = oi, ei, &c.
1. Adjectives: am-icus, //-/V/z.a'/y (ama-re) ; ant-icus, in front
(ante); apr-icus, sunny; mend-icus, of beggars; post-icus, behind
(post, old poste) ; pud-icus, shamefast (pudere).
2. Substantives: formica, an ant; lect-ica, a sedan (lecto-);
lor-ica, a breast-plate (of leathern thongs; loro-); lumbricus, a
worm; Nas-ica (m.), (naso-); rubr-ica, red paint, red heading
(nibro-); vesica, a b. adder; umbil-icus, the navel (comp. djuc^aXov);
iirtica, a nettle (comp. Gr-ere). See also in § 767. a ^.
i-aco ^gypt-i-acus, of ^gypt (^gjrpto-) ; Cdrinthiacus, of Co- 775
rinth (Corintlio-) ; Nil-i-acus, of the Nile (Nilo-).
2. Stems ending in -cu, -ci, -c.
-cu See § 395. acus (m. f.), a needle (comp. ac-6r, oV-wkt;'); 77^
arcus (m.), a bow; ficus (f.), a fgtree; lacus (m.), a
pool (comp. laciina, la-ma, \aK.-o<i, Xc'ikkos) ; pScu (n.), a head of
cattle; porticus (f.), a colonnade (comp. portu-) ; qvercus (f.), an
oak; sp6cus (m.), a cave (comp. (TTreoy).
-ci arx (f.), a citadel (comp. arcere); calx (f.), (i) chalk.,
(2) a heel; dulcis, siveet (comp. -yXuKiJj); fascis (m.), a
bundle; fsex (f.), dregs; fauces (m. pL), throat; lanx (f.), a dish;
lux (f.), light; merx (f.), ynerchandise ; piscis (m.), a fish; torqvis
(m.), a collar (comp. torqvere, to twist').
-c crux (f.), a cross; dux (m.), a leader; fax (f.), a link;
fraces (m. pi.), oil-dregs; nex (f.), death ;'a.vcL{i.), a nut;
pix (f.), pitch (comp. Tj-iacra and § 839 b) ; prex (not found in nom.
s.) (f.), a prayer; trux, cruel; vic-em (m. f.), a change; vox (f.),
a voice.
-6c (-ic) This is a diminutival suffix, and forms substantives. 777
apex (m.), the top point; carex (f.), sedge; caudex,
codex (m.), a tree-truiik, njjooden tablets; cimex (m.), a bug; cort-
ex (m. f.), bark of a tree; culex (m.), a gnat; forfex (m. f.),
scissors; frutex (m.), a shrub; ilex (f.), an ilex; imbr-ex (m.), a
tile (imori-); ld,tex (m.), water; mtlrex (m.), the purple fish,
2S4 Word-Formation. \Book III.
psel-ex, pel-ex (f.), a concubine (a transcription of "noKka^ ; podex
(m. ped-6re); poUex (m.), a thumb; pHlex (m.), a Jiea (comp.
\vKKa)\ pGmex (m.), a pumice stone; ramex (m.), a {branching)
bloodvessel (rlmo-); rilmex (m. f.), sorrel; s6n-ex (m.), an old man
(comp. ei/of) ; silex (m. i.),/lint; sorex (m.), a shre-iu mouse (comp.
vpa^); vort-ex, vert-ex (ni.), a whirls the top of a thing (vert-6re).
(Ju-dex, arti-fex, au-spex, simplex, &c. are compounds; obices
from obicere; iUex from illicere. See § 395.)
-ic append-ix (f.), an appendage (append-6re) ; filix (f.), a 778
fern; fom-ix (m.), a vault (fomo-, an oven); larix,
a larch; salix, a luillo^iu (comp. iXiKt]) ; var-ix, a dilated vein
(varo-); and a few others (see § 440).
-acl I. Adjectives; almost all from verb stems: 779
aud-ax, daring (audere); cap-ax, capacious (capg-re);
contum-ax, obstinate (tiLmere) ; dic-ax, <iuitty (die-, comp. maledic-us);
6d-ax, eating a^way (Sd-gre); effic-ax, effectual (fac6-re); 6max,
fotid of making purchases (6m-6re) ; fall-ax, deceptive (fall-6re) ;
f6r-ax, fruitful (fer-re) ; lug-ax, runa'Lvay (mg6-re) ; mr-ax, thievish
(fura-ri); 16qv-ax, talkative (loqvi); mend-ax, lying (comp. men-
ti-ri); min-ax, threatening (mina-ri); mord-ax, biting (mor-dere);
nug-ax, trifling (nuga-ri) ; pr6c-ax, for^tvard in manner (pr6ca-re) ;
pugn-ax, quarrelsome (pugna-re) ; rap-ax, rapacious (rap6-re);
sag-ax, sagacious (comp. pr£e-sagi-re); sal-ax, lustful (salire) ;
sgqv-ax, pursuing (seqvi) ; perspic-ax, clear-sighted (spece-re) ; tag-
ax, light-fingered (tag-, tangere) ; ten-ax, tenacious (tgnere) ; ver-ax,
truthful (vero-) ; pervic-ax, stubborn (vi«c-6re) ; viv-ax, Ufefull, long-
lived (viv-gre) ; v6r-ax, voracious (v6ra-re) ; and some others little
used.
2. Substantives: fom-ax (f.), a kiln (fomo-); pax (f.), peace.
Also (with suffix -ac): lim-ax (f.), a slug (limo-).
-oci Adjectives: atr-ox, cruel {dXro-, black); fgr-ox, high- ySo
spirited (fSro-, iti/J); solox, coarse (of wool, only in
Festus) ; vel-ox, sivift (v61a-re ?).
Substantive: cgl-ox (f.), a yacht (comp. cgl-er, KeXrjs).
-ec alex (f.),fish brine; verv-ex (m.), a ivether.
-ici I. Adjectives: fel-ix, happy; pemix, active (ni-ti, cf. 781
§707)-
-ic 2. Substantives; all feminine.
cervix, a neck-bone (?), the neck; cor-n-ix, a crozv (comp.
cor-vus, Kop-d>v-q, Kop-a^) ; cdtumlx, a quail; cox-end-ix
(f.), the hip (coxa-); jOn-ix, a heifir (jtivgn-); lodix, a
Chap.IV\ GiUtiiral Noun-Stems : -acl, &c., -tricl; -go. 285
blanket; rad-ix, a root (comp. pt'^a, and perhaps pahivd^, taper,
ra-mus) ; stru-ix (f.), a heap (strui-, stru-Sre) ; vibix, a <weal.
matr-ix (f.), a breeder (mater); nutr-ix (f.), tiur^e (nutrire),
are formed as if analogous to the words in the next section.
-t-r-ic ( Semi-adjectival feminine substantives corresponding to 78a
(-t-r-icij) nouns in -tor. From -tor-ic comes victro-ic, victr-Ic-.
The t is the suffix of supine, &c. When used as adjec-
tives they have -i stems (e.g. victricia, § 414).
accusa-trix (Plant, twice), accuser (accusa-); adjQ-trix, helper
(adjuva-re); al-trix, nourisher (al-6re); ama-trix (Plaut., Mart.),
a wtJtress (ama-re) ; bella-trix, a ^warrior (bella-re) ; cicatrix, a
scar; conserva-trix (Cic. once), preserver (serva-re) ; contam-p-trix,
despising (contemn-ere) ; crea-trix, a creator (crea-re) ; cul-trix, a
cultivator (c61-6re) ; educa-trix, trainer (educa-re) ; expul-trix, ex-
peller (pell-6re, pul-sum, § 152. 3); g6n6-trix, a mother (gen-, gig-
n6re) ; gubema-trix, directress (gubema-re) ; impera-trix, comwander
(impera-re) ; indaga-trix, a tracker out (indaga-re) ; inven-trix, disco-
verer (v§n-i-re); mSr6-trix, a courtesan (mferere); moli-trix (Suet.),
a contriver (moli-ri) ; na-trix, a ivater-snake (na-re) ; obst6-trix,
a mid-zvife (stare, cf. § 645); oratrix, a suppliant (orare); receptrix,
a receiver (recipere); tex-trix (Mart.), webster, i.e. female lueaver
(tex-ere); tons-trix, a barber (tondere, § 160. 3); vena-trix, hunt-
ress (venari) ; vic-trix, conquering (viwcSre) ; ul-trix, avenging
(ulc-isci, cf. § no. 2); and some others.
In Plaut us also cistellatrix, a casket-woman (cistella-); prsestri-
giatrix (so Plautus MSS.), a conjurer (prsestringere).
Compound stem-endings: -coso, -iculoso, § 814; -cundo, §820;
-cino, -cion, §§ 840, 853; -culo, -unculo, -uscWo, §§ 862 — 864;
-cero, -c6ri, §§ 887, 902; -aceo, -flceo, §§ 920, 921; -cio, -ticio,
-cinio, §§ 930, 931, 936.
ii. Stems ending in -go, -gvo ; -gi, -g, -gvi. 783
In most of these words the g belongs to the stem.
-go I. Adjectives: largus, boimtiful; longus, long; sagus
(usually saga, i.), foretelling (comp. sag-ax); vagus, wan-
dering; valgus, bo-iv-legged (comp. vax-us).
2. Substantives:
alga, seaweed; bulga, a bag (Gallic word); caliga, a half -boot
(comp. calc-eus); fagus (f.), a beech-tree (comp. (prjyos, oak) ; fraga
(pi.), strawberries; fug-a, flight (comp. (pvyij); fungus, a mushroom
(comp. (Tc^oyyof); jug-um, a yoke (comp. ^vyov^ § 141); merg-us,
2S6 Word-Formation. [Bciok III.
a dii'er-for,vl (merg-6re) ; mergae. (pi.), a t^jjo-protig fork; nTlgse
(pi.), tnjles (comp. nauco-); pagus, a -viUa-re; plaga," (i) a region,
(2) a snare; plag-a, a blow (comp. pla«g-6re, -rr'kiqaaeiv, irXrjyij);
rdgus, a funeral pile (rgg-ere),- ruga, a <ivrinkle; sagum, a soldier's
blanket, said by Polybius to be a Celtic word; but comp. (rayr],
harness); strig-a, a swathe (comp. stri«g-6re); tergum, a back;
t6g-a, a clcak (teg-ere) ; virga, a switch (comp. vir-6re?): volgus
(n. § 338)./c>/^.
-gvo lingva, the tongue (lingSre, to lick).
-gi ambages (f, pL), goings round about (amb, ag-6re) ; com- 78-1
pages (f.), afastenur^ (compa;/g-ere) ; contages (f.), con-
tagion (com, ta«g-ere) ; jiigis (adj.),y>vjA; propages (f.),
offspring (comp. propaga-re); stra-ges (f.), destruction
(comp. stemfire, stra-to-).
-g conjunx, a consort (com, jug-) ; frQg-em (f. no nom. sing.),
fruit, corn; grex (m.), a flock; lex (f.), a law (leg-6re, to
choose ?); rex (m.), a king (r6g-gre); strix (f.), a screech-owl.
-gvi angvis (m.f.), a snake (comp. e'x'^) > niwgvis (f. nix), snow
(comp. i>i(f)-€T6i) ; pingvis, fat (comp. Traxvi) l vmgvis
(m.), a nail (comp. oj/u|).
Compound stem-endings: -gno, § 826; -g6n, -agOn, -ilagSn,
-ugon, -ig6n, § 845; -gneo, § 922.
iii. Stems ending in -lie, -M.
traha, a sledge; vghes, a cart load (v61i-6re). 785
CHAPTER V.
DENTAL NOUN-STEMS.
i. Stems ending in -to (^or -so ivhen presumably arisen from
a dental).
-to Adjectives of quantity:
qvan-tus, how great (quam) ; qvajr-tus, fourth (for 7S6
qyatvortus from qvattvor); qvin-tus (or qvlnctus),^/'/j(qvmqve);
qu6-tus, how great (« part), i.e. ivhat number (qvo-, comp. qvot);
sex-tus, sixth (sex); tan-tus, so great (tam); t6-tus, so many-th;
totus, <ivhole.
Comp. is-tus (iste), that; ipsus (ipse), self.
Chap, r.] Dental Noun-Stems: -to (-so). 287
-to (-so) I. Adjectives: ^^^
(a) Participles, expressing completed action, done in the
case of deponent verbs, and some others (§§ 734, 735); suffered in
the case of verbs having also an active voice, and in many deponents
(§ 734). See full list in §§ 689—709. Also §§ 734, 735-
(Z") Participles, or words of similar formation, used as adjec-
tives of quality. (For -ato, &c. see below, § 796.)
al-sus, cool (alg-ere) ; al-tus, h':gh (al-ere, to nourish') ; ap-tus,
Jit (api-sc-i); artus, narrozv (arcere, 10 confine) \ assus, roast (comp.
aC&j); bliBSUS, lisping (comp. /SXato-oy, bandy-legged):, briitus, brute;
cassus, empty: castus, chaste (comp. Kadiipos); catus, sharp; cel-sus,
high (cell-ere, to strike])-^ cer-tus, sure (cer«-6re); crassus, thick;
cunctus, all (covinc-ire) ; curtus, docked (comp. Kelpca) ; decrgpitus
(that has cracked 0^"?), ivorn out (crepare); densus, thick (comp.
8a(T-vs)'i dierectus (Plant.), frz/f//7f^, usually dierecte; vocative? or
adverb? (always trisyll. dis-erlg4re?) ; disar-tus, _/?««// (dissSrere?
to discuss) ; e Jxus, boiled (comp. laxus, prolixus) ; fal-sus, Jalse
(fallere); fastus (nefastus), lawful (fas); fessus, ^'earj (fati-so-i,
to gape)-^ fes-tus, festive (comp. fer-ise); fe-tus, pregnant (comp.
fe-mina, fe-cundus, § 99. 6); fretus, relying (fer-re? cf. § 692);
glutus, tenacious, soft (§ 690); gratus, pleasing; Mrtus, shag'^y; in-
fes-tus, set on (cf. § 704. n.) ; invitus, un-zvUUng (for in-vic-tus?
comp. ff/c-, eKuiv); ir-ri-tus, ineffectual (reri); Justus, Just (jfls-);
laetus, cheerful; lassus, tired; latus, broad (for tlatus, borne, cf.
§ 176. 3); laxus, loose; luxus, dislocated (comp. 'Xo^os); lau-tus,
splendid (iBiVSiie)] lentus, pliant; mac-tus, made great (comp. mag-
nus); msestus, sad (maarere); manifestus, hand-struck, i.e. palpable
(§ 704. n.); multus, much; mustus, ne^w; mutus, dumb (comp.
mussare; also fxvfiv, to close the eyes) ; obesus (overeaten, i.e.), fat
(ed-ere) ; psetus, blink-eyed; pSr-osus, hating (cf. p. 25 2) ; plautus,
^at; putus, cleared, quite (comp. pu-tare, § 964) ; russus, red (comp.
ipvd-p6s)\ sal-sus, jfl// (salire) ; sanctus, Z^o/v, ^00^/ (sane-ire); sen-
tus, squalid (comp. sentina); si-tus, placed (si«-ere); spissus,
crozvded; stnLtus, foolish (comp. stolldus); subitus, sudden (subire);
sublestus (Plant.), aveak; tacitus, silent (tacere); ter-sus, neat (terg-
ere, to q.vipe) ; vastus, waste, huge; v6g6-tus, active (§ 693).
2. Substantives: 788
(a) Masculine : accensus, an apparitor (orlg. supernumerary,
Mommsen, accensere); cossus, a worm; also as proper name (from
wrinkled skin); digitus, a fnger (comp. bciKTvXo^, deiKvveiv, dic6re,
dic-axe, prodigium) ; fusus, a spindle; grossus, an unripe fg: guttus
(gutus), a bottle; hortus, a garden (cf § 134); lacertus, (i) the
muscle of the upper arm; (2) a lizard; lectus, a couch (comp. Ae;^oy,
XeKTpov) ; liber-tus, a freedman (lib5ro-) ; nasus (nasum), a nose
(comp. naris) ; ventus, wind; ursus, a bear (comp. apKTo^).
288 Word-Formation. [Bcvk IIL
lanista, a trainer of gladiators (comp. citharista, Kt^apto-Tiyj) ;
lixa, a camp-follower.
Bassus; Cotta (for cocta?); Natta; Y^.-asa.^ splay-footl (pand-ere).
{f) Feminine: buxus, box-tree; taxus, j^w.
amita, a father s sister; ansa, a handle; antisti-ta, a priestess
(ante, stato-); arista, the beard of corn; ballista, a military engine
\fiaKKfiv)\ beta, beet; blatta, a moth; capsa, a box (cap-6re?); ca-
tasta, a platform ; causa, a cause; cerussa, '^.vhite lead (as if Krjpoecr-
aal); charta, paper {)(<^prr]s}'i costa, a rib; coxa, the hip (comp.
KO)(covr]); creta, chalk; crista, a crest; crusta, rind, shell, &c.; cu-
curbita, a gourd; culcita, a pillow; fossa, a ditch (f ode-re); gutta,
a drop; basta, a spear; bospita, a guest; impen-sa (sc. pecunia),
expense (impend-6re) ; instita, a f ounce or band; jiiven-ta, youth
(jiivgn-) ; matta, a mat; mensa, a table; meta, a cone; multa, a
fine; nota, a tnark (cf. § 647); noxa, hurt (n6c-ere); ofFen-sa, a
striking against (ofFend-6re) ; orbita, a wheel track (orbi-) ; pausa,
a pause (naveiv) ; planta, a sprout, the sole of the foot; porta, a gate;
praetex-ta (sc. toga), a bordered robe (prsetex-6re) ; prosa (sc. ora-
tio), prose (pro-vert-ere, cf. § 191. 2); rSpul-sa, a repulse (repell-
6re) ; rixa, a quarrel (comp. eptS-) ; rdsa, a rose (comp. poSoy) ;
rota, a nvheel; rfita, j-ue (comp. pvTiq) ; sseta, a bristle; sagitta,
an arrow; sec-ta, a party (sScare or sfiqvi?); semita, a path;
secespita, a knfe; Sospita (epithet of Juno), Preserver; sporta,
a basket (comp. anvpld-) ; tensa, a sacred chariot; testa, a potsherd
(for tors-ta, from torre-re?); ton-sa, an oar (tond-6re); Vesta,
hearth-goddess (comp. ur-ere, us-tiun; 'Ecrrta); vindicta, (i) rod
nsed in the ceremony of manumission; (2) revenge (vindec-); vita,
Ife; vltta, a filet (comp. viere); v61il-ta, « scroll in architecture
(volv-ere).
(f) Neuter: arbfitum, w//^ j/r^w^^rrj; bus-turn, « /ow^ (comp.
coni-biir-6re) ; compitum, a crossroad (com-p6t-gre ?) ; cubi-tum, the
elbow (cubare) ; defriltum, tjiust boiled down (defervere ]) ; dic-tum,
n saying (dic-6re); dorsum, a back; exta (pi.), heart, liver, &c. (for
ex-sec-ta?); fa- turn, destiny (fa-ri); frfitum, a sea strait; frustum,
a broken piece (comp. 6paveiv, § 99. 6); furtum, a theft (fur-); letum,
death; lu-tum, }nud (comp. lav-are); IQtum, a yellow dye; mentum,
the chin (comp. e-minere, to project); dmasum, bullock's tripe (a
GaUic word) ; pas-sum, raisin wine (pand-6re, to spread out to dry) ;
pen-sum, a task (pend-6re, to weigh); pessum (only ace), ground
(p6d-, foot) ; porten-tum, a portent (portend-gre) ; pratum, a
meadow; prosecta (pi.), parts cut off, e.g. for sacrifice (prosecare);
pulpitum, a scaffold; pimc-tum, a poiyit (pung-6re, to prick); ssep-
tum, a fence (ssep-ire) ; saxum, a rock; scortum, a whore (orig.
a bide ace. to Varro; comp. cor-ium); scruta (pi.), trash; sciltum,
a leather-covered shield (comp. trKiJi-o?) ; sugges-tum, a platform.
( sugg6r-ere) ; tec-tum, a bouse (t6g-6re) ; tes-tiun, a pot-lid (torr-
ere); vervactum, a fallow feld; vlrgultum, a thicket (vlrg-ul-a-);
vo-tum, a vow (v6v-ere).
Chap. K] Dental Noun- Stems : -to (-so), -mento. 2S9
-us-to i. e. -to appended to a suffix in -os, -us (-or, -ur). 789
angus-tus, narron.v (angor-, ang-6re; comp. 'ay\iiv^ to
throttle) ; aug-us-tus, consecrated (aug-ur-) ; faus-tus, propitious (fa-
vor-) ; 6n-us-tus, laden (onus-) ; rob-us-tus, strong (robdr-) ; vSn-us-
tus, pretty (v6nus-) ; v6tus-tus, ancient (vetus-).
-es-to i.e. -to appended to a suffix -os or -us.
fun-es-tus, deadly (fUn-us-) ; hdn-es-tus, honourable (li6n-
5-s); interapes-tus, unseasonable (in tempds-); mod-es-tus, modest
(modo- ; comp. ni6d-6r-a-rl) ; mol-es-tus, troublesome {exhausting, from
in61-6re, to grind 1)] sc61-es-tus, ivicked (scfilus-),
-c-to i.e. -to appended to the suffix -Sc, -ic. 790
1. Adjectives: senectus (Plaut.), old (sen-ec-); hence
senecta, sc. setas, old age; umectus, moist (comp. um-ere).
2. Substantives: car-ec-tum, reed beds (car-6c-); dum-
ec-tum (Fest.), old for dumetum (§ 798. 3); frutec-tum (also in
Col. frutetum; comp. fruticetum, § 798. 2), shrubbery (frutSc-);
sal-ic-tum, a 'willow bed (salic-); vir-ec-tum, greenery (vlr-ere).
-en-to I. Adjectives: cru-entus, bloody (comp. cru-or). 791
2. Substantives: (<?) feminine: pSlenta, pearl barley
(pollSn-; comp. Ttakri) ; placenta, a cake (probably from
ace. of TtKaKovs).
(b) Neuter: arg-entum, silver (comp. apyof, white); carpen-
tum, a covered two- wheeled carriage; flu-entum, a stream (flu-6re);
pilentum, a covered four-wheeled carriage; talentiun, a balance
iroKavTov); ungven-tum, ointment (ungven-).
So the names of towns: Agrigentum ('AKpayai/r-, nom. 'Afcpayar);
Bux-entum, 5oA-?/-oT.r (buxo-; Uv^oivr-, nom. IIu^oCs); Grflm-en-
tum, Hill-townT (grumo-); Laur-entum, Laurel grove} (lauro-);
Tarentiun (Tapas)'-, comp. Sipontum (Sittous).
-m-en-to i.e. -to appended to the suffix -m§n (§ 850). 792
Substantives, (a) neuter; usually derived from verbs.
Many are used chiefly in the plural.
ali-mentum, nourishment (al-6re) ; amentum, a javelin thong,
(for api-mentum, a fitting] comp. ap-tus, aTrreiv); arga-mentvlm, a
proof (argu-6re) ; arma-menta (pi.), tackle (arma-re) ; ar-mentum,
a plough beast (ara-re) ; atramentum, ink (atro-) ; auctora-mentum,
hire (auctora-ri) ; blandi-mentum, soothing (blandi-re) ; cse-mentum,
quarried stone (c2ed-6re) ; calcea-mentum, a shoe (calceare) ; c5,pilla-
mentum, hair (capiUo-); coag-mentum, a joining (coag-6re); cogno-
mentum, a surname (cogno-sc-6re) ; comple-mentum (rare), a filling
up (comple-re); dehdnesta-mentum, a disgrace (deh6nesta-re) ; de-
tii-mentum, a loss by wear (det6r-6re; comp. detri-tus); ddca-men-
19
ago Word-Formation. \Book III.
turn, a lesion (ddcere); 616-menta (pi.), first principles {yneans of
grovolhl comp. olescere) ; emolu-mentum, ^(f^i/z (Z;v ^g-r/«d'/«^; em6-
l-5re) ; experi-mentum, a test (exp6ri-ri) ; fer-mentum, yeast (ferv-
ere) ; ferra-mentiun, an iron implement (comp. ferra-tus) ; fo-men-
tum, poultice^ &c. (fovere) ; frag-mentum, a fragment (fra«g-6re) ;
fru-mentum, corn (comp. frflges); funda-mentum, a grounckvork
(fxmda-re) ; incita-mentum, an incentive (incitare) ; incre-mentum,
increase, gerni (incre-sc-ere) ; instru-raentum, stock of implonents, a
means (instru-ere) ; intertri-mentum, waste by rubbing (cf. detri-
mentum); irrita-mentmn, an incentive (irrita-re); ju-mentum, a
beast of draught (ju«g-6re; comp. jug-um); la-menta (pi.), lamen-
tation (for clamamenta ? cf. § no. 3); leva-mentum, a relief
(l§va-re) ; lo-mentum, a 'wash (lav-are) ; machina-inentum, a 771a-
chine (macMna-re) ; mo-mentum, 77iotion, impulse (movere); m5nu-
mentum, a 77iemorial (monere) ; natri-mentiun, nourish77ient (nQtri-
re); o-mentum, « yirf 7nembrane; 6p6ri-mentum, a lid (6pgri-re);
oma-ifientum, an orna7}ient (orna-re); paludamentum, a 77ulitary
cloak; pavl-mentum, pave77ient (pavl-re, to beat, ra»i)\ pedamentum,
a prop for vines, &c. (p6da-re, to put feet to); pig-mentum, a paint
(pi«g-ere); pul-mentum, pulpa-mentum, 77ieat (pulpa-); purga-
mentiun, refuse (purga-re) ; ra-mentum, a scraping, chip (rad-6re) ;
rudi-mentum, a trial, beginni/ig (^foil-exercise} rudis, a foil]); ssepi-
mentum, a hedge (ssepi-re); sar-mentum, a vine pruning, i.e. a
branch requiring to be pruned oft' (sarp-6re, to prune) ; seg-mentum,
a strip (secare) ; stemfi-mentum, sneezing (stemu-Sre) ; stra-men-
tum, straw (ster«-ere, stra-tus) ; strlg-mentum, a scrapi>ig (striwg-
ere) ; suffi-mentum, incense (suffi-re) ; t6g-u-mentum (integumen-
tum), a coveri)ig (t6g-6re); tempera-mentum, 77u\turc, 77ioderation
(temp§ra-re) ; testa-mentum, a will (testa-ri) ; to-mentum, stuffi7ig
(clippings ? comp. tondere) ; tor-mentum, a hurling engine (torctvere) ;
vesti-mentum, a dress (vesti-re) ; and others.
(b) Feminine: fulmenta, «//-(?/>,• i3xa.Qntdi,a shavi77g; both old
forms. See the neuters.
ul-en-to Sometimes the older -olento; sometimes the later -Uento. 793
From real or assumed derivatives in -to, -ti.
Adjectives: corpu-lentus, fleshy (for corpor-ulentus) ;
escu-lentus, eatable (esca-); fraudu-lentus, cheati7ig (ivdOiAi-); graci-
lentus, thin (comp. gracilis); lucu-lentus, bright (Iflci-); perhaps
also gai/ful for lucru-lentus (lucro-) ; lutu-lentus, 77iuddy (luto-) ;
tnaci-lentus, nuastcd (macie-); opu-lentus, wecdthy (dpi-); potu-len-
tus, d/-inkable (poto-) ; pulver-iilentus, dusty (pulvis-) ; pur-ulentus,
festering (pus-) ; sangvin-olentus, blood-stai7ied (sangv6n-) ; tem-
ulentus, drunken (comp. tem-etum); trucu-leutus, ^t'rr^ (truci-);
tvirbu-lentus, riotous (turba-); vino-lentus, drunken (vmo-); vio-
lentus, viole7it (vi- for visi-).
" . . ' Indeclinable adjectives of number, denoting multiples of 794
' ' ten: glnti (or -ta) = decem-ti (or -ta).
Chap, v.] Dental Nouii-StcjJis : -ginta, -ato. 291
vi-ginti, t-zvcnty (dvi-dScem-ti, Hvo-ten-ty) ; txi-gmla., tfjtrty (tri-) ;
quadraginta (quatvor-, § i-jS); qvinqvaginta,^^^^); (qvinqve-); sexa-
ginta, j/v/y(sex); seiJtuaginta, j^i'f«/y (septem, see below); oct5-
ginta, eighty (octo) ; nonaginta, ninety (novem, see below).
Compare centum, supposed to be for decem-decem-ta.
The formation of the higher cardinal numbers is in some points
very obscure. The final vowel — i in viginti, a in the others — is
found also in Greek, but is there short; e.g. el'/coo-i, Dor. e'Uari:
Tpu'tKovTa, Sec. The a before the guttural in quadraginta. Sec. is
also found in Greek ; e. g. reaa-apfiKovTa, but the origin of none ot
these vowels is clear. The final i in viginti may be a dual form :
the f nal a of triginta, &c. is by some considered to be the same as
the ordinary a of the neuter plural.
Eeptuaginta, reventy, is abnormally formed instead of septen-
ginta, probably to avoid confusion with septingenti, jei'en hundred.
(For the u comp. septuennis.) Nonaginta is probably for nSvin-
aginta, the m being assimilated to the initial n. (Schleicher derives
it directly from the ordinal nono-.)
-gento [ Declinable adjectives of number, denoting multiples of a 79s
' hundred (gento- = centum). Only used in plural.
diicenti, t^Mo hundred (duo-centum) ; tr6centi, three hundred
(tri-) ; quadringenti, four hundred (qvatvor, see below) ; quingenti,
fi've hundred (for qvinqvigenti) ; sexcenti, six hundred (sex) ; sep-
tingenti, seivn hundred (septem); octingenti, eight hundred (octo,
see below) ; nongenti, nine hundred (non is for novem).
The -in in quadringenti and octingenti has perhaps been sug-
gested by septingenti (where it has its justification in septem; for
the i cf § 204. 2. f) and qvingenti, where it is radical. It may have
been adopted to increase the distinction of the hundreds from
the tens.
The difference of the vowel before nt in the hundreds compared
with the tens, e.g. quadringenti, quadraginta, is probably due partly
to the desire for distinction, partly to the fact that the e of a sufhx
(decew) more easily passes into i (quadraginta) than the e in centum
(quadring^-nti), which is apparently, though perhaps not really
(cf- § 794), radical.
-ato I. Participles from verbs with -a stems (§ 697); e.g. 796
amatus, &c. loved (ama-re); &c. : or adjectives formed
as such:
aciile-atus, yHrwij/^d-^ qjoith a sting ox thorn (acu-leo-); adip-atus,
fattened {^AhV-)\ a3r-atus, of bronz.e (as-); alb-atus, clad in <ivhite
(altio-); ans-atus, ^.vith handles (ansa-); arm-atus, armed (arma-
19 — 2
292 Word-Formation. \Book III.
re) ; aur-atus, glided (auro-) ; barb-atus, bearded (barba-) ; bracca-
tus, breeched (bracca-) ; capill-atus, hairy (capillo-) ; capit-atus, ^Mith
a head (caput-) ; caten-atus, chained (catena-) ; centuri-atus, of the
centuries (centuria-) ; cetr-atus, armed r^'itb a short shield (cetra-) ;
cincmnatus, curled (cincinno-) ; c61umii-atus,y«r«/VZ).'^ <with cohtmns
(colunma-) ; cord-atus, having good sense (cord-) ; cotbum-atus,
buskined, i.e. tragic (cdtbiiriio-) ; crepid-atus, sandalled (crepida-);
cret-atus, chalked (creta-) ; crist-atus, crested (crista-) ; ciiri-atus, of
the Curia: (curia-) ; delic-atus, charm wg^ dainty (^filtered, deliqvare ?) ;
dent-atus, toothed (denti-); dimidi-atus, halved (dimidio-); Fab-atus,
beatied^ chietiy as surname (faba-); faec-atus, made from lees (faeci-);
falc-atus, sickle-shaped {fdlci-)\ ferr-s.tVLS, iron-covered (tsiro-); genicul-
atus, ivith knees, i. e. Jointed (geni-culo-) ; gutt-atus, speckled (gutta-) ;
bast-atus, armed --vith spear (basta-) ; litt6r-atus, lettered, i. e. brand- '
ed or learned (littera-) ; lup-atus, armed n.vith jagged spikes like 'rjuolf's
teeth (lapo-) ; mor-atus, -mannered (mos-) ; numm-atus, supplied
^ith money (numm-) ; 6b2er-atus, moyieyed over, i.e. in debt (ses-) ;
6cell-atus, qy/7/j little eyes or spots (ocello-) ; 6ciil-atus, having eyes
(dculo-) ; orbicul-atus, rounded (orbiculo-) ; palli-atus, dressed in a
Greek cloak (pallio-) ; palud-atus, 'voith the military cloak on (comp.
paluda-mentum) ; palm-atus, ^worked <with palm-branches (palma-) ;
penn-atus, ayzVzjfrt'(penna-); ■^\\-^X\is,ar)7^ed^^vith a pike {^Wo-'); pUle-
atus, Z'oww/'ff^ (pilleo-) ; vvaxi.-2Xyxs,, feathered (pinna-); prsstext-atus,
^wearing thi bordered robe (prsetexta-, § 790); torqv-atus, <wearing a
collar (tcrqvl-) ; trabe-atus, ivearing the state robe (tra-bea-) ; tuni-
catus, in a shirt (tunica-); visc-atus, limed (yisco-); vitt-3itus, flleted
(vitta-) ; ungvent-atus, anointed (ungvento-) ; and many others.
2. Substantives: arqv-atus, (i) the Jaundice, (2) a Jaundiced
person (arcLUO-, the rain bo^v^); palatum, the palate; victori-atus (sc.
nummus), a victory-coin (victoria-).
-oto segr-otus, sick (asgro-). See also § 689. 797
-ilto I. Participles from verbs with -u stems (§690); e.g.
acQ-tus, sharpe>ied (acu-ere) ; Sec; or adjectives formed
as such, chiefly from substantives with -u stems:
ast-utus, crafty (astu-) ; cinct-utus, girdle-wearing (cinctu-) ;
com-utus, hor7ied (cornu-); delib-utus, smeared (comp. Xel^eiv);
hirs-iltus, shaggy (comp. birto-) ; nas-utus, ivith large, or, meta-
phorically, sharp nose (naso-) ; vers-utus, adroit (versu-, a turning) ;
v6r-utus, Javelin-armed (veru-).
actutum (adv.), instantly (actu-. See § 528).
2. Substantives: aluta, leather; cicuta, hemlock; Matuta, God-
dess of dawn (comp. mine?); verutum, a Javelin (veru-). See
al3o§ 788-^, c.
-eto I. Participles from verbs with stems in -e (§ 692)- qs
e. g. defletus, lamented (defiere) ; &.c. : also the adjective
fac-etus, ivitty.
Chap. F.] Dental Noim-Stems : -tlto, -eto, -ito ; -tu (-su). 293
2. Substantives: {a) masculine or feminine: bSletus (m.), a
kind of mushroom (from jBcoXtTrjs^.); Moneta, a surname of Juno,
in whose temple money was coined: hence mhit; rubeta, a toad
(said to be from rutao-, bramble). See also § 788 b.
(h) neuter: (i) acetum, 'vinegar (ace-sc-ere) ; dletum (old
word), dung (olere?); tapetiim (of. § 418), a carpet; temetum, in-
toxicating drink (comp. tem-ulentus, atos-tem-ius) ; trap-etum (cf.
§ 418), an oli've mill.
(2) Names expressing a place where a plant, &:c. grows: (But
few of these words are used frequently) :
aescul-etum (Hon), an oak forest (sesculo-); arundin-etum, a
reed bed (arundon-) ; aspr-etum, rough place (aspero-, § 347); bux- .
etum (Mart.), box plantation (buxo-); castan-etum (Col.), chestnut
grove (castanea-) ; cupress-etum, a cypress grove (cupresso-) ; dum-
etum, a thicket (dumo-); fim-etum (Plin.), dunghill (fimo-) ; frutic-
etum, a shrubbery (frutec-) ; myrt-etum, myrtle grove (myrto-) ;
61iv-etum, an oUveyard (oliva-) ; pln-etum, plyie grove (pino-) ;
qverc-etum, oak grove (qverco-) ; ros-etum, rose bed (rdsa-) ; sax-
etum (once Cic), bed of rocks (saxo-); senti-c-etum (Plaut.), thorn
bed (senti-: formed in analogy with fruticetum?); sgpulcr-etum
(Catull.), a graveyard (sgpulcro-) ; vetSr-etum (Colum.), old fal-
low land (vetGs-) ; vin-etum, a vineyard (vino-) ; with otliers used
very rarely. So Argiletmn, marlbed (argilla-), popularly misunder-
stood by the Romans.
-ito I. Participles from verbs with -i stems (§ 695); e. g. 799
aud-itus, heard (aud-ire) ; &c. : and adjectives formed
as such :
av-itus, of a grandfather (avo-) ; aur-itus, ivith ears (auri-) ;
Cerr-Itus (for Cereritus),/rf«2zW by Ceres' influence (Cgrfis-) ; crin-
itus, hairy (crini-) ; fortu-itus (Hor., Phsdr.), fortuitus, (Manil.,
Petr., Juv.), by chance (forti-, cf. § 405); gratu-itus (Plant.), gra-
tu-itus (Stat.), <ivithout pay (comp. gratia-); mar-itus, tnarried^ op
marriage (masi-); mell-itus, honeyed (moil-) ; patr-itus, of a fat her
(patr-); pell-itus, skin-clad (pelli-); per-itus, skilled (cf. p. 254);
aci-tus, clever., knowing (sci-re); turr-itus, turreted (tMiri-).
2. Substantives : pitu-ita, phlegm (comp. nTveiv, spu-ere) ;
scriblita, a cake.
ii. Stems ending in -tu, -ti, -t (-su, -si, -s ra;hen presumably arisen
from a dental).
-tu (-su) Substantives derived mostly from verbs, and generally 800
denoting an act. (The accusative and ablative cases are
the so-called supines.) See §§ 397 — 399 and Book II.
G'liap. x.\iv.
2 94 Word-Formation. \_Book III.
adven-tus, an arrival (advSn-ire) ; ses-tus, heat (coinp. oWfu',
to set on fire) ; amic-tus, a garment (amic-ire) ; anfractus, a circuit,
a bend (see § 1843); anhel-itus, panting (anhZla-re) ; appara-tus,
equipment (appara-re) ; appeti-tus, appetite (appetl-, appet-6re) ; ar-
\iitT-sXu%, judgmctit, choice (arbitra-ri) ; ar-tus, a joint (comp. apfii/,
to Jit) \ aspec-tus, j/g-/'/ (aspic6-re); as-tus, «<««;'«_§'(§ 396); audi-
tus, hearing (audl-re) ; bala-tus, a bleating (taala-re) ; ca2s-tus, a
gauntlet (cs;d-ere? hence a strip) ; can-tus, a song (can-ere) ; cap-tus,
grasp, esp. mental (cap6-re) ; ca-sus, an accident (cad-6re) ; cen-sus,
a reckoning (censere) ; coitus, a connexion (co-ire) ; ccetus, an assem-
bly (same as last); cdmita-tus, a train (comita-re); crepi-tus, a
rattling (crepare) ; crucia-tus, torturing (crucia-re) ; decur-sus, a
descent, a course (decurr-ere) ; dilec-tus, a selection, levy (dilig-ere);
eveii-tus, an occurrence (ev6n-ire) ; exerci-tus, an army (exercere) ;
exi-tus, departure (exire) ; fastus, pride; fe-tus, bearing, offspring
(comp. fe-cundus, fe-raiaa); fle-tus, iveeping (fle-re); fluc-tus, a
wave (flugv-, fiu-ere) ; fruc-tus, enjoyment, fruits (frugv-, fru-i);
ges-tus, gesture (ggr-gre); gustus, taste (comp. ytveiv)] habi-tus,
habit in various senses (habe-re) ; halitus, breath (comp. hala-re) ;
Ma-tus,rt^(?/'f (Ma-re); ic-tus,« Zi/ozy (ic-6re); ia.sVmc-t^xs,instigation
(instingv-6re) ; itus (Lucr., Cic), a going (ire); lessus (old word;
only in ace. s.), nvailing; luc-tus, ^qt/>/' (lilgere) ; luxus, luxury;
merca-tus, trading (merca-ri) ; mStus, y^/rr; mo-tus, motion (mo-
vere); magi-tus, lowing (mugi-re); necessus (cf. §432; probably
fi-om ne, ced-ere) ; nexua. a bond (nect-ere) ; or-tus, a rising (6r-i-
ri) ; par-tus, birth (par6-re) ; pas-sus, a step (pand-gre, to stretch) ;
plau-sus, a clapping (plaud-ere) ; portus, a harbour; p6-tus, a drink-
ing (comp. po-ta-re) ; progres-sus, an advance (progr6d-i) ; quses-
tus, ^,r?i« (qu5er-6re) ; qves-tus, complaint (qver-i); ric-tMS, m out h-
opening (ri«g-i) ; ri-sus, laughter (ridere); ritus, a rite; sal-tus,
a leaping (sali-re) ; a tnomitain pass (comp. aX-cros ?) ; sex-us, sex
(s6c-are?); si-tus, situation (si«-ere); spir-itus, a breath (spira-re);
strSp-i-tus, a din (str6p-Sre) ; sum-p-tus, expense (sQm-gre) ; tac-tus,
a touch (ta«g-Sre) ; tinni-tus, a tinkling (tinni-re) ; transi-tus, apas-
sage (transi-re) ; vesti-tus, dress (vesti-re) ; vic-tus. living, food
(vigv-, viv-ere) ; vi-sus, sight (vid-ere); vol-tus, expression of counte-
nance, looks, cf. Cic. Leg. I. 9 (velle, vole); a-sus. use (vlt-i); &c.
fretus (m.), a strait; imrgtus (m.), an onset (in petere) ; mgtus
(m.),fear; in which t is apparently radical.
-iil-tu sing-ultus, sobbing; tum-ultus, uproar (tum-ere).
-atu From substantives, but formed as if from verbs with -a 801
stems (e.g. consulare, to be consul), denote (i) the holding
office, (2) the office itself, (3) the body of officers.
cselib-atus (Sen. Suet.), celibacy (c3sl6b-) ; cib-atus (pras-Cic. and
Plin.), food (cibo-); consul-atus, a being consul, the consulship (con-
Chap. F.] Dental Noun-Stems : -zXvl; \\ (^-%\). 295
sfil-) ; duc-atus (post-Aug.), leculership (due-) ; eqvit-atus, cavalry
(gctvet-); jMic-atus (Cic. once), J luli^es lip (judec-) ; magistr-atus,
}nagistracy (magistro-) ; pedit-atus, infantry (p6d6t-) ; pontific-atus,
the pontificate (pontifgc-) ; prim-atus ( Varr., P!in.), primacy (primo-) ;
princip-atus, chieftainship (princSp-); decern vir-atus (so triumvira-
tus, cS:c.), nieinbersbip of a conwiission often (decemviro-) ; qvadrim-
atus (Plin., Col.), age oi four years old (qvadrimo-) ; re-atus (see
Quintil. 8. 3. 34), condition of an accused person (reo-) ; s§n-atus, a
body of old men (sen-, sgnex) ; summ-atus (Lucr.), sovereignty
(summo-) ; tribun-atus. tribunate (tribilno-).
-ti(-si) I. Adjectives: dis, rich (contracted from dives); fortis, 802
brave (ijex-XG-^ comp. (\ykpripoi^ &c.); mitis, mild; potis,
able (comp. ttoo-is, a bus band) \ sons, guilty; tristis, sad.
Camer-s, a man of Camerinum; Tibur-s, a tnan of Tibur.
2. Substantives: (a) masculine and feminine: amussis (m.), 803
a carpenter^s rule; antes (m. pi.) ranks; ars (f), art
(comp. ar-tus, a joint, dp-ap-ia-Keif); assis, usually as (m.), a
penny; axis or assis (m.), an axle-tree, a board; cassis (m. § 432),
a mesh of a net; cautes (f ), a rock; classis (f.), a class, a fleet (for
Kkaais Dor. from Kcik-iuA); cohors or cors If.), a yard, a company
(com, hor-; comp. ;^op-ros); cos (f.), a whetstone (com^. cautes);
cratis (f), a hurdle of wicker; cutis (f.), skin (comp. scatum,
(TKVToi); dens (m.)^ a tooth (comp. obovr-, nom. 6bovs); ensis (m.),
a sword; fatis (only in adfatim, to satiety), a yawn (comp. fati-
sc6re, fatigare); fons (m.), a spring of water, &c.; fors (f),
chance; frons (f. § 419), the forehead; fustis (m.), a cudgel;
gens (f), a race (gen-, gignfire); grates (f. pL), thanks (comp.
gra-tus, gratia); hostis (m. f.), a stranger, an enemy; lens (f.), a
lentil; lis (for stlis, f.), a strife, a suit; mens (f ), a mind (comp.
r6-min-isci); mensis (m.), a month (comp. fx-qv, fj-^jf]); mes-sis (f.),
harvest (m6t-ere, to mow); mons (m.), a mountain; mors (f ), death
(mor-i); natis (f.) a buttock; neptis (f.), a granddaughter (comp.
nep-6t-); nox (f), night (comp. wkt-, nom. vii^); pars (f), apart
(comp. nop-, enopov aor., par6-re); pestis (f.), destruction (comp.
perd-6re, TrepB-eiv); pons (m.), a bridge (comp. pondus); postis
(m.), a doorpost; puis (L), pulse; ratis (f), a raft (comp. remus, an
oar; ip-eTrjs, a rower); restis (f), a rope; sementis (f.), seedtime
(semSn-); sentes (m. pi.), thorns; sitis (f.), thirst; sors (f), a lot
(s6r-6re, to put in rows) ; sponte (abl. s. f.), with a will; testis (m.)
(comp. TfK-, TLKTfiv) ; (m. f.), a witness (comp. TeK-prjpiov) ; tussis
(f.), a cough (for tud-tis from tuwdere?); vates (m.), a seer; vec-tis
(m.), a roller or lever (veb-ere); ves-tis (f ), a dress (comp. iv-vvvai,
ia-6rjs); vi-tis (f), a vine (vi-ere, to aveave).
(b) Neuters: lac (or lact), milk (comp. yaXaAcr-); rete, a net. 8c.|
-at anas (f.), a duck (comp. prja-a-a).
296 Word-Formation. [Book III.
-Ot aliquot, some; qu6t, hovj many; tot, jo ttiany: all inde-
clinable adjectives.
-■at (-it) caput (n.), a head (comp. Kf(j)-aXi]).
-6ti liSbSs, blunt; t€r6s, round (t6r-ere, to tvear").
-€t abies (f.), a pine; aries (m.), a ram; paries (m.), a luall;
s6g6s (f.), standing corn; teges (f.), a >nat (teg-6re).
-6t (-it) al-es, Qvi/iged (ala-); am-es (m.?), a vmeprop (comp. 805
ap-isci); antistes (m. f.), a priest or priestess (ante, sta-);
csel-es (m.), a /x^aven-d'zue/ler (c£8lo-) ; caespes (m.), turf; cocl-es
(m.), fl blind man (for sco-cul-6t-; comp. aKo-ros, Curt., Cors.) ;
comes (m. f.), a companion (com); dives, rich (comp. divo-); gQV-es
(m.), a horseman (6qvo-) ; gurges (m.), a ^cvhirlpool; merges (f.?),
a sheaf, also a pitchfork (comp. mergse, a t-zvo-prong)\ miles (m. f.),
a soldier; p6d-es (m. f.), a inau on foot (p6d-); poples (m.), the back
of the knee; praest-es (m. i.), protecting (prse, sta-); satelles (m.f.),
an attendant; sospes, saving, ^^foi stipes (m.), a stock (comp.
stip-ula, a straq.v) ; superstes, sur-vi-ving (super, sta-) ; ttides (Fest.),
a hammer (tundere) ; veles (m.), a skirmisher (comp. vel-ox).
-m-6t(-mit) fo-mes (m.), tinder (fov-ere) ; li-mes (m.), a balk So6
(li-mo-, slanting) ; palmes (m.), a vine shoot (pal-ma,
a branch) ; tar-mes (m.), a ivoodworm (comp. t6r-ebra, Tep-r]8a>i/) ;
termes (m.), a cutting; trames (m.), a path (tra-ns).
-en-ti I . Participles present active of verbs : 807
ama-ns, loving (ama-) ; audi-ens, hearing (audi-) ; capi-
ens, taking (cape-re) ; gign-ens, begetting (gi-gn-ere) ; mon-ens,
advising (m6n-ere) ; oblivisc-ens, forgetting (oblivisci) ; rSg-ens,
ruling (r6g-ere); tribu-ens, assigning (tribu-ere); and so from all
verbs.
2. Adjectives, originally present participles, or formed as such:
absens, absent (abes-se); abimdans, abundant (abunda-re, to
overflo-i.v) ; arrogans. arrogant (arroga-re, to claim) ; Clemens, mer-
ciful; congru-ens, suitable (congru-ere, to agree) ; contin-ens, con-
tiguous (continere) ; dilig-ens, accurate (dilig-6re, to love) ; elegans,
neat: eloqv-ens. eloquent (eloqvl-); evid-ens, evident (ex vid-ere);
freqvens, cro^vded; impud-ens, shameless (in pud-ere) ; innoc-ens,
harmless (in noc-ere) ; insol-ens, excessive^ haughty (in sol-ere, to be
^uont) ; insons, guiltless (in sons) ; lib-ens, ivilling (lib-ere) ; lie-ens,
presumptuous (lic-ere) ; pot-ens, ^o^u^^'r/'w/ (pot-esse) ; vT3igna.ns, preg-
nant (lit. before bearing^, prae, g6n-); prsesens, present (prs esse);
prsestans, excellent (pras-stare) ; priid-ens, prudent (pro videre, to
foresee); rgcens, fresh; rSpens, sudden; sap-iens, ivise (sapg-re, to
Chap. V.^ Deiital Noun-Steins : -6t, -enti, -atl, -tat. 297
/jave taste) ; splend-ens, glittering (splendere) ; stellans, starry
(Stella-) ; valens, powerful (valere).
3. Substanlives, originally participles, &c.:
adulese-ens (m.), a young man (adulesc-ere, togro-zu); anlmans,
rt« ani»ial (anima-, breatb)\ cli-ens (m. also clienta f.), a client
(clu-ere, to hear); consentis (m. pi.), epithet of the twelve chief
deities, the Colleagues (com esse) ; dext-ans (m.), Jive-sixths (lit. a
sixth oJl\ de-sexto-); dodrans (m.), three-fourths, lit. a fourth o^(de-
qvadro-) ; infans, an infant (in, fa-ri) ; occid-ens (sc. sol), the ivest
(occid-ere, to fall)] oriens, the east (oriri, to rise); parens (m. f.), a
parent (par6-re) ; rudens (m.), a cable; serpens (m. £), a snake (serp-
6re, to cra-jjl) ; sextans, a sixth (sexto-) ; torrens, a boiling I'ushing
stream (torre-re, to burn)] tri-ens (m.), a trithing^ i.e. a third (tri-).
1-en-ti pesti-1-ens, pestilential (pesti-); p6t-ul-ans, saucy (comp.
petul-cus from p6t-ere).
-3-ti agre-stis, of the f elds (agro-); csele-stis, heavenly (caelo-). 808
Comp. also dom-esti-cus, § 769, silv-est-ris, § 904, eg-
est-as, p6t-est-as, § 811.
-atl Adjectives expressing origin. 809
cilj-as, of r^vhat country (cujo-); mfemas, of the lower
country (inferno-) ; infim-atis, one of the lowest rank (infimo-) ; nostr-
as, a countryman of ours (nostro-) ; optim-as (§ 418), one of the best
party (optimo-) ; pen-ates (m. pL), household gods (peno-, store);
summ-ates (m. pi.), >?ien of the highest ranks (summo-); supernas, of
the upper country (superno-). .
Similarly from Italian towns: Antias, a man of Antium (Antl-
um) ; Ardeas (Ardea) ; Arpinas (Arpiniun) ; Atinas (Atina) ; Capenas
(Capena) ; Casinas (Caslnum) ; Ferentinas (Ferentinum) ; Fidenas
(Fidenss but Fidena, Verg.); Frusinas (Frusino) ; Larlnas (Lari-
num) ; Ravennas (Ravenna) ; Sarsinas (Sarsina) ; Urbinas (Urbi-
num).
-at damnas (cf. § 445), condemned (damna-re); sati-as, a glut
(satia-re).
-t-at So usually, not tati-; cf. § 445. For the preceding short Sio
vowel, e.g. itas, see § 213. 6; i6tas, § 213. 5.C and 42;
for its omission § 245. Abstract substantives, derived chiefly from
adjectives (from 500 to 600 in number, according to L. Meyer):
all feminine.
acerbi-tas, tartness (acerbo-); sedili-tas, adileship (sedili-);
aeqvaii-tas, equality (seqvali-) ; seqvi-tas, fairness (aeqvo-) ; ses-tas,
summer (for sesti-tas, aestu-); se-tas, age (sevo-, § 94); aeterni-tas,
eternity (s9terno-) ; affini-tas, relationship by marriage (affini-) ;
298 Word-Formation. [Book JII.
agili-tas, agility (agili-); zxofBva-tzs., pleasantness (amoeno-); antiqvi-
tas, antiquity (antiqivo-) ; anxie-tas, anxiety (anxio-); Appie-tas
(formed by Cic. Fam. 3. 7), Appius-ness (Appio-); asperi-tas, rough-
ness (aspSro-) ; assidui-tas, constant attention^ frequency (assiduo-) ;
atroci-tas, cruelty (atroci-) ; auctor-i-tas, advice, authority (auctor-) ;
&v\6i-\di,s, greediness (avido-) ; benigni-tas, kindliness, bounty (tognigno-);
caeci-tas, blindness (cseco-) ; calamitas (calamo-, a stalk ? comp.
KoXafios and culmus), blight, disaster; cari-tas, dearness (caro-);
celebri-tas, celebrity (celebri-) ; civi-tas, citizenship (civi-) ; digni-
tas, ^Morthiness (digno-) ; docili-tas, aptness for being taught (docili-);
ebriS-tas, drunkenness (ebrio-) ; facili-tas, easiness ; facul-tas, do-
ableness, po'jjer (facUi-) ; familiari-tas, intimacy (familiari-) ; hered-
itas, inheritance (hered-); hones-tas, honourableness (iionos-); hu-
mani-tas, fllow-feeliug, politeness (hilmano-); immuni-tas, y/rcY/ow
from public charges (immiiiii-) ; juven-tas, youth ( juven-) ; 16vi-tas,
lightness (levi-) ; liber-tas, freedom (libero-) ; majes-tas, dignity
(majos-) ; morosi-tas, fretfulness (moroso-) ; necessi-tas, necessity
(necesse) ; pauci-tas, fewness (pauco-) ; pauper-tas, poverty (pau-
per-) ; pie-tas, dutifulness (pio-) ; posteri-tas, posterity (postero-) ;
proprie-tas, proper quality, ozunership (proprio-); qvali-tas, quality
(qvali-) ; satie-tas, satiety (comp. satis, satiat-) ; seciiri-tas, security
(secHro-); simplici-tas, simplicity (simplici-, nom. simplex); socie-
tas, partnership (socio-) ; tempes-tas, a season, iveather (tempos-) ;
varie-tas, variety (vario-); uber-tas, yt'r;/7/()' (Gber-); venus-tas,
beauty (vsnus-) ; vernili-tas, slavishness, coarse Jesting (vernili-) ;
v6tus-tas, old age (vetus-) ; ilni-tas, unity (uno-) ; universi-tas, a
nuhole, either of persons (i.e. a corporation) or of things (universo-);
volun-tas, will (for volenti-tas, § 28); volup-tas, pleasure (volup,
§ J 1 6) ; utLi-tas, usefulness (utili-) ; and many others.
-es-t-at 6g-es-tas, ^luant (Sg-ere); pot-estas, power (poti-) ; pro- Sn
bably formed as if from substantives in 6s- or cs- (as
honestas, tempes-tas).
-oti dos (f.)j a dowry (da-).
-6t nepos (m.), a grandson (comp. a-vey\r-ioi, i. e. common
grandson); sacerdos (m. f.), a priest (sac^'ro-, da-).
-lit sams (f.), safety (for salvo-t-).
-tut Substantives feminine:
juven-tus, youth (juven-) ; s6nec-tus, old age (s6n-ec-) ;
servi-tus, slavery (servo-) ; vir-tus, 7nanHness (viro-).
-eti locaples, rich (perhaps compound of loco- and ple-to; cf. 812
Cic. Rjep. 2. 16). For tapete (n.), trapetes (m. pi.) see
§ 418 and -eto, § 798, i b.
Chap. V.^ Dental Noim-Stems : -ti, -t; -oso. 299
-iti Quiris, a Roman citizen; Sanrnls, a Samnite (Samnio-).
For dis, mltis, &c. see under -ti (§ 802).
Compound stem-endings: -tilmo, § 757; -tivo, § 764; -tico,
-trioi, §§769, 782; -tat, -estat, -tilt, §§ 810, 811; -tMon, § 847; -tino,
-ter-no, -tino, -trino, §§ 827, 829, 840, 842 ; -tion (-sion), § 854 ; -tibili
(-sibili), § 877 ; -tili(-sili), § 878 ; -tero, -astero, -taro (-stiro), §§ 888,
889, 89,:;; -tru, -tgri, -estSri, -ter, -tor (-sor), §§ 903 — 905, 908;
-ticio, -itio, -ntio, -torio (-s5rio), §§ 931—933, 943-
iii. Stems ending in -so, -si (for -to, -ti).
-so See under -to, §§ 787, 788. 813'
-oso For -onso (§ 191. 2), and this again perhaps for -onti-o;
comp. yepova-la for yepovTia. The -i pi'obably caused
or assisted the assibilation (§ 143).
Adjectives (said to be 500 in number) expressing y?/«fij;
actu-osus. y«// of motion (actu-); sestu-osus, burning hot (aestu-):
amblti-osus, ambitious (aHabitu-) ; anim-osus, spirited (anuno-) ;
ann-03us, y«// of years., aged (anno-); aqv-osus, <watery (aqva-);
calamit-osus, disastrous (for calamitat-osus) ; call-osus, hard-skinned
(caUo-) ; capti-osus, ensnaring, captious (captu- or caption-) ; cari-
0SU3, decayed (carie-) ; clamosus, screaming (for clamos-osus) ; copi-
osus, i-icb (c5pia-) ; crimin-osus, reproachful (crimen-) ; dol-osus,
crafty (dolo-) ; ebri-osus, a drunkard (ebrio-) ; fam-osus, notorious
for good or ill (fama-) ; form-osus, shapely (forma) ; frag-osus, broken
(for fragos-osus) ; fructu-osus, /r«/.y«/ (fructu-); frutic-osus, full of
shrubs (frQtgc-) ; g6ner-osus, shelving breed, luell-born (g6nus-)
grati-osus, influential (gratia-) ; herb-osus (poet.), grassy (herba-)
ingeni-osus, c/c"i'f /- (ingenio-) ; invidi-osus, exposed to odium (invidia-)
jdc-osus, sportive (joco-) ; luxuri-osus, luxurious (luxuria-) ; mend-
osus, faulty (men-da-) ; morb-osus, diseased (morbo-) ; mor-osus,
nvayr^ard, cross (mos-, a rjjhim); niv-osus, snowy (nivi-); nod-osus,
knotty (node-); odi-osus, troublesome (odio-); ofifici-osus, dutiful,
obliging (officio-) ; 6n6r-osus, burdensome (onus-) ; oti-osus, at leisure
(otio-) ; pecuni-osus, 7noneyed (pecflnia-) ; pSricul-osus, dangerous
(periculo-); pernici-osus, destructive (pernicie-); pisc-osus (rare,
Ov., Verg.), /«// offish (pisci-); qusestu-osus, ^rt/;//;^/ (qvastu-);
religi-osus, scrupulous (for religion-osus) ; silv-osus, wooded (silva-) ;
sqvam-osus, scaly (sqvama-); strig-osus, thin (J striga-, a swathe);
studi-osus, -zealous (studio-); suspici-osus, suspicious (for suspicion-
osus); sumptu-osus, costly (sumptu-); vent-osus, windy (vento-);
ventri-osus, potbellied (ventri-) ; verb-osus, wordy (verbo-) ; vermin-
osus (Plin.), full of worms (vermen-) ; vin-osus, wine loving (vino-) ;
viti-osus. faulty (vitio-) ; and many others.
300 Word-Formation. [^Book III.
-c-oso belli-cosus, ^war-loving (toello-, comp. bellicus, adj.); 814
tfingbri-cosus (Cic, also tenebrosus, Verg., Ov.), dark
(ten6bra-, but Cic. in poetic translation has tenebricus).
-l-5so fomiidd-losus, fearful (formidon-, the n being either
dropped or changed into 1).
-ic-ul-oso febr-iculosus (CaX.nW.'), feverish (febri-, febricula-); ni6t-
iculosus (Plant.), i?i fear (metu-); sit-iculosus (Hor.),
parched (siti-) ; somn-iculosus, dro^vsy (somno-).
-u-6so Probably formed on a false analogy with qu£estu-osus, Sec:
monstr-uosus, prodigious (monstro-); montu-osus, vioiin-
tainous (monti-, but cf. § 405); voluptu-osus (Plin. Ep.),
pleasurable (voluptat-).
-i-oso Probably formed on a false analogy with odiosus, &c. :
cGr-iosus, careful (cilra-); labor-iocus, laborious (labos-);
lusc-it-i-osus (or lusc-iosus), purblind (lusco-).
-en-si Adjectives (some used as substantives) formed from names 815
of places:
1. From appellatives: amanu-ensis (m. Suet, twice), a secretary
(a manu); atri-ensis (m. sc. servus), house steward (atrlo-); castr-
ensis, of the camp (castro-) ; circ-ensis, of the circus (circo-) ; for-
ensis, of the forum (foro-) ; fretense (sc. mare), the straits of Sicily
(freto-); Later-ensis, properly of the bodyguard (latus-); Portu-ensis
(Cod. Theod.), of the Port, viz. Ostia (portu-) ; prat-ensis, of the
7neadovjs (prato-).
2. From proper names (which are given in brackets in the
nom. case):
Alii- ensis (Allia) ; Ambraci-ensis (Ambracia) ; Arimimenses (Ari-
minum) ; Bononi-ensis (Bononia) ; Cann-ensis (Cannse) ; Circei-ensis
(Circeii) ; Corflni-ensis (Corfinium) ; Cur-ensis (Cures) ; Herculan-
ensis (Herculaneum) ; Hispal-ensis (Hispalis or Hispal); Hispani-
ensis (Hispania) ; Narbon-ensis (Narbo) ; Osc-ensis (Osca in Spain);
Osti-ensis (Ostia); Sicili-ensis (Sicilia); Veli-ensis (Velia, (i) part of
Palatine; (2) town in Lucania); Volsini-ensis (Volsinii) ; Utic-ensis
(Utica) ; and others.
-i-en-si Probably from false analogy (with words in preceding
section). They are rarely used.
Athen-iensis (Atbense) ; Cartbagin-iensis (Carthago) ; Corintb-
ienses (Corintbus); Croton-iensis (Croto); Latin-iensis (Latinus?);
Rbod-iensis (Rbodus).
Compound stem-ending: es-imo, § 758. See also § 918.
Chap, r.] Dental Noun- Stems : -eQ.%i\ ~Ao. 301
iv. Stems ending in -do.
-do I. Adjectives:
(a) From verbs with -e stems, the final e being changed
to i. (The verb has been add;d in the following list only when not
simple in form or evident in meaning.)
aci-dus, sour; albi-dus, luh'ite; algi-dus, cold (rare, except as
name of mountain near Rome); ari-dus, dry; avi-dus, greedy; cali-
dus or caldus (cf. Qiiint. i. 6. 19), hot; calli-dus, crafty; candi-dus,
^ivhite; evani-dus, inviisbiiig (evaiie-sc-6re) ; fervi-dus, glowing;
flacci-dus, ^flaccid; flori-dus, floxu:ry, foeti-dus, stinking; frigi-dus,
cold; fnlgi-dus, glistening ; gravi-dus, he a-vy ^mth child (grav3-sc-6re) ;
horri-dus, bristling, fearful; langvi-dus, languid; liqvi-dus (§ 243),
clear; livi-dus, blue, envious; mci-dus, bright; madi-dus, q.vet;
marci-dus, fading; mGci-dus, mouldy; niti-dus, shining; oli-dus,
stinking; palli-dus, pale; pavi-dus, frightened; placi-dus, pleased,
calm (placere, to be pleasing); puti-dus, rotten; putri-dus, rotten;
ranci-dus, rancid (no verb, but present participle in Lucr.) ; rigi-dus,
stiff; rubi-dus (rflbidus, Plaut. twice), red; sordi-dus, ////^' ; sqvali-
dus, squalid; stupi-dus, amazed; tabi-dus, decaying; tSpi-dus, <warm;
timi-dus, timid; torpi-dus, benumbed; torri-dus, burning; tumi-dus,
s-welling; turgi-dus. inflated; vaU-dus, strong; Qmi-dus, damp; avi-
dus or Qdus, ^vet (Qve-sc-ere).
{b) From verbs with -i or consonant stems :
cupi-dus, desirous (cupg-re) ; fluidus (flftvl-dus, Lucr.), liquid
(flu-ere); rabldus, mad (rab6re, comp. rabies); rapi-dus, hurried
(rap6-re) ; vividus, lively (viv-6re).
(f) From substantives or of obscure derivation :
absur-dus, timeless (ab, sur-, comp. su-sur-rus, a-vp-i^nv : and
for the meaning Cicero's expression ' vox absona et absin-da,' Or.
3. II); bardus, stupid (comp. 8pa8vs); claudus, lame; cru-dus, raw
(crus-, hard ? comp. crus-ta, Kputr-raXAo?. Kpv-os) ', fidus, faithful
(comp. f id-es, perf id-us) ; foedus, foul (comp. foetere, foeti-dus) ;
fordus (cf. § 124), pregnant; fiimi-dus, smoky (fume-); geli-dus, icy
(gelu-) ; herbi-dus, grassy (berba-) ; hispidus, shaggy (comp. bir-tus,
birsiitus); lH-pidus^ charming (from presumed 16pere; comp. lepos-);
limpi-dus (Catull., Col.), clear (lympba? comp. Xafineiv); luridus,
ghastly yellow (comp. IGror, Lucr.) ; morbi-dus, diseased (morbo-) ;
niidus, naked; s6\i-dus, frm (solo-, ground); st6Ii-dus, stockish, stu-
pid (comp. stolon-, a useless sucker) ; svadus, persuasive (svadere) ;
suci-dus, y«/fy (sHco-); sMus, dry (se, udo-?); sur-dus, deaf; tardus,
slo<w (comp. trah-Sre, to drag}); trSpidus, scarred, flurried {com"^.
trgmfire) ; turbi-dus, disturbed (turba-) ; vapi-dus, fat, spoiled
(^vapos-, from a presumed vapere).
2. Substantives:
(a) Masculine: cadus, a cask; gurdus, a dolt (Spanish word
302 Word-Formation. {Book III.
ace. to Quint. I. 5. 57); bsedus, a goat; liidus, a game; mSdus, a
measure; nidus, a 7test; nodus, a knot; turdus, a fieldfare; veredus
(Mart.), a hunter (horse).
{b) Feminine: alauda, a lark (Keltic); apluda, chaff; bas-
cauda, a basket; cassida (usually cassis), a helmet; cauda, a tail;
cicada, a grasshopper; crSpida, a sandal (from KpT^vrtS-); merda,
dung; prseda, booty; rseda, a four-wheeled carriage (Keltic; cf.
Quint. I. 5. 57); tseda, a torch.
(c) Neuter: essedum, a gig (Keltic); laridum (lardum), bacon;
oppidum, a to~Mn (comp. eViVeSo)/?); pSdum, a sht:pherd's crook;
vadum, a shoal, ford.
-un-do or -en-do i. Verbal adjectives:
{a) As gerundive: for use see Book IV. Chap. xiv. and S17
Pref. Vol.ii.p.lxifoll. On their formation see §§ 617, 618.
ama-ndus, to love or to be loved (amare); audi-endus (audire);
capi-endus (capSre); gign-endus (gi-gn-ere); mon-endus (monere);
nasc-endus (nasci); reg-endus (rggere); tribu-endus (tribu-ere);
and so from all transitive verbs (§ 11 86).
{b) As present participle (without an object accusative) or
ordinary adjective:
blandus, soothing (comp. flare) ; infandus, ngfandus, unspeakable
(fari); mundus, clean; ori-undus, arising (6ri-ri) ; pandus, curved;
r6t-\indus, round (comp. rot-are); s6cundus, followi7ig, hence
second (sgqvi); volv-endus, rolling (volvere).
(2) Substantives:
(«) Masculine: fundus, a landed estate, the bottom; also an au-
thoriser; mundus, ornamoits, also the universe (as transl. of Kocrfios).
(b) Feminine: funda, a sling (fund-ere?); Kalendss (pi.), the
first of the 7nonth {siumrioning day \ comp. calare, KoKfiv) ; menda,
(Ov.), mendum (Cic), a fault ; mSrenda (dinner); sponda, a bed-
stead; turunda, a paste-ball; suggrunda, the eaves; unda, water.
'ib"^do °^ I Adjectives, originally gerundives: s.s
frgm-gbundus, roaring (fr6m-gre) ; fur-ibundus, raging
(fur-6re); lasciv-ibundus (Plant. Sticb. 288), playful (lascivi-re) ;
IQd-ibundus, sporting (md-ere) ; mor-ibundus, dying (morl, moriri) ;
pudi-bundus, bashful (pudere); qver-ibundus, plaintive (queri);
ridl-bundus, laughing (ridere) ; trgm-ebundus, trembling (trSm-ere).
-ab-undo From verbs with -a stems. Many of these forms are 819
found only in Livy and post-Augustan historians,
comissa-bundus, revelling; contiona-bundus, haranguing ; cuncta-
bundus, hesitating; delibgra-bundus, deliberating ; deprSca-bundus,
deprecatingly ; erra-bimdus, wandering about; gratula-bundus,
Chap. ?<] Dental Noun- Stevis : -undo; -di, -d. 303
making congratulations; hsesita-bundus (Plin. Ep. once), hesitating;
indigna-bundus, indignant; lacrima-bundus, iva-ping; lurchina-bun-
dus (only in Cato; cf. Quint. I. 6. 42), voracious; m6dita-'bundus
(Just.), in tneditalion; minita-bundus, threatening; inira-bundus, in
wonder; noctua-bundus (Cic. once), by night (noctu-; noctuare not
found); oscula-bundus (Suet.), kissing; peregrina-bundus (Liv.
once), travelling about; plora-bundus, beivailing; popula-bundus,
^wasting; praeda-bundus, pillaging; spgcula-bundus, on the q.vatch;
tenta-bundus, making a trial; tuburcliina-bundus (Cato, see above),
gobbling; venera-bundus, she-^ing reverence; versa-bundus, nuhirl-
ing; vita-bundus, avoiding; voluta-bxmdus (Cic. fragm.), wal-
lo'iving.
-c-undo Adjectives, probably gerundives from inchoative stems: 820
all have the preceding syllable long (except rubicundus).
fa-cundus, eloquent (fa-ri) ; fe-cundus, fruitful (comp. fe-mina,
fe-tus); ira-c-undus, angry (irasc-i); S^-cvia.6.ViS, pleasant (juv-are);
rubi-cundus, ruddy (rubere) ; vere-cundus, bashful (v6reri).
V. Stems in -du,-di, -d.
-du See §397,
-di sedes (f.) , a hearth ? a chamber §331 (comp. ses-tu-, aWetv) ; S21
caedes (f ), slaughter; Clades (f.), disaster; fidis (f ), a harp-
string; fraus (f.), cheating; frons (f) a leaf; glans (f ),
an acorn (comp. ^aXavos and § 765); grandis, large;
juglans (f.), a qvalnut; lendes (f. pi.), nits; pedis (m. f ),
a louse; rudis, (i) rude; (2) f. a spoon, ci foil ; sedes (f.),
a seat (s6dere); sordes (f. pi.), dirt; sudis (f. § 421), a
stake; triides (f. pi.), pikes (comp. trudSre?); viri-dis,
green (virere).
-ud p6cus (f.), a head of cattle (comp. p6cu-, p6c6r-). 822
-6d (-id) capis (f.), a sacrificial bowl (cap6re?); cassis (f.), a hel-
met; cuspis (f.), a spear-point ; lapis (m.), a pebble; pro-
mulsis (f.), a nvhet for the appetite (lit. preliminary
draught ?) (pro-, mulso-).
-od cvistos (j\.^, a guardian.
-M palus (f.), a marsh.
-ed cuppes (only m nom. sing.), a glutton; heres (m.), an
heir; merces (f ), wages (comp. merci-).
-d cor (n.), a heart (comp. Kapd-ia); laus (J.), praise; pes
(m.), afoot (comp. ttoS-, nom. tj-ovs) ; prses (m-)j " ^"'^S
vas (m. f.), a bail.
Compound stem-endings: -d6n, -fldSn, -tuddn, -gd6n, -iddn,
§§ 846—848; -edulo, § 865 ; -ndio. § 933.
304 Word-Formation. \Book III.
CHAPTER VI.
DENTAL NOUN-STEMS {continued).
vi. Stetns ending in -no.
-noor-ino (For all words (except numerals) with long vowel pre- 823
ceding -no see §§ 830 — 842.)
I. Adjectives:
(a) bonus, good; concinnus, neat; dignus, ivorthj; hornus, of
this year (ho-ver-, thh spring) ; mag-nus, great (comp. mag-is) ;
nonus, ninth (for novi-nus? but see § 754); pla-nus, level (comp.
ifKa^) ; pSrendi-nus, of a day hence (comp. nepav, die-) ; ver-nus,
of spring (ver-) ; unus, one.
(b) Distributive numerals (rarely used in singular) : M-nus, two-
fold^ t-zuo each (toi-) ; ter-nus or tri-nus (ter, tri-) ; qvater-nus
(qvater) and (Varr., Plin.) qvadrinus (qvatvor); qvl-nus (for
qvinqvi-nus, qvinc-nus, qvinc.ve) ; S8-nus (sex) ; septe-nus (for
septein-nus, septen-nus); octo-nus (octo); ndve-nus (for novem-
nus); denus (for dgciminus? dec-mis); vice-nus, t-joenty each (for
vicent-nus, viginti); trice-nus, thirty each {Xri^nxtz), &c.; cente-nus,
a hundred each (for centum-nus, the vowel being assimilated to
what is found in others) ; duce-nus, tn.vo hundred each (for ducent-
nus) ; trgcenus, three hundred each (trecent-) ; qvadringe-nus, four
hundred each (qvadringent-), (Sec. See Appendix.
(f) From names of trees and other materials: acer-nus, of maple
(acer-); adamanti-nus, hard as diamond (aSa/xayrifoy) ; amaraci-
nus, of marjoram (amaraco-) ; c§rasi-nus (Petron.), cherry-coloured
(cgraso-) ; cocci-nus, scarlet (cocco-) ; colur-nus, of hazel (for c6-
ruli-nus, corulo-); 6bur-nus, of ivory (6b6r-); ferrQgin-us (Lucr.
once), bluish-green (ferrugon-; ferrugineus is more usual); qver-
nus, oaken (for qverci-nus, qvercu-). See also salig-nus, &c.,
§826.
2. Substantives: 824
(a) Masculine: acinus, a berry; agnus, a latnb; annus, a year;
anus, a ring; asinus, an ass; cacMnnus, a laugh (comp. Ka;^a^fti');
clrci-nus, a pair of compasses (circo-) ; dfiminus, a lord (domare) ;
fumus, an oven; ginnus or hinnus, a mule., the mother being an ass
Chap. VI.] Dental Noun-Stems: -no, -miuo. 305
(comp. -ytV^oj, i.V^'os■); mannus, a coach horse (Keltic?); pampinus,
a 'vine-shoot; pannus, a p'wce of cloth (comp. irffvoi); panus, (i)
threcid on the bobbin, (2) a j-zue/ling (from tt^i/o??) ; pugnus, a Jisi
(comp. TTv^, TTvyixr]); ricinus, a sheep tick; som-nus, sleep (comp.
s6p-or); sonus, a sound; stumus, a starling; tabanus, a gadfly;
tornus, a lathe (torqvere, comp. ropvoi).
vema, a house slwve,
(b) Proper names (some are Etruscan): Cinna; Perpenna or
Perperna; Porsenna (Verg.), Pors6na (Hor., Mart., Sil.); Saserna;
Sisenna; Spurinna; Thalna; Vivenna. Cf. § 838 c.
(c) Feminine: alnus, an alder; cornus, a cornel tree; fraxinus,
an ash tree; ornus, a mountain ash; vannus, a wmnon-ving fan.
acna, a plot 120 feet square; angina (L. Miill.), quinsy (comp.
ayxovi], angere) ; antemna, a sailyard; flsci-na, a rush basket (fisco-) ;
fuscina, a three-pronged spear (comp. furca) ; g6na, a cheek (comp.
yews, a Jaw); nundi-nae (pi.), market-day (nono-, die-); pagina,
a leaf of a book, &c. (comp. pa«g6re); pati-na, a dish (patere?
comp. TTciTavT], Sicil. IBaravrj) ; penna, a wing (in old Latin pesna or
petna; comp. Trereadai); perna. a ham; pinna, a feather; pugna, a
battle (comp. pugnus); runcina (generally given as runcina), a
planing instrument (comp. runcare, pvKavt]); sanna, a grimace
(comp. a-avvas) ; sarcina, a bundle (sarcire, to close) ; sqvatina, a
skate-fish (comp. sqvalus, a fish) \ transenna, a net; ulna, an arm
(comp. u)kivr])\ urna, a pitcher (comp. urere, to burn).
(d) Neuter: cornum (more frequently cornu), a horn (comp.
Kepas) ; fascinum, a charm (comp. ftauKavos) ; ligniun, firewood
(lig-are?); pastinum, a two-pronged fork; penum (§ 398), « j/ore
of provisions.! &c. ; reg-num, a kingdom (r6g-ere) ; scamnum, a
bench (comp. scab-ilium) ; signum, a seal; stagnum, a pool., pe7it up
water ? (comp. a-Tfyavo-) ; stannum, an alloy of silver and lead;
tignum, a beam.
' > This suffix in Greek forms participles middle and passive; S25
e.g. TVTvr-opevoi, Tvi(/-dpevos, reTvp.-pivus, See.
ser-unma, sorrow (alpopeur], excited mind) ; al-uninus, a nursling
(al-6re) ; autumnus, Autumn (the increasing year, auctu-) ; Clitum-
nus, a river in Umbria; cdlumna, a column (comp. cul-men, cel-sus) ;
da-mnum, a loss (properly a gift, da-re ; or akin to ^anavrj) ; f5-
mina, a 'woman (comp. fe-tus, &c. § 800); ggminus, twin; lammina
(lamna), a plate of metal; terminus, a bound (comp. Tipp.a)\ Vert-
lunnus, the god of change (vert-ere).
The same suffix is seen in the 2nd pers. plur. of indicative and
subjunctive passive of tenses formed from present stem: e.g. ama-
20
3o6 Word-Formation. \Book III.
mini, amaljiiniiii, amabaminl, amemini, amaremini, § 572: and in
an old sing, imperative form; e.g. prsefamino, § 587.
Compare also -mfin, § 850.
"^^° [ Some are probably compounds with stems of gen-, 826
' gi-gn-6re: others have a c turned into g by the influence
of the nasal ; others are formed on their analogy.
abie-gnus, of fr (abigt-); apru-gnus (Plant., Plin.), of 'n.vild
boar (apro-) ; beni-gnus, kindly., liberal {^veil-born ? b6n6-gen-) ; faba-
ginus (Cato), of beans (faba-) ; ilig-nus, of kolm oak (ilec-) ; olea-
glnus, of the olive (olea-) ; mali-gnus, stingy (male-ggn-) ; privi-gnus
(subst.), borii from one parent only., i.e. a stepson (privo-gen-) ;
salig-nus, of ^villow (salic-).
For terrigena, &c. see § 995; for niagnus, dignus, § 823.
-tino Adjectives: anno-tinus, a year oldl (anno-); cras-tinus, S27
of to-morro^jj (eras) ; did-tinus, lo7ig continued (diu) ;
horno-tinus, of this year (bomo-) ; pris-tinus, of former times
(prius; comp. magis for magius); sero-tinus (Plin., Col.), late
(sero-).
-ur-no diur-nus, by day (dius-, dies-, § 341 n., comp. nMius; or 828
for diov-§rinus?); diut-umus (in Ovid always diutur-
nus), for long (comp. diut-ius) ; laburnum, broad-leaved trefoil;
noctu-rnus, by night (noctu-); Sat-urnus (Saetumus), god oi pro-
duce] (sato-, se-r6re); tacitumus, silent (tacito-); vibiumum, the
^wayfaring tree.
-er-no caverna, a cave (cavo-); cistema, a reservoir (cista-);
fusterna, the knotty part of a fir-tree (fusti-, a club^ ;
gubema (pi-), rudders (comp. Kvjiepvav) ; Mb-emus, in ivinter
(bigm-, cf. § 86. 5); bddiernus, of to-day (bo-, dius, or die-); infer-
nus, beloiu (infgro-); lacerna, a cloak; Lavema, goddess of gain;
liicerna, a lamp (comp. luci-, lucere); super-nus, above (sup6ro-);
tab-erna, a booth (from tab-ula, a plank]). See also § 823 c.
-ter-no i. e. -no suffixed to stems in -t6ro or -tri, or to adverbs 829
in -ter. In some the t perhaps is radical.
ae-ternus, for ever (sevo-, comp. a3-tat-); al-ter-nus, alternate,
every other (al-tero-);ex-ternus, outside (ex-tero-); fratemus, o/" «
brother (frater-, comp. (f)par(p-); bes-temus, of yesterday (comp.
Ii6ri, x^^^y> in-ter-nus, inside (in-ter); lantema (latema), rt /^«-
tern ; mater-nus, of a mother (mater-) ; nassitema, a -watering pot
( said to be from naso-, temo-, ^with three noses') ; patemus, of a
father (pater-); sempiternus, everlasting (comp. semp-er, §540");
v6ter-nus, lethargy (vStus-).
Chap. VJ.] Dental Norm- Stems : -gino, -mo, -ano. 307
-ano I. Adjectives: 830
(rt) with a as stem vowel: canus, hoary; sa-nus, sound
(comp. (Taos) ; va-nus, empty (comp. vac-uus).
(J?) from appellatives:
api-anus, of bees; name of Muscatel grape (api-); arc-anus,
secret (comp. area-, arcere) ; Camp-anus, of the pla'm, a Campa-
7iian (Campo-) ; castell-anus, of a fortress (castello-) ; decumanus,
of the tenth (e.g. a tithe tarmer; a soldier of the tenth legion, &c.;
decuma-) ; fontranus, of the spring (fonti-) ; germanus, of the full
blood; Mm-anus, of man (homon-); insul-anus (Cic. once), of an
island (vas\)i\2i-); Lat6r-anu3, a family name (lat6r-?); mSridi-anus,
of midday, southern (meridie-); mont-anus, of the mountains (mon-
ti-) ; mund-anus, of the universe (mundo-) ; non-anus (Tac), of
the fiintb legion (nona-) ; oppid-anus, of the town (oppido-) ; pag-
anus, of a village (pago-) ; pridi-anus, of the day before (pridie-) ;
prim-anus, of the first legion (prima-) ; puWic-anus, of the public
revenue (publico-); pute-anus (Plin., Col.), of a n.vell (piiteo-) ;
qvotidi-anus, daily (quotidie-); rustic-anus, of the country (rustico-);
urb-anus, cf the city (urbi-); v6t6r-anus, old, veteran (vetus-);
Vic-anas, of a hamlet (vico-).
from proper names ; (r) of places : Afric-anus, of the province
among the Afri (Afri-ca) ; Alb-anus (Alba) ; Allif-anus (Allifse) ;
Atell-anus (Atella) ; Coriol-anus (Corioli) ; Cvlm-anus (Cumss) ; Fre-
gell-anus (Fregellse); Fund-anus (Fundi); Gallic-anus, of the pro-
vince among the Gauls (Gallica-) ; Labic-anus (Labicum) ; Psest-
anus (Paestum) ; Puteol-anus (Puteoli) ; Rom-anus (Roma) ; Saranus,
Sarranus, of Tyre (Sarra) ; also a surname of the Atilian clan ; i. q.
Serranus (Momm. C. I. R. No. 549); Silanus, surname of Julian
•clan (SQa.' but cf. Lucr. 6. 1265); Syracus-anus (Syracusae); Theb-
anus (Ttebse) ; Tuscul-anus (Tusculum) ; and others.
(d) of persons: Cinn-anus (Cinna) ; Sull-anus (Sulla).
{e) Compounds formed immediately from a preposition and its
case:
antelilc-anus, before daylight (ante lucem) ; anteraeridi-anus, in
the forenoon (ante meridiem); antesign-anus, in front of the standards
(ante sigua) ; circumpad-anus, round the Po (circum Padum) ; cis-
rlien-anus, on this side of the Rhine (cis Rhenum) ; pomgridi-anus,
in the afternoon (post meridiem) ; subsign-anus, of the reserve (sub
slgnis) ; suburb-anus, }!ear the city (sub urbem) ; transmont-anus,
beyond the mountains (trans montes); transpad-anus ; transrlien-
anus.
2. Substantives: («) anus (see § 824); Diana, the goddess ofs^i
the day (die-); Janus (for Dianus), the god Qf the day, fanum, a
20 — 2
3o8 Word-Formation. [£ook III.
shrine (^-ri); granum, a grain; lana, <^.vooI (comp. Xd^vr));
membr-ana, skin (membro-) ; panus (see § 824) ; qvartana, sc. febris,
a quartan ague (civarta-) ; ra-na, a frog (comp. ra-vus, hoary) ; Silv-
anus, the r^vood god (silva-) ; Volcanus, thejire god.
-i-ano Adjectives in -anus, derived from stems, chiefly of proper 832
names, with suffix -io:
Acci-anus, of jlccius (Accio-) ; .ffimili-anus, belonging to the ^mi-
Han clan (.Smilia-) ; Asi-anus, of yljia (Asia-) ; Csesari-anus, belong-
ing to desar's (Caesareus, of desar; e.g. Caesaris or Csesarea celerltas,
Cofsar^s quickness ; Caesariana celeritas, quickness, like desar^s) ; Cice-
ron-ianus, of Cicero (Ciceron-) ; Claudi-anus, of a Claudius (Claudio-) ;
Fabi-anus, of a Fabian, or of the Fabian dm (Fabio-, Fabia-);
Mari-anus, of Marius (Mario-); Milon-ianus, of Milo (i.q. Milonius) ;
Orcini-anus (Mart.), of a dead man (Orcinus, a dave/Ier ^ojith death,
orco-) ; Pompei-anus, of Pompeius (Pompeio-) ; prsetori-anus, of the
pr^etor^s ca>np (prsetorio-) ; Sejanus (Seio-); S-ommceiiiaiius, of a
d-zveller in Under-zva/I {suramcenio-); Tib6ri-anus, of Tiberius; Teren-
ti-anus, of Terentius (Terentio-) ; Trajanus ; and others.
-it-ano Probably from the Greek suffix -tr?;?, or in analogy 833
therewith. (Properly it denotes of the people of:)
Antipolitanus, of AntipoUs (Antipoli-) ; Gaditanus, of Codes, i. e.
Cadiz (Qia.^i-); Massilitanus, of Marseilles (Massilia-); Panormita-
nus, of Panormus (Panormo-) ; Tauromenitanus, of Tauromenium
(Tauromenio-) ; Tomitanus, of Tomi (Tomo-).
-ono I. Adjectives: VT^onvis, headlong, ivith face for--ivard(jiro-). S34
2. Substantives: (a) Masc. and neut.: c61-onus, a farmer
(col-ere); donum, a gift (da-re); patr-onus, a patron (patr-).
{f) Feminine: annona, the year's supply of corn (anno-);
Bellona, the -zvar goddess (bello-); caupona, a tavern (copa-,
caup-on-); corona, a cro-zun; Latona, a goddess (comp. Ai^rco); ma-
trona, a married <zvoman (matr-); persona, a mask (personare .'') ;
Pomona, Fruit goddess (ponio-).
For octonus, nonus (whence nonse, pi. the ninth day) see § 823 a.
"Ceno kva.(&nMs, pleasant ; poena, «^^««//>' (comp. pGnire).
-iilio I. Adjectives: importumis, ttnseasonable (^without a port} S^s
in, portu-); jejunus, y«j;'/«^ ; ovportunus, in frofit of the
port, ready at hand (ob portum).
2. Substantives: ciinse (pi.), a cradle (for cubinse? ciib-are);
fortuna, yor/z/«f (forti-; comp. nocti-, noctu-) ; lacuna (or lucuna),
hole (lacu-); Neptunus, the sea god (perhaps i/iTrro/iiei'os-, § 825);
a
r
Chap. V/.] Dc7ital Noiin-Stcms: -ono, -flno, -eno, -ino. 309
Portunus, god of harbours (portu-) ; pruna, a live coed; pruniun, a
plum ; tribunus, a tribe's chief (tribu-) ; Vacuna, a Sabine goddess
(coinp. vacare, vacuus).
-seno'i I. Adjectives: aenus (or ahenus), of bronze (for ses- 3:,6
-eno I' nus, from sesi-: the Umbrian has ahesnes); alienus, of
another^ alien (alio-); egenus, tieedy (6gere); obsceaus, illbodin'j;;
lilenas, full (comp. plere); serenus, calm; terrenus, earthly (terra).
Abydenus, of Abydos (Abydo) ; Cyzicenus, of Cjzicos (Cyzico).
For vicenus.and other numerals see § 823 b.
2. Substantives: (a) feminine: avena, oats; camena (casmetaa
ace. to Varro), a Muse (comp. car-men); catena, a chain; cena
(cesna, Fest.), supper; crumena, a purse; galena, lead ore; habena,
a rein (habere); liarena, sand; lasna, a cloak (comp. )(\alva, § no.
3) ; laniena, a butcher'' s stall (lanio-) ; lena, a ba^ud; strena, ati omen^
a nenv year's gift; vena, a vein; verbense (pL), houghs of myrtle,
&c. used in religious acts.
Qj) Neuter: csenum, tnud ; fenum (foenum), hay; frenum, a rein;
venenum, ^oao«; veniun (only in accus. § 369).
-i-eno i.e. -eno suffixed to stems in -io. 837
Proper names : Aufidienus, Avidienus, Catlenus, Labienus,
Nasidienus, Vettienus, and others.
-il-eno cantilena, a tune (cantu-).
-ino (In some of the following words the length of the 1 is 838
not proved.)
I. Adjectives: {a) from appellatives :
adult6rinus, spurious (adult6ro-) ; agninus, of a lamb
(agno); anatinus (Plaut., Petr.), of a duck (anat-); angvlnus, of a
snake (angvi-) ; ans6rinus (Plin., Col.), of a goose (ansgr-); aprlnus,
of a -Mild boar (apro-); ari6tinus (Plin.), of a ram (ariet-); aus-
trinus, southern (austro-) ; caninus, of a dog (can-) ; caprinus, of a
goat (capro-); cervinus, of a deer (cervo-); collinus, of a hill (colli-);
columbinus, of a dove (columbo-) ; cdcivinus, of a cook (coqvo-) ;
corvinus, of a raven (corvo-) ; divinus, of a god (divo-) ; 6qvinus,
of a horse (gqvo-) ; femininus, of a ivomayi (femina-) ; festinus,
hasty (comp. con-fes-tim) ; fflrinus (Plaut. once), of a thief (ftir-);
gSnuinus, of a janv (comp. yeVuy) ; native (gi-gn-6re) ; Mrcinus, of
a goat (hirco-) ; inopinus, unexpected (comp. opinari) ; leoninus, of
a lion (leon-) ; leporinus, of a bare (16p6s-) ; lupinus, of a vjolf
(liipo-) ; marinus, of the sea (mari-) ; mascftl-inus, of a male (mas-
culo-); railuinus, of a kite (miluo-); pSrSgrinus, of abroad (pSrSgre);
porcinus, of a pig (porco-)'^ soricinus (Plaut. once), of a shrew
3IO Word-Formation. [Book III.
mouse (sorgc-); supinus, q.vith face upward; taurinus, of a bull;
ursinus, of a bear (urso-) ; verrinus, of a boar pig (verii-) ; v6t6ri-
nus, of beasts of burden (comp. v6here) ; vicinus, of the street, neigh-
bour (vico-); vltulinus, of a calf (vitulo-); volpinus, of a fox
(volpi-) ; and others.
{b) From proper names of places: AlMnus, a cognomen of the
Postumian clan (Alba?); Alpinus (Alpes, pi.); Aricinus (Aricia);
Capitolinus (Capitolium ) ; Caudinus (Caudium); Collatinus (Colla-
tia) ; Esqviluius (Esqvilise) ; Ferentinus (perhaps for Ferentininus
from Ferentinum) ; Lanuvinus (Lanuvium); Latinus (Latium); Mg-
dullinus (MeduUia) ; Palatinus, but in Martial Palatinus (Palatium) ;
Prsenestinus (Praeneste); Reatinus (Reate); Rheginus (Rhegiuin) ;
Tarentinus (Tarentum) ; Venusinus (Venusia) ; and others,
Aventinus, Qvirinus, Sabinus, are of uncertain origin.
(c) From proper names of persons; chiefly from such as were
originally appellatives:
They are used as substantives, being surnames:
Alblnus (Albus) ; Antoninus (Antonius) ; Aqvilinus (Aquila .') ;
Atratinus (Atratusr); Augurinus (Augur); Augustinus (Augustus);
Csesoninus (Cseso); Calvinus (Calvus); Cicurinus (Cicur); Corvinus
(Corvus); Crispinus (Crispus); Flamininus (Flaminius or flarnen?);
Frontinus (Fronto?); Justinus (Justus); Lactucinus (Lactuca); Lse-
vinus (Lsevus) ; Longinus (Longus) ; Luscinus (Luscus) ; Macerinus
and Macrinus (Macer); Mamercinus ( Mamercus) ; Mancinus (Man-
cus); Marcellinus (Marcellus) ; Messallinus (Hessalla); Mgtellinus
(Metellus) ; Paetinus (Psetus); Plautinus (Plautus); Ruflnus (Rufus);
Saturninus (Saturnus) ; Sextinus (Sextus or Sestus) ; Tricipitinus
(triceps) ; and some others.
Compare orcinus, of Orcus or death (Orcus); Plautinus. of
Plautus (Plautus).
2. Substantives: 833
(«) Masculine: conciibirus fconcubina), a concubine (com, cub-
are); inqvil-inus, a lodger (in col-ere) ; lupinus, a lupine; piUvinus,
a cushion; sobrinus (sobrina f), a second cousin, sister's child}
(sdror-).
Caecina (Caecus); Canina (canis?); Porcina (porca.').
{h) Feminine: carpinus (-inus.?), the hornbeam; pinus (cf.
§ 398), a pine tree (for pic-nus? cf. § no, i; and comp. tti'tus);
sapinus (-inus?), a kind of pine tree; sinus (sinum), a tankard.
arvina (Verg.), grease; caepina (Col.), an onion bed (caepa-);
carina, a keel; camificina, place of torture, torture (camifes) ; fari-
na, }}ieal (comp. farr-); fodinae (pi.), mines (fode-re); gaUina,' a hen
(gaUo-); lapicidinae (pL). stone quarries (lapid-, caed-6re); napina
Chap.VI.^ Dental Noun-Stems: -ino, -tino, -trino; -ni. 311
(Col.), a colza or coleseed bed (napo-) ; Spificina (Plaut.), ofificina,
a ^workshop (oflacio-, § 929 «); parigtinse? (parietinse?), ruins (pa-
riSt-) ; piscina, a fsh-pond (pisci-) ; popina, a cooks hop (cf. c6qvo-,
§ 118. 2); porrina (Cato), a leek bed (porro-); pruina, hoarfrost
(comp. pro, prse, nprn); rapina, pillage (rap6-re); rapina, turnip
(rapo-); regina, a queen (reg-) ; resina, resin QlrjTLvr]); ruina, a fall
(ru-6re); sagina, stuff ng, food (comp. <jam\.v)\ salinse, pi. (also
salinum), saltpits (sal-, salire) ; scobina, a rasp (scab-ere) ; spina,
a thorn iiox spicina, from spica-); vagina, a sheath; urina, urme
(comp. olpov).
Agrippina (Agrippa) ; Faustina (Faustus) ; Plancina (Plancus).
(c) Neuter: catinum (also catinus, m.), a dish; Y^mxo., flax;
vinum, 'wine (comp. vi-tis, viere, to twine).
-c-ino Cloacina, goddess of servers (cloaca) ; medi-c-ina, medical 840
art (medico-, mSdere) ; morti-cinus (adj.), carrion (morti-).
-t-ino I. Adjectives: clandestinus, secret (comp. clam); intes-
tinus, internal (intus) ; libertinus, of the class of f reed-
men (liberto-) ; matiit-inus, in the morning (matQta, the da'wn) ;
mSdi-ast-inus, from the 7niddle of the city, hence a drudge (medio-,
aarv); pauper-tinus (Varr., Gell.), poor (paupgr-); r6p-ent-inus,
sudden (repenti-) ; vesper-tinus, of the evening (vesper-).
For proper names see § 838 Z". r.
2. Substantives: cortina, a boiling pot; Libitina, goddess of
funerals; sentina, bilge-wnater.
-lino culina, a kitchen (for coc-lina? coqvo-) ; disciplina, train- 841
ing (disc-ip-ulo-, disc6re); sterqvi-linum (Phaedr.), a
dungheap (for stercorinum? stereos-); tablinum, <2 registry
(tabula-).
-tr-ino From stems in -tor. (For the omission of 6 compare 842
the ending -trie, § 782.)
doc-tr-ina, learning {^Qfxx^\ la-tr-ina (lavatrina), a privy
(lavare) ; pis-tr-inum, a mill; pis-tr-ina, a bakehouse
(pis-6re, to pound); sH-tr-ina, a cobbler's shop or trade
(su-gre); tex-tr-inum, weaving (tex-6re); tons-tr-ina, a
barber's shop (tondere).
vii. Stems ending in -ni, -n. S43
-nl I. Adjectives: immanis, wi/i (in, mano-; "in carmine
Saliai-i Cenis manus intelligitur creator bonus," Festus,
p. T22, Miill.); inanis, empty; mfinis (rare), obliging (comp. mil-
nus); omnis, all; segnia, lazy; soUemnis, customary.
3 1 2 Word-Formation. [Book III.
2. Substantives: amnis (m.), a river; clvlnis (m. f.), a haunch-
crinis (m.), hair; finis (m. f.), a boundary (for fid-nis, find-ere) ;
funis (m.), a rope; ignis (m.), fire; mane (n.), the morning; manes
(m. pi.), the spirits below; mcenia (n. pi.), walls; mGnia (n. pi.),
duties (same as mcenia); panis (m.), a loaf of bnad; penis (m. for
pes-nis; comp. Treo?, Tvoa-drj)] renes (m. pi.), kidneys.
On canis (m. f.), a dog., see § 448.
-6n (-in) Substantives: caro ({.), flesh (comp. /cpea?); Mmo (m. 84»
also Mmo, § 449, and with old stem in -on), a man
(iLumo-, ground):, nemo, no one (ne, li6mo); turbo (m.), a whirl
(comp. turba-).
-gdn (-gin) Substantives: aspergo (f.), a sprinkling (adspa-rg-ere) ; ^45
margo (m.), a brink (comp. merg-6re, to dip); virgo
(f.), a girl (viro, a manl or vir-ere, to be fresh. Curtius and Cors-
sen connect it with the I'oot of 6py-aco).
-ag-5n (-agin) All feminine: ambago (only abl. s., Manil.), circuit
(amb, ag-ere?); compago, a fastening (com, pa«g-
ere); c6ri-ago (Col.), a skin disease (c6rio-); farr-ago, a mash
(farr-) ; imago, a likeness (comp. im-itari ; perhaps for mimi-tari ;
comp. /ii/Liei-o-^at) ; indago, an encircling (indo, ag-ere?); Inmb-ago
(Fest.), loin disease (lumbo-): plumb-ago, blacklead (plumbo-) ; pro-
pago, a slip of a plant, offspring (pro, pang-ere) ; sartago, a frying-
pan; suffrago, the pastern, as if broken and bent up (sub, frang-ere);
virago, a bold girl (viro-) ; vorago, a gulf (vora-re).
-il-ag-6n (-gin) All feminine : caxtilago, gristle (comp. Kpeas) ; salsi-
lago (Plin.), saltness (salso-); similago (Pl'm.), fine
flour (simila-).
-ilg-6n (-Hgin) All feminine : ser-ugo, bronze-rust. Jealousy (ass-) ;
alb-ugo, a disease of the eye (albo-) ; ferr-ugo, iron-
rust (ferro-) ; lan-ugo, downy hair (lana-) ; sals-ugo, saltness (salso-) ;
vesper-ugo (Plant.), the evening star (vespero-).
-ig-6n (-igin) All feminine: caligo, mist (comp. clam, cela-re); de-
pgtigo, impetigo, a scabby eruption: fiiligo, soot; in-
tertrigo, a galling (inter, tri-, tgrSre) ; lent-igo, freckles (lenti-, linseed,
which freckles resemble); loUigo, a cuttle fish; melligo, bee-glue
(mell-); origo, a source (oriri); porrigo, scurf (porro-, leekl); pru-
rigo, itching (prtlrire) ; robigo (rubigo), rust (rub-ro-, red) ; scatur-
igines (pi.), springs (scaturire); siligo, r^vhite wheat; tentigo, tension
(tento-); vertigo, a turn (vertere); vitiligo, a tetter; uligo, wet
(ado-).
-d-6n (-din) cardo (m.), a hinge (comp. Kpahav. to brandish) ; grando 846
(f.), hail (comp. ^aka^a, § 126); barundo (f.), a reed:
hirundo (f.), a swallow (comp. ;)^eXiS&)i', § 134); ordo
(m.), a row.
Chap. VZ] Dental Noun-Stems: -6n, -gSn, -dOn, -fin. 313
-■ad-611 (-Min) hirudo (f.), a leech; testudo (i.), a tortoise (testa-,
a pot lid.
-tild6n (-tudin) Feminine abstract substantives. All have (appa- 847
rently) a short i before the suffix, except the deri-
vatives from sueto- (in which a syllable has droi)ped
out) and valetudo.
segri-tudo, sickness, sorrow (segro-); alti-tudo, height (alto-);
amari-tudo (Plin. maj. and min.), bitterness (amaro-); ampli-tudo,
rMide extent (amplo-) ; asperi-tudo (Cels.), roughness (asp6ro-) ; as-
sve-tudo (for assuetitudo), habit (ad-sveto-): so also consvetudo,
desvetudo, mansvetudo; celsi-tudo (Veil.), highness; so as a title
(Cod. Theod.), e. g. your Highness (celso-) ; clari-tudo (chiefly Tac),
renown (claro-) ; crassi-tudo, thickness (crasso-) ; dissimili-tudo, un-
Hkeness (dis dmili-) ; firmi-tudo, /rw«(^j.f (firmo-); forti-tudo, courage
(forti-) ; habi-tudo, habit (for habititudo, from habito-) ; hilari-tudo
(Plaut.), merriment (hilaro-) ; lassi-tudo, weariness (lasso-); lati-
tudo, breadth (lato-) ; leni-tudo (rare), lenieyicy (leni-); lenti-tudo,
sluggishness (lento-) ; lippi-tudo, inflammation in the eyes (lippo-) ;
longi-tudo, length (longo-) ; magni-tudo, greatness (magno-) ; moUi-
tudo, softness "(moUi-) ; multi-tudo, great number (multo-) ; ngcessi-
tudo, necessity, close bond (necesse); parti-tudo (Plaut. twice), a
giving birth (partu-) ; pingvi-tudo. fatness (plngvi-) ; pulchri-tudo,
"^beauty (pulchro-) ; sancti-tudo (pras-Cic), sacreduess (sancto-);
simiii-tudo, likeness (simili-) ; soli-tudo, loneliness (solo-); sollici-
■Eudo, anxiety (sollicito-) ; svavi-tudo (pras-Cic), sweetness (svavi-) ;
teneri-tudo'(Varr., Suet.), softness, tender years (tenero-); turpi-tudo,
ugliness, disgrace (turpi-); vale-tudo, health (valere) ; vasti-tudo
(old prayer 'in Cato), wasti>ig (vasto-); vicissi-tudo, change (comp.
vicissim): and many others, chiefly words quoted by Nonius from
the early dramatists.
-ed-611 (-edin) All feminine: absilmedo (Plaut. Capt. 901), consump- Hs
tion (absumere, with pun on sumen) ; alcedo, kingfisher
(comp. a\Kvmv)\ capedo, a sacrificial bowl (capere; comp. capid-);
cuppedo {Lwzx.^, desire (comp.cuppedia, (3'('//Vrt'f/V^,cupg-re); dulcedo,
sweetness (dulci-) ; gravedo, a heavy cold (gravi-) ; intercapedo, an
interval (inter, capgre) ; t6redo, a worm, or moth (ter-6re; comp.
Tfpr]d(i,v) ; torpedo, numbness (torpere) ; iiredo, blight (iir-6re).
-id-6n (-idin) All feminine: crSpido, an edge (from Kprjulb-^);
ciipido (f except as a god), desire (cupe-re) ; formido,
dread (forma-, making shapes to oneself^.} ; libido, lust
(libere).
-6n juvgnis (m.), a youth; s6n-ex (the nom. sing, has a fur- S49
ther suffix), an old man.
314 Word-Formation. [Book III.
-6n(-in) gluten (n.), glue (comp. gmto-, adj.); ingven (n.), the
groin; pecten (m.), a comb (pect-gre); pollis (m. no nom.
sing.), ^ne jour (comp. ttoX?;) ; sangvis (m.) and sangven (n.§ 449),
blood; ungven (n.), oi/iiment (ung-fire).
-mgn (-min) All neuter substantives, chiefly derived from verbs. S50
Comp. the suffixes, -mino, § 825, -mento, § 792.
(fl) From vowel-verbs with stems ending in -a, -ii, or -i.
acH-men, a point (acu-6re) ; calcea-men (Plin.), a shoe (calcea-
re); canta-men (Prop, once), a spell (canta-re); certa-men, a contest
Tcerta-re); cdnamen (Lucr., Ov.), an effort (cona-ri); curva-men
(Ov.), a bend (curva-re); dura-men (Lucr.), hardening (dura-re);
flamen, a blast (fla-re); also (m.) a priest; flil-men. a stream (flu-
fere); fora-men, a hole (fora-re, to bore'); funda-men (Verg., Ov.), a
foundation (funda-re) ; gesta-men, a auearing article, a conveyance
(gesta-re); gl6m6ra-nien, a round ball (gl6mera-re) ; leni-men
(Hor., Ov.), a solace (leni-re) ; l§va-raen, an alleviation (Igva-re);
moli-men, an effort (moli-ri); nd-men, a nod, the divine q.uill (nu-
fere); niltri-men (Ov. once), nourishment (nutri-re) ; placa-men,
a means of pacifying (placa-re); puta-men, a clipping, shell, &c.
(puta-re) ; sola-men, a comfort (s61a-ri) ; sta-men, the ^luurp thread
(stare) ; statu-men, a stay, prop (statu-6re) ; stra-men a stra^iv
(stra-, sternere); suffi-men (Ov. once), incense (sufifi-re); suflla-
men, a drag (sufilaxe?); tenta-men (Ov.), an attempt (teTitsi.-ie) ;
v6ca-men (Lucr.), a name (v6ca-re) ; and others.
{h) From other verbs, or of uncertain derivation :
abdomen, the belly; agmen, a train (ag-ere); albumen (Plin.),
the avhite of an egg (albo-) ; alumen, alum ; augmen, a growth
(aug-ere) ; bitumen, bitumen; caciimen, a sumi7nt ; carmen, a song,
a charm (comp. camena, § 836. 2); columen, a top, support (comp.
cel-sus); cri-men, a charge (comp. ere-, cerngre, Kpivtiv); culmen
(contr. for columen; rare before Augustan age); discrimen, a dis-
tinction (comp. discer«-6re); documen (Lucr. once), a lesson (doc-ere);
ex5,men, a s-zuarm, the tongue of a balance (ex-ag-6re) ; ffemen-, a
thigh; ferumen (Detlefsen), solder; fle-mlna (pi.), bloody swellings
(comp. (j)Xfy-fiu) ; frag-men, a fragment (frang-ere) ; germen, a
bud; gramen, grass (comp. grandis, granum) ; IggOmen, pulse; llmen,
a lintel, a threshold; lH-men, a light (lUc-ere); mo-men (for mo-
vimen), movement (mdvere); nomen, a name, esp. of the clan;
e.g. Cornelius; so also agnomen, an additional surname; e.g. Afri-
canus; cognomen, the yiayne of the family; e.g. Scipio; prsenomen.
the individual name; e.g. Lucius (no-sc-ere) ; omen, an omen; reg-
imen, guidance (reg-gre) ; rumen (rare), the gullet (comp. ni-min-
are, to chew the cud); sagmen, a tift of sacred herbs; sarmen
Chap. VIi\ Dental Noun-Stems: -6n, -ni6n, -on. 315
(Plaut. once), brush'Uuood (sarp-6re); segmen (rare), a cutting
(s6care); semen, seed (s6-r6re); specimen, a pattern (spgcS-re);
subte-men, the woof (subtex-ere) ; sQ-men, an udder (sflg-Sre);
teg-imen (teg-men), a coverbig (t6g-6re); tor-mina (pi.), gripes
(torqv-ere); vermina, gripes (for vermi-min-? vermi-, a worm);
vi-men, a withe (viere).
-on All masculine (except Juno): many are personal names: i
(a) .Appellatives: sero (Vitr., Plin.), a basket; agaso, a
groom; alec (rare), a gamester (alea-); aqvilo, the northwind (comp.
aqvilo-, dark-coloured) \ balatro, a jester; baro, a dolt; bubo, an owl
(comp. jSvas) ; bucco, a babbler (bucca-, a cheek) ; bilfo, a toad;
buteo, a ha^aik; calcitro, a kicker (calci-); calo, a soldiers servant;
capito, a hi^-headed man (caput-); capo, a capon (comp. capo-);
carbo, a coiil; caupo, a tavern-keeper (comp. KcvK-iqko^ ; cento, a
patchwork; cerdo, an artisan (from Kepr^o??); cilo (Fest.), having
a long narrow head; ciniflo (Hor.), an assistant at the toilet (cf. § 992) ;
combib-o (rare), a boon companion (com, bib-6re) ; c6m6d-o (Lucil.,
Van-.), a glutton (comed-gre) ; commllit-o, a fellow-soldier (com,
milet-); congerr-o (Plant.), a playfellow (com, gerra-) ; crabro, «
hornet; cGdo (abl. only; Sil.), a skin helmet; dolo, a staff with
a sharp point; epul-o, « yt-rtj/cr (epula-) ; eqviso (Varr.), a groom
(eqvo-) ; erro, a runa^way (erra-re) ; fronto, with a large fore-
bead (fronti-) ; fullo, a fuller; ganeo, debauchee (ganea-) ; gerr-o,
a trifier (gerra-); heluo, a glutton; labeo, \nvge-lipped (labio-);
latro, a mercenary soldier; hence a brigand (comp. Xarpeveiv);
leno, a pander; leo, a lion (comp. Xecov, Xeovr-); ligo, a hoe; lurco,
a glutton; mango, a dealer; ment-o, \ong-chinned (mento-); mir-
millo, a gladiator, who wore a fish (/zop/zupos- ?) on his helmet;
mucro, a sharp point; muto (i.q. penis); nas-o, ^uith a big nose
(naso-) ; n6bulo, a worthless fellow (nebula-) ; palp-o, a flatterer
(palpo-); pavo, a peacock; pero, a rawhide hoot; pgtaso, a leg
of pork; petro, a hardy rustic (nerpa); ponto, a punt, pontoon
(ponti-?); p6pin-o, a frequenter of eating-houses (popina-) ; prseco,
a crier (prse, voc-arer); prsed-o, a robber (praeda-) ; pulmo, a lung
(comp. TrXevficov) ; reno, a reindeer (Keltic) ; sabulo. ^rrti>f/ (sabulo-);
sermo, conversation (ser-ere, to join, ser-ies); silo, snub-nosed (silo-);
spado, a eunuch; stolo, a useless sucker; strabo, a squinter; subulo,
a flute player (Etruscan); temo, a carriage pole; tiro, a recruit;
trico (Lucil.), a trickster (trica-); udo, a felt shoe; vespillo, a corpse-
bearer at night (vespgra-) ; umbo, a boss (comp. umbilicus, afj.l3o3v) ;
volones (pi.), volunteer soldiers (vel-le.?); unedo (Plin.), the arbutus.
Jilno (fern.); comp. also §§ 481, 505.
(b) Many are used chiefly or exclusively as cognomina. (In
this list the name of the clan is added) :
Bucco, of thePompeian clan (vid.supr.); Buteo, Fabian (vid.supr.);
Capito, Fonteian, Sec. (vid. supr.) ; Carbo, Papirian (vid. supr.) ; Cato,
3i6 Word-Formation, {Book III.
Porcian (Cato- ?) ; Cerco, Lutatian {tailed., KepKo-) ; Cicero, vetch
tnan., Tullian (Cic6r-); Corbulo, basket man., Domitian (corbula-);
Culleo, bagman., Terentian (culleo-); Dorso, lofigbacP. Fabian
(dorso-); Fronto, a sm-name in several clans (vid. supn); Kseso,
Fabian, "a casso matris utero dictus" (Plin. 7. 9. 7); Labeo, in
several clans (vid. supr.); Latro, Porcian (\ad. supr.) ; Litao, Marian
and Scribonian; Lurco, Autidian (vid. supr.); Mento, Julian (vid.
supr.) ; Naso, in several clans (naso-) ; N6ro, Claudian (Sabine for
"fortis ac strenuus"); Pedo, splayfootl, rare (ped-); Piso, pease,
Calpurnian (piso) ; Simo, _flat nosed (simo-) ; Stolo, Licinian (vid.
supr.) ; Strabo, in several clans (vid. supr.) ; Tappo. Villian ; Tubero,
humpbacP., Csclian (tubSr-, a boil, lump, &c.); Varro, bowlegged,
Terentian (varo-); V616ro, Publilian; Vulso, 'with smooth face],
Manlian (vulso-, pluckedl') ; and some others (besides those in -ion).
-ion (i) Masculine: {ci) appellatives: 832
ardel-io, a trifler; binio, a deuce (bino-); centurio, a cap-
tain (centuria-); curculio, a rj^ee-vil; curio, the head of a curia;
decurio, a commander of ten (decuria-) ; duplio (old), the double;
esurio (Plant, punning; Petr.), a hungry ynan (esur-ire); gurgulio,
the windpipe (comp. Engl, gargle); Wstrio, an actor (Etruscan);
libeU-io, a bookseller (libello-) ; lud-io, a stage player (ludo-) ; ma-
teU-io, a pot (matella-) ; morio, a fool (fxcopo-)] miil-io, a muleteer
(mulo-); opilio, a shepherd (comp. ovi-, and cf. § 94. i ^); papilio,
a butterfly; pellio, a currier (pelli-); pernio (Plin.), a chilblain
(pema-?)'; pugio, a dagger (pu«g-ere) ; pUmUio, a dzvarf {v^mMQ-)',
pusio, a little boy (piiso-, comp. puero-); quinio. a cinq (quino-) ;
restio, a ropemaker (resti-) ; sannio, a grimacer (sanna-) ; scipio, a
staff (comp. (TKiiTVTpov) ; scopio, a grape stalk ; sgnec-io, an old man
(comp. s6n-ec-) ; senio, a seize (sex, seno-) ; septentrio, the north
(septem, trio, a star} M. MuUer's Lectures, II. p. 365); stelio, a
gecko, a kind of spotted lizard (stella-) ; Talassio, a cry addressed
to a bride; tenebrio (Varr.), a swindler (tenebra-); vespertilio, a
bat (as if from vespertilis, of the evening) ; ilnio, a pearl (ilno-?).
(b) Proper names : Csepio, Servilian (csepa-, o«w«) ; Curio, Scri-
bonian (vid. supr.); Glabrio, Acilian (glabro-, s7nooth, hairless);
Pollio, Asinian (paullo-); Scipio, Cornelian (vid. supr.); SgnScio,
Claudian (vid. supr.).
(2) Feminine- abstract substantives {a) derived from verbs:
alluvio, inundation (ad lavare) ; capio, an acquisition ; colluvio
(Liv.), sweepings (com, lav-are); condicio, terms of agreement (con-
dicere, comp. maledlc-us) ; contagio, contagion (com, tawgere) ; dicio
(no nom. s.), rule (comp. die-, dic6re?); intemecio, destruction (in-
ter, n6c-are) ; 16gio, a body of soldiers (16g-ere, to pick up) ; oblivlo,
forgetfuhu-ss (oblivi-sc-i) ; obsidio, a blockade (obsideri) ; occidio,
massacre (occid-6re); optio, a choice; hence (m.?), an adjutant
Chap. J 7.] Dental Noiin-Stcms : -ion, -cion, -tion. 317
(opt-are); dpinio, ophiton (dpinari); regio, a district (reg-ere, to
viark out bouiidnrics) ; relligio, a scruple (reiegere^ ; suspicio, suspicion
(^suspic6-re} ; usucapio, acquisition by enjoyment (usu, cape-re).
{h) Derived from noun stems in -i :
communio, sharing in common (communi-) ; consortio, ftllo-xuship
(consorti-) ; portio, a share (comp. parti-) ; perduellio, treason
(perduelli-); r6.bellio, revolt (rebelli-); talio, retaliation (tali-).
-cion homun-cio, a tnannikin (Ii6m6n-) ; comp. sengcion- 853
(§ 852 a).
-tion - Abstract feminine substantives formed from supine stems. 854
Some are used in concrete sense :
{a) From supine stems of vovs^el verbs with long vowel pre-
ceding the suffix (the verbs themselves are omitted as self-evident) :
acciis-at-io, <?« accusation- advoc-atio, legal assistance; ajstim-
atio, a valuation; agit-at-io, movement; alterc-at-io, dispute; am-
at-io (Plaut.), caressing; amtoul-at-io, a promenade ; appell-at-io,
an appeal., a name; actv-at-io, n.vater-supply ; ar-at-io, ploughing;
assent-at-io, flattery; attrito-ut-io, assignment ; aud-it-io, hearing .,
hearsay; capt-at-io, catching; cavill-at-io, raillery; cglebr-at-io, an
assemblage; clarig-at-io, a solemn declaration of o-var; cogit-at-io,
thought; cogn-Sit-io, relationship by blood (com, na-sci); coU-at-io,
a contribution, comparison; compar-at-io, comparison; concert-at-io,
dispute; concit-at-io, excitement; concurs- at-io, running together;
confarre-atio, religious tnarriage (com-, farreo-, i.e. eating together
the bridal cake) ; constit-'&t-io, disposition ; contempl-at-io, contempla-
tion ; contest-atio, Joining issue, calling q.viinesses (com, testari) ; cre-
tio, acceptance of an inheritance (cernere) ; cunct-atio, delay ; cur-atio,
management ; damn-atio, condeinnation ; declin-atio, turning aside;
defin-it-io, marking off; deleg-atio, assignment of debt, &c.; demin-
ilt-io, decrease; denunti-atio, announcement; desper-atio, despair;
discept-at-io, discussion; dissol-titio, dissolution; domin-atio, lord-
jhip; duMt-atio, doubt; ednc-atio, bringing up; erud-Itio, instruction;
existim-atio, judgement, reputation; exs6c-titio (post-Aug.), accom-
plishment; festin-atio, hastening; frustr-atio, deceiving; grad-atio,
gradation (as if from gradari); gratul-atio, congratulation; imit-
atio, imitation; inquis-itio, legal inquiry ; larg-itio, besto-aial, bribery;
leg-atio, the office of an ambassador ; lib6r-atio, a release; macMn-
atio, contrivance ; mult-atio, amercement ; mdn-itio, a fortification ;
mut-atio, change; na-tio,« breed (na-sci); not-atio, marking, noticing;
no-tio, taking cognisance (no-sc-ere); ohlig-Sitio, engage?n ent ; occup-atio,
seizing, business; or-atio, speech; part-itio, division; permut-atio, an
exchange ; pet-itio, aiming, candidates hip, claim ; postul-atio, demand;
po-tio, drinking (comp. poto-, p6-tare); prsest-atio (post-Aug.),
3t8 Word-Formation. [Book III.
guaranty, payment; prob-atio, testing; pr6v6c-a,tio, a challenge^ ap-
peal; pfit-atio, prun'mg; rScord-atiO, remembrajice ; recds-atio, refu-
sal; r6nunti-atio, a public annomicement of a result ; reprsesent-atio,
cash payment; respir-atio, taking breath; restit-atio, restoration;
r6g-atiO, a legislative proposal^ a bill; saltlt-atio, greeting; simul-
atio, pretence; s61-utio, discharge of debt, (S:c.; sort-itio, lot-dra-M-
i7ig; stip-atio, cro-zvding; stipul-atio, a bargain; supplic-atio, /)?/Zi//c
prayer; tabul-atio (Caes.), a flooring (tabula-, a plank)-, testatio
(testific-atio, Cic), giving evidence; tral-atio, tra?ufer; vac-atio,
exemption; v6n-atio, hunting; and many others.
(b) From supine stems, with short vowel preceding suffix:
ad-itio, entry on an inheritance (adi-re) ; admSn-itio, reminding
(admonere) ; amb-itio, canvassing (ambl-re) ; appar-itio, attendance
(apparere) ; cognitio, knowledge, Judicial inquiry (cogno-sc-ere) ; da-
tio, giving (da-re) ; editio, publishing (ed6-re) ; exliib-itio (Ulp. Sec),
maintenance; It-io, going (i-ie); mon-iiio, warning (monere); pds-
itio, placing, posture (pon-ere) ; ra-tio, account, reason (reri) ; sa-tio,
sowing (s6-re-re) ; sed-itio, a sedition (sed, ire) ; sorb-itio, a supping
up, a draught (sorbere) ; sta-tio, a station, a post (stare) ; supersti-tio,
superstition (standing over in awe; super-stare); vendi-tio, sale
(vendgre) ; and others.
(c) Either from consonant stems, or contracted :
ac-tio, action (ag-6re) ; adjec-tio, addition (adjic-6re) ; adop-tio,
adoption (comp. adopta-re) ; affec-tio, relation, disposition of mind
(afric6-re) ; auc-tio, a sale (augere) ; aversio, turning away (vert-
ere) ; in law phrase, per aversionem emgre, to buy as a whole (verr-
ere) ; cap-tlo, a trick, sophism (cap6-re) ; cau-tio, a caution, a legal
security (cavere); cen-sio, an assessing (censere); circiunscrip-tio,
a contour, cheating (circumscrib-gre) ; commis-sio, a contest (comniit-
t-6re) ; corapreheii-sio, layitig hold of (comprehend-gre) ; concep-tio,
drafting of law formate (concipe-re) ; conces-sio, gi-a7it (conced-ere) ;
concia-sio, shutting in, a peroration (conclud-ere) ; consen-sio, agree-
ment (consentire) ; construc-tio, construction (constru-6re) ; con-tio,
an assembly, an address to such (conven-ire) ; contrac-tio, draw-
ing toilet her (contrali-6re) ; defec-tio, revolt, failure (def ic6-re) ; devo-
tio, d'evotion (devSvere) ; dic-tio, saying (dic-ere) ; digres-sio, digres-
sion (digred-i); distinc-tio,fl'wz'/«c;'/o«(distingv-ere); em-p-tio, purchase
(6m-6re) ; fic-tio, fashioning, fiction (fi«g-6re) ; flexio, a turn (flect-
ere); impres-sio, an impress, attack (imprini-ere) ; induc-tio, a
bringing in, dra^ving one's pen through (induc-ere) ; inven-tio, dis-
covery (invenire) ; IQ-sio, playing (lQd-6re) ; man-sio, staying, lodging-
place' (manere) ; mis-sio, a discharge (mitt-6re) ; mo-tio, moving
(movere); offen-sio, stumbling, offence (ofifend-6re) ; pas-tio, pastur-
ing (pasc-6re) ; pen-sio, payment (pend-6re) ; percep-tio, gathering
Chap. VI.] Dental Notin- Stems: -tion or -sion. 319
(percip6-re) ; perpes-sio, endurance (perp6t-i) ; prassump-tio, anticipa-
tion (prsesxlni-ere) ; quses-tio, an inquiry (quser-6re); r6fec-tio (post-
Aiig.), restoration, refreshment (r6f Ice-re); scrip-tio, ^Mriting (scrib-
fire) ; seces-sio, a ivitbdra^val (seced-fire) ; sec-tio, cutting, sale of
a bankrupt estate (s6care) ; ses-sio, a sitting (sgdere) ; spon-sio, an
agreement, a <zvager (spondere) ; tac-tio, touching (tawg-ere) ; travec-
tio, (^i) carrying across ; (2) riding past (transyeh-^re); ul-tio, /y-
t'enge (ulc-isci) ; vi-sio, sight (videre); and others.
Compound stem-endings: -inqvo, § 772; -ento, -mento, -lento
(-ginta, -gento), §§791 — 795; -enti, § 807; -ensi, -iensi, §815;
-undo, -bundo, -cundo, §§ 817 — 820; -iner, § 905; -nos, -nus,
§§ 911, 913; -neo, -gneo, -aneo, -oneo, §§ 923, 923; -entia, § 933;
-nio, -nmio, -monio, -cinio, §§ 934 — 936.
CHAPTER VII.
LINGUAL NOUN STEMS. L.
i. Stems ending in -lo.
-10 colus (f.), a distaff; dSlus, craft; false (pi.), a scaffold- 855
ingj gelum, frost; mains (adj.), bad; mola, a tjiill (mol-
ere) ; pila, a ball; pilus, a hair; salum, the sea (comp. sal-, aakos) ;
solum, the ground; vola, hollow of hand ov foot. (For some with
diminutive suffix, e.g. templum, see under -ulo.)
-6-I0 This older form of the vowel before 1 is retained only 856
after e, i, or v (cf § 213. 2 b). The is often the final
stem vowel of the word to which the suffix is added :
1. Adjectives: aureo-lus, golden (aureo-); ebrio-lus (Plaut.),
somewhat drunken (ebrio-); frivolus, ^r/;?/??^- (for friqvolus? rubbed
or brittle; comp. fric-are, fri-are); helvo-lus (helveolus), yellowish
(helvo-) ; parvolus, very small (parvo-).
2. Substantives (chiefly in Cicero), mostly diminutives of sub-
stantives in -0:
320 Word-Formation. \Book III.
(d) Masculine: alveo-lus, a small trough; calceo-lus (rare),
a small shoe; caseo-lus. a small cheese; cuneo-lus, a small tvedge;
f ilio-lus, a little son ; hario-lus, a soothsayer ; librario-lus, a bit of a
copyist; malleo-lus, a small hammer^ a slip for planting; pasceolus,
a leathern bag (for (^ao-KcoAoy?); pilleo-lus, a small cap; simio-lus,
a little ape; servo-lus, a little, slave; urceo-lus, a little pitcher.
Puteoli, Little-ccvells ; Tiberiolus (Tac. A. 6. 5), darling Tiberius;
Scsevola (m.), (scaeva-, left-hand).
(b) Feminine; all (except viola) diminutives of subst. in -a.
actuario-la (or -um?), a small boat; araneo-la, a small spider;
ardeo-la, a heron ; areo-la, a small open place ; bestio-la, an msect ;
clav6-la, a scion; c6pio-l3e (pi.)) a few troops; delicio-laa (pl.)> «
little darling; fascio-la, a small bandage; filio-la, a little daughter;
glorio-la, a bit of distinction ; li6rio-la, a skiff; laureo-la, a laurel
branchlet; luscinio-la, a little nightingale; mgmorio-la, a poor
memory; nauseo-la, a slight squeamishness ; sententio-la, an apho-
rism; sepio-la, a little cuttle fish; valvo-lse (pi.), double shells of a
pod ; victorio-la, a stnall statue of Victory ; vindemio-la, a little 'vin-
tage; vio-la, a violet Ccomp. lov) ; and others.
(cj Neuter: all diminutives of neuter substantives in -0:
atrio-lum, a small entrance-hall ; armario-lum, a cabinet; bal-
neo-lum, a small bath; bracMo-lum (Catull.), a slender arm; 00m-
mentario-lum, a short essay; deversorio-lum, a small lodging;
dolio-lum, a small cask ; flammeo-lum, a small bridal veil; linteo-
lum, a small cloth; negotio-lum, a bit of business-; otio-lum, a bit of
leisure; peculio-lum, a small private property; prsedio-lum, a small
landed estate; solacio-lum (Catull.), a bit of comfort; svavio-luiii
(Catull.), a soft kiss; tectorio-la {^\^., plaster casts.
-ulo I. Adjectives 1; 857
\n) Diminutival : all (except vetulus) from adjectives
with -0 stems: acutu-lus, some-what pointed; altou-lus, ^Mhitish; ali-
qvantu-lus, some-^vhat; argutu-lus, somewhat subtle; aridu-lus
(Catull.), a little dry; toarbatu-lus, with a bit of a beard; bimu-lus
(Catull., Suet.), two years old; C2ia.Ca.6.vi-\vLS, fairly r^vhite; contortu-
lus, a bit twisted; frigidu-lus, rather cold; hilaru-lus, merry and
little; horriiiu-lus, roughish; imu-lus (Catull.), lowest; lassu-lus
(Catull.), a little tired; lentu-lus, rather slozu; limatu-lus, delicately
fine; limu-lus (Plant.), somewhat askance; longn-lus, longish; psetu-
1 Comp. the lines made by Hadrian on his death-bed (Hist. Aug.
Hadr. 25): A nimida vagula blandiila,
hospes comesque corporis,
quie nunc abibis in loca,
palliditla rigida nudula,
nee, ut soles, dabis jocos?
Chap. VIJJ\ Li/igiial Avun-Skiiis : -61o, -Mo. 321
lus, iv'ith a slight squint ; pallidu-lus, growing pale ; paucu-lus, very
few; prlmu-lus (Plant.), Jirst; qvadrlmu-lus (Plaut.), little four-
years-old; quant-ulus, Z'o-iu small\\ rubicund-ulus, rather red; scitu-
lus (Plant.), stylish; simu-lus (Lucr.), Jlattish-nosed; sordidu-lus,
dirtyish; tabidu-lus, slowly consuming; tantu-lus, so little; Gvidu-lus
(Catull.), somewhat luet ; vgnustu-lus, charmingly pretty; v6t-ulus,
little and old (for vet6r-ulus) ; and others.
(Jj) Not (apparently) diminntival; chiefly from verbs: ssm-ulus,
emulous; amp-lus, large (on both sides., around; amb-, cf. § 70); bib-
ulus, thirsty (bib-6re) ; bvlb-ulus, of oxen (b6v-, § 76); cser-ulus,
dark blue (cf. cseruleus) ; cred-ulus, credulous (cred-6re) ; edent-
ulus (Plant.), toothless (e denti-); garru-lus, prattling (garrire);
patu-lus, wide-spreading (patere); pend-ulus, hanging (pendere);
qugr-iQus, complaining (qu6r-i); sedulus (cf. § 990)'; sing-ulus, one
each, single; strag-ulus, /or covering (stragi-, cf. § 784); stridu-lus,
<whistUng (stridere); trem-ulus, quivering (trdmgre).
2. Substantives: (a) diminutival: 858
Masculine: mostly from stems in -0: ^dolescentu-lus, a young
man (adolescent!-); itmicu-lus, a darling friend ; animu-lus, darling;
annu-lus, a ring; calcu-lus, a pebble (calci-, chalk); circu-lus, a cir-
cle; c61umbu-lus, a little dove; 6qvu-lus (ficuleus), a colt; focu-lus,
a chafing dish (f6co-, hearth); foru-li (pi.), pigeon holes (forus, a
row); gl6bu-lus, a little ball; bortu-lus, a small garden; jocu-lus,
a little joke; lectu-lus, a couch; locu-lus, a compartment ; modu-lus,
a small tiieasure; n6p6tu-lus (Plant.), a little grandson (ngpot-) ;
nidu-lus, a little nest; nummu-li (pi.), small coins ; porcu-lus, a young
pig; pu§ru-lus, a little boy; ramu-lus, a sprig; reg-ulus, a chieftain
(reg-); saccu-lus, a s}nall bag; scrHpu-lus, a small stone., a difficulty;
ventu-lus, a breeze; vicu-lus, a hamlet.
vemula, a little slave (vema-).
Proper names : Lentulus (see § 857/?); Pr6culus (procus, a
suitor) ; Regulus (vid. supr.). Also Barbula (barba, a beard).
Feminine: mostly from stems in -a: setatu-la, youth (aetat-);
amicu-la, a darling mistress; 3,nimu-la, dear life; aqvu-la, a little
water; arcu-la, a casket; capsu-la, a bandbox; casu-la, a small
cottage; caup6nu-la, a small tavern; causu-la, a petty lawsuit;
cenu-la, a light dinner; cervlcu-la, a small neck (cervic-) ; clausu-la,
a conclusion (as if from clausa-) ; conciliatric-ula, a soft match-
maker (conciliatric-) ; fac-ula, a little torch (fac-) ; falcu-la, a small
billhook (falci-); flammu-la, a little fiame; formu-la, a (short) legal
form; glandu-lse (pi.), glands (glandi-, acorn); guttu-la, a little
drop; herbu-la, a little herb; 15,criinu-la, a tiny tear; lecticu-la, a
small sedan; mensu-la, a small table; merced-ula, small ivages
(merced-) ; in6r6tric-ula, a girl prostitute (meretric-) ; nilc-iUa, a
21
322 Word-Formation. [Book III.
small nut (niic-)-, niitric-ula, a nurse (nutric-); pallu-la, a little
cloak; plagu-la, a bed curtain (plaga-, a net) ; portu-la, a small gate,
piipu-la, the pupil of the eye (image on retina} piipa-, a girl);
quadrigTi-lse (pi.), a little Jour-horse team; radic-ula, a small root
(radic-); ripu-la, a little bank; rotu-la, a little <wheel; sarcinu-la,
a little bundle; scGtu-la, a square dish (sciit-; comp. scutra, scutella,
and for u scutica) ; serru-la, a small sa-zu ; sextu-la, t/.v sixth of an
uncia; sportu-la, a little basket; t6gu-la, a little go-zvn; tonstric-ula,
a small hairdresser; villu-la, a little country-house ; vlrgu-la, a small
rod; vocuTla, a ^iveak 'voice ; and others.
Neuter: capitu-lum, a small head (capGt-); crustu-lum, pastry;
muscipulum, a jyiouse-trap (mvlsi-, cap§re, § 992); oppidu-lum, a
small to-Lvn; posticu-lum, a small back building; pratu-lum, a small
meadow; rapu-lum, a little turnip; saxuliim, a small rock; scrip tu-
lum (scripalum, scrupulum, scriplum), j^oz. (a transl. of ypay^/ia?);
spicu-lum, a sharp point (spico-, a point; comp. spica); scutii-lum,
a sjjiall shield.
(b) Not (apparently) diminutival, or not diminutives of exist- 859
ing nouns :
Masculine: aesciilus, the Italian oak; angulua, ^ for«^r (comp.
ayKv\o9, uncus, ungvis, &c.); bajulus, a porter; tootulus, a sausage;
capulus, (i) a hilt, (z) a coffin (cap6-re); catulus, a whelp; cumulus,
a heap (comp. Kvilv, /cu/xa) ; famulus (also adj. in Aug. and post-
Aug. poetry), a servant; figulus, a potter (fl«g-ere); g6rulus, a
porter (g6r-6re); 16gulus, a picker (leg-6re) ; dculus, an eye (§ 107);
6pulus, a kind of maple; pessillus, a bolt (from Trao-o-aXoy?) ; popu-
lus, a people (comp. ple-nus, irXTJdos, ttoXis, &c.); populus (f.), a
poplar; sc6pulus, a rock (from o-^foTTfXoy?) ; situlus (also situla), a
bucket; stimulus, a prick (comp. o-rty/xr;, § 129. c); titulus, a title;
tumulus, a hill (tum-ere) ; tutulus, a conical head-dress ; vidulus, a
portmanteau; vitulus, a calf (§ 91).
adsecvQa, a follower (ad sfiqiv-i) ; rab-ula, a brawler (rabere).
Proper names : Bibulus (§ 85 7 Z-) ; CatMus (vid. supr.) ; Figulus
(vid. supr.); Siculus, a Sicilian; Tappulus ; Trgmulus (§ 857/^);
Vitulus (vid. supr.). Also Decula ; Scapula (vid. infr.).
Feminine: assula, a splinter; cacula (m.), a servant; copula, a
?/i? (com, ap-isci) ; Spulse (pi.), a banquet; ferula, (i) fennel giant,
(2) a red; fistula, a pipe; gula, the throat (from the sound); in-
ftUa, a band or filet ; insula, an island, a separate block of buildings ;
inula, elecampane ; jugulse (pi.), collar-stars in Orion's belt; matula,
a pot; mentula, for mejentula (fi'om mej6re) ; morula, a blackbird;
ngbula, a cloud (comp. nQbes, pecpos); psenula, a cloak; papula, «
pimple; pergula, a stall or booth; pvlsula, a blister (from (pvaa,
(fiva-aXXis; the rarer form pustula is probably from pUs); radula
(Col.), a scraper (rad-ere); regiUa, a rule (r6g-6re); scandula,
a wooden shingle; scapulae (pi.), the shoulder-blades ; sp6cula, a
watchtower (sp6c6-re); stip^la, a stalk; teg&la, aflat tile (t6g-6re);
I
Chap. FII.] Lingual Nouti-Sicms : -tilo, -pGlo, -biilo, -ciUo. 323
tragula, a javelin, a fiet (comp. trahere ?) ; iiliila, a screech-owl;
ungula, a hoof (misvi-, m.).
Neuter: cingQlura (also cingulus, cingula), a belt (cing-6re) ;
coagulum, rentiet (com, ag-6re, to make to curdle); exemp-lum, a
sample (exim-6re; cf. § 70); Jaculum, a dart (jacfire) ; jugulum,
the collar-bone (jugo-, ju«g-6re) ; pipulum, chirping (pipare) ; r6pa-
gula (pi.), bolts (pa«g-6re); spgculum, a mirror (sp§c6-re); tem-
p-lum, a temple (for tem-ulum; comp. rtfievos and § 70); torc-ulum,
a 'winepress (torqvere).
-pulo (i) Adjectives (comp. the Greek termination -TrXoor, 860
e.g. dnXovs, Sec): simplus (only used as subst., so also
simpla, simplum), single (comp. sim-plex, semel) ; duplus, double
(duo); triplus, triple; qvadruplus, /our/old; octuplus, eight/old.
These words are generally used only in neuter as substantives.
(2) Substantives: disci-pulus, a learner (disc-6re); manipulus
(maniplus), a handful, a company of soldiers (manu-; comp. pie-,
plenus ?) ; simpulum, a ladle.
For templum, &c. see § 859; for others, where p is apparently
radical, see § 858.
-bulo («) Feminine: ntbula, a narrative (fari); fibula, a clasp 86i
(f Ig-ere) ; siibula, an awl (su-6re) ; tabrUa, a plank,
(b) Neuter: a,cetiihTilum, a cup (for vinegar^ aceto-); concilia-
bulum, a place for assembly (conciliare) ; inciina-bula (pi.), cradle
(in cilna-); infund-ibulum, a funnel (infund-6re) ; lat-ibulum, a
hiding-place (latSre); mendica-bulum (Plaut. once), a beggar (men-
dlcare); nucifrangi-bula (pi.), tiutcrackers (niic-, frang-ere); pa-bu-
lum, fodder (pascSre) ; patl-bulum, a cross (patere) ; prosti-bulum,
a prostitute (prostare) ; rutabulum, a poker or spoon (ru-ere?); sabu-
laia, gravel ; sta-bulum, a stall (stare); suCa-bulum, a square white
veil, worn by the Vestal Virgins at a sacrifice (sub figere?); tin-
tinna-bulum, a bell (tintinnare) ; tri-bulum, a thrashing sledge (trl-,
t6r§re); trientabulum (Liv. 31. 14), land assigned in payment of a
third of a debt (trienti-) ; tiir-lbulum, a censer (tUs-) ; vena-bulum,
a hunting-spear (venari) ; vestibulum, a forecourt (origin uncertain) ;
v6ca-bulum, a name (v5care).
-ciilo(clo) I. Adjectives, chiefly diminutival, and from i stems; 862
(rt) From nouns: acri-culus, testy; anni-culus, a year old (anno-);
dulci-culus, sweetish; forti-culus, somewhat bold; grandi-culus
(Plant.), rather large; 16vi-culus, somewhat vain; mas-culus, male
(masi-); molli-culus, tender; pauper-culus, poor (pauper-); t6nul-
culus, rather slight; tristi-culus, sotnewhat sorrowful; turpi-culus,
ugly; verna-culus, (i) of slaves, (2) native (vema-).
{b) From verbs: ridi-culus (deridiculus), laughable (ridere");
reiculus (Cato, Sen.), refuse (rgjic6re).
(f) clanculum (adv.) is adverbial accus. (clam).
21 — 2
324 Word-Formation. [Book III.
2. Substantives:
(rt) Masculine: almost all diminutival :
amator-cvilus (Plaut.), a lonjer dear: ami-culus, a dear friend ;
anmi-culus, a streamlet; angvi-culus, a small snake; anser-culus
(Col.), a gosling; arti-culus, a joint, knuckle (arUi-); asser-culus,
a small pole; cincti-culus (Plaut.), a belt (cinctu-); cuniculus, a
mine; hence, a burro^uer, viz. a rabbit (cuneo-); en£;i-culus (PLiut.),
a small sword; fasci-culus. a packet; flos-culus, a flo-.vret; folli-
culus, a small bag, pod; fonti-culus, a little spring; frater-ciilus, a
little brother; fani-culus, a thin cord; gra-culus, ajackda-iv (perhaps
the c is radical) ; igni-culus, a spark; lacus-culus (Col.), a small
lake (lacu-); later-culus, a small brick; Igpus-culus, a leveret
(l§p6s-); lintri-culus, a wherry; mar-culus (martiilus, Plin. ed
Detlef.), a hammer; mus-culus, a little mouse, a muscle (musi-)
orbi-culus, a small dish or roller; pauni-culus, a rag (panno-)
passer-culus, a little sparrow; Pater-culus, a surname of Velleian
clan; peni-culus, a brush; pisci-culus. a little fish; ponti- cuius, a
little bridge ; pulvis-culus, a little dust; puti-culi (pi., Varr., Fest.),
gravepits (puteo-) ; qusesti-culus, a small profit (qusestu-) : ruinus-
culus, gossip (rumos-) ; sensi-culus (Quint.), a clause (sensu-, sen-
sus, a sentence, Quint.); scrobi-culus, a little trench; sirpi-culus
(siurp-, scirp-), a rush basket (sirpo-) ; sur-culus, a shoot (said to be
from suro-, a shoot); testi-culus; ventri-culus, the stomach; vermi-
culus, a grub ; versi-culus, a short verse (versu-) ; utri-culus, a little
bag; vulti-cvilus, a mien (vultu-).
(b) Feminine: diminutives of feminine nouns:
aedi-cula, a chapel; anati-cula, a duckling (anat-); ani-cula. an
old woman (anu-); api-cula, a little bee; arbus-cula, a shrub (ar-
bos-); auri-cula, the external ear; bu-cula, a heifer (bdvl-); cani-
cula, a bitch, the dog star (can-, § 448); cicer-cula (cic6r-, n., but
also cicSra-, f.); classi-cula, a flotilla; coborti-cula, a small troop;
crati-cula, a gridiron ; cuti-cula, the skin ; die-cula, a brief day ;
febri-cula. a fe-verish attack; fidi-culse (pi.), a lute, a rack; lEtoe-
cula, a slight stain (labi-, labes) ; lenti-cula, a lentil; mani-cula,
a little hand (manu-) ; mater-cula, a mother dear; mulier-cula,
a girl; navi-cula, a skiff"; nova-cula, a razor (nSvare, to renew .') ;
nube-cula, a little cloud (nubi-. nvlbes) ; pani-cula, a tuft (pano-,
m.); parti-cula, a little bit; pelli-cula, a small skin; plebe-cula, the
populace (plebe-); resti-cula, a small rope; rudi-cula, a mull;
s6cilri-cula, a little axe; sede-cula, a little seat (s5di-, sedes); sicili-
cula, a small sickle; spe-cula, a slight hope; siibd-cula, a shirt (fi'om
sub? comp. ex-u-gre); su-cula, a little pig, a winch (sui-, su-,
§ 392; also the Hyades from a confusion of veiv with vs); t6g6t-i-
cula, a little mat (t§g6t-) ; v6pre-cula, a small briar (cf, § 430J;
vltl-cula, a little vine; vulpe-cula, a little fox (vulpi-, vulpes);
uxor-cula, a darling wife.
Chap. VI/.] Lingual Noun-Stems: -culo, -imciilo. 325
(r) Neuter: (i) diminutives from nouns:
conventi-culum, an assembly (conventu-); cor-culum, little
heart- also a surname of Scipio Nasica for his good sense (cordi-);
corni-culum, a little horn (cornu-) ; corpus-culiun, a particle (corpos-) ;
crgpus-culum, twilight (comp. crdp6ro-, Kvecjins) ; fenus-culum.
a little interest (fenos-) ; galeri-culmn (Suet.), a small cap (galero);
g6ni-culum, a little knee (gSnu-) ; li61us-culum, a bit of vegetable:
jgcus-culum, a small liver (j6c6s-) ; later-culum, a list (later-, masc.
a brick); latus-culum. a small side ; miinus-ciauin, a small present;
6pu3-culum, a small ivork; os-culum, a pretty mouth, a kiss; ossi-
culum, a small bone; raudus-culum, a bit of metal; reti-culum, a
small net; tuber-culum, a small bump; tus-culum, a bit of incense;
vas-culum, a small vessel; idcus-culum, a small sore.
(2) from verbs (chiefly) :
adminiculum, a prop (comp. ad manum) ; amic-ulum, a mantle
(where c is radical ; amicire) ; ba-culum, a staff (comp. ^aKrpov, ^ai-
va) ; cena-culum, a dining-room, an upper room (cenare), crgpita-culum,
a rattle (crfipitare) ; cubi-culum, a chamber (cuba-, cubare) ; curri-
culum a course (curr-6re) ; devert-icuJum, a bypath, an inn (devert-
6re); diluc-ulum, daybreak (diiace-sc-6re) ; everr-iculum, a drag-tut
(everrere) ; fer-culum a bier, a tray (fer-re) ; gubema-culum (gu-
bemaclum), a helm (gubarnare) ; iiibema-eulum, a winter lodging
(hibernare ) ; incern-iculum, a sieve (incemgre) ; irridi-culum, a
laughing-stock (irridfjre) ; jenta-culum, breakfast (jentare); mira-
culum, a wonder (mirari) ; 6per-culum, a lid (6p6rire) ; ora-culum
(oraclum), rt divine utterance (6ra-re) ; pferi-culum (periclum), a
trial, risk (comp. p6ri-tus); perpend-iculum, a plumb line (as if
from perpendere) ; pia-culum, an expiation (piare) ; po-c\ilum (p6-
clum), a cup (comp. p6-tus), propugna-culum, a bulwark (pro-
pugna-re) ; r6cepta-culum, a magazine, a retreat (recepta-re) ;
redimi-cxUum, a necklace (redimi-re) ; rStina-cula (pi.), reins (reti-
nere) ; sjs-culum (sseclum), a generation {a sowing? sa-, s6rere);
sar-culum, a hoe (sarire) ; sena-culum (Varr.) a senate hall (comp.
sSnatus) ; specta-culum, a sight (spectare) ; spira-culum, a breathing-
hole (spira-re) ; subliga-culum, a waistband (subliga-re) ; sustenta-
culum (Tac), a support (sustenta-re) ; tabema-culum, a tent (ta-
berna-); terri-cula (pi.), bugbears (terrere); t6ma-culum (toma-
clum), a sausage (comp. To\ir]); torc-uliun, a press (torqvere);
veb-i-culum, a carriage (vgb-gre); vin-culum (vinclum), a bond
(vincire) ; umbra-culum, a shady place, a parasol (umbra-re).
-im-culo i.e. -culo sufFxed to stems (real or presumed) in -on. £63
Substantives :
(rt) Masculine: av-unculus, a mother'' s brother (avo-, a grand-
father); carb-un- cuius, a small coal (carbon-); cent-un-culus, a
325 Word-Formation. {Book III.
small patchnvork (centon-); fdr-un-culus, a petty thief (fiir-) ; li6m-
un-culus, a poor felloiu (lidmdn-); latr-un- cuius, a footpad., a panvti
in draughts (latron-); len-un-culus, {i) a young patider; (2) a
skiff; pect-un-culus, a small scallop (pectgn-); p6tas-un-culus
(Juv.), a small kg of pork (p6t-a-s6n-) ; pugi-un-culus, a small
dagger (pugion-); ran-un-culus, a tadpole (rana-); serm-un-culus,
tittle-tattle (sermon-); tir-im-culus, a young beginner (tiron-).
{h) Feminine: chiefly diminutives of substantives in -tion
(-sion); frequent in Cicero:
sedifica-tiun-cula, a small building; ambula-tiun-cula, a short
nvalk; assenta-tiun-cula, a bit of flattery; can-tiun-cula, a snveet
song; cap-edun-cula, a small bov:l (capedSn-) ; cap-tiun-cula, a
quibble; car-un-cula, a piece of flesh (car6n- nom. caro) ; cena-tiun-cula
(Plin. Ep.), a S77iall dining-room ; commo-tiun-cula, a slight disturb-
ance; con-tlun-cula, a short haratigue; conclu-siun-cula, a quibbling
argument; contrac-tiun-cula, a slight oppression; dom-un-cula (Val.
Max.), a small house (d6mu-); "icQn-cula (Suet.), a little image
{eiKov-); im-agun-cula (Suet. cf. Cic. Att. 6. i. §. 25), a little like-
ness (imagon-) ; interroga-tiun-cula, a short question ; lec-tiun-cula,
a little reading; 16g-iun-cula, a small legion (legion-); mor-siun-cula
(Plaut.), a soft bite (morsu-); occa-siun-cula (Plaut.), a neat oppor-
tunity; ofiFen-siun-cula, a slight offence; ora-tiun-cuia, a little speech;
posses-siun-cula, a small possession; quaes-tiun-cula, a trifling
question; ra-tiun-cula, a little account; roga-tiun-cula, a little ques-
tion; ses-siun-cula, a little sitting; vir-gun-cula, a little girl
(virgon-) ; and others.
(f) Neuter: mendaci-unculiun (only abl. plur.), afb.
-us-cmo i.e. culo- suffixed to the stem of the comparative degree: 8f4
alti-us-culus (Suet.), somewhat high; compl-us-cuU (pi.),
pretty many; duri-us-culus (Plin.), somewhat harsh; grandi-us-cula
(f,Ter. Jndr. iis), pretty well grown-up ; \l(ividii-ViS-C\)lus (Plaut.),
softer; longi-us-culus, rather long; m.a.i--a.s-cv^MS, somewhat greater;
mell-us-ciaus, somewhat better; min-us-culus, rather less; nitidi-
us-culus (Plaut.), somewhat shiny; plus-culus, somewhat more,
several; putidl-us-culus, somewhat more disagreeable; tardi-us-
culus, somewhat slow; uncti-us-culus (Plaut.), somewhat unctuous.
So the adverb c616ri-us-cule (Corn.), somewhat more quickly.
-ed-ulo- m6n-edida, a jackdaw; nitedula, a dormouse; qver- 865
qvedula, a kind of duck.
-uU-Wo pauUfllus, very little, also as surname. 866
-ell-ulo i.e. •aio added to diminutives in ello (forgrillo); agel-
lulus (Catul.), a little f eld (ageUo-); beUulus (Plaut.),
Chap. V//.] Lingual Noun- Stems: -usculo, -ellulo, -llo. 327
pretty (bello-) ; cist-ellula, a little box (cistella-) ; lamel-
lula (Petr.), a metal plate (lammina-) ; puellula, a little
girl (puella) ; tenellulus, delicate (t6ii6ro-).
ill-ulo i.e. ulo suffixed to diminutives in -illo.
ancillula, a little handmaid (ancilla-); pauxillulus, -very
small (pauxillo-).
-ilo (i) Adjectives: aqvilus, dark-coloured ; miitilus, muti- 867
lated, esp. having lost a horn (comp. jiiiruAos); niib-ilus,
cloudy (nilbi-) : rutilus, auburn, also as surname ; and see
§ 424-
(2) Substantives:
aqvila, an eagle; jiltoilum, a wild cry; piimilus, a dwarf;
sandapila, a common bier; sibilus, a hiss, <iuhistle; si-
mila,,Jine ^vheat flour.
-alio caballus, a hack; callum, thick skin; galla, a gall nut;^^^
gallus, a cock; intervallum (^part between the palisades'),
interval (inter, vallo-); palla, a cloak; vallus, (i) « q.vinno^ving fan
(vanno); (2) a stake (comp. rfKos, § 91); vallum, a palisading.
Proper names : Hispallus (Hispanulus) ; MessaUa (Messanula) ;
RaUa (ranula?).
-aullo paiillus, a little, few (pauco-) : also as surname.
-olio atooUa, a thick <woollen gown (comp. dvalSoXi']) ; coUum,
a neck; cdroUa, a garland (for cdronula)^ ollus, that
(old form of ille, § 373); oUa (aula), a pot; persoUa (Plaut. once),
little mask (for personula); soUus (solus), alone (comp. oXos, Ion.
oi5Xo?).
-ul-lo (i) Adjectives: pullus, dusky; satullus (Varr. once),
sated (saturo-); ullus, any (Uno-).
(2) Substantives: (a) appellatives: ampulla, a flask (for am-
pdrula); betulla, birch-tree; bulla, a bubble, a stud; cucullus, a hood;
hSmullus, a manikin (for hdmon-, cf. § 449) ; lenullus (Plaut. Pcen.
II. 25), a little pander (lenon-); m6dulla, the fnarrow, pith (comp.
mSdio-); miillus, a mullet; pullus, a young animal, esp. a chick;
trulla, a ladle (trua-).
(b) Proper names: CatuUus for Catonulus; LUcullus; Marullus
for Maronulus ; Rullus; Tertullus; Tibullus; Tullus.
Sulla for surula, little calf of leg,
-el-lo Usually arises from the diminutival suffix and assimila- 86<;
tion of the preceding consonant (§ 176. i), so that it is
:=-6riUo, -gntUo, or the doubly diminutival -iiliilo.
Cf. § 213, 5.
328 Word-Formation. [Book III.
1. Adjectives:
bellus, pretty (b6no-); gemellus, t^ivln (ggmino-); intggellus.
tolerably sound (integtro-) ; misceUus (rare), mixed (comp. miscere) ;
miseUus, pitiable (mis6ro-) ; mollicellus (Catull.), ioft (molliculo-) ;
noveUus, nenu (n6vo-) ; pidcellus,;:)/-^ ^Ay and little (pulct-ro-) ; rubellus,
reddish (rubfro-); ttoellus, delicate (t6n6ro-).
2. Substantives:
{a) Masculine: agellus, a small f eld (agifro-); anellus, a little
ring (anulo-) ; angellus (Lucr.), a small corner (angulo-) ; aseUus,
an ass's colt (asino-) ; cancelli (pi.). « gr^i'ng or bars ; catellus,
a puppy (catulo-) ; culteUus, a small knife (cultfro-) ; libellus, a
pamphlet, petition, &c. (libiTO-) ; locellus, a little compartment (16-
cMo-); Scellus, a dear little eye (dculo-); popellus, the rabble
(pdpulo-) ; porcellus, a little pig (porculo-) ; pueUus, a boy (puero-) ;
rastellus, a small rake (rastt-ro-; cf. § 369); vitellus, the yolk of an
egg (vitulo-, a calf).
Proper names : Marcellus (marco-, maxculo-) ; Mgtellus.
Columella (vid. infr.); D61abella (vid. infr.); FSuestella (vid.
infr.) ; Ofella (vid. infr.).
(Ji) Feminine: camella, a ravine cup (camgra-, a vaultl); capella,
a shegoat (captra-) ; catella, a small chain (catena-) ; cella, a store-
room; clitellae {;^\!), panniers; c61umella, a small pillar (eolum^na-) ;
dextella, a little right hand (dextt-ra-); ddlabella, a small pickaxe;
(dolabra-); ^bella, a short story (fabUla); femelia (Catull.), a girl
(femina-) ; fenestella, a little ^uindo^v (fenestra-) ; fiscella, a small
basket ipscma.'); lamella (Sen.), a plate of metal (lamina-); ma-
tella, a pot (matula-) ; miteUa, a turban (mittra-) ; numella, a
fetter; dfella, a little bit; (offiila); opella, light ivork (dpera) ;
pagella, a short page (pagina-); pateUa, a small dish (patina-);
prdcella, a storm (comp. procellgre) ; puella, a girl (puera-) ; scu-
tella, a small dish (scutra-) ; sella, a chair (sedi-) ; sitella, a ballot
urn (sitGla-) ; sportella, a little basket (sportula-) ; Stella, a star
(st6ra-? comp. darep-, Engl, star); tabella, a tablet, esp. for
writing or voting (tabula-) ; tessella, a little cube (tessSra-) ; tur-
bellae (pi. Plant.), a stir (turba-) ; umbella, a sunshade (umbra-) ;
volsellaa (pi.), tweezers (comp. volso-, vellgre).
(f) Neuter; almost all diminutives of neuters in -ro:
castellum, a fort; cgrgbelliun, a small brain; duellum (bellum),
ivar {duo); flabellum, a small fan; flagellum, a scourge; labellum,
a pretty lip (labro-) ; labellum, a bathing tub (Ikvahra,-) ; lucellum,
a small gain ; macellum, meat market (orig. unknown); plostellum,
a small <waggon; rostellum (Col., Plin.), a small beak; sacellum, a
shrine; scalpellum, a lancet.
Chap. V//.] Lingual Noun- Stems: -ello, -iHo. 329
-illo In some cases for -inulo-; in others from words with 870
i; e.g. 6vi-, lapid-, &c. : in others probably (from false
analogy) appended directly as a diminutival suffix.
1. Adjectives:
aliqvantillus (Plant, once), some little (aliquanto-) ; Svillus, of
sheep (6vl-) ; pauxillus, little (pauco-) ; ptisillus, 'very small (comp.
pusus very rare, a boy) ; quantillus, bo^u -very small (quanto-) ;
suillus, of jivifie (su-); tantillus, so -very little (tanto-).
2. Substantives:
(a) Masculine: camillus, a youth-priest; capillus, the hair of
the head; catillus, a small bowl (catino-) ; codicilli (pi.), a Qivriting)
note (c6d6c-); fritillus, a dire box; hsdillus, a little kid (liEedo-) ;
lapillus, a little pebble (lapid-) ; lupillus, a small lupine (lupino-) ;
pastillus, a lozenge; paxillus (Plin., Col.), a peg; penicillus, a paint
brush (peniculo-) ; pugillus (rare), a handful (pugmo-) ; pulvillus,
a little cushion (pulvino-) ; pQpillus, a cojard (pGpo-) ; villus, a tuft
of hair.
Proper names: Camillus (see above); Faustillus (Faustino-);
Pulvillus (pulvino-) ; Regillus (regulo-) ; Runilus (Rufino-) ; and
others. Also Axilla (vid. infr.); Ravilla (ravus, gray'i).
(b) Feminine : ancilla, a handmaid; angvilla, an eel (angvi-) ;
argiUa, white clay (from lipyiXXos, comp. opyo-, luhite) ; armillse
(pi.), bracelets (armo-, shoulder) ; axilla (orig. form of ala ace. to
Cic. Or. 45, but see § 871), armpit (axi-); favilla, glowing ash;
ftitilldi, gruel used at sacrifices; furcilla, a little fork (furca-) ; ma-
milla, a breast (mamma-); maxilla (cf Cic. Or. 45), a jawbone
(comp. fiay-, fjiaaaoi, knead) ; papilla, a teat (comp. papula) ; pis-
trilla, a ynill (pistrina-) ; pupilla a female ^vard, the pupil of the
eye(piipa-); scintilla, a spark; squilla, a shrimp; stilla, a drop (comp.
stiria, icicle)-^ tonsillse (pi.), tosillse (C. N.D.), the tonsils; villa,
a country-house (vico- ?).
Proper names : e. g. DomitUla (comp. Domitio-) ; Drusilla
(Druso-) ; LivUla (Livia-) ; Priscilla (Frisco-) ; Procilla (Proculo-) ;
Quintilla (Quinto-) ; Rufilla (Ruflno) ; and others.
(c) Neuter : bacillum, a Sf7jall stick (baculo-) ; batillum, a fire-
pan; oscillum, a little image of a. face (osculum); pistillum, a pestle
(comp. pisto-, participle of pins-6re); pocillum, a cup (poculo-);
quasillum, a <ivool basket (comp. qualo-); salillum, a salt-cellar
(salino-) ; scabillum (scabellum), a footstool, Castanet played by foot
(scamno-, cf. §78.5); sigillum, a seal (signo-) ; specillum, a probe
(spgc-ere ; comp. speculum) ; tfegillum, a covering (teg-6re) , tigil-
lum, a little beam (tigno-) ; vexillum, a banner (v61i-6re ; comp.
velum).
330 Word-Formation. \^Book III.
-alo The long vowel is probably due to the contraction of S71
longer forms (see Cic. Or. 45).
ala, a <ivhig (for axula?); mala, a jmv (for maxiila?
§ 870, 2, b.) ; malus, a mast; palus, a stake; pala, a spade;
qualum (also plur. quali), a hamper (for quasulum?
comp. quasillum) ; scalse (pi.), j/a/Vv (for scand-ulse ?) ;
talus, a7i ankle.
Proper name : Ahala (comp. ala ; and v6h6meiis with vemens.
-aulo caulse (pi.), boles (cavo-).
-olo cclum, a sieve; solus, alone (see sollus).
-illo cucQlus, a cuckoo; cGlus, i.q. anus; millus, a mule.
-selo caelum, heaven; caelum, a graving tool.
gig )
^ A (rt) feminme. In some the suffix is appended to the S72
^'^ ^^ simple verb-stem; in some to the past participle; in some
to other forms. (Lachmann draws from early MSS. the
use of writing double 1 if the syllable preceding e be
short.)
candela, a candle (candere, to glitter); cautela (Dig.), a security
(cauto-) ; cicendela, a glow-ivorm (a rustic name reduplicated from
candela.'); clientela, protection (client!-); corruptela, a corruption
(corrupto-); custodela (Plant, and ap. Gaj.), guardianship (cvls-
tod-) ; loqvella, speech (16qvi) ; musteia, a weasel; nitela, a dor-
mouse; obsgqvella, complaisance (obsgqvl); qv§rella, a complaint
(qv6ri); sSquella (rare), a follower (s6qui); suadela, persuasion
(suadere); sutela, an artifice (sato-); tela, a <iveb (for texula?);
tatela, guardianship (tQto-).
(b') neuter: mantelum, a cloak; prelum, a press (pr6m-6re);
telum, a dart; velum, a sail (for v61i-ulum?).
-ilo filum, a thread; hilum, a trifle; pila, a pillar; pilum, 873
a pestle., a heavy pike (pis-ere) ; silus (for simulus.'),
pug-nosed.
ii. Stons ending in -11.
With few exceptions all derivatives in -li are, at least primarily,
adjectives.
-li tnis (f.), bile; callis (m. f.), a path; caulis or colis (m.), 874
a stalk (from /cauAos?); collis (m.), a hill (comp. cul-men,
c61-umna); feles (f.), a cat; follis (m,), a bag, bellows; mseles (f.),
Chap. VII.] lingual Noun-Ste)ns : -alo &c. ; -li, -1, -bill. 331
a badger; mille (n).,^ thousa7id; moles (f.), a shapeless mass; mollia
(adj.), soft (ccmp. yuiK-aKo^^ '.i pellis (f.), a skin; proles (f.), offspring
(pro, 61ere, to grow) \ vallis (f.), a "valley; vilis (adj.), cheap.
-1 fel (n., stem fell-), gall (comp. ;^oXof); mel (n., stem
mell-), honey (comp. fuXi); sal (m. or n.), salt (comp. '
aaXos); sol (m.), the sun (comp. lyXtor).
-siil consul, a colleague]:^ exul, an exile. Comp. prsesul, a
dancer in front (salire).
-ill (rt) from verbal stems: ag-ilis, nimble^ active (ag-gre) ; S75
debilis, nveak (de, habilis) ; facilis, do-able^ easy (fac6-
re); frag-ilis, frail (fra«g-6re); habilis, manageable., apt (habere);
ntlb-ilis, marriageable (nflb-6re) ; sorbilis (Cels. &c.), suckable
(sorbSre) ; strigills (f.), a scraper (string-6re) ; iit-ilis, useful (tlt-i).
(h) from nouns and others: gracilis, thin; hiim-ilis, lo<wly
(humo-, the ground); novensvles (n\.^. the New Gods (opposed to
Dii Indigetes; comp. nSvo-); parilis (Lucr.,Ov.), like (pari-); sim-
ilis, like (comp. sim-plex, sim-el, &c., aiia)\ stfir-ilis, barren; ilten-
sile (chiefly in neut. pi. as subst.), usable (Uti-).
-bi-li All from verbs, or verbal forms: usually with a passive S76
signification :
(i) with short vowel preceding suffix :
alibilis, nourishing^ nourishable (al-gre); condQcibilis, advanta-
geous (condflc-gre) ; crgdibilis, credible (cred-gre) ; horribilis, exciting
a shudder (horrgre); impatlbilis, insufferable (in, pat-i); intellggi-
bilis (Sen.), mentally cognisable (intellgg-gre) ; restibiUs, of land
so^vn or tilled every year (re, si-st-gre) ; stabilis, steady (stare) ; ter-
ribilis, frightful (terrere) ; vendibilis, saleable (vend-gre) ; vincibilis,
win-able (vinc-gre); Gtibilis (Plant., Ter.), serviceable (Qt-i).
(2) with a preceding suffix :
admira-bilis, ^Monderful; aequa-bilis, equal., equable; sequipara-
bilis (Plant.), comparable; affa-bilis, affable; ama-bilis, loveable;
commenda-bilis, praiseworthy ; congrgga-bilis (Cic. once), grega-
rious; delecta-bilis (Tac), delightful; desidgra-bilis, desirable; de-
testa-bilis, execrable; ddma-bilis (Hor., Ov.), tameable; dilra-bilis,
lasting; emenda-bilis, capable of correction; exora-bilis, that may be
talked over; fav5ra-bilis, popular (favorare not used) ; habita-bilis,
habitable; hdnora-bilis (Cic. once), complimentary; imita-bilis, imit-
able; impgnetra-bilis, impenetrable; implaca-bilis, unappeasable ; In-
enarra-bilis, indescribable; inexora-bilis, inexorable; inexplica-bilis,
inexplicable; inexpugna-biiis, impregnable ; inniimgra-bilis, countless;
332 Word-Formation. \Book JII.
insatia-bilis, insatiable; intolgra-bilis, insupportable; irrgpara-bilis,
irretrievable; irrSvoca-bilis, irrevocable; Iseta-bilis, joyful; lauda-
bilis, praiserMorthy; m6dica-bilis, curable, curative; m6m6ra-bilis,
me»iorable; misera-bilis, pitiable; muta-bilis, changeable; naviga-
bilis, navigable; opta-bilis, desirable; p6ngtra-bilis, pe72etrable, pene-
trating (penetrare); placa-bilis, appeasable; i)T£esta,hin.s, pree>ninent .-
pr6ba-bilis, probable, acceptable; sana-bilis, curable; specta-bilis,
visible, notable; tracta-bilis, manageable; v6nera-bilis, venerable;
viola-bilis, violable; and others.
(3) vvhh long vowel (other than a) preceding the suffix:
dele-liilis (Mart.), destructable; dissolfi- bills, dissoluble (dlssolv-
ere); fie-bUls, lamentable; igno-bilis, tindistinguisbed (in., no-sc-6re):
inexple-bilis, insatiable; mo-bllis, moveable, changeable (movere);
no-blUs, famous, noble (no-sc-ere); sep61i-bilis (Plaut. once), burj-
able (sepeli-re); volil-bilis, rollings fiucni (volv-ere).
~^c' 1- ^- y\t i.e. bill appended to stem of past participle (except 877
^ " ' '^ ' in possibilis) :
tiexibilis, pliant ; plausibUis, praiseavorthy ; persuaslbilis (Quint.),
persuasive; posslbllis (Quint, and Dig.), possible (pot-, posse); sen-
sibilis (Sen.), perceivable by senses.
', A i.e. li appended to stem of supine or past participle. It 878
^ •'^ dtnoits possibility a.\\d quality {not action):
al-tUis, fattened (al-6re); coc-tilis, baked (coqtT-6re); compac-
tUis (Plin.), tbick-set (compwg-ere) ; diffus-ills (Lucr.), expansive
(diffu/zdere) ; elec-tilis (Plaut.), choice (elig-gre); fer-tilis, fertile
(fer-re) ; flc-tilis, made by potters (f ig-§re) ; fis-silis, cleavable (fl;2d-
6re); flex-Ills, pliant (flect-Sre); fos-sills, dug up (f6d6-re); fu-silis,
molten (fu«d-6re) ; fut-tUls, brittle, frothy, untritstwort/.y (trom
obsolete fu-ere = fundere ? the doubled t being indicative of the
length of the syllable) ; mls-silis, ynissile (mitt-gre) ; nex-Uis, tied
(nect-ere); pen-sUis, hanging (pend-ere); plec-tills (Plaut. once),
ivoven (plect-6re); ra-sUis, scraped (rad-6re); scan-sills (Plin.),
climb-able (scand-ere) ; sec-tills, cut-able, cut (sgcare); sen-silis,
sentient (sentire) ; ses-sUis, fit for sitting, dwarf (s6dere) ; solQ-tills
(Suet.), capable of dropping to pieces (solv-Sre) ; su-tilis, sezvcd toge-
ther (f5u-ere); tac-tills (Lucr.), touch-able (ta^ig-6re); tex-tilis,
rjuoven (tgg-ere) ; ton-sills, that may be dipt (tondere) ; tor-tilis,
t-zvisted (torqvSre) ; vi-tilis, platted (viere) ; and some others.
s\ipellex (for supellectilis, furniture (properly coverings ? super
lectum ; or odd-gatherings ? sui)er, Igg-Sre, comp. Pott, Etjm. For.
u. J45, ed. 2).
Chap. VII.] Lingual Noim- Stems: -Mli, -till (sUi), aU. izi
-at-ili (i) from verbs:
plic-at-ilis (Plin.), that may be folded (plica-re) ; vers-at-
ilis, ret'olving, "versatile (versa-re) ; v61-at-ilis, winged
(v61a-re).
(2) from nouns: S79
aqv-atilis, Hving in ivater (aqva-) ; ferr-atilis (Plant.), of slaves
often fettered, living in iron (ferro-) ; fluvi-atilis, belongmg to a river
(fiuvio-); pluviatUis (Cels.), of rain-r^ater (pluvia-); piscatum
hamatilem et saxatilem (Plant. Rud. 299), fishing avith hooks and
on rocks (hamo-, saxo-) ; umbr-atilis, in the shade (umbra-).
-ali I. Adjectives: sso-
aditi-alis, on entering office (aditu-) ; seqv-alis, level (aaqvo-);
amljarv-alis (Fest.), //('fl!' ^o^'j round the fields (amb, arva); anim-
alis, having life (anima-) ; ann-alis, for a year, relating to a year
(anno-); arv-alis, only of the college called Fratres arvales (arvo-);
augur-alis, of augurs (augur-); austr-alis, southern (austro-);
bip6d-alis, two feet long (bis, pgd-); brum-alis, of mid-winter
(brflma-) ; capit-alis, of the head, deadly (caput-) ; centumvir-aUs,
of the court of the Hundred men (centum, viro-) ; comiti-alis, of the
assembly! (comitio-) ; conjectilr-alis, conjectural (conjectura-) ; con-
jug-alis (Col., Tac), of marriage (conjug-) ; conviv-alis, of a
dinner party (conviva-) ; corpor-alis (Sen., Dig.), of the body
(corpos-); crin-alis (Verg., Ov.), of the hair (crini-); Dialis of the
day-god, i.e. Jupiter {^vi-); dot-alls, belongifig to a dowry (doti-) ;
es"uri-alis (Plant.), of hunger (esurie-); extemp6r-alis (Quint.,
&c.), extemporaneous (ex, tempSre) ; fat-alis, of the fates, destined,
fatal (mto-) ; fer-alis, of the dead; Flor-alis, of the Flower God-
dess (flora-); fluvi-alis (Verg., Col.), of a river (fluvio-); frUg-
ali- (only in comp. and sup.), thrifty (frQg-); fiUgur-alis (Cic.
once), of lightning (fulgur-) ; furi-alis, of the furies, raging (furia-);
ggngr-alis, of a class, general (geniis-) ; g6ni-alis, of the Genius,
joyful, nuptial (ggnio-) ; g6nit-alis, of birth or generation (g§nitO-) ;
greg-alis, of the herd, common (gr6g-); hi6m-alls, of winter (liiem-);
Mstrion-alis (Tac), of an actor, stagy (Mstrion-) ; hospit-alis, of a
guest or host (hosp6t-) ; illiber-alis, unworthy of a freeman (in,
libgro-); infiti-alis, consisting of a denial {millidi-); leg-alls (Quint.),
of the law (leg-) ; jadici-alis, of the courts of justice (jGdiciO-) ;
jug-alis, of a yoke (jugo-) ; jUridici-alis, relating to a question of
rightful condiut (jus- dic-6re ; cf. Corn. I. 14); litaSr-alis, of a free-
man (libgro-), libr-alis (Plin., Col.), of a pound (libra-); lustr-alis,
of purification (lustre-); manu-alis, ybr the hand (manu-); marit-
alis, of married persons (niarito-) ; Marti-aUs, of Mars (marti-) ;
matron-alls, matronly (matrona-); mor-alis (first formed Ijy Cic),
of conduct (mos-); mort-alis, subject to death, human (morti-); mtir-
334 Word-Formation. \Book III.
alls, of rjjalls (mtlro-); nat-alis, of birth (aato-); natur-alis, tiatural
(natilra-) ; nav-alis, of ships (navi-) ; n6m6r-alis, of groves (nS-
m63-); niv-alis, of snow (nivl-); nupti-alis, of a luedding (nuptia-);
pac-alis (Ov.), o/'/)fi7r(i' (paci-); pa.rent-alis, of parents (parent!-);
(Lucr.) p6n6tr-alis, penetrating (p6n6tra-re) innermost (from an as-
sumed p6ii6truni?) ; piar-alis (Quint.), phiral (plQsi-); pluvl-alis,
rainy (pluvia-) ; princip-alis, of the chief chief (princgp-) ; provin-
ci-alis, of a province (provincia-) ; pute-alis, of a 'well (puteo-);
qvalis, of what kind (quo-) ; qvinqvenn-alis, happejiing every five
years (quinqve, anno-); ration-alis, having or belonging to reason
(ration-); reg-alis, kingly (reg-) ; sesqviped-alis, a foot and a half
in measure (sesquip6d-) ; soci-alis, of co^npanions or allies (socio-);
speci-alis (Sen., Quint.), special (specie-) ; lalis, such (to-, comp.
tarn, turn); temp6r-alis, of time; also post- Aug. temporary (tem-
pos-) ; theatr-alis, theatrical (theatro-) ; triumph-alis, triumphal
(triumpho-) ; vectig-alis, of taxes, tax-paying; ven-alis, for sale
(veno-) ; virgin-alis, ynaidenly (virgon-) ; vlt-alis, of life^ long-lived
(vita-) ; voc-alis, voiceful (v5c-) and others.
2. Substantives: many of these stems are also used as adjec-
tives, some of which are given above:
(fl) Masculine: ann-alis, a Instory (anno-); can-alis, a conduit
(comp. canna, a reed\)\ c6miti-alis, an epileptic (c6mitio-) ; contu-
bern-alis, a comrade (com, tabema-); Cvlri-alis, a man of the
district (cilria-) ; feti-alis, a priest ambassador ; majalis, a barrow-
hog; nat-alis, a birthday; nat-ales (pi.), lineage (nato-); riv-alis, a
rival, i.e. a person living o« the same stream as another (rlvo-);
sSdalis, a mate.
Proper names : Jiivgn-alis (juv6n-) ; Nat-alis (vid. supr.).
(Z-) Neuter (cf. §424): animal, a breathing thing (anima-);
augilr-ale, the augurial tent (augiir); Baccan-al, a place for rites of
Bacchus (as if from Baccano-, Bacclio-) ; bident-al, a place conse-
crated, because struck by lightning (called from sheep sacrificed,
bidenti-?); capit-al, a capital crime (caput-); cervic-al, a bolster
(cervic-); cublt-al, an elbow-cushion (cublto-); dent-alia (pi.),
plough-irons (denti-); foe-ale, a neckcloth (fauci-); front-alia (pi.),
frontlets (front!-); g6nu-alia (pi. Ov. once), garters (ggnu-); Lii-
perc-al, a place sacred to Pan (Luperco-) ; miaHt-al, ynincemeat
(miniito-); p6n6tr-ale, a sanctuary (see above, § 880, i); piite-al,
a stone curb round a well (piiteo-) ; qvadrant-al, a firkin (really
5-^' gall.; a measure containing a fourth, quadrant!-, of some other
measure); ram-alia (pi.), twigs (ramo-); scClt-ale (Liv. once), a
leathern thong (scuto-) ; spons-alia (pi.), a betrothal (sponso-);
t6r-al, a couch-valance (tdro-) ; tribiln-al, a judgment-seat (tri-
bilno-); vectigal, a tax (cf. § 963).
Chap. V/I.] Lingual Noun-Stems : -all, -iUi, -ill. 335
So also many names of feasts; in the plural neuter (cf. § 425).
(The time of the year, when fixed, is here added as well as the name
of the god or goddess, which however appears sometimes to be an
invention of the Roman etymologers. See Mommsen, Corp. Inscr,
Rom. i. pp. 375—410.)
Agonalia, Jan. 9, Mar. 17, Dec. 11 (of sacrifice? agfire; comp.
dyu)v^-) Angeronalia, Dec. 21 (Angerona) ; Baccanalia (BnK;^os);
Carmentalia, Jan. 11 and 15 (Carmentis); Cerialia, Apr. 19 (C6res);
Compitalia, feast of the Cross Roads (compito-); Consualia, Aug.
21, and Dec. 15 (Census, stem conso-); Feralia (but F6ralia, Ov.)
.All Saints'' Day., Feb. 21. (fer-re, to bring offerings')-., Floralia, Apr.
21 (Fiora); Fontinalia (Fontanalia), Feast of fVater Springs (fonti-);
Fornacalia, Oven day (Fornax) ; Furrinalia, Jul. 25 (Furrina) ;
Larentalia (Larentinalia), Dec. 23 (Acca Larentia) ; Litaeralia,
Mar. 17 (Liber); Lupercalia, Feb. 15 (Lupercus); Matralia, Jan. 11
(Mater Matuta, Mother da-wnl); Meditrinalia, Oct. 11 (Varr. L. L.
6. 21); Nepttlnalia, Jul. 23 (Neptunus); Opalia, Dec. 29 (Ops);
Paganaiia, Ullage festivals (pagano-); Parentalia, Feb. 13 — 21,
sacred to the dead (parentare, to sacrifice); Portunalia, Aug. 17
(Portunus) ; Quirinalia, Feb. 17 (Quirinus); Robigalia, Apr. 25,
Mildew day (Robigo) ; Saturnalia, Dec. 17 — 19 (Saturnus); Ter-
minalia, Feb. 23, Boundary day (Terminus); Vestalia, Jun. 9
(Vesta); Vinalia, Apr. 23, Aug. 19, (line day; Volcanalia, Aug.
23 Volcanus); Voltumalla, Aug. 27 (Volturnus).
-iili curu-lis, of a chariot (cf L. 24. 18), hence (cf. Gell. 3. !
18) sella curulis, an official chair (curru-); 6d-fllis (usual-
ly in n. pi.), eatable (6d-ere); p6d-ulis (Ulp.), /or the feet
(p6d-); tritau-lis (subst. m.), a tribes-7nan (tribu-).
-tli crdd-elis, cruel (crGdo-, raw) ; fide-lis, faithful (fide-) ;
inf idelis, unfaithful; patru-elis, of (i. e. descended from)
a father s brother (patruo-).
-ill I. Adjectives: an-ilis, of an old woman (anu-); civilis, ;
ofacitiz,en (civi-) ; 6r-ilis, of a master (Sro- or hfiro-);
exilis (contr. for exigilis), styiall; fabr-ilis, of a workman (fabro-) ;
gent-ilis (adj., only post-Aug.), of a clan (genti-); host-Uis, of an
enemy (hosti-); juv6n-ilis (also juvgnalis, Verg., Suet.), youthful
(juv6n-); pu6r-ilis, of a boy (pu6ro-); scurr-ilis, buffoon-like
(scurra-); s&n-ms, of old peo/le (s6n-); serv-ilis, slavish (servo-);
subtilis (tor subtexilis), suitable for woof (cf. § iit,), fine; vir-ilis,
of a man (viro-).
2. Substantives: (a) masculine: .ffid-ilis, commissioner 0/ Pub-
lic Buildings (sedi-) ; Aprilis, the opening month (from the bursting
of vegetation, apfirire); Qvint-ilis, the fifth month, i.e. July
(quinto-); Sextilis, the sixth month, i.e. August (sexto-).
;^S^ Word-Formation. [Boo/e III.
(F) Neuter : ancile, an oval shield (for ancldile ; am, caedere) ;
T36v-ile or toQbile, an ox-stall (bov-, § 76); capr-ile, a goat-stall
(capro-) ; cub-lie, a bed (cubare) ; 6qv-ile, a horse-stable (6qvo-) ;
fen-ilia (pi.)) haylofts (feno-); liast-ile, a spear shaft, spear (hasta-);
incile, a cut, i.e. a ditch (for incidile, incid-6re); mant-ilia (pi.,
also mantelia), napkins (manu-?); mon-ile, a necklace; 6v-ile, a
sheepfold (6vi-) ; Par-ilia (pi.), feast of Pales (Pali- cf. § 176, 7);
s6d-ile, a j^rt^ (s6d-ere, sedi-); suovetaur-ilia (pi.), a sn.vine-shecp-
and-bull sacrifice (su-, ovi-, tauro-).
Compound stem-endings: -lico, § 771; -ulento, § 793; -ultu,
§ 800; -lenti §, 807; -loso, -ieuloso, § 814; -ileno, -lino, §§ 837,
841 ; -ilagon, § 845 ; -ullulo, -ellulo, -illulo, -alio, -aullo, -olio, -uUo,
-ello, -illo, §§ 865 — 869; -lio, -alio, -elio, -illio, § 937 — 939, 949.
CHAPTER A^II.
LINGUAL NOUN STEMS {Continued).
iii. Stems eliding in -ro.
-ro Preceded by r. (Stems with other letters, whether radi- 883
cal or sullixal, preceding r will be found below.)
{a) Masculine: barrus, an elephant; Burrus (cf. § 73); oarrus,
a nvaggon; cirrus, a curl; scurra, a buffoon.
(J?) Feminine: acerra, an incense box; cerrus, the Turkey oak;
gerrse (pi.), trifles (comp. ytppov, a wicker-zuork) ; marra, a exceeding
hook; parra, a barn owH; saburra, sand as ballast (comp.sabulum?);
serra, a sa-zu; terra, the earth (torrere) ; vacerra, a log; viverra,
a ferret.
(f) Neuter: ferrum, iron; porrum, a leek (comp. Trpi'tcrov).
hara, a pigsty; Mlarus (cf. § 429), cheerful; samara, 584
elm seed; sparus, a hunting spear; supparum, a linen
under-garment^ a topsail; and (perhaps with a) varus,
a pimple.
-arc
Chap. VII I?^ Lingual Nbim-Siems : -TO., ->iTo, -Xivo. 337
-6ro ancdra, an anchor (comp. a.yKvpQ)\ forae (pi ), orig. open-
ings ? only in foras, foris, out of doors (comp. Odpa, Ov-
pa^e, 6vpacn)\ forus, generally fori (pi.), a row of seats,
or holes; fBrum, a court, market-place ; 16ra, thin qjuine;
mora (also rSmdra, Plant.), delay; tdrus, a couch, muscle
of arm, &c.
-iiro camiirus (adj.), curved-in; satur (adj.), sated; satGra, a
medley, hence, a satire; purpura, purple (for jropcpvpa).
-6ro I. Adjectives: 885
seger, sick; asper, rough; cr6p6ro- (§ 346), dark (comp.
Kvecpas); fSrus, savage (cf. §99); infgr (so Cato, but
usually in pi.), Mo-zv (comp. infra) ; integer, untouched, ivbole (in,
ta«g-gre); mfirus, pure, unmixed; miser, nvretched; niger, black;
nflperum (ace. m.. Plant.), recent (cf. § 540) ; piger, lazy (comp. pig-
et); pr6-p6ru3, hasty; VTOosv^ras, favourable (pro, spes-?); super
(so Cato, but usually in pi), abo-ve (sup-er); tfiner, tender, soft
(holdable] t6n-ere); vafer, j/y.
a. Substantives :
(a) Masculine: ager, a field (comp. ar^pos'); caper, a goat
(comp. Kanpos, 'wild boar); Srus, a master; gfiner, a son-in-laiu
(comp. yapL-(i-p6s) ; numerus, a number (comp. vep-itv, to distribute) ;
puer, a boy; umerus (humerus), a shoulder (comp. w/x-os).
(b) Feminine: jiiniperus, a juniper tree.
camera, a vault (from Kapapa ?) ; capra, a she-goat; camera, a
chest; 6dera (li6dgra), ivy; 6ra, a mistress; 6pera, work, attention,
a workman (opi-) ; phalerse, horse-trappings (from (jiaXapa) ; puera
(rare and early), a girl; s6ra, a bolt; tessera, a die, or square tablet
(comp. ria-aapfs, four) ; vespera, evening (comp. ea-Trepa) ; vipera,
a viper (for vivi-p6ra? bringing forth alive, parfire).
(c) Neuter: flagrum, a whip; jQgerum (cf. § 458), two-thirds
of an acre; scalprum, a chisel (scalp-5re) ; s6rum, 'whey (comp. 6p6s
and § 190); Stuprum, debauchery.
-b-ro ( ^* ■'Adjectives: creber, close (comp. cre-sc-6re, c616bri-); S86
' gibber, humped (gibbo-) ; glaber, smooth, hairless (comp.
glubSre, to peel, y\v(f)€iv, yXd(j)fiv, yXacfivpoi) ; liber, free
(comp. lib-et) ; rub-er, red (cf. raf-us, epv6-p6s) ; scaber,
rough, scurvy (comp. scab-ies).
2, Substantives :
(a) Masculine: cSliiber (also colubra, f.), a snake; faber, a
smith ; fiber, a beaver ; Liber, a name of Bacchus ; liber, the inner
bark, a book (for fli-ber ; comp. (f)Xoi6s, bark\ or comp. glaberj
yXa<^iiv). [For Mulcitaer, Vulcan, see §§ 455, 901.]
22
338 Word-Formation. [Book III.
(b) Feminine: dOlabra, a mattock (d61a-re); fibra, a fbre
(fi«d-6re?); illficfebra, an allureynent (illicS-re); latfebra, a hiding-place
(latere); libra, a balance; palpebrse (pi., Celsus has sing, once),
eyelids (palpa-re, palp-ita-re) ; salCbra, a jolting road (salire) ; sca-
tebra (Verg., Plin.), a gushing (scatire); tgnSbrse (pi.), darkness;
tSrgbra, a borer (t6r-6re); vertebra, a joint (vert-6re); umbra,
a shadow (comp. imber, o/x/^/Jos- ?)•
(c) Neuter: candelabrvun, a candlestick (candela-); cgrgbrum,
the brain (comp. Kapa, head)\ cribrum, a sieve (ere-, cer-nere,
Kpiveiv); deltlbruin, a shrine (de, lu-ere, to expiate}) -^ fla-bra (pi.),
blasts (fia-re) ; labrum, a basin (lavare) ; labrum, a lip (lawbere) ;
membrum, a limb; poUubrum (Fest.), a thing to sprinkle qjjith (por,
lav-) ; prdbnim, a disgrace ; velabrum, a street in Rome ; ventila-
brum (Col.), a 'winnoaving-fork (ventila-re); v61uta-brum, a ival-
loqjoing-place (v61iita-re).
"C Sro )
! I. Adjectives: lac-er, torn (comp. XoKiy, « rent); ludi- 8
cer, sportive (Itldo-) ; mac-er, thin (comp. mac-ies) ;
pulcer, handsome; sac-er, devoted to the gods (comp. sawcire).
2. Substantives: (d) masculine: canc-er, a crab (comp. KapKi-
vos)', s6c-er, ajather-in-la^iu (comp. «vpos).
(^) Feminine: arc6ra (old), a covered carriage (area-).
(c) Neuter: ambQla-crum, a 'walk, i.e. place for walking (am-
baia-re) ; fulcrum, a post at foot of couch (fulcire) ; invdlucnun,
a wrapper (involv-gre) ; lucrum, gain (lu-6re, to pay) ; s6piacrum,
a tomb (s6p61ire); simula-crum, a likeness (similla-re).
:J;^J°j I. Adjectives: 8S
alter, other (ali-); ater, black; cet6ro- (§ 346), other;
citer (rare in positive), on this side (cis); dexter, on the right-hand
(comp. Sf^-toy); extfiro-, outside (ex); neuter, neither (ne, iltro-);
noster, our (nos); post6ro-, after (pos-te); sinister, on the left;
tsster, foul; voster (vester), your (vos); titer, whether (quo-, § 121).
Compare also contra, intra, ultra, frustra, § 509, and the ad-
verbs in -ter, § 541. Also it^ram, for the second time (cf. erepov)'
2.
Substantives:
{a) Masculine: adminis-ter (also administra, f.), an attendant;
adulter (also adultSra, f.), an adulterer; arbiter (also arbitra, f.),
a witness, judge (ad, § 160. 10, bit-ere) ; auster, a south-wind (comp.
aveiv, ilr-§re); citrus, (i) the citrus, (2) the citron; ciilter, a knife
(comp. KoXos, docked; Keipav, curtus); hister, an actor (Etruscan);
magls-ter (also magistra, f.), a master (magis); minis-ter (also
Chap. VII I ^ Lingual Nbiin-Stems : -cro, tro, -Bxo. 339
minlstra, f.), a servant (minils); sgqivester, a stakeholder, mediator
(sScus) ; iit6rus, the ivomb.
(I?) Feminine: C39tra, a Spanish shield; cSlostra (also colo-
strum), the first milk; excStra, a snake; fenestra, a <ivindow (comp.
(^av-, (fyaivfiv) ; litt6ra, a letter (a painted stroke ? from li-n-Sre, to
smear); lutra, an otter; mater-tfira, a mo therms sister (a second
mother, mater-, comp. itgrum, al-ter) ; mulc-tra (also mulctrum),
a milking-pail (mulgere) ; patfira, a broad dish (patere) ; scutra,
a fiat dish; and othei^s in (a).
(f ) Neuter : ara-trum, a plough (ara-re) ; astrum, a star (for
a(TTpov) ; calamis-trum, a curling-iron (comp. calamo-, Kokajxib-,
a reed) ; canistrum (pi.), a reed basket (from navaa-rpov) ; capis-
trum, a halter (cap§-re, comp. capid-) ; castra (pi. ; also, as proper
name, castrum), a camp (properly hutsl comp. casa, cas-tus);
claus-trmn (usually pi.), a fastening (claud-^re, § 160. 3); f6re-
tnun, a bier (fer-re, comp. (peprpov) ; fulge-trum, a lightning-fiash
(fulgere) ; haus-tmm (Lucr.), a water-lifter (haurire) ; ligustrum,
privet; lus-trum a purification (lu-6re); a beasfs den (lildfire?);
monstrum, a prodigy (mOnere, for mdnes-trum, comp. vfenustas,
&c.); plaus-trum, a cart, from its jingle or rumbling (plaud-6re,
to clap) ; ras-trum, a rake (rad-6re) ; ros-trum, a beak (rod-6re) ;
ru-trum, a shovel (ru-6re); spec-trum (rare), a vision (sp6c6-re);
talitrum (Suet. Tib. 68), a fillip n.uith the finger}; trans-trum, a
cross bench (trans); veratmm, hellebore; vSretrum (vereri); vitrum,
glass.
I Antoniaster (cf. Prise. 3. 40), a little Antony (Antonio-) ; 889
Fulviaster (C. Att. 12. 44); dleaster, 'wild olive (61ea-)^
parasitaster (Ter. once), a bit of a parasite (parasito-) ; pin- aster,
a wild pine (pino-) ; sillqvastrum, pepper wort (siliqva, a pod) ;
surd-aster (Gic. once), rather deaf (surdo-).
-dro caliendrum, a 'woman'' s head-dress; quadra, a square
(§ 158).
-iro pirus (f.), a pear tree; pirum, a pear; vir, a man; satira,
see satura.
-aro (i) Adjectives: amarus, bitter (comp. wVo?, raw); 890
avarus, greedy (avere); carus, dear; clarus, renowned;
gnaxus, knowing (gno-sc-6re) ; rams, rare; varus, crooked.
(a) Substantives: ara, an altar (§ 183 «); tiara, a tur-
ban (Persian word?); vara, a forked pole.
-auro aura, a breeze (comp. anv); aurum, gold; laurus (f.), 891
a laurel (cf. § 398); scaurus, with swollen ankles.
22 — 2
-as-t-6ro \
-as-t-ro
34° Word-Formation, [Book III.
-oro ( I ) Adjectives ; all formed from substantives in -os or -or.
can-or-us, tiowful (canor-); li6ii-or-us (post-Aug.), /6o-
nourable (hdnor-); 6d-6r-us, possessing scent (6d-6s-);
son-or-us, loud sounding (s6nor-) ; s6p-or-us, sleep bringing
(s6p6r-).
(2) Substantives: aur-ora, the danvn (comp. ai^'cuy, Aeol. and
avpiov) ; flora, goddess of Jlonxjers (flos-) ; hora, an hour (apa,
a season)-^ lorum, a thong; moms (f.), a tnulberrj tree (comp.
fiopea, fiopov) ; ora, a coast, region; prora, the provj (jrpcopa, the
look-out.^ Trpo-opa).
-ilro I. Adjectives: diirus, hard; obsciirus, dusky (comp 892
cr kotos) ; piirus, pure (comp. pii-tus).
2. Substantives: cHra, care (cav-, cavere); figilra, form,
fashion (fl«g6re); m-Orus (moerus), a 'wall, esp. of a city; SfibGra,
a district in Rome between Esquiline and Viminal (the abbreviation
for it was, according to Quint. I. 724, SVC, but this was probably
from the pagus Sucusanus nicluded in it) ; siira, the calf of the leg.
"\ [ I. Adjectives; i.e. the future pailiciple active. gg,
amaturus, about to love (ama-re) ; da-turus, about to give
(da-re); ftl-turus, about to be (fu-, § 719); mori-tlirus, abo^it to die
(mdri); 6ri-turus, about to arise (6riri); osurus, about to hate (6d-);
pas-stlrus, about to suffer (pat-1); p6-tiirus, about to drink (cf.
p6-tus); recturus, about to rule (r6g-6re); and many others. See
Book II. Chap. xxiv. xxx.
maturus, ripe (about to bring forth ? cf. paia, pau), p^rrjp, See).
2. Substantives: all feminine, with similar formation to that of
the future participle. These words denote the employment or result,
and may be compared with the names of agents in -tor.
aper-tura (Vitr., Ulp.), an opening (apSrire); arma-tura, equip-
ment (arma-re); caela-tura (Quint. &c.), carving (caela-re); cse-sura
(Plin.), a cutting (c2ed-6re); cap-tura (Plin., Suet. &c.), a cupture,
luages (cap6-re); cen-sura, the censorship (censor-); coc-tura (Plin.,
Col. &c.), cooking (c6qv-6re); commis-sura, ayo/wV/^^ (committ-Sre);
comp6si-tura (Cato, Lucr.), a fastening (compon-6re) ; conjec-tura,
a guess (comc6-re) ; consi-tiira, a planting (consSrgre) ; cul-tura,
cultivation (c61-6re) ; dicta-tiu:a, the dictatorship (dictator-); fe-tura,
breeding (comp. fe-tus, fe-cimdus) ; fis-siira (Plin., Col.), a cleft
(fi«d-6re); flex-ixra, a turning (flect-6re); g6ni-tura (Suet., Plin.),
birth, Jiativity (gi-gn-ere) ; jac-tura, a throwing over, loss (jac6-re);
junc-tura, a joining (jimg-6re) ; litt6ra-tura, ^vriting, acquaintance
luith letters (littera-) ; li-ttira, a blotting (li«-6re) ; men-sura, a
measure (metiri) ; merca-tura, trade (merca-ri) ; mis-tura (Lucr.
Chap. VIII!\ Lingual Noun- Stems : -oro, -tilro; -ru, -ri. 341
and post-Aug.), a mixture (miscere); na-tura, nature (na-sc-1);
p61i-tura (Plin.), a polishing (p61i-re) ; poUuc-tura (Plaut. once),
a feast (poUiicere) ; prasfec-tura, the office or territory of a pra:fectus
(prsefic6-re) ; prse-tura, the pru:torship (prsetor-); pres-sura (Col,
Plin.), pressure (prfim-ere) ; qvses-tura, the qiuestorship (quaestor-);
r6demp-tura, an undertaking, a contract (r6dira-Sre) ; scalp-tura
(Plin., Vitr.), a graving (scalp-ere) ; scis-sura (Suet., Plin.), a rent
(sci«d-ere) ; scrlp-tura, a avriiing, a tax on registered use of public
pastures (scrib-gre); sec-tura (Varr., Plin.), cutting (s6care) ; sgpul-
tura, a burial (s6p61ire); sta-tura, stature (stare); struc-tura, a
building (strugv-, stru-6re) ; temp6ra-tura (Varr. and post-Aug.),
due proportion (tempera-re) ; tex-tura, a nueb (tex-6re) ; ton-sura,
a sha'ving (tondere) ; vec-tura, conveyance (v61i-6re) ; vena-tura
(Plaut. once), hunting (vena-ri) ; ver-sura, a change, esp. fresh bor-
rowing (vert-6re) ; unc-tura (Cic. once), an anointing (ung-6re) ;
vol-sura (Varr. once), a plucking (vell-6re); ilsura, use, esp. of
money (at-i) ; and others.
-ero I. Adjectives: austerus, «j/r/;?§-f«/, severe; plerus (Cato), 894
most, usually plur. with -que attached, pleri-que; also in
sing, pleraque, plerumque (comp. pins, ple-nus); procerus, tall;
serus, lute; s6verus, strict Q seves- = o-«/3as) ; sincerus, uninjured;
verus, true.
2. Substantives: cera, wax (comp. Ktjpos); galerus, a skin cap
(comp. galea).
-Iro I. Adjectives: dims, terrible; mirus, wonderful. 895
2. Substantives: dirae, curses, thought as supernatural
beings; Mrae (pi.), guts; ira, anger; lira, a furrow ;
spira, a coil (comp. a-Trdpa).
iv. Stems ending in -ru, -ri, -r.
-ru currus (m.), a chariot (comp. curr-6re) ; laurus (f.), sge
a bay -tree; nurus (f.), a daughter-in-law (comp. pvos for
o-j/iKTo?, Curt.); s6crus (f.), a stepmother (comp. s6c6ro-);
veiu (m.), a spit.
-ri auris (f.), an ear (comp. audi-re, and § 160. 10); Mrjs 897
(m.), plough-tail (from jSo-, ovpdl); extorris (adj.),
exiled (ex, terra?); foris (Q, a door; hilaris (adj.), see hilarus;
mare (n.), the sea; naris (f.), a nostril (comp. naso-) ; torris (m.),
a brand (comp. torrere) ; turris (f.), a tower; verres (m.), a
boar-pig.
342 Word-Formation. \Book III.
-r far (n., stem farr-), corn; filr (m.), a t/jtef (comp. (pu>p)\
Lax (m.), a household god; par (stem par-), equal, a mate
(cf. § 454); ver (n.), spring (comp. eap).
-jtr Substantives: all neuter: baccar, a plant with an aroma-
tic root (from ^uKKapis); jiibar, bright light; instar,
likeness. See also § 454.
-6r Substantives: neuter (on these see § 454): aeqvOr, a le'vel ^^
surface (seqvo-) ; fibur, ivory; ffimur, a thigh; j6cur, the
liver (comp. ^Trap) ; marmor, marble ; robur, heart of oak.
Perhaps also mSinor (adj.), mindful, belongs here (§ 429).
-tbr I. Adjective: cicur, tame; gnartiris (ace. pi. Plant.), 899
knoiving (gnaro-).
2. Substantives: (a) masculine: augiur, a diviner (pro-
bably compound for avi-ger) ; furfur, bran (perhaps redupl. from
same root as in fricare, to rub); Lgmures (pi.), ghosts; turtur, a
turtle-dove; vultur, a vulture.
(F) Neuter: fulgur, (^7?^^^ o/Zig-Zi/w/w^ (fulgere); guttur (rarely
m.), the throat; murmur, a murmuring noise (redupl.) ; sulfur,
sulphur.
-6ri c61er, siuift; pGtris (§ 430), rotten (pilt-ere); vepres 900
(m. pi.), thorns.
-6r I. Adjectives: pauper, ^oor (pauco- and par6-re?).
2. Substantives (cf. § 455):
(a) Masculine: SiCl-penseT, a sturgeon ; SLgger, a pile (ad,
g6r-6re) ; anser, a gander (comp. -^riv. Germ. Cans) ; asser, a beam.,
post; career, a prison., barrier; Celeres (pi.), Knights; later, a brick;
passer, a sparro-zv; pr6c6res (pi.), nobles; vesper, evening (cf. § 885.
2. i") ; vomer (stem originally vomis-), a ploughshare.
(b) Feminine: laver, a water-plant; mMier, a woman.
(f) Neuter: acer, the maple; cadaver, a corpse; cicer, chickpea;
Iter, a journey (1-, ire, to go); iiai^SiveT, a poppy ; piper, pepper (comp.
ireirepi) ] Slier, brookivillo-vj ; siser, skir-wort (comp. aiaapov).
-b-6rl
-b-ri
I (See § 430). I. Adjectives: c^li^oer, numerous, thronged goi
' in honour (comp. crebro-) ; December, tenth ; fene-bris, of
interest (fends-) ; ftinebris, funereal (filnils-) ; Ivigu-bris,
mournful (liigere; the second u being due to assimilation partly to
the first u, and partly to b); mMie-bris, 'womanly (milligr-);
Novem-ber, ninth; Octo-her, eighth; salH-ber, healthy (salvo-, salH-t-);
Septem-ber, seventh. (December, &c. are only used of the month.)
Chap. VI 11.'] Lingual Noun-Stems: -§x, -b6ri, -t6rl. 343
2. Substantives: fe-bris (f.), a fever (for ferv-toris, ferv-ere);
imber, a rain-showjer (comp. ofj-jSp-os). Mulcitoer, name of Fu/can.
-D-6r siiber (n.), cork-tree; tilber (m.), a fruit tree; (n.) a bump
(ttimere, see §455); fiber (?iA].), fruitful; (n.), a teat
(comp. ovdap) ; verbgra (n. pi.), strokes.
-c-eri
-c
^ I Adjectives: acer, sharp (comp. S,cu-, acie-); alacer, a/ert; 90a
' mgdio-cris, middling, ordinary (medio-); vdlucer, swift
(v61are).
-t-ru qvinqvatnis (f. pi., also qvinqvatria, n. pi., Suet.), a feast
of Minerva kept on 19th March, i.e. t^x;^' days after the
Ides (qvinqve); so among the Tusculans, Triatrus, Sexa-
tnis, Septematrus, and among the Faliscans, Decimatrus
(Fest. S.V.); tSnitrus (m.), thunder (tonito- from tonaxe).
" . V I. Adjectives: 6ques-ter, of horsemen (gquSt-); palus- 903
' ter, of the marshes (palud-) ; p6des-ter. of foot-men
(p§d6t-) ; se-mes-tris, for six 77wntbs (sex, mens-) ; se-
quester (cf. § 430, and under -tro).
a. Substantives: linter or lunter (f.), a boat; venter (m.), the
belly (comp. -yaoTr^p) ; titer (m.), a skin-bag (comp. uterus?). Denter,
a cognomen of the Livian clan (Liv. x. i), may belong here.
-es-t-ri^ i.e. ensi + teri? For the suffix -ensi see § 815, and for 904
' the weakening of ns to s § 168.
Adjectives (cf. §430): campester, of the fields (campo-); sil-
vestris, of the woods (silva-); terrestris, of the earth (terra-).
illustris, in bright light, sublustris, in faint light, are also pro-
bably for iliacenstris, sublQcenstris. S6gestre (n.), segestria (f.),
a wrapper, probably from (niya<npov.
— t-6r )
Substantives: accipiter, a hawk (comp. coKi;7rrepo?) ; fra- 905
ter, a brother (comp. (f)pur7]p, a clansman) ; mater, a
mother (comp. fitiTTjp); pater, a father (comp. Tvarrip).
-t-r
-in-gr
i.e. -gr appended to suffix -gn: it-iner (n.), a journey (i-,
ire) ; j6c-iner (n.), a liver (comp. jgcur). See §§ 454, 455.
-ari Appended to those stems only which contain 1 (other- 906
wise all is appended, § 880).
I. Adjectives: al-aris (more frequently alarius), of the
wing of an army (ala-); ancUl-aris, of a maid-seri'ant (anciUa-);
angul-aris, having corners (angulo-) ; ApoUin-aris, sacred to Apollo
344 Word-Formation. [Book III.
(Apoll6n-); aquUon-aris, northerly (aquilon-); articul-aris (Plin.,
Suet., also articularius, Cato), of the joints (articillo-) ; auxili-aris
(also earlier auxiliarius), helping (auxilio-) ; balne-aris (Dig., ear-
lier balnearius), of the baths (balneo-); calig-aris (Plin., also cali-
garius), of a soldiers boot (caliga-); capGl-aris, of a coffin (capMo-);
collici-aris (Cato), for gutters (colliqvia-) ; c61iimell-aris (Varr.,
Plin.), of or like pillars (cdliimella-) ; consul-aris, of a consul (con-
sul-) ; cubicill-aris (Gic, also later cubicularius, but cf. § 942. 2), of
a bedchamber (cilbicillo-) ; culle-aris (Cato), sackUke (culleo-);
epM-aris, of a banquet (fepula-); fabul-aris (Suet, once), fabulous
(fabilla-) ; famili-aris, of a family^ intimate (familia-) ; famM-aris,
of a servant (famiilo-) ; figul-aris, of a potter (f igillo-) ; mtefcal-
aris (also intercalarius), intercalary (intercala-re) ; j6ciil-aris,
laughable (jdculo-); line-aris, of lines (linea-); liln-aris, of the ynoon
(luna-); manipill-aris, of a company (manipillo-) ; niaxill-aris (Cels.,
Plin.), of the j anus (maxilla-); milit-aris (also militarius Plant,
once), of soldiers (mil6t-); mol-aris, of a tnill (m61a-); oil-axis
(Mart., also oUarius Plin.), potted (olla-) ; palm-aris (also palma-
rius), of a palm's breadth, deserving the palm (palma-) ; pScQli-aris,
of one''s own (pficillio-) ; piacul-aris, expiatory (piaculo-) ; pil-aris
(Stat.), of balk (pila-) ; plant-axis (Stat.), of the foot (planta-) ;
pollic-aris (Plin.), of a thumb (poll6c-); pSpM-aris, of the people
(populo-); prceli-aris, of a battle (pxoelio-); puell-axis, of a girl
(puella-) ; piipill-aris, of a ward (piipillo-) ; saliit-axis, healthful
(saldt-) ; saecul-aris, of an age (sdJ&culo-) ; singiil-aris, sole^ unique
(singulo-); sol-axis (Ov., Sen., &;c.), of the sun (sol-); specill-aris,
of a mirror (spfeciilo-) ; tal-aris, of the ankles (talo-) ; triclini-axis,
of a dining-room (tricllnio-) ; vall-axis, of a rampart (vallo-) ; va-
pul-arls (coined by Plaut. in imitation of militaxls), of the foggees
(vapula-re) ; velit-axis, of the light-armed (vel6t-) ; vulg-aris, of the
mass, common (vulgo-).
2. Substantives:
(a) Masculine: m61-axis, millstone, grinder (mSla-); pugill-ares
(pi.), ^writing hand tablets (p&gillo-).
(f) Neuter: alt-axia (pi.), a high altar (alto-?); alve-axe (or
alveaxium), a beehive (alveo-, hollow); calc-ar, a spur (calci-); ca-
pill-axe (Mart.), pomatum (capillo-); cdchle-axe, a spoon (cochlea-,
snail shell) ; coU-are (Plant., Varr.), a collar (collo-) ; exempl-ar, a
pattern (exemplo-) ; lacim-ax, a panelled ceiling (lacQna-) ; laqve-ar,
a ceiling (^dome-like ? as if dra-ivn in ; lactveo-, a noose) ; Iflc-ax, a tax
on woods (liico-); lupan-ax, a brothel (lupa-, with suffix -ano);
pale-ax, fl dewlap (palea-, roc^V ivattles); plant-axia (pi.) j//// of
trees (planta-); pulvin-ar, a cushioned seat (pulvino-); sigillaria
(pi.), /cfljif of images, image market (sigillo-); spgcM-axia (pi),
window-panes (spfecMo-) ; tal-axia (pi.), shoes fastened to ankles
(talo-) ; torcM-ax, an oil-press (torqvexe).
Chap. VIIIJ] Lingual Noun- Stems : -arl, -or, -t5r (-sor). 345
-or I. Adjective: prinior- (no nom. s.), in the first rank
(primo-).
2. Substantives: 907
{a) Denoting quality; masculine ac-or, sourness (2,cere); segr-
or (Lucr.), sickness (segro-); alg-or, cold (algere); am-or, love
(ama-re); ang-or, choking^ anguish (ang-6re) ; ard-or, glo^v (ardere);
cal-or, heat (calere); cald-or (Varr.), ^varmth (caldo-); cand-or, a
brilliant ^vhite (candere); can-or, tunefulness (can-fire); clam-or, a
shout (clama-re); clang-or, a clang (clang-gre); cr6m-or, broth;
cru-or, gore; d6c-or, grace (dficere) ; d61-or, pain (ddlere) ; err-or,
a straying, error (erra-re) ; fav-or, favour (favere) ; ferv-or, boiling
heat (ferv-ere) ; fcet-or, a stench (foetere) ; frag-or, a crash (tr^ng-
6re) ; frgm-or, a roaring (fr6in-6re) ; fulg-or, a glare (fulg-ere) ;
Mr-or, rage (fur-6re); horr-or, a shudder (horrere); la,ngv-or, fain t-
ness (langvere); lent-or (Plin.), pliancy (lento-); lev-or (Lucr.,
Plin.), smoothness (lev!-); liqv-or, a fluid (Uqvi); liv-or, leaden
colour, envy (livSre) ; Iflror (Lucr.), sallowness (comp. Iftridus) ;
mser-or, grief (mserere); marc-or (Cels., Sen. &:c.), a drooping
(marcere^; miic-or (post- Aug.), wowW (mflcere) ; nid-or, a smell;
nigr-or, blackness (nigro-); paad-or,//?/j; v^Jii-Qr, paleness (pallere);
pav-or, dread; plang-or, a beating the breast (plang-6re) ; piid-or,
shame (pudere) ; pQt-or, rottenness (pHtere) ; rig-or, stiffness (rigerej ;
rQbor, redness (nibere); rum-or, common talk; sap-or, favour
(sap6-re) ; s6n-or, a din ( sSnare) ; s5p-or, droivsiness (comp. s5pi-re) ;
splend-or, brightness (splendere) ; sqval-or, dirtiness (squalere) ;
strid-or, a luhistling or shrieking (stridere); string-or (Lucr.), a
shock (string-6re) ; sttip-or, amazement (stupere) ; sftd-or, sweat
(silda-re); t6n-or, course (tSnere) ; t6p-or, c^varmth (tfipere); terr-or,
fright (terrere); \,lm-or, fear (timere) ; torp-or, 7iumbness (torpere);
tr6m-or, a quaking (tr6m-6re) ; ttim-or, a swelling (tiimere) ; vag-or
(Lucr.), a squalling (va,gi-Te); vap-or, steam (comp. vapidus, and
§ 121); vig-or, vigour (vigere); Omor, moisture (Qmere).
{b) ador (n.), corn; 61or (m.), a swan; s6ror (f.), a sister:
uxor (f.), a wife (comp. jiig-, Ju;/g6re).
-s-6r \ '•^' '°^ appended to the supine stem. All masculine. ^^
(a) From supine stems of vowel verbs with long vowel pre-
ceding suffix: the verbs themselves are omitted as self-evident. A
few are formed from substantives :
accils-at-or, an accuser; sedific-at-or, a builder, one fond of build-
ing; sestim-at-or, an appraiser; agit-at-or, a driver; ale-at-or, a
dicer (alea-); am-at-or, a lover; ar-at-or, a husbandman; assect-
346 Word-Formation. [Book III.
at-or, one of a marl's suite; aud-it-or, a hearer^ pupil; balne-at-or,
a batbman (balnea-) ; bell-at-or, a ivarrior; cadiice-at-or, an officer
<vjith a flag of truce (cadHceo-) ; cal-at-or, a crier ^ servant ; calum-
ni-at-or, a legal trickster; capt-at-or, esp. a legacy hunter; cess-at-or,
a loiterer; circul-at-or, a huckster, rjiountebank ; c6miss-at-or, a re-
'veller; comp6t-it-or, a rival (comp6t-6re, cf. § 657); conqvis-it-or,
a recruiting officer (conqvser-gre, cf. § 657); conviv-at-or, a host;
cre-at-or, a creator; cunct-at-or, a loiterer; ciip-it-or (Tac), a
desirer (ciip6-re, cf. § 656); cilr-at-or, a keeper; declam-at-or, a rhe-
torician; de-lat-or, an informer (tla-, tollgre, cf. §687); dict-at-or,
a supreme commander; discept-at-or, a judge; dispens-at-or, a
steivard; dissign-at-or, a master of ceremonies, an tmdertaker ; don-
at-or (Dig.), a donor; ediic-at-or, a foster father, bringer up;
existim-at-or, a connoisseur ; expl6r-at-or, a spy; famig6r-at-or, a
talebearer (fama-, g6r-6re) ; fen6r-at-or, a usurer; fin-it-or, a sur-
veyor; gladl-at-or, a snvordsman (gladlo-); grass-at-or, a footpad;
gubern-at-or, a pilot; hort-at-or, an inciter; imit-at-or, an i»iitator;
imp6r-at-or, a commayider-iti-chief; larg-it-or, a giver, esp. of bribes ;
ldi.-tOT, proposer of a law (cf. § 687); laud-at-or, a panegyrist; llbfir-
at-or, a deliverer; lign-at-or, a ivoodcutter; 16c-at-or, a lessor;
mand-at-or, a giver of a charge; merc-at-or, a trader; met-at-or,
a fixer of boundaries; ni6d6r-at-or, a manager; moll-tor, a con-
triver; miin-it-or, an engineer; narr-at-or, a riarrator; nat-at-or,
a shimmer; nfigoti-at-or, a dealer; nomencl-at-or, one <iuho addresses
by name (noin6n-, calare) ; obtrect-at-or, a disparager; 6r-at-or,
a speaker, a spokesman; pabiil-at-or, a forager; p6t-it-or, a candi-
date, a plaintiff (p6t-6re, cf. § 657); pisc-at-or, a fisherman; prsed-
at-or, a pillager; praedi-at-or, a purchaser of mortgaged estates
(prsedium); prsevaric-at-or, a collusive pleader ; pugn-at-or, afii^hter;
quadrupl-at-or, a trickster; quses-it-or, an inquisitor (quser-Sre, cf.
§ 65 7) ; recup6r-at-ores (pi.), judges in questions of property between
citizens and foreigners; r6g-at-or, a proposer of a law, a polling-
clerk; Salin-at-or (usually as surname), a salt^vorker (salina-);
salt-at-or, a dancer; sAlut-at-or, a visitor; s6n-at-or, a senator
(comp. sSnex); serv-at-or, a preserver; simiil-at-or, a pretender;
spect-at-or, a spectator; stipul-at-or, a bargainer; test-at-or (Suet.,
Dig.), the maker of a <will; ven-at-or, a hunter; vet6r-at-or, an old
practitioner (vetera-sc-ere) ; vi-at-or, a wayfarer (via-) ; iirm-at-or,
a diver; and many others.
(Z") With short vowel preceding suffix: mostly from supine
stems :
admSni-tor, an adviser (admSnere) ; appari-tor, an official ser-
vant (apparere) ; cogni-tor, an attorney (cogno-sc-6re) ; composi-tor,
an arranger (comp6n-6re, cf. §631); conci-tor, exciter (concire);
condi-tor, a founder (coiid§-re) ; credi-tor, a lender (cred6-re) ; da-
tor (Plaut.), a giver (da-re); debi-tor, a debtor (debere); diribi-tor,
Chap. V/II.] Lingual Noun-Stems : -tor (-sor). 347
a distributor of voting tickets (diribere) ; dOmi-tor, a tamer (d6-
maxe); exerci-tor, a trainer, a master^ e.g. of a ship or shop (exer-
cere) ; fundi- tor, a sliiiger (funda-) ; gfini-tor, a begetter (gign-6re,
cf. § 698); Mlitor (for h616ritor), a kitchen-gardener (hdliis-);
jani-tor, a doorkeeper (janua-) ; insi-tor (Prop.), an ingrafter- insti-
tor, a factor (instare ?) ; mdni-tor, an adviser (m6nere) ; perdi-tor, a
^fj^rojfr (perd6-re) ; porti-tor, a toll-taker (portu-, harbour; porta, a
gate) ; prodi-tor, a betrayer (prod6-re) ; sa-tor, a sower (s6-r§re) ;
Bta-tor, a stayer, epithet of Juppiter; a magistrate's attendant (sis-
tSre) ; vendi-tor, a seller (vend6-re) ; vindemitor (also vindemiator),
a "vintager (vindemia-) ; vinitor, a -vine-dresser (vino-).
(f) From consonant stems, or contracted:
ac-tor, an actor, a plaintiff' (ag-6re) ; adjG-tor, a helper (adjuva-
re) ; al-tor, a nourisher (al-ere) ; assen-sor, one <iuho agrees (assen-
tire); asser-tor, a claimant, advocate (ass6r-6re); asses-sor, a judi-
cial assistant (assldere); auc-tor, a founder, recommender, seller
(augere); can-tor, a singer (can-6re); cen-sor, a valuer, a critic
(censere); circumscrip-tor, « cheater (circumscrib-gre) ; conj3c-tor,
an interpreter, esp. of dreams, &c. (conic6-re); consul-tor, a coun-
seller, a consulter (consiil-Sre) ; correc-tor, a corrector (corrig-6re) ;
corrup-tor, a seducer; cul-tor, a cultivator, inhabitant (c61-6re);
cur-sor, a runner (cxirrgre) ; defec-tor (post- Aug.), a revolter (defi-
c6-re) ; defen-sor, a defender (defend-6re) ; derl-sor, a mocker (deri-
dere); deser-tor, a deserter (des6r-6re); divi-sor, a distributor
(divid-6re) ; doc-tor, a teacher (dScere) ; due-tor, a leader (dilc-6re) ;
emp-tor, a purchaser (em-fire); exstinc-tor, an extinguisher (ex-
stingv-gre) ; fau-tor, a patron (favere) ; flc-tor, a maker, e. g. of
images (fi«g-6re) ; fos-sor, a digger (f6d6-re) ; impul-sor, an inciter
(impell-6re) ; interces-sor, a mediator, interposer (interced-6re) ; in-
ven-tor, a discoverer (invSnire) ; lec-tor, a reader (leg-Sre) ; lie-tor,
a magistrate'' s attendant (origin uncertain) ; la-sor, a player (liid-6re);
men-sor, a measurer (metiri) ; mes-sor, a reaper (m6t-ere) ; pas-tor,
a shepherd (pasc-Sre) ; perfec-tor, an accompUsher (perflcg-re) ; pic-
tor, a painter (pi«g-ere) ; pis-tor, a miller, baker (pls-6re) ; pollinc-
tor, an undertaker (polling-ere, to prepare a corpse for burial);
posses-sor, a possessor (possidere); p6-tor, a drinker (comp. p6-tus);
prs8cep-tor, a teacher (prsecip§-re) ; prse-tor, a chief magistrate
(praeire); profes-sor, a public teacher (profiteri); quses-tor, a judge
of inquiry, a treasurer (quaer-ere); rap-tor, a robber (rap6-re);
r6cep-tor, a receiver, esp. of stolen property (rgcip6-re) ; rec-tor,
a ruler (rgg-6re) ; rgdemp-tor, a contractor (rgdim-6re) ; r6per-tor,
a discoverer (rgpgrire) ; rup-tor, a breaker (ruwzp-Sre); scrip-tor,
a writer (scrib-ere) ; sculp-tor, an engraver (sculp-6re) ; sec-tor.
a cutter, a purchaser of confiscated goods (secare) ; spon-sor, a surety
(spondere); sva-sor, a recommender (svadfire); sil-tor, a shoemaker
(^3u-6re) ; tex-tor, a weaver (tex-6re) ; ton-sor, a barber (tondere) ;
348 Word-Formation. \Book III.
tor-tor, a torturer (torqvere); tCl-tor, a guardian (tueri); vec-tor,
(i) <a: carrier^ (2) a passenger (v6h-6re) ; vic-tor, a conqueror (vi/ic-
6re); lal-tor, an avenger (ulc-isc-i),
-uri sSciiris (f.), an axe (properly _/or cutting] s6care). qog
Compound stem-endings: -rco, -trici, §§ 771, 782; -umo, -erno,
-terno, §§ 828, 829; -trino, § 842; -rio, -brio, -ario, -torio (-sorio),
§§ 940—943-
iii. Stems ending in -s.
-6s (-6r) Substantives: (a) arbos (f. also arbSr), a tree; 16pus (m.), 910
a hare.
(F) Neuter: corpus, a body; dScus, a distinction; ded6cus, a dis-
grace; frigus, cold (comp. ptyoy); litus, ashore; n6mus, a gro've;
pectus, a breast; p6cus, cattle; stercus, dung; tempus, time.
-n5s(-ii6r) Neuter: faci-nus, a deed (fac6-re) ; fenus (faenus), inte- 9"
rest of money {breeding, comp. fe-tus, fe-mlna); pgnus,
a store (cf. § 398); pig-nus, a pledge (pa?/g-ere).
-us (-6r) (i) Adjective: v6tus (v6t6r, Enn.), old. g„
(2) Substantives: neuter: acus, chaff; foedus, a treaty;
glomus, a ball of thread (comp. gl6bus) ; li61us (61us), -vegetable;
latus, a side; 6pus, a zvork; pondus, a n.ueight; raudus, a piece of
f?ietal;TVLdus, rubble; s6cus (only n. acc. sing.), a race ov generation ;
sc61us, a crime; sidus, a constellation; vellus, a fleece; viscus, the
internal organs of the body ; ulcus, a sore (comp. TKko^').
-niis(-n6r) Neuter substantives : fflnus, a funeral; g6nus, a race or 913
kind (comp. gi-gn-Sre); munus, a gift; Onus, a burden;
vulnus, a ivound.
Also V6nus (f.), the goddess of beauty (comp. vSnus-
tus).
-6s (-6r) C6res (f.), goddess of corn, &c. (comp. Kpaiveiv, cSrus, 914
§ 843); pQbes (adj.), grown up (pUbi-).
-is (-6r) Substantives: cinis (m.), ashes; cQciimis (cf. § 412), a 915
cucumber; pulvis (m. rarely f.), dust. For vomis, see
§ 900.
Chap. VIII.^ Lingual Noun-Stems : -6s, -as, -os, -ios. 349
-OS (-or) I. Adjectives: min-or (adj.), /fj^ (comp. min-imus). qi6
2. Substantives: {a) masculine.
clamos (cf. Quint. I. 4. 13, also clam6r), a shout (clama-
re); c616s (also coldr), a colour; flos, a Jiowe/-; lifinos (also Ii6n6r),
an honour, an official post; labos (usually lab6r), toil; 16pos, pleasant-
ness, humour; mos, a custom, a ^uhim; 6d6s (also 6d6r), a scent
(comp. 61-ere, o^oj, oSwSa) ; pavos (Nasv., usually pavor), dread
(pavere); ros, de-uu; riim6r (comp. rumus-culus), a rumour.
Compare also the substantives in § 907.
(b) Neuter: os, a mouth.
-ios (-ior) Adjectives in comparative degree. These are formed from 917
most noun adjectives and many participles. A list of
the principal irregularities will be found in the Appendix.
The original s of the suffix is seen only in the neuter singular
nom. ace, and in the superlative forais which are derived from
it (§ 75J).
acr-ior, sharper (acri-); siCiv-ior, fairer (seqvo-); alt-ior, higher
(alto-) ; amant-ior, more loving (amanti-) ; antiqv-ior, moi-e ancient
(antiqvo-); asp6r-ior, rougher (aspfiro-); audac-ior, ^o/^/tr (audaci-);
bgneficent-ior, more benevolent (with participial suffix, from bene-
fico-); cit6r-ior, on this side (citra); concord-ior, fnore harmonious
(concordi-) ; crebr-ior, more crowded (crebro-) ; dextgr-ior, on the
right side (dextro-) ; deter-ior, worse; dit-ior, richer (diti-) ; dttr-ior,
harder (dure-); 6gent-ior, more needy (dgenti-); exter-ior, outside
(extgro-) ; f elic-ior, happier (felici-) ; fertil-ior, more fertile (fertili-);
frugal-ior (for positive frugi indecl. is used) ; imbecill-ior, weaker
(imbecillo-) ; industr-ior, wore active (industrio-) ; infgr-ior, lower
(infSro-) ; ingent-ior, huger (ingenti-) ; inter-ior, inner (intra) ;
jiln-ior, younger (juven-) ; magnific-ent-ior, wo/y highminded (mag-
nifico- with participial suffix) ; major, greater (for mag-ior, comp.
mag-nus); m61-ior, better; mis6r-ior, more wretched (mis6ro-);
neqv-ior, jiaughtier (nequam) ; oc-ior, swifter (comp. co/cus-) ; pejor,
worse (for p6d-ior, comp. pessimus); pingv-ior, /rt«er (pingvi-);
pms (n.), more (for ploios, cf § 754); p6pular-ior, more popular
(p6pulari-) ; poster-ior, later (postfiro-) ; prior, former (pro ? cf
§ 754); pr6p-ior, nearer (prdpe); saiatar-ior, more healthful {s&m-
taii-); salubr-ior, more healthy (salubri-) ; satur-ior (Co\.), fatter
(saturo-); s6n-ior, older (s6n-, nom., sSnex-); sinistgr-ior, on the
left hand (sinistero-) ; sup6r-ior, upper (sup6ro-) ; t6nv-ior, thinner
(tenvi-); vgtust-ior, older (vStusto-); viiti&x-iQX, further (ultra); and
very many others.
35° Word-Formation. [Book III.
-ils (-iir) Substantives: {a) feminine: Xt^Hi^^^ the earth. ^,3
{U) Neuter: eras, a leg; Jiis, right (comp. jub-ere and
§ 76. 2); broth (comp. ^co/ioy); piis, diseased 7natter; iHs,
the country; tiis, franiincense (from 0vos^)-
Compound stem-endings: -issilmo, § 758; -usto, -esto, § ji
-sti, -estat, §§ 808, 811; -uscGlo, § 864.
CHAPTER IX.
VOWEL NOUN-STEMS.
i. Stems ending in -eo.
-eo, I. Adjectives: gig
ador-eus, of spelt (ador-) ; septuSr-eus, ivatery (sequSr-) ;
aer-eus, of bronze (ses-); arb6r-eus, of a tree (arbos-) ; arbut-eus of
the arbutus (arbiito-) ; argent-eus, of silver (argento-) ; arundin-eus,
of reeds (arund6n-) ; aur-eus, golden (auro-) ; cer-eus, waxen (cera-) ;
consangvin-eus, of the same blood (com, sangven-) ; corneus, of the
cornel tree (corno-) ; horny (comu-); corp6r-eus, of or having a
body (corp6s-) ; femln-eus, of a q.uoman (fe-mina-); ferr-eus, of iron
(ferro-) ; flamm-eus, flamy (flamma-) ; flor-eus, flowery (flos-) ;
fiumin-eus, of a river (flu-m6n-); fulmin-eus of thunder (ful-mgn-) ;
fQin-eus, smoky (ftimo-); gramm-eus, grassy (gra-mgn-) ; ign-eus,
fery (igni-) ; lact-eus, milky (lacti-) ; lan-eus, woolly (lana-) ; lapid-
eus, pebbly (lapid-) ; lut-eus, muddy (lilto-) ; luteus golden yellow
(IQto-) ; niv-eus, snowy (nivi-) ; oss-eus, bony (ossi-) ; pic-eus, pitchy
(pic-) ; plumb-eus, leaden (plumbo-) ; pulv6r-eus, dusty (pulvis-) ;
rds-eus, rosy (r6sa-) ; sangvin-eus, bloody (sangv6ii-) ; sax-eus, stony
(saxo-); sidgr-eus, starry (sidus-) ; splc-eus, of ears of corn
(spica-) ; tritic-eus, wheaten tritico-) ; vip6r-eus of a viper
(vipgra-) ; virgin-eus, girlish (virg6n-) ; and others.
a. Substantives :
{a) Masculine : alv-eus, a trough.^ hollow (alvo-) ; balt-eus (or
-eum), a belt; calo-eus, a shoe (calci- heel)\ cas-eus, a cheese; clup-
Chap. IX^ Vo7vel Noun-Stems: -eo, -aceo, -neo. 351
eus, a shield; cull-eus, a bag (from Gr. koK^o^: comp. ciilus);
cfln-eus, a waedge, laqv-eus, a noose; mall-eus, a hammer; mull-eus,
a red shoe (mullo- red mullet?)\ pilleus (also pilleum), a felt cap
(comp. TvlXosifelt)] plut-eus, a board^ shed, iScc. ; put-eus, a ivell;
urc-eus, a pitcher.
(b) Feminine : ador-ea, renown (lit. corn-reward ; ador-) ; alea,
a die; ardea, a heron (comp. e'pcoStos); area, an open space; baxea
(pi.), shoes; bractea, a plate of metal; buccea (Aug. ap. Suet.), a
mouthful (bucca-); capr-ea, a roedeer (capro-); fdvea, a pitfall;
framea, a spear (Tac. G. 6) ; galea, a helmet (comp. Kvverj) • ganea,
a restaurant; glarea, gravel; gran-ea, a corn-mash (grano-); lancea,
a light spear; laur-ea, a laurel tree or bay (lauro-) ; lin-ea, a flaxen
thread (lino-); dcrea, a greave; 61ea, an olvve (comp. eXaia); palea,
straw (comp. Pales) : plat6a, a street (from nXciTela, broad-ivay) ;
s61-ea, a sandal (s61o-, ground) ; talea, a rod; tinea (tinia, comp.
taenia, raivla), a bookqvorm; trabea, a state robe; vinea, a 'vineyard^
a shed.
if) Neuter : flammeum, a bridal 'veil (flamma-) ; hordeum,
barley,
-ac-eo I. Adjectives: cret-aceus, of chalk (creta-) ; 6dgr-aceus, 920
of ivy (6d6ra-) ; f arr-aceus, of spelt (farr-) ; gaUin-aceus
(gallinacius), of hens (gallina-) ; berb-aceus, grass coloured
(berba-) ; borde-aceus, of barley (bordeo-) ; rSs-aceus, of
roses (rSsa-); test-aceus, of pottery (testa-); vi61-aceus
of viol es (vibla-).
1. Substantives : erin-aceus, a hedgehog (comp. gr, yf]f>
Hesych.) ; must-aceus or tiiust cake (musto-) ; vin-aceus,
a raisin stone (vino-).
-uceo caduceus, herald's staff (comp. Kr]pvKiiov) ; pann-tlceus 921
(pannucius), tattered, (wrinkled (panno-).
-teo lin-teus, of linen (lino-).
-neo I. Adjectives: abe-neus (aeneus), of bronze (for abes- 922
neus, from ses-); angvi-neus (rare), stiaky (angvl-) ;
6bur-neus, of ivory (gbor-) ; popul-neus, of poplar (po-
pulo-); ctuer-neus, oaken (quercu- § no).
2. Substantives : aran-eus (in Plin. also as adj.), a
spider (comp. a.paxvj)s) ; balineum or balneum (cf. also
§ 330), « bath (from ^akavelov).
-gneo i. e. gin-eo, from root of gignfire ; unless the g be
softened for c in the first two words, and in the last
be due to a false analogy.
ili-gneus, of ilex (for illc-gneus, fi-om il6c-) ; saligneus
(Col.), of willow (salic-); viti-gineus vine-produced (viti-).
352 Word-Formation. [Book III.
-an-eo Adjectives :
{a) consent-aneus, suited (consentire) ; dissentaneus, 923
utuuited (dissentire), extraneus, external (extra); foc-aneus (rustic
ap. Col.), of the throat; applied to a choking sprout (fauci-) ; mis-
cell-aneus ( Juv.), miscellaneous (miscello-) ; p6d-aneus, an inferior
judge (p6d-) ; prsecid-aneus (Cato), slaughtered before (prae-csed-fire) ;
prselig-aneus (Cato), picked before (prselig-6re) ; prsesent-aneus
(Plin.), operating quickly (prsesenti-); succed-aneus or succidaneus
coming in place of another (succed-6re or succidSre); sicc-aneus (Col.),
dry (sicco-).
(^) Compounds formed immediately from the simple parts-
bip6d-aneus (Col.), two feet in measure (bis p§d-); circumfSraneus,
round the forum (circum foro-) ; collact-aneus, foster (com lacti-) ;
mgditerr-aneus, inland (mSdio-, terra-) ; subterraneus, underground
(sub terra-) ; supervac-aneus, superfluous (super vaca-re).
t-an-eo i. e. aneo appended to stem of past participle :
collec-taneus (Plin., Suet.), gathered together (collig-6re) ; 924
condi-taneus (Varr.),_/or/)/-^jfr'L'i«^ (cond6re or condire);
dpertaneus (Plin.), concealed (dpSrire); rejec-taneus
(coined by Cic. Fin. 4. 26), belonging to the class of rejected
(reic-6re).
-oneo lion^us, ft (ideo, Donaldson) ; erronevLS, straying (erron-).
-leo I. Adjectives: caerfileus (cserulus), dark blue (cselo-, 925
cf. § 176, comp. also csesio-).
2. Substantives : (a diminutival suffix).
a,cu-le\xs, sting, prickle (acu-); eqvii-leus, a colt (Sqvo-);
hinnu-leus a fawn (hinno-) ; manii-leus, a long sleeve
(manu-); nuc-leus (nuciileus, Plant.), a kernel (nGc-);
trocblea, a block of pulleys (from rpoxos, comp. rpox^aXla).
See also § 919. 2.
ii. Stems ending in -io.
(For stems in -i see Book II. Chap, x.)
-io I. Adjectives: chiefly from nouns: g^o
(a) abstem-ius, abstemious (abs, tem-; comp. tem-illen-
tus, tera-Stum) ; afirius, in the air (aer-) ; seth6r-ius, in the cether
(sethfir-); al-ius, other; anx-ius, uneasy (ang-6re.'); augur-ius, of
an augur (augur-); cses-lus, gray; diib-ius, doubtful (duo-; the b is
perhaps parasitical, cf. § 76, or du-bi-us is for du-vi-us, two-wayed)
Chap. I X?^ Vozud Noun- Stems : -aneo, -leo; -io, -ia. 353
egrSg-ius, select (e, grfig-); exira-ius, excepted., extraordinary (exiin-
ere); fid-ius, of good faith., epithet of Jupiter (fide-); industr-ius,
active (indo, stru-ere) ; injGr-ius, ivrong (in, jas-) ; Mart-ius, of
ffar (Marti-) ; med-ius, 7iiidd!e (so dimidius, halved ) ; nim-ius, ex-
cessive (nimis) ; nox-ius, hurtful (noxa-) ; patr-ius, of a father
(patr-) ; pius, dutiful; pluv-ius, rainy (plu-ere) ; reg-ius, kingly
(reg-) ; saucius, wounded; s6c-ius (mostly snhsi.)., fell oiv (comp.
sgqvi); soror-ius, sisterly (soror-); sublic-ius, of piles (sublica-);
V6n6r-ius, of Fenus (Venus-) ; uxor-ius, of a wife (uxor-).
{b) Names of Roman clans: see § iii. infr. p. 363.
2. Substantives: masculine: 927
(a) Pnenomina: see § iii. infr. p. '^()T,.
(V) dupond-ius (sc. as), a two-pound zdm (duo, pondo); filius,
a son; fluv-ius, a river (flu-ere); gen-ius, native temper (^/gn-ere) ;
glad-ius, a sword; Ifld-ius, a player (IQdo-) ; mod-ius, a bushel
(modo-) ; nutric-ius (also adj.), a tutor (nutr-ici-) ; rad-ius, a spoke;
Salii, Jumpers, certain priests (sali-re) ; simius (simia), an ape (simo-).
3. Substantives: feminine: 3
{a) From verbs or verbal nouns:
axungia (Plin.), wheel-grease (axi-, ung-€re) ; corrigia, a shoe-tie
(corrig-ere) ; coIliq.vi3e, gutters (com, llqvi, comp. liqvor-) ; delic-i£e
(pi.), delight (delice-re, allure) ; desid-ia, sloth (desidere) ; exciito-
133 (pi), patrol (excuba-ro); ex6qv-iaj (pi.), funeral (exsecivi);
exuv-iae (pi), spoils (exu-6re); fsenisicia (also neut.), haycutting
(fseno-, secare) ; fiir-iae (pi), rage (fur-ere) ; host-ia, a victim (hos-
tire, to strike) ; incur-ia, carelessness (in, cura-) ; industr-ia, activity
(indo, stru-ere); induv-iss (pi), rare, robitigs (indu-ere); ined-ia,
not eating (in, 6d-6re) ; infit-ise (pi), non-confession (in, fateri);
insid-ise (j^X.)., plot (insidere); invid-ia, grudge (invidere); nox-ia,
a wrong (noxa-) ; provinc-ia, a department (provinc-ere ?) ; rediiv-ia,
misgro^uth of nail (for red-ungv-ia, Corss., but comp. exuvife, indu-
vise); reliqv-ise (pi), remains (reliqvo-); succidia, a flitch (sub,
csed-ere?); suppet-ise (pi), help (sub, petgre); via (veha, Varr.
R.R. I. 2, § 14), a road (veh-6re) ; vindem-ia, grape-plucking (vino-,
dem-gre?); viadic-ise (pi), claim (vindica-re).
With stems in -ie (-ies for ia-is?) :
alluv-ies, overflow; colluvies, proluvies, &c. (lav-are); conger-
ies, a heap (conggr-6re) ; effig-ies, /orw (efla«g-6re); esur-ies, hun<^er
(esiiri-re) ; fac-ies, a face (fa,ce-re) ; mac-ies, leanness (macere) •
pemic-ies (cf. § 340), destruction (perneca-re) ; pr6g6n-ies, offsprmg
(pro^/gn-gre) ; rab-ies, raving (rab-6re); r6qv-ies, rest (reqvi-
ejfere) ; scab-ies, scurf (scab-6re) ; sgr-ies, a row (sgr-ere) ; spec-ies
a look (spec6-re); temp6r-ies, a mixture (tempgra-re). '
23
354 Word-Formation. \Book I IT.
(/>) From nouns, chiefly from adjectives :
audac-ia, boldness (audaci-) ; avia, a grandmother (avo-) ; bar-
bar-ia (barbaries), « ybrf/§-« land, uncoutbness (barbaro-) ; c6p-ia,
plenty (copi-) ; concord-ia, harmony (concordi-) ; cilr-ia, a body
of men (co-viro- ? very doubtful) ; custod-ia, protection (cus-
tod-); divit-ise (pi), riches (div6t-); fallac-ia, deceit (fallaci-);
famil-ia, a body of slaves, a household (famulo-) ; fasc-ia, a bandage,
ribbon (fasci-) ; f6r6c-ia, high-spiritedness (fgroci-) ; host-ia, a victim
(Iiostire, to strike'); ignav-ia, cowardice (ignavo-); ignomin-ia, dis-
grace (in, j^nomgn-? cf. § 129); inert-ia, inactivity (inerti-); infam-
la, disgrace (infami-); inf6r-ise (pi-), offerings to the nether Gods
(infero-) ; injur-ia, a ivrong (in, jus-) ; inop-ia, scarcity (inop-) ;
insan-ia, 7nadness (insano-); lasciv-ia, playfulness (lascivo-); ma-
tgr-ia (materies), mother-stuff, i.e. matter (mater-); mgmor-ia,
memory (mgmori-); milit-ia, service in ivar (mil6t-); mlser-ia,
zvretchedness (misfiro-) ; pervicac-ia, inflexibility (pervicaci-) ; sim-ia,
an ape {slvao-, fat-nosedl); socord-ia, indolence (socordi-) ; sollert-ia,
adroitness (sollerti-) ; superb-ia, haughtiness (superbo-); vement-ia,
vehemence (vementi-); vicin-ia, neighbourhood (vicino-); vlgil-ia,
^watching, <v.'atch (vigil-).
Also with stems in -ie:
ac-ies, an edge (acu-); paupgr-ies, poverty, damage (paup6r-).
(f) Of uncertain origin:
ascia, an axe; bestia, a beast; ciconia, a stork; ferise (pi.), holy-
days (cf. § 704. «); gavia, a seame^v; nenia, a dirge; prsestigije (pi.),
jugglery; prosapia, stock, race; stiria, an icicle; tibia, a flute; tilia,
a lime-tree; v^nia, indulgence ; vicia, a vetch.
With stems in -ie:
csesaries, hair of the head; caries, rottenness; ingluvies, the gidlet
(in, gula-?); sanies, corrupted blood (comp. sangvis).
4. Substantives: neuter: 929
{a) From verbs or verbal nouns:
bengf ic-ium, a kindness (benefac6-re) ; colloctv-ium, conversation
(coll6qv-i) ; commerc-ium, fr(7<'/f (commerca-ri) ; compendium, savings
(com, pend-ere, to q.ueigh with) ; conub-ium, marriage (com, nub-6re) ;
contag-ium, contagion (com, tawg-ere) ; defluv-ium (Plin.), falling off
e.g. of hair (de, flu-ere); desider-ium, longing, regret (desidera-re) ;
diluv-ium, a deluge (dilu-ere); discid-ium, divorce (disci«dere) ;
divort-ium, divorce (divort-ere) ; effug-ium, escape (eflfuge-re) ; ex-
cidium, overthrow) (exsci«d-6re) ; fastid-ium, disgust (fastidi-re) ;
fiagit-ium, a crying deed (flagita-re) ; gaud-ium, joy (gaudere for
gav-id-ere; comp. Gaius, § 945); imper-ium, command (imp6ra-re);
Chap.IX.\ Vowel Noun- St cms: -ia, -ie; -\q^ neuter. 355
impluv-ium, a tank (implu-§re) ; incend-ium, conjiagration (incend-
6re); inggn-ium, disposition (inif/gn-6re) ; init-ium, beginning (inire) ;
jurg-ium, a quarrel (jurga-re) ; labium, a lip (la;«b-6re) ; litig-ium,
la^Msuit (litiga-re) ; obseqv-ium, obedience (obseqv-i) ; obsid-ium, a
blockade (obsidere) ; 6d-ium, hatred (Perf. odisse) ; offic-ium, duty
(6pus-, facere, cf. opiflcina, § 839; or from offic6-re, to do to^^vards,
but the verb is usually in bad sense) ; opprobr-ium, reproach (oppro-
bra-re); prsemium, a reward {afrst choice} pra, 6m-ere); praesag-
ium, a presage (prse-sagire) ; prsesid-ium, defence (prasidere) ;
prand-ium, lunch (prandere) ; prolub-ium, inclination (pro, lubere) ;
rem6d-ium, a remedy (remed-eri); repot-ia (pl.)i renewal of drink-
ing, i. e. the second days feast (repot-are) ; repud-ium, divorce {re-
pentance ? re, pudere ; or re, ped-, comp. tripudium) ; stud-ium, %eal
(stud-ere) ; suflfrag-ium, aiiythitig broken off: hence a potsherd^ used
in voting, a vote (sub fra«g-6re) ; suspend-ium, hanging (suspend-
ere); suspir-ium, a sign (suspira-re) ; tsed-ium, voeariness (tsedere);
vestlg-iura, a footsteps a trace (vestiga-re) ; and others.
{]}) From nouns: often from personal names:
adulter- iiun, adultery (adultero-) ; api-um, parsley (api-, bee) ;
arbitr-ium, a decision (arbitro-) ; artific-ium, manufacture^ art
(artiiSc-) ; aucup-ium, bird-catching (aucup-) ; augur-ium, an augury
(augiir-); auspic-ium, auspice (auspgc-); bienni-um, a period of two
years (bienni-) ; coUeg-ium, a board (coUega-) ; conjiig-ium, wedlock
(conjug-) ; consil-ium. advice (consul-) ; conviv-ium, a dinnerparty
(conviva-) ; cuppedia (pi.), delicacies (comp. cuppes); exil-ium, i».v//^
(exul-); gland-ium, a kernel in pork (glandi-); hered-ium, a plot of
twojugera, an inheritance (heied-) ; Lospit-ium, hospitality (hospgt-);
indic-ium, information (indgc-) ; jejfln-ium, fasting (jejiino-) ; judic-
ium, a trial (judec-) ; mancip-ium, a conveyance of land (manc6p-, a
purchaser) ; magis-ter-ium, presidentship (magis-trtro-) ; mendaei-um,
a lie (mendaci-); minister-ium, service (minis-tfro) ; occipit-ium,
the back-head (occiput-); pall-ium, a cloak (palla-) ; particip-ium,
a participle (particep-); perjiir-ium, false-swearing (perjuro-) ;
prsecipitium (post-Aug.), a precipice^ «/«// (prsecipiti-); prsed-ium,
land (a thing given as security, prsed-) ; piilejum, feawort, penny
royal (pul-ec-) ; remig-ium, rowing, a crew (remgg-) ; sacrileg-ium,
sacrilege (sacrilego-) ; sen-ium, old age (s6n-) ; somn-ium, a dream
(somno-); savi-um, a kiss (svavi-); supplic-ium (Jineeling down),
punishment (supplec-).
(f) Compounds formed immediately from the simple parts.
(See Chap, xi.)
adverb-ium, an adverb (ad, verbo-) ; sequinoct-ium, the period
when night is equal to day (sequa-, nocti-) ; bipal-ium, a double mat-
tock (bis, pala-); contubern-ium, companionship (com, taberna-);
dilud-ium, interval between pla\'s (dis, ludo-) ; domicil-ium, home
(domo-, c61-6re) ; diverb-ium, dialogue (dis, verbo-) ; homiclcl-ium,
356 Word-Formation. [Book III.
manslaughter (Ii6m6ii-, cffid-6re); fordicidia (pL), Feast of the
slaughter of cow in-calf, April 15 (forda-, § 134, caed-6re); infor-
tun-iiim (prae-Cic), a scrape (in, fortima-) ; interlQn-iuin, t'wie of
new moon (inter, luna-) ; intemod-ium, space between knots (inter,
nodo-) ; lectistern-ium, couch-covering, i. e. for a god's banquet
(lecto-, sternere; comp. sellisternia, pi.); naufrag-iuni, a shipwreck
(nav-, fra«g-6re ; comp. nanfragus) ; parricid-ium, wwn/cr (par-?,
csed-gre); plenilun-ium (Plin.), time of full >noon (plena-, luna-);
p5iner-ium, space behind the walls (post, muro-) ; postlimin-ium,
return home (post, limen-) ; prsecordia (pi.), the diaphragm (prse,
cordi-); primordia (pi. in Lucr. also or dia prima), y?/-j^ elements
(primo-, ordi-ri) ; privileg-ium, an enactment against an individual
(privo-, leg-); proverb-ium, a proverb {that has become a wiordl
pro, verbo-) ; puerpSr-ium, childbed (puero-, parSre ; comp. puer-
p6ra) ; regifug-ium, the flight of the kings (reg-. fuge-re) ; Septi-
montium, Sevenhills, as name of Rome and of a feast (septem,
monti-); stillicidium, dripping (stilla-, cad6re); stipend-ium, pay
(stip-, pendere) ; subsell-ium, a stool, bench (sub, sella-) ; Buburbium.
the suburbs (sub, urbi-) ; supercil-ium, eyebrow (super, cilio-, above
eyelids); tripud-ium, thrice stamping (tri-, p6d-) ; tubilustrium,
trumpet-purification en Mar. 23, May 23 (tuba-, lustrare) ; venific-
ixim (§ 1%), pais Oiling (veneno-, face-re).
(d) Uncertain :
allium, garlic; atrium, a hall (atro-, black, Mommsen); basium,
a kiss; cilium, an eyelid, eyelash; cisium, a gig; convicium or con-
vit.inm^ abuse; cdrium, a hide; dolium, ajar; elogium, a pithy saying
(for tXeyflov, Curt.); fastigium, a gable top, a slope; gremium, the
lap; licium, a leash, thread; lilium, a lily; lolium, tares; milium,
millet; minium, red lead; prodigium, a prodigy (comp. dig-itus,
beiKvviiv) ; silicemium, a funeral feast; simpuviiim, a sacrificial
bowl; siparium, a curtain; soliiun, a seat; sp61ium, spoil {ci.
§66).
-c-io
-ic-io
( I. Adjectives, chiefly formed from other derivatives: 930
aedili-cius, of an ccdile (aed-Ili-) ; compitali-cius, of the
cross-road festival (compit-ali-) ; Cffimenti-cius, of rubbish (csemento-);
gentili-cius, of the clansyyien (gent-ili-) ; later-icius, of brick (later-);
natall-cius, of a birthday (natali-) ; pastor-icius, of a shepherd
(pas-tor-); patr-icius, of the fathers (patr-) ; Saturnali-cius (Mart.),
of the Saturnalia (Satum-ali-) ; sodali-cius, of companions (sodali-);
tribtini-cius, of a tribune (trib-uno-); venali-cius, of things for
sale, e.g. of slaves (ven-ali-). (See also § 926.)
See for proper names in § 946.
Chap. /X] Voiud Noun-Stems: -io, -cio, -tlcio, -tio. 357
2. Substantives (see also § 928) :
conventicimn, assembly 
